LIBRARY OF THK UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. GIFT OF Class UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Gift of j^ No. ^ Received / A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA ITS PEOPLE. AND ITS INSTITUTIONS BY CHARLES MORRIS AUTHOR OF "AN ELEMENTARY HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES," " HISTORICAL TALES. " HALF-HOURS WITH AMERICAN HISTORY," ETC., ETC. WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS J. B. LIPPJNCOTT COMPANY COPYRIGHT, 1897, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY. PREFACE. IN the intellectual development of the youth of America there can be no more healthful and important discipline than a study of the history of their own country in its events, institutions, and social and industrial movements.. As an aid to the acquirement of such knowledge this work has been prepared. It is necessarily condensed in state ment, yet even in a volume of this extent it is quite possi ble to indicate the leading events of United States history, show their relations and historical significance, and give a fair general comprehension of the circumstances attending the civilized occupation of America. In the preparation of this work several essential consid erations have been kept steadily in view. These include clearness and accuracy of statement, simplicity of language, and avoidance of partisan or sectional opinions, impartiality being made a leading requisite. This country has been the scene not only of rapid progress in times of peace, but of several wars of great political significance. While it was not deemed expedient to dwell on the details of these wars, their causes, general movements, and results have been given in each instance in such fulness as its importance seemed to demand. The public conception of what constitutes history has greatly broadened within the present century. Formerly the doings of courts and kings and the details of battles and sieges were the leading considerations. Now the doings of the people are deemed equally, if not more, important, and 00-1^00 Ui &t*t JL f r*r<* iv PREFACE. the social, economical, ethical, and other elements of human life and progress attract the careful attention of the histo rian. In the present work these leading elements of his torical development have been somewhat fully dwelt upon, the more important of them being specially treated in sep arate chapters. For example, the subject of the develop ment of political institutions has been thus epitomized, in order that the student, instead of being obliged to seek throughout the book for references to this subject, may read its history consecutively. Other elements of our national life have been similarly treated. After Section 1 there will be found an analytical table of the subjects embraced in that section. This is given simply as an example to guide pupils in preparing similar analyses of the succeeding sections, an exercise which will have its value in impressing upon their minds the succession and relations of historical events. No series of consecutive questions has been given, since it is well known that ad vanced modern teachers prefer to make their own ques tions from the text. As a useful aid in this, the subject- matter of every distinctive paragraph has been indicated by a word or phrase which will serve as a ready basis for ques tions on the topics embraced, and also as an aid in im pressing the subject treated on the pupil s mind. The writer has therefore confined himself to a chronological table of important events and a series of questions useful for review. As additional aids to the student, maps and illustrations have been somewhat abundantly provided, while much anecdotal, biographical, and other information has been appended in the form of notes. With these remarks this work is offered to the world of schools, where the best test of merit, that of actual use, can be applied. CONTENTS. PART I. DISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. PAGE 1. THE ERA OF DISCOVERY 11 2. THE INDIANS, THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND CUSTOMS .... 28 PART II. THE ERA OF EXPLORATION. 1. THE SPANISH EXPLORERS 41 2. THE FRENCH EXPLORERS 45 3. THE ENGLISH EXPLORERS 53 4. THE DUTCH EXPLORERS 58 PART IH. THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. L THE COLONY IN VIRGINIA 61 2. THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 77 PLYMOUTH 77 MASSACHUSETTS BAY 83 MAINE AND NEW HAMPSHIRE 90 RHODE ISLAND 92 CONNECTICUT 94 THE CONFEDERATED COLONIES 98 3. NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY 102 NEW NETHERLAND 102 NEW YORK 106 NEW JERSEY 108 V vi CONTENTS. PAGE 4. PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE 110 5. MARYLAND 116 6. NORTH AND SOUTH CAROLINA 121 7. GEORGIA 126 8. LOUISIANA ....... 129 9. CUSTOMS AND CONDITIONS OF THE COLONIES 131 NEW ENGLAND 131 THE MIDDLE COLONIES 138 THE SOUTHERN COLONIES . . 141 PART IV. THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS. 1. KING WILLIAM S WAR .145 2. QUEEN ANNE S WAR 148 3. KING GEORGE S WAR 149 4. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR , .... 152 PART V. FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 1. A NEW KING AND A NEW POLICY 172 2. THE COLONIES IN KEBELLION 188 3. THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 203 4. THE WAR IN THE SOUTH 223 5 THE BIRTH OF A NATION 233 6 THE CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY 24! PART VI. THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. 1. WASHINGTON S ADMINISTRATION 247 2. JOHN ADAMS S ADMINISTRATION . 256 8. JEFFERSON S ADMINISTRATION 261 4. MADISON S ADMINISTRATION 270 6. THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN ,. 274 v CONTENTS. vii PART VII. THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. PAGE 1. MONROE S ADMINISTRATION 286 2. JOHN QUINCY ADAMS S ADMINISTRATION 295 3. JACKSON S ADMINISTRATION 299 4. VAN BUREN S ADMINISTRATION 307 5. THE HARRISON AND TYLER ADMINISTRATIONS . . 311 PART VIII. THE SLAVERY CONTEST. 1. FOLK S ADMINISTRATION 320 2. THE TAYLOR AND FILLMORE ADMINISTRATIONS 330 3. PIERCE S ADMINISTRATION 334 4. BUCHANAN S ADMINISTRATION 340 PART IX. THE CIVIL WAR. 1. LINCOLN S ADMINISTRATION 348 2. THE NORTH AND THE SOUTH 352 3. THE OPENING or THE WAR 355 4. THE WAR IN KENTUCKY AND TENNESSEE 363 5. THE EAST IN 1862 371 6. THE CAMPAIGNS OP 1863 380 7. THE FINAL CAMPAIGNS OP THE WAR 390 8. THE COUNTRY DURING THE WAR . 407 PART X. DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION. 1. JOHNSON S ADMINISTRATION . 412 2. GRANT S ADMINISTRATION 418 3. HAYES S ADMINISTRATION , 428 viii CONTENTS. PAGE 4. THE GARFIELD AND ARTHUR ADMINISTRATIONS 432 5. CLEVELAND S ADMINISTRATION 435 6. BENJAMIN HARRISON S ADMINISTRATION. . 433 7. CLEVELAND S SECOND ADMINISTRATION . . . 445 8. McKiNLEY s ADMINISTRATION 450 9. KOOSEVELT S ADMINISTRATION . . 465 PART XI. STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. 1. GOVERNMENTAL CONDITIONS IN THE COLONIES 469 2. LATER DEVELOPMENT OF GOVERNMENT 476 3. POLITICAL PARTIES 482 4. THE STORY OP SLAVERY 486 5. PROGRESS OF FINANCE 493 6. POPULATION AND IMMIGRATION , ... 501 7. TRANSPORTATION AND POSTAL FACILITIES 507 8. INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS AND DEVELOPMENT 515 9. LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND ART 525 10. EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS 530 11. THE NATION OF TO-DAY 535 12. THE MAYFLOWER COMPACT 542 13. THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 543 14. THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 548 15. TABLE OF STATES AND TERRITORIES 565 16. TABLE OF THE PRESIDENTS 566 17. SUMMARY OF CHRONOLOGY 567 18. LIST OF BOOKS FOR KEFERENCE 573 19. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 575 20. INDEX .... ..... .585 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE The ships of the Northmen 13 Christopher Columbus 18 The ships of Columbus 21 Indian chief 28 Indian woman 29 Indian pottery 30 Indian woman weaving 30 Indian bow and arrow 31 Indian quiver and bow-case 32 An Indian shield 33 Indians building a canoe 34 Penn treaty wampum belt 36 Indian stone implements 37 Indian implements of shell 37 A Pueblo habitation 39 Fort San Marco, St. Augustine 47 The Heights of Quebec 50 A French woodsman 62 Sir Walter Ealeigh 55 The Half-Moon in the Hudson 58 John Smith 63 Smith meeting the Indians 64 Pocahontas 68 John Winthrop 84 Placing the charter in the oak 100 Peter Stuyvesant 105 William Penn 110 Early Philadelphia 112 Penn s treaty with the Indians 113 Proprietary seal of Pennsylvania 115 Cecilius Calvert (Lord Baltimore) 116 James Oglethorpe 127 Costumes of French settlers 130 ix X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE A block-house 133 Pioneer dwelling 134 Costumes of the Puritans 136 Scene in New Amsterdam 139 Dutch settlers 140 Colonial fireplace 141 Costume of English settlers 142 Braddock s defeat 158 Expulsion of the Acadians 161 General Wolfe 167 A stamp-act stamp 178 Patrick Henry 179 Faneuil Hall 182 Boston tea-party 186 Revolutionary soldier 191 John Hancock 195 Signing the Declaration of Independence 202 Washington s army crossing the Delaware . 207 The Chew House 211 Washington s head-quarters at Valley Forge 212 Pine-tree and rattlesnake flags 215 Anthony Wayne 221 John Paul Jones 222 The Andre captors medal 226 Nathaniel Greene N 227 Surrender of Cprnwallis 232 Daniel Boone . 233 Independence Hall at the time of the Revolution 238 Mississippi flat-boat 242 Spinning-wheel 244 George Washington 248 Alexander Hamilton 251 Mount Vernon 255 John Adams 256 John Marshall 260 Thomas Jefferson 261 Stephen Decatur 262 James Madison 270 Capture of the Cyane and Levant by the Constitution 277 James Monroe 286 Henry Clay 291 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. x i PAGE Lock on the Erie Canal 293 Marquis de Lafayette 294 John Quincy Adams 296 Andrew Jackson # 300 John C. Calhoun 301 Daniel Webster 301 Chicago in 1832 306 Martin Van Buren 308 William Henry Harrison 311 John Tyler 312 James K. Polk 320 Winfield Scott 324 Assault on Chapultepec 325 San Francisco in 1848 327 Zachary Taylor 330 Millard Fillmore 332 Franklin Pierce 334 James Buchanan 340 Laying the Atlantic cable 344 Jefferson Davis 346 Abraham Lincoln 348 United States flag 356 Confederate flags ..,.. 356 Battle of the Monitor and Merrimac 362 George B. McClellan 373 Robert E. Lee 375 Confederate works at Fredericksburg 378 A scene at Gettysburg 384 Night scene on the retreat from Gettysburg 385 Battle of Chickamauga 388 Philip Sheridan 394 William T. Sherman 395 Sherman s march to the sea 399 Battle in Mobile Bay 401 The last Confederate battle line , 405 Andrew Johnson 412 Ulysses S. Grant 418 Meeting of the Union and Central Pacific Railroads 420 Battle at the Little Big Horn 424 Rutherford B. Hayes 428 James A. Garfield . . 432 xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Chester A. Arthur 433 Grover Cleveland 436 Benjamin Harrison 439 The Court of Honor 444 Fleet of United States war-vessels in harbor 449 William McKinley 451 Theodore Eoosevelt 465 Benjamin Franklin c . . 476 Pine-tree shilling 495 Continental money .... , . o . - . 495 An emigrant train 504 The Conestoga wagon <,.... 509 Fulton s steamboat 509 The ocean steamer of to-day 510 The locomotive of to-day c 512 The pony express . 514 Cutting grass with a scythe 515 Threshing with the flail 516 Colonial plough 518 Steam-plough . 518 Steam threshing-machine 519 Harvesting and binding machine . 520 Power-loom 523 An irrigation canal 535 MAPS. PAGE United States (colored) Front of volume. Acquisitions of territory (colored) End of volume. Early French settlements in Canada 49 English, French, Spanish, and Dutch claims 59 The middle colonies 70 New England and New Netherland 91 Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware 114 The Carolinas and Georgia 122 French settlements in the West and South 129 English territory before the French and Indian War 152 The Fort Duquesne campaign . , . . 156 The seat of war in New York 163 The siege of Quebec 165 English territory after the French and Indian War 168 Boston and vicinity 194 The New Jersey campaign 206 General map of the Revolutionary War (colored) 209 Burgoyne s route 213 Siege of Yorktown 231 Battle-fields on the Niagara 279 Northern battle-fields of the war of 1812-15 281 New Orleans and the Creek War 283 War with Mexico 321 Battle-fields of Kentucky and Tennessee 363 McClellan s campaign, Yorktown to Richmond 372 Battle-fields of Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania 377 Plan of the battle of Gettysburg . . 382 Grant s Yicksburg campaign 387 Grant s campaign, Wilderness to Petersburg 391 Sherman s march, Atlanta to Raleigh 398 Hawaii 446 Cuba 452 Philippine Islands 460 Puerto Rico . . 540 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. PART I. DISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. i. THE ERA OF DISCOVERY. Mediaeval Conditions. If we could go back to a period more than four hundred years ago we should find Europe in a very different condition from what travellers see there to-day. Then its population was much smaller, its wealth much less. There were little commerce, little enterprise, and little liberty. The great industries of to-day were un known. Wars were common, oppression and injustice were universal. People could neither do nor think as they pleased. They must accept the religion provided for them by their rulers or suffer imprisonment and torture. Super stition and ignorance everywhere prevailed. Even the most learned men knew very little of the earth upon which they lived. Europe was fairly well known, and something was known of Southern and Eastern Asia and Northern Africa ; but the vast oceans which are now the highways of com merce had never been traversed, and no one had dreamed of the great continent of America. 11 12 DISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. The Northmen. It is true that America had been visited from Europe more than four hundred years earlier. But nothing of this was known in Southern Europe until cen turies afterward. The people of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, often spoken of as the Northmen, were then rude and barbarous in character, but had long been skilful and daring navigators. In their small, open vessels they did not fear to make long voyages and venture far out to sea. For centuries they made piratical raids upon the countries of the south, and about the year 850 A.D. one of their vessels was driven by a storm to Iceland, an island of the far northern seas. Here they formed a settlement in 874, from which their light ships ventured farther west, till at length one of them reached the southern coast of Greenland. 1 Here a colony was formed in 986 near Cape Farewell, which lasted about five hundred years. 2 The Continent Discovered. Not long afterward a ves sel on its way to Greenland was driven from its course by a storm, and its crew saw land far to the south. In the year 1000 Leif, son of Eric the Red, the discoverer of Greenland, sailed south to explore this land. He landed at several points, and at length reached a region where wild grapes grew in abundance, for which reason he named it Vinland (Vine-land). Where Vinland was we do not know. It may have been as far south as Massachusetts, or it may have been farther north. 3 1 In their voyages the Northmen are said to have often taken ravens with them. When in doubt where to find land they set the birds free and followed the direction of their flight. 2 The ruins of several villages and churches, built of stone, still remain at this locality, but the present settlements in Greenland were made at a later date. 3 Many supposed relics of the Northmen have been found in New England. The most famous of these is a curious old tower, called THE ERA OF DISCOVERY. 13 Other Voyages. Other voyages were made to V in land, and one explorer tried to found a colony there, but the savage people of the country gave the colonists so much trouble that after three years they went away. 1 Not THE SHIPS OF THE NORTHMEN. Jong afterward all visits to Vinland ceased. At a later date the story of this discovery was written down in Iceland, Three manuscript accounts still exist, which contain much the "Old Stone Mill," at Newport, Rhode Island. But it is now be lieved that this was built by Governor Benedict Arnold about 1675. Another is an inscription in picture-writing on Dighton Rock, near Taunton, Massachusetts. But this is now known to be an Indian inscription. No undoubted relic of the Northmen has been found. 1 Snorri, the son of one of these settlers, was the first child of white parents born on this continent. It is interesting to learn that from this first " American" descended a family of much note in the north. Thorwaldsen, the famous sculptor of Denmark, is said to have been one of his descendants. 14 DISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. information about the country, its plants and animals, the habits of its people, etc. But nothing of this was known in the south of Europe, the existence of the continent was in time forgotten in the north, and it remained to be dis covered over again. Changed Conditions in Europe. By the fifteenth cen tury Europe had gained a greater degree of civilized devel opment. Its nations had become more strongly organized, its kings had gained more power and authority, its mer chants and artisans were rising in importance, and its peo ple were no longer helpless slaves of the lords. Peaceful enterprise was beginning to take the place of war. Human knowledge was growing, learned men appeared outside the monasteries, and there arose a desire to learn more about the world. The Eastward Movement. The vast continent of Asia, stretching thousands of miles to the east, was little known to the men of that age, though there had long been trade with its civilized nations. After the Crusades, 1 which lasted from about 1100 to 1300, this trade grew more active. Caravans crossed the deserts, bringing the shawls, silks, muslins, spices, and pearls of Persia and India to Alexan dria in Egypt and to the ports of the Black Sea. Thence merchant vessels bore them to Venice, Genoa, and other European ports. Marco Polo. Travellers also made their way through Asia. The chief of these was Marco Polo, a Venetian, who 1 The Crusades were great military expeditions from Europe to Asia to defend the rights of Christian pilgrims in Palestine and recover the Holy Land from the Mohammedans. Thousands of men perished in these efforts, but Jerusalem and Palestine were not recovered. The name " crusaders" was given to these warriors because they wore the sign of the cross. THE ERA OF DISCOVERY. 15 journeyed overland through Central Asia to China, where he remained for many years, returning in 1295. His ad ventures were described in a book which was full of in formation of great interest to the people of Europe. In this book was given the first account of the island country of Cipango, or Japan, which has lately become so impor tant. The story told by Marco Polo went far to arouse an interest in the discovery of new countries. 1 The Turks. In 1453 the Turks captured Constantinople and put an end to the Asiatic commerce of Genoa, whose fleets were obliged to pass that city on their way to the Black Sea. The ships of Venice traded with Alexandria, and their commerce continued longer. But it also was at length brought to an end by the Turks, and the trade of Europe with Asia, which had existed for many centuries, was destroyed. New Routes of Commerce. The luxuries obtained from Asia had now become necessary to the comfort of the people of Europe. Yet unless other trade routes could 1 Marco Polo was the son of Niccolo Polo, who with his brother Matteo made a journey through Asia between 1255 and 1269. They went again about 1272 with young Marco, who was the first European to enter China, and who gained high favor with the Great Khan of Tartary. They returned to Venice in 1295, bringing great wealth in precious stones, but dressed in ragged clothes, which they had worn to prevent being robbed. They invited their friends and relatives, who had forgotten them, to a costly banquet, where they appeared in the richest garments. After the feast they ripped open their old clothes, and from them fell an untold wealth in diamonds, rubies, and other gems. They were quickly remembered after that. Marco was afterward taken prisoner in a battle with the Genoese and kept long in prison. While there he told the story of his travels to a fellow- captive, who wrote it down. The book, when published, made a great sensation, and is still of much value. 16 DISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. be discovered all this rich commerce would be lost. For tunately, at that period navigators were growing more bold. The mariner s compass had been brought into use ; the astrolabe an instrument for reckoning latitude soon after was employed ; sailors no longer felt it necessary to creep along shore as of old, but began to venture daringly far from sight of land. The route to Asia by way of the Medi terranean was closed against the ships of Europe. Could not a new route be found by way of the great ocean of the west? Portuguese Enterprise. Portugal was one of the most enterprising nations of that period. It was not content to let the cities of Italy enjoy all the trade of Asia, and had conceived the idea that India might be reached by sailing around the continent of Africa. This enterprise began in 1418, under King Henry, known as Henry the Navigator. Step by step the ships of Portugal made their way down the African coast. Madeira, the Azores, and other islands were discovered, but it was not until 1471 that a Portuguese captain reached and crossed the equator. It had been supposed that Africa extended no farther south ; but its coast was found to stretch still southward, and the navigators of Portugal began to lose heart. 1 1 The southern cape of Africa was finally reached by Bartholomew Diaz in 1487. He called it the Cape of Storms, but the king renamed it the Cape of Good Hope. In 1497 after the discovery of America Vasco da Gama sailed round this cape and entered the Indian Ocean, up which he passed northward to Hindustan. He returned in the summer of 1499 with a cargo of the spices, silks, jewels, and other rich products of that land of wealth. This was the beginning of a valuable Portuguese commerce with the East. Bartholomew Colum bus, the younger brother of the great discoverer, accompanied Diaz on his voyage. THE ERA OF DISCOVERY. 17 Christopher Columbus. Among the enterprising spirits of that age was one who has made himself famous for all time. This was the celebrated Christopher Columbus [Italian name Cristoforo Colombo (cris-t&f o-ro co-l6m f bo), Spanish name Cristoval Colon (crfe-to vtil cd-lon )~\. He was a native of Genoa, Italy, where he was born about 1435, or per haps several years later, the date of his birth being uncer tain. He became a sailor at the age of fourteen, and for years was engaged in commerce and adventure. He sailed with several Portuguese expeditions down the coast of Africa, and may have sailed as far north as Iceland. He says, u In 1477 I navigated one hundred leagues beyond Thule" (supposed to be Iceland). A New Idea. Columbus was a thinker and student. In common with the best geographers of that century, he believed that the earth was round, and advanced the prop osition that by sailing due west across the ocean India might be reached. To most of the people then living this seemed an incredible absurdity. To reach the east by sail ing to the west ! It appeared the talk of a madman. The general belief was that the earth was flat and inhabited on its upper side only. But Columbus was persistent in his belief, 1 though he had no conception of the real size of the earth. He imagined that a few thousand miles would bring him to the shores of Asia. Had he dreamed of the vast width of space that lay between Europe and Asia in this 1 Columbus had spent some time in the island of Madeira, and there had been told of strange objects seen by sailors. These included pieces of carved wood, seeds of unknown plants, canes long enough to hold four quarts of wine between their joints, and, more striking still, the bodies of two men, differing in face and color from the people of Europe. Westerly winds had brought these ashore, and they seemed to come from lands to the west. 2 18 DISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. direction he might have been afraid to venture upon such mighty seas. Columbus Seeks Aid. The Genoese adventurer had a very difficult task before him. He had no money himself, and he spent many years of his life in trying to induce gov ernments to aid his proposed enterprise. He first wished to go as the agent of his native city, Genoa, but the authori ties rejected his plan as folly or madness. He then tried Portugal, where he spent years in vain endeavor. 1 Columbus in Spain. Columbus left Portugal in 1484 and proceeded to Spain, which country was then governed by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, who were at war with the Moors, a people who had once held nearly the whole of Spain. For seven years he begged per sistently for aid, but in vain. He was looked upon as a visionary, and the very boys in the street mocked him as a lunatic. At length he was permitted to lay his plans before a committee of learned men, but CHRISTOPHER COLUM- . BUS. only to have them ridiculed, the council dismissing him as a foolish enthusiast. 2 1 The Portuguese king was intelligent, and at length listened favor ably to the statements of Columbus, though his geographers told him that the scheme was visionary. King John, who still thought it worth trying, but did not wish to give Columbus the high reward he de manded in case of success, played the traitor to him, and secretly sent out a vessel to try the westward route, giving the captain the charts of C o>jmbus as guides. The captain sailed for a few days westward into the unknown ocean, and then, frightened by stormy weather and what seemed an endless waste of waters, returned and laughed to scorn the scheme of the adventurer. 2 They could not be made to believe that the earth was round. " Do you mean to tell us," they asked, " that on the other side the rain falls THE ERA OF DISCOVERY. 19 Other Appeals for Aid. Columbus before this had sent his brother Bartholomew to England to seek for aid. He now himself set out for France, but stopped at the convent of La Rabida, 1 near the little town of Palos, where he was forced to beg bread for himself and his little son, who ac companied him. Here he found a friend in the prior, who had influence with Queen Isabella, and wrote to her. Columbus was called back to the court, but again met with disappointment, and once more set out for France. He had not gone far when a messenger recalled him. Some of his friends had pleaded his cause with the queen, and she became so earnest in his behalf that it is said she offered to pledge her jewels to raise the money. The Vessels Supplied. The queen did not need to pledge her jewels. There was money enough in the treas ury, despite the cost of the war. The part of the money which Columbus was to supply was advanced by some friends at Palos. But though ships were ready, crews were not easily to be had. Sailors were ignorant and supersti tious. They feared the perils of unknown seas. But at length three small vessels, the Santa Maria, the Pinta, and the Nina (nen yaK), were obtained, with crews to man them. upward and men walk with their heads downward ? If the earth were round, as you say, your ships, in going west, would sail down a curved surface, and would have to sail up-hill to return to Spain. The torrid zone, through which you must pass, is a region of fire, where the very waters boil. And who can say what dense fogs, what frightful mon sters, what unimagined terrors exist in these unknown seas?" 1 A fac-simile of the La Rabida convent, and also one of the Santa Maria, the flag-ship of Columbus in his famous voyage, were shown at the World s Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 1893. These con tained many ancient relics, and were among the most attractive features of the fair. The vessel was one in which few men would venture to cross the ocean to-day. 20 DISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. Only the largest of these, the Santa Maria, of about one hundred tons burden, had a complete deck. The others were open amidships. The crews consisted of ninety sailors, and there were also thirty gentlemen adventurers and priests. With this small fleet, on the 3d of August, 1492, Columbus set sail from Palos, Spain, on the most memorable voyage that had ever been undertaken. The Voyage. The fleet sailed first to the Canary Islands. One of the vessels was injured on the way, and the expedi tion was detained there a month for repairs. On the 6th of September they again sailed boldly into the " Sea of Darkness," as the Atlantic was then commonly called. As the land faded from the eyes of the sailors some of them burst into tears, and the boldest were full of superstitious fears. What monstrous creatures they would meet in those untried waters, what black fogs or terrifying visions they would encounter, none could tell. They might glide down a watery curve up which no ship could climb again. They might reach the edge of the earth s surface and plunge to swift destruction. The wind which carried them onward blew steadily to the west. Could they return against this persistent wind? The unknown lay before them, and the unknown is the abode of terrors. New Difficulties. As they went on the compass to which they trusted for safety ceased to point directly to the north. 1 Here was a new cause for fear. Ten days after leaving the Canary Islands they entered what is now known as the 1 It has long been known that the needle of the compass does not always point directly north. The magnetic pole is hundreds of miles away from the north pole, and only where the two poles are in a line does the needle point north. In other places it points east or west of north. In Spain at that day the needle pointed nearly due north, and hence the sailors were alarmed to see it deviate. THE ERA OF DISCOVERY. 21 Sargasso Sea. Here were vast tracts of sea-weed which filled them with fresh terror, for they seemed to be in a shallow sea, in which the vessels might be wrecked on bars or plunge deep into mud-banks. 1 Signs of Land. Columbus alone kept firm of heart, and did his utmost to cheer up his despondent followers. He shrewdly deceived them as to the distance they had gone. As they went on, signs of land ap peared. Pelicans and other birds were seen. The clouds looked like distant shores. But as day by day passed with out land appearing the crews lost all hope, and secret plans were made to throw their leader overboard and sail for home again. Fortunately, the signs of land grew more de cided. A branch with fresh berries was seen THE SHIPS OF COLUMBUS. floating by. A carved stick was picked up from the waters. Other floating objects were observed. Hope replaced despair. At length, about ten o clock on the evening of October 11, 1492, Columbus 1 The Sargasso Sea is now known to be due to great currents in the Atlantic, which here whirl round in a vast circle and carry to this point floating sea-weed from far-distant waters. The weed remains alive and many small ocean animals dwell in its midst. 22 DISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. saw a distant light, which moved as if it were carried. At two o clock on the following morning the glad cry of " Land !" came from one of the other vessels. A sailor had seen land in the clear moonlight. When day broke the joyful mariners beheld close before them a low, green shore, on which the sunlight gleamed like the beacon light of hope. The voyage was at an end. A new world lay before their eyes. On Shore in the New World. On the morning of Fri day, the 12th of October, 1492, the happy discoverer set foot on the shores of the new land. He was clad in a full suit of armor, and bore in his hand the royal ban ner of Spain. The brothers Pinzon (pen-thon f \ captains of the other vessels, bore banners of the green cross, a de vice of his own. Kneeling on the shore, he kissed the ground with tears of joy, while the mutinous members of the crews fell weeping at his feet and humbly begged his pardon. Rising, he took possession of the land in the name of the monarchs of Spain, and gave it the name of San Salvador. 1 It was an island he had discovered, as he soon learned. It was inhabited by a gentle-faced people, of reddish com plexion, and unlike any men Columbus had seen in his many voyages. They had a few gold ornaments, and were asked by signs where gold was to be found. In reply they pointed to the southward. The simple islanders supposed the ships to be great white-winged birds, and believed that their white-faced visitors had come from heaven. The Voyage Continued. Leaving San Salvador, the fleet 1 The natives called this island Guanahani (gwft-n&-hti / n$). It was one of the group of the Bahamas, but it is not sure which. Most prob ably it was the one now known as Watling s Island. THE ERA OF DISCOVERY. 23 sailed southward, passing other islands, and soon reaching the great islands of Cuba and Hayti. On the latter island, which Columbus named Hispaniola, the Santa Maria was wrecked. Here Columbus built a fort and planted a small colony, and then set sail for Spain. The Belief of Columbus. Columbus never dreamed that he had discovered a new continent. He believed that it was Asia he had reached. The islands he thought to be either those of Japan or others off the coast of India. Cuba he supposed to be the mainland of India. He therefore called the dark-skinned natives Indians. By this name, which is based on a wrong conception, they are still known. He asked everywhere for the spices, jewels, and gold of Asia, and was disappointed in finding none. He sent par ties into the interior, and was astonished that no trace of the cities or civilization of Asia could be discovered. He sent an expedition into Cuba to visit a great chief, whom he supposed to be the King or Khan of Tartary. To the day of his death he believed that it was Asia he had reached. Reception of Columbus in Spain. Columbus reached the port of Palos on his return on the 15th of March, 1493. The news of his discovery spread rapidly through the land, and was hailed everywhere with joy. Wherever he ap peared exulting crowds gathered and the bells were loudly rung. His journey to Barcelona, where the court then was, seemed like a triumphal procession. The king and queen received him with the highest honor, and listened in wonder to the story of his discoveries. He displayed to them the gold, the new plants, the unknown birds and beasts, the curious weapons and utensils, of the new- discovered country, and nine of the natives whom he had brought to Spain. In the end the monarchs fell on their 24 DISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. knees and thanked God for the honor conferred upon their kingdom by this great achievement. Further Honors. Columbus was given the title of Don and treated as a grandee of Spain. He rode in the streets at the king s side. On sea he ranked as admiral, and in the new world he was the king s viceroy, and was to receive a tenth of all the gold, precious stones, and other valuables found and an eighth of all the profit by trade. Thus ended the famous enterprise through which a new continent was discov ered and great glory and wealth were conferred upon Spain. 1 1 The remainder of the story of Columbus has no immediate con nection with the United States, and may therefore be disposed of in a note. He made three more voyages to this country. In the second (1493-96) he discovered many more islands. He started on a third in 1498. In this he discovered the mainland of South America and the mouth of the great Orinoco River. Meanwhile, his government of the colonies had made him many enemies. He also offended the king and queen by sending five ship-loads of Indians to Spain to be sold as slaves. They were all sent back, and a new governor was sent to His- paniola. This man seized Columbus and his two brothers and sent them in irons to Spain. On his arrival in that country great indigna tion was aroused by the outrage, the offending governor was removed, and the property of Columbus restored. His office of viceroy was not restored. He always afterward kept hanging in his room the fetters which had been placed on his limbs, and requested that they should be buried with him. He sailed on a fourth voyage in 1502, in which he traversed the Caribbean Sea and sailed far along the coast of Honduras. He still hoped to find the riches of India, but in vain. He returned to Spain in 1504, where he was treated with shameful neglect and reduced to poverty. He died May 20, 1506. He was first buried at Valladolid, but his body was removed in 1513 to Seville, and in 1536 to the city of San Domingo in Hayti. In 1796 what were supposed to be his remains were taken to Havana. This was probably a mistake, for in 1877 a leaden coffin containing human bones was found under the Cathedral of San Domingo, which bore the inscription in Spanish, " Illustrious and renowned man, Christopher Columbus." THE ERA OF DISCOVERY. 25 Enslavement of the Natives. The feeling of displeasure which Queen Isabella displayed when Columbus sent Indians as slaves to Spain was not shared by the Spanish colonists. The natives were everywhere reduced to slavery, and were treated with such barbarity that they rapidly perished. In time they all disappeared from the islands 1 which had so long been their own, and negro slaves were brought from Africa to take their place. Naming" the Continent. Many adventurers made their way to the new land which Columbus had discovered. One of the earliest of these was an Italian named Amerigo Vespucci (ah-md-re* go ves-poot che), a native of Florence in the service of Spain, who made several voyages to this country, and published an account of his observations in 1504. This was used in 1507 by a German geographer named Martin Waldseemliller in a little book called " An In troduction to Geography." In it was this sentence : "And the fourth part of the world having been discovered by Amerigo or Americus, we may call it Amerige, or America." 5 Discovery of North America. Columbus was not the first to discover the continent of America. He first saw the mainland of South America in 1498. That of North 1 The name by which these islands are known, the West Indies, arose from the mistaken idea of Columbus that they formed part of India in Asia. - 2 Vespucci had sailed far south along the coast of Brazil, and it was thought that, while Columbus had discovered Asia, he had discovered a continent south of Asia. It had long been supposed that there was such a continent, which was known as the " fourth part of the world." Thus it was to Brazil that the name America was first given. After ward it was applied to all South America. Finally it became the name of the northern continent also. Thus without any intention Columbus was deprived of the honor of giving his name to the great continent he had discovered. 26 DISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. America had been seen the year before. In 1496, John Cabot, an Italian residing in Bristol, England, proposed a voyage to the new-discovered country. He was aided and encouraged in this by Henry VII., King of England, and set sail westward in May, 1497. He first saw land on June 24 of that year. Where this land was we do not know. Some think it was Labrador, others Cape Breton Island. He sailed hundreds of miles along the coast, his purpose being to find a northern passage to Asia. He discovered instead a new continent. Sebastian Cabot s Voyage. The next year his son Sebastian, who had accompanied his father, sailed to America with several ships, and traced the coast for a long distance. He reached the region of icebergs on the north, and sailed south as far as Cape Hatteras, or perhaps to a still lower latitude. He laid claim to all the land dis covered for Henry VII. of England. 1 Honors to the Cabots. The Cabots gained great honor, but little profit, from their discovery. John Cabot went about dressed in silk, and was known as the "Great Admiral." Sebastian was also much honored, and was called u The Great Seaman." He lived to become an active explorer, and made afterward several important voyages of discovery in the service of Spain. The Line of Demarcation. Pope Alexander VI., in 1494, had undertaken to divide the new-discovered lands 1 The account of the voyages of the Cabots is very obscure. Some writers say that John Cabot went with his son in the second voyage ; others say that he died before it started. Just what lands they dis covered is equally doubtful. Sebastian Cabot speaks of having seen savages dressed in skins, stags larger than those in England, and bears that caught fish with their claws, while he met with codfish in such numbers that they checked the speed of his ships. THE ERA OF DISCOVERY. 27 between Spain and Portugal. A meridian line three hun dred and seventy leagues Avest of the Cape Verde Islands was selected, and it was declared that all heathen lands discovered east of this " line of demarcation" should be long to Portugal ; all those west of it to Spain. It must be said, however, that the other nations paid no attention whatever to this line, though from it Portugal laid claim to Brazil. Discovery of the Pacific. Two further important steps of discovery were made in the south. In the year 1513 Balboa, a Spanish adventurer, crossed the Isthmus of Panama, in search of a great body of water which the natives told him could be seen from the tops of the moun tains. After enduring severe hardships he reached the summit of the ridge, and saw before his eyes a mighty outreach of waters. He got to the western shore after days of further hardship, and, wading into the water with a sword in one .hand and a banner in the other, he laid claim to that great ocean and all its bordering countries for the sovereigns of Spain. He named it the South Sea. To-day, of all this extensive claim, not a square foot of land belongs to Spain. The Voyage of Magellan. In 1519, Ferdinand Magel lan, a Portuguese in command of five Spanish ships, sailed from Spain with the hope of finding a route to Asia by way of the southwest. He discovered the strait since known by his name, south of the mainland of South America, sailed through it, and entered the vast ocean which Bal boa had seen. He found it free from storms, and in con sequence named it the Pacific Ocean. He crossed this vast ocean, and accomplished what Columbus had set out to do, reaching Asia by sailing west. He was killed by savages in the Philippine Islands, but one of his ships sailed around 28 DISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. the Cape of Good Hope and reached Spain in 1522. 1 This was the first circumnavigation of the globe. Now for the first time was it learned what Columbus had really done. Instead of reaching the shores of Asia, he had discovered a great new continent which lay in the vast seas between. In consequence, it is often spoken of as the NEW WORLD. 2. THE INDIANS, THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND CUSTOMS. The Red Men. It is common to speak of the " discovery of America," but by this we mean only its discovery by the civilized people of Europe. It had been discovered, or at least peopled, by men long before, no one knows how long, nor whence these people came. Columbus named them " Indians," thinking them to be inhabitants of India, in Asia. They are also fre- quently called " red men," for they were of a reddish or cinnamon color. They had coarse hair, black and straight, small black eyes, and but little beard. Their cheek-bones were high and their noses prominent. In these and other re spects they differed from the people of Europe. Character of the Red Men. The Indians occupied the whole of North and South America. They were not all alike in appearance, and they differed greatly in customs and degree of development. The island people first seen INDIAN 1 The captain of this vessel was rewarded by the King of Spain with a coat of arms, on which was represented a globe with the motto, " You first sailed round me." THE INDIANS, CHARACTERISTICS AND CUSTOMS. 29 by Columbus were gentle and peaceful. This was not the case with those on the mainland, most of whom were fierce and warlike. Many of them were in the savage state ; that is, they had only a few rude arts and little organization. Others were in what is known as the barba rian state, while still others, like those of Mexico and Peru, had some degree of civilization, and possessed many arts and industries. The Savage and Barbarian Indians. The savage In dians lived almost entirely by hunting and fishing, and had no fixed places of habitation, but roamed from place to place with their tent-shaped wigwams or other simple dwellings. They had few utensils and little or no agriculture. Those who dwelt in the eastern half of this country were barbarians. They had fixed homes, living in villages, and cultivating the fields to some extent, though they were active hunters also. They tilled the ground with , . . ., INDIAN WOMAN. hoes, which were made of stone, bone, or other hard substance, attached to a stick. The principal plants grown by them were maize, or " Indian-corn," pumpkins, squashes, beans, and tobacco. 1 Dwellings. The dwellings of the Indians differed greatly in character. Some tribes dwelt in wigwams, or round huts with a framework of upright poles, which were bent inward and fastened together at the top. These were covered with the skins of animals, bark, or woven 1 The Iroquois tribes of Central New York had a more developed agriculture. The French, who invaded their country in 1696, found fields of maize which extended a league from the villages. General Sullivan, in his invasion in 1779, found large apple and peach orchards, and abundant stores of corn, beans, and squashes. 30 DISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. INDIAN POTTERY. mats. Their fires were made in clay or stone pits in the floor, and the smoke escaped through a hole in the roof. Various other forms of dwellings were used. The Iroquois tribes had houses several hundred feet long, and divided into many apartments or residences by partitions. They were made of framework covered with bark, and sometimes held from thirty to fifty families. Some of the Southern In dians had circular dwellings with par titions made of mats and running from the outer wall to the centre. Each apartment thus made was the home of a family. Furniture and Utensils. The dwellings had little furni ture, the Indians living mostly in the open air. Mats and skins served for bedding and the ground usually for seats and tables. For cooking purposes some tribes used wooden vessels, hollowed out by burning and scraping. They filled these vessels with water and threw in stones heated in their fires till the water boiled. Then the food was dropped in to cook in the boil ing water. Baskets made of willow, very closely woven, were used in the same way. Some tribes had vessels of earthenware, others of hollowed out soapstone. Clothing-. ; The winter clothing of the red men was mostly made of deer-skin. In summer they wore very little clothing. On their feet they wore moccasins, or shoes made of buck skin, which were very soft and pliable and enabled them to walk noiselessly. Some tribes wove coarse cloth, out of INDIAN WOMAN WEAVING. THE INDIANS, CHARACTERISTICS AND CUSTOMS. 31 which their clothing was made. They often wore a head dress of feathers. Beads made from sea-shells, called wampum, were worn as ornaments and also used as money. It was their custom when engaged in war to paint their faces in stripes and spots of red and other colors. Tools. Their tools were made of stone, chipped or rubbed to the desired shape, or of bone, horn, wood, or shell. They consisted of stone axes, hoes, and other im plements for domestic use, scrapers to prepare skins for use, bone needles, wooden paddles for their canoes, and some other simple implements. The only metal they pos sessed was copper, which they obtained from mines in the lake region and hammered into shape. It was principally used for ornamental purposes. Pipes were articles in common use. These were usually made of stone, hollowed out and pierced with a hole for the smoke to pass through, and were often curiously and skilfully carved. Weapons. Their weapons were bows and arrows, which were pointed with flint or other hard substance ; tomahawks, or hatchets, of gacsss* --"- * flint With WOOd- en handles ; and war-clubs of hard and heavy wood. These native weapons proved of little service against the weapons of the white men, and were thrown aside as soon as the Indians were able to trade furs for knives and hatchets of iron, guns, and ammunition. It is said that some of them thought that powder was a sort of seed, and planted in the ground the first they obtained, hoping to raise a crop of this useful plant. 32 DISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. Modes of Travel. The Indians possessed no horses nor beasts of burden. The horse, ox, sheep, and pig were not known in this country till brought here by the whites. They had the bison, or buffalo, but used it only for food. In winter they travelled on snow-shoes, frames of wood covered with hide, so long and wide that they would not sink into the snow. In summer they traversed forests and plains on their noiseless moccasins. The canoe was much used for summer travel. This was a very light boat, its strong frame being covered with the thin and flexible bark of the birch-tree. It was pointed at both ends and was forced through the water by the aid of a paddle. Unlike the rower, the canoe-man faced forward. Duties of Men and Women. The Indian man did no work. Hunting and fighting were his only duties, and all labor in the village was left to the women, who planted and hoed the corn, made the deer skin clothing, and cooked the food. Fire was produced by twirling the end of a stick rapidly on a dry piece of wood. The men made their weapons, indulged in dances and mimic battles, and were skilled in the arts of hunting and war. It was their custom to pull out all their hair except a lock on the crown of the head. This, called the scalp- lock, was left in order that an enemy, if able to kill the warrior in battle, might pluck off his scalp as a trophy of victory. Methods of Warfare. In war the Indians were fierce and cruel. They did not favor open fighting, but preferred to practise stratagem. It was their habit to steal upon their enemies through the forest, creeping or lying in wait, INDIAN QUIVER AND BOW-CASE. THE INDIANS, CHARACTERISTICS AND CUSTOMS. 33 and seeking to take them by surprise. They became re markably skilful in following a trail, that is, in tracing the passage of men or animals by the faint marks of their foot-prints, by broken leaves and twigs, and other marks only visible to well-trained eyes. They were equally skil ful in concealing their own trails. Ferocity in War. The Indians had no mercy on their foes. They often sought to take prisoners, but only that they might put them to death by torture. It was their de light to make the captives suffer the utmost AN INDIAN SHIELD. pain, they being tortured as they were slowly burned to death. The prisoner, on the other hand, felt a pride in bearing pain without flinching, and treated his foes with contempt and derision. He sometimes pro voked them by his insults to kill him without further torture. In some cases a prisoner escaped death by being adopted into the tribe, by a mother who had lost her son, or otherwise. Indians of the South. The Indian tribes of Florida and the Gulf region generally were more advanced than those farther north. They had compact, well-built villages and paid much more attention to agriculture, and had also a superior system of government and more developed religious ideas. The products of the field and the hunt were public property, and were kept in a common storehouse to be dis tributed as needed. This was the system now known as Communism. Number of Indians. The Indians were not many in number. There may have been not more than two hun dred thousand of them in all the country east of the Mis sissippi. People who live by hunting cannot be numerous, 3 34 DISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. -x.^\ s ^s5-\i-.._ INDIANS BUILDING A CANOE. since a wide space of hunting-ground is needed for the support of each family. Some writers believe that there are as many Indians in the United States to-day as there were four hundred years ago, though they oc- ^^^ijTgjg^lMBf; ^3pT5s cupy a very much smaller space. Religious Beliefs. -The Indians seem to have believed in a Great Spirit, all-wise, good, and powerful. Some writers, however, think that they obtained this idea of a Supreme God from the white men. They believed also in inferior spirits, good and bad, and in happy hunting-grounds to which the spirits of the brave would pass. The only priest was the medicine-man, who pretended to have power over evil spirits by aid of sorcery and magic. They had no idol worship. Some of the Southern tribes worshipped the sun, and had temples and religious ceremonies. Be sides the medicine-man or conjurer, these had a high -priest and a series of inferior priests of the sun. They kept up a sacred fire in the temple, which was not allowed to go out. Groups or Families of Indians. There were several families or unlike groups of Indians, differing in language and in degree of civilization. The Algonquin family of the North extended from the Atlantic to and beyond the Missis sippi. West of it lay the Dakota and other families. The Iroquois family dwelt principally in New York. The Mas- koki or Mobilian family lay south of Tennessee, and ex tended from the Mississippi River into Florida. THE INDIANS, CHARACTERISTICS AND CUSTOMS. 35 Organization. Each of these families was divided into tribes, often hostile to each other. Thus, the Iroquois had five tribes in central New York and some other tribes else where. At a later date they had six tribes in New York, and became known as the Six Tribes. Each tribe had its fixed name, such as Seneca, Mohawk, etc. The tribes were divided up into smaller bodies or clans, each of wfiich was believed to be descended from a single ancestor. Among the Iroquois all the members of a clan lived in one of the great houses above described or in several of these grouped together. The houses and food belonged to the clan, weapons and ornaments being the only private prop erty. Each clan had its own religious ceremonies, and was known by a special name, such as Bear, Wolf, Turtle, etc. The animal after which the clan was named was held sa cred, and carved images of it, called totems, formed the clan emblem. The Indians believed that their earliest an cestor was the spirit of this animal, which watched over and protected them. Government. A tribe might be made up of from three or four to twenty or more clans, all speaking the same lan guage and without any distinction of rank. Each clan was governed by a sachem or civil magistrate. Each might also have a number of war chiefs, who had no power but that of leading in war. These officers were elected, and all could vote, women as well as men. A council of the sa chems governed the tribe and decided all important ques tions. The Iroquois tribes were united into a confederacy, in which a council of the principal chiefs and sachems decided questions of war, and which enabled them to act together against their enemies. Wampum Re cords. The Indians could not write, though they could make pictures that served as a kind of writing. 36 DISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. Belts of wampum or shell beads were also used as records. The record of the treaty with William Penn was kept by such a belt, which had on it a picture of an Indian and a white man clasping hands. 1 The arrangement and color PENN TEEATY WAMPUM BELT. of the beads had their meaning, and the knowledge of what was done at any council was thus kept. Language. Each family of Indians had its own language and each tribe its own dialect. Indian speech differs from that of the natives of Europe and Asia, and is looked upon as a separate family of language. Its special peculiarity is that a single word is often equal to a whole sentence in English. An Indian can say in one long word what we may need ten or twenty short words to express. The Indians of To-day. The wars of the Indians are nearly or quite at an end. They have been forced to keep peace, and most of them have been settled on tracts of land called " reservations," where they are looked after and to some extent fed by the whites. Others, in the Indian Ter ritory, have civilized governments of their own. They are gradually taking up the habits and industries of civilization, and are increasing in numbers. The Mound-Builders. Throughout the valley of the Ohio and part of that of the Mississippi, and in the Gulf 1 This interesting record, or example of Indian picture-writing, is still in existence, being among the treasures gathered by the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, in whose rooms it may be seen. THE INDIANS, CHARACTERISTICS AND CUSTOMS. 37 ^s^ INDIAN STONE IMPLEMENTS. States, have been found traces of the earlier inhabitants of this country. Great numbers of mounds or artificial hills exist in this region. Some of them are only a few feet wide and high, others are very large. One of them, in Illinois, opposite St. Louis, is ninety feet high and covers eight acres of ground. There are many thousands of mounds in Ohio alone, most of which seem to have been used for burial, while others were probably fortifications and village enclosures. One en closure at Newark, Ohio, has over two miles of earth ridge or embankment, some of it twenty feet high. Some of these earth mounds are curious and interesting, as they represent men or animals. One in Ohio represents a ser pent one thousand feet long. Another is much like the elephant in form. These great images may have indicated the totems of tribes, while the very high mounds may have been crowned with temples. Contents of the Mounds. More than two thousand of the small mounds have been opened and very many relics taken from them. These in clude tools and weapons of stone, water- jugs, kettles, carved stone pipes, and many other objects. Pieces of cop per are found, and this metal seems to have been mined near Lake Superior. It was not melted, but was shaped by hammering. Who were the Mound-Builders ? It was long supposed that the Mound-Builders were a separate race, who had INDIAN IMPLEMENTS OF SHELL. 38 DISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. been driven out or destroyed by more barbarous tribes. It is now believed that they were the ancestors of the present Indians. The Indians of the South, when first known, had earth mounds still in use, on the larger of which temples and council-houses were built. These Indians had a higher organization than those of the North, and were governed by a Mico, or head chief, who had almost despotic power. They had a head war chief, a high-priest, and other officials. The Natchez tribe, on the Mississippi, were still more ad vanced. These tribes were probably the descendants of the Mound-Builders, who may have been forced southward by more savage invaders from the north or west. The Pueblo Indians. The Indians of the Rocky Mountain and Pacific region differed greatly in character from those of the East. Some of them, like the Digger Indians of Cali fornia, were in a state of great degradation. Others, known as Flatheads, had the habit of flattening their skulls while young. The Apaches and some other tribes were very fierce and cruel. The most interesting of them all were the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico and Arizona. These built great houses of sun-dried bricks or flat stones, which are four or five stories high and large enough to hold a whole tribe. They are still inhabited, and the largest of them can accom modate three thousand persons. These great dwellings are called " pueblos." They have no doors or windows, but are entered from holes in the roof reached by ladders. Each upper story is smaller than those below, and they rise one above another like great steps. Some of these buildings stand on the tops of high and steep hills very difficult to climb, on which they have been built as a protection against enemies. Pueblo Agriculture. The Pueblo Indians lived by agri culture, and raised large crops of Indian-corn and other THE INDIANS, CHARACTERISTICS AND CUSTOMS. 39 plants. As their country had little rain they had learned to irrigate it, making ditches and sluices by which the water of the rivers was spread over the land. They had no do mestic animals, but the Pueblo Indians of to-day the Mo- A PUEBLO HABITATION. quis (mo kes) of Arizona and the Zufiis (zoon yes) of New Mexico keep sheep and other animals, which were intro duced by the whites. The horse has also long been used by the Indians of the West, many of whom are very expert riders. The Cliff-Dwellers. In Southern Colorado and other parts of the Southwest the country is cut into deep ravines by river action. The bottoms of many of these ravines are now dry and little or no rain falls in them, so that they are unfit for human habitation. They must formerly have been in a different state, for they seem to have been inhabited. On the steep sides of the ravines, often several hundred feet 40 DISCOVERY AND INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. high, deep crevices occur, and in these people formerly lived. They built stone dwellings in these narrow and lofty situations, where they could be reached only by a difficult climb up the cliffs. Some of them are now quite inaccessible. They were probably used as places of refuge from enemies, and food was grown in the ravines below. No food plants can now be cultivated in these barren ravines, and the Cliff-Dwellers have long since disappeared. TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 1. Conditions in Europe about the year 1492. ERA OF DISCOVERY. 2. Early discovery . r ! h The Northmen and their settle ments. b. The discovery of the continent. c. Other voyages to Vinland. d. Accounts of first voyage. 3. Changed conditions in Europe. 4. Eastward movements a. Trade between Europe and Asia. 6. Adventures of Marco Polo, c. Interference of the Turks. 5. Seeking new routes for commerce. Portuguese enterprise. 7. Christopher Columbus . 8. Voyage of Columbus a. Birth and early history. b. His ideas of the earth. c. His appeals for aid. d. Assistance received. f a. New difficulties. b. Hopeful signs. c. Discovery of land. d. Continuation of voyage. e. Belief of Columbus as to new land. /. Reception on his return to Spain. g. Further honors. 9. How America was named. 10. The Cabots . . . a. The discovery of North America. 6. Voyage of Sebastian Cabot, c. Honors to the Cabots. 11. Attempt of Pope Alexander VI. to divide the new country. 12. Further discoveries . f a. By Balboa. \ b. By Magellan. TOPICAL ANALYSIS. THE INDIANS. . 1. The red men . 2. Condition of the In dians . 3. Indian warfare .... 4. Indians of the South. 5. Numbers of the Indians. 6. Religious beliefs. 7. Organization of the In dians . . 8. The Mound-Builders 9. The Pueblo Indians . 10. The Cliff-Dwellers. a. Their personal appearance. 6. Their character. c. Savage and barbarous tribes. a. Dwellings. b. Furniture and utensils. c. Clothing. d. Tools and weapons. e. Modes of travel. /. Duties of men and women. a. Strategy of the Indians. 6. Cruelty in war. a. Family groups, tribes, and clans. 6. Government. c. Wampum records. d. Language. e. Modern Indians. a. Character of the mounds. b. Contents of the mounds. c. Who were the Mound-Builders? a. The Pueblo habitations! b. Pueblo agriculture. NOTE. These outlines are intended simply as examples, and it is suggested thai pupils be required to make similar analyses of succeeding sections. Such exercise will be of great value if properly conducted. PART II. THE ERA OF EXPLORATION* i. THE SPANISH EXPLORERS. The Enterprise of Spain and Portugal. To-day Spain and Portugal are two of the most unenterprising nations of Europe.. Four centuries ago they were the two most enter prising. While England and France showed very little of the spirit of adventure, Portugal was busy in the effort to circumnavigate Africa, and afterward in developing its rich Eastern trade, and Spain was equally active in taking pos session of the new-discovered continent of America. Spanish Exploration in the North. But the Spanish adventurers were principally attracted to the gold-yielding lands of the south, and made few and tardy settlements in the territory of the present United States. There was little there to attract the cupidity of treasure-seekers, while the hostility of the natives brought nearly every expedition to a disastrous end. It is our purpose to tell the story, somewhat briefly, of these various Spanish efforts, as pre liminary to the beginning of actual United States history. The Fountain of Youth. The first of these Spanish ventures was made in 1513. There was a story extant that somewhere in Eastern Asia was a magical fountain, whose waters would give perpetual youth to whoever might drink of them. The Spaniards in Cuba still believed that they had reached Asia, and some statements of the 41 42 THE ERA OF EXPLORATION. Indians gave them the idea that this fountain of youth lay not far to the north. A Spaniard of Porto Rico named Juan Ponce de Leon (hwdn pon thd da Id-tin , often called pdns d& le dn), eager to regain his lost youth, set sail to the north in 1513, and on Easter Sunday saw land, which he named " Tierra de Pascua Florida," equivalent to "Land of Flowery Easter." Perhaps the abundant flowers he saw had something to do with the name of Florida, which this country has ever since borne. De Leon was the first to land on the coast of the present United States, but the fountain he sought could not be found, and he returned an old man still. He came again in 1521 and tried to make a settlement in Florida. But he had not the Cuban Indians to deal with, and was attacked and mortally wounded. Death, instead of youth, was the meed of the old knight. De Ayllon s Enterprise. Other navigators sailed still farther north, some of them with the hope of finding a passage through the continent to Asia, that discovered by Magellan being too far south. In 1520, Vasquez de Ayllon (vas Mth da ll-ydn } sent an expedition to the Carolina coast, and in 1526 he attempted to found a settlement, which is supposed to have been on the James River, near the later site of Jamestown. Sickness and Indian hostility brought this enterprise to an end. Expedition of De Narvaez. Mobile Bay had been en tered by Spanish explorers, and the Indians thore found to wear ornaments of gold. This fact excited the cupidity of the Spaniards, who thought it possible that a kingdom rich as that of Mexico might be found in this region. In 1528, Panfilo de Narvaez (pdn fl-lo da ndr-vd tth) sailed there with four ships and four hundred men. These adventurers, instead of gold, found only hunger, hardship, and death. THE SPANISH EXPLORERS. 43 Hostile Indians assailed them, wide swamps and deep rivers lay in their path, food was scarce, and they were at length glad to embark on the Gulf of Mexico in boats of their own construction. Cabeza de Vaca, an officer of the expedition, discovered one of the mouths of the Mississippi River. Soon after they were wrecked on the coast of Texas, some of the men being drowned, and others cap tured by the Indians. Four of these captives Cabeza, two sailors, and a negro had remarkable adventures. They were carried about by the Indians, made their way from tribe to tribe, and finally escaped westwardly, where they travelled over two thousand miles of unknown land. Fi nally, eight years after their capture, they reached the Gulf of California, where they were rescued by Spaniards from Mexico. They were the only survivors of the expe dition. De Soto s Expedition. A second effort to discover an Indian empire north of the Gulf was made by Fernando de Soto, governor of Cuba, in 1539. Starting with nine ships, nearly six hundred men, and over two hundred horses, he landed at Tampa Bay, in Florida, and advanced thence very slowly, being constantly opposed by hostile Indians. For two years the adventurers made their way against unceasing difficulties, traversing more than fifteen hundred miles without finding riches or civilized peoples. In the spring of 1541 they reached the banks of the Missis sippi, being the first white men to gaze on that mighty stream. 1 1 De Soto had been with Pizarro in Peru, and hoped to conquer as rich a realm in Florida. He had all the daring and cruelty of the Spanish conquerors, and took with him blood-hounds to hunt the In dians and chains to fetter them. A drove of hogs was also taken, to insure a supply of fresh meat. The Indians taken were treated as 44 THE ERA OF EXPLORATION. Crossing the broad flood, they journeyed for months up its western side, finding hardship and hunger, but no treasures. In May, 1542, they reached the Mississippi again at the mouth of Red River. Here De Soto died. He was buried at night in the bed of the great stream he had dis covered, and the remnant of his men, building boats, made their way down the river and across the Gulf to the Spanish settlements in Mexico. Nearly half of them had died. The remainder were a miserable, half-naked, and half-starved band of disappointed adventurers. Explorations on the Pacific. The Mexicans told their Spanish conquerors that most of their gold came from a land lying northwest of their country. Cortez, the con queror of Mexico, sent several expeditions in that direction. California, as they named the country, was explored, but no gold found, its golden treasures being destined to lie un- toucjied until a much later day. In 1542, Cabrillo (M- brel yo) made a voyage along the coast of California. He died on the way, but his pilot explored the coast for a considerable distance northward. Coronado s Expedition. Cabeza de Vaca, on reaching Mexico after his escape from the Indians, had much to tell about what he had seen and heard of in his long journey. Stories had been told the wanderers about the pueblo set tlements to the north, magnified in imagination to the " seven cities of Cibola." A monk was sent to spy out the land, and came back reporting opulent cities, rich in gold and silver. Francisco de Coronado started north in 1540 to explore this country, with a large force of Spaniards and slaves or beasts of burden, and shot or maimed if they refused to aid their foes. Their villages were burned, their granaries plundered. As a result they were inveterately hostile. THE FRENCH EXPLORERS. 45 Indians. He visited the Moqui and Zuni pueblos, discov ered the Grand Canon of the Colorado River, but found none of the wealth reported. He continued his journey perhaps as far north as the Platte River, in Nebraska. He returned to Mexico in 1542, disgusted, if not insane with disappointment, at the failure of his high hopes of treasure and conquest. The Spanish Possessions. The Spaniards had thus ex plored much of the territory of the United States. They laid claim to the whole of it. Rut their only actual possession in the East was the small settlement of St. Augustine, which they founded in Florida in 1565. In the West they had settle ments in California and New Mexico. The latter territory w r as explored in 1582 by Espejo ($s-pa ho), who founded Santa Fe, the second oldest town in the United States. 2. THE FRENCH EXPLORERS. The Newfoundland Fisheries. The first display of French enterprise directed toward the new world was by the fishermen, not by the government, of France. The Ca- bots had reported immense shoals of codfish on the banks of Newfoundland. In a few years afterward the hardy fishermen of Rrittany and Normandy, attracted by the promise of a rich harvest, crossed the ocean to these new fishing-grounds. Some of them sailed farther in and dis covered an island which they named Cape Rreton, and as early as 1506 John Denys entered and explored the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Early French Explorers. The King of France knew little of what his fishermen were doing. Francis I., who became king in 1515, mocked at the claims of Spain and Portugal to possess all new lands east or west. "Show 46 THE ERA OF EXPLORATION. me," he said, satirically, " that clause in the will of Father Adam which divides the earth between the Spanish and the Portuguese and excludes the French." l Verrazano (vdr- ra-tsa f no), a Florentine sailor in the French service, was sent out by Francis in 1524, and traced the coast north ward from Cape Fear, North Carolina, to some point in New England. He probably entered the Hudson River and the harbor of Newport. He, like others, was seeking a passage to India, but concluded that none such existed. Cartier s Voyages. Ten years passed before another effort was made. Then, in 1534, Jacques Cartier (zhdk cdr- tya ) sailed to America and entered and named the Gulf of St. Lawrence. He landed and took possession of the country in the name of the King of France. The next year he sailed up the St. Lawrence River as far as an Indian village named Hochelaga. This he named Montreal (Royal Mountain) from the lofty hill behind it. He called the whole country New France. 2 The Huguenots in Florida. The religious wars of France gave rise to the next attempt to found a colony. In 1562, Coligny (co-len-ye r ), the great Protestant leader, sent out a body of Huguenot (French Protestant) colonists under Jean Ribault (zhdn re-bo }, who sailed to Florida, entered the St. John s River, and then went north to a harbor which he named Port Royal. This effort failed. The colonists, weary of the wilderness, and pining for 1 It is said that Baron de Lery, a French nobleman, tried to plant a colony on Sable Island in 1518. But hunger assailed him and his colonists, and they were glad to escape starvation by flight. 2 Cartier returned in 1541 as an agent of the Lord of Roberval, who made an attempt to found a colony in Canada. This effort ended in failure in 1543. Religious wars in France hindered any further effort by the French for a half-century. THE FRENCH EXPLORERS. 47 France, built a rude vessel and sailed for home. They were rescued from probable death by an English ship. In 1564 a second expedition, under Laudonniere (lo- d&n-yair 1 ), landed on the St. John s River, and built a fort which they called Fort Carolina. 1 Ribault afterward brought out reinforcements. The Spanish Massacre. This region was claimed by Spain, and as soon as news of the French settlement PORT SAN MARCO, ST. AUGUSTINE. reached that country an expedition was sent out, under Pedro Menendez, a naval officer, with orders to drive the intruders off the land. Menendez landed in Florida in 1 Laudonniere s colonists suffered greatly. Food grew so scarce that they were obliged to eat sorrel, roots, pounded fish-bones, and roasted snakes. They traded their clothes with the Indians for fish, and found their sufferings treated with mockery by the savages. 48 THE ERA OF EXPLORATION. 1565, built a fort which he named St. Augustine, and then marched overland to the French colony, which he over came by surprise and treachery. Obtaining possession of the fort, he murdered every soul in it, men, women, and children. A few had escaped to the woods, and these, after strange adventures, got back to France. . Ribault had meanwhile set sail with a force to attack the Spanish, but his fleet was wrecked in a tempest, and the shipwrecked colonists were found by Menendez on his return. Two hundred escaped, but the remainder, one hundred and fifty in number, surrendered, and were marched to St. Augustine, with their hands tied behind them. Here they were ruthlessly massacred. Those who had escaped were afterward captured and made slaves for life. The Massacre Revenged. No notice was taken of this deed of blood by the government of France. But a private gentleman, named Dominique de Gourgues (do-rril-nek f du goorg \ determined to revenge his murdered countrymen, even if they did differ with him in religion. He fitted out a secret expedition, sailed to Florida, and surprised the Spanish garrison at Fort Carolina, putting every soul to death. Being too weak to attack St. Augustine, he returned in triumph to France. 1 First Settlements in Canada. Not until after 1600 did the French succeed in planting a permanent colony. Their religious wars had ended in 1598, and they then first be came free for enterprise. The fisheries not only attracted 1 Menendez had hanged his captives at Fort Carolina, placing over their heads the inscription, " I do this not as to Frenchmen, but as to Lutherans." De Gourgues retorted in kind, hanging his prisoners where the French had been hung, and placing over them the inscrip tion, " I do this not as to Spaniards, but as to assassins." THE FRENCH EXPLORERS. 49 them, but the fur-trade also had now begun, and hopes of profit in this direction were large. Fish and furs alike drew them to the north, and all their later attempts at set tlement were made in Canada. 1 In 1603, Henry IV. gave to a Huguenot nobleman named De Monts (mong) the right to plant a colony in Acadia, a EARLY FRENCH SETTLEMENTS IN CANADA. district extending from the fortieth to the forty- sixth parallel of latitude (from the site of Phila delphia to that of Mon treal). This name was afterward restricted to the region which was finally named by the English New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. In the same year a French adventurer named Samuel de Champlain sailed up the St. Lawrence as far as Montreal. In 1604 a settlement called Port Royal 1 In 1598 the Marquis de la Roque established a colony on Sable Island, his colonists being taken from the prisons of France. It was abandoned after a few years, the prisoners being pardoned and per mitted to return. 50 THE ERA OF EXPLORATION. was made in Acadia by Poutrincourt (poo-tr&ng-coor ), a companion of De Monts. It was the first permanent French settlement in America, and preceded by three years the first English settlement. It was afterward named Annapolis in honor of the English Queen Anne. Champlain s Career. Champlain returned in 1608 and built a fort at Quebec, as a fur-trading post. This place became the centre of wide-spread French explorations, in the interests of trade, missionary work, and discovery. THE HEIGHTS OF QUEBEC. Champlain discovered the beautiful lake which bears his name, and pushed his explorations westward as far as Lake Huron. He found himself in a centre of Indian war, and was induced by the Hurons to take their part in their wars with the Iroquois, the powerful Indian confederacy of New York. The first Indian battle in which the whites took part was fought in 1609, at a point near the site of Fort Ticonderoga, to which the Hurons, with their French allies, had as cended in canoes up Lake Champlain. The muskets of the whites, new and terrible weapons to the Indians, won Champlain and his followers an easy victory. But it was THE FRENCH EXPLORERS. 51 destined to be a costly one. It made the Iroquois bitter enemies of the French, and they afterward revenged their defeat in blood. They were always ready in after-years to join the English against the French, and did much to save New York from French occupancy. It was due to their hostility that the French made no settlements south of the lakes. Missionary Explorations. The later explorations of the French were largely accomplished by two unlike classes of men, the fur-traders and the Jesuit missionaries. The former penetrated deeply into the forests, lived on terms of intimacy with the Indians, and were strikingly active and daring in their excursions. The missionaries were equally fearless in their efforts to convert the Indians to the Chris tian faith. They suffered severely at the hands of the sav ages, and many of them were put to death with torture, but their zeal and energy were not to be overcome, and they forced their way deep into the continent. In 1673, Father Marquette, hearing of a great river called by the Indians the "Father of Waters," floated down the Wisconsin in a birch-bark canoe to the Missis sippi, which he descended to the mouth of the Arkansas. He went as a companion to Joliet, a famous explorer. Fear of the Indians and of capture by the Spaniards prevented their going farther south. In 1680 another Jesuit mission ary, Father Hennepin, explored the upper Mississippi as far as the Falls of St. Anthony. La Salle s Discoveries. But the greatest of these ex plorers was Robert de la Salle, who had been educated as a Jesuit, but had established a trading-post at the outlet of Lake Ontario. There was never a more indefatigable ex plorer. About -1669 he made an expedition in which he discovered the Ohio and Illinois Rivers. The first vessel 52 THE ERA OF EXPLORATION. ever seen on the Great Lakes was launched by him in 1679. In this, which he called the Griffin, he traversed Lakes Erie, Huron, and Michigan. Sending the vessel back for supplies, he built a fort on the Illinois River. The vessel was lost, and in 1680 he made his way through a thousand miles of wilderness to Montreal for the purpose of obtaining sup plies, with which he returned to the Illinois. Louisiana. La Salle s life during the next two years was full of misfortune and adventure, but in 1682 he .launched his canoes on the Mississippi, and floated down that great stream to its mouth. Here, on the 9th of April of that year, he planted the banner of France and took possession of the great stream and the surrounding country in the name of Louis XIV. He named the country Louisiana, after this monarch, and afterward sought to found a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi ; but through an error the colony landed on the coast of Texas, where it was subsequently destroyed by the Spaniards. La Salle started on foot for Canada to obtain aid for the suffering colonists, but had not gone far before he was murdered by some mutinous companions. Work and Claims of the French. The French in America at the date now reached were not numerous, but their enterprise had been great. They had explored the Great Lakes, trav ersed Lakes Champlain and George, passed down the Mississippi from the Falls of St. Anthony to the Gulf, and journeyed widely through the interior. Here and there they had planted settlements in the wilderness, and had established military posts on the lakes and the Mississippi. A FRENCH WOODSMAN. THE ENGLISH EXPLORERS. 53 Their claims were greater than their discoveries, especially those made by La Salle, which covered the whole valley of the Mississippi as far east as the Alleghanies and indefi nitely westward. 3. THE ENGLISH EXPLORERS. Beginnings of English Exploration. Though an English expedition, that of the Cabots, was the first to discover North America, the English were slower than the French in ex ploring it. They did not seek American waters until after 1560, when Sir John Hawkins, a famous sailor, began to kidnap negroes in Africa and sell them as slaves to the Spanish in the West Indies. At that time few people saw anything wrong in slavery. Hawkins was looked upon as honest and pious. He felt that he was helping English trade by dealing in slaves, and had on his coat of arms a picture of a negro bound with a cord. Sir Francis Drake. Other English mariners engaged in piracy, seizing the Spanish treasure-ships and robbing them of their gold and silver. Among these was another famous English seaman, Sir Francis Drake. His expeditions against the Spanish ships and settlements began in 1567 and ended in 1595. In 1577 he sailed on a piratical expedition to the Pacific, gained great treasure by plunder on the coasts of Chile and Peru, and sailed north as far as the coast of Oregon, in the hope of finding a passage to the Atlantic. He landed at Drake s Bay, north of San Francisco, and claimed the country for the King of England, giving it the name of New Albion. He returned home by way of the Cape of Good Hope, and was thus the second to circum navigate the globe. The Northwest Passage. This kind of enterprise was not very creditable to England. It was followed by efforts 54 THE ERA OF EXPLORATION. at exploration. In 1576, nearly eighty years after the voyages of the Cabots, another expedition sought North America. This was commanded by Sir Martin Frobisher, who hoped to find a northwest passage to Asia by which English ships could reach India, since at that time the Portu guese controlled the route thither by way of Africa, and had the monopoly of the trade. He discovered Frobisher Bay and brought back much information about the Eski mos. 1 Captain John Davis made three voyages northward for the same purpose (1585-89), but did little beyond dis covering Davis Strait. These were the first polar explora tions. Sir Humphrey Gilbert. The next English explorer was Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who sailed west in 1579, with a grant from Queen Elizabeth of any new lands he might discover. His first effort failed, and in 1583 he went again, with the purpose of planting a colony in the new world. Landing on Newfoundland, he claimed that island for the queen. 2 Again he met with wreck, and started home in his smallest vessel. A storm arose and the ship and crew 1 He brought back a black stone which the London goldsmiths said contained gold, and the story soon gained currency that the lucky ex plorer had found the place where King Solomon got the gold for his temple in Jerusalem. A stock company was now formed, and Fro bisher went back with fifteen ships and a colony, which returned with him, though he brought several ship-loads of the black stones. That is the last we hear of Solomon s mines or the gold-bearing stones. But we do hear that a few years later Frobisher s wife was begging help from the government. 2 At that time there were more ships finding their way to the Ameri can coast than we have any record of in history. When Gilbert entered the harbor of St. John s, Newfoundland, he found there thirty-six ves sels belonging to various nations. It is said that at that early date four hundred vessels annually visited Newfoundland. THE ENGLISH EXPLORERS. 55 went down. Only one vessel of the fleet escaped to report Gilbert s loss. 1 English Lethargy. Nearly a century had now passed since the voyages of the Cabots, and, beyond the effort of Gilbert, no attempt had been made to take possession of the territory claimed for the English crown. Spain had established herself in Florida and the south, drawn thither by the lure of gold. France was preparing to colonize the Canadian north, drawn by the lure of fish and furs. A broad region of unoc cupied and unexplored country lay between, waiting for an oc cupant. Sir Walter Raleigh. The first who made an effort to take possession of this territory was Sir Walter Raleigh (raw le), half-brother to Sir Hum phrey Gilbert, and a favorite of Queen Elizabeth. When she learned that her favorite courtier wished to colonize the new world she gave him a charter granting him the right to settle any territory not occupied by Christian settlers, and making him governor and law-maker for the colony, though she stipulated that the colonists should have all the political and religious rights of Englishmen. Raleigh s Colonies. Raleigh was not able to go in per- SIR WALTER RALEIGH. 1 When the storm arose Gilbert was asked by the captain of the larger ship to come on board his vessel. But he refused to desert his crew, saying, "We are as near to heaven by sea as by land." Night fell, and when day dawned again the vessel had disappeared. 56 THE ERA OF EXPLORATION. son, but he sent out several expeditions, the first in 1584, the last in 1587. They landed on Roanoke Island, on the coast of what is now North Carolina, though Queen Eliza beth was so pleased with the reports of the beauty and fertility of the country that she named it Virginia, in honor of herself as a virgin queen. The first American child of English parents, born on Roanoke Island in 1587, was given the same name, being called Virginia Dare. Raleigh s colonies did not prosper. The first returned home to escape starvation. 1 War with Spain prevented any aid being sent to the 1587 colony for several years, and when it was sent the colony had disappeared and no trace of it could be found. For years afterward Raleigh sent out vessels in search of his vanished colony, but in vain. He finally gave up the enterprise and assigned his rights under the charter to a company of London merchants and adventurers. Gosnold s Expedition. It was not until after 1600 that England succeeded in planting a successful colony in America. In 1602, Bartholomew Gosnold crossed the ocean to the New England coast, pursuing the direct course, instead of following the southern track of Colum bus, as had been the custom. He discovered a cape which 1 The colonists brought home with them two very important prod ucts of the new world. One of these was the potato, which was soon found to be a valuable article of food, and which is now very widely cultivated. The other was tobacco, which was received with great favor in England, and in time grew to be one of the most important articles of American exportation. Raleigh was perhaps the first who learned to smoke it in England. The story is told that, while he was smoking one morning, a servant who was bringing him a mug of ale became frightened on seeing a cloud of smoke issuing from his mouth, and flung the ale in his face to extinguish the fancied flames. THE ENGLISH EXPLORERS. 57 he named Cape Cod, from the great number of codfish found there, and built on Cuttyhunk Island the first house erected in Massachusetts. He proposed to leave a colony there, but finding an abundance of sassafras-root and cedar logs, then valuable in England, he loaded his vessel with these and returned. The London and Plymouth Companies. The next step in the history of American colonization was taken by James I., who became King of England in 1603. In 1606 he gave a charter to two companies to colonize America. One of these was formed of London merchants, and was called the London Company. The other was formed of people of Plymouth and its vicinity, and was called the Plymouth Company. Virginia, which they were to colonize, was then held to extend from Florida to Canada. North and South Virginia. The charter granted to the London Company the tract between latitudes 34 and 38, extending from about Cape Fear to the mouth of the Poto mac. This was called South Virginia. To the Plymouth Company was granted the tract between latitudes 41 and 45, or from about Long Island to Nova Scotia. This was called North Virginia. The middle strip, between the Poto mac and the Hudson, was open to both companies, though each was to possess the country for one hundred miles around any settlement it should make in this region. It was later added that these strips of land should extend from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Men then had very vague ideas how far off the Pacific was, and several sought to reach it by sailing up the rivers from the Atlantic coast. Attempts at Colonization. In 1607 both companies tried to form colonies. Sir George Popham made an attempt, under the Plymouth Company, to found a colony at the mouth of the Kennebec, Maine. But the winter was 58 THE ERA OF EXPLORATION. severe, and in the spring the half-starved and half-frozen emigrants gladly made their way home. In the same year the London Company sent out a colony which narrowly escaped a similar fate. It landed at a point on James River, and founded at Jamestown 1 the FIRST PER MANENT ENGLISH COLONY IN AMERICA. 4. THE DUTCH EXPLORERS. Henry Hudson s Expedition. Two years afterward, in 1609, the Dutch made their first effort to explore the New ______ * T - J: - ; . World. They had a flourishing trade with the East Indies (Hindu stan and the adjoining islands), and it was with a hope of finding a west ward passage to that region that Henry Hud son, an Englishman in the service of Holland, was sent across the Atlantic. In his little ship, the Half-Moon, he entered New York Bay, and THE HALF-MOON IN THE HUDSON. Salled U P the Hudson, the river that bears his name, to the head of tide-water, near Albany. He hoped that this stream would lead him to the Pacific Ocean. In 1 The names James River and Jamestown were given in honor of James I. of England. The headlands at the river s outlet were named Cape Henry and Cape Charles from the king s sons. VIRGINIA. TERRITORY CLAIMED BY THE ENGLISH. NEW FRANCE. TERRITORY CLAIMED BY THE FRENCH. FLORIDA. TERRITORY CLAIMED BY THE NEW NETHERLAND. TERRITORY CLAIMED BY SPANISH. THE DUTCH. 