\ 
 
A SYSTEM 
 
 OP 
 
 ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL 
 
 GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 FOR 
 
 THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 
 
 BY CHARLES ANTHON, LL.D., 
 ii 
 
 PROFESSOR OF THE GREEK AND LATIN LANGUAGES IN COLOMBIA COLLEGE, 
 NEW YORK, AND RECTOR OF THE GRAMMAR SCHOOL. 
 
 Omnia mortal! mutantur lege creata, 
 
 Nee se cognoscunt terrae vertentibus annis 
 
 MANIUUS. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 
 HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, 
 82 CLIFF STREET. 
 
 1850. 
 
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand 
 eight hundred and forty - nine, by 
 
 HARPER & BROTHERS, 
 
 in the Clerk s Office of the District Court of the Southern District 
 of New York, 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 THE present work is intended as a text-book for the 
 combined study of ancient Geography and History, 
 two branches of education that ought never to be sep 
 arated, but of which the former is either entirely neg 
 lected among us, or else only taught out of superficial 
 and defective compends. Now that classical instruc 
 tion aspires to be something more than a mere ringing 
 of changes on letters and syllables, and the recitation- 
 rooms of our colleges are beginning to have the dull 
 routine of mere verbal translation enlivened by in 
 quiries and investigations calculated at once to in 
 terest and improve, a knowledge of ancient sites and 
 localities, that are more or less identified with the 
 stirring events of former days, can not but prove an 
 important aid in advancing the good work. The vol 
 ume here offered may also be found of service to those 
 of our young countrymen who intend to pursue a 
 course of foreign travel, and may prepare them for 
 some of the scenes on which they are about to enter, 
 or, at all events, may save them from the mortifica 
 tion of discovering only after their return from abroad 
 how many objects of deep and abiding interest have 
 been passed by completely unnoticed. 
 
 In preparing the work, no pains have been spared 
 as regards the collecting of materials. The best sources 
 of information have been consulted, and every thing 
 calculated to interest or instruct, from whatever quar 
 ter it could be obtained, has been freely used. In- 
 .stead, however, of ostentatiously encumbering each 
 
iv PREFACE. 
 
 page with authorities, it has been deemed sufficient to 
 make this general acknowledgment in the preface, and 
 to append to it a list of the different works, exclusive 
 of the classical writings, that have either been con 
 sulted, or have furnished materials for the volume. 
 The main sources of supply, however, have been the 
 treatises of Cramer, on the ancient geography of Italy, 
 Greece, and Asia Minor, of which the present work 
 will be found to furnish a brief, but yet comprehen 
 sive abridgment ; and the London Penny Cyclopaedia, 
 in which are embodied a variety of the most valuable 
 articles on the subject of ancient geography and his 
 tory, as well as the results of numerous recent investi 
 gations, made by modern travellers, and forming the 
 subject of communications to the Royal Geographical 
 Society of Great Britain. The historical sketches are 
 principally derived from this latter source. To these 
 may be added, Prichard s " Researches into the Phys 
 ical History of Mankind," Forbiger s " Handbuch der 
 alten Geographic," and Sickler s "Handbuch der al- 
 ten Geographic." 
 
 The present work professes to be a system, not mere 
 ly of ancient, but also of mediaeval geography. This 
 latter division of the subject, however, has only been 
 so far attended to as was rendered absolutely neces 
 sary for the clearer understanding of particular cases. 
 To have entered more minutely into mediaeval details 
 would have made the work too voluminous, without 
 adding much to its utility. Even as it is, the book is 
 a large one, but by no means too large for the object 
 in view. Ancient geography, in order to be studied 
 to advantage, must be studied thoroughly and care 
 fully ; and it is a very mistaken idea to suppose that 
 a mere enumeration of names of places, with a few 
 brief remarks appended, or a regular historical work, 
 with short sketches added in order to give it a geo* 
 
PREFACE. v 
 
 graphical appearance, can prove of any real advant 
 age, or produce any lasting impression on the mind 
 of the learner. Besides, the arrangement of the pres 
 ent volume is such as to answer for two courses of in 
 struction : the first a general one, confined to the more 
 prominent and leading topics ; the second, one enter 
 ing more into details, and intended for advanced stu 
 dents ; for it ought to be carefully borne in mind, that 
 geographical and historical studies, particularly the 
 former, should accompany the pupil, in a greater or 
 Jess degree, throughout every stage of his academic 
 and collegiate career. 
 
 It was the intention of the editor to have prepared a 
 series of maps and plans for the present work, but the 
 recent appearance of Findlay s Classical Atlas has for 
 the present obviated any necessity for so doing. This 
 Atlas (which may be procured from the publishers of 
 the present volume) will be found to answer all the 
 purposes of the student. It is undoubtedly the best col 
 lection of Classical Maps, for its size, that has hitherto 
 appeared, and the interesting information contained in 
 the Introduction renders the work doubly valuable. It 
 must be borne in mind, however, that whenever dis 
 crepancies occur between our text and the Atlas of 
 Findlay, the former is to be followed, as being based 
 on later or more reliable authority. These discrepan 
 cies, however, are comparatively few in number, and 
 are principally confined to the Maps of Ancient Spain. 
 Our guides in fixing sites and localities have been the 
 best and most recent European Atlases, a list of 
 which will be found below. 
 
 It only remains for the editor to express his ac 
 knowledgments, as usual, to his friend and colleague, 
 Professor Drisler, for his valuable co-operation in, and 
 supervision of the present work ; and to his friend 
 and former pupil, Mr. John M Mullen, to whom he is 
 
Vi LlSTOFWoRKS. 
 
 indebted for many important maps and plans brought 
 by him from Europe, and also for not a few valuable 
 suggestions, the fruit of well-directed foreign travel. 
 
 CHARLES ANTHON. 
 COLUMBIA COLLEGE, Sept. 10th, 1849. 
 
 LIST OF WORKS 
 
 FROM WHICH MATERIALS HAVE BEEN OBTAINED FOR THE PRESENT VOLUME. 
 
 Adrichonsius Theatrum Terrse Sancte. Col. Agripp., 1628, fol. 
 
 Ainsworth, Travels in the Track of the Ten Thousand Greeks. London, 1844, 
 
 12mo. 
 Ainsworth, Travels and Researches in Asia Minor, &c., 2 vols., 12mo. London, 
 
 1842. 
 
 Arndt, Ueber den Ursprung der Europaischen Sprachen. Frankfort, 1827, 8vo 
 Arundell, Visit to the Seven Churches of Asia, 8vo. London, 1828. 
 
 " Discoveries in Asia Minor, 8vo. London, 1834, 2 vols. 
 Balbi, Atlas Ethnographique du Globe, fol. Paris, 1826. 
 Beaufort, Caramania, &c., 8vo. London, 1818. 
 Billerbeck, Handbuch der Alten Geographic, 8vo. Leipsic, 1826. 
 Bischoff und Moller, Worterbuch der Geographic, 8vo. Gotha, 1829. 
 Bunsen, Egypt s Place in Universal History, 8vo. London, 1849, vol. i. 
 Bobrik, Geographic des Herodot, 8vo. Konigsberg, 1838. 
 Buckingham, Travels in Assyria, &c., 8vo. London, 1830, 2 vols. 
 Cambden, Britannia, 4to. London, 1600- 
 
 Cellarius, Notitia Orbis Antiqui, ed. Schwartz, 4to, 2 vols. Lips., 1773. 
 Clarke, E. D., Travels, &c., 8vo. London, 1816-1824, 11 vols. 
 Clinton, Fasti Hellenici, 4to. Oxford, 1827-1830, 3 vols. 
 Cluverius, Introductio in Universam Geographiam, 8vo. Amsterdam, 1682. 
 
 " Germania Antiqua, fol. Lugd. Bat, 1616. 
 Coghlan, Hand-Book for Italy, 12mo. London, 1847. 
 Cramer, Description of Ancient Italy, 8vo. Oxford, 1826, 2 vols. 
 
 " " " Greece, 8vo. Oxford, 1828, 3 vols. 
 
 " " " Asia Minor, 8vo. Oxford, 1832, 2 vols. 
 
 Cramer and Wickham, Dissertation on the Passage of Hannibal over the Alps, 
 
 8vo. London, 1828. 
 D Anville, Ancient Geography, 8vo. New York, 1814, 2 vols. 
 
 " Antiquite Geographique de 1 Inde, 8vo. PaTis, 1775. 
 
 " E tats formes en Europe, &c., 4to. Paris, 1771. 
 
 " M&moires sur 1 E gypte, &c., 4to. Paris, 1766. 
 
 D Arc, Histoire des Conquetes des Normands en Italic, &c., 8vo. Paris, 1830. 
 Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria, 8vo. London, 1848, 2 vols. 
 Dieffenbach, Celtica, 8vo. Stuttgart, 1839. 
 Dodwell, Classical and Topographical Tour through Greece, 4to. London, 1819 y 
 
 2 vols. 
 Dufau und Guadet, Vollstandiges Handw&rterbuch der alten Erdknnde, 8vo. 
 
 Weimar, 2 vols. 
 Dumbeck, Geogrnphia Pagorum Germanise, 8vo. Berol., 1818. 
 
LIST OF WORKS. vii 
 
 Bureau de la Malle, G6ographie Physique de la Mer Noire, 8vo. Paris, 1807. 
 
 " " Recherches sur la Topographic de Carthage, 8vo. Paris, 
 
 1835. 
 Kadie,Cyclopaedia, 8vo. London, 1849. 
 
 eographie des Kaspischen Meeres, 8vo. Berlin, 1838. 
 Americana, 8vo. Philadelphia, 13 vols. 
 liustacClassical Tour through Italy, 8vo. London, 1815, 4 vols. 
 Fellows, Tour in Asia Minor, 4to. London, 1839. 
 " Discoveries in Lycia, 4to. London. 1841. 
 
 Forbiger, Handbuch der alten Geographic, 8vo. Leipsic, 3 vols., 1842-1847. 
 Gell, Geography and Antiquities of Ithaca, 4to. London, 1807. 
 " Itinerary of Argolis, 4to. London, 1807. 
 " Pompeiana, 8vo. London, 1832, 2 vols. 
 " Rome and its Vicinity, 8vo. London, 1834, 2 vols. 
 Georgii, Alte Geographie, &c., 8vo. Stuttgart, 2 vols. 
 G Slier, De Situ et origine Syracusarurn, 8vo. Lips., 1818. 
 Gossellin, Recherches sur la Geographie des Anciens, 4to. Paris, 4 vols. 
 Gliddon, Otia jEgyptiaca, 8vo. London, 1849. 
 Grote, History of Greece, 8vo. London. 
 
 Hamilton, Researches in Asia Minor, &c., 8vo. London, 1842, 2 vols. 
 Heeren, Historical Researches, &c., 8vo. Oxford, 1832-1833, 5 vols. 
 Hoare, Tour through Italy and Sicily, 8vo. London, 1819, 2 vols. 
 Hobhouse, Journey through Albania, &c., 8vo. Philadelphia, 1817, 2 vols. 
 HSck, Kreta, 8vo. Gottingen, 1823, 3 vols. 
 Hoskins, Travels in ./Ethiopia, 4to. London, 1835. 
 Hutton, History of the Roman Wall, 8vo. London, 1802. 
 Itinerarium Antonini, ed. Parthey et Pinder, 8vo. Berol., 1848. 
 Karcher, Handbuch der alten Classischen Geographie, 8vo. Heidelberg, 183G. 
 Kinneir, Journey through Asia Minor, &c., 8vo. London, 1818. 
 Kitto, Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature, 8vo. New York, 2 vols. 
 Knight s Pictorial History of England, 8vo. New York, 1846-1848, 4 vols. 
 Laurent, Introduction to the Study of Ancient Geography, 8vo. Oxford, 1830. 
 Layard s Nineveh and its Remains, 8vo. London, 1849, 2 vols. 
 Leake, Travels in Northern Greece, 8vo. London, 1835, 4 vols. 
 " Travels in the Morea, 8vo. London, 1830, 3 vols. 
 " Tour in Asia Minor, 8vo. London, 1824. 
 Letronne, Cours E 16mentaire de Geographie, 12mo. Paris, 1846. 
 Long, Ancient Geography, 8vo. Charlottesville, 1829. 
 
 Lynch, Narrative of the Expedition to the Jordan and Dead Sea, 8vo. Phila 
 delphia, 1849. 
 
 Malte-Brun, Geographie Universelle, 8vo. Bruxelles, 1830, 4 vols. 
 Mannert, Geographie der Griechen und RSmer, 8vo. Leipsic, 1799-1825, 10 vols. 
 Milner, History of the Seven Churches of Asia, 8vo. London, 1832. 
 Murray s Hand-Book for Spain, 12mo. London, 1847. 
 " " France, 12mo. London, 1848. 
 
 " " " Switzerland, &c. London, 1846. 
 
 " " Northern Italy. London, 1846. 
 
 " " " Central Italy. London, 1843. 
 
 " " " the East. London, 1845. 
 
 " Egypt. London, 1847. 
 
 National Encyclopaedia, 8vo. London, 1847, &c., 4 vols. 
 Nibby, Viaggio Antiquario, &c., 8vo. Rome, 1819, 2 vols. 
 Pacho, Voyage dans la Marmarique, &c., 4to. Paris, 1828. 
 
IUU.UU, lot A 1( 
 
 J ^Hte K 
 
 viii LIST OF MAPS. 
 
 Penny Cyclopaedia, 8vo. London, 1833-1846, 29 vols. 
 
 Prichard, Researches into the Physical History of Mankind. London, 1841-1847, 
 
 5 vols., 8vo. 
 PQtz, Grundriss der Geographic uiid Geschichte der Staaten des AW H|jfe Kolu . 
 
 1839, 2 vols. 
 
 Reichard, Kleine Geographische Schrii ten, 8vo. Giins, 1836. 
 Reingarum, das alte Megaris, 12mo. Berlin, 1825. 
 Rennell, Geography of Herodotus, 8vo. London, 1830, 2 vt)ls. 
 " " of Western Asia, 8vo. London, 1831, 2 vols. 
 
 " Illustrations of Xeiiophon s Anabasis, 4to. London, 1816. 
 Rich, Journey to the Site of Babylon, &c., 8vo. London, 1839. 
 Ritter, Die Erdkunde, &c., 8vo. 
 
 Robinson, Biblical Researches, &c., 8vo. Boston, 1841, 3 vols. 
 Rosenmtiller, Biblical Geography of Central Asia, &c. translated by Morren, 
 
 12rao. Edinburgh, 1836, 2 vols. 
 
 Schacht, Lehrbuch der Geographic, 8vo. Mainz, 1846. 
 Schirlitz, Handbuch der alten Geographie, 8vo. Halle, 1837. 
 Sickler, Handbuch der alten Geographie, 8vo. Cassel, 1832, 2 vols. 
 St. John, Adventures in the Libyan Desert, 12mo. New York, 1849. 
 Strabo, Geographie, traduite du Grec en Fran<jais, 4to. Paris, 1805-1819, 5 vols. 
 Thirlwall, History of Greece, 8vo. London, 1845, &c., 8 vols. 
 Ukert, Geographie der Griechen und Romer, 8vo. Weimar, 1816, &c., 4 vols. 
 Vincent, Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients, &c., 4to. London, 1807, 
 
 2 vols. 
 
 Vyse, Pyramids of Gizeh, 4to. London, 1840, &c., 3 vols. 
 Walpole, Memoirs relating to European and Asiatic Turkey, 4to. London, 1818, 
 
 2 vols. 
 
 Wilkinson, Topography of Thebes, &c., 8vo. London, 1835. 
 Williams, Essays on the Geography of Ancient Asia, 8vo. London, 1829. 
 Wilson, Ariana Antiqua, 4to. London, 1841. 
 Wordsworth, Pictorial History of Greece, 8vo. London, 1839. 
 
 LIST OF MAPS 
 
 CONSULTED IN THE PREPARATION OF THE PRESENT WORK. 
 
 Arrowsmith, Comparative Atlas of Ancient and Modern Geography. London and 
 
 Eton, 1828. 
 
 Atlas Antiquus, Dr. E. Spruner. Gotha, 1848. 
 Carte du Royaume de la Grece, &c., apres la carte de Lapie par Ferd. Alden- 
 
 hoven. Athens, 1838. 
 Cramer s Map of Ancient Italy. Oxford. 
 " Map of Ancient Greece. Oxford. 
 " Map of Asia Minor. Oxford. 
 D Anville, Atlas Antiquus, London, 1805. 
 Kiepert, Topographisch-Historischer Atlas von Hellas and den Hellenischen 
 
 Colonien. Berlin, 1846. 
 Kruse, Atlas zu Kruse s Hellas. 
 
 Maps of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. London. 
 Schul-Atlas der alten Welt, nach D Anville, &c., von C. H. Weise. Leipsic. 
 
 " " " " von F. S.F. Hoffman. Leipsic, 1841. 
 
 " " " " " Gotha (Perthes), 1847. 
 
E U R O P A. 
 
 1. NAME. 
 
 1. THE name "Europe" (EvpwTr??) first occurs in the so-called 
 Homeric hymn to Apollo, where it embraces merely Greece. 
 exclusive of the Peloponnesus, together with Macedonia, Illyr- 
 icum, and Italy. 
 
 II. Herodotus says he does not know how the appellation 
 came to be given to Europe, except it were from Europa, the 
 daughter of Agenor, king of Tyre ; but he seems hardly satis 
 fied with this explanation. 
 
 III. In all probability, the name is of Phoenician origin, and 
 denotes the " Evening-Land," that is, the land of sunset or 
 gloom, in opposition to Asia, the " Land of Light." 
 
 OBS. 1. The passage referred to above, in the Hymn to Apollo, occurs at v. 
 
 73, sq.j and is as follows : 
 
 ijfiev 0(501 He?i,OTrovvr}vov Kictpav IXQVGIV, 
 
 rjS OCOL Evpurrqv re Kal afi^tpvrov^ Kara vriaovg. 
 
 tleiz, however, proposes to read here "HTreipov for Evpu^v. Compare Hgcn 
 
 and Hermann, ad loc. 
 
 2. The passage of Herodotus referred to in $ II. occurs at iv., 45. It is im 
 portant as giving a hint respecting the true origin of the name in the language 
 of Phoenicia. 
 
 3. The Phoenician term, from which the name of Europe is probably derived, 
 may be traced in the Hebrew Ereb, i. e., " Evening." Bochart is altogether too 
 fanciful in deducing the name of Europe from the Semitic Ur-appx, or terra 
 
 (Phaleg., col. 298.) 
 
 2. EXTENT AND BOUNDARIES. 
 
 I. THE circuit and boundaries of Europe do not appear to 
 have been clearly and definitely settled among the Greeks and 
 Romans until the time of Ptolemy the geographer. 
 
 II. At the period when Herodotus flourished, the River Pha- 
 eis was regarded by some as the eastern boundary of Europe ; 
 by others, the Tanai s. In the time of Plato the Phasis was 
 viewed as the boundary ; but in that of Eratosthenes, the Ta- 
 
 A 
 
2 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 rial s. In this latter opinion Pomponius Mela and Ptolemy also 
 agree. 
 
 III. According to Ptolemy, the boundaries of Europe are as 
 follows : on the north, the Northern Ocean or Icy Sea ; on the 
 wet, the Atlantic ; on the south, the Mediterranean ; on the 
 east and southeast, the River Tanai s (now Don), the Palus 
 Mseotis (now Sea of Azof or Assow), the Pontus Euxinus 
 (now Slack Sea), the Propontis (now Sea of Marmara), the 
 Hellespont (now Dardanelles), and a part of the ^Egean. 
 
 OBS. 1. The language of Herodotus is as follows (iv., 45): ovpiafiara airy 
 (yj?) NA<5f re 6 AlywTrnof Trorc^uof kriOrj, KOL $aai 6 K6/l^;of oi (5e Tdvaiv TTOT- 
 afJLOV rov MaLTJrriv /cat Hopd^ ia TO. Kip/uepta Aeyovai. 
 
 2. The passage of Plato referred to occurs in the Phaedon (109, B.) : ?/uuc 
 o iKeZv fJ-EXP L $ Hpa/c/leiwv crrj?/lwi> arro $daido iv cp,LK.piJ nvl popiu, K. r. A. Com 
 pare Agathem., i., 1: Aciag <5e /ecu Ei)pw7r??f oi fitv apxaiot Tieyova $uatv TtorafjLov 
 KOL TOV euc KaaTriae iaduov. 
 
 3. The Phasis was the principal river in ancient Colchis, and is called at the "^ 
 present day the Faz, and sometimes the Rion. It flows in a westerly direction 
 into the Euxine. Its having been selected by some as the eastern boundary of. 
 Europe appears to have arisen from the circumstance of its having been better 
 known to the earlier Greeks than the Tanai s, through the legend of the Argo- 
 nautic expedition, in which mention is made of it. (Cellarius, Geog. Ant., L, 11.) 
 
 4. Eratosthenes (ap. Strab., i., p. 174, cd. Tzsch.) makes the Tanai s the more 
 commonly recognized boundary between Europe and Asia. He adds, however, 
 that some regarded as the eastern boundary the neck of land between the Cas 
 pian and Euxine. Compare Mela, i., 3, 1 : " Europa terminos habct ab Orientc 
 Tanaim, et Maotida, ct Pontum" &c. 
 
 3. ANCIENT POPULATION, & c. 
 
 I. THE original population of Europe appears to have con 
 sisted of Finnish nations, belonging probably to the same stock 
 with the primitive nations of Southern India, or the Dekhan. 
 
 II. 3\I&ny ages after the settlement of these Finnish tribes, 
 the great Celtic race came in from the East, and thus formed 
 the first and earliest branch of the great Indo-European family. 
 
 III. This Celtic race consisted originally of the priestly and 
 military classes only ; but, on coming in contact with the 
 Finnish nations already established in Europe, they reduced 
 these to vassalage ; and hence we find in all Celtic countries a 
 lower caste, deprived of all civil rights, and looked upon as 
 mere vassals or serfs. 
 
 IV. After the Celtic race had spread themselves over and 
 subjugated a large portion of Europe, the Teutonic tribes came 
 in from the east and drove the Celtse farther toward the west ; 
 
EUR OP A. 3 
 
 and it is from the fact of the Celtic nations, when first noticed 
 in history, occupying the western extremities of Europe, that 
 we draw the inference of their having been among the earliest 
 tribes that migrated from Asia. 
 
 V. The Teutonic tribes were of a pure Indo-European ori 
 gin, and did not mix with any conquered race, as is plainly 
 shown by the perfect equality which prevailed among them, 
 and from the people being all free. 
 
 VI. After the Teutonic tribes came the great Sclavonic race, 
 which spread itself over a wide extent of both Asia and Eu 
 rope, namely, from the Pacific to the Baltic, from the Adriatic 
 to the Arctic Sea. And the boundary in early times between 
 the Sclavonic and Teutonic tribes was the River Vistula. 
 
 VII. The different tribes that spoke the Sclavonic tongue 
 were known to the ancients under the names of Rhoxolani. 
 Krobyzi, Sarmatse, Sauromatse, Pannonians, Illyrians, and Ve- 
 nedi or Wemdse. At present the Sclavonic language is spoken 
 by the Russians, Poles, Bulgarians, Bohemians, Moravians, &c. 
 
 VIII. It appears, moreover, from the researches of philolo 
 gists, that the common or Pelasgian element of the Greek and 
 Latin languages was allied to the Sclavonic tongue. In sup 
 port of which opinion it may be stated, that the resemblance 
 of the Russian to the Latin tongue is very remarkable, and 
 that coincidences equally striking may be found between the 
 Sclavonic tongues and the most ancient monuments of the 
 Greek language. 
 
 IX. The additional or Hellenic element of the Greek, which 
 afterward pervaded the whole language, seems to have come 
 from the East by Asia Minor ; at any rate, we find that the 
 Hellenes make their first appearance in the northeastern quar 
 ter of Greece. 
 
 X. On the other hand, the Latin language appears to have 
 arisen from an intermingling of the Sclavonic element with 
 both a Celtic and a Teutonic one, it being highly probable that 
 Celtic and Teutonic tribes had previously settled in succession 
 in the Italian peninsula. 
 
 OBS. 1. On the settlement of the Finnish nations in Europe, compare the re 
 marks of Prichard, Researches into the Physical History of Mankind, vol. iv., p. 
 605. Arndt has shown very clearly that a connection existed, in point of lan 
 guage, between the Celtic nations and the Finns, Sainoiedes, &c., and in this 
 way we may account for the striking resemblance between so many words in 
 
4 ANCIENTGEOGRAPHY. 
 
 the Basque language, a branch of the Celtic, and the Samoiede and other Fin 
 nish tongues. (Arndt, Ursprung dcr Europ. Sprachen, p. 17, seqq.) 
 
 2. The claims of the Celtic to be regarded as one of the Indo-European lan 
 guages have been fully established by Prichard, in his Eastern Origin of the Cel 
 tic Nations, Oxford, 1831 ; and by Pictet, De VAffinite des Langues Critiques avec 
 U Sanscrit, Paris, 1837. 
 
 /** 
 
 3. The origin of the Indo-European languages is traceable to Iran, a country 
 bounded on the north by the Caspian, on the south by the Indian Ocean, on the^ 
 cast by the Indus, and on the west by the Euphrates. This region, therefore,^ 
 is regarded by the best authorities as the original home of the great Indo-Euro- 
 pean race. (Donaldson, New Cratylus, p. 80, seq.) 
 
 4. On the affinity between the Russian and the Latin, consult the work of 
 GalifTe, " Italy and its Inhabitants," &c., vol. i., p. 356, seqq. ; and compare the 
 remarks of Winning, " Manual of Comparative Philology, 1 p. 121. In relation 
 to the affinity between the Sclavonic and the Greek, consult the work of Dan- 
 kovsky, " Homerus Slavicis dialectis cognata lingua scripsit," &c., Vindob., 1829 ; 
 and compare Donaldson, New Crat., p. 92. 
 
 5. On the origin of the Latin tongue, consult the work of Klotz, " Handbuck 
 der lat. Liter aturgesch., vol. i., p. 157, seqq. 
 
 4. PROGRESSIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 I. THE earliest notices of the history of Europe are in the 
 writings of the Greeks, who inhabited the southeastern corner 
 of that continent. 
 
 II. From this country the geographical knowledge of Europe 
 extended by degrees to the west and north. 
 
 III. Homer, who probably lived about one thousand years 
 before the Christian era, was acquainted with the countries 
 around the JEgean Sea, or Archipelago. 
 
 IV. He had also a pretty accurate general notion respecting 
 those countries which lie on the south coast of the Euxine ; 
 but what he says about the countries west of Greece, on the 
 shores of the Mediterranean Sea, is a mixture of fable and 
 truth, in which the fabulous part prevails!^ 
 
 V. It would seem that in his age these seas were not yet 
 visited by his countrymen, and that he obtained his knowledge 
 from the Phoenicians, who had probably for some time sailed 
 to these countries, but who, according to the common policy of 
 trading nations, spread abroad false accounts of these unknown 
 regions, in order to deter other nations from following their 
 track, and sharing in the advantages of this distant commerce. 
 
 VI. It is probable, also, that the Phrenicians long excluded 
 the Greeks from the navigation of the Mediterranean ; for. 
 when the Greeks began to form settlements beyond their na- 
 
E u R 6 p A. 5 
 
 tive country, they first occupied the shores of the .yEgean, and 
 afterward those of the EuxineV 
 
 VII. As the European shores of the Euxine are not well 
 adapted for agriculture, except a comparatively small tract of 
 the Peninsula of Crimea, their early settlements were mostly 
 made on the Asiatic shores, and consequently little addition 
 was made by these colonies to the geographical knowledge of 
 Europe. 
 
 VIII. But the navigation of the Phoenicians was checked, 
 in the middle of the sixth century before Christ, apparently by 
 their country being subjugated by the Persians. 
 
 IX. About this time, also, the Greeks began to form settle 
 ments in the southern parts of Italy, and on the island of Sici 
 ly, and to navigate the Mediterranean Sea in its full extent. 
 
 X. Accordingly we find that, in the time of Herodotus (450 
 B.C.), not only the countries on each side of the Mediterranean, 
 and the northern shores of the Euxine, were pretty well known 
 to the Greeks, but that, following the track of the Phoenicians, 
 they ventured to pass the Columns of Hercules, and to sail as 
 far as the Cassiterides, or Tin Islands, by which name the 
 southwestern part of England must be understood. 
 
 XL It is even said that some of their navigators sailed 
 through the English Channel, and entered the North Sea, and 
 perhaps even the Baltic. 
 
 XII. It must be observed, however, that Herodotus professes 
 himself totally unacquainted with the islands called Cassiteri 
 des ; and Strabo expresses a very unfavorable opinion of the 
 alleged voyages to the north. 
 
 XIII. Thus a considerable part of the coasts of Europe was 
 discovered, while the interior remained almost unknown. 
 
 XIV. When the Romans began their conquests, this deficien 
 cy was partly filled up. The conquest of Italy was followed 
 by that of Spain and the southern parts of Gaul, and, not long 
 afterward, Sicily, Greece, and Macedonia were added. 
 
 XV. Csesar conquered Gaul and the countries west of the 
 Rhine, together with the districts lying between the different 
 arms by which that river enters the sea. His two expeditions 
 into Britain made known, also, in some measure, the nature 
 of that island and its inhabitants. 
 
 XVI. Thus, in the course of little more than two hundred 
 
6 ANCIENTGEOGRAPHY. 
 
 years, the interior of all those countries was discovered, the 
 shores alone of which had been previously known. 
 
 XVII. In the mean time nothing was added to the knowl 
 edge of the coasts, the Greeks having lost their spirit of dis 
 covery by sea with their liberty, and the Romans not being in 
 clined to naval enterprise. 
 
 XVIII. After the establishment of imperial power at Rome, 
 the conquests of the Romans went on at a much slower rate, 
 and the boundaries of the empire soon became stationary. 
 This circumstance must be chiefly attributed to the nature of 
 the countries which were contiguous to the boundaries. The 
 regions north of the Danube are mostly plains, and at that 
 time were only inhabited by wandering nations, who could not 
 be subjected to a regular government. Such, at least, are the 
 countries extending between the Carpathian Mountains and 
 the Euxine ; and, therefore, the conquest of Dacia by Trajaii 
 was of short continuance, and speedily abandoned. 
 
 XIX. The most important addition to the empire and to geo 
 graphical knowledge was the conquest of England during the 
 first century after Christ, to which, in the following century, 
 the south of Scotland was added. 
 
 XX. Nothing seems to have been added afterward. The 
 geography of Ptolemy contains a considerable number of names 
 of nations, places, and rivers in those countries which were not 
 subjected to the Romans. Probably they were obtained from 
 natives, and from Roman traders who had ventured to penetrate 
 beyond the boundaries of the empire. But these brief notices 
 are very vague, and, in most cases, it is very difficult to deter 
 mine what places and positions are indicated. 
 
 XXI. The overthrow of the Roman empire by the northern 
 barbarians destroyed a large part of the geographical knowl 
 edge previously obtained, except, perhaps, as to that part of 
 Germany which was subject to the Franks, and which, by de 
 grees, became better known than it was before. 
 
 XXII. Two sets of men, however, soon made their appear 
 ance, who contributed largely to extend the geographical knowl 
 edge of Europe, namely, missionaries and pirates. 
 
 XXIII. The Christian religion had been introduced into all 
 the countries subject to the Roman power. The barbarians 
 who subverted the empire soon became converts to the Chris- 
 
EUROPA. 7 
 
 tian faith, and some of them ventured among other barbarous 
 nations for the purpose of converting them also. 
 
 XXIV. They visited the natives who inhabited the eastern 
 part of Germany, but here their progress was at first slow : 
 they did not cross the River Oder, or at least they did not ven 
 ture far beyond it, and the geographical knowledge of this part 
 of Europe was, consequently, not much increased. 
 
 XXV. The progress of those missionaries was more impor 
 tant who penetrated from Constantinople into the interior of 
 Russia, where they succeeded in converting to the Greek 
 Church the different tribes into which the Russians were then 
 divided. This was effected in the ninth century. 
 
 XXVI. In the tenth century the western missionaries pene 
 trated into and gradually converted Poland, and in the thir 
 teenth century Christianity was introduced among the Prus 
 sians by force of arms, the Knights of St. John having conquer 
 ed the country. 
 
 XXVII. To the pirates we are indebted for our acquaintance 
 with the northern parts of Europe, especially the Scandinavian 
 peninsula ; this, however, was not owing to pirates who went 
 to, but to pirates who came from these countries. 
 
 XXVIII. The Northmen or Normans, who inhabited Den 
 mark, Norway, and Sweden, first laid waste and then settled 
 in part of France, and afterward conquered England. In their 
 new settlements they maintained a communication with their 
 native countries, which thus gradually became known wherever 
 the Normans had settled. 
 
 5. OCEANS, SEAS, AND GULFS. 
 
 I. THE seas and numerous gulfs by which the European 
 peninsula is washed constitute one of the characteristic fea 
 tures of this part of the world. No such vast bodies of water, 
 penetrating deeply inland, are found in Asia or Africa, or even 
 in the New World, to the same extent as in Europe. 
 
 II. The influence of these on the temperature, which they 
 render humid and variable, is sensibly felt. They serve also 
 to assist communication and trade, and, conjointly with the 
 mountain chains, they form barriers to defend the independence 
 of nations. 
 
 III. On the west lies that wide sea, till the time of Colum- 
 
8 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 bus unpassed, by which the Old World is divided from the 
 New. This was called by the Greeks i\ Ar/laim/*;?/ QdXaaaa, by 
 the Romans Mare Atlanticum, and is now the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 IV. In the north we find the Arctic Ocean, with that deep 
 and frozen inlet known by the name of the White Sea. These 
 two were called by the general name of 6 Kpoviog ftKeavos, 
 Mare Cranium, or Pig rum. 
 
 V. Descending from the high north, we enter, below Cape 
 Stat in Norway, a gulf called the North Sea, extending from 
 the Shetland Isles to the Straits of Dover and coast of En 
 gland. This was called Mare Germanicum. 
 
 VI. To the entrance of the channel which lies between Den 
 mark, Norway, and Sweden, three small straits leave openings 
 for communication with the Mediterranean of the North, the 
 Baltic Sea. The Baltic was called Mare Suevicum, and its 
 southwestern part the Sinus Codanus. 
 
 VII. Retracing our course, we pass the Straits of Dover, 
 called anciently Fretum Gallicum, and enter the British Chan 
 nel, or Oceanus Britannicus, narrow and of little depth, but 
 exposed to the winds and tides of the Atlantic. 
 
 VIII. Crossing the Bay of Biscay, or Oceanus Cantabricus, 
 and sailing through the Straits of Gibraltar, or Fretum Her- 
 culeum, we find ourselves in the Mediterranean Sea, called by 
 the Romans Mare Internum, or Nostrum. 
 
 IX. The western portion of the Mediterranean ends at Capo 
 Bon, on the coast of Africa, the ancient Hermceum Promonto- 
 rium, and at Messina in Sicily, the ancient Zancle, or Messana. 
 
 X. This western portion is itself divided into two unequal 
 parts by the islands of Corsica and Sardinia, of which parts 
 the more western one contains the Baleares and Pityusse In- 
 sulse ; while the eastern one, or Sea of Italy, is scattered with 
 volcanic islands, connected, no doubt, with the common focus 
 which feeds the fires of Vesuvius and JEtna. 
 
 XI. The second, or eastern portion of the Mediterranean, 
 nearly double the extent of the western one mentioned under 
 IX., stretches uninterrupted from the coasts of Sicily and 
 Tunis to those of Syria and Egypt. 
 
 XII. In the north of this eastern portion of the Mediterranean 
 are found two inlets, celebrated in history, and important in 
 geography. These are the Adriatic, or Sinus Hadriaticus, and 
 
E u R 6 p A. 9 
 
 the Archipelago, or Mare JEgceum, the latter covered with 
 groups of islands. 
 
 XIII. But the most remarkable of the seas connected with 
 the Mediterranean is the Black Sea, or Pontus Euxinus. 
 
 XIV. The magnificent entrance to this is formed, 1. By the 
 Strait of the Dardanelles, or ancient Hellespontus ; then, 2. 
 By the Sea of Marmara, the ancient Propontis ; and, lastly, 
 3. By the Strait of Constantinople, or the ancient Bosporus 
 Thracius. 
 
 XV. The Black Sea, or Euxine, fed by the largest rivers, of 
 Europe, receives through the Strait of Caff a, or Feodosia, 
 called anciently Bosporus Cimmerius, the waters of the Sea of 
 Azof or Assoiv, the ancient Palus Mceotis. 
 
 XVI. Here terminates the series of inland seas, which, sep 
 arating Europe from Asia and Africa, serve as the medium of 
 communication between the more important parts of those 
 quarters of the globe. 
 
 XVII. It has been conjectured that a strait, subsequently fill 
 ed up by the soil torn from Caucasus, united, at a period beyond 
 the reach of authenticated history, but posterior to the great 
 convulsions of the globe, the Palus Mseotis to the Caspian Sea. 
 
 OBS. 1. Various other names for the Atlantic, besides those given in I., are 
 found in the ancient writers, a few of which may be here mentioned : TJ i& 
 vrnTduv ftakaaaa, and 77 Ar/lcnmV (Herod., i., 202 ; Aristot., Meteor., ii., 1 ; Aga- 
 t.hcm., de Geogr., ii., 14, p. 56); rj efo> KOL pe-yd^r] iMAarra (Aristot., Proll., xxvi., 
 55); fj l/crof $a/larra (Polyb., xvi., 29); Mare Magnum, Mare externum, &c. 
 (Flor., iv., 2). The Mediterranean is called by the Greeks "HcSe 57 GdAacraa, Hdt. 
 
 2. Other names for the Arctic Ocean are Oceanus Boredlis, Arctous, Septen- 
 frionalis, Mare glaciate, &c. According to Philemon, as quoted by Pliny (H. 
 N., iv., 27), the Cronian Sea lay beyond the Rubeas Promontorium, while on this 
 side of the same promontory lay what the Cimbric nations called Morimarusa, 
 or " the Dead Sea," a name derived from its frozen state. The Mare Amalchi- 
 um, or " the congealed sea," also a native term, extended, according to Heca- 
 tseus (Plin., I. c.), along the coast of Scythia. The explanation of the term 
 Cranium has been sought in the Celtic croinn, "thick," "coagulated" (Class. 
 Journ., vol. vi., p. 297), while others, far less plausibly, deduce the appellation 
 irom the Danish groen, " green," a root existing also in the name of Greenland. 
 (Plin., H. N., Panckoucke, vol. iii., p. 312.) The name Morimarusa has been traced 
 to the Cymric or Welsh mor, " sea," and marv, " dead." (Class. Journ., I. c.) 
 
 3. It is a very common error to make the Sinus Codanus an ancient appella 
 tion for the entire Baltic. On the contrary, it answers merely to the Gulf of 
 Kattegat, in the southwestern part. In the name Codanus we may see a re 
 semblance to that of the great Gothic race. The term Baltic appears to be de 
 rived from the northern bait, or belt, denoting a collection of water ; whence, 
 also, the name of the straits, Great and Little Belt. 
 
10 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 4. The Euxine, or Tlovrof Eflfetvof, was originally called "Aevo? by the, 
 Greeks, that is, " the inhospitable sea," from the savage tribes surrounding it. 
 When commerce became extended, and colonies were planted along its borders, 
 it changed its name to Evgsivoc, or " the hospitable." 
 
 5. The term Bosporus (commonly, but erroneously, written Bosphorus} is the 
 Greek BofTropof, and means strictly ox-ford (f3ovc, -rropof), and is generally sup 
 posed to be connected with the legend of lo. Some, however, maintain, that 
 Trdpof, when said of a river, does not mean a ford or pass across the stream, but 
 the passage or road which the stream itself affords in the direction of its length ; 
 and that, taking Bor (or /3of) merely as an intensive prefix, we will have Bdf- 
 
 signifying, properly, a large and broad stream or river. (Griffiths, ad 
 P. V., 733.) 
 
 6. RIVERS. 
 
 I. THE main rivers of Europe are six in number, arranged 
 as follows, according to their respective sizes : 
 
 1. The Volga,) anciently called Rha. 
 
 2. " Danube, " " Danubius, or Ister. 
 
 3. " Dnieper, " " Borysthenes. 
 
 4. " Don, " " Tantiis. 
 
 5. " Rhine, " " -Rhenus. 
 
 6. " Dwina, " " Carambacis. 
 
 II. Those next to them in rank are eight in number, namely, 
 1. The Po, anciently called Padus. 
 
 2. 
 
 u 
 
 Rhone, 
 
 a 
 
 it 
 
 Rhoddnus. 
 
 3. 
 
 a 
 
 Ebro, 
 
 ti 
 
 it 
 
 Iberus. 
 
 4. 
 
 it 
 
 Guadalquivir, 
 
 a 
 
 Bcctis. 
 
 5. 
 
 a 
 
 Tagus, 
 
 u 
 
 tt 
 
 Tagus. 
 
 6. 
 
 
 
 Loire, 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 Liger. 
 
 7. 
 
 it 
 
 Elbe, 
 
 it 
 
 u 
 
 Albis. 
 
 8. 
 
 a 
 
 Vistula, 
 
 it 
 
 a 
 
 Vistula. 
 
 III. All of these eight united would scarcely be equivalent 
 to the Volga alone. 
 
 OBS. 1. The name Rha appears to be an appellative term, having an affinity 
 with Rhea or Rcka, which in the Sclavonic tongue signified " a river ;" and from 
 the Russian denomination of Velika Rheka, or " Great River," appears to be 
 formed the name Volga. In the Byzantine and other writers of the Middle 
 Ages, this stream is called Aid or Etel, a term signifying, in many northern lan 
 guages, " great " or " illustrious," with which we may compare the German Adel. 
 
 2. The Borysthenes was called, in a later age, Danapris, or Danaperis (Aard- 
 Trpif), whence the modern name is formed. The appellation Danapris first oc 
 curs in an anonymous periplus of the Euxine. (Geogr. Gr. Min., iii., p. 298, ed, 
 Gail.} The root of the name (Dan-) is found, also, in that of the Tanais, Dan- 
 ubius, Rhodanus, Eridanus, &c., and is supposed to mean " water," or " river." 
 
 3. The Carambacis is mentioned by Pliny (H. N., vi., 13). Hardouin makes it 
 
EUROPA. 11 
 
 correspond to the Dwina, while others seek to identify it with the Niemen. 
 (Plin., ed. Panck., v., p. 220.) The former appears to be the true opinion. 
 
 7. MOUNTAINS. 
 
 I. THE Ural Mountains, probably the ancient Monies Rhi- 
 pceij or Hyperborei, are common to Europe and Asia. They 
 can not be said to constitute a regular chain, but rise gradu 
 ally and insensibly from the centre of Russia, in a direction 
 east-northeast. 
 
 II. Far in the west, the Scandinavian Alps (Mount Kjolen), 
 probably the Sevo Mons of antiquity, present a more marked 
 chain, but wholly unconnected with the rest of the European 
 mountains. They extend from Cape Lindesnces in Norway, to 
 Cape North in the island of Mageroc. 
 
 III. The Grampian or Caledonian Mountains, in Britannia, 
 the Mons Grampius of the ancients, constitute an insulated 
 group of several parallel chains of no great comparative height. 
 Of these the Welsh Mountains, and those in the northwest of 
 England, appear to be inferior branches. 
 
 IV. The north and east of Europe may therefore be consid 
 ered as one uniform plain, over which, in the west, the Cale 
 donian and Scandinavian Mountains rise insulated. Very dif 
 ferent, however, is the character of central and southern Eu 
 rope. From the Columns of Hercules to the Bosporus, from 
 ^Etna to Blocksberg, all the mountains constitute in reality 
 but one system, which custom has divided into four masses. 
 
 V. The most celebrated of these are the Alps, called by the 
 Romans Alpes, of which one of the principal chains, Alpes Pen- 
 nince, contains Mont Blanc, the highest point in Europe. 
 
 VI. South of these are the Apennines, called by the Romans 
 Apennini, a branch of the Alps, extending through Italy. 
 
 VII. An eastern branch of the Alps passes between the af 
 fluents of the Danube and the Adriatic, and thus unites the 
 Alpine chain to that of Mount Hcemus, the modern Balkan. 
 
 VIII. The northern branch of the Alps comprises the Jura 
 range, or Mons Jura, and that of the Vosges, or Mount Voge- 
 sus. The latter is connected with the mountains of Central 
 Germany, and consequently with the Carpathian range, the 
 ancient Monies Carpati or Carpatici. 
 
 IX. The Cevennes, the ancient Mons Gehenna, or Monies 
 
12 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Cebennici, although connected with the Pyrenees by the Black 
 Mountain, and separated from the Alps by the narrow valley 
 of the Rhone, are regarded as forming part of the system of 
 the Alps. 
 
 X. The peninsula of the Pyrenees, or Monies Pyrencei, may 
 be regarded as a central plateau of considerable elevation, on 
 which rise various distinctly -marked chains of mountains. The 
 Pyrenees in the north, and the Alpujarras, or Sierra Nevada 
 in the south, the Mons Ilipula of the Romans, are the grand 
 bulwarks. 
 
 XL At the other extremity of Europe, Hsemus and its 
 branches xiil a peninsula, not less remarkable than those of 
 Italy and Spain. Witoscha Berg-, or the ancient Scomius, 
 north of Macedonia, may be regarded as a centre, whence pro 
 ceed four chains : that of the Alb ano- Dalmatian Mountains, 
 the ancient Scardus, Bertiscus, Adrius, Bebii Monies, and 
 Albanus, which connect themselves with the Alps ; that of 
 Hccmus, properly so called, the modern Balkan, which extends 
 due east to the Euxine ; that of Rhodope, now Despoto Dag, 
 running down through Thrace, along the River Nestus, not far 
 from the western boundary; and, finally, the fourth, which, 
 under the poetical names of Olympus, Pindus, (Eta, Parnas 
 sus, Helicon, and Lycceus, crosses the whole of Greece. 
 
 XII. The Carpathian or Hercynian system is separated from 
 the Alps and Hsemus by the basin of the Danube. In two 
 places, namely, in Austria, and between Servia and Walla- 
 cilia, the branches of these systems approach so closely that 
 the river is obliged to work its way through real defiles. 
 
 XIIL The principal parts of the Carpathian system are the 
 Transylvanian Mountains, or Alpes Bastarnicce ; the Carpa 
 thian Mountains, or Monies Carpatici, between Hungary and 
 Poland; the Riesengebirge (Giant-mountains), or Vandalici 
 Monies, between Silesia and Bohemia, and the Erzgebirge, 
 or Metalliferi Monies, between Bohemia and Saxony; and, 
 finally, the different small chains of central Germany, com 
 prised anciently in the Hercynian forest, or Silva Hercynia. 
 
 Having given this slight sketch of the physical geography of 
 Europe, w r e shall now proceed to examine how far the knowl 
 edge of the ancients extended respecting each of its parts, com 
 mencing from the west with Hispania, or Spain. 
 
HISPANIA. 
 
 1. EXTENT AND BOUNDARIES. 
 
 I. UNDER the name of Hispania the Romans comprehended 
 the whole of that peninsula which is now divided into the sep 
 arate kingdoms of Spain and Portugal. 
 
 II. It was bounded on the north by the Montes Pyrensei, or 
 Pyrenees, which separated it from Gallia, or France, and also 
 by the Oceanus Cantabricus, or Bay of Biscay ; on the west 
 by the Oceanus Atlanticus, or Atlantic Ocean ; on the east by 
 the Mare Interrram, or Mediterranean Sea ; and on the south 
 by the Oceanus Atlanticus and Mare Internum, which unite 
 in the Fretum Gaditanum or Herculeum, now the Strait of 
 Gibraltar. 
 
 2. NAMES. 
 
 I. THE name Hispania is probably of Phoenician origin, and 
 appears to have been borrowed, with a slight alteration, by the 
 Romans from the Carthaginians, through whom they first be 
 came acquainted with the land. 
 
 II. The Greeks gave the country the name of Iberia ( IGf/pm), 
 but attached to this appellation different ideas at different times. 
 
 III. The earlier Greeks, down to the time of the Achaean 
 league, when they began to be better acquainted with Roman 
 affairs, understood by Iberia the whole Mediterranean coast 
 from the Fretum Herculeum to the mouth of the Rhodanus or 
 Rhone ; while they gave the name of Tartessus (Tapr7]aa6^) to 
 a district on the Atlantic coast, near the Fretum Herculeum 
 and Gades, or Cadiz. 
 
 IV. The interior of the country, on the other hand, for which 
 the natives themselves had no common appellation, the earlier 
 Greeks designated as part of the great region of Celtica (f) KeA- 
 TiKi i), a name which they gave to the whole of western and 
 northwestern Europe. 
 
14 A N C I E N T G E O G R A P H Y. 
 
 V. The lapse of time gradually brought about a change in 
 these geographical ideas, and the later Greeks understood by 
 Iberia the same country which the Romans called Hispania. 
 
 VI. The writers of the second and third centuries of our era 
 were the first who regularly introduced the Latin name into the 
 Greek language, namely, lonavia, although both this and the 
 form STravia are occasionally found in somewhat earlier writers. 
 
 VII. Spain was also called by the Romans, especially the 
 poets, Hesperia, or the Western land, from its lying west of 
 Italy ; but, as Italy itself was denominated Hesperia ( EoTrepia) 
 by the Greek poets, a distinction was sometimes made, and 
 Spain was called Hesperia ultima. 
 
 OBS. 1. The name Hispania is said to come from the Phoenician saphan, or, 
 as some write the word, span, " a rabbit," as meaning " the land of rabbits," 
 and the Phoenicians are reported to have given it this name from the great, 
 number of these animals which they found there, as well as from the injury 
 which they did to the crops, &c., by their burrowing. (Bochart, Geogr. Sacr., 
 iii., 7, col. 168.) Others derive the word from the Phoenician span, in the sense 
 of "hidden," and make it indicate "a hidden," that is, "a remote," or "far- 
 distant land." (Malte Brun, Precis de la Geogr., t. iv., p. 318.) Others, how 
 ever, regard the Spanish form Espanna as the original one, and derive it from 
 Ezpanna, the Basque term for " a border" or " edge," that is, the outermost 
 part of any thing, and hence, according to them, the country in question was so 
 called from its position at the southwestern extremity of Europe. (Compare 
 W. Von Humboldt, Prufung, &c., p. 60.) 
 
 2. Pliny (H. N., iii., 4) deduces the name Iberia from that of the River Iberus. 
 the modern Ebro. Humboldt, with good reason, regards this as very improba 
 ble, and thinks that the true etymology may be traced in the Basque term Ibar 
 ra, " a dale" or " valley." (Prufung; &c., 1. c.) Others refer the term to the 
 Phoenician Iber, or Eber, "beyond," or "over," arid make Iberia mean "the 
 c.ountry beyond the sea." (Sickler, Handbuch d. alt. Geogr., i., p. 4.) This last 
 appears to be the most plausible derivation. 
 
 3. Compare, as regards Tartessus, Scymn., Ch., \. 164, v. 198 ; Btihr, ad 
 Herod., i., 163, and page 43 of this volume. With respect to the general mean 
 ing of Celtica, consult Mannert, Geogr., i., p. 234. 
 
 4. Among the writers prior to, or in the early part of the second century of 
 our era, in whom the forms lanavia and Spavin occasionally appear, may be 
 mentioned Strabo, iii., P- 252, Casaub. ; Plutarch, de Flumin., p. 32 ; and also 
 Ht. Paul, Ep. ad Rom., xv., 24, 28. 
 
 5. As regards the term Hesperia, compare Mannert, Geogr., i., p. 234 ; Gcorgu, 
 Alte Geogr. Abth., ii., p. 7. Horace has Hesperia ultima, Od., i., 36, 4. 
 
 3. EARLY AND LATER INHABITANTS. 
 I. THE earliest inhabitants of the land with whom history 
 makes us acquainted were the Cynesii or Cynetes, the Cempsi 
 and Safes, the Tartessii, and the Iberi. 
 
Hi SPAN I A. 1.5 
 
 II. These five early communities appear, as far as we can 
 gather from the imperfect and scattered accounts of the Greek 
 writers, to have been settled in this country before the period 
 of the first Persian war, or about 600 B.C. It is more than 
 probable, however, that the primitive population of Hispania all 
 belonged to one great race, namely, the Iberian. 
 
 III. The Cynesii (Kvwfjoioi), called, also, Cynetes (KvvrjTeq), 
 are said to have dwelt on both banks of the River Anas, or 
 Quadiana,) near its mouth. Their western limit coincides 
 with the modern Faro in Algarve, and their eastern one with 
 the bay and islands formed by the small rivers Luxia and Uri- 
 um, the modern Odiel and Tinto. 
 
 IV. To the west of the Cynesii, in the part subsequently 
 called Cuneus, dwelt the Cempsi and Saefes. 
 
 V. On the lower coast, in a northwest direction from the 
 Fretum Herculeum, and in the vicinity of Gades, now Cadiz. 
 and the mouth of the Bsetis, or Guadalquivir, were the Tar- 
 tessii (Ta/oT7/a<70), who, at the period when the Phocseans set 
 tled in Spain, were ruled over by a king named Arganthonius. 
 
 VI. The Iberi occupied the Mediterranean coast of the coun 
 try in its whole extent, and also a large portion of the interior. 
 They even extended into Gaul, occupying the coast as far as 
 the mouth of the Rhodanus, or Rhone. 
 
 VII. We come next in order to the immigrating nations and 
 the foreign settlers who subsequently established themselves 
 in the land. These were, 1. The Celtcc ; 2. The Phcenicians ; 
 3. The Phocceans ; 4. The Rhodians ; 5. The Massaliots ; 6. 
 The Zacynthians ; 7. The Carthaginians; 8. The Romans. 
 
 VIII. The Celtse appear to have crossed the Pyrenees, and 
 passed into Spain, at a period long antecedent to positive his 
 tory. After penetrating into the interior of the country, and 
 waging long and bloody wars with the powerful race of the 
 Iberi, they finally united with a portion of them, and formed 
 one people, who, under the name of Celtiberi, distinguished 
 themselves at a later period in their resistance to the Cartha 
 ginian, and subsequently to the Roman sway. 
 
 IX. Some of the Celtse, however, separating from the main 
 body, settled on both banks of the Anas, toward its mouth ; 
 while another portion of them wandered as far as the north 
 western extremity of the land, where later geographical writers 
 
16 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 found them under the name of Artabri. The portion, however, 
 which had settled on the Anas, retained their original appella 
 tion of Celtae or Celtici. 
 
 X. The Phoenicians also appear to have become acquainted 
 with Spain long prior to positive history, but whether before or 
 after the great Celtic immigration is altogether uncertain. It- 
 was doubtless, however, long before the foundation of either 
 Rome or Carthage. For some time their settlements, of which 
 Ghadir, called by the Romans Gades, now Cadiz, was the 
 principal, were limited to the coasts of Baetica, whence they 
 supplied the natives with the products of Asia, in exchange for 
 the gold, silver, iron, and other valuable products of the Pen 
 insula. But as they became better acquainted with the coun 
 try, they penetrated into the interior, where they founded Kar- 
 tabah, called by the Romans Corduba, and now Cordova, and 
 explored the mountainous districts of Navarre in search of iron. 
 
 XI. The Phoenicians, however, were not the only maritime 
 nation which had settlements on the coast of Spain. The Pho- 
 cseans founded the town of Dianium, which is now Denia, and 
 probably, also, that of Chersonesus, now Peniscola, on the east 
 ern coast. 
 
 XII. The Rhodians visited the shores of what is now Cata 
 lonia, and founded a town which they called Rhodes or Rhoda, 
 now Rosas. 
 
 XIII. The Massaliots, or Massilians, founded the town of 
 Emporion, now Ampurias, and the Zacynthians Saguntum. 
 
 XIV. The Carthaginians also directed their views toward 
 Spain. Having insidiously possessed themselves of Ghadir, or 
 Cadiz, which they took from the Phoenicians, they proceeded 
 into the interior with a view to the subjugation of the country, 
 an attempt, however, in which they completely failed. 
 
 XV. The Romans came after the Carthaginians, and suc 
 ceeded in subjugating the whole of the country and making it 
 a portion of their empire. 
 
 XVI. From what has here been said, a natural division pre 
 sents itself of all the Spanish tribes, though many in number, 
 namely, into unmixed native tribes, and tribes mixed with those 
 that had wandered into or settled in the land. 
 
 XVII. The first of these divisions occupied the whole north 
 ern and western coasts (excepting the portions possessed by the 
 
HlSPANIA. 17 
 
 Artabri, in the northwest, and the Celtse, on the Anas), the 
 Pyrenees, and the greater part of the country lying east of the 
 Iberus, or Ebro. 
 
 XVIII. The tribes coming under this division are the Lusi- 
 tani, Carpetani, Callaiei, and Vaccaei, on the western side ; the 
 Astures, Cantabri, and Vascones, on the northern side ; the in 
 habitants of the Pyrenees, through which mountain regions for 
 eign tribes had, it is true, passed, but had not settled therein, 
 together with other Iberian communities as far as the River 
 Iberus ; and, on the south side, some of the inhabitants of the 
 range of Mount Ortospeda, between the Celtiberi and the tribes 
 along the coast ; for example, the Oretani, Olcades, Bastitani, &c. 
 
 XIX. The second of these divisions, or the mixed tribes ; con 
 sisted of the Celtiberi, and the communities along the southern 
 coast. 
 
 XX. The Celtiberi, in an extended sense, comprehended all 
 the midland tribes. On the first entrance of the Celtae into 
 Spain, they came into contact with the Iberi, on the River Ibe 
 rus. After the union of the two races, this combined people 
 possessed the mountainous district from the western bank of 
 the Iberus to the sources of the Durius, now Douro, and the 
 Tagus. 
 
 XXI. The limits which have just been mentioned mark the 
 possessions of the Celtiberi in the stricter sense. The race, 
 however, grew gradually more numerous and powerful, until, 
 at length, they proved an overmatch for their neighbors, and 
 settled themselves in part among the possessions of the latter. 
 Hence some writers reckoned the Vaccaei, Carpetani, Oretani, 
 &c., among the Celtiberian communities, though this, perhaps, 
 is going too far. 
 
 XXII. The tribes along the coast were, on the side immedi 
 ately beyond the Straits of Hercules, a mixture of the earliest 
 inhabitants with Phoenician settlers, and, on the Mediterra 
 nean side of the straits, with Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthagin 
 ians, and Romans. This intermingling with strangers caus 
 ed all national peculiarities gradually to disappear. The traf 
 fic, too, which they carried on, disposed them the more readily 
 to the receiving of foreign customs and habits ; and hence the 
 tribes in the interior held them in contempt, and made frequent 
 inroads into their territories, from which inroads the communi- 
 
 B 
 
18 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ties on the coast found it difficult to defend themselves, even 
 with the aid of the foreigners who had settled among them. 
 
 OBS. 1. The Iberian race was undoubtedly Caucasian. Its connection with 
 the Finnish nations of Northern Europe has already been referred to. Many of 
 the Spanish writers trace the descent of the Iberians from Tubal, son of Noah ! 
 (Minnano, Diction., t. iv., p. 2.) 
 
 2. Herodotus uses both appellations, Kvv^cioi. (ii., 33) and KvvrjTec (iv., 49). 
 We obtain an account of their territory from Avienus. (Ora Marit., 200, seqq.) 
 They are probably the same with the Conii or Cunii of the Roman writers, and 
 their name is connected with the district called Cuneus (the modern Algarve), 
 a name which the Romans erroneously sought to explain in their own language 
 by making it refer to the wedge-like form of the country. (Compare Schlicht- 
 horst, uber den Wohnsilz dcr Kynesier : Getting., 1793.) 
 
 3. Herodotus gives the account of the Phocaean settlement in Spain, and of 
 King Arganthonius (i., 163). According to a fragment of Hecataeus of Mile 
 tus, the Tartessii dwelt immediately to the west of the straits. (Compare 
 Herod., iv., 152, 192; Crcuzer, ad Hec. Mil., p. 51 ; Bdhr, ad Herod., i., 163; 
 Heeren, Ideen, i., 2, p. 46, seqq.) 
 
 4. That the Celtae were invaders of Spain, and long posterior to the Iberi, 
 and that the latter were the aborigines, was the general persuasion of the an 
 cient writers. (Strab., iii., p. 162, Cas. , Appian, Bell. Hisp., 2 ; Diod. Sic., v., 
 33 ; Lucan., iv., 9 ; Sil. Ital., iii., 140.) Recently, however, an opinion has been 
 started in direct opposition to this, which makes the Celtse to have come first 
 into Spain, and the Iberians some time after, and the Celtae to have given way 
 to these through a great part of the Peninsula. (Prichard, vol. iii., p. 46.) This 
 opinion, however, though advocated by Niebuhr and Humboldt, especially the 
 latter, is decidedly erroneous. An insurmountable difficulty is in the way. 
 Had the Celtae preceded the Ibenans, valiant bands of hardy Celtic mountain 
 eers could never have been expelled from the fastnesses of the Pyrenees by 
 the less warlike Iberians. Yet this whole tract of country was occupied solely 
 by Iberian tribes. (Diefenbach, Vcrsuch ciner genealog. Gcsch. dcr Kelten: Stutt 
 gart, 1840.) 
 
 5. On the traffic of the Phoenicians with Spain, consult Heeren, Idccn, i., 2, p. 
 44, seqq. (vol. ii., p. 63, seqq., Eng. transl). The prodigious quantity of the 
 precious metals which the Phoenicians found here on their first arrival, so ex 
 cited their astonishment, that the traditions preserved respecting them seem 
 very remarkably to suit the pictures given by the Spanish discoverers of Peru. 
 
 6. Strabo has 77 PocJof (iii., p. 160, Cas.); Stephanus Byzantinus, Porfy. 
 (Compare Liv., xxxiv., 8 ; Mela, ii., 6 ; Scymn. Ch., 205 ; Meurs. Rhod., i., 28 ; 
 Marco. Hisp., ii., c. 18.) 
 
 4. HISTORICAL EPOCHS. 
 
 I. THE Iberi, or aborigines, are disturbed in their possessions 
 by the Celtse, who invade the Peninsula from Gaul. From the 
 union of a part of these Celtse with a portion of the Iberian 
 race arises the mixed nation of the Celtiberi. 
 
 II. The rich corn-lands, the mines, and sea-ports of the Pen 
 insula attract the attention of the early Phoenician naviga.tors. 
 
HlSPANIA. 19 
 
 who form settlements in various parts, especially along the 
 coasts. 
 
 III. Settlements formed on the eastern shores by the Rhod- 
 ians, Phocseans, and others of the Greeks. 
 
 IV. The Carthaginians also direct their views toward Spain, 
 possess themselves of Gades, or Cadiz, which they take from 
 the Phoenicians, and proceed into the interior with a view to 
 the subjugation of the country, but completely fail; for, al 
 though the Carthaginian generals, Hamilcar, his brother Has- 
 drubal, and his far more celebrated nephew Hannibal, com 
 pletely reduced the southern part of the Peninsula, they were 
 unable to subdue the warlike tribes of the interior. 
 
 V. This attempt on the part of the Carthaginians leads to 
 the second Punic war, and Spain is freed, before its close, from 
 the Carthaginian yoke by the elder Africanus. The Span 
 iards, however, only change masters. Spain is made a Roman 
 province, and divided into Citerior and Ulterior, or Hither and 
 Farther Spain. 
 
 VI. Until the time of Augustus, the Cantabri, the Callaici, 
 and the Astures, who inhabited the northwestern parts of the 
 Peninsula, are not even nominally subjected to the republic ; 
 and the other portions of Spain, Celtiberia in the northeast, 
 Baetica in the south, and Lusitania in the west, become the 
 scene of constant warfare and rebellion. 
 
 VII. The most remarkable of the native insurrections during 
 the period just referred to, is that organized in Lusitania by 
 Viriathus, who, during more than eleven years, defeats the 
 ablest generals of the republic, and is only put down by the 
 treachery of Csepio, B.C. 140. 
 
 VIII. Spain, soon after this, becomes the theatre of the civil 
 war between Marius and Sulla, Sertorius, a leader of the de 
 feated party, having fled hither, and carrying on the war for 
 some time with great ability and success. 
 
 IX. Spain having espoused the cause of Pompey, Julius Cae 
 sar repairs hither in person, and by his military skill triumphs 
 over his enemies. Cneius, the son of Pompey, is defeated at 
 Munda, and peace is restored to the country. 
 
 X. It is only under Augustus that Spain is completely sub 
 dued. Augustus himself visits Spain, and divides the country 
 into three great provinces, Baatica, Lusitania, and Tarraconen- 
 
20 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 sis, a division which subsists until the reign of Constantine the 
 Great. During this period, Spain is considered one of the most 
 valuable and flourishing provinces of the empire. 
 
 XL About the beginning of the fifth century, the Suevi, un 
 der their king Hermeric ; the Alans, under Atace, and the 
 Vandals, or Silingi, under Gunderic, after overrunning the 
 provinces of Gaul, cross the Pyrenees, and settle in the Penin 
 sula. They are speedily followed by a host of Visigoths (A.D. 
 411), led by their king Athaulf, who establishes himself in Cat 
 alonia, though nominally dependent upon his brother-in-law 
 Honorius, the Roman emperor. 
 
 XII. It is not, however, until the time of Euric (A.D. 466- 
 83), that the Goths become complete masters of the Peninsula ; 
 and the Gothic dynasty continues until the time of Roderic, 
 in whose reign (A.D. 711) the Arabs of Africa, commanded 
 by Tdrik Ibn Zeydd, cross the straits, and, after defeating the 
 whole force of the Gothic monarchy on the banks of the Gua- 
 dalete, take the capital Toledo, the ancient Toletum. 
 
 OBS. For an able sketch of the remaining history of Spain, consult Penny Cy 
 clopaedia, vol. xxii., p. 293, seqq., from which work the above sketch is taken. 
 And, as regards the movements of the barbarous nations that invaded, in suc 
 cession, this quarter of the Roman empire, consult D Anville, Etals formes en 
 Europe, &c., p. 144, seqq. 
 
 5. DIVISION OF HlSPANIA BY THE ROMANS. 
 
 I. THE Romans, after having overthrown the Carthaginian 
 power in Spain, and conquered a considerable portion of the 
 country, divided their possessions into two provinces, distin 
 guished by the names of Hispania Citerior and Ulterior, or 
 Hither and Farther Spain. The former of these embraced a 
 great part of the Mediterranean coast, together with as much 
 of the country lying back of it, in the interior, as the Roman 
 arms had thus far reduced ; the latter comprehended very near 
 ly what was afterward called Bactica. 
 
 II. The limits of both these provinces became gradually ex 
 tended as the Roman arms advanced, but particularly Hispania 
 Citerior, since most of the Roman conquests were made from 
 this quarter toward the north arid west. The Roman com 
 manders of the other province were principally employed in 
 operations against the neighboring Lusitani, and hence the 
 
HlSPANIA. 21 
 
 country of the latter, after their subjugation, became part of 
 Hispania Ulterior. 
 
 III. In process of time, Hispania Citerior changed its name 
 to Tarraconensis, from Tarraco, now Tarragona, the residence 
 of the Roman praetor, and, consequently, the capital of the prov 
 ince. Its limits, also, became definitely established, and were 
 as follows : it extended from the River Magrada, at the foot of 
 the Pyrenees, on the upper coast, to the mouth of the River 
 Durius, now Douro, on the Atlantic shore, comprehending all 
 the north of Spain, together with the south as far as a line 
 drawn from Baria, now Vera, below Carthago Nova, now Car- 
 thagena, and continued upward in an oblique direction to the 
 vicinity of Complutica, now Compludo, above Salmantica, now 
 Salamanca, until it struck the banks of the Durius. 
 
 IV. This was the arrangement up to the time of Augustus. 
 That emperor, or rather Agrippa, made an alteration in it. 
 The province of Tarraconensis, indeed, although embracing 
 more than two thirds of the whole of Hispania, remained the 
 same as before ; but Farther Spain, or Hispania Ulterior, was 
 now subdivided into two provinces, Bcetica and Lusitania. 
 
 V. Bcetica extended from Baria, where Tarraconensis ter 
 minated, to the mouth of the River Anas, or Guadiana, which 
 river formed also its western and northern boundary. Its limit 
 on the northeast and east was formed by a line drawn from a 
 point on the River Anas, northeast of Sisapo, in an oblique di 
 rection to Baria. This province, therefore, comprised the mod 
 ern Andalusia, a part of the Portuguese province of Alentejo, 
 that portion of Spanish Estremadura which lies south of the 
 Anas, and a large part of La Mancha. 
 
 VI. Lusitania was bounded on the south and west by the 
 ocean, on the north by the River Durius, and on the east by 
 Tarraconensis. It comprehended, therefore, modern Portugal, 
 with the exception of the two provinces north of the Douro, 
 namely, Entre Douro y Minho and Tras os Montes. It em 
 braced, also, the greater part of Spanish Estremadura, Sala 
 manca, and part of New Castile and Toledo. 
 
 VII. Independently, however, of this distinction of provinces, 
 Spain, under the Roman government, was divided into juris 
 dictions called Conventus, that is, judicial districts or circuits, 
 in which the Roman proconsul or governor dispensed justice. 
 
22 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Of these there were fourteen, each one formed of the union of 
 several cities. This arrangement was an extremely politic one 
 on the part of the Romans, since it tended directly to break up 
 the nationality of the different tribes, and, of course, to confirm 
 the Roman sway. 
 
 VIII. In the writers of the fourth and following centuries we 
 find a new arrangement of provinces prevailing. Spain was 
 now divided into seven of these, the names of which are as fol 
 lows : 1. B&tica ; 2. Lusitania ; 3. Callcecia; 4. Tarraconen- 
 sis ; 5. Carthaginiensis ; 6. Insulce Balearicce ; 7. Maurita 
 nia Tingitana. 
 
 IX. This last-mentioned arrangement is commonly ascribed 
 to the Emperor Hadrian, but it owed its origin, more probably, 
 to Constantine. Of these seven provinces, moreover, Bcetica 
 and Lusitania remained the same in size as before. Callcecia, 
 however, comprehended all the Conventus and communities 
 north of the Durius and west of the Vascones. Carthaginien 
 sis, again, had Carthago Nova for its capital, and answered to 
 Murcia, a part of New Castile, and southern Valencia. And, 
 finally, Tingitana in Africa was added, in order to equalize 
 the provinces as much as possible. 
 
 OBS. 1. In giving Baria as the point of separation between Baetica and Tarra- 
 conensis, we have followed D Anville. Mannert and others, however, give 
 Murgis, now Mujakar, as the limit. 
 
 2. The Roman language, and, along with it, Roman customs, became estab 
 lished in a great part of the land soon after the Sertorian war ; and it was this 
 that led, of course, to the establishment of Conventus. These received their full 
 development under Augustus. 
 
 6. MOUNTAINS. 
 
 THE principal mountain-chains of Hispania are eight in 
 number, namely, 
 
 1. Pyrencei Monies. 5. Mons Solorius. 
 
 2. Mons Idubeda. 6. Mons Herminius. 
 
 3. Mons Orospeda. 7. Mons Medullus. 
 
 4. Saltus Castulonensis. 8. Mons Vindius. 
 
 I. Pyrencei Monies, now the Pyrenees, divided Hispania 
 from Gallia, closing the isthmus between the Mediterranean 
 and the Oceanus Cantabricus, or Bay of Biscay. After this 
 they continued westward, along the northern coast of the Pen 
 insula, and sent out various branches, encumbering the north- 
 
HlSPANIA. 23 
 
 west corner of Hispania, or the modern provinces of Gallicia 
 and Asturias. 
 
 The Romans were acquainted with only three main passes 
 over these mountains. The northernmost of these ran by Fons 
 Rapidus, the modern Fontarabia, a place situate at the mouth 
 of the Menlascus, now the Bidassoa. The second, a more cen 
 tral one, led to Beneharnum, in Aquitania, now Orthes ; and 
 the third, or southernmost one, to Ruscino, in Gallia Narbo- 
 nensis, now Roussillon, on the Mediterranean. At the present 
 day there are six government roads through these mountains, 
 the northernmost of which, and the principal one, corresponds 
 to the Roman one running by Fons Rapidus. 
 
 Historically, these mountains are associated with the cele 
 brated march of Hannibal, and the warfare of Caesar against 
 the Pompeian party in Spain. At a later period they formed 
 the limit of the Prankish conquests under Clovis, but were 
 passed by the ambition and power of Charlemagne, who, how 
 ever, lost his rear guard among the denies. The range of the 
 Pyrenees is about 294 miles in length. 
 
 II. Mom Idubeda ( I6ov6eda), now Sierra d 1 Oca, commenced 
 among the Cantabri, near the sources of the River Iberus, in 
 what is now Asturias and Burgos, and, running nearly paral 
 lel with the Pyrenees, terminated on the coast of the Mediter 
 ranean, near Saguntum, which place lay at its foot. 
 
 III. Mons Orospeda, or, according to Ptolemy, Ortospeda 
 ( OpdaTTfida, Op7d<77T(5a), was properly a continuation of the 
 range of Idubeda, springing from this last near the southern 
 termination of its course, and not far from the sources of the 
 River Bsetis, or Guadalquivir. Strabo calls a part of it the Sil 
 ver Mountain ("Opo^ Apyvpovi ), and Pliny, Saltus Tugiensis. 
 It first ran through the Spartarius Campus in the shape of a 
 chain of small hills, until, increasing in height, one part of it 
 terminated in the form of a segment of a circle on what is now 
 the coast of Murcia and Granada. The other part, divided 
 into two arms, ran off to Baetica. One of these arms pursued 
 nearly a western direction, and was called Mons Marianus, or 
 Monies Ariani, now Sierra Morena, while the other ran more 
 to the southwest, near the coast, and was called Mons Ilipula 
 ( I/u7rovAa), now Alpujarra, or Sierra Nevada, and ended at 
 Calpe, or Gibraltar. 
 
24 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 IV. Saltus Castulonensis, now Sierra de Cazorle, a branch 
 of the Mons Marianus, taking its ancient name from the town 
 of Castulo, on the River Bsetis. 
 
 V. Mons Solorius, now Sierra de Solorio or Soloria, com 
 mencing at the sources of the River Bsetis, and stretching in a 
 southern direction. It formed in a part of its course the separ 
 ation between Tarraconensis and Bsetica. 
 
 VI. Mons Herminius (TO "Opo^ Ep/uwov), now Sierra de la 
 Estrella, south of the River Munda, or Mondego, in Lusita- 
 nia, and running in a southwestern direction until it touched 
 the coast of the Atlantic near Olisippo, or Lisbon. This chain 
 is sometimes erroneously placed between the Tagus and the 
 Anas, and is thus confounded with the mountains of Portale- 
 gre and Evora. It is the highest mountain range in modern 
 Portugal. In this chain the Lusitani had their places of ref 
 uge, and it was here that they afforded so much trouble to Cae 
 sar and his lieutenants. 
 
 VII. Mons Medullus, in Hispania Tarraconensis , on the 
 River Minius, or Minho. It was a continuation of the chain 
 of Mons Vindius, and is now las Medulas. 
 
 VIII. Mons Vindius, or Vinnius, a range of mountains trav 
 ersing the country of the Cantabri from east to west, now 
 Montanos de Europa. 
 
 OBS. 1. The name of the Pyrenees is written by Strabo usually in the singu 
 lar, livprjvr). This name Ylvpyvr] occurs also in Herodotus (ii., 33), but it is there 
 given to a city near which the River "larpoc, or Danube, has its source. Oth 
 ers of the Greek writers employ the plural, ra nvprjvaia op??. Among the Latin 
 writers, Caesar has the plural, Pyrcncei Monies ; Pliny, indifferently, the singular 
 or plural ; and Lucan has given (Pharsal., i., 689) the Greek form Pyrene. 
 
 2. The name of the Pyrenees was commonly supposed to be derived from 
 the Greek term 7ri>p, " fire," they having been said to have been at one time 
 devastated by fire. The true derivation, however, is probably to be sought in 
 the Cymric (Welsh) Brynn, or the Celtic Byrin, " a mountain," " a rocky mount 
 ain," from which same source may be deduced, also, the name of Mount Bren 
 ner and Mount Ferner in the Tyrol, that of Pyern in Upper Austria, and many 
 others. (Addung, Mithradatcs, vol. ii., p. 67.) Diefenbach is in favor of an 
 Iberian origin for the name (Celtica, i., p. 178), but it is far more probable that 
 the appellation originated among the Celtae in Gaul, and was brought by them 
 into Spain. 
 
 7. PROMONTORIES. 
 
 THE ancient geographers have enumerated twenty -three 
 promontories along the coast of Hispania ; the principal ones, 
 however, may be reduced to thirteen, as follows : 
 
HlSPANIA. 25 
 
 1. On the Mediterranean Coast. 
 
 I. Pyrenceum Promontorium, at the northeastern extremity 
 of Hispania, now Cape Creux (Cabo de Creux). It was also 
 called Pyrence Promontorium, and, by Strabo, TO rrjg nvprjvrjg 
 atcpov. 
 
 II. Dianium Promontorium, in the territory of the Contes- 
 tani, and below the mouth of the River Sucro, now Cape St. 
 Mar fin. It was also called Artemisium and Ferrari a. The 
 inhabitants in the vicinity term it Artemus. 
 
 III. Saturni Promontorium, near Carthago Nova, now Cape 
 Palos. 
 
 IV. Charidemi Promontorium, southwest of Carthago Nova, 
 in the territory of the Bastetani, now Cape Gat a. 
 
 V. Calpe Mons sive Promontorium, now Gibraltar. 
 
 2. On the Atlantic Coast. 
 
 VI. Junonis Promontorium, below Gades, and near the town 
 of Bsesippo, now Cape Trafalgar. 
 
 VII. Cuneus Promontorium, in the southern part of the Cu- 
 neus Ager, or Algarve, now Cape St. Maria ( Cabo de St. Ma 
 ria), forming the southernmost extremity of modern Portugal. 
 
 VIII. Sacrum Promontorium, Strabo s lepov dKpG)T<f)piov, the 
 southwestern extremity of the Cuneus Ager, now Cape St. Vin 
 cent. It was regarded by the ancients as the most westerly 
 point of the earth ; and it was fabled to be the spot where the 
 sun, at his setting, plunged his chariot into the sea. Hence its 
 name of Sacred Promontory. The earliest name of this prom 
 ontory appears to have been Promontorium Cepresicum. 
 
 IX. Barbarium Promontorium, below the mouth of the Ta- 
 gus, now Cape Espichel. 
 
 X. Promontorium Magnum sive Olisiponense, a little to the 
 northwest of Olisipo, or Lisbon, now Cape Roca ( Cabo da Roca). 
 
 XL Promontorium Artabrum, called also Nerium and Gel- 
 ticum. in the northwestern angle of Spain, in the country of 
 the Artabri, now Cape Finisterre (Cabo de Finistcrra). 
 
 3. On the coast of the Bay of Biscay. 
 
 XII. Trileucum Promontorium, called also Coru, the north 
 ernmost point of Spain, in the territory of the Callai ci, now 
 Cape Ortegal. 
 
 XIII. (Edso Promontorium, at the northern extremity of the 
 
26 ANCIENTGEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pyrenees, now Cape Higuera (Cabo de la Higuera). Near 
 it lay the town of the same name. Pliny calls this promontory 
 OlarsOj and Marcianus larso. 
 
 OBS. 1. According to the ancient writers, the Promontory of Calpe was one 
 of the Pillars of Hercules, the other being Mount Abila, on the African shore. 
 The name of the latter is written by Dionysius (Perieg., 336) A Auto/, Alyba. 
 Eustathius informs us (ad Dionys., p. 64) that in his time the promontory on 
 the Spanish side was called Calpe by the barbarians, but Alyba by the Greeks ; 
 and that Abila, on the African shore, was called by the natives Abenna. At 
 what time, however, the present Gibraltar began to be called Calpe is difficult 
 to determine, but it was certainly long antecedent to the time of Eustathius. 
 Calpe itself is only Alyba shortened, and pronounced with a strong Oriental as 
 pirate. In the word Alyba we likewise detect the root of the term Alp, or rather 
 the term itself, which may be traced directly to the Celtic radical Alb, indicat 
 ing a lofty mountain. 
 
 2. A great variety of opinions were entertained among the ancients as to the 
 spot where the Pillars of Hercules were to be sought for, and also what these 
 Pillars actually were. Some placed them at Gades, as, for example, Pindar, 
 who calls them IIMaf Tadeipidas (Nem., iii., 36) ; some, again, were in doubt 
 whether they were pillars, cities, mountains, or promontories ; while some made 
 them actual statues of Hercules. Tacitus makes mention of Columns of Her 
 cules in the north of Europe, which tradition placed somewhere in the vicinity 
 of the Baltic. (Germ., c. 3 and 34. Compare Serv. ad Virg., 2En., xi., 262.) 
 So, again, the appellations for the Columns of Hercules were various. Many 
 of the Greek writers knew them merely by the name of 2r?}Aa*. (Herod., iv., 
 42, 181 ; Scylax, 1 ; Polyb., iii., 35 ; Diod. Sic., iv., 18.) The Latin writers, on 
 the other hand, called them Herculis Columns, or Heraclca Columns, and Flo- 
 rus, in his florid phraseology, Herculis Specula (iv., 2). Dionysius styled them 
 Tep,uara i2/ceavoio. (Compare Schwartz., Diss. de Col. Here. : Altorf, 1749, 4to. 
 Popowitsch, Untersuch. -com Mccre, &c. Gossdin, Reck., t. iv., &c.) 
 
 8. CHIEF RIVERS. 
 
 THE chief rivers of Hispania are eight in number, namely, 
 the Iberus, Sucro, Bcetis, Anas, Tagus, Munda, Durius, and 
 Minius. 
 
 I. Iberus, called by the Greeks "I%> and *I57]po, now the 
 Ebro, a large, navigable river, rose in the territory of the Can- 
 tabri, not far from Juliobriga, in what is now the range of 
 Mount Santillana, forming part of the ancient chain of Idube- 
 da. Its whole course, including windings, is rather more than 
 four hundred miles. According to the ancient accounts, it was 
 navigable from Varia, now Varea, in the territory of the Ve- 
 rones, not far from Lograno. Modem statements, however, 
 make it now begin to be navigable for boats at Tudela, the 
 ancient Tutola, below Calagurris. The Iberus ran directly 
 through Hispania Tarraconensis, in a southeastern direction, 
 
HlSPANIA. 27 
 
 after having first pursued a course east-southeast as far as the 
 town of Doubriga, in the territory of the Berones ; and it falls 
 into the Mediterranean, by the Tenebrium Promontorium, in 
 a southeast direction from Dertosa, the modern Tortosa. The 
 valley of this river, lying between the great Pyrenean chain 
 and the highlands of modern Castile, forms a natural division 
 between the northern provinces of Spain and the rest of the 
 Peninsula, and the course of the Ebro, therefore, has been often 
 assumed as a military line in the wars of this country. Pre 
 vious to the second Punic war, it formed the line of demarka- 
 tion between the dominions of Carthage and those of Rome. 
 It afterward formed the boundary between the dominions of 
 Charlemagne and his successors and those of the Moors. The 
 French, in their Spanish wars, have repeatedly purposed to 
 make the Ebro the boundary between France and Spain. 
 
 II. Sucro, called by the Greek writers 2ovpv, now the Xu- 
 car, a river of Hispania Tarraconensis, rose in the chain of 
 Mount Idubeda, and, separating the territories of the Contes- 
 tani from those of the Edetani, flowed into the Mediterranean 
 below Saguntum, giving name to the Sucronensis Sinus, or 
 Gulf of Valencia. Its whole course considerably exceeds two 
 hundred miles. At its mouth lay the town of Sucro, answer 
 ing, probably, to the modern Cullera. Strabo says it could be 
 passed on foot. The river at the present day also loses a con 
 siderable portion of its waters by the irrigation of the adjacent 
 country. Were it not for this, it would probably be navigable 
 for the last thirty or forty miles from its mouth. 
 
 III. Bcetis, called by the Greek writers BatTt$, now the Guad 
 alquivir, the principal river of Hispania Bsetica, to which it 
 also gave name, rose in the Saltus Tugiensis, near Tugia, now 
 Toia, in the chain of Mons Argentarius, now Sierra Segura. 
 It ran for the most part in a southwestern direction, and en 
 tered the Atlantic near Gades. The whole course of the Bse- 
 tis is given by the ancients at about three thousand stadia; 
 according to modern authorities, the length is short of three 
 hundred miles. From the sea to Hispalis, the modern Seville, 
 it was navigable for large vessels ; from Hispalis to Ilipa, the 
 modern Penaflor, for vessels of smaller size ; and from Ilipa to 
 Corduba, now Cordova, for boats. At the present day, it is 
 first navigable for river boats below Cordova, immediately after 
 
28 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 it is joined by the River Genii, or Xenil, the ancient Singilis, 
 and sloops may ascend it to Seville. The banks of the river, 
 or their immediate vicinity, are said to have been covered with 
 numerous cities and towns. From a short distance below His- 
 palis, the Baetis, which has at present but one mouth, was con 
 tinued anciently by two streams to the sea, embracing an isl 
 and, which, in remote antiquity, was celebrated, according to 
 some, under the name of Tartessus. Of these two arms, the 
 lower one exists no more. The upper mouth of the river was 
 difficult of navigation, on account of the numerous sand-banks, 
 and also the sunken rocks ; and hence a pharos, or light-house, 
 was erected here, on the northwestern extremity of the island 
 of Tartessus, called Csepio s Tower, Ccepionis Turris. The 
 modern name of this stream is corrupted from the Arabic Wa- 
 da-l-Kebir, "the Great River." 
 
 IV. Anas, called by the Greeks "Avaf, now the Guadiana 
 (corrupted from the Arabic Wadi-Ana, " the River Ana"), rose 
 in the territory of the Oretani, in the chain of Mount Orospeda, 
 near the ancient Laminium, now Monticla in New Castile. 
 The ancient accounts agree substantially with the modern. 
 The Guadiana rises in a series of small lakes, and, after hav 
 ing run a few miles, disappears under ground, and continues 
 to run under ground for more than twelve miles, when it issues 
 from the earth as a strong stream between Villarta and Day- 
 miel. The place where the river reappears is called Los q/os 
 de la Guadiana ("the eyes of the Guadiana"), and consists 
 of several small lakes. The Anas, after this, ran in a westerly 
 direction for a considerable distance, until, near Pax Augusta, 
 it bent around, and flowed in a southwestern, and then south 
 ern direction, into the Atlantic, to the east of the Cuneus Prom- 
 ontorium. Its course exceeds four hundred and fifty miles. 
 According to Strabo and others, it entered the sea with two 
 mouths. It has little water, notwithstanding its length, and 
 can only be ascended by flat-bottomed, small river-barges to 
 Mertola in Portugal, the ancient Myrtilis, not much more 
 than thirty miles from its mouth. 
 
 V. Tagus, in Greek Tayof, called now Tajo by the Span 
 iards, and Tejo by the Portuguese, while in our own language 
 we have adopted the Roman name, rose among the Celtiberi, 
 between the ranges of Orospeda and Idubeda, in what is now 
 
HlSPANIA. 29 
 
 the Sierra Albarracin. It flowed in a direction between west 
 and southwest through the territories of the Vettones, Carpe- 
 tani, and Lusitani, into the Atlantic, a short distance above 
 the Barbarium Promontorium, and had at its mouth Olisipo, 
 the modern Lisbon or Lisboa. The whole course of the river 
 exceeds five hundred and fifty miles. It is described by the 
 ancient writers as abounding in oysters and fish, and as having 
 auriferous sands. Grains of gold are said to be still obtained 
 from it. 
 
 VI. Munda, now Mondego, rose in the territory of the Vet- 
 tones, in Lusitania, near the town of Lancia Oppidana, now 
 Guarda, and flowing by Conimbriga, now Coimbra, fell into 
 the Atlantic nearly midway between the Tagus and Durius. 
 It was not navigable far. Pliny calls it Munda ; Mela, how 
 ever, Monda, and Ptolemy, also, M6vda. Strabo styles it Mov- 
 kiddag. It must not be confounded with the city of Munda, 
 among the Bastuli Pceni, near Malaca, where Caesar fought his 
 desperate battle with the son of Pompey. 
 
 VII. Durms, called by Strabo Aovpto^, by Ptolemy and Ap- 
 pian Ac5p0, is now T in Portuguese the Douro, in Spanish the 
 Duero. This river, one of the principal streams of the Penin 
 sula, rose among the Pelendones, not far from Numantia, which 
 was situate upon it, in the range now called Sierra de Urbion, 
 part of the ancient range of Idubeda. It ran first for a short 
 distance to the south, then turned in a western direction until 
 it reached the confines of Lusitania, when it again bent off to 
 the south for some distance, when, resuming its westerly course, 
 it flowed on to the Atlantic coast, entering the sea near Calle, 
 the modern Oporto. The whole course of the Douro, with its 
 numerous windings, is nearly five hundred miles. According 
 to the ancients, it was navigable for eight hundred stadia, about 
 ninety English miles, from its mouth, and gold was said to be 
 found in its bed. 
 
 VIII. Minius, called in Greek Mmo?, and by Strabo Ralvi$ 
 (B&nis)) now the Minho, rose in the northern part of the ter 
 ritory of the Callai ci, a little distance above Lucus Augusti, 
 the modern Lugo, in that part of the range of Mons Vinnius 
 which answers to the modern Montanas de Asturias. It ran 
 in a southwestern direction, receiving in its course a large trib 
 utary coming in from the east, now called the Sil, but which 
 
30 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 the ancients appear to have regarded as the main stream, and 
 to have confounded with the Minius itself; and it flowed into 
 the Atlantic nearly midway between the mouth of the Durius 
 and the Artabrum Promontorium. The course of this river, in 
 a straight line, is about one hundred and fifteen miles, and, 
 along the windings, one hundred and sixty miles. Though 
 abundantly supplied with water, however, it is not navigable 
 within modern Spain, on account of its great rapidity. 
 
 OBS. 1. Various etymologies have been assigned for the ancient names of 
 some of the principal rivers of Spain, a specimen of which may here be given : 
 1. The Iberus, in all probability, derived its name from Iberia, one of the early 
 appellations of Spain, and an explanation of which may be found under <J 2, 
 Obs. 2. 2. The Balis is supposed to have been so called from the Phoenician 
 bitsi, " marshy," the tsade (ts) having been changed by the Greek and Roman 
 writers into t. This etymology may not be incorrect, the river being swampy 
 in some parts, especially toward its mouth, where the low and swampy islands 
 ofMenor and Mayor are formed. Hence, too, the Libystinus lac.us, in this quar 
 ter, mentioned by Avienus (Or. Mar., 289), which seems to contain the same root. 
 3. The Anas appears to derive its name from the Phoenician hanas, the explana 
 tion of which is sought to be obtained from the Arabic hanasa, " to withdraw 
 or hide one s self," and is thought to allude to the subterranean nature of the 
 stream in the early part of its course. 4. The Tagus is supposed to have been 
 so called from the Phoenician dag, " a fish," or dagi, " fishy," " abounding in fish," 
 a character which the ancients expressly assign to this stream. 5. The Mmius, 
 according to Isidorus, took its name from the minium, or vermilion, which was 
 found abundantly in the country which it traversed. On all these etymologies, 
 consult the remarks of Bochart, Phakg., col. 626, seqq. ; col. 606. 
 
 2. According to Stephanus Byzantinus, the name given to the Baetis by the 
 natives themselves was Perkes (Ylepttrjc). Out of this Bochart makes Perka, 
 and derives this from the Phoenician berca, " stagnum," an etymology agreeing 
 with the one given above. In Livy, the ignorant copyists have corrupted this 
 into Certes or Ccrtis. (Liv., xxviii., 22.) 
 
 3. In giving the source of the Sucro we have followed Mannert. The editors 
 of the French Strabo maintain that Mannert is here in error, and that the chain 
 in which the river rises is not that of Idubeda, but of Orospeda. Their opinion, 
 however, is an untenable one. 
 
 9. SMALLER RIVERS. 
 
 THE smaller rivers of Hispania may be enumerated as fol 
 lows : 
 
 I. Of the tributaries of the Iberus, on the northern side, we 
 may name the Gallicus, the Cinga, and the Sicoris. The 
 Gallicus is now the Gallego,. and flows into the Ebro near 
 Saragassa. The Cinga is now the Cinca, and flowed into the 
 Sicoris. The Sicoris is now the Segre. It flowed past Ilerda, 
 now Lerida, and received the Cinga just before falling into the 
 Iberus. 
 
HlSPANIA. 31 
 
 II. Of the tributaries of the Iberus, on the southern side, 
 may be named the Salo, called also the Bilbilis, and running 
 by the town of Bilbilis, in the territory of the Celtiberi. The 
 waters of this river were famed for their property of tempering 
 iron. The modern name is Xalon. 
 
 III. Between the Iberus and Baetis we may name, 1. The 
 Uduba, now the Mijares ; 2. The Turia, now the Guadala- 
 viar ; 3. The Scctdbis, falling into the Sucro near its mouth, 
 now the Montesa ; 4. The Tader, now the Segura ; 5. The 
 Mcenoba, a little to the east of Malaca, now the Velez ; 6. The 
 Maldca, now the Guadalmedina ; 7. The Salduba, below 
 Munda, now the Verda ; 8. The Barbesula, near Carteia, now 
 the Guadiaro ; 9. The Belcv, on the Atlantic side of the straits, 
 at the mouth of which stood the town of Belon ; now the Bar 
 bate. 
 
 IV. Between the Beetis and the Anas we may name the 
 Urium, now the Tinto, and the Luxia, now the Odiel. 
 
 V. Between the Munda and Durius we find the Vacua, now 
 
 VI. Among the tributaries of the Durius may be named the 
 Astura, now the Esla, and Arcva, now the Urcero. 
 
 VII. Between the Durius and the Minius we have the Avo, 
 now Ave ; the Celddus, now Celado ; the Ncebis, now Neya ; 
 and the Limia, now Lima. 
 
 VIII. We find the following flowing into the Oceanus Can- 
 tabricus : 1. The Navilubio, now Navia ; 2. The Melsus, now 
 Abono ; 3. The Salia, now Sulla ; 4. The Saunium, now Sa- 
 ja, near Portus Victorise ; 5. The Magrada, now Urumca. 
 
 IX. Between the Iberus and the Pyrenees we have the Tul- 
 eis, now the Francoli, at Tarraco : the Rubricates, now Llo- 
 bregat ; and the Alba, now the Ter. 
 
 10. CHARACTER OF THE INHABITANTS. 
 I. THE Iberi, before they yielded obedience to the Romans, 
 occupied a kind of middle station between barbarism and civil 
 ization, with a preponderance, however, in favor of the former. 
 They were equally formidable as cavalry and infantry ; for, 
 when the horse had broken the enemy s ranks, the men dis 
 mounted and fought on foot. Their dress consisted of a sag-urn, 
 or coarse woollen mantle ; they wore greaves made of hair, an 
 
32 ANCIENTGEOGRAPHY. 
 
 iron helmet adorned with a red feather, a round buckler, and a 
 broad two-edged sword, of so fine a temper as to pierce through 
 the enemy s armor. They were moderate in eating and drink 
 ing, especially the latter ; fond of decorating their persons, of 
 dancing and song, and of robbery and war. Their habitual 
 drink was a sort of hydromel, or mead, brought into the coun 
 try by foreign traders. The land was equally distributed, and 
 the harvests were divided among all the citizens ; the law pun 
 ished with death the person who appropriated more than his 
 just share. They were hospitable nay, they considered it a 
 special favor to entertain a stranger. They sacrificed human 
 victims to their divinities, and the priests pretended to read fu 
 ture events in their palpitating entrails. At every full moon 
 they celebrated the festival of a god without a name, and from 
 this circumstance their religion has been considered a corrupt 
 deism. They were acquainted with the art of writing. The 
 Turduli, an Iberian tribe, are said to have had among them 
 very ancient historical records, and also written poems and laws 
 in many thousand verses. 
 
 II. The Lusitani, a nation of freebooters, were distinguished 
 by their activity and their patient endurance of fatigue. Their 
 usual food was flour and sweet acorns ; beer was their common 
 beverage. They were swift in the race. They had a martial 
 dance, which the men danced while they advanced to battle. 
 
 III. The Turdetani were more enlightened than any other 
 people in Baetica, and were skilled in different kinds of industry 
 long before their neighbors. When the Phoenicians arrived on 
 their coasts, silver was so common among them that their or 
 dinary utensils were made of it. What was afterward done 
 by the Spaniards in America was then done by the Phoenicians 
 in Spain : they exchanged iron and other articles of little value 
 for silver ; nay, if ancient authors can be credited, they not only 
 loaded their ships with the same metal, but, if their anchors at 
 any time gave way, others of silver were used in their place. 
 
 IV. The Callaici or Gallceci, according to the ancients, had 
 no religious notions. The Vacccei were the least barbarous of 
 the Celtiberians. The fierce Cantdbri had a custom for two 
 to mount on the same horse when they went to battle. The 
 Cdncani, a Cantabrian tribe, showed their ferocity by mingling 
 the blood of horses with their drink. Among the Celtiberi, an 
 
H i s p A N i A. 33 
 
 assembly, composed of old men, was held every year, a part of 
 whose duty it was to examine what the women had made with 
 their own hands within the twelvemonth, and to her, whose 
 work the assembly thought the best, a reward was given. An 
 ancient author mentions that corpulency was considered a re 
 proach by the same people ; for, in order to preserve their bod 
 ies light and active, the men were measured every year by a 
 cincture of a certain breadth, and some sort of punishment was 
 inflicted upon those who had become too large. 
 
 V. Strabo enters into some details concerning the dress of 
 the ancient Spaniards. The Lusitani covered themselves with 
 black mantles, because their sheep were mostly of that color. 
 The Celtiberian women wore iron collars, with rods of the same 
 metal rising behind and bent in front ; to these rods was at 
 tached a veil, their usual ornament. Others wore a sort of 
 broad turban, and some twisted their hair round a small ring 
 about a foot above the head, and unto the ring was appended a 
 black veil. Lastly, a shining forehead was considered a great 
 beauty ; and on that account they pulled out their hair, and 
 rubbed their brows with oil. 
 
 OBS. 1. The authorities from which the above has been drawn are as follows : 
 Strab., iil, p. 139, 158, 163, 164; Diod. Sic., v., 33, seq. ; Justin., xliv., 2; Liv., 
 xxiii., 26 ; xxiv. r 42 ; xxviii., 12 ; Pint., Vit. Mar., 6 ; Vol. Max., Hi., 3 ; Hirt., 
 Bell. Hisp., 8 Sil. Ital, i., 225 ; iii., 389 ; xvi., 471 ; Flor., ii., 18 ; Oros., v., 7 ; 
 Sickler, Hand, der alt. Geogr., i., p. 14; Malte Brun, Precis de la Geogr. Univ., 
 iv., p. 318, seqq. 
 
 2. The passage relative to the Turduli is quoted by Strabo (iii., p. 139) from 
 Polybius, as follows : 2o<^raroi 6 it-sTa&vTat rtiv \6rjpuv OVTOI, Kal ypauaartK^ 
 Xptivrai, Kal 7% Tra/lamf UVTJU^ eiovai TO. avy-ypdauara, Kal 7rotT?uara, Kal vouovf 
 tyuerpov? igQKtsx&fov errtiv, &$ (j>aa Kal oi aA/loi "\6rjpeg xP& VTai ypauuarLK.fi, ov 
 [ua Idea, ov&s: yap yAwrr?? I6ia. In giving the meaning of this passage, we have 
 adopted the emendation of Palmerius, namely, kiruv for kruv. It is much to be 
 regretted that all these curious monuments of early civilization were effaced by 
 Roman conquests. 
 
 11. PRODUCTS. 
 
 THE products of ancient Hispania may be summed up briefly 
 as follows : 
 
 I. Good horses, similar to those of the Parthians ; mules ; 
 excellent wool. 
 
 II. Fish of different kinds, such as mackerel and tunny, salt 
 ed and dried. 
 
 HI. Oil, figs, wine, corn, honey, beer, flax, linen, Spanish 
 
 C 
 
34 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 broom (spartum), used in the manufacture of mattresses, shoes, 
 shepherds cloaks, cordage, &c. ; various plants used in dyeing; 
 ship-timber. 
 
 IV. Copper, silver, gold, quicksilver, cinnabar, tin, lead, 
 steel, &c. 
 
 OBS. The spartum, or Spanish broom, grew abundantly along the coast above 
 Carthago Nova, and gave to this region the name of Spartarius Campus. Pliny 
 says, that " in the part of Hispania Citerior about New Carthage, whole mount 
 ains were covered with spartum." The true Latin name was genista, the term 
 spartum being borrowed from the Greek (mrdprov ), and the use of the Greek 
 name in Hispania Citerior having been owing, probably, to the Grecian settle 
 ments on that coast from Massilia and other quarters. On the whole subject 
 of the sparlum, consult the learned and able remarks of Yates, in his Textrinum 
 Antiquorum, p. 318, scqq. 
 
 12. MINES, &c. 
 
 I. SPAIN was the Peru of antiquity. She was the richest 
 country in the ancient world for silver, and she also abounded 
 in gold, and in the less precious metals, especially tin. 
 
 II. The mine-works of the Phoenicians for the precious met 
 als seem to have been confined to the region afterward known 
 by the name of Bsetica. According to Strabo, the oldest of 
 these were situate on the Silver Mountain ("Opo$ Apyvpovv), 
 near which the Baetis took its rise, in the southeastern angle 
 of the country. Gold and silver were both found in Bsetica ; 
 the former, it is said, exclusively, unless we except the white 
 gold, as it was termed, that was found among the Callaici, and 
 that appears to have been a mixture of gold and silver, but 
 with a decided preponderance of the latter. The Phoenicians, 
 however, opened in other parts of the Peninsula valuable mines 
 of lead and iron, and they likewise had tin mines on the north 
 ern coast of Spain beyond Lusitania. 
 
 III. The Carthaginians, who succeeded the Phoenicians, dis 
 played much more energy in searching for the precious as well 
 as the more ordinary metals. The silver mines, about twenty 
 stadia from Carthago Nova, were particularly famous. In Ro 
 man times, these works comprised a circuit of four hundred 
 stadia, kept employed forty thousand laborers, and yielded daily 
 twenty-five thousand drachmas worth of metal, or about $4400. 
 
 IV. Cinnabar was found at Sisapo, in the northeastern angle 
 of BoDtica ; vermilion among the Callaici ; tin and lead among 
 this same people, and also in the vicinity of Castulo, on the 
 
HlSPANIA. 35 
 
 Bsetis. Iron was found nearly every where, but of a peculiarly 
 excellent quality on the Promontorium Dianium, at the north 
 eastern extremity of the Spartarius Campus, now Cape St. 
 Martin. 
 
 13. HlSPANIA MORE IN DETAIL. 
 
 1. LUSITANIA. 
 (A.) BOUNDARIES. 
 
 I. LUSITANIA must be considered under two aspects : 1. Its 
 extent prior to the Roman division of Hispania into three prov 
 inces ; and, 2. Its dimensions under that division. 
 
 II. Lusitania, strictly speaking, meant at first merely the 
 territory of the Lusitani, and this territory extended only from 
 the Durius to the Tagus, and from the coast of the Atlantic to 
 what are now the eastern limits of the kingdom of Portugal. 
 As, however, these Lusitani were for the most part seen, dur 
 ing their inroads into the more southern parts of the country, 
 united with other tribes, which, though different in name, yet 
 resembled them in language, manners, mode of warfare, &c., 
 the name Lusitani became gradually extended, and applied to 
 several of the communities dwelling south of the Tagus. This 
 is the earlier aspect under which the name is to be regarded. 
 
 III. When, however, the Romans divided the land into the 
 three provinces of Tarraconensis, Beetle a, and Lusitania, the 
 boundaries of Lusitania were as follows : On the north, the 
 River Durius or Douro ; on the south, the Atlantic, from the 
 mouth of the River Anas, or Guadiana, to the Sacrum Prom 
 ontorium, or Cape St. Vincent ; on the west, the Atlantic ; on 
 the east, a line separating it from Tarraconensis, drawn from 
 the Durius near Complutica, to the Anas above Sisapo ; and 
 on the southeast, the Anas to its mouth, separating it from 
 Bastica. 
 
 IV. Lusitania, therefore, according to this latter division, 
 comprehended, as we have before remarked, a less extent than 
 modern Portugal from north to south, since it did not embrace 
 the two provinces of Entre Minho y Douro and Tras os Mon- 
 teSj which lie to the north of the Douro ; but it extended fur 
 ther than Portugal from west to east, since it took in also the 
 modern Salamanca, a large part of Spanish Estremadura, and 
 a portion of New Castile and Toledo. 
 
36 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 (B.) ASPECT OF THE COUNTRY. 
 
 ACCORDING to Strabo, the eastern part was mountainous and 
 rugged, and not very productive. From this quarter to the 
 sea, however, the country became gradually more level and 
 productive, its increased fertility being principally owing to the 
 larger and smaller rivers along the coast. 
 
 (C.) TRIBES OF LUSITANIA. 
 
 I. THE Lusitani) dwelling between the Tagus and Durius, 
 and reaching eastward as far as modern Portugal now extends. 
 
 II. The Turduli (TovpdovAot), called Turduli Veteres, to dis 
 tinguish them from the Turduli in Baetica, came originally 
 from this latter province, and made an expedition into Lusita- 
 nia along with some Celtic bands from the vicinity of the Anas ; 
 but, having quarrelled among themselves, the Turduli settled 
 on the southern side of the Durius, while the Celtse passed on 
 ward to the northwestern extremity of the Peninsula. These 
 Turduli soon became blended with the Lusitani, and hence 
 Pliny and Mela are the only two writers who mention them 
 separately. 
 
 III. The Vettones (Overruveg) occupied the eastern side of the 
 province to its very frontiers, so that their territory corresponded 
 to Salamanca and a great part of Estremadura. They appear 
 to have been distinguished from the Lusitani only in name. 
 
 IV. The Celtici lay below the Tagus, and extended from 
 the Anas to the western coast, occupying what is now the prov 
 ince of Alentejo, and the southern part of Portuguese Estrema 
 dura. A part of them, on the eastern side of the Anas, belong 
 ed to the territory of Bsetica. 
 
 V. The Turdetani occupied the southern extremity of the 
 land, extending into Lusitania from the country around the 
 Bsetis, where their territory commenced. It is very probable 
 that the portion of them which dwelt to the west of the Anas 
 were the same with the people whom ancient historians call 
 Cunii or Co-nil (Kovvioi, KOVIOL). The Romans called the 
 strip of land from the Anas to the Sacrum Promontorium by 
 the name of Cuneus, from its resemblance to a " wedge ;" but 
 there is great reason to believe that the Roman appellation is 
 a mere corruption, and that the true name points to settlements 
 in this quarter on the part of the Cunii or Conii, and is, of 
 
HISPANIA. 37 
 
 course, earlier than Roman times. The modern name of the 
 Cuneus Ager is Algarve, signifying "the West," from the 
 Arabic at, "the," and garb, "west." 
 
 OBS. Strabo, among others, alludes to the pretended Roman origin of the 
 name Cuneus: TT? Aarivr) $uv?i K.a?iovai Kovveov, a<j)f/va oTj^aiveiv /Sovhonsvoi (iii., 
 p. 137). The arguments against this derivation are many and forcible, and 
 show conclusively that the name existed prior to Roman times. For example, 
 when Publius Scipio came into Spain, he learned that the force of the Cartha 
 ginians was divided into three parts, and that one portion, under Mago, was sta 
 tioned beyond the Columns of Hercules, among the so-called Konii (kv TOL$ Kov- 
 ioiq. Polyb., x., 7). Now, as the Romans had not yet come into these regions, 
 they could not, of course, be at all acquainted with the name of this people, nor 
 have given them a Latin appellation instead of their real one. Again, Appian 
 relates that the Lusitani, on one occasion, took Conistorgis, the great city of 
 the Cunii (de Reb. Hisp., c. 56), and Strabo also makes mention of Conistorgis 
 as the most celebrated city of the Celtici (iii., p. 141). Appian, moreover, fre 
 quently makes mention of the Conii. From these and similar authorities, it 
 may very reasonably be inferred, that the Romans merely corrupted an ancient 
 name when they called the country in this quarter Cuneus, and that the Cunii 
 are none other than the Cynesii or Cynetes of Herodotus, already mentioned. 
 (Vid. p. 16.) 
 
 (D.) CONVENTUS JURIDICI. 
 
 THE ConventuSj where all legal controversies were decided, 
 were three in number : 1. Emeritensis, held at Augusta Eme- 
 rita, now Merida ; 2. Pacensis, held at Pax Julia, uow Beja ; 
 and, 3. Scalabitanus, held at Scalabis, now Santarem. 
 
 (E.) CITIES OF LUSITANI A. 
 
 THESE may be arranged in two classes : 1. Cities between 
 the Anas, and Tagus ; and, 2. Cities between the Tagus and 
 Durius. 
 
 1. Cities between the Anas and Tagus. 
 
 Cities on the coast. 
 
 1. Balsa, west of the mouth of the Anas, now Tavira. It 
 appears from coins to have been a municipium. 2. Ossonoba, 
 now Estoy, a little north of the modern Faro, where there are 
 still numerous ruins. The promontory in this vicinity is the 
 Cuneus Promontorium, now Cape St. Maria. 3. Portus Han- 
 nibalis, near the modern Albor, where Punic remains still ex 
 ist. 4. Lacobriga, at the commencement of the Sacrum Prom- 
 ontorium, or Cape St. Vincent. It is now Lagos. The ter 
 mination briga, in Celtic, means " a city." 5. Merobriga, 
 north of the Sacrum Promontorium, near the modern St. la- 
 
38 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 go de Cagem^ and answering probably to Sines. 6. Cetobriga, 
 the CsBtobrix of Ptolemy, north of Merobriga, and situate near 
 the modern Setuval. 7. We then come to the Barbarium 
 Promontorium, now Cape Espichel, and, above this, to the 
 mouth of the Tagus, on a bend within which stood Equabona, 
 now Coyna, and, on the opposite or northern bank of the stream, 
 Olisipo, now Lisbon. This place is called by Mela Ulisippo, 
 and was fabled to have been founded by Ulysses during his 
 pretended wanderings in the Atlantic. The name is variously 
 written in the MSS. This place was the only rnunieipium of 
 Roman citizens in the whole province, and, as such, had the 
 appellation of Felidtas Julia. The neighboring territory was 
 remarkable for the swiftness of the horses reared in it. The 
 Prornontorium Magnum, or Olisiponense, is now Cape Roca 
 (Cabo da Roca). 
 
 OBS. For some remarks on the endings of Celtic names of places, consult 
 page 160, seq. 
 
 Cities in the Interior. 
 
 OF THE TURDETANI. 
 
 1. Myrtilis, on the Anas, now Mertola. It was a Latin colo 
 ny, and had the right of coinage. The name given to the place 
 on its coins is Julia Myrtilis. 2. Arandi, southwest of Myr- 
 tilis, is now Ourique. The range called Mons Sacer, lying 
 below this place and Myrtilis, gets its name from being con 
 nected with the Sacrum Prornontorium, which forms its south 
 western extremity. 3. Pax Julia, northwest of Myrtilis, was 
 a Latin colony, and the seat of a Conventus. Pliny calls it 
 Colonia Pacensis. It answers, undoubtedly, to the modern 
 Beja. Some make it correspond to Badajoz, but this last be 
 longed to the province of Bsetica. 4. Rarapia, west of Pax Ju 
 lia, is now Ferreira. 5. Salacia, an old Latin colony, with the 
 cognomen of Urbs Imperatoria, was situate on the River Cal- 
 lipos, to the northwest of Rarapia. It was a municipium, and 
 answers to the modern Alca^er do Sal. 6. Conistorgis, a 
 large city, according to Strabo, and of which mention is also 
 made by Appian. It may have been destroyed by the Lusi- 
 tani in one of their numerous inroads, and is probably the same 
 with the Anistorgis of Livy. The name Conistorgis evidently 
 contains the same root with the national appellation of the Co- 
 mi or Cunii. Its termination would seem to make it the name 
 of a Celtic city. 
 
HlSPANIA. 39 
 
 OF THE CELTICI. 
 
 1. Ebora, now Evora, lay to the north of Pax Julia. It 
 was a municipium, and is called in inscriptions Liberalitas 
 Julia. Mela evidently errs when he places an Ebora on the 
 Promontorium Magnum, by Olisipo. 2. Langobrlga, on the 
 southern bank of the Tagus, not far from its mouth, in the vi 
 cinity of the modern Benavente. Metellus laid siege to it with 
 out success in the war against Sertorius. The Itinerarium An- 
 tonini makes mention of another Langobriga in the neighbor 
 hood of the Durius. 3. Medubrlca, or Medobriga, now Mar- 
 vao, in the neighborhood and to the west of the modern Porta- 
 leg-re. It lay northeast of Ebora. Pliny calls the inhabitants 
 Plumbarii, probably from their lead mines. Near it was one of 
 the mountain strong-holds of the predatory Lusitani, and which 
 was reduced by Q. Cassius Longinus, Caesar s lieutenant. 
 
 OF THE VETTONES AND LUSITANI. 
 
 1. Emerita Augusta, on the Anas, southeast of Medobriga, 
 and now Merida in Estremadura. It was a Roman colony of 
 veterans, settled by Augustus after the close of the Cantabrian 
 war, and the seat of a Conventus, whence it was regarded as 
 the capital of the province. The neighborhood of this place was 
 famed for producing in abundance the coccus, or scarlet-berry, 
 as it was thought to be, and also sweet olives. 2. Badia, to 
 the west of Emerita, supposed to correspond to the modern 
 Badajoz, but without any certainty. 3. Castra Cacilia, north 
 of Emerita, now Caceres. 4. Castra Julia, or Trogilium, 
 southeast of the former, now Truxillo. 5. Norba Cccsarea, to 
 the northwest, on the Tagus, now Alcantara. It was a Roman 
 colony, and was also called Norba Ccesariana, and Colonia 
 Norbensis. 6. Moron, to the southwest, on the Tagus, made 
 by the Romans a place of arms in their wars with the Lusitani. 
 It answers, probably, to the modern Montalvao. 7. Oxthracce, 
 according to Appian, the largest city of the Lusitani. Its site 
 is unknown. 8. Scalabis, below Moron, on the northern side 
 of the Tagus. As a Roman colony, it bore the name Presid 
 ium Julium. It was the seat of the Conventus for all the coun 
 try north of the Tagus, and is now Santarem, a name corrupt 
 ed from St. Irene. 
 
40 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 2. Cities between the Tagus and Durius. 
 
 Crossing the range of Mount Tagrus, we come to, 1. Conim- 
 brlga, now Coimbra, on the River Munda, now Mondego, and, 
 to the north of this, 2. Lavara, as given on some maps, just be 
 low the mouth of the Vacua, now Vouga. Its existence, how 
 ever, is very doubtful, and it is only another name, probably, for, 
 3. Talabrlga, a little to the north, on the Vacua. This was one 
 of the largest and most turbulent cities of Lusitania. Brutus 
 took it in his march against the Callai ci. Polybius calls it Er- 
 cobriga. It occupied the site of the modern Aveiro, according 
 to Ukert. D Anville, however, makes it answer to the modern 
 Tor ocas. 4. Langobriga, further north, near the mouth of the 
 Durius, in the vicinity of the modern Villa Feira. 5. Augus- 
 tobrlga, to the southeast of Langobriga, on the western frontier 
 of the Vettones, and nearly midway between the Durius and 
 Tagus, near the modern Puente de Arzobispo. 6. Lancia Op- 
 pidana, a little to the southeast of Augustobriga, and near the 
 sources of the Munda, answers, probably, to the modern Guarda. 
 7. Lancia Transcudana, to the east of the former, was so called 
 because lying on the other side of the River Cuda, now Coa, a 
 tributary of the Durius, which ran between the two places. It is 
 supposed to correspond to the modern Ciudad Rodrigo. 8. Igce- 
 dita, called also Egitania, lay below Lancia Oppidana, and 
 now answers to Idanha la Vieja. 9. Rusticiana, to the east 
 of the former, now Gorchuela. 10. Capara, north of Rustici- 
 ana, now las Ventas de Caparra. 11. Ad Lippos, to the north 
 east, near the modern Calzada. 12. Salmantica, farther to 
 the north, now Salamanca, on the River Tormes. It is the 
 same, in all probability, with the Elmantica of Polybius, and 
 the Hermantica of Livy. It was a large city, and from the 
 circumstance of the Vettones being often confounded with the 
 Lusitani, it was assigned by some of the ancient writers to the 
 former people, by others to the latter. It was properly a city 
 of the Vettones. Hannibal took it in his expedition against 
 the Vaccsei. 
 
HlSPANIA. 41 
 
 2. EMETIC A. 
 (A.) BOUNDARIES. 
 
 I. BY Bcetica originally was meant merely the strip of land 
 on both sides of the River Baetis, between the mountain chains 
 of Ilipula to the south, and Mons Marianus to the north. And 
 even this strip of land was in still earlier times, according to a 
 tradition mentioned by Strabo, known by the name of Tartessis. 
 
 II. The country also received from the Turdetani, its most 
 powerful tribe, the name of Turdetania ; but the part toward 
 the northwest, between Mons Marianus and the Anas, had also 
 the special appellation of Bseturia, while along the southern 
 coast, also, the Bastuli were separately numbered. The Tur- 
 duli, who are placed by Polybius to the north of the Turdetani, 
 appear to have been merely a branch of the same race with 
 these. 
 
 III. Augustus brought in a new arrangement, and created 
 the province of Bsetica, the boundaries and extent of which 
 were as follows : The northwestern and western boundary of 
 the country was formed by the River Anas, the northeastern 
 and eastern boundary by a line drawn from the Anas above 
 Sisapo, and striking the coast near Baria, at the mouth of what 
 is now the Almanzor. 
 
 IV. Bcetica, therefore, according to this arrangement, com 
 prehended the modern Andalusia, a part of the Portuguese 
 province of Alentejo, the southern part of Spanish Estremadu- 
 ra, and a large portion of La Mancha. 
 
 OBS. Stephanus Byzantinus makes Baetica and Turditania synonymous : Tovp- 
 diTavia, fj KOL BairiKr/ Ka^drai. He adds, that Artemidorus gave to this country 
 the name of Turtytania (Tovprvravia), and called its inhabitants Turti (Tovprot) 
 and Turtutani (TovprovTavoi). It has been supposed that the Tarlessus of the 
 Greeks is to be traced to this name of Tovprvravia, the word having been some 
 what changed in form to adapt it to Grecian ears. This would serve to throw- 
 some light on the tradition mentioned by Strabo, and referred to under 1. 
 (Compare the French Strabo, vol. i., p. 390, not.) 
 
 (B.) SURFACE OF THE COUNTRY. 
 
 ACCORDING to Strabo and Pliny, Bsetica abounded in valuable 
 products. In the mountains, and more particularly Mons Ma 
 rianus, were found gold, silver, copper, iron, cinnabar, marble, 
 and lapis specularis. The range of Mount Ilipula yielded ex 
 cellent naval timber, honey, wax, tar, &c., and contained rich 
 pastures, where were fed sheep remarkable for the richness of 
 
42 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY: 
 
 their fleeces. (Merinos ?) The coasts afforded very productive 
 fisheries, especially of the tunny, and abundance of good salt. 
 An active traffic was hence carried on in these varied products. 
 
 (C.) TRIBES OF B^ETICA. 
 
 1. THE Turdetcmi and Turduli, two branches of the same 
 race, and hence commonly regarded as forming but one people. 
 The Turduli, however, dwelt to the northeast of the Turdetani, 
 while the latter occupied the western half of the province from 
 the River Singilis, now the Genii, and a part of the chain of 
 Mons Marianus to the River Anas. They had even, as wo 
 have already remarked, spread beyond this* river. 
 
 II. The Bastuli, a mixed race, consisting of Phoenician set 
 tlers blended with the old inhabitants of the land, occupied the 
 whole coast fiomJunonis Promontorium, now Cape Trafalgar, 
 to the easternmost limits of the province. Whatever Grecian 
 colonies were settled in any part of this tract became soon for 
 gotten, and were all merged into the common name of Bastulij 
 or Bastuli Pceni. The Bastuli, however, possessed nothing but 
 the mere coast; the nearest cities in the interior belonged to 
 the Turdetani and Turduli. 
 
 III. The Celtici. These were a horde that had separated 
 from the great host of the Celtse that once crossed the Pyre 
 nees and occupied a large part of the Peninsula. A portion 
 of them passed into Lusitania, and settled in the vicinity of the 
 Anas, where it begins to bend round to the south, and gradual 
 ly spread themselves from this quarter to the shores of the 
 Western Ocean. The part that remained in Bsetica occupied 
 a portion of the country immediately east of the Anas. 
 
 IV. The Bastitani, to the northeast of the Bastuli Poeni. 
 They were properly one people with the Bastuli, except that 
 they were not intermingled with Phoenician settlers. They 
 extended into Tarraconensis, and are even assigned by some, 
 though incorrectly it would seem, entirely to that province. 
 
 OBS. 1. We have followed D Anville as regards the position of the Bastitani. 
 If, however, the dividing line between Bsetica and Tarraconensis be made to 
 strike the coast at Murgis, the Bastitani will be entirely included within Tarra 
 conensis. This appears by no means correct. 
 
 2. Appian (Hisp., c. 56) calls the Bastuli B7iaarod>oivtK. Marcianus speaks 
 of the BAaarovpoi ol KaAOL /uevoi Yloivoi, and Ptolemy of the Baorov/loi oi KU^OV- 
 pevot Uoivoi. Schweighaeuser proposes BaarovhotpoiviKec (ad Appian, I. c.), but 
 consult Ukert, Geogr. dcr Gr. und R., vol. ii., p. 408, ra. 
 
HlSPANIA. 43 
 
 (D.) CONVENTUS JUEIDICI. 
 
 The Conventus were four in number, namely, 1. Corduben- 
 sis, held at Corduba, now Cordova. 2. Astigiensis, held at 
 Astigi, on the Singilis, now Ecija. 3. Hispalensis^ at Hispa- 
 lis, now Seville. 4. Gaditanus, at Gades, now Cadiz. 
 
 (E.) CITIES OF B^TICA. 
 
 I. ACCORDING to Strabo, Bsetica contained two hundred cities. 
 Pliny, however, makes the number one hundred and seventy- 
 five, and Ptolemy only ninety-two. 
 
 II. The cities of Baetica may be arranged in two classes: 
 1. Cities on the coast, and, 2. Cities in the interior of the 
 country. 
 
 1. Cities on the Coast. 
 Cities between the mouth of the Anas and the Straits of Hercules. 
 
 1. Lcepa, now Lepe, by Ayamonte. 2. Onoba, between the 
 rivers Luxia, now Odiel, and Urius, now Tinto. Strabo places 
 it on an estuary, having in front of it the island of Hercules. 
 It is now Huelva, where many Roman ruins still remain. The 
 island is now called Saltes. We then come upon a range of 
 sand-hills, called by Pliny Arena? Monies, now Arenas Gordas. 
 About the middle of this tract we find Olintigi, probably Mo- 
 guer. Coins are often dug up here with the inscription Olont. 
 We then reach the Bsetis, or Guadalquivir, which, as already 
 remarked, entered the sea by two mouths, embracing between 
 them an island, extending far inward, and having along the sea 
 a breadth of one hundred stadia, or over eleven English miles. 
 The island now no longer exists, the lower mouth of the river 
 having been dried up ; but where this mouth once was, the 
 River Guadalete enters the sea. On the northwestern extrem 
 ity of the island stood a pharos, or light-house, called Ccepionis 
 Turris, or " Caepio s Tower," the navigation here being render 
 ed difficult by sand-banks and sunken rocks. In this island 
 many place the Tartessus of antiquity, supposed to have been 
 the same with the Tarshish of Scripture, and the island itself 
 has been called by some Tartessus, while others make it the 
 poetic Erythea, connected with the legend of Geryon. We 
 have already referred to the opinion of those who make Turde- 
 tania to have been the ancient Tartessis. Mannert s view is 
 not much unlike this, since he makes Tartessus, or the city it- 
 
44 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 self, to have been Hispalis, the modern Seville ; so that the 
 country around, occupied by the Turdetani, would then be call 
 ed TartessiSj or the region of Tartessus. 
 
 OBS. 1. The opinion, which makes the island at the mouth of the Baetis to 
 have been Tartessus, or, at least, to have contained the city of that name, is 
 alluded to by Strabo, as previously quoted (iii., p. 148). Others of the ancient 
 geographers, as, for example, Eratosthenes (ap. Strab., I. c.), sought to identify 
 Tartessus with the city of Carteia, within the straits, near Calpe, which place 
 Appian calls Carpcssus, and regards as the ancient Tartessus. (Bell. Hisp., c. 
 2, 63.) This same opinion is advocated by Dionysius Perieg., v. 336, seqq, 
 According to this view, the country around Calpe and Carteia will be Tartes- 
 sis, and here, also, we are to place the poetic Erythca. The whole matter, how 
 ever, must be left in uncertainty. 
 
 2. It may not be out of place here to say a few words relative to the Tarshish 
 of Scripture. This place is particularly mentioned in connection with the com 
 merce of the Hebrews and Phoenicians. In Genesis, x., 4, the name occurs 
 among the sons of Javan, who are supposed to have peopled the southern parts 
 of Europe. (Compare Ps. Ixxii., 10 ; Isaiah, Ixvi., 19.) In other passages it is 
 mentioned as sending to Tyre silver, iron, tin, and lead (Ezekiel, xxvii., 12; 
 Jerem., x., 9) ; and from Isaiah, xxiii., 10, some have inferred that it was sub 
 ject to the Phoenicians. The prophet Jonah, attempting to avoid his mission 
 to Nineveh, fled from Joppa in a ship bound to Tarshish. (Jonah, i., 3 ; iv., 2.) 
 In several passages of the Bible "ships of Tarshish" are spoken of, especially 
 in connection with Tyre. From a comparison, therefore, of the above passages, 
 the majority of critics have concluded that Tarshish must be sought in the 
 western parts of the Mediterranean, or even outside the straits, and it has been 
 generally identified with the Phoenician emporium of Tartessus in Spain, wher 
 ever the particular site of this last may have been. They who are in favor, 
 moreover, of an Oriental derivation for the name Tartessus, find one in the Phoe 
 nician term Tarshish, which in the Aramaean pronunciation would be Tarthesh, 
 and would yield, of course, a striking resemblance to the Greek 
 
 1. On an estuary immediately below the island formed by 
 the mouths of the Bsetis, or, according to some maps, on the 
 lower arm of the Baetis itself, stood Asta Regia, a Roman col 
 ony. Although some distance inland, it was still an important 
 commercial place, and one of the most considerable cities of 
 the province. According to Ptolemy, the territory of the Tur 
 detani reached up to Asta, along this part of the coast, and 
 they were accustomed to hold in this city their national assem 
 blies. There is at the present day, near Xeres de la Frontrera, 
 a height still called Mesa de Asta, where Roman ruins exist. 
 2. Gades, called by the Greeks Tddeipa, is now Cadiz. This 
 place lay on the west end of a small island, separated anciently 
 from the main-land by a channel about six hundred feet wide, 
 and at this end stood the famous Temple of Hercules. Modern 
 
HlSPANIA. 45 
 
 Cadiz now stands on the extremity of a low, narrow tongue of 
 land, and is surrounded on three sides by water. The bay be 
 tween Gades and the main land was called Sinus Tartessius, 
 and the shore facing the island, Littus Corense. Gades was 
 founded by the Phoenicians many centuries before the Chris 
 tian era, but there is no historical evidence as to the time of 
 the settlement. Its Phoenician name was Gadir, meaning " an 
 inclosed place," or, according to others, " a limit," from its hav 
 ing been thought at the time that here were the western limits 
 of the world. The island on which it stood was in early times 
 covered with wild olive-trees, and hence received from the 
 Greeks the name of Cotinousa (Konvovaa), from ftorivog, " a 
 wild olive-tree." It was also called Tddeipa and Gades, like the 
 city itself, and is now the isle of Leon. The tongue of land on 
 which the modern city is built projects from this island. Ga 
 des was a famous commercial place from the earliest times, 
 and under the Romans, also, it became, from its commerce, one 
 of the richest provincial towns in the empire. It received from 
 Julius Caesar the title and rights of a Roman colony, and from 
 Augustus the honorary appellation of Augusta Julia Gaditana. 
 [n the immediate vicinity of the larger island lay a smaller one, 
 remarkable for its fertility and rich pastures, called Erythea, 
 which the ancient fabulists made the scene of the legend of 
 Geryon and his oxen. Some of the later writers called it 
 Aphrodisias. The inhabitants themselves gave it the name 
 of Junonis Insula. The harbor of Menestheusf which is men 
 tioned by the ancient geographers in connection with this part 
 of the coast, was on the main-land opposite to Gades, and at 
 the mouth of what is now the River Guadalete. Here also 
 was the oracle of Menestheus. The harbor is now Puerto de 
 St. Maria. Bochart makes the name of Meveaflewf M^V, or 
 Menesthei Portus, to have arisen by corruption from the Phoa- 
 nician Min-Asda or Esda, "the harbor of Asda," or Asta. 
 
 Leaving this part of the coast, and moving downward, we 
 come to Junonis Promontorium, now Cape Trafalgar. By 
 Juno is here supposed to be meant the Phoenician goddess As- 
 tarte. Next follows Bccsippo, now Porto Barbato, where Ro 
 man ruins still exist ; and then Belon, on a river of the same 
 name. From this harbor passage was taken for Tingis, on 
 the opposite coast of Africa, now Tangier. The salting of fish 
 
46 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 was carried on extensively at Belon. The remains of this 
 place are found at the present day three Spanish miles west of 
 Tarifa, at a spot called Balonia. Further on was Mellaria, 
 another place where the salting of fish was carried on, now 
 Torre de la Penna, where the same business is still pursued. 
 Sertorius had a naval battle with Cotta off this place. 
 
 We now come to the extreme southern point of Spain, and 
 begin a new enumeration of the places on the remaining portion 
 of the coast of Baetica, with, 1. Traducta, the modern Tarifa. 
 This place owed its origin to the Romans, who transported hith 
 er (whence the name of the settlement) the Inhabitants of Ze- 
 las, a town in Africa, near Tingis, and, adding some colonists of 
 their own to the number, gave the place the name of Julia Tra- 
 ducta, or Joza (this last term being the corresponding Punic 
 one for Traducta). 2. Portus Albus, or the White Haven, now 
 Algesiras. The promontory of Calpe follows next, the mod 
 ern Gibraltar, on the ancient and present names of which we 
 have already made some remarks. Calpe and Abyla (the lat 
 ter lying opposite, in Africa) were called by the ancients the 
 Pillars of Hercules, and the strait between them was termed 
 Fretum Gaditanum or Herculeum, now the Straits of Gibral 
 tar. The ancients fabled that Hercules separated with his 
 hands the mountains of Calpe and Abyla, and that the sea, 
 rushing in upon the Mediterranean, then a small lake, formed 
 the present body of waters there ; that the hero, moreover, ei 
 ther erected columns on these two mountains, or else that the 
 mountains themselves were regarded as monuments of his prog 
 ress westward, and beyond which no mortal could pass. The 
 Straits of Gibraltar are about twelve leagues in extent from 
 Cape Spartel to Ceuta point, on the African coast, and from 
 Cape Trafalgar to Europa point, on the coast of Spain. Their 
 width at the western extremity is about eight leagues, but at 
 the eastern extremity it does not exceed five. 
 
 3. Carteia, to the northwest of Calpe, at the head of a gulf 
 setting in between Portus Albus and Calpe. The ruins of this 
 place exist, according to Gosselin, under the name of Rocadillo. 
 Mariana erroneously seeks to identify Carteia with the modern 
 Tarifa. The place was of Phoenician origin, but fabled to have 
 been built by Hercules, and hence called also Heraclea, accord 
 ing to some. Bochart makes the Phoenician name to have been 
 
HlSPANIA. 47 
 
 at first Melcartheia, " City of Hercules" (thus agreeing with 
 the Greek tradition), shortened afterward to Carteia. This 
 place was one of great trade, and was by many of the ancients 
 regarded as the Tartessus of the Phoenician navigators. The 
 
 O O 
 
 error appears to have arisen from confounding the name of Car- 
 pessus with Tartessus, Carteia having been also called Carpes- 
 sus, probably from the Phoenician carphesa, " a shell," because 
 shells of a very large size were found here, as Strabo informs 
 us. 4. Suel, northeast of Carteia, another Phoenician settle 
 ment, now Fuengirola. Bochart derives the name from the 
 Phoenician sual, " a fox," in allusion, probably, to the large 
 number of these animals in its vicinity. 5. Maldca, above 
 Suel, at the mouth of a river called also Malaca. This place 
 is now Malaga, the principal sea-port in the province of Gran 
 ada. The modern name of the river is the Guadalmedina, a 
 mere brook in summer, but a considerable stream in winter. 
 Malaca was a place of great antiquity, and claims to have boon 
 founded by the Phoenicians eight or nine centuries before our 
 era; and the name is sought to be deduced from the Phoenician 
 malcha^ " royal," to intimate the estimation in which they held 
 the place. But of this high antiquity there is no evidence, 
 and Humboldt says that Malaca is a pure Basque word, sig 
 nifying " the side of a mountain." Malaca was the great sta 
 ple-place for the sale of all commodities from the interior, as 
 well as of foreign imports. The Romans made it a rnunicipium 
 and confederate city. 
 
 6. M&noba or Mcenaca, which some make to have been the 
 same with Malaca, though without good reason. It is now 
 Velez-Malaga, on the River Velcz. 7. Saxetanum, famed for 
 its salted fish, is now Motril. Probably the same place with 
 Sexti Firmum Julium. 8. Abdera, a Phoenician settlement, 
 now Adra. 9. Murgis, now Almeria ; according to some, the 
 eastern limit of Bcetica, though this is more correctly to be 
 fixed at Baria, now Varea, some distance above, on the coast. 
 The Charidemum Promontorium^ between Murgis and Baria 
 is now Cape Gata. 
 
 2. Cities in the Interior. 
 
 1. Cities between the Anas and Batis. 
 1. ILlpa or Ilipula, northeast of Onoba, on the River Urius, 
 
48 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 or Tinto. It is now Niebla. 2. Italica, east of Ilipa, on the 
 Baetis. A municipium founded by Scipio, in order to settle 
 therein his veteran soldiers. It was the birth-place of the em 
 perors Trajan and Hadrian. The ruins still exist at Sevilla la 
 Vieja. 3, Itipa, or Ilipula, called, for distinction sake from the 
 one just mentioned, Ilipula Magna, on the Bsetis, northeast of 
 Italica, and just below the junction of the Singilis. Here Scipio 
 obtained a victory over the Lusitani. It is now Pennaflor. 
 4. Corduba, higher up on the Bsetis, now Cordova. It was the 
 capital of Bsetica, and a place of great trade, the river being 
 navigable for boats up to this point. According to Strabo, the 
 first Roman colony sent into Spain was established here by 
 Marcellus, A.U.C. 600. The place itself, however, was of 
 Phoenician origin, having been founded under the name of Kar- 
 tabah. Both the Senecas and also the poet Lucan were born 
 here. It was also the seat of a Conventus, to which the great 
 er part of the Turduli, on the north and south of the river, be 
 longed. Finally, the place had the honor of receiving a patri 
 cian colony, a later Marcellus having transferred hither a num 
 ber of poor but noble Romans, and having divided among them 
 the property of the richer Pompeians. Hence the place was 
 also called Colonia Patricia Cordubensis. 
 
 5. Mirobriga, north of Corduba, on the other side of Mons 
 Marianus, and in the district of Bseturia, a mountainous coun 
 try, abounding in strong positions. Mirobriga is now Capilla. 
 6. Sisdpo Veins, to the southeast of the preceding ; and Sis- 
 apo Nova, to the northeast. Both these places were remark 
 able for their rich silver and cinnabar mines. They are now 
 Almadan and Guadalcanal. In the Itinerarium Antonini, 
 the latter is called Sisalone, an evident corruption of its true 
 name. 7. Illiturgis, or Iliturgi, to the northeast of Corduba, 
 now Andujar del Vejo. This was a large and important place 
 during the first and second Punic wars. It was destroyed by 
 the younger Africanus, but rebuilt, 197 B.C., under the name 
 of Forum Julium. 8. Castulo, also to the northeast of Cordu 
 ba, now Caslona, on the Gaudalimar, a municipium, with the 
 Jus Latii, large of size, and situate in a very romantic country, 
 near the silver mines of the Saltus Castulonensis. It was also 
 called Castulo Parnassia, from the resemblance which the 
 double-peaked mountain on which it lay, and the spring in its 
 
HlSPANIA. 49 
 
 vicinity, bore to Mount Parnassus and the Castalian spring in 
 Greece, and hence Silius Italicus makes the inhabitants to 
 have been of Phocian origin ; a poetic fable, of course. Some 
 geographers, who assign narrower limits to Baetica on the east, 
 make the boundary line pass a little distance to the west of 
 Castulo, and consequently assign Castulo to the province of 
 Tarraconensis. 9. Tugia, or, according to Ptolemy, Tuia, to 
 the southeast of Castulo. Its ruins still exist near Toya. In 
 the vicinity of this place was the Saltus Tugiensis, now Si 
 erra de Cazorla, where the Bsetis rose. 
 
 2. Cities between the Btetis and the Coast. 
 
 (a) Between the Baelis and the Singilis, from West to East. 
 
 1. Nebrissa, situate, according to Strabo, on one of the la- 
 gunes of the Bsetis, near its mouth. Called, also, Nebrissa Ve- 
 neria, and now Lebrija. 2. Hispcdis, on the Baetis, 500 sta 
 dia from the sea, and reached by large vessels. It was, next 
 to Corduba and Gades, the most distinguished city of Turde- 
 tania : it was also a Roman colony, and the seat of a Conven- 
 tus, and was likewise a place of great trade. Some modern 
 writers, as, for example, Bochart and Mannert, make it to have 
 been the ancient Tartessus, the Tarshish of Scripture. It is 
 now Seville. 3. Basilippo, a little to the northeast of the pre 
 ceding, now El Biso. 4. Astigi, called, also, Augusta Flrma, on 
 the River Singilis, the seat of a Conventus, and one of the most- 
 important cities of the province. It is now Ecija. 5. Sing*- 
 li, or SingiliS) on the river of the same name, the remains of 
 which are found at Castillon. 6. Munda, to the southwest, 
 not far from Malaca, famed for the overthrow of the Cartha 
 ginians in the second Punic war, and also for the victory gain 
 ed here by Caesar, after a desperate battle, over the son of Pom- 
 pey. It is now Honda. 7. Arunda, to the northwest, now 
 Ronda, where inscriptions are found. 8. Urso, or Urson, the 
 last refuge of the partisans of Pompey. It had the cognomen 
 of Genua Urbanorum, and is now Osuna. 
 
 (b) Between the Singilis and the B&tis.from West to East. 
 
 1. Carbula, on the Bsetis, at the junction of the Singilis, 
 near the present Guadalcazar. 2. Ulia, to the southeast, a 
 municipium ; called, also, Julia, and probably the same with the 
 
 D 
 
50 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Fidentia of Hirtius. The remains are now found at Monte 
 Ulia. 3. Illtb&ris, or Illiberi Liberini, to the southeast, now 
 Granada. Hardouin and D Anville, however, make Granada 
 to have been of Moorish origin, and find traces of the name 
 of Illiberi in the neighboring mountains of Sierra tf Elvira. 
 4. Acci, to the east, called also Colonia Accitana Julia Gemel- 
 la. It had the Jus Italicum, and its site was in the vicinity of 
 Guadix el Viejo. 5. Bastia, called, also, Mentesa Bastia, to 
 the northeast, the chief city of the Bastitani in this quarter. 
 The ruins are found near La Guardia. 6. Urgaon, or Urcao, 
 with the cognomen of Alba, to the northwest. It was a mu- 
 nicipium, and is now Arjona, as inscriptions show. 
 
 3. TARRACONENSIS. 
 (A.) BOUNDARIES, &c. 
 
 I. THE province of Tarraconensis derived its name, as al 
 ready remarked, from the city of Tarraco, now Tarragona, its 
 capital ; and it was by far the largest of the three provinces 
 into which Hispania was divided by the Romans. 
 
 II. Tarraconensis, as we have already shown, comprehended 
 all the north of Spain, together with the south as far as a line 
 drawn from Baria, now Varea, below Carthago Nova, and con 
 tinued upward, in an oblique direction, to a point on the Du- 
 rius, in the vicinity of Complutica. 
 
 III. The climate and character of this large region was, of 
 course, different in different quarters. That part which lay 
 along the Mediterranean was very warm and fruitful. The 
 northern parts, however, were unproductive, and had a raw 
 and cold climate. A large portion of the surface in this 
 quarter was covered with mountains and forests, while the 
 plains were in general poorly watered, and suffered also from 
 the cold. The winters here were very severe, and the snow 
 fell to a great depth. 
 
 (B.) TRIBES. 
 1. Tribes of the Western and Northern Coasts, from West to East. 
 
 I. Callaici (KoA,Aatot), called also, by the Latin writers, Cal- 
 Iceci, and, at a later period, Gallceci. These formed one of the 
 most widely extended of the Spanish tribes. They occupied 
 the whole western coast, from the Durius upward, except the 
 
H I S P A N I A. 51 
 
 northwestern corner, where the Artabri, a Celtic race, had fix 
 ed their seats, and possessed also the northern coast, as far as 
 the River Melsus, the western limit of the Astures. In the in 
 terior of the country they followed the course of the Durius as 
 far as the eastern boundary in this quarter of modern Portugal. 
 They occupied, therefore, what are now the Portuguese prov 
 inces of Entre Duero e Minho and Tras os Monies, almost all 
 Gallicia, a portion of Asturias, and the westernmost part of 
 Leon. 
 
 This large tribe was divided by the Romans into two main 
 branches, named respectively after their capital cities, the Cal- 
 la ici Bracares or Bracarii, and the Calldici Lucenses. The 
 former of these were on the west side, between the Durius and 
 Minius ; the latter, partly on the west, between the Minius 
 and the Ulla, but principally along the northern coast. Ac 
 cording to Pliny, the Bracares numbered among them 175,000 
 freemen, and the Lucenses about 166,000. 
 
 II. Celtce. These were situate in the northwestern corner 
 of the territory of the Callai ci. They were generally called by 
 the common name of Artabri, but there were, in fact, four 
 small tribes, the Prcesamarci, Nerii, Tamarici, and Art&bri, 
 or Artotrebce. They were a branch of the Celtse on the Anas, 
 and their wandering hither has already been alluded to (p. 
 16, * ix.). 
 
 III. Astures ( Aarovpoi and "Affrvpe^), between the Callai ci on 
 the west, the Cantabri on the north, the Vaccsei on the south, 
 and the Celtiberi on the east. The dividing point between 
 their territory and that of the Callai ci Lucenses, on the coast, 
 was formed by the mouth of the small river Melsus, now the 
 Narcea, which stream fell into the sea a little to the west of 
 the Arcs Sestiancz. Their country, therefore, comprehended 
 the greater part of modern Asturias, together with a consid 
 erable portion of the kingdom of Leon. According to Pliny, 
 the Astures numbered twenty-two communities or tribes, and 
 240,000 free persons. In language and habits they showed a 
 common origin with the Callai ci and Lusitani. 
 
 IV. Cantabri, to the east of the Astures, to the west of the 
 Autrigones, and to the north of the Vaccsei and some Celtibe- 
 rian tribes. They occupied what corresponds now to the west 
 ern portion of La Montana, and the northern ha]f of Palencia 
 
52 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 and Toro. They were the most ferocious and warlike people of 
 Spain, and long resisted the Roman power. Their final reduc 
 tion was effected by Agrippa, in the reign of Augustus, after 
 they had withstood the arms of Rome for more than two hun 
 dred years. The Oceanus Cantabricus, which derived its name 
 from them, as it washed their coasts, is now the Bay of Biscay. 
 
 V. Caristi, or, as Pliny calls them, Carieti, to the east of 
 the Cantabri. Their territory was very limited in extent. 
 Pliny joins to them the Vennenses, and gives the two combin 
 ed only five cities. Their territory corresponded to a part of 
 modern Biscay. 
 
 VI. Varduli, still farther to the east, and extending inland 
 from the coast to the Iberus. They occupied what is now the 
 eastern half of Biscay, and Alava, and the westernmost part 
 of Navarra. 
 
 VII. Vascones, southeast of the Varduli, in the modern Na 
 varra. Mela makes no separate mention of them, but includes 
 the Vascones and Varduli under the name of the latter. 
 
 2. Tribes in the Interior, from West to East. 
 
 I. Vdcccei (OvaKKaloi), to the east of the Callaici, and south 
 east of the Astures. Their eastern limit was the River Piso- 
 raca, now Pisuerga, near which stood Palantia, now Palen- 
 cia, their greatest and most important city. Toward the south 
 they reached beyond the Durius, as far as the Carpetani. 
 Their territory answered, therefore, to the greater part of Val- 
 ladolid, Leon, Palencia, and Toro. This tribe was a very 
 numerous one, and were the mildest and most cultivated of the 
 Iberian communities. They paid great attention to agricul 
 ture. Ptolemy assigns them twenty cities, and Pliny names 
 eighteen. 
 
 II. Carpetani, one of the most important of the Iberian 
 tribes, and occupying the very centre of the Peninsula. Their 
 territory comprehended what is now the southern part of Val- 
 ladolid, the old Castilian provinces of Avila and Segovia, the 
 largest portion of Guadalaxara, and a part of the province of 
 Toledo. Their land was productive, and the inhabitants, like 
 the Vaccaei, were a numerous and active race. According to 
 some of the ancient writers, they were able to bring into the 
 field against Hannibal more than 100,000 men. 
 
HlSPANIA. 53 
 
 III. Oretani, to the east of Lusitania and Baetica, especially 
 the latter ; to the north of Bsetica and the country of the Basti- 
 tani ; to the south of the Carpetani, and to the west of the 
 Celtiberi. They occupied, therefore, what is now the eastern 
 part of Granada, La Mancha, and the western part of Murcia. 
 Strabo makes them extend to the lower coast, in which there 
 is, after all, nothing contradictory, since they were mingled 
 more or less with the neighboring Bastitani, from whom, in 
 fact, they differed merely in name. It appears better, how 
 ever, to follow the arrangement of Ptolemy and Pliny. 
 
 IV. Celtiberi, the most numerous and wide-spread race in 
 all Spain. They were, as we have already remarked, a mixed 
 people, being composed of Celtse and Iberians. Taken in their 
 widest extent, the Celtiberi comprehended six tribes, namely, 
 the Berones or Verones, Arevaci, Pelendones, Lusones, Belli, 
 and Ditthi or Titthi. The former three lay to the north, while 
 the last three dwelt toward the south, along the range of Idu- 
 beda, as far as that of Orospeda, and they alone were some 
 times, in a narrower sense, named Celtiberi. The Celtiberi 
 were distinguished from the neighboring Iberians by a differ 
 ence of language, a much ruder mode of life, by the great num 
 ber of mountain strong-holds scattered over their country, by 
 the fashion of their arms (for example, the large Celtic shield, 
 while the Iberi had merely a small round one), and their whole 
 mode of carrying on war. They relied more on open valor and 
 less on stratagem than the Iberian tribes, and their wedge-like 
 form of battle proved often formidable to the Romans them 
 selves. Serving for hire, they were often employed as Roman 
 auxiliaries, a means of increasing both their wealth and power, 
 so that, soon after the second Punic war, they exercised a pre 
 ponderating influence among the other Spanish communities. 
 All their neighbors lived in some degree of dependence upon 
 them, and this is the reason why, in many passages of ancient 
 writers, the Vaccaei and Oretani are also numbered among the 
 Celtiberi. They did not pay much attention to agriculture. 
 Their country answered to what is now the greatest part of 
 New Castile, a portion of Old Castile, and some part of Ar- 
 ragon. 
 
 V. Jacetani, between the Vascones and Ilergetes. Their 
 territory extended from near Caesar- Augusta, now Saragossa, 
 
54 ANCIENTGEOGRAPHY. 
 
 in a northeastern direction as far as the Pyrenees, so that they 
 occupied a part of the northeastern quarter of Arragon. 
 
 VI. Ilergetes, to the southeast, below the Cerretani, and oc 
 cupying what now corresponds to a large portion of Arra gon, 
 on the left bank of the Ebro. Some of the ancient writers 
 reckoned as part of them the smaller communities of the Bar- 
 gusii, Bergistani, Vescitani, Suessitani, and Surdaones. 
 
 VII. Cerretani, north and northeast of the Ilergetes, and 
 stretching far into the valleys of the Pyrenees ; occupying, 
 therefore, what is now the northernmost part of Catalonia. 
 They were a pure Iberian race, and were divided into the Ju- 
 liani and Augustani. 
 
 VIII. Lacetani, below the Cerretani, and occupying a part 
 of modern Catalonia. 
 
 3. Tribes along the Southern Coast from West to East. 
 
 I. Contestant, next above the Bastetani, in what is now the 
 eastern part of Murcia, and the western part of Valencia. 
 
 II. Edetani, between the Celtiberi and Ilercaones, and reach 
 ing up to the Iberus. They dwelt, therefore, in what is now 
 the eastern and northern part of Valencia, and the southern 
 part of Arragon, below the right bank of the Ebro. Their 
 chief cities were Valencia, Saguntum, and Csesar- Augusta. 
 
 III. Ilercaones, between the Edetani and the coast, and ex 
 tending as far as the Iberus. Their territory is now the north 
 eastern part of Valencia, and a small portion of southeastern 
 Arragon. 
 
 IV. Cosetani, between the Iberus and Rubricatus, and below 
 the Ilergetes and Lacetani. They dwelt in what is now the 
 southern part of Catalonia. 
 
 V. Laletani, above the Rubricatus, and having the Ause- 
 tani to the north. They dwelt in what is now nearly the cen 
 tral part of Catalonia. 
 
 VI. Ausetani, north of the Laletani, also in part of Catalo 
 nia, particularly that around Vich and Gerona. 
 
 VII. Indigetes, northeast of the Ausetani. They dwelt in 
 what is now the northeastern part of Catalonia, and also in 
 the Pyrenees, on the borders of Gallia. 
 
H I S P A N I A. 55 
 
 (C.) CITIES OF TARRACONENSIS. 
 
 1. Cities belonging 1 to the Tribes along the Western and 
 
 Northern Coasts. 
 Cities of the Calldid Bracarii. 
 
 1. Bracara Augusta, capital of the Callai ci Bracarii, and 
 the seat of a Conventus, now Braga ; destroyed by Theodoric, 
 king of the Visigoths. 2. Gale, called at a later period Portus 
 Gale, to the south, at the mouth of the Durius, now Oporto. 
 From Portus Gale came by corruption the modern name Por 
 tugal. 3. Aquce Flavian, northeast of Bracara Augusta, now 
 Chaves, on the Tamego. 4. Roboretum, to the east, the site 
 of which is marked by Mount Rover edo. 5. Veniatia, to the 
 east of the preceding, now Vinhaes. 6. Forum Limicorum, 
 northwest of Bracara. Its site is indicated by ruins on Mount 
 Viso, near the town of Ginzo. 7. Tyde or Tudce, to the 
 north, on the Minius, now Tuy. Pliny makes it belong to 
 the Conventus of Bracara, although north of the Minius, and 
 although the Bracarii extended merely up to, and not beyond 
 that river. 
 
 Cities of the Calldid Lucenses. 
 
 1. Lucus Augusti, capital of the Callai ci Lucenses, and the 
 seat of a Conventus, now Lugo. It stood near the head wa 
 ters of the Minius. 2. Brigantium, to the northwest, on the 
 coast, with a lofty pharos, now Corunna. 3. Ardobrica, near 
 the preceding, now Ferrol. The Brigantinus vel Magnus 
 Portus, in this quarter, seems to be the same with the Bay of 
 Corunna and Ferrol. 4. Iria Flavia, to the southwest, now 
 El Padron. 5. Glandomirum or Grandimirum, to the north 
 west, at the mouth of the Tamaris (called by Ptolemy the 
 Tamara), now Muros, at the mouth of the Tambre. 6. Two 
 cities occupied by Grecian settlers are also mentioned as ex 
 isting in the territory of the Lucenses, namely, "EAATpec; and 
 A^Ao^oi. They are supposed to have been situated near 
 Aquce Cilence or Cilenorum, north of Tyde. 
 
 Cities of the Astures. 
 
 1. Asturica, called, also, Augusta, the chief city of the Astu 
 res, and the seat of a Conventus. It is now Astorga. Pliny 
 
56 ANCIENTGEOGRAPHY. 
 
 calls it " urbs magnifica." It was destroyed by the Visigoths, 
 2. Forum Gigurrorum, to the west of the preceding, the chief 
 town of the Gigurri, and now Cigarossa. Harduin, following 
 a false reading in Ptolemy, gives the name of the place as Fo 
 rum Egurrorum, and the error appears also on the maps of 
 D Anville and others. 3. Palantia, to the southeast of Astu- 
 rica, on the River Astura, and not to be confounded with Pal- 
 lantia, the city of the Vaccsei. Its ruins are near the modern 
 Villamoros, 4. Bergidium Flavium, to the northwest of As- 
 turica, now La Vega, on the Coa, in western Leon. 5. In- 
 teramnium Flavium, to the southeast of Bergidium, now Pon- 
 ferrada, on the River Sil. 6. Nemetobriga, to the southwest, 
 near the junction of the Sil with the Minho, now Mendaya. 
 7. Legio Septima Gemma, to the northeast of Asturica, now 
 Leon. The place was originally called Brigsecium, and was 
 the chief city of the Brigsecini. From the time of Augustus, 
 however, two legions were posted here, in order to keep the 
 northern tribes in subjection. These two legions appear in 
 process of time to have been united into one, whence the name 
 Legio Septima gemina. The place, for brevity s sake, was 
 called Legio, whence the modern appellation. 8. Lance, or 
 Lancia, to the southeast of Legio. It was the strongest place 
 of the still free Astures, until the Romans burned down the 
 walls and destroyed the city. The greater part of the towns 
 in these regions had wooden ramparts. 9. Lucus Asturum, 
 called, also, Ovetum, to the north, toward the coast, now 
 Oviedo. 10. Noega, on the coast, to the northeast of the pre 
 ceding, near an estuary which formed the boundary between 
 the Astures and Cantabri. It lay in what is now the territory 
 of Gijon. 11. Zoelce, not far from the ocean, famed for its flax. 
 
 Cities of the Cantabri. 
 
 1. Juliobriga, near the sources of the Iberus, now Retortillo. 
 2. Uxembarca, to the northeast, now Osma. 3. Vellica, or 
 Eelgica, to the west of the preceding, near the modern Villel- 
 ba. 4. Concana, to the west, now Santillana, or Onis. 
 
 5. Vereasueca, on the coast, now Puerto de S. Martin. 
 
 6. Blendium, to the east of the preceding, now Santander. 
 
 7. Portus Victories, now Santonna. 8. Strabo remarks that 
 many of the Greek writers make various settlements of Greeks 
 
HlSPANIA. 57 
 
 to have been made on the northern and northwestern coasts of 
 Spain. Opsikellas, for instance, a follower of the mythic An- 
 tenor, is said to have founded, among the Cantabri, a city 
 named Opsikella. No mention of this name, however, occurs 
 elsewhere, and no trace of such a city is any where found. 
 
 Cities of the Autrigones, Caristii, and Varduli. 
 
 1. Flaviobrigct) the chief city of the Autrigones, situate 011 
 the coast. Its previous name was Amanum Portus, which it 
 changed to Flaviobriga on becoming a Roman colony. Florez 
 makes it answer to the modern Portugalete, but Gosselin to 
 St. Vicente de la Barquera. Mannert is in favor of Santan- 
 der. 2. Virovesca, in the interior, on a branch of the Iberus, 
 southwest of Flaviobriga. Its site appears to be near the 
 modern Briviesca. 3. Deobrlga, or Doubriga, northeast of 
 Virovesca, now Brinnos. 4. Bella, the only city of the Caris 
 tii deserving of mention, on a branch of the Iberus coming in 
 from the northeast, and south of Flaviobriga. In the Itinerary 
 it is called Beleia; and is now Belclritc. 5. Alba, now Alvan- 
 na, belonging to the Conventus of Clunia, among the Arevaci. 
 6. Menosca, on the coast, now Sumaya. 7. Morosgi, also on 
 the coast, now St. Sebastian. These last three are cities of 
 the Varduli. 
 
 Cities of the Vascones. 
 
 1. Calagurris, on the Iberus, a large and beautiful city, and 
 the capital of the Vascones. It was celebrated in the war with 
 Sertorius, and was besieged by Pompey. It was also the na 
 tive city of Quintilian. Now Calahorra. Pliny distinguishes 
 between the Calagurritani Nassici and Fibularenses. The for 
 mer of these two places appears to be the Calagorina of Ptole~ 
 my, the latter the modern Calahorra. 2. Graccurris, to the 
 southwest. Its earlier name was Ilurcis, which it changed to 
 Graccurris when Sempronius Gracchus, after defeating the 
 Celtiberi, settled some new inhabitants in the place. It lay 
 near the modern Corella. 3. Cascantum, to the northeast, 
 near the Iberus. It was a municipium, and is now Cascante. 
 4. Jacca, northeast of the preceding, and now Jaca. 5. Pom- 
 pelo, to the northwest, now Pampelona. It belonged to the 
 Conventus of Csesar- Augusta, or Saragossa. According to 
 
58 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Strabo, this city was founded by Pompey (lIo^TreAwv &g av 
 TLo(JkfTr)i6nohi$), a remark, however, which is, in all probability, 
 erroneous. 6. Summum Pyrenceum, northeast of Pampelo, 
 among the Pyrenees, now Sumport. There was another 
 place of the same name among the Indigetes, where the tro 
 phies of Pompey were erected. 7. (Easo, on the coast, at the 
 northern extremity of the Pyrenees, where the River Magra- 
 da, now Urumea, runs into the sea. It was the same, proba 
 bly, with the Olarso of Pliny, and it lay near the modern 
 Oyarzun or Oyar^o, in the territory of Irun and Fontarabia. 
 
 2. Cities of the Tribes in the Interior. 
 
 Cities of the Vacctei and Carpetani. 
 
 Among the Vaccsei we find, 1. Pallantia, now Palencia, a 
 large and celebrated city, often besieged by the Romans. It 
 must not be confounded with Palantia among the Astures, on 
 the River Astura. Strabo assigns Pallantia to the Arevaci, on 
 whose confines it lay. 2. Lacobriga, north of the preceding, on 
 the River Pisoraca, now the Pisuerga. It was the northern 
 most city of the Vaccsei, and answers to the modern Lobera. 
 
 3. Cauca, some distance below Pallantia. It contained 20,000 
 inhabitants, who were nearly all perfidiously murdered by the 
 Romans after the place had surrendered. The site answers to 
 the modern Coca. The Emperor Theodosius was born here. 
 
 4. Pintia, southwest of Pallantia, near the River Durius. It 
 is now Valladolid. 5. Albucella, southwest of Pallantia, and 
 between Pintia and Amallobriga. According to Polybius, it 
 was the largest city of the Vaccsei, and was taken by Hanni 
 bal. It is named by this writer Arbucala. Now Villa Fasila. 
 6. Amallobriga, on the Durius, in the southwestern corner of 
 the land, now Medina del Rioseco. 
 
 Among the Carpetani we find, 1. Toletum, the capital city, 
 now Toledo. It was famed for its steel articles. Between it 
 and Hippo, to the southeast, the Romans were defeated by the 
 Celtiberi. 2. JEbura, or Libora, to the southwest, called on 
 coins Mpora and Apora, now Cuervo. 3. Contfebia] a 
 strongly fortified city, well known in ancient history, but the 
 site of which is altogether uncertain. It was probably de 
 stroyed in war, and seems to have answered to the modern 
 Santaver, which would make it to have been to the northeast 
 
HlSPANIA. 59 
 
 of Toletum, and on the borders of the Celtiberi. 4. Consa- 
 brum, to the south of Toletum, a municipium, now Consue- 
 gra. 5. Vicus Cuminarius, northeast of Toletum, near the 
 Tagus, and celebrated for its cumin, whence the name of 
 the place. It is now S. Cruz de la Zarza, and is still famed 
 for the same product. 6. Complutum, to the north of the pre 
 ceding, now Alcala de Henarez. 7. Mantua, to the south 
 west of the preceding, now Mondejar : erroneously regarded 
 by some as corresponding to the modern Madrid. 8. Caraca, 
 laid down on some ancient maps as a city above Complutum, 
 on the Tagonius. This, however, is an error, the country in 
 this quarter being occupied by the Characitam, who had no 
 cities, but dwelt in caves, as we are informed by Plutarch in 
 his life of Sertorius. 
 
 Cities of the Oretani. 
 
 1. Oretum, on the Anas, called sometimes Oretum Ger- 
 manorum ; the northern portion of the Oretani being, according 
 to Pliny, also named Gerrnani. It was the chief city of the 
 race. Stephanus calls it Orisia. Its site is marked by a spot 
 named De Oreto, where there are ruins, and remains of a Ro 
 man bridge. 2. Laminium, to the east, near the sources of 
 the Anas. Its site is in the vicinity of Fuenllana, between 
 Montiel and Alcaraz. 3. Libisosia, to the east of the preced 
 ing, called, also, Forum Augusti and Colonia Libisosanorum. 
 It was a Latin colony, and possessed the Jus Italicum. Now 
 Lesuza, in New Castile. 4. Mums, to the northwest, now 
 Mortales. 6. Althaea, called, also, Carteia, north of the pre 
 ceding. It was the chief city of a tribe named Olcades, and 
 was taken by Hannibal, who transported the whole tribe, along 
 with other Iberians, to Africa, prior to his invasion of Italy, as 
 he feared lest they might occasion disturbances in Spain dur 
 ing his absence. Their country was subsequently possessed 
 by the Oretani. The site answers probably to Orgaz, in New 
 Castile. 
 
 Cities of the Celtiberi. 
 
 1. Segobriga, nearly due west from the mouth of the Iberus, 
 and southwest of Caesar -Augusta. It was the capital city, 
 and the site is to be found near the modern Priego. Strabo 
 
60 ANCIENT G EOGRAPHY. 
 
 informs us that Sertorius for a long time carried on his war 
 fare in the region lying between this place and Bilbilis. Ac 
 cording to Pliny, excellent lapis specularis was obtained in the 
 vicinity, deep pits having been dug for that purpose, traces of 
 which are said still to remain. 2. Ergavlca, to the south- 
 west, a Latin colony, and a large and powerful place. It lay 
 where the Guardiela now flows into the Tagus, and the ruins 
 are still extensive. 3. Bilbilis, northeast of Segobriga, on the 
 River Bilbilis, now the Xalon, the waters of which were fa 
 mous for their property of hardening iron. The place was 
 celebrated for its horses, arms, iron, and gold. It was also the 
 native city of the poet Martial. It is now Baubola. 4. Tu- 
 riaso, some distance to the south of Ergavica, on a branch of 
 the Sucro. The waters here were also famed for hardening 
 iron. Now Tarrazona. 
 
 Among the Arevaci we find, 1. Numantia, a city celebrated 
 for its long resistance to the Roman power. It was situate on 
 the River Durius, at no great distance from its source, and ap 
 pears to have been the capital of the Arevaci, though Pliny 
 makes it a town of the Pelendones. Numantia was situate on 
 a steep hill of moderate size, and, according to Florus, possessed 
 no walls, but was surrounded on three sides by very thick woods, 
 and could only be approached on one side, which was defended 
 by ditches and palisades. Its position has been a subject of 
 considerable dispute ; but it appears most probable that it was 
 situate near the modern town of Soria, at a place called Pu- 
 ente de Don Garray. Numantia is memorable in history for 
 the war which it carried on against the Romans for the space 
 of fourteen years. Strabo states that the war lasted twenty 
 years, but he appears to include in this period the war carried 
 on by Viriathus. After the Numantines had defeated several 
 Roman commanders, the Romans appointed Scipio Africanus, 
 the younger, consul, B.C. 134, for the express purpose of the 
 conquest of this city. He invested the place, and after having 
 in vain endeavored to take it by storm, he turned the siege into 
 a blockade, and obtained possession of the place (B.C. 133) at 
 the end of a year and three months from the time of his first at 
 tack. The Numantines displayed the greatest courage and he 
 roism during the whole of the siege, and when their provisions 
 had entirely failed, they set fire to the city and perished amid 
 
HlSPANIA. 61 
 
 the flames. The population capable of bearing arms amount 
 ed to only 8000. 2. Uxama, to the southwest of the preceding, 
 famous for its horses, now Osma. 3. Clunia, to the north 
 west of Uxama, a colonial city, and the seat of a Conventus. 
 It was situate near the modern village of Corunna del Conde, 
 and first grew into importance after the reduction of the Can- 
 tabri. 4. Segontia or Saguntia, to the southeast of the pre 
 ceding, near the modern Siguenza. 
 
 Among the Berones or Verones we find, 1. Tritium Metal- 
 lum, now Tricio. 2. Varia, to the northeast, the Verela of the 
 Itinerary, now Varea. Here was a crossing-place or ford 
 over the Iberus, and up to this point the river was navigable. 
 3. Contrebia, called, also, Leucas, on the Iberus, not far from 
 Varia, and corresponding to the Cantabria of the Middle Ages. 
 Its site is now marked by ruins between Lograno and Piana. 
 
 Among the Pelendones we find, 1. Termes, the same, prob 
 ably, with the Termantia of Appian. It was a place of great 
 celebrity during the war with Sertorius. The site is indicated 
 at the present day by a spot called Ermita de nuestra Sen- 
 nora de Tiermes. 2. Voluce, now Velacha. 3. Augustobrlga, 
 now Aldea el Muro, near Sorta. 
 
 Among the Lusones we find merely Lutia, said to have 
 been 300 stadia from Numantia, and mentioned by Appian, 
 Its site is unknown. Among the Belli, who are also called 
 Belitani, we have Belea or Beleia, probably the modern Bel- 
 chile. No cities of the Titthi are mentioned. 
 
 Cities of the flcrgetes. 
 
 1. Her da, on a height on the River Sicoris, now the Segre. 
 It was a colonial and municipal city, and is now Lerida. The 
 place was a strong one, and is mentioned in the account given 
 of Caesar s movements against Afranius and Petreius, the 
 lieutenants of Pompey. 2. Osca, to the northwest of the pre 
 ceding, now Huesca. This was the place where Sertorius 
 caused the children of the noblest parents among the different 
 nations of Spain, to be educated in Greek and Roman learning, 
 and where they were, in reality, kept as so many hostages. 
 It was a large and strong city. 3. Athanagia, the capital of 
 the Ilergetes, and in the vicinity of Ilerda, now probably Ag- 
 ramaut. It was taken by Scipio. 4. Celsa, on the River 
 
62 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Iberus, to the southwest. There was here a stone bridge over 
 the stream. It is now Xelsa. 5. Gallicum, to the southwest 
 of Osca, on the River Gallicus, not far from its junction with 
 the Iberus. Now Zunra, on the Gallego. 6. Forum Gallo- 
 rum, to the north of the preceding, and also on the Gallicus. 
 Now Gurrea. 
 
 3. Cities of the Tribes on the Southern and Eastern Coasts. 
 
 Cities of the Contestant. 
 
 1. Ilorci, the same, probably, with the Eliocroca of the Itin 
 erary, now Lorca, on the River Sangonera, a tributary of 
 the Segura, the ancient Tader. 2. Carthago Nova, to the 
 east of the preceding, on the coast, and now Cartagena. It is 
 said to have been built by Hasdrubal Barcas, who succeeded 
 Hamilcar Barcas, the father of Hannibal, in the government 
 of Spain, and who intended it for the metropolis of the Cartha 
 ginian possessions in this country. The situation of the place 
 was very favorable for commerce, since it lay almost in the 
 middle of the southern coast of Spain, which had hardly any 
 good harbors besides this along its whole extent. It lay at the 
 head of a bay which formed a safe and spacious harbor. The 
 city was, moreover, strongly fortified, and twenty stadia in cir 
 cuit. In its neighborhood were rich silver mines, and valuable 
 fisheries were carried on along its coasts. Here, also, were great 
 salting establishments. It was also the great outlet for the 
 trade of the interior. Scipip Africanus took the place during 
 the second Punic war, and, on falling into the hands of the Ro 
 mans, it became a colony under the title of Colonia Victrix 
 Julia Nova Carthago. The governor of the province of Tar- 
 raconensis spent the winter either in this city or in Tarraco. 
 This city was sometimes also called Carthago Spartan a, from 
 the spartum, or Spanish broom, which grew so abundantly in 
 its vicinity, and from which a whole tract of country here, one 
 hundred miles in length and thirty in breadth, was called Spar- 
 tarius Campus. Strictly speaking, however, the spartum was 
 not confined to this portion of the country merely, but Was 
 found also on the mountains farther inland. The Greek name 
 for the city was KapxTjduv i\ vta, and it was also sometimes 
 called Kaivfj 1*6% tg, or the "New City." The name, however, 
 is, in fact, a double pleonasm, since Kap%7]dtiv and Carthago 
 
H I S P A N I A. 63 
 
 are both corruptions from the Punic Karth-hadtha, meaning 
 itself the new city," in reference to Old Tyre. The place 
 was all but destroyed by the Goths. The Scombraria Insula, 
 off the mouth of the harbor, received its name from the scom 
 bri, or mackerel, that were caught here, and from which the 
 garum, or pickle, was made, for which Carthago Nova was so 
 famous. It is now La Islota, or " little island." 
 
 We then come to, 3. Alone or Alonce, at the mouth of the 
 Tader or Segura, and now, probably, Torre de Salinas. The 
 place appears to have been of Grecian origin, and to have de 
 rived its name, as Mannert thinks, from salt-works in its 
 neighborhood (6 aAf, " salt"). 4. Ilicis, north of the preced 
 ing, now Elche. It was a colonial city, and a place of con 
 siderable trade, giving name to the Sinus Ilicitanus, a wide 
 bay in this quarter, now the Bay of Alicante. The name of 
 the place is also written Illici and Illice. Near this city Ha- 
 milcar is supposed to have founded the settlement called ACT a 
 Leuce, on the coast, and which is probably the same with Livy s 
 Castrum Album. 5. Lucentum, to the northeast, now Alicante. 
 This was also a colonial city. 6, Dianmm, or Artemisium, 
 to the northeast, above the Dianium Promontorium. This was 
 a strong place, situate on a height, and was made by Serto- 
 rius the station for his fleet. It was celebrated, also, for its 
 temple of Diana. The place is now Denia. 7. Lauron,t&t\\e 
 northwest, on the coast, now Laury, and anciently famed for 
 its wine. It was taken by Sertorius under the very eyes of 
 Pompey, and laid in ashes. Near this place, also, Cneius Pom- 
 peius, the elder son of Pompey, was slain. 8. Aspis, inland, 
 northwest of Ilicis, and now Aspe. 9. Setdbis or Scctabis, to 
 the northeast of the preceding, and near Lauron, called, also, 
 on coins, Scetabi Augustanorum. It was a municipal city, and 
 famed for its flax and fine manufactures. Some assign the 
 place to the Edetani. It is now lativa. 
 
 Cities of the Edetani. 
 
 1. Sucro, on the river of the same name, near its mouth. It 
 is often mentioned by historical writers, and is now, according 
 to Ukert, Culler a. It was destroyed already in Pliny s time, 
 who speaks of it as " quondam oppidum." 2. Valcntia, north 
 of the preceding, now Valencia. It was founded by the con- 
 
64 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 sul Brutus, who settled here some of the soldiers of Viriathus. 
 The city was destroyed by Pompey, but soon after repeopled. 
 Mela speaks of it subsequently as an important place. It was 
 the capital of the Edetani, and situate on the River Turia, now 
 the Gruadalaviar, or Rio Turia. 3. Saguntum, called, also, 
 Saguntus, and, by the Greek writers, Sdyovvrov, ZdnvvOog, and 
 Zdicavda. It lay a short distance above Valentia, on a height, 
 about 1000 paces from the sea, according to the common ac 
 count. Polybius, however, says seven stadia, and Pliny 3000 
 paces. This place is said to have been founded by a colony 
 from the island of Zacynthus (now Zante), together with some 
 Rutulians from Ardea in Italy, whence it also obtained the ap 
 pellation of Graia and Ausonia. It lay on the River Pallan- 
 tias, now the Palancia, in a fruitful country, and became very 
 wealthy by both inland and foreign commerce. Saguntum 
 was a firm and steadfast ally of the Romans, and hence was 
 besieged and taken by Hannibal. The siege lasted eight 
 months, and, being an infraction of the treaty between the 
 Carthaginians and Romans, led at once to the second Punic 
 war. Hannibal s object was to prevent the Romans retaining 
 so important a place of arms, and so powerful an ally in a coun 
 try from which he was about to depart on his march for Italy. 
 The desperate valor of the citizens, however, who chose to per 
 ish with all their effects rather than fall into the enemy s hands, 
 deprived the conqueror of a great part of his anticipated spoils. 
 Still, the booty which he saved from this wreck enabled him, 
 by his acts of liberality, to secure the affections of his army, 
 and provide, at the same time, for the execution of his design 
 against Italy. The ruins of Saguntum still remain at Mur- 
 viedro, a corruption of Muri Veteres. 
 
 4. Edeta, the "Rdr]ra of Ptolemy, called, also, Liria, west of 
 Saguntum, and now Lyria. 5. Segobriga, on the Pallantias, 
 to the northwest of Saguntum, and now Segorbe. Not to be 
 confounded with Segobriga, the city of the Celtiberi, further 
 inland, to the northwest. 5. Etobema or Etobesa, to the north 
 west of the preceding, and now Oropesa. It was probably the 
 same with the Honosca of Livy. 7. Ccesar- Augusta, to the 
 north, on the Iberus, and at the confluence of the Gallego (the 
 ancient Gallicus) and the Huerva. Its original name was Sal- 
 duba or Saldyva, which it changed for Csesar- Augusta when 
 
HlSPANIA. 65 
 
 the Emperor Augustus colonized it with the veterans of the 
 fourth, sixth, and tenth legions. It was a very flourishing city 
 under the Romans, and gave name to one of the seven Conven- 
 tus of Hispania Tarraconensis. The Goths took it, under their 
 king Euric, about 470, and the Arabians in 712. The latter 
 people corrupted the name into Saracosta, whence its present 
 name Saragossa or Zaragoza. The ancient name Ccesar-Au- 
 gusta is itself a shortened form of Ccesarea Augusta. 
 
 Cities of the Ilercaones and Cosetani. 
 
 Among the Ilercaones we find, 1. Dertosa, on the left bank 
 of the Iberus, about thirteen English miles from the mouth, 
 and now Tortosa. It was a Roman municipium, and the cap 
 ital of the Ilercaones, and is probably the same with the Julia 
 Ilercavonia Dertosa, called, also, Colonia Julia Augusta on 
 coins. Pliny calls the inhabitants " celeberrimos civium Ro- 
 manorum" Tortosa became a flourishing city, also, under the 
 Moors, owing to its favorable situation for trade, being placed 
 on a navigable river, and not far from the harbors of Fan gas 
 and Alfaques, which last still retains its Moorish name, the 
 expression Al fakk meaning "a jaw," and "a harbor in the 
 sea." 2. Adeba, on the right bank of the Iberus, nearer its 
 mouth than the preceding, now Amposta. 3. Ibera, a short 
 distance below the preceding, and situate on the coast, below 
 the mouth of the Iberus. Livy speaks of it as existing in the 
 time of the second Punic war, and describes it as the most im 
 portant place in this quarter. Its site is uncertain. Coins 
 have been dug up near the spot where it is commonly supposed 
 to have stood, bearing the inscription Ilercavonia on one side, 
 and, on the other, Hibera Julia. This place is confounded by 
 some with Dertosa. 4. Tria Capita, called in the Itinerary 
 Traja Capita, above the rnouth of the Iberus, and on the right 
 bank of the stream, northeast of Dertosa. Its site is unknown. 
 5. Carthago Vetus, not far, as Mannert thinks, from Ilerda, 
 the modern Lerida. Its site can not be precisely determined, 
 but it probably answers to Carta Vieja. 
 
 Among the Cosetani, the only city worth mentioning is their 
 capital Tarraco, the modern Tarragona, one of the earliest 
 Phoenician settlements in Spain, and a place of great trade. 
 During the second Punic war it became a Roman colony, and 
 
 E 
 
66 A N C I E N T G E O G R A P II Y. 
 
 had, from its favorable position, been even before this a place 
 of arms for the Romans, from their first entrance into Spain. 
 Under Augustus it became the capital of Hispania Citerior or 
 Tarraconensis, and obtained, also, the additional appellation of 
 Augusta. Its harbor was greatly enlarged by Antoninus Pius. 
 Tarraco was also the seat of one of the seven Conventus of 
 Hispania Citerior. It was taken by Euric, king of the Goths, 
 in 467, and levelled with the earth. Recovering from this blow, 
 it was again taken by the Arabs in 710, and completely de 
 stroyed, and it remained desolate until 1038, when it was re 
 built by Bernardo, archbishop of Toledo. Tarragona has many 
 interesting Roman remains, and among them those of a splen 
 did aqueduct, which once supplied the city with water, brought 
 from a distance of sixteen miles, and affords proof of the im 
 portance attached to the place by the Romans. About three 
 miles east of the city there is a very fine mausoleum, which the 
 vulgar call " El Sepulcro de los Scipiones" (the tomb of the 
 Scipios), from a belief that Cneius and Publius Scipio are bur 
 ied under it. 
 
 Cities of the Laletani, Ausctani, and Indigctes. 
 Among the Laletani we find, 1. Barclno, now Barcelona, the 
 capital of the tribe, situate on the coast, between the River 
 Bcetulo, now Besos, to the east, and the Rubricatus, now Llob- 
 regatj to the west. It was a place of great trade, and was, prob 
 ably, one of the colonies formed by the Greeks on the eastern 
 coast of the peninsula. Be this, however, as it may, a town 
 appears to have been built here by Hamilcar Barcas or Barci- 
 no, about 235 B.C., who gave to it the name of his family. 
 When the Carthaginians were expelled from Spain in 206 B.C., 
 Barcino fell into the hands of the Romans, who made it a col 
 ony, with the additional name of Faventia. On coins and in 
 inscriptions it is called Colonia Faventia Julia Augusta. In 
 A.D. 411, the Gothic king Artaulphus made his triumphal en 
 trance into it. In 718 it fell into the hands of the Mohammed 
 ans, who kept it until 801. 2. Bcetulo, northeast of the preced 
 ing, on the coast, now Badalona. 3. Iluro, northeast of Bsetulo, 
 also on the coast, now Mataro. 4. Prcetorium, northwest of 
 Iluro. Large remains of this place still exist near La Roca. 
 
 5. Secerrce, to the northeast of the preceding, now probably 
 
 St. Pere de Sercada. 
 
HlSPANIA. 67 
 
 Among the Ausetani we find, 1. Ausa, the chief city, on 
 the River Alba, the modern Ter. This place now answers 
 to Vique. 2. Gerunda, situate on a mountain, near the Alba, 
 and to the northeast of Ausa, now Gerona. 3. Blanda, on the 
 coast, above Prsetorium, the modern Blanes. 
 
 Among the Indigetes we find, 1. Emporice or Emporium, a 
 municipium and colony, planted by Julius Caesar after his vic 
 tory at Munda. It was originally a settlement of Phocseans 
 from Massilia, and is now Ampurias. It lay, according to 
 Mela, on the River Clodianus, now the Mug a, or Llobregat 
 Menor, and was the usual landing-place for vessels that had 
 doubled the Promontorium Pyrenseum. The settlement was 
 originally made on a small island, which was afterward called 
 " the Old City," and was subsequently extended to the coast 
 of the main-land. 2. Rhoda or Rhodes, above Emporise, and 
 a colony of Rhodians, according to some, but, according to oth 
 ers, of Massilians. It is now Rosas. 3. Portus Veneris, at the 
 northeastern extremity of Spain, and near the Promontorium 
 Pyrenaeum, now Port de Vendre. According to Ptolemy, there 
 was a temple of Venus on the promontory itself. Some made 
 this promontory mark, also, the limit between Hispania and 
 Gallia, while others fixed that limit at the Summum Pyrenwum 
 of the Itinerary, where stood the " Trophies of Pompey," rd 
 Rofi-nrjtov rponaia. 
 
 ISLANDS ADJACENT TO HISPANIA. 
 1. Islands in the Mediterranean. 
 
 I. Baledres, called, also, Gymnesice, and now Majorca and 
 Minorca. Both the ancient names are from the Greek, name 
 ly, BaA/Uapet (for which we have, also, Baheapi6e$, Bafopiat, 
 &c.) and TviiVTjaiat, vijaoi. 
 
 II. The word Baleares is from the Greek j3/U, u to throw," 
 the original inhabitants having been very expert in the use of 
 the sling, to which they were trained in their infancy, and their 
 dexterity as slingers, while serving in the Carthaginian and 
 Roman armies, is often noticed by ancient authors. The name 
 Gymnesice has a more general reference to the same skill, on the 
 part of these islanders, in the use of missiles. 
 
 III. Strabo calls the present Majorca and Minorca by the 
 
68 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 name of Gymnesice, while he applies the term Pityusce to two 
 smaller islands nearer the coast of Spain; and he gives the 
 name of Baleares to the whole group. The Pityusse, however, 
 are more correctly kept distinct. 
 
 IV. The name Pityusce (Uirvovaai) is also of Greek origin, 
 meaning " Pine Islands" (from mrv$, " a pine-tree"), and has 
 reference to the thick growth of pine-trees with which the two 
 islands, but especially the larger one, abounded. The two 
 Pityusse were called by the Greeks, respectively, Ebusus and 
 Ophiusa (snake island), which last the Romans translated into 
 Colubraria. 
 
 V. The small island Capraria (goat island), to the south of 
 Majorca, is the modern Cabrera. 
 
 VI. The Phoenicians, it appears, were the first settlers of 
 the Balearic islands, which, however, had a race of original in 
 habitants. The Carthaginians, under Hanno, having made 
 themselves masters of the whole group, proceeded to form new 
 settlements, and founded the town of Mag-o, now Mahon, and 
 Jamno 9 now Ciudadela, in the smaller one. These islands 
 furnished .them with considerable bodies of troops in their wars 
 against Sicily and Rome, and a large force of their slingers ac 
 companied Hannibal in his passage across the Alps. 
 
 VII. When the Carthaginians were driven from Spain, the 
 islanders obtained their freedom, which they made use of to ap 
 ply themselves to piracy, till they were subdued by the Roman 
 consul Q. Metellus, who founded the cities of Palma and Pol- 
 lentia in Majorca, and took the surname of Balearicus. They 
 continued attached to the Roman republic as part of Hispania 
 Citerior, and subsequently to the empire, and belonged to the 
 Conventus of Carthago Nova. 
 
 VIII. From the reign of Constantine the Great till that of 
 Theodosius they had their own government. When Spain, 
 however, fell into the hands of the Vandals and Huns, a body 
 passed over to these islands, which became an easy conquest, 
 and afterward, with that peninsula, were subdued by the 
 Moors. We will now speak of the Baleares and Pityusse more 
 in detail. 
 
 1. Balearis Major. 
 The name Majorca comes from the Latin Major (Insula), 
 
H I S P A N I A. 69 
 
 " the Larger" (island). Both Majorca and Minorca produced 
 anciently wheat, wine, rosin, timber, &c., and mules of large 
 size. The rabbits, however, did great injury to the crops here, 
 as in Spain. 
 
 In Majorca we find the following cities : 1. Palma, founded 
 by Metellus, now Palma, on the south side, lying on a spacious 
 bay. 2. Pollentia, also founded by Metellus, on the northern 
 side, now Pollenza. 3. Cmium, now probably Sineu, although 
 some are in favor of Calalonga. 4. Cumd, now Alcudia. 
 5. Bocchorum. Site unknown. The place was in ruins as 
 early as the time of Pliny. 
 
 2. Balearis Minor. 
 
 The name Minorca comes from the Latin Minor (Insula), 
 " the Smaller" (island). In this island we find, 1. Jamno or 
 Jamna, now Ciudadela. The ancient name, which is some 
 times, also, written Jammona, has reference, according to 
 Bochart, to the western situation of the place as compared 
 with that of the parent country, being derived from the Phoe 
 nician Jamma, " the West." 2. Sanisera. It appears to have 
 been situate near the middle of the island, and to answer to the 
 modern Ala/or. 3. Mago, or Magonis Portus, now Port Ma- 
 hon. The place derived its name, as already remarked, from 
 its founder, the Carthaginian Mago. 
 
 3. Pityusfe 
 
 These islands, as already remarked, were two in number, 
 Ebusus and Ophiusa, and received their names from the nu 
 merous pine-trees that grew upon them. Ebusus is now Iviga 
 or Ivyza. It was celebrated for its figs, which are still held in 
 high repute. It contained, also, as it still does, very good pas 
 tures. Its capital was Ebusus or Ebusium^ which has now the 
 same modern name as the island. Bochart derives the name 
 from the Phoenician lebuso or Ibuso, answering to the Latin 
 " exsiccatce" i. e., exsiccatse ficus, "dried figs," in allusion to 
 the fruit for which the island was anciently so famous. 
 
 The island of Ophiusa (Qtytovoa), or " Snake Island," re 
 ceived its name, as already remarked, from the Greeks, in 
 whose language otyis means " a snake." The modern name 
 is Las Columbretas, or Montcolibre. 
 
70 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 2. Islands in the Atlantic. 
 
 1. Cotinusa, already mentioned. Another name for the isl 
 and on which Gades was situated. 2. Landobris, off the coast 
 of Lusitania, and to the northwest of the Promontorium Olisi- 
 ponense. Marcianus calls it Lanucris. It is now Berlinguas. 
 3. Cicce, Aunios, and Corticata^ three small islands just above 
 the mouth of the Minius, now respectively Cies, Ons, and Sal- 
 vora. 
 
G A L L I A. 
 
 1. EXTENT AND BOUNDARIES. 
 
 I. THE term Gallia was employed by the Romans in a double 
 sense : 1. As indicating Gaul proper, or Gaul beyond the Alps, 
 called Gallia simply, and also Gallia Ulterior and Gallia 
 Transalpina ; and, 2. Gaul this side of the Alps, with refer 
 ence to Rome, called Gallia Cisalpina, and forming subse 
 quently the northern part of Italy. 
 
 II. The consideration of Gallia Cisalpina belongs to the ge 
 ography of Italy. We will now proceed to that of Gaul prop 
 er, or Gallia Transalpina. 
 
 III. Gaul proper, or Transalpine Gaul, comprised modern 
 France, the Netherlands, the countries along the west bank of 
 the Rhine, and the greatest part of Switzerland. 
 
 IV. It was bounded on the south by the Mediterranean and 
 Hispania ; on the east by the Rhine, and a line drawn from 
 the sources of that river to the small river Varus, now the Var ; 
 or, in more general language, by the Rhine and the Alps ; on 
 the north by the Oceanus Britannicus or English Channel, 
 and the Lower Rhine, and on the west by the Atlantic. 
 
 OBS. In speaking of the Alps as forming part of the eastern boundary, it 
 must be borne in mind that the precise line of separation in this quarter, be 
 tween Gallia and Italia, was different at different times, according to the 
 progress of the Roman arms. Thus, for example, it differed, while the princi 
 pality of Cottius existed, from what became the dividing line after the posses 
 sions of that Alpine chieftain formed part of the Roman empire. Pliny even 
 after this assigns the Centrones, Caturiges, and Vagienni to Italy, and so, too, 
 does Ptolemy, but they belong correctly to Gaul. The River Varus became 
 the limit in the time of Augustus, and remained so thereafter. 
 
 2. NAMES. 
 
 I. WE find the first mention of Gaul among the Greek writ 
 ers, who name the country KekriKf), Celtica ; but the term was 
 at first applied by them, in a very extended sense, to the whole 
 of western and northwestern Europe. 
 
72 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 II. From the time of Timseus the name FaAarm, Galatia, 
 came into use, and at a later period the Greek writers are found 
 employing also the term TaXXia (Gallia), borrowed from the 
 Romans. 
 
 III. The Romans, on the other hand, gave the name of Gal- 
 lia to the whole country between the Rhine and Pyrenees ; and 
 afterward, in order to designate the division into provinces, they 
 employed the plural form Gallice. In order, moreover, to dis 
 tinguish between Gaul proper and Upper Italy, in the latter of 
 which countries Gallic tribes were also settled, they called the 
 former Gallia Ulterior or Transalpine as already remarked, 
 and the latter Gallia Citerior or Cisalpina. 
 
 IV. Another name employed by the Romans was Gallia Co- 
 mala. This was given to Gaul proper, with the exception of 
 Gallia Narbonensis, in the south, and had reference to the cus 
 tom prevalent among the inhabitants of wearing the hair long, 
 as a badge of valor. 
 
 V. We find, also, two other appellations in use, namely, 
 Gallia togata and Gallia braccata. The former of these was 
 given to Gallia Cisalpina, or, as Mannert thinks, to that part 
 of it which lay south of the Po, called otherwise Gallia Cis- 
 padana, and had reference to the adoption of the Roman dress 
 and customs on the part of the inhabitants, while the name of 
 Gallia braccata was given to the province of Narbonensis, in 
 allusion to the braccce worn by the inhabitants ; not that brac 
 cce were not also worn by the other Gauls, but because the 
 Romans saw them for the first time worn in this quarter. 
 
 OBS. 1. To designate Gallia Transalpina, as distinguished from Cisalpina, the 
 Greek writers use the expressions f] virep rC>v "A^nrcuv K&TIKTI : i] vTcspuhneiof 
 Ke^TiKrj : rj tfu KeAri/c?/, &e., while they call Gallia Cisalpina 57 r&v KOTU. rrjv 
 Ira/Uav Kc/lrwv x^ P a KeAfi/icj) i) evrof "Ahireuv : ?; /cdrw Fa/lar/a. At a later 
 period we find Ptolemy employing the term Ke?i~oya/larm for Gaul proper, or 
 beyond the Alps. This last-mentioned name derives elucidation from the re 
 mark of Diodorus Siculus (v.,32), that the inhabitants of the land to the north 
 of Massilia, and between the Pyrenees and the Alps, were called Celt a (Ke/l- 
 Toi) ; those, however, farther north, extending to the ocean and the Scythians, 
 were called Galata (raAurat)- 
 
 2. The Romans were well acquainted with the Cisalpine Gauls in the course 
 of the long wars which commenced with the attack upon Rome,. and terminated 
 in the subjugation of Gallia Cisalpina. They were aware of the identity of 
 these Gauls with the KaAroi of the Massilians. Caesar, moreover, in dividing 
 the inhabitants of Gaul without the province, and as yet unconquered by the 
 Romans, into three nations, and appropriating to one of them the name of Gal~ 
 
GAL LI A. 73 
 
 ii, identifies this particular nation with the previously-known Gauls or Celti in 
 Cisalpine Gaul and in the province. When he says, however, that the Romans 
 termed them Galli, and they themselves Cdtcc, his statement would probably 
 have been more correct had he reported that by the Greeks they were termed 
 Celti (KeAroi), and by the Romans Galli. It does not appear clear that the 
 Gauls ever recognized the name of Cclta as a national appellation. It proba 
 bly grew into general use among the Greeks from some particular tribe at first 
 so named. This may be collected from Strabo. (Prichard, Researches, vol. iii., 
 p. 61, seq.) 
 
 3. The name Galli is evidently Gael Latinized. In like manner, the Greek 
 Fo/larfit may be traced to the same root. Etymologists derive this last from 
 Galltachd, " the land of the Gauls," but Celtic derivations begin to be looked upon 
 with an eye of suspicion, since of the language of the people of Gaul we have 
 now, in the opinion of the best scholars, few undoubted specimens ; and al 
 though there are strong grounds for believing that it was a kindred tongue with 
 the dialects of the British isles, yet it is evidently unsafe to have recourse, in 
 such a case as the present, to the modern Gaelic or any of its branches. The 
 meaning of the name Gael, therefore, must be left uncertain, although many re 
 gard it as a contracted form of Gadhcl or Gaidheal, and think that it denotes 
 "strangers," or "foes." A summary of all the learning on this subject may 
 be found in Diefenbach s Ccltica, vol. ii., p. 6, seqq. 
 
 4. The earlier history of the Celtic people is a subject of great interest, but 
 of difficult investigation. Were they aborigines of Gaul or of Germany 1 Ac 
 cording to all the testimony of history, or, rather, of ancient tradition collected 
 by the writers of the Roman empire, the migrations of the Gauls were always 
 from west to east ; the Celtic nations in Germany, as well as in Italy and in 
 the East, were supposed to have been colonies ftom Gaul, and the Celtae have 
 been considered, therefore, by many, to have been the immemorial inhabitants 
 of western Europe. But this opinion is altogether untenable. The remains of 
 the Celtic language prove them to have been a branch of the Indo-European 
 stock, and to have come, therefore, from the East ; and as we find so many 
 parts of Germany overspread by them in early times, whence they were after 
 ward expelled by German tribes, a strong suspicion forces itself upon our minds 
 that a part of the Celtic population may have always remained to the eastward 
 of the Rhine, which perhaps received accessions from tribes of the same race 
 returning in a later age from Gaul. (Prichard, Researches, vol. iii., p. 50, seq.) 
 
 5. It is impossible to determine with certainty whether the west of Europe 
 was wholly uninhabited at the era when the Celtee first occupied it. It is prob 
 able, however, that, as they preceded the Teutonic tribes, they must have come 
 into contact with nations of the Finnish stock. This would especially have 
 been the case on the shores of the Baltic, where they would have met with 
 the Jotuns or Finns, whom the Teutonic people afterward found in possession 
 of Scandinavia. (Prichard, I. c. Compare remarks on page 2 of this work.) 
 
 3. EARLY AND LATER INHABITANTS. 
 
 I. The primitive inhabitants of Gallia were probably, as al 
 ready remarked, of Finnish origin, and these were reduced to 
 subjection by the Celtee on the great immigration of the latter 
 race from the East. 
 
 II. At the period of Caesar s invasion we find the Celtic race 
 
74 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 separated into three great divisions, the Celtce, in the centre of 
 the country, the Belgce, to the north, and the Aquitam, to the 
 south. 
 
 III. The tribes whom Caesar calls the Celtce, and who ap 
 pear to have been, in fact, the main Gallic race, or, as we may 
 term them, the Gauls proper, occupied at this time nearly all 
 the midland, western, and southern parts of the country, ex 
 tending in one direction from the Gob (Bum Promontorium, now 
 Cape St. Make, in Bretagne, to the mountains of Switzerland 
 and Savoy , and perhaps to the frontiers of the Tyrol, and, in 
 another direction, from the banks of the Garumna, or Garonne, 
 to those of the Sequana and Matrona, or Seine and Marne. 
 
 IV. The northeastern parts of the country, from the Sequana 
 and Matrona to the Channel and the Rhine, were occupied by 
 the Belg-ce, a race, probably, of mixed Celtic and Germanic 
 blood, and the immediate vicinity of the Rhine was occupied 
 by some tribes of purer and more immediate German origin. 
 Prichard thinks, that in Caesar s time, some of the most warlike 
 tribes in the Belgic confederation were of the number of emi 
 grants from Germany, who had lately taken their place among 
 the inhabitants of Belgica, and had, perhaps, assumed the name 
 of Belgae. The great mass of the nation, however, were un 
 doubtedly Gauls. 
 
 V. The southwestern corner of the country was occupied by 
 the Aquitani, whose territory extended from the Garonne to 
 the Pyrenees ; and probably some Ligurian tribes were inter 
 mingled with the Celtse on the shores of the Mediterranean. 
 Some Greek settlements also occurred along that coast, and 
 Greek blood, though in a minute proportion, has mingled in 
 that of the modern inhabitants of Languedoc and Provence. 
 
 VI. Previously to Caesar s conquest, the Romans had formed 
 a praetorian province in the southern part of the country, on 
 the coast of the Mediterranean. More particular mention of 
 this, however, will be made under the succeeding section. 
 
 VII. The subjugation of Gaul by the Romans produced an 
 intermixture, though probably not a great one, of Romans with 
 the natives ; but it was not until the overthrow of the vast 
 fabric of the Roman empire, and the settlement of the northern 
 barbaric nations within its limits, that the population of Gaul 
 underwent any important modification. But, however little 
 
GALLIA. 75 
 
 the population might have been affected, the habits of the Celts 
 had undergone material changes under the Roman dominion ; 
 and the modern French language shows how extensive and how 
 permanent has been the influence of the Latin tongue. 
 
 VIII. At the breaking up of the Roman empire, three of the 
 invading tribes possessed themselves of Gaul, namely, the Visi 
 goths, south and west of the Loire ; the Burgundians, in the 
 southeast, extending from the Sadne and the Rhone to the Jura 
 and the Alps ; and the Franks, in the north and east. A branch 
 of the Celtic nation, moreover, migrating from the British isles, 
 and differing in dialect and language from their kindred tribes 
 in Gaul, settled in the extreme west, and have transmitted to 
 the present age their peculiarity of language, and the name of 
 the island (Bretag-ne or Britain) from which they came. 
 
 IX. Politically, the ascendency of the Franks extinguished 
 the independence of their co-invaders ; but the tribes which 
 succumbed to their yoke remained in the settlements they had 
 acquired, and have influenced more or less the characteristics 
 of their descendants. But, notwithstanding these admixtures, 
 the CeJtae may still be regarded as the main stock of the French 
 people, and it has been considered that the national characters 
 of the ancient and the modern race bear no inconsiderable re 
 semblance to each other. 
 
 X. As the predominance of the Celtic race may be inferred 
 from that of their adopted language in the greater part of 
 France, so the local predominance of other tribes is indicated 
 by that of their peculiar tongue. The Breton, an adulterated 
 form of the language imported by the British settlers, is still 
 the language of the rural districts and of the poorer classes in 
 Bretag-ne, and is subdivided into four dialects : the Basque is 
 yet found at the foot of the Pyrenees, and may be considered 
 as the representative of the ancient dialect of the Aquitani : 
 the Lampourdan, one of its principal dialects, is spoken in the 
 Pays de Labour and in Basse Navarre. In Alsace the Ger 
 man language is predominant ; a circumstance which may be 
 ascribed to that province s having been more completely occu 
 pied by those tribes which overthrew the Roman empire, and 
 which have preserved their own language, and also to the long 
 incorporation of Alsace with Germany, and its comparatively 
 late annexation to the rest of France. 
 
76 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 4. HISTORICAL EPOCHS. 
 
 I. IMMIGRATION of the great Celtic race from the East, con 
 sisting of the priestly and military classes. They find the 
 country- occupied by Finnish nations, whom they reduce to 
 vassalage, and hence arises a lower caste, deprived of all civil 
 rights, and looked upon as mere vassals or serfs. 
 
 II. The wants of an increasing population lead the Celtic 
 tribes settled in Gallia to send out two vast emigrating bodies, 
 during the reign of the elder Tarquin at Rome, about B.C. 600. 
 One of these enters Italy, the northern part of which was sub 
 dued and peopled by them, while the other moves eastward 
 into Germany and what is now Hungary. 
 
 III. Greek colonies settle on the Mediterranean coast of 
 Gaul. The earliest and most important of these was MaaoaAia 
 or Massilia (now Marseilles), founded by the people of Phocsea, 
 itself a Greek colony of Asia Minor, B.C. 600, and augmented 
 by the emigration of the main body of the Phocseans, when 
 they sought refuge, B.C. 546, from the pressure of the Persian 
 monarchy. 
 
 IV. The power or influence of Massilia extends over the 
 neighboring districts, and several colonies are founded on the 
 coasts of Gaul, Italy, Spain, or Corsica, such as Agatha, now 
 Agde ; Antipolis, now Antibes ; Nicsea, now Nice, &c. 
 
 V. At the commencement of the second Punic war, Hanni 
 bal marches through Gaul, in his route from Spain into Italy ; 
 and Scipio, the Roman consul, who had conveyed his army by 
 sea to Massilia, in order to intercept him, sends a small body 
 of cavalry up the banks of the Rhodanus or Rhone, to recon 
 noitre, and these have a smart skirmish with a body of Hanni 
 bal s Numidians. Hannibal, however, marches onward into 
 Italy, to which country Scipio also returns, sending his army 
 forward under his brother Cnseus into Spain. 
 
 VI. After the close of the Punic wars the Romans gradually 
 extend their power in Gaul. Fulvius Flaccus, and his successor 
 Sextius Calvinus, conquer the Salyes, Vocontii, and some other 
 tribes. The coast of the Mediterranean is now secured by the 
 foundation of the Roman colony of Aquae Sextise, now Aix, B.C. 
 122, and that portion of Transalpine Gaul which the Romans 
 had subdued is shortly after formed into a praetorian province 
 
GALLIA. 77 
 
 (B.C. 118), of which Narbo Martius, now Narbonne, colonized 
 the following year (B.C. 117), becomes the capital. Massilia, 
 nominally in alliance with, but really in subjection to Rome, 
 lies within this province. 
 
 VII. In the migratory invasion of the Cimbri, Teutones, 
 and Ambrones, the Roman province in Gaul is for several 
 years the seat of war. The Roman armies are repeatedly 
 defeated. In one dreadful battle (B.C. 104) they are said to 
 have lost 80,000 men. The province is, however, rescued from 
 the invaders by the great victory obtained by Marius (B.C. 101) 
 over the Teutones and Ambrones near Aquse Sextise. The 
 Cimbri have meantime marched into Italy. 
 
 VIII. The conquests of Cgesar reduced nearly the whole 
 country between the Rhine, the Alps, the Mediterranean, the 
 Pyrenees, and the Ocean, into subjection to Rome. The Aqui- 
 tani, and the tribes inhabiting the Alps, are not subdued till 
 afterward ; the former are conquered by Messala, but some of 
 the Alpine tribes retain their independence till the time of Nero. 
 
 IX. Under Augustus, Gaul is divided into four provinces, of 
 which, together with other subdivisions afterward made, men 
 tion will be found under the succeeding section. 
 
 X. In the decline of the Roman power, Gaul is ravaged by 
 the Franks, the Burgundians, and the Lygians (who had been 
 all driven out by Probus, A.D. 277) ; by the Bagauds, a body 
 of peasants, themselves Gauls, driven into rebellion (A.D. 284, 
 285) by the weight of their oppressions, and the distress con 
 sequent on the ravages of the barbarians, as well as the civil 
 dissensions of the empire ; again by the Franks and the Alle- 
 manni, who are repulsed by the emperors Julian (A.D. 355 to 
 361) and Valentinian (A.D. 365 to 375), and by the piratical 
 Saxons who ravage the coasts. The Roman power, however, 
 still suffices to keep these barbarians from settling in Gaul, 
 though it can not abate the pressure on the distant frontier, and 
 the decaying strength of the empire only protracts, but can not 
 avert, the final catastrophe. 
 
 XI. The Franks (i. e., the Freemen), a confederacy of Ger 
 man nations, are found in the fourth century settled on the 
 right bank of the Rhine, from the junction of the River Mayn 
 to the sea, and in the latter part of this same century, and 
 during a considerable portion of the next, appear to have been 
 
78 .ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 in alliance with the empire. These Franks preserve their in 
 dependence even while confederated, and each tribe has its king. 
 Like the Saxon chieftains, who professed all to derive their lin 
 eage from Woden, the Prankish princes claimed a common an 
 cestor Meroveus (Meemoig-, "warrior of the sea"), from whom 
 they bore the common title of Merovingians. The era of Me 
 roveus is not ascertainable. 
 
 XII. Upon the downfall of the Roman empire, Gaul becomes 
 a prey to the barbarous nations by which the empire is dis 
 membered. There is no revival of national independence as 
 in Britain. The nationality of the Gauls had been lost when 
 the extension of the rights of Roman citizenship to all the na 
 tives of the provinces by Caracalla, A.D. 212, merged the dis 
 tinction previously maintained between the conquerors of the 
 world and their subjects ; and the national religion, Druidism, 
 had sunk beneath the edicts of the emperors and the growing 
 influence of Christianity. 
 
 XIII. On the last day of the year 406 the Rhine is crossed 
 by a host of barbarians, who never repass that frontier stream. 
 They consist of Vandals, Alans, Suevians, Burgundians, and 
 other nations. The Vandals, who first reach the bank, are de 
 feated by the Franks, who defend, as the allies of the empire, 
 the approach to the frontier ; but, on the arrival of the Alans, 
 the Franks in their turn are overcome, and the passage is ef 
 fected. The devastation of Gaul by this horde of invaders is 
 terrible ; the inhabitants of many towns are slaughtered or car 
 ried into captivity, the sanctity of the churches is violated, and 
 the open country is laid waste. Armorica (the present Bre- 
 tagne), into which the settlement of the British soldiers who 
 had followed Maximus the usurper into Gaul, had infused a 
 military spirit, assumes and establishes its independence, but 
 the rest of Gaul becomes a prey. 
 
 XIV. The Suevians, the Alans, and the Vandals cross the 
 Pyrenees into Spain. The Burgundians settle, with the sanc 
 tion of the Roman government, in the east of Gaul, on both 
 sides of the Jura range, and on the west bank of the Rhine, 
 from the Lake of Geneva to the confluence of the Rhine and 
 the Moselle. The Visigoths, moreover, who had been long rav 
 aging both the eastern and western empires, are induced, just 
 before the settlement of the Burgundians (A.D. 412 to 414), to 
 
GALLIA. 79 
 
 accept the cession of that part of Gaul which lies to the south 
 and west of the Loire. Toulouse becomes their capital. Both 
 Burgundians and Visigoths take the name of Romans, and pro 
 fess subjection, which is, however, merely nominal, to the em 
 peror of the west. The lands in the district ceded to them are 
 divided between the original possessors and the new comers, 
 who give up their unsettled migratory course of life on receiv 
 ing a permanent interest in the soil. 
 
 XV. Hostilities are before long renewed between the troops 
 of the empire and these new-settled nations ; but their settle 
 ment opportunely supplies Gaul with the means of defence 
 against a fresh invasion. 
 
 XVI. In A.D. 451, Attila, king of the Huns, with an im 
 mense host of barbarians, passes the Rhine at or near the con 
 fluence of the Neckar, destroys Divodurum or Mediomatrici, 
 now Metz, and Aduatuca or Tungri, now Tang-res, and lays 
 siege to Genabum or Aureliani, now Orleans. Ae tius, the 
 Roman general, supported by the Visigoths and the Burgun 
 dians, and numbering in his ranks Franks, Saxons, Alans, and 
 other barbarians, advances against Attila, and obliges him to 
 raise the siege and retire toward the frontier. At Durocata- 
 launum or Catalauni, now Chalons-sur-Marne, a battle is 
 fought, in which victory is doubtful, but which is attended 
 with a dreadful slaughter of his forces, and induces Attila to 
 evacuate Gaul. 
 
 XVII. During these events the Franks have attracted little 
 notice : their subdivision into tribes has weakened their power ; 
 and perhaps their fidelity to the empire restrains them from 
 pressing it with their attacks. They retain their possessions 
 on the right bank of the Rhine, but have obtained by conces 
 sion or conquest some settlements on the left bank, or along the 
 banks of the Sc/ielde and the Meuse. In the invasion of Attila, 
 some of their tribes march under the banners of Aetius, while 
 others attach themselves to the invading host. 
 
 XVIII. It is not until the reign of Clovis, who commences 
 his career as king of the Salyans, one of the Frankish tribes 
 settled at Tournay, about A.D. 481, that the Franks assume 
 a commanding position. The empire of the west has now fall 
 en, and Italy is under the government of the Ostrogoths ; but 
 a relic of the empire remains in Gaul, and the territory in 
 
80 A N C I E N T G E O G R A P II Y. 
 
 which the patricians ^Egidius and his son Syagrius uphold the 
 name of Rome is between the possessions of the Visigoths and 
 Burgundians and the settlements of the Franks. This territo 
 ry is among the early conquests of Clovis (A.D. 486). He then 
 defeats the people of Tongres, and (in A.D. 496) subdues a 
 portion of the Allemanns, who have made an inroad into Gaul. 
 The conquered people recognize Clovis as their king ; his op 
 portune conversion to Christianity advances his popularity and 
 his power in Gaul, as well as his profession of the faith in 
 what was deemed an orthodox form, while all the other princes, 
 who share among them the once extensive territories of the em 
 pire, are the supporters of Arianism or some other form of doc 
 trine that is looked upon as heretical. 
 
 XIX. The sway of Clovis extends from the banks of the Low 
 er Rhine, the cradle of his power, to the Loire, the Rhone, and 
 the Ocean, for Armorica had submitted to him. He now de 
 termines, under the pretext of uprooting Arianism, a plea cal 
 culated to secure him numerous supporters beyond his own con 
 fines, to attack Alaric II., king of the Visigoths, whom he de 
 feats and slays at Vougle, in Poitou. The Burgundians, hop 
 ing to share in the spoils of the conquered nation, support Clo 
 vis, but the Ostrogoths of Italy support the Visigoths, and pre 
 vent their entire subjection. A large part of their territory, in 
 cluding Bourdeaux and Toulouse, and extending, perhaps, to 
 the foot of the Pyrenees, falls into the hands of Clovis ; but the 
 Visigoths preserve the coast of the Mediterranean, together 
 with Spain, which they have conquered. The Ostrogoths have 
 Provence, and their king Theodoric holds the sovereignty of 
 the Visigoths, also, as guardian of their king, his grandson 
 Amalric. The assassination of the various Frankish kings by 
 Clovis renders him undisputed head of the tribes of his own na 
 tion, and his sovereignty extends over Gaul, with the exception 
 of the parts retained by the Ostrogoths, Visigoths, and Bur 
 gundians. Clovis may be considered the real founder of the 
 French monarchy. He dies A.D. 511. 
 
 5. DIVISION OF GAUL BY THE ROMANS. 
 
 I. AUGUSTUS, holding an assembly of the states of Gaul, B.C. 
 27, made a new division of the country, in which he paid more 
 attention to equality in the extent of provinces than to any 
 distinction of the several tribes that inhabited them. 
 
GALLIA. 81 
 
 II. This arrangement divided Gaul into four provinces : 
 1. Narbonensis ; 2. Lugdunensis ; 3. Belgica ; 4. Aquitania. 
 
 III. The province of Aquitania comprised not only the old 
 territory of the Aquitani, in the southwest, reaching up to the 
 Garumna or Garonne, but also all that portion of Celtic Gaul, 
 or the old territory of the Celtse, comprehended between the 
 Garumna and the Ligeris or Loire. 
 
 IV. The province of Belgica comprised not only the old ter 
 ritory of the Belgse, but also all that portion of Celtic Gaul 
 that lay to the east of the Arar or Saone, and the range of 
 Mons Vogesus or Vosge, and extended to the Rhine. 
 
 V. The province of Lugdunensis comprised all that remain 
 ed of Celtic Gaul, which had thus lost one half of its former 
 extent. Its capital was Lugdunum, now Lyons, which gave 
 name to it. 
 
 VI. The province of Narbonensis was the same with what 
 had been before the Roman province, in the south. Its new 
 name was derived from the city of Narbo, its capital, now Nar- 
 bonne. 
 
 VII. Not long afterward the province of Belgica was dis 
 membered by two provinces being formed out of the districts 
 along the Rhine, to which the names of Germania Prima and 
 Germania Secunda, or the First and Second Germany, were 
 given; and at a subsequent period the number of provinces 
 reached, by successive dismemberments of the larger provinces, 
 its maximum of seventeen. 
 
 VIII. These seventeen divisions were as follows : the prov 
 ince of Narbonensis comprised five ; Aquitania, three ; Lug- 
 dunensis, four ; and Belgica, five. 
 
 IX. The five subdivisions of Narbonensis were called, re 
 spectively, 1. Narbonensis Prima ; 2. Narbonensis Secunda; 
 3. Alpes Maritimce ; 4. Viennensis / 5. Alpes Graicc et Pen 
 nine. The limits of these five provinces were as follows : 
 
 Narbonensis Prima comprehended all that portion of the old 
 Roman province which lay between the Rhone and the Pyre 
 nees, and answered, therefore, to the modern Languedoc and 
 Roussillon. Its capital was Narbo, now Narbonne. Langue 
 doc now corresponds to the departments of the Haute Loire, 
 Ardcche, Lozere, Gard, Herault, Aude, Tarn, and Haute Ga 
 ronne ; and Roussillon to the department of the Pyrenees Ori- 
 
 F 
 
82 ANCIENTGEOGRAPIIY. 
 
 entales. At the beginning of the fifth century, when this part 
 of Gaul was under the sway of the Visigoths, the province of 
 Narbonensis Prima changed its name to Septimania, and then 
 took in, also, the adjacent part of Aquitania Secunda, lying 
 along the Garonne ; and its capital was now no longer Narbo, 
 but Tolosa, the modern Toulouse. This name of Septimania, 
 however, before it became a general term for the whole prov 
 ince, indicated merely the territory around the city of Biterrse 
 or Baeterra, now Beziers, where the soldiers of the seventh le 
 gion ( Septimani) had been settled as a military colony. Sido- 
 nius Apollinaris, and the chroniclers of the time, make frequent 
 mention of the province of Septimania. 
 
 Narbonensis Secunda corresponded to the modern Provence, 
 with the exception of an eastern portion lying among the Alps, 
 and excepting, also, the cities along the Rhone, together with 
 Massilia, now Marseilles. Its capital was Aquae Sextise, now 
 Aix. Provence now corresponds to the departments of the 
 Bouches du Rhone, Var, and Basses Alpes. 
 
 Alpes Maritimce comprehended the Alps on the eastern side 
 of Provence, and in the territory of Nice, together with the 
 easternmost portion of Dauphine. According to the earlier di 
 vision, the eastern part of this province belonged to Italy. Its 
 capital was Ebrodunum, now Embrun. The eastern part of 
 Dauphine now answers to that of the departments of Iserc and 
 Haules Alpes. 
 
 Viennensis comprehended the western part of Savoy, all 
 Dauphine (except the easternmost portion, which belonged to 
 the Alpes Maritimse), and the territories of Avenio, now Avi 
 gnon, Arelate, now Aries, and Massilia, now Marseilles. Its 
 capital was Vienna, now Vienne. Dauphine now answers to 
 the departments of the Hautes Alpes, Isere, and Drome. 
 
 Alpes Graia et Pennince comprehended the modern Valais, 
 and the western part of Savoy. Its capital was Civitas Cen- 
 tronum, now Montiers. 
 
 X. The three subdivisions of Aquitania were called, respect 
 ively, 1. Novem Populana ; 2. Aquitania Prima ; 3. Aquita 
 nia Secunda. The limits of these three provinces were as 
 follows : 
 
 Novem Populana comprehended what had previously been 
 Aquitania in the stricter sense of the term, that is, Aquitania 
 
GALLIA. 83 
 
 before the enlargement of the province by Augustus, or the 
 country in the southwest between the Pyrenees and Garonne. 
 Who the nine tribes or communities were that gave name to 
 this subdivision is not clearly known. Its capital was Civitas 
 Ausciorum, now Auch. 
 
 Aquitania Prima comprehended the eastern half of that por 
 tion of Gallia Celtica which Augustus had added to Aquitania 
 proper. It corresponded, therefore, to what used to be Bern, 
 Bourbonnois, Auvergne, Rouergue, Querci, and Limousin, or 
 the present departments of Cher, Indre, Allier, Cantal, Puy 
 de Dome, Tarn et Garonne, Correze, and Haute Vienne. Its 
 capital was Civitas Biturigum, now Bourses. 
 
 Aquitania Secunda comprehended that part of Guyenne that 
 lay to the north of the Garonne, and also Angoumois, Poitou, 
 Saintonge, and part of Bordelois, or a portion of the present 
 departments of Lot, Tarn et Garonne, and Gironde, together 
 with those of Vendee, Deux Sevres, Vienne, and Charente In 
 ferieure. Its capital was Civitas Burdigalensium or Burdi- 
 gala, now Bourdeaux. 
 
 XI. The four subdivisions of Lugdunensis were called, re 
 spectively, 1. Lugdunensis Prima ; 2. Lugdunensis Secunda ; 
 3. Lugdunensis Tertia ; 4. Lugdunensis Quarta, or Senonia, 
 The limits of these four provinces were as follows : 
 
 Lugdunensis Prima comprehended the modern Lyonnais, 
 Bourgogne, Nivernois, and a part of Champagne, or the pres 
 ent departments of the Rhone, Loire, Yonne, Cote $ Or, Saone 
 et Loire, Ain, Nievre, and Haute Marne. Its capital was Lug- 
 dunum, now Lyons. 
 
 Lugdunensis Secunda comprehended modern Normandie, or 
 the present departments of Seine Inferieure, Eure, Calvados, 
 Manche, and Orne. Its capital was Rotomdgus, now Rouen. 
 
 Lugdunensis Tertia comprehended modern Touraine, Le 
 Maine, L Anjou, and all Bretagne, or the present departments 
 of Indre et Loire, Sarthe, Mayenne, Loire Inferieure, Morbi- 
 han, Finisterre, Cotes du Nord, and He et Vilaine. Its capi 
 tal was Civitas Turonum, now Tours. 
 
 Lugdunensis Quarta, or Senonia, which last name is de 
 rived from that of the Senories, comprehended nearly all Cham 
 pagne south of the Marne (the ancient Matrona), the south 
 ern part of the Isle de France, Chartrain, Perche, and Orle- 
 
84 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 annais, or a part of the present departments of Marne, Seine 
 et Marne, and Oise, together with those of Eure et Loire, 
 Loiret, Loir et Cher, Yonne, &c. Its capital was Civitas Se- 
 nonum, now Sens. 
 
 XII. The five subdivisions of Belgica were called, respective 
 ly, 1. Belgica Prima ; 2. Belgica Secunda; 3. Germania Pri 
 ma, or Superior ; 4. Germania Secunda, or Inferior ; 5. Max 
 ima Sequanorum. The limits of these five provinces were as 
 follows : 
 
 Belgica Prima comprehended the modern duchy of Treves, 
 a part of Luxembourg, and Lorraine. At the present day Lor 
 raine answers to the departments of the Meuse, Moselle,, 
 Meurthe, and Vosges. Its capital was Civitas Treviroram, 
 now Treves. 
 
 Belgica Secunda comprehended the northern part of Cham- 
 pagne, the northern half of the Isle de France, Picardie, Ar- 
 tois, French Hainault, and the territory of Tournay, or the 
 present departments of Ardennes, Seine et Oise, north of the 
 Seine, Oise, Somme, Pas de Calais, &c. Its capital was 
 Civitas Remorum, now Rheims. 
 
 Germania Prima comprehended all the country along the 
 left bank of the Rhine, from the range of Mount Vocetius, 
 an eastern arm of Jura, on the northern confines of the Helvetii, 
 down to the confluence of the Obringa with the Rhine, near 
 the modern Bingen. The French departments of the Haut 
 Rhin and Bas Rhin correspond to a part of this, the remainder 
 lying at present out of France. Its capital was Civitas Ma- 
 gontiacensium or Magontiacum, now Mainz or Mayence. 
 
 Germania Secunda comprehended all the country along the 
 left bank of the Rhine, from the mouth of the Obringa to the 
 Vahalis in length, and from the Rhine to the territory of the 
 Nervii in breadth. It answered, therefore, to a part of the 
 Netherlands, and to a portion, also, of the Prussian possessions 
 west of the Rhine. Its capital was Colonia Agrippina or 
 Agrippinensis, now Cologne. The land of the Batavi, at this 
 period, did not any longer belong to Gaul, but was possessed 
 by the Franks and Frisii. 
 
 Maxima Sequanorum comprehended all the country which 
 Augustus had taken from Gallia Celtica on the east side of the 
 Arar or Saone, and had added to Belgica. It answered, therefore, 
 
GALLIA. 85 
 
 to Franche Comte, the western half of Switzerland, and south 
 ern Alsace, or to the present departments of Haute Sa6?ie, 
 Doubs, Jura, &c. Its capital was Civitas Vesontiensium or 
 Besontmm, now Besangon. 
 
 OBS. 1. This arrangement of provinces is taken from the Nolitia Promncia- 
 rum Gallice, which, in all probability, dates from the time of Dioclesian and Con- 
 stantine. The division, however, must have existed at a much earlier period, 
 since we find allusions long before this to the existence of numerous provinces 
 in Gaul. 
 
 2. Of the seventeen provinces enumerated above, the two Germanys, the two 
 Belgicas, and Viennensis, had consular governors ; the others had praesides at 
 their head. (Notit. dig. Imp., c. 48.) 
 
 6. MOUNTAINS. 
 
 THE principal mountain chains of Gallia are six in number, 
 namely : 
 
 1. Monies Pyrenm. 4. Mom Jura. 
 
 2. Alpes. 5. Mom Vogesus. 
 
 3. Mom Cebenna. 6. Mons (et Silva) Arduenna. 
 
 I. The Monies Pyrencei have already been described in the 
 account given of ancient Hispania. The whole range, as be 
 fore remarked, is about two hundred and ninety-four miles in 
 length. 
 
 II. Alpes, called by the Greek writers ai "AArrei^, and by us 
 the Alps, is the name of a large mountain system separating 
 Gallia, Helvetia, and Germania from Italia. The appellation 
 is supposed to come from a Celtic word Alb or Alp, signify 
 ing " lofty," in allusion to the superior elevation of the chain. 
 The Alps extend from the Sinus Flanaticus, or Gulf of Car- 
 new, a.t the top of the Gulf of Venice, and the sources of the 
 River Colapis, now the Kulpe, to Vada Sabatia, now Savona, 
 on the Gulf of Genoa. The whole extent, which is in a cres 
 cent form, is nearly six hundred British miles. It is very dif 
 ficult to obtain any precise measure of the breadth of the chain. 
 If we take the direct distance from Bellmzona, on the Italian 
 side, to Altorf, on the Swiss side, which certainly does not 
 comprehend the whole breadth of the Alpine mass, we find this 
 to be about fifty miles of direct distance. From Aosta to Fri- 
 bourg, across the Valley of the Rhone, the direct distance is 
 about seventy miles ; but this measurement comprehends the 
 breadth of the main chain, and the offset which runs from St. 
 Gothard to the Jura, with the intervening valley. East of the 
 
86 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 Orisons the range increases considerably in breadth,* from the 
 Wurm See to a point a little north of Verona is a direct dis 
 tance of one hundred and fifty miles. As the Alps belong more 
 naturally to the geography of Italy, a more particular account 
 of them will be given in the description of that country. 
 
 III. Mom Gehenna, commencing in the country of the Volcse 
 Tectosages, in the south of Gaul. This chain ran in a north 
 eastern direction along the borders of Narbonensis, communi 
 cated by a side chain with the mountains of the Arverni to the 
 northwest, and, continuing still its northeastern direction, final 
 ly connected itself with the range of Jura among the Sequani 
 and Helvetii. A northern arm also connected it with Mount 
 Vogesus. The modern name is the Cevennes. These mount 
 ains are spoken of by both Greek and Latin writers. The 
 more ordinary form of the name is Cevenna ; Pliny, however, 
 uses Gebenna ; and some editors of Csesar give the preference 
 to Cevenna. The root of the name is supposed to exist in the 
 Cymric cefn, " a mountain ridge." Strabo calls the range TO 
 Keppevov 6po^, while Ptolemy uses the plural form rd Keppeva 
 opfj. Csesar crossed these mountains in his contest with the 
 Arverni and their confederates, tinder Vercingetorix. The 
 presumed difficulty of the passage had encouraged the Arverni ? 
 who deemed themselves covered from attack by these mount 
 ains as by a wall. The passage was made early in the year, 
 and Csesar had to open a road through snow six feet deep. The 
 fastnesses of these mountains afforded refuge to the Huguenots 
 in the religious wars of France. 
 
 IV. Mons Jnra, extending from the Rhodanus, or Rhone, to 
 Augusta Rauracorum, now August, on the Rhine, separated 
 Helvetia from the territory of the Sequani. The range retains 
 its ancient name, which is said to come from the Celtic Jou~ 
 rag-, " the domain of God, or Jupiter." 
 
 V. Mons Vogesus, or, according to some MSS. of Csesar, 
 Vosegus, now Vosges (in German Vogesen or Wasg&n), a 
 chain of mountains commencing in the territory of the Lin- 
 gones, and separating the Leuci from the Sequani, and the 
 Mediomatrioi from the Rauraci, Triboci, and Nemetes. They 
 belong to Belgic Gaul, and for a great part of their course run 
 nearly parallel with the Upper Rhine. Caesar places in these 
 mountains the sources of the Mosa, or Meuse. 
 
GALL i A. 87 
 
 VI. Mons (et Silva) Arduenna, a mountainous, or, rather, 
 hilly and woody region in Gallia Belgica, reaching, according 
 to Csesar, from the Rhine and the territories of the Treveri to 
 those of the Nervii. The heights in this tract were anciently 
 covered with an immense forest, though Strabo says that the 
 trees were not very lofty. The modern name for the chain is 
 the Ardennes, though the region is more commonly called the 
 Forest of Ardennes. The forest is much reduced in extent at 
 the present day, but still it renders the department which bears 
 its name one of the best wooded in France. The name is said 
 to come from the Celtic Arden, " a forest." If such be the 
 meaning of the term, it will account for the fact that the Ro 
 man goddess of forests, Diana, appears sometimes with the ep 
 ithet Arduenna ; and Montfaucon shows that a superstitious 
 belief in this goddess existed in the Ardennes till the thirteenth 
 century. 
 
 7. PROMONTORIES. 
 
 THE principal promontories of Gallia were ten in number, 
 namely, five along the western and northwestern coast, and 
 five along the southern coast, as follows : 
 
 1. On the Western and Northwestern Coast. 
 
 I. Curianum Promontorium, on the coast of Aquitania, in 
 a western direction from Burdigala, and near the town of Boii, 
 the modern Buck. It is now Cape Feret, in Guienne, or the 
 department of the Gironde, below which the Bay of Arcachon 
 runs into the land. 
 
 II. Santomim Promontorium, at the mouth of the Garum- 
 na, and just below the island of Uliarus, or Oleron. It is now 
 Pointe d Arvert. Gosselin, however, is in favor of Pointe de 
 V Aiguillon. 
 
 III. Pictonum Promontorium, to the north of the island of 
 Uliarus. According to D Anville, it is the modern Pointe de 
 r Alguillon, at the mouth of the Sevre Niortoise. Gosselin, 
 however, makes it Pointe de Boisvinet. 
 
 IV. Gobceum Promontorium, in the territory of the Osismii, 
 and near Brivates Portus, or Brest. It is now Cape St. Make 
 in Brctagne, department of Finisterre. 
 
 V. Itium Promontorium, near the Portus Itius, on the Fre- 
 
88 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 turn Gallicum. It is now Cape Grisnez, between Boulogne 
 and Calais. 
 
 2. On the Southern Coast. 
 
 I. Aphrodisium Promontorium, called, also, Pyrenceum Prom- 
 ontorium, and PyrencE Promontorium, the termination of the 
 Pyrenees, on the Mediterranean coast. It is now Cape Creux. 
 Strabo calls it TO 1% UvprjVTjg "Attpov. It derived the name 
 Aphrodisium from the circumstance of there being upon it a 
 temple of Venus Pyreruza, or A0pod/ r?7 Hvpyvaia. This prom 
 ontory has already been mentioned in the account of ancient 
 Hispania (p. 25). 
 
 II. Setium Promontorium, to the northeast of Agatha, the 
 modern Agde. It is now Cape Cette. Strabo speaks of an isl 
 and near this promontory named Blascon, which is evidently 
 the modern Brescon. 
 
 III. Mesua Collis, described by Mela as almost entirely sur 
 rounded by the sea, and only connected with the continent by 
 a narrow causeway or neck of land. It has been confounded 
 by some with the Setium Promontorium, but must be looked 
 for farther east, where the modern Mese, though now inland, 
 recalls apparently the ancient name. 
 
 IV. Zao Promontorium^ described by Pliny as lying to 
 the east of Massilia. According to Ukert, it is now Bee 
 tie Sormion. Others, however, are in favor of Cape de la 
 Croisette. 
 
 V. Citharistes Promontorium, placed by Avienus to the 
 west of Massilia, but by Ptolemy between Taurentum and 
 Olbia. It is now probably Cape de VAigle. 
 
 8. CHIEF RIVERS. 
 
 THE chief rivers of Gallia are eight in number, and may be 
 divided into three classes, namely, 1. Those falling into the 
 Sinus Aquitanicus, or the large bay between the mouth of the 
 Garumna and the confines of Spain, and which is now regard 
 ed as part of the Bay of Biscay, though once accustomed to 
 be called the Gulf of Gascony, and the Bay of France. 
 2. Those falling into the Oceanus Britannicus, Fretum Gal- 
 licum, and Oceanicus Germanicus. 3. Those falling into the 
 Sinus Gallicus. 
 
GALLIA. 89 
 
 1. Rivers falling into the Sinus Aquitanicus. 
 
 I. Aturis (6 "A-Tovpig), called by Lucan Alums, and by Ti- 
 bullus Atur, and now the Adour, rose in the Pyrenees, in the 
 territory of the Bigerrones, flowed through the territory of the 
 Tarbelli, and fell into the sea at Lapurdum, now Bayonne. 
 The length of this river is about one hundred and ninety-four 
 miles. The root of the name has been sought by some in the 
 Cymric dur, " water." 
 
 II. Garumna (6 Tapovvds), called, also, Garunna, now the 
 Garonne, rose in the Pyrenees, in the territory of the Con- 
 vena, flowed through the country of the Volcce Tectosages, 
 Tolosates, Nitiobrlges, Vasates, Civisci, and Bitunges, passed 
 by Burdigala, or Bourdeaux, and fell into the sea at Noviore- 
 gum, below the Santonum Promontorium, and now Royan. 
 Opposite Novioregum lay the island of Antros, now probably 
 Corduan. There was a popular belief that this island rose 
 and fell with the tide, being merely suspended, as it were, 
 upon the waters. Mela describes the Garumna as shallow, 
 and not well fitted for navigation, except when its waters 
 were increased by the winter rains, or the melting of the snow 
 in the spring. Near its mouth, however, it acquired considera 
 ble volume from the sea-water and the tides. The Garonne 
 is now navigable to Toulouse, the ancient Tolosa, whence the 
 Canal of Languedoc is cut to the Mediterranean. Its length 
 is about three hundred and sixty miles. Among the tributa 
 ries of the Garumna the three following may be named as the 
 principal ones : 1. The Tarnis, now the Tarn, rising in 
 Mons Gehenna, among the Gabali, in what is now the depart 
 ment of Lozere, and falling into the Garumna about twenty- 
 two miles above Agennum, the modern Agen. It was re 
 markable for the clearness of its waters, and its sands were 
 auriferous. 2. The Oltis, now the Lot, rising among the Ga 
 bali, and falling into the Garumna in the territory of the Ni- 
 tiobriges. It receives, in the early part of its course, a tribu 
 tary of its own, namely, the Triobris, now the Truyere. 
 3. The Duranius, now the Dordogne, rising among the Ar- 
 verni, and falling into the Garumna below Burdigala. After 
 the junction of the Dordogne, the united rivers now bear the 
 name of the Gironde. 
 
90 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 III. Liger (6 Aeiyqp), now the Loire, rose in Mons Cebenna, 
 among the Helvii, in what is now the department of Ardeche. 
 For about the first half of its course it flowed in a northern di 
 rection, and then, turning to the west, fell into the sea, between 
 the Pictones and Namnetes. The whole course of the Loire is 
 estimated at six hundred and seventy miles, of which five hun 
 dred and twelve are navigable. Among the tributaries of the 
 Liger may be named the following : 1. The Elaver, now the 
 Allier, rising in Mons Cebenna, and falling into the Liger near 
 Nbviodunum, the modern Never 8. By the later writers it was 
 called Elaris and Elauris. 2. The Cans, now the Cher, rising 
 among the Bituriges Cubi, and falling into the Liger on the 
 southern side, near CcBsarodunum, or Tours. 3. The Vigenna, 
 now the Vienne, rising among the Lemovlces, and falling into 
 the Liger a little below the junction of the Caris. 4. The 
 Meduana, now the Mayenne, coming in from the north, and 
 falling into the Liger near Andecavi, now Angers, which lay on 
 its banks a short distance above the junction. 
 
 2. Rivers falling- into the Oceanus Britannicus, Fretum Gal- 
 
 licum, and Oceanus Germanicus. 
 
 I. Sequana (6 ZTjKodvag), now the Seine, rose in the terri 
 tory of the Lingones, flowed through the country of the Se- 
 nones, Parisii, Eburones, and Velocasses, and fell into the sea 
 between the Caletes and Lexovii. The entire course of the 
 Seine is estimated at five hundred miles, for nearly three hun 
 dred and fifty of which it is navigable. By ^Ethicus, a writer 
 of the fourth century, this river is called the Geon or Geobonna. 
 Among the tributaries of the Sequana may be mentioned the 
 following : 1. The Autura or Audura, now the Eure, coming in 
 from the south, and falling into the Sequana at Uggadis, now 
 Pont de PArche, between Rouen and Evreux. 2. The Icau- 
 na, now the Yonne, also coming in from the south, and falling 
 into the Sequana at Condate, the modern Mont ereau fault. 
 
 3. The Matrona, now the Marne, rising in the territory of the 
 Lingones, and falling into the Sequana at Carentonium, now 
 Charenton, a little above Lutetia, or Paris. 4. The Isdra, 
 called, also, JEsta and (Esia, now the Oise, which receives the 
 Axona, now Aisne, and falls into the Sequana a short distance 
 below Lutetia. 
 
GALLIA. 91 
 
 II. Scaldis (called by Ptolemy 6 Ta6ovdag), now the Schelde, 
 as the Germans call it, or the Escaut, as it is termed in French. 
 Its more usual English name is Scheldt. This river rose in 
 the territory of the Veromandui, and fell into the Fretum Gal- 
 licum, where the Oceanus Germanicus commences, between 
 the Nervii and Caninefates. The total length of this river is 
 estimated at about two hundred and ten miles. 
 
 III. Mosa (6 M6aa$), now the Meuse, or, as the Dutch call 
 it, the Maas, rose among the Lingones, in a part of the chain 
 of Mons Vogesus, received the Sabis, now Sambre, at Namur- 
 cum, now Namur, and, not far from its mouth, the Vahalis, 
 now Waal, the left or southern arm of the Rhine, and then fell 
 into the sea at no great distance below the mouth of the Rhine. 
 The mouth of the Mosa was called Helium Ostium, now Bri~ 
 hel and Helfoet. Ptolemy, however, calls this the western 
 mouth of the Rhine, TO 6vop,iKbv Prjvov rroranov oropa. 
 
 IV. Rhenus, now the Rhine. A description of this stream 
 will be found under the head of Germania, to which country it 
 naturally belongs. 
 
 3. Rivers falling into the Sinus Gallicus and Mediterranean. 
 
 I. Rhoddnus (6 Podavog), now the Rhone, rose in the Lepon- 
 tine Alps, not far from the sources of the Rhine, flowed through 
 the land of the Nantuates, Seduni, Allobroges, Helvii, Sega- 
 launi, and Vocontii, and fell into the Sinus Gallicus, or Gulf 
 of Lyons. It was, and still is, a large and rapid river, and, in 
 the earlier part of its course, passed through the Lacus Le 
 wi anus, or Lake of Geneva. Its whole course is about four 
 hundred miles. In Strabo s time it was navigable some dis 
 tance up ; but its mouths are now so full of rocks, brought down 
 from the mountains by its impetuous current, that no ship can 
 enter them. The upward navigation in smaller vessels can 
 only, on account of the rapid current, be performed by draught 
 or steam. The Rhone at present enters the Mediterranean by 
 four mouths. The number in former days is differently given 
 by different writers, varying from two to seven. The discrep 
 ancy arose, probably, from the changes constantly made by the 
 rapid current of the stream, so that a small number of mouths 
 might be in a short time increased, and again a large number 
 rapidly diminished. Pliny speaks of three mouths, namely, 1. 
 
92 ANCVFNT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Os Hispaniense, on the side toward Spain ; 2. Os Metapinum, or 
 more probably Met mum, taking its name from the island of Me- 
 tma, now Tines ; 3. Os Massalioticum, the largest of the three. 
 As far as any certainty can be arrived at, the first of these an 
 swers to the Grau $ Orgon, while the second is subdivided now 
 into three openings, le Grand Grau, le Grau St. Anne, and le 
 Grau de Sauzette. The term Grau, written, also, Gras, is cor 
 rupted, in all probability, from the Latin ad Gradus, the later 
 appellation for the bay formed by the eastern mouth of the 
 stream. In the war with the Cimbri, the mouth of the Rhone 
 being choked up with mud and sand, it was dangerous, if not 
 impracticable, for vessels of burden to enter. Marius, there 
 fore, set his army to work at it, and having caused a cut to be 
 made capable of receiving large ships, he turned a great part 
 of the river into it, thus drawing it, says Plutarch, to a part 
 of the coast where the opening into the sea was easy and se 
 cure. This cut was called Fossa Mariana, or, in the plural 
 form, FOSSCB Mariana. Traces of this canal still remain, and 
 the name Fossa is still preserved in that of the village of Foz, 
 which stands on the spot where the canal entered the sea. 
 
 Among the tributaries of the Rhone may be mentioned the fol 
 lowing : 1. The Arar orAraris ("Apap, 6), now the Saone, rose in 
 Mons Vogesus, and fell into the Rhone at Lugdunum,wwr Lyons. 
 Caesar speaks of it as a remarkably smooth running river, and 
 hence some derive the name from the Cymric arav, "mild," 
 u gentle." Ammianus Marcellinus, who flourished toward the 
 close of the fourth century, first calls the Arar by the name of 
 Saucona, speaking of the latter as a common appellation on 
 the part of the inhabitants in that quarter, " Ararim quern 
 Sauconam appellant" (xv., 11). Gregory of Tours, at a later 
 period, styles it Saug ona. From this the transition to the 
 modern name is an easy one. 2. The Dubis (Aov6tf), now 
 Daubs, rose in the Jura range, flowed by Vesontio or Beson* 
 tium, now Besangon, and fell into the Arar. Some of the MSS. 
 of Caesar give the ancient name of this river as Adduabis, Al- 
 duabis, &c., but these are mere corruptions. 3. The Isdra, 
 called, also, the Isar (o "loap), now Isere, rose in the Alpes 
 Graiae, and fell into the Rhodanus above Valentia, now Va 
 lence. 4. The Druentia, now Durance, rose at the foot of the 
 Cottian Alps, and fell into the Rhodanus a short distance be- 
 
GALLIA. 93 
 
 low Avenio, now Avignon. 5. The Vardo, flowing to the north 
 of Nemausus, or Nismes, and falling into the Rhodanus near 
 Ugernum,) now Beaucaire. 
 
 II. Varus, now the Var, rose in the Alpes Maritimcs, in 
 Mom Cema, now Camelione, and fell into the Mediterranean 
 to the west of Nicsea, or Nice. It formed the boundary, at one 
 period, between Gallia and Italia in this quarter. 
 
 9. CHARACTER OF THE INHABITANTS, &c. 
 
 I. AT the period when they first became known in history, 
 the Gauls were by no means destitute of the arts of life and of 
 social and national culture. The Celti, known to the Massil- 
 ians, practiced hospitality and held public assemblies, in which 
 they cultivated music, including bardic poetry. The states of 
 Armorica (Normandy and Bretagne) were existing in the time 
 of Pytheas, who termed the inhabitants honorable or respecta 
 ble people. The Veneti, forming part of these states, were 
 skillful in ship-building and in maritime affairs before the in 
 tercourse between them and the Romans began. Gaul seems 
 to have had a sort of feudal constitution, in which the influ 
 ence of clanship and alliances between kindred tribes was a 
 very prominent feature, and this system appears to have been 
 established previously to the earliest historical accounts of the 
 Gauls, namely, before the invasion of Italy by the Bituriges 
 and their confederated clans. 
 
 II. No two nations were ever more contrasted in their social 
 and political institutions than the Gauls and Germans. Among 
 the latter, all the members of the community were freemen 
 and warriors, wore the arms of freemen, and took their place 
 in battle and in the deliberative assemblies of the people. The 
 case was widely different among the Gauls. Csesar informs 
 us that throughout all Gaul there were two dignified orders ; 
 these were the sacerdotal order, or Druids, and the military 
 caste. " These alone," says Csesar, " are held in any respect ; 
 the common people are regarded nearly in the light of slaves, 
 and undertake nothing of themselves, nor are they admitted to 
 councils. Many, oppressed by debts, or by the exaction of ex 
 cessive tributes, or the injuries of the powerful, surrender them 
 selves into slavery under the nobles, who exercise over them 
 the right of masters. The Druids manage all the affairs of re- 
 
94 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ligion, public and private sacrifices, and are the interpreters of 
 all divine things. They are held in great respect as the in 
 structors of youth. It is their business to settle all disputes, 
 private and public. In controversies respecting boundaries, or 
 succession to property, and in criminal accusations, they are 
 judges and appoint punishments. If any person, in either a 
 private or public capacity, refuses to submit to their decision, 
 they interdict him from sacrifices. This is the most severe 
 punishment. The interdicted are regarded as impious and 
 abominable, and they are outlawed, and avoided by all. One 
 chief Druid presides over the rest, and on his death a successor 
 is appointed by election. The Druids, at a certain time of the 
 year, hold a sitting in a consecrated place within the territory 
 of the Carnutes, which is considered the centre of Gaul. To 
 this assembly a final appeal is made in all controversies." 
 
 III. Strabo gives a somewhat different account of the digni 
 fied orders among the Gauls. He says that there are three 
 classes of men held in great esteem among them, the Bards, 
 the Ouates (Vates), and the Druids : the Bards, he adds, are 
 singers and poets ; the Ouates perform sacred rites and study 
 the doctrine of nature ; and the Druids, in addition to natural 
 philosophy (<pvoioAoyia), devote themselves also to the study of 
 ethics. It seems that these three classes, mentioned by Strabo, 
 come under the Druidical order of Csesar, otherwise two are 
 omitted by that writer. Ammianus Marcellinus mentions the 
 same three orders of Strabo under the names of Bardi, Euha- 
 ges, and Druidce. The Bards are mentioned also by Festus : 
 " Bardus Gallice cantor appellatur, qui virorum fortium laudes 
 canit" The same description and epithet were given to them 
 by Posidonius in a passage preserved by Athenseus, and cited 
 from the latter writer by Casaubon in his commentary on Strabo. 
 
 IV. We learn from Strabo that women sometimes took part 
 in the performances of the Druids, and that in an island near 
 the mouth of the Loire, ceremonies were performed similar to 
 those of Ceres and Proserpina. Vopiscus declares, from the 
 testimony of contemporary writers, that British Druidesses 
 predicted the death of Dioclesian. He also relates that Aure- 
 lian consulted Gaulish Druidesses. In the life of Numerian, 
 he says, that Dioclesian first conceived the hopes of his future 
 greatness from the prediction of a Gaulish Druidess. 
 
GALL i A. 95 
 
 V. The several states of Gaul were aristocratical republics. 
 In these it was customary to elect a prince or chief governor 
 annually, and a general was likewise appointed by the multi 
 tude to take the command in war. Strabo says that they had 
 one peculiar custom in their assemblies. If any person pres 
 ent made a noise and disturbed the speaker, an officer was sent 
 to him with a drawn sword, who at first, by threats, endeavor 
 ed to enforce silence, and if not obeyed, cut off a part of the 
 cloak of the offender, of sufficiently large size to render what 
 remained completely useless. 
 
 VI. Boldness, levity, and fickleness, a want of firmness and 
 self-command, are by the ancient writers universally ascribed 
 to the Gauls as their prominent characteristics. Strabo de 
 scribes them in rather a favorable point of view. He says 
 that " the Gauls in general are irascible, and always ready to 
 fight, but otherwise honest and good natured. When irritated, 
 they speedily hasten in crowds to arms, and that openly and 
 without circumspection, so that they are easily circumvented 
 and defeated by stratagem, for at all times and places it is easy 
 to provoke them to engage in quarrels, to which they bring no 
 other resources than violence and boldness. They are like 
 wise easily persuaded to a good purpose, and are ready for in 
 struction and intellectual culture. They are all naturally fond 
 of war ; they fight better on horseback than on foot ; the fur 
 ther they live toward the north and the ocean, the more war 
 like they are. The Belgse are said to be the most valiant of 
 all. Among the Belgse, the Bellovaci are the bravest, and 
 next to them the Suessiones." 
 
 VII. All the ancient writers ascribe to the Gauls the great 
 est degree of unchastity and impurity in their manners. Dio- 
 dorus Siculus, Athenseus, and other writers have preserved ac 
 counts of them, which indicate that they lived in a way which 
 betokened an almost total absence of modesty or shame. 
 
 VIII. The Gauls practiced agriculture, and were not unskill 
 ful in tillage, otherwise their country would not have support 
 ed so great a multitude of inhabitants as it is said to have main 
 tained. Strabo states that most of the Gauls were accustomed 
 to sleep upon the ground, and they sat on couches when they 
 took their meals. Their food was chiefly of milk and flesh of 
 various kinds, especially of swine, either fresh or salted. Their 
 
96 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 hogs, which were kept in the fields, were of remarkable height, 
 strength, and swiftness, and as dangerous to those who ap 
 proached them without heed as wolves. The Gauls built their 
 houses of planks and hurdles, and of a round form, with large 
 roofs. So numerous were their herds of oxen and swine, that 
 not only Rome, but the rest of Italy, was supplied from them 
 with salt provisions. 
 
 IX. To the open and impetuous disposition of the Gauls be 
 longed, according to the ancient writers, much of folly and boast 
 ful arrogance, and a remarkable fondness for ornament and dis 
 play. They wore bracelets around their arms and wrists, and 
 those who were in office had robes dyed, and embroidered with 
 gold. In consequence of this levity of disposition, they were 
 intolerably arrogant when conquerors, and when defeated they 
 became dismayed. They had the barbarous and strange habit, 
 common to many northern nations, of carrying, when they re 
 turned from battle, the heads of their enemies suspended from 
 their horses necks, and of hanging them up against the gates 
 of their towns, or of preserving them at home in chests. 
 
 X. The dress and personal habits of the Gauls were so re 
 markable as to afford epithets for national distinctions. Gallia 
 Braccata and Gallia Togata are terms that have been already 
 explained by us. The epithet Comata also had reference to 
 the custom of the Gauls in leaving the hair uncut. Like the 
 long-haired princes of the race of Meroveus, the warriors of an 
 cient Gaul were celebrated for their long, flowing locks of flax 
 en or yellow hair, which they kept tied in tufts behind their 
 heads. The Gallic sagum, or cloak, was parti-colored and em 
 broidered. Not only the women, but the men, ornamented 
 their necks and arms with a profusion of golden chains, rings, 
 and bracelets. The whole nation are said to have been re 
 markable for personal cleanliness. 
 
 XI. The arms of the Gauls were commonly battle-axes and 
 swords. But the gcesum, or heavy javelin, was their most re 
 markable weapon. The chariots, armed with scythes, used by 
 the Britons in battle, were not peculiar to them ; some of the 
 Gauls had a similar custom of fighting, as Strabo informs us. 
 Niebuhr s account of the appearance of a Gallic army is an ex 
 tremely graphic one. " Every wealthy Gaul adorned himself 
 with gold : even when he appeared in battle he wore golden 
 
GALLIA. 97 
 
 chains upon his arms and golden rings around his neck. Their 
 mantles, checkered, and displaying all the colors of the rainbow, 
 are still the picturesque costume of their kindred race the High 
 landers, who have laid aside the bracccE of the ancient Gauls. 
 Their great bodies, long, shaggy yellow hair, and uncouth fea 
 tures, made their appearance frightful ; their figures, their sav 
 age courage, their immense numbers, the deafening noise of 
 the numerous horns and trumpets in their armies, and the ter 
 rible devastation which followed their victories, paralyzed with 
 terror the nations whom they invaded." 
 
 XII. From the accounts of all the ancient writers, carefully 
 compared together, the Gauls appear to have been a remarka 
 bly tall, large-bodied, fair, blue-eyed, yellow-haired people. As, 
 however, the Germans are no longer a light-haired race, so the 
 descendants of the Gauls have lost the yellow hair of their fore 
 fathers. Although there is a great intermixture of northern 
 German races in the present population of France, the Visi 
 goths and Burgundians having settled in the south, and the Al- 
 lemanni, Franks, and Northmen in the northern parts, all of 
 whom had a complexion at least equally fair with that of the 
 ancient Gauls, yet the modern are far from being a very fair 
 people. Black hair is, in the middle provinces of France, more 
 frequent than very light. In Paris it has been observed that a 
 chestnut color is the most frequent hue of the hair. This ap 
 pears from the average number of those admitted in some hos 
 pitals. Neither are the French so huge and almost gigantic in 
 their stature as were the ancient Gauls. We must infer, there 
 fore, that the physical character of the race has varied mate 
 rially within fifteen centuries. 
 
 XIII. Although so much has been written on the religion of 
 the Gauls, the extent of our real information on this subject is 
 extremely limited. The Greeks and Romans fancied that they 
 recognized the objects of their own worship in the gods adored 
 by all other nations; and when Caesar therefore informs us 
 that the Gauls rendered divine honors to five of the Roman di 
 vinities, we are to understand by the assertion that the five 
 principal objects of adoration among the Celtic people bore 
 some resemblance in their attributes, and in the ceremonial of 
 the worship paid to them, to the Roman gods with whom 
 Cgesar identified them. These five divinities were Mercury, 
 
 G 
 
98 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Apollo, Mars, Jupiter, and Minerva. Mercury, as Caesar de 
 clares, was the principal object of religious worship, and to him 
 the most numerous images were erected. It seems that the 
 Gauls were idolaters, and that their principal god was, like 
 Mercury, the inventor of arts, the conductor and guardian in 
 journeys, and the patron of gain and profit in merchandise. 
 Such, we are told, were the attributes of the Gaulish Mercury. 
 Apollo, or the Gaulish deity taken for Apollo by the Romans, 
 was a protector against diseases ; Minerva was the promoter 
 of arts ; Jupiter, the ruler of the heavenly firmament ; Mars, 
 the god of war. It is probable that Taranis was the Celtic 
 god whom the Romans identified with Jupiter, because tar an 
 is the Cymric word for thunder. 
 
 XIV. Of all the pagan nations, the Gauls appear to have had 
 the most sanguinary rites. They may w r ell be compared in 
 this respect with the Ashantees, Dahomehs, and other nations 
 of Western Africa. Caesar says that, in threatening diseases, 
 and the imminent dangers of war, they made no scruple to sac 
 rifice men, or engage themselves by a vow to such sacrifices. 
 In these they made use of the ministry of the Druids ; for it 
 was a prevalent opinion among them that nothing but the life 
 of a man could atone for the life of a man, insomuch that they 
 had established even public sacrifices of that kind. Some pre 
 pared huge colossal figures of osier twigs, into which they put 
 men alive, and, setting fire to them, consumed those within in 
 the flames. They preferred for victims such as had been convict 
 ed of theft, robbery, or other crimes, believing them the most 
 acceptable to the gods ; but, when real criminals were want 
 ing, the innocent were often made to suffer. Strabo says that 
 there were also other immolations of human beings ; some they 
 shot with arrows or hung upon crosses, and a colossus being 
 made of rushes fastened with wood, sheep and beasts of every 
 kind, and men also, were burned together therein. 
 
 XV. The funeral rites of the Gauls were connected with their 
 notions respecting the state of the dead. They believed in a 
 future state, and the transmigration of souls. Their funer 
 als were, as Caesar informs us, magnificent and sumptuous 
 according to their means. They brought to the funeral pile all 
 the objects to which the deceased had been most attached, even 
 his favorite animals ; and a little before the age of Caesar it had 
 
GALLIA. 99 
 
 been the custom to burn with the dead even slaves and depend 
 ents who were known to have been objects of his affection. It 
 is added by another writer that these immolations were some 
 times voluntary, and that friends and relations cast themselves 
 upon the funeral pile willingly, in order to live in a future 
 world with the deceased. (Prichard, Researches, vol. in., p. 
 174, seqq.) 
 
 10. PRODUCTIVENESS OF GAUL. 
 
 I. STRABO declares that Gallia Narbonensis produced the same 
 fruits of the earth as Italy. " To the northward of Mons Ce- 
 benna," he adds, " olives and figs are wanting, but the soil is 
 fertile in other productions, though it hardly brings grapes to 
 full maturity." 
 
 II. Every other produce, according to the same authority, 
 abounded throughout Gaul, which bore much corn, millet, &c., 
 and supported herds of all kinds. There was no waste land, 
 except some tracts occupied by forests and morasses, and even 
 these were not desert, but contained inhabitants, whose num 
 ber was greater than their civilization. 
 
 III. Rome consumed a large quantity of the hams and sau 
 sages of Gaul, which were of an excellent quality. The orig 
 inal breed of swine, which existed in Celtic times, is still found 
 in Normandy, especially in the valley of Auge. 
 
 IV. Some of the rivers of Gaul contained in their sands pel 
 lets of gold. The Ruteni, whose country corresponds to the 
 modern Rovergne, worked mines of silver. Iron appears to 
 have been the metal best known. The Gauls had invented a 
 combination of copper and tin, which had the appearance of 
 silver, and they made out of this various ornaments for their 
 vehicles and harness. They were also skilled in the manufac 
 ture of glass-ware. 
 
 11. GALLIA MORE IN DETAIL. 
 
 PROVINCES. 
 1. NARBONENSIS. 
 
 (A.) NAMES. 
 
 I. THIS division of Gallia was, as we have already remarked, 
 called at first Provincia Romana, from the first part of which 
 name was subsequently derived the modern appellation of 
 
100 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Provence. (For an account of the origin of this province, con 
 sult * vi., p. 76.) 
 
 II. It was also called Gallia Narbonensis, from its capital 
 Narbo, the modern Narbonne. The corresponding Greek 
 names for Narbonensis are Napflwvmf and Napdwrjaia. 
 
 III. It was also termed Gallia Braccata^ from the bracccv 
 worn by the inhabitants. These braccce were a kind of trow- 
 sers or pantaloons, and were worn by all the Gauls ; but the 
 Romans, having seen them for the first time in this quarter, 
 thought that they were peculiar to this section of the country, 
 and therefore named this part of Gaul after them. 
 
 OBS. Braccce were not peculiar to the Gauls, but were common to all the na 
 tions which encircled the Greek and Roman population, extending from the In 
 dian to the Atlantic Ocean. Hence Aristagoras, king of Miletus, in his inter 
 view with Cleomenes, king of Sparta, described the attire of a large portion of 
 them in these terms : " They carry bow r s and a short spear, and go to battle in 
 trowsers, and with hats upon their heads." (Herod., v., 49.) Hence, also, the 
 phrase " Braccati militis arcus," signifying that those who wore trowsers were 
 in general armed with the bow. (Pro-pert., iii., 3, 17.; In particular, we are 
 informed of the use of trowsers or pantaloons among the following nations. 1. 
 The Medes and Persians ; 2. The Parthians and Armenians ; 3 The Phrygians ; 
 4. The Sacte ; 5. The Sarmatae ; 6. The Dacians and Getae ; 7. The Teutones ; 
 8. The Franks ; 9. The Belgse ; 10. The Britons ; 11. The Gauls. The Gallic 
 term " brakes," which Diodoms Siculus has preserved in speaking of the Gauls 
 (XP&VTO.L ava^vpici, uf EKELVOI /?pa/caf 7rpoc.a-yopvovai, lv., 30), also remains in the 
 Scottish " breeks," and the English " breeches." Corresponding terms are used 
 in all the northern languages (compare /Are, Glossar. Suio-Goth., s. v. Brackar). 
 Also the Cossack and Persian trowsers of the present day differ in no material 
 respect from those which were worn anciently in the same countries. Trow 
 sers were principally woollen, but Agathias states (Hist., ii., 5) that in Europe 
 they were also made of linen and of leather; probably the Asiatics made them 
 of cotton and of silk. Sometimes they were striped, ornamented with a woof 
 of various colors, or embroidered. They gradually came into use at Rome un 
 der the emperors. 
 
 (B.) BOUNDARIES. 
 
 GALLIA NARBONENSIS was bounded on the south by the Med 
 iterranean, on the east by the Alps, on the west by Aquitania, 
 and on the north by the Rhodanus in the western part of its 
 course. Pliny gives its length as two hundred and seventy 
 Roman miles, and its breadth as two hundred and forty-eight 
 of the same. Ptolemy compares its shape to that of a paral 
 lelogram. 
 
GALLIA. 101 
 
 (C.) TRIBES OF NARBONENSIS. 
 
 Larger Communities. 
 
 THE larger communities were seven in number, and may be 
 subdivided into two classes, namely, 1. Tribes dwelling on the 
 west side of the Rhodanus, and, 2. Tribes dweUi.ig onr the e^str 
 ern side of the same stream. - 
 
 1. Tribes dwelling on the west side of the Rhodanus. 
 
 I. Bebryces (Be6pvKeg), called, also, Sardones (Zdpdove<;}, a 
 mountaineer race, occupying a part of the Pyrenees, and ex 
 tending thence along the shore as far as Narbo, the modern 
 Narbonne. They were called Bebryces prior to Roman times, 
 and Sardones afterward. They were of Iberian descent. Their 
 territory corresponded to the modern department of Pyrenees 
 Orientales, and the southern part of the department of Aude. 
 
 II. Voiced (QvoXnat, and BoAai), subdivided into the Volcce 
 Tectosages and the Volcce Arecomici. The territory of the 
 former answered to the departments of Arriege, Haute Ga 
 ronne, Tarn, and the southwestern part of the department of 
 Aveiron, and that of the latter to the departments of Hera/alt, 
 Gard, and the southeastern part of the department of Aveiron 
 and that of Lozere. The Volcse were a large and powerful 
 tribe of Celtic origin, and comprehended under the two main 
 divisions just mentioned many minor communities, of whom 
 the JEtacini appear to have been the most important. 
 
 III. Helvii (~&Xovoi), a tribe also of Celtic origin, to the 
 north of the Arecomici, and occupying what is now the depart 
 ment of Ardeche. They are also called Elui. 
 
 2. Tribes divelling on the east side of the Rhodanus. 
 
 I. Allobroges ( AAA66poye^ and A/Uotfpvye^), between the 
 Rhodanus and Isara, in what is now the northern part of the 
 department of Drome, the departments of Isere and Mont 
 Blanc, and the western portion of the department of Leman. 
 They were a large and powerful tribe of Celtic origin. Their 
 chief city was Vienna, now Vienne, and their farthest city to 
 the north was Geneva, which still retains its name. 
 
 II. Cavdres or Cavdri (Kavapes), between the Rhodanus, the 
 Druentia, and the Isara, in what is now the department of 
 Vaucluse, and the western portion of the department of Drome ; 
 
102 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 they dwelt, therefore, around what are now Avignon, Carpen- 
 tras, Orange, and Montelimart. 
 
 III. VoQQntii or; Vocuntii (OVOKOVTIOI) , a powerful tribe, in 
 alliance .witk the Romans, and therefore enjoying their own 
 laws;. ^ -Ttj-ey occupied what is now the largest portion of the 
 western division of the departments of the Hautes and Basses 
 Alpes. 
 
 IV. Salyes (SaAvef), called, also, Salluvit, Salici, or Sallyi. 
 Their territory corresponded to what is now the departments 
 of the Rhone and Var. They were a large and savage tribe ? 
 of Lygian or Ligurian origin. 
 
 Smaller Tribes. 
 
 Besides the larger tribes just mentioned, we find the follow 
 ing smaller ones, partly surrounded by the larger communities., 
 and partly belonging to the same, namely, 1. Nantudtes, in 
 the northernmost part of the province, just below the Lacus 
 Lemanus, or Lake of Geneva. Caesar speaks of this tribe in 
 connection with the Verdgri and Seduni, who lay to the east 
 and southeast of them, and he makes the territories of the three 
 extend from the confines of the Allobroges, and the Lacus Le 
 manus, and Rhodanus, as far as the Alps. The object of the 
 Roman commander was to open a secure route for traders over 
 the Alps in this quarter, and one on which they would not be 
 subject to heavy imposts, and he appears to have succeeded in 
 this. The chief city of the Veragri was Octodurus, now Mar- 
 tigni or Martinach ; and that of the Seduni was Civitas 
 Sedunorum, now Sion. 2. Centrones, to the south of the 
 Nantuates, among the Graian Alps. Their territory answered, 
 to the modern Tarantaise. 3. Caturiges, to the south of the 
 preceding, among the Cottian Alps. 4. Tricorii, to the west 
 of the preceding. 5. Vulgientes, Memini, and Albiceci, to the 
 south of the preceding. 6. Suelteri and Commoni, toward the 
 coast. 7. Oxybii) to the northeast of the preceding, between 
 Forum Julii, now Frejus, and Antipolis, now Antibes. 
 
 (D.) CITIES OF NARBONENSIS. 
 
 1. Cities between the Pyrenees and the Rhodanus. 
 I. THESE may be divided into two classes, namely, 1. Cities 
 on the coast, and, 2. Cities in the interior of the country. 
 
GALLIA. 103 
 
 II. They will comprise the cities of the Bebryces, Volcce 
 Tectdsdges, Volcce Arecomici, and Helvii. 
 
 1. Cities on the Coast. 
 
 In the territory of the Bebryces we find, 1. Illiberis or Eli- 
 berri, on the River Illiberis, and where Hannibal pitched his 
 camp after crossing the Pyrenees. It was at first a place of 
 some importance, but subsequently declined, until Constantino 
 the Great re-established it, and called it Helena, in honor of 
 his mother. Here the Emperor Constans was overtaken and 
 slain by the cavalry of the usurper Magnentius. It is now 
 Elm, on the River Tech. 2. Ruscmo (?J Povaidvuv), to the 
 north of the preceding, on the River Ruscino. The city is now 
 La Tour de Roussillon, and the river is now the Tet. 
 
 In the territory of the Volcce Tectosages we find, 1. Narbo 
 Martins (77 Nap6o)i>), now Narbonne, on the little river At ax 
 or Adax, now the Aude, in the northeastern angle of the Lacus 
 Rubresus, now L^E tang de Sigean. It was an old city, and 
 the capital of the province, to which it gave name. Even be 
 fore the arrival of the Romans in Gaul, Narbo was an import 
 ant commercial place, and hence the first colony planted by 
 Rome in this country was established here (B.C. 116). The 
 new settlement was called Colonia Ataclnorum, from the 
 Atacini, a tribe of the Tectosages, who dwelt in this quarter, 
 and with whom the Roman settlers became intermingled. 
 This name was subsequently changed to Colonia Atacinorum 
 Decumanorumque, the additional part, Decumanorum, having 
 been derived from the Legio Decumana, or tenth legion, the 
 remains of which were settled here by Julius Caesar, whence 
 also the city of Narbo received the appellation of Martins. 
 The traces of a large canal are still shown here, which the Ro 
 mans cut in order to connect the lake into which the Atax flowed 
 with the sea. The main road from Italy to Spain ran through 
 this place. Cicero calls Narbo " Specula Populi Romani ac 
 propugnaculum" and Strabo designates it as being in his time 
 the emporium of all Gaul. It fell into the hands of the Visi 
 goths, A.D. 462, and was shortly afterward made the capital 
 of their kingdom. In 720 it was taken by the Saracens, and 
 in 759 by Pepin-le-bref. 
 
 2. Bceterrce Septimdnorum, to the northeast, now Bezieres. 
 
104 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 It was situate on the left bank of the Obris, now Orbe. The 
 epithet Septimanorum was derived from the soldiers of the 
 seventh legion, who were settled here as a colony. 
 
 In the territory of the Volcce Arecomici we find, 1. Agatha 
 or Agathe ( Ayd^), now Agde. It was a settlement of the 
 Massilians, as Strabo informs us, and situate at the mouth of 
 the River Arauris, now the Herault. 2. Mesua, now Mese. 
 called Mansa by Avienus. 3. Ledus, now Lattes. 
 
 2. Cities in the Interior. 
 
 In the territory of the Volcce Tectosages we find, 1. Tolosa 
 Tectosagum (ToAwaa), now Toulouse. This was a very old 
 city, and famed for its size and wealth before the arrival of the 
 Romans in Gaul, and contained a temple held in great venera 
 tion by all who dwelt around the place, and remarkable for its 
 riches, arising from pious offerings. The gold obtained by 
 Brennus from the plunder of Delphi is said also to have been 
 deposited here. Servilius Caepio, the Roman commander, on 
 the capture of the city, seized upon the treasures of the tem 
 ple for his own use ; but the misfortunes which subsequently 
 befell him, and which were ascribed to this act of sacrilege, 
 gave rise to the proverb " Aurum Tolosamim" The Romans 
 made this place a colony, and under their dominion it became 
 celebrated as a seat of the sciences. 2. Carcdso or Carcasum, 
 now Carcassone, on the Atax. 3. Usuerva or Hosuerva, near 
 Narbo, now Aubere. 
 
 In the territory of the Volcce Arecomici we find, 1. Neman- 
 sus, now NismeSj a place of great antiquity. It lay on the Ro 
 man military road from Italy to Spain, on the southernmost 
 slope of Mons Cebenna, and was distant one hundred stadia 
 from the Rhodanus, and seven hundred and twenty from Nar- 
 bo. Strabo makes it the capital of the Arecomici, and states 
 that, though inferior to Narbo in the number of strangers and 
 others resorting to it for the purposes of trade, it was superior 
 in the number of its citizens. The town exercised authority 
 over twenty-four populous villages, and enjoyed the Jus Latii, 
 by virtue of which those elected to the aedileship or quaestor- 
 ship in Nemausus acquired the rights of Roman citizens. 
 Nemausus was fortified with walls and gates by the Emperor 
 Augustus, about fourteen years before the Christian era. It 
 
GALLIA. 105 
 
 was the birth-place of Antoninus Pius. In the downfall of the 
 Roman empire, Nemausus suffered much ; still, however, of all 
 the towns in France, it preserves the most striking memorials 
 of its ancient grandeur. It has been styled, in fact, " a second 
 Rome." The two most remarkable remains are the ancient 
 building known as " La Maison Carree" (the square house), 
 though not square, as its name would imply, but a parallelo 
 gram, and the amphitheatre. The former of these buildings 
 was a temple erected to M. Aurelius and L. Verus. The am 
 phitheatre is in better preservation than the Coliseum at Rome, 
 and of greater extent than the amphitheatre of Verona. It has 
 been computed to have been capable of holding 17,000 persons. 
 
 2. Ugernum, to the southeast of Nemausus, now Beaucaire, 
 on the Rhone. Strabo calls the place Qvjepvov. Here Avitus 
 was raised to the empire, AJD. 456, by the assistance of the 
 Visigoths. 3. Vindomagm] in the territory of the Adricomii, 
 now Vigan. 4. Andusia, to the northeast of the preceding, 
 now Anduze. 
 
 In the territory of the Helvii we find, 1. Alba Augusta, the 
 capital of the tribe, and more commonly called Alba Helvio- 
 rum. Ptolemy, in mentioning it, corrupts the latter part of 
 the name, and calls the Helvii by the appellation of Elicoci, 
 and errs still further in placing the city on the east instead of 
 the west side of the Rhone. It is now Alps or Aps, accord 
 ing to D Anville. Some, however, are in favor of Viviers. 
 2. Apollinarium, now Aubenas. 3. Batiana, northeast of 
 Alba Augusta, now Beds. 
 
 2. Cities between the Rhoddnus and the Alps. 
 
 I. These may also be divided into two classes, like those 
 just enumerated, namely, 1. Cities on the coast, and, 2. Cities 
 in the interior. 
 
 II. They will comprise the cities of the Salyes, Cavares, 
 Vocontii, Allobroges, and some of the smaller tribes. 
 
 1. Cities on the Coast. 
 
 In the territory of the Salyes, or between the Druentia and 
 the sea, we find, 1. Tarasco, a small place called TroMxviov by 
 Strabo, and lying opposite to Nemausus, on the other side of 
 the Rhodanus. It is now Tarascon. 2. Areldte, to the south 
 
106 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 of the preceding, situate on the Rhodanus, just where the river 
 divided into two channels, and now Aries. It is first mention 
 ed by Caesar (B. (7., i., 36 ; ii., 5), who built here twelve ships 
 of war previous to the siege of Massilia. Strabo speaks of it 
 as a place of no small trade in his time. Pomponius Mela, a 
 writer somewhat later than Strabo, describes it as one of the 
 richest cities of Gallia Narbonensis. Other authors make it a 
 Roman colony ; and it was probably from the circumstance of 
 some of the colonists belonging to the sixth legion that it got 
 the name of Ar elate Sextanorum. The name is variously 
 written. Arelate is most common, but we find also Arelas 
 (especially in the poets), Ar elated ( Aps/tarm, Strabo), and Are- 
 latum ( ApeAarov, Ptolemy), and in later times Arelatus. 
 This city appears to have suffered considerably from the Alle- 
 manni during the decline of the Roman empire, but in the 
 early part of the fourth century it rose to greatness and dis 
 tinction under the patronage of Constantine the Great. This 
 prince appears to have built that part of Arelate which lay be 
 yond the Rhone, and which forms, in the present day, the sub 
 urb of Trinqmtaille, in the island La Camargue. He also 
 gave to Arelate the name of Constantina, which it continued 
 to bear in the time of Honorius (a century later), who trans 
 ferred to it the seat of the prsetorian prefect of Gallia, which 
 had been previously fixed at Augusta Trevirorum, or Treves. 
 The dignity of Arelate survived the fall of the western empire. 
 It was the residence of a king of the Visigoths, and of a prefect 
 under Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths. Under the Merovin 
 gian Franks it declined. 
 
 In the vicinity of Arelate were the celebrated Campi Lapi- 
 dei, called, also, Campi Lapidarii (TO MOivov rredov), "the sto 
 ny fields," the poetic tradition respecting which made this re 
 gion the scene of the combat between Hercules and the two 
 brothers Albion and Bergion, the giant sons of Neptune. The 
 hero, when about crossing the Rhone with the oxen of Geryon, 
 was opposed by these two giants, and, having exhausted his ar 
 rows in the conflict, prayed to Jove for aid, who thereupon sent 
 him a shower of stones, with which he proved victorious. The 
 plain was well known to the ancients, and is described very ac 
 curately by Strabo, except that he assigns it too small an ex 
 tent. It lies near the eastern bank of the east channel of the 
 
GALLIA. 107 
 
 Rhone, between it and the E tang de Berre, and, according to 
 modern accounts, contains from 140,000 to 170,000 English 
 acres. It is composed entirely of shingle, or, in other words, is 
 covered all over with rolled boulders and pebbles, the stones va 
 rying in size from that of a pea to that of a pumpkin ; and it 
 is as free from any intermixture of soil as the shingle upon the 
 sea-shore. Vegetation is poor and miserable, yet the district 
 supplies winter pasturage to immense flocks of sheep. The 
 modern name is the plain of La Crau. This whole region 
 must at one time have been entirely submerged, and the stones 
 must have been deposited by the Rhone and its tributaries, es 
 pecially the Durance, under circumstances very different from 
 their present physical condition. 
 
 On the route from Arelate to Massilia lay, 3. Maritima Adu- 
 attcorum, now Miramas, according to Reichard and Mannert, 
 while others are in favor of Martigues. It was also called 
 Maritima Colonia and Anatiliorum Urbs, since it lay in the 
 territory of the Anatilii. It was a place of considerable trade. 
 4. Calcaria, now Calissane. 
 
 We now come to, 5. Massilia, called by the Greeks Maoaa- 
 Am, and now Marseilles. This place was founded by the Pho- 
 cseans of Asia Minor, and was perhaps the earliest, as it cer 
 tainly was the most important of their settlements in the west 
 ern part of the Mediterranean. Two colonies of Phocseans 
 successively established themselves in the place, the first about 
 B.C. 600, while Phocsea was yet flourishing. The second colo 
 nization of Massilia took place about B.C. 544, on occasion of 
 the Phocseans quitting their native city to avoid the subjection 
 with which they were threatened by the Persians. The Mas- 
 silians were early involved in hostilities with the native tribes, 
 Ligurian and Celtic, over whom they obtained several victories, 
 and established new settlements along the coast, in order to re 
 tain them in subjection. The surrounding barbarians acquired 
 from the new settlers some of the arts of civilized life : they 
 learned to prune and train the vine, and to plant the olive. 
 The Massilians had also to contend with the power of the Car 
 thaginians (the commercial rivals of the Greeks in western 
 Europe), whom they defeated in a sea-fight of early but un 
 certain date. The Massilian Constitution was aristocratic; 
 their laws and their religious rites were similar to those of the 
 
108 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 lonians of Asia. The governing body was a senate of six hun 
 dred persons, called Timuchi (rtjuov^oi), who were appointed 
 for life. This senate had fifteen presidents (Trpoeffrwrgf), who 
 formed a sort of committee, by which the ordinary business of 
 the government was managed. Of this committee three per 
 sons possessed the chief power. The Timuchi were chosen 
 from among those who had children, and in whose family the 
 right of citizenship had been possessed by three generations. 
 The Massilians, like the PhocEeans, were a naval people, and 
 planted several colonies on the coasts of Gaul, Spain, and It 
 aly. They early and steadily cultivated an alliance with the 
 Romans, which alliance was gradually converted into subjec 
 tion. In the civil war of Pompey and Caesar, they embraced 
 the party of the former, and closed their gates upon Caesar, un 
 der pretence of preserving neutrality (B.C. 49). After con 
 tending for some time against Caesar s lieutenants, Trebonius 
 and Brutus, they surrendered to that commander himself on 
 his return from his victory over the Pompeians in Spain. Cae 
 sar, however, did not reduce them to entire subjection, but left 
 two legions in garrison, while he marched forward into Italy. 
 The municipal government of Massilia remained unaltered, but 
 its political independence was virtually overthrown. The at 
 tention of the Massilians was now more directed to literature 
 and philosophy, of which, indeed, they were already diligent 
 cultivators. They had spread through the south of Gaul the 
 knowledge of the Greek written character, which Caesar found 
 in use among the Helvetii, and now their city became to the 
 west of Europe what Athens was to the east. The moderate 
 charges and frugal habits of the citizens added to the advan 
 tages of the spot as a place of study, and the most illustrious 
 of the Roman youth resorted thither. Cicero has recorded in 
 the strongest language the praises of the Massilians ( Or at. pro 
 L. Flacco, c. 26). Livy has put a high encomium upon them 
 in the mouth of a Rhodian embassador (xxxvii., 54) ; and Tac 
 itus (Agric., c. 4) has spoken in the same strain. For more 
 than three centuries the history of Massilia presents no events 
 of interest. In the troubles which followed the abdication of 
 Dioclesian and Maximian, the latter (A.D. 310) attempted to 
 resume the purple at Arelate, to the prejudice of the Emperor 
 Constantino, his son-in-law ; but, being baffled in his attempt. 
 
GALLIA. 109 
 
 he fled to Massilia, which he vainly attempted to defend. The 
 city was taken by Constantine, and Maximian became his own 
 executioner. In the reign of Honorius, Massilia repelled the 
 attempt of the Visigothic king, Ataulphus, to take possession, 
 but it afterward became the prey of the Burgundians, Visigoths, 
 and Franks. It was taken from the Franks by Theodoric the 
 Ostrogoth, king of Italy. Toward the middle of the sixth cen 
 tury, it was ceded with the rest of Provence by Vitiges the 
 Ostrogoth to the Franks. 
 
 Leaving Massilia, and following the line of the coast, we come 
 next to, 6. Tauroentum, called, also, Tauroeis and Taurenti- 
 um, the site of which is to be sought between Ceireste and 
 Toulon. Ukert places it at Tarento. 7. Telo Martins, now 
 Toulon. This place is noticed as a harbor in the " Itinerarium 
 Maritimum" of Antoninus. It is noticed, also, by the anony 
 mous geographer of Ravenna, who calls it simply Telo ; and 
 from the " Notitia Dignitatum per Gallias," which enumerates, 
 among other officers, the " Procurator Baphii Telonensis Gal- 
 liarum" (Overseer of the dye-house for the provinces of Gaul 
 at Telo), it appears that the principal government dye-house in 
 Gaul was here. A bishopric was established here in the fourth 
 century, which continued till the Revolution : the bishop was 
 a suffragan of the Archbishop of Arelate. In the Middle Ages, 
 Telo Martius was repeatedly ruined by the Saracens, and as 
 often recovered from the disaster. 8. Olbia, a Massilian colo 
 ny, now, according to D Anville, Eoubes, not far from Hieres. 
 Along this coast are three islands, called, respectively, Prote, 
 Mesc, and Hypcea, or, by a general name, Staschddes, of which 
 mention will be made in speaking of the islands of Narbonen- 
 sis. 9. Forum JulU, to the northeast of the preceding, now 
 Frejus. This place is supposed to have been originally a col 
 ony of the Massilians, but the time of its foundation is un 
 known. It took its Roman name from Julius Caesar, who may 
 possibly have commenced the excavation of the port, which was 
 completed in the time of Augustus. This emperor established 
 here the station of a fleet destined to protect the coast of Gaul. 
 A Roman colony was also fixed here at the same time, and the 
 town became wealthy and populous. It was the birth-place 
 of the celebrated Agricola. 10. Aquce Sextice, now Aix, north 
 east of Massilia, and just above the River Ccenus, now the 
 
110 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Arc. It owed its origin and name to the Romans ; for the pro 
 consul C. Sextius Calvinus, having defeated the Saluvii or 
 Salyes, founded a colony here about 120 B.C., and gave it, on 
 account of its medicinal springs, the name of Aquce Sextice, 
 i. e., " the waters of Sextius." These springs have been dis 
 covered in modern days, but are now in small repute. 11. Ad 
 Horrea, now Cannes. 12. Antipolis, now Antibes. This place 
 was founded by the Massilians as a barrier against the incur 
 sions of the Salyes and Ligurians. Some accounts state that 
 the Massilians took it from a tribe of the Ligurians. It was 
 taken from under the jurisdiction of Massilia, in the time of 
 Augustus, and placed in the rank of an Italic city ; and it ap 
 pears to have been a flourishing place, to which the tunny fish 
 ery may have contributed. The remains of a theatre and some 
 other ancient buildings attest its former importance. During 
 the Roman dominion there was an arsenal here, and the town 
 was protected by fortifications, of which two strong towers yet 
 remain. 13. Niccea (NiKata), lying to the east of the Varus or 
 Var, now Nice. It was founded by the Massilians, and forti 
 fied by them to repress the neighboring tribes, and secure the 
 navigation of the adjacent sea. It continued subject to the 
 Massilians after the establishment of the Varus as the bounda 
 ry of Gaul and Italy. In the Middle Ages it was a strong 
 fortress. 
 
 2. Cities in the Interior of the Country. 
 
 I. These may be subdivided into four classes, namely, 1. 
 Cities between the left or southern arm of the Druentia and the 
 places along the coast which have just been mentioned ; 2. Cit 
 ies between the right and left arms of the Druentia ; 3. Cities 
 between the right arm of the Druentia and the River Isara ; 
 4. Cities between the Isara and the Rhodanus. 
 
 II. The first of these classes will comprehend cities belonging 
 to the Oxybii, Suetri, Nerusi, and Vediantii ; the second, cit 
 ies belonging to the Albiosci, Avantici, and Bodiontici ; the 
 third, cities belonging to the Memini, Vulgientes, Vocontii, 
 Cavares, Seg-alauni, and Tricorii ; and the fourth, cities be 
 longing to the Allobroges, Tricastini, and Nantuates. 
 
 First Class. 1. Alba Augusta, now Aups. Not to be con 
 founded with Alba Helviorum, also called Alba Augusta, which 
 
GALLIA. Ill 
 
 lay on the other side of the Rhone, in the territory of the Hel- 
 vii. 2. Antece or Anteis, now Ampuis. 3. Salince, a city of 
 the Suetri, taking its name from the salt springs in its neigh 
 borhood, now Castellane, in the Maritime Alps. 4. Vergunni, 
 the name of a city and people among the Alps, now Vergons. 
 5. Ectini, another Alpine city and people, now Estene. 6. 
 Glannativa or Glamnateva, mentioned by the writers of the 
 Middle Ages, now Glandeves. 
 
 Second Class. 1. Griselum, in the angle between the two 
 arms of the Druentia. There were medicinal springs in this 
 quarter, and hence the place was also called Aquce Griselicce. 
 An inscription, in which the words Nymphis Griselids occur, 
 was found at the baths of Greoulx, and therefore fixes the lo 
 cality. 2. Ren Apollinares, or simply Reii, to the northeast 
 of the preceding, now Riez. It was a Roman colony. The 
 earlier name was Albece or Albicece, and it was the capital of 
 the Albioeci. 3. Sanittum or Civitas Saniciensium, to the 
 northeast, now Senez. 4. Dinia or Civitas Dienensium, now 
 Digne, to the northwest of Sanitium. 
 
 Third Class. 1. Apt a Julia, the capital of the Vulgientes, 
 north of the Druentia, and east of Avenio. It is now Apt. It 
 was a Roman colony, as the latter part of the name indicates. 
 2. Cabellio, the capital of the Cavares, to the west of the pre 
 ceding, and lying on the Druentia ; now Cavaillon, on the Du 
 rance. 3. Avenio, in the angle between the Rhodanus and 
 Druentia, now Avignon. Some writers ascribe the origin of 
 Avenio to a colony from Massilia ; according to another opin 
 ion, it was the original capital of the Cavares, from whom it 
 was called Avenio Cavarum. It came into the hands of the 
 Romans at an early period of their dominion in Gaul, and a 
 Roman colony appears to have been established here. Upon 
 the downfall of the Roman empire in the west of Europe, it 
 was possessed by the Burgundians, and afforded to the king of 
 that people a secure asylum from the power of Clovis, king of 
 the Franks, who besieged it in vain. It subsequently became 
 subject, perhaps for a short time, to the Visigoths, certainly to 
 the Ostrogoths, Franks, and Saracens. The Saracens took it 
 twice, but could not retain it. 4. Carpentoracte, to the north 
 east of Avenio, now Carpentras, on the River Auzon. It be 
 longed to the Cavares, and became a Roman colony under 
 
112 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Julius Caesar. Valesius makes it identical with Ptolemy s 
 Forum Neronis Meminorum, but this is rather Forcalquier. 
 At Carpentoracte may still be seen the remains of a triumphal 
 arch of Domitius Ahenobarbus, who defeated here the Allobro- 
 ges and Arverni. 5. Arausio (kpavoiuv], now Orange, north 
 of Avenio. This was also a city of the Cavares. Mela and 
 Pliny call it Arausio Secundanorum, from the soldiers of the 
 second legion, who were settled there as colonists. On coins 
 the full title is Colonia Arausio Secundanorum Cohortis 
 XXXIII. Orange contains more Roman antiquities than most 
 other towns in France, and may vie with the cities of Italy. 
 The principal of these is a triumphal arch, called, by the in 
 habitants of the district, the Arch of Marius, but which is prob 
 ably of the age of Augustus. The Visigoths and Burgundians 
 got possession of this place on the downfall of the Roman empire, 
 and from them it passed to the Franks. In the Middle Ages it 
 was the capital of a principality, which, after passing through 
 different families, came to that of Nassau. The title of Prince 
 of Orange is still retained by the royal family of Holland. 
 6. Vasio, now Vaison, to the northeast of Arausio, called by 
 Pliny " Colonia et Caput Vocontiorum." It was the native 
 place of Trogus Pompeius. 
 
 7. Nffiomagus, called, also, Augusta, now Nion, northwest 
 of Vasio. 8. Mons Seleucus or Saleucus, to the east, the name 
 of a mountain and city where Magnentius met with his sec 
 ond defeat from Constantius. Many remains of antiquity are 
 still found here. The name of the spot, as given by Ukert, is 
 La batie Mont Saleon. 9. Dea Vocontiorum, now Die, to 
 the northwest. A Roman colony was settled here, with the 
 title of Colonia Dea Augusta Vocontiorum. 10. Valentia, to 
 the northwest, now Valence. It was situate on the Rhodanus, 
 a short distance below the junction of the Isara with that stream. 
 It was the capital of the Segalauni or Segovellauni, and is 
 mentioned by Ptolemy as a colony. In the time of the later 
 western emperors it was a place of considerable strength, and 
 afforded a refuge to Constantine, who had assumed the purple 
 in Britain, and was fruitlessly besieged here by Sarus the Goth, 
 whom Stilicho had sent against him. Jovinus, another usurp 
 er, sought refuge here, but the town was taken by the Visigoths, 
 who, under their king Ataulphus, had taken part against him. 
 
GALLIA. 113 
 
 It was afterward subject to the Burgundians, and passed from 
 them to the Franks. In the Middle Ages it formed part of 
 the kingdom of Aries, and was the capital of Valentinois, a 
 district of Dauphine. 
 
 On the eastern side of the River Tricus or Tracus, now the 
 DraCj which flowed into the Isara just below Gratianopolis, 
 now Grenoble, dwelt the Tricorii. Among their cities, contin 
 uing our enumeration of those composing the third class, we 
 may mention, 1. Gratianopolis. In the " Theodosian Table," 
 and in the " Notitia Imperii," it is designated by the name of 
 Cularo. Inscriptions, which have been dug up, speak of the 
 fortifications and the edifices within the town, which were 
 erected by the emperors Dioclesian and Maximian, from whose 
 assumed designations of Jovius and Herculius two of the gates 
 were named Port a Jovia and Port a Herculea. In the fourth 
 century the name Gratianopolis was given to the town, in 
 compliment to the Emperor Gratianus ; and this name grad 
 ually superseded the old one, Cularo, and was the origin of the 
 modern one, Grenoble. In Cicero s time, Cularo was a frontier 
 town of the Allobroges, to which tribe the Tricorii appear origin 
 ally to have belonged. 2. license Castrum, to the southeast of 
 the preceding, the site of which, according to Durandi, is to be 
 sought in the vicinity of either Oze (called in the Middle Ages 
 Ossis) or in that of Huez. 3. Catorissium, to the northeast, 
 now, according to Reichard, Petit Chat. 4. Caturigce, called, 
 also, Caturigomagus or Catorimagus, to the southeast of the 
 preceding, near the Druentia. It was the capital of the Catu- 
 riges, and is now Charges. 5. Eburodunum or Ebrodunum, 
 now Embrun, to the northeast of the preceding, on a mount 
 ain, the roots of which were washed by the Druentia. In the 
 " Notitia Civit. Prov. Max. Sequan." it is called Castrum 
 Ebredunense. This place obtained various privileges from the 
 Roman emperors. 
 
 Fourth Class. 1. Vienna, now Vienne, on the Rhodanus, 
 and the capital of the Allobroges. This place was already in 
 existence in the time of Caesar, who makes mention of it in 
 his commentaries. Ptolemy writes the name Ovievva, which 
 is also the orthography of Strabo, while in the Peutinger Ta 
 ble it is written Vigenna ; this last, however, is very probably 
 a mistake. It was a Roman colony, and the rival of its neigh- 
 
 H 
 
114 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 bor Lugdunum, or Lyons. In the civil war at the close of 
 Nero s reign, it embraced the party of Galba, from whom it re 
 ceived many honors. Tradition fixes Vienna as the place of 
 Pilate s banishment after he had been displaced from his gov 
 ernment of Judaea, and a Roman structure, still standing, is 
 popularly called his tomb. The people of this place appear to 
 have been great admirers of the epigrams of Martial, which has 
 been taken as an indication that literature was cultivated among 
 them. Martial gives to Vienna the epithet " vitifera" (vine- 
 bearing), and the vineyards on the Rhone, immediately oppo 
 site, still produce the Cote Rotie, one of the finest of the French 
 red wines, while the hills around Vienne, on both sides of the 
 river, are covered with vineyards, which produce abundance of 
 good red wine. 2. Geneva, now Geneve, as the name is writ 
 ten in French, or Genf, according to the German orthography, 
 while in English we still call it Geneva. It was situate at 
 the southwestern extremity of the Lacus Lemanus, or Lake of 
 Geneva, where the Rhodanus issued from it, and on the south 
 ern bank of the stream. The place is mentioned by Csesar, 
 who speaks of it as the farthest city of the Allobroges in this 
 quarter, and close to the confines of the Helvetii, with whose 
 territory it was connected by a bridge across the Rhodanus. 
 Modern Geneva occupies both banks of the stream, though the 
 larger portion of the city is still on the southern side. It is 
 somewhat surprising that, down to the time of the "Itinera 
 ries" and the " Theodosian Table," no one of the geographical 
 writers subsequent to the time of Caesar makes any mention of 
 the place. By the writers of the Middle Ages it is often allud 
 ed to, but under the name of Genana, Jenna, &c. 3. Tarna- 
 ja, called, also, Acaunum, now St. Maurice, on the Rhone. 
 4. Octodurus, now Marti g-ny or Martinach. 5. Centronum 
 Civitas, called, in the Notitia, Darantasia, the capital of the 
 Centrones, on the Isara, now Montiers, on the Isere. 
 
 Islands belonging to Gallia Narbonensis, and lying 1 in the 
 Sinus Gallicus. 
 
 I. Blascon (77 BAaawv), now Brescon, belonging to the Vol- 
 CSB Areoomici, and not far from Agatha, and the mouth of the 
 Arauris, or Herault. 
 
 II. Metina, lying anciently, according to Pliny, in the mouth 
 
GALLIA. 115 
 
 of the Rhone, " in Rhodani ostio." As, however, he gives the 
 river three mouths, and as the island is not any further men 
 tioned, its position can not be determined with certainty. Man- 
 nert is in favor of identifying it with the small island of Jama- 
 tan, which, along with two others, lies in front of the eastern 
 mouth of the Rhone. 
 
 III. StoBchades (ai Sro^afcf vrjaoi), now Isles tfHieres, be 
 longing to the territory of the Salyes, and lying in a southeast 
 direction from Telo Martius, or Toulon. The Greek name has 
 reference to their being ranged on the same line, or in a row 
 (from <7TOi%o, " a row"). They received this appellation from 
 the Massilians, who colonized some of them. Strabo and Ptol 
 emy make the number to have been five, three large and two 
 small, but give the names of only three, Prate, now Parque- 
 rolles ; Mese or Pomponiana, now Portcros ; and Hypcea, now 
 du Levant or Titan. The two smaller ones Mannert thinks 
 are the modern Ribandas and Bageaux. Mela comprehends 
 under the name of Stoechades all the islands along the coast 
 of Gaul from Liguria to Massilia. Ammianus Marcellinus 
 places them near Nicaea and Antipolis. Dioscorides calls these 
 islands Sr^ddfef, and Apollonius Rhodius, Aiyvarideg, from their 
 being inhabited by Ligyans, who, as before remarked, are the 
 same with the Salyes. Tacitus styles them Massiliensium 
 insulce. 
 
 IV. Planasia, called, also, Lerina, now St. Honorat, near 
 Antipolis. 
 
 V. Leron (r\ A?ypwv), now St. Marguerite, also near Antipo 
 lis. All the islands in this quarter, including the Stoechades, 
 &c., were held by the Massilians, who fortified them against 
 the incursions of pirates. On the island of Leron they erected 
 a temple to the hero Leron, after whom the island was named. 
 
 2. AQUITANIA. 
 (A.) NAMES. 
 
 I. THE name Aquitania, as we have already seen, was ori 
 ginally applied to the southwestern corner of Gaul, from the 
 Garumna to the Pyrenees, but was afterward, in the time of 
 Augustus, extended to that portion of Celtic Gaul compre 
 hended between the Garumna and Ligeris. 
 
 II. According to Pliny, the earlier name of Aquitania proper 
 
116 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 was Armorica, a Celtic appellation, denoting a region border 
 ing on the sea, and derived from the Celtic words ar mor, " on 
 the sea." 
 
 OBS. Ukert thinks that Pliny is here in error, the term Armorica properly de 
 noting the tract of country along the Atlantic, between the mouth of the Ligeris 
 and that of the Sequana. Mannert, on the other hand, defends the correctness 
 of Pliny s remark. According to Mannert, the Gauls gave the name of Armor 
 ica to all the country on the coast of Gaul, as a general appellation ; and as the 
 Romans before Caesar s time knew no other coast of Gaul but that of Aquita- 
 nia, he supposes that they considered the term Arrnorica to apply in a special 
 sense to this whole country, and he even thinks that the name Aquitania is 
 nothing more than a Latin form of the word Armorica. 
 
 (B.) EARLY AND SUBSEQUENT HISTORY OF AQUITANIA. 
 
 I. THE original inhabitants of Aquitania proper are supposed 
 to have been of Iberian origin, and distinct from the Celtic 
 race. The names of places among the tribes of Aquitanian 
 origin, therefore, are in the Iberian form, and not a single one 
 of such places had a Celtic appellation. 
 
 II. Still, however, we must not suppose that, even in Aqui 
 tania proper, there were not some tribes of Celtic origin, as the 
 names of their towns denote. These were, however, compara 
 tively very few in number, and the most important one appears 
 to have been that of the Bituriges Vibisci. 
 
 III. Caesar did not go into Aquitania, but his lieutenant, the 
 younger Crassus, made an incursion into it. The country, 
 however, was not finally subjugated until the year 28 B.C., 
 when Augustus sent Marcus Valerius Messala to conquer it. 
 The poet Tibullus accompanied Messala in this expedition, 
 which he has commemorated in his poems. 
 
 IV. Under the reign of Honorius, the Visigoths, after rava 
 ging Italy, passed into Gaul, and took possession of Aquitania, 
 which they kept until Clovis, king of the Franks, defeated 
 them in a great battle near Poictiers, A.D. 507, and killed their 
 king, Alaric II. Aquitania then became part of the monarchy 
 of the Franks, but under the weak successors of Clovis it was 
 detached from it again, and given as an appanage to Charibert, 
 a younger son of Clotarius II. 
 
 V. At a later period, Aquitania underwent another change 
 in its southern limits. The Vascones, a Spanish people, find 
 ing themselves hard pressed by the Visigoths, crossed the Pyr- 
 
GALLIA. 117 
 
 enees, and settled in the southern part of Aquitania, which 
 from them took the name of Vasconia or Gascony, which it has 
 retained ever since, while the more northern parts of the same 
 province continued to be called Aquitaine, and afterward, by 
 corruption, Guienne. 
 
 (C.) TRIBES OF AQUITANIA. 
 
 THE tribes of Aquitania, in the extended sense of the name, 
 may be divided into two great classes, namely, 1. Tribes be 
 tween the Pyrenees and Garumna, and, 2. Tribes between the 
 Garumna and the Ligeris. 
 
 1. Tribes between the Pyrenees and Garumna. 
 (a) Larger Communities. 
 
 I. Tarbelli (Tap6eAAoi), on the Atlantic coast, extending from 
 the Pyrenees to the territory of the Bituriges Vibisci, who dwelt 
 around the mouth of the Garumna. They occupied what would 
 now correspond to the departments of the Basses Pyrenees and 
 Landes. 
 
 II. Auscii (K.VOKIQI), between the Aturis and the Garumna. 
 Their country would correspond now to portions of the present 
 departments of Hautes Pyrenees^ Gers, &c. Mela calls them 
 the most renowned of the Aquitani, " Aquitanorum clarissimi 
 sunt Auscii ;" and Strabo calls their country a beautiful one ; 
 Kakrj 6e Kal rj rtiv Avoniuv. 
 
 III. Bituriges Vibisci (Birovpiyes ol OwdtcKot), called by Stra 
 bo IOOKOI, and by Pliny " Bituriges Liberi, cognomine Ubisci" 
 a large and powerful people of Celtic origin, on both sides of 
 the Garumna, near its mouth. They dwelt, therefore, in what 
 would be now the country around Bourdeaux, in the depart 
 ment of Gironde. The Boii, whom Ausonius first mentions 
 in this quarter, dwelt still nearer the mouth of the river, and 
 the Vasates and Nitiobrlges occupied small tracts of country 
 along the left banks of the Rhodanus. These three last men 
 tioned tribes were also Celtic ones. 
 
 (b) Smaller Communities. 
 
 Of these the most worthy of mention were the following: 
 1. Convene, on both sides of the Garumna, at the foot of the 
 Pyrenees. They were a mixed race of deserters and robbers, 
 
118 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 and were finally settled by Pompey in the town of Lugdunum 
 Convenarum, now St. Bertrand. 2. Bigerrones, between the 
 Tarbelli and Convense. 3. Elusdtes, to the northwest of the 
 Auscii. Their chief city was Elusa, now Eauze, on the Ge- 
 lize, in the department of Gers. 4. Cocossdtes, called by Pliny 
 Cocossates Sexsigndni, dwelling in what is now the neighbor 
 hood of Chalosse, between Dax and Mont de Marsan. 5. Ono- 
 brisates, dwelling in the vicinity of the modern Nebousan. 
 6. Tarusdtes, around what is now Tursan, in the department 
 of Landes. 7. Vasdtes, called by Csesar Vacates, and the same, 
 probably, with the Basabocades of Pliny. Their territory lay 
 on the left bank of the Garumna, and corresponded to what 
 used to be Bazadois. 
 
 2. Tribes between the Garumna and Ligeris. 
 
 (a) Larger Communities. 
 
 I. Pictones (ULKTOVE^), called by Ammianus Marcellinus Pic- 
 tavi, dwelling immediately south of the Ligeris, in the lower 
 part of its course. Their territory answered to what is now 
 the department of La Vendee, and the southern and western 
 parts of the department of Loire inferieure, the department of 
 Deux Sevres, and the southern part of the department of May- 
 enne et Loire. In other words, their territory corresponded to 
 what was formerly Poitou. 
 
 II. Bituriges Cubi (BiTvpiyec; oi Kovdoi), dwelling to the 
 northeast of the preceding, in what is now the departments of 
 Vienne, Indre, and Cher. 
 
 III. Santones (Sdvrovot), to the north of the Garumna, near 
 its mouth, now the departments of Charente inferieure and 
 Charente superieure. 
 
 IV. Lemovices (AepodiKeg), to the east of the Pictones and 
 Santones, in what is now the department of Haute Vienne, 
 formerly Limosin. 
 
 V. Arverni ( Apovepvoi), to the southeast of the preceding. 
 They occupied what is now the department of Coneze, and 
 also those of Haute Vienne, Creuze, and Puy de Dome. 
 
 VI. Petrocorii (HerpoKopioi), to the southwest of the Lemo 
 vices, in what used to be called Perigord, but is now the de 
 partment of Dordogne. 
 
GALLIA. 119 
 
 VII. Cadurci (Kadovpitoi), to the southeast of the preceding, 
 in what is now the department of Lot. 
 
 VIII. Ruteni ( POVTTJVOL), to the southeast of the preceding, 
 in what was formerly Rouergne, but what answers now to 
 portions of the departments of Lot, Tarn, and Aveiron. 
 
 (b) Smaller Communities. 
 
 The most important of these were, 1. Nitiobriges^ on both 
 sides of the Garumna, but especially on the northern side. 
 Their territory answered to what is now the eastern portion of 
 the department of Lot et Garonne, and the southwestern portion 
 of the department of Lot. 2. Gabali or Gabales (Ta6aXel$), to 
 the east of the Ruteni. They were a mountaineer race, and 
 principally occupied in working silver mines. Their country 
 answered to portions of the departments of Aveiron, Lozere, and 
 Cantal. 3. Velavi (Ove^aiot), called by Csesar Vellauni, to 
 the northeast of the Gabali, and at one time under the domin 
 ion of the Arvemi, as we are informed by Caesar and Strabo. 
 They dwelt among the Cevennes (Mons Cebenna), in the mod 
 ern Velay. 
 
 (D.) CITIES OF AQUITANIA. 
 
 THESE may be divided in the same manner as the tribes, 
 namely, 1. Cities between the Pyrenees and the Garumna, 
 and, 2. Cities between the Garumna and the Ligeris. 
 
 1. Cities between the Pyrenees and Garumna. 
 
 Among the Tar belli we find, 1. Lapurdum, now Bayonne, 
 in the Tractus Lapurdensis, now Labour. 2. Carascc, to the 
 southeast of the preceding, called by Csesar Garites, now Ga- 
 ris. 3. Beneharnum, to the northeast of the preceding, now 
 Lascar. 4. Aquce Tarbellicce or Augusta, on the coast, north 
 west of Lapurdum, now Dax. 5. Sibusates, to the northeast 
 of Lapurdum, now Sobusse. 6. Atura, called, also, Vicus Ju- 
 lii and Aturres, situate on the Aturis or Adour. It is now 
 Aire. 7. Boii or Boates, in the territory of the Boii, now Tete 
 de Buck. The resin furnished by the pines in this district ob 
 tained for the Boii the appellation of " Piceos Bows." 
 
 Among the Bituriges Vibisci we find, 1. Bur di gala (Bovp- 
 SiyaXa), now Bourdeaux, on the Garumna. It was an import- 
 
120 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ant place in the time of Strabo, who mentions it as the chief 
 trading place of the Bituriges. He describes the town as situ 
 ate Xnwodahd-T q ~ivi, which D Anville interprets as meaning a 
 place up to which the sea (or tide) flows. The importance of 
 Burdigala is shown by the circumstance of its being made the 
 capital of Aquitania Secunda. Ausonius, a Latin poet of the 
 fourth century, himself a native of this place, has left a de 
 scription of it in his poem Clarce Urbes, or Ordo Nobilium 
 Urbium, and describes it as " renowned for wine, and streams, 
 and the manners and talents of its inhabitants." Under the 
 Romans, Burdigala was not the scene of any important his 
 torical event, except the assumption of the purple by Tacitus, 
 in the reign of Gallienus, in the third century. It derives its 
 reputation rather from the zeal with which literature was here 
 cultivated. 2. Noviomagus, to the northwest of Burdigala ? 
 now Castillon, according to Mannert ; but, according to Rei- 
 chard, Castelnau de Medoc. 3. Serio, to the southeast of Bur 
 digala, now Rions. 4. Varadetum, to the northeast of Burdi 
 gala, now Caraye. 
 
 Among the Vasates we find Vasatce, now Bazas, the chief 
 city of this tribe ; among the Elusates, the city ofElusa, called 
 by Mela Elusaberris, now Eauze, the capital of this commu 
 nity ; among the Auscii, the city of Climberris^ or Augusta 
 Ausciorum, now Audi, their capital ; among the Bigerrones, 
 their chief city Turba, called in the Notitia Civitas Turbo, 
 cum castro Bigorra, now Tarbes ; and Aquce Onesiorum, with 
 its baths, now Barreges ; among the Convenes, the city of 
 Lugdunum Convenarum, now St. Bertrand, already mention 
 ed ; Crodunum, now Gourdan, on the upper Garumna ; Aquce 
 Convenarum, now Bagneres; and Aginnum, now Agen, on the 
 right bank of the Garumna. 
 
 2. Cities between the Garumna and Ligeris. 
 
 Among the Pictones we find, 1. Limonum, called, also, Pic- 
 tavi, and now Poitiers. It was probably the capital of the 
 tribe. In the Peutinger Table it is called Lemuno. Upon the 
 downfall of the western empire this city repeatedly suffered. 
 It was pillaged, A.D. 410, by the Vandals, and subsequently 
 came into the hands of the Visigoths, who extended their do 
 minion over all the countries south and west of the Loire. In 
 
GALLIA. 121 
 
 the subsequent invasion of the Visigothic kingdom by Clovis, 
 the vicinity of Poitiers was distinguished by the first of the 
 three great contests that have rendered it the most remarka 
 ble battle-field of France. Alaric, king of the Visigoths, was 
 defeated and killed by Clovis at Vougle, the same with Vouille, 
 a village on the River Auzance, a few miles west of Poitiers. 
 In A.D. 732, the Saracens were defeated here by Charles Mar- 
 tel, and western Europe was thereby saved from the Moham 
 medan yoke ; and at a later period the memorable battle was 
 fought here between the English and French. 2. Agesinates, 
 the capital of a tribe of the same name, dwelling on the very 
 coast. It is now Lusignan. 3. Rauranum, to the southwest 
 of Limonum, now Raum. 4. Ratiatum, in the northwestern 
 corner, at the mouth of the Ligeris, now Machecou. The pa- 
 gus Ratiensis is Le pays de Retz. 
 
 Among the Santones we have, 1. Mediolanum, afterward 
 Santones, now Saint es. It was the capital of the tribe. 
 
 2. Santonum Portus, now Tonnay-Charente, near Rochefort. 
 
 3. Sesuvii, now Soubise. 4. Iculisma, now Angouleme. 
 5. Tamnum, now Mortagne. 6. Novioregum, to the north 
 west of the preceding, now Roy an. 
 
 Among the Petrocorii we find, 1. Vesunna, afterward Pe- 
 trocorit, now Perigueux. A tower, part of the remains of the 
 ancient city, is still called Visonne, an evident modification of 
 the ancient name, and the suburb in which it stands retains 
 the designation of La Cite. This place passed from the hands 
 of the Romans into those of the Visigoths, and subsequently 
 of the Franks. 2. Bercorates, now Bergerac. 3. Diolindum^ 
 now La Linde. 
 
 Among the Cadurci we find, 1. Divona^ afterward Cadurci, 
 and now Cahors. Ptolemy calls it AOVT/WVO, and in the Theo- 
 dosian Table it is Bibona, but Ausonius is considered by D An- 
 ville to have given the true orthography, Divona, a word which, 
 in the Celtic language, denoted a fountain sacred to the gods. 
 On the downfall of the western empire it came successively into 
 the hands of Goths and Franks, and was afterward subjected to 
 the Counts of Toulouse, and then to its own bishop. There are 
 some Roman remains here, the ruins of a theatre and aqueduct, 
 and a monument to M. Lucterius, erected in the reign of Au 
 gustus. 2. Uxellodunum, to the north of the preceding, on 
 
122 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 the Duranius, now Pueche fflssolu. 3. Varadetum, now Va- 
 raye. 
 
 Among the Lemovices we find, 1. Augustoritum, afterward 
 Lemovices (though Caesar already gives it this latter name), 
 now Limoges, the chief city of the tribe. Under the Romans 
 it was a place of considerable importance, and in the third 
 century it became the seat of a bishopric. It stood at the con 
 vergence of several Roman roads. There was an amphithe 
 atre here, said to have been rebuilt by Trajan. In the fifth 
 century this city came into the power of the Visigoths, and 
 was successively pillaged or destroyed by the Franks (twice) 
 and Northmen. 2. Cassinomagus, now Chabannois. 3. An- 
 decamulum, to the northwest of Lemovices, now Rangon. 
 4. Acitodunum, to the east of the preceding, now Ahun. 
 
 Among the Bituriges Cubi we have, 1. Argantomagus, in 
 the southwest angle of their territory, now Argenton. 2. Ale- 
 rea, to the northeast of the preceding, now St. Vincent d? Ar 
 dent es, on the Andria, now Indre, one of the tributaries of the 
 Loire. 3. Noviodunum, now Neman. 4. Avaricum, afterward 
 Biturig.es, now Bourges, the capital of the tribe. In Caesar s 
 time it was a place of importance, and a strong city, being sur 
 rounded on almost every side either by marshes, or by the wa 
 ters of the Avara or Eure. In the struggle against the Ro 
 mans, at the head of which was Vercingetorix, near the close 
 of Caesar s proconsulship, the territory of the Bituriges became 
 the seat of war. Agreeably to the defensive plans of the natives, 
 upon the approach of Caesar s army, above twenty towns of the 
 Bituriges were given to the flames, and in a general council it 
 was debated whether Avaricum should be burned or defended. 
 It was spared through the entreaties of the Bituriges, who be 
 sought the other Gauls not to compel them to destroy a city, 
 almost the finest of all Gaul, and the bulwark and ornament 
 of their state. Contrary to the opinion of Vercingetorix, a 
 stand was made at Avaricum, and a suitable garrison was se 
 lected. But the Romans took the city after a siege of twen 
 ty-five days, and out of 40,000 persons who had been shut up 
 in the place, scarcely eight hundred escaped to the camp of 
 Vercingetorix. By what degrees Avaricum recovered from 
 this dreadful blow is not known. Augustus made it the capi 
 tal of Aquitania. It was improved and fortified by the Ro- 
 
GALLIA. 123 
 
 mans, was taken by the Visigoths, but fell into the hands of 
 the Franks after the victory of Clovis at Vouille. 
 
 Among the Arverni we find, 1. Augustonometum, now Cler- 
 mont, on the River Elaver, now the Allier, and the capital of 
 the tribe. It is not known whether this existed when Csesar 
 invaded Gaul : it was certainly not the Gergovia, in attacking 
 which he experienced his most considerable check. Strabo 
 mentions it under the name of Ne/zwtfcrd?. In the Middle Ages, 
 the castle by which the town was defended was named Cla- 
 rus Mons, and this name, which was at first restricted to the 
 castle, was afterward extended to the whole town, whence the 
 modern appellation. 2. Gergovia. The position of this place 
 has given rise to great difference of opinion, and the difficulty 
 has been increased by the circumstance of there being two 
 places of this name, one among the Boii, and the other in the 
 territory of the Arverni. The latter is supposed, by the best 
 geographical writers, to have been Augustonometum, and D An- 
 ville places its site a few leagues to the southeast of Clermont, 
 between Perignal, Jussat, and Le Crest. After the capture 
 of Avaricum, Caesar laid siege to this place, but was compelled 
 to raise it after a murderous attempt to storm the city. 3. Bri- 
 vas, on the Elaver, to the southeast of Augustonometum, now 
 Brioude. 4. Aquce Calidce, to the north of Augustonometum, 
 also on the Elaver, now Vichy. 
 
 In the country of the Gabali we find, 1. Anderitum, called, 
 also, Civitas Gabalum, now Javoux, among the Cevennes ; in 
 the country of the Ruteni we have, 1. Segodunum, or Civitas 
 Rutenorum, now Rhodez ; 2. Albiga, or Urbs Albigensis, now 
 Alby. 
 
 3. LUGDUNENSIS. 
 
 (A.) NAMES. 
 
 I. THE name Lugdunensis is derived from that of Lugdu- 
 num, now Lyons, its capital. 
 
 II. This province was also called Gallia Celtica, from its in 
 habitants, the Celtce. 
 
 (B.) TRIBES OF LUGDUNENSIS. 
 
 THESE may be divided into two classes, namely, 1. Tribes 
 between the Ligeris and sea-coast, and, 2. Tribes between the 
 Ligeris, Rhodanus, Arar, and Sequana. 
 
124 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 1. Tribes between the Ligeris and Sea-coast. 
 
 (a) Larger Communities. 
 
 I. Veneti or Venetes (Oveveroi), a large and powerful tribe, 
 in a northwestern direction from the mouth of the Ligeris, and 
 on the shores of the ocean. Their country answered to what 
 is now the department of Morbihan, and was formerly a part 
 of Bretagne. The Veneti possessed almost the only havens 
 that offered a secure shelter along a considerable extent of 
 coast, and this advantage, with their superior skill in maritime 
 affairs, enabled them to acquire the sovereignty of the nations 
 which frequented that part of the ocean, and to render them 
 tributary. They used vessels of small draught of water, suit 
 ed to the shallows which they had to navigate, and which re 
 ceived but little damage when left aground by the receding 
 tide, while their lofty stem and prow, and the general strength 
 of their construction and equipment, enabled them to ride out 
 the tempests to which they were exposed. In these vessels 
 the Veneti carried on a trade with the British islands and with 
 other parts. Their towns and strong-holds were situate on 
 tongues of land running out into the sea, surrounded by banks 
 and shallows, which, being covered by the flood-tide, admitted 
 of no assault by a land force, and, being left dry by the ebb, 
 kept off the attacks of a hostile navy. Confiding in the exten 
 sive confederation of which they were the head, in their nau 
 tical skill, and in the advantages of their situation, they ven 
 tured to bid defiance to Csesar (B.C. 56) ; but the extraordi 
 nary genius and resources of the Roman general overcame all 
 obstacles, and enabled him to achieve the reduction of the Ve 
 neti and their supporters. 
 
 II. Redones or Rhedones (T^dove^), a tribe to the northeast 
 of the Veneti, in what is now the department of Ille et Villaine. 
 
 III. Namnetes or Namnetce (Na^v^rai), to the southeast of 
 the Veneti, on the right bank of the Ligeris, near its mouth, 
 in what is now a portion of the department of Loire inferieure. 
 
 IV. Aulerci, divided into three branches, namely, the Au- 
 lerci Cenomani, Aulerci Diablintes, and Aulerci Eburovices 
 (hvXipiKoi R6ovpd iKOL). The last formed the most powerful di 
 vision, and occupied what is now the department of Eure. 
 
 V. Carnutes, Gamut ce, or Carnuti (Kapvovrai), called by 
 
GALLIA. 125 
 
 Plutarch, in his Life of Caesar, Kapvovnvoi, between the Lige- 
 ris and Sequana, They occupied what is now the northern 
 portion of the department of Loir, the western portion of that 
 ofLoiret, the whole department of Eure et Loir, and the north 
 western portion of the department of Seine et V Oise. 
 
 VI. Armoricce Civitates, the name given in the time of Cse- 
 sar to the maritime districts of Celtic Gaul, situated between 
 the mouth of the Ligeris and that of the Sequana. The word 
 is derived from the Celtic ar mor, which means " near the sea." 
 It has been supposed that Armorica was a general appellation 
 for the whole coast of Gaul, and that in Caesar s time the 
 name became more restricted in its use. Be this as it may, 
 we find in Caesar s time the Armoric states consisting of the 
 Veneti, Osismii, Curiosolltes, Redones, Caletes, &o., who form 
 ed a sort of confederacy. Their towns and fortresses were built 
 along the coast, and they carried on a commercial intercourse 
 with the opposite coast of Britain. The maritime districts 
 comprehended under the name of Armoricanus Tractus nearly 
 corresponded in extent to the modern French provinces of Brit 
 tany and Normandy. 
 
 (b) Smaller Communities. 
 
 Following first the line of the coast, up to the mouth of the 
 Sequana, we come in succession to, 1. Coriosoplti or Coriso- 
 piti, in what is now the southern portion of the department of 
 Finisterre. 2. Osismii (Ziafuoi), north of the preceding, in the 
 northern portion of the department of Finisterre. 3. Curioso 
 lltes or Curiosolitce, to the east of the preceding, in the north 
 western portion of the department of Cotes du Nord. 4. Ve- 
 neli (Ovsvskoi), called by Caesar Unelli. Their country ran out 
 into the ocean, and answered to the department of La Manche. 
 The Abrincatui were subject to them. 5. Boiocasses or Baio- 
 casses, and the Viducasses, facing one another, and on opposite 
 sides of the River Ar genus > now the Arguenon. They occupied 
 the western portion of the department of Calvados. 6. Lexo- 
 vii or Lexobiij to the east of the preceding, and in the eastern 
 portion of the department of Calvados. 
 
 Proceeding" next into the interior of the country, we come 
 to, 1. Andecavi, or, as Caesar calls them, Andes, immediately 
 north of the Ligeris, and to the east of the Namnetes, in what 
 
126 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 is now the department of Mayenne, around Angers. 2. Turo- 
 nes, to the southeast of the preceding, on both sides of the Li- 
 geris, in what was formerly Touraine, but is now the depart 
 ment of Indre et Loire. 3. Aureliani, to the northeast of the 
 preceding, in what was formerly Orleannois, but answers now 
 to the department of Loiret, and a portion of that of Cher. 
 4. Boil, inhabiting the city and territory of Gergovia, erroneous 
 ly placed by Pliny between the Carnutes and Senones, but who 
 lived in what is now a portion of the department of Loiret. 
 Their city was called by the Romans Gergovia Boiorum, to 
 distinguish it from Gergovia Arvernorum, which latter lay, as 
 already remarked, southwest of Augustonometum. 5. Aulerci 
 Diablintes, to the northeast of the Redones, around the modern 
 Alen^on, in what answers now to the northern portion of the de 
 partments of Mayenne and Sarthe, and the southern portion of 
 that of Orne. 6. Essui, supposed by some to be the same 
 with the Sail, to the northeast of the preceding, in the north 
 ern portion of the department of Ornej around Seez. 7. Au 
 lerci Cenomani, to the southeast of the preceding, in the de 
 partment of Sarthe, around Mans. 
 
 2. Tribes between the ^geris, Rhodanus, Arar, and Sequana. 
 (a) Larger Communities. 
 
 I. Segusiani (Seyovoiayot), to the northwest of the Allobro- 
 ges, in what was formerly Lyonnais, but answers now to the 
 department of the Rhone, and the eastern portion of the depart 
 ment of Loir. 
 
 II. JEdui (AWovot), to the north of the preceding, in what an 
 swers now to the greater portion of the department of Saone 
 et Loir, the department of Nievre, and the southern portion of 
 that of Cote d*Or. The ^Edui were a powerful nation, and 
 their sway originally extended over many of the adjacent tribes. 
 When Csesar came into Gaul, however, he found that the ^Ed- 
 ui, after having long contended with the Arverni and Sequani 
 for the supremacy, had been overcome by them, the Arverni 
 and Sequani having called in Ariovistus, a powerful king of the 
 Germans, to their aid. The arrival of the Roman commander 
 soon changed the aspect of affairs, and the JEdui were restored 
 by the Roman arms to the chief power in Gaul. They became, 
 of course, valuable allies for Caesar in his Gallic conquests. 
 
GALLIA. 127 
 
 Eventually, however, they embraced the party of Vercingeto- 
 rix against Rome ; but, when the insurrection was quelled, 
 they were still favorably treated from motives of policy, and on 
 account of their former services. 
 
 III. Ling-ones (Aiyyove^), to the north of the ^Edui, in what 
 answers now to the northern portion of the department of Cote 
 cV Or, the southern portion of the departments of Aube and Haute 
 Marne, and the northern portion of that of Haute Saone. 
 
 IV. Senones (Sevuveg and ZSVOVES), to the northeast of the 
 Lingones-, in what answers now to the southern portion of the 
 departments of Seine et Oise and Seine et Marne, and the 
 western portion of the department of Aube. The old stem of 
 the Senones, of which these appear to have been a branch, un 
 der the conduct of Brennus, invaded Italy at an early period, 
 and pillaged Rome. They afterward settled in Umbria, on the 
 coast of the Adriatic. 
 
 (b) Smaller Communities. 
 
 These lay principally on the right, and in part, also, on the 
 left bank of the Sequana, and were most of them border tribes 
 as regarded the province of Gallia Belgica. We find in this 
 enumeration, 1. Caletes or Caleti (Kqhrjrai), to the north of 
 the Sequana, at its mouth, in what is now the department of 
 Seine inferieure, and the northern portion of the department 
 of Eure. 2. Bellocasses or Velloeasses, to the southeast of the 
 preceding, and on the right bank of the Sequana, in what is 
 now the northeastern portion of the departments of Eure and 
 Seine. 3. Parisii, on both the right and left banks of the Se 
 quana, in the northeastern portion of the department of Seine 
 et Oise, and the southwestern portion of that of Seine et Marne. 
 4. Meldi, to the east of the preceding, in the eastern portion of 
 the department of Seine et Marne. 5. Tricasses or Tricasii 
 (TpiKdaioi), to the southeast of the preceding, in the department 
 of Aube. 6. A branch of the Boii, on the southwestern flank 
 of the .^Edui, may be here mentioned, lying in a southwest di 
 rection from the Sequana, and in the vicinity of the Ligeris. 
 Their country answered to the modern Beaujolats. 7. Am- 
 barri, in the angle between the Arar and Rhodanus, in the de 
 partment of Ain. 
 
128 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 (B.) CITIES OF LUGDUNENSIS. 
 
 THESE may be divided into two classes, namely, 1. Cities be 
 tween the northern bank of the Ligeris, the Atlantic Ocean, 
 and the Sequana, and, 2. Cities between the Ligeris, Rhod- 
 anus, Arar, Sequana, and Matrona. 
 
 1. Cities between the northern bank of the Ligeris, the At 
 lantic Ocean, and the Sequana. 
 
 In the territory of the Veneti we find, 1. Dariorigon 
 opiyov], called, also, Darioritum and Civitas Venetorum. It 
 was the capital of the tribe, and is commonly identified by ge 
 ographers with the modern Vannes ; but, as Csesar has partic 
 ularly described the situation of the towns of the Veneti, on 
 tongues of land insulated at high water, it has been suggested 
 by the historians of Bretagne (Lobineau and Morice) that the 
 site of Dariorigon could not be identical with that of Vannes ; 
 and D Anville, who adopts the suggestion, is inclined to place 
 Dariorigon on the shore of the Bay of Morbihan, about three 
 miles from Vannes, called still Durouec. 2. Blavia, further 
 west, now Port Louis, on the River Blavet. 
 
 In the territory of the Corisopiti we find Corisopiti, their 
 capital, now Quimper- Corentin ; in the territory of the Osis- 
 mii, their capital Vorganium, now Corlay ; in that of the Cu- 
 riosolitcR, their capital of the same name, now Corsenil ; in 
 that of the Redones, 1. Civitas Redonum, their capital, now 
 Rennes. 2. Aletum, to the northwest of the preceding, near St. 
 Malo. The site of Aletum is marked by a headland in the vi 
 cinity of St. Malo, which the Bretons still call Guich Alet. 
 The inhabitants of Aletum were, it seems, continually exposed 
 in the eighth or ninth century to the attacks of pirates, and 
 therefore retired to a neighboring rocky peninsula, on which 
 they founded the town of St. Malo, from the name of the then 
 Bishop of Aletum. 
 
 In the territory of the Abrincatui we find Ingena, afterward 
 called Abrincatui, their capital city, and now Avranches, the 
 intermediate form of the name having been Abrincce. As be 
 ing in Normandy, Avranches was under the dominion of the 
 first English monarchs of the Norman and Plantagenet races, 
 and was considered as one of the bulwarks of Normandy against 
 
GALLIA. 129 
 
 the Bretons. It was also the seat of a diocese, and among those 
 who held this see in modern times was the celebrated divine 
 and scholar, Peter Daniel Huet. 
 
 In the territory of the Unelli or Veneti we have Concilium, 
 now Cherbourg. According to Troissard, this place was found 
 ed by Caesar when he invaded Britain, but by others it is de 
 nied that Caesar ever visited this portion of Gaul. The mod 
 ern name, however, is a corruption, according to some, of Cae- 
 saroburgus or Csesaris Burgus. In the territory of the Baio- 
 casses we have Arcegenus, afterward Baiocasses, now Bayeux. 
 In the territory of the Lexobii we have Noviomagus, after 
 ward Lexobii, now Lisieux. In the territory of the Aulerci 
 E bur ov ices we have Mediolanum Aulercorum, afterward Ebu- 
 rovices, now Evreux. 
 
 In the territory of the Namnetes we have, 1. Brivates Por- 
 tus (BpiovdrTjs hifirjv). D Anville seeks to identify this with the 
 modern Brest. But if D Anville s hypothesis be correct, Ptole 
 my must have very much misplaced this harbor, for the Greek 
 geographer states that it was between the mouth of the Liger 
 and the Herius (the modern Auray}. D Anville also thinks 
 that this place is mentioned in the Theodosian Table under the 
 name of Gesocribate, or, as he would correct it, Gesobricate or 
 Gesobrivate, a name which, in its Celtic signification of " great 
 harbor or roadstead," is sufficiently appropriate to Brest. How 
 ever this may be, there is no reason to believe that it was a 
 place of any great importance in Roman times, and subsequent 
 ly it appears to have sunk into complete obscurity. 2. Corbilo 
 (Kop6ik(*)v), a commercial place, with an extensive traffic, on 
 the Liger, at its mouth. It is mentioned by both Strabo and 
 Polybius, and answers probably to the modern Coveron. 3. Con- 
 divicnum, afterward Namnetum Portus or Namnetes, now 
 Nantes, on the north bank of the Liger, near its mouth, and 
 the capital of the tribe. In the ninth and tenth centuries it 
 was six times pillaged and burned by the Northmen, and con 
 tinued desolate for thirty years. 
 
 In the territory of the Andes or Andecavi we have Julioma- 
 gus, afterward Andecavi, now Angers, the capital of the tribe. 
 In the territory of the Carnutes we have Aulricum, afterward 
 Carnules, and now Chartres, the capital of the tribe. It suf 
 fered subsequently in the civil dissensions of the Merovingian 
 
 I 
 
130 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 kings, and from the ravages of the Northmen, by whom it was 
 pillaged and burned in 858. In the Middle Ages it was the 
 capital of a county, which was in the tenth century united with 
 that of Blois and Tours. In the territory of the Turones we 
 have Ccesarodunum, afterward called Turones, on the River 
 Ligeris, and now Tours. It was subsequently included in the 
 kingdom of the Visigoths, from whom it was taken (A.D. 507) 
 by Clovis, king of the Franks. In the feudal period it came, 
 about the middle of the tenth century, into the hands of the 
 Counts of Blois. 
 
 In the territory of the Aureliani we have Genabum, after 
 ward Aureliani, now Orleans. Some scholars are in favor of 
 identifying Genabum with the modern Gien, but the opinion 
 of D Anville and the best geographers is decidedly opposed to 
 this. As the Aureliani were, in fact, a branch of the Carnutes, 
 Genabum is often called by writers a town of the latter people. 
 It was a place of considerable trade, situate on the Ligeris, and 
 was the scene of the outbreak of the great revolt of the Gauls 
 against Ceesar, in the seventh year of his command. In con 
 sequence of the massacre made here on this occasion of the Ro 
 mans who were residing at the place for commercial purposes, 
 Csesar, early in the ensuing spring, attacked the town, which 
 he plundered and burned. It seems to have recovered from this 
 disaster, and in the time of Strabo was again the emporium or 
 trading town of the Carnutes. In A.D. 451 it successfully re 
 sisted Attila, and subsequently it passed into the hands of the 
 Franks, and became the capital of one of the kingdoms into 
 which their territories were so often divided. Some writers 
 maintain that Genabum received the name of Aureliani from 
 the Emperor Aurelian, but there is no proof whatever of this, 
 and if it had been the case, Genabum must have appeared un 
 der the name of Aureliani in the Antonine Itinerary. 
 
 2. Cities betiveen the Ligeris, Rhodanus, Arar, Sequana, and 
 
 Matrona. 
 
 In the territory of the Segusiani we have, 1. Forum Segu- 
 sianorum, on the Ligeris, now Feurs. 2. Lugdunum, now 
 Lyons, at the confluence of the Rhodanus and the Arar, or Sa- 
 6ne. According to the common opinion, Lugdunum was found 
 ed by L. Munatius Plancus, commander of the legions in Gaul 
 
GALLIA. 131 
 
 at the time of Caesar s death, who settled here the people of 
 Vienna, now Vienne, when they had been driven from their 
 own home by a revolt of the Allobroges, about 42 B.C. It 
 seems improbable, however, that a situation so advantageous 
 should have been entirely neglected by the Gauls J and the Cel 
 tic name given to the place prevents our ascribing its origin 
 wholly to Plancus. Csesar does not mention Lugdunum, which 
 has furnished one of the reasons for denying to the town any 
 higher antiquity than the time of Plancus; but the reason 
 seems altogether insufficient. According to Menestrier, in his 
 history of this city, the Roman colony of Plancus was not es 
 tablished at Lugdunum until about thirty years after the set 
 tlement of the Viennenses here. Augustus was in Gaul about 
 the time when, according to the more correct opinion just stat 
 ed, Plancus established his colony, and he appears to have made 
 Lugdunum his place of residence for some time, an indication 
 of the rising importance of the place. Strabo, writing a few 
 years afterward, describes it as the most populous city of Gaul 
 except Narbo Martius. It was, in fact, the great mart of the 
 Romans, who had here, even at that early time, a mint for coin 
 ing gold and silver money, and it gave name, as we have seen, to 
 one of the four great divisions of Gaul. An altar was erected 
 here by sixty of the nations of Gaul, by common consent, in 
 honor of Augustus. Both Tiberius and Caligula appear to 
 have favored the town. The latter visited it, and instituted 
 games professedly in honor of Augustus, about A.D. 40. The 
 Emperor Claudius, himself a native of Lugdunum, raised it 
 from the rank of a municipium to that of a colony in the strict 
 est sense of the term, and regulated its local government. But 
 its greatness received soon after a terrible blow : it was utterly 
 destroyed in a single night by fire, originating, it has been con 
 jectured, from lightning, about A.D. 59, according to some, but, 
 according to other calculations, about A.D. 64 or 65. The re 
 building of the city was promoted by a grant from the Emper 
 or Nero, to whom the citizens manifested their affection and 
 fidelity on his downfall. In the contest between Albinus and 
 Severus, Lugdunum became the scene of conflict. In an en 
 gagement near this place, Albinus was totally defeated and slain 
 (A.D. 197), and Lugdunum, which had afforded a retreat for 
 the vanquished, was pillaged by the victor, who put most of 
 
132 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 the inhabitants to the sword, and burned the town. At a sub 
 sequent period, while Julian held the government of Gaul un 
 der Constantius, the environs of Lugdunum were ravaged, and 
 the place nearly captured by the Allemanni. In the beginning 
 of the fifth century it fell into the hands of the Burgundians. 
 Lugdunum, during the Roman period, occupies a considerable 
 place in ecclesiastical history also. The Gospel had been early 
 introduced into this part of Gaul, and here a severe persecu 
 tion raged in the reign of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (A.D. 172 
 or 177). The churches of Vienna (Vienne) and Lugdunum 
 sent a relation of their sufferings to those of Asia and Phrygia. 
 This account, ascribed by some to Irenseus, is written with 
 simplicity and beauty, and is one of the most affecting passa 
 ges in the ancient history of Christianity. Pothinus, bishop of 
 Lugdunum, and perhaps the person who introduced the Gospel 
 into these regions, was one of the martyrs in this persecution. 
 His successor was Irenseus, one of the most eminent of the ear 
 ly fathers. 
 
 In the territory of the Mdui we find, 1. Cabillonum or Ca- 
 ballinum (KafiaX/Uvov), on the Arar, now Chalons-sur-Sa6ne. 
 In the great revolt under Vercingetorix, many Romans, who 
 were here, were obliged to quit the place, and many were slain 
 in the assaults which they had to sustain, after their departure, 
 from the insurgent populace. Caesar writes the name Cabillo- 
 num,) while Strabo has Kafivkklvov. The form Kadahklvov is 
 given by Ptolemy. Ammianus Marcellinus, who wrote about 
 the period of the downfall of the empire, mentions this place as 
 one of the ornaments of the province of Lugdunensis, and gives 
 to its name the form Cabillones. From the singular form of 
 the ancient name, it was usual for a long time to write the 
 modern appellation without an s, Ch&lon, by which, when D An- 
 ville wrote, it was distinguished from Chalons-sur-Marne, the 
 ancient Durocatalauni. It is now, however, usually written 
 with the final sibilant. This place contains the ruins of a Ro 
 man amphitheatre. 2. Bibracte, to the northwest of the pre 
 ceding. There is a great difference of opinion among geogra 
 phers whether Bibracte was identical with Augustodunum, now 
 Autun, on the Arrosius, now Arrou, one of the tributaries of 
 the Ligeris, and many of them place its site on Mount Beuvrai, 
 the ancient Mom Bifractus, some miles to the west of Autun. 
 
GALLIA. 133 
 
 But as this mountain is steep and precipitous on every side, 
 and its summit affords an area too small for a populous city 
 like Bibracte, it is most probable that the citadel was on this 
 mountain, and the town at its foot, and that, as this quarter 
 was often desolated in war, the inhabitants eventually migra 
 ted to the spot where Autun now stands, and built a new city. 
 This new city was made a Roman colony by Augustus, whose 
 name it took, combining with it the termination dunum, from 
 the Celtic dun, " a hill." Caesar calls Bibracte by far the great 
 est and wealthiest town belonging to the ^Edui, and says that 
 it possessed the greatest influence among them. Augustodu- 
 num, in the third century, suffered much from the ravages of 
 war, and it was taken by Tetricus, one of the so-called " Thir 
 ty Tyrants." From the effects of this severe blow it was raised 
 by the patronage of Constantius Chlorus and his son Constan- 
 tine the Great, from whom it received much kindness. In 
 gratitude to these princes, whose family name was Flavius, 
 the town took the name of Flavia. Upon the downfall of the 
 Roman power the town was reduced to ashes by Attila, king 
 of the Huns, and afterward came successively into the hands 
 of the Burgundians and Franks. In the time of Charles Mar- 
 tel (about A.D. 730), when the Saracens invaded France, they 
 took and burned Autun, and it was again pillaged by the North 
 men in 894. We have followed Ukert in making Bibracte dis 
 tinct from Augustodunum. D Anville, however, is of the op 
 posite opinion. 3. Alesia, to the north of the preceding, in the 
 territory of the Mandubii, a tribe dependent on the ^Edui. It 
 was so ancient a city that Diodorus Siculus ascribes the build 
 ing of it to Hercules. The Celtae regarded the place as the 
 " hearth and metropolis of Gallia Celtica" (koriav tcai fjtrjTpoTco- 
 hiv KeAriKifc), a sufficient proof in itself of the antiquity of the 
 settlement, Alesia was situate on a high hill, now Mount 
 Auxois, washed on two sides by the small rivers Lutosa and 
 Ozera, now the Lose and Ozerain. It remained free until 
 Caesar s time, who took it after a memorable siege, during which 
 he was himself besieged in his own lines by an army of about 
 300,000 Gauls, but whom he defeated with very heavy loss to 
 them. According to Florus, Caesar burned the town. If so, 
 however, it must have been soon rebuilt, for it became a place 
 of considerable consequence under the Roman emperors. It 
 
134 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 was laid in ruins in the ninth century by the Northmen. At 
 the present day there is a small town or village at the base of 
 Mount Auxois, called Le bourg de Sainte-Reme, the upper 
 part of which still retains the name of Alise. 4. Noviodunum, 
 to the west of Bibracte, near the confines of the Bituriges 
 Cubi. It was situate on the River Niveris, now the Nievre, 
 at its junction with the Ligeris. The name Noviodunum be 
 came subsequently changed to Nivernum, from that of the riv 
 er, and is now Nevers. This was a place of little importance 
 until the reign of Clovis, in whose time it belonged to the Bur- 
 gundians. 
 
 In the territory of the Lingones we fmd ? 1. Andomatunum, 
 their capital, afterward Lingeries, and now Lang-res. It was 
 a place of great importance under the Romans, and many an 
 tiquities have been found here. There yet remain the ruins of 
 two triumphal arches, one erected to Probus r the other to Con- 
 stantius Chlorus. This city suffered severely in the invasion 
 of Gaul by the barbarous tribes which overthrew the Roman 
 empire. 2. Dibio, in the southeastern angle of the country, 
 and near the confines of the ^EduL It is now Dijon. An an 
 cient legend, attested by Gregory of Tours, relates that the Em 
 peror Aurelian made Dibio a considerable fortress : other le 
 gends seem to confound Aurelian with Marcus Aurelius, who 
 lived a century before. This place passed in the fifth century 
 into the hands of the Burgundians, and subsequently of the 
 Franks. 
 
 In the territory of the Senones we find, 1. Agendicum, which 
 Ptolemy writes Ay^&Kov, Agedicum, while in the Antonine 
 Itinerary it is Agedincum. It was afterward called Senones, 
 being the capital city, and is now Sens. Some antiquaries dis 
 pute the identity of Agedincum with Senones, and contend that 
 the former corresponds to the modern Provins, but this opin 
 ion does not appear to be well sustained. The town was sit 
 uate on the right bank of the Icauna^ the modern Yonne. 
 2. Antesiodurum or Antissiodurum, to the southeast of the pre 
 ceding, on the left bank of the Icauna, and now Auxerre. It 
 was in the country of the Senones, but by a division of that 
 territory acquired a district of its own. The line of demarca 
 tion between the former dioceses of Sens and Auxerre (now in 
 corporated together) is supposed to have coincided with the 
 
GALLIA. 135 
 
 frontier of this district. The bishopric of Auxerre is said to be 
 as ancient as the third century, its first bishop having been St. 
 Peregrin, who was put to death in the reign of Aurelian, A.D. 
 273. 3. Vellaunodunmn, to the southwest of Agedincum, and 
 near the confines of the Aureliani, now Beaune, according to 
 D Anville; others, less correctly, are in favor of Chateau Landon^ 
 or Chateau Renard. In the time of the Carlovingian kings of 
 France the district was known by the name of Pagus Belnisus. 
 4. Melodunum, to the northwest of Agedincum, on the River 
 Sequana, and now Melun. Caesar describes it as situated on 
 an island, in the same manner as Lutetia or Paris. It was 
 taken by Labienus, Caesar s lieutenant, in his campaign against 
 the Parisii. It was also a place of note in the earlier times of 
 the French monarchy, and was repeatedly taken by both the 
 Northmen and the English. The modern town is built for the 
 most part on a slope on the right bank of the Seine. The ruins 
 of an old castle still remain on the island in which the old Cel 
 tic town stood. In the opinion of the best modern authorities, 
 Melodunum was the same place with the Metiosedum men 
 tioned in the text of Caesar, and in all probability this latter 
 name is merely a false reading for the former. 
 
 In the territory of the Tricassii, or Tricasses, we find, 
 
 1. Augustobona, afterward Tricasses, or Tricassce^ now Troyes, 
 their chief city, situate on the Sequana. Ptolemy writes the 
 name Avyovor66ava. The form Tricassce was, at a still later 
 period, changed to Trecce, from the oblique cases of which the 
 modern name has been derived. This city was plundered by 
 the Northmen, A.D. 889. In the feudal period it was the 
 capital of the important country of Troyes, or Champagne. 
 
 2. Corobilium, to the northeast of the preceding, on the Sequa 
 na, now Corbeille. Some write the name Corbclium, and 
 make Corobilium a town of the Catalauni, the site of which 
 is found, as they maintain, near the modern village of St. 
 Ouen. But this is an error. 
 
 In the territory of the Meldi we find, 1. latinum (la-ivov), 
 their capital, afterward called Meldi, and now Meaux. It 
 was situated on the Alba, now Aube, one of the tributaries of 
 the Matrona. The Peutinger Table calls it Fixtuinum. In 
 the early history of the Franks it was a place of considerable 
 consequence. 2. Calagum, to the southeast of the preceding, 
 now Chailly. 
 
136 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 In the territory of the Parisii we have Lutetia Parisiorum, 
 their chief city, afterward Parisii, and now Paris. This 
 place is mentioned by Caesar, in whose time it was already 
 the capital of the tribe. In that part of the Seine which now 
 traverses Paris were anciently five small islands, on one of 
 which, now the island of La Cite, stood Lutetia. This island 
 was then of smaller dimensions than at present, two smaller 
 islands at its western extremity having been incorporated with 
 it. Lutetia, antecedent to the Roman conquest, was an un- 
 walled place. The etymology of the name of the Parisii has 
 been much disputed. Dulaure conjectures that it meant " in 
 habitants of the frontier." A British tribe, in the neighbor 
 hood of Hull, in Yorkshire, had the same designation. In B.C. 
 54, Caesar convoked at Lutetia an assembly of the nations of 
 Gaul. In the general rebellion of the Gallic tribes the follow 
 ing year, Lutetia was burned by the Gauls to prevent its fall 
 ing into the hands of the Romans ; but it subsequently came 
 with the rest of Gaul into their power. For the next four cen 
 turies the place is hardly noticed, except by geographers, by 
 whom the name is variously written ; nor does it appear to 
 have been of any importance until the later period of the Ro 
 man dominion. It took the name of the tribe to which it be 
 longed about A.D. 358 or 360. It was the seat of a bishopric 
 as early as the middle of the third century. Lutetia was the 
 favorite residence of Julian while he governed the provinces of 
 Gaul with the rank of Caesar. In or about the year 494 it 
 was taken by the Franks under Clovis. Under the Romans 
 the buildings connected with the town extended beyond the 
 island to both banks of the river. 
 
 In the territory of the Velocasses, or Bellocassi, we have 
 Rotomagus, now Rouen. The name is variously written, Ro- 
 tomagus, Rothomagus, Ratomagus, &o., and in Ammianus 
 Marcellinus we have the plural form Rotomagi. This name 
 remained when most other capitals had their own proper desig 
 nation superseded by that of the people to whom they respect 
 ively belonged, and was subsequently shortened into Rotomum 
 or Rodomum, whence the modern appellation Rouen. In the 
 early history of France, Rouen appears as the scene of some of 
 the cruelties of Fredegonde. It suffered much from the incur 
 sions of the Northmen, whose capital it eventually became. 
 
GALLIA. 137 
 
 when, by virtue of the treaty between Rollo and Charles the 
 Simple (A.D. 911 or 912), they settled in this part of France. 
 
 3. BELGICA. 
 
 (A.) NAME. 
 
 I. THE name Belgica was given to this province from that of 
 the Belgse, the ruling race in this quarter, who, in Caesar s 
 time, formed one of the three great divisions of Gaul. 
 
 II. The Belgse, as has already been remarked, were of mixed 
 Celtic and Germanic blood, several German tribes having from 
 time to time crossed over, and either driven portions of the 
 Belgse back into the interior, or else having become amalgam 
 ated with them. 
 
 III. The province of Belgica, as settled by Augustus, was, 
 as before remarked, much more extensive than the ancient ter 
 ritory of the Belgse, and contained within its limits three dif 
 ferent stems or races, namely, 1. Belg-ce, of mixed Celtic and 
 German blood ; 2. Batavi, of pure German origin ; 3. Sequa- 
 ni and Helvetu, of pure Celtic extraction. 
 
 IV. We will now proceed to speak of these three races in 
 order, describing in succession the communities into which 
 they were respectively subdivided, and giving some account of 
 the cities of each. 
 
 1. OF THE BELGJE. 
 
 1. Larger Communities. 
 
 I. Bellovdci. In the time of Julius Csesar the Bellovaci 
 were distinguished among the Belgic Gauls for number, valor, 
 and influence, and took an active part in the resistance to the 
 Roman arms, when these were first carried into this part of 
 the country. They agreed to contribute 60,000 men to the 
 confederate army of natives, but the skill and perseverance of 
 the Romans triumphed over all opposition, and the Bellovaci, 
 with their neighbors, had to submit to a foreign yoke. Their 
 territory answered to what is now, in a great measure, the de 
 partments of Oise and Somme. 
 
 II. Menapii, a numerous tribe, occupying originally all the 
 country between the Mosa, or Meuse, and the Rhine, and in 
 Caesar s time having settlements even on the eastern side of 
 the last-mentioned river. They were subsequently, however, 
 
138 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 compelled to retire from the banks of the Rhine, when the Ubii 
 and Sicambri, nations from the interior of Germany, were set 
 tled by the Romans on the western side of the Rhine. From 
 a passage of Tacitus we learn that, in later times, the settle 
 ments of this tribe were along the lower Meuse. 
 
 III. Nervii, a very powerful tribe, claiming to be of German 
 origin, who dwelt in what used to be the French departments 
 of Lys, Nord, Sambre et Meuse, Ardennes, or in Hennegan, 
 &c., on both banks of the Sambre, the ancient Sabis. Caesar 
 names among their dependents or clients the smaller tribes of 
 the Centrones, Grudii, Levaci, Pleumozii, and Geiduni. Their 
 original capital was Bagdcum, now Bavay, but afterward Ca- 
 maracum, now Cambray, and Turnacum, now Tournay, be 
 came their chief cities toward the end of the fourth century. 
 After subjecting the SuessioneS, the Bellovaci, and the Ambi- 
 ani, Caesar marched against the Nervii. A desperate battle 
 was fought on the banks of the Sabis, in which the Nervii ac 
 tually surprised the Roman soldiers while in the act of tracing 
 and intrenching their camp, and came very near defeating the 
 latter. The scale was only turned at length by the valor of 
 the tenth legion. The Nervii fought desperately to the last, 
 and their nation and name, says Caesar, were nearly extin 
 guished on that day. It was reported that, out of 60,000 fight 
 ing men, only five hundred remained. Caesar restored their 
 territory and towns to the remnant of the nation, and they ap 
 pear subsequently to have become a considerable people. We 
 find them frequently serving, at a later day, among the Ro 
 man forces. 
 
 IV. Treveri or Treviri, a powerful tribe, claiming to be of 
 German origin like the Nervii, and dwelling on both sides of 
 the Mosella, from the Mosa to the Rhine. Their chief town 
 was Augusta Treverorum, now Treves. Their territory an 
 swered to what used to be the French departments of the 
 Meuse, Moselle, the department of the Sarthe toward the north, 
 and the southern part of that of Luxembourg-. 
 
 2. Smaller Communities. 
 
 1. Ambidni, on the east coast, along both banks of the Sama 
 ra, now the Somme, in what is now the department of Somme. 
 Their territory lay between that of the Bellovaci, Veroman- 
 
GALLIA. 139 
 
 dui, and Atrebates. 2. Mormi, also on the coast, between the 
 Ambiani and Nervii, and to the northwest of the Atrebates. 
 Their name is derived from the Celtic mor, " the sea," and has 
 reference to their situation. Their territory answers now to a 
 portion of the department of Pas de Calais. 3. Atrebates, to 
 the southeast of the preceding, in what answers now to the 
 eastern portions of the two departments of Pas de Calais and 
 Somme. This tribe were famed for their manufactures of 
 woollen goods even in Roman times, and the cloak or sag-urn 
 that was made here was held in high esteem at Rome. 4. Tox- 
 iandri, to the south of the earlier settlement of the Menapii, 
 in what answers to the modern Seeland and northern Flanders. 
 5. Eburones, to the south of the Toxiandri, in what is now the 
 Netherland province of Limburg, around Hasselt. 6. Aduat- 
 ici or Atuatici, the same, probably, with the Tungri of Tacitus 
 and Ammianus Marcellinus, or else the Tungri, a German 
 tribe, and the first that crossed the Rhine, became amalgama 
 ted with them. Their territory answered in some degree to 
 the present Netherland provinces of Luttich and Namur. 7. Ve- 
 romandui, to the southeast of the Atrebates, in the northern 
 portion of the department of Aisne, and the western portion of 
 that of Ardennes. Ptolemy calls them Popdvdveg. 8. Suessi- 
 ones, to the south of the preceding, and southwest of the Remi, 
 in the middle portion of the departments of Oise and Aisne, 
 and in the northern portion of the department ofMarne. 9. Cat- 
 alauni, to the south of the Remi, in the southern portion of the 
 department of Marne, and the western portion of that of the 
 Meuse. 10. Mediomatrlci, to the south of the Treveri, in the 
 department of the Moselle. 11. Leuci, to the south of the pre 
 ceding, in the northeastern portion of the department of Haute 
 Marne, the northwestern of that of Vosges, and the southern 
 portions of those of Meuse and Meurthe. 
 
 CITIES OF THE BELGTE. 
 
 Cities belonging to the Ambiani, Morini, and Nervii. 
 
 In the territory of the Ambiani we find, 1. Samarobriva, on 
 the Samara, now the Somme, the chief city of the tribe, called 
 afterward Ambiani, and now Amiens. 2. Ambiliati, now Ab 
 beville. 
 
140 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 In the territory of the Morini we find, 1. Taruenna or Ter- 
 uanna, now Terouenne. 2. Gessoriacum, afterward Bononia, 
 now Boulogne. Mela mentions this place under its name of 
 Gessoriacum, and the manner in which he speaks of it implies 
 that it was of Gallic origin, and it was in his time the place of 
 greatest note on that coast. After Mela mention is also made 
 of it by Pliny and Ptolemy, the latter of whom calls it Tiaop- 
 piaitbv eniveiov. Some writers, and among them Montfaucon 
 and Cluverius, have endeavored to show that Boulogne was the 
 Portus Itius from which Caesar embarked for Britain, but their 
 opinion is rejected by D Anville, who agrees with Du Cange 
 and Cambden in fixing the Portus Itius at Witsand or Wissan, 
 a small town near Cap de Griz Nez. Gessoriacum became, 
 under the Romans, the chief port of embarkation for Britain. 
 Here, D Anville thinks, was the tower erected by Caligula 
 when he marched to the coast of Gaul in order to invade Brit 
 ain ; and the Emperor Claudius, according to Suetonius, em 
 barked here for that island. The port in Britain with which 
 a communication was chiefly maintained was Rutupice, now 
 Richborough, near Sandwich. About the time of the Emperor 
 Constantine, the name Bononia was substituted for that of 
 Gessoriacum, and the latter is not used by Ammianus Marcel- 
 linus, Eutropius, and other writers of a later period. Bononia 
 appears to have been one of the Roman naval stations. When 
 Carausius was proclaimed emperor by the legions in Britain, 
 he possessed himself of Bononia, which was, in consequence, 
 besieged and taken by Caesar Constantius Chlorus, father of 
 Constantine the Great, and the capture of the place proved the 
 occasion of a serious detriment to it. In the fifth century Bo 
 nonia is said to have been unsuccessfully attacked by Attila, 
 king of the Huns, and in the ninth century it was laid waste 
 by the Northmen, who had landed in the neighborhood. From 
 the discovery of a ring to which the cables of vessels were fast 
 ened, it is thought that the sea flowed up as far as the present 
 upper town of Boulogne, in which case Gessoriacum must have- 
 been at the bottom of a small bay. 
 
 3. Itius Portus, or Iccius Portus, just above Bononia, and 
 now Witsand, or Wissan, a small town near Cap de Griz Nez. 
 This port was famous as having been the one where Caesar 
 embarked on his invasion of Britain, and has already been re- 
 
G A L L I A. 141 
 
 ferred to in the previous article. 4. Castellum Morinorum, to 
 the east of Bononia, now Montcassel. 5. Ulterior Portus. 
 This was a harbor eight miles east of Itius Portus, according 
 to Caesar, and is mentioned by him in the account of his inva 
 sion of Britain. It is supposed to have been either where 
 Calais now stands, or near to it. Ukert places it at Grave- 
 lines. 
 
 In the territory of the Nervii we have, 1. Grudii, now 
 Groede, in Western Flanders. 2. Turnacum, in the interior, 
 now Tournay, on the Scaldis, or Scheldt. This place was 
 one of the chief cities of the tribe. It is mentioned by St. Je 
 rome in the beginning of the fifth century as being among the 
 places which had been seized by the barbarians who overran 
 Gaul. It was among the early acquisitions of the Franks, 
 and was the capital of the as yet infant empire of Clovis. 
 3. Camaracum, now Cambray, also on the Scaldis, and to the 
 south of the preceding. This place rose to notice in the latter 
 period of the Roman empire, and is mentioned in both the An- 
 tonine Itinerary and the Theodosian Table. In the Notitia 
 Provinciarum it appears as one of the chief cities of the tribe, 
 Turnacum being the other. In the infancy of the Frankish 
 monarchy, Cambray is said to have been the capital of Clodi- 
 on, the son of Pharamond, A.D. 427-448, and to have given 
 title to his kingdom. Charlemagne fortified it, and Charles 
 the Bald ceded it to the bishops, by whom the sovereignty of 
 it was long retained. 4. Bagacum, to the northeast of the 
 preceding, now Bavay. This was the original capital of the 
 Nervii, but was superseded toward the end of the fourth cen 
 tury by Turnacum and Camaracum. The importance of the 
 place, however, is testified by the fact that the Romans brought 
 water to it across the valley of the Sabis, now Sambre, by 
 means of an aqueduct, from springs distant ten or eleven miles. 
 Bavay is at the junction of several Roman roads, which trav 
 ersed the surrounding country. According to some, Bagacum 
 was destroyed by the barbarians toward the end of the fourth 
 century, and it was on this account that Turnacum and Ca 
 maracum rose into importance. The name was variously writ 
 ten, Bagacum in the Antonine Itinerary, Baganum by Ptol 
 emy, and Basiacum, Bavacum, and Bacacum in later author 
 ities. In the Middle Ages the place was a mere castle. 
 
142 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Cities in the Interior, between the Tribes just mentioned and 
 the River Mosa. 
 
 In the territory of the Bellovaci we find, 1. Ccesaromagus, 
 the capital of the tribe (Kaiaapdfiayog), afterward Bellovaci, and 
 now Beauvais. Several writers of great learning, Sanson, 
 Scaliger, and Valesius, have considered that Bratuspdntium, 
 the town into which the Bellovaci retreated with their effects 
 on Csesar s approach, was identical with Csesaromagus, and 
 D Anville himself was at first of the same opinion, though he 
 afterward made the sit of Bratuspantium to be in the neigh 
 borhood of Breteuil, in Picardie. 2. Bratuspantium, just re 
 ferred to in the preceding sentence. 
 
 In the territory of the Suessioneswe find, 1. Augusta Sues- 
 sionum, the capital of the tribe, afterward Suessiones, now 
 Soissons. D Anville, Dulaure, and others are disposed to iden 
 tify Augusta Suessionum with the Noviodunum of Caesar, but 
 this opinion does not seem consistent with Caesar s narrative. 
 In the "Notitia Imperil" it is recorded that there was at Au 
 gusta a government manufactory of shields, balistae, and arm 
 or for the cavalry, called Clibanarii or Cataphracti (fabrica 
 scutaria, balistaria, et clibanaria). In the later period of the 
 Roman dominion, this city was one of the most important 
 places in northern Gaul, and one of the last which remained 
 under the government of the emperors. It was also the seat 
 of government of ^Egidius and his son Syagrius, and near it 
 the latter was defeated by Clovis. Under the early Prankish 
 princes it continued to be of importance, and was the seat of 
 a bishopric. Here Clovis espoused Clotilde ; arid, upon the 
 division of his dominions among his descendants, it gave name 
 to one of the kingdoms formed out of them. 2. Fines, or 
 FimcB, on the boundary line* between the Suessiones and Remi, 
 now Fisme, in Champagne. 
 
 In the territory of the Veromandui we find, 1. Augusta Ve* 
 romanduorum, the capital of the tribe, now St. Quentin. The 
 oldest quarter of the town has retained, down to modern times, 
 the name of Aouste. 2. Verbinum, to the east of the preced 
 ing, now Vervins. 
 
 In the territory of the Atrebates we find, 1. Nemetacum, the 
 capital of the tribe, afterward Atrebates, and now Arras. Not 
 
GALLIA. 143 
 
 only the modern name of the place, but that, also, of the coun 
 try, Artois, is a corruption of the ancient name of the race. 
 It appears from the writings of St. Jerome, who lived during 
 the close of the fourth century and the beginning of the fifth, 
 that in his time it was a manufacturing town, and had been 
 pillaged by the barbarians. 2. Helena, mentioned by Sidoni- 
 us Apollinaris, and now probably Lens. 
 
 In the territory of the Aduatici we find Aduatica, afterward 
 Tungri, now Tongres. In the earlier settlements of the Me- 
 napii, near the Scaldis, before they were driven south by Ger 
 man tribes, we find Castellum Menapiorum, now Kessel, on 
 the Meuse. 
 
 Cities in the Interior, belonging to the Condrusi, Remi, Tre- 
 veri, Medromatrici, Leuci, 8fc. 
 
 In the territory of the Condrusi we find, 1. Fons Tungro- 
 rum, now Spaa, the medicinal waters of this place being known 
 to the Romans. 2. Marcomagus, now Markmagen. 
 
 In the territory of the Remi we find, 1. Durocortorum, aft 
 erward Remi, the chief city of the tribe, now Rheims. This 
 place is mentioned by Caesar, in whose time it was already an 
 important city. Strabo writes the name baupucopTopa. It was 
 at the convergence of several military roads, according to the 
 Antonine Itinerary and Peutinger Table. Under the Roman 
 sway, Durocortorum was the most important place in Belgica 
 Secunda, and was distinguished by its literary character. Cor 
 nelius Fronto, a rhetorician of the time of Hadrian, has com 
 pared it to Athens, an indication, making allowance for rhetor 
 ical exaggeration, of its high reputation in this respect. In 
 A.D. 494, this city, then in the hands of the Franks, by whom 
 it had been occupied after the death of Syagrius, was the scene 
 of the baptism of Clovis and the chief lords of his court, after 
 his victory at Tolbiac. In the civil troubles of the ninth and 
 tenth centuries it was repeatedly besieged, and twice, at least, 
 taken and plundered. In 1179 it was signalized by the conse 
 cration of Philippe Auguste, and, with a few exceptions, all the 
 succeeding monarchs of France have also been consecrated at 
 this place. 2. Axuenna, now Vienne la Ville, on the Aisne, 
 the ancient Axona. 
 
 In the territory of the Treveri we find, 1. Antunacum or An- 
 
144 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 dernacum, now Andernach, a Roman station. It was famed 
 at a later day for the victory gained here by Louis the German 
 over Charles the Bald. 2. Confluentes, now Coblenz, at the 
 confluence of the Mosella and Rhenus, whence it derived its 
 names of Conftuentes, Confluentia, or Confluens. This last was 
 originally the name of a castle erected by Drusus on the right 
 bank of the Mosella. 3. Ambit arinus Vicus, on the Rhine, above 
 Confluentes, where the Emperor Caligula was born. D An- 
 ville and others write the name Ambiatinus Vicus, but the oth 
 er form is the more correct one. Ukert makes this place to 
 have been in the vicinity of the modern Reuse ; Cluver de 
 clares for Capelle. 4. Noviomagus, on the Mosella, now Neu- 
 magen. 5. Augusta Trevirorum, called afterward Treviri, and 
 now Troves, or, as it is called in German, Trier 9 the capital 
 of the tribe, on the right bank of the Mosella. When Julius 
 Caesar was in Gaul, the Treviri were a powerful people, and 
 their capital even then a place of importance. No credit, how 
 ever, is to be given to the hyperbolical inscription put up in 
 modern times, and which states that this city was built 1300 
 years before Rome ! In later times Treves was the residence 
 of the emperors Constantius, Constantine the Great, Julian, 
 Valentinian, Valens, Gratian, and Theodosius, and was so em 
 inent for its commerce, manufactures, wealth, and extent, that 
 Ausonius calls it the second metropolis of the empire. It was 
 nearly annihilated by the Huns, the Goths, and the Vandals, 
 yet subsequently almost recovered its ancient splendor under the 
 Archbishops of Treves, some of whom maintained large armies, 
 which they occasionally led to the field in person, and greatly 
 enlarged their dominions, so that they obtained considerable po 
 litical influence in Germany. 
 
 In the territory of the Catalauni we find Dwrocatelauni, 
 called afterward Catalauni, on the right bank of the Matrona, 
 and now Chalons sur Marnc. It was the capital of the tribe. 
 The prefix Duro, in the name of the place, is of Celtic origin, 
 and means ." water," indicating, in the present instance, the 
 position of the city on the banks of a river. Near this place 
 (A.D. 271) Aurelius defeated the army of Tetricus. In a sub 
 sequent age it was marked by another memorable conflict. In 
 the year 451, Attila, at the head of the Huns, who had invaded 
 Gaul, was defeated by the combined forces of the Romans and 
 
GALLIA. 145 
 
 Visigoths under Aetius and Theodoric. D Anville conjectures 
 that the ancient name of the town was originally in the singu 
 lar form Durocatalaunum. 
 
 In the territory of the Virodunenses we find Virodunum, now 
 Verdun. Gregory of Tours writes the name Viredunum, and 
 other writers of the Middle Ages have Viridunum and Virdu- 
 num. In the Middle Ages it was included in the Germanic em 
 pire, of which its bishops were princes. 
 
 In the territory of the Mediomatrlci we find Divodurum, aft 
 erward Mediomatrici) for which last was substituted, early in 
 the fifth century, the shorter designation of Mettis or Metis, 
 whence the modern name Metz. It was the capital of the tribe. 
 In the civil dissensions which followed the death of Nero, A.D. 
 70, Divodurum was nearly destroyed by a sudden outbreak of 
 the troops of Vitellius. It was completely ruined in the inva 
 sion of the Huns under Attila, A.D. 452 ; but it afterward be 
 came the capital of Austrasia, which was sometimes termed 
 the kingdom of Metz. In the division of the Carlovingian em 
 pire, Metz was comprehended in the kingdom of Lotharingia, 
 or Lorraine. 
 
 In the territory of the Leuci we find, 1. Nasium^ near what 
 is now the village of Grand-Nancy. At a place in this vicin 
 ity called Nas or Nais, inscriptions have been dug up with the 
 name Nasienses. Nasium does not, as some suppose, answer 
 to the present town of Nancy or Nanci, this last not being 
 known to have existed before the twelfth century. 2. Tullum 
 Leucorum, to the east of the preceding, now TouL It was the 
 chief city of the tribe. In some deeds of the time of the Car 
 lovingian princes it is called Leuci. 
 
 2. OF THE BATAVI. 
 
 I. UNDER this head we will make mention also of the other 
 German tribes settled on the left bank of the Rhine. 
 
 II. All these tribes, the Batavi included, may be divided into 
 two classes, namely, 1. Tribes at or near the mouths of the 
 Rhine, in what were called Insults Batavorum, &c., and, 
 2. Tribes on the bank of the Rhine further up, in what was 
 called Germania Prima. 
 
 K 
 
J46 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 First Class. 
 
 I. Caninefates, a tribe of the same origin with the Batavi, 
 occupying not only the western part of the Insula Batavorum, 
 between the Helium Ostium and Flevum Ostium, or the lower 
 and upper mouths of the Rhine, but also extending beyond the 
 Flevum Ostium into what is now northern Holland and west 
 Friesland. They were not so numerous, however, as the Ba 
 tavi, and hence their name gradually became lost in that of 
 the larger community. Their chief city was Lugdunum Ba- 
 tavorum, now Leyden. An account of the Lacus Flevo, in 
 the territory of the Frisii, will be given in the geography of 
 Germania, when describing the Rhine. 
 
 II. Batavi, a Germanic tribe of the race of the Catti, who 
 seem to have left their native district some time before the age 
 of Caesar, and to have settled on the banks of the Vahalis, now 
 the Waal, a branch of the Lower Rhine. They occupied the 
 district, called by some the island, between the Vahalis and 
 Mosa, above their junction, and also the island formed by the 
 northern arm of the Rhine, or Rhine of Ley den ^ the Vahalis 
 before its junction with the Mosa, the Vahalis and Mosa after 
 their junction, and the ocean. This district and island, or, to 
 speak less precisely, these two islands, were called Insulcc Ba- 
 tavorum. In strictness, however, there was but one island, 
 that, namely, last described, and the more correct designation, 
 therefore, was Insula Baiavorum, in the singular. This island 
 now constitutes part of the province of South Holland. . Csesar 
 appears to consider their country as belonging to Germany 
 and not to Gaul, the limits of Belgic Gaul being placed at the 
 southern branch of the Rhine, or Waal, after its junction with 
 the Mosa, or Mcuse. We have followed, however, the ordi 
 nary arrangement, which assigns them to Gallia. The Batavi 
 seem to have occupied also a small portion of country on the 
 banks of the Rhine, and not within the island. Caesar did 
 not carry the war into the country of the Batavi. Under Au 
 gustus they became allies of the Romans. Drusus, the broth 
 er of Tiberius, resided for a time among them, and dug a canal, 
 Fossa Drusiana, which connected the Rhine with the modern 
 Yssel. The name of the Batavi can be traced even now in 
 that of the Beturve, which is a district of the ancient Batavo- 
 rum Insula, between the Rhine, the Waal, and the Lek. 
 
GALLIA. 147 
 
 After the death of Galba, the army of the Rhine having pro 
 claimed Vitellius, and followed him on his way to Italy, the 
 Batavi took the opportunity of rising against the Romans, 
 whose alliance had become very burdensome to them. Claudi 
 us Civilis, a man belonging to one of their principal families, 
 though bearing a Roman name, acted as their leader. At one 
 time the insurrection seems to have spread among the neigh 
 boring tribes of Germans as well as of Belgian Gauls, but the 
 speedy return of the legions suppressed the movement. Civilis 
 resisted for a time, but the Batavi were at last subdued. Still 
 it would appear that they obtained conditions, for we find them 
 afterward restored to their former state of free allies of Rome. 
 It appears, however, that subsequently, in the reigns of Tra 
 jan and Hadrian, the Romans completely established their do 
 minion over them, for we find in the Antonine Itinerary and 
 the Peutinger Table two Roman roads across the country. 
 The Batavi were employed by Agricola in his wars in Britain. 
 In the latter part of the third century, during the civil war 
 which desolated the empire, the Salian Franks invaded the 
 country of the Batavi, and established themselves in it. They 
 armed pirate vessels, which were encountered and defeated at 
 sea by Carausius. Constantius and Constantine waged war 
 against the Franks of the Batavian island, but could not drive 
 them out of it. The Franks lost it, however, in the reign of Ju 
 lian, by an irruption of Frisii, who came from the northern coun 
 try, near the Zuider Zee, and drove the Salian Franks beyond 
 the Meuse. After this the Insula Batavorum formed part of 
 the country called Frisia, which, in the time of the Merovingi 
 ans, extended southward as far as the Scheldt. 
 
 III. Gugerni or Guberni, between the Meuse, Waal, and 
 Rhine. They were a part of the German Sigambri, who had 
 been removed by Tiberius, B.C. 8, into the territory of the 
 Menapii. 
 
 IV. Ubii, a German tribe transported by Agrippa (B.C. 38) 
 to the left bank of the Rhine, and settled between this river 
 and the Meuse. Their territory extended from what is now 
 the Rheno-Prussian village of Gelb or Gellub, as far as Rhein- 
 magen. Their capital was Oppidum Ubiorum, afterward Co- 
 Ionia Agrippina or Agrippinensis. 
 
148 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Second Class. 
 
 I. Vangiones, a German tribe dwelling on the Rhine, to the 
 east of the Treviri, and north of the Nemetes, or between the 
 modern Bingen and Selz. Their capital was Borbetomagus, 
 now Wurms. 
 
 II. Triboci or Tribocci, a German tribe on the left bank of the 
 Rhine, and between that river and the Mediomatrici and Lerici. 
 Their chief town was Argentoratum, now Strasbourg. They 
 dwelt in what is now Alsace. 
 
 III. Rauraci, between the Triboci, Sequani, and Helvetii, 
 and extending from the mouth of the Arola, now Aar, to that 
 of the Birsa, near Basilea, now Basel or Basle. Their capital 
 was Augusta Rauracorum, now Augst. 
 
 Cities of the Tribes just mentioned. 
 
 In the territory of the Caninefates and Batavi we find, 
 1. Forum Hadriani, now Haarlem. 2. Lugdunum Batavo- 
 rum, now Leyden, near the mouth of the northern arm of the 
 Rhine. 3. Prcetorium Agrippince, now Roemberg, on the Rhine. 
 4. Tabled, now Delft. 5. Vada, now Gouda. 6. Trajectum, 
 now Utrecht. 7. Batavodurum, now Wyk de Duurstede. 
 8. Arenacum or Arenatium, near the modern Arnheim. 9. No- 
 viomagus, on the Vahalis, now Nimivegen. It was the capi 
 tal of the Batavi. 10. Batavorum Oppidum, on the Mosa, 
 southwest of the preceding, now, according to D Anville, Bat- 
 tenburg. 
 
 In the territory of the Gugerni we find, 1. Mediolanum, now 
 Mayland. 2. Colonia Trajana, called, also, Castra Ulpia, 
 now Kelln, in the Circle of Cleve. 3. Tricesimce, which some 
 confound with Castra Ulpia, now Erich, near Santen, the clas 
 sical name for which latter place is Castra Vetera. 4. Asci- 
 burgium, fabled to have been founded by Ulysses. Mannert, 
 following Ptolemy, makes this place to have been situate on 
 the right bank of the Rhine, where the canal of Drusus joined 
 the Isala, now Yssel, and where the modern Dosburg lies. It 
 seems more correct, however, to make it correspond to Asburg. 
 or the neighboring hamlet of Essenberg, on the left bank. The 
 name Asciburgium is derived by some from the old German term 
 ask, " a vessel," " a ship," and berg or burg, whence it is sup- 
 
GALLIA. 149 
 
 posed to be equivalent to Schiffburg. Others, however, con 
 nect the name with the legend of Odin and the Asi. 
 
 In the territory of the Ubii we find, 1. Gelduba, probably 
 one of the border fortresses erected by Drusus. A bridge was 
 here thrown by him over the Rhine. It is now Gelb, in the 
 province of Diisseldorf. 2. Novesium, now Neuss. 3. Durno- 
 magus, now Durmagen. 4. Juliacum, to the southwest, now 
 Julich, or, as the French write the name, Juliers. 5. Oppi- 
 dum Ubiorum, the capital of the tribe, afterward named Colo- 
 nia Agrippina or Agrippinensis, when a Roman colony had 
 been established here, first by Agrippa, and subsequently by 
 Agrippina, the daughter of Germanicus, and wife of the Em 
 peror Claudius. The colony of Agrippina, who was the grand 
 daughter of Agrippa, appears to have been sent out to strength 
 en the first, and its title was Colonia Claudia Agrippinensis, 
 Agrippa s colony having been called Colonia Agrippina. The 
 modern name of the place is Cologne, or, as the Germans write 
 it, Koln. Agrippina adorned it with an amphitheatre, temples, 
 aqueducts, &c., the ruins of which may still be traced. It con 
 tinued to be the capital of Lower Rhenish Gaul until A.D. 330, 
 and, after a frequent change of masters, was annexed to the 
 German empire in A.D. 870. We must be careful not to con 
 found the Ara Ubiorum with the Oppidum Ubiorum. The 
 former was an altar, probably erected to Augustus, like that 
 at Lugdunum or Lyons. Not far from Bonn is a hill called 
 Godesberg, and it is highly probable that this is the site of the 
 Ara Ubiorum. That it was somewhere near Bonn is pretty 
 certain. The name Godesberg seems to indicate that the place 
 was the seat of a religious worship of some kind. 6. Bonna, 
 now Bonn, on the Rhine, above Colonia Agrippina. In records 
 of a remote date it is called Bunna, a word which Arndt de 
 rives from the Celtic " Buhn" meaning a spot containing pro 
 ductive fields, pastures, and water-courses. Bonna became the 
 head-quarters of the sixth Roman legion, and, according to the 
 Antonine Itinerary, was afterward kept up as one of the Ro 
 man strongholds 011 the Rhine. It rose ultimately to be a place 
 of some note. According to Tacitus, the Roman troops under 
 Herennius Gallus were defeated near this city by the Batavi 
 under Claudius Civilis. Bonna and Novesium are repeatedly 
 mentioned in the subsequent account of the contest with the 
 
150 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Batavi as places where the Roman generals mustered their 
 forces. In the year 355, Bonn was destroyed by an irruption 
 of German tribes, and in 359 was rebuilt by the Emperor 
 Julian. Under the Prankish sovereigns it is said to have borne 
 the name of Verona. In 881 it was almost ruined by the 
 Northmen. 
 
 In the territory of the Vangiones we find, 1. Bingium, now 
 Bingen, at the influx of the Nava, now Nalie, into the Rhine. 
 The bridge of stone leading at the present day across the Nahe 
 into Bingen is generally supposed to have been constructed by 
 Drusus, and the ruins of the old fort of Klopp, upon an emi 
 nence near the town, stand upon the site of the castle known 
 to have been built by the same commander. 2. Magontiacum 
 or Moguntiacum, now Mayence, or, as it is called in German. 
 Mainz or Mentz^ on the Rhine, and the capital of the tribe. 
 In B.C. 13, Drusus founded the fortress, on the site of which 
 Kastel now stands. The town sprang up around this, but did 
 not extend, under the Romans, to the Rhine. It was destroyed 
 by the Vandals in 406, and lay in ruins for some centuries, 
 until it was rebuilt by the King of the Franks. The writers 
 of the Middle Ages generally prefer the form Mogontiacum 
 when speaking of this place, not Magontiacum. 3. Borbeto- 
 mdgus, called, also, Augusta Vangionum, and now Worms, 
 south of the preceding, and likewise on the Rhine. The mod 
 ern name appears to have arisen from the intermediate form 
 Warmatia or Wormatia, which occurs in the " Notitia." It 
 was destroyed by the Vandals and Huns, but was rebuilt by 
 the Franks. It was afterward the residence (at least for a con 
 siderable time) of Charlemagne, who held in its vicinity those 
 primitive legislative assemblies which, meeting in May, were 
 called Mai Lager or Champs de Mai, in one of which assem 
 blies the war with the Saxons was resolved on. Some of the 
 Prankish and Carlovingian kings also resided here. 
 
 In the territory of the Nemetes we find, 1. Noviomdgus, 
 called afterward Augusta Nemetum, and now Spire or Speyer. 
 The modern name comes from the form Sphira, which occurs 
 in the Ravenna geographer. 2. Julius Vicus, now Germers- 
 heim. 
 
 In the territory of the Triboci we find, 1. Argentoratum, 
 now Strasbourg, or, as it is called in German, Strassburg-. 
 
GALLIA. 151 
 
 This place is first mentioned by Ptolemy, who erroneously 
 calls it a town of the Vangiones. It was in the Roman prov 
 ince of Germania Prima or Superior ; and it was near this place 
 that Julian, while he held the command in Gaul, as Csesar, 
 defeated the Allemanni, under their king Chnodomar, A.D. 
 357. At a subsequent period it appears to have fallen into 
 their hands, and it was taken from them by Clovis and the 
 Franks. It was afterward included in Lotharingia, and in the 
 tenth century was incorporated with the German empire. It 
 was during these changes, perhaps in the sixth century, that it 
 exchanged its ancient name of Argentoratum for that of Stratce- 
 burgus or Strateburgum, modified subsequently into Stratz- 
 burg, and finally into Strassbourg. 2. Helellum, called in the 
 Antonine Itinerary Helvetum, now Schlettstadt. In its vicin 
 ity were dug up statues of Mercury and Diana, together with 
 gold and silver coins. 
 
 In the territory of the Rauraci we find, 1. Argentovaria 
 or Argentaria, now Arzheim. In this vicinity the Emperor 
 Gratian obtained a victory over the Alemanni. 2. Basilea, 
 now Basel, Basle, or Bale. It was originally a castle or for 
 tress built by the Emperor Valentinian I., and after the ruin 
 of Augusta Rauracorum it rose gradually into importance. In 
 917 it was destroyed by the Maggars, but was soon rebuilt, 
 and became again a flourishing place. 3. Augusta Rauraco 
 rum, the chief city of the tribe. Its original name appears to 
 have been Rauracum. A Roman colony was led hither by Mu- 
 natius Plancus during the reign of Augustus. The city was 
 destroyed by Attila. The village of Augst occupies a part of 
 the ancient site. 
 
 3. OF THE SEQUANI AND HELVETII. 
 
 In the Province of Maxima Sequanorum. 
 
 I. Sequani, These, as before remarked, were a tribe of Cel 
 tic origin. , Their territory was bounded on the north by the 
 range of Mount Vogesus, on the west by the Arar, now Saone, 
 on the south by the Rhodanus, and on the east by the range 
 of Jura. It answered, therefore, to what is now the northern 
 portion of the department of Ain, the eastern portion of the de 
 partment of Saone, the departments of Jura and Doubs, and 
 the southern portion of that of Haute- Saone. The Sequani 
 
152 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 were one of the most powerful tribes of the Celtic stock, and 
 had long, together with the Arverni, been rivals of the ^Edui, 
 as regarded the superiority in Gaul, before the arrival of Ceesar 
 in that country. Having been unsuccessful in this contest, 
 they had called in the aid of Ariovistus, a powerful German 
 monarch, who, however, after defeating the ^Edui and their 
 allies, had become a general oppressor to both parties, and had 
 seized upon the territories of some of the dependents of the Se- 
 quani themselves along the banks of the Rhine. After the de 
 feat of Ariovistus by Csesar, some of the followers of the former, 
 and especially the Triboci, still retained possession of this newly- 
 acquired territory, which thenceforth was completely lost to the 
 Sequani. By the subsequent division which Augustus made 
 of Gaul, the Sequani became included in the new province of 
 Belgica, of which they ever afterward continued to form part. 
 II. Helvetii. The territory of this powerful tribe, who were 
 of Celtic origin, was bounded on the west by Mount Jura, 
 which separated them from the Sequani, on the south by the 
 Pennine Alps, on the east by the Rsetian Alps, and on the north 
 by the Rhine. They occupied, therefore, a great part of what 
 is modern Switzerland. Caesar says that they were divided 
 into four pagi, or cantons, of which he names two, the pagus 
 Tigurinus and pagus Urbigenus or Verbigenus. The mod 
 ern cities of Zurich and Orbes are supposed to have derived 
 their names from these two pagi. The other cantons, not 
 named by Caesar, were the pagus Tugenus and pagus Ambro- 
 nicus. The Helvetii appear for the first time in history about 
 110 B.C. The Tigurini having joined the Cimbri in their in 
 vasion of Gaul, the Roman consul L. Cassius was sent with 
 an army against them. He met the forces of the Tigurini 
 some say near the Arar or Saone, according to others near the 
 eastern bank of the Lacus Lemamis, or Lake of Geneva ; but 
 he was defeated and slain, together with his lieutenant Piso, 
 and most of his soldiers. The rest made a capitulation, by 
 which they were allowed to return home after passing under 
 the yoke. About half a century later, the great body of the 
 Helvetians resolved to migrate with their families into the more 
 fertile parts of Gaul. They burned their towns and villages, 
 and passed through the country of the Sequani until they 
 reached the Arar. Here Csesar fell upon the Tigurini, after 
 
GALLIA. 153 
 
 the others had crossed the stream, and completely defeated 
 them. The rest of the Helvetii were defeated with great 
 slaughter near Bibracte, in the country of the ^Edui. The 
 survivors, about one third of the original number, were allowed 
 to return to their country, and were henceforth in the condi 
 tion of allies and tributaries of Rome. The Helvetii who re 
 turned home were mustered by Caesar, and found to be 110,000 
 individuals, men, women, and children. Their number when 
 they left home was 368,000 individuals, of whom 92,000 were 
 fighting men. After the total conquest of Gaul, the Romans 
 sent colonies into the country of the Helvetii ; but it appears 
 from Tacitus (Hist., i., 67) that the Helvetii retained the right 
 of keeping garrisons in some of their own strongholds, and it 
 was the rapacity of the twenty-first legion, which appropriated 
 to its own use certain moneys destined to pay the Helvetian 
 garrisons, that was the first cause of the fatal insurrection of 
 A.D. 69. After the legions of Germany had proclaimed Vitel- 
 lius, and when Caecina, one of his lieutenants, was marching 
 with a strong force toward Italy, the Helvetii, who were not 
 yet acquainted with the events at Rome and the murder of 
 Galba, intercepted letters which were written in the name of 
 the legions of Germany to the legions of Pannonia, and which 
 invited the latter to join Vitellius, and they arrested the centu 
 rion and his escort as guilty of treason against Galba. Upon 
 this, Caecina, who had just entered the territory of the Helvetii 
 on his way to Italy, devastated the country, destroyed the Ther 
 mae Helveticae (the modern Baden, in Aargau], and advanced 
 against the main body of the Helvetians, who were in arms, 
 and had chosen a certain Claudius Severus for their leader. 
 The Helvetians, however, made no stand against the Roman 
 veterans, and were massacred without mercy. Those who es 
 caped death were sold as slaves. The town of Aventicum, one 
 of the first in Helvetia, sent messengers to Caecina, with an 
 offer to surrender ; but Caecina sentenced the principal inhab 
 itants to death, and referred the fate of the rest to Vitellius, 
 who with difficulty was induced at length to spare their lives. 
 Vespasian, who succeeded Vitellius, had lived, when a boy, at 
 Aventicum with his father Sabinus, who went thither as a pub- 
 licanus, and had died there. After Vespasian became emperor 
 he remembered Aventicum, and embellished and enlarged the 
 
154 AN CIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 place. Nothing particular occurred after this in Helvetia un 
 til the beginning of the fifth century of our era. During this 
 long period the Roman language and Roman habits and man 
 ners became prevalent throughout the country, though it is sup 
 posed that the more central valleys and the Alpine recesses re 
 tained a sort of rude independence, since Roman stations have 
 been traced forming a line at the foot of the high Alps, which 
 seem to have extended from the Lake of Wallenstadt to that 
 of the Waldst dtter, where Luzern now is, and thence to the 
 highlands of Bern, as if to guard the open country against the 
 irruptions of the mountaineers. At the breaking up of the 
 western empire, the Burgundians were the first to form a per 
 manent situation in western Switzerland, between the Jura 
 range, the Leman Lake, and the River Aar, and Geneva be 
 came the occasional residence of their kings. Meantime the 
 Allemanni, a wilder and more barbarous race than the Bur 
 gundians, occupied the banks of the Rhine as far as eastern 
 Helvetia, until, being defeated by Clovis, king of the Franks, 
 at Tolbiacum, near Cologne, A.D. 496, the Franks became 
 masters of the country which the Allemanni had occupied, in 
 cluding a great part of Helvetia. The old natives of Helvetia 
 became now by turns subjects or serfs of these various masters; 
 being no longer a nation, their very name became obliterated, 
 and they were included in the general appellation of Romans, 
 by which the northern conquerors designated the inhabitants of 
 the countries once subject to Rome. 
 
 In the territory of the Helvetii is the Lacus Lemanus, now 
 Lake of Geneva, one of the largest in Europe, and extending 
 in the form of a crescent from east to west. The ordinary or 
 thography of the name is Lemanus, as we have given it, though 
 Oudendorp, Ukert, and others consider Lemannus more cor 
 rect. Strabo, according to the latest and best text (that of 
 Kramer), calls it i\ hfr\\Livva, At juv??, but Ptolemy A^ez>?/. In the 
 Antonine Itinerary it is termed Lausonius Lacus, and in the 
 Peutinger Table Losannensis Lacus. Most of the ancient 
 writers who make mention of this lake, repeat the erroneous 
 account that the River Rhodanus traverses this sheet of water 
 without mingling its waters with it. 
 
GALLIA. 155 
 
 Cities of the Sequani. 
 
 Proceeding from north to south we find, 1. Luxovium, now 
 Luxeu. There were warm springs in this quarter, and thermae 
 erected over them, the ruins of which still exist. 2. Portus 
 Abucini, on the Arar, southwest of the preceding, now Port 
 sur Saone. 3. Segobudium or Segoboduum, also on the Arar, 
 now Seveux, on the Saone. 4. Loposagium, on the Dubis, now 
 Luxiol, near Beaume. 5. Epamanduoduntm, to the northeast 
 of the preceding, now Mandeure. 6. Vesontio, on the Dubis, 
 now Besangon. The origin of this town is unknown. Local 
 traditions and legends dated it as far back as four hundred and 
 thirty-four years before the foundation of Rome, which, ac 
 cording to the received chronology, would be about 1186 B.C. 
 All that we know with certainty is, that in Caesar s campaign 
 against Ariovistus, it was the greatest city of the Sequani, 
 and a place so strong by situation as to offer to either party 
 the greatest facilities for protracting the war. Csssar, by a 
 rapid march, seized the town and placed a garrison in it. 
 The Roman general has described the place as nearly sur 
 rounded by the River Dubis, which here formed a bend, as 
 though its course had been traced by a pair of compasses, 
 and the interval left by the river was occupied by an emi 
 nence, which, being fortified with a wall, served as a kind of 
 citadel. This was a flourishing place under the Romans, but 
 when the inroads of the barbarians commenced, the city of Ve- 
 sontio had its share in the general calamities, and was destroy 
 ed by the Allemanni in the time of Julian. It was rebuilt, 
 but again destroyed by Attila and the Huns. Several remains 
 at the present day attest its former greatness. 7. Ariolica, 
 called afterward Pontarlum, to the southeast of Vesontio. It 
 is now Pontarlier. 8. Magetobria, now Moigte de Broie, ac 
 cording to the best opinion, and in the vicinity of Pontarlier. 
 The MSS. of Caesar, who makes mention of the place, have al 
 most all Admagetobria. 9. Pom Dubis, now Pont, near the 
 frontier of the 
 
 Cities of the Helvetii. 
 
 Proceeding from the northeast toward the south, we find, 
 1. Vindonissa, now Windisch, on the Arola, now Aar, in the 
 
156 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 canton of Bern. 2. Forum Tiberii, to the north of the preced 
 ing, on the Rhine, now Kaiserstuhl. 3. Turicum, now Zurich, 
 on the Limagus, now the Limmat. 4. Salodurum, to the south 
 west of the preceding, on the River Arola, now Solothurn or 
 Solerne. 5. Aventicum, now Avenches, called, also, Colonia 
 Flavia and Pia Flavia. It was the chief city of the Helvetii, 
 and has already been alluded to in the account just given of 
 that people. It took the name of Colonia Flavia and Pia Fla 
 via in the reign of Vespasian, when embellished and enlarged 
 by that emperor, as already remarked. 6. Lausanna, now Lau 
 sanne, near the southern shore of the Lacus Lemanus. 7. Noi- 
 odunum, called, also, Colonia Equestris, now Nyon, in the Pays 
 de Vaud. 
 
 ISLANDS BELONGING TO AQUITANICA AND LUGDUNENSIS. 
 
 I. Uliarus, now Oleron, lying on the coast of the Santones, 
 off the mouth of the Carantonus, now Charente, and a little 
 distance above the mouth of the Garumna. It belonged to 
 Aquitanica. The name Uliarus occurs in Pliny. Subsequent 
 ly we have in Sidonius Apollinaris the derived adjective Olari- 
 onensis, which serves to mark the transition to the modem 
 name of Oleron. This island extends about twenty miles in 
 length, and is about seven miles in breadth. The inhabitants 
 appear to have had a very considerable trade as early as the 
 twelfth century, and to have collected adjudged cases upon the 
 laws of the sea for regulating their own commercial affairs. 
 Hence arose the famous maritime laws of Oleron, which be 
 came known and partially adopted throughout all Europe. It 
 is an historical error to suppose, as some do, that the laws of 
 Oleron were compiled and published by Richard I. of England, 
 in this island, on his return from the Holy Land. 
 
 II. Radis, now Re, a short distance above Uliarus. The Ra 
 venna geographer calls it Ratis, but the writers of the Middle 
 Ages give the name as Radis. It is about sixteen miles long, 
 and about three or four broad. 
 
 III. Ogia, now D Yeu or Dieu, northwest of the preceding, 
 and lying farther out than it from the mainland, the nearest 
 point of which is distant more than ten miles. It is about six 
 miles in length, and about two and a half or three miles in 
 breadth. The whole island is little else than a vast granitic 
 
GALLIA. 157 
 
 rock, covered with a vegetable soil three feet in thickness in the 
 lower part, but in the higher ground so thin as to leave the rock 
 almost bare. 
 
 IV. Strabo speaks of a small island, not far from the coast, 
 and lying off the mouth of the Ligeris, on which, according to 
 him, dwelt a species of Amazonian race, addicted to the worship 
 of Dionysus or Bacchus, and who once every year, during the 
 celebration of the orgies of the god, unroofed his temple and put 
 on a new covering before evening. Each woman brought ma 
 terials for this purpose ; and if any one of them allowed these 
 materials to fall to the ground, she was torn in pieces by the 
 rest. Some one always suffered in this way every year. Stra 
 bo calls these females " the women of the Samnites," al rtiv 
 Safimrtiv ywatKEc;, but Tyrrwhit reads NG^WTWV, which is, no 
 doubt, the true lection, the island lying off the coast of the 
 Namnetes. 
 
 V. Vindilis, now Belle Isle, a little to the northwest of the 
 mouth of the Ligeris. It was known to the Romans under this 
 name of Vindilis, and it appears in a deed of the Middle Ages 
 under the name of Guedel, a form which has some affinity with 
 Vindilis. It was also, according to some writers, known to the 
 ancients under the Greek name of Calonesus, of which its mod 
 ern name of Belle Isle is a translation. The island is about 
 eleven miles in length, and about six in breadth. 
 
 VI. Uxantis, now Ouessant, or, as the English writers fre 
 quently call it, Ushant, above the Gobseum Promontorium, and 
 lying off the territory of the Osismii. It is about four miles 
 long and three broad. Another ancient name was Axantos. 
 
 VII. Ccesarea, now Jersey, off the coast of the Unelli. Its 
 greatest length is about twelve miles, its greatest breadth about 
 seven. The only mention made of this- island in the ancient 
 writers is that which occurs in the Antonine Itinerary. Its 
 original name is said to have been Angia. It appears to have 
 been called Csesarea in honor of some one of the Roman em 
 perors. 
 
 VIII. Sarnia, to the northwest of the preceding, now Guern 
 sey. Mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary. The form of the 
 island approximates to that of a right-angled triangle. The 
 sides face the south, east, and northwest, and are respectively 
 about six and a half, six, and nine miles long. 
 
158 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 IX. Ridunaj to the northeast of the preceding, now Au- 
 rigny, or, as the English writers more commonly term it, Alder - 
 ney. It is about three and three quarter miles long, and about 
 one and three eighths broad, and about eight miles in circuit. 
 The Northmen settled here at an early period. 
 
 REMARKS 
 
 ON THE 
 PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES OF CELTIC* NAMES OF PLACES, TRIBES, &c 
 
 I. THE remarks which we are here about to make, though obtained from the 
 best sources, must be regarded as at best merely conjectural or approximative. 
 And this must be the character of all speculations upon the language of the an 
 cient Celtic race, notwithstanding the boasted discoveries of modern times. 
 
 II. We do not know of any original Celtic alphabet, nor of any w r orks in that 
 language. Indeed, w r e have no positive knowledge left of the language of Cel 
 tic Gaul, unless we suppose it to have been similar to the Gaelic of Scotland. 
 The Breton language, like the Welsh, is a dialect of the Cymric tongue, belong 
 ing to that great division of the Celtae. 
 
 III. It has been long disputed whether the Basque language is a dialect of the 
 old Celtic. W. Von Humboldt (Prufung der Untersuchungen uber die Urbe- 
 wohncr Hispanicns vermittclst der Vaskischcr Sprache, Berlin, 1821) seems to be 
 of opinion that the Basque language is of Iberian, and not of Celtic origin; and 
 this undoubtedly is the true view of the case, the Iberian itself being connected 
 with the Finnish dialects of northern Europe. 
 
 IV. The remains of the old Celtic language must therefore be sought in the 
 Gaelic, and in the Erse or Irish, which is said to resemble the Gaelic, and also 
 in the Welsh, and its cognate dialect the Breton. These seem to be the only 
 probable offspring, though greatly changed of course, of the language of the an 
 cient Celts. We will now proceed to our more immediate subject, and will 
 consider first the prefixes and next the suffixes or endings of the Celtic local 
 names frequently occurring in ancient writers. The arrangement will be, for 
 convenience sake, an alphabetical one. 
 
 Celtic local Prefixes. 
 
 1. AGEN. In the life of St. Caprasius it is said that the town of Agennum, 
 now Agen, in Guienne, had its name " ab hiatu speluncce." Agcn in Welsh, at 
 the present day, is a word for " a cleft or cave." There is no similar word in 
 Erse with this meaning ; but in Bas-Breton we have agen, aitnen, eitnen, " a 
 spring, coming forth from the earth," and in Cornish we have agery, " to open." 
 (Adelung, ii., p. 42. Diefenbach, i., p. 21.) 
 
 2. ALP or ALB. A root rather than prefix, but still deserving of a place here. 
 It appears to mean " high," " lofty," and is found in the name of the Alpes or 
 Alps. Hence we have in Isidorus, iv., 8, the following: " Gallorum lingua 
 Alpes alti monies vocantur." Compare with this the Gaelic alb, "an eminence 
 or mountain," whence Albion, a name given to England from its lofty coasts, 
 and Albain, an appellation for the Highlands of Scotland. So we find Alba in 
 Latium, and several places of the same name in Spain and Gaul, and it is ob 
 servable that all of them were situate on elevated spots. We find the Albani, 
 
GALLIA. 159 
 
 also, in upper Asia, occupying a mountainous region called Albania, on the 
 western shore of the Caspian. The same root is likewise found in the name of 
 many other places in other quarters. (Compare Adelung, Mithr., vol. ii., p. 42. 
 Diefenbach, Ccltica, i., p. 18, seq. Pott, Etymol. Forsch., ii., p. 525.) 
 
 3. AR. A prefix or preposition, meaning " upon" or " near," and appearing 
 in the Latinized term Armorica, where it is united with the Celtic mor, " the 
 sea," by which the northwestern coast of Gaul is indicated, where the Armori- 
 CCB Civitates were situated. We find it, also, in the name of Arclate, the mod 
 ern Aries, which is said to come from ar, "upon," and llaeth, "a morass." In 
 the Bas-Breton we have still arvor, " a maritime tract," changed from the old 
 form armor by the genuine Celtic substitution of v for m, just as we find the 
 people of Armorica called Ap66pv%ot in Procopius. (Diefenbach, i., p. 80.) 
 
 4. BRIGA, BRIVA, BRIA, as in Brigantes, Brivates, Briaria, &c., consult remarks 
 on these same combinations under the head of Svjfixes. 
 
 5. CAD, CAT, CAS, in Cadurci, Catalauni, Cassivclauni, &c. Cad in Welsh 
 means "a troop" or "band." According to Vegetius (ii., 2) and Isidorus (ix., 
 3, 46) the term catena in Latin was of Celtic origin, and meant the same as 
 legio, and hence Diefenbach supposes it to have come from cad and tor/a (Welsh, 
 catrawd), " a troop of soldiers." Compare the Gaelic ceatham, " a band of men." 
 In Bas-Breton cadarn, and in Cornish cad, both signify " a fight." 
 
 6. CARN. This prefix appears to mean " rocky," " stony," and hence the 
 Garni and Carnutes, as well as many names of places involving the same root, 
 would seem to have reference to stony or rocky localities. Compare the Gaelic 
 corn, "to heap up," and earn, cairn, "a heap of stones," "rock." 
 
 7. CRAG. A root rather than prefix, unless we suppose it to form part of the 
 name Graioccli. It means " rocky," " stony," and may be compared with the 
 Bas-Breton krag, the Welsh craig, the Gaelic carraig, creag, all signifying "a 
 rock," " a large stone," and our English word " crag." This same root appears 
 to exist in the name of Mount Cragus in Cilicia andLycia, and more than prob 
 ably in that of the Alpes Graia, " the craggy or rocky Alps," an etymology far 
 preferable to that which connects the name of the Graian Alps with the fabled 
 wanderings of the Grecian hero Hercules. Diefenbach appears to think that 
 there is some confirmation of this Celtic etymology to be deduced from Petro- 
 nius Arbiter, c. 122. This same root crag seems to lie also at the basis of the 
 modern name Crau, which is given to the celebrated lapideus campus, or " stony 
 field," near Aries. 
 
 8. DURO. The syllables duro at the beginning (and also durum at the end) of 
 Celtic local terms, occur in the names of places, &c., situated near rivers or the 
 sea. We find in Welsh dwr, i. c., dur, and duvr or duvyr, signifying " water." 
 We have also dour in Cornish, and dur in Bas-Breton, with the same meaning. 
 The Irish and Gaelic word corresponding is uisge ; but Lhuyd and Armstrong 
 give dobhar and dovar, "water," as obsolete Erse terms, with which we may 
 compare the Sanscrit dabhra, "ocean." We find, also, the same root dur ap 
 pearing in the names of several rivers, as, for example, the Durius in Spain, the 
 Aturis and Duranius in Gaul, the Duria in northern Italy, &c., all marking Cel 
 tic localities. (Prichard, Researches, vol. iii., p. 125. Diefenbach, i., p. 155, seq. 
 Adelung, ii., p. 57.) 
 
 9. EBOR or EBUR. This prefix is probably derived from a lost Celtic word 
 analogous to ufer, "banks," in German. Supposing this to be so, the name 
 Ebor-ach, whence Ebordcum," Vork," in England, might mean a place on the 
 banks of a river or water. Another, but less probable derivation, would be that 
 connecting it with the Welsh aber, " a confluence of waters." It has been sup- 
 
160 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 posed that such names of places as Aberdeen, Aberbothrick, Abercurnig, &c., in 
 Scotland, contain this Celtic prefix. (Prichard, iii., p. 128.) 
 
 10. LUG. The meaning of this prefix has been disputed. According to one 
 of the ancient writers (Clitophon, ap. Pint, de Flum. Op. ed. Reiske, vol. x., p. 
 733) the name Lugdunum (Aovydovvov), in which it occurs, signifies " crow s 
 hill," the prefix lug meaning "a crow :" "Xovyov yap ry a<f>uv dia^EKTu TOV /copc/ca 
 KaXovaiv, &OVVQV 6s TOKOV tf e^ovra. The latter part of the name is explained 
 well enough, but the signification given to the prefix can not be correct. The 
 appellation Lugdunum appears rather to indicate a city situate on or near a hill 
 or elevation on a river, or near some confluence of waters. We may then com 
 pare lug with the Welsh Ihwch, and the Erse loch, " a lake," " an inlet of wa 
 ter," &c. This explanation will suit very well the position of Lugdunum, the 
 modern Lyons, situate under a hill at the confluence of the Arar and Rhodanus. 
 So, again, Lugdunum Batavorum, the modern Leydcn, is in the immediate vicin 
 ity of water, being situate on the Old Rhine, the burg or central part, which 
 marks the site of the ancient city, being the only elevated spot of ground for 
 many miles around ; and, finally, Lugdunum Convenarum, now St. Bertrand, stands 
 on high ground on both sides of the Garonne. 
 
 11. NANT. This prefix means " a valley," "a rivulet." In Welsh we have 
 nant, " a ravine," " a brook ;" in Cornish, nance, " a valley." The term nant is 
 in common use in Wales, and it is understood in the same sense in Savoy, where 
 we find Nant dc Gria, Nant de Taconay ; and so, also, Nant Arpenaz, " a torrent 
 flowing over a summit," which is exactly described in Welsh by Nant-ar-penau. 
 Hence many local names in Gaul, as Nantuacum, now Nantue, in Burgundy, sit 
 uated in a narrow valley, on a lake between two mountains ; so, also, the Nan- 
 tuates, who, as we are informed by Strabo, occupied the valley of the Rhine, 
 immediately below its source ; and, again, Namnetes or Nannetes, now Nantes or 
 Nantz, in a country intersected by rivulets. (Adelung, ii., p. 64. Prichard, iii., 
 p. 128. Diefenbach, I, p. 82.) 
 
 12. NEMET. This prefix, according to Fortunatus, meant " a temple," prob 
 ably a grove-temple, and hence was connected, perhaps, in some way with the 
 Greek VE^OS, " a glade," " a piece of wooded ground," and the Latin nemus, "a 
 grove." Hence Drynemetum (where it appears as a prefix to the second part of 
 the compound), the name of a place in Galatia, where the Council of Three Hun 
 dred, from all the three nations of Gauls in Galatia, were accustomed to as 
 semble. Hence, also, Vernemetis, the name of a celebrated temple in the vicin 
 ity of Burdigala, now Bourdeaux, which, according to Fortunatus, meant "fanum 
 ingens." So, too, Augustonometum, now Clermont, in Auvcrgne, where was the 
 temple of Vasa. (Adelung, ii., p. 77. Prichard, iii., p. 127. Radloff, Neue Un- 
 tersuchungen, p. 399.) 
 
 2. Celtic local Suffixes. 
 
 1. -ACUM. This suffix contains the Celtic root ac, "water," and hence the 
 names of so many places in Gaul with this termination, all situate on rivers, 
 &c., as Arenacum, on the Rhine ; Laurcacum, on the Danube ; Magontiacum, 
 on the Rhine ; Turnacum and Bagacum, on the Scaldis ; Blariacum, on the Mosa, 
 &c. (Adelung, ii., p. 41.) So, at a later day, the convent of Mauzacum, in Au- 
 vergne, is said to have been so named from its having been founded "inter aquas" 
 (Diefenbach, i., p. 66.) 
 
 2. -ATES, -IATES. In Welsh, iaid, aid, is a frequent termination of adjectives, 
 as Ceisariaid, the Csesarians or Romans, easily convertible into ates, iates ; like 
 wise aeth, a termination of nouns, as Cattraeth. (Prichard, iii., p. 129.) 
 
GALLIA. 161 
 
 3. -BRIGA, -BRIVA, -BRiA. The meaning of these terminations is far from be 
 ing clearly ascertained. The first occurs very frequently in the Ibero-Celtic 
 parts of Spain, as Nertobriga, Mirobriga, Langobriga, Segobriga, &c., and is gen 
 erally appropriated to towns on rivers. This had led many to imagine that the 
 ending in question is the same as the German Bruckc and English bridge. 
 This, however, though a very plausible analogy, will not stand the test of a 
 close examination, and can not in any way be made applicable to such names 
 as that of the Brigantes. It seems better, therefore, upon the whole, to give 
 the termination briga the signification of " city," with the associate idea of ele 
 vation, i. e., a city on some elevated spot, and we may then compare it with the 
 Welsh Ire, " a hill or mount," " a peak ;" the Erse bri, " a hill," " a rising 
 ground," whence brioghach, "hilly;" the Gaelic braigh, "the upper part" of any 
 thing or place, &c. The termination bria will also have the meaning of " a 
 city," and with this we may compare the ending ppia, in the names of certain 
 cities of Thrace, which, according to Strabo, also meant " a city," and was 
 equivalent to TrdAif. Thus Mesembria, a colony of Megarians, was originally 
 called Menebria, that is, " the city of Mene," its founder. So the city of Selys 
 was Selybria, and ^Enus was called Poltyobria, or the city of Poltys. (Strab., 
 vii., p. 319, Cas.) The termination -briva appears to be closely connected with 
 these, and is probably only another form of the same ending, though many give 
 this also the meaning of "bridge," while others make it signify "ford." 
 
 4. -DUNUM, -DINUM. According to Bede, dun signified a hill in the language 
 of the ancient Britons, namely, that of Wales and the Strathclyde Britons. 
 According to Clitiphon, as quoted by Plutarch (compare remarks under the pre- 
 rix Lug}, it was the same in meaning in the language of Gaul, dovvov aakwci 
 rbv ^lx ov7a - Adelung compares with this the Greek -&tv, "a heap." In the 
 names of places in Britain, dun and din appear to have been used indifferently 
 one for the other. Thus, for example, Londinum and Londunum are both found. 
 The Welsh dinas, meaning " city," has probably the same origin. In the Neth 
 erlands, the sand-hills on the coast are, according to Adelung, still called Dunen, 
 and so in England the name of downs or dunes is given to little hillocks of sand 
 formed along the sea-coast. (Adelung, ii., p. 57. Prichard, iii., p. 126.) 
 
 5. -DURUM. Compare remarks on the prefix Duro. 
 
 6. -LAUNI, -LANI. In Welsh llan means " an inclosure." Hence Segelauni, 
 Catieuchlani, &c. 
 
 7. -MAGUS. According to some, this ending has reference to an association, 
 union, or fellowship, and hence to a collection or union of families. (Radio/, 
 p. 397.) Others, however, find traces of it in the Irish and Gaelic mdgh, " a 
 field or plain." It would then have reference to the surrounding locality, 
 (Prichard, iii., p. 126. Diefenbach, i., p. 77.) 
 
 8. -RITUM. This ending, which we find in August oritum, Camboritum, &c., 
 appears to mean " a ford." Compare the Welsh Rhyd and Cornish Ryd, both 
 meaning " a ford ;" hence Rhyd-ychan, the Welsh for Oxford. Erse has no cor 
 responding word approaching this root. 
 
 9. -TRIGES. This ending occurs in the name of the Durotriges, &c. In 
 Welsh, trig means " to stay," " to abide ;" whence trigan, " to remain ;" triga- 
 diad, " inhabitants ;" and hence Duro-triges, " dwellers near water." 
 
 L 
 
INSULT BRITANNIC^. 
 
 THESE may be considered under three heads : 1. Britannia ; 
 2. Hibernia ; 3. Insulce Britannicce Minores. 
 
 1. BRITANNIA. 
 
 1. NAMES. 
 
 I. BRITAIN was known to the Romans by the names of Bri 
 tannia (in Greek Bperav/o, Bperrawa, ~BperraviKrj vfjoog) and Al 
 bion ( AAot>0)v). 
 
 II. The etymology of the word Britannia or Britain has been 
 much disputed. One of the most plausible is that which derives 
 it from a Celtic word brith or brit, signifying " painted," and tan, 
 an element which we find forming part of so many other names 
 of countries, both ancient and modern, such as Mauri-tan-ia, 
 Aqui-tan-ia, Lusi-tan-ia, Kurdi-stan, Hindo-stan, &o., and 
 which appears to signify " region" or " country." 
 
 III. The term brith is supposed to refer to the custom fol 
 lowed by the inhabitants of staining their bodies of a blue color 
 extracted from woad. Carte says that the name in the most 
 ancient British poets is Inis (" island") prydhain. The mean 
 ing, however, of prydhain, if it be any thing more than a cor 
 rupt form derived from the root brit, does not seem to be known. 
 
 IV. The name Albion comes from the Celtic root Alp or Alb, 
 and has reference to the lofty coasts of the island, as it lies fa 
 cing Gallia. Others, giving Alp or Alb the meaning of " white," 
 refer the name to the white or chalky cliffs of Britain 
 
 2. EARLY AND LATER INHABITANTS. 
 
 I. THE earliest inhabitants of Britain, so far as we know, 
 were probably of that great family, the main branches of which, 
 distinguished by the designation of Celts, spread themselves 
 so widely over middle and western Europe. The Welsh and 
 Danish traditions indicate a migration from Jutland, but it is 
 decidedly erroneous to seek to connect, as some do, the name 
 
INSULT BRITANNIC-E. 163 
 
 Cymry, the national appellation of the Welsh, with the Cim 
 merians (the Kipfiepioi of Herodotus) and the Cimbri of the 
 Roman historians, on the supposition of their having once oc 
 cupied Jutland, or the ancient Cimbric Chersonese. Neither 
 the Cimmerii nor Cimbri ever dwelt in this quarter. 
 
 II. The Celtse crossed over from the neighboring country of 
 Gaul ; and Welsh traditions speak of two colonies, one from the 
 quarter since known as Gascony, and another from Armorica. 
 At a later period, the BelgaB, actuated by martial restlessness 
 or the love of plunder, assailed the southern and eastern coasts 
 of the island, and settled there, driving the Celts into the inland 
 country. 
 
 III. On the conquest of the island by the Romans, we must 
 conceive that it received a very considerable mixture of Roman 
 and foreign blood. Comparatively few women would be brought 
 by the Roman soldiers, and such of the latter as settled perma 
 nently would unite themselves to native females. It was the 
 policy, moreover, of the Romans, to employ the native troops 
 of one province in the conquest or military administration of 
 other provinces, a contrivance obviously devised with the view 
 of preventing revolt. Accordingly, we find among the Roman 
 monuments of Britain abundant evidence of the presence in 
 that island of soldiers from Gaul and various other parts of the 
 Continent, from which circumstance there necessarily resulted 
 a great intermixture of foreign and native blood. 
 
 IV. On the subsequent withdrawal of the Roman forces, the 
 Saxons and Angli came over and founded the Heptarchy, and 
 their power, in its turn, was overthrown by the Normans ; so 
 that here, again, we have two new elements added to the an 
 cient stock. 
 
 3. HISTORICAL EPOCHS. 
 
 I. BRITAIN becomes known in early times to the Phoenicians, 
 and then to the Carthaginians and the people of Massilia, who 
 all trade for tin to certain islands, called by Herodotus Kaaai- 
 repideq (Cassiterides), or "The Tin Islands," and which are 
 commonly supposed to have been the Scilly Isles, including- a 
 part of Cornwall. 
 
 II. This trade in tin is subsequently carried on by the Vene- 
 tes, a Gallic tribe, and from them Caesar is first made acquaint- 
 
164 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ed with Britain, and conceives the idea of its conquest. Stim 
 ulated by the desire of military renown, and of the glory of 
 first carrying the Roman arms into Britain, and provoked, also, 
 as he tells us, by the aid which had been furnished to his enemies 
 in Gaul, Caesar determines upon the invasion of the island. 
 
 III. Invasion of Britain by Ccesar. He penetrates some dis 
 tance into the island ; but his success is certainly not such as 
 to induce him to attempt the permanent reduction of the isl 
 and ; and, from some passages in ancient authors, it has been 
 conjectured that his success was even not so great as he him 
 self has represented it. 
 
 IV. After the departure of Caesar, the Romans do not return 
 to the island until the reign of Claudius, leaving the Britons 
 alone for about a century, or going no further than to threaten 
 an attack. In the interval, those of the Britons who dwelt in 
 the parts nearest to Gaul appear to have made some progress 
 in civilization. They coin money, and many British coins have 
 been discovered, of which about forty belong to a prince named 
 Cunobelin (so on his coins), called by Suetonius CynobeUimtS) 
 who appears to have reigned over the Trinobantes, and to have 
 had his residence at Camalodunum. 
 
 V. Aulus Plautius, a senator of praetorian rank, is sent by 
 Claudius into Britain, in command of the forces designed for 
 the subjugation of the island. The Britons, under the sons of 
 the now deceased Cunobelin, namely, Cataratacus and Togo- 
 dumnus, make a brave resistance, but are finally overpowered, 
 Claudius himself having come with re-enforcements to the Ro 
 man army, and having taken Camalodunum, the capital of 
 Cunobelin, and numbers of the natives submit either at dis 
 cretion or upon terms. The Roman Senate decree triumphal 
 honors to the emperor, and the memory of his success has been 
 perpetuated in his coinage. 
 
 VI. Vespasian (the future emperor), lieutenant to Plautius, 
 conquers Vectis Insula, or the Isle of Wight, and has consider 
 able success against the tribes of the southern coast. Upon the 
 departure of Plautius, however, those Britons who are strug 
 gling for independence overrun the lands of such as have allied 
 themselves with, or submitted to the Romans, and P. Ostorius 
 Scapula, who succeeds Plautius (A.D. 50) as propraetor, finds 
 affairs on his arrival in the greatest confusion. 
 
INSULJE BRITANNICJE. 165 
 
 VII. Ostorius, after valiant efforts on the part of the natives, 
 defeats and takes prisoner Cataratacus (or, as Tacitus calls 
 him, Caractacus), about A.D. 51, and receives the insignia 
 of a triumph. Cataratacus is thrown into chains by Cartis- 
 mandua, queen of the Brigantes, with whom he has taken ref 
 uge, and is delivered up to the Romans. He is taken to Rome 
 with some of the members of his family, but his unbroken spirit 
 and noble demeanor command the admiration of Claudius, and 
 he is pardoned by that prince. 
 
 VIII. The Romans are harassed after this with repeated 
 skirmishes, and by the obstinate resistance of the Silures, and 
 Ostorius dies, worn out with care, about A.D. 53. Didius suc 
 ceeds Ostorius, and finds the Roman affairs in a very depressed 
 condition. He engages in hostilities with the Brigantes, but 
 does not appear to have gained any signal advantage. His com 
 mand extends into the reign of Nero, the successor of Claudi 
 us, probably until A.D. 57. 
 
 IX. Veranius succeeds Didius, but lives only a year after 
 taking the command, and does little in that interval. His suc 
 cessor is Suetonius Paulinus, who obtains more distinction 
 Suetonius attacks and captures the Isle of Mona, now Angle 
 sey, the great seat of the Druids, cuts down their sacred groves, 
 and destroys the altars on which they had been accustomed to 
 offer up human sacrifices. He is then recalled from the west 
 ern shores of Britain by the news of a great rising of the na 
 tives under Boadicea, in that part of the island which has al 
 ready been subdued by the Romans. The revolt of Boadicea 
 nearly extinguishes the Roman dominion in Britain, but at last 
 the natives are completely defeated in a battle, the scene of 
 which is supposed to have been just to the north of London. 
 The Roman general ravages with fire and sword the territories 
 of all those native tribes which have wavered in their attach 
 ment to the Romans, as well as those who had joined in the 
 revolt. 
 
 X. The chief civil, or, rather, fiscal officer of the Romans, 
 quarrels with Suetonius, and, though the latter retains the com 
 mand for a time longer, he is at last recalled without finishing 
 the war (A.D. 62), and Petronius Turpilianus is appointed his 
 successor. Under the milder treatment of the new general the 
 revolt seems to have subsided. 
 
166 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 XL Several generals are successively sent to the island ; but 
 the Romans make little progress until the time of Vespasian 
 (A.D. 70-78), in whose reign Petilius Cerealis subdues the 
 Brigantes, who had renewed hostilities ; and Julius Frontinus 
 subdues the Silures. But the glory of completing the conquest 
 of South Britain is reserved for Cnseus Julius Agricola, whose 
 actions are recorded subsequently by his son-in-law, the histo 
 rian Tacitus. 
 
 XII. From the time of Agricola, the later years of whose 
 government are during the reign of Domitian, we read little 
 about Britain in the Roman historians until the reign of Ha 
 drian (A.D. 85-120), who visits the island, which has been 
 much disturbed. The conquests which Agricola had made in 
 Caledonia seem to have been speedily lost, and the emperor 
 fences in the Roman territory by a rampart of turf, eighty Ro 
 man, or about seventy-four English miles long. This rampart 
 will be described at the end of the geography of Britannia. 
 
 XIII. In the subsequent reign of Antoninus Pius (A.D. 138- 
 161) Roman enterprise revives a little. Lollius Urbicus, his 
 lieutenant in Britain, drives back the barbarians, and recovers 
 the country as far as Agricola s line of stations between the 
 Forth and Clyde. An account of the intrenchment erected by 
 him in this quarter, and which is called the Wall of Antoninus, 
 will be found at the end of the geography of Britannia. 
 
 XIV. In the following reign of M. Aurelius Antoninus (AJX 
 161180) we have some notice of wars in Britain, which Cal- 
 purnius Agricola is sent to quell. During this same reign, or 
 else in that of Commodus, son of Aurelius, the Caledonians 
 break through the Wall of Antoninus. Ulpius Marcellus, an 
 able leader, is sent against them, and defeats them with heavy 
 loss. A great mutiny among the legions in Britain occurs dur 
 ing the reign of Commodus, which is with difficulty quelled by 
 Pertinax (afterward emperor), one of the successors of Marcel 
 lus in the government of the island. 
 
 XV. The contest between Clodius Albinus and Severus for 
 the empire drains Britain in a great measure of its troops, who 
 are called by the former to strengthen his army, and the north 
 ern tribes, taking this opportunity of renewing hostilities, break 
 into the Roman province, and spread desolation far and near. 
 Induced by the unfavorable tenor of the intelligence from the 
 
INSULT BRITANNIC^:. 167 
 
 island, Severus, who had succeeded in the contest with Albi- 
 nus, resolves to undertake the war in person, and accordingly 
 crosses over, A.D. 206 or 207. The natives do not come to a 
 pitched battle, so that the campaign is not marked by any 
 brilliant exploits. Severus, however, orders the erection of the 
 famous wall that bears his name, stretching across the island 
 from the Sohvay to near the mouth of the Tyne, an account 
 of which will be given hereafter. 
 
 XVI. Many years elapse, and many emperors reign after 
 this, without the occurrence of any event of importance in Brit 
 ain. In the reign of Dioclesian and Maximian, Carausius, a 
 Menapian, who commands the Roman fleet in the North Sea 
 against the Prankish and Saxon pirates, seizes Britain, and as 
 sumes the purple (about A.D. 288), and such is his activity 
 and power that the emperors consent to recognize him as their 
 partner in the empire. He is killed, however, some years aft 
 erward by Allectus, one of his friends (A.D. 297), and, three 
 years after this, Britain is recovered for the emperors by As- 
 clepiodotus, captain of the guards. 
 
 XVII. On the resignation of Dioclesian and Maximian (A.D. 
 304), Britain is included in the dominions of Constantius Chlo- 
 rus, one of their successors. This prince dies in Britain, at 
 Eboracum, now York (A.D. 307), after having undertaken, 
 with some success, an expedition against the Caledonians. 
 His son, Constantine the Great, also carries on some hostilities 
 with the same people. The northern tribes now begin to be 
 known by the name of Picts and Scots. 
 
 XVIII. The Roman power is now fast decaying, and the 
 provinces are no longer secure against the irruptions of the sav 
 age tribes that press upon the long line of the frontier. Brit 
 ain, situated at one extremity of the empire, suffers dreadfully. 
 The Picts, Scots, and Attacotti burst in from the north, and 
 the Saxons infest the coast. In the reign of Valentinian, prob 
 ably in the year 367, Theodosius (father of the emperor of that 
 name) being sent over as governor, finds the northern people 
 plundering Augusta, or London, so that the whole province ap 
 pears to have been overrun by them. He drives them out, re 
 covers the provincial towns and forts, re-establishes the Roman 
 power, and gives the name of Valentia either to the district be 
 tween the walls of Antoninus and Severus, or, as Horsley thinks, 
 to a part of the province south of the wall of Severus. 
 
168 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 XIX. Gratian and Valentinian II. associate Theodosius (son 
 of the preceding) with them in the empire. This gives um 
 brage to Maximus, a Spaniard who had served with great dis 
 tinction in Britain, and he raises in this island the standard of 
 revolt. Levying a considerable force, he crosses over to the 
 Continent, defeats Gratian, whom he orders to be put to death, 
 and maintains himself for some time in the possession of his 
 usurped authority. He is at last, however, overcome by The 
 odosius, and the province returns to its subjection to the em 
 pire. The Britons who had followed Maximus to the Conti 
 nent, receive from him possessions in Armorica, where they lay 
 the foundation of a state which still, at the present day, under 
 the appellation of Bretagne, retains their language and their 
 name. 
 
 XX. Stilicho, whose name is one of the most eminent in the 
 degenerate age in which he lived, serves in Britain with suc 
 cess, probably about A.D. 403. After his departure, the un 
 happy province is again attacked by the barbarians, and is agi 
 tated also by the licentiousness of the Roman soldiery, who suc 
 cessively set up three claimants to the imperial throne, Marcus, 
 Gratian, and Constantine. The first and second are soon de 
 throned and destroyed by the very power which had raised 
 them. Constantine is for a time more fortunate. Raising a 
 force among the youth of the island, he passes over into Gaul, 
 (A.D. 409), acquires possession of that province, and fixes the 
 seat of his government at Are late, now Aries, where he is soon 
 after besieged, taken, and killed. His expedition serves to ex 
 haust Britain of its natural defenders : the distresses of the 
 empire render the withdrawal of the Roman troops necessary, 
 and near the middle of the fifth century, or, according to some, 
 about A.D. 420, nearly five hundred years after the first inva 
 sion by Julius Csesar, the island is finally abandoned by them. 
 
 4. DIVISION OF BRITANNIA BY THE ROMANS. 
 
 I. THE first Roman governors were the propraetors, officers 
 chiefly or entirely military ; nor are there, so far as we know, 
 any records or traces of a subdivision of Britain till a compara 
 tively late period of the Roman dominion. Our authority for 
 the administration of Britain is the Notitia Imperil, a record 
 of late date, probably as late as the time of the Romans quit- 
 
INSULT BRITANNIC^:. 169 
 
 ting the island. From the "Notitia" we learn that the gov 
 ernment of the island was intrusted to an officer called Vica- 
 rius, under whom there were five governors, one for each of the 
 five provinces. 
 
 II. The names of the five provinces into which Britannia 
 was divided were as follows : 1. Britannia Prima ; 2. Britan 
 nia Secunda ; 3. Flavia Ccesariensis ; 4. Maxima CCE sari en- 
 sis ; 5. Valentia or Valentiana. Previous to this, the only di 
 vision had been into Britannia Romana, or that part of the isl 
 and under the Roman sway, and Britannia Barbara. 
 
 III. The situation of these five provinces is given by Richard 
 of Cirencester, a monk of the fourteenth century, whose work 
 was discovered and published at Copenhagen about the middle 
 of the last century, and whose authority, though disputed by 
 some, is apparently not untrustworthy. 
 
 IV. Britannia Prima, according to the authority just men 
 tioned, comprehended the country south of the Thames and 
 Bristol Channel. 
 
 V. Britannia Secunda comprehended the country separated 
 from the rest of Britain by the Sabrina, now the Severn, and 
 the Deva, now the Dee ; in other words, Wales, Herefordshire, 
 Monmouthshire, and parts of Salop, and of the counties of 
 Gloucester and Worcester. 
 
 VI. Flavia Ccesariensis comprehended the territory north 
 of the Thames, east of the Severn, and probably south of the 
 Mersey, of the Don which joins the Yorkshire Ouse, and the 
 Humber. 
 
 VII. Maxima Ccesariensis comprehended the country from 
 the Mersey and the Humber to the wall of Severus. 
 
 VIII. Valentia or Valentiana comprehended the country be 
 tween the wall of Severus and the rampart of Antoninus, in 
 cluding the southern part of Scotland, the county of Northum 
 berland, and part of Cumberland. 
 
 IX. The remaining part of the island was never long in the 
 power of the Romans. Agricola overran part of it, and estab 
 lished some stations ; and probably other commanders after him 
 brought it into temporary subjection. The part which Agric 
 ola thus subdued is termed by Richard Vespasiana, and in 
 cluded the country between the rampart of Antoninus and a 
 line drawn from the Moray Frith (Ptolemy s sestuary of the 
 Varar) to the mouth of the Clyde. 
 
170 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 X. Horsley gives an arrangement of the provinces entirely 
 different from the above, except so far as regards Britannia 
 Secunda. He makes Britannia Prima to extend from the 
 coast of Sussex to the banks of the Nene, and assigns the west 
 ern counties to Fiavia Ccesariensis. He places Valentia with 
 in the wall of Severus, and Maxima Ccesariensis beyond it. 
 
 6. SITUATION AND EXTENT. 
 
 I. THE knowledge which the earlier Greeks and Romans had 
 of the shape and situation of Britain was at first extremely lim 
 ited and erroneous. According to Dio Cassius, it was at first 
 a matter of complete uncertainty whether Britannia was an 
 island or merely a frontier of the Continent. The invasion of 
 Julius Csesar first threw some light upon this subject. That 
 commander describes Britannia as triangular in shape, one side 
 of the triangle being opposite to Gaul, and in this he is followed 
 by Strabo. 
 
 II. The Romans first became fully acquainted with the cir 
 cuit of Britain in the time of Agricola, during whose govern 
 ment in that quarter a Roman fleet first sailed round the isl 
 and, as if to mark the extended boundary of the Roman empire. 
 
 III. Erroneous ideas, however, still remained on various points 
 connected with the position of this island. The old geogra 
 phers had given the northern coast of Spain a northwesterly 
 direction, and, unacquainted with the extent to which Bretagne 
 reached westward, made the coasts of Gaul and Germany run 
 in an almost uniform northeasterly direction. Tacitus, the con 
 temporary of Agricola, places Britain in the angle thus formed, 
 and makes its western side lie facing the coast of Spain. 
 
 IV. According to Ptolemy, Britannia had the Oceanus Due- 
 caledonius ( tiKeavog AovrjKakTjdovtoc;) on the north ; the Oceanus 
 Hibernicus ( QKeavdg lovdepvucos), or Irish Sea, and the Oce 
 anus Verginicus ( Qtceavog Ovepyivios), or St. George s Channel, 
 on the west ; the Oceanus Britannicus (SlKeavoq Bperrav^df), 
 or British Channel, on the south ; and the Oceanus German- 
 icus ( Slueavdg leppawKog), or German Ocean, on the east. 
 
 7. MOUNTAINS. 
 
 THE only chain of mountains in Britain expressly named by 
 the ancient geographers are the Grampian, Mons Grampius. 
 
INSULJE BRITANNIC-E. 171 
 
 In the ancient Scottish tongue this ridge was called Grantz- 
 bain. It runs from Dumbarton to Aberdeenshire. The Gram 
 pian hills are rendered memorable by the victory which Agricola 
 obtained on them over Galgacus, in the last year of his gov 
 ernment, and which entirely broke the spirit of the Britons. 
 In Strathern, about half a mile south of the Kirk of Comerie, 
 is a valley nearly a mile broad, and some miles long, through 
 which the Erne and Ruchel flow. Here are the remains of 
 two Roman camps, with a double wall and trench, one large 
 enough to contain the eight thousand men which Agricola led 
 to battle on the occasion mentioned above, the other smaller, 
 and suited for his three thousand cavalry. Two miles south 
 east is a third camp, in which two legions might be conveniently 
 quartered, The place itself still bears the name of Galgachan 
 Rossmoor, taken from that of the Caledonian leader. 
 
 8. PROMONTORIES. 
 
 1. On the Southern Side. 
 
 1. Bolerium Promontorium (BoXepiov A.Kpb)TT]piov), called, 
 also, Antivestceum Promontorium (kv-iovearaiov AKpurrjpiov), 
 now Land s End, in Cornwall. 2. Ocrinum Promontorium 
 ("Oupivov A.Kp(jJT7]piov), called, also, Damnonium Promontorium 
 (kaiivoviov AKpuTTjpiov), now Lizard Point, in Cornwall. 
 
 3. Cria Metopon (Kptov Merunov), now Ram Head, in Devon 
 shire. 4. Hellenis Promontorium, now Berry Head, in Dev 
 onshire, to the northeast of the preceding. 5. Vindelia Prom 
 ontorium, to the east of the preceding, now Portland Bill, in 
 Dorsetshire. 6. Durotrigum Promontorium, now St. Alban s 
 Head, in Dorsetshire, in the territory of the Durotriges. 
 
 2. On the Western Coast. 
 
 1. Herculis Promontorium ( HpaKXeovc; AKpurfipiov), to the 
 northeast of the Bolerium Promontorium, now Hartland Point, 
 in Devonshire, at the mouth of Bristol Channel. 2. Octape- 
 tarum Promontorium (QuraTioirapov A/cpwrT/pjov), now St. .Da 
 vid s Head, at the southwestern extremity of Wales. 3. Can- 
 canorum Promontorium (Kayttavtiv AKpurrjpiov), now Braich 
 y Pwill, or Braichy Pwill Head, in Caernarvonshire, Wales. 
 
 4. Novantum Promontorium (Novavrtiv A/rpwr^p^o^), now 
 Mull of Galloway. 5. Epidium Promontorium 
 
 , now Mull of Cantyre. 
 
172 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 3. On the Northern Side. 
 
 1. Ebudum Promontorium, now Cape Wrath, in Suther- 
 landshire, Scotland. 2. Tarvidium Promontorium, called, also, 
 Orcas Promontorium ("OpKag A/cpwr^ov), now Dunnet Head, 
 in Caithness-shire, Scotland. 3. Virvedrum Promontorium 
 (Oviepovedpov/jL AKpa>r?7piov), called, also, Caledonicc Extrema, 
 now Duncansby Head, in the same shire. 
 
 4. On the Eastern Side. 
 
 1. Berubium Promontorium (Ovepov6iovp AKpurTjpiov), now 
 Noss Head, in Caithness-shire, Scotland. 2. Penoxullum 
 Promontorium, now Ord Head, in the same shire. 3. Taize- 
 lum Promontorium (Taifrkov AKpurrjpiov), called, also, Taix- 
 alorum Promontorium, now Kinnaird s Head, in Aberdeen- 
 shire, Scotland. This point of land forms the northeastern ex 
 tremity of the Grampian chain. 4. Ocellum Promontorium 
 ( O/ceAAov AKpuTrjpiov), now Spurn Head, at the mouth of the 
 Humber, in England. 5. Cantium Promontorium (Kdvriov 
 AKpuTTjpiov), called, also, Acantium Promontorium, now the 
 North Foreland, in Kent. 
 
 9. RIVERS, BAYS, AND INLETS. 
 
 1. On the Eastern Side. 
 
 I. Tamesis, called by Tacitus the Tamesa, now the Thames, 
 rising in the country of the Dobuni, a few miles to the south 
 west of Durocornovium, now Cirencester, and flowing east 
 ward into the Oceanus Germanicus, or German Ocean. Its 
 whole course is about two hundred and twenty miles. It is a 
 common opinion that this river, in the upper part of its course, 
 is properly called Isis, and that it is only below the junction 
 of the Thame that it is called Thames, which name is said to 
 be formed by combining the two names Thame and Isis. But 
 Cambden observed long ago that this is a mistake ; that the 
 river was called Thames in its upper as well as in its lower 
 part ; that the name Isis never occurs in ancient records, and 
 was never used by the common people, but only by scholars. 
 Caesar writes the name Tamesis (evidently Tames or Thames, 
 with the addition of a Latin termination). Tacitus, as we 
 have already said, writes it Tamesa, and Dio Cassius 
 
INSULT BRITANNICJE. 173 
 
 which is the same name with the appendage of a different ter 
 mination. Ptolemy has it IdpTjoa, or, in some MSS., Ia//ecra^, 
 and in some editions Idpiaoa, all which, most probably, are 
 forms of the same name, I having been, by the carelessness of 
 some early transcriber, substituted for T. 
 
 II. Idumania (EiSovpavia noTapog) or Sidumanis (Eidovpavig), 
 according to most authorities Blackwater River and Bay, but 
 according to Mannert the mouth of the River Stour. The 
 former is the more correct opinion. Both the Blackwater and 
 the Stour are in Essex, the latter forming, in part, its north 
 ern boundary. 
 
 III. Sturius, now the Stour, to the north of the preceding, 
 and having Harwich at its mouth. 
 
 IV. Garyenus (Tappvevog), in the territory of the Iceni, now 
 the Yare, in the county of Norfolk. 
 
 V. Metaris JEstuarium (Merapl^ eltfflotus), now the Wash. 
 Cambden makes Ptolemy s Merapig to be a corruption of the old 
 British term Matiraith, which, according to him, was a gen 
 eral name for an sestuary. The sestuary of the Wash at the 
 present day is occupied for the most part by sand-banks, dry 
 at low water. Between these banks the streams that flow into 
 the sestuary have their channels. Among these streams may 
 be named the Ouse, the ancient Trivona, and the Nene, the 
 ancient Aufona, which others, however, make to correspond to 
 the modern Avon. 
 
 VI. Abus ("Adog), now the Number. The Humber is, prop 
 erly speaking, an sestuary, since the name is only applied to 
 the united streams of the Trent and smaller or northern Ouse, 
 and since the tide flows up both these rivers above their junc 
 tion. Some make a distinction, therefore, between the Abus 
 cestuarium and the Abus fluvius, regarding the former as the 
 Humber, and the latter as the modern Ouse. The tributaries 
 of the Ouse are the Urus, now Yore, and the Derventio, now 
 Derwent. 
 
 VII. Dunum JEstuarium (kovvov noX-nos), now the mouth of 
 the River Tee. 
 
 VIII. Vedra (Ovedpa), now, according to most authorities, 
 the Weare, in the county of Durham. Mannert, however, 
 seeks to identify it with the Tyne, but this last is the ancient 
 Tina, north of the Vedra, and marking the eastern termination 
 of the wall of Hadrian. 
 
174 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 IX. Alauna or Alaunus ( Akalvog), now the Aln, in Northum 
 berland. Some, less correctly, make it answer to the modern 
 Coquet , which enters the ocean a little to the south of the Aln. 
 Horsley, still more erroneously, makes the Alaunus the same 
 with the modern Tweed. 
 
 X. Tueda, now the Tweed. This Latin form of the name 
 is given by Cambden, who errs, however, in making the Taum 
 Mstuarium correspond to the mouth of this river, when it is 
 rather the Frith of Tay, further to the north. 
 
 XL Boderia Mstuwrium (Bodepia dsxvoiq}, now the Frith of 
 Forth. Here was the western termination of the wall of An 
 toninus. Tacitus calls it Bodotria JEstuarium. Some erro 
 neously make Bodotria the same as Solway Frith , but this 
 was the Ituna JEstuarium. 
 
 XII. Tava JEstuarium, now the Frith of Tay, into which 
 fell the River Tavus, now the Tay. 
 
 XIII. JEsica, as given by Richard of Cirencester, now the 
 Southern Esk. In like manner, the same authority gives the 
 Tina, a short distance above the former, now the Northern Esk. 
 
 XIV. Deva (&TJOVO,, &ioi>a), now the Dee, on which stands 
 New Aberdeen. It rises in the Grampian chain. There was 
 another river called the Deva, the modern name of which is 
 also the Dee, on the western coast of England, and which falls 
 into the Irish Sea, having Chester on it, near its mouth. 
 
 XV. Cclnius (Kehviog), now the Dover an, to the west of 
 Taizelum Promontorium, and rising in the Grampian chain. 
 
 XVI. Tucesis JEstuarium (Tovalaig divots), now Murray 
 Frith. Richard of Cirencester calls this Vara JEstuarium, but 
 the Vara JEstuarium of Ptolemy (Ovdpa elg^vat^) is rather the 
 Frith of Cromartie, a little beyond. 
 
 XVII. Abona JEstuarium, now Dornoch Frith. On the 
 point of land where the lower shore of the frith terminates, 
 now Tarbet Ness, were erected the " Arcc Finium Imperil 
 Romani." 
 
 XVIII. Loxa (Aot-a), just above the aestuary last mentioned, 
 now, according to Mannert, the Struth, but, according to oth 
 ers, the Loth or Lossie. 
 
 XIX. Ila ( v !Aa), now the Wick, running into a bay of the 
 same name. 
 
INSULT BRITANNIC.E. 175 
 
 2. On the Northern Side. 
 
 I. Nabceus (Nadaiog), now, according to Mannert, the Dur- 
 ness, but more probably the Navern. 
 
 II. Volsas Sinus (Ovokaas nob-nog), now Calva Bay. 
 
 3. On the Western Side. 
 
 I. Longus jEstuarium (Aoyyo^ elg^vaig), now Loch Linnhe, 
 at the mouth of which lay Maleas Insula, now the Isle of Mull. 
 
 II. Lelaanonius Sinus (Aehaavvoviog KO^TTO^), now Loch Fine, 
 with the G70to Insula, now Js/e of Arran, lying off its mouth. 
 
 III. Glota JBstuarium (KAwro e^^w?), now the Frith of 
 Clyde. Here was the western extremity of the wall of An 
 toninus. 
 
 IV. Rherigonius Sinus ( Peptydviog KO^TTO^), now Loch Ryan, 
 the outer shore of which formed part of the Novantum Cherso- 
 nesus, terminating in the Novantum Promontorium, or Mull 
 of Galloway. 
 
 V. Abravannus Sinus ( A6paovavvo$ ic6hno$), now Luce Bay, 
 east of the Novantum Chersonesus. 
 
 VI. lena JEstuarium (l^va el$%v(jis) 9 to the east of the pre 
 ceding, now Wig-ton Bay. 
 
 VII. Ituna JEstuarium ( Irovva ek%vmg), now Solway Frith, 
 between Scotland and England, and where was the western 
 termination of the wall of Hadrian, its eastern one being on the 
 Tyne. 
 
 VIII. Moricambe JEstuarium (MopLKd^r] e^vffjf), now Mo- 
 ricambe Bay, just below which was Setantiorum Portus, now 
 Lancaster Bay. 
 
 IX. Belisama JEstuarium (Behiaapa rf$%v<Jtf) } now the mouth 
 of the River Mersey, according to most authorities ; but more 
 properly that of the River Ribble, and so given by Cambden. 
 
 X. Seteia ^Estuarium (Serbia elgxvaig), the mouth of the 
 Deva, the modern Dee. 
 
 XL Toisobius or Toesobis (Toiao6i$), now the Conway, a riv 
 er of Wales, flowing into the Irish Sea. At its mouth was 
 Conovium, now Aberconway. 
 
 XII. Stucia (ZTOVKLO), now, according to Mannert, the Duffi 
 or Douay, but, according to Reichard, the Dyst. The former 
 is the more correct opinion. 
 
176 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 XIII. Tuerobis (Tovepofof), now the Teify or Teive, on the 
 southern borders of Cardiganshire in Wales. Reichard makes 
 it the Milford. 
 
 XIV. Sabrina JEstuarium, called, also, Sabriana JEstuari- 
 urn (2a6piava el^vat?), now the mouth of the Severn, the an 
 cient Sabrina or Sabriana. Tacitus makes mention of this 
 river, and names as one of its tributaries the Antona, now the 
 Avon. The true reading in Tacitus for the latter stream is, 
 Mannert thinks, Avona. 
 
 XV. Vexalla JZstuarium (QvE&XXa els%voi?), now Bridge- 
 water Bay, just below the mouth of the Severn. 
 
 4. On the Southern Side. 
 
 I. Cenionis Ostia (Kevivv Trora/zdf), now, according to Man 
 nert, Falmouth Harbor or Bay, into which the small river 
 Vale flows. 
 
 II. Tamarus (Td^opof), now the Tamar, on which stands 
 Plymouth, and the Tamari Ostia is now Plymouth Sound. 
 
 III. Isaca (ladna), now the Axe, or, as it is more commonly 
 called, the Exe, with Exmouth at the entrance, and Exeter, 
 the ancient Isca Dumnoniorum, a little distance up. 
 
 IV. Alcenus ( Akalvog), or, according to a more correct read 
 ing, Alaunus ( A/lavvof), supposed to be the small river on which 
 Bridport is at present situated. Ptolemy places his Isca on 
 this, in the interior, which the copyists often confound with 
 Isca Silurum, now Caer Leon, in Monmouthshire. 
 
 V. Portus Magnus (Meya? /Ujuvjv), now Portsmouth Harbor. 
 The position of this haven is well ascertained, both by its size 
 and security, when compared with the neighboring harbors. 
 The situation of Venta Belg-arum, now Winchester, to the north 
 west, as mentioned by Ptolemy, likewise serves to fix the lo 
 cality. The only difficulty is, that the Isle of Wight, the an 
 cient Vectis Insula, lies to the southwest of Portsmouth, where 
 as Ptolemy places it to the southeast of the Meya? \i\ii\v. The 
 old geographer, however, occasionally makes slips of this kind. 
 
 VI. Novus Portus (Kaivbg ^iprjv), now the harbor of Rye, 
 into which the River Rother, the ancient Limanus, empties. 
 Mannert, less correctly, seeks to identify it with the harbor of 
 Hythe. 
 
 VII. Next follow, in succession, Portus Lemanianus, now 
 
INSULJE BRITANNIC^. 177 
 
 the harbor of Lymne, the ancient Lemance ; Portus Dubris, 
 now the harbor of Dover ; and Portus Ritupis, called, also, 
 Ritupce or Rutupice, now Richborough. 
 
 10. CHARACTER OF THE COUNTRY, &c. 
 
 THE ancient writers describe Britannia as for the most part 
 level and well wooded. Several portions of it, however, are 
 represented as mountainous and hilly, particularly to the north. 
 The soil is spoken of as very productive, and the surface of the 
 country as abounding in rivers large and small. Among the 
 mineral products are mentioned gold, silver, iron, tin, &c. 
 
 11. CHARACTER OF THE INHABITANTS. 
 
 I. VARIOUS particulars are given, relative to the ancient Brit 
 ons, by Csesar, Tacitus, Mela, Dio Cassius, Herodian, and other 
 writers. 
 
 II. According to Caesar, the natives of Cantium, the modern 
 Kent, were by far the most civilized, and did not differ much in 
 their customs from the Gauls. The inland people, on the other 
 hand, for the most part did not sow corn, but lived on milk and 
 flesh, and had their clothing of skins. 
 
 III. All the Britons, according to the same authority, stained 
 themselves with woad, which produced a blue tinge, and gave 
 them a more fearful appearance in battle. They also wore the 
 hair long, and shaved every part of the body except the head 
 and the upper lip. 
 
 IV. They fought without coat of mail and helmet, armed 
 merely with the long and broad Celtic sword, a javelin, and a 
 small shield. 
 
 V. They built their dwellings after the manner of mere huts. 
 For example, the city of Cassivellaunus, though called a town 
 and a capital, appears, from Csesar, to have been nothing but 
 a thick wood or labyrinth, with clusters of houses, or rather 
 huts, scattered about it, the whole being surrounded by a ditch 
 and a rampart, the latter made of mud or felled trees, or prob 
 ably of both materials intermingled. In many respects, the 
 towns of the Cingalese, in the interior of Ceylon, and the mode 
 of fighting against the English practiced by that people at the 
 beginning of the present century, resemble the British towns 
 and the British warfare of nineteen centuries ago. 
 
 M 
 
178 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 VI. The mode of fighting practiced by the ancient Britons 
 differed in one respect very materially from that of the Gauls, 
 namely, in the employment of war-chariots, which several times 
 produced very serious effects on the Romans. These cars, called 
 Esseda or Essedce by the Romans, were made to contain each 
 a charioteer for driving, and one, two, or more warriors for 
 fighting. They were at once strong and light ; the extremity 
 of their axles and other salient points were armed with scythes 
 and hooks for cutting and tearing whatever fell in their way, 
 as they were driven rapidly along ; and the Britons, in the man 
 agement of them, displayed, according to Csesar, the greatest 
 valor and dexterity. 
 
 VII. As to the religion of the Britons, Druidism flourished 
 among them in all its vigor. Indeed, this singular superstition 
 was considered by the Gauls, erroneously to be sure, to have 
 originated in Britain. A late writer, Sir J. Mackintosh, ob 
 serves, that it is not without Oriental features. So much sub 
 serviency, as he remarks, of one part of a nation to another, in 
 an age so destitute of the means of influence and of the habits 
 of obedience, is not without resemblance to that system of an 
 cient Asia which confined men to hereditary occupations, and 
 consequently vested in the sacerdotal caste a power founded in 
 the exclusive possession of knowledge. 
 
 VIII. The Druids, according to Csesar, were the ministers 
 of sacred things ; they had the charge of sacrifices, both public 
 and private ; and they gave directions for the ordinances of re 
 ligious worship. A great number of young men resorted to 
 them for the purpose of instruction in their system ; and they 
 were held by the nation at large in the highest reverence. They 
 determined most disputes, whether of the affairs of the state or 
 of individuals ; and if any crime had been committed, if a man 
 had been slain, if there were a contest concerning an inherit 
 ance, or the boundaries of lands, it was the Druids who settled 
 the matter. One Arch Druid presided over all the rest. One 
 of the most revolting features in the superstition of the ancient 
 Gauls was the offering of human sacrifices, and they employed 
 the Druids to officiate at these. 
 
INSULT BRITANNIC-E. 179 
 
 12. TRIBES OF BRITANNIA. 
 
 I. CAESAR, in his two descents upon Britain, saw no more 
 than a corner of the country. The furthest point to which he 
 penetrated was the capital of Cassivellaunus, which is generally 
 supposed to have stood on the site of the now ruined town of 
 Verulam, in the vicinity of St. Alban s, in Hertfordshire. Caesar 
 himself describes the dominions of this prince as lying along 
 the north bank of the Thames, at the distance of about eighty 
 miles from the sea, by which he probably means the east coast 
 of Kent, from which he began his march. Unfortunately, we 
 are nowhere told of what people Cassivellaunus was king. The 
 only British nations mentioned by Caesar are the people of 
 Cantium, the Trinobantes, the Cenimagni, the Seg-ontiaci, 
 the Ancalites, the Bibroci, and the Cassi. Nearly all these 
 must have dwelt in that part of the country which he hastily 
 overran. 
 
 II. The Trinobantes of Caesar occupied Essex, and probably 
 the greater part of Middlesex ; the Cenimagni are thought to 
 have dwelt in Suffolk, Norfolk, and Cambridgeshire ; the Se- 
 gontiaci in Hampshire ; the Ancalites and Bibroci in Berk 
 shire. ; and the Cassi in Hertfordshire, one of the hundreds of 
 which, that in which St. Alban s stands, still retains the name 
 of Cassio. 
 
 III. According to Ptolemy, who, after all, is the only author 
 ity upon whom much dependence can be placed, the space over 
 which the tribes mentioned by Caesar have been commonly dif 
 fused appears to have been fully occupied by other tribes. The 
 following is the order in which he enumerates the several na 
 tions inhabiting what we now call South Britain, with the man 
 ner in which he appears to distribute the country among them. 
 
 Tribes in South Britain, according to Ptolemy. 
 
 I. Brig antes. Their territory is described as extending across 
 the island from sea to sea, and it appears to have comprehended 
 the greater part of the modern counties of Durham, York, Cum 
 berland, Westmoreland, and Lancashire. The Brigantes were 
 considered the most powerful of the British nations. 
 
 II. Parisi. These are stated to have been adjacent to the 
 Brigantes, and in a southeastern direction from them. They 
 
180 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 are thought to have occupied the southeastern angle of York 
 shire, now called Holderness, lying along the coast of Bridling- 
 ton or Burlington Bay. 
 
 III. Ordovices. They dwelt to the southwest of the Brigantes 
 and Parisi, in the most westerly part of the island, and appear 
 to have been the inhabitants of North Wales. 
 
 IV. Cornavii. These were in an eastern direction from the 
 preceding, and seem to have occupied Cheshire, Shropshire, 
 Stafford, Worcester, and Warwick. 
 
 V. Coritani. These were in an eastern direction from the 
 preceding. They probably occupied the whole of the space in 
 tervening between the Cornavii and the eastern coast, compre 
 hending the modern counties of Derby, Nottingham, Lincoln, 
 Leicester, Rutland, and part of Northampton. 
 
 VI. Catyeuchlani (or Catuellani, as they are called by Dio 
 Cassius). These lay to the south of the preceding, and are 
 conjectured to have occupied the remainder of Northampton, 
 and all Buckingham, Bedford, Hertford, and Huntingdon, and 
 probably the southwestern portion of Oxfordshire, lying along 
 the Thames. 
 
 VII. Simeni, called by Tacitus Iceni. These lay to the east 
 of the preceding, and are supposed to have occupied Norfolk, 
 Suffolk, and Cambridgeshire. 
 
 VIII. Trinoantes, called Trinobantes by Caesar and Tacitus. 
 These lay to the south of the preceding. Ptolemy places them 
 more to the eastward than the Simeni, and this may suggest 
 a doubt as to these last being really the same with the Iceni, 
 who appear, from the Itinerary, to have certainly inhabited 
 Norfolk. Probably, however, Ptolemy erroneously supposed 
 the coast of Essex to stretch further to the east than that of 
 Norfolk and Suffolk. There can be no doubt as to Essex be 
 ing the district, or a part of the district, assigned by Ptolemy 
 to the Trinobantes, since he settles them beside the sestuary 
 Jamissa, or the mouth of the Thames ; and they also occupied 
 a portion of Middlesex. 
 
 IX. Demetce. These were situated to the southwest of the 
 Ordovices, and in the extreme western part of the island. They 
 seern to have occupied the three south Welsh counties of Caer- 
 marthen, Cardigan, and Pembroke. 
 
 X. Silures. These were to the east of the preceding, and 
 
INSUL^E BRITANNIC^S. 181 
 
 occupied, as is supposed, the Welsh counties of Radnor, Breck 
 nock, and Glamorgan, and also Hereford and Monmouth 
 shire. 
 
 XL Dobuni (probably the same who are called by Dio Cas- 
 sius the Boduni). These lay to the east of the Silures, and 
 probably inhabited Gloucestershire, with the greater part of 
 Oxfordshire. 
 
 XII. Atrebatii. These lay to the southeast of the preceding, 
 and are thought (although the point is disputed) to have been 
 the occupants of Berkshire. As they were, if we may trust to 
 their name, a Belgic community, it is more probable that they 
 were seated to the south than to the north of the Thames ; and 
 the order in which they are enumerated by Ptolemy, namely, 
 among the nations to the south of the Catieuchlani and the 
 Trinobantes, appears also to favor the former position, 
 
 XIII. Cantii. These were to the east of the preceding, and 
 extended to the eastern coast of the island. They inhabited 
 Kent and a part of Surrey, and their territories and those of 
 the Atrebatii met, in all probability, somewhere in the north 
 ern part of Surrey. 
 
 XIV. Regni. These lay to the south of the Atrebatii and 
 Cantii. They therefore occupied Surrey, Sussex, and prob 
 ably the greater part of Hampshire. 
 
 XV. Bel gee. These were situate to the south of the Dobuni, 
 and are supposed to have possessed the eastern part of Somer 
 set, Wilts, and the western part of Hampshire. 
 
 XVI. Durotriges. These lay to the southwest of the pre 
 ceding. Their seat was the present Dorsetshire, which still, in 
 a measure, preserves their name, which signifies, in Celtic, " the 
 dwellers by the water." (Compare page 159.) 
 
 XVII. Dumnonii (or Damnonii, as they are called in the 
 Itinerary). These occupied the southwestern extremity of the 
 island, and were the inhabitants of Devon, Cornwall, and the 
 western part of Somerset. Their name Dumn, or, as it would 
 be in Celtic, Duvn, probably still subsists in the modern Devon. 
 
 XVIII. Although we have thus indicated the localities of the 
 several tribes by the names of the present English counties, it 
 is, of course, not to be understood that the ancient boundaries 
 were the same as those of these comparatively modern divisions. 
 But to ascertain the precise line by which each territory was 
 
182 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 separated from those adjacent to it is now, in most instances, 
 utterly impossible. All that can be attempted is to determine 
 generally the part of the country in which each lay. In a good 
 many cases, the evidence of inscriptions and other remains has 
 confirmed Ptolemy s account. 
 
 XIX. The tribes mentioned by Richard of Cirencester, within 
 the space we have just been surveying, are, the Segontiaci, An- 
 calites, Bibroci, and Cassi (as already noticed), the Hedui in 
 Somersetshire, the Cimbri in Devonshire, the Volantii and Sis- 
 tuntii in Lancashire, and the Rhemi in Surrey and Sussex, but 
 these last are probably intended to be considered the same people 
 with the Reg-ni of Ptolemy. Richard s list also includes the 
 Cangiani) supposed to be the same with the Gangi mentioned 
 by Tacitus, and with the Cangani of Dio Cassius. These, how 
 ever, do not appear to have been a distinct nation, but those of 
 the youths of each tribe, or, at least, of many of the tribes, who 
 were employed as the keepers of the nocks and herds. 
 
 XX. Ptolemy s description of North Britain is, in various- 
 respects, not so satisfactory as that which he has given of the 
 southern portion of the island. In particular r his account is 
 rendered obscure and confused by a strange mistake into which 
 he has fallen as to the direction of the land, which he extends, 
 not toward the north, but toward the east. In other words, he 
 gives as differences of longitude what he ought to have given 
 as differences of latitude. His enumeration of the northern 
 tribes may also be safely presumed to be more imperfect than 
 that which he gives of those in the south. 
 
 Tribes in North Britain, according- to Ptolemy. 
 
 I. Novantce. These are the first people Ptolemy mentions. 
 He describes them as dwelling on the north coast of the island 
 (by which we must understand the west), immediately under 
 the peninsula of the same name. The peninsula or promontory 
 of the Novantse is admitted on all hands to be what is now 
 called the Mull of Galloway ; and the Novantse are considered 
 to have occupied the county of Wigton, the western half of 
 Kir cudbri glit, and the southern extremity of Ayrshire, their 
 boundaries probably being the Irish Sea, the Solway Frith r 
 the River Dee, and the hills dividing the districts of Galloway 
 and Carrick, 
 
INSULT BRITANNIC^E. 183 
 
 II. Selgovce. These are described as under or south (mean 
 ing east) from the Novantae, and appear to have occupied the 
 eastern half of Kircudbright and the greater part of Dumfries 
 shire. They are supposed to have given its present name to 
 the Solway, along which their territory extended. 
 
 III. Damnii. These lay to the north of the preceding, and 
 would seem to have extended over the shires of Ayr, Lanark, 
 Renfrew, and Stirling , a corner of that of Dumbarton, and a 
 small part of that of Perth. 
 
 IV. Gadeni. Of these, all that Ptolemy says is, that they 
 were situated more to the north. This can not mean, however, 
 more to the north than the Damnii last mentioned, who, as 
 we have seen, were placed along the sea-coast of what Ptole 
 my understands to be the north side of the island. The mean 
 ing must be, more to the north than the Otadeni, who are 
 next mentioned, and are, by a corresponding epithet, described 
 as more to the south. With the notion which Ptolemy had of 
 the shape of the island, this would place the Gadeni along a 
 tract in the interior, which might extend from the Tyne to the 
 Forth, embracing the north of Cumberland, the west of Nor 
 thumberland, the west of Roxburgh, together with the coun 
 ties of Selkirk, Peebles, West Lothian, and the greater part 
 of Midlothian. The town of Jedburgh, and the River Jed, 
 seem still to preserve traces of their name. 
 
 V. Otadeni. These, in Ptolemy s notion, lay to the south 
 of the preceding tracts, but, in reality, to the southeast of it, and 
 would occupy the space intervening between it and the sea- 
 coast, comprehending the remainder of Northumberland and 
 Roxburgh, and the whole of Berwick and East Lothian. 
 
 VI. Epidii. These lay east (that is, north) from the Dam 
 nii, but more northerly (that is, westerly), stretching eastward 
 (that is, northward) from the promontory Epidium. The prom 
 ontory in question is undoubtedly the Mull of Cantyre ; and 
 the Epidii, therefore, were the inhabitants of the district of 
 Cantyre, and of nearly all the rest of Argyleshire, from the 
 Frith of Clyde on the east, to Loch Linnhe on the west. 
 
 VII. Cerones. These were next to the Epidii, and are sup 
 posed to have inhabited the part of Argyleshire to the west of 
 Loch Linnhe, and the continuation of the same tract forming 
 the western half of Inverness. The Creones are described as 
 
184 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 lying to the east (that is, to the north) of the Cerones, and occu 
 pied probably almost the whole of the present shire of Ross. 
 But it may be doubted if the Cerones and Creones were not 
 the same people, in which case their territory must have in 
 cluded the whole space we have assigned to the two. 
 
 VIII. Carnonacce. These appear to have occupied the west 
 ern coast of Sutherland, including probably a small portion of 
 the northern part of Ross. 
 
 IX. Car em. These lay beyond the former, and may be sup 
 posed to have inhabited the north coast of Sutherland, and per 
 haps a small portion of Caithness. 
 
 X. Cornavii. These lay beyond the preceding, and are said 
 to have been the last people in that direction. They therefore 
 occupied the north and east of Caithness. 
 
 XI. Caledonii. These are the next people mentioned by 
 Ptolemy ; but the enumeration here starts from a new point, 
 namely, from the Lelaanonian Bay, on the western coast, now 
 Loch Fyne. The Caledonii are described as extending from 
 that bay across the country to the aestuary of Varar ; and they 
 therefore occupied the eastern portion of Inverness, with prob 
 ably the adjoining parts of the shires of Argyle, Perth, and 
 Ross. In the northwestern part of this tract was the great 
 Caledonian forest. 
 
 XII. Cantce. These were more to the east (that is, the north), 
 and are supposed to have possessed the eastern angle of Ross- 
 shire, included between the Murray and Dornoch Friths. 
 
 XIII. Logi. These were between the Cantae and Cornavii, 
 and must therefore have occupied the southeast part of Suth 
 erland, and probably a portion of the southern part of Caithness. 
 
 XIV. Vacomagi. These are described as lying to the south 
 (that is, the southeast) of the Caledonii, and appear to have oc 
 cupied the counties of Nairn, Elgin, and Banff, with the west 
 of Aberdeenshire, and perhaps a small portion of the eastern 
 part of Inverness. 
 
 XV. Venicontes. These appear to have occupied the whole 
 of the peninsula, now forming the counties of Fife, Kinross, 
 and Clackmannan, with a portion of the east and southeast 
 parts of Perth, and probably, also, the counties of Forfar and 
 Kincardine. Richard of Cirencester, however, places the tribe 
 of the Horestii (called by Tacitus Horesti) in the peninsula of 
 
INSULT BRITANNIC^:. 185 
 
 Fife. All that appears with regard to the situation of the Ho- 
 restii, from the narrative of Tacitus, is, that they lay some 
 where between the Grampian Hills and the previously-con 
 quered nations to the south of the Forth. They seem to be in 
 cluded by Ptolemy under the name of the Venicontes. 
 
 XVI. Texali. These are described as lying to the south of 
 the Vacomagi, and to the east (that is, the northeast) of the 
 Venicontes. Their territory corresponded to the present Aber- 
 deenshire, with, perhaps, a part of Kincardine. 
 
 XVII. Attacotti. These are mentioned by Ammianus Mar- 
 cellinus ; but it is very doubtful whether they were a British 
 or an Irish nation. A territory is found for them, on the au 
 thority of Richard of Cirencester, in the space between Loch 
 Fine and Loch Lomond, comprehending a portion of Argyle 
 and the greater part of Dumbartonshire. 
 
 XVIII. Mceatce. This name is mentioned by some later 
 writers, but does not occur in Ptolemy. Different interpreta 
 tions have been given of its meaning. It appears to have been 
 a collective name given to the tribes included between the wall 
 of Antoninus and that of Severus. These tribes were the No- 
 vantce, the Selg-ovce, the Gadeni, the Otadeni, and, in part, the 
 Damnii. In a loose way of speaking, the names Mceatce and 
 Caledonii seem to have come at length to be used as a general 
 expression for all the tribes beyond the more limited Roman 
 province, the Mceatce being understood to mean the inhabitants 
 of the comparatively level and open country, and the Caledonii 
 those who dwelt among the woods and mountains of the north 
 and west. From about the beginning of the fourth century we 
 begin to find the Caledonians and Mseatae giving place to the 
 new names of the Scots and Picts. 
 
 13. MAIN DIVISION OF BRITANNIA. 
 
 BRITAIN was divided by the Romans into two main parts, one 
 called Britannia Rom-ana, or Provincia Inferior, the other 
 Britannia Barbara, or Provincia Superior. 
 
 (A.) BRITANNIA ROMAN A. 
 
 I. THE name of Britannia Romana was applied to that part 
 of the island which answered to what is now called England 
 and Wales, and it received this name from the circumstance 
 
186 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 i 
 
 of its being completely subjugated by the Romans, and filled 
 with Roman settlements. The rest of the island was called 
 Britannia Barbara. 
 
 II. The boundary between Britannia Romana and Barbara 
 was different at different times. In the reign of the Emperor 
 Claudius, when the province was only beginning to be formed, 
 it may be said to have comprehended only that part of the isl 
 and which lay to the south of the Abus, or Humber, and east 
 of the Sabrina, or Severn ; and even portions of this extent were 
 but incompletely subdued. Modern Wales, therefore, was as 
 yet excluded. 
 
 III. In the reign of Hadrian, however, the wall erected by 
 that emperor, from the River Tina, or Tyne, on the east, to 
 Itunce JEstuarium, or Solway Frith, on the west, formed the 
 northern limit ; and in the reign of Antoninus Pius this limit 
 was extended still further north, the boundary between Britan 
 nia Romana and Barbara being then marked by the wall of 
 this latter emperor, and which extended from Boderia JEstua- 
 rium, or the Frith of Forth, on the east, to the Glotta Mstu- 
 arium, or Frith of Clyde, on the west. 
 
 IV. The division here spoken of lasted until the fourth cen 
 tury of our era, when the subdivision into five provinces, al 
 ready mentioned (page 169), appears to have taken place. 
 
 V. We now proceed to enumerate the cities and towns of 
 Britain, following the old division of Britannia Romana and 
 Barbara as the more convenient of the two. 
 
 Cities, fife., of Britannia Romana. 
 
 Cantii. 
 
 In the territory of the Cantii we find, 1. Durovernum, now 
 Canterbury, on the River Sturius, now Stour. At the time 
 of the Roman occupation this was a place of considerable im 
 portance, as is evident from the Roman military roads to Dover 
 and Lymne, their two principal havens, the ancient Dubris and 
 Lemance. The old British name seems to have been Dur- 
 whern, which the Romans Latinized by Durovernum, and it 
 signified "a swift river," a name probably given to the place 
 from the circumstance of the Stour running through the city 
 with some rapidity. By the Saxons it was called Caer-Cant, 
 or "the city of Kent," whence we have Cantuaria, the more 
 
INSUL^E BRITANNIC^E. 187 
 
 modern Latin form, and finally Canterbury. 2. Portus Le- 
 manus, called, also, Portus Lemanianus, now Lymne, to the 
 southwest of Dover. It is generally supposed that Caesar land 
 ed here on his first expedition into Britain, after having set sail 
 from the Portus Itius in Gaul. The place, however, where 
 Caesar first touched, and where steep cliffs skirted the shore, 
 was probably near the South Foreland, and he landed some 
 where on the flat shore which extends from Walmer Castle to 
 ward Sandwich. Some contend for Romney Marsh, or the 
 neighborhood of Hythe. The question is whether Caesar s " ab 
 eo loco progressus" is to be understood of an advance toward 
 the north or toward the southwest. Horsley shows that it 
 must have been toward the north. 
 
 3. Portus Dubris, now Dover. By the Britons Dover was 
 called Dufyr, from dufyrrha, " a steep place." The castle, 
 which is on the northern side of the town, is supposed to 
 have been originally constructed by the Romans. 4. Ritupce 
 or Rutupice ( Povrovmat), now Richborough, to the northeast 
 of the preceding. In the Antonine Itinerary it is called " Ad 
 Portum Ritupis," and in the Peutinger Table Ratupls. It 
 would seem that Ritupce is the nominative of Ritupis, as Du- 
 brce of Dubris, and Lemance of Lemanis. Richborough is one 
 of the noblest Roman remains in the island. It was the usual 
 place of communication with the Continent, and guarded one 
 mouth of the channel which then insulated Thanet. It stands 
 on a small elevation, along the base of which flows the Stour, 
 the ancient Sturius. The Roman walls still, in a great meas 
 ure, remain. Ritupse was famed for its oysters. 4. Durole- 
 vum, now, according to some, Newington, where are the re 
 mains of intrenchments, and where an abundance of Roman 
 pottery has been dug up ; but it is more correct to fix the site 
 of this place on Judde Hill, in the parish of O springe, and this 
 agrees better with the distances of the Itinerary. Here are the 
 remains of a square camp, with the corners rounded off. 
 
 5. Durobrivce, now Rochester, to the northwest of the pre 
 ceding. In the Antonine Itinerary it is called Durobrivis. 
 The name of this place is said to have been corrupted, in the 
 later period of the empire, into Roibis (Roibae), or, as we find 
 it in the Peutinger Table, Raribis (Raribae). From Roibis or 
 Roibce appears to have been formed the Saxon Hrof-C easier, 
 
188 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 and from this the modern Rochester. Bede, however, derives 
 Hrof-Ceaster from one Hrof, a Saxon chieftain. 6. Novioma- 
 gus, to the west of the preceding. Its site corresponds with 
 Holivood Hill, near Farnborough, where are the remains of 
 an immense elliptical encampment. Noviomagus is said, by 
 Richard of Cirencester, to have been the capital of the Bibroci. 
 Of the Roman roads in the territory of the Cantii, the Wat- 
 ling Street, which nearly coincided with the present road from 
 London to Canterbury, may be traced in several places. The 
 branch of Watling Street which led from Durovernum to Le- 
 manse is still conspicuous for some miles. It preserves a straight 
 course between the two places, and is known by the name of 
 Stone Street. 
 
 Regni. 
 
 In the territory of the Regni we find, 1. Regnum, now Chi- 
 Chester, near the coast, and the chief city of the tribe. Accord 
 ing to some, it corresponded to the modern Ringwood ; but this 
 is an error. Excavations made at Chichester in 1723, leave 
 no doubt that this place answers to Regnum. 2. Anderida, a 
 fortified sea-port, the situation of which has given rise to much 
 controversy. It was placed by Cambden at Newenden in Kent, 
 but that position has* long since been abandoned by antiqua 
 ries. Anderida was one of the fortresses to keep a look-out to 
 ward the sea, and the Notitia informs us that it was garrison 
 ed by a company of the Abulci. Newenden, on the other hand, 
 never was a sea-port, or useful for such a purpose. More 
 modern authorities have been divided between Pevensey, East 
 bourne, and Seaford, and of these the claims of the last men 
 tioned are probably the best. 
 
 Of the eight principal Roman roads, only one entered the ter 
 ritory of the Regni, namely, the Ermin Street, as it was after 
 ward called, one branch of which from Londinium ran to Reg 
 num or Chichester, while the other went through the more east 
 ern parts. 
 
 Belgte. 
 
 Among the Belgae we find, 1. Vent a Belgarum, the capital 
 of the tribe, now Winchester. The Britons are said to have 
 called it Caer Givent, or " the White City ;" the Romans 
 
INSULT BRITANNIC^E. 189 
 
 changed the latter part of the name to Venta, giving it more 
 of a Latin form, and the Saxons, who were the next possessors, 
 called it Wintanceaster, which has now become Winchester, 
 This termination of -Chester, applied to many cities in En 
 gland, is a corruption of the Latin term castra, as applied to a 
 military station or encampment. Under the Anglo-Saxons it 
 took the form of Ceaster, and has now become -cester or 
 -Chester , indifferently. Winchester in Latin deeds, and by the 
 modern Latin writers, is called Wintonia. This place appears 
 to have flourished under the Romans, and the massy walls, 
 composed of flints and mortar, which inclose the city, are con 
 sidered to have been originally built by them. In 519 it was 
 conquered by Cerdic the Saxon, who afterward made it the 
 seat of his government, and it continued to be the capital of 
 the West Saxon kings till Egbert, the first king of the whole 
 Heptarchy, was crowned there ; and then it may be said to 
 have become the metropolis of England. It only fell from its 
 high rank after the reign of King Stephen. 
 
 2. Clausentum, to the southwest of the preceding, and about 
 a mile to the northeast of the present Southampton, on the east 
 ern bank of the River It chin. The precise spot is now occu 
 pied by Bittern Farm, where are still to be seen the traces of 
 a fosse and vallum, which defended the place on the land side. 
 The town of Southampton itself is of Anglo-Saxon origin, and 
 is said to have been the scene of the memorable rebuke which 
 Canute administered to his courtiers. 3. Vadum Arundinis, 
 now Redbridge. 4. Brige, to the northwest of Clausentum, 
 and the site of which is near what is now Broughton Farm. 
 5. Sorbiodunum, to the northwest of the preceding, and now 
 Old Sarum. Its name, derived from the Celtic words Sorbio, 
 " dry," and Dun, " a hill," leads to the conclusion that it was 
 originally a British post. It was probably one of the towns 
 taken by Vespasian when engaged in the subjugation of this 
 part of the island under the Emperor Claudius. The number 
 of Roman roads that meet at Old Sarum, and the mention of 
 Sorbiodunum in the Antonine Itinerary, shows that the place 
 was occupied by the Romans, but the remains present little re 
 semblance to the usual form of their posts. New Sarum, which 
 arose early in the thirteenth century, is now Salisbury. 
 
 6. Edlandunium, now Wilton. 7. Ischalis, to the south- 
 
190 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 west of Sorbiodunum, now Ilchester or Ivelchester, from the 
 River Ivel or Yeo, on which it stands. Ptolemy makes this 
 one of the chief towns of the Belgae. It was surrounded by the 
 Romans with a wall and deep ditch, and the Roman road, sub 
 sequently called the Foss Way, passed through it from north 
 to south. Various remains of antiquity have from time to time 
 been discovered here. Under the Saxons, who called the place 
 Givel-ceaster, it was also a city of note. 8. Aquce Solis, to the 
 northeast of the preceding, now Bath. Ptolemy calls it "Ydara 
 $ep//d, whence some form another Latin name, Aquce Calidce. 
 Richard of Cirencester calls the place Thermce, and the river 
 on which it stands Abona, a name evidently identical with the 
 Avon, on which Bath is situated. This city was a Roman sta 
 tion, and has always been famed for its natural hot springs, 
 whence the Roman name is derived, as well as the Greek ap 
 pellation given by Ptolemy. It appears from inscriptions dug 
 up here, that Sulis was the tutelary goddess of Bath, and hence 
 some think that the name Agues Solis, as found in the Anto- 
 nine Itinerary, is a blunder for Aquae Sulis. In the Notitia 
 this place is not mentioned. It was intersected by the an 
 cient Roman road leading from Londinium into Wales, and by 
 the road called afterward the " Foss Way." No city in En 
 gland can produce such a collection of local Roman remains as 
 Bath. 
 
 9. Abone, called by Richard of Cirencester Ad Abonam, and, 
 according to the best modern authorities, now Britton in Glou 
 cestershire. 10. Ad Sabrinam, now Portishead or Portbury, 
 west of Bristol. 11. Avalonia, to the southeast, now Glaston- 
 bury. 12. Ad Aquas, called, also, Belga Uvella, and, at a lat 
 er period, Theodorodunum, now Wells. 
 
 Durotrtges. 
 
 Among the Durotriges we find, 1. Durnovaria, now Dor 
 chester, called by Ptolemy kovviov (Dunium), and, in the Peu- 
 tinger Table, Ridunum. It was the capital of the tribe. The 
 Saxons are said to have called the place Dornceaster, whence 
 the modern name arose. It was situated on the Via Icenia, 
 called, subsequently, " Ickenild Street," and must have been a 
 place of some importance in the time of the Saxons, as two 
 mints were established here by King Athelstane. 2. Vindo- 
 
INSULT BRITANNIC^E. 191 
 
 cladia, called by Richard of Cirencester Vindelia, placed by 
 some at Wimbourne, but more correctly by others at Gussage, 
 between Blandford Forum and Cranbourne. 3. Ibernium, 
 mentioned by the Ravenna geographer, and corresponding to 
 the modern Bere Regis. 
 
 Damndnii. 
 
 Among the Damnonu we find, 1. Isca Damnoniorum, now 
 Exeter. The best modern antiquaries are agreed as to the site 
 of this place. The earlier antiquaries (Horsley, &c.) were mis 
 led by what is now admitted to be a corrupt reading in the An- 
 tonine Itinerary. Exeter is supposed to have been a settlement 
 of the Britons before the Roman invasion. It was then, as is 
 thought, called Caer Isc, and also Caer Rydh, the former de 
 rived from its situation on the Isc, called by the Romans Isaca, 
 and now the Ex, and the latter from the red soil on which the 
 castle is built. The Romans called it Isca Damnoniorum, to 
 distinguish it from Isca Silurum, now Caerleon, in Wales. 
 In the reign of Alfred it was called Exan-ceaster, " Castle on 
 the Ex" whence its present name. 2. Moridunum or Muri- 
 dunum, which is placed by the best modern authorities at Sea- 
 ton, on the coast, but by others, less correctly, at Hernbury, 
 near Honiton. 3. Ad Durium, to the southwest of the pre 
 ceding, and answering, in all probability, to the modern Tot- 
 ness. It marked the Roman station on the Durius or Dorva- 
 tius, the modern Dart. 4. Tamara, to the west of the pre 
 ceding, and probably at Tamerton Folliot, on the ssstuary of 
 the Tamara, now the Tamer, some miles above Devonport. 
 5. Termolus, to the northwest of Isca, and coinciding, as is 
 thought, with Holland, where there is a large ancient cairn, 
 and to which a number of roads on all sides point. 6. Moste- 
 via, supposed to have been near Hartland Point, the ancient 
 Herculis Promontorium. 
 
 Atrebdtii or Atrebdtes. 
 
 In the territory of the Atrebatii we have, 1. Calleva Atreba- 
 tum, now Silchester, on the northern borders of Hampshire. 
 Cambden seeks to identify it with Vindomis, but this latter lay 
 more to the southwest, and its site is to be found at Finckley 
 Farm. Calleva was a station of importance, and its remains 
 
192 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 are among the most entire in the kingdom. At a short dis 
 tance northeast of the walls are the ruins of an amphitheatre. 
 2. Spince, to the northwest of the preceding, now Speen, the 
 only Roman station in Berkshire the site of which has been sat 
 isfactorily settled, and yet, what is remarkable, no Roman re 
 mains appear to have been discovered here ; none, at least, suf 
 ficient to show the existence of such a station. 3. Bibracte, to 
 the east of the preceding, and fixed by Whitaker at Bray, 
 though the distance between Londinium and Bibracte differs 
 so much from that between London and Bray as to occasion 
 great difficulty. 4. Pontes. According to Horsley, Old Wind 
 sor ; but others prefer Staines in Middlesex. 5. Cunetio, to 
 the west of Spinse, now probably Marlborough, on the River 
 Kennet. 6. Verlucio, to the southwest of the preceding, now, 
 according to some, Leckham, on the Avon, while others fix its 
 site at Sandy Lane. 
 
 Trinob antes. 
 
 In the territory of the Trinob < antes we have, 1. Londinium, 
 now London, on the Tamesis or Thames. Londinium was 
 most probably a British town, that is, a large inclosure, pro 
 tected by a rampart and fosse, previous to the invasion of the 
 island by Caesar, in whose time a considerable traffic was car 
 ried on between the Britons and the Gauls. But, though Csesar 
 crossed the Thames, he makes no mention of the place. The 
 first notice of Londinium occurs in Tacitus (Ann., xiv., 33), 
 where it is spoken of as not then honored with the name of a 
 colonia, but still as a place much frequented by merchants, and 
 as a great depot of merchandise. In the revolt of Boadicea 
 (A.D. 62), Suetonius, the Roman commander, abandoned Lon 
 dinium to the enemy, who massacred all the inhabitants that 
 did not leave it with Suetonius ; a circumstance which leads 
 us to infer that it was then chiefly occupied as a Roman sta 
 tion. If any conclusion can be drawn from the brief notice of 
 Tacitus, Londinium was then incapable of making any defence, 
 and had probably no wall that could resist the enemy, though 
 that historian mentions the want of soldiers as the cause of its 
 being abandoned by Suetonius. It does not appear from Tac 
 itus whether the place was then destroyed by the Britons. At 
 a later date, Londinium appears to have been made a colonia 
 
INSULJE BRITANNIC^:. 198 
 
 under the name of Augusta, or, more fully, Augusta Trino- 
 bantum. The ancient wall of London, ascribed to Theodosius, 
 governor of Britain, began at a fort near the present site of the 
 Tower, and continued along the Minories to Cripplegate, New 
 gate, and Ludgate. The walls are said to have inclosed an 
 area of somewhat more than three miles in circumference, and 
 to have been guarded by fifteen towers. The Pragtorium and 
 its adjuncts are supposed to have occupied the site of the pres 
 ent Poultry and Cornhill, as tesselated pavements have been 
 discovered there. With regard to Anglo-Saxon London our 
 information is as scanty as it is with respect to the Roman city ; 
 but we may easily conceive that it must have fallen off greatly 
 in appearance during the barbarous period that succeeded the 
 final departure of the Romans from the island, when it was al 
 ternately attacked and ravaged by the Picts and Scots, the Sax 
 ons and Angles. In the sixth century it became the capital of 
 the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Essex. 
 
 2. Sulloniacce, a Roman station to the northwest of Londin- 
 ium, and the site of which is generally fixed at Brockly Hill, 
 between Edgware and Elstree. 3. Durolitum, another station, 
 to the northeast of Londinium. Cambden fixes its site at Ley- 
 ton, near Romford. This does not, however, accord with the 
 distances of the Itinerary. 4. Ccesaromagus, to the northeast 
 of the preceding. It was situate in the vicinity of the present 
 village of Widford, which lies about a mile to the southwest 
 of Chelmsford. 5. Canonium, to the northeast of the preced 
 ing, and near the modern Kelvedon. 6. Camulodunum, the 
 capital of the Trinobantes, and the most important Roman sta 
 tion in their territory. The first Roman colony was established 
 here in the reign of Claudius, consisting of veterans. There 
 has been much difference of opinion with regard to the position 
 of Camulodunum, and three different sites have been proposed, 
 namely, Walden, Maldon, and Colchester. For Walden little 
 seems to be urged except the pleasantness of the situation, an 
 attribute which Tacitus ascribes to Camulodunum. For Mai- 
 don there appears to be little evidence except the resemblance 
 of the name, and the opinion of Cambden ; while abundance of 
 Roman antiquities, the pleasantness of its situation, the agree 
 ment of its distance from London with that given in the An- 
 tonine Itinerary, and the termination of its name, -Chester, a 
 
 N 
 
194 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 usual indication of a Roman station, agree in supporting the 
 claim of Colchester. 
 
 Iceni or Simeni. 
 
 In the territory of this tribe we have, 1. Vent a Icenorum, 
 the name of the tribe being added to distinguish it from several 
 other British towns, to which the name of Venta was common. 
 It was the capital of the tribe, and corresponds to the modern 
 Caister St. Edmund s, about three miles south of Norwich. 
 There are still some remains of the ancient city on the right 
 bank of the Taes, which joins the Yare. The Romans made 
 Venta their principal post on this side of the island. 2. Brano- 
 dunum, now Brancaster, to the northwest of the preceding, on 
 the shore of the Metaris JEstuarium, or The Wash. It was 
 one of the stations of the cavalry under the Comes Litoris Sax- 
 onici (" Count of the Saxon Coast"). There are some remains 
 of this place. The station was just at the foot of the declivity 
 that overlooks the marshes : the area was about eight acres. 
 Numerous relics of antiquity have been dug up here. 3. Gari- 
 annonum. This was another of the posts of cavalry under the 
 same officer. Its position, however, has been much disputed. 
 Spelman proposed to fix it at Caistor, at the northern end of 
 the " denes" or flats along the shore by Yarmouth, from which 
 town Caistor is distant about two miles. But, although the 
 name would lead us to fix a Roman post here, yet it is unlikely 
 to have been a post for cavalry, or the chief station for the dis 
 trict. Burgh Castle, in Suffolk, has been fixed upon by most 
 antiquaries ; but, though the remains show it to have been a 
 fortification of importance, it could hardly have been suited, 
 situated as it then was on an island, for a post of cavalry. An 
 other locality has consequently been proposed, namely, Whet a- 
 ere or Whitaker Burgh, on the Norfolk side of the Waveney, 
 on the extreme point of the peninsula formed by the two great 
 branches of the sestuary, now the valleys of the Waveney and 
 the Yare. 
 
 4. Iciani, now probably Ickburgh, four miles east of Meth- 
 wold. 5. Ad Taum, to the south of Venta, now Taesbwgh. 
 6. Sitomagus, to the southeast of the preceding, and on the 
 coast, now Dunwich. Others, less correctly, seek to identify 
 it with Thetford. 7. C ambretonium, to the southwest of the 
 
INSULJE BRITANNIC^. 195 
 
 preceding, now Grundesburgh. 8. Camborlcum, to the north 
 west of Camulodunum, now Cambridge. The distances given 
 in the Antonine Itinerary and by Richard of Cirencester do not 
 indeed exactly suit here, but these have probably been corrupt 
 ed. Camboricum was situate on the great Roman road called 
 Via Devana, which connected Camulodunum with Deva, now 
 Chester, on the western side of the island, at the mouth of the 
 Deva, now the Dee. 9. Durolipons, to the northwest of the 
 preceding, now Godmanchester, on the same great Roman road. 
 
 Catyeuchlani, 
 
 In the territory of this tribe we have, 1. Verulamium, close 
 to the present St. Aldan s, being separated from it by the small 
 River Ver, a feeder of the Coin. Verulamium was probably 
 at first a British town, and then a municipium under the Ro 
 mans. The Roman road, called by the Saxons the Wat ling 
 Street, was also styled by them Werlaem Street, because it 
 first went direct from Londinium to Verulamium, passing close 
 under its walls. This place was the scene of dreadful slaugh 
 ter in the great revolt under Boadicea, who destroyed here and 
 at Londinium, as well as other places, about 70,000 Roman 
 citizens and their allies. The town was, however, restored, 
 and continued to be a principal Roman station while that peo 
 ple possessed the island. Here an eminent citizen, Alban, is 
 said to have suffered martyrdom in the persecution under Dio 
 cletian ; and from him the modern town derives its name, a 
 monastery for one hundred Benedictines having been erected 
 here in his honor by Offa, king of Mercia, A.D. 79 3. Veru 
 lamium is commonly, though erroneously, supposed to have 
 been the capital or stronghold of Cassivellaunus, which was 
 stormed by Caesar. 
 
 2. Forum Diana, to the northwest of the preceding, now 
 Dunstable. Some make Dunstable correspond to the ancient 
 Durocobrivce, but the site of this last-mentioned place is rather 
 to be sought at Maiden Boiver, a short distance further on. 
 Both these places were on the Watling Street. 3. Magiovin- 
 ium, to the northwest of the preceding, and on the same Ro 
 man road. It is now Fenny Stratford. 4. Lactodurum, to 
 the northwest, following the same road. Cambden seeks to fix 
 the site of this place at Stony Stratford, but more modern an- 
 
196 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 tiquaries make it coincide with Towcester in Northamptonshire* 
 and this is the preferable opinion. 
 
 Ddbuni. 
 
 Ill the territory of this tribe we have, 1. Durocornovium, 
 called, also, Corinium Dobunorum, the capital of the tribe. 
 The latter name was changed by the Saxons into Corin ceas- 
 ter, whence the modern appellation Cirencester. It was situ 
 ate on the River Corinus, now the Churn, one of the feeders 
 of the Thames. Durocornovium was a place of considerable 
 importance during the Roman occupation of Britain, and three 
 Roman roads meet here, namely, the Foss Way, the Ermin 
 Street, and the Ickenild Way. Its walls, of which partial tra 
 ces still exist, were, during Roman times, two miles in circum 
 ference. 2. Glevum, now Gloucester, on the Sabrina or Severn, 
 and in a northwestern direction from the last-mentioned place. 
 The origin of this city is generally attributed to the Britons, 
 by whom it was called Caer Gloeiv, which, according to Camb- 
 den, means "the Fair or Beautiful City," but, according to 
 other authorities, from Gloew, the name of the chief or original 
 founder. Shortly after the invasion of the country under the 
 Emperor Claudius, A.D. 44, this place became subjected to the 
 Romans, who established a colony here as a check upon the 
 Silures, or inhabitants of South Wales, and called it Colonia 
 Glevum, and also Claudia Castra. It fell subsequently into the 
 hands of the Saxons, about A.D. 577, and by them was called 
 Gleau ceaster, whence its present name is derived. 3. Brano- 
 genium or Branovium, to the north of the preceding, and now 
 Worcester. It was situate on the Sabrina or Severn. Of its 
 history while under the Roman sway, little is accurately known. 
 During the Heptarchy it was the principal Mercian see, and 
 the inhabitants of the district were under ecclesiastical govern 
 ment. The etymology of the name " Worcester" is with some 
 plausibility deduced from " Wyre - Cestre" (corrupted from 
 Ceaster), i. e., the Camp or Castle of Wyre, under which name 
 a considerable forest still exists in the neighborhood of Bewdley. 
 
 Silures. 
 
 In the territory of this tribe we have, 1. Venta Silurum, now 
 Caerwent, a Roman station of considerable importance, but 
 
INSULT BRITANNICJE. 197 
 
 now an inconsiderable village. The place appears to have been 
 of British origin, and to have been called Caer Gwent, or " the 
 White City," out of the latter part of which the Romans formed 
 their name Venta, as in the case of Venta Belgarum, or Win 
 chester. 2. Blestium, to the north of the preceding, now Mon- 
 mouth. After Roman times, the Saxons occupied and fortified 
 this place, to maintain their conquests between the Severn and 
 the Wye, and to prevent the incursions of the Welsh. 3. Arico- 
 nium, to the north, now Weston, according to the best author 
 ities, although its position has been much disputed. 4. Magnce, 
 to the northwest of the preceding, now Kentchester. The po 
 sition of this place also has been much disputed. 5. Gobannium, 
 to the west of Blestium, and now Abergavenny. The ancient 
 name is derived from that of the River Gobannius, now the 
 Gavenny. 6. Burrium, to the southeast of the preceding, now 
 Usk, on the river of the same name, anciently called the Isca. 
 
 7. Isca Silurum, to the southwest of the preceding, now Caer- 
 leon. It was the station, under the Romans, of the second le 
 gion, and hence the name of Legio Secunda Augusta also giv 
 en to the place, whence arose the modern name Caer Leon, or 
 " the City of the Legion." It was situated on the Isca, now 
 the Usk. Caerleon is mentioned in the legends of King Ar 
 thur as a place of great splendor and importance. A descrip 
 tion of it, at a later period, the twelfth century, by Giraldus 
 Cambrensis, gives a lively picture of its former consequence. 
 
 8. Bomium or Bovium. The site of this station is fixed by 
 some at Boverton, a village a few miles south of Cowbridge, 
 and not far from the sea. Others, however, more correctly, 
 place it at Ervenny, near Bridgend, being induced by Roman 
 remains discovered here. Neither place, however, accords ex 
 actly in respect of distance from Nidum, the next station, with 
 the existing copies of Richard of Cirencester. Nidum may be 
 safely identified with Neath, situate on the River Nedd or 
 Neath, the ancient Nidus. 
 
 In the territory of this tribe we have, 1, Maridunum, now 
 Caermarthen. In the time of Julius Frontinus, A.D. 70, a Ro 
 man station is said to have been founded here, the site of which 
 is supposed to be that subsequently occupied by the castle and 
 
198 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 its outworks. The form of the camp is still marked by vestiges 
 of stone and earth works. The remains of another camp, sup 
 posed to have been the castra (estiva, or summer camp of the 
 soldiers on the station, are still visible in a field on the north 
 ern side of the town. This place was afterward the residence 
 of the princes of South Wales. 2. Ad Vigesimum, to the west 
 of the preceding, now Castle Flemish. 3. Menevia, to the 
 west of the preceding, called, also, Menapia, now St. David s. 
 
 Ordaviccs, 
 
 In the territory of this tribe we have, 1. Mediolanium, as Ptol 
 emy calls it (Msdiohdviov), or Mediamanum, as it is named by the 
 Ravenna geographer. The exact site of this place has not been 
 ascertained, although it is thought by the best antiquaries to 
 have been in Montgomeryshire. It is generally supposed to have 
 been 011 the banks of the Tanad, and to coincide with the mod 
 ern Clawdd Goch. 2. Seg-ontium, near Caernarvon. The 
 remains of the station itself, which consist of some fragments 
 of the wall, are known by the name of Caer-seiont, and are 
 about a mile from Caernarvon, on the banks of the Seiont, 
 The island of Mona, now Anglesey, lay opposite. A Roman 
 road from Maridunum to Segontium may still be traced. It is 
 now called Sarn Helen, or Sam y Heng, and is supposed to 
 mean " the Road of the Legion." 3. Conovium, to the north 
 east, on the River Toisobius or Conway. Some antiquaries 
 have proposed to fix the site of this place at the city of Conway, 
 but the general opinion identifies Conovium with Caer-Rkun, 
 five miles higher up the river. 4. Varce, to the east of the pre 
 ceding, at or near Bodfari, in the latter part of which name the 
 Roman designation may be traced. 5. Bovium, to the south 
 east of the preceding, at or near Bangor, on the River Deva f 
 now the Dee. 
 
 Corndvii. 
 
 In the territory of this tribe we have, 1. Deva, now Chester, 
 on the River Deva, now the Dee. It was the station of the 
 twentieth legion, and its modern name (a corruption of castra) 
 has reference, as usual, to the fact of its having been a Roman 
 military post. This place was evidently the most considerable 
 one in a large tract of country in Roman times, and so contin- 
 
INSUL^E BRITANNICJE. 199 
 
 ued when the Romans had withdrawn their forces, and its pos 
 session became an object of importance to both the Saxons and 
 the Britons. In the Saxon chronicle we are told that Ethel- 
 frid, king of Northumbria, took it from the Britons in A.D. 
 607. After that date it was again in the hands of the Britons ; 
 and finally, in A.D. 830, it fell under the power of Egbert. 
 2. Condate, to the east of the preceding. Its site is marked by 
 a field called Harbor-field, in the parish of Kinderton. 3. Me- 
 diolanum, to the southeast of the preceding, now Chesterton. 
 4. Rutunium, now Rowton, ranked by some among the cities 
 of the Ordovices. It lay in a southwest direction from the pre 
 ceding. 5. Uriconium or Viroconium, one of the principal Ro 
 man stations among the Cornavii, situate on the Sabrina or 
 Severn, and about sixty miles to the southeast of the present 
 city of Shrewsbury. It is now Wroxeter. 6. Salopia, so called 
 in the "Notitia," and now Shrewsbury. It has been supposed 
 that when the Britons found Uriconium fully in possession of 
 the Romans, they established this place in its vicinity as a 
 stronghold. Its Welsh name was Pengwern. On the conquest 
 of the town by the Anglo-Saxons, it received the appellation 
 of Scrobbes-byrig, importing that it was a town in a scrubby 
 or brushy spot, and of this the modern " Shrewsbury" is a cor 
 ruption. 
 
 7. Pennocrucium, to the northeast of Uriconium. The site 
 of this place seems to be best fixed on the River Penk, near Stret- 
 ton. This position accords tolerably well with the distances, 
 in the Itinerary, from Uriconium and Etocetum, and does not 
 require the corrections which are necessary if Pennocrucium is 
 fixed, as some have proposed, at Penkridge. 8. Etocetum, to 
 the southeast of the preceding. The site appears to have been 
 at Wall, near Lichfield. 9. Manduessedum, to the southeast 
 of the preceding, now Mancester. 
 
 Coritdni. 
 
 In the territory of this tribe we have, 1. Tripontium. The 
 site of this place is fixed, by the best authorities, at Dovebridge 
 or Doiubridge, on the Watling Street. 2. Venoncz, to the north 
 west, at or near High Cross, where the Watling Street and 
 the Fosse Road intersect. 3. Ratce, as written in the Itinera 
 ry, or Pars, as given by Ptolemy, now Leicester. This place 
 
200 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 is said to have been called by the Britons Caer Leirion, mean 
 ing " the city on the (river) Leire," which is now the Soar. 
 The Saxons altered this name to Lege-ceaster or Legeo-ceaster^ 
 whence the present name. Geoffrey of Monmouth says it was 
 called Caer-Leirion from the fabulous Leir, its founder, the son 
 of Bladud, and the Lear of Shakspeare. 4. Verometum, to the 
 northeast of the preceding, near Willoughby, on the road from 
 Leicester to Newark. 5. Derventio, to the northwest, on the 
 Darventus, now Derwent. Its site is marked by the present 
 hamlet of Little Chester. 6. Ad Pontem, to the northeast of 
 the preceding, and on the River Trent. Its site has been fixed 
 near Southwell. 7. Margidunwn, a little to the southwest of 
 the preceding, probably near East Bridgeford, on the south 
 bank of the Trent, between Nottingham and Newark. 8. Lin- 
 dum, to the northeast of the preceding, now Lincoln. It was 
 a British town before it became a Roman station, and it stood 
 at the intersection of the two great roads in this quarter, name 
 ly, the eastern branch of the Ermin Street and the Foss Way. 
 The station was on the hill now occupied by the Cathedral and 
 the Castle : its form was that of a parallelogram, the sides 
 nearly facing the four cardinal points, and on each side was a 
 gate. The walls have been almost entirely levelled with the 
 ground, and the gates, with one exception, have been long since 
 demolished. The remaining gate, now called " Newport Gate," 
 is one of the most remarkable Roman remains in the kingdom. 
 
 Brlgantes. 
 
 Beginning from the wall of Hadrian, and proceeding in a 
 southern direction, we have, on the eastern side of the territory 
 of the Brigantes, the following places : 1. Corstopitum, near 
 Corbridge, on the River Fine. 2. Vindomara, to the south 
 east, at Ebchester. 3. Epiacum, to the southeast of the pre 
 ceding, now Lanchester. 4. Vinovia, to the southeast of the 
 preceding, now Bincester. 5. Caturactonium, to the southwest 
 of the preceding, now Catterick. 6. Isurium, to the southeast 
 of the preceding, now Aldborough. 7. Eboracum^ to the south 
 east of Isurium, now York. The British appellation of this 
 place was most probably Eburac or Eborac, a name of Celtic 
 origin, and supposed to signify " a town or fortified place on the 
 banks of a river, or near the confluence of waters." It stood 
 
INSULT BRITANNIC^:. 201 
 
 on the banks of the Ouse. This place was converted into a 
 military station by Agricola, or one of his generals, during the 
 second campaign of that commander in Britain, about A.D. 79, 
 when he marched through and subdued the whole country of 
 the Brigantes ; its original Celtic appellation being retained in 
 the Latinized form of Eburacum or Eboracum. It appears to 
 have very soon become the principal Roman station of the north, 
 and even of the whole province of Britain. Here, too, was the 
 post of the sixth legion, whence the name Legio Sexta Victrix, 
 sometimes given to the station. This legion came into Britain 
 in the time of Hadrian, and Eboracum remained its head-quar 
 ters until the Romans departed from the island. The ninth 
 legion, which came over with the Emperor Claudius, had pre 
 viously been stationed here, and of course continued here after 
 its incorporation with the sixth. From the time of Septimius 
 Severus, if not earlier, it was the residence of the emperors 
 when they visited the province, and, in their absence, of the 
 imperial legates. Here the emperors Severus and Constantius 
 Chlorus died ; and here, according to common belief, Constan 
 tino the Great was born ; but this belief rests on very insuffi 
 cient evidence. For its pre-eminence among the Roman sta 
 tions in Britain, Eboracum was indebted, it is probable, to its 
 situation on the banks of a navigable river, in the midst of a 
 remarkably extensive and very fertile plain, in the heart of the 
 large district which lay between that part of the province of 
 which the Romans had almost undisturbed possession, and that 
 which they never could subdue, with the fierce hordes of which 
 they were compelled to wage unceasing and doubtful warfare. 
 Similar circumstances contributed to maintain the distinction 
 which York enjoyed during many successive centuries. 
 
 8. Derventio, to the northeast of Eboracum, and the site of 
 which is supposed to be near Stamford Bridge. 9. Belgovitia, 
 to the southeast of the preceding, near Millington. 10. Prato- 
 rium, to the northeast, on the coast, now Flamborough. These 
 three last-mentioned places were in the territory of the Parisii. 
 
 In the interior of the country of the Brigantes, we have the 
 following places : 1. Luguvallum, just south of the wall of Ha 
 drian, now Carlisle. It is supposed to have been of British 
 origin. The modern name is said to be derived from the word 
 Luel, a corruption of Luguvallum, to which the British word 
 
202 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Caer, "city," is prefixed. The place appears to have been 
 first fortified about the time of Agricola. The Danes destroyed 
 it about the end of the ninth century, and it remained desolate 
 till after the Norman conquest. Its restoration and the erec 
 tion of the castle are attributed to William Rufus. 2. Voreda, 
 to the southeast of the preceding, near Plumpton Wall. 3. Bro- 
 cdvum, to the southeast of the preceding, fixed by Horsley and 
 others at Brougham. 4. Brovonacce, to the southeast, made 
 by some to correspond to Brough, but more correctly placed by 
 Horsley at Kirby Thore. 5. Verterce, to the southeast, now 
 Brough. 6. Lutudarum, mentioned by the Ravenna geogra 
 pher, is supposed to correspond to the modern Leeds. It is 
 highly probable, indeed, that Leeds was a Roman station, for 
 Roman remains have been found in various parts of the town. 
 7. Mancunium, now Manchester. Aldport, the original of Man 
 chester, is supposed to have taken its rise in the reign of Titus. 
 It seems that originally there was a British town in this quar 
 ter, called Mancenion, or " the place of tents." On the site of 
 this town the Romans erected a military station, the name of 
 which they made, by a slight change, Mancunium ; and in the 
 vicinity of this station Agricola induced the Britons to erect a 
 new town, answering to what was subsequently Aldport, and 
 eventually Manchester. This last-mentioned name arose from 
 Man, the initial syllable of Mancunium, with the usual ter 
 mination of c ester or Chester. 
 
 On the western side of the territory of the Brigantes we have 
 the following places: 1. Glanaventa, now Ellenborough, at the 
 western termination of Hadrian s wall. 2. Galava, to the south 
 east of the preceding, now Keswick. 3. Alone, to the southeast, 
 now Ambleside. 4. Galacum, to the southeast, near Kendal. 
 5. Bremetonacce, to the southeast, near Tunstall. 6. Ad Alpes 
 Penninas, now Broughton. 7. Coccium, called, also, Rigo- 
 dunum, now Ribchester. It was the head-quarters of the twen 
 tieth legion. 
 
 14. ROMAN WAYS. 
 
 I. THE old chroniclers give this name to four principal an 
 cient highways, which they suppose to have been either origi 
 nally formed by the Romans in Britain during their occupa 
 tion of the country, or, at least, to have been completed and 
 
INSULAR BRITANNIC M. 203 
 
 perfected by that people upon lines of road for the greater part 
 already traced and used by the former inhabitants. 
 
 II. The names, however, by which the four highways are 
 distinguished appear to be Saxon in form, although they may 
 be Roman or British in etymology, namely, Watling Street, 
 Ikenild Street, Ermin Street, and Foss Way. 
 
 III. Watling or Gathelin Street, which is said to have been 
 so called from a functionary of the name of Vitellianus (in Brit 
 ish, Guetalin), to whom the care of it was committed (a most 
 unsatisfactory and improbable etymology), is held to have -ex 
 tended from Dover to Chester ; or, according to another hypoth 
 esis, to Chester-le-Street in Durham, passing through Canter 
 bury, London, and Verulam (St. Alban s), from which last- 
 mentioned town it had also the name of Werlaem Street. Its 
 remains, or supposed remains, are still known in various places 
 by the names of High Dyke, High Ridge, Ridge Way, and 
 Forty -foot Way. 
 
 IV. There has been much controversy, however, as to wheth 
 er Watling Street did actually pass through London. Stuke- 
 ly, in particular, contends that it crossed what is now called 
 the Oxford Road at Tyburn, and proceeded to the west of West 
 minster, through Hyde Park and St. James s Park to the 
 Thames, which it crossed at Old Palace Yard. The common 
 opinion, however, is, that it passed along the line of what is still 
 called Watling Street, in the city, meeting the other three great 
 roads at the central milliarium in Cannon Street, pointed out 
 by the site of London Stone, and crossing the river at Dowgate 
 to what is still called Stony Street on the Surrey Side. The 
 northward course of Watling Street, after leaving London or 
 its neighborhood, is supposed to have been over Hampstead 
 Heath to Edgeware, and hence through Verulam (or St. Al 
 ban s), and Dunstable in Bedfordshire, to Stony Stratford in 
 Northamptonshire, whence it skirted Leicestershire on the west 
 to Bosworth. From this point its course is disputed, some 
 making it proceed in a northwestern direction to Chester, oth 
 ers carrying it due north to York, and thence to Chester-le- 
 Street ; whence some imagine it to have been latterly extended 
 to Lanark and Falkirk in Scotland, or even as far as to Caith 
 ness, at the extremity of the island. 
 
 V. Ikenild or Ichenild Street is said to have been so called 
 
204 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 from its commencing on the eastern side of the island, in the 
 country of the Iceni, of whom mention has already been made. 
 On the supposition, however, of the London Stone having been 
 the central milliarium, where all the great roads of the country 
 met, a branch of the Ikenild must have extended to this point. 
 It is supposed to have passed through Aldgate, and to have been 
 otherwise known by the name of the Vicinal Way. 
 
 VI. The course of the Ikenild to the westward is extremely 
 obscure. Nearly all that has been conjectured even on the sub 
 ject is, that it crossed Watling Street at Dunstable, and thence 
 extended in the direction of Staffordshire to the western coast. 
 It seems most probable that, while Watling Street ran directly 
 north to Chester-le- Street, the Ikenild crossed it obliquely to 
 Chester ; but the scanty remains of the one road have been 
 confounded with those of the other. 
 
 VII. Ermin or Hermin Street derived its name most probably 
 from the Saxon Herrmann, " a warrior," signifying that it was 
 a military road. It is conjectured by some to have extended 
 from St. David s, at the southwestern extremity of Wales, to 
 Southampton, on the southern coast ; by others to have stretched 
 more directly across the country to London, which it may have 
 entered by what is now called Holborn. 
 
 VIII. The Foss Way is supposed to have derived its name 
 from the circumstance of its having had a ditch (fossa) on each 
 side ; and it appears from a Roman milliare, or mile-stone, 
 found by its side near Leicester, to have been formed, or at 
 least improved, by the Romans in the reign of Hadrian, and 
 probably at or about the time of that emperor s visit to Britain. 
 It has retained its name among all classes of people better than 
 any other of the Roman roads. This road is supposed to have 
 taken its course from southwest to northeast, beginning near 
 Totness in Devonshire, and passing through Bristol, Cirences- 
 ter (near which place it seems to have crossed Ermin Street), 
 Chipping, Norton, Coventry, Leicester, and Newark, to Lin 
 coln. If it was carried thence to London, it probably proceed 
 ed through Bishop s-gate Street. 
 
 15. ROMAN WALLS. 
 
 I. THE object of these erections was to prevent the incursions 
 of the barbarous Scottish tribes into the Roman province of 
 
INSULTS BRITANNICJE. 205 
 
 Britain. Of these, which were five in all, Agricola erected 
 two, and Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Severus one each. 
 With the exception, however, of the wall of Severus, the other 
 works ought rather to be called mounds than walls, since they 
 consisted principally of a bank and ditch, with a range of forts 
 or stations at unequal distances. 
 
 II. The first of these works was constructed by Agricola, the 
 celebrated Roman commander, in A.D. 79, between the Ituna 
 jEstuarium, now Solway Frith, and the mouth of the River 
 Tina, now the Tine. The second was constructed by the same 
 in A.D. 81, considerably to the north of the first, between the 
 GlotcB JEstuarium, now Frith of Clyde, and the Bodotrice or 
 Boderice JEstuarium, now the Frith of Forth. These two 
 works, however, appear to have been insufficient to restrain 
 the progress of the barbarians after the departure of Agrioola 
 from the island, A.D. 85, and accordingly, in A.D. 120, the 
 Emperor Hadrian planned and executed a much stronger and 
 more important work. 
 
 III. Hadrian selected the same part of the island along which 
 the first wall or mound of Agricola had been drawn, namely, 
 the tract of country between Solway Frith and the mouth of 
 the Tine. He dug an additional and much larger ditch, and 
 raised a higher rampart of earth, making his new works run in 
 nearly parallel lines with the old ones of Agricola. It began 
 from Tunocelum, now Boulness, on the Itunce JEstuarium, now 
 Solway Frith, near Luguvallium, now Carlisle, on the west 
 ern coast, and was continued almost in a direct line to Sege- 
 dunum, now Cousin s House, beyond Pons JElii, a distance of 
 rather more than sixty-eight English, or seventy-four Roman 
 miles. 
 
 IV. Hadrian s work consisted of a principal agger, or vallum, 
 that is, a rampart of earth, about ten or twelve feet high; a 
 ditch, on the north of this vallum, nine feet deep and eleven 
 feet wide ; an agger twenty feet on the north side of this ditch ; 
 and an agger, without a ditch, five feet on the south of the prin 
 cipal agger, and nearly of as large dimensions. This work was 
 garrisoned by soldiers, stationed at proper intervals in forts. 
 
 V. Twenty years after this, A.D. 140, Lollius Urbicus, un* 
 der the Emperor Antoninus Pius, having reconquered the Maea- 
 tae, restored the second wall of Agricola, which is commonly 
 
206 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 called the " "Wall of Antoninus," or Vallum Antonini. This 
 work consisted of a ditch about twelve feet wide, the principal 
 agger, or vallum, on the south brink of the ditch, the founda 
 tions of which are twelve feet thick, but the height is unknown, 
 and a military way on the south of the vallum. There were 
 forts or stations along the line, amounting in all to nineteen, the 
 mean distance between station and station being rather more 
 than two English miles. In the position of the forts, the Ro 
 mans, both here and in their other works of a similar kind, al 
 ways chose a high and commanding situation, whence the coun 
 try could be discovered to a considerable distance, contriving, 
 as far as circumstances would admit, that a river, morass, or 
 some difficult ground, should form an obstruction to any ap 
 proach from the front. Forts were also placed upon the passa 
 ges of those rivers which crossed the general chain of communi 
 cation. A very considerable proportion of this intrenchment 
 may still be traced. The modern name is Grimes Dyke, the 
 word Grime, in the Celtic language, signifying " great," or 
 " powerful." 
 
 VI. But the greatest work of all was that of the Emperor 
 Septimius Severus. It was begun A.D. 209, and finished the 
 next year, and was only a lew yards to the north of Hadrian s 
 wall. This great work consisted of a ditch, the dimensions 
 of which are not known, except that it was in all respects lar 
 ger and wider than that of Hadrian, and on its south brink 
 stood the wall, not a mere mound of earth like the rest, but 
 built of solid stone, and cemented with the strongest mortar. 
 The height of this wall was twelve feet, besides the parapet, 
 and its breadth eight feet, and it was defended at intervals by 
 fortresses of three different kinds. Those called stationes were 
 very strong garrisons, the least of them being capable of con 
 taining six hundred men, and having a town without their 
 walls. The number of these was not less than eighteen, at an 
 average distance of four miles from each other, but placed with 
 some irregularity, according to the nature of the surrounding 
 country and the exigency of defence. Besides these, there were 
 very strong forts, called castella, in the intervals of the stations, 
 eighty-one in number, and at the distance of about seven fur 
 longs from each other. These were exactly sixty-four feet 
 square. Lastly, between every two castella were four turres. 
 
INSUL^E BRITANNICJE. 207 
 
 or turrets, twelve feet square, three hundred and twenty-four 
 in number, and three hundred yards distant from each other. 
 These were used as watch-towers, and, being within reach of 
 each other, communications could be made with the utmost fa 
 cility. For convenience of relieving guards, there was a mili 
 tary way, made of square stones, the whole length of the wall 
 on its south side, and communicating with each turret and 
 castle ; and at some distance south of this was another large 
 military way, paved, also, with square stones, communicating 
 from station to station. The whole body of forces employed to 
 garrison this stupendous work was not less than ten thousand 
 men, sixteen hundred of whom were cavalry, and six hundred 
 mariners, at the points where the ramparts communicated with 
 the shore. 
 
 16. STATIONS ALONG THE WALLS OF HADRIAN AND 
 SEVER us. 
 
 THESE stations lie in Northumberland and Cumberland, and will now be briefly 
 enumerated : 1. The first station, Scgedunum, is generally fixed at Cousin s 
 House, Wall s End, between Newcastle and Tynemouth. There are no re 
 mains. 2. The second station, Pans JElii, was, in the opinion of most antiqua 
 ries, at Newcastle ; but Cambden was induced by the name to fix it at Pnnteland\ 
 which is north of the wall, on the River Pont, seven and a half miles northwest 
 of Newcastle. 3. The third station, Condurcum, is fixed at Benwell Hill, an emi 
 nence two miles or two and a half miles from Newcastle. There are very dis 
 tinct traces of this station above the village of Benwell. 4. The fourth station, 
 Vindobala, is fixed at Rutchcstcr or Rouchester. The ramparts of this station, 
 which was large, are very visible. 5. The fifth station, Hvnnum, was at Hahon- 
 Chestcrs. 6. The sixth station, Cilurnum, was at Walwick- Chester s, close on 
 the right or west bank of the north Tyne. The ground within the vallum is 
 crowded with the ruins of stone buildings, which formed apparently two streets 
 from east to west, and a third cross street from north to south. 7. The seventh 
 station, Procolitia, was on an open, elevated spot at Carraw-burgh. 8. The 
 eighth station, Borcovicus, is fixed at House Steads. This is the most perfect, 
 and the grandest station of the whole line. It is on an elevation, with a steep 
 or precipitous descent toward the north, and a gentler declivity toward the south. 
 It comprehended fifteen acres, and had a large suburb on the south side. As 
 many as twenty streets may be counted. 9. The ninth station, Vindolana, is 
 generally placed at Little Cheaters. The ramparts of this station are visible, 
 but the ditch is nearly filled up. 10. The tenth station, JEsica, is at Great Ches- 
 ters. The trenches and ramparts are well preserved. 11. The eleventh station, 
 Ma^na, is fixed at Carvaran, close to the borders of Cumberland. 12. The 
 twelfth station, Amboglanna, is fixed at Burdoswald. Traces of many Roman 
 buildings are found here. The whole station is surrounded by a foss. and all 
 the entrances are plainly seen. 13. The thirteenth station, Pcfriana. is now 
 Cambcrk Fort. 14. The fourteenth station, Aballaba, is fixed at Watch Cross. 
 15. The fifteenth station, Congavala, is fixed at Slanwicks. There are here only 
 
:208 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 some traces of the ditch. 16. The sixteenth station, Axellodunum, is fixed at 
 Burgh. 17. The seventeenth station, Gabrosentum, is fixed at Drumburgh, four 
 miles from the termination of the wall. The site of the station is here perfectly 
 plain. 18. The eighteenth station, Tunnocelum, is fixed at Boulness. Nothing 
 is left of this station but the spot which marks it, upon a rock on the verge of 
 Solway Frith, thirteen miles west of Carlisle. 
 
 (B.) BRITANNIA BARBARA. 
 
 I. THE appellation Britannia Barbara was at first given by the Romans to all 
 that part of the island which lay to the north of Hadrian s wall. When, how 
 ever, Britannia Romana became more extended toward the north, and the new 
 province of Valentia was formed, comprehending all the country between the 
 wall of Hadrian or Severus and that of Antoninus, and embracing the territories 
 of the Otadeni, Gadeni, Selgova, Novantce, and Damnii, an alteration took place 
 in the mode of naming, and the appellation of Britannia Barbara was now given 
 to that part of the island merely which lay to the north of the wall of Antoninus. 
 
 II. The Romans made three several attempts to establish themselves in Bri 
 tannia Barbara, but without success. Hence the little information which we 
 have respecting this part of the island. With the coast they were better ac 
 quainted, a Roman fleet having circumnavigated Britain in the time of Agricola. 
 
 III. In considering this part of the island, we will take the name of Britannia 
 Barbara in its earlier sense, as embracing all the country north of the wall of 
 Hadrian. Our enumeration will necessarily be a brief one. 
 
 Cities, 8fc,, of Britannia Barbara. 
 
 In the territory of the Novanta we have, 1. Leucopibia or Cascz Candida, now 
 Wigton. 2. Rerigonium, now Strathnavcr. 3. Novantum Portus, now Port Pat 
 rick. 
 
 In the territory of the Selgova we have, 1 . Carbantorigum, now Kircudbright. 
 2. Corda, now Old Cumnock. 3. Uxellum, near Drumlanrig. 4. Trimontium, 
 near Lougholm. 
 
 In the territory of the Damnii we have, 1. Colanica, now Lanark. 2. Vando- 
 gara, now Paisley. 3. Coria Damniornm, now Castle Gary. 4. Victoria, now 
 Kinross. 5. Lindum Damniorum, one of the stations of the rampart of Antoni 
 nus, now Kirkantulloch. 
 
 In the territory of the Otadeni we have, 1. Bremenium, now Rhichester. 2. Ad 
 Fines, now Chew Green. 3. Curia, now Borthwick Castle. 
 
 II. HI BERN I A. 
 
 1. NAMES, &c. 
 
 I. THE Greeks give us the earliest name of this island, namely, Hierne (Upvri). 
 The Romans, on the other hand, called it either Hibernia or Juverna. Ptolemy 
 names it lovepvia. 
 
 II. The Romans never coveted the possession of this island, and hence, like 
 the Greeks, they derived all their information respecting it from traders, who 
 had sought its coasts for the sake of traffic. Ptolemy gives, nevertheless, some 
 pretty correct notions in relation to this island ; he only errs in placing it six 
 degrees too far toward the north. 
 
 OBS. 1. In the various names of Ireland, as known to the classic writers, Iris, lernis, Juver-nit, 
 Hibernia, &.c., the radical Tr, or Eri, by which it is still known to its own natives, is plainly trace 
 able. It is customary among the Irian to indicate a country by the affix Hy or Hua, sometimea 
 
HlBERNIA. 209 
 
 written O, as in the case of proper names, signifying literally "the (dwelling of the) sons or fam 
 ily of," such as Hy -Mania, Hij-Tuirtre, Hy- Brazil, &c. In adding this affix to names beginning 
 with a vowel, it is optional to insert a consonant in order to prevent the concurrence of open 
 sounds, Hy-v-Each, meaning the country of the descendants of Each or jEacus. Again, this affix 
 requires the genitive, which in Eri is Erin, and thus in all variations of the name, from the Iris 
 of Diodorus Siculus, and the Ir-land and Ireland of modern times, to the lernis (Hy-Ernis) of the 
 Orphic Poems, and theHibcrnia (Hy-b-Ernia) of the Latin writers, would seem to be accounted for. 
 2. The name Scotia does not appear to have been applied to Ireland till about the end of the 
 third century, from which time till the beginning of the eleventh it continued to indicate that 
 country exclusively. 
 
 2. EARLY INHABITANTS, &o. 
 
 I. THE Scoti, who were in possession of Ireland at the time of the introduc 
 tion of Christianity, appear to have been, to a great extent, the successors of a 
 people whose name and monuments indicate a close affinity with the Belgae of 
 southern Britain. A people also called Cruithnc by the Irish annalists, who are 
 identifiable with the Picts of northern Britain, continued to inhabit a portion of 
 the island, distinct from the Scoti, until after the Christian mission ; and it is 
 observable that the names of mountains and remarkable places in that district 
 still strikingly resemble the topographical nomenclature of those parts of north 
 Britain which have not been affected by the Scotic conquest. 
 
 II. The monuments and relics which attest the presence of a people consid 
 erably advanced in civilization at some period in Ireland, such as Cyclopian 
 buildings, sepulchral mounds, containing stone chambers, mines, bronze instru 
 ments and weapons of classic form and elegant workmanship, would appear to 
 be referrible to some of the predecessors of the Scoti, and indicate a close affin 
 ity between the-earliest inhabitants of Ireland and that ancient people, by some 
 incorrectly referred to a Phoenician origin, whose vestiges of a similar kind 
 abound throughout the south and southwest of Europe. 
 
 III. The Scoti were not builders in stone, at least in their civil edifices, nor 
 did they use bronze implements. Their own tradition is, that they came orig 
 inally from Scythia, by which is meant the northeastern part of central Europe, 
 which appears to be confirmed by the fact that the ancient topography of the 
 country, in districts where the Scotic invasion has not wholly obliterated it, 
 points at the Welsh language as the nearest representative of that spoken by 
 the predecessors of the Scoti, and that the chief distinctions which at present 
 exist between the Irish and Welsh languages are referrible to a Gothic or north 
 ern European source. 
 
 IV. The general conversion of the Irish Scots to Christianity took place in 
 the earlier and middle portion of the fifth century. The principal instrument in 
 effecting the change was St. Patrick (Patricius), who landed in Ireland on this 
 mission in the year 432. Before this time Christianity had made some prog 
 ress, but the mass of the people were heathens. 
 
 V. A considerable advance in civilization followed the introduction of the new 
 religion. Greek and Roman literature got some footing among the clergy, and 
 an improved system of architecture became requisite for religious edifices. The 
 Irish round towers are now generally ascribed to an ecclesiastical origin, and 
 are supposed to have been erected during the sixth, seventh, and eighth centu 
 ries, which form, perhaps, the most prosperous epoch in the history of the coun 
 try. From the end of the eighth century till the coming of the English in A.D. 
 1170, the disputes of the petty princes of the island, and the frequent depreda 
 tions of the Danes, and other northern pirates, render the annals of Ireland a 
 melancholy series of feuds and disasters. 
 
 O 
 
210 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 3. PROMONTORIES. 
 
 THE principal promontories of Hibernia are as follows : 1. Boreum Promonto- 
 rium (Bopeiov A/cpwr^piov), now Matin Head, in the county of Donncgal. 2. Ve~ 
 nicnium Promontorium (Ovsvinvtov A/cpur^ptoi;), to the southwest of the preced 
 ing, now Bloody Foreland, in the same county. 3. Rhobogdium Promontorium, 
 to the southeast of Boreum Promontorium, now Fair Head, in the county of 
 Antrim. 4. Isamnium Promontorium, on the eastern coast, now Killard Point. 
 It lies facing the Isle of Man, the ancient Mona or Monarina. 5. Sacrum Prom 
 ontorium ( iepov Anpurripiov), at the extremity of the eastern coast, now Grenorc 
 Point. 6. Notium Promontorium (Noriov A/cpwn?pov), at the southwest extrem 
 ity of the island, now Mizen Head or Cape Clear. 
 
 4. RIVERS AND ESTUARIES. 
 
 1. Vidua (Ovidova), now the Foyle, forming at its mouth the aestuary of Lough 
 Foyle. 2. Argita, now the Bann. 3. Logia, now the Lagan, running into Bel 
 fast Bay. 4. Vinderius, now the Newry, emptying into Carlingford Bay. 5. Bu- 
 binda (\0>ov(>iv6a), now the Boyne. 6. Libinius, now the Liffy. 7. Oboca ( 06o/ca), 
 now the Avoca. 8. Modonus (Mo (5oi>of), now the Slaney. Mannert erroneously 
 makes this the Liffy. 9. Birgus (B/pyof), called, also, Brigus, though perhaps 
 the true form of the name is Bargus. It is now the Barrow. 10. Dabrbna 
 (Aa6po)ya), now the Lee, running into Cork Harbor. 11. Ivernus, now Kinmorc 
 River. 12. Dur (Aoi)p), running into what is now Dingle Bay. 13. Senus (27/vof), 
 now the Shannon. 14. Ausoba (kvaofia Trorauo^), the aestuary now called Gal- 
 way Bay. 15. Ravius (Tacwof), apparently the extended line of Lough Erne 
 (mistaken for a river), which empties into Donnegal Bay. 
 
 5. PRINCIPAL TRIBES. 
 
 ON the eastern and southern sides of the island we have, 1. Darini (Aapivol) 
 or Darni, dwelling around the River Logia, now the Lagan, in the southern part 
 of Antrim, and the northern parts of Down and Armagh. 2. Voluntii (Ovohovv- 
 TLOL} or Usluntii (Ova^ovvnoi), to the south of the preceding, and dwelling around 
 what is now Dundalk Bay, in the county of Louth. 3. Eblani ( EfiAdvot) or Blami, 
 to the south of the preceding, in the counties of Meath and Dublin, and the north 
 ern part of Kildare. 4. Cauci (KavKoi), to the south, in the southern part of 
 Kildare, and in part of Wicklow. 5. Mcnapii, to the south, in part of Wicklow 
 and Wexford. 6. Coriondi, to the south and southwest of the preceding, in the 
 southern part of Wexford and of Kilkenny. 7. Brigantes, to the southwest of 
 the preceding, in Watcrford and part of Tipperary. 8. Usdice (Ovafiiai) or Vodict, 
 according to the common text of Ptolemy, to the southwest, and occupying part 
 of the county of Cork. 9. Juverni ( lovspvoi), less correctly called by some 
 Uterni, in the southwestern corner of the island, and occupying a part of the 
 counties of Cork and Kerry. 
 
 On the western side we have, 1. Velibori (Oi>eM6opoi), or, as they are called by 
 some, Utellabri (OvrfAhaGpoi), in part of the county of Kerry. 2. Gang-am 
 (Tayyavoi), north of the Shannon, in the county of Clare. 3. Autlri (\vTeipoi}, 
 to the north of the preceding, in the county of Gal-way. 4. Magnate (Mayvdrai), 
 to the north, in the county of Mayo. 5. Erdini ( Epdlvoi), to the northeast of 
 the preceding, in the counties of Sligo and Antrim. 
 
 On the northern side we have, 1. Venicnii (OvcviKvioi), in the county of Don 
 negal. 2. Rhobogdii ( Po66y6ioi), to the east of the preceding, and occupying 
 
INSULT BRITANNIC^ MINORES. 211 
 
 the county of Londonderry, the northern part of that of Antrim, and a small por 
 tion of that of Tyrone. 
 
 6. CITIES. 
 
 ON the eastern coast we have, 1. Ebldna ("Edhava), now Dublin. Mannert 
 incorrectly places the site of this ancient city in the neighborhood of Dundalk. 
 Dublin, in fact, appears to have been known by something approaching nearly 
 to its present name in the second century, since it is found written Eblana in 
 the geography of Ptolemy. The name is given in historical documents as 
 Dublin, Dyflin, Dyvelin, &c., being all varieties of the Irish Dubh-linn, or " Black 
 Pool," which appears to be the true etymology. It is also called, and is still 
 generally known among the Irish by the name of Athcliath, which may be ren 
 dered Hurdle-ford, from the causeway laid on hurdles which formerly led to the 
 channel of the river across the ooze at either side. 2. Menapia, now Wexford. 
 Some less correctly consider the modern Ferns to correspond to Menapia. The 
 ancient inhabitants of this quarter, namely, the Menapii, are supposed to have 
 derived their origin from the people of the same name in Belgic Gaul, most 
 probably through the Belgae of Britain, and to be the people called by the Irish 
 annalists Fir-Bolgs, which means " Viri Bclgici," or Belgians. 
 
 On the western coast we have, 1. Juvemis or lernis, corresponding, as is 
 thought, to the modern Dunkenon. It was the capital of the Juverni. 2. Regia, 
 to the northeast of the preceding, now Limerick. There were two places of 
 this name in Ireland, one on what is now the River Culmore, in Armagh, and the 
 other that which we are at present considering. Hence Ptolemy, in naming 
 the latter, calls it Erepa Pnyia, " the other Regia," or, as it is marked on the 
 maps in Latin, Regia Alter a. Mannert regards Regia in both cases as a Latin 
 term (Graecized by Ptolemy) to denote the residence of a prince or leader. 
 3. Magndta, to the north of the preceding, and the chief city of the Magnatae. 
 It is supposed to correspond to the modern Castlebar, in the county of Mayo. 
 
 III. INSUL^E BRITANNICJE MINORES. 
 (A.) Islands in the Oceanus Britannicus (or English Chan 
 nel) and the Fretum Gallicum (or Straits of Dover). 
 
 I. Vectis InsulcB (OwJxTtf), now the Isle of Wight, on the southern coast of 
 England, and separated from the mainland of Hampshire by a channel called the 
 Solent Sea, and which Bede Latinizes by Pelagus Solvens. The modern name 
 of the island is most probably a mere contraction of the ancient one, this last 
 being pronounced Wectis or Ouectis, from which Wect was formed by contrac 
 tion, and this became gradually changed into Wight. In the Domesday Book 
 it is spelled Wect, Wict, and Wiht. Suetonius and Eumenius call the island 
 Vecta, while Diodorus Siculus styles it Ictis. This island was known to the Ro 
 mans long before the conquest of Britain, and their acquaintance with it was 
 obtained through the Massilians, who visited it in prosecuting the tin trade. It 
 was reduced under the Roman sway by Vespasian, during the reign of Claudius, 
 A.D. 43. In 493 it was conquered by Cerdic the Saxon, who destroyed the 
 original inhabitants, and replaced them by his own countrymen. 
 
 II. Tanetos or Tandtis, now Thanet, a part of the coast of Kent, insulated by 
 the two arms of the River Sturius, now the Stour. 
 
212 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 (B.) Islands in the Oceanus Hibernicus (or Irish Sea). 
 
 I. Mono,, now the Isle of Man. This island has various ancient names. It is 
 the Mona of Caesar, the Monapia of Pliny, the Monarina (or, according to another 
 reading, Monaceda) of Ptolemy, the Menavia of Orosius and Bede, and the Eu- 
 bonia of Nennius. The name is probably derived from the British word mon, 
 which means " isolated." 
 
 II. Mona (Mova), now the Isle of Anglesey, to the south of the former, and ly 
 ing off the territory of the Cangi, or modern Caernarvonshire, from which it is 
 separated by the Menai strait. It is the Mona of Tacitus, as the Isle of Man is 
 the Mona of Caesar. The modern name Anglesey (Angles 1 cy, i. e., English 
 man s Island), was given to it by the Saxons. This island had, in early times, 
 the names of Ynys-Dowell, " the shady or dark island," Ynys-Fon, "the farther 
 most island," and Ynys-y-Cederin, "the island of heroes." It was a great seat 
 of Druidical superstition. Suetonius Paulinus, the Roman commander, landed 
 here A.D. 61, in spite of the resistance of the natives, and the terrors which 
 the Druids sought to strike into the hearts of the invaders. He cut down the 
 sacred groves, and gave a blow to the Druidical superstition from which it 
 never recovered. The island was abandoned by the Romans for a time, in con 
 sequence of the great revolt under Boadicea, and again conquered by Agricola, 
 A.D. 76. 
 
 (C.) Islands in the Oceanus Occidentalis (or Atlantic Ocean). 
 
 Ebuda ( E6ovdai), now the Hebrides, or Western Islands of Scotland. Pliny 
 calls them Hebudes, and makes them thirty in number. They amount, howev 
 er, in fact, to the number of nearly two hundred, but more than one half of them 
 are so small or so sterile as not to be inhabited. 
 
 (D.) Islands in the Oceanus, Deucaledonius (or North Sea). 
 
 I. JEnwdcK, as Mela calls them, or Acmoda, as they are termed by Pliny, now 
 probably the Shetland Isles. Antiquaries have long disputed whether the an 
 cient Romans saw the Shetland Isles when they circumnavigated Britain, and 
 much learning has been advanced to connect the Thule of Tacitus, mentioned 
 in the life of Agricola, with Shetland. The prevailing opinion now is, that 
 Thule is a corruption of, or intended for Foula, one of the Shetland Isles, and 
 the only one of them which, from the altitude of its hills and its detached po 
 sition, can be seen from the seas immediately to the north of Orkney. Many, 
 however, seek to identify the Thule of Tacitus with Mainland, the largest of 
 the Shetland group. Thule was called ultima, " farthest," by the Roman writ 
 ers, on account of its remote situation, and its being regarded as the limit of 
 geographical knowledge in this quarter. 
 
 The Thule spoken of by Pytheas, the Greek navigator, must not be confound 
 ed with the Thule of Tacitus. The relation of Pytheas is singularly exaggera 
 ted in some of its particulars, as, for example, when he states that its climate 
 was neither earth, air, nor sea, but a chaotic confusion of these three elements. 
 From other parts of his narrative, however, many have been led to suppose that 
 his Thule was modern Iceland or Norway. Mannert declares himself in favor 
 of the former of these opinions, but D Anville opposes it. Ptolemy places the 
 middle of this Thule in 63 of north latitude, and says that, at the time of the 
 equinoxes, the days were twenty-four hours, which could not have been true, 
 however, at the equinoxes, but must have referred to the solstices, and therefore 
 this island is supposed to have been in 66 30 north latitude, that is, under the 
 
INSULJE BRITANNIC.E MINORES. 213 
 
 polar circle. The Thule of which Procopius speaks, D Anville makes to cor 
 respond to the modern canton of Tylemark in Norway. The details of Proco 
 pius, however, seem to agree rather with the accounts that have been given of 
 the state of ancient Lapland. 
 
 II. Orcddes ( Opuddec), now the Orkney Islands, to the north of the northeast 
 ern extremity of Scotland. They are supposed to have been first discovered by 
 the fleet of Germanicus, when driven in this direction by a storm. Agricola 
 afterward made the Romans better acquainted with their existence as islands, 
 separate from the main land of Britain, when he circumnavigated the northern 
 coast of that country. Mela, following the oldest accounts, makes the number 
 of these islands to be thirty, and this statement is received by subsequent writ 
 ers, with the exception of Pliny, who gives forty as the amount. Orosius, in a 
 later age, would seem to have had more recent information on this point, since 
 he makes twenty of the group to have been inhabited, the number inhabited at 
 the present day being twenty-seven. To the Orkney group belong Ptolemy s 
 two islands of Ocetis ("O/c^rtf ) or Scutis (2/cimf), now probably South Ronaldsha, 
 and Dumna (Aofytvo), now probably Hay. 
 
 (E.) Islands in the Oceanus Verginicus (or St. George s 
 Channel). 
 
 Cassiterides (KacaiTepiSes), or "Tin Islands," now the Scilly Isles, but under 
 the ancient name must also, for the reasons given below, be included the west 
 ern extremity of Cornwall. The Cassiterides were famous for their connection 
 with the tin trade of antiquity, which the Phoenicians monopolized for so long 
 a period, obtaining from this quarter their principal supplies of this metal. The 
 name of these islands is derived from the Greek Kaaairepoc, "tin." 
 
 OBS. 1. The Sanscrit name for tin is kastira, from k&sh, " to shine," " to be bright ;" and since 
 much tin is found in the islands on the coast of India, it is supposed that the Phoenicians first got 
 the name with the metal from this quarter, and subsequently applied it to the Scilly Isles and 
 Cornwall when they began to procure tin from this part of the world also. From the Phoeni 
 cian or Sanscrit term the Greeks formed their Kacoirtpos and KaaaiTtpidzg. 
 
 2. Diodorus Siculus distinguishes between the Cassiterides and Britain, and speaks of tin as 
 brought from both. Strabo also distinguishes between the Cassiterides and Britain. But it 
 seems probable that the western extremity of Cornwall must be included in the term Cassiteri 
 des, and that the chief supply of tin was derived from it, for there are no traces of workings in 
 the islands sufficient to countenance the opinion that much tin was ever obtained from thorn. 
 The inaccuracy of the ancient writers may perhaps be accounted for by the two different chan 
 nels by which the Cornish tin trade was carried on. One part of the metal was sent by sea to 
 Spain : this was probably the most ancient course of the trade opened by the Phoanicians and 
 their colonists in Spain and Africa. The merchants who carried it on knew of no other part of 
 Britain than the western, to which they gave, with the Scilly Isles, the general designation of 
 Cassiterides ; hence Strabo and Diodorus both describe these islands by their position relative to 
 Spain, instead of their situation with regard to the much nearer island of Britain, of the proximi 
 ty to, and, indeed, identity of which with the Cassiterides they appear to have had no idea. An 
 other part of the metal was conveyed over land by the Britons themselves, and thence, as Diodo 
 rus relates, to the opposite shore of Gaul, and on horses, overland, through Gaul to Massilia and 
 Narbo : this tin, though from the same district as the other, was reputed to come from a differ 
 ent quarter, namely, from Britain. If the island Ictis ("I/cm) of Diodorus, which was the empo 
 rium of the Gallic tin trade, and beyond which the merchants from Gaul do not seem to have 
 gone, was the same as the O^KTIS of Ptolemy, or the modern Isle of Wight (and of this there 
 ppearB to be little, if any doubt), the remoteness of this from the tin country, to which the mer 
 chants of Spain went, will account for the two classes of traders not having fallen in with each 
 other, and for their not having ascertained that their supposed different sources of supply were 
 really one and the same. 
 
 3. It has been supposed, and with much probability, that the Cassiterides are the same with 
 the Oestrymnides of Avienus. Dionysius Periegetes also speaks of them under the name of the 
 " Hesperides, where is the origin of tin," c E<nr/3t <5aj, rodi KaaciTtpoio yt.viQ\ri (v. 563). The con- 
 
214 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 quest of South Britain by the Romans must have led to the discovery of the proximity of fitr 
 Cassiterides to Britain, if not of their identity with it. But neither Ptolemy nor Pliny the elder 
 appears to have examined into the matter, for both describe the Cassiterides as being opposite 
 to Spain, and do not notice them in their account of Britain. We gather from Pliny that the 
 maritime or Hispano-Phoenician tin trade had ceased, for he speaks of the account of that metal 
 being sought in certain islands of the Atlantic, and brought in wicker boats covered with leather, 
 as a mere fable (H. N., xxxiv., 47). Indeed, he gives no intimation of any tin being found in 
 Britain, though he speaks of the lead that was obtained there. It is not unlikely that the confu 
 sion caused by the Roman conquests in Gaul, Spain, and Britain had, for the time at least, put 
 an end to both the working and sale of the metal. 
 
 4. From the time of the Romans, who used them occasionally as a place of banishment, there 
 is no notice of these islands in history until their conquest by Athelstan, king of England, who 
 expelled the Danes about A.D. 938. 
 
 Having now completed our sketch of the Ancient Geography of Spain, Gaul, 
 and Britain, we will take the Danube for a base-line, and will divide the countries 
 of Europe that remain to be considered into two great classes, namely, those 
 lying to the north of the Danube, and those to the south of the same stream. 
 
 I. COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE DANUBE, 
 
 THESE consist of the six following countries, proceeding from west to east, 
 namely, 
 
 1. GERMANIA MAGNA. 
 
 2. SCANDINAVIA. 
 
 3. LAND OF THE IAZYGES METANAST.E. 
 
 4. DACIA. 
 
 5. SARMATIA EUROP.SEA. 
 
 6. CHERSONESUS TAURICA. 
 
 I. GERMANIA MAGNA. 
 
 1. EXTENT AND BOUNDARIES. 
 
 I. THE name Germania was used in a twofold sense by the Roman writers^ 
 the first as indicating Germania Cisrhenana, or that part of Gaul lying immedi 
 ately south of the Lower Rhine, which was occupied by German tribes that had 
 crossed over, and the second as referring to Germania Transrhenana, or Ger 
 many Proper, called, also, Germania Magna, and of which we are now to treat. 
 
 II. Germania Magna (Teppavia rj fieyaX^ was bounded as follows : on the north 
 by the Mare Suevicum or Baltic Sea, on the west by the Oceanus Germanicus or 
 German Ocean and the River Rhine, on the south by the Rhine and the Danube, 
 especially the latter, and on the east partly by the Monies Sarmatici or Carpa 
 thian Mountains, and partly by the River Vistula. 
 
 III. To the north, therefore, Germania included the modern Denmark and the 
 neighboring islands. Its boundaries on the east, however, must be regarded as 
 merely nominal. How far, in fact, Germany extended toward the east is diffi 
 cult to determine, since, according to Strabo, Germanic tribes dwelt nearly as 
 far as the mouths of the Borysthenes or Dnieper. 
 
 2. NAME. 
 
 I. ACCORDING to the account given by Tacitus, the name Germani is the Latin 
 ized form of the appellation assumed by the Tungri, the first German tribe that 
 crossed the Rhine ; and they gave themselves this name, as is said, in order to 
 strike terror into their Gallic opponents. 
 
 II. Various etymologies have been given of the term in question, but the one 
 most commonly received derives the name from the old German word Werr, 
 "tear," and Mann, " a man," so that Germani will be the same as Werrmdnner, 
 that is, " war-men" or " warriors," the Roman alphabet, in consequence of its 
 not having any w, converting this letter of the German alphabet into a g. 
 
GERMANIAMAGNA. 215 
 
 OBS. The etymology just given is exceedingly doubtful. Von Hammer, the eminent German 
 Oriental scholar, makes his countrymen to have been originally a Bactriano-Median nation, and 
 the name Germani, or Sermani, in its primitive import, to have meant those who followed 
 the worship of Buddha ; and hence the Germans, according to him, are that ancient and primi 
 tive race who came down from the mountains of Upper Asia, and, spreading themselves over the 
 low country more to the south, gave origin to the Persian and other early nations. Hence the 
 name Dschcrmania, applied in early times to all that tract of country which lay to the north of 
 the Oxus. The land of Erman, therefore, which was situate beyond this river, and which cor 
 responds to the modern Chorasin. is made by Von Hammer the native home of the Germanic 
 race, and the Germans themselves are, as he informs us, called Dschcrmani, their primitive name, 
 by the Oriental writers, down to the fourteenth century ( Witn. Jakrb., vol. ii., p. 319). 
 
 3. EARLY AND LATER INHABITANTS. 
 
 I. MODERN inquiries, as just remarked, have traced the descent of the Ger 
 manic race from the inhabitants of Asia, since it is now indisputably established 
 that the Teutonic dialects belong to one great family with the Latin, the Greek, 
 the Sanscrit, and the other languages of the Indo-European chain. 
 
 II. The Greeks and Romans had very little knowledge of Germany before the 
 time of Julius Caesar, who met with several German tribes in Gaul, and crossed 
 the Rhine more than once, rather with the view of preventing their incursions 
 into Gaul than of making any permanent conquests. His acquaintance was, 
 however, limited to those tribes which dwelt on the banks of the Rhine. 
 
 III. Under the early Roman emperors many of these tribes were subdued, and 
 the country west of the Visurgis, now the Weser, was frequently traversed by 
 the Roman armies. But at no period had the Romans any accurate knowledge 
 of the country east of this river ; and it is therefore difficult to fix with certainty 
 the position of the Germanic tribes, particularly as the Germans were a nomad 
 people. 
 
 IV. Tacitus divides the Germans into three great tribes: 1. Ingavones, bor 
 dering on the ocean. 2. Herminones, inhabiting the central parts. 3. Ist&vones, 
 including all the others. Pliny makes five divisions : 1. Vindtii, including Bur- 
 gundioncs, Varlni, Carini, Guttones. 2. Ingavones, including Cimbri, Teutoni, 
 and Cauci. 3. Istavones, near the Rhine, including the midland Cimbri. 4. Her- 
 miones, inhabiting the central parts, including the Saevi, Hermunduri, Catti, and 
 Cherusci. 5. Peucini and Bastarna, bordering on tlie Dacians. 
 
 V. The following list gives the positions of the principal tribes, as far as these 
 can be ascertained. 
 
 1. TRIBES ON THE SEA-COAST. Between the Rhenus or Rhine, and the Ami- 
 sia or Ems, we find the Frisii. Between the Amisia and the Albis or Elbe, we 
 have the Cauci, divided into Cauci Majorcs and Cauci Minorca. East of the 
 Albis we have the Saxones and Angli. The peninsula of Jutland, in this quar 
 ter, was anciently called the Cimbrica Chersonesus, from an erroneous impres 
 sion that the Cimbri once dwelt there. The real country, however, of this race 
 lay probably on the northeast side of Germany, and they appear to have been, 
 not a German, but a Celtic race. 
 
 2. TRIBES ON THE RIGHT BANK OF THE RHINE. Between the Frisii and the 
 Luppia, now the Lippe, and bounded on the east by the Visurgis, now the Weser, 
 we have the Bructeri, Chamdvi, Marsi, Dulgibmi, and Usipii or Usipetes. Be 
 tween the Luppia and the Mccnus, now the Main, we have the Sigambri or 
 Sicambri, Tencteri, and Mattidci. South of the Mcenus \vere the Alemanni. 
 
 3. TRIBES ON THE LEFT, OR NORTHERN BANK OF THE DANUBE. Between the 
 Danube and the Erzgebirge and Riesengebirge we have the Hermunduri, Narisci, 
 Quddi, and Marcomanni, which last tribe dwelt in the districts previously inhab 
 ited by the Boii, but who had been driven out by them. 
 
216 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 4. TRIBES IN THE CENTRAL PARTS. The most powerful of these were the 
 Suevi, who occupied the greatest part of Germany, and were subdivided into 
 several tribes. They extended from the Erzgebirge and Riesengebirge as far 
 north as the Baltic, and included the Semnones, Langobardi, Aviones, Varini, 
 Eudoscs, Suardones, and Nuithones. To the southeast of the Cauci were the 
 Angrivarii, and to the south of these the Chcrusci and Chasudri, and to the south 
 of the Chasuari were the Catti. The Marsigni, Osi, Gothini, and Burii lay to 
 the east of the Catti, and are supposed to have inhabited part of Prussian Silesia. 
 The Burgundiones and Lygii dwelt on the banks of the Vistula, bounded on the 
 south by the Carpathian Mountains, and on the west by the Riesengebirge. 
 
 Ous. Our information concerning the geography of ancient Germany is very scanty and un 
 certain. The Greek and Roman writers, from whom our knowledge of it is derived, knew very 
 little about it themselves. A knowledge of the German Ocean and the northern parts of Europe 
 had been acquired first by the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, who procured tin from the Cassi- 
 terides or from Britain, and amber from the shores of the Baltic ; and in B.C. 400 by Himilco, 
 the Carthaginian, whose voyage has been described by the poet Avienus (Plin., H. N., ii., 67) ; 
 in B.C. 330, by Hecatajus and Philemon (Plin., H. N., iv., 13, or 27) ; and, about the same time, 
 by Ephorus and Clitarchus (Strab., vii., 2, 1, p. 293) ; by Tima?us, Xenophon of Lampsacus, So- 
 tachus, Nicias, Xenocrates, Mithradates, and especially Pytheas of Massilia, who, in the year B.C. 
 320, sailed to Thule, and thence into the Baltic. (Strab., i., 4 ; ii., 3, 4 ; iii., 2 ; iv., 4, 5. Plin., iv., 
 16, or 27, 30 ; xxxvii., 2, or 11.) The knowledge which the Romans possessed of Germany and 
 the western parts of Europe was derived principally from the expeditions of Caesar, Drusus 
 Germanicus, Germanicus, and Ahenobarbus. Drusus Germanicus, the brother of Tiberius, made 
 four expeditions into Germany, and dug the canal between the Rhine and the Isala (Yssef). 
 He was the first who navigated the German Ocean, but did not advance further than the mouth 
 of the Amisia (Ems), in the territory of the Cauci. Germanicus, the son of Drusus (A.D. 14-16), 
 made four expeditions into Germany, and advanced still further ; he was shipwrecked on the 
 territory of the Frisii (Ann., i., 49-52, 55-59, 60-71 ; ii., 5-2f, 41-46). L. Domitius Ahenobarbus 
 crossed the Elbe, and penetrated further into Germany than any of his predecessors. (Ann., 
 i., 63 ; iv., 44. Suet., Ner., iv.) Tiberius advanced to the Arctic Sea (Ann., ii., 26, 47 ; xii., 39. 
 Dio, Iv., 6, 8, 28 ; Ivi., 25. SMC*, Tib., 9, 17, 18, 20. Veil., ii., 97, 104-110, 120). This expedition 
 of Tiberius, however, Strabo (vii., 1, p. 291), ana Tacitus himself (c. 34), attribute to Drusus Ger- 
 manicus. On the south side of Germany the Romans made no conquests beyond the Danube ; 
 but they obtained some geographical knowledge through the journeys of the traders who pro 
 cured amber from the shores of the Baltic, and from their wars with the Daci, Marcomanni, and 
 other tribes on this frontier. Strabo wrote in the age of Tiberius, when the Romans possessed 
 a more accurate knowledge of Germany than at any other time, through the expeditions of 
 which we have just spoken. After this period the Romans were almost entirely shut out of Ger 
 many. Strabo, however, is exceedingly careless. He did not read even Caesar s Gallic war 
 with sufficient attention to understand it, and confuses almost every thing which he extracts from 
 the accounts brought home by Pytheas. Our difficulties are, moreover, increased by the inac 
 curacy of the text. Pomponius Mela is worth nothing. Pliny, likewise, was very careless, aa 
 we see, even in what he says of Italy ; we can not, therefore, look for much accuracy in his ac 
 count of Germany. His work is principally valuable for the proper names. The imperfect char 
 acter of the geographical knowledge which Tacitus possessed of Germany is manifest from his 
 work upon the subject. Ptolemy has ventured to give a map of Germany, and to lay down the 
 latitudes and longitudes of a number of towns and mouths of rivers. The greater part of these 
 he never visited himself; and who, in that age, could have furnished him with the requisite in 
 formation? Indeed, his map bears but a faint resemblance to the actual shape and features of 
 Germany ; and, in the majority of instances, it can with difficulty be determined whether the 
 towns he mentioned existed at all. There is this additional disadvantage in his book, that he 
 defines positions by numbers, which, of all things, are the most liable to alteration through the 
 mistakes of the transcribers. One of the most valuable geographical monuments of antiquity, 
 Antoninus s Itinerary, compiled under the direction of J. Caesar and Antony or Augustus, is avail 
 able only for a few roads on the frontier. The Peutingerian Table is frequently of use in mak 
 ing maps, since, though the countries are excessively distorted, the distances between the towns 
 laid down on it are given ; but it is of scarcely any service in the case of Germany. Inscriptions 
 and coins, again, which afford some of the best means of defining the situations of places, are of 
 rare occurrence in Germany. But, in addition to all these difficulties and disadvantages, the wan 
 dering and unsettled character of the Germans themselves renders it totally impossible to lay 
 down a map which should represent the relative positions of the tribes at any one period, or for 
 
GERMANIA]\IAGNA. 217 
 
 any length of time, though we can generally determine the position which individual tribes oc 
 cupied at some time or other. This is seen from the wide discrepancies between Tacitus and 
 his contemporaries, and Ptolemy, and from such glimpses as history affords us of the migrations 
 of several of the tribes. 
 
 4. HISTORICAL EPOCHS. 
 
 I. THE Teutonic or German race come in from the east, and drive the Celtae, 
 who had preceded them, farther toward the west. 
 
 II. The Romans first become acquainted with them in B.C. 113, when, in 
 conjunction with the Cimbri, and under the general name of Teutones, they ap 
 pear on the confines of the Roman dominion, and defeat the consul Papirius 
 Carbo. After this they make successive attacks on the frontiers, but are re 
 pelled by Marius, who defeats them in conjunction with the Ambrones, a Gal 
 lic tribe, at Agues Sextia, now Aix, in Southern Gaul, B.C. 102. 
 
 III. Julius Caesar, having, at a subsequent period, subjugated Gallia, and pen 
 etrated to the Rhine, becomes acquainted with a nation then designated by the 
 name of Germans. Ariovistus, a leader belonging to this nation, attempts to 
 establish himself in Gaul, but is defeated by Caesar, and compelled to flee be 
 yond the Rhine. 
 
 IV. Caesar twice crosses the Rhine in order to secure Gaul from the inroads 
 of the Germans. He takes some of the latter into his army, and employs them 
 against the Gauls, and afterward against Pompey. He himself is only acquaint 
 ed with the tribes of the Ubii, Sigambri, Usipetes, and Tencteri. He is told that 
 the remaining part of Germany is inhabited by the Suevi, who possess a hund 
 red districts, every one of which yearly sends out one thousand men on preda 
 tory expeditions. 
 
 V. The civil wars which divide the Romans withdraw their attention for 
 some time from Germany, and the Sigambri ravage Gaul with impunity. After 
 they have defeated Lollius, the lieutenant of Augustus (B.C. 15), that emperor 
 himself hastens to the defence of Gaul, and, in order to oppose the inroads of 
 the Germans, he erects several fortresses on the Rhine, and gives his step-son 
 Drusus the command of the forces stationed on the banks of that river. 
 
 VI. Drusus makes several successful expeditions against the Germanic na 
 tions, and penetrates as far as the Elbe. On his death (B.C. 9), his brother 
 Tiberius commands for two years the legions stationed on the Rhine, employ 
 ing, however, policy rather than force against the Germans. He engages many 
 of them to enter the Roman service, and being again intrusted (A.D. 4) with 
 the same command, he penetrates as far as the banks of the Elbe. 
 
 VII. Germany now bids fair to become a Roman province, but the impru 
 dence of Quintilius Varus, the successor of Tiberius, destroys all the advant 
 ages already gained. The violent measures which he adopts to change the 
 manners and institutions of the Germans, cause a general conspiracy against 
 the foreign invaders. Arminius, who has been educated at Rome, and has 
 served in the Roman armies, is at the head of this conspiracy. The legions of 
 Varus are attacked by the Germans in the forest of Teutoberg (A.D. 9), and en 
 tirely destroyed. 
 
 VIII. This defeat of the Romans is followed by the loss of all their conquests 
 beyond the Rhine, and the Germanic nation of the Cherusci, among whom Ar 
 minius was born, become the most powerful people in Germany. Four years 
 after this time, Germanicus restores for a period the fortunes of the Roman 
 arms, but without regaining the former acquisitions. 
 
 IX. From this period the Romans seem to have abandoned the idea of ex 
 tending their conquests in this direction, and to have contented themselves 
 
218 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 with repelling the inroads which the Germans occasionally make on their fron 
 tiers. The Germans are also prevented from making any serious attempts 
 against the Romans by the internal wars which distract them for many years. 
 They again attack the Roman empire under Domitian, Nerva, and Trajan, the 
 last of whom entirely defeats them. 
 
 X. From this time the attacks of the Germans on the Roman empire become 
 more frequent and more formidable, and their history now becomes blended 
 with that of the decline of the Roman empire, on the ruins of which they es 
 tablished several new states. These will be alluded to in the accounts given 
 of individual tribes. 
 
 5. MOUNTAINS. 
 
 THE principal mountain chains in Germany mentioned by the ancient writers 
 are seven in number, namely, 
 
 1. Abnoba Mons, 3. Taunus Mons, 5. Melibocus Mons, 
 
 2. Alba Mons, or Alpes, 4. Rhetico Mons, 6. Asciburgius Mons, 
 
 7. Sudeti Mantes. 
 
 I. Abnoba Mons, a name given to that part of the Black Forest where the 
 Danube commences its course, and which lies opposite the city of Augst, the 
 ancient Augusta Rauracorum. Ptolemy incorrectly makes it extend from the 
 Moenus, now the Main, to the sources of the Amisia, now the Ems. Tacitus 
 and Pliny give its true position. Strabo and Mela make no mention of it. 
 
 II. Alba Mons, called also Alpes, a mountain range, now the Rauhe Alp, and 
 extending from the sources of the Danube, along its northern bank, as far as 
 the mouth of the Licus, now Lech. It separates the waters that flow into the 
 Neckar, the ancient Nicer, from those that run into the Danube. 
 
 III. Taunus Mons, a mountain range to the northwest of Frankfort, and ex 
 tending between Wiesbaden and Hamburg. It is now called the Hohe, or the 
 Heyrich. The Taunus range sinks with a steep descent toward the Main and 
 Rhine, but gradually toward the Lahn on the north. 
 
 IV. Rhetico Mons, a mountain range now called the Rothhaargebirge, stretch 
 ing off from the Siebengebirge, near Bonn, but on the opposite side of the Rhine, 
 and extending to the sources of the Eder, the Lahn, and the Ruhr. Mela says 
 (iii., 3), " Montium altissimi Taunus et Rhetico." 
 
 V. Melibocus Mons (TO MnMdoxov opoc, as Ptolemy calls it), the range of the 
 Hartz Mountains, in the most extensive sense of the appellation ; not, as some 
 think, the Bracken merely. 
 
 VI. Asciburgius Mons, the modern Riesengcbirge, between the Elbe and the 
 Oder. Ptolemy places this range too far to the north. 
 
 VII. Sudeti Montes, now the Fichtelberg, the Erzgebirge, together with the 
 Thuringcr Wald and the Lausitzer Gebirge. Ptolemy calls them rd LovdrjTa opy. 
 
 6. FORESTS. 
 
 I. WHEN the Romans became acquainted with the interior of Germany, they 
 found a large portion of it covered with primitive forests. These were either 
 comprehended under one general name, as Hercynia Silva, Hercynius Saltus, 
 Hercynium Jugum, or received special appellations, as Bacenis Silva, Gabreta 
 Silva, &c. 
 
 II. Hercynia Silva. This was the general name of the large mountain chain 
 which separates the interior of Germany from the tracts adjacent to the Dan 
 ube, commencing with the Schwartzwald, or Black Forest, running northward 
 till it crosses the Main, then eastward, comprising what are now called the 
 
GERMANIAMAGNA. 219 
 
 Spessart Wald and Franken Wald, through Bohemia and the north of Hungary. 
 The ancient writers, however, do not all agree in their description of it. Ptol 
 emy assigns much narrower limits to the name than Caesar does, and applies 
 it to the ridge between the Gabretan Forest and the Sarmatian Mountains which 
 unite the Carpathian and Sudetan Mountains. Caesar s account was derived 
 from report. At a later period, the Romans, in their wars with Maroboduus, 
 whose possessions lay along the Bdhmcr Wald Mountains, became personally 
 acquainted with it. Different names, as already remarked, were afterward 
 given to different parts. Thus, 
 
 II. Bacenis Silva was that part of the Hercynian Forest which lay between 
 the Cherusci and Catti, extending from the northern bank of the Main, or the 
 western part of the Thuringerwald, as far as the Fulda Wald. 
 
 III. Marcia.no, Silva was the Schwartzwald or Black Forest. This name be 
 came known to the Romans in their war with the Alemanni. The Helvetii 
 had dwelt here in early times, but were expelled by the wandering Suevi. 
 
 IV. Gabreta Silva was a part of the eastern Thuringerwald, lying to the south 
 of the Sudeti Monies. 
 
 V. Saltus Teutobergiensis, in the bishopric of Paderborn, between the Lippe 
 and the Ems. Memorable as the scene of the overthrow of Varus. 
 
 VI. Ccesia Silva, now Hdserwald, between the Lippe and the Yssel. 
 
 VII. Lucus Semnonum, now the Sonnewald and Finsterwald, between the El- 
 ster and the Spree. This was a sacred forest, in which human sacrifices were 
 accustomed to be offered, and where general assemblies used to be held of del 
 egates from all the Suevic tribes. 
 
 VIII. Lunce Silva, on each side of the River Mams, now March. It answers 
 now to Manhartsberg, a name which is the same as Mond- Wallbcrg, the word 
 man signifying " moon" (mond) in early German. 
 
 7. CHIEF RIVERS. 
 
 I. Danubius (&avov6co(;), the Danube, called by the Germans the Donau. 
 Strabo and Pliny make it rise in the chain of Mount Abnoba, a part of the Black 
 Forest. According to modern accounts, it originates on the eastern declivity 
 of the Black Forest, about twenty-four miles from the banks of the Rhine. It 
 falls into the Black Sea, the ancient Pontus Euxinus, after a course of about one 
 thousand seven hundred and seventy miles, and it receives sixty navigable 
 rivers, the largest of which is the CEnus, now the Inn, and one hundred and 
 twenty smaller streams. The Danube was known to the early Greek writers 
 under the name of "lo-poc. (Istros), which the Romans changed to Ister, and 
 which appears to have been the genuine name of this river after it had received 
 the Sarus, now the Save. The Romans, on the other hand, learned the name 
 Danubius from the natives on the upper part of the stream, with whom they 
 were brought into contact by commerce and by conquest. Herodotus, in his 
 fourth book (chap. 48, &c.), has transmitted to us all that was known in his 
 time of the Danube and its tributaries in the middle and lower part of its course. 
 