59 60 THE ERA OF EXPLORATION. this, of course, he failed ; but it was found that the Indians had valuable furs, which they were eager to trade for knives, hatchets, and other goods, and Dutch traders soon made their -way to the Hudson. By 1614 a trading station was established on Manhattan Island, at the river s mouth. This station was the beginning of the great city of New York. Claims of the European Nations. Though the settle ments of England, France, and Spain on United States territory were still very small their claims were large. The Spanish held that Florida extended northward without definite limit. Their claim was founded on the discovery by Columbus and the explorations of De Leon and others. The French claimed that New France, as their domain in America was called, extended on the Atlantic from New York to Labrador, and embraced the basins of the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River, with all their tributary streams. This claim was founded on the discoveries of Verrazano, Cartier, Champlain, and La Salle. The English claim extended from Labrador to Florida, and westward to the Pacific. It was based on the voyages of the Cabots. New Netherlands, the Dutch claim, was held to extend from Cape May to Nova Scotia, and indefinitely westward. It was founded on the discoveries of Henry Hudson. In all this vast territory there were but a few hundred white settlers. Yet the rival claims were almost sure to end in a struggle for possession, and finally brought on a bitter war between England and France. III. THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. i. THE COLONY IN VIRGINIA. Colonial Diversity. We have hitherto dealt with the roots of American history. From these roots grew up a number of separate and unlike stems, which in the end combined to form one great national trunk. In other words, from the work of the explorers and settlers arose a number of distinct colonies, which finally united into the federal republic of the United States of America. These colonies were like so many separate nations, each with a history of its own. We are obliged, therefore, to tell a number of stories instead of a single story. At the time of the Revolution there were thirteen such colonies. But it does not follow that we have thirteen stories to tell. The New England colonies have but one history. The history of New Jersey is subordinate to that of New York. Delaware was until the Revolution a part of Pennsylvania. The two Carolinas were long a single colony. As a result we have, instead of thirteen, only seven stories to tell. And these during the wars with the French colonies flow together and become a single story. From that time forward there is but one colonial history. The Settlement of Jamestown. In 1607 the London Company, being desirous of planting a colony within its territory, sent out three ships with one hundred and five colonists, all men. Of these, fifty-two were " gentlemen," 61 62 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. that is, persons of good family, not accustomed to labor. The others were mechanics and tradesmen. Captain New port, the commander, was directed to land on Roanoke Island, the seat of Raleigh s unfortunate colonies. But a storm forced the fleet to seek refuge in Chesapeake Ray, and there they sailed up a river, which they named the James. The situation was attractive. The banks of the river were covered with flowers. The country seemed likely to make excellent farming territory. It is said that the Indians called it the " good land. 1 The colonists, therefore, deter mined to remain there, and landed, May 13, 1607, on a peninsula which they named Jamestown. Unfortunate Conditions. Unfortunately, they had not been wisely chosen. There were too many " gentlemen" in their ranks. There were no women. They were more inclined to hunt for gold than to build comfortable habita tions and till the ground. Their food gave out. The spot proved unhealthy. Within four months half of them had died of fever or been killed by the Indians, who proved hostile. The rest of them would have perished from starva tion had not some friendly Indians brought them corn. Rut when autumn came the frosts stopped the fever, game was found in abundance, and log huts were built in which to pass the winter. Affairs now began to look brighter. Captain John Smith. The safety and success of the colony were due to one man, Captain John Smith, a man of remarkable powers and resources, and of a history replete with stirring adventures. It may safely be said that but for him the colony at Jamestown would soon have proved a failure. 1 1 The story of Smith is one of high interest. He was born in 1579, fought while quite young in the wars in the Netherlands, was ship- THE COLONY IN VIRGINIA. JOHN SMITH. Smith seeks the Pacific. Smith kept himself busy in exploring the country. One of his expeditions was made for the purpose of seeking the Pacific Ocean. This was done by order of the company, who supposed that a journey of two hundred miles might bring them to it. 1 As the James River had already been tried in vain, the Chicka- hominy was now attempted. The Adventure with Pow- hatan. In this expedition Smith was taken prisoner by the In dians and brought before Pow- hatan, the great chief of the neighboring tribe. His wit now saved his life. He amazed the Indians by showing them his pocket compass, and astonished them by writing a letter to Jamestown, which informed his friends of his misfortune. They could not comprehend the mystery of " talking paper. 1 But, according to the story of Captain Smith, it needed more than this to save his life. He tells us that Powhatan condemned him to death, and had ordered a warrior to knock out his brains with a club, when Pocahontas, the youthful daughter of the chief, ran forward, clasped her arms around his head, and prevented the blow. wrecked, robbed, and fell into great want in France. He afterward fought against the Turks, and killed three of them in single combat. He was taken prisoner, made a slave, and escaped by killing his master. Making his way back to England, he joined the colony about to sail for America. He was brave and able, but vain and boastful. 1 A map sold in London in 1651 represents Virginia as a narrow strip of land between the two oceans. 64 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. As we have only Smith s word for this romantic incident, and as he was in the habit of boasting of his exploits, many doubt this story. But it may be true, for white men have often been saved by the interference of Indian women. Smith s Activity and Energy. Smith was certainly an active and energetic man and the soul of the colony. He had been appointed by the king one of its gov erning council, and soon became president of the council and the acting governor of the colony. As an explorer he kept himself busy, sailing up Chesapeake Bay, enter ing its inlets and rivers, obtaining food from the Indians by coaxing or threatening, and in other ways making himself useful. Pools Gold. He had enough to do to keep the colonists from ruining themselves. One of them found a yellow substance which he thought was gold. At once, in spite of Smith s protests, they aban doned everything else and set to work digging this worthless stuff and loading a vessel with it. On reaching England the cargo proved to be what is known as iron pyrites, a yellow mineral which has been well named " fools gold." Laziness and Profanity Overcome. But to make the people work was no easy task. Smith tried a radical plan, SMITH MEETING THE INDIANS. THE COLONY IN VIRGINIA. 65 those who would not work being given nothing to eat. Swearing seems to have been an epidemic in the colony, but he broke that up by having a can of cold water poured down the sleeve of each swearer for every oath. He had won the friendship of Powhatan, and the troubles with the Indians ceased. They came to look on Captain Smith as a superior being, and when rain was wanted used to beg him to pray for it. Smith Returns. Under his directions some more com fortable houses were built and a number of fields were cleared and planted with corn. All would perhaps have gone well now but for a serious accident to the redoubt able captain. In 1609 he was badly injured by the explo sion of a bag of gunpowder and obliged to return to England. He never came back to Virginia. The Starving- Time. The departure of Captain Smith was like the removal of a safety-valve from an engine. The people at once fell back into laziness and improvidence. Work ceased. The food was consumed, the Indians became hostile again, and refused to bring food. New colonists came, men and women now, but they were the refuse of London streets and jails, and matters grew worse instead of better. ^ In the winter of 1609-10 affairs in the colony reached their lowest ebb. Sickness arid famine attacked the people. Some of them were killed by the Indians. Others seized a vessel and sailed away as pirates. Death assailed the settlers on all sides, and when spring came only sixty out of about five hundred persons remained alive. That mis erable winter was well named " The Starving Time." The Colony Abandoned. In the spring a vessel came, bringing Sir Thomas Gates and Sir George Somers, who had been wrecked on the Bermuda Islands the autumn 6 66 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. before. They found matters in so desperate a state that it was resolved to abandon the country and take the few survivors back to England. Some of the settlers, glad to escape from that wretched place, proposed to burn James town, but fortunately this was not done. There was none to shed a tear over their ruined hopes, none that mourned their wrecked enterprise. Lord Delaware Arrives. They had actually embarked and dropped some distance down the river with the tide, when they met a fleet of ships coming up the stream. It was commanded by Lord Delaware, who had been ap pointed governor of Virginia by the London Company, and given a new charter under which he had entire control of the colony. The ships contained abundant supplies and a new company of colonists, and at the command of the new governor the vessel turned back and Jamestown was once more saved from ruin. Lord Delaware, on landing, fell upon his knees and thanked God that he had come in time to save Virginia. Governor Dale. Lord Delaware remained but a few months, ill health obliging him to return. Governor Dale, a stern old soldier, succeeded him. He was a rigid marti net. If a colonist dared to criticise his doings, he had a hole bored through his tongue. A man who refused to go to church was starved and whipped until he changed his mind. Communism. Yet with all his strictness he had good sense. Up to this time the colony had been conducted on the plan of communism. That is, there was no separate property. All things belonged to the community. All products were brought to the public storehouse, out of which every one was fed. This system was well meant, but it did not work well, since it discouraged industry and THE COLONY IN VIRGINIA. 67 encouraged idleness. The lazy would not work at all if they could get food without. The industrious would not work hard if they were to be no better off for it. A Change of Plan. Governor Dale changed this system. He gave every settler a tract of land, on which he could work for himself. At a later date any one was permitted to purchase one hundred acres. At once a new spirit was shown. Work became brisk. Even the lazy were spurred to exertion. It was now only required that each farmer should bring yearly two arid a half bushels of corn to the public granary, as a tax in kind. A New Industry. In 1612, John Rolfe, a prominent settler, began the systematic culture of tobacco. This plant was rapidly becoming an article of common use in Eng land. King James was strongly opposed to it, and wrote a pamphlet called " Counterblast against Tobacco." But as his people smoked in spite of his counterblast, he tried to make it of use by laying a heavy tax on it. 1 The demand for tobacco increased. By 1616 the settlers were giving nearly all their time to it. At one time it was planted even in the streets of Jamestown. Its cultivation quickly carried the colony from adversity to prosperity. Many English farmers now came to Virginia, hoping to make their fortunes from the new plant. By 1619 the annual shipment of tobacco to England was more than forty thousand pounds. By 1670 it reached twelve million pounds. The Effect of this Industry. As a result of this cul ture nearly all the Virginians became farmers. Few towns 1 Tobacco had long been in use by the Indians. Its name is believed to have been derived from " tabaco," the Carib name for the instru ment used in inhaling its smoke. It was first brought to England by Sir Francis Drake. 68 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. were built. Tobacco plantations were formed on the banks of all the rivers, where vessels could load and whence the tobacco could be shipped direct to England. In time plan tations lined both banks of the James for many miles, while the culture flourished also on the banks of the Chesapeake and of its smaller rivers. Marriage of Pocahontas. John Rolfe, who introduced the culture of tobacco in 1612, married the following year, his wife being Pocahontas, the Indian maiden who had saved Captain Smith s life, and who had now grown to Avomanhood. She was baptized in the little church of Jamestown, and there married to young Rolfe. Three years afterward he took her to England, where her grace and simplicity of manners won the greatest admiration. As she was about to return to Virginia with her husband, she suddenly sickened and died. She left an infant son, who gained distinction in later life, and from whom many Virginians of to-day are indirectly or directly descended. This marriage had one important effect. It won the friendship of Powhatan, the father of Pocahontas, for the colonists. There was no more trouble with the Indians while he lived, while his death was quickly followed by a massacre. Importation of "Women. Rolfe s seeking an Indian bride may have been partly due to the lack of young women in Virginia. There were married women there, POCAHONTAS. THE COLONY IN VIRGINIA, 69 but few maidens. This was a serious defect in the organi zation of the colony, and the London Company, perceiving this want, sent over ninety young women as wives for the colonists. The price for the passage of each was fixed at one hundred pounds of the best tobacco, afterward it went up to one hundred and fifty pounds, a sum which had to be paid by the young planters who wanted these maidens for wives. The price was willingly paid, and the demand was so brisk that the first importation was quickly disposed of, and others were sent for. The Need of Laborers. The demand for new immi grants was not confined to wives. Laborers were as greatly needed. The rapidly growing cultivation of the tobacco plant had caused the taking up of large tracts of land, divided into numerous plantations, and needing many hands alike for work in the fields, the curing of the leaf, and its conveyance to the water s edge for shipment abroad. The Apprentice System. This need was filled in a violent manner, well suited to the character of the times, but which would be impossible in these days. Shiploads of criminals were taken from the crowded prisons of Eng land and sent to Virginia to be sold into years of slavery. This business became profitable, and the numbers were added to by kidnapping. Gypsies, vagabonds, and orphan children were seized in the English seaports and sent as laborers across the ocean. The vile gangs of kidnappers did not confine themselves to this class, but reputable per sons were sometimes added to the number. Some enter prising young men without money, who wanted to get to America, came over willingly in this way. In Virginia these persons were bound out to labor for a term of years. They were called " indentured servants," 70 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. but were practically slaves during their term of service. When set free some of them became planters themselves ; some fell back into their old idle vagabondage ; some made their way to the frontier and became hunters and trappers. Negro Slavery. In August, 1619, a Dutch vessel came into the James River, and sold twenty negroes as slaves to the colonists. As they proved useful on the plantations, others were soon brought. By the year 1700 there were enough of them to serve the purposes of the planters, and the system of white apprenticeship soon ceased. System of Government. Up to 1619 the colonists were virtually slaves themselves. They had no voice in their own gov ernment, but were ruled ab solutely by a coun cil which was ruled by the king. When governors came, beginning with Lord Dela ware, they had arbitrary power, and used it in an arbi trary fashion. They made what laws they pleased, and forced the people to work for the benefit of the company. This system worked well ...... r, i i THE MIDDLE COLONIES. enough with the French and Spanish colonists, who had been governed in much the same way at home, and knew no better method. It did THE COLONY IN VIRGINIA. 71 not work so well with Englishmen, who had long possessed a voice in their own government by electing the members of parliament who made the laws. In 1619 there were four thousand white people in Virginia, and they had grown tired of being treated as children or slaves. The First Colonial Assembly. The people were divided into eleven settlements or "boroughs." Oppressed by Argall, a deputy governor, they demanded a reform in the government, and the London Company consented to give them a voice in legislation. Governor Yeardley, who was sent to succeed Argall, called on the boroughs to elect each two " burgesses," or representatives, to be members of a law-making assembly called to meet at Jamestown. This assembly was made up of the governor and the council, chosen by the company, and the burgesses, elected by the people. It met in the choir of the little church at Jamestown, July 30, 1619, being the first legislative body ever formed in America. Thus was the English system of self-government transferred to Virginia. The assembly was called the House of Burgesses. 1 The laws passed by it needed to be ratified by the London Company ; but, on the other hand, the orders of the company had to be ratified by the assembly. Virginia, therefore, was given a large share in its own government. 2 Virginia a Royal Province. King James of England, who did not strongly favor the freedom of the people, was not pleased with this action of the London Company. He 1 One of the burgesses in the first assembly was named Jefferson. More than one hundred and fifty years afterward a descendant of this man, named Thomas Jefferson, wrote the Declaration of Independence. 2 In 1620 the privileges given to the people were confirmed in a written constitution, an instrument under which Virginia long con tinued a self-governed community. 72 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. disliked the company for other reasons. As Virginia had grown populous, the company had become rich and pow erful. Among its members were several peers and many rich merchants. In politics it supported the party opposed to the king, and he determined to rob it of its power. To do this he charged it with mismanagement and brought suit against it in the courts. The judges favored the king, as judges were very apt to do at that time, and the company lost its charter, and with it its power. This was in 1624. Virginia thus became a royal province, or one under the direct rule of the king. Fortunately, he did not deprive it of self-government, but he set to work to write out for it a new code of laws. Before this was ready he died (in March, 1625), and his son, Charles I., became king. . Charles I. did not like free government any more than his father had done. But he got into so much trouble at home in trying to govern England without a parliament that he had little time to occupy himself with matters abroad. So Virginia kept its House of Burgesses and its power of making laws and voting taxes. The Indians Peaceful. While these political movements were in progress, and Virginia was rapidly growing in wealth and population, the Indians were quiet and peaceful. Powhatan had remained the firm friend of the whites, and efforts were being made to civilize and educate the savages. But Powhatan died in 1618, his brother, Opechan kano, became chief of the confederacy of tribes, and a change of feeling arose. The Massacre. The new chief vowed that the sky should fall before he would break the peace. But he was secretly jealous of the whites, who were gradually taking possession of the land, and quietly organized a conspiracy THE COLONY IN VIRGINIA. 73 for their extermination. The plot was kept a complete secret. On the morning fixed for the massacre, March 22, 1622, the Indians visited the houses and sat at the tables of their former friends. Suddenly the work of death began. At a fixed moment the colonists were attacked at all points and slaughtered without mercy. The men at work in the fields were killed with their own hoes and hatchets. Men and women in the houses were ruthlessly slain. Only one settlement escaped. A converted Indian had warned a friend, and he put Jamestown and the surrounding plantations on their guard. Yet so murderous was the assault that in that day of blood three hundred and forty-seven men, women, and children fell victims to their merciless foes. Sympathy for the Colonists. This dreadful affair was a staggering blow to the colony. It was the more so since the Indians kept up their attacks, so that before the war ended the four thousand Virginians were reduced to two thousand five hundred. Great sympathy was felt abroad. Even King James was kind enough to send over some useless old arms that had been stored in the Tower of London. Captain Smith, then living quietly in London, offered to go over to the help of the colonists if the company would send out a suitable force. But the company, while ready with its sympathy, was not inclined to spend its profits by providing armed men, so Smith stayed at home, and the colonists were left to fight for themselves. Their Revenge. This they did fiercely and bloodily. As soon as the first panic was over revenge on the Indians began. Their villages were burned ; they were hunted from place to place ; they were killed like so many venomous snakes. It was ten years before peace was restored, and by that time great numbers of Indians had been slain. 74 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. The Second Massacre. Another Indian outbreak took place in 1644. Five hundred persons now fell dead before the weapons of the savages. As before, the reprisal was equally bloody, and in the end all the natives were driven from the settled region, which was kept for the whites alone. Royal Oppression. Though Charles I. had enough to keep him occupied at home, he managed to make trouble for his loyal subjects in Virginia. In 1629 he sent over Sir John Harvey as governor, and Sir John soon showed his idea of public honesty by robbing the treasury and trying to sell lands belonging to individuals. In six years the people, in whom the spirit of freedom was growing, sent home this titled thief, greatly to the dis pleasure of the king. He tried to send Harvey back, but the people were resolute, the king s troubles were growing at home, and he settled the matter by sending over a new governor, Sir William Berkeley, who was destined to prove worse even than Harvey. Berkeley as Governor. Berkeley was a thorough aris tocrat. He did not believe in popular government any more than the king, and thanked God that Virginia had no such things as free schools and a printing-press. He retired from office while Oliver Cromwell was in power, but in 1660, when Charles II. came to the throne, Berkeley became governor again, and made himself the autocrat of Virginia. For sixteen years he ruled the province according to his own will. There was a House of Burgesses, it is true, but the members were in sympathy with him, and during all those years no new election was held, so that the people had no voice in the government. Other Measures of Oppression. During Cromwell s time " Navigation Laws " were passed which forbade the THE COLONY IN VIRGINIA. 75 Virginians to send tobacco to or receive goods from any country except England. Charles II. determined to enforce these laws, which had not been strictly obeyed. The result was ruinous to the planters. As they had only an English market, they must sell for what the English merchants chose to give, and pay for their sugar, cloth, and other goods whatever English merchants chose to ask. That was not all, nor the worst. In 1673 the profligate king gave away the whole of Virginia, a colony then con taining forty thousand people, to two of his favorites, the Earl of Arlington and Lord Culpeper, as coolly as if he were disposing of so much unoccupied land. The People Rebellious. It was not very easy, even at the will of a king, for two men to take possession of what was almost a nation. The two lords did not find it con venient to lay hold of their new estate, with its angry thousands of landholders. The king s gift had made the people rebellious. Their homes and estates had been granted to strangers, they had no assembly to represent and protect them, their taxes were enormous, their crops had lost most of their value. They had little but their lives, and these now became endangered. The Indians on the War-Path. In 1676 the Indians again rose and began massacring the frontier settlers. The savages had been treated treacherously, and retaliated in their usual way. Defence was necessary, and the gov ernor was appealed to for aid. He declined to give it. His oppressive government had made him so many enemies that he was afraid to call out a military force, lest it should turn against himself. In this dilemma a young lawyer and planter, Nathaniel Bacon by name, a member of the governor s council, asked Berkeley for a commission to raise a defensive force. It 76 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. was not granted, and Bacon, whose own plantation was attacked, raised a force without a commission and pro ceeded against the foe. Bacon s Rebellion. Bacon defeated the enemy, but he infuriated the governor, who denounced him as a traitor. He at once returned, appeared before Jamestown, and by a show of force compelled Berkeley to grant him the com mission and to order the election of a new assembly. Of this Bacon was made a member. The Indians were still in arms, and twice Bacon pro ceeded against them. But he was no sooner out of sight than Berkeley again proclaimed him a traitor and his men rebels. There was nothing left for the people but civil war. Twice Bacon returned from the field and took pos session of Jamestown. On the second occasion (Septem ber, 1676) it was set on fire and burned to the ground, some of the patriots burning their own dwellings that they might not become places of shelter for the enemy. The town was never rebuilt. The ruined tower of the old brick church is nearly the only relic that remains of it. Bacon s Death. So far the people were successful. How the affair would have ended no one can say, for in his hour of triumph the bold young leader took sick and died (Octo ber 1, 1676). With his death the war came to an end. The troops, having no leader, dispersed. Berkeley was in power again, and proceeded to use his power mercilessly. He hung more than twenty of the principal people with hardly the form of a trial. Peace and autocracy were restored with the aid of bloodshed. 1 Just a century after 1 Drummond, one of Bacon s chief supporters, fell into Berkeley s hands. "You are very welcome, Mr. Drummond," said the vindictive governor. "I am more glad to see you than any man in Virginia. You shall be hanged in half an hour." And he was. " God has been THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 77 the rebellion of Bacon the descendants of those engaged in it met again at Williamsburg, the new capital of Virginia, and proclaimed a new rebellion, that which led to inde pendence from Great Britain. Later Events. Charles II. recalled Berkeley, and repri manded him so sharply that the old tyrant is said to have died of a broken heart in consequence. Lord Culpeper, one of those to whom the king had given Virginia, came out as governor in 1680. It was his aim to get as much money out of the people as possible, but the king stopped his measures by revoking the grant and recalling the governor. After that all went well and smoothly in Virginia, and the people grew steadily in numbers, in wealth, and in comfort. 1 2. THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. PLYMOUTH. New England Named. The London Company, as we have seen, succeeded in founding a Colony in 1607. The Plymouth Company was less successful. After Gosnold s voyage almost every year some English ship visited the coast of North Virginia, as it was called, but no settlement was made. inexpressibly merciful to this poor province, 11 wrote Berkeley, after one of his hangings. Charles II., who was not pleased with Berkeley s methods, said of him, " That old fool has hung more men in that naked Country than I did for the murder of my father. 1 1 Edmund Spenser in 1590, in dedicating his " Faerie Queene 11 to Queen Elizabeth, spoke of her as queen of " England, France, and Ireland, and of Virginia." The coat of arms of the London Company, adopted in 1619, bore the motto En dat Virginia quintum, indicating Virginia as a fifth kingdom (Scotland being the fourth). The same motto was on the seal of Virginia adopted about 1663. From these facts Virginia gained its famous title of " The Old Dominion." 78 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. One of these ships brought Captain John Smith, five years after he had gone home from Jamestown. He was sent by the company, and explored the coast from Cape Cod to the Penobscot, making a map of it. He named the country New England. The First Settlement. Thus time went on until 1620, when a settlement was at length made. It was a remarkable one in many ways, and due to remarkable causes, of which it is necessary to speak. It was, after the Huguenot colony in Florida, the first known in history formed of men fleeing from religious persecution. It was to be followed by similar colonies in Maryland and Pennsylvania. Puritans and Separatists. King Henry VIII., about a hundred years before, had broken loose from the Church of Rome and formed the Church of England. But this church was so full of ceremony that many of the people wished, as they said, to purify it. From this they got the name of Puritans. There were others who went further. They did not approve of kings and bishops as the heads of the church, and many of them separated from the Church of England, and began to hold services in private houses. These became known as Separatists. The Separatists Seek Holland. This went on for thirty years. The Separatists suffered much persecution, and in 1608 a congregation of them fled to Holland from a little town named Scrooby, in Nottinghamshire. In Holland at that time there was more religious liberty than anywhere else in the world, and the fugitives were so well treated that others joined them, until there were more than a thousand in all. These fugitives for conscience sake might have stayed in Holland but for the fear that their children and grandchildren would lose their language and be lost in the Dutch popula- THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 79 tion. They wished to remain English, and for this reason some of them decided to go to America and found there a little state of their own. The Mayflower Pilgrimage. They looked upon them selves as " pilgrims" journeying to a far land, and ever since have been known as the Pilgrims. They wished to settle somewhere near the Hudson, not caring to go either to the English settlement of Jamestown or to the Dutch one on Manhattan Island. They easily got permission from the London Company. King James would not grant them a charter, but he let them go, and some London merchants supplied them with money, which they were to pay back by seven years hard labor. The Mayflower. In July, 1620, this little band of pilgrim emigrants left Delftshaven in Holland in the ship Speedwell, and sailed to Southampton, England, where a vessel called the Mayflower awaited them. They started with both ves sels, but the Speedwell leaked so badly that they had to seek the port of Plymouth, whence the Mayflower finally sailed alone. On September 16, 1620, the eventful voyage began, the Pilgrims numbering one hundred and two, men, women, and children. The weather was bad, and they did not reach the coast of America till November. The Pilgrims in Harbor. Cape Cod was first sighted. They tried to go farther south, but storms prevented, and on November 21 they dropped anchor in a harbor at the end of the cape (Provincetown Harbor). They had no authority to settle in New England, but decided to do so, and sent off a party to explore the coast. Finally they selected a locality which John Smith had named Plymouth on his map. They had sailed from Plymouth in England, and decided to retain the name, as very happily chosen. Landing of the Pilgrims. The Pilgrims were not all 80 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. men of peace. As the Jamestown colony had brought out a valorous soldier, Captain John Sm-ith, so the Mayflower brought Captain Miles Standish, a valiant warrior, who was to play an important part in the enterprise, and who was one of the exploring party which selected the place of landing. On the shore here is a granite boulder, one of many relics of the glacial period found along that coast. They are said to have landed on this boulder, and it has ever since been revered under the name of Plymouth Rock, the stepping-stone by which civilization entered New Eng land. The date was December 21, 1620. 1 The Compact of Government. A few days afterward the Mayflower arrived, and the Pilgrims landed at the chosen place. They had, before landing on Cape Cod, made a compact for their government in the cabin of the ship, in which they determined to make their own laws and choose their own governors. John Carver was the first chosen. Thus began the liberty-loving Commonwealth of New England. The First "Winter. The land was unoccupied. A few years before a pestilence had swept off all its Indian popu lation. But the hardships of a stormy voyage, poor food, and the lack of proper shelter during winter on that bleak coast had their natural effect. A large log hut was built, but it became a hospital, and by spring-time half the colo nists were dead, their governor among the number. That 1 The landing was made on December 11, according to the almanac at that time. But since that time the mode of counting time has been changed, ten days having been added to make the calendar agree with the sun. To change Old Style to New Style, as they are called, these ten days must be added. This changes December 11 to December 21. The 22d is usually kept as " Forefathers Day 1 in New England, through a mistake. THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 81 the Indians might not know of their losses, the graves were levelled, and Indian-corn was planted over the place of burial. In April the Mayflower returned to England, but not one of the surviving Pilgrims went in her. They had come to stay, and would not let their misfortunes drive them away. William Bradford was elected governor, and so well did he fill the office that every year until his death in 1657 he was re-elected, except for five years in which he declined to serve. The other chief leaders of the Pilgrims were Elder Brewster, their able expounder of the gospel, and Miles Standish, their stout-hearted man of war. Dealings with the Indians. In the spring of 1621 a treaty of peace was made with Massaso it, chief of the Wampano ag Indians. He remained their friend while he lived, and the treaty was not broken till 1675. 1 The Nar- ragansett Indians were more warlike in inclination. Their chief, Canonicus, sent to Plymouth a bundle of arrows tied with a snake s skin. Governor Bradford, taking this to be a declaration of war, filled the snake s skin with powder and bullets, and sent it back to the hostile chief. The savages looked at its contents with alarm. They had seen the effect of the white men s guns, and believed that they had the power of using thunder and lightning. Canonicus con cluded that he had better let them alone. 1 One day in early spring an Indian entered the village with the greeting, " Welcome, Englishmen." He was a chief named Same/set, who had learned some English words from the fishermen on the coast of Maine. He afterward brought an Indian named Squanto, who had been carried by force to England years before, and then brought back. Squanto stayed with the Pilgrims, and taught them how to plant their corn in the Indian fashion, by putting one or two fish for manure into every hill. He taught them other useful things and acted as their interpreter with the surrounding tribes. 6 82 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. Miles Standish dealt with hostile savages in a still more decided fashion. He discovered a plot among some of the savages to kill all the whites. Without hesitation he, and some of the stoutest of his followers, seized the plotters and killed them with their own knives. These measures secured peace in Plymouth for years. 1 The English Company Bought Out. The Pilgrims were still deeply in debt to the company of English merchants who had advanced the money for their enterprise. In 1626 they bought out the claims of these merchants, though to do so they had to borrow a large sum of money in London at an interest charge of from thirty to fifty per cent. But they were resolved to be free from debt at whatever cost. They had agreed that half the results of their labor for seven years should go to this company. Henceforth they were free from this eating debt, and had a fixed and definite sum to pay. 2 1 Miles Standish was not a member of the Pilgrim community, but went with them as their military leader. He was about thirty-six years of age, of short stature but strong build, and of hot and hasty temper. His wife died during the first winter at Plymouth, and tra dition tells that his fancy turned to a pretty maid named Priscilla Mullins, to whom he sent his friend John Alden to plead his cause. But the maiden answered, "Why not speak for yourself, John? 1 and Miles was taught the folly of not doing his own courting. In addition to being the military head of the colony, he was for years its treasurer. He found another wife, settled Duxbury, and died there in 1656. 2 A party of some thirty settlers started a colony at a place which they called Mount Wollaston (now Quincy). This fell under the control of one Morton, who named it Merry Mount, sold powder and shot to the Indians, gave refuge to runaway servants, and set up a May pole, around which high carnival was held, a cask of wine and a hogf head of ale being broached. These worldly revels were highly offen sive to the staid Pilgrims of Plymouth, and Miles Standish was sent to THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 83 Growth of the Colony. After the formation of the colony of Massachusetts Bay, in 1630, the Plymouth com munity grew faster. At that date there were only three hundred people in the colony. In 1640 it had a popu lation of nearly three thousand. In 1670 there were eight thousand, divided among twenty towns. But the Massa chusetts colony grew much more rapidly, and in the end absorbed that of Plymouth. MASSACHUSETTS BAY. The Puritans in England. The Puritans were a much larger body than the Separatists. They grew in time so powerful that they drove the king from his throne and established a Puritan commonwealth in England. But in the early reign of Charles I. they found England none too comfortable to live in, and small parties of them, following the example of the Pilgrims, began to cross the ocean in search of a place of refuge where they would be at liberty to worship God in their own way. Massachusetts 1 Bay. These emigrants formed little settlements on the shores of Massachusetts Bay. John Endicott came from Dorchester, England, in 1628, and settled with his followers at a place which he called Salem, 2 a Bible name meaning " Peace." Soon after a number of put an end to them. He did so in a summary fashion by seizing Mor ton and shipping him to England. 1 Massachusetts is supposed to mean, in Indian speech, " The Great Hills " The hills alluded to were probahly those of Milton, near Boston. The name, at first confined to the vicinity of Boston harbor, in time was applied to the whole State. 2 A small settlement was formed at Cape Ann in 1623, which re moved to Naumkeag (Salem) in 1626. 84 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. leading Puritans bought from the Plymouth Company a large tract of land, stretching from three miles south of the Charles River to three miles north of the Merrimac, and having no defined limit inland. They then obtained from Charles I. a charter incorporating them as the " Company of Massachusetts Bay." The Charter Brought to America. The company was privileged to elect its own governor, deputy governor, and council, who could enact laws for the colony, taking care that they did not conflict with the laws of England. Fortu nately, the charter did not say where the company should hold its meetings, and in 1629 it was decided to take this important paper to America. The king did not object. The Puritans annoyed him, and he was probably glad to get rid of as many of them as chose to emigrate from England. Winthrop s Colony. In 1630 the great emigration began. John Winthrop, of Groton, one of the best and noblest men of his time, sailed for America with eleven ships and nearly one thousand persons. Many horses and cattle were also brought. With them came the charter. Winthrop had been chosen by the company as resident governor. Boston Settled. From Salem, where they first landed, the Puritans soon went to Charlestown, and then JOHN WINTHROP. to a hilly peninsula opposite. The highest hill here had three peaks, from which the English called it Tri-mountain, or Tremont. The Indians called it Shawmut. The name was soon changed to Boston, after the old English city from which many of the colonists had come. THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 85 Growth of the Colony. The colony grew with encour aging rapidity. 1 By 1634 there were four thousand settlers, divided into about twenty villages. By 1640 the number had increased to about twenty thousand. From the first the settlement was prosperous. The soil was poor, and most of the colonists devoted themselves to other pursuits than farming. Very many of them engaged in the fisheries. The imported cattle soon increased largely, pigs rooted in the clearings, wheat, rye, and Indian-corn were cultivated, roads and bridges were built, and everything went on ac tively. Salt fish and lumber were sent to England and manufactured goods brought back. Ship-building soon became active, and in time an important commerce with the West Indies grew up. Signs of Oppression. The rapid growth of the colony was due to political troubles in England. Interference with the liberties of the people at home drove thousands abroad. But Charles I. did not like to see these settlers on Massa chusetts Bay doing so much as they pleased. They had too much liberty for his liking, and seemed to be building up a little republic cf their own. In 1636 he formed a plan to put a stop to this, deciding to take from the colonists their charter and to divide their lands among certain English noblemen. The Settlers Rebel. When the settlers heard of this plot a rebellion on a small scale broke out. They resolved to defend themselves against these titled robbers. Forts were built about Boston harbor and mounted with cannon, each village began to train its militia, and a beacon was set 1 The colony at first suffered severely, two hundred of its members dying the first year, while one hundred returned to England. The others dispersed and started a number of settlements around the bay. which afterward became towns. 86 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. up on the highest summit in the town to warn the country people in case of need. This hill is still known as Beacon Hill. Boston showed thus early the spirit it displayed a century and a half later. But Charles I. now had war on his hands at home, and thought no more of those turbulent colonists abroad. Religious Bigotry. The Puritans had come abroad that they might worship God in their own way. But they were as intolerant as the people who had oppressed them at home. They decided that their way was the right and only way, and would not permit any one to worship in any other way. Members of the Church of England who came across were sent back home. The government was Puritan, like the church. If any persons wanted a different religion and different government there was no room for them in Massachusetts. 1 Roger Williams. There were some among the settlers with broader views of human rights. One of these was Roger Williams, pastor of a church in Salem. He was one of the few men of that day who believed in religious free dom, " soul liberty," as he called it. No man, he said, ought to be forced to pay taxes to support a minister. Every man had the right to worship God according to his own conscience. He also declared that the land in America belonged to the Indians, not to the king, and that the king had no right to give it away. "Williams Forced to Ply. These bold utterances alarmed the magistrates and clergy. Such a man as this was like a 1 Such an idea as toleration, or liberty of worship, was then unknown. Governor Endicott cut out with his sword the red cross from the English flag, saying that it represented the Catholic religion. Governor Win- throp and the leaders of the church were quite as intolerant, and did not propose to let heresy creep into their midst. THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 87 firebrand in the colony. Williams was ordered (in 1635) to leave, and an attempt was made to arrest him and send him to England. He escaped into the wilderness in the depth of winter. Here he was sheltered and fed by the Indians, whose language he learned. In 1636 he obtained a tract of land from the Narragansett tribe, and on Narra- gansett Bay laid the foundations of a town which he called Providence, saying that God s mercy had provided for him. Anne Hutchinson. Williams was not the only one who ventured to disturb the Puritan peace of mind. Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, a lady of great ability and excellent educa tion, who held certain decided opinions about " grace" and "good works," began in 1636 a series of weekly lectures or sermons which soon gave rise to a bitter controversy. So great became her influence that some soldiers who had been raised to fight the Indians would not serve because they did not agree with the doctrines of their chaplain. Here was another troubler of the peace " worse than Roger Williams." Mrs. Hutchinson, like him, was ordered to leave the colony. She obeyed, and with those who followed her bought from the Indians the island of Aquid- neck, which has since been known as Rhode Island. 1 The Quakers Come. New trouble soon came to the Puritans. A sect called Quakers, but calling themselves Friends, had arisen in England. Their doctrines were of the strictest morality, yet they excited strange horror. In 1656 the people of Massachusetts held a day of fasting and prayer in consequence of the reports about the doings of this 1 For this island they paid the natives forty strings of white wampum, twenty hoes, and ten coats. Mrs. Hutchinson in 1642 removed to Westchester County, New York. Here the next year her house was attacked and burned by the Indians, and she and all her family perished in the flames or by the tomahawks of the foe. 88 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. new sect. To their dismay, only two weeks afterward, two Quaker women landed in Boston. They had come there not for shelter, but to preach the doctrines of their faith. The authorities were not to be taken by storm in this fashion. The women were hastily put into jail, the books they had brought were burned, the windows of their cell were boarded up that they might not speak to curious listeners, and they were sent back as soon as possible to England. Persecution of the Quakers. The Quakers were not so easily to be disposed of. Others came and insisted on preaching. These were banished on penalty of death, and in 1659 two of them, who had returned, w T ere hanged on Boston Common. The next year another was hanged, and another in 1661. 1 Opposition to the Hangings. These severe measures aroused much opposition. Most of the people of Boston objected to the executions, and the magistrates, who feared an insurrection, did not dare to execute the last who were condemned. Quakers afterward were now and then whipped or imprisoned, but there were no more hang ings. Charles II. issued an order in 1661 forbidding bodily punishment of Quakers, saying that the government had gone beyond its authority. 1 The Quakers gave great provocation. Some of them were almost insane with religious zeal. Some smeared their faces with black paint and ran howling through the streets. Others burst into Puritan meet ings on Sunday dressed in sackcloth and their heads covered with ashes, called the ministers deceivers and hypocrites, and bade them to come down from their pulpits. Others committed still worse excesses. During the persecution the Quakers were punished with fines, im prisonment, flogging, branding with the letter H (heretic), boring through the tongue with a hot iron, whipping at " the cart s tail" from village to village, and death, but nothing could overcome their zeal. THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 89 Indian Hostility. Hitherto Massachusetts had suffered little from the Indians. As a rule, the English had treated them well and paid for their lands. 1 But the settlers took part in the wars between the tribes, and in this way they made enemies of the Narragansetts. The Wampanoags and the Nipmucks, their neighbors, also became hostile. In 1675 a terrible outbreak took place. Massasoit, chief of the Wampanoags, kept faithfully till his death his treaty of peace with the English. His son Philip King Philip, as he came to be called was driven into hostility by ill treatment. He believed that the white men must be exterminated or the red men would be, and under his influence his and the neighboring tribes broke into war. King Philip s War. This outbreak began in June, 1675, in a sudden attack of the Wampanoags on some villages of Plymouth colony, many of whose people were murdered. For more than a year the war continued, with desperate fighting and terrible excesses. After the Wampanoags were put down, Philip led the Nipmucks to deeds of blood, and the war extended from the Connecticut River to the vicinity of Boston. Results of the War. The Narragansetts, as they were about to break out, were attacked in their palisaded strong hold and terribly punished, more than a thousand of them being slaughtered. Those who were left were sold as slaves in the West Indies. In the summer of 1676 Philip was killed and the war ended. Twelve towns had been de- 1 John Eliot, the missionary, translated the Bible into the Indian language, and converted many by his preaching. There were four thousand Christian Indians in New England in 1674. Schools were introduced among them, and many were taught to read and write. But in spite of all this many of the Indians hated and feared the whites. 90 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. stroyed and more than forty others had been scenes of fire and bloodshed. A thousand and more men had been killed and a great many women and children had perished. The Salem Witchcraft. In 1692 a new horror came upon the people of Massachusetts. For centuries before there had been a strong belief in witchcraft in Europe, and thousands of poor wretches had been put to death in con sequence. It was now claimed that witchcraft had broken out in Salem, and great fear and excitement prevailed. Some children went into fits, acted oddly, and accused several persons of having bewitched them. This gave rise to a panic of fear, which became so great that the people lost their wits, and before it ended nineteen persons had been hanged as witches, and one old man pressed to death under heavy weights because he refused to plead either u guilty" or " not guilty." After about a year of this mad ness the lost good sense of the people returned, and prose cutions for witchcraft ceased. They continued in Europe for many years afterward. Five persons were put to death as witches in England in 1722. MAINE AND NEW HAMPSHIRE. The Northeastern District. The history of the district lying northeast of Massachusetts, now forming the two States of Maine and New Hampshire, was in colonial times closely related to that of the Massachusetts colony. Here Sir George Popham, as already stated, tried to form a col ony in 1607. The first permanent settlement was made, probably in 1626, at Pemaquid Point, between the Ken- nebec and Penobscot Rivers. Gorges and Mason. Shortly after the founding of Plymouth two Englishmen, Sir Ferdinando Gorges (gor jtz) THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 91 and Captain John Mason, obtained a grant of the region lying between the Merrimac and Kennebec Rivers. After establishing some fishing villages they divided their claim, Mason taking the country west of the Piscataqua River, which he named New Hampshire, after Hampshire, his home in i^8&4^7 -^ : ^;^JMrtleId^^^ 3 %, r Vx NEW ENGLAND AND NEW NETHERLAND. England. Gorges took the territory east of this river, and named it Maine (perhaps as the " main" land, to distinguish it from the coast islands). Settlements in Maine. A few settlements in addition to Pemaquid were made on the coast of Maine, Saco and Biddeford in 1630, and Portland in 1632. But Gorges did not concern himself about the country, and his heirs sold 92 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. it to Massachusetts in 1652. It remained a part of Massa chusetts until 1820, when it became a separate State. New Hampshire. The first settlement in New Hamp shire was a fishing village at Little Harbor, near Ports mouth, in 1623. A settlement was made at Dover about the same time. Exeter was settled by followers of Mrs. Hutchinson in 1638, and Hampton by other people from Massachusetts. In 1641 these four towns were added to Massachusetts, but in 1679 Charles II. separated them, and made of them, with the country in the interior, the royal province of New Hampshire. RHODE ISLAND. Roger Williams. We have already stated that Roger Williams, when banished from Massachusetts, made his way southward through the wilderness to what is now Rhode Island. He was joined by five friends, who in 1636 built themselves homes at the locality called by him Provi dence. Here, in 1639, Williams founded the first Baptist church in America. Towns Pounded. In 1638, Mrs. Hutchinson, also ban ished for her religious opinions, founded with her friends the town of Portsmouth, on an island which soon gained the name of Rhode Island, afterward the name of the. whole colony. William Coddington and others soon afterward founded the town of Newport, and in 1643, Samuel Gorton, a man of such odd ideas that no settlement would have him, started the town of Warwick. The Rhode Island Charter. Roger Williams made it known that there would be no religious persecution in Providenca, and persons from all quarters made their way to .his settlement. He shared with them the lands he had obtained from the Indians, reserving only two small fields THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 93 for himself. In.- 1644 he went to England and obtained from the king a charter which united the various settle ments into one province, entitled "The Incorporation of Providence Plantations in the Narragansett Bay of New England." The New Charter. A new charter was obtained from Charles II. in 1663, in which the name " Rhode Island and Providence Plantations" is used. This charter was so liberal in its provisions, and gave such independent powers of legislation and suffrage, that no new form of government was asked for when the colonies became free, and it con tinued in force until 1843. It was then abrogated on account of its property qualification for suffrage. 1 Religious Liberty Decreed. On the return of Williams a new set of laws was adopted guaranteeing freedom of faith to all. It was " the first legal declaration of liberty of conscience ever adopted in Europe or America." The new laws protected " Papists, Protestants, Jews, or Turks" in their religious faith, a freedom which drew to the settle ment not only many who wished for liberty, but some who wished for license. As a result Rhode Island had trouble from those who took advantage of its liberality. The Charter Lost and Regained. Andros, the tyran nical governor of New England, of whom we shall speak in the next section, obtained possession of the charter of Rhode Island, but after his expulsion the colony regained the rights given it by Charles II. and kept them until it obtained fuller rights as a result of the Revolution. 2 1 Only the eldest sons of voters were given free suffrage. All others had to possess a certain amount of property. As a result two-thirds of the people were disfranchised. 2 Rhode Island, being formed of two colonies, had two colonial capitals, Providence and Newport. It retains these two capitals to 94 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. CONNECTICUT. The Valley of the Connecticut. The Connecticut (Indian for " Long River") attracted by the beauty and fertility of its valley both the Dutch of New Amsterdam and the English of Plymouth. The Dutch, who had formed the colony which afterward became New York, claimed this territory, established trading-posts along the river, and built a fort in 1633 where Hartford now stands. 1 In the same summer a small ship from Plymouth came to the mouth of the river. The Dutch ordered the mariners to turn back or they would fire on them ; but the Pilgrims sailed on and the Dutch did not fire. The Pilgrims- built a house where Windsor now stands and began to trade with the Indians. Settlements. It was the fur-trade which brought these settlers. Both parties wished a monopoly of this rich traffic, but the English succeeded in obtaining it. In 1635 immigration became active. Settlers from near Boston founded the towns of Wethersfield and Windsor. Hartford was also founded after the Dutch had left. The occasion of the Dutch leaving their fort was the fol lowing. The Earl of Warwick had obtained a grant of the Connecticut Valley. This he had assigned to Lord Say- and-Seal, Lord Brooke, and others. In 1635 these proprie- this day, being the only State with more than one capital. This is an interesting fact in view of the accompanying circumstance that Rhode Island is the smallest of the States. Connecticut, the next in size with the exception of Delaware, had two capitals till 1873. 1 The Connecticut River was discovered by Adrian Rlock, a Dutch captain, in 1614. Dutch traders soon sought its banks. They ill- treated the Indians and were obliged to build a fort for their protec tion, on which they mounted two cannon. Future colonists suffered from the savages on account of this ill-treatment. THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 95 tors sent out John Winthrop, son of Governor Winthrop, of Massachusetts, to form a settlement. He built a fort at the mouth of the river, which shut out the Dutch from their post at Hartford and obliged them to abandon it. This fort he called Saybrooke, after the names of his two patrons. Settlers Come from Massachusetts. The next year (1636) a party of more than one hundred started from Newtown (now Cambridge), Massachusetts, for what was then called " The West." They travelled on foot through the wilderness, driving one hundred and sixty head of cattle and a drove of hogs. They were led by their pastor, the Rev. Thomas Hooker, a Puritan leader who believed in government by the whole people, in opposition to Governor Winthrop, who believed in the government of the few. Two weeks through the woods, without roads or bridges, brought them to Hartford, 1 where they joined the small settlement already made. The Pequot War. The settlements named had been hardly formed before war with the Indians broke out. The Pequots were the leading tribe of that region, and were fiercely hostile to the whites, a number of whom they murdered. They tried to get the Narragansetts to join them in a general war against the English, but Roger Williams sought the chiefs of the Narragansetts and per suaded them to remain at home. The Pequots, there fore, began their work alone, selecting the exposed and weak settlements on the Connecticut for their murderous raids. No general attack was made, but the savages skulked 1 It was called Newtown till 1637. when the name Hartford was adopted, after Hertford, in England. 96 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. round the settlements, waylaying and slaughtering incau tious settlers. Some of their captives were burnt alive and otherwise tortured. This continued until thirty settlers had been killed. The Indian Stronghold Attacked. In the spring of 1637 the English determined to put a stop to these slaughters. Captain Mason, at the head of seventy men, set out toward the Pequot stronghold. He was joined by Captain Under bill with twenty men from Massachusetts, and by seventy Mohegan warriors, hereditary foes of the Pequots. The greater part of the latter we-re gathered in their fort on the Mystic River, a circular stockade to which they trusted for safety. It proved a weak defence. The English approached it an hour before dawn (June 5, 1637). The Indians were asleep. A barking dog awaked them, and the cry of "Owanux! Owanux!" (Englishmen) came from the sen tinel. It came too late. The tw^o entrances to the strong hold were already in the hands of the foe. Mason, seizing a firebrand, hurled it among the wigwams. The dry mate rial caught fire, and in a few minutes flames were sweeping through the encampment. So rapid was the progress of the fire that the English themselves were in serious peril. The few Indians who escaped were shot down, only five escaping. More than four hundred perished in the fort. The remainder of the tribe fled in terror for the Hudson River, but were pursued and nearly all slain. Almost in a day the Pequot tribe, deemed invincible by their fellow- Indians, was destroyed. It was no doubt largely due to this example that there was no other Indian outbreak until King Philip s war, nearly forty years afterward. New Haven Colony. During these events a large com pany of Puritan immigrants arrived from England, led by THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 97 their pastor, Rev. John Davenport. Many of them were wealthy, and they wished to form a little state of their own, with no law except what could be found in the Bible. 1 In the spring of 1638 they reached a pleasant harbor on Long Island Sound, where they founded the town of New Haven. Milford, Guilford, and Stamford were afterward founded, and these towns combined to form what became known as the New Haven colony. In 1644 the Saybrook settlement joined the Connecticut to form the Connecticut colony, composed of Hartford and the other towns on the Connecticut River. Systems of Government. While the New Haven colony formed its law on the Bible, and, like Massachusetts, per mitted only church members to vote, the Connecticut col ony, adopting the liberal views of Thomas Hooker, gave all freemen the right to vote. This principle was embodied in 1639 in a written constitution, the first known in history formed by the people for their own government. This instrument made no mention of the English king or company. It was in effect the constitution of a separate republic. The Charter of Connecticut. In 1662, Charles II. granted a charter to Connecticut which guaranteed all the rights claimed in the constitution adopted by the colonists. It was the most favorable charter granted to any colony, and gave Connecticut independent powers of government, the king reserving no rights of appointment or legislation. By this charter the territory of the colony was extended west ward to the Pacific. It was so liberal in its provisions that it continued in force until 1818. 1 They would not accept trial by jury, because the laws of Moses did not have it. 7 98 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. THE CONFEDERATED COLONIES, A Defensive Union. In 1643 the colonies of Plymouth, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Haven formed a con federation for defence against the Dutch and Indians, under the name of "The United Colonies of New England." Rhode Island was not admitted, there being much ill feeling against the people of that colony, whose doctrine of religious liberty did not please the Puritans. In this same year the rebellion against Charles I. broke out in England, and the emigration of the Puritans ceased, they being occupied at home in fighting with the king. At that time New England had a population of about twenty- six thousand, of whom five thousand had been born there. The King s Purpose. In 1636, Charles L, angry at the way the people of Massachusetts were governing themselves, decided, as we have said (see page 85), to deprive them of their charter and rob them of their lands. War at home put an end to this scheme, and the people of New England were let alone during the years the king was fighting for his throne. He was defeated and beheaded, and Cromwell, the Puritan leader, became ruler in England. After his death Charles II. became king, and then fresh troubles began. Charter Difficulties. The New Haven colony was sup pressed by order of the new king l and annexed to Con- 1 Charles II. was very angry with the colony at New Haven for sheltering two of the judges who had sentenced to death his father, Charles I. Two of these, Goffe and Whalley, who were generals in Cromwell s army, sought shelter in America when Charles II. came to the throne. These, known as regicides (king-killers), were diligently hunted, and took refuge in New Haven, where they were aided by the people. On one occasion they hid under a bridge, while their pursuers rode fiercely overhead in pursuit. For a long time they remained hidden in a cave. They were never caught, and spent the rest of their THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 99 necticut. 1 Rhode Island and Connecticut were given new and very liberal charters. Massachusetts again came near losing her charter, because she refused to let the Church of England be established in her territory. But the king had enough to do at home, and did not take up his quarrel with Massachusetts till 1679, when he made a royal province of New Hampshire, and bade Massachusetts not to interfere with Maine, which she had purchased from the heirs of Gorges. The quarrel went on until 1684, when the king, who had grown very angry with the Massachusetts Puritans, pronounced their charter of no effect. This destroyed the government which had existed since 1629. Before he could arrange a new one the king died, and his brother, Jarnes II., came to the throne. At once a period of tyranny began which threatened the colonies with the loss of their cherished liberty. The Andros Tyranny. James II. sent over Sir Edmund Andros, one of his favorites, to govern New York and New England. He was given absolute powers, and ordered to seize the charters of Connecticut and Rhode Island. He sent orders for the delivery of the charters, but failed to receive that of Connecticut. Then, in 1687, he marched from Boston to Hartford, attended by a strong body-guard, lives in safety. The story is told that during King Philip s war, when the Indians made an attack on Hadley, Massachusetts, an old man with long white beard suddenly appeared and led the villagers against them, driving them back in defeat. It was the regicide, General Goffe, who had been concealed in the house of their minister. The people looked on him as an angel come to their rescue. This is the tradition ; it is not sure that it ever happened. 1 The capitals of the two colonies, Hartford and New Haven, were retained as capitals of Connecticut until 1873, since which date Hart ford has been the sole capital. 100 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. and imperiously demanded that the charter should be given into his hands. The Charter Disappears. Tradition tells a romantic story of what took place. While a long debate was going on in the assembly cham ber, with the charter lying on the table and Governor Andros in the chair of state at its head, the lights in the room were suddenly put out and the party left in complete darkness. They were lighted again as quickly as possible, but the charter was gone. It had been seized, it is said, by Captain Wads- worth, who left the hall by door or window, and hid it in the hollow of an old oak-tree, which PLACING THE CHAKTEB IN THE OAK. afterward WRS faniOUS as the " Charter Oak. 1 Andros, furious at this, pronounced the charter govern ment at an end, and wrote the word " Finis" at the close of the minutes of the assembly s last meeting. The Old Governments Restored. It was not long after ward when James II. was driven from his throne and Wil liam III. became King of England. As soon as this news reached Boston, in April, 1689, the people rose in rebel lion, threw Andros into prison, and restored their old gov ernment. In Hartford the hidden charter was brought THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 101 out again, the assembly met, and the " Finis 1 was erased from their minute-book. As for Rhode Island, its govern ment had not been disturbed. King William s System. In 1692, King William took New England in hand. Connecticut and Rhode Island were allowed to keep their charters and elect their gov ernors. Massachusetts retained her old system of govern ment, but the king ordained that others besides Puritans might preach, vote, and hold office, and that the governors should be appointed by the crown. 1 A New Charter. Massachusetts received a new charter, uniting the colonies of Massachusetts, Plymouth, Maine, and Nova Scotia, which was then in English hands. But this charter so restricted the power of the people that the colony was really a royal one. From that time on trouble ruled. The people were never content with their royal governors. Quarrels began between governor and legislature, and the spirit of opposition continued until 1775, when the reign of royalty in America came to an end. 1 An interesting story is told concerning one royal governor. In 1693, Governor Fletcher, of New York, was given command of the militia of Connecticut. Fletcher made his way from New York to Hartford, summoned the militia, and began to read to them his royal commission. In a moment Captain Wads worth, of charter oak fame, ordered the drums to be beaten. Fletcher commanded silence, and began to read again. " Drum !" cried Wadsworth, and the noise was renewed. "Silence!" shouted Fletcher, and it ceased. "Drum, I say !" cried the captain, and, turning to Fletcher, he said, meaningly, " If I am interrupted again I will make the sun shine through you in a minute." The governor left the remainder of the commission unread, and made his way in defeat back to New York. 102 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 3. NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY. NEW NETHERLAND. Dutch Trading-Posts. The discovery of Hudson River by Henry Hudson was soon followed up by the enterprising people of Holland, in whose service he had sailed. It had been found that the Indians possessed valuable furs, which they would be glad to exchange for articles which the Dutch made in abundance. So it was not long before that active commercial people sent vessels across the ocean to trade for furs. One came in 1610 arid others the next year, and about 1614 a trading-post, composed of a few huts, was built on an island at the mouth of the river. On this island, which the Indians called Manhattan, afterward arose the city of New York. Trading-stations were built up the river also, and where Albany now stands a wooden u strong house," called Fort Nassau, was built. The whole country was named New Netherland, after Netherland, the official title of Holland. Settlements Made. A colony was sent out in 1623, and small settlements were made on the Hudson, which the Dutch called the North River, and on the Delaware, which they called the South River. A settlement was also made on the Connecticut. Most of the colonists, however, went to Albany, where they built Fort Orange, to replace the old Fort Nassau. A new Fort Nassau was built on the Dela ware, just below where Camden iiow stands. New Amsterdam. Peter Minuit was sent out as gov ernor in 1626 to take charge of the settlements, which were growing prosperous from their rich fur-trade with the In dians. He took the wise course of buying Manhattan Island from the original owners. It came very cheap, being paid NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY. 103 for with beads, buttons, and cloth, worth in all about twenty- four dollars. It would not be easy to state how many millions it is worth now. He built there a fort, a ware house, and a cluster of log huts, and made it his seat of government. It was at first called Manhattan, its Indian title, but was afterward named New Amsterdam. The Fur-Trade. The great interest in New Netherland was the fur-trade. Farming was neglected. It was a much easier road to riches to buy valuable furs with cheap trinkets, or such useful tools to the Indians as knives and hatchets. The Dutch were wise enough to take no land from the sav ages without paying for it, and to make a treaty with the Iroquois, the powerful confederacy whose tribes held most of the country west of the Hudson. This treaty was sacredly kept by the Indians, and greatly helped to give prosperity to the new settlements. Great Estates. The New Netherland Company was or ganized in 1614. It was eager to bring settlers into the country, and offered to any member who would bring or send out fifty settlers the valuable prize of an estate with a front of sixteen miles on the Hudson or other river. Nothing was said about how far it might run back. If estates were taken on both sides of the river they were to be eight miles wide. But it was wisely required that the new owners should pay the Indians for the land taken. The Patroons. These proprietors were called " pa- troons." Their estates were like little kingdoms. They held courts of their own, and lived like the barons of Europe in the olden times. One of the patroons, named Van Rensselaer (r&n atl-l&r), had an estate near Albany ex tending twenty-four miles on each bank of the Hudson and twice that distance back. It was added to till it became much larger than the whole colony of Rhode Island. Over 104 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. these great estates, inhabited by emigrants and slaves, the patroons reigned sole lords, their will being the only law. An Indian Massacre. Some of the Algonquin Indians near New Amsterdam were badly treated by one of the Dutch governors, and in consequence broke out in 1643 in a sudden insurrection. Many of the settlers were killed, and a war was started which lasted till 1645, and nearly ruined the colony. Fortunately for the Dutch. ; the Iroquois con tinued friendly. These shrewd savages had learned enough now to trade furs for muskets and ammunition, which they used against their French foes in Canada. The Last Dutch Governor. In 1645 a new governor of New Netherland was appointed, the famous Peter Stuyvesant (sti ve-stint). He was the fourth and last, and the most hon est and sensible governor of the province. Being a one- legged veteran, he wore a wooden leg bound with silver, which gained him the name of " Old Silverleg." Stuyvesant was arbitrary and hot-tempered, but was de termined to keep order in the colony. Liberty to vote their own taxes was demanded by the people, but stoutly resisted by the governor. Freedom of worship was likewise inter fered with. The Dutch Protestant Church was the established religion, and no one was permitted to preach or listen to other doctrines under heavy penalties. Some Quakers who entered the colony were cruelly treated. It is true that orders came from Holland that every one should be free to worship as he pleased, but the tyrannical governor was too far off to be easily dealt with, and he interpreted these orders as best pleased himself. New Amsterdam. At that time there were about one thousand persons in New Amsterdam, partly made up of English and French, and many of them negro slaves. They occupied the south end of the island, and Stuyvesant had NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY. 105 a high and strong palisade built across from river to river, as a defence against possible Indian raids. This ran along the line of what is now Wall Street, one of the money centres of the world. The city grew rapidly under his rule, its wealth and population greatly increasing. New Sweden. In 1638 a colony of Swedes was planted on the Delaware, their settlement being called New Sweden. A fort called Christina was built by them near the site of Wilmington. This region, however, was claimed by the Dutch, and in 1655 Stuyvesant sent some armed ships there, took possession of the Swedish settlements, and annexed them to New Netherland. The Coming of the English. All the land thus occupied by the Dutch was claimed by the English, under the far-off discovery of the Cabots. The claim was not a very sound one, as the discovery had not been followed by settlement, but the Hudson River country was of great importance, and Charles II. coolly made a present of it to his brother James, Duke of York, despite the fact that Eng land and Holland were at peace and that the Dutch had long possessed it. One day in 1664 an English fleet suddenly appeared off New Amster dam and demanded its surrender. Gov ernor Stuyvesant was furious. He swore he Avould never surrender. But he was taken by surprise, his military P ETE R STUYVESANT. force was much smaller than that of the English, and the citizens, hoping to obtain more liberty under the English, refused to aid him. So, despite his oath, he was forced to submit. The Dutch flag was hauled down, the English flag was run up, and New Amsterdam became New York, so named in honor of the new proprietor. 106 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. Holland got possession of the province again in 1673, during a war with England. But in 1674 it was surren dered by treaty to England, and remained thereafter under English rule. NEW YORK. The People s Rights. With the coming of the English it was supposed by the people that a representative gov ernment, like those of the other English colonies, would be established. But the new governors kept up the old methods, and when the people protested against being taxed without a voice in the matter, the protest was burned by the common hangman. A Royal Governor. One of the early governors was Edmund Andros, who afterward played the tyrant in New England. But he proved such an autocrat that he was called home again, and in 1683 the Duke of York permitted the people to elect an assembly of their own. This liberty did not last long. The duke became king, as James II., in 1685, and New York was made a royal province. At once he took away the privilege of voting and the right of print ing, and sent back the tyrant (now Sir Edmund Andros) as governor, making him governor also of New England. Andros, however, spent most of his time in Boston, Francis Nicholson acting as deputy governor in New York. A Change in Affairs. In 1689, when William III. be came king and after Andros had been imprisoned and expelled, a change took place in New York affairs. There were now two parties in the city, the aristocratic, com posed of the patroons, officials, and rich merchants, and the democratic, composed of the poorer people. At the head of the popular party was a German merchant named Jacob Leisler. The people were suspicious of the purposes of the aristocrats, and, under Leisler, rose in arms, captured NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY. 107 the fort, and drove Nicholson from the city. Then Leisler dispersed the council and set up a government of his own. Leisler s Rebellion. For two years Leisler was ruler in New York, and became so arbitrary as to make enemies in his own party. But in 1691 a new governor, Henry Sloughter, was sent out. His lieutenant, Ingoldsby, arrived first, and summoned Leisler to surrender the city. Leisler refused because Ingoldsby could show no authority for his action. Disputes followed, and finally a fight, in which some of the king s troops were killed. The next day Governor Sloughter arrived, and Leisler, deserted by his followers, was arrested on the charge of treason. He was tried, found guilty of treason, and hanged. This act of unjust severity was bitterly resented by the popular party, who looked upon Leisler as a martyr in the cause of liberty, and long continued in opposition to their rulers. 1 Later History. The new governor was soon succeeded by Governor Fletcher, an arbitrary ruler, of w r hose attempt to gain control of Connecticut we have already spoken. He repelled a French invasion from Canada, but was sus pected of favoring the pirates who then infested the seas, 2 1 Sloughter did not propose to execute the prisoner, but Leisler s enemies succeeded in making him drunk at a dinner-party, got him while in this state to sign the death-warrant, and hung Leisler before the governor had recovered his sober senses. 2 The ravages and cruelties of the pirates became so great that Lord Bellamont determined to suppress them. A swift and strong vessel was fitted out, and William Kidd, a Scotch ship-master in New York, was sent on a cruise against these, sea-robbers. After a time he turned pirate himself, and committed many bold depredations. Rashly going ashore at Boston, he was recognized and arrested. He was sent for 108 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. and was succeeded in 1698 by the Earl of Bellamont, under whose juster rule New York became more peaceful. Under the succeeding governors the liberties of the people steadily advanced. One governor, Rip Van Dam, tried to prevent free speech by arresting the editor of a paper, but the prisoner was set free by a jury. The contest between the governors and the people long continued, but with every contest the democratic party gained strength. NEW JERSEY. Early Settlements. The Dutch claimed the New Jersey region as part of New Netherland, established a trading- post at Bergen about 1618, and built Fort Nassau, nearly opposite Philadelphia, soon afterward. When the Duke of York became proprietor, he granted this region to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, naming it New Jersey, in honor of Carteret, who had been governor of the English island of Jersey. The first settlement was made in 1665 at Elizabethtown, so named after Carteret s wife. Proprietary Government. The liberal terms offered by the proprietors soon brought settlers, among them some Puritans from New England, who founded Newark in 1666. But trouble arose with former settlers, who objected to paying rent. As a result the governor was driven out and another chosen by the people, and Berkeley s proprietor ship was made so unpleasant that in 1674 he sold his half of the province, the western, to two Quakers, named Byllinge and Fenwick. In 1675, Fenwick formed a settle ment in the southern section which he named Salem. Two years afterward, William Penn and other Quakers bought trial to London, and hanged there in 1701. He was believed to have buried great treasures somewhere on the coast of Long Island Sound, and credulous people often sought in vain for this buried wealth. NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY. 109 Byllinge s share and founded Burlington. Treaties were now made with the Indians, the land was paid for, and peace prevailed. The Province Divided. At the suggestion of the new proprietors, the province was divided into East and West Jersey, Carteret holding the former, the Quakers the latter. In 1681, William Penn and eleven others bought East Jer sey from the heirs of Carteret, the w r hole province thus falling into the hands of the Friends or Quakers. In 1685 a large number of Scotch Presbyterians emigrated to the new province. Andros Governor. In disregard of the rights of the proprietors, New Jersey was included in the first governor ship of Edmund Andros. The people resisted his encroach ments, and were sustained in England. In consequence a popular assembly met at Salem in 1681, and formed a code of laws for the province. When James II. became king, and Andros was again made governor, new troubles arose, and the people of New Jersey lost their home government. From that time till 1702 there was no regular government in that colony. A Royal Province. In 1702 the proprietors, weary of the many disputes which had arisen about titles to land, withdrew from the contest and surrendered their rights to the English crown. East and West Jersey were then united as a single royal province, which was placed under the governor of New York, but retained its own assembly. Dissatisfaction soon arose with the tyranny of the New York governors, and a separate government was earnestly requested. This was granted in 1738, Lewis Morris being appointed governor of New Jersey by the king. The last royal governor of the province was William Franklin, son of Benjamin Franklin. HO THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 4. PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE. First Settlements. On the Delaware River (so named from Lord Delaware, the first governor of Virginia) lay a valuable section of territory, which was successively claimed by several nations. The Dutch early claimed it, and planted a small colony in Southern Delaware, near the site of Lewes. After some years this settlement was attacked and destroyed by the Indians. In 1638 came the Swedes, who bought land from the Indians, calling the country New Sweden. A settlement was made near the site of Wilmington, called Christina, and a fort was built on Tinicum Island. In 1655 these settle ments were captured by the Dutch, who claimed this terri tory as their own. Finally, in 1665, after New York had been seized by the English, this country on the Delaware was claimed as the property of the Duke of York. William Penn s Purpose. The persecution in England of the sect calling themselves Friends, but usually known as Quakers, caused many of them to look to America as a place of refuge, and New Jersey was largely WILLIAM PENN. settled by them. In these settlements William Penn, a leading Quaker, was deeply interested, and he now decided to form a colony of these persecuted people in accordance with views of .his own. 1 1 William Penn was born in London in 1644. His father, Admiral William Penn, gained celebrity in the naval wars between the English and the Dutch, but the son, while at Oxford, came under the influence PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE. HI How the King- Paid his Debts. He had inherited from his father, Admiral Penn, a claim on the government for sixteen thousand pounds. This he was not likely to get in money, so he asked the king, Charles II., who was his per sonal friend, to pay him by a grant of land in America. The king willingly complied, glad to get rid of his debt so easily, and Penn became proprietor in 1681 of a tract of forty-eight thousand square miles of wilderness lying west of the Delaware River. 1 This the king named Pennsylva nia, or " Penn s Woodland." The Delaware territory, then claimed by the Duke of York, was granted by him to Penn, as a part of his American domain. Penn s Charter. The charter conveying Pennsylvania to William Penn was liberal in its provisions, but less so than in the case of the New England and Maryland char ters. It required that the laws passed by the assembly should be approved by the king, and the British govern ment retained the right to tax the province. Emigration to Pennsylvania. Emigrants were sent out immediately to the new province, nearly thirty vessels reaching there in the first year (1681). Some of the colo- of the Friends, and was expelled in consequence. He was sent by his father to Paris, where he became an accomplished man of the world. Afterward, however, though an intimate friend of the king and his brother, he became a Friend, so greatly displeasing his father that he was turned out of his home. He was several times imprisoned for his belief, but strongly asserted in the courts the principle of religious liberty, and travelled through parts of Europe preaching his faith. He became heir to a considerable fortune on the death of his father, but lost heavily through his colonizing experiment, and was eventually imprisoned for debt. He died in 1718. 1 In further return for his grant, Penn agreed to give the king annually two beaver-skins and one-fifth of all the gold and silver that were mined. 112 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. nists spent the winter at a Swedish settlement on the Delaware called Upland, since known as Chester. The site of a new city had already been chosen, on the tract of land between the Delaware and Schuylkill Rivers, and the EARLY PHILADELPHIA. city named and planned. It was named Philadelphia, a Bible name signifying " Brotherly Love." The streets were to be broad and to cross each other at right angles, and the principal ones to be named after the trees of the forest. Here many of the emigrants spent their first winter in holes dug in the river- bank for shelter. Perm Seeks his Colony. In 1682, Penn himself crossed the ocean in the ship Welcome, bringing with him a com pany of a hundred colonists of his own faith to found the city of Philadelphia. He first landed at New Castle, in the territory granted him by the Duke of York. Here he was presented with a piece of turf in which was a twig, to signify that the land and its products were his, and with a dish of water, to signify that he owned the river. Finally he was given the keys of the fort. The Great Law. Proceeding to Upland, which he named Chester, he called an assembly, and with its aid enacted the " Great Law," that by which the new colony was to be governed. The principal features of this law were the following : PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE. 113 Every man was free to worship God in what manner his conscience demanded, though only believers in Christ could vote or hold office. The death penalty was restricted to two crimes, murder and treason. Every prison was to be made a workshop and place of reformation, a distinctly new idea in prison management. PENN S TREATY WITH THE INDIANS. The people were to be free to make their own laws, with the understanding that they agreed to obey the laws they made. The proprietor, or his deputy, the governor, was to pre side over the assembly. Treaty with the Indians. Penn, despite the king s grant, did not feel that he owned the land till he had bought it of 8 114 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. its true proprietors. He made an amicable settlement with the few Swedes who occupied the site of Philadelphia, and purchased the Indian claim to the territory. There is a tradition that he held a council with the In dians under a great elm-tree near the city. Here a treaty of peace and good-will was made, presents were exchanged, and the In dians were paid for their land. No oath was taken. Each party trusted the word of the other. Yet the treaty was held sa cred for the sixty years during which Quaker rule continued in Penn sylvania. 1 Growth of the City. No other colony grew so rapidly as Pennsylvania. Settlers were attracted by the cheapness and fertility of the land, the free government, and the absence of persecution, and in a few years Pennsylvania became one of the most important 1 " It was the only treaty never sworn to and never broken," Vol taire has said. Though the Indians waged war with the colonies, they sought to shed no drop of Quaker blood. " We will live in love with William Penn and his children as long as the sun and moon shall shine," they said. The Indian record of the treaty is still preserved. It is a belt of wampum having on it the picture of a white man and an Indian clasping hands. The elm, under which tradition says the treaty took place, continued to stand in Kensington, the northeast section of the city, till 1810. It was then blown down, and its site is now marked by a monument and a small public park. While the British held Philadelphia during the Revolution a sentinel was stationed here to prevent the soldiers from cutting down the tree for firewood. PENNSYLVANIA, NEW JERSEY, AND DELAWARE. PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE. 115 of the colonies. When Penn sailed for England in 1684 he left behind him a prosperous colony of seven thousand per sons. Fifty townships had been settled and there were over three hundred houses in Philadelphia. Among the settlers was a company of Germans, who had bought a large tract of land. One of their first settlements on this was called Germaritown (now a part of Philadelphia). Many Friends from Wales also came and settled north and west of the city. Perm s Troubles. In 1692, Penn lost his province and was imprisoned, being suspected of sympathy with James II., then in exile, but it was restored to him in the following year. He came out again in 1699, finding the colony very prosperous, but the colonists eager for greater privi leges. He therefore granted them a new and more liberal constitu tion, and reformed affairs in various directions. He returned to England in 1701. In after-years he had much trouble in regard to rents due from the settlers, and fell so heavily into debt that he was obliged to mortgage his province. For some time he was imprisoned for debt. Worn out with these misfortunes, he was on the point of selling his province to the crown, when he was stricken with paralysis and became incapable of transacting business. Later History. Penn s sons inherited his province on his death in 1718. Their policy was much less just and liberal than his, and constant irritation succeeded. The disputes continued until the war of the Revolution, during which the State of Pennsylvania purchased the interest of PROPRIETARY SEAL OF PENN SYLVANIA. 