 II. Rhenus ( Prjvoc.), the Rhine, rising, according to Strabo and Ptolemy, in 
 Mons Adula, a name given to a collection of summits answering at the present 
 day to a part of the Lepontine Alps. The sources of the Rhine are in this part 
 of the Alps, a little to the east of Mount St. Gothard, in the country of the Ori 
 sons. Its whole course is about nine hundred miles, of which six hundred and 
 thirty are navigable from Bale, the ancient Basilia, to the sea. The Romans 
 first became acquainted with the Rhine by the conquests of Caesar in Gaul, 
 who crossed it twice against the Germans. He knew, however, nothing of the 
 
220 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 northern or southern part of the river except from report, and appears never to 
 have gone himself farther north than the Scaldis, the modern Scheldt, though 
 his cavalry, on one occasion, reached the country where the Rhine and the 
 Mosa meet. The campaigns of Drusus and Tiberius in Raetia and the north 
 western parts of Germany gave the Romans a more accurate knowledge of the 
 course of this river. Ancient writers differ respecting the number of mouths 
 by which the Rhine fell into the ocean. Caesar says that there are several, but 
 most other writers speak only of two or three. According to Tacitus, who 
 makes the number to be two, the western was called Vahalis till its union with 
 the Mosa, when it took the name of the latter river, while the eastern, which 
 formed the boundary between Gaul and Germany, preserved the name of Rhe- 
 nus. Pliny, Ptolemy, and other writers say that the Rhine fell into the sea by 
 three mouths, of which the eastern, according to Pliny, was called Flevum, and 
 the western, formed by the union with the Mosa, Helium ; while the middle 
 one, which was only a stream of moderate size, retained the name of Rhenus. 
 The channel called Flevum is supposed to have been formed by the canal which 
 Drusus dug to connect the Rhine with the Isala, and by means of which he and 
 Germanicus sailed to the ocean. The Isala, increased by the w T aters of the 
 Rhine, flowed northward into a great lake called Flevo, on issuing from which 
 it became a river again, and fell into the ocean after forming an island of the 
 same name. In course of time the sea made great inroads upon the land round 
 the mouth of the River Isala, till at length it submerged that part of the coun 
 try, and became united with the Lake Flevo, thus forming the modern Zuider 
 Zee, or " Southern Sea." 
 
 At the present day the Rhine divides into two arms near the village of Pan- 
 nerden, which is within the territories of Holland ; of these arms the southern 
 is called the Waal, the ancient Vahalis, while the northern preserves the name 
 jf Rhine. Nearly two thirds of the volume of water run into the Waal. The 
 Waal runs westward, and the Rhine northwest. The Rhine divides again twelve 
 miles lower down, above Arnheim, into the Yssel, the ancient Isala, which runs 
 to the north, and the Rhine, which runs off to the west. The Yssel falls into 
 the Zuider Zee. The Rhine, on the other hand, running westward, divides for 
 the third time about thirty miles lower down, at Wyck, by Duurstede. The 
 southern arm is called the Leek, and the northern goes by the name of Kromme 
 Rhyn, " Crooked Rhine." The Leek is the larger river. The Crooked Rhine 
 runs northwest to Utrecht, the ancient Trajectus Rheni, where it divides for the 
 fourth and last time. The arm which runs northward is called the Vccht, the 
 ancient Vidrus, and falls into the Zuider Zee ; the other, whose name is changed 
 into that of Oulde Rhyn, " Old Rhine," continues westward through the marshes 
 of Holland, where the waters are used for feeding numerous canals. It passes 
 through Leyden, the ancient Lugdunum Batavorum, and formerly did not reach 
 the sea, being prevented by some sandy dunes which line the shores of this part 
 of Holland ; but in 1807 a canal was made through them, and the river now dis 
 charges a small quantity of water into the sea at Katwyck, northwest of Leyden. 
 The Leek, or middle branch of the Rhine, was originally also a canal, made by 
 the Roman general Corbulo ; and it existed as such to A.D. 829, when the bed 
 was greatly enlarged by an inundation, and thus it became the principal river, 
 while the true Rhine was reduced to insignificance. It runs from Wyck, by 
 Duurstede, westward for about fifty miles, when it is joined from the south by 
 a branch of the Maas or Meuse, the ancient Mosa, called the Merwe or Merwcde. 
 On approaching the sea, another arm of the Maas, called the Oulde Maas, " Old 
 Maas," joins it, and from this point to its mouth the wide sestuary of the river 
 is called the Maas. 
 
GERMANIAJMAGNA. 
 
 III. Unsingis, now the Unse, passing by the modern Groningen, and falling 
 into the German Ocean. At its mouth was Ptolemy s Mavappavlc hifiyv, which 
 still retains the name of Mama. 
 
 IV. Amisia, now the Ems, rose in the Saltus Teutoburgiensis, and emptied 
 into the German Ocean. Strabo calls it the Apaaia, and Ptolemy the Afidatoe. 
 Mela gives it the name of Amisius. On this river Drusus defeated the Bructeri 
 in a naval encounter. 
 
 V. Visurgis, now the Weser. This river is formed by the junction of the 
 Werra and the Fulda, and their united streams take the name of Weser, which 
 is supposed to be only a corruption of the original name of the Werra ( Wisaraha. 
 Wesara, Wirraha). The Weser is known in Roman history by the expeditions 
 of Drusus and Germanicus against the Cherusci and their confederates. Ptol 
 emy calls it Oviaovpyie, and Strabo Bicovpyte. 
 
 VI. Albis, now the Elbe, rising in the Riesengebirge chain, or Giant Mountains 
 of Bohemia. This was the easternmost stream of Germany with which the 
 Romans were acquainted, and they knew it, moreover, only in the northern part 
 of its course. The first Roman commander who reached it in a military expe 
 dition was Drusus, B.C. 9. The only Roman, however, who crossed it with an 
 army was L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, B.C. 3. The last Roman general in this 
 quarter was Tiberius, A.D. 5. The name of this river is said to be derived from 
 the old northern term elf or elf a, which in the early German became Alba or 
 Elba, and means " a river." 
 
 VII. Viadrus, now the Oder. Ptolemy writes the name Oviadoc (Viadus), 
 but the more correct form, it is thought, would have been OviaSpoc, Viadrus, 
 as we have here given it. According to the same ancient writer, the river was 
 called Qviatioc only at its mouth, and received, in the interior of the country, the 
 appellation of ladova. Reichard makes the Viadus coincide with the modern 
 Wipper, and the ladua with the Thue. An argument in favor of identifying the 
 Viadrus with the Oder, and also tending to confirm the orthography which we 
 have adopted, may be obtained from the Old Wendo-Slavonic name of the Oder, 
 Wiadro. 
 
 VIII. Vistula, now called by the Germans the Weichsel, by the Poles the Wisla, 
 by English writers the Vistula. It rises at the foot of the Carpathian Mountains. 
 Ptolemy calls it OviaTovhac. Ammianus Marcellinus styles it the Bisla, which, 
 giving the initial letter a vowel sound, will agree with the Polish name. On 
 the right bank of the Vistula the amber region began, along the shore of the 
 Mare Suevicum or Baltic Sea. 
 
 8. TRIBUTARY STREAMS. 
 
 (A.) Tributaries to the Danube, on its left bank, in Germania 
 
 Magna. 
 
 1 . The Alemannus or Alemo, now the Altmuhl. The course of this river shows 
 frequent traces of Roman military lines, which sometimes intersect its bed. 
 In the Middle Ages it was called the Almona. Charlemagne endeavored to ef 
 fect a continuous navigation between the Rhine and Danube by uniting the 
 waters of the Alemannus with those of the Radantia, now the Rednitz. 2. The 
 Nablis, called, also, the Bac ; now, according to Reichard, the Naabe. 3. The 
 Reganum. now the Regen. 4. The Cusus, now the Waag. 5. The Marus, called, 
 also, the Morus, now the March. This stream became well known to the Ro 
 mans in their war with Maroboduus, king of the Marcomanni. 6. The Granua, 
 now the Gran, in the land of the Quadi. 
 
222 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 (B.) Tributaries to the Rhine, on its right bank, in Germania 
 
 Magna. 
 
 1. The Nicer or Niger, now the Neckar. 2. The Moenus or Manus, now the 
 Main. 3. The Logana or Lohana, now the Lahn. 4. The Signm, called, also, 
 Sega or Segaha, now the zeg-. This river, like the one immediately preceding, 
 is only mentioned in the Middle Ages. 5. The Luppia, now the Lippe ; called 
 by Ptolemy the Kovniag . 6. The Ellson ( Ehiauv), now the Alme. On this river 
 stood the Roman castellum called Aliso, where the modern Elsen is now situa 
 ted, and which was the key to the passes of the Saltus Teutoburgiensis. 7. Sala 
 Bructerorum, called, also, the Isala, now the Yssel, of which mention has already 
 been made in the account given of the Rhine. 
 
 9. LAKES. 
 
 I. Estia Lacus, mentioned by Mela, and, according to the best authorities, an 
 swering now to the Dammersee in the kingdom of Hanover. 
 
 II. Flevo Lacus, in the country of the Frisii, from the union of which with the 
 waters of the ocean, by an irruption of the latter, arose the present Zuider Zee. 
 This has already been alluded to in the account of the Rhine. 
 
 III. Lacus Brigantinus, now the Lake of Constance ; called, also, the Bodensee, 
 from the ancient castle of Bodmann, and likewise the Lake of Costnitz. Its 
 ancient name Brigantinus is given to it from the Brigantii, who dwelt on its 
 shores. Mela calls it Lacus Venelus, or rather gives this name to that part of 
 the lake from Constanz to Radolfzell, now called the Unterzellersee, or Lower 
 Lake. Tiberius built a fleet on this lake in order to attack the Vindelici. Pliny 
 expressly assigns it to Raetia ; others reckon it part of Vindelicia. As the 
 Rhine passes through it, we have preferred making mention of it under the head 
 of Germany. 
 
 10. SOIL AND CLIMATE. 
 
 I. THE Roman writers draw very unfavorable pictures generally of the soil 
 and climate of ancient Germany. Mela, for example, describes the surface of the 
 country as cut up by a multitude of rivers, made rugged by numerous mountain 
 chains, and in a great measure impracticable for travellers by reason of the for 
 ests and marshes that covered it. Tacitus also speaks of it as rough with for 
 ests or deformed by fens. He admits, indeed, that it was productive for grain, 
 and kindly to fruit-trees, and that it also abounded in cattle ; but he makes these 
 last to have been, for the most part, diminutive in size. 
 
 II. Tacitus, however, does not appear to have known much of the interior of 
 Germany, although it is true that numerous forests were scattered over the 
 country. The marshes, moreover, of which he speaks, refer principally to the 
 country of East Friesland, the coast of the German Ocean, at the mouth of the 
 Ems and Weser, and to some parts of Westphalia and Lower Saxony. It would 
 seem, from other accounts, that Germany was by no means an unproductive 
 country. Caesar, for example, speaks of the fertility of the country around the 
 Hercynian Forest ; Commodus laid the Marcomanni under a tribute of corn ; 
 the cultivation of oats is mentioned by Pliny, and even Tacitus himself speaks 
 elsewhere of barley, out of which a fermented liquor was made. 
 
 Ilf. As regards the animals of the country, especially the cattle, Tacitus wishes 
 to convey the idea that they are stunted by the severity of the climate. This, 
 however, is an error Some of the quadrupeds of ancient Germany the urus 
 
GERMANIAMAGNA. 223 
 
 / 
 
 (auerochs), for example were remarkable for their size. The smallness of the 
 cattle must have been, owing rather to want of care in feeding them, in protect 
 ing them from the ordinary inclemencies of winter, and in improving the breed 
 by mixtures. 
 
 11. CHARACTER OF THE INHABITANTS. 
 
 I. OUR principal information on this subject is derived from Tacitus, who wrote 
 a separate treatise on the manners and customs of the Xjerman tribes. Occa 
 sional notices and scattered hints are also found in the works of other ancient 
 authors, particularly in the Gallic Commentaries of Caesar. 
 
 II. The Germans are described as tall and robust of frame, with light blue 
 eyes and deep yellow hair ; as inured to cold and hunger, but not to heat and 
 thirst ; as warlike, yet friendly and hospitable, even to utter strangers ; as 
 scorning every restraint, considering independence as the most valuable of pos 
 sessions, and therefore ready to give up life rather than freedom. 
 
 III. Unacquainted with the arts of civilized life, the German, when not engaged 
 in warfare, lived amid his forests and pastures, supported by the chase, and the 
 produce of his flocks and herds, or by the culture of the ground, though this last 
 occupied comparatively little of his attention. The warrior, however, during 
 these same seasons of peace, led a life of total inaction, given up to sleep, to 
 the pleasures of the table, and to gaming. A beverage prepared with little art 
 from barley or wheat indemnified them for the absence of the juice of the grape, 
 while they carried their love of gaming to such an extent as even to stake on 
 the final throw, when every thing else was lost, their personal freedom itself. 
 
 IV. The form of government in most of the German states was the demo 
 cratic. The public assemblies, consisting of all able to bear arms and belong 
 ing to the same tribe, were summoned either at fixed periods or on sudden 
 emergencies. The free vote of the members of these councils decided on pub 
 lic offences, the election of magistrates, on war or peace ; for, though the lead 
 ers were allowed to discuss all subjects previously, yet the right of deciding 
 was vested solely in the people at large. In some of the communities, partic 
 ularly those dwelling more to the north, a monarchical form of government pre 
 vailed ; but even here checks were imposed upon the power of the monarch, and 
 democratic features were visible. 
 
 V. In times of danger or war a leader was chosen, and the most valiant was 
 selected for this purpose ; but even then they led their countrymen more by their 
 example than by any authority. As soon as the danger or war was over, his 
 authority ceased. In times of peace, no other superiors were known than the 
 chieftains, who were chosen in the assemblies to distribute justice, or to com 
 pose differences in their respective districts. Each of these chieftains was at 
 tended by one hundred companions, who acted both as a council of advice and 
 a means of enforcing authority. 
 
 VI. To leaders of approved valor the noblest youths voluntarily devoted them 
 selves, and as the former vied with each other in assembling around them the 
 bravest companions, so the latter contended by their zeal and prowess for the 
 favor of their leaders. It was the duty of the leader to be foremost in the hour 
 of danger, and the duty of each companion not to be inferior in prowess and 
 daring to his chief. To survive the fall of their leader was an indelible dis 
 grace to the companions, for it was their most sacred duty to defend his person, 
 and to heighten his glory by their own achievements. The leader fought for 
 victory, his companions for their leader. 
 
 VII. The primitive nations of Germany attached something of a sacred and 
 
224 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 prescient character to the female sex. Hence the importance which they at 
 tached to their counsels and responses, and hence, too, the reverence with which 
 they regarded certain females of their nation, who were supposed to be gifted 
 with prophetic powers. Polygamy was only permitted to the chieftains as a 
 means of extending their family connections and influence. Adultery was con 
 sidered an inexpiable crime, and was, therefore, of very rare occurrence. The 
 punishment of the offence, when committed, was given over into the hands of 
 the husband. 
 
 VIII. The religious notions of the race were necessarily rude and imperfect, 
 but still bore manifest traces of an Oriental origin. Their chief deity was Odin, 
 the Budha of the East, but whom the Romans assimilated to their own Mercury, 
 and on stated occasions they sought to propitiate him even by human sacrifices. 
 The god of battles, Thor, the Roman Mars, was also, as might be expected, an 
 object of peculiar adoration. Some of the Suevic tribes also paid adoration to 
 the moon, or, as Tacitus miscalls it, the goddess Isis. Their temples were 
 groves and forests, rendered sacred by the veneration of many generations, and 
 in the dark recesses of these were preserved their sacred standards. Among 
 the nations bordering on the Baltic Sea, the goddess Hertha (Earth) was partic 
 ularly worshipped. Her temple was a sacred grove in the Isle of Rugcn, and 
 her rites strongly remind us of those of Cybele among the Romans, Phrygians, 
 and other nations of the ancient world, as well as those of Baghawadi among 
 the Brahmins of India. 
 
 12. GERMAN TRIBES MORE IN DETAIL. 
 
 1. TRIBES ON THE SEA-COAST. 
 
 (A.) Tribe between the Rhine and Ems. 
 
 FRISII. The Frisii were divided into the Frisii Majorca and Frisii Minores. 
 The Frisii Minores inhabited the tract north of the Insula Batavorum, comprising 
 Oberyssel, Gelders, Utrecht, and the greater part of the province of Holland. 
 The Frisii Ma j ores dwelt between the Yssel, the Ems, and the country of the 
 Bructeri, in West Friesland and Groningen. The Frisidbones, mentioned by 
 Pliny, probably formed part of the same race, and seem to have dwelt in the 
 islands of the Zuider Zee. From their first acquaintance with the Romans, the 
 Frisii long continued their most zealous friends in this part : they rendered Dru- 
 sus the most active service, and not only supported Germanicus themselves by 
 their advice and immediate aid, but brought over the Cauci also. The cause 
 of this friendship is probably to be found in the hostility which existed between 
 them and the Cherusci, against whom all these enterprises of the Romans were 
 directed. It was interrupted, however, in consequence of the Romans building 
 forts in their territory, and attempting to levy tribute. They rose upon the Ro 
 mans, massacred the soldiers who were among them, and destroyed most of 
 their strongholds. Corbulo, the Roman general, proceeded against them, but 
 the jealousy of Claudius Caesar stopped his conquests, and he was obliged to 
 withdraw to the left bank of the Rhine. From this time forward the Romans no 
 more entered their country. In the fourth and fifth centuries we hear of them 
 as members of the Saxon league ; and by this time they had greatly extended 
 their possessions. On the east they reached to the Wescr, and along the coast 
 they held some posts as far as the Elbe ; on the west their name appears more 
 than once in the Batavian Islands, on the Meuse and Scheldt, and on the whole 
 coast of Flanders. They accompanied the Saxons in their invasion and con 
 quest of Britain. Their descendants, who still retain their name of Frisians, are 
 settled among the small islands on the western coast of the Duchy of Schlcsicig. 
 
GERMANIA]\IAGNA. 225 
 
 The following geographical positions may be mentioned among the Frisii; 
 
 1. Burckdna, called by Strabo Bovpxavie, an island answering to the modern 
 Borfcum. Pliny calls it Fabaria, from a species of wild bean growing there. 
 
 2. Austeravia, now the island of Ameland. It was also called Glessaria, from 
 the amber found here by the Roman soldiers. 3. Corbulonis Monumentum. The 
 fortress erected by Corbulo to keep the Frisii under proper restraint. It gave 
 rise subsequently to the modern city of Grdningen. 4. Cruptorlcis Villa, now 
 Hem Ryk, in Oysterlande. It was here that four hundred Roman soldiers slew 
 themselves to prevent their falling into the hands of the Frisii. 
 
 (B.) Tribe between the Ems and the Elbe. 
 
 CAUCI. This tribe dwelt along the ocean, from the Amisia, now Ems, to the 
 Albis, now Elbe, and reached southward somewhat below what is now Ostfries- 
 land, Oldcnberg, and Bremen, although along the Weser these boundaries often 
 changed. Pliny and Ptolemy divide them into the Greater and the Less, and 
 though Tacitus does not make this distinction in his " Germany," he alludes to 
 it in his Annals. According to Ptolemy, the Cauci Majorcs dwelt between the 
 Visurgis and Albis, and the Cauci Minores between the Amisia and Visurgis. 
 Tacitus says that their country was extensive and thickly settled, and that 
 they were a people distinguished among the Germans for their love of justice and 
 peace ; powerful and yet unambitious, they did not provoke war, and yet were 
 always ready to resist aggression. They were at one time friends to Rome, 
 and furnished auxiliaries to Germanicus in the war against the Cherusci. But 
 here again the Romans roused the enmity of their allies by pursuing the same 
 policy as in the case of the Frisii. Under Gannascus they crossed the Rhine, 
 and made incursions into the Roman province of Germania Inferior, but were 
 repulsed by Corbulo, and Gannascus was slain. They afterward joined in the 
 revolt of the Batavian chief Civilis. Ptolemy mentions, as their towns, 1. Pha- 
 birdnum, now Brema or Varel. 2. Lcvphdna, now Luneberg, according to some. 
 
 3. Tulipkurdum, now Verden or Ddhlbcrgcn. 4. Siatutanda, now Utende. 5. Teu- 
 dcrium, now Dcteern. Their name is still preserved in that of their harbor, 
 Cuxhaven. 
 
 (C.) Tribes immediately East of the Elbe. 
 
 I. ANGLI. We find the earliest record of this tribe in Tacitus. But this au 
 thor only mentions their name, states a few particulars relative to their re 
 ligion, and intimates that they were a branch of the Suevi. He appears to have 
 known very little about them. They are not mentioned in the expeditions of 
 Drusus and Tiberius, and therefore probably at that time were on the east of 
 the Elbe. Ptolemy places them on the west, in what is now Magdeburg. D 1 An- 
 ville has in his map assigned them the same district which they occupied in the 
 fifth century, before their emigration to England, and parts of which the modern 
 Angles still occupy. He allots to them the greatest portion of modern Schlcswig 
 and some part of Holstein, making the German Ocean their western boundary, 
 the Saxons their nearest neighbors on the south, the Varini on the southeast, 
 and the Jutes on the north. About the middle of the fifth century (449), a large 
 body of Saxons and Angles, led by Hengist and Horsa, sailed over to England, 
 and established permanent settlements in the island. The Angles, however, 
 seein to have prevailed in numbers or influence, for it was they that gave the 
 name to their new country, Angel-land, Anglia, though it was sometimes called 
 Saxonia Transmarina. The name Anglo-Saxons, which comprises both Angles 
 and Saxons, was invented by later historians for the sake of convenience. 
 
 P 
 
226 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 II. SAXONES. The earliest writers who mention the Saxons describe them 
 as neighbors of the Danes, south of the Cimbric Chersonese. Ptolemy also 
 speaks of the islands of the Saxons, which were probably the modern islands of 
 Eidcrstcdt, Nordstrand, Wicking Harde, and Buking Hardc. Orosius says that 
 they inhabited a marshy country, which was almost inaccessible to strangers. 
 Toward the southwest they seem not at first to have extended beyond the Elbe. 
 The similarity of their language to that of the Persians and ancient Indians af 
 fords reason for believing that the Saxons were of Eastern origin, and hence 
 some have derived their name from that of the Sacaj on the Indus. Others, 
 however, trace it to the word " sassen," that is, "settled," in contradistinction 
 from those German tribes who led a sort of nomadic life. When, during the 
 migration of the barbarians, the neighboring tribes changed their countries and 
 migrated toward the south, the Saxons likewise began to extend in the same 
 direction, and at last we find them occupying the country between the Elbe, the 
 Rhine, the Lippe, and the German Ocean. This extensive tract of land is called 
 by Anglo-Saxon writers " Old Saxony," to distinguish it from " New Saxony or 
 England. In the third century the Saxons often landed on the coasts of En 
 gland and France, and ravaged the maritime districts, until, about the middle of 
 the fifth century, a portion of them joined the Angli, and made a permanent set 
 tlement in England. Those Saxons who remained in Germany moved gradu 
 ally toward the interior of Germany, and gradually abandoned their piratical 
 and plundering mode of life, to become an agricultural people. 
 
 III. CIMBRI. A nation commonly, but erroneously, placed on the Cimbric 
 Chersonese, or modern Jutland. The accounts of the ancients respecting their 
 seats abound in uncertainties and contradictions. The writers who place them 
 on the Cimbric. Chersonese are Pliny, Tacitus, and Ptolemy. But, upon exam 
 ination, it does not appear that they ever inhabited these parts. The Greeks 
 first became acquainted with them under the name of Cimmcrii, on the northern 
 coast of the Euxine. They were driven from this quarter, and disappeared from 
 the knowledge of the Greeks, who fabled that they dwelt on the shores of the 
 Northern Ocean, in a land shrouded by perpetual night. Pytheas, who circum 
 navigated the greater part of the northwest of Europe, saw a large peninsula, 
 where the long nights and the intense cold in winter seemed to agree with the 
 poetical descriptions of the land of the Cimmerii, and so assigned this country 
 as their abode. In this he was followed by most of the geographers. No men 
 tion is made of the Cimbri in the expeditions of Drusus and Germanicus ; and, 
 though the fleet of the latter discovered the Cimbric Chersonese of Pytheas, 
 they found no Cimbrians dwelling in it, nor did it bear a name derived from that 
 people. Ptolemy places them at the extremity of it, merely to fill up a gap, as 
 he has no other tribe to fix in this locality. Their real country lay probably on 
 the northeast side of Germany. It was on this side that they invaded Germany, 
 and were opposed by the Boii, at that time the inhabitants of Bohemia. To 
 gether with the Teutones they entered Gaul, xvhere they were joined by the 
 Ambrones. With their combined forces they then invaded Spain, but were re 
 pulsed by the Celtiberi. The Teutones and Ambrones then proceeded through 
 Gallia Narbonensis, with the view of making an irruption into Italy, but were 
 defeated by Marius at Aquae Scxtiae, now Aix. The Cimbri, on the other hand, 
 having marched into Helvetia, were there joined by the Tigurini, and having 
 made an irruption into Italy, drove back Catulus, but were at last routed by the 
 combined forces of Marius and that commander, B.C. 101. From this time lit 
 tle or no mention is made of the Cimbri in history, but tradition says that the 
 remnant of them settled in the central valleys of Helvetia, and the inhabitants 
 
GERMANIAMAGNA. 227 
 
 of the Waldstdtten and of the Bernese Oberland are supposed to be their descend 
 ants. The Cimbri appear to have been a Celtic, not a German race. Their 
 name may still be traced in Cymry, the national appellation of the Welsh. 
 
 IV. TEUTONES or TEUTONI, a name given to a tribe said to dwell on the east 
 of the Albis ; but more probably we have here merely a general appellation for 
 the whole German race. The word Teuton or Teutones contains evidently the 
 same root with the modern national term Deutsche or Teutschc. 
 
 2. TRIBES ON THE RIGHT BANK OF THE RHINE. 
 
 (A.) Tribes between the Frisii and the River Luppia, and 
 bounded on the East by the Visurgis. 
 
 I. BRUCTEUI. This tribe, in all their wars with the Romans, never changed 
 their seats. Toward the west they reached to the Vccht ; toward the south to 
 the Luppia or Lippe ; toward the east almost to the Weser ; and toward the north 
 they bordered upon the Frisii and Cauci. They were divided into the Bructeri 
 Majorcs, who dwelt on the east of the Ems, and the Bructeri Minorcs, who dwelt 
 on the west of that stream. Tacitus says that they were extirpated by the 
 Chamavi and Angrivarii ; but this is an error, since we find them engaged in 
 hostilities with the Roman general Spurinna in the reign of Trajan ; and at a still 
 later period they appear as a powerful people among the members of the Frank 
 league. Their principal towns were, 1. Mediolanium, now Meteln. 2. Stcreon- 
 tium, now Stcinfurt. 
 
 II. TUB ANTES. Confederates of the Cherusci, and settled at first between the 
 Rhine and the Ysscl. They retired subsequently from these territories to the 
 southern side of the Lippe, and, finally, after the overthrow of the Marsi by the 
 Roman arms, established themselves in the territory of this last-mentioned tribe. 
 
 III. CHAMAVI. This tribe originally occupied the tract which extended north 
 ward to the Vccht, eastward to the Ems, southward to the Lippe, and westward 
 to the eastern mouth of the Rhine. At a later period they lived between the 
 Wcser and the Hartz Mountains. In the third century they are again found on 
 the Rhine as members of the Frank league, and in the next century they spread 
 themselves along the Waal. Tacitus has most probably committed a mistake 
 in placing them in the country of the Bructeri. 
 
 IV. MARSI. This tribe, according to the most correct opinion, had their set 
 tlements in the neighborhood of the Logana, now the Lahn. 
 
 V. DUL.GIBINI. Ptolemy places this tribe on the eastern bank of the Weser, 
 but Tacitus assigns them a position in the rear of the Chamavi and Angrivarii, 
 in what was once the territory of the Bructeri. They belonged to the race of 
 the Cherusci, and were probably driven eastward by the same irruption of the 
 Cauci as that which expelled the Angrivarii. 
 
 VI. USIPII or USIPETES. This tribe is generally named in connection with the 
 Tencteri. They frequently changed their settlements. When driven from their 
 original seats by the Catti, they wandered for three years in Germany, and hav 
 ing at length come to the Rhine, they crossed the river and seized upon the 
 lands of the Menapii, Eburones, and Condrusi, between the Rhine and Moselle. 
 They were defeated by Caesar, and many perished in attempting to recross the 
 Rhine. The remnant of the nation, after this, took refuge with the Sigambri. 
 In the time of Claudius and Nero, they are found dwelling between the Sieg and 
 the Lahn, and they were still living here in the time of Tacitus. In Ptolemy g 
 time they occupied the northern part of the Black Forest. They became eventu 
 ally mixed up with the Alemanni. 
 
228 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 (B.) Tribes between the Luppia and Mcenus. 
 
 I. SIGAMBRI or SICAMBRI, the most powerful tribe of the Istaevones. Their 
 original seats were on the River Sicg or Sig, and extended from this river to 
 the Lippe. The Romans finally conquered them under the leading of Drusus. 
 Tiberius subsequently transferred a large part of them to the left or southern 
 bank of the Rhine, where they appear under the name of Gugerni. At a sub 
 sequent period they became incorporated into the league of the Franks. 
 
 II. TENCTERI. These have already been alluded to in the account given of 
 the Usipii. They lived south of the Lippe, in the region opposite Cologne and 
 Bonn. At the time of the expeditions of Drusus and Tiberius they had removed 
 eastward ; but they returned after the overthrow of Varus, and in the age of 
 Tacitus their possessions extended northward to the Lippe, where they bordered 
 upon the Bructeri, and southward to the Sieg. 
 
 III. MATTIACI. Probably a branch of the Catti, dwelling on the right bank 
 of the Rhine, in Wetterau and Hesse Darmstadt, the tract possessed by the Ubii 
 before they crossed the Rhine. In the war of the Batavi, they, together with 
 the Usipii and Catti, besieged Magontiacum, now Maycnce. After their terri 
 tories were occupied by the Alemanni, their name was almost extinguished. 
 Their capital was Mattium, the site of which is most probably to be fixed at 
 Madcn. Another of their towns was Aqua Mattiacce, now Wisbaden. 
 
 (C.) Tribe south of the Masnus. 
 
 ALEMANNI. A powerful German people, the limits of whose settlements at 
 first were the Rhine, the Danube, and the Main. In subsequent ages their ter 
 ritory extended toward the Alps and the Jura Mountains. The first notice of 
 them in history occurs in A.D. 214, when a large number of them were treach 
 erously massacred by Caracalla. From that period they were engaged in al 
 most constant hostility with the Romans, and made frequent incursions into 
 Gaul, down to the reign of Constantine the Great, when they were defeated in 
 a bloody battle at Langrcs. After this they remained until A.D. 337, when 
 they again invaded Gaul, during the reign of the sons of Constantine. Julian, 
 however, in 356-361, not only drove them out of this country, but even made 
 several expeditions into their German domains. We find them, however, even 
 after this, frequently coming into collision with the Roman arms. Their 
 strength was finally broken in the bloody battle gained by the Frankish king 
 Chlodwjg, at Tolbiacum, now Zulpich, in A.D. 496. 
 
 3. TRIBES ON THE LEFT BANK OP THE DANUBE. 
 
 Tribes between the Danube and the Erzgebirge and Riesen- 
 
 I. HERMUNDURI. This tribe occupied what is now Saxony and Anhalt, be 
 tween the Saale and the Elbe. In the fifth century they appear in this same 
 quarter under the name of Thuringi. In the name Hermunduri. Hermun is 
 probably not an essential part, but merely marks that they belonged to the Her- 
 minones. Duri seems to have been their real name, and this root appears, 
 with a German ending, in Thur-ingi. Among their towns, as enumerated by 
 Ptolemy, we may mention, 1. Segodunum, now Wurceburg ; 2. Bcrgium, now 
 Bamberg ; 3. Menosgdda, now Baruth. 
 
 II. NARISCI. This tribe dwelt at the foot of the Fichtelgebirge. Ptolemy 
 calls them Varisti (Ovapiarui), and Dio Cassius, Narisca (NapiaKai). 
 
GERMANIA MA GNA. 229 
 
 III. QUADI. This powerful tribe always appear in the closest connection 
 with the Marcomanni. The Romans first became acquainted with them after 
 the conquest of Pannonia. Their most ancient settlements on the Danube 
 reached eastward to the Tibiscus, now the Theis, where they bordered on the 
 Getae. They afterward withdrew westward. The Quadi carried on wars with 
 M. Aurelius, Commodus, Caracalla, Gallienus, Aurelian, Constantine, Julian, 
 and Valentinian I., &c., until the fifth century, when they appear to have coa 
 lesced with other nations. 
 
 IV. MARCOMANNI. We first hear of this tribe in the army of Ariovistus. At 
 a subsequent period we find them dwelling between the Danube and the Drave, 
 in Austria and Hungary, till the Romans conquered Pannonia and the Noric 
 Alps, when they withdrew to the opposite side of the river, into the country 
 occupied by the Boii, whom they expelled. This they did under the guidance 
 of Maroboduus, who had been educated at Rome, and who raised his people to 
 a high pitch of prosperity. In the reign of Domitian, hostilities broke out be> 
 tween the Marcomanni and the Romans, and continued almost uninterruptedly 
 till the fall of the Roman empire. After the death of Attila, in whose army 
 they served, the Marcomanni are no longer heard of. 
 
 V. Bon. This tribe may be here mentioned, because originally settled with 
 in the limits which we are considering. The settlements of this once power 
 ful tribe are found in Gaul, and along both sides of the Danube from its source 
 eastward, probably as far as the mouth of the Enns ; toward the south they 
 stretched to the mountains which separate Tyrol from Bavaria. The eastern 
 part of Suabia, with the whole of Bavaria and Bohemia, which took their names 
 from them (Bavaria having been originally Boiaria), belonged to them. They 
 also occupied part of Moravia. From Bohemia they were expelled by the Mar 
 comanni, and settled in Noricum and Bavaria, where Boiodurum, now Innstadt, 
 took its name from them. At some period or other, but when is uncertain, 
 they crossed the Alps, and established themselves in Italy, between the Tarus, 
 the Silarus, and the Apennines. They were subdued by the Romans under 
 Scipio Nasica, and afterward removed to the banks of the Drave. After this 
 they were greatly weakened in wars with the Getae, and an extensive tract in 
 this part was called Deserta Boiorum. Some of the Boii accompanied Brennus 
 in his invasion of Greece and Asia Minor, and settled in Galatia. Others join 
 ed the Helvetii when they migrated into Gaul, and were allowed by Caesar to 
 settle among the ^Edui. Bohemia takes its name from Boiemum or Boihemum, 
 which means, probably, "the home (heim, hcimath) of the Boii." 
 
 4. TRIBES IN THE CENTRAL PARTS. 
 
 I. SUEVI. A powerful German tribe, who, according to Tacitus, possessed 
 all the land from the banks of the Danube northward to the Baltic Sea, between 
 the Elbe and the Vistula. Caesar gives their name to the Catti. After the time 
 of Tacitas the name appears to have been lost. The tribes included under the 
 general name of Suevi were the Semnones, Langobardi, Aviones, Varlni, Eu- 
 doses, Suardones, and Nuithones. Of these, the only ones deserving of a par 
 ticular mention are the Semnones and Langobardi. 
 
 II. SEMNONES. This tribe lived between the Elbe and the Oder, inhabiting 
 the tract which comprises what is now Mecklenburg and Brandenburg, with part 
 of Saxony, Bohemia, Lusatia, Silesia, and Poland. The Romans first came into 
 contact with them in the expeditions of Tiberius, and in the wars against Ar- 
 minius (to whom, together with the Langobardi, they went over from Marobo- 
 dnus), and then again in the time of Domitian, when a king of theirs, whom 
 
230 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 they had driven out, came to Rome. Mannert contends that Semnones was not 
 the name of any particular tribe, but a common one, like that of Suevi, and 
 that it was applied to the northern branches of the latter people. 
 
 III. LANGOBARDI. This tribe frequently changed their settlements. At first 
 they dwelt in the neighborhood of the Lower Elbe, in the tract called Barden- 
 gau, between Magdeburg, Luncberg, and Hamburg, where the town of Bardwick 
 stands. Here they were subdued by Tiberius, who moved them beyond the 
 Elbe. They then advanced more into the interior of the country, to the neigh 
 borhood of the Semnones, and, together with these, revolted from Maroboduus, 
 under whose dominion they then were, to Arminms. Afterward, on the de 
 cline of the power of the Cherusci, they extended themselves to the Rhine ; 
 and here they are placed by Ptolemy, between the Bructeri and Tencteri. 
 They did not, however, remain here long ; the Saxon league drove them back 
 to the Elbe. In the fifth century they established themselves in Pannonia. 
 Then, at the invitation of Narses, and led by Alboinus across the Alps (A.D, 
 568), they settled in Lombardy, which took its name from them 
 
 IV. ANGRIVARII. This tribe dwelt on the east of the Weser, between the 
 Cauci and Cherusci, and extended over a part of Luncberg and Calenbcrg to the 
 Steinhudcr Sec, which formed the boundary between them and the Cherusci, 
 and on both sides of the River Aller. Traces of their name are still found near 
 the Elbe in Angcrn, Engern > Engershauscn, &c. 
 
 V. CHERUSCI. The possessions of this tribe lay in the Hartz Mountains, and 
 on both sides of them, but chiefly on the south, where the north\vest part of 
 the Thuringcr Watd separated them from the Catti. They were at first in al 
 liance with Rome, and Arminius commanded a squadron of German cavalry in 
 the Roman army, and so far distinguished himself that he was made a Roman 
 knight. Afterward, however, roused by this leader, the Cherusci joined the 
 Catti and others in the well-known attack upon Varus. They were subsequent 
 ly defeated by Germanicus. The Cheruscan league included the Dulgibini, 
 Ansibdm, Chasudri, Chamdvi, Tubanlcs, Marsi, &c. These and other small 
 tribes are frequently called Cherusci. With Arminius fell the power of the 
 Cherusci ; their league was speedily dissolved, and a considerable portion of 
 their territory was wrested from them by the Langobardi, and they were driven 
 from the west of the Thuringcr Wald by the Catti. 
 
 VI. CHASUARI. This tribe belonged to the nation of the Cherusci. Ptolemy 
 places their settlements on the western side of the Weser, in what is now Os- 
 naburg and Padcrborn. They subsequently appear among the Franks, on the 
 western part of the Lower Rhine, in the dukedom of Gueldres. 
 
 VII. CATTI. This tribe were separated from the Cherusci by the Forest of 
 Bacenis, or the western part of the Thuringcr Wald. Their territory compre 
 hended that of the modern Hessians, Fulda, the earldoms of Hanau and Inen- 
 berg, so much of Franconia as lies north of the Main to the mouth of the Saale, 
 part of Nassau, and the eastern portion of the duchy of Westphalia. Their 
 name, allowing for the difference of sound in Latin and German, is the same as 
 that of the Hessians. The Catti were defeated by Drusus, but some time after 
 ward they took part with the Cherusci in the slaughter of Varus and his legions. 
 In the reign of Tiberius, Germanicus overran their country; but they contin 
 ued in arms against the Romans for many years after, and aided the revolt of 
 the Batavi in the reign of Vitellius. They were also engaged in war with the 
 Hermunduri, by whom they were nearly extirpated. 
 
 VIII. GOTHINI. This tribe are supposed by some to have Jived in Cracow, or 
 on the banks of the Marus, now the March. Others place them on the south 
 
GERMANIA MAGNA. 231 
 
 of the Danube, where there are several iron mines, in Styria. Tacitus speaks 
 of the iron mines in their country. 
 
 IX. GOTONES. The name Gotones is synonymous with that of Tvfiuves as giv 
 en by Ptolemy, or Goths. They were often erroneously confounded with the 
 Getse and Scythians. Pytheas is the first who mentions them, when they lived 
 on the right bank of the Vistula, and on the coast of the Baltic, on the borders 
 of Silesia and Poland, and afterward a part of them in Scandinavia, where their 
 name appears in Gothland, Gothenburg, Codanus Sinus, and Gedanum. They 
 first appear under the name of Goths in the time of Caracalla. Somewhere 
 about the middle of the second century they seem to have wandered from the 
 Vistula to the neighborhood of the Dnieper and Dniester, and incessantly har 
 assed the province of Dacia. In the time of Gallienus they devastated Thrace 
 and Macedonia, and a portion of them penetrated into Asia Minor, and burned 
 the temple of Diana at Ephesus. About this period they spread eastward along 
 the northern coast of the Euxine. In the year 269 they were defeated by Clau 
 dius in Moesia. Shortly afterward Aurelian abandoned Dacia to them, and they 
 were now divided into Ostro-Goths, or Eastern Goths, inhabiting the shores of 
 the Euxine, and Visi- Goths, or Western Goths, who occupied Dacia. The Bo- 
 rysthenes formed the boundary of the two divisions. About the year 375, the 
 Huns, under Attila, drove the Ostrogoths upon their western neighbors, who re 
 tired before them, and were allowed by the Emperor Valens to settle in Mcesia. 
 Here disputes arose between them and the Romans, and Valens was killed in 
 attempting to oppose them. In the reign of Honorius, Alaric, at the head of 
 the Visigoths, invaded Italy, but was defeated by Stilicho. He soon returned, 
 however, and made himself master of Rome. His successor, Ataulph, made 
 peace with the Romans, and withdrew to the south of Gaul, from which country 
 the Visigoths afterward withdrew to Spain, where they maintained their ground 
 until they were conquered by the Moors. After the death of Attila the Ostro 
 goths emancipated themselves from the dominion of the Huns, and, under The- 
 odoric, defeated Odoacer and subdued Italy, A.D. 489. But their dominion here 
 was overthrown by Narses, the general of Justinian, in 554, and the remnant 
 of their race became amalgamated with the other inhabitants of Italy. 
 
 X. BURGUNDIONES. Pliny numbers this race among the branches of the great 
 stock of the Vindlli or Vandals ; Ptolemy places these Vindili upon the lower 
 Vistula. They first came into contact with the Romans during the reign of 
 Probus. They invaded Gaul at different periods with various success : but in 
 the reign of Honorius that emperor ceded to them part of Gaul, near the banks 
 of the Rhine, and from this cession arose the kingdom of Burgundy. 
 
 XL VANDALII or VINDILI. A German tribe, who lived at first on the shores 
 of the Baltic, between the Albis and Vistula, in what is now Pomcrania and part 
 of Poland ; but, being forced to evacuate their possessions in their wars with 
 Aurelian and Probus, they first settled in Dacia and Sarmatia, then in Pannonia 
 and Gallia, and in the year 406, together with the Alani, they migrated to Spain. 
 Being afterward overpowered by the Goths, they took refuge in Africa, and 
 were there subdued by Justinian in the year 534. 
 
 DECUMATES AGRI. 
 
 BEFORE leaving the subject of Germany, we may allude briefly to the Dccu- 
 matcs Agri. This name was applied by the Romans to certain lands conquered 
 by them, and in which, for the sake of security, that no hostile tribe might dwell 
 close to their borders, they allowed Gauls or Roman soldiers to settle, who were 
 charged with the payment of a tithe (dccima) to the Romans. The situation of 
 
232 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 these lands is variously laid down. Some authors place them on the banks of 
 the Neckar, others hetween the Lahn and Main, and on the banks of the Dan 
 ube, opposite the province of Raetia, or within the Roman vallum, reaching from 
 Magontiacum to the Danube, near the source of which lay the territories of the 
 Marcomanni, which the Romans took possession of after Maroboduus removed 
 to Bohemia. Drusus Germanicus, having built a fort on Mount Taunus, seems 
 to have laid the first foundation of the lines, inclosing the Decumates Agri, which 
 was gradually advanced, especially by Trajan and Hadrian, and fortified. 
 Though the occupation of these lands depended on the will of the emperor, 
 towns gradually sprang up in them. There are still remains of a Roman w r all 
 running from Ingolstadt, on the Danube, to the River Main. Toward the end 
 of the third century, these lands were wrested from the Romans by the Ale- 
 manni, whom Julian and Valentinian in vain endeavored to expel. 
 
 II. SCANDINAVIA. 
 
 I. THE ancient Scandinavia answered to the modern Sweden and Norway. 
 The ancients, however, had a very imperfect knowledge of what they called 
 Scandinavia, believing it to be either one large island of unascertained dimen 
 sions, or a collection of several islands. 
 
 II. According to Pliny, the only part of Scandinavia known in his time was 
 occupied by the H dlcmoncs, a numerous nation, who inhabited five hundred 
 pagi or districts. Tacitus, in a later age, when enumerating the tribes of Ger 
 many, speaks of the Suiones and Siioncs as living in the remote north. By the 
 Suiones are probably meant the inhabitants of Sweden, and by the Sitones those 
 of Norway. 
 
 III. According to the ancient error, which divided Scandinavia into many isl 
 ands, there are found in Pliny the names of Bergi and Nerigos, as indicating 
 two of these islands. It is thought by the best geographers that the former 
 of these appellations points to Bergen, one of the principal towns in Norway, and 
 that the latter, which was given to what the ancients deemed the largest island, 
 refers to the country of Norway itself, called in Swedish Norrigc, and in Danish 
 Norge. The Sevo Mons of Pliny has already been alluded to (page 11). 
 
 IV. The Thulc described by Procopius is supposed to have been different from 
 the island of that name already referred to by us (page 212), and the modern 
 canton of Tele-mark or Tyle-mark retains, as is thought, evident traces of the 
 ancient appellation. 
 
 V. In connection with Scandinavia may be mentioned the country of Finnin- 
 gia, or the modern Fimiland. Pliny makes it an island. The first mention of 
 its inhabitants under the denomination of Finns (Fenni) occurs in Tacitus, who 
 describes them as a savage race, without arms, horses, or iron ; their arrows 
 were pointed with bone, and their principal occupation was hunting. The Finns 
 at the present day call themselves, not Finns, but Suomilins, which means 
 "dwellers among swamps." 
 
 VI. The Scrito-Finni mentioned by Procopius were so called, according to 
 Paulus Diaconus, from the lightness and swiftness of their course over the 
 snows and ice, which they pursued on a species of snow-shoes or skates. 
 
DACIA. 233 
 
 III. IAZYGES METANAST^E. 
 
 I. THE lazyges were a people of Sarmatian origin, and their native seats 
 were on the northern shores of the Euxine and Palus M&otis. Being driven 
 from these, about A.D. 51, by the Rhoxolani, as it is thought, they settled in 
 the country between the Danube and the Tibiscus, now the Thciss, after driving 
 out the Dad, and carried on for a short time hostilities with the Romans. They 
 are frequently mentioned by subsequent writers as dangerous neighbors to the 
 provinces of Pannonia and Moesia. 
 
 II. Ptolemy calls them Metanasta (Meravaorcu), to indicate their having left 
 their original seats, and being " wanderers" from home. 
 
 IV. DACIA. 
 
 1. EXTENT AND BOUNDARIES. 
 
 I. Dacia was the ancient name of a country bounded on the north by Euro 
 pean Sarmafia, on the south by the Danube, on the east by the Euxine, and on 
 the west by the Tibiscus, now the Thciss. 
 
 II. It comprehended, therefore, the modern Transylvania, Wallachia, Molda 
 via, and Bessarabia. 
 
 2. NAME AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. Dacia derived its name from the Dad, whose earlier appellation, according 
 to Strabo, was Dai (Adot). The country, however, was occupied, in fact, by 
 two communities, the Dad and Gctce ; but as they both spoke the same language, 
 they must be regarded, of course, as portions of the same race. The Dad oc 
 cupied the part toward Germany and the sources of the Danube, the Getae the 
 part toward the east and the Euxine. The Getae were better known to the 
 Greeks in consequence of their frequent migrations to the banks of the Danube. 
 The Latin name Daci, however, included the Getae. 
 
 II. The first expedition of the Emperor Trajan was against the Daci, headed 
 by their king Decebalus, and the war, which lasted nearly five years, ended in 
 their submission to the Roman power. In A.D. 250, Dacia was overrun and 
 conquered by the Goths, to whom it was subsequently resigned by the Emperor 
 Aurelian. 
 
 III. While prosecuting the conquest of Dacia, Trajan constructed, with the 
 aid of the architect Apollodorus, his celebrated bridge over the Danube, the 
 largest work of this kind mentioned by the ancients. According to Dio Cassius, 
 it consisted of twenty piers, one hundred and fifty feet high, sixty wide, and 
 one hundred and seventy apart ; the piers were united by wooden arches. The 
 whole length of it has been calculated at four thousand seven hundred and sev 
 enty Roman feet. If the statement of Dio Cassius be true, this bridge seems 
 not only to have served for the passage of the river, but the immense height 
 of the pillars, of which scarcely more than seventy feet can have been under 
 water, leads to the supposition that it was at the same time a strong fortifica 
 tion destined to command the navigation. At a height of eighty feet above the 
 water, soldiers were protected against the missiles of the Dacian ships, while 
 the fleet of the enemy, in passing that bridge, ran the risk of destruction. This 
 bridge was either at Szernccz in Hungary, or five leagues above the junction 
 of the Olt with the Danube, in Wallachia, not far from Nicopolis, where ruins 
 of the Roman colonies Romula and Castra Nova, and a Roman road, which is 
 pretty well preserved, still exist. 
 
234 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 3. ROMAN SUBDIVISION OF DACIA. 
 
 I. AFTER the reduction of Dacia into a Roman province, it was subdivided 
 into, 1. Dacia Riparia or Ripensis. 2. Dacia Mediterranea. 3. Dacia Alpensis. 
 
 II. Dacia Riparia or Ripensis was so called because it lay along the banks of 
 the Danube ; Dacia Mediterranea because situate in the midland parts ; and Dacia 
 Alpensis because lying in the immediate vicinity of the Carpathian Mountains, 
 or, as they were sometimes less correctly called, the Bastarnic Alps. 
 
 III. For an account of what was afterward called Dacia Aurcliani, consult the 
 geographical sketch of Mcesia, page 245. 
 
 4. MOUNTAINS. 
 
 I. Carpatcs Mons (KapTrdrrje opof), now the Carpathian Mountains, separating 
 Dacia on the north from Sarmatia Europcea. This range was sometimes called 
 Alpes Bastarnica, though, more correctly perhaps, the latter were merely a 
 branch of the former. Csesar makes the Carpathian Mountains a continuation 
 of the Hcrcynia Silva. Strabo and Pliny both speak of it, but without giving 
 any appellation to the chain. The name Carpates (KopTrdr^f) first occurs in 
 Ptolemy. 
 
 II. Serrorum Monies, mentioned by Ammianus Marcellinus, and being that 
 part of the Carpathian chain which separates Transylvania from Wallachia. 
 
 5. RIVERS. 
 
 THE main stream is the Danube, Danubius or Istcr, which has already been 
 described under the head of Germany. All the other rivers are tributaries 
 of the Danube, and the most important of them are the following: 1. Ti- 
 biscus, now the Theiss. Pliny calls it Parthissus, and Jornandes Tisianus or 
 Thysia. Into the Tibiscus falls the Marisus or Marisia, now the Marosch. 
 
 2. Apus, now the Nera. 3. Rhabon, now the Syl. It is supposed to have been 
 the same with the Sargdia of Dio Cassius, and the Gilfil of Jornandes. 4. Aluta, 
 now the Olt. 5. Ordessus, now the Screth. 6. Naparis, now the Ardschisch, 
 according to Mannert, but, according to D Anville, the Proava. 7. Agarus, 
 now the Berda. 8. Hierasus, called by Herodotus Poras, now the Pruth. 
 
 6. CITIES. 
 
 WE will merely enumerate a few of the more important places, commencing 
 on the west. 1. Arcidaca, near the modern Slatina. The Roman ruins in this 
 quarter are yet plainly visible. 2. Centum Putca, to the north. The ancient 
 name points to the Roman origin of the place, and the numerous excavations 
 made in its neighborhood for springs. The site is near the modern Oraviza. 
 
 3. Tibiscum or Tiviscum, on the western side of the River Tcmesz, at its junc 
 tion with the Bistra. It was a municipium, and a place of importance. The 
 ruins lie near the modern Cavaran. 4. Sarmizegethusa, to the southeast, the 
 residence of King Decebalus. Subsequently a Roman colony was sent to this 
 place by Trajan, and the name of the city was changed to Ulpia Trajani, or Co- 
 Ionia Ulpia Trajana Augusta. It then became the capital of the whole province, 
 and was adorned with an amphitheatre, aqueducts, &c., and protected by a 
 strong wall. Its ruins are found near Varhcly. 5. Apulum, to the northeast, 
 on the Marisus or Marosch. It was a Roman municipium, and a place of great 
 importance. The ruins are found near Carlsburg. It was also called Alba Julia 
 Colonia. 6. Returning to the Danube we find Zerna, an important Roman col 
 ony a short distance east of the Pans Trajani. In the Pandects the place is 
 
SARMATIA EUROPJEA. 235 
 
 called Coloma Zernensium. The name of the town is evidently connected with 
 that of the neighboring river Czerna or Tzcrna. 7. Drubctis or Druphegis, to 
 the southeast, on the Rhabon or Syl, in the vicinity of what is now Crajova. 
 
 V. SARMATIA EUROP^EA. 
 
 1. NAME AND EXTENT. 
 
 I. ACCORDING to Ptolemy, the name Sarmalia was applied to all that tract of 
 country which lay between the Vistula on the west, and the Rha, now the Wol- 
 ga, on the east. This was divided into two parts by the River Tanais, now the 
 Don, and the western portion was called Sarmatia Europaa ; the eastern, Sarma- 
 tia Asiatica. 
 
 II. European Sarmatia was bounded on the north by the Oceanus Sarmaticus, 
 another name for the southern part of the Mare Sucvicum or Baltic, and the Terra 
 Incognita ; on the west by the Vistula and the Mantes Sarmatici ; on the south by 
 Dacia, the Enxinc, the Tauric Chersonese, and the Palus Mccotis ; and on the east, 
 as before stated, by the Tanais. It corresponded, therefore, to part of Russia, 
 Poland, Lithuania, Prussia, &c. 
 
 2. HISTORY, TRIBES, &c. 
 
 I. NEITHER Herodotus nor Strabo makes mention of the European Sarmatians. 
 The Sauromatae of Herodotus dwelt to the east of the Tanals, and inhabited a 
 tract of country extending northward from the Palus Matolis equal to fifteen 
 days journey in length. Herodotus also says that the Satiromatse sprang from 
 the intercourse of a body of Scythians with some Amazons who came from the 
 River Thermodon in Asia Minor, and that their language was a corrupted form 
 of the Scythian. Strabo likewise places the Sauromatae between the Tanai s 
 and the Caspian, and speaks of the people west of the Tanais as Scythians. 
 
 II. European Sarmatia therefore comprehended the Scythia of Herodotus, 
 which may be said, in general terms, to have comprised the southeastern part 
 of Europe, between the Carpathian Mountains and the River Tanais. 
 
 III. The principal nations in European Sarmatia were, 1. The Vcneda or 
 Vcncdi, on the Baltic. 2. The Peucini or Bastarna, in the neighborhood of the 
 Carpathian Mountains. 3. The lazygcs, Rhoxoldni, and Hamaxobil in the south 
 ern part of modern Russia. 4. The Alauni or Alani Scythes, in the central part 
 of Russia, in the neighborhood of Moscow. The knowledge which the ancients 
 possessed of these people was very limited. They are universally represented 
 as a nomade race with filthy habits. The Vencdi appear to have been of Ger 
 man origin. They were occupied particularly with the carrying trade of amber, 
 that substance being found in great abundance along their shores. At a later 
 day they were called Winidi or Wendi, and many have supposed that the Veneti 
 in Italy were a branch of this people. 
 
 The Scythians will be more particularly mentioned under the head of Asia. 
 It will he sufficient here to state that they were in all probability a Mongolian 
 race. The European Scythians, according to the account of Herodotus, were 
 originally from Asia, and were driven from their settlements to the north of the 
 Araxes by the Massagetae. After crossing the A raxes they descended into Eu 
 rope, and drove out the Cimmerians from the country which was afterward 
 called Scythia. The date of their migration into Europe may be determined 
 with tolerable accuracy, if the irruption of the Cimmerians into Lydia in the 
 reign of Ardys (about B.C. 640) was the immediate consequence of their defeat 
 by the Scythians. 
 
236 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 3. RIVERS. 
 (A.) Rivers flowing into the Oceanus Sarmaticus. 
 
 1. Vistula. Already mentioned in the geography of Germany. 2. Guttalus, 
 now the Pregel. 3. Chronus, now the Nicmen. 4. Turuntus, now the Windau, 
 according to Mannert and Gosselin. 5. Rhubon, now probably the Duna. 
 
 (B.) Rivers flowing into the Pontus Euxinus. 
 
 1. Danastrus (or Danastcr), called by Ptolemy the Tyras (Tvpas ), now the Dnies 
 ter. 2. Hypdnis ("Travis), now the Bog. 3. Borysthcncs (Bopvadevqc), called, 
 also, the Danapris, now the Dnieper. 4. Hypdcdris, now the Canikschak, falling 
 into the Sinus Carcinltcs, near the city of Carcine. Ptolemy calls this river the 
 Carcinitcs. 
 
 (C.) Rivers flowing into the Palus Mceotis. 
 
 1. Lycus (AVKOC), now probably the Kalmius. 2. Tandis (Tdvalc. ), now the 
 Don, rising in the Valdai hills, in the government of Tula, and having a course 
 of about eight hundred miles. Herodotus appears to have confounded it in the 
 upper part of its course with the Rha or Wolga. As regards the root of the 
 name Tanais, &c., consult Obs. 2, page 10. 
 
 4. SEAS, GULFS, STRAITS, &c. 
 
 1. Sarmdticus Oceanus (Sp//<m/c<V fl/ceavof), a name given by Ptolemy to the 
 southern part of the Mare Sucvicum or Baltic Sea, lying along the coast of East 
 Prussia, West Prussia, and part of Pomcrania. At its eastern extremity was 
 the Venedicus Sinus, now the Gulf of Riga. Immediately adjacent to the Sar- 
 maticus Oceanus was the Clylipenus Sinus, now the Gulf of Finnland. What 
 Ptolemy calls the island of Baltia in the Sarmatic Ocean, other names for which 
 island were Basilia and Abalus, appears to have been, not an island, but the 
 southern extremity of Sweden. 
 
 2. Pontus Euxinus (ITovrof EiJfavof), now the Euxine or Black Sea. This sea 
 had various names, such as Mare Cimmerium, Mare Ponticum, &c. Its ordina 
 ry name Eu.xinus has already been explained (page 10). The Euxine was nav 
 igated at an early period by the Greeks. The discovery of the channel which 
 leads to it from the Archipelago is probably indicated by the fable of Phrixus 
 and Helle, and the first voyage into it by the expedition of Jason. At a later 
 period the Greeks, and more especially the Ionian Greeks of Miletus, formed 
 numerous establishments along its shores, from which they exported slaves, 
 cattle, and corn in great quantities. The ports of the Crimea and the region 
 near the Borysthenes exported large quantities of grain to Athens and the Pel 
 oponnesus, which trade we find mentioned in Herodotus (vii., 147) as existing 
 at the time of the invasion of Xerxes, B.C. 480. Under the Romans the shores 
 of the Euxine became pretty well known, and a " Periplus," or kind of survey 
 of this sea, is among the works attributed to Arrian. In the times of the By 
 zantine emperors, Constantinople drew from it a considerable part of its provi 
 sions, and in the twelfth century the Genoese formed some establishments on 
 its northeastern coast, and carried on a very active commerce overland with 
 India ; but, when Constantinople was taken by the Turks, the commerce and 
 navigation of the Black Sea were nearly annihilated, their policy being averse 
 to permitting foreign vessels to pass the Straits of Constantinople. Thus the 
 Black Sea remained closed to the seafaring nations for two centuries, until the 
 Russian power and commerce arose. For an account of the Bosporus Thracius 
 and the Bosporus Cimmerius, consult page 9, seq. 
 
CHERSONESUS TAURICA. 237 
 
 3. Palus Mabtis, now the Sea of Azof or Assow. The term Palus, "lake or 
 marsh," appears more applicable to this sheet of water than that of " sea," for 
 it is a lake, and a shallow lake too. In the centre, where the depth is greatest, 
 it is in a few places seven fathoms and a half, but on an average only between 
 six and seven ; and this depth continues to the Strait of Caffa or Fcodosia, the 
 ancient Bosporus Cimmerius, by which it is united to the Euxine. Toward all 
 the other shores its depth decreases to five fathoms, and even four and a half. 
 The shallowness of this sea was well known to the Greeks, and it was the pre 
 vailing opinion in the time of Aristotle that it was rapidly filling up by the earthy 
 matter brought down by the rivers which empty into it. The same opinion has 
 been maintained by some modern travellers ; but we do not possess data by 
 which this question can be decided, since we have as yet no means of compar 
 ing the state of this lake at different and remote epochs. 
 
 5. CITIES. 
 
 I. Cities between the Tanals and Borysthenes. Among these we may enumer 
 ate the following : 1. Tanals, to the west of the modern Azof or Assow, an im 
 portant trading place, at the mouth of the River Tanals. 2. Hygris, on the 
 northern shore of the Palus Mseotis. 3. Cremni, to the southwest, at the neck 
 of the Promontorium Agarum. 4. Carcme, at the mouth of the River Hypacaris, 
 and at the head of the Sinus Carcinitcs, now the Gulf of Perekop. Herodotus 
 calls the place Carcinitis (Kap/cmn f). 
 
 II. Cities between the Borysthenes and Danapris.-A.mong these we may name, 
 1. Serimum, near the modern Ekatcrinoslav. 2. Metropolis, the same place, in 
 all probability, with Olbia. Mannert thinks that it is a corruption of Milctopolis, 
 one of the names of Olbia. 3. Olbia or Olbiopolis, on the left bank of the Hypanis, 
 not far from the junction of this river with the Borysthenes. Hence it was 
 also called Boryslhenis, from its proximity to the latter stream. According to 
 Herodotus, it was the central point of the Greek maritime settlements in Scythia. 
 Olbia, according to Strabo, was founded by a colony from Miletus in Ionia, and 
 hence was called also Miletopolis. It was a place of great trade, and strongly 
 fortified against the neighboring barbarians, and it was adorned also with nu 
 merous public buildings, temples, &c. Hence the proud appellation of TO UOTV, 
 " the City," which it assumed in imitation of Athens. The site is indicated at 
 the present day by Kudak, in the government of Kiew. 
 
 VI. CHERSONESUS TAURICA. 
 
 1. NAME AND SITUATION. 
 
 I. Chersoncsus Taurica, " Tauric Chersonese," was the ancient name of that 
 peninsula which juts out southward from European Sarmatia, between the Pon- 
 tus Euxinus or Black Sea, and the Palus Maeotis, c/ Sea of Azof or Assow. It is 
 now called the Crimea. 
 
 II. The isthmus which connects it with the main land was called Taphros or 
 Taphra. On the west of this isthmus was the Sinus Carcinites, now the Gulf 
 of Perekop, and on the east the shallow waters then, as now, called " The Pu 
 trid Sea or Lake" (rj SaTrpa Aiuvn, Palus Putris). The southeastern point of 
 the peninsula was the Promontorium Parthcnium, which is either the modern, 
 Cape Chersonese, or another promontory farther south in the neighborhood of 
 the town of Sviatoi Gheorghi. The southern promontory was called Criu-Meto- 
 pon (Kpiov MeroTtov), now Aiadagh or Kandjes Borun, and either the southeast 
 ern or tlio eastern point of the peninsula was called Corax Promontorium, now 
 
238 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Cape Kirkinos-Burnu. On the east the peninsula was divided from the coast of 
 Asia by the Cimmerian Bosporus. 
 
 2. EARLY AND LATER INHABITANTS. 
 
 I. THE earliest inhabitants of this peninsula appear to have been the Cimme 
 rians, some of whom remained in it after the great body of the nation had been 
 driven from their seats around the Palus Macotis by the Scythians. Clear tra 
 ces of this people remain in the names of Cimmerion, one of the cities of the 
 peninsula, the Cimmerian Bosporus, the Cimmerian Chersonese (as the penin 
 sula was sometimes called), and in its modern appellations of Crimea and Crim 
 Tartary. 
 
 II. In the earliest notices of the Chersonesus by Greek writers, we find the 
 mountainous region of the south and southeast inhabited by a piratical people, 
 called the Tauri, from whom the peninsula was called Taurica, and whose name 
 remains in that of the modern Russian province of Taurida, in which the Crimea 
 is included. Who these Tauri were is a question of some difficulty. Strabo 
 calls them a Scythian people, but Herodotus clearly distinguishes the Tauri 
 from the Scythians, as being a different nation. 
 
 III. It seems probable, from various circumstances, that the Tauri were a 
 remnant of the old Cimmerian inhabitants, who had maintained themselves in 
 the mountains against the Scythian invaders. The name Tauri is supposed to 
 be derived from an old root, " Taw," meaning a mountain. The Tauri were re 
 puted by the Greeks to be inhospitable and cruel to strangers. They were said 
 to offer human sacrifices, especially of shipwrecked mariners, to a virgin god 
 dess, whom, according to Herodotus, the Tauri themselves identified with fphi- 
 genia, the daughter of Agamemnon, and whose temple stood on the promontory 
 of Parlhcnium. 
 
 IV. The Greeks became early acquainted with this peninsula, probably soon 
 after the Ionian Greeks, and especially the inhabitants of Miletus, had begun 
 to form settlements on the northern shores of Asia Minor, about six centuries 
 before the Christian era. Panticapaum is called by Strabo a colony of the Mi 
 lesians. Besides this place, they built Theodosia, now Fcodosia or Kaffa, and 
 some other places on the peninsula forming the west side of the Strait of Caffa. 
 They preferred this part of the Chersonese from its containing a large tract fit 
 for agriculture, and producing very rich crops, Strabo says thirty times the seed. 
 It was at one time considered the granary of Greece, especially of Athens, 
 whose territory, being of small extent and of indifferent fertility, was unable to 
 maintain its great population by its own produce. At one time Athens annually 
 imported from the Crimea between 300,000 and 400,000 medimni of grain. 
 Strabo says that in one year the Athenians received 2,100,000 medimni from 
 Theodosia ; but the text is evidently corrupt. 
 
 V. The Greek colonies in the Chersonese were gradually formed into two 
 states, that of Chersonesus, comprehending the smaller peninsula, on the south* 
 west, and the kingdom of Bosporus, a narrow slip of low and fertile land, on the 
 southeast. These two states were united under Mithradates, who is said to 
 have died at Panticapseum. The kingdom of the Bosporus, with all the neigh 
 boring districts, then fell into the hands of the Romans, who gave it to Pharna- 
 ces, the son of Mithradates. Pharnaces, however, having invaded Pontus, and 
 exercised great cruelties toward the Roman citizens, was attacked by Julius 
 Caesar and defeated. He fled to his kingdom of Bosporus, where he was im 
 mediately murdered, and his throne was given by the dictator to Mithradatea 
 of Pergamus, about B.C. 47. This kingdom of Bosporus continued under the 
 
RJSTIA. 239 
 
 Roman emperors, but is only known to us from the occasional interference of 
 the Caesars in the nomination of a king, or in attempts to restore tranquillity. A 
 race of half Greek, half barbaric kings continued to possess the Crimea and the 
 neighboring coast of the Euxine at least to the time of the Antonines, and the 
 kingdom of Bosporus almost survived the Roman empire, and only expired un 
 der the ravages of the Huns. 
 
 3. CITIES. 
 
 1. Taphros or Taphra, on the isthmus connecting the Chersonese with the con 
 tinent. It is now Pcrekop. The name of the isthmus was also Taphros, and was 
 probably derived from a ditch (ru0poc) which ran across it, and which was dug 
 and fortified as a defence against the neighboring barbarians of the main land. 
 This ditch, however, must not be confounded with that mentioned by Herodotus 
 (iv., 320), which appears to have been in the peninsula itself, and at the eastern 
 part of it. 2. Eupatoriu, on the western coast, founded by Mithradates Eupator 
 during a war with the Scythians. It is now Eupatoria or Kaslov. 3. Portus Ctc- 
 nus (KTEVOVS), on what is now the Gulf of Achtiar, succeeds on the northern side 
 of a small peninsula terminated by Cape Chersonese, while on the southern side 
 of this same peninsula is Portus Symbolorum (ZvudoAuv AIUTJV), on what is now 
 the Gulf of Balaklava. On this peninsula stood the city of Chersonesus, called 
 by Mela Clicrronc, the full name of which \vas Chtrsoncsus Heraclcotica. It was 
 founded by a colony from Heraclea in Bithynia, and was a large and flourishing 
 commercial city. Its ruins are to be found near Gurtschi. The peninsula on 
 which it stood was sometimes called the Small Chersonesus, and the Chersonesus 
 Taurica the Great Chersonesus, to distinguish it from the former. 4. Theodosia, 
 on the eastern coast, now Caff a (Kefa) or Fcodosia, a colony of the Milesians, 
 and a large and flourishing commercial city. In the Tauric dialect it was called 
 Ardauda, "the city of the Seven Gods." It was destroyed in the middle of the 
 second century, and Old Caff a was subsequently erected on its site. This was 
 succeeded by New Caffa, the present city, in its immediate vicinity, and which 
 became a place of great trade under the Genoese. 5. Panlicapaum, called, also, 
 Bosporus, at the eastern end of the peninsula, on the shore of the Bosporus. 
 This was also an early settlement of the Milesians, and carried on an extensive 
 trade. It had a double harbor. This city was the residence of both the earlier 
 and later kings of the Bosporus. The modern Kcrtsch occupies its site, which 
 the Russians also call Wospor, a corruption of Bosporus. 6. Cimmerium, in the 
 interior, now Erski Krim, or " Old Krim." There were several other places in 
 the interior besides Cimmerium, but none of any importance. 
 
 II. COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE DANUBE. 
 
 THESE consist of the twelve following countries, beginning from the west, 
 
 namely, 
 
 1. R^ETIA. 
 
 5. MCESIA. 
 
 9. TIIRACIA. 
 
 2. VlNDELICIA. 
 
 6. ITALIA. 
 
 10. MACEDONIA. 
 
 3. NORICUM. 
 
 7. IM.YRICUM. 
 
 11. GR^ECIA. 
 
 4. PANNONIA. 
 
 8. EPIRUS. 
 
 12. GR^EC^E INSULTS. 
 
 I. R^ETIA. 
 
 1. NAME AND EXTENT. 
 
 I. Ryi-rriA appears to have comprehended originally the whole country between 
 the north of Italy and the Danube, and consequently to have included Vindclicia. 
 
240 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Dio Cassias, in his account of the conquest of the Raeti and Vindelici by Drusus 
 and Tiberius, only mentions the Raeti. Strabo often speaks of them as if they 
 were only one people ; and Tacitus, in several passages, appears to include Vin- 
 delicia in the province of Raetia. 
 
 II. In the time of Augustus, however, these two countries formed separate 
 provinces, of which Raetia was bounded on the west by the Helvetii, on the east 
 by Noricum, on the south by Gallia Cisalpina, and on the north by Vindelicia, 
 from which it was separated by the Lacus Brigantinus or Lake of Constance, and 
 the River CEnus or Inn. It included, therefore, the greater part of the Tyrol, 
 and the eastern cantons of Switzerland.. 
 
 2. INHABITANTS. 
 
 I. THE Raeti are supposed by Niebuhr to have been an Etruscan people, and 
 their country to have been one of the original homes of that race. They are 
 first mentioned by Polybius as one of the communities through w r hose country 
 there was a passage across the Alps. They were a brave and enterprising 
 race, and for a long time committed constant robberies in Gaul and the north 
 of Italy. 
 
 II. Augustus at length sent Drusus against them (B.C. 15), who subdued the 
 southern part of the country, and delivered Italy from their depredations. But, 
 as they still continued to trouble the province of Gaul, Tiberius also was sent 
 against them, who attacked them near the Lacus Brigantinus, and reduced the 
 whole of the country. The greater part of their youth were carried away, and 
 only sufficient left to cultivate the land. The victories of Drusus and Tiberius 
 are celebrated by Horace. 
 
 III. The Rseti were divided, according to Pliny, into many states or tribes. 
 Of these the most important were, 1. The Lepontii, in the southwestern part of 
 the province. 2. The Tridentini, in the southeastern. 3. The Genauni, whom 
 Horace mentions, east of the Lepontii. 4. The Vennones, near the sources, of 
 the Athesis, now Adigc. 5. The Brixentes, north of the Tridentini. 6. The 
 Brcnni or Brcuni, north of the Raetian Alps, also mentioned by Horace. 
 
 3. FACE OF THE COUNTRY, &c. 
 
 I. THE great chain of the Alps passes almost through the centre of this prov 
 ince, and bears various names in different parts of it. On the western borders 
 are the Alpes Pennince, in the northwest are the Alpcs Lepontia, and on the north 
 are the Alpes Summa, succeeded by the Alpes Ratica. These mountains were 
 all inhabited by various tribes of the Raeti. 
 
 II. Several large rivers rise in these mountains, of which the most important 
 were, 1. The Rhenus or Rhine, rising in the Lepontine Alps. 2. The Rhodanus 
 or Rhone, rising in the same vicinity. 3. The Ticmus or Tesino, a tributary of 
 the Po, rising in the same division of the Alps. 4. The Addua or Adda, another 
 Italian river, rising in the Rsetian Alps. 5. The Athesis or Adige, rising in the 
 same Alps, and flowing into the Adriatic ; and, 6. The CEnus or Inn, a tributary 
 of the Danube. 
 
 III. The valleys between these mountains were very fertile, and were partic 
 ularly celebrated for their grapes, from which excellent wine was made. The 
 Rffitian wine was the favorite wine of Augustus. 
 
 IV. The only place of importance in Raetia was Tridentum, now Trent. 
 
VlNDELICIA. 241 
 
 II. V I N D E L I C I A. 
 
 1. NAME AND EXTENT. 
 
 I. Vindelicia was the ancient name of a tract which contains parts of the 
 present countries of Suabia and Bavaria, in Southern Germany. It extended 
 from the Lacus Brigdniinus, or Lake of Constance, in a northeast direction as far 
 as the junction of the CEnus, now Inn, with the Danuhe, and from the northern 
 frontier of Rsetia in the south to the Danube in the north. On the east it had 
 the province of Noricum. 
 
 II. In the Roman division of the provinces it was at first a part of Raetia, 
 but in the time of Augustus it was formed into a separate province. At first 
 it was called the province of Ratio. Sccunda, but this name was gradually 
 supplanted by Vindelicia, which is first mentioned by Sextus Rufus (c. 8). 
 The name Vindelicia is derived from that of the Vmdellci, a warlike tribe in the 
 southern mountainous part of the country ; and it is thought that this tribe had 
 its name from the Vmdo and Licus, now the Wertach and the Lech, which were 
 two of the rivers of the country, between which were their original settlements. 
 
 2. EARLY AND LATER INHABITANT*. 
 
 I. THE original inhabitants of Vindelicia were probably of the same origin with 
 the Raeti. The principal tribes were the following: 1. Vindelici, already men 
 tioned. 2. Isarii, on the River Isarus or Isargus, now the her. 3. Licdtes, on 
 the Licus, now the Lech. 4. Brigantii, on the Lacus Brigantinus. 5. A large 
 number of Boii, who settled between the CEnus, now the Inn, and the Isarus, 
 after they had been driven from their homes in Bohemia by the Marcomanni. 
 
 II. From the third century Vindelicia was constantly invaded by German 
 tribes, and during the fourth and fifth centuries it was entirely occupied by the 
 Alemanni and Boiarii, and the ancient population, among whom were many 
 Roman colonists, were either exterminated or else became serfs of the con 
 querors, and were then Germanized. 
 
 3. RIVERS. 
 
 1. Danubius, already described. All the others that here follow are tributa 
 ries of that stream. Thus, 2. Vmdo or Vcrdo, now the Wertach. 3. LKUS, now 
 the Lech. 4. Isarus or Isargus, now the Iser. Not to be confounded with the 
 River Isarus, mentioned by Strabo as receiving the Atagis, and emptying into the 
 Hadriatic. This latter Isarus is probably the same with the Athesis, now the 
 Adige. 5. Gunlia, now the Gunz. 6. Ilargus, now the Iller, separating, at the 
 present day, Suabia from Bavaria. 
 
 4. CITIES. 
 
 THE Romans founded many colonies in Vindelicia, a great number of which 
 still exist, and their present names are generally corruptions of the Roman ones. 
 We will enumerate some of these along with other places : 1. Augusta Vindel- 
 tcorum, now Augsburg, which Tacitus calls " splcndidissima Rcclia Provincial co 
 lonial This colony was planted by Augustus about twelve years before the 
 Christian era, and became the capital of the whole province. It stood near the 
 influx of the Vindo into the Licus, and between the two rivers. 2. Rcginum 01 
 Casira Regina, to the northeast, on the Danube. It was previously a Celtic 
 town called Artolmga, and was converted into a frontier fortress by the Ro 
 mans. About the beginning of the seventh century it took the name of Rada 
 
 Q 
 
24:2 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 pona, and is now Ratisbon. 3. Campodtinum or Cambodunum, to the southwest 
 of Augusta, now Kempten. 4. Guntia, to the northwest of Augusta, now Gunz- 
 burg, where Roman inscriptions have been found. 5. Brigantia, to the south 
 west of Campudunum, and on the eastern side of the Lacus Brigantinus. It is 
 now Bregenz. 6. Vemania, to the north of the preceding, now Wangen. 7. Ba- 
 tava Castra, now Passau, at the confluence of the Inn and the Danube. 8. Pon* 
 (Eni, now Muhldorf, on the Inn. This place must not he confounded with 
 (Eni Pans or (Enipontum, the Latinized name of Innsbruck in the Tyrol. 
 
 III. NORICUM. 
 
 1. NAME AND EXTENT. 
 
 I. Ndricum (TO Nwpi/cof) took its name from the tribe of the Norici, who were 
 the most celebrated and powerful one in the land. It was bounded on the north 
 by the Danube, on the west by Vindelicia and Ratia, on the east by Pannonia, 
 and on the south by Illyricum and Gallia Cisalpina. It was separated from Vin 
 delicia by the (Enus, now the Inn, and from Gallia Cisalpina by the Alpes Car- 
 nica or Julia, but it is difficult to determine the boundaries between Noricum 
 and Pannonia. as they differed at various times. 
 
 II. Noricum may be said, therefore, to correspond to the modern Styria, Ca~ 
 rinthta, and Salzburg, and to part of Austria and Bavaria. 
 
 III. Noricum was divided into two nearly equal parts by a branch of the Alps, 
 which was called the Alpes Norica. These mountains appear to have been in 
 habited from the earliest times by various tribes of Celtic origin, of whom the 
 most celebrated and powerful were the Norici. Noricum was conquered by 
 Augustus, but it is uncertain whether he reduced it to the form of a province. 
 It appears to have been a province in the time of Claudius, who founded the 
 colony Sabaria, which was afterward included in Pannonia. From the " Noti- 
 tia Imperii" we learn that Noricum was subsequently divided into two provin 
 ces, Nor-icum Ripense and Noricum Mediterraneum, which were separated from 
 each other by the Alpes Noricae. The former, which lay along the Danube, was 
 always guarded by a strong military force, under the command of a dux. 
 
 IV. The iron of Noricum was in much request among the Romans, and, ac 
 cording to Polybius, gold was formerly found in this province in great abundance. 
 
 2. TRIBES AND CITIES. 
 
 I. IN addition to the Norici already mentioned, Noricum was inhabited in the 
 west by the Sevaces, Alauni, and Ambisontii ; but of these tribes we know hardly 
 any thing except the names. 
 
 II. Among the cities of Noricum the following were the most important : 
 
 1. Nor da, the capital of the Norici, where Carbo was routed by the Cimbri, 
 B.C. 113. It was besieged in the time of Csesar by the Boii, and was subse 
 quently destroyed by the Romans. The ancient site is near Newmark in Styria. 
 
 2. Juvavia. or Juvdvum, to the northwest, now S.ilzburg, a colony founded by 
 Hadrian. 3. Ovllia, called subsequently Omlabis, to the northeast, and which 
 took its name from the flocks of sheep accustomed at one time to be fed here. 
 It was founded by Marcus Aurelius, and is now Wets, on the River Traun. 
 
 4. Lcntia, to the northeast, on the Danube, now Lenz. It was built by Gratian. 
 
 5. Lauriacum, just below the preceding, now the village of Lohr, near the city 
 of Ens, on the Danube. It was the most important place in Noricum Ripense, 
 and v as founded by Marcus Aurelius. There was here an important manufac 
 tory of bucklers. 6. Boiodunum, at the junction of the (Enus and the Danube, 
 now Jnnstadt. 
 
PANNONIA. 243 
 
 IV. PANNONIA. 
 
 1. NAME AND EXTENT. 
 
 I. THIS province was hounded on the north and east by the Danube, on the 
 south by Illyricum and Moesia, and on the west by Noricum. It was separated 
 from Mcesia by the Savus, now the Save, and from Illyricum by an imaginary 
 line drawn a few miles south of the Savus ; but it is difficult to determine the 
 boundaries between it and Noricum, as they differed at various times. Under 
 the early Roman emperors, Pannonia could not have extended much further 
 west than the Arrdbo, now the Raab, if Pliny is correct in placing Sabaria in 
 Noricum ; but in later times the two provinces appear to have been separated 
 by Mons Celius, now the Kahlenbcrg. 
 
 II. Pannonia, therefore, according to this last arrangement, would correspond 
 to Sclavonia, parts of Hungary, Lower Austria, Slyria, Croatia, and those parts 
 of Turkish Croatia, Bosnia, and Servia, which immediately touch upon the Save. 
 
 III. The Pannonians are called Peeones by some of the Greek writers, but this 
 appears to have been clearly a mistake, arising from the similarity of the names. 
 The Paeones were probably a Thracian people, while the Pannonians belonged 
 either to the Celtic or Germanic race. They were first attacked by Augustus 
 (B.C. 35), and were subdued during nis reign by Tiberius, and reduced to the 
 form of a province. We learn from Tacitus that, at the death of Augustus, 
 there were several legions stationed in Pannonia, which was then regarded, 
 and continued to be so till the end of the Roman empire, as one of the most 
 important of the Roman provinces, on account of its bordering upon the pow 
 erful nations of the Quadi and lazyges. 
 
 2. ROMAN DIVISIONS OF PANNONIA. 
 
 UNDER the early Roman emperors Pannonia formed only one province ; it 
 was afterward divided, but at what time is uncertain, into two provinces, Pan 
 nonia Superior and Pannonia Inferior, the former comprising the western, and 
 the latter the eastern part of the original province. They were separated 
 from one another by a line drawn from the point at which the Arrabo flows into 
 the Danube, southward to the Savus. A new division of the provinces was 
 subsequently made by the Emperor Galerius. The southern part of the two 
 former provinces, comprising the country between the Dravus and Savus, was 
 formed into a new province, and called Savia or Pannonia Secunda, but the 
 northern part was still divided into two provinces as before. The western part 
 retained the name of Pannonia Superior or Pannonia Prima ; but the name of 
 the eastern province was changed to that of Valeria, in honor of the wife of 
 Galerius, who cleared a great portion of the land in the north of Pannonia of 
 its woods, and connected the lake of Pciso or Pelso, now the Platen See, with 
 the Danube by means of a canal. Pannonia was thus divided into three prov 
 inces, which division appears to have continued till the downfall of the Roman 
 empire. 
 
 3. MOUNTAINS. 
 
 1. Mons Celius, now the Kahlenbcrg, a chain fifty miles in extent. 2. Mons 
 Albius, now Alben or Javornick, a part of the Alpes Julia. 3. Mons Ocra, now 
 the Birnbaumer Wa/d, or that part of the Julian Alps which lies between Gdrz 
 and Laybach. 4. Mons Claudius, now the Bacherberg. 
 
244 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 4. RIVERS. 
 
 THE principal rivers were, 1. The Arrabo or Narrabo, now the Raab, flowing 
 into the Danube. 2. The Dravus, now the Drave, a tributary of the same stream. 
 3. The Savus, now the Save, another tributary. 
 
 5. CITIES. 
 
 PANNONIA possessed several cities of importance, the inhabitants of which 
 appear to have principally depended for their support upon the numerous legions 
 which were quartered in different parts of the province. Following the course 
 of the Danube, the first city we corne to after leaving Noricum is Vindobuna, 
 now Vienna, called Vianiomina by Pliny, who places it in Noricum. In Ptole 
 my s time it was called Juliobona, and was the station of a legion. It is called 
 by most later writers Vindobona, as first given by us ; but in the " Notitia Im- 
 perii" it is written Vmdomana. 2. The next city of importance below Vindo 
 bona, on the Danube, is Carnuntum, which in the early part of the Roman em 
 pire was the most important place in the north of Pannonia. It appears from 
 the account of Pliny to have been a place of considerable commercial import 
 ance. The amber which was collected in the northern part of Europe was 
 brought to this city, and thence conveyed to the different parts of the Roman 
 empire. It was the head-quarters of the army of Marcus Antoninus in the war 
 which he carried on with the Marcomanni. In the time of Ammianus Marcel- 
 linus, that is, in the latter part of the fourth century, it was almost without any 
 population. Its ruins are in the neighborhood of Altenburg. 
 
 3. Below Carnuntum, on the Danube, was Briganlium or Bregcetium, the site 
 of which is fixed by Mannert at the village of Szdny, in Lower Hungary. Am 
 mianus Marcellinus calls it Bregitio. It was the station of a Roman legion, 
 and here the Emperor Valentinian I. died, while making preparations for a war 
 against the Quadi. 4. Following the course of the Danube, we come next to 
 Aquincum or Acincum, now Buda, or, as the Germans call it, Of en, a name in 
 dicative of its natural sudatories or hot baths. It was the principal city in the 
 province of Valeria, and the station of a legion. In a later age, Attila made it 
 occasionally his residence. The Romans had a military station on the other 
 side of the river, which was called Contra-Acincum, and the site of which is 
 now occupied by the city of Pesth. 5. South of Acincum, on the Danube, in the 
 province of Savia, was Mildta or Milata, afterward called Bononia, and now 
 lllok or Ujlak. 6. Below it was Acumincum, now Petcrwardein. 7. And below 
 Acumincum was Taurunum, now Semlin, the most easterly town in the prov 
 ince, near the confluence of the Savus with the Danube. 
 
 The most important towns in the southern part of Pannonia were, 1. Siscia, 
 now Sziszek. 2. Cibala or Cibalis, now Vinkoucze. 3. Sirmium, now Scha- 
 bacz. These three towns were all on the Save. Siscia was on the borders 
 of Illyricum, and the most important town in Pannonia in the time of Augus 
 tus. Cibalce or Cibalis was situate a considerable distance below the preceding, 
 and was memorable for the defeat of Licinianus by Constantine. It was also 
 the birth-place of the Emperor Gratianus. Sirmium was below Cibalae, and, 
 under the later Roman emperors, was the principal town in Pannonia. It was 
 the residence of the emperors when they visited the province, and there was, 
 according to Ammianus Marcellinus, an imperial palace in the town. 4. Mur- 
 sia : at this place the fleet of the Lower Danube was stationed, and near it 
 Magnentius was defeated by Constantius. 
 
MCESIA. 245 
 
 V. MCESIA. 
 
 1. NAME AND EXTENT. 
 
 I. Mcesia was the name of a province of the Roman empire, extending north 
 of the range of Mount Hamus, the modern Balkan, as far as the Danube, and 
 eastward to the Euxine. Its boundaries to the west were the rivers Drinus 
 and Savus, now the Drina and the Save, which divided it from Pannonia and 
 Illyricum. It corresponded, therefore, to the present provinces of Servia and 
 Bulgaria. 
 
 II. Strabo says that the old inhabitants of the country were called Mysi 
 (Mvaoi), and were a tribe of Thracians, like their eastern neighbors the Getae, 
 with whom they have been confounded, and that they were the ancestors of 
 the Mysi of Asia Minor. 
 
 III. The Romans first invaded their country under Augustus, and it was aft 
 erward made into a Roman province, and divided into Mcesia Superior, to the 
 west, between the Drinus and the (Escus, the modern Esker, anAMxsia Inferior, 
 extending from the CEscus to the Euxine. 
 
 IV. The conquest of Dacia by Trajan removed the frontiers of the empire 
 further north, beyond Mcesia ; but Aurelian having, about A.D. 250, for purpo 
 ses of safety, transplanted the Roman inhabitants of Dacia to the right side of 
 the Danube, the name of Dacia Aureliani was given to that part of Mcesia which 
 was now occupied by them, in contradistinction from Dacia Trajani, as the old 
 province of Dacia had been called. This act of Aurelian s doubly strengthened 
 the frontier of the empire by rendering the Danube its boundary, and by aban 
 doning a district too distant to be easily defended, and too thinly peopled to de 
 fend itself. Mcesia thus again became a border province. 
 
 V. At a subsequent period, the Goths, after several attempts, crossed the Dan 
 ube, and occupied Mcesia, during the reign of the Emperor Valens. The Mceso- 
 Goths, for whom Ulphilas translated the Scriptures, were a branch of Goths set 
 tled in Mcesia. Some centuries later, the Bulgarians and Sclavonians occupied 
 the country of Mcesia, and formed the kingdoms of Bulgaria and Servia. 
 
 2. RIVERS. 
 
 ALL the rivers of Mcesia that are deserving of notice flow into the Danube ; 
 such as, 1. Savus, now the Save, which receives the Drinus, now the Drina. 
 2. Margus, now the Morawa. 3. Timachus, now the Timak. 4. CEscus, now 
 the Isker. 5. Escdmus, now the Ozma. 6. latrus or lantrus, now the lantra. 
 7. Noes, now the Kara Lorn. 
 
 3. CITIES. 
 (A.) M&sia Superior. 
 
 1. Singidnnum, now Belgrade. 2. Tricornium, at the junction of the little 
 river Moschius and the Danube, now Tricorni. 3. Aureus Mons, near the mount 
 ain of the same name, where Probus planted the vine, A.D. 278, now Crozca. 
 4. Margus, on the river of the same name, where Carinus was defeated by Di 
 ocletian, now Pobritzar. 5. Viminacium, now Widdin. 6. Ratiaria, now Arzer- 
 Palanca. 7. Naissus, in the interior, to the southwest, now Nezza or Nissa. 
 It was the birth-place of Constantine the Great. 8. Ulpianum, south of Naissus, 
 embellished by Justinian, and hence called, after this, Justiniana Secunda, now 
 Kostendil. 9. Sardica or Ulpia Sardica, in a plain watered by. the River CEscus. 
 The Emperor Maximian was born in its vicinity, and it was also famous for a 
 
246 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 council held there. It took the name of Ulpia from the inhahitants of Ulpia, in 
 Dacia Trajani, having been transferred thither. It is now Triaditza, near Sophia. 
 10. Tauresium, to the southeast, Justinian s birth-place, now Giustendil. 
 
 (B.) McBsia Inferior. 
 
 1. Nicopolis ad Istmm, at the mouth of the latrus, one of the tributaries of 
 the Danube. It was built by Trajan in commemoration of a victory over the 
 Dacians, and is now Nicopoli. This place was the residence of Ulphilas. 2. Do- 
 rostorum, on the Danube, now Silistria or Sistria, the station of the eleventh 
 legion. 3. Axiopolis, now Rassova. Here, according to Ptolemy, the Danube 
 changed its name to Ister. 4. Trosmis, to the northeast of the preceding, men 
 tioned by Ovid in his Epistles from Pontus. 5. JEgissus, to the east, Ovid s 
 - Egypsus. 6. Tibisca, a fortified post, near the Pans Darii, on the spot where 
 Darius Hystaspis constructed his bridge over the Ister. 7. Istropolis, below the 
 mouths of the Ister, a Milesian colony, subsequently called Constantia, and now 
 Chiustange. 8. Tomi, to the southwest, Ovid s place of exile, now Tomiswar, 
 on the coast of Bulgaria. 9. Odessus, to the south, also on the coast, now Var 
 na. 10. Marcianopolis, west of the preceding, a settlement of Trajan s, and 
 named after his sister Marcia. It is now called by the Turks Eski Stamboul, by 
 the Bulgarians Pristhlara, and by the Greeks Marcenopoli. 
 
 That part of Lower Mcesia which lay between the Euxine, the mouths of the 
 Ister, and Mount Hsemus, and forming, therefore, a considerable tract along the 
 shore, was sometimes called Pontus, not to be confounded, however, with Pon 
 tus in Asia Minor. Frequent mention is made of the former in the poetry of 
 Ovid, after his exile. Tomi lay in this district, and Ovid s Epistola e Ponio de 
 rived their name from this quarter. 
 
 VI. ITALIA. 
 
 1. NAME. 
 
 I. THE origin of the name Italia is uncertain. Some of the 
 ancient writers derived the term from Italus, a monarch or 
 chieftain of the CEnotri ; while others made the word have ref 
 erence to the numerous and fine oxen which the country pro 
 duced, and accordingly deduced the name from the Greek /ra- 
 Adf, or its corresponding Latin term vitulns. Niebuhr, how 
 ever, with great plausibility, maintains that Italia means noth 
 ing more than the country of the It all ^ and is identical with 
 Vitalia, the It all having been also originally called Vitali. 
 
 II. Other names for Italy were Hesperia, Ausoma, Saturnia y 
 and (Enotria. The first of these was originally given to it by 
 the Greeks, and was subsequently adopted by the Latin poets, 
 and means "the Western Land," having reference to the po 
 sition of Italy, as being to the west of Greece. The names 
 Ausonia and Saturnia originated with the Lathi poets, and the 
 former means " the land of the Ausones," an ancient people of 
 the country; the latter, " the land of Saturn," in allusion to 
 
ITALIA. 247 
 
 the legend of Saturn s having taken up his dwelling-place in 
 Italy when driven from the skies. The term (Enotria, or " the 
 land of the CEnotri," is of Greek origin, and was applied by 
 that nation merely to the peninsula forming the southwestern 
 part of Italy, where dwe^the CEnotri, an ancient race. The 
 Roman poets, however, extended the appellation to the whole 
 of Italy. 
 
 / III. The name Italia was originally only a partial denomi- 
 nation, and was given at first to that southern extremity of the 
 boot which lay below the Sinus Scyllaceus or Scylleticus, now 
 Gulf of Squillace, and the Sinus Terinczus or Lameticus, now 
 Gulf of St. Euphemia. 
 
 IV. It was afterward extended to all the country south of 
 the River Laus, in the west, which empties into the Laus Si 
 nus, and the city of Metapontum in the east.on the coast of 
 the Sinus Tarentinus, Tarentum itself being still, as yet, be 
 yond the limits of Italy, and belonging to lapygia. At a still 
 later period, when the Greek colonies in the soura of the pen 
 insula formed an alliance among themselves for the purpose of 
 mutual protection against Dionysius of Syracuse on the one 
 hand, and the Lucanians and Bruttians on the other, the name 
 Italia comprehended the whole country south of a line drawn 
 from Posidonia or Pcestum to Tarentum. 
 
 V. After the war with Pyrrhus, B.C. 278, when the Romans 
 had become masters of the whole of southern Italy, the name 
 Italia comprised the southern and middle parts of the penin 
 sula up to the River Tiber, including also a part of Picenum.. 
 Again, about the time of Polybius, the name was used in a 
 still wider sense, embracing the whole country to the south of 
 the Rubicon, on the upper coast, and the Macra on the lower. 
 And finally, in the reign of Augustus, the name Italia was ex 
 tended to the foot of the Alps. 
 
 "VI. Previously to this last-mentioned and final extension of 
 the name, the country between the Alps and the rivers Rubicon 
 and Macra had been called Gallia Cisalpina, or Gaul on this 
 (the Roman) side of the Alps, to distinguish it from Gallia 
 Transalpine,, or Gaul beyond the Alps. So again, w r hen Italy 
 extended up to the Rubicon and Macra, it was commonly re 
 garded as being subdivided into tw r o portions, namely, Italia 
 Propria and Magna Grcecia, the boundaries between the two 
 
248 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 being the River Silarus, now Sele, on the lower coast, flow 
 ing into the Sinus Pcestanus and the Frento, now Fortore, on 
 the upper, near the southern confines of the territory of the 
 Frentani. 
 
 VII. Hence arose the common division of the peninsula into 
 three great portions, namely, GallitrCisalpina in the north, 
 Italia Propria in the centre, and Magna Grcecia in the south. 
 OBS. 1. The derivation of the name Italia from iraAof or vitulus, is given by 
 Festus, " Italia dicta, quod magnos italos, i. e., boves, habet," and also by Aulus 
 Gellius (xi., 1) from Varro : "M. Varro, in antiquitatibus rerum humanarum, tcrram 
 Italiam de Grceco vocabulo appellatam scripsit ; quoniam boves vcteri lingua ira Aoi 
 vocitati sint, buceraque in ea terra gigni pascique solita sint complurima." Both 
 of these etymologies are deservedly condemned by Niebuhr. The Oscan name 
 of Italy was Viiellium, following the analogy of Latium, Samnium, &c. Servius 
 mentions Vitalia as one among the various names of the country. (Ad Mn., 
 vii., 328.) 
 
 2. The name Hesperia was also applied sometimes to Spain, but then, for dis 
 tinction sake, this latter country was usually termed Hesperia ultima. (Con 
 sult page 14.) Virgil styles Italy Hesperia Magna. (JEn., i., 569.) 
 
 3. Saturn, according to the legend, concealed himself in Latium, and hence 
 the poetic derivation of the name Latium, from lateo, " to -lie hid." Compare 
 Ovid, Fast., i., 238, scq. There is a singular coincidence between this fable and 
 the derivation which some give of the name Saturnus from the Hebrew sathar, 
 i. e., " latuit," " se abscondit." 
 
 2. BOUNDARIES AND DIVISIONS. 
 
 I. THE boundaries of Italy, in the reign of Augustus, may be 
 given as follows : on the north the Alps, on the south the Mare 
 Ionium or Ionian Sea, on the northeast the Mare Superum or 
 Hadriaticum, now the Adriatic Sea, and on the southwest the 
 Mare Inferum or Tyrrhenum, now the Sea of Italy. 
 
 II. The extreme limit of Italy to the northwest was formed 
 in the reign of Augustus, by the Alpes Maritime? or Maritime 
 Alps, and the River Varus, now Var, which empties into the 
 Sinus Ligusticus or Gulf of Genoa. The limit to the north 
 east, in the time of that same emperor, was at first Tergeste, 
 now Trieste ; but when the province of Histria was included 
 by Augustus within the limits of Italy, the northeastern limit 
 was removed to the little river Arsia, now the Arsa. 
 
 III. We are informed by Pliny that, after Augustus had ex 
 tended the frontiers of Italy to the Maritime Alps and the Riv 
 er Arsia, he divided that country into eleven regions : 1. Cam 
 pania, including also Latium. 2. Apulia, to which was an 
 nexed part of Samnium. 3. Lucania and Bruttium. 4. Sam- 
 
ITALIA. 249 
 
 mum, together with the country of the Sabines, Marsi, JEqui, 
 &c. 5. Picenum. 6. Umbria. 7. Etruria. 8. Flaminia, ex 
 tending from the Apennines to the Padus or Po. 9. Liguria. 
 
 10. Venetia, containing Histria and the country of the Garni. 
 
 11. Transpadana, comprehending what remained between Ve- 
 netia and the Alps. This division, however, is too seldom no 
 ticed to be of much utility. The* following distribution has 
 been adopted by most geographical writers, and will be found 
 much more convenient, namely : 
 
 1. Liguria ; 2. Gallia Cisalpina ; 3. Venetia, including the 
 Carni and Histria; 4. Etruria; 5. Umbria and Picenum; 
 
 6. The Sabini, JEqui, Marsi, Peligni, Vestini, Marruclni ; 
 
 7. Roma; 8. Latium ; 9. Campania; 10. Samnium and the 
 Frentani ; 11. Apulia, including Daunia and Messapia or la- 
 pygia ; 12. Lucania ; 13. Bruttium. 
 
 . , ^. EARLY AND LATKII INHABITANTS. 
 
 I. THE greater part of Italy was inhabited in theeaxliest times 
 by Pelasgians, belonging to the same stock as the original in 
 habitants of Greece, and, in all probability, forming part of the 
 great Sclavonic race. 
 
 II. The Siculi, about the lower part of the Tiber, the Tyr- 
 rheni in Etruria, the Aborigines in the neighborhood of Reate 
 (called, also, Casci, Prisci, and Sacrani), the C hones and (Eno- 
 trians in the west, and the Peucetians in the east of southern 
 Italy, appear all to have been branches of this same widely- 
 spread race of the Pelasgians. 
 
 III. A second great tribe who inhabited the north of Italy 
 were the Umbri, who are called the most ancient inhabitants 
 of the country. Their territory seems originally to have been 
 very extensive, and it is not improbable that they may have be 
 longed to the same stock as the ancient Siculi ; but the Umbri- 
 ans are for us only the name of a great forgotten people. 
 
 IV. The country in the northwest of Italy was inhabited by 
 the Ligurians, who in early times seem to have occupied a 
 much larger tract of country than afterward: their history, 
 however, is unfortunately unknown to us till the time when 
 we find their nation in a state of decay and dissolution. 
 
 V. The country between the Tiber and the lower sea, and as 
 far north as the Rgetian Alps, was inhabited by the Etruscans, 
 
250 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 or, as they called themselves, Rasena. They seem to have in 
 vaded Italy from the north, and to have subdued the Pelasgian 
 Tyrrhenians and occupied their country. The Umbrians also 
 lost a considerable portion of their territory by the conquest of 
 the Etruscans : tradition related that the Etruscans conquered 
 three hundred Umbrian towns ; ha^yrhey are said to have even 
 carried their conquests as\far as Campania ; and Velleius Pa- 
 terculus states that ^ towns of Nola and Capua were founded 
 by them about forty-^^en years before the building of Rome. 
 There can be no doubt that the Etruscans were a mighty na 
 tion. Although their history is involved in the greatest obscu 
 rity, it is manifest that they possessed a high degree of civili 
 zation, and that arts and sciences flourished among them long 
 before the foundation of Rome, which derived many of its re 
 ligious and political forms from them. 
 
 VI. Tlie country about Amiternum, in the Apennines, was 
 inhabited by the jSV//>///t N, who formed the stock to wliich be 
 longed the MarM, Peligni, Sammies, and Lucdni. these 
 tribes^Wiich are now usually called by the generic name of 
 Sabellians, produced a complete revolution in central and south 
 ern Italy. The Vesting Marrucini, and Frentani belonged, in 
 all probability, to the Sabellians. 
 
 VII. The Oscans or Opicans inhabited the country to the 
 southwest of the Sabellians, from the Tiber to the River Laiis. 
 The Ausones or Aurunci formed a distinct branch of this race, 
 and the smaller tribes of the Volsci, Sidicini, Saticiili, and 
 Mqul likewise belonged to it. The Oscan language was spo 
 ken throughout the southwestern part of Italy, and was under 
 stood even at Rome, where Oscan plays were performed and 
 understood down to a comparatively late period. 
 
 VIII. The peninsula forming the southwest of Italy was in 
 habited by the CEnotri ; and the districts to the north and east 
 of the CEnotri were occupied by the Daunii^ C hones, Peucetii, 
 and Sallentmi or Messapii. 
 
 IX. The whole of southern Italy, moreover, from the River 
 Silarus in the west, and the Frento in the east, was subse 
 quently called Magna Grcecia (MeydA?? EAAa^), on account of 
 the numerous Greek colonies established in that part of the 
 peninsula, which formed the connecting link between the civ 
 ilization, arts, and literature of the Italians and the Greeks of 
 the mother country. 
 
ITALIA. 251 
 
 4. HISTORICAL EPOCHS. 
 
 THE history of ancient Italy resolves itself most naturally into 
 that of the different nations. inhabiting the peninsula, and in 
 particular forms part of the history of Rome. We will, there 
 fore, not dwell upon it here. 
 
 5. M O U N T A I N S. 
 
 Main Chams. 
 
 I. Alpes, now the Alps. Their name is derived from their 
 height, Alp being the old Celtic appellation for a lofty mount 
 ain. The Alps extend from the Sinus Flanaticus or Gulf of 
 Carnero, at the top of the Gulf of Venice, and the sources of 
 the River Colapis, now Kulpe, to Vada Sabatia, now Savona, 
 on the Sinus Ligusticus or Gulf of Genoa. The whole ex 
 tent, which is in a crescent form, is nearly six hundred British 
 miles. The Alps have been divided by both ancient and mod 
 ern geographers into various portions, of which the principal 
 are the following : 1. Alpes Maritimce or IN^^ime Alps, ex 
 tending from the environs of Niccca, now Nice, to Mons Vesu- 
 lus, now Monte Viso. 2. Alpes Cotiicc or Co^tian Alps, so 
 called from Cottius, a monarch over several^Bgurian tribes in 
 this quarter during the reign of Augustus, unto whom he was 
 tributary. They reach from Monte Viso to Mont Cenis, and 
 contain Mont Genevre, which Hannibal, according to some, 
 crossed on his march into Italy. 3. Alpes Graice or Graian 
 Alps, the etymology of which name has already been explained 
 (page 159, 7). They reachTfrom Mont Cents to the Little St. 
 Bernard, and it was over this last-mentioned mountain, accord 
 ing to the more correct opinion, that the route of Hannibal into 
 Italy actually lay. 4. Alpes Pennine or Pennine Alps, so 
 called from the Celtic Pen, " a summit," a name well deserved, 
 since they contain the highest summits and most dreadful gla 
 ciers of the whole ridge. This chain bounds the southern side 
 of the Valais, and extends from Mont Blanc to the Simplon. 
 5. Alpes LeponticB or Lepontian Alps, so called because sepa 
 rating Italy from the Lepontii, in the southwestern angle of 
 Rsetia. These are sometimes called the Helvetian Alps, as 
 covering western Switzerland, and extend from Mont Rosa, on 
 both sides of the Rhine, to St. Gothard. 6. Alpes Ratlcce or 
 
252 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Raetian Alps, so called because separating Italy from Rsetia. 
 They extend from the sources of the Rhone, through the Ori 
 sons and Tyrol, tothe Dreihernspitz , on the borders of Salz 
 burg- and Carii^^^^J. Alpe^foricce or Noric Alps, so called 
 from their running off into and traversing Noricum. They run 
 from the, last-mentioned point through all Carintliia, Salzburg-, 
 Austria, and Styria. 8. A//>P,S C arnica sive Julia;, termina 
 ting in tho Mons Albius, on the confines of Illyricum. They 
 were called Carmcce from" the ("ami, who dwelt at their foot, 
 and Julice from Julius Csesar, who commenced a road over 
 them, which Augustus completed. 
 
 OBS. 1. "How different," remarks Heeren, "would have been the whole his 
 tory of Europe, had the Alpine barrier, instead of being near the Mediterranean, 
 been removed to the shores ot the North Sea ! This boundary, it is true, seems 
 of less moment in our time, when the enterprising spirit of Europe has made 
 a road across the Alps, as well as a path over the ocean ; but it was of decisive 
 importance in antiquity. The north and south were then physically, morally, 
 and politically divided ; that chain long remained the protecting bulwark of the 
 one against the other ; and although Caesar, by bursting through these bounda 
 ries, in some measure removed the political landmarks, the distinction still con 
 tinues apparent between the Roman part of Europe and that which never yielded 
 to the Romans. "M| 
 
 2. The march of Hannibal across the Alps is one of the most remarkable 
 events in ancient nBHy, and has given rise to much discussion among modern 
 scholars. The following general results appear to have been sufficiently well 
 established : 1. After a careful examination of the text of Polybius, and a com 
 parison of the different localities, his narrative will be found, on the whole, to 
 agree best with the supposition that Hannibal crossed the Graian Alps or Little 
 St. Bernard, though it can not be denied that there are some difficulties attend 
 ing this line, especially in regard to the descent into Italy. 2. Caelius Antipa- 
 ter certainly represented him as taking this route (Liv., xxi., 38) ; and as he is 
 known to have followed the Greek history of Silenus, who is said to have ac 
 companied Hannibal in many of his campaigns, his authority is of the greatest 
 weight. 3. Livy and Strabo, on the contrary, both suppose him to have crossed 
 the Cottian Alps or Mont Genevre. But the main argument that appears to have 
 weighed with Livy, as it has done with several modern writers on the subject, 
 is the assumption that Hannibal descended in the first instance into the country 
 of the Taurini, % which is opposed to the direct testimony of Polybius, who says 
 expressly that he descended among the Insubrians, and subsequently mentions 
 his attack on the Taurini. 4. According to Livy himself (xxi., 29), the Gaulish 
 emissaries who acted as Hannibal s guides were Boians, and it was natural that 
 these should conduct him by the passage that led directly into the territories 
 of their allies and brothers in arms, the Insubrians, rather than into that of the 
 Taurini, who were at this very time in a state of hostility with the Insubrians. 
 (Polyb., iii., 60.) And this remark will serve to explain why Hannibal chose 
 apparently a longer route instead of the more direct one of the Mont Genevre. 
 Lastly, it is remarkable that Polybius, though he censures the exaggerations 
 and absurdities with which earlier writers had encumbered their narrative (iii., 
 
ITALIA. 253 
 
 47, seq.}, does not intimate that any doubt was entertained as to the line of his 
 march ; and Pompey, in a letter to the senate, written in 73 B.C. (ap: Sallust., 
 Hist. Frag-., lib. iii.), alludes to the route of Hannibal across the Alps as some 
 thing well known. Hence it appears clear that the passage by which he 
 crossed them must have been one of those frequented. in subsequent times by 
 the Romans ; and this argument seems decisive against the claims of the Mont 
 Cenis, which have been advocated by some modern writers, that pass having 
 apparently never been used until the Middle A^es. Of the latest historians, it 
 may be noticed that Niebuhr (Lcct. on Rom. Hist., vol. i., p. 170) and Arnold 
 (Hist, of Rome, vol. iii., p. 83-92, note M), as well as Botticher (Gcsch. d. Car- 
 thager, p. 261), have decided in favor of the Little St.m Mil-d, while Michelet 
 (Hist. Romaine, vol. ii., p. 10) and Thierry (Hist, des Gaulois, vol. i., p. 276), in 
 common with almost all French writers, adopt the Mont Genevre or Mont Cenis. 
 (Smith, Diet. Biog., art. Hannibal ; compare Ukert, Hannibal s Zug uber die Alpen, 
 appended to the second part of the second volume of his Geographic d. Griech. 
 u. Romer.) 
 
 II. Apenninus Mons, now the Apennines. This chain, branch 
 ing off from the Maritime Alps in the neighborhood of Genua, 
 now Genoa, runs diagonally from the Sinus Ligusticus to the 
 Hadriaticum Mare, in the vicinity of Ancona ; thence contin 
 uing nearly parallel with the Adriatic as far as the Garganum 
 Promontorium, now the Promontory of Gargano, it again in 
 clines to the Mare Inferum, till it finally terminates in the 
 promontory of Leucopetra near Rhegium. 
 
 OBS. The Latin writers most commonly employ the singular number in speak 
 ing of this chain. The term is masculine of itself, and not merely on account of 
 the addition of Mons, since Polybius also invariably has 6 ATTEWIVO^. The la 
 ter Greeks, and among them Strabo, following the analogy of their own lan 
 guage, first changed the form of expression to the neuter, calling the chain TO 
 ATTSWIVOV opof, and also in the plural, rd Arrevviva 6pn, and hence the plural 
 form has come down to our own times. The name Apenninus contains evi 
 dently the Celtic radical penn, " a summit," " a mountain-top." The true form 
 is Apenninus, as we have given it, not Appenninus, nor Apeninus. Compare 
 Klotz, Handwdrterb. der Lat. Spr., s. v. 
 
 III. The inferior chains, as well as the individual mountains, 
 will be given in the account of the several divisions of Italy. 
 
 6. PROMONTORIES. 
 
 THE principal promontories of Italia were twenty in number, 
 namely, nine along the lower coast, down to and including Leu 
 copetra ; seven along the southeastern shore, up to and inclu 
 ding the lapygium Promontorium, the lapygum tria Promon- 
 toria being reckoned merely as one ; and four along the upper 
 coast, as follows : 
 
254 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 1. On the Lower Coast. 
 
 I. Populonium Promontorium, a lofty cliff on the coast of 
 Etraria, running oujjjnto the sea like a peninsula, and on which 
 was situate the city of Populonium. It is now called Capo di 
 Campana. On the summit of it was a tower for watching the 
 approach of the tunny fish. From this promontory one could 
 plainly see the island of Ilva, now Elba,a.nd even Corsica and 
 Sardinia. 
 
 II. Cossdnum Promontorium, on the coast of Etruria, below 
 the preceding, and deriving its ancient name from the city of 
 Cossa or Cosa, in its immediate vicinity. There is here also 
 a peninsula, forming a double bay, in the midst of which rises 
 the Mons Argentarius, now Monte Argentario, which is also 
 the modern name of the promontory. 
 
 III. Circceum Promontor.ium^ on the coast of Latium, below 
 Antium, now Monte Circello. This promontory, which is, in 
 fact, a bold, projecting mountain, was fabled to have been the 
 residence of Circe, the adjacent country being very low, and 
 giving the promontory at a distance the appearance of an isl 
 and. Some accidental resemblance in name most probably 
 gave rise, in the first instance, to the legend. Homer s account, 
 however, of the Isle of Circe, does not at all suit this spot. The 
 Homeric island was a low one, whereas this promontory is a 
 lofty one. The promontory of Circeii was famed for its oysters 
 in the time of both Horace and Juvenal. 
 
 IV. Misenum Promontoriuin, on the coast of Campania, now 
 Capo Miseno, and forming the upper extremity of the Sinus 
 Crater, or Bay of Naples. It was so named, according to Vir 
 gil, from Misenus, one of the followers of ^Eneas, who was 
 drowned here, and buried at the base of the promontory. The 
 harbor of Misenum, or Misenus Portus, became one of the first 
 naval stations in the empire, being the station of the fleet ap 
 pointed to guard the coast of the lower sea. The neighboring 
 country abounded with marine villas, and there was a celebra 
 ted one on the brow of the promontory itself, overlooking the 
 sea, which belonged at one time to Caius Marius, and after 
 ward came into the possession, first of Lucullus, and then of 
 Tiberius the emperor, who died here. 
 
 V. Minervce Promontorium, closing the Bay of Naples to the 
 
ITALIA. 255 
 
 southwest, was so called from a temple of Minerva which stood 
 on it, and which was fabled to have been erected by Ulysses. 
 It was also called Surrentinum Promontorium, from the city 
 of Surrentum, which stood close by. The modern name of the 
 promontory is Punta della Campanella. Another ancient name 
 was Sirenusdrum Promontorium, or Cape of the Sirens. 
 
 VI. Posidlum Promontorium, on the coast of Lucania, and 
 inclosing the Sinus Pczstanus, or Gulf of Salepno, to the south. 
 It is now Punta di Licosa. 
 
 VII." Palinurum Promontorium, also on the coast of Lucania, 
 and now Capo di Palinuro. Tradition ascribed the name of 
 this promontory to Palinums, the pilot of ^Eneas, who was 
 buried on it. Orosius records a disastrous shipwreck on the 
 rock of Palinurus, sustained by a Roman fleet on its return 
 from Africa, when one hundred and fifty vessels were lost. Au 
 gustus also encountered great peril on this part of the coast, 
 when, according to Appian, many of his ships were dashed 
 against this headland. 
 
 VIIT. Ccenys Promontorium, just below the famous rock of 
 Scylla, and facing the Promontory of Pelorus in Sicily, forming 
 by means of it the narrowest part of the Fretum Siculum. The 
 modern name is Punta<del Pezzo, called, also, Coda del Volpe. 
 Holstenius less correctPj^contends for the Torre del Cavallo. 
 
 IX. Leucopetra Promontorium, or, as its name indicates in 
 Greek, the White-Rock Promontory, just below Rhegium, on 
 the Fretum Siculum, and regarded by all ancient writers on 
 the geography of Italy as the termination of the Apennines. 
 A difference of opinion exists as to the modern point of land 
 which answers to it. The one most generally followed is in 
 favor of the Capo deW Armi. 
 
 2. On the Southeastern Shore. 
 
 I. Herculis Promontorium or Herculeum Promontorium, the 
 most southern angle of Italy to the east, and formed by a spur 
 of the Apennines. It is now Capo Spartivento. 
 
 II. Zephyrium Promontorium^ a short distance to the north 
 east of the preceding, now Capo di Bruzzano. The Locrians 
 who settled in this quarter from Greece, derived from this prom 
 ontory the appellation of Epizephyrii, as having originally es 
 tablished themselves on the Zephyrian promontory. 
 
256 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 III. Cocintum Promontorium, to the northeast of the pre 
 ceding, now Capo di Stilo. According to Polybius, this prom 
 ontory marked the separation of the Ionian from the Sicilian 
 Sea. 
 
 IV. lap y gum Tria Promontoria, three capes, in close prox 
 imity, shutting in .the Sinus Scyllacms, or Gulf of Squihace, 
 to the northeast. Their modern names are Capo della Castel- 
 la, Capo Pdzzuto, and Capo della Nave. Close to these capes 
 were formerly two rocks or islets, each distinguished by a spe 
 cific appellation, but which have now entirely disappeared*. The 
 nearest was reported to be Qgygia, the island of Calypso, 
 where Ulysses was so long detained an unwilling prisoner. 
 The other, the more distant of the two, was called the island 
 of the Dioscuri. 
 
 V. Lacinium Promontormm, a short distance above, to the 
 northeast, and forming the lower extremity of the Sinus Taren- 
 tinuSj or Gulf of Taranto. It is now called Capo delle Colonne 
 and Capo Nao, from the remains of the celebrated temple of 
 the Lacinian Juno, which are still visible on its summit. This 
 edifice was famed for its great antiquity, the magnificence of 
 its decorations, and the veneration with which it was regarded. 
 It was surrounded by a thick grove o aged trees, in the midst 
 of which were spacious meads. Here nWmerous flocks and herds 
 were pastured in perfect security, as they were accounted sa 
 cred. From the profits accruing out of the sale of this cattle, 
 which was destined for sacrifices, it is said that a column of 
 solid gold was erected and consecrated to the goddess. On the 
 festival of Juno, which was celebrated annually, an immense 
 concourse of the inhabitants of all the Italian Greek cities as 
 sembled here, and a grand display of the most rare and precious 
 productions of art and nature was exhibited. This sanctuary 
 was respected by Pyrrhus, as well as by Hannibal, the latter 
 of whom caused an inscription in Greek and Punic characters 
 to be deposited here, recording the number of his troops and 
 their several victories and achievements. But several years 
 afterward it sustained great injury from Fulvius Flaccus, a 
 censor, who caused a great portion of the roof, which was cov 
 ered with marble, to be removed, for the purpose of adorning a 
 temple of Fortune constructed by him at Rome. So great an 
 outcry was raised against this act of impiety, that orders were 
 
ITALIA. 257 
 
 issued by the senate that every thing should be restored to its 
 former state ; but this could not be effected, no architect being 
 found of skill sufficient to replace the marble tiles according to 
 their original position. 
 
 VI. Crimisa Promontorium, above the preceding, to the north 
 west, now Capo d"* Alice. The River Crimisa, now Fiumeni- 
 ca, was a short distance below. 
 
 VII. lapygium Promontorium, called, also, Sallentinum 
 Promontorium, now Capo di Leuca, at the southern extrem 
 ity of lapygia, in the territory of the Sallentini. When the 
 art of navigation was yet in its infancy, this great headland 
 presented a conspicuous landmark to mariners bound from the 
 ports of Greece to Sicily, of which they always availed them 
 selves. The fleets of Athens, after having circumnavigated the 
 Peloponnesus, are represented on this passage as usually mak 
 ing for Corcyra, whence they steered straight across to this 
 promontory, and then coasted along the south of Italy for the 
 remainder of their voyage. There seems, indeed, to have been 
 a sort of haven here, capable of affording shelter to vessels in 
 tempestuous weather. Strabo describes this celebrated point 
 of land as denning, together with the Ceraunian Mountains, 
 the line of separation between the Adriatic and the Ionian Seas, 
 while it formed with the opposite cape of Lacinium the en 
 trance to the Tarentine Gulf. 
 
 3. On the Upper Coast. 
 
 I. Brundisii Promontorium, one of the two headlands at the 
 mouth of the harbor of Brundisium, now Capo Cavallo. 
 
 II. Gargdnum Promontorium, an extensive neck of land, ly 
 ing between what are now the Bay of Rodi and the Bay of 
 Manfredonia, the latter being the ancient Sinus Urias. It is 
 in this sense that Strabo understands the appellation, namely, 
 as belonging to the entire neck of land, not merely to a part of 
 it. This neck of land was formed, in fact, by the ridge of 
 Mount Garganus, and its modern name is Monte Gargano, 
 or, as some give it, Monte St. Angela. The ridge itself ter 
 minates in a bold headland, which was also called Garganum 
 Promontorium, and is now Punta di Viesti. Mount Garga 
 nus was covered with thick forests of oak, and is often alluded 
 to on this account by the Latin poets. 
 
 R 
 
258 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 III. Cumerium Promontorium, on the coast of Picenum, now 
 Monte Comero, or, as it is sometimes called, Monte Guasco. 
 This promontory has a semicircular shape, and on the declivity 
 of the hill which formed it stood the city of Ancona. 
 
 IV. Polaticum Promontorium, at the southern extremity of 
 Histria, now Punta di Promontore. Its ancient name was de 
 rived from the city of Pola, in its immediate vicinity. 
 
 7, CHIEF RIVERS. 
 
 I. Pddus, now the Po, rising in Mons Vesulus, now Monte 
 Viso, and falling into the Hadriaticum Mare or Adriatic Sea. 
 It flows from two small takes on Monte Viso, the one situated 
 immediately below the highest peak, the other still higher up, 
 between that peak and the lesser one called Visoletto. The 
 waters of this second lake find vent in a great cavern, and this 
 probably is the source to which Pliny alludes when he speaks 
 of the origin of the Po as being a remarkable sight. This river 
 was called by the Greeks the Erlddnus. Its Celtic name was 
 Bodincus. The whole course of the stream, including its wind 
 ings, is about four hundred and fifty miles. Its waters are li 
 able to sudden increase from the melting of the snows and from 
 heavy falls of rain, the rivers that flow into it being almost all 
 mountain streams, and in the flat country, in the lower part of 
 its course, great dikes are erected on both sides of the river to 
 protect the lands from inundation. The Etrurians are said 
 to have first applied themselves to the embanking of the Po. 
 It receives a great number of tributaries, its channel being the 
 final receptacle of almost every stream which rises on the east 
 ern and southern declivities of the Alps, and the northern de 
 clivity of the Apennines. The mouths of the Po were ancient 
 ly reckoned seven in number, the principal one, which was 
 the southernmost, being called Padusa, and now Po di Pri- 
 maro. It was this mouth, also, to which the name of Ostium 
 Spineticum, or Eridanum, was applied. It sent off a branch 
 from itself near Trigaboli, which was anciently called Volana 
 Ostium, but is now denominated Po di Ferrara. Pliny men 
 tions the following other branches or mouths of the Po : the 
 Caprasicc Ostium, now Bocca di bel occhio ; the Sagis Os 
 tium, now Fossa ge ; and the Carbonaria, now the Po d Ariano. 
 The Fossa Philistina is the Po grande, and the Tartarus, now 
 
ITALIA. 259 
 
 Tartaro, which communicated with it, is probably the Hadria 
 of Stepharms Byzantinus, or the Hatrianus of Ptolemy. The 
 Fossa Philistina is spoken of as a very considerable canal, hav 
 ing seven arms or cuts, commonly known by the name of Sep- 
 tem Maria, drawn off from it to the sea. These works were 
 undertaken by the Etrurians for the purpose of draining the 
 marshy lands about Hadria. The Po is rendered famous in 
 the legends of mythology by the fate of Phaethon, who fell into 
 it when struck down from heaven by the thunderbolt of Jove. 
 We will now proceed to name the tributaries of this stream. 
 
 (A.) Tributaries of the Padus from the North, beginning at 
 
 the West. 
 
 1. Duria. There were two rivers of this name, the Duria Major and the Duria 
 Minor. The Duria Minor was the more western one of the two. It rose in the 
 Alpes Cottice, on what is now Mont Genevre, and joined the Padus near Augusta 
 Taurinorum, the modern Turin. It is now the Doria Riparia. The Duria Ma 
 jor rose on what is now the Col dc la Seignc, where the Alpes Pennince com 
 menced, and fell into the Padus between Bodincomdgus and Quadrata, at what 
 is now Crescenlino. Its modern name is the Doria Baltea. 2. Sessites, to the 
 east of the preceding, now the Sessia or Sesia. It passed by Vercella, now Ver- 
 celli. 3. Ticvius, now the Tessino, one of the largest of the tributaries of the 
 Po, rose in the Lepontine Alps, on what is now Mont St. Gothard, passed through 
 the Lacus Verbanus or Lago Maggiore, ami entered the Po a little distance be 
 low Ticinum, the modern Pavia. The waters of the Ticinus are celebrated by 
 the ancient poets for their clearness and beautiful color. On the banks of this 
 river Hannibal gained his first victory over the Romans. 4. Lambrus, now the 
 Lambro, rose in the Lacus Euptlis, now Lago di Pusciana, among the mountains 
 that separate the lower part of the Lacus Larius into two arms, and emptied 
 into the Po between Ticinum and Placentia. 5. Addua or Aduas (*A<Jouaf ), now 
 the Adda, rose in the Raetian Alps, formed in its course the Lacus Larius or Lago 
 di Co-mo, and, emerging from it again, fell into the Po between Placentia and Cre 
 mona. 6. Ollius, now the Oglio, rose in the Raetian Alps, formed in its course 
 the Lacus Sebmus, now Lago d Iseo, and fell into the Po a little distance from 
 Nuceria. It received in its course the Mela, now Mclla, and the Clusius, now 
 Chiese, which separated the Cenomani from the Insubres. 7. Mincius, now Min- 
 cio, issued from the Lacus Bcnacus, now Lago di Garda, flowed by Mantua, and, 
 after a sluggish and winding course, fell into the Po to the west of Hostilia, now 
 Ostiglia. 
 
 (B.) Tributaries of the Padus from the South, beginning- at 
 
 the West. 
 
 1. Tanarus, now Tanaro, the largest of all the tributaries of the Po, on the 
 right or southern bank of the stream. It rose in the Apennines, where they 
 branched off from the Maritime Alps, and after receiving the Stura, which 
 still retains its name, and also the Urbis, now the Orba, fell into the Padus, 
 near Laumcllum, the modern Lomello. 2. Trcbia, which still retains its name, 
 
260 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 rose in the Apennines, to the northeast of Genua, and fell into the Padus a 
 little to the west of Placentia. On the left bank of the Trebia, about eight 
 miles from Placentia, Hannibal gained his second victory over the Romans. 
 3. Tarns, now Taro. 4. Parma, still retaining its name, and flowing by the city 
 of Parma. 5. Nicia, now the Lenza, which the ^Emilian Way crossed a little 
 before Tanetum. 6. Gabellus or Secia, now the Secchia. 7. Scultenna, now 
 Panaro. 8. Rhenus, now Reno, celebrated in history for the meeting of the sec 
 ond triumvirate, which took place in an island formed by its stream. 
 
 II. Arnus, now the Arno, rising in the Umbrian Apennines, 
 and, after flowing through Etraria and passing by Florentia, 
 now Firenze or Florence, and Pisa, now Pisa, falling into the 
 Mare Tyrrhenum. At its mouth was the Portus Pisanus. 
 The Arnus anciently received the Ausar, now the Serchio, from 
 the north, and the juncture took place where the city of PissB 
 stood ; now, however, both rivers flow into the sea by separate 
 channels. 
 
 III. Tiberis, now the Tiber, on whose banks stood the city 
 of Rome. It is said to have been originally called Albula, from 
 the whiteness of its waters, and afterward Tiber is or Tibris 
 when Tiberinus, a king of Alba, had been drowned in it. It is 
 probable, however, that Albula was the old Latin name, and 
 Tiberis or Tibris the Tuscan one. It is often called by the 
 Greeks Thymbris (b Qv^dptg). The Tiber rose in the Apen 
 nines above Arretium, and after being joined, during a course 
 of one hundred and fifty miles, by upward of forty tributary 
 streams, fell into the lower sea at Ostia. This stream was 
 also called poetically Tyrrhenus amnis, from its watering Etru- 
 ria, the country of the Tyrrheni, on one side, in its course, and 
 also Lydius amnis, on account of the popular tradition which 
 traced the arts and civilization of Etruria to Lydia in Asia 
 Minor. The poets, of course, are full of allusions to this cele 
 brated stream, and another poetic form of the name is Thybris. 
 
 (A.) Tributaries of the Tiber on the Eastern Side. 
 
 1. Tinia, now the Timia, was formed by several streams which united a lit 
 tle above Mevdnia, the modern Bevagna, at which latter place it is joined also 
 $ by the Topino. Of the streams that flowed into and formed the Tinia, the most 
 celebrated was the Clitumnus, famed for the snow-white herds that pastured on 
 its banks, and were always selected to adorn the Roman triumphs as victims to 
 the Capitoline Jove. Pliny the younger has left us a beautiful description of 
 this sacred river and its little temple, the ruins of which are still to be seen be 
 tween Foligno and Spoleto. The stream rises close to the temple, and still 
 bears the name of Clitunno. 2. Nar, now the Nera, rose on Mount Fiscellus, in 
 the Apennines, above Nursia, and in the northeastern angle of the Sabine ter- 
 
ITALIA. 261 
 
 ritory. In the first half of its course it formed the boundary between the Sa- 
 bines and the Umbrians, and then to the east of Interamna, now Terni, received 
 the Veiinus, now Velino, and after flowing onward through Umbria, fell into the 
 Tiber near Ocriculum. The Nar was noted for its sulphureous stream. The 
 River Veiinus, before it joined the Nar, formed some small lakes, the chief 
 of which was called the Lacus Veiinus, now Logo di Pie di Luco. The drain 
 age of the stagnant waters produced by the occasional overflow of these lakes 
 and of the river was first attempted by Curius Dentatus, the conqueror of the 
 Sabines. He caused a channel to be made for the Veiinus, through which the 
 waters of that river were carried into the Nar, over a precipice of several hun 
 dred feet. This is the celebrated fall of Terni, known in Italy by the name of 
 Caduta delle Marmore. The valley of the Veiinus, in which stood the city of 
 Redte, was so delightful as to merit the appellation of Tempe ; and, from theirv 
 dewy freshness, its meadows obtained the name of Rosei Campi. "*T* 
 
 3. Allia, now the Aia, a small but celebrated stream, rose in the Crusturnine J 
 hills below Nomentum, was crossed by the Via Salaria about four miles beyond 
 the modern Marciglione, and fell into the Tiber at the distance of eleven miles 
 from Rome. This river is memorable for having witnessed the disgraceful 
 overthrow of the Romans by the Gauls under Brennus (July 18, B.C. 390), on 
 which account the dies Alliensis, or " day on<lhe Allia," was always marked as 
 a most unlucky one in the Roman calendar. The defeat on the Allia was fol 
 lowed by the capture of the city. 4. Anio, now the Tevcrone, rose in the Apen 
 nines near the Sabine town of Treba, and fell into the Tiber about three miles 
 to the north of Rome. Its earlier name was Anien, whence comes the genitive 
 Anienis, which is joined in inflection with the later nominative Anio. It is not 
 so full a stream as the Nar, but was considered, however, by the Romans as 
 the most important among the tributaries of the Tiber, and hence received also 
 the appellation of Tiberinus, whence comes, by corruption, the modern name 
 Teverone. This river, in its course, passed by the town of Tibur, the modern 
 Tivoli, where it formed some beautiful cascades. 5. Almo, now the Almone or 
 Aquatacio, a small stream rising near Bovill<z, about ten miles to the southeast 
 of Rome, and falling into the Tiber a short distance below that city. At the 
 junction of this stream with the Tiber, the priests of Cybele, every year, on the 
 25th of March, washed the statue and sacred things of the goddess. 
 
 (B.) Tributaries of the Tiber on the Western Side. 
 
 1. Clanis, now Chiana, rising near Arretium in Etruria, and falling into the 
 Tiber northeast of Vulsinii. Near Clusium Vetus it formed a marsh termed 
 Clusina Palus. It may be seen from Tacitus (Ami., i., 79), that a project was 
 once agitated for causing the waters of this marsh to discharge themselves into 
 the Arnus. 2. Cremera, a small river now called the Valca, rising in the neigh 
 borhood of Baccana, the modern Baccano, and falling into the Tiber a little be 
 low Prima Porta. It was in the vicinity of the place where this river joined 
 the Tiber that the Fabii were cut off by the Veientes. 
 
 IV. LlriS) now the Garigliano, a river of Campania, rising 
 in the country of the Marsi, to the west of the Lacus Fucmus y 
 and falling into the lower sea near Minturnae. It is particular 
 ly noted by the ancient poets for the sluggishness of its stream. 
 According to Strabo, its more ancient name was Clanis 
 vi$ ) ; according to Pliny, however, Glanis. 
 
262 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 V. Vulturnus, now the Volturno, a river of Campania, rising 
 among the Apennines, in the territory of Samnium, and falling 
 into the lower sea at Vultumum. A magnificent bridge was 
 thrown over this river by Domitian, when he caused a road to 
 be constructed from Sinuessa to Puteoli. 
 
 VI. Aufldus, now the Ofanto, the largest river of Apulia r 
 rising in the Apennines, in the territory of the Hirpini, and 
 flowing into what is now the Gulf of Manfredonia. It was 
 remarkable for the rapidity of its course. On the banks of this 
 river the fatal battle of Cannse was fought. 
 
 VII. Metaurus, now the Metaro, a river of Umbria, rising 
 in the Apennines, and falling into the Hadriaticum Mare, 01 
 
 Adriatic Sea, above Sena Gallica. It was rendered memora 
 ble by the defeat of Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, when 
 on his way with re-enforcements for the latter. The battle is 
 supposed to have taken place near the modern Fossombrone f 
 and on the left bank of the stream. 
 
 VIII. Rubicon, a small stream falling into the Adriatic a 
 little to the north of Arimmum, but, though trifling in volume, 
 yet important as forming, in part, the northern boundary of 
 Italia Propria. It was on this account that it was forbidden 
 the Roman commanders to pass the Rubicon with an armed 
 force, since in violating this injunction they would enter on the 
 immediate territory of the republic, under the government of 
 the senate, and would be, in effect, declaring war upon their 
 country. Csesar crossed this stream with his army at the 
 commencement of the civil war, and harangued his troops at 
 Ariminum. When Augustus subsequently included Gallia 
 Cisalpina within the limits of Italy, the Rubicon sank, of 
 course, in importance, and in modern times it is difficult, there 
 fore, to ascertain the position of the true stream. D Anville 
 makes it correspond with a current called Fiumesino ; popular 
 tradition, however, is in favor of the Pisatello. 
 
 IX. Athesis, now Adige, or, as the Germans call it, the 
 Etsch, a river of Venetia, rising in the Rsetian Alps, or the 
 mountains of the Tyrol, and, after a course of nearly two hun 
 dred miles, discharging its waters into the Adriatic, north of 
 the mouths of the Po. Next to this last-mentioned river, it 
 must be looked upon as the most considerable stream of Italy. 
 
 X. Meduucus Major and Meduacm Minor, both rising in 
 
ITALIA. 263 
 
 the Raetian Alps, in the territory of the Meduaci, from whom 
 they derive their name, and falling into the Adriatic to the north 
 of the mouth of the Athesis. The Meduacus Major is now the 
 Brenta, and the Minor now Bathiglione. 
 
 XL Pldvis, now the Piave, further to the northeast. Pliny, 
 who enumerates many of the most unimportant streams, passes 
 over this, one of the largest in Venetia, in silence. This was 
 owing, probably, to there being no place of importance on its 
 banks. It is first mentioned by Paulus Diaconus. 
 
 XII. Timdvus, falling into the Sinus Tergestinus to the east 
 of Aquileia. It was small of size, but few streams have been 
 more celebrated in antiquity, or more sung by the poets. Its 
 numerous sources, its lake and subterranean passage, which 
 have been the theme of the Latin muse from Virgil to Claudi- 
 an and Ausonius, are now so little known that their existence 
 has even been questioned, and ascribed to poetical invention. 
 It has been, however, well ascertained that the name of Timao 
 is still preserved by some springs which rise near San Giovanni 
 di Car so and the castle of Duino, and form a river, which, 
 after a course of little more than a mile, falls into the Adriatic. 
 Antenor was fabled to have penetrated to the vicinity of this 
 river after the capture of Troy. 
 
 Some of the minor streams of Italy will be alluded to in the 
 accounts given of the several divisions of the country. 
 
 8. LAKES. 
 (A.) Lakes in Gallia Cisalpina, from East to West. 
 
 I. Lacus Benacus, on the borders of Venetia, now Lago di 
 Garda. It receives the small river Sarraca, now Sarca, from 
 the north, and sends forth from its southern extremity the River 
 Mincius, now Mincio. Its dimensions, according to modern 
 computation, are about thirty Italian miles in length and nine 
 in breadth. The ancient measurement was much larger. 
 Sirmio, its principal promontory, and on the southwestern 
 shore of the lake, was celebrated as having been the favorite 
 residence of Catullus, who commemorates it in some beautiful 
 lines. It is now called Sirmione. Virgil speaks of this lake 
 as subject to sudden storms, which circumstance has also been 
 observed by modern travellers. 
 
 II. Lacus Sebinus, to the west of the preceding, now Lago 
 
264 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 tflseo. It was formed by the Ollius, now the Oglio. Its 
 modern name is derived from the town of Iseo, which appears 
 to occupy the site of a town called Sebum, whence came the an 
 cient name of the lake. 
 
 III. Lacus Ldrius, to the west of the preceding, now Lago 
 di Como. Servius says that Cato reckoned the length of this 
 lake at sixty miles, and the real distance, including the Lake 
 of Chiavenna, is not short of that measurement. This lake 
 receives, or, more correctly speaking, is formed by the Addua, 
 now the Adda, which again emerges from it, and pursues its 
 course to the Po. The modern name is derived from the town 
 of Como, the ancient Comum. A headland, running boldly into 
 the lake at its southern end, causes it to branch off into two 
 arms, and in the mountains connected with this headland the 
 River Lambrus took its rise. 
 
 IV. Lacus Verbdnus, to the west of the preceding, now Lago 
 Maggiore, formed by the River Ticlnus. It is twenty-seven 
 miles long, and, on an average, eight broad. In it lie the Borro- 
 mean islands, which are the admiration of every traveller. 
 
 (B.) Lakes in Etruria, from North to South. 
 
 I. Lacus Trasimenus, a few miles to the south of Cortona, 
 now Lago di Perugia, which name it receives from the mod 
 ern city of Perugia, the ancient Perusia,, lying to the south 
 east of it. * This lake was famous for the defeat of the Romans 
 by Hannibal, making his third victory over them. The battle 
 was fought in a narrow valley along the southern shore of the 
 lake. Hannibal had taken up his position on the heights, and 
 as the Romans pressed forward on the narrow path between 
 the hills and the lake, Hannibal fell upon and defeated them 
 with great slaughter. 
 
 II. Lacus Prilis, called by Cicero Lacus Prelius, and in 
 the Antonine Itinerary, Aprilis Lacus, on the shore to the 
 southwest of the preceding, near the city of Rusellce, and just 
 above the River Umbro. It is now Lago di Castiglione. 
 which must not be confounded, however, with the Lago di 
 Castiglione, answering to the ancient Lacus Gabinus, near 
 Gabii, in Latium. 
 
 III. Lacus Volsiniensis, to the southeast of the preceding, 
 now the Lake of Bolsena, so called from the city of Bolsena. 
 
ITALIA. 265 
 
 on the northern shore, the ancient Vulsinii, which last gave its 
 ancient name to the lake. The hilly banks of this lake were 
 covered with wood, and its waters abounded with fish. Pliny, 
 who calls it Lacus Tarquiniensis, mentions that it had two 
 floating islands. 
 
 IV. Lacus Vadimonis, to the southeast of the preceding, and 
 near the confines of Umbria. It formerly existed close to the 
 modern Bassano, and used to be called La go di Bassano ; but 
 it is now filled up with peat and rushes. This lake is cele 
 brated in the history of Rome for having witnessed the total 
 defeat of the Etrurians by the Romans, a defeat so decisive 
 that they never could recover from its effects. Another battle 
 was again fought here by the Etrurians, in conjunction with 
 the Gauls, against the Romans, but with the same ill success. 
 
 V. Lacus Sabdtinus, to the southwest of the preceding, and 
 to the northwest of Veii. It derived its name from Sabate, a 
 city situated not far, probably, from the site of the present 
 Bracciano, which now giv^s its name to the lake. It was said 
 that a town had formerl^been swallowed up by the Lacus Sa- 
 batinus, and it was even asserted that in calm weather its ru 
 ins might still be seen below the surface of the water. 
 
 (C.) Lake in the Country ofthefMarsi. 
 Lacus Fucinus, now La go di Celano, or, as it is sometimes 
 called, Lago Fucino. It was of considerable extent, being not 
 less than forty miles in circumference. A small river, called 
 Pitonius, now Giovenco, which entered the lake on the north 
 east side, was said not to mix its waters, the coldest known, 
 with those of that lake. According to the same popular ac 
 count, this stream afterward emerged by a subterranean duct 
 near Tibur, and became, under the name of Aqua Marcia^ the 
 purest supply which Rome received from its numerous aque 
 ducts. As this lake was subject to inundation, Caesar, it ap 
 pears, had intended to find a vent for its waters ; but this de 
 sign was not carried into effect till the reign of Claudius. Af 
 ter a continued labor of eleven years, during which thirty thou 
 sand men were constantly employed, a canal of three miles in 
 length was carried through a mountain from the lake to the 
 River Liris. On its completion, the splendid but sanguinary 
 show of a real naumachia was exhibited on the lake, in the 
 
266 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 presence of Claudius and Agrippina and a numerous retinue, 
 while the surrounding hills were thronged with the population 
 of the neighboring country. The Emperor Hadrian afterward 
 repaired this work of Claudius. 
 
 (D.) Lakes in Latium, Campania, and Samnium. 
 
 I. Lacus Regillus, to the southeast of Rome, between Labi- 
 cum and Gabii, and now il Laglietto della Colonna. The vi 
 cinity of this lake was the scene of a great battle between the 
 Romans and Latins, which Niebuhr assigns to the mythical 
 history of Rome. 
 
 II. Lacus Albanus, at the foot of the Alban Mount, and prob 
 ably the crater of an extinct volcano. This lake is well known 
 in history from the prodigious rise of its waters, to such an ex 
 tent, indeed, as to threaten the whole surrounding country, and 
 even Rome itself, with an overwhelming inundation. To rem 
 edy this, a subterranean canal was constructed, the rock being 
 cut through for that purpose for the space of a mile and a 
 half. The water discharged by this Channel united with the 
 Tiber about five miles below Rome. The work still exists, it 
 is said, in remarkable preservation. The lake is now called 
 Lago di Castel Gandolfo. 
 
 III. Lacus Av9yius, in Campania, near Baise and Puteoli, 
 now Lago d Averno. It was separated from the Lucrine 
 Lake, which lay in front of it, by a low and narrow strip of land, 
 and was surrounded on every side but this by steep hills and 
 dense forests. Gloom and darkness therefore encompassed the 
 lake, and accumulated effluvia filled the air with contagion. 
 The ancients even had a popular belief among them that birds, 
 on attempting to fly over this sheet of water, became stupefied 
 by its exhalations and fell into it. Hence the common, though 
 erroneous derivation of the name (in Greek "Aopvo^), from a 
 privative, and opvif, " a bird" Here, too, it was believed, were 
 the subterranean abodes of the Cimmerians, and a descent to 
 the lower world. The forests and gloom, however, disappeared 
 when Agrippa opened a communication with the Lucrine Lake, 
 and constructed the well-known Julian harbor./- / 
 
 IV. Lacus Lucrinus, in Campania, and immediately adjacent 
 to the preceding. Its shores were famed for #fieir oysters and 
 other shell-sh. In the year 1538, an earthquake formed a 
 
. 
 
 ITALIA. 267 
 
 hill, called Monte Nuovo, which displaced the water, and left 
 no appearance of a lake, but only a morass filled with grass and 
 rushes, and such is still the state of things at the present day. 
 The Lucrine Lake formed part of the celebrated Julian harbor 
 constructed by Agrippa. 
 
 OBS. The Julian harbor, or Portus Julius, may here be briefly described. It 
 was called by this name in honor of Augustus, and was constructed by Agrippa 
 under his orders. According to Dio Cassius (xlviii., 50), there were three lakes 
 in this quarter, lying one behind the other. The outermost one, however, or 
 Lacus Tyrrhenus, was properly only a bay. The middle one was the Lucrine, 
 and the innermost one the Lake Avernus. The Lucrine was separated from 
 the outermost lake, or bay, by a natural dike, eight stadia long, and of a char 
 iot s breadth. There was also a separation between the Lucrine and the Aver- 
 nian lakes. The outer dike was, according to Strabo, accustomed in storms to 
 be washed by the waves, thus rendering it almost impassable on foot. Agrippa 
 thereupon raised it higher. Dio Cassius adds that the same commander cut 
 through the dike at either end, where it joined the land. These two openings 
 were then strongly fortified. Agrippa at the same time made an entrance 
 through the intervening land into the Avernian Lake, thus joining it to the Lu 
 crine, and cut down the thick forests that stood upon its banks. The whole in 
 terior space occupied by the two lakes was called the Julian harbor, Poftus Ju 
 lius, the two entrances to which were in the outer dike. The object in form 
 ing this harbor was chiefly to procure a place along the coast fit for exercising 
 and training a body of seamen previous to the contest with Sextus Pompeius, 
 the son of Pompey the Great. 
 
 V. Amsancti Lacus, in the celebrated v^^y of Amsanctus, 
 in Samnium, and in the country of the I^Brii, to the south 
 west of Trivicum, and close to what is now^ie little town of 
 Tricento. The lake was .remarkable for the mephitic vapors 
 emitted from it, the waters being sulphureous, and on its banks 
 was a temple sacred to the goddess Mephitis. The lake is still 
 called Mefiti. Virgil has given a fine description of it and the 
 scenery around. 
 
 9. GULFS AND BAYS. 
 
 (A.) On the Lower Coast, beginning from the North. 
 1. Sinus Ligusticus, now Gulf of Genoa. 2. Sinus Amy- 
 cldnus, commencing at the Promontory of Circeii, and extend 
 ing down to Caieta, and forming now the upper or northern 
 part of the Gulf of Gaeta. It took its name from the city of 
 Amyclce, which once stood on its shores. 3. Sinus Caietanus, 
 extending from Caieta down the coast to near Cumce, now the 
 lower part of the Gulf of Gaeta. 4. Sinus Crater, called, also, 
 Sinus Cumdnus or Puteolanus, now the Bay of Naples. It 
 
268 ANCIENT GEOGRAP 
 
 extended from the Promontory of Misenum to the Promontory 
 of Minerva or of Surrentum. The ancient name Crater was 
 given to it from its resembling the mouth of a Kparrjp, that is, 
 of a large bowl or mixer. 5. Sinus Pcestanus, immediately be 
 low the preceding, and reaching from the Promontory of Mi 
 nerva to the Promontory of Posidium. It is now the Gulf of 
 Salerno. Its ancient name was derived from the city of PCBS- 
 tum ; its modern one from the city of Salerno, the ancient Sa- 
 lernum. 6. Sinus Laiis, now the Gulf of Policastro. Its an 
 cient name was derived from the River Laos or Laiis, now the 
 Lao, which flows into it. 7. Sinus Termceus, called, also, La- 
 meticus, Napitirfois, and Ifipponidtes, and now the Gulf of St. 
 Euphemief. It derived the name of Terinczus from the city of 
 Terma-ft&ow Nocera ; that of Lameticus from Lametia, now 
 St. Eftpliemia ; that of Napitinus from Napitia, now Pizzo ; 
 and"-tRat^t>f Hipj&niates from Hipponium or Vibo Valentia, 
 *ow^M$nte Leone; all these places being situate either on or 
 
 near Its shores. 
 
 .. 
 
 (B.) On the Southeastern Coast. 
 
 1. Sinus Scyllaclus or Scylleticus, between the Promonto- 
 :rmm Cocintum^^i the lapygum tria Promontoria. It is 
 now the Gulf <^^m/uillace. Its name was derived from the 
 city of Scyllacit^vor Scylletium, the modern Squillace. The 
 isthmus which separated this gulf from the Sinus Terinceus, 
 on the other sea, was not more than twenty miles broad, and 
 this circumstance suggested to the elder Dionysius the project 
 of carrying a fortification across it, which would have been the 
 means of cutting off the more southern Greeks from communi 
 cating with their allies to the north of this narrow peninsula, 
 but he was prevented by the latter from executing this design. 
 2. Sinus Tarenlpnus, the wide gulf extending from the Lacin- 
 ian to the lapygian Promontory, and now the Gulf of Taranto. 
 Its name was derived from the celebrated city of Tarentum, 
 now Taranto. 
 
 (C.) On the Upper Coast, from South to North. 
 
 1. Sinus Urias, extending from the Promontory of Garga- 
 num upward as far as the modern Punta di Mileto. It is often, 
 but erroneously, taken for the modern Gulf of Manfredonia, . 
 
tor^^: 
 
 ITALIA. 269 
 
 below the promontor^^ The language of Pomponius Mela, 
 however, and the position of Hyrium (whence it derived its 
 name) on the coast above the Garganian Promontory, are deci 
 sive on this point. 2. Sinus Tergestmus, now the Gulf of 
 Trieste. Its ancient name was derived from the city of Ter- 
 gestjitjw modern Trieste. 3. Sinus Flanaticus or Polaticus, 
 lyiBrween Histria and Liburnia. Its name Flanaticus 
 was oerived from Flano, a town on the Illyrian side of it, while 
 it was called Polaticus from Pola, the chief city of Histria. 
 The modern name is the Gulf of Quarnaro. 
 
 10. ADJACENT SEAS. 
 
 
 
 I. Mare Inferum, or Lower Sea, bounding the western coast 
 of Italy, and called, also, Mare Tyrrhenum and Etruscum. It 
 is now the Sea of Italy. 
 
 II. Mare Superum, or Upper Sea, called, also, Mare Hadri- 
 aticum, the arm of the sea between Italy and the opposite shores 
 of Illyricum, Epirus, and Greece, comprehending, in its great 
 est, extent, not only the Gulf of Venice, but also what was 
 termed the Ionian Sea. 
 
 OBS. Herodotus, in one passage (vii., 20), calls the whole extent of sea along 
 the coast of Illyricum and western Greece, as far as the Corinthian Gulf, by the 
 name of the Ionian Sea ( luvio? -KOVTO^}. In another passage, he styles the part 
 in the vicinity of Epidamnus the Ionian Gulf (vi., 127). Scylax makes the 
 Ionian Gulf the same with what he calls Adrias ( Adp/af ), and places the termi 
 nation of both at Hydruntum. He is silent, however, respecting the Ionian Sea, 
 as named by Herodotus. Thucydides, like Herodotus, distinguishes between 
 the Ionian Gulf and Ionian Sea. The former he makes a part of the latter, 
 which reaches to the shores of western Greece. These ideas, however, be 
 came changed at a later period. The limits of what Scylax had styled Adpiaf, 
 and had made synonymous with luviog Kohnoc, were extended to the shores of 
 Italy and the western coast of Greece, so that now the Ionic Gulf was regarded 
 only as a part of Adpt af, or the Adriatic. Eustathius informs us that the more 
 accurate writers always observed this distinction (ad Dionys. Perieg., v. 92). 
 Hence we obtain a key to Ptolemy s meaning when he makes the Adriatic ex 
 tend along the entire coast of western Greece to the southern extremity of the 
 Peloponnesus. 
 
 11. FACE OF THE COUNTRY IN GENERAL. 
 
 I. IN the north, where the breadth of the peninsula is greatest, it is protected 
 by the Alps against the influence of the north winds. 
 
 II. The two halves into which Italy is divided by the Apennines are countries 
 of a totally different character : the part east of the Apennines is a country of 
 secondary, or still more frequently of tertiary formation, and of quite the same 
 character as Illyricum on the opposite side of the Adriatic ; the western part, 
 
270 ANCIENT 
 
 on the other hand, is mostly of a volcanic natuf^Pfid of the same kind as the 
 islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica ; so that the Apennines rise between 
 two large valleys, the deepest parts of which are filled on the one side by the 
 Adriatic, and on the other by the Tyrrhenian Sea. 
 
 III. The northern part of Italy, between the Alps, the Apennines, and the 
 Adriatic, forms an extensive plain (the plain of Lombardy), intersected by the 
 River Po and its numerous tributaries; while the whole of Italy soulh^>f this 
 large plain is a more or less mountainous country, including the riu^^Rhiins 
 and valleys, with hilly districts of the most beautiful and picturesqu^HBicter. 
 
 IV. The whole peninsula enjoys, generally speaking, a clear, bright, crmrcrans- 
 parent atmosphere, and is endowed by nature with the greatest advantages and 
 facilities both for agriculture and commerce. No wonder, therefore, that Italy 
 in ancient times was one of the most populous and best cultivated countries. 
 The number of its towns is said to have amounted at one time to one thousand 
 one hundred and ninety-seven. 
 
 V. The climate of Italy appears to have been more severe in the winter season 
 in ancient than in modern times. The language of the ancient writers clearly 
 favors this conclusion. Pliny, for example, speaks of long snows being useful 
 for the corn, which shows that he is not speaking of the mountains ; and a long 
 enow in the valleys of central or southern Italy would be an unheard-of phe 
 nomenon now. The freezing of rivers also, as spoken of by Virgil and Horace, 
 would not well suggest itself to Italian poets of the present day. 
 
 32. ITALIA MORE IN DETAIL. 
 
 1. LIGURIA. 
 (A.) NAME AND BOUNDARIES. 
 
 I. Liguria was so called by the Romans from its inhabitants, 
 whom they named Ligures. The Greeks, on the other hand, 
 called the people Ligyes (Aryve*;), and their country Ligystlce 
 
 II. Liguria, in the time of Augustus, was separated from 
 Etruria by the River Macro,, now Magra, and was bounded 
 on the north and northeast by Gallia Cisalpina, on the west 
 by Gallia Narbonensis, and on the south by the Sinus Ligus- 
 ticus, or Gulf of Genoa. Its limits on the west were the Mar 
 itime Alps and the River Varus, now Far, while on the north 
 east it extended to the territories of the Anamani and Boii, 
 two Gallic tribes. 
 
 OBS. 1 . The northern limits of Liguria are somewhat uncertain. Geographical 
 writers, however, generally make them to be the River Orgus, now Orca, which 
 separated the Taurini, a Ligurian race, from the Cisalpine Gauls, and the River 
 Padus, or Po. Niebuhr, however, and others make the Libui or Libicii, and the 
 Lcevi, both lying beyond the Po, to have been also Ligurian tribes. 
 
 2. The Ligures or Ligyes appear to have been in early times a very wide 
 spread race. If we may trust to the report transmitted to us by the ancient 
 writers from the Carthaginian navigator Hamilco, they dwelt at one time upon 
 the shores of the Atlantic Ocean, and were driven thence into the mountains 
 
,, r eo ft , 
 of t^^Wedil 
 
 \ 
 TALIA. 271 
 
 by the overpowering pressflM !? Celtic race. From the mountains they 
 descended to the coasts of trr^Wediterranean. (Av. Or. Marit., 129, seqq.} 
 Hence some regard this tradition as placing them on the banks of the River 
 Liger (Ligyr) or Loire. Again, Herodotus describes them as dwelling above 
 Massalia, now Marseilles, and in the time of Polybius they reached as far 
 south as the Arnus, naw Arno. Indeed, Niebuhr thinks it probable that they 
 occupied at one time the whole country from the Pyrenees to the Tiber, with 
 the Cevennes and the Helvetian Alps for their northern boundary. It is certain, 
 moreover, that the Ligurians and Iberians were anciently contiguous. (Niebuhr, 
 Rom. Hist., vol. i., p. 164, Cambr. transl.) 
 
 (B.) CHARACTER OF THE INHABITANTS. 
 
 I. DIONYSIUS of Halicarnassus says that the extraction of the 
 Ligurians was unknown. It is generally supposed that they 
 were neither Iberians nor Celts. Strabo, indeed, expressly states 
 that they were not of the Celtic race. 
 
 II. Cato stigmatized the Ligurians as lying and deceitful, and 
 some of the Latin poets also draw unfavorable pictures of their 
 character. Other writers, however, speak highly of their in 
 dustry, courage, and perseverance. 
 
 III. The Ligurians were celebrated as light-armed soldiers. 
 The conquest of their country by the Romans was not effected 
 until long after the second Punic war. Strabo relates that, for 
 the space of eighty years prior to this, the Romans only ob 
 tained a free passage along their shore of twelve stadia from 
 the coast. Their final reduction took place B.C. 166, and, in 
 order to accomplish this the more effectually, whole tribes had 
 to be carried out of the country. The conquest of Liguria was 
 of great importance to the Romans, as this country afforded the 
 easiest communication with Gaul and Spain over the Maritime 
 Alps. 
 
 OBS. The passage of Cato referred to in $ ii., occurs as a fragment of the 
 Origines, and is cited by Servius, ad Virg., JEn., xi., 701, 715. The authorities 
 on the other side are Cic. c. Rail., ii., 35 ; Virg., Georg., ii., 167 ; Diod., iv., 20 ; 
 v., 39. Niebuhr is a warm advocate for the Ligurians against the attack of 
 Cato. (Ram. Hist., vol. i., p. 165.) 
 
 (C.) CITIES AND PLACES OF LIGURIA. 
 
 1. Cities and Places on the Coast, from West to East. 
 1. Nlccea, now Nice, ten miles to the east of the Yarns or 
 Tar, and therefore, strictly speaking, a city of Liguria. As, 
 however, it continued subject to the Massilians even after the 
 Varus had been made the boundary in this quarter between 
 Gaul and Italy, we have considered it as belonging to the for- 
 
272 ANCIENT 
 
 mer country (page 110). 2. Onl^^HRnit of the Alpes Mar- 
 itimce, and marking the limit between Italy and Gaul, stood 
 the Tropcea Augusti, erected by that emperor, and having in 
 scribed on it the names of all the Alpine tribes he had subdued, 
 from the shores of the Mediterranean to the Adriatic. Some 
 slight remains of this monument are still to be seen at the 
 small village of La Turbia, a name evidently corrupted from 
 Tropcea^ about two miles above Monaco. 3. Portus or Arx 
 Herculis Monasci, now Monaco. The place was of Greek or 
 igin, and Hercules, its reputed founder, was worshipped here. 
 4. Albiimi Intemelium, now Vintimiglid^ the capital of the In- 
 temelii, a city of some size and note. From Tacitus we learn 
 that it was a municipium. 5. After leaving the last-mentioned 
 place, we cross the River Rutuba, now the Rotta, and come to 
 Albium Ingaunum* now Albenga, the chief city of the Ingauni. 
 This was also a municipium. Above the Ingauni, and among 
 the mountains, were the Epanterii. Opposite Albium Ingau- 
 num was the island of Gallinaria, so called from its abounding 
 in a particular breed of fowls. 
 
 6. Vada Sabdtorum, called, also, Vada Sabatia, and Sabdta 
 alone, about twenty-five miles beyond the preceding, now Vado ; 
 not Savona, as Cluverius thinks, which answers better to the 
 ancient Savo, further on. The name Vada Sabatorum marks 
 the shallow and muddy nature of the shore. 7. Genua, now 
 Genoa (in Italian Genova), mentioned for the first time in his 
 tory by Livy (xxviii., 46) as having been destroyed by Mago 
 the Carthaginian. It was subsequently rebuilt by the Romans 
 and made a municipium. In the time of Strabo it was a place 
 of considerable trade, particularly in timber, which was brought 
 from the mountains, where it grew to a great size. Some of 
 it, being richly veined, was used for making tables, which were 
 thought scarcely inferior to those of cedar wood. Other com 
 modities were cattle, skins, and honey, which the Ligurians 
 exchanged for oil and Italian wine, none being grown on their 
 coast. 8. Portus Delphini, now Porto Fino. 9. Segeste, now 
 Sestri. In the mountains above this part of the coast were the 
 Briniates and Apudni. So obstinate was the resistance which 
 the latter of these tribes made to the Roman arms, that it was 
 found necessary to remove a great part of them into Samnium. 
 The River Macra, which formed the limit of Liguria in this 
 
ITALIA. 273 
 
 direction, and which is now the Magra, is, like most of the 
 mountain streams on this coast, nearly dry in summer. 
 
 2. Cities and Places in the Interior, from West to East. 
 
 1. Augusta Vagiennorum, capital of the Vagienni, now 
 Bene, according to Durandi ; but less correctly, according to 
 D Anville, Vico. According to Pliny, the Vagienni extended 
 as far as the Mons Vesulus, or Monte Viso. 2. Ceba, to the 
 southeast of the preceding, now Ceva. It was famed for its 
 cheese. 3. Aquae, Statiellce, to the northeast of the preceding, 
 now Acqui. It was the capital of the Statielli. 4. Pollentia, 
 to the west of the preceding, on the Tandrus, now Tanaro. 
 Several vestiges still remain near a village called Polenza. It 
 was celebrated for its wool. 5. Alba Pompeia, a few miles 
 lower down on the Tanarus. It is now Alba. This place prob 
 ably owed its surname to Pompeius Strabo, who had colonized 
 several towns in the north of Italy. It was a municipium, and 
 the birth-place of the Emperor Pertinax. 6. Asia, to the north 
 east, now Asti. 7. Dertona, about twenty miles to the east 
 of the preceding, now Tortona. It was a place of importance, 
 and a Roman colony, supposed to have been established by the 
 consul .ZEmilius Scaurus. 8. Clastidium, to the northeast, now 
 Chiasteggio. It was celebrated as the place where Claudius 
 Marcellus gained the spolia opima by vanquishing and slaying 
 Viridomarus, king of the Gcesatce. Clastidiurn was betrayed 
 to Hannibal after the battle of the Ticinus, with considerable 
 magazines which the Romans had laid up there, and it formed 
 the chief depot of the Carthaginian army while encamped on 
 the Trebia. 
 
 Proceeding now to the northwest, and crossing the Padus, 
 we come to the territory of the Taurlni. From their position, 
 indeed, they would seem more properly to belong to Cisalpine 
 Gaul; but Polybius excludes the Taurini from his enumera 
 tion of the Gauls who settled in the plains of Italy, and Strabo 
 and Pliny expressly call them Ligurians. The Taurini occu 
 pied the country between the Padus and the Alps, as far as the 
 River Orgus, now Orca, to the east, while the position of Fines, 
 now Aviliana, fixes their limit to the west. They are first 
 mentioned in history as having opposed Hannibal soon after his 
 descent from the Alps, and their capital, which Appian calls 
 
 S 
 
274 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Taurasia, was taken and plundered by that general after an 
 ineffectual resistance of three days. As a Roman colony, it 
 subsequently received the name of Augusta Taurinorum, and 
 is now Turin (in Italian Torino). 
 
 The Cottian Alps, in the vicinity of which we now are, were 
 ruled over by Cottius, an Alpine chieftain, to whom we have 
 already referred (page 251). His capital appears to have been 
 Segusio, now Suza. Here he erected a triumphal arch to 
 Augustus, and here his remains were interred. 
 
 2. GALLIA CISALPINA. 
 (A.) NAME AND BOUNDARIES. 
 
 I. Gallia Cisalpina, or Gaul this side of the Alps, with ref 
 erence to Rome, was the name given to the northern part of 
 Italy, as occupied by the Gallic tribes which had poured over 
 the Alps into this extensive tract of country. 
 
 II. This country was bounded on the north and west by the 
 Alps ; on the southwest by the River Orgus, now Orca, sepa 
 rating it from the Taurini ; on the south by Liguria, the Ap 
 ennines, and the River Rubicon ; and on the east by the Mare 
 Hadriaticum and Venetia. 
 
 (B.) HISTORICAL SKETCH OF AFFAIRS. 
 
 I. THE whole of the rich country which bears at present the name of Lom 
 bard//, was possessed at an early period by the ancient and powerful nation of 
 the Tuscans, who appear to have conquered it from the Ligurians. 
 
 II. Numerous hoYdes of Gauls subsequently pour over the Alps into Italy, 
 and driving by degrees the Tuscans from these fertile plains, confine them at 
 last within the narrow limits of Etruria. Livy assigns to these migrations of 
 the Gauls as early a date as the reign of Tarquinius Priscus, or about B.C. 600. 
 
 III. The Gauls, having securely established themselves in their new posses 
 sions, proceed to make farther inroads into various parts of Italy, and thus come 
 into contact with the forces of Rome. More than two hundred years elapse 
 from the time of their first invasion of Italy, when they totally defeat the Ro 
 man army on the banks of the Allia, and become masters of Rome itself. 
 
 IV. After this, however, the Gauls, though they continue by frequent incur 
 sions to threaten and even to ravage the territory of Rome, can make no seri 
 ous impression on that power. Though leagued with the Samnites and Etruri 
 ans, they are almost always unsuccessful. Defeated at Sentinum in Umbria, 
 near the Lake Vadimonis in Etruria, and in a still more decisive action near 
 the port of Telamo in the same country, they soon find themselves forced to 
 contend, not for conquest, but for existence. 
 
 V. The same ill success, however, attends their efforts in their own territory. 
 The progress of the Roman arms is irresistible ; the Gauls are beaten back from 
 the Adriatic to the Po, from the Po to the Alps, and soon behold Roman colo 
 nies established and nourishing in many of the towns which had so lately been 
 
ITALIA. 275 
 
 theirs. Notwithstanding, however, these successive disasters, their spirit, 
 though curbed, is still unsubdued, and when the enterprise of Hannibal affords 
 them an opportunity of retrieving their losses, they eagerly embrace it ; and it 
 is to their zealous co-operation that Polybius ascribes, in a great degree, the pri 
 mary success of that expedition. 
 
 VI. At the conclusion, however, of the second Punic war, the Romans retali 
 ate upon them, and their country, brought under entire subjection, becomes a 
 Roman province, under the name of Gallia Cisalpina. At a subsequent period 
 the name of Gallia Togata is also applied to it, or, rather, to that part which lay 
 south of the Po, the cities in this quarter having obtained the privileges of Latin 
 cities, and consequently the right of wearing the Roman toga. 
 
 (C.) ASPECT OF THE COUNTRY, &c. 
 
 I. THE character which is given of this portion of Italy by 
 the writers of antiquity is that of the most fertile and produc 
 tive country imaginable. Polybius describes it as abounding 
 in wine, corn, and every kind of grain. Innumerable herds of 
 swine, both for pubjic and private supply, were bred in its for 
 ests ; and such was the abundance of provisions of every kind, 
 that, according to Polybius (ii., 15), travellers, when at an inn, 
 did not find it necessary to agree on a price for any article which 
 they required, but paid so much for the whole amount of what 
 was furnished the^a, and this charge, at the highest, did not 
 exceed half a Rom a^i- as, 
 
 II. As a proof of the richness of this country, Strabo remarks 
 that it surpassed all the rest of Italy in the number of large and 
 opulent towns which it contained. The wool grown here was 
 of the finest and softest quality, and so abundant was the sup 
 ply of wine, that the wooden vessels, in which it was commonly 
 stowed, were of the size of houses. Lastly, Cicero styles it the 
 flower of Italy, the support of the empire of the Roman people, 
 the ornament of its dignity. 
 
 (D.) P RIN ci PA L GALLIC TRIBES. 
 
 IN considering the tribes and cities of Gallia Cisalpina, the division of the 
 country which most naturally suggests itself is that into Gallia Transpdddnaj 
 or Gaul beyond the Po, and Gallia Cispdddna, or Gaul this side of the Po. We 
 shall follow, therefore, this arrangement. 
 
 Tribes in Gallia Transpddana. 
 
 I. Satassi, in the northwestern angle of the country. The main part of their 
 territory lay chiefly in a long valley, which reached to the summits of the Graian 
 and Pennine Alps. The passes over these mountains were too important an 
 object with the Romans not to make them anxious to secure them by the con 
 quest of the Salassi. But these hardy mountaineers held out for a long time, 
 and were not finally subdued till the reign of Augustus, who caused the country 
 
276 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 to be permanently occupied, for this purpose, by a large force under Terentius 
 Varro. This arrangement ended the contest ; a large number of the Salassi 
 perished in battle, and the rest, to the number of thirty-six thousand, were sold 
 into slavery. 
 
 II. LIBICII and Lasvr, two tribes mentioned together by Polybius (ii., 17), and 
 to each of whom it is difficult to assign a distinct territory. We must be con 
 tent to know generally that they occupied the country lying between the Orgus, 
 now Orca, and the Ticinus, now Tessino. They did not reach quite to the Alps 
 on the north, as the Salassi seem to have extended some way into the plains 
 situated at the foot of those mountains. They are said to have been of Ligurian 
 origin. 
 
 III. INSUBRES, called "Icro/zfipef by Polybius, and *Ivaov6poi by Strabo, and oc 
 cupying the country between the Rivers Ticinus and Addua. According to 
 Polybius, they were the most numerous as well as the most powerful tribe of 
 the Cisalpine Gauls. They took a very active part in the Gallic wars against 
 the Romans, and zealously co-operated with Hannibal in his invasion of Italy. 
 
 IV. CENOMANI, to the east of the Insubres, from whom they were separated 
 by the Addua, while the Athesis formed their boundary to the east. They are 
 distinguished from the rest of the Cisalpine Gauls by the circumstance of their 
 not having joined with the other tribes in war against Rome, and from their 
 having even sided with that city against Hannibal. Subsequently, however, 
 they became hostile to the Romans. 
 
 V. EUGANEI. These are spoken of as one of the most ancient nations of Italy, 
 and as having once occupied all the country to which the Venlti, its subsequent 
 possessors, communicated the name of Venetia. Driven from these their an 
 cient abodes, the Euganei appear to have retired across the Athesis, and to have 
 settled on the shores of the Lacus Sebinus and Lacus Benacus, and in the ad 
 jacent valleys. Pliny says, on the authority of Cato, that they held at one time 
 thirty-four towns : these were admitted to the rights of Latin cities under Au 
 gustus. 
 
 Tribes in Gallia Cispdddna. 
 
 I. ANAMANI, on the northeastern borders of Liguria, and extending to the Po. 
 Their southeastern boundary was the Tarus, now Taro. Livy never mentions 
 this tribe by any specific name, though he seems to distinguish them from their 
 more numerous and powerful neighbors the Boii. The nature of the country 
 occupied by these Gauls, intersected as it was by numerous streams descend 
 ing from the Apennines, could not have allowed them to build many towns. 
 
 II. Bon. This tribe, at some period or other, but when is uncertain, crossed 
 the Alps, and established themselves in Italy between the Tarus, the Silarus, 
 and the Apennines, having the Po for their upper frontier. Their wars with 
 the Romans in this quarter were long and desperate ; but they were finally sub 
 dued by Scipio Naslca, and removed to the banks of the Dravus or Drave. Con 
 sult page 229. 
 
 III. LINGONES. This tribe occupied the extreme eastern portion of Gallia 
 Cispadana. Polybius is the only author who has pointed out the district occu 
 pied by them in Italy. Appian characterizes them as the fiercest and wildest 
 of the Gauls. The territory which they seized in Italy had previously been oc 
 cupied by the Umbri. 
 
ITALIA. 277 
 
 (E.) CITIES OF GALLIA CISALPINA. 
 
 1. Cities among the Salasst. 
 
 1. Augusta Pretoria , now Aosta in Piedmont. It was built 
 on the site of Terentius Varro s camp, after that commander 
 had conquered the Salassi, as has been already mentioned, and 
 was intended to protect the great military road in this quarter, 
 which led over the Graian Alps. Augustus,- for this purpose, 
 established here three thousand Praetorians as a military colony, 
 and gave the place its appellation, partly in allusion to his own 
 name, and partly to the description of soldiers settled here. It 
 was situate on the Duria Major, along the banks of which the 
 road in question ran. 2. Eporedia, to the southeast, on the 
 same river and road, now Ivrea, a corruption of Eporegia or 
 Iporeia, the name of the place in the Middle Ages. It was an 
 old Celtic town, and, according to Pliny, the name was derived 
 from a Celtic term meaning " good tamers of horses." A Ro 
 man colony was established here, in obedience to the injunc 
 tions of the Sibylline Books, as Pliny likewise tells us, and the 
 settlement subsequently became a mumcipium. 
 
 2. Cities among the Libicii and Lccvi. 
 
 1. Vercellce, the capital of the Libicii, now Vercelli, on the 
 River Sessites, now the Sessia. It was a municipium, and a 
 strong and important place. Strabo mentions some gold mines 
 in its vicinity. Vercellse lay on the road already referred to 
 above, and another Roman road came in here from Mediolanum 
 and met the former. 2. Novaria, about ten miles northeast of 
 Vercellse, now Novara. It was situate on a river of the same 
 name, now the Gogna, and was a municipal town. The fa 
 mous battle of the Ticinus, in which Hannibal defeated the 
 Romans, is supposed to have been fought to the south of this 
 place, not far from the little town of Vigevano. 3. Laumellum, 
 southeast of Vercellse, now Lomello. 4. Tlclnum, to the north 
 east of the preceding, now Pavia, on the River Ticinus, now 
 the Tessino. It was founded, as Pliny reports, by the Lsevi 
 and Marici, and was at first their chief city, on which account 
 we have given it a place here. Being situated, however, on 
 the left bank of the river, it became subsequently, though less 
 correctly, ranked among the cities of the Insubres. Tacitus 
 
278 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 first makes mention of it, and states that Augustus advanced 
 as far as Ticinum, in the depth of winter, to meet the corpse 
 of Drusus, the father of Germanicus, and escorted it thence to 
 Rome. Under the Lombard kings this city assumed the name 
 of Papia, which in process of time has been changed to Pavia. 
 
 3. Cities among the Insubres. 
 
 1. Mediolanum, now Milan, the capital of the Insubres, and y 
 according to Livy, founded by that tribe on their first arrival 
 in Italy, and named by them from a place so called in the ter 
 ritory of the ^Edui in Gaul. This city is mentioned for the 
 first time in history by Polybius in his account of the Gallic 
 wars. The capture of it by Cneius Scipio and Marcellus was 
 followed by the submission of the Insubres. In Strabo s time 
 it was considered a most flourishing city. But its splendor 
 seems to have been the greatest in the time of Ausonius, who 
 assigns it the rank of the sixth town in the Roman empire, 
 Ausonius flourished under the Emperor Gratian, toward the 
 end of the fourth century. Procopius, who wrote a century 
 and a half later, speaks of Mediolanum as one of the first cities 
 of the west, and inferior to Rome alone in population and ex 
 tent. At a later period, the frequent inroads of the barbarians 
 of the north compelled the emperors to select, as a place of 
 arms, some city nearer the scene of action than Rome was. 
 The choice fell on Mediolanum. Here, too, Maximian resigned 
 the imperial diadem, and the famous St. Ambrose established 
 the see of a bishopric. Although subsequently plundered by 
 Attila, it soon revived, and under Odoacer became the imperial 
 residence. In its vicinity was fought the battle which put 
 Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, in possession of Italy. It 
 met with its downfall, however, when, having sided with Beli- 
 sarius, and having been besieged by the Goths and Burgundi- 
 ans, it was taken by the latter, and 300,000 of the inhabitants, 
 according to Procopius, were put to the sword. It never, after 
 this severe blow, regained its former eminence, although in the 
 Middle Ages it became a flourishing and opulent place of trade . 
 About ten miles to the northwest of Mediolanum were the Rau- 
 dii Campi, plains rendered memorable by the bloody defeat of 
 the Cimbri by Marius. A small place in this vicinity, called 
 Rho, still preserves some trace of the ancient appellation. 
 
ITALIA. 279 
 
 2. Lam Pompeia, to the southeast of the preceding, founded, 
 as Pliny reports, by the Boii, and subsequently colonized by 
 Pompeius Strabo, father of Pompey the Great. It was at one 
 time next in importance to Mediolanum. Its position answers 
 to that of the modern Lodi Vecchio, which having been de 
 stroyed by the Milanese, the Emperor Barbarossa caused the 
 new town of Lodi to be built at the distance of three miles 
 from the ancient site. 3. Acerrce, to the southeast, on the Ad- 
 dua, and answering now to Gherra. It is mentioned by Polyb- 
 ius in the Gallic wars as a strong and important place. This 
 city must not be mistaken for one of the same name in Cam 
 pania. 4. Pons Aureoli, to the northeast of Mediolanum, and 
 between it and Bergomum. It obtained its name from the de 
 feat of the usurper Aureolus, and is now Pontiruolo. 5. Ber- 
 gomum, to the northeast of the preceding, now Bergamo. It 
 belonged to the Insubrian Orobii, whom Pliny, on the authority 
 of Cato, distinguishes as a separate tribe, but whose territory 
 is naturally included in that of the Insubres. 6. Comum, to 
 the northwest of the preceding, and at the southern extremity 
 of the Lacus Larius. It is now Como> and gives its name also 
 to the lake. Comum, like Bergomum, was a city of the Insu 
 brian Orobii, and was first colonized by Pompeius Strabo, then 
 by Cornelius Scipio, and finally by Julius Caesar. This last- 
 mentioned commander sent thither six thousand colonists, 
 among whom were five hundred distinguished Greek families. 
 The place now took the name of Novum Comum. Pliny the 
 younger was born here. 
 
 4. Cities among the Cenomani. 
 
 1. Brixia ^ the capital of the Cenomani, to the northeast of 
 Mediolanum, and now called Brescia. It became a Roman col 
 ony, but at what time we are not informed. It was also a muni- 
 cipium. Brixia lay on the little river Gartia, now Garza, while 
 in front of it, to the west, flowed the River Mela. According to 
 some, it was a city of Tuscan origin, and taken from that nation 
 by the Cenomani. Catullus calls Brixia the " mother of Vero 
 na," because, though much smaller than the latter, it was nev 
 ertheless the chief city of the Cenomani. 2. Cremona, to the 
 southwest of the preceding, on the Padus or Po, and retaining 
 its ancient name. It is supposed to have been of Gallic origin, 
 
280 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 but it first acquired importance as a Roman colony, being, to 
 gether with Placentia, the earliest establishment which the Ro 
 mans formed in Cisalpine Gaul. This colony was settled, ac 
 cording to Polybius, the year before Hannibal invaded Italy. 
 The Romans retained the place during the whole of the second 
 Punic war, though it suffered so much during its continuance, 
 and from the subsequent attacks of the Gauls, that it was found 
 necessary to recruit its population by a fresh supply of colonists. 
 The place flourished after this until the civil wars which en 
 sued after the death of Csesar. Cremona unfortunately es 
 poused the cause of Brutus, and thus incurred the vengeance 
 of the victorious party, its territory being divided among the 
 veteran soldiers of Augustus. It soon, however, recovered from 
 this blow, and in Strabo s time was accounted one of the most 
 considerable cities in the north of Italy. The civil wars which 
 arose during the reigns of Otho and Vitellius were the source 
 of much severer affliction to this city than any former evil, as 
 the fate of the empire was more than once decided between 
 large contending armies in its immediate vicinity. After the 
 defeat of Vitellius s party by the troops of Vespasian, it was 
 entered by the latter, and exposed to all the horrid excesses of 
 a licentious and brutal soldiery. The conflagration of the place 
 lasted four days. The indignation which this event excited 
 throughout Italy compelled Vespasian to use every effort to 
 raise Cremona from its ruins, and reassemble and aid the un 
 fortunate inhabitants. 
 
 3. Bedridcum, to the east of the preceding, and between it 
 and Mantua. It is supposed by D Anville to correspond to the 
 modern Cividale, on the right side of the Ollius, now Oglio. 
 This place was famous for two battles fought near it within a 
 month of each other. In the first Otho was defeated by the gen 
 erals of Vitellius, and in the second Vitellius by Vespasian. 
 Tacitus and Suetonius call the name of this place Betriacum, 
 and Pliny, Juvenal, and later writers Bebriacum. 4. Mantua, to 
 the northeast of the preceding, situate on an island in the River 
 Mincius, now the Mincio, and still retaining its former name. 
 It is supposed to date its foundation long before the arrival of 
 the Gauls in Italy, and to have been of Tuscan origin. Ac 
 cording to a fabulous legend, the place derived its name from 
 the prophetess Manto, the daughter of Tiresias. Its vicinity 
 
ITALIA. 281 
 
 to Cremona was an unhappy circumstance for Mantua, since, 
 as the territory of the former city was not found sufficient to 
 contain the veteran soldiers of Augustus, among whom it had 
 been divided, the deficiency was supplied from the lands of 
 Mantua ; a loss most feelingly deplored by Virgil, though he 
 was fortunate enough to escape himself from the effects of this 
 oppressive measure. 5. Andes, a village a short distance to the 
 southeast of Mantua. It is celebrated as having been the birth 
 place of Virgil, and is supposed to be now represented by Pte- 
 tola, a small place in this quarter. 6. Verona, to the north 
 east of Mantua, and situate on the Athesis, now the Adige. 
 It still retains its ancient name. It appears to have belonged 
 originally to the Euganei, and to have been their chief city, and 
 to have been wrested from them by the Cenomani. In this 
 way we may reconcile Pliny, who ascribes its foundation to the 
 Rseti and Euganei, with Livy, who as positively attributes it 
 to the Cenomani. Under the Roman dominion it became a, 
 large and flourishing city, and it was also celebrated as having 
 been the birth-place of Catullus, and of Pliny the elder, or the 
 naturalist. 
 
 5. Cities among the Anamdni. 
 
 1. Veleia, on the right bank of the River Nura, and about 
 eighteen miles south of Placentia, near the present hamlets of 
 Mancinesso and Liveia. 2. Florentia, to the northeast of the 
 preceding, now Fiorenzuola. 3. Fldentia, to the southeast of 
 the preceding, near which Sylla s party gained a victory over 
 Carbo. From the martyrdom of St. Donninus, Fidentia has 
 obtained the name of Borgo San Donnino. 4. Placentia, at 
 the confluence of the Trebia and Padus, and now Piacenza. 
 It was colonized by the Romans at the same time with Cre 
 mona, to serve as a bulwark against the Gauls, and to oppose 
 the threatened approach of Hannibal. Its utility in this latter 
 respect was fully proved by its affording a secure retreat to the 
 Roman general after the battle of the Ticinus, and more espe 
 cially after the disaster of the Trebia. Placentia withstood all 
 the efforts of the victorious Hannibal, and also, eleven years 
 after, all the attempts which his brother Hasdrubal made to ob 
 tain possession of it. After the termination, however, of the 
 second Punic war, it was taken and burned by the Gauls, head- 
 
282 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ed by Hamilcar the Carthaginian, but it was soon after restored 
 by the consul Valerius. Placentia had acquired the rights of 
 a municipium in Cicero s time. Strabo speaks of it as a cele 
 brated town, and Tacitus extols it as a powerful and opulent 
 colony. 
 
 6. Cities among the Boii. 
 
 1. Parma, still retaining its name, situate on the River 
 Parma, to the southeast of Placentia. It was founded by the 
 Etrurians, taken from them by the Boii, and finally conquered 
 and colonized by the Romans. From Cicero, it may be inferred 
 that Parma was attached to the party of Antony, and suffered 
 from the adverse faction in the civil wars. It was probably re- 
 colonized under Augustus, as some inscriptions give it the title 
 of Colonia Julia Augusta Parma. From Martial we learn 
 that its wool was highly prized. 2. Tanetum, about eight miles 
 east of Parma. It is mentioned by Polybius and Livy as the 
 place to which L. Manlius, the Roman praetor, retired, after an 
 unsuccessful action with the Boii, at the beginning of the sec 
 ond Punic war. It is now Taneto. 3. Forum Lepidi, or, as 
 it was more commonly called, Regium Lepidum, southeast of 
 Tanetum, and now Reggio. In Cicero we find it sometimes 
 under the name of Regium Lepidi, or simply Regium. It 
 probably owes its origin to M. ^Emilius Lepidus, who laid down 
 the famous road called Via ^Emilia, on which so many of the 
 places we are now considering were situated. But when, or 
 from what cause, it took the surname of Regium, is unknown. 
 It is further noticed in history as having witnessed the death 
 of the elder Brutus, by order of Pompey, to whom he had sur 
 rendered himself. In the vicinity was a plain, in which an an 
 nual fair of cattle was held ; it was known by the name of the 
 Maori Campi. 
 
 4. Mutma, to the southeast of the preceding, and situate on 
 the ^Emilian Way, above referred to. It is now Modena. Mu- 
 tina was a Roman colony, and is often mentioned in history, 
 and more particularly during the stormy period which inter 
 vened between the death of Caesar and the accession of Au 
 gustus. It sustained a severe siege against the troops of An 
 tony, A.U.C. 709. D. Brutus, who defended the place, being 
 apprised of the approach of the consuls Hirtius and Pansa by 
 
ITALIA. 283 
 
 means of carrier-pigeons, made an obstinate defence. Antony, 
 being finally defeated by those generals and Octavianus, was 
 forced to raise the siege. Mutina was also famous for its wool. 
 5. Forum Gallorum, to the southwest of the preceding, on the 
 ^Emilian Way, and rendered remarkable by some important ac 
 tions which were fought there during the siege of Mutina. It is 
 now Castel Franco. 6. Bononia, to the southeast of the prece 
 ding, on the same Roman road, and now Bologna. This city 
 was of Tuscan origin, and existed under the name of Felslna 
 prior to the invasion of the Boii. It appears to have been the 
 principal seat of the Etrurians to the north of the Apennines. 
 Bononia received a Roman colony, A.U.C. 653, B.C. 100. Fre 
 quent mention is made of this city in the civil wars. As it had 
 suffered consider al^ during this period, it was restored and 
 aggrandized by Augustus after the battle of Actium, and con 
 tinued to rank high among the great cities of Italy. 7. Forum 
 Cornelii, to the southeast, founded by Sylla, and now Imola. 
 
 8. Faventia, ten miles further on the same road, and now Fa- 
 enza. It was situate between the rivers Sinnus and Ammo, 
 now the Senno and Amone, and was noted in the history of 
 the civil wars for the defeat of Carbo s party by that of Sylla. 
 
 9. Ccesena, the last town of Cisalpine Gaul on the ./Emilian 
 Way, and situate close to the River Sapis, now the Savio. 
 It retains its ancient name. 
 
 There are only a few places noticed by ancient writers to the 
 right or left of the ^Emilian Way. Among the former we may 
 point out, 1. Brixellum, northeast of Parma, and now Bresello. 
 It was a Roman colony, and was rendered remarkable by the 
 death of Otho after his defeat at Bedridcum. 2. Nuceria^ ten 
 miles to the northeast of the preceding, and now Luzzara. 
 Among the places on the left of the vEmilian Way, we may 
 mention, 1. Forum Novum, about ten miles to the southwest of 
 Parma, and near the source of the Tdrus, now the Taro. Its 
 modern name is Fornovo. An old inscription gives it the title 
 of a municipium. 2. Aqulnum, south of Mutina^ now Acqua- 
 rio. In the vicinity of this place was the vast forest called 
 Litdna SHva, extending along the base of the Apennines, from 
 the sources of the Scultenna, now the Panaro, to those of the 
 Secta or GabeMus, now the Secchio. In this forest a Roman 
 army was destroyed by the Gauls. 
 
284 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 7. Cities among the Lingones. 
 
 1. Ravenna, on the coast, a short distance below the Spinet- 
 ic mouth of the Po. It was a place of very early origin, found 
 ed, according to Strabo, by some Thessalians, by whom proba 
 bly are meant Pelasgi. This place was situate in the midst 
 of marshes, and built entirely on piles, and a communication 
 was established between the different parts of the town by 
 means of bridges and boats. The noxious air, however, arising 
 from the marshes was so purified by the tide, that Ravenna 
 was considered by the Romans a very healthy place, in proof 
 of which they sent gladiators thither to be trained and exercised. 
 Ravenna became the great naval station of the Romans on the 
 Adriatic, and continued to flourish as sucl^ong after the reign 
 of Augustus, and after the fall of the western empire it became 
 the seat of a separate government, called the exarchate of Ra 
 venna. It was badly supplied, however, with water. The 
 modern name is the same as the ancient. The old port was 
 situate at the mouth of the River Bedesis, now the Ronco ; but 
 Augustus caused a new one to be constructed at the entrance 
 of the little river Candianus into the sea, about three miles 
 from the city. The new harbor thenceforth became the station 
 for the fleet, and received the name of Portus Classis, an ap 
 pellation traces of which still subsist in that of the Basilica of 
 Sant Apollinare in Classe. 2. Spina, near the entrance of the 
 Spinetic mouth of the Po into the Adriatic, and from which 
 this mouth derived its name. It was a very ancient, and at 
 one time very flourishing city, and very powerful at sea. The 
 place appears to have been of Pelasgic origin. Its inhabitants 
 were finally overpowered by the neighboring barbarians, and 
 compelled to leave it. In Strabo s time it was a mere village. 
 Spina is supposed to have stood not far from the present village 
 of Argent a, and on the left bank of the Po di Primaro. 3. Fo 
 rum Allieni) to the northwest, supposed to have occupied the 
 site of the present Ferrara, this modern name being thought 
 to be a corruption from Forum Alliem, contracted to Forum 
 Arrii. 
 
ITALIA. 285 
 
 3. VENETIA, INCLUDING THE GARNI AND HISTRIA. 
 
 (A.) NAME AND BOUNDARIES. 
 
 I. Venetia took its name from the Veneti, its inhabitants, who 
 appear to have been a branch of the great Sclavonic race, and 
 to have been connected with the Venedi of the north of Europe, 
 a supposition rendered extremely probable by their having the 
 amber trade among them, since this trade may be taken as a 
 proof of a communication between them and the natives trading 
 in amber on the shores of the Baltic. 
 
 II. It was bounded on the north by the territory of the Eu- 
 ganei and by Rcetia ; on the west and south by Gallia Cisal- 
 pina ; on the east by the Mare Hadriaticum ; while on the 
 northeast, the River Tilavemptus, now the Tagliamento, sepa 
 rated it from the Garni. 
 
 III. On the invasion of Italy in the fifth century by the Huns 
 and their king Attila, and the general desolation that every 
 where ensued, great numbers of the people who lived near the 
 Adriatic took shelter in the islands in this quarter, where now 
 stands the city of Venice. The arrival of fresh hordes of bar 
 barians in Italy increased their population, until a commercial 
 state was formed, which gradually rose to power and opulence. 
 
 OBS. There was a popular belief among the ancients, adopted by the poets, 
 that the Veneti were sprung from a colony of Heneti, a people of Paphlagonia 
 in Asia Minor, enumerated by Homer among the allies of Priam. The forces 
 sent by that people to the aid of the Trojan monarch are said to have followed 
 Antenor, at the close of the war, over into Europe, and in the course of their 
 wanderings to have arrived at the head of the Adriatic, where they finally set 
 tled, after having expelled the Euganei, the original inhabitants of the country. 
 The fable probably arose from some accidental resemblance between the name 
 of the Homeric Antenor and that of the chieftain who led the Veneti into this 
 quarter. 
 
 IV. The Garni were situated to the northeast of the Veneti, 
 and were an Alpine race. They occupied a considerable extent 
 of territory, and their existence is still to be traced in the mod 
 ern appellation of Carniola. Their name itself is undoubtedly 
 of Celtic origin, and refers to their having been originally oc 
 cupants of rugged and mountainous regions. (Compare page 
 159, 6.) 
 
 V. The country of Histria, now Istria, was originally a part 
 of Illyricum. Little is known respecting the origin of the peo 
 ple ; but an early geographer, Scymnus of Chios, describes them 
 
236 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 as a nation of Thracian race. They were in all probability, 
 however, of Illyrian origin. This country was subjugated by 
 the Romans, B.C. 178. Augustus subsequently included it 
 within the limits of Italy, and the little river Arsia, now the 
 Arsa, henceforth became the boundary. 
 
 OBS. The Greeks, in their fanciful mythology, derived the name of Histria 
 from the Hister or Ister, now the Danube. They conveyed the Argonauts from 
 the Euxine into the Ister, and then, by an unheard-of communication between 
 this river and the Adriatic, launched their heroes into the waters of the latter. 
 They made, also, a band of Colchians, sent in pursuit of Jason and Medea, to 
 have settled in Histria after a fruitless search. This strange error no longer 
 prevailed in Strabo s time, when Histria had become known to the Romans, and 
 formed part of their empire. 
 
 (B.) CITIES OP VENETIA. 
 
 1. Hadria or Hatria, in the southeastern angle of the coun 
 try, near the River Tartarus, now Tartaro, and not far from 
 its mouth. According to the earliest accounts it was near the 
 shores of a bay, but in the subsequent alterations of this part 
 of the coast, the bay, if it ever existed, has long been filled up. 
 Hadria was a place of very ancient origin, and must have been 
 at one time powerful and great, since it was enabled to trans 
 mit its name to the sea on which it stood. It still existed when 
 Strabo wrote, but as an insignificant place. At present it is a 
 small town, still bearing the name of Hadria or Adria, and up 
 ward of eighteen miles distant from the coast. 2. Patdvium, 
 to the northwest of the preceding, between the Medudcus Ma 
 jor and Minor, but nearer the latter. It is now Padua, in 
 Italian Padova. This city, from its celebrity and importance, 
 may be regarded as the capital of Venetia. It was fabled to 
 have been founded by Anterior and his followers, the Heneti, to 
 whom we have already referred. Strabo speaks of Patavium 
 as the greatest and most flourishing city in the north of Italy, 
 and states that it counted in his time five hundred Roman 
 knights among its citizens, and could at one period send twen 
 ty thousand men into the field. Its manufactures of cloth and 
 woollen stuffs were renowned throughout Italy. This city was 
 the birth-place of the historian Livy, and also of Thrasea Pa> 
 tus, who was put to death by Nero. 3. Altinum, now Allino, 
 to the northeast of the preceding, on the River Silts, now 
 the Kile, near its mouth. It was celebrated for its wool, and 
 seems in other respects, also, to have been a place of note, since 
 
ITALIA. 287 
 
 Martial compares the appearance of its shores, lined with villas, 
 to that of Baise. L. Antoninus Verus, the emperor, died here 
 of apoplexy. 4. Concordia, to the northeast, and still retain-^ 
 ing its ancient name. Beyond this place is the River Tila- 
 vemptus, now the Tagliamento, which separated the territories 
 of the Veneti from those of the Garni. 
 
 Retracing our steps toward the southern borders of Venetia, 
 in order to examine the interior and remaining part of the coun 
 try, we come to, 1. Ateste, to the north of the Athesis, and on 
 the River Eretenus, now the Retone. It is now Este, a name 
 well known in modern history as the title of one of the most 
 ancient and illustrious families in Europe. 2. Vicentia, to the 
 northwest, sometimes called Vicetia, and now Vicenza. Tac 
 itus speaks of it as a municipium. 
 
 (C.) CITIES OF THE GARNI. 
 
 1. Aqmleia, a celebrated city, between the Aha, now Ausa, 
 and the Nafiso, now Natisone, and about seven miles from the 
 sea. It was of Gallic origin, but was soon taken possession of 
 by the Romans, and made a Latin colony. Polybius speaks of 
 valuable gold mines in its neighborhood ; and Eustathius de 
 rives the name from the Latin aquila," an eagle," the legiona 
 ry standard of the Romans who were first stationed there. 
 Aquileia soon became the chief bulwark of Italy on its north 
 eastern frontier. In Strabo s time it was the great emporium 
 of all the trade of Italy with the nations of Illyria and Panno- 
 nia ; these were furnished with wine, oil, and salt provisions 
 in exchange for slaves, cattle, and hides. It was sacked and 
 razed to the ground by Attila. The modern city of Aquileia 
 stands near the ruins of the ancient place. 2. Tergeste, to the 
 east of the preceding, and now Trieste. It gave name to the 
 Sinus Tergestinus, now Gulf of Trieste. It suffered severely, 
 on one occasion, from an invasion of the Illyrian lapydes, whom 
 Augustus had some difficulty in subduing. 3. Forum Julii^ to 
 the northeast, now Friuli. It is said to have been founded by 
 Julius Caesar, and became a place of importance. It must not 
 be confounded with Forum Julii, now Frejus, in Gallia Nar- 
 bonensis. 4. Julium Carnicum^ on the northwestern confines 
 of the Garni, and a place of great importance, having been 
 founded, probably by Julius Caesar, to guard the frontier against 
 the depredations of the Gauls and Illyrians. It is now Zuglio. 
 
288 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 (D.) CITIES OF HISTRIA. 
 
 1. JEgtda, at the mouth of the River Formic, now the Ri- 
 sano, in a small island named Mgldis. It was subsequently 
 JustinopoliS) and is now Capo tflstria. 2. Parentium, to the 
 south, with a sea-port. It is now Parenzd. 3. Pola, to the 
 south, and near the Promontormm Polaticum. It still retains 
 its ancient name. Pola was a city of very early origin, and 
 became eventually a Roman colony, when it took the name of 
 Pietas Julia. From the splendid remains of antiquity which 
 are yet to be seen here, it is evident that it was a city of no 
 little note. The amphitheatre is still in a very perfect state of 
 preservation, and is scarcely exceeded in magnificence by the 
 Coliseum at Rome. Off the promontory, in a southeast direc 
 tion, are certain islands called Absyrtides, as tradition reported, 
 from Absyrtus, the brother of Medea. The principal one was 
 named Absents, and had a town likewise called so. These isl 
 ands, four in number, are known in modern geography as Cher- 
 so, Osero, Ferosina, and Chao. 
 
 4. ETRURIA. 
 
 (A.) NAME AND BOUNDARIES. 
 
 I. THE Romans called this country Etruria or Tuscia ; the 
 Greeks, Tvpprjvia or Tvparjvia. 
 
 II. In the age of their greatness, the Tuscans, having sub 
 dued the ancient Tyrrhenians and the Umbrians, dwelt not only 
 in Etruria proper, but also in the country about the Po ; and 
 they had even carried their conquests as far as Campania in 
 central Italy. 
 
 III. Etruria, however, considered as a Roman province, was 
 bounded on the north by Liguria and Gallia Cisalpina, being 
 separated from the former by the River Macra, now the Ma- 
 gra, and from the latter by the Apennines ; on the east by Urn- 
 bria, the boundary line being formed by the Apennines and the 
 Tiber ; on the west and southwest by the Mare Inferum ; and 
 on the southeast by the country of the Sabines and by Latium. 
 
 OBS. 1. The probable origin of the Etrurian nation has already been given 
 (page 249, seg.). The Etrurians or Tuscans appear to have been a race coming 
 in from the north, and to have conquered the Tyrrhenian Pelasgians, the previ 
 ous possessors of the country. The idea of a Lydian immigration into Italy, 
 though a favorite one with the ancient writers, and though advocated by many 
 modern scholars, is now regarded as untenable. 
 
ITALIA. 289 
 
 2. In speaking of this nation, the terms Etrurian and Tuscan are indiscrimi 
 nately used. In the age of Cato, the country was commonly called Etruria, and 
 the people themselves Titsci. In later times, Etrusci grew to be more usual in 
 books. The old name, however, must have continued the prevalent one in the 
 mouth of the people. Hence, under the later emperors, arose the name of 
 Tuscia for the country, which till then had not been used in writing; and 
 hence, since the Middle Ages, we have Toscana, and, for the people themselves, 
 Toscani. The terms Etruria and Etrusci presuppose the simple form Etruri ; 
 and this we may hold to be the name by which the Italians originally designated 
 the conquerors of the Tyrrhenians, although the name both of Tuscans and 
 Etruscans was no less foreign to the people than that of Tyrrhenians. They 
 called themselves, as already remarked, Rasena. The name Tyrrhenian arose 
 from the Greeks confounding the conquered race with their conquerors. (Nie- 
 buhr, Rom. Hist., vol. i., p. 112, Cambr. transl.) 
 
 (B.) Hi STORICAL SKETCH OF ETRURIA. 
 
 I. HAD the Tuscans formed a regular and effective plan for securing their 
 conquests and strengthening their confederacies, they would have been the 
 masters of Italy, and perhaps of the world, instead of the Romans. But their 
 enterprises, after a certain period, seem to have been desultory, and their meas 
 ures ill combined and ineffectual. A fatal want of internal union, which pre 
 vailed among their states, rendered them an easy prey to their Gallic invaders 
 in the north of Italy, and to the hardy Samnites in Campania, while Rome was 
 aiming at the very centre of their power and existence those persevering and 
 systematic attacks, which, with her, were never known to fail. 
 
 II. Etruria was standing at the summit of her greatness about the end of the 
 third century of Rome. In the next she lost the whole country beyond the 
 Apennines, with Veii and Capena. A great part of the fifth century was spent 
 in an irresolute struggle, which Volsinii alone maintained with any fortitude, 
 against the prevailing destiny of Rome. 
 
 III. After this the nation enjoyed two centuries of inglorious repose. Even 
 during the second Punic war, her prosperity was so far restored that Arretium 
 of itself was able to support Scipio s African expedition with arms and corn for 
 the whole army, and with pay for the crew of a fleet. In this state of ease 
 they felt no desire for the Roman franchise, which bound such as shared it to 
 the performance of hard duties. When they received it, however, they dis 
 played no less courage than the Marsians and Samnites in maintaining its full 
 honor. But fortune dealt hardly with them, and, after the final success of Syl- 
 la s party, many of their cities were razed to the ground for having sided with 
 Marius. 
 
 IV. The form of government in Etruria, prior to its subjugation by the Ro 
 mans, was the aristocratic. The ruling class formed both an aristocracy and 
 priesthood, and effectually prevented the mind of the nation from expanding 
 itself in its natural growth. The great body of the people appear to have formed 
 a class of clients or dependents on the ruling caste. 
 
 V. Wherever the Etrurians settled we find them to have erected twelve con 
 federate cities, which were, in fact, so many aristocratic republics, having a 
 magistrate presiding over each termed Lucumo. Thus we have twelve con 
 federate cities in Etruria proper, twelve in the northern Etrurian territory 
 around the Po, and twelve, again, in Campanian Etruria. Niebuhr, Miiller, and 
 other modern scholars have endeavored to determine what these cities were, 
 but only with partial success. In Etruria around the Po, many of these cities 
 
 T 
 
290 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 seem to have been utterly destroyed at the irruption of the Gauls. Of those in 
 Etruria proper, Niebuhr gives the following ten : 1. Care or Agylla ; 2. Targui- 
 nii ; 3. Populonium ; 4. Volatcrra ; 5. Arretium ; 6. Perusia ; 7. Clusium ; 8. Ru- 
 sella ; 9. Veil ; 10. Volsinii. The two that are wanting can not be fixed with 
 any certainty. Capena, Cosa, and Fasula may appear to have a claim. 
 
 (C.) CITIES OF ETRURIA. 
 
 BEGINNING from the Macro,, we come to, 1. Luna, on the coast, 
 celebrated for its beautiful and capacious harbor (now the Gulf 
 of Spezzia) as early as the days of Ennius. Before the new 
 division under Augustus, Luna had formed part of Liguria. 
 It was also famous for its white marbles, which now take their 
 name from the neighboring town of Carrara. Pliny speaks 
 of the wine and cheese made in its vicinity ; the latter were 
 sometimes so large as to weigh one thousand pounds. The 
 ruins of the place now bear the name of Luni. 2. Lucus Fe- 
 ronice, to the southeast, at first merely a place sacred to the 
 worship of Feronia, but afterward raised to the dignity of a 
 colonial town. 3. Luca, now called Lucca, to the southeast, 
 on the River Ausar, now the Serchio. To this place Tiberius 
 Gracchus retired after the unfortunate campaign on the Tre- 
 bia; and Caesar frequently made his head-quarters here dur 
 ing his command irj. the two Gauls. 4. Pisce or Pisa, as it 
 is sometimes written, to the southwest, and still retaining its 
 situation and name, Pisa, as a modern city of great celebrity. 
 We learn from Strabo that anciently it stood at the junction 
 of the Ausar and Arnus, but now they flow into the sea by 
 separate channels. Pisa was fabled to have been founded by 
 some of the followers of Nestor in their wanderings after the 
 fall of Troy. Its harbor was much frequented by the Romans 
 in their communication with Sardinia, Gaul, and Spain. In 
 Strabo s time it was still a very flourishing commercial place, 
 from the supplies of timber which it furnished to the fleets, and 
 the costly marbles which the neighboring quarries afforded. 
 
 Diverging now into the interior, we come to, 1. Pistdria or 
 Pistorium, to the northeast of Luca, and at the foot of the 
 Apennines. It is now Pistoia. In the vicinity of this place 
 Catiline was defeated and slain by the forces of the republic. 
 2. Fcpsulce, about twenty-five miles to the southeast of the pre 
 ceding, now Fiesole. Catiline made this the chief hold of his 
 party in Etruria. It was still a flourishing city in the time of 
 
ITALIA. 291 
 
 Pliny ; at present a small village marks its site. 3. Florentia, 
 a short distance to the southwest, on the Arnus, now Florence 
 (in Italian. Firenze). Although so celebrated in modern times 
 as the capital of Tuscany, it has no pretensions to a foundation 
 of great antiquity, as we find no mention made of it before the 
 time of Caesar, by whom, as Frontinus informs us, it was col 
 onized, unless we make Fluentia identical with it, which is 
 mentioned by Florus as having suffered severely, along with 
 many other cities, in the civil wars of Sylla and Marius. 
 
 Returning to the coast, we come to, 1. Portus Her culls Li- 
 burnt or Labronis, now Leghorn (in Italian, Livorno}. 2. Vada 
 Volaterrdna, about eighteen miles further on. It was the har 
 bor of Volaterrce, and was situate at the mouth of the River 
 CcBdna, which still retains its name. The modern name of 
 the place is Vada. 3. Volaterrce, fifteen miles inland, and on 
 the right bank of the River Caecina. Its Etrurian name, as it 
 appears on numerous coins, was Velathri. The modern name 
 is Volterra. This was one of the twelve principal cities of Etru- 
 ria, and its massive remains at the present day bear full testi 
 mony to its ancient splendor and importance. 4. Sena Julia, 
 to the east of Volaterrse, and now well known as Sienna. The 
 more ancient name was Sena, to which Julia was subsequent 
 ly added, to distinguish it from Sena Gallica in Umbria. This 
 designation Julia implies a colony founded by Julius or Augus* 
 tus Caesar. 5. Vetulonii, to the southwest of the preceding, and 
 one of the most powerful and distinguished of the twelve great 
 cities of Etruria. D Anville errs in placing it on the coast, 
 since Strabo expressly says that Populonium was the only one 
 of the Etrurian cities that was close to the sea. A more care 
 ful examination of the vicinity has proved that the ruins of Vet- 
 ulonii exist in a forest still called Selva di Vetleta. 
 
 6. Populonium, to the west of the preceding, and on the 
 coast, being the only one of the Etrurian cities that was close 
 to the sea. In other instances the Etrurians were prevent 
 ed from founding any large cities immediately on the coast, 
 both by the want of commodious harbors,, and their fear of pi 
 rates. Populonium, however, possessed great advantages in 
 this respect, since it was both secure and of great extent, and 
 from its proximity to the island of Ilva, now Elba, so rich in 
 metals, of the highest importance; since the produce of the 
 
292 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 mines seems never to have been prepared for use in the island 
 itself, but to have been always sent over to Populonium for 
 that purpose. The city itself was placed on a lofty cliff, that 
 ran out into the sea, and formed the Promontorium Populoni 
 um; the harbor was at the bottom of the cliff, and here, too, 
 was the naval arsenal of the Etrurians. The Etrurian name 
 of the city, as appears from numerous coins, was Pupluna. 
 During the civil wars of Marius and Sylla, Populonium sus 
 tained a siege about the same time with Volaterrse, in which 
 it suffered so much that nothing but the temples and a few 
 houses were preserved. Its ruins are about three miles north 
 of Piombino. 7. Rusellce, to the southeast of the preceding, 
 and one of the twelve great cities. Some remarkable ruins, 
 with the name of Roselle, point to its site. It is mentioned 
 more than once by Livy in the course of the wars with Etru- 
 ria. In the second Punic war we read of its furnishing timber, 
 especially fir, for the Roman fleets. Near it was the Lacus 
 Prills, already mentioned (page 264), and also the River Um 
 bra, now Ombrone, whose name Pliny regards as indicative of 
 the Umbrians having once been in possession of Etruria. 
 
 8. Portus Telamo, below the River Umbro, and a place of 
 great antiquity, since its foundation was even fabulously as 
 cribed to the Argonauts. It was probably a Pelasgic city. The 
 modern name is Telamone. The country between Telamo and 
 the Lake Prilis was memorable for the defeat of a body of in 
 vading Gauls by the Romans under the consuls C. Atilius and 
 Paulus ^Emilius. This battle, which was fought seven years 
 before the commencement of the second Punic war, is common 
 ly called the battle of Telamo, but the scene of action was near 
 er the Lake Prilis, and on the right bank of the Umbro. 9. Cdsa, 
 called, also, Cossa and Cossce, to the southeast, on a peninsula, 
 in the midst of which rose the Mom Argentarius. The pen 
 insula formed two bays ; the one on the north answers to the 
 modern Stagno d? Orbitello, and in it the tunny fishery was 
 carried on. Hence the name given to the harbor on this side, 
 Portus ad Cetarias. The bay on the other side formed the 
 Portus Cossanus, called, also, Portus Herculis, and now Porto 
 cCErcole. Cosa was a very ancient Etrurian city, and found 
 ed, according to Pliny, by the Volcientes. It was remarkable 
 for its fidelity to the Romans during the second Punic war, and 
 
ITALIA. 293 
 
 we hear of it frequently in the naval history of Rome as one 
 of the principal stations for her fleets on the lower sea. It is 
 supposed to have been destroyed by the Goths under Alaric. 
 Its ruins are at a little distance from the modern town of An- 
 sedonia, which is now itself in ruins. 
 
 10. Grdviscce, southeast of the preceding, and a sea-port. It 
 appears to have been a town of some note, and probably served 
 as a harbor to the city of Tarquinii. The low and marshy sit 
 uation in which it was built seems to have rendered this town 
 always unhealthy. It occupied probably the site of the Torre 
 di Corneto, not Corneto itself, which is too far inland. 11. Tar 
 quinii^ some distance inland, in a northeast direction from Gra- 
 viscae, and on the left bank of the Maria. This was one of 
 the most powerful cities of Etruria, and celebrated in history 
 for its early connection with Rome, since from it the Tarquin 
 family came to that capital. The foundation of this city is as 
 cribed by Strabo to Tarchon, the famous Etrurian chief, who is 
 so often introduced by the poets. Tarquinii was foremost among 
 the cities of Etruria to assist Tarquinius Superbus in re-estab 
 lishing himself at Rome. Its wars with that city and final sub 
 jugation are related by Livy. At a later period it became a col 
 ony and municipium. The country around was, as it still is, 
 productive in flax, and hence we read of this city s having fur 
 nished sails for the Roman fleet. The Tuscan name was prob 
 ably Tarcuna. The site of the place is still indicated by some 
 ruins near Corneto, still called Turchina. 12. Centum Cellce, 
 to the south, now Civita Vecchia. This place, which obtain 
 ed its name from a large number of hamlets that were scat 
 tered around, first assumed importance when Trajan caused a 
 magnificent harbor to be constructed here, which Pliny the 
 younger has described in one of his letters. Two immense piers 
 formed the port, which was semicircular, while an island, con 
 structed artificially of immense masses of rock, brought there 
 by vessels and sunk in the sea, served as a break- water in front, 
 and supported a pharos. The coast being very destitute of 
 shelter for vessels of burden, this work of Trajan s was a great 
 national benefit, and hence the place was better known by the 
 name of Trajani Portus. Centum Cellae having been destroyed 
 by the Saracens, the inhabitants built another town some dis 
 tance inland ; but afterward they reoccupied the site of " the 
 
294 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 old city," which from that circumstance obtained its present 
 name. 
 
 13. Pyrgi or Pyrgos, to the southeast, a place of great an 
 tiquity, and, as its name imports, of Grecian, that is, Pelasgic 
 origin. This city contained a temple of the goddess Lucina r 
 celebrated for its riches until plundered by Dionysius of Syra 
 cuse, not long after the capture of Rome by the Gauls. The 
 modern town of Santa Severa occupies its place. 14. Ccere, 
 a short distance to the northeast of the preceding, and called by 
 the Greek writers Agylla, ("AyvAAa). It was one of the most 
 considerable cities of Etruria, and enjoyed a great reputation for 
 justice among the Greeks ; for, though very powerful and able 
 to send out fleets and armies, it always abstained from piracy, 
 to which the other Etrurian cities were so much addicted. 
 When Rome was taken by the Gauls, the inhabitants of Caere 
 rendered that city an important service by receiving their 
 priests and vestals, and by defeating the Gauls on their return 
 through the Sabine country, on which occasion they are said 
 to have recovered the gold with which Rome had purchased its 
 liberation. In return for this, the Romans declared the Cserites 
 public guests of Rome, and admitted them to a portion of the 
 rights enjoyed by her citizens. In Strabo s time this celebra 
 ted city was reduced to insignificance, being less frequented 
 than the mineral waters {Aquae. C&retance, now Bagni di 
 Sasso) in its vicinity. The remains of Caere are still to be 
 traced about four miles from the sea, on a spot now known by 
 the name of Cervetcri. 15. Lorium, to the southeast, a small 
 place, answering now to Castel Guido. In a villa here Anto 
 ninus Pius was brought up, and here, also, he died. 16. Por- 
 tus Augusti. An account of this will be given when we come 
 to speak of Ostia in Latium. 
 
 In order to describe what remains of Etruria, we will now 
 proceed to the northeast portion of that province, situated near 
 the sources of the Arnus, and will then examine the interior 
 of the country. Pursuing this course, we come to, 1. Arretium, 
 now Arezzo, a town of considerable celebrity, and generally 
 considered as one of the principal states of Etruria. It became 
 a place of great importance to the Romans, as a defence against 
 the incursions of the Cisalpine Gauls, and we also find the con 
 sul Flaminius posted there to defend the entrance of Etruria 
 
ITALIA. 295 
 
 against Hannibal. Caesar did not neglect to make himself 
 master of this important place when he had seized upon Ari- 
 minum, but sent Antony with five cohorts to occupy it. Ar- 
 retium was much celebrated for its terra cotta vases, which 
 Pliny ranks with those of Samos and Saguntum. Besides the 
 Arretium which we are here considering, and which for that rea 
 son was sometimes called Arretium Vetus, there were two other 
 Roman colonies of the same name in this quarter, distinguished 
 as Arretium Julium and Arretium Fidens. The former of 
 these answers to the modern Subliano, the latter to Castigli- 
 one. 2. Cortona, about fourteen miles south of Arretium. 
 This was one of the most ancient cities of Italy, and of Pelas- 
 gic origin, as is plainly shown by the massy remains of its an 
 cient walls. It was fabled by some to have been founded by 
 Corythus, father of Dardanus, and hence is called by Virgil the 
 city of Corythus. It was subsequently colonized by the Ro 
 mans. The modern name is the same as the ancient. 3. Pe- 
 rusia,) somewhat to the southeast of the Lacus Trasymenus, 
 and on the site pf the modern city of Perugia. This place was 
 scarcely inferior in antiquity to Cortona, and equal to it in dig 
 nity and rank among the confederated cities of Etruria. It 
 was also of Pelasgic origin. Perusia became a Roman colony 
 about B.C. 44, and some years after sustained a memorable 
 siege, in which Antony held out against Octavianus Caesar, but 
 was at length forced by famine to surrender. On this occasion 
 many of the Perusians were put to death, and the city was ac 
 cidentally burned ; a madman having set fire to his own house, 
 a general conflagration ensued. Perusia, however, appears to 
 have risen from its ruins, and under the Emperor Justinian we 
 find it maintaining a successful siege against the Goths. 
 
 4. Clusium,) to the west of Perusia, and nearly on a line 
 with it, now Chiusi. This was the capital of Porsena, the 
 early enemy of Rome. Its first name is said to have been Ca- 
 mers, and it appears to have belonged originally to the Umbrian 
 Camertes, from whom it was taken by the Tuscans. The siege 
 of Clusium by the Gauls, and the provocation which they re 
 ceived from the Roman ambassadors, led to the capture of 
 Rome itself. It was near this place that Porsena erected for 
 himself the splendid mausoleum, of which Pliny has transmit 
 ted to us a description on the authority of Varro, but which 
 
296 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 bears no small appearance of fiction, since, had so stupendous 
 a work actually existed, some traces of it would have remained, 
 not merely in Pliny s day, but even in the present age. Pliny 
 makes a distinction between Clusium Vetus and Novum. A 
 village named Chiusi, at the foot of the Apennines, north of 
 Arretium, is supposed to represent the latter. 5. Volsinii or 
 Volsinium, on the northern shore of the Lacus Volsiniensis, 
 and now Bolsena, ranked among the cities of Etruria. It sub 
 sequently became so enervated by its wealth and luxury as to 
 allow its slaves to overthrow the constitution, and give way to 
 the most unbridled licentiousness and excess, till at last the cit 
 izens were forced to seek protection from Rome. The rebels 
 were then speedily reduced and brought to condign punishment. 
 As a proof of the ancient prosperity of Volsinii, it is stated by 
 Pliny that it possessed, when taken by the Romans, no less than 
 two thousand statues. From Livy we learn that the Etrus 
 can goddess Nortia was worshipped here, and that it was cus 
 tomary to mark the years by fixing nails in her temple. Vol 
 sinii at a later period was noted as the birth-place of Sejanus. 
 6. Void, an ancient city, which appears to have stood be 
 tween the preceding and Tarquinii. Its site is still known 
 by the name of Piano di Void. The inhabitants are called 
 Voldentes. 7. Fdnum Voltumnce, to the southeast of Volsinii^ 
 and celebrated as the spot where the general assembly of the 
 Etrurian nation was held on solemn occasions. 8. Trossulum, 
 a little to the southeast, of which some remains have been dis 
 covered at a place which bears the name of Trosso. Pliny tells 
 us that this town having been taken by cavalry alone, the Ro 
 man horse from that circumstance obtained the name of Tros- 
 suli. 9. Fescenniuni) east of the Lacus Ciminus, and near the 
 Tiber, and occupying the site of the modern Galese. It is noted 
 in the annals of Roman poetry for the nuptial songs called Car- 
 mina Fescennlna, to which, according to Festus, it gave its 
 name. 10. Fal&rium, or, as it is more generally called, Fale- 
 rii, to the southwest of the preceding, and the capital of the 
 ancient Falisci. It appears to have occupied the position of 
 the present Civita Castellana. The wars of the Falisci with 
 Rome are chiefly detailed in the fifth book of Livy, where the 
 celebrated story of Camillus and the schoolmaster of Falerii oc 
 curs. It was not, however, till the third year after the first Pu- 
 
ITALIA. 297 
 
 nic war that this people were finally reduced. The waters of 
 the Faliscan territory were supposed, like those of the Clitum- 
 nus, to have the peculiar property of communicating a white 
 color to cattle. 11. Capena, to the southeast of Mom Soracte, 
 and often mentioned in the early annals of Rome. It stood at 
 a place now called Civitucula. 
 
 12. Veil, to the east of Caere, and eleven miles from Rome, 
 to which it was at one time a formidable rival. It sustained 
 many long wars against the Romans, and was at last taken by 
 Camillus after a siege of ten years. Its opulence is attested 
 by the account which historians have given of the booty that 
 Camillus obtained for his army at its fall. In fertility of soil and 
 extent of territory, Veii had greatly the advantage over its ri 
 val. After the capture of Rome by the Gauls, an effort was 
 made to transfer the seat of Roman power to Veii. It failed, 
 and from this time we scarcely hear of the latter city. Veii 
 became a Roman colony under Julius Caesar, who divided its 
 lands among his soldiers ; but in the civil wars which ensued 
 after his death, it was nearly destroyed, and left in a most des 
 olate state. It rose, however, from its ruins, and was raised to 
 municipal rank, probably under Tiberius ; and we find it ex 
 isting even under the Emperors Constantine and Theodosian. 
 Its site answers to the spot now called Vlsola Farnese. 
 
 ISLANDS OFF THE COAST OF ETRURIA. 
 
 1. Urg^oSj called by Rutilius Gorg-on, and lying in a south 
 west direction from Portus Herculis Liburni or Leghorn. It is 
 now Gorgona. 2. Mcenaria, near the preceding, now Meloria. 
 
 3. Ilva, now Elba, called by the Greeks jEthalia, distant 
 about ten miles from Populonium, the nearest point of the Tus 
 can coast. Ilva was early celebrated for its rich iron mines, 
 but by whom they were first discovered and worked is uncer 
 tain, as they are said to exhibit the marks of labors carried on 
 for an incalculable time. It is probable, however, that the 
 Phoenicians were the first to make known the mineral riches 
 of this island, and that it was from them the Pelasgic Tyrrheni 
 learned to estimate its value, which may have held out to them 
 no small inducement for settling on a coast otherwise deficient 
 in natural advantages. It is to this latter people that we may 
 trace the name of JEthalia^ since it appears that Lemnos, 
 
298 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 which they once inhabited, bore, according to the testimony of 
 Polybius, the same appellation in more ancient times. The 
 Portus Argons, in this island, fabled to have derived its name 
 from the expedition of the Argonauts, is now Porto Feraio. 
 
 4. Planasia, a small island between Ilva and Corsica, called 
 Planasia by Varro, and Planaria by Pliny. It is now Pia- 
 nosa. Tacitus relates that Augustus banished to this island 
 his nephew Agrippa, and that the young prince was put to death 
 here on the accession of Tiberius. 5. Capraria, northwest of 
 Ilva, and now Capraia. It derived its name from the goats 
 (caprce) with which it abounded. Hence, also, the Greeks 
 called it Mgilon (Klyihuv, from ait-). 6. Iglllum, opposite the 
 harbor of Cosa, and now Giglio. Close to it lay another small 
 island, called Dianium or Artemisium, now Gianuti. 
 
 5. UMBRIA AND PICENUM. 
 
 UMBRIA. 
 (A.) NAME AND BOUNDARIES. 
 
 I. Umbria takes its name from the Umbri, its inhabitants, 
 who were called by the Greeks OpdpiKoi, a word which this lat 
 ter people supposed to be derived from opdpog, " a rain-storm," 
 under the singular idea that they were a people saved from a 
 universal deluge. 
 
 II. It is certain, however, that the Umbrians were originally 
 a great and powerful nation, and they are regarded by some 
 of the ancients as the earliest inhabitants of the country. Their 
 territory at first, too, was very extensive, embracing probably 
 not only what afterward was called Umbria, but also the south 
 ern part of Etruria, and the district occupied by the Sabines 
 between the Apennines and the Tiber ; while, on the northeast 
 slope of the Apennines, toward the upper sea and the Po, they 
 are said to have spread as conquerors, to have expelled the Li- 
 burnians and the Siculi from the coast, and to have maintained 
 an obstinate contest with the Tuscans for the territory on the 
 lower Po. 
 
 III. But Umbria, in the sense in which we are here to con 
 sider it, that is, under the limits which were assigned to it in 
 the reign of Augustus, was very different from all this, and 
 was bounded as follows : On the north by the Rubicon, which 
 separated it from Gallia Cisalpina ; on the east by the Adri- 
 
ITALIA. 299 
 
 atic and Picenum ; on the west by the Apennines and Tiber, 
 dividing it from Etruria : and on the south by the country of 
 the Sabines. 
 
 (B.) SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF UMBRIA. 
 
 I. THE Umbri come into collision with the Etruscans, who defeat them, and 
 take three hundred of their towns. 
 
 II. Not long after this a new foe appears, equally formidable to both the con 
 querors and the conquered, namely, the Galli Senones, the same who afterward 
 took Rome. The Tuscans are vanquished and driven from the country around 
 the Po, while the Umbri also feel the force of the invasion, and are driven from 
 the shores of the Adriatic into the mountains. The Senones take possession 
 of the coast. 
 
 III. The decisive struggle between the Etruscans and Romans now takes 
 place, and we find the Camertes Umbri, a tribe on the borders of Etruria, offer 
 ing to assist the Romans in their attack upon their Etruscan neighbors. It is 
 worthy of remark, that the emissary sent by the Romans, and who is acquainted 
 with the Etruscan language, is enabled thereby to converge with the Camertes 
 Umbri, and to enter into negotiations ^with them. 
 
 IV. After the overthrow of the Etruscans, the Umbri make, when it is too 
 late, an effort to check the advance of the conquering l^mans. The consul 
 Decius, who has advanced into Etruria, retraces his steps to oppose the new 
 enemy, and the other consul Fabius, who has been fighting against the Sam- 
 nites, is ordered by the senate to march round against the Umbri, who are as 
 sembled at Mevania. 
 
 V. This joint movement damps the spirit of the Umbri, and their forces dis 
 perse to their several strongholds. Only one tribe, called Materi?ia, keeps the 
 field, and attacks the camp of Fabius, but are defeated, B.C. 307. In a short 
 time most of the communities of Umbri submit to Rome without much resist 
 ance ; Sarsma, however, is one of the last to yield. The Senones are totally ex 
 tirpated about twenty-five years afterward, and Umbria again reaches to the sea. 
 
 (C.) CITIES OF UMBRIA. 
 
 ADVANCING from the Rubicon along the coast, we come to, 
 1. Arimmum, now Rimini, situate between the rivers Arimt- 
 nus and Aprusa, now the Marecchia and Ausa, and the former 
 of which is said to have given name to the city. After the ex 
 pulsion of the Senones, Ariminum, originally an Umbrian city, 
 received a Roman colony. From this period it was considered 
 a most important place, and the key of Italy on the eastern 
 coast ; and hence we generally find a Roman army stationed 
 there during the Gallic and Punic wars. How much import 
 ance Caesar attached to the possession of this place is shown by 
 his seizing it immediately after crossing the Rubicon. That it 
 continued to flourish under Augustus is evident from the re 
 mains of several great works erected there during the reign of 
 that emperor. 2. Pisaurum, now Pesaro, to the southeast, at 
 
300 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 the mouth of the River Pisaurus, now the Foglia. It became 
 a Roman colony B.C. 185, and it appears to have been colonized 
 again either by Julius or Augustus Csesar, since inscriptions 
 give it the title of Colonia Julia. The climate of this place 
 appears from Catullus to have been in bad repute. 3. Sena 
 Gallica, now Simgaglta, on the right bank of the River Mi- 
 sus, now the Nigola. The surname Gallica was added to dis 
 tinguish this place from the Etruscan Sena. It was colonized 
 by the Romans after they had expelled, or, rather, exterminated 
 the Senones. During the civil wars of Marius and Sylla, Sena, 
 which sided with Marius, was taken and sacked by Pompey. 
 We must now return to the north of Umbria, in order to de 
 scribe the interior of the province. Advancing, then, from this 
 point, we come J;o, 1. Sarsina, on the left bank of the Sapis, 
 now the Savio, and which still retains its ancient name. It 
 was the birth-place of Plautus, tne comic writer. Sarsina must 
 have been at oA time a place of note, since it gave name to a 
 numerous Umbrian tribe. From ancient inscriptions we learn 
 that it was a municipium. The Sapinian tribe seem to have 
 occupied the mountainous district near the source of the river 
 whence they derived their appellation, and to have dwelt not far 
 from Sarsina. Some vestige of the ancient name may still be 
 traced in that of a place now called Sapigno. 2. Pitmurn Pi- 
 saurense, to the southeast, so called from its situation on the 
 River Pisaurus. It is now probably Piagnino. 3. Urblnum 
 Metaurense, to the southeast, now Urbanta, and on the right 
 bank of the River Metaurus, whence it derived the latter part of 
 its name. 4. Urblnum Hortense, to the northeast, on the oppo 
 site bank of the same river, now Urbino, the capital of a duchy 
 of the same name. Here Valens, general of Vitellius, was put 
 to death. In the mountains to the south of this place is the 
 defile anciently called Petra Pertusa or Intercisa, now il Furlo 
 or Sasso Forato, from its being cut through the rock which 
 here closes in to the edge of the River Cantiano. This work 
 must doubtless be referred to the construction of the Flaminian 
 Way. 5. Forum Sempronii, nearer the sea, and on the left 
 bank of the Metaurus. It answers to the modern Fossom- 
 brone. The battle between Hasdrubal and the Roman gener 
 als must have ta.ken place here, according to the best opinions. 
 A hill between Fossombrone and the pass of Furlo is still called 
 Monte cPAsdrubale. 
 
ITALIA. 301 
 
 6. Sentinum, to the southwest, and nearer the Apennines, 
 now Sentina. It was celebrated for the battle fought in its 
 vicinity between the Romans and the Gauls leagued with the 
 Samnites, B.C. 295, in which the consul Decius so nobly de 
 voted himself for his country. Sentinum is also noted for hav 
 ing held out against the second triumvirate. 7. Camerinum, 
 to the southeast, on the borders of Picenum, and now Cameri- 
 no. This place must not be confounded with the Camerte of 
 Strabo, to which we will presently come. 
 
 We must now turn to that part of Umbria which lies to the 
 west of the central chain of the Apennines. Beginning with 
 the sources of the Tiber, we come to. 1. Tifernum Tiber inum, 
 so called because near the sources of that stream. It was sit 
 uate on the left bank, and answers to the modern Cittd di Cas- 
 tello. Tifernum is chiefly known from the circumstance of its 
 being situated near the villa of the younger Pliny. 2. Igum- 
 urn, to the south of Tifernum, and at the foot of the main chain 
 of the Apennines. It is now Eugubbio, or more commonly 
 Gubbio, and was a municipium. This city has acquired great 
 celebrity in modern times from the discovery, in its vicinity, 
 A.D. 1440, of several bronze tablets covered with inscriptions, 
 some of which are in Umbrian, others in Latin characters. To 
 the northeast of this place was the temple of Jupiter Apenni- 
 nus, to which the Umbrians resorted to sacrifice, as the Etrus 
 cans did to the temple of Voltumna, and the Latins to the Al- 
 ban Mount. Some vestiges of this temple are still to be seen 
 on Monte San? Ubaldo. 3. Nuceria, to the southeast of the 
 preceding, now Nocera. It is noticed by Strabo for its manu 
 facture of wooden vessels. 4. Mevania, to the southwest of 
 the preceding, now Bevagna. This place was famous for its 
 wide-extended plains and rich pastures. Here Vitellius took 
 post, as if determined to make a last stand for the empire 
 against Vespasian, but soon after withdrew his forces. This 
 city is also memorable as having been the birth-place of Pro- 
 pertius. 
 
 5. Spoletmm, to the southeast of the preceding, now Spoleto. 
 It ranked high among the municipal towns of Italy, but it suf 
 fered severely from proscription in the civil wars of Marius and 
 Sylla. 6. Carsulce, southwest of the preceding, and noticed by 
 Strabo among the principal towns of Umbria. The ancient 
 
302 A.NCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 site still retains the name of Car soli. 7. Tuder, about eight 
 miles to the northwest of Carsulce, and now Todi. It was one 
 of the most important cities of Umbria, and famous for the wor 
 ship of Mars. Its situation on a lofty hill rendered it a place 
 of great strength. 8. Ameria, south of the preceding, and near 
 the Tiber. It is now Amelia. This was one of the most con 
 siderable and ancient cities of Umbria, and, according to Cato, 
 could boast of an origin greatly anterior to that of Rome. It 
 was a municipium, and became a colony under Augustus. 
 9. Camerte, between Ameria and Tuder, and now Camarata. 
 It was the chief city of the Camertes, a powerful Umbrian 
 tribe. 
 
 10. Interamna, east of Ameria, and so called because situa 
 ted between two branches of the River Nar. Hence, also, the 
 inhabitants were known as the Interamnates Nartes, to distin 
 guish them from those of Interamna on the Liris, in New La- 
 tium. It is now the well-known town of Terni. This place 
 suffered severely in the civil wars between Marius and Sylla. 
 The adjacent plains, which were watered by the Nar, are rep 
 resented as the most productive in Italy, and Pliny assures us 
 that the meadows were cut four times in the year. 11. Nar- 
 nia, lower down on the Nar, more anciently called Nequinum, 
 and now Narni. This change of name took place after the 
 town had been taken by the Romans, when it received a colo 
 ny with the view of serving as a point of defence against the 
 Umbri. It was situate on a lofty hill, at the foot of which 
 flowed the Nar. A bridge was raised over this river by Au 
 gustus, the arch of which was said to be the highest known. 
 12. Ocrlculum, to the south of the preceding, and a few miles 
 from the left bank of the Tiber. It is now Otricoli. This 
 place suffered severely during the Social War, but was still, in 
 Strabo s time, a city of note. 
 
 P I C E N U M. 
 (A.) NAME, BOUNDARIES, &c. 
 
 I. Plcenum took its name from the Picentes, its inhabitants, 
 who were a colony of Sabines ; and these colonists are said to 
 have assumed the appellation of Picentes because led in their 
 migration from home by a woodpecker (picus), the sacred bird 
 of Mamersor Mars. According, however, to the legend of the 
 
ITALIA. 303 
 
 poets, they were so called from the ancient Picus, the mythic 
 leader of their colony. 
 
 II. Picenum was bounded on the north by Umbria, on the 
 east by the Adriatic, on the west by Umbria and the country 
 of the SabineSj and on the south by the country of the Sa- 
 bines and that of the Vestini. This arrangement comprehends 
 under the name of Picenum the territory of the Prcetutii, who 
 were, in fact, however, a different people from the Picentes, but 
 are here, for convenience sake, ranked along with them under 
 the same general head. 
 
 III. Picenum was regarded as one of the most fertile parts 
 of Italy. The produce of its fruit-trees was particularly es 
 teemed. 
 
 IV. The Sabines were not apparently the first or sole pos 
 sessors of this country. The Siculi, Liburni, and Umbri, ac 
 cording to Pliny ; the Pelasgi, as Silius Italicus reports ; and 
 the Tyrrheni, according to Strabo, all at different periods form 
 ed settlements in this part of Italy. 
 
 V. The conquest of Picenum cost the Romans but little 
 trouble. It was effected about 269 B.C., not long after the ex 
 pedition of Pyrrhus into Italy, when 360,000 men, as Pliny 
 assures us, submitted to the Roman authorities. 
 
 (B.) CITIES OP PICENUM. 
 
 BEGINNING at the north, from the River jEsis, now the Esino, 
 which separates Picenum, in this quarter, from Umbria, we 
 come to, 1. Ancona, on the coast, and still retaining its ancient 
 name. This place, in Greek Ay/cajv, was so called from the 
 angular or bended form of the promontory on which it was 
 placed, the term dy/cuv, in Greek, conveying the general idea of 
 any thing curved or bent. This city is said to have been of 
 Doric origin, and to have been founded by some Syracusans, 
 who were flying from the tyranny of Dionysius. It is spoken 
 of by Livy as a naval station of some importance in the wars 
 of Rome with the Illyrians, and it continued to be a port of 
 consequence even in Trajan s time, if we may judge from the 
 works erected by that emperor, which are still extant there. 
 According to Strabo, its territory was very fertile in corn and 
 wine. Its purple dye is celebrated by Silius Italicus. 2. Nu~ 
 mdna, about ten miles further on, an old settlement of the Sic- 
 
304 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 uli, now Humana. 3. Potentia, on a river of the same name, 
 now the Potenza. The remains of the city are close to the 
 monastery of St. Maria di Potenza. 4. Firmum, to the south 
 east, and about five miles from the sea. It was colonized to 
 ward the beginning of the first Punic war. The modern town 
 of Fermo answers to it, and is yet a place of some note in the 
 Marca cVAncona. The Castellum Firmanorum is now the 
 Porto di Fermo. 5. Cupra, to the south, termed Maritime^ 
 to distinguish it from another city known by the name of Cu~ 
 pra Montana. It was an establishment of the Etruscans, who 
 are said to have worshipped Juno here under the name of Cu- 
 pra. The temple of the goddess was restored by Hadrian. 
 The site of this place is commonly fixed at Marano. 6. Cas- 
 trum Truentinum, at the mouth of the Truentus, now the 
 Tronto, is said by Pliny to have been the only remaining es 
 tablishment of the Liburni, a well-known Illyrian nation, in 
 Italy. According to the same writer, they once occupied a con 
 siderable extent of territory on this coast. 
 
 Returning to the north of Picenum, in order to examine the 
 interior of this province, we come to, 1. Cupra Montana, on the 
 left bank of the -ZEsis, and so named from its situation among 
 the mountains. It was near the present Masaccio d lesi. 
 2. Cingulum, a few miles to the south, now Cingolo. It sur 
 rendered to Caesar, though Labienus, then a great partisan of 
 Pompey s, had fortified it at his own expense. 3. Auximiim, 
 to the northeast, and near Ancona, now Osimo. From its 
 strength this was one of the most important places in Picenum. 
 In the time of Procopius it was a large city, and the capital of 
 the province. 4. Asculum Picenum, southwest of Firmum, and 
 now Ascoli. It was called Picenum, to distinguish it from As 
 culum in Apulia. This city is described by Strabo as a place 
 of great strength, being surrounded by walls and inaccessible 
 heights. It was the first city to declare against the Romans 
 when the social war broke out, and its example was followed 
 by the whole of Picenum. In the course of that war it main 
 tained a long and memorable siege against Pompey, who finally, 
 however, compelled the place to surrender. Cicero mentions 
 Barms, a native of Asculum, as a most eloquent orator. 
 
ITALIA. 305 
 
 P R JE T U T 1 1. 
 
 OF this people scarcely any thing is known except that they were of a differ 
 ent race from the Picentes. Their territory was fertile, and celebrated for its 
 wine ; and we know that Hannibal availed himself of these resources when he 
 led his army through this district, on his way to the south, after his campaign 
 in Etruria, as did Claudius Nero when proceeding by forced marches to join 
 his colleague who was opposed to HasdruBft. 
 
 Few places of any consequence occur in this territory. We may mention, 
 however, 1. Inter amna Pratutidna, so called to distinguish it from three other 
 cities of the name of Interamna, in other parts of Italy. Its modern name is 
 Teramo, situated between the small rivers Viziola and Turdino. 2. Beregra, to 
 the southwest of the preceding, on the River Vomanus, now the Vomano. Its 
 particular site is undetermined. 3. Hadria, between the Vomanus and Matrinus, 
 and at some distance from the sea. Its emporium was at the mouth of the 
 latter river. Hadria is now Atri, and its harbor just mentioned, Porto <VAtri. 
 This city is supposed to have been settled by a colony from the Hadria to the 
 north of the Po. It seems generally allowed that the Emperor Hadrian was de 
 scended from a family originally of this city. 
 
 6. SABINI, JEQUI, MARSI, PELIGNI, VESTINI, AND MARRUCINI. 
 
 S A B I N I. 
 (A.) NAME, HISTORY, TERRITORY, &c. 
 
 I. THE Sabines appear to be generally considered as one of 
 the most ancient indigenous tribes of Italy, and one of the few 
 who preserved their race pure and unmixed. Their name, ac 
 cording to Cato, was derived from the god Sabus, an aboriginal 
 deity, whose son Sancus was the Sabine Hercules. 
 
 II. The Sabines were a mountaineer race originally, and ap 
 pear to have been at first a very inconsiderable community, as 
 may be seen from the accounts of Cato, who, as quoted by Di- 
 onysius of Halicarnassus, reported that the first Sabines settled 
 in an obscure place named Testrlna, in the vicinity of Amiter- 
 num. As their numbers increased, however, they rapidly ex 
 tended themselves in every direction, expelling the Aborigines 
 from the district of Redte, and thence sending out numerous 
 colonies into Picenum, Samnium, and the several petty nations 
 who are named at the head of this section. 
 
 III. The early connection of the Sabines with Rome, which 
 was yet in its infancy, naturally forms the most interesting 
 epoch in their history, but is too well known to require further 
 notice here. Their entire subjugation was effected by Curius 
 Dentatus, who carried fire and desolation beyond the sources 
 of the Nar and Velinus, to the very shores of the Adriatic. 
 
 IV. The country of the Sabines, in the reign of Augustus, 
 
 U 
 
306 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 was bounded as follows : on the north by Umbria, on the south 
 by Latium, on the west by Umbria and Etruria, and on the 
 east by the country of the Vestim, Marrucini, &c. 
 
 V. The Romans had no general name comprehending the 
 Sabines along with the tribes supposed to have issued from 
 them. The latter, as well dfce Marsi and Peligni as the Sam- 
 nites and Lucanians, they termed Sabellians. 
 
 (B.) CITIES OF THE SABINI. 
 
 BEGINNING at the junction of the Tiber and Anio, we come 
 to, 1. Antemnce, a city of the Aborigines, and more ancient than 
 Rome itself. From its position it belonged strictly to Latium, 
 being on the left bank of the Anio ; but that it afterward formed 
 part of the Sabine confederacy is evident from its being one of 
 the first cities which resented the outrage offered to that nation 
 by the rape of their women. Its name, according to Varro, in 
 dicated its position, " Antemnce, quod ante amnem, qui influit 
 in Tiberim" 2. Fldence^ to the northeast, near the Tiber, and 
 between four and five miles from Rome. It was at first a col 
 ony of Alba. Romulus conquered the place soon after the death 
 of Tatius. After many attempts to emancipate itself, it was 
 stormed by the dictator Mamercus ^Emilius. After this it re 
 mained for a long time a deserted place, but it subsequently 
 rose again to the rank of a municipium. A terrible disaster 
 occurred here in the reign of Tiberius, by the fall of a wooden 
 amphitheatre during a show of gladiators, by which accident 
 fifty thousand persons, as Tacitus reports, or twenty thousand, 
 according to Suetonius, were killed or wounded. The site of 
 this city is near Castel Giubileo. 3. Crustumerium, about two 
 miles further on, in the same direction. This was also a colo 
 ny of Alba, and a place of great antiquity. The Crustummi 
 were vanquished by Romulus, and a settlement was formed in 
 their territory, the fertility of which is extolled by more than 
 one writer. The ruins of Crustumerium still exist in a place 
 called Marcigliano Veccliio. 4. Nomentum, northeast of the 
 preceding, on the site now called by a corruption of the ancient 
 name, Lament ana Vecchia. This also was a colony of Alba, 
 and therefore originally, perhaps, a Latin city, but from its po 
 sition it is generally attributed to the Sabines. Nomentum, in 
 the time of Propertius, was but an insignificant place, yet its 
 
ITALIA. 307 
 
 territory was long celebrated for the produce of its vineyards, 
 and hence, in the time of Seneca and Pliny, we find that land 
 in this district was sold for enormous sums. The former had 
 an estate in the vicinity of this town, which was his favorite 
 retreat. The wine of Nomentum is praised by Athenaeus and 
 Martial. 
 
 5. Corniculum, to the east of the preceding, and giving name 
 to the Corniculani Colles, It was the reputed birth-place of 
 Servius Tullius. 6. Erctum, north of Nomentum, and the 
 scene of many contests between the Romans and Sabines 
 leagued with the Etruscans. In Strabo s time it was little 
 more than a village. Its site is at Rimane, about two and a 
 half miles beyond Monte Ritondo. 7. Regillum, near E return, 
 and the native place of Atta Clausus, or Appius Claudius, the 
 founder of the Claudian family at Rome. 8. Cures, to the north 
 of E return, and celebrated as the birth-place of Numa Pompil- 
 ius. It was a place of great antiquity, and though Virgil and 
 Ovid apply the term parvi to it, yet it must have been a pop 
 ulous and powerful city to play the part it did in early Roman 
 history. The site of Cures, according to the best opinion, is to 
 be fixed at Correse, a little town on a river of the same name. 
 9. Mandela, a village to the southeast of Cures, near which 
 stood Horace s Sabine villa. It is now Bardela. The Mons 
 Lucretilis, in its vicinity, is now Monte Libretti, and the little 
 River Digentia is now the Licenza. 
 
 10. Reate, to the northeast of Cures, and now Rieti. In an 
 tiquity of origin this city was equalled by few places in Italy, 
 since, at the most remote period to which the records of that 
 country extend, it is reported to have been the first seat of the 
 Umbri, the same, probably, with the Aborigines of Italy. Reate 
 was particularly celebrated for its breed of mules, and still more 
 so for its asses, which sometimes fetched the enormous price of 
 60,000 sesterces, about $2320. The valley of the Velinus, in 
 which this city was situated, was so delightful as to merit the 
 appellation of Tempe, and from their dewy freshness its mead 
 ows obtained the name of Rosei Campi. 11. Cutilice, to the 
 east of Reate, and also an aboriginal city of great antiquity. 
 It was celebrated for its lake, now Pozzo Ratignano, and the 
 floating island on its surface. This lake was further distin 
 guished by the appellation of the umbilicus, or centre of Italy, 
 
308 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 a fact which D Anville found to be correct, when referred to 
 the breadth of Italy. Cutilise was also famed for its mineral 
 waters, which failed, however, in their effect on Vespasian, who 
 is stated to have died here. 
 
 12. Testrina, to the southeast of Cutilise, and the first seat 
 of the Sabine nation. Its site is near Civita Tommassa. 
 13. Amtternum, northeast of Testrina, near the modern St. 
 Vittorino, and a place of great antiquity. It was the birth 
 place of Sallust. 14. Nursia, in the northeastern corner of the 
 Sabine territory, at the foot of the central chain of the Apen 
 nines, and near the sources of the Nar. It was noted for the 
 coldness of its atmosphere, and is now Norcia. Polla Vespa- 
 sia, the mother of Vespasian, was born here, and we are told 
 that the family of that emperor had possessions at a place called 
 Vespdsice, between Nursia and Spoletum, a memorial of which 
 is still preserved in the name of Monte Vespio. 
 
 jEQUI, OR ^EQUICOLI. 
 (A.) HISTORY, SITUATION, &c. 
 
 I. THE ^Equi, or ^Equlcoli, as they are sometimes called, are more distin 
 guished in history for their early and incessant hostility to Rome, than for the 
 extent of their territory or their numbers. Livy himself expresses his surprise 
 that a nation apparently so small and insignificant should have had a population 
 adequate to the calls of a constant and harassing warfare, which it carried on 
 against that city for so many years. 
 
 II. But it is plain, from the narrow limits which must be assigned to this 
 people, that their contests with Rome can not be viewed in the light of a regular 
 war, but as a succession of marauding expeditions, made by these hardy but 
 lawless mountaineers on the territory of that city, and which could only be ef 
 fectually checked by the most entire and rigid subjection. 
 
 III. The JEqui are to be placed next to the Sabines, and between them and 
 the Marsi, chiefly in the upper valley of the Anio, which separated them from 
 the Latins. They are said at one time to have been possessed of forty towns ; 
 but many of these must certainly have been little more than villages, and some, 
 also, were subsequently included within the boundaries of Latium. 
 
 (B.) CITIES or THE 
 
 1. Varia,) lying close to the Digentia of Horace. In Strabo 
 (v., p. 238) it is probable that we ought to read Varia for Vale 
 ria. The modern name of this place is Vicovaro. 2. Carseoli, 
 about fifteen miles to the northeast of Varia. It was appa 
 rently a town of some consequence, and became a Roman col 
 ony after the JEqui were finally reduced. It appears to have 
 been sometimes selected by the senate as a residence for illus- 
 
ITALIA. 309 
 
 trious state captives and hostages. The ruins of this place are 
 still called Celle di Carsoli. 3. Treba, near the sources of the 
 Anio, now Trevi. This town appears to have been further dis 
 tinguished by the name of Augusta, but after what emperor it 
 was so called is uncertain. A little lower down, the Anio forms 
 three small lakes, called Simbrivii Lacus, or Simbruina Stag- 
 na. The coolness and salutary virtue of these waters are com 
 mended by Celsus. 4. Subldqueum, in the vicinity of the 
 lakes just mentioned, and now Subiaco. The ancient name 
 has reference to its situation with regard to these lakes. It 
 may be collected from Tacitus (Ann., xiv., 22) that this place 
 was at first only a villa of Nero s. 
 
 MARSI. 
 (A.) HISTORY, SITUATION, &c. 
 
 I. THE Marsi, though inconsiderable as a people, are entitled to honorable no 
 tice in the page of history for their hardihood and warlike spirit. Their origin, 
 like that of many other Italian tribes, is enveloped in obscurity and fiction. A 
 certain Phrygian, named Marsyas, is said to hare been the founder of their race ; 
 by others, Marsus, the son of Circe. (Plin., vii., 2.) Hence they are repre 
 sented as enchanters, whose potent spells deprived the viper of its venom, or 
 cured the hurt which it might have caused. 
 
 II. We do not find the Marsi engaged in war with Rome before B.C. 308, 
 when they are defeated and forced to sue for peace. Six years after they again 
 assume a hostile character, but with as little success : they are beaten in the 
 field, and lose several of their fortresses. From this time we find them the 
 firm and staunch allies of Rome, and contributing by their valor to her triumphs, 
 till her haughty and domineering spirit compels them and most of the other 
 neighboring communities to seek by force of arms for that redress of their 
 wrongs, and that concession of privileges and immunities, which was not to be 
 granted to their entreaties. In the war which ensues, and which, from this 
 circumstance, is called the Marsic as well as the Social War, the Marsi are the 
 first to take the field under their leader Silus Pompaedius, B.C. 90. Though 
 often defeated, the perseverance of the allies is at last crowned with success 
 by the grant of those immunities which they may be said to have extorted from 
 the Roman senate. 
 
 III. The Marsi were contiguous to the Sabines and Vestini on the north, to 
 the yEqui and Hernlci on the west and southwest, to the Samnites on the south, 
 and to the Peligni on the east. 
 
 (B.) CITIES OF THE MARSI. 
 
 1. Marruvium or Marrubium, the capital of the race, on the 
 eastern shore of Lacus Fuclnus. Its site is to be fixed at San 
 Benedetto, where inscriptions have been discovered. The an 
 cient name appears to contain the same root with that of the 
 Marsi. No Roman colony was ever established here. 2. Alba 
 
310 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Fucentia, a short distance northwest of the lake. From its 
 strong and secluded situation, it appears to have been selected 
 by the Roman senate as a fit place of residence for captives 
 of rank and consequence, as well as for notorious offenders. 
 Among the former we may mention Syphax, who was after 
 ward removed to Tibur ; Perseus, king of Macedonia, and his 
 son Alexander ; and Bituitus, king of the Arverni. At the time 
 of Caesar s invasion of his country, we find Alba adhering to 
 the cause of Pompey, and subsequently repelling the attack 
 of Antony, on which occasion it obtained a warm and eloquent 
 eulogium from Cicero. Its ruins are still considerable, and 
 stand about a mile from the modern city of Alba. 3. Lucus, 
 on the western shore of the lake. Its inhabitants are called 
 Lucernes by Pliny, and it appears to answer to the modern 
 Lnco. Near this place was the celebrated Lucus Angitice^ or 
 grove of Angitia, the sister of Circe, and to which allusion is 
 made by Virgil. 
 
 PELIGNI. 
 
 (A.) HISTORY, SITUATION, &c. 
 
 I. THE Peligni were not distinguished from the other tribes by which they 
 were surrounded either by their political importance or the extent of their coun 
 try ; but they derive some consideration in history from the circumstance of 
 their chief city having been selected by the allies in the Social War as the seat 
 of their new empire. Had their plans succeeded, and had Rome fallen beneath 
 the effects of their coalition, Corfinium would have become the capital of Italy, 
 and perhaps of the world. 
 
 II. The Peligni, according to Festus, were of Illyrian origin ; but Ovid, who 
 ought to be considered good authority in what regards his own countrymen, ex 
 pressly informs us that they were descended from the Sabines. 
 
 III. The small and mountainous country of the Peligni seems to have been 
 noted for the coldness of its climate, as well as for the abundance of its springs 
 and streams. Some portion of it, however, was fertile. It was separated from 
 the Marsi on the west by the Apennines ; to the north it bordered on the Ves- 
 tini ; to the east and southeast on the Marruclni, Frent&ni, and part of Sammum. 
 
 (B.) CITIES OP THE PELIGNI. 
 
 1. Corfinium) the chief city of the race, in a northeast direc 
 tion from Marruvium. It has already been referred to as hav 
 ing been selected by the allies in the Social War for the seat of 
 their empire. Corfinium assumed, in consequence, the name 
 of Italica, as standing at the head of the new Italian confed 
 eracy. It enjoyed the honor, however, of being styled the cap 
 ital of Italy only for a short period, since it appears to have se- 
 
ITALIA. 311 
 
 ceded from the coalition before the conclusion of the war. In 
 later times we find it regarded as one of the most important 
 cities of this part of Italy, and one which Caesar was most anx 
 ious to secure in his enterprise against the liberties of his coun 
 try. It surrendered to him after a short defence. The church 
 of St. Pelmet, about three miles from the town of Popoli, stands 
 on the site of this ancient city. 2. Sulmo, about seven miles 
 southeast of the preceding, and now Sulmone. It is worthy of 
 note as having been the birth-place of Ovid. We learn from 
 Florus that this city was exposed to all the vengeance of Sylla 
 for having been attached to the cause of Marius. It was not, 
 however, destroyed by him, since we soon after read of its fall 
 ing into the hands of Csesar together with Corfinium. 3. Su 
 per Equum, to the northwest of the preceding, and, according 
 to Frontinus, a Roman colony. It occupied the site of the 
 modern Castel Vecchio Subequo. 
 
 VESTINI. 
 (A.) HISTORY, SITUATION, &c. 
 
 I. THE Vestmi occupied an equally mountainous, though more extensive tract 
 of country than the other communities which have just been described. To the 
 east they reached as far as the sea, being separated from the Pratutii on the 
 north by the River Matrlnus, and from the Marruclni on the southeast by the 
 River Aternus. On the west they bordered on the Sabines, and on the south on 
 the Peligni. 
 
 II. Their history offers no circumstances of peculiar interest. They are first 
 introduced to our notice in the Roman annals as the allies of the Samnites, a 
 people to whom they are said not to have been inferior in valor ; but, being 
 separately attacked by the Romans, the Vestini, too weak to make any effectual 
 resistance, were soon compelled to submit. 
 
 III. This people, however, were not behindhand with their neighbors in 
 taking up arms on the breaking out of the Social War ; they bore an active part 
 in the exertions and perils of that fierce and sanguinary contest, and received 
 their share of the rights and privileges which, on its termination, were granted 
 to the confederates. 
 
 (B.) CITIES OF THE VESTINI. 
 
 1. Pinna, now Civita di Penna, the chief city of the race. 
 We are informed by Valerius Maximus that it sustained a siege 
 against the Roman army during the Social War. It subsequent 
 ly became a Roman colony. Vitruvius notices some waters in 
 its vicinity as being nitrous. 2. Angulus, nearer the coast, now 
 Civita Sant Angela. 3. Cutina and Cingilia, two fortresses 
 among the Apennines. The former is now Aquana, and the 
 
312 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 latter Aretenga. A little to the north of Aquana, and on the 
 borders of Picenum, rises Monte Corno, called, also, il Gran 
 Sasso, and considered to be the highest summit of the Apen 
 nines. It is probably the ancient Mom Cunarus. 4. Aufi- 
 na, between the two last-mentioned places, and now Ofena. 
 5. Aternum, tit the mouth of the Aternus, now Pescara, which 
 is also the modern name of the place. 6. Pitinum, near the up 
 per part of the Aternus, and now Torre di Pitino. It was sit 
 uate near a little stream called Novanus by Pliny, which was 
 noted for being dry in winter, but plentifully supplied in summer. 
 
 MARRUCINI. 
 
 I. THE Marrucini appear to have occupied a narrow strip of territory on the 
 right bank of the River Aternus, between the Vestini to the north, and the Fren- 
 tani to the south, and between the Peligni and the sea toward the west and east. 
 Cato derived their origin from the Marsi. Like that people, they were account 
 ed a hardy and warlike race, and with them they made common cause against 
 the tyranny of Rome. 
 
 II. The only city of note which we find ascribed to the Marrucini is Tedte, 
 now Chieti, on the right bank of the Aternus or Pescara. But all accounts agree 
 in describing it as a large and populous place, and worthy of being ranked among 
 the distinguished cities of Italy. The family of Asinius Pollio came originally 
 from this place. 
 
 7. ROMA. 
 
 I. Roma, now Rome, the celebrated capital of Italy and the 
 Roman empire, was situate on the left, or eastern bank of the 
 Tiber, below the junction of the Anio with that stream. From 
 the time of Servius Tullius it extended over seven hills, and 
 hence was often called Urbs Septicollis. From the time of 
 Aurelian, however, it spread over ten hills, the names of which 
 are Mom Palatinus, Capitolinus, Ccelms, Aventinus, Quiri- 
 nalis, Viminalis, Esquilinus, Janiculus, Collis Hortulorum or 
 Mom Pincius, and Vaticanus. 
 
 II. Of these hills the Palatine was in the centre, while the 
 Collis Hortulorum and the Aventine were the farthest on the 
 north and south. Before the Collis Hortulorum was included 
 in the city, the furthest hill on the north was the Quirinal. 
 On the Palatine Hill was the celebrated Palatine Library, and 
 the splendid temple of Apollo with which it was connected. 
 Here, too, was the residence of Augustus, subsequently en 
 larged into the magnificent palace of the Caesars. The Pala 
 tine was the first inhabited part of Rome, and is sometimes put, 
 
ITALIA. 313 
 
 by way of eminence, for the whole city. On the Capitoline 
 Hill stood the Capitol, or Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. Be 
 tween this hill and the Palatine was the Forum, from which 
 three ascents led to the Capitol : 1st. By the one hundred steps 
 of the Tarpeian Rock, which was probably on the steepest side, 
 where it overhangs the Tiber ; 2d. By the Clivus Capitolinus, 
 which began from the Arch of Tiberius and the Temple of Sat 
 urn ; and 3d. By the Clivus .Asyli, which, being less steep than 
 the other two, was on that account the road by which the tri 
 umphant generals were borne in their cars to the Capitol. The 
 Aventine Hill is said to have been the place where Remus took 
 his station when consulting the auspices with a view to found 
 ing Rome ; and here, too, he is reported to have been interred. 
 The public granaries of the city stood in this quarter, on ac 
 count of the convenience, probably, which the river here afford 
 ed of landing the wheat which came from Sicily, Egypt, and 
 Africa. On the Esquiline Hill were the splendid palace and 
 gardens of Maecenas. Julius Caesar was born in that part of 
 the Suburra which was situate on this hill. The Campus Es- 
 quilinus, a plot of ground without the walls of the city, was in 
 the early days of Rome a burial-place for the lower orders, and 
 the Esquiline Hill seems to have been considered unhealthy till 
 this mode of burial was discontinued. The Janiculan Hill, 
 across the Tiber, was said to have derived its name from a city 
 founded on its summit by Janus. Tradition reported that Nu- 
 ma was buried at the foot of this hill. The Vatican Hill was 
 supposed to have been so called from the Latin word vates, or 
 vaticinium, as having once been the seat of Etruscan divination. 
 
 III. Ancient Rome had in the time of Pliny thirty-seven 
 gates, exclusive of seven which no longer existed. In the time 
 of Frontinus, nine aqueducts supplied it with water, a number 
 which later authors magnify to fourteen, and even twenty ; but 
 the latter statement, which rests on the authority of Aurelius 
 Victor alone, is probably exaggerated, and it is supposed that 
 he counted the different channels or conduits of water, not the 
 aqueducts themselves. 
 
 IV. Lipsius, a modern scholar, has computed the population 
 of ancient Rome and the environs at four millions. This, how 
 ever, should rather be called a conjecture than a calculation 
 upon any solid data. A later and more careful computation 
 
314 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 makes the inhabitants of the fourteen regions, or wards, into 
 which Rome was divided by Augustus, to have amounted to 
 1,104,000. The true number, probably, was near 2,000,000. 
 
 TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME MORE IN DETAIL. 
 
 1. THE EARLY CITY. 
 
 I. IT is universally admitted that the part of Rome which was said to have 
 been built by Romulus occupied the Palatine Hill, on the eastern side of the 
 Tiber. This town on the hill was, according to the custom of the Latins, built 
 in a square form, whence it was called Roma Quadrdta. It is more than prob 
 able, however, that this same city existed long before the so-called era of Rom 
 ulus ; in other words, that no such individual as Romulus ever existed, and 
 that the place said to have been founded by him on the Palatine Hill was a Si- 
 culian, Pelasgian, or Tyrrhenian town, whose name was Roma. This will serve 
 to explain the statement that Rome was a Tyrrhenian city, as well as the foreign 
 appearance of the name Roma itself. 
 
 II. As early as the so-called time of Romulus, Etruscan settlements existed 
 on the Caelian Hill, and extended over Mons Cispius and Oppius, which are 
 parts of the Esquiline. Whether these Etruscans lived in open villages or for 
 tified places is unknown ; but we learn from Varro that they were compelled 
 by the Romans to abandon their seats on the hills, and to descend into the 
 plains between the Caelian and the Esquiline, whence the Vicus Tuscus in that 
 district derived its name. The principal of these Etruscan settlements was, 
 according to the well-known hypothesis of Niebuhr, called Lucerum, and the 
 Etruscan settlers themselves were called Luceres. These Luceres, in the early 
 history of the Roman state, were in a state of subjection to the other tribes, 
 from which they emerged only by degrees. 
 
 III. The three hills north of the Palatine, namely, the Quirinal, Viminal, and 
 Capitoline, were occupied by Sabines, and the last of these hills was their cita 
 del. Their town on the Quirinal was, according to Niebuhr, called Quirium. 
 When the Latin and Sabine towns became united, the valleys between the hills 
 must have been drained, and the cloaca by which this was effected belong to 
 the earliest architectural remains of Rome. The valley between the Palatine 
 and the Capitoline was set apart as the place of meeting for the two nations 
 ( Comitium and Forum Romanum), and the boundary between the territories of 
 the two towns was probably marked by the Via Sacra, which came down from 
 the top of the Velia, ran between the Quirinal and Palatine, and then, making 
 a bend, proceeded between the latter hill and the Capitoline as far as the Tem 
 ple of Vesta, whence it turned right across the Comitium toward the gate of 
 the Palatine. 
 
 IV. The seven hills inhabited by these three different nations were united 
 into one town, and surrounded by a wall by King Servius Tullius. The Pome- 
 rium, that is, the precincts within which auguria could be taken, had been ex 
 tended with the increase of the city, but the Aventine, though included in the 
 new wall, did not lie within the Pomerium, and it continued to be chiefly oc 
 cupied by plebeians. Hence it is not mentioned among the districts of the city 
 by Varro, who calls them Palatium, Velia, Cermalus, Calius, Fagutal, Oppius, 
 and Cispius. 
 
 V. The whole circumference of the walls of Servius Tullius was about six 
 miles. They included considerable tracts of land which were not occupied by 
 
ITALIA. 315 
 
 buildings, but were either pasture grounds or covered with wood or thickets, 
 such as great part of the Esquiline and Viminal. Accordingly, in time of war, 
 the people of the surrounding districts took refuge within the walls of the city, 
 where they found sufficient space and food for their cattle. It was, however, 
 principally the inner space, near the wall itself, which was not occupied by 
 buildings until a very late period. Servius Tullius divided the whole city within 
 the walls into four regions, which coincided with the four city tribes into which 
 he divided the commonalty. Each of these regions was again subdivided into 
 six districts, which derived their names from the Sacella Argceorum, which prob 
 ably stood wherever two streets crossed each other, so that these subdivisions 
 appear to have been compact masses of houses, such as were subsequently 
 called vici. Their number is stated by Varro to have been twenty-seven ; 
 twenty-four belonging to the four regions, and the three remaining ones proba 
 bly to the Capitoline. 
 
 2. PROGRESS OF ARCHITECTURE, & c., AT ROME. 
 
 I. MANY great works were erected at Rome during the kingly period. The 
 great Temple of Jupiter was on the Capitoline. The prison of Tullius, called 
 Career Tullianus or Mamertinus, was at the eastern foot of the same hill. The 
 Circus Maximus was between the Palatine and Aventine, of which there are 
 probably no remains. The Cloaca Maxima carried the waters of the Velabrum 
 and the Forum Romanum into the Tiber, and was a stupendous work. The 
 wall of the elder Tarquin formed an embankment on the east side of the river : 
 the remains are still visible to some extent. Of the wall of Servius Tullius 
 few traces remain ; but it existed in the eighth century of Rome, as appears 
 from the description of Pliny (iii., 5), and from Dionysius of Halicarnassus (ix., 
 p. 624). 
 
 II. During the early part of the Republic, we find no mention of such great 
 architectural works as those which were built during the period of the kings ; 
 but, with the increase of the population, many of the uncultivated and uninhab 
 ited districts must have gradually become covered with houses. About one 
 hundred and twenty years after the establishment of the Republic, when the city 
 was taken by the Gauls, the whole was consumed by fire, with the exception of 
 the Capitol, a few houses on the Palatine, and some of the works above enu 
 merated, the magnitude of which saved them from destruction. The hasty 
 mode in which the city was rebuilt explains the fact that, down to the time of 
 Nero, the streets of Rome were narrow, irregular, and crooked, and, in point 
 of beauty and regularity, Rome was far inferior to most of the other great cit 
 ies of Italy. After this restoration a long time probably passed before any new 
 ground was built upon. Down to the fifth century of the city, private houses 
 were generally covered with shingles, and there continued to be a number of 
 groves within the walls of the city. But toward the end of the period which is 
 comprised between the Gallic conflagration and the end of the second Punic 
 war, Rome began to be embellished with temples, which, however, both as to 
 material and architecture, were far inferior to the temples of Greece. High 
 roads and aqueducts also began to be built. The streets of the city itself were 
 not paved, though we have no reason to suppose that they were neglected. At 
 a somewhat later period, we find public places, streets, and walks under the 
 porticoes commonly paved with large square blocks of tuffo or of travertino. In 
 the year 176 B.C., the censors ordered the streets of the city to be paved with 
 blocks of basalt, which were laid on a stratum of gravel, such as is still visible 
 in a part of the Via Appia. At the time of the war with Hannibal, the district 
 
316 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 near the river, between the Capitoline and the Aventine, was almost entirely 
 covered with buildings, and it was called Extra Portam Flumentdnam. 
 
 III. The private houses had, from the earliest times, been very simple in struc 
 ture ; but, after the conquest of Greece, and more especially of Asia, individ 
 uals began to build their dwellings in a magnificent style, and the taste for 
 splendid mansions and palaces increased so rapidly, that a house like that of 
 Crassus, which at first was universally admired for its splendor and magnifi 
 cence, in the course of a few years was lost among superior buildings. Public 
 edifices, however, still remained the chief objects of the pride of the Romans. 
 Theatres, a class of buildings which had once been scarcely tolerated, were 
 erected in several parts of Rome during the last century of the Republic, espe 
 cially after the time of Sylla. During the civil wars between Marius and Sylla, 
 we find that the number of houses had increased to such a degree, that the walls 
 of Servius Tullius in several parts lay within the city itself, and Niebuhr thinks 
 it not improbable that at this time a suburb already existed in the plain west of 
 the Tiber, which was afterward called the Regio Transtiberma. At the begin 
 ning of the eighth century of the city, another suburb is mentioned, InJEmilianis, 
 between the Circus Flaminius and the Quirinal. A third arose south of the 
 Cselius, a mile from the Porta Capena, and was called Ad Martis. Of all the 
 splendid buildings, however, which were raised during the latter part of the Re 
 public, scarcely any traces exist, and the only remains which can with any prob 
 ability be reckoned among them are the substructions of three ancient temples, 
 below the church of San Nicola in Carcere, the so-called Temple of Fortuna Viri- 
 lis, not far from the Theatre of Marcellus, and perhaps, also, the three columns 
 of the so-called Temple of Castor and Pollux, near the Forum. 
 
 IV. Augustus might well say that he had changed Rome from a city of brick 
 into one of marble, for the roads, aqueducts, and public buildings of every descrip 
 tion, temples, arcades, and theatres, which were constructed during his long 
 and peaceful reign, were almost innumerable. The whole plain between the 
 Quirinal and the river became a new town, which in splendor and magnificence 
 far surpassed the city of the hills : this new town was one mass of temples, ar 
 cades, theatres, and public places of amusement, not interrupted by any private 
 habitations. Aqueducts, for the purpose of supplying the city with water, had 
 been built as early as the year 313 B.C., and the first (Aqua Appia) was be 
 gun by Appius Claudius. It ran almost entirely under ground, and conveyed 
 the water, from a distance of about eight miles, in the direction of the Porta 
 Capena, into the city. Other aqueducts (Anio Vetus, 273 B.C. ; Aqua Marcia, 
 145 B.C. ; Tepula, 127 B.C. ; Julia, 35 B.C.) were constructed ; but it was not 
 until the imperial period that this kind of architecture reached its perfection, 
 and most of the remains which are still extant belong to the period of the em 
 pire. They were mostly built upon arches, which had an easy inclination, so 
 that the water ran gently from its source toward the city. Augustus built two 
 new aqueducts ( Aqua Alsietina or Augusta, and Aqua Virga), and increased the 
 Marcia. Subsequent emperors added the Aqua Claudia ; Anio Novus (both in 
 A.D. 50); Aqua Trajana (A.D. Ill); Antoniniana (A.D. 212); Alexandria 
 (A.D. 230) ; and Joma (A.D. 300). 
 
 V. The division into four regions, made by Servius Tullius, had remained un 
 altered ; but Augustus, for the convenience of administration, divided the whole 
 city, both within and without the walls of Servius, into fourteen new regions, 
 a division which continued to the eighth century, when it began gradually to 
 give way to the Ecclesiastical division into seven regions. Each of the Au 
 gustan regions, according to a survey taken in the reign of Vespasian, contained 
 
ITALIA. 317 
 
 nineteen, or, according to a later account, twenty-two vici, with as many sacel- 
 la, in places where two streets crossed each other (in compitis}. Each vicus 
 seems, on an average, to have contained about two hundred and thirty dwelling- 
 houses, so that every region contained more than four thousand. About one 
 twenty-fifth part of this number of houses were domus, that is, habitations of the 
 rich (palazzi), with a portico in front, and an extensive inner court (atrium). 
 The remaining twenty-four twenty-fifths consisted of insulce, that is, habitations 
 for citizens of the middle and lower classes ; they had no portico in front, but 
 mostly an open space, which served as a shop or work-shop. In the interior 
 they may have had a court, but of smaller extent than the atrium of a domus. 
 The number of these insulce was about forty-four thousand. All Roman houses 
 were very high. Augustus fixed seventy and Trajan sixty feet as the height, 
 above which none were allowed to be built, and the upper story was usually of 
 wood. It was a law of the Twelve Tables, which also occurs in the Roman 
 legislation of later times, that no two houses, whether domus or insulce, should 
 be built closely together, but that an open space of five feet should be left be 
 tween them. 
 
 VI. Tiberius, besides completing many of the buildings of his predecessor, 
 began the Prcetorian Camp on the northeast side of the city, in the Campus Vim- 
 inalis, and surrounded it with high walls. The wealthy Romans at this time 
 had their palaces principally in the district from the Porta Collina to the Porta 
 Ccelimontana ; they did not, however, form streets, but lay in gardens within 
 the fields between the high roads which issued from the city, and hence they 
 are generally called Horti, as Horti Mcecendtis, Pallantidni, Epaphroditi, &c. All 
 that had been done, however, for the embellishment of the city previous to the 
 reign of Nero, was eclipsed by the magnificent buildings of this emperor ; but 
 the greater part of these works, together with those of former days, perished in 
 the conflagration which took place in his reign. His plan of restoring Rome 
 was gigantic, and proved to be impracticable : he proposed to make Rome a 
 port, and to connect it with the sea by long walls from the Capitol to Ostia. 
 But all that he could do, notwithstanding his profusion, was to restore those 
 parts of the city which had been destroyed. The face of the new city, howev 
 er, assumed a totally different aspect. On the ruins of the temples and the im 
 perial palace on the Palatine rose the so-called golden house of Nero, which oc 
 cupied a space equal to a large town. The greatest care was taken to make 
 the new streets wide and straight, and that the buildings should not exceed a 
 reasonable height. In order to render possible the execution of the regular 
 plan, the several quarters of the city were measured, and the heaps of ruins 
 were removed, and conveyed in ships to Ostia, to fill up the marshes in its vi 
 cinity. All the new buildings were massive, and constructed of the fire-proof 
 peperino, without the old wooden story. The width of the new streets rendered 
 it necessary to extend the city beyond its former limits. Some time afterward, 
 in the reign of Vespasian, a measurement of the circumference of Rome was 
 taken, according to which it amounted to thirteen and one fifth Roman miles. 
 The subsequent emperors continued to increase and embellish the city ; but un 
 der Commodus a great part was again consumed by a fire, which destroyed all 
 the buildings on the Palatine. Septimius Severus exerted himself to restore 
 the parts which had been burned, and to ornament the city, and some of his 
 buildings are still extant. But the grandeur and magnificence of the thermae 
 of Caracalla, south of the Porta Capena, surpassed all the works of his prede 
 cessors. Almost all the great buildings, or their remains, which still exist at 
 Rome, belong to the period between Nero and Constantine. 
 
318 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 VII. The most extensive work of this latter period is the immense wall, with 
 its numerous towers, with which Aurelian surrounded the city. The work, 
 which was completed in the reign of Probus (A.D. 276), does not, however, en 
 able us to form a correct estimate of the real extent of the city, as the objects 
 of the fortifications may have rendered it necessary to enclose parts which were 
 not covered with buildings. The whole circumference of these new fortifica 
 tions was about twenty-one miles. Seven bridges connected the eastern and 
 western sides of the river. In the time of Honorius, some parts of this wall 
 were decayed, and others had become useless on account of the great quantity 
 of rubbish which had accumulated near them, but they were restored by this 
 emperor. 
 
 VIII. After the time of Constantine, when the emperors and the Roman no 
 bles had adopted the Christian religion, the decay and destruction of the ancient 
 edifices commenced. The building of numerous churches was the immediate 
 cause of this destruction. Neither the court nor private individuals possessed 
 sufficient wealth to raise buildings equal in form or material to those of their 
 ancestors, and as heathen temples could not always be converted into Christian 
 churches, they were generally pulled down and the materials used for other 
 purposes. During the fifth century of our era, great calamities were inflicted 
 upon Rome by the ravages of the northern barbarians, though it is a mistake to 
 suppose that the buildings of Rome suffered much injury from the invaders, for 
 they could have no interest in destroying any thing, and all historians agree in 
 stating that it was their principal object to carry away gold, silver, and other 
 costly things. The few buildings which were destroyed at the capture of the 
 city by Alaric were near the Porta Salaria, where the enemy entered. There 
 are in this part still some remains of the house of Sallust, which was destroyed 
 on that occasion. A harder fate befell the city in 455, when it was taken by 
 the Vandals, though even then, and notwithstanding the sack of fourteen days, 
 the buildings seem to have suffered little ; the precious metals were the main 
 object of the cupidity of the barbarians. Theodoric and his immediate success 
 ors not only took the greatest care to preserve what remained, but even ex 
 erted themselves to restore the public buildings which had suffered, or were 
 beginning to decay. The population, however, rapidly decreased during the 
 fifth century, and became impoverished, so that, toward the end of the century, 
 the suburbs around Rome seem to have no longer existed, with the exception 
 of that which had arisen between the northern extremity of the Janiculum and 
 the Vatican. Rome was thus confined to the walls of Aurelian and their res 
 toration by Honorius, and even within its precincts extensive districts were 
 uninhabited. The most remarkable buildings of former days, indeed, still ex 
 isted, but after the reign of Deodatus they were entirely neglected, and thus 
 one after another they fell into decay and ruin. 
 
 8. LATIUM. 
 (A.) NAME, EXTENT, BOUNDARIES, &c. 
 
 I. THE name Latium is derived by the Roman poets from 
 the circumstance of Saturn s having lain concealed there, after 
 having been driven by Jupiter from the skies (quod ibi latuis- 
 set Saturnus). Modern investigators, however, leaving the re 
 gion of fable, have traced in the name of the country an allu 
 sion to its flat or marshy character. 
 
ITALIA. 319 
 
 OBS. Abeken, in his Mittelitalien vor den Zeiten rdm. Hcrrsch., p. 42, deduces 
 the name Latium from latus, comparing this last with TrTiarvg and platea. Gro- 
 tefend, on the other hand, seeks for the origin of the term in the Celtic lan 
 guage, and makes the name mean " marshy land," " fenny country," answering 
 to the German Sumpfland. Klotz, following out this idea, supposes the word to 
 be in affinity with lacus, whence may have been formed Lacinius, and from this 
 Latinus. (Handb. der lat. Litteraturgesch., p. 181, note.) 
 
 II. Latium anciently extended from the mouth of the Tiber 
 in the north, as far only as the Circeian Promontory in the south, 
 a distance of about fifty miles along the coast, and this part- 
 was subsequently distinguished by the name of Latium vetm 
 or antiquum. At a later period the name of Latium was ex 
 tended as far south as the mouth of the River Liris, and in 
 land as far as the country of the Marsi and Peligni, and the 
 part thus added was called Latium novum or adjectum, to dis 
 tinguish it from ancient Latium. 
 