116 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. the proprietors for the sum of six hundred and fifty thou sand dollars. Delaware. During Penn s absence after his first visit the " Three Lower Counties on the Delaware," the grant re ceived from the Duke of York, became dissatisfied and with drew from the union with Pennsylvania, Penn giving them a lieutenant-governor of their own. They were reunited by Governor Fletcher, of New York, who governed Penn sylvania in 1693, during Penn s brief removal. Other dis putes arose, and in 1703 the proprietor gave Delaware a separate assembly, though one governor ruled both colonies. This arrangement held good till 1776, when Delaware was organized as a .separate State. 5. MARYLAND. The Principle of Toleration. Almost at the same time that Roger Williams was leaving Massachusetts to found a new colony where all should have free dom of worship, a new colony was being formed farther south with the same principle in its charter. It was founded by a Catholic nobleman of England, George Calvert, Lord Balti more. He had been a member of the London Company, and after its disso lution a purpose arose in his mind to establish a colony of his own, in which members of his church, then ill-treated in England, might have full liberty of worship. A Locality Chosen. His first plan was to found a colony in Newfoundland. 1 But finding the climate there too severe. 1 Lord Baltimore formed a small settlement called Ferryland in Newfoundland in 1621. He visited this in 1627, and again in 1628, MARYLAND. 117 he sailed to Jamestown, where he soon discovered as much intolerance as he had left at home. Repelled from this locality, he made his way up Chesapeake Bay and explored the country north of the Potomac. The country and climate here seemed to him delightful, there were no settlers to in terfere with his plans, and he fixed on this region as the scene of his experiment. Lord Baltimore s Charter. Returning to England, he applied to Charles I. for a charter for the proposed colony. This the king readily granted, and gave to the region the name of Maryland in honor of Henrietta Maria, his queen. Charles not only granted the territory, but gave Lord Balti more unexampled powers, making him almost a king in his new domain. He was styled " Lord Proprietary" of Mary land, and in the charter was privileged to coin money, create courts, appoint judges, confer titles of nobility, and summon a representative assembly, whose laws did not need to be approved by the king, but only by the proprie tary. The sole right to lay taxes was given to the assembly and its lord governor. No other British subject had ever received such exten sive privileges, while the only payment demanded for the land was two Indian arrows yearly, and one-fifth of all the gold and silver mined. The latter was a dead letter here as in Pennsylvania, as no gold or silver was ever found in either of these colonies. A Settlement Formed. George Calvert died before the charter was issued, and it was made out in the name of his son, Cecilius Calvert, the second Lord Baltimore. His brother, Leonard Calvert, brought over a colony of about remaining there till the autumn of 1629, when the bleakness of the climate forced him to withdraw. 118 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. three hundred people in the spring of 1634, and landed with them near the mouth of the Potomac, on the northern bank of which the town of St. Mary s was founded. Religious Freedom. It had been made known that absolute freedom of worship would be granted in the new colony to all Christians. This did not go so far as the toleration of Roger Williams, who gave religious freedom to all, Christian and pagan alike, but it was a degree of liberty then utterly unknown in Europe, and one which attracted many persons of liberal opinions. There were about twenty gentlemen of wealth in the colony, most of them Catholics, 1 but the other settlers were probably nearly all Protestants. Father White, a priest who came with them, converted the wigwam of an Indian chief into a chapel, and thus established the first English Catholic church in America. 2 Progress of the Colony. From the beginning the peo ple took part in making the laws for their own government, and in a few years were given the power of originating these laws. This combined political and religious freedom proved very attractive, and the colony grew rapidly in wealth and population. The cultivation of tobacco, which 1 A tax of twenty pounds a month was at that time imposed on all Catholics in England who did not attend Church of England ser vices. This exaction, equivalent to several hundred dollars of present money, was ruinously severe. Lord Baltimore would not have been permitted to form a colony of intolerant Catholics, and was obliged to grant religious liberty. 2 This colony escaped the suffering experienced in several others. The Indians had been about to vacate their lands, on account of perse cution by a stronger tribe, and willingly sold them to the settlers. These lands were in condition for planting, and the Indian methods of cultivation were taught the new-comers, so that they early raised a crop of corn. MARYLAND. 119 had proved so profitable in Virginia, was begun here, and soon became a source of prosperity. Grain replaced tobacco in the interior, commerce grew, and towns began to be formed. Providence, a settlement of Puritans, afterward had its name changed to Annapolis, and became the capital of the province. Baltimore, named from the proprietors, was founded in 1729, soon became an important town, and in time grew into one of the most active Atlantic seaports. The Clayborne Troubles. Early in the history of Mary land trouble began. Before Lord Baltimore received his charter a Virginian named William Clayborne had formed a post for the fur-trade on Kent Island, in Chesapeake Bay. This was within the limits of Maryland, but Clayborne refused to recognize the authority of Governor Calvert, and appealed to arms in defence of his claim. A fight ensued in consequence, blood was shed, and Clayborne was driven out. Renewal of Troubles. About ten years afterward, in 1645, the quarrel was renewed. Many Puritans, drawn by the toleration of the Baltimores, had now settled in Mary land, and manifested there a spirit very different from that shown toward them by the proprietors. Civil war had begun in England between the Puritans and the king, and, taking advantage of this, Clayborne stirred up the Maryland Puritans to an attack on the Catholics. "War in the Colony. Warlike conditions succeeded, and for two years the colony was in a turmoil. Governor Calvert was forced to flee ; but he returned in 1646 with a strong force, and Clayborne was in his turn expelled. In 1654 civil war again began, and Clayborne and the Puritans were victorious. Commissioners were now sent over from England, who expelled the proprietor s deputy and replaced him by a new governor. They then called an assembly, 120 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. for which they forbade any Catholic to be a candidate, or even to vote. This assembly went so far as to repeal the act of toleration which had been passed by the assembly of 1649, and to prohibit Catholic worship in Maryland. It declared that Lord Baltimore had no longer any rights in the colony. Lord Baltimore Restored. The dissensions continued until finally settled by Oliver Cromwell, then ruler in Eng land. He carefully examined the case and restored the government to Lord Baltimore. This ended the trouble for the time, freedom of worship was re-established, and during the next thirty years the colony grew in wealth and population. The Protestants in Power. Yet the old religious diffi culty in time reappeared, the adherents of the Church of England seeking, after 1676, to oppress all who differed from them in religious faith. In 1689, William and Mary, the new monarchs of England, came to the throne. They were pledged to support the Protestant cause, and severe laws were passed against Catholics. The government of Maryland was usurped by a Protestant association, and the Calverts were robbed of their province. Maryland a Royal Province. In 1691 Maryland was declared a royal province, governors were appointed by the crown, the seat of government was changed from St. Mary s 1 to Annapolis, and the Church of England was declared the established church, taxes being laid for its support, though it had few members among the population. The Catholic worship was forbidden, and was not permitted again in Maryland while it remained under English rule. 1 St. Mary s suffered a still more complete decline than Jamestown. While the latter has left some relics, scarcely a trace of the ancient capital of Maryland remains. NORTH AND SOUTH CAROLINA. 121 The Calverts Regain their Rights. In 1715 the fourth Lord Baltimore, who had become a Protestant, and whose father had just died, was restored to his proprietary rights, and the government again fell to the Calverts, who ruled almost like hereditary monarchs till 1776, when the Dec laration of Independence freed Maryland from the control of king or proprietor. The Mason and Dixon Line. The boundary between Maryland and Pennsylvania had not been clearly indicated in the grants, and for years there were disputes between the proprietors of the two regions as to the correct boundary- line. 1 In the end, Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, two able English surveyors, were appointed to establish the true boundary. They were employed in this task from 1763 to 1767, running a line due west from the northeast corner of Maryland nearly three hundred miles. A stone was set up at every fifth mile with the coat of arms of William Penn cut on the north side and that of Lord Baltimore on the south. In after-years that line became famous as the dividing line between the free and the slave States. 6. NORTH AND SOUTH CAROLINA. Early Settlers. The first to form a settlement on the coast of Carolina was the Huguenot Jean Ribault, whose massacre by the Spaniard Menendez has been already de scribed. He named the country Carolina, after Charles IX. (Carolus in Latin) of France. This name was afterward adopted by the English in honor of Charles II. of England. A century passed after Ribault s time before a settlement 1 The grant to Lord Baltimore had extended to the sea and covered the colony of Delaware. But the claim of the Baltimores on this terri tory conflicted with that of the Duke of York and failed to be estab lished. 122 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. was made. Some farmers had, however, made their way hither from Virginia, and occupied land on the Chowan River and Albemarle Sound. With these came rough char acters, who found life in Virginia growing too civilized for their taste. There also emigrated hither some Quakers and other dissenters, who had been persecuted for their faith in Virginia. The Lord Proprietaries. In 1663, Charles II. granted the territory between Virginia and Florida to some friends who had aided in his resto ration, in cluding the Duke of Albemarle, the Earl of Clarendon, and six others. The grant included not only the Carolinas, but Georgia and part of Florida. W^est- ward it extended to the Pacific Ocean. The char ter was somewhat similar to that which had been granted to Lord Baltimore for Maryland, and decreed re ligious liberty to all colonists. This liberality proved an important aid to the growth of population. Settlements Formed. In 1663 those settlers already in the country were formed into a colony named Albemarle. Two years afterward some West India planters settled on THE CAROLINAS AND GEORGIA. NORTH AND SOUTH CAROLINA. 123 Cape Fear River, 1 their settlement being named Clarendon, in honor of Lord Clarendon. In 1670 two shiploads of emigrants from England settled on the banks of the Ashley River, in the southern part of the province. After remain ing there ten years they sought a new location on the pen insula between the Ashley and Cooper Rivers, calling their settlement Charlestown, after the king. This in time became shortened to Charleston. Later Settlers. The religious liberty existing in the province had the effect of bringing thither in 1707 a large number of Huguenots, fleeing from persecution in France. In 1709 a still larger number of Germans, from the Pa latinate, settled at a locality they called New-Bern, from Bern, in Switzerland. At a later date many Scotch-Irish and Scotch Highlanders sought the North Carolina region. These varied settlers became engaged in tobacco culture and in the production of lumber, tar, and turpentine from the broad forests of yellow pine in the eastern part of the province. South Carolina. The settlers who sought the South Carolina region were closely similar to those of the north ern section. Huguenots from France came here in large numbers after 1685. At a later date there came Germans, Scotch Highlanders, and a few Scotch-Irish. Many Dutch from New York, dissatisfied with English rule, also came hither. Rice and Indigo. Both sections at first grew slowly, and the population was much scattered, there being few towns. Charleston took its first decided start after 1693. In that 1 They came from Barbadoes and occupied a region which had been occupied several years before by people from New England and after ward abandoned. 124 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. year the governor received a small bag of rice from the captain of a vessel from Madagascar, and planted the grain as an experiment. It grew so luxuriantly that the culture of rice at once began, and proved so lucrative that a large population was attracted to the region. In 1741 the culture of indigo was similarly tried as an experiment, and with equally favorable results. 1 At a much later date the cotton plant proved superior to either as a source of wealth. South Carolina, however, still continues a large rice-pro ducing State. The " Grand Model." An interesting experiment in the art of government was made in the Carolina province. Instead of the people being given political liberty, as they had been in many of the other colonies, a most autocratic form of government was adopted. John Locke, the famous English philosopher, and Lord Shaftesbury, a prominent member of the company, formed in 1670 a constitution for Carolina which they called the " Grand Model," because they believed it to embody the most perfect system of government that had ever been devised. The Rights of the People. It established a nobility and a system of laws which was intended to cover all questions that could possibly arise. But it had the serious defect of utterly ignoring the rights of the people. They were not permitted to vote or to hold land, and could not 1 Indigo was first planted by the daughter of Governor Lucas. The first seed sown was killed by frost. She tried again, and worms de stroyed the young plants. A third time she planted the seeds, and this time the plants grew well. The news of her success filled the neighboring planters with delight, as indigo at that time brought in Europe sometimes as much as a dollar and a half a pound. The culture extended till Charleston exported over a million pounds in a single year. NORTH AND SOUTH CAROLINA. 125 even leave the land they tilled without the permission of its noble owner. 1 Their children were to be kept in the same condition of slavery. As the " Grand Model" ignored the people, they in turn ignored the " Grand Model." They refused to be bound by its regulations, and the proprietaries tried in vain to put it into effect. Contest and turbulence succeeded and continued for twenty years. Governors were driven out and popular governors appointed, and a state of rebellion existed, partly due to the heavy taxes laid by the pro prietaries, who looked on the colonies mainly as sources of income. In 1693 the attempt to establish the u Grand Model" government was definitely abandoned. Division of the Carolinas. It was soon found that Carolina was too large and its settlements too widely sepa rated to be governed as one colony. As a result two assemblies were chosen, and there were usually two gov ernors. In 1695, however, John Archdale, a Quaker, was sent out as the governor of both colonies. Under his wise administration the dissensions ceased and order was restored. The quit-rents to the proprietaries, which had caused such discontent, were reduced, the colonists were given the right of suffrage, and a new era of prosperity began for the colonies. Royal Provinces Established. New troubles came, however, in later years, and the proprietaries, growing weary of the incessant complaints and disorders, sold in 1 There was to be a nobility having different ranks, proprietors, landgraves or earls, caciques or barons, and lords of manors, each noble to own an estate in proportion to his rank. Persons holding fifty acres were freeholders, with the right to vote. The tenants and laborers were to be like the mediaeval serfs. The plan was absurdly unsuited to the colonizing of a wilderness, and necessarily failed. 126 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. 1729 their rights to the crown. From that time forward the Carolinas were royal provinces. They were now for mally divided into two colonies, as they had practically been before, and were thereafter known as North and South Carolina. Indian Wars. The Carolinas did not escape contests with the Indian owners of the land. A powerful Indian tribe called the Tuscaroras, a member of the Iroquois family, though long separated from its northern kindred, occupied the territory of North Carolina, and was naturally dissatisfied to see this increasing horde of whites making way into its native realm. In 1711 the Tuscaroras broke upon the settlements, captured and burned to death the surveyor-general of the colony, and in one night slaughtered one hundred and thirty whites. The savages destroyed all before them along Pamlico and Albemarle Sounds, and ceased their murderous work only when subdued by a strong party of whites and friendly Indians from South Carolina. In the following year another outbreak took place. It ended in the complete subjection of the Tusca roras. Eight hundred of them were taken and the re mainder driven from the country. They made their way north, and joined their Iroquois brethren in New York. These, who had previously been called the " Five Na tions," were afterward known as the " Six Nations." 7. GEORGIA. Oglethorpe s Project. The original grant to the propri etaries of the Carolinas embraced the region between South Carolina and Florida. This remained unsettled, and re verted with the Carolinas to the crown. In 1732 a grant of it was made for twenty-one years to General James Ogle- thorpe, a benevolent Englishman, who had a double pur- GEORGIA. 127 pose in view. One of his purposes was to plant a military barrier between South Carolina and Florida that would check the forays of the Spaniards and Indians. The other was a scheme of benevolence. Imprisonment of Debtors. It was the law in England at that time to imprison insolvent debtors, many of whom lay long in durance. There were thou sands thus confined, many of them honest unfortunates, im prisoned often for very small debts, and cruelly treated. Ogle- thorpe had seen much of the misery of these poor captives, and his heart was moved to do what he could to help them. He proposed to pay the debts of the most deserving, transport them and their families to America, and give them an opportunity to make a fresh start in life. He offered an asylum also to all who were poor and unfortunate, or ill- treated on account of their religious belief. A Colony Formed. The proposed colony was named Georgia, after George II., from whom the grant came. The first emigrants were sent out in 1733, and settled on the Savannah River, naming the place Savannah. The colony of debtors was quickly re-enforced by an immigration of the persecuted Moravians and Lutherans of Germany and of Scotch Highlanders, who formed other settlements. 1 JAMES OGLETHORPE. 1 For a whole year Oglethorpe lived in a tent, set up under four pine- trees. Despite the king s grant, he looked on the Indians as the owners of the land, and paid them for it. In consequence his relations with 128 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. Georgian Industries. Plantations of rice and indigo were soon started, and the lumber-trade became brisk. Mul berry-trees grew wild in the forest, and great hopes were entertained of developing the silk industry. 1 Some progress was made in this direction, but in the end cotton replaced silk, as a more profitable product. Restrictive Laws. Oglethorpe and the associates who had joined him in the enterprise followed the plan adopted by the proprietaries of Carolina, of providing the colony with a ready-made constitution ; and with the same result. All laws were to be made by the company, and the people were deprived of self-government. Women, since they could not do military service, could not inherit land, and the area granted to men was small. No Roman Catholic was allowed to settle in the colony. The importation of spirituous liquors was forbidden, and slavery was prohibited. Georgia Becomes a Royal Colony. These laws proved inapplicable to the situation, and before many years were all repealed. They had acted to check the development of Georgia, which prospered after their repeal. In 1752 the province was surrendered to the crown, and remained a royal colony till the Revolution. The Wesleys and Whiteneld. On the second visit of Oglethorpe to his colony, in 1736, he was accompanied by John and Charles Wesley, the founders of Methodism. It was their purpose to attempt the conversion to Christianity of the Indians. Another noted Methodist, the Rev. George Whitefield (whU f fidd\ came out afterward and established them were always friendly. Oglethorpe lived to see Georgia an inde pendent State, not dying till 1785, in his ninety-seventh year. 1 A silk dress was made for the queen out of the first silk exported. The silk-culture was kept up until the Revolution, but never proved very profitable. LOUISIANA. 129 an orphan asylum near Savannah. 1 It was largely due to his efforts that the purchase of negro slaves was allowed. The prohibition seemed to him very injurious to the inter ests of the colony. 8. LOUISIANA. The French in the South west. Though this section of our work has been de voted to the history of the English colonies, it seems necessary at this point to speak of the movements of the French in the South west, following the explora tion of the Mississippi by La Salle. In 1699 they founded the colony of Biloxi, on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Fif teen years afterward an ex pedition ascended the Mis sissippi to the present site of Natchez and built Fort Rosalie. Several settlements were also made farther east, including Fort St. Louis and other posts on the Alabama and Tombigbee Rivers, and Mobile, which was founded in 1701, and became the capital of the province. 1 He was a preacher of wonderful eloquence, and made his way through the colonies preaching to audiences of many thousands of people. By means of contributions received from these he supported his orphan asylum. 9 FRENCH SETTLEMENTS IN THE WEST AND SOUTH. 130 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. New Orleans Founded. In 1718, New Orleans, the first permanent settlement in the present Louisiana, was laid out by a party of colonists. It was named after the Duke of Orleans, then regent of France. Though it began in a humble way, the commercial advantages of its situation were so evident that in 1723 it replaced Mobile as the capital of the province. The Mississippi Scheme. In 1716 an adventurous spec ulator named John Law obtained from the Duke of Orleans a charter for a project which was to enrich France. A com pany was formed which obtained grants of the colonial posses sions of the kingdom and control of the foreign trade. Inexhaust ible mines were to be opened in Louisiana, and all connected with the company were to be enriched. All classes vied in the purchase of shares, which rose to sixty times the original price. In 1720 the bubble burst, the mines were shown to be imaginary, and heavy losses fell upon the credulous people of France. For years after ward the development of the colony was checked. Progress of Louisiana. At this time Louisiana had sev eral thousand inhabitants. Rice was the principal crop, tobacco and indigo were grown, and slave labor was em ployed. Grain for food was brought down the river from the growing settlements in the north. An Indian war arose from an attempt of the French at Fort Rosalie to seize the principal town of the Natchez In dians. The latter rose and massacred the whites at the COSTUMES OF FRENCH SETTLERS. CUSTOMS AND CONDITIONS OF THE COLONIES. 131 settlement (1729). Shortly afterward a force from New Orleans attacked the Natchez, killed many of them, and dispersed the rest, utterly breaking up the tribe. 1 9. CUSTOMS AND CONDITIONS OF THE COLONIES. NEW ENGLAND. Religious Strictness. The conditions of society differed considerably in the different colonies, both on account of difference in climate and in the original opinions and cus toms of the colonists. In New England religious observ ances were rigidly strict. In the early days the people were called to church on Sunday morning by the beating of a drum. In other cases the sound of a horn or bell re minded them of a duty which could not be neglected with out punishment. Going to Church. The church, in exposed villages, was surrounded with a stockade and served as a fort, the men walking to church with their guns on their shoulders, and keeping them within easy reach during the sermon. The church edifices, of course, improved in appearance as time went on, but continued bare and unornamented. The benches were rude and hard, and there were no means of heating other than by heated stones or hand-stoves which the worshippers brought with them. 1 This was an unfortunate event for research into Indian history and habits. The Natchez were a most interesting tribe, differing from all others in the United States region. They formed an absolute monarchy, and worshipped the sun as a deity, their kings being considered descend ants of the Sun-god. They had temples on mounds, and an elaborate system of religious worship and ceremony. It seems probable that they may have been a remnant of the Mound-Builders of the North. 132 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. The Church Service. Inside the church the worshippers were separated, the old people, the young men, and the young women having each a fixed place. The boys sat on the pulpit stairs and in the gallery, and were kept under the watchful eyes of the constable. Sleeping was not per mitted, even under the infliction of a sermon hours in length. The constable, whose duty it was to keep the congregation awake, carried a staff with the foot of a hare on one end and the tail on the other. A nodding woman was reminded of her duty by feeling the hare s tail gently brush her cheek ; but a boy caught asleep was roused by a sharp rap on his pate from the hare s foot. Keeping- the Sabbath. No one was permitted to work, ride, or amuse himself on Sunday. It was unlawful to sit in Boston Common on that day, or to walk in the street except to church. A man was publicly whipped for shoot ing fowl on Sunday. A woman was threatened with ban ishment for smiling in church. A person absent from church for more than one Sunday was in danger of being fined, whipped, or set in the stocks. 1 Swearing was pro hibited in nearly all the colonies, and in New England a split stick was sometimes placed on the swearer s tongue. Houses. The early dwellings were log huts, one story high, with steep, thatched roofs. Some few were of brick or stone, two stories high. The chimneys at first were 1 Robert Pike, the sturdy opponent of witchcraft, had urgent busi ness one Sunday which called him from home. As the New England Sunday began at six o clock Saturday evening and ended at the same hour on Sunday, he waited impatiently for the close of the day that he might be off. The sun sank into a bank of clouds, and, taking this as a good excuse for sunset, he mounted his horse and rode away. But the sun was not down, and as he rode past the house of an unfriendly neighbor its tell-tale beams shone through a rift in the clouds. The next day Mr. Pike found himself fined for travelling on Sunday. CUSTOMS AND CONDITIONS OF THE COLONIES. 133 made of wood smeared with clay. In later days the farm house was generally built of huge timbers, hewed or split, and covered with rough clapboards. The upper story often projected, so that the inmates could fire down on Indians if attacked. Cooking. In the kitchen of the later and ^__ larger houses yawned a A BLOCK-HOUSE. huge stone fireplace, heaped in winter with blazing logs that served alike for cook ing and warming. Swinging cranes bore pots over the fire, and cooking was also done with the aid of spits and skillets on the hearth. Some houses had brick ovens, which were heated with blazing wood, and retained the heat for hours. In these bread was baked, the ashes being first swept out. Furniture. Oiled paper often took the place of glass in the windows, and when glass was used the panes were small and diamond-shaped. 1 Furniture was scanty and largely home-made. Carpets were almost unknown, the floors being often covered with sand, which was swept into orna mental designs in the best room. Clocks were rare, and 1 In England, at the time of settlement of the American colonies, the walls were plastered only in the houses of the rich. Glass win dows were then so valuable that when a country gentleman went to town for a length of time he took the sashes out of their frames and packed them carefully away. Beds in that day for the poor were of straw, with fagots for pillows. Fingers were the only forks. Me chanics lived largely on oat and rye bread. Millers who stole grain and dishonest tradesmen generally were fastened in carts and driven through the town to be hooted at and pelted by the populace. 134 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. the houses were built so as to face exactly south. The inmates knew that it was noon when the sun shone squarely in. Kitchen and Best Room. The kitchen, with its cheerful fire, its low ceiling with bare joists, from which hung bunches of herbs and strings of drying ap- P leS > the Occasional tall wooden clock, dresser set with pewter dishes, spinning-wheel, and occasionally a loom for weaving, was the living-room of the house, in which cooking, eating, working, and social converse went on. The best room was used for state occasions, and usually was kept in almost total darkness. A sanded floor, traced in quaint designs, shining brass andirons, high brass candle sticks, a few books and family portraits, made up the usual ornaments of the room. For light, home-made tallow can dles were employed. In the kitchen the blazing logs served for illumination. Houses of the Wealthy. In and near the towns and on the few great estates there were many large and costly houses, on some of which great sums were spent. These were of brick or stone, richly panelled within, wainscoted with mahogany or other hard woods, expensively furnished, hung with pictures, and adorned with tapestry instead of the later method of plaster and wall-paper. It must, how ever, be said that the houses of that period were very cold in winter, being heated only by a wood fire on the hearth. We hear complaints of ink freezing in the bottle, and even CUSTOMS AND CONDITIONS OF THE COLONIES. 135 on the pen while writing. Certainly our ancestors pos sessed a very moderate standard of comfort. Food. Food was of little variety. Fresh meat was rare. Salt pork, beef, and fish formed the winter stand-by. To these were added rye and Indian bread and cakes, wheat being too dear for general use. Porridge for breakfast and mush for supper were common dishes. Vegetables were few. Tomatoes, now so common, were grown in gardens under the name of love-apples, and believed to be poison ous. Ice was unused, the well or spring-house serving for cooling purposes. Tea and coffee were little used. Dress. The Puritans dressed quite plainly, and very differently from what we do now. The Puritan gentlemen wore knee-breeches and short cloaks, with ruffs about their necks and steeple-crowned hats. They had rich belts, gold and silver buttons, and high boots rolled over at the top for great occasions. The women wore homespun dresses during the week, and silk hoods, lace handker chiefs, and other finery on Sunday. The poorer classes dressed very plainly. Workingmen wore breeches of leather or coarse cloth, jackets of red or green baize, and leather aprons. On Sunday their clothes were better, but of the same character of material. On the contrary, lace ruffles at the wrist, gold lace on the silk or velvet coat, a gold-headed cane, and a gold or silver snuff box were necessities of the fashionable gentleman s best attire. Laws about Dress. The law forbade any one to wear clothes of a character beyond his or her rank in life. In 1640 the constables of every town were bidden to observe all who dressed beyond their condition and order them to appear in court. It seems strange in these days of per fect liberty in dress that there was a time in this country 136 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. COSTUMES OF THE PURITANS. wnen people were punished for dressing beyond their means. We are told of one Alice Flynt, who was found wearing a silk hood, and was required to show that she was worth the neces sary two hundred pounds. No one having less than this was permitted to wear " gold or silver lace, or any lace over 2s. per yard." Distinctions of Rank. The social grades then prevalent in England were manifested in this country, decidedly so in the South, and to some extent in democratic New England. Official positions were held by a few families, and were transmitted from father to son. The distinctions between rich and poor were not con fined to dress. There were no orders of nobility, but the titles of Mr. and Mrs., now so common, were then given only to clergymen and magistrates, and to people high in position. All others, except servants, were addressed as Good-man, or Good-wife. Few were honored with the title of Esquire. Amusements and Drinking- Habits. Amusements were very simple. Dancing and card-playing were forbidden, and there was little music. Such a thing as a theatre was unknown. Hunting, fishing, and out-door sports formed the staple of enjoyments. In later days dancing and feasting became more common, and the list of amusements included quiltings, huskings, spinning-bees, sleigh-rides, picnics, and parties of various kinds. The holidays were thanksgiving and fast days, elec tion and training days, all, except fast day, being largely given up to athletic or other out-door sports. Weddings CUSTOMS AND CONDITIONS OF THE COLONIES. 137 were made times of feasting and enjoyment, and even funerals were followed by elaborate feasts. In time Thanks giving-day became the great day for family gatherings and feasts. Liquor Selling. In early New England only men of good character could keep a tavern, and they were forbidden to sell liquor to habitual drunkards. In early Connecticut no one under twenty was allowed to use tobacco, and none to use it more than once a day. These laws, however, proved ineffective, and drinking became common. Much beer and cider were drunk, and the importation of rum from the West Indies became a thriving business. Penalties for Law-Breaking-. The laws were severe and the penalties cruel. Imprisonment for debt was common. The stocks and pillory were freely used for small offences, men having their feet, hands, or neck fastened in wooden frames and being thus exposed to public scorn. It was the custom to make the offence and punishment as public as possible. A common scold was sometimes gagged and seated before her door. In Virginia and some other colo nies there were ducking-stools, and the scold was dipped into a stream or pond. The whipping-post was in frequent requisition, often for offences which now are not considered crimes. An offender might be made to stand on a stool in church with the name of his misdemeanor displayed on his breast. Among the common punishments were cropping or boring the ears and branding with a hot iron. At one time there were twelve offences in New England punishable with death. In Virginia there were seventeen. 1 1 Respect for parents was absolutely required. In the strict letter of the law disrespect to parents might be punished with death. One 138 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. Voting- ; Military Service. In town-meeting voting was done with corn and beans. A grain of corn meant a vote in favor of the measure ; a bean was a vote against it. Every man and boy past the age of sixteen had to drill as a soldier. Matchlocks or guns fired with a slow-burning match were the only kind in use. Long afterward a flint and steel were employed to make a spark and set fire to the powder. Each soldier carried a rest, on which he placed the end of his heavy gun when taking aim. Some wore helmets and breastplates, others coats quilted with cotton wool, through which an Indian arrow would not pass. No farmer went into his field to work without his musket. The colonists were always on guard against the savage foe. THE MIDDLE COLONIES. Dutch New York. Much of what has been said of New England will apply to the other colonies, but each had cus toms peculiar to itself. The Dutch houses in New York were built like those of Holland, of wood or small black and yellow bricks, with gable ends facing the street. They were generally one and a half stories high. The front door had a great brass knocker, kept highly polished, while scrubbing and scouring went steadily on. The floors were covered with white sand, which was swept into lines and patterns with the brooms. Outside was the " stoop," or fixed bench, a favorite evening seat. Each family had its cow, pasturing in a common pasture, but making its way home with tink ling bell at the milking-hour. John Porter, of Salem, who abused his father, was made to stand on the gallows with a rope around his neck, and was soundly whipped, fined, and imprisoned. He was saved from death only by the en treaties of his mother. Another offender was chained to a post and forced by the whip to work for the benefit of the public. CUSTOMS AND CONDITIONS OF THE COLONIES. 139 Within the Houses. The great open fireplaces were ornamented with colored tiles. In the cupboards were much old silver and china. The whirr of the spinning- wheel formed the household music, and each mansion had SCENE IN NEW AMSTERDAM. its huge chest of linen woven by the women. On the great manors of the patroons were mansions that vied in costli ness and elegance with the best of those in Europe at that day. Modes of Life. The Dutch took life easy. They were fond of good eating and drinking and enjoyed playing at various games. Many of our present customs came from them. New-Year visiting is one of these. The Santa Glaus celebration at Christmas is another. A third is the practice of coloring eggs at Easter. We also owe our doughnuts, crullers, and New-Year cookies to the Dutch housewives. Dress. The dress was very peculiar. The men wore 140 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. several pairs of knee-breeches, one over the other, which gave them a very baggy appearance. Large buckles were worn at the knees and on the shoes, and their coats had great brass or silver buttons. The women wore a number of short and bright-colored skirts, with stockings of various colors, and high-heeled shoes. The head dress was a white muslin cap. Life in Philadelphia. Philadel phia was the largest city in America until long after the Revolution. It DUTSEITLKB8. streets crossing each other at right angles, like those of ancient Babylon. There were many comfortable dwellings, usually two stories high, the streets were shaded with trees, and there were gardens and orchards around the houses. It was thus a " fair greene country town," as Penn wished to make it. Some of the sidewalks were paved with flag-stones, then very rare in cities. The city was noted for the abundance of its fruits. A German traveller remarked that the people fed their pigs on peaches, and cared less for the finest fruits than the peo ple of Europe did for their turnips. Shops. The ordinary dwelling-houses served for shops, with something hung over the door to show what was for sale within. A basket, a beehive, a wooden anchor, or some such object was all the sign needed. The people were very quiet and sober, and did not care much for amuse ments. People of Many Nations. The population of the city and colony included people of various nations, such as English, Swedes, Dutch, Germans, Scotch, and Irish. There CUSTOMS AND CONDITIONS OF THE COLONIES. 141 were thus several languages spoken, and customs derived from different nations were introduced. THE SOUTHERN COLONIES. Plantation Life. In the South large plantations replaced the populous towns and villages of the North, and the modes of life differed accordingly. The planters, as they grew wealthy from the sale of their crops of tobacco, built them selves large mansions, handsomely furnished and orna mented. Within were broad stairways, and mantels and wainscots often of richly carved mahogany. The furniture was of solid oak and mahogany. Gold and silver plate often was visible in abundance on the sideboards, there being frequently an ostentatious display of wealth. Each mansion had its numerous household of negro ser vants. The field hands had their separate quarters, each hut with its garden and poultry-yard. Most of the articles needed on the estate were made by the slaves. Lavish Mode of Life. The great planters lived like lords, keeping- stables of fine horses and parks of hunting- dogs, while they went to church or made vis its in great coaches drawn by six horses. There were negro ser vants ready to do all labor, so that it was considered de grading for a white man to work. Hospitality. The warmest hospitality was displayed. COLONIAL FIREPLACE. 142 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. Life in those great mansions was often dull, and a traveller was a prize. News journeyed slowly, and important events were often learned only from some loquacious guest. A servant was sometimes posted on the high-road to look out for any respectable traveller on horseback. When one such appeared, the bowing and smiling negro would invite him to stop and spend the night at his master s mansion. Arrived there, he would be treated to the best in the house, and perhaps have a hunt or other sport got up for his enjoy ment the next day. This hospitality had one bad effect, the inns were miserable. The planters robbed the land lords of all profitable custom. Dress, Full dress here embraced three-cornered cocked hats, long vel vet coats, with lace ruffles at the wrist, knee-breeches, white silk stock ings, and shoes with silver buttons. The hair was worn long, powdered with white, and tied in a twist or queue with a black silk ribbon. La dies also powdered their hair, and dressed in rich brocades or thick silks. Life moved in a stately, quiet way, unlike the present rush. The plant ers, having little to do at home, spent much of their time in the performance of political duties. The Poor Whites. It must not be imagined., however, that this class constituted the total population. There were large numbers of what were afterward known as poor whites, largely the descendants of indentured servants. Many of these lived in a state of degradation, vice, and ignorance. There was also a middle class of merchants and COSTUME OF ENGLISH SETTLERS. (Genteel Class.) * CUSTOMS AND CONDITIONS OF THE COLONIES. 143 traders in the towns. South Carolina, however, possessed only two well-defined classes, planters and slaves. The Lower Colonies. In the Carolinas and Georgia tobacco was replaced by other crops, but the life of the planter was much the same as in Virginia. In all these colonies gambling was very common, and constituted one of the main features of the horse-racing and cock-fighting which were the favorite amusements of the people. Back in the country, toward the mountains, the people were poor, the land being divided into small farms, while many of the inhabitants spent their time in hunting. The settlers lived far apart, and their only roads were paths. In the woods these were indicated by notches cut in the trees. This was called " blazing the way." Other Colonial Customs. Lighting was poorly performed in old colony days. Lamps were almost unknown. The poorest people burned a wick in a vessel of grease or used torches of pitch-pine. Others made candles of tallow. In the South the wax of the candle-berry was often used for this purpose. The streets of large towns were poorly lighted at night with dim lanterns. Stoves for heating were hardly known until a late period. Cooking-stoves were unknown. Wood was the only fuel used in houses. Children, and often their parents, went barefoot in summer. In the backwoods the dress was a loose hunting-shirt of deerskin or homespun, with buckskin leggings, moccasins, and fur cap. Workmen wore leather breeches until after the Revolution. Drinking Habits. Drunkenness in time became a crying evil in the colonies, the use of intoxicating liquors becoming almost universal. Whiskey and rum were very freely drunk, most men taking five or six glasses a day, many much more. Nothing of importance could be transacted without drink. A jug of whiskey was supplied to the hands getting in hay. 144 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT. In raising the timbers of a house or barn a large supply of liquor was deemed necessary. No bargain could be made without a dram. All classes drank, even the clergy. The sideboard with its decanter and glasses was looked upon as necessary furniture. This continued until 1826, when the temperance movement first actively began. Since then there has been a remarkable change in drinking habits. IV. THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS. i. KING WILLIAM S WAR (1689-1697). First Contests of the Whites. During the early days of the occupation of America the colonists had mainly the savages to deal with as foes. The only contests between the whites were that between the Spaniards and French in Florida, already described, an attack on the French at Mount Desert, Maine, and Port Royal, Acadia, by Captain Argall, of Virginia, in 1614, and the capture of Quebec by Captain Kirk in 1629, during the war of Charles I. with France. All these produced no effect, Quebec being soon returned, and the situation of affairs left unchanged. Peace reigned from 1629 to 1689, when a struggle began which was to continue at intervals for over seventy years, and end in the expulsion of the French from America. A Turning-Point. The year 1689 was an important turning-point in American history. With it began the long struggle between England and France for colonial dominion. It inaugurated an era of war which continued, with inter missions, for nearly a century, and ended in the indepen dence of the United States of America and the formation of a new government in 1789, just a century later. We have hitherto had to deal with the story of the thirteen colonies separately. We must now deal with them as one, 10 145 146 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS. and shall have to speak of events that took place at the same time as many of those already described. War in Europe. In 1689 a war broke out in Europe between England and France. It continued until 1697. William III. was then on the throne of England, for which reason this contest became known in America as King William s War. The hostility in Europe extended to America, and resulted in frightful massacres by the Indian allies of France. Frontenac and the Iroquois. Louis XIV. of France sent over Count Frontenac as governor of Canada, with orders to descend the Hudson and conquer New York. The danger was great, for New York was then distracted by the Leisler rebellion ; but the invasion was prevented by the Iroquois, or Five Nations, who were allies of the English, and attacked Montreal in 1689 with such fierceness as to keep the French at home. Frontenac s hopes of conquest were ruined by this Indian assault. In revenge he invaded the country of the Five Nations in 1693, and for four years ravaged it so remorselessly that the savages were forced in the end to beg for mercy. The Iroquois never fully recov ered from this blow. Indian Massacres. The war on the side of the French was confined to Indian raids on the British settlements. In February, 1690, a party of French and Indians surprised the village of Schenectady, New York, with a midnight attack, and slaughtered most of the inhabitants. A few escaped in their night-clothes, and made their way through the freezing winter air to Albany, sixteen miles away. . During the following years a number of other villages, in Maine, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts, met with a similar fate. At Durham, New Hampshire, in 1694, more than a hundred people were killed, many of them being KING WILLIAM S WAR. 147 burned alive. The last of these assaults was one made on Haverhill, Massachusetts, in 1697. 1 But all along the bor der midnight attacks, frightful massacres, horrible scenes of torture, and the dragging of women and children into captivity were frequent occurrences of this terrible war. It was wholesale murder, not war, for such ruthless slaugh ter of frontier settlers could be of no possible service to France. English Reprisal. The English colonists did not bear this infliction without an effort at revenge. In 1690 a congress of commissioners from several of the colonies met at New York to arrange some plan of attack and defence. It was determined to attack the French by land and sea. A force of two thousand Massachusetts militia, under Sir 1 The attack on Haverhill was followed by an event which has become famous in historical romance. A farmer named Dustin was working in the field with his seven children about him, when he heard the dreadful war-whoop of the foe. Seizing his gun, he saw that the Indians were between him and his house, so that he was obliged to abandon his wife to her fate. Telling the children to run on, he kept the savages at bay with his gun, and managed to reach a fortified house. Mrs. Dustin, who was forced to rise from a sick-bed, and her nurse were taken prisoners. With the party was a captive boy who understood the Indian tongue, and learned from a talkative Indian how to kill and scalp a foe. Mrs. Dustin determined to make an effort to escape. There were in the party nine men and boys and three women. One night, while they were asleep by their camp-fire on an island in the Merrimac, she and her two companions quietly arose, and, each taking a tomahawk, in a few seconds crushed in the skulls of ten of their sleeping foes. Only one woman and a young boy escaped. Scalping the dead men, that they might prove their story, the brave fugitives made their way home down a hundred miles of the stream. . They had been given up for lost. Mrs. Dustin was paid a bounty of fifty pounds for the ten scalps, and in honor of her exploit received a present from the governor of Maryland. 148 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS. William Phipps, sailed to Port Royal, which it captured, and with it the province of Acadia. It then sailed up the St. Lawrence and besieged Quebec, while at the same time a force of New York and Connecticut troops marched over land upon Montreal. Both these expeditions failed, the land one never even reaching Canada. End of the War. Hostilities ended in 1697, and by the terms of peace Acadia was restored to France, greatly to the displeasure of the Bostonians, who had equipped the expedition at great expense, and did not relish being de prived of the fruit of their enterprise. 1 2. QUEEN ANNE S WAR (1702-1713). Hostilities Resumed. The peace that followed was of short duration. In 1701 war was resumed in Europe, and began again in America in the following year. It lasted till 1713. As William III. died in 1702, this became known as Queen Anne s War, after the name of his successor. As before, on the French side it was a war of massacre. Two frightful scenes of slaughter took place, one at Deerfield, Massachusetts, where many were slain and more than a hundred carried into captivity ; the other at Haverhill, which was again visited with the horrors of massacre. Acadia again Conquered. In reprisal, an expedition of British and colonial troops was sent against Acadia, which was once more conquered, while Port Royal a second time fell into English hands. Its name was now changed to Annapolis, in honor of the queen. This name it still retains. An expedition almost seven thousand strong proceeded against Quebec, but was checked by a storm at the mouth 1 It was during this war that the superstitious delusion, known as the Salem witchcraft, broke out in Massachusetts. KING GEORGE S WAR. 149 of the St. Lawrence, that destroyed many of the ships and drowned a thousand men. War with Florida. During this war Spain was in alli ance with France, and the theatre of conflict was extended to the South. In 1702 an expedition from South Carolina took and plundered St. Augustine, and in the folloAving year the Appalachian Indians of Georgia, allies of the Spaniards, were severely punished. A campaign of reprisal was made in 1706, a squadron of Spanish and French vessels ap pearing before Charleston, on which an attack was made. The assailants were repulsed with heavy loss. An Indian Invasion. A few years later (1715) a general confederation of the Indian tribes was formed, with the design of sweeping all the whites of Carolina from the land. Their army, seven thousand strong, was met by Governor Craven, of South Carolina, at the head of twelve hundred men, and completely defeated. Acadia Retained. The English derived one advantage from this war. When peace was made, the part of Acadia which they had taken was ceded to them. It has since then been known as Nova Scotia. Their claim to the possession of Newfoundland and the rich fur regions on Hudson Bay was also acknowledged. 3. KING GEORGE S WAR (1744-1748). Events during the Peace. Thirty years of peace fol lowed. The French made use of it by adding to their line of fortified posts in the interior and strengthening their hold upon the continent. In the South the settlement of New Orleans was made in this interval. The only conflict was at the French settlement of Norridgewock, in Maine. The French there had instigated the Abenaki Indians to attack the New England settlements. In consequence, Norridge- 150 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS. wock was attacked in 1724 by a force of militia and destroyed. Fresh Hostilities. Again, in 1743, France and England met in war. As before, this contest was reflected in Amer ica, where it was known as King George s War, after George II., then King of England. It continued five years in Eu rope, but in America was attended by only a single event of importance, the capture of Louisburg. Assault on Louisburg. Louisburg, a fortified town on Cape Breton Island, was so strong that it was looked upon as the Gibraltar of America. France had spent more than five million dollars on its fortifications, and believed it to be capable of defying any assault. Yet it was taken after a siege of six weeks, on June 17, 1745, by four thousand New England militia, aided by four British war vessels. There was nothing scientific about the siege, yet the provincial troops displayed remarkable dash and bravery, and the French commander utter incompetence. 1 Results of the Victory. The capture of Louisburg by an army of provincials, untrained in war, filled all Europe with astonishment and England and America with delight. William Pepperell, the merchant who led the American forces, was made a baronet by the king. In the following year a powerful expedition sailed from France for the reconquest of the fortress. But storms injured the fleet and disease decimated the troops, and the enterprise was abandoned. 1 The drums that beat their triumphal march as the New Englanders marched into Louisburg, June 17, 1745, were the same that beat on Bunker Hill during the memorable affair of June 17, 1775, exactly thirty years afterward, in which the militia of New England once more showed their fighting spirit. KING GEORGE S WAR. 151 Louisburg- Restored to France. To the utter disgust of the colonists, however, when peace was made, Louisburg was restored to Frer.ce. The fortress they had so gallantly captured was traded away for a city in India of which they had scarcely ever heard. War with Florida. King George s war was preceded by a war between England and Spain, which broke out in 1739, and was attended by some interesting events in the South. Oglethorpe, the proprietary of Georgia, invaded Florida in the summer of 1740, and laid siege to St. Augustine. He failed from want of cannon, and was obliged to withdraw. Georgia Invaded. The Spaniards retaliated in 1742, invading Georgia with a large fleet and a powerful army. They landed on St. Simon s Island, proposing to take Ogle- thorpe s forts and conquer or desolate the colony. They were met by a much smaller force, but were defeated by a shrewd stratagem which caused them to withdraw in panic flight. In the following year Oglethorpe repeated his attack on St. Augustine. As before, he failed to take it, but his vigor put an end to Spanish invasions. Results of the "Wars. The wars described, whose hos tilities extended through twenty-five -years, had no proper reason for existence in America at all. They arose from no American need and settled nothing. The colonists suffered heavily in life and wealth, while their only gain was the peninsula of Nova Scotia and the control of the Newfound land fisheries. They had learned, however, two important lessons : that they must protect themselves, since England was using them for her own ends, and that their troops could safely be trusted to fight side by side with British regulars and show equal courage and efficiency. The time was at hand when these useful lessons were to be applied. 152 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS. 4. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR (1754-1763). French Enterprise. The peace in America was brief. A home cause of conflict was arising. Colonial jealousy between the French and English was soon to break out into colonial hostility. For years the French had been pushing their way into the interior of the country, building forts as ENGLISH TERRITORY BEFORE THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. they went, until they had more than sixty military posts along their extended line of lake and river. The English Keep on the Seaboard. Meanwhile, the English colonies were filling up with settlers far more rapidly than the French, but these clung to the seaboard region and made little effort to penetrate the interior. The Alleghany Barrier. This was not due to lack of enterprise. It arose from the difficulty of the situation. While the French were attracted onward by the splendid water-ways of the Great Lakes and the Mississippi Valley, THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 153 the English faced an unbroken wilderness, in whose rear lay a broad backbone of mountains, presenting few passes, and to be crossed only with great difficulty. The less elevated country in the north was closed by the warlike Iroquois, friendly, but jealous of intrusion. As a result, while English traders and hunters made their way to some extent into the wilderness, the bulk of the settlers were by no means ready to follow. A Change of Purpose. The time, however, for a change had come. The people of the middle colonies in particular were considering the occupation of the broad lands beyond the mountains, of which pioneer prospectors brought in viting tales. In 1748 a company was organized for the purpose of forming settlements in this western country, in which the king had granted them a tract of land of half a million acres in area. Two of the stockholders of this Ohio Company, as it was named, were Lawrence and Augustine Washington, brothers of the afterward famous George Wash ington. The Owners of the Land. Both France and England claimed this unsettled and untrodden region. France laid claim to it by right of discovery. Their explorer, La Salle, had first reached the Ohio River. The English claim was based on the discoveries of the Cabots, under which charters were granted reaching to the Pacific. 1 The real owners, the Indians, were left out of the account, though with this indif ference to their rights they were far from pleased. " Where is the land of the Indian?" they asked. "The English 1 The English also claimed that they had been granted the Ohio Valley region by the Iroquois Indians, who had captured it many years before. This claim had as little substantial foundation as most of the claims to American land. 154 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS. claim all on one side of the river, the French all on the other. Where does our land lie ?" French Ports. As this question could not be answered, it was ignored, and the invasion went on. The Ohio Com pany sent out surveyors in 1750, who extended their survey as far as the site of Louisville. When word of this came to the French they were alarmed. Unless active steps were taken they would lose the Ohio country. In 1753 they began an active movement toward the contested territory. A fort was built at Presque Isle, on Lake Erie, one at Le Boeuf (now Waterford), Pennsylvania, and a third at Ve- nango (now Franklin), on the Alleghany River, at the mouth of French Creek. The Ohio was the goal of these move ments. The French also seized the Ohio Company s sur veyors and destroyed an English post on the Miami. Governor Dinwiddie s Message. Governor Dinwiddie, of Virginia, a member of the Ohio Company, perceived that some decided action was necessary, and sent a messenger in the autumn of 1753 to the French forts, to give warning that these encroached on Virginia territory, and to order their removal. It was a mission that demanded experience and judgment in the envoy, yet the governor selected for his agent a young man only twenty- one years of age. This youthful messenger had, however, for several years been engaged as a frontier land surveyor, and was familiar with Indian ways and versed in woodcraft. He also held a commission in the Virginia militia. His name was George Washington. 1 1 George Washington was born at Bridge s Creek, Westmoreland County, Virginia, February 22, 1732. His great-grandfather, John Wash ington, had emigrated to Virginia about 1657. As a youth he possessed great strength and agility, and was noted for truthfulness and accuracy. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 155 Difficulties of the Enterprise. Youth and strength were needed as well as discretion. A winter journey of over a thousand miles had to be made through the un broken wilderness. Negotiations with Indian chiefs as well as French officers were required, and information of what the French were doing and proposing to do was im portant. Washington s Journey. The errand of the young mes senger was well performed, but the French, as was expected, refused to retire. They had ready a large number of canoes, and were building others, for a further movement down the Alleghany in the coming spring. Washington gained much information concerning their designs, won the friendship of the Indians, and returned in safety after enduring severe hardships. 1 When at school he settled all disputes between the boys, and would not permit any unfairness. His exercise books are remarkable for their neatness and carefulness. The same may be said of his books in later days, when he managed his plantation and shipped tobacco and flour abroad. It is said that government agents never inspected the flour-barrels marked with his name. They knew that there was no lie in the Washington stamp. He begun the business of a surveyor in 1748, when sixteen years of age. At nineteen he was appointed adjutant-general (with the rank of major) in the Virginia militia. The prudence, sagacity, and resolution which he showed in his mem orable journey to the French forts were the beginning of his fortunes. It was evident to the authorities that he was a man to be trusted with important duties. His later history is the history of his country during his career. 1 Washington was obliged to cross swollen streams, to make his way through frozen snows, and to travel a long distance on foot through the forest, the horses having given out. His journey was an eventful one. He and his companion were fired at by an Indian. Reaching the Alleghany, they found it full of floating ice, which was running swiftly down the stream. Attempting to cross it on a raft, Washington 156 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS. Fort Duquesne. Washington had particularly observed the location where the Monongahela and Alleghany Rivers join to form the Ohio. This point, where Pittsburg now stands, com mands the valley of the Ohio, and was long known as the Gateway of the West. He reported it as an excellent place for the build ing of a fort, and in the spring of 1754 a party was sent there for that purpose. But with the opening of spring a strong party of French came in canoes down the Alleghany, drove off the workmen, and built a fort for themselves, which they named Fort Duquesne. It was one that was to play an important part j n the history of the war. The First Conflict. The Virginians were alert as well as the French. A regiment was already marching toward the contested spot, with Washington as second in command. On hearing of the French action, the young officer hurried forward with a reconnoitring party, and soon met a party of French skulking in the woods with apparently hostile THE FOKT DUQUESNE CAMPAIGN. fell into the cold flood and barely escaped with his life. The night was spent without shelter or fire on an island, but in the morning they succeeded in reaching the opposite shore, and completed in safety their mid-winter journey. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 157 intent. Washington, distrusting their efforts at secrecy, ordered his men to fire, and the French leader, Jumonville, was slain. Thus was fired (May 28, 1754) the first shot in one of the most important of American wars. Fort Necessity. Colonel Frye died on the march, and Washington succeeded to the command. Finding the French too strong for him, he built a stockade at the Great Meadows, which he named Fort Necessity. Here he was attacked by a strong body of French and Indians, and after a severe fight was forced to surrender on July 4, being granted the honorable terms that he and his men should return home with their arms and effects. The First American "War. In this way began the first truly American war. It was no echo of European conflicts, like the former wars, but arose in the colonies themselves, as the natural resultant of the growing jealousy and desire for empire of the French and English colonists. Instead of growing out of a European war, it gave rise to one which began two years afterward. England Sends Aid. As soon as tidings of this conflict crossed the ocean, both England and France prepared to come to the aid of their colonies. England sent General Braddock, an officer experienced in civilized warfare, but wofully ignorant of Indian fighting, with two regiments of regular soldiers. To these he added a force of Virginia militia, and began in the summer of 1755 a march through the forest towards Fort Duquesne, Washington going along as a member of his staff. 1 1 Braddock spent months on the way, making roads as he went, and wasting much valuable time. Yet with ordinary prudence the fort might easily have been taken. It contained few French, and the Indians were in no good humor for fighting. It was a question whether they should flee or fight. The excellent opening which was left for an ambuscade 158 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS. Braddock s Defeat. Benjamin Franklin had warned General Braddock of what he had to expect in Indian warfare. Washington and other officers repeated the warn ing. But Braddock was obstinate and opinionated. He BRADDOCK S DEFEAT. gave his advisers to understand that these lurking savages would not stand long before British regulars, and marched on in disciplined array. At length the over-confident army reached a point ten miles from the fort. Here the regiments entered a deep ravine, whose hill-sides were thick with underbrush. Sud- decided the chance in favor of the latter. Thus the conceit and obsti nacy of one man led to serious consequences for thousands. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 159 denly the war-whoop sounded, and bullets poured upon them from every side. The Virginians, finding themselves in an ambuscade, sprang into the forest and fought the sav ages in their own style. 1 But Braddock obstinately kept his men in their ranks, though their fire was useless and they were rapidly falling. He even struck some of the pro vincials with his sword because they would not stand to be shot at. In the end he was mortally wounded, and his men fled in dismay. Washington covered the retreat with the remnant of the colonial troops and saved the flying regulars from destruction. 2 The English Plan of Campaign. The capture of Fort Duquesne was only one of the purposes which the Eng lish had in view. It was evident that a much wider conflict lay before them. If the Mississippi Valley was to be saved it could most effectually be done by driving the French from America, and it was this grand achievement which the au thorities abroad proposed to undertake. 1 The colonists, French and English alike, had learned the art of forest warfare. They loaded their guns while lying on the ground, and fired from behind trees and stumps, retreating to load and running for ward to fire. They were sure marksmen, and those at whom they fired commonly fell. The regulars, on the contrary, were taught to fire in platoons at the enemy s line, without taking aim. In fighting with In dians, their bullets were mostly wasted. The regulars were unfit by habit, discipline, and clothing for fighting in the woods. The Ameri cans, on whom discipline was wasted, were born woodland fighters. 2 Washington alone won credit in this disastrous affair. His activity was remarkable. Danger did not affect his cool judgment. Two horses were shot under him and four balls pierced his clothes. An old Indian chief afterward stated that he had fired fifteen times at him without hitting him, until he concluded that the white brave bore a charmed life. Washington never received a wound in battle, though he never hesitated to risk his life. 160 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS. But the French were not to be reached without difficulty. They were protected by nature. Between Canada and the English colonies lay a broad belt of forest and mountain, almost impassable to an army. The natural lines of attack, in addition to that against Fort Duquesne, lay along Lakes Geerge and Champlain, and up the St. Lawrence by the ocean route. The Niagara River offered another line of approach. The French Defences. These channels of communi cation were all strongly guarded by the French. Fort Duquesne was the key to the Ohio Valley. A fort at Crown Point defended the Lake Champlain route. Fort Niagara, on the Niagara Biver, controlled the route to the upper lakes. Louisburg threatened New England and the fisheries, serv ing as a place of refuge for French privateers. Back of all these lay the strongly fortified post of Quebec, controlling the St. Lawrence, and serving as the basic point of the French power in America. Expulsion of the Acadians. A portion of the original French territory, that now known as Nova Scotia, had been in English possession since Queen Anne s War. A success ful expedition against the remainder of Acadia, principally what is now New Brunswick, was undertaken in 1755. It was attended by a cruel act, which has long been reprobated. The Acadians were ignorant peasants, simple in habits, strongly French in sympathy, and not content in their posi tion as British subjects. Many of them gave aid and infor mation to the French, a course which so greatly exasper ated the English that a resolution to expel them from their country was taken. They were granted permission to remain if they would take an oath of allegiance to the English king, but this most of them refused, and more than six thousand were forced THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 161 on shipboard and distributed among the English colonies. The work was done cruelly. Families were separated, their homes were burned to keep them from coming back, and their fertile farms laid waste. Many of the exiles found new homes in the French settlements of Louisiana. But their EXPULSION OF TJTE ACADIANS. love for their old fields was never lost, and in the end many returned and took the oath of allegiance. Their love for Acadia proved stronger than their fidelity to France. This act of expulsion has been defended as a military necessity, but it is not easy to believe that so cruel a deed could not have been avoided. The Battle of Lake George. In the same year with the Duquesne and Acadian expeditions (1755) another was undertaken against Crown Point, a strong work which the 11 162 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS. French had built on the west side of Lake Champlain. It was led by Sir William Johnson, a New York landholder who had great influence with the Iroquois Indians, many of whom followed him to the field. The French advanced to meet their foes, and the two armies met on the southern shore of Lake George. A severe battle followed, in which the French were at first successful, but afterward met with a severe defeat from the provincial troops under General Lyman. 1 Johnson, though victorious, did not proceed against Crown Point, so that the purpose of the expedition failed. He contented himself with build ing Fort William Henry, at the head of the lake. The French built the afterward famous Fort Ticonderoga, near the opposite extremity of Lake George. "War Declared. It was not until 1756 that war was formally declared, though it had existed in America for two years. It now spread to the European continent and to the colonies of France and England in India. America had thus lighted a brand of war whose destructive effects spread round the world. Montcalm s Victories. In 1756 the Marquis de Mont- calm, an able French officer, was made commander-in-chief in America, and signalized his ability by the capture of the English post at Oswego, which gave him fourteen hundred prisoners, a large amount of stores, and full command of Lake Ontario. It was a serious loss to the English cause. In the following year he descended Lakes Champlain -and 1 Baron Dieskau, the commander of the French army, was found by the pursuers, wounded and alone, supported against a tree. As a pro vincial soldier approached, the wounded general felt for his watch, hoping to gain safety by the present. But the soldier thought that he was feeling for his pistol, and shot him. The wound was incurable, though he suffered from its effects for ten years before dying. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 163 George with a strong force, attacked Fort William Henry, and forced its surrender. The Fort William Henry Massacre. A terrible affair followed. The English garrison marched out of the fort without their arms, having been promised a safe escort to Fort Edward, on the Hudson River. But the escort did not appear in time, and Montcalm s Indian THE SEAT OPWAK m NEW YOKK. allies fell on the defenceless English and massacred great numbers of them, despite all the French officers could do to restrain their fury. Many others were carried off by the Indians as prisoners. Mont- calm has been severely blamed for inertness in this scene of savage butchery, though perhaps without just cause. The Attack on Ticonderoga. During the next summer (1758) a vigorous effort was made to take Fort Ticonderoga, General Abercrombie marching against it at the head of fifteen thousand troops. Montcalm held the fort with less 164 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS. than one-third this force. Yet despite the strength of the British army it was driven back in complete defeat and with heavy loss. The Results of Four Years. Up to this time success had remained with the French. They had been victori ous at Fort Duquesne and Lake Champlain, and England, though it had made vigorous exertions and raised large bodies of troops, had only the pitiful success in Acadia of which to boast. The victories of France had been due to strenuous efforts of the home government. If the war had been left to the colonists there could have been but one result. The French area in America, though vast, was but a shell, its population being not more than one hundred and twenty-five thousand. The English colonies, on the contrary, were compactly set tled, their population being one million two hundred and fifty thousand. This great discrepancy in numbers might not have made itself manifest in the first years of the war, with so difficult a country intervening, yet in the end it could not have failed to give success to the English colonists. William Pitt s Method. As it was, the reinforcements sent from abroad aided to equalize the strength of the com batants, and served to protract the struggle. But the suc cess of the French ceased. William Pitt, the new minister of England, took steps for a vigorous prosecution of the war, and managed to keep the armies of France occupied in Europe, while English fleets and armies strenuously attacked her colonies abroad. The outcome of this policy in America remains to be told. The Work of 1758. The defeat at Ticonderoga was the only failure in the new policy. A strong expedition was sent during the same year against Louisburg, and that stronghold was a second time captured. Another army THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 165 was sent against Fort Duquesne. This fort had, since Braddock s defeat, been the centre of destructive Indian raids on the frontier, in dealing with which Washington had been kept busy. As the army slowly made its way toward the fort, General Forbes, its commander, diligently making a road as he advanced, winter came on, the troops com plained, and it was decided to abandon the enterprise. But learning that the garrison was weak, Washington asked the privilege to advance with his Virginians. Permission was given, and he moved rapidly forward. On his approach the garrison set fire to the fort and fled. The flames were extinguished and the name of the fortress was changed to Fort Pitt, in honor of the great statesman. The Siege of Quebec. In July, 1759, Forts Niagara and Ticonderoga were taken by the English, and an expedition sailed against Quebec, led by General Wolfe, an offi cer who had distinguished himself in the taking of Louisburg. The struggle had narrowed itself to a single point, the forces were nearly equal, and the commanders both of high military renown. Montcalm had, by active efforts, collected an army of seven thousand men for the defence of Quebec. Wolfe had a large fleet and eight thousand soldiers for the siege. Fruitless Assault. For months Wolfe continued the assault, cannonading the city and seeking some promising point of attack. He was almost in despair as autumn came THE SIEGE OF QUEBEC. 166 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS. and the period of the closing of the stream by ice was at hand. Montcalm at length beheld with joy the English troops taken on board the ships, which moved during the day up-stream as if with the intention of abandoning the contest. The Path up the Cliff. He was deceived. Wolfe had quite another purpose in view. He had carefully investi gated on the land side the lofty cliff on which the city stood, and perceived there a narrow, craggy path winding up the rocks to the top. It seemed impossible for an army to ascend, yet he was determined to attempt it as a last resort. When night fell the boats, filled with soldiers, silently floated down the river with the ebb tide. 1 When the point now known as Wolfe s Cove was reached, the men landed, and clambered in a narrow line up the steep pathway. Those who first reached the summit surprised and dis persed the small guard they found there. The others rapidly followed in a continuous line, and when the morn ing of September 13, 1759, broke, the French beheld with astonishment an English army, five thousand strong, con- 1 For two hours the boats floated noiselessly down the stream under a moonless but starlit sky. French sentinels lined the shore, but only one of them took the alarm. " Qui vive /" came a sharp chal lenge through the gloom. "France!" answered a Highland officer who spoke French. "A quel rbgimentf " De la Reine," was the reply. The sentinel was satisfied and did not ask for the password. The moment of peril was passed. Wolfe was feeble in health, and had risen from a sick-bed to conduct this expedition. As they floated onward he recited in a low voice to the officers around him Gray s " Elegy in a Country Church-Yard, 1 one line being " The paths of glory lead but to the grave." The truth of this he was soon to illustrate in his own fate. " Gentlemen," he said, " I would rather have written those lines than take Quebec." THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 167 fronting them on the Plains of Abraham, the level plateau which extends west of the city. The Decisive Battle. Montcalm, staggered at the unex pected sight, lost no time in seeking to dislodge the foe, before more could ascend or more cannon be drawn up. An impetuous attack was made, which the British veterans bore unmoved. The fighting grew sharp and fierce, the French, most of whom were provincial militia, falling rapidly before the quick and steady volleys of the British. At length they began to break. Wolfe ordered a bayonet charge, which he himself led. He was twice wounded, and at length fell with a third and mortal wound. A few minutes afterward he heard the exultant cry, " They run ! they run !" " Who run ?" he demanded. " The French ! they give way every where." " Go to Colonel Burton," he cried ; "tell him to march Webb s regiment down to Charles River to cut off their retreat from the bridge." GENERAL WOLFE. Then he murmured, " Now God be praised, I will die in peace," and in a few minutes the life of the victor passed away. Fate of Montcalm. Montcalm had a similar fate. Borne on the tide of retreat toward the city, he was shot through the body before the gate was reached. The surgeon told him that the wound was mortal. " So much the better," he replied ; " for then I shall not live to see the surrender of Quebec." Five 4 a Y s afterward the city surrendered, and the colo nial domain of New France was at an end. End of the War. An attempt was made in the next year 168 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS. to reconquer Quebec, and a severe battle was fought, but the siege was raised on the approach of a powerful English fleet. Then a strong army marched on Montreal, the last French stronghold, which quickly surrendered. This ended the conflict. All Canada submitted. England was master of the continent, with the exception of the French posts on the Mississippi and the Gulf, from Florida to the Arctic seas. Peace and its Provisions. There was no more fighting in America, though the war continued abroad. Peace was ENGLISH TERRITORY AFTER THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. made at Paris in 1763. France had been defeated, and gave up her whole Canadian province to England, retaining only two small islands near Newfoundland, which she held for fishing purposes. But the treaty of peace contained other important clauses. Spain had aided France in the last years of the war. In consequence, in 1762, England THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 169 conquered Cuba and the Philippine Islands. These islands were now given back to Spain in exchange for Florida, which became English territory. France Yields her Western Claims. France had sur rendered to England all her claim to territory in the Ohio Valley. She still claimed the territory west of the Missis sippi River to the Rocky Mountains, and held New Orleans. These were ceded to her ally, Spain, to repay that country for the loss of Florida. In consequence France did not retain a foot of land on the continent of North America. All this continent east of the Mississippi, except New Or leans and the island on which it lay, belonged to England. All west of that river belonged to Spain. To the great un known Northwest neither country troubled itself to lay claim. Thus the year 1763 wrought a mighty change in the destinies of America. The Indian Bights Ignored. In this great deal the rights of one party to the conquest were quite overlooked. The Indians, who had so greatly aided France, were quietly handed over to the dominion of England, without their consent being asked or thought of. To this they seriously objected. They were friendly to the French, who treated them well and conformed to their habits and prejudices. They distrusted and hated the English, whose only allies were the Iroquois. The defeat of the French left them exposed to the encroachments of English settlers, and they clearly saw that, unless they could drive back these in vaders, they would be overwhelmed. Pontiac s Conspiracy. Pontiac, a leading Ottawa chief, and a man of great influence with the tribes, perceived this danger and sought to counteract it. He organized a con federation of the tribes west of the mountains, with the purpose of seeking to expel the English. Even the Sene- 170 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS. cas, one of the Iroquois tribes, was induced to join it. His purpose was to fall on all the English forts at once and take them by surprise. The effort was largely successful. In May and June, 1763, eight forts were surprised, and their garrisons captured or destroyed. Hundreds of settlers were murdered, thousands fled to escape the scalping- knife. Only Detroit and Fort Pitt successfully resisted the savage assault. 1 For two years the war continued, though in 1764 the savages were severely defeated at Bushy Run, in Pennsylvania, by Colonel Henry Bouquet. Sir William Johnson induced the Senecas to withdraw from the con spiracy. Other vigorous steps were taken, and peace was finally made in 1766. Pontiac was assassinated by another Indian in 1769. Results of the War. The French and Indian War told heavily on the colonies. It cost them in money sixteen mil lion dollars, of which England repaid only five million dol lars. They lost sixty thousand men, and suffered severely from Indian raids. The taxes were very heavy, but were levied by their own representatives and paid without pro test. The provincial soldiers were treated with disdain by 1 The Indians indulged in various cunning tricks to deceive the unsuspecting garrisons. At Mackinaw a game of ball was played before the fort. The ball was driven, as if by accident, toward the open gate, where the officers stood watching. The Indians followed, and in an instant had seized the officers and poured into the fort. The work of slaughter at once began. At another fort the commander was lured out to visit a sick squaw. Detroit was saved by a squaw, who revealed the plot. In the siege of this place Pontiac showed much ability. Several times he sent fire-rafts against the armed vessels which the English had in the river. He obtained provisions from the French farmers by requisition, and paid them with birch- bark notes signed with the figure of an otter. These notes were all redeemed. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 171 the regulars, and American officers of proved valor were often thrust aside in favor of young British subalterns. But the colonists had gained more than they had lost. Many officers who were to win fame in the Revolution re ceived their military training in this war. Among these were "Washington, Putnam, Gates, Montgomery, Stark, Arnold, and others. The colonies had fought together, and had become more united in spirit while gaining a fuller appreciation of their own strength. They had learned to act independently of England, having voted money, raised troops, and fought battles for themselves. The war was their own, and they had conquered. Furthermore, they were now owners of the great West. The vast region be yond the Alleghanies lay before them, to settle as they would. No enemy was there but the Indian, and he was powerless to stay the westward march. PART V. FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES* i. A NEW KING AND A NEW POLICY. George III. and his Advisers. In 1760, George II., in whose reign had been fought the French and Indian War, died, and a new king, George III., came to the English throne. He was a man not well fitted to deal with a people as sensitive on the subject of political liberty as the Americans. Obstinate in disposition and dull in mind, with an exaggerated view of the royal prerogative, he was sec onded by ministers and a Parliament who could not be made to understand the feeling of the colonists, and who persisted in a policy that in a few years drove them into rebellion. The gradual steps by which this was accom plished it is our purpose next to describe. Views Concerning Trade. At that time the most en lightened people had views concerning commerce different from those held to-day. No one seemed to understand that trade would be most prosperous if free from restrictions. And it was held that colonies existed for the good of the mother-country and had no independent rights of their own. The Navigation Acts. Laws were therefore passed which declared that the American colonies should trade only with Great Britain. Their rice, their tobacco, their ore, and their lumber must be shipped only to British 172 A NEW KING AND A NEW POLICY. 173 ports ; and if they wanted tea or silk they must buy it from British merchants. The first of these Navigation Acts, as they were called, was passed in 1651, in Cromwell s time. Others were passed in later years. At first the colonists were permitted to use their own ships. But the ship-builders of New England grew so active that the British law-makers de cided to protect their ship-yards as well as their merchants. For this purpose a law was passed in 1663 which declared that no goods should be imported in American ships un less these had been built before October, 1662. This was intended to restrict trade in time to ships built in British yards. The colonies were not even permitted to use their own ships to trade with one another. Restrictions on Manufactures. Great Britain had not only the good of her merchants in view. Her manufac turers must also be protected from those busy colonists. It would not do to let them make goods for themselves, since this might injure British workshops. They might grow wool, but they had no right to weave it into cloth. Iron might be smelted from their ores, but only English smiths had the right to work it into nails and ploughshares. Raw materials of this kind must be shipped to England, there to be wrought into goods. On the other hand, grain and other farm produce must not be shipped. Such pro duce was raised on English farms, and English farmers in their turn demanded protection. Therefore a tariff was placed on the products of the fields, so high that the American farmers could not afford to export them. Thus in every way possible Great Britain sought to tie the hands of American labor. Commerce and Industry Forbidden. The people of America strongly desired to make their own goods, and 174 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. naturally sought to find customers for them. This Eng land sternly forbade. In the reign of William and Mary laws were passed which said that no paper, hats, iron, leather, or other articles should be exported, even from one colony to another. In some cases their manufacture also was forbidden. No hatter was permitted to have more than two apprentices at a time, or to send a hat out of his own town or district. It was declared by William Pitt, a friend of the Americans, that not even a horseshoe nail could be legally made without permission from Parliament. 1 The Smugglers. It proved easier to make such laws than to enforce them. In spite of the edicts against man ufacture, many things were made in America. In spite of the Navigation Acts, ships were built in American yards and goods sent to and brought from other than English ports. 2 Smuggling, it was called, but no one paid heed to that. The trade between the colonies was principally done in vessels built and owned in New England. Lumber, fish, and grain were sent to the West Indies and molasses and 1 Iron-works were declared to be " common nuisances." A prominent Englishman said that the making of even a hobnail in America would be fatal. To print an English Bible in the colonies would have been considered " an act of piracy." Turpentine and tar were forbidden to be made in the Carolina pine-forests. Trees in the Maine woods suit able for masts belonged to the royal navy, and colonists were forbidden to fell them. 2 The Boston ship-yards were kept busy, and sold every year more than a hundred vessels in England or the West Indies. Before the outbreak of the French and Indian War New England and New York owned fully a thousand ships, besides their fishing fleet. A hun dred and fifty were used in the whale fishery. These sent colonial products to the West Indies, France, Spain, and other countries, and brought back rich cargoes. The most of this trade was done in defiance of the Navigation Laws. A NEW KING AND A NEW POLICY. 175 sugar brought back. Much of this molasses was converted into New England rum. The ports of Holland, France, and other countries were visited by American ships, loaded with salt-fish and other goods. There were custom-house offi cials in the seaport towns, but their office was largely a sinecure. Smuggling went on openly before their eyes, and no earnest effort was made to stop it. Policy of George III. With the accession of George III. a new policy came into effect. It was determined that the revenue laws should be enforced. The recent war with France had cost Great Britain heavily. The colonies had contributed large sums toward its expenses, but still the debt was great. The colonies were growing yearly richer and more populous, and were quite capable of paying their share into the treasury of the mother-country. Therefore, in 1761, it was decided that smuggling must be stopped and import duties collected. 1 Writs of Assistance. This was easier to decide than to enforce. Boston was full of smuggled goods. The officer of customs at that port applied for " Writs of Assistance" to enable him to search for such goods. A Writ of Assistance was a general search-warrant, which gave the officer the right to break into any warehouse or dwelling he chose and search it from garret to cellar for smuggled goods. The writs were granted and the work began. Ware houses were entered and goods claimed to be smuggled were seized. But opposition soon appeared. Owners here and there barricaded their doors and defied the officers with loaded guns. The axiom that " every man s house is his 1 The population in 1763 was probably little short of two millions. The annual exports were valued at over five million dollars, the imports at eight million dollars, and they were rapidly increasing. 176 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. castle" was being violated, and a bitter feeling was aroused even in those who had no goods to be seized. The writs failed in their purpose and smuggling went on. Lack of Colonial Cohesion. In 1754, during a conven tion held at Albany, Benjamin Franklin l had brought for ward a plan of union for the colonies, which he considered would enable them to work together in an emergency. It was rejected by Great Britain on the plea that it gave the colonies too much power, and by the colonies on the plea that it left them too little power. As a result, they remained disunited during the French and Indian War. Each raised men and money separately. Those not in danger were slow to act. It was evident that some power ought to exist that could enlist soldiers and obtain money without the delays and danger of this slow process. Not Ready for Union. Could a federal union have been formed this difficulty might have been overcome. But it was too soon for such a union. The colonies were not pre pared for it ; they had been too long used to their separate governments to be willing to give them up. Great Britain 1 Benjamin Franklin was born in Boston in 1706. He learned the trade of printing, and at the age of seventeen went to Philadelphia, which city afterward remained his home. He was long in business as printer and publisher, editing the Pennsylvania Gazette and publishing " Poor Richard s Almanac," a highly popular compendium of common- sense sayings. He was very active -as a citizen, founded the Philadel phia Library and the University of Pennsylvania, and originated other Philadelphia institutions. He became famous for a great scientific discovery, in which he drew electricity from the clouds and proved the cause of lightning to be electrical. He was one of the best American prose writers c f the century. In 1753 he was appointed postmaster- general for America. During the rest of his life he was deeply engaged in public business, and did much to advance the cause of American liberty abroad and at home. A NEW KING AND A NEW POLICY. 177 did not want it ; it was easier to deal with thirteen dis united colonies than with a single united one. Yet some central authority seemed needed, and the British ministry devised a plan for one which they thought would work. The British Proposition. What they proposed to do was as follows : 1. A small army seemed to them necessary for the de fence of the colonies. This could be sent from England and its expenses paid by America. 2. The governors, judges, and crown attorneys were to be paid with American money, but this money was to be raised by taxes over which the colonial assemblies had no control, and to be disbursed by the crown. 3. If any money remained, it was to be used in giving pensions to deserving Americans. In short, America was asked to give up functions which it had always exercised at home and to supply money which would make its officials independent of control except by the British king, and whose surplus could be used for pur poses of bribery or corruption. They were, in fact, asked to deliver themselves over, bound hand and foot, into the power of the crown. The Colonists Object. Such a demand might have suc ceeded with French and Spanish colonists. It could hardly succeed with English. For a century and more the colo nists had voted their own taxes, paid their own officials, and made their own laws. They were not likely to give up this privilege without a long and bitter struggle. Hitherto they had known only the king in their dealings, and performed their own legislative work. Now they were asked to yield themselves to the control of Parliament. It was a new demand, and one to which English colonists were very unlikely to submit. 12 178 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. Taxation ; Stamp Act. How best to carry out these measures puzzled the British authorities. At length a plan was devised to which it was thought the Americans would not object. An ,act was passed by Parliament in 1764 laying increased duties on com merce and placing new restrictions on trade. This caused much irrita tion in Massachusetts, the centre of American commerce. In 1765 an act was passed which affected all the colonies. It was what A STAMP- ACT STAMP. is known as a Stamp Act. All pub lic documents, legal papers, newspapers, and almanacs were to have stamps fixed to them, as stamps are now at tached to letters. These stamps were to be sold. Their price varied from a half-penny to twelve pounds. Legal papers not stamped were to be of no value in law. How the Stamp Act was Received. The Stamp Act met with little opposition in Parliament. 1 When news of its passage reached America there was an outbreak of indigna tion. The people rose in fury, mobbed the houses of British officials, and hung in effigy certain unpopular dignitaries. The leading orators denounced the act as tyranny. Sam uel Adams and James Otis in Boston, and Patrick Henry in Virginia, vigorously opposed it. Otis had declared, at the time of the Writs of Assistance trials, that "Taxation with out representation is tyranny." 2 This remark had become 1 Benjamin Franklin, who was in London at -the time, fought hard against the law, but said he might as well have tried to stop the sun from setting as to stop Parliament. 2 In England it had for centuries been a fixed political axiom that only the people, through their representatives, could vote taxes. The A NEW KING AND A NEW POLICY. 179 the watchword of the people, and was now the text of the orators. They did not hesitate to speak in the plainest lan guage, and their ringing words roused the country from end to end. 1 Sons of Liberty. The people fully seconded their orators. Associations called " Sons of Liberty" were formed to resist the act. A congress was held at New York to which nine of the colonies sent delegates. It issued a Declaration of Rights and framed a .... , _ ,. PATRICK HENRY. petition to Parliament and the king. How the Stamps were Received. The act was to go into effect on the 1st of November, 1765. When that day House of Commons was the only body that could pass revenue bills. Charles I. tried to set this aside and tax the people himself. In con sequence he stirred up a rebellion that cost him his crown and his head. The colonists claimed the same right. They had no represent atives in Parliament, and therefore denied that Parliament could tax them. They were willing to be taxed by their own assemblies, but by no other power on earth. 1 Patrick Henry was a young lawyer of Virginia who had acquired a great reputation for eloquence. He was at this time a member of the House of Burgesses, in which he offered resolutions boldly de claring that the assembly of Virginia had the sole right to tax the people of that province, and that they were not bound to obey any law not made by their own representatives. His speech in support of these resolu tions was one of wonderful eloquence. During its delivery, alluding to tyrants, he exclaimed, " Caesar had his Brutus, Charles the First his Cromwell, and George the Third " He was interrupted by cries of " Treason ! treason !" The orator paused a moment, then added, impressively, " may profit by their exam ple. If that be treason, make the most of it." This speech made Patrick Henry famous. He was the first Speaker in the Continental Congress of 1774. He was governor of Virginia 180 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. came bells were tolled, flags were raised at half-mast, and business was generally suspended. When the stamps arrived on shipboard they were seized and burned. The stamp agents were forced to resign. Editors published their papers with a skull and cross-bones instead of the stamp. Lawyers agreed to consider documents without stamps as good in law. People determined to use no ar ticle of British manufacture. They proposed even to stop eating mutton, that there might be more wool for weav ing. In households throughout the land the spinning- wheel and loom hummed loudly as patriotic women wove homespun cloth. The whole country had risen against the law. The End of the Stamp Act. The time for the Act to go into effect came, but there were neither stamps to use nor officers to sell them. Parliament was astounded. Even many Americans were surprised. No such general and bitter resistance had been looked for. The British gov ernment was in a quandary. English merchants sent in petitions for a repeal of the law. Their business was suf fering from the determination in America to use no English goods. Franklin was examined before the House of Com mons, and told that body some wholesome truths. He gave the members plainly to understand that America would never submit. The great orators, William Pitt and Edmund Burke, opposed the law in Parliament. 1 It was from 1776 to 1779. In 1788 he strongly opposed the ratification by Virginia of the National Constitution. He declined high government positions offered him by Presidents Washington and Adams. He died in 1799. 1 Pitt declared that Parliament had no right to tax the Americans, and said, " I rejoice that America has resisted." Burke said that if the king tried to tax the Americans against their will, he would find it as A NEW KING AND A NEW POLICY. 181 repealed in 1766, after a long and hot debate. America had won. The Right of Taxation. Although the obnoxious law was repealed, the king and his advisers had no thought of giving up the fight. Parliament declared that it had the full right to make laws binding the American people. England was in debt, and the government was determined that America should help it, and do so in the king s way. George III. felt that he had the right to tax America. His Parlia ment agreed with him. It was not long, therefore, before new steps were taken, new wedges, we may call them, driven in to separate Great Britain and her colonies. New Acts of Oppression. An act was passed forbid ding all trade between the colonies and certain West India islands. This was bitterly resented in New England, for it cut off a very profitable trade. In 1767 what were called the Townshend Acts were passed. These laid duties on glass, paper, lead, paints, and teas. The colonists had paid port duties before, said Townshend ; let them do so again. But there was a decided difference. The money to be raised by those duties was to be used to destroy the inde pendence of colonial government, and put the colonists in the position of paying for their own enslavement. The Quartering- Act. The colonists had reasons for this opinion. An act known as the Quartering Act had been passed in 1765, which required the colonies to support troops which might be quartered among them. Under this law troops were sent to enforce the Townshend Acts. Their coming excited the highest indignation. The people were asked to shelter and feed their oppressors. This the New hard a job as the farmer did who tried to shear a wolf instead of a sheep. 182 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. York assembly refused to do, and as a punishment it was forbidden to pass any laws. The Massachusetts assembly also resisted, and asked the colonies to unite for defence. Nearly all the other assemblies had already declared that Parliament had no right to tax them without their consent- FANEUIL HALL. Assemblies Dismissed. As a result of this decided ac tion the Massachusetts assembly was dismissed by order of the king, and during several years the other assemblies were dissolved by the royal governors so often that little business could be transacted. 1 The people did nothing, ex- 1 The Virginia assembly, when dismissed, used to meet in conven tion in the large ball-room of the Raleigh Tavern at Williamsburg, and there discuss public matters. In Massachusetts legislation was carried on to some extent by the Boston town-meeting held in Faneuil Hall, the " Cradle of Liberty," as it came to be called. A NEW KING AND A NEW POLICY. 183 cept to desist from using English goods ; but this was enough to make serious trouble in England. Between 1767 and 1769 the exports to New England fell off one-half; those to New York fell off five-sixths. Lord North Minister. In 1768, Lord North became prime minister of England. He retained this position till the end of the Revolution. He was a weak man, who let the king have his own way. Thus George III. was the ruling power from 1768 to 1782, and it was largely through his obstinate determination to force the colonists to submit to his will that the Americans were driven to rebellion and gained their independence. Troops in Boston. In seven years of his reign George III. and his Parliament had managed to convert loyal into disloyal subjects. In seven years more the king and his troops were to convert irritation into rebellion. Two regi ments were sent to Boston in 1768, under General Gage (an officer who had taken part in the Braddock expedition). They were intended to sustain the Townshend Acts, the en forcement of which had been resisted in Boston harbor. How Boston Received the Troops. The measure was a dangerous one, as was soon to be proved. The Bosto- nians looked upon the soldiers as enemies, and their faces were grim with suppressed anger as the troops marched with beating drums and flying flags through Boston streets. They were refused quarters, though some of them were allowed to sleep in Faneuil (fdn tt) Hall. The others en camped on the Common, where they planted cannon and posted sentries as though they were in a conquered city. The Boston Massacre. The feeling of irritation grew daily. No citizen could pass the sentries without being challenged. Quarrels between the people and the soldiers were frequent. At length, on March 6, 1770, an outbreak 184 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. came. A crowd of men and boys threatened a sentry, and when soldiers came to his aid abused them and dared them to fire. The soldiers at length fired, killing four persons and wounding several others. The town was at once in an uproar. The bells were rung, and citizens flocked to the scene. As news of the " Boston Massacre," as it was called, spread, country people hurried to the aid of the citizens. Order was restored with difficulty. The next day an immense meeting was held at the old South Meeting-House. It was decided that the troops must leave the town, and Samuel Adams called on the governor with this peremptory mandate of the people. The order was obeyed. Before night the soldiers were removed to one of the islands in the harbor. The Soldiers Tried. The soldiers concerned in the affray were tried for murder. John Adams and Josiah Quincy, earnest patriots, yet who felt that the accused had acted in self-defence, defended them in the court. All were acquit ted but two, who were found guilty of manslaughter. They were branded in the hand. The Gaspee Burned. In 1772 another act of violence took place, clearly showing the rebellious spirit of the people. The Gaspee, a revenue vessel, which had been offensively active, ran aground on a point in Narragansett Bay and was seized and burned. An order was received from the ministry to send the offenders to England for trial. This the chief justice of Rhode Island, Stephen Hopkins, refused to obey. A New Scheme of Taxation. Meanwhile, the Town- shend Acts were yielding no revenue, and British trade was seriously suffering. There was nothing for it but to repeal the obnoxious laws. Yet George III. was bent on estab lishing his right to tax the colonies, and insisted that the A NEW KING AND A NEW POLICY. 185 duty should be retained on tea. It had ceased to be a question of revenue and become one of principle in his mind. The colonists should pay taxes at his dictation ; on that he was determined. English Tea Refused. The colonists were equally deter mined. Tea was smuggled in from Holland in large quan tities. Some of the people drank a decoction of raspberry leaves as a substitute for tea. English tea they did not and would not use, and the East India Company, which had a monopoly of that article, found its warehouses overstocked and its finances in confusion, largely because the Americans had ceased to use its tea. The King s Plan. What was to be done? King and company alike were in a quandary. At length a cunning plan was devised. " There must be one tax to keep up the right," said the king. Tea paid a duty of five pence a pound in England. It was agreed to take off this duty, and charge the Americans only the three pence tax per pound. At that rate America would get her tea at a lower price than England, and obtain cheaper tea than that smuggled from Holland. This was thought a very neat device. Orders for tea would surely corne now. But they did not. It was princi ple, not price, which the Americans sought to establish, and they were not to be driven or coaxed into paying taxes of English origin, even to save two pence a pound on their tea. Tea Sent Over. No orders coming, the company re solved to send out cargoes, hoping they would find a market. Ship-loads were sent in 1773 to various ports, but they were everywhere refused. At Philadelphia and New York the ships were ordered from port with their tea. At Charleston the tea was landed and stored in damp cellars, where it 186 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. \ rotted while awaiting buyers. A private consignment sent to Annapolis was burned in the harbor. The Tea Ships at Boston. In Boston the British officials refused to let the ships return. The citizens determined that the tea should not be landed. A guard watched the ships day and night. Samuel Adams was the leading spirit on this occasion. Town-meetings were held, and the owner of the ships was or dered to take them away. But the col lector refused a clearance to the ships and the governor a pass to the captain. Nineteen days passed. On the twen tieth the law permitted the custom-house officers to seize the vessels and unload them by force. The Boston Tea-Party. On that day, December 16, 1773, a great town-meet ing was held. It was decided that the tea should not be landed. Evening had fallen when Samuel Adams rose and said, " This meeting can do nothing more to save the country." 1 As though this were a signal, a party of citizens disguised as Indians gave a war-whoop at the door and rushed down the street toward the wharf. Boarding the vessels, they hoisted up the tea- BOSTON TEA-PARTY. 1 Samuel Adams, the leader of the Boston populace in the cause of liberty, was born in that city in 1722. He was devoted to liberty even as a student at Harvard College. He was always poor, but could not be bought. When General Gage offered pardon to the Americans, Samuel Adams and John Hancock were excepted. He proposed the Congress of 1774 and became one of its members. Independence throughout had in him a persistent advocate. He died in 1803. A NEW KING AND A NEW POLICY. 187 chests, three hundred and forty-two in all, broke them open, and poured their contents into the harbor. In two hours time the work was over and the Boston tea-party at an end. The tea which the colonists were to have been forced to drink had gone to feed the fishes. Acts in Retaliation. When the news of this act of vio lence came to England the king and his ministers were bitterly incensed. Instead of taking warning and drawing back before it was too late, they proceeded to new acts of oppression, driving the wedge of separation deeper and deeper. Five acts were passed in 1774, which became known as the " Intolerable Acts." 1. The Boston Port Bill declared that no ships should be allowed to enter or leave the port until the lost tea had been paid for. 2. The Transportation Bill allowed soldiers or officials who might commit murder in quelling resistance to the law to be sent to England or Nova Scotia for trial. 3. The Massachusetts Bill practically revoked the char ter, putting all power into the governor s hands. 4. Another bill legalized the quartering of troops on the colonists. 5. The Quebec Act extended the government of Canada over the country west of the Alleghanies. All these acts were intended to bring the colonists more directly under control of the king. Their ultimate effect was to drive them into revolution. Effect of the Boston Port Bill. The closing of the port of Boston caused much distress. Business, was stopped, men were dismissed, food grew scarce. Aid and sympathy came from all quarters. Marblehead and Salem offered Boston the use of their wharves. Wheat, rice, and other 188 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. food were contributed freely. Money was donated. The whole country sympathized with Boston in her trouble and sustained her in her resistance. 1 Committees of Correspondence. In 1772 it had been ordered that the judges should thenceforth be paid by the crown. The judges were threatened by the colonists with impeachment if they dared accept a penny from the king. As the assembly had been dissolved, Samuel Adams devised a plan of government without legislation. Each town ap pointed a committee to confer with committees from other towns. These were called " Committees of Correspond ence." When they all met they would form a " Provincial Congress." In this way goverment went on. In the spring of 1773, Dabney Carr, of Virginia, proposed and arranged for Committees of Correspondence between the colonies. This was another step in advance. A single step further would yield a Continental Congress. That step was taken in the following year. 2. THE COLONIES IN REBELLION. Soldiers in Boston Again. If the real purpose of George III. had been to drive the colonies to rebellion, he could not have taken surer methods or been more successful. By 1774 he had gone too far to draw back. The colonists had become rebels at heart. Little was now needed to make them rebels in act. The next step was soon taken. Boston was once more filled with soldiers. General Gage had been 1 South Carolina sent two hundred barrels of rice. North Carolina contributed nearly ten thousand dollars in money. A town in Massa chusetts donated two hundred and fifty sheep. Grain, flour, cattle, fish, and other supplies came from elsewhere. The whole country looked upon Boston as a martyr to the cause of liberty. THE COLONIES IN REBELLION. 189 sent back there with four regiments and batteries of artillery. He was to sustain the Boston Port Bill and keep the people in order. To increase his authority he was made governor of Massachusetts, though no patriotic citizen ever recognized him as such. The First Continental Congress. America was in the mood to resist to the bitter end. Preparation for resistance took two forms, civil and military. The holding of a general congress was proposed in Virginia and approved in other colonies. On June 17, 1774, Samuel Adams rose in the General Court at Salem and proposed that a Continental Congress should be called, to meet in Philadelphia on Sep tember 1. His motion was adopted and five delegates were chosen. Two days earlier, Rhode Island had taken similar action. The other colonies, except Georgia, chose delegates. The Georgia assembly was prevented from doing so by the gov ernor. This Congress, composed of fifty-five delegates, met at Philadelphia on September 5, 1774, its sessions being held in Carpenters Hall. 1 Among the delegates were George Washington, Patrick Henry, and Bichard Henry Lee, from Virginia ; Samuel Adams and John Adams, from Massa chusetts ; John Jay, from New York ; and able men from the other colonies. Peyton Randolph, of Virginia, was chosen president. Acts of the First Congress. This body continued in 1 Carpenters 1 Hall was built in 1724 by the Carpenters Company, composed of architects and builders. After being used by the Conti nental Congress it was employed for State purposes and as a hospital for sick soldiers. In later days it was used at times by the Philadel phia Library, the Bank of Pennsylvania, and the Land Office of the United States. It is still in excellent preservation, and is maintained for its historical interest. 190 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. session until October 26, 1774. There was nothing revolu tionary or disloyal in its actions. It professed loyalty to the king, but petitioned him to redress the wrongs of the colonies. Addresses were sent to the people of Great Brit ain, Canada, and the colonies, and a declaration of rights was drawn up, with an agreement to stop all trade with Great Britain and to put an end to the slave-trade. Representa tion in Parliament was not asked for. It was not wanted. What the Congress demanded was the right to make all laws (except those relating to foreign commerce) and to levy all taxes in the colonial assemblies. This action taken, the Congress adjourned, having first provided for another Con gress, to meet May 10, 1775. The Provincial Congress of Massachusetts. To re place the assembly a " Provincial Congress," which grew out of the " Committees of Correspondence," met in Octo ber, 1774. John Hancock was at its head. Its proceedings were distinctly warlike. A Committee of Safety was ap pointed, with power to call out the militia. Provision was made for the collection of military stores. The other col onies followed in the same spirit. Patrick Henry, in March, 1775, spoke the general sentiment, when he told the Vir ginia convention that they must fight, and uttered these ringing words : " As for me, give me liberty or give me death !" The Existence of Rebellion. The time had come. In February, 1775, Parliament declared that rebellion existed in Massachusetts, and a fleet and several thousand ad ditional troops were ordered to Boston for its suppression. America was on the verge of war. The Minute-Men. There was some warrant for the dec laration that Massachusetts was in rebellion. Throughout the colony the people were organizing and drilling. Twelve THE COLONIES IN REBELLION. 191 thousand militia were called out by the patriot authorities, one-third being " Minute-Men," men ready to march and fight at a minute s notice. Munitions of war were being gath ered at various points. Here and there powder and cannon were taken from forts. From New York to Savannah defensive measures were adopted. The warlike spirit ruled throughout the colonies. England Unyielding. It was prob ably too late nOW to bring America back REVOLUTIONARY SOLDIER. to loyalty. But neither king nor Parlia ment showed any disposition to try. Pitt proposed measures of conciliation. They were rejected, and a bill was passed in March, 1775, prohibiting fishing on the banks of Newfound land. At that time twenty thousand men were employed in these fisheries, and the measure was a severe blow to the industries of New England. Military Activity. Meanwhile, General Gage was grow ing alarmed at the spirit of the people. He fortified Boston Neck, seized certain military stores which had been collected at Cambridge and Charlestown, and sent an expedition by water to Salem, where he heard that some cannon had been hidden. The cannon were not found ; militia faced the troops arms in hand ; no blood was shed, but the ex pedition failed. A Perilous Enterprise. This was in February, 1775. In April a more perilous enterprise was to be undertaken. General Gage had been ordered to arrest the two patriot leaders, Samuel Adams and John Hancock. He learned that they were then at Lexington, a village some ten miles from Boston. At Concord, twenty miles away, a collection 192 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. of military stores had been made. Gage determined to arrest these patriots and destroy these stores, and on the evening of April 18 sent out what he intended to be a secret expedition for that purpose. Paul Revere s Ride. Late that night eight hundred regulars marched from the city. They had hardly started before Paul Revere l and other mounted messengers were on the way to warn the people of their coming. The pa triots had not been deceived. They had penetrated Gen eral Gage s secret and were prepared to defeat it. Paul Revere rode swiftly on, rousing the people as he went. At Lexington he warned Adams and Hancock to flee. He was stopped by a patrol of British officers before reaching Concord, but contrived to send the news on. Hours before the regulars reached that town the bulk of the stores were removed. The Volley at Lexington. Lexington was reached about five o clock in the morning of April 19. Major Pit- cairn, at the head of the advance, saw before him a body of minute-men drawn up on the village green. The critical moment had come. " Disperse, you rebels ! Throw down your arms and disperse !" cried the major. The minute-men stood still. Then the ominous word " Fire !" came from his lips. A rattle of musketry followed. Seven Americans fell dead. With that discharge the war of the American Revolution began. 1 Paul Revere was an engraver by trade, and an earnest patriot. On the passage of the Boston Port Rill he had ridden to New York and Philadelphia with copies of the bill printed on mourning paper. On this occasion he is said to have waited in Charlestown till he saw two signal-lights flash from the steeple of the old North Church. Then he mounted and set out in haste. The lights told him that the soldiers were on the march. THE COLONIES IN REBELLION. 193 The Retreat from Concord. The soldiers hurried on to Concord, where they destroyed what little remained of the stores. But the alarm was spreading, the people were gath ering, every hour the position of the soldiers grew more dangerous. A fight ensued at Concord Bridge in which men fell on both sides. The minute-men held the bridge and the regulars began their retreat. They had stayed too long. The country was up. From every side armed farmers and villagers hurried to the road. From behind every wall and fence bullets pouied upon the troops. Their retreat became a flight. Over that dreadful ten miles to Lexington they hurried at all speed, numbers falling before the patriot fire. A Flight for Life. At Lexington they found reinforce ments, and flung themselves exhausted on the ground, "their tongues hanging from their mouths like those of dogs after a chase." After a period of rest the march was resumed. It was still a race for life. The minute-men increased continually in numbers. The whole British col umn was in danger of being cut off. At length Boston was reached, but nearly three hundred of the " red coats," as the Americans called them, lay dead or wounded along the road. .The American loss was eighty-eight. Boston Besieged. The note of war had sounded. The colonists were prepared. All that night minute-men marched upon Boston. All the next day the march kept up from more distant points. As the news spread the peo ple rose. John Stark, of New Hampshire, a soldier of the late war, set out in haste with a body of his neighbors. Israel Putnam, 1 of Connecticut, another hero of the war with 1 Israel Putnam, born at Salem, Massachusetts, in 1718, proved himself a soldier of the highest courage and enterprise in the French 13 194 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. France, left his work in the fields, mounted his horse, and in eighteen hours reached Boston, a hundred miles away. Within three days a force of sixteen thou sand men had gath- BOSTON AND VICINITY. ered, and the Brit ish in Boston were closely besieged. The Colonies in Revolt. America had without hesita tion accepted war. The time for concili ation had passed. The question must now be settled on the field of battle, not in the halls of council. In its excited state New England had been like a powder-magazine, which the first hostile discharge of a and Indian War. His adventures were many and striking. At Fort Edward he alone fought a fire that threatened the magazine, in which were three hundred barrels of powder. He was scorched into blisters from head to foot, but he saved the magazine. At another time he was taken prisoner by the Indians, tied to a stake, and a fire kindled round him. He was saved by a French officer, who dashed in and scattered the brands. In 1779 he made a famous escape from a party of British dragoons, spurring his horse down a stony declivity, which not one of his pursuers dared attempt. THE COLONIES IN REBELLION. 195 British musket had kindled. As the news of Lexington and Concord spread over the country the people everywhere rose in response. On the 10th of May, Ethan Allen, with a force of " Green Mountain Boys," took Fort Ticonderoga by surprise, and captured it without firing a shot. 1 On the next day Seth Warner captured the fort at Crown Point. These victories gave the Americans a valuable store of cannon and ammunition, which was sorely needed. The Second Continental Congress. On the same day that Ticonderoga was taken, Congress met again in Phila delphia. Its tone was markedly different from that of the First Congress. Under the presidency of that John Hancock whom Gen eral Gage had sought to arrest at. Lexington, it took decisive steps. It was not yet the Congress of a new nation. It recognized George III. as the " rightful sovereign" of the American colonies. But it as sumed control of the siege of Bos ton, called for recruits from Virginia and the middle colonies, and chose George Washington as the commander-in-chief of the Continental army, as it was thenceforth called. It also 1 Ethan Allen is said to have burst into the room of the commandanl and demanded an immediate and unconditional surrender of the fort. " By whose authority ?" asked the astounded officer. " In the name of the great Jehovah and the Continental Congress," thundered the Green Mountain leader. There was no resisting this demand. Later in the war Allen made an assault on Montreal with too weak a force, was taken prisoner, and spent several years in an English prison. The people there looked upon him as an American prodigy. 196 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. ordered the issue of two million dollars in paper money, the first of the " Continental currency." The Provincial Congress. The " Provincial Congress" of Massachusetts resolved to raise an army of thirty thou sand men, and appointed General Artemas Ward com mander of the army at Boston. Putnam, Stark, and other veterans of the French and Indian War received important commands. While this was doing, fresh troops came from England. General William Howe took the place of Gage as com mander, and had under him a force of more than ten thou sand men. 1 Bunker Hill. Howe was not long in taking warlike steps. The heights in Charlestown known as Bunker and Breed s Hills overlooked the city, and would be dangerous to his position if the Americans should seize them. He resolved to occupy them. But before he could act the Americans had preceded him. On the morning of June 17 he was astounded to perceive the heights intrenched and a strong force of " rebels" behind the works. General Ward had learned or guessed his plans and sent a force to occupy Bunker Hill. By mistake they selected Breed s Hill, nearer the city, and here all night long the provincials had been actively wielding the spade. At day break some fifteen hundred men lay behind the works, under Colonel Prescott and Generals Putnam and Warren. The Battle. At a glance Howe saw his danger. He must drive the patriots out or leave Boston with his army. 1 With him came Generals Clinton and Burgoyne. "What!" ex claimed Burgoyne, as he saw the American intrenchments from the harbor, " ten thousand peasants keep five thousand king s troops shut up! Let us get in and we 1 !! soon find elbow-room. Elbow-room they found, but not till they went again to sea. THE COLONIES IN REBELLION. 197 Before daybreak the ships in the harbor opened fire on the works. The battery on Copp s Hill followed. But the Americans plied their shovels still. Noon had passed before the British were ready to attack. Then about three thousand men landed in Charlestown, and marched up the perilous hill. The Americans kept still. Their powder was scanty. "Don t fire till you see the whites of their eyes," said Prescott. At length the word came, a stream of musketry poured out, and hundreds of the British fell. Down the hill they went, driven as if by a storm of iron hail. Again they charged, and again were repulsed with heavy loss. Charlestown was now in flames. Howe had ordered it to be set on fire. A third assault was made, and this time with success. The Continentals had exhausted their powder. They had now only the butt-ends of their mus kets with which to fight. Slowly and stubbornly they withdrew, fighting at every step. Howe had won the works, but with a loss of more than a thousand men. The American loss was less than five hundred, many of them only slightly wounded. But one of their best men had fallen, the patriotic General Warren, whose death was deeply felt. Lessons from Defeat. More than one lesson was learned from this defeat. The British in particular learned that the Americans could and would fight. All through the rest of the war they were fearful of attacking American intrench- ments. Washington was then on his way to Boston to take command. On hearing of how the Americans had fought, he said, "The liberties of the country are safe." "Washington in Command. Under a great elm near Harvard College, at Cambridge, Washington sat on his horse on the morning of July 3, while the patriot troops marched 198 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. past. He saw before him a brave but undisciplined army. It embraced about fourteen thousand men, but many of these were without muskets ; there were few bayonets ; cannon were needed ; powder was very scarce : the new commander had no slight task to perform. He set to work at once in the necessary labor of drilling and organizing these raw troops and of collecting munitions of war. The Invasion of Canada. During the summer it was learned that the British in Canada proposed to send an expedition to Northern New York. To prevent this Con gress decided upon an invasion of Canada. General Rich ard Montgomery descended Lake Champlain with two thou sand men and captured Montreal. Benedict Arnold, who had taken part in the capture of Ticonderoga, set out with twelve hundred men for a journey through the wilderness of Maine. The Invasion Pails. It was a terrible journey. The men were six weeks in the wilds, and were on the verge of starvation when they at length emerged from the forest into the Canadian fields. Montgomery soon joined Arnold, and Quebec was besieged. On the last day of 1775 an assault was made. It was a desperate effort. More than two hun dred cannon defended the walls. Montgomery was killed, Arnold wounded, and the army repulsed. Arnold contin ued the siege till spring from behind ramparts of snow ; then, as reinforcements for the garrison approached, the Americans withdrew. The costly effort had proved an utter failure. The Hessians Hired. Congress meanwhile made an at tempt at reconciliation. A petition reached London in Au gust, 1775. But the king was bent on conquest and refused to receive it. He replied by a proclamation, calling for volunteers to put down the rebellion in America. As vol- THE COLONIES IN REBELLION. 199 unteers came but slowly, he hired German troops for the purpose, obtaining in all nearly thirty thousand soldiers from the rulers of Hesse-Cassel and other small principal ities. The hiring of these Hessians, as they were called, exasperated the Americans, and made them still more bit terly resolved on winning their independence. Dorchester Heights Intrenched. During the autumn and winter Washington kept up the siege of Boston. Want of powder and cannon prevented him from doing more. At length fifty cannon reached the camp. They had been dragged on ox-sleds from Ticonderoga to Boston, through two hundred miles of country that was largely unbroken forest. Their arrival enabled Washington to take a decisive step. Dorchester Heights, overlooking Boston on the south, remained unoccupied. One night in March Washington seized and intrenched them. The next morning Howe beheld these works with the same surprise as he had gazed on Bunker Hill. A storm prevented an attack. By the time it was over the works were too strong to be taken. Boston Evacuated. Washington s cannon commanded the city and the harbor. Nothing remained for the British but to withdraw. This they did on March 17, sailing for Halifax with the garrison and eleven hundred Tory citizens. The Continentals marched in. Boston was a free city once more. No hostile army ever set foot in it again. The Assault on Fort Moultrie, Washington did not remain long in Boston. In late April he marched his army to New York, which city he believed would be the next point of attack. But the British commanders had formed other plans. On June 28 their fleet attacked Fort Sullivan (afterward named Fort Moultrie), on Sullivan s Island, in the harbor of Charleston. The fort was built of palmetto logs, so spongy in texture 200 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. that the balls sank into them without splitting the wood. In vain the ships poured their iron missiles upon its low- lying walls. Colonel Moultrie, in command, replied so effec tively that the fleet lost heavily. At one time Admiral Par ker stood alone on the deck of his flag-ship, every other man being swept off. Troops were landed, under General Clinton, and attacked the fort in the rear, but the fire of the riflemen drove them away. 1 The attack had failed. The fleet set sail. Charleston was saved. More than two years passed before South Carolina again saw a British foe. Steps toward Independence. While these events were taking place the spirit of revolution was making rapid prog ress. The royal governors of the colonies found their subjects in a rebellious mood. In South Carolina and Georgia their authority was spurned and arms and ammu nition were seized. In Virginia, Lord Dunmore, the gov ernor, who had seized powder belonging to the colony and been forced to return it, was obliged to take shelter in a British man-of-war. In October, 1775, he attacked Hampton with a force of Tories and negroes. A battle took place at Great Bridge, near the Dismal Swamp. He was defeated, and in revenge burned Norfolk, a city of six thousand in habitants. North Carolina showed marked boldness. In May, 1775, the people of Mecklenburg County indicated their opinion of the Lexington assault in a series of resolutions in which they declared themselves free of allegiance to the British 1 During the action a ball struck the flag-staff, and the colors fell outside the walls. Sergeant Jasper boldly leaped down, heedless of the plunging balls, seized the flag, tied it to a new staff, and hoisted it again to its place. The next day a lieutenant s commission was offered him, but he refused it, saying, " I am only a sergeant ; I am not fit for the company of officers." THE COLONIES IN REBELLION. 201 crown. On April 12, 1776, North Carolina authorized her delegates in the Continental Congress to declare for inde pendence. On May 4, Rhode Island took a still bolder step, and virtually declared herself independent of Great Britain. On May 6, Virginia took similar action. Other colonies moved in the same direction. It was evident that the sen timent of loyalty was at an end, and that freedom from Great Britain was now the almost universal demand. Common Sense. In January the king s proclamation calling for volunteers to put down the " rebellion" reached America. Simultaneously a remarkable pamphlet, named " Common Sense," was published in Philadelphia. It was written by the celebrated Thomas Paine, and boldly de clared that the time had come for a " final separation" from Great Britain. It was read throughout the colonies, and its stirring tone filled all minds with the thirst for liberty. Soon after came the news that England was hiring Hessian troops. After that the desire for independence was uni versal. The Action of Congress. Congress took its first action toward independence in June, 1776, in a resolution offered by Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, " that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, FREE AND INDEPENDENT STATES." John Adams seconded the resolution. A com mittee of five, consisting of Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Liv ingston, was appointed to draw up a declaration in which that resolution should be suitably embodied. The Declaration of Independence. Thomas Jefferson prepared the declaration. Lee s resolution was adopted on July 2 by the vote of twelve colonies (New York not voting). On July 4, 1776, the Declaration of American Independence was formally adopted by Congress, and signed by John Han- 202 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. cock, President of Congress, in that bold hand which, as he said, " The King of England could read without spectacles." His name was afterward followed by those of the other delegates. 1 With the signing of that document the thirteen SIGNING THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. American colonies of Great Britain ceased to exist ; the United States of America had taken their place. 2 1 While the signing was going on John Hancock remarked, " We must be unanimous ; there must be no pulling different ways ; we must hang together. 1 "Yes, "said Franklin, "we must all hang together or else we shall all hang separately. 1 2 There is a legend that the ringer of the famous old State House bell waited in the belfry for news of the passage of the Declaration. He had placed his son in the hall below to warn him of the event. At length he heard the boy in the street, clapping his hands and shouting, "Ring! Ring!" In a moment more the peal of liberty sounded far and wide from the bell, on which, as if by inspiration, had been placed the inscription, " Proclaim liberty throughout the land unto all the inhabitants thereof." This bell is now the most THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 3. THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. Howe and Washington at New York. At the date of the signing of the Declaration of Independence the British fleet was hovering off the harbor of New York. It contained an army of more than twenty-five thousand men, under General Howe. Washington, foreseeing that New York would be the next point of attack, had made vigorous efforts to fortify that city, and had thrown up defensive works on the hills south of Brooklyn. His army, however, was in ferior in number and much inferior in discipline and equip ment to that of his enemy. The Control of the Hudson. The British military au thorities had now devised a definite plan of action, and Washington had foreseen that plan. This was to gain con trol of the Hudson and Lake Champlain. By this means New England would be cut off from the other colonies, and the latter, which had shown less ardor in the rebellion, might be subdued, leaving New England to be dealt with alone. The British fleet already commanded the sea. This movement would enable it to control the land, and the colonies would be cut in half. Carleton and Arnold. This danger had been early per ceived. France had made a similar movement in the colo nial war. Montgomery and Arnold had been sent against Quebec to prevent it. Their defeat opened the route to Carleton, in command at Quebec, and in the autumn of 1776 he descended Lake Champlain with a fleet and army to attack Ticonderoga. Benedict Arnold met him on October cherished and sacred of American relics. Cracked and voiceless, it is looked upon by Americans as the Palladium of their liberties, and is kept in the State House as in the central shrine of the great American republic. 204 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. 11 with a smaller fleet, and a fierce and obstinate fight took place. Arnold lost the battle, but escaped with his vessels. He had, however, gained his end, Carleton being so severely handled that he was obliged to give up his purpose and return to Montreal. The Battle of Long- Island. Meanwhile, Howe had been more successful. On the 27th of August he attacked the defences on Long Island, flanked them by a long march, and defeated the American army, taking one thousand pris oners. The remainder fell back to the works on Brooklyn Heights. Here they lay for two days, expecting an attack, but Howe, remembering Bunker Hill, preferred to try the effect of a siege. Fortunately, the second night was dark and foggy. When day dawned on the following morning the English looked for their foes in vain, not one was to be seen. 1 Washington had skilfully carried them all to New York in boats during the night. 2 The British Take New York. The fortifications which Washington had built in New York were soon rendered useless. The British fleet moved up the East River (Long 1 A woman sent her negro servant to the British camp to inform Howe of the movements of the Americans. By good fortune he fell into the hands of the Hessians, who, not understanding a word he said, held him prisoner till morning. By that time his message was useless. 2 Captain Nathan Hale, a patriot of the noblest devotion, was sent by Washington to Long Island to gain information of the movements of the British. Though disguised, he was seen and recognized by a Tory relative, taken prisoner, and executed as a spy. He was treated with cruel harshness, being denied the use of a Bible, while his letters to his mother and sister were destroyed. His last words have be come historical : " I regret only that I have but one life to give to mj country. 1 THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 205 Island Sound) and landed troops in his rear, and he was obliged to make a hasty retreat. For two months now the armies faced each other, Washington slowly drawing back from point to point, but keeping the foe steadily in check. The British defeated a part of his army at White Plains, but lost heavily in the effort. The Loss of Fort Washing-ton. Two works, Forts Lee and Washington, had been built on the opposite sides of the Hudson to keep back the British fleet. On November 16, Howe attacked Fort Washington, the work on the New York side. Washington had ordered the abandonment of this fort, but his orders had been disregarded. The result was serious, the British took the fort by storm, and made prisoners of its garrison of more than two thousand five hundred men. Fort Lee Evacuated. This was a severe blow to Wash ington s weak army. Fort Lee was soon after threatened, but its garrison had been wisely withdrawn, the work being now useless. The loss of these forts, however, did not leave the Hudson open to the enemy. A new work had been built on the commanding situation at West Point. The Retreat to the Delaware. Cornwallis, a British general, had now crossed the Hudson with a strong force. It was evident that, having taken New York, Howe proposed to attempt the capture of Philadelphia, the capital of the new republic. Washington, who had also crossed the Hud son into New Jersey, prepared to oppose this movement, arid for this purpose ordered General Lee, who was at Northcastle, east of the Hudson, with seven thousand men, to join him without delay. Lee disobeyed, and left his su perior to face the enemy alone. 1 This Washington did not 1 Charles Lee was of British birth. He had served the colonies in the French and Indian War, and had afterward done some fighting in 206 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. dare attempt with his small force. He retreated step by step across New Jer sey, breaking down the bridges as he went, and constantly pursued by Cornwal- lis. For three weeks this pursuit contin ued. Trenton ., v \ oAllentown \\ * JlgBbrdentown Norristown ". - -& -v\ Bristol ^ Valley "Forge THE NEW JERSEY CAMPAIGN. The Delaware reached, Washington seized all the boats for a long dis tance along that stream, crossed to the Pennsyl vania side, and left Cornwallis unable to cross until the river should freeze. Winter being now upon him, the British Europe. Returning to America, he had sought to obtain the chief com mand from Congress, and was disappointed on being made second to Washington. Jealousy prompted him to dishonor and treachery. In addition to disobeying orders, he wrote letters to prominent persons slandering Washington. After Washington s retreat, he crossed to New Jersey, and there, sleeping outside his army lines, was taken prisoner by a party of British dragoons. General Sullivan then took command, and hastened to join Washington. It has lately been learned, from the discovery of Howe s papers, that Lee betrayed the American cause while a prisoner, giving Howe all the information he could about Washington s plans. THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 207 commander quartered his troops in the villages near the Delaware, and waited the work of the frost. Discouragement of the Americans. The American cause was now in a serious state. Washington s small army was ragged and disheartened. New recruits were not to be had. The time of enlistment of many of the soldiers would expire at the end of the year, and there was no hope that WASHINGTON S ARMY CROSSING THE DELAWARE. they would re-enlist. To the capture of New York had been added that of Newport. Congress had fled from Philadel phia. Many persons of prominence had returned to their allegiance to George III. It looked as if the revolution was rapidly nearing its end. The Victory at Trenton. Such was the situation near the end of 1776. By a daring stroke Washington completely changed it, and brought hope out of depression. Feeling that he must act at once or all would be lost, he crossed the Delaware on Christmas-night, in a storm of snow and sleet and amid the floating ice, marched his two thousand 208 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. five hundred men nine miles through the storm, and at break of day fell upon the Hessian force stationed at Tren ton. Taken by surprise, they made but little resistance. Their colonel 1 fell mortally wounded, and one thousand pris oners were taken, while the Americans lost but four men, two of whom had been frozen to death. This done, Wash ington recrossed the Delaware with his prisoners. The Result of the Victory. This unlooked-for victory had an electrical effect. It dismayed the British ; it inspired the Americans. Depression changed suddenly to exulta tion. Those whose time was about to expire agreed to remain. New recruits came in. The situation had com pletely changed. Despair was everywhere replaced by hopefulness. Howe was alarmed. The outlying detachments on the Delaware were hastily withdrawn, lest they should suffer the same fate. Cornwallis, who had gone to New York to sail for England, with the belief that the war was virtually at an end, was ordered to return and face the foe. On the 2d of January he reached Trenton, where Washington, who had now recrossed the Delaware with his whole force, lay intrenched behind a small stream. Washing-ton at Princeton. Cornwallis deferred his at tack on Washington s breastworks until the following morn ing. At sunrise he was aroused by a sound which he thought to be distant thunder, but which he soon learned was the roar of far-off cannon. Washington had completely 1 Rahl, the Hessian commander, had feasted that Christmas-night at Trenton, wine and cards keeping the party up till daylight. At dawn a messenger brought a note telling of the coming of the Americans. The servant refused him admittance, but took the note to the com mander, who thrust it unopened into his pocket. As a result, the sound of musketry first warned him of his peril. THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 209 outgeneralled him. Knowing that he had not the force to meet the battalions of Cornwallis, he had marched away in the night, leaving fires burning and sentries posted, and at early dawn had fallen on a British force at Princeton. This he drove back in defeat, took over two hundred prisoners, and then marched to a strong position on the heights about Morristown, where he defied the foe. 1 Results of the Victory. The whole British plan of cam paign had been destroyed by a single blow. With Wash ington in that position, ready to pounce on any outlying- force, Howe was obliged to withdraw his troops, and to give up for the time the purpose to take Philadelphia. The news of the skilful movement of Washington changed the feeling in Europe. It had been believed that the Amer ican cause was lost. Now the French began to consider an alliance with the Americans. They had not forgiven Eng land for their late defeat, and here seemed an opportunity for revenge. The Marquis de Lafayette, a noble young Frenchman, fitted out a ship at his own expense, and offered his services to Congress as a volunteer. Other European officers followed him to America. The Campaign of 1777. With the opening of the new year the British made vigorous preparations to carry out the plans in which they had failed the year before. These 1 Washington was in imminent peril at Princeton. A fierce charge of the British threw the Americans into confusion, and a panic flight seemed probable. Washington, who just then came up, called loudly on the troops to rally, and rode forward until he was between the two lines. A volley from the British line was followed by one from the American, neither party seeing the endangered general, who was con cealed by the smoke. When the smoke lifted, he was seen sitting his horse unhurt. Inspired by his courage, the Americans rushed forward with such intrepidity that the foe was driven back and defeat turned into victory. 14 210 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. were the cutting off of New England by occupying the line of the Hudson and Lake Champlain, and the capture of Philadelphia. The first of these movements was to be made by three armies. General John Burgoyne was to come down from Canada by way of Lake Champlain with a force of about nine thousand men. A second army about two thousand strong, under Colonel St. Leger, was to march overland from Oswego, on Lake Ontario, and to enlist a force of Indians on the way. Howe, with not less than eighteen thousand men, was to move up the Hudson and unite with Burgoyne. With armies so strong as these success seemed certain, and it was hoped that the " re bellion" would be dealt a crushing blow. Howe s Blunder. There were two things in favor of the Americans. One was the ability of Washington and his leading officers. The other was the attempt of the British to do too much. Instead of confining himself to the one important duty of aiding Burgoyne, Howe proposed to take Philadelphia first and help Burgoyne afterward. By at^ tempting this double work he succeeded in ruining the whole plan of campaign. Howe Sails to the Chesapeake. Howe set out in June to cross New Jersey to Philadelphia. But he found Wash ington so alert that he was obliged to give up this design and proceed by sea. The summer was well gone by the time he was ready to set sail. He had intended to go up the Delaware, but, perhaps fearing obstructions in the river, he sailed for Chesapeake Bay instead, and landed his army of eighteen thousand men at Elkton, Maryland. 1 Thence he started to march overland upon Philadelphia. 1 From Howe s recently discovered papers it is learned that General Lee advised him to take Philadelphia, "the rebel capital, which would THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 211 Brandy wine and German town. Washington made a vigorous effort to check this march. With an army of eleven thousand men he met Howe (September 11) on Brandy wine Creek. Howe proved too strong for him, and he was driven back with con siderable loss. But the defeat was not a serious one, and Washington was able to detain Howe for two weeks on his march 4. nun j i f THE CHEW HOUSE. to Philadelphia. The British were not left unmolested in Philadelphia. On October 4, Washington attacked them at Germantown, just north of the city, and with considerable promise of suc cess. But the British turned a large stone house (Chew s House) into a temporary fort, and by their fire stopped the American advance. A dense fog, in which two Ameri can divisions fired into each other, completed the disaster, and a retreat became necessary. Aid for Burgoyne. But Washington, though failing to save Philadelphia, had given Howe so much trouble that he felt it necessary to draw more troops from New York, thus leaving none to send to the aid of Burgoyne. Eventually a new force of three thousand men, just arrived from Eng land, was sent up the Hudson under General Clinton on the day of the battle of Germantown. It came too late to save Burgoyne. destroy the rebel government." He also suggested an expedition up Chesapeake Bay, to prevent aid being sent from Virginia or Maryland, In the end the two purposes seem to have been combined. 212 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. WASHINGTON S HEAD-QUARTERS AT VALLEY FORGE. Valley Forge. As it was now late in the season, Wash ington went into winter quarters at Valley Forge, on the Schuylkill River, from which place he could watch the movements of his foes. The winter spent there was a dread ful one. It was terribly cold, and the soldiers sadly lacked shelter, food, and clothes. On Decem ber 23, Washington wrote that nearly three thou sand of his men were " unfit for duty, because they were barefoot and otherwise naked." Burgoyne s March. While these events were taking place in the south, others, more promising to the American cause, were occurring in the north. Burgoyne, with nearly eight thousand regulars and an additional force of Cana dians and Indians, was descending Lake Champlain, with the well-devised purpose of cutting off New England from the more southern States. General St. Clair held Ticon- deroga, but was too weak to retain it, and on the 5th of July withdrew and left it to the invaders. Two days after ward the Americans were defeated at Hubbardton, with severe loss. General Schuyler, in command of the small American army, retired slowly before the enemy, so obstructing the road by felling trees and destroying bridges that it was the end of July before Burgoyne reached Fort Edward, on the upper Hudson. By this time he was beginning to feel the need of provisions and supplies. At the same time the THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 213 American army was increasing. Lincoln and Arnold had joined Schuyler with reinforcements, and Washington had sent him Morgan with his famous riflemen. The outrages of Bur- goyne s Indian auxiliaries had also stirred up the people, and many militiamen joined the army. The Battle of Bennington. At Bennington, in the southwest cor ner of Vermont, the Americans had gathered a supply of stores. These Burgoyne badly needed, and sent Colonel Baum with a force of one thousand men to capture them. But the Green Mountain Boys were again in the field, with the redoubt able Colonel Stark at their head. The invaders were mostly Hes sians, and their commander knew little of American warfare. On the 16th of August they found themselves in a trap. Stark s men surrounded them. " There are the red-coats !" ex claimed the veteran ; " we must beat them to-day, or Betty Stark is a widow." Beat them they did. Of the whole force, only about seventy returned to Burgoyne. The re mainder were killed or captured. The American loss was very small. St. Leger s March. Meanwhile, St. Leger, on his way to reinforce Burgoyne at Albany, was having strange and serious adventures in the forest. Marching southward from Oswego through the primeval forest, and joined on his way by the BURGOYNE S ROUTE. 214 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. famous Mohawk chief, Joseph Brant, with a strong body of warriors, his first task was to capture the old stronghold, Fort Stanwix (then Fort Schuyler), on the Mohawk River, near the present site of Rome, New York. Battle of Oriskany. The fort was weakly garrisoned. But fear of Indian outrages roused the people, and a force of eight hundred militia, under General Herkimer, marched to its relief. On the 6th of August they fell into an ambush prepared by Brant in a deep ravine near Oriskany. An obstinate battle ensued. Herkimer was mortally wounded. Many of his men fell. In the end they drove off the In dians, but were too weak to advance. The Stars and Stripes. Meanwhile, a sortie was made from the fort, and St. Leger s camp captured and sacked. Five British flags were taken, and these were hung upside- down above the fort, while over them waved a rude flag made of scraps of a blue jacket and a white shirt, with bits of red flannel. It was the national stars and stripes, re cently adopted, and now first unfolded to the breeze. 1 1 In the battle which the Virginia militia fought with Governor Dun- more, in 1775, some of them bore a banner with the device of a rattle snake, and the injunction, " Don t tread on me !" It also bore Patrick Henry s words, " Liberty or death." This flag was replaced in Massa chusetts by one bearing a pine-tree, the favorite emblem of that colony, and the words, " An appeal to heaven." The flag hoisted by Colonel Moultrie on Fort Sullivan, in Charleston harbor, was blue in color, with a white or silver crescent in the right-hand corner, and the word " Liberty." Washington, at Cambridge, used a flag with thirteen red and white stripes and the British " Union Jack" in the corner. Another flag, of which a drawing exists, bore the thirteen stripes, with a rattle snake undulating diagonally across them. Congress first adopted a flag in June, 1777, which bore thirteen stripes and thirteen stars re placing the Union Jack. The first flag of this pattern was made by Betsy Ross, of Philadelphia. The new flag was first displayed at sea THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 215 RNE-TREE FLAG. The British and Indian Panic. Schuyler, learning of the peril of the garrison, sent Arnold with twelve hundred men to its relief. Arnold did his work by stratagem instead of arms. He held a half-witted Tory under sentence of death, but promised him liberty if he would seek St. Leger s camp and scare the In dians with tales of a great force of Ameri cans close at hand. The envoy did his work well. Running breathless among the savages, with bullet-holes adroitly shot through his clothes, he declared that he had barely escaped from a vast host, indicating their numbers by pointing to the leaves on the trees. The Indians, discouraged by their loss at Oriskany, took hastily to flight. The British followed, in such a panic that they left their tents and artillery behind them, to become the prey of the astonished garrison, who knew nothing of the cause of the flight. Arnold had de feated them by the mere news of his coming. Burgoyne in Difficulties. The loss of Baum and St. Leger was critical to Burgoyne. His Indians were leaving him. The emboldened militia were cutting off his commu nication with Lake Champlain. There were no signs of aid from Howe. He was in a dangerous situation, in which it was becoming almost impossible either to advance or retreat. RATTLESNAKE FLAG. at the mast-head of Paul Jones s ship, the Ranger, was saluted by France, February 13, 1778, and floated above the Ranger during her battle with the Drake, April 24, 1778. The flag still bears thirteen stripes, but a new star has been added for every new State. 216 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. Foes surrounded him on all sides. His only hope seemed to be to reach Albany. Gates in Command. Meanwhile, Schuyler, through the arts of political enemies, had been removed from his com mand and replaced by General Gates, a man who showed himself incapable in all his later career. Fortunately, Schuyler already had Burgoyne in a trap from which, he could not escape. The Test of Battle. On September 19 the two armies met -at Freeman s Farm, below Saratoga. The battle was fierce and obstinate. It ended after nightfall with both parties holding their ground. Two w T eeks passed. Bur- goyne s provisions were nearly gone. He must fight or yield. On October 7 he again attacked the Americans. Arnold, who had been removed from his command, became a volunteer leader of the patriot forces, and to his impetuous courage victory was due. He fell with a leg broken by a musket-ball just as victory was gained. The British had lost heavily in men and stores. Burg-oyne Surrenders. Burgoyne retreated to Saratoga. There he was surrounded and hotly besieged. His provisions were gone. The Indians and Tories had deserted. Clinton had not appeared. Only one thing remained to do. On the 17th he surrendered the remnant of his army to General Gates. 1 Results of the Surrender. The battle of Saratoga has been classed among the fifteen decisive battles of the world s history. The surrender of Burgoyne was the turning-point in the struggle for independence. The result filled the 1 Burgoyne had boasted that he would eat his Christmas-dinner in Albany. He ate dinner there before Christmas as a prisoner and the guest of General Schuyler. THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 217 Americans with joy and confidence. It filled the English with despair. At one blow a third of their army in America had vanished, and the well-laid plan of the king and min istry had utterly failed. Hopeless of success, Lord North sought for peace, offering the Americans everything they had asked except independence. He was too late. Inde pendence was the one thing they were determined to have ; with that all the others would come. A Treaty with France. Meanwhile, Dr. Franklin was doing excellent work in France. Highly esteemed there for his character and his scientific and literary work, he had great influence at court, which he employed to obtain aid and alliance. The defeat of Burgoyne won him success. On February 6, 1778, a treaty was signed with France in which that nation recognized the independence of the United States and promised vital aid to the American cause. The Conway Cabal. In the mean time Washington whose suffering army lay at Valley Forge almost destitute of food, clothing, and shelter, decimated by disease, and tracking the frozen ground with blood from their bare feet was being hounded by enemies in high places. An in trigue was organized to force him to resign his command and yield it to Gates, then in high favor. This was known as the " Conway Cabal," from the name of one of the plot ters. Fortunately for the country it utterly failed. It suc ceeded, however, in influencing many members of Congress against Washington, and the sufferings of the army were not due to want of means, but to shameful interference with and mismanagement of the department of supplies. Con gress had ceased to be the wise and patriotic body of 1776, and was imperilling the country by its ignorance of and its meddling with military matters. Aid from Prance. In 1778 the British cause in America 218 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. declined. Two months after signing the treaty of alliance, France sent over a powerful fleet under Count d Estaing, having on board four thousand troops. It had at last an opportunity to repay Great Britain for the humiliating treaty of fifteen years before. D Estaing reached Delaware Bay in July. He hoped to capture the British fleet, but it had taken the alarm and sailed away. But the news of his coming drove the British from Philadelphia, where they had spent the winter in a comfort which was in striking contrast to the condition of the starving army at Valley Forge. The British Leave Philadelphia. Sir Henry Clinton had succeeded Howe in command of the British forces. On June 18, in dread of being shut up between the Americans and French, he evacuated Philadelphia. Washington, who was keenly alert to every movement of the enemy, pursued in haste. Despite the suffering of the army during the win ter, it was better disciplined than ever before. Baron Steu- ben, a skilled Prussian soldier, had actively drilled it, and had brought the American troops up to the full efficiency of British regulars. 1 The Battle of Monmouth. The British were overtaken at Monmouth (now Freehold) on June 28, and a battle en sued. Victory was lost through the misconduct of Gen eral Charles Lee, who had been exchanged 2 and now led 1 Steuben began with one hundred and twenty men, whom he drilled twice daily, showing them how the musket should be used by taking it in his own hands. Hitherto their only use for the bayonet had been to roast their meat on it. During the next year they took Stony Point with the bayonet alone. Steuben had received his military education in the best school in Europe, that of the army of Frederick the Great. 2 General Lee s exchange had arisen from a daring act. General Prescott, in command of the British forces in Rhode Island, had, like THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 219 the advance. He ordered a retreat just when success was most promising. Washington rode up at that moment, burst into one of his rare fits of anger, and bitterly rebuked Lee. Then rallying the men, he led them against the foe. Clinton was driven back, and at midnight secretly withdrew his forces to Sandy Hook, whence he made his way to New York. 1 Lee was tried by court-martial, suspended from command, and finally expelled from the army. The French Fleet. The battle of Monmouth was the last important contest in the Northern States. For the re mainder of the war the chief seat of conflict was at the South. But there were several events that need mention. On leaving Delaware Bay, Count d Estaing sailed for New York, hoping to capture it, but found that his largest ships could not cross the bar. Thence he sailed to Newport, the only other place which the British held. Here a storm in jured his vessels and he sailed to Boston to refit. General Sullivan, who was prepared to co-operate with a land force, was in consequence obliged to retreat, leaving Newport still in British hands. The Massacre of "Wyoming. In July a band of Indians and Tories entered the beautiful and peaceful valley of Wyoming, in Northern Pennsylvania, and committed fright- Lee himself, become negligent, and a plan was laid for his capture. Colonel Rarton rowed to the vicinity of his quarters in whale-boats, broke in, and carried the general off, from amid his troops and fleet. Howe willingly exchanged Lee for him, perhaps believing that he would be of more value to the Rritish cause free than a prisoner. 1 During the day Moll Pitcher, the wife of an artilleryman, while bringing water to her husband, saw him fall at his gun. Dropping her pail, she ran to the gun, seized the rammer, and served the piece with the ability of an expert. She was afterward known by the soldiers as Major Molly, and given a sergeant s commission by Cpngress, with half- pay pension. 220 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. ful devastations. The settlers were defeated and butchered, the dwellings and mills committed to the flames, and the women and children forced to flee for their lives into the wilderness. The village of Cherry Valley, New York, met with a similar fate, and numerous other atrocities were com mitted. Clark s Operations in the "West. There were serious Indian depredations also on the western frontier. Governor Hamilton, of Detroit, sent out marauding bands, whom he paid for all scalps brought in. His work of butchery was brought to an end by Colonel George Rogers Clark, a Ken tucky hunter, who with less than two hundred men marched far through the wilderness, captured Kaskaskia and Caho- kia, in Illinois, and marched against Hamilton, then at Vin- cennes, on the Wabash. He was successful in capturing the town and the fort and in making Hamilton prisoner. This success, it is thought, saved the northwest to the United States in the subsequent treaty of peace. The Indians Punished. The policy of employing the Indians, and of inciting them to torture and massacre, pur sued by the British, met with many opponents in England. 1 In 1779 Congress resolved to put an end to it by rendering the Six Nations incapable of further mischief. An expedi tion was sent against them under General Sullivan. The Indians laid an ambush for him at the site of Elmira, but were defeated with overwhelming . loss. He then marched into their country and utterly devastated it, burning more than forty villages, destroying their orchards and granaries, and leaving them without food or shelter in the severe 1 Pitt denounced in Parliament the employment of Hessians and sav ages. " If I were an American, as I am an Englishman," he exclaimed, " while a foreign troop was landed in my country, I never would lay down my arms, never, never, never!" THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 221 winter that followed. The blow was one from which they never recovered, and there was no more trouble with the Indians during the war. Storming- of Stony Point. One further important affair took place in the North during 1779. Washington planned an assault on the British fort at Stony Point, on the Hudson, and it was brilliantly carried out by General Anthony Wayne. The fort was taken by surprise, Wayne and his men march ing on a dark night, with unloaded muskets, over the cause way that led through the marshes to the fort. Then ascend ing the hill, they rushed on the works with the bayonet, and in a few minutes the fort was theirs and its garrison were prisoners. Removing the valuable stores, they destroyed the works and returned to camp. The fort at Paulus Hook (on the site of Jersey City) was taken in the same manner. These suc cesses put an end to the marauding expeditions which Clinton was send ing into Connecticut. ^ . ANTHONY WAYNE. A Great Ocean Victory. During the years named the Americans had done little on the ocean. Privateers had taken numerous prizes, but the lack of war vessels prevented any further success. In 1779 there was a change. Paul Jones, a bold seaman of Scotch birth, made a daring raid on the British coast, where he burned shipping lying in harbor. On September 23, being then in command of the Bon Homme Richard and some smaller ships, sup plied by France, he met a British merchant fleet convoyed by the frigate Serapis and a smaller consort. The Richard was much inferior to the Serapis in weight of guns and general efficiency. But it had Paul Jones for 222 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. commander, a man who did not know when he was whipped. As the battle went on the ships met and were lashed together. The fighting now became desperate. The Richard was riddled by the guns of the Serapis, and was filling with water, while its upper works were on fire. But Jones fought on unyieldingly. In the end the Sera- pis was forced to surrender, nearly its whole crew being killed or wounded. Commodore Jones trans ferred his men and colors to the prize and left the Richard to the waves, into which it soon sank. The spirit of this remark able man is shown by his reply to the captain of the Serapis, who hailed him in the height of the battle and asked if he had struck his colors. Jones roared back through the din, " I have not yet begun to fight." A Statement of Results. Four years of war in the North had passed, and all the Rritish had to show, in return for their strenuous efforts and costly armaments, was the possession of two towns, New York and Newport. For these they had paid far more than the towns were worth. The colonists had withstood them successfully, but not without great loss and suffering. Their armies were poorly sustained, the men poorly clad and fed, Wash ington feebly seconded in his efforts, the people at times greatly depressed and despairing. Yet for all this there seems to have been no absolute need. The true strength of the colonies was really never put forth. The Continental Congress grew weaker as it grew older. The wisdom of its early councils was replaced by feebleness and inefficiency. Its members listened to de- THE WAR IN THE SOUTH. 223 tractions of Washington and hampered him in his efforts. The energetic Schuyler was replaced at the moment of victory by the feeble Gates. The treacherous Lee was again made second in command. The army was needlessly allowed to starve and freeze at Valley Forge. The paper money issued was sustained by no regular system of taxa tion, and rapidly sank in value. No effort was made for a close union of the colonies, and they drifted apart rather than flowed together. There was no unity of effort, no central authority, no definite system of finance. Of the people, the mass of them worked quietly on their farms, knowing of the war only as news of distant operations, and not supporting it as they might have done under a better administration of affairs. Thus, under this loose combina tion of thirteen colonies, each working by itself and some doing very little for the cause, the one thing surprising is that the invaders made so little progress. It was mainly due to two things, the inefficiency of their generals and officials, and the masterly generalship of the American commander, George Washington. 4. THE WAR IN THE SOUTH. The British go South. As if despairing of success in the North, the British now turned their attention to the South, hoping probably to capture and hold the Southern colonies. In December, 1778, Savannah was attacked in force and easily taken. Augusta was next captured, and the thinly- settled Georgia fell under British control. Prevost, the British general, now advanced against Charleston, but find ing himself pursued by General Lincoln, in command of the American militia, he hastened to return. The Repulse at Savannah. Nothing further of impor tance was done until September, 1779, when General Lin- 224 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. coin, aided by the French fleet under D Estaing, attempted to recapture Savannah. The effort proved disastrous. In the assault more than a thousand men were slain and the Americans repulsed. Among the dead was Count Pulaski, a noble Pole who had joined the American cause. The brave Sergeant Jasper also fell, in his hands the banner which his regiment had received at Fort Moultrie. The Loss of Charleston. Georgia having been subdued, the British turned their strength against South Carolina. In the spring of 1780 General Clinton led a powerful force against Charleston, then defended by General Lincoln. Attacked by land and sea, besieged for forty days, and for forty-eight hours exposed to a bombardment from two hundred cannon, Lincoln was at length forced to surrender, and on May 12 the leading city of the South fell into British hands. South Carolina Overrun. Clinton now returned north, leaving Cornwallis in command. He prepared to overrun South Carolina, as his predecessor had Georgia. Expe ditions were sent in several directions through the State, the only efficient resistance being that made by the partisan commanders, Marion, Sumter, Pickens, and others, who at the head of small but active forces greatly annoyed the in vaders, cut off detachments, and made South Carolina a very hot place to hold. On the British side the main suc cess was due to the hard-riding Colonel Tarleton, whose daring was vitiated by ruthless cruelty. Gates Defeated. Meanwhile, with great exertions, an army had been collected in North Carolina and placed under the command of General Gates, who was still given credit as " the conqueror of Burgoyne. 1 The two armies met at Cam den, in South Carolina, on August 16, 1780. In the battle that ensued the militia broke before the THE WAR IN THE SOUTH. 225 charge of the British regulars, and the few Continental regiments were overwhelmed. No American army ever suffered a worse defeat. The militia were completely scat tered, Gates being seen soon afterward eighty miles distant and without a soldier. Two days later Sumter s forces were met and almost annihilated by Tarleton s dragoons. When summer ended South Carolina was at the mercy of Cornwallis, the only resistance left being that of Marion and his fellow-partisans. Tory Warfare. The Carolinas were full of Tories, many of whom joined the British army, while others plundered and murdered their patriot neighbors. Against these the partisan warfare was largely directed. On October 7 a force of eleven hundred British and Tories was attacked at King s Mountain by hastily gathered frontier riflemen, and utterly defeated, four hundred and fifty-six being killed and wounded and the rest taken prisoners. Marion s Method. Marion, the most famous of the par tisan leaders, had but a small force under his command, and lurked in swamps and forests, sallying out unexpect edly upon detached bands. In this way the foe were bit terly annoyed, and lost heavily in the aggregate from these stinging attacks, for which they in vain sought revenge. Marion was only to be found when he was ready to strike. 1 1 Among the interesting anecdotes told of this active warrior is the following : A British officer, who had been sent to negotiate an ex change of prisoners, found Marion on a sort of woodland island in the swamps, and was invited by him to dine. The dinner consisted of sweet potatoes, roasted and served on bark platters. The officer was surprised to learn that his host considered this as ample diet, that he often fared worse, and at that time had neither blanket nor hat. On his return the officer resigned his commission, saying that it was useless to fight against men who made war on fare like this. 15 226 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. The Treason of Arnold. While these events were taking place in the South, a startling occurrence had happened in the North, the most saddening event of the Revolution. Benedict Arnold, the trusted friend of Washington, one of the ablest of the American generals, and the true winner of the victories at Saratoga, had turned traitor. He had agreed to surrender West Point, of which he was in com mand, to the British. Though brave and able as a general, he was weak morally. He believed that he had been ill-treated by Con gress, and, marrying a Tory lady in 1778, his patriotism weakened. He grew so extravagant and behaved so badly that he was tried and sentenced to be reprimanded by the commander-in-chief. Washington did this gently, and at Arnold s request gave him the command of the fortress at West Point, a post of great importance from its control of the Hudson. The Capture of Andre*. Full of revengeful feelings, Ar nold proposed to Clinton to surrender this post to the Brit ish. Major Andre was sent to confer with him. They had a secret meeting and arranged their plans, but Andre was obliged to return by land. On his wa y he was captured by three patriot scouts, who searched him and found in his boot papers that proved him a spy. Arnold s Reward. Word reached Arnold of Andre s capture, and he fled in haste to a British vessel in the river. Andre was hanged as a spy, despite all Clinton s efforts to obtain his release. Arnold received a money reward for THE WAR IN THE SOUTH. 227 his treason, was made a colonel in the British army, and helped to harry the land he had aided to defend. He won the contempt even of his new associates, and died twenty years after in shame and remorse. Greene in Command in the South. Meanwhile, the gloom of the Southern situation was beginning to lift. Gates had been removed from com mand, and replaced by General Na thaniel Greene, next to Washington the ablest of the American generals. Under him were three excellent offi cers of Virginian birth, Daniel Mor gan, the famous riflemen leader; William Washington, a cousin of the commander-in-chief ; and Henry Lee, known in the army as "Light- GENERAL NATHANIEL GREENE . Horse Harry," father of the famous General Lee of the Civil War. One thing was wanted, an army. This Greene was obliged to make. He succeeded, after earnest efforts, in gathering about two thousand men, who were half clothed and half supplied. The Battle at Cowpens. The first conflict took place at Cowpens, South Carolina, where, on January 17, 1781, Morgan with nine hundred men met a superior force under Tarleton, which he nearly annihilated, with scarcely any loss on his own side. 1 1 Tarleton made a narrow escape from capture at Cowpens, and was wounded by a blow from Colonel Washington s sword. Some time after he remarked in a company of South Carolina ladies, " I have been told that Colonel Washington is very illiterate, and can scarcely write his name." " At least," said one of the ladies, " he can make his mark" At another time he remarked that he would like to see Colonel Washington. " You might have had that pleasure," said the 228 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. Greene s Retreat. Tarleton fled to Cornwallis, who hastily pursued, but failed to overtake Morgan, then rap idly retreating with his prisoners. Greene joined him and conducted a skilful retreat to the Dan River, which he reached and crossed in advance of the foe. 1 Cornwallis now gave up the pursuit and retired, but soon found Greene on his track, harassing him at every step. He had skilfully drawn the foe far from his base of supplies, and succeeded in making his return very uncomfortable. 2 Guilford Court-House. At Guilford Court-House (now Greensborough, North Carolina) Greene felt strong enough to venture a battle (March 15). The militia fled, but the Continental regulars held their ground. In the end they were forced to retreat, but had handled the British so roughly that there was no disposition to pursue. It was a defeat that had all the effect of a victory. Cornwallis, his army badly cut up and in no condition for a further fight, was forced to retreat to Wilmington, North Carolina, which he reached in very bad plight. same witty lady, " if you had looked behind you at the battle of the Cowpens." 1 Morgan crossed the Catawba just as Cornwallis appeared. That night it was swollen by rain, detaining the pursuers three days. Greene now joined him and they retreated to the Yadkin, which also became swollen after they crossed. Then a hot march took place, on parallel roads, for the fords of the Dan. Greene reached them first. 2 On one occasion, during Greene s campaign, he reached a tavern at Salisbury, North Carolina, after midnight, wet to the skin with the heavy rain. Steele, the landlord, asked him in surprise if he was atone. "Yes," he said, "tired, hungry, alone, and penniless." Mrs. Steele, who heard him, hastened to set before him a smoking hot meal. Then she drew two bags of silver from under her apron and held them out to her guest. " Take these," she said ; " you need them and I can do without them." THE WAR IN THE SOUTH. 229 Battle of Hobkirk s Hill. After pursuing Cornwallis for some distance, Greene turned and made a long march of two hundred miles into South Carolina, encamping on Hobkirk s Hill, near Camden, where Lord Rawdon was in command. Here, in junction with Marion, Sumter, and Pickens, he was attacked by Rawdon on April 25 and de feated after a sharp struggle. It was another defeat, how ever, that had the effect of a victory, and Rawdon soon found it expedient to withdraw from Camden. South Carolina Regained. During the summer Greene took post after post, and on September 8 met the enemy at Eutaw Springs. Here again he was driven from his posi tion, but during the night the Rritish retreated, hurrying toward Charleston. 