 III. Latium, therefore, as comprehending both the Old and 
 the New, was bounded on the north by Etruria, the territory 
 of the Sabines, and the country of the JEqui and Marsi, on the 
 west and south by the Lower Sea, and on the east by Samni- 
 um and Campania. 
 
 (B.) HISTORICAL SKETCH OF LATIUM IN ITS EARLIER STATE. 
 
 I. ACCORDING to Aristotle, who calls Latium a district in 
 OpTca, its inhabitants would have been the Oscans or Opicans ; 
 but, according to the traditions of the Romans themselves, 
 which are collected and minutely discussed in Dionysius of 
 Halicarnassus, Latium was inhabited in the earliest times by 
 Siculi, a Pelasgian tribe, whom tradition traced to some myth 
 ical king Latinus. These Siculi were connected with the Itali 
 in the extreme south of Italy. The district northeast of Lati- 
 urn, in the neighborhood of Redte and Carseoli, was inhabited 
 by the Aborigines, a kindred tribe of the Siculi. 
 
 II. These Aborigines were driven from their seats, and urged 
 forward to the River Anio by the Sabines. The Siculians of 
 Latium were obliged to give way before the Aborigines, and a 
 portion of them were said to have emigrated to Sicily, which 
 derived its name from them. The ancient name of the Abo 
 rigines was Casci, Prisci, or Sacrdni ; and, in connection with 
 those Siculians who remained behind in Latium, they gradually 
 formed the people of the Prisci Latini, that is, Prisci et Latini, 
 or simply Latini. 
 
320 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 III. The Aborigines are described by the poets and histori 
 ans of later ages as a savage nation, without laws and civilized 
 manners, and as living on the produce of the chase ; but this 
 description seems to be no more than a sort of philosophical no 
 tion, which persons of a civilized age are always apt to form 
 of the earliest periods of their history. We know that the Ab 
 origines were an agricultural people, and lived in villages and 
 towns, of which Varro, in his Origines, has given a list, and 
 some of which continued to be inhabited in the time of Dionys- 
 ius of Halicarnassus, such as Palatium, on the Quintian road. 
 Most of these towns, however, lay in ruins. 
 
 IV. The population of Latium was thus a mixed one, con 
 sisting, on the one hand, of Siculians and Oscans, all of whom 
 belonged to the Pelasgian race, and, on the other, of Sabellians 
 (Sabines). This fact is not only stated in the ancient tradi 
 tions, but is manifest from the language spoken in Latium (the 
 Latin language, or the language of the Latins), for we can still 
 distinguish the two elements : one is of a Pelasgian character, 
 and constitutes the great affinity between the Latin and Greek 
 languages ; the other element, which is utterly foreign to the 
 Greek, is of Sabellian origin. From these elements, so far as 
 they are discernible, we may form some idea of the character 
 of the two respective nations. Most Latin words relating to 
 agriculture and a more civilized state of society, are the same 
 in Latin and Greek ; but others, which are of Sabellian origin, 
 are chiefly words relating to war and the chase. 
 
 V. The Aborigines are said to have worshipped Janus, as 
 the founder of a better mode of life : Saturn was believed to 
 have taught them husbandry, and accustomed them to live in 
 fixed habitations. Janus or Dianus was the god of the sun ; 
 Saturn and his wife Ops were, in all probability, the god and 
 goddess of the earth, that is, the personifications of the vivify 
 ing and productive powers of the earth. 
 
 VI. The tradition of the arrival of a Trojan colony in Latium 
 must be regarded in no other light than as a mere fiction, and 
 a fiction probably not introduced by the Greeks, but home- 
 sprung and of Italian origin. 
 
 VII. From all that we can learn, it would appear that La 
 tium, long before the time assigned to the building of Rome, 
 was a flourishing country, and stocked with numerous towns 
 
ITALIA. 321 
 
 and villages. Its inhabitants formed a powerful confederacy, 
 the affairs of which were discussed in assemblies held near the 
 well of Ferentina, in the neighborhood of Alba, and which ex 
 tended from the Tiber in the north to Terraclna in the south. 
 The history of the confederacy previous to the building of Rome 
 is completely lost, for the lists of the kings of Alba, as well as 
 the number of years assigned to the reign of each, must be re 
 jected as late fabrications. The founders of Rome are called 
 descendants of the Alban kings, although the legends nowhere 
 describe Rome as a colony of Alba. 
 
 (C.) CITIES OF LATIUM. 
 
 BEGINNING from the Tiber, as being the northern limit of this 
 province, we come to, 1. Ostia, situate at the southern mouth 
 of the Tiber, and the ancient port of Rome. According to Stra- 
 bo and other ancient writers, it was founded by Ancus Marcius. 
 It stood on a narrow peninsula between the river and the La 
 ws OsticB, now Stag-no di Levante, which formerly communi 
 cated with the sea, but is now separated from it by a consider 
 able tract of sand. The port appears to have been a mere an 
 chorage, near the site of the modern Torre Bovacctana, in which 
 the Roman fleet used to be moored. It was open, however, and 
 unprotected, for we read in Cicero s Oration for the Manilian 
 Law that the Cilician pirates captured and plundered the fleet 
 moored there, to the great disgrace of the Roman name. This 
 anchorage ground has long been filled up with sand, and the 
 sea is now nearly two miles from old Ostia. Strabo describes 
 Ostia as having no port, and he says that the mouth of the river 
 had become so choked up, that only small vessels could ascend 
 the stream. Hence the Emperor Claudius was induced to con 
 struct a new harbor on the northern arm of the Tiber. A new 
 basin was excavated, a large mole with a pharos was erected, 
 and a magnificent port was the result, which took the name of 
 Portus Augusti. Ostia, in consequence, rapidly declined, and 
 in the time of Procopius, about the middle of the sixth century, 
 was in a ruined state and nearly deserted. The site is now 
 marked by a heap of ruins. The modern Ostia, which is a 
 miserable place, is at some distance from the ancient city. The 
 harbor of Claudius, in time, became itself choked up, and it is 
 now a stagnant lagune, the sea having retired nearly two miles 
 
 X 
 
322 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 on that side also. There are some remains of antiquity here, 
 and the place still retains the name of Porto. It was in con 
 sequence of the failure of Claudius s harbor that Trajan con 
 structed the excellent one at Centum Cellce in Etruria. Be 
 tween the two branches of the Tiber was the Insula Sacra. 
 
 2. Laurentum, about sixteen miles to the southeast of Os- 
 tia, and near the spot now called Pater-no. Virgil makes it to 
 have been the capital of Latinus. Still, however, whatever 
 may be thought of ./Eneas and the Trojan colony, it is very ev 
 ident from ancient authorities that a city of this name did ac 
 tually exist in this quarter. The country around was thickly 
 covered with groves of bay (laurus), and hence arose the ap 
 pellation given to the place. The marshes in the vicinity 
 abounded in wild boars. The adjacent country is now render 
 ed unhealthy by the malaria, but in ancient times it appears 
 to have been just the reverse, and was crowded with villas of 
 the Roman nobility. 3. Lavinium, to the southeast of the pre 
 ceding, and fabled to have been founded by ./Eneas on his mar 
 riage with Lavinia, after whom he gave it its name. The 
 place, however, is actually enumerated among the cities of La- 
 tium by Strabo and other authors, as well as by the Itineraries. 
 Its site is supposed to answer to the modern Pratica, about 
 three miles from the coast. 
 
 A little beyond the site of the ancient Lavinium we come to 
 a small stream now called Rio Torto, which probably answers 
 to the celebrated Numicius of Virgil, on the banks of which, 
 according to the legend, ^Eneas fell in battle. Near the source 
 of the Numicius was a grove consecrated to ^Eneas under the 
 title of Jupiter Indiges. Beyond the Numicius we enter the 
 territory of the ancient Rutuli, a small people, who, though 
 perhaps originally distinct from the Latins, became subsequent 
 ly so much a part of that nation that it would be superfluous 
 to notice them under a separate head. Their capital was Ar 
 dea, a very ancient city, fabled to have been founded by Da- 
 nae, mother of Perseus. Virgil makes it the capital of his 
 Turnus. The ruins of the place still bear the name of Ardea, 
 and are situate on a hill about three miles from the sea. Ac 
 cording to Livy and Silius Italicus, Ardea sent a colony to Sa- 
 guntum in Spain, and contributed mainly to the establishment 
 of that city. Ardea is memorable in early Roman history as 
 
ITALIA, 323 
 
 the place, during the siege of which the affair of Lucretia oc 
 curred, which led to the expulsion of the Tarquins. This city, 
 according to Livy, afforded an asylum to Camillus on his go 
 ing into voluntary exile from Rome. To the southwest of Ar- 
 dea lay Castrum Inui, the exact situation of which is uncer 
 tain. According to Nibby, however, the name of Incastro, at 
 tached to the little stream near which the ruins of Ardea are 
 situated, seems to preserve a memorial of the Castrum Inui. 
 
 What remains of the coast will be more conveniently exam 
 ined in describing the country of the Voted, to which we will 
 presently come. In the mean time, proceeding into the interi 
 or of Latium from Ardea, in a northwesterly direction, we find, 
 
 1. Lanuvmm, the ruins of which still bear the name of Civita 
 Lavinia or Cittd della Vigna. The similarity of the former 
 of these modern appellations has sometimes caused this city to 
 be mistaken for Lavimum, but by the different positions of the 
 two towns they are easily distinguished. Lanuvium was sit 
 uate on the right of the Appian Way, on a hill commanding an 
 extensive prospect toward Antium and the sea. The temple 
 and worship of Juno Sospita were here held in great veneration. 
 Among the natives of this place more or less known in history 
 or otherwise, may be named Milo, the antagonist of Clodius, 
 Roscius, the celebrated actor, and the three Antonines. Milo 
 was dictator of Lanuvium, and was on his way thither when 
 the encounter took place which ended in the death of Clodius. 
 
 2. Aricia, a little to the northwest of Lanuvium, and nearer 
 Rome. It is now La Riccia. According to Strabo, Aricia it 
 self was situate on the Appian Way, but its citadel was placed 
 on a hill above. The latter site answers to the position of the 
 modem town. The distance between this place and Rome was 
 fifteen miles. Diana had a sacred grove, temple, and lake not far 
 from this place. The lake is now called Lago di Nemi. Stra 
 bo tells us that the worship of Diana here resembled that paid 
 to the goddess in the Tauric Chersonese, and that the priest of 
 the temple was obliged to defend himself by force of arms 
 against all who aspired to the office, for whosoever could slay 
 him succeeded to the dignity. The country around Aricia was 
 remarkable for fertility and beauty. 
 
 3. Alba Longa, a short distance to the north of Aricia, and 
 one of the most ancient cities of Latium. The old fabulous 
 
324 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 traditions of ancient Rome speak of the city of Alba as being 
 founded by Ascanius, son of ^Eneas, about four hundred years 
 before the foundation of Rome itself. They also give a suc 
 cession of kings of Alba, from Ascanius down to Numitor, grand 
 father of Romulus. But this story evidently cannot be regard 
 ed as historical. The truth is, that Alba was a considerable 
 city anterior to Rome, and the centre of a confederation dis 
 tinct from that of the Latins, but connected with it. The site 
 of this ancient city has been much contested by topographers. 
 The ancient account makes it to have been situated on the 
 declivity of the Alban Mount, midway between the summit 
 and the Lacus Albanus, each of these serving as a defence to 
 the city ; and hence many have supposed it to coincide with 
 the modern village of Palazzolo. Sir W. Gell, however, after 
 a careful examination, decides in favor of a long ridge higher 
 up the ascent, and makes the city to have been scarcely fifty 
 yards broad, but to have stretched in a long line for more than 
 a mile. Hence the name given to the city, the first part, Alba, 
 referring to the high, precipitous rocks on which it was founded, 
 and the latter part, Longa, to its lengthened appearance. This 
 city, according to Livy, was destroyed by Tullus Hostilius, and 
 the inhabitants were removed to Rome ; but Niebuhr has strong 
 doubts about the time as well as the manner in which Alba 
 was destroyed ; and it appears that the territory of Alba was 
 taken possession of in the first place by the Latins, and not 
 by Rome. A second town was built afterward by Roman col 
 onists in the time of the first emperors. This second Alba is 
 mentioned by Suetonius in his life of Nero. The modern town 
 of Albano is at the foot of the mountain, and does not, of 
 course, answer to the ancient site. The Mons Albdnus is now 
 Monte Cavo. The Lacus Albanus has been already mentioned 
 (page 266). 
 
 4. Bovillce, an ancient town on the Appian Way, between 
 the ninth and tenth mile-stones, and answering now to the situ 
 ation of the inn called U Osteria delle Frattochie. At no great 
 distance from Bovillae was the source of the Aqua Ferentma, 
 distinguished in the early annals of Latium as the place where 
 the confederate cities assembled in public council. Near Bo- 
 villse, also, the rencounter took place between Milo and Clodius, 
 which ended in the death of the latter. 5. Tusculum, on the 
 
ITALIA. 325 
 
 summit of the ridge of hills which forms the continuation of 
 the Alban Mount, and above the modern town of Frascati. 
 The ruins themselves bear the name of II Tuscolo. The foun 
 dation of this place is ascribed in the legends of the poets to 
 Telegonus, the son of Ulysses and Circe. Strabo says that on 
 the side toward Rome, the hills of Tusculum were covered with 
 villas. Of these, the one most interesting for us was the villa 
 of Cicero, giving name to the beautiful moral Disputations, 
 which were probably written there, Tiisculancz Disputationes, 
 or " Tusculan Disputations." The villa itself was called Tus- 
 culanum. 6. Algldum, to the southeast of Tusculum, and often 
 mentioned in the early history of Rome as a favorite station of 
 the ^Equi in their predatory incursions on the Roman territory. 
 We must distinguish, however, between this town and the 
 Mount Alg-idus. The latter appears to have been that chain 
 which stretches from the rear of the Alban Mount, and is par 
 allel to the Tusculan hills, being separated from them by the 
 valley along which runs the Via Latina. The woods of the 
 bleak Algidus are a favorite theme with Horace. 
 
 7. Gdbii, to the northeast of Tusculum, on the Via Prcsnes- 
 tlna^ and about one hundred stadia from Rome. Its site cor 
 responds to the modern Osteria del Pantano. Gabii is said 
 to have been a colony of Alba, and an obscure tradition repre 
 sented it as the place in which Romulus and Remus were 
 brought up. The artful manner in which Tarquinius Superb- 
 us obtained possession of Gabii, after he had failed in the at 
 tempt by force of arms, is well known, as recorded by Livy. 
 According to the same historian, the Gauls received their final 
 defeat from Camillus near this city. This place suffered so 
 much during the civil wars that it became entirely ruinous and 
 deserted. It revived, however, under Antoninus and Commo- 
 dus, and became a thriving town. In its more flourishing days, 
 Juno seems to have been held in peculiar honor at Gabii. The 
 cinctus Gablnus was a peculiar mode of folding or girding the 
 toga, in order to give more freedom to the person when in motion. 
 The people of Gabii are said to have adopted it on a particu 
 lar occasion, when hurrying to battle from a sacrifice. 8. Col- 
 latia, a little to the north of Gabii, and likewise a colony of Al 
 ba. It was celebrated in Roman history for the self-sacrifice 
 of the chaste Lucretia. In Strabo s time it was a mere village. 
 
326 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 The road which led to this place from Rome was called Via 
 Collatlna. The site of Collatia is generally supposed to agree 
 with that of a place called Castel delV Osa or Castelluccio. 
 Gell, however, is in favor of Lunghezza. 9. Tibur, now Ti- 
 voli, to the northeast of Gabii, and on the banks of the Anio. 
 According to Dionysius, it was a town of the Siculi ; but oth 
 ers make it to have been founded by Catillus, son of Amphia- 
 raus, who, with his two brothers, Coras and Tiburtus, migra 
 ted to Italy, and named the place after the latter. This legend 
 refers, of course, to a Pelasgic origin. The Greek writers call 
 the place rd Ti6ovpa. Hercules was the deity held in greatest 
 veneration at Tibur, and his temple, on which the Cathedral of 
 Tivoli is built, was famous throughout Italy. Hence the epithet 
 of " Herculean," given it by the poets. In the vicinity of Tibur 
 dwelt one of the ancient sibyls, surnamed Albunea. A beau 
 tiful little ruin still remains, called the Temple of the Sibyl, 
 though others assign it to Vesta. The hero Tiburnus was also 
 revered at Tibur, and had a grove consecrated to him on the 
 banks of the Anio. Two illustrious captives of Rome both ter 
 minated their existence on the banks of the Anio, the Numidian 
 Syphax, and Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, the former at Tibur, 
 the latter in Hadrian s villa near that place. 
 
 10. Prceneste, to the southeast of Tibur, and now Palestri- 
 na. Strabo describes it as having a citadel remarkable for its 
 strength of position, standing on the brow of a lofty hill which 
 overhung the city. The same author states that Prseneste laid 
 claim to a Greek origin, and had been named formerly Poly- 
 stephdnus (HokvoTtyavog). Pliny also observes that it was once 
 called Stephane. From Dionysius we may infer that it was 
 afterward colonized by Alba. The strength of Prseneste ren 
 dered it a place of too great importance to be overlooked by the 
 contending parties of Sylla and Marius. It was induced to 
 join the cause of the latter, but suffered severely in consequence, 
 a bloody massacre of the inhabitants having been made by the 
 victorious troops of Sylla, and the place having been given up 
 to plunder. It survived, however, these disasters, and gained 
 new strength from a colony of those very troops which had in 
 flicted so severe a blow upon it, so that it eventually became 
 once more a flourishing city. ^Elian, the writer of the " Vari 
 ous History," and also of the work " On Animals," was a native 
 
ITALIA. 327 
 
 of this place. The Temple of Fortune in Prseneste was very 
 celebrated. Among the productions of the territory around this 
 city, none are so often spoken of as its walnuts. 11. Sacripor- 
 luSj near Prseneste, and the place where the decisive action 
 took place between the forces of Sylla and the younger Marius. 
 12. Pedum, also in the vicinity of Prseneste, and often named 
 in the early wars of Rome. Its site answers to that of the mod 
 ern Gallicano, according to Sir W. Gell. Others are in favor 
 of Zagarolo. 13. Lablcum, about fifteen miles from Rome, be 
 tween the Via Prcenestina and the Via Latina. It was a col 
 ony of Alba. Csesar had a, villa in the Ager Lablcanus, where 
 he resided not long before his death, since he is said by Sueto 
 nius to have made his will there the ^September previous to that 
 event. The height on which the modern town of Colonna 
 stands answers to the site of Labicum. 
 
 Having now described what may be considered as the Latin 
 territory, strictly so called, we pass on to that portion of New 
 Latium which bordered on the ^Equi and Marsi, and was an 
 ciently possessed by the Hernici before it was included within 
 the Latin limits. 
 
 HERNICI. 
 
 I. IT was maintained by some of the ancient writers that the Hernici derived 
 their name from the rocky nature of their country, herna in the Sabine dialect 
 signifying " a rock ;" others were of opinion that they were so called from Her- 
 nicus, a Pelasgic chief. The former etymology, however, is generally regarded 
 as the more probable one, and it would lead us also to infer that the Hernici, as 
 well as the ^Equi and Marsi, were descended from the Sabines, or generally from 
 the Oscan race. 
 
 II. There is nothing in the history of this petty nation which possesses any 
 peculiar interest, or distinguishes them from their equally hardy and warlike 
 neighbors. It is merely an account of the same ineffectual struggle to resist 
 the systematic and overwhelming preponderance of Rome, and of the same final 
 submission to her genius and fortune. 
 
 III. Among the Hernici we may notice the following places : 
 1. Anagnia, now Anagni, their principal city, which Virgil 
 distinguishes by the epithet of " dives" and which Strabo terms 
 an important city. It was colonized by Drusus. From Tac 
 itus we learn that it was the birth-place of Valens, a general 
 of Vitellius, and the chief supporter of his party. 2. Ferenti- 
 num, about eight miles beyond Anagnia, on the Via Latina. 
 It is now Ferentino. This place appears to have originally be- 
 
328 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 longed to the Volsci, but it was taken from them by the Ro 
 mans and given to the Hernici. 3. Alatrium, further in the 
 mountains, and more to the east, now Alatri. It is mentioned 
 by Plautus, in his play of the Captives, under the Greek form 
 
 VOLSCI. 
 
 I. LEAVING the territory of the Hernici, we now enter on that of the Volsci, a 
 nation whose history is known to us only from its connection with that of Rome. 
 They were a branch of the Oscan race. Notwithstanding the small extent of 
 country which they occupied, reaching only from Antium to Terracma, a line of 
 coast of about fifty miles, and little more than half that distance from the sea 
 to the mountains, it swarmed with cities filled with a hardy race. 
 
 II. The Volsci were first attacked by the second Tarquin, and war was car 
 ried on afterward between the two nations, with short intervals, for upward of 
 two hundred years, until they were completely subdued. 
 
 III. Beginning from the northern extremity of their territory, 
 we find, 1. VelHrce, now Velletri. It was situate a little to 
 the left of the Appian Way, and in a southeast direction from 
 Alba Longa. Velitrse was always reckoned one of the most 
 important and considerable cities of the Volsci, and was en 
 gaged in hostilities with Rome as early as the reign of Ancus 
 Marcius. The chief boast of the place was the honor of having 
 given birth to Augustus. 2. Cdridli, to the southwest of Veli- 
 trse. A hill now called Monte Giove is thought to represent 
 its site. It was by the capture of this town that C. Marcius ob 
 tained the surname of Coriolanus. 3. Ulubrce, in the plain, at 
 no great distance from Velitrae. Its marshy situation is plainly 
 alluded to by Cicero, who calls the inhabitants little frog s. 
 Horace and Juvenal give us but a wretched idea of the place. 
 4. Satricum, between Velitrae and Antium. It was taken by 
 Coriolanus, retaken and burned by the Latins, but restored by 
 the Antiates. It fell again, however, into the hands of the Ro 
 mans, who destroyed it because it had joined the Samnites. 
 
 5. Antium, a celebrated city on the coast, the ruins of which 
 are still called Porto cTAnzo. The city, however, must have 
 reached as far as the modern town of Nettuno, which de 
 rives its name probably from some ancient temple dedicated to 
 Neptune. Antium was fabled to have been founded by An- 
 thias, a son of Circe. It was a maritime place of note at a 
 very early period, and its inhabitants were addicted to piracy. 
 It was to this city that Coriolanus retired after his banishment, 
 
ITALIA. 329 
 
 and here, too, he ended his days. The Antiates were finally 
 conquered by the Romans in a battle near the River Astura, 
 on which occasion the Romans destroyed most of their ships, 
 reserving the beaks to adorn the elevated seat in the Forum at 
 Rome, from which orators addressed the people, and which 
 thenceforth was designated by the name of Rostra. Antium 
 now received a fresh supply of colonists, and from that period 
 enjoyed a state of quiet, till the civil wars of Marius and Sylla, 
 when it was nearly destroyed by the former. But it rose again 
 from its ruins during the empire, and attained to a high degree 
 of prosperity and splendor. In Strabo s time it was the favor 
 ite residence of the emperor and his court, and here Augustus 
 received from the senate the title of Father of his country. An 
 tium became successively the residence of Tiberius and Calig 
 ula. It was also the birth-place of Nero, who, having recolo- 
 nized it, built a port there, and bestowed upon it various other 
 marks of his favor. Hadrian also is said to have been particu 
 larly fond of this city. Antium contained two temples of ce 
 lebrity, one sacred to Fortune, and the other to jEsculapius. 
 The famous Apollo Belvedere, the fighting gladiator, and many 
 other statues discovered at Antium, attest also its former mag 
 nificence. 
 
 6. Circeii) a short distance inland from the Promontorium 
 Circeium, probably on the site of the village of San Felice, 
 where some ruins are said to be visible. The celebrated en 
 chantress Circe was fabled to have dwelt in this vicinity. A 
 Roman military colony was^ent to this place in the reign of 
 Tarquinius Superbus, which shows it to have been a town of 
 importance at that period. It was still extant in Cicero s time, 
 who says that Circe was worshipped there. Lepidus was ex 
 iled to this place by Augustus. It was famous for its oysters. 
 
 We must return to the Appian Way in order to describe 
 some places situated on this celebrated road or in its vicinity. 
 Pursuing this route, we come to, 1. Tres Tdbernce, a station 
 about seven miles from Aricia, on this Way, and where it was 
 joined by a cross-road from Antium. This place is mentioned 
 by St. Paul in the account of his journey to Rome. 2. Forum 
 Appii, sixteen miles further on the Appian Way, also men 
 tioned by St. Paul, and well known as Horace s second resting- 
 place in his journey to Brundisium. D Anville inclines to place 
 
o30 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 it at Borgo Lungo, near Treponti. It was usual here to em 
 bark on a canal, which ran parallel to the Appian Way, and 
 which was called Decennovium, from its length being nineteen 
 miles. Vestiges of this canal may still be traced a little be 
 yond Borgo Lungo. It was made by Augustus, who endeav 
 ored by this and other means to drain the Pontine Marshes. 
 Strabo says that travellers took the canal during the night, and 
 in the morning were landed near Tarracina. This canal was 
 enlarged by Nero, who had formed a project for uniting the 
 Lake Avernus with the Tiber. For an account of the Pontine 
 Marshes, the student is referred to the close of this article on 
 the geography of Latium. 
 
 3. About three miles before reaching Tarracina we come to 
 the grove and fountain of Feronia, the scene of Horace s ablu 
 tions, in his account of the journey to Brundisium. There was 
 here a temple also dedicated to the same goddess. In this tem 
 ple was a seat on which slaves received their freedom. Leaving 
 this spot, we reach, 4. Tarracina, called, also, Anxur, the latter 
 being probably its Volscian name. We learn from Horace that 
 this city stood on a lofty rock, at the foot of which the modern 
 Terracina is situated. According to Strabo, the place was 
 first named Trachma, a Greek appellation indicative of the 
 ruggedness of its situation. Tarracina subsequently became 
 of consequence as a naval station. The poets invariably call 
 it Anxur. The Emperor Galba was born in a village near it. 
 
 Some places yet remain to be noticed in that mountainous 
 iract which stretches from the neighborhood of Praeneste, and, 
 running nearly south, meets the sea at Tarracina. This is the 
 chain from which the rivers that cause the stagnation of wa 
 ters in the Pontine district derive their source. It is called 
 Mom Leplnus by Columella. In its most northern extremity 
 was, 1. Sigma, now Segnl^ which became a Roman colony as 
 early as the reign of Tarquinius Superbus. At first it was only 
 a military post, but afterward became a city. It was noted for 
 a particular mode of flooring with bricks, which was called the 
 " Opus Signinum." 2. Cora, somewhat to the south, and a 
 place of great antiquity, which has preserved its name un 
 changed to this day. Virgil makes it a colony of Alba. It 
 suffered greatly during the contest with Spartacus, having been 
 taken and sacked by one of his wandering bands. Propertius 
 
ITALIA. 331 
 
 and Lucan speak of it as the seat of ruin and desolation. 
 3. Norba, somewhat to the south of Cora, and on the same 
 ridge of hills. It is now a small place called Norma. Having 
 espoused the party of Marius, it suffered severely in conse- 
 quence, and the place being at length betrayed into the hands 
 of Lepidus, one of Sylla s generals, the inhabitants chose rath 
 er to perish by their own hands than become the victims of a 
 bloody conqueror. 4. Setia, to the southeast of Norba, now 
 Sezza. Martial makes frequent mention of the wine of this 
 place. 5. Privernum, to the east of Setia. Its site is marked 
 by the modern Piperno. Virgil makes mention of it as a Vol- 
 scian city, and the birth-place of his heroine Camilla. Strabo, 
 however, seems to consider the Privernates as a distinct people 
 from the Volsci. Frontinus classes it among the military col 
 onies. 
 
 6. Frusmo, to the northeast of Privernurn, on the Via Lati 
 na, and now Frosinone. This town was deprived of its terri 
 tory by the Romans for having incited the Hernici to war. 
 7. Fregellcc, to the southeast of Frusino, near the Liris, and 
 close to the Via Latina. It belonged first to the Sidicini, and 
 successively to the Volsci and Samnites. Pyrrhus took this 
 place when he was advancing against Rome ; and it also suf 
 fered severely in its territory from the ravages of Hannibal s 
 troops. Its ruins are to be seen at the small town of Ceperano, 
 on the right bank of the Ganglia-no. 8. Fabrateria, to the 
 south of Fregellse, on the Via Latina, now Falvaterra. 9. Sora, 
 to the northeast of Fregelke, and still preserving its name. The 
 earliest writer who has mentioned this place is Plautus, in his 
 play of the Captives. If we now cross the Liris, and follow the 
 course of that river on its left bank, we shall soon arrive at its 
 junction with the Fibrenus, a stream well known from the lit 
 tle island which it forms before its junction with the Liris. 
 This island belonged to Cicero, and here is laid the scene of 
 his dialogues with Atticus and his brother Quintus on legisla 
 tion. He himself was born there. It has taken the name of 
 San Domenico Abate. 10. Arpinum, somewhat to the south 
 of this island, and now Arpino. It was memorable for having 
 given birth to Marius and Cicero, the latter having been born, 
 as just remarked, in its immediate vicinity. 11. Atlna, to the 
 southeast of Arpinum, and one of the most ancient cities of the 
 
332 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Volsci. Virgil applies the epithet " potens" to it. 12. Aqm- 
 nuni) to the east of Fabrateria, on the Via Latina, and now 
 Aquino. It was the birth-place of Juvenal, and of the Em 
 peror Pescennius Niger, and in more modern times of the cel 
 ebrated Thomas Aquinas. It was famous for its purple dye. 
 13. Caslnum, the last town of Latium on the Via Latina, and 
 a large and populous place. Its site is now partly occupied by 
 the modern town of San Germano. According to Varro, its 
 name was derived from Cascum, an Oscan word answering to 
 the Latin vetus. 
 
 Resuming now the description of the Latin coast from Tar- 
 racina, we come to, 1. Fundi, now Fondi, situate somewhat 
 inland, on the Appian Way, and near a small lake called La- 
 cus Funddnus. It obtained at the end of the Latin war the 
 privileges of a Roman city, except the right of voting, for hav 
 ing always allowed a free passage to the Roman troops in their 
 marches into Campania. It received the right of voting subse 
 quently, A.U.C. 564, and its citizens were enrolled in the 
 ^Emilian tribe. It was, at a later period, colonized by the vet 
 eran soldiers of Augustus. 2. Amyclce, to the southwest of 
 Fundi, and situate on the coast. It gave name to the adja 
 cent gulf. It was of Greek origin, as is said, and strange tales 
 were told concerning the manner of its destruction. Accord 
 ing to some accounts, it was infested and finally rendered deso 
 late by serpents. Another tradition represented the fall of 
 Amyclae as having been the result of the silence enjoined by 
 law on its inhabitants, in order to put a stop to the false ru 
 mors of hostile attacks which had so frequently been circulated. 
 The enemy at last, however, really appeared, and, finding the 
 town in a defenceless state, destroyed it. This latter account 
 was in general acceptation with the poets. The neighboring 
 district was the Ccecubus Ager, so celebrated for the excellence 
 of its wine. According to Pliny, the cultivation of the vine in 
 this quarter was greatly injured by a canal cut in this vicinity 
 by Nero. 
 
 3. Caieta, to the southeast, on the coast, and fabled to have 
 been named from the nurse of ./Eneas, who died and was inter 
 red here. According to Strabo, however, some Spartans, having 
 settled on this coast, named this place Katarra, a word which in 
 their dialect signified "a cave," in allusion to the receding of 
 
ITALIA. 333 
 
 the shore. The harbor of Caieta was one of the finest and most 
 commodious in Italy. The modern name of the place is Gaeta, 
 4. Formice, now Mola di Gaeta, to the north of the preceding, 
 and the fabled abode and capital of the Lsestrygones, spoken 
 of by Homer in his Odyssey. Formiae was a Laconian colony, 
 and its first appellation was Hormice, in allusion to the excel 
 lent anchorage which its port afforded to vessels (oppog, " a 
 roadstead," " an anchorage"). This place is chiefly interesting 
 from its having been long a favorite residence of Cicero, who 
 had a villa here, which he commonly terms his Formianum, and 
 at other times his Caietan villa. He appears to have resided 
 here during the most turbulent part of the civil war between 
 Caesar and Pompey, and here, also, his existence was termina 
 ted by the assassins sent by Antony. In the reign of Augus 
 tus we find Formise distinguished as the birth-place and resi 
 dence of Mamurra, a Roman senator of enormous wealth, ac 
 quired by great rapacity, and hence Horace, in the narrative 
 of his journey to Brundisium, calls it contemptuously "the city 
 of the Mamurrse" (Mamurrarum urbs). The Formian hills 
 are often extolled for the superior wine which they produced. 
 
 5. Minturnce, now Minturne^ about nine miles further, on 
 the Appian Way, situate on the Liris, and only three or four 
 miles from its mouth. It is chiefly known in connection with 
 the history of Marius, who, in endeavoring to escape into Af 
 rica, was forced to put in at the mouth of the Liris. Having 
 no other resource left, he plunged into the neighboring marshes, 
 but was discovered, dragged out, and thrown into a dungeon 
 at Minturnaj. He was finally released, however, and furnished 
 with a vessel to carry him to Africa. The grove and temple 
 of Marlca, fabled to have been the mother of Latinus, and by 
 others thought to have been Circe, were close to Minturnae. 
 6. Sinuessa, the last town in New Latium, situate close to the 
 sea, and founded, as is said, on the ruins of Sinope, an ancient 
 Greek city. Strabo says that Sinuessa stood on the shore of 
 the Sinus Setinus, and derived its name from this circum 
 stance. The site of this place now answers to the rock of 
 Monte Dragone. 
 
334 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ISLANDS OFF THE COAST OF LATIUM. 
 
 THESE form a group to the number of three, distant about twenty miles to 
 the south of the Circeian Promontory. The nearest to the land is Sinonia, now 
 Senone. A second, more to the west, is Palmaria, now Palmaruola. The third, 
 which was the most populous, and is the largest of the group, is Pontia, now 
 Ponza. It received a Roman colony, and obtained the thanks of the Roman 
 senate for its zeal and fidelity in the second Punic war. It became afterward 
 the spot to which the victims of Tiberius and Caligula were secretly conveyed, 
 to be afterward dispatched, or doomed to a perpetual exile. Among these 
 might be numbered many Christian martyrs. 
 
 ROMAN WAYS THROUGH LATIUM. 
 
 IN describing the chief Roman roads which traversed Latium, we shall no 
 tice them in their order, as they severally branched off from Rome, their com 
 mon centre. 
 
 1. Via Ostiensis, leading, as its name implies, to Ostia. It commenced at the 
 Porta Trigemma, or, if we take a later period, at the Porto, Ostiensis, now Porta 
 San Paolo. 
 
 2. Via Laurentina, branching off from the Via Ostiensis, about two miles from 
 Rome, and terminating at Laurentum. We have no account of this Roman 
 way in the Itineraries, but we learn its existence from Ovid. 
 
 3. Via Ardedtina, evidently intended to establish a communication with Ardea, 
 distant about twenty miles from Rome. 
 
 4. Via Appia, the most celebrated of all the Roman roads, both on account of 
 its length and the difficulties which it was necessary to overcome in its con 
 struction. It was made by the censor Appius Claudius Caecus, A.U.C. 442, 
 B.C. 311, and in the first instance was only laid down as far as Capua, a dis 
 tance of about one thousand stadia, or one hundred and twenty-five Roman 
 miles. But even this portion of the work, according to the account of Diodorus 
 Siculus, was constructed in so expensive a manner that it exhausted the public 
 treasury. From Capua this road was subsequently carried on to Beneventurn, 
 and finally to Brundisium, when this port became the great place of resort for 
 those who were desirous of crossing over into Greece and Asia Minor. This 
 latter part of the Appian Way is supposed to have been constructed by the con 
 sul Appius Claudius Pulcher, grandson of Caecus, A.U.C. 504, and to have been 
 completed by another consul of the same family thirty-six years after. We find 
 frequent mention made of repairs done to this road by the Roman emperors, 
 and more particularly by Trajan, both in the histories of the time, and also in 
 ancient inscriptions. This road seems to have been still in excellent order in 
 the time of Procopius, who gives a very good account of the manner in which 
 it was constructed. He says, " An expeditious .traveller may very well perform 
 the journey from Rome to Capua in five days. Its breadth is such as to admit 
 of two carriages passing each other. Above all others, this is worthy of notice, 
 for the stones which were employed on it are of an extremely hard nature, and 
 were doubtless conveyed by Appius from some distant quarry, as the adjoining 
 country furnishes none of that kind. These, when they had been cut smooth 
 and squared, he fitted together closely, without using iron or any other sub 
 stance, and they adhere so firmly to each other that they appear to have been 
 thus formed by nature, and not cemented by art ; and, though they have been 
 
ITALIA. 335 
 
 travelled over by so many beasts of burden and carriages for ages, yet they do not 
 seern to have been any wise moved from their place, or broken, nor to have lost 
 any part of their original smoothness." According to Eustace, such parts of 
 the Appian Way as have escaped destruction, show few traces of wear and de 
 cay after a duration of two thousand years. The same writer states the aver 
 age breadth of the Appian Way at from eighteen to twenty-two feet. 
 
 5. Via Latlna, commencing at the Porta Capena, and falling into the Via Ap- 
 pia at Benevcntum. Of its formation we have no account, but it was certainly 
 of great antiquity, and existed probably before the Romans had conquered La- 
 tium. 
 
 6. Via Lavicdna, so called from its passing close to the ancient city of Lavi- 
 cum, and communicating with the Via Latina. 
 
 7. Via Pranestina, like the Via Lavicana, issued from the Porta Esquilina, and 
 fell into the Via Latina. 
 
 PONTINE MARSHES. 
 
 I. Pontina, Pometma, or Pomtina Pahldes, a marshy tract of country, in the 
 territory of the Volsci, and deriving its name from the town of Suessa Pometia, 
 destroyed by Tarquinius Superbus, and in whose vicinity it was situate, although 
 no trace has been left to identify the precise spot on which this ancient city 
 once stood. These fens are occasioned by the quantity of water carried into 
 the plain by numberless streams, which rise at the foot of the adjacent mount 
 ains, and, for want of a sufficient declivity, creep sluggishly over the level space, 
 and sometimes stagnate in pools, or lose themselves in the sands. Two rivers 
 principally contributed to the formation of these marshes, the Ufens, now Uffente, 
 and the Nymphaus, now the Ninfa. The flat and swampy tract spread to the 
 foot of the Volscian mountains, and covered an extent of eight miles in breadth 
 and thirty in length. 
 
 II. There is every appearance that the basin of the Pontine Marshes was once 
 a gulf of the sea, which has been gradually filled up by alluvium from the mount 
 ains. The oldest historical records exhibit this tract as occupied by the Volsci, 
 who had numerous towns here, some of which were situated in the most marshy 
 part of the country. The region was evidently a very fertile one, for we read 
 in Livy (iv., 25) that, in A.U.C. 322, the Romans, in a season of scarcity, sent 
 to the Ager Pomtinus for a supply of corn. In A.U.C. 367-8, the tribune L. 
 Sicinus proposed a distribution of the lands of that district among the poorer cit 
 izens. 
 
 III. About 442 A.U.C., the censor Appius Claudius Csecus constructed the 
 Via Appia across the length of the Pontine region, the soil of which must have 
 been then sufficiently compact to bear the great weight of the causeway. The 
 level of the original ground on which it was constructed has been found to be 
 about four feet above the sea-level, at a distance of twelve miles from the coast. 
 But, on arriving at the foot of the rock of Feronia, Appius found that if he con 
 tinued the road in a straight line, he must pass through a soft, marshy tract, 
 and he was induced to deviate from the direct line in order to avail himself of 
 the more solid ground which lay near the foot of Mons Leplnus. 
 
 IV. At some period of the century and a half that followed the building of the 
 Appian Way, the country seems to have undergone great deterioration, either 
 from natural or civil causes, and to have become partly inundated, for we find 
 the consul Cornelius Cethegus, in A.U.C. 592, applying himself to the draining 
 of the marshes and restoring the land to cultivation, and it was then that new 
 
336 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 towns arose on the ruins of the ancient towns of the Volsci, under the names 
 of Tres Ponies or Tripontium, Ad Medias, &c. 
 
 V. The civil wars and the devastation which accompanied them again caused 
 the hydraulic works of the Pontine Marshes to be neglected, until Augustus 
 made or restored several canals, especially a navigable canal which followed 
 the line of the Appian Way, and to which we have heretofore referred in our 
 account of Forum Appii (on page 330). Nerva and Trajan restored parts of 
 the Appian Way which had sunk, and the latter drained the country from 
 Tripontium to Tarracina. During the convulsions of the following centuries 
 the marshes were again overflowed, until again drained in the reign of Theodo- 
 ric by Caecilius Decius, a public-spirited individual, and apparently with good 
 effect. 
 
 VI. After this epoch we know no more of the state of the country until the 
 end of the thirteenth century, when Pope Boniface VIII., whose family, the 
 Caetani, were feudal lords of Sermoneta and of the greater part of the Monti 
 Lepini, constructed some works for the drainage of part of the marsh. Leo X. 
 employed the engineer Giovanni Scotti to repair and enlarge the canal of Ba- 
 dino, which is the great outlet of the marshes. Sixtus V. constructed a lateral 
 canal, nearly parallel to the Appian Way, which received the waters of the 
 western part of the marshes, and carried them to the common estuary of Badi- 
 no. The most important improvements, however, were made by Pius VI., and 
 the work of effectual draining was very nearly completed, when the low state 
 of the papal treasury, and the confusion resulting from the French revolutionary 
 invasion, caused for a time a complete interruption. At the present day, all 
 that has been done is to maintain the drainage in the state in which Pius VI. 
 left it, by keeping the canals clear and the dikes in repair. The greater part 
 of the plain is covered with rich pastures, in which are fed numerous herds of 
 horned cattle, and other parts of it are sown with rice, wheat, and Indian corn, 
 and afford rich crops. In the spring, before the great heats render the at 
 mosphere unwholesome, it has the appearance of a most delightful region. But, 
 except the post-stations along the high road, and some scattered huts here and 
 there, there is no permanent population throughout the whole of the plain. 
 The great estuary of Badino is between seventy and eighty feet wide ; there is 
 about four feet water over the bar, and nearly ten feet water inside of it, where 
 boats find a safe anchorage. 
 
 9. CAMPANIA. 
 (A.) NAME, BOUNDARIES, &c. 
 
 I. Campania is the ancient name of that part of the king 
 dom of Naples which is now called Terra di Lavoro. The 
 word Campania is probably derived from campus, "a plain," 
 in allusion to the level nature of the country. 
 
 II. Campania was bounded on the north and east by Samni- 
 um ; on the west by Latium and the Mare Tyrrhenum ; on the 
 south by the Mare Tyrrhenum ; and on the southeast by Lu- 
 cania. Before Latium had been extended beyond the Liris, 
 that river formed the natural boundary of Campania in this 
 quarter, but after this change in the limits of the two provin- 
 
ITALIA. 337 
 
 ces, the Massic Hills were considered as the boundary by which 
 they were separated. The Apennines divided Campania from 
 Sammum, and the River Silarus from Lucania. 
 
 (B.) HISTORICAL SKETCH OP CAMPANIA. 
 
 I. IT is universally agreed that the first settlers in Campania, with whom his 
 tory makes us acquainted, were the Oscans. The next in order who obtained 
 possession of the country were the Tuscans. When the latter had effected the 
 conquest of Campania, that province became the seat of a particular empire, 
 and received the federal form of government, centred in twelve principal cities, 
 which has already been noticed as a striking political feature in the history of 
 the Etrurians. 
 
 II. Wealth and luxury, however, soon produced their usual effects on the con 
 querors of Campania, and they, in their turn, fell an easy prey to the attacks of 
 the Samnites, and were compelled to admit these hardy warriors to share with 
 them the possession and enjoyment of these sunny plains. This observation, 
 however, applies more particularly to Capua and its district, which was sur 
 prised by a Samnite force. 
 
 III. It is from this period that we must date the origin of the Campanian na 
 tion, which appears to have been thus composed of Oscans, Tuscans, Samnites, 
 and Greeks, the latter having formed, as we shall presently see, numerous col 
 onies on these shores. About eighty years after, the Romans gladly seized the 
 opportunity of adding so valuable a portion of Italy to their dominions, under 
 the pretence of defending the Campanians against their former enemies, the 
 Samnites. 
 
 IV. From this time Campania maybe regarded as subject to Rome, if we ex 
 cept that short interval in which the brilliant successes of Hannibal withdrew its 
 inhabitants from their allegiance, an offence which they were made to expiate 
 by a punishment, the severity of which has few examples in the history, not of 
 Rome only, but of nations. 
 
 V. The natural advantages of Campania, its genial climate and fertile soil, so 
 rich in various productions, are a favorite theme with Latin writers, and elicit 
 from them many an eloquent and animated tribute of admiration. Pliny styles 
 it " Felix ilia Campania, certamen humance voluptalis." 
 
 (C.) CITIES OP CAMPANIA. 
 
 RESUMING the description of the coast from Sinuessa, the 
 last maritime town of Latium, we come to, 1. Vulturnum, at 
 the mouth of the River Vulturnus, and now Castel di Voltur- 
 no. It was probably of Etrurian origin, but we do not find it 
 named in history until it became a Roman colony, A.U.C. 558. 
 According to Frontinus, a second colony was sent hither by 
 Csesar. 2. Llternum^ further on, to the southeast, celebrated 
 as the spot to which Scipio Africanus retired into voluntary ex 
 ile, and where he is commonly said to have ended his days. It 
 is supposed to correspond to Torre di Patria. The River Ll- 
 ternus or Clamus, now the Lag-no, runs into the sea in its vi- 
 
 Y 
 
338 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 cinity. This stream is apt to stagnate near its entrance into 
 the sea, and to form marshes, anciently known as the Palus 
 Literna. now Lago di Patria. In this vicinity, also, was the 
 Gallmaria Silva, which Juvenal mentions as a noted haunt 
 of robbers and assassins. 3. Cumce, a few miles further on, 
 situate on a rocky hill washed by the sea. Its Greek name 
 was Kvfirjj in Doric Kvpa. This city was founded at a very 
 early period by a Greek colony from Chalcis in Euboea, and 
 hence it is commonly called by the poets the Euboic or Chal- 
 cidian city. The colonization of Cumee at so early a period 
 (1050 B.C., according to Eusebius) is a remarkable event, as 
 showing the progress already made by the Greeks in the art of 
 navigation, and proving also that they were then well acquaint 
 ed with Italy. Strabo informs us that from its commencement 
 the state of the colony was most flourishing. The fertility of 
 the surrounding country, and the excellent harbors which the 
 coast afforded, soon rendered it one of the most powerful cities 
 of southern Italy, and enabled it to form settlements along the 
 coast, and to send out colonies as far as Sicily. In the second 
 Punic war it was attacked by Hannibal, but was successfully 
 defended by Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus. It became a Ro 
 man colony under Augustus, but, owing to the superior at 
 tractions of Baise and Neapolis, it gradually declined from its 
 former prosperity, and in Juvenal s time it appears to have 
 been nearly deserted. Cumse, however, still enjoyed great ce 
 lebrity as the abode in early times of the oracular sibyl, who 
 dwelt in a cavern of the rocky eminence on which the city stood. 
 4. Misenum, a harbor, on the promontory of the same name, 
 and which became, under Augustus, one of the first naval sta 
 tions in the empire. We have already made mention of this 
 in speaking of the promontory (page 254). 5. Bauli, on a hill 
 commanding an extensive view of the sea, and thus forming 
 one of the most attractive spots on the coast. Hortensius, the 
 orator, had a villa and some remarkable fish-ponds here. Ac 
 cording to tradition, Bauli was originally called Boaulia, from 
 the circumstance of Hercules having landed here with the oxen 
 of Geryon on his return from Spain. 6. Baice, celebrated as 
 a favorite place of resort with the rich and luxurious Romans. 
 It owed its celebrity not only to the beauty of its shores and 
 the advantages of its climate, but also to the numerous warm 
 
ITALIA. 339 
 
 springs which burst forth at almost every step, and were 
 considered to possess salutary properties for various disorders. 
 Close to Baise was the Lucrine Lake, of which mention has al 
 ready been made. Numerous villas graced the surrounding 
 country, and many were likewise built on artificial moles pro 
 jecting into the sea. Now, however, owing to earthquakes 
 and inundations of the sea, this once charming spot is complete 
 ly changed, and is a mere waste compared with what it once 
 was. The modern name is Baia. The original appellation of 
 Baise was Aqu& Cumance. 
 
 7. Portus Julius. Of this harbor, constructed by Agrippa, 
 we have already made mention (page 267). 8. Diccearchia, a 
 short distance from the Lucrine Lake, and on the coast. When 
 the Romans sent a colony to this place, they changed its Greek 
 name to Puteoli, probably from the number of its wells, or per 
 haps from the stench which was emitted by the sulphureous and 
 aluminous springs in its neighborhood. Respecting the origin 
 of the town, we learn from Strabo that it was at first the har 
 bor of Cumse, and hence we may fairly regard it as a colony of 
 that city. It became, under the Romans, a naval station of con 
 siderable importance, and armies were sent thence to Spain. 
 St. Paul landed here, and remained seven days at this place 
 before he set forward on his journey by the Appian Way. The 
 harbor of Puteoli was spacious, and of a peculiar construction, 
 being formed of vast piles of mortar and sand, which, owing to 
 the strongly-cementing properties of the latter material, became 
 very solid and compact masses, and these being sunk in the 
 sea, afforded secure anchorage for any number of vessels. Pliny 
 also has remarked this quality of the sand in the neighborhood 
 of Puteoli, which now goes by the name of Pozzolana. This 
 sand is, in fact, volcanic ashes, and when mixed with a small 
 portion of lime, it quickly hardens, and this induration takes 
 place even under water. This singular property of becoming 
 petrified under water renders it peculiarly valuable as a ce 
 ment in the erection of moles, and other buildings, in maritime 
 situations. The modern name of Puteoli is Pozzuoli. Cicero 
 had a villa between the Lucrine Lake and Puteoli, to which he 
 gave the name of Academia, though he more generally terms 
 it his Puteolanum. 
 
 Above Puteoli was a spot called Forum Vulcani, from the 
 
340 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 number of holes upon its surface, all emitting smoke and a sul 
 phureous stench. It corresponds, probably, to the modern Sol- 
 faterra, about a mile above Pozzuoli. The district between 
 Puteoli and Cumse was sometimes called Leborlni Campi. 
 The origin of this appellation is not known ; but from it ap 
 pears to have come the Terra di Lavoro of modern geography, 
 corresponding to the ancient Campania. 
 
 9. Neapolis, now Naples (in Italian, Napoli), and, accord 
 ing to the best authorities, a colony originally of Cumse. One 
 of its earlier names appears to have been Parthenope ; or, at 
 all events, this appellation is given to it by the poets, and is fa 
 bled to have been derived from the siren Parthenope, who was 
 said to have been cast upon its shores. According to Strabo, 
 the tomb of the siren was shown there in his time. An earlier 
 name, however, resting upon better authority, is that of .Pales- 
 polis, or " The Old City," which occurs in Livy, where the 
 historian is describing the first transactions which connected 
 the history of this city with that of Rome. This name of Palse- 
 polis was changed, it would appear, to Neapolis, " The New 
 City," in consequence of the increase of size which the place 
 experienced on the accession of a new colony, composed of 
 Chalcidians, Pithecusans, and Athenians. The indolence %nd 
 luxury of Grecian manners attracted to Neapolis many a Ro 
 man whose age and temperament inclined them to a life of 
 ease. It was also distinguished for attachment to literary 
 pursuits, as appears from the epithet docta applied to it by 
 Martial. 
 
 The ridge of hills which separates the Bay of Naples from 
 that of Pozzuoli was called Pausilypus, a name given it prob 
 ably on account of its delightful situation and aspect, causing, 
 as it were, sorrow to cease (navv, Xvurf), and which rendered it 
 the favorite residence of several noble and wealthy Romans. 
 This hill, at a period unknown to us, was perforated by art to 
 admit of a communication between Neapolis and Puteoli, not 
 only for men and beasts of burden, but also for carriages. The 
 modern name of the hill is Posilippo. On its slope, and just 
 above the entrance of the perforated passage, lies what popular 
 tradition makes to be the tomb of Virgil. It is in the form of 
 a small, square, flat-roofed building, placed on a sort of plat 
 form, near the brow of a precipice on one side, and on the other 
 
ITALIA. 341 
 
 sheltered by a superincumbent roek. Cluverius and Addison, 
 however, place Virgil s tomb on the other side of Naples, near 
 the foot of Mount Vesuvius. 
 
 10. Herculdneum, or, as Cicero writes it, Herculanum, the 
 situation of which is no longer doubtful since the discovery of 
 its ruins. It lay on the coast below Neapolis, at a distance 
 from it of six miles, and the modern villages of Portici and 
 Resina are built over part of it. Herculaneum is said to have 
 been founded by Hercules ; it was, in all probability, of Pelas- 
 gian origin, but its history is obscure, and it never attained 
 to any importance. Being situated close to the sea, on eleva 
 ted ground, it was exposed to the southwest wind, and from 
 that circumstance was reckoned particularly healthy. In the 
 time of Titus, A.D. 79, it was overwhelmed by that memora 
 ble eruption of Vesuvius which also ruined Pompeii. It ap 
 pears to have been buried under showers of ashes, subsequently 
 overflowed by streams of lava, and is stated to be seventy feet 
 below the present surface of the ground. It was rediscovered 
 by the sinking of a well in 1713, when several antiquities were 
 found. Subsequent excavations were made by the Neapolitan 
 government, and a magnificent collection, not only of statues, 
 and paintings, and vases, but of domestic implements of every 
 kind, has been deposited in the Royal Museum at Portici. The 
 excavations, however, are by no means as extensive as those at 
 Pompeii, for it being found impossible to remove the incum 
 bent soil in consequence of its thickness, as fast as one part was 
 thoroughly searched it was filled up with rubbish from another. 
 A small part of the theatre is all that is now accessible. Great 
 expectations were excited by the discovery of a large number 
 of manuscripts written on rolls of papyrus. The attempts to 
 unroll these have hitherto had but very imperfect success, and 
 those of which the subjects have been ascertained are of little 
 interest. 
 
 Mount Vesuvius, of which mention has been made in the 
 preceding paragraph, appears to have been at first known un 
 der the name of Vesevus, although the appellations of Vesvius 
 and Vesbius are also frequently applied to it. Strabo describes 
 this mountain as extremely fertile at its base, but entirely bar 
 ren toward the summit, which was mostly level, and full of 
 apertures and cracks, seemingly produced by the action of fire ; 
 
342 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 whence Strabo was led to conclude that the volcano, though 
 once in a state of activity, had been extinguished from want of 
 fuel. Diodorus Siculus represents it also as being in a quiescent 
 state, since he argues from its appearance, at the time he was 
 writing, that it must have been on fire at some remote period. 
 The volcano was likewise apparently extinct when, as Plutarch 
 and Florus relate, Spartacus,- with some of his followers, sought 
 refuge in the cavities of the mountain from the pursuit of their 
 enemies, and succeeded in eluding their search. It was in the 
 reign of Titus, August 24th, A.D. 79, that the first eruption on 
 record took place, when the cities of Herculaneum, Pompeiij 
 and Stabice were buried under showers of volcanic sand, stones, 
 and scoriae. Such was the immense quantity of volcanic sand 
 (called ashes) thrown out during this eruption, that the whole 
 country was involved in pitchy darkness ; and, according to Dio 
 Cassius, the ashes fell in Egypt, Syria, and various parts of 
 Asia Minor. This eruption proved fatal, also, to the elder Pliny, 
 who commanded at the time the Roman fleet at Misenum, and 
 having, through curiosity, visited the burning mountain, was 
 suffocated by the sulphureous vapor. After this Vesuvius con 
 tinued a burning mountain for nearly a thousand years, having 
 eruptions at intervals. The fire then appeared to become near 
 ly extinct, and continued so from the beginning of the twelfth 
 to that of the sixteenth century. Since the eruption of 1506, 
 it has remained burning to the present time, with eruptions of 
 lava and ashes at intervals. 
 
 11. Pompeii or Pompeia (the first being the Latin, the sec 
 ond the Greek form of its name), situate about thirteen miles 
 southeast of Neapolis, in a plain at the foot of Vesuvius, through 
 which ran the little river Sarnus, now Sarno. The city ap 
 pears to have been once close to the sea, but is now nearly two 
 miles from it, in consequence of the physical changes which 
 have taken place in this district. It stood on an eminence 
 formed by a bed of lava, which seems to have been thrown up 
 from the ground in this spot, and in several other place^ round 
 the foot of Vesuvius, long before any of the eruptions recorded 
 in history. Like Herculaneum, it was fabled to have been 
 founded by Hercules, but, like that place, was probably of Pe- 
 lasgian origin. We find it occupied in succession by the Os- 
 cans, Etruscans, Samnites, and Romans. In the Social War 
 
ITALIA. 343 
 
 (B.C. 90) it joined the Marsian confederacy along with the oth 
 er towns of Campania, but escaped without any severe punish 
 ment. It became at this period a military colony, and other 
 colonies were subsequently sent by Augustus and Nero. In 
 the reign of the latter, a bloody affray occurred at Pompeii, dur 
 ing the exhibition of a fight of gladiators, between the inhab 
 itants of that place and those of Nuceria, in which many lives 
 were lost. The Pompeiani were, in consequence, deprived of 
 these shows for ten years, and several individuals were ban 
 ished. Shortly after we hear of the destruction of a consider 
 able portion of the city by an earthquake. The following year, 
 while Nero was singing at Naples, another earthquake occurred. 
 At last, in A.D. 79, in the month of August, the first recorded 
 eruption of Vesuvius took place, which overwhelmed this city, 
 and along with it Herculaneum and Stabise. In 1689, the first 
 indications of ruins protruding above the ground were noticed. 
 In 1755 the excavations began. They have been interrupted 
 and resumed at various times, and the result has been that 
 about a fourth part of the city has been excavated and cleared 
 of the rubbish. For an account of the discoveries made at 
 Pompeii, the student is referred to Gell s elaborate work on the 
 subject. 
 
 The River Sarnus, now the Sarno, falls into the sea about 
 a mile from Pompeii. This river, according to Strabo, formed 
 the harbor of that town, which was also common to the inland 
 cities of Nola, Acerrce, and Nuceria. The Pelasgi, who in 
 habited this coast at an early period, are said to have derived 
 the name of Sarrastes from this river. 
 
 12. Stdbice, about two miles beyond the Sarnus, and in the 
 southeastern angle of the Bay of Naples. It is now Castela- 
 mare di Stabia. This was once a place of note, but having 
 been destroyed by Sylla during the civil wars, it became sub 
 sequently a mere village, and a part of the old site was occu 
 pied by villas and pleasure grounds. It was overwhelmed along 
 with Herculaneum and Pompeii. According to Columella, this 
 spot was celebrated for its fountains, and such was the excel 
 lence of the pastures in its immediate vicinity, that the milk 
 of this district was reputed to be more wholesome and nutri 
 tious than that of any other country. 13. Surrentum, to the 
 southwest, now Sorrento, celebrated in modern times as the 
 
344 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 birth-place of Tasso, and admired for the exquisite beauty of 
 its scenery and the salubrity of its climate. This city is said 
 to have been of very ancient date, and to have derived its name 
 from the Sirens, who are fabled to have made this coast their 
 favorite haunt, and who had here a temple consecrated to them. 
 The wine of the Surrentine Hills was held in great estimation 
 by the ancients. 
 
 It will now be necessary to retrace our steps as far as the 
 northern frontiers of Campania, in order to enter upon the de 
 scription of the interior of that province. It has been stated 
 that the Massic Hills, the ancient Mons Massicus, formed its 
 boundary of separation from Latium. This celebrated range 
 is entirely detached from the chain of the Apennines, and ex 
 tends from the sea in the immediate vicinity of Monte Dragone, 
 the ancient Sinuessa, in a northerly direction, till it unites with 
 the hills of Sessa, the ancient Suessa Auruncorum, being a 
 distance of about ten miles in length, while its breadth scarcely 
 equals three. The Latin poets are lavish in their encomiums 
 on the excellence of the wine produced by this celebrated ridge. 
 To the north of the Massic Hills, and on the left bank of the 
 Liris, we find the Aurunci, who once occupied a more exten 
 sive territory in Latium ; but, on being expelled thence by the 
 Roman arms, they retired to the mountainous tracts about 
 Sessa and Rocca Monfina. Among their cities we may name, 
 1. Suessa Auruncorum, now Sessa, the capital of the race, after 
 their former capital, Aurunca, had been destroyed by the neigh 
 boring Sidiclni. It became a Roman colony and a municip- 
 ium. 2. Aurunca, the earlier capital, as just remarked. Some 
 vestiges of it may still be seen near the church of Santa Croce, 
 on the elevated ridge in the vicinity of Rocca Monfina. 
 
 To the east of the Aurunci were the Sidicmi, once apparently 
 an independent people, but afterward included under the com 
 mon name of Campdni. They were of Oscan origin. The only 
 town which antiquity ascribes to them is Teanum, now Teano, 
 about six miles to the east of Suessa, and fifteen to the north 
 west of Capua. Strabo informs us that it stood on the Latin 
 Way, and was inferior to Capua alone among the Campanian 
 cities in extent and importance. It became a Roman colony 
 under Augustus. 
 
 Resuming our account of the cities of Campania, we com.e 
 
ITALIA. 345 
 
 to, 1. Venafrum, now Venafri, the last city to the north, and 
 near the River Vulturnus. It was situate on the Latin Way, 
 and was much celebrated in antiquity for the excellence of the 
 oil which its territory produced. 2. To the southeast of Tea- 
 num, and also on the Latin Way, we find Cales, now Calvi, 
 and anciently a considerable city. The territories of Cales and 
 Teanum were separated by two temples dedicated to Fortune, 
 one on the right, the other on the left of the Latin Way. The 
 Calenian territory was much celebrated for its vineyards, and 
 was contiguous to the famous Falernian district, or Fdlernus 
 Ager, so well known for producing the finest wine in Italy, or, 
 indeed, in the ancient world. Without pretending to fix the 
 limits of this favored portion of Campania with scrupulous ac 
 curacy, it seems evident, from the testimony of Livy and Pliny, 
 that we must regard it as extending from the Massic Hills to 
 the Vulturnus. That part of the district which grew the 
 choicest wine was distinguished by the name of Faustidnus, 
 being that of a village about six miles from Sinuessa. We find 
 the name of Ammece also given to some vineyards in this vi 
 cinity. Macrobius, indeed, states that there was a people called 
 Aminei. 
 
 3. Cdsilmum, to the southeast of Cales, on the Appian Way, 
 celebrated in history for the obstinate defence which it made 
 against Hannibal after the battle of Cannse. The modern 
 Capua is generally supposed to occupy its site. 4. Capua, to 
 the southeast of Casilinum, once the capital of Campania, and 
 inferior to Rome alone among the cities of Italy. Its original 
 name was Vulturnus, which was changed by the Tuscans, 
 when they became masters of the place, to Capua, calling it 
 after their leader Capys, who, according to Festus, had received 
 this appellation from his feet being deformed and turned inward. 
 Capua was the chief city of the southern Etrurians, and, even af 
 ter it fell under the Roman dominion, continued to be a powerful 
 and flourishing place. Before Capua passed into the hands of 
 the Romans, a dreadful massacre of its Etrurian inhabitants by 
 the Samnites put the city into the hands of this latter people. 
 Livy appears to have confounded this event with the origin of the 
 place when he makes its name to have been changed from Vul 
 turnus to Capua, after a Samnite leader Capy^. Capua deeply 
 offended the Romans by opening its gates to Hannibal after the 
 
346 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 battle of Cannae. The vengeance inflicted by the Romans was 
 of the most fearful nature, when, five years after, the city again 
 fell under their dominion. Most of the senators and principal 
 inhabitants were put to death, the greater part of the remain 
 ing citizens were sold into slavery, and by a decree of the sen 
 ate the Capuani ceased to exist as & people. Julius Caesar 
 sent a powerful colony to Capua, and under the emperors it 
 again flourished. But it suffered greatly from the barbarians 
 in a later age, so much so, in fact, that the Bishop Landulfus, 
 and the Lombard Count Lando, transferred the inhabitants to 
 Casilinum. This last, as already remarked, is the site of mod 
 ern Capua. The ruins of ancient Caftua are about two miles 
 to the southeast of the modern city, and close to the church of 
 Santa Maria di Capoa. About a mile to the east of Capua 
 rose Mom Tifata, a branch of the Apennines, which now takes 
 its name of Maddaloni from a village near Caserta. This ridge 
 is often noticed by Livy as a favorite position of Hannibal 
 when in the vicinity of Capua. ^ 
 
 5. Atella, to the south of Capua, ad the ruins of which are 
 still to be seen near the village^^f StmP Elpidio or Sant Ar- 
 pino, about two miles from the town of Aversa. It is known 
 to have been an Oscan city, and it has acquired some import 
 ance in the history of Roman literature from the circumstance 
 of the name and origin of the Fabulce Atellance being derived 
 from this place. Atella, having joined the Carthaginians, was, 
 in consequence, subsequently reduced by the Romans to a pre 
 fecture. It was afterward colonized by Augustus. 6. Acerrce, 
 to the southeast of Atella, and at the sources of the Cldnius. 
 It is now Acerra. This place is spoken of by Virgil as exposed 
 to inundations from the neighboring stream, and therefore thinly 
 inhabited (vacuce). 7. Nola, to the east of Acerrae, and one of 
 the most ancient and important cities of Campania. Its origin 
 is ascribed by some to the Ausones, by others to the Tuscans 
 or the Chalcidians, which means, probably, that it successively 
 fell into the hands of these three communities. It was after 
 ward occupied by the SamniteS, until they were driven out by 
 the Romans. It was a strongly fortified place, and resisted all 
 the efforts of Hannibal after the battle; of Cannes, being ^fend 
 ed by Marcellus.. It was burned to the ground in the Social 
 War, but arose subsequently from its ruins, and was again 
 
ITALIA. 347 
 
 ranked among the cities of Campania. Here Augustus breathed 
 his last, in the same house and chamber in which his father 
 Octavius had ended his days. Nola was colonized in the reign 
 of Vespasian. 8. Abella, to the northeast of Nola, and the ru 
 ins of which still exist at Avella Vecchia. Virgil speaks of it 
 as abounding in fruit, particularly apples. 9. Nuceria, to the 
 southeast of Nola, now Nocera de 1 Pagani. It was situate on 
 the Sarnus, and had the appellation of Alfaterna attached to 
 its name, to distinguish it from some other places of the same 
 name. It was sacked and burned by Hannibal. In the reign 
 of Nero it was restored and colonized. 
 
 South of Campania, properly so called, were the Picentini, 
 who occupied an inconsiderable extent of territory from the 
 Promontorium Minervce to the mouth of the River Sildrus. 
 We learn from Strabo that they were a portion of the inhab 
 itants of Picenum, whom the Romans transplanted thither to 
 people the shores of the Sinus Pcestanus. According to the 
 same writer, the Picentini were, at a subsequent period, com 
 pelled to abandon the few towns which they possessed, and to 
 reside in villages and hamlets, in consequence of having sided 
 with Hannibal in the second Punic war. As a further punish 
 ment, they were excluded from military service, and allowed 
 only to perform the duties of couriers and messengers. 
 
 On the south side of the promontory of Surrentum, or Miner 
 va, were three small rocks, detached from the land, called Si- 
 renusfB Insulce, and formerly celebrated as the islands of the 
 Sirens. They are now called Galli. Continuing along the 
 coast, we find, 1. Martina, founded, as Strabo reports, by the 
 Tuscans, but subsequently occupied by the Samnites. Its site 
 answers to the modern Vietri. 2. Salernum, a short distance 
 to the northeast of the preceding, and said to have been built 
 by the Romans as a check on the Picentini. It was not, there 
 fore, situated, like the modern town of Salerno, close to the sea, 
 but on the heights above, where considerable remains have been 
 observed. Salernum became a Roman colony seven years after 
 the conclusion of the second Punic war. 3. Plcentia, southeast 
 of Salernum, and distant seven miles from it. This was once 
 the capital of the Picentini. It is now Vicenza or Bicenza, on 
 the little river Bicentino. 
 
348 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ISLA; 
 
 NDS OFF THE CoAST OF CAMPANIA. 
 
 1. Panddtdria, now Vandotina, assigned by some, less correctly, to Latium. 
 Julia, the daughter of Augustus, was banished to this island, as were also the 
 elder Agrippina, and Octavia, the wife of Nero. 
 
 2. ^ndria, called, also, Inarime and Pithecusa. The first name was the most 
 common, and the best authenticated, and refers probably to the copper (CBS) 
 found in it. The second, Inarime, is only found in the poets, and appears to be 
 formed from Homer s elv Ap/^oif (//., 2, 783). For it would seem, from an ex 
 amination of various passages, that Virgil, and after him the other Latin poets, 
 have applied to this island more particularly Homer s description of the place 
 of torment allotted to the earth-born Typhoeus. It is very uncertain, however, 
 what people or country Homer intended to designate by the name of Arimi. 
 The name Pithecusa, the third one of those mentioned above, is generally sup 
 posed to mean " Ape Island," from the great number of these animals which 
 the island is said to have contained at an early period. In Greek, mdriKog means 
 " an ape." Pliny, however, says that the island took its name, not from apes, 
 but from the number of earthen wine-jars (TriOoi) which were made there, and 
 used as casks. Sometimes the name is written in the plural, Pithecusce, and 
 then the adjacent island of Prochyta, now Procida, is included along with ^Ena- 
 ria. We are informed by Strabo that ^Enaria was first occupied by a colony 
 of Eretrians and Chalcidians, which flourished for a time on account of the fer 
 tility of the soil, and the wealth produced by the discovery of some gold mines. 
 A sedition, however, having disturbed the tranquillity of the colony, the Chal 
 cidians were the first to abandon the island ; and not long after the Eretrians 
 followed their example, being alarmed by repeated earthquakes, and the burst 
 ing out of fire and hot springs, attended by irruptions of the sea. The same 
 causes compelled another colony, sent by Hiero, king of Syracuse, to quit their 
 settlement and a town which they had built. Strabo ascribes to these volcanic 
 phenomena all the fabulous accounts of the poets respecting Typhoeus. He 
 further quotes the historian Timaeus, who related that, a little before his time, 
 Mons Epopeus, now sometimes called Epomeo, but more commonly Monte San 
 Nicolo, burst forth with such fury that the sea retired from the island to the 
 distance of three stadia, but that on its return it deluged the island and extin 
 guished the volcano. The inhabitants of the opposite coast were so alarmed 
 that they fled into the interior of Campania. 
 
 3. Nesis, between Puteoli and Neapolis, and within a short distance of the 
 shore. It is now Nisida. Cicero speaks of it as a favorite residence of his 
 friend Brutus. 
 
 4. Caprece, now Capri, near the promontory of Minerva, chiefly known in his 
 tory as the residence of the Emperor Tiberius in the latter part of his life. Au 
 gustus was the first emperor who resided here, having given the Neapolitans 
 the island of ^Enaria, which belonged to him, in exchange for it. Tiberius was 
 led to select it as his abode from its difficulty of access, being cut off from all 
 approach, except on one side, by lofty and perpendicular rocks. The mildness 
 of the climate, and the beauty of the prospect, which extends over the whole 
 bay of Naples, might also, as Tacitus remarks, have influenced his choice. 
 Here he caused twelve villas to be erected, which he is supposed to have named 
 after the twelve chief deities. The ruins of the villa of Jove, which was the 
 most conspicuous, and probably is the same with what Pliny styles the Arx 
 Tiberii, are still to be seen on the summit of the cliff looking toward Sorrento. 
 
ITALIA. 349 
 
 This same writer computes the circuit of the island to be eleven miles. Strabo 
 speaks of two small towns in this island, which probably answer to those of 
 Capri and Anacapri at the present day. 
 
 10. SAMNIUM AND THE FRENTANI. 
 (A.) NAME AND BOUNDARIES. 
 
 I. Samnium was called by the Greeks Sovvmf , and the Sam- 
 nites were styled by the same people Eavvlrat. Festus derives 
 the name of this people from the peculiar kind of javelin used 
 by them, and which was called, in Greek, oavvtov, but Samni- 
 um and Sammies are both historically and etymologically con 
 nected with the term Sabini. 
 
 II. Samnium was bounded on the north by the territory of 
 the Frentani ; on the northeast and east by Apulia ; on the 
 south by the Picentini and Lucania ; and on the west by La- 
 tium and Campania. 
 
 III. It is usual with geographers to regard the ancient Sam- 
 nites as divided into three distinct tribes, the Caraceni, Pen- 
 tri, and Hirpini, to which others have added the Caudmi and 
 Frentani. But the former classification seems to rest on bet 
 ter authority, and may, therefore, be more safely adopted. The 
 Caudini will be ranged with the Pentri, and the Frentani will 
 be treated as a distinct people from the Samnites at the end of 
 this section. 
 
 (B.) SKETCH OF SAMNITE HISTORY. 
 
 I. THE Samnites are originally a colony of the Sabini, who migrate in re 
 mote times, probably before the building of Rome, to the banks of the Vulturnus 
 and Tamarus, and thence spread on one side as far as the plains of Apulia, and 
 on the other to those of Campania. They appear originally as an agricultural 
 and pastoral people, and as their numbers increase beyond the means of sub 
 sistence, they follow the custom of their Sabine ancestors, and send forth colo 
 nies into the countries to the south. 
 
 II. The Samnites, between A.U.C. 330 and 333, attack the Etruscans who 
 had settled in Campania. The Etruscans at length, being weary of war, admit 
 a Samnite colony to share with them their homes and fields ; but the latter, 
 on the occasion of a great festival, when the old inhabitants are overcome by 
 sleep after banqueting, murder them, and form the new state of Capua, which 
 figured so much afterward in the history of the wars of Rome. 
 
 III. About B.C. 340, the first war breaks out between the Samnites and Ro 
 mans, who had taken up arms to protect the Campanians against the Sam 
 nites proper of Samnium. The Romans are victorious in several encount 
 ers, and the Samnites are compelled to sue for peace. A new war, however, 
 breaks out in 323 B.C., which is marked by varied success, and in the course 
 of which the Roman army is compelled to pass under the yoke at the Caudine 
 Forks. But the Samnites at length, after inflicting severe losses upon the Ro- 
 
350 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 mans, and not only overrunning Campania, but even invading the borders of 
 Latium, are once more compelled to sue for peace. 
 
 IV. A war breaks out again in 298 B.C., in which Q. Fabius Maximus and 
 P. Decius Mus are the Roman commanders, and the Samnites, after a val 
 iant resistance, are again overcome, and in 290 B.C. sue for peace, which the 
 Romans, likewise exhausted by their dearly-bought victories, are disposed to 
 grant. The result of this war, or, rather, succession of wars, is, that the Romans 
 extend their power over Southern Italy, Campania, and Apulia, and thus become 
 neighbors, and soon after enemies, of the Tarentines. The Tarentine war brings 
 on the expedition of Pyrrhus into Italy, and in the war with Pyrrhus the Sam 
 nites join that prince, after whose second retreat they are attacked by two Ro 
 man armies and utterly defeated, 272 B.C. Samnium now becomes a conquered 
 country, and the Romans send colonies to Maleventum and other places. 
 
 V. In the war of Hannibal the Hirpini join the Carthaginians, but the Pentri 
 do not. At last, in the Social War, the Samnites having joined the Marsi, Ves- 
 tini, Peligni, and others, in the common league against Rome, are defeated and 
 slaughtered without mercy by Sylla, who exclaims that Rome can enjoy no 
 repose as long as a number of Samnites can collect together. The devastation 
 of Samnium by Sylla is most effectual ; the towns are burned and razed to the 
 ground. Beneventum alone is spared. 
 
 VI. The last time the Samnites appear in history is during the war of Sylla 
 against the younger Marius, when Pontius Teleslnus joins the latter at the 
 head of 40,000 Samnites and Lucanians, steals a march upon Sylla, who is be 
 sieging Praeneste, and advances within ten stadia of Rome, which is without 
 any adequate defence. Telesinus tells his Samnites that he is the enemy of 
 both Marius and Sylla, and that his object is to destroy Rome and restore free 
 dom to Italy. Sylla, however, comes in time to save the city. A desperate 
 battle ensues, and the Samnites, after having nearly gained the day, are obliged 
 to retire to Antemnae, where Telesinus is killed. Between seven and eight thou 
 sand Samnites surrender to Sylla, who inarches them to Rome, and, having shut 
 them up in the Circus Maxirnus, has them all butchered in cold blood while he 
 is haranguing the senate in the neighboring temple of Bellona. The remainder 
 of the Samnites are slaughtered in the same manner at the taking of Praeneste. 
 
 (C.) CITIES OP SAMNIUM. 
 
 IN the territory of the Caraceni we find, 1. Aufidena, their 
 capital, now Alfidena. Frontinus informs us that it became 
 a military colony. 2. Samnium, near the source of the Vul- 
 turnus, on the site now called Cerro. The existence of a city 
 of this name was doubted for some time by modern writers, but 
 the point has been fully established by Romanelli. 3. Castel- 
 lum Cardcenorum, to the northeast of the preceding, near the 
 Sagrus, now Sangro, and on the site of the fortress which 
 takes its name from that river, Castel di Sangro. According 
 to Zonaras, it served as a refuge for banditti until it was stormed 
 by the Romans, who on this occasion are said to have acquired 
 so rich a booty that they began from that time to coin silver 
 drachmae. 4. Aquildnia, to the southeast, now Agnone, near 
 
ITALIA. 351 
 
 the source of the Trlnius, now Trig-no. This place must not 
 be confounded with another Aquilonia, on the Appian Way, 
 near the confines of Apulia, and now Lacedogna. 
 
 In the territory of the Pentri we find, 1. Bovianum, their 
 capital, situate among lofty mountains, and near the site of 
 the modern Boiano. Livy describes it as a most opulent and 
 important place, and the consequence attached by the Romans 
 to its possession is evinced by the repeated efforts which they 
 made to conquer it. In the Social War it became one of the 
 strongest holds of the confederates, after Corfinium had been 
 abandoned. Nothing of its former importance, however, re 
 mained in the time of Strabo, who describes it as ruinous and 
 deserted. It became a military colony under Caesar. 2. JEser- 
 nia, to the northwest of Bovianum, about twelve miles distant, 
 and now Isernia. It was colonized about the beginning of the 
 first Punic war, and is mentioned by Livy as one of those col 
 onies which distinguished themselves by their firm adherence 
 to the Roman power during the war with Hannibal. It was 
 recolonized by Augustus and Nero. 3. Treventum, to the north 
 east, now Trivento, on the Trimus, now Trigno. It was a 
 Roman colony, and also a municipium. 4. Maronea, to the 
 northeast, taken by Marcellus in the second Punic war, together 
 with some considerable magazines deposited there by Hannibal. 
 Its site corresponds to Campo Marano, on the right bank of 
 the Trig-no. 5. Tifernum, to the southeast, near the present 
 Ponte di Limosano, on the River Tifernus, now the Biferno. 
 The Mom Tifernm was at the source of the same river, near 
 Bovianum. 6. Sepinum, to the southeast of Bovianum, a place 
 of some note, and taken by the Romans under Papirius Cursor. 
 It became a colony in the reign of Nero. The site answers to 
 that which is now called Attilia, about ten miles from the mod 
 ern Sepino. The continual warfare to which the country of 
 the Samnites was so long exposed, produced its natural effects 
 on many of the ancient towns cited in the annals of Rome, but 
 of which no vestige can now be traced with certainty. We 
 must, therefore, be necessarily brief in the rest of our enumera 
 tion. 
 
 7. Allifce, to the southwest of Bovianum, now Allife. This 
 place was noted for the large-sized drinking-cups made there. 
 8. Telesia, to the southeast of the preceding, and the ruins of 
 
352 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 which are to be seen about a mile from the modern Telese. 
 This town was taken by Hannibal on his first march through 
 Samnium. It was the native place of C. Pontius Telesinus, 
 who fought against Sylla. 9. Commium Centum, northeast 
 of the preceding, and now Cereto. 
 
 On crossing the Vulturnus, we enter into that part of the 
 Samnite territory which belonged properly to the Caudine Sam- 
 nites. Among the cities in this quarter may be named, 1. Sa- 
 ticula, now St. Agata dei Goti, a place of considerable anti 
 quity, and named by Virgil among those which sent aid to Tur- 
 nus. It was colonized by the Romans, according to Festus, 
 under the consuls Papirius Cursor and C. Junius. 2. Caudium, 
 to the southeast of the preceding, and the site of which is to be 
 fixed at Paolisi or Cervinara. In the vicinity of this place 
 was the famous pass called Furcce (or Furculce) Caudincz, " the 
 Caudine Forks," where the Roman army, commanded by the 
 consuls T. Veturius and Sp. Postumius, was entrapped by the 
 Samnite leader C. Pontius, and compelled to pass under the 
 yoke. According to the best opinion, the valley of Arpaia rep 
 resents the Furcse Caudinse, a circumstance which is strongly 
 confirmed by the name of Furclce, which this valley is known 
 to have borne in the Middle Ages, and which is still preserved 
 in that of the little village in this quarter, now called Forchie. 
 Among the mountains which form the passes of Arpaia and 
 Montesarchio we must distinguish Mons Taburnus, which rises 
 to the east of Saticula. This lofty mountain, still called Ta- 
 burno or Tabor , derives celebrity from Virgil, and is also men 
 tioned by the poet Gratius. 3. Beneventum, about ten miles 
 to the northeast of Caudium, and on the Appian Way. Its 
 earlier name was Mdleventum, which is said to have been given 
 it on account of its unhealthy atmosphere. The more auspi 
 cious appellation of Beneventum was substituted when the Ro 
 mans sent a colony thither. Some, however, who think this 
 explanation more fanciful than satisfactory, make the earlier 
 name to have been Maluentum, without any reference to un- 
 healthiness of situation, and as this sounded to Roman ears like 
 Maleventum, it was deemed an inauspicious appellation, and 
 Beneventum was substituted. Beneventum was situated near 
 the junction of the Sabdtus and Cdlor, now Sabbato and Calore, 
 
 We have now to speak of the Hirpini, who, though compre- 
 
ITALIA. 353 
 
 bended under the general denomination of Samnites, seem to 
 have formed a distinct people. Their name was said to be de 
 rived from the word hzrpus, which in the Samnite dialect sig 
 nified " a wolf;" and it has been supposed that they were orig 
 inally a Sabine colony, who were guided in their migrations to 
 this quarter by following the tracks of this species of animal. 
 
 Among the cities of the Hirpini we may name, 1. Abellinum, 
 now Abellino, in the mountains which separated this people from 
 the Picentini. Its inhabitants were distinguished from those 
 of another Abellinum, which belonged to Lucania, by the ap 
 pellation of Abellinates Protropi. 2. Mculanum or Mclanum, 
 on the Appian Way, about thirteen modern miles from Bene- 
 ventum, in a southeast direction. It was besieged by Sylla 
 during the civil wars. The ruins lie near Mirabella, on the 
 site called by the natives Le Grotte. 3. Taurasium, a little to 
 the southeast of the preceding, and now Taurasi. It is men 
 tioned in the inscription on the tomb of Scipio Barbatus as one 
 of the towns taken by that general. In its vicinity were the 
 Taurdsmi Campi, where Pyrrhus, on his return from Italy, 
 was totally defeated by M. Curius Dentatus. The name of 
 these plains is incorrectly written Arusini Campi in Floras and 
 other ancient authors. The Romans, many years afterward, 
 settled in this district a numerous body of Ligurians whom they 
 had conquered and removed from their country. 4. Mquus Tu- 
 ticus or Equotuticus, to the northeast of Beneventum, and on 
 the Appian Way. D Anville places it at Castel Franco, which 
 i^ nearly correct ; the exact site, however, is occupied by the 
 ancient church of St. Eleuterio, a martyr, who is stated in old 
 ecclesiastical records to have suffered at ^Equum. This place 
 is about five miles from Aricmo, in a northerly direction. Tu- 
 ticus is an Oscan word, and is said to be equivalent to the Latin 
 Magnus. It is commonly supposed that Horace means this 
 place in the account of his journey to Brundisium (Sat., i., 5, 
 87), where he makes mention of a town having a name that 
 could not be introduced into hexameter verse. This supposi 
 tion, however, is an erroneous one. After leaving Beneventum, 
 Horace and his party passed the first night at a villa close to 
 Trivicum, now Trivico, a place situate to the southeast of 
 Equus Tuticus, among the mountains separating Samnium 
 from Apulia. On the following night they lodged at the town 
 
 Z 
 
354 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 with the untractable name, and on the third day reached Canu- 
 sium. Now, if this town had been ^Equus Tuticus, they must 
 have gone back in a northwestern direction, and one quite 
 out of their way ; and, besides, they must then have travelled 
 only twenty-two miles during the first and second day, and have 
 left forty-two miles for the third. This, however, is both at va 
 riance with the text, and inconsistent with the manner in which 
 the journey was performed. 5. Compsa, on the southern con 
 fines of this part of Samnium, now Conza. It was a city of 
 some note, and revolted to Hannibal after the battle of Cannae. 
 It was here that this general left all his baggage, and part of 
 his army, when advancing into Campania. 
 
 The small nation of the Frentdni appear to have possessed a separate political 
 existence, independent of the Samnite confederacy, though we are assured they 
 derived their descent from that warlike and populous race. From Plutarch we 
 learn that they distinguished themselves in the war against Pyrrhus ; and it ap 
 pears that they faithfully adhered to the Roman cause throughout the whole of 
 the second Punic war. Whatever may have been their former extent of terri 
 tory, we find it restricted by the geographers of the Augustan age to the tract 
 of country lying between the mouths of the Aternus and Tifernus, the former 
 separating it from the Marrucini on the north, and the latter from the country 
 of Apulia to the south. The few cities of the Frentani with which we are ac 
 quainted appear to have been situate on the coast. These are, 1. Ortona, still 
 retaining its ancient site and name. Strabo calls it the naval arsenal of the 
 Frentani. 2. Anxanum, south of the preceding, and more inland. The name 
 of this town seems to have been also written Anxa and Anxia. It occupied the 
 site now called Lanciano Vccchio. 3. Buca, beyond the River Sagrus, and a sea 
 port town. Its ruins may be seen at a place named Penna. 4. Histonium, further 
 along the coast, and n.ow Vasto (VAmmone. Tt was once the haunt of savage 
 pirates, who, as Strabo reports, formed their dwellings from the wrecks of ships, 
 and in other respects lived more like beasts of prey than civilized beings. A 
 Roman colony was subsequently established here. Beyond this place is the 
 mouth of the Trinius, now Trigno. 5. Inter amna, a small town and port, now 
 Termoli. The Tifernus, now the Biferno, terminates the description of the Ager 
 Frenlanus to the south. 
 
 11. APULIA, INCLUDING DAUNIA AND MESSAPIA OR IAPYGIA. 
 NAME, BOUNDARIES, &c. 
 
 I. WE have now left central Italy or Italia Propria, and are entering upon the 
 region called Magna Gratia (rj "E/Uaf ps-yuXr)), a name given to it on account of 
 the numerous and flourishing colonies established by the Greeks in this section 
 of the peninsula. There is some difficulty in determining how far this appella 
 tion extended, but, according to the best authorities, it appears to have com 
 prised Apulia, Messdpia or lapygia, Lucdnia, and Bruttium ; or, in other words, 
 the portion of Italy that remains still to be considered by us. 
 
 II. It appears from Strabo s account that the name of Apulia was originally 
 applied to a small tract of country immediately to the southeast of the Frentani. 
 
ITALIA. 355 
 
 In the reign of Augustus, however, the term Apulia was used in a much more 
 extended sense, and included not only Daunia, but also the country of Messapia 
 or lapygia. 
 
 III. On the other hand, what may be remarked as a singular circumstance, 
 the term Messapia or lapygia appears to have been confined at first to that penin 
 sula which closes the Gulf of Tarentum to the southeast, but afterward to have 
 had the same extension given to it by the Greeks which the Roman historians 
 and geographers assigned to Apulia, a name of which the Greeks were ignorant. 
 
 IV. The boundaries of Apulia, then, in the widest sense of the term, were as 
 follows : on the north by the territory of the Frentani and the Sinus Urias ; on 
 the northeast by the Hadriatic ; on the southeast by the Hadriatic and a part of 
 the Sinus Tarcntinus ; and on the southwest by Samnium and Lucania. 
 
 V. We will now proceed to consider the several portions of country compre 
 hended under this name, and which are, 1. Apulia Proper ; 2. Daunia; 3. Peu- 
 cetia ; and, 4. Messapia or lapygia. 
 
 1. APULIA PROPER. 
 
 Apulia Proper, or Apulia originally so called, was a district 
 of very limited extent. According to Strabo, it was contigu 
 ous to the Ager Frentanus on one side, and to Daunia on the 
 other, and its lower limit was a line drawn from the coast a 
 little below Uria or Hyrium and the Lacus Uricmus, now 
 Lago Varano, across the country to the Apennines above Lu- 
 ceria. 
 
 Beginning, then, from the River Tifernus, we come to, 1. Cll- 
 ternia] the ruins of which are to be seen at a small place called 
 Licchiano, on the little river Sacchione, near the sea. 2. La- 
 rlnum, to the southwest, and the ruins of which occupy the site 
 called Larino Vecchio. This was a place of considerable im 
 portance, and appears to have belonged at one time to the Fren 
 tani, from the name of Larindtes Frentani attached to its in 
 habitants by Pliny. It formed in itself a small independent 
 state before it became subject to the Roman power. We have 
 frequent mention of Larinum in Cicero s defence of Cluentius, 
 who was a citizen of the place. We gather, too, from the same 
 oration, that it was a municipal town and in a flourishing con 
 dition. 3. Cdlela, to the southwest, a fortress near which Mi- 
 nucius was stationed during the absence of the dictator Fabius. 
 Its site answers to Casa Calenda. 4. Gerunium, about two 
 miles to the northeast of the preceding, selected by Hannibal 
 for his winter-quarters after the campaign against Fabius. It 
 had been previously carried by storm, the private dwellings had 
 been destroyed, and the principal buildings were reserved only 
 as magazines for the corn which the surrounding country sup- 
 
356 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 plied in great abundance. It was here that Hannibal was op 
 posed to the rash Minucius, who, but for the timely aid afforded 
 him by Fabius, would have paid dearly for his presumption in 
 supposing that he was able to cope with the Carthaginian leader, 
 Gerunium appears to have been situated on a spot still known 
 by the name of Girone, between Casa Calenda and Montorio. 
 
 5. Teate Apulum, so called to distinguish it from Teate of 
 the Marrucini. It lay a short distance to the southeast of Cli- 
 ternia, and its ruins bear the name of Chieti Vecchio. 6. Ted- 
 num Apulum, so called to distinguish it from the Campanian 
 Teanum. It lay to the southeast of the preceding. Strabo 
 makes it to have been situate at the head of a lake formed by 
 the sea, which encroached so considerably upon the land that 
 the breadth of Italy between this point and Puteoli did not ex 
 ceed one hundred stadia. This lake was the Lacus Pantanus, 
 now Lago di Lesina. The ruins of Teanum exist on the site 
 of Civitate, about a mile from the right bank of the Fortore, 
 the ancient Frento, and ten miles from the sea. 7. Uria or Urei- 
 um (Ovpeiov), as Strabo writes it, but, according to Ptolemy, 
 Hyrium ("Tpiov), a place the situation of which has not yet 
 been clearly determined, partly because there was another city 
 of the same name in Messapia, and partly because Strabo and 
 Pliny differ with regard to the position of the present one, Strabo 
 placing it to the north of the promontory of Garganum, and Pliny 
 to the south of it. Strabo s opinion is undoubtedly the true one, 
 and his Ureium, answers to the modern Rodi. Hence, too, the 
 Sinus Unas, which is erroneously placed on most maps below 
 the promontory of Garganum, is more correctly placed above it. 
 
 Opposite to the Sinus Unas, and at no great distance from 
 the coast, are some small islands, celebrated in mythology as 
 the scene of the metamorphosis of Diomede s companions, who 
 were changed into birds, and of the disappearance of that hero 
 himself. Hence they were known by the name of Insulce Di- 
 omedece. Ancient writers differ as to their number. Strabo 
 and Pliny recognize two, and the latter states that one was 
 called Diomedea, the other Teutria. Ptolemy, however, reck 
 ons five, which is said to be the correct number, if we include 
 in the group three barren rocks, which scarcely deserve the 
 name of islands. The island which Pliny calls Diomedea ap 
 pears to have also borne the appellation TremUus, as we learn 
 
ITALIA. 357 
 
 from Tacitus, who informs us that it was the spot to which 
 Augustus removed his abandoned grand-daughter Julia, and 
 where she terminated a life of infamy. It is now called Tre- 
 miti. Teutria is now Pianosa. 
 
 2. DAUNIA. 
 
 I. Daunia extended from the southern limits of Apulia Proper, as far south as 
 a line drawn from the mouth of the Aufidus to Silvium, now Garagnone, in the 
 Apennines, and passing to the east of Cannae and Cdnusium, which, therefore, 
 both belonged to the Daunian territory. 
 
 II. The Daunii appear to have been one of the earliest Italian tribes with 
 which the Greeks became acquainted, from the circumstance of their having 
 formed colonies, which they established at a remote period on the western 
 shores of the Adriatic. This people, according to the received tradition, ob 
 tained their appellation from Daunus, the father-in-law of Diomede, the latter, 
 on his return from Troy, having been compelled by domestic troubles to aban 
 don his native country, and having founded another kingdom in the plains wa 
 tered by the Aufidus. This tradition, whatever may be its truth in other re 
 spects, proves at least the great antiquity of the Daunians as an indigenous peo 
 ple of Italy. Other accounts, perhaps still more ancient, asserted that Daunus 
 was an Illyrian chief, who, driven from his country by an adverse faction, formed 
 a settlement in this part of Italy. 
 
 III. According to some writers, the Apuli, Daunii, Peucetii, and Calabri were 
 actually Illyrians ; but the safer opinion undoubtedly is to consider them as the 
 descendants of a remnant of Liburni and other ancient Illyrians, mingled with 
 a subsequent and preponderating influx of Oscans and different native Italian 
 tribes. 
 
 Among the cities on the coast of Daunia we may notice the 
 following : 1. Merinum, to the northeast of Uria or Hyrium, 
 and near the promontory of Garganum. Its inhabitants are 
 called by Pliny " Merinates ex Gargano." The church of St. 
 Maria di Merino marks the ancient site. 2. Agdsus Portus, 
 on the other side of the promontory, now probably Porto Greco. 
 3. Matlnum, at the foot of Mons Garganus, and the name of 
 which is recalled by the modern Matinata, which probably also 
 marks the ancient site. It was here, according to the best com 
 mentators on Horace, that Archytas, the celebrated philosopher 
 of Tarentum, was interred, when cast on shore after shipwreck. 
 The vicinity of this town was famed for its bees and honey. 
 One of the summits of Garganus, inland from this place, was 
 called Drium Mons. On it were two chapels sacred to Cal- 
 chas and Podalirius. A rivulet issuing from the base of the 
 mountain was said to have the property of healing all disorders 
 incident to cattle. Mons Garganus is called at the present day 
 Monte San? Angela. 
 
358 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 4. Sipus (Sinai)?, owrof), or, as the Latins write it, Sipcm- 
 turn, lower down on the coast, and southwest of Matinum. It 
 was a city of Greek origin, and great antiquity, and was fa 
 bled to have been founded by Diomede. According to Strabo r 
 the name of the place was derived from the circumstance of 
 great quantities of cuttle-fish (cr^Trm, sepia) being thrown up by 
 the sea on its shore. The ruins of this once flourishing city 
 are said to exist about two miles to the west of Manfredonia* 
 the founding of which city led to the final desertion of Sipon- 
 tum by its inhabitants, as they were transferred by King Man- 
 fredi to this modern town, which is known to have risen under 
 his auspices. 
 
 Turning our attention now to the cities in the interior of 
 Daunia, we come to, 1. Arpi, or, as it was first called, Argy- 
 rippa, which last appellation was supposed to be a modification 
 of "Apyo<: "Inntov, the name which it was said to have received 
 originally from its reputed founder Diomede. Arpi lay in a 
 southwest direction from Sipontum, and, whoever was its found 
 er, appears to have been a city of great antiquity. In Strabo s 
 time it was greatly reduced, but it still continued to exist un 
 der Constantine as an episcopal see. The ruins observable be 
 tween Foggia and Manfredonia are supposed to point out the 
 exact situation of Arpi, and are said still to retain that name. 
 2. Sdlapia, to the southeast, between a lake thence called Pa- 
 lus Salapina and the River Auf idus. This also was a place 
 of very early origin, and some suppose it to have been a Rho- 
 dian colony. The inhabitants of this place, finding its proxim 
 ity to the lake or marsh injurious to health, removed eventually 
 nearer the coast, where they built a new town, with the assist 
 ance of M. Hostilius, a Roman praetor, who caused a commu 
 nication to be opened between the lake and the sea. Consid 
 erable remains of both towns are still standing at some distance 
 from each other, under the name of Salpi. The Palus Sala 
 pina is now called La go di Salpi. 
 
 3. Luceria, to the southwest, another town of great antiquity f 
 and said to have been founded by Diomede. It was an import 
 ant city, and was noted, also, for the excellence of its wool, a 
 property, indeed, which, according to Strabo, was common to 
 all Apulia. The town still retains its ancient site under the 
 modern name of Lucera. 4. Herdonia, to the southeast, na\v 
 
ITALIA. 359 
 
 Qrdona, on a branch of the Appian Way. It was burned by 
 Hannibal, and the inhabitants were removed from the place. 
 It must, however, have risen afterward from this state of ruin, 
 since we find it mentioned as a colony by Frontinus, under the 
 corrupt name of Ardona. Strabo calls it Cerdonia] and places 
 it on the continuation of the Egnatian Way, between Canusi- 
 um and Beneventum. 5. Asculum Apiilum, to the southwest 
 of Herdonia,) and so called to distinguish it from Asculum in 
 Picenum. It was under the walls of this town that Pyrrhus 
 encountered a second time the Roman army, after having gained 
 a signal victory in Lucania. The battle was obstinately con 
 tested, but attended with no decisive advantage to either side. 
 The site of this place corresponds to the modern Ascoli. 6. Fe- 
 nusta, to the southeast, on the great Appian Way leading to Ta- 
 rentum. It is now Venosa. This place appears to have been 
 a Roman colony of some importance before the war against 
 Pyrrhus. After the disaster at Cannae, it afforded a retreat to 
 the consul Varro and the handful of men who escaped with him 
 from that bloody field. The services rendered by the Venusini 
 on that occasion obtained for them afterward the special thanks 
 and eulogium of the Roman senate. Venusia is remarkable, 
 also, in literary history, from the poet Horace having been born 
 within its territory, on the doubtful confines of Apulia and Lu 
 cania. To the south of Venusia rises Mons Vultur, now Monte 
 Vulture, alluded to by Horace among the scenes of his early 
 boyhood. From the conical shape of the mountain, and its min- 
 eralogical character, naturalists have inferred that it is an ex 
 tinct volcano. 
 
 7. Forentum, about eight miles south of Venusia, and now 
 Forenza. It was on the other side of Mons Vultur, and is 
 mentioned by Horace. 8. Bantia^ more to the east, and higher 
 up toward the mountains. In the vicinity of this place Mar- 
 cellus fell a victim to the stratagem of Hannibal. Bantia is 
 also mentioned by Horace. The modern name is Banza. 
 9. Acherontia, now Acerenza, situate, as Horace describes it, 
 on an almost inaccessible hill south of Forentum. Livy and Pro- 
 copius both mention it as a place of great strength. 10. Ca- 
 nusium, on the right bank of the Aufidus, and about twelve 
 miles from its mouth. This was a flourishing and very ancient 
 city, and its origin seems to belong to a period which reaches 
 
360 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 far beyond the records of Roman history, and of which we pos 
 sess no memorial but what a fabulous tradition has conveyed 
 to us. Splendid remains of antiquity still exist among its ru 
 ms, which are known by the name of Canosa. This place, also, 
 like Venusia, afforded shelter to the Roman fugitives after the 
 battle of Cannae. Hadrian colonized the town, and procured 
 for it a supply of good water, of which it stood in much need, 
 as we learn from Horace. The epithet of " bilinguis" applied 
 by the same poet to this place, refers to the mixed dialect of 
 Oscan and Greek that was spoken here. 11. Cannes, a village 
 situated about five miles from Canusium, toward the sea, and 
 at no great distance from the Aufidus. It is memorable for the 
 great victory obtained by Hannibal in its vicinity over the Ro 
 man consuls Terentius Varro and ./Emilius Paulus. The bat 
 tle was fought on the second of August, B.C. 216. Of the Ro 
 mans there fell 45,000, among whom were the consul JEmilius 
 Paulus, eighty senators, and a number of persons who had been 
 invested with the highest offices of the republic. Varro escaped 
 with a few horsemen to Venusia, and another small detachment 
 threw itself into Canusium ; but Hannibal, unconcerned about 
 the latter, marched toward Capua. It appears from Polybius 
 that Cannae, as a town, was destroyed the year before the bat 
 tle was fought, and a village would seem to have sprung up 
 on its site. The citadel, however, was preserved, and the 
 circumstance of its occupation by Hannibal seems to have been 
 regarded by the Romans of sufficient importance to cause them 
 considerable uneasiness and annoyance. It commanded, in 
 deed, all the adjacent country, and was the principal southern 
 depot of stores and provisions, on which they had depended for 
 the approaching campaign. The field of battle was the plain 
 between Cannae and the Aufidus. The site of Cannae is still 
 known by the name of Canne. 
 
 3. PEUCETIA. 
 
 I. NEXT to the Daunii were the Peucetii, who, according to Dionysius of Hal- 
 icarnassus, derived their name from Peucetius, son of Lycaon, king of Arcadia, 
 who, with his brother QEnotrus, migrated to Italy seventeen generations before 
 the siege of Troy. This, however, seems to be pure fable. The Peucetii are 
 always spoken of in history, even by the Greeks themselves, as barbarians, who 
 differed in no essential respect from the Daunii, lapyges, and other neighboring 
 nations. 
 
 II. The name ofPocdiculi was given to the inhabitants of that part of Peuce- 
 
ITALIA. 361 
 
 tia which was more particularly situated on the coast between the Aufidus and 
 the confines of the Calabri. It is stated by Pliny that this particular tribe de 
 rived their origin from Illyria. 
 
 III. The Peucetii appear, then, to have extended along the coast of the Adri 
 atic, from the Aufidus to the neighborhood of Brundisium, which city belonged 
 to lapygia ; and in the interior their territory reached as far as Silvium, in the 
 Apennines, constituting principally what in modern geography is called Terra 
 di Bari. 
 
 Omitting the mention of several places known only from the 
 Itineraries, we come to, 1. Barium, now Bari, the first town 
 of note we meet with on the coast after leaving the Aufidus. 
 It is mentioned by Horace in the account of his journey to 
 Brundisium, and the epithet " piscosi" employed by him in 
 speaking of it, refers to the extensive fishery carried on here in 
 former days. The inhabitants of the modern Bari are said to 
 be still principally fishermen. 2. Egnatia, further on, situate 
 upon the coast, and communicating its name to the consular 
 way which followed the coast from Canusium to Brundisium. 
 Its ruins are still apparent near the Torre cPAgnazzo and the 
 town of Monopoli. Pliny states that a certain stone was 
 shown at Egnatia which was said to possess the property of 
 setting fire to wood that was placed upon it. It was this prod 
 igy, seemingly, which afforded so much amusement to Horace 
 on his Brundisian journey. 
 
 In the interior of Peucetia we may notice the following 
 towns : 1. Rubi, now Ruvo, to the east of Canusium, and on 
 the Egnatian Way. It is alluded to by Horace in the account 
 of his journey. 2. Rudice Peucetice, to the northwest of the 
 preceding, and so called to distinguish it from Rudice, in Cala 
 bria. Romanelli places it at the modern Andria. 3. Butun- 
 turn, to the southeast of Rubi, and on the Egnatian Way. It 
 is now Bitonto. 4. Grumum, to the southeast of the preceding, 
 now Grumo, a village not far from Palo. The inhabitants are 
 called Grumbestini by Pliny. 5. Azetium, to the northeast of 
 the preceding, and now Rotigliano. It appears to answer to 
 the Ehetium of the Theodosian Table. 6. Silvium, to the east 
 of Venusia, now Garagnone. It was situate on the Appian 
 Way, among the Apennines. 
 
 4. MESSIPIA OR IAPYGIA. 
 
 I. ALL that now remains of Apulia may be classed under the head of Messa- 
 pia or lapygia, comprising the whole of that remarkable peninsula which inclo 
 ses the Gulf of Tarentum to the northeast, and which has not unaptly been 
 
362 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 termed by modern geographers the heel of the boot. Under this appellation, 
 therefore, will be included the Calabri, the Sallentini, and the city of Tarentum, 
 with its territory. 
 
 II. The name Messapia is supposed to have been applied to the whole country 
 from the town of Messapia in Calabria, to which it originally belonged. The 
 name lapygia was popularly derived from lapyx, the son of Daedalus. This, 
 however, is a mere fable. Still, though we have no positive information re 
 garding the origin of the lapyges, their existence on these shores, prior to the 
 arrival of any Grecian colony, is recognized by the earliest writers of that na 
 tion, such as Herodotus (vii., 170) and Hellariicus of Lesbos (ap. Dionys. Hal, 
 i., 22). Thucydides evidently considered thetfbas barbarians (vii., 33), as well 
 as Scylax, in his Periplus (p. 5), and Pausanias (x., 10) ; and this, in fact, is 
 the idea which we must form of this people, whether we look upon them as 
 descended from an Umbrian, Oscan, or Illyrian race, or from an intermixture 
 of these earliest Italian tribes. 
 
 III. The name of lapygia was not known to the Romans except as an appel 
 lation borrowed from the Greeks, to whom it was familiar. We are not informed 
 at what period the name of lapygia began to be superseded by that of Apulia, 
 but we may observe that even the latest Greek writers always designate this 
 part of Italy by the former appellation. 
 
 l. CALIBRI. 
 
 THE district occupied by the Calabri seems to have been 
 that maritime part of the lapygian peninsula extending from 
 Brundisium to the city of Hydruntum, and answering nearly 
 to what is now called Terra di Lecce. This branch of the la 
 pygian race does not seem to have been particularly distin 
 guished by the Greeks at least we do not find it noticed by 
 any writer of that nation anterior to Polybius. 
 
 Among the cities hi this quarter, we may name, 1. Brundis 
 ium^ the most ancient and celebrated city on this coast, and 
 now Brindisi. By the Greeks it was called Bpevreaiov, a word 
 which in the Messapian language signified " a stag s head," 
 from the resemblance which its different harbors and creeks bore 
 to the antlers of that animal. Various accounts are given of 
 the origin of the place, but all unsatisfactory. Its antiquity is 
 evident, however, from the statement of Strabo, that Brundisium 
 was already in existence when the Lacedaemonian Phalanthus 
 arrived with his colony in this part of Italy. The advanta 
 geous situation of its harbor for communicating with the oppo 
 site coast of Greece naturally rendered Brundisium a place of 
 great resort, from the time that the colonies of that country had 
 fixed themselves on the shores of Italy. Brundisium soon be 
 came a formidable rival to Tarentum, which had hitherto en 
 grossed all the commerce of this part of Italy ; nor did the fa- 
 
ITALIA. 363 
 
 cilities which it afforded for extending their conquests out of 
 that country escape the penetrating views of the Romans. Un 
 der the pretence that several towns on this coast had favored 
 the invasion of Pyrrhus, they declared war against them, and 
 soon possessed themselves of Brundisium, whither a colony was 
 sent, B.C. 245. From this period the prosperity of this port 
 continued to increase in proportion to the greatness of the 
 Roman empire. Large fleets were always stationed here for 
 the conveyance of troops into Macedonia, Greece, or Asia ; and 
 from the convenience of its harbor, and its facility of access 
 from every other part of Italy, it became a place of general 
 thoroughfare for travellers visiting those countries. When the 
 rapid advance of Caesar forced Pompey to remove the seat of 
 war into Epirus, he was for some time blockaded by his suc 
 cessful adversary in Brundisium. Caesar describes accurately 
 the works undertaken there by his orders for preventing the 
 escape of the enemy ; and from his account we learn that this 
 place had two harbors, one called the interior, the other the ex 
 terior, communicating by a very narrow passage. Strabo con 
 sidered the harbor of Brundisium superior to that of Tarentum, 
 for the latter was not free from shoals. It was at Brundisium 
 that a convention was held for the purpose of arranging the ex 
 citing differences between Augustus and Marc Antony, and 
 among the commissioners appointed by the former was Maece 
 nas, who was accompanied by Horace. It was this journey 
 which the poet has so humorously delineated in the fifth Satire 
 of the First Book of these productions. At the present day 
 the commercial advantages of this once celebrated port are near 
 ly all lost by the entrance to the inner harbor being almost shut 
 up, and allowing ingress to only the smallest vessels. 
 
 2. Rudice, to the southeast of the preceding, and called Ru- 
 dice CalabrcB, to distinguish it from Rudice in Peucetia. It 
 was celebrated as having been the birth-place of Ennius. Its 
 remains are still known by the name of Ruge. 3. Hydrus 
 ( f T(5poi)f), called by the Latins Hydruntum, and now Otranto, 
 to the southeast of Rudiae. This was a port of some note as 
 early as the time of Scylax, who names it in his Periplus. It 
 was deemed the nearest point of Italy to Greece, the distance 
 being only fifty miles, and the passage might be effected in five 
 hours. This circumstance led Pyrrhus, it is said, to form the 
 
364 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 project of uniting the two coasts by a bridge thrown across from 
 Hydruntum to Apollonia ! In Strabo s time Hydruntum was 
 only a small town, though its harbor was still frequented. 
 
 In the interior of lapygia, which, properly speaking, seems 
 to have been the territory of the Messapii, we may notice, 
 
 1. Carminianum, now Carmignano. 2. Sturnium, to the south 
 east of the preceding, now Sternaccio. 3. Una or Hyria, in 
 the more northern part of the peninsula, between Brundisium 
 and Tarentum, and now Oria. This was a place of great an 
 tiquity, and was said to have been of Cretan origin, a fable 
 connected in some way with the legend that the lapygians 
 were a colony from Crete. 4. Messapia, between Uria and 
 Brundisium, and supposed by some to have communicated its 
 name to the Messapian nation. It coincides probably with the 
 modern Messagna. 
 
 The Sallentlni or Salentlni can not be distinguished with 
 accuracy from the Calabri, as we find the former appellation 
 used by several writers in a very extensive sense, and applied 
 not only to the greater part of lapygia. but even to districts 
 entirely removed from it. Strabo himself confesses the diffi 
 culty of assigning any exact limits to these two people, and he 
 contents himself with observing that the country of the Sal- 
 lentini lay properly around the lapygian promontory. It was 
 asserted that they were a colony of Cretans, who, under the 
 conduct of Idomeneus, their king, had arrived in this quarter 
 during their wanderings after the capture of Troy. 
 
 Among the cities in this part of the peninsula, we may no 
 tice, 1. Sarmddium, an inland town of the Sallentini, now Muro. 
 
 2. Basta, to the southeast, the people of which are called Bas- 
 terbini by Pliny. The name of this city occurs, also, in the 
 remarkable Messapian inscription found near its site. The an 
 cient appellation of Basta is yet partly preserved in that of 
 Vaste. Close to the sea was a temple of Minerva, once very 
 celebrated and wealthy. It was afterward called Castrum 
 MinervcB) and the spot is still called Castro. 3. Leuca, al 
 most at the extremity of the peninsula, and some traces of the 
 name of which still exist on the spot in that of a church ded 
 icated to the Virgin under the title of S. Maria di Leuca. 
 The lapygian promontory, also, is now called Capo di Leuca. 
 For an account of this promontory, consult page 257. 
 
ITALIA. 365 
 
 4. Callipolis, to the northwest of Leuca, and on the upper 
 shore of the Sinus Tarentinus. It is now Gallipoli. The 
 name alone of this place, if we had no other evidence of the 
 fact, would indicate a Greek origin. It owed its foundation to 
 Leucippus, a Lacedsemonian, who erected a town here with the 
 consent of the Tarentines. 5. Manduria, to the northwest of 
 the preceding, and southwest of Uria. This otherwise obscure 
 place has acquired some interest in history from having wit 
 nessed the death of Archidamus, king of Sparta, the son of 
 Agesilaus, who had come over to aid the Tarentines against the 
 Messapians and Lucanians. A curious well is described by 
 Pliny as existing near this town. According to his account, 
 its waters always maintained the same level, whatever quan 
 tity was added to or taken from it. This phenomenon may still 
 be observed at the present day. The site of Manduria is now 
 called Casal Nuovo. 
 
 6. Tarentum, in Greek Tdpa$, and now Taranto. This city 
 was situate in the northeastern angle of the Sinus Tarentinus^ 
 and may be regarded as the most distinguished colony ever 
 founded by the Greeks, whether we consider its celebrity in the 
 annals of Greece, its rank among the Italian states, or the im 
 portance subsequently attached to its possession by the Romans, 
 It is said to have been originally a town of the Messapians, to 
 which were joined some Cretan colo^sts. About B.C. 694, ac 
 cording to the story, Phalanthus, the leader of the Partheniae 
 from Sparta, arrived on the coast of lapygia, took Tarentum, 
 and expelled the original inhabitants. After a war with the 
 lapygians, in which Tarentum sustained severe losses, it grad 
 ually became a flourishing commercial city, and the most pow 
 erful settlement in Magna Grsecia. About B.C. 338, the Ta 
 rentines, being engaged in war with their neighbors the Lu 
 canians, applied to Sparta for aid. Archidamus, the son of 
 Agesilaus, was sent to them, but he was killed in battle. Some 
 years after, being hard pressed by the Lucanians and Bruttii, 
 they called in Alexander, king of Epirus, and uncle to Alexan 
 der the Great ; but he was surprised and killed by the Bruttii 
 near Pandosia, B.C. 323. The Tarentines had by this time 
 degenerated, like most of the Greeks on the Italian coast, and 
 had become luxurious and effeminate. In B.C. 282 they be 
 came engaged in hostilities with the Romans, and called Pyr- 
 
366 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 rhus, king of Epirus, to their aid; but, though this monarch 
 was successful in the first instance, the Tarentines were too 
 effeminate to give him much support, and the Roman arms 
 finally triumphed. In the second Punic war, irritated at the 
 cruel treatment of their hostages, who had attempted to es 
 cape from Rome, the Tarentines opened their gates to Hanni 
 bal. The citadel, however, still held out until the Romans, 
 under Fabius Maximus, surprised and recaptured the city. 
 Immense plunder was obtained on this occasion. From this 
 period the prosperity and political existence of Tarentum may 
 date its decline, which was further accelerated by the prefer 
 ence shown by the Romans to the port of Brundisium for the 
 fitting out of their naval armaments, as well as for commercial 
 purposes. The salubrity of its climate, the singular fertility 
 of its territory, and its advantageous situation on the sea, as 
 well as on the Appian Way, still rendered it, however, a city 
 of consequence in the Augustan age. Horace calls it " molle 
 Tarentum" and " imbelle Tarentum." The Greek language 
 and manners were retained by the inhabitants even after 
 the fall of the Western Empire. Tarentum was one of the 
 chief strongholds retained by the Byzantine emperors in South 
 ern Italy. About A.D. 774, Romualdus, the Langobard, duke 
 of Beneventum, took Tarentum from the Byzantines. The 
 Saracens landed at this place about A.D. 830. The town was 
 afterward several times taken and retaken and sacked, and it 
 was during this period that the old city on the main land was 
 abandoned, and the inhabitants retired to the island or penin 
 sula on which the Acropolis had stood. This is the site of 
 modern Taranto, occupying only a small part of that of the an 
 cient city. Taranto has the advantage of being the only safe 
 harbor in that part of the southeastern coast of Italy which ex 
 tends from the Straits of Messina to Capo di Leuca. The ter 
 ritory of ancient Tarentum was famed for its wool, and much 
 wool is still grown in the neighborhood of the modern town. 
 The River Galcesus, now the Galeso, flowed within five miles 
 of Tarentum, and fell into the inner harbor. The sheep which 
 fed along the banks of this stream and in the adjacent valley 
 of Aulon, had a wool so fine that they were covered with skins 
 to protect it from injury. This stream is often mentioned in 
 terms of praise by the poets. Tarentum was also celebrated 
 for its purple dye. 
 
ITALIA. 367 
 
 The fertile ridge and valley of Aulon, just referred to, were 
 situate on the left bank of the Galaesus, and to the northeast 
 of Tarentum. The modern name is Terra di Melone. Hor 
 ace bestows a warm eulogium on this delightful spot. Satu- 
 rium (Sarvpeov) is also a spot in the Tarentine territory fre 
 quently alluded to by the ancient writers. It was famed for 
 its fertility and its breed of horses. The name is still preserved 
 in that of Saturio, a hamlet on the sea-coast, about seven miles 
 to the east of Taranto. To the west of Tarentum was the lit 
 tle river Tar as, now Tar a. 
 
 Opposite to the entrance of the harbor of Tarentum were two 
 small islands, anciently known as the Insulce Chceradce, but 
 which derive their modern names from the apostles St. Peter 
 and St. Paul. They deserve our notice as being mentioned by 
 Thucydides, who states that Demosthenes and Eurymedon, 
 who commanded the troops sent to re-enforce the Athenians in 
 their expedition against Sicily, took on board here some Mes- 
 sapian archers, supplied by Arta, a chief of that nation, with 
 whom they had contracted an alliance. 
 
 12. LUCANIA. 
 (A.) BOUNDARIES, HISTORY, &c. 
 
 I. Lucania, considered as a Roman province, was bounded 
 on the north by the territory of the Picentini, Samnium, and 
 Apulia ; on the east by the Sinus Tarentinus ; on the south 
 by Bruttium and the Mare Inferum ; and on the west by the 
 Mare Inferum. It was separated from Apulia by the River 
 Braddnus, and a line drawn from that stream to the Sildrus, 
 which latter stream served also as a boundary on the side of 
 the Picentini. To the south it was separated from Bruttium 
 by the rivers Laiis and Crdthis, the former emptying into the 
 Mare Inferum, the latter into the Sinus Tarentinus. 
 
 II. The Lucani were descended from the Sabine stock. As 
 their numbers increased, they gradually advanced from the in 
 terior toward the coast, and were soon engaged in hostilities 
 with the Greeks, who, unable to make good their defence, grad 
 ually yielded, and allowed their hardy and resistless foes to ob 
 tain possession of all the settlements formed on the western 
 coast. The Romans, however, subsequently appeared upon the 
 scene, and the Lucani, in their turn, were compelled to sub- 
 
368 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 mit to the victors of Pyrrhus. The war which Hannibal sub 
 sequently carried on in this and the adjoining parts of the pen 
 insula proved a source of serious injury, from which they were 
 slow in recovering. 
 
 (B.) CITIES OF LUCANIA. 
 
 BEGINNING with the cities situate on the eastern coast, and 
 leaving the Bradanus, now the Bradano, we come to, 1. Meta- 
 pontum, one of the most celebrated of the Grecian colonies. 
 The original name of the place appears to have been Metabum, 
 which, it is said, was derived from Metabus, a hero to whom 
 divine honors were paid. Metabum, it seems, was in a deserted 
 state, owing probably to the attacks of the neighboring barba 
 rians, when a party of Achseans, invited for that purpose by the 
 Sybarites, landed on the coast, and took possession of the town, 
 which thenceforth was called Meranovriov, or, as the Romans 
 afterward wrote it, Metapontum. The Achseans, soon after 
 their arrival, seem to have been engaged in a war with the Ta- 
 rentines, and this led to a treaty, by which the Braddnus was 
 recognized as forming the separation of the two territories. 
 Pythagoras was held in particular estimation by the people of 
 this place, and he is said to have resided here for many years. 
 After his death, the house which he had inhabited was convert 
 ed into a temple of Ceres. In the time of Pausanias, this city, 
 after a long and flourishing existence, was reduced to a mere 
 heap of ruins ; but the causes which had led to this are not 
 stated. Considerable vestiges still exist near the station called 
 Torre di Mare. Crossing the Casuentus^ now Basiento, flow 
 ing near Metapontum, and the Acalandus, now Salandella, 
 we come to, 2. Heraclea, situate between the Aclris, now the 
 Agrtj and the Siris, now the Sinno. It was founded by the 
 Tarentines after the desertion of the ancient city of Siris, which 
 had stood at the mouth of the River Siris. Heraclea is remark 
 able as having been the seat of the general council of the Greek 
 states in Italy. Its site has been fixed at Policoro, about three 
 miles from the mouth of the Agri. 
 
 3. Pandosia, to the northwest of the preceding, and not many 
 miles from it. Plutarch, in his life of Pyrrhus, states that the 
 first battle in which that monarch defeated the Romans was 
 fought between this place and Heraclea. This city, however, 
 
ITALIA. 369 
 
 must not be confounded with the Panddsia near which Alex 
 ander of Epirus lost his life. This last was in Bruttium. 
 Traces of the Lucanian Pandosia are to be found on the right 
 bank of the Agri, about five miles from the ruins of Heraclea, 
 at a place called Anglona. 4. Siris, at the mouth of the river 
 of the same name, and fabled to have been founded by a Tro 
 jan colony, which was afterward expelled by some lonians, who 
 migrated from Colophon during the reign of Alyattes, king of 
 Lydia, and, having taken the town by force, changed its name 
 to Policeum. The poet Archilochus, cited by Athenseus,"spe,aks 
 with admiration of the surrounding country. The inhabitants 
 of the place are said to have rivalled in all respects the luxury 
 and affluence of the Sybarites. When the Tarentines founded 
 Heraclea, they removed all the Sirites to this city, and Siris 
 then became its harbor .merely. Siris is thought to have stood 
 on the left bank of the Sinno, but no traces of it remain. 5. La- 
 garia, to the southwest, said to have been founded by a party 
 of Phocians headed by Epeus, the architect of the wooden horse. 
 The wine of this district was in good repute, and is still much 
 esteemed. The village of Nucara is supposed to represent the 
 ancient site. 
 
 6. Sybaris, situate on the coast, between the Crathis, now 
 the Crati, and the Sybaris, now the Sibari or Coscile. It was 
 a colony founded about B.C. 720, by Achseans and Troezenians, 
 and, in consequence of the fertility of the district, increased with 
 great rapidity in wealth and power ; for, at the time of its great 
 est prosperity, that is, about two hundred years after its foun 
 dation, it had, according to Strabo, acquired the dominion over 
 four neighboring tribes, had twenty-five subject towns, the city 
 itself occupied a space of fifty stadia in circumference, and the 
 Sybarites were enabled to send an army of 300,000 men into 
 the field. It became, also, the mother of other colonies, and 
 carried on a considerable commerce, especially with Miletus in 
 Asia Minor. But the prosperity of Sybaris had a pernicious 
 influence on the people, and within the short period of two hund 
 red and ten years that Sybaris existed, the effeminacy and 
 luxury of the inhabitants were carried to such a pitch that the 
 name Sybarite became proverbial, and synonymous with a vo 
 luptuous person. Many curious particulars in illustration of 
 their effeminate character are mentioned by Athenseus, which 
 
 AA 
 
370 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 it would be difficult to believe if they were not reported on the 
 authority of Aristotle, Timasus, and Phylarchus. It is proba 
 ble, however, that all we read about the effeminacy of the Syb 
 arites applies only to the ruling aristocracy. The government 
 appears always to have been in the hands of the aristocracy, 
 which, as the words of Aristotle seem to suggest, consisted of 
 the Troezenians, while the Achaeans, who in numbers far ex 
 ceeded the Troezenians, formed the commonalty. These two 
 parties were engaged in a continual struggle, which at last, 
 when it broke out into a civil war, led to the total destruction 
 of Sybaris. In an insurrection which occurred, the people drove 
 out five hundred of the aristocracy, and divided tl^r property 
 among themselves. The exiles fled to Crotona, and implored 
 the aid of its citizens. This was granted, and a battle ensued, 
 in which the Sybarite army consisted of 300,000 men, while 
 the Crotoniats could muster no more than 100,000. These 
 last, however, were under the command of Milo, the celebrated 
 athlete, and his prowess made up for this great disparity of 
 numbers. The Sybarites were totally defeated ; the conquer 
 ors advanced against the city, sacked and razed it to the ground, 
 and most of the inhabitants were put to the sword. The River 
 Crathis was then turned through the ruins to obliterate every 
 trace of its former greatness (B.C. 510). Within seventy days, 
 Sybaris, from one of the most flourishing cities of Italy, became 
 a heap of ruins. A few of the former inhabitants, who survived 
 the fate of their native city, still clung, however, to the spot, 
 and fifty-eight years later, some Thessalian adventurers having 
 arrived there, the town was rebuilt ; but, after it had existed 
 for five years, it was again destroyed by the Crotoniats. Its in 
 habitants now solicited the aid of Athens and Sparta ; but the 
 former alone sent them ten ships, under Lampon and Xenoc- 
 rates, and, on the advice of an oracle, these Athenians, with 
 whom was Herodotus the historian and Lysias the orator, to 
 gether with many other Greeks and the remnant of the Syba 
 rites, founded, in B.C. 444, the colony of Thurii, a little to the 
 south of the site of Sybaris. In this new colony, however, the 
 Sybarites wished to form a kind of aristocracy, and claimed 
 privileges which their fellow-settlers were unwilling to allow 
 them. The consequence was, that in the ensuing struggle all 
 the remaining Sybarites were destroyed. Thurii, after this, at- 
 
ITALIA. 371 
 
 tained to a considerable degree of prosperity, but at a later pe 
 riod it became so weakened by the attacks of the Lucanians 
 and the enmity of the Tarentines that it was compelled to seek 
 the aid of Rome, which was thus involved in a war with Ta- 
 rentum. About eighty-eight years afterward, Thurii, being 
 nearly deserted, received a Roman colony, and took the name 
 of Copia. The site of Sybaris is at present unknown, but it 
 is generally supposed to have been situated near the modern 
 Torre Brodognato. Thurii should be placed at a greater dis 
 tance from the sea, and between the probable position of that 
 town and Terra Nuova. 
 
 Having now examined the whole of the eastern coast of Lu- 
 cania, we will cross over to the other sea in order to describe 
 the cities and other remarkable places on its shores. The Si- 
 IdruSj which divides this province from the Picentini, rose in 
 that part of the Apennines which belonged to the Hirpini, and 
 after receiving the Tanager, now the Negro, and the Calor, 
 now Galore, emptied into the Sinus Pcestanus. The waters 
 of this river possessed the property of incru sting, by means of 
 a calcareous deposit, any pieces of wood or twigs thrown into 
 them. At its mouth was the Portus Alburnus. A little far 
 ther from the coast was a celebrated temple of Juno Argiva, 
 which was plundered by the Cilician pirates. Advancing from 
 this point, we come to, 1. Posldonia, the ruins of which are so 
 celebrated under its Latin name of Pcestum. This city was 
 situated about four miles southeast of the mouth of the Silarus, 
 and near the coast of the Sinus Pcestanus. Its origin is involv 
 ed in obscurity. Solinus makes it a colony of Dorians, while 
 others maintain, though apparently without any authentic 
 grounds, that it was first a Phoenician settlement, and was 
 afterward colonized by the Dorians. Others, again, ascribe its 
 foundation to the Etrurians, and the massive construction of 
 its walls, as well as the fact of Etruscan medals having been 
 dug up here, would seem to favor this idea. Strabo says it 
 was built by a colony of Sybarites, close to the shore in the 
 first instance, but that it was afterward removed farther in 
 land. There is every reason, however, to believe that Psestum 
 existed as a city before it was colonized by the Sybarites. The 
 medals of this place show by their devices that the inhabitants 
 were a sea-faring people. Strabo says that the Lucanians took 
 
372 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 this city from the Sybarites, and that the Romans afterward 
 took it from the Lucanians. At the end of the war against 
 Pyrrhus, a Roman colony was sent to Posidonia, and after this 
 Livy speaks of Psestum as a town allied to Rome. It proved 
 faithful to Rome in the second Punic war, and subsequently 
 obtained the rank of a municipium. Nothing is known of it 
 under the empire, but the surrounding country is celebrated by 
 Virgil, Ovid, and other Roman poets, for the abundance and 
 luxuriance of its roses, and the " Pcestance Valles" are extolled 
 for their fertility, a quality which they have retained to this 
 very day. The country southeast of Psestum, as far as Cape 
 Palinuro, is one of the finest districts in the kingdom of Na 
 ples. Bishops of Pcestum are mentioned in the annals of the 
 Church in the fifth century of our era. In the tenth century, 
 the Saracens, having invaded this part of the country, formed a 
 settlement at Acropoli, in the neighborhood of Pcestum. This 
 was the period when they devastated Beneventum, Barium, and 
 other towns, and it seems that Psestum was ruined about the 
 same time. In the following century, after the expulsion of 
 the Saracens, King Roger the Norman ransacked the temples 
 and other buildings at Paestum of their marble and other orna 
 ments, to adorn the cathedral which he raised at Salerno. The 
 ruins of Psestum, however, still remain to this day noble records 
 of the genius and taste which inspired the architects of Greece. 
 2. Petllia^ to the southeast, called Petllia Lucana, to distin 
 guish it from another place of the same name in Bruttium. 
 Its ruins exist on the Monte delta Stella. 3. Elea, called also 
 Velia, and Hyele, to the south of the preceding, and about three 
 miles from the left bank of the River Heles or Elees, now the 
 Alento. It was founded by the Phocseans of Asia Minor, after 
 they had left their native city to avoid the Persian yoke, and 
 had first tried a settlement at Alalia in Corsica. The Phocseans, 
 according to Strabo, called the new city Hyele ( f Te/b?), but in 
 the time of the geographer this form of the name had been 
 changed to Elea ( E/Ua). The Romans, on the other hand, 
 wrote the name Velia, as formed from the earlier appellation 
 f TsA?7, with the substitution of the v sound for the aspirate. 
 From the excellence of its constitution, the new colony was en 
 abled to resist with success the aggressions of both the Posido- 
 niatse and the Lucani, though very inferior to these adversaries 
 
ITALIA. 373 
 
 both in population and fertility of soil. Velia is particularly 
 celebrated for the school of philosophy founded within its walls 
 by Xenophanes of Colophon, but brought to its highest rank 
 by Parmenides and Zeno. It was a bold attempt to construct 
 a system of the universe on metaphysical principles. This sect 
 is known by the name of the Eleatic. When the Romans 
 formed the design of erecting a temple to Ceres, they sought a 
 priestess from Velia, where that goddess was held in great ven 
 eration, to instruct them in the rites and ceremonies to be ob 
 served in her worship. This place subsequently became a Ro 
 man maritime colony, as may be inferred from Livy, but the 
 period when this occurred is not mentioned Velia is often 
 spoken of in the letters of Cicero, who occasionally resided there 
 with his friends Trebatius and Thalna. The situation of the 
 place seems to have been considered very healthy, since Plu 
 tarch says that Paulus ^Emilius was ordered thither by his 
 physicians, and that he derived considerable benefit from the 
 air. Horace was also recommended to visit Velia for a disorder 
 in his eyes. In Strabo s time this ancient town was greatly 
 reduced, its inhabitants being forced, from the poorness of the 
 soil, to betake themselves to fishing and other sea-faring occu 
 pations. The ruins of Velia stand about half a mile from the 
 sea, on the site now called Castelamare della Bruca. 
 
 4. Pyxus (Uvgovs, OVVTO$), called by the Latins Buxentum. 
 This was the name of a promontory, river, and city, and the 
 appellation alludes to the adjacent country s being covered with 
 box-trees (nvgos, buxus). The promontory is now called Capo 
 degl* Infreschi. The city, according to Diodorus Siculus, was 
 founded by Micythus, prince of Rhegium and Zancle, about 
 471 B.C. Stephanus Byzantinus, however, makes it of CEno- 
 trian origin. The Romans colonized it A.TJ.C. 558, calling it 
 Buxentum, and afterward sent a new colony to it when the 
 previous one had nearly failed. The site of this place appears 
 to have been near the modern Policastro. The River Pyxus 
 is now the Busento. 5. Blanda, to the southeast, and on the 
 Aquilian Way. Its site corresponds to the modern Maratea. 
 6. Laus, the last Lucanian city on this coast, situate on a gulf 
 and river of the same name. The river is now the Lao ; the 
 Sinus Laiis is now the Gulf of Policastro. This city was a 
 colony of Sybarites. According to Strabo, the allied Greeks 
 
374 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 met with a signal defeat in the vicinity of this place from the 
 Lucanians, a disaster which probably led to the downfall of 
 their several towns. In Pliny s time Laus no longer existed, 
 It is thought that Scalea represents this ancient city. 
 
 We will now retrace our steps toward the northern frontier 
 of Lucania, in order to give some account of the towns situate 
 in the interior of the province. Near the junction of the Silti,- 
 rus and Tanag-er, and between the latter river and the Calor? 
 is a ridge of mountains known formerly by the name of Mons 
 AlburnuSj and now commonly called Monte di Postiglione? 
 and sometimes Alburno. Beginning, then, from the northern 
 frontier, we come to, 1. Vulceium or Volcentum, now Buccino, 
 to the north of the Tanager. 2. Numistro, to the northeast 
 of the preceding, and near the frontiers of Apulia. A battle 
 was fought here between Marcellus and Hannibal. Its site is 
 near the modern Muro. 3. Potentia, some distance to the 
 southeast of the preceding, and near the modern Potenza* 
 This was a considerable city, as may be inferred from the ru 
 ms which are yet standing. Near it were the Campi Veteres, 
 at the modern Vietri, where Tiberius Gracchus was slain by 
 a band of treacherous Lucanians. 4. Marciliana, to the south 
 west, on the Aquilian Way. It was, in fact, a suburb to the 
 more ancient and important town of C&silynnm, and Cassio- 
 dorus informs us that in his time a great concourse of people 
 used to assemble here annually on the day of St. Cyprian, 
 This custom, he affirms, was of a very ancient date, being, 
 in fact, a remnant of pagan superstition. The site of this 
 place corresponds to La Scala, on the right bank of the Ne 
 gro, the ancient Tanager. 5. Cosilynum, one of the prcefec- 
 turce of Lucania, situate not far from the modern Padula. 
 6. Abelllnwn Marsicum, to the northeast of the preceding, and 
 near the sources of the Aciris. It corresponds to Marsico Ve- 
 tere. 7. Grumentum, to the southeast of the preceding, a place 
 of some note, and mentioned by Livy as one of the towns of 
 Lucania which Hannibal wished to recover from the Romans , 
 and near which he fought an unsuccessful battle with them, 
 It was subsequently colonized by Augustus. This place was 
 situate near the modern Saponara, where extensive ruins are 
 still visible. 8. Nerulum, to the southeast, and near the south 
 ern frontier of Lucania. According to Livy, it was one of tho 
 
ITALIA. 375 
 
 first towns of Lucania conquered by the Romans. It appears 
 to have been situate near La Rotonda. 
 
 13. BRUTTIUM. 
 
 (A.) NAME, BOUNDARIES, HISTORY, & c. 
 
 I. THE Bruttii were called by the Greeks Bperruu, and the name is said to 
 have signified in the Lucanian language " Renegades" or " Deserters," the 
 Bruttians being the descendants of some refugee slaves and shepherds of the 
 Lucanians, who, having concealed themselves from pursuit in the forests and 
 mountains with which this part of Italy abounds, became, in process of time, 
 powerful from their numbers and ferocity. 
 
 II. This savage race is represented as pouring forth to attack their Lucanian 
 masters, and to molest the Grecian settlers on the coast of either sea ; and so 
 formidable had they at last rendered themselves, that the Lucani were com 
 pelled to acknowledge their independence, and to cede to them all the country 
 south of the rivers Laus and Cratkis. This advancement of the Bruttii to the 
 rank of an independent nation is supposed by Diodorus Siculus to have taken 
 place about 397 years after the foundation of Rome. 
 
 III. The enterprising and turbulent spirit of this people was next directed 
 against the Greek colonies ; and in proportion as these were rapidly declining, 
 from jealousies and internal dissensions, and still more from luxury and indo 
 lence, their antagonists were acquiring a degree of vigor and stability which 
 soon enabled them to accomplish their downfall. The Greek towns on the 
 western coast, from being weaker and more detached from the main body of 
 the Italiot confederacy, first fell into the hands of the Bruttii. 
 
 IV. The principal cities of which this league was composed now became 
 alarmed for their own security, and sought the aid of the Molossian Alexander 
 against these dangerous enemies, with whom the Lucanians also had learned 
 to make common cause. This gallant prince, by his talents and valor, for a 
 time checked the progress of these active barbarians, and even succeeded in 
 penetrating into the heart of their country ; but after his death, which occurred 
 before the fatal walls of Pandosia, they again advanced, like a resistless torrent, 
 and soon reduced the whole of the peninsula to the south of the Laus and Cra- 
 this, with the exception of Crotona, Locri, and Rhegium. 
 
 V. At this period, Rome, the universal foe, put an end at once to their con 
 quests and their independence. After sustaining several defeats, both the Lu 
 cani and Bruttii are said to have finally submitted to L. Papirius Cursor, two 
 years after Pyrrhus had withdrawn his troops from Italy. 
 
 VI. The arrival of Hannibal once more, however, roused the Bruttii to exer 
 tion. They flocked eagerly to the victorious standard of that leader, who was 
 by their aid enabled to maintain his ground in this corner of Italy when all hope 
 of final success seemed to be extinguished. But the consequences of this pro 
 tracted warfare proved fatal to the country in which it was carried on, many 
 of the Bruttian towns being totally destroyed, and others so much impoverished 
 as to retain scarcely a vestige of their former prosperity. To these misfortunes 
 was added the weight of Roman vengeance ; for that power, when freed from 
 her formidable enemy, too well remembered the support she had derived from 
 the Bruttii for many years to allow their defection to pass unheeded. A decree 
 was therefore passed, reducing this people to a most abject state of dependence : 
 they were pronounced incapable of being employed in a military capacity, and 
 their services were confined to the menial offices of couriers and letter-carriers. 
 
376 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 VII. Bruttium, as a Roman province, had the same extent as previously, be 
 ing bounded on the north by Lucania, from which it was separated by the rivers 
 Laus and Crathis ; on the east by the Sinus Tarentinus and Mare Ionium ; on 
 the south by the Mare Ionium ; and on the west by the Mare Inferum. 
 
 (B.) CITIES OF BRUTTIUM. 
 
 COMMENCING from the mouth of the Crathis, on the eastern 
 coast, we come to, 1. Portus Roscia, the haven of the Thurians. 
 According to Procopius, the Romans constructed a fortress 
 higher up the country, called Roscianum, now Rossano. Two 
 passes led from this to the Lucanian and Bruttian mountains. 
 According to Holstenius, these are the denies of Morano and 
 Roseto. The River Hylias, just below Portus Roscia, formed 
 the line of separation between the territories of Thurii and Cro- 
 tona, and answers now to a rivulet named Calonato. The Tra- 
 ens which follows is now the Trionto, and is rendered memora 
 ble for the bloody defeat of the Sybarites on its banks, already 
 alluded to. Some years afterward, a remnant of this unhappy 
 people were again attacked on this spot, and destroyed by the 
 Bruttii. 2. Crimisa, just below the Crimisa Promontorium, 
 or Capo delV Alice. It was said to have been founded by Phil- 
 octetes after the Trojan war, and contained what was called 
 his tomb. It subsequently changed its name to Patcrnum, 
 and became a bishop s see after the fall of the Western Empire. 
 The modern Giro is supposed to answer to it. 3. Petllia, be 
 low the preceding, and said to have been likewise founded by 
 Philoctetes. It occupied the site of the modern Strong-oil. 
 This small town gave a striking proof of its fidelity to the Ro 
 mans in the second Punic war, by the long siege which it stood 
 against Hannibal, amid all the horrors of famine. It did not 
 surrender until all the leather in the place, as well ns the 
 bark and young shoots of the trees, and the very grass in the 
 streets, had been consumed for subsistence. The River Nece* 
 thus, now NietOj below Petilia, was fabled to have derived its 
 name from the circumstance of the captive Trojan women hav 
 ing there set fire to the Grecian fleet (vavq, <u 0w), a circum 
 stance alluded to by many of the ancients, but with great di 
 versity of opinion as to the scene of the event. The use which 
 Virgil has made of this tradition is well known. 
 
 4. Croto (Kporwv), called by the Romans more commonly 
 Crotona, and now Cotrone, was situate on the River JEsdrus, 
 
ITALIA. 377 
 
 and was one of the most celebrated and powerful states of Mag 
 net Grcecia. Its foundation is ascribed to Myscellus, an Achsean 
 leader, soon after Sybaris had been colonized by a party of the 
 same nation, which was about 715 B.C. According to some 
 traditions, however, the origin of Crotona was much more an 
 cient, and it was said to derive its name from the hero Croton. 
 The residence of Pythagoras and his most distinguished follow 
 ers in this city, together with the overthrow of Sybaris which 
 it accomplished, and the exploits of Milo and several other Cro- 
 toniat victors in the Olympic games, contributed in a high de 
 gree to raise the fame of Crotona. Its climate, also, was pro 
 verbially excellent, and supposed to be particularly calculated 
 for producing in its inhabitants that robust frame of body re 
 quisite to insure success in those contests. Hence it was com 
 monly said that the last wrestler of Crotona was the first of 
 the other Greeks. This city was also celebrated for its school 
 of medicine, and was the birth-place of the celebrated Demo- 
 cedes. However brilliant an epoch in the history of Crotona 
 its triumph over Sybaris may appear, that event must be re 
 garded also as the term of her own greatness and prosperity, 
 for from this period it is said that luxury and the love of pleas 
 ure, the usual consequences of great opulence, soon obliterated 
 all the good effects which had been produced by the wisdom 
 and morality of Pythagoras. As a proof of the remarkable 
 change which took place in the warlike spirit of the people, it 
 is said that on their being subsequently engaged in hostilities 
 with the Locrians, an army of 130,000 Crotoniats was routed 
 by 10,000 of the enemy on the banks of the Sagras. Such, 
 indeed, was the loss they experienced in this battle, that, ac 
 cording to Strabo, their city henceforth rapidly declined, though 
 it was still a considerable city when Pyrrhus invaded Italy, ex 
 tending on both sides of the JEsarus, and its walls embracing a 
 circumference of twelve miles. But the consequences of the 
 war which ensued between that king and the Romans proved 
 so ruinous to its prosperity, that above one half of its extent 
 became deserted, and the ^Esarus, which previously flowed 
 through the town, now ran at some distance from the inhabit 
 ed part, which was again separated from the fortress by a va 
 cant space. During the second Punic war it was besieged by a 
 combined force of Carthaginians and Bruttians, and the inhab- 
 
378 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 itants, who were reduced to 20,000, were unable to defend the 
 large extent of their walls. They surrendered, and afterward 
 sought a refuge among their ancient enemies, the Locrians. 
 The Romans subsequently sent a colony to this place. It be 
 came afterward of some consequence in the time of Belisarius, 
 on account of its position, and was made by him a chief point 
 in his operations along the coast. Its harbor, however, does 
 not seem to have been any of the best, or well calculated to 
 afford protection against storms and winds. It was rather what 
 Polybius calls a summer harbor, and was formed by the mouth 
 of the jEs&rus. This little river is entitled to notice from its 
 banks being made the scene of some of the pxettiest bucolics 
 in Theocritus. 
 
 Passing the celebrated Lacinian Promontory r , of which we 
 have elsewhere spoken (page 256), and the three promontories 
 of the lapyges, of which mention has also been made (ib.), we 
 first find several navigable rivers, the Targines, now Tacina ; 
 the Arocha, now the Crocha or Crocchio ; the Semirus, now 
 Simmon; and the Crotalus, now Cor ace. Near this last- 
 mentioned stream we find the station marked in the Theodo- 
 sian table as Castra Hannibalis, and noticed by Pliny as sit 
 uate at the narrowest part of the isthmus which terminates 
 Italy. "We then come to, 5. Scyllaclum or Scyltetium, a Greek 
 city of considerable note, now Squillace. According to Strabo, 
 it was colonized by the Athenians under Mnestheus. It was 
 the birth-place of Cassiodorus. Virgil calls the place " Navi- 
 fragum" an epithet which alludes either to the rocky and dan 
 gerous shore in its vicinity, or else to the frequent storms which 
 prevailed in this quarter. The elder Dionysius at one time 
 entertained the design of carrying a fortification across the 
 isthmus in this quarter, which would have been the means of 
 cutting off the more southern Greeks from communicating 
 with their allies to the north of this narrow peninsula ; but he 
 was prevented by the latter from executing his plan. The dis 
 tance across was not more than twenty miles. Passing down 
 the coast, we come to the little river Elleporus, now Callipan, 
 rendered memorable from a severe defeat sustained by the al 
 lied Greeks on its banks in an engagement with the forces of 
 the elder Dionysius. This is said to have occurred the same 
 year that Rome was taken by the Gauls. 
 
ITALIA. 379 
 
 Passing the Cocmtum Promontorium (p. 256), we come to, 
 6. Caulon or Caulonia, originally, perhaps, Aulon, on the left 
 bank of the Sagras, and one of the earliest colonies founded by 
 the Achaeans on these shores. It held a distinguished rank 
 among the republics of Magna Graecia, and was in alliance 
 with Crotona and Sybaris. It was razed to the ground by 
 Dionysius, who removed the inhabitants to Syracuse, while 
 their former territory was added to that of the Locrians. Cau- 
 lonia, however, must have subsequently risen from its ruins, 
 since we are told that during the war with Pyrrhus it espoused 
 the cause of that prince, and was, in consequence, attacked and 
 pillaged by the Mamertini, who were the allies of the Romans. 
 The inhabitants migrated to Sicily, and the town was occupied 
 by the Bruttii, who defended it against the Romans in the sec 
 ond Punic war. We learn from Virgil that the town stood on 
 an elevated situation. Its site is placed by the Italian topog 
 raphers at Castro Vetere, but this requires confirmation. It 
 was on the banks of the Sag-ras that the memorable overthrow 
 of the Crotoniats took place, when they were defeated by a force 
 of 10,000 Locrians, with a small body of Rhegians. So extra 
 ordinary a result did this appear, that it gave rise to the pro 
 verbial expression, d^Oearepa rtiv em Zdypa. The modern Sa- 
 gra answers to the ancient Sagras. 
 
 7. Locri, one of the most ancient and distinguished republics 
 of Magna Grsecia. According to Strabo, this city was built, 
 not long after the foundation of Crotona and Syracuse, by a 
 body of Locrians from the Crissaean Gulf, who are designated 
 by the name of Ozolce. They first settled near the promontory 
 of Zephyrium, and thence obtained the appellation otEpizephy- 
 rii, by which they were distinguished from the Locrians of 
 Greece. They removed, however, from this position three or 
 four years afterward, and built another city on a height named 
 Mount Esopis. According, however, to Ephorus, another Greek 
 writer, the city was founded by a band of Locri Opuntii and 
 Epicnemidii. Locri was mainly indebted for its prosperity and 
 fame to the institutions of its great lawgiver Zaleucus. His 
 laws, which, according to the assertion of Demosthenes, con 
 tinued in full force for the space of two hundred years, are said 
 to have been a judicious selection from the Cretan, Lacedsemo- 
 nian, and Areopagitic codes, to which were added several orig- 
 
380 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 inal enactments. From its greater proximity to Sicily, Locri 
 appears to have been involved in the politics of that country at 
 an earlier period than the other Italian cities. In the Pelopon- 
 nesian war, the Locrians are generally mentioned as the allies 
 of the Syracusans, and were consequently exposed to hostilities 
 on the part of Athens. The alliance which this city contracted 
 not long after with Dionysius the elder, who had espoused Do 
 ris, the daughter of one of its principal citizens, is regarded by 
 Aristotle as the source of many of the subsequent troubles of 
 Locri. And more particularly was this seen in the case of the 
 younger Dionysius, who, on his expulsion from Syracuse, hav 
 ing found refuge here, secretly introduced a number of his sat 
 ellites, and made himself master of the place, when he gave 
 loose to all the vicious propensities of his nature. He was af 
 terward reinstated in Syracuse by a revolution, and the citizens 
 of Locri were thus delivered from an obnoxious tyrant. When 
 Pyrrhus invaded Italy, Locri was occupied by a part of his 
 forces ; but, on his crossing over into Sicily, it joined the Romans, 
 after having put the Epirot garrison to the sword. This offence 
 was visited with the severest vengeance of the incensed mon 
 arch. In the second Punic war it sided with Hannibal, but 
 toward the close of the contest it fell into the hands of the Ro 
 mans, who left a garrison there under the command of Q. Ple- 
 minius. The conduct of this officer and his troops was so cruel 
 and licentious that the senate were compelled to interfere. Ple- 
 minius was removed, and ended his days in prison at Rome. 
 The site of Locri is to be found near the modern Gerace. This 
 modern town stands on a hill, which is probably the Mons Eso- 
 pis of Strabo, and where the citadel was doubtless placed. 
 
 8. Orra or Una, to the south, on the coast, said to have been 
 founded by Idomeneus. Its site has been fixed at a spot called 
 Palazzi. The Zephyrium Promontorium, below this place, is 
 now Capo di Bruzzano, and the Herculis Promontorium, to 
 the southwest, is now Capo Spartivento. 
 
 Having now concluded the topography of the eastern coast, 
 we will proceed to describe that portion of the province situated 
 on the Mare Inferum, commencing from the River Laiis, which, 
 as before remarked, separated the Lucanian from the Bruttian 
 territory. Starting from this point, we come to, 1. CerillcB, 
 now Cirella Vecchia. 2. Patycus, now Paola, about twenty- 
 
ITALIA. 381 
 
 four miles south of the preceding. 3. Clampetla or Lampetia, 
 as the name was written by the Greeks (AajUTrereta), probably 
 the modern Amantea. 4. Terina, on the left bank of the Sa- 
 batus, now the Savato. This was an ancient Greek city, and 
 said to have been a colony from Crotona. It gave name to 
 the adjacent gulf, of which we have already spoken (page 268). 
 Strabo informs us that this city was destroyed by Hannibal 
 when he found he could no longer retain it. It was subse 
 quently, however, restored, and is mentioned by Pliny and 
 Ptolemy. Its ruins are close to the town of Nocera, about five 
 miles from the coast. 5. Temesa or Tempsa, to the southwest. 
 This was a town of great antiquity, and was celebrated for its 
 copper mines, to which Homer is supposed to allude in the 
 Odyssey (i., 184). This circumstance, however, is doubtful, 
 as there was a town of the same name in Cyprus. In Strabo s 
 time these mines appear to have been exhausted. The site of 
 this place has been fixed by Cluverius at Torre Loppa. 6. Hip- 
 pdnium, a city of great importance and celebrity, situate on the 
 coast. It was founded by the Epizephyrian Locri. Dionysius 
 the elder destroyed it, and removed the inhabitants to Syracuse. 
 It was restored, however, by the Carthaginians, who were then 
 at war with that prince. Subsequently it fell into the hands 
 of the Bruttii, from whom it was wrested for a short time by 
 Agathocles. It became a Roman colony A.U.C. 560, and took 
 the name of Vibo Valentia. Frequent mention is made of this 
 town by Cicero, who resided here for some time, on the estate 
 of his friend Sica, previous to his quitting Italy, whence he had 
 been exiled. In the vicinity of this place was a grove and 
 meadow of singular beauty, also a building said to have been 
 constructed by Gelon of Syracuse, and called Amalthsea s horn, 
 It was here, probably, that the women of the city and its vicin 
 ity assembled on certain festivals, to gather flowers and twine 
 garlands for their hair in honor of Proserpina, who had herself, 
 as was said, frequented this spot for the same purpose, and to 
 whom a magnificent temple was here erected. The site of 
 Hipponium answers to that of the modern town of Monte 
 Leone. 
 
 7. Medma or Mesma^ on the right bank of the River Mesima, 
 now Medama,) which retains some traces of the ancient name. 
 This was a city of considerable importance, and of Greek origin, 
 
382 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 having been colonized, together with Hipponium, by the Locri- 
 ans. Strabo says it derived its name from a fountain in its 
 vicinity. The ruins of this city are to be seen between Nico- 
 tera and the River Medama. Passing down the coast, we come 
 to the famous rock of Scylla^ to which antiquity attached such 
 ideas of terror, and opposite was the equally famous Charybdis. 
 According to modern travellers, Scylla is a lofty rock on the 
 Calabrian shore, with some caverns at the bottom, which, by 
 the agitation of the waves, emits sounds resembling the barking 
 of dogs. The only danger is when the current and wind im 
 pel vessels toward the rock. Charybdis is not a whirlpool or 
 involving vortex, but a spot where the waves are greatly agi 
 tated by pointed rocks. Strabo speaks of the Scyllceum as an 
 elevated cliff, surrounded on nearly every side by the sea, but 
 connected with the land by a low isthmus easily accessible on 
 either side. This peninsula was inclosed by a fortification, 
 which Anaxilaus, tyrant of Rhegium, raised against the Tyrrhe- 
 ni. By this means was formed a commodious haven, where he 
 stationed his fleets in order to defend the straits. We must, 
 therefore, ascribe to this prince the origin of the town of Scyl- 
 Iceum. The isthmus has now disappeared, owing to the en 
 croachments of the sea, caused by the current which sets in 
 toward the Italian coast. 
 
 8. Rhegium, now Reggio, one of the most celebrated and 
 flourishing cities of Magna Graecia, and known to have been 
 founded nearly 700 B.C. by a party of Zancleans from Sicily, to 
 gether with some Chalcidians of Eubcea. According to .ZEschy- 
 lus, the name of Rhegium ( Prjyiov) was supposed to refer to 
 the great catastrophe which had once separated Italy and Sic 
 ily (prjyvvfju,, " to break"). We may collect from different pas 
 sages that the constitution of Rhegium was at first an oli 
 garchy. Charondas, the celebrated lawgiver of Cdtdna in 
 Sicily, is also said to have given laws to the Rhegians. This 
 form of government lasted nearly two hundred years, until 
 Anaxilaus, the second of that name, usurped the sole author 
 ity, and became tyrant of Rhegium, about 496 years B.C. 
 Under this prince the prosperity of Rhegium reached its high 
 est elevation. Having subsequently recovered its independence, 
 it became a prey to adverse factions, and did not obtain a sta 
 ble government until after many revolutions in its internal ad- 
 
ITALIA. 383 
 
 ministration. At a subsequent period it was taken and de 
 stroyed by Dionysius the elder, and the remaining inhabitants 
 were removed to Sicily. Some years after it was partly re 
 stored by the younger Dionysius, who gave it the name of 
 Phoebia. This place sustained great injury at a later period 
 from the repeated shocks of an earthquake, which occurred not 
 long before the Social War, or 90 B.C. It was, in consequence, 
 nearly deserted, when Augustus, after having conquered Sex- 
 tus Pompeius, established here a considerable body of veteran 
 troops ; and Strabo affirms that, in his day, this colony was in 
 a flourishing state. Hence, also, the appellation of Julium, 
 which later authors have applied to designate this town. Few 
 cities of Magna Grsecia could boast of having given birth to 
 so many distinguished characters as Rhegium, whether states 
 men, philosophers, men of letters, or artists of celebrity. Among 
 the first were many followers of Pythagoras, who are enumera 
 ted by lamblichus in his life of that philosopher. Theagenes, 
 Hippys, Lycus, surnamed Butera, and Glaucus were histori 
 ans ; Ibycus, Cleomenes, and Lycus, the adoptive father of Ly- 
 cophron, were poets ; Clearchus and Pythagoras are spoken of 
 as statuaries of great reputation ; the latter, indeed, is said to 
 have even excelled the famous Myron. 
 
 What relates to the interior of Bruttium will not detain us 
 long. We may enumerate the following : 1. Consentia^ now 
 Cosenza, near the sources of the River Crathis. This was a 
 town of great note, and is designated by Strabo as the capital 
 of the Bruttii. It was taken by Hannibal after the surrender 
 of Petilia, but again fell into the hands of the Romans toward 
 the end of the war. 2. Pandosia Bruttiorum, so called to distin 
 guish it from Pandosia in Lucania. It lay to the southwest of 
 Consentia. This place is known in history as having witnessed 
 the defeat and death of Alexander, king of Epirus. The ruins 
 of Pandosia are probably to be sought near the village of Men- 
 docino, between Cosenza and the sea. Near Pandosia was the 
 River Acheron, now Maresanto or Arconti, of which mention 
 is made in the story of the King of Epirus. It unites with the 
 Crathis near Consentia. 
 
 To the south of Consentia, the country of the Bruttii was 
 anciently covered with a vast extent of forest, known by the 
 name of Sila Silva. These woods, which consisted chiefly of 
 
384 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 fir, were celebrated for the quantity of pitch which they yield 
 ed. Dioscorides and many other writers have noticed the pix 
 Bruttia, or " Bruttian pitch." Strabo describes the Sila Silva 
 as occupying an extent of seven hundred stadia, or eighty-seven 
 miles, from the neighborhood of Rhegium northward. These 
 immense forests may probably, in ancient times, have furnished 
 the Tyrrheni with timber for their fleets, as we know they 
 afterward did to the sovereigns of Sicily, and to the Athenians. 
 
 The only town of note which the Bruttii appear to have pos 
 sessed in this district was Mamertium, placed by Strabo ap 
 parently in the interior of the province, above Locri and Rhe 
 gium. But, though this writer has ascribed it to the Bruttii, 
 it is more natural to suppose that it was a colony of those Cam- 
 panian mercenaries who derived their name from Mamers, the 
 Oscan Mars, and are known to have served under Agathocles 
 and other princes of Sicily. Here they seized upon the city of 
 Messana by surprise, which circumstance gave rise to the sec 
 ond Punic war. We know that the Mamertini were employed 
 by the Romans against Pyrrhus, whom, on his return from Sic 
 ily into Italy, they ventured to attack in the woods and defiles 
 above Rhegium. The site of this place is supposed to corre 
 spond to the modern Oppido. 
 
 We have now completed our sketch of Italia, and will pro 
 ceed to the islands of Sicilia, Corsica, and Sardinia, together 
 with the Molice, or Vulcanice Insulce, adjacent to the first. 
 
 I. SlCILIA. 
 
 (A.) NAME. 
 
 I. THE island of Sicilia was so called from the Siculi, an an 
 cient race, who came from Latium, and, having crossed over 
 into this island, gave it their name. It was also sometimes 
 styled Sicdnia, from the Sicani, an early race, whom the Si- 
 culi, on their arrival in the island, found already established 
 there, and whom they drove to the western and southern parts 
 of the same. 
 
 II. Sicily also obtained appellations from its triangular shape. 
 Thus it was called Tnnacria (TptvaKpia) by the Greeks, from 
 its three promontories (rpel$ arcpai), which give it this triangular 
 form ; and, for the same reason, the Latin poets often employ 
 
SICILIA. 385 
 
 the name Triquetra. According to Strabo, the appellation of 
 Trinacria was gradually changed, for euphony sake, into Tri- 
 nakia, although some modern scholars regard this latter form 
 of the name as the earlier one, and seek to connect it with the 
 Thrinakia of Homer. 
 
 III. The three main promontories here referred to are Pelo- 
 rum, Pachynum,) and Lilybceum, to which we will presently 
 revert ; the first of these being the northeastern cape, the sec 
 ond the southeastern one, while the third is situate at the 
 southwestern extremity of the island. 
 
 (B.) SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF SICILY. 
 
 I. THE legends of the Greeks speak of the giants, Cyclopes and Lastrygones, 
 who inhabited Sicily previous to the epoch of the Trojan war. The Sicdni are 
 next mentioned, who are said by some to have been Iberians (Thucyd., vi., 2) 
 from the River Sicanus in Iberia. Hence some modern writers regard the Si- 
 cani as a Celtic race, and seek to identify the Sicanus with the Sequana or Seine. 
 
 II. According to tradition, Ceres taught the Sicani to plough the ground and 
 sow corn ; Aristaeus taught them to cultivate the olive-tree and rear bees ; Dae 
 dalus the art of building, while his nephew is said to have invented the saw and 
 other mechanical instruments. Hercules next visited Sicily, built Solois and 
 Motya, as well as other towns, established laws, and repressed and punished 
 robbers. Through the veil of these legends it is easy to perceive the history 
 of the transition of Sicily from a savage to a civilized state. 
 
 III. The Siculi (2i/ce/loi) next came from Italy, and occupied the eastern part 
 of Sicily, about three hundred years before the Greeks made any settlements in 
 the island. The Siculi drove the Sicani to the southern and western parts of 
 the island, to which they gave their name Sicelia. They built Zancle, Enna, 
 Erbessus, and Hybla. The Phoenicians are said to have colonized Panormus, 
 Solo is, and Motya. Then came the Elymaei, who are said to have built Elyma, 
 Entella, and Egesta. 
 
 IV. In the year 750 B.C., a colony of Chalcidians from Eubcea, and Megari- 
 ans, led by the Athenian Thucles, landed on the eastern coast, where they found 
 the country deserted, the Siculi having withdrawn to the interior in consequence 
 of the irruptions of the Etruscans or Tyrrhenians. These Greek colonists built 
 the town of Naxos. 
 
 V. In the following year a party of Corinthians and other Dorians, led by Ar- 
 chias, landed in the island of Ortygia, defeated the Siculi who inhabited it, and 
 laid the foundation of the great city of Syracuse. Four years later, the Greeks 
 of Naxos drove the Siculi out of Leontmi and Catana, and occupied both those 
 towns. About 712, a party of Rhodians and Cretans built Gela on the south 
 ern coast. In course of time, both Syracuse and Gela sent colonies to other 
 parts of the island ; a colony from Gela built Agrigentum, or, as the Greeks 
 called it, Acragas, and the Syracusans colonized Camarina. A colony of Me- 
 garians settled at Hybla, and afterward built Sellnus, 651 B.C. Colonies from 
 Zancle founded My la and Rimer a. The interior of the country remained in pos 
 session of the Siculi, under their respective princes. 
 
 VI. The Greek towns governed themselves at first as republics, mostly aris- 
 
 B B 
 
386 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 tocratic, as Dorian towns generally were. Afterward, however, some citizens 
 rose to be tyrants or permanent chief magistrates. Hippocrates, tyrant of 
 Gela, was one of the oldest and most distinguished among these. He flourished 
 about 495 B.C. He defeated the Siculi, took Naxos and Leontini, and obliged 
 the Syracusans to give up Camarina. Having joined Anaxiiaus, tyrant of Rke- 
 gium, they surprised Zande and shared the plunder between them. Anaxiiaus 
 then invited a party of Messenians to colonize Zande. 
 
 VII. Phalaris was tyrant of Agrigentum from about B.C. 565 to 550. Many 
 stories, probably exaggerated, are told of his cruelty. He, however, extended and 
 consolidated the power of Agrigentum. Phalaris was killed in a popular insur 
 rection, and about sixty years later Theron was tyrant of Agrigentum. He 
 raised most of the splendid buildings of that city, and conquered Himera, thus 
 extending the dominion of Agrigentum from the southern to the northern coast 
 of the island. His daughter Demarata married Gelon, tyrant of Syracuse, who 
 was the most illustrious of the early Sicilian princes. Gelon and Theron to 
 gether defeated the first invasion of the Carthaginians, 480 B.C., called in by 
 the people of Selinus, and also by Therillus, tyrant of Himcra, who had been 
 driven away by Theron, and had taken refuge at Carthage. Syracuse and Agri 
 gentum were now the preponderating states in Sicily. Gelon was succeeded 
 in Syracuse by his brother Theron, tyrant of Gela, who died 467 B.C. His suc 
 cessor Thrasybulus being driven away by a popular insurrection, Syracuse 
 adopted a democratic form of government. 
 
 VIII. The people of Agrigentum about the same time expelled their tyrant 
 Thrasydaeus, and restored the democracy. Empedocles is said to have framed 
 a new constitution for Agrigentum, and Charondas did the same for Taurome- 
 nium, Catana, Himera, and the other cities of Chalcidic origin. Between 452 and 
 440 B.C., Sicily was distracted by an internal war between the Siculi, led by 
 their king, or chief, Deucetius, and the states of Agrigentum and Syracuse. It 
 terminated with the destruction of Trinacria, a stronghold of the Siculi, after a 
 desperate resistance of the inhabitants. The Syracusans next attacked Leon 
 tini. This was a war of races, the Doric cities taking part with Syracuse, and 
 the Chalcidic cities with Leontini. The latter, being the weakest, applied to 
 the Athenians for assistance. The first Athenian expedition to Sicily took place 
 427 B.C., but it led to no decisive result. A truce was concluded between the 
 Sicilian towns, and the Athenians withdrew their fleet, B.C. 425. A new quar 
 rel between Egesta and Selinus led to the second Athenian expedition to Sicily, 
 415 B.C., which terminated fatally for the Athenians. The Egestans, being 
 left at the mercy of their enemies of Selinus, applied to Carthage, and this led 
 to the second invasion of Sicily by the Carthaginians (409 B.C.), who, under the 
 command of Hannibal, son of Giscon, took and plundered Selinus, and destroyed 
 its splendid temples. The Siculi of the interior having joined the Carthaginians, 
 their united forces attacked Himera, which stood on the northern coast, took it, 
 and destroyed it completely, two hundred and forty years after its foundation. 
 The Carthaginians next attacked the powerful city of Agrigentum, and after a 
 long siege took and destroyed it. 
 
 IX. The Carthaginians now settled in Sicily, where they remained for about 
 a century and a half, till the first Punic war. Syracuse was the only city that 
 effectually opposed Carthage, and prevented its dominion extending over the 
 island. After a succession of wars between Carthage and Syracuse, a treaty 
 was concluded about 340 B.C., by which the Carthaginians retained possession 
 of the western part of the island, the River Halycus forming the boundary of 
 their dominions on that side. Lilybaum, Eryx, and Panormus were their prin- 
 
SICILIA. 387 
 
 cipal settlements, and they flourished by commerce. The other towns formed 
 a league, of which Syracuse was the head. Timoleon invited fresh Greek col 
 onies to repeople Agrigentum, Gela, and other places which had been devasta 
 ted during the war. 
 
 X. The Carthaginians availed themselves of the civil dissensions of Syracuse 
 and of a war between Agathocles, tyrant of that city, and the people of Agri 
 gentum, to interfere as mediators, when, in reward for their mediation, they se 
 cured an extension of territory, by which Selinus, Heraclea, and the Thermts 
 Himercnses were included within the Carthaginian possessions, which now ex 
 tended eastward to the River Himera. Fresh civil dissensions in Syracuse 
 encouraged the Carthaginians again to attack that city, which thereupon called 
 Pyrrhus to its assistance. Pyrrhus came and drove the Carthaginians out of 
 the island, with the exception of the strong town of Lilybaum, which he could 
 not take, and he suddenly abandoned Sicily to its own dissensions and the mercy 
 of the Carthaginians. It was lucky for Syracuse, in this emergency, that it 
 found in Hiero II. a citizen equal to the task of saving his country. 
 
 XI. After this followed the struggle in Sicily between the Romans and Car 
 thaginians during the first Punic war. At the end of that war the Romans suc 
 ceeded the Carthaginians in the possession of the western part of Sicily, Hiero 
 II., king of Syracuse, retaining possession of the eastern part as ally of Rome. 
 His son Hieronymus imprudently quarrelled with Rome during the second 
 Punic war, and the result was the conquest of Syracuse by the Romans aft 
 er his death ; and thus the Romans became possessed of the whole island, 
 which they administered as a province under a praetor. The character of that 
 administration has been transmitted to us through Cicero, in his Orations against 
 Verres, and appears to have been the very worst species of misgovernment. 
 
 XII. About 134 B.C. the first Servile War broke out in Sicily, caused by the 
 ill treatment of the numerous slaves, who had become almost the only cultiva 
 tors of the soil. The insurgents took possession of Enna, ravaged the country 
 around, defeated four Roman praetors, and surprised Tauromenium. They were 
 at last reduced by the consul Rupilius. About 102 B.C. another and more formi 
 dable insurrection broke out in Sicily, among a class of men born free, who had 
 been brought thither from other Roman provinces, to be engaged as hired la 
 borers, and were afterward put in chains and confounded with the common 
 slaves. This movement, also, was with difficulty quelled. 
 
 XIII. Some time after this came the prsetorship of Verres, and his wholesale 
 spoliations of Sicily. During the wars of the triumvirate, Sicily was for a time 
 in possession of Sextus Pompeius, who was at last defeated by Octavianus. 
 After his assumption of supreme power, the latter restored many towns in Sic 
 ily, and sent colonies to Tauromenium, Catana, Thermce Himercnses, Panormus, 
 Syracuse, Himera, and other places. Finding the extent of Syracuse too large 
 to be filled again, he contented himself with colonizing the island of Ortygia, 
 which has constituted ever since the modern town. 
 
 XIV. Little is known of the history of Sicily under the empire, except that 
 Christianity spread early into the island, and that a persecution of the Christians 
 took place under Nero. About A.D. 440, the Vandals under Genseric landed 
 from Africa on the western coast of Sicily, and took Lilybaeum. Theodoric, 
 the Gothic king of Italy, added Sicily to his continental dominions. In the year 
 534, Belisarius reconquered Sicily for the Emperor Justinian. In 827 the Sar 
 acens landed, and held the island under their sway until 1037, when it passed 
 into the hands of the Normans. 
 
388 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 (C.) MOUNTAINS. 
 
 I. Mom Eryx, in the northwestern corner of the island, now 
 Monte Santo Juliano. On its summit stood a famous temple 
 of Venus Erycina, and on its western declivity the town of 
 Eryx. 
 
 II. Herat Monies ("Hpaia op??), or Mountains of Juno, in the 
 northeastern part of the island, now Monti Son. 
 
 III. Nebrodes Monies (Nevpwtf?? op??), the main chain in the 
 island, running along the northern part from east to west, and 
 being, in fact, a continuation of the Apennines. Particular 
 names were also given to different parts of the chain. Thus 
 the Hercei Monies, already mentioned ; Mons Neptunius, near 
 Messana ; Mons Crates, in the western part of the island ; 
 Monies Gemelli, to the south of Panormus, &o. 
 
 IV. ^Etna Mons, a lofty and celebrated volcano, in the north 
 eastern part of the island, now Mongibello, a name evidently 
 derived from the Italian Monte and the Arabic Jebel (or Gibel), 
 both signifying " a mountain." It is ninety miles in circum 
 ference at the base, and attains, by a gradual ascent, to the 
 height of 10,874 feet above the level of the sea. From Catania 
 (the ancient Cat ana), which stands at the foot, to the summit, 
 is thirty miles, and the traveller passes through three distinct 
 zones, called the cultivated, the woody, and the desert. The 
 summit of the mountain consists of a conical hill, containing a 
 crater about two miles in circumference. 
 
 OBS. The silence of Homer respecting the fires of JStna has given rise to the 
 opinion that the mountain in his time was in the same state of repose as Vesu 
 vius in the days of Strabo. The earliest writers who make mention of ^Etna 
 and its eruptions are the author of the Orphic poems (Argonaut., v. 12), and more 
 particularly Pindar (Pyth., i., 21). Thucydides is next in order. He speaks of 
 the stream of lava which in his time (B.C. 426) desolated the territory of Ca- 
 tana. He asserts that this was the third eruption of lava on record since the 
 Greeks had been settled in Sicily. Diodorus Siculus mentions an eruption 396 
 B.C., which stopped the Carthaginian army in their march from Messana to 
 Syracuse, and obliged them to go round the whole base of the mountain in or 
 der to reach Catana. This stream of lava may be seen on the eastern slope of 
 the mountain, near Giane, extending over a breadth of more than two miles, 
 and having a length of twenty-four, from the summit of the mountain to its final 
 termination in the sea. The whole number of eruptions on record is said to be 
 eighty-one. 
 
SICILIA. 389 
 
 (D.) PROMONTORIES. 
 
 I. Pelorum Promontorium, called also Peldrus, at the north 
 eastern extremity of the island, and now Cape Peloro, or, as 
 some call it, Cape Faro. The strait between it and Italy was 
 called Fretum Siculum, now Faro di Messina. This promon 
 tory was fabled to have been named from Pelorus, a pilot of 
 Hannibal. It hardly deserves even the appellation of a prom 
 ontory, being, in fact, a low point of land. 
 
 II. Pachynum Promontorium, mPachynus, the southeastern- 
 most extremity of the island, and now Cape Passaro. Its south 
 ernmost point is called by Ptolemy Odyssea Acra ( Odvaaela 
 "Afcpa). 
 
 III. Lilybceum Promontorium, at the western extremity of 
 the island, and now Cape Boeo. It is not, in fact, however, a 
 mountain promontory, but a low, flat point of land, rendered 
 dangerous to vessels by its sand-banks and concealed rocks. 
 Lilybseum was the nearest point to Carthage, and the ancient 
 writers pretend that from it vessels could be discerned sailing 
 out of the harbor of that city. The distance across, however, 
 shows the story to be false. 
 
 (E.) RIVERS. 
 
 ON the western coast we have, 1. Onobdlus or Taurominius^ 
 flowing into the sea just below Naxos. It is now the Alcantara. 
 
 2. Acts, now the laci, a small stream, celebrated by the ancient 
 poets. Acis, a Sicilian shepherd, who had won the love of the 
 nymph Galatsea, was crushed to death with a fragment of rock 
 by his rival Polyphemus, and was transformed into this stream. 
 
 3. Symcethus, to the south of Catana, now the Giaretta. Among 
 its tributaries may be named the Cyamosdrus, now the Tra- 
 chino ; the Chrysas, now the Dittaino ; and the Eryces, now 
 the St. Paolo. 4. Terias, to the south of the SymaBthus, and 
 passing in its course a short distance to the north of Leontini 
 It is now the Guaralunga. The Lissius flows into it from the 
 southwest, and passes close to Leontini on the west. It is now 
 the Lentini, which is also the modern name of Leontini itself. 
 5. Pantagias, now the Porcari. 6. Aldbus or Alabon, now 
 the Cantaro. 7. Anapus, flowing into the harbor of Syracuse, 
 now the Alfeo. 8. Cacyparis, now the Cassibile^ to the south 
 
390 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 of the Long-urn Promontorium, now Cape Lungo. 9. Erin* 
 cus, now the Miranda. 10. Asfndrus, now the Falconara^ or ? 
 according to others, the Fiume di Noto. This last, however, 
 appears to correspond rather to the Phoenicus. 11. Helorus, 
 now the Abisso. 
 
 On the southern and southwestern coast we have, 1. Moty- 
 canus, now the Sicali, flowing by Casmence, the modern Sicali. 
 2. Hirminius, now Fiume di Ragusa, entering the sea at Can- 
 cana, the modern Longobardo. 3. Hippdris, now the Carina? 
 passing by Camarina. 4. Achates, now the Drillo. 5. Gela, 
 now Fiume di Terra Nuova, passing by the city of Gela. 
 6. Himera, the southern part of which bears the name of Fl 
 ume Salso, in consequence of the saline taste communicated to 
 its waters by a salt spring : the northern part is called Fiume 
 di Pollina. This river, as already remarked, separated at one 
 time the Carthaginian dependencies from those of Syracuse* 
 This must not be confounded with another and smaller river 
 of the same name, on the northern coast. 7. Camicits, now 
 the Naro. 8. Acr tig-as, now Girgenti, passing by the city of 
 Acragas or Agrigentum. 9. Halycus, now the Platani, and 
 which formed for some time the eastern limit of the Carthagin 
 ian dependencies. 10. Crimissus, now Fiume di St. Bartolo- 
 meo. On its banks Timoleon defeated the Carthaginians. 
 Some erroneously make it a branch of the Hypsas, and give it 
 the modern name of Belici destro. 11. Hypsas, now the Belici, 
 flowing into the sea a little to the east of Selinus. 12. Halycus, 
 now the Arena, not to be confounded with the larger river of 
 that name already mentioned. 13. Mazarus, now Fiume di 
 Mazzara. 14. Sossius, now Fiume di Marsala, a little be 
 low Lilybceum, the modern Marsala. 
 
 On the northern coast we have, 1. Bathys, now the Iati\ 
 emptying into the Sinus Segestanus. 2. Orethus, now the 
 Orfeto, emptying into the sea at Panormus, the modern Pa 
 lermo. 3. Eleutherus, now the Bajaria, to the east of Panor 
 mus. 4. Himera, now St. Leonardo, emptying into the sea 
 near the city of Himera. 5. Monalus, now the Pollina, fall 
 ing into the sea near Apollonia, the modern Pollina. 6. Ales- 
 sus, now the Pattineo, passing by the city Alcesa. 7. Tima- 
 thus, now Fiume di Naso. 8. Helicon, now Olivero, empty 
 ing into the sea near Tyndaris, the modern Tindaro. 9. Lon* 
 
SICILIA. 391 
 
 ganus, now Fiume di Castro Reale, between Tyndaris and 
 Mylce, the modern Melazzo. 
 
 (F.) PRODUCTIVENESS OF SICILY. 
 
 I. A country like Sicily, lying between the thirty-sixth and 
 thirty-eighth parallels of latitude, and consequently belonging 
 to the southernmost regions of Europe, and which is well sup 
 plied with streams of water from its numerous mountain chains, 
 must of course be a fertile one. Such, indeed, was the charac 
 ter of the island throughout all antiquity ; and the Romans, 
 while they regarded it as one of the granaries of the capital, 
 placed it, in point of productiveness, by the side of Italy itself, 
 or rather regarded it as a portion of that country. 
 
 II. The staple of Sicily was its excellent wheat. The Ro 
 mans found it growing wild in the extensive fields of Leontini, 
 and when cultivated it yielded a hundred fold : that which grew 
 in the plains of Enna was regarded as decidedly the best. It 
 was natural enough, therefore, in the early inhabitants of the 
 island, to regard it as the parent country of grain, and they had 
 a deity among them whom they considered as the patroness of 
 fertility, and the discoverer of fertility to man. In this goddess 
 the Greeks recognized their Ceres, and they made Proserpina 
 to have been carried oft" by Pluto from the rich fields of Enna. 
 
 (G.) CITIES OF SICILY. 
 
 ON the eastern shore we find, 1. Zancle, so called from the 
 scythe-like form of its harbor (^ay/c/U;, " a scythe"). It was 
 founded by the Siculi. A colony from Chalcis in Eubcea after 
 ward settled here, and were joined by some of the inhabitants 
 of Naxos, 011 the lower part of the eastern coast. Zancle soon 
 became powerful enough to colonize, and founded, in conse 
 quence, the cities of Himera and Myl&. It was subsequently 
 surprised and plundered by Hippocrates, tyrant of Gela, and 
 Anaxilaus, tyrant of Rhegium. Anaxilaus then invited a party 
 of Messenians to colonize the place, and the city assumed, in 
 consequence, the name of Messdna. It soon became flourish 
 ing, and was regarded by the Greeks as the key to Sicily, as 
 being the place, namely, to which vessels cruising from Greece 
 to Sicily directed their course on leaving the lapygian promon 
 tory. And yet, notwithstanding these advantages, it was never 
 
392 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 other than an unlucky place, and always undergoing changes, 
 and no Greek city ever contained within its wall a more mixed 
 population. It was destroyed by the Carthaginians, and re 
 built by Dionysius of Syracuse, and remained for some time 
 under his sway and that of his son. At a subsequent period 
 it was seized by the Mamertini, a band of Campanian merce 
 naries, who slew the males, and took the females to wife, and 
 called the city, at the same time, Mamertini. The movements 
 of the Mamertines subsequently gave rise to the first Punic 
 war. A Roman colony was afterward planted here. Messina 
 now answers to the ancient city. 
 
 2. Tauromenium, now Taormino, between Messana and Ca- 
 tana, originally built by the Siculi on the rock Taurus, and 
 subsequently colonized by a number of the old inhabitants of 
 the neighboring but ruined city of Naxos. 3. Naxos, to the 
 south of the preceding, founded by a colony of Chalcidians and 
 Megarians, and which, in its turn, founded Leontmi. It was 
 destroyed by Dionysius of Syracuse. The old inhabitants, to 
 gether with some new comers, settled in the immediate vicin 
 ity, and colonized Tauromenium. 4. Cdtdna, now Catania, 
 founded by a colony from Chalcis in Euboea, five years after 
 the settlement of Carthage. Hiero transferred the inhabitants 
 to Leontini, but after his death they returned and once more 
 occupied the place. Dionysius afterward got possession of the 
 city, sold part of the inhabitants as slaves, and settled here a 
 body of his mercenaries called Campani. Catana fell into the 
 hands of the Romans during the first Punic war. 5. Leontini, 
 to the southwest, now Lentini. It was founded by a colony 
 from the city of Naxos, already mentioned, and was situate in 
 the Campi Leontini or Lsestrygonii, where Ceres was said to 
 have scattered the wheat. Leontmi eventually sank under the 
 superior power of Syracuse, and its quarrel with the latter city 
 led to the first Athenian expedition to Sicily. The celebrated 
 Gorgias was a native of this place. 6. Hybla Parva, a little 
 above Syracuse. It was also denominated Galaotis, but more 
 frequently Megara, or Megara Hyblcea, and was famed for its 
 bees and honey. There were two other places of the same 
 name in Sicily, one south of Mount ^Etna, and the second to 
 the east of Gela. 7. Thapsus, a short distance to the east of 
 the preceding, and founded by a colony from it, on a peninsula 
 now called Penisola del Bagnoli. 
 
SICILIA. 393 
 
 8. Syracuse, now Stracusa or Syracuse, in the time of its 
 splendor the largest city of Sicily, and one of the largest in the 
 ancient world. It was founded by a party of Corinthians and 
 Dorians, who landed in the island of Ortygia, defeated the Sic- 
 uli, and made their first settlement there. The history of 
 this city has already been briefly given in the sketch of Sicil 
 ian affairs that has preceded. It was taken by Marcellus, the 
 Roman praetor, in the second Punic war, B.C. 212, and was 
 also before this the scene of the memorable defeat of the Athe 
 nians, so finely related by Thucydides, in his seventh book of 
 the Peloponnesian war. The ports of Syracuse lay at the south 
 below the town. The smaller port was formed by the town 
 and the north side of the little island Qrtygia, in which was 
 the fountain Arethusa, fabled by the poets to communicate 
 with the River Alpheus in Elis, and which last was said to 
 pursue its course to this island by passing under the surface 
 of the sea. The greater harbor, in which was the mouth of 
 the River Anapus, was formed by the southern side of the island 
 and a bay reaching to the promontory called Plemmyrittm, in 
 the recess of which promontory was a castle. The city was 
 of a triangular form, and consisted, in fact, of five towns ad 
 joining one another, but separated by walls, and the whole was 
 surrounded by an external wall, the length of which was one 
 hundred and eighty stadia, or above twenty- two English miles. 
 The five divisions of Syracuse were Ortygia, Acradina, Tyche, 
 Epipolce, and Neapolis. The part called Acradina was near 
 est the shore, and its southern extremity formed one side of the 
 smaller port. The southwestern side of the city, lying toward 
 the Anapus, and separated from it by some marshy ground, 
 was called Neapolis, built after the Athenian invasion, between 
 which and Acradina was Tyche, and above Neapolis was Epi- 
 polce. Between the Anapus and Neapolis was a grove and 
 temple of Apollo, who was hence called Temenltes. The La- 
 tomice were originally granaries, excavated in the rocks that 
 divide the upper from the lower town. Some of them after 
 ward served as prisons, and, on the surrender of Nicias, the 
 whole of the Athenian prisoners were confined in them, and 
 mostly died. One of these Latomise forms the so-called "Ear 
 of Dionysius." After the Roman conquest, the population, hav 
 ing gradually decreased, became restricted to the original Orty- 
 
394 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 gia and the lower part of Acradina, and all the upper city was 
 already abandoned in the time of Augustus. The Saracens, in 
 the ninth century, plundered and devastated Syracuse, which 
 contained till then 100,000 inhabitants, and from that time 
 Ortygia, or the island, has been the only part inhabited. 
 
 9. Helorum, below Syracuse, and near the mouth of the River 
 Helorus. Pliny speaks of it as a mere castle or fortified post, 
 with a good fishery attached to it ; but it was, in truth, a very 
 ancient city, and a place of some importance before the arrival 
 of the Greeks. The adjacent country was very fertile and 
 beautiful, and hence Ovid calls it the " Helorian Tempe." 
 The remains of this city are called Muri Ucci. 
 
 On the southern and southwestern coast we find, 1. Cama- 
 rma, on the River Htpparis, a colony of Syracuse. This was 
 a most unfortunate city, having been several times destroyed, 
 and as often rebuilt. In the neighborhood of this place the river 
 formed a low island, covered at high water, but, when the tide 
 fell, converted into a marsh. This marsh proving unhealthy, 
 the inhabitants consulted an oracle whether they should drain 
 it. Although the oracle dissuaded them, they drained it, and 
 opened a way to their enemies to come and plunder the city. 
 Hence arose the proverb, from the words of the oracle, p) KIVEI 
 Kanaplvav, " Move not Camarina," applied to those who, by 
 removing one evil, bring on a greater. The ruins of this place 
 are found at Torre di Camerina. 2. Gela, on the river of the 
 same name, and a short distance from the sea. It was found 
 ed by a party of Rhodians and Cretans, 712 B.C., and became 
 one of the most powerful of the Grecian colonies in Sicily, so 
 that, one hundred and eight years after its own foundation, it 
 colonized the celebrated city of Agrigentum. This state of 
 prosperity continued until the time of Gelon, who removed a 
 large part of the inhabitants to Syracuse. After this it sank 
 in importance, and never recovered its former power. Phintias, 
 at length, tyrant of Agrigentum, built a small and commodious 
 city, called after his own name, and transferred to it all the in 
 habitants of Gela, which from this period (four hundred and four 
 years after its foundation) ceased to exist. On a part of the 
 ancient site stands the modern Terra Nuova. The plains 
 around Gela (Campi Geloi) were famed for their fertility and 
 beauty. 3. Refugium Gela, nearer the coast. The term re- 
 
SICILIA. 395 
 
 fugium denoted a place where a vessel might be brought safely 
 to land, although there was there no regular harbor. 4. Agri- 
 gentum, called by the Greeks Acrdgas ( A/cpdyac), a celebrated 
 city, about three miles from the coast, and deriving its name 
 from the small river Acragas in its immediate vicinity. It 
 was a colony of Gela, and was built on a rocky height eleven 
 hundred feet above the level of the sea. It was therefore a 
 place of great strength, and enjoyed also advantages of a com 
 mercial nature, having a port or dock-yard (Navale) on the coast, 
 which afforded it the means of easy intercourse with the har 
 bors of Africa and southern Europe. The adjacent country, 
 moreover, was very fertile. From the combined operation of 
 all these causes, Agrigentum soon became a wealthy and pow 
 erful city, and inferior to Syracuse alone. It was taken and 
 plundered by the Carthaginians under Hamilcar, and the inhab 
 itants fled to Gela, whence they were transferred to Leontlni. 
 It subsequently recovered from this blow, and at the commence 
 ment of the second Punic war was one of the most important 
 strongholds which the Carthaginians possessed in the island. 
 After falling into the hands of the Romans, it long continued a 
 flourishing place. Its site corresponds to the modern Gir genii. 
 This place is often mentioned in the poetry of Pindar. It was 
 the birth-place of Empedocles. 
 
 5. Heraclea Minoa, at the mouth of the Halycus. The 
 place was first called Minoa, and was a colony of Selinus. 
 It was afterward seized by a band of Spartans, who had mi 
 grated from home under a leader named Dorieus, an unsuc 
 cessful competitor for the Spartan throne. These Spartans 
 changed the name to Heraclea, and subsequently both names 
 were combined, Heraclea Minoa. Its ruins are found at the 
 mouth of the Camicus, now the Platani. 6. Selinus, a large 
 and flourishing city, at the mouth of the River Selinus, now 
 the Madiuni. It was founded by a colony from Megdra Hyb- 
 Icea, B.C. 651. Selinus was engaged in almost continual 
 wars with the city of jfl.gesta or Segeste, on the northern coast, 
 and the latter having called in the aid of the Carthaginians, 
 Selinus was taken, plundered, and in a great measure destroyed. 
 The Carthaginians afterward allowed the fugitive inhabitants 
 to return and reoccupy their city, but it never recovered fully 
 from the blow, and they finally transferred the inhabitants to 
 Lilybceum. The ruins exist near the modern Terra dei Pulci. 
 
396 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 On the western and northern coasts we have, 1. Lilybceum, 
 near the promontory of the same name. It was the principal 
 fortress of the Carthaginians in Sicily, and is said to have been 
 founded by them as a stronghold in this quarter against Diony- 
 sius of Syracuse. It received as a part of its population the 
 remaining inhabitants of the old Phoenician settlement of Mo- 
 +ya, lying to the north of it, after that place had been taken by 
 Dionysius. The strength of its fortifications was evinced by 
 its holding out against Pyrrhus, after all the other Carthagin 
 ian cities in Sicily had yielded to his arms. It afterward came 
 into the hands of the Romans, by the conditions of the peace 
 which brought the whole of the island into their power, and they 
 subsequently used it as the harbor whence their fleets sailed 
 for the reduction of Carthage. In a later age, Cicero calls it 
 " splendidissima civitas" The modern Marsala occupies the 
 southern half of the ancient city. 2. Motya, to the north, a 
 Phoenician settlement, on a small island, now called di Mezze. 
 Its inhabitants were transplanted by Himilco to Lilybseum, 
 after the former place had been taken by Dionysius. Up to 
 this time it had been an important naval post of Carthage. 
 
 3. Drepanum or Drepana, to the north, now Trapani. It took 
 its name from the curvature of the shore in this quarter re 
 sembling a scythe (dpenavov). This place was founded in the 
 beginning of the first Punic war by the Carthaginian com 
 mander Hamilcar, who removed to it the inhabitants of Eryx 
 and other places adjacent. Drepanum and Lilybaeum formed 
 the two most important maritime cities held by the Carthagin 
 ians in Sicily. Off this place, near the JEgates Insulcz, was 
 fought the famous naval battle between the Romans, com 
 manded by Lutatius Catulus, and the Carthaginians under 
 Hanno. The Romans gained a decisive victory, which put an 
 end to the first Punic war. Virgil makes ./Eneas to have lost 
 his father Anchises here, a poetic anachronism worth noting. 
 
 4. EryX) to the northeast, founded, in all probability, by the 
 Phoenicians, and situate on the western declivity of the mount 
 ain of the same name. It was destroyed by the Carthaginians 
 in the time of Pyrrhus, who, a short time previous, had taken 
 it by storm, and the inhabitants were removed to Drepanum. 
 It soon revived, however, owing to the celebrity of the adjacent 
 temple of Venus Erycina, which stood on the summit of the 
 
SICILIA. 397 
 
 mountain. In the first Punic war it fell into the hands of the 
 Romans, but was surprised by the Carthaginians, and the in 
 habitants who escaped the slaughter were again removed to Dre- 
 panum. The place never recovered from this blow, and was 
 never rebuilt. No traces of the temple remain at the present 
 day. On the summit of the mountain is an ancient castle, 
 supposed to have been erected by the Saracens. 
 
 On the northern coast we have, 1. Seg-este or JEgesta, to 
 the southeast of Eryx. According to Thucydides, a body of 
 Trojans settled here after the fall of Troy, and, uniting with 
 the Sicani, formed one people under the name of Elymi. They 
 afterward received accessions from some wandering Achsei. 
 Such is the Greek account of the origin of the Elymi and 
 ^Egestsei. When the Romans became masters of these parts 
 after the first Punic war, they readily adopted the current tra 
 dition respecting the Trojan origin of the people of JBgesta, 
 and the affinity was recognized in the Duilian inscription, where 
 the .^Egestaeans are styled Cocnati P. R. The true link, in all 
 probability, was a Pelasgic one. The ^Egestseans were engaged 
 in a long contest with Selinus, which proved eventually the 
 cause of overthrow to the latter ; but Segeste itself suffered se 
 verely at a subsequent period from Agathocles. It became 
 flourishing again, however, under the Roman sway. Its ruins 
 are found near the modern Alcamo. 2. Panormus, now Pa 
 lermo, to the northeast, built by the Phoenicians. The Greek 
 name is derived from the excellence and capaciousness of its 
 harbor (nag, op/zo^), and is equivalent to All-port. Panormus 
 was subsequently an important stronghold of the Carthaginians, 
 and the chief station of their fleet. Here, also, were the win 
 ter-quarters of their army. The Romans obtained possession 
 of it A.U.C. 500, and it became subsequently one of the free 
 cities of Sicily. 3. Soluntum, a strong harbor, to the south 
 east, now Castello di Solanto, occupies a part of its site. 
 4. Himera, founded, according to Thucydides, by a colony from 
 Zancle, and destroyed by the Carthaginians two hundred and 
 forty years after. The Carthaginians subsequently established 
 a number of the old inhabitants in the new city of Thermo? 
 Himerenses, in the immediate vicinity of Himera. This spot 
 was remarkable for its warm baths. The ruins of Thermae 
 are now called Termini. Himera was the birth-place of Ste- 
 
398 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 sichoms. 5. Cephalcedium, a fortified post, belonging to the 
 territory of Himera, afterward to the Carthaginians, now Ce- 
 fali. 6. Calacta (" beautiful shore," Ka^i) d/m?), so called 
 from its situation. Vestiges of it are to the north of the mod 
 ern Caronia, 7. Agathyrna, a city of the Siculi, near the mod 
 ern hamlet of Santa Agatha. 8. Tyndaris, founded by Dio- 
 nysius the elder, and which became in time an important city. 
 It was at the mouth of the Helicon, and answers to the mod 
 ern Tindaro. Part of the ancient site, however, has been in 
 undated by the sea. 9. Mylce, now Milazzo, at the mouth of 
 the River Mylas, now the Mela. Between this place and a 
 station named Naulochus, farther to the east, the fleet of Sex- 
 tus Pompeius was defeated by that of Octavianus under the 
 command of Agrippa. 
 
 In the interior of Sicily we may notice the following : 1. Noce, 
 northeast of Mount ^Etna, now Noara. 2. Tissa, to the south 
 west of the preceding, and at the foot of ^Etna, now Randazzo. 
 3. Mtna, on the southern declivity of the mountain of that name. 
 Its first name was Inessa or Inessos. It was changed to that 
 of JEtna when the remains of the colony were settled here, 
 which Hiero had established at Catana, and which had been 
 driven out of the latter place by the Siculi. Hiero had called 
 Catana by the name of ^Etna, and the new comers applied it 
 to the city which now furnished them with an abode. At a 
 subsequent period we find the elder Dionysius in possession of 
 the place, a post of much importance to him, since it command 
 ed the road from Catana to the western parts of the island. 
 The ancient site now bears the name of Castro. 4. Centuripce, 
 to the southwest, a very ancient city of the Siculi, rich by rea 
 son of its agriculture, and its trade in salt and saffron. It was 
 the birth-place of Celsus. The modern Centorbi marks the 
 ancient site. 5. Adrdnum, to the northwest of the city of 
 ^Etna, founded by Dionysius the elder, and named after the 
 native deity Hadranus. It is now Aderno. 6. Hybla Ma/or, 
 a short distance to the southwest of the city of .ZEtna, on a hill 
 named Hybla, and near the River Symcethus. It was famous 
 for its honey and bees. It is now Paterno. There were two 
 other places of the same name in Sicily : one, called Me gar a 
 Hyblcea, already mentioned, and a little above Syracuse, on the 
 sea-coast ; and another, called Hybla Hercea, to the east of Gela. 
 
SICILIA. 399 
 
 This last is now Calata Girone. 7. Agynum, some distance 
 to the west of the city of Mtna, and the birth-place of Diodorus 
 Siculus. Its ruins are in the vicinity of St. Filippo d?Agyro. 
 8. Enna, to the southwest of the preceding, and one of the most 
 ancient seats of the Siculi. It was celebrated over the whole 
 island, not so much for its size and opulence as for its being 
 the centre of the worship of Ceres. The adjacent country was 
 remarkable for its fertility, and in the plains of Enna Proser 
 pina was fabled to have been sporting when she was carried oft 
 by Pluto. Enna was regarded as the navel of Sicily, and here 
 Ceres and Proserpina had one of their most sacred temples. 
 The site of the ancient place is occupied by the modern Castro 
 Giovanni, but nearly all traces of the blooming meads in its 
 vicinity have disappeared. 
 
 9. Palica, southwest of Leontini, a strong place of the Siculi, 
 and having in its vicinity the famous lakes of the deities called 
 Pallci. These lakes were properly the craters of extinct vol 
 canoes, and of unknown depth, and emitted a strong sulphu 
 reous stench. If one swore by these waters and perjured him 
 self, it was supposed to be followed by some supernatural pun 
 ishment. The city of Palica was already in ruins in the time 
 of Diodorus Siculus. 10. Tridcala, southeast of Selinus, and 
 near the River Crimissus. It was at one time the residence 
 of Tryphon, king of the slaves, in the Sicilian slave rebellion ; 
 and it derived its name from its threefold advantages (rpia 
 tcahd) of strong situation, good water, and extensive trade in 
 wine and oil. Its ruins may still be seen near the modern 
 Calata Bellotta. 
 
 Each of the three main promontories of Sicily had a celebra 
 ted temple either on or near it. At Pelorum was that of Nep 
 tune, at Pachynum that of Apollo, and on Mount Eryx, not 
 far from Lilybceum, was that of Venus. The ancient poets 
 fabled that the giant Typhoeus was buried under Sicily, Pelo 
 rum and Pachynum being placed on either arm, Lilybseum on 
 his feet, and ^Etna on his head, and that the earthquakes and 
 eruptions of JEtna were caused by his attempts to move. 
 
400 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 II. ^EOLI^E INSULT. 
 
 I. These were situate to the north of Sicily, and were called JEolia, from their 
 having formed the fabled domain of ^Eolus, god of the winds. They were also 
 called Vulcanite (in Greek Hephastiddes), from their volcanic character ; and like 
 wise Liparece, from Lipdra, the largest of the number. 
 
 II. The group consists of seven islands, and their names, according to Mela, 
 were as follows : Lipdra, Osteodes, Heraclea, Didyme, Phoenicusa, Hiera, and 
 Strongyle. Pliny and Diodorus Siculus, however, substitute Ericusa and Euon- 
 ymus for Osteodes and Heraclea. 
 
 III. These islands are supposed by some to be the same with Homer s IIAay/c- 
 rai, or "wandering islands." The island of Lipdra was the largest and most 
 important of the group, and is now Lipari, giving their modern name to the 
 whole cluster. The island of Strongyle was so named by the Greeks on ac 
 count of its round form (Srpoyytf/lT?, scil. vfjaoc., " the round island"), and is now 
 Stromboli, celebrated for its continual volcano. The ancients made this island 
 the residence of ^Eolus, monarch of the winds ; and Pliny gives us the germ 
 of the whole fable, when he states that the inhabitants could tell three days 
 beforehand, from the smoke of the volcano, what winds were going to blow. 
 
 III. MELITA AND GAULUS. 
 
 I. Melita, now Malta, lay sixty miles southeast of Sicilia. It is first mentioned 
 by Scylax, but is considered by him as belonging to Africa, from its having 
 Punic inhabitants, and being no farther from Africa than from Sicily. The 
 earlier Greek historians do not mention it, since it was regarded as a Cartha 
 ginian island, and lay without their historical limits. 
 
 II. Diodorus Siculus is the first that gives us any account of it. There 
 are," he says, " over against that part of Sicily which lies to the south, three 
 islands, at a distance in the sea, each of which has a town, and safe ports for 
 ships overtaken by tempests. The first, called Metite, has several excellent har 
 bors. The inhabitants are very rich, inasmuch as they exercise many trades, 
 and, in particular, manufacture cloths remarkable for their softness and fine 
 ness. Their houses are large, and splendidly ornamented with projections and 
 stucco (-ytiaaoLs nal Kovidnavi). The island is a colony of the Phoenicians, who, 
 trading to the western ocean, use it as a place of refuge, because it has excel 
 lent ports, and lies in the midst of the sea. Next to this island is another, 
 named Gaulus, with convenient harbors, which is also a colony of the Phoeni 
 cians." The island of Gaulus, here mentioned, is the modern Gozo. The third 
 island of Diodorus was Cercma, off the coast of Africa, now Kerkine. 
 
 III. Metita is said to have been subsequently occupied by the Greeks ; but, 
 however this may be, the Carthaginians obtained possession of it B.C. 402. In 
 the first Punic war it was plundered by the Roman consul Atilius. In the sec 
 ond Punic war it was surrendered to the Romans, and was regarded henceforth 
 as an appendage to the province of Sicily. Its commerce declined under its 
 new masters, and the island became a not unfrequent haunt of pirates. It ap 
 pears, however, that its temple of Juno was rich enough to be an object of 
 plunder to the rapacious Verres, when he was praetor of Sicily. The linen cloth 
 of Malta was considered an article of luxury at Rome. 
 
 IV. After the division of the Roman empire at the death of Constantine, this 
 island was included in the share allotted to Constantius. It fell subsequently 
 
CORSICA. 401 
 
 into the hands of the Vandals and Goths, who were expelled by Belisarius, A.D. 
 533. The Arabs conquered it in 870, and though it was recovered and held by 
 the Eastern empire for the space of thirty-four years, it was retaken by the 
 Arabs, and the Greek inhabitants were exterminated. In 1120, Count Roger, 
 the Norman conqueror of Sicily, took possession of iMalta and expelled the 
 Arabs. 
 
 IV. CORSICA. 
 
 I. THE first notice of Corsica is in Herodotus, under the name of Cyrnus 
 (Kvpvos ). The people of Phoceea in Asia Minor, unable to resist the Persian 
 Cyrus, determined to desert their native town. In the year 544 B.C. they em 
 barked, with their wives and children, first for Chios, and afterward for Corsica, 
 in which they had twenty years before founded the town of Alalia. Half the 
 number, however, returned to Phocaea, but the remainder pursued their voyage, 
 and joined the people of Alalia, with whom they continued five years, plunder 
 ing the surrounding nations, until, having suffered dreadful loss in a sea-fight 
 against the allied fleet of the Tyrrhenians and Carthaginians, they abandoned 
 Corsica to seek another settlement. 
 
 II. In the time of Gelon of Syracuse, B.C. 480, we find mention of Corsicans 
 (KvpvLOi) among the troops with which the Carthaginian Hamilcar came to the 
 aid of Terillus, tyrant of Himera. The Carthaginians had probably possessed 
 themselves of Corsica, at least of the coast, and on their downfall it came 
 under the power of the Romans. A tribute of two hundred thousand pounds 
 of wax imposed on them deserves notice, as indicating one of the chief products 
 of the island at that time. 
 
 III. The Romans founded two colonies, both on the eastern coast : Mariana, 
 at the mouth of the Tavola, now the Golo, founded by Marius ; and Aleria, on the 
 site of the ancient Alalia, at the mouth of the Rhotdnus, now the Tamgna.no, by 
 the -dictator Sylla. The Romans used the island as a place of banishment. 
 Seneca was sent to it as an exile. On the downfall of the Roman empire, Cor 
 sica came into the hands of the Vandals, and subsequently of the Goths ; but 
 the successes of Belisarius forced them to abandon the island, which was then 
 included in the exarchate of Ravenna, a dependency of the Eastern empire. 
 Early in the eighth century, the Saracens, then masters of Spain, possessed 
 themselves of Corsica ; but the decline of their power, and the attacks of the 
 kings of France and Arragon, and ultimately of the Pope, led them to abandon 
 the island. 
 
 (A.) MOUNTAINS OF CORSICA. 
 
 THE whole country is exceedingly mountainous and woody. The two chains, 
 however, most deserving of special mention are, 1. Aureus Mons (TO Xpvaovv 
 opof), running from north to south, and dividing the island into two parts. 2. 
 Mons Rhoztius (TO PoiTtov opof), on the western side, .near the River Cercidius. 
 
 (B.) RIVERS OF CORSICA. 
 
 1. Tavola, in the north, now the Golo, having Mariana at its mouth. 2. Rho 
 tanus, now th.e Tavignano, having at its mouth Alalia or Aleria. 3. Sacer, now 
 the Orbo. 4. Ticarius, now the Tigari, on the western side. 5. Locras, now the 
 Talavo. 6. Cercidius, now the Liamone. 
 
 Cc 
 
402 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 (C.) PROMONTORIES. 
 
 1. Promontorium Sacrum, the north land s end, now Capo Cor so. 2. Actium 
 Promontorium, now Capo d Acciajualo, on the western side. 3. Viriballum Pro 
 montorium, now Capo di Gargalo, on the same side. 4. Rhium Promontorium, 
 to the south of the preceding, now Capo di Feno. 5. Marinum Promontorium, 
 now Capo di Casa Barbarica. 
 
 (D.) PRODUCTS OF CORSICA. 
 
 Rosin ; honey of a bitter taste, in consequence of the great abundance of yew- 
 trees (taxi) in the island ; wax, subsequently wine, oil, &c. It must be ob 
 served, that the eastern coast, where the Romans had their settlements, was 
 the only quarter that was well cultivated. 
 
 (E.) INHABITANTS OF CORSICA. 
 
 I. THE inhabitants, called Corsi or Cyrnii, were, according to Seneca, an 
 Iberian race ; and this remark of his is of considerable value, since he himself 
 was a native of Spain. They lived, after a patriarchal fashion, on milk and 
 cheese, and hence were long lived. These aboriginals were mixed with Tyr 
 rhenians and Ligyans. 
 
 II. The Phocsean Greeks founded the town of Alalia. Their subsequent 
 movements have already been referred to. 
 
 (F.) CITIES OF CORSICA. 
 
 1. Clunium, in the north, on the eastern side of the island, and near the Pro 
 montorium Sacrum ; now Santa Catharina. 2. Mantlnorum Oppidum, to the 
 south of the preceding, now Bastia. 3. Mariana, to the south, at the mouth of 
 the Tavola, now the Golo. It was founded by Marius. 4. Alalia, to the south, 
 at the rnouth of the Rhotanus, now the Tavignano. It was founded, as already 
 stated, by the Phocaeans, when they left their native city in Ionia, in order to 
 avoid the rule of Cyrus. It was subsequently colonized by Sylla, and became 
 the capital of the island. From this period we find the name written Aleria. 
 The modern appellation is also Aleria. 5. Talcmum, in the interior, to the north 
 west of the preceding. It is now Talcino. 6. Centurlnum, in the north, on the 
 western side of the island, and near the Promontorium Sacrum. It is now Cen- 
 turi. 7. Palanta, some distance to the southwest of the preceding, and near the 
 western coast. It is now Balagna. 8. Tarabenorum Vicus, some distance be 
 low the preceding, and removed from the western coast, now Vico. 9. Urcmt- 
 um, to the southeast of the Rhium Promontorium, or Capo di Feno. It was 
 fabled to have been founded by Eurysaces, the son of Ajax, and is now Ajaccio. 
 10. Portus Titianus, some distance to the south, now Porto Tiziano. 11. Palla, 
 near the southern extremity of the island, and now Porto S. Giulia. Some, 
 however, make it the same with Bonifacio. The strait in this quarter, between 
 Corsica and Sardinia, was called Taphros, and is now the Strait of Bonifacio. 
 Passing around to the eastern side of the island, we may name, 12. Portus Sy- 
 rdcusdnus, now Porto di S. Manza, and, 13. Portus Favonius, to the north, now 
 Porto Favone. 
 
 V. SARDINIA. 
 
 I. THE oldest Greek form for the name of this island was Sardo (Sap&j), and 
 the inhabitants were called Sardo i (Sapduoi) and Sardonii (Zapdoviot). The 
 
SARDINIA. 403 
 
 Romans called the island Sardinia, and the inhabitants Sardi, rarely Sardini- 
 enscs. In outline, the island is not unlike the rough footsteps of a man, and 
 hence it was sometimes called Ichnusa ( I^vouaa) and Sandaliotis (Savda/Uomf), 
 from IXVQS and ca.v8u.Mov, both meaning " a footstep." 
 
 II. Whence Sardinia received its first inhabitants we are not informed by any 
 ancient writer. They speak, indeed, of settlements made at various times in 
 the island, but the new comers always found a rude race of inhabitants already 
 in possession. The first who is said to have led a colony hither was Sardus, 
 a son of Hercules. He introduced among the rude inhabitants, who were ac 
 customed to dwell in caves, the first rudiments of civilization ; taught them 
 agriculture, and was their earliest lawgiver. In gratitude to him, they are said 
 to have called the island after his name, and to have worshipped him as a god. 
 
 III. A colony of Iberians is said to have come next, under Norax, from Baeti- 
 ca. He settled in the southern part of the island, and founded the city of Nora, 
 calling it after his own name. Descending to more historic times, we find /6/a- 
 us to have led the first Grecian colony to this island, and to have founded Olbia 
 on the northern coast, afterward a considerable town in the Roman period, and 
 of which vestiges are found near Terranova. Strabo says that the colonists of 
 lolaus inhabited the island jointly with the barbarians. From an inscription 
 found at Stampace, it appears that Caralis, the modern Cagliari, assumed at one 
 time the name of " Civitas Idla," and, even at the present day, a part of the 
 territory of Cagliari is called Euradoria di lola. 
 
 IV. The fertility of Sardinia soon invited over numerous Grecian settlers, 
 and various petty republics were established, independent of each other. Traces 
 of Grecian customs and attire are said still to remain. The Carthaginians 
 would seem to have obtained a footing in Sardinia at a very early period, as the 
 situation of the island, in a commercial point of view, was too important to be 
 neglected. Its fertility, moreover, made it one of their granaries, and they used 
 every means in their power to promote agricultural labors. We have no ac 
 counts of the wars of the Carthaginians in Sardinia, but it appears that they 
 never reduced it entirely, as the natives took refuge in the mountains, ever 
 ready to rise at any favorable opportunity. The lower country, however, was 
 permanently in possession of the Carthaginians until the first Punic war. 
 
 V. Sardinia fell into the hands of the Romans, and was incorporated into a 
 province about B.C. 228, in the interval between the first and second Punic 
 wars. Its new masters, however, could only, as the Carthaginians had done 
 before them, obtain possession of the lower country. The inhabitants of the 
 mountainous country, in the interior, defended themselves successfully for near 
 ly one hundred years. Indeed, it may be said that Sardinia was never com 
 pletely subdued by the Romans, and the predatory movements of the mountain 
 eers still occasioned trouble in the days of the emperors. In the fifth century 
 the island fell into the hands of the Vandals. 
 
 VI. Livy describes the Sardinian mountaineers as clothed in skins, a species 
 of attire not entirely laid aside by them even at the present day. In war they 
 carried small bucklers covered with skin. From this peculiar kind of covering 
 for their bodies they were called mastrucati (the term for a garment of skin 
 being mastruca), and mastrucati latrunculi (" skin-clad banditti") were often very 
 dangerous antagonists for the Romans. 
 
 (A.) CLIMATE OF SARDINIA. 
 
 I. THE mountain atmosphere of Sardinia was healthy ; but the plains and 
 some of the lower valleys were notoriously unhealthy, and have continued so 
 
404 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 to the present day. Cicero, Strabo, Martial, and, in later times, Dante, all speak 
 in strong terms of the insalubrity of Sardinia. The noxious effects of the 
 climate were still more sensibly felt by strangers than by natives. Hence, 
 whenever the Romans wished to designate a particularly unhealthy region, they 
 named Sardinia ; and so greatly did they dread the effects of its climate, that 
 they never ventured to keep a standing force in this island for any length of time. 
 II. The principal causes of this unhealthiness were the pools of standing 
 water in the hollows of the island, and the want of northerly winds. These 
 winds were kept off, as some of the ancients believed, by the mountains of Cor 
 sica, and even of Italy. The Insdni Monies of Sardinia also contributed to pro 
 duce this. In modern times, the active causes of the unhealthiness of the isl 
 and are the exhalations from the marshes and the beds of rivers, which are 
 nearly dry in summer, and the putrescent vegetation. 
 
 (B.) FERTILITY, PRODUCTS, &c. 
 
 I. THE fertility of Sardinia is attested by all the ancient writers. Rome ob 
 tained her supplies of grain not only_ from Sicily, but also from Sardinia ; large 
 quantities of salt, too, as in modern times, were manufactured on the western 
 and southern coasts. The ancient writers make mention, also, of the mines in 
 this island ; and some of these were worked to a great extent, as is attested 
 by vast excavations and the remains of founderies. Southwest of Iglesias is 
 Monte d Oro, which appears to have derived its name from the gold formerly 
 extracted from it ; the mountain has been reduced by excavation to a mere 
 shell. There is no doubt that silver also was procured in considerable quanti 
 ties, and Solinus makes mention of mines of this metal. 
 
 II. Two products of the island, however, deserve particular notice. One of 
 these is its wool, which in modern days has fallen off in quality, and is now 
 principally manufactured into coarse cloth for the peasantry. The beautiful 
 tincture, also, of a delicate vermilion hue, mentioned by the ancients under the 
 name oftinctura Sarddnica, is no longer known. The other remarkable product 
 was a species of wild parsely (apiastrum), a sort of ranunculus, called by Soli 
 nus " herba Sardonia." It grew very abundantly around springs and wet places. 
 Whoever ate of it died, apparently laughing ; in other words, the nerves became 
 contracted, and the lips of the sufferer assumed the appearance of an involun 
 tary and painful laugh. Hence the expression Risus Sardonicus. 
 
 III. Sardinia was famed also for its fisheries, especially of tunnies and sar 
 dines, the latter deriving their name (Sardinia} from that of the island. 
 
 (C.) MOUNTAINS. 
 
 I. SARDINIA may be called a mountainous island, a chain of mountains running 
 through it from north to south, though nearer to the eastern than the western 
 coast. From the northern part of this chain another rises, which proceeds 
 from east to west, and which separates the island, as it were, into two parts. 
 This cross range is called by Ptolemy TU. Maivopeva "Opn, and by the Latin 
 writers Insdni Monies, or the "Mad Mountains." 
 
 II. The mountains of Sardinia exercise a very important influence on the 
 character of its coast, on the temperature, and on the productiveness of the 
 island. The numerous side ranges, running down to the very coast, form 
 spacious bays, and, on the southern and western shores, safe harbors. On tho 
 east side of the island, however, the cliffs are high and sleep, and scarcely 
 afford any where a safe anchoring place, while gusts of wind frequently blow 
 with very sudden and great fury from the interior of the mountain ranges, and 
 
SARDINIA. 405 
 
 do great damage to vessels along these shores. Hence probably the appellation 
 of " Insani Monies," and hence, too, the language of Claudian (Bell. Gildon., v. 
 512), " Insdnos infdmat ndmta monies." Along the whole range, therefore, of 
 the eastern coast, although so conveniently situated for intercourse with Italy, 
 the ancients had but one really good harbor, Olbia, and that far to the north ; 
 and in modern days, too, no place of any importance is found along this part of 
 Sardinia. 
 
 (D.) RIVERS. 
 
 1. THE Termus, on the western side, now the Termo ; but, according to Reich- 
 ard, the Serra. 2. The Thyrsus, on the same side, below the preceding, now 
 the Oristano. 3. The Sacer, to the south of the preceding, and on the same 
 side, now the Uras. 4. The Sceprus, on the eastern side, now the Flamendoso. 
 
 (E.) PROMONTORIES. 
 
 1. Erebantium Promontorium, at the northern extremity, now Longo Sardo ; 
 according to others, Capo della Testa. 2. Columbarium Promontorium, on the 
 upper part of the eastern coast, now Capo Figari. 3. Caralitdnum Promonto 
 rium, on the coast of the Sinus Caralitanus, in the southern part of the island, 
 now Capo S. Elia. 4. Cunicularium Promontorium, to the southwest of the pre 
 ceding, now Capo di Pula. 5. Sulcense Promontorium, on the western coast, in 
 the lower part, now Capo deW Ulga. 6. Crassum Promontorium, to the north of 
 the preceding, now Capo di Pecora. 7. Hermceum Promontorium, to the north, 
 now Capo della Caccia. 8. Gordltdnum Promontorium, to the north, now Capo 
 di Monte Falcone. 
 
 (F.) CITIES OF SARDINIA. 
 
 CITIES on the eastern coast : 1. Olbia, in the north, the only really good har 
 bor on this side of the island, and where the Roman magistrates landed. Traces 
 remain near the modern Terra Nova. 2. Cochlearia, to the south, now Porto 
 Pedrami. 3. Luquido, to the southwest, some distance inland, with a port 
 called Portus Luquidonis. It is now Lugodor. 4. Feronia, to the southeast, 
 now Monte Santo. 5. Saralapis, to the southwest, near the River Saprus; now 
 a village named Burgus occupies its site. 6. Scarcdpos, to the southeast, at 
 the mouth of the Saprus, now Sarabus or Scarabo. 
 
 On the southern side : 1 . Cardlis, the capital of the island, founded by the 
 Carthaginians, and now Cagliari. In fact, however, the modern Cagliari an 
 swers only to a part of its site, since the ancient city is said to have extended 
 in a long line toward the Caralitanum Promontorium. Its harbor, which afforded 
 a good shelter against the winds and waves, rendered it always a place of im 
 portance. The bay in front was called Sinus Caralitanus, now the Gulf of Cag 
 liari. 2. Biora or Biotha, to the southwest, the ruins of which are seen near the 
 village of Vras. 3. Nora, east of Sulci, on the coast, now Torre Forcadizo. 
 
 On the western coast : 1. Sulci, a Carthaginian settlement of note, the ruins 
 of which are in the vicinity of the village of Sulci, on the harbor of Palma di 
 Solo. Others, however, make it to have been on the island Plumbaria, now 
 Antioco, where extensive remains still exist, and where in 1819 an inscription 
 was found in which Sulci is styled a Roman municipium. 2. Neapolis, to the 
 north, now Neapoli. 3. Comus, to the north, near the River Termus, and the 
 capital of the free Sards. It was a strongly fortified place, and lay among the 
 mountains. The ruins on Monte Santo appear to indicate its site. 4. Turris 
 Libyssonis, a considerable distance above, where the coast faces the northwest ; 
 
406 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 now Porto Torre. 5. Tibula, to the northeast, the landing place from Corsica, 
 now Porto Longo Sardo. 
 
 In the interior, the only places worth mentioning are, 1. Lesa, to the north 
 west, with its baths, called Aqua Lesitana. 2. Forum Trajani, to the north 
 west, now Fordongiu.no. 
 
 VII. ILLYRICUM. 
 
 I. THE name of Illyrians appears to have been common to the numerous tribes 
 which were anciently in possession of the countries situated to the west of 
 Macedonia, and which extended along the coast of the Adriatic, from the con 
 fines of Istria and Italy to the borders of Epirus. 
 
 II. Still farther north, and more inland, we find them occupying the great 
 valleys of the Savus and Dravus, which were only terminated by the junction 
 of those streams with the Danube. This large tract of country under the Ro 
 man emperors constituted the provinces of Illyricum and Pannonia. 
 
 (A.) HISTORICAL SKETCH. 
 
 I. ANTIQUITY has thrown but little light on the origin of the Illyrians, nor are 
 we acquainted with the language and customs of the barbarous hordes of which 
 the great body of the nation was composed. Their warlike habits, however,, 
 and the peculiar practice of puncturing their bodies, which is mentioned by 
 Strabo as being in use also among the Thracians, might lead us to connect them 
 with that widely-extended people. It appears evident that they were a totally 
 different race from the Celts, since Strabo carefully distinguishes them from 
 the Gallic tribes which were incorporated with them. 
 
 II. The Illyrians appear to have spread themselves at a very early period 
 along the Italian shores of the Adriatic, as we have already mentioned in our 
 remarks on Italy. At a later day we find them frequently engaged in hostili 
 ties with the princes of Macedon, to whom their warlike spirit Tendered them 
 formidable neighbors. Their rising power was checked, however, by Philip 
 and his son Alexander, although they still asserted their independence against 
 the Macedonian kings. 
 
 III. The conquest of Illyria by the Romans led the way to the first interfe 
 rence of Rome in the affairs of Greece, and an account of the events which 
 then took place may be found detailed in the pages of Polybius. When Illyria 
 became a Roman province it was divided into three portions ; but it received 
 afterward a considerable accession of territory on the reduction of the Dalma 
 tians, lapydes, and other petty nations, by Augustus, these being included from 
 that period within its boundaries. So widely, indeed, were the frontiers of Il 
 lyricum extended under the Roman emperors, that they were made to comprise 
 the three great districts of Noricum, Pannonia, and Mcesia. 
 
 (B.) BOUNDARIES, &c. 
 
 ILLYRICUM may be considered as divided into Illyria Barbara or Romana, and 
 Illyria Graca. The former comprised the country lying between the River 
 Arsia, now Arsa ; the Savus, now Save, and its tributary the Drmus, now Drina ; 
 the Adriatic, and the Drilo, now Drino Bianoho; together with the islands along 
 the shore. It was divided into lapydia, Liburnia, and Dalmatia. The country 
 called Illyria Graca, added to Macedonia by Philip, the father of Alexander, ex 
 tended from the Drilo to the Adus, now the Vojussa. 
 
ILLYRICUM. 407 
 
 I. ILLYRIA BARBARA, OR ROMANA. 
 
 (A.) MOUNTAINS. 
 
 1. Albius Mons, forming the extremity of the great Alpine chain, and answer 
 ing to the great and small Capella, near the Lugeiis Lacus, now the Czirknitz 
 Sec, where the territory of the lapydes commenced. 2. Bebii Monies, separa 
 ting Liburnia and Dalmatia from Pannonia. 3. Adrius Mons, called also Ardius 
 and Ardion, dividing Dalmatia lengthwise ; now Tartari. 4. Scardus or Scor- 
 dus, forming the natural boundary of Illyria on the side of Macedonia. It was 
 connected on the north with the great chain extending from the head of the 
 Adriatic to the Euxine, and so well known in ancient times under the names 
 of Orbelus, Rhodopc, and Hamus, while to the south its prolongations assumed 
 the appellation of Pindus. It is now Tchar Dagh. 
 
 (B.) RIVERS. 
 
 I. Arsia, now Arsa, the boundary of Italy on the east, after Histria had been 
 added to that country by Augustus. 2. Teddnius, the boundary of lapydia, 
 and now the Zermagna. 3. Titius, the boundary between Liburnia and Dalma 
 tia, now the Kerka. 4. Ndro, now the Narenta, rising in what are now the 
 mountains of Bosnia, and falling into the sea opposite the island of Lesina. 5. 
 Drilo, now the Drino. This river is formed principally by the junction of two 
 streams, the one distinguished in modern geography by the name of Drino Bi- 
 ancho, or "the White Drino," rising in the chain of Djamous Dagh, anciently 
 Mons Bertiscus ; the other called the Drino Nero, or " Black Drino," flowing 
 from the south, out of the great Lake of Ochrida, the ancient Lychmtis Palus, 
 and uniting with the former after a course of nearly sixty miles. 6. Clausula, 
 uniting with the Barbdna, below the town of Scodra, the capital of Gentius, after 
 which the united stream takes the common name of Oriuns. The Clausula is 
 now the Drivasti. 
 
 (C.) TRIBES ON THE COAST. 
 
 I. THE first tribe on the coast, to the southeast of Histria, were the lapydes 
 or lapodes. They occupied an extent of coast of more than a thousand stadia, 
 from the River Arsia to the neighborhood of what is now Zara, a district which 
 forms part of the present Morlachia. In the interior, their territory was spread 
 along Mount Albius. They were a people of warlike spirit, and were not sub 
 dued until the time of Augustus. 
 
 II. The Liburni, who followed next on the coast, are much more spoken of 
 in history. They appear to have been a maritime people from the earliest times, 
 as they communicated their name to the vessels called Liburna by the Romans. 
 The Greeks, who colonized Corcyra, are said on their arrival in that island to 
 have found it in their possession. Strabo makes them to have extended along 
 the coast for upward of fifteen hundred stadia. Their country was called Li- 
 burnia. 
 
 III. DalmatcE. These follow after the Liburni, and give name to Dalmatia. 
 No mention is made of them by the Greek writers, but they acquired a decided 
 ascendency over the Ardiai, Plerai, Labeates, and other neighboring tribes. The 
 Dalmat(E were not easily conquered by the Romans ; they often revolted, and 
 not unfrequently obtained advantages over their enemies. Augustus at length 
 accomplished their subjugation. According to Appian, he concluded the war 
 in person before he became emperor. 
 
 IV. Labeates, whoso territory constituted the principal part of the dominions 
 of Gentius. 
 
408 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 (D.) CITIES OF THESE TRIBES. 
 
 AMONG the lapydes we find, 1. Metulum, their principal town, taken by Au 
 gustus after an obstinate defence. Its site remains at present unknown, al 
 though some are in favor of the modern Metling. 2. Arupenum, south of the 
 place now called Modrush. 3. Vendum, now Vendo. 
 
 Among the Liburni we find, 1. ladera, a city of some note, and a Roman col 
 ony, the ruins of which are still to be seen near the modern town of Zara, on 
 the spot called Zara Vecchia. 2. Scardona, the capital of the Liburni, on the 
 Lacus Scardonius, and now Scardin. The national council of the Liburni was 
 held here. 
 
 Among the Dalmata we find, 1. Tragurium, a sea-port, now Trau, and, in 
 Sclavonian, Troghie. 2. Salon or Salona, to the northeast, now Salona, and in 
 ancient times the principal harbor of Dalmatia. It was always considered an 
 important post by the Romans after their conquest of the country. At Aspald- 
 thos, the modern Spalatro, about three miles from Salona, are to be seen the 
 ruins of Diocletian s palace. According to Zosimus, Diocletian was born here. 
 3. Epetium, belonging to the Issai, to the southeast, now Stobrea, at the mouth 
 of the Xernovnissa. 4. Narona, to the southeast, on a branch of the River Naro. 
 It was a Roman colony of some note, and its ruins should be sought for in the 
 vicinity of Castel Norin. 5. Del-minium or Dalminium, inland to the northeast, 
 and from which the Dalmatae probably derived their name. 6. Epidaurus, to 
 the southeast, the name of which leads to the supposition that it was a Grecian 
 colony. It is now Eagusa Vecchia, a little south of Ragusa, which last was 
 built by those who fled from the old town at the irruption of the Sclavonians. 
 7. Rhizon, at the northern extremity of the Sinus Rhizonicus, or Bocca di Cat- 
 taro. It is now Risano. Rhizon is mentioned by Polybius as a strong place, 
 to which Teuta, queen of the Illyrians, withdrew on being attacked by the Ro 
 mans. 8. Butua or Buthoe, the foundation of which was ascribed to Cadmus, 
 who, with his wife Harmonia, abandoned Thebes late in life, and ended his days 
 on the shores of Illyria. It was situate among the Enchelees. 
 
 Among the Labcdtes we find, 1. Scodra, the capital of Gentius, situate between 
 the rivers Clausula and Barbdna. Its present site is evidently not precisely 
 the same as that of the modern Scutari, but it must have been situate on the 
 site of the present fortress, near the junction of the two rivers. It was a place 
 of great strength. 2. Medeon, to which Gentius removed his wife and family. 
 It is now Medani. 3. Lissus, near the mouth of the Drilo, with a fortress called 
 Acrolissus. Diodorus Siculus makes it to have been founded by some Syracu- 
 sans, in the time of Dionysius the elder. Caesar makes frequent mention of 
 this place during the progress of the civil war carried on by him in Illyricum. 
 The site of Acrolissus answers to that of the modern Alessio. 
 
 (E.) TRIBES IN THE INTERIOR. 
 
 WE now pass to the interior of Illyricum, which Strabo describes as a cold 
 and mountainous country, where the vine was rarely seen to grow. This ex 
 tensive tract was occupied by several tribes of Illyrian origin, though they are 
 more commonly known to the Roman writers under the generic term of Pan- 
 nonii. Among these tribes we may notice, 1. The Scordisci, a numerous and 
 powerful people, reaching as far as the Danube, and who, having successively 
 subdued the several nations around them, extended their dominion from the 
 borders of Thrace to the Adriatic. They were reduced by the Romans only 
 after numerous struggles and much bloodshed. 2. The Dardani, more to tho 
 south, occupying the upper valleys of the Drilo, and spreading to the borders 
 
ILLYRICUM. 409 
 
 of Pseonia and Macedonia. They were often at war with the latter power, more 
 particularly under the reigns of its last two monarchs. Their territory corre 
 sponds to part of the modern Pachalik of Scutari. Strabo describes them as a 
 savage race, living mostly in caves formed out of mud and dirt, and yet pos 
 sessing great taste for music, having from the earliest period been acquainted 
 with both wind and stringed instruments. 3. The Autariata. According to 
 Strabo, these were once the bravest and most numerous of the Illyrian clans. 
 They conquered the Triballi, a people of Thrace, who occupied a very extensive 
 territory south of the Danube, but were at length subdued themselves by the 
 Scordisci. 
 
 II. ILLYRIS GR^ECA. 
 
 I. THIS country forms a more interesting portion of Illyricum than that which 
 has just been described, and is more immediately connected with Greece by 
 means of the colonies which that country at an early period had established on 
 these shores. It is now wholly comprised in the Turkish province of Albania, 
 and is a mountainous tract. Along the coast it occupied an extent of nearly 
 ninety miles from the mouth of the Drilo to the Acroceraunian Mountains and 
 the confines of Chaonia. 
 
 II. Among the tribes inhabiting this country, independently of the Greek col 
 onists, we may name the Taulantii, Parthini, Dassaretii, Pirustce, &c. 
 
 III. Illyris GrcEca was wrested from Queen Teuta by the Romans, in the first 
 Illyrian war, and subsequently, as a part of the Eastern Empire, bore the name 
 of Ep irus Nova. At a later period it was overrun by the Visigoths. The Bul 
 garians afterward erected here an empire, with Akrida, the ancient Lychmdus, 
 as its capital. During these invasions of their country, the Illyrians took to the 
 mountains, where they united under the name of Albdni, and became a power 
 ful nation, formidable to the Eastern empire, and possessed themselves of Dar- 
 ddnia, the whole of Epirus, and all the mountains up to Macedonia. 
 
 , CITIES OF ILLYRIS 
 1. Epidamnus, in the territory of the Taulantii, an important and flourishing 
 city, founded by the Corcyreans. It changed its name subsequently to Dyr- 
 rhachium, but for what reason is not known. According to some, the Romans 
 made the change because Epidamnus conveyed to their ears an ill-omened sound. 
 The more correct explanation, however, appears to be, that the founders of 
 Epidamnus gave the name of Dyrrhachium to the high and craggy peninsula on 
 which they built their town ; and in time this may have usurped the place of 
 the former name. It is probable, also, from the language of Pausanias, that the 
 town called Dyrrhachium did not exactly occupy the site of the ancient Epidam 
 nus. Epidamnus successfully withstood all the attacks of the neighboring bar 
 barians, until dissension and faction weakened its power. It then sought aid 
 from the Corcyreans as well against domestic as foreign enemies. Corcyra 
 having refused, Corinth was next applied to, which gladly sought this opportu 
 nity of increasing its influence at the expence of Corcyra. A quarrel thereupon 
 arose between the Corcyreans and Corinthians, which was intimately connected 
 with the origin of the Peloponnesian war. We know but little of the fortunes 
 of Epidamnus from this period to its conquest by the Romans. Dyrrhachium, 
 as it was called under the Roman sway, became the scene of the contest be 
 tween Caesar and Pompey, until the latter, who had been sought to be blockaded 
 in his intrenched camp close to the town, at length succeeded in forcing his 
 opponent to retire, and was thus enabled to transfer the seat of war to Thessaly. 
 
410 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Dyrrhachium was also of importance to the Romans, besides its strong situation, 
 from its vicinity to Brundisium. Cicero landed there on his banishment from 
 Italy. It sided with Antony in the civil war, and hence Augustus, after his 
 victory, rewarded his soldiers with estates in its territories. The Byzantine 
 historians speak of it as being still a considerable place in their time ; but it is 
 now scarcely more than a village, which is rendered unhealthy by its proximity 
 to some marshes. Its modern name is Durazzo. 
 
 Passing the River Geniisus, now the Scambi or Tobi, and the Apsus, about 
 twelve or fifteen miles to the south of this, now the Ergcnt or Bcratino, and 
 memorable from the military operations of Caesar and Pompey on its banks, 
 we come to, 2. Apollonia, a celebrated colony of Corinth and Corcyra, situate 
 near the mouth of the Aous, one of the largest rivers of Greece, and now the 
 Vojussa. It was renowned for the wisdom of its laws, which appear to have 
 been framed on the Spartan rather than the Corinthian model. Apollonia was 
 often exposed to attacks from the Illyrians, and also from the Macedonians ; and 
 it was probably the dread of such powerful neighbors which induced it to place 
 itself under the protection of the Romans, on the first appearance of that people 
 on its coast. From its proximity to Brundisium and Hydruntum, ports in Lower 
 Italy, Apollonia was always deemed an important station by the Romans. Au 
 gustus spent many years of his early life in this city, in the study of literature 
 and philosophy. The ruins still bear the name of Pollina. In the territory of 
 Apollonia was a place called Nymphaum, famed for a mine of asphaltum. 
 
 3. Oricus or Oricum, a celebrated town and harbor, at the head of the bay, now 
 called the Gulf of Valona, from the city of Valona, the ancient Aulon. Oricum 
 was much frequented by the Romans in their communication with Greece. Its 
 site is marked by the modern Ericho. 4. Amantia, at some distance from the 
 coast, above Oricum, and said to have been founded by the Abantes of Eubcea, 
 on their return from Troy. Its name, according to this account, was at first 
 Abantia. It became a town of some note under the Roman sway. The ruins 
 are near the modern village of Nivitza. 5. Byllis, in the vicinity of Apollonia 
 and Amantia, and a city of some note. It became a Roman colony under the 
 name of Colonia Byllidensis. Its site is supposed to have been near the modern 
 Gradista, on the right bank of the Vojussa, the ancient Aous. 
 
 In the interior of Grecian Illyria, several obscure and petty nations occur, of 
 whose limits we can form no precise idea, though their relative position may 
 be ascertained with sufficient accuracy for the purposes of history. Of these 
 we may mention the following : 
 
 I. The Parthini, who may be placed to the north, in the vicinity of Epidamnus, 
 and next to the Taulantii. They are often mentioned in the course of the II- 
 lyrian war, but as friends rather than as foes of the Romans, having submitted 
 at an early period to their arms. Their principal town was Parihus, taken by 
 Caesar in the course of his campaign against Pompey. It was probably not far 
 removed from the modern Presa and Croja. In the vicinity of the Parthini, if 
 not included within their territory, was Dimallum, a fortress of some conse 
 quence, occupying, probably, a position between Lissus and Epidamnus, on the 
 spot now called Malosse, near the small town of Ichin. 
 
 II. The Pcrisadii, in the vicinity of the Parthini. III. The Sesarethii, or in 
 habitants of Scsarcthus, a town, some traces of the name of which are still ap 
 parent in that of a small village called Sersdit. Strabo mentions a place named 
 Damastium as being also in their territory, and possessing valuable silver mines. 
 IV. The Albani, whose chief town was Albanopolis. This obscure people would 
 hardly deserve notice were it not for the connection between them and the mod- 
 
ILLYRICUM. 411 
 
 ern Albanians, who are not, however, confined within the narrow limits of their 
 ancestors, as they now extend over the whole of ancient Epirus also. 
 
 V. The Dassarctii, contiguous to the Albani and Parthini, and occupying the 
 shores of the Palus Lychnitis, now the Lake of Ochrida, together with the mount 
 ains that surround it. Frequent mention is made of them by Polybius and 
 Livy in their narratives of the Macedonian wars, since their country, from its 
 situation on the Macedonian borders of Illyria, often became the scene of hos 
 tilities between the contending armies. The principal town was Lychnldus or 
 Lychnidium, on the Palus Lychmlis, a place of great importance from its situa 
 tion on the frontier, especially after the great Egnatian Way passed through it. 
 Under the Greek emperors it appears to have been still a large and populous 
 town. The ruins of this place are still apparent near the monastery of St. Naum 
 or Nahau?i, about fourteen miles to the south of the modern Ochrida. 
 
 The Palus Lychnitis, formed principally by the waters of the Drino Nero, is 
 about twenty miles in length and eight in breadth. Strabo says it abounded 
 in fish, which were salted for the use of the inhabitants in the vicinity. We 
 collect from Livy that the country of the Dassarctii was in general fertile in 
 corn, and well calculated to support an army. It was also very populous. 
 
 On the Macedonian border, and commanding the pass leading into that coun 
 try, was Pelwn, a place of considerable importance from its situation, and of 
 which Arrian speaks at some length in his relation of an attack made upon it 
 by Alexander. Arrian does not state that it belonged to the Dassaretii, but 
 we learn this from Livy. The site of this place must have been near the mod 
 ern town of Bichlistas. 
 
 VI. The Pcncstce appear to have possessed a considerable tract of mountain 
 ous country, to the north of the Dassarctii, and extending to the east as far as 
 the frontier of Macedonia, while on the west and northwest it almost reached 
 to the Labeates and the dominions of Gentius. Their principal city was Uscdna, 
 a place of some extent and importance, since it contained ten thousand inhab 
 itants. Its site must have been near Isturga and Dibre, in the valley of the 
 Drino. 
 
 ISLANDS OF ILLYRICUM. 
 
 t. Absyrtidcs Insula, already mentioned in the description of Italy (page 288). 
 They were four in number, and lay off the Promontorium Polaticum. 2. Curicta 
 or Curiacte, to the northeast of the preceding, and now Veglia, in which Ptolemy 
 places the towns of Fulsinium and Curictum. 3. Scardona, to the southeast of 
 the Absyrtides, and now Arbc, a name which it derives from Arba, one of its 
 ancient towns, now Arbc. Another town was called Ccllentum. 4. Liburmdes 
 Insulcz, the Liburnian Islands, forty in number, in what is now the Zara Chan 
 nel. The largest of these is Lissa, now Isola Grossa. 5. Cratca Insula, to 
 gether with Proteras and Olynta, now Solta, in the Solta Channel. 6. Colentum, 
 now Mortero. 
 
 The islands along the coast of Dalmatia were more important by their size 
 or their commerce : they are, 1. Bavo or Boas, still called Bua, joined to the 
 town of Tragurium by an embankment. It was fruitful in oil, wine, &c., and 
 was likewise a place of banishment. 2. Brattia, now Brazzo, valued for its 
 goats cheese and wine, the best in Dalmatia. 3. Issa, with its Greek settle 
 ments, famous for the Issaici Icmbi, a sort of light craft. It is now Lissa. This 
 island became a constant station for the Roman galleys in the wars with the 
 kings of Macedon. Athenaeus states that its wine was very much esteemed. 
 4. Pharos, colonized from the island of Paros in the ^Egean. It is now Lessina. 
 
412 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 5. Corcyra Nigra, in Greek M&aiva, or " Black Corcyra," to distinguish it from 
 the more celebrated island of the same name. It is now Curzola. Apollonius 
 accounts for the epithet applied to it from the dark masses of wood with which 
 it was crowned. 7. Melita, now Meleda, must not be confounded with the more 
 famous island so called, which answers to Malta. It is to the Illyrian Melita, 
 and not to the other island just mentioned, that we must refer the shipwreck 
 of St. Paul. The similarity in the names of these islands has also given rise 
 to another dispute, though of a less interesting nature, namely, which furnished 
 the Catuli Melit&i, so much esteemed by the Roman ladies. Pliny, on the au 
 thority of Callimachus, and Stephanus Byzantinus pronounce in favor of the 
 Illyrian Melita, Strabo in favor of the other. 8. Tauris, now Torkola, where Va- 
 tinius, Caesar s admiral, routed Cn. Octavius. 9. Sdso, at the entrance of what 
 is now the Gulf of Valona, was, according to Scylax, near the Acroceraunian 
 Mountains, and within one third of a day s sail from Oricum. It is now Sasseno. 
 
 VIII. EPIRUS. 
 
 1. NAME. 
 
 I. Epirus (fjireipoc;) , or " mainland," was a name given at a 
 very early period to that northwestern portion of Greece which 
 is situate between the chain of Pindus and the Ionian Gulf, 
 and between the Ceraunian Mountains and the River Achelous. 
 
 II. This name was given to the country in question to dis 
 tinguish it probably from the large, populous, and wealthy isl 
 and of Corcyra, which lay opposite to the coast. As it ap 
 pears, however, that in very ancient times Acarnania was also 
 included in the term, the name, in that case, might have been 
 used in opposition to all the islands lying along the coast. 
 
 2. BOUNDARIES. 
 
 Epirus, in the later sense of the name, was bounded on the 
 east by Thessaly, from which it was separated by the range of 
 Mount Pindus ; on the west by the Ionian Sea ; on the north 
 by Illyricum and Macedonia ; and on the south by Acarnania. 
 
 3. HISTORICAL SKETCH. 
 
 I. THE inhabitants of Epirus were scarcely considered Hellenic. The popu 
 lation, in early times, had been Pelasgic. The oracle at Dodona was always 
 called Pelasgic, and many names of places in Epirus were also borne by the 
 Pelasgic cities of the opposite coast of Italy. But irruptions of Illyrians had 
 barbarized the whole nation ; and though Herodotus speaks of Thesprotia as a 
 part of Hellas, he refers rather -to its old condition, when it was a celebrated 
 seat of the Pelasgians, than to its state at the time when he wrote his history. 
 In their mode of cutting the hair, in their costume, and in their language, the 
 Epirotes resembled the Macedonians, who were an Illyrian tribe. 
 
 II. Theopompus, as quoted by Strabo, divided the inhabitants of Epirus into 
 fourteen different tribes, of which the most renowned were the Chaonians and 
 
EPIRUS. 413 
 
 Molossians, who successively maintained a preponderance in this district. The 
 Molossians claimed descent from Molossus, the son of Neoptolemus and An 
 dromache. Neoptolemus is said to have migrated from Thessaly into Epirus 
 after the Trojan war, and to have settled there in obedience to the injunctions 
 of an oracle. We hear nothing of his descendants till the time of Themisto- 
 cles, who was hospitably received by Admetus, king of the Molossians, while 
 flying as a persecuted exile from the reach of his enemies. 
 
 III. The other kings of the Molossians are mentioned between this period 
 and the time of Philip of Macedon, when this kingdom rose into importance by 
 the matrimonial connection of Alexander of Epirus with the King of Macedon. 
 Philip married Alexander s sister, Olympias, and gave him his daughter Cleo 
 patra in marriage. Alexander was the first of the Molossian princes who bore 
 the title of King of Epirus. He invaded Italy, to assist the Tarentines against 
 the Bruttii and Lucani, but was slain near Pandosia. 
 
 IV. After the death of Alexander, ^Eacides and Alcetas, the sons of his prede 
 cessor Arybas, successively mounted the throne. Pyrrhus is the best known, 
 however, of the sovereigns of Epirus. The family of Pyrrhus became extinct 
 three generations after his death, and the government was turned into a repub 
 lic, which subsisted till the year 167 B.C., when the Epirotes were suspected 
 of favoring Perseus of Macedon, and utter destruction was inflicted upon them 
 by the Roman general Paulus JEmilius. He is said to have destroyed seventy 
 towns, and reduced to slavery one hundred and fifty thousand of the inhabitants, 
 after which the greater part of the country remained in a state of absolute des 
 olation, and where there were any inhabitants they had nothing but villages 
 and ruins to dwell in. 
 
 V. Of the other Epirotic nations, the Thesprotians were most celebrated. 
 They are mentioned by Homer, who does not name the Chaonians and Molos 
 sians, and are considered by Herodotus to have been the progenitors of the 
 Thessalians. In their territory were the oracle of Dodona, the old city of Ephy- 
 ra, and the rivers Acheron and Cocytus, celebrated in the old mythology. It 
 is not possible to draw accurately boundary lines of the district occupied by 
 these three tribes of the Epirots : it is known that the Chaonians occupied the 
 northern district, and the Molossians the southern, while the Thesprotian terri 
 tory lay in the middle. Epirus is now included in the Pachalik of Albania. 
 
 3. MOUNTAINS. 
 
 1. Acroceraunii Mantes, a chain stretching along the coast of Northern Epirus, 
 and forming part of the boundary between it and Illyricum. The name was 
 derived from the circumstance of the summits of these mountains (<kpa) being 
 often struck by lightning (/ccpawdf ), especially that portion which extended be 
 yond Oricum, and formed a bold promontory called the Acroceraunium Promon- 
 torium, now Cape Linguetta. This part of the coast was famed as the seat of 
 storms and tempests, which the mariners of antiquity believed were attracted 
 by these mountains. Augustus narrowly escaped shipwreck here when return 
 ing from Actium. The Greek name of the range was AitpoKEpavvta (soil. opn). 
 The modern name is Monti Delia Chimera. 
 
 2. Pindus (6 Uivdor), an elevated chain separating Epirus from Thessaly, and 
 the waters falling into the Ionian Sea and Ambracian Gulf from those streams 
 which discharge themselves into the yEgean. Toward the north it joined the 
 great Illyrian and Macedonian ranges of Bora and Scardus, while to the south 
 it was connected with the ramifications of QEta, and the ^Etolian and Acarna- 
 nian Mountains. The most frequent passage from Northern Epirus into Thes- 
 
414 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 saly appears to have led over that part of the chain of Pindus to which the name 
 of Mons Cercctius was attached. The range of Pindus was sacred to the Muses. 
 The modern name is Agrapha. 
 
 3. Tomarus or Tamarus Mons, called also Tmdrus (Td/zapof, Ta/zapof, T//upof), 
 on the declivity or else at the foot of which stood the oracle of Dodona. It ap 
 pears to answer to the modern Mount Chamouri. This lofty mountain was re 
 markable for the number of springs which burst from its sides. Holland, less 
 correctly, makes it coincide with the modern Tzumerka. 
 
 4. RIVERS. 
 
 1. Acheron (6 A^epcjv), rising in the mountains to the west of the chain of 
 Pindus, and falling into the Ionian Sea near Glykys Limen (FAu/cuf AJ/^V). In 
 the early part of its course it forms the Palus Acherusia, and after emerging 
 from this sheet of water, disappears under ground, from which it again rises 
 and pursues its course toward the sea. D Anville, misled by Thucydides, places 
 the Palus Acherusia directly on the coast. Pausanias, more correctly, assigns 
 it a position in the interior of Thesprotis. The modern Parga lies a short dis 
 tance above the mouth of the Acheron, which is now known by the name of 
 the Souli. The gloomy scenery on the banks of this river, which is still noticed 
 by modern travellers, gave rise to the fable of its communicating with the realms 
 of Pluto, who, under the name of Aidoneus, was said to have once reigned on 
 its shores. 
 
 2. Celydnus, falling into what is now the Gulf of Valona, a little above Oricum. 
 Ptolemy says that it formed in his time the southern limit of Macedonia. 
 
 3. Thydmis, now the Calama, a large stream, which, according to Thucydi 
 des, anciently divided Thesprotia from a particular district called Cestrinc, con 
 tiguous to Ckaonia, and therefore lying along its right bank. The historian 
 Phylarchus, as Athenaeus reports, affirmed that the Egyptian bean was never 
 known to grow out of Egypt, except in a marsh close to this river, and then 
 only for a short period. It appears from Cicero that Atticus had an estate on 
 the banks of the Thyamis. 
 
 4. Arachthus or Arethon ("Apa^flof or Apeftjf ), called by Lycophron the Ar&thus 
 (*Apcu0of), rising in that part of the chain of Pindus which belonged to the an 
 cient Tymphai, and flowing by Ambracia into the Sinus Ambracius. It is now 
 the Arta, which is the modern name also of the town that marks the site of an 
 cient Ambracia. 
 
 5. PRODUCTIVENESS, &c. 
 
 I. EPIRUS, though in many respects wild and mountainous, was esteemed a 
 rich and fertile country. Its pastures produced the finest oxen, and horses 
 unrivalled for their speed. It was also famous for a large breed of dogs, thenoe 
 called Molossi, and modern travellers have noticed the size and ferocity of these 
 dogs at the present day. 
 
 II. The climate of Albania, in modern times, is colder than that of Greece ; 
 the spring does not set in before the middle of March ; the vintage begins in 
 September, and the heavy rains during December are succeeded in January by 
 some days of frosty weather. The inhabitants cultivate cotton and silk ; but 
 the olive, for want of proper care, does not yield an abundant harvest. The 
 horses of the country are still excellent ; but the oxen have degenerated, being 
 now small, stunted, and ill shaped. 
 
E p i R u s. 415 
 
 6. DIVISIONS OF EPIRUS. 
 
 I. The ancients, as already remarked, divided Epirus into three districts or 
 regions, namely, Chaonia, Thesprotia, and Molossis. 
 
 II. Chaonia comprehended that northwestern part of Epirus which bordered 
 on the territory of Oricum, Amantia, and still more to the east on the country 
 of the Atintdnes, while it extended along the coast of the Ionian Sea from the 
 Acroceraunian promontory to the harbor of Buthrdtum, opposite the island of 
 Corcyra. 
 
 III. Thesprotia was mainly situated between the rivers Thyamis and Acheron, 
 now the Calama and Souli, while inland it extended beyond the source of the 
 former to the banks of the A ous. 
 
 IV. Molossis occupied the northeastern portion of Epirus ; that is, from the 
 head of the Adus, and the mountainous district which connected Macedonia, 
 Thessaly, and Epirus, to the Ambracian Gulf, a small portion of the shores of 
 which was considered to belong to it. Molossis, therefore, must have compre 
 hended the territory of Joanina, the present capital of Albania, together with 
 its lake and mountains, including the country of the Tymphai, which bordered 
 on that part of Thessaly lying near the sources of the Peneus. 
 
 7. CITIES OF EPIRUS. 
 
 (A.) 
 
 1. On the Chaonian coast, south of the Acroceraunian promontory, is the little 
 harbor of Palaste, where Caesar landed his forces from Brundisium, in order to 
 carry on the war against Pompey in Illyricum. Some trace of the ancient name 
 is perceptible in that of the modern Paleassa, about twenty-five miles south of 
 the Acroceraunian Cape. 2. Chimera, to the south, now Chimara, and which 
 communicates its name to the Acroceraunian Mountains, at the foot of which 
 it stands. Hence, also, that of Chimariots given to the inhabitants. 3. Panor- 
 mus, a harbor lower down on the coast, now Panormo. 4. Onchesmus, opposite 
 the northeastern extremity of Corcyra. Cicero seems to refer to this port 
 when he speaks of the wind Onchesmites as having favored his navigation from 
 Epirus to Brundisium. Onchesmus appears to agree now with the town of 
 Agioi Saranta, or the forty saints. 5. Cassiope Portus, to the south, and so 
 called from its vicinity to a port and town of the same name in Corcyra. 
 
 There are but few towns to be pointed out in the interior of Chaonia, from 
 the country being so mountainous, and the population confined chiefly to vil 
 lages. Of these the most worthy of notice are, 1. Antigonca, so called from its 
 situation near a celebrated pass called Fauces Antigonea, in Greek ra iiapd TIJV 
 A.vTLy6veiav creva. It led from Illyria into Chaonia. The modern Argyr(, 
 Castro represents the ancient city. 2. Phanote, a fortress near Antigonea, but 
 separated from it by a chain of mountains. It corresponds to the modern Gar- 
 diki, a fortress of great strength, which once belonged to the Suliots, but which 
 was afterward taken and destroyed by Ali Pacha. 3. Phozriice, to the south of 
 the preceding, and nearer to the sea. Polybius describes it as surpassing all 
 the other cities of Epirus in opulence and importance, before it was, through the 
 treachery of some Gauls in the pay of the town, surprised and plundered by a 
 party of Illyrians. It still, however, continued to hold a distinguished rank 
 among the cities of Epirus, and it was here that peace was negotiated between 
 Philip of Macedon and the Romans in the second Punic war. It appears to 
 have escaped the destruction to which so many towns in Epirus wore doomed 
 by the decree of the senate. The ruins of this place are to be seen near Del- 
 
416 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 vino. 4. Hadndnopolis, situate, according to the Antonine Itinerary, fifty-five 
 miles to the southeast of Amantia, and lying also to the northeast of Phcenice. 
 It was apparently built in the reign of the Emperor Hadrian. According to Pro- 
 copius, it subsequently bore the name of Justinianopolis. A spot now called 
 Drinopolis appears to mark the ancient site. 
 
 (B.) THESPROTIA. 
 
 Resuming our description of the coast from the harbor of Cas-swpe, the first 
 point in maritime Thesprotia is the promontory Posidmm, now Coperta. A little 
 beyond is a narrow channel leading into a bay of some extent, thus forming 
 with the sea a peninsula, on which was situated the ancient town of, 1. Buthro- 
 tum. The outer bay and channel was named Pelbdes portus, or the muddy haven. 
 Buthrotum is now Butrinto. It was fabled to have been founded by Helenus, 
 son of Priam, after the death of Pyrrhus. Buthrotum was occupied by Caesar 
 in the civil wars, and was afterward colonized by the Romans. The river al 
 luded to by Virgil under the name of Xanthus falls into the Pelodes portus, a 
 little to the south of Butrinto. It is now called Saronia. 
 
 To Cestrine in this quarter we have already alluded. From Hesychius and 
 the scholiast on Aristophanes we learn that this part of Epirus was celebrated 
 for its breed of oxen, hence called Cestrinici. The name Larini, by which 
 these animals were also known, is said to have been derived from Larina, a 
 village of Epirus. Beyond the mouth of the Thyamis we come to, 2. the har 
 bor called Sybota, and also the little island of the same name, close to the main 
 land, and nearly opposite the southernmost promontory of Corcyra. These 
 islands are mentioned by Thucydides in his narrative of the collision between 
 the Corcyreans and Corinthians, just before the commencement of the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war. Following still the coast, we come to, 3. Toronc, a haven near 
 the modern Parga. According to Plutarch, the fleet of Augustus was moored 
 here for a short time previous to the battle of Actium. 4. Ephyre, in this same 
 vicinity, and at some distance from the sea, a city spoken of by Thucydides and 
 other ancient writers. Among these we must rank Homer, who, in several 
 passages of the Iliad and Odyssey, alludes to one or more cities of that name. 
 It appears to have been the capital of the ancient kings of Thesprotia. This 
 place afterward took the name of Cichyrus. The ruins of Ephyre are now to 
 be seen at no great distance from the Acherusian Lake, near a deserted con 
 vent dedicated to St. John. 
 
 Here terminates the description of maritime Thesprotia ; the remaining part 
 of the coast, as far as Ambracia, belonged to the Cassopcei, who are generally 
 considered to be a portion of the Molossi. As no towns of note seem to have 
 existed in the interior of Thesprotia, which was mountainous and rugged, there 
 is nothing else worthy of remark, with the exception of Dodona, the most an 
 cient oracle of Greece, and inferior in celebrity and importance to the Pythian 
 shrine alone. Many passages in the ancient writers ascribe this famed temple 
 to the Molossi, but it can not be doubted that it originally belonged to Thespro 
 tia. This is clearly stated, indeed, by Strabo, who observes that the tragic 
 poets, together with Pindar, bestow the epithet of Thesprotian on the temple, 
 and the god worshipped there. Subsequently, however, Dodona passed under 
 the dominion of the Molossians. It is somewhat remarkable, that, notwith 
 standing the frequent mention of this renowned oracle by the poets, geographers, 
 and historians of Greece, its site should, at the present day, have remained un 
 discovered. This is partly to be accounted for from the political change just 
 mentioned, and still moro from the imperfect knowledge which we have till 
 
EPIRUS. 417 
 
 lately possessed of the present state of Epirus, and its comparative geography. 
 It is universally allowed that this celebrated temple owed its origin to the Pe- 
 iasgi at a period much anterior to the Trojan war, since many writers represent 
 it as existing in the time of Deucalion, and even of Inachus. Herodotus dis 
 tinctly states that it was the most ancient oracle of Greece, and represents the 
 Pelasgi as consulting it on various occasions. Hence the title of Pelasgic as 
 signed to Jupiter, to whom the temple was dedicated. Setting aside the fables 
 which Herodotus has transmitted to us respecting Dodona and its doves, and 
 to which he evidently attached no belief, it appears from this author that in his 
 time the service of the temple was performed by females. Strabo, however, 
 asserts, that these duties were originally allotted to men, from the circumstance 
 of Homer s mention of the Selli as attendant upon the god. The responses of 
 the oracle were originally delivered from a sacred oak or beech. Its reputation 
 was at first confined to the inhabitants of Epirus, Acarnania, JStolia, and the 
 western parts of Greece, but its fame was afterward extended over the whole 
 of that country, and even to Asia, since we know that on one occasion the ora 
 cle was consulted by Croesus. The Boeotians were the only people who received 
 the prophetic answers from the mouth of men ; to all other nations they were 
 always communicated by the priestesses of the temple. Dodona was the first 
 station in Greece to which the offerings of the Hyperboreans were dispatched, 
 according to Herodotus. They arrived there from the Hadriatic, and were 
 thence passed on to the Sinus Maliacus. Among the several offerings pre 
 sented to the temple by various nations, one dedicated by the Corcyreans is 
 particularly noted. It was a brazen figure, placed over a cauldron of the same 
 metal ; this statue held in its hand a whip, the lash of which consisted of three 
 chains, each having an astragalus fastened to the end of it ; these, when agi 
 tated by the wind, struck the cauldron, and produced a sound so continued that 
 four hundred vibrations could be counted before it ceased. Hence arose the 
 various proverbs of the Dodonean cauldron and the Corcyrean lash. At length, 
 during the Social War, Dodona was, according to Polybius, almost entirely de 
 stroyed in an irruption of the ^Etolians, under their prsetor Dorimachus, then at 
 war with Epirus. " They set fire," says the historian, " to the porches, de 
 stroyed many of the offerings, and pulled down the sacred edifice." It is prob 
 able that the temple of Dodona never recovered from this disaster, as, in Stra- 
 bo s time, there was scarcely any trace left of the oracle ; but the town must 
 still have existed, as it is mentioned by Hierocles among the cities of Epirus 
 in the seventh century; and we hear of a bishop of Dodona in the Council of 
 Ephesus. Dodona stood either on the declivity or at the foot of Mount Tomarus, 
 and hence the name of Tomuri, supposed to be a contraction for Tomaruri (To- 
 fiapovpot), or guardians of Tomarus, which was given to the priests of the temple. 
 According to the most probable opinion, Tomarus answers to the modern Cha- 
 mouri, and if so, the remains of Dodona ought, according to Cramer, to be sought 
 on the shores of a small lake on the northeastern side of the mountain. Leake, 
 however, places the ancient site at the southeastern extremity of the Lake of 
 Joanina, near the modern Kastritza. For a full examination of the question, 
 the student is referred to that author s Travels in Northern Greece (vol. iv., p. 
 168, scqq.}, with which he may compare the remarks of Cramer (Anc. Greece, 
 vol. i., p. 121, seqq.) and Wordsworth (Hist, of Greece, p. 247, seqq.). 
 
 There is another question connected with this subject. It was the general 
 belief of the ancient readers of Homer that there were two Dodonas, one ir* 
 Thessaly, the other in Epirus ; the former situated in Perrhaebia, near Mount 
 Olympus. Stephanus Byzantinus enters fully into the discussion, and is in favor 
 
 DD 
 
418 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 of the existence of two places of this name ; and the same view is taken by 
 Ritter in modern times (Vorhalle, &c., Berlin, 1820). Leake, however, has 
 proved the position to be an untenable one. 
 
 (C.) MOLOSSIS. 
 
 1. Pandosia, not far removed from the Acheron and the Acherusian Lake, and 
 answering now, according to Leake, to Kastri. It was a colony of Elis, and 
 gave name to another Pandosia, in Italy, in the country of the Bruttii. Alex 
 ander, king of Epirus, was warned by the oracle of Dodona to avoid Pandosia 
 and the Acherusian water, and erroneously applied it to this his own Pandosia, 
 instead of that of Italy, where he received his fatal wound. 2. Buchcetiurn, Bu- 
 cheta, or Bucenta, close to the Acherusian Lake, and the remains of which are 
 now to be found at the harbor of St. John. 3. Nicopolis, situate on an isthmus, 
 on the coast, and answering now to Prevesa Vccchia. This place was founded 
 by Augustus in commemoration of the victory obtained by him at Actium, and 
 may be said to have arisen out of the ruins of all the surrounding cities in Epi 
 rus and Acarnania, and even as far as ^Etolia, which were compelled to con 
 tribute to its prosperity. So anxious, indeed, was Augustus to raise his new 
 colony to the highest rank among the cities of Greece, that he caused it to be 
 admitted among those states which sent deputies to the Amphictyonic assembly. 
 He also ordered games to be celebrated with great pomp every five years. 
 Having afterward fallen into decay, it was restored by the Emperor Julian. 
 
 The Molossi must have possessed several towns in the interior, since we are 
 told by Polybius that, out of the seventy Epirotic cities destroyed by Paulus 
 ^Emilius, the greater number belonged to this people. Few of these, however, 
 are named in history. The most celebrated was Passdron, which may be con 
 sidered as their capital, since Plutarch, in the life of Pyrrhus, reports that the 
 kings of Epirus convened here the solemn assembly of the whole nation, when, 
 after having performed the customary sacrifices, they took an oath that they 
 would govern according to the established laws ; and the people, in return, 
 swore to maintain the constitution and defend the kingdom. Cramer seeks to 
 identify it with some ruins near Joanina, in a south-southwest direction, and 
 about four hours from that city. Leake leaves the site uncertain. 
 
 Modern travellers have expressed some surprise that no mention is made in 
 history of the Lake of Joanina, and have even been led to suppose that this 
 considerable expanse of water could not have existed in ancient times. But 
 the truth is, that the present Lake of Joanina is the ancient Palus Pambotis 
 (Ila^fiwrif At/w/v) mentioned by Eustathius. He describes it as a lake having 
 an island in the middle, containing a remarkable hill, which was fortified by Jus 
 tinian, and to which he removed the inhabitants of the adjacent city of Euroea, 
 which was in a defenceless state. The fortress of Joanina now occupies the 
 site of Justinian s castle, and the city of Joanina that of the ancient Eurcea, in 
 all probability. 
 
 We must now close this description of Epirus with some account of the city 
 and republic of Arnbrdcia This celebrated city was situate on the banks of the 
 Arachthus or Arethon, a short distance from the waters of the Sinus Ambracius, 
 to which it gave name. It is said to have been founded by some Corinthians 
 headed by Tolgus or Torgus, who was either the brother or the son of Cypselus, 
 chief of Corinth. It early acquired maritime celebrity by reason of its advan 
 tageous position, and was a powerful and independent city toward the com 
 mencement of the Peloponnesian war, in which it espoused the cause of Co 
 rinth and Sparta. At a later period we find its independence threatened by 
 
CORCYRA. 419 
 
 Philip, who seems to have entertained the project of annexing it to the do 
 minions of his brother-in-law, Alexander, king of the Molossians. Whether it 
 actually fell into the power of that monarch is uncertain, but there can be no 
 doubt of its having been in the occupation of Philip, since the AmbraciotSj ac 
 cording to Diodorus Siculus, on the accession of Alexander the Great to the 
 throne, ejected the Macedonian garrison stationed in their city. Ambracia, how 
 ever, did not long enjoy the freedom which it thus regained, for, having fallen 
 into the hands of Pyrrhus, we are told that it was selected by that prince as his 
 usual place of residence. Many years after, being under the dominion of the 
 ./Etolians, who were at that time involved in hostilities with the Romans, it sus 
 tained a siege against the latter, almost unequalled in the annals of ancient war 
 fare for the gallantry and perseverance displayed in the defence of the place. 
 Ambracia at last opened its gates to the foe, and was stripped of all the statues 
 and pictures with which it had been so richly adorned by Pyrrhus. From this 
 time it sank into a state of insignificance, and Augustus, by transferring its 
 inhabitants to Nicopolis, completed its desolation. It stood near the modern 
 Arta, which town also gives its modern name to the Ambracian Gulf. 
 
 CORCYRA. 
 
 I. THIS celebrated island, which, from its vicinity to the coast 
 of E pirns, seems naturally to belong to this part of our subject, 
 was called by the Greeks KepKvpa. It is now Corfu. 
 
 II. It is said to have been first known by the name of jDre- 
 pane, perhaps from its resemblance in shape to a scythe (<5pe- 
 rrdvT)). To this name succeeded that of Scheria, always used 
 by Homer, and by which it was probably known in his time. 
 From the Odyssey we learn that this island was then inhabit 
 ed by Phseacians, a people who, even at that early period, had 
 acquired considerable skill in nautical affairs, and possessed ex 
 tensive commercial relations, since they traded with the Phoe 
 nicians, and also with Euboea and other countries. 
 
 HISTORICAL SKETCH. 
 
 I. HOMER S account leads us to suppose that the Phaeacians came from another 
 country, which he calls Hyperia, whence they had been expelled by their more 
 powerful neighbors the Cyclopes. But it is very difficult to determine to what 
 country he alludes. The commentators on the poet imagine that Sicily is meant, 
 from the circumstance of Camarlna, a city of that island, having once been called 
 Hyperia ; and also from the Cyclopes, according to Homer himself, having once 
 had their abode in Sicily. But it seems very improbable that the Phaeacians 
 would have removed to such a distance, and it may be doubted, also, whether 
 the Cyclopes were ever a real people. 
 
 II. It is more probable that the Phaeacians came from the continent of Illyria 
 or Epirus. Mannert thinks they were Liburnian Illyrians, and this is not un 
 likely, as we have seen that there was an island named Corcyra on their coast, 
 and they were certainly a seafaring people. But what is still more conclusive 
 is the fact mentioned by Strabo, that the Corinthians, when they colonized the 
 island, found it already occupied by the Liburni. Apollonius states that Cor- 
 
420 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 cyra had received a colony of Colchians before the arrival of the Corinthians. 
 Plutarch speaks also of an Eretrian colony ; but it is to Corinth that the im 
 portance of this settlement unquestionably belongs. 
 
 III. Strabo informs us that Archias, the founder of Syracuse, touched at Cor- 
 cyra, on his way from Corinth to Sicily, for the purpose of landing Chersicrates, 
 a descendant of the Heraclidse, with a force sufficient to expel the Liburni then 
 in possession of the island. The date of this event #iay be placed about 758 B.C. 
 So rapid was the increase and prosperity of this new colony, that we find it able 
 to cope with its opulent mother state not many years after its establishment, 
 when it defied the power of Periander, who then had the sovereign direction of 
 its affairs. 
 
 IV. At a later period we find Corcyra engaged in a quarrel with Corinth, on 
 the subject of Epidamnus. A war followed between the states, which was a 
 prelude to the great Peloponnesian war. Corcyra had at first the advantage, 
 and defeated the Corinthian fleet off Actium ; but the Corinthians being joined 
 by other states of the Peloponnesus, the Corcyreans had recourse to Athens, 
 which made a defensive alliance with them. The Corcyrean fleet of one hund 
 red and ten triremes, besides ten auxiliary Athenian ships, engaged with the 
 Corinthian fleet at the south entrance of the channel, near the coast of Thes- 
 protia. The fight ended in favor of the Corinthians, but the appearance of a 
 fresh Athenian squadron of twenty triremes induced them to return home. 
 After this, Corcyra was distracted by civil commotions between the aristocratic 
 and democratic factions, the former being favorable to the Peloponnesian or 
 Spartan alliance, and the latter to the Athenian. Atrocities were committed by 
 both, which ended in a general massacre of the aristocratic party, connived at 
 by the Athenian commander. This tragedy occurred B.C. 425. The island re 
 mained in alliance with the Athenians until the end of the war. 
 
 V. The name of Corcyra does not again appear in history until the time of 
 Cassander, when it was surprised and occupied for some time by Cleonymus, 
 king of Sparta, who infested the seas of Greece and Italy with a piratical fleet. 
 After his departure it was besieged by Cassander himself, at the head of a con 
 siderable squadron ; but Agathocles, tyrant of Syracuse, having come to the 
 assistance of the islanders, attacked the Macedonians, burned several of their 
 ships, and dispersed the remainder. Corcyra was afterward attacked by Pyrrhus, 
 when driven from the throne of Epirus by Ptolemy, king of Egypt. On the death 
 of that prince it regained its independence for a short time, but it soon fell into 
 the power of the Illyrians, from whom it subsequently passed to the Romans. 
 
 LOCALITIES OF CORCYRA. 
 
 Corcyra, the principal city of the island, was situate precisely where the mod 
 ern town of Corfu stands. Scylax speaks of three harbors, one of which was 
 remarkable for its beauty, and is probably that to which Thucydides gives the 
 name of Hyllaicus. Near it was the citadel, and the more elevated part of the 
 city. In the Middle Ages, the citadel obtained the name of Kopv(j>u, from its 
 two conical hills or crests, which appellation was in process of time applied to 
 the whole town, and finally to the island itself. Hence the modern name of 
 the city and island of Corfu, which is but a corruption of the former name. 
 
 To the north of the city of Corcyra was the town and port of Cassiope, which 
 has been already mentioned in speaking of the opposite coast of Epirus, where 
 there was a town of the same name. It is supposed to have derived its name 
 trom a temple consecrated to Jupiter Cassius. Suetonius relates, that Nero, 
 in a voyage made to this island, sang in public at the altar of the god. 
 
THRACIA. 421 
 
 Ptolemy also notices Cassiope, and near it a cape of the same name, Cas- 
 siope Promontorium, now Capo di Santa Caterina. The farthest point of the 
 island to the northwest bore the appellation of Phaldcrum Promontorium, now 
 Capo Drasti. More to the south, but on the same side, Ptolemy places a cape 
 which he calls Amphipdgus, answering, probably, to the modern Capo S. An- 
 gelo. The southernmost extremity of the island was named Leucimna, accord 
 ing to Thucydides, near which lay the islets called Sybota. The modern name 
 of the promontory is Capo Bianco. 
 
 Southeast of Corcyra are two small islands which bore anciently the common 
 name of Paxos, but are now distinguished as Paxo and Antipaxo. Polybius 
 speaks of a naval fight which took place in the vicinity between some Illyrian 
 ships and a combined fleet of Achaeans and Acarnanians, in which the latter 
 were defeated. Pliny says they were five miles distant from Corcyra. 
 
 IX. THRACIA. 
 
 1. NAIAIE, BOUNDARIES, &c. 
 
 1. Thracia (Qpanri) was in ancient times the name of the 
 country bounded on the north by the chain of Mount Hcemus ; 
 on the south by the jEgean and Propontis ; on the east by 
 the Euxine, and on the west by the River Strymon, and the 
 chain of mountains forming the continuation of Mount Rhodope. 
 
 II. The Thradans were divided into many separate and in 
 dependent tribes ; but the name of Thracians (Qpaite$ ) seems to 
 have been applied to them collectively in very early times. 
 Thrace, according to Stephanus Byzantinus, was originally 
 called Perce (TLepKrj). 
 
 OBS. 1. Ukert supposes Perce to mean any country in the north, and quotes 
 the remark of Andron of Halicarnassus (SchoL ad Lycophr., 894, 1283), that 
 Oceanus had four daughters, Asia, Libya, Europa, and Thrace, from whom the 
 four parts of the world were named ; and thence he concludes that Asia signi 
 fied the east, Libya the south, Europa the west, and Thrace the north. This 
 conclusion, however, hardly amounts to a small probability. ( Ukert, Geogr. der. 
 G. und R., i., p. 282.) 
 
 2. Josephus and many Biblical scholars suppose that the name is derived from 
 Tiras, the son of Japhet (Gen., x., 2) ; but this opinion rests on little more than 
 an apparent similarity of sound. 
 
 2. HISTORICAL SKETCH. 
 
 I. THE Thracians, of whom we are about to speak, must not be confounded 
 with what are called the Old Thracians, and who are so intimately connected 
 with the earliest literature of Greece. An account of these last will be given 
 under the head of Pieria, in the account of Macedonia. 
 
 II. The Thracians are said to have been subdued by Sesostris (Herod., ii., 
 103), and subsequently by the Mysians and Teucri, who crossed over into Eu 
 rope before the Trojan war, and penetrated as far as the Ionian Sea and the 
 Peneus. (Herod., vii., 20.) But the first real historical event respecting them 
 is their conquest by Megabazus, the general of Darius, who conquered all ihe 
 
422 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 separate tribes with the exception of the Satra, who were the only Thraciara 
 people that had retained their independence down to the time of Herodotus. 
 
 II. After the failure of the expedition of Xerxes, the Thracians appear to have 
 recovered their independence ; and in the time of the Peloponnesian war, we 
 find a powerful native empire in Thrace, which was under the dominion of Si- 
 talces, who is called by Thucydides (ii., 29) King of the Thracians. This em 
 pire was founded by the father of Sitalces, Teres, king of the Odrysce, one of the 
 most powerful of the Thracian tribes. It extended along the coast from Abdera 
 to the mouth of the Danube, and inland from Byzantium to the Laeeei and the 
 Strymon. The power of the Odrysian empire, however, did not last long. In 
 little more than twenty years from the death of Sitalces it had lost its former 
 greatness ; and when Xenophon crossed over into Thrace in B.C. 400, he found 
 Medocus, the reigning king of the Odrysians, unable to command the obedience 
 of his Thracian subjects. 
 
 IV. In the reign of Philip, the father of Alexander, Cotys was the most pow 
 erful of the Thracian chiefs, and is usually called King of Thrace ; but he was 
 deprived by Philip of almost all his dominions between the Strymon and the 
 Nestus, and became little else than a vassal of Macedon. He was a savage and 
 vindictive barbarian, and was assassinated in B.C. 358. His son Cersobleptes 
 succeeded to the throne, hut he was eventually stripped of all his territories by 
 Philip, who reduced, in B.C. 343,. the whole of southern Thrace at least, and 
 compelled it to pay tribute. On the death of Philip there was a general move 
 ment among the Thracians to throw off the Macedonian supremacy, at the head 
 of which the Triballi placed themselves. But Alexander, by his activity, sup 
 pressed this rising : he crossed the range of Haemus, marched into the country 
 of the Triballi, and, after defeating them, advanced as far as the Danube, which 
 he crossed, and offered a sacrifice on its right bank. 
 
 V. On the death of Alexander, Thrace fell to the share of Lysimachus, who 
 erected it into an independent monarchy ; but it subsequently came under the 
 dominion of the Macedonian kings. They seem, however, to have left the 
 country under the government of its native rulers, and were probably contented 
 with what the Greeks called a hegemony. In the Roman war against Perseus, 
 Cotys, king of the Thracians, is mentioned as an ally of Perseus, though the 
 Thracians, just before the war broke out, had sought the alliance of the Ro 
 mans. On the conclusion of the war, however, Cotys was allowed to continue 
 in possession of his kingdom, notwithstanding the assistance he had rendered 
 to Perseus. 
 
 VI. At what time Thrace was reduced to the form of a Roman province is 
 uncertain, but it seems not to have constituted a distinct province until a late 
 period. Under Augustus, the country north of Haemus was conquered by the 
 Romans, and was afterward erected into a separate province named Mcesia. It 
 is from this time that the range of Mount Haemus becomes, strictly speaking, 
 the northern boundary of Thrace. The boundary on the west differed at various 
 times. In the time of Ptolemy it seems to have been the Nestus ; but the more 
 ancient boundary was the Strymon, as we have given it. 
 
 3. MOUNTAINS. 
 
 I. HJEMUS, a range of mountains, stretching its great belt 
 round the north of Thrace, in a direction nearly parallel with 
 the JEgean. The modern name is Emineh Dag y or Balkan. 
 
THRACIA. 423 
 
 The ancients regarded this range as one of the highest with 
 which they were acquainted. Polybius, however, thought it 
 inferior in elevation to the Alps, in which he was doubtless cor 
 rect. It was reported that from the summit could be seen at 
 once the Euxine, the Adriatic, the Danube, and the Alps. The 
 length of the chain of Hsemus is five hundred miles, from the 
 Gulf of Venice to the Black Sea. 
 
 II. RHODOPE, a mountain range, forming in a great degree 
 the western boundary of Thrace, and evidently identical with 
 the Scomius of Thucydides. It is now Despoto-Dag. The 
 ocritus classes it with the highest summits of the ancient world. 
 
 III. PANGJEUS, a ridge apparently connected with the central 
 chain of Rhodope and Hsemus, and which, branching off in a 
 southeasterly direction, closed upon the coast at the defile of 
 Acontisma. It is now called Pundar Dagh, or Cast a gnats. 
 Herodotus informs us that Mount Pangseus contained gold and 
 silver mines, which were worked by the Pieres, Odomanti, and 
 Satrae, clans of Thrace, but especially the latter. These val 
 uable mines naturally attracted the attention of the Thasians, 
 who were the first settlers on this coast, and they accordingly 
 formed an establishment in this vicinity at a place named Cre- 
 nides. 
 