1 So active was Greene, and so efficient the aid of Marion, Sumter, Lee, and others, that by the close of the year the British were shut up in Charleston and Savannah, and the States of the South were recovered. The Campaign in Virginia. Meanwhile, Cornwallis had decided to march to Virginia, where active warfare was then in progress, reinforce himself with the troops there, and return to recover his lost ground. Arnold was in command there, treating his countrymen as though they were his bitterest foes. Lafayette had taken the field against him, but with a force too weak to hold him in check. Cornwallis now took chief command, destroyed all before him, and in 1 At this battle a soldier of Lee s legion, named Manning, while in pursuit of flying foes, found himself suddenly in the midst of the enemy with not an American near. Without hesitation he seized an officer by the collar, wrested from him his sword, and backed off, drawing him along as a shield. " I am Sir Henry Barry," cried the frightened officer, "deputy adjutant-general, captain in the Fifty-sec ond regiment," etc. " That will do," said Manning ; " you are just the man I was looking for." 230 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. the end, finding Lafayette reinforced, made his way to Yorktown, near the mouth of York River, in order that he might obtain aid by sea from New York. Here he threw up fortifications. The French Fleet; Washington s March South. Hitherto the British had been safe at the sea-shore, being under protection of the fleet. The French fleet as yet had been of little service to the Americans. But at this junc ture a large French fleet arrived from the West Indies, under Count de Grasse. During the Southern campaign Washington had remained at his head-quarters near New York, diligently watching Clinton. 1 Now a splendid opportunity offered itself to him. The French were ready to sail to the Chesapeake. Corn- wallis might be caught in a trap. Making, therefore, some skilful movements, as if he proposed to attack New York, he suddenly broke camp and marched with all speed south ward to the head of Chesapeake Bay, whence his army was transported by vessels to Yorktown. The Siege of Yorktown. This movement put Corn- wallis in imminent peril. The French fleet closed the sea. A strong American and French army closed the land. Yorktown was completely surrounded. For a week the place was bombarded by the army and the fleet. At the 1 The winter of 1780-81 proved a severe one for Washington s troops at Morristown. They lacked pay and clothing, and on January 1 thir teen hundred of the Pennsylvania line broke into open revolt and marched for Philadelphia to demand justice from Congress. Wayne faced them with loaded pistols, but they put their bayonets to his breast, saying, "We love and respect you, but if you fire you are a dead man." A committee from Congress met them at Princeton, and, under promise of speedy payment, induced them to return. British agents met them also, seeking to bribe them to enter the royal service These they seized and handed over as spies. THE WAR IN THE SOUTH. 231 SIEGE OF YORKTOWN. end of that time Cornwallis, finding escape impossible and receiving no aid from Clinton, surrendered his army of seven thousand men. On October 19, 1781, the captive army marched from the works and Cornwallis delivered up his sword. 1 "It is All Over." The struggle for independence was over. America was free. When Lord North, the Brit ish prime minister, heard the news, he cried, wildly, " God, it is all over!" Soon after he resigned his office, and the peace party came into power. The War at an End. The capture of Yorktown prac tically ended the war. Clinton, learning too late that he had been overreached by Washington, sent a force of seven thousand men by sea to reinforce Cornwallis. They reached Cape Charles five days after the surrender. No further conflicts took place. In March, 1782, Parliament resolved to close hostilities. Savannah was evacuated in July and Charleston in December. New York was held for nearly a year longer, the negotiations for peace not being completed. The treaty of peace, which was negotiated for the United 1 The tidings of the surrender filled the whole land with joy. Mid night had passed when the gladsome news reached Philadelphia, but the watchman s stirring cry, " Past two o clock and Cornwallis is taken !" soon filled the streets with joyful crowds. So intense was the feeling of delight that it is said the old doorkeeper of Congress died of joy. In the afternoon Congress marched in solemn procession to the Lutheran church to return thanks to God for the victory. 232 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. States by Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay, was finally signed at Paris, September 3, 1783, and on November 25 the British sailed away from New York and Washington marched in amid the joyful plaudits of the SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS. people. Soon after he resigned his commission and reached home at Mount Vernon in time to spend there a joyful Christmas. Boundaries of the Nation. By the treaty it was decided that the territory of the new nation should extend from the Atlantic coast to the Mississippi River. Great Britain re tained Canada and gave back Florida to Spain. The vast region west of the Mississippi was held by Spain. The United States had no Gulf coast, Florida extending by a strip of land fifty miles wide to join Louisiana, so that on all the south and west lay Spanish territory. THE BIRTH OF A NATION. 233 5. THE BIRTH OF A NATION. Concentration of the People. At the opening of the Revolution the population of the colonies is supposed to have been more than two million five hundred thousand. And, fortunately for the Americans, this population was concentrated within the narrow space between the moun tains and the sea. Had access to the west been easy, and the population been thinly spread over this vast territory, independence could not have been gained at that period. As it was, the mountains had proved an almost impassable barrier. It was only a few years before the Revolution that Daniel Boone made his way into Kentucky, and the conquest of that virgin terri tory began. About the same time the settlement of Tennessee com menced. Some settlers had made their way into the Ohio region. _, , i. (1 T^ i ,- DANIEL BOONE. But practically the Revolution was over before the settlement of the great West fairly began. Condition of the Country after the War. Though the country had peace after the surrender at Yorktown, it was otherwise in a desperate strait. Its commerce was destroyed, its money was worthless, its trade and manufactures were neglected. Towns and villages had been ruined and crops destroyed. The soldiers earnestly petitioned Congress for their pay, but received no redress ; Congress was helpless ; the treasury was empty. 1 Washington was invited by some 1 During the war Robert Morris, an Englishman by birth, but a mem ber of the Continental Congress and signer of the Declaration, worked as effectively in one way for American independence as did Washington 234 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. ambitious spirits to make himself king, a proposition which he indignantly rejected. Violent measures to obtain redress for their wrongs were proposed by some officers, but Wash ington quieted them by wise advice, and on April 19, 1783, the eighth anniversary of Lexington, the soldiers were al lowed to go home on furlough. The army was formally disbanded in November. Soldiers in Mutiny ; Taxes not Paid. During the fol lowing June a band of drunken soldiers in Philadelphia became so violent in their demands for their pay that Con gress in alarm fled from the city. As for the taxes, they were not paid. Of those assessed on the States in 1783 only one-fifth had been paid in 1785. Congress could only ask for money. It could not enforce its payment. The Articles of Confederation. In truth, though Con gress had named the new nation The United States of Amer ica, its union was a very feeble one. " Articles of Confeder- and Franklin in other ways. He was a merchant and banker of Phil adelphia, and a strong friend of Washington. Just after the battle of Trenton, Washington wrote to him that he must have fifty thousand dollars in hard cash, or he would lose a large number of men whose terms were out. Morris went around among his friends before day break, raised the sum needed, and sent it to Washington. Without his aid in later years the war could not have been carried on. Some money had been borrowed in Europe, but Congress depended mainly on paper money, which by the summer of 1780 had become almost worthless. It took one hundred and fifty dollars in this currency to buy a bushel of corn, and two thousand dollars for a suit of clothes. During the winter of 1780-81, Morris sent the army several thousand barrels of flour, and issued his own notes for one million four hundred thousand dollars to aid the army in its final campaigns. Washington could nol have made his march to Yorktown without the assistance of this earnest patriot. It is greatly to the discredit of the United States that this noble-hearted citizen, who lost his fortune in his old age, was permitted to be sent to prison for debt. THE BIRTH OF A NATION. 235 ation and Perpetual Union" had been adopted in 1777, and been finally ratified by the agreement of all the States in March, 1781. But the Confederation was not a union. Each State claimed to be a sovereign commonwealth, and little power was given to the central government. The weak point in the Articles of Confederation was that they gave Congress no power to lay taxes or to demand sol diers. It could only ask the States for men and money, and wait till they were ready to give them. It could make treaties, but could not enforce them ; could borrow money, but could not repay it ; could make war, but could not en list a soldier. In short, it could recommend, but had to depend upon the States to act. State Jealousy. The States proposed to remain inde pendent. They were jealous of each other and of Con gress. There was a heavy war debt, but they failed to raise money for its payment. " We are," said Washington, " one nation to day and thirteen to-morrow." That clearly ex pressed it. There was no actual union. It was doubtful whe ther in the end there would be one strong nation or thirteen weak ones. Shays s Rebellion. The trouble in raising money was largely due to the poverty of the people, many of whom were so loaded with debt as to be unable to pay taxes. This was particularly the case in Massachusetts, whose farmers had been made poor by the war, and many of whom were now hard pressed by their creditors. In the .end they became desperate. In August, 1786, nearly two thousand of them rose in rebellion, led by Daniel Shays, who had been a captain in the war. They surrounded the court-houses and put a stop to all actions for debt ; then they went on to burn and plunder, finally attacking the arsenal at Springfield. A strong force 236 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. of troops was at length called out, and the outbreak sup pressed in February, 1787. The Treaty not Carried Out. The lack of true union in the States gave rise to another serious trouble. From time to time laws had been passed confiscating the property of Tories and hindering British merchants from collecting debts in America. It had been agreed in the treaty that these laws should be repealed, but the States failed to do so. The Tories were treated so badly that more than one hundred thousand of them left the country between 1783 and 1785, and Parliament had to pay many of them for their losses. The British government, displeased at this bad faith, re fused to deliver several military posts in the North, holding on to them till 1796. It also passed laws which injured American commerce. The Americans could not retaliate, for no two States had the same commercial policy. Some of the States, indeed, began to interfere with freedom of trade with each other, by laying high tariffs and passing laws restrictive of free navigation. State Quarrels. There were also quarrels about boun daries and territory, and between New England and the South in reference to a commercial treaty with Spain and the navigation of the Mississippi. It began to look very much as if the union could not be maintained, and as if instead of one strong nation there would be thirteen so weak as to be at the mercy of European powers. Land Claims. There was one thing that helped to keep the States together. This was the Northwestern Territory, which had been conquered for Virginia by George Rogers Clark in 1779 and retained in the treaty of peace. Several States claimed this territory. Virginia held it through con quest, but Massachusetts and Connecticut, whose charters THE BIRTH OF A NATION. 237 gave them claims running to the Pacific, and New York, which professed to be the heir of the Iroquois, demanded their share in it. The Southern States also had claims extending westward to the Mississippi. The Northwestern Territory. Maryland did a good ser vice for the country by refusing to enter the confederation until the States which claimed the Northwestern Territory should yield their claims to the United States. New York was the first to agree to this, and assurance w r as given that the other States would do the same. They had all done so by 1785. Congress had now the control of a great region of fertile land which might be divided up and sold for far more than enough to pay the public debt. The Southern States gradually gave up their claims also, Georgia being the last to do so, in 1802. This fixed the boundaries of the thirteen original States. Connecticut and Virginia for a time held control of a part of their old claims, but eventually sold these remaining portions. Congress Asks for Powers. Congress, feeling its weak ness, asked that the Articles of Confederation should be amended so as to give it the power to lay a duty on imports. Most of the States agreed to this, but unanimous consent was required, and that could not be obtained. This failure made many patriots despair. Washington, to whom inde pendence was due, felt hopeless about the future. A Convention Proposed. In 1785 a meeting was held at Mount Vernon to consider questions of jurisdiction of Maryland and Virginia over their intervening waters. The general condition of affairs was discussed, and James Madi son, one of the commissioners, soon after induced the Virginia legislature to invite a convention of delegates from the States, to be held at Annapolis in 1786, its purpose being to take steps for the regulation of commerce. 238 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. Only five States sent delegates to this convention, twelve men in all. Under the influence of Alexander Hamilton another convention was called, to meet in Philadelphia in May, 1787. This had a broader scope. Its purpose was to devise measures for an extension of the powers of the Federal government. The Constitutional Convention. All the States but Rhode Island responded to this call, and on the 25th of INDEPENDENCE HALL AT THE TIME OP THE REVOLUTION. May, 1787, there met in Independence Hall, Philadelphia, the most momentous assembly ever known in the history of our country. It embraced the ablest men in the land, and some of the ablest statesmen any land has ever pro duced. Washington was chosen its president. Among its members were Franklin, Hamilton, Madison, Robert Morris, Gouverneur Morris, and others of high reputation. Just what this convention was to do was not clearly de fined. Many held that it had power only to revise the Articles of Confederation. Hamilton and Madison declared that any revision would be useless, and that a new system THE BIRTH OF A NATION. f 239 must be devised. This opinion was accepted, and the con vention began its work. Behind Closed Doors. The convention performed its labors in secret. Its debates were held behind closed doors. For four months it continued at work. State j ealo usies were strong, local demands were ardently pressed, and more than once it seemed as if the body must give up the task in despair. Compromises. From end to end the Constitution de cided upon was a series of compromises between conflicting interests. 1. The small States were afraid of being overpowered by the larger ones. This difficulty was overcome by giving them equal representation in the Senate. 2. In the Continental Congress the people had not been represented, only the States. The rights of the people were now provided for in the House of Representatives. 3. The slavery question was settled by counting every five slaves as equal to three white men in fixing the basis of representation. 4. The Continental Congress had no executive head to carry out its decrees. One was now provided in the Presi dent. 5. In the Supreme Court a balance-wheel was provided, by whose aid the Constitution could always run true. Any law which this court decided to be not in accordance with the Constitution became of no effect. The Action of the States. The document thus prepared was a remarkable one. For more than a century it has now served as the Constitution of a great and growing coun try without showing any serious defects. It was signed September 17, 1787, and sent to Congress for transmission to the States, where it gave rise to serious and sometimes 240 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. bitter debates. Many feared that it would lead to tyranny. Such ardent patriots as Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, and George Clinton vigorously opposed it. A strong party arose against it. The Federalist party earnestly advocated it, be lieving that a strong central government was necessary if the Union was to be preserved. The Constitution Ratified. One by one the States adopted it. By June 21, 1788, it had been ratified by nine States, the number fixed upon to make it the law of the land. Rhode Island, the last State to ratify the Constitu tion, did not do so till May 29, 1790. Its adoption was celebrated by joyful processions, in which the Union was indicated by the " Ship of State," and other significant em blems were shown. With its adoption the second Conti nental Congress, which had served as the governing body of the country for thirteen years, ceased to exist. The New Government. The old government had been weak ; the new one was strong. Each State had still the power to make laws for its own internal affairs, but all powers of external government were given to Congress and the President. They had the power to form an army and navy, to make and enforce treaties, to declare war and con clude peace. They could coin money, lay taxes, regulate commerce, and make laws for the nation. No State was permitted to enact laws which would infringe the rights of other States or of the United States. The new government consisted of three bodies : one to make the laws, one to execute them, and one to decide if they agreed with the Constitution. Congress, the law-making body, consisted of the Senate, elected by the State legislatures and representing the States, and the House of Representatives, elected by and repre senting the people. THE CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY. 241 The executive branch consisted of a President and Vice- President, with officials as heads of departments. The President had the power to veto or annul any act of Congress of which he did not approve, but it could be passed over his veto by a two-thirds vote of both houses. It then became his duty to execute it or carry out its provisions. The third body of the government, the Supreme Court, consisted of a number of eminent judges, whose duty was to examine all laws whose validity was called in question, and decide whether or not they agreed with the Constitution. If not, they ceased to be laws. Every law, either of Congress or of the States, must be in accordance w r ith the require ments of the Constitution of the United States. 6. THE CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY. Population. The political history of the United States is but part of its full history. It is proposed here to say something about its social and economical history at the period which our record has now reached. At the begin ning of the Revolution there were probably more than two and a half millions of people in the country. By 1790 these had increased to nearly four millions. 1 Virginia, Pennsyl vania, North Carolina, and Massachusetts were the most populous States, while the leading cities were Philadelphia, New York, and Boston. This population was largely confined to the coast region, the interior being very thinly settled. Most of it was still a forest- covered wilderness. The towns were small and far 1 The first census of the United States was taken in 1790. The pop ulation was found to be three million nine hundred and twenty-nine thousand two hundred and fourteen. Of these nearly seven hundred thousand were slaves. 16 KIIOM S TO I MTMI) STATUS. apart. They were more numerous in New Kn^land Iliau in Hie Middle Slates, and in Ihe Soulliern Slales there were lew beyond the sixe of villages. Kxeeplin^ Balti more, Charleston, Savannah, and some oilier coasl lowns, the South was almost wholly a country of farms and plan tations. Settlement of the West. The 4 settlement of Ihe ^reat West was making irood progress. Daniel Hoone and his fellow-pioneers had fairly conquered Kentucky, and ils set- llemenls were ^ rowing. Tennessee was also bein^ rapidly occupied by immigrants. These I \\ o territories had in 17JH) ahonl one hun dred thousand people. Others were making their way into Ihe Norlhwesl- ( >ni t erHtory, many of them lloalin^ in lar^e Hal hoals down lti( Ohio and li^htin^ wilh llu 4 Indians as they went. The foundations of later cities were heinj? laid. Colonel Clark slarled Louisville in 177S, during his expedi tion against Kaskaskia. Cincinnati was founded in 17SS. Tlit* same year no less than len thousand emigrants went to Marietta and ils vicinity. These pioneers lived in Ihe mosl primitive manner, building ron^h lo^ houses, ^riudiiij? Iheir corn helweiMi two stones, and obtaining ni( % al by aid of the rille. Everywhere tln\v worked wilh their gUUS close at hand. The West once invaded, il was rapidly settled, a lever of migration lo Ihese new and rich lands bein^ S(>l up. The Emigrants of the North. The adventurous spirits of the Northern States did not lind a navigable river lo aid them in their westward progress. lUit the Iroqnois Indians. T1IF, CONDITION OF T1IK COUNTRY. L> (;* who had long stood in their w;iy, had been largely annihi lated by Sullivan s expedition, and no longer presented a. serious obstacle. The pioneers of New York and Now Eng land pushed slowly wesl with emigrant wagons, making- roads as they wonl. They would clear ofT the trees and eultivalo Ihe land for a year or two, and then, as Ihe sellle- nient began to thicken, would set out fora new home in I lie wilderness, leaving their clearings for those who followed. It was like a great army slowly marching forward, sending ils scouts in advance, and pushing back Ihe Indians as it went. Before its front Ihe forest fell. By its main body the wilderness was converted into a land of farms. In its rear towns and cities sprang up. The Products of the Land. Most of Ihe peopl en-a-rd in aiiriciillmv. Tin- soil was rich and gave crops; and comfortable farm-houses, with large, well-filled barns, wore widely to be seen, while great Hocks of cattle and sheep grazed in Ihe fields. On I ho small Now England farms sheep and corn wore Ihe leading food products. The Middle Slates wore famous for wheat. In Hie South groai plantations replaced the small farms of the North, and largo crops of tobacco, rice, sugar, etc., were produced. Cotton had not yet become a loading product, but did so in a low years afterward, when Ihe col ton-gin was invented. North Carolina yielded much tar, pitch, and turpentine. In addi tion the forests yielded a supply of lumber that seemed inexhaustible. Manufactures. Farmers in I hose days had none of I ho excellent machines which are in use to-day, and had I o work very hard in their fields. Their work at home was as hard, for they had to make 1 for themselves nearly everything they needed. While they were tilling I ho ground I heir wives and daughters wore spinning and weaving in Ihe house. 244 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. In the winter the men were kept busy making their own tools and articles of furniture, even hammering out the nails they needed and rude iron plates for ploughshares. Commerce. New England was largely engaged in com merce and the fisheries. Boston, New York, and Philadel phia were busy centres of trade. This commerce grew more active after the war, and the wealth of the country soon increased. Tobacco and other products brought high prices, the ships were kept busy, and people began to dress better, buy superior furniture, and live in more comfort than of old. But the merchants and shippers of America found the competition of Eng- SPINNING- WHEEL. , ., land very severe, while the few manu factures that had been started during the war could scarcely keep at work in competition with the cheap products of British workshops. Instead of soldiers, England now sent goods, and they proved as hard to fight against by the small American manufacturing industries. Fuel. At this period wood was the principal fuel of the country, though soft coal was burned to some extent near the mines. The anthracite or hard coal of Pennsylvania had been known since 1766, but it was long before people learned how to burn it in their houses, and it did not come into general use until after 1830. Character of the Cities. There were some handsome houses in the cities, but the mass of the dwellings were not what would to-day be called comfortable. In New York trees were planted before the houses, and there were rail ings on the roofs so that people could sit there on warm summer evenings. Broadway was lighted at night by oil- THE CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY. 245 lamps, and was thought a splendid avenue, but it soon ran into the open country. Philadelphia was the handsomest and most important city, its broad, straight streets contrast ing favorably with the narrow and crooked thoroughfares of Boston and New York. 1 Little Wealth or Poverty. There were no men of great riches. Very few in the country had an income of ten thousand dollars a year. There was little poverty and little riches, most of the people being nearly equal in wealth. They were simple in their manners, and did not, as a rule, live expensively. Customs of the Rich. But the rich people in the cities lived much better than the farmers and made much more display. They dressed, indeed, far more showily than the same class do to-day. The gentlemen wore white satin vests and white silk stockings, with velvet or broadcloth coats. The ladies wore rich silks and satins, and had their hair dressed with powder and pomatum and raised like a tower above their heads. Snuff-taking was common among gentlemen, and to offer the snuff-box was an ordinary act of politeness. Social Entertainments. Fine balls were given at which there was much formality. There were also musical con certs ; but the theatre had as yet made little progress, it being considered immoral. At President Washington s re ceptions the pomp and show rivalled that of the courts of 1 In 1790 Philadelphia had about forty-two thousand population, New York thirty-three thousand, and Boston eighteen thousand. Charleston and Baltimore were the largest Southern cities, Savannah being still quite small. These cities resembled country towns. Bos ton, for instance, had unpaved streets and no flagged sidewalks. The better houses were of brick, with little flower-gardens or lawns adorned with shrubbery in front. 246 FROM COLONIES TO UNITED STATES. Europe. This ceased when Jefferson became President. He dressed plainly and did away with all ceremony. In the Houses. In the houses there were still broad open fireplaces where great logs of wood were burned, and whose heat nearly all made its way up the chimney. The Franklin stove, a sort of iron hearth, was in use in many houses, and was a considerable improvement. The closed wood stove did not come into use until later days. Tallow candles were employed to light the rooms, while homespun was still much worn. Amusements. Amusements were few and simple, and books and newspapers scarce. In truth, there was little time for reading or amusement, the hours occupied in labor being much longer than now and the work done more exhausting in character. In those days men did not attend machines, but did everything with their own hands. There were some labor-saving devices, and the steam- engine had been invented, but the era of machine produc tion had only fairly begun. 1 1 The cotton-gin, used to clean the cotton fibre of its seeds, was invented by Eli Whitney, of Massachusetts, in 1793. It proved of immense advantage to the production of cotton in the South. No other invention has had so great an influence on the history of this country. Oliver Evans, of Delaware, invented the grain elevator and the steam dredge. Jacob Perkins, of Massachusetts, invented the first practical nail-machine. In 1790, John Fitch, of Connecticut, built and ran a steamboat on the Delaware River. It failed, however, to attract public attention, and it was not till 1807 that a satisfactory steamboat, the Clermont, was produced by Robert Fulton, a native of Pennsyl vania. PART VI. THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC I. IKHasfoinoton s Hfcmintstration. What the Constitution Did. The Constitution of 1787 made the United States of America. The country had been given that name in the Declaration of Independence and the Articles of Confederation ; but, as we have seen, the States were far from being united ; so weak was their bond of connection that it was in danger of breaking and leaving them as thirteen disunited States. The Constitution first made this country a nation, a federal republic of a strength and soundness of union surpassing that of any previous government of the people. The history of this country as a single and well-defined community begins, therefore, with the adoption of the Constitution by the States, and the yielding to the central government of such of their indi vidual powers as were needed to make a strong and enduring nation. First Presidential Election. When the question arose as to who should be the first President of the United States under the new Constitution, both parties, Federalists and Anti-Federalists alike, fixed upon George Washington as the man to whom the liberties of the country were due and who was most worthy of the honor. Presidential elections were held in ten of the States, but there was no opposition 247 248 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. to Washington, who was chosen unanimously. John Adams was elected Vice-President. 1 The Inauguration. As soon as Washington received news of his election he set out from his quiet home at Mount Vernon, which he left with much regret, for New York, then the seat of Congress. His journey was like a triumphal procession. Along the whole way the people crowded to the roadside, waiting for hours to see him pass. " Guns were fired, tri umphal arches were erected, and flowers were strewn in the roads over which his carriage was to pass." GEORGE WASHINGTON. The new nation began its life on March 4, 1789, 2 on which day the Constitution went into operation, but the new Congress had not assembled at that date, and the inauguration of Wash ington did not take place till April 30. He took the oath of office on the balcony of a building in front of Federal Hall (in which Congress met), in the presence of a great and enthusiastic multitude. When he had finished, the ringing of bells and firing of cannon testified to the public 1 At that time the electors voted for two persons, the one receiving the highest number of votes being declared President, the next highest Vice-President. Washington received sixty-nine votes, Adams thirty- four. 2 Congress had appointed the first Wednesday in January, 1789, as the day to choose Presidential electors, the first Wednesday in Febru ary as the day on which these electors should meet to choose a Presi dent, and the first Wednesday in March as the day on which the President should take his seat. This happened to be the 4th of March in that year, and the 4th has been inauguration day ever since. WASHINGTON S ADMINISTRATION. 249 joy, and a ringing shout went up of, " Long live George Washington, President of the United States !" Organization of the Government. Washington ap pointed Thomas Jefferson Secretary of Foreign Affairs (now called Secretary of State), Alexander Hamilton Sec retary of the Treasury, Henry Knox Secretary of War, and Edmund Randolph Attorney-General. These, with later Secretaries, became afterward the President s advisers, acquiring the title of the Cabinet. John Jay was appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, and associate judges were chosen. Among the first acts of the new Congress was one selecting Philadelphia as the national capital for the ten years 1790-1800. At the latter date the capital was to be removed to a new city, to be built on the Poto mac and named Washington in honor of the President. 1 The Constitution Amended. It quickly appeared that the Constitution had failed to cover the whole field of public questions, and the First Congress found it necessary to add a number of amendments. Twelve of these were proposed in 1791, most of them intended to guard the rights of the people and of the States. Ten of these were adopted. Two others were subsequently adopted, one in 1798 and one in 1804. No further amendments were required until after the Civil War. New States. During Washington s administration the first admissions of new States to the Union were made, Ver- 1 The site of the Federal capital was not selected without dispute. The Northern members of Congress wanted it as far north as the Dela ware River. The Southern members wished to have it as far south as the Potomac. The debate was sharp and protracted. It was settled at length by a compromise. The South got the capital, and the North obtained an agreement that Congress should assume and pay all the State debts. 250 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPURLIC. mont being admitted in 1791, Kentucky in 1792, and Ten nessee in 1796. Vermont had been originally claimed by both New York and New Hampshire, whose claims were vigorously disputed by the " Green Mountain Boys." At times it looked as if they would go to war with New York. That State gave up its claim in 1789. 1 Captain Gray s Discovery. In the first year of Washing ton s administration, Captain Gray, in a Boston ship, the Columbia, started out with a cargo of Yankee notions, and made a circumnavigation of the globe, carrying the Amer ican flag for the first time around the world. He returned to Boston in 1790, and in the following year sailed again to the Pacific. Here he discovered in the Oregon region a great river, which he named the Columbia from his ship. He sailed up it for twenty miles, and left an indication of his visit by burying some pine-tree shillings at the foot of a tree. Difficulties of the Government. It was by no easy path that the new government was to make its way. Difficulties and discouragements confronted it. England was unfriendly ; Spain was hostile, closing the Mississippi against American commerce. Algerine pirates were capturing American mer chant vessels in the Mediterranean. The Indians of the Northwest were in arms against the pioneer settlers. A 1 The territory of Vermont was once known as the " New Hampshire Grants," grants of land there having been made by the governor of New Hampshire. Ethan Allen was one of the principal leaders in the war like opposition to New York. Kentucky was at first a county of Vir ginia, but was finally given up by that State. Tennessee was similarly a part of North Carolina, then a separate State named Franklin, again a part of North Carolina, and finally was ceded to the general govern ment. It was afterward united with Kentucky as a Territory, and after the admission of Kentucky remained a separate Territory till 1796. WASHINGTON S ADMINISTRATION. 251 more immediate trouble to contend with was the condition of the finances. The treasury was empty, no method of obtaining a revenue had been devised, and the country had no credit. The Continental currency had disappeared from circulation. Hamilton s Methods of Finance. In this dilemma, Alex ander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, came to the rescue. Congress, at his suggestion, assumed the debts of the States. It must have means to pay them. To do so some plan of taxation must be de vised. A direct tax is always an un popular one, and sometimes its col lection is resisted, so that financiers have usually preferred the system of indirect taxation, in which the people pay without directly perceiving it. Hamilton, therefore, had a moderate tariff placed on imported goods. Our commerce then was large, and a very low tariff soon yielded suffi cient funds for the government needs, had another purpose in view. He hoped to encourage American manufactures by raising the price of foreign goods. 1 In addition to this a United States Bank was ALEXANDER HAMILTON. But the Secretary 1 These plans, devised by Hamilton, gave rise to Daniel Webster s eloquent tribute : " He smote the rock of the national resources, and abundant streams of revenue burst forth. He touched the dead corpse of public credit, and it sprung upon its feet." This eulogy was fully deserved. By aid of the funds produced the government was enabled to pay its foreign debt and to redeem the discredited Continental cur rency at par, while meeting its running expenses. As a consequence, the credit of the United States was fully restored. 252 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. founded in 1791, 1 and in 1792 a mint for the coinage of American money was established. The "Whiskey "War. The shrewd Secretary thought, however, that there was one product on which a direct tax might be laid. This product was whiskey, one of the few products which to-day pay a direct tax. But he soon found that the people were unwilling to pay taxes that passed directly from their pockets into the hands of the government. In the region of the Alleghany River, in Western Pennsylvania, an active business in the manufac ture of whiskey had sprung up, and the distillers and people there bitterly resented the visits of the tax collector. They broke out in 1794 into open insurrection, maltreated the government officials, and showed such a violent determina tion that an army of fifteen thousand troops was called out to subdue them, under the command of General Henry Lee. This show of force settled the question, and the rebels consented to pay their taxes without a fight. This was the first employment of government troops in quelling internal disturbances. The Indian War. The rapid settlement of the North western Territory was not amicably viewed by the Indians, the original owners of the country. Their hostile disposi tion was believed to be encouraged by British agents and traders from the military posts still held by the British in the lake region. In 1790, General Harmar was sent into the 1 The first bank in America had been founded in 1781, at Philadel phia, under the name of the Bank of North America, by Robert Morris, then financial agent of the government. This bank is still in existence. The Bank of New York and the Bank of Massachusetts were afterward established. In 1791 the whole banking capital of the country was two million dollars. The Bank of the United States began operations in 1794 with a capital of ten million dollars. WASHINGTON S ADMINISTRATION. 253 Indian country to punish the savages for their hostile acts, but was defeated by them in two battles. In the follow ing year General St. Clair suffered a surprise and a severe defeat. The government now felt it necessary to take de cisive action, if it wished to retain that country. General Wayne, the hero of Stony Point, was sent there with a strong force, and a desperate battle was fought in 1794 on the Maumee, in which the savages were utterly routed. Wayne laid waste their country for fifty miles, and forced upon them a treaty in which they gave up a large tract of land. Washing-ton s Second Term. In the autumn of 1792 the second election for President took place. There were now two well-defined political parties, the Federal, headed by Hamilton, and the Republican (later the Democratic- Republican), headed by Jefferson, and opposing the policy of the administration. Despite this opposition Washington and Adams were re-elected by large majorities. Foreign Affairs. Meanwhile, Europe was in a ferment, and the troubles abroad made themselves felt beyond the ocean. The beginning of the new government of the United States was nearly contemporary with that of a new govern ment in France, by which the monarchy was overthrown and a republic established. War in consequence had arisen and spread throughout Europe. It was partly fought by England and France upon the seas, and the commerce of America began to suffer. A Meddlesome French Minister. In 1793 the new gov ernment of France sent a man named Genet as its minister to this country. Finding here a party that strongly sym pathized with the French republicans, he was insolent enough to defy the government, trying to arouse the people against it. He attempted also to have privateers fitted out 254 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. in American ports, hoping thus to cause war between Eng land and the United States. Washington sternly repressed this too ardent envoy, who acted as if he owned the country, and the French government thought it wise to recall him. The Algerine Pirates. For several years the piratical state of Algiers, which had long held the mercantile nations of Europe under tribute, had been molesting American commerce, which had now found its way into the Mediter ranean. Between 1785 and 1793 fifteen vessels were cap tured and their officers and crews made slaves. In 1795 a treaty was concluded with Algiers in which the United States agreed to ransom the captives then alive and to pay an annual tribute to the Dey, the ruler of that country. In this it was but doing what the nations of Europe had long done. Trouble with England. Difficulties with England had also arisen. In the treaty of 1783 the question of remuner ating Tories for their confiscated property and of paying old debts to British merchants was discussed. Congress said that it could not compel, but would recommend the States to pay these debts. They were not paid, and harsh treatment forced thousands of Tories to leave the country. England considered this bad faith, and in return refused to deliver up Detroit and other posts on the lakes. A more annoying difficulty soon arose. British men-of- war began to seize American merchant ships dealing with French ports. They went still further, carrying off sea men from American vessels on the pretence that they were British subjects. John Jay s Treaty. To put an end to these sources of ill feeling, Chief Justice John Jay was sent to England to negotiate a treaty between the two nations. He succeeded in obtaining one (called the treaty of 1795) which settled all WASHINGTON S ADMINISTRATION. 255 the questions in dispute except that of the right of " search and impressment." When its terms became known great excitement prevailed. Jay was burned in effigy, the British minister was insulted, and Hamilton was stoned at a public meeting. But Washington favored the adoption of the treaty, and his influence carried it through Congress in spite of the violent opposition there shown. The treaty was far from satisfactory, but it averted a possible war. A Treaty with Spain. A treaty was also made with Spain, which fixed the boundaries of Florida and secured to Americans the free navigation of the Mississippi River, a measure of great importance to the West. New Orleans was to be made a port of deposit for the Western States. MOUNT VEKNON. Washington s Retirement. As the end of Washington s second term drew near he was strongly solicited to stand for a third term. He persistently refused, and John Adams was elected to succeed him, with Jefferson for Vice-President. Washington now retired from public life, after having de voted himself for many years to the service of his country. 256 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. Under his administration the United States had attained a prosperous financial and industrial condition and won the respect of foreign nations. He took leave of the people in a farewell address which has become one of the famous state papers of the United States, it being filled with the most patriotic and statesman like sentiments. His period of private life was not long. In less than three years this noble man, the " Father of his Country," died. 2, 5obn Bfcams s Hfcministration. Condition of the Country. John Adams l was inaugu rated President at Philadelphia on March 4, 1797. He came into office at a time of promise and growing pros perity. The national debt had been funded and much of it paid. The revenue was abundant for the coun try s needs. The Indians were quiet, the threatened war with England had been, avoided, the commercial and agricultural interests of the country were rapidly developing, and some progress in manufactur ing had been made. 1 John Adams was born in Massachusetts in 1735. He was a mem her of both Colonial Congresses, and earnestly advocated the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. He was sent as ambassador to France in 1777, and spent most of the next ten years abroad, being one of the commissioners who negotiated the treaty of peace of 1783. He was a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. After serving as Vice-President and President, he died on the fiftieth anniversary of American independence, July 4, 1826, his last words being, " Thomas Jefferson still survives." By a remarkable coincidence Jefferson died on the same day. JOHN ADAMS. JOHN ADAMS S ADMINISTRATION. 257 Hostile Relations with France. In one direction only were there threats of trouble. The Jay treaty had estab lished peaceful relations with Great Britain, but it greatly displeased France, whose government thought that America should repay her aid in the Revolution by siding with her against Great Britain. The election of Adams to the Presi dency instead of Jefferson, the friend of France, added to the anger of the revolutionary government, and the Ameri can minister was ordered to leave that country. 1 How the Envoys were Treated. This was almost equivalent to a declaration of war. France, in fact, began actual war by ordering her cruisers to capture American vessels, of which, it is estimated, as many as a thousand were taken. President Adams, feeling that the country was in no condition for war, sent three envoys to France, with instructions to negotiate a treaty, if possible. They were treated with indignity, and were privately advised that they would not be received officially unless they agreed to pay the French government a quarter of a million dollars. To this suggestion of bribery Charles Pinckney, one of the envoys, indignantly replied, " Millions for defence, but not one cent for tribute," a sentiment which became highly popular in the States. Soon after two of the envoys were ordered to leave the country. Elbridge Gerry remained, but his stay proved useless. 1 The sympathy with the French revolutionists was wide-spread in America. Numerous clubs were formed in imitation of the republican clubs of France. French fashions of dress and speech were imitated. It was then that men began to wear trousers, in place of the knee- breeches and long stockings of earlier times. Jefferson, who had lately returned from France, was in full sympathy with the revolution ists. The Federal party favored them at first, but changed its opinion when their violent excesses began. 17 258 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. Warlike Sentiment. In April, 1798, the whole corre spondence with the agents of Prince Talleyrand, the French minister, was published. Their letters were signed X. Y. Z., and the papers became known as the " X. Y. Z. de spatches." On reading them the whole country burst into warlike fury. " Millions for defence ; not one cent for tribute," became the war-cry of the people. Acts of Con gress were passed to increase the army and navy, Wash ington reluctantly consenting to accept the command of the former. The naval vessels were ordered to capture French armed ships, and several were taken. Ocean Battles. In February, 1799, a naval battle took place between the new 38-gun frigate Constellation and the French 38-gun frigate L Insurgente. The French vessel was captured. This was followed by another obstinate fight, in which Captain Truxton, in the Constellation, cap tured the La Vengeance, of fifty-four guns. The French, astonished and dismayed by these unlooked-for losses, now grew anxious for peace. The Federal party, of which Adams was the head, desired war, but he desired peace, and succeeded in having a satisfactory treaty made with Napoleon Bonaparte, now First Consul of France. The Alien and Sedition Laws. The troubles with France caused Congress to pass two laws which proved very unpopular, and did much to arouse opposition to the Adams administration. They were due to two causes, the hostile activity of French emissaries in this country, and the virulent abuse of the President, and even of Washing ton, by the papers of the opposite party. These were known as the Alien and Sedition Laws. By the Alien Law the President was given power to banish from the country any foreigner whose actioji he considered dangerous, and to imprison him if he returned. JOHN ADAMS S ADMINISTRATION. 259 The Sedition Law was aimed at the hostile newspapers, and gave the right to punish by fine and imprisonment any one who should publish anything false or malicious against Congress or the President. Effect of these Laws. These laws, passed in 1798, greatly injured the Federal party. The people declared them unconstitutional, as interfering with personal liberty and freedom of speech. The legislatures of Virginia and Kentucky passed resolutions against them, Kentucky de claring that a State has the right to nullify any act of Con gress which violates the Constitution. 1 The Alien Law was never enforced ; the Sedition Law was, on several occa sions. Death of Washington. In December, 1799, Washing ton, while attending to some duties on his estate, became wet in a storm, and in consequence took a severe cold. Fever followed, and on the night of December 14 he died. Thus passed away, in his sixty-eighth year, the noblest of the Americans, justly entitled "first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen." The whole country united in paying honor to his memory, and his tomb at Mount Vernon has become a hallowed shrine to patriotic Americans. The New Election. During the whole of the Adams ad ministration party feeling ran high. The Republican party increased in strength, and the Federal party lost many of its adherents. In the election of November, 1800, Adams and Pinckney were the Federal, Jefferson and Aaron Burr 1 To nullify a law means to refuse to allow its enforcement within the State. Such a principle would soon break up the Union. The United States has never acknowledged this right, and put down by force the effort at nullification made by South Carolina some thirty years afterward. 260 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPURLIC. the Republican candidates. The rule of making the candi date who received the highest electoral vote President, and the second on the list Vice-President, now caused trouble, since Jefferson and Burr each received seventy-three votes. Adams received sixty-five. In consequence it became necessary for the House of Representatives to decide which of the two Republican can didates should be President. Jefferson was the strongest in the House, but some Federalists intrigued against him, the result being that he was elected only a fortnight before the end of Adams s term. The Twelfth Amendment. It was evident from this that the Constitution was faulty, since an occasion might arise in which the country would be left without a President. To avoid such a danger a new amendment to the Constitution, the twelfth, was prepared and passed in 1804. Since then it has been specially declared which can didates run for President and which for Vice-President. Chief Justice Marshall. On January S;^^^L^, 31, 1801, the eminent jurist, John Marshall, was appointed chief justice of the United States, a position which he held with the highest honor for thirty-four years. Five days after the death of Washington he had offered in Congress a series of resolutions, prepared by General Henry Lee, in which the deceased hero is truthfully described as " first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen. 1 " JEFFERSON S ADMINISTRATION. 261 3. Jefferson s Hfcministration. The New President. Thomas Jefferson was a democrat, a man of the people, and in sympathy with the " republican simplicity" which he had observed in France. In this respect he differed essen tially from Washington and Adams, who, while opposed to monarchy, felt it due to their position to keep up a degree of pomp and ceremony. He took the oath of office without any ceremonious dis- play, and was ready to meet all visitors ,. . . _ I., i THOMAS JEFFERSON. on the level of perfect equality. 1 His inauguration took place in the new capitol, which had been erected on an elevated place in the Federal city of Washington, which at that time contained only a few hun dred inhabitants, though it was laid out on a magnificent scale. Jefferson s practice differed from that of Washington and Adams in another particular. It had been their custom, when communicating with Congress, to appear in person, and address the two Houses from the floor. Jefferson 1 Thomas Jefferson was a native of Virginia, born April 2, 1743. He studied law, became a member of the House of Rurgesses in 1768, and of the Continental Congress. He was almost wholly the author of the Declaration of Independence, the most famous of American state papers. He served as governor of Virginia during the Revolution, was appointed minister to France in 1785, became Secretary of State under Washing ton, and later was elected Vice-President under Adams. He died on the same day with Adams, July 4, 1826. He was an accomplished scholar, deeply interested in science and philosophy, and fond of music and out-door sports. The University of Virginia was founded by him. Though many feared a serious reversal of the work of his predecessors under his administration, none such took place, and the dread of revo lutionary changes soon passed away. 262 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. wrote his communications and sent them in to be read. This method has been followed since, all Presidents ad dressing Congress in written messages. "War with Tripoli. An important assertion of the dignity of the United States was made in the Mediterranean, where for centuries the Barbary states had followed the practice of piracy and preyed on the commerce of other states. The maritime nations of Europe had rescued their ships and sailors from these raids by paying annual tributes, and the United States had consented to do the same. In 1801 the Bashaw of Tripoli demanded a larger trib ute, threatening war against the United States unless the present demanded was received within six months. This threat was more than President Jefferson was disposed to endure. A million dollars had already been paid for the rescue of American sailors held in the cruel bondage of Tripolitan slavery. He now instead sent a fleet of war vessels to the Mediterranean arid bombarded the city of Tripoli. The war continued until 1805, at the end of which time the Bashaw was glad to make a treaty of peace. 1 The 1 In the war with Tripoli a memorable event took place. One of the American fleet, the Philadelphia, ran aground in the harbor and was abandoned to the Tripolitans, who began to fit her up for a man-of-war. Stephen Decatur, then a lieutenant, volunteered to destroy this prize of the enemy, and made his way into the harbor in a small captured vessel. Reaching the Philadelphia without suspicion being aroused, the concealed crew suddenly appeared and leaped on board, driving the Tripolitans overboard and setting the ship on fire. They then sailed out under fire from the batteries of the port without losing a man. JEFFERSON S ADMINISTRATION. 263 other Barbary states soon made similar treaties, and from that time on the United States ceased to pay them piratical blackmail. Ohio Admitted. Ohio, the first State formed out of the Northwestern Territory, was admitted to the Union in 1803. Its growth had been very great. Its first settlement was made at Marietta in 1788, and in 1800 the population had reached forty-five thousand three hundred and sixty-five. It was the fourth new State to be admitted. Louisiana. Of the events occurring in Jefferson s ad ministration the most important was the purchase of Lou isiana. By her possession of this territory Spain controlled the navigation of the Mississippi River, and was able to shut the Western States out from access to the Gulf of Mexico. Such a condition of affairs was not likely to be long endured by the rapidly increasing population of the West. Unless this great water outlet could be enjoyed in peace the ques tion of its possession was certain in the end to lead to war. France had given Louisiana to Spain in 1763. By a secret treaty in 1801 Spain gave it back to France, Napoleon having the design of planting a colony there. Monroe Sent to Prance. Jefferson learned of this oper ation in 1802, and at the same time was reminded of the difficulty likely to arise, from the fact that the Spanish com mandant, still in control, issued an order in October of that year closing the port of New Orleans to American vessels. It became highly important to endeavor to buy the island of New Orleans, which commanded the navigation of two branches of the river, and in 1803 James Monroe was sent to France, as a special envoy, for this purpose. Two mil lion five hundred thousand dollars was the sum which he was instructed to offer. The Louisiana Purchase. Napoleon was found to be 264 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. quite ready to dispose of his new possession. He was hard pressed by war, needed money badly, and feared that the British fleet would rob him of this distant province and leave him no territory to sell. He therefore went beyond the demand and offered the whole vast domain of Louisiana to the United States for the sum of fifteen million dollars. 1 This was an offer and a price far beyond what the Presi dent had thought of. He had only asked for the island of New Orleans, but he was quick to perceive the vast advantage such an acquisition would prove to the country, and made haste to accept the great bargain offered him. Thus by a stroke of the pen he more than doubled the area of the United States, winning the mighty region between the Mis sissippi and the Rocky Mountains, with some shadow of a claim to the country beyond that range. The Country Unknown. Little was known of the great country which Jefferson had bought. Its area, its inhab itants, its products and possibilities were alike unknown. And west of the mountains lay another wide region, named Oregon, in all respects a mystery. Its coast had been sev eral times explored. Captain Gray had sailed twenty miles up its great river. No nation had as yet laid any special claim to it. No one dreamed that within a century that whole country would be covered by the spreading United States. The Expedition of Lewis and Clark. With a natural desire to learn something about the far-spreading region of the West, President Jefferson in 1804 sent out an expedition 1 Napoleon demanded an immediate answer, and his offer was ac cepted by Monroe and the American minister, who were not willing to run any risk of losing so great a bargain. They then sent Jefferson word of what they had done. JEFFERSON S ADMINISTRATION. 265 to explore it, led by Captains Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. Starting from St. Louis (then a village of log cabins), they made their way up the Missouri to its source. Then crossing the mountains, they found the head- waters of another stream. It led to a broad river, down which they boated till the Pacific Ocean was reached. It was the Co lumbia, which Captain Gray had discovered and named in 1792. The explorers returned in 1806. They had been gone nearly two and a half years, had travelled over eight thousand miles, and had a remarkably interesting story to tell of the country, its people, wealth and wonders, and of the exciting adventures of their journey. Their report put an end to all question of the value of Jefferson s purchase. Jefferson again Elected. Jefferson s first administra tion was a highly prosperous one. The war between France and Great Britain had for the time ceased, and American commerce was little troubled. The President grew so popular that in the election of 1804 he was re-elected by almost the entire electoral vote. George Clinton was elected Vice-President. Aaron Burr, the former Vice-President had ruined his reputation by disgraceful political intrigues, and had ended by killing his political opponent, Alexander Hamilton, 1 in a duel. 1 Alexander Hamilton was born on the island of Nevis, West Indies, in 1757. He came to New York in 1772, and displayed great ability as a speaker and writer when but eighteen. He became a captain of artillery in 1776, and afterward aide-de-camp and secretary to Washing ton. After serving in several public capacities he became a member of the Constitutional Convention, and was the principal author of the brilliant political essays which were afterward published under the title of " The Federalist." He resigned his secretaryship in 1795 and returned to the practice of the law. 266 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. Burr Tried for Treason. This action aroused against him the deepest indignation. His political career was at an end, and he now formed a plot to conquer Texas, then part of Mexico, proposing to found an independent nation, with New Orleans for its capital. He organized an expedition for this purpose, but his scheme was suspected and the expedi tion broken up, he being arrested on a charge of treason. He was tried in 1807 and acquitted, as his guilt could not be proved. But he had destroyed his influence, and afterward died in New York a poor and obscure old man. The Steamboat Invented. In the year of Burr s trial, 1807, an important invention was brought to public notice. Robert Fulton, who had long been experimenting on the application of steam-power to boats, launched a steamboat, the Clermont, on the Hudson. This boat was rude and clumsy in its machinery, but in thirty-two hours it made its way against wind and stream to Albany, greatly to the public surprise. In a few years this invention made a vast change in modes of travel. Placed upon the Western rivers, the steamboat aided greatly in the rapid settlement of the West. It proved also useful for coast travel, and in 1819 the Savannah, the first ocean steamship, made its way by sails and steam across the Atlantic from Savannah, Georgia. 1 1 John Fitch s steamboat, which ran on the Delaware in 1790, had failed to attract attention, and the inventor, in despair, committed sui cide. Fulton s success arose from his use of side paddle-wheels. In 1808, John Stevens put another paddle-wheel steamboat on the Dela ware. The first steamboat on the Mississippi, the Orleans, with a stern wheel, made the trip from Pittsburg to New Orleans in fourteen days. In regard to the Savannah, the story is told that a member of the Brit ish Parliament, ridiculing the idea, remarked that he would eat the first steamship that crossed the Atlantic. About the same time the JEFFERSON S ADMINISTRATION. 267 Public Improvements. In his inaugural address in 1805, President Jefferson recommended that the surplus revenue should be used for public improvements. He thought the Constitution would need to be amended for this purpose, but Congress did not think so, and a bill was passed in 1806 voting money for a national road to the West, starting from Cumberland, Maryland. This was the beginning of national works for the development of the country. The Slave-Trade Abolished. In 1807 a bill was passed prohibiting the foreign slave-trade after January 1, 1808. This was in accordance with a provision in the Constitution (Art. I., Sec. 9). Commercial Troubles. The commercial prosperity of America in Jefferson s first term ceased in his second. Na poleon Bonaparte became Emperor of France in 1804, and the war with Great Britain was resumed and raged more fiercely than ever. The United States, being a neutral power, was able to trade with all the fighting nations of Europe. This was stopped by proclamations from England and France in 1806 and 1807, which rendered a vessel trading with almost any of the ports of Europe liable to seizure and confiscation. England seized those sailing to ports under French influence. France did the same with those sailing to British ports. Between the two no com mercial vessel was safe. Impressment of Seamen. The commercial difficulty was not the worst. Serious as it proved, it had some excuse as a necessity of war. But what particularly Savannah steamed into the harbor of Liverpool. In 1825 the steam ship Enterprise made its way from America to India by way of the Cape of Good Hope. 268 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. aroused American anger was the stopping of our vessels and impressment of our seamen by British ships of war. This was done under the claim that they were British sub jects. This matter had been left unsettled in Jay s treaty, and now became a serious evil. France did not offend in this way, since no American could well be mistaken for a French citizen. Therefore the wrath of the people was principally directed against England. The Chesapeake Affair. In 1807 an event took place which nearly led to war. The British frigate Leopard, cruising on our coast, hailed the American frigate Chesa peake, and demanded permission to search her crew. The captain of the Chesapeake refused, whereupon the Leopard fired several broadsides into her, killing and wounding more than twenty of her men. The captain of the Chesa peake, who had not dreamed of such an outrage, and who had not a gun in readiness to return the fire, was obliged to haul down his flag. Officers from the Leopard then came on board and carried off four men from the crew, claiming that they were deserters from the British navy. The resentment against this indignity was extreme. The United States would probably have declared war at once had not England been prompt to disavow the act and agreed to make reparation for it. The Embargo Act. The President was well aware that the country was in no condition for war, but could not well let such an insult to the American flag pass without some action. He issued a proclamation forbidding British cruisers to enter American ports, and called Congress to gether in extra session to decide what should be done. Congress (not with great wisdom, as it proved) passed an Embargo Act (1807). This forbade American vessels to set sail for any foreign port, and foreign vessels to load JEFFERSON S ADMINISTRATION. 269 in American ports. Only the coasting trade was per mitted. Effects of the Embargo. It was believed that this would seriously injure England and France. It did them some harm, but it injured this country far more. It virtually destroyed American commerce. Our ships were left to rot at their wharves, our seamen sought employment abroad, and the trade of the world was carried in British ships. New England suffered the most, since it was the chief centre of American commerce. Congress refused to repeal the act, and many of the former merchants turned their attention to manufacture, which now rapidly developed. The Embargo Act was felt less immediately in the South, though the cutting off of a foreign market for the produce of the farm and plantation in time became everywhere a serious .evil. The Non-Intercourse Act. In 1809, just before the close of Jefferson s administration, it began to appear that if the Embargo Act was continued in force New England might secede from the Union. It was therefore repealed, and a Non-Intercourse Act passed in its place. This de clared that no American ships should trade with England and France, but it left commerce with all other nations free. The Election of 18O8. Jefferson was requested by the legislatures of nearly all the Republican States to become a candidate for a third term. He refused, as Washington had done before him. James Madison was thereupon made the party candidate, and was elected by one hundred and twenty-nine votes, against forty-seven for Charles C. Pinck- ney, the Federal party s candidate. George Clinton, late Vice-President, was re-elected to that office. 270 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. 4, flnafcison s Hfcmintetration. Madison s Policy. James Madison wore, when inaugu rated, " a full suit of woollen cloth, the wool being from sheep raised in the United States and the cloth from American factories." He proposed, he said, to show what Americans can do when their work is protected by the tariff against foreign competition. Madison, like Washington and Jefferson before him, remained President for eight years, but he found no opportunity to carry JAMES MADISON. Qut ^ tariff p()licy thug p^oged. 1 The Foreign Situation. Personally Madison was a man of great learning and fine intellectual powers. But he was essentially a man of peace, one ill calculated to manage or control a war, and who felt, like the three Presidents before him, that peace was the best policy for the United States. Unfortunately, peace could not be maintained with honor. The greatest struggle of centuries was going on in Europe, and its effects were severely felt in America. Napoleon Bonaparte had conquered much of the continent and was at war with the remainder. Great Britain was his bitterest 1 James Madison was born in Virginia in 1751. It was he who sug gested the conference at Annapolis which led to the Constitutional Con vention, and in the latter he did such excellent work that he was named the " Father of the Constitution." His political views were the same as those of Jefferson, under whom he became Secretary of State. In character he was kindly and courteous, simple in manner, and modest in disposition. His memory was remarkable, and he was able to make the fullest use of his abundant stores of learning. " When he had fin ished nothing remained to be said." He died in 1836. MADISON S ADMINISTRATION. 271 enemy. The ocean was traversed in all directions by the French and British ships of war, and American commerce suffered more and more severely as time went on. The Embargo Act had done more harm than good. The Non- Intercourse Act had failed to remedy the trouble. The outrages continued. It looked almost as if France and England were determined to subject this country to disgrace or drive it into war. Commerce still Fettered. In 1810 Congress promised to repeal the Non-Intercourse Act if France and England would agree to respect American commerce. A double deception followed. The British minister at Washington agreed that our commerce should not be molested if we would promise to trade with England and her allies, but not with France. An agreement was made. More than a thousand vessels, loaded with American produce, crossed the seas. All the people were full of hope, thinking that the fetters of commerce had been cut. They were doomed to disappointment. The English government declared that the promise was a mistake, that the minister had acted without authority, and refused to accept the agreement. The trade ended as soon as it began. Napoleon s Double-Dealing 1 . The mistake of the Brit ish minister was followed by an act of base duplicity on the part of Napoleon. He had already seized and sold hun dreds of American ships under his decrees of paper block ade of European ports. He now agreed to withdraw his hostility to American commerce if trade with his ports and those of his allies were restored. Congress took him at his word and repealed the Non-Intercourse Act so far as France was concerned. Many merchant ships made their way to French ports. They were well treated, and others followed. Napoleon had spread his net wide to catch these 272 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPURLIC. innocent dupes. Suddenly, under an order which had been kept secret, all these vessels were seized, and the imperial robber stole at one grasp ten million dollars from American citizens. Hostile Relations with England. War was almost un avoidable, yet it was a question against which nation it should be declared. Napoleon s act of piracy was abundant provo cation, yet England managed to sting this country still more deeply. The impressment of American seamen by British men-of-war continued. In all, during the period in ques tion, more than six thousand men were thus seized. Be tween 1803 and 1812 more than nine hundred American vessels were captured by British cruisers on various pre texts. From every part of the country went up the war- cry, " Free-trade and sailors rights." l Indian Hostilities. In 1811 an Indian war broke out. Tecumseh, a famous Shawanese chief, tried to play the part of Pontiac, and combine the tribes against the whites. Gen eral William Henry Harrison was sent against him. A treacherous night attack was made upon Harrison s camp near the Tippecanoe River, but the soldiers were prepared, and routed the savages with great slaughter. It was be lieved in the West that British emissaries had incited the Indians to this attack, and a strong warlike sentiment arose in that quarter. A Naval Event. In the same year a naval event added to the war spirit. British war vessels had been sent into American waters to seize our merchant ships as prizes. One of them, the sloop-of-war Little Belt, when hailed by the American frigate President, replied by a cannon-shot. 1 By this was meant freedom to trade with any port and the right of American citizens not to be impressed into foreign service. MADISON S ADMINISTRATION. 273 The President answered with a broadside. After the Little Belt had lost thirty-two men in killed and wounded a civil answer was returned. The Declaration of War. As will be seen from the facts stated, this country had ample cause to declare war against both England and France. But hostility to the former was greater than to the latter. Americans looked upon England as their ancient enemy and on France as their ancient friend. And the behavior of England had been more galling to national pride. Henry Clay, then Speaker of the House, John C. Calhoun, and other ardent and able young men, strongly advocated war with Great Britain. President Madison hesitated, but was brought over to their views, and on June 18, 1812, Congress declared war against that country. 1 The War Spirit. Two days before this the British gov ernment revoked its " Orders in Council, 11 under which the ships of America had been seized. But even if this had been known it would have been too late, for the war spirit ran too high to be controlled. The Federalists opposed the war, but they were weak in numbers. In the election of 1812 they obtained only ninety electoral votes against one hundred and twenty-eight for Madison. Hostilities were also opposed in New England, where injury to commerce and fisheries was feared. But the mass of the people were strong for war. The Country Unprepared. Yet the country was very 1 The reasons given for the war were : the impressment of American seamen ; violation of neutral rights on the American coast by British cruisers ; the British " Orders in Council" (by which American vessels were forbidden to enter any ports in Europe except those of Great Britain and her ally, Sweden) ; and the inciting of the Indians to war against the United States. 18 274 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. poorly prepared for hostilities. Its army was small, its troops were undisciplined, its generals without experience or ability. The navy comprised only twelve vessels of any strength, against which the British could oppose a thousand, more than a hundred of them heavily armed and powerful ships. War with no better preparation than this seemed madness, yet the provocation had been great, and the people were bent on obtaining redress for their wrongs. 5. THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. The Seat of War. The war that followed the declara tion was largely confined to two quarters, the ocean and the Canadian border of the United States. The land con flict was mostly in the vicinity of the Great Lakes. Canada was like an outpost of Great Britain in America. There the foe could most easily be reached, and thither the American armies marched. The Surrender of Detroit. Even before war was de clared, General William Hull, an officer who had given excellent service in the Revolution, marched to Detroit, making as he went a road two hundred miles long through forests and swamps. Finding before him a strong force of British and Indians, he took refuge in the fortress at Detroit, where he was soon besieged by the British General Brock. A disgraceful event now took place. Without firing a gun or waiting for a gun to be fired by the enemy, Hull hoisted the signal of surrender a white table-cloth and gave up the fort and town, and with them the control of the Territory of Michigan, to the enemy. Hull Sentenced to Death. This act filled the whole country with indignation. Hull was declared to be another Benedict Arnold ; he was tried by court-martial, convicted of cowardice, and sentenced to be shot. The President, THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT RRITAIN. 275 however, pardoned him, on account of his services during the Revolution. It is now thought that Hull was made to suffer for the faults of others. Harrison s Campaign. Later in the year Queenstown was attacked without success, and on January 22, 1813, General Harrison, who was marching against Detroit, had his advance-guard defeated by a force of British and In dians, under General Proctor, at the river Raisin. This engagement ended in a massacre, Proctor leaving the field and permitting the Indians to butcher all the American wounded. Canada Invaded. Later in 1813 General Dearborn in vaded Canada, and General Pike made an attack on York (now Toronto), the Canadian capital. Pike was killed by the explosion of the enemy s magazine, but the town was taken and the Parliament House burned. An expedition was also projected against Montreal, but this ended in failure. Causes of Failure. In truth, the American government had declared war in blind haste and without any rational measures of preparation. The regular army was too small to be of much value. The militia were undisciplined, poorly equipped, ill provided. The generals were incom petent. The invasion of Canada, which had seemed a feasible project, had proved a disastrous failure, the Terri tory of Michigan being lost and Ohio in danger of being overrun by the foe. The Constitution and Guerriere. Yet while unfortu nate on land, the Americans had been surprisingly success ful at sea. The British navy, proud of its success against the French, found itself suddenly humiliated by the hand ful of American ships of war. A series of unpleasant surprises began on August 13, 1812, when the frigate Essex 276 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. captured the British sloop-of-war Alert in an eight min utes fight and without losing a man. Six days afterward a more equal arid significant fight took place. The frigate Constitution, of forty-four guns, commanded by Captain Isaac Hull, met the 38-gun British frigate Guerriere in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The fight that followed lasted half an hour. Its results were sur prising. At the end of that time the Guerriere had lost one hundred men ; her masts and rigging were all gone ; her hull was so cut up that the water was pouring in. The Constitution had lost but fourteen men and was still in fighting trim. The Guerriere was forced to surrender, and her crew had barely been taken off when she plunged to the bottom of the bay. Other Naval Victories. This unlooked-for success was followed by others. On October 13 the American sloop Wasp captured the British sloop Frolic. On the 25th the frigate United States captured the Macedonian. This ship was left almost in the condition of the Guerriere, while the United States lost but twelve men and was but little the worse for the encounter. On the 29th of December the Constitution, now under Captain Bainbridge, won another striking victory. Meeting the British frigate Java off the coast of Brazil, a two hours contest followed. At the end of that time the Java was a total wreck, and had lost two hundred and thirty men. In February, 1813, the sloop Hornet met the British ship Peacock, and handled her so severely that she sank before her crew could be taken off. Causes of the American Success. In six months the Americans had taken more British ships than the French had done in twenty years, and had not lost one. This was due to several causes. The American vessels carried more men than the British, and these were mainly the hardy THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. 277 fishermen of New England, men who had made the waves their homes. The ships were better built, the crews better disciplined, the gunners better marksmen. Heavier guns were carried, and every shot told. There was no firing at random as in the British ships. The result of this superi ority in men and equipment was the remarkable series of victories we have detailed. "Don t Give Up the Ship." On June 1, 1813, the Brit ish navy gained its first success. The Shannon captured CAPTURE OF THE CYANE AND LEVANT BY THE CONSTITUTION. the Chesapeake near Boston harbor. Captain Lawrence of the Chesapeake was mortally wounded, and as he was carried below cried out, " Don t give up the ship !" But his vessel had entered the combat when in no proper fighting trim and was forced to yield. Other Ocean Battles. The Essex, under Captain For- 278 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. ter, cruised for a whole year in the Pacific, taking numbers of British merchantmen. In March, 1814, she was attacked by two British frigates in the harbor of Valparaiso and forced to surrender. This and the capture of the Chesa peake were the only British naval successes during the war. The last fight took place in February, 1815, after the war had ended. The glorious old Constitution, which had already won such fame, was attacked by two British ves sels, the frigate Cyane and the sloop Levant, off the coast of Madeira, and after a forty minutes action captured them both. While the small American fleet was doing this remarkable service, the seas were swept by privateers, which during the war captured more than a thousand prizes. Many American merchant vessels were taken, but in this compe tition the British were largely the losers. Perry on Lake Erie. The naval battles of the war were not confined to the ocean. The control of Lake Erie be came an important matter, and both sides prepared to contest it. In the summer of 1813 the British were mas ters of the lake, having on it a fleet of six ships with sixty- three guns. Captain Oliver Perry, a young officer who had never seen a naval battle, was sent to build a fleet and fight the foe. He did the first with extraordinary energy, cutting down forest-trees which in a few weeks were con verted into ships. With these and some other vessels, nine in all, armed with fifty-four guns, he sailed in search of the British fleet. His flag-ship was named the Lawrence, and the flag at the mast-head bore Captain Lawrence s memorable words, " Don t give up the ship." The fleets met on September 10. A fierce conflict en sued. The Lawrence fought two of the heaviest British vessels till it was badly cut up, while of its crew only eight THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT RRITAIN. 279 effective men were left. Then the indomitable Perry sprang into a boat and was rowed through a hot British fire to the Niagara. With this new flag-ship he made a splendid charge through the enemy s line, firing right and left into their shattered vessels, and in fifteen minutes more the victory was won. " We have met the enemy and they are ours," was Perry s famous despatch. It roused the country like an electric charge. Enthusiasm every where ran high. The Battle of the Thames. Perry s victory saved the North west. On receiving the news of it, General Harrison crossed into Canada, found the enemy in retreat, and completely defeated them on the river Thames. Proctor, the British com mander, fled ; his men surrendered ; and Tecumseh, who led the Indian auxiliaries, was killed. Detroit was soon after recovered, and the war ended in the West. Canada again Invaded. In 1814 another attempt to invade Canada was made, by way of the Niagara River. By this time the army had been reorganized, the troops disciplined, and more able commanders chosen. General Winfield Scott won a brilliant victory at Chippewa on July 5. On July 25 another victory was won at Lundy s Lane. 1 The invasion, however, yielded no useful results. BATTLE-FIELDS ON THE NIAGARA. 1 A battery, situated on a height, was the key to the British position. "Can you take that battery?" asked General Brown, calling Colonel 280 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. McDonough on Lake Champlain. Later in the season, the British attempted an invasion of New York, following the often-tried line of Lake Champlain. It proved a disas trous failure, though General Prevost had under him twelve thousand of Wellington s veteran soldiers. The British fleet on the lake attacked the American squadron under McDon- ough (September 11), and was so badly beaten as to be nearly destroyed. Prevost, learning of this defeat, fled in such haste as to leave his sick and wounded and most of his stores behind. The War on the Coast. With this important American victory the war in the North ended, but meanwhile a cam paign of plunder was being made on the Atlantic coast. Napoleon had been beaten and banished to Elba, and Europe once more was at peace. This left England free for the war in America, and a large fleet was sent across the sea, enough to blockade the whole coast from Maine to Florida. 1 Thousands of veterans from the European war were also sent. It was proposed to invade the country on the north, the east, and the south. Prevost s invasion from the north, as we have seen, signally failed. On the east troops were landed and a number of towns were plundered. Stoning- ton, Connecticut, was bombarded. Part of the coast of Maine was seized and held till the end of the war. Washing-ton Captured. In July, 1814, a strong British fleet, conveying an army four thousand five hundred Miller to his side. " I ll try, sir," was the modest answer. Miller won the battery and held the position against three desperate charges of the foe. His answer has become famous. 1 Commerce was so completely ruined that the lamps in the light houses were no longer lighted. They had become of use only to the enemy. THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT RRITAIN. 281 strong, appeared in Chesapeake Bay. The troops were landed near the mouth of the Patuxent River and marched toward the national capital. Their coming had been a sur prise, and the hasty steps taken to resist them proved use less. About six thousand men were gathered, nearly all un trained militia. They met the foe at Bladensburg, near Washington, but were soon put to flight, and the enemy marched on to the capital (August 24). Here shameful and in glorious work was done, from which the British nation gained no renown. The Capitol, the President s house, and most of the public buildings were burned and all the records NORTHERN BATTLE-FIELDS OF THE WAR OF 1812-15. 282 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. of the government destroyed. This vandalism had been ordered by the British government, on the plea that the Parliament House at York, Canada, had been burned by the Americans. But this was the act of a general, not of a government. Baltimore Attacked. On leaving Washington, Admiral Cockburn sailed to Baltimore. Here the fleet attacked Fort McHenry, while the army marched by land against the city. But there was no surprise here as at Washington ; Baltimore was prepared, and the assault ended in failure. 1 The Creek War. The war in the South was begun by the Creek Indians, who, incited by Tecumseh, in 1813 attacked and took Fort Mimms, massacring the garrison and all the women and children in the fort. The people of that region gathered in revengeful haste, and under General Andrew Jackson routed the Indians in several severe engagements. The last battle took place at Tohopeka, or Great Horseshoe, where the Indians had fortified themselves, and where they were completely defeated. About six hundred warriors were slain, and the rest were glad to make peace. The British at New Orleans. The final effort of Great Britain was made against New Orleans. General Paken- ham, an able soldier, landed with a force of twelve thousand veterans of the Napoleonic wars near that city in December, 1814. It was defended by about half as many men, under General Jackson, the hero of the Creek War. In great haste 1 Francis S. Key, who had been sent to the British fleet to negotiate an exchange of prisoners, was detained, and spent there the night of the attack on the fort. When morning came he looked eagerly for the national flag, and saw that it still waved over the walls of the fort. In the inspiration of the occasion he wrote the " Star-Spangled Banner, 1 a song which immediately became popular, and which still continues a leading national ode. THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. 283 Jackson threw up intrenchments, his lines extending from the river to the swamps. Cotton bales were used to some extent in his works, while the British used hogsheads of sugar for the same pur pose. But as bombard ment soon set the cotton in flames, Jackson replaced the bales with a bank of earth and river mud. Pakenham s Assault. On January 8, 1815, Pakenham assault. It fatal error, men were tried an proved a Jackson s largely sharp-shooters, and the British fell NEW ORLEANS AND THE CREEK WAR. n multitudes before their unerring fire. In twenty-five min utes the assailing army hastily withdrew, leaving two thou sand six hundred killed and wounded on the field. Pak enham was among the dead. Of Jackson s men only eight were killed and thirteen wounded. Rarely has so great a victory been won with so little loss. It brought to a sudden end the invasion of Louisiana. The entire British plan of campaign had failed. Peace Declared. As events proved, the slaughter at New Orleans was useless. A treaty of peace had already been signed. British and American commissioners had been debating on the question of peace since August, and a treaty was signed on Christmas eve, 1814, at Ghent. But those were not days of ocean cables and land telegraphs, and the war went on for several weeks after peace had been made. 284 THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC. The treaty left affairs much as they were before the war. Great Britain did not give up the right of impressment. But no fear was felt that she would attempt to seize American seamen again. War with Algiers. Peace with Great Britain did not quite end the era of war. The Dey of Algiers had taken the opportunity to capture some American vessels. Com modore Decatur was sent in 1815 to punish him for his acts of piracy. The capture of two of his ships sufficed. He was glad to sign a treaty to give up all captives and cease all future attacks on American commerce. Tunis and Tripoli did the same, and all trouble with the Barbary States was brought to an end. The Hartford Convention. In 1814 a convention of delegates from the New England States, representing the element of the people opposed to the war, met in secret convention at Hartford, Connecticut, and passed resolutions recommending seven amendments to the Constitution. It was widely believed that these delegates were plotting secession, and they not only brought political ruin to them selves but to their political following. They were all Fed eralists, and their action was the death-blow of the Federal party. Just what took place in the convention, however, was never well known. A National Bank. The war left the finances of the country in a serious state. Eighty million dollars had been spent, and the national debt had increased to one hundred and twenty-seven million dollars. Trade was nearly ruined, and only paper money was in use. The old National Bank of the United States had been closed in 1811, its charter having expired. A new one was chartered in 1816 for twenty years, with the hope that it would aid in over coming the financial depression. The capital was to be THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. 285 thirty-five million dollars, to which the government contrib uted largely. The bank did good service in aiding to restore the lost prosperity of the country. New States. During the Madison administration two new T States were admitted to the Union, Louisiana in 1812. and Indiana in 1816. Election of Monroe. In 1812, Madison had been re- elected, with Elbridge Gerry for Vice-President. In the Presidential contest of 1816 the Democratic-Republican party nominated James Monroe, with Daniel D. Tompkins for Vice-President. The Federalists nominated Rufus King for President, but made no nomination for Vice-President. The party was virtually dead. Monroe received an over whelming majority. From that time forward the Federal party ceased to exist. PART VII. THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS* \ t, flUonroe s Hfcministratton* A One-Party Bra. Monroe s two administrations were the only ones in the history of the country in whi.ch party spirit did not prevail. The decline of the Federal party had left the Democratic- Republican party supreme. In his first election he received one hundred and eighty-seven out of two hundred and twenty-one electoral votes. In his sec ond election, in 1820, no other candidate was nominated. His election would have been unanimous had not one elector voted against him, on the ground that he was not willing that any President but Washington should have a unanimous vote. 1 The President s Journey. Like Washington, Monroe JAMES MONROE. 1 James Monroe, like all the Presidents before him except Adams, was a native of Virginia. He was born there in 1758, entered the Rev olutionary army at the age of eighteen, and served with distinction in the battles of Brandywine, Germantown, and Monmouth. He after ward studied law, and served at various periods as minister to France, Spain, and England. As a special envoy to France in 1803 he secured the purchase of Louisiana. He was not possessed of brilliant powers, but was a plain, honest man, whose leading aim was the good of his country. He was the third President to die on July 4 (1831). 286 MONROE S ADMINISTRATION. 287 made a journey through some of the States in the first year of his term. It was a period of slow travel, and it took him three months to traverse the Middle and Eastern States. He hoped by this journey to heal party feeling. New Eng land had opposed the war, and had suffered from it. The bitter feeling was not yet appeased, but Monroe s appearance among the people as a veteran of the Revolution, dressed in the military costume of the days that " tried men s souls," roused general enthusiasm. Revolutionary soldiers gath ered to welcome him. The war-worn battle-flags of 76 were displayed. He spoke of the worth of the Union, of the need of sympathy between North and South, and men of all political views applauded his words. For the time party lines seemed to vanish. Every one declared that the coun try had entered on an " Era of Good Feeling." In 1819, Monroe made a second tour, this time in the South. The effect was as good as before, and for the only time in its history the people of this country appeared to be united in sentiment and opinion. A Commercial Invasion. The close of the war with Great Britain had produced one marked variation in the condition of American industries. The attacks on commerce before the war and the prevention of importation during that period had led to a considerable development of man ufactures in this country, particularly in the production of cotton and woollen goods. New England, wiiose carrying trade was ruined, had employed her capital largely in this direction. But the close of the war made a radical change. British merchant vessels succeeded British war ships, and a mer cantile invasion of the country was made, the products of England s looms being brought here in vast quantities, and sold at prices with which the small and poorly equipped 288 THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. American factories could not compete. There was good reason to believe that the manufacturers of England were selling their goods below cost so as to break down Ameri can competition and force this country to depend on them for a supply. The Tariff Question. Petitions poured in upon Congress asking for a protective tariff, 1 and in 1816 such a tariff was enacted, increasing the duties on cotton and woollen goods. It failed to produce the benefit expected. Large importa tions of foreign goods were still made. In 1824 a new tariff law was passed, further increasing the duties on cotton and woollen goods and adding to the duties on various other articles. The tariff question now first became an important political consideration. 2 The tariff of 1816 was supported by many 1 A tariff is a tax laid on foreign goods imported into any country. The money thus obtained is used for the expenses of the government. A tariff " for revenue only" is one in which only these expenses are con sidered. A " protective tariff " is one intended to check importation, and thus to encourage home manufactures. Free trade is a system in which no duties are charged, and money for government expenses is obtained by taxes on home products and incomes. The advocates of free trade and revenue tariff claim that it is the true policy for each country to produce only that for which it is best fitted by nature, and that protection benefits the few at the expense of the many. The ad vocates of protective tariff claim that protection is necessary for the proper development of manufacturing industries. Opposite views on these subjects have long been held, and have formed the main point of difference between the two leading political parties. 2 The first tariff bill passed in this country was signed by Washing ton on July 4, 1789. Hamilton advocated a tariff as a revenue measure, but also considered the importance of protection. Protection was a feature in subsequent tariffs, but revenue continued the principal con sideration until 1816. In several later tariff bills protection was the leading purpose. MONROE S ADMINISTRATION. 289 Southerners and opposed by many of the merchants of New England, on the plea that it would injure their commercial interests. By 1824 a change had taken place ; manufactur ing had largely developed in New England, and protection was demanded, while the agriculturists of the South advo cated free trade as best suited to their interests. Trouble with the Florida Indians. Spain held Florida, but did not hold it strongly. The Indians of that country made many raids into Georgia and Alabama. They were aided by runaway slaves and other lawless characters. Complaints were made, but Spain could not or would not keep order. As a result a condition of border warfare arose. Jackson in Florida. General Jackson was sent in 1818 to suppress this trouble. He was given permission to pur sue enemies across the border, but he was not to attack any Spanish post without orders from Washington. But Jackson was not the man to wait for orders. He raised a force of four thousand men, many of them Creek Indians, pursued the Seminole Indians into Florida, drove them from point to point, and captured without orders several Spanish forts and towns among them Pensacola on the plea that their commanders were aiding the enemy. Two British traders, who were accused of supplying the Indians with arms and ammunition, were arrested, tried, and exe cuted, though the evidence against them was doubtful. The Purchase of Florida. Thus the headstrong Jackson managed in a short time to bring the country into hostile relations with both Spain and Great Britain. Spain strongly resented the invasion. But it soon became evident that Florida was likely to prove a troublesome possession, and in 1819 the Spanish government agreed to sell that prov ince to the United States for the sum of five million dollars. 19 290 THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. By the treaty Spain gave up all claim to the country lying west of the Louisiana purchase and north of the 42d parallel of latitude. From this region have been made the States of Oregon, Washington, and Idaho. The Monroe Doctrine. Spain was having trouble with her other colonies. After 1810 one after another of them broke into rebellion, which she was unable to suppress, and it looked as if some of the other nations of Europe might come to her aid. If they did, they might seize upon some of these colonies themselves. This was a state of affairs by no means agreeable to the United States. For a number of years the question was debated as to whether this country should recognize and aid the revolutionists. In 1823, President Monroe took a de cided step. In a message to Congress he declared that the United States considered the American continents to be no longer open to colonization from Europe, and that this coun try would resent any attempt of a European power to in terfere with an independent American government. 1 Its Effect. Monroe s words carried weight. Europe was coming to recognize the strength of the United States, and had no desire to go to war with this country. There was no further thought of interference with the Central and South American states. In the next year Russia, in a treaty, 1 Monroe declared, " That the American continents, by the free and independent condition which they have assumed and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers." He further declared that any attempt by a European power to oppress or control an independent American nation would be regarded as " the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States." This, known as the " Monroe Doctrine," has at various times since attracted much attention, and became very prominent in 1895-96 in consequence of what were claimed to be English aggressions upon the territory of Venezuela. MONROE S ADMINISTRATION. 291 abandoned all claim to the Pacific coast region south of the latitude of 54 40 . New States Admitted. Several new States were ad mitted during the Monroe administration. These included two formed out of the territory which Georgia and South Carolina had ceded to the United States, Mississippi, ad mitted in 1817, and Alabama, in 1819. Illinois, formed out of the Northwestern Territory, was admitted in 1818. Maine and Missouri soon afterward applied for admission. The Missouri Compromise. An important question now arose. In 1819 there were eleven slave and eleven free States. This gave the North and the South an equal representation in the Senate. The South was anxious to pre serve that equality. The admission of Maine would give a preponderance to the free States. It was therefore desired by Southern members that Missouri should be admitted as a slave State. This was opposed by many Northern "~ v. members, who strongly objected to the HENRY CLAY> extension of slavery. The debate over this question was long and bitter. It was ended in 1820 by a bill introduced by Jesse B. Thomas, of Illinois, and strongly advocated by Henry Clay, 1 the 1 Henry Clay was born in Virginia in 1777. He entered the Ken tucky legislature in 1803, and was elected in 1806 to the House of Representatives, whose Speaker he became in 1811. He was at that time the leader of the war party, and was in later years distinguished as the advocate of several useful compromise measures. He served as Secretary of State under President John Quincy Adams, became a member of the Senate, and was three times an unsuccessful candidate for the Presidency. He became the leader of the Whig party on its 292 THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. Speaker of the House. This bill proposed that Missouri should be admitted as a slave State, but that slavery should forever be prohibited in any other part of the Western ter ritory of the United States that lay north of the parallel of 36 30 . Such was the character of the famous Missouri Compromise. It divided the country into a free North and a slave-holding South, and for the next thirty years re moved this question out of politics. Maine, whose admis sion had been resisted, became a State March 15, 1820. Missouri was admitted August 10, 1821. Public Improvements. The Cumberland Road, a na tional highway to the West begun in 1806, had been extended from Cumberland, Maryland, to Wheeling. It was now proposed to carry it to the Mississippi. It was gradually extended into Ohio, stretching farther and farther west, until in the end it was carried to the Mississippi by aid of the State governments. It was a broad, smooth, and solid highway, over which moved westward a seemingly endless train of emigrant wagons. Other public improve ments were advocated, but none were carried out, the President thinking that he had no power under the Con stitution to spend the public money for such purposes. The Brie Canal. Such public improvements were quite within the power of the States, and in 1817 a highly impor tant one was begun in New York, that known as the Erie Canal. Its construction was mainly due to the unyielding perseverance of Governor De Witt Clinton. " Clinton s Ditch" it was called in derision by the opponents of the project. The Erie Canal was intended to connect the waters of formation, and died in 1852. Clay was the most distinguished orator of the South. MONROE S ADMINISTRATION. 293 the Hudson River with those of Lake Erie. Its length was three hundred and sixty-three miles, and its construction an immense task, employing an army of laborers for eight years, during which they cut down for ests, excavated rocks, carried the canal by locks up hill-sides and by aqueducts across rivers. Begun July 4, 1817, it was com pleted in 1825, and has ever since been in active use. It has proved of immense advantage to New York City and State. 1 Lafayette s Visit to America. In 1824, near the close of Monroe s administration, Lafayette, the most distinguished foreign hero of the Revolution, visited this country at the request of Congress and on the invitation of the President. LOCK ON THE ERIE CANAL. 1 When the water was let into the canal, in the autumn of 1825, the news was conveyed from Buffalo to New York by a row of cannon, about five miles apart, and fired in quick succession. That was one form of the telegraph of those days. Governor Clinton travelled by the canal from Buffalo to Albany, and by the Hudson River to New York, bringing a keg of water from Lake Erie which was poured with solemn ceremony into the harbor of New York. It indicated the mar riage of the lake with the ocean. Before the canal was built it cost ten dollars and took three weeks to transport a barrel of flour from Buffalo to Albany. By the canal it could be sent through in a week, at a cost of thirty cents. To-day a constant procession of grain boats traverses the canal, day and night, from west to east, and one of boats laden with merchandise from east to west. 294 THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. No man ever had a more enthusiastic reception. Forty years and more had passed since he left the United States. He was now nearly seventy, one of the last surviving friends and aides of Washington, and the whole people rose to do him honor. He spent more than a year travel ling through the nation, visiting every State, and being everywhere greeted with affection and enthusiasm. Some of the old soldiers who had served under him in the Revolution fainted with emotion on grasping his hand. On June 17, 1825, he took part in laying the corner-stone of the Bunker Hill monument. It was just fifty years after the battle. Lafayette had spent much of his fortune in the American cause, and in recompense Congress voted him two hundred thousand dollars and twenty-four thousand acres of land. He was invited to a dinner at the White House, given by President Adams, and having as guests the ex-Presidents Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe, all old friends of Lafayette. His return to France was made in a new naval vessel, named in his honor the Brandywine, after the battle in which he had taken a prominent part. Changes Seen by Lafayette. To one who had not seen this country for forty years the changes must have seemed stupendous. The population had grown from less than three millions to about eleven millions. The thirteen States had expanded to twenty-four. The settlements, which had long clung to the coast region, now stretched beyond the Mississippi. What he had known as the colonies in rebel lion had now become one of the greatest nations on the JOHN QUINCY ADAMS S ADMINISTRATION. L 295 earth. The progress in agriculture, commerce, and manu facture had been immense. The flag of the United States was seen in all seas, and Europe was clothed with her cotton and fed with her grain. Peace, prosperity, and free dom ruled, and the country had fully started on its great career. The Presidential Election of 1824. In the Presidential contest of 1824 there were four candidates in the field. But there was still only one well-defined party, and these candi dates were nominated by their political friends. When the votes were counted it appeared that Andrew Jackson had received ninety-nine, John Quincy Adams eighty-four, Wil liam H. Crawford forty-one, and Henry Clay thirty-seven electoral votes. Jackson was evidently the choice of the people. But as he had not a majority of the whole electoral vote, the election was, by the Constitution, thrown into the House of Representatives and a choice made from the first three. Clay s friends supported Adams, and he was elected. John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, was chosen Vice- President. 2. Jobn (Quincp Hfcams s Efcmintetration, Adams Unpopular. Adams 1 was not a popular Pres ident, though he proved a useful and an able one. He was 1 John Quincy Adams, son of John Adams, the second President, was born jn Massachusetts, 1767. He served as United States Senator from Massachusetts from 1803 to 1809, and afterward held important government positions, among them those of minister to England and Secretary of State. Two years after leaving the Presidential chair he was sent to Congress as a Representative, and retained this position until his death in 1848. While in Congress he was highly honored and respected, and showed such ability in debate that he was called "the old man eloquent." 296 THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. retiring and austere in manner, and made few political friends, while his opponents, Clay and Jackson, had both a body of devoted followers. It was widely believed also that Jackson had been un justly deprived of the seat, for which he had the largest popular and electoral vote. Preparations were, therefore, at once made to support him in the next campaign. Party Divisions. The "Era of Good ^f^ Feeling" was at an end. The President JOHN QUINCY ADAMS, made Henry Clay Secretary of State, and was at once charged with repaying him for the votes of his friends. This personal division be tween the supporters of Adams and Clay and those of Jackson and Crawford was followed by a political one, the administration party favoring a protective tariff and public improvements at the expense of the government, while its opponents favored free trade, or tariff for revenue only, and opposed public works at government expense, believing that each State should pay for its own improvements. The New Parties. This difference of opinion grew into a party distinction. The administration party became known as National Republicans, because they wished to increase the powers of the national government. The opposition party, which had long beefTTmown as the Democratic- Republican, dropped the latter part of its name, and became known as the Democratic party. It advocated loj& tariff and State rights. These two parties, in effect, still exist, though the National Republican did not long retain that name. Higher Tariff. The protection sentiments of the admin istration were embodied in 1828 in a new tariff, higher than that of 1824. Very high duties were laid on wool and JOHN QUINCY ADAMS S ADMINISTRATION. 297 hemp, and increased duties on various other articles. It was not generally satisfactory, but Congress adopted it. Its enemies called it the " tariff of abominations." It was bitterly opposed in the South, and John C. Calhoun sug gested that South Carolina should declare the act " null and void" within that State. This was the first step toward nullification of the tariff, which was attempted four years afterward. Internal Improvements. The second feature of the ad ministration policy, that of " internal improvements," was strongly advocated by the President. He believed that Con gress had full right under the Constitution to order public works, and suggested that public roads, canals, and fortifi cations should be built, a national university established, national observatories erected, and scientific enterprises undertaken. Congress passed several such bills, but oppo sition to them was strong, and years passed before the views of Adams gained extended public support. Death of Adams and Jefferson. On July 4, 1826, two ex-Presidents, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, died. By a singular and interesting coincidence their death took place on the fiftieth anniversary of the Declaration of Inde pendence, which one of them had written and the other aided to prepare. John Adams had the special gratification of living to see his son President of the United States. Removal of the Creek Indians. An important act of the Adams administration was the removal of the Creek Indians from their old domain. The Federal government had agreed in 1802 to remove these Indians from Georgia, and in 1819 that State called on the government to fulfil its agreement. Steps were taken, and in 1825 some of the Creek chiefs, acting on their own authority, agreed to cede the tribal lands and accept new ones beyond the Mississippi. 298 THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. This was a trick which the tribe repudiated, and the chiefs who made the treaty were put to death. Georgia tried to take possession, and for a time an Indian war was threat ened. In 1826 a new treaty was made, in which the Creeks agreed to removal, parting with most of their land, and accepting new lands in the West. The Cherokees, another tribe of Georgia Indians, were removed at a later date. Anti-Masonic Party. A new political party arose in an unusual manner. William Morgan, a member of the society of Freemasons, published a book in 1826 in which he pro fessed to reveal the secrets of the society. He disappeared, and it was believed by many that the Masons had mur dered him. The feeling against the society became so strong that it gave rise to a new political party called the Anti- Masonic, its purpose being to exclude all Freemasons from office. It nominated a candidate for the Presidency in 1832, but soon after died out. The Temperance Cause. As has been already stated, the drinking of intoxicating liquors was very common in colonial times. It continued so in the early days of the States, drunkenness being a serious evil, which affected even the highest classes of society. Temperance societies had been formed, but had done little good. The first suc cessful temperance society was established in 1826, and in the years that followed the temperance cause won thousands of adherents, and did remarkable work in repressing the mania for strong drink. 1 1 Total abstinence was not required by the early temperance socie ties. All they demanded was abstinence from distilled spirits, whis key, brandy, and rum. In 1840 the Washingtonian Temperance Society was formed, which required total abstinence. It is said that this move ment reformed one hundred and fifty thousand drunkards. In 1846 the " Maine Law," prohibiting the manufacture and sale of intoxicating JACKSON S ADMINISTRATION. 299 The Election of 1828. In the next Presidential election there were two candidates nominated. The two parties had now become well defined, Adams being the candidate of the National Republican, Jackson of the Democratic. In the election the sentiment of the people was strongly expressed. Jackson was a popular military hero, a fact which greatly strengthened his party. He was elected by a majority of ninety-five electoral votes. John C. Calhoun was elected Vice-President. 7 3. Jacfeson s Hfcmintetratioru Character of Jackson. Hitherto the Presidential chair had been filled by men trained in statesmanship. Now a new feeling arose. Men said that there was danger of an aristocracy, and supported Jackson as a man of the people. It was this sentiment, and his military reputation, much more than any political reason, that made him President. Andrew Jackson l was obstinate in disposition. He took his beliefs strongly, and, being always sure he was right, liquors in the State of Maine, was passed. At later dates other States enacted similar laws. The result of the temperance movement has been that drunkenness has greatly decreased in the United States, and has quite lost the respectability which it once possessed. 1 Andrew Jackson was born in one of the Carolinas (it is not sure which) in 1767. He was an active, athletic lad, not given to books, and passing a life of adventure. At fourteen he was taken prisoner by the British, and was wounded on the head by an officer whose boots he had refused to clean. After the war he engaged in various pursuits, finally became a lawyer, and was sent to Congress in 1796. He dis tinguished himself greatly in the war with the Creek Indians and at the battle of New Orleans, and gained popular fame by his dealings with the Spanish in Florida. After his retirement from the Presidency he lived quietly at the Hermitage, his home near Nashville, where he died in 1845. 300 THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. could not often be moved by argument. He was a firm friend and a bitter enemy, and had the dangerous weakness of looking upon his personal enemies as enemies of the country. He had an unyielding will, as his Cabinet officers found, their influence in the affairs of government being very slight. His one good quality was honesty. He meant well by the country in all he did, and attacked what he thought corruption without a care for who might be hurt. ANDREW JACKSON. Rotation in Office. Jackson began his official career by inaugurating a new and unwise system of office-holding, that known as " rota tion in office. 1 It was growing to be considered undemo cratic for public offices to be held long by the same per son. The offices belonged to the people, men said, and should be enjoyed by as many of the people as possible. A different view had before prevailed, the former Presi dents making few removals. Jefferson, who made the most, soon stopped doing so, and afterward refused to remove any honest, faithful, and capable office-holder, whatever his polit ical opinions. From 1789 to 1829 less than a hundred re movals were made, and some of these were for theft. Jack son turned out fully two thousand, and filled their places with men of his own party. The Spoils System. This system came to be known as the " Spoils System," from a remark of Senator Marcy in 1834, who spoke of politics as conducted on the principle that " to the victors belong the spoils. 1 It proved to be highly injurious to the public service of the country, capable and experienced men being removed from office every four years to make way for untried aspirants, whose only claim JACKSON S ADMINISTRATION. 301 V. JOHN C. CALHOUN. was that they had voted and worked for the party, and who were often incapable of properly performing their official duties. This vicious system is now being rapidly set aside by the Civil Service Reform movement. Nullification. While Jackson was doing evil in this direction he was doing good in another. The tariff of 1828 was extremely unpopular in the South, as it added considerably to the cost of goods which were received in exchange for cotton. John C. Calhoun declared that any State had the right to decide if such an act was constitutional, and, if not, to declare it null and void. This would be to nullify an act of Congress, and the doctrine was called " nullifi cation." In 1830 it gave rise to a remarkable debate in Congress. Senator Hayne, of South Carolina, supported the doctrine in a powerful speech. He was answered by Daniel Webster, 1 Senator from Massachu setts, in one of the greatest orations that has ever been delivered, and which closed with the striking re mark, " Liberty and Union, one and inseparable, now and forever." In a later reply to Cal- DANIEL WEBSTER. 1 Daniel Webster, the great American orator and statesman, was born in New Hampshire in 1782. He studied law, entered politics, and was sent to Congress in 1813. He rose rapidly in estimation as an orator. His career in Congress was a most brilliant one, but he failed to gain ihe nomination for President, though his name was presented in 1844, 302 THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. houn l he declared that u there can be no secession without revolution." How Jackson Dealt with the Nullifiers. During the year 1832 a new tariff bill was passed. It considerably de creased the average rate of duty, but the principle of pro tection was maintained, and the South continued dissatisfied. In December South Carolina took positive action. A State convention declared the tariff null and void, forbade the collection of duties within the State, and threatened, if interfered with in this action, to secede from the Union. President Jackson believed in low tariff, but not in seces sion. He at once issued a vigorous proclamation, saying that the Federal laws must be obeyed, and that resistance to them would not be permitted. To prove that he meant this, Lieutenant Farragut was sent with a naval force to Charleston harbor, and General Scott was ordered with troops to Charleston. Every one knew that Jackson meant just what he said, and the duties were collected in Charles ton as usual. The Compromise Tariff. Congress, however, made efforts to remove the cause of dispute, and, through the efforts of Henry Clay, a compromise tariff bill was passed. Under this there was to be a gradual reduction of duties until 1842, when a uniform rate would be reached sufficient only for revenue purposes. 1848, and 1852. He lost popularity by defending the Compromise bill of 1850, and died in 1852. 1 John C. Calhoun was born in South Carolina in 1782, studied law, and was sent to Congress in 1811, where he gained great distinction as an orator. He served as Secretary of War under President Monroe, and was elected Vice-President in 1824 and again in 1828. He favored a protective tariff in 1816, but afterward became a strong advocate of free trade. He died in 1850. JACKSON S ADMINISTRATION. 303 A Surplus of Revenue. Just then the need of revenue was small. The debt of the United States had all been paid off, and a considerable surplus lay in the treasury. What to do with this became a question. Congress finally decided to divide it among the States, and twenty-eight million dollars were thus distributed. Soon afterward the expenses of the government increased and its revenue de creased, and it was again in debt. It has been in debt ever since, and there has been no more money to divide among the States. The United States Bank Bill Vetoed. We have de scribed two decided actions of President Jackson, the inau guration of " rotation in office" and the overthrow of " nul lification." A third remains to describe. The Bank of the United States, founded first in 1791 and a second time in 1816, and chartered for twenty years, would cease to exist in 1836 unless its charter were renewed. It applied for a renewal in 1832, four years in advance, and Congress passed a bill granting the request. But Jackson had different views. The bank had opposed him politically, and made him its enemy. He declared that it was growing too powerful and was becoming dangerous to the country. In consequence he vetoed the bill, and Congress failed to pass it over his veto. Removal of the Deposits. The President did not con fine himself to this. He was determined to destroy the bank, and in 1833 he removed from its vaults the govern ment money, and distributed this among certain State banks. Those which were thus favored became known as Pet Banks. It is doubtful if he had any right to do this under the Constitution. He was censured by the Senate, but he held to his point, and the ruin of the bank was accomplished. 304 THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. A Period of Speculation. Whether Jackson was right in believing the bank to be dangerous is a question that has never been settled. That his mode of dealing with it was dangerous is a settled question. The money placed in the State banks was loaned freely to merchants and others, who began to use it with great freedom for speculative purposes. There was a wild movement of operations in Western territory. Sections of government land were bought and laid out in building lots. New cities were planned to be built in a few months. Men grew reckless in their desire to become rich suddenly, and buying and selling on credit became the rage. The result of this mania of speculation came in the next administration, and will be told in the story of that period. The Abolition Movement. An important party move ment began in Jackson s administration which was to grow very prominent in later years. This was the Anti-Slavery or Abolition movement. There had long been a strong op position to the extension of slavery, but this for the time had been set aside by the Missouri Compromise. There now arose an opposition to the existence of slavery in any of the States. In 1831, William Lloyd Garrison started in Boston a paper which he called The Liberator, in which he advocated the " immediate and unconditional emancipation of every slave held in the United States." He soon gained followers, anti-slavery societies were formed, and active measures were taken to advocate their opinions, by lectures and pamphlets. But many who favored gradual emancipation opposed Mr. Garrison s methods, and the anti-slavery cause made slow progress. The Nat Turner Insurrection. In 1831 an insurrection of slaves occurred in Virginia. It was led by a negro JACKSON S ADMINISTRATION. 305 named Nat Turner, and before it was put down over sixty whites, men, women, and children, had been killed. This event caused great alarm in the South, and helped to arouse public feeling in the North against the abolition movement. Anti-slavery meetings were broken up with violence, and on one occasion a mob dragged Mr. Garrison through the streets of Boston with a rope around his body. The police had great difficulty in saving his life. Indian "Wars. The rapid settlement of the West gave rise in 1832 to an Indian war, as it had on several occa sions before. The lands of the Winnebagoes and the Sacs and Foxes, in Illinois and Wisconsin, were being overrun, and a famous chief named Black Hawk led the tribes against the settlers. 1 They were soon put down, and made a treaty by which they gave up about ten million acres. For this they were to receive yearly supplies and an annu ity in money. The Cherokees of Georgia and the Seminoles of Florida were also in the way of the whites, and efforts at their removal were made. The Seminoles resisted, and a war broke out with them in 1835, the Indians being led by a celebrated chief named Osceola. This war lasted nearly seven years. Osceola, who had been driven to war by bad treatment, was captured by treachery, and died in confine ment. The war dragged on until 1842, and was attended by many cruel incidents. In the end most of the Seminoles t were removed to the Indian Territory. Removal of the Cherokees. The Cherokees were taken to the same Territory by force in 1838. They received a large sum for their lands in Georgia, but they were forced to accept the treaty, and in the removal nearly four thou- 1 Abraham Lincoln, then a young man, took part in this war. 20 306 THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. sand of them perished, about a fourth of the whole. This was a flagrant instance of the cruelty with which the whites have treated the Indians. Chicago Founded. On the southwestern shore of Lake Michigan stood a small fortification named Fort Dearborn. CHICAGO IN 1832. It had been taken by the British in 1812. and in 1831 was surrounded by about a dozen rude houses. In 1833 the settlement was named Chicago, from the Indian name of Chicago River. It then embraced something over five hun dred inhabitants. In sixty years afterward it had more than a million inhabitants and was one of the largest cities in the world. Steps of Progress. Two new States were admitted during Jackson s administration, Arkansas, in 1836, and Michigan, in 1837. It was a period of great industrial progress. Railroads had been introduced, and before the end of Jackson s second term two thousand miles of railroad had been built. Steam navigation was rapidly extending. In 1836, John Ericsson invented the screw-propeller, which has largely taken the place of the paddle-wheel in steam navigation. The McCormick reaper and the Nasmyth VAN BUREN S ADMINISTRATION. 307 steam-hammer were introduced. Gas was taking the place of oil and candles in city houses, water-works were re placing wells, and among the smaller but highly useful inventions were friction-matches, which first became known in 1829. Political Changes. In 1832, Jackson had been re-elected President of the United States. He was still highly popu lar, and received two hundred and nineteen electoral votes, while Henry Clay, the National Republican candidate, re ceived forty-nine. Martin Van Buren was elected Vice- President. In 1834 the National Republicans began to adopt a new name, calling themselves "Whigs." They claimed that Jackson was a kind of tyrant, whom they opposed as the Whigs of the Revolutionary period had opposed George III. A Southern party who opposed the President called themselves " State Rights Whigs." The Election of 1836. When the time for the next Presidential election came, Jackson declined to run again, and the Democrats, at his instigation, nominated Martin Van Buren, the Vice-President. The Whigs nominated William Henry Harrison, a soldier of the war of 1812. The State Rights Whigs nominated Hugh White. In the election the Democratic party again triumphed, electing Van Buren by one hundred and seventy electoral votes, against one hun dred and twenty-four for the other candidates. <( 4* IDan 3Buren s Hfcmintetration. Wild-Cat Banks. Martin Van Buren l had not been long in the Presidential chair before the effects of the policy of 1 Martin Van Ruren was born in the State of New York in 1782. He studied law and early entered political life. In 1818 he became a leader in the New York Democracy, was elected United States senator 308 THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. MARTIN VAN BUREN. his predecessor made themselves felt. The overthrow of the United States Bank was followed by the establishment of a host of State banks, many of them without capital, and issuing notes which they were very unlikely to redeem. These became known as " wild-cat banks." Some of these State banks whose directors were in harmony with Jackson s views re ceived deposits of government money. This money, as already said, soon made its way into the hands of borrowers and gave rise to a high tide of speculation. Land at first, and afterward almost every thing, were speculated in, and paid for largely in the notes of the wild-cat banks. 1 The Panic of 1837. Much of the land bought was pur chased from the government. When Jackson found that it was being paid for largely in notes that soon became worth less, an order was issued to the government agents to accept only gold in payment for public lands. This order precipi tated a panic. in 1821 and governor of New York in 1828. He was Secretary of State during Jackson s first term and Vice-President during his second. He was defeated for re-election to the Presidency in 1840 and in 1848. He died in 1862. 1 Men grew so eager in land speculation that they purchased freely of land they never had seen and never were likely to see. Town lots were bought at high prices in the far backwoods, and the sites of some of the Western cities which existed only on paper were six feet under water. In Dickens s story of "Martin Chuzzlewit" he gives an amusing description of one of these paper cities, dignified with the name of Eden. VAN BUREN S ADMINISTRATION. 309 It began in 1837, shortly after Van Buren took his seat, in the failure of a large New Orleans business house. Other failures quickly followed. Land was hastily offered for sale, but no one would buy it. Prices fell rapidly. In ten days a hundred New York merchants found their business ruined. Within two months the failures in that city alone reached the sum of one hundred million dollars. The State bank notes came back in numbers for payment, but there was no gold or silver in the vaults to redeem them, and the banks began to fail in all directions. Gold and silver vanished from sight, and the government was forced to pay its debts in paper money. The business depression that followed was one of the worst the country has ever known. Everywhere mills and factories stopped and workmen were thrown out of em ployment. The government was forced to suspend the payment of the surplus ordered to be divided among the States, and the fourth instalment of this was never paid. 1 State Repudiation. The panic brought many of the States into trouble. Large sums had been borrowed in Europe for public improvements, such as canals and rail roads, and seven of the States found it impossible to pay the interest on this debt, while one of them, Mississippi, refused to pay either interest or principal. American credit suffered a severe shock from this action. The Sub-Treasury System. The panic lasted for a year, but several years passed before business regained prosperity. 1 In 1837-38 tfiere was a revolt in Canada against the British gov ernment which called forth much sympathy in the United States. Meetings were held and men and arms offered. This movement was checked by a proclamation from the President, and General Scott was sent to the border to watch events, an action which averted what might have led to a war with Great Britain. 310 THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. One good result came from it. The President perceived the danger of depositing the government funds in irresponsi ble banks, and recommended to Congress the establishment of an independent treasury, or place of deposit for govern ment money, at Washington, with branches, known as sub- treasuries, in the chief cities. 1 This system met with strong opposition. It was adopted in 1840, repealed in 1841, and adopted again in 1846. It has since remained in force. It has the one serious objection that it withdraws large sums of money from circulation. This, in times of financial disturbance, is found to cause serious trouble. The Election of 1840. The depression in business proved a severe blow to the Democratic party. Van Buren was renominated, and was opposed by William Henry Harrison 2 as the Whig candidate. Harrison received two hundred and thirty-four electoral votes to sixty for Van Buren. There was an abolition candidate, James Birney, but he received no electoral votes. 1 The United States treasury is in the Treasury building at Wash ington. There are sub-treasuries in New York, Philadelphia, Bos ton, Chicago, St. Louis, Cincinnati, Raltimore, New Orleans, and San Francisco. 2 Harrison had won the battle of Tippecanoe, had lived in a log cabin and drunk hard cider. Much was made of these facts in the campaign. He was called the " Hero of Tippecanoe," hard cider was a party watchword, and log cabins formed a prominent feature of the meetings and processions. He was called a man of the people, and Van Buren an aristocrat with a silver tea-service. THE HARRISON AND TYLER ADMINISTRATIONS. 311 5* Ube Iftarrison ant> Upler Hfcmtntstrations* A Brief Whig- Administration. For forty years, from the date of Jefferson s election in 1800 to that of Harrison in 1840, the Democratic party had been in power. But though the party name remained the same, its princi ples varied. At one time it sustained protection, at others free trade. It was not until after 1825 that distinc tively free trade and protection par ties arose, and, though Adams favored the latter, the election of Harrison was its first triumph at the polls. . _.* WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. Its career at this time did not last long. President Harrison l lived only long enough to select his Cabinet and begin his duties. He died April 4, 1841, having been just one month in office. John Tyler, 2 the Vice-President, succeeded him in the Presidential chair. Though elected by the Whigs, he was a Democrat in polit- 1 William Henry Harrison was born in Virginia in 1773. His father was governor of Virginia. He entered the army in 1791, took part in General Wayne s campaign against the Indians, and occupied several prominent positions in the Northwest. His military service during Madison s administration has been described under that heading. He was a Presidential candidate in 1836 and was elected in 1840, but the pressure of office-seekers proved too much for his strength, and he died in a month. 2 John Tyler, who succeeded Harrison as President, was born in Vir ginia in 1790. He was a prominent member of the State Rights party, and though elected Vice-President by the Whigs retained the free-trade principles of his party. He was the first Vice-President who succeeded to the Presidency. In 1861 he presided over the peace convention at Washington. He afterward joined the Confederacy, and died in 1862 in Richmond, while 9, member of the Confederate Congress. 312 THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. ical opinion, and the Whig administration had but a month s actual existence. Political Conflict. Harrison had called an extra session of Congress to consider the financial condition of the coun try, and the Whig majority quickly passed a bill for the establishment of a new Bank of the United States. To their dismay they found they had an opponent in the Pres idential chair. Tyler vetoed the bill. Another bill was passed to meet the President s objec tions, bjut he vetoed this also. A quarrel now arose between the Whig party, led by Henry Clay, and the President. The Whigs called him a renegade. He replied that he had never endorsed their principles. This was true, but it did not satisfy the Whigs, and all the Cabinet resigned except Webster, who was negotiating a treaty with Great Britain. During the remainder of Tyler s administration an open conflict existed between him and the Congressional majority. In 1843 the Democrats gained a majority in Congress, and the short term of Whig supremacy came to an end. The Rhode Island Contest. During these political troubles in Washington, a serious contest arose in Rhode Island. That State still conducted its government under the old charter granted in 1662 by Charles II, by which only the oldest sons of voters had full right of suffrage, all other voters needing to possess a certain amount of prop erty. The effect of this was that about two-thirds of the people were deprived of the right to vote. The representa tion in the assembly was also very unfair. A new constitution was demanded, and a convention of THE HARRISON AND TYLER ADMINISTRATIONS. 313 the non-voters prepared one in 1841, and submitted it to the votes of all the people. It was carried. A constitution prepared by the party in power, and submitted to the legal voters, was rejected. The Dorr Rebellion. Both parties now elected officials. The reform party made Thomas W. Dorr governor, and he proceeded to enter upon the duties of the office in May, 1842. The other party also elected a governor, denounced Dorr and his party, called out the militia, and appealed to the President. Dorr attempted to seize the State arsenal, but found it guarded by militia. President Tyler sent United States troops to Fort Adams, at Newport, and Dorr, finding that his supporters were deserting him, fled from the State. A New Constitution. The reform movement, however, had its effect. A new convention was called, in which non- voters were represented, and a third and more liberal con stitution was drawn up, in which most of the changes desired were granted. It went into effect in May, 1843. In 1844, Dorr returned to the State, was tried for treason, based on his attempt to seize the State arsenal, and was sentenced to imprisonment for life. He was pardoned, however, in the following year. Since then the constitu tion of Rhode Island has been amended, and the people now have fuller suffrage privileges than the Dorr party demanded. 1 The Anti-Renters. About the same time a difficulty coming from colonial customs arose in New York. Some of the lands of the old Dutch patroons were still held by their descendants, who claimed payment of the old annual charges in produce. The rent demanded was very light, 1 1 The rent consisted of " a few bushels of wheat, three or four fat fowls, and a day s work with horse and wagon, per year. 1 It was the last relic of feudalism in America. 314 THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. but was resisted as illegal. About 1840 many of the ten ants refused to pay rent. Riots broke out, the anti-renters disguising themselves as Indians, tarring and feathering those who paid rents, and even killing some of the officers who served warrants on them. It became necessary to call out the militia to put down the rioters, and the affair became known as the " Helder- berg War." The dispute made its way into politics, and a political faction known as the " Anti-Renters" arose in New York. Gradually the trouble ended by the tenants buying the rights of the proprietors, and the last vestige of patroon rule died away. Treaty with Great Britain. While these political diffi culties were being settled at home, others were being at tended to abroad. Daniel Webster, who had been chosen as Secretary of State by Harrison, remained in Tyler s Cab inet while negotiating a treaty with Lord Ashburton, the representative of the British government. A question re garding the boundary-line between Maine and Canada had remained unsettled. In the new treaty the boundary be tween the two countries was definitely fixed from the At lantic to the Rocky Mountains. Other questions were considered, one being that of the " right of search," which had given rise to the war of 1812. It was not settled, but Webster declared that sailors in American ships would find protection in the flag that cov ered them. This was giving Great Rritain notice that war would follow any future interference with American sea men. There was also an extradition clause in the treaty ; that is, one providing for the return of criminals who had fled from one country to the other. The Oregon Boundary. A further boundary question, which was settled somewhat later, may be spoken of here. THE HARRISON AND TYLER ADMINISTRATIONS. 315 The Oregon country was originally claimed by Spain, Great Britain, and the United States. Spain ceded her claim to the United States, which country also gained a claim from the discovery of the Columbia River by Captain Gray in 1792, the Lewis and Clark exploration of 1805-6, and the fur-trading settlement of Astoria in 1811. Great Britain also claimed exploration and settlement, based on the oper ations of the Hudson Bay Company of fur-traders, which had gained possession of the Astor Fur Company s settle ment at Astoria. The country in dispute extended from the Mexican prov ince of California to the Russian province of Alaska. By 1832 migration began to make its way across the mountains into Oregon, and it became necessary to settle the question of ownership. 1 This question grew prominent near the end of the Tyler administration, the American claim being for the whole region to the parallel of 54 40 , the southern boundary of Alaska. The political war-cry was, " Fifty- four forty or fight," signifying that this country would fight for Oregon up to that boundary. At length, in 1846, a treaty was made which divided the disputed region at the forty-ninth parallel, which already formed the boundary 1 The gaining of Oregon has been ascribed to Dr. Marcus Whitman, a missionary physician among the Indians of the Columbia region. Finding that the Hudson Bay Company was making efforts to win the country for Great Britain by bringing settlers thither, Whitman made a winter s journey on horseback across the Rocky Mountains, suffer ing severely on his way and encountering many perils, his purpose being to induce the government to claim this territory. This story of Whitman s service to Oregon seems to be very doubtful, in the light of recent investigation. It now appears that he went east on mis sionary business alone, and took a minor part in the subsequent im migration to Oregon. The records show that the United States had long before claimed this region. 316 THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. east of the Rocky Mountains. The northern portion be came British Columbia ; the southern, Oregon, now com prising the States of Oregon, Washington, and Idaho. The Insurrection in Texas. Still another important question of foreign relations came up in the Tyler adminis tration. When the United States purchased Florida, the western boundary of Louisiana was fixed at the Sabine River, beyond which lay the Spanish province of Texas. Many settlers from the Southern States made their way, with their slaves, into Texas, and when Mexico abolished slavery, in 1824, these settlers retained their slaves. The United States sought to purchase Texas in 1827 and 1829, but Mexico declined to sell. By 1836 the Americans in Texas greatly exceeded the Mexicans in number, and, being greatly dissatisfied with the character of the government, broke into open revolt. The Mexicans attempted to conquer the insurgents, and a des perate war began, General Sam Houston leading the re volting forces. In 1836 a severe battle took place at San Jacinto with the Mexican army under Santa Anna. The Texans were greatly outnumbered, but gained a complete victory. Santa Anna, who was military dictator of Mexico, was taken prisoner and forced to acknowledge the inde pendence of Texas. Mexico refused to be bound by this action, though it made no effort to reconquer the country. The Annexation of Texas. The Texans, having estab lished a republic of their own, applied in 1837 for admission into the United States. This question remained open for years, the North opposing it, the South favoring it. Many politicians wished to open new territory to slavery, while speculators who held large tracts of land in Texas hoped for a great advance in value under United States rule. This question came up prominently in the Presidential THE HARRISON AND TYLER ADMINISTRATIONS. 317 election year of 1844, the Democrats nominating and elect ing James K. Polk, who was in favor of annexation. This result settled the question. The people had expressed their will, and both Houses of Congress, in the last hours of Tyler s administration, passed a bill in favor of admitting Texas, which was signed by the President. Texas accepted the offer July 4, 1845, and was formally admitted as a State to the Union in December of that year. Florida had been admitted on the last day of President Tyler s term, March 3, 1845. The Mormons. In 1830, Joseph Smith, of New York, published a work entitled the " Book of Mormon," pro fessing to contain a new revelation which he had received in a miraculous manner. He soon gained followers, with whom he went to Ohio, then to Missouri, and finally to Illinois. Here a tract of land was bought, a charter ob tained from the legislature, and a new city, which was named Nauvoo, was begun on the banks of the Missis sippi. In 1843, Smith professed to have another revelation, and, declaring that every true Mormon marriage would last forever, he encouraged his followers to marry as many wives as they chose. By that time there were about fifteen thousand people in Nauvoo. The polygamy revela tion soon made trouble. Smith was arrested for an act of violence, and a mob, furious at his practice of polygamy, broke into the prison and killed him and his brother. The Mormon Emigration. This was in 1844. Brigham Young, a man of marked ability, now became leader of the Mormons. The opposition growing very great, he deter mined to lead his followers to a place in the far West where they would be free from oppression and able to live as they thought right and proper. The migration began in 318 THIRTY YEARS OF PEACE AND PROGRESS. 1846. In 1847 they reached the region now known as Utah, and settled in the vicinity of the Great Salt Lake. The region was barren and desolate, and it was predicted that the Mormons would starve. But Young had canals dug to bring water from the mountains, and soon had the country so well irrigated that it bore abundant crops. There is no more prolific part of the country now than the vicinity of Salt Lake City, and the population has grown large. The Telegraph and Anaesthesia. There were two very important discoveries made in the period now under con sideration. Samuel F. B. Morse, after years of experiment with the electric telegraph, succeeded in obtaining a grant from Congress for putting up a telegraph line between Bal timore and Washington. This was completed in 1844, and on May 24 there was sent over the wire the following significant message : " What hath God wrought !" Another discovery, of the greatest importance to mankind, was made by Dr. William T. G. Morton, of Boston. This was the discovery of anaesthesia, or the causing of artificial sleep, by breathing the vapor of ether. Before that time all surgical operations had been attended with great pain. By this process patients could be rendered insensible to pain and the most delicate operations be performed without suf fering. The discovery was first made known in 1846, and its fiftieth anniversary was celebrated in 1896. Emigration. Emigration to the United States had now become great. Regular lines of steamers ran from Boston and New York to Liverpool, and people from abroad began to pour into the country at the rate of over three thousand weekly. Between 1840 and 1850 nearly two million new settlers came, twice as many as had arrived in forty years before. THE HARRISON AND TYLER ADMINISTRATIONS. 319 The Election of 1844. The election of James K. Polk to the Presidency by the Democratic party, as above men tioned, was due to the action of his Whig opponent, Henry Clay. Clay opposed the annexation of Texas, the question on which the election turned, but for fear of losing Southern votes he failed to express his true sentiments. As a con sequence, he lost the State of New York by a small ma jority, and with it the election. 1 A Prominent Question. The election of the Democratic candidate, in a contest whose main issue was the annexa tion of Texas, produced momentous results. With it was reopened the slavery question, which had been for years settled by the Missouri Compromise, but which was now to remain the most prominent political question until it was finally disposed of by the result of the Civil War. l A closely similar result appeared in 1884, forty years later, in the Elaine-Cleveland contest. In consequence of injudicious remarks by an adherent of Elaine he lost the State of New York by a small ma jority, and with it lost the election. PART VIII. THE SLAVERY CONTEST. I* polfe s 1 Hfcminfstratfon* Abolitionism. The subject of slavery had not been al lowed to sleep in Congress. John Quincy Adams, who was a member of the House from 1831 to 1848, kept up its discussion, much to the annoyance of Southern members. The party favoring abolition was on the increase in the North, and the feeling of irritation was growing in Congress. As yet the slave and free States were nearly equal in numbers ; but the Missouri Compromise pre vented the formation of any more slave States out of the existing terri tory of the United States, while there JAMES K. POLK/ was abundant room for free States. For this reason the annexation of Texas was particularly desired in the South. It was pro vided that, if its people consented, Texas might be divided 1 James Knox Polk was born in Tennessee in 1795. He became governor of Tennessee in 1839, after fourteen years service in Con gress, during which he was Speaker of the House for four years. He was the first instance of what is known as a " dark horse" in a Presi dential nomination ; that is, a man of no prominence as a candidate who is nominated as a compromise between opposing interests. He was a man of excellent private character, but a strong partisan in political opinion. He died shortly after the end of his term of office. 320 FOLK S ADMINISTRATION. 321 322 THE SLAVERY CONTEST. into four States, but no movement to do this has ever been taken, and Texas was the last slave State admitted to the Union. The Boundary of Texas. In admitting Texas the United States had opened the way to a serious trouble. Mexico had never acknowledged the independence of its lost prov ince, though it had taken no steps to recover it. And an important boundary question existed. Texas claimed that her western boundary was the Rio Grande River. Mexico held that the Nueces River was the true boundary. Between these two rivers lay a wide tract of land which both countries claimed. The question of its ownership led to war. The Disputed Territory Occupied. President Polk lost no time in taking decisive steps. General Zachary Taylor was ordered, in the summer of 1845, to Corpus Christi, on the Nueces, and in the spring of 1846 was directed to pro ceed to the Rio Grande. The Mexicans claimed that Taylor had invaded their country, ordered him to retire, and on his refusal sent their own troops across the river. Fighting Begins. On April 24, 1846, a fight took place and blood was shed. As soon as news of this skirmish reached Washington, the President sent a message to Con gress, saying that " Mexico has passed the boundary of the United States, and shed American blood upon American soil. . . . War exists, notwithstanding all our efforts to avoid it." Declaration of War. This message roused opposition in Congress from Northern members. Abraham Lincoln, who was then a member, plainly asked if special efforts had not been taken to provoke a war. Congress, however, re sponded favorably to the President s message, declared that war existed u by the act of Mexico," and called for fifty thou sand volunteers. FOLK S ADMINISTRATION. 323 Taylor s Advance. War was declared on May 13, 1846. Several days before on May 8 and 9 severe conflicts had taken place at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, within the disputed territory. The Mexicans were defeated and retreated across the Rio Grande. Taylor followed them and took possession of the town of Matamoras. Plans of Campaign. The War Department planned an invasion of Mexico in four quarters. General Taylor was to penetrate Northern Mexico from his position on the Rio Grande ; General Winfield Scott was to advance upon the capital by way of Vera Cruz ; General Stephen W. Kearny was to invade New Mexico ; California was to be attacked by a naval expedition, a fleet having already been sent to the Pacific coast. Taylor s Successes. General Taylor, having waited until September for reinforcements, advanced on the 5th of that month, and on the 9th reached the strongly fortified town of Monterey. This was deemed almost impregnable, on account of the mountains and ravines which surrounded it, but it was taken after a fight of four days, in which the Americans made their way through the walls and over the roofs of the houses. The city surrendered on the 24th. Battle of Buena Vista. In the succeeding months Tay lor s force was much reduced, many of his men being with drawn to reinforce General Scott. Santa Anna, the Mexican general, took advantage of the opportunity, and marched upon him with a force of twenty thousand men, four times his number. Taylor was stationed at Buena Vista, a nar row mountain pass between hills and a ravine, where he was attacked on February 23, 1847. Taylor had the ad vantage of position, and held his ground so well that the Mexicans were repulsed and retreated with serious loss. This ended the war in that section of the country. 324 THE SLAVERY CONTEST. New Mexico and California. Meanwhile, General Kearny had occupied the province of New Mexico. In June, 1846, he left Fort Leavenworth, marched a thousand miles through a hostile country to Santa Fe, and from there set out for California. He was too late for the latter country. It was already occupied by Americans. Colonel Doniphon, whom Kearny sent south, defeated the Mexicans at Chi huahua, and thence made a long march to join General Wool at Saltillo. Captain John C. Fremont had been sent several years before on an exploring expedition to the Rocky Mountains. He reached California in 1844, and in the winter of 1845- 46 was engaged in surveying a route to Oregon. Word came to him that the Mexican commandant proposed to expel the American settlers from California, and he hurried to their rescue, though not aware that the countries were at war. Several conflicts took place, and by the aid of the fleet, and of General Kearny, who joined him in the last battle, the whole country was conquered. General Scott s Campaign. The most important campaign of the war was intrusted to General Scott, the hero of Chippewa and Lundy s Lane in 1814. His plan was to land at Vera Cruz and march thence to the City of Mexico. Landing his army on the coast near Vera Cruz, he attacked that city, which yielded March 27, WlNFIELD SCOTT. 1847, after a four days bombardment. Thence he set out on a two hundred miles march to the Mexican capital, defeating the enemy at Cerro Gordo and taking the important city of Puebla. Scott, on approach ing the city of Mexico, had about eleven thousand men. FOLK S ADMINISTRATION. 325 He found the route strongly fortified and guarded by thirty thousand men, yet he pushed on almost unchecked. The battles of Contreras and Churubusco were fought and won, and the city was approached. The War Ends. After a period spent in fruitless negoti ations, the army moved again on September 8. One by one the defences surrounding the city were taken. On September 13 the most formidable of them all, the strong hill fortress of Chapultepec, was taken by storm. With this ASSAULT ON CHAPULTEPEC. reverse the defence ended, the army marching next day into the city, and hoisting the stars and stripes over the ancient palace known as the " Halls of the Montezumas." The war was at an end. Throughout its whole course the Americans had not been once defeated. In Scott s army were several men destined to play a great part in the Civil War, among them Ulysses S. Grant and Robert E. Lee. Result of the War. A treaty of peace was signed Feb ruary 2, 1848, at the village of Guadalupe Hidalgo. It was 326 THE SLAVERY CONTEST. highly advantageous to the United States. Mexico gave up her claims upon Texas, and sold to the United States the two provinces of New Mexico and California, then occupied by American troops, for the sum of fifteen million dollars ; this country assuming, in addition, debts due from Mexico to United States citizens amounting to about three million dollars. In 1853, to settle a dispute about the boundary, this country paid Mexico ten million dollars for a tract south of New Mexico of forty-five thousand five hundred and thirty-five square miles in extent. The latter treaty was negotiated by James Gadsden, and the tract has since been known as the Gadsden Purchase. In all more than five hundred and ninety thousand square miles were added to the territory of the United States as a result of the war. Including Texas, the additions of territory were more than nine hundred and sixty-five thousand square miles. The Wilmot Proviso. Conquest in the war with Mexico was fully expected to be followed by the acquisition of ter ritory. Whether this territory should be open to the exten sion of slavery became an important question. Two new States were admitted during the Polk administration, Iowa in 1846, and Wisconsin in 1848. This made the number of free and slave States equal. But the South knew that this equality could not long be maintained, and though the new territory was not acquired until 1848, an appropriation was asked for its purchase early in the war. This alarmed the anti-slavery members of Congress, who feared it would be opened to slavery, and in 1846, David Wilmot, a Demo cratic member from Pennsylvania, offered an amendment to the appropriation bill, providing that slavery should be prohibited in the territory likely to be acquirejLft-om Mexico. This amendment, which became "famous as the " Wilmot Proviso," excited a heated debate in Congress. It aroused FOLK S ADMINISTRATION. 327 passionate feeling in both parties. It was defeated by a small majority, but is of historical importance as an inci dent in the slavery contest, which was soon to become so active. The growing anti-slavery sentiment in the North was now amply represented in Congress, and was to become the leading feature in legislation for the next fifteen years. The Sub-Treasury System. The system of government treasuries, established in the Van Buren administration, had been abolished by the Whigs in 1841, and the government had again been forced to deposit its funds in private banks. In 1846 a new and improved sub-treasury system was adopted. This system is still in force. In the same year a new tariff bill was passed, reducing the duties. It was based on the principle of tariff for revenue only, and con tinued in effect until 1861. Gold in California. The new country purchased from Mexico proved to be immensely more valuable than any SAN FRANCISCO IN 1848. one had dreamed. It contained vast stores of gold and silver, of which the Spaniards, during their period of oc cupancy, had found little trace. The Americans were not long in making the discovery. Just before the treaty of peace was signed (January, 1848) a workman engaged in 328 THE SLAVERY CONTEST. digging a mill-race in the Sacramento Valley discovered in its gravel deposits shining particles of gold. The news spread rapidly. The search was extended far around, and gold was found to be abundant. " Gold was everywhere, in the soil, in the river sand, in the mountain rock." San Francisco at that time contained about four hundred inhab itants. When the news reached this town it was deserted, the excited populace starting in haste for the mines. Only one thought existed in California, to dig a fortune from the gold-strewn soil. The " Gold Fever." When tidings of the discovery reached the East a rapid emigration to California began. From all parts of the United States and from Europe men hastened to the golden fields. Some crossed the continent, some made their way across the Isthmus of Panama, some sailed around Cape Horn. Many died on the Isthmus route. Many perished in the long journey over the plains, where the line of march was indicated by the skeletons of ani mals. But thousands reached California, whose population rapidly increased. The growth of San Francisco was a marvel. In a short time its population rose to twenty thousand, while a far greater number had flocked to the mining region. The Vigilance Committees. Bad men as well as good sought the land of gold. Of those that settled in San Fran cisco, many sought to grow rich by robbing the miners through gambling and other devices. The town swarmed with reckless and lawless adventurers. Thieves and repro bates abounded. The trouble soon grew so serious that the respectable people were obliged to take the law into their own hands. They formed themselves into what were called "vigilance committees," for the purpose of suppressing crime. The justice administered was rude but prompt. FOLK S ADMINISTRATION. 329 Villains were hung with little ceremony, and the community soon became law-abiding. The Progress of California. The people of California applied in 1849 for admission to the Union, under a consti tution that prohibited slavery. Admission was granted in 1850. Within seven years from the discovery of gold nearly five hundred million dollars worth had been obtained. As the gold to be had from the sands gave out, and costly oper ations upon the rocks were required, many men turned their attention to agriculture, and found in the grain- fields, vine yards, and orchards a richer source of wealth than in the mines. To-day California is one of the most productive States in the Union. The Free-Soil Party. The succeeding Presidential elec tion found a new party in the field. The failure of the Wil- mot Proviso had alarmed the opponents of the extension of slavery, and what was called the " Free-Soil" party arose. It declared for " free soil for a free people." It did not propose to interfere with slavery in existing States, but opposed its establishment in the Territories and new States. The Election of 1848. The Free-Soil party nominated Martin Van Buren for President and Charles Francis Adams for Vice-President. The Democratic party, having declared that Congress had no power to interfere with slavery, nominated Lewis Cass and William D. Butler. The Whigs avoided the slavery dispute, and chose as their candidate the popular hero of the Mexican War, General Zachary Taylor. For Vice-President Millard Fillmore was nominated. General Taylor proved to be the successful candidate. He received one hundred and sixty-three votes to one hun dred and twenty-seven for Cass. Van Buren received nc electoral votes. 330 THE SLAVERY CONTEST. 2* Ube Uaplor 1 ant) jffllmore 2 Hfcministratfona, The Slavery Problem. With the new administration came in new and important questions. These were based on the controversy concerning the extension of slavery into the terri tory acquired from Mexico, which had been started by the Wilmot Proviso and still largely occupied men s minds. Texas claimed that her western boundary followed the Rio Grande to its source. This took in territory which had never been ZACHAKY TAYLOR P ar ^ ^ Texas, but the claim was strongly pushed, and was widely supported in the South. Should California be admitted as a free State ? If New Mexico and Utah were formed into Territories, should slavery exist within their borders ? 1 Zachary Taylor was born in Virginia in 1784, his parents soon after removing to Kentucky. He received little education, and worked hard till the age of twenty-four, when he obtained an appointment in the army as lieutenant. He served in the War of 1812 and the Black Hawk and Seminole Wars, rising in rank till he became a major-gen eral. He gained a high reputation in the Mexican War, energy and readiness winning him the title of " Old Rough and Ready." He was opposed by many Whigs as a slave-holder (though he did not favor the extension of slavery) and as one who knew nothing of civil affairs. Yet he filled the Presidential office acceptably, dying in office July 9, 1850. 2 Millard Fillmore was born in New York in 1800. He taught school, practised law, and became a member of the New York assem bly and of Congress. When nominated for Vice-President he was comptroller of the State of New York. He was esteemed for ability and integrity, but lost popularity in the North from signing the Fugi tive Slave bill. He was nominated for the Presidency by the American party in 1856, and died in 1874. . THE TAYLOR AND FILLMORE ADMINISTRATIONS. 331 The South demanded a more efficient law for the return of runaway slaves to their owners. The North complained that the slave-trade was permitted within the city of Wash ington. In truth, all the leading political problems of the day had to do with slavery. The Compromise of 185O. These questions gave rise to prolonged and bitter debates. Threats of secession were made on both sides. Moderate men hoped for some satis factory settlement, and Henry Clay, who, thirty years before, had quieted the slavery agitation by the Missouri Compro mise, now came forward with a new compromise measure, in which the demands of the two sides were balanced against each other. This compromise, which became known as the " Omnibus Bill," from the various measures it carried, embraced the following provisions : 1. California should be admitted as a free State. 2. New Mexico and Utah should be formed into Terri tories, and the question of the admission of slavery be left for their people to decide. 3. Texas should give up part of the territory it claimed, and be paid ten million dollars as a recompense. 4. The slave-trade should be prohibited in the District of Columbia. 5. A stringent law for the return of fugitive slaves to their masters should be enacted. This bill could not be enacted as a whole, but its different sections were taken up and passed separately. The new laws were received by many with satisfaction, in the belief that they would bring the dispute about slavery to an end. But when an effort was made to enforce the new Fugitive Slave Law, it gave rise to much opposition in the North. 332 THE SLAVERY CONTEST. The Fugitive Slave Law. The opposition to this law arose largely from the stringency of its provisions. The fugitive when arrested was not permitted to testify in his own behalf or to claim trial by jury. All persons were required to assist the United States marshal when called upon for aid. To assist a fugitive to escape was an offence punishable by fine and imprisonment. In the last two respects the law failed. Few persons in the North would aid in an arrest. Many aided in the escape of slaves. This was done by secret methods which came to be known as the " Underground Railroad." Many hun dreds of slaves were helped to make their escape to Canada. Slaves who had been seized were rescued. The attempt at capture gave rise in some localities to riots. The law did much to add to the strength of the anti-slavery party, and many States passed " Personal Liberty Laws," designed to obstruct the operation of the Fugitive Slave Law. 1 Death of the President. President Taylor survived his election only a little over a year. The heat of the MILLARD FILLMOBE. ^ Qf My? ^^ brOUgM OR Si feVQT from which he died on the 9th. Vice- President Fillmore succeeded him. The Whigs had been particularly unfortunate in their Presidents. They had 1 In 1852, Harriet Beecher Stowe published a story of slave life in the South, called " Uncle Tom s Cabin," which created an immense sensation, over two hundred thousand copies being sold within a year. It added greatly to the strength of the anti-slavery sentiment in the North. It was read all over Europe, and has been translated into more than twenty different languages. THE TAYLOR AND FILLMORE ADMINISTRATIONS. 333 elected only two, and both these had died after a brief period of service. Other Deaths. The period of the present administra tion was marked by the death of several of America s greatest statesmen. Calhoun died a short time before the President. Clay and Webster passed away in 1852. New men were coming forward to take their places in Congress, including Sumner, Douglas, Lincoln, Davis, and others who were soon to become prominent in public affairs. 1 Progress of the Country. Little of political interest took place during Fillmore s term. Compromise had for the time harmonized Congress. Meanwhile, the country was rapidly growing and developing. Railroads were extending steadily westward, telegraph wires were covering the coun try like a net-work, manufactures were rapidly increasing, immigrants were pouring into the country, population w r as spreading widely over the West. It was a period also of inventive activity. The sewing- machine had been invented by Elias Howe in 1846, but it was not until 1854 that he established his claim to the in vention and reaped the well-earned benefit. In 1844 was patented the Goodyear india-rubber process, one of the most useful of American inventions. In 1851 an important postal reform was made, postage on letters being reduced to three cents per half-ounce for all parts of the country except the extreme West. In 1849 a new department, called the Department of the Interior, was added to the government. To its care were given all matters 1 In 1851 a party of filibusters, as they were called, invaded Cuba, with the hope of conquering that island and annexing it to the United States. They were defeated, and Lopez, their leader, being captured, was executed at Havana. 334 THE SLAVERY CONTEST. connected with internal affairs, such as the Public Lands, Pensions, Census, Education, and the Indians. The Election of 1852. The election of 1852 brought the same parties into the field as in 1848, the Democratic, the Whig, and the Free-Soil. The Whigs nominated Winfield Scott, hoping for success from his war record. The Dem ocrats, after a long contest, nominated Franklin Pierce, of New Hampshire. The Free-Soilers nominated John P. Hale, also from New Hampshire. They obtained no elec toral votes. Scott obtained but forty-two. Pierce obtained two hundred and fifty-four, and was elected President. William R. King was elected Vice-President. 3, BMerce s Hfcministration. The Gadsden Purchase. On the 4th of March, 1853, Franklin Pierce l was inaugurated President of the United States. His administration was des tined to be full of trouble. A boundary dispute with Mexico was the first diffi culty. It was settled, as already stated, by the purchase, for ten million dol lars, of the tract of land since known as the Gadsden Purchase. Extension of Slavery. But the principal difficulty arose from the de sire of the South to extend the area FRANKLIN FIERCE. open to slavery. The admission of California had given the free States a preponderance in Congress. The Territories made from the Mexican Purchase were open to slavery, but were not likely 1 Franklin Pierce was born in New Hampshire in 1804, studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1827, served in the House of Repre- PIERCE S ADMINISTRATION. 335 to become States for years. The Territories made from the Louisiana Purchase were closed against slavery by the Mis souri Compromise, and their admission as States would give the free States a considerable preponderance. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill. In 1854 a significant step was taken. Stephen A. Douglas, a Democratic Senator from Illinois, introduced a bill for the organization of two new Territories from the Louisiana Purchase, west of Mis souri and Iowa. Both of these lay north of the parallel of 36 30 , and therefore, by the Missouri Compromise, could not be made slave States. But in this bill it was proposed that the new Territories should be open to slavery if their inhabitants desired it. This doctrine of the rights of settlers became known as " squatter sovereignty," the early settlers being often called squatters. The bill created much excitement. Northern members said that it was a breach of faith. It was, however, passed and signed by the President. It practically repealed the Missouri Compromise, and opened the way for the rapidly coming conflict between the forces of freedom and slavery. Results of the Bill. The results of this measure were different from what either party expected. The new bill divided what was formerly Nebraska Territory into two Territories, the northern being still called Nebraska, the southern being named Kansas. It was no sooner signed than the abolition party at the North took steps to defeat its purpose by sending settlers of their own political faith into Kansas. The Southern party did the same, and for a sentatives from 1833 to 1835, and in the United States Senate from 1837 to 1843. He enlisted as a volunteer on the outbreak of the Mexi can War, but soon gained the rank of colonel, and later that of briga dier-general. In politics he was a zealous pro-slavery Democrat, but espoused the national cause in the Civil War. He died in 1869. 336 THE SLAVERY CONTEST. time there was an active flow of pro-slavery and anti-slavery settlers into the Territory. The Fight for Kansas. This soon led to its natural result, from the close contact of settlers bitterly hostile to each other. The pro-slavery settlers began to build a town named Atchison, near the Missouri border. The anti- slavery settlers started the town of Lawrence, farther to the west. Each party organized a government of its own, and neither acknowledged that of the other. The hostile feeling that prevailed soon led to blows. Fights took place and blood was shed. The pro-slavery forces attacked and plundered Lawrence. In return for this attack a party of anti-slavery men, led by an old man named John Brown, assailed and killed several of their opponents, crossed into Missouri, freed a number of slaves : destroyed considerable property, and shot one of the slave owners. The End of the Contest. A virtual state of war thus existed, and fighting went on for three years, from 1855 to 1858. But the Northern settlers poured in much more rapidly than those from the South, and in the end won the victory by force of numbers. All hope of making Kansas a slave State was given up, and it was admitted to the Union as a free State in 1861. The Assault on Sumner. The quarrel in Kansas was reflected in the halls of Congress, where a state of bitter hostility existed between the two parties. It gave rise in 1856 to an act of violence. On May 19 and 20, Charles Sumner, a Senator from Massachusetts, made a vigorous speech on Kansas affairs, in which he spoke severely of one of the Senators from South Carolina. Two days afterward Preston S. Brooks, a Bepresentative from that State, and nephew of the Senator attacked, came into the Senate- PIERCE S ADMINISTRATION. 337 chamber after adjournment and made a brutal assault on Sumner, who was seated at his desk. He beat him over the head with a heavy cane, injuring him so severely that it was four years before he was able to resume his seat. 1 Hostile Peeling-. Brooks was censured by Congress, and fined by a Washington court. He at once resigned, but was immediately re-elected, only six votes being cast against him. This action added greatly to the hostile feel ing between the two parties in Congress, a feeling which was reflected in the two sections of the country. There was as yet no expectation of war, but the irritation was growing great. The American Party. Slavery was not the only subject on which partisan feeling existed. Immigration had become so great as to give rise to alarm, and the ease with which the naturalization laws were evaded caused irritation. Irish and other immigrants were being made citizens and elected to official positions soon after landing on our shores. As a result, a movement began in favor of restricting the suffrage to native Americans, or giving it to foreigners only after long residence. From this feeling there arose a secret political society, whose members, when asked any questions about it, replied, u I don t know." From this it became known as the " Know- Nothing" party. It grew rapidly, and took a position in 1 Charles Sumner was born at Boston in 1811. He graduated from Harvard University, studied law, and in 1850 became a United States Senator, remaining in the Senate till his death in 1874. He was a prominent leader in the Free-Soil party and one of the founders of the Republican party. In the new school of statesmen Sumner occupied one of the highest positions, and was widely esteemed for the upright ness of his character. 22 338 THE SLAVERY CONTEST. politics as the American party. It soon died away, how ever, and disappeared after the election of 1856. The Republican Party. The country was in no condi tion for side issues in politics while the slavery question was so prominent in men s minds. The anti-slavery feel ing was rapidly growing in the North, and drawing into its ranks many members of the Free-Soil, Whig, American, and Democratic parties. The passage of the Kansas-Nebraska bill greatly strengthened this feeling, and in the succeeding election the opponents of slavery extension gained a major ity in the House of Representatives. They were at first known as " Anti-Nebraska men." They soon, however, definitely organized into a party which took the name of Republican. Into its ranks came the remnants of the Whig and Free-Soil parties, and all those who advo cated the prohibition of slavery in the Territories. It did not, however, propose to attack slavery where it already existed, and it* thus failed to absorb into its ranks the ex treme abolitionists. The Opening of Japan. Turning our attention from the political situation, we find several events of importance to note in this administration. Much the most important of these in its results was that relating to Japan. For several centuries the ports of that country had been almost com pletely closed to foreign trade. In 1853, Commodore .Matthew C. Perry visited Japan with a United States fleet He found the Japanese strongly prejudiced against inter course with foreign countries, but by persistence succeeded in 1854 in inducing their government to make a treaty admitting our ships to trade. Other nations had tried this in vain. The Japanese strongly dreaded Europeans. But their country once opened, they quickly perceived the advantages of the world s com- PIERCE S ADMINISTRATION. 339 merce, and hastened to avail themselves of the results of Western civilization. So rapidly did Japan now progress, that in forty years from Perry s visit it had taken its place as one of the prominent nations of the world. World s Fair in New York. The first World s Fair out side of France had been held in London in 1851. It was known as the Crystal Palace Exhibition. It was followed by the American World s Fair, held in New York in 1853. This also was held in a building of glass and iron which was called the " Crystal Palace." It was of great use in teaching the people of this country what valuable products the nations of Europe had to show. It also proved that the Americans had no superior in labor-saving machinery. Their power-looms, printing-presses, sewing-machines, reap ers and mowers, and other machines showed the immense advance which this country had made in inventions, and how greatly the people had progressed beyond their old system of hand work. The Election of 1856. James Buchanan, of Pennsyl vania, and John C. Breckenridge, of Kentucky, were nomi nated by the Democrats for their candidates in the Presi dential election of 1856. The American party macle its only Presidential nomination, naming Millard Fillmore, late President, and Andrew J. Donelson, of Tennessee. More important was the nomination of the new Republican party, which held its first convention, and chose for its candidates John C. Fremont, of California, and William L. Dayton, of New Jersey. In the election that, followed Buchanan and Brecken ridge were elected, but the new party carried eleven out of the fifteen free States, and received nearly as many votes as their opponents. The American party carried only the State of Maryland. 340 THE SLAVERY CONTEST. 4. UBucbanan s Hfcministration. A Stormy Administration. James Buchanan l took his seat as President on March 4, 1857. He succeeded to a period of storm and stress. The hos tility between the two sections of the country was increasing with dangerous rapidity, the elements of coming con flict were everywhere in the air, and long-sighted statesmen began to fear that the local war in Kansas might be followed by general war in the Union. Growth of Abolitionism. The un- JAMES BUCHANAN. expected strength of the new Repub lican party alarmed the Southern leaders. Evidently abolitionism was rapidly growing. It was discussed everywhere, from pulpit and platform, in newspapers and magazines. Many Northerners favored concessions to the South to avoid the threatened hostilities, and this seeming sympathy made the Southern members of Congress more aggressive. Yet when actual war broke out most of these seeming sympathizers became strong sup porters of the Union. Causes of Sectional Feeling. The quarrel jn Kansas, the influence of Mrs. Stowe s " Uncle Tom s Cabin," the attack on Surnner, the operation of the Fugitive Slave Law, the aggressive attitude of the Southern members of Con gress, the sympathy with Southern Democracy of the Pierce 1 James Buchanan was born in Pennsylvania in 1791. He served in Congress from 1820 to 1831, as minister to Russia from 1832 to 1834, and as Senator from 1834 to 1845. He was Secretary of State under President Polk, and was appointed minister to England by President Pierce. He died in 1868. BUCHANAN S ADMINISTRATION. 341 and Buchanan administrations, all added to the strength of the anti-slavery party of the North. And a new event now came to favor its increase. Two days after the inauguration of President Buchanan the Supreme Court of the United States rendered a judgment which added greatly to the stringency of public feeling. The Dred Scott Case. Dred Scott was a slave whose owner lived in Missouri. In 1834 he was taken by his master to the free State of Illinois, where they lived for the succeeding four years, and then removed into what was afterward the State of Miunesota. After their return to Missouri Scott was whipped for some fault, and brought suit for assault and battery, claiming to be free from his long residence on free soil, and asserting that the bringing him back to Missouri did not make him a slave. This case was tried in several courts, one of which gave judgment in Scott s favor. At length it reached the Supreme Court of the United States. That body decided that Scott was not a citizen and had no right to bring suit. It was further decided that slave-owners had a right to take their slaves where they pleased, just as they could take any other article of property, as a watch or a horse. 