 4. PROMONTORIES. 
 
 1. Philia Promontorium, called, also, Hcemi Extrema, the 
 eastern extremity of the chain of Mount Hsemus, forming a 
 bold promontory, running out into the Euxine, and now Cape 
 Emineh. 2. Thynias Promontorium, below the preceding, and 
 on the same sea, now Cape Inada, or, as some call the name, 
 Kiada. 3. Hestias Promontorium and Chrysoceras, both near 
 Byzantium. 4. Mastusia Promontorium, at the entrance of 
 the Hellespont, now Capo Greco, or Jenischer. 5. Sarpedo- 
 nium Promontorium, at the upper entrance of the Melas Sinus, 
 and now Cape Dragontina. Some, less correctly, make this 
 correspond to Capo Greco. 6. Serrheum Promontorium, to the 
 northwest, now Capo Makri. 7. Ismarium Promontorium, to 
 the west of the preceding, now Capo Marogna. 
 
424 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 5. RIVERS. 
 
 1. Hebrus, now the Maritza, one of the most considerable 
 rivers in Europe. It rises in the chain of Hsemus, which sep 
 arates the plains of Thrace from the great valley of the Dan 
 ube, and, after receiving several tributaries, falls into the ^Egean 
 near the city of JEnos. An estuary, which it forms at its 
 mouth, was called Stentoris Palm, now the Gulf of Enos. 
 The sands of this river were said to be auriferous. According 
 to the ancient mythologists, after Orpheus had been torn in 
 pieces by the Thracian Bacchantes, his head and lyre were cast 
 into the Hebrus, and, being carried down the river to the sea, 
 were borne by the waves to the island of Lesbos. At the junc 
 tion of the Hebrus with the Tonskus and Harpessus, Orestes 
 was said to have purified himself from his mother s blood. Sev 
 eral streams swell the waters of the Hebrus. First, on the 
 right or southern bank, the Harpessus, now Arda ; then, a 
 short distance from this, on the left or northern bank, the 
 Tonskus or Tonzus of Ptolemy, now the Tonja ; then the Ar- 
 tiscus of Herodotus, now the Bujuk-dere ; farther south it is 
 joined by the Agrianes, now the Ergene, which, according to 
 the same historian, receives the Contadesdus, now the Sarad- 
 jala ; and the Contadesdus, the Teams, now the Teke-dere. 
 It was at the head of this last river that Darius, in his Scyth 
 ian expedition, erected a pillar, with an inscription, pronoun 
 cing the water of the Tearus to be the purest and best in the 
 universe. 
 
 2. Nestus (less correctly Nessus) formed the boundary be 
 tween Thrace and Macedonia in the time of Philip and Alex 
 ander, and this arrangement subsequently remained unchanged 
 by the Romans on their conquest of the latter empire. Ac 
 cording to Thucydides, it rose in Mount Scomius. The Nes 
 tus fell into the ^Egean opposite the -island of Thasos, and a 
 short distance to the west of Abdera. In the Middle Ages its 
 name was corrupted to Mestus, and is still called Mesto by the 
 modern Greeks. The Turkish name is Kara-su, or " Black 
 Water." 
 
 3. Strymon, rising in the chain of Mount Scomius, and after 
 a course of nearly two hundred miles falling into the Sinus 
 Strymdnicus, to which it gave name. The Strymon formed 
 
THRACIA. 425 
 
 the earlier boundary between Macedonia and Thrace, and con- 
 tinued so until the time of Philip and Alexander, when Mace 
 donia was extended more to the east, and the Nestus became 
 the boundary. The modern name of the Strymon is the Stru- 
 ma, according to Leake, who also makes the Turkish name 
 the same as that of the Nestus, namely, the Kara-su. The 
 modern name of the Sinus Strymonicus is the Gulf of Contessa. 
 Its northern extremity, however, according to Leake, is called 
 the Bay of Rendina. 
 
 6. STRAITS, &c. 
 
 1. Hellespontus, now the Dardanelles, and, according to mythologists, deriving 
 its name from the circumstance ofHelle s having been drowned therein, "EM^f 
 Tro vrof, " the Sea of Helle." The modern name is supposed to come from the 
 ancient Dardania in its vicinity. The Hellespont is famed for the bridge of 
 boats built over it by Xerxes, and also for the legend of Hero and Leander. 
 Passing up this strait, we have on the left the Thracian Chersonese, which re 
 mains to be described. We pass from the Hellespont into the Propontis, or Sea 
 of Marmara, and on reaching its upper extremity we come to the Thracian Bos 
 porus, now the Strait of Constantinople, and which has already been referred to 
 elsewhere (p. 9, seq.). The Propontis received its ancient name from the cir 
 cumstance of its lying in front of or before the Pontus Euxinus (rrpb U.OVTOV). The 
 modern appellation comes from the modern name of the island of Proconnesus, 
 which will be described in the account of Asia Minor. 
 
 2. Emerging from the Thracian Bosporus, we enter on the Euxine, of which 
 an account has already been given (p. 236). At the northeastern extremity of 
 the Euxine we come to the Cimmerian Bosporus and the Tauric Chersonese, 
 which, not belonging to the geography of Greece, have been elsewhere described 
 (p. 9, 237, seqq.). 
 
 7. PRODUCTS. 
 
 CORN in abundance in the Thracian Chersonese, which hence formed one of 
 the granaries of Athens ; fruit in the plains, but not in the high and bleak mount 
 ains ; wine, oil ; various metals, but more especially gold. 
 
 8. CHARACTER OF THE INHABITANTS. 
 
 I. THE Thracian nation, according to Herodotus, was, next to the Indians, 
 the most numerous of all, and, if united under one head, would have been in 
 vincible. He observes that the usages of the different tribes were similar, with 
 the exception of the Getce, the Trausi, and those who dwelt above the Crestonai. 
 The account which he gives of the most striking national peculiarities of the 
 Thracians represent them as a savage and barbarous people, which is supported 
 by other ancient writers, though the districts on the southern coast seem to 
 have attained to some degree of civilization, owing to the numerous Greek 
 cities which were founded there at various times. 
 
 II. The Thracians, according to Herodotus, sold their children to be carried 
 out of the country as slaves ; they purchased their wives with great sums ; they 
 punctured or tattooed their bodies, and regarded this as a mark of noble birth ; 
 agriculture they despised, and considered it most honorable to live by war and 
 
426 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 robbery. Deep drinking prevailed among them extensively, and the quarrels 
 over their cups became almost proverbial. In the time of Xerxes the Thracian 
 warrior carried a shield, and was dressed in goat-skin trowsers ; a fox-skin cap 
 covered his head ; a spear and dagger were his weapons of offence. Human 
 sacrifices were customary on important national occasions. 
 
 9. THRACIAN TRIBES. 
 
 1. The Triballi, in the northwest, about the Angrus, extending east to the 
 River Oscius, in the territory of the modern Sophia. They consequently oc 
 cupied modern Servia and a portion of Bulgaria. They were so powerful that, 
 in the time of the Peloponnesian war, they wrested the power from the Odrysa, 
 and sent thirty thousand men to destroy Abdcra. But soon after the reign of 
 Alexander they were so oppressed by the Gauls and Bastarna, and then so 
 roughly handled by the Illyrian Autariata, that the remainder of them were fain 
 to cross the Danube, and seek refuge among the Getae. 
 
 2. The Crobyzi, eastward of the foregoing, and extending to the River lantra. 
 3. The Trausi, who wept when their children were born, and were loud in their 
 expressions of joy at the death of their friends. 4. The Dii, in Mount Rhodope, 
 probably the same as the Daki, and called by the Greeks Machcerophori, from 
 their short dirks. 5. The Bessi, descended from the preceding, and dwelling in 
 that quarter where Rhodope diverges from Rasmus ; these were the most bar 
 barous of all the Thracians, being mere robbers. 6. The Satrce, a branch of the 
 Bessi, resident in the snow-clad mountains between the Nestus and the Stry- 
 mon. They had an oracle of Bacchus, the interpreters of which were taken 
 from the Bessi. 7. The Treres and Tilatcei, about the head of the Angrus. 
 
 8. The Dolonci, in the Thracian Chersonese. 9. The Apsinthii, neighbors of 
 the preceding. 10. The Pati, on the River Hebrus. 11. The Cicones, next to 
 them on the west, famous for their wine, gold, and cavalry. 12. The Bistones, 
 about the Lake Bistonis, where Pliny subsequently places the Corpilli, in the 
 Corpillian pass. 13. The Sapai or Saii, at the mouth of the Nestus, near the 
 Sapaean defile and the forts or castles of the Pierians. 14. The Odomanti, who, 
 as well as the Satra, worked the gold mines of Pangaus. 15. The Edoncs, at 
 the mouth of the Strymon, in whose country the Athenians built Amphipolis. 
 16. The Odrysa, of whom we have already spoken in the Historical Sketch of 
 Thrace. 
 
 10. CITIES OF THRACE. 
 
 IN the territory of the Eddnes we have, 1. Myrcmus, one of 
 their principal towns, on the left bank of the Strymon^ near its 
 mouth, and to the southeast of the Cercinitis Palus, now Lake 
 Takinos. This city is often mentioned by Herodotus as the 
 place chosen by Histiseus of Miletus for his settlement, which 
 was granted to him by Darius, in consideration of the import 
 ant services he had rendered that sovereign in the Scythian 
 expedition. The advantages which this situation presented to 
 the enterprising Ionian consisted in an abundant supply of tim 
 ber for ship-building, the number of mariners and soldiers which 
 the country afforded, the richness of the mines it contained, and 
 
THRACIA. 427 
 
 its proximity to the Greek colonies. His designs, however, did 
 not escape the vigilant observation of Megabyzus, who com 
 manded the Persian army in Thrace, and, on his representation 
 to Darius, Histiseus was recalled. At the time of the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war, Myrcinus had fallen again into the hands of the 
 Edones, but it subsequently went over to Brasidas. The sit 
 uation of the place probably corresponds to that of Orphano. 
 2. Near this town was Evvea Ocfoi, called by the Latin writers 
 Novem Vice, a spot doubtless deriving its name from the num 
 ber of roads which met here from different parts of Thrace and 
 Macedon ; a supposition confirmed by travellers who have ex 
 plored this country, and who report that all the principal com 
 munications between the coast and the plains must have led 
 through this pass. It was here, according to Herodotus, that 
 Xerxes and his army crossed the Strymon on bridges, after hav 
 ing offered a sacrifice of white horses to that river, and buried 
 alive nine youths and maidens. 3. In this immediate vicinity 
 the Athenians afterward founded a colony, which became so 
 celebrated under the name of Amphipdlis, an appellation de 
 rived from the circumstance of its being surrounded on two 
 sides by the River Strymon, which a little above the city made 
 a considerable lake or marsh. The position of Amphipolis was 
 one of the most important in Greece. It stood in a pass which 
 traversed the mountains bordering on the Sinus Strymonicus, 
 and commanded the only easy communication from the coast 
 of that gulf into the great Macedonian plains. The surrender 
 of Amphipolis to Brasidas was a severe blow to the prosperity 
 and good fortune of the Athenians, and Thucydides, who ar 
 rived too late with the fleet to prevent its falling into the hands 
 of the enemy, was banished in consequence. Cleon was sent 
 to recover possession of the place, but his army was totally 
 routed, and he himself slain. Brasidas, also, who was com 
 mander against him, received a mortal wound in the conflict. 
 Amphipolis, after this, never came again into the hands of the 
 Athenians. It was subsequently taken by Philip, and from 
 that time became a Macedonian town. On the subjugation 
 of this country by the Romans, it w r as constituted the chief 
 town of the first region of the conquered territory. Under the 
 Byzantine empire it seems to have exchanged its name for that 
 of Chrysopolis. The spot on which its ruins may still be traced 
 bears the name of Jenikem. 
 
428 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 4. E ion, Sit the mouth of the Strymon, a colony of Mende 
 in Macedonia, distant twenty-five stadia from Amphipolis, of 
 which, according to Thucydides, it was the port. It was from 
 this place that Xerxes sailed to Asia, on his return from Greece 
 after the battle of Salamis. Boges was left in command of 
 the town on the retreat of the Persian armies, and made a 
 most gallant defence when besieged by the Grecian forces un 
 der Cimon. On the total failure, however, of all means of sub 
 sistence, he destroyed himself, together with his family and all 
 his valuables. In the Middle Ages a Byzantine town was built 
 on the site of Ei on, which now bears the name of Contessa. 
 
 Continuing along the coast to the east of the Strymon, we 
 find a small part of the Edonian territory inhabited by the Pi- 
 8res, a people of whom we will make further mention under the 
 head of Macedonia. Thucydides informs us that, on their ex 
 pulsion from that country, they retired across the Strymon, 
 and settled on the shores of the Sinus Strymonicus^ which was 
 sometimes called, from them, Sinus Piericus. Herodotus men 
 tions Pergamus and Phagres as two of their fortresses, near 
 which the Persian army passed on their march toward Greece. 
 To the east of these was (Esyme, or, as Homer writes the name, 
 JEsyme, a sea-port town. In the time of Stephanus Byzanti- 
 nus it was called Emathia. Its site appears to have been near 
 the modern Eski Cavala. 
 
 Resuming our survey of the Edonian cities, we come to, 
 
 5. Scapte-Hyle (SKaTTrfj f/ T/l??), called, also, Scaptesyle (ZnaTT- 
 Trjavhr)), a small place to the northeast of (Esyme, celebrated 
 for its rich gold mines, which, according to Herodotus, belonged 
 to the Thasians, and produced annually eighty talents. In these 
 mines Thucydides the historian had some property, as he in 
 forms us, and, according to Marcellinus, he had obtained this 
 by marrying a Thracian heiress. The same writer states that 
 he resided here after his banishment, and employed himself in 
 arranging the materials for his history. According to D An- 
 ville and Reichard, this place answers to the modern Skepsilar. 
 
 6. Datos, a sea-port, to the northeast, was the scene of an en 
 gagement between the natives and the Athenian colonists, who 
 had attempted to settle in this territory, with a view of pos 
 sessing themselves of the gold mines. The latter were defeat 
 ed with great loss. According to Strabo, the territory of Datos 
 
THRACIA. 429 
 
 presented great advantages ; it was highly fertile, and possessed 
 excellent docks for the construction of ships, and most valuable 
 gold mines. Hence arose the proverb Aarof ayaOtiv, i.e., " an 
 abundance of good things." Leake thinks that Datos and Ne- 
 apolis, or the modern Cavala, were one and the same place, 
 though on maps they are laid down as separate but closely-con 
 tiguous places. 
 
 On reaching the defile of Acontisma, to the east of Datos, we 
 encounter the range of Pangaeus, already referred to, and which, 
 coming down in a northwest direction, closes here upon the 
 coast. This celebrated ridge forms at this point a natural divi 
 sion between the maritime part of the district which we are 
 considering and the interior, and to the latter we now turn. 
 
 The chief place of importance in the interior of the Edonian 
 territory was Crenides, afterward Philippi. It seems that the 
 valuable mines in Mount Pangseus naturally attracted the at 
 tention of the ^Thasians, who were the first settlers on this 
 coast, and they accordingly formed an establishment in this vi 
 cinity, at a place called Crenides (Kpqv t<5e^), from the circum 
 stance of its being surrounded by numerous sources (Kpijvai), 
 which descended from the neighboring mountains. Philip of 
 Macedon having turned his attention to the affairs of Thrace, 
 the possession of Crenides and Mount Pangaeus naturally en 
 tered into his views. Accordingly, he invaded this country, ex 
 pelled the feeble Cotys from his throne, and then proceeded to 
 found a new city on the site of the old Thasian colony, which 
 he named after himself, Philippi. When Macedonia became 
 subject to the Romans, the advantages attending the peculiar 
 situation of Philippi induced that people to settle a colony there ; 
 and we know from the Acts of the Apostles that it was already, 
 at that period, one of the most flourishing cities of this part of 
 their empire. It is, moreover, celebrated in history from the 
 great victory gained here by Antony and Octavianus over the 
 forces of Brutus and Cassius, by which the republican party 
 was completely subdued. Philippi, however, is rendered far 
 more interesting from the circumstance of its being the first 
 place in Europe where the Gospel was preached by St. Paul 
 (A.D. 51). The ruins of the place still retain the name of Fil~ 
 ibah. Theophrastus speaks of the Rosa centifolia, which grew 
 in great beauty near Philippi, being indigenous on Mount Pan- 
 
430 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 gseus. Nicander mentions another sort which bloomed in the 
 gardens of Midas, in Thrace. 
 
 In the territory of the Satrce, Sapcei, and Bistones, we find, 
 1. Nicopolis ad Nestum, near the River Nestus, and now Nico- 
 poli. 2. Abdera, on the sea, and to the east of the River Nestus. 
 This was an opulent and celebrated Greek city, founded origi 
 nally by Timesius of Clazomense ; but as this settlement did 
 not prosper, owing to the enmity of the natives, it was subse 
 quently recolonized by a large body of Teians from Ionia, who, 
 as Herodotus asserts, had abandoned their city when it was be 
 sieged by Harpagus, a general of Cyrus. It was already a 
 large and wealthy town when Xerxes arrived there on his way 
 to Greece. On that same monarch s return from Greece, he 
 presented the town with his golden cimeter and train as an ac 
 knowledgment of the reception he had met with there. We 
 learn from Thucydides that Abdera was the limit of the Odrys- 
 ian empire to the west. Abdera continued to increase in pros 
 perity and importance, and its having given birth to the two 
 philosophers Democritus and Protagoras added much to its ce 
 lebrity. Still, however, notwithstanding this, the people of 
 Abdera, as a body, were reputed to be a stupid race, and many 
 sayings arose at their expense. In the Middle Ages it degen 
 erated into a very small town, to which the name of Poly sty 
 lus was attached. Its ruins are said to exist near Cape Ba- 
 loustra. A short distance to the north of Abdera were the city 
 and lake of Pistyrus, and beyond these, in the territory of the 
 Bistones, was another lake named Bistonis Lacus, into which 
 flowed two rivers, namely, the Travus and Compsatus. 3. Di- 
 ccca, a Greek city, on the shore of the Bistonis Lacus, and the 
 site of which is thought to be marked by the modern Boar 
 Kalis. 
 
 Passing into the territory of the Cicones, we come to, 1. Ma- 
 ronea, on the coast, at the mouth of the River Schcemis, and a 
 Greek town of some note. According to Scymnus, it was 
 founded by a colony from Chios. Pliny states that the more 
 ancient name was Ortagurea. The same writer extols the 
 excellence of its wine. The ruins of this place still retain the 
 name of Marogna. 2. Serrheum, to the east, near the prom 
 ontory of the same name, and now Maori. 3. Zone, to the 
 southeast of the preceding, and in the neighborhood of which 
 
CHERSONESUS. 431 
 
 Orpheus drew down after him the woods and wild beasts. 
 4. Doriscus, a fortress in a vast plain, near the coast, watered 
 by the great river Hebrus. The fortress was erected by order 
 of Darius, at the time of his Scythian expedition. Here it was 
 that Xerxes numbered the multitude he was conducting into 
 Greece. Doriscus was near the Hebrus. An estuary at the 
 mouth of this river was called Stentoris Palus. Crossing the 
 Hebrus, we come to the territory of the Apsynthii, in which 
 we need mention only the city of jEnos, at the mouth of the 
 Stentoris Palus, where it communicates by a narrow passage 
 with the sea. Herodotus calls it an ./Eolic city, without spec 
 ifying from which of the ^olic settlements it derived its origin ; 
 but Scymnus ascribes its foundation to Mytilene. Apollodorus 
 and Strabo inform us that its more ancient name was Poltyo- 
 bria, or the "City of Poltys," with regard to the termination 
 of which word, consult page 161 of this work. Virgil supposes 
 ^Eneas to have landed on this coast after leaving Troy, and to 
 have discovered here the tomb of the murdered Polydorus ; he 
 also intimates that he founded a city here, which he named after 
 himself. This, however, is mere poetic fiction. Homer, more 
 over, makes ^Enos to have existed before the siege of Troy. 
 After the death of Lysimachus, ^Enos, together with Maronea, 
 and the other places on this part of the Thracian coast, fell into 
 the possession of the kings of Egypt. It afterward was be 
 trayed into the hands of the Macedonian monarch Philip, and 
 subsequently fell under the Roman power. The Romans made 
 it a free city. The modern name remains the same as the an 
 cient. After leaving ^Enos, the coast makes a bold indenta 
 tion, forming the Melas Sinus, now the Gulf of Saros, into 
 which empties a river called anciently the Melas, and now the 
 Cavatcha. This brings us to the Thracian Chersonese. 
 
 CHERSONESUS. 
 
 I. THOUGH the Thracian Chersonese, or, as it is sometimes designated, the 
 Chersonese on the Hellespont, formed but a small portion of the extensive coun 
 try to which it was annexed, yet its fertility of soil and proximity to the coast 
 of Asia Minor early attracted an influx of Grecian settlers, and its shores soon 
 became crowded with flourishing and populous cities. 
 
 II. We are told by Thucydides that, during the siege of Troy, this country 
 was always occupied by a large portion of the Grecian armament, stationed 
 there to cultivate the soil, and furnish provisions for the besieging force. Eu 
 ripides, however, says that it was in the possession of Polymestor. 
 
432 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 III. From Herodotus we learn, that in after times the Dolonci, a Thracian 
 tribe, holding the Chersonese, were engaged in war with the neighboring Ap- 
 synthii, and, finding themselves unable to resist these more warlike adversaries, 
 consulted the oracle of Delphi. The god, in reply, advised them to elect for 
 their chief the first person to whom they should stand indebted for the rites of 
 hospitality on their return homeward. Accordingly, as they passed through 
 Attica, they were invited into the house of Miltiades, a noble and wealthy Athe 
 nian. The Dolonci, having acquainted Miltiades with the oracle delivered to 
 them, offered him the sovereignty of their country, which he accepted, and, 
 having quitted Attica, he took possession of his newly-acquired principality. 
 At his death his nephew Stesagoras succeeded, who afterward bequeathed the 
 crown to his brother, the famous Miltiades, son of Cimon. This celebrated 
 character was compelled to flee from the Chersonese, and withdrew to Athens, 
 from dread of the vengeance of Darius, whose enmity he had provoked. 
 
 IV. On the invasion of Xerxes, the Chersonese was overrun with Persian 
 troops, by whom several of 4ts towns were garrisoned ; but, after the battles of 
 Salamis and Mycale, the Grecian fleet removed to the Hellespont, and succeeded 
 in reconquering the whole of the country, which henceforth became dependent 
 on Athens, until the disastrous battle of yEgospotamos, when it resumed its 
 state of independence. Dercyllidas, a Lacedaemonian general, who had a com 
 mand in Asia Minor, raised a fortification, at the request of the inhabitants, 
 across the isthmus, and by this great undertaking effectually secured the coun 
 try from the incursions of the Thracians. 
 
 V. In the reign of Philip, we find Cersobleptes, the son of Cotys, acknowl 
 edged as sovereign of the Chersonese ; but of this possession he was deprived 
 by the Athenians, as he had been of the rest of his territory by the King of 
 Macedon. The Athenians, not long after, sent a colony under the direction of 
 Diopeithes, to strengthen their settlements in that quarter. Philip subsequently 
 made an attempt to conquer the Hellespontine cities, but, having failed in the 
 siege of Perinthus and Byzantium, he was compelled to withdraw his forces. 
 The towns of the Chersonese made a decree on that occasion, by which they 
 awarded a crown of gold, and erected an altar to Gratitude and the Athenian 
 people for their deliverance from the enemy. 
 
 VI. After the death of Alexander, the Chersonese, together with a large por 
 tion of Thrace, was allotted to Lysimachus, who founded on the isthmus the 
 city of Lysimachm, which he made his principal residence. At the beginning 
 of the Macedonian war, most of the Chersonitic towns were in the occupation 
 of Philip, son of Demetrius, afterward of Antiochus, and finally of the Romans. 
 
 CITIES OF THE CHERSONESE. 
 
 On crossing the River Melas, we come to, 1, the port of Deris ; then 2, follows 
 Cobrys, which Scylax calls the haven of Cardia. Next in order we have, 3. 
 Cardia, a town of some note, situate at a short distance from the sea, and near 
 the isthmus. It owed its origin, as Scymnus reports, to some Clazomeniana 
 and Milesians. Pliny asserts that it took its name from its position, the ground 
 on which it stood being shaped like a human heart (Kaptiia). Eumenes, one of 
 Alexander s most able generals, and Hieronymus the historian, were natives of 
 Cardia. When Lysimachus took possession of the Chersonese, and the towns 
 on the Thracian side of the Hellespont, he founded a city near the site of Car 
 dia, which was then fast declining in prosperity, and transferred the greater 
 part of its inhabitants to this new settlement, which was called Lysimachia, 
 after his name. On his death, this new city fell successively into the hands of 
 
CHERSONESUS. 433 
 
 Seleucus and Ptolemy, and Philip, king of Macedon. It afterward suffered 
 considerably from the attacks of the Thracians, and was nearly in ruins, when 
 it was restored by Antiochus, king of Syria. On the defeat of that monarch by 
 the Romans it was bestowed by them upon Eumenes, king of Pergamus. In 
 the Middle Ages, the name of Lysimachia was lost in that of Hexamilion, a for 
 tress constructed probably out of its ruins, and so called, doubtless, from the 
 width of the isthmus on which Lysimachia stood, namely, six miles. 
 
 4. Alopeconnesus, some distance to the southwest of the preceding, and near 
 the lower extremity of the Chersonese. It was an ^Eolian colony, and is men 
 tioned by Demosthenes as one of the chief towns in this quarter of Thrace. 
 According to Athenseus, trufles of excellent quality grew near it. The site is 
 now called Alexi. 5. Elans, to the south of the preceding, and very near the 
 lower extremity of the Chersonese. It contained a temple and shrine of Pro- 
 tesilaus. Strabo remarks that the name of this town is of the masculine gen 
 der. 6. Cynossema, to the northeast, on the shore of the Hellespont. It was so 
 called (" the dog s monument") from the tradition relating to the metamorpho 
 sis and death of Hecuba on that spot. Here the Athenian fleet, under the com 
 mand of Thrasybulus and Thrasyllus, gained an important victory over the 
 allied squadron toward the close of the Peloponnesian war. The site is said 
 to be now occupied by the Turkish fortress of the Dardanelles, called Keli- 
 dil-bahar. 
 
 7. Madytus, to the northeast, mentioned by Demosthenes among the principal 
 towns of the Chersonese. The name of Maito is still attached to the site on 
 which it stood. 8. Sestos, to the northeast, and always considered, from its sit 
 uation on the Hellespont, as a most important city, as it commanded, in a great 
 measure, that narrow channel. It appears to have been founded at an early 
 period by some ^Eolians, as well as Abydos on the opposite coast. The story 
 of Hero and Leander, and, still more, the passage of the vast armament of Xerx 
 es, have rendered Sestos celebrated in ancient history. Herodotus states 
 that the foot of the bridge was placed on the European side, between Sestos 
 and Madytus, the breadth of the Hellespont being in this part only seven stadia, 
 whereas from Sestos to Abydos the distance was thirty. The Athenians, 
 when at the height of their power, justly attached the greatest value to the pos 
 session of Sestos, which enabled them to command the active traJe of the 
 Euxine. Hence they were wont to term it the corn-chest of the Piraeus. After 
 the battle of ^Egospotamos, Sestos received its independence ; but the Atheni 
 ans, many years after, having resolved to recover that fertile province, sent 
 Chares to the Hellespont with a considerable force. Sescos, after a short re 
 sistance, was taken by assault, when Chares barbarously caused all the male 
 inhabitants capable of bearing arms to be put to deatfi- This severe blow prob 
 ably caused the ruin of the town, as from this tim<3 little mention of it occurs in 
 history. Strabo, however, speaks of Sestos as being a considerable place in 
 his time. He observes that the current which flowed from the shore near Ses 
 tos greatly facilitated the navigation o/ vessels from that place, the reverse 
 being the case with those sailing from Abydos. According to Mannert, the site 
 of Sestos is now called Jalowa. 
 
 To the northeast of Sestos we find JEgospotamos, a small river, which appa 
 rently gave its name to a town or port situated at its mouth. Here the Athe 
 nian fleet was totally defeated by the Spartan admiral Lysander ; an event 
 which completely destroyed the power of the former, and finally led to the cap 
 ture of Athens itself. The village of Galata probably stands on the site of 
 the port of ^Egospotamos. 
 
 E E 
 
434 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 9. Callipolis, about five miles beyond the preceding, and now Gallipoli. A By 
 zantine writer ascribes its foundation and name to Callias, an Athenian general ; 
 while another, probably with more correctness, derives its appellation from the 
 beauty of the site. From the itineraries we learn that Callipolis was the point 
 whence it was usual to cross the Hellespont to Lampsacus or Abydos. It ie 
 from Gallipoli that the Chersonese now takes its name as a Turkish province. 
 
 10. Pactye, the last town of the Chersonese on the Hellespont. It owed its 
 origin to Miltiades, according to Scylax and Scymnus. To this place Alcibiades 
 retired when banished for the second time by his countrymen. 
 
 Before proceeding with the remainder of the geography of Thrace, we will 
 find it more convenient to notice certain northern islands of the ^Egean, which 
 lay at no great distance from the coast of Thrace. These are, 
 
 1. THXSOS. 
 
 I. THE island of Thdsos lay off that part of the coast of Thrace where the 
 River Nestus empties into the ^Egean. According to Herodotus, it received at 
 a very early period a colony of Phffinicians, under the conduct of Thasus, that 
 enterprising people having already formed settlements in several islands of the 
 ^Egean. They were induced to possess themselves of Thasos from the valu 
 able silver mines which it contained, and which it appears they afterward worked 
 with unremitting assiduity. 
 
 11. Herodotus, who visited this island, reports, that a large mountain on the 
 side of Samothrace had been turned upside down (in Greek avsoTpajjiftzvov) in 
 search of the precious metal. Thasos, at a later period, was colonized by a 
 party of Parians, pursuant to the command of*an oracle delivered to the father 
 of the poet Archilochus. From this document, quoted by Stephanus, we learn 
 that the earlier name of the island was Mria. 
 
 III. On the expulsion of the Persians from Greece, Thasos, together with 
 the other islands on this coast, became tributary to Athens. Dispute, however, 
 having arisen between the islanders and that power on the subject of the mines 
 on the Thracian coast, a war ensued, and the Thracians were besieged for three 
 years. On their surrender, their fortifications were destroyed, and their ships 
 of \var removed to Athens. Thasos once more revolted after the great failure 
 of the Athenians in Sicily ; at which time, also, a change was effected in the 
 government of the island from democracy to oligarchy. 
 
 IV. According to Herodotus, the revenues of Thasos were very considerable : 
 they commonly amounted to two hundred, and sometimes to three hundred 
 talents annually. These funds were principally derived from the mines of 
 Skapte-Hyle on the Thracian coast. 
 
 V. The capital of the island was the city of Thasos. Besides this, we hear 
 of two others, named Mnyiv, and Coznyra, situate in that part of the island which 
 looks toward Samothrace. 
 
 VI. Thasos, besides gold and b\lver, furnished marbles and wine, which were 
 much esteemed. The soil, moreover, was excellent. The modern name if 
 Tasso. 
 
 2. SAMOTHRXCE. 
 
 I. THE island of Samothrace lay to the southeast of Thasos, and opposite the 
 Melas Sinus. It bore various names at different periods, being called Dardama, 
 Electris, Meltte, &c. The name of Samothrace ("Thracian Samos ) is said to 
 have been given to it by a colony from the Ionian Samos, though Strabo con 
 ceives this assertion to have been an invention of the Samians. 
 
 II. Though insignificant in itself, considerable celebrity attaches to this island 
 
CHERSONESUS. 435 
 
 from the worship of the Cabiri, which appears to have been brought into it by 
 the Phoenicians. According to Herodotus, however, Samothrace was originally 
 inhabited by the Pelasgi, from whom the inhabitants, as he affirms, learned the 
 religious mysteries which they solemnized. These mysteries imparted a kind 
 of sacred character to the island, and rendered it a species of asylum ; and it 
 was here that Perseus, king of Macedonia, took refuge after the battle of Pydna. 
 The Romans, however, seized him here when preparing to escape from Deme~ 
 trium, a small harbor near one of the promontories of the island. Stephanus 
 informs us that there was a town of the same name with the island. Samo 
 thrace contains a very high mountain, called Saoce by Pliny, and from which 
 Homer says that Troy could be seen. The modern name of the island is Sa- 
 inothraki. Samothrace was reduced, in the reign of Vespasian, along with the 
 other isles of the ^Egean, to the form of a province. 
 
 Reserving an account of Lemnos and Tenedos for the general description of 
 the Asiatic islands, we will now return to the cities of Thrace. 
 
 CITIES OF THRACE BEYOND THE CHERSONESUS. 
 
 LEAVING the Matcpov Tel^og^ or Long Wall, erected, as already 
 mentioned, by Dereyllidas the Lacedaemonian, across the isth 
 mus of the Chersonese, and proceeding along the coast of the 
 Propontis, we come to, 1. Leuce Acte (AEVKT] A/cr?/), or "the 
 White Shore," a town and roadstead, now Santo Giorgio, 
 2. Heraclea, now Heraclitza. 3. Bisanthe, a Samian colony, 
 called at a later period Rhcedestus, and now Rodosto. 4. Pe- 
 rinthus, also a colony of Samos, and one of the most flourish 
 ing cities on the Propontis, becoming eventually the rival of 
 Byzantium. It subsequently suffered from the attacks of the 
 Thracians, but principally from those of Philip of Macedon, 
 who besieged and vigorously pressed the city, but was unable 
 to take it. It continued to be a flourishing place, even under 
 the Roman power, until the seat of empire was transferred to 
 Byzantium. About this last-mentioned period, moreover, it 
 appears with the additional name of Heraclea, without our be 
 ing able to ascertain either the exact cause or time of the change. 
 With the writers of the fourth century, this name Heraclea be 
 came the more usual one ; sometimes, however, they join both 
 names together. Perinthus could not but be an important city 
 under the eastern empire, since all the roads to Byzantium from 
 Italy and Greece met here. The modern Erekli occupies the 
 site of the ancient city. 5. Sehjbria, a Megarian colony, and 
 founded at a still earlier period than Byzantium. The name 
 of its founder, the leader of the colony, was Selys (2?/Ai^) ; at 
 least Strabo explains the name by S^vog TrdA^, "the city of 
 
436 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Selys," the term brio, being the Thracian word for " a city." 
 It became a flourishing place and one of considerable strength, 
 and for a long time defended itself against the inroads of the 
 Thracians, and the attempts of Philip of Macedon. It fell at 
 last, however, into the hands of that monarch, and after this 
 event sank in importance. With the common people, in the 
 Doric dialect, the form Salabria was used. At a later period 
 it changed its name to that of Eudoxiopolis, in honor of Eudoxia, 
 the wife of the Emperor Arcadius, but the earlier appellation 
 was not thereby disused, and the modern Selivria is a corrup 
 tion of it. 
 
 6. Byzantium, an ancient Greek city, occupying part of the 
 site of modern Constantinople. According to Eusebius and 
 other ancient authorities, it was founded by a colony from 
 Megara, B.C. 658, seventeen years after the building of Cal- 
 chedon (less correctly written Chalcedori), on the opposite or 
 Asiatic shore of the Bosporus, by another colony from Megara. 
 Others say that the first colonists of Byzantium were a mixed 
 people from Megara and Argos. They were, however, a Do 
 rian colony, and Doric customs and the Doric dialect continued 
 to prevail at Byzantium for many centuries. Strabo, Pliny, 
 and other ancient writers speak of the abundance of fish at 
 Byzantium, especially of the Pelamys kind, which, coming 
 down in shoals from the Palus Maeotis, and round by the east 
 ern and southern shore of the Euxine, entered the Bosporus, 
 whence the harbor of Byzantium was called Chrysoceras, or 
 " the Golden Horn," in consequence of the riches derived from 
 the fishery. The Byzantines salted the fish, which was an ar 
 ticle of considerable trade. The harbor of Byzantium became 
 a place of resort for vessels trading with the Euxine, the north 
 ern coasts of which already, in the time of Herodotus, supplied 
 with corn, as they do now, Greece and other countries of the 
 Mediterranean. The name of Byzantium is said to be derived 
 from Byzas, the leader of the Megarean colony. In the reign 
 of Darius Hystaspis, the Persian satrap Otanes took both, Cal- 
 chedon and Byzantium. After the battle of Plataea, however, 
 Pausanias, at the head of the united Greek forces, retook the 
 place, and a fresh colony of mixed Athenians and Lacedaemo 
 nians was sent to it. This second colony has given occasion 
 to Justin and other writers to say that Byzantium was founded 
 
CHERSONESUS. 437 
 
 by Pausanias. The possession of this place fluctuated between 
 the Lacedaemonians and Athenians, it having been frequently 
 taken and retaken, until Thrasybulus drove the Lacedaemoni 
 ans away, B.C. 390, and changed the form of government, 
 which was before oligarchical, into a democracy. It appears, 
 however, that there was a class of the original inhabitants of 
 the country, who were treated by the Greek Byzantines pretty 
 much as the Helots were treated at Sparta. 
 
 Philip of Macedon, having extended his conquests into Thrace, 
 laid siege to Byzantium. The Byzantines made a bold defence, 
 and Philip s army became distressed for want of provisions and 
 money. Philip relieved his wants by seizing one hundred and 
 seventy ships and confiscating their cargoes. On a dark night 
 Philip s soldiers were near surprising the town, when a light 
 suddenly shone forth from the north, and revealed to the inhab 
 itants their danger. In gratitude for this, the Byzantines built 
 an altar to Diana, and assumed the crescent as the emblem of 
 their city. The crescent is found on several medals of Byzan 
 tium, and it is said that the Turks, on their conquest of Con 
 stantinople, adopted it for their own device. Under Alexander 
 the Great and Lysimachus, who, after his death, succeeded to 
 the government of Thrace, Byzantium was obliged to submit 
 to the Macedonians ; but it afterward recovered its municipal 
 independence, which it retained till the time of the Roman em 
 perors. Its commerce was prosperous, but it was exposed on 
 the land side to continued incursions of Thracians, Scythians, 
 and other barbarians, who ravaged its territory, cut down the 
 harvest, and reduced it to great distress. The most trouble 
 some of these incursions was that of the Gauls, who overran 
 Macedonia and Northern Greece about 270 B.C. The Byzan 
 tines, in order to have some respite from them, were obliged to 
 pay heavy sums, from three thousand to ten thousand pieces 
 of gold a year, and at last as much as eighty talents, to save 
 their lands from being ravaged in harvest time. These and 
 other burdens compelled them to have recourse to extraordinary 
 measures for raising money, one of which was the exacting of 
 a toll from all ships passing through the Bosporus, which be 
 came the cause of a war between Byzantium and Rhodes, about 
 221 B.C. 
 
 Byzantium allied itself to Rome against Philip II. of Mace- 
 
438 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 donia, as well as against Antioehus and Mithradates. In con 
 sequence of its services, it retained its liberty as a free town, 
 confederate with Rome, and its envoys were treated as foreign 
 ambassadors. They were subject, however, to a tribute, at 
 least under the first emperors, which Claudius remitted for five 
 years, in consideration of their losses during the Thracian war. 
 In consequence of some fresh domestic broils, Vespasian took 
 away their liberties and sent them a governor. In the civil 
 war between Severus and Pescennius Niger, the Byzantines 
 took the part of the latter, and were severely punished for this 
 by Severus, the armed men and chief citizens being put to death ? 
 the walls being razed, and the remaining inhabitants being 
 placed under the jurisdiction of Perinthus. Severus, however r 
 relented afterward, and, visiting Byzantium, took pains to em 
 bellish the town, and gave it the name of Augusta Antonina, 
 in honor of his son Antoninus Bassianus, or Caracalla. The 
 Byzantines afterward had the misfortune of offending Gallie- 
 nus, who massacred most of the inhabitants. Finally, Con- 
 stantine, struck with the situation of the place, determined to 
 build a new city by the side of old Byzantium, and which he 
 chose afterward for the capital of his empire. It was called at 
 first Nea Roma, "New Rome," and afterward Constantinopd- 
 lis. The new city was founded in A.D. 328, and in May, A.D. 
 330, was dedicated to the Virgin Mary. It became the capi 
 tal of the empire under Constantino, and, on the division of the 
 Roman world into the eastern and western empires, the capital 
 of the former. It was taken by the Turks in 1453. As regards- 
 the extent of old Byzantium previous to the time of Constan- 
 tine, there is some discrepancy of authority ; but it appears al 
 most certain that it was much larger than has generally been 
 supposed. The common opinion is that its arc corresponded 
 to that of the present seraglio and gardens of the sultan ; but 
 it appears to have occupied at least four out of the fourteen re 
 gions of the subsequent city of Constantine, namely, the four 
 most easterly ones. The acropolis, or citadel, stood on the hill 
 where the seraglio now is. 
 
 The ground on which Constantinople stands is fitted by na 
 ture for the site of a great commercial city, the connecting link 
 between Europe and Asia. A gently-sloping promontory, se 
 cured by narrow seas, stretches out in a triangular form to* 
 
CHERSONESUS. 439 
 
 ward the Asiatic continent, from which its extreme point is 
 separated by so narrow a strait (the Bosporus) that in a quar 
 ter of an hour a boat can row from one continent to the other. 
 Just before the Bosporus enters the Sea of Marmara, the clas 
 sical Propontis, it makes a deep elbow or inlet on the European 
 shore, flowing between the triangle of Constantinople proper 
 and its European suburbs of Galata and Per a, and forming 
 the magnificent port of the " Golden Horn." The triangle, 
 which, allowing for many vacant spaces within the walls, is 
 entirely covered by Constantinople, is thus washed on one side 
 (the northern) by the deep waters of the port, and on the other 
 (the southeast) by the Sea of Marmara. The area of the tri 
 angle is occupied by gentle hills. As Rome was built on seven 
 hills, so the Roman founders of Constantinople called these the 
 " Seven hills," though, if the principal chain only were counted, 
 there would be less, and if the minor hills or spaces were inclu 
 ded, there would be more than seven. The modern name of 
 Constantinopolis is Stamboul, a corruption from eg rtiv -rro/Uv, 
 a phrase employed by the Greek peasants in the neighborhood, 
 who, when repairing to Constantinople, say that they are going 
 " to the city." 
 
 Proceeding up the Bosporus, we come to, 1. Sycce, subse 
 quently Justiniance, a harbor answering to the bay near Per a, 
 one of the suburbs of Constantinople. 2. Portus Mulierum, 
 " the Harbor of the Women," now Balta Liman. 3. Portus 
 Senum, " the Harbor of the Old Men," now Steina. 4. Sinus 
 Caspenes or Bathycolpus^ now the Bay of Boiuk-Dere. 5. Phi- 
 nea or Phindpolis, near the mouth of the Bosporus, and now 
 Dercus. 
 
 On reaching the mouth of the Bosporus, we perceive the 
 Cyane.ce Insulce, two small, rugged islands, about forty stadia 
 from it, and situate, according to Strabo, one near the Euro 
 pean, the other near the Asiatic side, the space between them 
 being twenty stadia. The term Cyanece (Kvdveai) has refer 
 ence to the dark blue or azure color of their rocks. There was 
 an ancient fable relative to these islands, namely, that they 
 floated about, and sometimes united to crush to pieces those 
 vessels which might chance at the time to be passing through 
 the straits. The Argo, we are told by Apollonius Rhodius, had 
 a narrow escape in passing through, and lost the extremity of 
 
440 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 her stern. Hence to the name Cyanece is frequently joined the 
 term Symplegades (Sv^TrA^yddef), i. e., the " Dashers," in al 
 lusion to their supposed collision, whenever vessels attempted 
 to pass. Homer calls them II/Lay/crat, or " the Wanderers." 
 The fable relative to the movements of these islands arose prob 
 ably from their appearing, like all other objects, to move toward 
 or from each other, when seen from a vessel in motion itself. 
 These islands are now called Pavonare. 
 
 Returning to the mainland of Thrace, and bending around 
 the Promontorium Paneum, we come to, 1. Philece, called by 
 Arrian Phrygia, and in the Peutinger Table Philias, now 
 Philine, having near it a promontory also called Philias. Near 
 this was one of the extremities of the Maitpdv Tet%of, or Long 
 Wall, erected to secure the territory of Byzantium from the 
 inroads of the Thracians and other barbarous nations, and the 
 erection of which is ascribed to the Emperor Anastasius. 
 2. Halmydessus or Salmydessus, to the northwest. The name 
 properly belonged to the entire range of coast from the Thynian 
 Promontory to the mouth of the Bosporus ; and it was this por 
 tion of the coast in particular that obtained for the Euxine its 
 earlier name of Axenos, or " inhospitable." The shore was 
 rendered dangerous by shallows and marshes, and, when any 
 vessels became entangled among them, the Thracians in the 
 vicinity poured down upon them, plundered their cargoes, and 
 made slaves of the crews. The modern Midjeh answers to the 
 ancient city. 3. Aulcei Tichos, a short distance beyond the 
 Thynian Promontory, now Kurudere. 4. Apdllonia, to the north 
 west, a Milesian colony, with a celebrated temple of Apollo, 
 and from which, according to Strabo, Lucullus brought the 
 colossal statue of the god to Rome. This place was called at 
 a later day Sozopolis, from which the modern name Sizeboli 
 has come by corruption. 5. Anchialus, to the north, belong 
 ing to the territory and under the sway of Apollonia. 6. Me- 
 sambria, farther north, called, at an earlier period, Menebria, 
 or " the city of Mena," and now Misseviria. It was also a col 
 ony of Miletus. 
 
 We have now reached the confines of Lower Maesia, a coun 
 try already described by us (page 246). It only remains, there 
 fore, to notice a few places in the interior of Thrace. 1. Phil- 
 ippopdlis, on the southeast side of the Hebrus, and near the 
 
MACEDONIA. 441 
 
 northwestern angle of Thrace. Its earlier name was Eumol- 
 pias and Poneropolis, and, being situate on a mountain with 
 three summits, it received a name also from this, which in the 
 Latin geographers appears as Trimontium. Philip, the father 
 of Alexander, founded the place anew, and called it after him 
 self, Philippopolis. Under the Romans it became the capital 
 of the province of Thrace. The modern name is Filibe or Phil- 
 ipopoli. 2. Hadrianopolis, one of the most important cities of 
 Thrace, on the River Hebrus, where it is joined by the Tons- 
 kus, now Tonja, and the Harpessus, now Arda. It was found 
 ed by and named after the Emperor Hadrian, and is now Edrene 
 or Adrianople. The site of this city, however, was previously 
 occupied by a small Thracian settlement named Uskudama, 
 and its very advantageous position determined the emperor in 
 favor of erecting a large city on the spot. Adrianople was 
 taken by the Turks in 1360, and continued to be the imperial 
 city until the fall of Constantinople. 3. Plotinopolis, south of 
 the preceding, founded and named in honor of Plotina, the wife 
 of Trajan. On its site, at a later day, appears the city of 
 Didymotlchos. It is now Dsjisr-Erkene. Some, however, 
 make Didymotichos to have been a little to the north, and to 
 answer to the modern Demotica. 4. Trajanopolis, to the south, 
 founded by the Emperor Trajan, and subsequently the capital 
 of the Provincia Rhodopcea. 5. Maximianopolis, to the west 
 of the preceding. It was called at an earlier period lamphora, 
 and Porsulli. The ruins still exist near the village of Gumer- 
 gine. 
 
 Thrace is now the Turkish province of Roumelia. 
 
 X. MACEDONIA. 
 
 1. BOUNDARIES, &c. 
 
 I. Macedonia Proper was bounded on the north by Mcesia, 
 from which it was separated by the ranges of Orbelus and 
 Scomius ; on the east by Thrace, from which it was separa 
 ted, down to the time of Philip and Alexander, by the River 
 Strymon, and from this period by the Nestus ; on the west by 
 Illyricum and Epirus, from which it was separated by the 
 chains of Scardus and Pindus ; and on the south by Thessaly, 
 from which it was separated by the Cambunian Mountains, 
 
442 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 II. In the time of Herodotus, the name of Macedonis compre 
 hended only the country to the south and west of the Lydias. 
 How far inland he conceived that it extended, does not appear 
 from his narrative. 
 
 III. The boundaries of what was afterward the Roman prov 
 ince of Macedonia are very difficult to determine. According 
 to the Epitomizer of Strabo, it was bounded by the Hadriatic 
 on the west, by the mountain ranges of Scardus, Orbehis, 
 Rhodope, and Hcemus on the north, by the Via Egnatia on 
 the south, while on the east it extended as far as Cypsela and 
 the mouth of the Hebrus. 
 
 IV. But this statement with respect to the southern bound 
 ary of the province of Macedonia can not be correct, since we 
 know that this province was bounded on the south by that of 
 Achaia, and it does not appear that the province of Achaia ex 
 tended farther north than the south of Thessaly. 
 
 V. Macedonia now forms part of Turkey in Europe, under 
 the name of Makedonia, or Filiba Vilajeti. 
 
 2. HISTORICAL SKETCH. 
 
 I. IN inquiring into the early history of the Macedonians, two questions, which 
 are frequently confounded, ought to be kept carefully distinct, namely, the ori 
 gin of the Macedonian people, and that of the Macedonian monarchy under the 
 Temenidse ; for, while there is abundant reason for believing that the Macedo 
 nian princes were descended from an Hellenic race, it appears probable that 
 the Macedonians themselves were an Illyrian people, though the country must 
 also have been inhabited in very early times by many Hellenic tribes. 
 
 II. The Greeks themselves always regarded the Macedonians as barbarians, 
 that is, as a people not of Hellenic origin ; and the similarity of the manners 
 and customs, as well as the languages, as far as they are known, of the early 
 Macedonians and Illyrians, appear to establish the identity of the two nations. 
 
 III. According to many ancient writers, Macedonia was anciently called Ema- 
 thia ; but we also find traces of the name Macedonians, from the earliest times, 
 under the ancient forms of Maceta (Ma/ct rat) and Macedni (Manedvoi). They 
 appear to have dwelt originally in the southwestern part of Macedonia, near 
 Mount Pindus. Herodotus says that the Dorians dwelling under Pindus were 
 called Macedonians ; and although it may for many reasons be doubted whether 
 the Macedonians had any particular connection with the Dorians, it may be in 
 ferred from the statement of Herodotus that the Macedonians once dwelt at 
 the foot of Pindus, whence they emigrated in a northeasterly direction. 
 
 IV. The origin of the Macedonian dynasty is a subject of some intricacy and 
 dispute. There is one point, however, on which the ancient authorities agree, 
 namely, that the royal family of that country was of the race of the Temenidaj 
 of Argos. The difference of opinion principally regards the individual of that 
 family to whom the honor of founding this monarchy is to be ascribed. The 
 account of Herodotus seems most worthy of being received. According to this 
 
MACEDONIA. 443 
 
 writer, three brothers, named Gavanes, ^Eropus, and Perdiccas, descended from 
 Temenus, left Argos, their native place, in quest of fortune, and, arriving in 
 Illyria, passed thence into Upper Macedonia, where, after experiencing some 
 singular adventures, which Herodotus details, they at length succeeded in ac 
 quiring possession of a principality, which devolved on Perdiccas, the youngest 
 of the three brothers, and who is therefore considered, by both Herodotus and 
 Thucydides, as the founder of the Macedonian dynasty. These writers have 
 also recorded the names of the successors of this prince, though there is little 
 to interest the reader in their history. 
 
 V. Before the time of Philip, father of Alexander, all the country beyond the 
 River Strymon, and even the Macedonian peninsula from Amphipolis to Thes- 
 salonica, belonged to Thrace, and Paeonia likewise on the north. Philip con 
 quered this peninsula, and all the country to the River Nestus and Mount Rho- 
 dopc, as also Paeonia and Illyria beyond Lake Lychnltis. Thus the widest lim 
 its of Macedonia were from the ^Egean Sea to the Ionian, where the Drino 
 formed its boundary. The provinces of Macedonia in the time of Philip amount 
 ed to nineteen. Macedonia first became powerful under this monarch, who, 
 taking advantage of the strength of the country, and the warlike disposition of 
 its inhabitants, reduced Greece, which was distracted by intestine broils, in the 
 battle of Chaeronea. 
 
 VI. His son Alexander subdued Asia, and by an uninterrupted series of vic 
 tories for ten successive years, made Macedonia, in a short time, the mistress 
 of half the world. After his death this immense empire was divided. Mace 
 donia received anew its ancient limits, and, after several battles, lost its do 
 minion over Greece. The alliance of Philip II. with Carthage, during the sec 
 ond Punic war, gave occasion to this catastrophe. The Romans delayed their 
 revenge for a season, but Philip having laid siege to Athens, the Athenians 
 called the Romans to their aid. The latter declared war against Macedonia, 
 and Philip was compelled to sue for peace, to surrender his vessels, to reduce 
 his army to five hundred men, and defray the expenses of the war. 
 
 VII. Perseus, the successor of Philip, having taken up arms against Rome, 
 was totally defeated at Pydna by Paulus ^Emilius, and the Romans took pos 
 session of the country. Indignant at their oppression, the Macedonian nobility 
 and the whole nation rebelled under Andriscus ; but, after a long struggle, they 
 were overcome by Quintus Caecilius, surnamed, from his conquest, Macedonicus, 
 and the country became a Roman province B.C. 148. 
 
 VIII. On the conquest of Macedonia by the Romans, the country was di 
 vided into four distinct regions. The first of these comprised all the country 
 between the Rivers Strymon and Nestus, and whatever Perseus held on the 
 left bank of the latter, with the exception of ^Enos, Maronea, and Abdera. On 
 the right bank of the Strymon the districts of Bisaltia and Heraclea Sintica were 
 included in this division. The second was formed of the country situated be 
 tween the Strymon and the Axius, with the addition of ancient Paeonia. The 
 third extended from the latter river to the Peneus. The fourth region reached 
 from Mount Bermius to the confines of Illyricum and Epirus. Amphipolis was 
 made the capital of the first division, Thessalonica of the second, Pella of the 
 third, and Pelagonia of the fourth. 
 
444 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 3. MOUNTAINS. 
 
 THE chief mountain ranges of Macedonia are the following : 
 
 I. MONS SCARDUS, separating in part Illyricum from Macedo 
 nia, and now called by the Turks and Servians Tchar Dagh. 
 
 II. ORBELUS, a prolongation, in fact, of the range of Scardus, 
 and separating in part Macedonia on the north from Upper 
 Mcesia. Its continuation to the east was called Scdmius, which 
 also formed part of the northern boundary of Macedonia. The 
 greater portion of the range of Orbelus is at the present day in 
 modern Service,, and is called Argentaro. 
 
 III. PANG^EUS, a ridge forming part of the eastern boundary 
 of Macedonia from the time of Philip and Alexander. It has 
 already been described (page 423). 
 
 IV. RHODOPE, forming, in a great degree, the eastern bound 
 ary of Macedonia, and already described (page 423). 
 
 V. CANDAVII MONTES, on the confines of Illyricum, and a 
 branch of the Canalovii Monies, which last were between Il 
 ly ris Grceca and Macedonia. The modern name is Crasta. 
 
 VI. MONS ATHOS, a mountain in the district of Chalcidice, 
 and situate on a peninsula called Acte, between the Sinus 
 Strymonicus, now the Gulf of Contessa, and the Sinus Sin- 
 giticus, now the Gulf of Monte Santo. Modern travellers give 
 the height as three thousand three hundred and fifty-three feet ; 
 the ancient writers, however, in their usual style of exaggera 
 tion, say that the inhabitants of the mountain saw the sun rise 
 three hours before those who lived on the shore at its base 
 They also inform us that, at the summer solstice, it projected 
 its shadow on the market-place of Myrma, the capital city of 
 the island- of Lemnos, though at the distance of eighty-seven 
 miles ! When Xerxes invaded Greece, he cut a canal through 
 the peninsula of Athos, in order to avoid the danger of doub 
 ling the promontory, the fleet of Mardonius having previously 
 sustained a severe loss in passing around it. Athos was fabled 
 to have received its name from a giant, who, in the battle with 
 the gods, hurled it from Thrace to its position in Macedonia. 
 The modern name of the mountain is Monte Santo, an appel 
 lation derived from the number of religious houses upon it. 
 The situation is extremely healthy, and the inhabitants are 
 said to be remarkable for their longevity. 
 
MACEDONIA. 445 
 
 VII. OLYMPUS MONS, a celebrated mountain on the coast of 
 Thessaly, forming the limit, when regarded as an entire range, 
 between the latter country and Macedonia. The highest sum 
 mit in the chain, the one, namely, on the Thessalian coast, and 
 to which the name of Olympus was specially confined by the 
 poets, was fabled to be the residence of the gods. Travellers 
 dwell with admiration on its colossal magnificence, the mount 
 ain seeming to rise at once from the sea, and to hide its head 
 amid the clouds. The modern name of Olympus with the 
 Greeks is Elimbo, and with the Turks Semavat Evi. Its 
 rugged outline is broken into many summits, from which cir 
 cumstance Homer gives it the epithet of 7Tohvdeipd$, " of many 
 ridges." It is never completely free from snow, and hence 
 Hesiod characterizes it with the epithet of VL^OEL^. An account 
 of the passes in the range of Olympus will be found under the 
 Geography of Thessaly. 
 
 VIII. CAMBUNII MONTES, a range forming the southern bound 
 ary of Macedonia, and separating it from Thessaly. In this 
 range was the Perrhsebian defile, known more particularly by 
 the name of Volustana, now Volutza, and not" far from Azo- 
 rus. The security of this pass appeared so important to Per 
 seus, on the approach of the consul Q. Marcius Philippus, in 
 the third year of the last Macedonian war, that he occupied it 
 with ten thousand men. The ancient name Cambunii (Ka^ 
 dovvia "Op?/) has evidently (3ovv6$, " a hill," as its root. 
 
 4. RIVERS. 
 
 I. Nestus, the eastern boundary of Macedonia from the time 
 of Philip and Alexander. We have already spoken of it in the 
 geography of Thrace (page 424). 
 
 II. Strymon, rising in the chain of Mount Scomius, and form 
 ing the earlier boundary of Macedonia on the east. This river 
 has already been mentioned in the geography of Thrace (page 
 424, seq.). 
 
 III. Haliacmon, a large and rapid river, rising in the chain 
 of mountains to which Ptolemy gives the name of Canalovu, 
 and which are properly a continuation of the range of Pindus 
 to the north. It empties into the Sinus Thermdicus, or Gulf 
 of Saloniki, and is called by the Turks, according to Leake, 
 Inje-Kard-sou. In the time of Herodotus this river \vas joined 
 
446 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 by the Lydias, a discharge of the Lake of Pella ; but a change 
 has now taken place in the course of the latter, which joins, not 
 the Haliacmon, but the Axius. 
 
 IV. AxiuSy next to the Strymon the most considerable river 
 of Macedonia. It rises in the chain of Mount Scardus, above 
 Scopi, the modern Scopia^ and, after receiving the waters of 
 the ErigonuSy Lydias, and Astrceus, it falls into the Sinus 
 Thermdicus. In the Middle Ages this river assumed the name 
 of Bardarus, whence is derived that of Vardari, which it now 
 bears. 
 
 5. GULFS. 
 
 1. Sinus Strymonicus, now the Gulf of Contessa, receiving 
 the waters of the River Strymon. 2. Sinus Singiticus, now 
 Gulf of Monte Santo. 3. Sinus Torondicus, now Gulf of 
 Cassandhra. 4. Sinus Thermdicus, now Gulf of Saloniki. 
 
 6. PROMONTORIES. 
 
 \. Acrodthon or Acrothoon, the upper extremity of the pen- 
 insula of Acte, now Cape Monte Santo. 2. Nymphceum Prom- 
 ontorium, the lower extremity of the same peninsula, now Cape 
 St. George, o. Ampelos Promontorium, at the extremity of 
 the peninsula of Sithonia, now Cape Falso. 4. Derrhis Prom- 
 ontorium, at the extremity of the same promontory, and to the 
 southwest of the preceding, now Cape Drepano. 5. Canas- 
 tra -um Promontorium, at the extremity of the peninsula of Pal- 
 lene, now Cape Canistro, or, as others say, Cape Pagliari. 
 6. Posidium Promontorium, on the same peninsula, and to the 
 west of the preceding. 
 
 7. PRODUCTS. 
 
 ANCIENT Macedonia was a mountainous and woody region, 
 the riches of which consisted chiefly in mines of gold and silver. 
 The coasts, however, produced corn, wine, oil, and fruit. The 
 cold, rugged mountains abounded in timber, kine, and goats, 
 particularly about ^Edessa. Modern Macedonia is said to pos 
 sess a soil more fruitful than the richest plains of Sicily, and 
 there are few districts in the world so fertile as the coasts of 
 Athos or the ancient Chalcldice. 
 
MACEDONIA. 447 
 
 
 
 8. DIVISIONS. 
 
 THE main divisions of Macedonia were the following : 1. Lyn- 
 cestis or Lyncus ; 2. Stymphdlia ; 3. Orestis ; 4. Elimea or 
 Elimiotis ; 5. Eordcea ; 6. Pieria ; 7. Botticea ; 8. Emalhia ; 
 9. Mygdonia; 10. Chalcidlce ; 11. Bisaltia, together with 
 Pceonia and its subdivisions. We will now proceed to consider 
 these subdivisions separately. 
 
 1. LYNCUS OR LYNCESTIS. 
 
 I. Lyncus, so called by Thucydides and Livy, was situate to the east of the 
 Dassaretii of Illyria, from whose territory it was parted by the chain of Mount 
 Bernas or Bora, while on the north it adjoined Pelagonia and Deuriopus, dis 
 tricts of Paeonia. It was watered by the Erigonus and its tributary streams, and 
 was traversed by the great Egnatian Way. 
 
 II. The Lyncesta were at first an independent people, governed by their own 
 princes, who were said to be descended from the illustrious family of the Bac- 
 chiadzB at Corinth. Arrhibaeus, one of this line, occupied the throne when Bras- 
 idas undertook his expedition into Thrace. At the solicitation of Perdiccas, 
 who was anxious to add the territory of Arrhibaeus to his own dominions, Bras- 
 idas, in conjunction with a Macedonian force, invaded Lyncus, but was sooa 
 compelled to retire by the arrival of a large body of Illyrians, who joined the 
 troops of the Lyncestian prince, and had some difficulty in securing his retreat. 
 
 III. Strabo informs us that Irrha, the daughter of Arrhabaeus (as he writes the 
 name), was mother of Eurydice, who married Amyntas, the father of Philip. 
 By this marriage it is probable that the principality of Lyncus became annexed 
 to the crown of Macedonia. 
 
 IV. Our knowledge of the ancient geography of this part of Macedonia would 
 be very limited, were it not for the information we derive from Livy s history 
 of the first campaign of the Romans in Macedonia, which commenced apparently 
 with the invasion of Lyncestis. 
 
 PLACES, &c., IN LYNCESTIS. 
 
 ON entering this territory from the country of the Dassaretii, 
 the consul Sulpicius encamped on the River Beuus (Bevo^), 
 doubtless a small stream flowing into the Erig-onus, and near it 
 must have stood the town of Beue (Bevzy), mentioned, as well as 
 the river, by Stephanus. Philip and the Macedonian army were 
 stationed on a hill not more than two hundred yards distant 
 from the enemy, near Athacus, which was probably a town so 
 called. After some skirmishing, the Roman general advanced 
 to Octolophus. Thucydides, before this, in his narrative of the 
 expedition of Brasidas, does not notice any towns, but merely 
 villages belonging to the Lyncestae. At a later period, howev 
 er, we hear of one city of importance in their territory, name- 
 
448 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ly, Heraclea, surnamed Lyncestis by Ptolemy, and which we 
 know to have stood on the Egnatian Way both from Polybius, 
 as cited by Strabo, and from the Itineraries. The editor of the 
 French Strabo says its ruins retain the name of Erekli. More 
 than one writer of antiquity has noticed some remarkable acid 
 ulous springs in the district of Lyncestis, which were said to 
 inebriate those who drank the water in sufficient quantity. 
 Their locality has been fixed by Brown a-t Eceisso Verbeni. 
 
 2. STYMPHALIA. 
 
 I. THIS district, called also Stymphdlis, was situate in the southwestern angle 
 of the country, and was annexed to Macedonia on the conquest of that country 
 by the Romans. 
 
 II. It lay on the borders of Illyricum, Epirus, and Thessaly, and adjoining 
 the territory of the Atintanes, who were also annexed to Macedonia by the Ro 
 mans, with the Chaonians and the Tympheei of Molossis. This will answer in 
 modern geography to the district of Konitza, so called from a flourishing town 
 north of the Zagora Mountains, and at no great distance from the source of the 
 Aous, where the ancient city of Gyrtona may perhaps have stood. This city of 
 Gyrtona is mentioned by Ptolemy, but by no other author, and must not be 
 confounded with the Thessalian Gyrton. 
 
 3. ORESTIS. 
 
 THE Orestce were situated apparently to the southeast of the Lyncestae, and, 
 like them, were originally independent of the Macedonian kings, though after 
 ward annexed to their dominions. From their vicinity to Epirus, we find them 
 frequently connected with that country ; indeed, Stephanus terms them a Mo- 
 lossian tribe. At a late period they became subject to the last Philip of Mace- 
 don, but, having revolted under the protection of a Roman force, they were de 
 clared free on the conclusion of peace between Philip and the Romans. 
 
 PLACES IN ORESTIS. 
 
 THE country of the Orestse was apparently of small extent, 
 and contained but few towns. Leake makes it to have extend 
 ed from the crest of the ridge of Pindus to the mountains be 
 yond the valleys of Kastoria and Mtivrovo, and to have com 
 prehended the modern districts of Gramista, Anaselitza, and 
 Kastoria. We may notice, 1. Orestia, fabled to have been 
 founded by Orestes, and the chief town of the race. Leake 
 supposes it to have been situated at the foot of Mount Gram- 
 mos, a part of the great central ridge in what is now the plain of 
 Anaselitza, and the most central and fertile part of the country. 
 Stephanus says it was the birth-place of Ptolemy, the son of 
 Lagus. Arrian, however, makes him to have been an EordaBan. 
 According to Leake, we must seek for the site of Orestia near 
 
MACEDONIA. 449 
 
 the issue of the Haliacmon into the plain of Anas e lit z a. 2. Cel- 
 etruni) said by Livy to have been situated in a peninsula, and 
 to have had its walls surrounded by a lake, to which there was 
 but one approach from the main land by a narrow path. These 
 particulars serve to identify it exactly with the modern Kasto- 
 ria, on a peninsula in the lake of the same name. 
 
 4. ELIMEA. 
 
 THIS district lay to the southeast of Orestis, and comprehended, according to 
 Leake, the modern districts of Grevena, Venja, and Tjersemba. It was at one 
 time independent, but was afterward conquered by the kings of Macedonia, and 
 finally included by the Romans in the fourth division of that province. Though 
 a mountainous and barren tract, it must have been a very important acquisition 
 to the kings of Macedonia, from its situation with regard to Epirus and Thes- 
 saly, there being several passages leading directly into those provinces from 
 Elimea. The Cambunii Montes separated Elimea from Thessaly. 
 
 PLACES IN ELIMEA. 
 
 1. Elimea or Elimeum, the capital of the district, on the Riv 
 er Haliacmon) and not far from the modern Greuno. Tradi 
 tion made it to have been founded by Ely mas, a Tyrrhenian 
 chief. Ptolemy calls it Elyma. Livy probably alludes to this 
 place, in his account of the expedition undertaken by Perseus 
 against Stratus, when that prince assembled his forces and re 
 viewed them at Elymea. 2. JEdne, another town of Tyrrhe 
 nian origin, founded, as was said, by ^Eanus, the son of Ely- 
 mas, king of that nation. It is supposed to have been situated 
 in the vicinity of Elimea. Some traces of the name seem to 
 be preserved in that of Vanitches, which is a little to the east 
 of Greuno. 
 
 5. EORD^EA. 
 
 THIS district lay to the northeast of Orestis, and, according to Leake, com 
 prehended the modern Budja, Sarighiul, and Ostrovo. Thucydides reports that 
 the Eordaei were dispossessed by the Macedonians of their original settlements, 
 which, however, still continued to be called Eordaa, and he farther states that 
 a small remnant of this ancient race had established itself near Physca, which 
 was apparently a town of Mygdonia. There is in Stephanus a curious quota 
 tion relative to this people, which would be very important in proving that the 
 population of Greece was principally derived from the north, could we rely on 
 the authority of the writer whom Stephanus quotes, an historian named Suidas. 
 This individual asserts that the Centauri and Leleges were at an early period 
 called Eordi. 
 
 PLACES IN 
 
 1. Cellce, on the Egnatian Way, to the southwest of Edessa, 
 
 FF 
 
450 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 from which, according to the Itineraries, it was twenty-eight 
 miles distant. It is mentioned by Hierocles as a town of Mace 
 donia Consularis. We may place its site not far from the pres 
 ent Khan of Kirpini^ near the defile which anciently connected 
 Macedonia with the territory of Arrhibseus. 2. Arnissa, a short 
 distance to the east of the preceding. According to Leake, it 
 was situate in what is now the vale of Ostrovo, and possibly 
 may have been the same place as the Barnus of Polybius. 
 
 6. PIERIA. 
 
 I. THIS district lay to the east and southeast of Eordaea and Elimea, and is 
 one of the most interesting parts of Macedonia, both in consideration of the 
 traditions to which it has given birth, as being the first seat of the Muses, and 
 the birth-place of Orpheus, and also of the important events which occurred 
 there at a later period, involving the destiny of the Macedonian empire and 
 many other parts of Greece. 
 
 II. The name of Pieria was known to Homer, and was derived from the Pieres. 
 These Pieres, having been pressed by the early Macedonian princes, crossed the 
 River Strymon, in part at least, and settled in Thrace, where Herodotus men 
 tions the castles of the Pierians in his account of the expedition of Xerxes, 
 and where we have already noticed them in the geography of Thrace. It is 
 customary to call the Pieres a Thracian race, but this is manifestly erroneous, 
 since they have nothing in common with the semi-barbarous communities of 
 Thrace proper, namely, the Edones, Odrysae, and Odomanti of the historical 
 ages. They appear to have obtained the appellation of Thracians merely from 
 the accidental circumstance of their having settled in Thrace. 
 
 III. Hence, when we read in the accounts which have come down to us re 
 specting the earliest minstrels of Greece, such as Eumolpus, Orpheus, Musaeus, 
 and Thamyris, that they were Thracians, we must understand by this merely that 
 they were Pierians. These Pierians, moreover, from the intellectual relations 
 which they maintained with the Greeks, appear to have been a Grecian race ; and 
 this supposition is confirmed by the Greek names of their places, rivers, fount 
 ains, &c. We find them, also, up to the time of the ^Eolic and Doric migrations, 
 living in certain districts of Boeotia and Phocis, that is, around Helicon and Par 
 nassus, and their name is thus intimately connected with the poetical history of 
 Greece. 
 
 IV. The boundaries which historians and geographers have assigned to this 
 province vary considerably. It will be safest, however, to adhere to the ar 
 rangement of Ptolemy, who gives the name of Pieria to all the country between 
 the mouth of the Peneus and that of the Lydias. The natural boundary of 
 Pieria toward Perrhaebia, the contiguous district of Thessaly to the west, was 
 the great chain of Olympus, which, beginning from the Peneu s, closely follows 
 the coast of Pieria till beyond Dium, where it strikes off in a northwestern di 
 rection toward the interior of Macedonia. 
 
 PLACES IN PIERIA. 
 
 BEGINNING from the mouth of the Peneus, the first Macedo 
 nian town is Phlla, situate apparently near the sea, at no great 
 
MACEDONIA. 451 
 
 distance from Tempe. It was occupied by the Romans when 
 their army had penetrated into Pieria by the passes of Olym 
 pus from Thessaly. This place was built, as Stephanus in 
 forms us, by Demetrius, son of Antigonus Gonatas, who named 
 it after his mother Phila. The ruins of this city are, accord 
 ing to Cramer, probably those which Dr. Clarke observed near 
 Platampna^ and which he regarded as the remains of Hera- 
 clea. Leake, however, adopts the opinion of Clarke. We come 
 next to, 2. Heraclea or Heracleum, five miles beyond Phila, 
 and half way between Dium and Tempe. Cramer makes it 
 answer to the modern Litochori, but Clarke and Leake agree 
 in identifying it with Platamona, as already remarked. Livy 
 informs us that it was built on a rock overhanging a river. 
 Heraclea was taken in a remarkable manner by the Romans 
 in the war with Perseus, as related by Livy. Having assailed 
 the walls under cover of the manoeuvre called testudo, they suc 
 ceeded so well with the lower fortifications, that they were in 
 duced to employ the same means against the loftier and more 
 difficult works ; raising, therefore, the testudo to an elevation 
 which overtopped the walls, the Romans drove the garrison 
 from the ramparts, and captured the place. A little distance 
 beyond Heraclea was the River Enipeus, rising in Mount Olym 
 pus, and, though nearly dry in summer, yet in winter rendered 
 a considerable torrent by the heavy rains. The modern name, 
 according to Dr. Clarke, is Malatkria. 
 
 3. Dium, five miles beyond, one of the principal cities of 
 Macedonia, and, though not large, the great bulwark of its 
 maritime frontier to the south. It was noted for its splendid 
 buildings and. the multitude of its statues. Here were depos 
 ited twenty-five of the works of Lysippus, representing the 
 eralpoi, or peers of Alexander, who fell at the battle of the 
 Granicus. It suffered severely, however, during the Social 
 War, from an incursion of the JEtolians, who levelled to the 
 ground the walls, houses, and gymnasium, destroying the porch 
 es around the temple with the offerings, and all the royal stat 
 ues. The Macedonians, however, soon retaliated on the ^Eto- 
 lian capital. In the war with Perseus, Dium seems to have 
 thoroughly recovered from this disaster, and, by the importance 
 of its situation, it became at length a Roman colony. D An- 
 ville and Cramer fix the site of Dium on a spot now called 
 
452 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Standia ; Clarke, however, and Leake are in favor of the plain 
 of Katerina. Dium is one among numerous instances of an 
 cient cities of opulence and celebrity situated in the most un 
 healthy spots. It lay about one mile from the sea, and half of 
 this space was occupied by marshes formed by the mouth of 
 the River Baphyrus, now, according to Clarke, the Mauro Nero, 
 but, according to others, the Sphetili. 
 
 4. Libethra or Libethrium, between Dium and Heraclea, and 
 near a torrent named Sus. Pausanias reports a tradition that 
 this town was once destroyed, together with all its inhabitants, 
 by an inundation of this torrent, and that, on the preceding day, 
 the tomb of Orpheus, which was near Libethra, had been in 
 jured by another accident, which exposed the poet s bones to 
 light. His remains were removed by the people of Dium to a 
 spot twenty stadia distant from their city toward Olympus, 
 where they erected a monument to him. Leake thinks that 
 the Sus is the same river with the Enipeus, and that Libethra 
 was situated not far from its junction with the sea. Cramer 
 places Libethra to the southwest of Dium. The name of Li- 
 bethrus was given to the summit of Olympus, which stood above 
 the town. Hence the Muses were surnamed Libethrides as 
 well as Pierides. 5. Pimplea, not far from the preceding, and 
 the birth-place of Orpheus. Cramer places it to the northeast 
 of Libethra. Leake fixes its site at the modern Litochoro. 
 From this place the Muses were called Pimpleides. 6. Pydna, 
 to the north of Dium, following the coast, and celebrated for the 
 decisive victory gained by Paulus ^Emilius over the Macedo 
 nian army under Perseus, which put an end to that ancient 
 empire. Pydna, before this, had been a cause of dispute be 
 tween Philip, father of Alexander, and the Athenians, and that 
 monarch eventually took it from them and gave it to Olynthus. 
 Here, also, at a later period, Olympias, the mother of Alexan 
 der, was besieged by Cassander, and having been compelled at 
 length to surrender, from the want of provisions, she was thrown 
 into prison, and soon after put to death. Leake places Pydna 
 at the modern Ay an. Beyond Pydna was a considerable for 
 est named Pieria, which probably furnished the Pierian pitch 
 alluded to by Herodotus (iv., 195). 
 
 7. Methane, about forty stadia north of Pydna, according to 
 the epitomist of Strabo. This place is celebrated in history 
 
MACEDONIA. 453 
 
 from the circumstance of Philip s having lost an eye in besieg 
 ing it. It was a Greek colony, and was settled by a party of 
 Eretrians. There was another Methone in Thessaly, which 
 must not be confounded with the Macedonian city. Leake 
 fixes the site of the latter at Eleutherochori. 
 
 The interior of Pieria is little known to us, and even this lit 
 tle is so unsatisfactory that we pass at once to 
 
 7. BOTTI^EA. 
 
 I. THE name of Bottiaa, or Bottiaeis, was anciently given to a narrow space 
 of country situated between the Haliacmon and Lydias, as Herodotus informs 
 us (vii., 127), though in another passage he extends it beyond the Lydias as far 
 as the Axius. 
 
 II. The Bottmi, however, had been early expelled from this district by the 
 Macedonian princes, and had retired to the other side of the Axius, about Therme 
 and Olynthus, where they formed a new settlement with the Chalcidians, another 
 people of Thracian origin, occupying the country of Chalcidice, and along with 
 them were engaged in hostilities with the Athenians, who held Potidaea during 
 the Peloponnesian war. 
 
 PLACES IN BOTTIJGA. 
 
 1. THE first town on the coast, after crossing the River Ha 
 liacmon, is AldruSj seventy stadia from Methone, according to 
 the epitomizer of Strabo. It appears to have stood not far from 
 Kapsochori, the position of which is opposite to the innermost 
 part of the Sinus Therma icus. 2. Ichnce, placed by Herodotus 
 in Bottisea, and which, perhaps, stood near the mouth of the 
 Lydias. The name was sometimes written Achnce. 3. Pella, 
 at the distance of one hundred and twenty stadia from the 
 mouth of the Lydias, in the interior. Herodotus assigns it to 
 Bottiaea, but Ptolemy to Emathia. We are told by Demos 
 thenes that Pella was but a small and insignificant place be 
 fore it became the birth-place of Philip. This monarch appears 
 to have enlarged and embellished it, as did also his son Alex 
 ander, who was likewise born here. From this time it contin 
 ued the residence of the kings of Macedonia, the earlier capital 
 having been ^Egse or Edessa. Stephanus reports that the more 
 ancient appellation was Bunomus or Bunomeia, which it ex 
 changed for the name of its founder Pellas. It was situate near 
 
 o ^ 
 
 a lake of considerable size, the outlet of which was the River 
 Lydias, now the Karasmak or Mauroneri. Into this lake 
 D Anville and Cramer make a river to flow, named the Ms- 
 , the modern name of which they give as the Vistritza ; 
 
454 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Leake, however, gives Moglenitiko as the appellation employed 
 by the modem Greeks, and makes its ancient name to have 
 been the Lydias, so that, according to him, the River Lydias 
 flowed into, or rather formed the lake, and then emerged from 
 it at the lower extremity. The baths of Pella are spoken of 
 by the ancient writers, but are said to have been injurious to 
 health, producing biliary complaints. The ruins of Pella are 
 yet visible on the spot called Palatisa or Alaklisi. 
 
 8. EMATHlA. 
 
 I. Emathia was the most ancient name applied to Macedonia by the Greek 
 writers, and appears originally to have meant merely the territory around JEgce. 
 or Edessa, between the Lydias and Haliacmon. It was to this Emathia, accord 
 ing to the tradition mentioned by Pausanias and other writers, that Perdiccas, 
 the founder of the Macedonian dynasty, came from Argos, and obtained posses 
 sion of the city of ^Egae or Edessa, the capital of the district, at that time ruled 
 over by Midas, where he established his empire. 
 
 II. At a later period, Emathia was the name given to the district lying north 
 of Bottiaa and south of Pelagonia, and having the Axius during a part of its 
 course as its eastern boundary. It is in this sense we shall here consider the 
 term. 
 
 PLACES IN EMATHIA. 
 
 1. JEgce or Edessa, the early capital of Emathia, and subse 
 quently the chief city of the Macedonian dynasty, until the seat 
 of government was transferred to Pella. Even after this event 
 it remained the place of sepulture for the royal family, since 
 we are told that Philip and Eurydice, the king and queen of 
 Macedonia, who had been put to death by Olympias, were 
 buried here by Cassander. Pausanias states that Alexander 
 was to have been interred here. It was at ^Egse, moreover, 
 that Philip was assassinated by Pausanias, while celebrating 
 the marriage of his daughter Cleopatra with Alexander, king 
 of Epirus. It is uncertain which of the two appellations, JBgse 
 or Edessa, is the more ancient. The Greek writers often call 
 the place by the latter name. It is generally agreed that the 
 modern Vodina answers to this ancient city. Leake speaks 
 of the surrounding mountain scenery as affording a remarkable 
 combination of sublimity and beauty. He also remarks that 
 the site is well adapted for an ancient capital by its lofty, salu 
 brious, and strong position at the entrance of a pass which was 
 the most important in the kingdom, as leading from the mari 
 time provinces into Upper Macedonia, and by another branch of 
 
MACEDONIA. 455 
 
 the same pass into Lyncestis and Pelagonia. Such a situation 
 would have been ill exchanged for the marshes of Pella, had not 
 the increasing power and civilization of the Macedonians ren 
 dered maritime communication of more importance to their cap 
 ital than strength of position, while in the winter Pella had the 
 recommendation of a much milder climate. 
 
 2. Mieza, to the northeast of the preceding, and deriving its 
 name, according to Theagenes, as quoted by Stephanus, from 
 Mieza, granddaughter of Macedon. He also states that it was 
 called, at an earlier period, Strymonium. Alexander, in conse 
 quence of the destruction of Stagira, is said to have established 
 a school for the exiled Stagirites at Mieza, in honor of Aris 
 totle. Cramer thinks that we should look for its site near the 
 modern Cailari or Sarigeul. 3. Cyrius, the same, probably, 
 with the Cyrrhus of Thucydides, and corresponding, probably, 
 to a Palceo Castro, about sixteen miles northwest of Pella. 4. 
 Idomene, to the north of the preceding, and on the borders of 
 Pseonia, according to Thucydides. The Theodosian Table places 
 it on a road leading from Stobi to Thessalonica. It was sit 
 uate near the Axius. The modern name is given by some as 
 Idomeni. 5. Gortynia, to the west of the preceding, according 
 to Cramer s map ; Ptolemy, however, places it to the south, 
 writing the name Gordynia, while Leake places it on the right 
 bank of the Axius. 
 
 6. BercBa or Berrhoea, in the southernmost part of Emathia, 
 and lying in a southwest direction from Pella. It was a city 
 of great antiquity, and is often mentioned by the early writers. 
 It was thirty miles from Pella, thirty-five from Dium, and fifty- 
 one from Thessalonica. Its situation answers to that of the 
 modern Kara Veria. Some interesting circumstances respect 
 ing Bercea are to be found in the Acts of the Apostles (xvii., 
 11). The Epitome of Strabo states that Bercea stood at the 
 foot of Mount Bermius. This mountain, according to Herodo 
 tus, was inaccessible on account of the cold. Beyond it were 
 the gardens of Midas, in which roses bloomed spontaneously, 
 each flower having sixty leaves, and surpassing in fragrance 
 every other sort. Mount Bermius appears to be a continuation 
 of the great range of Olympus. The modern name is Xero 
 Livado. 
 
456 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 9. MYGDONIA. 
 
 I. THIS province of Macedonia appears to have extended from the Axius to 
 the Lake Bolbe, and at one period even to the Strymon. It originally belonged 
 to the Edonians, a people of Thrace ; but these were expelled by the Temenidae. 
 
 II. Under the division of Mygdonia we must include several minor districts, 
 enumerated by different historians and geographers. These are Amphaxltis and 
 Paraxia, Anthemus, and Grestonia or Crestonia. Amphaxitis, as its name suf 
 ficiently indicates, was situated near the River Axius, and on the left bank of 
 that river, since the Epitome of Strabo states that the Axius separated Bottiaea 
 from Amphaxitis. 
 
 PLACES IN MYGDONIA. 
 
 1. AMPHAXITIS. 
 
 1. Amy don or Abydon, mentioned by Juvenal. Near it rose 
 a fountain named JBa, which mingled its waters with those 
 of the neighboring Axius. 2. Chalastra, at the mouth of the 
 Axius, mentioned by Herodotus in his account of the expedi 
 tion of Xerxes. Cassander removed its inhabitants to Thessa- 
 lonica. 3. Sindus, to the northeast, near the mouth of the Riv 
 er Echedorus, now the Gallico. 4. Thessalonica, to the east 
 of the preceding, and at the head of the Sinus Thermdicus, or 
 Gulf of Salonichi. Thessalonica was at first an inconsidera 
 ble place under the name of Therma, by which it was known 
 in the times of Herodotus, Thucydides, ^Eschines, and Scylax, 
 and, as such, it gave name to the Sinus Thermdicus just men 
 tioned. Cassander changed the name to Thessalonica, in hon 
 or of his wife, who was daughter of Philip. Cassander is said 
 to have collected together the inhabitants of several neighbor 
 ing towns for the aggrandizement of the new city, which thus 
 became one of the most important and flourishing ports of north 
 ern Greece. It surrendered to the Romans after the battle of 
 Pydna, and was made the capital of the second region of Mace 
 donia. Situated on the great Egnatian Way, and possessed 
 of an excellent harbor, well placed for commercial intercourse 
 with the Hellespont and Asia Minor, it could not fail of becom 
 ing a very populous and nourishing city. The Christian will 
 dwell with peculiar interest on the circumstances which con 
 nect the history of Thessalonica with the name of St. Paul. 
 It will be seen from the epistles which he addressed to his con 
 verts there, how successful his exertions had been, notwithstand 
 ing the opposition and enmity of his misguided countrymen. 
 The modern town of Salonichi represents the ancient city. 
 
MACEDONIA. 457 
 
 2. PARAXIA. 
 
 THE Alexandrian geographer assigns to this district the towns of Chata, 
 Moryllus, and Antigonia. The second of these is noticed by Pliny. Anligonia 
 was surnamed Psaphara, to distinguish it from another Antigonia in the vicinity 
 of Stobi. Leake thinks that Chatce, Moryllus, and Antigonia Psaphara were sit 
 uate on the Sinus Thermaicus, between Thessalonica and the promontory of 
 JEneum. 
 
 3. ANTHEMUS. 
 
 THE territory of Anthcmus was probably to the northeast of Thessalonica. 
 There was also a town of the same name, which Amyntas, king of Macedonia, 
 offered as a residence to Hippias, son of Pisistratus. It was ceded by Philip to 
 Olynthus, together with Potidaea. The ruins of Anthemus are supposed to lie in 
 the vicinity of Langaza and its lake. The ancient Bollc Palus is no doubt that 
 of Besikia or Betchik at the present day, and which is more to the east than that 
 of Langaza. According to Thucydides, this lake emptied its waters into the 
 sea near Aulon and Bormiscus, both belonging to Chalcidice. Stephanus men 
 tions a town as well as a lake named Bolbe. Clarke makes the Lake of Betchik 
 (or, as he writes it, Beskek) to be about twelve miles long, and six or eight 
 broad. 
 
 4. CRESTONIA. 
 
 Crestonia or Grestonia was chiefly occupied, as we learn from Herodotus, by 
 a remnant of Pelasgi, who spoke a different language from their neighbors. He 
 also states that the River Echedorus took its rise in the Crestonian country, and 
 farther remarks that the camels of the Persian army were attacked by lions in 
 this quarter, which animals, according to him, were to be found in Europe only 
 between the Nestus, the Thracian River, and the Achelous. Thucydides also 
 mentions the Crestonians as a peculiar race, part of whom had fixed themselves 
 near Mount Athos. This district is now known by the name of Caradagh. 
 
 10. CHALCIDtCE. 
 
 I. To the south and east of Mygdonia was the country of Chalcidice, so named 
 from the Chalcidians, a people of Eubcean origin, who appear to have formed 
 settlements in this part of Macedonia at an early period. Thucydides always 
 terms them the Chalcidians of Thrace, to distinguish them apparently from the 
 Chalcidians of Eubcea. At the instigation of Perdiccas, king of Macedonia, the 
 Chalcidians, having entered into a league with the Bottiaji, made war upon the 
 Athenians, who held Potidaea and several towns in their vicinity, and they 
 proved victorious in more than one engagement. We also learn from Thucyd 
 ides that Brasidas was mainly indebted to their co-operation for his first suc 
 cesses. It is certain that the expedition of this enterprising commander was 
 in the end productive of the most beneficial results to the Chalcidic towns, since 
 it finally secured their independence, and greatly promoted the prosperity to 
 which these republics, and especially Olynthus, attained before they were an 
 nexed to Macedonia by the arms of Philip. 
 
 II. The whole of Chalcidice may be considered as forming one great penin 
 sula, confined between the Sinus Thermatcus, or Gulf of Salonichi, and the Sinus 
 Strymonicus, or Gulf of Contcssa. But it also comprised within itself three 
 smaller peninsulas, separated from each other by so many inlets of the sea. 
 These we shall take in the order in which they present themselves. 
 
458 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PLACES IN CHALCIDICE. 
 
 1. Mnea,) situate on the eastern shore of the Sinus Ther- 
 mdicus, and opposite to Pydna, on the other side of the gulf. 
 It was fabled to have been founded by JEneas on his depart 
 ure from Troy, and, according to Livy, sacrifices were annually 
 performed here to that hero. It was much reduced in popula 
 tion and importance when Cassander founded Thessalonica. 
 This place was given up to plunder by Paulus ^Emilius, after 
 the battle of Pydna, in consequence of the resistance which had 
 been offered by it to the Roman arms. Its ruins are visible 
 near the small town of Panomi. In the immediate vicinity is 
 the promontory of Mneum, now Cape Panomi. The head 
 land some distance to the north was the Hegonium Promonto- 
 rium, now Cape Cara Bourun. Beyond Mneia, Herodotus 
 names, 2. Smila ; 3. Campsa; 4. Gtgonus. This last-men 
 tioned town is also spoken of by Thucydides, who states that 
 an Athenian force, which had been employed against Perdiccas, 
 arrived there from Berrhcea in three days, on their way to at 
 tack Potidsea. 5. Combrea, mentioned by Herodotus in his 
 account of the expedition of Xerxes. 6. Antlgonia. Some 
 what inland, and north of Combrea. 
 
 We now reach the southwesternmost of the three smaller 
 peninsulas already referred to, namely, that of Pallene, of 
 which frequent mention occurs in the historians of Greece. It 
 is said to have anciently borne the name of Phlegra, and was 
 fabled to have witnessed the conflict between the gods and the 
 earth-born Titans. The peninsula is connected with the main 
 land by a narrow isthmus of little more than two miles in 
 breadth, on which anciently stood, 7. The rich and flourishing 
 city of PotidcBa, founded by the Corinthians, though at what 
 period is uncertain. It must, however, have existed some time 
 before the Persian war, as we know from Herodotus that it 
 sent troops to Platsese, having already surrendered to the Per 
 sians on their march into Greece. But after the battle of Sal- 
 amis it closed its gates against the Persian forces. At a sub 
 sequent period it appears to have fallen under the power of the 
 Athenians, as it was then termed a tributary city. We learn 
 from Thucydides that the harsh conduct of Athens toward the 
 Potidaeans, who were naturally inclined to the Dorian interest, 
 
MACEDONIA. 459 
 
 compelled them to revolt. They were finally subdued, how 
 ever, and were allowed to leave the city, which was afterward 
 recolonized from Athens. It was subsequently seized upon by 
 Philip of Macedon. 7. Cassandrea. When Cassander ascend 
 ed the throne, he founded a new city on the neck of the penin 
 sula of Pallene, which he called after his own name, Cassan 
 drea (KaaGavdpeia, scil. Trd/U^), or " City of Cassander." Thither 
 he transferred the inhabitants of several neighboring towns, and, 
 among others, those of Potidsea and the remnant of the popu 
 lation of Olynthus. Cassandrea is said to have surpassed all the 
 Macedonian cities in opulence and splendor. Philip, son of 
 Demetrius, made it his principal naval arsenal, and at one time 
 caused a hundred galleys to be constructed in its docks. From 
 Procopius we learn that this city at length fell a prey to the 
 Huns, who left scarcely a vestige of it remaining. The isth 
 mus on which this city stood is now, according to Leake, called 
 the Gate of Kassandhra, as being the entrance into the penin 
 sula of Pallene, the whole of which is known by the name of 
 Kassandhra. 
 
 Among the other towns of Pallene may be named the follow 
 ing : 1. Aphytis, south of Potidsea, and containing a celebrated 
 temple of Bacchus, to which Agesipolis, king of Sparta, who 
 commanded the troops before Olynthus, desired to be removed 
 shortly before his death, and near which he breathed his last. 
 According to Plutarch, there was here an oracle of Jupiter 
 Ammon. 2. Mende, to the south of the preceding, and a colony 
 of Eretria in Euboea. It became subject to Athens together 
 with Potidsea and other towns of Pallene and Chalcidice ; re 
 volted on the arrival of Brasidas, but was retaken by Nicias and 
 Nicostratus. 3. Scione, on the opposite side of the peninsula, 
 and to the northeast of the preceding. It was said to have been 
 founded by some Pellenians of Achaia, who had wandered thither 
 on their return from Troy. Having revolted from Athens, it 
 was besieged and taken by Cleon, who, by order of the Athe 
 nians, put to death all the men, and reduced the women and 
 children to slavery. 
 
 Leaving the peninsula of Pallene, we corne to the head of 
 the gulf which separates Pallene from Sithonia, and there find 
 the celebrated and powerful city of Olynthus, founded probably 
 by the Chalcidians and Eretrians of Eubcea. The republic of 
 
460 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Olynthus gradually acquired so much power and importance 
 among the northern states of Greece, that it roused the jealousy 
 and excited the alarm of the more powerful of the southern re 
 publics, Athens and Lacedaemon. This brought on eventually 
 a war between the states of Peloponnesus and this city, in 
 which an army of ten thousand men was dispatched into Thrace, 
 under the command of Teleutias, brother of Agesilaus. Te- 
 leutias was defeated and slain. Agesipolis, one of the Spartan 
 kings, succeeded him in the conduct of the war, but was seized 
 with a disorder which proved fatal. Polybiades, his successor, 
 ended the war by compelling Olynthus to sue for peace, which 
 was granted on condition of its acknowledging its dependence 
 on Sparta, and taking part in all its wars. At a subsequent 
 period, we find this city again powerful and independent, and 
 engaged in hostilities with Athens and Philip son of Amyntas. 
 It was only a feeling of jealousy between these two powers that 
 saved Olynthus from being worsted. Shortly after, we find 
 Philip and the Olynthians in league against Athens, with the 
 view of expelling that power from Thrace. Amphipolis was 
 besieged and taken by assault. Potidaea surrendered and was 
 restored to Olynthus, which for a time became as flourishing 
 and powerful as at any former period of its history. Of the 
 circumstances which induced this republic to abandon the in 
 terests of Macedon in favor of Athens, we are not well informed ; 
 but the machinations of the party hostile to Philip led to a dec 
 laration of war against that monarch, and the Athenians were 
 easily prevailed upon by the eloquence of Demosthenes to send 
 forces to the aid of Olynthus. The city, however, was com 
 pelled eventually to surrender to Philip, who gave it up to plun 
 der, reduced the inhabitants to slavery, and razed the walls to 
 the ground. Its ruins are now called Agios Mamas. 
 
 We come next to the second of the three smaller peninsulas, 
 namely, Sithonia, a name applied also to the territory in which 
 Olynthus was situated. The Sithonians are mentioned by 
 more than one writer as a people of Thrace. The more im 
 portant places in this peninsula are the following : 1. Sermyle, 
 to the southeast of Olynthus. From Thucydides we learn that 
 it was in the hands of the Athenians at the time of the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war. The latest mention of it is to be found in the 
 Byzantine historians. 2. Galepsus, mentioned as a Greek city 
 
MACEDONIA. 461 
 
 by Herodotus. 3. Torone, giving name to the gulf on which 
 it stood, Sinus Torona icus, or Gulf of Kassandhra. It was 
 situated toward the southern extremity of the peninsula, and 
 was probably founded by the Eubceans. Near Torone was a 
 marsh, in which the Egyptian bean grew naturally. The 
 modern Toron marks the site of the ancient place. The harbor 
 of Torone was called Cophos (KGK/>OC), from the circumstance 
 of the noise of the waves being never heard there. Hence the 
 proverb, " Koxpo-epos rov Topuvaiov Xipevog." 
 
 The third peninsula is that in which Mount Athos rises, and 
 it forms the eastern side of the Sing-iticus Sinus, now the Gulf 
 of Monte Santo. It is called Acte by Thucydides ; and it was 
 inhabited in his time by various nations of Thracian and Pe- 
 lasgian origin. Mount Athos, which forms so imposing a feat 
 ure in this peninsula, has already been described. Its modern 
 name, as before remarked, is Monte Santo, from the number 
 of religious houses upon it. Among the towns in this penin 
 sula worthy of mention, the following may be noted : 1. Sane, 
 on the neck connecting this peninsula with the mainland, and 
 on the shore of the Sinus Singiticus. According to Thucydi 
 des, it was a colony of Andros. Here began, as we learn from 
 Herodotus, the celebrated canal, cut by order of Xerxes for his 
 immense armament. It is well known that the disaster which 
 the fleet of Mardonius sustained in attempting to double the 
 promontories of Athos first suggested this vast enterprise to 
 the Persian monarch. Herodotus says that three years were 
 employed in its excavation, its breadth being sufficient to allow 
 of two galleys rowing abreast, while its length amounted to a 
 mile and a half. Juvenal ranks this undertaking with the 
 other fables to which the expedition of Xerxes gave rise ; the 
 existence of the canal, however, is too well attested by Herod 
 otus and subsequent writers to be regarded as a subject of 
 doubt, and, notwithstanding the assertions of some travellers, 
 it is now ascertained that considerable remains of this work 
 are still visible. 
 
 2. Urdnopolis, northeast of Sane, founded by Alexander, 
 brother of Cassander, and now Callitzi. 3. Dium, to the south 
 east of the preceding. 4. Olophyxus, to the southeast. 5. Aero- 
 thoos or Acrothoum, situated high up on the mountain, as its 
 name implies; and the inhabitants of which were supposed to 
 
462 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 live beyond the usual time allotted to man. This town was 
 said to have been swallowed up by an earthquake on account 
 of the impiety of its inhabitants, and the town of Apollonia, 
 called also Macrobia, appears to have succeeded to it. 6. 
 Acanthus, on the other side of the isthmus from Sane, and at 
 the extremity of the canal of Xerxes. It was at one time a 
 flourishing city, and was colonized, like Sane, from the island 
 of Andros. The geographers of antiquity do not agree entirely 
 as to the position assigned to this city. Strabo, or, rather, his 
 epitomizer, places it on the Singittcus Sinus ; but Herodotus 
 distinctly fixes it on the Strymontcus Sinus, and so also does 
 Scymnus. Ptolemy follows Strabo ; but the error of these two 
 writers may perhaps have arisen from the territory of Acanthus 
 having stretched for a considerable distance along the shore of 
 the Singitic as well as the Strymonic Gulf. It is probable that 
 the spot now called Erissos answers to the site of the ancient 
 Acanthus. 
 
 7. Calarna, or Turris Calarnea, to the northwest, and in the 
 main district of Chalcidice. 8. Stag-Ira or Stagirus, to the 
 northwest of the preceding, a colony of Andros, as we learn 
 from Thucydides, and celebrated as the birth-place of Aristotle, 
 who hence derived his appellation of "the Stagirite." Some 
 trace of the ancient name is apparent in that of Stauros. The 
 harbor of Stagira was called Capros, as well as the small island 
 which lay off from it. 9. Arethusa, nearly due west from the 
 preceding, and celebrated in antiquity as containing the remains 
 of Euripides. Other accounts place the tragedian s tomb at 
 Bromiscus, another town of Macedonia ; but it is easy to recon 
 cile this discrepancy, as Bromiscus was situated in the imme 
 diate vicinity of Arethusa. 10. Apollonia, in the interior of 
 Chalcidice, a town of some note, and situate on the Egnatian 
 Way. Mention is made of it in the Acts of the Apostles (xvii., 
 1), St. Paul having passed through it on his way from Philippi 
 to Thessalonica. Its ruins are said still to retain the name of 
 Pollina. 
 
 11. BISALTIA. 
 
 I. THAT part of Macedonia between the Lake Bolbe and the Strymon appears 
 to have been anciently called Bisaltia, from the Bisalta, a Thracian nation who 
 were governed by a king at the time of the invasion of Xerxes. Herodotus 
 relates that this sovereign caused his own sons to be deprived of sight for 
 having disobeyed his orders in joining the Persian army, he himself having re- 
 
MACEDONIA. 463 
 
 tired to the wilds of Mount Rhodope. We find from Thucydides that Bisaltia 
 not long after fell into the hands of the kings of Macedon (ii., 99), but that a 
 small part of the nation remained in the peninsula of Mount Athos. 
 
 II. The only place deserving of mention in this district is Argtlus, on the 
 coast, beyond Bromiscus, and the outlet of the Lake of Bolbe. According to 
 Thucydides, it was a colony of Andros. It seems from Herodotus to have been 
 a little to the right of the route of the army of Xerxes in marching from the 
 Strymon to Acanthus, and its territory extended as far as the right bank of the 
 Strymon, for Cerdylium, the mountain immediately opposite to Amphipolis, was 
 in the territory of Argilus. 
 
 12. P^ONIA. 
 
 I. THE Paonians were a numerous and ancient nation, who once occupied 
 the greater part of Macedonia, and even a considerable portion of what is more 
 properly called Thrace, extending along the coast of the yEgean as far as the 
 Euxine. This we collect from Herodotus s account of the wars of that people 
 with the Perinthians, a Greek colony settled on the shores of the Propontis, at 
 no great distance from Byzantium. 
 
 II. Homer, who was apparently well acquainted with the Pseonians, repre 
 sents them as following their leader Asteropaeus to the siege of Troy in behalf 
 of Priam, and places them in Macedonia, on the banks of the Axius. We know, 
 also, from Livy, that Emathia once bore the name of Paeonia, though at what 
 period we can not ascertain (xl., 3). 
 
 III. Herodotus, who dwells principally on the history of the Paeonians around 
 the Strymon, informs us that they were divided into numerous small tribes, 
 most of which were transplanted into Asia by Megabyzus, a Persian general, 
 who had made the conquest of their country by order of Darius. It appears, 
 however, from the same historian, that these Pseonians afterward effected their 
 escape from the Persian dominions, and returned to their own country. He 
 rodotus seems to place the main body of the Paeonian nation near the Strymon, 
 but Thucydides, with Homer, extends their territory to the Axius. If, however, 
 we follow Strabo and Livy, we shall be disposed to remove the western limits of 
 the nation as far as the great chain of Mount Scardus and the borders of Illyria. 
 
 IV. In general terms, then, we may affirm, that the whole of northern Mace 
 donia, from the source of the River Erigonus, which rose in the chain of Mount 
 Scardus, to the Strymon, was once named P&onia. This large tract of country 
 was divided into two parts by the Romans, and formed the second and third re 
 gions of Macedonia. 
 
 V. The Paeonians, though constituting but one nation, were divided into 
 several tribes, each probably governed by a separate chief. We hear, however, 
 of a king of Paeonia named Autolcon, who is said to have derived assistance 
 from Cassander against the Autariat<z, an Illyrian horde, who had invaded his 
 country. Among the tribes of Paeonia, the most deserving of mention are the 
 following : 
 
 1. PELAGQNES. 
 
 I. THE Pelagones, though not mentioned by Homer as a distinct people, were 
 probably known to him, from his naming Pelagon, the father of Asteropaeus, a 
 Pasonian w r arrior. They must at one period have been widely spread over the 
 north of Greece, since a district of upper Thessaly bore the name, as we shall 
 see, of Pelagonia Tripolltis. Frequent allusion is made to Pelagonia by Livy, in 
 his account of the wars between the Romans and the kings of Macedon. It was 
 
464 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 exposed to invasions from the Dardani, who bordered on its northern frontiers ; 
 for which reason, the communication between the two countries was carefully 
 guarded by the Macedonian monarchs. 
 
 II. The only places deserving of mention in Pelagonia are, 1. Pelagonia, the 
 capital of the fourth division of Roman Macedonia. It appears to have been a 
 considerable place, and is noticed by the Byzantine historian Malchus, who 
 speaks of the strength of its citadel. Cramer, on his map, places it near the sour 
 ces of the Beuus, on the confines of Illyricum, at the foot of Mount Bernus, or 
 Bora, and makes it correspond to the modern Monastir, or Toll. Leake writes 
 the latter of these modern names Bitolia, and. makes Pelagonia the designation of 
 the Greek metropolitan bishopric, of which Bitolia is the see. 2. Stobi, not far 
 from the junction of the Erigonus and Axius. On the conquest of Macedonia by 
 the Romans, it was made the depot of the salt with which the Dardani were 
 supplied from that country. Stobi, at a later period, became not only a Roman 
 colony, but a Roman municipium, a privilege rarely conferred beyond the limits 
 of Italy. In the reign of Constantine, it was considered as the chief town of 
 Macedonia Secunda, or Salutdris, as it was then called. It was the birth-place 
 of John Stobaeus, the compiler of the Greek Anthology which bears his name. 
 The site of this place has not been ascertained in modern times. 
 
 2. ALMoPES. 
 
 PTOLEMY places them near the source of the Erigonus, on the borders of Illyr- 
 ia. Thucydides speaks of this tribe as one of the original Macedonian tribes 
 before the conquest of that country by the Temenidae. Lycophron designates 
 Macedonia by the name of Almopia. Strabo ascribes three towns to this tribe, 
 namely, Horma, Apsalus, and Europus, respecting which all other writers are 
 silent. 
 
 3. AGRIINES. 
 
 I. THE Pseonian Agrianes were apparently a considerable tribe in point of ter 
 ritory and population. Their geographical position is also better ascertained 
 than that of those already mentioned, from the fact noticed by Strabo, that the 
 Strymon had its source in their country. In the time of Alexander, the Agria 
 nes were governed by their native princes, as we learn from Arrian, and ren 
 dered important services to that monarch by repressing the incursions of the 
 Triballi, a powerful Thracian horde situated on their northern frontier. They 
 formed excellent light troops, and were often employed with advantage by both 
 Alexander and his successors. 
 
 II. We may assign to the Agrianes the two following towns, namely, 1. By- 
 lazora, on the frontier leading into the country of the Dardani. It was taken and 
 fortified by Philip, the last king of that name, with a view of resisting the at 
 tacks of these barbarians. Polybius describes it as the largest city of Pffionia. 
 Leake makes it correspond to the modern Velesa or Velesso. 2. Almdna, on 
 the Axius, where Perseus encamped, in expectation of being joined by twenty 
 thousand Gauls, whom he was anxious to engage in his service, not long before 
 the battle of Pydna, but whose demands were deemed by him too exorbitant. 
 It answers now to the modern Gradiska. 
 
GRJECIA. 465 
 
 XL GR^ECIA. 
 
 1. NAME. 
 
 I. THIS country was called Grcecia by the Romans, whence 
 the name has descended to us. The Greed, however, were 
 only one of the ancient tribes of Epirus, according to Aristotle, 
 and never became of any historical importance, though their 
 name must at some period have been extensively spread on the 
 western coast, since the inhabitants of Italy appear to have 
 known the country at first under this name. 
 
 II. In the Greek authors, the country we are now consider 
 ing is called Hellas ( r E/Uaf ), though it must be remarked that 
 the name Hellas had a more extensive signification than we 
 attach to it, and was used, in general, to denote the country of 
 the Hellenes, wherever they might happen to be settled ; and 
 in this way the Grecian colonies in Asia Minor, in Africa, in 
 Italy, and in Sicily, formed as essential parts of Hellas as Attica, 
 Arcadia, or Bosotia. 
 
 OBS. 1. The name Hellas was not applied originally to the whole country of 
 Greece, but merely to a part. According to Aristotle, the most ancient dis 
 trict called Hellas was about Dodona and the River Achelous, " for," he adds, 
 "the Sellians dwelt there, and the people who were then called Grecians 
 (TpatKoi), but are now termed Hellenes ("EAfyvefi." The Sellians (SevUoO are 
 called Hellians ( E/l/lot) by Pindar, and are mentioned in the Iliad as the minis 
 ters of the Dodonean, Pelasgian Jove. The country about Dodona was celebra 
 ted by Hesiod for the richness of its pastures, under the name ofH<sllopia. The 
 sanctuary of Dodona itself was called Hella ; and a temple legend, different from 
 that which Herodotus heard there, spoke of Hellus, a wood-cutter, to whom the 
 sacred dove had revealed the oracular oak. All this would seem to show that 
 the tribe of the Hellenes passed into Greece from Epirus. 
 
 2. We next meet with the name Hellas in Thessaly, and, indeed, accord 
 ing to the general but erroneous opinion of the Greeks, the primitive Hellas 
 was in this same country, since they made Thessaly the scene of the myth of 
 Deucalion, and the residence of Hellen his son, from whom they pretended to 
 trace the Hellenic race. Hellas, in this second sense of the name, meant a 
 district in the south of Thessaly, near the foot of Mount Othrys ; and from this 
 the appellation was gradually extended, until it embraced, as we have seen, the 
 whole of Greece. The extension of this name was the result of the extension 
 of the people called Hellenes, who gradually spread themselves over the whole 
 country, dispossessing or else subjugating the earlier Pelasgic inhabitants. 
 
 2. BOUNDARIES AND DIVISIONS. 
 
 I. GREECE, in the sense in which we here consider it, exclud 
 ing, namely, Macedonia and Epirus, as non-Hellenic states, was 
 
 GG 
 

 466 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 bounded on the north by Macedonia, on the northwest by 
 Epirus, on the west by the Ionium Mare, or Ionian Sea, 
 on the east by the JEgceum Mare, or Mgo&an Sea, and on 
 the south by the Mare Mediterraneum, or Mediterranean, of 
 which the other two seas are merely parts. 
 
 II. The main divisions of Greece were two in number, name 
 ly, GR^ECIA PROPRIA and PELOPONNESUS. By Grcecia Propria, 
 called otherwise Middle Greece, and also Northern Greece, was 
 meant all the country lying without the Isthmus of Corinth, 
 and by the Peloponnesus, otherwise called Southern Greece, 
 was meant all the country lying within, or on the lower side 
 of the same isthmus, and forming one large peninsula. 
 
 III. Grcecia Propria was subdivided into the following coun 
 tries: 1. Thessalia. 2. Acarnania. ^.Mtolia. 4. Locris. 5. 
 Doris. 6. Phocis. 7. Boeotia. 8. Megaris. 9. Attica. 
 
 IV. Peloponnesus was subdivided into the following : 1. Co- 
 rinthia. 2. Sicyonia. 3. Achaia. 4. Elis. 5. Arcadia. 6. 
 Argolis. 7. Messenia. 8. Laconia. 
 
 OBS. 1. The name Peloponnesus (TLehoKovvrjaos) means "the island of Pe- 
 lops" (EE^AoTrof vijaof), and is said to have been derived from Pelops, son of 
 Tantalus, who is made by Grecian mythologists to have been of Phrygian ori 
 gin. Thucydides (i., 9) simply observes that he came from Asia, and brought 
 great wealth with him. He married Hippodamia, the daughter of CEnomaus, 
 king of Pisa, in Elis, and succeeded to his kingdom. He is said to have sub 
 sequently extended his dominions over many of the districts bordering upon 
 Elis, whence the whole country obtained the name of Peloponnesus. Agamem 
 non and Menelaus were descended from him. 
 
 2. The word Ue^oTrovvijcor does not occur in Homer. The original name of 
 the peninsula appears to have been Apia, and was so called, according to ^Eschy- 
 lus (Suppl., 266), from Apis, a son of Apollo ; or, according to Pausanias (ii., 5, 
 5), from Apis, a son of Telchin, and descendant of JEgialeus. When Argos had 
 the supremacy, the peninsula, according to Strabo (viii., 371), was sometimes 
 called Argos, and, indeed, Homer seems to use the term Argos in some cases 
 as thus including the whole peninsula. (Thucyd., i., 9.) 
 
 3. In giving the limits of Greece or Hellas, we have followed the custom of 
 previous geographical writers. The precise line of lemarcation, however, ap 
 pears to be impracticable. The word Hellas did not convey to Greeks the no 
 tion of a certain geographical surface, determined by natural or conventional 
 boundaries ; it denoted the country of the Hellenes, and was variously applied, 
 according to the different views entertained of the people who were entitled to 
 that njjme. When the Hellenes, emerging from their primitive settlement in 
 Epirus, had imparted their name to other tribes, with which they were allied by 
 a community of language and manners, Hellas might properly be said to extend 
 as far as these national features prevailed. Ephorus regarded Acarnania as the 
 first Grecian territory on the west (ap. Strab., viii., 334). Northward of the 
 Ambracian Gulf, the irruption of barbarous hordes had stifled the germs of the 
 
GR^ECIA. 467 
 
 Greek character in the ancient inhabitants of Epirus, and had transformed it 
 into a foreign land. 
 
 4. On the east, Greece was commonly held to terminate with Mount Homolc, 
 at the mouth of the Pencus ; the more scrupulous, however, excluded even 
 Thessaly from the honor of the Hellenic name, while Strabo, with consistent 
 laxity, admitted a part of Macedonia (viii., init.}. Sometimes Arnbracia and the 
 mouth of the Peneus were taken as the extreme northern points ; but, even when 
 this was done, it was still impossible to draw a precise line of demarkation ; for 
 the same reason which justified the exclusion of Epirus, applied, perhaps, much 
 more forcibly to the mountaineers in the interior of JEtolia, whose barbarous 
 origin, or utter degeneracy, was proved by their savage manners, and a lan 
 guage which Thucydides describes as unintelligible. When the ^Etolians bade 
 the last Philip withdraw from Hellas, the Macedonian king could fully retort 
 by asking where they should fix its boundaries, and by reminding them that of 
 their own body a very small portion was w r ithin the pale from which they wished 
 to exclude him. (Thirlwall, Hist. Gr., vol. i., p. 3, seq., 8vo ed.) 
 
 3. EARLY AND LATER INHABITANTS. 
 
 I. THE people whom we call Greeks, or Hellenes, were not the 
 earliest inhabitants of the country. Among the names of the 
 many tribes which are said to have occupied the land previous 
 to the Hellenes, the most celebrated is that of the Pelasgi, who 
 appear to have settled in most parts of Greece, and from whom 
 a considerable portion of the Greek population was probably 
 descended. The Caucones, Leleges, and other barbarous tribes, 
 who also inhabited Greece, are all supposed by Thirlwall to 
 have been parts of the Pelasgic nation. He regards the name 
 "Pelasgi" as a general one, like that of Saxons, Franks, or 
 Alemanni, and supposes each of the Pelasgian triber to have 
 had also a name peculiar to itself. 
 
 II. All these tribes, however, were obliged to submit to the 
 power of the Hellenes, who eventually spread over the greatei 
 part of Greece. Their original seat, as already remarked, was, 
 according to Aristotle, near Dodona in Epirus ; but they first 
 appeared in the south of Thessaly about B.C. 1384, according 
 to the common chronology. 
 
 III. In accordance with the common method of the Greeks, 
 of inventing names to account for the origin of nations, the 
 Hellenes are represented as descended from Hellen, son of Deu 
 calion. Hellen had three sons, Dorus, Xuthus, and JEolus. 
 Achceus and Ion are represented as the sons of Xuthus ; and 
 from these four, Dorus, Molus, Achceus, and Ion, the Dorians, 
 JEolians, Achceans, and lonians were descended, who formed 
 the four tribes into which the Hellenic nation was for many 
 
468 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 centuries divided, and who were distinguished from each other 
 by many peculiarities in language and institutions. 
 
 OBS. We have given here the ordinary Greek account of the origin of the 
 name Dorians, &c. Modern scholars, however, have indulged in some ingeni 
 ous speculations on this subject, which assume an air of great plausibility. Ac 
 cording to these writers, the name Hellenes means "the Warriors" (compare 
 the name of their god ArrcA/lwv) ; the Dorians (Awptetf) are " Highlanders" from 
 6a and opof ; the JEolians (Aiofotf) are " the mixed men," a name which arose 
 when the Dorians first descended from their mountains in the north of Thessaly 
 and incorporated themselves with the Pelasgi of the Thessalian plains. So, 
 again, the lonians ("luvee) are "the men of the coast" ( Htovia), called, also, 
 At/mAetf, " Beach-men," and the A^awi are " Sea-men." (Compare Kenrick, 
 Phil. Mus., ii., 367; Milller, Dor., ii., 6, 6 ; Donaldson, G. G., p. 2.) 
 
 IV. At the same time that the Hellenic race was spreading 
 itself over the whole land, numerous colonies from the East 
 are said to have settled in Greece, and to their influence many 
 writers have attributed the civilization of the inhabitants. 
 Thus we read of Egyptian colonies in Argos and Attica, of a 
 Phoenician colony at Thebes in Boeotia, and of a Mysian colony 
 led by Pelops. The very existence of these colonies has been 
 doubted by some writers ; but though the evidence of each one 
 individually is perhaps not sufficient to satisfy the critical in 
 quirer, yet the uniform tradition of the Greeks authorizes us to 
 believe that Greece did at early times receive colonies from the 
 East. 
 
 4. HISTORICAL EPOCHS. 
 
 THE history of Greece may be divided into four periods, of each of which a 
 brief sketch will be here given. 
 
 First Period. From the Earliest Times to the Trojan War. Some account 
 of this period has been given under the preceding section. The time which 
 elapsed from the appearance of the Hellenes in Thessaly to the siege of Troy is 
 usually known by the name of the Heroic Age. Whatever opinion we may form 
 of the Homeric poems, it can hardly be doubted that they present a correct pic 
 ture of the manners and customs of the age in which the poet lived, which, in 
 all probability, differed little from the manners and customs of the Heroic Age. 
 The state of society described by Homer very much resembles that which ex 
 isted in Europe in the Feudal Ages. No great power had yet arisen in Greece ; 
 it was divided into a number of small states, governed by hereditary chiefs, 
 whose power was limited by a martial aristocracy. 
 
 Second Period. From the Siege of Troy to the Commencement of the Persian 
 Wars, B.C. 500. We learn from Thucydides (i., 12) that the population of 
 Greece was in a very unsettled state for some time after the Trojan war. Of 
 the various migrations which appear to have taken place, the most important 
 in their consequences were those of the Boeotians from Thessaly into the coun 
 try afterward called Bceotia, and of the Dorians into the Peloponnesus, the 
 former in the sixtieth, and the latter in the eightieth year after the Trojan war. 
 
GR^ECIA. 469 
 
 About the same period, the western coast of Asia Minor was colonized by the 
 Greeks. The ancient inhabitants of Boeotia, who had been driven out of their 
 homes by the invasion of the Boeotians, together with some ./Eolians, left Boeotia, 
 B.C. 1124, and settled in Lesbos and on the northwestern coast of Asia Minor. 
 This has been called the JEolic migration, and the settlement in Asia Minor was 
 known by the appellation of JEolis. The JEolians were followed by the lonians 
 in B.C. 1040, who, having been driven by the Achaeans from their abode on the 
 lower shore of the Corinthian Gulf, had taken refuge in Attica, whence they 
 migrated to Asia Minor, and settled on the Lydian coast. The southwestern 
 part of the coast of Asia Minor was also colonized about the same period by 
 Dorians, and obtained the name of Doris. The number of Greek colonies, con 
 sidering the extent of the mother country, was very great; and the readiness 
 with which the Greeks left their homes to settle in foreign parts forms a char 
 acteristic feature in their national character. The coasts of Sicily and the 
 southern part of Italy became studded with Greek cities, and the latter region, 
 in particular, obtained on this account the name of Magna Grascia. 
 
 The two states of Greece which attained the greatest historical celebrity were 
 Sparta and Athens. The power of Athens was of later growth ; but Sparta had, 
 from the time of the Dorian conquest, taken the lead among the Peloponnesian 
 states, a position which she maintained by the conquest of the fertile country 
 of Messenia, B.C. 688. Her superiority was probably owing to the nature of 
 her political institutions, which are said to have been fixed on a firm basis by 
 her celebrated lawgiver Lycurgus, B.C. 884. Athens only rose to importance 
 in the century preceding the Persian wars, but even in this period her power 
 was not more than a match for the little states of Megaris and JEgina. The 
 city was long harassed by intestine commotions, till the time of Solon, B.C. 
 594, who was chosen by the citizens to frame a new constitution and a new code 
 of laws, to which much of the future greatness of Athens must be ascribed. 
 
 The kingly form of government was prevalent in the Heroic Age. But during 
 the period that elapsed between the Trojan war and the Persian invasion, he 
 reditary political power was abolished in almost all the Greek states, with the 
 exception of Sparta, and a republican form of government was established in its 
 stead. Frequent wars, however, between each other, were the almost unavoid 
 able consequence of the existence of so many small states almost equal in power. 
 The evils which arose from this state of things were partly remedied by the in 
 fluence of the Amphictyonic Council, and partly by the religious games and 
 festivals which were held at stated intervals in different parts of Greece, and 
 during the celebration of which no wars were carried on. 
 
 In the sixth century before the Christian era, Greece rapidly advanced in 
 knowledge and civilization. Literature and the fine arts were already cultiva 
 ted in Athens under the auspices of Pisistratus and his sons, and the products 
 of remote countries were introduced into Greece by the merchants of Corinth 
 and JEgina. 
 
 Third Period. From the Commencement of the Persian Wars to the Death of 
 Philip of Macedon, B.C. 336. This was the most splendid period of Grecian his 
 tory. The assistance which the Athenians gave to the Asiatic Greeks in their 
 resistance to the Persians, and the part which they took in the burning of Sar- 
 dis, B.C. 499, drew upon them the vengeance of Darius. A Persian army was 
 sent into Attica, but was entirely defeated at Marathon, B.C. 490, by the Athe 
 nians under Miltiades. Ten years afterward, the whole power of the Persian 
 empire was directed against Greece, and an immense army, Jed in person by 
 Xerxes, advanced as far as Attica ; but this expedition also failed ; the Persian 
 
470 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 fleet was worsted in the battles of Artemisium and Salamis, and the land forces 
 were entirely defeated in the following year, B.C. 479, at Plataeae, in Bceotia. 
 
 After the battle of Plataeae, a confederacy was formed by the Grecian states 
 for the purpose of carrying on the war against the Persians. Sparta was at first 
 placed at the head of it ; but the allies, disgusted with the tyranny of Pausanias, 
 the Spartan commander, gave the supremacy to Athens. The Athenians, under 
 the command of Cimon, carried on the war vigorously, defeated the Persian 
 fleets, and plundered the maritime provinces of the empire. During this period, 
 the power of Athens rapidly increased ; she possessed a succession of distin 
 guished statesmen, Themistocles, Aristides, Cimon, and Pericles, who all con 
 tributed to the advancement of her power, though differing in their political 
 views. Literature was also cultivated by her, and the arts of architecture and 
 sculpture, which were employed to ornament the city, were carried to a degree 
 of excellence that has never since been surpassed. 
 
 The haughty conduct of Athens toward the allied states, whom she began to 
 regard as subjects rather than as independent states in alliance with her, pro 
 duced a confederacy against her, at the head of which stood Sparta ; and thus 
 arose the war between this last-mentioned state and Athens, which lasted for 
 twenty-seven years (B.C. 431-404), and is usually known by the name of the 
 Peloponnesian War. It terminated by Sparta s being again placed at the head 
 of the Grecian states. 
 
 Soon after the conclusion of this war, Sparta engaged in a contest with the 
 Persian empire, which lasted from B.C. 400 to 394. The splendid successes 
 which Agesilaus, the Spartan king, obtained over the Persian troops in Asia 
 Minor, and the manifest weakness of the Persian empire, which had been al 
 ready shown by the retreat of the ten thousand Greeks from the heart of the 
 empire, appear to have induced Agesilaus to entertain the design of overthrow 
 ing the Persian monarchy ; but he was obliged to return to his native country 
 to defend it against a powerful confederacy, which had been formed by the Co 
 rinthians, Thebans, Argives, Athenians, and Thessalians, for the purpose of 
 throwing off the Spartan dominion. The confederate states were not, however, 
 successful in their attempt, and the Spartan supremacy was again secured for 
 a brief period by a general peace, made B.C. 387, and usually known by the 
 name of the Peace of Antalcidas. Ten years afterward, the rupture between 
 Thebes and Sparta began, which led to a general war in Greece, and for a short 
 time placed Thebes at the head of the Grecian states. After the death, how 
 ever, of Epaminondas, at the battle of Mantinea, B.C. 362, Thebes again sank 
 into her original obscurity. The Spartan supremacy, however, was destroyed 
 by this war, and her power still more humbled by the restoration of Messenia 
 to independence, B.C. 361. From the conclusion of this war to the reign of 
 Philip of Macedon, Greece remained without any ruling power. 
 
 It is only necessary here to mention the part which Philip took in the Sacred 
 War, which lasted ten years (B.C. 356-346), in which he appeared as the de 
 fender of the Amphictyonic Council, and which terminated by the conquest of 
 the Phocians. The Athenians, urged on by Demosthenes, made an alliance 
 with the Thebans, for the purpose of resisting Philip ; but their defeat at Chaero- 
 nea, B.C. 388, secured for the Macedonian king the supremacy of Greece. In 
 the same year a congress of Grecian states was held at Corinth, in which Philip 
 was chosen generalissimo of the Greeks in a projected war against the Persian 
 empire ; but his assassination in B.C. 336 caused this enterprise to devolve 
 upon his son Alexander. 
 
 Fourth Period. From the Accession of Alexander the Great to the Roman Con- 
 
471 
 
 quest, B.C. 146. The conquests of Alexander extended Greek influence over the 
 greater part of Asia west of the Indus. After his death, the dominion of the 
 East was contested by his generals, and two powerful empires were perma 
 nently established ; that of the Ptolemies in Egypt, and that of the Seleucidae 
 in Syria. The dominions of the early Syrian kings embraced the greater part 
 of Western Asia ; but their empire was soon divided into various independent 
 kingdoms, such as that of Bactria, Pergamus, &c., in all of which the Greek 
 language was spoken, not merely at court, but to a considerable extent in the 
 towns. From the death of Alexander to the Roman conquest, Macedonia re 
 mained the ruling power in Greece. The ^Etolian and Achaean leagues were 
 formed, the former B.C. 284, the latter B.C. 281, for the purpose of resisting 
 the Macedonian kings. Macedonia was conquered by the Romans B.C. 197, 
 and the Greek states were declared independent. This, however, was merely 
 nominal ; they only exchanged the rule of the Macedonian kings for that of the 
 Roman people, and in B.C. 146 Greece was reduced to the form of a Roman 
 province called Achaia, though certain cities, such as Athens, Delphi, &c., were 
 allowed to have the rank of free towns. The history of Greece from this pe 
 riod forms part of that of the Roman empire. It was overrun by the Goths in 
 A.D. 267, and again in A.D. 398, under Alaric ; and, after being occupied by the 
 Crusaders and Venetians, at last fell into the power of the Turks on the con 
 quest of Constantinople. 
 
 5. M U N T A I N S. 
 
 I. THE chain called Olympus and the Cambunian Mount 
 ains, ranging east and west, and commencing with the ./Egean 
 Sea, or the Sinus Thermdicus, near the fortieth parallel of 
 north latitude, is prolonged, under the name of Mount Lingon, 
 until it touches the Adriatic at the Acroceraunian promontory. 
 
 II. At a point about midway between the JBgean and Ionian 
 Seas, Olympus and Lingon are traversed nearly at right angles 
 by the still longer and vaster chain called Pindus, which strikes 
 off nearly southward from the southern face of Olympus, and 
 forms the boundary between Thessaly and Epirus. 
 
 III. About the thirty-ninth degree of latitude, Pindus sends 
 forth the lateral chain of Othrys, which takes an easterly course, 
 forming the southern boundary of Thessaly, and reaching the 
 sea between Thessaly and the northern coast of Euboea. 
 
 IV. Southwest of Othrys, the chain of Pindus, under the 
 name of Tymphrestus, still continues, until another lateral 
 chain, called CEta, projects from it again toward the east, ter 
 minating at the Euboean Strait and the Pass of Thermopylae. 
 
 V. At the point of junction with CEta, the chain of Pindus 
 forks into two branches ; one striking to the westward of south, 
 and reaching across ^Etolia, under the names of Aracynthus, 
 Curius, Corax, and Taphiassus, to the promontory called An- 
 
472 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 tirrhion, situated on the northern side of the narrow entrance 
 of the Corinthian Gulf, over against the corresponding promon 
 tory of Rhion in Peloponnesus ; the other tending southeast, 
 and forming Parnassus, Helicon, and CithcBron. Mounts 
 JEgaleus and Hymettus, even down to the southernmost cape 
 of Attica, Sunium, may be treated as a continuation of this 
 chain. 
 
 VI. From the eastern extremity of CEta, also, a range of 
 hills, inferior in height to the preceding, takes its departure in 
 a southeasterly direction, under the various names of Cnemis, 
 Ptoon, and Teumessus. It is joined with Cithseron by the lat 
 eral communication, ranging from west to east, called Parnes ; 
 and the celebrated Pentelicus, with its abundant marble quar 
 ries, constitutes its connecting link, to the south of Parnes, 
 with the chain from Cithseron to Sunium. 
 
 VII. From the promontory of Antirrhion the line of mount 
 ains crosses into the Peloponnesus, and stretches in a southerly 
 direction down to the extremity of that peninsula called Tcsna- 
 rus, now Cape Matapan. It forms the boundary between Elis 
 with Messenia on one side, and Arcadia with Laconia, on the 
 other, and bears the successive names of Olenus, Panachaicus-. 
 Pholoe, Erymanthus, Lyc<zus, Parrhasius, and Tai/g-etus. 
 
 VIII. Another series of mountains strikes oif from Cithseron 
 toward the southwest, constituting, under the names of Oneia 
 and Geraneia, the rugged and lofty Isthmus of Corinth, and 
 then spreading itself into the Peloponnesus. On entering 
 the peninsula, one of its branches tends westward to the north 
 of Arcadia, comprising the Acrocorinthus, or citadel of Cor 
 inth, the high peak of Cyllene, the mountains of Aroanii and 
 Lampeia, and ultimately joining Erymanthus and Pholoe ; 
 while the other branch strikes southward toward the south 
 eastern Cape of Peloponnesus, the formidable promontory of 
 Malea, now Cape St. Angela, and exhibits itself under the 
 successive names ofApesas, Artemisium, Parthenium, Parnon, 
 Thornax, and Zarex. 
 
 IX. From the eastern extremity of Olympus, in a direction 
 rather to the westward of south, stretches the range of mount 
 ains first called Ossa, and afterward Pelion, down to the south 
 eastern corner of Thessaly. The long, lofty, and naked back 
 bone of the island of Eubcea may be viewed as a continuance 
 
GR.ECIA. 473 
 
 both of this chain and of the chain of Othrys. The line is far 
 ther prolonged by a series of islands in the Archipelago, namely, 
 Andros, Tenos, Myconos, and Naxos, belonging to the group 
 called the Cyclades^ or islands encircling the sacred centre of 
 Delos. Of these Cyclades, others are in like manner a contin 
 uance of the chain which reaches to Cape Sunium, namely, 
 Ceos, Cythnos, Seriphos, and Siphnos, joining on to Attica, as 
 Andros does to Eubcea. 
 
 X. We might even consider the great island of Crete as a 
 prolongation of the system of mountains which breasts the winds 
 and waves at Cape Malea, the island of Cythera forming the 
 intermediate link between them. Scidthus, Scopelos, and Scy- 
 ros, to the northeast of Euboaa, also mark themselves out as 
 outlying peaks of the range comprehending Pelion and Eubcea. 
 
 XL We may remark, in conclusion, that no part of Europe, 
 if we except Switzerland, is so mountainous throughout the 
 whole of its extent as Greece, being traversed in almost every 
 direction by numerous ridges, the summits of which, though 
 not so lofty as the central range of the Alps, attain, in many 
 instances, to the elevation of perpetual snow. A comparatively 
 small proportion, therefore, of the surface of Greece, is left for 
 level ground. Not only few continuous plains, but even few 
 continuous valleys, exist throughout all Greece proper. The 
 largest spaces of level ground are seen in Thessaly, in JEtolia, 
 in the western portion of the Peloponnesus, and in Boeotia ; but 
 irregular mountains, valleys frequent but isolated, landlocked 
 basins and declivities, which often occur, but seldom last long, 
 form the character of the country. 
 
 OBS. A more detailed account of individual mountain chains will be given in 
 the geography of the separate divisions of Greece. 
 
 6. GEOLOGICAL FEATURES. 
 
 1. THE islands of the Cyclades, as also Eubcea, Attica, and Laconia, consist for 
 the most part of micaceous schist, combined with and often covered by crystal 
 line granular limestone. Professor Ross remarks upon the character of the 
 Greek limestone, that, hard and intractable to the mason, jagged and irregular 
 in its fracture, it first determined in early times the polygonal style of architect 
 ure, which has been denominated (he observes) Cydopian and Pelasgic, with 
 out the least reason for either denomination. 
 
 2. The centre and western part of the Peloponnesus, as well as the country 
 north of the Corinthian Gulf, from the Gulf of Arnbracia to the Strait of Eubcea, 
 present a calcareous formation, varying in different localities in color, consist 
 ency, and hardness, but generally belonging or approximating to the chalk. It 
 
474 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 is often very compact, but is distinguished in a marked manner from the crys 
 talline limestone above mentioned. Two of the loftiest summits in Greece ex 
 hibit this formation, Parnassus, and the point of St. Elias in Taygetus. 
 
 3. Clay slate, and conglomerates of sand, lime, and clay, are found in many 
 parts ; a close and firm conglomerate of lime composes the Isthmus of Corinth ; 
 loose deposits of pebbles, and calcareous breccia, occupy also some portions of 
 the territory. 
 
 4. But the most important and essential elements of the Grecian soil consist 
 of the diluvial and alluvial formations with which the troughs and basins are 
 filled up, resulting from the decomposition of the older adjoining rocks. In 
 these reside the productive powers of the country, and upon these the grain and 
 vegetables for the subsistence of the people depend. 
 
 5. The mountain regions are to a great degree barren, destitute at present of 
 wood or any useful vegetation, though there is reason to believe that they 
 were better wooded in antiquity. In many parts, however, and especially in 
 ^Etolia and Acarnania, they afford plenty of timber, and in all parts pasture for 
 the cattle during summer, at a time when the plains are thoroughly burned up. 
 
 6. The low grounds of Thessaly, the valley of the Cephlsus, and the borders 
 of the Lake Copals in Breotia, the western portion of Elis, the plains of Stratos 
 on the confines of Acarnania and yEtolia, and those near the River Pamlsus in 
 Messenia, both are now, and were in ancient times, remarkable for their abund 
 ant produce. 
 
 7. RIVERS. 
 
 General Remarks. 
 
 BESIDES the scarcity of wood for fuel, there is another serious inconvenience 
 to which the low grounds of Greece are exposed, namely, the want of a supply 
 of water at once adequate and regular. Abundance of rain falls during the au 
 tumnal and winter months, little or none during the summer. The naked lime 
 stone of the hills neither absorbs nor retains moisture, so that the rain runs off 
 as rapidly as it falls, and springs are rare. Most of the rivers of Greece are 
 torrents in early spring, and dry before the end of summer. We will now pro 
 ceed to give an enumeration of the more important rivers of this country. 
 
 (A.) Rivers on the Western and Southern Side. 
 1. AchelduS) a large and rapid stream, probably the largest 
 in Greece, rising in Mount Pindus, and which divided Acarna 
 nia from Mtolla. Thucydides describes it as flowing through 
 the country of the Dolopians, Agrseans, and Acarnanians, and 
 discharging itself into the Ionian Sea near the city of QZniada, 
 It was particularly noted for the quantity of alluvium which it 
 deposited at its mouth, and which formed there a cluster of 
 small islands called Echinades, and now the islands of Curzo- 
 lari. As the course of this rapid river varied greatly, which 
 occasioned inundations in the districts through which it flowed, 
 it was found necessary to check its inroads by means of dikes 
 and dams. Hence arose the legend of the poets, that Hercules, 
 
GR^CIA. 475 
 
 namely, and the river-god, contended for the hand of Dei anira, 
 and that Hercules, having proved victorious, tore off one of the 
 horns of the god, who had assumed in the contest the form of 
 a bull. The Naiads took the horn, and, having filled it with the 
 various productions of the seasons, gave it to the Goddess of 
 Plenty. The Acheloiis appears to have been a celebrated river 
 in the earliest times, since its name is frequently employed by 
 the ancient poets for the element of water. The modern name 
 is Aspro Potamo, or " the White River ;" Leake calls it simply 
 the Aspro. Among the tributaries of the Achelous may be 
 mentioned, 1. The Inachus, rising in Mount Lacmus, in the 
 chain of Pindus, and now, according to Leake, the Ariadha. 
 2. The Anapus, coming in, like the former, from the northwest, 
 and emptying into the Acheloiis about eighty stadia south of 
 Stratus. It is now the Aetos. 3. The Campylus, coming in 
 from the east through the territory of Aperantia, and passing 
 by the city of Aperantia. It is now the Carpenitze. 
 
 2. Evenus (Ev^vof), the chief river of j^Etolia, and a stream 
 of considerable size, rising, according to Strabo, in the country 
 of the Bomienses, who occupied the northeast extremity of 
 ^Etolia. It is now the Fidari, and near its mouth stood the 
 modern Missolonghi. The more ancient name of this river 
 was the Lycormas. The Evenus is celebrated in fable from 
 the story of Nessus, the centaur, who was slain here by Her 
 cules. 
 
 3. Plistus (n/tetarof), a river of Phocis, three stadia from 
 Delphi, and flowing between Parnassus and Mount Cirphis. 
 It is now the Sizaliska, and flows into the Sinus Crissaeus, 
 near the ruins of the ancient Cirrha. The Sinus Crissaeus is 
 now the Gulf of Salona, and was an inlet of the Corinthian Gulf. 
 
 4. Nem&a, a small river separating the territory of Corinth 
 from that of Sicyon, and falling into the bay of Lechaeum, a 
 part of the Sinus Corinthiacus. It rose in Argolis, a little 
 above the celebrated village of the same name. It is now the 
 Coutzomadi. A severe battle was fought on its banks between 
 the Boeotians, Corinthians, Athenians, and other allies, against 
 the Lacedaemonians, on the first breaking out of hostilities 
 posterior to the Peloponnesian war, when the latter were vic 
 torious. 
 
 5. Asdpus, rising in the Argolic Mountains, and falling into 
 
476 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 the Sinus Corinthiacus a little below Sicyon. It is now the 
 Basilica. That portion of Sicyonia which this river watered 
 in its course was called Asopia. The games instituted by 
 Adrastus in honor of Apollo were celebrated on its banks. 
 
 6. Crdthis, a river of Achaia, descending from a mountain 
 of the same name on the borders of Arcadia, and flowing into 
 the Sinus Corinthiacus to the west of Mgira. It was from 
 this stream that the Italian Crathis, which flowed between 
 Crotona and Sybaris, derived its appellation. The Achsean 
 Crathis is now the Acralha, and is one of the few streams on 
 this coast that retain their water throughout the year. 
 
 7. Pirus, the most considerable stream of Achaia, called by 
 Strabo the Melas, and falling into the outer part of the Sinus 
 Corinthiacus about eighty stadia from Patrce. Near its mouth 
 stood OlenuSj one of the most ancient cities of Achaia. The 
 Pirus is now the Camenitza. 
 
 8. Larissus, rising in Mount Scollis in Elis, and forming the 
 separation between Achaia and Elis. It is now the Risso or 
 Mana. Pausanias notices a temple of the Larissean Minerva 
 near this stream. 
 
 9. Peneus (Il7jvei6$), a river of Elis, falling into the sea a 
 little below the promontory Chelonites. Modern travellers de 
 scribe it as a broad and rapid stream. The city of Elis was 
 situated on it, in the upper part of its course. It is now the 
 Igliaco. There was a celebrated river of the same name in 
 Thessaly, flowing through the Vale of Tempe. 
 
 10. Alpheus ("AA0of), a celebrated river of Elis, rising on 
 the Laconian border of Arcadia. After losing itself under 
 ground for some miles, it reappeared not far from Megalopolis, 
 traversed the remainder of Arcadia, and then, entering Elis, 
 discharged its waters, now swelled by numerous tributary 
 streams, into the Ionian Sea. Here, however, as the poets re 
 ported, its course did not terminate, for, flowing beneath the 
 ocean, it hastened to mingle its waters with those of the fount 
 ain Arethusa, in the island of Ortygia, near Syracuse. The 
 Alpheus flowed a little to the south of Olympia, the scene of 
 the celebrated Olympic games. The modern name is usually 
 given as the Rofea or Rufia ; but, according to Leake, it has 
 this name only below its junction with the Ladon, above which 
 it is commonly called the Eiver of Karitena. 
 
GRJECIA. 477 
 
 Tributaries of the Alpheus on the North. 
 
 1. Helisson, a small but rapid river, rising in the eastern part of Arcadia, and, 
 after traversing Megalopolis, which it divided into two halves, falling into the 
 Alpheus a little below the city. According to Leake, it is now the Davia. 2, 
 Gortynius, to the west of the preceding, called at its source the Lusius, because 
 Jupiter was said to have been washed there when he was born. It flowed by 
 the town of Gortys or Gortyna, and was remarkable for the coldness of its waters, 
 especially in summer. It is now, according to Leake, the Atzikolo. 3. Buphd- 
 gus, to the west of the preceding, and forming the line of separation between 
 the territories of Hcraa and Megalopolis. Leake says that it is dry in summer. 
 4. Aroanius, called also the Olbius, which descends from the mountains to the 
 north of Pheneus, and usually finds a vent in some natural caverns, or kata- 
 bothra, at the extremity of the plain ; but when by accident these happened to 
 be blocked up, the waters filled the whole valley, and, communicating with the 
 Ladon and Alpheus, overflowed the beds of these rivers as far as Olympia. 5. 
 Ladon, rising near the village of Ly curia, between Pheneus and Clitor. It was 
 accounted the most beautiful stream of Greece, and was farther celebrated, as 
 Pausanias affirms, from the adventure of Daphne and Apollo. According to 
 Leake, the Ladon is now called the Rufea or Rqfia, and the Alpheus bears this 
 same name only below its junction with the Ladon, above which it is usually 
 called the River of Karitena. 6. Enlpeus, a small stream, called in Strabo s 
 time the Barnichius, and flowing near Salmone. 
 
 Tributaries of the Alpheus on the South. 
 
 1. Thius, a small stream on the road from Megalopolis to Sparta. 2. Mallus 
 and Syrus, two small streams more to the west, on the road from Megalopolis 
 to Messenia. 3. Camion and Gatheates, two small streams more to the west, 
 the latter of which rose near the village of Gathea. 4. Acheron and Dalion, flow 
 ing into the Alpheus near Typana in Elis. The Acheron was probably so called 
 from the peculiar veneration with which Ceres, Proserpina, and Pluto were wor 
 shipped on its banks. The more celebrated Acheron was in Thesprotia, in 
 Epirus ; and there was also a third river of the name in Bruttium, in Italy. 
 
 11. Amgrus, rising in a mountain of Arcadia called Lapitha, 
 and after flowing through Elis, falling into the Sinus Cyparis- 
 sius, or Gulf of Arcadia. It formed marshes at its mouth from 
 the want of a fall to carry off the water fully. This stagnant 
 pool exhaled an odor so fetid as to be perceptible at the dis 
 tance of twenty stadia, and the fish caught there were so tainted 
 with the infection that they could not be eaten. Pausanias, 
 however, affirms that this miasma was not confined to the 
 marshes, but could be traced to the very source of the river. 
 It was ascribed to the centaurs having washed the wounds in 
 flicted by Hercules s envenomed shafts in this stream. The 
 Anigrus received the waters of a fountain said to possess the 
 property of curing cutaneous disorders. This source issued 
 from a cavern sacred to the nymphs called Anigriades. Leake 
 
478 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 gives the modern name of the Anigrus as the Mavro-Poiamo, 
 or " Black River," and says that in summer the marsh is still 
 very fetid, and the air extremely unwholesome. 
 
 12. N&dd, rising in Mount Lycceus, in Arcadia, and, after a 
 short but rapid course, falling into the sea a little below Pyrgos. 
 Near Phigalea it received the small river Limax. The Neda 
 formed the boundary between Elis and Messenia^^jeakG gives 
 the modern name as the Buzi ; Cramer makes it ihei?aultzza. 
 
 13. CyparisseiS) a river of Messenia, rising in Mount Mga- 
 leus, and flowing into the sea near Cyparissia. The modern 
 name is the River of Arcadia. 
 
 14. Pamisus, a river of Messenia, and the largest stream in 
 the Peloponnesus, from the quantity of its water, though in 
 length of course it was inferior to the Alpheus and Eurotas, 
 since it flowed for the space of only one hundred stadia. It 
 rose near the city of Messene, and fell into the Sinus Messc- 
 niacus, or Gulf of Coron. Pausanias affirms that the waters 
 of the Pamisus were remarkably pure, and abounded with va 
 rious kinds of fish. He adds that it was navigable for ten 
 stadia from the sea. Walpole makes the modern name the 
 Pirnatza ; but Leake, the Dhipotamo. 
 
 15. Eurotas, a river of Laconia, and one of the largest streams 
 of the Peloponnesus. It rose near Asea in Arcadia, and not 
 long after lost itself under ground, and then reappeared in the 
 district of Belmina, on the borders of Laconia. After this it 
 traversed the latter province, passing by Sparta, and emptied 
 into the sea near Helos. The Eurotas flowed to the east of 
 Sparta, as we are informed by Polybius ; its stream was full 
 and rapid, and could seldom be forded. On its left bank was 
 a range of hills, called Meneldium^ stretching to the southeast 
 of the city, and rising abruptly from the river. The Eurotas 
 is now called the Vasili Potamo (Basilipotamo as written), or 
 4i the Royal River," in allusion to certain petty princes, depend 
 ent upon the Eastern emperors, who possessed a small kingdom 
 in this quarter during the Middle Ages. Dodwell, however, 
 states that the most common appellation for the Eurotas, at 
 the present day, is the Iri. The Eurotas receives, a little 
 below the ruins of Sparta, a river named Pantalimona or Try. 
 piotiko, which, coming from the chain of Taygetus, flows to the 
 west of the ancient city. It is probably the ancient Cnacion. 
 
GRJECIA. 479 
 
 (B.) Rivers on the pastern Side. 
 
 1. T&nus, a river of Argolis, near the confines of Laconia, 
 rising in Mount Parnon, and flowing into the Gulf of Thyrea, 
 or Sinus Thyreates, now the Bay of Astro, an inlet of the Si 
 nus Argolicus, or Gulf of Nauplia. It is now called Hagios 
 Petros, or St. Peter s Rhaer, fr6rnra"~small place of the same 
 name, which is also that of the surrounding district. 
 
 2. Erasmus, a river of Argolis, north of the preceding, and 
 mentioned by several writers of antiquity. Herodotus states 
 that it was said to derive its waters from the Lake of Stym- 
 phalus, in Arcadia, by a subterranean channel. According to 
 Pausanias, it reappeared in Arcadia, at the foot of Mount Chaon, 
 and, joining itself with another river named Phrixus, the united 
 streams entered the Sinus Argolicus between Lerna and Te- 
 menium. The modern name of the Erasmus is given by Leake 
 as the Kefalari. 
 
 3. Inachus, a river of Argolis, rising in Mount Lyrceius, on 
 the confines of Arcadia, and, after flowing at the foot of the 
 acropolis of Argos, falling into the Sinus Argolicus. The 
 poets fabled that it was a branch of the Inachus of Amphilochia, 
 in Acarnania, which, after mingling with the Achelous, passed 
 under ground, and reappeared in Argolis. According to mod 
 ern travellers, the Inachus is usually dry, but is supplied with 
 casual floods after hard rains, and the melting of snow on the 
 surrounding mountains. In the winter it sometimes descends 
 from the mountains in a rolling mass, when it does much dam 
 age to the modern town of Argos. It rises about ten miles from 
 Argos, at a place called Mushi, in the way to Tripoli, in Arca 
 dia. The modern name is the Xeria, which means "the dry" 
 
 4. Cephisus, a river of Attica, rising, according to Strabo, in 
 the demus of Trinemes, and, after flowing through the Attic 
 plains to the west of Athens, and passing under the long walls, 
 discharging itself into the Sinus Saronicus, or Gulf of Engia, 
 near the port of Phalerum. The geographer adds, that in sum- 
 mer it was nearly dry, which corresponds with the accounts of 
 modern travellers, though Sophocles, in the CEdipus Coloneus, 
 describes it as a perennial stream. The modern name is said 
 to be the Podhonista. This river was generally called the 
 Cephisus Atticus, to distinguish it from the Cephisus of Eleu- 
 
480 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 sis, another stream of the same name flowing near the city of 
 Eleusis, and falling into the Sinus Saronicus between this last- 
 mentioned place and the Pirseeus. There was a third Cephisus 
 in Boeotia. 
 
 5. IlissuSj a small stream of Attica, rising in the mountains 
 to the east of Athens, and which, after receiving the still smaller 
 Erid&nus, flowed by Athens, and entered the Sinus Saronicus 
 a little below the mouth of the Cephisus Atticus. From it 
 Athens was principally supplied with water. At the present 
 day it loses itself, after a course of a few miles, in the marshes 
 to the south of Athens. From the beautiful passage of the 
 Phsedrus, in which Plato alludes to it, it appears to have been 
 at that period a perennial stream, whereas now it is almost 
 always dry, its waters being either drawn off to irrigate the 
 neighboring gardens, or to supply the artificial fountains of the 
 modern city. It is called at the present day the Ilisse. 
 
 6. Asopus, a river of Boeotia, rising in Mount Cithceron, near 
 Platsese, and flowing into the Euripus, or strait between the 
 mainland and the island of Eubcea. It separated the territo 
 ries of Platsese and Thebes, and also traversed in its course the 
 whole of southern Boeotia. Though generally a small and 
 sluggish stream, yet after heavy rains it could not easily be 
 forded. It was on the banks of the Asopus that the battle of 
 Platseae was fought. The plain along its northern bank was 
 called Parasopias. This river still retains the name of Asopo. 
 
 7. Ismenus, a small river of Boeotia, flowing, not into the sea, 
 but into the Lake of Hylice, now the Lake of Likari. The 
 Ismenus flowed in the immediate vicinity of Thebes, at the foot 
 of a hill. It was sacred to Apollo, hence called Ismenius, who 
 had a temple here. According to Dodwell, this stream has no 
 water except after heavy rains, when it becomes a torrent, and 
 rushes into the Lake of Likari about four miles to the north 
 west of Thebes. The modern name of the Ismenus is the Is- 
 meno. 
 
 8. Permessus, a small river of Bo3otia, rising in Mount Hel 
 icon, and which, after uniting its waters with those of the Ol- 
 mius, flowed along with that stream into the Lake Copais, near 
 Haliartus. Both the Permessus and Olmius received their 
 supplies from the fountains of Aganippe and Hippocrene. The 
 Permessus is now the Panitza. 
 
GRJECIA. 481 
 
 9. Cephlsu-Sj a river rising at the foot of Mount Parnassus, 
 close to Lilcea, and which, after traversing the plains ofPhocis 
 and part of the Boeotian territory, emptied into the Lake Co- 
 pa is. The modern name is Mavro Potamo, or " Black River." 
 Hesiod compared it to a serpent, from the many sinuosities of 
 its course. According to the poets, the son of the god of this 
 stream introduced the worship of the Graces into Bceotia, and 
 hence the peculiar attachment which these deities were said to 
 have for the waters of this river. 
 
 10. Asopus, a river of Thessaly, rising in Mount (Eta, and 
 falling into the Sinus Malidcus, a little distance beyond Ther 
 mopylae. It flowed through a gorge in the mountains inclosing 
 the Trachinian plain. 
 
 11. Sperchius (STrsp^df), a river of Thessaly, flowing from 
 Mount Tymphrestus, a lofty range forming part of the chain 
 of Pindus, in the country of the Mnianes. Homer frequently 
 mentions this river as belonging to the territories of Achilles 
 around the Sinus Maliacus. It empties into this gulf. The 
 ancient name of this stream appears to have reference to its 
 rapid course (Grrspxeadai, "to move rapidly"). The modern 
 name is the Hellada. 
 
 12. Peneus (Ilf/mof), a river of Thessaly, rising in the chain 
 of Pindus, and falling into the Sinus Therma icus, or Gulf of 
 Saloniki, after traversing the whole breadth of the country. 
 Toward its mouth it flows through the celebrated Vale of 
 Tempe. It is said to be never dry, though in summer it is 
 shallow. After heavy rains, and the sudden melting of the 
 snows on Pindus, it sometimes overflows its banks, and be 
 comes an impetuous torrent. ^Elian, in his description of the 
 Vale of Tempe, makes the Peneus flow through it like oil ; 
 and Dodwell remarks that, in its course through the modern 
 town of Larissa, it has at the present day a surface as smooth 
 as oil. The Peneus is called by the Turks Ababa, by the 
 Greeks the Salambria. This latter name appears to be de 
 rived from aahafidri, " an outlet," and was applied originally to 
 that part of the stream flowing through the Vale of Tempe, 
 where the river has forced a passage through the rocks of Ossa 
 and Olympus. Among the tributaries of the Peneus may be 
 mentioned the Phoenix, the Titaresius, accounted a branch of 
 the infernal Styx, from its having a thick, unctuous substance 
 
 HH 
 
482 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 floating like oil on its surface, the Apiddnus, and Enipeus. The 
 last two united their waters to the north of Pharsalus. 
 
 8. LAKES. 
 
 1. THE disposition and properties of the Grecian territory, though not main 
 taining permanent rivers, are favorable to the multiplication of lakes and marsh 
 es. There are numerous hollows and inclosed basins, out of which the water 
 can find no superficial escape, and where, unless it makes for itself a subterra 
 nean passage through rifts in the mountains, it remains either as a marsh or a 
 lake, according to the time of the year. 
 
 II. In Thessaly we find the Lakes Nesonis and Babeis ; in ./Etolia, between 
 the Acheloiis and Evenus, Strabo mentions the Lake of Trichonis, besides sev 
 eral other lakes, which it is difficult to identify individually, though the quantity 
 of ground covered by lake and marsh is, as a whole, very considerable. 
 
 III. In Boeotia are situated the lakes Copais, Hylice, and Harma, the first of 
 the three being formed chiefly by the River Cephisus, flowing from Parnassus 
 on the northwest, and shaping for itself a sinuous course through the mountains 
 of Phocis. On the northeast and east, the Lake Copais is bounded by the high 
 land of Mount Ptoon, which intercepts its communication with the Strait of 
 Euboea. Through the limestone of this mountain the water has either found or 
 forced several subterranean cavities, by which it obtains a partial egress on the 
 other side of the rocky hill, and then flows into the strait. 
 
 IV. The Catabothra, as they were termed in antiquity, of the Lake Copais, 
 still exist, but in an imperfect and half-obstructed condition. Even in antiquity, 
 however, they never fully sufficed to carry off the surplus waters of the Cephi 
 sus ; for the remains are still found of an artificial tunnel, pierced through the 
 whole breadth of the rock, and with perpendicular apertures at proper intervals 
 to let in the air from above. This tunnel, one of the most interesting remnants 
 of antiquity, since it must date from the prosperous days of the old Orchomenus, 
 anterior to its absorption into the Boeotian league, as well as to the preponder 
 ance of Thebes, is now choked up and rendered useless. It may, perhaps, have 
 been designedly obstructed by the hand of an enemy, and the scheme of Alex 
 ander the Great, who commissioned an engineer from Chalcis to reopen it, was 
 defeated first by discontents in Bceotia, and ultimately by his early death. 
 
 V. The Catabothra of the Lake Copaiis are a specimen of the phenomenon 
 so frequent in Greece, namely, lakes and rivers finding for themselves subter 
 ranean passages through the cavities in the limestone rocks, and even pursuing 
 their unseen course for a considerable distance before they emerge to the light 
 of day. In Arcadia, especially, several remarkable examples of subterranean 
 water communication occur : this central region of Peloponnesus presents a 
 cluster of such completely inclosed valleys or basins. 
 
 OBS. 1. A more particular account of the Grecian lakes will be given in the description of the 
 different divisions of the country. 
 
 2. The familiarity of the Greeks with the phenomenon of the subterranean courses of certain 
 rivers was in part the source of some geographical suppositions, which now appear to us ex 
 travagant, respecting the long subterranean and submarine course of streams, and their reap- 
 pearance at very distant points. Sophocles said that the Inachus of Acarnania joined the Argo- 
 lic Inachus ; Ibycus, the poet, affirmed that the Asopus, near Sicyon, had its source in Phrygia ; 
 the River Inopus, of the little island of Delos, was alleged by others to be an effluent from the 
 mighty Nile. This disappearance and reappearance of rivers connected itself, in the minds of 
 ancient physical philosophers, with the supposition of vast reservoirs of water in the interior of 
 the earth, which were protruded upward to the surface by some gaseous force. (Grote, History 
 of Greece, vol. i., p. 287, aeqq.) 
 
GRJECIA. 483 
 
 9. PROMONTORIES. 
 (A.) Promontories on the Western Side. 
 
 1. Leucate Promontorium, at the southwestern extremity of 
 the island of Leucas or Leucadia, off the coast of Acarnania. 
 It is now Cape Ducato, and the modern name of the island is 
 Santa Maura. 2. Crithote Promontorium, on the coast of 
 Acarnania, facing Ithaca, now Cape Candilli. 3. Antirrhium 
 Promontorium, on the coast of ^^Gtolia, at the narrow entrance 
 of the Sinus Corinthiacus, and facing the promontory of Rhium, 
 on the opposite coast of Achaia, from which circumstance it 
 derived its name. The narrowness of the strait rendered this 
 point of great importance for the passage of troops to and from 
 ^Etolia and the Peloponnesus. Antirrhium was sometimes 
 called Rhium Molycricum, from its vicinity to the town of 
 Molycrlum, and also Rhium JEtolicum. At the present day 
 there are two castles on Antirrhium and Rhium, and the strait 
 is sometimes called the Dardanelles of Lepanto. 
 
 4. Araxus Promontorium, on the coast of Achaia, to the 
 southwest of Rhium, and now Cape Papas. 5. Hyrmme Prom 
 ontorium, on the coast of Elis, to the southwest of the preced 
 ing, and west of the harbor of Cyllene. It is now Cape Chi- 
 arenza. 6. Chelonltes Promontorium, to the southwest of the 
 preceding, and forming the westernmost extremity of Elis. It 
 is now Cape Tornese. 7. Pheia Promontorium, on the coast 
 of Elis, to the southeast of the preceding, and now Cape Sca- 
 phidia. 8. Ichthys Promontorium, on the same coast, and near 
 its termination, now Cape Catacolo. 9. Cyparissium Prom 
 ontorium, on the coast of Messenia, now Cape Canello, or, ac 
 cording to others, Cape Apidaglia. 
 
 (B.) Promontories on the Southern Side. 
 1. Acrltas Promontorium, on the coast of Messenia, at its 
 southernmost extremity, now Cape Gallo. 2. Thyrldes Prom 
 ontorium, on the coast of Laconia, at its southwesternmost ex- 
 tremity, now Cape Grosso. 3. Tcendrum Promontorium, on 
 the same coast, at its southernmost extremity, and forming the 
 most southern part also of the Peloponnesus. It is now Cape 
 Matapan, a corruption of the ancient Greek (lerunov, " a front," 
 and a name alluding to the bold front with which this promon- 
 
484 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 tory projects into the Mediterranean. Near it was a cave, one 
 of the fabled entrances to the lower world, and through which 
 Hercules was said to have dragged up Cerberus to the light of 
 day. On the promontory was a temple of Neptune, which was 
 accounted an inviolable asylum. Tsenarum became subse 
 quently famous for the beautiful marble of its quarries, which 
 the Romans held in the highest estimation, and which was a 
 species of verd antique. 4. Onugntfthos Promontorium, on the 
 coast of Laconia, and to the northeast of the preceding, being 
 situate at the opposite extremity of the Sinus Laconicus. The 
 Greek name means " the ass s jaw-bone" (bvov yvdOo$). The 
 promontory at the present day is detached from the main land, 
 and is called Cape Xyli, forming the extremity of an island call 
 ed Isola del Servi, or the island of Cervo. 5. Malea Promon- 
 torium, a celebrated headland, on the coast of Laconia, to the 
 east of the preceding, and forming the southeasternmost ex 
 tremity of Laconia and the Peloponnesus. It was considered 
 by the ancients the most dangerous point in the circumnaviga 
 tion of the peninsula, and hence arose the proverbial expres 
 sion, quoted by Strabo, Makeav 6 Kap^ac;, imAddov rtiv o Uade, 
 " After having doubled Malea, forget the things at home," 
 where, no doubt, we ought to read Kdimruv, " while doubling." 
 This promontory is now called Cape St. Angela, but sometimes 
 Cape Malio. 
 
 (C.) Promontories on the Eastern Side. 
 
 1. Struthnus Promontorium^ on the coast of Argolis, facing 
 to the west, and projecting into the Sinus Argolicus. It an 
 swers, probably, to the modern Cape Coraka. 2. Buporthmus 
 Promontorium, on the southeastern coast of Argolis, facing the 
 island of Hydrea. It was a lofty headland rising boldly from 
 the sea, and on the summit were erected temples to Ceres, 
 Proserpina, and Minerva Promachorma. 3. Scyllccum Prom- 
 ontorium, now Cape Skyllo, at the southeastern extremity of 
 Argolis, and said to have derived its name from Scylla, the 
 daughter of Nisus. It formed, together with the opposite prom 
 ontory of Sunium, the entrance of the Sinus Saronicus. 4. 
 Spirceum Promontorium, on the eastern coast of Argolis, near 
 its upper extremity ; now Cape Franco. 5. Amphidle Prom- 
 antorium, on the western coast of Attica, over against the isl- 
 
GR^ECIA. 485 
 
 and of Salamis, and now Cape Daphne. 6. Zoster Promon- 
 torium, on the same coast, but more to the southeast. It con 
 sisted of several slender points extending into the sea. This 
 cape, according to Pausanias, was sacred to Latona, Diana, and 
 Apollo. It is now Cape Halikes. 7. Astypalcea Promontori- 
 um, to the southeast of the preceding, and near the extremity 
 of Attica. Now Cape AnapMso. 
 
 8. Sunium Promontorium^ a celebrated headland of Attica, 
 forming the extreme point of that country toward the south. 
 It was sacred to Minerva, and here the goddess had a beautiful 
 temple crowning the height. According to modern travellers, 
 nine columns, without their entablatures, front the sea, in a 
 line from west-northwest to east-southeast ; three are standing 
 on the side toward the land, on the north ; and two, with a pi 
 laster, next to the corner one of the northern columns, toward 
 the sea, on the east ; and there is a solitary one on the south 
 eastern side. This last has obtained for the promontory the 
 name of Capo Colonna, or the Cape of the Column. 
 
 9. Petalia Promontorium, a promontory of Euboea, at the 
 southwestern extremity of the island. It is now Cape Carysto. 
 10. Gercestus Promontormm, to the east of the preceding, and 
 at the southeastern extremity of the island. It is now Cape 
 Mantelo. Here, as we learn from Strabo, was a celebrated 
 temple dedicated to Neptune. 11. Caphareus Promontorium, 
 north of the preceding, and now Cape Z) Oro. It was famed 
 for the shipwreck of the Grecian fleet returning from Troy, a 
 disaster brought about by the false beacons which Nauplius, 
 king of the country, set up for this purpose, in order to avenge 
 the death of his son Palamedes. 12. Chersonesus Promonto- 
 rium^ on the eastern coast of Euboea, and to the northwest of 
 the preceding. It is now Cape Cherronisi. 13. Phalasia 
 Promontorium, on the same coast, higher up, now Cape Kan- 
 dili. 14. Artemisium Promontorium, about the middle of the 
 northern coast, and deriving its name from a temple of Artemis 
 (Diana) in its vicinity. Off this coast the Greeks gained their 
 first victory over the fleet of Xerxes. The modern name, ac 
 cording to Mannert, is Cape Syrochori. 15. Cenceum Prom- 
 ontorium, the extreme point of Eubosa to the northwest, and 
 projecting into the Sinus Maliacus. It is now Cape Li* 
 thada. 
 
486 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 16. Posldium Promontorium, a promontory of Thessaly, in 
 the district of Phthiotis, and closing the Sinus Pagasceus to 
 the south. It is now Cape Stauro. 17. jEantium Promonto- 
 rium, a promontory of Thessaly, in the same district, to the 
 north of the preceding, and closing the Sinus Pagasceus on the 
 Magnesian side. It is now Cape Trikeri or Volo. 18. Mag- 
 nesice Promontorium, or Magnesium Promontorium, a prom 
 ontory of Thessaly, at the southeastern extremity of Magnesia, 
 and now Hagios Gewgios, or Cape St. George. 19. Sepias 
 Promontoriumj to the northwest of the preceding, and on the 
 same coast of Magnesia, now probably the cape which bears 
 the modern name of Hagios Demetrios, or St. Demetrius. 
 Leake, however, makes it the same with Cape St. George, 
 This promontory is celebrated in mythology as the spot where 
 Peleus lay in wait for Thetis, and whence he carried off the 
 goddess. In history it is famed as the scene of the great dis 
 aster which befell the Persian ships in the expedition of Xerxes, 
 Near it were some rocks or shoals called Ipw*\*liTVoi) 9 or the 
 " Ovens," which in modern maps are styled Ipnous, and lie to 
 the north of Hagios Demetrios. 
 
 OBS. In making the promontory of Sepias distinct from, and to the northwest 
 of that of Magnesia, we have followed the maps of Cramer, Perthes, and the 
 Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. D Anville s wonted accuracy 
 deserts him when he makes Sepias and the Magnesian promontory one and the 
 same. It is manifest, from the language of Herodotus (vii., 193), that they were 
 entirely distinct, and that the former lay above the latter ; for he makes the 
 Persian fleet double the Magnesian promontory after having left that of Sepias, 
 and the scene of their disaster in its vicinity. So, again, as regards the modern 
 name of Sepias, Leake evidently confounds it with that of the Magnesian prom 
 ontory, erring with D Anville, as his map shows, in making the two promonto 
 ries the same. 
 
 10. GULFS AND BAYS. 
 (A.) On the Western Side of Greece. 
 I. Sinus Ambracius, between Epirus and Acarnania, now 
 the Gulf of Arta. Scylax calls it the Bay of Anactorium, and 
 observes that the distance from its mouth to the farthest ex 
 tremity was one hundred and twenty stadia, while the entrance 
 was scarcely four stadia broad. The entrance of this gulf re 
 sembles the passage called the Sleeve, at the entrance of the 
 Baltic. On the southern side of the straits was the city and 
 promontory of Actium, the scene of the great naval action be* 
 
GR^CIA. 487 
 
 tween Octavianus and Antony, Sept. 2, B.C. 31, and which de 
 cided the fate of the Roman world. 
 
 II. Sinus Corinthidcus, now Gulf of Lepanto or Corinth, an 
 arm of the sea running in between the northern shore of the 
 Peloponnesus and the coasts of .^Etolia, Phocis, and Boeotia. 
 It formed, also, several small bays or inlets along these coasts, 
 the most important of which was the Sinus Crissceus, or Gulf 
 of Salona. The victory of Don John of Austria, in 1571, over 
 the Turkish fleet, has immortalized the name of the Gulf of 
 Lepanto in modern history. *- 
 
 III. Sinus Cyparissius, an extensive gulf off the coast of 
 Elis, extending from the Pheia Promontorium in the north to 
 the Cyparissium Promontorium in the south. Pliny makes 
 it seventy-two miles in circumference. It is now the Gulf of 
 Arcadia. The ancient name was derived from the town of 
 Cyparissia, at the lower extremity. 
 
 (B.) On the Southern Side. 
 
 I. Sinus Messenidcus, on the southern coast of Messenia, and 
 running some distance up into the land. It extended from the 
 promontory of Acritas on the west to that of Thyrides on the 
 southeast. It is now the Gulf of Coron, and is so called from 
 the modern town of Coron, near the site of the ancient Colo- 
 nides, on its western shore. Another ancient name was the 
 Sinus Asinceus, from the town of Asine, a little above the prom 
 ontory of Acritas. 
 
 II. Sinus LaconicuS) on the southern coast of Laconia, from 
 the promontory of Tcendrum to that of Onugnathus. It was 
 sometimes called Gytheates Sinus, from the town of Gythium 
 at its head. The modern name is the Gulf of Colokythia. 
 Pliny makes it one hundred and six miles in circuit, and thirty- 
 nine in width. 
 
 III. Sinus Boeaticus, to the east of the preceding, between 
 the promontory of Onugnathus and that of Malea. Its ancient 
 name was derived from the town of B&cc, at its southeastern 
 extremity. It is now the Gulf of Vathika. 
 
 (C.) On the Eastern Side. 
 
 I. Sinus Argolicus, on the coast of Argolis, and washing also 
 a part of the eastern shore of Laconia. It is now the Gulf of 
 
488 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Nauplia or Napoli, which latter is the more correct appella 
 tion, and is derived from Napoli di Romania, the ancient Nau 
 plia. 
 
 II. Sinus Saronicus, between Argolis and Attica, and hav 
 ing the territories of Corinthia and Megaris at its head. At 
 its mouth it extends from the promontory of Scyllceum to that 
 of Sunium. It is now the Gulf of Engia, from the modern 
 name of JEgina, which island lies about the centre of it. The 
 ancient name, according to Pliny, is derived from the old Greek 
 word aapuvig, " an oak," i|ie. shores of this gulf having at one 
 time been covered with groves of oak. 
 
 III. Sinus Opuntius, on the coast of the Locri Opunlii, and 
 washing a portion of the northeastern shore of Bosotia. It is 
 now the Gulf of Talanla, from the modern name of the island 
 of Atalanta, lying in it near the shore. 
 
 IV. Sinus Maliacus, between the coast of Thessaly to the 
 north and that of Phocis to the south. It is now the Gulf of 
 Zeitoun, from a neighboring town of that name. The ancient 
 appellation was derived from the Malians (Ma/Uejf), who oc 
 cupied a large portion of the shores of this gulf on the west. 
 On the lower shore of the Sinus Maliacus was the famous pass 
 of Thermopylae. 
 
 V. Sinus Pagasceus, on the coast of Thessaly, to the north 
 east of the preceding, and now the Gulf of Volo. The ancient 
 name is derived from Pagasce, the ancient port of lolcos, at 
 its upper extremity. The modern appellation comes from the 
 town of Volo, near the ancient lolcos. This bay was also 
 called, anciently, Pagaseticus Sinus and Pagasites Sinus. 
 
 11. ADJACENT SEAS. 
 
 I. Mare Ionium, or Ionian Sea, lying along the western 
 shores of Greece, and of which the lonicus Sinus formed a 
 part, answering at one time to the Adriatic, or Gulf of Venice. 
 Consult page 269, Obs. 
 
 II. Mare Siculum, or Sicilian Sea, that portion of the Mare 
 Ionium which adjoins Sicily. 
 
 III. Mare Libycum, or Libyan Sea, the sea which washed 
 the southern coast of the Peloponnesus, and which took its name 
 from the great Libyan or African continent, which it served to 
 separate from Greece. 
 
G-RJECIA. 489 
 
 IV. Mare Creticum, or the Cretan Sea, dividing Greece from 
 the celebrated island of Crete. 
 
 V. Mare JEgceum, or ^Egean Sea, that portion of the Med 
 iterranean which was bounded on the north by Macedonia and 
 Thrace, on the west by Greece, on the east by Asia Minor, and 
 which was comprised between the 41st and 36th degrees of lati 
 tude. The modern name is the Archipelago, a corruption 
 manifestly of the ancient Aiyalov TLehayoc;. The origin of this 
 ancient appellation is altogether doubtful. Strabo thinks it 
 probable that it was derived from JE>g&, a city of Eubrea, on 
 the inner coast, and about midway between Chalcis and the 
 upper extremity of the island. Others, more fabulously, de 
 rive the name from ^Egsea, a queen of the Amazons, who 
 perished in this sea ; or from ^Egeus, the father of Theseus, 
 who threw himself into it. Others, again, derive it from alyi^ , 
 " a squall," from the violent and sudden storms which render 
 it dangerous to sailors even in the present improved state of 
 nautical science. This sea contains numerous islands, many 
 of which are undoubtedly of volcanic origin. Of these, the 
 more southern are divided into two groups : one called the Spo- 
 rddes, or scattered islands, lying along the coasts of Caria and 
 Ionia ; the other called the Cyclddes, or circling islands, lying 
 off the coast of Attica and the Peloponnesus, from which they 
 were separated by the Myrtoan Sea, and occupying a large 
 portion of the southern .ZEgean. Another part of the ^Egean, 
 lying about Icaria, one of the Sporades, was called the Icarian 
 Sea. The northern part of the ^Egean contains fewer but 
 larger islands ; the principal of these were Chios, Lesbos, Lem- 
 nos, Thasos, and Eubcea. At the northeast corner it commu 
 nicated with the Proponlis, now the Sea of Marmara, by the 
 narrow strait called Hellespontus, now the Dardanelles. The 
 Turks call the Archipelago the White Sea, to distinguish it 
 from the Black Sea or Euxine. 
 
 V. Mare Myrtoum, or Myrtoan Sea, the part of the ^Egean 
 between Attica and the Peloponnesus on one side, and the Cyc- 
 lades on the other, and extending from the lower extremity 
 of Euboea to the promontory of Malea, now Cape St. Angela, 
 at the southeastern extremity of Laconia. It is said to have 
 derived its name from the island of Myrtos, lying to the west 
 of the southern extremity of Euboea. 
 
490 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 12. GR^ECIA MORE IN DETAIL. 
 
 1. THESSALIA. 
 (A.) NAME AND BOUNDARIES. 
 
 I. EARLY traditions, preserved by the Greek poets and other 
 writers, ascribe to Thessaly the more ancient names of Pyrrha, 
 J&monia, and JEolis. The two former of these belong to the 
 age of mythology ; the latter refers to that remote period when 
 the plains of Thessaly were inhabited by the ^Eolian Pelasgi, 
 previous to the occupation of any part of it by the Thessalians. 
 
 II. The Thessalians, according to Herodotus, came originally 
 from Thesprotia in Epirus, and from them the country we are 
 now describing derived its future name. At what time, how 
 ever, it received this appellation can not be determined. It 
 does not occur in the poems of Homer, from whom we derive 
 our earliest information about this part of Greece, although the 
 several principalities of which it was composed at the time of 
 the Trojan war are there enumerated, together with the dif 
 ferent chiefs by whom they were governed. 
 
 III. Thessaly was bounded on the north by the chain called 
 Olympus and the Cambunian Mountains, which separated it 
 from Macedonia ; on the west by the chain of Mount Pindus, 
 separating it from Epirus ; on the east by the JEgean Sea; 
 and on the south by the chain of Mount (Eta. 
 
 (B.) ASPECT AND PRODUCTIVENESS OF THE COUNTRY. 
 
 I. IT seems to have been the general opinion of antiquity, founded on very 
 early traditions, that the great basin of Thessaly, formed by the mountain chains 
 just mentioned, was at some remote period covered by the waters of the Pe- 
 neus and its tributary rivers, until some great convulsion of nature had rent 
 asunder the gorge of Tempe, and thus afforded a passage to the pent-up streams. 
 This opinion, which was first reported by Herodotus, in his account of the cele 
 brated march of Xerxes, is again repeated by Strabo, who observes, in confirm 
 ation of it, that the Peneus, in his time, was still exposed to frequent inunda 
 tions, and also that the land of Thessaly is higher toward the sea than toward 
 the more central parts. 
 
 II. The plains of Thessaly were among the most fertile and productive in 
 Greece in wine, oil, and grain, but more especially in grain, of which a consid 
 erable quantity was exported. The Thessalians consequently became very rich, 
 and luxurious in their mode of life ; and so notorious were they for it, that they 
 were charged with having encouraged the Persians to invade Greece, with a 
 view of rivalling them in sensuality and extravagance. Thessaly was also fa 
 mous for its cavalry, who were the best in Greece ; its plains supplying not 
 only ample room for exercise, but also abundance of forage for horses. 
 
GR^ECIA. 491 
 
 III. The lands of Thessaly were not cultivated by the Thessalians themselves, 
 but by a subject population, the Penesta. The account given of them is, that 
 they were the descendants of the ^Eolian Boeotians, who did not emigrate when 
 their country was conquered by the Thessalians, but surrendered themselves to 
 the conquerors, on condition that they should remain in the country, and culti 
 vate the land for the new owners of the soil, paying, by way of rent, a portion 
 of its produce. Many of them were richer than their lords. They sometimes 
 accompanied their masters to battle, and fought on horseback as their vassals. 
 They formed a considerable portion of the population, and frequently attempted 
 to emancipate themselves. 
 
 (C.) SKETCH OF THESSALIAN HISTORY. 
 
 I. THE earliest information about the history of Thessaly is given by Homer 
 (II., ii., 710), who describes the country as divided into several independent 
 principalities and kingdoms, and enumerates the chiefs, as before remarked, to 
 whom they were subject at the time of the Trojan war. This arrangement, 
 however, was not of long continuance, and a new constitution, dating probably 
 from that epoch, was adopted, as it would seem, by the common consent of the 
 different states. They agreed to unite in one confederate body, under a presi 
 dent or Tagus, elected by the members of the confederacy. 
 
 II. It does not, however, seem that this confederation was productive of any 
 great benefit to the country ; for, except during a very short period, under Ja 
 son of Pherae, Thessaly never assumed that rank among the states of Greece 
 to which it was by its position and extent entitled. Many of the cities, more 
 over, were from time to time in the power of usurpers, or under the sway of 
 powerful families, so that the nation had no means of acting as a body. One 
 remarkable instance of this occurred at the time of the Persian war, when the 
 Thessalian house of the Aleuadae, the princes of Larissa, either because they 
 thought their power insecure, or with a view to increase it by becoming vassals 
 to the Persian king, invited Xerxes to the conquest of Greece. 
 
 III. After the Persian invasion, the Greek historians take little notice of the 
 affairs of Thessaly, except on the occasion of the expedition undertaken by the 
 Athenians for the purpose of reinstating Orestes, son of Echecratidas, a king 
 of Thessaly, as Thucydides (i., Ill) calls him, who had been banished from his 
 country. The Athenian general Myronides marched on that occasion as far as 
 Pharsalus, but he was checked in his progress by the Thessalians, who were 
 superior in cavalry, and was forced to retire without having accomplished the 
 objects of his expedition. 
 
 IV. In the Peloponnesian war, the Thessalians did not, as a nation, take any 
 part, though several of the towns were in favor of the Athenians, between whom 
 and the Thessalians there was an old alliance. In B.C. 394, the Thessalians 
 were in league with the Boeotians and their allies, who had formed a hostile 
 confederacy against Sparta. The Spartans thought it necessary to recall from 
 Asia their great commander Agesilaus, and on his way home he had to march 
 through Thessaly. The Thessalians, with their cavalry, endeavored to harass 
 and obstruct him on his march. His skillml manoeuvres, however, thwarted 
 their designs, and Agesilaus gained considerable credit by defeating on their 
 own ground, with horsemen of his own training, the most renowned cavalry of 
 Greece. 
 
 V. While Sparta, however, was struggling to make head against the formi 
 dable coalition of which Boeotia had taken the lead, Thessaly was acquiring 
 a degree of importance and weight among the states of Greece which it had 
 
492 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 never possessed in any former period of its history. This was effected, appa 
 rently, solely by the energy and ability of Jason, who, from being chief or ty 
 rant of Pherae, had risen to the rank of Tagus, or commander of the Thessalian 
 states. By his influence and talents the confederacy received the accession of 
 several important cities ; and an imposing military force, amounting to eight 
 thousand cavalry, more than twenty thousand heavy infantry, and light troops 
 sufficient, as Xenophon observes, to oppose the world, had been raised and fitted 
 by him for the service of the commonwealth. His other resources being equally 
 effective, Thessaly seemed destined, under his direction, to become the leading 
 power of Greece. We may estimate the influence that he had already acquired 
 from the circumstance of his having been called upon to act as mediator between 
 the Boeotians and Spartans after the battle of Leuctra. 
 
 VI. This brilliant period of political influence and power was, however, of 
 short duration, as Jason not long after lost his life by the hand of an assassin, 
 during the celebration of some games he had instituted ; and Thessaly, on his 
 death, relapsed into that state of weakness and insignificance from which it 
 had so lately emerged. The Thessalians, finding themselves unable to defend 
 their liberties, continually threatened by the tyrants of Pherae, successors of 
 Jason, first sought the protection of the Boeotians, who sent to their aid a body 
 of troops commanded by the brave Pelopidas. They next applied for assistance 
 to Philip of Macedon, who succeeded in defeating, and finally expelling, these 
 oppressors of their country ; and by the important services thus rendered to the 
 Thessalians, secured their lasting attachment to his interests, and finally ob 
 tained the presidency of the Amphictyonic council. 
 
 VII. Under the skillful management of Philip, the troops of Thessaly became 
 a most important addition to the resources he already possessed, and to this 
 powerful re-enforcement may probably be attributed the success which attended 
 his campaign against the Boeotians and Athenians. On the death of Philip, the 
 states of Thessaly, in order to testify their veneration for his memory, issued 
 a decree, by which they confirmed to his son Alexander the supreme station 
 which he had held in their councils, and also signified their intention of sup 
 porting his claims to the title of commander-in-chief of the whole Grecian con 
 federacy. 
 
 VIII. The lorfg absence of Alexander, while engaged in distant conquests, 
 subsequently afforded his enemies an opportunity of detaching the Thessalians 
 from his interests ; and the Lamiac war, which was chiefly sustained by that 
 people against his generals Antipater and Craterus, had nearly proved fatal to 
 the Macedonian influence, not only in Thessaly, but over the whole continent 
 of Greece. By the conduct and ability of Antipater, however, the contest was 
 brought to a successful issue, and Thessaly was preserved to the Macedonian 
 crown until the reign of Philip, son of Demetrius, from whom it was wrested 
 by the Romans after the victory of Cynoscephalae. 
 
 IX. All Thessaly was now declared free and independent by a decree of the 
 senate and people, but from that time it may be fairly considered as having 
 passed under the dominion of Rome, though its possession was still disputed 
 by Antiochus, and again by Perseus the son of Philip. Thessaly was already a 
 Roman province when the fate of the empire of the world was decided in the 
 plains of Pharsalus. 
 
 (D.) DIVISION OF THE COUNTRY. 
 
 I. ACCORDING to Strabo, Thessaly was divided into four dis- 
 
GRJECIA. 493 
 
 tricts, distinguished by the names of Phthiotis, Hesticedtis, 
 ThessaliotiS) and Pelasgiotis. 
 
 II. As this arrangement of Strabo, however, appears to omit 
 some districts which are more commonly known in history by 
 different names, the following nomenclature of the Thessalian 
 cantons appears decidedly preferable, and we will proceed to 
 describe them in the order in which they are here placed : 1. 
 Hesticeotis. 2. Pelasgiotis, including the country of the Per- 
 rlmU. 3. Phthiotis. 4. Dolopia. 5. Magnesia. 6. Mali- 
 enses. 7. Mnidnes. 
 
 1. HESTI-EOTIS. 
 
 I. Hesti&Qtis, according to Strabo, was that portion of Thessaly which lay near 
 Pindus, and between that mountain chain and Macedonia. This description ap 
 plies to the upper valley of the Peneus, and the lateral valleys which descend 
 into it from the north and west. The same writer elsewhere informs us, that, 
 according to some authorities, this district was originally the country of the 
 Dorians, who certainly are stated by Herodotus and others to have once occu 
 pied the regions of Pindus, but that afterward it took the name of Hestiaeotis, 
 from a district in Eubcea so called, whose inhabitants were transplanted into 
 Thessaly by the Perrhaebi. 
 
 II. The most northern part of Hestiaeotis was possessed by the JEthzccs, a 
 tribe of uncertain but ancient origin, since they are mentioned by Homer, who 
 states that the Centaurs, when expelled by Pirithous from Mount Pelion, with 
 drew to the ./Ethices. Marsyas, a writer "cited by Stephanus Byzantinus, de 
 scribes the ^Ethices as a most daring race of barbarians, whose object was 
 robbery and plunder. 
 
 III. Mount Pindus, in this district, has already been described in general 
 terms (page 471). This mountain range, striking oft nearly southward from 
 the southern face of Olympus, formed the boundary between Thessaly and 
 Epirus, and separated the waters falling into the Ionian Sea and Ambracisn 
 Gulf from those streams which discharged themselves into the ^Egean. The 
 most frequented passage from northern Epirus into Thessaly appears to have 
 led over that part of the chain of Pindus called Mons Cercetius, and which was 
 near the sources of the Aous. The modern Mount Zygos, or else that of Ian 
 Cantara, in its immediate neighborhood, appears to indicate the ancient Mons 
 Cercetius. 
 
 PLACES IN HESTIAEOTIS. 
 
 1. Phaleria or Phaloria, the first town which presented 
 itself on entering Thessaly by Mount Cercetius. It was cap 
 tured and burned by Flamininus. Its site coincides, according 
 to Leake, with that of the modern Ardham. 2. Pialia, to the 
 northwest of the preceding, now Sklatina, according to Leake. 
 Cramer, however, says its ruins are still called Piali. 3. JEgin- 
 ium, according to Leake, to the northwest of Phaleria, and 
 now Stagous, or, as the Turks call it, Kalabachi. Cramer, 
 
494 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 on the other hand, places it to the southeast of Phaleria, near 
 the modern Mocossi. Leake s opinion appears the more correct 
 one. Livy describes ^Eginium as a place of very great strength. 
 4. Gomphi) according to Cramer and others, some distance to 
 the southeast of Phaleria, and near the left bank of the Peneus; 
 but, according to Leake and Kiepert, near the River Pamisus, 
 toward its source, and in the southwestern angle of the coun 
 try, not far from the passes leading to Ambracia. It was a 
 place of considerable strength, and regarded as the key of Thes- 
 saly on the side of Epirus. Caesar describes it as a large and 
 opulent city. Cramer makes it correspond to the modern Sta- 
 gous ; but Leake, more correctly, to Episcopi, an insulated 
 height near Rapsista. 5. Tricca, to the southeast of Phaleria, 
 according to Cramer ; but, according to Leake, to the south 
 west of it. It was situate on the Lethseus, a small tributary 
 of the Peneus, and possessed a temple of ^Esculapius, which 
 was held in great veneration. Close to the Lethaeus ^Escula- 
 pius was said to have been born. The modern Triccala an 
 swers, in all probability, to the ancient Tricca. 6. Metropolis, 
 to the northeast of Tricca, according to Cramer. It must not 
 be confounded with another place of the same name in Dolopia. 
 Leake places the former near the modern Turnavo. 
 
 2. PELASGIOTIS. 
 
 I. ACCORDING to Strabo, the lower valley of the Peneus, as far as the sea, had 
 been first occupied by the Perrhaebi, an ancient tribe apparently of Pelasgic origin. 
 On the northern bank of the great Thessalian river, they had peopled also the 
 mountainous tract bordering on the Macedonian districts of Elimiotis and Pieria, 
 while to the south they stretched along the base of Mount Ossa, as far as the 
 shores of the Lake Bcebei s. These possessions were, however, in course of 
 time, wrested from them by the Lapithae, another Pelasgic nation, whose orig 
 inal abode seems to have been in the vales of Ossa and the Magnesian district. 
 Yielding to these more powerful invaders, the greater part of the Perrheebi re 
 tired, as Strabo informs us, toward Dolopia and the ridge of Pindus ; but some 
 still occupied the valleys of Olympus, while those who remained in the plains 
 became incorporated with the Lapithae, under the common name of Pelasgiotae. 
 
 II. The territory occupied by the Perrhasbi seems to have been situated chiefly 
 in the valley of the River Titaresius, now, according to Leake, the Elasonitiko. 
 Cramer makes the Titaresius to be now the Saranta Poros (Sarandaforo), but 
 this is merely the modern name of one of its branches. Around the upper part 
 of the course pursued by this river lay a peculiar district called Tripolis, from 
 its containing three principal towns, Pythium, Doliche, and Azorus, and which 
 was connected with Macedonia by a narrow defile over the Cambunian Mount 
 ains. This was the pass of Volustana, now Volutza, already alluded to (page 
 445). 
 
GR.ECIA. 495 
 
 III. The two principal passes which led over Mount Olympus into the terri 
 tory of the Perrhsebi were those of Callipeuce and Petra. The former was the 
 one by which the Roman army under Q. Marcius made their perilous march into 
 Macedonia. The latter led to Pythium in Thessaly by the back of Olympus, and 
 was commanded by the fortress of Petra. Nothing can more strongly show 
 the importance of this latter pass than the many occasions on which it is no 
 ticed in connection with the military operations of the ancients. 
 
 PLACES IN PELASGIOTIS. 
 
 COMMENCING with the district of Tripolitis, we have, 1. Pyth- 
 ium, which appears to have stood exactly at the foot of Olym 
 pus, as well from its having been the point from which Xe- 
 nagoras, a geometrician and poet, measured the perpendicular 
 height of Olympus, as from its having been in the road across 
 the mountain, by Petra. Its name was derived from a temple 
 of Apollo Pythius, in whose honor games were here celebrated. 
 2. Doliche, the second city of Tripolitis, to the southwest of 
 Pythium. Its site corresponds to the village of Duklista. 3. 
 Azorus, to the southwest of Doliche, and the third city of Trip 
 olitis. Leake places it at Vuvala. To the east of Azorus, 
 and near the base of Olympus, some geographers place a city 
 named Bodona or Dodona Thessalica. The actual existence 
 of such a place, however, has been disproved by Leake. 
 
 Leaving Tripolitis^ and proceeding to the southeast, we come 
 to, 1. Eudierum, a fortress answering now to Konispoli^ and 
 lying beyond the Lake Ascuris, now Mavro Limne, or Ezero. 
 2. Gonnus, to the southeast of the preceding. According to 
 Livy, it was twenty miles from Larissa, and close to the en 
 trance of the gorge of Tempe. It was strongly fortified by 
 Perseus in his first campaign against the Romans, and became 
 one of the keys of Macedonia. Hawkins is wrong in placing 
 it on the right bank of the Peneus ; it stood on the left, or Olym 
 pian, side of the river. 
 
 The beautiful Vale of Tempe, which has already been alluded to (page 481), 
 may here be more particularly noticed. It lies between Mount Olympus on the 
 north and Ossa on the south, and is traversed throughout its whole length by 
 the River Peneus in a gentle course. Tempe is five miles in length, and is often 
 so narrow as to afford room only for the river and a caravan to travel side by 
 side. It is, in fact, a narrow, rocky defile, inclosed on each side by lofty and 
 perpendicular heights, and is, as its name indicates, a cleft or chasm between 
 Olympus and Ossa. The ancients in general believed that the gorge of Tempe 
 was caused by some great convulsion of nature, which burst asunder the great 
 mountain barrier by which the waters that covered the plains of Thessaly in 
 early days were pent up, and thus afforded them an egress to the sea. The 
 

 
 496 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Greeks and Romans frequently allude to the beautiful scenery of Tempe, and 
 ^Elian, in particular, has left a glowing description of it. Modern travellers, 
 also, are loud in its praise. Tempe is now called by the modem Greeks Lycos- 
 tomo ; by the Turks, Bogaz, this latter word signifying, in the Turkish language, 
 a pass or strait. 
 
 3. Elatia, according to Cramer, to the southwest of Gonnus ; 
 whereas Leake places it to the south, and on the other side of 
 the Peneus. It was occupied by Perseus in his first campaign 
 against the Romans. 4. Gyrton or Gyrtone, in the angle be 
 tween the Titaresius and Peneus, and, according to Leake, 
 answering to the modern Tatari. It was probably the same 
 with the city of the Phlegyse, mentioned by Homer. This 
 place is frequently alluded to in the account of the wars be 
 tween the Macedonians and Romans. 5. Phalanna, north of 
 Gyrton, and beyond the Titaresius. Its ruins, according to 
 Leake, are on a height above the village otKaradjoli. Cramer, 
 less accurately, places Phalanna to the west of Gyrton, and 
 makes it answer to Turnavo. 6. Larissa, to the southeast of 
 Gyrton, and on the right bank of the Peneus. It was one of 
 the most ancient and flourishing cities of Thessaly, and still 
 retains its name and position. The appellation Larissa was 
 peculiar to the Pelasgi, and wherever it is found in the ancient 
 world it indicates a Pelasgic settlement. Some writers have 
 supposed that Homer means Larissa by his Argos Pelasgicum, 
 but, as Leake remarks, the Argos Pelasgicum of the poet ap 
 pears to be, not a city, but a district. Larissa stood in a very 
 fertile part of the country, but still its territory was subject to 
 great losses by the inundations of the Peneus. The Aleuadse, 
 mentioned by Herodotus as princes of Thessaly at the time of 
 the Persian invasion, were natives of this city. 
 
 7. Atrax, according to Cramer, to the southwest of Larissa, 
 and on the right bank of the Peneus ; but, according to Leake, 
 to the northwest, and answering now to Gunitza. Atrax was 
 only ten Roman miles from Larissa. It was famed for its 
 green marble, known by the name of Atracium Marmor. 8. 
 Cranon or Crannon, to the southeast of Atrax, and one of the 
 most ancient and considerable towns of this part of Thessaly. 
 Its site is near the modern Hadjilar. Near Cranon was a 
 spring, which possessed, according to Theophrastus, the property 
 of warming wine when mixed with it, and keeping it warm for 
 two or three days. 9. Scotussa, to the southeast of the preced- 
 
GR^ECIA. 497 
 
 ing, and often noticed by ancient authors. It was a short dis 
 tance to the northwest of Pherse, and was on one occasion 
 treacherously occupied and plundered by Alexander, the tyrant 
 of that place. Its ruins are near the modern Supli. Within 
 the territory of Scotussa were the heights of Cynoscephalce, fa 
 mous for the victory gained there by the consul T. Quintius 
 Flamininus over Philip, king of Macedonia, B.C. 197. 10. 
 P/ierce, to the southwest of the Lake Boebei s. Cramer s map 
 less correctly places it near the lake s southern extremity. Its 
 site answers in part to that of the modern Velestino. Pherae 
 was one of the most ancient and important cities of Thessaly, 
 and the capital of Admetus in the heroic age. At a later pe 
 riod, Jason, a native of Pherae, became master not only of his 
 own city, but nearly the whole of Thessaly. It came not long 
 after into the power of another tyrant, Alexander, the same 
 into whose hands Pelopidas fell. It passed subsequently to the 
 Macedonian rule. Strabo says that the constant tyranny under 
 which this city labored hastened its decay. The fountains of 
 Hyperea and Messeis, celebrated by Homer and other poets, 
 are generally supposed to have belonged to this ancient city. 
 
 3. PHTHIoTIS. 
 
 I. ACCORDING to Strabo, Phthiotis included all the southern part of Thessaly 
 as far as Mount (Eta and the Maliac Gulf. To the west it bordered on Dolopia, 
 and on the east it reached the confines of Magnesia. Referring to the geograph 
 ical arrangement adopted by Homer, we shall find that he comprised within this 
 extent of territory the districts of Phthia and Hellas properly so called, and, gen 
 erally speaking, the dominions of Achilles, together with those of Protesilaus 
 and Eurypylus. 
 
 II. Many of Homer s commentators have imagined that Phthia was not to be 
 distinguished from the divisions of Hellas and Ackaia, also mentioned by him ; 
 but other critics, as Strabo observes, were of a different opinion, and the ex 
 pressions of the poet certainly lead us to adopt that notion in preference to the 
 other. Again, it has been doubted whether, under the name of Hellas, Homer 
 meant to designate a tract of country or a city. Those who inclined to the 
 former opinion applied the term to that portion of Thessaly which lay between 
 Pharsalus and Thelxz Phthiotica, while those who contended for the latter iden 
 tified it with the ruins of Hellas, in the vicinity of Pharsalus, close to the River 
 Enipeus and the town of Melitcza. 
 
 III. The PhthiotcB were separated apparently from the Melians by Mount 
 Othrys, which, branching out from the chain of Pindus, closed the great basin 
 of Thessaly to the south, and served, at the same time, to divide the waters 
 which flowed northward into the Peneus from those received by the Sperchius. 
 This mountain is often celebrated by the poets of antiquity. At present it is 
 known, according to Leake, by the name of Mount lerako. Pouqueville, how 
 ever, makes it have the different appellations of Hellovo, Varibovo, and Goura. 
 
 I I 
 
498 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PLACES IN PHTHIOTIS. 
 
 1. Pharsalus, situate, according to Strabo, near the River 
 Enlpeus, and not far from its junction with the Apidanus, 
 which afterward enters the Peneus. The Enipeus is now the 
 Fersaliti, and the Apidanus the Vlacho lani. Pharsalus is 
 famous in history for the memorable battle fought in its plains 
 between the armies of Caesar and Pompey, in which the former 
 was victorious. The plains, or, more correctly speaking, the 
 territory around the city, was called Pharsalia (<f>apaa/Ua), 
 whence the name of the battle. The ancient site is marked 
 by the modern Fersala. Livy seems to make a distinction be 
 tween the old and new town, since he speaks of a Palceo-Phar- 
 salus. 2. Eretria, between Pharsalus and Pherse, and near the 
 modern Tzangli. To the southwest of Eretria was Mount 
 Narthacium, now Nartakion, where Agesilaus defeated a 
 strong body of Thessalian cavalry, who attacked him on his 
 return from Asia Minor. Cramer places it too far to the south 
 east of Pharsalus. 3. Arne, a city of great antiquity, situate 
 near Mount Tttdnus, which mountain Leake places near Pei- 
 resice, on the Enipeus, and a short distance from the junction 
 of that river with the Peneus. Strabo affirms that Arne was 
 founded by a colony of Boeotians, who had been expelled from 
 their country by the Pelasgi. Thucydides, on the contrary, 
 states that the Boeotians were expelled from Arne by the Thes- 
 salians, and thus colonized Boeotia, sixty years after the siege 
 of Troy. 4. Thebce Phthioticce, to the east of Pharsalus, and 
 near the shore of the Sinus Pagasceus, or Gulf of Volo. It 
 was called Phthioticce, to distinguish it from the Boeotian city 
 of the same name. In a military point of view its importance 
 was great, as it commanded the avenues of Magnesia and Thes- 
 saly from its vicinity to Demetrias, Pherae, and Pharsalus. Its 
 ruins are situate on a height half a mile to the northeast of 
 Ak-Ketjel, according to Leake. 
 
 5. Pyrasus, a harbor on the Sinus Pagasseus, just below 
 Pyrrha Promontorium now Ankistri, and which here termi 
 nates the coast of Phthiotis. Close to this headland were two 
 rocks named Pyrrha and Deucalion^ which preserved in their 
 appellations the tradition of the great Thessalian deluge. 6. De- 
 metrium, a short distance to the west of the preceding. It 
 
GRJ2CIA. 499 
 
 took its name from a temple of Demeter or Ceres, which it con 
 tained, and must not be confounded with the celebrated city 
 of Demetrias, which belonged to Magnesia. Proceeding along 
 the coast in a southerly direction, we come to the River Am- 
 phrysus, celebrated by several poets of antiquity, and fabled to 
 have been the stream on the banks of which Apollo fed the 
 flocks of Admetus. It is now called the Armyro, from the 
 town of that name on its left bank. Leake appears to be in 
 error with regard to it, and to have mistaken a smaller stream 
 for this river. 7. Alos or Halos, a little below the mouth of 
 the Amphrysus, and founded by Athamas, whose memory was 
 here held in the greatest veneration. This place was called Alos 
 Phthioticum or Achaicum, to distinguish it from another of 
 the same name in Locris. 8. Iton, to the west of the preced 
 ing, and on the River Cuarius or Coralius. It was celebrated 
 for a temple of Minerva Itonis, who was also worshipped under 
 the same name in Boeotia. Leake places the site of this city 
 a short distance to the southwest of Armyro. 9. Phylace, 
 placed by Leake to the northwest of Iton ; by Cramer, to the 
 southwest of Alos. It contained a temple consecrated to Pro- 
 tesilaus, and games were celebrated here in his honor. Its site, 
 according to Leake, is near Ghidek. \10. Larissa Cremaste, 
 to the south of Phylace. It was situated on the slope of a hill 
 facing the sea, and hence was called Cremaste, as " hanging" 
 on the side of the hill just mentioned, which formed a prolon 
 gation of Mount Othrys. This epithet served to distinguish it 
 from the great Larissa, which stood in the midst of a plain. 
 Larissa was the capital of the dominions of Achilles, who is 
 hence, as some explain it, called Larissceus by Virgil. The 
 ruins of Larissa Cremaste are about five or six miles from 
 Khamako. 11. Aphetce, a port just below Larissa, and now 
 Fetio. The ancient name is fabled to have been derived from 
 the departure of the Argonauts from this place, when setting 
 out on their Colchian expedition. Hence Afierai, from (Kbi^i. 
 The bay itself is also called the Bay of Fetio. The promontory 
 Posldium closes this bay to the south, now Cape Stauro. The 
 little island of Myonnesus, just below this promontory, is now 
 the island of Argyro. 
 
 12. Melitcea, to the southwest of Iton, at the foot of Mount 
 Othrys, and near the River Enipeus. Strabo informs us that 
 
500 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 its ancient name was Pyrrha, and that it boasted of possessing 
 the tomb of Hellen, son of Deucalion. It was also affirmed that 
 the ruins of the ancient city of Hellas were to be seen about 
 ten stadia distant on the other side of the Enipeus. Leake 
 places its site on a lofty hill, at the foot of which stands the 
 small village of Keuzlar ; Cramer, in the vicinity of Goura, 
 which lies considerably south of Keuzlar. 13. Thaumaci, to 
 the west of the preceding, and now Dhomoko. It is said to 
 have derived its name from the singularity of its situation, and 
 the astonishment produced on the minds of travellers upon first 
 reaching it (QavpaKoi, from davpa, " wonder"). "You arrive," 
 says Livy, in describing it, "after a very difficult and rugged 
 route over hill and dale, when you suddenly open on an im 
 mense plain like a vast sea, which stretches below as far as the 
 eye can reach." The town was situated on a lofty and per 
 pendicular rock, which rendered it a place of great strength. 
 Dodwell says that the view from Dhomoko is one of the most 
 wonderful and extensive that he ever beheld. 
 
 4. DOLOPIA. 
 
 I. THE ancient Dolopians appear to have been early established in that south 
 western angle of Thessaly formed by the chain of Pindus on one side, and 
 Mount Othrys branching out of it on the other. By the latter mountain they 
 were separated from the JEnianes, who were in possession of the upper valley 
 of the Sperchius, while to the west they bordered on the Phthiotse, with whom 
 they were connected as early as the siege of Troy. This we learn from Homer, 
 who represents Phoenix, the Dolopian leader, as accompanying Achilles thither 
 in the double capacity of preceptor and ally. 
 
 II. Xenophon, at a later period, enumerates the Dolopians among the subjects 
 of Jason, tyrant of Pheras. We afterward find Dolopia a frequent subject of 
 contention between the ^Etolians, who had extended their dominion to the bor 
 ders of this district, and the kings of Macedon. It was finally conquered by 
 Perseus, the last Macedonian monarch. 
 
 PLACES IN DOLOPIA. 
 
 THESE were few in number, and of little note. We may 
 mention, 1. Ctimene or Ctemene, perhaps the most important 
 of all. Stephanus mentions the tradition of its having been 
 ceded by Peleus, father of Achilles, to Phoenix. Livy gives 
 the form of the name corrvjptly as Cymine. It is supposed to 
 have stood near the northwestern shore of the Lake Xynias, 
 now the Lake of Taukli, and the name Ctemeno is still at 
 tached to a site in this quarter. 2. Phalachthia^ to the north- 
 
GR.ECIA. 501 
 
 west of Ctimene, and now Falaclia. 3. Sosthcms, to the west 
 of the preceding, said still to retain its name, and near the 
 sources of the River Phoenix, now the Emicassos, and a tribu 
 tary of the Apidanus. 4. Metropolis, to the north of the pre 
 ceding according to Cramer, but some distance to the north 
 west according to Leake. It must not be confounded with the 
 place of the same name in Estiseotis. 
 
 5. MAGNESIA. 
 
 I. THE Greeks gave the name of Magnesia to that narrow portion of Thessaly 
 which is confined between the mouth of the Peneus and the Sinus Pagasaeus to 
 the north and south, and between the chain of Ossa and the sea on the west and 
 east. The people of this district were called Magnetes, and appear to have been 
 in possession of it from the most remote period. 
 
 II. Among the mountains in this district may be mentioned, 1. Mount Homole, 
 the extreme point of Magnesia to the north. It was probably a portion of the 
 chain of Ossa, and was celebrated by the poets as the abode of the ancient Cen 
 taurs and Lapithae, and a favorite haunt of Pan. From Pausanias we learn that 
 it was extremely fertile, and well supplied with springs and fountains. One of 
 these was apparently the Libethrian fountain, spoken of by Pliny and Lycophron. 
 Strabo says that Mount Homole was near the mouth of the Peneus, and Apollo- 
 nius describes it as close to the sea. 2. Mount Ossa, named by the modern 
 Greeks Kissovo, and extending from the right bank of the Peneus along the 
 Magnesian coast to the chain of Pelion. It was supposed that Ossa and Olym 
 pus were once united, but that an earthquake had rent them asunder, thus form 
 ing, as already remarked, the vale or defile of Tempe. This locality, too, was 
 famous in the legends of poetry, the giants, in their attempt to scale the heavens, 
 having sought to pile Ossa upon Olympus, and Pelion upon Ossa. 3. Mount 
 Pelion, whose principal summit rises behind lolcos and Ormenium, forms a chain 
 of some extent from the southeastern extremity of the Lake Boebeis, where it 
 unites with one of the ramifications of Ossa, to the extreme promontory of Mag 
 nesia. Homer alludes to this mountain as the ancient abode of the Centaurs, 
 who were ejected by the Lapithae. It was, however, more especially the haunt 
 of Chiron, whose cave, as Dicaearchus relates, occupied the highest point of the 
 mountain. Euripides and other poets speak of the forests of Pelion. On the 
 most elevated part of the mountain was a temple dedicated to Jupiter Actaeus, 
 to which a troop of the noblest youths of the city of Demetrias ascended every 
 year, at the rising of the dog-star, by appointment of the priest, and such was 
 the cold experienced on the summit that they wore the thickest woollen fleeces 
 to protect themselves from the inclemency of the weather. Leake makes the 
 modern name of Pelion Mount Plessidhi. 
 
 PLACES IN MAGNESIA. 
 
 1. Homolium, at the foot of Mount Homole, and on the right 
 bank of the Peneus. It s ood probably near the modern Fieri, 
 where is now the convent of St. Demetrius. 2. Myrce, below 
 the mouth of the Peneus, mentioned by Scylax. 3. Eurymence, 
 below the preceding, and also on the coast. 4. Rhizus, south 
 
502 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 of the preceding, and on the coast. Its ruins are a little to the 
 south of Cape Pozi, and close to the village of that name. 
 5. Meliboea, on the coast, a little to the south, and assigned by 
 Homer to Philoctetes. Livy places it at the base of Mount 
 Ossa, in that part which stretches toward the plains of Thessaly 
 above Demetrias. Leake fixes its site at a place called Castri, 
 not far beyond Dhemata, where now exists only a monastery 
 of St. John Theologus. 6. Lacerea, to the northwest of the 
 preceding, and close to the shores of the Lake Boebei s. It was 
 the birth-place of the nymph Coronis, the mother of ^Escula- 
 pius. The Lake Boebei s is now the Lake of Carla. 7. Amy- 
 ruSj southwest of Melibcea, and on a river of the same name, 
 8. Casthancea^ on the coast below Meliboea, and noticed by 
 Herodotus in his account of the storm experienced by the fleet 
 of Xerxes off this coast. According to some, the chestnut (cas- 
 tanea), a tree still abounding on the eastern side of Pelion, de 
 rived its appellation from the name of this town, in Greek and 
 Latin. The truth, ho\vever, is probably the other way, that 
 the town took its name from the tree. Leake makes the mod 
 ern name Port Tamukhari. 
 
 9. Thaumacia, to the south of Casthanaea, and belonging to 
 the dominions of Philoctetes. It must not be confounded with 
 Thaumaci of Phthiotis. 10. Magnesia, supposed to have been 
 situated in the lower part of the peninsula, near the Pagassean 
 gulf. Cramer places it too high up. Leake makes it corre 
 spond to the modern Argalasti. 11. Orm8mum, on the upper 
 part of the Pagasean gulf, and northwest of the preceding. It 
 was an ancient city, and is mentioned by Homer. It was said 
 by some to have been the birth-place of Phoenix, the preceptor 
 of Achilles. It sank in importance after the founding of De 
 metrias, from which it was only twenty-seven stadia distant. 
 12. lolcos, a short distance to the northwest, and a city of great 
 antiquity. It was celebrated in the heroic age as the birth 
 place of Jason and his ancestors. Pindar places it at the foot 
 of Mount Pelion, and near the small river Anaurus, in which 
 Jason is said to have lost his sandal. The place was ruined 
 by the founding of Demetrias in its immediate vicinity. In 
 Strabo s time the town no longer existed, but the neighboring 
 shore still retained the name of lolcos. 13. Pag-dsce, the port 
 of lolcos, and afterward of Pherae. It was said by some to have 
 
G R JE c i A. 503 
 
 derived its name from the circumstance of the Argo s having 
 been built here (TLayaoai, from nriywiii) ; but Strabo is of opinion 
 that it rather owed its appellation to the numerous springs 
 which were found in its vicinity (liayaoai^ from irayai). Its 
 site is nearly occupied by the present castle of Volo. Pagasae 
 gave name to the Sinus Pagasceus, now the Gulf of Volo. 
 14. DemetriaS) a short distance to the northwest of Pagasse, 
 and deriving its name from Demetrius Poliorcetes, who founded 
 it about 290 B.C. It derived its population in the first instance, 
 as Strabo reports, from the neighboring towns of Nelia, Pagasse, 
 Ormenium, Rhizus, Sepias, Olizon, &c., all which were finally 
 included within its territory. It soon became one of the most 
 flourishing towns of Thessaly, and, in a military point of view, 
 was allowed to rank among the principal fortresses of Greece. 
 It was, in fact, most advantageously placed for defending the 
 approaches to the defile of Tempe, as well on the side of the 
 plains as on that of the mountains. Its maritime situation 
 also, both from its proximity to the island of Eubcea, Attica, 
 and the Peloponnesus, the Cyclades, and the opposite shores of 
 Asia, rendered it a most important acquisition to the sovereigns 
 of Macedonia. Hence Philip, the son of Demetrius, is said to 
 have termed it one of the chains of Greece. Demetrias, accord 
 ing to Leake, occupied the southern or maritime face of a height 
 now called Goritza, which projects from the coast of Magnesia, 
 between two and three miles to the southward of the middle of 
 Volo. 
 
 6. MALIENSES. 
 
 I. THE Malians, ol M?7/Uf, as they are called by Attic writers, or Malians, 
 MaAmj-, according to the Doric form, which was doubtless their own dialect, 
 were the most southern tribe belonging to Thessaly. They occupied principally 
 the shores of the gulf to which they communicated their name, the Sinus Ma- 
 liacus, now the Gulf of Zeitoun, and extended as far as the narrowest part of 
 the Straits of Thermopylae, and to the valley of the Sperchius, a little above its 
 entrance into the sea. 
 
 II. According to Herodotus, their country was chiefly flat. In some parts the 
 plains were extensive, in others narrow, being confined on one side by the Ma- 
 lian Gulf, and toward the land by the lofty and inaccessible mountains of Tra- 
 chinia. 
 
 III. Thucydides divides the Melians into three different tribes, which he names 
 Paralii, Hierenses, and Trachinii The first were so called from their dwelling 
 along the sea-coast, the last from their being the occupants of the Trachinian 
 district. The Hierenses are supposed to have been priest-nobles. 
 
504 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PLACES AMONG THE MALIENSES. 
 
 1. Anticyra, at the mouth of the Sperchtus, and famed for 
 its hellebore, so much recommended by the ancient physicians 
 as a cure for insanity. It must not be confounded with another 
 Anticyra, which also produced hellebore, situate in Phocis, on 
 the Sinus Corinthiacus. The River Sperchius has already been 
 mentioned (page 481). 2. Lamia, to the northwest of the pre 
 ceding, about thirty stadia from the Sperchius, and one of the 
 most considerable of the Malian cities. It is celebrated in his 
 tory as the principal scene of the war which was carried on be 
 tween the Macedonians under Antipater, and the Athenians 
 with other confederate Greeks, commanded by Leosthenes; 
 from which circumstance it is generally known by the name 
 of the Lamiac war. Antipater, having been defeated in the 
 first instance, retired to Lamia, where he was besieged by the 
 allies; but he afterward contrived to escape from this place, 
 and retire to the north of Thessaly. The site of Lamia is sup 
 posed to correspond to the modern Zeitoun, which, as already 
 remarked, gives name now to the ancient Sinus Maliacus. 
 
 On crossing the Sperchius we enter into the Trachinian dis 
 trict, which took its name from, 3. The town of Trachis or 
 Trachin, known to Homer, and assigned by him to Achilles, 
 together with the whole of the Melian territory. It was here 
 that Hercules retired after having committed an involuntary 
 murder, as we learn from Sophocles, who has made it the scene 
 of one of his deepest tragedies. The town took its name from 
 the rugged and mountainous character of the country. 4. Her 
 aclea Trachinia, about six stadia to the east of Trachis. Ac 
 cording to Thucydides, the Lacedaemonians, in the sixth year 
 of the Peloponnesian war, B.C. 426, at the request of the Tra- 
 chinians, who were harassed by the mountaineers of CEta, sent 
 a colony into their country. These, jointly with the Trachini- 
 ans, built a town, to which the name of Heraclea was given, 
 distant about sixty stadia from Thermopylae, and twenty from 
 the sea. It became in time a flourishing city, especially under 
 the ^Etolians, who sometimes held their general council within 
 its walls. The vestiges of this city may still be traced on a 
 high flat on the roots of Mount CEta. 
 
 Leaving Heraclea, we come to the celebrated defile of Ther- 
 
GRJECIA. 505 
 
 mopylcc, formed by a morass of the sea on one side, and the 
 cliffs of Mount (Eta on the other. The word Thermopylce 
 (Sep^ai Ilvhai, "Warm Gates or Pass") denotes both the nar 
 rowness of the defile, and also the vicinity of certain warm 
 springs. In the immediate vicinity of Anthela, the northern 
 slope of the mighty and prolonged ridge of CEta approached so 
 close to the Maliac Gulf, or, at least, to an inaccessible morass 
 which formed the edge of the gulf, as to leave no more than one 
 single wheel-track between. This narrow entrance formed the 
 western gate of Thermopylae. At some little distance, seem 
 ingly about a mile to the eastward, the same close conjunction 
 between the mountain and the sea was repeated, thus forming 
 the eastern gate of Thermopylae, not far from the first town of 
 the Locrians, called Alpeni. The space between these two 
 gates was wider and more open, but it was distinguished, and 
 is still distinguished, by its abundant flow of thermal springs, 
 salt and sulphureous. This copious supply of mineral water 
 spread its mud and deposited its crust over all the adjacent 
 ground ; and the Phocians had designedly endeavored so to con 
 duct the water as to render the pass utterly impracticable, at 
 the same time building a wall across it, near to the western 
 gate. They had done this in order to keep off the attacks of 
 the Thessalians. It was at Thermopylae that Leonidas and his 
 little band of heroes withstood the attack of the immense host 
 of Xerxes, and nobly died in defending the pass. The Greeks 
 stationed themselves at the wall erected by the Phocians, and 
 were only overcome when a body of Persians had got in their 
 rear by a circuitous path over the mountains. The name of 
 this path, as well as that of this part of the mountain itself, was 
 Anopcea. The modern name of CEta is Katavothra. The 
 highest summit, according to Livy, was named Callidrdmus. 
 It was occupied by Cato with a body of troops in the battle 
 fought at the Pass of Thermopylae between the Romans under 
 Acilius Glabrio, and the army of Antiochus ; and, owing to 
 this manoeuvre, the latter was entirely routed. At the present 
 day, CEta and Sperchius form the boundary of the new king 
 dom of Greece in this quarter ; but the whole face of the coun 
 try has undergone a considerable change since the days of Le 
 onidas. Thermopylae no longer exists as a pass, and, were it 
 not for the hot springs, it could not be identified with the an- 
 
506 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 cient place. The sea, instead of bordering the defile, is now 
 at a distance of three or four miles from it 
 
 7. ^ENIANES. 
 
 I. THE JEnidnes or Enienes were a Thessalian tribe, apparently of great an 
 tiquity, but of uncertain origin, whose frequent migrations have been alluded to 
 by more than one writer of antiquity, but by none more than Plutarch in his 
 Greek Questions. He states that they occupied, in the first instance, the Do 
 rian Plain ; after which they wandered to the borders of Epirus, and finally 
 settled in the upper valley of the Sperchius. 
 
 II. Their antiquity and importance are attested by the fact of their belonging 
 to the Amphictyonic council. At a later period we find them joining other Gre 
 cian communities against Macedonia, in the confederacy which gave rise to the 
 Lamiac war. But in Strabo s time they had nearly disappeared, having been 
 exterminated, as that author reports, by the ^Etolians and Athamanes, upon 
 whose territories they bordered. 
 
 PLACES AMONG THE 
 
 1. Hypata, their principal town, on a rising ground or slope 
 a little distance from the lower bank of the Sperchius. Leake 
 makes its site correspond to that of the modern Neopatra, called 
 by the Turks Badrajik. Cramer places it at Castritza, in the 
 vicinity of Neopatra. The women of Hypata were famed for 
 their skill in magic. 2. Sperchice, as its name implies, was 
 situated near the Sperchius, and was taken and plundered by 
 the JEtolians. Cramer places it to the northwest of Hypata, 
 on the other side of the stream. 
 
 Mount Tymphrestus, from which the Sperchius was said to 
 derive its source, closed the valley of the JEnianes to the west, 
 and thus separated them from the Athamanes and the small 
 district of Aperantia. The modern name of this mountain is, 
 according to Leake, Velukhi. 
 
 2. ACARNANIA, 
 (A.) NAME AND BOUNDARIES. 
 
 I. THE Acarnanians ( AKapvdves) are never mentioned by 
 Homer, though their neighbors and brethren, the JEtolians, are ; 
 and this would tend to prove that the name of Acarnanians, 
 as the name of a people, is not so old as the time of Homer. 
 They belonged probably, at least in part, to an old and widely- 
 diffused race called the Leleges, and, by gradual intermixture 
 with Hellenic stock, became, to a certain extent, a Greek people. 
 In the course of time they formed a kind of union and civil polity, 
 which Aristotle thought worth describing ; but his work is lost. 
 
GRJECIA. 507 
 
 II. Acarnania was bounded on the west and southwest by 
 the Mare Ionium, or Ionian Sea ; on the north by the Sinus 
 Ambracius, or Gulf of Art a ; on the northeast by the territo 
 ries of the Agrcei and Amphilochi. 
 
 The eastern boundary is not so easy to determine. In the 
 time of Thucydides, it extended east of the River Achelous, and 
 encroached upon the territory which seemed the property of the 
 ^Etolians. Under the Romans, however, or somewhat earlier, 
 the Achelous was made the dividing line. 
 
 III. Acarnania finally became part of the Roman province of 
 Epirus. Its modern name is Carlelia or Carnia, the latter 
 being an evident corruption of the ancient name. 
 
 IV. As the history of the Agrcei and Amphilochi is chiefly 
 connected with that of Acarnania, we may include them in the 
 description of this country. 
 
 (B.) ASPECT OF THE COUNTRY, &c. 
 
 I. ACARNANIA, like ^Etolia, was a mountainous land, but its 
 hills, clothed with thick forests, were less lofty and rugged. 
 The valleys of both countries contained extensive lakes, sur 
 rounded by rich pastures. Modern travellers in like manner 
 represent the interior as covered with forests, and mountains 
 of no great elevation, but wild and deserted, while the valleys 
 are still filled with several lakes. 
 
 II. The Acarnanians, like the ^Etolians, were a semi-bar 
 barous people, who possessed none of the taste and refinement 
 which belonged to the more civilized portion of the Grecian 
 race. Thucydides testifies that in his time they still retained 
 much of the rude and primitive mode of living which generally 
 prevailed in the earliest period of Grecian history. 
 
 (C.) SKETCH OF ACAKNANIAN HISTORY. 
 
 I. THUCYDIDES (who wrote during the Peloponnesian war, which commenced 
 B.C. 431) is the earliest extant writer that gives us any exact information about 
 a people called Acarnanians, inhabiting the country which we have called Acar 
 nania. The Acarnanian confederacy is first presented to our notice as leagued 
 with Athens in the Peloponnesian war. The motive which seems to have 
 brought about this alliance was principally the enmity subsisting between the 
 Acarnanians and the republic of Ambracia. 
 
 II. The Acarnanians proved valuable allies to the Athenians in this struggle, 
 successfully opposing a formidable invasion of the Ambraciots and Peloponne- 
 sians, and effectually checking all the efforts of the Lacedaemonians in this 
 quarter. At a subsequent period, however, their country was ravaged by Ages- 
 ilaus, king of Sparta, and the Acarnanians were compelled to sue for peace. 
 
508 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 III. From this period little is known of the Acarnanian republic, until the 
 affairs of Greece became blended with Roman politics. We find, however, that 
 it suffered considerably from a coalition formed by Alexander of Epirus and the 
 ^Etolians. Polybius states that on this occasion the Acarnanians lost several 
 towns, which were divided between the two conspiring parties. Indeed, as 
 the ^Etolians increased in power and importance, they became more formidable 
 and troublesome neighbors to the Acarnanians ; and the latter were frequently 
 compelled to apply for succour to the Achseans, and to Philip, the second king 
 of Macedon. 
 
 IV. It was their attachment and fidelity to the house of Macedon, and their 
 hatred of the yEtolians, which caused them to reject the overtures of Q. Fla- 
 mininus, the Roman commander ; but on the siege and capture of Leucas, their 
 principal town, and the total defeat of Philip at Cynoscephalae, the whole nation 
 finally submitted to the dominion of Rome. 
 
 V. The Amphilochi, to whom we have already referred, occupied the eastern 
 shores of the Sinus Ambracius, and the mountainous country north of the Agrai. 
 Like the latter, they were ranked rather with the barbarians than the Greeks ; 
 but Strabo seems to class them with the tribes of Epirotic, not with those of 
 ^Etolian origin. They at length formed part, however, of the ^Etolian republic, 
 when that people had so greatly increased their territory, and were afterward 
 conquered by Philip, son of Demetrius ; but, on the recovery of Athamania from 
 that prince, they were again attached to ^Etolia. Their only town was Argos. 
 
 VI. The Agrai appear from Thucydides to have been independent of the 
 Acarnanian confederacy at the commencement of the Peloponnesian war. At 
 a subsequent period, however, they are said to have been conquered by the 
 Acarnanians and Athenians. 
 
 (D.) PLACES IN ACARNANIA, &c. 
 
 1. Actium, a point of land at the entrance of the Sinus Am 
 bracius, deriving its chief importance from the sea-fight which 
 took place near it, in what is now the Bay of Prevesa, between 
 Octavianus and Antony, when the latter was totally defeated. 
 The conqueror, to commemorate his victory, beautified the 
 Temple of Apollo, which stood at Actium, and erected Nicopo- 
 ItSj or " the City of Victory," on the northern side of the gulf, 
 in Epirus. The exact site of Actium has been a subject of dis 
 pute, some placing it at La Punta, and others at Azio. The 
 best recent travellers and geographers are in favor of the former. 
 D Anville, who advocates the latter, was misled by the modern 
 name Azio, which is merely a Venetian term, probably given 
 through some misunderstanding as regards the true site. On 
 D Anville s map, therefore, and those that are copied from it, 
 Actium should have the place of Anactorium. 2. Anactorium, 
 more within the Sinus Ambracius, and to the southeast of Ac 
 tium. Its site, according to Leake, corresponds to that of Aglii- 
 os Petros, and not to La Punta, as D Anville maintains. It 
 
GRJECIA. 509 
 
 was colonized originally by the Corcyreans and Corinthians, 
 the latter of whom finally obtained sole possession of it. These 
 were subsequently, however, ejected by the Acarnanians and 
 Athenians. Anactorium ceased to exist when Augustus trans 
 ferred its inhabitants to Nicopolis. 3. Argos AmpMlochicum. in 
 the territory of the Amphilochi, and on the Eiver Inachus now 
 the Ariadha. It was founded by a colony from Argos in the Pel 
 oponnesus, led, according to some, by Amphilochus, son of Am- 
 phiaraus, on his return from Troy ; according to others, by his 
 brother Alcmaeon. The inhabitants, having experienced many 
 calamities, admitted their neighbors, the Ambraciots, into their 
 society. These, however, subsequently gained the ascendency, 
 and expelled the original inhabitants, who thereupon applied 
 for aid to the Acarnanians. The latter, in conjunction with 
 the Athenians, recovered Argos by force, after which the place 
 remained for some time in the joint possession of the Amphilo- 
 chians and Acarnanians. Many years after it fell into the 
 power of the ^Etolians. Argos, at a later period, contributed 
 to the formation of the colony of Nicopolis, and became itself 
 deserted. Leake places the site at Neokhdri, near Vlikha. 
 
 4. Olpce, a fortified post to the north of the preceding, where 
 the Acarnanians held a court of justice, and where a decisive 
 victory was gained by the Acarnanians and Amphilochians 
 over the Ambraciots and Peloponnesians. Leake places the 
 site of Olpse at Arapi or in its vicinity. 5. Myrtuntium, a little 
 distance below Actium, and on a salt-water lake of the same 
 name. The lake is now the lagoon of Vulkaria. 6. Echinus, 
 to the south of the preceding, a town of considerable importance, 
 and one of the earliest colonies on this coast. It stood on a 
 mountain, removed from the sea, and appears to answer now 
 to Ai Vasili. 
 
 7. Leucas or Leucadia to the southwest of the preceding. 
 This projection of land once formed part of the continent, but 
 was afterward separated from the main land by a narrow cut, 
 and became, as it now is, an island, the modern name of which 
 is Santa Maura, or Lefkadha. The cut itself, three stadia 
 in length, was called Dioryctos, and the passage through was 
 somewhat intricate on account of the shallows. These were 
 marked out by stakes fixed at certain intervals. Strabo says 
 that in his time the Dioryctos was crossed by a bridge. Ac- 
 
510 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 cording to Pliny, the earlier name of the peninsula was Nerltis. 
 It was first colonized by a body of Corinthians, to whom Strabo 
 ascribes the cutting of the channel. This work, however, must 
 have been posterior to the time of Thucydides, who describes 
 the Peloponnesian fleet as having been conveyed across the 
 isthmus on more than one occasion. The city of Leucas was 
 situate, according to Livy, on the upper part of the narrow 
 strait which separated the island from the main land. The 
 same writer states that it was the principal town of Acarnania. 
 Leake fixes the site at Amaxikhi. 8. Nencum, to the south 
 of the city of Leucas, and in the same peninsula or island. It 
 was probably the oldest town in the Leucadian peninsula, and 
 is mentioned by Homer as having been taken by Laertes be 
 fore the siege of Troy. 9. The southernmost extremity of 
 Leucas was called Leucate Promontorium, now Cape Ducato, 
 and received its ancient name, according to Strabo, from the 
 white color of the rock. It was celebrated in antiquity for the 
 lover s leap. Sappho is fabled to have been the first to try the 
 remedy of this leap, when enamored of Phaon. f On the sum 
 mit of the promontory was a temple of Apollo ; and every year, 
 on the festival of the god, it was customary to hurl from the 
 cliff some condemned criminal as an expiatory victim. Feath 
 ers and even birds were fastened to each side of his person, in 
 order to break his fall ; a number of boatmen were also stationed 
 below, ready to receive him in their skiffs, and, if they succeeded 
 in saving him, he was conveyed out of the Leucadian territory. 
 Returning to the Acarnanian coast after quitting Leucas, 
 we find, 10. Palcerus, near the modern Zavedra. 11. Sollium, 
 now Selavena, a Corinthian settlement. 12. Astacus, below 
 Crithote Promontorium^ now Cape Candili. Its site is thought 
 to correspond to the modern Tragamestl. It was the chief 
 maritime city northward of CEmadts, near the Echinades. 
 13. CEniddce, near the mouth of the Achelous, or Aspropotamo, 
 a little above the sea, and surrounded by marshes, caused by 
 the overflowing of the river, which rendered it a place of great 
 strength. It was made still stronger, however, by Philip, son 
 of Demetrius, king of Macedon, who, aware of the advantage 
 to be derived from the occupation of a place so favorably situ 
 ated with respect to the Peloponnesus, fortified the citadel, 
 and inclosed within a wall both the port and arsenal. The 
 
GR.ECIA. 511 
 
 ancient site corresponds, according to Leake, to that of Tri- 
 kardho. Cramer is in favor of Gardako. 
 
 Opposite the mouth of the Achelous were the islands called 
 Echinades, many in number, but which, in process of time, have 
 for the most part become connected with the land by the allu 
 vial deposits of the muddy waters of the river. These rocks, 
 as they should rather be termed, were known to Homer, who 
 mentions them as being inhabited, and as having sent a force 
 to Troy under the command of Meges, a distinguished warrior 
 of the Iliad. DuUchium, as it appears, was the principal one 
 of these islands, and its name occurs more than once in the 
 Odyssey, as being well peopled and extensive. Its situation has 
 never been determined by either ancient or modern critics. The 
 modern Petala, being the largest of the Echinades, and pos 
 sessing the advantage of two well-sheltered harbors, seems to 
 have the best claim to be considered the ancient Dulichium. 
 The group of the Echinades is now commonly known by the 
 name of Curzolari. 
 
 Having terminated our description of the Acarnanian coast, 
 we will now take a brief survey of the interior of the coun 
 try. 1. Ascending the Achelous, we find on its right bank 
 JEnia,) the remains of which are to be seen at Palceo Catouna. 
 2. Stratus, higher up the Achelous, and also on the right bank 
 of the stream. It was the principal city of Acarnania, and often 
 mentioned in history. Leake places the site at the village of 
 Surovigli. 3. Phytia or Ph&tice, to the southwest of the pre 
 ceding, and deriving its name, according to Stephanus, from 
 Phoetius, son of Alcmseon. Leake places its site at Porta. 
 4. Medeon, to the west of the preceding, and a place of con 
 siderable note. It was famed for the siege which it stood on 
 one occasion against the ^Etolians. Leake thinks that the 
 ruins near Katuna are those of this ancient city. 
 
 ISLANDS OFF THE COAST OF ACARNANIA. 
 These are, 1. Ithaca. 2. Cephallenia. 3. Zacynthus. 4. Teleboa or Taphia 
 Insula. These now form part of what are termed the Ionian Islands. The 
 whole number of islands composing the Ionian Republic or Confederation is 
 seven, namely, Corfu, the ancient Corcyra ; Theaki, the ancient Ithaca ; Ceph- 
 alonia, the ancient Cephallenia ; Zakyntho or Zante, the ancient Zacynthus ; 
 Santa Maura, the ancient Leucas ; Paxo, the ancient Paxos ; and Cerigo, the 
 ancient Cythera. They are all under the protection of Great Britain. 
 
512 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 1. ITHACA. 
 
 Ithaca, now Theaki, lay directly south of Leucaclia, from which it is distant 
 about six miles. It is celebrated as the native island of Ulysses. Its extent, 
 however, as given by ancient authorities, does not correspond with modern 
 computation. Dicaearchus describes it as narrow, and measuring eighty stadia, 
 meaning probably in length ; but Strabo affirms in circumference ; which is very 
 wide of the truth, since it is not less than thirty miles in circuit. Its length is 
 nearly seventeen miles, but its breadth not more than four. The island through 
 out was rugged and mountainous, as we learn from more than one passage of 
 the Odyssey. 
 
 OBS. Some modern scholars have raised doubts whether the modern Theaki be the Ithaca of 
 the Odyssey or not. The question is discussed by Dr. Wordsworth, in his Pictorial History of 
 Greece, p. 272, seqq. According to Sir W. Cell, the Venetian geographers have in a great degree 
 contributed to raise doubts concerning the identity of the modern with the ancient Ithaca, by 
 giving in their charts the name of Val di Compare to this island. That name, however, is totally 
 unknown in the country itself, wher.e the isle is invariably called Ithaca by the upper classes, and 
 Theaki by the lower. It has been asserted that Ithaca is too inconsiderable a rock to have pro 
 duced any contingent of ships which could entitle its king to so much consideration among the 
 neighboring isles ; yet the unrivalled excellence of its port has in modern times created a fleet 
 of fifty vessels of all denominations, which trade to every part of the Mediterranean. (OeU s Ge 
 ography and Antiquities of Ithaca, p. 30.) 
 
 The highest and most remarkable mountain in the island is that so often 
 alluded to under the name of Neritos. According to Dodwell, the modern name 
 is Anoi, which means " lofty ;" he observes, also, that the forests spoken of by 
 Homer have disappeared ; it is at present bare and barren, producing nothing 
 but stunted evergreens and aromatic plants. Leake speaks of the village of 
 Anoi, on the side of the mountain. There was another mountain, to which the 
 poet applies the name ofNe ion (N^iw). Leake supposes this to be the present 
 mountain of Oxoi. 
 
 It is evident, from several passages in the Odyssey, that there was a city 
 named Ithaca, probably the capital of the island, and the residence of Ulysses. 
 Leake supposes it to have stood on the harbor at present called Port Polis, the 
 very name of which favors his supposition, as marking the vicinity of some an 
 cient city. The port called by Homer Phorcys, and which he describes so mi 
 nutely, is supposed by Leake to correspond to the modern Skhino, by others to 
 Port Molo. There was also another haven, called Rheithron, situate apparently 
 under Mount Nei on, and which was in the Bay of Afales, as Leake supposes, 
 toward Perivolio. The fondness with which Homer dwells on the scenery of 
 Ithaca gave rise to the erroneous opinion that he was a native of this island. 
 
 2. CEPHALLENIA. 
 
 Cephallenia, now Cephalonia, lay to the southwest of Ithaca, from which it is 
 separated by a strait of six miles. Its circumference is little less than one 
 hundred and twenty miles. The more ancient name of this island, as we learn 
 from Homer, was Samos. In another part, however, the poet speaks of the 
 Cephallenians (KeQaMfjvec.) as the subjects of Ulysses. Strabo describes the 
 island as very mountainous, and gives to the highest ridge the name of Mount 
 Mnos. On the summit was the temple of Jupiter ^Enesius. It is now called 
 Monte Leone, and is said to be little less than four thousand feet high. Some 
 remains of the temple still exist. Thucydides speaks of four cities in this island, 
 namely, l. Palle or Pale, which is said to have furnished two hundred soldiers 
 to the army that fought at Plataea. According to Polybius, it was situate in that 
 
GR.ECIA. 513 
 
 part of the island which looks toward Zacynthus, and possessed an ample and 
 fertile territory. It appears to have been a place of considerable strength, from 
 the siege which it was enabled to sustain against Philip of Macedon. The ruins 
 of this city still exist at Palio, a little to the north of the modern Lixuri. 2. Crd- 
 nii, situate, according to Strabo, on the same gulf with Pallc, but on the opposite 
 shore. According to Holland, it stood on an eminence at the upper end of the 
 Bay of Argostoli. The site answers to the modern S. Giovanni. 3. Same, the 
 only town in the island noticed by Homer, from which we may infer that it was 
 the most ancient and considerable. It must have been a place of considerable 
 strength, from its having stood a vigorous siege of four months against the Ro 
 mans in 189 B.C. The spot still retains the name of Samo, which is also that 
 of the bay at the extremity of which it is situated. 4. Proni or Pronesus, an in 
 considerable town, close to the sea, and southeast of Same. 
 
 3. ZACYNTHUS. 
 
 Zacynthus (ZaKwdofi, now Zakyntho or Zante, to the southeast of Cephalle- 
 nia, and said to have derived its name from Zacynthus, son of Dardanus, an 
 Arcadian chief. Thucydides states that at a later period this island received a 
 colony of Achasans from the Peloponnesus. It was subsequently reduced by 
 Tolmides, the Athenian general, from which period we find Zacynthus allied to, 
 or rather dependent upon Athens. At a later period it fell into the hands of 
 Philip III., king of Macedon, and finally into the power of the Romans. Pliny 
 speaks of its fertility. The chief city was also called Zacynthus, and, according 
 to Strabo, was a considerable place. The citadel was called Psophis, from a 
 town of the same name in Arcadia, of which Zacynthus, its reputed founder, 
 was a native. The modern name of the city of Zacynthus is the same as 
 that of the island. The famous pitch wells, noticed by Herodotus, and which 
 he himself visited, are about twelve or thirteen miles from the city. The mount 
 ain called Elatus by Pliny, and now known by the name of Monte Scopo, rises 
 on the southern side of the town of Zantc to an elevation of about twelve hund 
 red feet. Zacynthus is still very fertile, but it has lost its woody character, 
 alluded to by the ancient poets. A very ancient tradition ascribed to Zacynthus 
 the foundation of Saguntum in Spain, in conjunction with the Rutuli of Ardea. 
 
 4. TELEBO^ OR TAPHI^E INSULT. 
 
 THESE form a considerable group of islands, lying northeast of Ithaca, or, 
 rather, between Leucadia and the coast of Acarnania, and are often mentioned 
 by Homer and other classical writers as the haunt of notorious pirates. The 
 principal island is that which is called by Homer Taphos, but by later writers 
 Taphius and Taphiussa, and is probably the same with the one known to modern 
 geographers by the name of Mcganisi. It is near the mouth of the Leucadian 
 canal, and contains a good port. Dodwell informs us that Calamo, another of 
 the Taphian group, produces perhaps the finest flour in the world, which is sent 
 to Corfu, and sold as a luxury. 
 
 3. ^E TO LI A. 
 (A.) NAME AND BOUNDARIES. 
 
 I. Mtolia was so called from its inhabitants, the JRtoli 
 (AtrwAoi), and these were said to have derived their name from 
 iEtolus, son of Endymion, who, according to the common ac- 
 
 KK 
 
514 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 count, came from Elis in the Peloponnesus, defeated and drove 
 out the early settlers, and established his followers in the land, 
 II. ^Etolia was bounded on the north by the mountainous 
 districts of Aperantia and the ^Enidnes ; on the west by Acar- 
 nania, from which it was separated by the Achelous ; on the 
 south by the Sinus Corinthiacus ; and on the east by Doris 
 and the country of the Locri Ozolce. 
 
 (B.) DIVISIONS. 
 
 I. .ZETOLiA, according to the ancient geographers, was divided 
 into JEtolia Antiqua and JEtolia Epictetus. 
 
 II. Mtolia Antiqua extended along the coast from the mouth 
 of the Achelous eastward, following the northern shore of the 
 Corinthian gulf, as far as its narrow entrance at Antirrhium. 
 JEtolia Epictetus, or " ^Etolia the acquired," was the northern 
 and mountainous part. 
 
 III. There were three great divisions of the ^Stolian name, 
 the Apodoti, Ophioneis, and Eurytanes, each of which was sub 
 divided into several different village-tribes. 
 
 IV. In modern times, under the Turkish empire, ^Etolia 
 was part of the province of Livadia. According to the original 
 arrangements, only the part east of the Achelous and south 
 of the two great lakes was to belong to the new kingdom of 
 Greece ; but these boundaries are now extended toward the 
 north and west as far as the Gulf of Arta. 
 
 (C.) ASPECT OF THE COUNTRY. 
 
 I. THE northern and eastern portion of the yEtolian territory was rugged and 
 mountainous, consisting in great part of lofty ridges branching out from Pindus 
 and (Eta into the basin of the Achelous. In these highlands, during the winter, 
 all passage and intercourse between the villages, which are built like nests on 
 the top of the rocks, are often long interrupted by the severity of the cold. The 
 Achelous, however, traverses some broad and fruitful plains ; and at its mouth 
 a great level, originally produced by its deposits, was continually receiving fresh 
 accessions, which at length partially united a group of islands (the Echinades), 
 once at some distance from the shore, with each other and with the continent. 
 
 II. The fertile land thus gained became the theatre of many conflicts be 
 tween the bordering tribes. Another fertile plain was similarly formed by the 
 Evenus, the second in size of the JStolian rivers, which, descending from the 
 side of (Eta, parted the ancient districts of Pleuron and Calydon. 
 
 (D.) CHARACTER OF THE INHABITANTS. 
 
 I. IT was partly the legendary renown of the ^Etolians, partly their ethnical 
 kindred (publicly acknowledged on both sides) with the Eleans in the Pelopon 
 nesus, which authenticated the title of the ^Etolians to rank as Hellenes. But 
 
GR.ECIA. 515 
 
 the great mass of the Apodoti, Eury tones, and Ophioneis, in the inland mountains, 
 were so rude in their manners, and so unintelligible in their speech (which, 
 however, was not barbaric, but very bad Hellenic), that this title might well 
 seem disputable ; in point of fact, it was disputed in later times, when the ^Eto- 
 lian power and depredations had become obnoxious to nearly all Greece. 
 
 II. It is probably to this difference of manners between the JEtolians on the 
 sea-coast and those in the interior that we are to trace the geographical di 
 vision, already mentioned, into Mlolia Antigua and Epictetus. When or by 
 whom this division was introduced we do not know ; it can not be founded upon 
 any conquest, for the inland ^Etolians were the most unconquerable of mankind ; 
 and the affirmation which Ephorus applies to the whole ^tolian race, that it 
 had never been reduced to subjection by any one, is most of all beyond dispute 
 concerning the inland portion of it. 
 
 (E.) SKETCH OF ^ETOLIAN HISTORY. 
 
 I. THE Leleges in the north, and the Curetes, probably a kindred race, in the 
 level plains of the south, are the oldest inhabitants of this country that we can 
 trace. The name ofJEtolia and Mloli was introduced, according to tradition, by 
 ^Etolus and his followers from Elis, in the Peloponnesus, six generations before 
 the war of Troy. 
 
 II. The history of the JStolians, as a nation, is closely connected with that 
 of the Acarnanians ; but, like the latter, they were a people of little importance 
 during the most flourishing periods of the commonwealths of European Greece. 
 After the death of Alexander the Great, B.C. 323, they came into notice by 
 their contests with the Macedonian princes, who allied themselves with the 
 Acarnanians. 
 
 III. In the reign of Philip II. of Macedon (which commenced B.C. 220), the 
 ^Etolians, after seeing their chief town, Thermus, plundered by this king, and 
 feeling themselves aggrieved by the loss of all they had seized from the Acar 
 nanians, applied to the consul Valerius Laevinus (B.C. 210). Though this pro 
 duced no beneficial effects, they formed a second treaty with the Romans (about 
 B.C. 198), after the end of the second Punic war. The immediate object of the 
 Romans was the conquest of Macedonia, but it proved eventually that this fatal 
 alliance of the ^Etolians was the first step that led to the complete subjugation 
 of all Greece by the Romans. 
 
 IV. A series of sufferings and degradations led the way to the occupation of 
 all ^Etolia, when it was made part of the Roman province of Achaia. Under 
 Roman dominion, the few towns of ^Etolia almost disappeared ; many of the 
 inhabitants were transplanted to people the city of Nicopolis, which Augustus 
 had built at the entrance of the Ambracian Gulf, now Gulf of Arta. Since the 
 time of the Romans, it is probable that the face of this country has undergone 
 as few alterations, or received as few improvements from the hand of man, as 
 the most remote parts of the globe. 
 
 (F.) PLACES IN ^E TO LI A. 
 
 1. Conope, on the left bank of the Achelous, and near the 
 junction of the Cyathus with that stream. According to Stra- 
 bo and Polybius, it was near one of the ordinary passages of 
 the Achelous, and corresponds probably to the modern Ange- 
 lokastro. It was an inconsiderable place until it received im- 
 
516 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY 
 
 portant augmentation from Arsinoe, the sister and wife of 
 Ptolemy Philadelphia, when it became a large city, bearing 
 her name. Some, however, suppose Arsinoe and Conope to 
 have been distinct places, and they are so laid down on several 
 maps ; but this appears to be an error. Near Conope was a 
 lake of the same name with the city, and which Ovid calls 
 Hyrie. It was likewise styled the Lake of Lysimachia, from 
 the city of that name in its vicinity, a little to the south of it. 
 Its modern name is the Lake of Zygos. The site of Lysima- 
 chia answers to the modern Papadhates. 2. Ithoria, a strong 
 fortress, to the southwest of Arsinoe, taken and destroyed by 
 Philip of Macedon. The modern Ivoria is supposed to answer 
 to its site. 3. PceaniKm, to the southwest, and on the Ache- 
 lous. Philip razed its fortifications, and transported some of 
 the materials, such as timber and bricks, on rafts down the 
 Achelous to GEniadse, which he intended to besiege. It lay a 
 little below the modern Stamna. 
 
 4. Pleuron Nova, to the southeast, and at the foot of Mount 
 Aracynthus. It was built after the ancient city of that name, 
 one of the earliest and most celebrated towns of ^Etolia, had 
 become deserted by its inhabitants in consequence of the rava 
 ges of Demetrius the ,/33tolian, as Strabo calls him, meaning 
 probably Demetrius II. of Macedon, son of Antigonus Gonatas. 
 The old city stood some distance to the southeast of the new, 
 in the plain toward Calydon. Leake supposes that the site of 
 old Pleuron was near the modern Mesolonghi. 5. Calydon, to 
 the southeast of old Pleuron, famed in Grecian story, and the 
 theme of poetry from Homer to Statius. We are told by my- 
 thologists that CEneus, the father of Meleager and Tydeus, 
 reigned at Calydon, while his brother Agrius settled in Pleuron, 
 and that frequent wars arose between them on the subject of 
 contiguous lands. In the vicinity of Calydon the famous boar 
 hunt took place in which Meleager so distinguished himself. 
 From Homer we gather that it stood on a rocky height, but 
 yet that its territory was ample and productive. Some time 
 after the Peloponnesian war we find it in the possession of the 
 Achseans. It was still a town of some importance in the time 
 of Csesar ; but Augustus accomplished its downfall by removing 
 the inhabitants- to Nicopolis. Leake found what he supposed 
 to be traces of Calydon at the hamlet of Kurt-Aga. In the 
 
GrR^ECIA. 517 
 
 vicinity of Calydon, but nearer the sea arose Mount Taphiassus, 
 where Nessus the centaur was said to have died, and to have 
 thus communicated a fetid odor to the waters which issued 
 from it. 
 
 6. Molycria or Molycrlum, to the southeast, and close to the 
 sea. It was colonized by the Corinthians, who were expelled 
 by the Athenians, and was afterward taken by the ^Etolians and 
 Peloponnesians. According to Strabo, its foundation was sub 
 sequent to the return of the Heraclidae. Leake places its site 
 on the first rise of the hills behind the castle of Rumili. 7. An- 
 tirrhium, a promontory already referred to (p. 483), and so 
 called from its being opposite to Rhium ^ another promontory 
 in Achaia. It was sometimes styled Rhium Molycricum, from 
 its vicinity to the town of Molycrium, and also Rhium Mtoli- 
 cum. The Turkish fortress on Antirrhium is now called the 
 castle of Rumili. 8. Thermus, some distance inland, to the 
 northwest, and situate in the midst of a very rugged and mount 
 ainous country. So great, in fact, were the difficulties of its 
 approach, and so remote its situation, that it was considered 
 inaccessible, and was therefore deemed, as it were, the citadel of 
 all JEtolia. It was here that the assemblies for deciding the 
 elections of magistrates were held, as well as the most splendid 
 festivals and commercial meetings. Hence the place was stored 
 not only with abundance of provisions and necessaries of life, 
 but with the most costly ornaments, and every thing requisite 
 for splendid entertainments. This city was taken by Philip III. 
 of Macedon, in his memorable expedition into .ZEtolia, and 
 given up to pillage. More than two thousand statues were 
 defaced on this occasion ; a variety of costly arms were carried 
 off, and fifteen thousand complete suits of armor were destroyed. 
 This will give some idea of the size and opulence of the place. 
 According to Leake, Thermus was situated on the slope of a 
 pyramidal hill, and was of a triangular shape. He places its 
 site at Vlokho. 
 
 9. Trichonium, and near the Lake Trichonitis, which de 
 rived its name from the city. Leake places it on the southern 
 side of the lake, at the modern Gavala ; but Cramer to the 
 northwest. The latter calls the lake by the modern name of 
 Vrachori ; but Leake styles it Apokuro. The remaining ge- 
 egraphy of ^Etolia is unimportant and obscure. 
 
518 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 4. LOCRIS. 
 
 (A.) NAME, DIVISIONS, &c. 
 
 I. Locris was so called from the Locri, its inhabitants, of 
 whom there were three distinct tribes, namely, the Locri 
 Ozoltt, Locri Epicnemidii, and Locri Opuntii. 
 
 II. The Epicnemidian and Opuntian Locri alone appear to 
 have been known to Homer, as he makes no mention of the 
 Ozolse ; whence we may conclude that these last were not so 
 ancient as the rest of the nation. 
 
 III. The earliest and most authentic accounts concur in as 
 cribing the origin of the Locrians to the Leleges ; but it would 
 seem that, in very early times, some tribes of Hellenic origin, 
 probably ^Eolians, became intermingled with the Leleges, and 
 that from this fusion the Locrian race arose. 
 
 1. LOCRI OZQL^E. 
 
 I. THE Locri Ozola occupied a narrow tract of country, situated on the north 
 ern shore of the Corinthian Gulf, commencing at Antirrhium, and terminating 
 near Cirrha, in Phocis, at the head of the Sinus Crissaus. To the west and 
 north they adjoined the JEtolians, and partly, also, in the latter direction, the Do 
 rians, while to the east they bordered on the district of Delphi, belonging to 
 Phocis. 
 
 II. According to Strabo, the Ozolae were a colony from the more celebrated 
 Locri Epicnemidii and Opuntii to the east ; and their name, according to some 
 accounts, was derived from some fetid springs (oo, " to emit a stench"), near 
 Mount Taphiassus, in their vicinity, on the coast, and beneath which the cen 
 taur Nessus was said to have been entombed. Others, however, ascribed the 
 name to the undressed skins worn by the ancient inhabitants ; while Archytas, 
 an Ozolian poet, derived the name from the abundance of flowers which scented 
 the air ! 
 
 III. Thucydides represents them as a wild, uncivilized race, and addicted from 
 the earliest period to theft and rapine. In the Peloponnesian war they appear 
 to have sided with the Athenians, as the latter held possession of Naupactus, 
 their principal city and harbor, probably from enmity to the JStolians, who had 
 espoused the cause of the Peloponnesians. 
 
 PLACES AMONG THE LOCRI 
 1. Naupactus, situated at the western extremity of the Lo 
 crian territory, and close to Antirrhium. It was said to have 
 derived its name from the circumstance of the Heraclidse having 
 there built the ships (vavs and nrfyvvfii) in which they crossed 
 over into the Peloponnesus. After the Persian war this city 
 was occupied by the Athenians, who there established the Mes- 
 senians, after these last had evacuated Ithome. The acquisi- 
 
GR^CIA. 519 
 
 tion of Naupactus was of great importance to the Athenians 
 during the Peloponnesian war, as it was an excellent station 
 for their fleet in the Corinthian Gulf, and not only afforded the 
 means of keeping up a communication with Corcyra and Acar- 
 nania, but enabled them also to watch the motions of the enemy 
 on the opposite coast. On the termination of the Peloponnesian 
 war Naupactus surrendered to the Spartans, who expelled the 
 Messenians thence. Philip of Macedon subsequently ceded it 
 to the JEtolians, from whom it passed to the Romans. It was 
 nearly destroyed by an earthquake during the reign of Justinian. 
 The modern town is called Enebechte by the Turks, Nepacto 
 by the Greeks, and Lepanto by the Franks. The Sinus Co- 
 rinthiacus is called the Gulf of Lepanto. 2. GEneon, to the 
 northeast, and a sea-port. Near it was a temple of Nemean 
 Jove, in which Hesiod is said to have expired. CEneon stood 
 near the modern Magula, according to Leake. 3. (Eanthe, 
 some distance to the east of the preceding, and also on the 
 coast. It was a city of some note, and is often mentioned by 
 the classic writers. It contained temples to Venus, Diana, and 
 JEsculapius. Its site was near Galaxidi. Cramer errs in 
 placing it at Veternitza. 4. Chalceon, the last maritime town 
 of Locris on the Crisssean Gulf. Leake places it at Larnaki. 
 5. Amphissa,) the most celebrated city of the Ozolae, to the 
 north of the head waters of the Crisssean Gulf, and deriving its 
 name from the circumstance of its being surrounded on every 
 side by mountains (dp/>, " around"). It was destroyed by 
 order of the Amphictyons for having dared to restore the walls 
 of Crissa, and cultivate the ground which was held to be sacred, 
 and also on account of the manner in which the inhabitants mo 
 lested travellers who had occasion to pass through their terri 
 tory. At a later period, however, Amphissa appears to have 
 somewhat recovered from this ruined state when under the do 
 minion of the ^Etolians. It is generally agreed that the mod 
 ern town of Salona represents the ancient Amphissa, The 
 Sinus Crissseus is now called the Gulf of Salona. 
 
 2. LOCRI EPICNEMIDII. 
 
 THE Locri Epicnemidii occupied a small district immediately adjoining Ther 
 mopylae, and confined between Mount Cnemis, a branch of (Eta, and the Sea of 
 Euboea. They were called Epicnemidii from their being adjacent to Mount 
 Cnemis (ETTA, KwypV)- Homer classes them with the Opuntii under the general 
 name of Locri. 
 
520 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PLACES AMONG THE LOCRI EPICNEMIDII. 
 1. Alpeni or Alpenus, just below Thermopylse, and whence, 
 as Herodotus informs us, Leonid as and his little band drew 
 their supplies. 2. Niccea, to the southeast, occupied during the 
 Sacred War by Phalsecus, the Phocian general, in order to ob 
 struct the passage of Philip through Thermopylae. Gell places 
 it at the modern Molo. 3. Scarphe or Scarpheia^ to the south 
 east. It was nearly destroyed by an earthquake, which raised 
 the sea to such an elevation that it was buried beneath its 
 waters. It is supposed to have stood between the modern vil 
 lages of Molo and Andera. 4. Thronium, to the southeast, near 
 the River Boagrius, and some distance from the coast. It was 
 taken by the Athenians during the Peloponnesian war, but 
 several years afterward fell into the hands of the Phocians, who 
 enslaved the inhabitants. Its site corresponds with an ancient 
 ruin above Romani. 5. Cnemides, a fortress, to the north 
 east, opposite to the Promontory of Cen&um in Euboea, from 
 which it was separated by a distance of ten stadia. Along this 
 part of the coast were the small islands called Lichddes. In. 
 one of these islands was a monument of Lichas (whence the 
 name of the group), who was fabled to have been hurled into 
 the sea, in this quarter, by Hercules, when suffering from the 
 effects of the poisoned tunic. 
 
 3. LOCRI OPUNTII. 
 
 I. THE Opuntian Locri followed after the Epicnemidii, and occupied a line of 
 coast of about fifteen miles, beginning a little south of Cnemides, and extending 
 to the town of Hala, on the frontier of Boeotia. Inland their territory reached 
 to the Phocian towns of Hyampolis and Aba. They derived their name from 
 the city of Opus, their metropolis. 
 
 II. The Opuntian Locri pretended that they were the most ancient Hellenic 
 people in Greece ; and that Cynus, their principal maritime city, had been in 
 habited by Deucalion, when he first descended from Parnassus. 
 
 PLACES AMONG THE LOCRI OPUNTII. 
 1. DaphnuSy the first town on their coast, but at an earlier 
 period included within the limits of Phocis. It no longer ex 
 isted in Strabo s time. 2. Alopc, to the southeast of the pre 
 ceding, where the Athenians obtained some advantage over the 
 Locrians in a descent which they made on this coast during 
 the Peloponnesian war. .-3. Cynus, to the southeast of the pre- 
 
GRJECIA. 521 
 
 ceding, and opposite to ^Edepsus in Euboea. It was the prin 
 cipal maritime city of the Opuntian Locri. According to an 
 cient traditions, it had long been the residence of Deucalion and 
 Pyrrha ; and the latter was even said to have been interred 
 here. The ruins of this city are probably those near the village 
 of Lebanitis. \ 4. Opus, to the southeast, and one of the most 
 ancient cities of Greece. It is celebrated by Pindar as the do 
 main of Deucalion and Pyrrha, and by Homer as the birth-place 
 of Patroclus. Plutarch commends the piety of the inhabitants, 
 and their observance of religious rites. This place was the me 
 tropolis of the Opuntian Locri. Leake places its site at Kar- 
 denitza. Opus gave name to the Opuntius Sinus, now the 
 Gulf of Talanti. Opposite to Opus was the island of Atalanta, 
 fortified by the Athenians during the Peloponnesian war, with 
 a view of checking the depredations of the Locrian pirates on 
 the coast of Euboea. It is now called Talanta. 5. Naryx or 
 Narycium, to the northwest of Opus, and celebrated as the 
 birth-place of Ajax, son of Oi leus. It was taken by the Pho- 
 cians and razed to the ground. 
 
 5. DORIS. 
 (A.) NAME, BOUNDARIES, &c. 
 
 I. Doris, called, also, from its four cities, Dorica Tetrdpolis, 
 was a small tract of country, deriving its name from its Doric 
 inhabitants. It was situate to the northeast of ./Etolia, and 
 confined between the high chains of mountains belonging to 
 that province, as well as those of Parnassus to the south, and 
 of (Eta to the east and north. 
 
 II. This rugged and obscure canton would have presented 
 but little to attract notice, were it not for the circumstance of 
 its having been the fourth and last settlement of the great Do 
 ric race, before their final migration to the Peloponnesus. Ac 
 cording to Herodotus, the more ancient name of this small tract 
 of country was Dryopis, derived probably from Dryopes, one 
 of the earliest tribes of Greece. 
 
 (B.) HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE DORIANS. 
 
 I. THE Dorians were the most powerful of the Hellenic tribes, and derived 
 their origin, according to their own account, from the mythic Dorus, the son of 
 Hellen. Modern scholars, however, as we have before remarked, make the 
 name Dorians (Awptetc) equivalent to " Highlanders," from 6a and opof. 
 
 II. Herodotus mentions five successive migratioas of this race. Their first 
 
522 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 settlement was in Phthiotis, in the time of Deucalion ; the next, under Dorus, 
 in Hestiaotis, at the foot of Ossa and Olympus ; the third on Mount Pindus, af 
 ter they had been expelled by the Cadmseans from Hestiaeotis ; the fourth set 
 tlement was in Dryopis, afterward called the Dorian Tetrapolis. 
 
 III. From the Doric Tetrapolis the Dorians migrated into the Peloponnesus, 
 though some of their number remained behind. This last migration is com 
 monly termed the return of the Heraclldae, and is stated to have occurred eighty 
 years after the Trojan war, or 1104 B.C. The origin and nature of the con 
 nection which subsisted between the Heraclidae and the Dorians are involved 
 in much obscurity. The Heraclidse appear to have been a powerful Achaean 
 family, united with the Dorians in a similar manner with, but by a stronger tie 
 than, the ^Etolians under Oxylus, who are also said to have taken part in this 
 expedition. 
 
 IV. The Dorians were, from very early times, divided into three tribes, 
 namely, the Hylleis, the Dymdnes, and the Pamyhylians. The two latter are 
 said to have been descended from Dymas and Pamphylus, the two sons of ./Egi- 
 mius, a mythic Dorian king, and the first claimed descent from Hyllus, the son 
 of Hercules. Some, however, make the Hylleis and Dymanes to have been the 
 genuine Dorians, and the Pamphylians to have been made up of volunteers who 
 joined the expedition in the Peloponnesus. 
 
 V. The Dorians, when transplanted into the more genial climate and the 
 more ample and fertile territory of the Peloponnesus, seem always to have 
 preserved a grateful recollection of their earlier abode in the Doric Tetrapolis, 
 and to have been anxious to maintain that interchange of good will with the 
 Dorians who had remained behind there, which was especially cherished by the 
 ancient Greeks toward their mother country, and forms one of the most pleasing 
 features in their system of colonization. Lacedeemon, more particularly, as the 
 leading Peloponnesian state of Dorian origin, was frequently called upon to as 
 sist its little metropolis when threatened by attacks from the more powerful 
 Phocians and the highlanders of (Eta. 
 
 VI. But still this small territory was occasionally an object of contention to 
 the neighboring states, more especially in the latter period of Grecian history, 
 during the ^Etolian and Macedonian wars ; so that, as Strabo observes, it is a 
 matter of surprise that its few towns should have still existed when the Ro 
 mans became masters of Greece. 
 
 PLACES IN THE DORIC TETRAPOLIS. 
 THE Dorian Tetrapolis contained, as its name denotes, four 
 cities. 1. Erineus, on the River Pindus, now the Apostolia, a 
 branch of the Cephisus. 2. Boeum or Boium, to the southeast 
 of the preceding, on a branch of the Pindus, and supposed by 
 Leake to correspond to the modern Mariol&tes. 3. Pindus, ac 
 cording to Strabo, stood above Erineus. He adds, that in its 
 vicinity flowed a stream of the same name with the city (the 
 Pindus, already mentioned by us), which joined the Cephisus 
 close to Lilsea, a Phocian town, near which the latter river rose. 
 He also informs us that some writers gave to the town of Pin 
 the name of Acyphas. Leake supposes this place to have 
 
GR^ECIA. 523 
 
 been toward the sources of the river in the mountain, which is 
 connected northward with CEta proper, and which to the south 
 gives rise to the River Mornos, which joins the sea near Nepakto. 
 4. Cytinium, situated, according to Thucydides, to the left or 
 west of Parnassus, and on the borders of the Locri Ozolae. It 
 was probably the most considerable of all the four Dorian cities ; 
 at least it is more frequently mentioned in history than any 
 other. Leake thinks there can be little doubt that Gravia an 
 swers to this ancient city. The modern town of Gravia stands 
 exactly at the northern entrance of the pass that led from the 
 valley of Doris to the plain of Amphissa. 
 
 6. PHOCIS. 
 (A.) NAME, BOUNDARIES, &c. 
 
 I. Phocis was said to have derived its name from Phocus, 
 the son of ^Eacus. It was bounded on the north by the Epi- 
 cnemidian and Opuntian Locri, on the south by the Corinthian 
 Gulf, on the west by the Locri Ozolcz and Doris, and on the 
 east by Bosotia. 
 
 II. The territory of Phocis originally extended to the Euboean 
 channel, but was afterward entirely separated from the sea by 
 Locris. Strabo says that it was divided into two parts by the 
 range of Parnassus, which extends in a southeasterly direction 
 through Phocis till it joins Mount Helicon on the borders of 
 Bceotia. 
 
 (B.) ASPECT OF THE COUNTRY, &c. 
 
 I. PARNASSUS and the mountains which separate Phocis from Locris form 
 the upper valley of the River Cephisus, on the banks of which there is some 
 fertile country, though in many parts the mountains approach very near both 
 banks of the river. 
 
 II. The southern part of Phocis is almost entirely covered with the mountains 
 which branch off to the south from the huge mass of Parnassus, though there 
 are a few fertile plains between these mountains, of which the largest is the 
 celebrated Crissaean plain. 
 
 III. Territorially speaking, the most valuable part of Phocis consisted in the 
 valley of the Cephisus. It was on the projecting mountain ledges and rocks 
 on each side of this river that most of the Phocian towns were situated. 
 
 (G.) SKETCH OP PHOCIAN HISTORY. 
 
 I. WE know very little respecting the early inhabitants of Phocis. Accord 
 ing to Pausanias, they derived their name, as already stated, from a king Pho 
 cus, son of JSacus ; and that the name i s of considerable antiquity is evident 
 from the Phocians being mentioned by Homer. Previous to the Persian in 
 vasion, they appear to have been frequently engaged in hostilities with the 
 
524 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Thessalians, and to have been successful in maintaining their independence. 
 Xerxes, at the instigation of the Thessalians, ravaged Phocis with fire and 
 sword, and destroyed many of their cities. 
 
 II. The Phocians had no political importance till after the battle of Leuctra ; 
 but, shortly after that event, circumstances occurred which occasioned the cel 
 ebrated Phocian or Sacred War, in which all the great states of Greece were 
 more or less concerned. The immediate occasion of this war is said to have 
 been an act of sacrilege committed by the Phocians in cultivating a part of the 
 Crisssean plain, which had been doomed by a decree of the Amphictyons, in 
 B.C. 585, to lie waste forever. But, whatever may have been the immediate, 
 the real occasion of the war was the animosity between Thebes and Phocis, 
 which had long prevailed under a show of peace. The Thebans used their in 
 fluence in the Amphictyonic council to induce the Amphictyons to sentence 
 the Phocians to pay a heavy fine to the god for the violation of the sacred land ; 
 and, on their refusing to pay this fine, the council passed a decree, that, if the 
 fine were not paid, the Phocians should forfeit their territory to the gods, which 
 decree was, in all probability, intended to reduce the Phocians to the condition 
 of the Helots in Laconia, subject to the jurisdiction of the temple of Delphi. 
 
 III. In these alarming circumstances, the Phocians were induced by Philo- 
 melus, who appears to have held some high office in the Phocian state, and was 
 a man of great talent and energy, to make the bold attempt of seizing the city 
 and temple of Delphi. This attempt was successful, and the Phocians obtained 
 in the treasures deposited in the temple ample means for carrying on the war. 
 This war, which lasted fourteen years, was waged with various success on both 
 sides. The Thebans and almost all the northern states of Greece were opposed 
 to the Phocians ; and though the Athenians and Spartans were willing, in con 
 sequence of their fear of \he power of Thebes, to afford assistance to the Pho 
 cians, the former were too much weakened by the Peloponnesian war, and the 
 latter by the Theban victories and the formation of Messenia as an independent 
 state, to render any effectual aid. 
 
 IV. But what the Phocians wanted in allies was compensated by mercenary 
 troops ; and it is difficult to say how long the struggle might have lasted, had 
 not the Amphictyons called in the assistance of Philip of Macedon, who took 
 possession of Delphi, and put an end to the war, B.C. 346. The Phocians were 
 severely punished for their sacrilege ; all their cities, with the exception of Abae, 
 were razed to the ground, and their inhabitants dispersed in villages not con 
 taining more than fifty inhabitants. Their two votes in the Amphictyonic coun 
 cil were taken away and given to Philip. Many of the towns, however, appear 
 to have been rebuilt soon afterward. Phocis subsequently, under the Roman 
 sway, formed part of the province of Achaia. 
 
 (D.) PLACES IN PHOCIS. 
 
 1. Cirrha, at the head of the Sinus Crissceus, or Gulf of 
 Salona, and close to the mouth of the River Plistus. It was 
 the harbor of Delphi, from which it was distant sixty stadia 
 according to Pausanias, and eighty according to Strabo. This 
 place is often confounded with Crissa, which stood more inland 
 between Cirrha and Delphi. According to some of the ancient 
 writers, the Cirrhean plain and port were inhabited at an early 
 
G R 2E c i A. 525 
 
 period by the Cirrhsei and Acragallidae, a nefarious race, who 
 violated the sanctity of the temple of Delphi, and ransacked 
 its treasures. The oracle, on being consulted by the Amphic- 
 tyons, declared that a war of extermination was to be carried 
 on against these offenders, and that their land was never there 
 after to be cultivated. This decree was executed in the time 
 of Solon, who took an active part in the expedition. The port 
 of Cirrha v*as then demolished, and its territory declared ac 
 cursed. This edict, however, was afterward violated by the 
 Amphissians, who tilled the land and repaired the port. It is 
 evident that Cirrha still existed in the time of Pausanias, as 
 he mentions the temples of Apollo, Diana, and Latona. Ac 
 cording to Gell, the ruins of Cirrha are near the village of Xero- 
 pigado. Above Cirrha was Mount Cirphis, separated from 
 the chain of Parnassus by the valley of the Plistus. 2. Crissa, 
 higher up than Cirrha, toward the foot of Parnassus. It not 
 only gave name to the Sinus Crissseus, now the Gulf of Salona, 
 but the plain also in which it stood was called the Crisssean 
 plain. In this plain the Pythian games were celebrated. The 
 Crissseans were charged by the Delphians with undue exactions 
 from the strangers who came to consult the Delphian oracle. 
 The Amphictyons declared war against them, which, after 
 lasting for ten years, ended in the destruction of Crissa, B.C. 
 588, the land of which was dedicated to the god. The ruins 
 of Crissa still exist at a spot called Crisso. 
 
 3. Anticyra, to the southeast, on the coast, and celebrated 
 for its preparation of hellebore, which grew on the mountains 
 above the town. It must not be confounded with the Thessa- 
 lian Anticyra (page 503). Although, like the other Phocian 
 cities, Anticyra was for a time dismantled and abandoned at 
 the end of the Sacred War, it had survived many of the other 
 towns of Phocis in the time of the Roman empire, an advantage 
 which it chiefly owed to its situation on a sheltered gulf, and 
 its importance as a point of communication with the interior. 
 Its ruins are at Aspraspitia. 4. Medeon, near Anticyra, and, 
 according to Strabo, one hundred and sixty stadia from the con 
 fines of BcEotia. Cramer places it on the opposite side of the 
 bay ; but Leake assigns it a position to the northwest of An 
 ticyra, and makes it answer to the modern Desfina. It was 
 destroyed with the other cities at the termination of the Sacred 
 
526 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 War, and probably never restored. The Pharygium Promon- 
 torium is Cape Aghia, beyond which was, 5. Mychus, a port, 
 and the extreme point of Phocis on the eastern frontier, where 
 it was contiguous to Boeotia. It was the port of Bulis, and 
 answers now to the haven called Hagios Lukas. 
 
 6. Ambry sus, to the northeast of Anticyra, situate in a rich 
 and fertile country, abounding in vines, and a plant producing 
 a scarlet dye, by means of an insect which was brefl in the ber 
 ries. The tree meant was the Quercus coccifera. This place, 
 having been destroyed by the Amphictyons, was rebuilt and 
 fortified by the Thebans before the battle of Chseronea. Its 
 ruins are near the village of Dystomo. Advancing toward 
 Parnassus, which rises to the northwest of Ambrysus, we enter 
 on the celebrated road known by the name of 2%ffT7) 066$, or 
 " the divided way," often mentioned by the Greek tragedians 
 as the spot where Laius fell by the hand of his unfortunate son 
 CEdipus. It was also called Triodos, from the circumstance 
 of the three roads leading to Delphi, Daulis, and Ambrysus 
 uniting there. Dodwell makes the modern name Derbeni, 
 which means a pass. 7. Lycorea, to the northwest, and a 
 place of the highest antiquity, since it is stated in the Arun- 
 delian marbles to have been once the residence of Deucalion. 
 Strabo affirms that it was more ancient than Delphi. It was 
 high up on the mountain, and its site is supposed to correspond 
 to that of the village of Lidkura. 
 
 8. Delphi, a celebrated city, the largest in Phocis, situate on 
 an elevation sixteen stadia in circumference, at the foot of the 
 southern side of Parnassus, and built in the form of an amphi 
 theatre. It was the focus of the Dorian religion, and the seat 
 of the oracle of Apollo, the most famous one in Greece. It 
 naturally, therefore, became populous and wealthy. The in 
 habitants consisted of Dorians, who formed the privileged class, 
 and of the descendants of the bondsmen of the temple. The 
 constitution was originally monarchical : the kings were also 
 called prytanes. The Dorian families made an oligarchy, from 
 which the priests, the Pythian court of justice, and a limited 
 senate were chosen. Delphi was, from very early times, the 
 rendezvous of an important federal union, or amphictyony, the 
 organization of which is attributed by Strabo to Acrisius. Its 
 site is occupied by the modern Castri. 
 
GRMCIA. 527 
 
 MORE PARTICULAR ACCOUNT OF DELPHI. 
 THE original name of the place was Pytho ; and Homer does not call it by its 
 more modern appellation, which seems to have been derived from the cavern 
 whence the prophetic vapor issued, or from the serpent which Apollo slew there. 
 (Hesych., AeA^df, pjJTpa, KO.I 6 h AeAporf dpaituv.) From the description which 
 Strabo gives of the cavern, and from the fact that Delphi was called the " navel 
 of the earth," it should seem that the former derivation is preferable. There 
 was a legend that two eagles, sent by Jupiter from the east and west, met at 
 Delphi ; and in the temple was a stone adorned with two golden eagles, and 
 other devices, which was called the navel stone : representations of this may 
 be seen on many ancient monuments ; as, for instance, in the has relief repre 
 senting the combat between Apollo and Hercules for the Delphic tripod. The 
 oracles were delivered by a priestess, who sat upon a tripod, placed over the 
 mouth of the cavern, and who, having exhaled the vapor, pronounced some 
 prophecy in verse or prose : if in prose, it was afterward set to verse by the 
 poets attached to the temple. The oracle is said to have been suggested by 
 the effects produced by the vapor upon some goats and the man who attended 
 them. The great reputation of the Delphian oracle made it the richest shrine 
 in Greece, as every person who was satisfied with the response he obtained 
 made a point of offering some costly donation to the temple. The first stone 
 temple at Delphi was built by Trophonius and Agamedes : this having been 
 destroyed by fire, B.C. 548, a new one was built by the Amphictyons from the 
 proceeds of a voluntary subscription, to which even Amasis, the king of Egypt, 
 largely contributed. The Alcmaeonidse, who contracted to build it, very liber 
 ally substituted Parian marble in the front of the building for the common stone 
 of which they had undertaken to construct the edifice. The wealth of Delphi 
 naturally attracted plunderers. The Persians under Xerxes made an unsuc 
 cessful attempt to get possession of the treasures accumulated there. The 
 Phocian leaders in the Sacred War did not hesitate to appropriate them as a 
 fund for the payment of their mercenaries. At a still later period, Delphi be 
 came exposed to a formidable attack from a large body of Gauls, headed by their 
 king Brennus. These barbarians, having forced the defiles of (Eta, possessed 
 themselves of the temple, and ransacked its treasures. The booty which they 
 obtained on this occasion is stated to have been immense ; and this they must 
 have succeeded in removing to their own country, since we are told that, on 
 the capture of Tolosa (now Toulouse) by the Roman general Caepio, a great part 
 of the Delphic spoils were found. Such is the account of Strabo. Pausanias, 
 however, relates, that the Gauls met with great disasters in their attempt on 
 Delphi, and were totally discomfited through the miraculous intervention of the 
 god. Sylla is also said to have robbed this temple ; and the Emperor Nero car 
 ried off five hundred statues of bronze at one time. Constantino the Great, 
 however, proved a more fatal enemy to Delphi than either Sylla or Nero. He 
 removed all the sacred tripods to adorn the Hippodrome of his new city, and 
 among these was the famous one which the Greeks, after the battle of Plataeae, 
 found in the camp of Mardonius, and which they consecrated to Apollo. The 
 priestess at Delphi could only be consulted on certain days, and never oftener 
 than once in the course of a month. Delphi derived farther celebrity from its 
 being the place where the Amphictyonic council held one of their assemblies. 
 
 Above Delphi rises Mount Parnassus, a chain which extends 
 in a northeasterly direction from the country of the Locri Ozolse 
 
528 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 i 
 
 to Mount GEta, and in a southwesterly direction through the 
 middle of Phocis till it joins Mount Helicon on the borders of 
 Bceotia.^ The name, however, was more usually restricted to 
 the lofty mountain at the foot of which Delphi was situated. 
 According to Stephanus, it was anciently called Larnassus, 
 because the ark or larnax of Deucalion landed here after the 
 flood. It is called at the present day Li&kura. This mountain 
 was sacred to Apollo and the Muses. 
 