1 This decision startled the North. It opened a new field for the extension of slavery. Under it slave-owners might dwell in what State or Territory they pleased and keep as many slaves with them as they chose. The John Brown Raid. An event of still more startling significance happened two years afterward. John Brown, 1 Chief Justice Taney declared that when the Constitution was adopted negroes had long been regarded as beings of a lower order than the whites, "and so far inferior that they had no rights which the white man was bound to respect. 1 342 THE SLAVERY CONTEST. of whose leadership in the Kansas trouble we have spoken, was an old man wiio had become fanatical in his abolition sentiments. He moved to Kansas in 1855, and was there very active in the work of bloodshed. In the summer of 1859 he made his way to the vicinity of Harper s Ferry, in Virginia, moved by the wild purpose of starting an insurrec tion among the slaves. He believed that if they had a leader, and promise of freedom, they would rise against their masters and start a war against slavery. Much brooding over his ideas had made the fanatical old man nearly insane. He was brave, but his project was hopeless. One night in October, with about twenty fol lowers, whom he had won over to his views, he attacked the United States arsenal at Harper s Ferry, hoping to make this a rallying-place for slaves, whom he expected to come in numbers to his aid. Failure of the Raid. The slaves did not come, the arsenal was captured, some of its defenders were killed, others made prisoners. Brown was tried by the State of Virginia and hanged. Six of his followers were hanged. Two only of the band made their escape. This attempt found little support in the North, many ardent abolitionists looking upon it as an act of madness. In the South it aroused fears of the horrors of a negro insurrection, and did much to increase the stringency of the situation. At a later date John Brown was regarded by many as the pioneer of the war, and a song to his memory became popular with the Union soldiers. New States. Three new States were admitted to the Union during the Buchanan administration, Minnesota in 1858, Oregon in 1859, and Kansas, in which the anti-slavery forces had completely won, in 1861. These were all free States, and added to the majority of the North in the Seriate. BUCHANAN S ADMINISTRATION. 343 A Business Panic. In the midst of the threatening situ ation a new trouble came suddenly upon the people. A large business house failed in Cincinnati in August, 1857. It was a result of over-speculation and too great stimulation of business, arising in a measure from the discovery of gold in California and the rapid growth of wealth in consequence. More railroads had been built. than were wanted; more goods were being made than could be sold ; merchants had filled their stores with goods bought on credit ; the whole business of the country was in an unhealthy condi tion. The one failure soon brought others. The host of State banks had taken part in the speculative movement, and nearly the whole of them failed. Money almost disappeared from circulation, for the bank-notes became worthless. Thousands of business men were ruined, and multitudes of working-men were brought to the verge of beggary. The experience of 1837 was repeated, several years passing be fore prosperity returned to the country. Ocean Telegraph Cable. For several years Cyrus W. Field, an enterprising citizen of New York, had been actively engaged in a project to lay a telegraph line under the At lantic Ocean. In 1846 a message had been sent under the Hudson River, on a wire coated with gutta-percha. If this could be done for a short, why not for a long distance? The ocean was sounded between Ireland and Newfoundland, and found to be nowhere more than two and a half miles deep, while its bottom was nearly level. At length, after many experiments, a telegraph cable was laid in 1858. A few messages were sent across it and then it failed to work. But its possibility had been proved, and Mr. Field continued his efforts until a successful cable was laid in 1866. 344 THE SLAVERY CONTEST. The Lincoln and Doug-las Debate. During the period under consideration two citizens of Illinois came into na tional prominence. One of these was Stephen A. Douglas, the Democratic Senator from Illinois who had introduced LAYING THE ATLANTIC CABLE. the Kansas-Nebraska bill. He was again a candidate for election to the Senate, and was opposed by Abraham Lin coln, the Republican candidate, and a man who had risen by force of character from poverty and hard labor to the Illinois legislature and the United States Congress. Lincoln was remarkably able in debate, and he " took the stump" against Douglas, also an able speaker. They went from town to town of Illinois, speaking on national politics. In this debate Lincoln grew famous. He forced Douglas to make statements about the Dred Scott decision which lost him favor in the South and ruined his hopes of the Presi dency, though he was elected Senator by a small majority. During the debate Lincoln took such a decided stand on BUCHANAN S ADMINISTRATION. 345 the slavery question as to make him the favorite of the Republican party, and to gain him the Presidency in the coming election. The Election of 1860. In 1860 came the most momen tous Presidential election in the history of the United States. The feeling of hostility between the two sections of the country had grown so intense that open threats of secession of the Southern States were made in the event of the elec tion of a Republican President. Yet the Democratic party took a step which rendered defeat highly probable. It divided into two sections, the strong pro-slavery men nominating John C. Rreckenridge, the moderate section of the party nominating Stephen A. Douglas. The Republi cans chose Abraham Lincoln as their candidate, with Hannibal Hamlin, of Maine, for Vice-President. A remnant of Whigs and Know-Nothings in the South, calling them selves the Constitutional Union party, nominated John Bell, of Tennessee, and Edward Everett, of Massachusetts. The break among the Democrats assured the election of Lincoln. He received one hundred and eighty of the three hundred and three electoral votes. Rreckenridge received seventy-two, Bell thirty-nine, and Douglas twelve. Douglas had a very large popular vote, but lost the electoral vote of nearly all the Northern States. Secession. The election of Lincoln produced the threat ened effect. As soon as it was known the South Carolina Senators and office-holders resigned. A convention was called by the legislature of that State, and on December 20 an ordinance of secession from the Union was passed. The example thus given was quickly followed. Before the end of January, 1861, five other States had seceded, Georgia, Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, and Louisiana* Texas followed in February. 346 THE SLAVERY CONTEST. Confederate States. On February 4 delegates from the seceding States met at Montgomery, Alabama, and organized a new government, under the name of the " Confederate States of America." Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, was chosen President, and Alexander H. Stephens, of Georgia, Vice-President. In March a constitution was adopted for the Confederacy, one of whose sections forbade forever any attempt to emancipate the slaves. The Government Paralyzed. This decisive action of the South paralyzed the government. Southern leaders were leaving Washington, Southern officers giving up their commissions, materials of war being confiscated, and United States forts and arsenals being seized by the South, and yet President Buchanan took no action. He was surrounded by Southern advisers, and though he did not believe in the right of secession, he did not think he had JEFFEKSON DAVIS. the ri ghtjo Use force to kee P an Y State in the Union. Compromises were offered in Congress, a Peace Conference was held in Wash ington, with ex-President John Tyler as chairman, and other steps in the direction of conciliation were taken. But none of these proved acceptable, and the people anx- rously waited until the 4th of March should bring a new President and a new policy. When that time came the government possessed only three fortifications in the South, Fort Sumter in Charles ton harbor, Fort Pickens at Pensacola, and Key West, all the others having been seized. Of these, Fort Sumter was vigorously threatened, the Confederates having erected earthworks, abundantly mounted with artillery, for its BUCHANAN S ADMINISTRATION. 347 reduction, gathered a force of several thousand men, and taken possession of the other forts in the harbor. Mean while, President Buchanan did nothing towards its defence other than to send an unarmed steamer, the Star of the West, with men and supplies. This was fired upon and driven back. Thus the year 1861 drifted on toward the critical date of March 4, and the coming into office of a Republican administration. Preservation of the Union. The problem about to be solved by the strong hand of war was not that of the abo lition of slavery. This, the instigating cause of secession, had fallen into the background before a greater and more vital question, that of the preservation of the Union. Should there be a United States or a group of two or more republics? Should our strength be converted into weakness, our unity into disunion, our harmony into hos tility ? This was the problem which the government had to face. The Union must and shall be preserved ! Such was the sentiment that united the North as no war based on the slave question could have united it. President Lincoln strongly declared himself in favor of this purpose, and the emancipation of the slaves, when it came, was but an incident of the war, a measure ol military expediency ; though in the end it removed the cause which threatened the- permanence of American institutions. In the following account of the war we speak of North and South not in the sense of section arrayed against sec tion, but in that of the nation fighting for its existence, the supporters of the old flag combating the forces of dis union. Fortunately for both, the Union of the States was preserved, and to-day our united country is the pride of American hearts, alike north and south, east and west. PART IX. THE CIVIL WAR. t. ^Lincoln s Hfcmtnistration, Lincoln in Office. The 4th of March, 1861, found Presi^ dent Lincoln. 1 in Washington, prepared to take the oath of office and enter upon the difficult duties to which he had been called. So dangerous was the situation thai it was not deemed safe for him to travel openly to the capital, and he made a secret night journey through Maryland, a State which, holding slaves, had many sympathizers with the Confederacy. The President s Policy. In his inaugural address the new President indicated clearly his proposed policy. " I have no purpose, directly or indirectly," he said, " to in terfere with the institution of slavery in the States where it 1 Abraham Lincoln was born in Kentucky in 1809, but resided dur ing most of his life in Illinois. His parents were very poor and his education was meagre. He worked at boating, store-keeping, survey ing, and other avocations, diligently studying at every opportunity, and finally studied law in his spare hours, and gained admission to the bar. As a lawyer he rose to distinction. Entering early into politics, he be came a member of the Illinois legislature at twenty-five, and in 1846 was elected to Congress, where he served one term. His fame as a 348 ABRAHAM LINCOLN. LINCOLN S ADMINISTRATION. 349 exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so." But he declared also that it was his purpose " to preserve, protect, and defend" the Union of the States. He did not propose to begin war, but he did propose to retake the forts and other national property which the Confederacy had seized. Lincoln Takes Action. To avoid war, in the temper of the South, was impossible. No inclination was shown to yield the national property, and the preparations to attack Fort Sumter continued. For a month Lincoln remained silent. Run down by office-seekers, and perhaps in hope that the hostile attitude of the South would weaken, he waited and studied the situation. On April 8 he acted. The governor of South Carolina was notified that men and provisions would be sent immediately to Fort Sumter. The Assault on Fort Sumter. On hearing this, Jeffer son Davis, 1 President of the Confederacy, sent orders to General Beauregard, at Charleston, to demand that Fort Sumter should be evacuated. If not, he was to open fire political orator, and a man of unusual ability, grew, and in 1858 he became for a second time a candidate for United States Senator, his opponent being Stephen A. Douglas. It was the reputation gained in his debate with Douglas that afterward brought him the nomination for the Presidency. Lincoln was tall, awkward in manner, and lacking in social culture, but possessed of unusual common sense and powers of statesmanship. He was re-elected in 1864, and died by assassina tion April 15, 1865. 1 Jefferson Davis was born in Kentucky in 1808, and in 1828 grad uated from the West Point Military Academy. He was elected to Con gress from Mississippi in 1845, served with distinction in the Mexican War, and in 1847 entered the United States Senate, where he became a strong pro-slavery member. He was Secretary of War under Presi dent Pierce, entered the Senate again under Buchanan, and withdrew from that body January 21, 1861, to join the Confederacy. He survived the war for many years, dying in 1889. 350 THE CIVIL WAR. on it. His Secretary of State, Robert Toombs, opposed this as unwise, saying, " The firing upon that fort will in augurate a civil war greater than any the world has yet seen. ... It puts us in the wrong ; it is fatal." But the orders were given ; Major Anderson, in command at the fort, refused to evacuate ; the assault began. On the morning of April 12, 1861, the first shot was fired. For thirty-four hours, from nineteen batteries, shot and shell were poured upon the walls. Then Major Anderson, being nearly out of ammunition and food and the fort in a state of ruin, lowered his flag and the firing ceased. Not a man had been killed on either side. On the 14th he left the fort with his men, carrying their flag with them. Result of the Bombardment of Sumter. President Davis, as Toombs had predicted, had committed the coun try decisively to war. Hitherto the general feeling in the North had favored peaceful measures. There had been a strong desire to meet the South half-way in its demands. But as the news of this act of war spread through the country a wide-spread revulsion of feeling took place. The United States flag had been fired upon ! The stars and stripes had been dishonored ! Excitement and indignation everywhere prevailed. A warlike passion suddenly blazed out. On all sides the government was called upon to avenge the insult to the flag. Troops Called Out. The President did not wait for the public demand. The moment the news of the fall of Sum ter reached him he saw clearly that war could not be avoided, and on April 15 he issued a proclamation for seventy-five thousand troops to serve for three months. Few people then foresaw the magnitude of the coming con flict, and it was thought that a strong show of military force would quickly bring the threatened war to an end. LINCOLN S ADMINISTRATION. 351 The March to Washington. The response to the Pres ident s call was immediate and enthusiastic. Four times as many men offered their services as were called for. In all the States of the North men hastened to the ranks. Hardly a day had passed before regiments were on their way to Washington. Some companies from Pennsylvania reached there within two days. On the 19th of April the Sixth Massachusetts Regiment marched through Baltimore. Here they were attacked by a mob in the streets with stones and pistol-shots. The soldiers returned the fire. Several men fell dead on each side. It was the first blood shed in the war. It is an interesting coincidence that this fight took place on the anniversary of the battle of Lexing ton, when the first blood of the Revolution was shed. The South in Arms. The enthusiasm in the North was no greater than that in the South. The firing on Sumter had been the clarion of war there also, and thousands hastened to enlist. The armory at Harper s Ferry and the navy-yard at Norfolk were seized by Virginia militia, that State having seceded when Lincoln called for troops. Ar kansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina quickly followed with ordinances of secession. On April 17, Davis called for privateers to attack the merchant ships of the North. On the 19th Lincoln replied by proclaiming a blockade of the whole Southern coast, and announcing that privateers would be treated as pirates. Only a week had elapsed since the firing on Sumter began, and in that brief interval the coun try had sprung from a state of peace into one of war. In North and South alike thousands of men had dropped the tools of industry and seized the weapons of war, and mus tering and drilling were everywhere the order of the day. Action of the Border States. Four more States, Dela ware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri, were classed with 352 THE CIVIL WAR. the slave States, and were more or less in sympathy with the secessionists. Scarcely any feeling of this kind existed in Delaware, while Maryland was also largely Union in sen timent. Kentucky and Missouri were stronger in Southern sympathy, but no active effort was made except in Missouri to carry a border State from the Union. The government of Missouri was in sympathy with the Confederacy, but failed in its attempt to have an ordinance of secession passed and also to maintain a position of armed neutrality. Thus the various States took their positions for the coming conflict, and the area of the war was clearly defined. 2. THE NORTH AND THE SOUTH. Population of the Sections. Before proceeding with the story of the Civil War it is important to contrast the two sections, and seek to deduce their chances of success from their comparative strength and advantages. As regards population the North was much the stronger. The States which adhered to the Union contained twenty-two million people, against nine million in the seceding States, of whom three million five hundred thousand were slaves. Thus the North outnumbered the South in white men four to one. Manufactures. There was also a more complete system of railroads in the North, and with it all the manufactories of locomotives, cars, and rails. In manufacture generally the North had immensely the advantage. The Union States were capable of producing everything that could be used in the war, while the South was largely destitute of facilities of this kind, and could only hope to obtain supplies from abroad. Agriculture. As regards food production the North had also the advantage. The interests of the South were agri cultural, but cotton and tobacco were the leading products, THE NORTH AND THE SOUTH. 353 while farming, fishing, and herding interests supplied the North with an abundance of food. Shipping- Interests. The North was also immensely superior in its shipping interests. It traded with all parts of the world, and could readily obtain abundant supplies, while its workshops enabled it to manufacture at home all its munitions of war. The navy at that time was small, and most of the ships of war were in the hands of the Confed eracy, but ship-yards were numerous and this deficiency could easily be overcome, while there were many merchant ships which could readily be converted into war vessels. The South on the Defensive. While the North had these signal advantages, the South was not devoid of advan tages. It possessed an immense territory, which offered abundant opportunities for successful defensive warfare. And the fact that the Confederacy was fighting on its own ground greatly reduced the disparity in men. Much larger armies are needed to invade than to defend. Food and War Supplies. As regards the lack of food that might be largely overcome by planting grain in place of cotton and tobacco. And though munitions of war could not be manufactured to any important extent, the South possessed a large supply, since most of the guns and ammunition of the country had been within the borders of the seceding States, and had been seized. The Blockade. The South possessed also a source of great wealth in its cotton crop, which would bring all the supplies needed if it could be got abroad. But getting it abroad was the difficulty. The blockade proclaimed by President Lincoln was soon made so effective that it became almost impossible to get the cotton upon the sea. There were vessels called " blockade-runners" that occasionally got into and out of port, but their aid to the South was not 23 354 THE CIVIL WAR. great. In 1860 the cotton sent abroad was worth more than two hundred million dollars. From 1861 to 1865 this trade almost disappeared. Its Effect. This stoppage of trade caused a cotton famine in England. Hundreds of mills were stopped, and thou sands of men thrown out of work. Great suffering ensued. It was hoped by the South that this would induce Great Britain to come to its aid. But it did not, though its gov ernment showed hostile feeling to the North. If England had recognized Southern independence, France would likely have done the same. But neither did so, and the South had to fight its battles alone. Army Officers. There was one further advantage pos sessed by the South, many of the best and most experi enced officers in the army were Southern men, and seceded with their States. Among these were Generals Bobert E. Lee, Joseph E. Johnston, Pierre G. T. Beauregard, and Thomas J. Jackson. In this respect the secession of Vir ginia was a serious matter. The ablest three of the Con federate generals, Lee, Johnston, and Jackson, were Vir ginians, and went out with their State. Virginia. The possession of Virginia added immensely to the strength of the Confederacy. Its rivers constituted a series of strong natural defences of Bichmond, which was made the Confederate capital on the secession of the State. And the possession of the Shenandoah Valley by Con federate armies kept Washington in danger of sudden cap ture, and opened the way for the invasion of Maryland and Pennsylvania. Had Virginia remained in the Union, the war must have been of much shorter duration. Hopes of the Southern Leaders. The leaders of the South had four hopes, none of which were realized. They hoped that the North would not fight. They hoped that all THE OPENING OF THE WAR. 355 the slave States would join them. They hoped for useful aid from the Democrats of the North. They hoped for assistance from England and France. In all these hopes they were disappointed. Wealth and Credit. Such was the general state of affairs between North and South. The North had one further advantage, that of abundant wealth and almost unlimited credit. In this respect the South was seriously deficient, and the paper money which it issued lost its value as rapidly as did the Continental currency of the Revolution, and in the end became worthless. The Problem of the "War. As will be seen, the North was much the superior in numbers, wealth, and general resources. The South had the advantages of being on the defensive, of possessing an immense territory, well adapted to defence, of having an initial supply of munitions of war and a number of able and skilled command"ers. But these advantages would gradually disappear as the war went on, the comparative superiority of the North in wealth and resources would steadily increase, and the longer the contest continued the greater would grow the Northern prospect of success. The hope of the South lay in the defeat and dis heartening of its powerful foe by greater military dash and energy. 3. THE OPENING OF THE WAR. Strength and Position of Armies. The armies of the two sides, in the first year of the war, did not differ greatly in numbers. In the summer of 1861 there were probably about one hundred and eighty thousand Union and one hundred and fifty thousand Confederate troops in the field. These were gathered on the border-line, the Union army reaching along the Potomac from Harper s Ferry 356 THE CIVIL WAR. UNITED STATES FLAG. to the mouth of the river, and thence to Fortress Mon roe, the Confederate forces occupying the country south of the Potomac. There were opposing forces also in West Virginia and Missouri. The Contest for Mis souri. The possession of Missouri was of importance to both sides. The gover nor had failed in his effort to have that State secede, while the attempt to keep it neutral was defeated by Captain Lyon, in command at St. Louis, who seized the State arsenal and routed the hostile militia. A Confederate force quickly gathered and a fight for the possession of the State began. It was at first favorable to the Confederates, who won battles at Car thage and Wilson s Creek. General Lyon was killed in the latter. In September the Confeder ate General Price captured Lexington and took a large number of prisoners. General Fremont, of California fame, now took command, and drove Price southward to Springfield. He was succeeded by General Hunter, who retreated to St. Louis. Finally Gen eral Halleck took command and forced Price into Arkansas. This, with some fighting by General Grant, who began his notable career in this quarter, ended the struggle for Missouri. That State was saved for the Union. The Struggle in West Virginia. While Virginia had CONFEDERATE FLAGS. THE OPENING OF THE WAR. 357 seceded from the Union, this action was not favored by all her inhabitants. The region west of the mountains was strongly Union in sentiment, and early in the war a struggle took place for its possession. It was occupied in force by the Confederates, but they were defeated in several engage ments by General McClellan, and afterward by General Rosecrans. These Union victories ended the contest in that quarter. The Confederate forces were withdrawn, and the region was left in Union hands. In the following year the Unionists there met in convention, organized a State government, and applied for admission to the Union under the title of West Virginia. The new State was admitted in 1863. It was a serious loss to the u Old Dominion," as it comprised nearly two-fifths of its territory and more than one-fourth of its population. The Two Armies. It was, however, on the Potomac, in front of Washington, that the first battle of leading im portance took place. A large force had gathered for the defence of the capital, which was threatened by General Beauregard, with a strong Southern army. At Winchester, in the Shenandoah Valley, was another Confederate army, under General Joseph E. Johnston, which was confronted by a Union force, under General Robert Patterson, a veteran of the war of 1812. Such was the situation in July, 1861. Battle of Bull Run. President Lincoln, in the first flush of hopefulness, had called out volunteers for three months. It was now evident that this had been an error. The three months had nearly ended and neither side was ready for battle. But the people of the North were impatient. They looked for a speedy end of the war, and the cry of " On to Richmond !" became so strong that the military authorities decided that something must be done. On July 1G, General McDowell crossed into Virginia, with 358 THE CIVIL WAR. a force of over thirty thousand men, and marched toward Bull Run, 1 where General Beauregard lay in a strong posi tion, with a force considerably less than that of his opponent. McDowell hoped to overwhelm Beauregard by superior strength, trusting to Patterson to prevent Johnston from reinforcing him. He would probably have succeeded had not Johnston eluded Patterson and sent strong reinforcements from Win chester to Bull Run. The battle took place on the 21st and was sharply contested. The Confederates were driven back until rallied by General T. J. Jackson, who here won his title of " Stonewall Jackson." During this critical period fresh troops arrived from Winchester, under Kirby Smith, and poured in a flank fire on the Union lines. This was more than raw troops could endure. A hasty retreat began, which in time became a rout, the whole army flying in panic disorder. It might have proved disastrous had Beau- regard been able to follow up his victory. But his troops, too, were raw, and had been too sharply handled to be in condition for pursuit. The Effect of Bull Run. The result of this first impor tant battle was momentous. It filled the South with an exaggerated hopefulness, which did its cause more harm than good. It taught the North that a serious error had been made, and that this was to be no " ninety days cam paign." Dismay and chagrin were followed by determina tion. It was evident that the struggle would be a desperate one. Congress hastened to vote a war appropriation of five hundred million dollars, and called out an army of five hundred thousand men, to be enlisted for three years. 1 Bull Run is a small stream about twenty-seven miles from Alex andria, and near Manassas Junction on the railroads leading south. THE OPENING OF THE WAR. 359 General Scott, the aged commander-in-chief, withdrew, and General George B. McClellan, whose successful campaign in West Virginia had won him reputation, was placed in command of all the armies of the United States. The Blockade. While these events were taking place on land, efforts were making to render effective the blockade of the Southern ports. At the opening of the war the United States was almost destitute of ships. But a navy was built or leased with such speed that by the end of the year there were two hundred and sixty-four ships in com mission. These did some efficient work. Hatteras Inlet, North Carolina, was taken by one expedition, Port Royal, South Carolina, by another. Some islands on the coast were also taken. These places became depots of sup plies for the navy, and aided greatly in maintaining the blockade. The Mason and Slidell Affair. Near the end of 1861 an event of international importance took place. The Con federate States, anxious for aid from Europe, sent out envoys who succeeded in reaching Havana. There they took passage for England on the British steamer Trent. Captain Wilkes, of the steamer San Jacinto, followed the Trent, stopped her near the Bahamas, and took from her the two Confederate envoys, James M. Mason and John Slidell. They were taken to Boston and confined in Fort Warren. This act was applauded in the North, and Congress passed a vote of thanks to Captain Wilkes. But England did not like to have the." right of search" exercised toward her. She bluntly demanded that the commissioners should be given up, and, to enforce her words, sent troops and war- supplies to Canada. The Envoys Given Up. The threatened war was 360 THE CIVIL WAR. averted by the action of the President and Secretary of State, who declared that the act was not in accordance with the previous policy of this government regarding the right of search, and ordered the release of the prisoners. But a hostile feeling against Great Britain prevailed, which grew more bitter when Confederate cruisers were allowed to be built in English ship-yards and to slip out of English ports. The sailing of the Alabama, a privateer which did immense damage to American commerce, increased this sentiment of hostility. The British government was given plainly to understand that the United States would not endure any more of this. As a result, no more Confederate cruisers were allowed to leave British ports. The Work of the Merrimac. While the United States was increasing its fleet and the Confederate States pur chasing cruisers abroad, the latter had not been idle at home. In the navy-yard at Norfolk, Virginia, which had been seized by Confederate forces, was a United States frigate, the Merrimac. This had been sunk, but workmen had succeeded in raising it, and had cut down the deck and given it a sloping roof, heavily plated with iron. An iron prow had been added, for the purpose of ramming hostile craft. The Merrimac was destined to make a revolution in naval warfare. Vessels had been covered with iron before, but they had not been tried in actual war. On March 8, 1862, this formidable vessel steamed into Hampton Roads. The United States had there a fleet of five wooden vessels, large and powerful, but, as was proved, useless for combat with their iron-clad foe. They poured broadsides upon her, but their shot glanced off from her iron sides " like so many peas." Moving resistlessly on, the Merrimac struck the Cumberland with her terrible beak, THE OPENING OF THE WAR. 361 and she sank with all on board. 1 The Congress was driven ashore and forced to surrender. It was now near night, and the fate of the other three ships was left until the next day. Never had there been such an event in naval warfare. Consternation filled the North at news of this havoc. What was to save our ports from this fearful foe? She might steam into New York harbor and bombard the city. No one could say what havoc she might perform. The Coming of the Monitor. But the government had been preparing for her. It was well known when she might be expected, and an ironclad on a new plan, the invention of Captain John Ericsson, the eminent Swedish engineer, had rapidly been built. This had a low, flat, iron clad deck, rising just above the water. In its centre was a strong tower, heavily plated with iron, and capable of re volving. It carried two very heavy guns. The appearance of this strange craft was so peculiar that it gained the title of " a cheese-box on a raft." By vigorous efforts the new vessel was completed in time to meet the Merrimac before more destruction could be done. The Monitor, as she was named, steamed into Hampton Roads during the night of March 8, and was ready to meet the Merrimac at the dawn of the next day. The Battle of the Ironclads. Early in the following day the Merrimac steamed toward the Minnesota, one of the wooden fleet. Suddenly she found the Monitor in her way, hurling at her such balls as a naval vessel had never before sent. The Monitor s two guns were of enormous 1 As the Cumberland went down the crew continued to work her guns until she vanished beneath the water. Her flag was not struck, but continued to float from the mast-head after she had gone down. 362 THE CIVIL WAR. size, while the balls of the Merrimac glanced harmlessly from her deck. For four hours that new and strange naval duel went on. Time after time the Merrimac sought to sink the Monitor with her iron beak, but her dwarf-like antagonist glided BATTLE OF THE MONITOR AND MERRIMAC. away unharmed. Her broadsides were of as little use, while the huge balls of the Monitor continued to batter her sides with terrible blows. In the end the Merrimac withdrew, baffled though not disabled, and made her way back into Norfolk harbor. She never left it again. Repairs were necessary, and before they were completed the Confederates abandoned Norfolk and destroyed their powerful iron-clad champion. That one battle changed the conditions of naval warfare throughout the world. With it the day of the wooden war- vessel came to an end. THE WAR IN KENTUCKY AND TENNESSEE. 363 4. THE WAR IN KENTUCKY AND TENNESSEE. Results of the War in 1861. During the first year of the Civil War there had been no well-defined plan. The most important engagement had been won by the Confederate forces, yet the advantage lay with the North. Mis souri had been saved BATTLE-FIELDS OF KENTUCKY AND TENNESSEE. and West Virginia gained for the Union. Fort Pickens and Fort Monroe, on the coast, had been secured and other points taken. The defeat at Bull Run had wakened the North from its dream of an easy conquest and roused it to the most strenuous exertions. The two sides had been getting a grasp of the situation. They now first began to see the magnitude of the task before them. Plans for 1862. The campaign of 1862 was entered upon by the North with definite objects in view. 364 THE CIVIL WAR. One of these was the capture of Richmond. A second was the rescue of Kentucky from its invaders and the invasion of Tennessee. A third was the opening and control of the Mississippi, and the cutting off of Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas from the rest of the Confederacy. A fourth was an efficient blockade of the Southern ports. By the end of the year all of these, except the first, was in some measure accomplished. The Confederates in Kentucky. In September, 1861, General Polk entered Kentucky with a force of fifteen thou sand men, and took position at Columbus, whence he threatened Paducah, an important point at the junction of the Tennessee River with the Ohio. Another Confederate army, under General Zollicoffer, invaded Kentucky in the southeast. These invasions had one unexpected result. The legislature, which was wavering, at once voted, by a heavy majority, to remain in the Union. General Grant s Movements. General Ulysses S. Grant, 1 the coming leader of the Union armies, had been defeated in his first engagement at Belmont, Missouri. Immediately afterward he crossed to Kentucky and took possession of 1 General Grant was born in Ohio in 1822. He was named Hiram Ulysses, but on his entry to West Point his name was wrongly regis tered, he being styled Ulysses Simpson, the latter his mother s family name. As he could not get the mistake remedied, he accepted the new name. His first service was in the Mexican War, where he be haved gallantly and gained promotion. He then retired to private business life, in which he was not very successful. On the outbreak of the Civil War he was appointed captain of a company of volunteers, and was soon after made colonel of the Twenty-first Illinois Regiment Shortly afterward he was commissioned brigadier-general, and was made major-general for his capture of Fort Donelson. The remainder of his biography is part of the history of the war and the country. THE WAR IN KENTUCKY AND TENNESSEE. 365 Paducah, thus forestalling Polk, and getting control of the mouths of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers, two large and important streams. An important problem now lay before the Union leaders. The Confederates had built forts on these two streams, named Fort Henry and Fort Donelson, within the borders of Tennessee. They had also fortified Island No. 10, on the Mississippi south of Columbus. Capture of Ports Henry and Donelson. Early in Feb ruary, 1862, General Grant advanced against Fort Henry, Commodore Foote, with a flotilla of iron-clad gun-boats, moving up the Tennessee to assist him. On the 6th the place was attacked by the fleet. An hour s bombardment sufficed. The fort surrendered, and the garrison fled to Fort Donelson before Grant and his army had arrived. Grant now marched upon Fort Donelson, while the fleet steamed back to the Ohio and came up the Cumberland to his aid. This fort was more vigorously defended. The fight continued for three days, the fleet was repulsed, and its commodore seriously wounded. The Confederates now attempted to cut their way through Grant s investing lines, but were driven back and part of their works taken. On February 16 an assault was about to be made in force, when the fort surrendered, with its garrison of fifteen thousand men. 1 This was the first signal Federal victory of the war. It established the Union army firmly in Tennessee. 1 The commander of the fort wrote to General Grant, asking what terms could be made. The reply was, " No terms except an uncondi tional and immediate surrender can be accepted. I propose to move immediately upon your works." This answer did much to enhance Grant s reputation. His initials, U. S., were said to stand for " Uncon ditional Surrender." From this time forward he was one of the leading figures in the war. 366 THE CIVIL WAR. Island No. 10. One important effect of Grant s victory was to compel General Polk to evacuate Columbus, a post which had been claimed to be impregnable. The garrison fell back to the fortifications at Island No. 10, which soon after were attacked by Commodore Foote with his fleet of gun-boats. After a three weeks bombardment, General Pope crossed the river, took the batteries on the bank, and prepared to attack those on the island. 1 Finding their position untenable, the garrison, seven thousand strong, surrendered on April 8. Buell s Advance. Grant s army was afterward known as the Army of the Tennessee. General Buell, with what became known as the Army of the Cumberland, advanced into middle Kentucky, where his left wing, under General Thomas, defeated the Confederates near Mill Spring in Jan uary, 1862. Soon afterward the fortified post at Bowling Green was evacuated and the Confederate invasion of Ken tucky came to an end. Occupation of Tennessee. Though the State of Ten nessee had seceded, a large section of it remained strongly Unionist in sentiment. This was the mountain district in the east, in which there had been found little use for slaves. The Union successes above mentioned soon led to an occu pation of the State. General Buell advanced and occupied Nashville, while the Confederates fell back to Corinth, an important railroad centre in the north of Mississippi. Here 1 Pope, with his army, was on the Missouri side of the river. He could not cross in face of the Confederate batteries, so a canal was dug twelve miles long across a bend in the river. Part of this was through heavy timber, yet the work was finished in nineteen days. Through this canal light-draught steamboats were taken below the batteries. The two largest gun-boats ran the batteries and protected Pope s cross ing, which was accomplished in the midst of a deluging storm of rain. THE WAR IN KENTUCKY AND TENNESSEE. 367 strong forces were collected, under Generals Albert Sidney Johnston and Beauregard. Grant took part in the Union advance, and moved his army to Pittsburg: Landing, on the Tennessee, a short distance north of Corinth. Here he awaited the arrival of Buell with reinforcements. The Battle of Shiloh. Events proved that Grant had taken a dangerous position. On April 6, Johnston attacked him in force, hoping to defeat him before Buell could arrive. At break of day the Confederate forces suddenly marched out of the woods and fell upon the Union lines with all the Southern dash and vigor. The Federal forces, though hold ing their ground with stern determination, were gradually pushed back. For twelve hours the fight continued. Then Grant gathered the remnants of his regiments on the river bank for a final stand. Here the tide of battle was stayed, the gun-boats in the stream aiding the artillery fire of the army. It was now nightfall, and the advance of BuelPs army had reached the opposite side of the stream. The Confederates fell back with the fruits of their success, three thousand prisoners, thirty flags, and the stores taken in the Union camp. But they had met with a severe loss in the death of General Johnston, one of their ablest com manders. On the next day, April 7, the tide of battle turned. With Buell s fresh troops Grant pushed back the battle-weary foe, and after six hours desperate fighting the Confederates were obliged to retreat. They withdrew to the intrench- ments at Corinth. In this great battle nearly one hundred thousand men were engaged, and more than twenty thousand were killed and wounded. It was one of the great conflicts of the war, and fully proved the valor and determination of the com batants on both sides. General Halleck, who had been 368 THE CIVIL WAR. appointed commander-in-chief in the West, slowly followed the Confederates, and on May 30, Beauregard, finding him self outnumbered, evacuated Corinth. Thus the Unionists established themselves in Mississippi. Memphis Taken. The capture of Island No. 10 took place on the day succeeding the battle of Shiloh. The Union gun-boats quickly made their way farther down the river, and on May 10 met and defeated the Confederate iron-clad fleet. On the evacuation of Corinth, Fort Pillow, a strong hold lower down the stream, was abandoned, and the gun boat fleet steamed south to Memphis, where the Confederate flotilla was destroyed and the city seized. Capture of New Orleans. The effort to gain control of the Mississippi was not confined to operations in the north. An attack was made from the south also. In April, 1862, shortly after the battle of Shiloh, a powerful Union fleet, under Farragut and Porter, entered the mouth of the Mis sissippi, and fought its way vigorously upward. The river was defended with strong forts, fire-rafts, iron chains, and an iron-clad fleet. After a heavy bombardment, Farragut made a night run past the forts, through a fearful storm of shot and shell, attacked and destroyed most of the Confed erate fleet, and moved triumphantly up to New Orleans, which was forced to surrender. 1 General Benjamin F. But ler, in command of the land forces, took possession of it on 1 Great quantities of cotton, and numbers of ships and steamers, were burned at New Orleans to prevent their falling into the hands of the Federals. Fifteen thousand bales of cotton, worth one million five hundred thousand dollars, were consumed. The docks were burned, and about a dozen river steamers, as many ships, several gun-boats, a great floating battery, and the immense ram Mississippi were all given to the flames. They floated down the river wrapped in fire and threat ening destruction to Farragut s fleet. THE WAR IN KENTUCKY AND TENNESSEE. 369 April 28. Farragut now steamed up the river to Memphis, running the batteries at Vicksburg. 1 Operations on the Coast. The fleet had been equally active on the coast. General Burnside captured Roanoke Island, and took New-Bern and other ports in North Caro lina. Various ports in Florida and Georgia were taken, and Fort Pulaski, which defended the port of Savannah, was captured. By the end of 1862 every important point on the coast of the Confederacy, except the cities of Charleston, Savannah, Mobile, and Wilmington, was held by the Federal armies, and the blockade was made very largely effective. The Situation in the West. It will be seen that, early in the year 1862, the Union forces had made great progress in carrying out the plans of the government. The Confed eracy had lost nearly all the Mississippi, though they held the powerful post of Vicksburg and some minor fortified points. The blockade of the coast had made great prog ress. Kentucky and Tennessee were held by the Federal armies, and the seat of war in the West had been trans ferred to the Gulf States. The progress in this quarter had been great ; but there was now to be a change in the situation. Bragg s Advance. In the late summer of 1862, General Bragg, with a strong army, left Chattanooga, a Confederate 1 David G. Farragut was born in Tennessee in 1801, and entered the navy in 1812 as a midshipman, serving through the war of that period. He continued in the service, passing through various grades, and was captain at the outbreak of the Civil War. He was made rear-admiral after his famous victory at New Orleans. At Mobile he won additional fame by daringly taking a position in the rigging of his vessel that he might see every move of the battle, heedless of the peril of this exposed situation. He was made vice-admiral in 1864, and admiral in 1866, these two grades being created expressly for him. He died in 1870. 24 , 370 THE CIVIL WAR. stronghold on the southeastern border of Tennessee, and made a rapid march northward toward Louisville, on the Ohio River. General Buell, learning his purpose, marched with all haste to prevent it, and reached Louisville a day in advance. Bragg now fell back, Buell following with an army reinforced to the number of one hundred thousand men. A battle was fought at Perryville on October 8. During the following night Bragg retreated and escaped pursuit. luka and Corinth. Meanwhile, Rosecrans, in command at Corinth, was threatened by a strong Confederate force. Two battles were fought, one at luka on September 19, and one at Corinth on October 3 and 4. The Confederates fought with great courage, but were driven back, and lost heavily during a pursuit of forty miles. Battle of Murfreesboro . On the last day of the year was fought one of its most desperate battles. Bragg was attacked in winter quarters at Murfreesboro , Tennessee, by Rosecrans, who had replaced Buell in command. Bragg fought with fiery energy, and for a time had the best of the battle, but in the end was driven back. He made a second attack two days afterward, but was again unsuccess ful. He now retreated. The battle was a bloody one, more than twenty thousand men being killed or wounded. It was the last Confederate attempt to regain Kentucky. Sherman Repulsed. While these events were taking place, Grant had projected an expedition against Vicksburg. He proposed to advance along the Mississippi Central Rail road, while Sherman was to march down the river, assisted by the gun-boats. The effort failed. Van Dorn destroyed Grant s depot of supplies at Holly Springs and prevented his movement. Sherman attacked the bluffs north of the town on December 29, but was defeated with heavy loss. THE EAST IN 1862. 371 Battle of Pea Ridge. During 1862 two warlike events took place west of the Mississippi. One of these was a battle at Pea Ridge, Arkansas. General Van Dorn, with twenty thousand troops, was met and totally defeated by General Curtis at the head of the Union forces. This vir tually ended the war in Missouri and Arkansas. 1 The Sioux Indian Outbreak. In the summer of 1862 an outbreak of Sioux Indians took place. They had long com plained of ill treatment by the white settlers and government officials, and took advantage of the war to invade Minnesota and Iowa, where they massacred nearly a thousand men, women, and children. They were quickly suppressed, and several of their leaders were hanged for murder. 5. THE EAST IN 1862. Affairs in Virginia. It will be seen from what has been said that the Union armies made great progress in the West during 1862. The opposite was the case in Virginia. Here the Confederates won a number of important battles, and the attempt to capture Richmond ended in failure and disaster. After the defeat at Rull Run, months passed without a movement being made. During this period Gen eral McClellan, the new commander-in-chief, was engaged in a careful drilling of the army, seeking to make soldiers out of untrained recruits. He was not ready to advance until the spring of 1862. Then the army was put in march for Richmond. 1 Several thousands of Indians from the Indian Territory had joined the Confederate forces in Arkansas, and took part in the battle of Pea Ridge. They proved of little use, the roar of the artillery, the sight of guns that ran round on wheels, and the fall of trees behind which they took shelter, reducing them to a state of panic. They were not used to that kind of war. 372 THE CIVIL WAR. McClellan s Advance. The overland route was not deemed advisable after the experience at Bull Run, so the advance was made by water. McClellan wished to take the James River route, but as that would have left Wash- MCCLELLAN S CAMPAIGN. YORKTOWN TO RICHMOND. ington in danger of capture by a sudden dash, he took the York River route instead, while McDowell led an army overland toward Richmond. The Siege of Yorktown. Yorktown, the scene of the final event of the Revolution, was that of the first event in this march. It was strongly fortified, and General Magruder, with fifteen thousand men, detained McClellan s forces here for a month. At length, just as heavy siege guns were in place and about to open fire, Magruder withdrew, having well performed his task of checking the Union advance. The Fight at Williamsburg . Magruder fell back to Williamsburg, ten miles distant, where works had been built. He was sharply pursued, and a fight took place there on May 5. Both sides claimed the victory, but Magruder THE EAST IN 1862. 373 retreated during the night, and the pursuit was continued until Richmond was near at hand. A Panic at Richmond. On the evacuation of Yorktown, Norfolk was abandoned, the navy-yard burned, and the famous ironclad Merrimac blown up. The Monitor and other vessels now ascended James River until within eight miles of Richmond. The army was only seven miles from the city. A panic ensued. The Confederate Congress adjourned, and the people of the city were in a state of conster- natl n GEORGE B MCCLELLAN. "Waiting 1 for Reinforcements. An immediate attack might perhaps have taken Richmond, but it was not made. McClellan dispersed a Confederate force in his rear, and then waited for McDowell, who was ap proaching overland. This reinforcement did not reach him. Its coming was prevented by a skilful movement of the Confederate forces, General Johnston having sent his able subordinate, Thomas J. Jackson, already best known as Stonewall Jackson, 1 with a strong force down the Shenan- doah Valley to threaten Washington. In the Shenandoah Valley. Jackson s march was rapid and effective. The Union forces in the valley retreated 1 Thomas Jonathan Jackson who gained his famous nickname of " Stonewall" from a remark made during the first battle of Bull Run, " There s Jackson standing like a stone wall" was born in Virginia in 1824. He graduated from West Point in 1846, served in the Mexican War, and afterward became Professor of Natural Philosophy at Lexing ton, Virginia. He entered the Civil War as a colonel, and captured the arsenal at Harper s Ferry in May, 1861. As a subordinate to General Lee he proved himself a soldier of remarkable ability. 374 THE CIVIL WAR. hastily before him and crossed the Potomac. Washington was in a state of panic. No one knew how many men Jackson had. Troops were hurried to the Potomac. Banks and Fremont were ordered to cross that stream, and Mc Dowell was stopped in his march toward Richmond and ordered from Fredericksburg to the valley. It was now Jackson s turn to retreat with all haste, for his foes were closing in and he was in serious danger. He did so, burn ing the bridges behind him, and made good his escape. He had done his work well, threatened Washington, pre vented McDowell from joining McClellan, and saved Rich mond. Battle of Pair Oaks. In the advance against Richmond McClellan had divided his army, the left wing having crossed the small stream known as the Chickahominy. At the end of May this advanced wing was placed in a dangerous situ ation by a heavy storm, which flooded the stream and con verted its banks into marshes. Taking quick advantage of this opportunity, on May 31, Johnston made an impetuous attack on the exposed wing, and drove it back toward the swollen stream. A serious disaster was prevented by Gen eral Sumner, who succeeded in crossing the stream and checking the Confederate advance. On the next day the battle was renewed, but the Confederates were disheartened by the loss of their general, who had been wounded, and were driven back with severe loss. General Lee in Command. The wounding of General Johnston rendered necessary a new Confederate commander- in-chief. General Robert E. Lee l was chosen, a man who 1 Robert Edward Lee was born in Virginia in 1807, being the son of General Henry Lee, the famous " Light-horse Harry" of the Revolution. He graduated from West Point in 1829, served in the Mexican War, and THE EAST IN 1862. 375 was to gain world- wide fame for military genius. He lost no time in showing his activity. General Stuart was sent on a cavalry dash around McClellan s army, and succeeded in doing serious damage, tearing up railroads and de stroying great quantities of supplies. The Seven Days Battle. Jackson soon after returned and joined his forces with those of Lee. An instant advance was made, and for seven days the two armies were locked in deadly fight. On June 26 the Union forces . _ _ . . . ROBERT E. LEK. were repulsed at Mechamcsville, and on the 27th at Gaines 1 Mills. McClellan, his line of supply from York River being now cut off, began to withdraw his forces toward the James. Day after day Lee continued his vigorous assaults, and step by step the Union army drew back. July 1 found it strongly posted on the sloping face of a plateau at Malvern Hill. Here Lee attacked again and was repulsed with heavy loss. McClellan now withdrew to the James River without further attack. Both sides had lost heavily, McClellan about sixteen thousand, Lee twenty thousand men. But the victory rested with Lee, immense stores had been taken or destroyed, the siege of Richmond was raised, and general discouragement affected the North. President Lincoln called for three hundred thousand fresh troops. New Military Counsels. General Halleck, who for a was made colonel for his courage. He went with his State in its seces sion, was at once made third in rank of the Confederate officers, and during the war gained the reputation of being one of the ablest of modern commanders. After the war he became president of the Washington and Lee University, and died in 1870. 376 THE CIVIL WAR. time had been commander-in-chief of the Western armies, was now in Washington, having been given command of all the Union armies. General Pope, who had gained fame from his capture of Island No. 10, had been brought from the West and placed in command of the forces in Virginia south of Washington. Lee, now feeling that Richmond was safe from any immediate attack, repeated his former ma noeuvre, and sent Jackson northward against Pope. This movement had the hoped-for effect. Washington was threatened. Pope s ability to restrain the impetuous Jackson was feared. Halleck therefore ordered McClellan to bring his army then known as the Army of the Potomac north by water and join Pope. Second Bull Run Battle. Lee took instant advantage of the withdrawal of McClellan, and marched rapidly north to join Jackson. Pope s army was struck by the combined Confederate forces before McClellan could reach the battle ground, and, after a severe and bloody engagement on the old field of Bull Run, was driven back in complete defeat (August 28-30). The fighting continued for three days, in which the Confederates lost ten thousand, the Unionists more than fourteen thousand men. Only the strength of the fortifications at Washington, and the arrival of McClel- lan s advance, saved the capital from being taken. Maryland Invaded. General Lee was well aware that Washington could not be captured. Wasting not a day be fore its works, he made a rapid march northward into Mary land, with the hope of obtaining recruits and possibly of inducing that State to join the Confederacy. In these hopes he was disappointed. But Pennsylvania lay before him, the whole North was in consternation, and quick action was necessary on the Federal side. All the troops at hand, about eighty-five thousand in num- THE EAST IN 1862. 377 her, were placed under McClellan s command, and a rapid pursuit began. At Harper s Ferry was a Union garrison of eleven thou sand men. Jackson at tacked that post, forced it to surrender with its garri son, and hur ried back to Lee s army before McClel- lan could come up. South Moun tain and An- tietam. The first conflict took place at South Moun tain, where the Confederate rear was driven from the passes. The two armies met on September 16 at An- tietam, on the Potomac north of Har- per s Ferry. A day s delay in the attack enabled Jackson to come up, but Lee still had little more than fifty thousand men against the much greater force of his opponent. The battle was fought on the 17th. It was a severe conflict. The Confederates were on the defensive, and on ground of their own choosing. The re sult was that neither side was victorious, though each side lost about thirteen thousand men. But Lee s advance to BATTLE-FIELDS OF VIRGINIA, MARYLAND, AND PENNSYLVA- 378 THE CIVIL WAR. the north was checked, and he fell back across the Potomac. McClellan Removed. McClellan was so slow in follow ing as to cause great dissatisfaction among the people of the North. This feeling was shared by the government, and in November McClellan was removed from his command and replaced by General Burnside, who had proved himself a brave and able commander. Unfortunately for him, how ever, he was influenced by the severe criticisms of McClel- lan s inactivity and resolved to show himself more active. The Battle of Fredericksburg. He marched hastily to Fredericksburg, hoping to reach there in advance of Lee, CONFEDERATE WORKS AT FREDERICKSBURG. but on his arrival he found the Confederates posted on the hills back of the town. It was now December. Heavy rains had swollen the Rappahannock River so that it could not be crossed without pontoons. These were slow in arriving, and by the time they reached the army attack was almost hopeless. THE EAST IN 1862. 379 But Burnside, feeling that he was expected to fight, crossed the river on December 12, and on the following day attacked the Confederates on the heights. It was a desperate attempt. The slaughter was frightful and the effort soon found to be hopeless. From behind a long stone wall the Confederate fire mowed down the Federal forces in thousands. In the end they were obliged to re treat, after losing more than twelve thousand men. Soon after, Burnside was removed from his command, and re placed by General Hooker. The Proclamation of Emancipation . The year s strug gle in Virginia had been almost uniformly disastrous to the Union forces. The battle of Antietam came nearest to a victory, and President Lincoln took advantage of it to per form an act which he had for some time contemplated. On September 22, 1862, a few days after the battle, he issued a proclamation, in which he announced that on the next New-Year s day all the slaves in territory then in arms against the Union should be free. 1 This proclamation was issued as a war measure, on the ground that the slaves were being used to support the Confederate cause. From this time forward negroes and 1 In 1861, General Fremont issued a proclamation in Missouri, de claring all slaves freemen. General Hunter in 1862 issued a similar proclamation, and mustered a regiment of negroes into the service. These actions were disavowed by the President. What to do with slaves who fell into Union hands was from the first a problem. Gen eral Benjamin F. Butler solved it. Some slaves who had made their way into his camp while at Hampton, Virginia, were demanded by their owner under the Fugitive Slave Law. As the slaves said that they were to be used in building fortifications, Butler refused to deliver them, saying that they were "contraband of war," and put them to work himself. From that time forward slaves were known as " con trabands." 380 THE CIVIL WAR. fugitive slaves were used in the Union armies, and the emancipation of the slaves became one of the purposes of the war. 1 6. THE CAMPAIGNS OF 1863. The Beginning of the End. During the year 1863 the high tide of the war of secession was reached. It culmi nated on Independence Day in two momentous events, the retreat of Lee from the battle-field of Gettysburg and the surrender of Vicksburg to General Grant. These events fatally weakened the Confederacy. There were no more aggressive movements of Lee s army. From that day it fought on the defensive. And the loss of Vicksburg gave the Union forces full control of the Mississippi, and cut off the three States of Texas, Louisiana, and Arkansas from the Confederacy. The 4th of July, 1863, marked the beginning of the end. Battle of Chancellorsville. The close of 1862 and spring of 1863 formed a period of disaster to the Union armies in Virginia. The terrible defeat of Burnside at Fredericksburg has been mentioned. General Hooker, who succeeded Burnside, did not venture to repeat the attack on Lee s works, but tried the effect of a flank movement. Marching up the Rappahannock, he crossed that river some distance above the town. He had ninety thousand men and Lee only forty-five thousand. But Lee did not hesitate to march against him, and on May 2 the two armies met in the thickly 1 The proclamation of emancipation was followed by the enlistment of many negroes into the armies of the North, a measure which was opposed by many in the North and drew severe resolutions from the Confederate Congress. The negroes proved eager to enlist, and made good soldiers. In December, 1863, there were over fifty thousand of them under arms, and four times that number before the war ended. THE CAMPAIGNS OF 1863. 381 wooded region of Chancellorsville. The battle was a des perate one. It was decided by a flank attack made by Stonewall Jackson, who unexpectedly fell upon and routed the Union right wing. But the Confederates suffered a severe loss. Jackson was severely wounded, and died of pneumonia a few days afterward. 1 The battle continued during the next day, and ended in Hooker recrossing the river. It was the most destructive defeat experienced by the Union armies during the war. The total loss in killed and wounded was thirty thousand, of which Hooker s army lost about seventeen thousand. Lee s Advance to Pennsylvania. The victories of Fred- ericksburg and Chancellorsville gave the greatest encourage ment to the South, and there was a wide-spread feeling that now was the time to invade the North and win some signal success. Washington or Baltimore might be captured, pos sibly Philadelphia or New York. Vast supplies might be gained, and perhaps terms of peace dictated from the na tional capital or the great cities of the North. Inspired by the vision of such splendid possibilities, Lee began a rapid march northward through the Shenandoah Valley, crossed the Potomac into Maryland, and advanced through that State to Pennsylvania, reaching the small town of Gettysburg on the 1st of July. March of the Union Army. The threatening movement of Lee, and doubt as to his purpose, threw the Union com-, manders into a state approaching consternation. To guard Washington was the first thought, and a hasty march north began, with the mountain ridge that bounds the Shenandoah 1 Jackson was shot by his own men. He had been reconnoitring the Union line, and on his return he and his staff were mistaken for Federal cavalry and were fired upon. 382 THE CIVIL WAR. Valley on the east between the two armies. On the dis covery that Lee was advancing into Pennsylvania, Hooker s -GREE PLAN or THE BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG. army was hastened forward by forced marches to cover Harrisburg and Philadelphia. On the march General Hooker resigned, on account of differences of opinion with the War THE CAMPAIGNS OF 1863. 383 Department. General George G. Meade took command in his place. The First Day s Battle at Gettysburg. That a great battle was imminent was evident. Events decided where it should be fought. The Confederate advance reached Gettysburg on July 1, and was there met by an advance force of Union cavalry. A fight began. Reinforcements were hurried up on both sides and the skirmish became a battle. In the end the Federal forces were driven back and General Reynolds was killed. Retreating through the town, the defeated army took a position along the crest of Cemetery Ridge, a range of elevated ground just south of Gettysburg. The position was a strong one for defence, and Meade hur ried up the rest of the army by forced marches to secure it. All that night regiments and brigades marched up by moon light and took their allotted posts. But when morning came much of the army was still miles away. 1 The Second Day s Battle. Lee s army, which was about seventy-three thousand strong, extended along Seminary Ridge in a concave line, facing the convex ridge on which Meade s army was posted. The lines occupied by the two armies were about twelve miles in length. Meade s army was about eighty thousand strong, but part of it was still a day s march distant, pressing forward with all speed. The battle of July 2 was mainly between Sickles s and Longstreet s corps, the struggle being largely for the pos- 1 It is said that mere chance made Gettysburg the field of battle. Meade had selected a position at Pipe Creek, fifteen miles to the south east, to make his stand. The movement of cavalry which brought on the battle was intended merely to screen his line of march. On the other hand, Lee had not proposed to fight except on the defensive, but found himself forced to attack his foe or retreat, his line of advance being cut off. 384 THE CIVIL WAR. session of two hills, called Round Top and Little Round Top. If Longstreet had won these, he would have com manded the Union position and might have defeated the army. But he failed to do so. The battle was fierce and destructive, but the Federals retained the hills. A SCENE AT GETTYSBURG. The Third Day s Battle. On July 2 the Confederates had been successful on their left, where they won a posi tion on Gulp s Hill, on the Union right. But they failed to retain it, being attacked and driven out at daybreak of the 3d. Thus the flanking movements on both wings had failed. On the 3d, Lee made a desperate attack on the Union centre, hoping to break through Meade s army at that point. About one o clock he began a cannonade from one hun dred and fifty pieces of artillery, and for two hours shot and shell were poured upon the Union lines. Then Gen eral Pickett, with fifteen thousand men, marched against Meade s centre. Across the plain, a mile in width, marched THE CAMPAIGNS OF 1863. 385 that devoted band, with the steadiness of long discipline. A hundred cannon tore gaps in their ranks. Volleys from long lines of infantry were poured upon them. No troops could endure that terrible slaughter. They fell in hundreds. The front reached the Union lines, but only to yield as pris oners of war. The remainder fled from the fatal field. The desperate struggle was at an end. In the three days fight Meade had lost twenty-three thousand men, Lee over twenty thousand. The Retreat. On July 4, Lee s retreat began. His at tempt to invade the North had proved a costly failure. NIGHT SCENE ON THE RETREAT FROM GETTYSBURG. And the host of veterans he had lost could never be re placed. He hastened to the Potomac, followed by Meade s army. The river was safely crossed and Virginia once more reached. Various strategic movements of the two armies took place during the remainder of the year, but there were no conflicts of importance. 26 386 THE CIVIL WAR. Grant s Expedition against Vicksburg. The opening of the Mississippi to the Union fleets was the task under taken by Grant in 1863. The Confederates held the two strong posts of Vicksburg and Port Hudson and the stretch of river between. Vicksburg was very strongly fortified. Sherman had been defeated in a direct attack upon it. Grant attempted its capture from the north, but in vain. He then took a bold resolve. 1 Cutting loose from his base of supplies, he marched down the west side of the river, while the gun-boats and supply-ships ran past the batteries through a dreadful storm of shot and shell. 2 Crossing the river on April 30, he fought no less than five battles with the Confederate forces, in all of which he was victorious. Finally, General Pemberton shut himself up with his army in Vicksburg, and Grant, who had regained his communica tions with the North, and was now sure of supplies, began the siege of that city. Vicksburg Taken. Two attempts were made to take Vicksburg by storm, but both failed. A siege followed, with mining and countermining. Six weeks ended it. Pem- berton s army was suffering for food, and all supplies were 1 Sherman s effort in 1862 had proved that the city could not be taken from the north. To capture it, the river must be crossed or its rear otherwise gained. But this presented great difficulties, which for two months, February and March, Grant was engaged in efforts to overcome. He tried by digging canals and deepening channels to make a route for supply-ships through the bayous west of the Missis sippi. He also tried to find a passage for gun-boats through the bayous on the northeast, that would enable him to reach the rear of Vicks burg from that direction. Both plans failed, and nothing remained but a daring march regardless of supplies. 2 The passage of the batteries was a dangerous venture. They ex tended for eight miles along the river bank, for which distance the gun-boats had to run the gantlet of shot and shell. THE CAMPAIGNS OF 1863. 387 cut off. On July 4 the garrison was surrendered as priso ners of war. In this campaign the Confederates lost ten thousand in killed and wounded, thirty-seven thousand in prisoners, and immense stores. It was still more disastrous to their cause than Gettysburg. On the 9th of July, Port Hudson, which was also besieged, surren dered. The Mis sissippi was open from its source to the Gulf, and within the next five days a steamboat, laden with goods, passed downward from St. Louis to New Or leans. The Situation in the West. The taking of Vicksburg virtually ended the war in the West, except in Tennessee. It was thenceforth confined to the Atlantic States of the Confederacy and to the vicinity of Chattanooga, in South eastern Tennessee, with the exception of one desperate battle at Nashville, and some minor engagements. 1 GRANT S VICKSBURG CAMPAIGN. 1 In July, 1863, General John H. Morgan, a dashing Confederate cavalry officer, crossed the Ohio, and made a rapid raid through In diana and Ohio, burning factories, mills, and bridges, tearing up rail roads, and destroying property in great quantities. He was everywhere harassed by militia, and was finally overtaken at Parkersburg, on the Ohio, where nearly all his men were captured. Morgan was taken and confined in the penitentiary at Columbus. He escaped four months afterward, and made his way in safety to Richmond. 388 THE CIVIL WAR. Chickamaug-a. After the battle of Murfreesboro Bragg held a strong line in Middle Tennessee. Here he was at tacked in late June, 1863, by Rosecrans, who, after a bril liant campaign, forced him to retreat to Chattanooga. This position he was obliged to leave in September by the flank ing movements of the Army of the Cumberland, and retired BATTLE OF CHICKAMAUGA. to Lafayette, south of Chickarnauga River. Here he was reinforced by Longstreet, sent by Lee from Virginia, and advanced on the Union army, then stretched out in Chicka- mauga Valley over a line forty miles long. Bragg attacked the rapidly concentrating army on September 19, and on the 20th defeated the right wing and made a vigorous as sault on the left, commanded by General Thomas. That able warrior, though attacked by much superior forces, held his ground with unyielding stubbornness, and saved the army from a severe disaster. He repulsed assault after assault, until the sun went down on that eventful day, when his ammunition was almost exhausted. At night he THE CAMPAIGNS OF 1863. 389 withdrew to Rossville, under orders received from General Rosecrans, and on the following day to Chattanooga. He was afterward honored with the title of " The Rock of Chickamauga. 1 1 Grant in Command. Bragg followed up his success by seizing Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge, which overlooked Chattanooga, and enabled him to hold Rose crans in a state of siege. Most of the Federal avenues of supply were cut off, and the army was suffering for food. At this juncture Rosecrans was replaced in command of the Army of the Cumberland by Thomas, and Grant was made commander of all the armies west of the Alleghanies. Sherman, with the Army of the Tennessee, marched up from Vicksburg, and Hooker brought reinforcements from Virginia. Both sides were making preparations for a des perate contest. Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. The armies met in battle late in November. On the 23d, Thomas seized Orchard Knob. On the 24th, Hooker attacked the works on Lookout Mountain. His men dashed up the hill, swept away its defenders, and took the position with little loss. This is famed as the "battle above the clouds," but the victory was gained with no severe fighting. On the 25th an assault in force was made on Missionary Ridge, Sherman and Hooker attacking the flanks and Thomas the centre of Bragg s army. The charge was irresistible. Up the steep face of the hill swept the whole 1 How long can you hold this pass?" was asked of Colonel George, of the Second Minnesota. " Until the regiment is mustered out of service," was the brave colonel s reply. Somewhat later, when Thomas was in command at Chattanooga, closely besieged and badly off for food, Grant telegraphed him to hold fast till he arrived. "We will hold the town till we starve," came back over the wires. 390 THE CIVIL WAR. army, the Confederates were forced from their guns and driven back in defeat, and the siege of Chattanooga was at an end. The Siege of Knoxville. One further event needs men tion. Burnside held Knoxville, in East Tennessee, where he was besieged by Longstreet, Bragg having weakened his army for that purpose. Longstreet attempted to take the city by storm on November 29, but was repulsed. On De cember 4 the advance of Sherman s army appeared, and Longstreet abandoned the siege. 7. THE FINAL CAMPAIGNS OF THE WAR. Grant Made Commander-in-Chief. The year 1864 opened hopefully for the Union armies. The territory of the war had been greatly restricted, the South was in great want of men and supplies, and the North had at last learned who were its ablest commanders. The remarkable mili tary ability of General Grant had become so evident that he was made (March 3, 1864) lieutenant-general, a rank which had previously been held only by Washington and Scott. All the armies of the Union were placed under his control, but he made his head-quarters with the Army of the Potomac, which continued under General Meade. Here he faced General Lee, the greatest of the Southern leaders. He intrusted the movements in the West to the hands of General Sherman, 1 whose ability had been amply proved. 1 William Tecumseh Sherman was born in Ohio in 1820. He grad uated from West Point in 1840, served in the Seminole War, and left the army in 1853, becoming a banker in San Francisco, then a lawyer in Kansas, and afterward superintendent of the military school in Louisiana. Entering the army when the war broke out, he served as colonel in the first battle of Bull Run. He was made brigadier-gen eral for gallantry, and major-general after Shiloh. After the war he THE FINAL CAMPAIGNS OF THE WAR. 391 Opposed to Sherman was the second ablest general of the Confederacy, Joseph E. Johnston. 1 The Plan of Cam- p a i g n. The plan adopted by Grant was one of continuous for ward movement of both the great armies of the Union, Meade and Sherman to start simul taneously, and each to keep his opponent so occupied that Lee and Johnston could not help each other. For the Army of the Potomac the overland route to Richmond was chosen. The crossing of the Rapidan River began on May 4, and on that day General Grant, seated on a roadside log, wrote his famous telegraph message to GRANT S CAMPAIGN. WILDERNESS TO PETERS- General Sherman, tell- BURG - ing him to begin his march. From that day both armies continued incessantly at work until the end of the war. was made lieutenant-general, and in 1869 general of the armies of the United States. He retired in 1883, and died in 1891. 1 Joseph Eggleston Johnston was born in Virginia in 1807. He en tered West Point Academy, graduated in 1829, and served as lieutenant 392 THE CIVIL WAR. Grant had an army of one hundred and twenty thousand men, nearly double that of Lee, but this great disparity in numbers was in a measure equalized by the fact that Lee fought in defence, Grant in attack. The Union troops had a constant succession of intrenchments to assault. A Series of Battles. The first conflict took place in the densely wooded country known as the Wilderness, in which the battle of Chancellorsville had been fought. Here the two great armies struggled for two days in the forest, with terrible slaughter, but victory for neither side. Then Grant made a flank movement, and marched to Spottsylvania Court-House. Here he found Lee intrenched to meet him. Eleven days more (May 8-18) of manoeuvring and fighting succeeded ; then Grant, unable to take Lee s works, flanked his army again. The armies next met on the North Anna River, where some more severe fighting took place. Then, by another flanking march, Grant moved south to Cold Harbor, on the Chickahominy River, and in the vicinity of Richmond. But Lee, having the shorter route, had once more outmarched his opponent, and his men lay behind strong earthworks. Here they were fiercely assailed on the morning of June 3, but so great was their advantage of position that the assault was a virtual slaughter. The Federal troops fell in thou sands, while the Confederate loss was small. Petersburg Besieged. At the end of this frightful and fruitless day s work Grant again withdrew. He now led .in the Seminole War. In the Mexican War, as lieutenant-colonel, he displayed much courage, and was twice severely wounded. Remaining in the army till 1861, he entered the Confederate service as major-gen eral, and was made lieutenant-general after the battle of Fair Oaks. In the West he made active but unsuccessful efforts to save Vicksburg. After the war he lived in Savannah, where he died in 1891. THE FINAL CAMPAIGNS OF THE WAR. 393 his army across the James River, and attempted to take Petersburg, a railroad centre south of Richmond. But Lee again, having still the shorter line, reached the ground first, and threw up works that could not be taken with out great loss. Grant thereupon built intrenchments also, and began a siege of the Confederate works, which were extended until they stretched from Petersburg to Rich mond. Losses of the Armies. In this month of incessant marching and fighting the losses had been terrible, that of the Union armies, from their policy of attack, being much the greater. The true numbers are unknown. Some state ments put Grant s loss at forty thousand, Lee s at thirty thousand ; others make the Union loss much greater, the Confederate loss considerably less. Comparatively, Lee s loss was the greater, for he could less afford the slaughter of his veteran troops. Early s Raid. Meanwhile, Generals Sigel and Hunter had been repulsed in the Shenandoah Valley, and that avenue of approach to the north again lay open. Having checked Grant s advance, Lee took quick advantage of this opportunity, hoping as before to draw off his foes by threat ening Washington. General Early was sent to the valley with twenty thousand men. Marching swiftly northward, he crossed the Potomac into Maryland, met and defeated General Lew Wallace at the Monocacy River, and on July 11 appeared before Fort Ste vens, one of the defences of Washington. Had he continued to advance the city might have been taken. But he gave his men a day s rest, and by the end of that time the forts were strongly garrisoned and Early was compelled to retreat. But on his retreat he sent a party of cavalry to Chambers- burg, Pennsylvania, who demanded a ransom of five hun- 394 THE CIVIL WAR. dred thousand dollars. Not obtaining it, they set fire to and burned a large part of the town. Sheridan s Ride. Grant now sent General Sheridan, 1 the ablest cavalry officer in his army, to confront Early, drive him if possible from the valley, and destroy or carry off all its forage, produce, and stock, so that it could not support an army again. 2 Sheridan proved himself an abler general than Early. He defeated him at Win chester and Fisher s Hill, and in a week reduced his army by one-half. On October 19, Early surprised the Union army at Cedar Creek, and drove it in confusion from the field. Sheridan was at Winchester, twenty miles away. Hearing the sound of cannon, he PHILIP SHERIDAN. mounted his horse and rode at full speed for the front. Meeting fugitives on the road, he hailed them with the cheering cry, " Turn, boys, turn ; we re going back." Reaching the army, he re-formed it, attacked the Confederates, who were plunder ing the camp, and defeated them with great slaughter. In a month s campaign Sheridan had lost seventeen thou- 1 Philip Henry Sheridan was born in Ohio in 1831. He graduated from West Point in 1853, and served in the West till the outbreak of the war. In 1862 he served in Mississippi, and was made major-gen eral for his bravery at Murfreesboro . He commanded the cavalry corps of the Army of the Potomac in 1864-65. He was made lieutenant-gen eral, succeeding Sherman, in 1869, and was given the rank of general, before held only by Grant and Sherman, on his death-bed in 1888. 2 Sheridan destroyed over two thousand barns filled with hay and wheat and over seventy mills filled with wheat and flour. He drove off over four thousand head of cattle and killed and issued to the troops three thousand sheep. War is brutal at its best, and this was an example of its necessary brutality. THE FINAL CAMPAIGNS OF THE WAR, 395 sand men. But Early s army was practically destroyed. Washington was safe during the remainder of the war. The Shenandoah Valley could not again feed an invading army. The Siege of Petersburg. The siege of the works at Petersburg continued incessantly till the spring of 1865. Only two events in this siege need special mention. A mine was dug under a strong Confederate fort in front of Peters burg, and exploded on the morning of July 30. The fort and its garrison were hurled into the air. The charge through the breach, however, was badly managed, a halt being made in the crater caused by the explosion, so that the Confederates had time to rally in defence. A torrent of shot and shell was poured upon the confused mass of men, killing them in multitudes. Such as could escaped, but not less than four thousand men were lost in this ill- conducted enterprise. The second event was the capture of the Weldon Rail road, one of Lee s means of communication with the South. He made desperate efforts to recover it, but in vain, and Grant s lines were extended to this important point. Sherman s Advance. While Grant was thus keeping Lee fully occupied in the North, Sherman was keeping Johnston, who had succeeded Bragg after the defeat of the latter at Chattanooga, as actively engaged in WILLIAM T. SHERMAN. the South. With an army of one hun dred thousand men he advanced upon Johnston, who, with about fifty thousand, was encamped at Dalton, Georgia. The route to Atlanta, Sherman s goal, was defended by strong intrenchments at various points. These Sherman attacked 396 THE CIVIL WAR. in succession, battles being fought at five different points, Dalton, Resaca, Dallas, Lost Mountain, and Kenesaw Moun tain. After each battle Sherman made a flanking march, and Johnston hastened to a new fortified post to meet him. It was in its way a repetition of the Grant and Lee campaign. Sherman had but a single railroad to bring his supplies and had to weaken his army to defend it. Johnston was shrewdly waiting until his opponent had thus become weak enough to be safely attacked in the open field. Johnston Replaced by Hood. This slow and sure policy of the able Confederate strategist was defeated by the impa tience of the Confederate government. President Davis, listening to complaints, and himself dissatisfied, removed Johnston at this critical juncture, and replaced him by Gen eral Hood, one of the hardest fighters in the Confederate army. Capture of Atlanta. As it proved, caution was just then a safer policy than hard fighting. Hood sustained his rep utation by making three desperate attacks upon the Union army. He was repulsed with great slaughter. Then Sher man adopted his flanking policy again. Taking in his w^agons fifteen days rations, he skirted Atlanta and placed his whole army on Hood s line of supplies. Hood was obliged to evacuate the city, and on September 2, 1864, Sherman took possession of Atlanta, the most important workshop and arsenal of the Confederacy. Results of the Campaign. This campaign, which had lasted for four months, and had been marked by ten battles and numerous smaller engagements, had been attended by a loss of thirty thousand men to the Union and still more to the Confederate army. The result was very serious to the Confederacy. Atlanta and its neighboring towns con- THE FINAL CAMPAIGNS OF THE WAR. 397 tained the principal mills, foundries, and manufactories from which the Confederate armies obtained their supplies of powder, cannon, clothing, wagons, and other necessaries. All these were now destroyed, and the Confederacy received an almost fatal blow. Hood Invades Tennessee. A desperate effort was now made to draw Sherman from Atlanta. Hood, with his army of forty thousand men, suddenly left his line of defence and marched into Tennessee, hoping by cutting off Sherman s line of communication and supply to force him to retreat from Georgia and transfer the area of the war again into Tennessee. He was mistaken. Sherman had no thought of abandon ing the ground he had won. On the contrary, he had it in view to march through Georgia to the sea, leaving the armies in Tennessee to take care of themselves. Georgia, the gran ary of the Confederacy, would afford him abundant supplies. The destruction of produce as he passed would enormously deplete the Confederate stock of food. The march of Hood from his front, therefore, was precisely what he desired. 1 Hood in Tennessee. General Thomas was in command at Nashville. Toward this city Hood swept onward with his veteran army. Schofield opposed him at Franklin. Here a severe battle took place, in which Hood lost five generals and over six thousand men. Schofield then drew back to Nashville, and Hood advanced to its vicinity and laid siege to the city. The Battle of Nashville. For two weeks Thomas lay behind his works, while Hood pressed the siege. The inac- 1 "If Hood will go there, I will give him rations to go with," said Sherman. The removal of Hood s army left the way clear for the movement which he contemplated, but which would have been impos sible with a powerful army in his front. 398 THE CIVIL WAR. tivity of the Union general gave great dissatisfaction to the authorities at Washington. Grant ordered him to move, and had started to take command in his place, when Thomas, who had only delayed until fully prepared, fell upon Hood with all his force. For two days the battle continued, December 15 and 16. It ended in Hood s utter rout. He lost more than fifteen thousand men, and the remainder of his army was utterly disorganized and scattered. It never came together again. The soldiers made their way home. The army was SHERMAN S MARCH, ATLANTA TO RALEIGH. at an end. The war in the West was of minor importance after this signal victory. The Exhaustion of the South. The South was now nearly exhausted. The heavy losses in battle and the dis persal of Hood s army had greatly decreased its fighting capacity, while clothes, food, and munitions of war were growing perilously scarce. The blockade on the coast was so close that little could be brought in from abroad. The THE FINAL CAMPAIGNS OF THE WAR. 399 capture of Atlanta had cut off one important source of supply. Another was soon to be lost. Sherman s March through Georgia. Disregarding Hood s northward march, Sherman left Atlanta about the middle of November, and, cutting loose from all commu nications, started with his army of sixty thousand veterans SHERMAN S MARCH TO THE SEA. on a long march across the State of Georgia. For a month he and his army were lost to sight. They were out of the reach of telegraphs and railroads, living on the country as they passed, and Christmas was at hand before the anxious North heard of them again. 