 Parnassus is the highest mountain in central Greece. Strabo says that it 
 could be seen from the Acrocorinthus at Corinth, and also states that it was of the 
 same height as Mount Helicon, but in the latter point he was mistaken, accord 
 ing to Leake, who informs us that Liakura is some hundreds of feet higher than 
 Palaovuni, which is the highest point of Helicon. Parnassus was covered the 
 greatest part of the year with snow, whence the epithet of "snowy," so gen 
 erally applied to it by the poets. Above Delphi there were two lofty rocks, from 
 which the mountain is frequently called by the poets the "two headed" (tiiKopv- 
 #of ), one of which Herodotus names Hyampeia, but which were usually called 
 Phadriades. Between these two rocks the celebrated Castalian Fount, which 
 was sacred to the Muses, and supposed to impart poetic inspiration unto those 
 who quaffed its waters, flows from the upper part of the mountain. It at pres 
 ent is clear, and forms an excellent beverage. The water which oozes from 
 the rock was in ancient times introduced into a hollow square, where it was re 
 tained for the use of the Pythia and the oracular priests. The fountain is now 
 ornamented with pendent ivy, and overshadowed by a large fig-tree. Above the 
 spring, at the distance of sixty stadia from Delphi, was the Corycian Cave, sa 
 cred to Pan and the Corycian nymphs, which Pausanias speaks of as superior 
 to every other known cavern. When the Persians were marching against Del 
 phi, a great part of the inhabitants took refuge in this cavern. It is described 
 by a modern traveller as three hundred and thirty feet long and nearly two 
 hundred wide. As far as this cave, the road from Delphi was accessible by 
 horses and mules, but beyond it the ascent was difficult even for an active man. 
 
 9. Tithorea or Neon, above the Corycian Cave, and near the 
 summit of Parnassus, and eighty stadia distant from Delphi. 
 Its ruins are near the modern village of Velitza. Near Ti 
 thorea flowed the River Cachales, now Kako-Rheuma, or "the 
 evil torrent." It emptied into the Cephisus. 10. Liltfa, to 
 the northwest of the preceding, and near the sources of the 
 Cephisus. Pausanias states that the water issued from the 
 spring at midday with a sound like the bellowing of a bull. 
 This city was destroyed by Philip and the Amphictyons at the 
 termination of the Sacred War, but was restored by the Boao- 
 tians and the Athenians. Its site is marked by ruins, called by 
 the usual name of Palccocastro. 11. Elatea^ to the northeast 
 of Tithorea, and the most considerable and important city of 
 Phocis after Delphi. It was situate, according to Pausanias, 
 
 
GR^CIA. 529 
 
 one hundred and eighty stadia from Amphissa, on a gently 
 rising slope above the plain watered by the Cephisus. It was 
 captured and burned by the army of Xerxes, but, being after 
 ward restored, was occupied by Philip of Macedon in his ad 
 vance into Phocis to overawe the Athenians. The alarm and 
 consternation produced at Athens by his approach is finely de 
 scribed by Demosthenes in his oration for the Crown. Strabo 
 remarks on its advantageous position, which commanded the 
 entrance into Phocis and Bosotia, and hence the sensation pro 
 duced at Athens by the news of its capture. Its ruins are to 
 be seen on the site called Elephta or Left a, on the left bank 
 of the Cephisus, and at the foot of some hills which unite with 
 the chain of Cnemis and GEta. The river Cephisus has already 
 been described (page 481). 
 
 12. Daulis, to the southeast of Elatea, and south of the 
 Cephisus. It was a city of great antiquity, and celebrated in 
 mythology as the scene of the tragic story of Philomela and 
 Procne. Thucydides affirms that Teres, who had married 
 Procne, the daughter of Pandion, sovereign of Athens, was 
 chief of Daulis, then occupied, as well as the rest of Phocis, by 
 a body of Thracians. By these probably are meant the " Old 
 Thracians," or Pierians. Philomela is often called by the poets 
 " the Daulian bird." Strabo asserts that the word " Daulos" 
 signifying a thick forest, was given to this district from its 
 woody character. Livy represents Daulis as situate on a lofty 
 hill, difficult to be scaled. The name was changed at a later 
 period to Daulia and Daulium. Near the ancient site stands 
 the modern village of Davlia. 13. Hyampolis, east of Elatea 
 according to Cramer, but to the southeast according to Leake. 
 It was one of the most ancient cities of Phocis, and was said 
 to have been founded by the Hyantes, who are named among 
 the earliest tribes of Greece. It was situate near a defile 
 leading toward Thermopylae, and on the road from Elatea 
 to Opus. It was destroyed by Philip and the Amphictyons ; 
 but it afterward became again a place of some note in the time 
 of Strabo, having been restored and embellished by the Emperor 
 Hadrian. Its ruins are near the village of Bogdana. 14. Abce, 
 southeast of the preceding, founded by a colony from Argos, 
 and celebrated for an oracle of Apollo held in great esteem and 
 veneration. Its temple, richly adorned with offerings, was 
 
 LL 
 
530 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 sacked and burned by the Persians. Having been restored, it 
 was again consumed in the Sacred War by the Boeotians, 
 Hadrian caused another to be built, but much inferior in size 
 to the former. According to Aristotle, the Abantes of Euboea 
 came from Aba?. This city, on account of the sanctity of its 
 temple and oracle, was not destroyed at the end of the Phocian 
 or Sacred War. Its ruins are near the village of Exarcho. 
 
 7. BCEOTIA. 
 (A.) NAME AND BOUNDARIES. 
 
 I. Bceotia^ now part of Livadia, derived its name from its in 
 habitants the Boeotians (Bojwrot), who were originally a Thes- 
 salian race, and drove out the earlier occupants of the land. 
 
 II. It was bounded on the west by Phocis, on the northwest 
 by the territory of the Locri Ozolce, on the north and north 
 east by the Opuntius Sinus and Euripus, on the southeast 
 by Attiea, and on the southwest by the Sinus Corinthiacus. 
 
 (B,) ASPECT AND PRODUCTIVENESS OF THE COUNTRY. 
 
 I. BCEOTIA may be described as consisting of two basins of very irregular 
 form and of unequal dimensions, namely, the valley of the Asopus, and the 
 lower part of the vale of the Cephisus. The valley of the Asopus is bounded 
 on the south by the range of Parnes and Cithaeron. The upper valley of the 
 Cephisus belonged to the Phocians. 
 
 II. According to the recent survey of Captain Copeland, a mountain wall 
 lines the whole continental coast of the Euripus, from the valley of the Asopus 
 to the flats at the outlet of the Sperchius. A large portion of this forms the 
 coast of ancient Bceotia, the whole length of which, following the indentations, 
 is perhaps about thirty miles. 
 
 III. Strabo describes the interior of Bceotia as consisting of hollow plains, 
 surrounded on all sides by mountains. The most remarkable feature is the 
 Lake Copais, of which we have already spoken (p. 482). Its basin must be at 
 a considerable elevation ; but Thiersch s assertion, that the level of this lake is 
 more than one thousand feet above the sea, is an exaggeration, and appears, in 
 fact, to be only a guess. This lake is the receptacle of an extensive drainage, 
 and, among other streams, receives in particular the Cephisus (p. 481). The 
 basin of the Lake Copais contains a large amount of fertile land, capable of 
 growing cotton and other products in abundance. 
 
 IV. Bceotia was remarkable in ancient times for its extraordinary fertility, and 
 it was this cause, probably, more than the dampness and thickness of their atmos 
 phere, that depressed the intellectual and moral energies of the Boeotians, and 
 justified the ridicule which their temperate and witty neighbors, the Athenians, 
 so freely poured on their proverbial failing. Some of the principal productions 
 and manufactures of the country are enumerated in the Acharnians of Aristoph 
 anes (v. 781, seq.). The linen fabrics of Bceotia were held in great estimation, 
 and the iron mines, which were anciently worked in the eastern chain of mount 
 ains, supplied the material for the famed Boeotian cutlery ; hence we read in 
 
GR^ECIA. 531 
 
 ancient writers of Aonian iron, Aonian weapons, and helmets of Boeotian work 
 manship, when excellence is meant to be described. 
 
 (C.) SKETCH OF BOEOTIAN HISTORY, &c. 
 
 I. THERE is, perhaps, no country of Hellas, with respect to the ancient inhab 
 itants of which so many and such complicated traditions exist. We may divide 
 the earliest of these into two classes, one including those traditions which refer 
 to the JSgyptians as the earliest inhabitants of Breotia, the other containing 
 those traditions to which we owe the old story of a Phoenician colony. It is 
 very difficult to distinguish between truth and fiction in these narratives. 
 
 II. The best modern scholars are inclined to reject the first class of traditions 
 altogether. The traditions of the second class, which are much older, and con 
 sequently more involved than the former, relate that Thebes was founded by a 
 Phoenician prince named Cadmus, when in search of his sister Europa, who had 
 been carried" off by Jupiter. It is not probable, however, that Thebes, an inland 
 town, which had no internal commerce, and where trading was, in fact, stig 
 matized, should have been founded by the Phoenicians, who generally built no 
 cities but as emporia for traffic. We are therefore thrown back upon the sup 
 position that the whole story is a fiction, and that Cadmus was an indigenous 
 Theban name. The old inhabitants of Thebes were called Cadmeans, their 
 city Cadmea, and they carried this ethnic name along with them into their col 
 onies. Cadmus was probably a deity of the Pelasgic Tyrrheni. When Strabo, 
 therefore, and other writers, inform us that Bceotia was occupied before the 
 arrival of Cadmus by several barbarous clans under the various names of Aoncs, 
 Ectencs, Temmices, and Hyantes, we must probably regard these as none other 
 than branches of the very Cadmeans themselves. 
 
 III. The Cadmeans, and the cognate tribe of the Minyans, occupied Brooi-ia 
 till about sixty years after the taking of Troy, when they were driven out by 
 the ^Eolian Boeotians, a Thessalian people settled in the upper vale of the Api- 
 danus, and in the neighborhood of the Sinus Pagasaeus, who had themselves 
 been forced to leave their settlements by the Thessalian immigration from Thes- 
 protia. We have only fragmentary information with respect to the early history 
 of the people who from this time continued to be the inhabitants of Bceotia, nor 
 are we able to speak with much certainty of the constitutions of the different 
 towns, and of their relation to one another. We know merely that the Boeotian 
 towns became members of a league, of which Thebes was at the head. The 
 deputies of the confederate states met in the plain before Coronea, at the tem 
 ple of Athena of Iton ; and this meeting took place at the festival of the Pam- 
 bceotia. Every one of the confederate states was, as such, free, but several 
 of them had smaller towns dependent on them. It is very difficult to determine 
 the number of the independent states. They are supposed, however, to have 
 been fourteen, and Mttller conjectures them to have been Thebes, Orchomenus, 
 Lebadea, Coronla, Copa, Haliartus, Thespice, Tandgra, Ocalece, Onckestus, An- 
 thedon, Chalia, Plat&a, and Eleuthera. 
 
 IV. The representatives of the different towns of the confederacy were called 
 Boeotarchs, and Thebes had two votes among them. The affairs of the con 
 federacy were debated at four national councils, the Booetarchs having the ini 
 tiative authority, the members of the council the power of confirmation. The 
 Boeotian confederacy was dissolved in B.C. 171, after having undergone many 
 changes and fluctuations. With regard to the form of government which pre 
 vailed in the several Boeotian towns, we have good reason for believing that it 
 was the same with that of Thebes which was in the historical times generally 
 
532 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 a rigid oligarchy. With such a government, the Thebans must naturally have 
 been opposed to the neighboring democratical state of Attica ; and accordingly 
 we find them, about the year 507 B.C., joining the Peloponnesians and Chalcid- 
 ians in an attack upon the Athenians ; and probably the same cause made 
 them go over to the Persians in 480 B.C. The victory of Plataese deprived 
 them of their authority in the Boeotian league, until the Lacedaemonians, from 
 interested considerations, acceded to the wishes of the oligarchical party in the 
 lesser states, and restored to them, in 457 B.C., the power which they had taken 
 from them. 
 
 V. In the year 455 B.C., the decisive battle of (Enophyta subjected all Bceo- 
 tia to the Athenians, and Thebes became democratical ; but, a few years after 
 (447 B.C.), in consequence of some abuse of power on the part of the democracy, 
 the oligarchical form of government was restored, and the signal defeat sustained 
 by the Athenians at Coronea freed Bceotia from her foreign yoke w . The The 
 bans were active partisans of Sparta in the Peloponnesian war, and contributed 
 mainly to the downfall of Athens ; but in the year 395 B.C. they became members 
 of the confederacy against Lacedaemon, which was broken up in the course of 
 the following year by the victory which Agesilaus gained over them at Coronea. 
 The peace of Antalcidas followed (387 B.C.) ; and, five years after, the treacher 
 ous seizure of the Cadmea, or citadel of Thebes, by Phcebidas the Lacedaemo 
 nian, and its subsequent recovery by Pelopidas, brought about another war be 
 tween Bceotia and Lacedasrnon, in which the great abilities of the Theban gen 
 erals Epaminondas and Pelopidas made Bceotia the leading power in Greece. 
 But the former fell at Mantinea, and the power of Thebes fell with him. 
 
 VI. The Macedonian influence now began to prevail ; Athens and Thebes 
 were overthrown by Philip at Chaeronea (338 B.C.), and, three years after, the 
 latter city was entirely destroyed by Alexander the Great. In the year 315 B.C., 
 Cassander rebuilt Thebes, with the zealous co-operation of the Athenians, but 
 it never regained its political importance. Thebes favored the Roman cause in 
 the war with Perseus, but it dwindled away to a mere nothing under the Roman 
 dominion. 
 
 (D.) PLACES IN BCEOTIA. 
 
 1. Siphce or Tiphce, the first Boeotian port on the Mare Al- 
 cydnium, beginning from the Phocian frontier. It boasted of 
 having given birth to Tiphys, the pilot of the Argonauts. Its 
 site is probably at the modern Agiani. The Mare Alcyonium 
 was an arm of the Sinus Corinthiacus, at its eastern extremity, 
 and derived its name from the peculiar calmness of its waters 
 at certain seasons. 2. Thisbe, a few miles inland, and to the 
 northwest, noticed by Homer as abounding in wild pigeons. 
 Strabo says it was still distinguished in his day for the same 
 local characteristic. Its site corresponds to that of Kakosia, 
 where, according to Gell, there is still an immense number of 
 rock pigeons. 
 
 Above Thisbe rises Mount Helicon, now Palaovouni, so famed in antiquity as 
 the seat of Apollo and the Muses. Pausanias ascribes the worship of the Muses 
 here to the Pierians, or Old Thracians, of whom we have already spoken (p. 450), 
 
GR^ECIA. 533 
 
 and who transferred from Macedonia the names of Libethra, Pimplea, and the 
 Pierides, to the dells of Helicon. Strabo affirms that Helicon retains its snows 
 during the greater part of the year. According to Leake, it is some hundred 
 feet less in height than Parnassus. On the summit was the grove of the Muses, 
 adorned with several statues, and a little below was the fountain of Aganippe, 
 sacred to the Muses, who were hence called Aganippides. About twenty feet 
 above the grove was the fountain Hippocrene, said to have been produced from 
 the ground, when Pegasus first struck it with his hoof. Hence the name of 
 " Horse s Fountain," iTnroicpfjvr] or iTnrovKprjvrj, from ITTTTOC, "horse," and Kprjvj], 
 " a fountain." These two fountains or springs supplied the small rivers Olmius 
 and Permcssus, which, after uniting their waters, flowed into the Lake Copais 
 near Haliartus. 
 
 ^ 
 
 3. Ascra, situate on a rocky summit belonging to Helicon, 
 and celebrated as the birth-place of Hesiod. Pausanias reports, 
 that in his day only one tower remained to mark the site of 
 Ascra. Leake fixes the site at Pyrgaki, where a ruined tower, 
 whence the spot gets its name, still remains. 4. Thespice, ac 
 cording to Strabo, forty stadia from Ascra, and near the foot 
 of Helicon, looking toward the south and the Crisssean Gulf. 
 The Thespians deserve honorable mention for their brave and 
 generous conduct during the Persian war, when the rest of 
 Boeotia basely submitted to Xerxes. The troops sent by them 
 to Thermopylae, to aid Leonidas, chose rather to die at their 
 post than desert the Spartan king and his heroic followers. 
 Their city was in consequence burned by the Persians, after 
 the inhabitants had evacuated it and retired to the Pelopon 
 nesus. A small body of them, however, fought at Platseae, 
 under Pausanias. The Thespians distinguished themselves 
 also at Delium, against the Athenians, being nearly all slain 
 at their posts. The Thebans afterward basely took advantage 
 of this heavy loss to pull down the walls of their city, and bring 
 it under subjection, under the pretext of their having favored 
 the Athenians. Phryne, the hetserist, was a native of this place, 
 and here she caused the statue of Cupid, which she had received 
 as a present from Praxiteles, to be set up, which added greatly 
 to the prosperity of her native city, from the crowd of strangers 
 who came to view this master-piece of art. The site of Thespise 
 is at Eremo Castro, or, as Leake writes it, Rimokastro. 
 
 5. Eutresis, to the southeast of Thespise, and said to have 
 been once the residence of Amphion and Zethus. It was sit 
 uate on the road from Thespise to Platsese, and possessed a cel 
 ebrated temple and oracle of Apollo. 6. Leuctra, likewise on 
 
534 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 the road from Thespise to Platsese. It was famed for the vic 
 tory obtained here by Epaminondas over the Spartans. From 
 that moment the power and fame of Sparta began to decline^ 
 and after the second victory of Epaminondas over them at Man- 
 tinea in Arcadia, this state ceased forever to be the arbiter of 
 Greece. The spot is now called Leflca (Asvrca). Leake less 
 correctly seeks to identify Lefka with the ancient Thespise, 
 7. Platcea* one of the most ancient Boeotian cities, situate at 
 the foot of Mount Cithseron, and near the River Asopus, which 
 separated its territory from that of Thebes. The Plataeans 
 withdrew at an early period from the Breotian confederacy, and 
 placed themselves under the protection of Athens. Grateful 
 for the aid afforded by that city, they sent one thousand soldiers 
 to Marathon, who shared in the glory of that memorable fight. 
 They also manned some of the Athenian vessels at Artemisium. 
 Plateese was famous for the great battle which took place in its 
 vicinity, in which the Persians under Mardonius were defeated 
 by the combined Greek forces under the Spartan Pausanias, 
 The town had been burned by the army of Xerxes, but was re 
 built by the aid of the Athenians. In the third year of the Pe~ 
 loponnesian war, Platsese was taken and destroyed by the Pe- 
 loponnesian forces. It was restored after the peace of Antalci- 
 das, but again destroyed by the Thebans. Cassander rebuilt 
 it together with Thebes. The ruins of this place are near the 
 modern village of Kokhla. The River Asopus has already been 
 
 mentioned (p. 480). 
 
 Mount Citharonr&i the foot of which stood Plataeae, is an elevated ridge, di 
 viding Bceotia first from Megaris, and afterward from Attica, and finally uniting 
 with Mount Parnes and other summits which belong to the northeastern side 
 of the province. It was dedicated, as Pausanias affirms, to Jupiter Cithaeronius, 
 and was celebrated in antiquity as having been the scene of many events rr- 
 corded by poets and other writers. Such were the metamorphosis of Actseon, 
 the death of Pentheus, and the exposure of QEdipus. Here also Bacchus was 
 said to hold his revels with the satyrs and frantic bacchantes. The modern 
 name is Mount Elatia, from the forests of fir (fiar^) with which it is crowned. 
 8. Erythrce, to the east of Platsese, and the parent city of the 
 flourishing colony of the same name in Ionia. The Grecian 
 forces were stationed here previous to the battle of Platsese. 
 9. Scolus j northeast of Plateese. Its territory was so rugged 
 and unproductive that it gave rise to the proverb, "Never let 
 us go to Scolus, nor follow any one thither." 10. Potni<%, to 
 the north of Scolus, and about ten stadia from Thebes* Here 
 
535 
 
 was a sacred grove dedicated to Ceres and Proserpina. It was 
 at Potnisethat Glaucus was said to have been torn in pieces by 
 his infuriated mares. Gell makes its site nearly correspond 
 with that of the modern village of Taki. 11. Thebce, one of 
 the most ancient and important cities of Greece, and the capital, 
 in a general sense, of Boeotia. It was situated in the plain be 
 tween Lake Hylice (now Lake Livadhi] on the north and a 
 range of low hills on the south. Thebes was fabled to have 
 been founded by Cadmus and a Phoenician colony, and to have 
 been called from him Cadmea, a name which, in after days, was 
 confined to the citadel only, standing as this did on the site of 
 the earlier city. Around this citadel arose the later city, which 
 was so disposed that the greater portion of it occupied the part 
 north of the citadel. According to an ancient legend, the city 
 was fortified by Zethus, and Amphion, the wonderful lyre-player, 
 who, by his music, made the stones move and form the walls 
 round the city. 
 
 Previous to the Trojan war, the city of Thebes was destroyed by the Epigoni, 
 that is, the descendants of the seven Argive heroes who had been defeated by 
 the Thebans, and from this destruction it does not appear to have recovered be 
 fore that war, as it took no part in the expedition against Troy. In the time 
 of Homer, however, who calls it a city "with seven gates" (^TrrdTro/lof), and 
 gives it the epithet of evpi>xopoc, on account of the extensive plain which formed 
 its territory, it appears to have been again in a flourishing condition. In 335 
 B.C. Thebes was destroyed a second time, by Alexander the Great, on whose 
 accession to the throne of Macedonia it had revolted, and had attempted to 
 shake off the Macedonian yoke. Of the lower city nothing was left on this oc 
 casion except the gates, the temples, and the house of Pindar the poet : six 
 thousand inhabitants were killed, and thirty thousand sold as slaves. Twenty 
 years afterward it was rebuilt by Cassander, with the generous aid of the Athe 
 nians, Messenians, and Megalopolitans. It suffered a third time in B.C. 291, 
 under Demetrius Poliorcetes. Dicaearchus, who saw Thebes about this time 
 or shortly after, has left us an interesting description of it. Its population about 
 this time is supposed to have been between fifty and sixty thousand. After 
 the Macedonian time, however, the city declined still more, and Sylla seems to 
 have given it the last blow by depriving it of half its territory, which he assigned 
 to the Delphians. Strabo remarks, that in his time it had scarcely the appear 
 ance of a village. The place which now occupies the ancient Cadmea is called 
 Theba or Pheba, and in Turkish Stiva. The inhabitants of ancient Thebes were 
 distinguished above all the other Greeks for rusticity, fierceness, and passion. 
 Hence a Theban was always ready to settle any dispute by fighting rather than 
 by the ordinary course of justice. The women were celebrated for their gentle 
 ness and beauty. 
 
 Near one of the gates of Thebes was a hill and temple consecrated to Apollo 
 Ismenius. At the foot of this hill flowed the little stream of the Ismcnus. Ac 
 cording to Dodwell, the Ismenus has less pretensions to the title of a river than 
 
536 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 the Athenian Ilissus, for it has no water except after heavy rains, when it be 
 comes a torrent, and rushes into the Lake of Hylice, to the north of Thebes. 
 The celebrated fountain of Dirce was also in the immediate vicinity of this city. 
 Gell noticed a brook to the west of the Cadmea, by some Turkish tombs, which 
 he considered to be the ancient Dirce. Beyond Dirce was Pindar s house. The 
 fountain of Mars, said to have been guarded by the dragon slain by Cadmus, was 
 above the temple of Apollo Ismenius. 
 
 12. Onchestus, northwest of Thebse, and near the Lake Hy 
 lice. It took its name from Onchestus, a son of Neptune, 
 which deity had here a celebrated temple and grove. \ 13. Ha 
 ll artus, to the west, on the shore of the Lake Copais. Lysan- 
 der, the Lacedaemonian, was slain in an engagement under the 
 walls of this town. Having favored the cause of Perseus, king 
 of Macedonia, it was taken by assault, sacked, and entirely de 
 stroyed by the Roman praetor Lucretius. The inhabitants were 
 sold, and their territory was given to the Athenians. 14. Alal- 
 comence, to the west of Haliartus, and celebrated for the worship 
 of Minerva, thence surnamed Alalcomeneis. The temple of 
 the goddess was plundered and stripped of its statues by Sylla. 
 It was said that when Thebes was taken by the Epigoni, many 
 of the inhabitants retired to Alalcomense, as being sacred and 
 inviolable. The ruins of this place are near the village of Su- 
 linari. The mountain, at the foot of which stood the town, was 
 named Tilphussius, and from it flowed a small stream called 
 Tilphussa. This stream is said to have caused the death of 
 the celebrated soothsayer Tiresias, in consequence of his drink 
 ing of its waters, which were extremely cold. 15. Coronea, to 
 the west of the preceding, a city of great antiquity, having been 
 founded, together with Orchomenus, by the descendants of Atha- 
 mas, who came from Thessaly. Several important actions took 
 place at different times in its vicinity, the chief of which was 
 the battle gained by Agesilaus and the Spartans against the 
 Thebans and their allies, 394 B.C. Near Coronea was a cel 
 ebrated temple of Minerva Itonis, where the general council of 
 the Boeotian states assembled until it was dissolved by the Ro 
 mans. The ruins of Coronea are observable near the village 
 of Corunies, on a remarkably insulated hill. At the distance 
 of forty stadia to the south of Coronea rose Mount*Libethrius, 
 one of the summits of Helicon, dedicated to tbe Muses and the 
 Nymphs, hence called Libethrides. There was also a fountain 
 named Libethrias. 
 
GR^ECIA. 537 
 
 16. Lebadea, to the northwest of Coronea, and toward the 
 frontiers of Phocis. It is said to have derived its name from 
 Lebadus, an Athenian, under whose conduct the inhabitants 
 of the Homeric Midea removed from a neighboring height, and 
 settled here in the lower ground. Lebadea was celebrated for 
 its oracle of Trophonius, situate in a cave above the town, into 
 which those who wished to consult it were obliged to descend, 
 after performing various ceremonies. Lebadea was richly 
 adorned with works of art, but was plundered by the troops of 
 Mithradates. It is now Livadia, a name which is applied 
 also to a large province, of which Boeotia forms merely a part. 
 17. Chceronea, to the northwest of the preceding, a city of some 
 consequence, and celebrated in history for the battle gained by 
 Philip of Macedon over the Athenians and Boeotians. Several 
 years after, this town witnessed another and bloodier engage 
 ment between the Romans under Sylla, and the troops of Mith 
 radates commanded by Taxiles and Archelaus. The ruins of 
 Chseronea are found at the village of Kapurna. 
 
 18. Orchomenus, on the western shore of the Lake Copais, 
 and near the entrance of the Cephisus into that lake. It was 
 the second city in Bceotia, and at one time even rivalled Thebes 
 itself in wealth, power, and importance. 
 
 Its first inhabitants are said to have been the Phlegyae, a lawless race. These, 
 having been destroyed by the gods for their impiety, were succeeded by the 
 Minyae, who came apparently from Thessaly, and are commonly regarded as 
 the real founders of Orchomenus, which thence obtained the surname of the 
 "Minyan." At this period it was so renowned for its wealth and power that 
 Homer represents it as vying with the most opulent cities in the world. These 
 riches are said to have been deposited in a building erected for that purpose by 
 Minyas, and which Pausanias describes as an astonishing work, and equally 
 worthy of admiration with the walls of Tiryns or the pyramids of Egypt. 
 Thebes was at that time inferior in power to the Minyan city, and in a war 
 with Erginus, king of the latter, was compelled to become its tributary. As 
 another proof of the wealth and civilization to which Orchomenus had attained, 
 it is mentioned that Eteocles, one of its early kings, was the first to erect a 
 temple to the Graces. Hence Orchomenus is called by Pindar the city of the 
 Graces, and the most prevalent worship here was that of these divinities. 
 Thirlwall says that the early legends about the Minyans may be considered as 
 indications of a native race, apparently Pelasgians, overpowered by ./Eolian in 
 vaders. It was in the sixtieth year after the Trojan war that the JEolian Boeo 
 tians, who had been expelled from Thessaly, drove out the Minyans from Or 
 chomenus, which was then, with its territory, added to Bceotia, and joined the 
 Boeotian confederacy. At and shortly before the time of the Peloponnesian 
 war, we find Orchomenus one of the most powerful states of the Boeotian league, 
 and having under it the towns of Chseronea and Tegyra. Its government was 
 
538 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 oligarchical : the ruling order was called " Knights." It was destroyed by the 
 Thebans in 368 B.C., but was rebuilt after the destruction of Thebes. Its ruins 
 are to be seen near the modern village of Scripu. Near Orchomenus flowed the 
 small river Melas, and in the marshes near the junction of this river with the 
 Cephisus grew the auletic or flute reed, so much esteemed by the ancient Greeks 
 for making flutes and other wind instruments. Pliny describes it as very long 
 and without knots. Leake says they are still produced here in abundance. 
 
 19. Larymna, on the coast, and belonging originally to the 
 territory of the Locri Opuntii. Near it the Lake Copais dis 
 charged its waters into the sea by subterranean passages. (Con 
 sult page 482, III., IV.) The precise spot where the stream 
 issued from under ground was named Anchoe, and near it was 
 a very deep lake. There were, strictly speaking, two places 
 named Larymna, an upper or northern, and a lower. Leaving 
 the sea in order to return to the Lake of Copais, we have to 
 cross the ridge of Mount Ptoiis, celebrated in antiquity as the 
 seat of an oracle and temple of Apollo. On its western slope, 
 and near the shore of the Copaic Lake, stood, 20. Acrcephia or 
 Acrcephium, which, according to Strabo, was looked upon by 
 some writers as the Arne of Homer. It had a temple of Bac 
 chus. Its remains are to be seen near the village of Karditza. 
 21. CopcBj a short distance to the north of the preceding, giving 
 name to the Lake Copais^ on which it stood, and situated near 
 the deepest part of it. It contained temples of Bacchus, Ceres, 
 and Serapis. The modern village of Topolia is on the ancient 
 site, which Dodwell describes as a low, insular tongue of land, 
 projecting from the foot of Mount Ptous. The Lake Copais 
 was chiefly formed by the River Cephisus, and is now called 
 the Lake of Topolia. Anciently, however, this lake received 
 various names from the different cities situated along its shores. 
 At Haliartus it was called Haliartius Lacus ; at Orchomenus, 
 Orchomenius. Homer and Pindar distinguish it by the name 
 of Cephlsis. That of Copais , however, finally prevailed, since 
 Copse, as already remarked, was situate near the deepest part 
 of it. This was by far the most considerable lake in Greece, 
 being not less than three hundred and eighty stadia in circuit. 
 It was famous for its eels, which grew to a large size, and were 
 esteemed highly by the epicures of antiquity. According to 
 Dodwell, they are still held in high repute. For an account 
 of the outlets of this lake, consult page 482. Tradition asserted 
 that near Copse there stood, in the time of Cecrops, two ancient 
 
GR^ECIA. 539 
 
 cities, named Eleusis and Athene, and Stephanas reports that, 
 when Crates, by order of Alexander the Great, drained the 
 waters which had overspread the plains, the latter town became 
 visible. 
 
 22. Hyle, a small town, northeast of Thebes, mentioned more 
 than once by Homer, and giving name to the Lake Hylice, now 
 Livadhi or the Lake of Senzina. Hyle appears to have been 
 renowned for its manufacture of shields. The celebrated seven 
 fold shield of Ajax was made, according to Homer, by Tychius 
 of Hyle. 23. Harma, northeast of Thebes, in the direction of 
 Chalcis. It was said to have derived its name from the fate 
 of Amphiaraus, who disappeared on that spot, together with 
 his chariot (dpfta) and horses. 24. Mycalessus, an ancient city, 
 to the northeast of Harma, and known to Homer. Its inhabit 
 ants were all cruelly butchered, during the Peloponnesian war, 
 by some Thracian troops in the pay of Athens. 25. Aulis, to 
 the northeast of the preceding, a sea-port celebrated as the ren 
 dezvous of the Grecian fleet when about to sail for Troy. 
 Strabo remarks, that, as the harbor of Aulis could not contain 
 more than fifty ships, the Grecian fleet must have assembled in 
 the neighboring port of Bathys, which was much more exten 
 sive. Bathys is still called Vathz, and is described by Gell 
 as an excellent harbor. 26. Salganeus, above Aulis, and an 
 important post, as commanding the passage of the Euripus. 
 27. Anthedon, northwest of the preceding, and on the coast. It 
 was celebrated for its wine. Dicsearchus represents the inhab 
 itants in his time as nearly all fishermen, and claiming descent 
 from Glaucus, the sea-god. Near the sea was a spot called the 
 leap of Glaucus. The Cabiri, according to Pausanias, were 
 worshipped at Anthedon. 28. Tanagra, southeast of Thebes, 
 and near the left bank of the Asopus. Its earlier appellation 
 was Grcea. An obstinate battle was fought in its vicinity be 
 tween the Athenians and Spartans prior to the Peloponnesian 
 war, in which the former were worsted. Tanagra was famous 
 for its breed of fighting cocks. The modern village of Grimdda 
 or Grimala marks the ancient site. 
 
 29. Delium, to the northeast, close to the sea, and facing 
 Eretria in Euboea. It was celebrated for the battle which took 
 place in its vicinity between the Athenians and Boeotians, when 
 the former were totally routed. It was in this engagement 
 
540 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 that, according to some accounts, Socrates saved the life of Xen- 
 ophon, or, according to others, of Alcibiades. Some vestiges of 
 it still remain near the village of Dramisi. 30. Oropus, to the 
 east of the preceding, and on the right bank of the Asopus. 
 From its situation on the borders of Attica and Bceotia, this 
 place was a continual subject of dispute between the two people. 
 It is now called Oropo. 31. Delphinium, a port at the mouth 
 of the Asopus, sometimes called the Sacred Port 
 
 8. MEGARIS. 
 (A.) NAME, BOUNDARIES, &c. 
 
 I. Megaris, according to one tradition, derived its name from 
 Megarus, a Boeotian chief, and a son of Apollo or Neptune. 
 According to others, however, it had this name from the earli 
 est historical times. 
 
 II. It was bounded on the north by Bosotia ; on the west by 
 the Sinus Corinthiacus ; on the southwest by the territory of 
 Corinth / on the south and southeast by the Sinus Saronicus, 
 now the Gulf of Engia ; and on the east and northeast by 
 Attica. 
 
 III. Megaris is a rugged and mountainous country, and con 
 tains only one plain of small extent, in which the capital, Me- 
 gara, was situated. The rocks are chiefly, if not entirely, cal 
 careous. The country is very deficient in springs. The ex 
 treme breadth on the Corinthian Gulf is reckoned by Strabo at 
 one hundred and twenty stadia, and the area of the country is 
 calculated by Clinton at seven hundred and twenty square miles. 
 
 Megaris was separated from Bceotia by the range of Mount Citharon, and 
 from Attica by the high land which descends from the northwest boundary of 
 Attica, and terminates on the west side of the Bay of Eleusis in two summits, 
 anciently called Kerala (Kepara), or " the Horns," and now Kandili. It was di 
 vided from the Corinthian territory, on the southwest, by the Onean range of 
 mountains, through which there were only two roads from Corinth into Megaris. 
 One of these roads, called the Scironian Pass, was said to have been the haunt 
 of the robber Sciron, who plundered travellers, and then threw them from the 
 high rocks into the sea, until he was overcome and treated in the same way by 
 Theseus. This narrow pass was situated between Megara and Crommyon, a 
 small maritime town belonging to Corinth. The road followed the shore for 
 the space of several miles, and was shut in on the land side by a lofty mountain 
 range, while toward the sea it was lined by dangerous precipices. Pausanias 
 reports that it was afterward rendered more accessible by the Emperor Hadrian, 
 being made wide enough for two vehicles abreast. At present, however, it 
 admits, according to Thiersch, only a single vehicle, except in a few places. 
 Leake, on the other hand, says that it is only practicable by foot passengers. 
 
GR^ECIA. 541 
 
 The other road, following the coast of the Corinthian Gulf, crossed the Gera- 
 nean Mountains, which belong to the Onean range, and led to Pagse, on the 
 Corinthian Gulf, and thence into Bceotia. 
 
 (B.) SKETCH OP THE HISTORY OF MEGARIS. 
 
 I. ACCORDING to the traditions preserved by Pausanias, Car, the son of Pho- 
 roneus, originally reigned at Megara, and was succeeded, after the lapse of 
 twelve generations, by Lelex, who gave to the people the name ofLeleges. Le- 
 lex was succeeded by Cleson, and Cleson by Pylas. By the marriage of Pylas 
 with the daughter of Pandion, Megara became annexed to Attica ; and there can 
 be no doubt that Megaris also, in early times, belonged to Attica, since it is 
 represented on the best authority that Megaris formed one of the four ancient 
 divisions of Attica. 
 
 II. On the death of Pandion, Megaris fell to the lot of his son Nisus ; but it 
 was wrested from the Athenians during the reign of Codrus, when the Dorians 
 invaded Attica. A Corinthian colony was settled at Megara, and the country 
 was from this time regarded as a Doric state. It remained for some time sub 
 ject to Corinth ; but it afterward asserted its independence, although at what 
 time is uncertain. Its wealth and power rapidly increased, as is evident from 
 the numerous colonies which it planted, of which the most important were Se- 
 lymbria, Calchedon, and Byzantium, on the Bosporus and Propontis, and Hyb- 
 laean Megara in Sicily. The navy of Megara was once powerful enough to 
 cope with that of Athens ; and it was only after a long and obstinate struggle 
 that the Athenians were enabled to recover the island of Salamis, which had 
 been seized by the Megarians. 
 
 III. The government was originally in the hands of the great Dorian land 
 holders : but they were deprived of their power by Theagenes, who put himself 
 at the head of the popular party, and obtained the sovereignty about B.C. 620. 
 He adorned the city with several public buildings. He married his daughter 
 to Cylon, who was assisted by him in his attempt to usurp the government at 
 Athens. Theagenes was at length expelled from Megara ; and shortly after 
 ward a most violent struggle arose between the aristocratic and democratic 
 parties, of which a vivid picture is drawn in the poems of Theognis, a native 
 of Megara, who appears to have been born shortly before the death of Solon, and 
 to have lived down to the beginning of the Persian wars. 
 
 IV. For some time after the Persian wars, Megara appears to have been con 
 stantly engaged in war with Corinth ; and her enmity to Corinth was the occa 
 sion of her forming an alliance with Athens, about B.C. 461. Athenian garri 
 sons were placed in Megara and Pegae ; but six years afterward the Megarians 
 renounced their alliance with Athens, and put to death the Athenian garrison 
 at Megara. In the seventh year of the Peloponnesian war, the democratic party 
 formed a plan for surrendering the city to Athens, which was defeated by the 
 arrival of Brasidas with a Lacedaemonian force. We read little more of Megara 
 in Grecian history. In B.C. 357, democracy was again the established consti 
 tution. Megara was taken and almost destroyed by Demetrius ; it was also 
 taken by the Romans under Metellus. It suffered greatly in the invasion of 
 Alaric ; and its ruin was completed by the Venetians in 1687. 
 
 (C.) PLACES IN MEGARIS. 
 
 1. Megara) the capital of Megaris, situate at the foot of two 
 hills, on each of which a citadel was built. These hills were 
 
542 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 named Caria and Alcathous. It was connected with the port 
 of Niscea by two walls, the length of which was about eight 
 stadia, according to Thucydides. They were erected by the 
 Athenians at the time when the Megarians placed themselves 
 under their protection. The distance from Athens was two 
 hundred and ten stadia, as we learn from Procopius. Chry- 
 sostom calls it a day s journey. Modern travellers generally 
 reckon eight hours. Alaric, as already remarked, nearly ruined 
 this once flourishing place. According to Pausanias, it was 
 the only city of Greece which was not restored by Hadrian, in 
 consequence of its inhabitants having murdered Anthemocritus, 
 the Athenian herald. The site is occupied by the modern town 
 of Megara. 2. Niscea, the harbor of Megara, with a citadel 
 called also Nisaea. This citadel was a place of considerable 
 strength, as we learn from Thucydides, but might be cut off 
 from the city by effecting a breach in the long walls. The port 
 itself was sheltered by the small island of Minoa, which lay off 
 it. In the time of Strabo, Minoa had become connected with 
 the main land, and is called by him a promontory. 3. Pagce, 
 a port on the shore of the Mare Alcyonium, and the first place 
 after leaving the Boeotian frontier. It was occupied by the 
 Athenians before the Peloponnesian war, and was used by them 
 as a naval station. It is supposed to correspond to the modern 
 harbor of Psatho. 4. jEgosthence, placed by Cramer to the 
 southeast of Pagaa, but by Leake to the northeast of it. To 
 this place the Lacedaemonians retreated by a difficult road along 
 the coast, after their defeat at Leuctra. Its site is marked by 
 the modern village of Porto Ghermano. 5. Tripodiscus, at the 
 foot of the Geranean chain of mountains, a part of the Onean 
 range. It was the birth-place of Susarion, one of the earliest 
 comic poets of Greece. 
 
 9. ATTICA. 
 (A.) NAME AND BOUNDARIES. 
 
 I. Attica ( ArrLKrj) derived its name, according to some, from 
 Atthis, a daughter of Cranaus, one of the earliest kings of 
 the country. Others, however, deduced it from Acte (att-ri^ 
 " shore"), in allusion to its maritime situation and great ex 
 tent of coast ; and, according to these, the country itself was 
 actually known by the appellation of Acte, even before the reign 
 of Cranaus. 
 
GRJECIA. 543 
 
 II. It is more than probable, however, that the name Attica 
 contains the element Atth or Ath, which we observe in the 
 words Atth-is and Ath-ence. 
 
 III. Attica may be considered as forming a triangle, the base 
 of which is common also to Boeotia, while the two sides lie upon 
 the sea, and the vertex is formed by the Promontory of Sunium. 
 The prolongation of the western side, till it meets the base at 
 the extremity of Cithseron, served also as a common boundary 
 to Attica and Megaris. Hence Attica may be said to be bounded 
 on the north and northwest by Bceotia, and on a part of its 
 western side by Megaris, and the rest of the country to be 
 washed by the sea. 
 
 (B.) DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY. 
 
 I. A WILD and rugged, though not a lofty range of mountains, bearing the name 
 of Citharon on the west, and of Parnes toward the east, divides Attica from 
 Bceotia. A considerable part of the range of Parnes is covered with forests of 
 pine, oak, arbutus, and wild pear trees. Lower ridges, branching off to the 
 south, and sending out arms toward the east, mark the limits of the principal 
 districts which compose this little country, the least proportioned in extent of 
 any on the face of the earth to its fame and its importance in the history of 
 mankind. 
 
 II. The most extensive of the Attic plains, though it is by no means a uni 
 form level, but is broken by a number of hills, is the Athenian, or that in which 
 Athens itself lies, at the foot of a precipitous rock, and in which, according to 
 the Attic legend, the olive, still its most valuable production, first sprang up. 
 It is bounded on the east by Mount Pentelicus, and by the range which, under 
 the names of the greater and the lesser Hymettus, advances till it meets the sea 
 at the Promontory of Zoster. 
 
 III. The upper part of Pentelicus, which rises to a greater height than Hy- 
 mettus, was distinguished, under the name of Epacria or Diacria, as the Attic 
 Highlands. This range, which, after trending eastward, terminates at the Prom 
 ontory of Cynossema, forms with Mount Parnes and the sea the boundary of the 
 plain of Marathon. 
 
 IV. On the eastern side of Hymettus, a comparatively level tract, separated 
 from the coast by a lower range of hills, seems to have been that which was 
 called Mcsogaa, or the midland country, and is still termed Mesogia. The hills 
 which inclose it meet in the mountainous mine district ofLaurium, and end with 
 the Promontory of Sunium, the southernmost foreland of Attica. 
 
 V. The tract on the coast, between Sunium and Cape Zoster, a range of low 
 hills and undulating plains, was designated by the name of Paralia, or the sea- 
 coast district. 
 
 VI. On the western side, the plain of Athens is bounded by a chain of hills, 
 issuing from Parnes, and successively bearing the names of Icarius, Corydallus, 
 and JEgaleus, as it stretches toward the sea, which, at the Promontory of Am- 
 phiale, separates it by a channel, a quarter of a mile in width, from the island 
 of Salamis. It parts the Athenian from the Eleusinian plain, in which stood the 
 city of Eleusis. 
 
544 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 VII. The chief part of the Eleusinian plain was called the Thriasian by the 
 ancient writers, from the demus of Thria, and extended between the range of 
 ^Egaleus and Eleusis, along the borders of the bay, and to the north of it. This 
 plain and the Rarian, which last also formed part of the Eleusinian, were re 
 markable for their fertility, and were celebrated in the Attic mythology as the 
 soil which had been first enriched by the gifts of Ceres, the goddess of harvests. 
 
 VIII. Attica is, on the whole, a meagre land, wanting the fatness of the Boeo 
 tian plains, and the freshness of the Boeotian streams. The waters of its prin 
 cipal river, the Cephisus, are expended in irrigating a part of the plain of Athens ; 
 and the Ilissus, though no less renowned, is a mere brook, which is sometimes 
 swollen into a torrent. It could scarcely boast of more than two or three fertile 
 tracts, and its principal riches lay in the hearts of its mountains, in the silver of 
 Laurium, and the marble of Pentelicus. It might also reckon among its pecu 
 liar advantages the purity of its air, the fragrance of its shrubs, and the fineness 
 of its fruits. 
 
 IX. But in its most flourishing period the produce of Attica was never suffi 
 cient to supply the wants of its inhabitants, and their industry was constantly 
 urged to improve their ground to the utmost. Traces are still visible of the 
 laborious cultivation which was carried, by means of artificial terraces, up the 
 sides of their barest mountains. After all, they were compelled to look even 
 to the sea for subsistence. Attica would have been little but for the position 
 which it occupied as the southeast foreland of Greece, with valleys opening on 
 the coast, and ports inviting the commerce of Asia. From the top of its hills 
 the eye surveys the whole circle of its islands, which form its maritime suburbs, 
 and seem to point out its historical destination. 
 
 X. As to the ancient population of Attica, it is difficult to come to any satis 
 factory conclusion. Clinton considers that, about B.C. 317, it may have been 
 five hundred and twenty-seven thousand six hundred and sixty, a large popula 
 tion for such a territory (being above seven hundred to the square mile), even 
 if we take into account that it contained a populous city. At the present day, 
 Attica is one of the eparchies of the actual kingdom of Greece. It contains one 
 city, Athens, and above one hundred villages. The population is not known. 
 
 (C.) SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF ATTICA. 
 
 I. IF we want any proof as to the remote antiquity of political communities 
 in Attica, and its occupation at some time by a people not of the same Greek 
 stock as those of the age of Pericles, we may find it in the names of mountains, 
 streams, and places. The names of mountains and rivers are in all countries 
 the most permanent memorials of a nation s existence. Many Attic names can 
 be explained from the Greek language as known to us, and others can be traced 
 to personal names which belong to the circle of the Greek mythi. But there 
 still remain many which we can only explain by a comparison of Greek words 
 with those of kindred languages, or which we can not explain at all : such are 
 Ceph-isus, Il-issus, Hym-ettus, Bril-essus or Bril-cttus, Garg-ettus, Parn-es (com 
 pare Parn-assus), Braur-on, Marath-on, Sun-ium, &c. 
 
 II. Another proof of the remote antiquity of settlements in Attica is found in 
 the numerous political divisions, of which traces remained in the historical pe 
 riod. The oldest political division of Attica known by tradition was that by 
 Cecrops into twelve parts, the names of which, with a few exceptions, belong 
 to that class of words which the Greek language can not explain. Another di 
 vision into four parts, among the four sons of Pandion, has a distinct reference 
 to the physical divisions of the Attic peninsula, including in this term Megaris, 
 
GR^ECIA. 545 
 
 which afterward fell into the hands of the Dorians. That there is an historical 
 fact contained in the division of the peninsula among the four sons of Pandion 
 appears from there being three great natural divisions of Attica after the sepa 
 ration of Megaris, which three divisions formed the ground- work of the three 
 political parties in the time of Pisistratus. These parties were the Diacrii or 
 Hyperacrii, the inhabitants of the mountainous northeast region and the range 
 of Parnes ; the Men of the Plain (under which name the plain of Athens, and 
 probably the Eleusinian also, are included), and the Parali, or inhabitants of 
 the Paralia (sea-coast), to which we have already referred. 
 
 III. A division into four tribes (<p/la/), and also a division into four castes, is 
 attributed to Ion. This division into four tribes remained until the time of Clis- 
 thenes, who increased the number to ten. These ten were called Hippothoontis, 
 Antiochis, Cecropis, Erechtheis, Pandionis, Leontis, Mgeis, Acamantis, (Eneis, and 
 Mantis. The ten tribes were subdivided into one hundred and seventy-four 
 demi (drj^ot} or townships, each demos apparently containing a town or small 
 village. Under Macedonian influence two tribes were added, Antigoma and 
 Demetrias, but these were afterward changed to Ptolemais and Attalis. A new 
 tribe was added in honor of Hadrian. 
 
 IV. The first period of Athenian history, ending with the war of Troy, is of 
 a mythical character. Actseus was the first king of Attica. Cecrops, accord 
 ing to one fable, was a native of Attica, who married the daughter of Actaeus, 
 and succeeded to the monarchy ; according to another fable, he was an Egyp 
 tian, who brought from Egypt the arts of social life, and laid the foundation of 
 the religious and political system of the Athenians. Of the successors of Ce 
 crops, Erechtheus the first, otherwise called Erichthonius, was of divine or un 
 known descent. A second Erechtheus fought with the Eumolpidae of Eleusis, 
 and lost his life. ^Egeus, the son of the second Pandion, in the course of time 
 came to the throne ; and his son Theseus, as he was the last, so he was the 
 greatest of the Athenian heroes. As the reputed founder of the Athenian polity, 
 who united into one confederation the twelve hitherto independent states or 
 cities of Attica, established by Cecrops, he appears to be invested with the char 
 acter of an historical personage. 
 
 V. If we endeavor to trace the history of the Athenian people, we find the 
 obscurity of their origin expressed by the statement that they were Autochtho 
 nes, sprung from the earth, or a people coeval with the land which they inhab 
 ited. Herodotus says that the Athenians were originally Pelasgi, and that they 
 became changed into Hellenes, or Greeks. Such a change implies the conquest 
 of the country by one race, while it was already in possession of another ; it 
 implies, also, either the amalgamation of the conquered and the conquering races, 
 or the extinction of those who were compelled to yield. The former is sup 
 ported by more probabilities. Xuthus, the son of Hellen, married a daughter 
 of the second Erechtheus, and became the father of Achaeus and Ion ; and thus 
 the name Ionian became attached to the Attic soil. We have the historical 
 fact that the names of the four tribes which existed till the time of Clisthenes 
 were supposed to be derived from the names of the four sons of Ion. 
 
 VI. The line of Athenian kings, whatever may have been its historical com 
 mencement, terminated with Codrus, when the office of king ceased at Athens, 
 and the supreme executive power was vested in an archon or governor, whose 
 office, from being at first hereditary and for life, was by degrees changed into 
 a decennial, and finally into an annual office. When the last change took place, 
 a further alteration was made by distributing the duties of the archon among 
 nine magistrates instead of giving them all to one. From the death of Codrus 
 
 MM 
 
546 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 to the legislation of Solon, Athenian history presents but few and doubtful facts ; 
 and though the personality of Solon, and his framing of a code, can not be mat 
 ters of doubt, yet the events of his life belong to that epoch where the records 
 of history are still obscure and disputed. With the legislation of Solon (B.C. 
 594) Athenian history begins to assume a more definite form, and the same 
 epoch marks the historical commencement of that series of events which brought 
 the inhabitants of the countries east of the Tigris into connection with the south 
 of Europe. 
 
 VII. The history of Athens now becomes more or less intimately connected 
 with that of Greece in general, of which we have elsewhere given a rapid sketch 
 (page 468, seqq.). Its political history during and after the age of Alexander 
 is of little importance. The city was often involved in the revolutions and 
 movements of the Macedonian kingdom ; but, on the whole, it enjoyed internal 
 tranquillity to the time of the Roman occupation of Greece, which it owed chiefly 
 to the control exercised by the various rulers of Macedonia. Soon after the 
 death of Alexander the Lamian war broke out, in which the city showed almost 
 the last feeble spark of that military spirit, which once led it to triumph over 
 the armies of the East. The result of the campaign was the occupation of Mu- 
 nychia by a Macedonian garrison (B.C. 322) ; and the death of Phocion, which 
 took place soon after, left Athens without a representative of her ancient states 
 men. 
 
 VIII. Cassander, having got possession of Athens (B.C. 317), appointed De 
 metrius of Phalemm, supported by a Macedonian garrison, the governor of the 
 city. During ten years Demetrius secured to Athens, if not prosperity, at least 
 repose. During the subsequent wars between the last Philip of Macedon and 
 the Romans, the Athenians, together with Attains, king of Pergamus, took the 
 part of the foreign invaders. Athens, though weak in the field, was still strong 
 within her walls ; the Macedonian king attacked both the Piraeus and the city 
 before the Romans could come to their assistance ; but, failing in his object, he 
 turned his vengeance against the suburbs, and the numerous beautiful temples 
 which adorned the Attic plain. There can be no doubt that the invasion of 
 Philip was most destructive to the monuments of Attica, though Eleusis and 
 Athens itself escaped. 
 
 IX. The next great calamity of Athens was its capture by the Romans under 
 Sylla (B.C. 86). This was the first time that the fortifications of Athens had 
 been forced by an enemy. Sylla demolished the walls of the Piraeus, together 
 with the great arsenal of Philo, and from this time the commerce of Athens was 
 annihilated. Under Roman government, Athens, though she had lost her po 
 litical power and her commerce, was still the centre of the arts and of philos 
 ophy, and a favorite residence of the wealthy Romans. From the time of Ju 
 lius Caesar to that of Hadrian, it was occasionally honored by the visits of the 
 masters of the Roman world, and to them it owed much of that splendor which 
 Pausanias admired in the second century of our era. The gradual decay of its 
 buildings has been attributed, with good reason, partly to the decline of paganism, 
 and to the slow though gradual progress of the new faith. 
 
 (D.) PLACES, &c., IN ATTICA. 
 
 Athence, now Athens ( A^va^), the capital of Attica, situ 
 ated about five miles from the coast, and occupying part of the 
 central plain of Attica, together with some heights, which run 
 down into the plain. Of these eminences the most conspicuous 
 
GRJSCIA. 547 
 
 are Mount Lycabettus, with its peaked summit, on the north 
 west of the city ; erroneously called Anchesmus by Leake ; the 
 Acropolis, or citadel ; the Areopagus, opposite to the west end 
 of the Acropolis ; and the hill of the Museum, the highest em 
 inence on the south. On the east of the city, the little river 
 Ilissus ran in a southwest direction, separating the heights of 
 Athens on the west from the higher and more continuous range 
 of Hymettus on the east. This little river, which, in its natural 
 state, may have reached the marshy lands near the coast, is 
 now reduced by the heats of summer, and the channels for ar 
 tificial irrigation, to an inconsiderable stream. Another river, 
 the CephisuSj ran due south, past the western side of the city, 
 at the distance of about a mile and a half from the walls. 
 This is also nearly exhausted at present by the cuts for irriga 
 tion before it reaches the neighborhood of the Piraeus. Athens 
 had three harbors, Pirceus (the largest), Munychia, and Phale- 
 vum, and it was connected with these by Long Walls, as they 
 were called (Maupa Tei%rj), which abutted on the city, respect 
 ively, at the hill of the Museum and the Gate of the Piraeus. 
 A more particular account of these walls will be given further 
 on. The whole circuit of the city proper was about forty three 
 stadia, or a little over five English miles. That of Athens, with 
 its three harbors, however, was, according to Thucydides, in 
 B.C. 431, not less than one hundred and seventy-four stadia, 
 or about nineteen or twenty miles. The population in the time 
 of Xenophon appears to have been one hundred and twenty 
 thousand for the city proper. 
 
 TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 
 
 WE have little or no information respecting the size of Athens under its 
 earliest kings. It is generally supposed, however, that, even as late as the time 
 of Theseus, the town was almost entirely confined to the Acropolis and the ad 
 joining hill of Mars. Subsequently to the Trojan war it appears to have in 
 creased considerably both in population and extent, since Homer applies to it 
 the epithets of t>/m j uex>of and evpvdyvioc. These improvements continued prob 
 ably during the reign of Pisistratus, and, as it was able to stand a siege against 
 the Lacedaemonians under his son Hippias, it must evidently have possessed 
 walls and fortifications of sufficient height and strength to insure its safety. 
 
 The invasion of Xerxes, and the subsequent irruption of Mardonius, effected 
 the entire destruction of the ancient city, and reduced it to a heap of ruins ; with 
 the exception only of such temples and buildings as were enabled, from the so 
 lidity of their materials, to resist the action of fire and the work of demolition. 
 When, however, the battles of Salamis, Plataea, and Mycale had averted all 
 danger of invasion, Athens, restored to peace and security, soon rose from its 
 
548 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 state of ruin and desolation. And having been furnished, by the prudent fore 
 sight and energetic conduct of Themistocles, with the military works requisite 
 for its defence, it attained, under the subsequent administrations of Cimon and 
 Pericles, to the highest pitch of beauty, magnificence, and strength. It was in 
 the time of Pericles that Athens attained the summit of its beauty and pros 
 perity, both with respect to the power of the republic, and the extent and mag 
 nificence of the architectural decorations with which the capital was adorned. 
 We will now proceed to mention some of the structures and places in ancient 
 Athens worthy of more particular notice. 
 
 1 . Pompeum, near the Pirseic gate, and so called from its containing the sa 
 cred vessels (Tro/wem) used in certain processions. In it were also a statue of 
 Socrates by Lysippus, and several paintings. 2. The Ceramicus, one of the 
 most considerable and important parts of the city, and so called, most probably, 
 from some potteries anciently situated there. It was divided into the Outer and 
 Inner Ceramicus. The former was without the walls, and contained the tombs 
 of those who had fallen in battle and were buried at the public expense. The 
 communication from the one Ceramicus to the other was by the gate Dipylum. 
 3. The Agora. There were two Agora, the Old and the New. The Old Agora 
 formed part of the Ceramicus. The New was in a quarter of the city which 
 had previously belonged to the demus of Eretria. The change was made from 
 the Old to the New Agora after the former had been defiled with massacre by 
 Sylla. 4. Stoa Basileios, or Royal Portico, so called because the archon ba- 
 sileus, or king archon, held his court here. Its roof was adorned with statues 
 of baked clay. This structure was in the Ceramicus. 5. Metroum, also in the 
 Ceramicus. It was a temple consecrated to the mother of the gods, whose 
 statue was the work of Phidias. Here the archives of the state were deposited, 
 and it served also as a tribunal for the archon eponymus, or chief archon. 
 6. Bouleuterium (Bovfovrripiov ), or Senate-house, adjacent to the Metroum. 
 Here the Senate of Five Hundred, who formed the annual council of the state, 
 had their meetings. It contained statues of Jupiter the counsellor, of Apollo, 
 and the Athenian Demos. 7. Tholus, a building close to the preceding, and 
 where the Prytanes held their feasts and sacrifices. It was also called Scias. 
 8. Poecile Stoa (UoLnilrj 2roa), so called from the celebrated paintings which it 
 contained. Its more ancient name is said to have been Peisianactius. The 
 pictures were by Polygnotus, Micon, and Pamphilus, the most famous among 
 the Grecian painters, and represented the battle of Theseus against the Am 
 azons, and that of Marathon, as well as other achievements of the Athenians. 
 It was in this portico that Zeno first opened his school, which from this place 
 derived its name of Stoic, or the school of the Porch. Leake supposes that some 
 walls which are still to be seen at the church of Panaghia Fanaromeni are the 
 remains of this celebrated structure. 
 
 9. Macro, Stoa, a range of porticoes extending from the vicinity of the Stoa 
 Basileios to the Poecile. Behind it rose the hill of Colonus Agoraus, where 
 Meton erected a table for astronomical purposes. 10. Thcseum, the celebrated 
 temple of Theseus, erected to that hero after the battle of Marathon, when Ci 
 mon was sent to the island of Scyros to convey his remains thence to Athens. 
 It stood north of the Macra Stoa. This great edifice, which was held by the 
 Athenians in the highest veneration, and possessed an inviolable sanctuary, was 
 built about 465 B.C., under the direction of Cimon. Its precincts were so ex 
 tensive as to contain on certain occasions a large military assembly. In the 
 interior it was decorated with pictures representing the achievements of The 
 seus, his battle with the Amazons, and the fight of the Centaurs and Lapithee. 
 
GR^CIA. 549 
 
 It was built of Pentelic marble, and is still one of the best-preserved public build 
 ings of Athens. It stands upon an artificial foundation formed of large quad 
 rangular blocks of limestone. 
 
 11. Hadriani Stoa, or Portico of Hadrian, one of the monuments with which 
 that emperor embellished Athens. It stood east of the Theseum. 12. Horolo- 
 gium Andronlci Cyrrhestce, or the Water Clock of Andronicus Cyrrhestes, called 
 likewise the "Tower of the Winds." It was an octagonal structure, erected 
 to indicate, by means of dials on its walls, the hour of the day when the weather 
 was clear, and by means of water when it was cloudy. It also denoted the 
 quarter whence the wind blew. The water clock was supplied with water by 
 an aqueduct from the spring under the cave of Pan, on the northwest corner of 
 the Acropolis. The figures of the eight winds were cut in relief on the exterior 
 wall of the building, with their names above them on the frieze. On the top of 
 the tower was a Triton of bronze, which moved round with the wind, and indi 
 cated by a rod the quarter whence it blew. Beneath the figures of the winds 
 were traced solar dials. The structure still remains, and the celebrated De- 
 lambre bears testimony to the correctness of the dials, which he describes as 
 the most curious existing monument of the practical gnomonics of antiquity. 
 Stuart found traces of the Clepsydra or water clock carefully channeled in the 
 original floor. 
 
 13. Hadriani Arcus, or the Arch of Hadrian, which formed an entrance to the 
 southeastern quarter of the city. It stood near the peribolus of the Olympeum. 
 The structure was of Pentelic marble, and consisted of a circular arch with Co 
 rinthian columns. Remains of it still exist, and an inscription shows that the 
 emperor gave his name to the part of the city between this edifice and the Ilis- 
 sus, this quarter being called Hadrianopolis. 14. Olympeum, one of the most 
 ancient and magnificent of the sacred edifices of Athens. It was a temple of 
 Jupiter Olympius, begun by Pisistratus, B.C. 530, and completed by Hadrian, 
 A.D. 145. The building of this temple went along with the course of the na 
 tional existence of Athens. Athens ceased to be independent before the struc 
 ture was completed. Sixteen columns of Pentelic marble, sixty feet high, and 
 above six and a half in diameter, are all that now remain of the one hundred 
 and twenty-eight which once adorned this magnificent building. The whole 
 length of the structure was three hundred and fifty-four feet, and the breadth 
 one hundred and seventy-one feet. The fountain called Callirrhoe, or Ennea- 
 crunus (the nine springs), the only source of fresh water in the neighborhood, 
 was a short distance from the southeast angle of the great temple. 
 
 15. Via Tripodum, or the " Street of the Tripods," so called from its being 
 lined with small temples where prize tripods were usually deposited. Of this 
 description was the beautiful little choragic monument of Lysicrates, erected 
 about 334 B.C., and vulgarly called the Lantern of Demosthenes. This still 
 remains, and stands between the southeast angle of the Acropolis and the Olym 
 peum. 16. Lenaum, a temple of Bacchus, a most ancient sanctuary, and prob 
 ably the same to which Thucydides alludes as the temple of that god in Limnis 
 (kv Aifj-vaitf. It stood in a southwestern direction from the monument of Lys 
 icrates. 17. Bacchi Theatrum, or Theatre of Bacchus, called also the Temple 
 of Bacchus, to the north of the preceding, and near the southeast angle of the 
 Acropolis. In this theatre, which, according to Dicaearchus, was the most beau 
 tiful in existence, the dramatic contests were decided, and dramatic exhibitions 
 held. From Plato we may collect that it was capable of containing thirty thou 
 sand spectators. From the level of the plain a semicircular excavation gradu 
 ally ascended up the slope of the hill to a considerable height, while the part 
 
550 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 which projected into the plain was formed of masonry. Round the concavity 
 were the seats for the audience, rising range above range ; and the whole was 
 topped and inclosed by a lofty portico, adorned with statues, and surrounded by 
 a balustraded terrace. 
 
 18. Odeum Periclis, not far from the preceding. It was a musical theatre, 
 said to have been constructed in imitation of the tent of Xerxes. Plutarch in 
 forms us that it was richly decorated with columns, and that the roof terminated 
 in a point. It was set on fire by Aristion, general of Mithradates, who defended 
 Athens against Sylla ; but it was afterward restored at the expense of Ariobar- 
 zanes, king of Cappadocia. 19. Odeum Regilla, another musical theatre, on the 
 southwest side of the Acropolis. It was erected by Herodes Attieus, and named 
 after his deceased wife Regilla. This Odeum was built in the second century 
 of our era, and was the finest building of the kind in Greece. 
 
 20. Acropolis. The Cecropian citadel, or old Cecropian fortress, which forms 
 so conspicuous a feature in the topography of Athens. It was situated on an 
 elevated rock, rising abruptly from the plain, and precipitous on every side ex 
 cept at the western end, where it was alone accessible. Here stood the mag 
 nificent Propylaa, of Pentelic marble, which served both as an approach and a 
 military defence to the citadel. It consisted of a great vestibule, with a front 
 of six Doric columns ; behind which was another^ supported by as many pillars 
 of the Ionic order. These formed the approach to the five gates, or entrances 
 to the citadel. On each side were two wings, projecting from the great central 
 colonnade, and presenting a wall simply adorned with a frieze of triglyphs. 
 This great structure is said to have been five years in progress, and to have 
 cost two thousand talents. It was much injured in 1656 by an explosion of gun 
 powder. Some portions, however, still remain. The government has lately 
 cleared the whole of the beautiful entrance, and again opened the five ancient 
 doorways which gave admission into the Acropolis. 
 
 21. Parthenon, or Temple of Minerva, the virgin goddess (Trapf^vof), and sit 
 uate on the highest level of the Acropolis. It was built of Pentelic marble, and 
 occupied apparently the site of an older temple called Hecatompedon, also ded 
 icated to Minerva, and which had been destroyed in the Persian invasion. The 
 Parthenon was built during the administration of Pericles (about B.C. 450-440). 
 The architect-was Ictinus. The statue of the goddess, according to Pliny, was 
 twenty-six cubits high, and was of ivory and gold. It was the work of Phidias. 
 This temple, after having been beautified and repaired by the Emperor Hadrian, 
 continued from his days almost entire, until 1687, when the roof was destroyed 
 by a bomb fired from the Venetian army under Morosini, which fell upon a part 
 of the structure that had been converted into a powder magazine. The columns 
 suffered much damage also in the late war. The remnant of the sculptures 
 which decorated the pediments, with many of the metopes and a large part of 
 the frieze, are now in the Elgin collection of the British Museum. 
 
 22. Erechtheum, a beautiful Ionic temple, dedicated to Erechtheus, and situate 
 on the western side of the Acropolis. Adjoining it was the temple of Minerva 
 Polias, the tutelary deity of the city, whose statue is said to have been a common 
 offering of the demi before they were collected into one metropolis by Theseus. 
 The lamp which was suspended in the sanctuary was never suffered to be ex 
 tinguished. Another part of this compound building was the Pandroseum, or 
 chapel sacred to Pandrosus, one of the daughters of Cecrops. The Erechtheum 
 contained the olive-tree produced by Minerva in her contest with Neptune, as 
 also the well of salt water created by the latter. Not far from the Erechtheum 
 was the bronze colossal statue of Minerva Promachus, or the Defender, the work 
 
GR.ECIA. 551 
 
 of Phidias. The spear and helmet of this colossal figure were visible, towering 
 above the Acropolis, to those who approached Athens by sea, as soon as they 
 had rounded Cape Sunium. The whole of the Acropolis was surrounded by 
 walls raised on the natural rock. The most ancient part of these fortifications 
 was constructed by the Pelasgi, and is often mentioned under the name of Pe~ 
 lasgicum, an appellation including also a portion of ground below the wall at the 
 foot of the rocks of the Acropolis. The wall termed Pelasgicum was apparently 
 on the northern side of the citadel. 
 
 23. Areopagus, or Hill of Mars, a little distance to the northwest of the Acrop 
 olis. It received its name from Mars having been, as was said, the first per 
 son tried there, for the murder of Halirrhothius, the son of Neptune. The cel 
 ebrated court which was here held sat in an open space, in which was an altar 
 dedicated to Minerva Areia, and two rude seats of stone for the defendant and 
 his accuser. From Vitruvius we learn, that at a later period this space was in 
 closed, and roofed with tiles. 24. Pnyx, in the days of Athenian greatness, the 
 usual place of assembly for the people, especially during elections. It appears 
 to have been situated on a rising ground to the southwest of the Areopagus, and 
 in a line with the Propylaea of the Acropolis, which faced it to the east. It was 
 also close to the city wall. The celebrated Bema, from which the orators ad 
 dressed the people, was a simple pulpit of stone, which at first looked to the 
 sea, but in the time of the thirty tyrants it was turned toward the interior of the 
 country. 25. Museum, another elevation in the same vicinity, to the south 
 west of the Acropolis, and so called from the poet Musaeus, who was buried 
 there. At a later period, a monument was erected here by Philopappus, a de 
 scendant of the kings of Commagene, and who, having been consul under Tra 
 jan, retired to Athens, as we learn from the inscription on the structure. 
 
 26. Melite, a demus south of the Acropolis, and both populous and well fre 
 quented. 27. Colyttus, another demus, lying to the northeast of the Acropolis. 
 The children of this quarter were remarkable for being very precocious in their 
 speech. 28. Eleusmium, on an island formed by the Ilissus, to the southeast 
 of the Acropolis. It was a temple of Ceres and Proserpina, set apart for the 
 celebration of the lesser Eleusinian mysteries. 29. Stadium Panathenaicum, 
 northeast of the preceding, and on the left bank of the Ilissus. It was erected 
 for the celebration of the games during the Panathenaic festival by Lycurgus, 
 the son of Lycophron, as we find in Plutarch s life of that orator. Pausanias 
 describes it as an astonishing structure rising in the shape of an amphitheatre 
 above the Ilissus, and extending to the banks of that river. The area of this 
 building still remains entire, together with other vestiges. 30. Lyceum, a sa 
 cred inclosure dedicated to Apollo, where the polemarch formerly kept his court. 
 It lay above the preceding to the northeast, and was decorated with fountains, 
 plantations, and buildings, and became the usual place of exercise for the Athe 
 nian youths who devoted themselves to military pursuits. Nor was it less fre 
 quented by philosophers and those addicted to retirement and study. We know 
 that it was more especially the favorite walk of Aristotle and his followers. 
 31. Cynosarges, a spot consecrated to Hercules, and possessing a gymnasium 
 and groves frequented by philosophers. It is supposed to have been situate at 
 the foot of Mount Anchesmus. Here was the school of the Cynics. 32. Aca- 
 demia, situate in the outer Ceramicus, and about six stadia from the gate Di- 
 pylum. It was originally a deserted and unhealthy spot. But Hipparchus sur 
 rounded it with a wall, and it was afterward adorned with groves, walks, and 
 fountains by Cimon. Here Plato possessed a small house and garden, and 
 from this place his school derived its name of the Academy. Sylla, during the 
 
552 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 siege of Athens, is said to liave cut down the groves of this celebrated spot. 
 A little to the northwest of the Academy was the demus of Colonus, named 
 Hippeios, from the altar erected there to the equestrian Neptune, and rendered 
 so celebrated by the play of Sophocles as the scene of the last adventures of 
 CEdipus. 
 
 33. Longi Muri (Ma/cpa TEL^, the celebrated walls which connected Athens 
 with its several ports. They were first planned by Themistocles after the term 
 ination of the Persian war ; but he did not terminate this great undertaking, 
 which was completed by Cimon and Pericles. One of these walls was called 
 the Pirai c, and sometimes the Northern Wall, and was forty stadia in length. 
 The other was called the Phaleric or Southern Wall, and was thirty-five stadia. 
 The height of these walls was forty cubits, and they were broad enough for two 
 wagons to pass. In the Peloponnesian war, we learn from Thucydides that 
 the exterior or Piraic wall alone was guarded, as that was the only direction 
 in which the enemy could advance, there being no passage to the south and east 
 of Athens except through a difficult pass between the city and Mount Hymet- 
 tus, or by making the circuit of that mountain, which would have been a haz 
 ardous undertaking. The long walls remained entire about fifty- four years after 
 their completion, till the capture of Athens by the Peloponnesian forces, eleven 
 years after which Conon rebuilt them, with the assistance of Pharnabazus. In 
 the siege of Athens by Sylla, they were again broken down and almost entirely 
 destroyed. Some vestiges of this great work still remain. 
 
 Maritime Athens may be considered as divided into the three 
 quarters of Piraeus, Munychia, and Phalerum, which formed 
 the three ports of Athens, going from west to east. We shall 
 now consider these in order. 1. Piraeus was the great dock 
 yard of the Athenians, and the chief harbor for the vessels en 
 gaged in the corn and other foreign trade. It contained large 
 warehouses, public arsenals, the armory of Philo, several tem 
 ples, a theatre, of which some traces remain, a long portico or 
 arcade ([laupa orod) analogous to the bazars of the eastern cities, 
 and other buildings. The port was subdivided into three lesser 
 havens, named Cantharus, Aphrodisium, and Zea. The first 
 was appropriated to dock-yards, and was probably the inner 
 most of the three. The second was the middle or great harbor ; 
 while the outermost was Zea, so called from the grain imported 
 from the Hellespont and other parts, and deposited in store 
 houses erected there for that purpose. The Piraeus was thickly 
 inhabited. The modern name is Porto Drako, or Leone, de 
 rived from a colossal figure of a lion in white marble, which 
 once stood upon the beach, but was removed by the Venetians 
 in 1687. 2. Munychia, now Stratiotiki, is described by Strabo 
 as a peninsular hill, connected with the continent by a narrow 
 neck of land. When inclosed by fortified lines, Munychia be 
 came a most important station, 3. Phalerum^ now Port Pha~ 
 
GR2ECIA. 553 
 
 ij was the most ancient of the Athenian ports, but after the 
 erection of the docks in the Pirseus it ceased to be of any im 
 portance in a maritime point of view. It was, however, in 
 closed within the fortifications of Themistocles, and gave name 
 to the southernmost of the long walls. 
 
 Having now terminated the description of Athens, with its 
 suburbs and dependencies, we will proceed to give some ac 
 count of the coast of Attica from the Pirseus as far as the Me- 
 garian frontier. Leaving Eetionea, we come to, 1. The little 
 islands of Psyttalea and Atalante. The former is celebrated 
 in history for the destruction of a corps of Persians by the 
 Greeks, under the command of Aristides, during the battle of 
 Salamis. It is now called Lipsocoutalia. Atalante bears the 
 name of Talantous. In the same vicinity was Cynosura, a 
 promontory mentioned by the oracle delivered to the Athenians 
 prior to the battle of Salamis. 2. Above this part of the coast 
 rises Mount Corydalhis, now Daphni Bourn, said to have been 
 the haunt of the robber Procrustes. 3. Amphidle Promonto- 
 rium, near which were some stone quarries noticed by Strabo. 
 4. At a little distance from the shore are two islets, named 
 Pharmacusce, in the largest of which Circe was said to have 
 been interred. 5. Above this coast rises Mount JBgaleus, 
 from the summit of which Xerxes beheld the action of Salamis. 
 The modern name is Skaramanga. Following the coast we 
 come next to the Thriasicm plain, taking its name from the 
 demus of Thria, and celebrated for its fertility, which Aristotle 
 ascribes to the south wind that blew from the sea. 
 
 7. Eleusis, near the mouth of the Eleusinian Cephisus, so 
 called to distinguish it from the other Cephisus which flowed 
 near Athens. It was a very ancient city, and was said to have 
 existed already in the time of Cecrops. In very early times 
 it appears to have been an independent state of some import 
 ance, and to have carried on a war with Athens, by the result 
 of which it became subject to that city. Eleusis owed its ce 
 lebrity in the historical age to its being the principal seat of 
 the worship of Ceres, and here were celebrated the famous 
 mysteries in honor of that goddess and her daughter Proserpina, 
 which it was death to divulge. These mysteries were abolished 
 by the Emperor Theodosius. The temple of the Eleusinian 
 Ceres was a magnificent structure, and the mystic cell in which 
 
554 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 the celebration took place was capable of containing as many 
 persons as a theatre. Within the temple was a colossal statue 
 of Ceres, the bust of which was brought to England in 1802 
 by Dr. Clarke, and is now in the vestibule of the public library 
 at Cambridge. The temple was entirely destroyed by Alaric, 
 A.D. 396, and has ever since remained in ruins. A modern 
 village, on the site of the ancient city, is called Lefsina. The 
 Rarian plain, near Eleusis, was celebrated as the one in which 
 Ceres was said to have first sown corn. It was famed for its 
 fertility, and is even now remarkably productive. 
 
 Opposite the Eleusinian coast was the island of Salamis, anciently called also 
 Sciras and Cychrea, from the heroes Scirus and Cychreus, and Pityussa, from 
 its abounding in firs. It was celebrated from the earliest period of Grecian his 
 tory for the colony of the JEacidae, who settled there before the siege of Troy. 
 The possession of this island was once obstinately contested by the Athenians 
 and Megarians. It fell, at length, in the time of Solon, into the hands of the 
 former people, and continued after this always subject to them. On the in 
 vasion of Xerxes, the Athenians removed hither with their families, and in the 
 strait between this island and the main land was fought the famous naval battle 
 in which the Persians were completely defeated. A trophy was erected on the 
 island, opposite to Cynosura, where the strait is narrowest. Strabo informs 
 us that this island contained two cities, namely, Old and New Salamis. The 
 former was situate on the southern side, and opposite to ^Egina, and was de 
 serted in his time. The latter was on a bay, formed by a neck of land which 
 advanced toward Attica. Salamis is now, or was very recently, called Colouri ; 
 the modern name of the city is Ambelakia. 
 
 Returning to the Piraeus, we will now describe the coast of 
 Attica below this port. 1. Colias Promontorium, celebrated 
 for its earthenware. Here was a temple consecrated to Venus 
 Colias, and the goddess named Genetyllis. This promontory 
 is now commonly called Trispyrgoi. 2. Mxone, lower down, 
 whose inhabitants were so addicted to slander and calumny that 
 ai&v&vg became a term for "a slanderer." The site is still 
 called Axaona. 3. Passing by the small island Hydrusa, now 
 Cambonisi, and the Zoster Promontorium, which has already 
 been referred to (page 485), we come to Thorse, near the modern 
 village of Ban, off which lies the island Phaura, now Phlega. 
 4. Anaphlystus, lower down, a town of some note, with a har 
 bor and fortifications. Its site is marked by the modern village 
 of Anaphiso. The Astypalea Promontorium is now Cape Ana- 
 phiso, forming one of the sides of the harbor of the same name. 
 Opposite is the island of Eleusa, now Elissa. 
 
 5. Laurium, celebrated for its silver mines, was a range of 
 
GR^ECIA. 555 
 
 hills extending from that part of the Attic coast which we have 
 now reached to the promontory of Sunium, and thence to Prasiae, 
 on the eastern coast. In Strabo s time, the metallic veins were 
 nearly exhausted. A full account of these mines is given by 
 Boeckh, in the Memoirs of the Berlin Academy (1814-1815, 
 p. 89, seqq.}. 6. The Promontory of Sunium has already been 
 mentioned (p. 485). Near it stood a town of the same name, 
 with a harbor. Off the coast in this quarter, and a little to the 
 west, is an insular rock, called the island of Patroclus anciently, 
 and now Gaidaro-Nesi, or " Ass s Island." At some distance 
 to the south of this is the island of Belbina, now S. Giorgio 
 d* Arbor a. 
 
 7. Panormusj the first harbor on the eastern coast after 
 doubling Sunium. 8. Thoricus, to the north, now Thoriko. 
 It was fortified by the Athenians toward the close of the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war. Opposite Thoricus, and extending down to 
 Sunium, was a deserted and rugged island named Helena, and 
 which Strabo makes the Cranae of Homer. Pliny calls it 
 Maoris. The modern name is Macronisi, or "Long Island." 
 9. Prasice, to the north, now Port Raphti. The Hyperborean 
 offerings were brought to this place, where there was a temple 
 of Apollo, and conveyed hence to Delos. 10. Brauron, cele 
 brated in mythology as the spot where Iphigenia first landed 
 after her escape from Tauris with the statue of Diana. From 
 this circumstance the goddess was here held in peculiar vener 
 ation under the title of Brauronea. The statue of the goddess 
 was carried oft by Xerxes. The ruins of Brauron are near the 
 spot now called Palaio Braona. 
 
 11. Passing Cynosura Promontorium, now Cape Cavala, 
 we come to Myrrhmus, so called from the numerous myrtles 
 which grew there. 12. Marathon, to the northeast, memorable 
 for the victory which the Athenians under Miltiades gained in 
 the adjacent plain over the Persian forces, B.C. 490. The plain 
 is about five miles in length and two in breadth. Marathon is 
 about three miles from the sea. According to Dodwell, it is 
 eighteen miles in a direct line from Athens to the village of 
 Marathon, which still preserves its ancient name. The plain 
 of Marathon was watered by a small stream, called Asopus by 
 Ptolemy, which forms marshes near the sea, in which, accord- 
 ing to Pausanias, a great many of the Persians perished. The 
 
556 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Athenians who fell in the battle were buried in the plain ; and 
 also, but apart from the Athenians, the Platseans, Boeotians, 
 and slaves. A large tumulus of earth still rises from the centre 
 of the plain ; and near the sea there are two others, much lower 
 than the former. 
 
 13. Rhamnus, on the coast, and sixty stadia to the north of 
 Marathon. It was so named from the plant rhamnus, which 
 grew there in abundance. The goddess Nemesis was particu 
 larly worshipped here, and is hence called by some of the Latin 
 poets " Rhamnusia Virgo^ The temple of the goddess con 
 tained a statue of her, said to be one of the finest works of 
 Phidias. It was of colossal size, and Parian marble. The site 
 of this town now bears the name of Vrceo Castro. 
 
 Returning to the interior, we come to Mount Hymettus, to 
 the southeast of Athens. This celebrated mountain forms the 
 southern portion of the considerable chain, which, under the 
 several names of Parnes, Pentelicus, and Brilessus, traverses 
 nearly the whole of Attica from northeast to southwest. It 
 was divided into summits, one of which was Hymettus properly 
 so called ; the other, Anhydros, or the dry Hymettus. The 
 former is now Trelovouni ; the latter, Lamprovouni. Hymet 
 tus was famous for its fragrant flowers and excellent honey. 
 It produced also marbles much esteemed by the Romans. The 
 honey of Hymettus is still held in high estimation. 
 
 To the north of Hymettus was Alopece, not far from Cynosarges, and con 
 sequently close to Athens. It was the demus of Aristides and Socrates. To 
 the northeast of Hymettus was Gargettus, the birth-place of Epicurus, supposed 
 to correspond to the modern Krabato. Above Gargettus was Mount Pentclicus, 
 celebrated in antiquity for its beautiful marble. The modern name is Penteli. 
 It surpasses in elevation the chain of Hymettus, with which it is connected. 
 To the north was a range of hills called Mount Brilessus, and now Turkovouni. 
 A little distance to the southwest of Hymettus was the dem us of Acharna, the 
 most considerable of the Attic boroughs, and which furnished alone three thou 
 sand heavy-armed men for the service of the state. This circumstance induced 
 the Lacedaemonians to ravage the territory of Acharnss, with a view of provoking 
 the Athenian troops to quit the walls of their city and hazard an engagement. 
 Aristophanes, in the play which takes its title from this demus, represents the 
 Acharnians as charcoal burners. Other comic writers stigmatized them as 
 rough and boorish. The ruins of the town of Acharnse are near the modern 
 Menidi. 
 
 To the north of Acharnae was the demus and fortress of Decelea, about one 
 hundred and twenty-five stadia from Athens, and the same distance from the 
 Boeotian frontier. This town was always considered of great importance, from 
 its situation on the road to Eubcea, whence the Athenians derived most of their 
 
GR^ECIA. 557 
 
 supplies. When, therefore, by the advice of Alcibiades, it was occupied and 
 garrisoned by a Lacedaemonian force, the Athenians became exposed to great 
 loss and inconvenience. Thucydides reports that Decelea was visible from 
 Athens. Gell describes it as situate on a round, detached hill, connected by a 
 sort of isthmus with Mount Parnes. This last-mentioned mountain, to the north 
 of Decelea, was famous for its wines. Its prolongation formed part of the north 
 ern frontier. The modern name is Nozea. To the southwest was the fortress 
 Phyk, a place celebrated in the history of Athens as the stronghold of Thrasy- 
 bulus and his little band of patriots, before they moved downward to the vicinity 
 of Athens, and succeeded in freeing their native country from the yoke of the 
 thirty tyrants. It is now Bigla Castro, according to Gell, who says it is situated 
 on a lofty precipice, and, though small, must have been almost impregnable, as 
 it can only be approached by an isthmus on the east. Dodwell, however, makes 
 the modern name Argiro Castro. The town of Phyle was at the foot of the 
 fortress. 
 
 More to the west, and on the road from Eleusis to Platsese, 
 was the city of Eleutherce, which appears to have once belonged 
 to Bceotia, but finally became included within the limits of 
 Attica. Pausanias reports that the Eleutherians were not con 
 quered by the Athenians, but voluntarily united themselves 
 to that people, from their constant enmity to the Thebans. 
 Bacchus was fabled to have been born here. The ancient site 
 is thought to correspond to the modern Gypto Castro. Gell, 
 however, seeks to identify this with the ancient CEnoe, which 
 was contiguous to Eleutherse. 
 
 Having completed our description of Attica, we will now 
 proceed to give a brief account of Eubcea, as this island was 
 more or less closely connected in its history with that of Attica. 
 
 E U B CE A. 
 (A.) SITUATION, NAMES, &c. 
 
 I. Eubcea, now Egripo or Negropont, is an island of the ^Egean, extending 
 from the Sinus Maliacus, now Gulf of Zeitoun, along the coasts of Locris, Boe- 
 otia, and Attica, from which it is separated by a narrow channel called the Eu- 
 ripus. It is this latter name which, by a series of corruptions, has given its 
 modern appellation to the island, namely, Euripus, Euripo, Egripo, Negropont. 
 
 II. The most ancient name of this large and celebrated island was Maoris, 
 given it from its length, which is so great in comparison with its breadth. Be 
 sides this, it was known at different times by the various appellations of Oche, 
 Ellopia, Asopis, and Abantia. The last of these names it derived from the 
 Abantes, who are named as its inhabitants by Homer. 
 
 III. The name Eubosa is probably derived from the good pastures with which 
 the island abounded (e and /3oi5f) ; although some deduced it from the legend 
 of lo, who was said to have given birth to Epaphus in this island. 
 
 IV. The abundance and fertility of this extensive island in ancient times are 
 sufficiently attested by Herodotus, who compares it with Cyprus, and also by 
 Thucydides. Its opulence is also apparent from the designation and value af- 
 

 558 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 fixed to the talents so frequently referred to by the classic writers, under the 
 name of Euboic. 
 
 V. Modern computation gives the length of Eubcea as ninety miles, and its 
 extreme breadth thirty. In one part, however, between Aliveri Bay, below the 
 ancient Tamyruz in the southern part of the island, and Port Petries on the east 
 ern coast, it is scarcely four miles across from shore to shore. 
 
 VI. The island generally is elevated, and contains among its mountains some 
 of the highest in this part of Europe. Mount Delfi, the ancient Dirphys or Dir- 
 phossus, rises on the eastern side, to the northeast of Chalcis, to the height of 
 seven thousand two hundred and sixty-six feet above the sea, and its summit 
 is scarcely ever free from snow ; Mount Elias, the ancient Ocha, near Carystus, 
 at the southern extremity, is four thousand seven hundred and forty-eight feet 
 high ; Mount Khandili, a little distance above Chalcis, on the western shore, is 
 four thousand two hundred feet ; and Mount Plokovouni, the ancient Telethrius, 
 at the upper part of the island, is three thousand two hundred feet. 
 
 (B.) SKETCH OF EUBCEAN HISTORY. 
 
 I. THE first inhabitants of this island were probably a Pelasgic race, who are 
 said to have occupied, before the historical times, most of the islands of the 
 ^Egean Sea. The Dryopes from Mount (Eta were said to have founded Ca 
 rystus and Styra ; and the Athenians founded Chalcis and Eretria at a very 
 early period. Homer calls the inhabitants of Eubosa by the name of Abantes, 
 and mentions them as having taken a very distinguished part in the expedition 
 against Troy. The Hestiaeots were said to be a colony of the Perrhaebi, a Pe 
 lasgic tribe ; but the Athenians appear to have been, from a very remote epoch, 
 the principal colonizers of the island. 
 
 II. At the dawn of the historical times, we find Chalcis and Eretria two in 
 dependent but allied towns, which had advanced to a high state of prosperity, 
 holding dominion over the islands of Andros, Tenos, and Ceos, and sending 
 colonies to the coasts of Macedonia and Thrace, as well as to the shores of 
 Italy and Sicily. Naxus, the first Greek settlement in Sicily, and Cumse, one 
 of the oldest in Italy, were colonies of Chalcis. Eretria and Chalcis, however, 
 quarrelled, and Thucydides mentions the war between these two states as one 
 of the oldest wars on record among the Greeks. This war was not, however, 
 one of extermination, and we find, in the sixth century B.C., the two communi 
 ties still flourishing under the government of their Hippobota, or wealthier citi 
 zens. Unfortunately for them, they co-operated with Cleomenes in his invasion 
 of Attica, which followed the expulsion of the Pisistratidae ; in consequence of 
 which, after the Athenians had repulsed Cleomenes, they invaded Euboea, about 
 506 B.C., defeated the Boeotians, who had come to the assistance of Chalcis, 
 and, having taken the latter city, punished it severely, put many of the citizens 
 into fetters until they ransomed themselves, confiscated all the property of the 
 Hippobotse, and gave their lands to Athenian colonists, whom they sent over to 
 the island to the number of four thousand. 
 
 III. Euboea now became, in a great measure, a dependency of Athens. Af 
 terward the Euboeans, together with the Athenians, sent assistance to the loni- 
 ans of Asia in their war against Darius Hystaspis, and their troops were among 
 those which burned Sardis, B.C. 499. The first invasion of Greece was the con 
 sequence uf that expedition. The satraps, Datis and Artaphernes, landed in 
 Euboea with an immense force, completely destroyed Eretria, and sent its in 
 habitants as slaves into Asia. At the end of the Persian war, we find the Athe 
 nians under Cimon making war against the Carystians, who had revolted, and 
 
GR^ECIA. 559 
 
 reducing them to subjection. A general revolt of Eubcea against Athens broke 
 out in 445 B.C., but Pericles, with five thousand regular troops, marched into 
 the island, and recovered possession of it. The towns of Eubcea were reduced 
 to the condition of tributaries to Athens, and an Athenian colony was settled at 
 Oreus, in the northern part of the island. 
 
 IV. Eubcea was of great importance to the Athenians ; it furnished them with 
 corn, supplied them with horses, and was considered of more value to them 
 than all their other colonies put together. During the Peloponnesian war, after 
 the defeat of the Athenians in Sicily, another general revolt of Eubcea took place, 
 and the island placed itself under the protection of Lacedsemon, but afterward 
 returned to the Athenian allegiance. In the general prostration into which the 
 principal states of Greece fell after the death of Epaminondas, Eubcea seems to 
 have been left, in a great measure, to itself. Its principal towns came under 
 the rule of chiefs, or tyrants, as they were called, without any interference on 
 the part of the Athenians. 
 
 V. About 350 B.C., Callias and Taurosthenes, who were ruling in Chalcis, 
 sons of the late tyrant Mnesarchus, made overtures to Philip of Macedon in 
 order to have his assistance in subduing the rest of the island, an opportunity 
 which was eagerly seized by Philip. Plutarch, who was at the same time ty 
 rant of Eretria, applied to the Athenians to check Philip s interference. The 
 Athenians sent an expedition under Phocion, who defeated the Chalcidians after 
 hard fighting ; but this led to no favorable result, as Callias remained in pos 
 session of Chalcis, and the Macedonian influence was established over the island. 
 
 VI. When the Romans began to extend their influence to Greece, Chalcis 
 and the other towns of Eubcea contracted an alliance with Rome, and remained 
 steadfast to that alliance during the ^Etolian war. Chalcis afterward submitted 
 to Antioehus, and was finally destroyed by the Romans. In the dismemberment 
 of the eastern empire by the Latins or Franks, the Venetians obtained posses 
 sion of Eubcea, but lost it again in 1470. The island now forms part of the new 
 kingdom of Greece. 
 
 (C.) PLACES IN EUBCEA. 
 
 BEGINNING at the upper part of the island, we come to, 1. His- 
 ticea, near its northeastern extremity, and one of the most con 
 siderable of the Euboean cities. It fell into the hands of the 
 Athenians on the termination of the Persian war, and having 
 subsequently attempted to revolt, was severely punished, the 
 inhabitants being driven out, and Athenian colonists sent to 
 supply their place. According to Strabo, the Histiseans with 
 drew on this occasion to Macedonia. The name of the place 
 was now changed to Oreus, which was at first that of a small 
 settlement dependent on Histisea, at the foot of Mount Tele- 
 thrius. This city was in ruins in Pliny s time. Leake places 
 its site near the modern village of Oreos. 2. Artemisium^ to 
 the southwest, a celebrated promontory, off which the Greeks 
 fought their naval battle with the Persian fleet prior to the 
 action at Salamis. It has already been referred to (page 485). 
 
560 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Beyond was the Censean Promontory, forming the extreme 
 point of the island to the northwest (page 485). 
 
 3. Athence Diades, a little to the east of the Ceneean Prom 
 ontory, and founded, according to Strabo, by an Athenian col 
 ony. The modern name is Port Calos. 4. Cerinthus, lower 
 down, near a small river named Budorus. The hamlet of Ge- 
 ronda appears to mark its site. 5. JEdepsus, lower down, on 
 the western coast. Near it were some celebrated warm springs, 
 consecrated to Hercules. The spot still retains the name of 
 Dipso. The warm baths are a mile above it. 6. JEga, lower 
 down, and celebrated for the worship of Neptune. According 
 to Strabo, this place gave name to the .^Egean Sea. The site 
 is now called Akio. 7. Orobice, below the preceding, and famed 
 for an oracle of Apollo Selinuntius. This place suffered severely 
 from an earthquake during the Peloponnesian war. It prob 
 ably occupied the site now called Rovies. 
 
 8. Chalets, the most celebrated and important city of Eubcea, 
 founded by an Ionian colony from Athens shortly after the siege 
 of Troy. Some account of it has already been given in the 
 sketch of Euboean history, and of the numerous colonies sent 
 forth from it at an early period. The Chalcidians, after the 
 termination of the Persian war, became dependent on Athens 
 with the rest of Euboea, and did not regain their liberty till the 
 close of the Peloponnesian war, when they asserted their free 
 dom, and, aided by the Boeotians, fortified the Euripus, and es 
 tablished a communication with the continent by throwing a 
 wooden bridge across the channel. Towers were placed at each 
 extremity, and room was left in the middle for one ship only 
 to pass. This work was undertaken 410 B.C. From the ad 
 vantages of its situation and the strength of its works, Chalcis 
 was considered in the latter period of the history of Greece as 
 one of the most important fortresses of that country, and hence 
 we find it a frequent object of contention between the Romans 
 and Philip, son of Demetrius, who termed it one of the fetters 
 of Greece. According to the epitomist of Livy, it was event 
 ually destroyed by Mummius for having aided the Achseans 
 against Rome. It was restored by Justinian, and in the Middle 
 Ages assumed the name of Euripos, which was, in process of 
 time, corrupted to Egripo or Negropont, the modern appellation 
 of the whole island as well as that of its capital. ^ 
 
GRJECIA. 561 
 
 OBS. The Euripus, a channel between Eubcea and the mainland, was remark 
 able for the rapid changes of its tides. Several of the ancients have reported 
 that the tide in this strait ebbed and flowed several times in the day, and as 
 many times during the night, and that the current was so strong as to arrest 
 the progress of ships in full sail. Livy, however, attributes the variableness 
 of the current to the effect of winds, which were so violent as to cause the sea 
 to rush through the channel like a mountain torrent. Modern accounts do not 
 uphold Livy s account, but are rather in favor of the popular notion. The 
 breadth of the Euripus, according to recent authorities, is diminished by a rock 
 in mid-channel, on which a fort is built, thus dividing it into two channels ; that 
 toward the main land, though rather the broader, is only practicable for small 
 boats, as there is not more than three feet water at any time. Between the rock 
 and the walls of the city of Egripo or Negropont is a distance of thirty- three feet, 
 and the least depth at the highest water is seven feet. It is here, say modern 
 writers, that the extraordinary tides take place, for which the Euripus was once 
 so noted. At times, the water runs as much as eight miles in an hour, with a 
 fall under the bridge of about one and a half feet ; but what is most singular is 
 the fact that vessels lying one hundred and fifty yards from the bridge are not 
 in the least affected by this rapid. It remains but a short time in a quiescent 
 state, changing its direction in a few minutes, and almost immediately resuming 
 its velocity, which is generally from four to five "miles an hour either way, its 
 greatest rapidity being, however, always to the southward. No satisfactory ex 
 planation has yet been given of these singular changes. 
 
 9. Eretria, to the southeast of the preceding, and a city of 
 very early origin, said to have been founded by an Ionic colony 
 from Athens. Mention of its early commercial prosperity, and 
 the colonies established by it, has been made in the sketch of 
 Euboean history ; and also of its subsequent capture and de 
 struction by the Persians, in the reign of Darius Hystaspis. 
 It was subsequently rebuilt, and again became flourishing, 
 though at a later period it fell under the dominion of tyrants. 
 The Romans made it a free town. Eref ria, according to Strabo, 
 was famed for the excellence of its flour and bread. Its ruins 
 are still seen at a spot called Castri. 10. Tamynce, to the east, 
 noted for an ancient temple of Apollo, said to have been erected 
 by Admetus. Its site is now occupied by the village of Ghymno. 
 11. Dystus, to the southeast, now Disto. 12. Porthmus, lower 
 down, probably the modern harbor of Bufalo. 13. Styra, now 
 Stoura, founded by some Athenians belonging to the demus of 
 Stiria. 14. Carystus, at the foot of Mount Ocha, in the lower 
 extremity of the island, and now Castel Rosso. It was a place 
 of great antiquity, having been founded, as was said, by some 
 Dryopes, who were driven from their country by Hercules. It 
 was taken and plundered by Datis and Artaphernes, and sub 
 sequently had heavy contributions laid upon it by Themistocles. 
 
 NN 
 
562 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 which induced it to take up arms against the Athenians. This 
 difference, however, was eventually settled. This place fell into 
 the hands of the Romans during the Macedonian war. Ca- 
 rystus was principally celebrated for its marble, which was 
 highly esteemed and much used by the Romans. The spot 
 whence the marble was obtained was termed Marmarium, 
 where a temple was erected to Apollo Marmarius. Asbestos 
 was also found in the territory of Carystus, which was woven 
 into garments, and cleansed by the action of fire. Carystus 
 was also famed for its fish. The promontories of Gersestus, 
 Caphareus, &c., have already been mentioned (page 485). 
 
 PELOPONNESUS. 
 (A.) NAME. 
 
 1. Peloponnesus (TLskonowrjaog) is commonly supposed to 
 mean the "Island of Pelops" (Ile/loTrof vTJaos), and answers to 
 what is now called the Morea. It is a peninsula, comprehend 
 ing the most southern part of Greece, and would be an island 
 were it not for the Isthmus of Corinth. 
 
 II. The word Peloponnesus does not occur in Homer. The 
 original name of the peninsula appears to have been Apia, the 
 origin of which has been much disputed. "When the house of 
 the Pelopidse held the supremacy, the peninsula was sometimes 
 called Argos, a name which Homer in some cases employs in 
 this same sense. 
 
 OBS. 1. The Peloponnesus is said to have derived its name from Pelops, who 
 is reported by the later Greek mythologists to have been of Phrygian origin. 
 Thucydides, however, simply observes that he came from Asia, and brought 
 great wealth with him. He married Hippodamia, the daughter of (Enomaus, 
 king of Pisa, in Elis, and succeeded to his kingdom. Pelops is said to have 
 subsequently extended his dominion over many of the districts bordering upon 
 Elis, whence the whole country obtained the name of Peloponnesus. Agamem 
 non and Menelaus were descended from him. 
 
 2. The name Apia is said to have been derived from Apis, an ancient mon 
 arch, and son-of Apollo. Some modern scholars*, however, make it signify " a 
 far-distant land" ( Amrj, from ano), as used by the Greeks before Troy in speak 
 ing of their native land/ar away over the waters. Buttmann, again, thinks that 
 this name is connected with that of a most ancient people, who inhabited the 
 European coasts of the Mediterranean. 
 
 (B.) EXTENT, BOUNDARIES, &c. 
 
 I. STRABO estimates the breadth of the peninsula at fourteen hundred stadia 
 from Cape Chelondtas, now Cape Tornese, its westernmost point, to the isthmus, 
 being nearly equal to its length from Cape Malea, now Cape St. Angelo, to JEgi- 
 um, now Vostizza, in Achaia. 
 
GRJSCIA. 563 
 
 II. By some of the ancient writers the Peloponnesus was supposed to re 
 semble the leaf of the plane-tree, being indented by numerous bays on all sides. 
 The modern appellation Morea is derived either from the supposed resemblance 
 of the peninsula to a mulberry leaf, or from the mulberry trees introduced in 
 modern times to supply the silk-worms with food. 
 
 III. The Peloponnesus is bounded on the north by the Sinus Corinthiacus, 
 on the west by the Mare Ionium, on the south by the Mare Libycum, and on 
 the east by the Mare Myrtoum and JEg&um. The indentations along its coasts 
 form five large bays, namely, the Cyparissius Sinus, now Gulf of Arcadia ; the 
 Messeniacus Sinus, now Gulf of Coron ; the Laconicus Sinus, now Gulf of Co- 
 lokythia ; the Argolicus Sinus, now Gulf of Nauplia ; and the Saronicus Sinus, 
 now Gulf of Engia. 
 
 IV. Peloponnesus contains but one small lake, that of Stymphalus, now the 
 Lake of Zaraka. Its principal mountains are Cyllene, on the confines of Ar 
 cadia and Achaia ; Erymanthus, in Arcadia ; Olenus, in the same country, and 
 Taygetus, in Laconia. Its principal rivers are the Alpheus, running through 
 Arcadia and Elis ; the Eurotas, in Laconia ; and the Pamisus, in Messenia. 
 These will be more particularly alluded to hereafter, and have already been re 
 ferred to. 
 
 V. The Peloponnesus was subdivided into the following countries : 1. Co- 
 rinthia. 2. Achaia. 3. Elis. 4. Messenia. 5. Laconia. 6. Argolis. 7. Arcadia. 
 
 1. CORINTHIA. 
 (A.) NAME, BOUNDARIES, &c. 
 
 I. Corinthia was a small, but wealthy and powerful district 
 at the entrance of the Peloponnesus, deriving its name from 
 Corinthus, its capital city. 
 
 II. It was bounded on the north by the Sinus Corinthiacus^ 
 on the south by Argolis, on the west by Argolis and Achaia, 
 and on the east by the Sinus Saronicus. 
 
 III. The Corinthian territory was fertile and well watered. 
 The fountain of Pirene, on the Acrocorinthus, a high hill over 
 hanging the city, was celebrated by the poets ; but, in the time 
 of Hadrian, the inhabitants were so little satisfied with the 
 springs in the vicinity of the capital, that they induced the 
 emperor to supply them with water from the Stymphalus by 
 means of an aqueduct twenty miles long. 
 
 IV. The neck of land between the Corinthian and Saronio 
 Gulfs was called the Isthmus of Corinth, and in its narrowest 
 part can not be less than six modern Greek miles (not quito 
 five. English), whence the modern name of Hexamili applied 
 to a village and tower in this quarter. A more particular ac 
 count of the isthmus will be given hereafter. 
 
564 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 (B.) PLACES IN CORINTHIA. 
 
 x- 
 
 1. CormthuSj the capital, built upon a level to the north of 
 a steep and high hill, called the Acrocorinthus, which served 
 as a citadel, and was included within the wall. Corinth, from 
 its favorable situation between two arms of the sea, the Corin 
 thian and Saronic Gulfs, became the most wealthy emporium 
 of Greece. Its opulence, and the confluence of merchants from 
 all parts, favored every thing which ministered to the gratifica 
 tion of the senses, and both architecture and the other arts were, 
 according to the testimony of the ancients, cultivated here with 
 the greatest success. Corinth had three ports, Lechceum, Cen- 
 chrecBj and Schcenus. Lechseum, the nearest of them, was on 
 the Corinthian Gulf, and was connected with the city by two 
 parallel walls, which were partly destroyed by the Lacedaemo 
 nians B.C. 393. This harbor, which Leake conceives to have 
 been for the most part artificial, is now nearly filled up, all that 
 remains of it being a lagoon near the supposed site. The har 
 bor of Cenchreas was on the Sinus Saronicus, but does not ap 
 pear to have been connected with the city. It was, however, 
 a more considerable place than Lechseum, and contained several 
 temples. The modern name is Cechrices (Kexpiai$). A few 
 miles to the north of Cenchrese was a small bay called Schcenus, 
 forming the third harbor. Here was the narrowest part of the 
 isthmus ; and a kind of land-carriage, called the Diolcus, was 
 established from the harbor of Schoenus to the eastern extremi 
 ty of Port Lechseum, and ships were run ashore at one of these 
 points, and dragged to the other sea. This work existed in the 
 time of Aristophanes ; but in the Peloponnesian war it appears 
 they had a method of transferring naval operations from the 
 Corinthian to the Saronic Gulf without dragging their ships 
 across the isthmus. A little to the south of the Diolcus was 
 a wall, which was always guarded when any danger threat 
 ened the Peloponnesus. The site of Schcenus is now called 
 Cocosi. Corinth is now called Corintho, or by an abbreviation 
 Gortho. 
 
 SKETCH OF CORINTHIAN HISTORY. 
 
 I. THE earlier name of Corinth was Ephyra, and under this name it was one 
 of the seats of the ^olic race. Even in the time of Homer it was called " the 
 wealthy," an epithet which it acquired from the commercial spirit of its inhab- 
 
GR^ECIA. 565 
 
 itants, occasioned by the favorable situation of the place, already alluded to, 
 which threw all the inland carrying trade of Greece into its power, while the 
 difficulty of weathering Cape Malea (which was proverbial) made it the empo 
 rium of most of the trade between Asia and Italy. 
 
 II. About thirty years after the Dorian invasion of the Peloponnesus, that is, 
 about 1074 B.C., Ephyra fell into the power of Aletes, the son of Hippotes, a 
 Heraclid, who had slain a soothsayer on the passage from Naupactus,-and had 
 been compelled to separate himself and his followers from the army of the Do 
 rians. The city then assumed the name of Corinthus, or the Corinthus of Ju 
 piter, and the yEolian inhabitants became a subject class, though not altogether 
 deprived of their civic rights. The descendants of Aletes ruled Corinth for five 
 generations with royal power ; but at length a rigid oligarchy was substituted 
 for the monarchical form of government, and the power was vested in prytanes, 
 chosen annually from the powerful Heraclid clan of the Bacchiadae. The mem 
 bers of this clan intermarried only with one another, and consequently kept 
 aloof from all immediate intercourse with their fellow-citizens, whom, besides, 
 they did not treat with much forbearance. 
 
 III. In the year 660 B.C., Cypselus, an opulent citizen of JSolian descent, 
 putting himself at the head of the lower orders, overthrew the oligarchy without 
 much difficulty, and assumed the sovereign power. His son Periander, who 
 succeeded to his authority, occupies a very prominent place in the early history 
 of Greece. His reputation for wisdom (by which we must understand that 
 practical wisdom which consists in governing men) procured him a place among 
 the seven sages of Greece. Upon his death in 579 B.C., his power devolved on 
 one of his relatives, who, after three years, was deposed by the Lacedaemonians. 
 The former constitution was then restored, but doubtless much modified, and 
 Corinth remained an oligarchical state till the beginning of the fourth century 
 B.C. 
 
 * IV. In the Peloponnesian war, which was in some measure brought about by 
 them, the Corinthians were stanch supporters of the Lacedaemonians, and the 
 bitterest enemies of Athens. Like the other states of Greece, Corinth felt the 
 influence of the Macedonian power, and was garrisoned by Macedonians under 
 Antigonus, but liberated by Aratus. The Corinthians took the lead in the Achae 
 an confederacy, and were at first allies of the Romans, but at last the temptation 
 held out by the wealth of the place, and the pretext furnished by some insults 
 which the Corinthians had offered to the Roman embassy, led to the destruction 
 and plunder of the city by L. Mummius, in 146 B.C., according to an express 
 decree of the Roman Senate. Many works of art were destroyed, but some of 
 the finest pictures and statues were removed to Rome, and contributed to en 
 courage a taste for the fine arts in Italy. 
 
 V. Corinth was restored by Julius Caesar about one hundred years after its 
 conquest by Mummius, and peopled with freedmen, who enjoyed the privileges 
 of a Colonia. Little now remains of the ancient city but the ruins of a Doric 
 temple, probably the oldest existing specimen of that style. 
 
 VI. The colonies of Corinth w r ere very numerous, but, as has been justly re 
 marked by Miiller, they were all sent out from Lechaeum, and confined to seas 
 west of the isthmus. The most celebrated were Syracuse and Corcyra. Po- 
 tidaea, in Pallene, however, is an exception to Miiller s remark. 
 
 2. Crommyon, on the Saronic Gulf, east of Schoenus, and 
 celebrated in mythology as the haunt of a wild boar destroyed 
 
566 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 by Theseus. The little hamlet of Kinetta is generally thought 
 to occupy its site, though Leake makes them to be at some 
 distance from each other. 3. Tenea, in the interior of Corin- 
 thia, south of Corinthus, said to have been colonized by some 
 Trojan captives brought from Tenedos by the Greeks. It was 
 also celebrated as the place where CEdipus was brought up by 
 his supposed father Polybus. Its inhabitants could likewise 
 boast that the greater part of the colonists who followed Ar- 
 chias to Syracuse were their fellow-citizens. This small town 
 became latterly so prosperous that it assumed a government 
 of its own, distinct from that of Corinth ; and having wisely 
 submitted, in the first instance, to the Roman power, it was 
 preserved from the destruction which overwhelmed that un 
 fortunate city. We shall terminate our account of Corinthia 
 by some remarks on the Isthmus of Corinth. 
 
 ISTHMUS OF CORINTH. 
 
 THE tediousness and expense attending the usual mode of drawing ships 
 across the isthmus, by means of machinery, from Schcenus to Lechaeum, led to 
 frequent attempts, at various periods, for effecting a junction between the two 
 seas ; but all proved equally unsuccessful. According to Strabo, Demetrius 
 Poliorcetes abandoned the enterprise, because it was found that the two gulfs 
 were not on the same level. We read of the attempt having been made before 
 his time by Periander and Alexander, and, subsequently to Demetrius, by Julius 
 Caesar, Caligula, Nero, and Herodes Atticus. Lucian informs us that Nero was 
 deterred from proceeding by a representation made to him, similar to that which 
 Demetrius received, respecting the unequal levels of the two seas. He adds, 
 however, a more probable reason ; the troubles, namely, that were excited by 
 Vindex in Gaul, and which occasioned the emperor s hasty return from Greece 
 to Italy. Travellers inform us that some remains of the canal undertaken by 
 the Roman emperor are yet visible, reaching from the sea, northeast of Lechee- 
 um, about half a mile across the isthmus. 
 
 We hear, also, of various attempts made to raise fortifications across the isth 
 mus for the Peloponnesus when threatened with invasion. The first under 
 taking of the kind was made before the battle of Salamis. Many years after, 
 the Lacedaemonians and their allies endeavored to fortify the isthmus from 
 Cenchreae to Lechseum agaist Epaminondas, but this measure was rendered 
 fruitless by the conduct and skill of that general, who forced a passage across 
 the Oneian Mountains. Cleomenes also threw up trenches and lines in order 
 to prevent the Macedonians under Antigonus Doson from penetrating into the 
 peninsula. 
 
 The Isthmus of Corinth derived great celebrity from the games which were 
 held there every five years in honor of Palsemon or Melicerta, and subsequently 
 of Neptune. 
 
GR^CIA. 567 
 
 2. ACHAIA. 
 (A.) NAME, &c. 
 
 I. ACHAIA was first called JEgialus, either from a hero of 
 that name, or, more probably, from the maritime situation of 
 the country (afymAo?, " shore"), since it lay along the southern 
 shore of the Corinthian Gulf. Its earliest inhabitants were a 
 Pelasgic race, who became afterward blended with a large Io 
 nian colony, and the name of the country was then changed to 
 Ionia, and also jEgialean Ionia. 
 
 II. Eighty years after the war of Troy (B.C. 1104), when 
 the Dorian invasion of the Peloponnesus took place, a numer 
 ous body of Achsei, driven from Laconia and Argolis, retreated 
 to ^Egialean Ionia, drove out the lonians, and gave the country 
 the name of Achaia. 
 
 III. After the Roman conquest of Greece, the term Achaia 
 received an extension in its signification, principally due to the 
 importance which the Achaean league had obtained. The Ro 
 man province of Achaia was then formed, comprehending all 
 Peloponnesus, with northern Greece south of Thessaly. But 
 it is extremely difficult to fix the precise limit between the 
 province of Achaia and that of Macedonia to the north of it. 
 
 (B.) BOUNDARIES. 
 
 Achaia, including Sicyonia, was bounded on the north by 
 the Sinus Corinthiacus, on the south by Arcadia and Elis, on 
 the east by Corinthia, and on the west by the Mare Ionium. 
 Sicyonia, though, strictly speaking, not forming a part of 
 Achaia, yet seems, from its early admission into the Achsean 
 league, to belong naturally to this country. 
 
 (C.) SKETCH OP ACHAEAN HISTORY. 
 
 I. THE Achaei are first mentioned by Homer as the ruling people of the east 
 ern and southeastern part of the Peloponnesus. From comparing Homer with 
 Strabo and Pausanias, we may infer that the Achaei came from Thessaly, and 
 that, at the time of the Trojan war, according to Homer s notion, they were the 
 ruling nation in a large part of the Peloponnesus, and the chief people in the 
 war against Troy. Eighty years after the war of Troy (B.C. 1104), the Dorians 
 from the north drove the Achaei from Laconia and Argolis. Those who did not 
 leave the country became an inferior caste, and entered into the condition of a 
 conquered people ; but a large part retreated to ^Egialean Ionia, and expelled 
 the lonians. From this date the name of Achaia was given to that province. 
 
 II. The history of the Achseans forms an inconsiderable part of the general 
 history of Greece till about B.C. 251. During the invasion of Greece by the 
 
568 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Persians they took no part in the battles of Marathon, Salamis, and Platsea, 
 nor during the long war of twenty-seven years did they take any thing more 
 than a forced share in this protracted struggle between Athens and Sparta. At 
 the commencement of this war (B.C. 431), they were, with the exception of 
 Pellene, neutral ; but afterward favored the Lacedaemonian interest, in compli 
 ance with the general feeling that prevailed in the peninsula. 
 
 III. During the struggles of the southern Greeks against the successors of 
 Alexander, the Achaeans still wished to remain neutral ; but, like all weak spec 
 tators of a contest in which they refuse to engage, they became the prey of the 
 victorious party, and suffered under the Macedonians all the evils of anarchy 
 and civil war. There would be little in the whole history of the Achaean states 
 to attract attention were it not for the feudal union which arose out of these 
 discordant elements. 
 
 IV. Four of the western states of Achaia, namely, Dyme, Patrae, Tritaea, and 
 Pharae, seeing the difficulties in which Antigonus Gonatas, king of Macedonia, 
 was involved, formed a union for mutual protection B.C. 281. Five years after 
 ward, ^Egium ejected its garrison, and Bura killed its tyrant, which examples 
 moved Iseas, who was then tyrant of the neighboring town of Cerynea, to sur 
 render his authority and save his life. These three towns joined the new league. 
 In B.C. 251, Aratus, having delivered Sicyon, which was not properly an Achaean 
 town, brought it over to the confederacy. In B.C. 243, Corinth was added to 
 the confederacy, and Megara, Epidatirus, and Trcezene joined it not long after. 
 Other accessions, including Sparta herself, followed. But the Romans, having 
 humbled Philip II. of Macedonia, and reduced him to the rank of a dependent 
 king, proceeded to weaken the power of the confederacy, which was easily 
 effected by the Roman and anti-Roman parties that had for some time been 
 growing up in the Greek cities. The league finally fell with the destruction 
 of Corinth by the Roman general Mummius, and the Roman province of Achaia, 
 already referred to, was established. 
 
 (D.) PLACES IN ACHAIA. 
 
 1. Sicyon) capital of the district Sioyonia, and one of the 
 oldest cities in Greece. It is said to have existed, under the 
 names of Mgialea and Mecone, long before the arrival of Pe- 
 lops in the peninsula. The Sicyonians were conquered by the 
 Dorians and Heraclidse, and afterward, during the Peloponne- 
 sian war, espoused the cause of Sparta. This city was cele 
 brated for its wealth and luxury, and also for its manufacture 
 of slippers. These last were highly esteemed by the effeminate 
 and luxurious. The modern name of Sicyon is Basilica. A 
 short distance to the southeast was the River Asopus, now Ba- 
 silico, on whose banks were celebrated the games instituted by 
 Adrastus in honor of Apollo. 2. Crossing the Sythas, now 
 Xylo Castro, we come next to Pellene, situate on a lofty and 
 precipitous hill, about sixty stadia from the sea. The Pelleni- 
 ans alone first aided the Lacedaemonians in the Peloponnesian 
 war. They were frequently engaged in hostilities with their 
 
GR^ECIA. 569 
 
 neighbors the Phliasians and Sicyonians. Pellene was cele 
 brated for its manufacture of woollen cloaks, which were given 
 as prizes to the riders in the gymnastic games held there in 
 honor of Mercury. The ruins of this place are near the mod 
 ern Tricala. The harbor of Pellene was Aristonautce, so called 
 from the Argonauts having touched there in the course of their 
 voyage. 3. Mgira, to the northwest, called at an earlier pe 
 riod Hyperesia, but which changed its name, according to 
 Pausanias, from the following circumstance. The lonians, 
 who had colonized the city, being attacked by a superior num 
 ber of Sicyonians, collected a large herd of goats, and, having 
 tied fagots to their horns, set them on fire, when the enemy, 
 conceiving the besieged to have received re-enforcements, hastily 
 withdrew. From these goats (and r&v aiytiv) Hyperesia took 
 the name of JEgira (Atyefpa), though its former appellation nev 
 er fell into total disuse. The ruins are to be seen on a woody hill 
 above the spot now called Bloubouki. To the left are the ruins 
 of the port, choked with sand. The black posts on the two 
 piers have occasioned the name of Mavro Lithari. To the west 
 of ./Egira was the River Crathis, now Acratha, which descend 
 ed from a mountain of the same name on the borders of Arca 
 dia. It was from this stream that the Italian Crathis, which 
 flowed between Crotona and Sybaris, derived its appellation. 
 
 4. jEgce, on the banks of the Crathis, near its mouth, and 
 celebrated for the worship of Neptune as early as the days of 
 Homer. In Strabo s time it had ceased to exist, the inhabit 
 ants having been removed to ^Egira, when their territory was 
 annexed to that of ^Egium. 5. Bura, to the northwest. It 
 was one of the twelve original Achaean cities, and stood at first 
 close to the sea, but, having been destroyed with the neighbor 
 ing city of Helice by a violent earthquake, the surviving inhab 
 itants rebuilt it afterward, about forty stadia from the coast, 
 and near the small river Burai cus, now the Calavrita. On 
 the banks of this river was a cave consecrated to Hercules, and 
 also the seat of an oracle, usually consulted by the throwing 
 of dice. According to Gell, the whole country in this quarter 
 exhibits strong marks of the violence of earthquakes. 6. Helice, 
 near Bura, and one of the chief cities of Achaia. It was here 
 that the general meeting of the lonians was convened, while 
 they were yet in possession of the country. A prodigious influx 
 
570 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 of the sea, caused by a violent earthquake, overwhelmed and 
 completely destroyed this place two years before the battle of 
 Leuctra, B.C. 373. Vestiges of the submerged city were to be 
 seen long after. This disaster took place during the night, and 
 the city and all that lay between it and the sea, a distance of 
 twelve stadia, were inundated in an instant. The inhabitants 
 appear to have all perished. 
 
 7. Cerynea, to the right of and near Helice. It afforded a 
 refuge to the inhabitants of Mycenae when their city was taken 
 and destroyed by the Argives. Marcus of Cerynea was the 
 first prsetor of the Achaean league. Near it flowed the River 
 Cerynites, now, according to Leake, the Bokhusia. This river 
 rose in Mount Cerynea, on the borders of Arcadia. 8. Mgium, 
 to the northwest, near the coast, and now Vostizza. The 
 states of Achaia held their general assemblies here, until a law 
 was made by Philopcemen, by which each of the federal towns 
 became in its turn the place of meeting. 9. Rhypce^ farther 
 along the coast, on the River Meganitas, now the Gaidouriari. 
 It was one of the twelve Achaean cities, but was no longer in 
 habited in Strabo s time. It was the birth-place of Myscellus, 
 founder of Crotona. Beyond is the River Phoenix, now the 
 Salmenico. Leaving Rhypse, we come to Drepanum Promon- 
 torium, now Drepano, near which was port Panormus, and 
 farther on was the more celebrated promontory of Rhium, al 
 ready referred to (page 483). It was sometimes surnamed 
 AchaicMm, to distinguish it from the Molycrian or ^Stolian 
 Rhium on the opposite coast, called also Antirrhium. The in 
 tervening strait was only seven stadia. 
 
 10. Patrce, below the promontory of Rhium, now Patras, and 
 still a place of considerable importance. It was said to have 
 been built on the site of three towns called Aroe, Anthea, and 
 Messatis, which had been founded by the lonians when they 
 were in possession of the country. On their expulsion by the 
 Achsei, the small towns just mentioned fell into the hands of 
 Patreus, a distinguished chieftain of that people, who, uniting 
 them into one city, called it by his name. Its maritime situa 
 tion, opposite to the coast of ./Etolia and Acarnania, rendered 
 it a very advantageous port for communicating with these 
 countries. It sustained severe losses, however, in the Achaean 
 war from the Romans, so much so that the few inhabitants 
 
GR^ECIA. 571 
 
 who remained in it determined at length to abandon the place, 
 and to reside in the neighboring villages and boroughs. Patrse, 
 however, was raised to its former flourishing condition after the 
 battle of Actium by Augustus, who, in addition to its dispersed 
 inhabitants, sent thither a large body of colonists, chosen from 
 his veteran soldiers. In Strabo s time it was a large and pop 
 ulous town, with a good harbor. 11. Olenus, to the southwest, 
 and one of the most ancient Achaean towns. It was deserted 
 in Strabo s time. 12. Dyme or Dymce, the last of the Achaean 
 towns to the west. Its more ancient name was Palea. Strabo 
 thinks that the appellation Dyme has reference to its western 
 situation (Svpi, dvu, "to set"). The river Larissus, now Ris- 
 so or Mana, formed the boundary between Achaia and Elis. 
 13. Tritcea, some distance to the east, and the most inland of 
 the twelve Achaean cities. Its remains are supposed to be those 
 at Goumenitza, and are sometimes called St. Andrea, from a 
 church dedicated to that apostle in the immediate vicinity. 
 
 3. ELIS. 
 
 (A.) BOUNDARIES, NAME, &c. 
 
 I. Elis was bounded on the north by Achaia, on the south 
 by Messenia, on the east by Arcadia, and on the west by the 
 Mare Ionium. It was separated from Messenia by the River 
 Neda, now the Bouzi, and from Achaia by the Larissus, now 
 the Risso, although originally the promontory of Araxus was 
 the common limit of Elis and Achaia. 
 
 II. Elis was originally divided into several districts or prin 
 cipalities, each occupied by a separate clan or people. Of these 
 the Caucones were probably the most ancient, and also the 
 most widely disseminated, since we find them occupying both 
 extremities of the province, and extending even into Achaia. 
 Next to these were the Epei, who are placed by Homer in the 
 northern part of the province, and next to Achaia. The names 
 Elis and Elei are said to have come in at a later date, and to 
 have been derived from Eleus, a son of Endymion. 
 
 III. The more common division of Elis was into three dis 
 tricts, namely, Hollow Elis (Koihr) T HAf ) in the north, Pisdtis 
 in the middle, and Triphylia in the south. 
 
 IV. Elis was far the most fertile and populous district of 
 Peloponnesus, and its inhabitants are described as fond of ag- 
 
572 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 riculture and rural pursuits. It was the only part of Greece 
 in which the byssus was known to grow. 
 
 (B.) SKETCH OP ELEAN HISTORY. 
 
 I. PRIOR to the siege of Troy, the Epei are said to have been greatly reduced 
 by their wars with Hercules, who conquered Augeas their king, and with the 
 Pylians commanded by Nestor. They subsequently, however, acquired a great 
 accession of strength by the influx of a large colony from ^Etolia, under the 
 conduct of Oxylus, and their numbers were farther increased by a considerable 
 detachment of the Dorians and Heraclidae. 
 
 II. Iphitus, descended from Oxylus, and a contemporary of Lycurgus, re-estab 
 lished the Olympic games (828 B.C.), though the Olympiads did not begin to be 
 reckoned until 776 B.C. These games had been originally established by Her 
 cules. The Pisatae, having remained masters of the plain of Olympia from the 
 first celebration of the festival, long disputed its possession with the Eleans, 
 but they were finally conquered, and the temple and presidency of the games 
 fell into the hands of their rivals. The preponderance obtained by the latter is 
 chiefly attributable to the assistance they derived from Sparta, in return for the 
 aid afforded to that power in the Messenian war. 
 
 III. From this period we may date the ascendency of Elis over all the other 
 surrounding districts hitherto independent. It now comprised not only the 
 country of the Epei and Caucones, which might be termed Elis Proper, but the 
 territories of Pisa and Olympia, forming the ancient kingdom of Pelops, and the 
 whole of Triphylia, which constituted the greater part of Nestor s dominions. 
 The Eleans were present in all the engagements fought against the Persians, 
 and in the Peloponnesian war zealously adhered to the Spartan confederacy, 
 until the conclusion of the treaty after the battle of Amphipolis, when an open 
 rupture took place between them and the Lacedaemonians, in consequence of 
 protection and countenance afforded by the latter to the inhabitants of Lepraeum, 
 who had revolted from them. Such was the resentment of the Eleans on this 
 occasion, that they prohibited the Lacedaemonians from taking part in the Olym 
 pic games. 
 
 IV. The Spartans retaliated by frequent incursions into the territory of Elis, 
 the fertility of which presented an alluring prospect of booty to an invading 
 army. They were twice defeated, however, once at Olympia, and again before 
 the city of Elis. At length the Eleans sued for peace, and renewed their ancient 
 alliance. In the time of Philip, they joined the Macedonian alliance, but refused 
 to fight against the Athenians and Thebans at Chaeronea ; and in the Lamiac 
 war they united with the other confederates against Antipater. 
 
 V. During the Social war the Eleans were the firmest allies of the ^Etolians 
 in the Peloponnesus, and though they were on more than one occasion basely 
 deserted by that people, and sustained heavy losses, they could never be induced 
 to abandon their cause and join the Achaean league. They were included, how 
 ever, in the general decree by which the whole of the Peloponnesus was an 
 nexed to the Roman empire. 
 
 (C.) PLACES IN ELIS. 
 1. ELIS PROPER. 
 
 1. Buprdsium, the first town on the Elean side after leaving 
 the Larissus. It is often mentioned by Homer as one of the chief 
 
573 
 
 cities of the Epei. Buprasium had ceased to exist in the time 
 of Strabo, but the name was still attached to a district on the 
 road leading from Dyme to Elis. This seems to be what is 
 now called the plain of Bakouma. 2. Myrsmus, another Epean 
 town, to the southwest, called afterward Myrtuntium. Its 
 ruins are near the village of Kaloteichos, according to Gell. 
 3. Cyllene^ to the west of the preceding, and forming the haven 
 of the city of Elis. It was the usual place of debarkation for 
 those who sailed from Peloponnesus to Sicily and Italy. Its 
 ruins are at Glarentza. The promontory of Hyrmine to the 
 west is now Cape Glarentza. The Chelonatas Promontorium, 
 farther on, formed the extreme point of Peloponnesus to the 
 west. It is now Cape Tornese. Below this headland is the 
 River Peneus, now the Igliaco, to the south of which, and near 
 its mouth, was Coryne, now Gastouni. 
 
 4. Elis, on the River Peneus, and the capital, not only of 
 this district, but of the whole country. Strabo and Diodorus 
 assert that it did not exist as a city until after the Persian war, 
 when, according to Strabo, several previously detached villages 
 were united into one town. On the other hand, it was the 
 opinion of Pausanias, and of the natives themselves, that Elis 
 had been founded, on the return of the Heraclidse, by Oxylus 
 the ^Etolian. Leake thinks it probable that the town of Elis 
 was at that time named Ephyra, and that it assumed under 
 Oxylus, who enlarged it, the name (Elis) which had before 
 been applied to the district. Cramer, on the contrary, places 
 Ephyre, which he makes the same with CEnoe, on the coast, 
 near the mouth of the Sellei s. The ruins of Elis are now 
 termed Palceopoli. 5. Pylos, to the southeast of the preceding, 
 and called, for distinction sake, Pylos Elidis. There were 
 two other places named Pylos, one in Triphylia and the other 
 in Messenia. They all laid claim to the honor of having been 
 the capital of Nestor. The Triphylian city, however, appears 
 to have had the best right to be so considered. In the neigh 
 borhood of the Elean Pylos was Mount Pholoe, which Leake 
 regards as a general name, comprising all the southwestern 
 part of the summits of what is now called Mount Olono. 
 
574 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 2. PISATIS. 
 
 1. Pisa, the capital, on the Alpheus, and a very ancient city. 
 It was the city of CEnomaus and Pelops, and originally enjoyed 
 the presidency of the Olympic games until its rights were usurp 
 ed by the E leans and Heraclidse. A war ensued, which ended in 
 the overthrow and destruction of Pisa. Cramer places Pisa on 
 the left bank of the Alpheus ; Leake, however, on the right, in 
 close proximity to Olympia. The ruin of the city occurred at 
 so early a period as to render the determination of its site im 
 possible at the present day. Leake s opinion, however, is prob 
 ably the more correct one. 2. Olympia, a name given to the 
 aggregate of temples, altars, and other structures on the right 
 bank of the Alpheus, in the immediate vicinity of the spot 
 where the Olympic games were celebrated. It was not, as 
 many have incorrectly supposed, a city, nor did it at all re 
 semble one. The main feature in the picture was the sacred 
 grove Altis, planted, as legends told, by Hercules, and which he 
 dedicated to Jupiter. Throughout the grove were scattered in 
 rich profusion the most splendid monuments of architectural 
 sculpture and pictorial skill. The site was already celebrated 
 as the seat of an oracle, but it was not until the E leans had 
 conquered the Pisatse, and destroyed their city, that a temple 
 was erected to the god with the spoils of the vanquished. The 
 statue of Jupiter was the master-piece of Phidias. The god 
 was represented as seated on his throne, composed of gold, 
 ebony, and ivory, studded with precious stones. The figure 
 itself was of ivory and gold, and of such vast proportions, that, 
 though seated, it almost reached the ceiling. The head was 
 crowned with olive. In the right hand it grasped an image of 
 Victory, and in the left a sceptre on which was perched an eagle. 
 A conspicuous feature at Olympia was the Hill of Saturn (Kpd- 
 viov opo^), often alluded to by Pindar, and on the summit of 
 which priests named Basilse offered sacrifices to the god every 
 year at the vernal equinox. The Olympic games were cele 
 brated every fifth year ; or rather, the exact interval at which 
 they recurred was one of forty-nine and fifty lunar months al 
 ternately. The period between two celebrations was called an 
 Olympiad. The festival lasted five days. The Olympic crown 
 was of wild olive. The Olympiads began to be reckoned from 
 
GR^ECIA. 575 
 
 the year 776 B.C., in which year Corcebus was victor in the 
 foot-race. 
 
 3. Letrini, near the mouth of the Alpheus, and a town of 
 great antiquity. It derived its name from Letrinus, son of 
 Pelops. It was celebrated for the worship of Diana Alphea. 
 4. Salmone, northeast of and near to the preceding. It was 
 also a place of great antiquity, and was said to have been found 
 ed by Salmoneus. 
 
 3. TRIPHYLIA. 
 
 THE name of this district is supposed to have arisen from the circumstance 
 of the inhabitants having sprung from the blending of three different races, the 
 Epei, MinyEe, and Eleans. Before the Social War, the whole of this district had 
 been reduced by the Eleans ; but several of its towns during that contest were 
 taken by Philip of Macedon, who gave them up to the Achaeans, and though the 
 Eleans afterward disputed their possession, they were awarded by the Romans 
 to the former people. The Triphylian territory was rich and fertile, and ap 
 pears to have been thickly inhabited. The places most worthy of notice are 
 the following : 
 
 1. Scillus or Scilluns, rendered interesting from Xenophon s 
 having fixed his abode there during his exile. The town itself 
 had been destroyed by the Eleans, but the territory being after- 
 Ward wrested from Elis by the Lacedsemonians, was made over 
 by the latter to Xenophon, when that celebrated Athenian was 
 banished from Athens for having served in the army of the 
 younger Cyrus. Between Scillus and the Alpheus, in the di 
 rection of Olympia, was a craggy and lofty summit, named 
 Typceum, from which the law decreed that those women should 
 be hurled headlong who had infringed the regulations which 
 prohibited their appearance at Olympia. This barbarous sen 
 tence, however, was never carried into execution. 2. Samta, 
 near the mouth of the Anigrus. In Strabo s time the fortress 
 of Samicum had replaced the ancient city. The River Ani 
 grus formed marshes near its mouth, remarkable for the fetid 
 odor which they exhaled, and which was popularly ascribed to 
 the circumstance of the centaur s having washed in this stream 
 the wounds inflicted by his envenomed shafts. 
 
 3. Pylos TriphyliacuS) to the southeast, and regarded by 
 Strabo, with great probability, as the city of Nestor, although 
 Leake is in favor of the Messenian Pylos. Notwithstanding 
 its ancient celebrity, this city is scarcely mentioned in later 
 times. Gell places its remains at Pishim, about two miles 
 
576 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 from the coast. 4. Leprceum, to the southeast of Pylos, found 
 ed, as was said, by the Caucones. It was a place of some 
 strength, and possessed a rich and fertile territory. Its ruins 
 are to be seen near the village of Strobitzi. 5. Macistus, to 
 the northeast of the preceding, and giving name at one time to 
 the whole surrounding district. Its site is occupied by the 
 modern Mofkitza. 6. Pyrgos, the last town of Triphylia to 
 the south, at the mouth of the River Neda. Herodotus says it 
 was founded by the Minyse. Its ruins lie on the right bank of 
 the Neda, near the Khan of Bouzi. Apollodorus seems to as 
 sign to Elis a river once called Tigres, but afterward Harpy s, 
 from the fall of one of the Harpies into its stream. The Stro- 
 phades were small islands off the coast, two in number, and 
 which were fabled to have been so called from the circumstance 
 of Zetes and Calais, the sons of Boreas, having returned thence 
 (orpecfxj, " to turn") after they had driven the Harpies thither 
 from the table of Phineus. They are now called Strivali. 
 
 4. MESSENIA. 
 (A.) NAME AND BOUNDARIES, &c. 
 
 I. Messenia, called also Messene, is said by Pausanias to 
 have derived its name from Messene, the wife of Polycaon, one 
 of the earliest sovereigns of the country. This, however, is 
 mere fable. 
 
 II. It was bounded on the east by Laconia, on the north by 
 Elis and Arcadia, and on the west and south by the Mare 
 Ionium. It was separated from Laconia by the mountain chain 
 of Taygetus, and from Elis and Arcadia by the River Neda, 
 and the high land which runs between the bed of the Neda and 
 the sources of the Pamisus. 
 
 III. Messenia is described by Pausanias as the most fertile 
 province in the Peloponnesus ; and Euripides, in a passage 
 quoted by Strabo, speaks of it as a land well watered, very 
 fertile, with beautiful pastures for cattle, and possessing a cli 
 mate neither too cold in winter nor too hot in summer. The 
 lower part of the country in particular, south of Ithome, was 
 celebrated in ancient times for its great fertility. Leake de 
 scribes it as covered in the present day with plantations of the 
 vine, the fig, and the mulberry, and as rich in cultivation as 
 can well be imagined. 
 
GR^CIA. 577 
 
 (B.) SKETCH OF MESSENIAN HISTORY. 
 
 I. AT the time of the Trojan war Messenia appears to have been subject to 
 Menelaus, with the exception of Pylos, and probably part of the western coast. 
 After the death of Menelaus, the Neleid princes of Pylos are said by Strabo to 
 have obtained the whole of the country. On the division of the Peloponnesus, 
 after the Dorian conquest, under the Heraclidse, Messenia fell to the share of 
 Cresphontes, who fixed his capital in Stenyclerus. 
 
 II. In the middle of the eighth century before the Christian era, a series of 
 disputes and skirmishes arose on the borders of Messenia and Laconia, which 
 gave rise to a confirmed hatred between the two nations. Prompted by this 
 feeling, the Spartans are said to have bound themselves by an oath never to re 
 turn home till Messenia was subdued ; and they commenced the contest by a 
 midnight attack on Ampheia, a frontier town, which they took, and put the in 
 habitants to the sword. This was the commencement of what is called the 
 first Messenian war, the date of which was about 743 B.C. After a contest of 
 twenty years, during which the Messenian king Aristodemus distinguished him 
 self by deeds of heroic valor, the Messenians were subdued, and reduced to the 
 condition of Laconian helots. 
 
 III. After bearing the yoke for thirty-nine years, the Messenians took up arms 
 against their oppressors B.C. 685, under the conduct of Aristomenes, a youth 
 of royal blood. They were, however, again subdued, and those who remained 
 in their native country were treated with the greatest rigor. The majority of 
 freemen, however, withdrew from Messenia, and a considerable number, under 
 the two sons of Aristomenes, sailed to Italy and settled at Rhegium. They 
 afterward obtained possession of Zancle, on the opposite coast of Sicily, and 
 called it Messana, the Doric form of Messene. This is now Messina. 
 
 IV. The Messenians again revolted in B.C. 464. This war, usually called 
 the third Messenian war, lasted ten years ; at the end of which time the Mes 
 senians, who had occupied the stronghold of Mount Ithome, surrendered on con 
 dition of being allowed to retire from the Peloponnesus. The Athenians, who 
 were not at that time on good terms with Sparta, gladly allowed them to settle 
 at Naupactus, which they had recently taken from the Locri Ozolae. This place, 
 however, the Messenians were obliged to quit, when, at the end of the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war, the Spartans became masters of Greece. 
 
 V. After, however, the supremacy of Sparta had been overthrown by the 
 battle of Leuctra, Epaminondas formed the design of restoring the independence 
 of Messenia, and accordingly sent messengers to Italy, Sicily, and all parts of 
 Greece, to invite the long-exiled Messenians to return to their native country. 
 Numbers obeyed the summons, and in B.C. 359 a town was built at the foot of 
 Mount Ithome, which they called Messene. The independence of the Messe 
 nians was guaranteed by the peace concluded B.C. 361 ; and Messenia con 
 tinued to remain an independent state till the dissolution of the Achsean con 
 federacy. In the Messenian state, as restored by Epaminondas, the ancient 
 national manners are said to have been retained ; and the dialect remained, up 
 to the time of Pausanias, the purest Doric that was spoken in the Peloponnesus. 
 
 (C.) PLACES IN MESSENIA. 
 
 1. Cyparissia, on the western coast, below the mouth of the 
 River Cyparissus. It is now Arcadhia, and gives their mod 
 ern names to the river just mentioned, and also to the Sinus 
 
 Oo 
 
578 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Cyparissius, into which it flows. The Cyparissium Promonto- 
 rium, near this town, is now Cape Konello. 2. Erana, lower 
 down on the coast, and which some have identified with the 
 Arene of Homer. Its site corresponds to that of Ordina. Off 
 this coast, and a little to the south, was the island of Prote, 
 now Proti or Prodano, where the Athenian fleet anchored pre 
 vious to the naval fight in the harbor of Pylos. 3. Pylos Mes- 
 senidcus, to the south, and also on the coast. It was situate 
 at the foot of Mount .^Egaleus, now Mount Geranio, or Agio 
 Elia, and was one of the cities named Pylos, which laid claim 
 to the honor of having been the capital of Nestor. Strabo is 
 in favor of the Triphylian Pylos in Elis, but Leake of the 
 Messenian. Pylos answers to the modern Navarino, and must 
 not be confounded with Coryphasium, the fortress erected by 
 the Athenians in the Peloponnesian war at one of the entrances 
 into the harbor, and which corresponds now to Old Navarino. 
 The harbor of Pylos was a very spacious one, and was protected 
 from the swell of the sea by the island of Sphacteria, having 
 an entrance on either side of it. It is now the best harbor in 
 the Peloponnesus, and is commonly called the Bay of Navarino. 
 This bay has attained celebrity in modern times by the defeat 
 of the Turco-Egyptian fleet by the combined fleets of England, 
 France, and Russia. The island of Sphacteria also was ren 
 dered memorable by the defeat and capture of a Lacedaemonian 
 detachment in the seventh year of the Peloponnesian war. It 
 was likewise called Sphagia, which name it still retains. 
 
 4. Methane, lower down on the coast. Pausanias calls it 
 Mothone, and makes it to have derived its name from the rock 
 Mothon, which formed the breakwater of its harbor. It was 
 identified by some with the Pedasus of Homer, one of the seven 
 towns offered by Agamemnon to Achilles. The Emperor Tra 
 jan especially favored this town, and bestowed several privileges 
 on its inhabitants. Its site at the present day is called Palaio 
 Mothone, and is a little to the east of the modern Modon. The 
 (EnusscK Insulce, in its vicinity, are now Sapienza and Cabrera. 
 After doubling the Acritas Promontorium, now Cape Gallo, we 
 enter the great Messenian Gulf, now the Gulf of Coron, and 
 reach, 5. Colonides, an Attic colony, nearly corresponding to 
 the modem Cor on. 6. Mpea, to the north, on the coast, and 
 which changed its name to Corone, after the restoration of the 
 
GRJECIA. 579 
 
 Messenians. It was in attempting to take this town, during 
 the war occasioned by the secession of Messene from the Achaean 
 league, that Philopoemen was made prisoner. The Messenian 
 Gulf was sometimes called Coronseus Sinus. Corone answers 
 to the modern Petalidi, about fifteen miles to the north of Co- 
 Ton. Passing the River Pamisus, famed for the purity of its 
 waters, and now the Pirnatza, we come to, 7. Abice, opposite 
 to Corone, and supposed to be the Ira of Homer, though not to 
 be confounded with Ira on the borders of Arcadia. It possessed 
 a celebrated temple of Hercules, and another of ^Esculapius. 
 8. Cardamyle, farther south, now Scardamoula. Augustus 
 adjudged it to belong to Laconia. 9. Leuctrum, the last town 
 of Messenia on this coast, and from its frontier situation a 
 source of dispute between the Messenians and Laconians. The 
 ancient site is still called Leutro. 
 
 Advancing into the interior of Messenia, we come to, 1. Ge- 
 renia, to the northeast of Cardamyle, and a very ancient city, 
 where, according to some, Nestor was educated, and whence 
 he derived the epithet of Gerenian. Other accounts, however, 
 identify Gerenia with the Enope of Homer. 2. Limna?, some 
 distance to the north, sacred to Diana, and having a temple 
 where a festival was celebrated by both the Messenians and 
 Laconians. 3. Calamce, to the west, and near the modern 
 Calamata. 4. Thuria, to the north, annexed by Augustus to 
 Laconia, for having espoused the cause of Antony. 5. Steny- 
 clerus, to the north, said to have been the capital of the country 
 in the reign of Cresphontes. The region around was called the 
 Stenyclerian plain, and was celebrated in the songs of the na 
 tives as the scene of the achievements of Aristomenes. 6. Mes 
 sene, to the west, at the foot of Mount Ithome, founded, as we 
 have already remarked, by Epaminondas, after the overthrow 
 of the Spartan power. Pausanias says that the walls of the 
 city were the strongest he had ever seen. The citadel was on 
 Mount Ithome, now Mount Vourkano, and celebrated for the 
 long and obstinate defence which the Messenians there made 
 against the Spartans in their last revolt. On the summit was 
 the temple of Jupiter Ithomatas, to whom the mountain was 
 dedicated. This citadel and the Acrocorinthus were deemed 
 the two strongest places in Greece. The ruins of Messene are 
 still visible at the village otMavrommati. The River Balyra, 
 
580 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 flowing near the town, was said to have derived its name from 
 the lyre of Thamyris, which the bard threw into the stream 
 after losing his sight. It is now the Mavro Zoumena, and is 
 the largest of the tributaries of the Pamisus. 
 
 Aulon was that district of Messenia which bordered on Tri- 
 phylia and part of Arcadia, being separated from them by the 
 Neda. It contained the city of Aulon, near the mouth of the 
 Neda. Higher up the river stood Ira, a mountain fortress, cel 
 ebrated in the history of the Messenian wars as the last strong 
 hold whither Aristomenes retreated, and which he so long de 
 fended against the enemies of his country. 
 
 5. LACONIA. 
 (A.) NAME, BOUNDARIES, &c. 
 
 I. The Greek name of this country was Laconice (AaKuviKfj, 
 scil. yrj). The Roman writers, however, call it Laconia. 
 
 II. Laconia was bounded on the north by Arcadia and Ar- 
 golis, on the west by Messenia, on the east and south by the 
 Mare Mg&um. 
 
 III. Laconia is a long, narrow valley, running from north to 
 south, and lying between two mountain masses, which stretch 
 from Arcadia to the southern extremities of the Peloponnesus. 
 The western range, which terminated in the Promontory of 
 Tcenarus, now Cape Matapan, was called Taygetus, and the 
 eastern, terminating in the Promontory of Malea, now Cape 
 S. Angelo, was known by the names of Parnon, Thornax, and 
 Zarex. The whole drainage of this valley is collected in the 
 River Eurotas, now the Basilipotamo, which flows from the 
 high lands of Arcadia, and is joined by the.QEnus, a little above 
 Sparta. 
 
 IV. From its source to its junction with the CEnus, the 
 Eurotas flows through a very deep and narrow valley, which 
 near Sparta is so much contracted as to leave room for little 
 more than the channel of the river. After it leaves Sparta, the 
 hills recede farther from the river ; but near CEnoe they again 
 approach it for a short distance, and afterward retire to the 
 west and east, toward the Capes of Tsenarus and Malea re 
 spectively, leaving between them a plain of considerable breadth, 
 through which the Eurotas flows to the sea. 
 
 V. The snow remains on the highest points of Taygetus, in 
 
GrRJECIA. 581 
 
 the neighborhood of Amyclse, to the month of June. The 
 streams on the eastern slope of this mountain range are abund 
 ant. Leake describes the soil of Laconia as in general a poor 
 mixture of white clay and stones, difficult to plough, and better 
 suited to olives than corn. This description is in conformity 
 to that of Euripides, who says that it possessed much arable 
 land, but difficult to work. 
 
 VI. Strabo informs us that there were some valuable stone 
 quarries near Tsenarus, and in the mountains of Taygetus; 
 and Pausanias also speaks of the shell-fish on the coast, which 
 produced a dye inferior only to the Tyrian. Laconia was sub 
 ject, in common with the southern countries of Greece, to earth 
 quakes, the most remarkable of which occurred B.C. 462, and 
 destroyed the whole of the city of Sparta, with the exception of 
 five houses. 
 
 OBS. Laconia is well described by Euripides as difficult of access to an enemy. 
 On the west the range of Taygetus formed almost an insuperable barrier to any 
 invading force ; and on the north there were only two natural passes by which 
 the country could be entered, one by the valley of the upper Eurotas, as the 
 course of that river above Sparta may be termed, and the other by the valley 
 of the QEnus. Both of these natural openings led to Sparta, which shows how 
 admirably the capital was situated for purposes of defence. The want of good 
 harbors on the coast also protected it from invasion by sea ; and the possession 
 of the island of Cythera, at the Sinus Laconicus, was therefore always consid 
 ered by the Lacedaemonians as a point of great importance. 
 
 (B.) SKETCH OF LACONIAN HISTORY. 
 
 I. ACCORDING to the most ancient traditions of Laconia, the Leleges were the 
 earliest inhabitants of the country. Lelex, the first king, was succeeded by his 
 son Mules, who left the kingdom to his son Eurotas. This last monarch, dying 
 without issue, bequeathed the kingdom to Lacedaemon, the son of Jupiter and 
 Taygeta, who married Sparta, the daughter of Eurotas. The sovereignty is said 
 to have remained in this family till shortly before the Trojan war, when the de 
 scendants of Pelops, Menelaus and Agamemnon, obtained possession of the coun 
 try by marrying, the former Helen, the latter Clytemnestra, daughters of Tyn- 
 dareus, the last monarch of the ancient dynasty. At the time of the Trojan 
 war we find the country in the possession of the Achaeans, who undoubtedly 
 settled in Laconia at a very early period, and probably conquered the Leleges. 
 Menelaus was succeeded by Orestes, who had married his daughter Hermione, 
 and Orestes by Tisamenus, during whose reign the Peloponnesus was invaded 
 by the Dorians. 
 
 II. The Heraclidae established a double dynasty of two kings at Sparta ; for 
 as neither the mother nor the Delphic oracle could decide which of the twin 
 sons of Aristodemus, namely, Eurysthenes and Procles, was first born, the coun 
 try of Laconia was assigned to them in common ; and it was determined that 
 the descendants of both should succeed them, f he previous inhabitants, how 
 ever, had little cause to rejoice in the arrival of these foreigners, whose fierce 
 
582 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 disputes under seven rulers of both houses distracted the country with ems 
 feuds, while it was at the same time involved in constant wars with its neigh 
 bors. The royal authority was continually becoming feebler, and the popular 
 power was increased by these divisions, until Lycurgus came upon the scene 
 This distinguished man, the only individual in whom both parties confided, es 
 tablished a new constitution for Sparta about 880 B.C. 
 
 III. Lacedsemon now acquired new vigor, which was manifested in her wars 
 with her neighbors, particularly with the Messenians, whose country was sub 
 jugated. The battle of Thermopylae gave Sparta so much distinction among the 
 Greeks, that even Athens consented to yield the command of the confederate 
 forces by land and sea to the Spartans. Pausanias gained, in consequence, the 
 celebrated victory of Platseae, and, on the same day, the Grecian army and fleet, 
 under the command of the Spartan king Leotychides, and the Athenian general 
 Xanthippus, defeated the Persians at Mycale. 
 
 IV. With the rise of the political importance of Sparta, the social organiza 
 tion of the nation was developed. The power of the kings was gradually limited, 
 while that of the ephori was increased. After the Persians had been victori 
 ously repelled, the Grecian states, having now acquired warlike habits, carried 
 on hostilities against each other ; jealousy arose between Sparta and Athens* 
 and the Peloponnesian war ensued, B.C. 431. This ended in the ascendency 
 of Sparta, and the entire humiliation of her rival. The Spartans next became 
 involved in a war with Persia, and the Persian throne was shaken by the vic 
 tories of Agesilaus ; but Athens, Thebes, Corinth, and some of the Peloponne 
 sian states, were instigated by Persian gold to declare war against Sparta, and 
 Agesilaus was recalled. This commander defeated the Thebans at Coronea ; 
 but, on the other hand, Conon, the Athenian commander, gained a victory over 
 the Spartan fleet at Cnidus, and took fifty galleys. To this contest succeeded, 
 after some interval, the celebrated Theban war, in which Epaminondas broke 
 the power of Sparta, and this state thenceforth ceased to act a prominent part 
 in Greece. 
 
 V. The Macedonian power now gained the ascendency, and Sparta, along 
 with the other states, was compelled to succumb. Luxury and licentiousness 
 after this began to make gradual inroads, and after Cleomenes had in vain at 
 tempted to stem the torrent, the state fell under the power of the tyrants Ma- 
 chanidas and Nabis. Its final downfall, however, was effected by the Aehseans 
 and Romans, and, on being compelled to join the Achaean league, it passed 
 eventually with that confederacy under the dominion of the Romans. 
 
 VI. Under the Roman rule, the inhabitants of Laconia enjoyed a greater de 
 gree of freedom than was allowed to the other provinces of Greece, being, says 
 Strabo, regarded rather as allies than as subjects. A considerable part of the 
 nation, consisting of several maritime towns, was dignified with the title of 
 Eleuthero-Lacones, or Free Laconians, conferred upon it by Augustus, together 
 with other privileges, for the zeal which its inhabitants had early testified in 
 favor of the Romans. 
 
 VII. Laconia is said to have once contained one hundred towns. When the 
 Dorians conquered it, they selected Sparta for the place of their own residence, 
 and permitted the rest of the province to be occupied by a mixed population 
 composed of Dorians and other strangers, and of the Achaeans the previous in 
 habitants. The Dorians who held Sparta received from their city the name of 
 Spartans ; the Laconians who inhabited the surrounding towns were termed 
 nepioiKoi. The name of Lacedemonians was common to both. The Ksptotnoi 
 were treated generally with great oppression, and held their towns as subjects 
 
GR.ECIA. 583 
 
 or vassals of the Spartans. They formed, however, a part of the military force, 
 and were sometimes even placed in offices of trust. The slaves were called 
 Helots. These Helots were originally composed of the inhabitants of Laconian 
 towns reduced to slavery ; but their name was afterward communicated to those 
 Messenians who remained in the country after the second Messenian war. 
 
 (C.) PLACES IN LACONIA. 
 
 AFTER leaving the mouth of the Pamisus, which separated 
 Laconia from Messenia, we come to, 1. Pephnus, now Pekno, 
 according to Cramer. Leake places it at the harbor of Platza. 
 Opposite to it was a little island, also called Pephnus, in which 
 the Dioscuri were said to have been born. 2. Thalamce, now, 
 according to Gell, Calamo. 3. (Etylus, lower down, now Vi- 
 tulo. It contained a temple of Serapis. 4. Messa, some dis 
 tance below, and mentioned by Homer. Cramer makes it an 
 swer to the modern Maino, but Leake to the harbor of Me- 
 zapo. 5. Tcendrum, to the east of the Thyrides Promontorium, 
 or Cape Grosso. It was called Ccenepolis at a later period, 
 under the Roman sway, and was the chief place of the Eleu- 
 thero-Laconic confederation. The ruins are near Cyparisso. 
 Doubling the promontory of Tsenarus, now Cape Matapan, and 
 entering the Sinus Laconicus, sometimes called Gytheates Si 
 nus, now the Gulf of Colokytkia, we meet with no place of im 
 portance until we come to, 6. Gythium, at the head of the gulf, 
 frequently mentioned by ancient writers as the port of Sparta, 
 from which it was distant two hundred and forty stadia. Ac 
 cording to Pliny, it was the nearest point to embark from for 
 the island of Crete. The site is now called Palceopoli, but no 
 habitation is left upon it. The small island of Cranae lay off 
 this place, alluded to by Homer, according to some, in his ac 
 count of the abduction of Helen. It is now Marathonnisi. 
 Some, however, lay the scene of this adventure in the island 
 of Helena or Maoris, off the coast of Attica. 
 
 7. HeloSj to the east, on the opposite side of the gulf, and not 
 far from the mouth of the Eurotas. The inhabitants of this 
 town, having revolted against the Dorians and Heraclidse, were 
 reduced to slavery, and called Helots, which name was after 
 ward extended to the various people who were held in bondage 
 by the Spartans. Polybius says that the district of Helos was 
 the most extensive and fertile part of Laconia. But the coast 
 was marshy, from which circumstance it probably derived its 
 name (e Aof, "a marsh"). The site is uncertain, probably near 
 
584 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Priniko. 8. Cyparissia, according to Strabo, situate on a pen 
 insula. It lay to the south of Helos, and its site is now oc 
 cupied by the modern fortress of Rupino or Rampano, some 
 times called Castel Kyparissi. Doubling the promontory of 
 Onugnathus, we enter the Sinus Baedticus, now the Gulf of 
 Vathika, off which, to the southwest, lay the island of Cythera, 
 now Cerigo, celebrated as having received Venus on her birth 
 from the sea. According to Eustathius, it was once called 
 Porphyris, from the quantity of purple-yielding shell-fish found 
 on its shores. This island was of great importance to Sparta, 
 since its harbors sheltered the Spartan fleets, and afforded pro 
 tection to merchant vessels against the attacks of pirates. It 
 was taken by the Athenians in the Peloponnesian war, and the 
 Spartans were in consequence exposed to much annoyance from 
 the ravaging of the coast of Laconia. The principal town was 
 also called Cythera ; the principal harbor was called Scandea, 
 and is mentioned by Homer. 
 
 Returning to the coast of Laeonia, we come to, 9. Bosce, on 
 the Sinus Boeaticus, and giving name to it. The site is now 
 called Vathikd. Doubling the Promontory of Malea, now Cape 
 St. Angela or Malio, we pass to, 10. Epidelium, now, accord 
 ing to Cramer, S. Angela. Its ruins are near the modern Cape 
 Kamili. 11. Epidaums Limera, to the north, said to have 
 been founded by the Argives, to whom, at one time, this whole 
 coast, as far as the Malean promontory, belonged. This place 
 contained a celebrated temple of ^Esculapius. Its site is now 
 called Palcea Monembasia. The modern Monembasia, which 
 lies a little to the south, appears to correspond to the ancient 
 Minoa. 
 
 12. Sparta, sometimes called Lacedcemon, was the capital 
 of Laconia, and the chief city of the Peloponnesus. It was sit 
 uate on the right or western bank of the Eurotas, about twenty 
 miles from the sea. Sparta was built in a plain of some ex 
 tent, and was bounded on the east by the Eurotas, and on the 
 south by a smaller stream, called the Knakion, now Trypiotiko. 
 Polybius describes it as of a circular form, and, though situate 
 in a plain, containing within it several rising grounds and hills. 
 Homer calls it the "hollow Lacedsemon," from the mountain 
 ranges by which the plain is surrounded. Sparta was not reg 
 ularly fortified till the time of the Roman interference in Greece, 
 
585 
 
 though fortifications had been hastily thrown up against the at 
 tacks of Demetrius Poliorcetes (B.C. 280) and Pyrrhus (B.C. 
 272). It was at last completely surrounded with walls by 
 order of Appius, the Roman legate. The ruins are about two 
 miles distant from the modern Mistra. The villages of Ma- 
 gula and Psykhik6 occupy a part of the immediate site. Sparta 
 was much subject to earthquakes, and, on one of these occa 
 sions, prior to the Peloponnesian war, only five houses were left 
 standing. 
 
 13. Therapne, on the left bank of the Eurotas, and south 
 east of Sparta. Here were to be seen the temple of Menelaus 
 and his tomb, as well as that of Helen. The ruins are near 
 the village of Amphisu. 14. Amy dee, south of Sparta, and to 
 the west of the Eurotas. It was one of the most ancient cities 
 of Laconia, having been founded long before the invasion of the 
 Dorians. It was celebrated for its temple of the Amyclsean 
 Apollo. Hyacinthus, the favorite of Apollo, was fabled to have 
 been buried here. It was also celebrated as the birth-place of 
 Castor and Pollux, who, according to another legend, were bom 
 on the island of Pephnus. The country around was beautifully 
 wooded, and is so still at the present day. Leake places the 
 site of Amyclae at Aia Kyriaki. 15. Selldsia, some distance 
 to the north of Sparta, near the confluence of the GEnus and 
 Gongylus, in a valley confined between two mountains, named 
 Euas and Olympus. It commanded the only road by which 
 an army could enter Laconia from the north, and was there 
 fore a position of great importance for the defence of the capital. 
 According to Boblaye and Ross, its site is near the Khan of 
 Krevata. Leake, however, places it more to the south. 
 
 6. ARGOLIS. 
 (A.) NAME, BOUNDARIES, &c. 
 
 I. Argolis derived its name from the Pelasgic term Argos, 
 which properly meant "a plain," but which served also to in 
 dicate as well the district of country afterward called Argolis, 
 as the city situate therein. Argos, too, as has already been re 
 marked, is sometimes put for the whole Peloponnesus. 
 
 II. Argolis was of a peninsular shape for the most part, and 
 was bounded on the north by Corinthia and Sicyonia, on the 
 west by Arcadia, on the south by Laconia and the Sinus Ar- 
 
586 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 golicus, now the Gulf of NapoU, and on the east by the Sinus 
 Saronicus, now Gulf of Engia. Its greatest length, measured 
 in a straight line along its western frontier, was nearly thirty- 
 eight miles, and the peninsular part of it varied from twenty- 
 five to eleven miles in breadth. 
 
 III. Argolis is traversed by a ridge of mountains, which run 
 nearly in a continued line through the peninsula, from Mount 
 Cyllene in Arcadia, on its northwestern frontier, in an eastward 
 direction to the promontory of Scyllseum. These mountains 
 are intersected by deep valleys, through which flow rivulets, 
 generally dry during summer. The ancient name of part of 
 this ridge was Arachnceus, which was crossed by the road from 
 Argos to Epidaurus. The valleys are very numerous, and of 
 greatest breadth on the southern side of the ridge, but none of 
 them are of any great extent. That in which Argos and My 
 cenae were situate is the largest, and through it flowed the 
 Inachus. The coast is of an irregular shape, with numerous 
 indentations, and is generally low. The only good harbor was 
 Nauplia, now Napoli di Romania, at the head of the Sinus 
 Saronicus. 
 
 (B.) SKETCH OF ARGIVE HISTORY. 
 
 I. THE earliest inhabitants of Argolis were Pelasgi. The term Argos itself 
 was one of Pelasgic origin, and we find it applied to cities in Thessaly and other 
 quarters of Greece, once in the occupation of this people. On the arrival of 
 Danaus, who is said to have come from Egypt, the inhabitants are reported to 
 have changed their ancient appellation of Pelasgi to that of Danai. At that 
 time the whole of what was afterward called Argolis acknowledged the au 
 thority of one sovereign ; but after the lapse of two generations, a division took 
 place, by which Argos and its territory were allotted to Acrisius, the lineal de 
 scendant of Danaus, while Tiryns and the maritime country became the inher 
 itance of his brother Prcetus. A third kingdom was subsequently established 
 by Perseus, son of the former, who founded Mycenae. But these were all finally 
 reunited in the person of Atreus, son of Pelops, who acquired, in right of the 
 houses of Pelops and Perseus, which he represented, possession of nearly the 
 whole of the Peloponnesus, which ample territory came in course of succession 
 to Agamemnon. 
 
 II. After the death of Agamemnon, the crown descended to Orestes, and sub 
 sequently to his son Tisamenus, who was forced to evacuate the throne by the 
 invasion of the Dorians and Heraclidae. Temenus, the lineal descendant of 
 Hercules, now became the founder of a new dynasty ; but the Argives, having 
 acquired a taste for liberty, curtailed so much the power of their sovereigns as 
 to leave them but the name and semblance of kings. At length, having deposed 
 Meltas, the last of the Temenid dynasty, they changed the constitution into a 
 republican form of government. 
 
 III. In the more certain historical ages, Argos becomes first known to us 
 
GR^ECIA. 587 
 
 when engaged in war with the Spartans respecting the territory of Thyrea. 
 This war was contemporaneous with the capture of Sardes by Cyrus. Before 
 this epoch the possessions of Argos had extended along the coast to Cape Ma- 
 lea, and included Cythera and other islands. At a later period, B.C. 493, there 
 was another contest between Argos and Sparta, in which Argos was unsuccess 
 ful, and so many of the citizens fell in battle, that the slaves, or more probably 
 the Periceci, found no difficulty in seizing the government, and are said to have 
 retained it till the sons of their masters had grown up, when they were again 
 expelled from the city. It was probably on this account that the Argives took 
 no part in the Persian war, B.C. 480, though many believed them to have been 
 bribed by Xerxes. 
 
 IV. A few years afterward we find them at war with the inhabitants of My 
 cenae, who had refused to acknowledge the supremacy of Argos, and had been 
 supported for many years in their independence by the Spartans. Mycenae fell, 
 and never arose again from its ruins. 
 
 V. Though Argos remained neutral during the earlier part of the Pelopoime- 
 sian war, her feelings were at all times opposed to the Spartans, and she at last 
 took an active part with the Athenians. The defeat, however, of the Argives 
 at Mantinea, B.C. 418, dissolved the confederacy of which she was the head, 
 and Argos was compelled to accept an aristocratic constitution. She subse 
 quently shook off the yoke, and we find her assisting the Thebans at the battle 
 of Mantinea, B.C. 362. But her history becomes gradually less important ; nor 
 is there any fact worthy of being noticed till the unsuccessful attempt made by 
 Pyrrhus, B.C. 272, to take the city. It joined the Achaean league, and con 
 tinued to form a part of this confederacy until its final dissolution by the Romans. 
 
 (C.) PLACES IN ARGOLIS. 
 
 ADVANCING from the Laconian frontier, we come to the small 
 territory of Cynuria, the possession of which led to frequent 
 disputes between the Spartans and Argives. Its principal town 
 was Thyrea, near which the celebrated battle was fought be 
 tween three hundred Spartans and an equal number of Argives. 
 The Argives being defeated in a general action not long after, 
 Thyrea was held by the Spartans, who established here the 
 jEginetce, upon the expulsion of that people from their island 
 by the Athenians. Thyrea was afterward ceded by treaty to 
 the Argives. Its site was probably not far from the modern 
 town of Astro. The Thyreates Sinus is now the Bay of Astro. 
 
 Leaving Cynuria, and moving upward along the coast, we 
 come to, 1. Lerna, a small lake or marsh, formed by several 
 sources which discharged themselves into its basin. It was 
 celebrated as the scene of the contest between Hercules and 
 the Hydra. The most famous of the streams which formed 
 this lake was the fountain Amymone. The Lernean Lake is 
 now a small marshy pool, overgrown with reeds. Bending our 
 course around the head of the bay, we come next to, 2. Nauplia, 
 
588 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 the port of Argos, now Napoli di Romania. Both in ancient 
 and modern times this has been an important harbor, and, in 
 deed, the only good one in Argolis. 3. Argos, to the north 
 west, inland, and still preserving its name. It was generally 
 regarded as the oldest city of Greece. The walls of this city 
 were constructed of massive blocks of stone, or, in other words, 
 were of Cyclopean structure. It was also protected by two cit 
 adels, situated on towering rocks, and surrounded by fortifica 
 tions equally strong. The principal one was named Larissa. 
 Argos stood on the banks of the Inachus. In Strabo s time it 
 was inferior only to Sparta in extent and population. An ac 
 count of the River Inachus has already been given (p. 479). 
 
 4. MycencB^ to the northeast of Argos, said to have been 
 founded by Perseus after the death of his grandfather Acrisius. 
 It was the capital of the Pelopidse, and under Agamemnon at 
 tained to its highest degree of opulence and power. It was at 
 tacked and captured by the people of Argos, B.C. 468, who 
 levelled it with the ground, and enslaved the inhabitants. Ac 
 cording to Diodorus Siculus, the war arose from a dispute rel 
 ative to the Temple of Juno, which was common to the two re 
 publics. Modern travellers have given a full and interesting 
 account of the ruins of this place, among which the most re 
 markable is a subterranean chamber, called by Pausanias the 
 Treasury of Atreus. The Gate of the Lions still remains in the 
 same state in which it was when seen by Pausanias, and also 
 a magnificent wall of Cyclopean masonry. The ruins are close 
 to the village oiRrabata. 5. Tiryns or Tirynthus, to the south 
 east of Argos, and celebrated for its massive walls. It was said 
 to have been founded by King Proetus, brother of Acrisius, who, 
 as Strabo reports, employed for the construction of his citadel 
 workmen from Lycia, or, in other words, Cyclopean builders. 
 Tiryns is connected with the legend of Hercules. Alcmena, 
 his mother, was daughter of Electryon, a descendant of Proetus, 
 and the crown would have devolved on her husband Amphitryon 
 had he not been expelled by Sthenelus, king of Argos. Her 
 cules, however, afterward regained possession of his inheritance, 
 whence he derived the surname of Tirynthius. This city was 
 destroyed by the Argives, and the greater part of its inhabitants 
 removed to Argos. The ruins are still very imposing. The 
 general form of the citadel is said to be that of a ship or boat. 
 
GRJECIA. 589 
 
 6. Hermione, on the southeastern coast, and some distance 
 to the west of the Scyllseum Promontorium. According to 
 Herodotus, it was founded by the Dryopes. This place was 
 one of considerable importance, and contained many temples, 
 one of which, that of Ceres, was famed for its affording an in 
 violable refuge to suppliants. Not far from this was a cave 
 supposed to communicate with the infernal regions. It was 
 probably owing to this speedy descent to Orcus that the Her- 
 mionians, as Strabo informs us, omitted to put a piece of money 
 into the mouths of their dead. Lasus, an early poet of some 
 note, said to have been the instructor of Pindar, was a native 
 of this place. The ruins are near Castri, opposite to the island 
 of Hydra, the ancient Hydrea. The bay in front was called 
 the Sinus Hermionicus, now Gulf of Castri. 
 
 This part of the Argolic coast was lined with several small 
 islands, of which we may name the following : 1. Aperopia, 
 now, according to Cramer, Hydron ; but, according to Boblaye 
 and Leake, Dhoko. 2. Hydrea, now the celebrated commer 
 cial island Hydra. 3. Tiparenus, now Spezzia, and also cel 
 ebrated for its commerce. 
 
 Returning to the main land, we come to, 7. Trcezene, north 
 east of Hermione, and said to have been a very ancient city. 
 It derived its name from Trcezen, son of Pelops, but had existed 
 long before this period under the several appellations of Orea, 
 Althepia, and Posidonia. Troezene was the native place of 
 Theseus, and here he long resided. In the Persian war, the 
 Trcezenians received most of the Athenian families who were 
 forced to abandon their city. From the description which Pau- 
 sanias has given of its buildings, we learn that it was still a flour 
 ishing town in the second century of the Christian era. The 
 ruins are near the modern village of Damala. The harbor of 
 Troezene was called Pogon, from its shape, being formed by a 
 curved strip of land which resembled " a beard." Off this harbor 
 was the island of Calauria. Neptune had a temple here, which 
 was regarded as an inviolable asylum. In this sanctuary De 
 mosthenes took refuge, and here he ended his existence. Cal 
 auria is now called Poro. 8. Metlione or Methana, to the north 
 of Trcezene, and now Methana or Mitone. It was situate on 
 the neck of a peninsula. In its vicinity were some hot springs, 
 produced by a volcano in the reign of Antigonus Gonatas. 
 
590 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 9. Epidaurus^ higher up on the coast. Its earlier name was 
 Epicarus, its founders having been Carians, as Aristotle report 
 ed, who were afterward joined by an Ionian colony from Attica. 
 Epidaurus was celebrated for its vines, and also for its breed of 
 horses ; but its greatest celebrity arose from its temple of ^Sscu- 
 lapius, which was the resort of invalids of all kinds. It was 
 erected on the spot where ^Esculapius himself was said to have 
 been born and brought up. Leake makes the site of Epidaurus 
 correspond to that of Pidavro, but Boblaye to that of Nea 
 Epidavros. 
 
 10. Lessa, to the west of the preceding, and near Mons Arach- 
 neeus, which mountain is mentioned by ^Eschylus as the last 
 station of the telegraphic fire by which the news of the capture 
 of Troy was transmitted to Mycenae. Arachnseus is now So- 
 phico. 11. Nemea, some distance to the northwest, and cele 
 brated as the spot where the Nemean games were held. In its 
 vicinity was the haunt of the lion slain by Hercules. It was 
 not a city, but, like Olympia, a sacred spot, with temples and 
 other buildings. 12. Cleonce, to the northeast, situate on a rock, 
 and well fortified. The ruins are near Kurtesi. 13. Phlius, 
 to the southwest, and properly a small independent republic, 
 though in early times dependent on My cense. Its ruins are 
 near Agios Giorgios. 
 
 J G I N A. 
 
 I. IT only remains now to give some account of the island ofJEgina, lying as 
 it does in the Sinus Saronicus, and off the coast of Argolis. From its position, 
 therefore, it naturally belongs to the latter country, and Homer, moreover, has 
 ranged its warriors under the standard of Diomede, sovereign of Argos. 
 
 II. In fabulous times this island is said to have borne the name of ^Enone, 
 which it afterward exchanged for that of ^Egina, daughter of Asopus, and 
 mother of ^Eacus, and the long line of heroes descended from him. The re 
 nown of the ^Eacidae, indeed, reflected no small glory on the country which had 
 given them birth, and formed one of the chief boasts of its inhabitants. JEgina 
 subsequently received colonies from Crete, Argos, and Epidaurus. The Cretan 
 establishment may be referred to the time of Minos ; that of Argos to the period 
 in which Phidon was tyrant of that city ; while the Epidaurians who crossed 
 over into the island were a detachment of those Dorians who had left Argos 
 under Deiphontes, to settle at Epidaurus. 
 
 III. ^Egina soon became distinguished by the industry and enterprise of its 
 inhabitants, and its extensive commerce and its powerful navy enabled it to 
 contend successfully even with the power of Athens. As early as B.C. 563, in 
 the reign of Amasis, before any town of European Greece except Corinth had 
 acquired great commercial wealth, we find that yEgina had a factory established 
 in lower Egypt for its merchants. The island was then one of the great ccn- 
 
GR.ECIA. 591 
 
 tres of the Mediterranean commerce. ^Egina had also a very early silver coin 
 age, and many of its coins still exist. According to the common account, the 
 first silver money was coined here by Phidon of Argos, who at that time held 
 the island under his sway. 
 
 IV. When Xerxes invaded Greece, the people of JEgina. took a brilliant part 
 in the great sea fight of Salamis. They sent thirty ships besides those which 
 guarded their own island, and were allowed to have acquitted themselves better 
 than any other of the Greeks ; which tended to wipe off the disgraceful impu 
 tation of previous treachery to the common cause, of which they were appa 
 rently not altogether guiltless. This event may be fixed as the latest period 
 of their great prosperity, which had probably lasted for more than a century. 
 After the Persian wars the old jealousies of Athens and JEgina. again broke out, 
 and finally resulted in the capture of the island by the former, and the expulsion 
 of the inhabitants, B.C. 430. A remnant of them were restored by Lysander 
 at the close of the Peloponnesian war, B.C. 404; but ^Egina never afterward 
 recovered its importance. 
 
 V. The capital of the island was likewise called JEgina, and was situate in 
 the northwestern part of it. Its vestiges cover at the present day an extensive 
 plain. The modern name of the island is E gina or Enghia. ^Egina is cele 
 brated for its remains of antiquity, particularly those of the great temple of Ju 
 piter Panhellenius. 
 
 7. ARCADIA. 
 (A.) NAME, BOUNDARIES, &c. 
 
 I. Arcadia was fabled to have derived its name from Areas, 
 the son of Jupiter and Callisto, who ruled at one time over the 
 country, according to an early legend, and was instructed in 
 agriculture by Triptolemus. 
 
 II. Arcadia was bounded on the north by Achaia, on the 
 west by Elis, on the south by Messenia and Laconia^ and on 
 the east by Argolis. 
 
 III. It was a mountainous region, and may be regarded as 
 the Switzerland of Greece, though its mountains are of much 
 less elevation. The centre of the Peloponnesus, indeed, may 
 be regarded as a high table land, traversed by numerous mount 
 ain ridges, and contains the sources of some of the most con 
 siderable rivers that flow into the seas around the peninsula. 
 
 IV. The most fertile part was toward the south, where the 
 country sloped off, and contained many fruitful vales and nu 
 merous streams. The scenery in this quarter is still very 
 beautiful. 
 
 (B.) CHARACTER OF THE INHABITANTS. 
 
 I. As Arcadia is a mountainous country, and abounds in forests and grass 
 lands, the character of its inhabitants and their mode of life were, to a great 
 extent, determined by these physical circumstances. The tending of cattle, 
 therefore, and hunting, were their chief occupations. 
 
592 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 II. To their pastoral mode of life may also be ascribed the attachment of the 
 Arcadians for music ; and hence, also, the worship of Pan, as the tutelary deity 
 of Arcadia. It was their diligent cultivation of music which, according to Po- 
 lybius, himself an Arcadian, changed his countrymen from the fierce and almost 
 savage character which they had in their early state, to mildness and innocent 
 simplicity. 
 
 III. The Arcadians, like the people of Switzerland at the present day, pos 
 sessed a strong love of freedom, and likewise a love of money ; for, wherever 
 there was money, you might see Arcadian mercenary troops. 
 
 (C.) SKETCH OF ARCADIAN HISTORY. 
 
 I. ACCORDING to their own account, the Arcadians had occupied the central 
 parts of the Peloponnesus from time immemorial. According to Aristotle, how 
 ever, they expelled a prior race from the country. They appear, in fact, to have 
 been a branch of the great Pelasgic nation ; and hence the tradition, that a king, 
 named Pelasgus, taught them to build huts, and clothe themselves with the 
 skins of animals. 
 
 II. In the second Messenian war, B.C. 685-668, we find the Arcadians under 
 the rule of a monarch named Aristocrates, whom they stoned to death on ac 
 count of his treacherous behavior to the Messenians ; and the country was 
 thereupon divided into a number of small republics. Herodotus says that they 
 took part with the other Greeks against Xerxes, and that they sent to Ther 
 mopylae a body of two thousand one hundred and twenty men. 
 
 III. Their history, however, for a long time subsequent to this, clearly shows 
 that they did not possess the feelings of a united people. They were, as already 
 remarked, mere soldiers of fortune, ready to draw their swords in behalf of any 
 one willing to pay them. In the celebrated Sicilian expedition they were found 
 in the ranks of both armies ; nor do they appear to have acted as a nation till 
 they had founded, under the advice of Epaminondas, the city of Megalopolis, 
 B.C. 371, which became the metropolis of the country. 
 
 IV. From this time the Arcadians appear as a confederate state, with a gen 
 eral council to manage the affairs of the nation. It is said to have consisted of 
 ten thousand members, called ol pvpioi ; and if it were not frequently mentioned 
 by ancient writers under this appellation, we should be inclined to imagine that 
 there must be some mistake. What makes it still more inexplicable is, that it 
 possessed the executive and judicial powers, but not the legislative, which re 
 sided in the whole assembled people. 
 
 V. On the death of Alexander we find the country a prey to a number of 
 petty tyrants, and the part they took in the Achaean league did not relieve them 
 from their difficulties, or enable them to re-establish peace and security. The 
 Romans at last made themselves masters of their country, and included it with 
 the rest of the Peloponnesus in the province of Achaia. 
 
 (D.) PLACES IN ARCADIA. 
 
 1. Mantinea, at the foot of Mount Artemisius, on the bor 
 ders of Argolis, and nearly due west from Argos. It was one 
 of the oldest and most celebrated cities of Arcadia, and was said 
 to have been founded by Mantineus, son of Lycon. Mantinea 
 was situate on the banks of the little river Ophis, and was at 
 first composed of four or five hamlets, which were afterward 
 
GR^ECIA. 593 
 
 collected into one city ; and, previous to the founding of Me 
 galopolis, was the largest and most populous place in Arcadia. 
 The great but indecisive battle was fought in its plain between 
 the Boaotians and Spartans, in which Epaminondas was slain. 
 The ruins are now called Palceopoli. 2. Orchomenus, to the 
 northwest, also a very ancient city, and not to be confounded 
 with the place of the same name in Boeotia. The adjacent 
 plain was, in a great measure, occupied by a small lake formed 
 by the rain water which descended from the neighboring hills. 
 The site of this city is partly occupied by the modern village 
 of Kalpaki. 3. Stymphalus, to the northeast, founded by 
 Stymphalus, son of Areas, and called by Pindar, from its great 
 antiquity, the mother of Arcadia. Near the town was a lake 
 of the same name, once the fabled haunt of the birds called 
 Stymphalides, which were destroyed by Hercules. The town 
 stood on the northern shore of the lake. The ruins are near 
 the modern Kionia, according to Leake. 
 
 4. Pheneus, to the northwest. Hercules is said to have dwelt 
 here after his departure from Tiryns. Homer mentions it 
 among the principal Arcadian cities. It was surrounded by 
 extensive marshes, formed principally by the River Aroanius. 
 These are said to have once inundated the whole country, and 
 to have destroyed the ancient town. Its ruins are near the 
 village of Phonia. Between Pheneus and Stymphalus rose 
 Mount Cyllene, the loftiest and most celebrated mountain of 
 Arcadia, and on which, according to the poets, Mercury was 
 born. A temple was dedicated to him on its summit. The 
 modern name is Zyria. 5. Nonacris, to the northwest, on the 
 confines of Achaia. It was surrounded by lofty mountains and 
 perpendicular rocks, over which a torrent called Styx precipi 
 tated itself to join the River Crathis. The waters were said to 
 be poisonous, and to possess the property of corroding metals 
 and other hard substances. The fall of the Styx is now called 
 Mauronero, or "the Black Water." 
 
 6. Clltor, nearly due west from Pheneus, and a town of some 
 celebrity. There was a fountain here, which made those who 
 tasted its waters averse to wine. The town was situate on the 
 River Clitor, a tributary of the Aroanius. The ruins, now 
 called Palceopoli, are near the modern Mazi. 7. Cyncetha, to 
 the northwest, and on the northern declivity of Mount Aroanius. 
 
 PP 
 
594 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 The inhabitants were depraved and barbarous, owing, it is said, 
 to their neglect of music, to which the other Arcadians paid so 
 much attention. Near the town was a fountain called Alyssus, 
 from its curing hydrophobia. Cynaetha probably stood near the 
 site of the modern Calavrita. 8. Psophis, some distance to the 
 southwest, on the River Erymanthus, and at the foot of the 
 mountain of the same name. Mount Erymanthus is celebra 
 ted in fable as the haunt of the wild boar destroyed by Her 
 cules. The River Erymanthus is now the Dogana. The ru 
 ins of Psophis are near the Khan of Tripotamo. 9. Hercea, 
 some distance to the southwest, between the Ladon and Alphe- 
 TIS, and on the slope of a hill rising gently above the right 
 bank of the latter stream. It was near the confines of Elis. 
 which country frequently disputed its possession with Arcadia. 
 Its site is now partly occupied by the village of Aiani. 10. Alt- 
 phera, to the southwest, a place of considerable strength, and 
 occupied by the Eleans after the inhabitants had retired to Me 
 galopolis. Its site corresponds to the modern Nerovitza. 
 
 11. Megalopolis, to the southeast, and near the borders of 
 Messenia and Laconia. It was the most recent of all the Ar 
 cadian towns, and also the most extensive, and was situate in 
 a wide and fertile plain watered by the Helisson, which nearly 
 divided the town into two equal parts. It was founded by the 
 advice of Epaminondas, as a check upon the Spartans, with 
 whom the Megalopolitans often came subsequently into col 
 lision. It was at last surprised by them and destroyed. The 
 Achaeans restored it after the battle of Sellasia, but it never 
 rose to its former flourishing condition. Megalopolis was the 
 birth-place of Philopoemen and Polybius. Its site is in part oc 
 cupied by the modern Sinano. 12. Lycosura, to the northwest, 
 and which Pausanias makes to have been the oldest city in the 
 world. It still contained a few inhabitants when he made the 
 tour of Arcadia. It was situate on the slope of Mount Lycseus. 
 On this mountain Jupiter was worshipped, and, according to 
 the Arcadians, he was born on its summit. Mount Lycseus 
 was also sacred to Pan, who had a temple here, near which the 
 Lycaean games were performed. On the eastern side of the 
 mountain was the temple of Apollo Parrhasius. The modern 
 name of Mount Lycaeus is, in its northern part, Dioforti, and 
 in its southern, Tetrazi. 
 
GR^CIA. 595 
 
 13. PMgalea,) to the west of Lycosura, and beyond the River 
 Platanistus, on the brow of a lofty and precipitous rock, which 
 overhung the bed of the Neda. It was said to have been found 
 ed by Phigalus, son of Lycaon. The site is supposed to be 
 occupied by the modern town of Paulizza, The so-called Phi- 
 galean marbles are a series of sculptures in alto-relievo, pre 
 served in the British Museum, and derive their name from 
 having been discovered among the ruins of a temple at the an 
 cient BassfB, on Mount Cotylon, not far from the site of Phi- 
 galea. The subjects represented in them are the battle of the 
 Centaurs and Lapithse, and that of the Greeks and Amazons. 
 These sculptures show a fine school of design, and are to be re 
 ferred to about the same period with that when the Parthenon 
 was erected at Athens. 14. Teg-ea^ to the northeast of Mega 
 lopolis, and, next to Mantinea, the most ancient city of Arcadia. 
 The Tegeatse were early distinguished for their valor, and gained 
 many victories over the Spartans. They furnished three thou 
 sand soldiers at the battle of Plataese. It was the only town 
 of Arcadia which in Strabo s time preserved any degree of con 
 sequence and prosperity. Its remains are to be seen about an 
 hour east of Tripolizza, at a site now called Piali. 
 
 Between Megalopolis and Tegea extended the range of Mount 
 Mcenalus, one of the most celebrated in Arcadia, and sacred to 
 Pan, whose favorite haunt it was supposed to be. The sur 
 rounding district was called from it Mcenalia, or the Maenalian 
 region. The modern name of this mountain range is Romo y 
 according to Cramer. Leake, however, gives the name of the 
 highest summit as Aidin. 
 
 GRECIAN ISLANDS. 
 1. CYCLXDES. 
 
 I. THE name Cydddes was applied by the ancient Greeks to that cluster 
 (KikAof ) of islands which encircled Delos. Strabo says that the Cyclades were 
 at first only twelve in number, but were afterward increased to fifteen. These, 
 as we learn from Artemidorus, were Ceos, Cytknos, Serlpkos, Melos, S^phnos, 
 Cimolos, Prepesinthos , Olearos, Pdros, Nazos, Syros, Myconos, Tenos, Andros, and 
 Gydros, which last, however, Strabo himself was desirous of excluding, from its 
 being a mere rock, as also Prepesinthos and Olearos. 
 
 II. It appears from the Greek historians that the Cyclades were first inhab 
 ited by the Phenicians, Carians, and Leleges, whose piratical habits rendered 
 them formidable to the cities on the continent, till they were conquered and 
 finally extirpated by Minos, king of Crete. These islands were subsequently 
 
596 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 occupied for a short time by Polycrates, tyrant of Samos, and by the Persians , 
 but after the battle. of Mycale they became dependent on Athens. 
 
 III. Many of these islands are of volcanic formation ; others are composed 
 almost entirely of a pure white marble, of which the Parian, from Paros, where 
 it was formerly most worked, is often mentioned by ancient writers. They 
 now form a portion of the kingdom of Greece. 
 
 1. DELOS. 
 
 I. ACCORDING to the poetic tradition, Delos was originally a floating island, 
 moving beneath the surface of the ^Egean, until Neptune caused it to become 
 manifest (d^/lof) above the face of the waters, and made it stand firm, for the 
 purpose of receiving Latona when about to be delivered of Apollo and Diana. 
 It had several other ancient names, such as Asteria, Ortygia, Lagia, &c. It 
 was named Ortygia from opruf, " a quail," and Lagia from Aaywf, " a hare," the 
 island abounding with these. On this account, according to Strabo, it was not 
 allowed to have dogs at Delos, because they destroyed the quails and hares. 
 
 II. Delos was celebrated from the earliest times as a seat of the worship of 
 Apollo, it being his natal island. His temple and that of his mother Latona 
 were in the town of Delos, which was built on a little plain, on the west side 
 of the island, at the foot of a lofty mountain called Cynthus, whence Apollo ob 
 tained the surname of Cynthius, and Diana that of Cynthia. The River Inopus 
 ran into the sea to the south of the town. 
 
 III. Delos was a place of meeting for the lonians in the time of Homer ; and 
 athletic sports, with dancing and singing, were carried on there in honor of 
 Apollo. Polycrates of Samos consecrated the adjoining island ofRhenea to the 
 Delian god, and joined it to Delos by a chain. Delos fell into the power of the 
 Athenians in the time of Pisistratus, and then a partial purification of the island 
 took place by the removal of the tombs which were within sight of the temple. 
 In the year 426 B.C., a complete purification of Delos was made by the Athe 
 nians, and it was proclaimed that no one should thenceforth die or be born in 
 the island, but that all persons likely to die or bring forth should be sent over 
 to Rhenea. 
 
 IV. The Athenians instituted at Delos a festival, which returned at the be 
 ginning of every fifth year, called the Delia, and sent thither annually a sacred 
 vessel called the Theoris, in commemoration of the delivery of Athens by The 
 seus from the Cretan tribute. In 422 B.C., the tenth year of the Peloponne- 
 sian war, the Athenians removed the whole population to Adramyttium, where 
 they were allowed to settle by the satrap Pharnaces, and where many of them 
 were treacherously murdered by the Persians. Finally, however, the Atheni 
 ans restored those that survived to their country after the battle of Amphipolis, 
 as they considered that their ill success in the war proceeded from the anger 
 of the god on account of their conduct toward this unfortunate people. They 
 had removed them, in the first instance, because not satisfied with the purifica 
 tions which the island had undergone. 
 
 V. When Corinth was destroyed by Mummius, Delos succeeded to the com 
 merce of that city, and was for a time very flourishing ; but the generals of 
 Mithradates having landed there in the war between that monarch and the 
 Romans, the island was laid waste by them, and remained in a state of great 
 desolation. In the days of their prosperity the Delians carried on a very ex 
 tensive slave trade with Cilicia, and thousands of slaves were landed and sold 
 in a single day. The modern names of this little island are Delo, Dili, and Sdilli. 
 It is little more than a mass of bare rock. 
 
GR^CIA. 597 
 
 2. CEOS, CYTHNOS, AND SERIPHUS. 
 
 I. Ceos, now Zea, lay off the promontory of Sunium. It once possessed four 
 towns, namely, lulis, Carthaa, Coresia, and Pceessa (TLoi^eaoa). Of these, lulls 
 was the largest, and its site corresponds to that of the modern Zea, which gives 
 name to the whole island. lulis was the birth-place of Simonides and his 
 nephew. 
 
 II. Cythnus, now Thermia, lay to the southeast of Ceos. It had a town named 
 Cythnus, and now Tkermia, from the hot springs in its vicinity, and this mod 
 ern name has become that of the whole island. Cythnus was famed in ancient 
 times for these hot springs, and also for its cheese. 
 
 III. Seriphos to the south of Cythnos, is now Serpho. It was celebrated in. 
 mythology as the scene of some of the most remarkable adventures of Perseus, 
 who changed Polydectes, king of the island, and his subjects into stones, to 
 avenge the wrongs offered to his mother Danae. Strabo seems to account for 
 this fable from the rocky nature of the island. In Juvenal s time state prisoners 
 were sent thither. 
 
 3. MELOS AND SIPHNOS. 
 
 I. Melos, now Milo, lay, according to Strabo, seven hundred stadia from the 
 Scyllaeum Promontorium, and nearly as many from the Dictynnseum Promon- 
 torium of Crete. It was first inhabited by the Phoenicians, and afterward col 
 onized by the Lacedaemonians. The chief town was also called Melos. This 
 island was taken by the Athenians during the Peloponnesian war, who put all 
 the males to death, enslaved the women and children, and sent five hundred 
 colonists into the island. Melos was a very rich and productive isle. 
 
 II. Siphnos, now Siphanto, lay to the southeast of Seriphus, and northeast of 
 Melos. It contained gold and silver mines. In the age of Polycrates, the rev 
 enues of the Siphnians surpassed those of all the other islands, and enabled them 
 to erect a treasury at Delphi equal to those of the most opulent cities, and their 
 own buildings were sumptuously decorated with Parian marble. They after 
 ward, however, sustained a heavy loss by a descent of the Samians, who levied 
 upon the island a contribution of one hundred talents. In Strabo s time, this 
 island was so poor and insignificant as to give rise to proverbs. 
 
 4. CIMoLUS, PREPESINTHUS, AND OLEARUS. 
 
 I. Cimolus, now Cimoli or Argentiera, lay to the northeast of Melos, and be 
 tween that island and Siphnos. It produced a kind of fuller s earth, which was 
 of great use in whitening cloth. Its figs also were much esteemed. The island 
 was of small size. The town of Cimolus was situate on its western side. 
 
 II. Prepesinthus, a small island between Cimolus and Olearos, and now, ac 
 cording to Cramer, Spotiko or Despotiko. Others, however, give the modern 
 name as Strongylo. 
 
 III. Olearos, now Antiparo, lay a short distance to the west of Paros. The 
 ancients made the intervening space eighteen stadia. It is famous in modern 
 times for its grotto. 
 
 5. PAROS AND NAXOS. 
 
 I. Pdros, now Paro, to the northeast of Siphnos, was celebrated for its beau 
 tiful marble. Its early prosperity is evinced by the colonies it established at 
 Thasos, and on the shores of the Hellespont. During the time of the Persian 
 war it was the most flourishing and important of the Cyclades. After the battle 
 
598 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 of Marathon it was besieged in vain by Miltiades for twenty-six days, and thus 
 proved the cause of his disgrace. The marble quarries were on Mount Mar- 
 pessa. Faros was the birth-place of the poet Archilochus. 
 
 II. Naxos, now Naxia, lay to the east of Paros, and was the longest of the 
 Cyclades. It was first peopled by the Carians, but afterward received a colony 
 of lonians from Athens. The failure of the expedition undertaken by the Per 
 sians against this island, at the suggestion of Aristagoras, led to the revolt of 
 the Ionian states. Not long after, however, it was conquered by the Persian 
 fleet under Datis and Artaphernes, who destroyed the city and temples, and en 
 slaved the inhabitants. It soon, however, recovered from this blow. Naxos 
 was celebrated for the worship of Bacchus, who, according to one legend, was 
 born here. The principal town was Naxos ; there were also two others, named 
 Nysa and Tragea. 
 
 6. SYROS ANI> MYC6NOS. 
 
 I. SYROS, now Syra, lay between Cythnos and Rhenea, and was celebrated 
 for having given birth to Pherecydes the philosopher. At the present day, the 
 excellence of its harbor, and its central situation, have made it a considerable 
 commercial depot. It is the principal seat of the Protestant missionaries to the 
 Levant. 
 
 II. Mycomts, a little to the east of Delos, was a poor and barren island, and 
 the inhabitants consequently were rapacious and fond of money. They are said 
 to have lost their hair at an early age, whence the name of Myconian was pro 
 verbially used to designate a bald person. It was also said that the giants whom 
 Hercules had conquered lay in a heap under this island ; a fable which gave rise 
 to another saying (fiia Mvovof), applied to those authors who confusedly mixed 
 together things which ought to have been treated of separately. The island had 
 two towns. Its modern name is Myconi. 
 
 7. TENDS, ANDROS, & c. 
 
 I. Ten&s, now Tino, lay to the northwest of Myconos. It was also called 
 Hydrussa, from the abundance of its springs. Near the town of Tenos was a 
 temple of Neptune, held in great veneration, and much frequented by the in 
 habitants of the surrounding isles. 
 
 II. Andros, now Andre, lay to the northwest of the preceding. The island 
 was a poor one, and was fruitlessly sought to be reduced by Themistocles, 
 Eventually, however, it was rendered tributary. 
 
 III. Gyarus, the last of the Cyclades. So wretched and poor was this barren 
 rock, inhabited by only a few fishermen, that they deputed one of their number 
 to go to Augustus, then at Corinth after the battle of Actium, to petition that 
 their taxes, which amounted to one hundred and fifty drachmae, might be di 
 minished, as they were not able to raise more than one hundred. It became 
 subsequently notorious as the spot to which criminals or suspected persons were 
 banished by the Roman emperors. The modern name is Ghioura. 
 
 2. SPORADES. 
 
 THE Greeks comprised under the name of Sporades the numerous islands 
 scattered around the Cyclades, with which, in fact, several of them are inter 
 mixed, and those also which lay toward Crete and the coast of Asia Minor 
 The following are the most worthy of notice : 
 
 1. Thera, now Santorin, about seven hundred stadia to the north of Crete, and 
 nearly two hundred in circumference. It appears to have been produced by the 
 
GRJECIA. 599 
 
 action of submarine fire, as well as the island of Therasia contiguous to it. 
 This latter still retains its name. Thera was first occupied by the Phoenicians, 
 but was afterward colonized by the Lacedaemonians, who settled there the de 
 scendants of the Minyae, after they had been expelled from Lemnos by the Pe- 
 lasgi. Several generations afterward, a colony was led from this island under 
 Battus, a descendant of the Minyse, into Africa, and there founded the city of 
 Cyrene, about 630 B.C. 2. Anaphe, now Anphio, to the east of Thera. It was 
 so named, according to Apollonius, from the circumstance of Apollo s having 
 appeared (ava^aiveadai ) in this quarter to the Argonauts in a storm. A temple 
 was, in consequence, erected to him in this island, under the name of Mgletcs 
 (Pdyhfirris ), or " the radiant one." 
 
 3. los, north of Thera, and now Nio. Here, according to some accounts, 
 Homer was interred. It was also said that his mother was a native of this 
 island. 4. Sicinos, to the west of los, now Sikino, but originally called (Enoe, 
 from the quantity of wine which it produced. 5. Pholegandros, to the west of 
 Sicinos, now Policandro. It was so barren and rocky that Aratus called it the 
 iron isle. 6. Donysa, to the northeast of los, and now Raclia. 7. Amorgos, to 
 the east of Donysa, and now Amor go. It was of considerable size, and contained 
 three towns, namely, Arcesine, now Arkesini; JEgialus, now Porto S. Anna ; and 
 Minoa, now Porto Bathy. Amorgos gave its name to a peculiar kind of flax 
 (u^opyif) produced here, and remarkable for its fine quality. It was also the 
 birth-place of Simonides, the iambic poet. 8. Astypalea, to the southeast of 
 Amorgos, and now Stanpalia. It contained a town of the same name. It is 
 said that hares having been introduced into this island from Anaphe, it was so 
 overrun by them that the inhabitants were compelled to consult an oracle, which 
 advised their hunting them with dogs, and that in one year six thousand were 
 caught. 9. Telos, to the southeast of the preceding, and near the coast of Asia 
 Minor. It was noted for a particular ointment made there. The modern name 
 is Episcopia. 10. Nisyrus, to the northwest of Telos. According to the legend, 
 it was separated from Cos by Neptune, in order that he might hurl it against 
 the giant Polybotes. The modern name is Nisari. 11. Carpdlhus, between 
 Crete and Rhodes, and now Scarpanto. It contained four towns. 
 
 3. CRETA. 
 
 1. NAME, DESCRIPTION, &c. 
 
 I. Greta, now Candia, is one of the largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea, 
 and lay to the south of all the Cyclades and Sporades. It was fabled to have 
 derived its name from the Curetes, who are said to have been its first inhabit 
 ants. 
 
 II. Its length from east to west is about one hundred and sixty miles ; its 
 breadth is very unequal. In some places, toward the middle of the island, it is 
 about thirty-five miles broad ; in others, about twenty miles. Between the Am- 
 phimallius Sinus and Phoznix Portus it is only ten miles ; and in the eastern part, 
 between the Didymi Sinus and Hierapytna, it is merely six miles across. 
 
 III. Crete has three principal capes : 1. Salmonium Promontorium, now Cape 
 Salmone, at the eastern extremity. 2. Corycum Promontorium, now Cape Kara- 
 busa, at the western end, looking toward the Peloponnesus. 3. Criu Metopon, 
 now Cape Crio, at the southwestern extremity. Its coast, especially toward the 
 north, is indented by deep gulfs. The southern coast is rugged and iron bound. 
 A continuous mass of highland runs through the whole length of the island, 
 about the middle of which, Mount Ida, now called Psilorati, rises far above the 
 
600 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 rest, to the height of seven thousand six hundred and seventy-four feet. The 
 mountains in the western part were called Leuci Monies (Aev/ca "Opy). The 
 rivers are only a kind of torrents, very shallow in the dry season. 
 
 IV. The modern name Candia comes from the Arabic Chandea, an appella 
 tion given by the Saracens to the town founded by them, and which still exists 
 as the capital of the island, signifying " an intrenchment." 
 
 2. SKETCH OF CRETAN HISTORY. 
 
 I. HISTORIANS and poets tell us of a king called Minos, who lived before the 
 Trojan war, and resided at Cnosus. He ruled over the greater part of the island. 
 Minos was the legislator of the country, and his laws became celebrated among 
 the Greeks, who borrowed from them. Lycurgus, in particular, is said to have 
 taken many of the features of the Spartan constitution from the Cretan cpde. 
 Minos was also the first who had a navy. He cleared the Grecian seas of pi 
 rates, and expelled the Carians from the Cyclades. Idomeneus, a grandson of 
 Minos, was one of the chiefs who went with Agamemnon to the siege of Troy. 
 On his return, however, he was driven from his throne by a faction, and sailed 
 to lapygia in Lower Italy, where he founded Salentum. At this period the island 
 appears to have been inhabited by a mixed population of Greeks and barbarians. 
 The eastern parts of the island were colonized by the Dorians, under the com 
 mand of Althamenes of Argos, after the death of Codrus, and the foundation of 
 Megara. 
 
 II. After the expulsion of Idomeneus, the principal cities of Crete formed 
 themselves into several republics, for the most part independent, while others 
 were connected by federal ties. These, though not exempted from the dissen 
 sions which so universally distracted the Greek republics, maintained for a long 
 time a considerable degree of prosperity, owing to the good system of laws and 
 education which had been so early instituted throughout the island by the laws 
 of Minos. The Cretan soldiers were held in high estimation as light troops and 
 archers. The character of the inhabitants, however, was decidedly bad, and 
 they were accused of habitual lying and deception, and of the grossest immo 
 rality. 
 
 III. Crete was conquered by the Romans, B.C. 67, under the command of the 
 proconsul Quintus Metellus. It became a Roman province, and a colony was 
 sent to Cnosus. It remained subject to the Roman emperors, and afterward to 
 the Byzantines, until A.D. 823, when it was conquered by the Saracens, who 
 built the town of Candia, which, besides giving name to, has ever since been 
 regarded as the capital of the island. 
 
 3. PLACES IN CRETE. 
 
 HOMER, in one passage, (II., 2, 649), ascribes to Crete one hundred cities, and 
 in another (Od., 20, 174) only ninety. This variation has been accounted for 
 by some on the supposition that ten of the Cretan cities were founded subse 
 quently to the siege of Troy. Others, however, affirmed that during the siege 
 of Troy the ten deficient cities had been destroyed by the enemies of Idomeneus. 
 In the present enumeration we will name merely a few of the most important 
 places. 
 
 1. Phalasarna, to the south of Corycum Promontorium, and a port of some 
 consequence in this, the western part of the island. It was the nearest Cretan 
 harbor to the Peloponnesus. 2. Cydonia, to the east, on the northern coast, and 
 one of the most ancient and important towns of Crete. It was said to have 
 been founded by a party of Samians, exiled by Polycrates. The Malum Cydo- 
 
ASIA. 601 
 
 nium, or " Quince," derived its name from this place. Its ruins are on the site 
 ofJerami. 3. Amphimalla, to the southeast, near the modern fortress ofArmiro. 
 4. Cnosus or Gnosus, some distance to the east, the ancient royal city of Crete, 
 and capital of Minos. Its earlier name was Cceratus, according to Strabo. 
 Near this place was the celebrated labyrinth, constructed by Daedalus, but of 
 which no traces remained in the time of Diodorus. Cnosus long preserved its 
 rank among the chief cities of Crete, and by its alliance with Gortys obtained 
 the dominion of nearly the whole island. The vestiges of this place are dis 
 cernible to the east of the modern town of Candia. The precise site of the ruins 
 is called Long Candia. 
 
 5. Minoa, some distance to the southeast, and on the Didymi Sinus, now Gulf 
 of Mirabello. Here is the narrowest part of the island, the distance across to 
 Hierapytna being merely six miles. To the southeast is Mons Dicte, celebrated 
 as the birth-place of Jupiter, and now Lassiti or Lasthi. Here was the Dictsean 
 cave, in which the infant Jove was fed by bees. 6. Hierapytna, on the southern 
 coast, and directly across from Minoa. It was a town of great antiquity, and 
 was fabled to have been founded by the Corybantes. It was successively called 
 Cyrba, Pytna, Camirus, and Hierapytna. The site corresponds to that of the 
 modern Girapietra. 7. Lyctus, to the northwest, and an important town in the 
 days of Homer and Hesiod. According to the latter poet, Jupiter was brought 
 up on Mount ^Egaeus in its vicinity. Lyctus subsequently received a Lace 
 daemonian colony. It was destroyed, however, by the Cnosians. The inhabit 
 ants ranked high in regard to moral character among the other Cretans. 8. Pra- 
 sus, to the southwest, and one of the most ancient cities of the island. It was 
 destroyed by the people of Hierapytna. The ruins are near Castel Belvedere. 
 9. Gortys or Gortyna, to the west, and next to Cnosus in splendor and import 
 ance. It was situate on the River Lethaeus, ninety stadia from the Libyan Sea, 
 and had two harbors, Lebena and Metalla. To the northwest was the Cretan 
 Mount Ida, now Psiloriti. 10. Phoenix Portus, farther to the west, and now 
 probably Castel Franco, a little to the east of Sphakia. The ship which con 
 veyed St. Paul to Rome endeavored to put in here before it was overtaken by 
 the tempest. In the westernmost part of the island were the Leuci Monies, now 
 Aspro Vouna. 
 
 The Grecian islands that remain to be described will be noticed under the 
 head of Asia. 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 1. NAME. 
 
 I. HOMER applies the name of Asia to a small district of 
 Maeonia or Lydia, situated near the River Cayster. 
 
 II. It would appear that the Ionian Greeks, on their first ar 
 rival on the banks of the Cayster, found the name of Asia at 
 tached to this part of the continent, and communicated it to 
 their European countrymen, who, in process of time, applied 
 it to all the countries situate to the east of Greece. 
 
 OBS. 1. It would be wrong, however, to suppose that the name Asia belonged 
 merely to that part of the continent with which the Ionian colonists first became 
 acquainted. It would rather seem to have been given at an early period to va- 
 
602 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 rious spots connected with the worship of the Asi, and all pointing to some re 
 gion of the remote east, where the name most probably originated. 
 
 2. The term Asi is a general appellation given in the mythology of northern 
 Europe to the deities that came in with Odin from the east. Asia, therefore, 
 will mean the land of the Asi, or the " Holy Land," and will indicate the region 
 where religion arose, and whence it spread to the countries of the west. Com 
 pare Anthonys Class. Diet., s. v. Asi. 
 
 2. EXTENT AND BOUNDARIES. 
 
 I. THE ancients were unacquainted with the extreme north 
 ern and eastern portions of Asia. They seem to have been 
 aware, however (at least after the expedition of Alexander the 
 Great), that this quarter of the globe was washed by three 
 different oceans, and on the western side by an inland sea, the 
 most considerable in the world. 
 
 II. The boundaries of ancient Asia, therefore, may be given 
 as follows : on the north, the great Northern Ocean ; on the 
 east, the great Eastern Ocean ; on the south, the Oceanus In- 
 dicus, or Indian Ocean; on the southwest, the Sinus Arabians, 
 or Red Sea, which separated it from Egypt. The western 
 boundary was formed by the Mediterranean and JEgean Seas, 
 and a line drawn through the Hellespontus, or Dardanelles, 
 the Propontis, or Sea of Marmara, the Pontus Euxinus, or 
 Black Sea, the Palus Mceotis, or Sea of Azof, and then by 
 the River Tanais, or Don. 
 
 OBS. Herodotus mentions the Phdsis as separating Asia from Europe, but 
 later and better authorities name the Tana is. The older geographers consid 
 ered Egypt sometimes partially, sometimes entirely as belonging to Asia. 
 
 3. PROGRESSIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 I. FROM the earliest records of European history, the Homeric poems, we 
 learn that an intercourse existed, before the war of Troy, between the inhabit 
 ants of Europe and Asia. But, as far as we can infer from our authorities, it 
 was more of a hostile than a pacific nature. Commercial exchange seems to 
 have been nearly confined to a few Phoenician vessels, which visited the islands 
 of the Archipelago and some ports of Greece. The establishment of Greek 
 colonies in Ionia, and the Greek navigation of the Black Sea, gradually led to 
 a knowledge of western Asia. 
 
 II. About 550 B.C., a large number of separate states were incorporated into 
 the extensive Persian empire, which comprehended nearly all the countries be 
 tween the Mediterranean Sea on the west, and the Belur Dagh on the east, the 
 Caspian on the north, and the mountains which border the valley of the Indus 
 on the south ; and as many of the Greek colonists were placed in close com 
 munication with this empire, geographical knowledge of the interior rapidly ex 
 tended. 
 
 III. Before the time when Herodotus wrote, the Persian empire had become 
 
ASIA. 603 
 
 stationary. Accordingly, we find that the geographical knowledge of the Greeks, 
 for more than a century, did not advance beyond the ancient boundaries of that 
 empire. But as the intercourse, both hostile and pacific, between the Greeks 
 and Persians, had during that period considerably increased, their knowledge of 
 the different provinces composing the Persian empire was also enlarged. By 
 the subsequent conquests of Alexander, the remoter provinces of the Persian 
 monarchy were at once opened to the Greeks. 
 
 IV. The successors of Alexander, being almost continually engaged in wars 
 among themselves, did not add largely to the then existing knowledge of Asia. 
 At a later date, when the Romans extended the boundary of their empire to the 
 Tigris and the Euphrates, their military expeditions being carried on in coun 
 tries previously known, could add very little to the store of information. We 
 ought, however, to make an exception with respect to the Caucasus. In their 
 wars with Mithradates, king of Pontus, the armies of the Romans passed the 
 boundaries of the then known world, and arrived at Mount Caucasus, with whose 
 extent and situation they became acquainted, though they did not enter the 
 valleys which lie in its bosom. In proceeding farther to the shores of the Cas 
 pian Sea, they got information of a commercial road through Bactria, by which 
 the countries on the south of the Caspian Sea carried on an active commerce 
 with India ; and soon after another route was discovered, which led over the 
 high table land of Upper Asia to the Seres or Chinese. 
 
 OBS. 1. The knowledge which the ancients acquired concerning the geography of Asia is em 
 bodied in the systematic works of Strabo, Pliny, and Ptolemy, the last of whom raised geogra 
 phy to a science by basing it on astronomical principles. From these writers, it is evident that 
 only those countries into which the Macedonian conqueror had carried his arms were known 
 with some degree of correctness as to their general features, and that beyond them their knowl 
 edge was limited to a few places traversed by commercial roads, and to the harbors. 
 
 2. Besides the works just mentioned, the " Periplus" of Nearchus, and another probably written 
 in the second century, and attributed to Arrian, give a more particular description of the coast of 
 eastern Africa and Asia. Another " Periplus" likewise, which certainly is the work of Arrian, con 
 tains a brief description of the Pontus Euxinus. As to the geography of northern Asia, few ad 
 ditions seem to have been made after the time of Herodotus and Alexander. In some respect* 
 there seems to have been a retrograde movement, as Herodotus knew the Caspian to be a lake, 
 which Strabo believed to communicate with the Northern Ocean. Ptolemy, in his map, restored 
 the Caspian to its true character of an inland sea, but he placed its length from east to west, in 
 stead of from north to south as Herodotus had done. 
 
 4. SEAS, GULFS, STRAITS, &c. 
 
 IN enumerating these, we will include some which have been 
 already mentioned, but which may be said to belong in com 
 mon to both Asia and Europe : 
 
 1. Mare Scythlcum Frozen Sea (p. 9). 
 
 2. Oceanus Edus Eastern Ocean. 
 
 3. Oceanus Indicus Indian Ocean. 
 
 4. Mare Erythrceum .... (Erythrcean Sea). 
 
 5. Mare Mediterraneum . . . Mediterranean (p. 8). 
 
 6. Mare JEgeum Mgean Sea (p. 489.) 
 
 7. Propontis Sea of Marmara (p. 425) 
 
 8. Pontus Euxinus Black Sea (p. 236). 
 
 9. Palus Mceotis Sea of Azof (p. 237). 
 
604 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 10. Mare Caspium Caspian Sea. 
 
 11. Paludes recipientes Araxem . Sea of Aral. 
 
 OBS. 1. The name Mare Erythr&um was first applied by the Greeks to the 
 whole ocean, extending from the coast of Ethiopia to the island of Taprobana, 
 when their knowledge of India was as yet in its infancy. It would mean at that 
 time the whole Indian Ocean. Afterward, however, when the Greeks learned 
 the existence of an Indian Ocean in a special sense, the term Erythrean Sea 
 was applied merely to the sea below Arabia, or, more strictly speaking, between 
 the peninsulas of Arabia and India. 
 
 2. The Caspian Sea was known to the Greeks and Romans. Herodotus, the 
 first who mentions it (L, 203), calls it by this name, and the appellation would 
 seem to have been derived either from the Caspii, who inhabited its southern 
 coast, or from casp, " a mountain," in allusion to its vicinity to Caucasus. Later 
 writers, however, limited the term Caspian to the western portion, calling the 
 eastern Mare Hyrcanium, or the Hyrcanian Sea. At one time it became a gen 
 eral belief among the ancients that the Caspian was connected with the Arctic 
 Sea by a strait, an opinion which seems to have arisen from some slight infor 
 mation obtained respecting the mouth of the Wolga. Ptolemy, however, who 
 knew the Wolga, which is named by him Rha, does not mention the existence 
 of this strait. 
 
 3. The ancients were not acquainted with the Sea of Aral, but confounded it 
 with the Caspian. The language of the text is mainly based upon the account 
 of Herodotus, who speaks of a large river named Araxes, coming in from the 
 east, and losing itself amid marshes, with the exception of one of its mouths, 
 which flowed into the Caspian. This river is thought by some to have been the 
 laxartes, by others the Oxus, both of which empty into the Sea of Aral. For 
 a discussion of the whole subject, consult Bdhr, ad Herod., i., 202. 
 
 The following are the most important gulfs, commencing 
 with the remote east : 
 
 1. Magnus Sinus Gulf of Si am. 
 
 2. Gang-eticus Sinus Bay of Bengal. 
 
 3. Perslcus Sinus Persian Gulf. 
 
 4. Avalltes Sinus Bay of Zeyla. 
 
 5. Ardbicus Sinus Red Sea. 
 
 6. Issicus Sinus Bay of Iskenderoon. 
 
 7. Dondis Sinus Gulf of Syme. 
 
 8. Ceramicus Sinus Gulf of Cos. 
 
 9. lassius Sinus Gulf of Asyn Alessi. 
 
 10. Smyrnceus Sinus Gulf of Smyrna. 
 
 11. Adramyttenus Sinus .... Gulf of Adramyti. 
 
 12. Cianus Sinus Gulf of Mondanich. 
 
 13. Astacenus Sinus Gulf of Isnid. 
 
 Among the straits may be enumerated the following, some 
 
 of which have already been mentioned : 
 
 1. Dire or Dere .... Strait of Bab-el-mandeb. 
 
ASIA. 
 
 605 
 
 2. Hellespontus .... Dardanelles (p. 425). 
 
 3. Bosporus Thradcus . Strait of Constantinople (p. 9). 
 
 4. Bosporus Cimmerius . Strait of Caff a or Feodosia (p. 9). 
 OBS. 1. The term Dire is in Greek Aeip^, and signifies " the neck." The name 
 
 is said to have been given to the strait by the Greeks, from its appearance as it 
 stretched along the coast. Ptolemy, however, writes the name Aj/ptf, Dere. 
 Mannert maintains that Dire is now Ras-bel, and that the opposite promontory 
 of Posidium is now Bab-el-mandeb. This modern name means "the Gate of 
 Danger." 
 
 5. PROMONTORIES 
 
 1. Satyr orum Promontorium . . . 
 
 2. Magnum Promontorium 
 
 3. Comaria Promontorium . . . 
 
 4. Syagros Promontorium .... 
 
 5. Carmelum Promontorium . . . 
 
 6. Anemurium Promontorium 
 
 7. Sacrum Promontorium .... 
 
 8. Triopium Promontorium . . . 
 
 9. Trogilium Promontorium . . . 
 
 10. Coryceum Promontorium . . . 
 
 11. Phance Promontorium .... 
 
 12. Melcena Promontorium .... 
 
 13. Lectum Promontorium .... 
 
 14. Sigceum Promontorium .... 
 
 15. Rhceteum Promontorium 
 
 16. Calpe Promontorium .... 
 
 17. Carambis Promontorium . . . 
 
 18. lasonium Promontorium 
 
 6. RIVERS. 
 
 Point Condor. 
 Romania Point. 
 Cape Comorin. 
 Cape Ras-al-Had, 
 Cape Carmel. 
 Cape Anamour. 
 Cape Kelidoni. 
 Cape Krio. 
 Cape S. Maria. 
 Cape Courco. 
 Cape Mastico. 
 Cape Kara-hour oun. 
 Cape Baba. 
 Cape Jenischer. 
 Cape It-Ghelmes. 
 Cape Kirpe. 
 Cape Karempi. 
 Cape lasun. 
 
 (A.) Rivers emptying into the Oceanus Indicus, or Indian 
 
 Ocean. 
 
 1 . Ganges, a celebrated river of India, rising in Mons Imaus, or the Himmaleh 
 Mountains, and flowing into the Sinus Gangeticus, or Bay of Bengal. It is com 
 puted to be fifteen hundred miles in length. 
 
 2. Indus, another celebrated river of India, rising also in Mons Imaus, and 
 falling, after a course of thirteen hundred miles, into the Erythraum Mare, a 
 part of the Oceanus Indicus. It receives in its course the following five rivers, 
 which reach it through a common affluent : 1. The Hydaspes, now the Jhylum. 
 2. The Acesines, now the Chunab. 3. The Hydraotes, now the Ravee. 4. The 
 Hyphasis, now the Beyah. 5. The Xeradrus, now the Setledge. The country 
 watered by these five rivers was called by the Greek writers Pentapdtdmia, and 
 
606 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 is now the Pendjab, or " country of the five rivers." Of these streams the 
 Hyphasis was the limit of Alexander s conquests. Ptolemy gives the Indus 
 seven mouths. At the present day, however, it enters the sea in one volume, 
 the lateral streams being absorbed by the sand without reaching the ocean. 
 
 3. Tigris, a large river of Asia, rising in the mountains of Armenia Major, 
 in the district of Sophene, and falling into the Euphrates. The stream formed 
 by their junction was called Pasitigris, now Shat-el-Arab, or " the River of 
 Arabia. The length of the Tigris is eight hundred miles. 
 
 4. Euphrates, a celebrated river rising near Arze, the modern Erze Roum, in 
 the most northern branch of Mount Taurus. It receives the Arsanias from the 
 east, a river often mistaken for the true Euphrates. Its main tributary, how 
 ever, is the Tigris. The Euphrates flows into the Sinus Persicus after a course 
 of one thousand one hundred and forty-seven miles. 
 
 (B.) Rivers emptying into the Mare Caspium. 
 
 1. Rha, now the Wolga. No ancient writer prior to Ptolemy mentions either 
 its name or course. 
 
 2. Araxes, a river of Armenia Major, issuing from Mons Abus, on the side 
 opposite to that whence the Arsanias, or southern arm of the Euphrates, flows. 
 It runs east until it meets the mountains which separate Armenia from northern 
 Media, when it turns to the north, and, after receiving the Cyrus, now the Kur, 
 falls into the Caspian. It is now the Arras. 
 
 (C.) Rivers emptying into the Sea of Aral. 
 
 1. laxartes, rising in the chain of Mons Imaus, and flowing into the Sea of 
 Aral after a course of one thousand six hundred and eighty-two miles. It is 
 now the Sir. Ptolemy makes it flow into the Caspian, as he was unacquainted 
 with the existence of the Sea of Aral. Herodotus, long before, had called the 
 laxartes by the name of Araxes, and confounded it with the Oxus. 
 
 2. Oxus, rising in the northeastern extremity of Bactriana, and flowing for 
 the greater part of its course in a northwest direction. It receives numerous 
 tributaries, and falls, after a course of twelve hundred miles, into the Sea of 
 Aral. It is now the Amoo or Jihon. The ancient writers make it flow into the 
 Caspian, but they were ignorant of the existence of the Sea of Aral. 
 
 (D.) Rivers emptying into the Palus Mceotis. 
 
 1. Tanais, now Don, forming the boundary in this quarter between Asia and 
 Europe. It has been already mentioned (p. 236). 
 
 2. Hypanis, called also Vardanus, rising in the central part of Caucasus, and 
 falling into the Palus Mseotis by several mouths. It is now the Kuban. We 
 must not confound it with the European Hypanis, now the Bog, which flows 
 into the Euxine. 
 
 (E.) Rivers emptying into the Pontus Euxinus. 
 
 1. Phasis, rising in the southern portion of the Moschian Mountains, which 
 were regarded as belonging to Armenia, and flowing through parts of Armenia, 
 Iberia, and Colchis, into the Euxine. It is now the Rion or Rioni. The Turks 
 call it the Fasch. It is famous in mythology from Jason s having obtained in its 
 vicinity the golden fleece. 
 
 2. Lycus, rising on the confines of Armenia Minor, and flowing into the Eux 
 ine to the southeast of Amisus. It is now the Yeshil-Ermak, or " the Green 
 
ASIA. 607 
 
 River." The Lycus receives the River Iris, which also rises on the confines 
 of Armenia Minor, and is now called the Tokat-su. 
 
 3. Halys, now the Kizil-Errnak, or " Red River," rising on the confines of 
 Pontus and Armenia Minor, and entering the sea some distance to the north 
 west of Amisus. It is the largest river in the peninsula of Asia Minor. This 
 river formed the eastern boundary of the dominions of Croesus, king of Lydia. 
 
 4. Sangarius, rising in Mount Adoreus, a branch of Mount Dindymus, near the 
 southern confines of Galatia, and falling into the Euxine after flowing through 
 Galatia and Bithynia. It is now the Sakaria. 
 
 (F.) Rivers emptying into the Mediterranean. 
 
 1. Scamander, a river near Troy, rising in Mount Ida, and, after receiving the 
 Simois, falling into the ^Egean at the entrance of the Hellespont. It is now 
 the Bounarbacki. The modern name of the Simois is Mendere-Sou. The Sca- 
 mander was also called the Xanthus. 
 
 2. Hermits, rising in Mount Dindymus in Phrygia, and falling into the Sinus 
 Smyrnaeus. It received in its course the waters of the Hyllus and Pactolus. 
 The modern name is the Sarabat. 
 
 3. M&andcr, rising near Celaenae in Phrygia, and, after forming the common 
 boundary between Lydia and Caria, falling into the ^Egean below the promon 
 tory of Mycale. It was remarkable for its winding course. The modern name 
 is the Minder. 
 
 4. Xanthus, a river of Lycia, rising in the range of Mount Taurus, and falling 
 into the Mediterranean below the Cragi Vertices, or the projections made by 
 the range of Cragus on the Lycian coast. It is now the Etchen Chai. 
 
 5. Cydnus, a river of Cilicia Campestris, rising in Mount Taurus, and falling 
 into the sea near Tarsus, which stood upon its banks. It was remarkable for 
 the coldness of its waters, and Alexander the Great nearly lost his life by bathing 
 in them. It is now the Tersus-Chai. 
 
 6. Orontes, a river of Syria, rising on the eastern side of the range of Libanus. 
 and falling into the Mediterranean about six leagues below Antiochia. It is now 
 the Aasi. 
 
 7. MOUNTAINS. 
 1. Mons Taurus, according to the later Greek geographers, a great chain of 
 
 mountains extending nearly due east and west from the shores of the 
 to those of the supposed Eastern Ocean, and dividing Asia into two parts, Asia 
 within the Taurus, and Asia without the Taurus. The chain of Taurus, how 
 ever, properly so called, commences at the southwestern point of Asia Minor, 
 and proceeding eastward, parallel and near to the Mediterranean, it incloses 
 between itself and the coast Pamphylia and Cilicia. At the River Pyramus the 
 chain divides into two, namely, that of Amanus, which proceeds to the east, 
 dividing Syria from Asia Minor, and the continuation of Taurus, which runs 
 northeast, along the southeast side of Cappadocia, across the Euphrates into 
 the northern part of Armenia, where it joins Mons Masius. This chain now 
 bears the name of Enamas, Ramadan, and Gourin. 
 
 2. Antitaurus, a great branch thrown off by Taurus, and which passes through 
 the middle of Cappadocia, northeast to the sources of the Halys, and thence east 
 to the Euphrates. Its modern name is Alidagh. 
 
 3. Caucasus, a lofty range of mountains between the Euxine and Caspian 
 Seas. This chain is entirely unconnected with any of the great mountain sys- 
 
608 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 terns of Europe and Asia. The intercourse between the countries south and 
 north of the Caucasus is carried on by two roads. The most easterly runs 
 along the shores of the Caspian, and was called by the ancients Albania Pyl<z. 
 It is now the pass of Derbend. The other traverses the Caucasus nearly in its 
 centre. The ancients called it the Porte. Caucasia. It is now the pass of 
 Daricl. 
 
 4. Emodi Monies, a part, in fact, of the range of Mons Imaus, or the great chain 
 of Himmalah. That part of the chain which Alexander crossed in order to in 
 vade Bactriana was called Paropamisus ; the more easterly continuation of the 
 range was termed Emodi Monies ; and its still farther continuation in a north 
 eastern direction was styled Imaus. 
 
 MAIN DIVISIONS OF ASIA. 
 
 I. THE most natural division of this continent will be into, 
 1. Southern Asia. 2. Central Asia. 3. Northern Asia. 
 
 II. By Southern Asia is meant the country south of Taurus, 
 in the enlarged sense of this latter name, now Asiatic Turkey, 
 Arabia, Persia, India, Thibet, and the islands of Southern 
 Asia. 
 
 III. By Central Asia is meant the Caucasian region, Asi 
 atic Tartary, Mongolia, Corea, Japan, &c. ; by Northern 
 Asia, on the other hand, Asiatic Russia. 
 
 1. SOUTHERN ASIA. 
 
 I. SOUTHERN Asia comprises the country from the fortieth 
 degree of north latitude nearly to the equator. It possesses 
 great advantages over Central and Northern Asia in respect 
 of agriculture, and the abundance of its costly and varied prod 
 ucts. 
 
 II. Here it appears that man first adopted political govern 
 ments and fixed residences ; here, therefore, was always the 
 main seat of Asiatic industry, exhibited in the manufacture of 
 fine cottons, silks, &c. The natural marts in the interior were 
 on the great rivers, and the principal caravan roads were from 
 the Euxine across Armenia, or from the Wolga across the lax- 
 artes, far into the east. Marts of the Greeks and Phosnicians 
 crowded the western shores. 
 
 III. Southern Asia may be subdivided into, 1. Southwestern 
 Asia, from the Mediterranean to the Indus. 2. Southeastern 
 Asia, from the Indus to the Eastern Ocean. 
 
 (A.) SOUTHWESTERN ASIA. 
 
 I. THIS country, again, may be subdivided into three parts ; 
 
ASIA. 609 
 
 namely, 1. The countries between the Mediterranean and the 
 Euphrates. 2. The countries between the Euphrates and Ti 
 gris. 3. The countries between the Tigris and Indus. 
 
 COUNTRIES W EST OF THE EUPHRATES. 
 THE grand divisions of the land between the Mediterranean 
 and the Euphrates are, 1. Asia Minor. 2. Syria, including 
 Phoenicia and Palestine. 3. Arabia. 
 
 1. ASIA MINOR. 
 
 I. Asia Minor is a peninsula, bounded on the north by the 
 Pontus Euxinus ; on the northwest by the Thracian Bosporus, 
 the Propontis, and the Hellespont ; on the west by the JEgean 
 Sea ; on the south by the Mediterranean ; on the southeast 
 by Syria, from which it is separated by the range of Mount 
 Amanus ; and on the east by Armenia, from which it is sep 
 arated by the rivers Euphrates and Acampsis. 
 
 II. The interior of this peninsula forms a westerly continu 
 ation of the Armenian highlands, separated from the coast on 
 the north by the range of Mount Taurus, and on the south by 
 that of Anti- Taurus, and broken toward the west into chains 
 of lower mountains, such as Tmolus, Sipylus, Ida, and Olym 
 pus. The highest point is Mount Argceus, now Arjish Dagh, 
 on the Upper Halys, the point from which the rivers run in dif 
 ferent directions into the Euxine and Mediterranean Seas, and 
 the Euphrates. 
 
 III. Asia Minor contained twelve provinces, namely, three 
 on the southern coast, Cilicia, Pamphylia, Lycia ; three on 
 the western coast, Caria, Lydia, Mysia ; three on the north 
 ern coast, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Pontus ; and three in the 
 interior, Phrygia, Pisidia, and Cappadocia. Under Phrygia 
 was comprehended Galatia ; and under Cappadocia, Lycaonia 
 and Isauria. This order will be observed in describing them, 
 and we will then give an account of the islands along the 
 southern and western coasts. 
 
 IV. The name Asia Minor was not employed by the Roman 
 writers in the classical period. It occurs first in Orosius, who 
 flourished about the beginning of the fifth century of our era. 
 The Greeks and Romans had no special designation before this 
 time for the Asiatic peninsula, for the name Aaia evros rov 
 
 QQ 
 

 610 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Tavpov, or Asia Cis Taurum, only referred to the western half, 
 as did also Pliny s Asia Propria. The Roman province of 
 Asia, or Asia Proconsulates, comprised Mysia, Lydia, Caria, 
 and Phrygia, with the exception of Lycaonia. 
 
 CILICIA. 
 
 I. Cilicia was bounded on the north by Mount Taurus, on 
 the south by the Mediterranean, on the east by Mount Amlf- 
 nus, and on the west by Pamphylia and Pisidia. It was di 
 vided into two parts, the names of which were derived from 
 their physical character. The western division was called Ci 
 licia Trachea, (KihiKia Tpa%em), that is, mountainous or rough 
 Cilicia ; and the eastern division Cilicia Campestris (KikiKLa 
 Kedtdg), that is, level Cilicia. 
 
 II. The inhabitants of the interior were of Syrian origin. 
 The coast was first settled by the Phoenicians, and afterward 
 by the Greeks. The character of the Cilicians did not stand 
 high. They became addicted to piracy, and at one time ruled 
 a great part of the Mediterranean. They were put down com 
 pletely, however, by Pompey. Cilicia Trachea produced val 
 uable ship timber in great abundance. Cilicia Campestris was 
 well watered and fertile, and has always been famous for a fine 
 breed of horses. The annual tribute to Darius consisted of 
 three hundred and sixty white horses, and five hundred talents 
 of silver. 
 
 III. The rivers of Cilicia all come down from Mount Taurus, 
 and as they all carry down the melted snow from this mount 
 ain chain, the water of all, but especially of the Cydnus, is ex 
 tremely cold. Among them may be named, 1. The Pyramus, 
 now the Jyhoon. 2. The Sarus, now the Sihoon. 3. The 
 Cydnus, now the Tersoos. Alexander the Great nearly lost 
 his life by bathing, when overheated, in this cold stream ; and 
 it proved fatal in a later age to the Emperor Frederic Barba- 
 rossa. 4. The Lamus, now the Lamas, separating Cilicia Cam 
 pestris from Trachea. 5. The Calycadnus, now the Ghiuk- 
 Sou. 6. The Selinus, now the Selenti. 
 
 PLACES IN CILICIA. 
 
 IN Cilicia Trachea we have, 1. Coracesium, the first town after leaving Pam 
 phylia. It was a strong and important fortress, on a steep rock, and is now 
 Alaya. 2. Hamaxia, to the east. The country around was famed for its cedars, 
 and was given by Antony to Cleopatra for the construction of her fleet. 3. Se- 
 
ASIA. 611 
 
 linns, at the mouth of the Selinus. Here Trajan died, and it was afterward 
 called Trajanopolis. It is now Selenti, which is the modern name also of the 
 river. 4. Anemurium, a town and promontory, now Anamour. This cape is the 
 most southern point of Asia Minor. 5. Celenderis, to the northeast, a Phoeni 
 cian settlement originally. Afterward a colony from Samos was established 
 here. It was a place of great strength, built on a lofty precipice, and is now 
 Chelindreh. 6. Seleucla Trachea, in a fertile plain, watered by the Calycadnus. 
 It was founded by Seleucus Nicator, and became distinguished as a school of 
 literature and philosophy. Its remains are called Sclefkieh. 7. Corycus, the 
 chief landing place from Crete, and a city of great importance under the later 
 Roman emperors, now Korghoz. Near it was a deep vale famed for producing 
 the best saffron, and containing also a cave fabled to have been inhabited by 
 the monster Typhon, but probably the crater of an extinct volcano. 8. Ho- 
 monada, in the interior, north of Anemurium, and the chief town of the Homon- 
 adenses, a hardy mountaineer race, subdued by Sulpicius Quirinius, the Cyre- 
 nius of St. Luke. D Anville makes it answer to the modern Ermenak. 9. Clau- 
 diopolis, to the east, on a branch of the Calycadnus, a nd now probably Mout. 
 10. Olbia, to the east, famed for its temple of Jupiter, the priests of which en 
 joyed great power and wealth, and were at one time lords of the whole of Ci- 
 licia Trachea. 
 
 In Cilicia Campestris we have, 1. Soli, the first maritime town after crossing 
 the River Lamus. It was founded by a mixed colony of Achaeans and Rhodi- 
 ans from Lindus, in Rhodes. The inhabitants, from their communication with 
 the Cilicians of the interior, spoke in time incorrect and ungrammatical Greek, 
 whence the term aohoiKia/uoc, " a solecism." Having been nearly depopulated 
 by Tigranes, king of Armenia, it was founded anew by Pompey, who settled 
 here a colony of Cilician pirates, whom he had conquered, and the place then 
 took the name of Pompeiopolis. It was the birth-place of the philosopher Chry- 
 sippus, and the poets Philemon and Aratus. The site is now called Mezetlu. 
 2. Anchidle, said to have been founded by Sardanapalus, king of Assyria, and to 
 have contained his tomb. 3. Tarsus, on the River Cydnus, and the capital city 
 under the Persian sway, the tributary kings of Cilicia residing here. It was a 
 very flourishing city also under the successors of Alexander, and still more so 
 under the Roman sway, Julius Caesar having granted unto its citizens both 
 freedom and exemption from tribute, for having zealously espoused his cause, 
 and these privileges having been confirmed by Augustus. It was to these acts 
 of favor and protection that St. Paul, who was a native of Tarsus, owed the 
 right of being a free-born citizen of the place. Tarsus was celebrated, also, under 
 the earlier Roman emperors, for its schools of literature and philosophy, which 
 rivalled those of Athens and Alexandrea. Julian the Apostate was buried here. 
 The modern name is Tersoos, and it is still the chief town of this part of Kara- 
 mania. The River Cydnus has undergone a great change here, from the de 
 posits carried down from the mountains ; formerly it allowed large vessels of 
 war to approach Tarsus, now none but the smallest boats .an enter the stream. 
 4. Mopsucrene, to the north, just below the point where the Cilician pass (Pyla 
 Cilicia) enters Cilicia. 5. Addna, to the southeast, on the River Sarus, and 
 of Phoenician origin. It is still called Adana, and gives name to the modern 
 pachalik, which corresponds nearly to the ancient Cilicia Campestris. 6. Mal- 
 lus, to the southeast, on the Pyramus. Between this place and Tarsus was the 
 Aleian Plain, or " Plain of Wandering" ( A^fjiov Trediov), where Bellerophon 
 wandered after having been thrown from the winged steed Pegasus. 7. Ana* 
 zarba, to the northeast, at the foot of Mount Anazarbus, and called, in Roman 
 
612 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 times, Casarea ad Anazarbum. It was the birth-place of Dioscorides the nat 
 uralist, and Oppian the poet. 8. Issus, at the base of Mount Amanus, and at 
 the head waters of the Sinus Issicus, now the Gulf of Scanderoon. In its vi 
 cinity was fought the second great battle between Alexander and the Persians, 
 the latter being commanded by Darius in person. 9. Alexandrea, surnamed ad 
 Issum (Kara "laaov}, from its being situate near the battle field of Issus, and 
 built in commemoration of that victory. It is now Scanderoon or Alexandretta, 
 a small town, but with a fine harbor. 10. Myriandrus, to the west of and near 
 the preceding, a place of considerable trade, and of Phoenician origin. 11. Pin- 
 denissus, in the interior, to the northeast, a town of the Eleuthero- Cilices, a wild 
 and fierce mountaineer race. It was a place of great strength, but was taken by 
 Cicero, when proconsul of Cilicia, after a siege of fifty-seven days. 
 
 Before leaving Cilicia we must mention some mountain passes leading into 
 or from it. These were, 1. Pyla Cilicia, leading from Cappadocia into Cilicia, 
 and entering the latter country to the north of Mopsucrene. It was by this de 
 file that the younger Cyrus, and subsequently Alexander the Great, penetrated 
 into Cilicia. Here, likewise, Pescennius Niger, against whom Severus march 
 ed, took possession of the road, flanked on one side by precipitous rocks, and on 
 the other by a deep abyss. 2. Pylcc. Syria, to the south of Maryandrus. 3. Pyla 
 Amdnica, to the east of Issus, and leading through the range of Mount Amanus. 
 It was through this defile that Darius marched from northern Syria into Cilicia, 
 at the very time that Alexander was passing into Syria in pursuit of him, through 
 the Pyla Syria. 
 
 PAMPHYLIA. 
 
 I. Pamphylia was bounded on the east by Cilicia^ on the 
 north by Pisidia and Isauria, on the West by Lycia, and on 
 the south by the Mare Pamphylium, or Gulf of Adalia or Sa- 
 talia. It was separated from Pisidia by the range of Mount 
 Taurus, and was drained by numerous streams flowing from 
 the highlands of the latter country. 
 
 II. The main population of the country derived their origin 
 probably from the same stock with the Cilicians. The Greek 
 account, however, as given by Herodotus, made them to be the 
 descendants of those who followed the fortunes of Calchas and 
 Amphilochus after the fall of Troy, and as these Grecian em 
 igrants were said to have been portions of various Hellenic 
 tribes that had been engaged in the Trojan war, a plausible 
 derivation was found in this circumstance for the appellation 
 Pamphyli (IIap/>v/loi), namely, from -ndv and (frvAov, as indicating 
 an assemblage of different nations or tribes. Several towns, 
 however, on the coast, were undoubtedly of Grecian origin. 
 
 III. Pamphylia possesses but little interest in an historical 
 point of view. It became subject, in turn, to Croesus, the Per 
 sian monarchs, Alexander, the Ptolemies, Antiochus, and the 
 Romans. It was entirely a maritime country, and its coast is 
 
ASIA. 613 
 
 indented by a deep gulf, called anciently Mare Pamphylium, 
 and now the Gulf of Adalia or Satalia. The eastern part of 
 the coast is described by Beaufort as flat, sandy, and dreary ; 
 the western part, on the other hand, is surrounded by lofty 
 mountains, which rise from the sea, and attain their greatest 
 height in Mount Solyma, on the borders of Lycia. The inte 
 rior of the country is said by Fellows to be very beautiful and 
 picturesque. Pamphylia forms part of the modern Karamania, 
 and is called by the Turks Teke-Ili. 
 
 IV. Among the rivers of Pamphylia we may mention, 1. The 
 Melas, now the Menougat- Sou. 2. The Eurymedon, now the 
 Kapri-Sou, celebrated for the double defeat, by land and sea, 
 which the Persian fleet here sustained from Cimon. 3. The 
 Oestrus, now the Ak- Sou. 4. The Catarrhactes, now Duden- 
 Sou. This last was a large and impetuous stream, which 
 poured its waters over a high rock near Termessus, with a 
 very loud noise, and hence derived its Grecian name. 
 
 PLACES IN PAMPHYLIA. 
 
 1. Olbia, the first town on the western coast, and a strongly fortified place, 
 according to Strabo. 2. Attalea, to the east, and founded by Attalus Philadel- 
 phus of Pergamus. This city was visited by St. Paul on his route from Perge to 
 Antioch. It is probably represented by the modern Adalia or Satalia. 3. Perge, 
 to the east, and sixty stadia from the coast, on the River Cestrus. In its neigh 
 borhood was a celebrated temple of the Pergaean Diana, at which a sacred meet 
 ing (Travjyyvpff) was held twice a year. Perge was twice visited by St. Paul. 
 Its ruins are probably those at Eski Kelesi. 4. Aspendus, to the east, on the 
 River Eurymedon, and about sixty stadia from its mouth. It was built for the 
 greater part on a precipitous rock, and appears to have been a place of consid 
 erable importance in the time of Alexander, who punished the inhabitants se 
 verely for refusing to contribute fifty talents, and to supply him with the horses 
 which they had been accustomed to rear for the King of Persia. Cicero speaks 
 of it as an ancient and noble city in his time, and full of works of art. Its site 
 is doubtful. 5. Side, to the southeast, near the mouth of the Melas, and founded 
 by an ^Eolian colony from Cuma. The inhabitants, however, soon forgot the 
 Greek language, and spoke a barbarous tongue peculiar to themselves. It was 
 the principal harbor of the Cilician pirates. The Turks, according to Leake, 
 ignorantly give the site of this place the name of Eski Adalia (Old Attalea). 
 
 LYCIA. 
 
 I. Lycia was bounded on the north by Phrygia, on the east 
 by Pamphylia, on the west by Caria, and on the south by the 
 Mediterranean. According to Herodotus, Lycia was originally 
 called Milyas, and its inhabitants Solymi. These probably 
 belonged to the Syrian stock. A colony subsequently came 
 
614 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 from the island of Crete, under the guidance of Sarpedon, who 
 had been driven out by his brother Minos. These colonists 
 bore the name of Termilce, and waged war upon the Solymi, 
 driving them into the interior ; and the new settlers retained 
 the name of Termilse until Lycus, son of Pandion, led a colony 
 hither from Athens, and then, it is said, the country changed 
 its name to Lycia, and the people were called Lycians (Avtuoi). 
 
 II. In the Homeric poems the country is always called Lycia, 
 and the Solymi are mentioned as a warlike people, against 
 whom Bellerophon was sent by the King of Lycia. In later 
 times, the southern part of Phrygia, on the north of Lycia, was 
 always called Milyas, but the people dwelling therein are never 
 called Solymi, though the name still remained in that of Mount 
 Solyma, on the northeastern coast. That Lycia was early col 
 onized by Greeks is evident, not only from the account of He 
 rodotus, but also from many Lycian traditions, as well as from 
 the worship of Apollo, which was spread over the whole coun 
 try. The chief temple of the god, however, was at Patara. 
 
 III. The interior of this country was entirely unknown to us 
 until the visit of Mr. Fellows in 1838, and subsequently. This 
 traveller has made many important discoveries. According to 
 him, there are no mountains of any consequence in the interior , 
 but the country is a fertile plain, surrounded by mountains, 
 which rise in many places to a great height, and it is drained 
 throughout its whole extent by the River Xanthus, now the 
 Etchen-Chai. The coast is rocky and mountainous, but still,, 
 according to Strabo, contained a great many good harbors. 
 
 PLACES IN LYCIA. 
 
 1. Telmessus or Telmissus, near the western extremity of the coast, at the 
 mouth of the River Glaucus, which empties into the Glaucus Sinus, or Gulf of 
 Macri, sometimes called Telmessicus Sinus. Telmessus was famed for the skill 
 of its augurs. The remains of this place are near the modern Meis. Beyond 
 Telmessus the coast rises abruptly, forming the lofty and precipitous range of 
 Anticragus, now Soumbourlu ; after which we come to another mass of mount 
 ains, rising precipitously from the sea, and called anciently Mons Cragus. It is 
 remarkable for its numerous detached summits, termed by the ancients Cragt. 
 Vertices, and now called by the Turks Yedi Bouroun, or " the Seven Capes." 
 Cragus, according to Strabo, was the fabled abode of the Chimaera; but Pliny 
 and others are in favor of Mount Chimsera, near the eastern coast, above Olym 
 pus. 2. Pinara, at the foot of Cragus, and a little to the west of the Xanthus 
 The Lycian hero Pandarus received divine honors here. The site, marked by 
 numerous rock-tombs, a common feature in the antiquities of Lycia, is near the 
 modern Minara. 3. Patara, just below the mouth of the Xanthus, one of the 
 
ASIA. 615 
 
 most celebrated cities of Lycia, and a commercial place of much importance. 
 Here was a temple and oracle of Apollo, second only to that at Delphi. The 
 oracles were delivered during the six winter months, as those at Delphi were 
 during the summer ones. Hence Apollo was fabled to reside at Patara during 
 the six months of winter. He received, moreover, from this place, the sur 
 name ofPatareus. The ruins of Patara are near the village of Fornas. 4. Xan- 
 thus, the principal city of the Lycians, on the river of the same name, and some 
 distance from its mouth. It was twice remarkable in history for the dauntless 
 courage of its inhabitants, once against Harpagus, the general of Cyrus, and a 
 second time, in a later age, against Brutus and the republican forces of Rome. 
 On both these occasions they set fire to their city rather than surrender. The 
 ruins are near the modern Koonik, and in the vicinity are some beautiful rock- 
 tombs. 5. Tlos, to the northeast, and one of the principal cities of Lycia. Its 
 ruins are near the modern village of Doover, two and a half English miles to 
 the east of the Xanthus. 
 
 6. Myra, to the east of Patara, an important commercial city. Its harbor was 
 Andriace, now Andraki. Here St. Paul was transferred from the Adramyttian 
 ship to that of Alexandrea, in which he suffered shipwreck. Myra still retains 
 its name among the Greeks, but is called by the Turks Dembre, from the ri ver 
 in its vicinity. To the southeast was the Sacrum Promontorium (rj lepa v A/cpa), 
 regarded commonly as the commencement of the great chain of Taurus, though 
 Strabo makes Taurus begin on the coast of Caria, opposite Rhodes. The mod 
 ern name is Cape Kelidoni, from the islands which lie near it, the ancient Chel- 
 idonia Insula. 7. Olympus, to the northeast, on a mountain of the same name, 
 and commanding a view of Lycia, Pamphylia, and Pisidia. It was an important 
 and opulent place, but became eventually the haunt of Cilician pirates, and was 
 taken by Paulus Servilius, the Roman commander. The site is called by the 
 Turks Deliktash, or " the perforated rock," the only approach to it being through 
 a natural aperture in the cliff. In the interior of the country was Mount Chi- 
 mara, regarded by some as the fabled residence of the monster of the same 
 name, though other ancient authorities are in favor of Mount Cragus. 8. Pha- 
 selis, to the north, of Dorian origin. It had three harbors, and was a very 
 flourishing commercial city. Having become one of the principal resorts of the 
 Cilician pirates, it was destroyed by Paulus Servilius. It was afterward re 
 built, but never recovered its former importance. The ruins are at Takova. 
 A short distance inland are the Solymaean Mountains (TO, SdAiym oprj). Beyond 
 Phaselis the mountains press in upon the shore, and leave a very narrow pas 
 sage along the strand, which at low water is practicable, but when storms pre 
 vail, and the sea is high, it is extremely dangerous, and travellers must then 
 take a long circuit inland. This defile was called Climax, and derived great ce 
 lebrity from Alexander s having led his army through it under circumstances of 
 great difficulty and danger, when marching eastward after the conquest of Caria. 
 
 The student is referred to Fellows s " Asia Minor" and " Discoveries in Ly 
 cia," for interesting information respecting the antiquities of Lycia. 
 
 CARIA. 
 
 I. Caria was bounded on the north by Lydia, from which it 
 was separated by the River Mceander, on the west and south 
 by the Mediterranean, on the east by Lycia, and on the north 
 east by Phrygia. In extent it was the least considerable of 
 
616 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 the divisions of Asia Minor ; but from the number of towns 
 and villages assigned to it by the geographers of antiquity, it 
 would seem to have been very populous. It answers to the 
 Turkish province of Muntesha. 
 
 II. The Carians were not considered to have been the abo 
 riginal inhabitants of the country to which they communicated 
 their name, but to have previously occupied the islands of the 
 ./Egean under the name ofLeleges, until, having been reduced 
 by Minos, king of Crete, they were removed by that monarch 
 to the continent of Asia, where they still continued to be his 
 vassals, and to serve him more especially in his maritime ex 
 peditions. The cause of their expulsion from the islands ap 
 pears to have been their notorious proneness to piracy. They 
 excelled, too, at this period, in the manufacture of arms, and 
 the Greeks ascribed to them the invention of crests, and the 
 devices and handles of shields. Before the Carians settled in 
 this quarter of the peninsula, it is probable that the Phoenicians 
 occupied a portion of it. 
 
 III. The Carians appear to have offered little resistance to 
 the Greek colonists who subsequently established themselves 
 on their coasts. The lonians first drove them from Miletus 
 and Priene ; and the Dorians next obtained a footing on their 
 shores. The Rhodians also appropriated to themselves the 
 southern coast, called, in consequence, Percea Rhodiorum, from 
 its lying over against their island. This tract extended from 
 the borders of Lycia to the castle and mountain of Phcenix on 
 the Doridis Sinus, after which Doris commenced, and reached 
 to the Bargylieticus or lassicus Sinus on the north. 
 
 IV. When the Dorians arrived in Asia Minor they formed 
 themselves into six independent states or small republics, which 
 were confined within the bounds of as many cities. These 
 cities were Cnidus and Halicarnassus, on the mainland ; Cos, 
 in the island of that name ; and the three Rhodian towns of 
 Lindus, lalyssus, and Camirus. Other cities belonged also to 
 the confederacy, but the inhabitants of these six alone, as true 
 and genuine Dorians, formed the regular Doric league ; and 
 the members of this alliance met on the Triopian promontory 
 to celebrate in public national festivals the rites of Apollo and 
 Ceres. This confederation was called the Doric Hexapolis 
 until Halicarnassus was excluded, when it took the name of 
 
V : 
 
 ^ 
 
 ASIA. 617 
 
 Pentapolis. The reason for the exclusion was, that a citizen 
 of that place, who had gained a tripod as a prize, violated the 
 regulation which required that the tripod should always be con 
 secrated as an offering in the Triopian temple of Apollo, in 
 order that he might carry it off to decorate his own house. 
 Probably, too, the increasing predominance of the Carian ele 
 ment at Halicarnassus had some effect in producing the ex 
 clusion. 
 
 PLACES IN CARIA. 
 
 In Penza Rhodiorum we have, 1. Dadala, close upon Lycia, and on the Glau- 
 cus Sinus. It was said to have been called after Daedalus, who, being bitten 
 by a snake on crossing the neighboring River Ninus, died and was buried here. 
 Inland was the mountain range of Dadala, on the confines of Lycia. 2. Ca- 
 lynda, to the northwest, near the junction of the Axon with the Indus, now the 
 Kaiguez. At Calynda was a grove sacred to Latona. The remains of this city 
 were discovered by Fellows. 3. Caunus, supposed to be of Cretan origin, and 
 famed for its figs. It had a harbor and roadstead. It was very unhealthy in 
 the summer season. The site is now occupied by the small sea-port town of 
 Kaiguez. Passing the River Calbis, now the Tavas, according to some, but 
 more correctly the Dollomon-chai, we come to, 4. Physcus Portus, the harbor by 
 which Ephesus communicated with Rhodes. 5. Phcenix, a mountain and castle, 
 marking the limit of Percsa Rhodiorum to the west. 
 
 Proceeding along the coast, we come to Cynossema Promontorium, where Do 
 ris commences, and, doubling this, enter the Doridis Sinus, now the Gulf of Symi, 
 so called from the island of Symi, the ancient Syme, lying off the promontory. 
 We then come in order to, 1. Cnidus, at the extremity of a peninsula called 
 Triopium, and sometimes the Carian Chersonese. The extreme point of this 
 neck of land was called the Triopium Promontorium, now Cape Krio, and on it 
 was the temple of the Triopian Apollo, where the members of the Doric league 
 used to meet. Cnidus was a celebrated city, and the metropolis of the Asiatic 
 Dorians. Venus, in particular, was worshipped here, and among other remark 
 able works of art which this place contained was the famous statue of that 
 goddess by Praxiteles. The historian Ctesias and the mathematician Eudoxus 
 were natives of this city. It is now a heap of ruins. On doubling the Triopian 
 promontory we enter the Ceramicus Sinus, now the Gulf of Budrun. The an 
 cient name is derived from the town of Ceramus, on the northern shore, now 
 Keramo, the modern name from that of Halicarnassus. To the west of Cera 
 mus we come to, 2. Halicarnassus, a celebrated city, founded by a colony of 
 Troezenians, and the birth-place of Herodotus. It belonged originally to the 
 Doric confederacy, but had been excluded for the reason already mentioned. 
 It fell afterward under the sway of Lygdamis, one of its own citizens, who trans 
 mitted his authority to his daughter Artemisia, of whom Herodotus makes such 
 honorable mention, and who took part in the expedition of Xerxes. Somewhat 
 later we find it ruled by princes of Carian extraction, as, for instance, Mausolus 
 and his sister and wife, the younger Artemisia. The monument erected by this 
 princess to the memory of her husband, and called the Mausoleum, was one of 
 the seven wonders of the world. This city was famous also for the siege which 
 it stood, under Memnon, against Alexander the Great. The ruins are at the 
 
618 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 modern Budrun. 3. Myndus, to the northwest, on the Sinus Bargylieticus or 
 lassicus, now the Gulf of Hassan (or, more correctly, Asyn) Kalessi. Athenseus 
 praises the wine of this place as good for digestion. Leake identifies Myndus 
 with Gumishlu, but Cramer is in favor of Mentesha. 4. Caryanda, to the east, 
 the birth-place of Scylax the geographer. 5. Bargylia, to the northeast, giving 
 one of its ancient names to the gulf. It was noted for a temple and statue of 
 Diana Cindyas (so named from the adjacent village of Cindye). Whenever it 
 rained or snowed, the image of the goddess was observed to be free from moist 
 ure. 6. lassus, to the north, giving one of its ancient names to the gulf. The 
 fisheries in its neighborhood are very abundant, and on these the lassians chiefly 
 depended for subsistence. The town was situate on an island close to the shore, 
 and had a good harbor. The neighboring mountains supplied a beautiful kind 
 of marble, used for ornamental purposes. The color was blood-red and livid 
 white striped. The remains of lassus are at Hassan (or Asyn) Kalessi. With 
 lassus Doris terminated on the north. 
 
 In the interior of Caria we have, 1. Euromus or Europus, to the east of lassus, 
 founded by Idrieus, son of Car, and a place of considerable importance. It in 
 cluded several adjacent towns within its territory, which were afterward taken 
 by Mijlasa, lying to the southeast of it. 2. Mylasa, one of the most considera 
 ble towns of Caria, and the residence of the Carian dynasty before Halicarnas- 
 sus fell under their power. It was situate in a fertile plain, at the foot of a 
 mountain containing veins of a beautiful white marble, a material which enabled 
 the inhabitants to adorn their city most sumptuously with porticoes and temples. 
 The site is now occupied by Melasso. 3. Labranda, to the north, and dependent 
 on Mylasa. It was celebrated for two temples sacred to Jupiter Labrandenus 
 (or Labradeus) and Stratius. The former of these titles was derived by some 
 from the Carian term Labrys, "a hatchet," the statue of the god bearing this 
 utensil. A paved road, called the Sacred Way, led to the other temple from 
 Mylasa. This latter temple was held in great veneration by the Mylasians and 
 the neighboring communities. 4. Stratonicea, to the southeast of Mylasa, found 
 ed by Antiochus Soter in honor of his queen Stratonlce. The site is now marked 
 by the village of Eski-hissar. 5. Alabanda, to the north of Labranda, and said 
 to have been founded by the hero Alabandus, or else to have derived its name 
 from an equestrian victory, ala, in the Carian tongue, signifying " a horse," and 
 banda, "a victory." This place was famed for its quarries of dark-colored 
 marble approaching to purple. It is now represented, according to Leake, by 
 Arabi-hissar. 6. Antiochia ad Maandrum, to the northeast of Alabanda, and near 
 the junction of the rivers Mceander and Orsinus. It was founded by Antiochus, 
 son of Seleucus. The country around was famed for its abundance of fruits of 
 every kind, but especially of the fig called triphylla. The site corresponds to 
 the modern Jeni-sher. 7. Aphrodisias, to the southeast, and in the time of Hi- 
 erocles the metropolis of Caria. Its site corresponds to that of Gheira. 
 
 L Y D I A. 
 
 I. THE boundaries of Lydia differed at various times ; but 
 under the Roman empire it was bounded on the south by Ca~ 
 ria, from which it was separated by the Mseander; on the 
 north by Mysia, from which it was separated by the rivers 
 Cai cus and Macistus, and the intervening range of Mount 
 Tamnus ; on the east by Phrygia, and on the west by the 
 
ASIA. 619 
 
 JEgean. The coast was occupied by the Ionian colonies, and 
 bore the general name of Ionia. 
 
 II. The origin of the Lydian people is uncertain. According 
 to Herodotus, they were of the same stock with the Carians 
 and Mysians. Homer does not appear to have known the name 
 of " Lydia," but always calls the people Mceones. According 
 to most ancient writers, they were originally called Mseones, 
 and obtained the name of Lydians from Lydus, the son of Atys, 
 who is mentioned in tradition as the first king of the country. 
 
 III. According to Herodotus, three dynasties ruled in Lydia : 
 the Atyadce, from the earliest times to B.C. 1221 ; the Hera- 
 clidce, from B.C. 1221 to 716 ; and the Mermnadce, from B.C. 
 716 to 556. The first two of these are almost entirely fabu 
 lous. The monarchs of the last were engaged in almost unin 
 terrupted wars with the Greek cities on the coast ; but the em 
 pire steadily increased in wealth and power, until it attained 
 its greatest prosperity under Croesus. This empire, however, 
 was overthrown by Cyrus (B.C. 556). After Alexander s con 
 quests, Lydia, with the rest of western Asia, formed part of the 
 empire of the Seleucidse ; and on the conquest of Antiochus by 
 the Romans, B.C. 189, it was given to Eumenes, king of Per- 
 gamus. On the termination of the kingdom of Pergamus, 
 B.C. 133, it came into the power of the Romans. 
 
 IV. The ancient Lydians appear to have enjoyed great com 
 mercial prosperity, and to have possessed abundance of the pre 
 cious metals. They are said to have obtained large quantities 
 of gold from the sands of the River Pactolus ; but there is no 
 proof that they ever carried on the operation of mining. Croe 
 sus, king of Lydia, made himself famous by the rich presents 
 which he sent to the different oracles of Greece. The fertility 
 of Lydia, and the salubrity of the climate, are frequently men 
 tioned by the ancient writers ; and their accounts are confirmed 
 by the reports of modern travellers. 
 
 V. The mountain ranges of Lydia are, 1. Sardene, in the 
 northwest, and connected with Tamnus, which last separates 
 Lydia in part from Mysia. 2. Messogis^ a branch of Taurus, 
 and forming the northern boundary of the valley of the Maean- 
 der. 3. Tmolus, detaching itself from Messogis near the bor 
 ders of Phrygia, running parallel to that chain through the 
 centre of Lydia, and terminating on the western coast, opposite 
 
620 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 the island of Chios. 4. Sipylus, a branch of Tmolus, stretch 
 ing more to the northwest, toward the cities of Cuma and 
 Phocsea. The rivers of Lydia are, 1. The Mceander, now the 
 Minder, rising near Celcence, in Phrygia, in the chain of Mons 
 Aulocrene (p. 607). 2. The Cayster, rising in the angle 
 formed by the range of Messogis in the south and Tmolus in 
 the north, and falling into the ^Egean near Ephesus. Near 
 its mouth it formed the Asia Palus, or Asian Marsh, much 
 frequented by water-fowl. 3. The Hermus (p. 607). 4. The 
 Ca icus, now the JBakir-chai, separating Lydia from Mysia. 
 5. The Pactolus and Hyllus or Phrygius, tributaries of the 
 Hermus. 
 
 VI. Lydia answers now to the Turkish province of Sarou- 
 khan, and the northern part of that of Sighla. We will now 
 mention the most important places in Lydia Proper, and will 
 then give a sketch of Ionia. 
 
 PLACES IN LYDIA PROPER. 
 
 IN the portion of Lydia lying between the Caicus and Hermus we may name, 
 1. Hiero-Ccesarea, where Diana Persica was worshipped, and whose rites are 
 said to have been established there as early as the reign of Cyrus. 2. Apollonis, 
 to the south, named after the wife of Attalus, and often mentioned by Cicero. 
 Its site is probably marked by the hamlet of Bullene. 3. Thyatira, to the north 
 east, on the River Lycus, a branch of the Hyllus, and built by Seleucus Nicator. 
 It was famous for the art of dyeing purple. Thyatira is one of the seven church 
 es of the Apocalypse. It is now Ak-hissar. The plain to the south of Thyatira, 
 watered by the Hyllus, was called Hyrcanius Campus, from a colony of Hyrca- 
 nians settled there by the Persians. 4. Julia Gordus, to the southeast, on the 
 Hyllus, and surnamed Julia in compliment to Julius Caesar, or Augustus. Its 
 remains are at Ghiurdiz. To the southwest of this place was the Gygaa Palus, 
 subsequently called Coloe Palus, and now Lake Mermere. It was a work of 
 human art, and was a large basin excavated to receive the waters which inun 
 dated the neighboring plains. Near it were the graves or tumuli of the Lydian 
 kings, from one of whom, Gyges, it received its earlier name. Among these 
 mounds the most remarkable was that of Alyattes, the father of Croesus, being 
 of enormous dimensions. Hamilton makes the number of tumuli in this quarter 
 to be upward of sixty, called by the Turks Bin Tepeh, or "the thousand hills ;" 
 and describes the mound of Alyattes as far exceeding them in size, and having 
 a circumference of nearly half a mile. 5. Attalw, to the southeast, on the Her 
 mus, and now Adala. 6. Silandus, to the northeast, an episcopal see of Lydia, 
 now a small village named Selendi. 
 
 In Lydia, south of the Hermus, we may name, 1. Magnesia ad Sipylum, just 
 below the Hermus, and near Mount Sipylus, by which it was distinguished from 
 Magnesia ad Maandrum, farther south. It was celebrated for the signal victory 
 gained under its walls by Lucius Scipio, aided by the counsels of his brother 
 Africanus, over the forces of Antiochus. In the reign of Tiberius it was nearly 
 destroyed by an earthquake, which shook and overthrew several other cities in 
 
ASIA. 621 
 
 Asia. It is now Manissa, and was at one time the residence of the Turkish 
 sultans. Mount Sipylus, to the south, is celebrated in mythology as the resi 
 dence of Tantalus, and the scene of the legend of Niobe. There was a city in 
 early times, also named Sipylus, on the slope of the mountain, and here Tan 
 talus is supposed to have dwelt, though his place of abode is more commonly 
 referred by classical writers to Phrygia. This city is said to have been swal 
 lowed up by an earthquake, and plunged into a crater afterward filled by a lake. 
 The lake was named Sale or Saloe. Mount Sipylus is now Sipuli-dag or Sa- 
 boundji-dag. 2. Nymphaum, to the southeast, where the Byzantine emperors 
 are said to have enjoyed the fine season, apart from the cares of public life, 
 The site is now called Nymphi. Near this place rose Mons Mastusia, now Tar- 
 tali, a part of the chain of Tmolus. 3. Sardes, to the northeast, the capital of 
 Lydia before the Persian conquest, situate in a fertile plain at the foot of the 
 northern slope of Tmolus. The River Pactolus flowed through it, and soon 
 after joined the Hermus. Even after the overthrow of the Lydian empire by 
 Cyrus it still continued to be the chief town of the Persian dominions in this 
 part of Asia, and the residence of the satrap. The burning of this place by the 
 lonians and Athenians led to the war between Persia and Greece. Sardes is 
 one of the seven churches of the Apocalypse. It is now little more than a vil 
 lage in the midst of extensive ruins, and is called Sart. Mount Tmolus is called 
 by the Turks Bouz-dag. 
 
 4. Hypapa, to the southwest, near the sources of the Cayster, and remarkable 
 for the beauty of its females, a praise to which the Lydian women in general 
 were entitled. The ruins are near the modern town of Birkhe. 5. Philadelphia, 
 to the east, on the River Cogamus, at the foot of Tmolus. It was built by At- 
 talus Philadelphus, king of Pergamus. This place suffered repeatedly by violent 
 shocks of earthquakes, and became eventually almost deserted. It was one of 
 the seven churches. The modern name is Allah-shehr, or " City of God." To 
 the east and northeast was a district named Catacccaumene (KaraKeKatyzev??), or 
 " Entirely burnt," from its volcanic appearance and character. The plains were 
 covered with ashes, and the mountain rocks were of a black color, as if they had 
 been subject to the action of fire. The vine, however, was cultivated here with 
 great success. A full account of the geology of this tract is given by Hamilton. 
 
 6. Magnesia ad Maandrum, to the southeast of Ephesus, and near the River 
 Maeander. It was founded by a colony of Magnesians from Dotium in Thessaly, 
 and became powerful enough to cope even with Ephesus. Its territory was re 
 markable for its fertility. The River Lethaus flowed close to the place, and in 
 the vicinity was Mount Thorax. Hamilton has proved the site of this city to 
 be at Inek-bazar, and not Guzel-hissar, as Pococke and Chandler supposed. 
 
 7. Tralles, to the southeast, one of the most opulent cities of Asia Minor in the 
 time of Strabo. It was strongly fortified. The site is near Guzel-hissar. 
 
 8. Nysa, to the northeast, distinguished for its cultivation of literature. Its 
 ruins are at Eski-hissar 
 
 IONIA. 
 
 I. Ionia, as already remarked, occupied the western shore of 
 Lydia. It extended from the Sinus Cumceus, now Gulf of 
 T&chanderti, on the north, to Mount Grius, and the Sinus Bar- 
 gylieticus, on the south, a length of not more than one hun 
 dred miles in a straight line, but with a coast three times that 
 
622 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 length, owing to the many sinuosities that marked it. Inland 
 the Ionian territory did not extend above forty miles from the 
 coast. 
 
 II. The Ionic migration from the Peloponnesus to Asia Mi 
 nor took place in B.C. 1040. In truth, however, as we have 
 already remarked (p. 469), it was not one single event, but 
 there seem to have been many and various migrations of loni- 
 ans to this quarter. The settlers coming after the ^Eolians 
 occupied the coast immediately below these, and gave it their 
 name. They established colonies also in Chios and Samos, 
 besides those on the main land. The cities on the main land, 
 together with the two islands just named, formed the confed 
 eration of the twelve cities of Ionia. Smyrna, being seized by 
 Colophonian exiles, was in course of time added to the confed 
 eration. The names of the thirteen Ionian cities, therefore, 
 commencing on the north, were as follows : Phoccea, Smyrna, 
 Clazomence, Ery three, Chios, Teos, Lebedus, Colophon, Ephe- 
 sus, Priene, Samos, Myus, and Miletus. Other colonies, how 
 ever, from the original Ionian cities, were founded along the 
 coast, such as Gerce, Myonesus, Clarus, &c. 
 
 III. The Ionian confederation appears to have been mainly 
 united by a common religious worship, and the celebration of 
 a periodical festival; and it seems that the deputies of the 
 several states only met in times of great difficulty. The place 
 of assembly was the Panionium, at the foot of Mount My cede, 
 where a temple, built on neutral ground, was dedicated to Nep 
 tune, the national deity of the lonians. 
 
 PLACES IN IONIA. 
 
 1, Phocaa, the most northern of the Ionian cities, founded by a colony from 
 Phocis, under the guidance of two Athenian chiefs, but not included in the Ionian 
 confederacy until it had consented to place at the head of its affairs two princes 
 of the line of Codrus. From the excellence of its harbor, and the enterprising 
 spirit of its inhabitants, it soon became a celebrated commercial city, and sent 
 out many colonies, the most important of which was Massalia, in southern Gaul, 
 now Marseilles. The Phocaeans are known in history by the circumstance of 
 their having abandoned their city, in order to avoid subjugation by Harpagus, 
 the general of Cyrus, and their having sworn not to return until an ignited 
 mass of iron which they cast into the sea should rise to the surface. One half, 
 however, did return ; the remainder migrated to Alalia, a Phocaean colony in 
 Corsica, whence, after a few years, they removed to Velia or Elcea in Lower 
 Italy. Pnocaea still continued to exist under the Persian dominion, and also 
 subsequently under the empire of the Seleucidae and the Romans, but greatly 
 reduced in population and commerce. It is now Fokia or Fouges. 2. Smyrna, 
 
ASIA. 623 
 
 to the southeast, at the head waters of the Sinus Smyrnaus or Hermans, now the 
 Gulf of Smyrna, and on the little river Melcs. According to Herodotus, it was 
 originally an ^Eolian city, but, having given shelter to some Colophonian exiles, 
 the latter took advantage of a festival, and made themselves masters of the place. 
 It was then received into the Ionian confederacy. Smyrna was celebrated for 
 its commerce, and is still the great mart of the Levant trade. It was also one 
 of the cities which claimed to have been the birth-place of Homer, and the Smyr- 
 naeans showed a cave near the sources of the Meles where the bard was said 
 to have composed his verses. From his having been supposed by them to have 
 been born on the banks of the Meles, Homer was called by the Smyrnaeans Me- 
 lesigenes. This city is now called Ismir by the Turks, but retains among the 
 Franks its ancient name. 3. Clazomena, to the southwest, on the lower shore 
 of the Sinus Smyrnseus, and the birth-place of Anaxagoras the philosopher. Its 
 ruins are a little to the northeast of the modern Vourla. Passing along the 
 coast, we come to the Apocremnus Promontorium, now Cape Esomeno, and then 
 to the Mel&na Promontorium, now Cape Kara-bouroun, near which, according to 
 Strabo, was a quarry where mill-stones were dug up. Bending around to the 
 south, we come next to, 4. Erythra, a city which obtained great celebrity from 
 the sibyl, who is said to have delivered prophecies there. The site is still called 
 Ritre. The island of Chios, to which we shall subsequently refer, lies opposite. 
 It is now Scio. 
 
 Passing down the coast, and doubling the Argennum Promontorium, now Cape 
 Bianco, we reach a high and rugged shore formed by Mount Corycus, and in 
 habited formerly by a wild and daring population, greatly addicted to piracy. 
 The ridge is now called Mount Kourko, and also the Table Mountain. We then 
 come to, 5. Tcos, originally colonized by a party of Minyse from Orchomenus in 
 Boeotia, but which subsequently received a great accession of strength from 
 Athens at the time of the Ionian migration. When Ionia was invaded by the 
 armies of Cyrus, the Teians, in order to avoid his sway, abandoned their city, 
 and retired to Abdera in Thrace. A small portion of the inhabitants, however, 
 still remained, but the place never regained its former importance. Teos was 
 the birth-place of Anacreon. The chief produce of its territory was wine, and 
 Bacchus was the deity principally revered here. The site is now called Bou- 
 droun. 6. Lebedus, to the southeast, originally held by the Carians, who were 
 expelled by an Ionian colony under Andraemon, son of Codrus. It was nearly 
 destroyed by Lysimachus, in a later age, for the purpose of aggrandizing Ephe- 
 sus ; but it became a place of some note afterward as the general rendezvous 
 of all the Ionian stage-players, who met here once a year, and celebrated games 
 and sports in honor of Bacchus. The population was very much reduced in the 
 Augustan age, as we learn from Strabo and Horace. The territory, however, 
 was very fertile, and the mineral baths near the city were in considerable re 
 pute. The site of Lebedus is near some ruins called Ecclesia or Xmgi. 
 
 7. Colophon, to the southeast, about two miles from the coast, and having a 
 harbor called Notium, with which it was connected by means of long walls. 
 The Colophonian cavalry were at one time very famous, and generally turned 
 the scale on the side on which they fought ; hence Ko%o<j>tiva etrtTidevai (Colo- 
 phonem addere) became, according to Strabo, a proverb for putting an end to an 
 affair; hence, too, in the early period of the art of printing, the account which 
 the printer gave of the place and date of the edition, being the last thing printed 
 at the end of the book, was called the Colophon. This city was one of those 
 which claimed to be the birth-place of Homer ; it did produce, however, many 
 distinguished poets, among whom may be named Mimnermus, Hermesianax, 
 
624 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Antimachus and Nicander. The resin, still known in pharmacy as the resina 
 Colophonia, was obtained from this quarter. Lysimachus nearly ruined the place 
 by drawing off the greater part of the population to Ephesus, and those who re 
 mained migrated soon after to Notium, which then took the name of New Col 
 ophon. Near Colophon flowed the little river Hales, noted for the coldness of 
 its waters. 8. Clarus, in the vicinity of Colophon, and famed for its temple 
 and oracle of Apollo. The priest who gave the responses first descended into 
 a cave and drank of a sacred spring, and then revealed in verse to each of those 
 who consulted the god the subject of his secret thoughts. This oracle foretold 
 a speedy death to Germanicus. The remains of Clarus are near the modern 
 village of Chille or Zille. 
 
 9. Ephesus, to the southeast, near the mouth of the Cayster, and on its south 
 ern bank. Its foundation was ascribed to the Amazons, and it was subsequently 
 colonized by the lonians under Androclus, son of Codrus. Ephesus was re 
 markable for the worship of Diana, who appears to have been the same with 
 the great goddess of nature, and her rites were established here long before the 
 Ionian migration. The first temple of the goddess was set on fire by a madman 
 named Herostratus, and was entirely destroyed, with the exception of the outer 
 columns. The new structure which arose in its place was remarkable for its 
 splendor, and was accounted one of the wonders of the world. The architect 
 was the celebrated Dinocrates. The city itself gradually increased with the 
 celebrity and splendor of its fane, and to this Lysimachus also contributed by 
 causing the inhabitants to remove from the old site, which was subject to inun 
 dations, to a better position ; and he also increased the population at the ex 
 pense of the neighboring cities. Ephesus was the birth-place of Heraclitus, the 
 weeping philosopher, and of Apelles and Parrhasius, the painters. It is memo 
 rable in the writings and travels of St. Paul, and is the first of the churches 
 mentioned in the Apocalypse. The ruins of this city are near the modern town 
 of Aiasluck, a name corrupted from Agio-Tzeologos, the modern Greek epithet 
 for St. John ("Ayiof 0<5/loyof), the founder of the church here. 
 
 Passing down the coast, we come to the celebrated chain of Mount Mycdle, 
 opposite the island of Samos, at the foot of which was the Panionium, a temple 
 and place of meeting for the members of the Ionian confederation. Here also 
 the great victory was obtained by the Greek naval force, under the command 
 of Leotychides, king of Sparta, against the Persian forces encamped near the 
 shore, and which wrested the whole of Ionia for a time from the Persian do 
 minion. The modern Turkish village of Tchangeli seems to mark the site of 
 the ancient Panionium. Doubling the Trogilian promontory, now Cape S. 
 Maria, and entering the Latmicus Sinus, we come to, 10. Prime, near the upper 
 shore, with its two harbors, as mentioned by Scylax. When, however, Strabo 
 wrote, the town was forty stadia from the coast, a change produced by the al 
 luvial deposits of the Mseander. These same deposits have now effected a still 
 greater change, for the Sinus Latmicus is now closed up by the slime brought 
 down by this river, and exists only as an inland lake. Priene originally be 
 longed to the Carians. It was the birth-place of Bias, one of the seven sages 
 of Greece. The ruins are near the Turkish village of Samsoun. 11. Miletus, 
 on the lower shore of the Sinus Latmicus, near its mouth. This city also be 
 longed originally to the Carians, from whom it was wrested by the Ionian col 
 onists. The admirable situation of Miletus, and the convenience of having four 
 harbors, gave it, at an early period, a great preponderance in maritime affairs. 
 Its commerce was most flourishing, and the number of its colonies exceeded 
 that of any other city of antiquity. Miletus was the birth-place of Thales, Anax- 
 
ASIA. 625 
 
 imander, and Anaximenes, the philosophers, and also of Cadmus and Hecataeus, 
 two of the earliest historical writers of Greece. The Milesians, like the rest of 
 the lonians, were voluptuous and effeminate ; they enjoyed, however, a high 
 repute for their manufacture of couches and other articles of furniture, and their 
 fine woollen cloths and richly-dyed carpets were especially esteemed. The site 
 of this place is marked by a mean little settlement called Palat or Palatia, i. c., 
 the Palaces." 12. Latmus, to the southeast, at the head waters of the Sinus 
 Latmicus, to which it gave name, and in the vicinity of Mount Latmus, the 
 fabled seat of the adventures of Endymion. 13. Didymi, to the southwest of 
 Miletus, the seat of the celebrated temple and oracle of Apollo Didymseus, and 
 where the Branchidae officiated. The temple was burned by the Persians after 
 the battle of Mycale, and the Branchidae accompanied them on their retreat, 
 taking with them the sacred treasury. The Milesians, however, rebuilt the 
 temple with the greatest splendor, as the remains of it at the present day abun 
 dantly testify. The promontory of Posideum, now Cape Arbora, terminated 
 Ionia to the south. Inland, however, we have to mention, 14. Myus, on the left 
 bank of the Maeander, and about thirty stadia from its mouth. This was one 
 of the three places granted by the King of Persia to Themistocles for his sub 
 sistence during his residence in Asia. The choking up of the Sinus Latmicus 
 produced so great an abundance of gnats that the inhabitants of Myus were 
 compelled to abandon their city and remove to Miletus. This will close our ac 
 count of Ionia. The description of Chios and Samos will be given with that of 
 the other islands, at the close of the article on Asia Minor. 
 
 M Y S I A. 
 
 I. Mysia was bounded on the north by the Propontis, on the 
 northwest by the Hellespont, on the west by the JEgccan, on 
 the south by Lydia, on the east by Bithynia^ from which it 
 was separated by the Rhyndacus, and on the southeast by 
 Phrygia. 
 
 II. The inhabitants, called My si (MvaoQ, were of the same 
 race as the Teucri, both being most probably of Thracian ori 
 gin, and connected with the MCBSI who dwelt along the Ister 
 or Danube. At the time of the settlement of the ^Eolic colo 
 nies on the shores of this country, a Mysian kingdom, named 
 Teuthrania, had arisen on the banks of the Cai cus ; it was not, 
 however, of long duration. The Mysians lived in small tribes 
 on their mountains or in valleys. 
 
 III. The range of Mount Tcmnus, of which Ida forms part, 
 traversed this country in an oblique direction, from southeast 
 to northwest, commencing on the borders of Lydia. From its 
 southern and southwestern declivity flow the Ca icus, Mysius, 
 Evenus, Sitnois, and Scamander ; from its northeastern and 
 northern declivity, the Macestm, Tarsius, jEsepus, and Gran- 
 Icus. 
 
 IV. In considering this country, the most convenient division 
 
 RR 
 
626 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 will be into, first, the coast of the Propontis, from the headland 
 and town of Priapus on the west, where the Hellespont com 
 mences, to the River Rhyndacus on the east, where Mysia 
 ends ; secondly, the Hellespontine shore, from Priapus to the 
 promontory of Sigaeum, where the strait terminates ; thirdly-, 
 Troas ; fourthly , the .ZEolic colonies ; and, lastly, the interior of 
 Mysia. 
 
 PLACES ON THE SHORE OF THE PROPONTIS. 
 
 1. Priapus, a headland and city at the opening of the Propontis, now Karaboa, 
 It was founded by a colony from Miletus, and was named after the god Priapus, 
 The territory produced excellent wine. 2. Harpagium, a short distance below, 
 where Ganymede was fabled to have been snatched away by the eagle of Jove. 
 Near this place the River Granlcus empties into the sea, on the banks of which 
 river Alexander gained his first victory over the Persians. The Granicus is 
 now the Kodsha-Su. Cramer less correctly makes it the Satal-Dere. 3. Zelea, 
 to the southeast, on the JEslpus, eighty stadia from its mouth. This was the 
 city of Pandarus, one of the allies of Priam. It was the head-quarters of the 
 Persian army prior to the battle of the Granicus. The site is now called Bigah, 
 and the Palus Aphnitis, in its vicinity, is now the Lake of Bigah. The River 
 ^Esepus, according to Leake, is the Boklu ; but, according to Gosselin, the Satal- 
 Dere. 4. Memnonis tumulus, near the mouth of the ^Esepus, the tomb of Mem- 
 non, the son of Aurora, and close to it a small town of the same name. 5. Cyz~ 
 tens, the largest and most celebrated city on the shores of the Propontis, and 
 a colony of Miletus. It was famed for its commerce, opulence, the splendor of 
 its public edifices, and the wisdom of its political institutions. It possessed also 
 extensive arsenals and granaries, and two harbors, one called Chytus, the other 
 Panoryius, which together could contain two hundred galleys. The latter still 
 retains the name of Panormo. Cyzicus was at first situate on the neck of a pen 
 insula ; this peninsula was subsequently converted into an island, and this isl 
 and, again, was subsequently connected with the main land by Alexander through 
 two bridges. Now, however, the spot has reverted to its ancient peninsular form. 
 Cyzicus was famed for the beauty of its golden staters, which, according to De 
 mosthenes, were worth each twenty-eight Attic drachmae. It continued to be 
 a very flourishing city under the Roman and Byzantine emperors. The ruins 
 are near the modern town of Erdek, which itself answers to the ancient Artace. 
 6. Placia, to the east, named by Herodotus, together with Scylace, farther on, 
 among the few settlements belonging to the ancient race of the Pelasgi, which 
 existed in his time. The inhabitants of these towns spoke a language which 
 was entirely different from that of the neighboring people. Further on we come 
 to the mouth of the Rhyndacus. This river, now the Edrenos-Su, rises in Phry- 
 gia Epictetus, near Azani, the modern Tjaudere, and after receiving the Maccs- 
 tus, now Mickalick, and other streams, and separating Bithynia from Mysia, falls 
 into the sea opposite the little island of Besbicus, now Kalolimno. 
 
 PLACES ON THE HELLESPONTINE SHORE. 
 THE Hdlespontus, now the Dardanelles, took its name from Helle, daughter of 
 Athamas, who was drowned in it on her passage to Colchis. Its modern name 
 is supposed to come from the ancient Dardania, in its vicinity. The strait. 
 
ASIA. 627 
 
 properly begins a little to the southeast of the headland of Priapus, now Cape 
 Karaboa, and terminates with the promontory of Sigaeum, now Cape Jenischer. 
 Some ancient writers, however, made the Hellespont commence at Callipolis, 
 or where are now the straits of Gallipoll The breadth of the Hellespont is un 
 equal, but where least, not more than three quarters of a mile across. On the 
 Hellespontine shore we may name the following places : 
 
 1. Linum, to the west of Priapus, and well known for a species of shell-fish 
 caught there. 2. Pityca, near it, so called from the number of pine-trees (TTITVC, 
 " a pine-tree") which grew in its vicinity. 3. Parium, to the west, a place of 
 importance under the kings of Pergamus, and a Roman colony in the time of 
 Augustus. It had a secure and spacious harbor. 4. Lampsacus, to the south 
 west, one of the most celebrated of the Heilespontine cities. It was known at 
 first by the name of Pityusa, but afterward received colonies from Phocaea and 
 Miletus, and changed its appellation. The adjacent territory was very pro 
 ductive in excellent wine, and Priapus was worshipped by the people of Lamp 
 sacus with peculiar honors. Hence the morals of the place became very corrupt, 
 and Alexander, it is said, determined in consequence to destroy it ; but it was 
 saved by the artifice of Anaximenes the orator, a native of the city, who, when 
 Alexander declared with an oath that he would not grant his request, whatever 
 it might be (the monarch suspecting that he intended to ask him to save the 
 place), entreated him to destroy it. Lampsacus produced several distinguished 
 literary men and philosophers, and, among them, Charon the historian and Me- 
 trodorus the Epicurean. The ancient site is near the modern town of Lamsaki. 
 5. Percote, to the southwest, on the Practius, now the river of Bergaz. This 
 was one of the towns given to Themistocles by the King of Persia. 6. Arisbc, 
 to the southwest, where Alexander stationed his army, immediately after cross 
 ing the Hellespont at Abydos. 7. Abydos, to the west, a rich and flourishing 
 place, occupied after the Trojan war by some Thracians, who were driven out 
 by a Milesian colony. Here Xerxes, seated on an eminence, surveyed his im 
 mense land and naval forces ; and here, in the narrowest part of the strait, 
 where the breadth did not exceed seven stadia, he constructed his bridge of 
 vessels for the transportation of his army into Europe. Sestos stood farther to 
 the north, the distance between it and Abydos being not less than thirty stadia. 
 Abydos has also derived some celebrity from the romantic story of Hero and 
 Leander. The point of land on which Abydos stood is now called Cape Nagard. 
 But few traces of the ancient city remain, the materials having been carried off 
 by the Turks to assist in building the Sultanie Kalessi, or Old Castle of Asia, 
 three miles to the south. 
 
 PLACES IN TROAS. 
 
 I. THE territory of Troas, in western Mysia, was bounded on the north by the 
 River Rhodius, and a part of the chain of Ida ; on the east by another portion of 
 the same chain ; on the south by the Sinus Adramyttenus, now the Gulf of Adra- 
 miti ; and on the west by the JEgaan. The northern part included the district 
 of Dardania ; the western side extended from the Sigaean promontory on the 
 north, to the promontory of Lcctum, now Cape Baba on the south. 
 
 II. The whole of the Troad is intersected by the branches of Mount Ida, now 
 Kas-dagh, which, on account of the number of projections thrown out from the 
 main ridge, was likened by the ancients to the insect named centipede. Two 
 of its summits, which bore special appellations, were Cotylus and Gargara. 
 
 III. The inhabitants of the Troad were, most probably, of Thracian origin. 
 
628 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 At the time, however, of the Trojan war, they had reached a higher state of 
 prosperity and civilization than their opponents the Achaei. The first monarch 
 in Troas is said to have been Teucer, from whom the Trojans are also called 
 Teucri. In the reign of this king Troy was not yet built. Dardanus, probably 
 a Pelasgic chief, came from the island of Samothrace to Troas, received the 
 daughter of Teucer in marriage, together with the cession of part of his king 
 dom, founded the city of Dardanus, and called the adjacent region Dardania. 
 Dardanus became the father of two sons, Ilus and Erichthonius. The former 
 of these died without issue ; the latter, who succeeded him, became the father 
 of Tros, from whom the names Troas and Troja are derived. Tros had three 
 sons, one of whom, Ilus, founded the city of Ilium or Troy, which became the 
 capital of the country of Troas. In the reign of his successor, Laomedon, the 
 city was said to have been fortified with walls by the assistance of Neptune and 
 Apollo. Soon after this, Troy was taken by Hercules, but was restored to Priam, 
 the son of Laomedon, who reigned for a long time in peace and prosperity, until 
 his kingdom was attacked by the united forces of the Greeks, in consequence 
 of the conduct of his son Paris. After a siege of nine years the Greeks took 
 and destroyed the city. We will now mention some of the principal places in 
 the Troad. 
 
 1. Dardanus, about seventy stadia from Abydos, and near the Promontorium 
 Dardanium, now Cape Kepoburun. Though of great antiquity, it must not be 
 confounded with the ancient city of the same name founded by Dardanus, which 
 was farther inland, and at the foot of Mount Ida. By whom the second Darda 
 nus was founded is uncertain. The place existed, however, in the time of He 
 rodotus, who mentions its capture by the Persians in the reign of Darius. It 
 was the capital of Dardania, from which the modern name of the Hellespont 
 (Dardanelles) is derived. 2. Rhcetcum, farther to the southwest, on a promon 
 tory of the same name. Ajax was buried on this promontory, and the tumulus, 
 anciently called JEanteum, still exists. The Turkish name of the place where 
 this tomb stands is Intepe, and the village of It-Ghelmes represents RhoBteum. 
 Between the promontory of RluBteum and that of Sigseum, the Grecian naval 
 camp was placed at the siege of Troy. 3. Gergis, nearly due east of Dardanus, 
 and a place of very great antiquity. It was of great strength, having an acrop 
 olis and very lofty walls. Here Apollo Gergithius was worshipped, and here 
 also the Erythrean sibyl is said to have been born. 4. Pal&sccpsis, some dis 
 tance to the southeast, and so called for distinction sake from the more recent 
 town of Scepsis to the northeast. It was said to have been the capital of 
 ^Eneas s dominions. 5. Scepsis, memorable as the place where the original 
 writings of Aristotle were discovered. It seems, according to the common 
 story, that Neleus of Scepsis, a disciple of Aristotle and intimate friend of 
 Theophrastus, having been presented by the latter with his own MSS., as well 
 as those which he had inherited from their common master, brought them from 
 Greece to his native town. On his death they fell into the hands of illiterate 
 relations of his, who at first allowed them to remain in a neglected state, and 
 afterward buried them in a damp place, in order to keep them from Eumenes 
 of Pergamus, whose subjects they were, and who was busily employed in adding 
 to his recently-established library. They were afterward dug up, very much 
 injured by damp and worms, and sold to Apellicon of Teos, whose library was 
 afterward seized by Sylla on the capture of Athens, and the MSS. in question 
 were conveyed to Rome. Stahr, however, maintains that this story is true only 
 of certain copies of the writings of Aristotle. The site of Scepsis is still called 
 Eskiupchi. 
 
ASIA. 629 
 
 6. Troja, called also Ilium, the capital of Troas, and which appears from Ho 
 mer to have stood in the immediate vicinity of the sources of the Scamander, 
 on a rising ground between that river and the Simois. The site of this cele 
 brated city is now generally agreed to be near the modern village of Bunar- 
 Bashi. The citadel of Troy was called Pergamus. The city, according to the 
 most correct opinion, was never rebuilt after its destruction by the Greeks, and 
 the town of Novum Ilium, to be mentioned presently, must not be confounded 
 with it. The River Scamander, called also Xanthus, probably from the yellow 
 color of its waters, rose from some hot and cold springs near Troy. It is now 
 the River of Bunar-Bashi. The Simois, on the other hand, rose in Mount Ida, 
 near Gargarus, to the east of Troy, and was a much larger and more impetuous 
 stream. It is now the Mender e-Su. Both rivers united before entering the sea. 
 
 7. Novum Ilium, to the northwest of Troja, and nearer the sea. It appears 
 to have arisen not long after the J^olian migration, and, in order to gain ce 
 lebrity for it, the inhabitants boldly affirmed that it stood on the site of ancient 
 Troy. This was the city which Xerxes, and subsequently Alexander, visited, 
 and in the citadel of which they both offered up sacrifices, thinking that they 
 had seen the famous city of Priam. It was afterward fortified by Lysimachus, 
 and its population increased at the expense of some of the neighboring towns. 
 It experienced also the favor and protection of the kings of Pergamus, and after 
 them of the Romans. According to Leake, its site is on a hill to the eastward 
 of the villages of Kium-Kiui and Kalafatli, about five miles to the southeast of 
 the lower castle of the Dardanelles. 8. Sigaum, a town and promontory to the 
 northwest. The town was founded by a colony from Mytilene in Lesbos, and 
 was a few years afterward seized by the Athenians, which gave rise to a war 
 between the two states. This contest was rendered memorable by the prowess 
 of Pittacus, who commanded the Mytileneans, and the cowardice of the poet 
 Alceeus, who left his shield on the field of battle. The town of Sigaeum no 
 longer existed, in Strabo s time, having been destroyed by the inhabitants of 
 Novum Ilium. The promontory of Sigaeum, now Jenischer, was celebrated as 
 the spot where the ashes of Achilles, Patroclus, and Antilochus were interred, 
 and three mounds at the present day are supposed to indicate the three tombs. 
 
 9. Alexandria Troas, to the south, on the coast, founded by Antigonus, and 
 first called from him Antigonea, and afterward called Alexandrea Troas by Lysim 
 achus, in honor of Alexander. Under the Romans it attained to its height of 
 prosperity, and became one of the most flourishing of their Asiatic colonies. In 
 the Acts of the Apostles it is simply called Troas, and it was from this port that 
 St. Paul and St. Luke set sail for Macedonia. Both Julius Caesar and Constan- 
 tine thought of establishing the seat of empire here. The site is now called 
 Eski Stamboul, i. e., " the Old City," and numerous ruins attest its former mag 
 nificence. 10. Chrysa, a little to the south, sur named Dia, and celebrated for 
 the worship of Apollo Smintheus. The temple itself was called Sminthium. 
 
 11. Halesium, to the south, on the coast, and deriving its name from the salt 
 springs in the vicinity. The salt works themselves were at Tragasa. Leaving 
 this place, and doubling the promontory of Lectum, now Cape Baba, we enter 
 the Sinus Adramyttcnus, now Gulf of Adramiti, taking its name from Adramyt- 
 tium, now Adramiti, at its head. On the northern shore of this gulf we have, 
 
 12. Assus, a Lesbian colony, and the birth-place of Cleanthes, the Stoic, and the 
 successor of Zeno. Aristotle also resided here some time, having married the 
 niece of Hermias, tyrant of the place. The wheat of Assus was reserved for 
 the table of the Persian kings. The Assian stone, used for coffins, and said to 
 consume the bodies of the dead, was found in this vicinity. The site of Assus 
 
630 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 is now called Beriam Kalesi. 13. Gar gar a, to the east, another ^Eolian colony, 
 taking its name from Gargarus, the celebrated summit of Ida. The country 
 around was remarkable for its fertility. 14. Antandrus, to the east, at the foot 
 of Mount Alexandra, one of the summits of Ida, and so called, it is said, from 
 the judgment of Paris or Alexander, which took place upon this mountain. 
 Antandrus is now Antandro. 15. Cilia, to the east, where Apollo was particu 
 larly worshipped. 16. Adramyttium, at the head of the gulf, with a harbor and 
 winter station for ships. It became at an early period a wealthy and flourishing 
 city, and is now Adramiti, In the interior of Troas we may notice, 17. Thebe, 
 to the north of the preceding, surnamed Hypoplacia from being situate at the 
 foot of Mount Placus (vnb JUa/c^). It was the city of Eetion, father of Androm 
 ache, and was sacked by Achilles 
 
 JE 6 L 1 8. 
 
 I. THE jEolic colonies in Asia Minor owed their origin to 
 what is termed the ^Eolic migration, which took place from 
 Greece on the invasion of the Dorians and Heraelidee, B.C. 1124,, 
 The new settlements occupied by them on the main land were 
 called JEolis. Besides these, however, the .ZEolians also formed 
 insular settlements in Tenedos, Lesbos, and the group of islands 
 called Hecatonnesi, between Lesbos and the continent. 
 
 II. Molis may be divided into Old and New. Old ^Eolis 
 consisted of the twelve .ZEolian cities named Cyme, Temnus? 
 Mgcz, Neon-Teickos, Larissa^ Myrina, Gryneum, Argivessa? 
 Pitane, Atarneus, Cance, and Smyrna. The last mentioned 
 of these, as we have already remarked, became at a subsequent 
 period a member of the Ionian confederacy. 
 
 III. On the other hand, we may give the name of New JEolis 
 to all the other ^Eolic cities, from below Adramyttium to the 
 quarter where Old ^Eolis begins. Sometimes, however, the 
 term ^Eolis is employed in a very general sense, to denote all 
 the .^Eolic settlements on the western and northwestern coasts 
 of Asia Minor, and then includes both Old and New jEolis, to 
 gether with the coast as far as the Propontis. 
 
 PLACES IN 
 
 I. IN New Molis we have, 1. Coryphas, founded by the Mytilenaeans. 2. Cis- 
 thene, just below, a flourishing town and port, but deserted in the time of Strabo. 
 
 3. Peparene, to the southeast, subsequently called Theodosiopolis, having a cop 
 per mine in its vicinity, and famous also for its wine. The promontory of 
 Pyrrha, closing the Sinus Adramyttenus to the south, is now Cape S. Nicolo. 
 On it was a temple of Venus. The Hecatonnesi, in its vicinity, are now called 
 Musconisi, and derive their modern name from the town of Musco, correspond 
 ing to the ancient Pardoselene, an JEolian town in the largest one of the group*. 
 
 4. Carene, to the west of Peparene, and now probably Chirin-Keui. 
 
ASIA. 631 
 
 II. In Old JSolis we may mention, 1. Atarncus, a place of some importance, 
 and having a rich and productive territory. It was for some time the residence 
 of Hermias, tyrant of Assus. The ruins are near the village ofDikheli. 2. Cana, 
 to the south, a colony of Locrians. 3. Pitdne, to the southeast, a city of some 
 note, having two harbors, and near the mouth of the Evenus, now the Kozak. 
 It was the birth-place of Arcesilas, the founder of the Middle Academy. The 
 bricks made here were so light as to float, it is said, in water. The site of the 
 place is now called Tchandeli. The promontory of Cana, to the west, is now 
 Cape Colonni. 4. Pergamus or Pergamum, to the northeast, in a plain watered 
 by the two small rivers Selinus and Cetius, both emptying into the Cai cus. It 
 was at first a fortress of considerable strength, situate on the top of a conical 
 hill, and when the city began to be formed around the base of the hill, the for 
 tress served as a citadel. Pergamus became subsequently the capital of a 
 flourishing kingdom of the same name, much enlarged by the Romans. It was 
 famous also for its library, founded by Eumenes II., and which consisted of not 
 less than two hundred thousand volumes. This noble collection was afterward 
 given by Antony to Cleopatra, who transported it to Alexandrea, where it formed 
 part of the splendid library in the latter city. It was from their being first used 
 for writing in this library that parchment skins were called Pergamena charta, 
 whence " pergamen " or parchment. Eumenes was compelled to employ parch 
 ment for books, because Ptolemy, king of Egypt, had forbidden the exporta 
 tion of papyrus, in order to check the growth of the Pergamenian library, if pos 
 sible, and prevent it from rivalling his own. Pergamus is one of the seven 
 churches of the Apocalypse. The modern town retains the name of Bergamah 
 or Bcrgma. 
 
 5. El&a, the port and naval arsenal of Pergamus, giving the name of Elcaticus 
 to the bay on which it stood, but which was more commonly called the Sinus 
 Cumaus, now the Gulf of Tchandeli. 6. Gryneum or Grynea, to the south, on 
 the coast, and celebrated for the worship of Apollo, who hence obtained the sur 
 name of Grynaus. The temple of the god was remarkable for its size, and the 
 beauty of the white marble of which it was built. The site of this place is now 
 called Glisselik. 7. Myrina, a short distance to the east, called, subsequently, 
 under the Roman sway, Sebastopolis, in honor of Tiberius, who had granted it 
 a remission of imposts on account of the damage it had sustained from an earth 
 quake. 8. Cyme, the most considerable of the twelve JEolian cities, situate to 
 the southeast, and surnamed Phriconis, because its first founders had settled for 
 some time around Mount Phricium in Locris, previous to crossing over into 
 Asia. Cyme was one of the many cities which claimed to be the birth-place of 
 Homer. It could claim, however, on surer grounds, the historian Ephorus as a 
 native. In general, however, the Cymeans were taxed with stupidity and slow 
 ness of apprehension. It suffered severely from an earthquake in the reign of 
 Tiberius, in common with several other cities of Asia. Its ruins are near the 
 Turkish village of Sanderli. 9. Larissa, to the southeast, surnamed Phriconis 
 like Cyme, and for the same reason. It was, as its name imports, originally a 
 Pelasgic settlement prior to the arrival of the ^Eolians. 10. Neon-Teichos, be 
 tween Larissa and Cyme, founded by the ^Eolians as a temporary fortress on 
 their first arrival in the country from Locris. It afterward became one of the 
 leading cities of JEolis. The ruins are to be sought on the right bank of the 
 Hermus, above Giuzel-Hissar. 11. Temnus, to the southeast, on the lower bank 
 of the Hermus probably, and in a commanding situation overlooking the plains 
 of Cyme, Phocaea, and Smyrna. The village of Mcnimen, to the north of Smyr 
 na, is supposed to mark its site. 12. Mg&, to the north of Temnus. 13. Mgi- 
 
632 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ro cssa, mentioned by Herodotus as one of the twelve ^Eolian cities, and prob 
 ably the same as Attalia Agroira, assigned by Stephanus to Lydia, but by Pliny 
 to JEolis. 
 
 BITHYNIA. 
 
 I. Bithynia was bounded on the north by the Euxine, on the 
 southeast and south by Phrygia, on the west by the Thracian 
 Bosporus, the Propontis, and Mysia, and on the east by Paph- 
 lagonia, from which it was separated by the River Parthenius. 
 If, however, we exclude, as some do, the Mariandyni from Bi 
 thynia, the eastern boundary will then be formed by the River 
 Sangarius. 
 
 II. Bithynia had the advantage of an extensive line of sea- 
 coast, indented by two deep bays, the Sinus Cianus, now Gulf 
 of Kio, and the Sinus Olbianus or Astacenus, now Gulf 
 of Isnikmid. The ancient writers speak of the country as a 
 very fertile one, though a great part of it was mountainous. 
 The mountains themselves, however, were covered with valu 
 able ship timber. The main group is that of Olympus, occu 
 pying the whole southern part of the country, and extending 
 from east to west. The western extremity of the range was 
 called the Mysian Olympus ; the eastern, the Bithynian Olym 
 pus. 
 
 III. The earliest inhabitants of Bithynia were called Bebry- 
 ces. They were afterward conquered or displaced by the Thyni 
 and Bithyni, cognate tribes of Thracian origin, who came from 
 the European side of the Propontis. These last were conquered 
 in their turn by Croesus, and on his overthrow became subject 
 to the Persian empire. Bithynia was taken from the Persians 
 by Alexander, but his general Calantus was defeated by Bas, 
 a native prince, who founded an independent kingdom, which 
 continued until 74 B.C., when Nicomedes III. left it by his will 
 to the Romans. As a Roman province, Bithynia is well known 
 to us through the letters of the younger Pliny, who was placed 
 over it as governor by the Emperor Trajan. 
 
 IV. The chief rivers of Bithynia are, 1. The Rhyndacus, sep 
 arating it from Mysia. 2. The Sangarius, now Sakaria. 
 3. The Parthenius, now Bartan. Modern travellers describe 
 the country as beautiful and romantic, abounding in vines 
 and forests, and particularly fertile near Brousa, the ancient 
 Prusias. 
 
ASIA. 633 
 
 PLACES IN BITHYNIA. 
 
 1. Dascylium, near the mouth of the Rhyndacus, the residence of the Persian 
 satrap of Mysia and Phrygia, and from which the satrapy itself was called the 
 Dascylian. Near it was the Palus Dascylitis, formed by the River Odrysses or 
 Horisius, a branch of the Rhyndacus, and now the Niloufer or Oufersu. The 
 country adjacent to the site of Dascylium is still called Diaskilo. 2. Myrlea, to 
 the east, a colony of the Colophonians, and a flourishing city until taken and 
 destroyed by Philip the last of Macedon. It was rebuilt, however, by Prusias, 
 king of Bithynia, who called it Apamea, after his queen. The ruins are near 
 the site now called Modania. 3. Cius, to the northeast, at the head of, and 
 giving name to the Sinus Cianus, now Gulf of Kio. It was a colony of the Mi 
 lesians, and advantageously placed at the mouth of the River Ascanius, which 
 discharged into the Propontis the waters of the Lake Ascanius, and being navi 
 gable, rendered Cius the emporium of a large tract of surrounding country, and 
 many inland towns of Bithynia and Phrygia. It served also as the port ofNicaa. 
 Cius was destroyed by Philip the last of Macedon, but rebuilt by Prusias, who 
 gave it the name of Prusias ad Mare (irpoc da kaaaav ). The site is still called 
 Kio. In the vicinity of Cius was Mount Arganthonius, whence flowed the little 
 River Hylas, where the youth of that name was fabled to have been carried 
 away by the Naiads. This mountain range ends in the promontory of Posidium, 
 now Cape Bozburun. 4. Prusa ad Olympum (em TGJ OAi^Trcj), to the south of 
 Cius, an important city, and so called from being situate at the foot of Mount 
 Olympus, or the Mysian part of the chain. It was built, according to one ac 
 count, by Prusias I., at the suggestion of Hannibal, when residing at the court 
 of that monarch. Dio Chrysostom was born here. The modern name is Brousa, 
 and it is still one of the most flourishing cities of Asia Minor. Brousa was the 
 capital of the Ottoman empire prior to the capture of Constantinople. The Mys 
 ian Olympus is now called Toumandji Dagh ; the general name for the whole 
 range is Keschisch Dag. The appellation of" Mysian" is a misnomer, since the 
 highest part of this branch of the chain is in Bithynia. 5. Hadriani, to the south 
 west, near the Rhyndacus, and the native place of Aristides the rhetorician. It 
 is now Edrenos. 6. Nic<za, on the eastern shore of the Lake of Ascanius, and 
 the capital of Bithynia. It was built by Antigonus, son of Philip, who called it 
 Antigoma ; but it subsequently received the name of Niceea from Lysimachus, 
 in honor of his wife, daughter of Antipater. It stood in an extensive plain, was 
 built in the form of a square, and the streets were drawn at right angles to each 
 other, so that from a monument near the gymnasium it was possible to see the 
 four gates. It was the birth-place of Hipparchus the astronomer, and of Dio 
 Cassius. Nicaea is celebrated in the history of the Church for the council held 
 there against the Arian heresy, A.D. 325. The creed drawn up on this occasion 
 is called the Nicene. This place was often taken and retaken during the wars 
 between the Byzantiqe emperors and the Turks. It is now dwindled to an in 
 significant town called Isnik. The waters of the Lake Ascanius were so im 
 pregnated with natron that garments dipped in them were cleansed without any 
 farther trouble. 
 
 7. Astacus, to the northeast, on the Sinus Olbianus or Astacenus. It was orig 
 inally a colony of Megarians, but, having been strengthened by a colony from 
 Athens, it received the name of Olbia, or "the Happy." It was destroyed by 
 Lysimachus, but the inhabitants were transferred by Nicomedes to his new city 
 of Nicomedla. 8. Nicomedia, at the head of the gulf, founded by Nicomedes I. 
 
634 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 of Bithynia, and the chief residence of the Bithynian kings, an honor, however, 
 subsequently divided with Nicaea. It increased greatly under the Romans, and 
 became the great thoroughfare from Byzantium to the upper part of Asia. It 
 was often the residence of the Roman emperors when carrying on war against 
 the Parthians or Persians. Constantino the Great breathed his last at his villa 
 near this city. Arrian, the historian of Alexander, was born here. It is now 
 called Isnikmid, or Ismid, and is still a place of importance. 9. Libyssa, to the 
 west, on the northern shore of the gulf, and celebrated as the spot where Han 
 nibal ended his days, and where his remains were interred. Plutarch calls it a 
 small village. Some writers have identified it with the modern Ghebse, but 
 Leake more correctly places it at Malsum, a few 7 miles to the south of Ghebse. 
 10. Calchedon, less correctly written Chalcedon, to the northwest, and lying op 
 posite to Constantinople. It was founded seventeen years earlier than this latter 
 city, by the Megarians, who were jeered as blind men (though by no means 
 justly, considering the time when the place was founded) for having overlooked 
 the far superior site of Byzantium. It was, nevertheless, well situated for trade, 
 and the surrounding country was remarkable for its fertility, so that this soon 
 became a very flourishing place. It contained many beautiful buildings and 
 monuments. Under the first Christian emperors it was made the capital of the 
 ancient province of Bithynia, which now assumed the name of Pontica Prima. 
 Here also the celebrated council was held, A.D. 451, against the Eutychian her 
 esy. The site of Calchedon is now occupied by the village of Kadi-Keui, or 
 " the Judge s Village." Travellers were ferried across to Byzantium from the 
 northern headland called Boies or Damalis, the first name being derived from lo, 
 who swam across the strait at this place, and the latter from Damalis, the wife 
 of the Athenian general Chares. 11. Chrysopolis, a little to the northwest, and 
 having a wide and beautiful harbor. It is now Scutari. More to the north, and 
 near to the opening of the Bosporus, was the temple of Jupiter, surnamed Urius 
 (Ovpioc), or the " Dispenser of favoring winds." 
 
 Passing into the Euxine, and proceeding in an eastern direction along the 
 northern coast of Bithynia, w r e come to, 1. Calpc, a harbor, with fine water, 
 mentioned by Xenophon, who halted there some time with his fellow-soldiers. 
 The soil of the adjacent country was extremely fertile, and the surrounding 
 hills afforded fine naval timber. There was also a promontory here called 
 Calpe. The modern name of both port and promontory is Kirpeh. 2. Thynias, 
 a small island, having a port, and lying close to the land. It was afterward 
 called Apollonias, from Apollo s being worshipped there. It is mentioned in the 
 voyage of the Argonauts, and is now Kefken. 3. Prusa ad Hypium, situate a 
 little distance inland, on the River Hypius, now the Milan. It was founded by 
 King Prusias, and was named from its situation, for distinction sake from Pru- 
 sias on the Sinus Cianus. Its site is near the modern Uskub. The country 
 along this part of the coast was occupied by the Mariandyni, a people of uncer 
 tain origin, but who, differing neither in language nor in customs materially from 
 the Bithyni, may justly be considered as part of the same great Thracian stock. 
 4. Heraclea Pontica, founded by the Megarians, in the territory of the Mariandyni, 
 a portion of whom, near the city, they brought into subjection, and treated as he 
 lots. It was called Pontica, or in Ponto, for distinction sake from other cities 
 named Heraclea, and scattered over the ancient world. It became a very flour 
 ishing and powerful commercial city, and acquired possession of all the coast 
 from the Sangarius to the Parthenius. Heraclea attained its greatest prosperity 
 under a tyrant named Dionysius, who proved an excellent ruler. The Heracle- 
 ots, after remaining eighty- four years under kingly authority, passed successively 
 
ASIA. 635 
 
 under the dominion of Mithradates and Rome. It is now a small place, named 
 Erekli. Near Heraclea, on a peninsula termed the Acherusian, was a celebrated 
 cave, where Hercules was said to have dragged Cerberus to the light of day. 
 
 In the interior of Bithynia we may name, 1. Bithynium, near the Sangarius, 
 and in a district named Salone, celebrated for its excellent pastures, and a cheese 
 much esteemed at Rome. It changed its name subsequently to Claudiopolis, 
 and increased greatly under Hadrian, being the birth-place of his favorite An- 
 tinous. Under Theodosius I. it became the capital of the new province of Ho- 
 norias. It now probably answers to the town of Gheivah. 2. Gratia, to the 
 southeast, called also Flaviopolis, flourished under the emperors of the Fla 
 vian line. Its site is near the modern Tereboli. 3. Dusis pros Olumpon, to the 
 northeast. Its site is probably near the village of Dustche. 4. Hadrianopolis, 
 to the east, now Boli. 5. Dadastana, some distance to the south of Cratia. 
 Here the Emperor Jovian died on his return from Syria to Constantinople. 
 6. Gordium, afterward Juliopolis, to the northeast, on the confines of Galatia, 
 and near the River Sangarius. It was the residence of the ancient Phrygian 
 kings Gordius and Midas, and in its citadel, which had been the palace of Gor- 
 dius, was preserved the famous knot which Alexander cut. It was a place of 
 much traffic, from its central situation, being nearly equidistant from the Hel 
 lespont, the Euxine, and the Sea of Cilicia. It continued to flourish, under the 
 name of Juliopolis, from the reign of Augustus for many centuries. 
 
 PAPHLAGONIA. 
 
 I. Paphlagonia is bounded on the north by the Euxine, on 
 the south by Galatia, on the east by Pontus, and on the west 
 by Bithynia,. It was separated from Bithynia by the River 
 Parthenius, and from Pontus by the River Halys. Paphla- 
 gonia is described by Xenophon as a country having very beau 
 tiful plains and very high mountains. It is traversed by two 
 chains of mountains. The higher and more southerly of these 
 chains is called Olgassys by Ptolemy, now Ulgaz Dagh, and 
 is a continuation of the great mountain chain which extends 
 from the Hellespont to Armenia, and which was known to the 
 ancients under the names of Ida in Mysia, and Olympus in 
 Bithynia. 
 
 II. The chief rivers are, 1. The Parthenius, already men 
 tioned. 2. The Amnias, now Kara Su, a tributary of the 
 Halys ; and, 3. The Halys, now Kizil Ermak. The Halys 
 formed the eastern boundary of the empire of Croesus. 
 
 III. This rough country had but few roads ; in different parts 
 the soil varied in its degrees of fertility ; in the north, but par- 
 -icularly about Sinope, the land was fruitful, especially in oil ; 
 She interior produced abundance of wood, red ochre, orpiment, 
 &c., of which the grand mart was at Sinope. Homer extols 
 the mules of Paphlagonia. 
 
636 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 IV. The Paphlagonians were a people of Syrian race, and 
 came to the assistance of the Trojans under the command of 
 Pylsemenes. Homer says they came from the country of the 
 Heneti, which means, most probably, that the Heneti them 
 selves were a Paphlagonian people, who followed Pylsemenes 
 to Troy. These Heneti are said, on the death of their leader, 
 to have migrated to Thrace, and afterward to Italy, where they 
 settled under the name of Veneti, their new leader being An- 
 tenor the Trojan. This story, however, is extremely doubtful. 
 
 V. The Paphlagonians were subdued by Croesus, and after 
 his fall became subjects of the Persian empire. After the death 
 of Alexander, they fell, along with Cappadocia, to the share of 
 Eumenes. Subsequently they formed part of the kingdom of 
 Pontus ; but, after the conquest of this kingdom by the Romans, 
 they were allowed for some time to have kings of their own. 
 Under the early Roman emperors, Paphlagonia did not form a 
 separate province, but was united to Galatia till the time of 
 Constantine, who first erected it into a separate province. 
 
 PLACES IN PAPHLAGONIA. 
 
 1. Sesamus, a little to the northeast of the mouth of the Parthenius. It was 
 a Greek colony from Miletus, and is mentioned in the Iliad. It was afterward 
 colonized by Amastris, niece of Darius Codomanus, and wife of Dionysius, ty 
 rant of Heraclea Pontica, who gave it her name. It was a handsome town, and 
 adorned with squares and public buildings. The modern name is Amasera. 
 
 2. Cytorus, to the northeast, also mentioned in the Iliad, and a factory of Sinope. 
 Near it was Mount Cytorus, famed for its box wood. The modern name of the 
 mountain is Sagra. The remains of the city itself are found near the modern 
 Kidros. Farther on we come to Carambis Promontorium, now Cape Kerempe. 
 
 3. Abonilichos, a small town and harbor, the birth-place of an impostor named 
 Alexander, who assumed the character of ./Esculapius. The name of the place 
 was changed, at his request, by the Emperor Marcian, to lonopolis, of which the 
 modern Ineboli is only a corruption. 4. Sinope, some distance to the east, 
 founded by the Milesians, and the most important trading place on the Euxine. 
 It received an accession of six hundred colonists from Athens, about the com 
 mencement of the Peloponnesian war. At the time of the retreat of the ten 
 thousand, we learn from Xenophon that it was a rich and flourishing city, holding 
 many of the neighboring towns in its dependence, and possessing considerable 
 influence over the barbarous tribes of Paphlagonia and Cappadocia. Among its 
 colonies were Cerasus, Cotyora, and Trapezus, all flourishing cities on the Eux 
 ine coast of Asia Minor. It was mistress, also, by means of its powerful navy, 
 of the Euxine Sea as far as the Cyanean islands, and it shared with Byzantium 
 the lucrative fishery of the pelamys, a kind of tunny. Sinope was the birth 
 place of the cynic philosopher Diogenes. Conquered subsequently by Pharna- 
 ces, it became the chief town and residence of the kings of Pontus. Here Mith- 
 radates Eupator, or the Great, was born, who greatly embellished and improved 
 
ASIA. 637 
 
 the place, by forming a harbor on each side of the isthmus, on which the city 
 was situate, erecting naval arsenals, and constructing admirable reservoirs for 
 the tunny fishery. Sinope was taken from Mithradates by Lucullus, and a Ro 
 man colony was subsequently sent thither by Caesar. It continued for a long 
 period afterward a flourishing city. In the middle ages it formed part of the 
 small empire of Trebizond, and fell into the hands of the Turks about 1470. The 
 modern name is Sinub. 
 
 In the interior we may mention, 1. Cimiata, at the foot of Mount Olgassys, 
 the stronghold originally of Mithradates Ctistes, the first sovereign of his line, 
 who effected the conquest of Pontus. It was subsequently the capital of a dis 
 trict named Cimiatene. 2. Sandaracurglum, to the northeast, a great mining 
 settlement, where sandarach was obtained. This was a red pigment, called 
 now red sulphuret of arsenic. The mines here were worked by slaves, who 
 had been sold on account of crime, the process being a very unhealthy one, and 
 great numbers dying in consequence. 3. Pompeiopolis, to the northwest, on 
 the River Amnias, and founded by Pompey the Great. Its site is near the 
 modern Tash-Kupri. The River Amnias is a tributary of the Halys, and is now 
 the Kara Su, or river of Castamouni. On its banks was fought the great battle 
 in which Mithradates Eupator defeated with great loss Nicomedes, king of Bi- 
 thynia, which decisive victory was followed by the conquest of Bithynia, and 
 nearly the whole of Asia Minor. 4. Castamon, to the southeast of Pompeiopolis, 
 now Castamouni. Near it was an extensive plain called Gunaria. 5. Gangra, 
 to the southeast, near the Halys, and the confines of Galatia. It was a city of 
 some note, and the royal residence of Morezus, a Paphlagonian prince men 
 tioned by Livy. It is often alluded to in the ecclesiastical writers as the met 
 ropolitan see of Paphlagonia. The orchards here produced apples much es 
 teemed at Rome. The site of this place is occupied by the Turkish town of 
 Kangreh. 6. Germanicopolis, to the east, built in honor of Germanicus, and sit 
 uate near the Halys. 7. Andrapa, to the north, on a tributary of the Halys. It 
 subsequently received the name of Neoclaudiopolis. 
 
 PONTUS. 
 
 I. Pontus took its name from the sea on which it lay, and 
 was bounded on the north by the Euxine, on the northeast by 
 Colchis, on the southeast and east by Armenia Minor, on the 
 south by Cappadocia, and on the west by Paphlagonia and 
 Galatia. The boundary between it and Colchis was formed 
 by the River Acampsis. Ptolemy, less correctly, places this 
 boundary as far east as the Phasis ; and Strabo, on the other 
 hand, at Trapezus. The southern boundary was formed by 
 the chain of Mount Paryadres. 
 
 II. The northeastern part of Pontus is exceedingly barren. 
 The western part is very fertile, and is well drained by the 
 Rivers Iris, now Yeshil Ermak, and Thermodon, now Ther- 
 meh, and affords good pasture for numerous flocks. The dis 
 trict of Phanarcea was considered the most fertile part of Pon 
 tus, producing wine, oil, and many other things. Pontus con- 
 
638 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 tained, also, mines of salt, iron, and rock crystal ; and the coast 
 exhibited some large and flourishing Greek cities, having good 
 harbors, and carrying on an extensive traffic. 
 
 II. The tribes inhabiting Pontus were various and independ 
 ent. In the more western part were the Leucosyri, or White 
 Syrians, really Cappadocians, so called by the Greeks for dis 
 tinction sake from the swarthier Syrians of the south, but of 
 the same origin. The range of Mount Paryadres, and that part 
 of Scydises called Frigidarium, from its severe cold, were an 
 ciently, as now, occupied by small independent tribes, of whom 
 an account is given us by Xenophon in his Anabasis. 
 
 III. Pontus was first erected into a separate kingdom by 
 Ariobarzanes L, but does not make any figure in history until 
 after the death of Alexander the Great, when Mithradates II., 
 surnamed Ctistes (/ma-nyr), or "the founder," greatly enlarged 
 and strengthened it. It attained its greatest prosperity under 
 Mithradates VI., surnamed Eupator, or the Great, who was 
 overthrown by the Romans in B.C. 63. The Romans reward 
 ed Pharnaces II., the son of Mithradates, who had been treach 
 erous to his father, with the kingdom of Bosporus ; but on his 
 attempting to regain his hereditary dominions in Pontus during 
 the civil wars between Pompey and Caesar, he was defeated by 
 the latter, B.C. 47, and soon after slain. Pharnaces left a son, 
 Darius, who was made King of Pontus by Antony, B.C. 39, but 
 was soon deposed, and Polemo was appointed in his stead. Po- 
 lemo was subsequently killed in an expedition, and was suc 
 ceeded by his widow Pythodoris. 
 
 IV. Pontus became a Roman province in the reign of Nero, 
 and was subsequently divided into three districts, called respect 
 ively Pontus Galaticus, Cappadocicus, and Polemoniacus. In 
 the time of Constantino another division was made ; the west 
 ern part, which included Pontus Galaticus and Cappadodcus^ 
 being called Helenopontus, after Constantino s mother, while 
 the eastern part preserved its name of Polemoniacus. 
 
 PLACES IN PONTUS. 
 
 AFTER crossing the Halys, we enter on what Herodotus calls the district of 
 Pteria, and in which a great but undecisive battle was fought between Croesus 
 and Cyrus. Herodotus describes this as the best and most important part of 
 the Leuco-Syrian territory, and Strabo mentions it under the names of Gadilon- 
 i.tis and Saramenc. It was a rich champaign country, and contained a breed of 
 sheep with remarkably fine fleeces, accustomed to be protected with skins. 
 
ASIA. 639 
 
 Advancing along the coast from the mouth of the Halys, we come to, 1. Ami- 
 sus, a Milesian colony, afterward strengthened by one from Athens. It was 
 eventually under the kings of Pontus, and was greatly enlarged and embellished 
 by Mithradates Eupator, from whom it was taken by Lucullus. Under Augus 
 tus it became a free city, and is now Samsun, a town of considerable trade. It 
 lay twenty stadia to the west of the river and town of Lycastus. 2. Heracleum, 
 a port and promontory to the east of the mouth of the Iris. The headland, on 
 which was a temple of Hercules, is now Cape Thermeh. Leaving this, we come 
 to the mouth of the Thermodon, now Thermeh. This river is celebrated in poetry 
 as the fabled seat of the Amazons, who are said at one time to have occupied 
 the adjacent plains of Themiscyra. Apollonius of Rhodes calls this plain the 
 Doeantian, from a leader named Dceas, and also states that the Amazons were 
 divided into three separate cantons, all, however, under one queen. Strabo de 
 scribes the plain of Themiscyra as a most rich and beautiful district, ever ver 
 dant, and able to supply food for innumerable herds of oxen and horses. 3. The 
 miscyra, a Greek city on the Thermodon, near its mouth, in the plain just men 
 tioned, and remarkable for the vigor with which it defended itself against Lu 
 cullus. The townsmen sent bears, and other wild beasts, and even swarms of 
 bees against the workmen who were undermining their walls. 4. (Ena, to the 
 east, on the coast, and a place of some consequence in the Middle Ages. It is 
 now Unieh. 5. Polemonium, to the southeast, named after Polemo, king of that 
 part of Pontus called from him Polemoniacus. It is not named by Strabo, and 
 therefore probably was founded after his time. It was a place of importance. 
 The headland Jasonium, in the vicinity, is now Cape Jasoun, and took its an 
 cient name from the ship Argo s having anchored near it. The whole coast, 
 from the vicinity of the Thermodon as far as this promontory, was once inhab 
 ited by the Chalybes, a barbarous people, celebrated in antiquity for the great 
 iron mines and forges which existed in their country. Hamilton found some 
 traces of the working of iron still existing in this quarter. Strabo states that 
 the Chalybes had, in his time, changed their name to that of Chaldai. East of 
 the Chalybes were the Tibareni, possessing numerous flocks and herds; and to 
 the east of these the Mosynccci, so called by the Greeks, from their dwelling in 
 small wooden turrets named noavvot. They were a wild and robber race. Xen- 
 ophon gives an account of them in his Anabasis. 
 
 6. Cotyora, a colony of Sinope, and a place of note as described by Xenophon. 
 It furnished supplies to the ten thousand Greeks, who were quartered in its vi 
 cinity. In Arrian s time it was little more than a village, the population having 
 been removed to the more modern Pharnacla. Its site answers to that of Bu- 
 zuk-Kale. 7. Pharnacla, to the east, founded by Pharnaces, grandfather of Mith 
 radates Eupator, on the site of a Greek settlement named Charades. It is er 
 roneously confounded by Arrian with Cerasus, which lay farther to the east. The 
 mistake probably arose from confounding the ancient names Cerasus and Cha 
 rades. The modern name of Pharnacia is Keresoon, which has given counte 
 nance to the erroneous opinion just mentioned. Pharnacia obtained a large 
 portion of its population from Cotyora. 8. Cerasus, to the east, near the site 
 now called Skcfie. It was a colony of Sinope. From this vicinity Lucullus first 
 brought the cherry-tree into Italy. Hence the Latin cerasus, " a cherry-tree," 
 and ccrasum, " a cherry ;" unless we suppose the city to have derived its name 
 from the tree itself. The adjacent hills are covered with forests, in which 
 cherry-trees still grow naturally. 9. Trapezus, to the east, a flourishing com 
 mercial city, and a colony of Sinope. It derived its name from the square form 
 in which it was laid out, resembling a table (rpuTTfCa). Trapezus is celebrated 
 
640 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 for the hospitable reception which it gave to the ten thousand Greeks on their 
 return, this being the first Greek colony which the latter had reached after the 
 battle of Cunaxa. The place was subsequently embellished and improved by 
 Hadrian. The modern name is Trebizond or Terabezoun. It was the seat of a 
 small Greek empire in the Middle Ages, under a branch of the Comneni, and 
 which ended with the capture of the city by the Turks in 1462. There are no 
 places of any importance between Trapezus and the mouth of the Acampsis. 
 The country lying inland from this part of the coast was occupied by several 
 barbarous tribes, such as, 1. The Drila, the most warlike people in this quarter, 
 according to Xenophon. 2. The Macrones, supposed to be of Colchian origin, 
 from their practicing circumcision. 3. The Byzeres, a W 7 ild and savage race, 
 who cut to pieces three cohorts of Pompey s army, by placing on their way a 
 quantity of honey, which had the effect of intoxicating them, and depriving them 
 of the power of resistance. Xenophon speaks of a similar effect produced by 
 honey on the Greeks in the country of the Colchians near Trapezus. Pliny 
 says that this honey was extracted from the flower of the rhododendron. 
 
 In the interior of Pontus we may mention, 1. Amasia, on the River Iris, and 
 the native place of Strabo, who has left us a minute description of it. The site 
 is occupied by the modern Amazieh. 2. Zela, some distance to the southeast, 
 on the left bank of the Iris, and near the frontiers of Galatia. It was a place 
 of great antiquity, and erected, according to Strabo, on the mound of Semiramis. 
 It was at first apparently a spot consecrated to the worship of the goddess 
 Ana itis, a deity highly revered by the Persians, Armenians, and Cappadocians. 
 Zela remained, however, a small town, until Pompey, after the defeat of Mith- 
 radates, increased its population and extent, and raised it to the rank of a city. 
 Zela is remarkable for the victory obtained here by Caesar over Pharnaces, and 
 which he expressed in the laconic sentence " Veni, vidi, vici." The site is still 
 called Zeleh. 3. Comdna Pontica, to the northeast, and surnamed Pontica, to 
 distinguish it from a Cappadocian city of the same name. It stood not far from 
 the sources of the Iris. Comana was celebrated for the worship of the goddess 
 Ma, supposed to answer to the Bellona of the Greeks, and likewise revered with 
 equal honors in the Cappadocian town. The priesthood attached to the temple 
 was an office of the highest emolument and dignity, and sought after by kings 
 and princes. The city was large and populous, and kept up a considerable 
 traffic with Armenia. There were no less than six thousand slaves attached 
 to the service of the temple, and the festivals of Bellona, which were held twice 
 a year, drew together an immense concourse. The worship was a licentious one. 
 The remains of the place are now called Komanak. 4. Eupatoria, at the conflu 
 ence of the Iris and the Lycus, now the Koulehissar. It was founded by Mithra- 
 dates Eupator, but was not yet completed when he was forced to flee from Pon 
 tus by the Roman armies. Pompey, after the conquest of the country, completed 
 the place, and called it, after himself, Magnopolis. Its remains are near Tchenikeh. 
 
 5. Cabira, to the south, at the foot of Mount Paryadres, and once the favorite 
 residence of Mithradates. Pompey changed the name to Diopolis, and Pythodo- 
 ris subsequently to Sebaste or Sebastopolis. The site is uncertain. 6. Coenon- 
 chorion, to the south, one of the strongest holds of Mithradates, where Pompey 
 found all the most precious jewels and other articles belonging to that monarch, 
 together with his secret correspondence and papers. 7. Neo Casarea, to the south 
 east, near the Lycus, and founded probably in the reign of Tiberius. It was 
 the native city of Gregory Thaumaturgus, who flourished in the middle of the 
 third century, and in his days it was the most considerable town of Pontus. It is 
 now Niksar, a town of some size, and the capital of the district of the same name. 
 
ASIA. 641 
 
 PHRYGIA. 
 
 I. THE boundaries of Phrygia differed at various times. 
 Under the Persian empire and after the death of Alexander, 
 it was bounded on the north by Bithynia and Paphlagonia, on 
 the south by Lycia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia, on the east by 
 Pontus and Cappadocia, and on the west by Lydia and Mysia. 
 On the arrival and settlement, however, of the Gauls in Asia, 
 a large proportion of the northern part was abstracted by them, 
 and thenceforth bore the name of Galatia. 
 
 II. The ancient writers speak of the Great and Lesser Phry 
 gia ; by the former is meant Phrygia Proper ; by the latter, a 
 part of Mysia, comprising the territory of Old Troy, along the 
 Hellespont and southern shore of the Propontis, and which had 
 been taken possession of after the Trojan war by the Mysians 
 and Phrygians. The northern part of Phrygia Proper, remain 
 ing after the abstraction of Galatia, was called Phrygia Epi- 
 ctetus, or the " acquired," a name given to it when it was an 
 nexed by the Romans to the kingdom of Pergamus ; and the 
 southern part, which bordered on Mount Taurus, was called, 
 from this circumstance, Phrygia Paroreios. In the fourth 
 century, the Romans divided Phrygia into two provinces, Phry 
 gia Salutaris and Phrygia Pacatiana ; the former comprising 
 the eastern, and the latter the western part of the ancient prov 
 ince. 
 
 III. Phrygia is a high table-land, supported on the south by 
 Mount Taurus, and on the north by the high range of mount 
 ains running from west to east, under the ancient name of 
 Olympus. The western and northern parts are very fertile ; 
 but the southern and eastern portions are covered with salt 
 marshes, rivers, and lakes, which have no visible outlet. Of 
 these salt lakes the most curious is the one called Tatta by 
 Strabo, now Tuzla, which is thirty miles in length, and sup 
 plies a vast tract of country with salt. An account of this lake 
 will be given under the head of Lycaonia. 
 
 IV. The Phrygians appear to have been of Thracian origin, 
 and are said by some to have crossed over into Asia a hundred 
 years before the Trojan war. Of the early history of Phrygia 
 we know scarcely any thing. There would seem to have been 
 a kingdom of considerable power in the northern part of the 
 country under the Midian or Gordian dynasty. Strabo says, 
 
 Ss 
 
642 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 that the palaces of Gordius and Midas were near the River 
 Sangarius, the neighborhood of which was probably the central 
 part of the dominions of these sovereigns. The Phrygians were 
 conquered by Croesus, and subsequently by the Persians. On 
 the division of Alexander s dominions, Phrygia first came into 
 the hands of Antigonus, and afterward formed part of the do 
 minions of the Seleucidse. After the defeat of Antiochus the 
 Great, it was given to Eumenes, king of Pergamus, and on the 
 death of Attalus, B.C. 133, it came by his bequest into the 
 hands of the Romans, together with the other dominions of the 
 kings of Pergamus. 
 
 PLACES IN PHRYGIA EPICTETUS. 
 
 1. Azani, near the source of the Rhyndacus, not often mentioned by the an 
 cient writers, but which must have been a place of considerable importance 
 from the description of its ruins given by Keppel, who says that the modern 
 village of Tjaudere Hissar is built entirely out of them. 2. Cadi, to the south 
 west, now Kedous, a town celebrated for its scammony. To the west of it was 
 Mount Dindymene, now Morad Dagh, and anciently sacred to Cybele, like Mount 
 Dindymus, near Pessinus in Galatia. 3. Coty&um, to the northeast of Azani, on 
 the River Thymbrius, and, according to some, the birth-place of ^Esop. It is 
 now Kutaya, and still a considerable place. 4. Dorylceum, to the northeast, also 
 on the Thymbrius, and at no great distance from its union with the Sangarius. 
 It is often spoken of by the Byzantine historians. There were warm springs 
 in its neighborhood. It corresponds, according to Leake, to the modern Eski- 
 Shehr, which is celebrated for its natural hot baths. 5. Mid&um, to the north 
 east, and deriving its name from Midas, an appellation so common to the an 
 cient kings of Phrygia, of whom it was probably once the residence. 6. Naco- 
 lea, southeast of Cotyaeum, a place of importance under the eastern emperors, 
 and often mentioned by later writers. The usurper Procopius was defeated 
 here by Valens. 
 
 PLACES IN CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN PHRYGIA. 
 
 1. Synnada, to the southeast of Cotyaeum, and the most considerable town of 
 this part of Phrygia, being a convening juridicus for all the surrounding places. 
 It was situate at the end of a plain sixty stadia long, planted with olives, and 
 was a city of extensive traffic and commerce, as it lay on the road from Apamea 
 Cibotus to Galatia, and also on the way, or nearly so, from Apamea to Iconium 
 and Cilicia. Its site is uncertain, but probably, as Hamilton thinks, at the mod 
 ern Surmeneh. 2. Docimia or Docim(zum, to the north, at the upper extremity 
 of the plain in which Synnada stood. It was celebrated for its marble, of a light 
 color, interspersed with blood-red spots and veins, fabled to have come from the 
 blood of Atys. This marble was called by the people of the country Docimitic 
 or Docimcean, but by the Romans the Synnadic, from the adjacent and more 
 important city of Synnada. It was highly prized by the Romans, especially in 
 the reign of Hadrian. The quarries are placed by Leake on the road from 
 Khosru-khan to Bulwudun. 3. Ipsus, a short distance to the southeast of Syn 
 nada, celebrated for the great battle fought in its plains by Antigonus and his 
 
ASIA. 643 
 
 son Demetrius against the combined forces of Cassander, Lysimachus, Ptol 
 emy, and Seleucus. It ended in the defeat of Antigonus, who lost his life and 
 all his conquests. 4. Melisse or Melitaa, to the southwest, a small place, but 
 rendered memorable by Alcibiades having been interred there. A statue of 
 Parian marble was afterward placed on his tomb by order of Hadrian, and a 
 yearly sacrifice of an ox offered to his shade. This place is probably the same 
 with Ptolemy s Melitara. 5. Polybotus, to the southeast, now Bulwudun. 6. Phi- 
 lomelium, to the southeast, in Phrygia Paroreios, often mentioned by the By 
 zantine historians in the wars of the Greek emperors with the sultans of Ico- 
 m um. It was situate near the modern Ilgun. 6. Laodicea Combusta (/cara/i-e- 
 KavftevT]), to the southeast, and so surnamed from the volcanic nature of the 
 district in which it was situated. It is now Ladzk, and famed for its manufac 
 ture of carpets. 
 
 Returning to the more central part of Phrygia, we come to, 1. Peltce, on or 
 near the River Orgas, to the west of the Glaucus, and giving the name of Pel- 
 tenus Campus to the plain in which it was situate. Xenophon, in his Anabasis, 
 describes it as a well-inhabited city. 2. Eumenia, to the south, near the junc 
 tion of the Glaucus and Orgas, and founded by Eumenes, king of Pergamus. Its 
 remains are at Ashkli. 3. Apamea Cibotus, to the south, near the junction of 
 the Glaucus and Maeander. It was founded by Antiochus Soter, on the site of 
 an earlier place named Cibotus, and was called by him Apamea, in honor of his 
 mother Apama, daughter of Artabazus, and espoused to Seleucus Nicator. The 
 inhabitants of the neighboring Celaenag were removed to this new city, which 
 soon became a place of importance, from the fertility of the surrounding coun 
 try, the abundance and beauty of the rivers which flowed around it, and, above 
 all, its situation on the great road to Cappadocia and the Euphrates, so that, 
 when Strabo wrote, its traffic yielded only to that of Ephesus, and it was the 
 largest town of Phrygia. It suffered severely from an earthquake in the reign 
 of Claudius, but still continued a very flourishing city for a long period subse 
 quently. Its ruins are at the modern town of Deenare. 4. Cd&n<z, a little to 
 the southeast, at the sources of the Marsyas, a tributary of the Ma?ander. It 
 was celebrated in mythology as the scene of the contest between Apollo and the 
 satyr Marsyas, and the skin of the latter was said to have been hung up in the 
 cave whence the river flowed. The greater part of the inhabitants of Celasnae 
 were removed by Antiochus Soter to his new city of Apamea, in consequence of 
 which the former became a place of small importance. The citadel of Celaenae 
 was built on a precipitous height, and was of great strength, but surrendered to 
 Alexander. 
 
 5. Colossce, to the southwest, on the left bank of the Maeander, and mentioned 
 by both Herodotus and Xenophon as a large and flourishing city. Strabo and 
 Pliny, however, at a later day, call it only a small place. It carried on, how 
 ever, even in Strabo s time, a very lucrative wool trade. At Colossae there was 
 formed a Christian church, to which St. Paul, who does not appear to have ever 
 visited the place himself, wrote an epistle. Colossae suffered severely from an 
 earthquake in the ninth year of the reign of Nero, from which it never fully re 
 covered ; and, under the Byzantine emperors, being now in a ruinous state, it 
 made way for a more modern town named Chona, built only a short distance 
 from it. This latter place is chiefly known to us from the account of Nicetas, 
 the Byzantine annalist, who was born here, whence his surname of Choniates. 
 Some remains of Colossae and Chonse are to be seen near each other, at the 
 village of Khonas. 6. Hierapolis, to the west, near the River Lycus, and cele 
 brated for its warm springs. The waters of this place were also remarkable 
 
644 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 for their petrifying properties, and were likewise extremely useful in serving 
 the purposes of the dyer. The ruins of Hierapolis are conspicuous on the site 
 called Pambouk Kalessi. 7. Laodicea ad Lycum, to the south, and so called from 
 its proximity to the River Lycus. Pliny says it was originally named Diospolis, 
 and afterward Rhoas ; and, according to Stephanus, its name was changed to 
 Laodicea in honor of Laodice, the wife of Antiochus II. There was a Christian 
 church at Laodicea in the time of the apostles. Strabo says that this place was 
 celebrated for the sheep which fed in the plains around it, and that their wool 
 was considered superior to that of Miletus. The ruins of Laodicea, which are 
 considerable, are seen a little below Denisli, on the site called Eski Hissar, and 
 sometimes Ladik. 
 
 GALATIA. 
 
 I. Galdtia originally formed part of Phrygia and Cappadocia, 
 and derived its name from the Galatce or Gauls, who had mi 
 grated hither from Europe. It was likewise called Gallo- 
 Grcecia, from the intermixture of the customs and languages 
 of the Gauls and Greeks in this province. 
 
 II. Galatia was bounded on the north by Paphlagonia and 
 part of Bithynia^ on the east by Pontus, on the south by Phry 
 gia and Cappadocia^ and on the west by Phrygia and part of 
 Bithynia. 
 
 III. The first horde of Gauls that appeared in Asia (B.C. 279) formed part 
 of the army with which Brennus invaded Greece. In consequence of some dis 
 sensions in his army, a considerable number of his troops, under the command 
 of Leonorius and Lutarius, left their countrymen and marched into Thrace ; 
 thence they proceeded to Byzantium, and crossed over into Asia at the invita 
 tion of Nicomedes, king of Bithynia, who was anxious to secure their assistance 
 against his brother Zipcstes. With their aid Nicomedes was successful, but his 
 allies now became his masters, and he as well as the other monarchs of Asia 
 Minor to the west of Mount Taurus were exposed for many years to the rava 
 ges of these barbarians, and obliged to purchase safety by the payment of tribute. 
 Encouraged by the success of their countrymen, fresh hordes passed over into 
 Asia, and their number became so great, that, as Justin informs us, the whole 
 country swarmed with them, and no Eastern monarch carried on war without 
 a mercenary army of Gauls. 
 
 IV. The first check they received was from Attalus I., king of Pergamus, who 
 defeated them in a great battle (B.C. 239), and compelled them to settle per 
 manently in that part of Asia which was afterward called Galatia. Though 
 Attalus, however, reduced their power, they still continued independent, and 
 gave Antiochus great assistance in his contest with the Romans. Having thus 
 incurred the enmity of the Roman republic, the consul Manlius was sent against 
 them B.C. 189, and completely defeated them, so that from this time they were 
 in reality subject to Rome, though allowed to retain their own native princes. 
 
 V. According to Strabo, Galatia was inhabited by three tribes of Gauls, the 
 Trocmi, the Tectosages, and the Tolistoboii. Each tribe was subdivided into 
 four parts, and each part was governed by a tetrarch, who appointed a judge 
 and an inspector of the army. The power of these twelve tetrarchs was limited 
 by a senate of three hundred, who assembled at a place called Dryncemctum, and 
 
ASIA. 645 
 
 who took cognizance of all capital cases. All other offences were left to the 
 jurisdiction of the tetrarchs and judges. 
 
 VI. Subsequently, however, during the times of the first Mithradatic war, 
 there were only three tetrarchs, to whom the Romans, out of policy, paid the 
 courtesy of princely dignity. Soon after, the three tetrarchs dwindled into two 
 chiefs, and finally into one. This last change was made by the Romans in favor 
 of Deiotarus, who had rendered their arms essential service against Mithradates. 
 He became sole master of Galatia, and received a part of the kingdom of Pon- 
 tus with the royal title. On his death, part of his principality was annexed to 
 Paphlagonia and Pontus under Polemo, and part to the dominions of Amyntas, 
 chief of Lycaonia. On the demise of the latter, the whole of Galatia became a 
 Roman province. 
 
 VII. In the time of Theodosius the Great, Galatia was divided into two prov 
 inces, Galatia Prima and Galatia Secunda. Ancyra was the capital of the for 
 mer, Pessinus of the latter. Though intermixed with Greeks, the Galatians 
 retained throughout their original tongue, since we are assured by St. Jerome 
 that in his day they spoke the same language as the Treviri of Gaul. Galatia 
 was, generally speaking, a fruitful and well-peopled country. 
 
 PLACES IN GALATIA. 
 
 THE Tolistoloii occupied the southwestern part of the country. Among them 
 we find, 1. Pessinus, their chief city, on the confines of Bithynia, and near the 
 left bank of the River Sangarius. This place was one of great trade, and was 
 also celebrated in antiquity for the worship of the goddess Rhea or Cybele. The 
 statue of the goddess, which was nothing more than a great stone, was con 
 veyed to Rome, near the close of the second Punic war, in obedience to the di 
 rection of the Sibylline Oracles. Above the town rose Mount Dindymus, whence 
 the goddess was surnamed Dindymene. The worship of Cybele was still ob 
 served in Pessinus after its occupation by the Gauls. The Phrygian name of 
 the goddess was Agdistis, an appellation given also to Mount Dindymus. The 
 remains of Pessinus are to be seen at Balahissar. 2. Germa, to the southwest, 
 called by Ptolemy a Roman colony, and supposed from its coins to have been 
 established in the time of Vespasian and his sons. It took, at a later period, the 
 name of Myriangeli. The modern Yerma evidently represents it. 3. Armo- 
 rium, to the east, a place of great importance under the Byzantine emperors. 
 It was taken and sacked by the Saracens. The site is still called Amoria. 
 
 The Tectosages were settled to the northeast of the Tolistoloii. Among them 
 we may mention, 1. Ancyra^ their capital, and the largest and most celebrated 
 city in the whole province. Tradition made it to have been founded by Midas, 
 who was said to have named the place from an anchor (aynvpa) which he found 
 on the site, and which was exhibited, as Pausanias relates, in the temple of 
 Jupiter. This city was greatly improved and embellished by Augustus ; and 
 under Nero it was styled the metropolis of Galatia. Its situation was extremely 
 well adapted for inland trade, and it became a kind of staple place for the com 
 modities of the east. Here was found, in modern times, the famous inscription, 
 called Marmor Ancyranum, on a temple erected to Augustus, giving a history 
 of his several acts and public merits. Ancyra is now called by the Turks An- 
 gouri, and by Europeans Angora, and is the place whence the celebrated shawls 
 and hosiery made of goat s hair were originally brought. Near this place Baja- 
 zet was conquered and made prisoner by Tamerlane. 2. Corbeus, to the south 
 east, the residence of Sacondarius, son-in-law of Deiotarus, and father of Cas- 
 
646 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 tor, who accused the former before Caesar of plotting against his life. It an 
 swers to the modern Corbega. 
 
 The Trocmi were settled in the eastern part of Galatia, toward Pontus and 
 Cappadocia. Their territory formed the best and most productive of any that 
 had fallen to the Galatian tribes. The only place worth mentioning among 
 them is Tavium or Tavia, their capital. It was a city of considerable traffic, 
 and was celebrated for a bronze statue of Jupiter, of colossal size, placed in a 
 sacred grove having the right of an asylum. The position of Tavium is an im 
 portant point in the geography of Asia Minor, from the number of routes which 
 branched off from it. The site of this place answers, not, as is commonly sup 
 posed, to the modern Tchorum, but rather, as Hamilton thinks, to Boghaz Keui. 
 
 PISIDIA. 
 
 I. Pisidia was bounded on the west and north by Phrygia, 
 on the east by Isauria, on the south by Pamphylia. It was a 
 mountainous country, forming part of the chain of Taurus, in 
 which the Pisidians maintained their independence, not only 
 under the Persian empire, but also under the Syrian kings, and 
 even the Roman sway. The Romans were never able to sub 
 due them, though they obtained possession of some of their 
 towns, as, for instance, of Antiochia, where a Roman colony 
 possessing the Jus Italicum was founded. In the time of Stra- 
 bo, the Pisidians were governed by petty chiefs, and principally 
 supported themselves by plundering their neighbors. 
 
 II. We know very little of the physical geography of Pisidiaj 
 or the situation of its towns. The most singular features in 
 this country are, according to Fellows, the mountains of volcan 
 ic dust, which he saw at ten miles distance, looking as if they 
 were smoking ; this appearance being caused by the sand, which , 
 with very little wind, is blown into clouds, and carried into the 
 air and along the valleys. The whole of this sand or dust is 
 tufa, the dust of the pumice stone, a volcanic production. 
 
 PLACES IN PISIDIA. 
 
 1. Termessus, a fortress at the entrance of the denies leading from Pisidia into 
 Pamphylia, and from its commanding situation a place of great importance. 
 2. Cretopolis, to the north, close to the passes leading into Pamphylia. The 
 remains are probably those near Buttakli. 3. Sozopolis, to the northwest, re 
 garded by Mannert, incorrectly, as the same place with Cretopolis. It is men 
 tioned by the Byzantine historians, and, according to Nicetas, was taken from 
 the Turks by John Comnenus, but retaken by them. Its site appears to be that 
 called at the present day Souzu. 4. Sagalassus, to the north, spoken of by Ar- 
 rian, and afterward by Livy, as a large and populous city. Livy describes the 
 adjacent territory as exceedingly fertile. The site is near the modern village 
 of Aglasoun. 5. Cremna, to the northeast, an important fortress, and deemed 
 impregnable until taken by the tetrarch Amyntas. It was regarded afterward 
 
ASIA. 647 
 
 by the Romans as a post of such military consequence that they established a 
 colony there. It is generally supposed that this town is represented by the 
 modern fort of Kebrinaz, occupying a commanding situation near Lake Egreder, 
 the ancient Agrioteri Lacus. 6. Antiochia Pisidia;, to the north, at the extremity 
 of the province, a city of considerable importance, and interesting from its con 
 nection with the labors of St. Paul in Asia Minor. It was founded by a colony 
 from Magnesia on the Mseander, under the auspices probably of Antiochus, from 
 whom it derived its name. The Romans sent a colony hither, and made it the 
 capital of a proconsular government. It was visited by St. Paul and Barnabas, 
 and was afterward the metropolitan see of Pisidia. Arundell supposes the re 
 mains of this city to be at Yalobatch, with which Hamilton agrees. 7. Tyriaum, 
 to the east, mentioned by Xenophon in his Anabasis as the place where the 
 younger Cyrus stopped three days and reviewed his troops. Hamilton identi 
 fies it with the modern Ilghun. 
 
 CAPPADOCIA. 
 
 I. Cappadocia, including Lycaonia and Isauria, was bound 
 ed on the north by Pontus, Galatia, and Phrygia Paroreios, 
 on the south by the range of Mount Taurus, dividing it from 
 Cilicia and Pamphylia, on the west by Pisidia and Phrygia, 
 and on the east by the Euphrates, separating it from Armenia 
 Minor. 
 
 II. Cappadocia was surrounded on three sides by great ranges 
 of mountains, besides being intersected by others of as great 
 elevation as any in the peninsula. Hence its mineral produc 
 tions were various and abundant, and a source of wealth to the 
 country. It had, however, but little wood, almost the only 
 timber district being in the neighborhood of Mount Argseus. 
 The tribute which Cappadocia paid to the Persian monarch 
 consisted chiefly of horses, mules, and sheep, the high table 
 lands of this country forming admirable pasture land. 
 
 III. The Cappadocians appear to have been a branch of the 
 Syrian race at least the Persians considered them as such, 
 from the resemblance of their language, customs, and religion ; 
 and they called them by an appellation which the Greeks ex 
 pressed by that of AevKoavpoi (Leucosyri], or "White Syrians," 
 because they found that they possessed a fairer complexion than 
 their swarthy brethren of the south. The Greeks, on the other 
 hand, called them KamrddoKeg (Cappadoces) or Cappadocians, 
 from the River Cappadox, as is thought, now the Kissilhissar, 
 a branch of the Halys. 
 
 IV. The condition of Cappadocia before the period of the 
 Persian rule is uncertain. Even after the Persian conquest 
 the government was left in the hands of the native princes. 
 
G48 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 The Romans, when they became masters of it, incorporated 
 with their province of Cappadocia the adjacent district of Ar 
 menia Minor. 
 
 V. The Cappadocians were noted for their vicious and un 
 principled character, and they were one of the three bad Kap 
 pas, or names beginning with the letter K (the Roman C), the 
 Cretans and Cilicians being the other two. The whole nation, 
 too, might be said to be addicted to servitude ; for when they 
 were offered a free constitution by the Romans, they declined 
 the favor, and preferred receiving a master from the hands of 
 their allies. 
 
 We will first enumerate the most important places in Cap 
 padocia Proper, and then give a separate account of Lycaonia 
 and Isauria. 
 
 PLACES IN CAPPADOCIA PROPER. 
 
 IN the prefecture of Morimene, in the northwestern section of the country, 
 we have, 1. Parnassus, on a mountain of the same name, a place of some con 
 sequence, and at a later period a bishop s see. The mountain is now called 
 Pascha Dagh. 2. Venasa, to the southeast, celebrated for its temple of Jupiter, 
 to which no less than 3000 slaves were attached, and the high priest over which 
 was next in rank to the one at Comana. 3. Nyssa, to the southeast, on the 
 Halys, celebrated in connection with the name of Gregory, brother of Basil, and 
 surnamed Nyssenus, from his long residence here as bishop of its church. Its 
 site is now marked by the village of Nirse. 4. Mocissus, to the northwest, a 
 town of some size and note in the reign of Justinian, who built it on the site of 
 an ancient fortress. It was also called, from this circumstance, Justinianopolis. 
 
 The next Cappadocian prefecture bore the name of Cilicia, and was situate 
 to the southeast of the former. The origin of the name is not known. In this 
 district we have, 1. Mazaca, its chief city, and the capital likewise of the whole 
 province, better known at a later period by the name of C&sarea, with the topo 
 graphical adjunct ad Argaum, to denote its position at the foot of Mount Ar- 
 gaus. It was a city of great antiquity, and its foundation was even ascribed 
 to Mesech, son of Japhet. The situation was extremely unfavorable, water be 
 ing scarce, and the surrounding country a dry, sandy plain. Still, however, the 
 kings of Cappadocia fixed their residence at Mazaca, in consequence of its cen 
 tral situation in the midst of other and more fertile districts. Mazaca assumed, 
 in fact, the appearance of a large camp rather than of a regular city, being open 
 and unfortified. The royal property, consisting chiefly of slaves, was kept in 
 different fortresses throughout the country. In the reign of Tiberius, when 
 Cappadocia became a Roman province, Mazaca changed its name to Cassarea, 
 and appears to have gradually increased in size and consequence under suc 
 cessive emperors, being now a regular and fortified city. St. Basil was born 
 and educated here, and presided over its church for many years. The modern 
 name of the place is Kaisarich. Mount Argaeus, in the vicinity of this city, is 
 now called Arjish Dagh, and belongs to the range of Antitaurus. Hamilton esti 
 mates the height at about 13,000 feet above the sea. It is the loftiest peak in 
 the peninsula, and affords abundant indications of h & vino- once been a volcano. 
 
ASIA. 649 
 
 The country around has also a volcanic character. Strabo s statement, that 
 both the Euxine and Mediterranean are visible from the summit of Argaeus, is 
 untrue, and confuted by the bare inspection of a map. 2. Dacora, a village near 
 Caesarea, the birth-place of Eunomius, the Arian heretic, and whither he was 
 banished by Theodosius. 
 
 Another Cappadocian prefecture deserving of mention was that of Mclitene, 
 along the right bank of the Euphrates. Its soil was fertile, and yielded fruits 
 of every kind, in this differing from the rest of Cappadocia. The chief produce 
 was oil, and a wine called Monarites, which equalled the best of Grecian growth. 
 The only place deserving of mention here is Melitene, originally a camp or mili 
 tary station, but converted into a town by order of Trajan, and which became 
 eventually one of the most important places in Cappadocia. Justinian again 
 enlarged its circuit, and adorned it with several buildings. It still retains traces 
 of its former name under that of Malatia, but is in ruins. 
 
 The prefecture of Tyanttis lay to the south of that of Cilicia, and bordered on 
 the defiles of Taurus and the passes leading into Cilicia. It took its name from 
 Tydna, the principal town, and a place of considerable repute and great an 
 tiquity. Strabo reports that this city was built on what was called the cause 
 way of Semiramis, and was well fortified. It is supposed to be the same with 
 the place called Dana by Xenophon, in his Anabasis. Its proximity to the Cili- 
 cian pass must have rendered it a place of considerable traffic. Tyana is also 
 noted for having been the birth-place of the famous impostor Apollonius. Its 
 ruins are at Ketch-hissar. After Tyana we may mention, 1. Cybistra, to the 
 northeast, frequently mentioned in the epistles of Cicero, during his command 
 in Cilicia, and where at one time he established his head-quarters. Leake 
 places it at Kara-hissar ; D Anville, less correctly, at Bustere, but this last is an 
 error for Costere. 2. Castabala, to the northeast, remarkable for a temple sa 
 cred to Diana Perasia, the priestesses of which could tread with naked feet, 
 unharmed, on burning cinders. The statue was said to have been the identical 
 one brought by Orestes from Tauris, whence the name of Perasia, "from be 
 yond the sea," was thought to be derived. More probably, however, Perasia is 
 merely corrupted from Persia, and the goddess here worshipped was the Per 
 sian Anaitis. The site corresponds probably to the modern Nigde. 3. Nora or 
 Neroassus, a fortress to the northwest of Tyana, where Eumenes sustained a 
 long and difficult siege against Antigonus. The remains are now called Nour. 
 4. Faustinopolis, to the southeast of Tyana, and distant twelve miles from that 
 city. It was named from the Empress Faustina, the consort of Marcus Aurelius, 
 who died here on her return from Syria. Her husband erected the town and a 
 temple in it to her memory. The site of the place was previously occupied by 
 a village named Halala. 5. Podandus, to the southeast, a village often men 
 tioned by Byzantine writers in connection with the defiles of Taurus in its 
 vicinity. St. Basil describes it as the most miserable place on earth. It re 
 tains the name of Podend. 
 
 The prefecture remaining to be noticed is that of Cataonia, consisting chiefly 
 of deep and extensive plains, surrounded on all sides by chains of mountains. 
 We may mention in it, 1. Comdna, the principal city, and celebrated, like its 
 namesake in Pontus, for the worship of Bellona. The population consisted, in 
 a great degree, of soothsayers, priests, and slaves, belonging to the sacred in 
 stitution : the latter amounted, in Strabo s time, to more than 6000 of both 
 sexes. These belonged exclusively to the high priest, who stood next in rank 
 to the King of Cappadocia, and was generally chosen from the royal family. 
 The territory annexed to the temple was very considerable, and furnished a 
 
650 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 large income for the pontiff. The Bellona of Comana was probably no other 
 than the Anaitis of the Persians and Armenians, and perhaps the Agdistis and 
 Cybele of the Phrygians. Comana received a Roman colony under Antoninus 
 Pius, and perhaps another under Caracalla. It is now represented by the 
 Turkish town of Al-Bostan, on the Seihoun, the ancient Sarus. 2. Cucusus, to 
 the southeast, a lonely spot, to which St. Chrysostom was banished in the reign 
 of Arcadius. Mountain passes led from it into Commagene and Syria. The 
 site is still called Cocsou, near the sources of the Gihoun, the ancient Pyramus. 
 
 LYCAONIA. 
 
 I. Lycaonia is first mentioned by Xenophon, in his Anabasis, who describes 
 it as extending eastward from Iconium to the beginning of Cappadocia, a dis 
 tance of thirty parasangs, about one hundred and ten English miles. It was 
 united during the Persian monarchy to the satrapy of Cappadocia, which seems 
 the most natural arrangement. Lycaonia is described by Strabo as high table 
 land, deficient in water, which the inhabitants could only procure by digging deep 
 wells, but well adapted for sheep. 
 
 II. The most remarkable physical feature in Lycaonia is that presented by 
 the salt lake in the north, on the confines of Galatia, called by the ancients Tatta 
 Palus, and now Lake Tuzla or Duslag. It is about forty-five English miles 
 long, and about eighteen in its extreme width. Its waters, according to the 
 ancients, were so impregnated with brine, that if any substance was dipped 
 into the lake, it was presently incrusted with a thick coat of salt ; and even 
 birds, when flying near the surface, had their wings moistened with the saline 
 particles, so as to become incapable of rising into the air, and were easily caught. 
 This lake still furnishes all the surrounding country with salt. The specific 
 gravity of the water is said to be greater than that of the Dead Sea. 
 
 III. The northern part of Lycaonia was united, at what time is uncertain, 
 to Galatia , but the southern part was governed, in the time of Cicero, by an 
 independent prince of the name of Antipater, who resided in Derbe. Antipater, 
 however, being afterward conquered by Amyntas, king of Galatia, the whole of 
 Lycaonia fell under the power of the Galatians. At the death of Amyntas, B.C. 
 25, Lycaonia, together with Galatia, became a Roman province. In the time 
 of Pliny it formed a separate tetrarchy, which contained fourteen towns. 
 
 PLACES IN LYCAONIA. 
 
 1. Iconium, the most considerable city in Lycaonia. Strabo describes it as a 
 small but well-inhabited place, situate in a more fertile tract of country than 
 the northern part of Lycaonia. Mythological writers asserted that the name 
 of this city was derived from the image (einuv) of the Gorgon, brought thither 
 by Perseus. The most interesting circumstances, however, connected with 
 the history of Iconium, are those which relate to St. Paul s preaching there, to 
 ward the commencement of his apostolical mission to the Gentiles. In Pliny s 
 time, Iconium had become a more considerable town than when Strabo wrote. 
 Under the Byzantine emperors frequent mention is made of this place, but it 
 had been wrested from them first by the Saracens, and afterward by the Turks, 
 who made it the capital of an empire, the sovereigns of which took the title of 
 sultans of Iconium. The modern name of the place is Konieh, and it is still a 
 large and populous town. Near Iconium was the Lake Trogitis, now, according 
 to Hamilton, the Lake of Soghla, or Seidi Schehr. 2. Soatra or Sabatra, to the 
 northeast, and where, according to Strabo, water was so scarce as to be an article 
 for sale. On the neighboring downs were numerous wild asses. 3 Derbe, to 
 
ASIA. 651 
 
 the southeast of Iconium, the residence and capital of Antipater. It was called 
 by some Delbia, which, in the Lycaonian language, signified " the Juniper." It 
 corresponds, according to Hamilton, to the modern Divle. 4. Lystra, to the 
 northwest, and nearer to Iconium. Both Lystra and Derbe are mentioned in 
 the Acts of the Apostles, in connection with the history of St. Paul. The ruins 
 of Lystra are, according to Hamilton, at Binbir-Kilisseh, or " the one thousand 
 churches." 5. Laranda, to the southeast of Derbe, the birth-place of Nestor, 
 an epic poet, and father of Pisander, also a poet, and of greater celebrity. It is 
 now Larenda or Karaman, the former name being in use among the Christian 
 inhabitants, the latter being the Turkish appellation. 
 
 I s A u R I A. 
 
 I. Isauria, lying to the southeast of Lycaonia, was a wild and mountainous 
 country, and is mentioned by Strabo as a part of Lycaonia. The character of 
 the inhabitants partook of the nature of their land and climate. They descend 
 ed into the level country, and ravaged and plundered wherever they could over 
 come the resistance of the inhabitants of the valleys, whether in Cilicia, Phry- 
 gia, or Pisidia. These marauding habits rendered them so formidable to their 
 neighbors that the Roman senate was obliged at length to send a considerable 
 force against them, under the command of P. Servilius, who, after several cam 
 paigns, and a laborious and harassing warfare, succeeded in taking most of 
 their fortresses, and in reducing them to submission. He obtained a triumph 
 for these successes, and the surname of Isauricus. 
 
 II. Subsequently we find them still continuing to infest their neighbors, which 
 induced Amyntas, the Lycaonian tetrarch, to attempt their extirpation. In this 
 project, however, he lost his life ; and they continued to defy the power of Rome 
 anew from the difficult nature of their country, and the celerity of their move 
 ments. To the Greek emperors they proved particularly formidable, since whole 
 armies are said to have been cut to pieces by these hardy mountaineers. They 
 once had the honor of giving an emperor to the East, Zeno, surnamed the Isau- 
 rian ; but they were subsequently much reduced by Anastasius, and were no 
 longer formidable in the time of Justinian. 
 
 PLACES IN ISAURIA. 
 
 1. Isaura, the principal place, on the road between Iconium and Anemurium 
 in Cilicia, and to the southwest of the former. The inhabitants, after a brave 
 resistance to the forces of Perdiccas, who wished to avenge the death of a Mac 
 edonian governor slain by them, destroyed themselves and all their property by 
 the flames. Being subsequently rebuilt, the place was again destroyed by P. 
 Servilius. The Romans having after this ceded the ruined city to Amyntas, 
 the latter built a new Isaura near the old town, and out of its ruins. Hence 
 the distinction which the ancient geographers make between Isaura Vetus and 
 Isaura Euerces (evepKfa, " the well-fortified"), the latter being the appellation of 
 the new city. D Anville makes Isaura Vetus answer to the modern Bei-Schehr, 
 and Isaura Euerces to Sidi Schehr ; Hamilton, however, more correctly identi 
 fies the ruins of Isaura with those at Zengi Bor. 2. Cardlia, to the northwest, 
 at the upper extremity of the Lake Caralltis, afterward Pusgusa. This lake 
 was connected with a smaller one to the southeast, called Trogitis. Caralia 
 answers now to Kerch. Cramer makes the Lake Trogitis to be now that of 
 Bei Schehr ; Hamilton, however, shows that Kereli and Bci Schehr both lie on 
 the same lake, and that the Lake Trogitis is now that of Soghla or Seidi Schehr. 
 
652 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ISLANDS ALONG THE COAST OF ASIA MINOR. 
 
 (A.) ISLANDS IN THE PROPONTIS. 
 1. Proconnesus, or the Isle of Stags (ITpo/cdw^aof, i. e., Trponuv vfjaot; ), now the 
 
 Isle of Marmara, from which last the modern name of the Propontis, "the Sea 
 of Marmara," is derived. It was much celebrated for its marble quarries, which 
 supplied most of the public buildings in Cyzicus with their materials, as also the 
 palace of King Mausolus in Halicarnassus. The marble was white, with black 
 streaks intermixed. There was a town of the same name in the island, of which 
 Aristeas, who wrote a poem on the Arimaspians, was a native. It was burned 
 by a Phoenician fleet, acting under the orders of Darius, but afterward rebuilt, 
 and hence Strabo distinguishes between an old and a new Proconnesus. The 
 island was subsequently conquered by the people of Cyzicus, who removed thence 
 the statue of Dindymene. 2. Ophiussa, to the southeast, now Afzia. Cramer s 
 map gives the modern name as Rabby. 3. Halone, to the south of Proconnesus, 
 and opposite the mouth of the JEsepus. It is now Aloni, and has still the good 
 harbor which Scylax anciently ascribed to it. 
 
 (B.) ISLANDS OFF THE COAST OF MYSIA. 
 
 1. I M B R O S. 
 
 Imbros lay to the northwest of the Sigaum Promontorium, and is now Imbro. 
 It appears to have been originally occupied by the Pelasgi. The Persians next 
 obtained possession of it, and after them the Athenians, the latter of whom ob 
 tained from this island very excellent light-armed troops. There was a town, 
 probably of the same name with the island, the ruins of which are to be seen at 
 a place called Castro. 
 
 2. L E M N O S. 
 
 I. Lemnos lay to the southwest of Imbros, and is now called Stalimene. This 
 island is known in mythology as the spot on which Vulcan fell when hurled from 
 heaven, and where he first established his forges. A volcano, named Mosych- 
 lus, which once was burning here, appears to have given rise to the fable. A 
 story is also recorded of the women of Lemnos having murdered all the male 
 inhabitants, and of the island s having been found in their possession by the Ar 
 gonauts, when the latter touched there. 
 
 II. Lemnos was first occupied by the Sintians, a Thracian tribe. To these 
 succeeded the Pelasgi, who had been driven out of Attica. These Pelasgi sub 
 sequently stole some Attic females from Brauron and carried them to Lemnos ; 
 and it is said that the children of these women having despised their half breth 
 ren, born of Pelasgian women, the Pelasgi took the resolution of murdering both 
 the Athenian females and their offspring. In consequence of all these atroci 
 ties, Lemnos had a bad name among the Greeks. The island afterward was 
 conquered by the Persians, and subsequently taken by the Athenians under 
 Miltiades. During the Peloponnesian war it remained in the possession of 
 Athens, and furnished that state with its best light-armed troops. 
 
 III. Lemnos bears evident marks of volcanic origin. Mosychlus, already 
 mentioned, is supposed to have been the earliest volcano known to the Greeks. 
 It was situate on the eastern side of the island, and is thought to have sunk in 
 the sea a short time after the age of Alexander, along with the little island of 
 Chrysa, where Philoctetes had once taken up his abode. The western part of 
 Lemnos is much more fertile than the eastern ; but the whole island is deficient 
 
ASIA. 653 
 
 in timber trees and wood for fuel. The principal harbor, Sant Antonio, is large 
 and safe. Lemnos was celebrated for a kind of red earth, called " Lemnian 
 earth," and supposed to have wonderful medicinal properties, and which is in 
 equally high repute, for the same reason, among the Greeks and Turks at the 
 present day. It is shaped into little balls, and stamped with the Turkish gov 
 ernor s seal, whence it has derived the name of terra sigillata, or " sealed earth." 
 
 3. TENEDOS. 
 
 Tenedos lay off the coast of Troas, about fifty-six miles to the north of Les 
 bos. The Greeks, according to the legend followed by Virgil, retired to this 
 island with their fleet preparatory to surprising Troy. It subsequently received 
 a colony of ^Eolians, and became celebrated for the wisdom of its laws and civil 
 institutions. Aristotle is known to have written on its polity. Subsequently, 
 on its decline, this island placed itself under the protection of Alexandrea Troas 
 At a still later period, it derived again some importance from the granaries 
 which Justinian caused to be erected there, for the purpose of housing the car 
 goes of corn brought from Egypt, and intended for Constantinople, but which 
 were frequently delayed by contrary winds blowing from the Hellespont. Ten 
 edos is now called Tcnedo. 
 
 4. LESBOS. 
 
 I. Lesbos lay just below the Sinus Adramyttenus, and between it and the 
 Sinus Cumaus. Its modern name is Metelin, which is also that of the ancient 
 Mytilene, its chief city. Its length is fifty miles, its breadth varies from seven 
 to fifteen miles. The earliest inhabitants are said to have been Pelasgi. It 
 was afterward colonized by the ^Eolians in their great migration, and became 
 one of the most flourishing and powerful of the Grecian islands. The most 
 profitable production of Lesbos was wine, which was preferred in many coun 
 tries to all the other Greek wines. To the present day, the oil and figs of this 
 island are accounted the best in the Archipelago. 
 
 II. The Lesbians were notorious for their dissolute manners ; and yet, at the 
 same time, they had the reputation of high refinement, and distinguished intel 
 lectual culture. Poetry and music made great progress among them. The 
 musicians of Lesbos were deemed the best, generally speaking, in Greece. It 
 produced some of the first lyric poets in particular, Alcseus and Sappho ; several 
 distinguished philosophers and rhetoricians, such as Theophrastus, Diophanes, 
 the friend of Tiberius Gracchus, Theophanes, the friend of Pompey, Potamo, 
 and others ; the historian Hellanicus was likewise a native, as well as the 
 musician Terpander, who invented the lyre with seven chords. 
 
 III. Among the cities of Lesbos we may name the following : 1. Mytilene, the 
 capital, on the eastern coast, having superior advantages as a maritime situa 
 tion, and possessing two harbors. Besides its natural advantages, it was great 
 ly adorned and beautified by art. It was the native place, also, of Alcaeus and 
 Sappho, and the historians Hellanicus and Myrsilus. Pittacus, one of the seven 
 sages of Greece, long presided over its councils and directed its affairs. It is 
 still a considerable place, called Metelin, and gives name also to the island 
 2. Methymna, to the northwest, on the western coast, and next in importance 
 to Mytilene. It stood near the northernmost point of the island, and was only 
 sixty stadia from the coast of Troas. Arion, the celebrated musician, was born 
 here. The wine of this place was held in great estimation. The remains of 
 Methymna are to be seen near the village of Molivo, 3. JEglrus, a small place, 
 dependent on Methymna, and situate on the eastern coast, where the island is 
 
654 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 only twenty stadia broad. 4. Antissa, on the western coast, near the promon 
 tory of Sigrium, now Cape Sign. It was the birth-place of Terpander. 5. Eres- 
 sus, to the south, on the same coast, and the native place of Theophrastus. It 
 was famous for the excellence of its wheaten flour. The site still preserves 
 the name of Eresso. 6. Pyrrha, to the southeast, on the same side of the island. 
 It was situate in a deep bay, with a narrow inlet, called from this circumstance 
 the Euripus of Pyrrha, and which answers now to Port Caloni. 
 
 (C.) ISLANDS OFF THE COAST OF LYDIA. 
 
 1. CHIOS. 
 
 I. Chios lay to the south of Lesbos, and facing the Ionian peninsula on which 
 Clazomense and Erythrae were situated. It is separated from the main land by 
 a channel about eight miles wide. Its length from north to south is about thirty 
 miles, and its greatest breadth about ten. It is mountainous, especially in the 
 northern part, the principal summit of which, called anciently Mount Pellinaus, 
 now Mount St. Elias, consists of a long line of bare rocks. The wine of Chios 
 was celebrated anciently as among the best of the Greek wines, and it still en 
 joys the same high reputation. The figs of Chios were also excellent. This 
 island is called by the modern Greeks Ohio, and by the Italians Scio. The Turk 
 ish name is Saki-Adassi, or " Mastic Island," from the gum mastic which grows 
 there in abundance, and which is much used at Constantinople, especially by the 
 ladies of the Seraglio, for chewing. 
 
 II. Chios was one of the twelve Ionian states founded by the European colo 
 nists from Greece ; the population, however, that settled there was not pure 
 Ionian, but mixed. In the great sea-fight between the Ionian Greeks and the 
 Persians, B.C. 494, which resulted in the entire defeat of the former, the peo 
 ple of Chios alone furnished one hundred ships, and fought bravely. After the 
 battle, the Persians took possession of the island, which suffered in nearly the 
 same way that it has again suffered in our own times at the hands of the Turks. 
 After the close of the Persian war, B.C. 480, the island passed successively 
 under the dominion of the Athenians, Macedonians, Romans, and Byzantines. 
 
 III. Among the places in Chios we may mention, 1. Chios, the chief city, 
 situate on the eastern side, and nearly in the same latitude with Erythrae. Its 
 modern name is Chio, and it is still the chief town in the island. Chios was a 
 large and handsome city, adorned with many noble works of art, several of 
 which were plundered by Verres. The harbor was excellent, and could con 
 tain eighty galleys at once. Passing around the promontory of Posidium, now 
 Cape S. Helen, we come to, 2. Phance, a harbor and promontory. The latter is 
 now Cape Mastico. The wine of this district was in high repute, and is al 
 luded to by Virgil. 3. Notium, a roadstead, now Port Mastico. 4. Laius Pm-lus, 
 now Port Mesta. Inland, and extending to the north, was the district Ariusia, 
 producing the best wine. 5. Bolissus, toward the northwestern extremity of 
 Chios, mentioned in the pseudo-Life of Homer, and now represented by the vil 
 lage of Volisso. 
 
 2. SAMOS. 
 
 I. Sdmos lay to the southeast of Chios, and a short distance to the northwest 
 of the Trogilian promontory of Ionia. It is now called Samo by the modern 
 Greeks, and by the Turks Sussam-Adassi. Strabo says the word Samos means 
 a mountainous height, and it may therefore be considered as characterizing the 
 physical features of the island, which is traversed by a chain of mountains from 
 one extremity to the other. Samos was celebrated for its extraordinary fertili- 
 
ASIA. 655 
 
 ty, and yielded in abundance almost every product. Its wine, however, was 
 of inferior quality ; though, when properly made at the present day, it is said to 
 be very superior. Samos still continues to be one of the most productive isl 
 ands of the Archipelago. 
 
 II. Samos was one of the twelve confederate states of Ionia, and very soon 
 became remarkable for commerce and maritime enterprise. It was particular 
 ly distinguished for its ascendency in the time of Polycrates, the most able of 
 the tyrants of his day, who extended his sway over the neighboring states, 
 Lesbos, Miletus, &c., and had a larger fleet than any other Grecian prince or 
 state of his time. After his death, however, the island became a prey to civil 
 dissensions, and fell into the hands of the Persians. It was released from this 
 bondage after the battle of Mycale ; but its maritime strength was broken sub 
 sequently by Pericles, B.C. 440, who feared in Samos a rival to Athens. During 
 the contest between Mark Antony and Augustus, Samos was for a while the 
 head-quarters of the former and Cleopatra, who kept court here with more than 
 regal magnificence. After Augustus had become the master of the Roman 
 world, he passed a winter in this island, which he restored, to its freedom, and 
 conferred on it other marks of favor. This island is particularly distinguished 
 as having given birth to the celebrated Pythagoras. 
 
 III. The only place to be mentioned in this island is Samos, the capital, on 
 the southeastern shore, opposite to the Trogilian promontory. The citadel, 
 built by Polycrates, was called Astypalaa. This city stood in a plain, rising 
 gradually from the sea toward a hill situate at some distance from it. The har 
 bor was secure and convenient for ships. Near the suburbs was a temple of 
 Juno, a goddess to whom the whole island was especially sacred, and here, too, 
 the Heraean games, instituted in her honor, were celebrated in the greatest 
 splendor. They were so called from "Hpa, the Greek appellation of the god 
 dess. The ruins of this city are to be seen near Mcgalochora, the present capi 
 tal of the island. The promontory of Posidium was a little to the north, facing 
 Mycale, and the distance across to the main land was only seven stadia. In the 
 centre of the island was Mount Ampclus, now Ambelona; and on the western side 
 was Mount Cercetius now Kerki, mentioned by Nicander in his Alcxipharmaca. 
 
 3. 1C ARIA. 
 
 Icaria, or Icarus, lay to the southwest of Samos. Mythology deduced the name 
 from Icarus, son of Daedalus, whose body was washed upon its shores after the 
 unfortunate termination of his flight. The sea to the south, into which he was 
 fabled to have fallen, was also called from him Mare Icarium. Icaria was of 
 small extent, being long but narrow. In Strabo s time it was thinly inhabited, 
 and the Samians used it principally for the pasturage of cattle. The geogra 
 pher adds that it possessed no harbors, but only a roadstead or two, the best 
 of which was near a promontory called Isti, in the south. The northeastern 
 point of the island was called the promontory of Dracanum, now Cape Phanari 
 or St. John. Dracanum was also the name of a mountain in this island, where 
 Bacchus, according to some traditions, was said to have been born. Icaria 
 was much celebrated for its wine, especially that called Pramnian. The mod 
 ern name of the island is Nicaria. ^ 
 
 (D.) ISLANDS OFF THE COAST OF CARIA. 
 
 1. PATMOS.LEROS, CALYMNA, AND COS. 
 
 1. Patmos was a small rocky island, below Icaria and Samos. It appears to 
 have had no place which deserved the name of a city ; but it became a spot of 
 
656 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 some consequence in the early history of the Church, from St. John s having 
 been banished to it, and having there written his Apocalypse. The modern 
 name is Patmo. 2. Leros lay to the southeast of Patmos. It was peopled from 
 Miletus, and probably belonged to that city. Strabo gives its inhabitants a char 
 acter for dishonesty. The modern name is Le.ro. 3. Calymna lay to the south 
 east of Leros. Ovid praises its honey. It is supposed to have belonged to the 
 group which Homer calls Calydnce. The modern name is Calimno. 4. Cos, to 
 the southeast, an island of some celebrity. It must have been inhabited at an 
 early period, since Homer represents it as sending its warriors to the siege of 
 Troy. It was subsequently colonized by a party of Dorians, and hence was 
 always reckoned of Dorian origin, and obtained a place in the Triopian Pentap- 
 olis. Its chief city was also called Cos, without the walls of which was a cel 
 ebrated temple of ^Esculapius, containing two famous paintings of Apelles, the 
 Antigonus and Venus Anadyomene. Augustus removed the latter to Rome, 
 and remitted to the Coans, as a compensation for the loss, a tribute of one hund 
 red talents. Cos was the birth-place not only of Apelles, but also of the cele 
 brated physician Hippocrates. It was a very productive island, especially in 
 wine, which vied with that of Lesbos and Chios. Cos was likewise celebrated 
 for its purple dye, and for its manufacture of a species of transparent silk stuff, 
 against the use of which by the Romans Juvenal so strongly inveighs. The 
 modern name of the island is Stan- Co. 
 
 2. R H o D U s. 
 
 I. Rhodus, now Rhodes, lay to the south of Caria, and about ten miles from 
 the main land. It is thirty-six miles in length, and about fourteen in breadth. 
 Rhodes was in ancient times sacred to the sun, and was celebrated for its se 
 rene sky, its soft climate, fertile soil, and fine fruits. The statement of Pliny, 
 that scarcely a day passed without more or less sunshine, is confirmed by the 
 present inhabitants. Anciently many articles of commerce were exported, 
 which were in much esteem among the Greeks and Romans, in the number of 
 which Pliny and other authors mention dried raisins, saffron, oil, glue, pitch, 
 honey, and wine. The sea supplied every kind offish. No country, moreover, 
 could boast of having given to the public games of Greece so many successful 
 competitors for the prize. 
 
 II. The earliest inhabitants of Rhodes were the Telchines, by whom most 
 probably are meant the Phrenicians. Tlepolemus, son of Hercules, subsequent 
 ly led a colony hither ; but the main emigration was that made by the Dorians, 
 who established themselves in this island about B.C. 988, and Rhodes, with its 
 three cities of Lindus, Camirus, and lalysus, became a part of the Doric con 
 federacy. The history of this island can only be glanced at here. After being 
 originally governed by kings, its constitution was changed to a mixed one, com 
 bining the elements of democracy and aristocracy in a balanced state. Its na 
 val power was of gradual growth, and it was frequently brought into collision 
 with foreign powers ; but its most rapid rise was after the repulse of Deme 
 trius Poliorcetes, B.C. 303. Subsequently, in the war waged by the Romans 
 against Antiochus, the Rhodian navy was of great service to the former, who, 
 in gratitude to their new allies, gave the Rhodians Caria and Lycia. From this 
 time, however, the prosperity of the Rhodians began to decline. Her recently- 
 acquired continental possessions resisted her sway, and in their struggles ap 
 pealing from time to time to the Roman senate, gave that body an opportuni 
 ty of practicing their usual policy of interference. After various vicissitudes, 
 
ASIA. 657 
 
 Rhodes was incorporated by Vespasian in a Provincia Insularum, of which it 
 was probably the seat of government. 
 
 III. The commercial laws of the Rhodians were very celebrated, and were 
 adopted as the basis of marine law on all the coasts of the Mediterranean, and 
 some fragments of them still retain their authority. In the most flourishing 
 period of the island, the city of Rhodes, like Alexandrea at the same time, was 
 a place of resort for learned men from all countries, and a very similar style 
 of literature sprang up in both places. Rhodes was particularly distinguished 
 as the parent of a new style of oratory, which the ancients considered of a mixed 
 or Graeco- Asiatic type. 
 
 PLACES IN RHODES. 
 
 I. Rhodus, the capital, at the northeastern extremity of the island. It was not 
 so ancient as the three Dorian cities, Lindus, lalysus, and Camirus, having 
 been founded, according to Strabo, at the time of the Peloponnesian war. The 
 same writer affirms that it excelled all other cities in the beauty and conven 
 ience of its ports, which were two in number, its streets, walls, and public edi 
 fices. The most extraordinary work, however, at this place, was the famous 
 Colossus of the Sun. It was of bronze, cast by Chares of Lindus, a pupil of 
 Lysippus, and occupied him twelve years. Its height was seventy cubits, or 
 one hundred and five Grecian feet, and few men could encompass the thumb 
 with their arms ; the fingers also were thicker than ordinary statues. The cost 
 was three hundred talents ($3 17,000), and the money was obtained from the 
 sale of the machines and military engines which Demetrius Poliorcetes had 
 left behind him when he raised the siege of Rhodes. The statue is said, though 
 on no good authority, to have stood with distended legs upon the two moles 
 that formed the entrance of the inner harbor. It was erected B.C. 280, and 
 was regarded as one of the seven wonders of the world. After having stood 
 about fifty-six years, it was broken off below the knees, and thrown down by an 
 earthquake ; and it remained in this state for the space of eight hundred and 
 ninety-six years, until, in the year 672 of our era, it was sold by the Saracens to 
 a Jewish merchant of Edessa, who loaded nine hundred camels with the bronze. 
 
 II. Lindus, to the south, and on the eastern coast. It was one of the three 
 Dorian cities, and contained a temple of Minerva, of the highest antiquity, since 
 it was said to have been founded by Danaus. The statue of the goddess was a 
 shapeless stone. This city was famous for having produced Cleobulus, one of 
 the seven sages. It still retains the name of Lindo. Inland from Lindus was 
 Mount Atabyris, the most elevated in the island, whence Jupiter obtained the 
 surname of Atabyrius. 3. Camirus, on the opposite side of the island, and in a 
 line with Lindus. Homer gives it the epithet of " chalky." Pisander, the epic 
 poet, was a native of this place. The modern name is Camiro. Near Camirus 
 .was the Mylantia Promontorium, now Cape Candura. 4. lalysus, to the north 
 east, founded at the same time with Lindus and Camirus. The site, how r ever, 
 had previously been occupied by the Phoenicians. Its citadel, named Ochyroma, 
 lay on an adjacent hill. The site of this place is still called laliso. 
 
 (E.) ISLAND OFF THE COAST OF CILICIA. 
 
 CYPRUS. 
 
 I. Cyprus, called by the Turks Kibris, lay off the coast of Cilicia, and a short 
 distance to the west of Syria. Its length is one hundred and forty miles, its 
 greatest breadth is about fifty miles. A range of mountains runs through the 
 
 TT 
 
658 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 island in the direction of its length, keeping closer to the northern than the 
 southern coast ; the plains are consequently on the south side of the range. 
 This range was called Olympus by the ancients. Cyprus yielded to no other 
 island in fertility, since it produced excellent wine and oil, and abundance of 
 wheat, and various fruits. There was also a great supply of timber for build 
 ing ships. Its mineral productions were likewise very rich, especially copper, 
 found at Tamasus, and supposed to be alluded to in the Odyssey. 
 
 II. Cyprus appears to have been colonized by the Phoenicians at an early 
 period. Ethiopians are also mentioned as forming part of the population ; but 
 it is difficult to say exactly who are designated under this name ; probably some 
 of the tribes south of Egypt, who were taken to Cyprus as slaves, after it came 
 into the possession of the Egyptians. Greek colonies subsequently settled on 
 the coast. Amasis, king of Egypt, is said to have invaded Cyprus and taken 
 Citium. The island became subject to the Persians, and afterward submitted 
 to Alexander the Great, upon whose death it fell with Egypt to the share of 
 Ptolemy, son of Lagus. It continued under the Ptolemies, sometimes united 
 with Egypt, and sometimes under a separate prince of the same dynasty. The 
 last of these princes, brother to Ptolemy Auletes, king of Egypt, incurred the 
 enmity of P. Clodius Pulcher, who, being taken prisoner by the Cilician pirates, 
 sent to the king of Cyprus for money to pay his ransom. The king sent a sum 
 which was too little. Clodius, having recovered his liberty by other means, ob 
 tained a decree, when he became tribune of the commons, for reducing Cyprus 
 to a Roman province. M. Cato was sent to take possession of it. The king, 
 on hearing of this design, put himself to death, before Cato s arrival. Cato seized 
 upon the treasury, which was well filled, and sent a large booty to Rome. Cy 
 prus thus became a Roman province. 
 
 III. Cyprus was deemed sacred to Venus, and, as might be anticipated from 
 the worship and rites of this goddess, the inhabitants were sensual and corrupt. 
 Nevertheless, literature and the arts flourished here to a considerable extent, 
 even at an early period, as the name of the Cypria Carmina, ascribed by some, 
 though erroneously, to Homer, sufficiently attests. 
 
 PLACES IN CYPRUS. 
 
 COMMENCING with the Acamas Promontorium, at the western extremity, now 
 Cape Amant or Salizano, and which is formed by the termination of a ridge call 
 ed Acamantis, connected with the main one of Olympus, we pass southward, 
 by the promontory of Drepanum, now Cape Trepano, and come to, 1. Paphos, 
 sacred to Venus, and said to have been founded by Agapenor, an Arcadian 
 chief, who was driven hither by a storm on his return from Troy. Having been 
 nearly overthrown by an earthquake, it was restored by Augustus, and named 
 Augusta. It was the seat of government when the island was visited by St. 
 Paul. The site is still called Baffo. 2. Palce-Paphos, a short distance to the 
 southeast of the former. This was the earlier city of the two, and was said to 
 have been founded by Cinyras, the reputed father of Adonis. It was situate on 
 a height, at a distance of ten stadia from the sea, and near the little river Boc- 
 carus, which flowed from the ridge of Acamantis. Like Paphos, it was sacred 
 to Venus, and even after the erection of the former place, retained its pre-emi 
 nence in sanctity, and in the annual festival of the goddess the road to it was 
 crowded with her votaries, who resorted here from the other tow r ns. It is said 
 to correspond with the site of Conclia. 3. Curium, to the southeast, founded 
 by an Argive colony. Its sovereign, Stesenor, is stigmatized in history as hav 
 ing betrayed his country s cause during the fight between the Cyprians and 
 
ASIA. 659 
 
 Persians, toward the close of the Ionian revolt. The site corresponds with the 
 modern Episcopia. The hills in the vicinity contained rich veins of copper ore. 
 The Curias Prornonlorium is now Cape Gatto. 4. Amathus, a short distance to 
 the southeast of Curium, and a town of great antiquity. Adonis was worshipped 
 here as well as Venus. Amathus was a favorite residence of the latter, and 
 the goddess was represented here with a beard. Ovid more than once alludes 
 to the mineral productions of Amathus, and Hipponax, as quoted by Strabo, 
 makes it to have been famous for its wheat Its ruins are near the little town 
 of Limcson or Limasol. 
 
 5. Citium, to the east, one of the most ancient towns of the island, and 
 whence the name of Chetim or Chittim is not unreasonably supposed to have 
 been derived, Diogenes Laertius, in his Life of Zeno, makes this place to have 
 been a Phoenician settlement, a circumstance which is confirmed by Cicero. It 
 was celebrated for having given birth to Zeno, the founder of the Stoic sect, 
 and the physician Apollonius. It still retains the name of Chiti. 6. Idalium, a 
 height and grove, the position of which is uncertain. There was also a town 
 of the same name, which is first referred to by the later scholiasts. Lucan 
 would seem to place Idalium on the sea-shore, and, if this be correct, it may 
 have been situated near the promontory of Pedalium, now Cape Pita. Cramer, 
 following D Anville, places it inland, and makes it answer to the modern Dahn. 
 The Idalian grove was the favorite abode of Venus ; and here, too, Adonis was 
 slain by the tusk of the wild boar. 7. Leucolla, now Armida, near the promon 
 tory of Ammochostos, now Cape Grego. The ancient name of this cape seems 
 to have been transferred by corruption to the neighboring town of Famagosta, 
 which figures in the modern annals of the island. 8. Salamis, to the northeast, 
 a city of note and of considerable antiquity, said to have been founded by Teucer, 
 son of Telamon, when driven from the island of Salamis by his irritated parent 
 for not having avenged the wrongs of his half-brother Ajax. During the reign 
 of Euagoras it was the principal city of the island, and was the rendezvous of 
 distinguished men from Greece and other countries. Overwhelmed by an 
 earthquake in the time of Constantine, it was restored under the name of Con- 
 stantia, which it still preserves under the modern form of Constanza. 9. Soli, 
 on the northern shore, founded by Demophon, son of Theseus. It derives celeb 
 rity from Solon s having resided there some years, at the court of Philocyprus, 
 the reigning prince. According to some, he ended his days there. The inhab 
 itants were called 26/Uoj, while those of Soli in Cilicia were termed 2o/lef. 
 The site is now called Solea. 10. Tamasus, to the southeast, in the interior 
 of the island, celebrated for its rich mines of copper, and the metallic composi 
 tion prepared on the spot, called calcanthum. Ovid, in his Metamorphoses, al 
 ludes to it as the spot where the golden apples grew by which Hippomanes won 
 Atalanta. 
 
 II. SYRIA, INCLUDING PHOENICIA AND PALESTINE. 
 
 SYRIA. 
 
 1. Syria (?J Zvpia) was the Greek and Roman name for that 
 country of Asia which forms the whole or a part of the district 
 called in the Bible Aram. By the Europeans it is still called 
 Syria, but the Asiatics term it Belad el Sham, or " the coun 
 try to the left." The Mohammedans of Mecca direct their 
 
660 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 faces to the rising sun when they pray, and then Syria is to 
 their left. 
 
 II. In the most usual application of the word, Syria was the 
 district bounded on the north by the range of Amanus, on the 
 west by the Mediterranean, on the east by the Euphrates and 
 Arabia, and on the south by Arabia and Egypt. The name 
 Syria is probably a shortened form of Assyria. 
 
 III. The Syrians (not including the inhabitants of Phoeni 
 cia and Palestine under the name) derived their descent from 
 Aram, the youngest son of Seth. The earliest records repre 
 sent Syria as consisting of a number of independent kingdoms. 
 The conquests of David brought these into subjection to the 
 kingdom of Israel ; but they again became independent at the 
 close of Solomon s reign B.C. 975. The kingdom of Damascus 
 became by degrees especially powerful. This kingdom was 
 overthrown by the Assyrians, and from this time Syria formed 
 in succession a part of the Assyrian, Bablyonian, Persian, and 
 Macedonian empires. After the battle of Ipsus (B.C. 301), Syr 
 ia, with the exception of Coele-Syria and Palestine, fell to the 
 share of Seleucus Nicator, and henceforth it became the central 
 portion of the kingdom of the Seleucidse, its capital being An- 
 tiochia. It was declared a Roman province by Pompey in the 
 year 65 B.C. 
 
 IV. The situation of Syria is peculiar. This country may 
 be regarded as an isthmus, separating a sea of water (the Med 
 iterranean) from a sea of sand (the desert of Arabia). It was 
 well watered by numerous small streams ; but the only large 
 river was the Orontes or Axius, now the Aasi, rising in Mount 
 Libanus, and flowing from south to north. The products of an 
 cient Syria were corn, fruits of various kinds, oil, wine, cedar 
 wood from Libanus, fuller s earth, &c. 
 
 V. Under the Macedonian kings Syria was divided into four 
 parts or tetrarchies, which were named after their capitals, An- 
 tiochia, Seleucia, Apamea, and Laodicea. Both the Greeks 
 and Romans, however, called the northern part of Syria, that 
 is, the whole of the country with the exception of Ccele-Syria. 
 Phoanicia, and Palestine, by the general name of Upper Syria 
 (TI &VG) Svpia, Syria Superior], to distinguish it from Coele- 
 Syria (rj Koihrj Zvpia) or Hollow Syria, which was the name 
 given to the valley between the ridges of Libanus and Antilib- 
 
ASIA. 661 
 
 anus. Under the Romans, Upper Syria was divided into nine 
 districts, namely, Casstotis, Apamene^ Chalcidice, Seleucis, 
 Pieria, Commagene, Cyrrhestice, Chalybonltis^ and Palmy- 
 rene. 
 
 PLACES IN UPPER SYRIA. 
 
 I. DISTRICT of Cassibtis. This lay below the mouth of the Orontes, and took 
 its name from Mount Casius, now Jcbel Okrab. The ancients give exaggerated 
 accounts of the height of this mountain, that the rising sun could be seen from 
 it at the beginning of the fourth night-watch. It is, however, only five thou 
 sand three hundred and eighteen feet above the level of the sea. On its sum 
 mit was a celebrated temple of Jupiter Casius, in which several Roman emper 
 ors sacrificed. In this district we may mention, 1. Gabala, with a harbor, and 
 the remains of an amphitheatre ; now Jcbili. It is the Giblim of Joshua (xiii., 
 5). 2. LaocKcea ad Mare, to the north, so named to distinguish it from Laodicea 
 ad Libanum. It was built by Seleucus Nicator in honor of his mother. The 
 adjacent territory was celebrated for its wine. This place was greatly beauti 
 fied by the Emperor Severus, after Pescennius Niger had laid it waste. It is 
 now Latikia. 
 
 II. District of Apamene, to the southeast of Cassiotis, and along the course 
 of the Orontes. We have here, 1. Emesa, near a lake formed by the Orontes, 
 and celebrated for its temple of Elagabalus, or the Sun-god, whose young priest 
 became, under the same name, emperor of Rome. The sun was worshipped 
 here under the shape of a black round stone, rising to a point. In later times 
 it was the capital of the new province of Phoenicia Libani. It was here that 
 the great battle was fought between the Emperor Aurelian and Zenobia, queen 
 of Palmyra. The modern name is Hems. 2. Epiphama, to the northwest, on 
 the Orontes. It is the Hamath of the Bible. The modern name is Hamah. In 
 the Middle Ages it was the seat of an Arabian dynasty, to which Abulfeda the 
 geographer belonged. 3. Apamea, the capital, and giving name to the district, 
 situate on the Orontes, to the northwest. It was founded by Antigonus, and 
 first called Pella, from the birth-place of Alexander, a name which Seleucus Ni 
 cator changed to Apamea in honor of his queen Apama. Seleucus is said to 
 have kept five hundred war elephants in the adjacent pastures. It is now 
 Kalaat el Medyk, or Famieh. 4. Seleucla ad Belum, to the northwest, near Mount 
 Belus, and on the Orontes. It was afterward called Seleucopolis. It is proba 
 bly the modern Sehjun. 5. Antiochia, to the northwest, on the Orontes, now 
 Antioch or Antakia. It was founded by Seleucus Nicator, and intended as the 
 capital not only of Syria, but even of all Asia. He called it Antiochia after his 
 father Antiochus, and transplanted hither the inhabitants of the neighboring 
 city of Antigonla, which had been founded by his opponent Antigonus. It was 
 afterward increased by the addition of three other cities, each with its separate 
 walls, and having a common one inclosing all ; so that in Strabo s time Rome 
 was regarded as the first, Seleucia ad Tigrim as the second, and this Antiochia 
 and Alexandrea in Egypt as the third in rank among the cities of the known 
 world. Antiochia was subsequently destroyed by Chosroes, king of Persia, but 
 restored by Justinian, if not to its former size, at least to its original splendor. 
 Having been again ravaged by the Egyptian sultan in A.D. 1269, it sunk into 
 the present wretched town of Antakia. Antioch is intimately connected with 
 the early history of Christianity, the doctrines of which were planted in it by 
 
662 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Paul and Barnabas, and in it also the term Christian had its origin as a distinct 
 ive appellation. Hence Antioch was sometimes called, from this circumstance, 
 Theopolis, or the Sacred City. About five miles below Antioch was a delightful 
 grove, with refreshing fountains, and a temple sacred to Apollo and Diana. The 
 name of the place was Daphne, whence Antioch is sometimes called, for dis 
 tinction sake, Antiockia ad Daphnen. 
 
 III. District of Chalcid/icc, to the north of Apamene, and east of the Orontes. 
 It took its name from Ckalcis, the capital, situate on a lake formed by the River 
 Chalus, to the southwest of Bercea. Chalcis was not a place of much import 
 ance, although greatly beautified by the Emperor Justinian. The adjacent ter 
 ritory was extremely fruitful. Its ruins are near the modern Kinnasrin. 
 
 IV. District of Seleucis, north of the mouth of the Orontes, and taking its name 
 from its capital Seleucia. This city lay on a mountain ridge, near the shore, and 
 about a mile from the Orontes. It was built originally by Seleucus Nicator as 
 an impregnable fort, and having bravely defended itself subsequently against 
 Tigranes, king of Armenia, was declared a free city by Pompey. Seleucus was 
 buried here. Its ruins are near Kepse. Besides this place we may name lmma f 
 to the east, where Aurelian gained his first victory over Zenobia. It answers 
 now to Cuph. 
 
 V. District of Pieria, lying on the Sinus Isswus? and reaching on the north to 
 the Syria Pyla. It took its name from Mount Pierius, a chain branching off 
 to the south from Amanus. We may mention here, 1. Rhosus, now Rozos. 
 2. Pagra, just below the Syrian pass. Myriandrus and Alcxandrea have al 
 ready been mentioned under the head of Cilicia, to which they more properly 
 belong. 
 
 VI. District of Commagene, the northernmost division of Syria, of small ex 
 tent, but extremely fertile. We may mention in it, 1. Samosata, the capital, and 
 residence of the early petty kings, situate on the western bank of the Euphrates 
 It was the birth-place of Lucian, and of Paul the heretic. It is now Schemi- 
 sath. 2. Adata, near Mount Amanus ; afterward called Germanicea, and by the 
 Romans Germanicea Ccesarca, in honor of the Emperor Caligula. At a still later 
 period it was called Telesaura, and is now Marah. It was the birth-place of the 
 heretic Nestorius. It was here that Pescennius Niger assumed the imperial 
 dignity. 3. Antiochia ad Taurum, in the northwestern angle of Amanus. Prob 
 ably the modern frontier fortress of Bahasna. 
 
 VII. District of Cyrrhesfice, named after a district in Macedonia. It extend- 
 ed from the plain of Antioch eastward to the Euphrates. We may name here, 
 1. Zeugma, the general place for crossing the Euphrates after the time of Alex 
 ander ; near the modern Bir, which, on the opposite side of the river, answers 
 to Birtha or Seleucia. In more ancient times the crossing was usually made at 
 Thapsacus, lower down. 2. Hicrapolis, or the Holy City, so called from the 
 great Syrian goddess Derceto or Atargatis being highly revered here. She had 
 in this city a splendid temple, the treasury of which was rifled by Crassus in his 
 Parthian expedition. At the introduction of Christianity it lost all its splendor 
 Its Syrian name was Mabog, or "the city of cotton," from the cotton cultivated 
 abundantly in its vicinity. Out of this name the Greeks made their appellation 
 of Bambyce (77 Baufivnrj), which they also employed, together with that of Hie- 
 rapolis. It is now Mambej. 3. Bercea, to the southwest, called by the Syrians 
 Chalep, which latter name still remains in the modern Aleppo, the most import 
 ant town of modern Syria. Here was the River Chalus, already referred to, 
 now the Kovaik, anciently full of sacred fish. 4. Cyrrhus, to the north, the 
 capital of the district, with a temple of Minerva Cyrrhestica. 
 
ASIA. 663 
 
 VIII. District of Chalylonitis, anciently a fertile strip of country on the west 
 bank of the Euphrates, between the river and the Syrian desert, but now swal 
 lowed up by the sands of the latter. We may mention here, 1. Barbalissus, a 
 castle on the Euphrates, now Balis, less correctly placed by D Anville on the 
 Daradax. 2. Resapha, to the southeast, afterward Sergiopolis ; now El-Rcssafa. 
 3. Thapsdcus, to the southeast, a celebrated city and fording-place on the Eu 
 phrates, and the Thaphsach of Scripture, a name denoting " a passage." Seleu- 
 cus Nicator subsequently gave the city the name of Amphipolis. The Syriac 
 name is said to have been Turmeda. This was the most usual ford or crossing 
 place of the Euphrates for those going into Upper Asia, and here the army of 
 the younger Cyrus crossed, as related by Xenophon. Here, also, at a subse 
 quent period, the immense host of Darius Codomannus passed over, when 
 marching into Lower Asia against Alexander, as well as the army of the latter 
 when moving upward after the battle of Issus. Eratosthenes, moreover, chose 
 this place for the centre of his measures of Asia. The site of Thapsacus is 
 nearly opposite the modern Racca. Geographers generally err in removing it 
 to El-Der. 
 
 IX. District of Palmyrene, to the south, once partially irrigated and cultivated, 
 now, however, forming a portion of the desert. It derived its name from its 
 capital Palmyra. This celebrated city was situated about midway between the 
 Orontes and Euphrates, and about one hundred and forty miles E.N.E. of Da 
 mascus, in an oasis supplied with wholesome water, and on a line leading from 
 the coast of Syria to the regions of Mesopotamia, Persia, and India. The 
 Phosnicians were probably early acquainted with the spot, as a convenient halt 
 ing place in the desert, and are thought to have suggested to Solomon the idea 
 of building an emporium there. That monarch accordingly built " Tadmor in 
 the wilderness." This Tadmor is the same as Palmyra, both names being derived 
 from the palm-trees which grew here in abundance. In the time of Pliny, Pal 
 myra was the intermediate emporium of the trade with the east, a city of mer 
 chants and factors, who traded with the Parthians on the one hand and the 
 Romans on the other. The produce of India found its way to the Roman world 
 through this city. Palmyra became allied to the Roman empire as a free state, 
 and continued to be a splendid and nourishing city until the defeat of its aspiring 
 Queen Zenobia by the Emperor Aurelian. It was on this occasion that the 
 celebrated Longinus, her minister, was put to death. Zenobia herself was led 
 captive to Rome, and was allowed to spend the remainder of her days near the 
 town of Tibur. Palmyra still continued to exist, though shorn of much of its 
 former splendor, until plundered and destroyed in A.D. 1400 by the army of 
 Tamerlane. Since that period it has been in a ruined and desolate state, but 
 its remains are described by travellers as exceedingly imposing. 
 
 CCELE-SYRIA. 
 
 I. Ccele- Syria (77 KOL^TJ Svpia), or " Hollow Syria," comprised 
 the valley betwen the mountain chains of Libanus and Anti- 
 libdnus. The name took its rise under the Seleucidae ; for in 
 earlier times it formed part of the kingdom of Damascus ; then, 
 under David and Solomon, a part of the kingdom of Israel; and 
 from the time of Cyrus to that of Alexander the Great, a part 
 of the Persian monarchy. Under the later Roman emperors 
 the name was no longer used, this country being incorporated 
 
664 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 as a province with Phoenicia Libani. Coele-Syria is now called 
 .El-Bakaah, or "the Valley." Its average width is fifteen 
 miles. 
 
 II. Libanus separated Coele-Syria from Phoenicia, and ex- 
 tended in a direction east of north from a little below the par 
 allel of Tyrus nearly up to that of Aradns. It abounded an 
 ciently in excellent pastures, and fine forests of cedar. A few 
 spots in the range still afford good pasturage at the present day, 
 but the cedars, " the glory of Lebanon," have nearly all disap 
 peared. The name Libanus is derived from an Oriental root, 
 signifying "white," the reference being not only to the snowy 
 summits of the chain, but also to the whitish complexion of 
 the calcareous soil. Libanus is now called Jebel Libnah, but 
 more commonly, among the natives, Jebel esh-Sharki, or "the 
 Western Mountain," in contradistinction to Antilibanus, which 
 is styled Jebel el-Gharbi, or "the Eastern Mountain." The 
 range of Antilibanus lay to the east of, and, as its name im 
 ports, "opposite to Libanus," though commencing much far 
 ther to the south. Nearly opposite to Damascus, this chain 
 separates into two ridges, the easternmost one of which is the 
 Herman of Scripture, now Jebel esh- Sheikh, or "the Chiefs 
 Mountain." In Scripture, the name Lebanon is applied in 
 differently to both Libanus and Antilibanus. 
 
 PLACES IN 
 
 1. Damascus (the Dammesek of Scripture), at the foot of the range of Antilib 
 anus, in a beautiful and extensive plain, watered by the Bar dines or Chrysorrhoas 
 and its branches. This river is thought to be the Pharphar of the Bible. Da 
 mascus is one of the most ancient cities in the world, and existed as early as 
 the days of Abraham ; and, though often taken and devastated, it has always 
 risen again and flourished. Under Dioclesian several manufactories of arms 
 were established here, and it is probable that the high reputation to which it 
 afterward attained for its sword-blades may have had its first foundations laid 
 in this arrangement of the Roman emperor. Damascus was also made at this 
 time a general depot for munitions of war, and a military post against the in 
 roads of the eastern nations. Under Julian it became a magnificent city ; and 
 in the seventh century it was for some time the seat of the califs. All modern 
 travellers speak of its delightful situation. The natives call it Es-Sham, or 
 Syria, according to the practice of designating the chief town by the name of 
 the country itself. 2. Heliopolis, to the northwest, called by the Syrians Baal- 
 bee, and now Balbec. The Syriac name is supposed to mean " the city (or house) 
 of Baal," of which the Greek Heliopolis is a mere translation. By Baal, in 
 Asiatic idolatry, was originally meant the Lord of the Universe, of whom the 
 Sun was subsequently taken as the type. Heliopolis was famed for its temple 
 of Jupiter erected by Antoninus Pius, magnificent ruins of which still remain 
 
ASIA. 665 
 
 Venus was also revered in this city, and its maidens were therefore said to be 
 the fairest in the land. By Venus is here meant the Syrian Astarte. 3. Aphaca, 
 to the northwest, in the mountain range of Libanus, having a celebrated tem 
 ple of Venus (Astarte), near which was a lake, the waters of which had the 
 property of keeping even the heaviest bodies, when thrown therein, from sink 
 ing. The temple was destroyed by Constantine the Great. The ruins of the 
 city are at a place called Afka. 4. Laodicea ad Libanum, to the northeast, 
 founded by Seleucus Nicator. It lay in the plain watered by and named after 
 the River Marsyas, a tributary of the Orontes. The Romans made it the chief 
 city of the district. It was also called Laodicea Scabiosa (S/ra& uaa), for which 
 Ptolemy gives Kadiuaa ( Cabiosa). 
 
 PHOENICIA. 
 
 I. Phoenicia, in Greek ^QLVIK T] (Phcenice), extended along 
 the coast of Syria, from the River Eleutherus, and the city and 
 island of Arddus, on the north, to the River Chorseus, near 
 Ccesarea, at the foot of Mount Carmel, in the south. The 
 length, therefore, was only thirty-five geographical miles. The 
 breadth was very limited, the mountain range of Libanus form 
 ing its utmost barrier to the east. The country was in gen 
 eral sandy and hilly, and not well adapted for agriculture, but, 
 to counterbalance this, the coast abounded in good harbors, the 
 fisheries were excellent, while the mountain ranges in the in 
 terior afforded, in their cedar-forests, a rich supply of timber for 
 naval and other purposes. Hence the early proficiency which 
 the Phoenicians made in navigation, and hence the flourishing 
 commercial cities which covered the whole line of coast. 
 
 II. The native name of Phoenicia, as appears from the Phoe 
 nician coinage, was Kenaan (the Canaan of Scripture), and the 
 people themselves were called Kenaanim. The name Phoeni- 
 cia or Phoenlce is of Grecian, not Oriental origin, and was given 
 by the Greeks to this country either from the number of palm- 
 trees ((j)oivL^ " a palm-tree") which grew there, so that Phoeni 
 cia will signify "the land of palms," or else, as Gesenius thinks, 
 from 0om, in its sense of "purple" making Phoenicia there 
 fore mean " the land of the purple dye," in allusion to the fa 
 mous purple or crimson of Tyre. 
 
 SKETCH OF PHOENICIAN HISTORY. 
 
 I. THE Phoenicians were a branch of the Aramaean or Semitic race. To this 
 same great family the Hebrews and Arabians belonged, as well as the inhabit 
 ants of the wide plain between the northern waters of the Euphrates and Tigris. 
 The Phoenicians themselves, according to their own account, came originally 
 from the shores of the Persian Gulf; and Strabo informs us, that in the isles of 
 Tyrus and Aradus, in the gulf just named, were found temples similar to those 
 
666 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 of the Phoenicians ; and that the inhabitants of these isles claimed the cities of 
 Tyrus and Aradus, on the coast of Phoenicia, as colonies of theirs. 
 
 II. It is uncertain what time they migrated to the coast of the Mediterranean, 
 but it must have been at a very early period, since Sidon was a great city in 
 the time of Joshua. The Phoenicians far surpassed all the other nations of an 
 tiquity in commercial enterprise. Their greatness as a commercial people was 
 chiefly owing to their peculiar natural advantages. Their situation at the ex 
 tremity of the Mediterranean enabled them to supply the western nations with 
 the different commodities of the east, which were brought to Tyre by caravans 
 from Arabia and Babylon ; while their own country produced many of the most 
 valuable articles of commerce in ancient times. Off the coast the shell-fish was 
 caught which produced the purple, the most celebrated dye known to the an 
 cients ; and the sand on the sea-shore was well adapted for the making of glass. 
 Mount Libanus supplied them with abundance of timber for ship-building, and 
 the useful metals were obtained in the iron and copper mines of Sarepta. 
 
 III. In the west they visited not only Britain for tin, but also the shores of 
 the Baltic for amber ; and on the northern coast of Africa, in Spain, Sicily, and 
 Malta, thy planted numerous colonies, which they supplied with the produce of 
 the East. Their settlements in Sicily and Africa became powerful states, and 
 long opposed a formidable barrier to the Roman armies. By their alliance with 
 the Jewish state in the time of Solomon, they were enabled to sail to Ophir, 
 where they obtained the produce of India. Herodotus even says that they cir 
 cumnavigated Africa. 
 
 IV. The Greeks attributed the invention of letters to the Phoenicians. There 
 can be no doubt, however, that they attained to great perfection in the arts in 
 very early times. The Tyrians supplied Solomon with all kinds of artificers to 
 assist in the building of the temple at Jerusalem ; and the workmanship of the 
 artists of Sidon was celebrated in the Greek towns of Asia Minor as early as 
 the time of Homer. 
 
 V. The Phoenician cities appear to have been originally independent of one 
 another, and to have possessed, for the most part, a monarchical form of govern 
 ment. The oldest of these cities was Sidon ; but Tyre became in later times 
 the most important, and probably exercised some degree of authority over the 
 other states. After the conquest of Samaria and Judaea, the Phoenicians be 
 came subject in succession to the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian monar 
 chies. In the wars between the Greeks and Persians, they formed the chief 
 and most efficient portion of the Persian navy. They afterward became part 
 of the dominions of the Seleucidae, and were eventually included in the Roman 
 province of Syria. The language of the Phoenicians closely resembled the He 
 brew and Aramaic. 
 
 PLACES IN PHCENICIA. 
 
 PROCEEDING upward from the mouth of the Chorseus, now the Koradschc, we 
 come to, 1. Dora or Dorus, the Dor of Scripture, a small place with a harbor, 
 now Tortura. 2. Ecbatdna, at the foot of Mount Carmel, the same probably 
 with the Bathura of Josephus, and now Cai/a. Here Cambyses gave himself 
 a mortal wound as he was mounting his horse, and thus fulfilled the oracle 
 which had warned him to beware of Ecbatana, and which he had supposed to 
 refer to the capital of Media. 3. Sycaminon, to the north, so called from its 
 abundance of wild fig-trees. The Syriac name was Chepha. It is now Kaifa 
 or Kaffa. Near this place, and at the foot of Mount Carmel, the shell-fish from 
 which purple was obtained were found in abundance. Mount Carmel, which 
 
ASIA. 667 
 
 consists rather of several connected hills than of one ridge, extends from the 
 plain of Esdraelon in a northwest direction, and terminates in the Carmelum 
 Promontorium, the only great promontory on the coast of Palestine, and which 
 forms the S.W. extremity of the bay of Acre. Above the promontory the River 
 Kison enters the bay, on the banks of which stream the host of Sisera was over 
 thrown. 4. Ptolemais, at the upper extremity of the bay. The native name of 
 this place was Accho, which the Greeks changed into Ace ( V A^), but it was event 
 ually better known by the name of Ptolemais, which it had received from the 
 first Ptolemy, king of Egypt, by whom it was much improved. It was called, 
 also, Colonia Claudii Casaris, in consequence of its receiving the privileges of 
 a Roman city from the Emperor Claudius. It is now the well-known St. Jean 
 d Acre. The River Belus here empties into the sea, from the fine sands of 
 which stream, according to the common account, the first glass was accidentally 
 made by some Phoenician mariners. 5. Tyrus, called by the natives Tsor, by the 
 Greeks TOpof. The Carthaginians, colonists of Tyre, called the mother city, 
 on the other hand, Tsar or Sar, which the Romans, receiving the word from 
 them, converted into Sarra, and formed from it the adjective Sarranus, equiva 
 lent to Tyrius. Tyre was founded by a colony from Sidon, the most ancient of 
 the Phoenician cities, but its splendid prosperity soon caused it to take prece 
 dence of the parent state, and to eclipse its glory. It became, in fact, the first 
 commercial city of its time. Originally the city of Tyre was built on the main 
 land, but, having been besieged for a lengthened period by Nebuchadnezzar, the 
 inhabitants conveyed themselves and their effects to an island about half a mile 
 from the shore, where a new city was founded, which enjoyed an increased de 
 gree of celebrity and commercial prosperity. The old city hence was called 
 Palcetyrus, the other simply Tyrus. The new city continued to flourish, ex 
 tending its colonies and commerce on all sides, till it was attacked by Alexan 
 der the Great. After an obstinate resistance it was taken, and severely pun 
 ished. Still, however, the city continued to flourish, until the founding of Alex- 
 andrea, by diverting commerce into a new channel, gave Tyre an irreparable 
 blow, and she gradually declined, until now hardly a vestige remains. Just 
 above Tyrus the River Leontes, now Lanto, empties into the sea. 
 
 6. Sarepta or Zarephath, where Elijah performed the miracle of multiplying 
 the contents of the barrel of meal and cruse of oil, and where he raised the 
 widow s son to life. It is now Surafend. 7. Sidon, one of the most ancient cit 
 ies of Phoenicia, with an excellent harbor, and already extant in the time of Ja 
 cob. Sidon was the parent city of Tyre, and of most of the towns of Phoenicia. 
 Many manufactories, particularly those of linen and glass, were successfully 
 carried on here. Notwithstanding the rise and prosperity of Tyre, it remained 
 a very wealthy and important city to the time of its conquest by Artaxerxes 
 Ochus, when its fleet amounted to one hundred triremes and quinqueremes. 
 In Alexander s time it was without any fortifications, and preserved scarcely 
 any thing but its reputation for fine glass. It is now the small town of Sayda, 
 and its harbor is nearly choked up with sand. 8. Berytus, the Berotha of Scrip 
 ture, called also Colonia Felix Julia in the time of Augustus, who made it a Ro 
 man colony, and named it thus in honor of his daughter Julia. In the age of 
 Justinian it became a famous school of law. The modern appellation is Bei- 
 rout. 9. Byblus, on a height at some distance from the coast. Adonis, or the 
 sun-god, was worshipped here with peculiar honors, under the name of Tham- 
 muz. Just below this place was the River Adonis, now Nahr Ibrahim. At the 
 anniversary of the death of Adonis, which was in the rainy season, its waters 
 were tinged red with the ochrous particles from Mount Libanus, and hence were 
 
668 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 fabled to flow with his blood. 10. Tripoli*, now Tarabolus. It derived its name 
 from Tyre, Sidon, and Aradus having established here, in common, a triple town 
 (rpf TroAetf), each with its own walls and colonists, as a place of assembly for 
 their States-General. Tripolis had a good harbor and extensive commerce. 
 At the present day the sand has so accumulated that the town is separated 
 from the sea by a small triangular plain, at the apex of which is a village where 
 vessels land their goods. 11. Area, called subsequently Ccesarea, the birth-place 
 of the Emperor Alexander Severus. 12. Aradus, on a small island near the 
 shore ; now Ruad. It was founded, according to Strabo, by a .band of exiles 
 from Sidon. 13. Antaradus, called also Constantia, after the Emperor Constan- 
 tius. It is now Tortosa, with a small harbor. 
 
 PAL.&STINA. 
 
 I. Palcestina, or Palestine, derived that name from the Phi- 
 listcet, or Philistines, who occupied the southwestern coast, and 
 belonged to the same stem with the Phoenicians. As it was, 
 however, the promised inheritance of the descendants of Abra^ 
 ham, and the scene of the birth, sufferings, and death of our 
 Redeemer, we are accustomed to designate it by the more re 
 ligious appellation of the Holy Land. 
 
 II. Palestine was bounded on the north by Ccele- Syria, on 
 the northwest by Phoenicia, on the west by the Mediterranean, 
 called in the Bible the Great Sea, on the east by Arabia De- 
 serta, and on the south by Arabia Petrcea. 
 
 FACE OF THE COUNTRY. 
 
 I. PALESTINE is a very mountainous country. The range of Antilibanus, as 
 we have before remarked, divides into two branches nearly opposite Damascus. 
 These branches continue their course to the south, nearly parallel to each other, 
 and inclose between them the valley of the Jordan and its lakes. They after 
 ward diverge from each other at the head of the JElanites Sinus, or Gulf of 
 Akaba ; the one running along the eastern coast of that gulf, and terminating 
 on the shores of the Red Sea ; the other along the western coast of that gulf, 
 and terminating in the mountains of Sinai. As the range of Antilibanus passes 
 into Palestine, it diminishes in height, and becomes less rugged and more fit for 
 tillage ; but at the Dead Sea it consists of desolate rocks. 
 
 II. Almost all the mountains of Palestine may be regarded as belonging to 
 the two principal ranges which inclose the basin of the Jordan. The most re 
 markable are the following : 1 . Mons Itabyrius, the Tabor of Scripture, the high 
 est mountain in Lower Galilee, on the northeast of the plain of Esdraelon. It 
 is entirely detached from the surrounding mountains, and nearly hemispherical 
 in shape. On its summit is a plain of about half an hour in circuit, inclosed by 
 an ancient wall. This mountain is said by an old tradition to have been the 
 scene of our Savior s transfiguration. 2. Herman Minor, or the Little Hermon, 
 a range of fertile hills, about five miles S.S.W. of Tabor, and not to be confound 
 ed with the great ridge of the same name in Antilibanus. 3. Mons Gilboa, the 
 Gilboa of Scripture, a sterile range of hills to the south and southeast of Tabor. 
 They bound the valley of the Jordan on the west for many miles, and are about 
 one thousand feet above the level of the sea. 4. Mons Carmelus, already men- 
 
ASIA. 669 
 
 tioned under the head of Phoenicia. 5. Monies Samaria, the Mountains of Sa 
 maria, to the south of the plain of Esdraelon. Of these the highest are those of 
 Ebal and Gerizim, separated from each other hy a valley two or three hundred 
 paces broad. From these two mountains were delivered the curses and bless 
 ings of the Law. The Samaritans had their temple on Mount Gerizim, which 
 they esteemed the holiest of mountains. 6. In the eastern part of Judaea, on the 
 borders of the Jordan and the Dead Sea, is a wilderness of mountains, the most 
 rugged and desolate in all Palestine. This mountainous country, which is the 
 highest in Judaea, bears the name of Quarantania, from a tradition that this was 
 the wilderness in which Christ fasted forty days and forty nights. The most 
 mountainous part of Judaea is the district round Jerusalem. 
 
 III. The most important river of Palestine was the Jorddnes, or Jordan, now 
 called by the Arabs Sheriat el-Kebir. Its true source is in the neighborhood of 
 the modern Hasbeiya, twenty miles above Banias, the ancient C&sarea Philippi. 
 The river, according to Lieutenant Lynch, here gushes forth in a copious stream 
 from beneath a bold perpendicular rock. What has been called the second 
 source of the Jordan is a fountain at Tell el-Kady, sixteen or eighteen miles 
 south of Hasbeiya, and where stood the city Dan, more anciently Laish. The 
 Jordan first ran into the Lake Samochonitis, called in Scripture " the waters of 
 Merom," and now Bahr el-Huleh. After leaving this lake it flows on for about 
 twelve miles, and then enters the Sea of Tiberias or Lake of Gennesareth, 
 through which its course may be distinctly traced in a smooth current. Emerg 
 ing from this body of water, it pursues a very rapid and winding route to the 
 Dead Sea, where its course terminates. The depression between the Sea of Ti 
 berias and the Dead Sea is said to be over one thousand feet, and the secret 
 of this depression is solved, according to Lieutenant Lynch, by the tortuous 
 course of the Jordan. In a distance of about sixty miles, from the former to 
 the latter sea, this river winds along through a course of about two hundred 
 miles ; and within that distance Lieutenant Lynch and his party plunged down 
 no less than twenty-seven threatening rapids, besides many others of less de 
 scent. An average fall of only a little more than five feet in each mile will 
 account for the great difference of level just alluded to. It has been generally 
 thought that the Jordan continued its course to the Red Sea through the valley 
 of Mount Seir, until it was checked by the convulsions attending the overthrow 
 of Sodom and Gomorrah. This opinion, though strenuously opposed by some 
 modern travellers, is undoubtedly the true one. 
 
 IV. The principal lakes or inland seas in Palestine are the following : 1. Lacus 
 Samochonitis, already alluded to. Its size varies with the season of the year, 
 but is, on an average, about seven miles in length, and about half that number 
 in breadth. The reeds which are used for writing grow on its margin. 2. Mare 
 Tiberiddis, or Sea of Tiberias, called in Scripture the Lake of Gennesareth or 
 Sea of Galilee. The name Gennesareth is supposed to be a corruption of Cin- 
 neroth, which latter was a town lying on its western border. The name Tiberias 
 comes from that of the city of Tiberias, on the southwestern shore. This lake 
 is from twelve to fifteen miles long, and from six to nine miles wide. It is sur 
 rounded by mountains, and the scenery is exceedingly beautiful. 3. Lacus As- 
 phaltltes, called also Mare Mortuum, and commonly, by us, " the Dead Sea." The 
 name Asphaltites comes from the bitumen (u^aAro?) occasionally found floating 
 on its surface, or picked up on its shores. It is called the Dead Sea from the 
 desolation prevailing along its shores, as well as from the belief that no living 
 creature can exist in its waters. In Scripture it is termed "the Sea of the 
 Plain," and also "the Salt Sea" and "the East Sea." The Arabs call it Bahr 
 
670 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Ltit, or " the Sea of Lot." This remarkable piece of water occupies the site of 
 the plain of Siddim, where stood Sodom and the other cities which God de 
 stroyed by fire in the time of Lot. It is of an irregular oblong figure, and, accord 
 ing to modern measurement, about forty miles long and eight miles broad. The 
 waters and the surrounding soil are so intensely impregnated with salt and sul 
 phur that no trees or plants grow on its banks, and it is said to contain no fish, 
 though this last has been doubted by some. It is certain, however, that its 
 waters, when examined by a powerful microscope, have been found to contain 
 no animalcules or animal matter whatever. The taste of the water is extremely 
 nauseous, and, in consequence of its saltness, it possesses very buoyant proper 
 ties. This sea has very recently been explored by Lieutenant Lynch, of the 
 American navy^ and accurate soundings taken throughout. These investiga 
 tions have led to the conclusion that the bottom of this sea consists of two sub 
 merged plains, an elevated and a depressed one, the former averaging thirteen, 
 the latter thirteen hundred feet below the surface. The shallow portion is to the 
 south ; the deeper, which is also the larger one, to the north. This southern and 
 shallow portion would appear to have been originally the fertile plain of Siddim, 
 in which the guilty cities stood. 
 
 SITUATION OF THE TRIBES WHEN SETTLED UNDER 
 
 JOSHUA. 
 
 THE largest portion was that of Judah, along the western side of the Lake As- 
 phaltites ; and west of Judah was Simeon, bordering on the Philistines, who oc 
 cupied the Mediterranean coast. North of Judah was the smaller tribe of Ben 
 jamin, in which was Jerusalem ; and west of Benjamin the still smaller tribe of 
 Dan, reaching partly to the coast, having the Philistines partly to the south, and 
 also on the sea-shore. Above Dan and Benjamin was a considerable district 
 from the coast to the Jordan, the portion of Ephraim ; above Ephraim, extend 
 ing in a like manner, was half the tribe of Manasseh. The coast then became 
 that of Phoenicia, along which, but rather inland, lay the tribe of Asher. Above 
 Manasseh lay the tribe of Issacchar ; and above Issacchar, and to the southeast 
 of Asher, was the tribe of Zabulon. The whole northwestern coast of the Sea 
 of Tiberias, and the country along the western bank of the Jordan, was occupied 
 by Naphthali. The whole eastern side of the Jordan, and the country to the east 
 of the Sea of Tiberias, down to the southern extremity of that sea, belonged to 
 the other half-tribe of Manasseh ; below it was Gad, reaching about half way 
 between the two lakes ; and below it Reuben, reaching to the plains of Moab, at 
 the northeastern corner of the Lake Asphaltites. These two tribes and a half 
 were the first settled, though their warriors crossed over Jordan to assist their 
 brethren in subduing the Canaanites on the western side. 
 
 MAIN DIVISIONS OF PALESTINE. 
 
 . X 
 
 IN the time of the New Testament, this country was divided 
 into Judoea, Samaria, and Galilcea or Galilee. Of these, 
 Judaea occupied the southern portion, Samaria the central, 
 and Galilee the northern one. We shall consider them in suc 
 cession, omitting any preliminary remarks on Jewish History, 
 which ought to be familiar to all. 
 
ASIA. 671 
 
 J U D ^E A. 
 
 JUDAEA, the most southern and important province, comprised 
 the lands of the tribes of Judah, Simeon, Dan, and the territory 
 of the Philistines. It was bounded on the west by the Medi 
 terranean, from Raphia in the south, to Joppa in the north ; 
 on the north by Samaria ; on the east by the Jordan and the 
 Lake Asphaltites ; and on the south by a line drawn westward 
 from the lower part of that lake to Raphia. To this territory 
 was likewise added a part of the south of Samaria, comprising 
 the three districts of Acrabatene, Gophnitica, and Thamnitica. 
 
 PLACES IN 
 
 ON the coast, proceeding from north to south, we have, 1. Joppa (in Hebrew 
 Japho), the only harbor of the Jews, and a place of no great importance. In 
 heathen mythology, the scene of the fable of Andromeda and Perseus was laid 
 here. It is now Jaffa. 2. Jamnia (the Jabneh of Scripture), the northernmost 
 city of the Philistaei, taken by King Uzziah. A college of Jews was established 
 here after the destruction of Jerusalem. 3. Gath, to the southeast, one of the 
 five principal cities of the Philistaei, and supposed to be the native place of Go 
 liath. It must have been possessed of great resources, from its frequent with 
 standing of the power of Jerusalem. 4. Ekron, called subsequently Akkaron, the 
 chief of the five great cities of the Philistaei, and remarkable in connection with 
 the capture of the ark by the enemies of Israel. It is frequently mentioned, also, 
 at a later day, in the history of the crusades. The modern village of Akir is 
 thought to answer to it. 5. Azotus, in Scripture Aschdod, another of the five 
 chief cities of the Philistaei, and where the god Dagon was worshipped. It was 
 not conquered by the Jews till the reign of Solomon. In the time of King Hez- 
 ekiah it was taken by the Assyrians ; and subsequently by Psammitichus, king 
 of Egypt, after a siege of twenty-nine years. It is now represented by the vil 
 lage of Esdud. 6. Ascalon, another of the five cities where Derceto was wor 
 shipped. Herod the Great was born here, and hence received the appellation 
 of Ascalonites. This city exported great quantities of eschalots to England and 
 Rome. It is frequently mentioned in the history of the Crusades. The town 
 of Askalan now represents it. 7. Gaza, a strong border-city, situate some dis 
 tance inland, but having an excellent port called Majumas. It was the frontier 
 fortress against Egypt. Alexander took it after a siege of two months, but came 
 very near losing his life. Constantine subsequently called the port Constantia. 
 Gaza was famous for its wine, which in the sixth century was exported to Eu 
 rope. The Arabic name of the place, at the present day, is Ghuzzeh. 8. Gerar 
 or Gerara, to the southeast, the seat of the first Philistine kingdom of which we 
 read. 9. Raphia, a frontier station, in the desert, to the southwest, where Ptol 
 emy IV. of Egypt gained a great victory over Antiochus. 
 
 Inland, commencing at the north, we have, 1. Antipatris, founded by Herod 
 the Great, and named in honor of his father Antipater. The site had been pre 
 viously occupied by a place called Capharsaba. It is not the modern Arsuf, 
 as has commonly been supposed, but more probably the village Kaffr Suba. 
 
 2. Timnath Serah, to the southeast, selected by Joshua for his place of burial. 
 
 3. Skiloh, to the east, where Joshua set up the tabernacle, and made the lust 
 
672 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 and general division of the land among the tribes. The ark and tabernacle re- 
 rfnained here upward of three hundred years. It is supposed to bo identical with 
 a place now named Seilun. 4. Ephraim, to the southwest, among the mount 
 ains of the same name, and to which Jesus withdrew from the persecution 
 which followed the miracle of raising Lazarus from the dead. 5. Gophna, to 
 the south, a strong place, and, in Roman times, the capital of a district called 
 from it Gophnitica. It is now Jifna. 6. Lydda, to the southwest, called in 
 Scripture Lud, and under the Roman dominion Diospolis. It was the scene of 
 Peter s miracle in healing ^Eneas. St. George the martyr was buried here, and 
 the place is often mentioned likewise in the history of the crusades. It is still 
 called Lud. 7. Arimathea, to the southwest, the birth-place of the wealthy Jo 
 seph, in whose sepulchre our Lord was laid. There is great probability in iden 
 tifying it with the modern Ramlch. 8. Emmaus, to the southeast, called also 
 Nicopolis, and now answering to Amwas. This place must not be confounded 
 with the village of Emmaus, noted for our Lord s interview with two disciples 
 on the day of his resurrection. The latter was much nearer Jerusalem, and its 
 site has long been lost. 9. Bethel, originally Luz, to the southeast of Gophna. 
 Here Jacob had his vision, and changed the name of the place accordingly. The 
 site is now called Beitsin. 10. Michmas, to the southeast, near which was a 
 pass where an enemy might be impeded or opposed. Here Jonathan, son of 
 Saul, distinguished himself, and here also, at a later day, Jonathan Maccabaeus 
 fixed his abode. It still bears the name of Mukhmas. 1 1 . Ramah, to the south 
 west, and in the vicinity of Gibeah. It is supposed to be identical with the 
 modern village Er-Ram, two hours journey north of Jerusalem, and to be the 
 Rama alluded to by Jeremiah. 12. Hierichus, in Scripture Jericho, situate in the 
 plain of Jericho, not far from the Jordan, just before its entrance into the Dead 
 Sea. It was besieged and destroyed by the Israelites immediately after the 
 passage of the Jordan ; but was afterward rebuilt, on or near its former site, 
 and became a flourishing city, next in size to Jerusalem. It is often called in 
 Scripture "the city of palm trees," from the numerous trees of this description 
 which abounded in its vicinity. Its site is now occupied by a wretched village 
 named Rihah. 
 
 13. Hierosolyma, or Jerusalem, a name meaning in Hebrew "the abode of 
 peace," to the southwest of Jericho, and twenty-seven miles west from where 
 the Jordan enters the Dead Sea. It was the capital city of the Hebrew nation, 
 and the chief city of their worship ; and is thought to have been the Salem of 
 which Melchisedec was king. When the Israelites entered Canaan, they found 
 this city in the occupation of the Jebusites, a tribe descended from Jebus, a son 
 of Canaan, and the place then bore the name of Jebus. The lower city was 
 taken and burned by the children of Judah, but the Jebusites had so strongly 
 fortified themselves in the upper city, on Mount Zion, that they maintained pos 
 session of it until the time of David. That monarch, after his seven years rule 
 over Judah in Hebron, became king of all Israel, on which he expelled the Jeb 
 usites from Mount Zion, and made Jerusalem the metropolis of his kingdom. 
 Jerusalem was built on several hills, the largest of which was Mount Zion, 
 which formed the southern part of the city. A valley toward the north sep 
 arated this from Acra, the second or lower city, on the east of which was Mount 
 Moriah, the site of the temple of Solomon. Southeast of Mount Moriah was 
 the Mount of Olives, lying beyond the brook and valley of Kedron, which bor 
 dered Jerusalem on the east ; on the south was the Valley of Hinnom, and at the 
 north was Mount Calvary, the scene of the Crucifixion. Jerusalem was taken by 
 Titus, September 8, A.D. 70, and almost entirely destroyed. It was afterward 
 
ASIA. 673 
 
 rebuilt by the Emperor Hadrian, as a fortified place, by which to keep in check 
 the whole Jewish population. On the ruins of the temple the same emperor * 
 caused a fane to be erected in honor of Jupiter Capitolinus, and gave the new 
 city the name of JElia Capitolina, the first part of this appellation being derived 
 from his own praenomen of JElius, and the latter being in honor of the deity just 
 mentioned. The ancient name, however, began to come again into use in the 
 time of Constantine. Jerusalem is now called by the Arabs el-Kuds, or "the 
 Holy." 
 
 14. Bethlehem, to the southwest of, and about six miles from Jerusalem, and 
 the birth-place of our Savior. It was generally called Bethlehem Judah, to dis 
 tinguish it from another Bethlehem in the tribe of Zebulon. It is likewise styled 
 in Scripture Ephratah, or " the fruitful." It is now a large village named Beit 
 Lahm. 15. Herodium, to the southeast, a fortress and city erected by Herod 
 the Great. The site answers now to that of the Frank Mountain. 16. Eleuthe- 
 ropolis, to the southwest, an important episcopal city in the time of Eusebius and 
 Jerome. It is supposed to have been the same with the Beto-gabra of Ptolemy, 
 and to be now represented by the village of Beit-Jibrin. 17. Hebron, to the 
 southeast, and a very ancient city. Its earlier name was Kirjath-Arba, or " the 
 City of Arba," from Arba, the father of Anak and the Anakim, who dwelt in 
 and around this city. This was the burial-place of Abraham and his family. 
 David, on becoming king of Judah, made Hebron his royal residence. Here he 
 reigned seven years and a half, and here he was anointed king over all Israel. 
 The Arabs now call it el-Khulil. 18. Engaddi, to the southeast, on the western 
 shore of the Dead Sea, and nearly equidistant from both extremities of that lake. 
 It was famed for its beautiful palm trees, its opobalsum, and vineyards. The 
 Arabs now call the site Ain-jidy. In its vicinity was the Wilderness of Engaddi, 
 abounding in caverns. 19. Masada, to the south, on the shore of the same sea, a 
 celebrated fortress built by Jonathan Maccabaeus, and afterward greatly strength 
 ened by Herod, as a place of refuge for himself. It stood on a lofty rock over 
 hanging the Dead Sea. It was taken by the Romans after the fall of Jerusalem, 
 the garrison having devoted themselves to self-destruction. The Arabic name 
 for the ruins is Sebbeh. 20. Beersheba, or " the Well of the Oath," some distance 
 to the west, so often mentioned in Scripture as the southern limit of the coun 
 try possessed by the children of Israel. The northern limit was Dan, in Upper 
 Galilee. This place took its name from the well which was dug there by Abra 
 ham, and the oath which confirmed his treaty with Abimelech. 
 
 SAMARIA. 
 
 I. Samaria was the smallest but most fruitful of the three 
 divisions of Palestine. It was bounded on the north by Galilee, 
 on the south by Judcea, on the east by the Jordan, and on the 
 west by the Mediterranean. 
 
 II. After the kingdom of Israel had been overthrown, and 
 the people carried away captive by the Assyrians, the country, 
 being thus depopulated, was next inhabited by the neighboring 
 heathen people, and by colonies from other parts of the Assyr 
 ian empire. These, mixing with the scattered remains of the 
 tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh, formed the people spoken of 
 
 Uu 
 
674 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 .in the New Testament as the Samaritans, who were regarded 
 by the Jews as an impure race, and between whom and the 
 Jews there always existed a strong mutual hatred. 
 
 PLACES IN SAMARIA. 
 
 1. Jezrael, near the northern borders, called also Esdraelon, and one of the 
 residences of the kings of Israel. In the days of Eusebius and Jerome it was a 
 large village called Esdraela, and in the same age it occurs again as Stradela. 
 In the time of the crusades it was named by the Franks Parvum Gerinum, and 
 by the Arabs Zerin. This last appellation still remains. 2. Beth-slian, to the 
 southeast near the Jordan, and called also Scythopolis, because, as is supposed, 
 some Scythians had settled there in the time of Josiah (B.C. 631) in their pas 
 sage through Palestine toward Egypt. This place, though commonly ranked 
 among the Samaritan cities, belonged in reality to what was termed Decapolis, 
 an association of ten cities, which, not being inhabited by Jews, formed a con 
 federation for mutual protection against the Asmonean princes of Judaea; Scy 
 thopolis is now Beisan. 3. Megiddo, to the west of Jezrael, originally one of the 
 royal cities of the Canaanites, and which the Israelites were for a long time un 
 able to conquer. Josiah was slain in battle near this place by Pharaoh-Necho. 
 It was afterward called Legio, and is now Lejjun. 4. Ccesarea, to the southwest, 
 on the coast, originally named Turris Stratonis, and subsequently made a mag 
 nificent city and port by Herod, who called it Ccesarea in honor of Augustus. 
 Here the Roman governors resided. It was the birth-place of Eusebius. The 
 modern name is Kaisarieh. 5. Samdrta, to the southeast, the capital of the king 
 dom of Israel, or of the ten tribes, on a mountain or hill of the same name. The 
 site was extremely well selected both for strength and beauty. It was destroyed 
 by John Hyrcanus, rebuilt by the Roman governor Gabinius, and beautified and 
 enlarged by Herod, who called it Sebaste in honor of Augustus. It was also 
 strongly fortified. The modern village of Sebustieh, built out of its ruins, stands 
 near the site of this once royal city. 6. Slchem., to the southeast, in the narrow 
 valley between Mounts Ebal and Gerizim, on the latter of which was built the 
 Samaritan temple, in rivalry of the orthodox temple at Jerusalem. Sichem was 
 a very ancient city. After the conquest of the country it became one of the 
 Levitical cities, and during the life-time of Joshua it was a centre of union for 
 the tribes. The city was taken and the temple destroyed by John Hyrcanus. 
 B.C. 129. In the New Testament the place occurs under the name of Si/char. 
 Vespasian subsequently either restored or rebuilt it, and gave it the name of 
 Neapolis, which it still retains under the Arabic form of Nabulus. 
 
 GAL1LJEA. 
 
 I. Galilcea or Galilee, lay to the north of Samaria, and was 
 divided into Upper and Lower. Upper Galilee was mountain 
 ous, and was called Galilee of the Gentiles, from the heathen 
 nations established there, who were enabled, by the mountain 
 ous nature of the country, to maintain themselves against all 
 invaders. Strabo enumerates among its inhabitants Egyp 
 tians, Arabians, and Phoenicians. Lower Galilee, on the other 
 
ASIA. 675 
 
 hand, was a populous and fertile country, and contained nu 
 merous cities. 
 
 II. Galilee was the district which, of all others, was most 
 honored with the presence of our Saviour. Hence the disciples 
 were called Galibaeans. They were easily recognized, indeed, 
 as such, since the Galilseans spoke a dialect of the vernacular 
 Syriac, different from that of Judaea, and which was accounted 
 rude and impure. The Jews of Judsea regarded the Galilaeans 
 with much contempt. 
 
 PLACES IN GALILEE. 
 
 IN Lower Galilee we may mention, 1. Nazareth, where our Saviour resided until 
 the commencement of his ministry. It was probably no more than a village. 
 It is now a small but more than usually well-built place, retaining its ancient 
 name. 2. Dio Ccesarea, to the northwest, the Sepphoris of Josephus. It was 
 captured by Herod the Great, and afterward destroyed by Varus. Herod An- 
 tipas rebuilt and fortified it, and it became the largest and strongest city of Gal 
 ilee, taking precedence eventually of Tiberias itself. The modern Sefurich 
 marks the ancient site. 3. Tiberias, on the western shore of the Lake of Gen- 
 nesareth, which was called also from this city the Sea of Tiberias. It was found 
 ed by Herod Antipas, and named in honor of the Emperor Tiberius. After the 
 fall of Jerusalem this place became one of the chief seats of the Jews, and was 
 famous during several centuries for its school of Rabbinical teachers or doctors. 
 The modern name is Tabaria. 4. Ammaus, a little to the south, famed for its 
 hot baths, which are still frequented. The name of the place appears to be 
 formed from the Hebrew Hammath, signifying "warm baths." 5. Tarichaa, at 
 the southeastern extremity of the lake, and deriving its name from the fish- 
 salteries established there. After the capture of this place by Titus, a great 
 number of the inhabitants escaped by water in boats and small craft. Vespa 
 sian having pursued them on the lake, a conflict ensued, in which a large num 
 ber of the Jews were slaughtered. 6. Capernaum, on the northwestern side of 
 the lake, where our Saviour, frequently resided after the commencement of his 
 mission. Its site is supposed to be marked by a mound of ruins called Khan 
 Minyeh. 
 
 In Upper Galilee we may mention, 1. Dan, the most northern place of the land 
 of Judaea. Its original name was Laish or Lcshcm, and it was conquered by a 
 warlike colony of Danites, who named it after their tribe. It became afterward 
 a chief seat of Jeroboam s idolatry, and one of the golden calves was set up in it. 
 The extent of the promised land is expressed in the well-known words " from 
 Dan to Beersheba." Dan is supposed to have stood near the present Tell el- 
 Kady, where the second source of the Jordan rises. 2. Casarea Philippi, a little 
 distance to the northeast. It was originally called Paneas ; but, being enlarged 
 and embellished by the tetrarch Philip, it was named by him Casarea, in honor 
 of Tiberius, to which Philippi was added, in order to distinguish it from Ccesarea 
 on the coast. The modern name is Banias. Twenty miles above this place 
 the Jordan had its main source. 3. Jotapata, to the southeast, where the Jewish 
 historian Josephus sustained a siege against Vespasian. 
 
676 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 P E R & A. 
 
 THE country on the east of the Jordan, between the two lakes, was called 
 Peraa, a name derived from nepav beyond," and extending from the brook 
 Arnon, which flows into the Dead Sea, to the Hieromax, now Sheriat el-Man- 
 dhur, or Yarmouk, a tributary of the Jordan. The upper part of this tract was 
 called Galaaditis, or Gilead, taking its name from the mountains of Gilead. This 
 chain is connected with Antilibanus by means of Mount Herman. It begins not 
 far from the latter, and extends southward to the sources of the brooks Jabbok 
 and Arnon, thus forming a kind of eastern boundary for Peraea. To this chain 
 belongs that of Abarim, in a northeastern direction from Jericho. From one 
 of the highest mountains of the range of Abarim, namely, Nebo, Moses survey 
 ed the Promised Land before he died. The highest and most commanding peak 
 of this mountain was, in all probability, the Pisgah of Scripture. In Peraea we 
 may mention the following places : 1. Gadara, the metropolis, in a district term 
 ed Gadarene or Gcrgesene, below the Hieromax. Its inhabitants were heathens 
 and Jews intermingled. Here the miracle in the case of the swine was per 
 formed. Gadara now answers to the village of Om-Keis. 2. Pdla, to the south, 
 and the southernmost of the cities of Decapolis. To this place many Christians 
 fled when Jerusalem was getting invested by the Roman armies. It is now 
 d-Budsche. 3. Amathus, to the south, an important place, made by Gabinius 
 the seat of one of the five jurisdictions into which he divided the country. Its 
 Jewish name was Betharamathon. It is now Amatah. To the south of it the 
 Jabbok, now the Zerka, flowed into the Jordan. 4. Ramoth Galaad, to the south 
 east, on the Jabbok, and a place of great strength. It was the occasion of sev 
 eral wars between the later kings of Israel and the kings of Damascus, who 
 long retained possession of it. This was one of the cities of refuge. 5. Ma- 
 charus, to the southeast, a fortress on the frontiers of the Nabathaean Arabs, 
 destroyed by Gabinius. 6. Heshbon, to the southeast, originally a city of the 
 Moabites, but held by the Amorites when the Israelites arrived from Egypt. It 
 became eventually a Levitical city. In the time of Eusebius and Jerome it was 
 called Esbus. It is now Hesbon. 7. Calirrhoe, to the southwest, near the shore 
 of the Dead Sea, and well known for its medicinal and health-bestowing waters, 
 whence its Greek name. The Hebrew name was Lasa. 
 
 BATAN^A, &c. 
 
 Batancea, answering in part to the Scripture Bashan, lay to the north of Percea, 
 and to the east of the Lake of Gennesareth and the upper part of the Jordan. 
 When the Israelites invaded the Promised Land, Og was king of Bashan, and 
 the country contained sixty " fenced cities," besides unwalled towns. These 
 were all taken, and Og and his people were cut off. After the captivity, the 
 name Balanced was applied to only a part of the ancient Bashan, the rest being 
 called Trachonitis, Iturcea, Auranitis, and Gaulonitis. The richness of the pasture 
 land of Bashan, and the consequent superiority of its breed of cattle, are fre 
 quently alluded to in the Scriptures. The oaks, too, of Bashan are mentioned 
 in connection with the cedars of Lebanon. Modern travellers also speak in high 
 terms of the fertility of this country. 
 
 Trachonitis. This was the name given in the days of the Herodian dynasty to 
 the country situate between the range of Antilibanus and the mountains to the 
 south of Damascus. The appellation was derived from the rugged nature of 
 the region, rpa^wv denoting in Greek " a rugged, stony tract." 
 
 Iturcea. The situation and limits of this region are difficult to determine. It 
 appears, as far as we can ascertain, to have lain between Trachonitis and Ba- 
 
ASIA. 677 
 
 tana^a, and to have answered to what is now Jedur, in which traces of the an 
 cient name appear. Ituraea formed part of the tetrarchy of Philip. 
 
 Auranitis. This district lay to the south of Trachonitis, and answers in some 
 degree to the modern Hauran, which is much more extensive. 
 
 Gaulonitis.K district on the eastern shore of the Lake of Gennesareth, and 
 taking its name from Gaulon, a Levitical town situate in it. It appears to have 
 formed part of the more ancient Bashan. 
 
 ARABIA. 
 
 I. Arabia was bounded on the north by Palestine and the 
 Desert of Syria ; on the northeast by the Sinus Persicus, or 
 Persian Gulf; on the east and southeast by the Mare Eryth- 
 rccum, or Indian Ocean ; on the southwest by the Sinus Arab 
 icus, or Red Sea ; and on the west by the Isthmus of Suez. 
 
 II. The original inhabitants of the country are called by the 
 present Arabs Bajadites, or " the lost," to whom belonged the 
 extinct tribes of Ad, Thamud, &c. The present Arabs derive 
 their origin in part from Joktan or Kahtan, the son of Eber, 
 and in part from Ishmael. The descendants of the former call 
 themselves, emphatically, Arabs ; those of the latter, Mosta- 
 rabs. The name Arab itself implies " an inhabitant of the 
 west," that is, one dwelling to the west of the Euphrates, and 
 of the regions that were probably the earliest seats of the Se 
 mitic tribes. 
 
 III. Arabia was divided by the Greeks and Romans, from the 
 time of Ptolemy, who introduced the division, into Arabia De- 
 serta, Petrcea, and Felix, an arrangement which we shall also 
 follow on the present occasion. The more natural division, how 
 ever, is that which distinguishes the coast, covered with aloes, 
 myrrh, frankincense, indigo, nutmegs, &c., from the interior 
 of the country, consisting for the most part of a desert of mov 
 ing sand, with thorns and saline herbs. 
 
 IV. Arabia Deserta (rj ep^o?) comprised the interior of the 
 peninsula, but more particularly the northern part, bordering 
 on the Syrian Desert. Arabia Petrcea (TJ ITerpa/o) was the 
 northwestern portion, from Palestine to the Sinus Arabicus, in 
 cluding the country around the Sinus JElanites, or Gulf of 
 Akabft: Arabia Felix (rj evdai^v) comprised all the rest of 
 the peninsula, namely, the shores of the Sinus Arabicus below 
 the Sinus JElanites, of the Mare Erythrceum, and of the Sinus 
 Persicus. The maps generally, but incorrectly, restrict Arabia 
 Felix to the southwestern and a part of the southeastern shore. 
 
678 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 ARABIA DESERTA. 
 
 I. THIS portion of Arabia was roamed over by nomadic tribes resembling the 
 modern Beduins. The Greek writers gave these tribes the general name of 
 Ardbes Scemta, from the circumstance of their living in tents (SKnvlrat, OTTO r&v 
 GKJJVUV). The Greek and Roman Christian writers, at a later day, confounded 
 all the Arabian tribes, from Mecca to the Euphrates, under the name of Sara- 
 ceni, a term derived from the Arabic saraka, " to plunder," and referring to their 
 predatory habits. Ptolemy, however, some time before this, speaks of a tribe 
 called Saraceni, whom he makes distinct from the Scenita, and dwelling to the 
 south of them. 
 
 II. Besides the general name of Scenita, we learn y especially from Ptolemy, 
 the appellations of many individual tribes, such as, 1. The Catanii, between 
 Palmyra and the Euphrates. 2. The Cauchabeni, to the southeast, on the con 
 fines of Chaldaea. 3. The Auslta, in the land of 7~. 4. The CcdramtcK, deriv 
 ing their origin from Kedar, son of Ishmael. 5. The Agrcei, with the watering- 
 place of Agra, &c. 
 
 ARABIA PETR^EA. 
 
 I. THIS portion of Arabia was so called from its capital Petra, although the 
 epithet is also, as Burckhardt remarks, not inappropriate, on account of the rocky 
 mountains and stony plains which compose its surface. 
 
 II. Five powerful tribes dwelt in this country at an early period, namely, 1. 
 The Amalekites, descended from Amalek, the grandson of Esau, and occupying 
 
 * the district between Idumsea and Egypt. They were the first assailants of the 
 Israelites after the passage of the Red Sea. Their power was subsequently 
 broken by Saul. 2. The Edomites or Idumcei, occupying the country of Edom, 
 from the south of the Dead Sea to the Sinus Mlanites, or Gulf of Akaba. In 
 the time of our Saviour, Edom or Idumaa included a considerable portion of 
 southern Palestine. The Edomites claimed descent from Esau, son of Isaac, 
 They were made tributaries of the Jews during the reign of David ; and the 
 conquest of their country was of great importance to the Jews, since it enabled 
 Solomon, by obtaining possession of the ports of Elath and Ezion-Geber on the 
 Red Sea, to participate in the advantages of the trade with India. 3. The Ma- 
 abites, claiming descent from Moab, son of Lot. They occupied the country on 
 the east of the Dead Sea, from Zoar to the River Arnon, and were frequently 
 engaged in hostilities with the Israelites. They were a pastoral people, and 
 their country was well adapted for rearing cattle, and also produced corn and 
 wine. Their chief city was Rabbath Moab, called afterward Areopolis. Jerome 
 says it was destroyed by an earthquake in his youth. The ruins retain the name 
 of Rabba. Another place in their country was Zoar, one of the five cities of 
 the plain of Siddim, in which Lot took refuge. 4. The Ammonites, descended 
 from Ben Ammi, the son of Lot. Their country lay between the Arnon and the 
 Jabbok, above that of the Moabites. Their capital was Rabbath Ammon. It was 
 destroyed by the Assyrians, and rebuilt subsequently by Ptolemy Philadelphia, 
 who gave it the name of Philadelphia. The ruins are still called Amman. 5. The 
 Midianites, a wide-spread nomadic race, whose earlier seats were to the west 
 of Sinai, but who afterward extended themselves on the eastern side of the Red 
 Sea as far as the Moabites. They carried on an active overland traffic between 
 Arabia and Egypt. The Midianites annoyed the Israelites by constant inroads 
 until completely subdued by Gideon. 
 
 III. All the five tribes just mentioned gradually disappeared from history, and 
 in their place appeared the Nabathai, who became the chief people of Arabia 
 
ASIA. 679 
 
 Petrsea. At first they led a nomadic life ; but when the Ptolemies of Egypt ex 
 tended their favoring care to the commerce of the Red Sea, the Nabatheei be 
 came actively engaged in an overland traffic with the products of eastern Asia. 
 Their capital was Petra, in Hebrew Sela, both terms signifying "rock." The 
 situation of the place corresponded well to this name. It lay in a valley sur 
 rounded by lofty rocks, with a stream flowing through it, and having an access 
 on one side only, and that a difficult one. As a commercial city, and a place 
 of transit for the productions of the East, it was much resorted to by foreigners, 
 and became a rich and flourishing city, as its magnificent ruins clearly prove. 
 The modern name of these ruins is Wady Musa. We may mention in Arabia 
 Petraea the following additional localities : 1. jElana, in Hebrew Elath, at the 
 head of the Sinus JElanites, and one of the two ports by which Solomon traded 
 with Ophir and the remote east. It is now Akaba. 2. Ezion- Gcbcr, a little dis 
 tance below, subsequently called Berenice. This was the other one of Solo 
 mon s two harbors on the Red Sea. To the west of the Sinus JElanites was 
 the Sinus Heroopoliles, so called from the Egyptian city of Heroopolis, and now 
 the Gulf of Suez. In the peninsula between these two gulfs, and toward its 
 southern extremity, we have Mounts Horeb and Sinai. The former of these 
 mountains is at the northern end of a ridge, called by the ancient geographers 
 Meldnes Mantes (MeAava op??), or "the Black Mountains;" and at its southern 
 end is Sinai, now Jebel Musa, or "Moses s Mount." 
 
 ARABIA FELIX. 
 
 THIS division of Arabia derived its name of Felix, or " the Happy," from the 
 richness of its products, to which we have already alluded. It answers not only 
 to the modern Yemen, but also to Hejaz, which lies to the north of it, as well as 
 to Hadramaut, Oman, the Persian Gulf states, &c. The ancient writers enu 
 merate many communities and places in this region, of which the most import 
 ant appear to be the following : 
 
 Commencing on the side of the Sinus Arabicus, just below the Sinus Mlan- 
 ites, we come to, 1. The Banizomenes, a hunter race, with a temple held sacred 
 by all the Arab tribes. 2. The Thamydeni, farther on, in whose territory was 
 Charmuthas, an excellent harbor, capable of holding two thousand sail, now 
 Scherm Janbo ; and Leuce Come, from which Gallus entered Arabia, and where 
 the Romans had a fortified post. The city of Jathrippa, lying inland, is the mod 
 ern Medina. 3. The Minai, one of the most powerful tribes of Arabia. Among 
 these we find Badai Regia, the residence of an Arabian prince, now perhaps 
 Jidda ; and Macoraba, now probably Mecca. 4. The Dosareni, taking their name 
 from Mount Dusare, on which the god Dusares, answering to the Greek Diony 
 sus, was worshipped. 5. The Sabcei, another of the more powerful tribes of 
 Arabia. Their country answers to the modern Yemen, and was regarded as the 
 most productive part of Arabia Felix. It yielded various odoriferous products, 
 and particularly frankincense, and these formed the basis of a very active traffic 
 with the nations of the west. They passed with the Greeks and Romans for an 
 effeminate and luxurious race. Their capital was Saba, called also Mariaba, 
 and in Scripture Sheba. It was Belkis, queen of Sheba, whom the fame of Sol 
 omon attracted to Jerusalem. 6. The Catabdnes, below the Sabaei, and occupy 
 ing the coast along the strait of Dire or Bab-el- Mandeb. Their dwellings were 
 constructed after the Egyptian fashion. Frankincense grew in their country 
 also. Their capital was Tamna, containing within its walls sixty-five temples. 
 
 7. The HomeritcB, along the southern coast, after leaving the straits. They 
 were a powerful race. Their capital was Saphar, in which a king resided with 
 
680 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 the title of Charibael, or " Sword-prince." The ruins are still called Dhafar. 
 The most important harbor, however, was called Arabia Felix, a great place for 
 trade between the Arabians and Egyptians. It was destroyed by Gallus, the 
 Roman commander, but soon became flourishing again, and is now Aden. 8. The 
 Adramucc, a powerful tribe, farther on along the coast, and carrying on an active 
 traffic in incense and other aromatics. Their country answers to the modern 
 Hadramaut. The capital was Sabbatha, situate inland, and containing sixty 
 temples. It was also called Mariaba, and is now March. 9. The Omamta, to 
 the northeast, in the angle of the country at the mouth of the Persian Gulf, 
 where is now the district of Oman. 10. The Maca, on a peninsula running into 
 the Persian Gulf. Their city Moscha is the modern Maskat. Beyond this was 
 the Ichthyophagorum Sinus, where is now the Great Pearl bank, and, farther on, 
 Gcrrha, on the Sinus Gerrhaicus, with towers and houses built of mineral salt, 
 now Al Catif. The inhabitants of this district were named Gcrrh<zi. They 
 had emigrated from the land of the Chaldees, and with the Minai and Nabath&i 
 engrossed the whole overland trade with the countries of the Mediterranean. 
 Here was Ezekiel s Dadan. Opposite the Sinus Gerrhaicus are the Bahrein 
 islands, anciently Tyrus or Tylus and Aradus, famous for their pearl fisheries. 
 
 COUNTRIES BETWEEN THE EUPHRATES AND TI 
 GRIS, IN UPPER ASIA. 
 
 MESOPOTAMIA. 
 
 I. Mesopotamia (from picos and -nora^) is the Greek name 
 for the country between the Rivers Tigris and Euphrates. In 
 Scripture it is called Aram Naharaim, that is, " Aram (or Sy 
 ria) between the rivers ;" and by the Arabs of the present day 
 it is denominated Al Jezira, or " the Island." The Romans 
 always regarded it as a mere division of Syria. 
 
 II. Mesopotamia was bounded on the north by the Tigris 
 and Mons Masius, now Karajeh-Dagh, a branch of Mount 
 Taurus ; and on the south by the Wall of Media, and the ca 
 nals connecting the Tigris and Euphrates, by which it was 
 separated from Babylonia. The name of Mesopotamia, which 
 was never employed to designate any political division, did not 
 come into use until after the Macedonian conquest. Xenophon 
 calls the southern part Arabia, and other writers included it, 
 especially the northern part, under the general name of Syria. 
 
 III. The northern part of Mesopotamia was fertile and well 
 watered ; the southern, from the neighborhood of Circesium, was 
 flat, and covered merely with low shrubs. Xenophon, in his 
 Anabasis, compares it to a sea. The northern portion was di 
 vided into two districts by the River Aborras or Chabw as, now 
 the Khabour, called by Xenophon the Araxes, which rose in 
 Mount Masius, and, after receiving on the east the Mygdonim, 
 
ASIA. 681 
 
 now al Huali, flowed into the Euphrates at Cir cesium. Of 
 these divisions the western was called Osroene, and the eastern 
 Mygdonia. The former of these took its name from Osroes, 
 an Arab sheik, who about 120 B.C. wrested a principality in 
 this quarter from the Seleucidse of Syria. 
 
 PLACES IN MESOPOTAMIA. 
 
 IN Mygdonia we may mention, 1. Nisibis, the chief city, at the foot of Mount 
 Masius, on the River Mygdonius. The name was changed by the Macedonians 
 to Antiochia Mygdonica, but this appellation lasted only a short time. It was 
 taken and plundered by Lucullus, and afterward held by the Parthians, from 
 whom it was wrested by Trajan. It formed a strong bulwark of the Roman 
 power in this quarter, and repelled three successive attacks of Sapor, in A.D. 
 338, 346, and 350. It was ceded to him, however, A.D. 363, after the death of 
 Julian, by his successor Jovian. The modern Nisibin occupies its site. 2. Da- 
 ras, to the north, a stronghold, fortified by the Emperor Anastasius, to compen 
 sate for the loss of Nisibis, and called from him Anastasiopolis. It became an 
 important city, especially from the time of Justinian, who strengthened it still 
 more. The site is now called Dara. 3. Cccna, a large and rich city on the 
 Tigris, near the junction with that river of the Lycus, or Greater Zdb. 4. Sin- 
 gara, to the northwest, a strongly-fortified Roman colony. Here Constantius 
 II. was defeated in a nocturnal encounter by Sapor, and the place ever after 
 was lost to the Romans. 
 
 In Osrocne we have, 1. Edcssa, in the northwestern part of the district, on the 
 River Scirtus, now the Daisan, rising from a beautiful spring called by the Greeks 
 Calirrhoe, and whence Edessa itself was called by the Macedonians Antiochia ad 
 Calirrhoen. This spring still remains, and the inhabitants have a tradition at 
 the present day that here was the spot where Abraham offered up his prayer 
 previous to his intended sacrifice of Isaac. Edessa became a place of great ce 
 lebrity, and the capital of Osroene. It suffered greatly from an earthquake in 
 the reign of Justin I., who rebuilt a considerable part of it, and gave it the name 
 of Justinopolis. It is now Orrhoa or Or/a. 2. Batna, one day s journey from 
 Edessa, and near the Euphrates. Here, at the beginning of September, a great 
 fair was held for Indian, Chinese, and other goods. Its Syriac name was Sarug, 
 and it is now a small place named Seronge. 3. Carra, to the southeast of Edessa, 
 the Haran of Scripture, where Abraham s family dwelt after they had left Ur 
 of the Chaldees. It is memorable in Roman history for the defeat of Crassus. 
 The moon was here worshipped as a male deity. 4. Nicephorium, south of 
 Canae, a strongly-fortified, and, at the same time, flourishing commercial city 
 at the confluence of the Bilecha and Euphrates. Alexander the Great selected 
 the site, and the city was probably completed by Seleucus Nicator, and named 
 from a victory gained by him here. The Emperor Leo, at a later day, gave it 
 the name of Leontopolis from himself. It seems also to have had the name of 
 Callinicus. Its site was near the modern Racca. 5. Circesium, to the south 
 east, at the junction of the Euphrates and Aborras or Chaboras. It was a very 
 ancient place, and the same evidently with the Carchemish of Scripture. It was 
 strongly fortified by Dioclesian. The site is still called Kirkessieh. 
 
 Southern Mesopotamia was, generally speaking, a desert country, traversed 
 for the most part by nomadic tribes of Arabs. Some few places, however, oc 
 cur worthy of mention. The settlements were principally on the two rivers, 
 
682 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 and here and there in the interior. We may name, 1. Zaitha, on the Euphrates, 
 a little below Circesium, near which was the tomb of Gordium. 2. Corsole, at 
 the junction of the Mascas and Euphrates, mentioned in Xenophon s Anabasis 
 as a deserted city. It is not noticed by later writers. 3. Anatho, lower down 
 on the Euphrates, destroyed by Julian. It is now Ana, with a fertile territory 
 on both sides of the Euphrates. 4. Atra or Hatrce, called also Hatris, in the in 
 terior, toward the Euphrates, the chief city of the Arabian tribe of the Atreni. 
 It was a place of great strength, on a steep and lofty rock, and was consecrated 
 to the sun. The Emperors Trajan and Severus besieged it in vain. It was in 
 ruins, however, in the fourth century. 
 
 ARMENIA. 
 
 I. Armenia was divided into Armenia Major and Minor, 
 separated from each other by the River Euphrates, and the 
 latter of which is sometimes, though less correctly, regarded as 
 forming part of Cappadocia. 
 
 II. Armenia Minor was bounded on the east by the Eu 
 phrates, on the north by Pontus, and on the west and south 
 by Cappadocia, the dividing line on the south being formed by 
 the River Melas, a tributary of the Euphrates. In the time 
 of Ptolemy, however, we find Armenia Minor encroaching on 
 Cappadocia, and including the whole of Melitene and Aravene 
 on the south. 
 
 III. Armenia Major was bounded on the north by Colchis, 
 Iberia, and Albania ; on the northeast and east by Albania ; 
 on the west by Armenia Minor and Pontus ; and on the south 
 by Mesopotamia, Assyria, and Media. 
 
 ARMENIA MINOR. 
 
 I. THE inhabitants of this country were doubtless of the same race as the 
 people of Armenia Major, and spoke the same language ; they had also been 
 governed by the kings of the latter country, but not unfrequently had been 
 subject to the rule of their own princes. These, however, subsequently yielded 
 to the ascendency of Mithradates the Great. This monarch, having become 
 master of the country, perceived the advantage it afforded from the strength of 
 its positions and the resources it possessed. He is said to have built there no 
 less than seventy-five fortresses, in which he deposited his treasures and valu 
 able effects. The chain of Mount Paryadres, on the northwest, was particularly 
 favorable for his views, as it was abundantly supplied with timber forests and 
 water, and was every where intersected by numerous ravines and rocky preci 
 pices. 
 
 II. We may mention in this region the following places : 1. Nicopolis, toward 
 the northwestern frontier, founded by Pompey in commemoration of a victory 
 obtained by him here over Mithradates. It is now probably represented by the 
 Turkish town of Devliki. Of the seventy-five fortresses built by Mithradates, 
 Strabo has named only three, more important than the rest, namely, Hydara, 
 Basgadariza, and Synoria. The two former are unknown. Synoria was on 
 
ASIA. 683 
 
 the borders of Armenia Major, and appears to be now Senarvir. 2. Satala, to 
 the northeast, a place of some traffic and consequence, from which numerous 
 roads branched off to Pontus and Cappadocia. It was the station of the fifteenth 
 Roman legion. Mannert places it at Sukme ; D Anville, less correctly, at Er- 
 zirighan. 
 
 ARMENIA MAJOR. 
 
 I. Armenia Major, or Armenia Proper, was bounded on the north by Colchis, 
 Iberia, and part of Albania ; on the northeast and east by the remaining part 
 of Albania ; on the west by Armenia Minor ; and on the south by Mesopotamia, 
 Assyria, and Media. It is one of the most lofty countries of Southern Asia, and 
 its climate in the higher regions is extremely cold, the summits of several of 
 its mountains being covered with perpetual snow. It possesses, however, sev 
 eral fruitful valleys, and is a fertile country. Strabo speaks with praise of the 
 Armenian horses. The country was rich also in precious stones and metals. 
 Strabo speaks in particular of gold mines at a place called Kambala, probably in 
 the northern part of the country. 
 
 II. Besides the Tigris and Euphrates, we may mention, among the rivers of 
 this country, the Cyrus, the Araxes, and the Arsanias. I. The Cyrus, now the 
 Kur, rose in the mountains of Iberia, and after separating Armenia from Albania, 
 emptied into the Caspian Sea. 2. The Araxes, now the Aras, rose in the range 
 of Antitaurus, near the western confines of Armenia, and after traversing the 
 country, and in a part of its course separating Armenia from Media, joins the 
 Cyrus not far from the mouths of the latter. On some maps the Araxes and 
 Cyrus have separate mouths, whereas there should be three for the united 
 stream. 3. The Arsanias, now the Ardjis or Arsen, rose in the range of Mount 
 Abus, and flowing for the most part in a southwestern direction, fell into the 
 Euphrates. It is sometimes mistaken for the Euphrates itself. 
 
 III. The principal lakes of Armenia are, 1. Arsissa Palus, now Lake Wan, 
 having a circumference of two hundred and forty miles. This is the largest 
 one. The ancient name may still be traced in that of the fortress of Ardsisch, 
 on the northern side of the lake. 2. Lychnltis Palus, to the northeast of the 
 former. It is now the Lake of Gonkeka or Eriwan. 3. Thospltis Palus, to the 
 southwest of Arsissa Palus, now the Lake of Erzen. 
 
 IV. The chief mountains are, 1. Monies Moschici, in the west, now Mesidji- 
 Dagh. 2. Antitaurus, running through the central parts of the country. 3. Mons 
 Abus, between the Arsissa and Lychnitis Palus, and believed by the natives at 
 the present day to be the Ararat of Scripture. The Turks call it Aghri-Dagh ; 
 but the Persians, Koh-i-Nuh, or "Mount Noah." 4. Monies Gordycei, along a 
 portion of the Mesopotamian and Assyrian frontiers, and forming the eastern 
 part of the range of Masius. Both Mons Masius and the Monies Gordyai cor 
 respond to what are now the mountains of Kurdistan. 5. Mons Masius, in the 
 southwest, separating Armenia from Mesopotamia. It is now Karajeh-Dagh. 
 6. Niphdtes, so called by the Greeks from the summits being covered with per 
 petual snow. They lie to the southwest, in the district of Sophene, below the 
 Arsanias, and, according to St. Martin, now called Mount Nebad or Ncbadagan. 
 
 V. The early history of Armenia is a confused mass of traditions, and the 
 Armenians, as a nation, occupy no place in the early history of Asia. They 
 were subjected in turn by the Assyrians, Medes, Persians, and Macedonians. 
 After the death of Alexander, Armenia became part of the kingdom of Syria, 
 and so remained till the overthrow of Antiochus the Great. The Romans and 
 Parthians fought a long time for the right of giving a successor to the throne , 
 
684 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 and it was governed at one time by Parthian princes, at another by those whom 
 the Romans favored, until Trajan made it a Roman province. It afterward re 
 covered its independence, and was under the rule of its own kings. Sapor in 
 vain attempted its subjection, and it remained free till A.D. 650, when it was 
 conquered by the Arabians. 
 
 PLACES IN ARMENIA MAJOR. 
 
 ARMENIA was divided into a number of small districts, or strategies, such as 
 Catarzene, Ossarene, Motene, Colthene, &c. The most important places are the 
 following : 1. Artaxata (ra Aprdfara), in Armenian Artaschad, the capital of the 
 country, on the River Araxes, and a strongly-fortified place. It was built by 
 Artaxias, the founder of the new Armenian monarchy, after the yoke of An- 
 tiochus had been thrown off, and is said to have been erected by the advice of 
 Hannibal. It was frequently taken and plundered, and on one occasion burned 
 by the Romans under Corbulo. Tiridates, however, rebuilt it, and called it Ne- 
 ronia, and it continued to exist as late as the fourteenth century. The ruins 
 are called Ardachat. 2. Arxata, to the northwest, also on the Araxes, and prob 
 ably the earlier capital. On this same site Ptolemy subsequently places the city 
 ofNaxuana, the modern Nackjuvan. 3. Tigranocerta (ra Tiypavd/cepra), or " City 
 of Tigranes," to the southwest of the Arsissa Palus, on the River Centrites or 
 Nicephorius, a tributary of the Tigris, and situate on a height. It was built by 
 Tigranes, son of Artaxias, and son-in-law of Mithradates, and became a large, 
 rich, and powerful city, inhabited not only by Orientals, but also by many Greeks, 
 and particularly by many Macedonians, who had been carried off from Cappa- 
 docia and Cilicia. Lucullus took it during the Mithradatic war, and found in it 
 immense riches. The Roman commander allowed those of the Greek residents 
 who had been torn from their homes to return to them ; but, though many em 
 braced this offer, the city nevertheless continued to be a large and important 
 one. Its remains are at Sered, on the Chabur. 4. Arsamosata, or Armosata, a 
 strongly-fortified place in the district of Sophcne, not far from the pass over 
 Mount Taurus called Clisurce. It is now Simsat. 5. Elegia, in an angle of the 
 Euphrates, and known by Trajan s expedition in this quarter. It is now Ilija. 
 
 In the reign of Theodosius the Great, the Romans having by treaty reobtained 
 possession of the western part of Armenia, where there were mines of the pre 
 cious metals, erected several fortresses to defend them. Some of these subse 
 quently rose to the rank of cities. Among them we may mention, 1. Arzen, the 
 modern Erzeroum, the capital now of Turkish Armenia. 2. Kars, now the cap 
 ital of the pachalic of Kars. 3. Amida, to the west of Tigranocerta, now Di- 
 arbekir, or Kara Amid, capital of the pachalic of the same name. Here gold and 
 silver mines were found. 
 
 BABYLONIA. 
 
 I. Babylonia, now Irak Arabi, was bounded on the east by 
 Susiana and Assyria, on the south by the Sinus Persicus, on 
 the west by the Arabian Desert, and on the north by Mesopo 
 tamia. It was separated from this latter country by what was 
 termed the Wall of Media, a wall of baked brick, erected by 
 Semiramis as a barrier against the incursions of the Medes 
 and other nations, twenty feet broad and one hundred feet high. 
 
ASIA. 685 
 
 II. Babylonia was entirely flat and alluvial land, which, on 
 account of the want of rain, was watered from canals by means 
 of hydraulic machines, and was in this way rendered extremely 
 fertile, producing from two to three hundred fold. The prin 
 cipal canals were, 1. The Maarsares (more correctly, perhaps, 
 Naarsares), now Narsi, drawn from the Euphrates above Bab 
 ylon, running parallel to the river, on its western side, and join 
 ing it again below Babylon. 2. The Naarmalcha, or " Royal 
 River," drawn from the Euphrates in a southeastern direction 
 to the Tigris, and navigable for ships of considerable burden. 
 3. The Pallakopas, drawn from the Euphrates below Babylon, 
 and extending into the desert country on the west, where it 
 terminated in some lakes. 
 
 III. The only tree that flourished in this soil was the palm, 
 of which there were great numbers. The want of wood and 
 stone was supplied by an inexhaustible abundance of clay for 
 making bricks. These were baked in the sun. Instead of lime 
 they used naphtha or bitumen, of which there were large fount 
 ains here. 
 
 DIVISIONS, INHABITANTS, &c. 
 
 I. BABYLONIA was anciently divided into two districts, namely, Babylonia 
 Proper and Chaldaa. The former comprised the country extending southward 
 from Mesopotamia, and inclosed between the Euphrates and Tigris. Chaldaa, 
 on the other hand, in this its limited sense, meant the country lying along the 
 right bank of the Euphrates, and extending as far into the desert on the west 
 as this could be rendered fertile by irrigation. Chaldcea, however, in this use 
 of the term, must not be confounded with the same appellation when employed 
 in its more extended sense, for then it denotes the whole country of Babylonia, 
 and by Chaldai are then meant the whole race. 
 
 II. The mountaineer Chaldai of the Carduchian chain in Armenia are re 
 garded by Gesenius and others as the original stock of the Chaldaeans or Baby 
 lonians. Some descendants of these mountaineers, the Chasdim, namely, of 
 the Old Testament, appear to have settled at a remote period in the plains of 
 Babylonia, and, after having been subject to the Assyrians, to have there sub 
 sequently founded a Chaldaeo-Babylonian empire. The language spoken at 
 Babylon, and which is always called the Chaldaean language, was of the She- 
 mitic stock. According to the Old Testament, the foundation of the Chaldaean 
 empire was laid by Nimrod in the plains of Shinar. This empire flourished most 
 under Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar, the latter of whom carried away the 
 inhabitants of Jerusalem in captivity to Babylon. The Chaldaean empire ended 
 with the taking of Babylon by Cyrus, and the reduction of the country to a Per 
 sian province, B.C. 538. 
 
 III. The favorable position of Babylonia, midway between the Indus and the 
 Mediterranean, in the neighborhood of the Persian Gulf, and between two nav 
 igable rivers, rendered it, and its capital Babylon, the centre of commercial 
 
686 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 communication between Upper and Lower Asia. The land trade was carried 
 on by means of caravans, eastward with India, from which country they im 
 ported precious stones, dyes, pearls, wood for ship-building, and cotton ; west 
 ward with Asia and Phosnicia, up the Euphrates as far as Thapsacus, and thence 
 by caravans. Babylon itself was famous for superior linen, woollen and cotton 
 cloths, and carpets, which formed valuable articles of export. Maritime com 
 merce, on the other hand, was carried on, not so much by the Babylonians them 
 selves, as through the Phoenicians who settled on their coasts. 
 
 PLACES IN BABYLONIA PROPER. 
 
 1. Babylon, the capital of the empire, situate on both sides of the Euphrates. 
 Its founder is not known. Herodotus says that the building of Babylon was 
 the work of several successive sovereigns, but among them he distinguishes 
 two queens, Semiramis and Nitocris, to whom the city was indebted for nu 
 merous improvements. Babylon was built in the form of a square, each side 
 being one hundred and twenty stadia in length, which makes the circuit four 
 hundred and eighty stadia, or above fifty miles. The walls were of brick, 
 and fifty royal cubits thick and two hundred high, with two hundred and fifty 
 towers, and one hundred brazen gates. The Euphrates ran through the city, 
 and divided it into two parts. The city, however, was by no means thickly 
 inhabited, a great portion of the space within the walls being occupied by 
 fields and gardens. In one division of the city was the palace, with its hang 
 ing gardens, that is, gardens laid out in the form of terraces over arches. In 
 the other division was the temple of Belus, a building of enormous size, con 
 sisting of eight stages, surmounted by a large temple. After the death of Alex 
 ander, Babylon, which he had intended for the capital of his empire, fell to the 
 share of Seleucus, but was neglected by him, and allowed to decline. The 
 founding of Seleucia in its vicinity completed its downfall. The ruins at the 
 present day consist of mounds of earth and brick- work intermingled. 2. Seleucta, 
 on the western bank of the Tigris, about forty-five miles to the north of Babylon. 
 It was founded by and called after Seleucus Nicator, and was the capital of the 
 Macedonian conquests in Upper Asia. Its population is said to have been six 
 hundred thousand. The rise of Ctesiphon, on the other side of the Tigris, proved 
 greatly injurious to Seleucia ; but it received its death-blow from the Romans, 
 having been first plundered and partially consumed by them in the reign of 
 Trajan, and finally destroyed in that of Verus. The ruins of Seleucia and Ctes 
 iphon are now called El-Madain, or " the (two) cities." 3. Cache (Ku^), to the 
 southeast, on the Tigris, and famed for the beauty of the surrounding country. 
 4. Cunaxa, a few miles below the entrance of the wall of Media, and, according 
 to Plutarch, five hundred stadia from Babylon. Here the celebrated battle was 
 fought between Artaxerxes Mnemon and his brother, Cyrus the younger, in 
 which the latter lost his life. 
 
 PLACES IN CHALDJEA. 
 
 1. Borsippa, below Babylon, the seat of a college or fraternity of Chaldean 
 astronomers, called from it Borsippcni. It was famed for its linen manufacture. 
 Here, too, large bats were smoke-dried and eaten. Reichard makes it answer 
 to the modern Cufa. D Anville and Mannert, however, place it near Semaue. 
 2. Vologesia or Vologcsocerta, to the southeast, built by the Parthian Vologeses, 
 who was contemporary with Nero and Vespasian, with the view of injuring Se 
 leucia. Mannert makes this place, and not Borsippa, answer to Cufa. 3. Or- 
 
ASIA. 687 
 
 choe or Urchoa, to the southeast, the seat of another astronomical college. Some 
 suppose it to be the same with " Ur of the Chaldees," mentioned in Scripture 
 as the native place of the family of Abraham. 4. Teredon or Diridotis, west of 
 the Pasitigris, the stream formed by the union of the Euphrates and Tigris. It 
 was a depot for frankincense and other Arabian products, and is now, perhaps, 
 Dorah. 5. Apamea, in the southern extremity of what was called the island of 
 Mesene, an insular tract formed by the Tigris and the canal termed Naarmalcha, 
 or " the Royal River," already mentioned. This Mesene must not be confounded 
 with the island-of the same name at the mouth of the Tigris. Apamea answers 
 to the modern Corne. 6. Charax Spasinu (Xupaf Ziraaivov), selected by Alex 
 ander as a port, and subsequently the residence of an Arabian prince named 
 Spasines. 
 
 COUNTRIES BETWEEN THE TIGRIS AND INDUS. 
 
 ASSYRIA. 
 
 I. Assyria, in the limited sense of the term, was a province 
 of the great Persian satrapy of Babylonia, and answers now to 
 a part of Kurdistan. It was bounded on the north by Arme 
 nia, on the east by Media and Susiana, on the west by Mes 
 opotamia and part of Babylonia, and on the south by the re 
 maining portion of Babylonia. 
 
 II. Assyria was mountainous in the north and east. It was 
 a well- watered country, however, and consequently, for the most 
 part, productive. Its chief and boundary river was the Tigris, 
 besides which Ptolemy mentions particularly three rivers, name 
 ly, the Lycus, Caprus, and Gorgus. The Lycus is the same 
 river which Xenophon calls Zabatus, now the Zab Ala, the 
 Upper or Greater Zab ; while the Caprus is now the Zab As- 
 fal, the Lower or Lesser Zab. The Gorgus is supposed to be 
 identical with the Sillas of Isidorus, and Delas of Stephanus 
 Byzantinus, and is now the Diala. To these we may add the 
 Gyndes, now the Kerah ; the Physcus, now the Odoan or 
 Odorneh ; and the Bumadus or Bumalus, now the Chasir, 
 running by Gaugamela. This last-mentioned river is a trib 
 utary of the Greater Zab ; all the rest flow into the Tigris. 
 
 III. The province of Assyria was subdivided into several dis 
 tricts, of which the principal were, 1. Aturia, to the northwest 
 of the Greater Zab. The name Aturia appears to be a mere 
 dialective variety of pronunciation instead of Assyria, and the 
 district thus designated was probably the central point from 
 which the power as well as the name of Assyria was subse 
 quently spread. 2. Adiabene, between the Greater and Lesser 
 Zab. 3. Apolloniatis, to the south of the Lesser Zab. 4. Cha- 
 
688 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 lonltis, to the east of the preceding. 5. Sittacene, the territory 
 around the city of Sittace. 6. Satrapene, in the extreme south. 
 
 HISTORY OF ASSYRIA. 
 
 ASSYRIA, taken in a more extended sense, means the Assyrian Empire, com 
 prising not only the province just mentioned, but also Mesopotamia, Babylonia, 
 Media, Persia, and several countries of Western Asia. The early history of 
 this empire is involved in great obscurity, our only certain source of informa 
 tion being the Old Testament, and the information which even this affords being 
 limited and incidental. The legend of Ninus, and his warlike queen Semiramis, 
 as given by Diodorus, does not belong to the period of authentic history. The 
 Hebrew chronicles, on the other hand, leave us in the dark with reference to 
 the history of Assyria till the earlier part of the eighth century before our era. 
 From this time downward the names of several Assyrian kings are mentioned, 
 the earliest of whom is Phul, contemporary with Menahem, king of Israel. 
 Another of these monarchs, named Salmanassar, contemporary with Hosea, 
 king of Israel, and Hezekiah, king of Judea, put an end to the kingdom of Israel 
 (B.C. 722) by what is termed the Assyrian captivity. The last monarch of As 
 syria was Sardanapalus, in whose reign Nineveh was taken by the Medes and 
 Babylonians under Arbaces and Belesis. Sardanapalus was the thirtieth in suc 
 cession from Ninus, according to the common account. The brilliant discover 
 ies which have recently been made by Layard, have thrown much light on va 
 rious obscure parts of Assyrian history, and if these discoveries be followed up, 
 as is now extremely probable, by new researches, much of the history of As 
 syria, as it is now received, will have to be re-written. Layard thinks there are 
 sufficient grounds for the conjecture that there were two, if not more, distinct As 
 syrian dynasties ; the first commencing with Ninus, and ending with a Sardana 
 palus of history ; and the second, including the kings mentioned in the Scriptures, 
 and ending with Saracus, Ninus II., or the king, under whatever name he was 
 known, in whose reign Nineveh was finally destroyed by the combined armies 
 of Persia and Babylon. 
 
 PLACES IN ASSYRIA. 
 
 1. Ninus (?) Nu>of), the Ninive of Scripture, and capital of the Assyrian empire. 
 It was situate on the eastern bank of the Tigris, above the mouth of the Greater 
 Zab, and, according to one account, was founded by Ninus, the early Assyrian 
 monarch. It is said to have been a still larger city than Babylon, and its walls 
 to have been one hundred feet high, and broad enough for three chariots to pass 
 abreast. There were also on the ramparts fifteen hundred towers, each two 
 hundred feet high. Ninive appears to have been partially destroyed on the 
 downfall of Sardanapalus, but to have been completely overthrown by Cyaxares, 
 the father of Astyages, king of the Medes. At a later period, another city of 
 the name of Ninus appears to have arisen in this quarter, but whether on the 
 site of the earlier one, or in its vicinity, we have no means of ascertaining. 
 The opinion advanced by Mannert and others, that there was also a city named 
 Ninus below Babylon, on the Euphrates, is altogether untenable. The ruins 
 of Ninive have been generally supposed to be those on the eastern side of the 
 Tigris, opposite Mosul; but the recent and very remarkable discoveries of La- 
 yard, in excavating the mounds not only at Kouyunjik, opposite Mosul, but also 
 at Nimroud, lower down the river, together with those made by Botta at Khor- 
 sabad, have led to some doubt respecting the particular locality of this once 
 
ASIA. 689 
 
 celebrated capital, though they confirm, however, the opinion that it was situ 
 ated on the left bank of the Tigris, above the mouth of the Greater Zab. 
 
 2. Gaugamela, to the southeast, a village near the River Bumadus, and in 
 the vicinity of which was fought the final battle between Alexander and Da 
 rius. This, however, is called in history the battle of Arbela, from the city of 
 that name, in which Darius had established his head-quarters, and which hence 
 gave name to the fight, though five hundred stadia from the battle field. Gau 
 gamela is said to have signified in Persian " the camel s abode," and to have 
 been so called because Darius Hystaspis placed here the camel on which he 
 had escaped in his Scythian expedition, having appointed the revenue of cer 
 tain villages for its maintenance. 3. Arbela, the chief city of eastern Adiabe- 
 ne, and in the district called from it Arbelitis. It is now Arbil. Mention has 
 been made of it under the head of Gaugamela. 4. Apolldnia, the capital of the 
 district Apollonidtis. 5. Artemita, to the south, called by the natives Chalasar. 
 Its site is occupied by the modern Schehrban. 6. Sittdcc, to the northwest, 
 near the Tigris, and the capital of the district Sittacene. 7. Ctesiphon, on the 
 Tigris, opposite Seleucia. It was at first a small village, but the camp of the 
 Parthian monarchs being frequently pitched here, caused it gradually to become 
 a large city, and finally the capital of the Parthian empire. It was sacked by 
 the Saracens in A.D. 637. The ruins of this place and of Seleucia are now 
 called Al Modain, or "the (two) cities." 
 
 SUSIANA. 
 
 I. Susiana, also called Susis, was the name given by the 
 Greek geographers to a tract of country lying between Baby 
 lonia and Persis, and bounded on the north by Media, and on 
 the south by the Persian Gulf. The northern part was mount 
 ainous, and enjoyed a temperate climate ; but the southern por 
 tion, along the shore of the gulf, was exceedingly hot, being ex 
 posed to the west and south winds, while the mountains to the 
 north and east kept off every cooling breeze. The country was 
 not thickly settled, and had but few cities. It comprehends 
 pretty nearly the modern Khuzistan. 
 
 II. Among the rivers of Susiana we may mention, 1. The 
 Choaspes, falling into the united streams of the Euphrates and 
 Tigris. It is now the Kerkhah or Kerah. This river ran by 
 Susa, the capital of the country. Its waters were remarkable 
 for their clearness and purity, and the kings of Persia drank of 
 no other. Wherever these monarchs went, they were attended 
 by a number of four-wheeled carriages, drawn by mules, in 
 which the waters of this river, being first boiled, were deposit 
 ed in vessels of silver. 2. The Eulceus, called in Scripture 
 Ulai, and regarded by some as the same with the Choaspes. 
 Others, however, make it answer to the modern Kuran, which 
 unites with the Dizful, the ancient Cophrates. 3. The He- 
 
 Xx 
 
690 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 dyphon, called by Pliny the Hedypnus. It is supposed by some, 
 though without any good reason, to be the modern Jerahi. 
 
 III. The inhabitants of the country were called Susii or Cis- 
 sii, and, according to the ancient writers, belonged to the Syr 
 ian stock, and spoke the Syrian language. Those who dwelt 
 in the plains, or level country to the south, were a peaceful 
 and agricultural race, living for the most part in villages. The 
 mountaineers, on the other hand, were a warlike arid independ 
 ent people, owing no subjection to the Persians, and oftentimes 
 even exacting payment from the Persian kings, when these 
 passed through their mountain defiles from Susa to Persepolis. 
 
 PLACES IN SUSIANA. 
 
 1. Susa, in Scripture Susan, the capital, in the district of Cissia, on the east 
 ern bank of the River Choaspes, built in the form of a rectangle, without walls, 
 but having a strongly fortified citadel named Mcmnonia or Memnoneum. It was 
 the winter residence of the kings of Persia, their summers being spent at Ecbat- 
 ana, in the cool, mountainous country of Media. It was also one of the royal 
 treasuries, and Alexander found a large amount of wealth here. The name 
 Susa or Susan is said to mean " a lily," and the city to have derived its name 
 from the abundance of these flowers which grew in its vicinity. Great diffi 
 culty exists with regard to its site at the present day, modern scholars being 
 divided between Sus and Shuster ; the former, however, appears to have the 
 better claim. The ruins present the appearance of numerous irregular mounds, 
 with a great tumulus representing probably the site of the citadel. The whole 
 circuit of these remains is about six or seven miles. 2. Seleucm, in the district 
 of Elyma is, on the Hedyphon, and probably the same with the Sele of Ptolemy. 
 Its site is to be found in the territory of the modern Sultanalad. 3. Azara, also 
 in Elymais, a village containing rich and celebrated temples of Venus and Diana. 
 It was near the modern Djarsun. 
 
 PERSIS. 
 
 I. Persis or Persia, called in Scripture Paras, and by the 
 Arabic and Persian writers Pars or Farsistan, is used in two 
 significations ; first, as applying to Persia Proper, or the coun 
 try originally inhabited by the Persians ; and, secondly, as de 
 noting the Persian Empire. 
 
 II. Persis, or Persia Proper, was bounded on the north by 
 Media and Parthia, on the east by Carmania, on the west by 
 Susiana, and on the southwest and south by the Persian Gulf. 
 The country included within these limits is as large as modern 
 France. The southern part, near the coast, is a sandy plain, 
 almost uninhabitable on account of the heat, and the pestilen 
 tial winds which blow from the. Desert of Carmania; but at 
 some distance from the coast the ground rises, and the interior 
 
ASIA. 691 
 
 of the country is intersected by numerous mountain ranges. 
 This part of Persia was the original seat of the conquerors of 
 Asia, where they were inured to hardship and privation. 
 
 III. The principal rivers were, 1. The Araxes, rising in the 
 mountains of the Parcetaceni, flowing by Persepolis, where it 
 receives the Medus, coming from Media, and emptying into a 
 salt lake, now the Lake of Bakhtegan, to the southeast of the 
 city just mentioned. The Araxes is now the Bend-emir; and 
 the Medus, the Fanvar or Schamior. 2. The Cyrus, flowing 
 by Pasargadce, and now probably the Khor. 
 
 INHABITANTS, HISTORY, &c. 
 
 I. THE Persians, on account of the variety of their soil, were partly nomades, 
 partly agriculturists. Herodotus enumerates four nomadic or herdsmen castes, 
 three agricultural, and three warrior castes. These last were called the Pa- 
 sargada, Maraphii, and Maspii. Of these, the Pasargadas were the noblest, to 
 the chief clan of which, called the Achamenidce, the royal family of Persia be 
 longed. 
 
 II. Herodotus says that the Persians were originally called Artai, which word 
 probably contains the same root as Arii, the original name of the Medes, and 
 Arya, the word by which the followers of the Brahmanic religion are designated 
 in Sanscrit. The same root occurs in Aria and Ariana, from the latter of which 
 the modern Persian name Iran seems to be derived. 
 
 III. At the earliest period of which any trace is preserved, Persis appears to 
 have formed merely a province of the great Assyrian empire. On the disruption 
 of this empire it fell under the power of the Medes. The Median yoke was 
 broken by Cyrus, who laid the foundation of the great Persian empire, which 
 his successors gradually enlarged, until it embraced the larger portion of Asia, 
 together with Thrace and Macedonia in Europe, and, in Africa, Egypt, and the 
 neighboring country of Libya. This empire was overthrown by Alexander, on 
 whose death Persis fell to the lot of the Seleucida. It was wrested from them 
 subsequently by the Parthians, and from these last it afterward passed into the 
 hands of the Sassanidce, or new Persian dynasty. 
 
 PLACES IN PERSIS. 
 
 1 . Pasargada, a very ancient city, and the royal residence previous to the 
 founding of Persepolis. It is said to have been built by Cyrus after his victory 
 over Astyages the Mode, which he gained near this place. The kings of Persia, 
 according to Plutarch, were consecrated here by the Magi, and here also was 
 the tomb of Cyrus. The position of Pasargadae has been a subject of much dis 
 pute. Many modern writers, following Morier and Sir R. K. Porter, have been 
 disposed to place it in what is now the plain of Murghab, about fifty miles north 
 east of Persepolis. Lassen, however, thinks that we ought to look for it to the 
 southeast of Persepolis, in the neighborhood of Darabgherd or Farsa. 2. Persep 
 olis, the capital of Persia, situate in an extensive plain near the junction of the 
 Araxes and Medus. The Greek writers speak of its citadel, surrounded by a 
 triple wall, and containing within its inclosure the royal treasury, palace, and 
 the tombs of the kings. The palace was burned by Alexander in a fit of intox- 
 
692 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ication, and the city was plundered by the Macedonian soldiery. Persepolis was 
 not, however, laid in ruins on this occasion, as some have supposed, but is men 
 tioned by subsequent writers as still existing ; and even in a later age, under 
 the sway of Mohammedan princes, this city, with its name changed to Istakhar, 
 was their usual place of residence. Oriental historians say that the Persian 
 name for Persepolis was likewise Istakhar or Estakhar. The ruins of Persepo 
 lis, or, rather, a part of them, are now called Tchil-Minar, that is, " the forty (or 
 many) pillars," and are described in Sir R. K. Porter s Travels. 3. Gaba, an 
 other royal residence, near Pasargadae. 4. Aspadana, probably the modern Is 
 pahan. 
 
 CARMANIA. 
 
 I. Carmania was a large province, having Persis on the 
 west, Gedrosia on the east, the Persian Gulf&ud Mare Eryth- 
 rceurn to the south, and Parthia on the north. It answers to 
 the modern Kcrman, together with the easternmost portion of 
 Laristan and Moghistan. The country was little known to 
 the ancient Greeks and Romans, their acquaintance with it 
 being derived merely from Alexander s march through it to In 
 dia, and from the circumstance of the Seleucidse having held 
 a part of it subsequently under their sway. 
 
 II. The northern part was a desert; the remainder of the 
 country the ancients represent as extremely productive, espe 
 cially in grapes, yielding clusters of these more than two feet 
 long. The other products were, gold in one of the rivers, silver, 
 copper, cinnabar, arsenic, corn, salt, together with abundance 
 of asses. 
 
 PLACES IN CARMANIA. 
 
 AMONG the places in Carmania deserving of mention we may merely particu 
 larize here, 1. Carmdna, the chief town, some distance inland, and now Khirman. 
 2. Harmuza, in the district of Harmozia, on the coast, at the entrance of the 
 Persian Gulf, near the modern Minau. The promontory of Harmozon, near this 
 place, is now Cape Kuhestek. The ancient name of Harmuza was corrupted in 
 time to Ormuz, and became the modern and well-known name of the island an 
 ciently called Organa, lying off this coast. 3. Sidodone, on the coast, toward the 
 western frontier, the inhabitants of which, as well as their cattle, lived and still 
 live on fish. It is now Lundje. Among the islands off the coast we may name, 
 1. Organa, now Ormuz, already mentioned. 2. Cataa, sacred to Neptune and 
 Venus, and to which the inhabitants of the coast brought yearly offerings ; now 
 Kisch or Kenn. 3. Ooracta, a large and fruitful island, containing the tomb of 
 King Erythras, who once ruled over all these shores, and after whom the Mare 
 Erythraum was named. It is now Dsjisme or Khishme. 
 
 GEDROSIA. 
 
 I. Gedrosia lay between Carmania and India, having the 
 Mare Erythrceum on the south, and running back as far as 
 
ASIA. 693 
 
 Aria on the north. The northern part was mountainous, and 
 tolerably productive ; but the southern portion, lying along the 
 coast, was hardly any thing more than a desert. The whole 
 country answers to the modern Mekran, one of the provinces 
 of Beloochistan. 
 
 II. According to Strabo, the southern part of Gedrosia 
 abounded in aromatics, especially nard and myrrh. The coast 
 was inhabited by the Ichthyophagi, a name given to these tribes 
 by the Greeks, from their living entirely on fish. They were 
 a different race from the inhabitants of the more northern parts, 
 which would seem to have been of the same stock with the 
 Arii. 
 
 III. The army of Alexander marched through southern Ge 
 drosia on their return from India, and suffered great hardships 
 from scarcity of water and from the columns of moving sand. 
 The armies of Semiramis and Cyrus, long before this, are said 
 to have suffered still more severely from the same causes. 
 
 MEDIA. 
 
 I. MEDIA was bounded on the north by Armenia, on the south 
 by Susiana and Persis, on the west by Assyria, and on the 
 east by Parthia. It answers now to Azerbijan, Shirvan, 
 Ghilan, the western half of Mazanderan, and the northern 
 part of Irak. It was divided into three great districts, name 
 ly, Southern or Great Media, Media Atropatene, or the north 
 western part, and Northern Media. 
 
 II. The ancient writers with one voice extol the productive 
 ness of Media, especially of the district of Atropatene. It 
 yielded grain, honey, oranges, citron, salt, wine, figs, silphium, 
 excellent horses, &c. Its great productiveness, together with 
 its excellent and numerous population, and also its being de 
 fended on every side by mountain chains, made Media one of 
 the most important provinces of the Persian empire. On the 
 northern borders was the chain of Mons Caspius ; on the west 
 ern and southern, that of Mons Parachoathras ; on the east, 
 that of Mons Zagrus ; and branching off from this in a north 
 western direction was Mons lasonius. The rivers were unim 
 portant. In the northwestern part of the country was a large 
 salt lake called Spauta, now the Lake of Urmi. 
 
694 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 INHABITANTS, HISTORY, &c. 
 
 I. ACCORDING to Herodotus, the Medes were originally called Arii, a word 
 which contains the same root as Ar-tai, the ancient name of the Persians. Me 
 dia originally formed part of the Assyrian empire, but its history as an inde 
 pendent kingdom is given so differently by Herodotus and Ctesias as to render 
 it probable that the latter must refer to a different dynasty in eastern Asia. 
 
 II. According to the account of Herodotus, there were four kings of Media, 
 namely, 1. Deioces, who reigned B.C. 710-657. 2. Phraortes, B.C. 657-635, who 
 greatly extended the Median empire, subdued the Persians, and many other 
 nations, and fell in an expedition against the Assyrians of Nineveh. 3. Cyax- 
 ares, B.C. 635-595, who completely organized the military force of the empire, 
 and extended its boundaries as far west as the Halys. He also took Nineveh, 
 and overthrew the Assyrian empire. 4. Astyages, B.C. 595-560, who was de 
 throned by his grandson Cyrus, and Media reduced to a Persian province. 
 
 PLACES IN GREAT MEDIA. 
 
 1. Ecbatana, or, more correctly, Agbatana, the ancient capital of Media, found 
 ed by Deioces, and situated in a plain at the foot of a lofty mountain called Oron- 
 tcs. It was built on a conical kind of hill, and cc-nsisted of seven inclosures or 
 walls, rising one above the other, and each of a different color, the sixth being 
 silvered and the seventh gilt. Ecbatana, being in a high and mountainous coun 
 try, was a favorite summer residence of the Persian monarchs, and subsequently 
 of the Arsacidae or Parthian kings, as well as those of the Sassanian or new 
 Persian dynasty. It existed as a large and fortified city down even to the close 
 of the fourth century. Its site is occupied by the modern Ramadan. 2. Rhaga, 
 to the northeast of Ecbatana, and near the Caspian Gates. It was the largest 
 city in Media. Seleucus Nicator rebuilt it on its having been destroyed by an 
 earthquake, and changed the name to Euro-pus. It was again destroyed in the 
 Parthian wars, and rebuilt by Arsaces, who called it Arsacia. It still existed ia 
 the Middle Ages under the name of Rai, but was subsequently destroyed by the 
 Tartars. This city is often mentioned in the book of Tobit, as the place where 
 many of the Jews resided who had been carried away captive by Shalmaneser. 
 Near Rhagae was the Nissean plain, celebrated for its breed of horses, which 
 were considered in ancient times the best in Asia. Arrian informs us that there 
 were fifty thousand horses reared in this plain in the time of Alexander, and that 
 there were formerly as many as one hundred and fifty thousand. 3. Bagistana, 
 to the southwest of Ecbatana, on the great commercial road leading from the 
 latter city to Ctesiphon. It is now Behistun. The name Bagistana is said to 
 mean " the place of the Bagas," or deities, and in the vicinity of the place was 
 Mount Bagistanus, which the Greeks made sacred to Jupiter. This mountain 
 is now more correctly termed the " sacred rock of Behistun." According to the 
 ancients, it had the figure of Semiramis cut upon it, with a Syrian inscription. 
 Major Rawlinson, however, has placed the matter recently in its true light, and 
 has shown the inscription on the rock, which is in cuneiform characters, to have 
 been executed by order of Darius Hystaspis, and to be intended to mark not only 
 the progress, but the permanent establishment of his power. The sculptured 
 figures represent Ormuzd, the Persian deity, Darius, and his vanquished foes. 
 
 PLACES IN ATROPATENE. 
 
 Atropatene, or the northwestern part of the country, derived its name from 
 Atropates, a satrap of this province, who, after the death of Alexander, made 
 
ASIA. 695 
 
 himself independent, and took the title of king, which his successors enjoyed 
 for a long period. We have here, 1. Gaza, the chief city, on the eastern side, 
 of the Lake Spauta, and the summer residence of the kings of Atropatene. It 
 was destroyed by Shah Abbas. Gaza lay between the present Tabris (or Tau- 
 breez) and Miana. 2, Phraata or Praaspa, to the southeast, a fortified place, 
 situate on a height, and the winter residence of the kings. Its site is a few 
 miles to the southeast of Ardebil. In the southwestern part of Atropatene was 
 the district of Matiane, inhabited by the Matiani, with whom the Carduchi and 
 Caspii were connected. The principal places here were, 1. Nande, now Selmas. 
 2. Nazada, near the defile now called Derbend-pust ; and, 3. Alinza, near the 
 modern Talvar. 
 
 NORTH MEDIA. 
 
 OF this district little is known. It was occupied by several warlike and in 
 dependent tribes, among whom we may name, 1. The Caspii, among the Monies 
 Caspii, between the rivers Cambyses and Cyrus. 2. The Cadusii, a powerful 
 and warlike tribe along the Caspian Sea. On their coast stood Cyropolis, prob 
 ably the modern Reshd. 3. The Dribyces, below the River Amardus, now the 
 Sefid-Rud. 4. The Anariaca, to the east, near Hyrcania. They possessed an 
 oracle, the revelations of which were made to persons in their sleep. 5. The 
 Mardi or Amardi, a powerful and wide-spread tribe, in the vicinity of the former, 
 and very annoying to all the tribes around by reason of their predatory habits. 
 
 -\ 
 
 ARIA. 
 
 I. THIS extensive province was bounded on the north by Mar- 
 giana and Bactriana, on the west by Parthia, on the south by 
 Gedrosia, and on the east by India. Under the name of Aria, 
 therefore, in this extended sense, are included both the Paro- 
 pamisadcB and the province of Arachosia, so that Aria thus an 
 swers to part of Chorasan, nearly all Sedjestan, together with 
 Afghanistan. 
 
 II. The more northern parts of the country were very pro 
 ductive, and yielded in particular a very good kind of wine. 
 Gold and precious stones, especially sapphires, were also found 
 here, in the Sariphi Monies, now the Mountains of Sahar, and 
 in Mons Bagous, a part of the chain of Paropamisus, now the 
 Mountains of Gaur. 
 
 III. Among the rivers of Aria may be mentioned, 1. The 
 Arius, now Heri-Rud, which loses itself in the sand. 2. The 
 Erymandrus, now the Hilmend, flowing into the Aria Palus, 
 now the Lake of Zarrah. 3. The Arachotus, now, according 
 to Wilson, the Urghundab, a tributary of the Hilmend. 
 
 IV. The more ancient capital of Aria was Artacoana, on the 
 River Arius, and near to, if not identical with, the later capital 
 Alexandrea Ariana, founded by Alexander, or, more probably, 
 
696 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 named in honor of him. The site of this latter city is near the 
 modern Herat. Aria, as here used, must not be confounded 
 with the later and more extensive Ariana, which comprised the 
 eastern portion of those countries which form the high land of 
 Persia. 
 
 DIVISIONS, &c., OF ARIA. 
 
 1. Drangidna, in the southwestern quarter of the country, and bordering on 
 Gedrosia, Carmania, and the southeastern portion of Parthia. Its principal 
 tribes were the Zarangi or Zarangcei, and the Ariaspa. The chief town of the 
 Zarangi was Prophthasia, on the Erymandrus, or Hilmend, not far from the mod 
 ern Zarend or Zarang. The Ariaspa lay to the south of the former, and were 
 also called Euergeta, the Greek translation of the Persian appellation bestowed 
 upon them for the assistance which they had offered to Cyrus in his march 
 through the deserts of Carmania. Their chief town was Ariaspe, near the pres 
 ent Pulki, to the south of Dushak. 
 
 2. Arachosia, a rich and fruitful land on the frontiers of India, called by the 
 Parthians " White India" ( Ivdmrj Aev/c?), on account of the white inhabitants 
 that migrated hither from Oxus. Some, however, restrict this latter name to 
 the district of Chorene, which Seleucus had given up to Sandrocottus, and where 
 white inhabitants therefore were ruled over by an Indian king. The principal 
 city at first was Arachotus, the proper name of which was Cophen, and which 
 was built, according to Pliny, by Semiramis. The latter capital was Alexandria 
 or Alezandreopolis, on the River Arachotus. Its site must have been near Gun- 
 dava, according to Mannert. 
 
 3. ParopamisadcB, a name given to the tribes inhabiting the highlands of Pa- 
 ropamisus. They were situate to the south of Bactriana. This country was 
 the key to Persia from India. The cities here were, 1. Ortospana, called also 
 Carura, probably the modern Cabul. Three roads met here, a northern one 
 from Bactria, and an eastern and a southern one from India. Hence the spot 
 was also termed 57 f/c Bd/crpi> rpiodo?. 2. Alexandrea, a military colony of the 
 Macedonians. 3. Gauzaca, now Ghazna, on the River Dilen. 
 
 PARTHIA. 
 
 I. Parthia, called by Strabo and Arrian Parthycea (Ylap- 
 Qvaia), meant originally the tract of country bounded on the 
 north by Hyrcania, on the west by Media, on the south by 
 Persis and Carmania, and on the east by Aria. When taken, 
 however, in a more extended sense, the term Parthia denotes 
 all the countries included in the later Parthian empire. 
 
 II. Parthia, in its limited sense, was a country partly mount 
 ainous and partly a sand-waste, with a few fruitful valleys inter 
 spersed. It never formed, therefore, a separate province under 
 the Persian dominion, but was attached to Hyrcania ; and yet 
 it is remarkable as the parent country of a race who established 
 in after days a powerful and extensive Asiatic empire. 
 
ASIA. 697 
 
 DIVISIONS OF THE COUNTRY, &c. 
 
 1. Comisene, a district in the northwest, still called Comis. Its chief town 
 was Tagce, in the range of Mount Labuta, and now the capital Dameghan. 
 2. Parthyene, more in the centre, and the primitive settlement of the race. Here 
 was Hecatompylon, the capital of Parthia. Its name, probably a Greek transla 
 tion of some native term, arose from the circumstance of all the roads from the 
 northern, eastern, and western provinces of the later Parthian empire meeting 
 in this place. Through the district of Parthyene flowed the Zioberis or Stiba- 
 tes, now Adschi-Su, into which empties the Rhidagus, and then the united 
 waters took the name of Choatrcs. 3. Choarene, a fruitful region on the west 
 ern borders, and the pleasantest portion of Parthia. Its chief town was Apamca 
 Rhagiana, built by the Greeks. 4. Apavarcticene or Apavortene, in the southeast. 
 Here was Dareium, a very strong city, founded by Arsaces I., and now probably 
 Dehi-Muhammed. 
 
 PARTHIAN HISTORY. 
 
 I. THE Parthians were apparently of Scythian origin. According to Justin, 
 their name signified, in the Scythian language, " banished" or " exiles." At first 
 they were subject to the Persian monarchy, afterward to Alexander, on whose 
 death they espoused the cause of Eumenes, and afterward became subject suc 
 cessively to Antigonus and the Seleucida?, until about B.C. 256, when they threw 
 off the authority of the Syrian kings, and were formed into an independent king 
 dom under the rule of Arsaces I., from whom the succeeding kings received the 
 title of Arsacidae. 
 
 II. The reign of Arsaces was the beginning of the great Parthian empire, 
 which was gradually increased at the expense of the Syrian kingdom in the 
 west, and the Bactrian in the northeast ; and at length extended from the Eu 
 phrates to the Indus, and from the Oxus to the Persian Gulf. In the time of 
 Pliny it was divided into eighteen satrapies. This empire lasted from B.C. 256 
 to A.D. 226, when it yielded to the new Persian empire, or dynasty of the Sas- 
 sanidag. 
 
 HYRCANIA. 
 
 I. Hyrcania was bounded on the north by the deserts of 
 Scythia, on the south by Parthia, on the east by Margiana, 
 and on the west by the Caspian Sea and part of Media. It was 
 surrounded by, and, for the most part, a mountainous country, 
 except the part along the shore of the Caspian. This latter 
 portion of Hyrcania was very fertile, producing grapes, figs, and 
 corn in abundance. The mountainous parts were covered with 
 forests, containing numerous wild animals, especially tigers. 
 Bees also abounded here, and the wild honey was extremely 
 plentiful. 
 
 II. Strabo says there were several towns in this country, 
 and names the most important of them, but their position can 
 not be ascertained. Arrian mentions Zadracarta as the cap 
 ital, the same, no doubt, with the Carta of Strabo, and the Sy- 
 
698 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 rinx of Polybius, this last being probably the Greek translation 
 of its name. Some make it answer to the modern Jorjan or 
 (Zurkan, northeast of Aster abad ; but this seems doubtful. 
 
 MARGIANA. 
 
 Margiana was bounded on the north by the Oxus and the 
 deserts of Scythia, on the west by Hyrcania and Parthia, on 
 the south by Aria, and on the east by Bactria. It comprised, 
 therefore, the greater part of the eastern portion of Chorasan. 
 The Roman prisoners taken by the Parthians at the defeat of 
 Crassus were transplanted to this province. The country was 
 partly productive and partly a sterile waste. It was famed for 
 its wine and its large-sized clusters of grapes. 
 
 The chief river, and from which the country derived its name, was the Mar- 
 gus, now the Murghab or Meru-Rud, rising in the Monies Sariphi, and falling 
 into the Oxus. The capital city was Antiochia Margiana, built by Antiochus 
 Soter on the site of an earlier city named Alexandrea, which had been founded 
 by Alexander, but destroyed by the barbarians. It was situated in a pleasing 
 and fertile district, on the banks of the Margus, and was strongly fortified. Here 
 the Romans, taken from Crassus s army, were placed. It is now, according to 
 Mannert and Droysen, Meru-Rud or Mawrutschak ; but more probably, accord 
 ing to others, Mawri or Schah Djehan. Besides this place we may mention 
 Niscea, to the west. The adjacent country is supposed to have been the native 
 district of the famous Nisaean horses of Media, to which latter country the breed 
 would seem to have been transferred by the Median kings. 
 
 BACTRIA. 
 
 I. Bactria or Bactriana was bounded on the north by Sog- 
 diana, from which it was separated by the River Oxus ; on the 
 west by Margiana, on the south and east by Aria. This 
 country was one of considerable extent, partly barren and 
 waste, but in many parts of great fertility, watered by the 
 Oxus and its tributaries, and peopled by a brave and hardy 
 race, who were reckoned among the best soldiers in the service 
 of Persia after Bactria became a Persian province. It answers 
 now to the modern Balkh. 
 
 II. The principal river was the Oxus, now the Amoo or Jt- 
 hon (p. 606), among the tributaries of which may be named. 
 
 1. The Dargidus or Bactrus, now the Balkh or Adirsia Dschas. 
 
 2. The Artamis, now the Dakash, flowing into, 3. the Zarias- 
 pis, now probably the Zuhrab. 
 
ASIA. 699 
 
 PLACES IN BACTRIA. 
 
 1. Bactra, the capital city, situate on the River Bactrus, and now Balkh, 
 Strabo and Pliny make its earlier name to have been Zariaspa, but Arrian and 
 Ptolemy more correctly distinguish between the two places. 2. Zariaspa, now 
 probably Hazarasp. Burnes is in favor of Schehr Subz. 3. Aornus, next to 
 Bactra the most important city of the land. It had a strong and lofty citadel. 
 Mannert errs in making Aornus the citadel of Bactra. Wilson regards the name 
 Aornus as of Sanscrit origin (Awarana), and meaning " an inclosure" or "-stock 
 ade." 
 
 HISTORY OF BACTRIA. 
 
 I. OF Bactria little is known prior to its subjugation by the Macedonians under 
 Alexander. In the reign of Darius Hystaspis the Bactrians paid a tribute to 
 that monarch of three hundred and sixty talents. In the time of Xerxes there 
 were Bactrians in the army which he led against Greece. The province con 
 tinued to be governed by the satraps of Persia down to the time of Darius Co- 
 domannus. In the final overthrow of that king by Alexander at the battle of 
 Arbela, there was a body of Bactrians in his service, who were under the com 
 mand of Bessus, the satrap of Bactria. 
 
 II. After the conquest of-Bactria by Alexander, he built a city, which he gave 
 to his Greek mercenaries, and to such of the Macedonians as were unfit, from 
 age or wounds, for longer service. Such was the foundation of the Greek col 
 ony of Bactria, to which volunteers from the neighboring countries were ad 
 mitted. This, however, was not the earliest settlement of Greeks in Bactria ; 
 for the first Darius transported thither a number of Greeks from Barce, in Af 
 rica ; and the Branchidae also, from Ionia, were planted here by Xerxes. 
 
 III. From the death of Alexander, 323 B.C., to B.C. 255, Bactria formed part 
 of the possessions of Seleucus and his successors, and was governed by lieu 
 tenants. About the last-mentioned date, Theodotus, in the reign of Antiochus 
 II. of Syria, assumed the government, and founded an empire which lasted one 
 hundred and twenty years. A difference of opinion exists as to the names and 
 numbers of the Greek kings of Bactria during this period. The most correct 
 list is that which has been given by Bayer, in his " Historia Regni Gracorum 
 Bactriani," Petropol., 1738. 
 
 S O G D I A N A. 
 
 Sogdiana lay between the upper Oxus and the upper lax- 
 artes, by which latter river it was separated from Central Asia. 
 It was bounded on the west by Scythia and the Oxii Monies, 
 and on the east by the Monies Comedce. It comprised the 
 greater part of the modern Turkestan, and also the kingdom 
 of Bukhara, the most delightful part of the latter of which is 
 still called Sogd, and is regarded as one of the three paradises 
 of the East. 
 
 The river laxartes, now the Sir, has already been described (p. 606). Among 
 its tributaries may be mentioned, 1. The Demus, now Marghinan. 2. The Bas- 
 catis, now the Fersan. Among the cities, of which there are many in this coun 
 try, the following deserve notice : 1. Maracanda, less correctly Paracanda, now 
 
700 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Samarcand, on the River Polytimetus, now the Sogd. 2. Cyreschata, the last 
 city of Cyrus s dominions in this quarter, situate to the northeast of the former, 
 in the mountains about the laxartes. It was built by Cyrus, and had a strong 
 citadel. Alexander destroyed the place, but it was afterward rebuilt. 3. Gaza, 
 between the preceding and Alexandrea Ultima. It was plundered and destroyed 
 by the soldiers of Alexander. 4. Alexandrea Ultima ( Ahet-avSpeta co^atTy), on 
 the laxartes, founded by Alexander as a protection for his dominions in this 
 quarter against the neighboring barbarians, and peopled with Grecian auxilia 
 ries and worn-out Macedonian veterans. It stood near the modern Khodjend. 
 5. Alexandrea Oxiana, to the southwest of the preceding, on the River Oxus, 
 near the spot where the modern Karschi stands. 
 
 The rude and, for the most part, free tribes on the banks of the laxartes and 
 Oxus, and in the mountains between those streams, were divided into two races. 
 The Dah(z or Daa, on the lower course of the Oxus, and in the desert toward 
 the Caspian Sea, were Tartar tribes, Turkomans, &c. The Massagela and 
 Saca, in the east, occupied, the former the country of the Kirgish Tartars, the 
 latter Little Bukharia, &c. The Sacae were nomads, and the ancestors, probably, 
 of the modern Afghans. The Persians appear to have given the name of Saca 
 to all races of Tartar origin, and that of Massageta to those of Mongol origin. 
 
 (B.) SOUTHEASTERN ASIA. 
 
 INDIA. 
 
 I. India was bounded on the north by Scythia extra Imaum 
 and part of Serica, on the east by the country of the Since and 
 the Eastern Ocean, on the south by the Mare Erythrceum, and 
 on the west by the Mare Erythrceum and Aria. It was di 
 vided by Ptolemy the geographer into two great parts, namely, 
 India intra Gangem, or India west of the Ganges, and India 
 extra Gangem, or India east of the Ganges. Under this latter 
 name was included what answers now not only to the remain 
 ing part of India, but also Thibet, the Birman Empire, Ava, 
 Sumatra, Java, &c. 
 
 II. Among the mountains of India may be mentioned, 1. The 
 range called Paropamlsus, and now Hindu Cush, coming in 
 from the northwest, and separating India in that quarter from 
 Bactria. 2. Emodi Monies, the eastern continuation of the 
 preceding, and forming a portion of the great chain of Himma- 
 leh. 3. Imaus, running on from the Emodi Monies into the 
 remote east, and separating India from Scythia. It is now, in 
 part, the Himalaya range or Himmaleh Mountains. 
 
 III. Among the rivers of India may be named, 1. The Indus 
 (p. 605). 2. The Ganges (p. 605). 3. The Mophis, now the 
 Mhye or Mahi, flowing into the Barygazenus Sinus or Gulf 
 of Cambay. 4. The Namadus, now Nerbuddah, flowing into 
 the same gulf. 5. The Nanaguna, now the Taptee, flowing 
 
ASIA. 701 
 
 into the same gulf. 6. The Chaberis, now the Cavery, emp 
 tying into the Sinus Gangeticus or Bay of Bengal. 7. The 
 Mcesolus, to the north, now the Krishnah or Kistnah. 8. The 
 Goaris, now the Godavery. 9. The Mandas, now Mahanud- 
 dy. 10. The Daanas, now Ava, on the eastern side of the 
 Sinus Gangeticus. 11. The Dorius, now Pegu. 12. The 
 Serus, now Menam, emptying into the Sinus Magnus or 
 Gulf of Si am. 
 
 INDIA HOW FAR KNOWN TO THE WESTERN NATIONS. 
 
 I. COMMERCE between India and the western nations of Asia appears to have 
 been carried on from the earliest historical times, This trade appears to have 
 been carried on by means of the Arabians, who brought the produce of India 
 from the Malabar coast to Hadramaut in the southwestern part of Arabia, or to 
 Germ on the Persian Gulf, from which places it was carried by means of cara 
 vans to Pctra, where it was purchased by Phoenician merchants. A great quan 
 tity of Indian articles was also brought from the Persian Gulf up the Euphrates 
 as far as Circesium or Thapsacus, and thence carried across the Syrian desert 
 into Phoenicia. The conquest of Idumaea by David gave the Jews possession 
 of the harbors of Elath and Ezion-geber on the Red Sea, from which ships 
 sailed to Ophir, which was probably an emporium of the African and Indian 
 trade in Arabia. 
 
 II. The knowledge which the Greeks possessed respecting India previous to 
 the time of Alexander was but scanty, being confined to the parts west of the 
 Ganges. Herodotus and Ctesias merely relate what they had collected from the 
 Persians, whose monarch, Darius Hystaspis, had penetrated into the Panjab; 
 such are the descriptions of the birds and beasts of that country, its fine wools, 
 the bold and strong dogs of the Panjab, the crocodiles of the Indus, &c. 
 
 III. The expedition of Alexander into India first gave the Greeks a correct 
 idea of the western parts of that country. Alexander did not advance farther 
 than the Hyphasis ; but he followed the course of the Indus to the ocean, and 
 afterward sent Nearchus to explore the coast of the Indian Ocean as far as the 
 Persian Gulf. The Panjab was inhabited, at the time of Alexander s invasion, 
 by many independent nations, who were as distinguished for their courage as 
 their descendants the Rajpoots. 
 
 IV. After the death of Alexander, Seleucus made war against Sandracottus, 
 king of the Prasii, a powerful people on the banks of the Ganges, and was the first 
 Greek who advanced as far as that river. This Sandracottus is probably the 
 Chandragupta of the Hindus. Megasthenes, and after him Daimachus, embas- 
 sadors of the Syrian monarchs, resided for many years at Palibothra, the capital 
 of the Prasii, which stood, probably, near the modern Patna. From the work 
 which Megasthenes wrote on India, later writers, even in the time of the Roman 
 empire, such as Strabo and Arrian, appear to have derived their principal knowl 
 edge of the country. 
 
 V. The knowledge which the Romans possessed of India beyond Caps Co- 
 morin was exceedingly vague and defective. Strabo describes the Ganges as 
 flowing into the sea by one mouth ; and though Pliny gives a long list of Indian 
 nations, which had not previously been mentioned by any Greek or Roman 
 writer, we have no satisfactory account of any part of India except the descrip- 
 
702 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 tion of the western coast by Arrian. Ptolemy, who lived about one hundred 
 years later than Pliny, gives us the names of many towns on the Coromandel 
 coast and the Bay of Bengal, and is the earliest writer who attempts to describe 
 the countries to the east of the Ganges ; but there is great difficulty in determ 
 ining the position of any of the places enumerated by him, in consequence of 
 the great error he made in the form of the peninsula, which, according to him, 
 stretched in its length from west to east instead of from north to south. Ptol 
 emy appears to have derived his information from the Alexandrine merchants, 
 who only sailed to the Malabar coast, and could not, therefore, have any accu 
 rate knowledge of the eastern parts of India, and still less of the countries be 
 yond the Ganges. 
 
 From what has been remarked, our notice of places in India must of necessity 
 be a very brief one. In giving them, we shall follow the two main divisions. 
 
 PLACES IN INDIA INTRA G AN GEM. 
 
 1. Nagara, on the northwestern frontier, now Nagar. It was also called by 
 the Greeks Nysa and Dionysopolis. 2. Taxila, to the northeast, the residence 
 of King Taxiles when Alexander invaded India. Some make it answer to the 
 modern Attack, but incorrectly. 3. Caspira, to the northeast, the capital of the 
 Caspircei, whose country answered to a part of Caschmire. 4. Bucephdla, on the 
 Hydaspes, founded by Alexander on the spot where his horse -Bucephalus died 
 of old age. Its site is supposed to be at the modern village of Mung. 5. Niccea, 
 on the same river, and opposite Bucephala. It was founded by Alexander in 
 commemoration of his victory here over Porus. The ruins are probably those 
 at Udinagur. 6. Alexandri Ar<z, altars, twelve in number, erected by Alexan 
 der on the banks of the Hyphasis, to mark the limit of his progress eastward. 
 7. Mallorum Metropolis, the capital of the Malli, a people with whom Alexander 
 came into contact when descending the Indus. It answers probably to the mod 
 ern Moultan. The Oxydraca were lower down the river, at the attack on whose 
 capital, probably the modern Outch, Alexander endangered his life. 8. Pattdla, 
 in the island or delta of Pattalene, at the mouth of the Indus. Its site is oc 
 cupied by the modern Tatta. The country from Pattalene upward, along both 
 banks of the Indus, was called Indoscythia, from the Scythian tribes which had 
 settled there after they had overthrown the Bactrian empire. The Sinus Canthi 
 or Irinus, below the mouth of the Indus, is now the Gulf of Cutch. We then 
 come to the peninsula of Larice, now Guzerat, the gulf below which has been 
 already mentioned. The coast below this was called Dachinabades, from da- 
 chanos, " south," the Sanscrit dakschina, whence is derived the modern name 
 Deccan. 
 
 On the eastern side of the peninsula, passing by Taprobdne, now Ceylon, which 
 will be considered along with the other Indian isles, we may name, 1. Colchi, 
 now Collatoor, with the Cory Promontorium near it, now Ramanan Khor, and 
 whence comes the modern name Coromandel given to the whole coast. Inland 
 was the kingdom of Pandion, famed for its pearl trade. The Sinus Agaricus 
 is now Palk s Bay. 2. Malanga, now Madras. 3. Maliarpha, now Maliapur. 
 4. Mcesolia, a district famed for its diamond mines. Above, on the coast, were 
 the Calinga, whose name is still preserved in that of the modern city of Colin- 
 gapatam. 5. Gauge, the capital of the Gangaridce, on one of the arms of the 
 Ganges, near its mouth, and a great mart for cotton stuffs, nard, Chinese wares, 
 &c. Above the Gangaridae were the Prasii, whose capital was Palibothra (in 
 Sanscrit Pataliputra), the residence of Sandracottus. The position of this city 
 
ASIA. 703 
 
 has been much disputed. Robinson places it at Allahabad, but Rennel, more 
 correctly, in the neighborhood of Patna, near the confluence of the Ganges and 
 the Sone, the ancient Sonus or Erannaboas. 
 
 PLACES IN INDIA EXTRA GANGEM. 
 
 INDIA beyond the Ganges was very little known. What was called the island 
 of Chryse corresponds to the modern kingdom of Ava ; and the Aurea Chersonc- 
 sus, either to Malacca, as D Anville, Rennel, and Mannert think, or to the south 
 ern part of Pegu, as Gosselin and some others maintain. We may name, be 
 sides, 1. Pcntapolis, to the south of the modern Candel. 2. Tacosanna, now 
 Arracen. 3. Tamala, a trading-place on the western coast of Pegu, now Bar o- 
 ban. 4. Berobe, near the modern Tavay, in Siam. 5. Tacola, in the Aurea Cher- 
 sonesus. 6. Sabanna, a trading-place, near the modern Tantan Velha. 7. Ba- 
 longa, on the eastern coast, a noted place for pirates. 8. Cortatha, capital of 
 the Daoni. 
 
 ISLANDS OF INDIA. 
 
 I. Taprobdne, now Ceylon. Ptolemy says it was also called Salice, and that 
 this last was the native denomination of the island. In Sanscrit writings it 
 is called Lunka, "holy" or "resplendent;" in the Singalese annals, Sinhala- 
 dwipa, or "the island of lions." The Arabs name it Serendib, which is only a 
 corruption of the genuine name ; and the Portuguese, Selan, whence our Ceylon. 
 
 II. Jabadii Insulcs, now Java. The ancient name signified, according to Ptol 
 emy, " Barley Island," in consequence of its great fertility in this species of 
 grain. The same writer says that it also yielded gold. 
 
 III. Satyrorum Insulce ires, now Borneo, Palawan, and Celebes. Ptolemy says 
 the inhabitants had the form of Satyrs, whence the name of the islands. 
 
 IV. Maniola Insula decem, now the Philippine islands, named from their in 
 habitants the Maniol(B, who were anthropophagous. 
 
 SIN^E. 
 
 THE country of the Sinae, according to Ptolemy, was bounded 
 on the north by Serica, on the west by India, and on the east 
 by unknown regions. It answered, therefore, to Cambodia, 
 Cochin- China, &c. Even in these early periods, entrance into 
 the country was forbidden to foreigners, so that Ptolemy only 
 knew of their chief place, Acadara, probably the modern Lao. 
 
 There was also another nation named Since, to the east of 
 Serica, who were probably settled in Shen-si, the most west 
 erly province of China, immediately adjoining the great wall. 
 In this province was a kingdom called Tsin, which probably 
 gave name to these Since. 
 
 2. CENTRAL ASIA. 
 
 SARMATIA ASIATICA. 
 
 Sarmatia Asiatica was bounded on the west by the Cim 
 merian Bosporus, the Pains Mceotis, and the River Tana is or 
 
704 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Don, which last separated it from Sarmatia Europea, already 
 described (p. 235) ; on the southwest by the Euxine ; on the 
 south by the range of Caucasus, separating it from Colchis, 
 Iberia, and Albania ; on the west by the Caspian, the lower 
 part of the Rha or Wolga, and Scythia intra Imaum ; and on 
 the north by a Terra Incognita. The country was, for the 
 most part, either mountainous, or else consisted of broad steppe- 
 lands, over which roamed numerous nomadic tribes. The in 
 habitants, however, on the eastern shore of the Palus Mceotis 
 were of more settled habits, and supported themselves by agri 
 culture and fishing. 
 
 PRINCIPAL TRIBES. 
 
 Basilicai Sarmatce (BaaiTuKaioi Zapfidrai), around the sources of the Rha, and 
 the same, probably, with the Royal Scythians of Herodotus. 2. Hippophagi, or 
 feeders on horse-flesh, to the east. 3. Phthirophagi, or feeders on fir-cones, to 
 the east of the upper part of the Rha. 4. Perierbidi, a powerful tribe on the 
 Tanais, near the upper extremity of the Palus Mceotis. 5. Siraceni or Siraci, 
 another powerful nation, who sent to King Pharnaces twenty thousand horse as 
 auxiliaries. Their capital was Uspe, and they are probably still represented by 
 the Circassians, who fled before the Alans and Huns into the fastnesses of Cau 
 casus. 6. Aorsi, a still more important nation, the Adorsi of Tacitus. In Stra- 
 bo s time they roved in the more northern parts near the Don. They resided 
 originally on the northwestern shore of the Caspian, and had in their hands the 
 whole of the transit trade in Indian and Babylonian wares, which they conveyed 
 westward on camels to the Palus Mceotis, after receiving them from the Bactrian 
 and Indian merchants, who brought them down the Oxus and laxartes. 7. Mceolce, 
 along the eastern shore of the Palus Mceotis. They were subdivided into nu 
 merous small tribes. 8. Achcei, on the northeastern coast of the Euxine, fabled 
 to have been descended from a band of Achcei who settled here after the Trojan 
 war. 9. Heniochi, to the east of the former, fabled to be the descendants of a 
 band of Spartans, left behind here by the Argonauts. 
 
 PLACES IN SARMATIA ASIATIC A. 
 
 1. Pityus, on the coast of the Euxine, near its northeastern extremity, and 
 of Grecian origin. It was destroyed by the Heniochi, but afterward rebuilt, and 
 regarded by the Romans as an important frontier city. 2. Sinda, a commercial 
 place on the Bosporus, belonging to the Sindi or Sindici. 3. Gorgippia, inland, 
 the capital of the Sindi. 4. Phanaguria, to the north, on the Bosporus, a flour 
 ishing commercial city, founded by the Milesians, and opposite to Panticapceum 
 in the Tauric Chersonese. It became subsequently the chief city of the kingdom 
 of Bosporus, and the staple-place of all the wares brought down the Palus Mceo 
 tis for the people of Caucasus. It was destroyed in the sixth century by the 
 Huns. 5. Tanais, a flourishing commercial city, at the southern mouth of the 
 River Tanais, and at the northeastern extremity of the Palus Mceotis. It was 
 founded by the Milesians, and became a great mart for all the surrounding tribes, 
 who here exchanged peltries and slaves for wine, clothing, &c. It fell at last 
 under the sway of the kings of Bosporus, and on attempting subsequently to 
 
ASIA. 705 
 
 free itself from the yoke, was destroyed by Polemo, the contemporary of Au 
 gustus and Tiberius. It was afterward rebuilt, but never attained to its former 
 prosperity. 
 
 COLCHIS. 
 
 Colchis was bounded on the north by the range of Caucasus, 
 on the south by Armenia, on the east by Iberia, and on the 
 west by the Euxine. It comprised not only the modern Min- 
 grelia, but also a part of Imireti. The country was very 
 fertile, and abounded in timber well adapted for ship building, 
 in various kinds of fruits, and in flax. The inhabitants were 
 famed for their linen manufactures, which formed a considera 
 ble article of export. The name of Colchis appears in the early 
 legends of the Greeks as connected with the expedition of the 
 Argonauts, and the story of Jason and Medea. 
 
 INHABITANTS, PLACES, &c. 
 
 1. ACCORDING to Herodotus, the Colchi were originally from Egypt, and formed 
 part of the army with which Sesostris invaded Scythia. The curled hair and 
 swarthy complexion, however, on which the historian relies principally in sup 
 port of his position, no longer exist in modern Mingrelia. Ritter, with much 
 more probability, deduces the origin of the Colchi from India. Numerous petty 
 tribes are mentioned by the ancient geographers, forming in the aggregate the 
 Colchian nation. Of these the Lazi may be mentioned here, since their name 
 was afterward applied by the Romans to the Colchians in general, and from 
 them are supposed to be descended the modern Lazes, in Lazestan. 
 
 2. The chief river of Colchis was the Phdsis, already mentioned (p. 606). 
 Among the more important cities were, 1. Dioscurias, on the coast, an old Mi 
 lesian colony, and the centre of traffic with the neighboring tribes. Under the 
 Romans it took the name of Sebastopolis. 2. Sarapana, to the southeast, a 
 strong fortress, in a narrow pass on the confines of Iberia, through which flowed 
 the Phasis. It is now Scharapani. 3. Phdsis, on the southern bank of the River 
 Phasis, near its mouth, and founded by the Milesians. It was afterward incor 
 porated in Pontus. 4. JEa, inland, the fabled residence of King ^Eetes, father of 
 Medea. It was said to have been situate on the River Phasis, and was sought 
 to be identified with the later Male. 5. Archaopolis, the later capital of the whole 
 country, in the fertile and very populous district of Muchiresis, on the confines 
 of Iberia. It was situate on a steep rock, accessible only on one side, on the 
 banks of the Phasis. 6. Cutatisium. a frontier fortress on the Phasis, now Kchi- 
 tais, capital of the modern Imireti. 
 
 IBERIA. 
 
 Iberia was bounded on the north by Caucasus, on the south 
 by Armenia, on the west by Colchis, and on the east by Al 
 bania. It answers nearly to the present Georgia. The an 
 cient writers describe the country as extremely fertile, well 
 peopled, and the inhabitants as having made some progress in 
 
706 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 civilization. The central part was a plain, watered by the 
 River Cyrus and its branches. Lucullus and Pompey first 
 carried the Roman arms into Iberia. Eutropius says that the 
 King of Iberia paid homage to Trajan, who at the same time 
 gave a king to the neighboring country of Albania. 
 
 PLACES IN IBERIA. 
 
 1. Harmozica, on the River Cyrus, near the modern Digoli. 2. Seumara, on 
 the River Aragus, now Samthauro, near Teflis. 3. Juroeipaach ( lovpoenradx), a 
 strong fortress, near the sources of the Aragus, and commanding the pass called 
 Pylce Caucasia (less correctly Pylce Caspice) leading through the range of Cau 
 casus from the modern Mosdok to Teflis. It is a narrow valley of four days 
 journey. Pliny calls the pass an enormous work of nature, which has cut a long 
 opening among the rocks, that an iron gate would be almost sufficient to close. 
 The pass is now called Dariel. 
 
 ALBANIA. 
 
 Albania was bounded on the north by Caucasus, on the 
 east by the Caspian, on the west by Iberia, and on the south 
 by Armenia. It answers now to Daghestan and Lazestan. 
 The Romans were best acquainted with the southern part, 
 which Strabo describes as a kind of paradise, and in fertility 
 and mildness of climate gives it the preference to Egypt. Tra 
 jan s expeditions made the northern and mountainous part bet- 
 .ter known. 
 
 INHABITANTS, PLACES, &c. 
 
 1. ALBANIA evidently derives its name from its mountainous character in the 
 northern and central parts,, the root of the term being the Celtic Alph or Alb (p. 
 158). The inhabitants appear to have been of Scythian origin, probably a brancli 
 of the Massagetce, and the progenitors of the European Alani. 
 
 2. Among the places in Albania we may name, 1. Gatara, on the coast of the 
 Caspian, to the north of the mouth of the Cyrus, near the naphtha sources of the 
 modern Baku. 2. Albana, on the coast, north of the River Albanus. 3. Ca- 
 mechia, now Shamachia, in the modern Schirwan. 4. Chabala or Cabalaca, near 
 the Albanian pass, or Pylce Albania. This, according to the common opinion, is 
 now the pass of Derbend, along the shore of the Caspian. It seems more cor 
 rect, however, to make it a defile passing through the territory of Ooma-Khan, 
 along the frontier of Daghestan. 
 
 SCYTHIA. 
 
 I. THE term Scythia was originally given to a part of Europe, and was for a 
 long time restricted to that country. This Scythia was, according to Herodotus, 
 a square, of which each side measured four thousand stadia, one side being two 
 thousand stadia from the Ister to the Borysthenes, and two thousand from the 
 Borysthenes to the Palus Mceotis, both measurements being along the coast ; 
 and another side being four thousand stadia, measured from the Euxine to the 
 Melanchlceni. There is considerable difficulty in determining the boundaries of 
 
ASIA. 707 
 
 the Scythia of Herodotus ; but it may be said in general terms to have com 
 prised the southeastern part of Europe, between the Carpathian Mountains and 
 the Tanais or Don. 
 
 II. Different accounts are given of the origin of these Scythians ; but the 
 statement which Herodotus considered the most probable ascribed to them an 
 Asiatic origin. According to this account, they were driven from their settle 
 ments to the north of the Araxes by the Massagetae, and, after crossing that 
 river, descended into Europe, and drove out the Cimmerians from the country 
 which was afterward called Scythia. The date of their migration into Europe 
 may be determined with tolerable accuracy, if the irruption of the Cimmerians 
 into Lydia in the reign of Ardys (about B.C. 640) was the immediate consequence 
 of their defeat by the Scythians. 
 
 III. The Scythians seem to have been a Mongolian people from the descrip 
 tion which Hippocrates gives of their appearance, and Herodotus of their cus 
 toms and habits. Hippocrates speaks of their gross and bloated bodies, their 
 joints buried in fat, their swollen bellies, and their scanty growth of hair. They 
 were divided, as the Mongols have always been, into various hordes, which were 
 all, in the time of Herodotus, dependent on the horde of the Royal Scythians, 
 who dwelt above the Palus Mseotis. The general and genuine name of the 
 Scythians is said to have been Scoloti ; the name of Scythes (2/a<0aO, or Scythi 
 ans, was given to them by the Greeks. 
 
 IV. The only two important events in the history of Scythia mentioned by 
 Herodotus are, 1. The invasion of Media by the Scythians in the reign of Cy- 
 axares (B.C. 635-595), and their conquest of Asia as far as the confines of 
 Egypt, which they held for twenty-eight years ; and, 2. The invasion of Scythia 
 by Darius Hystaspis, in which the Persians were unsuccessful. 
 
 V. In subsequent times the Scythians lost all their power. The Get con 
 quered a great portion of the west of their country, and the Sauromatce pressed 
 upon them from the east. The latter of these eventually obtained possession 
 of the greater part of Scythia, and gave the name of Sarmatia to the whole 
 country. In the time of Pliny the Scythians had become extinct as a people ; 
 their place was occupied by the Germans and Sarmatians, and the Scythian 
 name was confined to the most remote and unknown tribes of the north. 
 
 VI. The name of Scythia began to be applied to the northern parts of Asia in 
 the Macedonian period. Herodotus distinctly separates from Scythia all na 
 tions east of the Tanais, such as the Thyssageta, Isscdones, &c., and this fixed 
 use of the word still subsisted at the time of Alexander s conquest of Asia. 
 But when the Macedonians found on the laxartes nations resembling the Scyth 
 ians, they gave the name of Scythia to this part of Asia, and thus an Asiatic 
 Scythia was supposed lying to the east of the true one. This is the Scythia 
 Proper of Strabo, as the ancient Scythia had in his time become Sarmatia. 
 
 VII. In the time of Ptolemy, the nan; : of Scythia was given to the country 
 between Asiatic Sarmatia and Serica. It was bounded on the south by Hyr~ 
 cania, Margiana, Sogdiana, and India. Its limits to the north were undefined. 
 It was divided into two parts by the Imaus, now Altai and Chaltai, a range of 
 mountains running in a northeasterly direction from the Himalaya. The west 
 ern part was called Scythia intra Imaum, and the eastern Scythia extra Imaum. 
 
 SERICA. 
 
 I. Serica was bounded on the west by Scythia extra Imaum, on the east by 
 the Since, on the north by a Terra Incognita, and on the south by India extra 
 Gangcm. It comprised, therefore, the modern Bucharia, Kotschotei, and a part 
 
708 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 of northwestern China. It is described by the ancient writers as surrounded 
 and traversed by mountains, as, for instance, the Monies Auxacii, a part of the 
 chain of Altai, on the north ; the Monies Asmirai, the western part of the modern 
 Da- Uri chain, in the central parts ; and the Monies Casii, now a part of the 
 Khara range, and likewise Mount Ottorocorras, the eastern extremity of the Emo- 
 di Monies, in the south. The principal rivers were, 1. The CBchardes, probably 
 the modern Selenga; and, 2. The Bautes or Bautisus, now the Hoang-Ho. 
 
 II. Scrica means the land of the Seres ; the appellation Seres, however, was 
 not the native name of the inhabitants of the country, but one given them from 
 the silk, for the manufacture of which their country was famous among the 
 western nations, and which formed their great article of export. The root of 
 the term is the Greek word aijp, " a silk-worm," itself probably of Oriental 
 origin. The introduction of the culture of silk into Europe did not take place 
 until the sixth year of the reign of Justinian, when some eggs of the silk- worm 
 were brought to Constantinople by two monks, who also furnished the requisite 
 information for the mode of manufacturing silk. 
 
 III. The principal nation in Serica was. the Issedones, whose capital was 
 Sera, which Mannert makes identical with Singan, in the Chinese province of 
 Shen-si. Heeren, however, declares in favor of Pekin. 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 1. NAME. 
 
 I. THE name Africa was first introduced into Europe by the 
 Romans, who gave this appellation originally to the country 
 around Carthage, the first part of the continent with which 
 they became acquainted, and the term is said to have been de 
 rived from a small Carthaginian district on the northern coast. 
 Hence, even when the name had become applied to the whole 
 continent, there still remained, in Roman geography, the dis 
 trict of Africa Propria, on the Mediterranean coast, corre 
 sponding to the modern Tunis and part of Tripoli. 
 
 II. The Greek writers, on the other hand, always call the 
 continent of Africa by the name of Libya (?? At6vr]), an appel 
 lation often employed in this same sense by the Roman poets ; 
 whereas the Roman prose writers, when they make use of the 
 term Libya, merely mean by it the region extending along the 
 coast from the Syrtis Major to Egypt, and stretching inland 
 to the desert. 
 
 2. PROGRESSIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 I. HERODOTUS, the earliest extant Greek author who has transmitted to us 
 any information about Africa, has given a proof of his limited acquaintance with 
 it by the very simple division which he makes of its inhabitants. All the native 
 tribes in the northern part he calls by the general name of Libyans, and those 
 
AFRICA. 709 
 
 in the south ^Ethiopians. Egypt, according to his system, hardly belongs to 
 Africa, but lies like an isolated slip between the two adjacent continents. He 
 considered Africa as terminating north of the equinoctial line, and asserts that 
 it is surrounded by water except at the narrow neck now called the Isthmus 
 of Suez. One reason for this latter belief was apparently the story of the cir 
 cumnavigation of Africa, by some Phoenicians, in the reign and by the orders of 
 Necho, king of Egypt, between B.C. 610 and 594. The truth of this story is 
 now regarded as extremely doubtful. 
 
 II. Another ancient voyage, somewhat better authenticated, is that made by 
 the Carthaginian Hanno, who is said to have sailed from Carthage through the 
 Straits of Gibraltar, for the purpose of establishing some colonies along the 
 Atlantic coast of the present empire of Morocco. From the account of this 
 voyage which has come down to us, it is very probable that he passed consid 
 erably to the south of the Senegal River, but hardly further than the coast of 
 Sierra Leone. The period of this voyage is uncertain ; it was probably before 
 B.C. 500. 
 
 III. When the Greeks were settled in Egypt under Ptolemy, son of Lagus 
 (B.C. 323), they necessarily became better acquainted with the Red Sea and 
 the course of the Nile ; and from this epoch we may date the extension of that 
 trade with India, by which the products of the great Asiatic peninsula were 
 more generally diffused over the ancient world. One of the most curious docu 
 ments with respect to ancient navigation on the eastern coast of Africa is con 
 tained in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, which goes under the name of 
 Arrian. This work, which was probably compiled from various log-books and 
 journals, may be assigned to about the time of Pliny the elder, or perhaps to 
 an earlier period. The extreme south point mentioned on the African coast is 
 Rhapta, probably the modern Quiloa. 
 
 IV. From the tables of Ptolemy, the Greek geographer, it appears that the 
 coast of western Africa was known, probably through the navigation of the Car 
 thaginians and Romans, as far as to 11 north of the line. Whether the an 
 cient geographers were acquainted with the countries south of the Great Desert, 
 and with the upper part of the River Quorra, commonly called the Niger, can 
 not be determined positively, although probability is strongly on the side of this 
 opinion. The story related by Herodotus concerning the young Nasamonians 
 is entitled to great respect, because there are real facts corresponding to the 
 description given by them of the country which they explored. Besides, it can 
 hardly be imagined that the powerful state of Carthage, which employed so 
 many elephants in war, and carried on so extensive a commerce, could be al 
 together ignorant of the countries in question. 
 
 V. When the Romans became masters of northern Africa, we might expect 
 to find them attempting, according to their usual policy, to enlarge their empire 
 or their influence to the south ; and we have, in fact, in Pliny, a distinct ac 
 count of Suetonius Paullinus (A.D. 41) crossing the great mountains of Atlas, and 
 going some distance in a southern direction. In Ptolemy, also, we have an ac 
 count of a Roman officer, named Maternus, who set out from the neighborhood 
 of Tripoli, and went a four months march to the south, which must have brought 
 him into the latitude of Timbuctoo, and into the vicinity of the Lake Tchad. If 
 the story be true, the great river, called by modern geographers the Niger, 
 might thus have been known to the Romans. 
 
 3. MOUNTAINS. 
 1. Mons Atlas, a celebrated range in the northwestern part of Africa. It is 
 
710 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 divided by modern geographers into two leading chains, the Greater Atlas, rnn- 
 ning through the kingdom of Morocco as far south as the desert of Sahara, and 
 the Lesser Atlas, extending from Morocco toward the northeast to the northern 
 coast. The native name of these mountains, according to Strabo and Pliny, 
 was Dyrin, and the chain at the present day bears among the Arabs the name 
 of Darah or Daran. The Romans probably knew more about the regions of 
 Atlas than we do, since they colonized many parts of it. As far, however, as 
 we can collect, it was only the highest and western portion of the range, in the 
 present kingdom of Morocco, to which they applied the name of Atlas. It was 
 here that the fables of the Greeks placed the Titan Atlas, the brother of Prome 
 theus, supporting the heavens on his shoulders. A later legend made him to 
 have been transformed into the mountain itself. 2. Mantes Luncz or Mons Lun& 
 (TO T% 2eAj?v77f opof), in central Africa, mentioned by Ptolemy as a very lofty 
 and snow-covered mountain range, at the bottom of which were two large lakes, 
 from which the Nile took its rise. This locality still remains undiscovered, 
 and is called at the present day by the familiar appellation of " the Mountains 
 of the Moon." 
 
 4. RIVERS. 
 
 1. Nilus, or the Nile, rising, according to the common account, in the Mount 
 ains of the Moon, in central Africa. It appears, from the most recent researches, 
 that the stream is first called Bahr-el-Abiad, or " the White River," and flows 
 in a northeastern direction to 15 34 N. latitude, where it receives, on its right 
 bank, the Abawi, or Bahr-el-Azrek, or "Blue River," coming from Abyssinia. 
 The "White River" appears to have been the true Nile of the ancient geogra 
 phers, but in modern times it is only after its confluence with the Abawi that 
 the united stream is known as the Nile. The Abawi is the Astapus of the an 
 cient geographers. The principal affluents after this are the Maleg, apparently 
 unknown to the ancients, and the Tacazze or Atbarrah, the ancient Astaboras, 
 both on the right from Abyssinia. From its junction with the Tacazze to its 
 entrance into the Mediterranean, a distance of fifteen hundred miles, the Nik- 
 receives no more tributaries. An account of the mouths of the Nile will be given: 
 under the head of Egypt. 2. Niger (Niyeip), called by the Roman writers Ni~ 
 gris, and by modern geographers Niger, a great river of central Africa, now 
 ascertained to be the Quorra, and falling into the Atlantic. It is the same with 
 the 7rorafiof /ufyaf, or " Great River" of Libya mentioned by Herodotus. The 
 name Niyeip first occurs in Ptolemy, who speaks also of another river which he 
 caRs the Teip (Gir\ and which appears to be the Om Teymani of Burckhardt 
 The other rivers of Africa will be mentioned under their respective countries 
 
 5. PROMONTORIES. 
 
 1. Notium Promontorium .... Cape Roxo. 
 
 2. Hesperium Promontorium . . Cape Verd. 
 
 3. Ryssadium Promontorium . . Cape Blanco. 
 
 4. Arsinarium Promontorium . . Cape Corveiro. 
 
 5. Gannaria Promontorium . . . Cape Nun. 
 
 6. Atlas Major Cape Boiador. 
 
 7. Cotes Promontorium .... Cape SparteL 
 
 8. Abyla Promontorium .... Cape Ximiera. 
 
AFRICA. 711 
 
 9. Russadir Promontorium . . . Cape de Tres Forcas 
 
 10. Metagonium Promontorium . . Cape Honneinc (?). 
 
 11. Apollinis Promontorium . , . Cape Mostagan. 
 
 12. Tretum Promontorium .... Cape Sebba Rus. 
 
 13. Hermceum Promontorium . . . Cape Bon. 
 
 14. Phycus Promontorium .... Cape Sem. 
 
 15. Ardmata Promontorium . . . Cape Guardafui. 
 
 16. Prasum Promontorium . . . Cape del Gado. 
 
 OBS. The Notium Promontorium is Hanno s Norov K^paf, the southernmost 
 point of his voyage. D Anville makes it Cape St. Anna. The Hcsperium 
 Promontorium is Hanno s Eanepov Kepar. The modern name of the Mctagon- 
 mm Promontorium is uncertain, though commonly given as Cape Honneine. The 
 Cotes Promontorium is called Ampelusia by Mela. 
 
 6. MAIN DIVISIONS. 
 
 AFRICA will be considered by us under the following main 
 divisions, beginning from the Atlantic coast on the west : 1. 
 Mauritania. 2. Numidia. 3. Africa Propria. 4. Regio 
 Syrrica. 5. Cyrenaica. 6. Marmarica. 7. JEgyptus. 8. 
 ^Ethiopia. 9. Libya Interior. 
 
 1. MAURITANIA. 
 
 I. Mauritania derived its name from its inhabitants, the 
 Mauri or Maurusii (Mavpovatoi,), and was bounded on the west 
 by the Atlantic, on the north by the Mediterranean, on the 
 south by Gcetulia, and on the east by Numidia, from which 
 it was separated originally by the River Molocath or Mulucha, 
 the modem Mulwia or Mohalon. In this sense, therefore, the 
 term Mauritania indicated a country corresponding to the 
 modern Morocco and Fez. 
 
 II. At a subsequent period, however, namely, in the reign 
 of the Emperor Claudius, A.D. 43, a new arrangement was 
 made, and all that part of Numidia which lay between the 
 Molocath and the Ampsagas, now Wadi-al-Kebir, was added 
 to Mauritania, which latter country now was divided into two 
 provinces, Mauritania Tingitana, deriving its name from 
 Ting-is, now Tangier, and answering to Mauritania Proper, 
 and Mauritania Ccesariensis, being the new portion added at 
 the expense of Numidia. Mauritania Csesariensis was after 
 ward subdivided into two provinces : the western part, name- 
 Iy 5 retained the appellation of C&sariensis ; but the eastern 
 
712 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 was called Mauritania Sitifensis, from Sitift, now Setif, a 
 town on the borders of Numidia. 
 
 PLACES IN MAURITANIA. 
 
 IN Mauritania Tingitana we have, 1. Russadir, now Melillah, a sea-port and 
 Roman colony, west of the Molocath, and near the promontory of Russadir. It 
 was the only mart on the whole coast of the Metagonitae. 2. Tingis, to the 
 west, at the entrance of the straits of Gibraltar, and now Tangier. It received 
 special marks of favor from Augustus Caesar, and became a Roman colony un 
 der Claudius, who made it the capital of the province. 3. Zilis or Zelis, a lit 
 tle below the Cotes Promontorium, and now Arzilla. It was made a Roman 
 colony by Augustus, under the name of Julia Constantia Zilis, and placed under 
 the same jurisdiction as the province of Batica in Spain. 4. Linx or Lixus, 
 thirty-two Roman miles south of Zilis, and now Larachc or El Araisch. It was 
 situate on a river of the same name, which must not, however, be confounded 
 with the great River Lixus mentioned in the account of Hanno s voyage, the 
 latter being probably the modern St. Cyprian, the former the Luccos. 5. Banasa, 
 a Roman colony, called Valcntia, fifty Roman miles south of Lixus, and situate 
 on the Subur, now the Scboo. 6. Sola, fifty miles south of the Subur, and at 
 the mouth of the River Sala. It was the southernmost of the Roman colonies 
 in this quarter, and its site, still marked by extensive remains, is near the 
 modern Salec. The coast below this was a desert waste. Inland we may 
 name Volubilis, to the east of Sala, a Roman colony, now the deserted city of 
 Walili. 
 
 In Mauritania C&saricnsis we may name, l.Igilgilis, on the coast, near the 
 confines of Numidia, and in what was subsequently Mauritania Sitifcnsis. It 
 was made a Roman colony under Augustus, and was the chief mart for the 
 neighboring communities. It is now Jigel or Gigeri. 2. Salda, to the west, on 
 the coast, now, according to some, Schurfah ; according to others, Boujayah. 
 It was a Roman colony, after having previously been the eastern frontier for 
 tress of Bocchus and of Juba. On the new arrangement of the provinces, it be 
 came the westernmost city on the coast of Sitifensis. Its harbor was a spa 
 cious one. 3. Icosium, to the west, on the coast, a Roman colony, and present 
 ed by Vespasian with the Jus Latinum. The ruins are now called Sher shell. 
 4. Julia Casarea, to the west, a Roman colony. It was originally an unimport 
 ant Phrenician settlement, named lol ; at a later period the residence of Boc 
 chus, and afterward of Juba II., who called it Ceesarea in honor of Augustus. 
 It became a Roman colony under Claudius, and the capital of the province. 
 Mannert, Shaw, and others make its ruins those at Shershell ; they are to be 
 sought, however, near the modern Tencz. 5. Siga, to the southwest, on the 
 coast, and near the confines of Tingitana. It was situate on a river of the same 
 name, in a spacious bay, which formed its harbor, and was for some time the 
 royal residence of Syphax, king of the Massasylii, before he took up his abode 
 at Cirta. In the interior we may mention Sitifi, southwest of Cirta, an im 
 portant city, enlarged by the Romans, and made a colony, and the capital of 
 Mauretania Sitifensis, as already remarked. It is now Setif. 
 
 2. NUMIDIA. 
 
 Numidia was originally bounded on the east by the domin 
 ions of Carthage, on the west by the River Molocath or Mu- 
 
AFRICA. 713 
 
 lucha, separating it from Mauritania, on the south by Gcetu- 
 lia, and on the north by the Mediterranean. When, how 
 ever, the new arrangement of Mauritania took place, and the 
 Roman province of Numidia was formed, this last, being of 
 much smaller extent than the original kingdom, reached from 
 the River Tusca, now the Zain, on the east, to the Ampsagag, 
 now the Wadi-al-Kebir, on the west. The kingdom of Nu 
 midia, therefore, answered to the modern Algiers; but the 
 Roman province of Numidia merely to the eastern part of 
 Algiers. 
 
 INHABITANTS, HISTORY, &c. 
 
 I. THE Numidians were originally a nomadic people, their country abound 
 ing in good pastures, and hence they were called by the Greeks Nomades 
 (No//u(%), and their land Nomadia (No/tadta), whence by a slight change came 
 the Latin forms Numida and Numidia. This name of Nomades seems to have 
 been originally applied not merely to the inhabitants of the country to which 
 the appellation of Numidia was afterward restricted, but to all the nomade 
 tribes of northern Africa. When, however, the Greek and Roman writers 
 speak of the Numidians, the term is usually limited to the two great tribes of 
 the Massasylii and Massylii, the former of whom extended along the northern 
 part of Africa, from the Molocath on the west to the Ampsagas on the east, 
 and the latter from the Ampsagas to the territories of Carthage. 
 
 II. When the Romans first became acquainted with the Numidians, which was 
 during the course of the second Punic war, Syphax was king of the Massessylii, 
 and Gala king of the Massylii. Gala had a son named Masinissa, who possessed 
 extraordinary powers both of mind and body. He was brought up at Carthage, 
 and, in the contest with the Romans in Spain, served with great credit against 
 them, but having been subsequently wronged by the Carthaginians, and deprived 
 by them of his dominions, he joined himself to Scipio on the arrival of the latter 
 in Africa, and proved of essential service to the Romans. At the conclusion 
 of the second Punic war, therefore, he obtained as a recompense all the domin 
 ions of Syphax, in which his own hereditary ones were included, together with 
 a considerable part of the Carthaginian territory. Masinissa laid the foundation 
 of a great and powerful state in Numidia. He introduced the arts of agriculture 
 and civilized life, amassed considerable wealth, and supported a well-appointed 
 army. He died at the age of ninety, B.C. 149. 
 
 III. Masinissa was succeeded by Micipsa, his eldest son, who lived to B.C. 
 118, and bequeathed his kingdom to his two sons Adherbal and Hiempsal, and 
 his nephew Jugurtha. Jugurtha, however, not content with a divided sover 
 eignty, murdered Hiempsal, and compelled Adherbal to flee to Rome, where he 
 appealed to the senate against the usurpation of his cousin. A war on the part 
 of the Romans against Jugurtha finally ensued, which terminated, after various 
 success, in the capture and death of that prince, B.C. 106. After the death of 
 Jugurtha the kingdom of Numidia appears to have been given to Hiempsal II., 
 who was succeeded, about B.C. 50, by his son Juba I., who took an active part in 
 the civil wars against Caesar. On the death of Juba I, B.C. 46, Numidia was 
 reduced to the form of a Roman province by Caesar, who intrusted the govern 
 ment of it to the historian Sallust. 
 
714 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PLACES IN NUMIDIA. 
 
 1. Thabraca or Tabrdca, at the mouth of the River Tusca, and the frontier town 
 on the side of Zeugitana. According to Ptolemy, it was a Roman colony, and 
 here the tyrant Gildo put an end to his life in A.D. 398. In the vicinity were 
 forests thickly inhabited by apes, a circumstance to which Juvenal alludes. The 
 ancient name may still be traced in that of the island of Tabarkah, at the mouth 
 of the river. 2. Hippo Regius, to the west, near the mouth of the Ubus, now 
 the Zenati. It was founded by the Phoenicians, and became subsequently a 
 Roman colony, and a place of great importance. It was destroyed by the Van 
 dals in A.D. 430. Hippo is well known as the see of St. Augustine. It was 
 called Hippo Regius to distinguish it from Hippo Zarytus, in Africa Propria, and 
 from its being a favorite place of residence with the Numidian kings. The ruins 
 of Hippo are near the modern Bona. 3. Rusicada, to the west, on the Sinus 01- 
 cachites, or Gulf of Stora, and regarded as the port of Cirta. 4. Cullu, to the 
 northwest, famed for its purple dye, and therefore, probably, of Phoenician origin. 
 The ruins are at a place called Collo. 5. Vacca or Vaga, a large and important 
 place, south of Tabraca, and described by Sallust as the chief commercial town 
 in Numidia. It was destroyed by Metellus in the Jugurthine war, but afterward 
 rebuilt and inhabited by Romans. Justinian fortified the place, and called it 
 Theodorias, in honor of his wife. It coincides, probably, with the modern Beja 
 or Bedsja. 6. Sicca Veneria, to the south, on the Bagradas. It was of Phoeni 
 cian origin, and the appellation Veneria had reference to its containing a temple 
 of Venus, who was worshipped here with Phoenician rites. Its site corresponds 
 with the modern Kef. 7. Cirta, the chief town in Numidia toward the western 
 frontier, situate on a high rocky peninsula, about forty-eight miles from the sea, 
 and on a branch of the Ampsagas, now called the Rummel. It was a strong 
 place, and the royal residence, having been occupied in succession by Syphax, 
 Masinissa, and the other rulers of the land. Julius Caesar subsequently be 
 stowed it on Sittius, a partisan of his, and, a Roman colony being established 
 here, the city now received the appellation of Colonia Julia, or Sittianorum Co- 
 Ionia. At a later day, in the time of the Emperor Constantine, having suffered 
 much on account of its fidelity to that prince, it was repaired and embellished 
 by him, and changed its name, in consequence, to Constantina, which it retains 
 to the present day. 8. Zama, situate, according to the best opinion, to the south 
 east of Sitifi, and answering to the modern Zainah. Some, less correctly, seek 
 to identify it with the modern Zoharin. Near Zama was fought the memorable 
 battle between Scipio and Hannibal, which put an end to the second Punic war. 
 Zama was a strongly fortified place, and was occasionally the residence of the 
 monarchs of Numidia ; hence it was also called Zama Regia. 9. Tagaste, south 
 west of Vacca, and the birth-place of St. Augustine. 
 
 3. AFRICA PROPRIA. 
 
 I. BY Africa Propria, called also Africa Vetus, is here 
 meant the immediate and earlier territory of Carthage, before 
 that state had wrested the Regio Syrtica from Cyrene. It 
 extended from the River Tusca on the west, to the Palus Tri- 
 tonis and the Syrtis Minor on the south and southeast, and 
 corresponded, therefore, to the modern Tunis. On the other 
 
AFRICA. 715 
 
 hand, the Roman Province of Africa extended from the River 
 Ampsagas on the west, to the Arce Philcenorum, or " Altars 
 of the Philaeni," on the east, and embraced, therefore, not only 
 Africa Propria, but also Numidia and the Regio Syrtica. 
 
 II. Africa Propria was divided into two districts, namely, 
 Byzacium and Zeugitana, the former in the south, the latter 
 in the north. The whole country was a fertile one, but By 
 zacium remarkably so, and of Byzacium itself the most pro 
 ductive part was a region called Emporice, forming its south 
 ernmost portion, and lying around the Palus Tritonis and Syr- 
 tis Minor. This last-mentioned region of Emporice was pe 
 culiarly regarded as the granary of Carthage, and is often men 
 tioned as a separate district by the ancient writers. It appears 
 to have derived its name from the numerous trading places 
 (e^7?opem) contained in it, and which were probably the staple- 
 towns for the trade with the interior of Africa. Byzacium is 
 said to have been so called from the Byzantes, a numerous 
 tribe of Libyans who dwelt in it. 
 
 III. The Carthaginian dominions reached on the south as far 
 as the land was fertile, that is, to the Palus Tritonis, beyond 
 which the agricultural tribes ceased and the nomade races be 
 gan. The interior of the country was every where filled with 
 Carthaginian colonies, which, intermingling with the native 
 tribes, gave rise to a mixed but civilized race called Libyphceni- 
 ces. 
 
 PLACES IN BYZACIUM. 
 
 1. Byzacia or Byzacina, the capital of the district, on the Syrtis Minor, and 
 the same, probably, with the city named Mamma, which is mentioned by Proco- 
 pius. It appears to correspond to the modern Beghui. The Palus Tritonis lay 
 to the southwest of this place. It is now called Shibkah-el-Lowdiah. In the 
 time of Scylax this lake communicated with the Syrtis Minor by a small en 
 trance called the River Triton. In its immediate vicinity was a smaller lake 
 named Libya Palus. The appellation Tritonia, given in mythology to Minerva, 
 is erroneously connected by some with the name of the Palus Tritonis. 2. Cap- 
 sa, to the north, and inland, situate in a fruitful region, but surrounded by des 
 erts. It was a strong place, and was said to have been founded by the Libyan 
 Hercules. Jugurtha kept his treasures here. It is now Cafsa. 3. Thena, on 
 the coast, to the northeast, with the island of Ccrcina, now Chercara, lying op 
 posite. It subsequently became a Roman colony, with the name of JElia Au 
 gusta Mercurialis. It is now Taineh. 4. Acholla, to the northeast, on the coast, 
 and near the modern Elalia. 5. Thapsus, to the north, on a promontory, and 
 near a salt lake. It was a strong place, and became known from Caesar s vic 
 tory here over Scipio and Juba. The ruins are at Demass. 6. Tunis Hanni- 
 
716 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 balis, close by, the spot whence Hannibal set sail when fleeing from Africa. 
 7. Leptis Parva or Minor, on the coast, to the northwest, a Phoenician settle 
 ment, and now Lemta. It was called Parva for distinction sake from Leptis 
 Magna in the Regio Syrtica. 8. Hadrumctum or Adrumetum, on the coast, to 
 the northwest, a Phoenician settlement, and a flourishing commercial city. It 
 was made a Roman colony under Trajan. Its walls were subsequently demol 
 ished by the Vandals, but rebuilt by Justinian, who gave the city the name of 
 Justiniana. At a still later day it took the name of Heraclea, from the Emperor 
 Heraclius, and is, therefore, probably now represented by the modern Hcrcla, 
 and not, as some suppose, by Hamamet, which lies more to the north. 9. Su- 
 fetula, in the interior, to the northeast of Capsa, a place of considerable import 
 ance, and the central point of all the trading routes running into the more inland 
 parts, now Sfaitla. 
 
 PLACES IN ZEUGITANA. 
 
 1. Neapolis, on the coast, to the north of Hadrumetum, and an old Phoenician 
 settlement. It became subsequently a Roman colony. The modern Nabal rep 
 resents only a small portion of the ancient city, the greater part having been 
 swallowed up by the sea. The bay in front was called Sinus Neapolitanus, now 
 the Gulf of Hamamet. 2. Aspis, or, in the Latin translation of the name, Clypca, 
 to the north, just below the Promontory of Hermaum, a strong place, with a 
 small harbor, now Clybea. 3. Hippo Zarytus, more correctly written so than in 
 the Greek form Hippo Diarrhytus (Aia/5/6urof), which seems to be merely an imi 
 tative translation of the native name. It was situate on the northern coast, to 
 ward the \vest, called Zarytus on account, it is said, of the frequent inundations 
 to which it was exposed. It must not be confounded with Hippo Regius in Nu- 
 midia. It is now Benizert or Bizerta. 4. Utica, to the east of Hippo, and west 
 of the mouth of the Bagradas. It was the earliest, or one of the earliest colo 
 nies planted by Tyre on the African coast, and, according to some authorities, 
 was more ancient than Carthage. It was for a long period an ally rather of this 
 latter city than really subject to it. In the third Punic war, however, it sided 
 with the Romans, and after the issue of that conflict received from the latter 
 as a recompense a large portion of the immediate territory of Carthage. Utica 
 was subsequently the chief place of arms, and the last refuge of the republican 
 party in the war with Caesar, and here the younger Cato put an end to his ex 
 istence. It was, next to Carthage, the most important city in Africa, and, after 
 the fall of that city, held the first rank. The ruins at Bu-Shatter are very prob 
 ably those of Utica. 5. Castra Cornelia, a short distance to the east of Utica, 
 and the spot where the elder Scipio landed in the second Punic war, and pitched 
 his first camp, whence the name of the place. According to Mannert, it was at 
 the present Porto Farina. 6. Tunes, to the south, and, according to Polybius, 
 only one hundred and twenty stadia from Carthage. It first rose into notice on 
 the fall of the latter city, and answers to the modern Tunis. 
 
 7. Carthago, a celebrated commercial city, situate on the northern coast, upon 
 a peninsula, in the recess of a spacious bay, formed by the Hermceum Promon- 
 torium, or Cape Bon, on the east, and the Apollinis Promontorium, or Cape Zebib, 
 on the west. Between it and Utica flowed the River Megerdas, now the Meds- 
 jerda. Carthage was founded by a colony from Tyre, but the true date of its 
 origin is uncertain. There would seem to have been, in fact, two successive 
 Phoenician settlements on the spot, an earlier one, preceding, according to tra 
 dition, the siege of Troy, and a later one, headed by Elissa or Dido. These later 
 colonists are said to have purchased or agreed to pay rent for a piece of ground 
 
AFRICA. 717 
 
 on which to build a town, and to have called this town Betzura or Basra, " the 
 castle," a name which the Greeks subsequently altered into Byrsa, and invented 
 in connection with it the well-known fable of the hide. As the town increased, 
 the inhabitants excavated a port, which was called Cothon, and eventually a 
 great maritime and commercial emporium arose. The Phoenician name of this 
 city was Karth-hadtha, " the New City," in contradistinction to the old or parent 
 city of Tyre, and out of this name the Greeks formed their Kapxvduv, and the 
 Romans Carthago. Carthage carried on a most extensive commerce both by 
 land and sea. Her inland traffic reached, by means of caravans, into probably 
 the very centre of Africa. Her settlements were spread along the whole north 
 ern coast ; while her foreign commerce reached not only over the entire Med 
 iterranean, but even into the Atlantic. Among her foreign possessions may be 
 mentioned Sardinia, Corsica, a portion of Sicily, the Baleares, and a large part 
 of Spain. The government of Carthage was municipal ; and the city ruled over 
 all the rest of the country. The constitution was a mixed aristocracy. The 
 chief authority was vested in the senate, which appears to have been a numer 
 ous body, composed of the principal citizens. It was not an exclusive aristoc 
 racy, nor essentially hereditary, but was recruited out of the class of the more 
 wealthy citizens, or those who had rendered great service to the state. The sen 
 ators appear to have been elected for life. The senate contained within itself a 
 select body, or council of state, which the Greek writers call Gerusia, and which 
 consisted of one hundred members. Two suffetes, probably shophetim or judges, 
 like those of the Hebrews, and whom the Greek and Roman writers call kings, 
 appear to have been at the head of the executive ; they presided in the senate, 
 and laid before that assembly their reports on public affairs. The Carthagini 
 ans employed chiefly mercenary soldiers, though always commanded by Car 
 thaginian officers. This formed one of the main evils of their system, as they 
 could never rely fully on the attachment of these troops. Carthage was the 
 great rival of Rome, and the collisions between these two great powers are 
 known in history by the name of the Punic Wars. The first Punic w r ar lasted 
 twenty-three years, and was brought to a close by the naval battle fought off 
 the JEgdtes Insula, to the west of Sicily. By this war Carthage lost Sicily and 
 the Lipari islands. The second Punic war began B.C. 218, and was ended by 
 the battle of Zama and the defeat of Hannibal, in B.C. 201. During sixteen 
 years of this period Hannibal maintained the war in Italy. The third Punic 
 war lasted only three years, and ended with the destruction of Carthage by the 
 younger Scipio Africanus. About thirty years after this the Gracchi attempted 
 to establish a colony on the ruins of Carthage, but the settlement made little 
 progress until Julius Caesar, and Augustus after him, sent colonies to build a 
 new city, which was called Colonia Carthago. It stood on the southeast part of 
 the peninsula, and occupied only a small part of the ancient site. Subsequently, 
 however, it rose to considerable splendor, and became the first city of Roman 
 Africa. In Christian history it is known for its councils, and for the spiritual 
 labors of St. Augustine. In A.D. 439 it was taken by the Vandals ; in 533 it 
 was retaken by Belisarius. In A.D. 698 it was destroyed by the Saracens. 
 The ruins seen at the present day belong to Roman Carthage. There are no 
 remains of the Tyrian city, except the large cisterns, and perhaps the ruins of 
 the great aqueduct. The alluvia of the Bagradas, and the sands raised up by 
 the northwest winds which prevail on this coast, have produced great changes, 
 and the shape of the peninsula of Carthage in particular is completely altered. 
 
718 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 4. REGIO SYRTICA. 
 
 I. THE Regio Syrtica was the tract of country lying along 
 the coast between the Syrtis Minor and the Syrtis Major, and 
 extending from the River Triton on the west, to the Arce Phi- 
 l&norum and Cyrendica on the east. At a subsequent period, 
 probably about the third century of our era, it took the name 
 of Regio Tripolitana or Tripolis, from its three cities of Leptis 
 Magnet,, (Ea, and Sabrata ; and it now answers to the district 
 of Tripoli. 
 
 II. This tract of country is described by the ancients as sandy, 
 and but little cultivated ; at the present day, however, the coast 
 lands, except at the bottom of the Syrtis Major, where the 
 desert and sea are conterminous, are extremely fertile. The 
 Syrtic region originally belonged to Cyrendica, but fell subse 
 quently into the hands of the Carthaginians, through the strat 
 agem of the Philceni, whose patriotism was commemorated by 
 the altars erected over their graves. It afterward formed part 
 of the Roman province of Africa. 
 
 THE SYRTES. 
 
 I. Syrtes (at Svpreif) was the name given by the Greeks and Romans to the 
 two gulfs on the northern coast of Africa, one of which they called Syrtis Major 
 (i] //eyu/lT? Suprtf), or the Greater Syrtis, and the other Syrtis Minor (rj piKpa Svp- 
 r/f), or the Lesser Syrtis. Both Syrtes were the terror of the ancient mariners. 
 The name is said by some to be derived from the Greek verb avpu, "to drag," 
 in allusion to the agitation of the sand by the force of the tides. Another der 
 ivation, however, is from the term serf, which still exists in Arabic as the name 
 for a desert tract or region ; for the term Syrtis does not appear to have been 
 confined to the gulfs themselves, but to have been extended also to the desert 
 country adjacent, which is still at the present day called Sert. 
 
 II. The Syrtis Major is now called the Gulf of Sidra, and lay between the 
 Boreum Promontorium, now Cape Tejuni, on the east, and the Cephala Prom- 
 ontorium, now Cape Mesurata, on the west, the distance between which is two 
 hundred and thirty geographical miles. The Sahara, or Great Desert, here 
 comes down almost to the sea, leaving here and there only a narrow strip of 
 land inhabitable. The gulf is very shallow and full of quicksands, and the coast 
 is covered by a chain of little islands. On this dangerous shore it was difficult 
 to prevent ships from being driven by the north winds, to which the gulf is com 
 pletely exposed, while the effect of such winds on the water made the sound 
 ings very uncertain. 
 
 III. The Syrtis Minor is now called the Gulf of Khabs or Cabes, and lay to 
 the west of the former, between the island Meninx, now Jerbah, on the south, 
 and the Brachodcs Promontorium, or Cape Capoudiah, on the north. Its width, 
 reckoned from the island of Meninx to that of Cercina, was sixty geographical 
 miles. This gulf is said by Scylax to have been even more dangerous than the 
 Greater Syrtis. Its dangers arise, however, not so much from quicksands as 
 
AFRICA. 719 
 
 from the variations and uncertainty of the tides on a flat shelvy coast. These 
 variations are occasioned by the east winds to which it lies open. 
 
 TRIBES IN THE REGIO SYRTICA. 
 
 THE Tribes of the Regio Syrtica were, 1. The Lotophagi, or "lotus-eaters," 
 around the Syrtis Minor, and extending also some distance along the coast to 
 the southeast. They received their name from their employing the fruit of the 
 lotus as their chief article of food. The lotus here meant is supposed to have 
 been a species of ziziphus, or jujube, growing very abundantly in this quarter 
 even at the present day, and described by travellers as a prickly, branching 
 shrub, with fruit of the size of a wild plum, and of a sweetish taste and saffron 
 color. According to Homer, the fruit of the lotus was so delicious that who 
 ever ate of it lost all desire of returning to their native country. Ulysses was 
 fabled to have visited the land of the Lotophagi in the course of his wander 
 ings. 2. The Gindanes, to the west of the former. 3. Various tribes mention 
 ed by Ptolemy, but of whom nothing is known, such as the Nigitimi, Samamycii, 
 Damensii, Nygbeni, &c. 4. The Psylli, toward the frontiers of Cyrenaica. 
 They were said to be very expert in taming serpents, and also in curing their 
 bite by sucking out the venom from the wound. Some ancient geographers 
 assign them to Cyrenaica. They were almost entirely destroyed by the Na- 
 samones. 
 
 PLACES IN THE REGIO SYRTICA. 
 
 THE most important places were the three cities already mentioned, and 
 which gave to this region subsequently the name of Tripolis, or Regio Tripoli- 
 tana; namely, 1. Leptis Magna, on the east, to the west of the mouth of the 
 River Cinyps, and founded by a colony of Sidonian fugitives. The country 
 around was very fertile, and, though the city had no harbor, it was neverthe 
 less enriched by inland traffic, more particularly under the Romans, who estab 
 lished a colony here. It was the birth-place of the Emperor Septimius Severus, 
 who greatly favored the place, so that, as late as the fourth century of our era, it 
 was a strong and populous city. The ruins are now to be seen at Lebida, which 
 occupies a part of its site. The River Cinyps (Kivvip) or Cinyphus (Ko>v<pof) is 
 the only stream of any consequence in this tract of country, and rose in what 
 was called the "Hill of the Graces" (Xapiruv Ad^of), about two hundred stadia 
 from the coast. The modern name of this river is Wady Quaham. 2. (Ea, call 
 ed by Pliny Civitas CEensis, and by Ptolemy Ewa, on the coast, to the northwest, 
 and with a good harbor. It first grew up under the Roman sway, and is said 
 to have been founded by a mixed colony of natives and Sicilians. It became 
 at a later day a Roman colony, with the name of JElia Augusta Felix. The ruins 
 lie four geographical miles to the east of the modern city of Tripoli. 3. Sabrata, 
 not far to the west, originally a Phoenician settlement, and subsequently a Ro 
 man colony. It was the native city of Flavia Domitilla, wife of Vespasian, and 
 mother of Titus and Domitian. Mannert makes it the same with the Phoenician 
 Abrotonum, but Pliny distinguishes between the two places. The site of Sabrata 
 is now called Sabart, or Tripoli Vecchio. To these three places we may add, 
 4. Tacape, on the Syrtis Minor, and a little below the mouth of the River Tri 
 ton. In its vicinity were warm baths, called Aqua Tacapitance. Tacape is now 
 Gabes. 5. Meninx, the chief town in the island Meninx, in the Syrtis Minor. 
 This island was likewise called Lotophagitis Insula. It contained another town 
 named Germ, the native place of the Emperors Vibius Gallus and Volusianus. 
 From it comes the modern name Girba given to the island. 
 
720 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 5. CYRENAICA. 
 
 I. Cyrenaica was bounded on the west by the Regio Tripo- 
 litana, on the east by Marmariba, on the north by the Medi 
 terranean, and on the south by the African desert. It derived 
 its name from its capital city Gyrene. At a subsequent period, 
 about the time of the Egyptian Ptolemies, it took also the ap 
 pellation of Pentapolis, from its five principal cities. It cor 
 responds in a great measure to the modern Barca. 
 
 II. Cyrenaica was regarded by the Greeks as a kind of ter 
 restrial paradise. It was extremely well watered, and the in 
 habitants, according to Herodotus, employed eight months in 
 collecting the productions of the land ; the maritime places 
 first yielded their fruits, then the second region, which they 
 called the hills, and, lastly, the highest parts inland. One of 
 the chief natural productions was an herb called silphmm, to 
 the resinous juice of which great virtues were ascribed, and 
 which therefore formed a valuable article of trade. A repre 
 sentation of the silphium always appears upon the coins of 
 Gyrene. 
 
 INHABITANTS AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. THE inhabitants in the interior were Libyan nomades, those on the coast 
 were Greek colonists. About B.C. 631, a colony of Greeks, in obedience to 
 the suggestion of the Delphic oracle, and under the guidance of a leader named 
 Battus, migrated from the island of Thera, a Lacedaemonian settlement, and 
 established themselves on this part of the African coast, where they founded 
 the city of Cyrene. The constitution of the colony was at first monarchical. 
 Under Battus II. the settlement was greatly increased by the arrival of new 
 Greek colonists. Under Battus III. the regal power was much curtailed by 
 Demonax of Mantinea, who introduced several laws to that effect. 
 
 II. About B.C. 450 the government appears to have changed to a republic. 
 After the time of Alexander the country became subject to Ptolemy the First 
 of Egypt, and continued under the dominion of his successors until the death 
 of Ptolemy Physcon, who left it by will as an independent kingdom to his nat 
 ural son Ptolemy Apion. This monarch, at his death in B.C. 96, bequeathed 
 his kingdom by will to the Roman people. The senate, however, refused to 
 accept the legacy, and declared the cities of Cyrenaica free. They were not 
 reduced to the condition of a province till near thirty years afterward. 
 
 PLACES IN CYRENAICA. 
 
 1. Apollonia, on the coast, and at first merely the harbor of Cyrene, which 
 lay inland ; afterward, however, a large and independent city. In the Middle 
 Ages it took the name of Sozusa (So^ovo-a), and the site is now called Marza 
 Susa. 2. Ptolemais, on the coast, to the southwest, and at first merely the har 
 bor of Barce, which lay one hundred stadia inland ; afterward, however, it was 
 enlarged by the Ptolemies, called Ptolemais, having been previously known, ac- 
 
AFRICA. 721 
 
 cording to Pliny, by the same name (Barce) as the city whose harbor it then 
 was, and became a very flourishing place, while Barce itself declined. At a 
 subsequent period we find Ptolemai s suffering greatly from a scarcity of water, 
 in consequence of which many of its inhabitants left it, and although the Em 
 peror Justinian tried every expedient to remedy this evil by means of aqueducts, 
 the city gradually fell to ruins. The remains are called at the present day 
 Tolometa. 3. Taucheira or Tcuckeira, on the coast, a short distance to the south 
 west. The goddess Cybele was worshipped here with peculiar honors. Under 
 the Ptolemies the name of the place was changed to Arsinoe. It became at a 
 later period a Roman colony. Its remains are now called Tochira or Teukira. 
 4. Berenice, on the coast, to the southwest. Its earlier name was Hesperis or 
 Hcsperidcs, changed to Berenice in honor of the queen of Ptolemy Euergetes 
 It is now Benagaye or Benegasi. Berenice was the westernmost city of the 
 Pentapolis, and not far from the mouth of the River Lathon. Some of the an 
 cient writers placed the far-famed gardens of the Hesperides near Berenice. 
 In the neighborhood of Benagaye, at the present day, are some curious chasms or 
 pits sunk in the rock, sixty or seventy feet below the plain, with excellent soil 
 at the bottom, covered with trees and rich vegetation, and which seem to an 
 swer to the description given by Scylax of those celebrated gardens. 
 
 5. Cyrene, the capital of the Pentapolis, and from which it derived its name 
 of Cyrena ica. It was founded in B.C. 631 by a colony from the island of Thera, 
 led by Battus, as we have already remarked. The colony first settled in an 
 island named Platea, where they remained two years ; after this they removed 
 to Aziris, where they remained six years, and at length settled in the place 
 which they called Cyrene, a term said to be derived from a fountain named 
 Cyre, flowing near," This city soon became, from its advantageous situation 
 for commerce, a rich and powerful one, and, next to Carthage, the most import 
 ant place in northern Africa. In the time of Aristotle its government was re 
 publican. It subsequently fell, as already stated, under the power of the Ptole 
 mies, and was finally bequeathed by Apion, together with the rest of the Pen 
 tapolis, to the Romans. The country around Cyrene must have been in ancient 
 times a complete garden, and is still remarkable for its beauty. Cyrene was 
 the native place of many distinguished persons, among whom may be here men 
 tioned Aristippus, the founder of the Cyrenaic sect, Carneades, the head of the 
 New Academy, the poet Callimachus, and the geographer Eratosthenes. This 
 city, after suffering much from the oppression of its Byzantine governors, was 
 destroyed in the fourth century by an irruption of some barbarous tribe from 
 the interior of Libya. The ruins are now called Grenneh or Curin. 6. Barce, 
 to the southwest of Cyrene, and lying inland from Ptolemai s. It was original 
 ly the capital of a Libyan tribe named Barcai, but received in B.C. 560 a large 
 accession of Greek settlers from Cyrene, of which city it soon became there 
 upon a powerful and bitter rival. This state of feud lasted for some time, until 
 Cyrene called in to her aid the Persian satrap of ^Egypt, when Barce was over 
 come, and a large number of her Grecian inhabitants were sent away captive 
 into Upper Asia, to the court of Darius Hystaspis, who assigned them lands in 
 Bactria. A much more severe blow was struck, however, at a later day, when 
 the Ptolemies enlarged the port of Barce, and made it a separate city under the 
 name of Ptolemai s. The rapid increase of this latter place soon caused Barce 
 to decline. It did not, however, become wholly deserted, and the Arabs sub 
 sequently gave its name to the whole country of Cyrena ica ; but at last th/> 
 town sank into total oblivion, and even its site can not now be ascertained 
 though probability is in favor of the modern Merdsich. 
 
 Zz 
 
722 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 / 
 
 6. MARMARICA. 
 
 I. Marmarica lay between Cyrendica on the \vest and 
 JZgypt on the east, while to the south it extended a consider 
 able distance, so as to include the Oasis of Ainmon ; and it 
 corresponds, therefore, to what is now the easternmost part of 
 Barca, and the northwesternmost portion of JEgypt. 
 
 II. Prior, however, to the Roman dominion, and under the 
 sway of the Ptolemies, Marmarica extended merely, on the 
 oast, as far as the Catabathmus Magnus, a long valley or de 
 scent running inland from the coast, and now the vale of Aka- 
 bah el-Soloum; and hence the ancient geographers, up to that 
 time regarding ./Egypt as a part of Asia, and extending its 
 limits as far as the Catabathmus Magnus on the west, made 
 this last the boundary between Africa and Asia. 
 
 III. Under the Romans, however, a new arrangement was 
 made, Marmarica being extended on the east as far as the 
 Sinus Plinthinetes, or Arabs Gulf, and the whole country be 
 ing divided into two parts, namely, Marmarica Proper, reach 
 ing from Cyrenai ca to the Catabathmus Magnus, and the 
 Nome of Libya (AiBvrjg Nd/io^), extending from the Catabath 
 mus to the Sinus Plinthinetes, and which the Ptolemies had 
 made a part of ^Egypt. It is in this enlarged sense that we 
 are now to consider Marmarica. 
 
 FACE OF THE COUNTRY, TRIBES, & c. 
 
 I. MARMARICA was for the most part a sandy waste, containing no rivers and 
 but few cities. It had also but few mountains, the principal of which were, 
 1. Mons Aspis, along the coast of the Libyan Nome. 2. Mons Asyphus, further 
 to the west. 3. Mons Ogdamus, to the southeast of the range of Aspis. 4. 
 Monies Anagombri, to the west of the Oasis of Amraon. 5. Monies Bascici, to 
 the northwest. The Catabathmus Magnus, already mentioned, was formed by a 
 continuation of these latter mountains. The epithet Magnus was given to the 
 valley in question, in contradistinction to the Catab&tkmus Parvits, near the con- 
 lines of ^Egypt. 
 
 II. Marmarica, with the exception of the coast, was reamed over by various 
 nomadic tribes, the most powerful of whom were ths Marntarida:, from whom 
 the country derived its name. The Adyrmachida, in the Libyan Nome, are said 
 in some respects to have resembled the ./Egyptians. The Nasamoncs, who, in 
 earlier geography, are assigned to Cyrenalca, are placed by Ptolemy in Mar 
 marica, having been driven into this country by the Roman arms. 
 
 PLACES IN MARMARICA. 
 
 1 . Taposiris or Taphosiris, near the Egyptian frontier, on the coast, and cele 
 brated as the burial-place of Osiris, whence its Greek name. The ruins an 
 
AFRICA. 723 
 
 now called Abusir, and lie near what is termed the Arab s Tower, protably an 
 ancient Pharos. This place must not be confounded with Taposiris Parva, 
 which lay much nearer to Alexandrea. 2. Antiphra, some distance inland, noted 
 for its wretched wine. The Libyan wine in general was very poor, and drunk 
 only by the lowest classes in Alexandrea. 3. Paratdnium, on the coast, to the 
 west, a strongly fortified city, and prior to Roman times the frontier town of 
 JEgypt in this quarter. It was repaired and strengthened by Justinian. The 
 modern name of the site is Al-Barctoun. 4. Apis, about one hundred stadia to 
 the west of Pareetonium, and celebrated as one of the places where the deity 
 Apis, was particularly worshipped. Scylax makes this, and not Parsetonium, 
 the western limit of ^Egypt. 5. Catabathmus, a castle and harbor in the vi 
 cinity of, and taking its name from the Catabathmus Parmis. 6. Mcnelai Portus, 
 to the west, deriving its name, according to the legend, from Menelaus, who 
 landed here in the course of his wanderings. Here also Agesilaus, the cele 
 brated Spartan commander, ended his existence. It is now, probably, the har- 
 bor of Toubrouk. 7. Chersoncsus Magna, a city with a good harbor, on a prom 
 ontory of the same name, near the confines of CyrenaTca. It is now, perhaps, 
 Rasatin. 
 
 The only remarkable spot in the interior of Marmarica is the Oasis of Amman, 
 which we will now proceed briefly to describe, merely premising that by some 
 of the ancient geographers it is assigned, not to Marmarica, but to Libya Inte- 
 
 AMMONIUM OR OASIS OF AMMON. 
 
 I. BY the term Ammonium (TO Anpuviov) the Greeks and Romans meant 
 what is now called the Oasis of Siwah, a fertile spot in the Great Desert of Saha 
 ra, about fifteen geographical miles in length and twelve in breadth. It lies 
 about one hundred and sixty English miles from the sea-coast. The ancient 
 name was derived from the celebrated temple and oracle of Jupiter Ammon that 
 were here, and which appear to have been of very early origin. The origin of 
 the Ammonian people inhabiting this Oasis, and who would seem to have been 
 quite numerous, is a matter of uncertainty. The ancients make them to have 
 been a mixed colony of ^Egyptians and ^Ethiopians, and the traditions represent 
 a close connection as existing between this spot and JEgypt. 
 
 II. The god called by the Greeks Jupiter Arnmon was worshipped here under 
 a Krioproscpic form, that is, his statue was represented with a ram s head, a 
 manifest /Egyptian type ; although this doss not appear to have been his earli-: 
 est form. The oracle connected with the sanctuary was a very famous one r 
 and is well known to have been consulted by Alexander the Great in relation 
 to his divine origin. The temple of Ammon, like that of Delphi, was celebrated 
 for its treasures, and these, in the time of the Persian invasion of Egypt, excited 
 so far the cupidity of Cambyses as to induce him to send a large body offerees 
 across the desert to seize upon the place. They all, however, perished in the 
 desert, either from want of water, or from having been misled purposely by 
 their guides. 
 
 III. Here also was the famous Fans Solis, or " Fountain of the Sun," which, 
 acccnling to Herodotus, was tepid at dawn, cool as the day advanced, very cool 
 at noon, diminivsuing in coolness as the day declined, warm at sunset, and boil 
 ing hot at midnight. It would seem from the, accounts of modern travellers, and 
 especially of St. John, the latest of them, that it is a hot spring, and probably very 
 hot -it night, and comparatively cool in the daytime. The traveller last men 
 (ioru d, v. V .o has recently given a very interesting account of the remains and 
 
724 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 antiquities at Ammonium, describes the present inhabitants as a mixed race of 
 Berbers and negroes, extremely bigoted, and, consequently, very inhospitable 
 His visit was paid in 1847. 
 
 IV. The true character of the African Oases has been greatly misunderstood. 
 They are not, as the common account makes them, fertile spots " in the midst 
 of a sandy plain," but depressions in the lofty table-land of Africa, where, in the 
 absence of the superincumbent limestone strata, the water has the power of 
 rising to the surface. In other words, the Oases are valleys sunk in the ele 
 vated plain that forms the desert ; and when you descend to one of them, you 
 find the level space or plain of the Oasis similar to a portion of the valley of. 
 .Egypt, surrounded by steep hills of limestone at some distance from the culti 
 vated land. 
 
 7. .EGYPTUS. 
 
 1. NAME AND BOUNDARIES. 
 
 I. Mgypt is called in Hebrew Mitsraim ; in Arabic, Mesr. 
 The Copts, or descendants of the ancient Egyptians, term it 
 Chami or Chemi, " the dark land," in allusion to its dark, 
 rich soil. The appellation by which this country is known to 
 Europeans comes from the Greek (AlyvTr~o$, JEgyptus), and 
 appears to contain a root resembling the word Copt, so that 
 dEg ypt in.SLy perhaps mean "the land of the Copts" (from ala 
 for yala, and KVTTT-O$). The ancient ^Egyptian name is said to 
 have resembled the modern Coptic one. 
 
 II. ^Egypt was bounded on the south by ^Ethiopia, on the 
 north by the Mediterranean, on the east by Arabia Pctrcea 
 and Palaistina, and on the west by the Libyan Desert. The 
 extent along the Mediterranean coast was computed from Rhi- 
 nocorura, now El-Arish, on the east, to the Sinus Plinthine- 
 tes, now Arabs Gulf, on the west, in which latter direction the 
 city of Paratoniuni) subsequently assigned to Marmarica, was 
 commonly regarded as the frontier station. 
 
 III. Before the limits of Asia and Africa were correctly es 
 tablished, some of the early geographers made ^Egypt a part 
 of Asia, while others regarded the Nile as the dividing limit, 
 and assigned the portion of ^Egypt lying east of that river to 
 Asia, and the remainder to Africa. 
 
 2. DIVISIONS. 
 
 I. IN the time of the Pharaohs, ^Egypt was divided into the Thebals, Middle, 
 and Lower .Egypt. The Theba is extended from the confines of ./Ethiopia as far 
 as the city of Abydos, to the north, and contained ten districts, jurisdictions, or. 
 as the Greeks called them, names (VO^LOL). The Coptic word is Pthosch. To 
 these succeeded the sixteen nomes of Middle ^Egypt, reaching to Cercasorwn, 
 
AFRICA. 725 
 
 where the Nile began to branch off, and fortn the Delta. Then came the ten 
 nomes of Lower JEgypt, or the Delta, extending to the sea. The whole number 
 of nomes, then, at this period, was thirty-six, corresponding to the number of halls 
 in the Labyrinth. 
 
 II. Under the dynasty of the Ptolemies the number of nomes became enlarged 
 partly by reason of the new and improved state of things in that quarter of 
 .Egypt where Alexandrea was situated, partly by the addition of the Greater or 
 Lesser Oasis to JSgypt, and partly, also, by the alterations which an active com 
 merce had produced along the borders of the Sinus Arabicus. A change also 
 took place about this same period in the three main divisions of the country. 
 Lower ^Egypt now no longer confined itself to the limits of the Delta, but had 
 its extent enlarged by the addition of some of the neighboring nomes. In like 
 manner. Upper ^Egypt, or the Thebai s, received a portion.of what had formerly 
 been included within the limits of Middle ^Egypt, so that eventually but seven 
 nomes remained to this last-mentioned section of the country, which therefore 
 received the name of Heplanomis. 
 
 III. The number of nomes became still farther increased, at a subsequent pe 
 riod, by various subdivisions of the older ones. At a still later period we hear 
 little more of the nomes. A new division of the country took place under the 
 Eastern Empire. An imperial prefect exercised sway not only over ./Egypt, 
 but also over Libya as far as Gyrene, while a Comes Militaris had charge of the 
 forces. From this time, the whole of Middle ./Egypt, previously named Hepla 
 nomis, bore the name of Arcadia, in honor of Arcadius, eldest son of Theodosius. 
 A new province had also arisen, a considerable time before this, called Augus- 
 lamnica, from its lying chiefly along the Nile. It comprised the eastern half of 
 the Delta, together with a portion of Arabia, as far as the Arabian Gulf, and also 
 the cities on the Mediterranean as far as the frontiers of Syria. Its capital was 
 Pdusium. Other changes took place about the time of Justinian, in the sixth 
 century, in connection with the position of the various archbishoprics and bish 
 oprics, which it is unnecessary here to enumerate. 
 
 3. SOIL, CLIMATE, &c. 
 
 I. TIIK valley of the Nile is inclosed by the Libyan and Arabian mountain 
 chains, both of which are pierced with a number of valle3>s, crossing them ob 
 liquely, and leading on the one side to the Arabian Gulf, and on the other to the 
 Greater and Lesser Oasis of the Libyan Desert. The western chain forms a 
 monotonous barren dam, by which the valley of the Nile is protected from the 
 sand-waves of the Libyan Desert ; the eastern, which iills the whole country 
 as far as the Arabian Gulf, has in Upper ^Egypt three distinct formations, name 
 ly, in the south, rose-colored granite, the material of which the obelisks, entire 
 temples, and colossal statues were formed ; in the centre, sandstone of various 
 colors, gradually merging in the limestone formation of the mountains in the 
 north, the material of the pyramids. 
 
 II. Of this region, the only fertile portion is the valley which is inclosed bc- 
 uvecn these chains, and watered by the Nile. This valley becomes wider as 
 it approaches the north, and with the Delta, excepting the sandy and marshy 
 ground on the coast, forms a tract of rich alluvial soil, which is manured every 
 year by the overflowings of the Nile. Ancient ^gypt depends, in fact, entirely 
 on the Nile, not merely for its fertility, but its very existence, since rain never 
 falls in this country except in the Delta, and even here chiefly in places near 
 the sea. To its singularly constituted atmosphere, however, and to the regular 
 
726 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 inundations of the Nile, yEgypt owes the advantage of containing within iu 
 limits almost all the cultivated vegetables of the Old World. Even in the day.l 
 of Abraham and Joseph, this country was a place of refuge for the neighboring 
 nations in seasons of scarcity, and at a later period it became the granary of 
 Rome and Constantinople. Its most celebrated vegetable production, however, 
 was the papyrus, out of which paper was fnade, and which still grows here. 
 
 III. The average breadth of the valley of the Nile between Cairo and Edfou 
 is only about seven miles, and that of the cultivated land, whose limits depend 
 on the inundation, scarcely exceeds five and a half, being in the widest part ten 
 and three quarters, and in the narrowest two miles, including the river. The 
 extent of the Delta may be estimated at one thousand nine hundred and seventy- 
 six square miles. That the irrigated part of the valley was formerly much less 
 extensive than it is at present, at least wherever the plain stretches to any dis 
 tance east and west, orto the right and left of the river, is evident from the fact 
 of the alluvial deposit constantly encroaching in a horizontal direction upon the 
 gradual slope of the desert. The plain of Thebes, in the time of Amenouf III., 
 or about 1430 B.C., was not more than two thirds of its present breadth ; arid 
 the statues of that monarch, round which the alluvial mud has accumulated to 
 the height of nearly seven feet, are founded on the sand which once extended 
 to some distance in front of them. 
 
 4. ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE ^EGYPTIANS. 
 
 I. RECENT investigations have shown very conclusively that the ancient 
 /Egyptians were a Caucasian race, and that the civilization of ^Egypt proceed 
 ed, not from ^Ethiopia, down the valley of the Nile, as has generally been sup 
 posed, but in an opposite direction, from north to south. The government of 
 /Egypt appears to have been at first a hierarchy, successively composed of the 
 priest of one or other of the principal deities, but its duration is uncertain. We 
 then come to the kings, the first of whom, by universal consent, was Menes. 
 The records of the ^Egyptian priests, as handed down to us by Herodotus, 
 Manetho, Eratosthenes, and others, place the era of this monarch about 2320 
 B.C., in which year he is supposed to have ascended the throne. 
 
 II. The immediate successors of Menes are unknown till we come to Suphis* 
 and his brother or brothers, to whom the great pyramid is attributed by some, 
 and who are supposed to be the same as the Cheops and Cephren of Herodotus, 
 although that historian has placed them much later, after tiesostris and Mceris 
 Abraham visited .-Egypt about 1920 B.C., and we have the testimony of Scrip 
 ture as to the high and flourishing state of the country at that early period. 
 The Sacred Writings call the kings of 2Egypt indiscriminately Pharaohs, which 
 is now ascertained to be, not the proper name of the individual monarchs, but 
 a prefix, like that of Casar and Augustus given to the Roman emperors. 
 
 III. Little or nothing is known of several successive dynasties, which were 
 probably merely contemporaneous ones, reigning over various parts of the coun 
 try, until we come to Osirtasen I. of the sixteenth dynasty, who began to reign 
 about 1740 B.C. Very few monuments remain of a date prior to his reign, 
 The obelisk of Heliopolis bears the name of Osirtasen. Under the sixteenth 
 dynasty, about 1706 B.C., Joseph, and afterward Jacob and his family, came to 
 ^Egypt, where their descendants settled and multiplied in the land of Goshen in 
 Lower ^Egypt. Joseph died very old, under the seventeenth dynasty, which 
 reigned from 1651 to 1575 B.C. 
 
 IV. About 1575 B.C. " there arose a new king, who knew not Joseph." This 
 was the head of the eighteenth dynasty, from Diospolis or Thebes, which dy- 
 
AFRICA. 727 
 
 nasty reigned 340 years, according to Eusebius and other chroniclers, and 
 which contains the names of the most illustrious sovereigns of ancient JEgypt. 
 It appears probable that this dynasty was the continuation of the line of the old 
 Diospolitan kings, who are mentioned as having reigned before Osirtasen I., 
 which line may have been dispossessed, by some revolution, of the throne, or, 
 at least, of the greater part of the country, which was occupied by a new race 
 from Lower ./Egypt during the sixteenth and seventeenth dynasties. 
 
 V. The irruption of the Hyksos, or shepherds, is supposed by some to have 
 occurred during this period. Manetho s seventeenth dynasty consists of shep 
 herd kings, who are said to have reigned at Memphis. These shepherds, who 
 are represented as people with red hair and blue eyes, came from the northeast, 
 perhaps from the mountains of Assyria. They conquered or overran the whole- 
 country, committing the greatest ravages, and at last settled in Lower ^gypt, 
 where they had kings of their own race. They were finally expelled by Tulh- 
 mosis or Thotkmes I. of the eighteenth dynasty. The flight of Moses falls un 
 der the reign of this king, 1531 B.C. ; and the Exodus of the Israelites, B.C. 
 1491, under that of Thothmes III., about four hundred and thirty years after the 
 visit of Abraham to yEgypt. The Scripture says that Pharaoh perished in the 
 pursuit of the Israelites, and it is remarkable that Amunoph II., the son and suc 
 cessor of Thothmes, is represented in a drawing at Thebes as having come to 
 the throne very young, and under the tutelage of his mother. 
 
 VI. Rcmeses II., or the Great, son of Osirei I., ascended the throne about 
 1350 B.C., and reigned above forty years. This is supposed to be the Sesostris 
 or Sesoosis of the Greek historians. The monuments prove him to have been 
 one of the most warlike kings of ancient /Egypt, and it is probable from these 
 that his campaigns extended to Asia, perhaps against the monarchs of Assyria. 
 The nineteenth dynasty, also of Diospolitans, began about 1270 B.C., and reign 
 ed till 1170. During this period the war of Troy took place, in the reign of a 
 Remeses, supposed to be the fifth of that name, according to Pliny. Herodotus 
 and Diodorus give King Proteus as contemporary with the war of Troy. It is 
 curious, that from the Exodus till Solomon s time, a period of nearly five cen 
 turies, no mention is made in the Scriptures of -/Egypt, which proves that the 
 storm of war, if such there was, passed off either to the east of Palestine, or 
 that the ^Egyptian conquerors followed the maritime road by Gaza and the Phoe 
 nician coast, leaving the high land of Judges to their right. 
 
 VII. The twenty-second dynasty, beginning with Sesonchis or Shcshonk, com 
 mences about 978 B.C. This monarch is the Shishak of Scripture, at whose 
 court Jeroboam took refuge, and whose daughter he married ; and who, after 
 Solomon s death, plundered the Temple of Jerusalem. The twenty-third dy 
 nasty, called Diospolitan, like the preceding, began about 908 B.C. with Osorkon 
 II. Homer is believed to have flourished about this time, and he speaks of 
 ./Egypt under its Greek name. The twenty-fourth dynasty, which is called 
 Saite, from Sals in Lower /Egypt, begins with the Bocchoris of Manetho, about 
 812 B.C. His phonetic name is Bakhor Or Pchor. A monarch named Sabacos, 
 in phonetic Sabakoph, begins the twenty-fifth dynasty of /Ethiopians, who about 
 this time invaded .-Egypt, or at least Upper /Egypt. Tchrak or T<rhakah, one 
 of his successors, attacked Sennacherib 710 B.C. Scthos, a priest of Vulcan, 
 became king, and ruled at Memphis contemporary with Tirhakah. 
 
 VIII. After the death of Sethos, a great confusion or anarchy took place. At 
 last twelve chiefs or monarchs assembled at Memphis, and took the direction 
 of affairs, which they retained for fifteen years, when Psamatik I., or Psammiti- 
 rMs ( the son of Nechao or Necos, who had been put to death by Sabacos, be- 
 
728 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 came, by the aid of Greek mercenaries, king of all JEgypt, about 650 B.C. His 
 son Nccos II. is the Pharaoh Nccho of Scripture, who defeated and slew Josiah, 
 king of Judah, 610 B.C. He also began the canal that joined the eastern branch 
 of the Nile with the Arabian Gulf. His successor, Psamatik II,, was followed 
 by Psamatik III., supposed by some to be the Aprics of Manetho, and the Pharaoh 
 Hophra of Scripture, who defeated the Phoenicians, took Sidon, and invaded 
 Cyprus, which was finally subjected by Amdsis, who succeeded him on the 
 throne. 
 
 IX. The reign of Amdsis lasted forty-four years, according to a date on the 
 monuments. His successor Psamcnitus reigned only six months, w r hen - Egypt 
 was invaded by Cambyses, 525 B.C., who overran and ravaged the country, 
 but lost the greater part of his army in the neighboring deserts, when seeking,, 
 for the purposes of plunder, the Temple of Jupiter Ammon. The twenty-seventh 
 dynasty includes the Persian kings, from Cambyses to Darius Nothus, during 
 which time ..-Egypt was a province, though a very unruly one, of the Persian 
 monarchy. It was during this period that Herodotus visited JEgypt. 
 
 X. After several revolts, the /Egyptians succeeded in placing Amyrtaus, or 
 Aomahorte, a Saite, on the throne, about 414 B.C. This king alone constitutes 
 the twenty-eighth dynasty. He was succeeded by the twenty-ninth dynasty of 
 Mendesians, who defended /Egypt against the repeated attacks of the Persians, 
 with the aid of Greek auxiliaries under Agesilaus and others. At last, Nectanc- 
 bus, being defeated by Ochus, fled into /Ethiopia 340 B.C., and /Egypt fell again 
 under the yoke of the Persians. The Persians were succeeded by the Mace 
 donians, who, after the death of Alexander, founded the dynasty of the Ptole 
 mies, or Lagidce, who ruled over /Egypt for nearly three hundred years, and re 
 stored it to a considerable degree of prosperity. At the death of Cleopatra, 30 
 B.C., /Egypt was reduced to a Roman province by Augustus. 
 
 THE NILE AND THE DELTA. 
 
 I. THE Nile has already been alluded to somewhat in detail. To this river 
 Egypt owes, in fact, not only all its fertility, but even its very existence as a 
 
 habitable country, since without the rich and fertilizing mud deposited by the 
 -tream in its annual inundations, the land would be a sandy desert. The rise, 
 of the Nile, occasioned by the periodical rains of Central Africa, begins in June, 
 about the summer solstice, and it continues to increase till September, overflow 
 ing the lowlands along its course. The Delta then looks like an immense marsh, 
 interspersed with numerous islands, with villages, towns, and plantations of 
 trees just above the water. The inundation, after having remained stationary 
 for a few days, begins to subside, and about the end of November most of the 
 fields are left dry, and covered with a layer of rich brown slime : this is the 
 time when the lands are put under culture. 
 
 II. The point of the Delta in ancient times was much more to the south than 
 at present. The Nile then branched off at Cercasorum, whereas now the apex is 
 a few miles north of Cairo. At Cercasorum the river put forth two branches, one 
 called the.Pelusiac branch, ending in the Ostium Pdusidcum, and the other the 
 Canopic branch, ending in -the Ostium Canopicum. The former took its name 
 from the city of Pelusium, lying at its termination on the coast ; the latter from 
 the city of Canopus, similarly situated. The country inclosed between these 
 two arms the Greeks called the Delta, from its triangular form, and its resem 
 blance to the letter A. Between these two main branches there were five olhci 
 intervening ones, each having its termination on the coast. The five mouths 
 
AFRICA. 729 
 
 thus formed were, 1 . Ostium Bolbitinum, so called from the city of Bolbitine, in 
 its vicinity. 2. Ostium Sebennyticum, from the city of Selennytus. 3. Ostiurn 
 Phatniticum or Pathmcticum ; called also, by Herodotus, the Bucolic mouth. 
 4. Ostium Mendesium, from the city of Mcndes. 5. Ostium Taniticurn, from the 
 city of Tanis ; cabled also Saiticum, from the city of Sals. The mouths of the 
 Nile, then, were anciently seven in number. The Canopic mouth was also 
 called Ostium Heracleoticum and Naucraticum, and sometimes, also, Agathoda- 
 mon. This arm and the Canopic were always regarded by the ancients as the 
 chief branches, although, in reality, the Bolbitine and the Phatnitic were the 
 largest ones. 
 
 III. The state of things at the present day is greatly altered. The apex of 
 the Delta is much less obtuse than in ancient times, and its triangular figure 
 is now determined by the Rosetta branch, the old Canopic, and the Damiatta 
 branch, or old Phatnitic, although the cultivated plain known by the name of 
 Delta extends considerably beyond to the east and west, as far as the sandy 
 desert on either side. The Pclusiac branch is now in a great measure choked 
 up, though it still serves partially for purposes of irrigation. The Tanitic or 
 Saltic branch now corresponds to the Mocs Canal, and the Mendesian branch 
 with the Menzaleh Canal. Both these canals now enter Lake Menzaleh, a vast 
 salt marsh forty miles long, which communicates with the sea by several out 
 lets. Between the Damiatta and Rosetta branch are numerous canals, large and 
 small, intersecting the country in every direction. The Sebcnnytic mouth is 
 probably now the outlet by which the salt marsh or lake called Bourlos commu 
 nicates with the sea. The only two entrances at the present day from the sea 
 into the Nile are the Rosetta and Damiatta branches, and even these are access 
 ible only to small vessels. West of Rosetta, a salt marsh, called Lake Etko, 
 corresponds to the old Canopic mouth. The greatest breadth of the Delta, or 
 cultivated plain of Lower JEgypt, is about eighty miles from east to west ; its 
 length, from the bifurcation of the river to the sea, is about ninety miles. 
 
 IV. The formation of ^Egypt and its extensive Delta are beyond the reach of 
 inquiry, and of a date long anterior to the period at which that country or ^Ethi- 
 opia was inhabited. In the times of the earliest Pharaohs of whom any records 
 now remain, the whole of Lower JSgypt seems to have been densely inhabited, 
 and positive facts contradict the assumption that the Delta has been protruded 
 into the sea, to any great extent, within the age of history. If it had ancient 
 cities, which were upon the sea-coast three thousand or four thousand years 
 ago, they ought, on this supposition, as Wilkinson remarks, to have been by 
 this time far inland. 
 
 5. MOUNTAINS. 
 
 I. Mons Casius, on the Mediterranean coast, to the east of Pelusium, and near 
 the Palus Sirbonis. It is now El Kas or El Katich. Here Jupiter Casius had 
 a temple ; and on this mountain also was the tomb of Pompey. It must not be 
 confounded with the Syrian Mons Casius, below Antiochia. 
 
 II. Mantes Arabici, the long chain of mountains forming the eastern side of 
 the valley of the Nile, and called at the present day Djebel Mokkatam. The an 
 cient geographers mention five principal portions of this range, namely, 1. Mons 
 Alabastrites or Alabastrinus, to the east of Oxyrynchus, and southeast of A! abas - 
 tropolis. Here were alabaster quarries, whence the locality derived its name. 
 Traces of these still exist. 2. Mons Porphyrit.es or Porphyriticus, to the east of 
 Lycopolis. Here were porphyry quarries, held in high repute, and supplying 
 
730 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 materials not only to the ^Egyptians, but to the Romans also, for columns and 
 many ornamental purposes. The spot is now called DjcM c Dokhan, or " the 
 mountain of smoke. 3. Mons Aias or JEas, in the parallel of Thebes. 4. Monx 
 Smaragdus, to the northwest of Berenice, arid named from its emerald mines. 
 The modern name is Djcbcl Zabarah. These mines have been successively 
 worked by the ancient ^Egyptians, and Romans, and by the califs and mame- 
 lukes ; but they are now abandoned. They lie in a micaceous schist, and nu 
 merous shafts of considerable depth have been excavated at the foot of the 
 mountain. 5. Mons Basamtes, between Sycne and Berenice, taking its name 
 from the quarries of basanite or touchstone (fldaavoz, Lapis Lydius} that were 
 worked here. This stone was wrought into various ornaments by the ancient 
 ^Egyptians, as it still is at the present day. The modern name of this mountain 
 is, according to Wilkinson, Om Kerrebeh. Considerable quarry-workings are 
 visible here. 
 
 6. LAKES AND CANALS. 
 
 1. Lacus Mareotis, in the immediate vicinity of Alexandrea. Its earlier name 
 was Marea (27 Mapeia 7d[Lvri). The later Greeks gave it the name of Mareotis. 
 According to Scylax, canals were cut in very early times, connecting this lake 
 with the Nile, and thus furnishing it with a constant supply of fresh water. The 
 Lake Mareotis first rose into importance after the founding of Alexandrea. Stra- 
 bo describes it as being more than one hundred and fifty stadia in breadth, and 
 not quite three hundred in length, and as containing eight islands. The country 
 around this lake was remarkable for its fertility. The principal product was a 
 light, sweetish white wine. For many centuries after the Greek and Roman 
 dominion in JEgypt, this lake was dried up ; but in 1801, the English troops, du 
 ring the siege of Alexandrea, let in the sea by cutting a passage through the 
 narrow neck of land that separated the ancient bed of the Lake Mareotis from 
 Lake Aboukir or Madieh. This modern Lake Mareotis, now called Birket Ma- 
 riut, is much more extensive than the ancient one, occupying probably four 
 times the space. 
 
 2. Lacus Mccris, in the district of Hcptanomis, west of the Nile, and south of 
 Arsinoe or Crocodilopolis. This lake was believed by the ancients to have been 
 entirely artificial, and to have been dug by King Mreris for the double purpose 
 of preventing the low country from being damaged by the superabundant over 
 flowing of the Nile, and of serving as a reservoir to supply water during the low 
 season. Herodotus accordingly reports that during one half of the year the 
 Nile flowed into the lake, while during the other six months a stream flowed 
 out of it. Of the latter, however, there is no remaining trace ; and the great 
 works contrived by Mreris to regulate the water have disappeared. The lake 
 has at present every appearance of occupying a natural basin, though certainly 
 its only apparent feeders are derived from the Nile. Wilkinson insists that 
 Herodotus s account of the water returning from the lake to the Nile is totally 
 inapplicable to the Lake Moeris, the level of its surface being about one hundred 
 or one hundred and twenty feet lower than the bank of the Nile at Bcnisouef, 
 which, making every allowance for the rise of the bed of the river, and the 
 elevation of its banks, could never have been on a level, even in the time of 
 Herodotus, with the Lake Mceris. It is the Canal of Jousscf to which, he says, 
 the account of Herodotus is alone applicable, as being the work of human hands, 
 and returning its water to the river. Near Lake Mreris was the celebrated 
 Labyrinth. The modern name of the Lake is Birket el Korn, or " the Lake of the 
 Horn," from its form, which is broad at the eastern end, and curves to a point 
 
AFRICA. 731 
 
 at its opposite extremity. It is about thirty miles in length, with a breadth 
 varying from eight miles to less than one. 
 
 3. Nitrarice (fodina) in the Nitriotic Nome, to the southeast of Alexandrea, 
 now the basin of the Natron Lakes, containing a series of six lakes, the banks 
 and waters of which are covered with crystals of chloride of sodium or sea-salt, 
 and carbonate of soda or natron. 
 
 4. Tunis Lacus, between the Tanitic and Phatnetic mouths of the Nile, now 
 the Lake ofMenzaleh or Baheire, already mentioned in our remarks on the Delta. 
 5. Palus Sirbonis, near Mount Casius, and communicating with the Mediterra 
 nean by an opening, which was filled up in the time of Strabo. The lake grad 
 ually diminished in size after this, and has now almost disappeared. The mod 
 ern name is Sebaket Bardoil. 6. Lacus Amari, near Arsinoe or Cleopatris. They 
 derived their name from their bitter, brackish taste, a defect which was subse 
 quently obviated by the Canal of Ptolemy, which let in the water of the Nile, 
 and rendered them perfectly sweet. The modern name is Scheib. 
 
 The only ancient canals deserving of particular mention, among the large 
 number by which /Egypt, and especially the Delta, was intersected, are the fol 
 lowing : 1. The Canal of Maoris, now Bahr Joussef, connecting the Lake Mosris 
 (Birkct el Korn) with the Nile, and of which we have already made mention. 
 2. The Canal of Sesostris or Ptolemy, called also the Canal of Hero, cut from the 
 Pelusiac branch of the Nile to the Sinus Arabicus, which it entered near Arsinoe. 
 It was commenced, according to some, by Sesostris ; but, according to others, 
 by Necho, or rather Psammiticus II., who desisted from the undertaking on being 
 warned by an oracle that he was laboring for the barbarians. Darius Hystaspis 
 continued it, but left it unfinished. Ptolemy Philadelphia completed it, and 
 made sluices to regulate the quantity of water, while they permitted the pas 
 sage of vessels. They had also for their object the exclusion of the salt water ; 
 and so effectually was this done, that the bitter lakes, which lay in the line of 
 the canal, were rendered perfectly sweet, and abounded with Nile fish, and the 
 usual water- fowl of ^Egypt. It was also called Trajan s Canal (Fluvius Tra- 
 jani), from its having been repaired in later days by that emperor. 
 
 7. ANTIQUITIES OF 
 
 UNDER this head we will briefly notice merely a few of the more prominent 
 objects of interest in this remarkable country. 
 
 Pyramids. The Pyramids of /Egypt, especially the two largest of the pyra 
 mids at Gcczch, are the most stupendous masses of building in stone that human 
 labor has ever been known to accomplish ; and we have records of their having 
 been objects of wonder and curiosity from the age of Herodotus, who was born 
 484 B.C., to the present time. The ^Egyptian pyramids, of which, large and 
 small, and in different states of preservation, the number is very considerable, 
 are all situated on the west side of the Nile, and extend in an irregular line, and 
 in groups at some distance from each other, from the neighborhood of Geczch t 
 a village opposite to Cairo, as far south as twenty-nine degrees north latitude, 
 a length of between sixty and seventy miles. The three principal pyramids are 
 those of Gcezeh. They stand on a plateau or terrace of limestone, which is a 
 projection from the Libyan mountain chain, and is more than one hundred feet 
 above the level of the ^Egyptian plain. The largest, called the pyramid of Che 
 ops, occupies a base of seven hundred and sixty-seven feet square, and rises to 
 the height of four hundred and eighty feet nine inches, being, therefore, forty- 
 three feet nine inches higher than St. Peter s at Rome, and one hundred and 
 
732 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 thirty-six feet nine inches higher than St. Paul s in London. It is built, like the 
 others, of large blocks of stone, which form so many gigantic steps (two hund 
 red in number), to the top, where there is a small platform. This pyramid has 
 long been open, and contains a small chamber, with a hollow sarcophagus. 
 Several other apartments and winding passages have lately been discovered in 
 its recesses by persevering travellers, particularly by Col. Vyse, who has suc 
 ceeded in revealing its whole internal structure. The next adjojning pyramid 
 is that of Cephren, the brother and successor of Cheops. It was opened by Bel- 
 zoni, w T ho discovered that he had been anticipated by Arab investigators several 
 centuries earlier, but he still found in a sarcophagus some bones, which are 
 believed to be those of a cow or ox. The third pyramid is that of Mycerinus, 
 the son of Cheops. The pyramids were undoubtedly sepulchral monuments. 
 According to Lepsius, the mode of constructing them was as follows. When 
 a king commenced his reign, the first thing done, after levelling the surface of 
 the rock for the pyramid s base, was to excavate a chamber intended for his 
 tomb, under ground, with a passage communicating with the surface, ancj to 
 erect a course of masonry above, which served for the nucleus of the pyramid. 
 If the king died during the year, the masonry was immediately cased over, and 
 a small pyramid was formed. If he continued to live, another course of stone 
 was added in height, and the length of the lower stage increased. During sub 
 sequent years the same process was repeated, and the pyramid thus continued 
 to be increased every year until the death of the king in whose reign it was 
 erected, fresh courses being added each year of his life. When the king died, 
 the work of enlargement ceased, and a casing was put on the whole structure. 
 
 Sphinx. The /Egyptian sphinxes are lions, but without wings, in which latter 
 respect they differ from those of Greece. They are represented in the same 
 recumbent posture as the Grecian ones., lying, namely, upon the front part of 
 the body, with the paws stretched forward. The upper part of the body is either 
 human, and mostly female, or they have the head of a ram. In some cases the 
 head is covered with a kind of cap, which also covers part of the neck. These 
 sphinxes were generally placed at the entrance of temples, where they often 
 formed a long avenue leading to the sacred edifice. The largest of the existing 
 sphinxes is that of Geezeh, which is hewn out of the rock, and is of the enor 
 mous dimensions of one hundred and forty-three feet in length, and sixty-two 
 feet in height in front. It was formerly covered to the neck with sand, which 
 was cleared away by Signor Caviglia. The greater part, however, is now cov 
 ered up again, leaving little more than the head and shoulders visible. 
 
 Vocal Memnon. There are many colossal statues in ^Egypt which have been 
 called Mcmnonian, of which the most celebrated is the vocal statue described by 
 Strabo and Pausanias. At sunrise a sound was said to proceed from this statue 
 which Pausanias compares to the snapping of a harp or lute string. Strabo 
 states that he heard the sound himself in company with JGlius Gallus ; and 
 Tacitus relates that Germanicus also heard it. This statue is identified, by 
 the descriptions of Strabo and Pausanias, w r ith the northernmost of the two co 
 lossal statues in the Theban plain, on the west bank of the Nile. Its height, 
 according to modern travellers, is about fifty feet ; and its legs contain numer 
 ous inscriptions in Latin and Greek, commemorating the names of those who 
 had heard the sound. Most of these inscriptions belong to the period of the 
 early Roman emperors. This statue is now ascertained to be that of Ameno- 
 phis II., the son of Thutmosis, and who is said to have driven the shepherds out 
 of ^Ecrypt. There is some difficulty, however, notwithstanding the inscriptions 
 upon it, in identifying this statue with the one described by Strabo and Pausa- 
 
AFRICA. 733 
 
 nias. These writers say that the upper part had in their time fallen down ; 
 according to one account, in consequence of an earthquake ; "while another as 
 cribed it to Cambyses, who, it is said, suspecting some imposture, caused tux- 
 statue to be broken off in the middle. At the present day, however, the upper 
 part exists in its proper position, though not in a single piece. Heeren conjec 
 tures that the broken statue might have been repaired after the time of Strabo. 
 The sound produced by the statue is now supposed to have proceeded from a 
 stone in the lap of the statue, which was struck by a person concealed in a re 
 cess behind it, and which emitted, as it still does, when struck, a metallic sound. 
 The head of the colossal Memnon in the British Museum has no claim to be 
 considered the vocal statue. 
 
 Among other remains of ./Egyptian greatness we may name, 1. The Mcmno- 
 nium at Thebes, on the western side of the river, a splendid structure originally, 
 and probably the same with the tomb of Osymandias, described by Diodorus 
 Siculus. The more correct name of the edifice, however, would be Remeseum, 
 since it is now ascertained to have been the palace-temple of Remeses II., one 
 of whose titles, Miamrm, was corrupted by the Greeks into Meinnon. 2. The 
 great temple at Mcdccnet Haboo, or the palace-temple of Remeses III. 3. The 
 tombs of the kings, to the west of this latter place, cut in the calcareous rock, 
 at different levels. They are all of extraordinary splendor, the largest and most 
 magnificent being that of Remeses Miamun, which is adorned with sculptures 
 of the highest interest. 
 
 PLACES IN ^GYPT. 
 
 BELT A. 
 
 1. Alexandria, founded by Alexander the Great, who, during his visit to 
 ^Egypt, B.C. 332, gave orders to erect this city between the sea and the Ma- 
 reotic Lake. The architect was Dinocrates, a Macedonian. A large part, but 
 not the whole of it, was contained within the present walls, which are chiefly 
 the work of the Arabs. One main long street, about three miles in length, ran 
 through the city, from the eastern extremity to the necropolis or cemetery of 
 Alexandrea, at the western ; and this was intersected by another main street, 
 running nearly north, more than a mile in length, in a direction from the Mare- 
 otic Lake. The object of this arrangement was to give the city the benefit of 
 ventilation from the north winds. The main land and the island of Pharos v;ore 
 connected by a dike, called the Hcptastadium, in which, at each end, there was a 
 passage for vessels from one port to the other. Over these passages there were 
 also bridocs. On the rocks now occupied by the present Pharos, a magnificent 
 light-house was constructed by Sostratus of Cnidus, in the reign of Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus, B.C. 283. The port bounded by the two promontories, the Pharos 
 and Lochias, by the northeast part of the city and the Heptastadium, was called 
 the Great Port. The other port was called Eunostus, or " safe return." The 
 city was divided into several quarters : the court end, otherwise called Bruchion, 
 contained the famous library, consisting, it is said, of seven hundred thousand 
 volumes, and, connected with it, the Museum, a college or retreat for learned men, 
 where they were retained at the public expense. A place called Soma, " the 
 body," in the quarter of the palaces, contained the tomb of Alexander the Great. 
 From B.C. 323 to B.C. 30, Alexandrea was the residence of the Greek kings of 
 ^Egypt, the Ptolemies, distinguished for commerce, and the resort of many for 
 eign nations, especially Jews ; and also the centre of the scientific knowledge 
 of that dav. In the Alexandrine war, with Julius Caesar, B.C. 48, the city sus- 
 
734 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 tained much damage, and a large part of the library was burned ; but this latter 
 loss was afterward, in some degree, remedied by the addition of the library of 
 Pergamus, which Antony presented to Cleopatra. Alexandrea fell into the 
 hands of the Romans B.C. 30, and continued a flourishing commercial city under 
 the Roman emperors, and afterward under the eastern empire. In A.D. 640 it 
 was taken by the Arabs under Omar, on which occasion the splendid library is 
 said, though erroneously, to have been destroyed by the conquerors. On the 
 founding of New Cairo, in A.D. 969, Alexandrea gradually sank to the condition 
 of a second-rate city ; and the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, in 1497, 
 tended still farther to diminish its commerce ; but it is again becoming an im 
 portant position, in consequence of its lying on the over-land route to India. 
 
 2. Canobus or Canopus, about twelve miles to the northeast of Alexandrea, 
 and a short distance to the west of the Ostium Canopicum, to which it gave 
 name. It was a very ancient city, and a place of considerable commerce prior 
 to the founding of Alexandrea. It was also the capital of the Menelaitic Nome. 
 According to the Greek fable, with which the appellation of the nome is connect 
 ed, this city took its name from Canopus, the pilot of Menelaus, who was said 
 to have been buried here. Canopus was famed for its temple and oracle of Se- 
 rapis, and the festivals celebrated at this temple made the morals of the people 
 extremely dissolute. Some traces of the ancient city exist a short distance to 
 the west of Aboukir. 3. Hermopolis Parva, southeast of Alexandrea. It is ROW 
 Damanhour. 4. Andropolis, to the southeast, the capital of the Andropolitic 
 Nome, and subsequently the head quarters of a Roman legion. It is now Cha- 
 bur. 5. Butos or Buto, on the southern shore of the Lake Butos, now Lake 
 Bourlos, the outlet from which formed the Ostium Selennyticum. It was famed 
 for its temples of Apollo, Diana, and Latona, that is, of ^Egyptian deities sup 
 posed to coincide with these. The temple of Latona had a celebrated oracle 
 connected with it. Butos answers probably to Kom Kasir. 6. Naucratis, to the 
 southwest, on the right bank of the Canopic arm of the Nile, in the Sa iiic Nome. 
 It was said to have been founded by a Milesian colony, but was probably of 
 much earlier date. It was for a long time the only place in ./Egypt where the 
 Greeks were allowed to settle and carry on traffic. Naucratis was the native 
 city of Athenaeus and Julius Pollux. Its remains are to be sought near the 
 modern Salhadschar. 
 
 7. Sa is, to the southeast, and the capital of the Saitic Nome. It lay on the 
 left bank of the Sebennytic branch of the Nile, and was one of the most im 
 portant cities of the Delta, partly on account of the annual festival celebrated 
 here in honor of the goddess Neith, regarded as identical with Minerva, and 
 which drew a large concourse of visitors to the place ; and partly because the 
 SaTtic, or twenty-sixth dynasty of the Pharaohs, acknowledged it as their native 
 city, and were interred here. When, however, the Persian power was estab 
 lished in ^Egypt, and Memphis again became the capital, Sai s declined in im 
 portance. The site, now called So,, is marked merely by ruins. At a little dis 
 tance south of this place was a celebrated temple of Osiris, where that deity 
 was said to have been interred ; an honor claimed by many other Egyptian 
 sites. 8. Busiris, to the southeast, en the Phatnetic branch, and the capital 
 of the Busiritic Nome. Here was a very sacred temple of Isis, to which pil 
 grimages were made, and where a solemn annual festival was celebrated. Thf 
 site of this city is now called Aboussir. 9. Sebcnnytus, to the east of Sai s, and 
 giving name to the Sebennytic branch of the Nile. It was the capital of the Se 
 bennytic Nome, and its site is occupied by the modern Semmenud. 10. Thmuix, 
 to the east of the preceding, and the capital of the Thmuitic Nome. The goat 
 
AFRICA. 735 
 
 was worshipped here with peculiar honors, and the name of the city, according 
 to St. Jerome, signified "a goat." In the time of Ammianus Marcellinus, 
 Thmuis was one of the largest cities in - Egypt. The modern name of the site 
 is Tel ct-Mai. 11. Mcndes, to the northeast of Sebennytus, and giving name 
 to the Mendesian branch of the Nile, on which it lay. Here also the goat was 
 held in great religious reverence, and, according to Herodotus, the name of the 
 city meant "a goat," what St. Jerome asserts of Thmuis. The site is now 
 called Achmoun. 12. Tanis, to the east of the preceding, the capital of the 
 Tanitic Nome, and on the Tanitic branch of the Nile. It was an important city 
 at an early period, and the residence of one of Manetho s dynasties of Pharaohs. 
 It is the same with the Zoan of Scripture, and is stated by the Psalmist to be 
 the spot where Moses performed those miracles that ended in the liberation of 
 the Israelites. The site is now called San, and is remarkable for the height 
 and extent of its mounds of ruins. 
 
 13. Bubastus, to the southwest, the capital of the Bubastite Nome, with a cel 
 ebrated temple of Bubastis (Pasht), or Diana. The festival of the goddess was 
 remarkable, not only for its splendor, but also for the large numbers that attend 
 ed ; as many as seventy thousand persons, exclusive of children, being drawn 
 hither on this occasion. The Scripture name of this place is Phi Bescth. Here 
 also the sacred cats were interred. The modern name is Td-Basta. 14. Alh- 
 ribis, to the southwest, the capital of the Athribitic Nome. It is now Atryb or 
 Trieb, with some striking remains. 15. Ccrcasorum or Cercasora, at the apex of 
 the Delta, where the Nile branches off. It is now El Arkas. 16. Babylon, to the 
 southeast of the preceding, and on the opposite bank of the Nile, just where the 
 great canal commenced that led off to the Sinus Arabicus, and not far from the 
 pyramids and Memphis. According to the best authorities, it does not appear 
 to have existed in the time of the Pharaohs, but to have come into being under 
 the Persians, who settled here a number of refractory Babylonians from Upper 
 Asia. Under the Romans it became important as a military post, since here 
 the valley of the Nile begins to contract as you advance into Upper ^Egypt. A 
 castle accordingly was erected in this quarter, and a Roman legion was station 
 ed here. At a later day, this place took the name of Postal, from the " leather 
 tent" (fcstai) which Amru, the general of Omar, pitched here for himself dur 
 ing the siege of the Roman fortress. Fostat continued to be the royal residence, 
 as well as the capital of ^Egypt, until Goher el Kaed, having been sent by Moez 
 to conquer /Egypt, founded a new city called Musr el Kaherah (Cairo), which 
 four years after (in A.D. 974) became the capital of the country, and Fostttt re 
 ceived the new appellation of Musr el Ateekeh, or " Old Musr," corrupted by 
 Europeans into Old, Cairo. 
 
 17. Heliopolis, a short distance to the northeast of Babylon, and more cele 
 brated in a religious than a political point of view. As its name indicates, it 
 was the sacred city of Osiris, or the Sun, and contained one of the three chief 
 sacerdotal colleges of /Egypt, the stations of the other two being respectively at 
 Memphis and Thebes. Herodotus is the earliest one of the Greek writers that 
 nrikt 3 mention of this city, and he speaks of the priests of Heliopolis as being 
 the best acquainted with the history of their country. Other authorities also 
 describe them as famed for their wisdom. According to Berosus, this was the 
 city where Moses was educated. It was also a place of resort for all the Greeks 
 \vho visited /Egypt for instruction, among whom may be mentioned Herodotus, 
 Pythagoras, Plato, and Eudoxus. The city was built, according to Strabo, on a 
 large mound or raised site, before which wore lakes that received the water of 
 the neighboring canals. It had a celebrated temple and oracle of the Sun, or 
 
736 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Osiris, and in this temple the sacred ox Mnevis was fed and adored, as Apis wat 
 at Memphis. Heliopolis suffered severely by the invasion of Cambyses. Man\ 
 of its obelisks, and probably other monuments, were afterward taken away to 
 Alexandrea and Rome, and when Strabo saw the place it had the character o! 
 a deserted city. Its college of priests no longer. existed, and those only who 
 had charge of the temple, and who explained the sacred rites to strangers, re 
 maineci there. The ancient ^Egyptian name of this city was, in hieroglyphics, 
 Re-Ei or Ei-Rc, " the House" or "Abode of the Sun," corresponding to the title 
 Beth-Shemcsh, of the same import, which was applied to it by the Jews, while 
 in Scripture and in Coptic it is called On. The remains of Heliopolis are near 
 the modern Matarch, and consist of several mounds. A solitary obelisk alone 
 remains erect, bearing on it the name of Osirtasen I., who laid the foundations 
 of the temple here. This monarch ascended the throne about 1740 B.C. 
 
 18. Arsinoe, at the head of the Sinus Heroopolitcs, or Gulf of Suez, and not far 
 from the spot where the modern town of Suez stands. Ptolemy Philadelphus 
 constructed the harbor, and called the place after his queen Arsinoe. It was 
 connected with,the Nile by means of the Canal of Ptolemy, and for a long period 
 was the very life of the navigation on the Sinus Arabicus, forming the connecting 
 link bet\veen the traffic of .Egypt and that of the east. Subsequently, however, 
 the dangerous navigation of the upper part of the gulf induced the Ptolemies to 
 construct harbors lower down, and Arsinoe from this time declined. Its re 
 mains are at Adscherud. 
 
 19. Cleopatris, in the immediate vicinity of the preceding. It was of later 
 origin than Arsinoe, but so near to it that both are commonly regarded as form 
 ing one place. 20. Herobpolis, to the northeast of Heliopolis, arid northwest of 
 ArsinotS and situate on the Canal of Ptolemy,, near the upper part of the Lacui 
 Atiiari. Some make it the same with the Avaris of Manetho ; more probably, 
 however, it \vas a place of comparatively recent origin, founded by the Greeks 
 for commercial purposes. It remained a place of importance as long as the 
 Canal of Ptolemy formed one of the channels of communication in this quarter. 
 It sunk, however, when the canal w r as neglected, and its remains are supposed 
 to be buried beneath the sand. Strabo and Pliny err in placing it on the gulf. 
 
 21. Pelusium, to the northeast, at the Pelusiac mouth of the Nile, to which it 
 gave name. It was surrounded by marshes, and was regarded as the key of 
 ^Egypt i:; this quarter. Its Scripture name is Sin, and its old ^Egyptian one is 
 thought to have been similar to the Peremoun or Pheromi of the Copts., Tht 
 Greek name Pelusium is derived from TnyAdf, " mire," in allusion to the pecu 
 liar situation of the place. The Hebrew name has the same meaning, as has 
 also the modern appellation Tineh given to the site. This city fell in import 
 ance after the Persians had diverted the arm of the Nile on which it stood, and 
 had taken it and destroyed its fortifications. 22. Rhinocarura or Rhinocolura, to 
 the east, on the immediate confines of Syria, and sometimes, though erroneous 
 ly, regarded as belonging to that country. The modern El Areesh occupies its 
 site. It derived its name, according to Strabo, from the circumstance of mal 
 efactors having been sent thither by one of the ^Ethiopian invaders of ^Egypt, 
 as to a place of exile, after having been first deprived of their noses (piv , the 
 nose, and KO?.OVU, to mutilate). The story is evidently-untrue, and the name ia 
 probably of ^Egyptian, not of Grecian origin. This city was an important com 
 mercial place, ,and a great mart for the Arabian trade. Quails were very 
 abundant in its vicinity. The Wady el Areesh is the ancient Torrens JEgypti, 01 
 River of ./Egypt. 23. Tamiathis, some distance to the northwest of Pelusium, 
 and on the Phatnetic arm of the Nile, near its mouth. It is now Damietta. 
 
AFRICA. 737 
 
 HEPTANOMIS. 
 
 1. Memphis, a celebrated city on the left side of the Nile, and about sixteen 
 miles south of the apex of the Delta. It was said to have been founded by 
 Menes, the first king of . Egypt, who changed, by means of a large embankment, 
 the course of the Nile, which until then had run nearer the Libyan mountains, 
 and built Memphis within the ancient bed of the stream. According to Herod 
 otus, the river was turned off one hundred stadia above Memphis, and the 
 dike constructed to prevent its returning to its original channel was kept up 
 with great care by the successors of Menes even to the time of the Persians. 
 Menes also erected here a magnificent temple to Phtha or Vulcan. The city 
 contained likewise other splendid temples, and was, moreover, the residence 
 of one of the three sacerdotal colleges of the land, the other two being respect 
 ively at Heliopolis and Thebes. The sacred Apis was also fed and worshipped 
 here, his temple being close to that of Phtha. Memphis appears to have been 
 the capital of Lower ^Egypt, as Thebes was of Upper JEgypt, in those early 
 times when the land was ruled by contemporaneous dynasties ; and afterward, 
 when all J3gypt became united under the sway of one ruler, this city was made 
 the capital of the country in preference to Thebes. It continued to be the capi 
 tal under the Persian sway also, but declined after Alexandrea became the seat 
 of government, although Strabo subsequently, in Roman times, describes it as 
 still large and populous, next to Alexandrea in size, and, like that city, filled 
 with foreign residents. The palaces, however, he speaks of as being ruined 
 and deserted. The wealth, as well as the inhabitants of Memphis, passed at a 
 later day to the new Arab capital of Fostat, and the ancient city in a few years 
 ceased to exist. Its site, w r hich has been difficult to ascertain, in consequence 
 of the old material being taken to build modern edifices, is now indicated by a 
 large colossus of Remeses II., a few fragments of granite, and some substruc 
 tions. Memphis is called in Scripture Moph or Noph. In Coptic it is styled 
 Mcfi, Momf, and Menf. A little to the north of Memphis the pyramids began. 
 
 2. Acanthus, to the south, and the southernmost cky of theMemphitic Nome. 
 It is now Dashur. 3. Arsinoe or Crocodilopulis, on the west of the Nile, and south 
 west of Memphis. It was called Arsinoe in honor of the queen of Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus. The earlier appellation was expressed in Greek by Crocodilopo- 
 lis, the crocodile being here an object of religious worship, and a tamed repre 
 sentative of this fearful class of creatures was carefully nurtured and attended 
 to in an adjacent pond or tank. Strabo gives an account, as an eye-witness, 
 of this curious custom. The bodies of the sacred crocodiles were deposited 
 after death in the cells of the Labyrinth, which stood near this city. Arsinoe 
 is now a pile of ruins, a little distance to the north of Medinet d Faioum. In 
 the vicinity of this city was the celebrated Lake Moeris, already described. 4. 
 Aphroditopolis, or "City of Venus," to the east, on the right bank of the Nile, 
 and where, according to Strabo, a white heifer was worshipped. The ruins of 
 the place are at Atfyh. 
 
 5. Ancyron Polis ( Ay/cvpwv TrdAff), or "City of Anchors," to the south, and 
 so named because the inhabitants wrought anchors from the stone hewn out 
 of the neighboring quarries. 6. Heracleopolis Magna, or "Great City of Her 
 cules," southeast of Arsinoe, in one of the largest islands of the Nile, and the 
 capital of the Heracleotic Nome, which was entirely comprised in this island. 
 The ichneumon was worshipped here, on account of its utility in destroying 
 asps and the eggs of crocodiles. There were bitter feuds, therefore, between 
 the inhabitants of this place and those of Crocodilopolis. This city was termed 
 
 A A A 
 
738 ANCIENTGEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Mag na for distinction sake from Heracleopolis Parva, in the Delta, southwest 
 of Pelusium. Its site is marked by the modern village of Ahnas. 7. Oxyryn- 
 rhus, to the southwest, on the left bank of the Nile, and the capital of the Ox- 
 yrynchite Nome. It received its name from the circumstance of a fish with a 
 sharp snout (6vf, /Wy^of), a species of sturgeon, being worshipped here. Its 
 site is marked by the modern Bchnese. 8. Cynopolis, to the east, on an island 
 in the Nile. Here the dog was worshipped as the symbol of Anubis ; whence 
 the Greek name of the place, Kvvtiv KOMC, or Kvvonofae. D Anville places its 
 site at Samallut. 
 
 9. Aldbastron or Alabastropolis, to the northeast, in the Arabian mountain chain, 
 and famed for its artists, who, from the alabaster dug in Mons Alabastrinus, 
 carved all kinds of vases and ornaments. 10. Speos Artemidos, or " Cave of 
 Diana," a large grotto to the south of Cynopolis, sacred to the goddess Pasht, 
 the ^Egyptian Diana. It is wholly excavated in the rock, and was begun by 
 Thothmes II., who adorned it with sculptures. Other sculptures were added by 
 Osirei, father of Remcses III. ; but the excavation was never completed. About 
 one mile to the northwest of this spot are the more celebrated grottoes or cata 
 combs of Beni Hassan. 1 1 . Hermopolis Magna, southeast of Oxyrynchus, on the 
 left bank of the Nile, and so called for distinction sake from Hermopolis Parva, 
 near Alexandrea. It was a city of great antiquity, and derived its name from 
 the worship of Thoth, the Egyptian Hermes or Mercury. Its ruins are at Ach- 
 munein. To the south of this place was a fortified post called Hermopolitana 
 Phylace, marking the southern limit of Heptanomis. 12. Antinoopolis, to the 
 east, opposite to Hermopolis, and on the right bank of the Nile. Its earlier 
 name was Besa, from an ^Egyptian deity who had an oracle here. The name, 
 however, was subsequently changed to Antinoopolis, " the City of Antinous," 
 from the circumstance of Antinous, the favorite of Hadrian, having drowned 
 himself here. It was greatly embellished by that emperor, and became a mag 
 nificent place. The ruins are at Shckh Abadeh. 
 
 THEBAlS OR UPPER EGYPT. 
 
 1. Lycopolis, on the left bank, and the capital of the Lycopolitic Nome. Its 
 Greek name means "the City of Wolves," from the circumstance of the wolf 
 being worshipped here, on account of an invading army of ^Ethiopians having 
 been put to flight here by a large pack of these animals. The site is now called 
 Syouth. There are some remarkable rock-tombs in the vicinity. 2. Antaopolis, 
 or " City of Antaeus," to the southeast, on the right bank. It derived its name 
 from Antssus, whom Osiris made governor of his Libyan and ^Ethiopian pos 
 sessions, and whom Hercules destroyed. Antseus had a temple here. The 
 modern village Quaou or Kau stands near the ruins of the place. 3. Aphrodl- 
 topolis, or " City of Venus," to the southwest, now Tachta. 4. Pdnopolis, or 
 " City of Pan," to the southeast, on the right bank, and capital of the Pano- 
 politic Nome. Its ^Egyptian name was Chemmis. The ruins are at Akhenyn. 
 According to Strabo, it was principally occupied by linen-weavers and stone 
 cutters. Herodotus speaks of a temple of Perseus here, and says that the 
 Chemmites claimed him as a native of their city. 5. Ptolcmals Hermii, to the 
 south, on the opposite side of the stream. It appears from its name (Uro^efiatc 
 5? Epjua ou) to have been originally an ./Egyptian city, consecrated to Thoth or 
 Hermes, but rebuilt or re-established by one of the Ptolemies. It rose in im 
 portance when Abydus, its neighbor, declined, and eventually rivalled Memphis 
 in size. It received a severe blow, however, to its prosperity, by its resistance 
 to the Emperor Probus. Its ruins are near the village of Mensieh. 
 
AFRICA. 739 
 
 C. Abydus, to the southeast, on the same side of the stream. Strabo de 
 scribes it as once next to Thebes in size, though reduced in his days to a small 
 place. The same writer mentions the palace of Memnon in this city, built on 
 the plan of the Labyrinth, though less intricate. This structure is now ascer 
 tained to have been commenced by Osirei, and completed by his son Remeses 
 II. Osiris had here a splendid temple, and Plutarch makes this city to have 
 been the true burial-place of that deity, an honor to which so many cities of 
 -Egypt aspired. He also .informs us that the more distinguished ^Egyptians 
 frequently selected Abydus for a place of sepulture. The god Besa had an ora 
 cle at this place, as at Antinoopolis. Abydus is now a heap of ruins, as its name 
 El Matfoon, "the Buried," plainly implies. One of the walls of the famous 
 temple of Osiris in this place had a list of the ^Egyptian kings sculptured on it. 
 This important record, commonly called the "Tablet of Abydus," is now in the 
 British Museum. It contains a series of kings names, the predecessors of 
 Remeses II., but unfortunately the commencement has been broken away, so 
 that the order of succession of the earliest Pharaohs is still a desideratum. 
 
 7. This (9if)> a small but very ancient city, to the east of and near Abydus 
 The inhabitants are called by Stephanus Thinita (QtviTat), a name derived from 
 the genitive 6v6f. This place gave its appellation to the Thinitic Nome. 8. 
 Diospolis Parva, to the east of the preceding, and on the same side of the 
 stream. It was called Parva, for distinction sake from Diospolis Magna, or 
 Thebes. The site is marked by the modern village of Hou. 9. Tentyra (rd 
 TevTvpa}, and also Tentyris, to the east, on the same side of the Nile, and the 
 capital of the Tentyritic Nome. This city contained temples of Isis, Typhon. 
 and Athor or Venus, the last-mentioned deity being particularly worshipped 
 here, and the name Tentyra being probably taken from the ^Egyptian Tei-n- Athor, 
 "the Abode of Athor." The people of this city were at bitter enmity with 
 those of Ombos, higher up the Nile, the Tentyrites hunting and killing the croco 
 dile, and the Ombitcs worshipping it ; and a horrible instance of religious fury, 
 which occurred in consequence of this state of feeling, forms the subject of the 
 fifteenth satire of Juvenal. About half a league from the ruins of Tentyra stands 
 the modern village of Dendcrah. From the temple of Isis at Tentyra was ob 
 tained the famous zodiac, about the antiquity of which such extravagant notions 
 were at first formed, but which has now been proved to be not much more than 
 eighteen hundred years old, since the name of the Emperor Nero appears, among 
 others, on the portico of the structure. 
 
 10. Coptos, to the southeast, on the right side of the stream, and the capital 
 of the Coptite Nome. Its earlier name appears to have been Chemmis. It be 
 came a place of great commercial importance under the Ptolemies, and a de 
 pot for Indian and Arabian wares, brought by caravans from Berenice and Myos 
 Hormos, on the Sinus Arabicus, and then sent from Coptos down the Nile to 
 Alexandrea. It was, in fact, well situated for this communication with the 
 countries of the more remote east, since the Arabian mountain chain, which 
 elsewhere forms a complete barrier along the coast, has here an opening, that, 
 after various windings, conducts to the shore of the Sinus Arabicus. Along 
 this route the caravans proceeded. The road from Coptos to Berenice was 
 the work of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and was two hundred and fifty-eight, miles 
 in length. There were watering stations, called Hydrea ("Ydpeia), along its 
 whole extent. The ruins of Coptos are now called Keft. 
 
 11. Thebce, to the south, on both sides of the Nile, a celebrated city, and the 
 capital of Upper ^Egypt, or the Thebai s. The name Thebes is supposed to be 
 corrupted from the ^Egyptian Tape, which in the Memphitie dialect of the Coptic 
 
740 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 is pronounced Theba. In hieroglyphics it is written Ap, Ape, or, with the femi 
 nine article, Tape, meaning " head," Thebes being the head or capital of the 
 country. In Scripture it is called No Amman. The Greeks styled it also Dios- 
 polis Magna, the first part of which answers to the /Egyptian Amunci, "the 
 abode of Amun," or the /Egyptian Jupiter. The period of its foundation is un 
 known. It must, however, from its very situation, have been at a very early 
 period the middle point for the caravan trade to the south, and through it pass 
 ed very probably all the productions and wares of Asia. Its most flourishing 
 period appears to have been under the successive dynasties of the Diospolitan 
 kings, from B.C. 1578 to B.C. 820, when it was the capital of all ^Egypt, and 
 the residence of the kings, whose tombs are still extant in the rocks on the 
 western side of the city, and extend even to the borders of the desert. Homer 
 speaks of the splendor, greatness, and wealth of Thebes, and calls it "the city 
 with an hundred gates," each of which sent out two hundred men with horses 
 and chariots. Thebes, however, never had any walls, and therefore Homer 
 was either misled by the Phrenician traders from whom he in all probability re 
 ceived his account, or else the gates referred to are those of the propylasa of 
 the temples. Thebes stood partly on the east, and partly on the west of the 
 Nile. The western division had the distinctive appellation of Pathyris, or, as 
 Ptolemy writes it, Tathyris, being under the peculiar protection of Athor. Here 
 stood in particular the celebrated Mcmnonium, to which allusion has already 
 been made, and on this side, moreover, was the extensive Necropolis. The 
 principal part of the city, however, lay on the eastern bank of the stream. 
 Thebes sank in importance when the seat of government was transferred to 
 Memphis, but still contained one of the three chief sacerdotal colleges of /Egypt, 
 and could boast of a numerous population, until it felt the fury of Cambyses 
 during the Persian invasion, when its private dwellings were for the most part 
 destroyed, and its great architectural works more or less injured. After this 
 its decline became more rapid. During the sway of the Ptolemies, when the 
 capital was in the northern extremity of the country, Thebes appears to have 
 been neglected by the monarchs of the land. In the reign of Ptolemy La- 
 thyrus, about B.C. 86, it revolted, and after a siege of three years was taken 
 and plundered by the Greeks. As early as the time of Strabo, the place con 
 sisted of a number of villages, and what remained of the ancient city was com 
 posed chiefly of temples. Under the Roman dominion, something appears to 
 have been done to restore or preserve the venerable city ; but new calamities 
 broke in upon it when Christianity was introduced into Upper 2Egypt, and the 
 Christians, in their religious zeal, destroyed as much as they could of the works 
 of the ancient idolaters. At present the site of the ancient city is occupied by 
 four principal villages, Luxor and Carnac on the eastern, and Gournou and Mc- 
 deenet-Haboo on the western side of the river. The ruins are numerous and 
 splendid, but the most imposing of all are those of the great temple at Carnac, 
 12. Hermonthis, a short distance to the southwest, on the left bank, and the 
 capital of the Hermonthitic Nome. It contained temples of Osiris and Ilorus. 
 Strabo says that Apollo and Jupiter were also worshipped here, meaning, prob 
 ably, the ^Egyptian Mandoo and Amun. The sacred bull Basis was also wor 
 shipped at this place. The remains of Hermonthis are at Erment. 13. Lat op- 
 olis, to the south, taking its name from the worship of the Latus fish, which, 
 according to Strabo, shared with the goddess Neith, of which it was the symbol, 
 the honors of the sanctuary. The ruins of this place are at Esne, and are said 
 to be very imposing and elegant. 14. Apollinopolis Magna, or " Great City of 
 Apollo," to the southeast, on the same bank, and the capital of the Apollinitic 
 
AFRICA. 741 
 
 Nome. The god Hor-Hat, the same as Agathodaemon, was worshipped here. 
 The people of this city hunted and destroyed the crocodile. The modern Edfoo 
 occupies its site. We have here the ruins of two temples, one of them on a 
 grand scale. 15. Ombos or Ombi, to the southeast, on the right bank, and the 
 capital of the Ombitic Nome. Between the inhabitants of this place and those 
 of Tentyra a bitter feud prevailed, to which we have already alluded, the latter 
 destroying the crocodile, and the Ombites worshipping it. The ruins of Ombos 
 are at Kom Omhi. 16. Syene, to the south, now Assouan, a frontier place, and 
 the seat of a garrison. Juvenal is said to have been banished to this spot, under 
 the pretence of being sent to command the legion stationed here. Near Syene 
 is the lesser cataract of the Nile, where the terraces of red granite cross the bed 
 of the Nile. Here were the quarries from which the obelisks and colossal stat 
 ues of the ^Egyptians were wrought. At the time of the summer solstice, all 
 bodies, it was said, appeared shadowless in Syene, and a well at this place was 
 at such times illuminated to the bottom. As this place lies in latitude 24 5 , a 
 fact known even to Eratosthenes, and as the most northern vertical point of the 
 sun in summer is at latitude 23 28 , it was impossible that at Syene, which lies 
 :57 north of that point, objects should be completely without shadow ; but the 
 difference certainly is too small to be taken into account. 
 
 17. Elephantine or Elcjihantis, an island in the Nile, to the south of Syene, 
 about the distance of a semi-stadium, and containing a city of the same name. 
 It was remarkable for its fertility. The lesser cataract is not far distant, and 
 hence Elephantine became the depot for all the goods that were destined for 
 the countries to the south, and that required land-carriage in this quarter, in 
 order to avoid the falls in the river. In the time of the Pharaohs a garrison 
 was stationed here against the ^Ethiopians, and the post was also subsequently 
 occupied by the Persians and the Romans. In the Roman times, however, the 
 frontiers were pushed farther to the south. The modern name of Elephantine 
 is Djcsiret Assouan, or " Island of Assuan." 18. Phila, an island to the south of 
 Elephantine, and the southernmost point of ^Egypt, with a city of the same name. 
 The frontier of ^Egypt was properly at Philse, and the ^Egyptian appellation of 
 the island, from which the Greek $i7ai was formed, appears to have been Phi 
 lakh, " the extremity." The modern name of Philee is Djcsiret el Birbc, or 
 Temple-island," in allusion to the remains of antiquity on it. Near Philac 
 was a small rocky island called Abatos ("Afiorof) by the Greeks, from its being 
 permitted the priests alone to set foot on it, and the island s being inaccessible to 
 all other persons. In this place was the tomb of Osiris, his remains having been 
 here deposited by Isis. The modern name of the island is Biggch. 
 
 19. Myos Hormos, a sea-port on the Sinus Arabicus, chosen by Ptolemy Phila- 
 delphus, for the convenience of commerce, in preference to Arsinoe, on account 
 of the difficulty of navigating the western head of the gulf. It was afterward 
 called Aphrodites Portus, or " the Harbor of Venus." The entrance was crooked 
 and winding, on account of islands lying in front, and hence, perhaps, may have 
 arisen the earlier appellation Mvog "Oppof, "Mouse s Harbor," the port being 
 compared to a mouse s hole. Some modern scholars less correctly suppose the 
 Tiame to mean "Muscle harbor," from the great number of muscle-shells found 
 here ; the term (j.v$ meaning in Greek both " a mouse" and " a muscle." The 
 modern name is said to be Suffange el Bahri. Forbiger is wrong in making 
 Myos Hormos answer to Coseir, which lies much farther south. 20. Berenice, 
 a considerable distance to the southeast, also on the Sinus Arabicus, and a port 
 of great celebrity, from which traffic was carried on with Arabia Felix and India. 
 There was a commercial road across the country from this port to Coptos on 
 
742 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 the Nile, two hundred and fifty-eight miles in length, constructed by Ptolemv 
 Philadelphus, and to which allusion has already been made. The city of Bere 
 nice itself was founded by this same monarch, and named after his mother 
 The modern name is Sakayt el Kublee, or the " Southern Sakayt." 
 
 OASES. 
 
 OUR description of ^Egypt will end with a brief account of the Oases. Om- 
 of these, the Oasis ofAmmon, assigned to Marmarica, has already been described 
 in our account of that country. Two remain to be mentioned, namely, the Oasis 
 Major and Oasis Minor. The Greek term Oaaic, sometimes, and more cor 
 rectly, written Avaacc, contains the same root with the Coptic Ouahe, and is de 
 rived, in common with the latter, from the Egyptian Ana. The Arabic name- 
 is Wah. 
 
 I. Oasis Major ("Oaaie MeyaA^), or Greater Oasis, the more southern of the 
 two, and called by the Arabs Wah el Khargeh. The capital of this Oasis wa? 
 Ibis, or, in ^Egyptian, Hebi, " the Plough," under which character it is frequently 
 designated in the hieroglyphics. Near this city stood a temple of Amun, the 
 ruins of which still remain, The army of Cambyses is said to have passed 
 through this Oasis when going to attack the Ammonians, and it was in the 
 desert, about halfway between this and Sitoah, that they are supposed to have 
 perished. The Oases are little noticed by the ancient writers except as places 
 of exile. One of the most remarkable persons banished to the Greater Oasi.- 
 was Nestorius, in A.D. 435. 
 
 II. Oasis Minor ("Oaaif M-pu), or Lesser Oasis, now called Wah el Behnessa 
 This Oasis was assigned to Heptanomis, and lay to the north of the preceding 
 It contained one fortified post or city, named Trinythis, the ruins of which air 
 still visible. Belzoni found in this Oasis a fountain, the waters of which re 
 sembled, in their changes of temperature at different times the famous Fans 
 Solis in the Oasis ofAmmon. 
 
 8. ^ETHIOPIA. 
 1. NAME AND BOUNDARIES. 
 
 I. THE ancients had a very vague and indefinite notion re 
 specting ^Ethiopia. In general, however, they regarded it as 
 bounded on the north by JEgypt, on the east by the Sinus 
 Arabicus and Mare Erythrceum, on the west by Libya Inte 
 rior, and on the south by a Terra Incognita. It included, 
 therefore, in this sense, those regions which we now call Nubia 
 and Sennaar, together with a part of Abyssinia. 
 
 II. The southern part of this region was a table land, trav 
 ersed in all directions by chains of mountains. Farther north 
 ward, toward the middle of the Nile s course, it was an undu 
 lating country, interspersed with rocks, over which the river 
 forms cataracts. The principal streams are the Astapus and 
 Astaboras, the two tributaries of the Nile, to which we have 
 already alluded. 
 
 OBS. 1. JEthiops (A.Wtoijj ) was the expression employed by the Greeks to de 
 note a person of a dark, sun-burned color (from aldu, "to burn," and &$, "the 
 
AFRICA. 743 
 
 visage"), and they named all of such a color JEthiO pcs (A-Wionec.), and their coun 
 try Ethiopia (Aidio-xia), wherever situated. Homer makes express mention 
 of the Ethiopians in many parts of his poems, and speaks of two divisions of 
 them, the eastern and western. By the former he probably means the embrown 
 ed natives of Southern Arabia and India, who brought their wares to Sidon, and 
 who were believed to dwell in the immediate vicinity of the rising sun. The 
 Western /Ethiopians of Homer are those of Africa. 
 
 2. Herodotus speaks of the Ethiopians as inhabiting the whole of Southern 
 Libya (Libya with him is synonymous with our Africa), as distinguished from 
 the Libyans who inhabited the Mediterranean coast, and the interior adjoining 
 it. He also speaks of the Ethiopian Troglodytes, who lived to the south of the 
 Garamantes, and tells strange stories of them ; but these particular Ethiopians 
 must be considered as included under the general name. 
 
 3. Strabo places the Hesperian Ethiopians near the Atlantic Sea, and south 
 of the Pharusii and Negretes, who were themselves south of the Mauri. He 
 rodotus also speaks of Asiatic Ethiopians, who formed part of the great army 
 of Xerxes ; but their locality is not easily determined. The historian, however, 
 observes, that the Asiatic Ethiopians were black, like those of Libya, but dif 
 fered from them in language, and had straight hair ; whereas those of Libya had 
 very curly hair, by which term some modern writers have too hastily concluded 
 that the woolly hair of the negro is intended. 
 
 2. ^ETHIOPIAN TRIBES. 
 
 I. HERODOTUS distinguishes the Ethiopians into the inhabitants of Meroe, and 
 the Macrobii or " Long-lived." In Strabo and Pliny we find other tribes referred 
 to ; but the most careful division is that by Agatharchides, who divides them 
 according to their mode of life. Some carried on agriculture, cultivating the 
 millet ; others were herdsmen ; while some lived by the chase, and on vege 
 tables; and others, again, along the sea-shore, on fish and marine animals 
 These last he calls Ickthyophagi. 
 
 II. Besides these inhabitants of the plains, Ethiopia was peopled by a more 
 powerful and somewhat more civilized shepherd-nation, who dwelt in the caves 
 of the neighboring mountains, namely, the Troglodyte. A chain of high mount 
 ains runs along the African shore of the Sinus Arabicus. At the foot of the 
 gulf they turn inward, and bound the southern portion of Abyssinia. This chain 
 was, in the most ancient times, inhabited by these Troglodyte, in the holes and 
 grottoes formed by nature, but enlarged by human labor. These people were 
 not hunters ; they were herdsmen, and had their chiefs or princes of the race. 
 A still more celebrated nation, and one which has been particularly described to 
 us by Herodotus, were the Macrobii, who, he says, were reported to surpass all 
 men in beauty and large proportion of frame. These lived very far to the south, 
 and, according to Heeren, very probably in what is now the country of the So- 
 manlies, between the Straits of Bab el-Mandeb and Cape Gardafui ; and the So- 
 manlies may perhaps be their descendants. 
 
 III. The most remarkable people, however, were the inhabitants of the state 
 and city of Meroe, a country which is commonly, though incorrectly, supposed 
 to have been the parent source of Egyptian civilization. A more particular ac 
 count of this people will be given farther on. 
 
 3. ^ETHIOPIAN HISTORY. 
 
 I. THE Ethiopians, according to an early and curious belief among the Greeks, 
 etood highest of all nations in the favor of the gods, who at stated seasons left 
 
744 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Olympus to banquet among them. Their piety and rectitude are frequently 
 mentioned. The Ethiopians, moreover, appear to have been intimately con 
 nected with the ./Egyptians in the earlier ages of their monarchy, and an ^Ethi 
 opian dynasty, as we have already seen, occupied at one time the throne of the 
 Pharaohs. The people of Meroe, seem also to have had the same religion, the 
 same sacerdotal order, the same hieroglyphic writing, and the same rites of 
 sepulture as the .-Egyptians. Induced by these and other considerations, some 
 of the ablest scholars of modern times have been led to regard Meroe as the 
 parent of Egyptian civilization, and to make this civilization to have proceeded 
 from south to north. More recent investigations, however, seem to favor the 
 idea that the Egyptians were a Caucasian race, and that civilization proceeded 
 from north to south ; not down, but up the Nile ; in which case Meroe will have 
 to be regarded as colonized from Egypt. 
 
 II. Among the early Pharaohs who carried their arms into Ethiopia was 
 Thothmes I., who extended his power as far as the island of Argo, where he left 
 a monument, now known by the name of Hagar e 1 dahab, "the golden stone." 
 Thothmes II. penetrated to Napata, now El Bcrkel, the capital of Lower ^Ethio 
 pia ; and the third of that name appears to have extended his dominions still 
 farther. Under the Ptolemies, there is evidence to show that Graeco-Egyptian 
 Colonies found their way into the regions of the Upper Nile, and along the shores 
 of the Red Sea, and even as far as Axume and Adule in Abyssinia. These move 
 ments may account for the various styles of building and sculpture found along 
 the banks of the Upper Nile, and may serve also to throw some light upon the 
 question respecting Meroe. We know, from a passage in Diodorus, that after 
 the Ptolemies came to reign in ./Egypt, a great change took place in . Ethiopian 
 politics. In the time of the second Ptolemy, the Ethiopians had a king named 
 Ergamenes, who had a knowledge of Greek manners and philosophy. Being 
 weary of the yoke of priesthood, he went with a band of soldiers to " the inac 
 cessible place" which contained the golden temple of the Ethiopians, and mas 
 sacred all the priests. 
 
 III. After the Romans became possessed of Egypt, we read of several ex 
 peditions into Ethiopia, but of no permanent impression made by them upon 
 that region. Caius Petronius, prefect of Egypt under Augustus, is said to have 
 advanced as far as Napata, called Tanape by Dion, the first town of Ethiopia 
 after Meroe. He defeated Queen Candace, who was obliged to sue for peace. 
 But the Romans ultimately kept none of their conquests in that quarter. In 
 subsequent times, it appears that they conquered again, and retained a strip of 
 territory along the banks of the Nile, seven days march above the first cataract ; 
 but this was given up by Dioclesian to the Nul& or Nabata, on condition that 
 they should prevent the .Ethiopians and the Blemmyes from attacking /Egypt. 
 Of the vicissitudes and ultimate dismemberment of the ancient kingdom of Me 
 roe we have no information. The early Christian historians seem to restrict 
 the name of Ethiopians to a people occupying part of the country now called 
 Abyssinia. Procopius and Cedrenus call the Axumites Ethiopians. From 
 those times the name of Ethiopia has been given more particularly to Abyssin 
 ia, and the Gecz, or sacred language of that country, has been called Ethiopian. 
 
 KINGDOM OF MERGE. 
 
 I. Meroe, according to the ancient writers, was an island of Ethiopia, con 
 taining a city of the same name, and formed by the Nile, the Astapus, and the 
 Astaboras. It could not, indeed, be called an island in the strictest sense of the 
 term, since it was not completely inclosed by these rivers, but only very nearly 
 
AFRICA. 745 
 
 so. In the rainy season, however, it became an actual island by reason of the 
 inundation of the rivers just mentioned. Its superficial contents exceeded those 
 of Sicily rather more than one half. 
 
 II. To the west Meroe was bounded by sandy deserts, separating it from 
 Darfur, which remained unknown in ancient times ; to the east were the wild 
 Shangallas and the Troglodytes. To the south dwelt a numerous tribe of ^Egyp 
 tian origin, descended, it is said, from the soldier caste of that country, who, 
 dissatisfied with the new order of things at the commencement of the reign of 
 Psammitichus, had migrated, to the number of two hundred and forty thousand, 
 into ^Ethiopia, where lands were assigned them by the monarch of that coun 
 try in what is now the province of Gojam, and where they formed a state de 
 pendent upon that of Meroe". 
 
 III. The government of Meroe" was in the hands of a sacerdotal caste, who 
 chose a king from their own number, in accordance with the oracular decree of 
 their chief divinity, the god Ammon, and again commanded him to die when 
 ever they thought proper, stating to him that such was the will of their god. 
 The trade of the country was entirely under their control, and they sent out 
 numerous commercial colonies in various directions. They are said to have 
 founded Ammonium in the Desert of Marmarica, and to have made the first 
 settlement also at Thebes in Upper JSgypt. In other words, Meroe" has been 
 commonly regarded, in consequence of the ancient accounts respecting it, as 
 the parent source of the civilization of /Egypt. This opinion, however, though 
 ably advocated by Heeren and others, is, as we have already remarked, begin 
 ning to be now regarded as quite untenable. The oldest monuments of .Egypt 
 are in the northern, not the southern part of that country, and craniological in 
 vestigations prove the ./Egyptians to have been a Caucasian race, and to have 
 come into the country, therefore, from Upper Asia by the Isthmus of Suez. 
 Meroe is more likely, therefore, to have received its civilization from JEgypt. 
 
 IV. The government of Meroe continued hieratic until the period of the sec 
 ond Ptolemy, when Ergamenes, at that time King of Meroe, tired of being priest 
 ridden, fell upon the members of the sacerdotal order in their sanctuary, as al 
 ready stated, and put them all to the sword. The power of Meroe, however, 
 soon after declined. 
 
 V. Meroe" was the first fertile country after crossing the Libyan Desert, and 
 formed a natural resting-place for the northern caravans. It was likewise the 
 natural mart for the productions of Inner Africa, which were brought for the 
 use of the northern portion, and was reckoned the outermost of the countries 
 which produced gold, while by the navigable rivers surrounding it on all sides, 
 it had a ready communication with the more southern countries. As easy, 
 ow r ing to the moderate distance, was its connection with Arabia Felix, and so 
 long as Yemen remained in possession of the Arabian and Indian trade, Meroe 
 was the natural market for the Arabian and Indian wares in Africa. 
 
 VI. The city of Meroe was situated in the upper part of the island, on the 
 bank of the Nile, and must have been a large and flourishing place. Its ruins 
 are a little distance to the north of the modern Shendy, and have been well de 
 scribed by Caillaud and Hoskins, especially the latter. Mr. Hoskins is in favor 
 of the commonly received theory respecting the origin of ./Egyptian civilization, 
 and consequently of assigning a very remote antiquity to Meroe, but the archi 
 tectural remains of the place would seem by no means to countenance the sup 
 position. These remains consist of pyramids, temples, and other structures of 
 sandstone, more or less ruined. The site itself has no particular name, but a 
 large village nearer Shendy bears the appellation of Meroueer. 
 
746 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PLACES BETWEEN MERGE AND 
 
 1. Primis or Premnis Magna, immediately north of the island of MeroS, and 
 the junction of the two rivers, and probably not far from the modern El Mak- 
 karif. Wilkinson thinks that the name may perhaps be connected with that 
 of Papremis, the ./Egyptian Mars. This place was called Magna for distinction 
 sake from Primis Parva, farther down the Nile. 2. Napata, the capital of Queen 
 Candace, taken and destroyed by the Roman commander Petronius, prefect of 
 -Egypt in the time of Augustus. This was done in retaliation for an incursion 
 of the ^Ethiopians, who had penetrated to Syene, and overwhelmed the garrison 
 stationed there to protect the ^Egyptian frontier. Pliny makes Napata to have 
 been eight hundred and seventy Roman miles, or about eight hundred English 
 miles above Syene, and three hundred and sixty Roman miles from the island 
 of Meroe. The extensive ruins at Gild el Birkel are supposed to correspond 
 to it ; but Hoskins is in favor of the modern Dongolah, one hundred miles lower 
 down the Nile. 3. Phthuris, on the western bank, now probably Faras or Farras, 
 with ruins. 
 
 4. Aboccis, now Aboo Simbel, on the western bank, with very remarkable ruins, 
 among which are two temples justly regarded as the most interesting remains 
 met with in Nubia, and, excepting Thebes, throughout the whole valley of the 
 Nile. The smaller one of these temples appears to have been dedicated to Athor, 
 the ^Egyptian Venus, by the queen of Remeses II., and the larger to have been 
 the work of Remeses himself. 5. Primis or Premnis Parva, now Ibrecm, with 
 .Egyptian and Roman remains. It is probable that the Romans, finding the posi 
 tion here so well adapted for the defence of their territories, stationed a garrison 
 in this quarter as an advanced post. 6. Pselcis, called by Strabo Pselchc, and now 
 Dakkeh. Here Petronius defeated the generals of Candace. 7. Tutzis, in Coptic 
 Thosh, and in ancient ^Egyptian Pthah-Ei, or "the abode of Pthah," from its be 
 ing under the special protection of that deity. The resemblance of the Coptic 
 name Thosh with Ethaush, signifying, in the same dialect, " ^Ethiopia" is ren 
 dered peculiarly striking from the word " Cush," in the old ^Egyptian language 
 "^Ethiopia," being retained in the Nubian modern name of this place, " Risk." 
 
 The tract of country from the island of Tachompso, opposite to Pselcis, down 
 to Syene, was called from its extent Dodccaschanus, and under the Roman sway 
 was reckoned as part of JEgypt, under the appellation of ^Egyptian ^Ethiopia. 
 The Romans constructed here, on both sides of the Nile, under Dioclesian s 
 reign, military roads and forts. Tachompso is thought to signify " the Island 
 of Crocodiles." 
 
 KINGDOM OF AXUME. 
 
 I. THE kingdom of Axume lay to the southeast of Meroe, and, as appears from 
 a Greek inscription which has come down to us, was not only coextensive with 
 the present kingdom of Tigre and part of Abyssinia, but even extended into 
 Arabia. It is first noticed by the author of the " Periplus of the Erythraean 
 Sea," a document written probably about the close of the second century ; but 
 how long this Axumite kingdom had existed before we are unable to say. 
 
 II. The two principal places were Axume and Adide, the latter a port on the 
 Sinus Arabicus, through which the Axumites maintained a commercial inter 
 course with Arabia and India. It was probably for some advantage to be se 
 cured to Greek merchants from /Egypt in the Indian trade that the Byzantine 
 emperors paid a yearly tax to the Axumite king until the commencement of the 
 Arab conquest. 
 
AFRICA. 747 
 
 PLACES IN AXUME. 
 
 1. Axume or Auxame, now Axum, about one hundred and twenty miles south 
 of the modern Arkeeko, which last is on the immediate shore of the Red Sea. 
 The present town consists of only six hundred houses, but the earlier city ap 
 pears to have been large and flourishing, and was the great emporium for ivory, 
 which was exported through Adule. One of the most remarkable objects at 
 Axurn, at the present day, is a large obelisk, sixty feet high, made of a single 
 block of granite. The engravings on it are not hieroglyphics, like those of 
 . Egypt, nor does it exactly agree with them in shape. Though it is quadri 
 lateral, one of the sides has a hollow space running up the centre from the 
 base to the summit, which, instead of terminating in a pyramid, like the regular 
 obelisks, is crowned with a kind of patera. The obelisks of Axum were origin 
 ally fifty-five in number, and four of them, it is said, were as large as that now 
 standing. Besides this last, another, but a small and plain one, also remains 
 erect, with the fragments of many others lying near it. Among the other an 
 tiquities of Axum is a stone containing two inscriptions, one in rude Greek 
 characters, the other supposed to be in ^Ethiopian. The Greek inscription 
 shows the extent of the Axumite kingdom. 
 
 2. Adule or Adulis, on the Sinus Arabicus, the port of Axume, and eight days 
 journey from it. It is supposed to correspond to the modern Zulla. Cosmas, 
 a merchant of the sixth century of the Christian sera, has preserved in his 
 work, entitled " Christian Topography," a copy of a Greek inscription which 
 he found here. Adule at this period was the port of Axume, where merchants 
 traded for ivory and slaves, just as they now do at Massowa, on the same coast. 
 D Anville incorrectly places Adulis at Arkeeko, about 22 farther north than 
 Zulla. 
 
 THE EASTERN COAST OF AFRICA TO THE UNKNOWN 
 
 REGIONS. 
 
 LEAVING Berenice we come to, 1. Chersonesus, now Port Comot. 2. Moiis 
 Isius, so called from its temple of Isis, now Ras cl-Dwaer. 3. Bathys Portus, 
 now Arecca. 4. Dioscorum Portus, now the Bay of Fushaa. 5. Gypsitis Insula, 
 near the modern harbor of Suacim. G. Gomadceorum Insulce, now Daradata and 
 Dolcofallar. 7. Monodactylus Mons, now Cape Assoy. 8. Ptolemals, with the 
 cognomen Theron or Epitheras, near the modern port of Mirza Mornbarric, 
 which supplies good fresh water. This place was founded by Eumedes, under 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus, on account of the ship-timber found here, and the abund 
 ance of elephants in its vicinity. The traders to Arabia, Abyssinia, and the In 
 dies touched here to take in refreshments and to refit. This place is famous 
 in the astronomical calculations for the geographies of Eratosthenes, Marinus, 
 and Ptolemy, founded on the observation that forty-five days before and forty- 
 five days after the summer solstice the sun was vertical at Ptolemai s. 
 
 9. Sebasticum Stoma, near the Bay of Massua. 10. Suche, a small town in 
 the interior, belonging to a prince of the Arabians. 11. Daphnitis Insula, now 
 Dollaca. 12. Colobon Promontorium, in the territory of the Colobi, a Troglodyte 
 race. 13. Saba, a seat of the Sabaean Arabs, famed for its harbor and the hunt 
 ing of elephants. It was in what is now the province of Gojam in Abyssinia. 
 14. Tcnesis, in the interior, the country occupied by the ^Egyptian military 
 caste, who had migrated from J3gypt in the time of Psammitichus. 15. Adule, 
 now Zulla, already mentioned. 16. Diodori Insula, now Parim, a depot of 
 Greek traders. 17. Arsinoe, a Greek city and harbor, now the trading place 
 
748 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 oalled Assab. 18. Berenice Epi Dircs, a Greek city on the strait termed Dire 
 or Dcrc, now the strait of Bab el-Mandeb. 
 
 The coast of ^Ethiopia, from the straits to the eastern headland, or Aromata 
 Promontorium, was much better known after the time of Ptolemy Philadelphia 
 than it is now to Europeans. It was called Cinnamomophdros or Aromatophoros 
 Rcgio, from its abounding in spices and perfumes. Here we find, 1. Pythange- 
 lus, a harbor, famous for the elephant-hunts in its vicinity. 2. Avalltcs Em 
 porium, a celebrated mart, now Zcyla. The Sinus Avalites is now the Bay of 
 Zeyla. 3. Pitholaus Promontorium, the country adjacent to which was particu 
 larly famed for myrrh and incense. 4. Mundi (Movvdov) Emporium, another 
 mart, now Mete. 5. Cole Emporium, probably the modern watering-place Chaji. 
 6. Elcphas Mons, now Mount Felles or Baba Felek. 7. Aromata Promontorium, 
 now Cape Guardafui. Off this headland lay Dioscoridis Insula, now Socotora, 
 famed for its aloes. 
 
 In the first century of our era, the navigators to India discovered, south of 
 the Aromata Promontorium, a rocky coast, inclosing a well-cultivated country 
 in the interior, inhabited by negroes under the rule of Arabians from Yemen, 
 who carried on trade there. This extensive coast is called in the Periplus 
 Azania, a term comprehending not only the modern Ajan, but also the coast of 
 Zanguebar, as far as Quiloa, provided this place be the Rhapta of the Periplus. 
 Ptolemy gives this same tract of country the name of Barbaria, in which appel 
 lation we see lurking the term Berber, the name of the great aboriginal white 
 race of northern Africa. Ptolemy s Sinus Barbaricus, therefore, will answer to 
 The modern Gulf of Zangucbar. The author of the Periplus, however, makes 
 the coast of Barbaria lie to the north, and extend from the straits of Dire to 
 Aromata Promontorium, which is much more likely to be correct. 
 
 On the coast of Azania we notice, 1. Zingis Promontorium, commanded by 
 the three-topped mountain Phalangis, now Cape DcJgada. To the south came 
 the Noti Keras, or Southern Horn, a name first given to the Aromata Promon 
 torium, but afterward, with the advance of geographical knowledge, extended 
 farther south. 2. Parmim et Magnum Littus, extending from Cape Baras to the 
 promontory above Brava. 3. Then followed the seven Journeys, or dpopoi, or 
 seven harbors and marts, about a day s journey apart : that of Serapis, near the 
 mouth of the River Dos Fugos, and under the line ; the station of Nici or Niconis 
 Dromos, northw r ard of the modern island of Pate, &c. 4. We next find the 
 Paralaai islands, or the modern islands of Lamo, &c., on what was called the 
 "New Canal" (Kaivq ^e-youhrj Atopvf). 5. Two days sail farther on brings 
 us to Rhapta, the most distant trading-place of the Greeks, and the capital of 
 Azania. The Rhaptum Promontorium is commonly supposed to be Cape For 
 mosa. The articles of trade were Indian lances, knives, glass-ware, wine, corn, 
 exchanged for ivory, rhinoceros horns, &c. Rhapta, therefore, was the farthest 
 point to which Grecian commerce extended ; yet the opinion still existed that 
 the ocean to the south swept round to the west, and, stretching round ./Ethiopia 
 and Libya, joined the Atlantic. There is no doubt that the Arabian possessions 
 must have extended still farther south, perhaps to Madagascar ; but they con 
 cealed their knowledge from the Greeks. Nevertheless, Ptolemy had hear of 
 a Promontorium Prasum, 7 farther south, of the Mare Asperum, and of 2Ethio- 
 pian Anthropophagi, which were about Cape Gado on the Mozambique Chan 
 nel. He had likewise heard of the island of Menuthias, probably the present 
 Pcruba, on the coast of Zanguebar. 
 
AFRICA. 749 
 
 9. LIBYA. INTERIOR. 
 
 Tins country, in the time of Ptolemy, was considered to be 
 bounded on the west by the Atlantic Ocean, on the north J>y 
 Mauritania, Numidia, Africa Propria, the Regio Syrtica, 
 Cyrendica, and Marmarica, on the east by J&gypt and Ethio 
 pia, and on the south by a Terra Incognita. 
 
 TRIBES OF LIBYA INTERIOR. 
 
 I. Gatiili, a powerful tribe to the south of Mauritania and Numidia, whose 
 country answered to the southernmost part of Morocco, the region of Biledul- 
 gerid, and the more western portion of the Sahara, with its Oases. The princi 
 pal branches of the race were, 1. The Autololcs, lying to the south of the Atlas 
 range, along the western coast. They had a city named Autolola, which 
 Reichard supposes to be the same with the modern Agulon or Aquilon. 2. The 
 Pharusii, immediately to the east of the former. These at one time destroyed 
 several of the Carthaginian settlements on the coast of Mauritania, and in the 
 course of traffic came as far even as Cirta in Numidia. They must not, how 
 ever, be confounded with the Phraurusii of Ptolemy, who lived much farther 
 inland, and appear to have occupied an Oasis in the vicinity of the Hcsperii 
 JEthiopcs. 3. The Dara, whose name still remains in that of the modern Darah. 
 4. The Mclanogatuli, in the more southern regions, a mixed race of Gatuli and 
 NigritcB. 
 
 II. The Garamantcs, to the east of the Gcetuli, a powerful nation, occupying 
 not only the Oasis of Phazania, or the modern Fezzan, but also a wide tract of 
 country to the south, answering to the modern Tuarick and Tibboo regions, to 
 gether with a part of Soudan and Bornou, as far east as Darfur. They carried 
 on an active traffic with the Carthaginians, especially in slaves. Their chief 
 city was Garama, now Gherma or Yerma, in Fezzan. Ptolemy mentions an 
 other city of theirs named Gira, on the River Gir, and which Mannert supposes 
 to be the modern Kaschna. 
 
 III. The Nigritce, to the south of the Gsstuli, on the banks of the Nigir, and 
 in a part of what is now Soudan. Their capital was called Niglra, which Man 
 nert makes the Gana of Edrisi and of later times. Another of their cities, 
 named by Ptolemy Peside, would seem to have stood near the modern Timluctoo. 
 
 IV. The Daradce, on the coast, around the mouth of the River Daradus or 
 Senegal, and answering, therefore, to the modern Foulahs. 
 
 V. The Hesperii JEthiopes, or Western ./Ethiopians, farther to the south, along 
 the western coast, and extending also into the interior of the country. Their 
 territory corresponded, therefore, to the modern Sierra Leone, the Ivory Coast, 
 Gold Coast, Ashantcc, Dahomey, &c. The whole of Central Africa, under the 
 equator, Ptolemy calls by the general name of Agisymba ( A-yiavfiGa ). It formed 
 a country entirely unknown, and was peopled by the ancient poets with various 
 monsters. 
 
 ISLANDS OFF THE WESTERN COAST OF AFRICA. 
 
 I. Ccrne, an island on the western coast of Africa, mentioned in the Periplus. 
 
 or Voyage of the Carthaginian Hanno. Here he established a colony, and it 
 
 always formed, after this, the depot of the Carthaginians on the Atlantic coast 
 
 of Africa. Hanno, in his account of the voyage, says that it was the same dis- 
 
750 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 tance from the Columns of Hercules that Carthage was. D Anville, Rennell, 
 and many others make it the modern Arguin. Gossellin, however, is in favor 
 of the modern Fedala. Heeren, Mannert, and Gail place it farther north, in the 
 present gulf of Agadir or Santa Cruz. 
 
 II. Insula Fortunata, now the Canary Islands. They derived their ancient 
 name from the accounts given of their remarkable beauty, and of the abundance 
 of all things desirable which they were said to contain. Their climate was one 
 continued spring, their soil was covered with eternal verdure, and bloomed with 
 the richest flowers, while the productions of earth were poured forth spontane 
 ously and in the utmost profusion. Some modern writers suppose that the 
 Fortunate Islands of the ancients refer to Madeira; but the Canaries have de 
 cidedly the better claim, if we follow the description of Pliny, which is taken 
 from Juba, the Mauritanian prince. Juba calls one Nivaria, or " Snow Island, 
 which is probably Teneriffe : another island he calls Canaria, from the number 
 of dogs of a large size that were found there : Juba had two of these dogs. The 
 Canary Islands, being situated within the general limits of the trade-wind, enjoy 
 a fine climate, and are very healthy. 
 
 III. Insula Purpurarice, to the north of the preceding, and so called from King 
 Juba s having established in them a manufactory of purple. They are supposed 
 to answer to Madeira and the adjacent islands. 
 
 Before concluding, we may make a brief mention of the celebrated island of 
 Atlantis, which is said to have existed at a very early period in the Atlantic 
 Ocean, and to have been eventually sunk beneath its waves. Plato is the first 
 writer that gives an account of it, and he obtained his information, as he informs 
 us, from the priests of ^Egypt. The statement which he furnishes is as follows : 
 In the Atlantic Ocean, over against the Columns of Hercules, lay an island, larger 
 than Asia and Africa taken together, and in its vicinity were other islands, froin 
 which there was a passage to a large continent lying beyond. The Mediterra 
 nean, compared with the ocean in which these islands were situated, resembled 
 a mere harbor with a narrow entrance. Nine thousand years before the time 
 of Plato, this island of Atlantis was both thickly settled and very powerful. Its 
 sway extended over Africa as far as JEgypt, and over Europe as far as the 
 Tyrrhenian Sea. The farther progress of its conquests, however, was checked 
 by the Athenians, who, partly with the aid of the other Greeks, partly by them 
 selves, succeeded in defeating these powerful invaders, the natives of Atlantis. 
 After this, a violent earthquake, which lasted for the space of a day and a night, 
 and was accompanied by inundations of the sea, caused the islands to sink, and 
 for a long period subsequent to this, the sea in this quarter was impassable, by 
 reason of the slime and shoals. (Plat., Timaus, p. 24, scqq., ed. Bip., vol. ix., p. 
 296, seqq.Id., Critias, p. 108, scqq., ed. Bip., vol. x., p. 39, seq.). Various theo 
 ries have been founded on this narrative, one of which seeks to identify the At 
 lantis of Plato with America. But the whole subject is too fanciful to afford 3 
 basis for any serious reasoning. 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 4. ] 
 Aba3 
 
 741 
 430 
 47 
 347 
 207 
 353 
 374 
 579 
 
 174 
 746 
 190 
 190 
 636 
 319 
 680 
 175 
 
 719 
 288 
 411 
 155 
 173 
 683 
 627 
 739 
 710 
 658 
 462 
 737 
 506 
 50 
 667 
 279 
 346 
 605 
 704 
 
 ] 
 
 age 
 191 
 65 
 110 
 687 
 704 
 200 
 680 
 629 
 630 
 398 
 407 
 716 
 190 
 194 
 143 
 139 
 747 
 198 
 705 
 486 
 
 353 
 
 560 
 
 454 
 
 560 
 
 489 
 396 
 
 288 
 298 
 
 591 
 569 
 653 
 
 570 
 433 
 
 724 
 679 
 679 
 
 446 
 348 
 458 
 458 
 511 
 
 431 
 434 
 400 
 630 
 
 "V78 
 
 
 ? 4^8 
 
 
 Adeba 
 
 jEthalia 
 
 297 
 
 \bdera 
 
 Ad Ilorrea 
 
 ^Ethiopes Hesperii . . 
 
 749 
 
 " (Hispana) 
 
 
 ..Ethiopia 
 
 742 
 
 \bella 
 
 
 ^Etna (Mons) 
 
 388 
 
 \bellaba 
 
 
 
 398 
 
 
 
 ^E toli a . 
 
 513 
 
 " (Marsicum) . . . 
 Abiae 
 
 Adramyttenus Sinus . 604, 
 Adramyttium 
 
 ./Exone 
 
 . 554 
 
 Africa 
 
 708 
 
 
 
 " Propria 
 
 714 
 
 
 
 
 533 
 
 \boccis 
 
 
 
 234 
 
 
 Ad Sabrinam 
 
 Agasus Portus 
 
 357 
 
 
 Ad Taum 
 
 Agatha 
 
 104 
 
 
 
 Agathyrna 
 
 .. 398 
 
 
 
 Agbatana 
 
 694 
 
 
 Adule 
 
 Agendicum 
 
 134 
 
 Abravannus Sinus 
 
 
 
 . . 121 
 
 JEa 
 
 Aginnum 
 
 120 
 
 
 
 Agisymba . 
 
 749 
 
 
 ^Ebura 
 
 Agrgei 
 
 508 
 
 Absyrtides Insulas . . . 288, 
 
 
 Agrianes (fluvius) 
 
 . 424 
 
 
 
 464 
 
 -\bus 
 
 
 Agri Centum 
 
 395 
 
 " Mons 
 
 \bydos 
 
 
 Aayrium 
 
 399 
 
 3 
 
 Aias 
 
 730 
 
 
 
 
 Alabanda . . . 
 
 ... 618 
 
 \byla 46 
 
 
 
 Alabastrites Mons . . 
 
 729 
 
 Acamas Promontorium . . 
 Acanthus (Macedonica) . . 
 
 jEgaeum Mare 9, 
 
 Alabastron 
 Alabus 
 
 738 
 389 
 
 JEgaleus 
 
 -iEgates Insulse 
 JEgesta 
 
 Aleenus 
 
 176 
 
 Alsesus 
 
 390 
 
 \cci 
 
 
 
 536 
 
 \ce 
 
 jEgidis 
 
 Alalia 
 
 402 
 
 
 JE^ilon 
 
 Alani Scythse 
 
 235 
 
 
 
 Al atrium 
 
 328 
 
 
 " (urb) 
 
 
 235 
 
 
 
 Alaunus 
 Alba 
 
 174 
 57 
 
 
 567 
 556 
 390 
 474 
 477 
 383 
 414 
 359 
 414 
 715 
 244 
 368 
 389 
 
 
 
 
 " (fluvius) 
 
 ~ 31 
 
 Achates 
 
 ^Egirus 
 
 " (Mons) 
 
 218 
 
 
 
 Alba Au msta 
 
 105 
 
 Acheron 
 
 
 " Fucentia 
 
 110 
 
 " (Bruttius) 
 " (Epiroticus) 
 \cherontia 
 
 
 
 " Helviorum . . . 
 
 .. 105 
 
 ^Esyptus 
 
 JElana 
 
 " Pompeia 
 Albana 
 
 273 
 .. .. 706 
 
 
 \cholla 
 
 
 Albani 
 
 410 
 
 
 
 Albania .... 
 
 706 
 
 Aciris 
 
 
 Albania Pylae 
 
 . 608, 706 
 
 Vcis 
 
 
 Albanopolis 
 
 410 
 
 Acragas 
 
 390 
 63 
 538 
 
 jEnea 
 
 jEneum Promontorium . v 
 
 Albanus Lacus 
 Albiga . . . 
 
 . 266,324 
 123 
 
 \craephia . 
 
 Albioeci 
 
 102 
 
 Acritas Promontorium... 
 Acroathon 
 
 Acroceraunii Monies 
 4crothoon 
 
 483 
 446 
 413 
 446 
 461 
 461 
 508 
 402 
 244 
 611 
 190 
 662 
 259 
 
 
 Albion . 
 
 162 
 
 
 Albis 
 
 . 221 
 
 ^Enyra 
 
 Albitim Insfaunum . 
 
 272 
 
 jEolife Insulaj 
 
 " Intemelium 
 Albius Mons 
 
 272 
 243 407 
 
 
 /Eolis 
 
 Acte 
 
 ^Epea 
 
 Albucella .... 
 
 58 
 
 
 
 308 
 
 .353 
 351 
 174 
 
 453 
 
 Albula 
 
 260 
 
 " Promontorium . . . 
 Acumincum 
 
 jEquus Tuticus 
 
 Alburnus Mons 
 
 374 
 
 jEculanum 
 
 Albus Portus 
 
 46 
 
 
 JEsernia 
 
 Alcathous 
 
 542 
 
 
 jEsica (fluvius) ... 
 
 Alemanni 
 
 
 Adata 
 
 
 Alemannus 
 
 221 
 
 Addua . . . 
 
 ;EstmUS . . . 
 
 Alerea... 
 
 .. 122 
 
752 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 
 Page 
 402 Amphaxitis 
 
 Page Fa.,, 
 
 Alesia 
 
 133 Amphiale 
 
 
 
 128 " Promontorium . 
 733 Amphilochi 
 
 553 Antivestaeum Promontori- 
 508 urn . . 17] 
 
 Alexandrea (^Egyptia) . . . 
 (Ariana) 
 (ad Issum) . . . 
 (Oxiantt) 
 (Parthia) 
 (Troas) 
 (Ultima) 
 \lexandreopolis 
 
 695 Amphimalla . 
 
 601 Antona 17C 
 
 612 Amphipagus 
 
 421 Antros 89 
 
 700 Amphipolis 
 
 427 Antuuacum 14;s 
 519 Anxanurn 354 
 
 696 Amphissa 
 
 629 Amphrysus . ... 
 
 499 Anxur 3 JO 
 
 700 Ampsagas 
 
 713 Aornus 699 
 
 696 Amsancti Lacus . 
 
 267 Aorsi 704 
 
 
 702 Amyclaj (Italce) 
 
 332 Apamea (Syria) 661 
 
 Algidum 
 
 325 " (Lacedaemonian). 
 
 585 " (Chaldeea) 687 
 
 Algidus Mons 
 
 50 " Cibotus 64 ] 
 
 Aliphera 
 
 594 Anactorium 
 
 508 << llhagiana 697 
 
 Alinza 
 
 695 Anagnia 
 
 327 Apainene 66 J 
 
 Allia 
 
 261 Anagombri Montes 
 
 722 Apavarcticene 697 
 
 Allieni Forum 
 
 284 Anamani 
 
 
 Allit ae 
 
 351 Anaphlystus 
 
 
 Allobroges 
 
 101 Anapus (Acarnanius) 
 464 " (Siculus) 
 
 475 Aphaca 665 
 
 
 389 Aphetae 499 
 
 Almo 
 
 261 Anariacae 
 
 695 Aphrodisias 618 
 
 Almope 
 
 464 Anas 
 
 28 Aphrodisium Promontori- 
 682 um 88 
 
 Alone (Britannica) 
 
 202 Anatho 
 
 " (Hispana) 
 Alope 
 
 63 Anaurus 
 
 502 Aphroditopolis 737, 738 
 611 Aphytis 45^ 
 
 520 Anazarba 
 
 Alopece 
 
 556 Ancalites 
 
 179 Apia .. 46C 
 
 Alopeconnesus 
 
 433 Anchiale 
 
 611 Apidanus 48" 
 
 Alorus 
 
 453 Anchialua. 
 
 440 Apis 723 
 
 Alos 
 
 499 Anchoe 
 
 538 j Apocremnus Promontori- 
 303 | um 623 
 
 Alpeni 
 
 520 | Ancona 
 
 Alpes . 85 
 
 251 Anr-vra 
 
 
 " BastarnicaB 12 Anr.vrnn Pnlis 
 
 737 Apollinis Pomontorium . . 711 
 122 Apollinopolis Magna 740 
 125 Apollonia (Illyrica) 410 
 188 " (Thracia) 440 
 
 " Carnicae 
 
 
 " CottifB ... 
 
 
 " GraiaB 
 
 
 " Graias et Penninaa . 
 " Lepontiae 
 
 82 Anderitum 
 
 123 " (Macedonica) . . 462 
 125 " (Assyria) 68 
 
 251 Andes 
 
 " Maritimge . 
 
 251 " (urbs) 
 
 281 " (Cyrenaica) ... 720 
 134 Apolloniatis 687 
 
 " " (Provincia) 
 " Noricse 
 
 82 Andomatunum 
 
 
 637 Apollonis 60 
 
 " PenninaB 
 
 251 Andriace 
 
 615 Aprusa 299 
 
 " RaetiCcfi 
 Alpheus 
 
 251 Andropolis 
 
 476 : Andros . 
 
 734 Apsiathii 42(i 
 
 598 ! Apsus 410 
 
 Alsa 
 
 287 Andusia 
 
 105 Apta Julia 111 
 
 Althaea . 
 
 59 Anemo 
 
 283 Apulia 354 
 
 Altinum 
 
 286 Anemurium 
 
 611 Apulum 234 
 
 605 Apus 234 
 
 Aluta 
 
 234 " Promontorium 
 594 Aneli 
 
 Alyssus 
 
 225 Aqua3 Cteretanse . . 294 
 
 Amalchium Mare 
 
 
 230 " CalidtB 123 
 
 Amalelut>u 
 
 G78 Angulus 
 
 311 " Convenarum 120 
 477 " Flavian 55 
 
 
 
 410 Anio 
 
 261 " Mattiacre 228 
 
 Amardi 
 
 6^5 Ani^torgis 
 
 38 | " Onesiorum 120 
 
 
 695 i Anopeea 
 
 505 i " Sextias !() > 
 
 Amari Lacus 
 
 731 Anta3opolis 
 
 738 " Solis 190 
 
 Amasia 
 
 Amathus (Cypria) . 
 
 640 Antandrus 
 659 Antaradus 
 
 630 " StaticllfB 273 
 
 668 " Tarbellicea lio 
 
 " (Palestina) 
 Ambarri 
 Ambiani 
 
 111 Aquileia 287 
 
 127 Antemnae 
 
 138 Antesiodurum 
 
 306 Aquilonia 350 
 134 i Aquincum 244 
 
 Ambiliati 
 
 139 Anthedon 
 
 539 Aquinum 283 
 
 Ambitarinus Vicus 
 Ambo"lanna 
 
 144 Anthela 
 
 505 " (Volscium) .... 332 
 457 Aquitania 81, 115 
 
 207 Anthemus 
 
 Ambrf cia . 
 
 418 Anticragus 
 
 614 " Prima 83 
 
 504 " Secunda ... . 83 
 
 Ambracius Sinus 
 
 486 Anticyra (Thessalia) 
 152 " (Phocaica) 
 56 Antigonea 
 
 
 525 Aquitani 74 
 
 Ambrysus 
 
 Ameria . 
 
 415 Arabia 677 
 
 302 " Psaphara 
 684 Antilibanus 
 
 457 1 " Deserta 677 
 
 Amida 
 
 664 " Felix . 679 
 
 
 345 Antinoopolis 
 
 738 " Pctreea 678 
 
 
 21 Antiochia 
 
 661 Arabici Montes 729 
 
 Amisus 
 
 639 " ad Taurum 
 308 " ad Maeandrum. 
 675 " Margiana 
 723 " Pisidiae 
 
 662 Arabicus Sinus 604 
 
 Amiternum . 
 
 618 Arachnaeus Mons 586 
 698 Arachosia 696 
 
 Ammaus 
 
 
 6 J? Arachotus 695 
 
 Ammonitae 
 
 678 Antipatris . 
 
 671 Arachthus 414 
 
 Amnias 
 
 
 110 Aracynthus 471 
 
 
 599 Antiphrsp 
 
 793 Arnrlns .. 668 
 
 Ampolos. 
 
 446 Antirrbium 483,517 Arsegenus 129 
 
 Ampelus Mons 
 
 655 Antissa . . . . 654 Aragus 70o 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 753 
 
 Page 
 
 Artemisium (Euboic.) 485 
 " (urbs) 
 
 Page 
 559 
 63 
 
 298 
 689 
 424 
 408 
 49 
 118 
 684 
 272 
 684 
 671 
 148 
 218 
 533 
 359 
 304 
 495 
 601 
 609 
 487 
 390 
 708 
 476 
 480 
 
 A 
 
 Pa ? r 
 
 350 
 262 
 312 
 173 
 150 
 277 
 151 
 142 
 274 
 144 
 273 
 142 
 241 
 55 
 294 
 
 i:j"> 
 
 40 
 61 
 123 
 122 
 440 
 124 
 126 
 126 
 539 
 367 
 580 
 70 
 677 
 703 
 130 
 126 
 279 
 245 
 401 
 344 
 344 
 61 
 260 
 117 
 54 
 210 
 225 
 409 
 210 
 749 
 749 
 125* 
 90 
 708 
 304 
 748 
 748 
 190 
 122 
 122 
 111 
 156 
 266 
 31 
 208 
 246 
 446 
 660 
 90 
 143 
 746 
 747 
 642 
 748 
 690 
 36J 
 495 
 671 
 722 
 
 68R 
 735 
 684 
 219 
 <5W 
 
 Arar . 92 
 
 And* a 
 
 Arauris . 104 
 
 " (ins u la) 
 
 
 Arausio 112 
 
 Artemita 
 
 
 Araxes . . GOG, 083 
 
 
 Augusta Nemetum 
 Pretoria 
 
 " (Pera.) 691 
 Araxus rromontorium . . . 483 
 Arbela 689 
 
 Arupenum 
 
 
 " Ilauracorum 
 " Suessionum . 
 " Taurinorum 
 " Trevirorum 
 " Vagienuorum . . . 
 " Veromanduorum 
 " Vindelicorum . . . 
 Au^nisti Lucus 
 
 Arverni ... 
 
 Area . . .... 668 
 
 
 Arcadia 59L 
 
 Arx Hcrculis Monoaci 
 
 
 Arciclava 234 
 
 Ascalon 
 
 Arctous Oceanus 9 
 
 
 Ardea 322 
 
 Asciburius Mons 
 
 
 
 " Portus 
 
 Arduenna 87 
 
 Asculum Apulum 
 
 Augustobona. . . . 
 
 Arelate 105, 106 
 
 
 
 Arenas Montes 43 
 
 Ascuris Lacus 
 
 (Tarrac.) ... 
 
 Arcnacum 148 
 
 Asia 
 
 Areopolis (Arab.) (i78 
 
 " Minor 
 
 Augustoritum . 
 
 Arethoti 414 
 
 
 
 Arethusa 462 
 
 Asinarus 
 
 Aulerci 
 
 Areva 31 
 
 
 
 Argantomagus 122 
 
 Asopia 
 
 " Diabliutes. 
 
 Argennum Promontorium 623 
 Argentoratum 150 
 
 Argenus 125 
 
 
 Aulis 
 
 " (Sicyon.) 
 (Thessal.) 
 
 475 
 481 
 692 
 408 
 613 
 669 
 63 
 716 
 722 
 629 
 687 
 273 
 
 Aulon (Ital.) . . 
 
 " (Messcn ) 
 
 Argilus 463 
 
 Aunios 
 
 Argita 210 
 
 
 Auraniti-3 
 
 Argolicus Sinus . . . 487 
 
 
 Aurea Chersonesus 
 
 Argolis 585 
 
 
 Argos 588 
 
 
 " (urbs) 
 
 " Amphilochicum 509 
 Argous Portus 298 
 
 " (Afric ) 
 
 Aureoli Pons 
 
 
 Aureus Mons (Mces.) 
 " (Cors.) 
 Aurunca 
 
 Arayripa 358 
 
 
 Aria 695 
 
 Ariani Montes 23 
 
 Assyria 
 
 Asta 
 
 Aurunci 
 
 Ariaspa? 696 
 
 
 44 
 710 
 604 
 510 
 633 
 710 
 49 
 31 
 51 
 55 
 
 Ausa . 
 
 Ariaspe 696 
 
 Astaboras 
 
 Ausar 
 
 Aricia .. 323 
 
 
 Auscii 
 
 Ariconium 197 
 
 Arimathea 672 
 
 A.stacus (Acarn.) 
 " (Bithyn.) 
 Astapus 
 
 Ausetani 
 
 Ariminum 299 
 
 Austeravia 
 
 Ariminus 199 
 
 
 
 Ariolica 155 
 
 
 Autiri 
 
 Arisbe 67 
 
 
 
 Aristonautae 569 
 
 
 Autolo^s . . 
 
 Arius ffl~) 
 
 
 56 
 
 554 
 599 
 657 
 521 
 553 
 631 
 103 
 346 
 312 
 287 
 61 
 546 
 560 
 262 
 444 
 735 
 
 r m 
 
 
 Armenia . . 682 
 
 Astypaleea Promontori 
 um 485 
 
 Autura 
 
 " Major 68 
 
 
 <; Miner 682 
 
 Astypalea 
 
 
 Armorica 116 
 
 Atabyris Mons 
 
 Atalanta 
 
 Avalitcs Kmr orium 
 " Sinu.3 604, 
 
 ArmoricEe Civitates . . ] 2-"> 
 
 
 Atalante 
 
 Atarneus 
 
 
 Arni^sa . . 450 
 
 
 Arnon 67fi 
 
 Atax 
 
 
 Arnus 260 
 
 Atella 
 
 Avenio ... 
 
 
 
 
 Arocha 378 
 
 Atestc 
 
 Avernus Lacus 
 
 Aromata Promontorium.. 711 
 Arpi 358 
 
 
 Avo .... 
 
 Ath r,ee b 
 
 Axellodunum 
 
 
 
 Axiopolis . 
 
 Arrabo 244 
 
 Atl.-"i<3 
 
 Axius (Maced.) 
 
 Arretium 294 
 Fidens 295 
 
 " Julium 295 
 
 Atl . 3 Mons 
 At * Jbis 
 
 " (Syr.) 
 
 Axona 
 
 At., i 
 
 Axuenna . 
 
 Arrosius ] 32 
 
 Atlanticum Mare 
 
 8 
 750 
 709 
 710 
 682 
 496 
 139 
 181 
 694 
 385 
 613 
 620 
 542 
 119 
 687 
 89 
 
 Axume 
 
 
 Atlantis 
 
 " (urbs) 
 
 Arsanias 606. 683 
 
 Atlas Mons 
 " Major 
 
 Azam 
 
 Arsia 286 407 
 
 Azania. 
 
 Arsinarium Promontori 
 um 710 
 
 Atrse 
 
 Azara 
 
 Atrax. 
 
 Azetium 
 
 Arsinoe (./E^ypt) 737 
 
 AtrobatPs 
 
 Azorus 
 
 (-Ethiop) 747 
 
 Atrebatii 
 
 Azotus 
 
 Arsissa Palus 683 
 Artabri 51 
 
 Atropatene 
 
 Azyphus . 
 
 Attacotti 
 
 B. 
 
 Babylon 
 
 Artabrum Promontorium 25 
 Artacoana 695 
 
 Attalea . 
 
 Attalla 
 
 Artamig 698 
 
 Attica 
 
 " ( 3D"Vl)t ") 
 
 Artaxata 684 
 
 Atura ... . ... 
 
 Babylonia 
 
 Artemisium Promontori- 
 \iin... . 25 
 
 Aturia 
 
 Bacenis Silva 
 
 Aturig . . 
 
 Bactra... 
 
 BB 
 
754 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Page 
 Bactria 698 
 
 Page 
 Berenice 721, 741 
 
 Brattia 
 
 p lf? 
 
 
 698 
 679 
 39 
 45 
 103 
 ,41 
 27 
 66 
 41 
 141 
 694 
 694 
 695 
 338 
 67 
 703 
 37 
 579 
 662 
 712 
 679 
 359 
 452 
 663 
 748 
 748 
 25 
 31 
 721 
 66 
 618 
 361 
 450 
 730 
 699 
 722 
 151 
 49 
 364 
 50 
 42 
 
 " epi Dires 748 
 
 
 14 > 
 
 
 Bergidium 56 
 
 
 555 
 
 jjadia 
 
 Bergium . 228 
 
 
 244 
 
 Baesippo - 
 
 Bteterra; (Septimanorum) 
 Bastica - - 21 
 
 Bergomum 279 
 Bermius Mons 455 
 
 Bremeniurn 
 
 208 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 240 
 
 
 Berobe 703 
 
 
 189 
 
 Bmtulo 
 
 Beroaa (Maced ) 455 
 
 
 56 
 
 Ba?turia 
 
 " (Syr.) 662 
 
 
 179 
 
 
 
 " (Hibern.) . . . 
 
 ... 230 
 242 
 
 .Uud^tana 
 
 Bertiscus Mons 12, 407 
 Berubium Promontorium 172 
 Bcrytus 667 
 
 
 241 
 
 Bagous Mons 
 
 Brigantinus Lacus . 
 Brigantium (Hisp.) . . . 
 " (Paimon.) . 
 Brigus 
 
 222 
 ... 55 
 ... 244 
 
 ... 210 
 556 
 
 Baiae, 
 
 Besbicus 626 
 
 Baleares 
 Kalon^a 
 
 Bessi 426 
 
 Bethel . . 672 
 
 Balsa 
 
 Bethlehem 673 
 
 Balyra 
 
 Beth-shan . 674 
 
 Britannia 
 
 162 
 
 Beve 4J7 
 
 " Barbara 
 " Prima 
 
 18G, 208 
 169 
 
 Ban as a 
 
 Bevus 447 
 
 Banizomencs 
 
 Bibracte (Gall.) 130 
 
 " Hornana 
 " Secunda 
 Britannicus Oceanus . . 
 Brivas 
 
 ... 185 
 ... 169 
 8 
 123 
 
 Bantia 
 
 " (Brit ) 192 
 
 Baphyrus 
 
 Bifractus Mons . 13<> 
 
 Barbalissus 
 
 
 Barbaria 
 
 Bilbilis (fluvius) 31 
 
 Brivates Portus 
 
 ... 129 
 
 " (urbs) 60 
 
 Brixellum 
 
 283 
 
 Barbarium Promontorium 
 Barbesula 
 
 Bin<num 150 
 
 Brixentes 
 
 Brixia 
 
 ... 240 
 
 279 
 
 
 Barce 
 
 Bisaltia 46 
 
 Brocavum 
 
 ... 202 
 462 
 
 
 
 Bargylia 
 
 
 BrovonacaB 
 
 ... 202 
 997 
 
 
 
 Jarnus . ... 
 
 
 Brundisii Promontorium . 257 
 Brundisium 362 
 
 iasanites Mons 
 Bascatis 
 
 Bithynium 635 
 
 Bituri^es Cubi 118 
 
 Bruttium 
 
 . . 375 
 
 Bascici 
 
 " Vibisci 117 
 
 Bubastus 
 
 . . . 735 
 
 Basilea 
 
 Elan da (Hisp ) 67 
 
 Bubinda 
 
 . 210 
 
 Basilippo 
 
 Basta 
 
 " (Ital.) 373 
 
 Blacon 88 114 
 
 Buca 
 
 ... 354 
 
 Bucephala 
 
 702 
 
 Bastia .. 
 
 Blavia ]28 
 
 Buchastiuni 
 
 ... 418 
 
 Bastitani 
 
 Blendium . 56 
 
 Bumadus 
 
 687, 689 
 ... 197 
 
 Bastuli 
 
 42 
 676 
 242 
 146 
 148 
 146 
 148 
 390 
 539 
 747 
 105 
 
 338 
 708 
 411 
 407 
 179 
 101 
 284 
 280 
 673 
 555 
 61 
 137 
 181 
 137 
 84 
 84 
 201 
 57 
 175 
 127 
 137 
 31 
 45 
 667 
 263 
 119 
 352 
 305 
 
 Blestium 197 
 
 Burrium 
 
 Batanasa 
 
 Boas . . 41] 
 
 Buphagus 
 Buportlimus 
 
 ... 477 
 ... 484 
 
 Batava Castra 
 
 Bocchorum 69 
 
 Batavi 145, 
 
 
 Buprasium . 
 
 572 
 
 Boeae 584 
 
 Bura 
 
 ... 569 
 
 Batavorum Insula? 
 " Oppidum 
 Bathys 
 
 " (Boaot ) 
 
 Bqeaticus Sinus 487 
 
 Bin-chana 
 Burdigala 
 
 ... 225 
 
 ... 119 
 
 Boaotia 530 
 
 Bceum 522 
 
 Boii 117, 126, 229, 276 
 " (urbs) 119 
 
 Burgundioncs 
 Busiris 
 
 ... 231 
 
 ... 734 
 
 " Portus 
 
 Buthrotum 
 
 ... 416 
 
 Batiana 
 
 
 Butos 
 
 ... 734 
 
 
 
 Biitua 
 
 408 
 
 Bauli 
 
 
 Butuntum 
 
 ... 361 
 
 Bautisus 
 
 Bolbe Palus 457 
 
 Buxentum . T 
 
 ... 373 
 
 Bavo 
 
 Bolbitinum Ostium 79 
 
 Byblus . 
 
 ... 667 
 
 Bebii Montes 12 
 
 Bolerium Promontorium . 171 
 Boli=ii3 654 
 
 
 464 
 
 Bebroci 
 
 Bvllis 
 
 ... 410 
 
 Bebryces . 
 
 Bomium 197 
 
 Byzacia. 
 
 ... 715 
 
 Bedesis 
 
 Bonna 149 
 
 Byzacium 
 Byzantium 
 
 ... 715 
 ... 436 
 
 Bedriacum 
 
 Bononia (Gall ) 140 
 
 Beersheba 
 
 " (Ital ) 83 
 
 Byzeres 
 
 ... 640 
 
 Belbina . . 
 
 Borbetomao-us 150 
 
 C. 
 Cabellio 
 
 .. Ill 
 132 
 
 Belea. 
 
 Borcovicu?. ~>Q7 
 
 BelgaB 74 
 
 Borealis Oceanus 9 
 Boreum Prom. (Hibern.) . 210 
 " (Afric.) . 718 
 
 (Brit). 
 
 Belgica 
 
 Cabira. 
 
 Cachales 
 
 ... 640 
 528 
 
 Prima 
 
 Borsippa 686 
 
 Borysthcnes 10 236 
 
 Cacyparis 
 
 389 
 
 Belgovitia. 
 
 Borysthenis 237 
 
 Bosporus . 239 
 
 Cadi 
 
 .. 642 
 
 Bella 
 
 Cadmea 
 
 535 
 
 Belisama jEstuarium 
 Bellocasses 
 
 Bellovaci 
 
 
 
 119 
 
 " Thracius 9 
 Bottio3a 453 
 
 Cadusii 
 
 . 695 
 
 
 332 
 
 Belon (fluvius) 
 
 Csenyra . 
 
 .. 434 
 
 " (urbs) 
 
 Bovillse TM 
 
 Caenys 
 
 .. 255 
 
 Belus . 
 
 Bovium 397 
 
 Caepionis Turris 
 Caere 
 
 . 28, 43 
 ...294 
 
 Benacus Lacus 
 
 Bracara Augusta 55 
 Brachodes Promontorium 718 
 
 Beneharnum 
 
 
 ... 64 
 
 Beneventum . 
 
 Caesarea (insula) 
 
 ... 157 
 
 Beregra 
 
 Branogenium . . . . 196 
 
 Csesarea (Palest.) 
 
 ... 674 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 755 
 
 iCaasarea ad Argasum 
 (Jassarea Philippi 
 
 Page 
 .... 648 
 675 
 
 Page 
 Capua 345 
 
 Catasa 
 
 Pe 
 
 "692 
 
 Caraca 59 
 
 Catalauni 
 
 1 39 
 
 
 13fl 
 
 Caralia 651 
 
 
 392 
 
 Caesaromagus (Gall.) 142 
 (Brit.) 193 
 Caesena. . - 283 
 
 Caralis 405 
 
 Catarrhactes 
 
 613 
 
 Caralitanum Prom 405 
 
 Catorissium 
 
 113 
 
 Caralitaiiua Sinus 405 
 
 Catti 
 
 230 
 
 Csesia Silva 
 
 219 
 
 Carambacis . 10 
 
 
 200 
 
 Caicus 
 
 620 
 
 Carambia 636 605 
 
 
 102 113 
 
 Caieta 
 
 332 
 
 Caraste 119 
 
 
 180 
 
 Caietanus Sinus 
 
 .. . 267 
 
 Carbantorigum .... 208 
 
 
 58 
 
 Calubri 
 
 362 
 
 Carbonaria 258 
 
 
 608 706 
 
 Calacta 
 
 . 398 
 
 Carbula.., . 49 
 
 
 607 
 
 Calagum 
 
 135 
 
 Carcaso 104 
 
 Cauci 
 
 210 2^1 
 
 Calagurris .... 
 
 . 57 
 
 Carcine 237 
 
 Carcinites 236 
 
 
 350 
 
 Oalamaa 
 
 579 
 
 
 3150 
 
 < alarna 
 
 462 
 
 " Sinus 236 
 Cardia . 432 
 
 Caulon 
 
 374 
 
 Calbis 
 
 617 
 
 
 617 
 
 Calcaria 
 
 107 
 
 Carene 630 
 
 Careni . 184 
 
 
 101 
 
 Calchedon 
 
 634 
 
 Cayster 
 
 620 
 
 Cale 
 
 55 
 
 
 Ceba 
 
 273 
 
 Caledonii 
 
 184 
 
 Caris ... 90 
 
 Cebenna Mons . . . 
 
 S r > 
 
 Calela 
 
 355 
 
 Cari=ti 5 
 
 643 
 
 Cales 
 
 345 
 
 Carmana 692 
 
 
 31 
 
 Caletes 
 
 127 
 
 Carmania 692 
 
 
 611 
 
 Callaacia 
 
 
 Carmelum Prom 605, 667 
 Carmelus Mons 668 
 Carininianum 364 
 
 
 449 
 
 Oallaici 
 
 . . 32, 50 
 191 
 
 Cellae 
 
 449 
 
 Calleva Atrebatum 
 
 
 174 
 
 
 505 
 
 Carni *>85 
 
 Celsa 
 
 61 
 
 Callipolis (Ital ) 
 
 365 
 
 Camion . 477 
 
 CelttB (IIip ) 
 
 f-1 
 
 (Thrac.) . . . 
 Callirrhoe (Attic ) 
 
 .... 434 
 
 549 
 
 Carnonacaj 184 
 
 " (Gall ) 
 
 74 
 
 Carnuntum 244 
 Carnutes 124 
 
 Celtiberi 
 
 53 
 
 (Palest.)... 
 Calpe Mons . . . 
 
 .... 676 
 25 46 
 
 Cfiltiri 
 
 XG. 4i! 
 
 Carpates Mons 11, 12, 234 Celticum Promontorium . 25 
 Carpathus 599 I Celydnus 41/i 
 
 " Portus 
 
 634 
 
 " Promontorium. 
 Calycadnus 
 
 605, 634 
 610 
 
 Carpentoracte 111 | r?omni 
 
 in 
 
 
 Cenasum Promontorium . 485 
 Cenchreae ^M- 
 
 Calymna (insula) - 
 
 656 
 
 Carpetani 52 
 C arras 681 
 
 Calynda . . 
 
 617 
 
 
 179 
 
 Camaracum 
 
 141 
 
 Carseoli 308 
 Carsinomagus 122 
 
 Carsuloa 301 
 
 
 176 
 
 Oamarina 
 
 39-i 
 
 Cenomani 
 
 276 
 
 io-> 
 
 
 195 
 
 Cambunii Monies 
 Cambrctonium 
 Camerinum . . 
 
 .... 445 
 .... 194 
 301 
 
 Carta 697 
 Cartcia 44, 46 
 
 Centronum Civitas 
 Centum Cellaa .... 
 
 114 
 
 293 
 
 Carthago 716 
 
 
 234 
 
 Gamers 
 
 095 
 
 
 
 402 
 
 Oamerte 
 
 302 
 
 " Nova 62 
 
 
 38 
 
 Catnicus 
 
 390 
 
 Caryanda 618 
 
 
 r i97 
 
 Camirus 
 
 Camulodunum 
 
 .... 657 
 193 
 
 Carystua 561 
 
 Case an turn 57 
 
 Cephalse Prom. - 
 
 71S 
 
 Cephallenia 
 
 513 
 
 Campania... 
 ?ampi Lapidei 
 
 .... 336 
 106 
 
 Casii 708 
 
 Cephaloadium 
 
 398 
 
 Casilinum 345 
 Casimim 332 
 
 Casius Mons 661, 729 
 
 Cephisus (Attic.) . . 
 (Eleus.) . 
 " (Boeot ) 
 
 . . 479, 547 
 .. 479,547 
 48L 
 
 ?ampi Veteres 
 Campodunum 
 
 .... 374 
 
 242 
 
 
 .... 458 
 475 
 
 Caspii 695 
 
 Cepresicum Prom. 
 
 25 
 
 fif>4 
 
 
 Caspira 702 
 
 Can SB 
 
 .... 631 
 750 
 
 Caspium Mare 604 
 
 Ceramus 
 
 617 
 
 Janaria 
 
 Caspius Mons 693 
 Cassandria 459 
 
 Cera,us 
 
 639 
 
 Canastrajum Prom. . . 
 Cancanorum Prom... 
 
 .... 446 
 .... 171 
 444 
 
 
 1735 
 
 Cassi 179 
 Cassiope 421 
 
 Cercidius 
 
 401 
 
 Cercetius Mons 
 
 65^ 
 
 Candianus 
 
 . 284 
 
 " Portus 415 
 Cassioris 661 
 
 Cercina. 
 
 71*5 
 
 
 146 
 
 
 >rai 
 
 
 360 
 
 CassiteridcL, 213 
 
 CerillaB 
 
 
 
 ... 734 
 193 
 
 Castabala 649 
 
 Cerne 
 
 749 
 
 
 Castalius Fons 528 
 Castamon 637 
 
 Cerintlius 
 
 560 
 183 
 
 Janusium 
 , antabri 
 
 ... 359 
 . 32, 51 
 
 Castellum Caracenorum . 350 
 " Menapiorum . . 143 
 " Morinorum . . . 141 
 Casthansofi 502 
 
 Cerretani 
 
 54 
 
 , antabricus Oceanus 
 
 ... 8 
 184 
 
 Ceryuea 
 
 570 
 
 
 
 aiitii 
 
 . . 181 
 
 Cestrus 
 
 613 
 
 antiuni 
 
 ... 172 
 
 Castra CseciHa 39 
 
 
 043 
 
 lapura 
 , apona 
 
 ... 40 
 ... 297 
 
 " Cornelia 716 
 " Julia 39 
 
 Cetobriga 
 
 38 
 
 Chabala 
 
 706 
 
 apernaum 
 aphareus 
 
 ... 675 
 ... 485 
 
 Castrum Truentinum 304 
 " Inui 323 
 
 Chaberis. . . . 
 
 701 
 
 
 680 
 
 , appadocia 
 apraria 
 
 ... 647 
 
 68, 298 
 ... 258 
 ... 348 
 
 Castulo 48 
 
 
 537 
 
 Castulonensis Saltus.. 24, 267 
 Catabanes 679 
 
 Chalaeon 
 
 p;i<l 
 
 aprasiao Ostium 
 Capreai 
 
 Chalastra 
 
 45G 
 
 Catabathmua Magnus 722 
 " Parvua 723 
 
 Catabothra 482 
 
 
 634 
 
 Capros 
 
 ... 462 
 
 
 .. 457 
 662 
 
 .. 560 
 
 
 687 
 
 (Syr.).. 
 Chalcis 
 
 Capsa 
 
 ... 715 
 
 Catacecaumene 621 
 
756 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 
 662 
 685 
 687 
 . 639 
 
 Page 
 Clitor 593 
 
 Corcyra (urbs) 420 
 
 
 Clitumnus . .. 260 
 
 " Nigra 412 
 Corda 208 
 
 
 
 Chalybes 
 
 Clunia 61 
 Clunium 402 
 
 ^orduba 48 
 Jorense Litus 45 
 Corfinium 310 
 ^oriallum 129 
 Coria Damniorum 208 
 
 
 . 663 
 
 . 662 
 
 
 Clusium 295 
 
 Clylipenus Sinus 236 
 Cnacion 478 
 
 
 . 227 
 415 
 
 riu m ^ 
 
 
 687 
 
 
 Corinium Dobunorum . . . 196 
 Corinthia 563 
 
 
 47 
 
 Cnidus 617 
 
 
 679 
 
 Cnosus 601 
 
 Corintliiacus Sinus 487 
 
 Charybdis 
 
 - 382 
 - 230 
 
 Cobe 748 
 Cobrys 432 
 Coccium 202 
 
 Coche 686 
 
 Corinthi Isthmus 566 
 
 Corinthus 564 
 Corioli 328 
 
 Coriosopiti 125, 128 
 
 
 483 
 
 
 
 Chersonesus Heracleotica 239 
 " Magna 723 
 Prom 485 
 " Taurica 237 
 " Thracite ... 431 
 Chimaera (Epirot.) 415 
 " Mons (Lye.) . . 615 
 
 Cochlearia 405 
 
 Cocintum Promontorium 256 
 Cocossates 118 
 
 Coriondi 210 
 Coritani ISO" 
 
 Cornavii 180,184 
 Corniculum 307 
 
 
 Corobilium 135 
 
 CcensB 681 
 
 Coronea 536 
 
 Colanici 208 
 
 Corsica 401 
 
 " (urbs) . . 
 
 . 654 
 216 
 
 Colapis 85 
 
 Colchi 702 
 
 Corsote 682 
 
 Cor?topitum 200 
 
 Chisala 
 
 
 689 
 
 Colchis 704 
 
 Cortatha 703 
 
 Cortona 295 
 
 Choerades (insult) 
 
 . 367 
 697 
 
 Colias Promontorium 554 
 Collntia - 325 
 
 Cory Promontorium 702 
 Coryceum Promontorium 605 
 Corycum Promontorium. 599 
 Corvdallus 543 
 
 Choatres 
 
 . 6^7 
 
 Chronus 
 
 236 
 
 Colobon Promontorium.. 747 
 
 
 629 
 
 Chrysas 
 
 . 389 
 703 
 
 " Trajana 348 
 
 Coryne 573 
 
 
 Coryphas 630 
 
 Chrysoccras 
 
 436 
 
 Colon s 43 
 
 Cos (insula) 656 
 
 " Prom 
 
 423 
 
 
 Cos (urbs) 656 
 
 Chrysopolis (Thracise) . . 
 " (Bithyn.)... 
 Chrysorrhoas 
 
 . 427 
 . 634 
 664 
 
 
 
 Comana 649 
 
 " Pontica 640 
 
 
 Cossanum Promontorium 254 
 Cotes Promontorium 710 
 Cotinusa 70 
 
 Chytus 
 
 626 
 
 
 Cianus Sinus 
 
 604 
 
 
 Cibalge 
 
 244 
 
 
 Cotya:um 642 
 
 Cica3 
 
 70 
 
 
 Cotyora - - 639 
 
 Cichyrus 
 
 416 
 
 
 Cragus Mons 61 4 
 
 
 46 
 
 
 
 Cilicia 
 
 Cilia 
 
 . 610 
 630 
 
 
 Cranii 513 
 
 
 
 Cilurnum 
 
 .. 207 
 226 
 
 Comum 279 
 
 Comus (Sard ^ 405 
 
 Crassum 405 
 
 Cimiata 
 
 637 
 
 
 Crater Sinus 267 
 Crathis (Ital.) 369 
 
 Cimmeiium 
 
 .. 239 
 
 Concani 32 
 
 Cimolus 
 
 597 
 
 Concordia 287 
 
 li (Gr ) . - 476 
 
 Cinga 
 
 30 
 
 Condate 199 
 
 Cratia 63 ;~> 
 
 Cingilia 
 
 311 
 
 
 
 Cin r ulum 
 
 304 
 
 Condurcum . 207 
 
 Cremni 237 
 
 
 69 
 
 Confluentes 144 
 
 
 Cinyps 
 
 719 
 
 Conravala 207 
 
 Cremona - - 279 
 
 Cirea3i 329 
 
 CircaBum Promontorium. 254 
 Circesium ^^i 
 
 Conimbriga 4C 
 
 Conistorgis 38 
 
 Crenides 429 
 
 
 
 C reta 59^ 
 
 Cirrha 
 
 524 
 
 Conovium 175 
 
 Creticum Mare 489 
 
 Cirta 
 
 714 
 
 198 
 
 Cretopolis 646 
 Crimisa Promontorinm . . 257 
 (fluv.) 257 
 " (urbs) 376 
 
 Cisthene 
 
 .. 630 
 534 
 
 Consabrum 59 
 
 
 
 Citharistes 
 
 88 
 
 Constantina 71 
 
 Citium 
 
 .. 659 
 128 
 
 Constantinopolis 438 
 
 Crimissus 390 
 
 Cris^a 525 
 
 Contadesdus 42 
 
 Cms 
 
 633 
 
 Crithote 483 
 
 Clampetia 
 
 381 
 
 Contrebia . 58, 61 
 
 Crirt Metopon... 171, 237, 599 
 Croby/i 426 
 
 Clanis 
 
 261 
 
 
 
 337 
 
 Copa? 538 
 
 
 Clarus 
 
 624 
 
 Copais Lacus 482, 538 
 
 Cophos 401 
 
 Crodxinum 120 
 Crommyon 565 
 
 Clast dium 
 
 273 
 
 Claudiopolis 
 
 611 
 
 Conia .. 341 
 
 Cronium Mare 8 
 
 
 243 rrmtnQ 73? 
 
 Crotalus 378 
 
 Clausentum 
 
 Clausula 
 
 .. 189 
 407 
 
 Cora 330 
 
 Croto 376 
 
 
 Crotona 37R 
 
 Clazomenss 
 
 .. 623 
 
 Corax Promontorium ... 23 
 
 Crustumcrium 306" 
 Cruptoricis Villa 2S 
 
 CleonsB 
 
 590 
 
 
 736 
 
 
 Ctesiphon 689 
 
 Climax 
 
 Climbcrris 
 
 .. 615 
 120 
 
 Corbilo 12! 
 
 Corbulonia Monumentum 22; 
 Corcyra (insula) 419 
 
 Ctimene *>00 
 Cucusus 650 
 
 Clitcrnia... 
 
 .. 355 
 
 Cucla 40 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 757 
 
 Chzliu 
 
 Page 1 
 
 age 
 520 
 749 
 749 
 749 
 681 
 408 
 628 
 697 
 698 
 210 
 633 
 633 
 411 
 428 
 529 
 357 
 674 
 556 
 330 
 231 
 539 
 408 
 596 
 527 
 272 
 540 
 728 
 503 
 498 
 699 
 57 
 650 
 604 
 432 
 446 
 273 
 201 
 
 Drepanum Promontorium 
 " (Cypr.) 
 Dribyces 
 
 658 
 695 
 640 
 407 
 245 
 357 
 235 
 227 
 511 
 213 
 210 
 259 
 29 
 191 
 190 
 196 
 195 
 193 
 571 
 409 
 561 
 
 211 
 210 
 39 
 200 
 212 
 172 
 113 
 139 
 69 
 694 
 66(5 
 457 
 511 
 509 
 111 
 454 
 681 
 64 
 54 
 189 
 678 
 426 
 361 
 428 
 671 
 631 
 433 
 528 
 496 
 679 
 513 
 90 
 372 
 372 
 684 
 741 
 748 
 554 
 553 
 557 
 673 
 390 
 103 
 449 
 449 
 571 
 573 
 222 
 378 
 40 
 101 
 120 
 118 
 45-1 
 39 
 661 
 67-2 
 
 
 338 
 
 Daradse . 
 
 /< U S 
 
 67 
 
 
 Cumffi s 
 
 
 
 Drilse 
 
 Aimerium. . . . . . . 
 
 59 
 
 
 Drilo 
 
 Cuminai a 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 
 . 686 
 
 Dardanus 
 
 Drium Mons 
 Drubetis 
 
 
 192 
 
 
 _/une 
 
 18 36 
 
 
 Dulgibini 
 
 " Promontorium 
 
 . 25, 37 
 
 69 
 
 
 Dulichium 
 
 
 
 
 405 
 
 
 Dur 
 
 <^iinicu a 
 
 304 
 
 
 
 
 304 
 
 
 Durius (Hisp.) 
 
 
 307 
 
 IJau is 
 
 " (Brit ) 
 
 
 208 
 
 
 Durnovaria 
 
 
 411 
 
 
 Durocornovium 
 
 Curiauum Promonton 
 Curias Promontorium 
 
 urn 87 
 ... 659 
 125, 128 
 658 
 
 
 Durolipons 
 
 r> G 
 
 Durolitum 
 
 
 Dyme 
 
 4< Ur .*m 1 C 
 
 
 Dyrrhachium 
 
 r" U1 - \T 
 
 471 
 
 
 Dystus 
 
 Cusus 
 
 221 
 
 Delos 
 
 E. 
 Eblana 
 Eblani 
 
 
 705 
 
 Delphi 
 
 CutiliiB 
 
 ... 307 
 
 Delphini Portus 
 
 Cutiua 
 
 311 
 
 
 ... 389 
 ... 439 
 649 
 
 Delta 
 
 Ebora ....... 
 
 Cyanese (insulas) 
 
 Demetrias 
 
 Eboracum 
 
 Ebudse 
 
 
 595 
 
 
 Ebudum Promontorium . 
 
 
 607, 610 
 600 
 
 
 Pydonia 
 
 Derbe 
 
 Eburones 
 
 Cyllene 
 
 573 
 
 
 
 
 593 
 
 
 Ecbatana 
 
 
 631 
 
 
 " (Phcen.) 
 
 
 593 
 
 
 Echedorus 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 
 738 
 
 
 Echinus 
 
 
 497 
 
 
 oqg 
 
 Ectini 
 
 Cynossema (Chers.) . 
 " (Attic ) 
 
 . . . . 433 
 543 
 
 " Promontorium . . 
 Diceea 
 
 25 
 430 
 339 
 601 
 
 Edessa (Maced.) 
 
 " (Mesop.) 
 Edeta 
 
 Edetani 
 
 Cynosura Promontorium 553 
 Cynthus -^^ 
 
 
 
 
 587 
 
 
 625 
 441 
 307 
 426 
 410 
 645 
 675 
 747 
 700 
 
 Edlandunium 
 
 <~Jynus 
 
 520 
 
 
 EdoniitJB 
 
 
 577, 584 
 478 
 
 
 Edoncs 
 
 
 Dii 
 
 Esrnatia 
 
 Cyparissium Prom... 
 <^yparissius Sinus 
 
 483, 578 
 487 
 
 Dirnallum 
 Dindymus Mons 
 
 Eion 
 Ekron 
 Elasa 
 
 Cyprus 
 
 .... 657 
 719 
 
 
 Elseus 
 
 
 720 
 
 
 Elatca 
 
 
 700 
 
 Dioscoridis (insula) 
 
 748 
 747 
 705 
 672 
 739 
 
 Elatia 
 
 
 695 
 
 Elath 
 
 
 662 
 
 
 Elatus 
 
 
 662 
 
 
 Elaver 
 
 
 606, 683 
 584 
 
 " Parva 
 
 Elea 
 
 
 
 536 
 004 
 
 558 
 
 461 
 701 
 642 
 746 
 416 
 495 
 426 
 500 
 666 
 604 
 
 Elees 
 
 
 597 
 
 j)ire 
 
 
 
 636 
 
 
 
 
 626 
 
 Elephas Mons 
 
 D. 
 
 210 
 
 Eleusa 
 
 
 Eleusis . 
 
 Docimia 
 
 Eleutherae - 
 
 
 702 
 
 Dodecaschcamis. 
 
 Elcutheropolis 
 
 Dacia 
 
 233 
 
 Dodona 
 
 Eleutherus 
 
 
 234 
 
 Doliche 
 
 Eliberri. 
 
 ;t Mediterranea... 
 
 .... 234 
 
 234 
 
 Dolonci 
 
 Elimea 
 
 Dolopia 
 
 Elimeum 
 
 
 649 
 
 Dora 
 
 Elis 
 
 
 635 
 
 Doridis Sinus 
 
 " (urbs) 
 
 Dsedala 
 
 617 
 
 Doris 
 
 Elison 
 
 
 407 
 
 
 701 
 246 
 191 
 64 
 
 
 
 664 
 
 Dorostorum 
 
 Elmantica 
 
 
 410 
 
 Elui 
 
 Dan 
 
 675 
 
 Doryla&um . ... 
 
 Elusa 
 
 
 .. 649 
 
 Dosarcni 
 
 679 
 655 
 696 
 044 
 
 Elusates 
 
 
 236 
 
 Dracanum Promontorium 
 DraiiQjiana 
 
 Emathia 
 
 
 .. 10 
 
 Emerita Augusta 
 
 
 236 
 
 Dravu-? . 
 
 Emcsa 
 
 
 219 
 
 
 419 
 
 
 D-aohmiis (msula 1 } ... 
 
 ... 747 
 
 Drepanum . . . 
 
 196 
 
 Etccdi Monies . . 
 
758 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 
 Page . 
 67 
 
 F. 
 Fabrateria 
 
 Page 
 
 331 
 
 290 
 296 
 345 
 296 
 345 
 649 
 283 
 283 
 327 
 330 
 405 
 290 
 25 
 296 
 331 
 306 
 50 
 281 
 142 
 304 
 269 
 169 
 57 
 222 
 
 Gadeni 
 
 Page 
 18.1 
 
 (Airic.) 
 
 . 715 
 673 
 
 Gades 
 
 44 
 
 
 70(i 
 
 
 477 
 
 
 Gaetuli 
 
 749 
 
 (Maccd.) 
 
 - 451 
 
 482 
 
 Falerium 
 
 Gahicurn 
 
 20 .; 
 
 
 36t> 
 
 
 399 
 
 Fanum Voltumnse 
 
 Galatia 
 
 644 
 
 
 . 427 
 . 449 
 
 
 
 20 -> 
 
 
 Faustinopolis 
 Faventia 
 
 Galepsus 
 
 460 
 
 
 543 
 
 Galila^a 
 
 674 
 
 Epamanduodurum 
 
 . 155 
 
 408 
 
 
 Gallaeci 
 
 32 r >0 
 
 Ferentinum 
 
 Gallia 
 
 71 
 
 Ephesus 
 
 . 624 
 . 564 
 416 
 
 Fcroiiia 
 " (Sard.) 
 
 " Belgica 
 
 81 
 
 " Cisalpina 
 Cispadana . . . . ; 
 " Lugdunensis . . 
 
 .... 274 
 27. r > 
 
 Vi 
 
 
 
 
 . 672 
 
 Ferraria Promontorium.. 
 Fescennium 
 
 
 . 200 
 
 " Narbonensis . . . 
 
 . 81, 100 
 7i 
 
 
 409 
 
 
 j^/, a , 
 
 590 
 
 
 
 07^ 
 
 u /Til vr \ 
 
 408 
 
 Fidontia (Ilisp ) 
 
 Gallicum 
 
 62 
 
 y-uj* ) 
 
 584 
 
 " (Ital.) 
 
 Gallicus . . . 
 
 3<> 
 
 
 584 
 
 Fines 
 
 
 62 
 
 Epidii 
 
 183 
 
 
 Gangani 
 
 210 
 
 Epidium Promontorium 
 
 . 171 
 661 
 
 
 
 70" 
 
 
 Ganges 
 
 605 
 
 
 412 
 
 Flaviobriga 
 
 Gangeticus Sinus 
 
 604 
 
 Epopeus Moiis 
 
 .. 348 
 
 277 
 
 
 
 63:; 
 
 Flcvum 
 
 2:. 
 281 
 
 Gannaria 
 
 710 
 
 Equabona 
 
 . 38 
 
 Florentia (Gall. Cisp.) 
 
 Garama 
 
 749 
 
 
 353 
 
 " (Etrus ) 
 
 291 
 723 
 143 
 359 
 
 Gar am antes 
 
 74 
 
 
 578 
 
 Fons Soils 
 
 Garganum Promontorium 25~ 
 Gar^ara 63U 
 
 
 479 
 
 
 . 40 
 
 Forentum 
 
 Gargettus . . 
 
 556 
 
 Erdim 
 
 .. 210 
 
 Formiae 
 
 333 
 
 288 
 750 
 
 Gariannonum 
 
 194 
 
 Erebautium Prom 
 Eressus 
 
 .. 405 
 .. 654 
 
 Formio 
 
 Fortunat;e Insulas . . 
 
 Gartia 
 Garumna 
 
 .... 27!* 
 
 8<> 
 
 
 287 
 
 
 329 
 283 
 195 
 62 
 283 
 56 
 148 
 109 
 287 
 282 
 
 Garyenus 
 
 ll .i 
 
 Eretria (Eub ) 
 
 . 561 
 498 
 
 " Cornelii . . . 
 
 Gath 
 
 67 i 
 
 " (Thess } 
 
 
 Gathelin Street 
 
 2o:j 
 
 
 .. 307 
 
 " Gallorum (Hisp.) . 
 (Ital.).. 
 " Gigurrorum 
 
 Gaugamela 
 
 68!> 
 
 
 60 
 
 Gaulonitis. 
 
 677 
 
 
 390 
 
 Gaulus 
 
 400 
 
 
 522 
 
 
 Gauzaca 
 
 6% 
 
 
 .. 204 
 389 
 
 " Julii (Gall.) 
 
 Gaza 
 
 67 f 
 
 
 m. a n 
 
 " (Med ) 
 
 6 l ),"i 
 
 
 695 " Lnnidi../. .. 
 
 " (Sogd.) . 
 
 700 
 
 Erymanthua 
 Fry tli ia 
 
 .. 594 
 44, 45 
 
 
 283 
 130 
 300 
 l r >6 
 
 Gedrosia 
 
 692- 
 
 " Novum 
 
 Gela (fluvius) 
 
 390 
 
 "Erythrta (Boeo*".) 
 
 .. 534 
 
 " Segusianorum 
 " Sempronii 
 
 " (urbs) 
 
 394 
 
 
 623 
 
 Gelduba . 
 
 14<* 
 
 
 . 603 
 
 " Tiberii 
 
 Genabum 
 
 130 
 
 
 396 
 
 " Trajani 
 
 406 
 339 
 204 
 146 
 259 
 331 
 354 
 
 Genauni 
 
 240 
 
 
 388 
 
 " Vulcani 
 
 Geneva 
 
 114 
 
 
 .. 245 
 
 Foss Way 
 
 Fossa Drusiana 
 
 Gennesareth (Lacus) 
 Genua 
 
 .... 66i* 
 272- 
 
 
 674 
 
 
 379 
 
 " Philistma 258 
 Fregella3 
 
 Genusus 
 
 410 
 
 Fssui 
 
 126 
 
 Gerrestua 
 
 Gerar 
 
 .... 48- r J 
 671 
 
 
 2 
 
 Frentani 
 
 
 64 
 
 Fretum Gaditarium 
 " Gallicum 
 
 46 
 8 
 8,46 
 389 
 224 
 215 
 224 
 224 
 331 
 265 
 411 
 332 
 
 Gerenia 
 
 579 
 
 
 199 
 
 Gergis 
 
 628 
 
 
 288 
 
 " Herculeum 
 " Siculuin 
 
 Gergovia 
 
 12 } 
 
 Etrusci 
 
 249 
 
 " Boiorum 
 
 12<> 
 
 
 Ofjq 
 
 FrixaboncB . ... 
 
 Germa 
 
 64 r > 
 
 Fubcea 
 
 557 
 
 Fi-isii 
 
 Gerrnania. . 
 
 214 
 
 
 495 
 
 " Majorca 
 
 
 81 84 
 
 
 76 
 
 " Minores 
 
 " Secunda... 
 Germanicea 
 
 .. 81,84 
 662 
 
 
 689 
 
 
 Eumcnia 
 
 .. 643 
 
 441 
 
 Fucinus Lacus 
 
 Gerrnanicopolis 
 
 637 
 
 Germanicum Mare 
 
 8 
 
 no pias -. 
 
 239 
 
 
 
 71 * 
 
 
 640 
 
 Fundi 
 
 332 
 
 Gerrha 
 
 680 
 
 
 606 
 
 Furcce Caudina? 
 
 352 
 
 692 
 661 
 119 
 260 
 325 
 219 
 208 
 676 
 
 Genmda . 
 
 67 
 
 Euripus 
 
 561 
 
 G. 
 Gabas 
 
 Gabala 
 
 Gerunium 
 
 .... 355 
 
 Euromus 
 
 . 618 
 
 Gossoriacum 
 Gigomis 
 
 .... 140 
 ... 458 
 
 Europa 
 
 Eurotas 
 
 1 
 
 478 
 
 Gilboa Mons . ... 
 
 .. 668 
 
 
 613 
 
 Gabali 
 
 Grndanes 
 
 .... 719 
 
 Eurymense 
 
 Eutresis 
 
 .. 501 
 533 
 
 Gabellus 
 
 Gabii 
 
 Gira 
 
 Glanaventa 
 
 ... 74ff 
 .... 20 J! 
 
 
 9, 10 
 .. 475 
 .. 679 
 
 Gabreta Pilva 
 
 Glandomirum 
 
 5. > 
 
 Evrnus 
 E-zion-Gebcr ... 
 
 Gabrosentum 
 
 Gadara . . 
 
 Glannativa 
 Glessaria 
 
 .... Ill 
 
 .... 22~-, 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 759 
 
 Glevum 
 
 P:i K e 
 196 
 175 
 175 
 601 
 701 
 87 
 197 
 197 
 747 
 494 
 495 
 672 
 405 
 635 
 683 
 704 
 687 
 601 
 455 
 477 
 601 
 230 
 231 
 57 
 465 
 250 
 448 
 170 
 221 
 113 
 293 
 111 
 141 
 374 
 36 L 
 631 
 147 
 241 
 040 
 
 Page 
 Hecatonnesi 630 
 
 Hedyphon 690 
 
 Pago 
 
 
 Hirminius 390 
 
 
 Hegoniuin Promontorium 458 
 Helellum . 151 
 
 Hirpini 352 
 
 
 Hispalis 49 
 
 Goaris 
 
 Helena 143 
 
 
 Gobaeum Promontoriura . 
 
 Heles 372 
 
 " Citerior 20, 2i. 
 " Ulterior 20, 21 
 Histisea 559 
 
 Helice 569 
 
 
 Helicon (fluvius) 390 
 
 Gomad;;eorum (insulbe) . . 
 Gomphi 
 
 " (Mons) . . 532 
 
 Hietonium 354 
 
 Heliopolis 735 
 
 Histria 285 
 
 
 " (Syr.) ... . 664 
 
 Hornerit;e 679 
 
 
 Helisson 477 
 
 Homole Mons 501 
 
 Gorditanum Prom 
 
 Helium 220 
 
 " Ostium 91 
 
 Homonada 611 
 
 Horeb Mous 679 
 
 
 Hellas 465 
 
 
 Hellenis Promontorium . . 171 
 Hellespontus 9, 425, 626 
 
 Horestii 184 
 
 
 Humium 207 
 
 
 Helorum . ... 394 
 
 Hyampolis 52** 
 
 Gortynia 
 
 Helorus 390 
 Helos 583 
 
 Hybla Herfea 398 
 
 " Major 398 
 
 Gortys 
 
 Helvetii 152 
 
 " Parva 392 
 
 Gothini 
 
 Helvii 101 
 
 Hydaspes 605 
 
 
 Heniochi 704 
 
 Hydraotes . . 605 
 
 
 
 Hydrea 584 
 
 
 Heraclea (Lucan.) 368 
 
 Hydruntum or Hydrus . . . 36:* 
 Hyele 37 
 
 
 " (Lyncest.) 448 
 " (Maced.) 451 
 
 
 Hygris 23" 
 
 Grampius Mons 11, 
 
 " Minoa . 395 
 
 Hylas 63 i 
 
 " Pontica 634 
 
 Hyle 534 
 
 Gratianopolis 
 
 GravisciB 
 
 (Thrac.) 435 
 (Trachin.) 504 
 Heracleopolis Magna 737 
 
 Hylice (Lacus) 53 l > 
 
 Hyllaicus 420 
 
 Griselum 
 
 Hyllus 620 
 
 
 
 Grumentum 
 
 Heraea ... 594 
 
 
 Grumum 
 
 Heraji Monies 388 
 
 Hyp ae a . 115 
 
 Gryneum 
 
 Herculaneum 341 
 
 Herculis Prom. (Brit.) ... 171 
 (Ital.) 255, 380 
 Hercynia Silva 218 
 
 Hvptypa 621 
 
 Gugerni 
 
 Hvpauis (Europ ) 23U 
 
 Guntia 
 
 " (Asiat.) 60(i 
 
 " (urbs) 
 
 Hypata 50G 
 
 Guttalus 
 
 236 
 598 
 620 
 687 
 747 
 496 
 583 
 
 286 
 305 
 633 
 416 
 441 
 635 
 269 
 8 
 716 
 422 
 624 
 6Q 
 
 Herdonia 358 
 
 Hyperborei Monies 11 
 Hyperea 497 
 
 
 Herius 129 
 
 Gygsea Palus 
 
 Herniceum. Prom. (Afric.). 711 
 (Sard.). 405 
 Hermantica 40 
 
 Hyperesia 569 
 
 Gyndes 
 
 Hyphasis 605 
 
 
 Hyps as 390 
 
 Gyrton 
 
 Gythium 
 
 Hermin Street 204 
 
 Hyrcania 697 
 
 Hcrminius Mons 24 
 
 Hyria (or Uria) 364 
 
 H. 
 
 Hadria (Venet ) 
 
 Hermione 589 
 
 Hyrrnine 483 
 
 
 I. 
 ladera 40P 
 
 " Minor 668 
 
 " (Prajtut.) 
 
 Hormonthis 740 
 
 Hermopolis Magna 738 
 
 
 Jiadrianopolia (Epir.) 
 " (Maced.) . . 
 " (Bithyn.).. 
 Hadriaticum Mare 
 
 Parva 734 
 
 lantrus 245 
 
 Hermunduri 228 
 
 lapydes 407 
 lapygia 355, 361 
 lapygium Promontorium. 257 
 lapygum Tria Prom 25K 
 
 Hermus 607 
 Hernici 327 
 
 Herodium 673 
 
 
 Heroopolis 736 
 
 
 Heroopoliles Sinus 679 
 
 lasonium Promontorium. 605 
 lasonius Mons 69. ii 
 
 Hales 
 
 Heshbon 676 
 
 Hesperia 14 
 
 
 
 445 
 536 
 617 
 440 
 652 
 499 
 390 
 635 
 610 
 235 
 37 
 539 
 706 
 G92 
 fipo 
 
 Hesperium Prom 710 
 
 
 
 Ilestiffiolis 493 
 
 
 Ilalicarnassus 
 
 Hestias 423 
 
 laxartes 60<i 
 
 
 Hexamilion 433 
 
 lazyges Melanastaj . . 233, 23:% 
 Ibera 6-" 
 
 Ilalone .... 
 
 Hibernia 208 
 
 Ilalos (Phthiot.) 
 
 Hibernicus Oceanus 170 
 Hierapolis (Phryg.) 643 
 " (Syr.) 662 
 
 Iberi 31 
 
 Halycus 
 
 Iberia (Hispariia) ; . 13, 14 
 
 Halys 607, 
 
 Ilnmuxia 
 
 Hierapvtna 601 
 
 Ibernium 191 
 
 
 Hiericus 672 
 Hierne 208 
 
 Iberus 2(> 
 
 llannibalis Porlua 
 
 
 Harma 
 
 Hioro-CiKsarea 20 
 
 
 
 Hioromax 676 
 
 
 Ilarmozon Promontorium 
 
 Hiorosolyma 672 
 
 
 Hilleviones 23 Q 
 
 Ictuife 4*5 ! 
 
 Ilarpaghun 
 
 626 
 424 
 fW 
 
 Himera 347 
 
 
 
 " (flwfius) 390 
 
 Ichthyophagorum Sinus . . 680 
 Ichthys 48 i 
 
 Hatr;p 
 
 Hipparis 390 
 
 Hebrides 
 
 212 
 673 
 424 
 C97 
 
 Hippo Regius 714 
 
 Iciani 194 
 
 Hebron 
 
 " Zarytus 716 
 
 
 Hebrus 
 
 Hippocrene 533 
 
 Icosium 712 
 
 Ilecatornpylon 
 
 JJipponiates Sinus 268 
 
 Ida Mons . . . . 09 ; 
 
760 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Page 
 (dalium 659 
 
 I3SU3 
 
 Ister 
 
 P 3 ?e 
 .... 612 
 219 
 
 Pa ? e 
 
 Lambrus 259 
 
 
 
 [dubeda Mons 23 
 
 Isthmus (Corinth.) 
 
 . 566 
 
 Lamia 504 
 
 
 
 246 
 
 
 
 Isilrium 
 
 200 
 
 Lampetia 381 
 
 
 
 668 
 
 
 lernis 211 
 
 Italica (Ilisp ) 
 
 48 
 
 Lamus 610 
 
 
 " (Peli" ) 
 
 310 
 
 
 l<*ilgilis 712 
 
 Italia 
 
 246 
 
 Lancia Oppidana 40 
 " Trunscudaaa 40 
 
 
 
 512 
 
 
 
 516 
 
 Ikenild Street 203 
 
 
 87 
 
 Lan"obardi 230 
 
 Ila ... 174 
 
 
 140 
 
 Lanx>brii a (Celt ) 30 
 
 Ilar^us 241 
 
 Iton 
 
 499 
 
 " (Lusit.) 40 
 
 
 
 175 
 
 
 [lerda 61 
 
 I tun.ua 
 
 676 
 
 Laodicea Combusta 643 
 " ad Libanum . . . 665 
 " ad Lycum 644 
 " ad Mare 661 
 
 
 
 175 
 
 Uicis 63 
 
 lulis 
 
 597 
 
 
 
 210 
 
 llipa or Ilipula 47 
 
 J. 
 
 703 
 
 Lapurdum 119 
 
 " " " Magna 48 
 Ilipula Mons 1 23 
 
 Laranda 651 
 
 
 Tlissus 4?0 547 
 
 Jabbok 
 
 676 
 
 Larissa 496 
 
 
 
 57 
 
 " (Plii iconis) 631 
 
 Illiberis (Hisp ) 50 
 
 
 ... . 53 
 
 Larissus 476 571 
 
 " (Gallic) . 103 
 
 Jammona 
 
 69 
 
 
 llliturgis 48 
 
 
 . 671 
 
 
 lllyria Barbara or Roinana 54 
 " Graeca 54 
 
 Jamno 
 
 ...... 68 
 
 
 Jasoniuni Prom 
 
 .Tasonhis Mons _- 
 
 605, 639 
 693 
 
 Vetus 318 
 
 lllyricum . 406 
 
 Latmicus Sinus 624 
 
 Latmus 6 9 5 
 
 
 679 
 
 iluro 66 
 
 Jena jEstuarium . . 
 
 175 
 
 T,rtt-nn<YH<3 740 
 
 11 va 297 
 
 
 672 Laumellum 277 
 
 Lmaus Mons 700 
 
 Jerusalem 
 
 . .. . 672 Laurentum 322 
 
 Imbros 652 
 
 
 674 Lauriacum 242 
 
 Imma 662 
 
 
 
 Inachus (\oarn.) .... 475 
 
 .lordanea 
 
 669 
 
 Lauron 63 
 
 " (Ar<*ol.) 47 ( ) 
 
 
 .. 675 
 
 Laiis 373 
 
 Inarime 348 
 
 Judsea 
 
 671 
 
 " (fluvius) 268, 373 
 
 India 700 
 
 
 712 
 
 " Sinus 268 373 
 
 
 
 620 
 
 
 Indus 605 
 
 Juliacum 
 
 149 
 
 Lausanna 156 
 
 Inferum Mare 269 
 
 
 56 
 
 
 Ingena 18 
 
 
 129 
 
 
 
 
 635 
 
 
 Lnsubres 276 
 
 Julium Carnicuin 
 
 . ... 287 
 
 Lebedus 623 
 
 
 
 . 267, 339 
 
 Leborini Carnpi 340 
 
 Insulae Choaradae 367 
 
 Vicus 
 
 . .. 150 
 
 
 " Diomcdeee 356 
 
 Junonis (insula) 
 
 45 
 
 Lectura Promontorium . . 605 
 Ledus 104 
 
 Interamna 302 
 
 " Prom. 
 
 25 
 
 (Frentana) 354 
 " (Prsetutiana) .. 305 
 interamnium Flavium ... 56 
 
 Jura Mons 
 
 . . . 11, 85 
 
 Logio Septima Gemina... 5fi 
 
 
 706 
 
 Justinopolis 
 
 288 
 
 Lemanianus or Lemanua 
 Portus 176 187 
 
 Juvavia 
 
 242 
 
 Tolcos 502 
 
 Juverna 
 
 .... 208 
 
 Lemanus Lacus 154 
 
 Ionia 619 621 
 
 
 210 
 
 Lemnos 652 
 
 
 Juvernis 
 
 211 
 
 Lemovices 118 
 
 lonopolis . 636 
 
 K. 
 
 Kars 
 
 684 
 
 Lentia . 242 
 
 Ipni 486 
 
 Leontes 667 
 
 Ipsus 642 
 
 Leontini 392 
 
 fra 580 
 
 Kerata 
 
 540 
 
 Lepinus M&ns 330 
 
 
 Kison 
 
 667 
 
 Lepontii 240 
 
 Irinus Sinus 702 
 
 
 ... 584 
 
 Leprffium 576 
 
 Fris 637 
 
 L. 
 Labeates 
 
 .. 407 
 
 Leptis Magna 719 
 
 fsaca 176 
 
 " Parva 716 
 
 Jsala 220 
 
 Lerna 587 
 
 
 
 327 
 
 Leron . . 1]5 
 
 Isara 90,92 
 
 faro"US 241 
 
 Labranda 
 
 618 
 502 
 
 Leros 656" 
 
 Lesa 406 
 
 Jsarii 241 
 
 
 54 
 
 Lesbos 653 
 
 fsarus 41 
 
 Lacinium Promonto 
 Lacobriga (Lusifc.) . 
 " (Vaccasor 
 
 num. 256 
 37 
 
 Le.=sa . 590 
 
 
 Lethseus 621 
 
 
 um) . . 57 
 580 
 
 Letrini 575 
 
 isca Daranoniorum 191 
 Silurum 197 
 
 Lcuca . 364" 
 
 
 .. 487 
 
 Leucadia ? rnr. 
 
 Ischalis 189 
 
 Lactoduumn 
 
 195 
 
 Leucas } J 
 Leucate Prom 483, 510 
 Leuce Acte 435 
 
 Isius Mons 747 
 
 
 . 477 
 
 Ismarum Promontorium . 423 
 
 
 43 
 
 
 276 
 
 Come 67f> 
 
 Issa 411 
 
 
 369 
 
 Leuci -- 139 1 
 
 Issedonos 708 
 
 
 654 
 
 " Monies 60(> 
 
 Assicus Sinus ... . . 604 
 
 Laletani . . 
 
 . 54 
 
 Leucolla RT; 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 761 
 
 
 Page Page 
 255 Lugdunensis Tertia 83 
 208 " Quarta 83 
 533 Lu^dunum 130 
 
 
 Page 
 484 
 175 
 352 
 488 
 702 
 503 
 702 
 611 
 477 
 384 
 715 
 202 
 307 
 701 
 199 
 365 
 703 
 592 
 402 
 59 
 280 
 699 
 555 
 219 
 246 
 374 
 347 
 143 
 229 
 698 
 698 
 245 
 245 
 730 
 679 
 402 
 23 
 402 
 234 
 107 
 723 
 351 
 430 
 598 
 312 
 309 
 309 
 230 
 673 
 680 
 621 
 423 
 357 
 90 
 228 
 228 
 711 
 169 
 84 
 441 
 648 
 390 
 511 
 693 
 227 
 129 
 
 148 
 278 
 12L 
 262 
 262 
 139 
 90 
 39 
 24 
 381 
 691 
 594 
 541 
 392 
 540 
 
 Leucopibia 
 
 Maleas (insula) 
 
 
 
 Leuctrum 
 
 579 " Batavorum 146, 148 
 225 " Convenarum . . 120 
 125 Luguvallum 201 
 
 Maliacus Sinus 
 
 
 
 Lexovii 
 
 Malienses 
 
 Mallorum Metropolis 
 Mallus 
 
 Libanus Mona 
 
 664 Luna 290 
 
 Libethra 
 
 452 Lunts Montes 710 
 
 Libethrius 
 
 536 " Silva 219 
 452 Luppia 222 
 
 " (fluvius) 
 Mamertium . 
 
 Libethrus 
 
 Libicii 
 
 276 Luquido 405 
 
 
 Libinius 
 
 210 Lusitani 32, 35 
 
 
 Libisosia 
 
 59 Lusitania 21 35 
 
 
 Libora 
 
 
 
 Liburni 
 
 407 Lutia 61 
 
 
 Liburnidea Insulse 
 
 411 Lutetia Parisiorum 136 
 
 
 Libya 
 
 708 Lutosa 133 
 
 749 Lutudarum 202 
 
 
 " Interior 
 
 
 Libycum Mare 
 
 488 Luxia 31 
 
 Mantinorum Oppidum . . . 
 
 Libyssa 
 
 
 Licates 
 
 241 Lycabettus 547 
 
 " Ital) 
 
 Lichades (insulae) 
 
 50 Lycaonii 650 
 
 
 Licus 
 
 241 i Lychnidus 411 
 
 
 
 90 ! Lychnitis Palus 411,683 
 249 ! Lycia 613 
 
 
 Ligures 
 
 
 
 270 Lycopolis 738 
 
 
 Ligusticus Sinus 
 Lilaea 
 
 267 Lycorea 526 
 
 Marcina 
 
 
 Lilybceum 
 
 " Promontorium . 
 Limanus 
 
 396 Lycosura 594 
 
 Marcomanni 
 
 389 Lyctua 601 
 
 
 156 Lycus (Assyr ) 687 
 
 
 Limanus 
 
 176 " (Pont ) 606 
 
 " (" MOBS.) 
 " (urbs) 
 
 Limax 
 
 478 " (Sarmat ) 236 
 
 Limia 
 
 31 ! Lydda 672 
 
 
 
 579 i Lydia 618 
 
 
 Limonum 
 
 120 Lydias 446 
 
 
 Lindum 
 
 " Damniorum 
 
 200 i Lyncestis 447 
 208 Lyncua 447 
 
 Marianus Mons 
 Marinum Promontorium. 
 
 657 Lystra 651 
 
 Lingon Mons 
 
 471 1 
 276 ! M. 
 627 MacgB 680 
 
 Maritima Aduaticorum 
 
 
 Linum 
 
 
 Lipara 
 
 400 ; Macedonia 441 
 
 " (Thrac.) 
 
 Liparesa (insulse) 
 
 400 Macestus 66 
 
 
 64 Machffirus 676 
 
 Marrucini 
 
 Liris 
 
 261 ! Macistus 576 
 389 Macoraba 679 
 
 Mari 227 
 
 Lissus 
 
 408 Macra 272 
 
 Marus 221 
 
 Litana Silva 
 
 283 l Maoris 555 
 
 Maada 
 
 Literna Palua 
 
 338 Macrobii 743 
 
 
 
 337 Macrones 640 
 
 Mastusia Mons 
 " Promontorium . 
 
 Liternus 
 
 337 Madytus 433 
 
 
 712 Maaatas 185 
 
 Locras 
 
 401 Maeander 607 620 
 
 
 
 
 " Epicnemidii 
 
 519 Majnaria 297 
 
 
 
 50 Maenoba 47 
 
 
 " Uzolee . . ... 
 
 518 " (fluvius) 31 
 
 Maxima Caasariensis 
 " Sequanoruzn . . . 
 
 Locris 
 
 518 i Maeotis Palus 9 
 
 Loana 
 
 222 ! MaBsolia 702 
 
 Logi. . . 
 
 184 MaBsolus 701 
 
 Mazaca 
 
 Logia 
 
 210 Magetobriga 155 
 
 192 i Ma< r iovinium 195 
 
 Mazarus 
 
 Medeon 408, 
 
 Londinium 
 
 Lon^anus 
 
 390 Ma<ma 207 
 
 Media 
 
 Longus Estuarium 
 Loposa<num 
 
 175 Magna Greecia 250 
 
 
 Mediolanum (Aulerc.) . . . 
 (Britt.) 
 (Gueern.). .. 
 " (Ital ) 
 
 Lotophagi 
 
 719 Magnate 210 211 
 
 
 174 Magnesia 501 
 
 Luca 
 
 290 ad Mseandrum . 621 
 367 " nd Sipylum .... 620 
 63 " Promontorium . 486 
 358 Magnesium Prom 486 
 
 
 " (Santon.) ... 
 Meduacus Major 
 
 Luccntum 
 
 
 
 Lucrotilis Mons 
 
 307 Magnum Prom. (Hisp.) .. 25 
 266 " (Ind.).... 605 
 310 Magnus Portus 176 
 
 Mediomatrici 
 
 Lucrinus Lacus 
 Lucus 
 
 Meduana 
 
 
 " Angitiae 
 
 310 " Sinus 604 
 
 Medullus Mons . . . 
 
 " Aeturum. 
 
 56 Ma go 68 
 
 
 " Feroniaj 
 
 290 Magontiacum 150 
 
 Medus . . 
 
 " Semnonum 
 Lugdunensia (Gallia) . 81, 
 Prima 
 
 " Secunda .. 
 
 219 Ma^rada 31 
 
 
 123 Majorca 68 
 
 
 83 Malaca 31, 47 
 
 Me far a Hyblgea 
 
 83 Malanga 702 
 
 Megaris 
 
762 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 
 706 
 
 Minturnse ... . 
 
 338 
 254 
 48 
 678 
 648 
 210 
 222 
 730 
 245 
 150 
 415 
 517 
 212 
 212 
 390 
 212 
 324 
 374 
 330 
 344 
 352 
 346 
 351 
 341 
 359 
 700 
 611 
 175 
 191 
 9 
 139 
 39 
 57 
 669 
 91 
 680 
 683 
 245 
 191 
 639 
 652 
 396 
 390 
 29 
 49 
 748 
 
 N. 
 Naamalcha 
 
 rage 
 
 Me"iddo 
 
 674 
 
 
 
 . 605, 623 
 
 Misenum Promontorium . 
 
 
 679 
 
 
 
 Melanomas tuli 
 
 749 
 
 MoabitsB 
 
 
 
 Melas (As ) 
 
 613 
 
 
 Nabatha;! 
 
 
 " (Gr.) 
 
 . ... 538 
 
 
 Nablis 
 
 221 
 
 Meldi 
 
 127, 135 
 
 
 
 
 Meles 
 
 ... . 623 
 
 
 Nsebis 
 
 31 
 
 Melibocus Mons 
 Meliboea 
 
 218 
 
 . 502 
 
 Moesia 
 
 
 
 
 
 245 
 
 Melisse 
 
 643 
 
 Molossis 
 
 Namadus . 
 
 700 
 
 Melita 
 
 Melitaea (As.) 
 
 . 400, 412 
 643 
 
 Molycria 
 
 Mona (Caisaris) 
 
 Namnetes 
 
 Nande 
 
 .... 124 
 69 5 
 
 i " (Thess ) 
 
 499 
 
 " (Taciti) 
 
 
 10 
 
 Melitene 
 
 649 
 
 Monalus 
 
 
 234 
 
 
 46 
 
 
 Napata 
 
 .... 746 
 ogq 
 
 Melodunum 
 Melos 
 
 135 
 
 597 
 
 Mons Albanus . 
 
 " Alburnus 
 
 Nar . 
 
 260 
 
 Melsus 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 10 ? 
 
 Memirii 
 
 Memnonis Tumulus 
 Memphis 
 
 102 
 626 
 . . 737 
 
 " Massicus 
 
 Narbonensis 
 
 81 100 
 
 " Taburnus 
 
 " Prima . . 
 " Secunda 
 
 .... 82 
 .... 82 
 28 
 
 " Tifata 
 
 Menapia (Britt ) 
 
 198 
 
 " Tifernua 
 " Vesuvius 
 
 (Hibern.).. 
 Menapii (Gall ) 
 
 211 
 137 
 
 Narnia 
 
 302 
 
 " Vultur 
 
 Naro 
 
 407 
 
 (Hibern ) 
 
 211 
 
 Mophis 
 
 Narona 
 
 408 
 
 Mende 
 
 459 
 
 
 498 
 
 Mendes 
 
 735 
 
 Moricambe ^Estuarium . . 
 Moridunurn 
 
 
 
 Mendesium Ostium. 
 Menebria 
 
 729 
 440 
 
 Nasium 
 
 145 
 
 
 
 44 T 
 
 Menelai Portus 
 Menevia 
 
 723 
 
 108 
 
 Morini 
 
 Natiso 
 
 287 
 
 Moron 
 
 
 700 
 
 Meninx (insula) . 
 
 718 
 
 Morossji 
 
 Naucratis 
 
 734 
 
 " (urbs) 
 
 719 
 
 
 Naulochua 
 
 .... 398 
 518 
 
 Menosca . . 
 
 
 Mosa . .... 
 
 
 748 
 
 
 
 587 
 
 Merinurn . 
 
 357 
 
 Mosc.hici Montes 
 
 Navilubio 
 
 31 
 
 
 37 
 
 
 
 390 
 
 Meroe 
 
 744 
 
 Mostevia 
 
 " (insula) 
 
 598 
 
 Mese 
 
 . . 115 
 
 Mosyno3ci 
 
 Nazada 
 
 Nazareth 
 
 .... 695 
 
 675 
 
 Mesainbria 
 
 440 
 
 Mosychlus 
 
 Mesene 
 
 687 
 
 Motya 
 
 Ne aith us 
 
 376 
 
 
 381 
 
 Motvcanus 
 
 Neapolis 
 
 340 
 
 
 680 
 
 Munda (fluviu.*) 
 
 (Afric.) 
 
 716 
 
 Messa 
 
 583 
 
 " (urbs) 
 
 " (Sard.) 
 Nebo Mons 
 
 .... 405 
 .... 676 
 
 Messana 
 
 .... 391 
 
 Mundi Emporium 
 
 Messapia 35. i, JDI, isoi 
 Messeis 497 
 
 Mulucha 
 
 711 
 
 Nebrodes Montes 
 
 49 
 388 
 
 
 579 
 
 
 47 
 244 
 
 282 
 59 
 624 
 539 
 588 
 526 
 598 
 
 
 478 
 
 
 576 
 
 Mursia 
 
 Neion 
 
 51 o 
 
 
 487 
 
 
 
 104 
 
 
 619 
 
 Murus 
 
 
 590 
 
 Messua Collis 
 
 88 
 
 Mycale Mons 
 
 " (fluvius) 
 Nemetacum 
 
 475 
 142 
 
 Metasonium Prom. . 
 
 711 
 12 
 
 Mycalessus 
 Mycenae 
 
 Nemetobriga 
 
 56 
 
 
 368 
 
 Neo Cffisarea 
 
 .... 640 
 637 
 
 
 173 
 
 
 
 589 
 
 
 45fi 
 680 
 398 
 398 
 618 
 618 
 741 
 499 
 618 
 501 
 426 
 
 
 528 
 
 (Maced.) . . 
 " (Messen ) 
 
 .... 452 
 
 578 
 
 Mvyclonius 
 MyliB 
 
 Neon Tichos 
 
 .... 631 
 
 Nericum 
 
 510 
 
 
 653 
 
 Mylas 
 
 Ner tis 
 
 510 
 
 Metina 
 
 92 114 
 
 Mylaea 
 
 Myndus 
 
 Neritos 
 
 512 
 
 Metropolis (Germ.) . 
 (Thess.). 
 Me trig . 
 
 237 
 494, 501 
 .... 145 
 408 
 
 Nerium Promontorium . . 25 
 
 Myos Hormos .... 
 
 Myonesus 
 
 Nerulum 
 
 374 
 
 
 Myra 
 
 
 138 
 
 Mevania 
 
 301 
 
 Myra 
 
 Nesis 
 
 ... 348 
 
 
 672 
 
 Myrcirius 
 
 Nestus 
 
 424 
 
 Mideeum . 
 
 642 
 
 Myrina 
 
 631 
 612 
 633 
 555 
 
 Nicfea 
 
 110, 271 
 633 
 
 
 678 
 
 
 " (Bithyn ) 
 
 Mieza 
 
 455 
 
 Myrlea 
 
 " (Indica) 
 
 .... 702 
 
 Milataa 
 
 244 
 
 
 " (Locr ) 
 
 520 
 
 
 237 
 
 
 573 
 38 
 489 
 509 
 625 
 653 
 625 
 
 
 681 
 
 Miletus 
 
 624 
 
 Myrtilis 
 
 Nicer 
 
 .. 222 
 
 Minsei 
 
 679 
 
 
 
 748 
 
 Mincius 
 
 
 
 
 260 
 
 Minervje Promontorium . 254 
 Minius 29 
 
 Mysia 
 
 
 .. 633 
 
 Mytilene 
 
 Nicopolis (Armen.) . . 
 (Epir.) .... 
 " ad Istrum . . 
 " ad NeBtum . 
 
 .... 682 
 418, 508 
 .... 24 
 .. 430 
 
 Minoa (Cret) 
 
 601 
 
 " (Megar.) 
 
 542 
 
 
 Minorca . . 
 
 . 69 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 763 
 
 Niduin 
 
 ra-e 
 197 
 197 
 710 
 749 
 749 
 728 
 
 688 
 
 683 
 
 698 
 542 
 681 
 599 
 119 
 731 
 750 
 134 
 134 
 398 
 56 
 112 
 245 
 156 
 346 
 306 
 593 
 649 
 405 
 331 
 39 
 242 
 040 
 
 8 
 654 
 210 
 710 
 150 
 182 
 208 
 175 
 312 
 277 
 82 
 427 
 149 
 134 
 148 
 120 
 188 
 129 
 150 
 144 
 121 
 629 
 176 
 283 
 347 
 301 
 303 
 60 
 322 
 712 
 374 
 308 
 621 
 446 
 335 
 621 
 702 
 648 
 
 723 
 
 742 
 742 
 210 
 
 
 8 
 170 
 603 
 236 
 9 
 170 
 
 Orestia 
 
 P 448 
 
 Nidus 
 
 " Germanicus 
 " Hibernicus 
 Indicus 602, 
 " Sarmaticus 
 <; Septentrionalis. . 
 Verginicus 
 
 Orestis - - 
 
 ... 448 
 
 Ni (r or 
 
 Orctani 
 
 ... 53 
 
 Nigira 
 
 
 ... 390 
 
 
 
 59 
 
 Nilus 710 
 
 
 ... 692 
 
 Ninive ) 
 
 Orgus 
 
 ... 270 
 
 Minus 5 
 Niphatcs Mons 
 
 Qcellum 
 
 Ocetia 
 
 1V2 
 213 
 
 Oricus 
 
 410 
 .. 407 
 
 Ocha 
 
 243 
 302 
 171 
 171 
 114 
 102 
 121 
 246 
 426 
 426 
 719 
 519 
 58 
 25 
 708 
 519 
 242 
 510 
 639 
 250 
 219 
 245 
 428 
 505 
 583 
 722 
 156 
 611 
 
 
 ... 502 
 
 _"_ _ (Megar.) 
 
 Ocra Mons 
 
 
 .. 560 
 
 Ocriculum 
 
 Orontes 
 
 607, 660 
 ... 540 
 
 
 Ocrinum 
 
 Octapetaruni Prom 
 Octodurus 
 
 
 Nitiobri (r es 117 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 Orra 
 
 ... 380 
 
 
 (Veragr.) 
 Oculisma 
 
 
 . 133 
 
 
 
 ... 354 
 
 Nivernum 
 
 Noas 
 
 Odessus 
 
 
 .. 696 
 
 Odomanti 
 
 Ortygia 
 
 ... 393 
 
 Noega 
 
 Odrysse 
 
 Osca 
 
 ... 61 
 250 
 
 
 CEa 
 
 Osci 
 
 Noes 
 
 O2 an the 
 
 
 125 
 
 
 OZaso 
 
 
 . 681 
 
 Nola 
 
 " Promontoriurn 
 
 Ossa 
 
 ... 501 
 
 
 
 37 
 
 Momentum 
 
 GDneon 
 
 
 321 
 
 Nonacns 
 
 (Eni Pons 
 
 
 321 
 
 J a /a a ?P v 
 
 OZniadse 
 
 Otadeni 
 
 183 
 
 
 OZnoe 
 
 Othrys Mons 
 Ovilia 
 
 471, 497 
 . . 242 
 
 
 OZnotri 
 
 X A 
 
 (Enus 
 
 
 39 
 
 Noricum 
 
 CEscus 
 CEsyme 
 
 Oxus 
 
 606, 698 
 102 
 
 
 Oxybii 
 
 
 QBta 
 
 
 738 
 
 " Prom. (Hibern.) . . 
 " (Afric.)-..- 
 
 CEtylus 
 
 P. 
 Pachynum Prom 
 
 .... 389 
 .. 434 
 
 Ogia 
 
 Olbia (Cilic ) 
 
 
 
 " (Gallic.) 
 
 109 
 613 
 405 
 237 
 714 
 597 
 571 
 43 
 
 Pactolus 
 
 .... 620 
 
 li Prom 171, 
 
 " (Pamphyl.) 
 " (Sardin.) 
 
 Padus . . - 
 
 .... 258 
 .... 258 
 
 Padusa 
 
 Noviria 
 
 " (Sarmat.) 
 
 
 ....516 
 
 
 Olcachites Sinus 
 Oleums 
 
 Peeonia 
 
 .... 463 
 
 
 PiBStanus Sinus 
 
 268 
 
 
 
 
 371 
 
 
 Olintigi 
 
 Pseti 
 
 426 
 
 Novioinagus (Batav.) 
 (Bitur.) 
 (Britann.) . . . 
 " (Lexob.) 
 (Nemet.) 
 (Trcvir.) ... 
 
 Olisipo 
 
 38 
 
 259 
 533 
 509 
 89 
 574 
 615 
 658 
 445 
 459 
 680 
 741 
 415 
 536 
 43 
 389 
 118 
 484 
 69^ 
 
 Pa^se 
 
 . 542 
 
 Olisiponense Prom 
 Ollius 
 
 
 502 
 
 
 488 
 
 Olmius 
 
 
 662 
 
 Olpse 
 
 
 658 
 
 Oltis 
 
 
 340 
 
 Olympia 
 
 Palserus 
 
 ... 510 
 
 jNOvioregu m 
 
 Olympus 
 
 
 628 
 
 JNO\ um luum 
 
 (Cypr.) 
 
 Pateste 
 
 .. 415 
 
 668 
 
 Nuceria (Cis. Gnll.) 
 " (Campan.) 
 
 
 Olyntlras 
 OmanitiB 
 
 Palaetyrus 
 
 Palanta 
 
 .... 667 
 402 
 
 
 Ombos 
 
 Palantia (Asturum) . . 
 " (VacciBor.) . 
 Palibothra 
 
 .... 56 
 . . . . 52 
 
 .. 702 
 
 Humana 
 
 Onchesmus 
 
 
 Onchestus 
 
 
 Onoba 
 
 Palica 399 
 
 Palinurum Prornontoriuin 255 
 Palla 402 
 
 
 Onobalus 
 
 
 Onobrisates 
 
 jj r 
 
 Onugnathos Prom 
 
 Pallakopas 
 
 685 
 
 JN y mpnaeum 
 
 
 Pallantia 
 
 58 
 
 Nymphaeus 
 
 Nysa (I ydia) 
 
 Ophis 
 
 592 
 69 
 652 
 250 
 149 
 
 Pallantias 
 
 64 
 
 Ophiusa 
 
 Palle 
 
 512 
 
 
 Ophiussa 
 
 Pallene . 
 
 458 
 
 
 Opici 
 
 Palma 
 
 69 
 
 O. 
 Oasis (Ammon.) 
 
 
 334 
 
 Opsikella 
 
 57 
 
 
 663 
 
 Opuntius Sinus 488, 
 Opus 
 
 521 
 521 
 444 
 213 
 172 
 687 
 
 r>:!7 
 
 593 
 234 
 180 
 
 Pfilmyrenc 
 Paludes Pomtinse 
 
 .... 663 
 335 
 
 " Major 
 
 Orbelus 
 
 
 414 
 
 Obora 
 
 Orcades 
 
 
 587 
 
 Obris 
 
 Oceanus Arctous 
 " Britannicus 
 " Borealis 
 " Cantabricus 
 " Duecaledoniua . . 
 
 104 
 9 
 
 8 
 9 
 8 
 170 
 
 Orcas 
 
 
 338 
 
 Orchoe 
 
 " Masotis 
 
 9 237 
 
 Orchomenus (Arcad.) 
 " (Boeot) 
 IOrdessus 
 Ordoviccs 
 
 " Pambotis 
 " Salapina 
 
 .. 418 
 .... 358 
 
 " Tritonis. .. 
 
 .. 715 
 
 Pambotis Palus 
 
 ....418 
 
764 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Pamisus 
 
 Page 
 478 
 
 
 Page Page 
 
 
 ... 612 
 
 Perce . . 
 
 421 
 
 
 Pandataria 
 
 ... 348 
 
 Percote 
 
 ... 627 
 
 Picenum 302 
 
 Pandora (Brutt.) 
 
 ...383 
 
 Pergamus 
 
 631 
 
 Pictones 118 
 
 " (Lucan.) 
 
 368 
 
 (Thrac ) 
 
 48 
 
 Pictonum Promontorium. 87 
 Pieres 428 
 
 " (Moloss.) 
 
 ... 418 
 
 Pcrge 
 
 613 
 
 
 ... 423 
 
 
 435 
 
 Pieria 450 
 
 Panionium 
 Pannonia 
 
 ... 622 
 . . 243 
 
 Perisadii 
 
 ... 410 
 480, 533 
 ... 691 
 604 
 
 " (Syr.) 662 
 
 
 Pannonii 
 Panopolis 
 
 Panormus (Attic.) 
 " (Cyzic.) . . . 
 
 ... 408 
 ... 738 
 ... 555 
 ... 626 
 
 Persepolis 
 
 Persicus Sinus 
 
 Pirum Mare 8 
 
 Pinara 614 
 
 Persis 
 
 ... 690 
 
 Pindenissus 612 
 
 
 ...295 
 
 Pindus 522 
 
 11 (Epir ) 
 
 415 
 
 Peside 
 
 749 
 
 " Mons 413 471 
 
 " (Sicul.) 
 
 ... 397 
 
 Pessinus 
 
 645 
 
 " (fluvius) 5 
 
 
 389 
 
 Petalia 
 
 485 
 
 
 Pantanus Lacus 
 
 ... 356 
 
 Petilia (Brutt.) . . 
 
 376 
 
 Pintia 58 
 
 Panticanseum 
 
 239 
 
 " (Lucan ) 
 
 372 
 
 
 Paphlagoziia 
 
 ... 635 
 
 Petra 
 
 679 
 
 Pirus 476 
 
 
 658 
 
 Petriana 
 
 207 
 
 Pisa 574 
 
 Parachoathras Mons . . 
 Paraetoniuin 
 Paraxia 
 
 ... 693 
 ... 723 
 ... 457 
 
 Petrocorii 
 
 118 
 
 Pisee 90 
 
 Peucetia 
 
 ... 360 
 235 
 
 Pisatis 574 
 
 
 Parentium 
 
 288 
 
 
 225 
 
 
 Parish 
 
 ... 127 
 
 PhaTes 
 
 428 
 
 Pisidia 646 
 
 Parium 
 
 ... 627 
 
 Phalachthia 
 
 ... 500 
 
 Pistoria 290 
 
 Parma 
 
 ... 282 
 
 Phalacrum Prom. 
 
 421 
 
 Pistyrus 430 
 
 " (fluvius) 
 Parnassus 
 
 ... 260 
 ... 648 
 
 Phalanna 
 
 ... 496 
 
 Pitane 631 
 
 Phalasarna 
 
 600 
 
 Pithecusa 348 
 
 " Mons 
 
 .. 527 
 
 Phalasia 
 
 ... 485 
 
 Pitinum 312 
 
 " (Cappad.) 
 
 .. G48 
 
 Phaleria 
 
 493 
 
 " (Pisaurcnse) 300 
 
 Paropamisadifi 
 
 696 
 
 
 552 
 
 Paropamistis Mons 
 
 ... 700 
 
 Pharrce 
 
 654 
 
 Pityoa 67 
 
 Paros 
 
 597 
 
 " Promontorium 
 Phana^oria 
 
 605, 654 
 704 
 
 Pityus 704 
 
 Parthenium Prom. 
 Parthenius 
 
 ... 238 
 632 
 
 Pityua3 Insulaa 68 69 
 
 
 415 
 
 Placentia 281 
 
 Parthenope 
 
 ... 340 
 
 Pharnacia . 
 
 639 
 
 Placia 66 
 
 Parthia 
 
 696 
 
 Pharos 
 
 411 
 
 Planisia 115 
 
 Parthini 
 
 ... 410 
 
 Pharsalus 
 
 ... 498 
 749 
 
 " 2 t >8 
 
 Parthissus 
 
 234 
 
 
 Platsea? 534 
 
 Parthus 
 
 ... 410 
 
 Pharysrium Prom. . . 
 
 .. 526 
 
 Plavis 263 
 
 Parthyene 
 
 697 
 
 Phaselis 
 
 615 
 
 Plemmyrium Prom 393 
 Pleuron 516 
 
 Pasareadee 
 
 ... 691 
 
 Phasis 2, 
 
 606, 705 
 ... 729 
 554 
 
 Pasitigris 
 
 606 
 
 Phatniticum Ostium . 
 
 
 
 418 
 
 Plinthinetes Sinus 722 
 Pli*tus 475 
 
 Patara 
 
 614 
 
 Phazania 
 Pheia 
 
 ... 749 
 483 
 
 PatrcB 
 
 ... 570 
 
 Plotiuopolis 441 
 
 Patavium 
 
 286 
 
 Pheneus 
 
 .. 593 
 
 Plumbarii 3*1 
 
 Patmos 
 
 ... 655 
 
 Pherae 
 
 .... 497 
 
 Podandus 64 c > 
 
 Pattala. 
 
 702 
 
 Phi-alea 
 
 595 
 
 Poediculi SCO 
 
 Patycus 
 
 . . 380 
 
 Phila 
 
 . . . 450 
 
 Poson 589 
 
 Paris! 
 
 179 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 .. 621 
 
 Pola 288 
 
 Pausilypus 
 
 340 
 
 Phibfi... 
 
 ... 741 
 
 Polaticum Promontorium 258 
 Polaticus Sinus 269 
 
 Pax Julia 
 
 38 Philfiffl 
 
 440 
 
 Paxos 
 
 421 
 
 Philia Promontorium 
 Philippi . . . 
 
 .... 423 
 429 
 
 Polemonium 639 
 
 Pedum 
 
 327 
 
 Pollentia (Balrar ) 69 
 
 Pelagoncs 
 
 Pelao onia 
 
 ... 463 
 464 
 
 Philippopolis 
 
 ... 440 
 
 " (Ital.) . 273 
 
 Philomelium 
 
 643 
 
 Poltyobria 431 
 
 Pelasgiotis 
 
 494 
 
 Phinea 
 
 439 
 
 Polybotus . . . 643 
 
 Peligni 
 
 310 
 
 Phlius 
 
 590 
 
 Polytimetus 700 
 
 Pelion 
 
 411 
 
 Phocsea 
 
 622 
 
 Pompeii 342 
 
 
 501 
 
 Phocis 
 
 523 
 
 Pompeiopolis (Cilic.) 611 
 (Paphlag.) . 637 
 Pompelo . 57 
 
 Pella (Maced.). 
 
 453 
 
 Phosnice 
 
 415 
 
 " (Patest ) 
 
 676 
 
 Phoenicia 
 
 665 
 
 Pellene 
 
 568 
 
 Phcenix (Achaic.) 
 
 570 
 
 PomDoniana .. .115 
 
 
 654 
 
 " (Thessal ) 
 
 481 Pomtinse Paludes 335 
 
 Pelodes Portus 
 
 416 
 
 
 61 7 Pons JE\n 207 
 
 
 466, 562 
 m . 389 
 643 
 
 " Portus 
 
 601 Pons Duhis ... 155 
 
 Pelorum Promontoriu 
 PeltEB 
 
 
 599 
 
 Pons CEni 242 
 
 Phorcys 
 
 512 
 
 Pontes . . 192 
 
 Pelusium 
 
 Penestae 
 
 .... 736 
 411 
 
 Phraata 
 
 695 
 
 Pontia . 334 
 
 Phryaia 
 
 641 
 
 Pontus (Mces.) 246 
 
 Peneus (Elidia) 
 
 476 
 
 Phthiotis 
 
 497 
 
 " (Asiat) ... 637 
 
 " (Thess ) 
 
 481 
 
 Phthuris : 746 
 
 Phyeus Promontorium... 711 
 Phylace 499 
 
 Phyle 557 
 
 Pontus P^uxinus . 236 
 
 
 199 
 
 Populonium 291 
 
 Penoxullum 
 
 172 
 
 Prom 254 
 Porphyrites Mons 729 
 
 Pentapolis 
 
 703 
 
 Pentapotamia 
 
 605 
 
 
 687 
 
 Porthmus 561 
 
 Pentelicus Mons 
 
 556 
 
 Portus 
 Phytia 
 
 .... 617 
 511 
 
 Portus Au^usti 321 
 
 Pephnus 
 
 583 
 
 Cale 55 
 
 Peparene .. 
 
 630 
 
 Pialia 
 
 493 
 
 " Ctenus 23!) 
 
 Persia 
 
 .. 676 
 
 Picentes . . 
 
 .. 302 
 
 " Dubris 177 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 765 
 
 Page 
 Portus Favonius 403 
 
 
 Page 
 . 495 
 
 
 "Ts 
 
 " Herculis Liburni.. 291 
 " Julius 339 
 
 Pytho 
 
 527 
 
 
 .. 312 
 
 
 373 
 
 
 307 
 
 " Lemanianus 176 
 
 Q. 
 
 Quacli 
 
 229 
 
 Rotomagus 
 
 . . 136 
 
 Rubi 
 
 361 
 
 
 Rubicon 
 
 .. 262 
 
 " Mulienun 439 
 
 
 669 
 
 
 31,66 
 .. 363 
 
 " Roscia 376 
 
 R. 
 Rabbath Ammon 
 
 ... 678 
 
 Rudiae 
 
 " Ritupis 177 
 
 " (Peucet ) 
 
 361 
 
 " Senum 439 
 
 Ruscino 
 
 .. 103 
 
 " Symbolorurn 239 
 " Syracusanus 402 
 " Telamo 292 
 
 " Moab 
 
 ... 678 
 
 Rusellas 
 
 . 292 
 
 Radis or Ratis 
 RtEtia 
 
 ... 156 
 ...239 
 
 
 714 
 
 Russadir 
 
 .. 712 
 
 " Titianua 402 
 
 Ramah 
 
 Ramoth Galaad 
 
 ... 672 
 
 ... 676 
 
 " Promontorium 
 Rusticiana . 
 
 .. 711 
 .. 40 
 
 " Trajani 93 
 
 " Ulterior 141 
 
 Raphia 
 Rarapia 
 Ratee 
 
 ... 671 
 
 ... 38 
 ... lil l 
 
 Ruteni 
 
 .. 119 
 
 Veneris 67 
 
 Rutonium 
 
 .. 199 
 
 272 
 
 
 Posidium Prom. (Epirot.) - 416 
 " " (Lucan.). 255 
 " (Maced.)- 446 
 " (Thess.) . 4^6 
 . 499 
 
 Ratiaria 
 Ratiatum 
 
 ... 245 
 ... 121 
 
 Rutuli 
 
 .. 322 
 
 187 
 
 Ratis 
 
 156 
 
 
 710 
 
 Raudii Campi 
 
 ... 278 
 
 S. 
 Saba (Arab.) 
 
 .. 679 
 
 
 148 
 
 Rauranum 
 
 ... 121 
 
 
 
 284 
 
 " (Afric ) 
 
 .. 747 
 
 " (Picen ) 304 
 
 Ravius 
 
 ... 210 
 
 Sabrai .... 
 
 .. 679 
 
 
 Reate 
 
 307 
 
 
 703 
 
 Potnisjo 534 
 
 Redones 
 
 ... 124 
 
 Sabata . . 
 
 .. 272 
 
 
 
 394 
 
 Sab ate 
 
 265 
 
 
 Reganum 
 
 ...221 
 
 Kabatinus Lacus 
 Sabatra 
 
 Sabatus (Samnit.) . ... 
 
 .. 265 
 .. 650 
 . 352 
 
 " Agrippinaa 148 
 Prjgtutii 305 
 
 Regia 
 Re^illum 
 
 ... 211 
 ... 307 
 
 Prasia? 555 
 
 Regillus Lacus 
 
 ... 266 
 
 " (Bruttius) 
 
 .. 381 
 
 
 Reginum 
 
 ... 241 
 
 Sabbatlia 
 
 .. 680 
 
 Prasus 601 
 
 Regni 
 Regnum 
 
 ... 181 
 ... 188 
 
 Sabelli 
 Sabini 
 
 .. 306 
 .. 305 
 263 
 
 Prepesinthus 597 
 
 
 Reii Apollinares 
 Remi 
 
 ... Ill 
 ... 143 
 
 
 Priene 624 
 
 Sabia 
 
 .. 91 
 
 Prills Lacus 264 
 
 
 208 
 
 Sabrata 
 
 719 
 
 Primis Ma<Tia 746 
 
 Rpsapha 
 
 ... 663 
 
 Sabrina ^Estuarium. 
 
 .. 176 
 
 " Parva 746 
 
 Rha 
 
 10, 606 
 ... 234 
 
 Sacer (Sard ) 
 
 405 
 
 
 Rhabon 
 
 " (Cors.) 
 
 .. 401 
 
 Procolitia 207 
 
 Rha^ae 
 
 . 694 
 
 Sacri Portus 
 
 307 
 
 
 Rhamnua 
 
 ... 555 
 
 Sacrum Prom. (Sard.) ... 402 
 " " (Hibern.) 210 
 (Lycium) 605, 615 
 " (Hispan.) 25 
 Seefes 14 
 Sasprus 405 
 
 Proni 513 
 
 Rhapta 
 
 748 
 
 Prophthasia 696 
 
 Rhaptum Promontorium. 748 
 Rhcdones 124 
 
 
 Protc 115 
 
 Rhegium 
 
 ... 382 
 .. 512 
 
 
 
 
 214 
 
 Sgetabis 
 
 31 
 
 Pselcis 746 
 
 " (Itnl.) 
 Rherigonius Sinus ... 
 Rhetico Mons 
 
 ... 260 
 ... 175 
 . . 218 
 
 Sagalassus . 
 
 .. 646 
 
 Psopliis (Arcad ) 594 
 
 
 258 
 
 " (Zacynth ) 513 
 
 Sagras 
 
 . 379 
 
 Psylli 719 
 
 
 697 
 
 
 350 
 
 
 Rhizon 
 
 ... 408 
 501 
 
 Saguntia 
 
 61 
 
 Ptolemais 667 
 
 Rhizus 
 
 
 64 
 
 " (Cyren ) 70 
 
 
 736 
 
 Saia 
 
 734 
 
 " Hermii 738 
 
 
 11 
 
 Sal a 
 
 712 
 
 " Thcron 747 
 
 Rhium Promontorium 
 " (Achaic.) 
 " (jEtolic.) 
 " (Corsic ) 
 
 483, 570 
 483, 517 
 . 402 
 
 Salacia 
 
 38 
 
 Ptoiis Mons . . . 538 
 
 Salamis (Grrec.) 
 
 .. 554 
 
 Pupluna 292 
 
 " (Cyp r -) - 
 
 659 
 
 Purpurarise Insulae 750 
 Puteolnnus Sinus 267 
 
 Puteoli 339 
 
 Salapia 
 
 358 
 
 " (Molycr ) 
 
 517 
 
 Salassi 
 
 275 
 
 
 210 
 
 Saldfe 
 
 712 
 
 Pydna 452 
 
 Rhobogdium 
 Rhoda 
 
 ... 210 
 
 67 
 
 Salduba (urbs) 
 
 64 
 
 Pylse Albaniae 608 706 
 
 " (fluvius) 
 
 31 
 
 AmanicfB 612 
 
 Rhodani Ostia 
 
 .. 92 
 
 Salernum 
 
 347 
 
 Caucasia 608,706 
 Cilicise 612 
 
 Rhodanus 
 
 91 
 
 
 .. 539 
 31 
 
 Rhodope Mons 
 Rhodus 
 
 12, 423 
 656 
 
 Salfa 
 
 Syria? 612 
 
 Salinse 
 
 111 
 
 Py os (Elidis) 573 
 
 " (urbs) 
 
 .... 657 
 
 Sallentini . 
 
 364 
 
 (Messen ) 578 
 
 Rhceteum 
 
 628 
 
 Sallentinum Prom 
 Salmantica 
 
 .. 257 
 40 
 
 (Triphyl ) 575 
 
 " Promontorium. 605 
 Rhoetius Mons 401 
 
 
 
 575 
 
 Pyrasus 498 
 
 Pyrcnnc Promontorium 25, 88 
 Pyrcnsei Monies ... 12, 22, 85 
 Pyrenseum Prom 25, 88 
 
 Py r rri 294 
 
 Rhosus 
 
 ... 662 
 
 Salmonium Prom 
 
 599 
 
 
 401 
 
 Salo 
 
 31 
 
 Rhubon 
 
 ... 236 
 
 Salodurum 
 
 156 
 
 Rhyndacus 
 
 626, 632 
 ... 570 
 
 Salona 
 
 408 
 
 RhypaB 
 
 Salopia 
 
 199 
 
 Py r cro3 576 
 
 Riduna 
 
 158 
 
 Saltus Teutobergiensis. 
 Salyes 
 
 Samaria . . 
 
 .. 219 
 . 102 
 .. 673 
 
 Pyrrha . ... 654 
 
 Rigodunum 
 Ritupae 
 
 ...202 
 .. 187 
 
 
766 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 
 
 P 674 1 ^"H- 
 
 Page 
 213 
 382 
 
 484 
 268 
 706 
 674 
 674 
 747 
 705 
 734 
 729 
 397 
 ), 64 
 155 
 228 
 61 
 179 
 198 
 128 
 274 
 686 
 690 
 (i61 
 662 
 611 
 662 
 112 
 183 
 610 
 610 
 395 
 585 
 
 Sidicini 
 
 Page 
 344 
 
 
 .. 513 
 
 Scylla 
 
 Sidodone . . 
 
 69 
 
 damia 
 
 .... 575 
 139 
 
 Scyllacium 
 
 Sidon 
 Siga 
 
 667 
 
 710 
 
 
 349 
 
 Scythia 
 
 SigcEum Promontorium . . 605 
 " (urbs) 629 
 Sigambria 228 
 Si^nia 3*v> 
 
 " (urbs) 
 
 ... 350 
 
 Scythopolis 
 
 
 669 
 
 Sebaste 
 
 
 654 
 
 
 655 
 
 
 
 222 
 
 S to" 
 
 662 
 
 
 Silandus 
 
 Silarus 
 
 620 
 371 
 
 , am , 
 
 434 
 
 Sebennyticum Ostium . . . 
 
 
 92 
 
 Sila Silva 
 
 ^8:! 
 
 
 403 
 
 
 
 180 
 
 
 637 
 
 
 Silvium 
 
 36] 
 
 
 461 Segodunum 123, 
 
 
 309 
 
 
 607 1 Segontia - -. 
 
 Sirrbruiiia Sta.^na . . 
 
 .. . 3(M 
 
 
 69 Rpwnnrinpi 
 
 
 180 
 
 
 111 
 
 Segontium 
 
 
 . 607,629 
 703 
 
 
 118 
 
 
 Sins 
 
 
 1Q1 
 
 Segusio 
 
 Sinai Mons 
 
 ... 679 
 
 " rromontorium 87 
 ^aoce 435 
 
 Seleucia (Babyloniae) 
 " (Susianse) 
 " (ad Belum) 
 " (Syriae) 
 " (Trachea) 
 
 Sinda 
 
 704 
 
 
 456 
 
 
 . 426 
 
 Singara 
 
 681 
 
 Haphar 
 
 679 
 
 Singidunum 
 Singilis 
 
 245 
 49 
 
 
 283 
 
 
 405 
 
 Feleucis 
 
 Singiticus Sinus 
 Sinnus 
 
 ..... 446 
 
 283 
 
 
 705 
 
 Seleucus Mons 
 
 Hardene 
 
 Sardes 
 
 619 
 621 
 
 Selgovae 
 
 Sclinus (fluv. Cilic.) 
 
 Sinonia 
 
 Sinope 
 
 334 
 63(5 
 
 Sardica 
 
 045 
 
 " (urbs Cilic.) 
 " (urbs Sicil.) 
 
 Sinuessa 
 
 333 
 
 
 402 
 
 Siphes 
 
 532 
 
 
 101 
 
 Sellasia 
 
 
 597 
 
 
 667 
 
 Selybria 
 
 435 
 X>q 
 
 
 . 358 
 
 .^ariphi Montes 
 
 .... 695 
 703 
 
 Sipus 
 
 358 
 
 Sena Gallica 
 
 300 
 OQO 
 
 
 620 
 
 
 36 
 
 Sirbonis Palus 
 
 731 
 
 
 035 
 
 Senones 
 
 127 
 134 
 83 
 234 
 301 
 351 
 675 
 9 
 82 
 90 
 151 
 748 
 237 
 120 
 597 
 708 
 707 
 430 
 701 
 636 
 410 
 410 
 259 
 433 
 11 
 
 
 347 
 
 Sarruia 
 
 157 
 
 " (urbs) 
 
 Sirenusarum Prom. 
 Siris 
 
 ..... 255 
 368, 369 
 
 
 234 
 
 Senonia 
 
 Saronicus Sinus 
 
 488 
 
 Senonutn Montes 
 
 Sirmio 
 
 263 
 
 ^arpedonium Prom. . 
 ^arra 
 
 .... 423 
 667 
 
 Sentinum 
 
 
 244 
 
 Sepinum 
 
 
 4. r ) 
 
 
 63 
 
 Sepphoris 
 
 Septentrionalis Oceanus . 
 Septimania 
 
 Seauana . . . 
 
 
 48 
 
 Sarsina 
 
 300 
 
 Sisapo Vetus 
 
 . . . 48 
 
 
 610 
 
 
 244 
 
 Saso 
 
 412 
 
 Sithonia 
 
 4PO 
 712 
 194 
 
 Satala 
 
 683 Sequani 
 
 350 Sfiranis 
 
 Sitifi 
 
 Satrse 
 
 . 426 
 
 Serimum 
 Serio 
 Seriphus 
 Sera 
 
 Sitones 
 Sittace 
 
 232 
 689 
 688 
 
 .^atrapene 
 
 .... 688 
 
 
 328 
 
 
 3fi7 
 
 Smnragdus Mons 
 
 730 
 
 Saturni Promontorium. . . 25 
 
 Serica 
 
 Smila 
 
 458 
 
 Serrheum 
 
 Serus 
 
 Smyrna 
 
 623 
 
 
 605 
 
 
 604 
 
 Ramnium. 
 
 31 
 
 Sesamus 
 
 Sesarethi 
 
 Soatra 
 
 650 
 
 699 
 
 Savus 219 
 
 44 4 ; 5 
 
 
 47 
 
 Sesarethus 
 
 Soli (Cypr.) . ... 
 
 . .. 659 
 
 
 oog 
 
 
 " (Cil c ) 
 
 61) 
 
 Scalabis 
 
 . 39 
 
 Sestos 
 
 Sollium , 
 
 510 
 24 
 
 ^caldis 
 
 91 
 
 
 607, 629 
 
 584 
 
 Seteia jEstuarium 
 
 175 
 175 
 
 Solunfum 
 
 . . 397 
 
 
 
 Sonus 
 
 703 
 
 
 32 
 
 Setia 
 
 m 
 
 Sora 
 
 331 
 
 S^apte Ilylo 
 
 428 
 
 Setinum 
 
 88 
 333 
 706 
 11 
 
 Sorbiodunum 
 
 . . . ,* 189 
 
 
 405 
 
 Setinus Sinus 
 
 Sossius 
 Sosthcnis 
 
 390 
 501 
 
 
 408, 411 
 407, 444 
 520 
 
 Seumara. 
 
 Sevo Mons 
 
 
 
 646 
 
 
 Shiloh 
 
 Siatutanda 
 
 671 
 oo-> 
 
 Sparta 
 
 ..T./584 
 
 Scepsis 
 
 6 ?>8 
 
 Spartarius Campus . 
 Spauta Lacus 
 Spcos Artemido:3 . . . 
 
 ... 34 
 693 
 
 738 
 
 Scheria 
 
 .... 416 
 
 Sibusates 
 
 119 
 
 384 
 714 
 
 674 
 
 
 564 
 
 Scillus 
 
 575 
 
 Sicca Veneria ... 
 
 Spercbiffj 
 
 506 
 
 S clone 
 
 459 
 
 
 Sperchius 
 
 .. 481 
 
 Scirtus 
 
 681 
 
 Sicilia 
 
 384 
 599 
 50 
 249 
 488 
 568 
 568 
 613 
 
 
 ..284 
 
 Scodra 
 
 407 
 
 Sicinos 
 
 Sicoria 
 
 Spin* 
 
 Spincticum Ostium . 
 Spiramm Prom 
 
 .... 192 
 258 
 
 484 
 
 Scombraria (insula) . 
 Scomius Mons 
 Scordisci 
 
 . . . . 63 
 . 12,444 
 408 
 
 Siculi 
 
 
 
 57R 
 
 Scoti 
 
 209 
 
 
 
 .. 301 
 
 Scotussa 
 
 .... 496 
 .. 260 
 
 Sicyonia 
 
 Side... 
 
 Sporades Mnsulee) . . 
 Stabite 
 
 598 
 343 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 767 
 
 Staira 
 
 Page 
 462 
 424 
 579 
 227 
 697 
 464 
 109 
 618 
 511 
 400 
 484 
 424 
 446 
 175 
 259 
 173 
 364 
 448 
 593 
 561 
 593 
 309 
 712 
 747 
 7 
 
 Page 
 Taizelum Promontorium. 172 
 Talabriga 40 
 Talcinum 402 
 Tamala 703 
 
 Tedanius 
 
 Page 
 
 - 407 
 
 Htentoris Palus 
 
 Tegea 
 
 595 
 
 Stenyclerus 
 
 
 285, 287 
 513 
 
 Teleboee (insulae) 
 
 
 
 191 
 
 
 351 
 
 Stobi 
 
 Tamari Ostia 
 
 .. . 176 
 
 Telethrius 
 
 558 
 
 
 
 176 
 
 
 614 
 
 
 Tamasus 
 
 659 
 
 Telo Martius 
 
 109 
 
 
 
 172 
 
 Telos 
 
 599 
 
 
 Tamiathis 
 
 736 
 
 Temesa 
 
 381 
 
 
 Tamil a 
 
 679 
 
 
 631 
 
 
 Tamnum 
 
 121 
 
 " Mons 
 
 625 
 
 Strymonicua Sinus . . .425, 
 
 
 561 
 
 Tempe 
 
 495 
 
 Tanagra 
 
 ... 539 
 
 Tempsa 
 
 .. 381 
 
 dtura 
 
 Tanais (fluvius) 
 " (urbs) 
 
 236, 606 
 237, 704 
 259 
 
 Tcncteri 
 
 228 
 
 
 Tenea 
 
 .... 566 
 653 
 
 
 Tanarus 
 
 
 Tanatis 
 
 . ..211 
 
 Tenesis 
 
 .. 747 
 
 .Stymphalus 
 
 Tancheira 
 
 721 
 
 Tenos 
 
 598 
 
 
 Tanetos . 
 
 .. 211 
 
 Tentyra 
 
 . 739 
 
 Styx 
 
 
 282 
 
 Teos 
 
 623 
 
 
 Tanis 
 
 . . 735 
 
 Teredon 
 
 687 
 
 
 
 731 
 
 Ter^e^to 
 
 287 
 
 .Suche 
 
 Taniticum Ostium 
 
 729 
 
 Tergestinus Sinus 
 
 . 269 
 
 Sucro (fluvius) 
 
 Tanus 
 
 479 
 
 Terias 
 
 389 
 
 " (urbs) 
 
 63 
 
 27 
 218 
 47 
 344 
 139 
 102 
 229 
 8 
 716 
 232 
 405 
 405 
 193 
 311 
 58 
 485 
 555 
 311 
 269 
 255 
 343 
 452 
 690 
 689 
 605 
 389 
 416 
 439 
 666 
 741 
 389 
 419 
 642 
 
 Taphise (insula?) 
 Taphiassus 
 
 .... 513 
 471 
 
 Terina 
 
 . 381 
 
 Sucronensis Sinus 
 
 Terinssus Sinus 
 
 268 
 
 Sud^ti Monies 
 
 Taphiussa 
 
 513 
 
 Termes 
 
 . . 61 
 
 Sucl 
 
 Taphos 
 
 .... 513 
 
 Termolus 
 
 .... 191 
 
 Suessa Auruncorum 
 Suossiones . 
 
 Taphrsa 
 
 239 
 
 Termessus 
 
 646 
 
 Taphros 
 
 238, 239 
 . 722 
 
 Termus 
 
 .... 405 
 
 rfuelteri 
 
 Taposiris 
 
 Testrina 
 
 308 
 
 Suevi 216, 
 Suevicum Mare 
 Sufetula 
 
 Taprobana 
 
 703 
 
 Teuderium 
 
 .... 225 
 
 Tarabenorum Vicus . 
 Taras 
 
 .... 402 
 .... 367 
 
 Teuton es 
 
 227 
 
 Teutria 
 
 .... 356 
 
 Suiones . 
 
 Tarasco 
 
 105 
 
 Texali 
 
 185 
 
 Sulcense 
 
 Tarbelli 
 
 117 
 
 Thabraca 
 
 .... 714 
 
 Sulci 
 
 Sulloniaca3 
 
 Tarentinus Sinus 
 
 268 
 
 Thalamse 
 
 . 583 
 
 Tarentum 
 
 Targines 
 
 ....365 
 378 
 
 Thamydeni 
 
 .... 679 
 
 .Sulmo 
 
 Thapsacus 
 
 663 
 
 .Summum Pyrensum 
 .Sunium Promontorium . . 
 " (urbs) 
 
 Tarichsja 
 
 675 
 
 Thapsus 
 
 .... 715 
 
 Tarnaja 
 
 114 
 
 " (Sicil ) 
 
 392 
 
 Tarnis 
 
 . . . . 89 
 
 Thasos 
 
 .... 434 
 
 .Super Equum 
 
 Tarquiniensis Lacus . 
 Tarquinii 
 
 .... 265 
 293 
 
 " (urbs) 
 
 434 
 
 Superum Mare 
 
 Thaumaci 
 
 .... 500 
 502 
 
 Surrentum Prom. 
 
 Tarracina 
 
 330 
 
 (urbs)... 
 
 Tarraco 
 
 65 
 
 Thebae . 
 
 . .. 535 
 
 Sus... 
 
 Tarraconensis 
 
 21 50 
 
 " (^"ypt ) 
 
 739 
 
 Susa 
 
 Tarshisli 
 
 44 
 
 " (Phthiot ) 
 
 498 
 
 Susiana 
 
 Tarsus 
 
 Tartarus 
 
 .... 611 
 
 258 
 
 Thebais 
 
 725 
 
 .SyaTos 
 
 Thebe 
 
 630 
 
 .Sybaris 
 
 Tartessii . 
 
 15 
 
 Themiscyra 
 
 639 
 
 Sybota 
 
 Tartessis 
 
 41 
 
 Theme 
 
 715 
 
 Sycse 
 
 Tartessius Sinus 
 
 45 
 
 TheodoMa 
 
 239 
 
 Sycaminon 
 
 Tartessus 
 
 13 43 
 
 Theopolis * 
 
 662 
 
 Sycne .... 
 
 Taruenna 
 
 140 
 
 Thera 
 
 599 
 
 
 Tarus 
 
 260, 276 
 172 
 
 
 585 
 
 Symplegades 
 
 Tarvidium 
 
 Thermae Himerenses 
 
 .... 397 
 446 
 
 Synnada 
 
 Tattn 
 
 641 
 
 Synoria. 
 
 682 
 393 
 659 
 697 
 598 
 718 
 718 
 718 
 718 
 568 
 
 148 
 719 
 746 
 703 
 703 
 31 
 583 
 483 
 697 
 714 
 28 
 
 " Palus 
 
 650 
 
 Therm od on 
 
 637, 639 
 517 
 
 Syracusse 
 
 Taum /Estuarium . . . 
 Taurasia 
 
 .... 174 
 274 
 
 Thcrmus 
 
 Syria 
 
 Thermopylae 
 
 505 
 
 Syrinx 
 Syj-os 
 Syrtes 
 
 Taurasini Campi 
 Taura.ium 
 
 .... 353 
 353 
 
 Thespia 1 " 
 
 533 
 
 Thesprotia 
 
 415 
 
 Tauresium 
 
 .... 246 
 273 
 
 Thessalia . 
 
 490 
 
 .Syrtica Rf> fir io 
 
 Taurini 
 
 Thessalonica 
 
 456 
 
 .Syrtis Major 
 
 Taurid 
 
 412 
 
 This 
 
 739 
 
 " Minor 
 
 Tauroentum 
 
 109 
 
 Thi,b8 
 
 532 
 
 Sythas 
 
 Tauromenium 
 
 392 
 
 Thius . 
 
 477 
 
 T. 
 Tablse 
 
 Taurominius 
 
 .... 389 
 
 Thmuis 
 
 734 
 
 Taurunum 
 
 244 
 
 Thoricus 
 
 555 
 
 Taurus Mons 
 
 218, 607 
 174 
 
 Thospitis Palus 
 
 683 
 
 
 Tava 
 
 Thracia 
 
 421 
 
 Tachompso 
 
 Tavium 
 
 646 
 
 
 544 
 
 Tacola 
 
 Tavola 
 Taxila 
 
 ....401 
 702 
 
 
 520 
 
 Tacosanna 
 
 Thule 
 
 212 
 
 Tader 
 
 Teanum (Apulum) . . 
 " (Campan.) . . 
 Tearus 
 
 .... 356 
 .... 344 
 .... 424 
 
 Thuria 
 
 579 
 
 Taenarum .... 
 
 Thurii 
 
 370 
 
 " Promontorium . 
 Tagao 
 
 Thyamis 
 
 .... 414 
 
 Teate (Apulum) 
 
 356 
 
 Thyatira 
 
 60 
 
 Tagaste 
 
 " (Marruc.) 
 
 312 
 
 Thynias 
 
 fi.14 
 
 Tasus .. 
 
 Tectosaees... 
 
 .. 645 
 
 " Promontorium .. 423 
 
768 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 
 Page 
 587 
 587 
 483 
 405 
 669 
 675 
 260 
 246 
 234 
 234 
 406 
 326 
 401 
 277 
 259 
 351 
 301 
 351 
 684 
 152 
 606 
 426 
 536 
 
 ] 
 Tricornium . . 
 
 age 
 245 
 11? 
 
 Umbria 
 
 Page 
 
 
 Tricus 
 
 Umbro 
 
 292 
 
 Thyrldes Promontorium . 
 
 Tridcntini 
 
 240 
 240 
 25 
 208 
 384 
 351 
 
 180 
 
 742 
 89 
 399 
 605 
 575 
 542 
 718 
 668 
 199 
 571 
 61 
 715 
 173 
 627 
 646 
 589 
 605 
 629 
 272 
 246 
 296 
 174 
 227 
 302 
 174 
 176 
 152 
 
 Unelli 
 
 ...125 
 
 Tiberiadis Mare 
 Tiberias 
 
 Trilcucurn Promontorium 
 
 Uranopolis 
 
 461 
 
 
 
 
 
 Urbinum (Ilortense) . . 
 " (Metaurense) 
 
 ...300 
 .. 300 
 
 687 
 
 Tibisca 
 
 Trinius 
 
 Trin oantes ? , 7a 
 
 Tibiscum 
 
 Tibiscus 
 Tibula 
 
 Trinobantes 5 
 Trinythis 
 
 
 402 
 
 
 356 
 
 Tibur 
 
 Triobris 
 
 
 50 
 
 Ticarius . 
 
 Triocala 
 
 
 207 
 
 Ticinum 
 
 Triopium Promontorium . 
 Triphylia 
 
 Uria (Apul ) 
 
 356 
 
 Ticinus 
 
 " (Brutt ) 
 
 380 
 
 Tifernuin 
 
 
 
 364 
 
 " Tiberinum 
 Tifernus 
 
 Tripolis 
 
 Urias Sinus . 
 
 . 268 
 
 " (Phrenic ) 
 
 
 195 
 
 Tifranoccrta 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 Tigurinus Pagus 
 Tigris 
 
 Triteea 
 
 Ur=o 
 
 32 40 
 
 Urus 
 
 173 
 
 Tilatsei 
 
 Tritonis Palus 
 
 
 411 
 
 Tilphusius 
 
 
 Usd se 
 
 210 
 
 Tilphussa 
 
 536 
 245 
 390 
 263 
 671 
 173 
 712 
 
 260 
 589 
 532 
 
 Troas 
 
 
 927 
 
 Timachus 
 
 Trocmi 
 
 Usipii 
 
 227 
 
 Timsethus 
 
 
 Uspe 
 
 ... 704 
 104 
 
 Timavus 
 
 Tro ilium 
 
 Timnath Serah 
 
 Troja 
 
 Utica 
 
 v 716 
 
 Tina 
 
 Tropsea August! 
 
 Uxama 
 
 ... 61 
 l r )i 
 
 Tingis 
 
 Tingitana 
 
 
 
 121 
 
 Tinfa 
 
 
 
 208 
 
 Tiparenu." 
 
 Tubantes 
 
 
 56 
 
 Tiphae 
 
 Tuder 
 
 V. 
 Vacca 
 
 714 
 
 Tiryns... 
 
 588 
 398 
 481 
 528 
 407 
 615 
 414 
 619 
 198 
 58 
 645 
 104 
 414 
 246 
 446 
 461 
 416 
 139 
 504 
 676 
 46 
 374 
 408 
 293 
 148 
 441 
 621 
 
 Tueda 
 
 Tissa . . . 
 
 Tuerobis 
 
 Titarcsius 
 
 
 Vaccasi 
 
 . 32, 52 
 
 Tithorea 
 
 Tueia 
 
 49 
 31 
 225 
 145 
 716 
 143 
 238 
 120 
 ,42 
 41 
 , 42 
 31 
 60 
 156 
 141 
 715 
 405 
 674 
 126 
 236 
 713 
 324 
 746 
 649 
 55 
 506 
 398 
 575 
 236 
 647 
 269 
 
 147 
 714 
 113 
 31 
 
 
 184 
 
 Titius 
 
 Tulcis 
 
 Vacua 
 
 ... 31 
 
 Tlos 
 
 
 Vada 
 
 . 148 
 
 Tmarus Mons 
 
 Tullum Lcucorum 
 
 " Sabatorum 
 
 ... 272 
 
 Tmolug 
 
 " Volatcrrana 
 Vadimonis Lacus 
 Vadum Arundinis 
 
 ... 291 
 
 ... 265 
 ... 189 
 
 Toisobius . . ... 175 
 
 Tungri 
 
 Toletnm 
 
 
 Tolitoboii 
 
 
 Va<*a 
 
 714 
 
 Tolosa 
 
 Turdctani . 32, 3G 
 
 Vahalis 
 Valentia 
 
 91, 220 
 ... 169 
 
 Tomarus Mons 
 
 Turdetania 
 
 Tomi 
 
 Turduli 3 36 41 
 
 " (Gallic.) 
 
 .. 112 
 
 Toronaicus Sinus 
 
 Turia 
 
 " (Ilispan.). . . . 
 
 ... 63 
 
 Torone 
 
 " (Tli^sprot ) 
 
 
 Valeria 
 
 ... 243 
 
 
 Vallum Agricola^ 
 
 ... 205 
 
 
 
 " Antonini 
 
 . 206 
 
 Trachis 
 
 
 " Hadriani 
 
 ... 205 
 
 Trachonitis 
 
 Traducta 
 
 
 " Seven 
 
 206 
 
 
 Vandalii Montes 
 
 ... 12 
 
 Traens 
 
 
 Vandogara 
 Vangiones 
 
 ... 208 
 
 ... 148 
 
 
 
 Trajani Portus 
 
 Tusca 
 
 Vara ^stuarium 
 
 ... 174 
 
 Trajectum 
 
 
 Varadetum 
 
 ... 120 
 
 Trai anopolis 
 
 Tutzis 
 
 
 ... 122 
 
 Tralles 
 
 Tyana 
 
 Var re 
 
 ... 398 
 
 
 639 
 264 
 426 
 309 
 259 
 356 
 426 
 329 
 711 
 351 
 138 
 144 
 65 
 426 
 148 
 127 
 494 
 148 
 482 
 517 
 102 
 
 Tyde 
 
 Vardanus 
 
 ... 606 
 
 
 
 Vardo 
 
 ... 93 
 
 Trausi 
 
 
 Varduli 
 
 
 Treba 
 
 
 Varia (Hispan.) 
 
 . 61 
 
 Trebia 
 
 
 " (Ital.)... 
 
 ... 308 
 
 Tremitus 
 
 
 Varus 
 
 ... 93 
 
 Treres 
 
 
 Varusates . . 
 
 ... 118 
 
 Tres Tabernse 
 
 u. 
 
 Ubii 
 
 Vasatai 
 
 ...120 
 
 Tretum Promontorium . . 
 
 Vasates 
 
 117, 118 
 ... 52 
 ... 112 
 
 Vasconcs 
 Vasio 
 
 Treviri 
 
 TTbus 
 
 
 license Castrum 
 
 Vectis (insula) 
 Vedra 
 
 ... 211 
 . 173 
 
 Tria Pnp ta 
 
 Udubi 
 
 Trihnlli 
 
 Ufens 
 
 335 
 105 
 49 
 156 
 245 
 141 
 328 
 249 
 
 Veii 
 
 ...297 
 
 Tribocci 
 
 
 Veleia 
 
 ... 281 
 
 Tricacses 
 
 TJlia 
 
 Velia 
 
 ... 372 
 
 Tricca 
 
 
 Velibori 
 
 ... 210 
 
 Tricesimsp 
 
 
 Velinus 
 
 ... 261 
 
 Trichonis Lacus 
 
 Ulterior Portus 
 Ulubrae 
 
 
 261 
 
 Velitrre 
 
 ... 328 
 
 Tricorii . . . 
 
 Umbri . . . 
 
 Vellauni 
 
 ... 119 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 769 
 
 
 Page 
 
 135 
 
 Via Lavicana 
 
 Page | 
 335 I Vol c iniensis Lacus 
 
 Page 
 864 
 
 Vellavi 
 
 . 119 
 
 
 334 ! Vnlsinii - 
 
 296 
 
 Vellica . . 
 
 5G 
 
 " PrjBuestina 
 Viadrus . . 
 
 335 
 . ... 221 
 
 Voluce - 
 
 ... 61 
 
 
 242 
 
 Voluntii 
 
 210 
 
 
 345 
 
 Vianiomina 
 
 244 
 
 Volustana. _ 
 
 ... 445 
 
 
 . . 648 
 
 Vibo Valentin . . 
 
 . .. sgi 
 
 Vonianus 
 
 305 
 
 
 408 
 
 
 287 
 
 
 202 
 
 Venetian or Venedi. . 
 
 235 
 
 . 236 
 
 Victoria 
 
 OQ8 
 
 Vorganiurn 
 
 ... 128 
 
 Vicus Tarabenorum 
 Vidrus 
 
 402 
 220 
 
 Vosegus Mona 
 Vulcanite 
 
 . 85,86 
 .. 400 
 
 
 . 125 
 
 Veneti or Venetea . . 
 Venetia 
 
 124 
 285 
 
 Vidua 
 
 210 
 1-25 
 
 Vulceium 
 Vulientes 
 
 ... 374 
 
 . .. 102 
 
 Veniatia -~- 
 Venicnii 
 
 55 
 210 
 
 
 101, 113 
 82 
 
 
 337 
 
 
 Vulturuus 
 
 ... 262 
 
 Veniciiium Prom. . . 
 Veiiicontes 
 
 210 
 184 
 
 
 90 
 
 W. 
 
 
 Viminiacuni . . 
 
 "45 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 1Q1 
 
 Venonas 
 
 199 
 
 " Promontorium . . 171 
 Vindelici 941 
 
 
 189 
 
 Venta Bel^aruni 
 
 188 
 
 X. 
 
 Xanthus 
 
 . 61") 
 
 " Icenorum . . . . 
 
 194 
 
 Vindelicia 
 
 241 
 
 " Silurum 
 
 196 
 
 
 210 
 
 Venusia 
 
 359 
 
 
 . ... 157 
 
 " (fluvius Lye.) 
 " (Troj.) 
 
 ... 607 
 ...629 
 
 Ver 
 
 195 
 
 Vindiu-3 
 
 24 
 
 
 102 
 
 
 241 
 
 605 
 
 Verhanus Lacus 
 Verbigeiius Pagus . . 
 Verbinum 
 Vercelh 
 
 264 
 152 
 
 142 
 277 
 
 Vindobala 
 
 207 
 
 Z. 
 
 Zabatus 
 
 687 
 
 Vindobona 
 
 244 
 
 Vindocladia 
 
 190 
 207 
 
 Zacynthus 
 
 ... 513 
 
 Vereasueca 
 Verginicua Oceanus 
 
 56 
 170 
 111 
 
 
 105 
 
 " (urbs) 
 Zadracarta 
 
 ... 533 
 ... 697 
 
 
 200 
 
 
 191 
 
 
 693 
 
 
 19 
 
 
 155 
 
 Zaitha 
 
 ... 682 
 
 
 139 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 ... 714 
 
 Verometum 
 
 200 
 
 
 200 
 
 Zancle 
 
 ... 391 
 
 Verona 
 
 . .. 281 
 
 
 402 
 
 Zao Promontorium. . . 
 Zariaspa 
 
 ... 88 
 ... 699 
 
 Verterse 
 
 20 
 
 Virodunum 
 Virovesca 
 Virvedrum Prom. . . 
 Vistula 
 
 145 
 57 
 
 172 
 221 
 
 Verulamiuin 
 
 195 
 
 Zariaspis 
 
 . 698 
 
 Zela 
 
 640 
 
 
 308 
 
 Zelea . 
 
 . 626 
 
 Vespasiana 
 
 169 
 
 
 221 
 
 Zephyrium Prom 
 Zorna 
 
 255, 380 
 ...234 
 
 Vestini 
 
 311 
 
 
 10 
 
 Vesunna 
 
 11 
 
 Vodise 
 
 210 Zeu^itana 
 
 ... 715 
 
 Vesuvius Mons 
 Vettones 
 
 311 
 9 G 
 
 Vogcsus Mona 
 
 . . . 11, 86 
 258 
 
 Zeusnaa 
 
 ... 662 
 
 Zilis 
 
 712 
 
 Vetulonii 
 
 291 
 
 
 291 
 
 Zingis Promontorium 
 Zioberis 
 
 Znar . 
 
 ... 748 
 ... 697 
 
 ... 673 
 
 Vexalla ^Estuarium. 
 Via Appia 
 
 176 
 334 
 
 Volca3 
 
 Volci 
 
 101 
 
 96 
 
 11 Ardeatina 
 
 334 
 
 Vologesia 
 VolfHs Sinus 
 
 686 Zoelas 
 
 175 Zone 
 
 ... 5*5 
 ... 430 
 
 " Latina 
 
 335 
 
 " Laurentina. . . . 
 
 334 
 
 Volsni . . 
 
 . . 328 
 
 Zoster Proiuontoriuin 
 
 ... 485 
 
 
 C C C 
 
 
 THE END. 
 

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