1 1 Three scouts, who left the Union army just before it reached Sa vannah, brought the first news of Sherman s safety. They hid in the rice swamps by day and made their way down the river at night. Pass ing Fort McAllister unseen, they were picked up by the blockading 400 THE CIVIL WAR. The army, divided into four columns, with cavalry and skirmishers in front, had moved through three hundred miles of fertile territory, destroying railroads and supplies throughout a belt sixty miles wide. In late December they appeared before Savannah, having performed one of the most remarkable feats in modern military history, and ruined one of the principal sources of the enemy s mili tary supplies. On the 21st, Savannah was captured and the famous march came to an end. Sherman s army win tered in Georgia and South Carolina, still destroying supplies wherever found. The Red River Expedition. Early in 1864 a land and naval expedition, under General Banks, was sent up the Red River, with the hope of conquering that region. It proved a disastrous failure, Banks being completely defeated and losing five thousand men and large supplies. Mean while, taking advantage of the absence of troops, General Forrest advanced through Tennessee and Kentucky and attacked Paducah. He was repulsed by the gun-boats, but took Fort Pillow, and gave no quarter to its colored garrison. Altogether the Red River expedition was a costly and seemingly a needless effort, since the region invaded, being cut off from the rest of the Confederacy, could safely have been left untouched. It must have yielded of itself on the close of the war in the East. The War on the Coast. While these events were taking place on land, the fleet was not idle. The blockade had been made so complete that few blockade-runners now reached Confederate ports. During the war over fifteen gun-boats, which sent north the welcome news. After taking Savan nah, Sherman wrote to Lincoln that he presented it to him as a Christ mas gift, " with one hundred and fifty guns and twenty-five thousand bales of cotton." THE FINAL CAMPAIGNS OF THE WAR. 401 hundred of these adventurous vessels were taken or de stroyed. Since early in the war Charleston had been be sieged, but it was so vigorously defended that every attempt to take it proved a failure until the coming of Sherman s army in 1865. Farragut at Mobile. On August 5, 1864, Admiral Far- ragut, with a fleet of wooden and iron-clad vessels, attacked the defences of Mobile. These defences consisted of three forts, a fleet of three gun-boats, and the great iron-clad ram BATTLE m MOBILE BAY. Tennessee. The fight was a severe one, but ended in the capture of the ram and the dispersal or destruction of the gun-boats. The forts soon after surrendered. Fort Fisher Taken. Later in the year (December 24, 25), Fort Fisher, which defended the harbor of Wilmington, North Carolina, was attacked by a combined land and naval force, which failed to take it. On January 15, 1865, it was 26 402 THE CIVIL WAR. assailed by the same force and taken by assault. This ended all blockade-running. Every port of the Confederacy was now closed. The Alabama. Meanwhile, a number of Confederate cruisers built in British ports and manned by British sailors, their officers only being from the South had gone far toward destroying American commerce. Hundreds of vessels had been taken and burnt, or bonded for heavy sums. The most notable of these cruisers was the Alabama, commanded by Captain Semmes, which captured in all over sixty vessels. On June 19, 1864, this vessel, then in the harbor of Cherbourg, France, challenged the ship of war Kearsarge to fight. The challenge was accepted and a fierce battle took place. It ended in the sinking of the Ala bama. 1 Later in the year the Georgia and Florida, two others of these cruisers, were captured. The Presidential Election of 1864. In the 1864 elec tion Lincoln was again the Republican candidate for the Presidency. Andrew Johnson, a War Democrat of Ten- 2 The Alabama was built, armed, and furnished in England, sailed from England under the British flag, and had a crew mostly made up of British subjects. She could not take her prizes into British ports, so they were generally plundered and burnt. She destroyed sixty-four American vessels, valued with their cargoes at ten million dollars. As a result of the work of Confederate privateers two-thirds of the carry ing trade of the United States was transferred to British vessels. The Alabama was finally blockaded by the Kearsarge in the port of Cher bourg, France, and, as she could not escape, challenged the Kearsarge to fight, coming out for that purpose. An English yacht hovered near the scene of action, and after the sinking of the Alabama picked up Cap tain Semmes and part of his crew and carried them to England. By the laws of war they should have been delivered to the Kearsarge. This naval battle was witnessed by more than fifteen thousand specta tors on the highlands of the coast, a Sunday excursion train having brought hundreds of them from Paris. THE FINAL CAMPAIGNS OF THE WAR. 4Q3 nessee, was nominated for Vice-President. The Democrats nominated General McClellan, and in their platform de manded that hostilities should cease, on the ground that the war was a failure and the South could not be subdued. Lincoln was elected, receiving two hundred and twelve electoral votes to twenty-one for McClellan. The eleven seceded States, of course, did not vote. Sherman s March North. In February, 1865, Sherman left Savannah and began a long march north. His army, as before, moved in columns, covering a belt fifty miles wide. Columbia, the capital of South Carolina, was taken and burned. Charleston was evacuated by the Confederates and occupied by Federal troops. On reaching Goldsboro , North Carolina, Sherman was joined by General Schofield from Wilmington and General Terry from New-Bern, with their forces. His army was now one hundred thousand strong. It was opposed by General Johnston, who had been restored to his command, and who had done his utmost to check Sherman s advance to the north. The Fall of Richmond. The war was nearer its end than many supposed. Despite the stupendous earthworks which Lee s army had built from Petersburg to Richmond, there were not men enough for their proper defence, while the operations of the armies at the South and West had largely cut off the sources of reinforcements and supplies. The end came in the spring of 1865. On March 29, Gen eral Sheridan, with a large force of cavalry and infantry, moved around the right flank of Lee s army to Five Forks, a place about twelve miles west of Petersburg. This place surrendered on April 1, yielding Sheridan five thousand prisoners. It was evident that Richmond could no longer be held. Lee, threatened with an attack in the rear, felt it necessary 404 THE CIVIL WAR. to evacuate the capital without delay. On April 2 the Union army made an assault along the whole line, and before noon many of the Confederate works were taken and thousands of prisoners captured. The end was at hand. Lee sent word to President Davis that the army must retreat at once. During that night the Confederate government and army left the city they had so long and vigorously held. On Monday, April 3, Federal troops marched into the capital of the Confederacy. 1 The Last March of Lee s Army. Only one hope re mained to General Lee. That was to join Johnston in North Carolina and seek to prolong the contest by the com bined strength of the two armies. This junction Grant was determined, if possible, to prevent, and he pursued the retiring army with the utmost speed. Lee marched toward Lynchburg. Sheridan s cavalry cut him off from this point. Lee s veterans were now without food, and were forced to gnaw the young shoots of the trees for sustenance. At length they found their 1 Word of what General Lee proposed was brought to President Davis while at church, the day being Sunday. He immediately left, with a face that betrayed the character of the news. People harried from the churches, and the alarm spread through the city. When, late in the afternoon, the signs of evacuation became evident, crowds of fugitives filled the streets, hurrying from the city by every means available. About midnight hundreds of barrels of liquor were rolled into the streets and the heads knocked in, to prevent the disorder of general drunkenness. By military order the four principal tobacco warehouses of the city were set on fire and the flames soon spread beyond control. When morning broke the conflagration was wide- extended, and everywhere were busy plunderers, carrying off goods of every description. Into this scene of terror the Federal troops came as aids to law and order, lending their assistance to check the con flagration and put an end to the reign of robbery. THE FINAL CAMPAIGNS OF THE WAR. 405 advance completely cut off by Sheridan, and on the 9th of April, 1865, at Appomattox Court-House, General Lee, finding further efforts hopeless, surrendered his army to General Grant. This army had been greatly reduced. Thousands had been taken or had deserted in the hopeless retreat. Only THE LAST CONFEDERATE BATTLE LINE. about twenty-eight thousand remained. These were paroled. Grant supplied the starving veterans with food, and allowed the cavalry to keep their horses, saying, with fine generosity, " They will need them for their spring ploughing and other farm work." The End of the War. Five days after Lee s surrender (April 14) General Anderson hoisted over Fort Sumter the flag which he had pulled down on that day four years be fore. Soon after all opposition to the Union armies ended. Johnston, who had been repulsed near Goldsboro , on March 19, surrendered to Sherman on April 26, on the same terms that had been granted Lee. On May 4, Gen- 406 THE CIVIL WAR. eral Taylor, in Alabama, surrendered, and soon after the last of the Confederates in arms gave up the struggle. The total number paroled in the several armies was one hun dred and seventy-four thousand two hundred and twenty- three. Capture of Davis. Jefferson Davis, with his family and cabinet, fled from Richmond rapidly southward, with a guard of two thousand cavalry soldiers. These gradually dwindled away, and on May 11 he was captured at Irwins- ville, Georgia. He was imprisoned in Fortress Monroe, but was finally set at liberty without a trial. Assassination of Lincoln. The surrender of General Lee was quickly followed by a deplorable incident, which threw the whole nation, which had been gladdened by the return of peace, into a state of sorrow and mourning. On the evening of April 14, while the President was seated, with his family and friends, in a box at Ford s Theatre, he was shot by an actor named John Wilkes Booth, who sprang to the stage with a theatrical cry of " Sic semper tyrannis !" (" Thus always with tyrants !") He was one of a party of conspirators, of whom another tried to kill Mr. Seward, the Secretary of State. 1 Booth was tracked to his hiding-place and shot. Four of his accomplices were hanged and others imprisoned for life. The President lingered a few hours, and died the next morning. The funeral took place on the 19th, which was observed as a day of mourning throughout the land. 1 Booth and his accomplices seem to have been influenced by a foolish idea of avenging the wrongs of the South, with which may have been mixed up a desire for notoriety. As it was they injured the South by removing one on whom it was coming to look as a friend, and whose kindliness and wisdom would have gone far to prevent the dissensions and bitter feeling that afterward arose. THE COUNTRY DURING THE WAR. 407 The body was borne to the President s home at Spring field, Illinois, through a land plunged into the deepest grief. 8. THE COUNTRY DURING THE WAR. Tariff and Internal Revenue. Congress and the execu tive department of the government were actively engaged during the war, largely in the task of providing means for its continuance. The obtaining of revenue was one of the most important duties of the administration, and various financial measures were adopted. The Morrill Tariff Act, passed just before Lincoln took his seat in 1861, added largely to the duties on imports. During the war further increases in duties were made, till at the end of the conflict the tariff charges were nearly three times as great as in Buchanan s administration. To increase the revenue a system of internal taxes was adopted. Stamps had to be bought and placed on all bank checks, receipts, and many legal, commercial, and other documents. Pianos, billiard-tables, gold watches, and a host of other things were taxed. Heavy taxes were laid on tobacco and spirituous liquors, and people with large in comes had to pay a tax. Paper Money and Bonds. But it was impossible by taxation to meet the enormous expenses of the war, which soon reached one million dollars a day, and in time became three times that amount. The vast sum required could be had only by borrowing. Bonds bearing interest at high rates were issued, and large sums of money were obtained in this way. National paper money or notes were also issued, which were called " greenbacks" from their color. Gold at a Premium. Gold and silver soon became more valuable than greenbacks and ceased to be used as money. 408 THE CIVIL WAR. Gold steadily increased in price until at length a greenback dollar was worth only about thirty-five cents in gold. Many years passed before the government notes equalled gold in value. As there was no silver in circulation, change became very scarce, and small notes, for fifty cents, twenty- five cents, and smaller sums, were issued to supply the public demand. National Banks. In 1863 an act of Congress was passed establishing National Banks. These took the place of the old State Banks. The notes issued by them were made good by United States bonds bought by the banks and de posited in the Treasury at Washington, so that these notes were everywhere taken, the government being security for their payment. Southern Finances. The Confederacy adopted similar methods of finance, but had not the same power of making good its promises to pay. Bonds were issued, many of which were sold in Europe. These fell in value until they became worthless. The same was the case with the paper money issued. Its fate resembled that of the Continental currency of the Revolution. Late in the war flour was quoted at two hundred and seventy-five dollars a barrel, shoes at one hundred and twenty-five dollars a pair, pota toes at twenty-five dollars a bushel, butter at fifteen dollars a pound, etc. 1 1 The people of the Confederacy were put to the severest straits to obtain the necessaries of life. While great sums in Confederate cur rency were paid for ordinary articles, there were others not to be had at any price. Many substitutes were used for tea. Pins became ex ceedingly scarce, arid hair-pins were made of large thorns with heads of wax. Shoes were made with wooden soles, to which the uppers were tacked. Salt was used with the greatest economy, and old fish- barrels were soaked and the water evaporated to increase the supply. THE COUNTRY DURING THE WAR. 409 Conscription. The armies, North and South, at first were raised by volunteering. At length, as enlistments grew slow, a conscription act was passed by Congress. It was not severe. Any person " drafted" could gain exemp tion by hiring a substitute, or paying three hundred dollars for that purpose. Large bounties were paid for volunteers, and many were secured in that way. Conscription was also adopted in the South, where in the end few exemptions were permitted. The Draft Riot. The conscription was strongly opposed, particularly in the city of New York, and on July 13, 1863, a serious riot broke out there, the mob gaining control of the city, and holding it in terror for several days. Great excesses took place, about fifty buildings being burned, and more than two million dollars worth of property destroyed. The rioters showed a particular hatred toward colored people, of whom several were hanged. Troops were brought to the city to put down the riot, and in the struggle that followed over twelve hundred of the rioters were killed. Foreign Affairs. Earnest efforts were made by the Con federacy to obtain from foreign nations a recognition of its independence as a nation, but without success. It was feared by foreign nations that such an act would bring against them a declaration of war from the United States. A number of them, however, accorded belligerent rights to the Confederate States. And through the sympathy of the British government they were permitted to build and equip cruisers, a form of support for which Great Britain after ward paid dearly. Women wore garments the cloth of which they had spun and woven, while woollen clothing almost disappeared. Such were a few of the endless makeshifts to which the people were put. 410 THE CIVIL WAR. The Armies. At the time of Lee s surrender there were more than a million of Union soldiers under arms. The total number enlisted had been much more than this, and probably six hundred thousand lost their lives on the two sides from wounds and disease, in addition to the large number disabled. How many served in the Confederate armies there are no statistics to show. The total cost of the war, including property destroyed and the value of the slaves, has been estimated at not less than eight billion dollars. At the end of the war the government was in debt nearly three billion dollars. Sanitary and Christian Commissions. No previous war had ever shown such humane care of the people for the wounded and suffering soldiers. The Sanitary Com mission, organized among the people, had its corps of nurses, physicians, and attendants, its hospitals, ambu lances, hospital cars and boats, and other means for the care of the sick and wounded, and distributed vast quanti ties of clothing and other supplies for the comfort of the soldiers. Millions of dollars were raised for. its support by subscription and by " Sanitary Fairs" held all over the North. The Christian Commission was organized to look after the moral and religious welfare of the soldiers, in which it proved very active and efficient. The South lacked the means to take care of her soldiers to any similar extent. The Grand Review. On May 23 and 24 a grand review of Grant s and Sherman s armies was held in Washington, previous to their disbandment. The column of soldiers was over thirty miles long, and for two days it marched up the broad avenue from the Capitol to the White House, to the sound of martial music, and under the tattered flags which had waved over scores of battle-fields. No such THE COUNTRY DURING THE WAR. 411 spectacle had ever been seen in America. And a still more striking spectacle was that of all these war-worn veterans, in a few weeks, returning to the peaceful duties of citizen ship, only some fifty thousand of the whole vast array being retained under arms. What the War Settled. If it be asked what was settled by this long and terrible war, it may be answered that it definitely settled the question of secession. No State is likely hereafter to attempt to leave the Union. It put an end to slavery, and thus removed the principal cause of hostile feelings between the two sections of the Union. It showed the strength of the great republic, and taught Europe that the Union of the States was far stronger than foreign statesmen were prepared to believe. It greatly increased the respect which foreign nations held for this country, and for the principle of republicanism as here maintained. New States. During the war two new States were ad mitted to the Union, West Virginia, already named, and, in 1864, Nevada, whose population had grown rapidly from the discovery of rich silver-mines within its borders. PART X. DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. I. Jobnson s Hfcmtnistration, The New President s Position. On April 15, 1865, three hours after Lincoln s life had ended, Andrew Johnson l quietly assumed his place and began to perform the duties of the office. The new President was a man of posi tive convictions and strong will, quali ties which soon brought him into hostility with Congress. His position was one of the greatest difficulty, and his vigorous adherence to his personal views simply added to the difficulty, without enabling him to carry out one of his proposed measures. Congress, which would have acted in concert with Lincoln, acted in opposition to Johnson, and was forced into severer measures than it would probably have adopted had Lincoln survived. 1 Andrew Johnson, the seventeenth United States President, was born in North Carolina in 1808. His educational advantages were meagre, but he took every opportunity to study during his apprentice ship to a tailor. He learned to write after his marriage. Entering political life, he occupied several State offices, was sent to Congress in 1843, and afterward served as governor of Tennessee and as United States Senator. He was an ardent Democrat, but strongly opposed the 412 ANDKEW JOHNSON. JOHNSON S ADMINISTRATION. 413 The Thirteenth Amendment. In February, 1865, while the war was still in progress, Congress passed a bill adding a Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States. This amendment abolished slavery within the Union, completing the work of Lincoln s Emancipation Proc lamation. It was adopted by the requisite three-fourths of the States during the year, and became a law December 18, 1865. Loyal State Governments Organized. Congress not being in session, Johnson proceeded to act without calling an extra session. He issued (May 29, 1865) a proclamation of pardon to the people of the seceded States, on condition that they would swear to " faithfully support, protect, and defend the Constitution and the Union." This oath was widely taken. In four of the States, Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Louisiana, loyal State governments were formed. These the President recognized, and authorized the other States to call conventions to form loyal govern ments. These conventions ratified the Thirteenth Amend ment, repealed the secession ordinances, and repudiated the war-debt of the Confederacy. This done, the President considered that the only necessary steps had been taken, and that the seceded States were again full members of the Union, a view with which Congress, on coming together, did not agree. Preedmen s Bureau. The new Southern governments, believing that the negroes would not work in a state of freedom, passed laws with severe penalties to compel them secession of Tennessee, and in 1862 was made military governor of that State. His activity in this position won him the nomination to the Vice-Presidency. After his Presidential term he remained politi cally active and was again elected to the Senate in 1875. but died during that year. 414 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. to work. Congress, fearing that a condition resembling that of slavery would be produced, organized a Freedmen s Bureau, for the protection of the recent slaves. It passed also a Civil Rights Bill, which gave the freedmen all the rights of citizens of the United States except that of suffrage. Under this bill no Southerner could hold office until he took an oath that he had taken no part in secession. The Fourteenth Amendment. In 1866 another amend ment to the Constitution was passed by Congress, and was ratified by the requisite number of States on July 28, 1868. This declared that no State should deprive any citizen of his rights ; that all who had sworn to defend the Constitution and had taken up arms against it should be ineligible to office (unless made eligible by Act of Congress) ; and that the United States debt should be valid, but no debt incurred by insurrectionists should be paid. Reconstruction Acts. Various other measures, known as Reconstruction Acts, were passed. All these acts were vetoed by the President, and were passed over his veto, while the feeling of irritation between the President and Congress daily grew stronger. Military governments were appointed for all the seceded States except Tennessee, which was permitted to send representatives to Congress in 1866. The military government of each State was to continue until a convention, chosen by voters without regard to race or color, should frame a new government and ratify the Four teenth Amendment. No Confederate leader was permitted to vote for or take part in these conventions. Six States Readmitted. Under this law six States, Ala bama, Louisiana, North Carolina, South Carolina, Arkansas, and Florida, were readmitted to the Union, and sent repre sentatives to Congress in June, 1868. The other four States refused to assent to the law. JOHNSON S ADMINISTRATION. 415 The Carpet-Bag Governments. The new governments formed were anything but satisfactory. The "iron-clad oath, 1 as the oath required to be taken was called, kept the most intelligent of the people out of office. The freed slaves, who were given the right of suffrage under the provisional governments, formed the majority in several of the States, and their complete ignorance of political matters led to an unfortunate state of affairs. Advent urers from the North who were called u carpet-baggers," it being said of them that they could put all they owned in a carpet-bag made their way south, solicited the negro vote, and were elected to office. Many of the recent slaves were sent to the State legislatures. The result was calami tous, money was squandered or stolen, and the States involved were nearly ruined. Tenure of Office Act. By 1867 the hostility between the President and Congress grew so great that Congress took steps to reduce the President s power. An act, called the Tenure of Office Act, was passed, which forbade the Pres ident to remove certain officials without the consent of the Senate. This bill was promptly vetoed, but was passed over the veto on March 2, 1867. This measure angered the President, and he quickly showed his intention to ignore it. He asked Edwin Stanton, Secretary of War, whom he disliked, to resign. Stanton declined, whereupon Johnson removed him from office and appointed Lorenzo Thomas in his place. Impeachment of the President. Congress met again in December, and the Senate refused to confirm the President s action. As a result Stanton resumed his official position. The President thereupon directed Thomas to perform the duties of the office. This setting aside an act of Congress was a grave matter, and in February the House of Repre- 416 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. sentatives, on this and other charges, impeached the Pres ident for high crimes and misdemeanors. The charge was a serious one. No President had ever before been so accused. Under it he was subject to a trial before the Senate, and if found guilty would be incapable of holding office. In such a case the presiding officer of the Senate would have succeeded him as President. The trial was long continued, lasting from March 5 to May 16, 1868. Chief Justice Chase presided over the Senate, which sat as a court. A two-thirds vote was necessary for conviction. When the vote was taken there was one less than the required number. The President was therefore acquitted. His term, however, was nearing its end, as his Presidency would end in less than a year. Amnesty. On Christmas-day, 1868, President Johnson issued a proclamation of "full pardon and amnesty" to those who had taken part in the " late rebellion." This did not restore their political rights, which could only be done by Congress. Maximilian in Mexico. During our Civil War, Napoleon III., Emperor of France, found a pretext to interfere in Mexico, and sent an army there, though Secretary Seward warned him that his action would be resented by the United States, as contrary to the Monroe doctrine. Napoleon pro posed to found an empire in Mexico, and selected as em peror Maximilian, an Austrian archduke. In 1865 our government gave Napoleon plainly to understand that it would be wise for him to remove his army. He did so, therefore, but Maximilian remained. As a result the repub licans of Mexico rose in arms, defeated his army, captured and shot him. The empire was at an end and the republic was re-established. The Fenians. In 1866 the Fenians, an organization of JOHNSON S ADMINISTRATION. 417 Irish-Americans, fancied that they could aid their native country by invading Canada. A considerable number of them crossed the boundary-line, but the President issued a proclamation which soon settled the disturbance. The Atlantic Telegraph. Another important matter was the laying of a successful ocean telegraph. This was ac complished in 1866, by Cyrus W. Field, the projector of the first ocean cable. Since that time telegraph communication with Europe has been constant and many other cables have been laid. 1 Purchase of Alaska. In 1867, Russia offered her terri tory in America, known as Russian America, to this country, for the price of seven million two hundred thousand dol lars. The purchase was made, though many objected to it. It has proved a wise one, the country being rich in furs, fishes, timber, gold, and other valuable materials. This territory, since known as Alaska, is nearly six hundred thou sand square miles in area. Nebraska, the thirty-seventh State, was admitted to the Union March 1, 1867. Treaty with China. In 1868 a treaty with China was negotiated, by Anson Burlingame, formerly minister to that country. It was the first treaty that China had ever made with a foreign nation except under compulsion. 1 The first Atlantic cable, laid in 1857, proved a failure. A cable laid in July, 1858, worked successfully for a short time, but ceased to work on September 1, while a celebration in honor of its success was being held in New York. Mr. Field continued his efforts, and a new cable was made in 1865, but it parted in the middle of the ocean and sunk to the bottom. Undismayed, he formed a new company and had a new cable made. This was laid in June, 1866, and proved success ful. Then the cable of 1865 was raised by means of grappling-irons, spiked, and its laying completed. Both cables worked admirably. A battery made in a gun-cap has sent a telegraph message across the ocean. 27 418 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. Presidential Election of 1868. In 1868 the Republican party nominated as its candidate Ulysses S. Grant, the great general of the war, Schuyler Colfax, of Indiana, being asso ciated with him as Vice-President. The Democratic party nominated Horatio Seymour, late governor of New York. Grant received two hundred and fourteen electoral votes out of two hundred and ninety-four, and was elected. 2* Grant s HDtntnistration, Harmony Restored. The inauguration of General Grant l as President of the United States put an end to the unfor tunate controversy between the ex ecutive and legislative branches of the government which had existed for four years, and which had worked to the disadvantage of the parties immediately concerned, the seced ing States of the South. With the accession of President Grant har mony between the several branches of the government was restored and ULYSSES s. GRANT. the period of hostile relations came to an end. The Fifteenth Amendment. The privilege of the suf frage which had been given to the negroes under the pro visional governments of the Southern States was confirmed 1 In 1877, on the close of Grant s second term, he made a tour of the world, visiting Europe, Northern Africa, India, China, and Japan. He was looked upon as the foremost military genius of the age, and his journey was an ovation from beginning to end, all nations seeking to do him honor. He died of cancer, at Mount McGregor, New York, in 1885. His magnificent tomb on the Hudson has become a place of pil grimage to visitors to New York City. GRANT S ADMINISTRATION. 419 in a new amendment to the Constitution, which provided that the right to vote in any part of this country should not be denied " on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." This gave to negroes the same rights of voting as to whites. It was adopted by the requisite num ber of States in 1870. The adoption of the three new amendments was required of the four States Virginia, Georgia, Mississippi, and Texas still without representa tion in Congress. This was done, and they were read mitted in 1870. The Alabama Claims. The end of the war was quickly followed by a demand on the part of the United States for redress from Great Britain for the damages caused by the privateer Alabama, which had been built in England and sailed from an English port. A strong, almost warlike, feeling arose, but in the end, by a treaty made at Wash ington, both countries agreed to submit the matter to arbi tration. A commission of five men, appointed by the United States, Great Britain, Italy, Switzerland, and -Brazil, met in Geneva in 1872. This board found Great Britain in fault, and decided that she should pay this country fifteen million five hundred thousand dollars for the damage sus tained. This is known as the " Geneva award." Other Arbitrations. Other questions were settled by arbitration. In 1872 the Emperor of Germany decided a dispute about the Northwest boundary of the United States, and in 1877 a board of arbitration settled certain disputes between the American and Canadian fishermen. The latter decision went against the United States, which was ordered to pay five million five hundred thousand dollars to Great Britain. These settlements by arbitration are of great im portance. Disputes no greater than those thus acted upon in former times often led to war. 420 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. Railroad Extension. The conclusion of the war was followed by an era of rapid railroad construction, and during the period of Grant s first term thousands of miles of railroad were built. Of these enterprises much the most important was the railroad to the Pacific, which was com- MEETING OF THE UNION AND CENTRAL PACIFIC RAILROADS. pleted May 10, 1869. This great work, which was aided by liberal grants from Congress, completed a continuous line of rail from New York to San Francisco, a distance of over three thousand three hundred miles. 1 Since then several 1 This railroad was begun during the Civil War. It consisted of two separate roads, which met at Ogden, Utah, the Union Pacific, which was built westward one thousand and twenty-nine miles from Omaha, and the Central Pacific, which extended eastward eight hun dred and seventy-eight miles from San Francisco. The last spike, connecting these roads, was driven at Ogden, May 10, 1869. The spike was connected with telegraph wires, and each blow on it was GRANT S ADMINISTRATION. 421 other railroads have been built across the continent, and a traveller can go from the Atlantic to the Pacific to-day in less time than it took to go from Boston to Washington a century ago, and with far more ease and comfort. The Weather Bureau. Congress in 1870 established a Weather Bureau, for the purpose of making and publishing accurate observations on the weather. This has been of immense service in advising the people of the approach of storms, changes in temperature, etc. It was long under the care of the Signal Service of the Army, but was transferred in 1891 to the Agricultural Department of the government. Chicago and Boston Fires. In 1871 there took place in Chicago what was perhaps the most destructive conflagra tion recorded in history. It started on the evening of Oc tober 9, in a stable, and is said to have been caused by a cow kicking over an oil-lamp. It raged frightfully for two days, aided by a high wind, and passed through the richest part of the city to the lake. More than three square miles were burned over, two hundred million dollars worth of property was destroyed, more than two hundred persons were killed, and one hundred thousand were rendered homeless. About a year later a great fire in Boston de stroyed nearly eighty million dollars worth of property. The burned districts were rapidly rebuilt, with handsomer buildings than before. 1 telegraphed throughout the Union. Before this road was built the mail was carried to the Pacific on horseback by a "pony express," and afterward by a line of stage-coaches. 1 At almost the same time as the Chicago fire, the most destructive forest fires ever known in this country broke out in Minnesota. Wis consin, and Michigan. Vast wealth in timber was destroyed and many persons lost their lives. It was estimated that fifteen hundred persons perished in Wisconsin alone. 422 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. The Whiskey Ring. During the year 1872 a combina tion was made in St. Louis to defraud the government by keeping back part of the tax on whiskey and other distilled liquors. United States revenue officers were concerned in this with the distillers. During the next two years this scheme of fraud grew extensive, and spread to other cities. It was discovered in 1875, and more than two hundred persons were indicted for conspiracy. It was shown that the government had been robbed of nearly two million dollars. The Credit Mobilier. A corporation known by the French title of Credit Mobilier had been organized for the construction of the Union Pacific Railroad. In 1872, during the Presidential campaign, charges were brought against certain Republican members of Congress to the effect that they had accepted presents of stock from this company, in return for which they were to use their influence in its favor. An investigation was ordered by Congress. As a result two members were censured for receiving bribes, and others sank in public estimation. The Pranking Privilege. Abuses had also arisen in relation to the franking privilege. the sending and re ceiving of mail matter free by Congressmen and officials. Such quantities of matter were sent free through the mails as to add greatly to the expense of the postal service. This abuse was now checked, and only communications on offi cial business and publications authorized by Congress were permitted to be sent. But an allowance for postage was made to each Congressman. The Salary Grab. In the same Congress that of 1873 a bill was passed which raised the salaries of many offi cials of the government, the salary of the President being increased from twenty-five thousand to fifty thousand GRANT S ADMINISTRATION. 423 dollars a year, and those of Congressmen from five thou sand to seven thousand five hundred dollars. To this no public objection would likely have been made. The sala ries of officials in this country had always been small as compared with those paid in other large nations. But Con gress went further, and dated the increase in the salary of members back to 1871. This raised a storm of disap proval. The measure was called the " Salary-Grab Bill," and was so bitterly opposed that Congress repealed it at the next session. The Indian Question. In the earlier days of this coun try the Indians east of the Mississippi had made much trouble for the whites. Now the Indians west of the Mis sissippi were to be dealt with. There had been outbreaks of the Sioux Indians during the war and in 1866. Other troubles arose during Grant s administration. In 1872 it was proposed to move the Modoc Indians of Oregon from one reservation to another. They refused to move, retired to a rugged and difficult territory known as the "Lava Beds," and for a year resisted the troops. Few of them were left at the end of the conflict, and these were sent to Indian Territory. 1 The Sioux War. In 1876, near the end of Grant s second term, a war broke out with the Sioux Indians, who refused to move from the Black Hills of Dakota. Gold had been discovered in this region, and it was wanted for the 1 In Grant s first annual message he announced " a new policy toward these wards of the nation by giving the management of a few reservations of Indians to members of the Society of Friends." At a later date other reservations were intrusted to other religious sects. This new policy has worked well, though it had to contend with the injustice and frauds of the Indian agents. It has given rise to an " Indian Rights Association." 424 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. whites, but the Sioux, under their leader, Sitting Bull, fought fiercely. During the contest General Ouster, a brave cav alry leader of the Civil War, with a small force, was attacked on the Little Big Horn River by ten times his number of Indians, and he and his entire regiment were killed, the savages giving no quarter. In the end Sitting Bull and his followers fled to Canada. BATTLE AT THE LITTLE BIG HOKN. The Election of 1872. A new party arose in 1872, under the name of Liberal Republicans. It advocated the removal of troops from the South and civil service reform. Since the " spoils system" had been instituted by President Jackson the number of places under the government had very greatly increased. These positions were given out by Congressmen and others in reward for political services, A reform in this abuse was badly needed, and a conven- GRANT S ADMINISTRATION. 425 tion was held by the new organization, which nominated Horace Greeley, publisher and editor of the New York Tribune. The Democratic party accepted Greeley as its candidate in spite of the fact that he had been one of its most active opponents. Grant was renominated by the Republican party. Of the three hundred and sixty-six electoral votes cast Grant received two hundred and eighty-six. Henry Wilson, of Massachusetts, was elected Vice-President. Greeley died before the electoral votes were cast. A Prosperous Period. The four years of Grant s first administration were years of prosperity. The steady de velopment of gold- and silver-mines added greatly to the wealth of the country, the production of coal, iron, and petroleum was increased, the area of wheat production expanded, manufactures were active, and all branches of industry improved. But this activity of business gave rise to an activity of speculation that yielded its natural result, a business depression of unsurpassed severity. The Panic of 1873. The speculative movement took largely the direction of very rapid railroad-building, the railroad mileage of this country being increased more than fifty per cent, during Grant s first term. The total mileage became equal to that of all Europe. In October, 1873, a prominent banking-house of Philadelphia, largely interested in the Northern Pacific Railroad, failed. Failures in all directions followed, manufactories ceased their operations, banks closed their doors, arid there was inaugurated a severe and wide-spread panic, whose effects did not fully pass away for six years. The Centennial Anniversary. The 4th of July, 1876, was the centennial or hundredth anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence. It was resolved to 426 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. celebrate this by a great World s Fair, to be held at Phila delphia, in which city the Declaration had been signed. The business depression interfered in a measure with the success of this enterprise, but as an exhibition of the world s products it was of unsurpassed extent and value. The Main Hall covered twenty acres, and many other large buildings were erected, all filled with objects of art and industry. Over ten million persons visited the grounds. In art products it was found that the nations of Europe far surpassed this country, and in this direction the exhibi tion had a great educational value. In the results of inven tive genius the United States was unequalled. The most striking of these inventions was the telephone, then first exhibited. Colorado Admitted. Colorado was admitted to the Union in 1876, and from this fact it is often called the " Centennial State." It had grown rapidly in consequence of its rich mines of silver and other minerals, but it has also proved well adapted to grazing, and agriculture has been much developed through irrigation. The Election of 1876. In the political campaign of 1876 much use was made by the Democratic party of the fact that W. W. Belknap, the Secretary of War, had been charged with receiving bribes from office-seekers. He was im peached, but had resigned before the impeachment. The court of impeachment did not convict him, but the charges against him were used with effect against his party. The Republicans nominated Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, and William A. Wheeler, of New York. The Democrats nomi nated Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, and Thomas A. Hen- dricks, of Indiana. Nominations were also made by the National Greenback party, which claimed that the currency of the country should be paper money issued by the gov- GRANT S ADMINISTRATION. 427 ernment, and the Prohibition party, which opposed the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors. After the election it was found that the result was very close between Hayes and Tilden, and that the decision rested principally upon the votes of Florida and Louisiana. Returning- Boards. In the South there existed " Return ing Boards," whose duty it was to receive the election returns and count the votes. From their decision there was no appeal. In Florida and Louisiana the largest number of votes were returned for the Democratic candidates. But the Boards in those States declared that there were errors in certain districts, whose votes they refused to count. In consequence they declared that the Republican candidates were elected. The election in South Carolina was also claimed by both parties, and there was one elector in dispute in Oregon. The Electoral Commission. The Democrats claimed that the election was legally theirs and that they had been defrauded by the Returning Boards. As the electoral vote was disputed, the matter came before Congress for decision. But here the House had a Democratic and the Senate a Republican majority, and there seemed no hope of an agree ment. What was to be done was not clear. The dispute might lead to civil war, and great anxiety was felt. In the end Congress decided to refer the disputed votes to an Electoral Commission, composed of five Senators, five Representatives, and five Judges of the Supreme Court. Seven Republicans and seven Democrats were chosen, while the fifteenth, Judge David Davis, was independent in politics. But before the court sat he was elected Senator from Illinois and resigned from the Supreme Court. He was replaced by a Republican judge, which gave the Republicans a ma jority in the Commission. The court decided, by a vote 428 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. of eight to seven, to accept the decision of the Returning Boards in each case. This gave Hayes one hundred and eighty-five votes to one hundred and eighty-four for Tilden. Hayes was therefore declared elected on the morning of March 3. 3. IHages s Bfcmintstration. A New Policy. Though the Democratic party had vig orously opposed the election of Rutherford B. Hayes, 1 his policy proved in several respects to be that which they advocated. He believed that the troubles in the Southern States would never cease while the national government inter fered in their internal affairs. He therefore withdrew the United States troops from that section of the coun try, trusting that the whites and blacks would come to some amicable settle ment of their difficulties. As a result the negro rule in the legislatures of the South came to an end. The President s action was severely condemned by many Republicans, yet it was ap proved by the great mass of the people, and put an end to the political strife which had continued since the war. Resumption of Specie Payments. President Hayes was also an advocate of civil service reform, or the removal of 1 Rutherford B. Hayes was born in Ohio in 1822. He graduated at Kenyon College, studied at the Harvard Law School, and was admitted to the bar in 1845. Like all the Presidents after the Civil War except Cleveland, he had served as a soldier, becoming major of the Twenty- third Ohio, and rising to the grade of brigadier-general. He was elected to Congress in 1865, and was governor of Ohio for three terms. He lived in retirement after his Presidential term, and died in 1893. RUTHERFORD B. HAYES. HAYES S ADMINISTRATION. 429 office-holding from political control, and of the early resump tion of specie payments. Since the war the paper money of the country had been depreciated in value, and gold had passed out of circulation. At one time it took nearly three dollars in paper to equal a dollar in gold. But as the years went on the premium demanded for gold grew less, and in 1875 Congress passed a bill providing that on and after January 1, 1879, the paper money of the United States should be redeemed in coin at the Treasury. Many believed this could not be done, but it was. Gold was gradually accumulated in the Treasury, and on the 1st of January, 1879, John Sherman, Secretary of the Treasury, announced that he would give gold for any United States notes presented for payment. This announcement sufficed. Few notes were presented. From that time on paper money has been worth its face value in gold, and the credit of the country has grown so good that the old six per cent, loans have been replaced by loans at much lower rates of inter est. Many millions of dollars in interest have thus been saved. The Gold Reserve. It was also provided that one hun dred million dollars in gold should always be kept in the Treasury, to form a gold reserve with which to redeem the government paper money. This has not always been pos sible. The great demand for gold in the years 1894-96 reduced the reserve much below this sum. It was restored, however, during the latter part of 1896. Silver Legislation. Up to 1873 only about eight million silver dollars had been coined in the United States. By a law passed in 1873 the silver dollar ceased to be coined. Soon afterward the discovery of new and rich mines greatly added to the production of silver, and a demand grew up that the coinage of silver should be renewed and 430 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. that it should again be made a legal tender for debts. In 1878 a bill, known as the Bland Silver Bill, was passed, requiring the government to coin not less than two million or more than four million silver dollars per month. Pres ident Hayes vetoed the bill, but it was passed over his veto. This law continued in force until 1890. The Railroad and Coal Strikes. The business depres sion which began in 1873 had caused a lowering of wages in many industries. In 1877 several railroad companies reduced the wages of their men. There followed one of the most threatening and costly strikes ever known in this country. The strike, or refusal to work, was general among railroad employes in the Northern States west of New Eng land. Other men were prevented from taking the places of the strikers, and for two weeks the movements of trains were widely prevented. In Pennsylvania the coal-miners joined the strike, and in all about one hundred and fifty thousand men stopped work. The strike was followed by rioting, destruction of prop erty, and bloodshed. The riots were most serious in Pitts- burg, where the militia sent to suppress them were attacked by the mob, freight-cars were plundered and burned, and railroad buildings were reduced to ashes. More than three million dollars worth of property was destroyed and nearly one hundred lives were lost. In the end soldiers of the regular army had to be sent to Pittsburg to suppress the riots. The Mississippi Jetties. An industrial event of very different character took place during this administration. For years the Mississippi River had been growing shallower near its mouth from the great amount of sediment brought down and deposited by the stream. This interfered with navigation and caused the river frequently to overflow its HAYES S ADMINISTRATION. 431 banks. The largest vessels could no longer reach New Orleans, even by the deepest channel of the river. This difficulty was overcome by Captain James B. Eads, who had built a splendid bridge across the river at St. Louis. He proposed to narrow the river, so as to make the current swifter and cause it to deepen its channel. This he was permitted to try, and he succeeded by building jet ties, or sunken walls of wicker-work filled with earth, along each side. The result was a great success. The narrow and swift stream swept out the sediment from its channel, which became so deep that the largest vessels were able easily to come up to New Orleans. Yellow Fever in the South. A terrible epidemic of yel low fever broke out in portions of the South in the years 1877 and 1878. It was particularly destructive in Memphis and New Orleans, largely on account of their lack of sani tary regulations. More than fifteen thousand people died in 1878. Since then strict laws have been enacted, and the healthfulness of these cities has greatly increased. In Memphis new systems of drainage were adopted, the city was thoroughly cleaned, and rigid sanitary methods were applied. The Election of 1880. In the Presidential election of 1880, James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur were the Republican candidates. The Democrats nominated General Winfield S. Hancock, a distinguished soldier of the war, and William H. English. The election resulted in the success of the Republican party, whose candidates received two hun dred and fourteen electoral votes against one hundred and fifty-five for the Democratic candidates. 432 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. 4. Ube (Barffelfc anfc Hrtbur Hfcmtntstrattons, Assassination of the President. President Garfield 1 took his seat on the 4th of March, 1881. He found trouble awaiting him. The feeling in favor of reform in the civil service had grown in the country, and met with the sym pathy of the President, but applications for office came to him from all sides, many of them supported by members of Congress. The Senators from New York offered a candidate for the post of collector of the port of New York City. The President would not appoint him, and the angry Senators resigned their seats. The thirst for office ended in mur der. On the 2d of July, while the President was standing in the rail- JAMES A. GARFIELD. road station at Washington, he was shot by a disappointed office-seeker named Guiteau (ge-to). For weeks he lingered in suffering, the sympathizing people in hopes of his recovery, but at length, on the 19th of September, he passed away. Civil Service Reform. This dastardly murder had one beneficial effect, that of inducing Congress, in 1883, to pass 1 James Abram Garfield was born in Ohio in 1831. The family was very poor, but by hard work he managed to obtain admission to Wil liams College, where he graduated in 1854. He became a professor in Hiram College, was elected State senator in 1859, and in 1861 entered the army as colonel. He took part in several battles, was made major- general in 1863, and soon after was elected to Congress. Here he became prominent as a statesman of fine ability. In 1880 he was elected United States Senator, but before he took his seat was elected President. THE GARFIELD AND ARTHUR ADMINISTRATIONS. 433 a Civil Service Act, which was intended to take the appoint ment to offices out of the President s hands. It provided for a board of commissioners and for the appointment to office by examination of candidates, those who passed high est to have the first chance. The act also provided that office-holders under the gov ernment should not be asked to con tribute money for political purposes, and should not take an active part in political contests. 1 Arthur Becomes President. The assassination of Garfield lifted Chester A. Arthur 2 to the Presidential chair. It was the fourth time a Vice-Presi- dent had succeeded the President. "" ^^ Arthur had been nominated for polit- CHESTER A. ARTHUR. ical reasons, and was looked upon as a mere politician. But he proved himself more than this, and filled the high office which unexpectedly came to him to the satisfaction of the people. Anti-Polygamy Bill. In 1882 Congress passed a bill 1 In 1881 there were in the country (including post-offices) about one hundred and forty thousand office-holders. Since then this number has been increasing. At first only a few offices were filled under the new law, but the number has steadily increased, and now nearly all the minor offices, except the post-offices, are filled by competitive exami nation. Garfield was a martyr of the spoils system introduced by Jack son. His death gave the inspiration to a great reform. 2 Chester Alan Arthur was born in Vermont in 1830. He graduated at Union College, became a teacher and then a lawyer, and during the war served as quartermaster-general of New York. He was appointed collector of the port of New York in 1872 and served six years. He was a candidate for the Presidential nomination in 1884, but was un successful. He died in 1886. 28 434 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. for the suppression of polygamy by the Mormons of Utah, many of these having more than one wife. It was opposed at first, but has since been carried out, and polygamy is at an end. Industrial Exhibitions. During Arthur s administration several industrial exhibitions were held in the South. One of these was held at Atlanta in 1881, and one at Louisville in 1883. A more important one was held at New Orleans in 1884, under the title of " The World s Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition." It was a large and inter esting exhibition and demonstrated that the South had made great progress since the war. In 1784 the South exported eight bags about equal to one bale of cotton. Just be fore the Civil War the crop reached about five million bales. In 1884\it had increased to eight millions. In 1860 there were scarcely any manufactures south of Maryland. In 1884 there were millions of dollars invested in manufactures in the South. And agriculture had greatly advanced under free labor, vast quantities of corn, wheat, fruits, and vege tables beincr raised. The Wasning-ton Monument. Another interesting event of the Arthur administration was the completion of the Washington Monument. This had been ordered imme diately after the death of Washington, but the corner-stone was not laid till 1848, and it was not finished till 1885. It is an immense obejisk of white marble, five hundred and fifty-five feet high, and forms a striking feature of the architecture of the city of Washington. Standard Time. An important event was the adoption of standard time, for the convenience of the great railroads running east and west. In 1883 the country was divided into four sections, throughout each of which the same time was to be used, while the time would vary one hour from CLEVELAND S ADMINISTRATION. 435 one section to another. Thus, when it is twelve o clock in New York, it is eleven at Chicago, ten at Denver, and nine at San Francisco, and the same in all parts of each section. Election of 1884. In the Presidential nominations of 1884 the Democrats selected for their candidates Grover Cleveland, governor of New York, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana. The Republican candidate for President was James G. Elaine, of Maine, a prominent statesman, who had been three times Speaker of the House of Representatives. John A. Logan was nominated for Vice-President. There were nominations also by the Prohibition and the Greenback parties. A number of independent Republicans, 1 who were op posed to Elaine, voted for Cleveland, and succeeded in elect ing him. The election was very close, the result deperfding on the vote of New York, which went for Cleveland by a few hundred majority. Elaine received one hundred and eighty- two, Cleveland two hundred and nineteen electoral votes. 5, Cleveland s Bfcministraticm. / Electoral Count Act. The administration of President Cleveland 2 was marked by some important legislation. The 1 These independent voters were nicknamed " Mugwumps." This is an Indian word, meaning " chief," but was applied to the independents as a term of contempt. 2 Grover Cleveland was born in New Jersey fn 1837. Soon after his father moved to New York. At eighteen, his father having died and left him penniless, he began the study of law at Buffalo, and was ad mitted to the bar in 1859. He began his political life in 1863, becom ing successively assistant district attorney, sheriff, and mayor. His high reputation for integrity won him the nomination for governor of New York, and he was elected by a very large majority in 1882. His increasing reputation for unswerving honesty brought him the nomi nation for President in 1884. 436 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. trouble about the electoral count in 1876 and the murder of Garfield in 1881 had shown the necessity of ready means of deciding who should be President in any such contingency. In 1887 a bill was passed which left it to the States to decide any contest in them regarding the result of a Presidential election. Under this bill a decision has to be reached at least six days before the electors meet, and cannot be changed GKOVEK CLEVELAND. b y Congress. Interstate Commerce Act. An other important law enacted in 1887 was that known as the Interstate Commerce Act, which was intended to control railroad traffic from State to State. Its main purpose was to prevent unfair freight charges and passenger fares. The abuse of free passes was prohibited. A commission of five persons was appointed to oversee the execution of this law. Chinese Exclusion. Another law of great importance was that passed in 1888 for the exclusion of Chinese laborers from this country. A treaty had been made with China in 1868 which opened this country to Chinese immigration. By 1880 there were about one hundred thousand Chinese living in the United States. After that date they came much more rapidly, and much opposition was raised in the labor ing classes, who claimed that the Chinese worked for ruin ously low wages, brought no families with them, and in tended to return to China as soon as they had made enough money to live on in their simple manner at home. The opposition, particularly in California, grew strong. An agreement was made with China in 1880, restricting immigration. The law of 1888 prohibited it. This law con tinues in effect, and the number of Chinese in this country CLEVELAND S ADMINISTRATION. 437 is decreasing, as many have returned home, and others can not enter to replace them. Labor Troubles. During the period now in considera tion the organization of workingmen had greatly increased, wide-spread orders being formed under the names of " The Knights of Labor" and the " American Federation of Labor." The employers also formed combinations to protect their interests, and much dissatisfaction existed. This led, in 1886, to numerous strikes, which took place in many parts of the country, and were attended in some cases by riotous actions. The Chicago Anarchists. Of these riots the worst oc curred in Chicago, where no less than forty thousand men went " on strike." On May 4 the disorder reached its highest point. On the evening of that day a crowd gath ered near Haymarket Square, and were addressed by speakers in such violent language that the police attempted to disperse them. At this moment a dynamite bomb was thrown, which exploded and killed several of the policemen, while sixty were badly wounded. Men in the crowd also fired on the police. The officers returned the fire, killing and wounding a large number of the mob. The ringleaders of the mob were arrested and tried for murder. All but one were of foreign birth, and were found to belong to the organization known as Anarchists, whose object it is to overthrow all governments, by violence, if it cannot be done by peaceful means. Four of the condemned were hanged -and the others imprisoned for life. Their action was denounced by the workingmen throughout the country, and excited general horror and detestation. The Charleston Earthquake. In the summer of 1886 the most destructive earthquake ever known in this country occurred at Charleston, South Carolina. So many buildings 438 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. were shaken down or badly damaged as to cause a loss of over five million dollars, while many lives were lost. Aid was sent from all parts of the Union to the suffering people. Like Chicago and Boston after their fires, Charleston has fully recovered from this calamity. The Election of 1888. In the election year of 1888 the Democratic party renominated Grover Cleveland, with Allen G. Thurman, of Ohio, for Vice-President. The Republicans nominated for President Benjamin Harrison, of Indiana, grandson of the former President Harrison. Levi P. Morton, of New York, was nominated for Vice-President. The Pro hibition and the United Labor parties also made nomina tions. The election, as in 1884, was decided by the vote of New York, which now gave a plurality for the Republican candidate. Cleveland received one hundred and sixty-eight and Harrison two hundred and thirty-three electoral votes. 6* Benjamin Harrison s Hfcministration. The Oklahoma Opening 1 . The beginning of President Harrison s l administration was signalized by the opening of the Territory of Oklahoma to white settlers. Oklahoma is a large tract, of over thirty-nine thousand square miles, in the centre of Indian Territory. It was purchased from the Indians, and settlers were permitted to enter it at noon on April 22, 1889, at which hour some fifty thousand per sons were waiting to rush in and take up claims under the 1 Benjamin Harrison was born in Ohio in 1833. His great-grand father was one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, and his grandfather President of the United States in 1840. He graduated in 1852 from Miami University, studied law, and in 1862 entered the army as second lieutenant of Indiana volunteers, ending as brevet brigadier-general. In 1880 he was elected United States Senator. BENJAMIN HARRISON S ADMINISTRATION. 439 BENJAMIN HARRISON. land laws of the United States. When the signal was given by a bugle blast there was a wild rush across the border, and before night much of the terri tory was staked out in claims, and several towns were begun. In 1890 the new Territory had over sixty-one thousand population. Since then Oklahoma has been largely increased in size by the purchase of lands in the north of Indian Territory. New States. The same year (1889) was marked by a notable addition to the number of States, no less than four new States being admitted to the Union. These were North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and Washington. In 1890 two other States, Idaho and Wyoming, were admitted. No equal addition to our family of States had been made in any pre vious administration. The Johnstown Flood. Shortly after Harrison took his seat a terrible disaster occurred in Central Pennsylvania, far surpassing the Chicago fire and the Charleston earthquake in the destruction of human life. On May 31, 1889, a large dam gave way, and a torrent of water forty feet high swept down the Conemaugh Valley toward Johnstown, several miles below. This busy manufacturing town was almost completely swept away, about two thousand two hundred persons were drowned, and ten million dollars worth of property was destroyed. The whole country vied in fur nishing supplies for the suffering survivors. Pan-American Congress. An interesting event of the autumn of 1889 was the meeting at Washington of the Pan- American Congress, composed of delegates from the United 440 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. States, Mexico, and the nations of Central and South Amer ica. Its purpose was to bring these nations into a close union for commercial and other advantages. It was recom mended that all disputes between these nations should be settled by arbitration, but no specially important results came from the Congress. Trouble with Chile. The wisdom of the arbitration suggestion was soon proved, for in 1891 the United States and the republic of Chile were brought to the verge of war. A revolution had broken out in Chile, and during its course some sailors from an American war-vessel were attacked in Valparaiso and two of them killed. For a time it looked as if serious trouble would result, but in the end Chile apol ogized, and contributed a satisfactory sum for the families of the slain men. Trouble with Italy. Another international difficulty arose from the murder of the chief of police of New Orleans by assassins who were believed to belong to a secret society of Italians. A number of men were ar rested, of whom six were acquitted, and others held for trial. These, eleven in number, were taken from jail by a mob, in March, 1891, and executed under what is known as " lynch law." The Italian government protested against this illegal exe cution of its subjects and demanded reparation. This the United States refused, saying that the matter must be settled by the State of Louisiana, whereupon the Italian minister left Washington, and for a time it seemed as if war would ensue. In the end the United States agreed to provide sup port for the families of those of the victims who were proved to be Italian citizens. The Bering- Sea Difficulty. Still another international trouble arose during the Harrison administration. This was BENJAMIN HARRISON S ADMINISTRATION. 441 in relation to the slaughter of fur seals in Bering Sea by Canadians. The United States claimed the right to control the seal-fisheries, and sent out armed vessels to capture the sealers. A controversy arose with the British govern ment, but in the end the matter was settled by arbitration. The seals are still permitted to be killed at sea under certain restrictions, and the danger of their extermination continues. Indian Troubles. Troubles with hostile Indians had been largely brought to an end by the measures taken in the recent administrations. But in 1890 there was a threat ened outbreak of the Sioux from the belief that an Indian Messiah was coming to avenge their wrongs. Several thou sand of them gathered in December at Wounded Knee, South Dakota. Here the troops tried to disarm them, and a battle took place, in which about two hundred were killed. It seems likely to be the last Indian outbreak. Pensions. Important measures of legislation took place in Congress, of which the leading ones concerned the cur rency and the tariff. A pension bill was passed which greatly increased the number of persons to whom pensions are paid. Since that date the annual payment to pensioners has averaged about one hundred and fifty million dollars. No other nation has ever been so liberal in rewarding its soldiers and sailors. Copyright. Another important act was one providing for international copyright. Since the government began any publisher could print a foreign book without paying anything to the author. The new law put a stop to this practice, which had long been looked upon as a species of piracy. The McKinley Tariff. From the period of the Civil War the tariff had remained practically unchanged. The Re publicans had continued in power except during the Cleve- 442 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. land administration, and then they had the control of Con gress, so that no tariff bill lowering the duties could be passed. In 1890 a new tariff bill, known as the McKinley tariff, was enacted. By it sugar and other articles were made free of duty, the duty was lowered on many articles, but it was considerably increased on various others, such as wool. It was advocated not as a revenue, but as a pro tection measure, it being passed with the purpose of aiding American manufactures. One of its features was known as the u reciprocity meas ure." By this certain articles were admitted free of duty if the countries from which they came admitted certain American articles free. This applied principally to the nations of America, but there was reciprocity also with some European nations. The Sherman Silver Bill. Another act passed in 1890 was what is known as the Sherman Silver Bill. This mod ified the Bland Silver Bill of 1878 by providing that four million five hundred thousand ounces of silver should be purchased every month, at market price, and paid for by notes redeemable in coin. This silver bullion was to be coined into dollars. The Census of 1890. The census of the population, taken in 1890, showed that there were in this country 62,622,250 people. The first census, taken in 1790, a hundred years before, gave a population of 3,929,214. In a century the population had increased more than fifty- eight millions. The Australian Ballot. During the Harrison adminis tration an important change took place in the manner of voting. More secrecy in voting was x needed, and this was gained by the use of a system devised in Australia, and which has now been adopted by nearly all the States of BENJAMIN HARRISON S ADMINISTRATION. 443 this country. By its use, any one who wishes can make his vote absolutely secret. The Homestead Strike. In 1892 occurred a serious labor trouble, arising from a great strike in the Carnegie Steel- Works at Homestead, near Pittsburg. The proprie tors hired a force of detectives to protect their works. These were fired upon by the strikers and taken prisoners, men being killed on both sides. The disturbance greAV so great that the whole militia of Pennsylvania had to be called out, and the works to be guarded for several weeks before order was restored. The expense was great to the State, and still greater to the company and the workmen. Important Anniversaries. During the period now under consideration several important anniversaries were cele brated in this country. In 1881 the centennial anniver sary of the surrender of Cornwallis was celebrated at York- town. In 1882 Philadelphia celebrated the bicentennial of the landing of William Penn, and in 1887 the centennial of the Constitutional Convention, the latter with imposing in dustrial and military processions. In 1889 the centennial anniversary of Washington s inauguration was celebrated in New York with grand naval and military reviews and a trade procession. World s Columbian Exposition. But the most impor tant of these occasions was that of the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America by Columbus. This was celebrated by a naval parade of all nations in New York harbor, and by processions and demonstrations elsewhere, but in particular by the World s Columbian Ex position at Chicago, whose buildings were dedicated with imposing ceremonies, extending from the 21st to the 23d of October, 1892. The Exposition, which was opened May 1, 1893, and 444 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. continued for six months, was in some respects the most striking ever seen. In the beauty of its buildings and grounds it has never been equalled. The attendance ex ceeded twenty-seven millions, more than double that of ithe Centennial Exposition of 1876. THE COURT OF HONOK. In the succeeding winter (1893-94) a " Mid-winter Expo sition" was held at San Francisco, and in 1895 a " Cotton States and International Exposition" was held at Atlanta, both extensive in scope, handsome in appointments, and attracting large numbers of visitors. The Election of 1892. In the Congressional election of 1890 the Republicans were severely defeated, their major ity of twenty-one in the House of Representatives being changed to a Democratic majority of one hundred and CLEVELAND S SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 445 thirty-five. They met with a similar defeat in the Presi dential election of 1892. In this the Republicans renomi- nated Benjamin Harrison, and the Democrats Grover Cleveland. Harrison received one hundred and forty-five and Cleveland two hundred and seventy-seven electoral votes. Whitelaw Reid, of New York, was the Republican, and Adlai E. Stevenson, of Illinois, the Democratic, candi date for Vice-President. There was a Prohibition candi date, and also one by a new party, recently organized. The People s Party. From 1873 onward several politi cal organizations of the farming population had appeared. In 1889 these were organized into a party known as the National Farmers 1 Alliance and Industrial Union. This in 1892 was absorbed into the People s party, a new organi zation embracing many of the labor elements of the coun try. This party, generally known as the Populist, nominated James B. Weaver, of Iowa, and gained twenty-two electoral votes. It also elected several Senators and Representa tives. 7. Glevelanfc Second H&mini6tration. Democratic Supremacy. For the first time since 1860 the Democratic party had now a majority in all branches of the government, and were able to legislate in accordance with the principles of the party. They had a large major ity in the House and a small one in the Senate. This continued until 1895, when another change in political sentiment gave the Republicans a very large majority in the House, while the Senate became equally divided be tween the two parties. The Business Depression of 1893. This marked change in political feeling was undoubtedly due to a very severe business depression, which began shortly after the inaugu- 446 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. ration of the President, and continued with little alleviation throughout his term of office. The value of property greatly decreased, failures became very numerous, hosts of work men were thrown out of employment, and the wages of others were reduced. The result of this was shown in great strikes and in other ways. The Coxey Army. In 1894 an Ohio horse-dealer named Coxey started with an " army 1 of the unemployed to Washington, to demand relief from the government. The idea spread, and other companies started from California and Texas. They were partly made up of workmen, partly of tramps and adventurers. Coxey reached Washington with his " army," but the matter there ended, and his fol lowers soon dispersed. The Pullman Strike. A more important result of the hard times was a great railroad strike in Chicago in 1894. It began with a strike of the workmen in the Pullman car- building shops, and extended to railroad men, wiio refused to take out trains containing Pullman cars. The movement of trains was greatly interfered with, much railroad prop erty was destroyed, and in the end the President sent United States troops to Chicago to maintain order and protect the movement of the mails. The Sherman Act Repealed. President Cleveland, be lieving that the business depression was caused by the large purchases and coinage of silver under the Sherman Act, called a special meeting of Congress in 1893, which, after long deliberation, passed a bill prohibiting further purchases. The bullion accumulated in the Treasury was still coined, but no new silver was bought. The Wilson Tariff. In 1894 a new tariff bill was passed, known, from its promoter, as the Wilson Tariff. It retained to some degree the principle of protection, though it re- WESTERN ISLANDS OP HAWAII from Greenwich HWAII 10 20 30 40 50 60 Copyright 1902 by J. B. Lippincott Company Explanation RAILROADS CLEVELAND S SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 447 duced the duties on many articles, while wool, salt, and lumber were put upon the free list. The President did not sign the bill, as it did not meet his views, but he allowed it to become law without his signature. Civil Service Reform. President Cleveland in his first term, and President Harrison later, had added largely to the offices filled by competitive examination. During his second term Cleveland added enormously to the number of such offices, and at present nearly all minor positions under the government, except the post-offices, are filled in this manner. Foreign Affairs. Several important questions of foreign relations arose during this administration. The people of Hawaii deposed their queen, and asked for annexation to the United States. This the President declined, and the Hawaian Islands were made a republic. A second matter concerned the dispute between Vene zuela .and British Guiana in relation to the boundary line. This had long existed, and in 1895 President Cleveland called the attention of Congress to it. He reaffirmed the Monroe Doctrine, and declared that this country could not permit Great Britain to act unjustly toward Venezuela. A commission was appointed to investigate the subject. In the latter part of 1896 the dispute was settled by Great Britain consenting to submit the matter to arbitration. By this successful negotiation the importance of the Monroe Doctrine has been greatly increased. An insurrection having broken out in Cuba, and gaining great headway, the President was called upon to accord the rights of belligerents to the insurrectionists. This he de clined to do, but indicated that the time might soon come when it would be requisite. 448 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. National Parks and Forest Reservations. Among the important matters of legislation since the Civil War, not the least important is the setting aside of several regions of natural beauty or wonder as National Parks, such as the Yosemite Valley, the Yellowstone geyser region, and the sequoia groves ; and of such leading battle-fields as Get tysburg, Chickamauga, etc. In addition to these, an act was passed in 1891 which provided for a series of national forest reservations. In 1897, President Cleveland set aside a second series of forest reservations, the whole covering more than thirty-eight million acres. This was done to pre serve the forests and to guard the sources of rivers and streams, which are seriously injured by the destruction of the mountain woodlands. There has been legislation also in regard to irrigation, with the purpose of preserving the waters which fall on the mountains of the west, and using them for the irrigation of the wide-spread rainless region. By this means it is hoped to render many millions of arid acres productive. Admission of Utah. On January 4, 1896, the Territory of Utah was proclaimed a State, it being the forty-fifth State of the American Union. Its constitution gives the suf frage to women. Woman suffrage has existed in Wyoming since 1869 and in Colorado since 1893, and was voted for and adopted in Idaho in the election of 1896. Partial woman suffrage exists in a majority of the States. The New Navy. The Civil War of the United States proved conclusively that the era of wooden vessels in the navies of the world was at an end, and that the battle-ship of the future must be heavily plated with iron or steel and armed with guns of great range and power. Yet this coun try was slow in applying the lesson it had taught. For twenty years after the war almost nothing was done for the CLEVELAND S SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 449 improvement of the navy. Then an active building of steel- plated war-vessels began, and to-day the navy of the United States possesses some of the swiftest and most powerful FLEET OF UNITED STATES WAR- VESSELS IN HARBOR. cruisers and battle-ships of the world. Our navy is still small as compared with those of the great maritime nations of Europe, but is steadily increasing. The Election of 1896. In the Presidential campaign of 1896 new parties and new views came into the contest. The Republicans nominated William McKinley, whose name was associated with the protective policy, with the expectation that the campaign would be conducted on the tariff issue. For Vice-President they nominated Garret A. Hobart, of New Jersey. Their expectation was not realized. The Democratic convention adopted a platform whose principal demand was for " the free and unlimited coinage of silver at the present legal ratio of sixteen to one," that is, sixteen ounces of silver was to be considered equal in value to one ounce of gold, and all silver offered to the government was to be 29 450 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. coined. William J. Bryan, of Nebraska, an earnest " free sil ver" advocate, received the nomination. Arthur M. Sewall, of Maine, was nominated for Vice-President. The People s party accepted the Democratic candidate and policy, though making a different nomination for Vice- President. Many of the delegates to the Democratic Con vention, however, refused to be bound by its action, and subsequently met in convention and nominated candidates on a gold standard platform. Nominations were also made by the Prohibition and Socialist-Labor parties. The Campaign. In the election campaign the tariff question disappeared, and " free silver" on the one side and " honest money" on the other were the battle-cries of the two parties. Silver had depreciated in value until a dollar in silver was worth little more than a half-dollar in gold. The Republicans, therefore, held that the adoption of the Democratic policy would be ruinous. The Democrats, on the other hand, maintained that silver, if freely coined, would regain its former value, and that the country was suffering for lack of currency. The South and much of the West favored the Demo cratic views ; the North and East, the Republican. There followed an unusually active and exciting campaign, which ended in a victory for the Republicans, McKinley receiving two hundred and seventy-one, Bryan one hundred and seventy-six electoral votes. 8* fl&clkinles s Hfcmintetratiom The Needs of the Government. On the 4th of March, 1897, William McKinley was formally inaugurated President of the United States. A few days afterward he called Con gress together in extra session for the purpose of consider ing the financial condition of the country, which was the McKINLEY S ADMINISTRATION. 451 reverse of satisfactory. For several years the country had been running into debt, the revenue not being sufficient to meet the annual expenses of the govern ment, so that more than one hundred million dollars had been added to the public debt of the United States. Con gress was asked to provide new sources of revenue, which the President be lieved could be best done by aid of a higher tariff on imported goods. He also thought that this would aid in over coming the business depression, which WILLIAM MCKINLEY. had continued for several years. A new tariff bill, with higher rates of duty than those of the Wilson Tariff, was prepared and passed, becoming law by the signature of the President in July, 1897. The Overflow of the Mississippi. Meanwhile, a great disaster had taken place in the West. The winter had been severe and deep snows covered the ground. Under the influence of heavy spring rains and warm winds which melted these snows, the rivers of the West rose to a dan gerous height and poured their surging waters into the Mississippi, until in April that great stream reached a height it had never before attained. Despite the labors of thou sands of people, the banks or levees gave way at many points and thousands of square miles of the fertile lands on both sides of the river were deeply overflowed, while many of the people lost their lives. Great destitution and much suffering prevailed, and it was not until late in the spring that the overflowing waters returned to their proper chan nel, leaving wide-spread ruin in the country around. Gold in Alaska. In the summer of 1897 it became known that rich deposits of gold had been found along the 452 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. Klondike, a branch of the Yukon River of Alaska. The routes to that locality were difficult and dangerous, and the winter cold very severe ; but thousands of miners and others hurried thither, and large quantities of gold were obtained. The Klondike is in Canada, but gold has also been discovered at Cape Nome, on the coast of Alaska, and may be found in many other places. The Cuban Situation. Meanwhile, it began to appear as if war with Spain might arise from the insurrection in Cuba. The effort of Spain to suppress this insurrection was being conducted with a cruelty that shocked the moral sense of the American people and awakened universal sympathy for the suffering Cubans. General Weyler, the governor- general of the island, believed that the rebels were supplied with food and shelter by the country people, and devised a plan to prevent this. These poor unfortunates, mostly women and children and old men, were driven by soldiers into the towns and around the forts ; their dwellings were burned and their crops rooted up ; they were threatened with death if they disobeyed the order or attempted to escape ; nothing was left them but to starve, for the people of the towns had little food to spare and no available provision was made for their support. As a result they fell into the deepest misery, and multi tudes of them starved to death. More than two hundred thousand of these suffering people perished of sickness and starvation before the beginning of 1898. The people of the United States sent them much food, but the destitution became too great to be overcome by charity, and the suffer ing was of the most terrible kind. American Feeling-. This dreadful state of affairs, due to General Weyler s cruelty, was viewed with deep indig nation by the American people. It was evident that the 82 Longitude West \ ^ - SALT $. 50 100 Copyright 1902 by J. B. Lippincott Company Explanation RAILROADS om Greenwich ril s Pt.<ci^ColunAus P.t. tA. WA TLII [AN BKAO St.Marj-s\ ^ Dame Marie McKINLEY S ADMINISTRATION. 453 rebellion could never be overcome by the Spanish method of fighting or by Weyler s desire of starving the people, and that in the end the United States might be forced to inter fere in the interest of humanity. A strong sentiment in favor of war arose, and warlike preparations were made by both the United States and Spain. The Sinking of the Maine. In January, 1898, a riot broke out in the city of Havana, in which the Americans were thought to be in danger. In consequence, the battle ship Maine was sent to Havana harbor as a measure of protection. A dreadful event followed. On the night of February 15 a mine exploded under the Maine with such terrible force that the great battle-ship was torn asunder and sent to the bottom with most of her crew. In this frightful moment two hundred and sixty-four of the crew and two of the officers were killed or mortally injured. When tidings of this terrible affair reached the United States the excitement and indignation were universal. It was very generally believed that the mine had been set off by Spanish officials, and revenge was demanded on all sides. "War Measures. Congress was as indignant as the people, and preparations for war were rapidly made. The naval court of inquiry, which fully investigated the sinking of the Maine, decided that the disaster was due to an ex plosion from the outside, and, therefore, to a mine of dyna mite or other powerful explosive lying under the bottom of the ship, which must have been placed there by Spanish hands. The war spirit now grew intense. On April 11 President McKinley sent a message to Congress asking for authority to put an end to the Cuban war by force of arms, since Spain continued her cruel measures. This authority was given by act of Congress, and on the 20th a final mes sage was sent to Spain, ordering her to remove her land and 454 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. naval forces from Cuba, and giving her until noon of April 23 for a reply. Spain at once sent the United States min ister his passport, which was equivalent to a declaration of war. The blockade of Havana and the adjoining coast of Cuba by the American fleet was immediately ordered, and on April 25 war was declared, dating back to April 21. Incidents of the Blockade. No time was lost on the part of the United States. The naval squadron at Key West, under Admiral William T. Sampson, set sail for the coast of Cuba on April 22, where it blockaded Havana, the capital of the island, and other points on the coast. Several Spanish merchant ships were captured and sent as prizes to Key West, and the batteries at Matanzas were bombarded. Other bombardments took place, and on May 11 there was a sharp fight with the batteries at Cardenas, in which an officer and four men were killed. On the same day the telegraph cables in the bay of Cienmegos were cut. Location of Squadrons. In addition to the Key West squadron, there was a Flying Squadron in Hampton Roads, under Commodore Schley, a Northern Patrol Squadron, under Commodore Ho well, in the North Atlantic, and a Pacific Squadron, under Commodore Dewey, at Hong Kong, China. This last had the honor of fighting the first battle of the war. Spain owned three groups of islands in the Pacific Ocean, the Philippine, the Caroline, and the La- drone Islands. Of these, the Philippines were much the most important, their capital, Manila, being a large and prosperous mercantile city. A Spanish fleet lay in the bay of Manila, and this Commodore Dewey was ordered to capture or destroy. The Manila Naval Battle. Dewey sailed from Hong Kong, and entered the bay of Manila in the night of April 30. The Spanish fleet lay in the little bay of Cavite, an McKINLEY S ADMINISTRATION. 455 offshoot from the great bay, where it was defended by land batteries. At about 5.30 o clock in the morning of May 1 it was attacked by the American ships, which for two hours poured in shot and shell with such fierceness that the whole Spanish fleet was disabled. Hardly any harm was done to the American vessels, and only a few men were wounded. The fleet then drew off, and the men had their breakfast. It returned about noon, and for an hour more fired on the Spanish ships. At the end of that time they were all on fire, and had sunk to the bottom of the shallow bay. Hun dreds of their men were dead. The ships and the bat teries had fired back, but had wasted nearly all their shot. It was the most signal victory in the history of the Ameri can navy. The Cape Verde Squadron. The strongest squadron of Spanish ships lay at the Cape Verde Islands, under the command of Admiral Cervera. It consisted of four power ful armored cruisers and three torpedo-boats, and it was feared that it might cross the Atlantic and make an attack on some of the large coast cities of the United States. Hasty preparations were made to defend these, and Schley s and Howell s squadrons were kept in the North Atlantic for this purpose. But about the 12th of May word came that the Spanish ships were in the West Indies, and had touched at the French island of Martinique and afterward at the Dutch island of Curagao. Santiago Blockaded. It was thought that the Spanish fleet would try to get into some of the Cuban ports, and Commodore Schley s squadron was sent in haste to the south of Cuba. Here he learned that the Spanish ships had entered the bay of Santiago de Cuba, and he made his way thither with all speed. A few days afterward Admiral Sampson joined him with his ships, and the blockading fleet 456 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. became very strong. All the American battle-ships and armored cruisers were there. Hobson s Plan. The first step taken against the Spanish fleet was an effort to block it up in Santiago harbor. The channel leading to the inner bay is very narrow, and Lieu tenant Richmond P. Hobson, of the New York, proposed to take in a large coaling ship, the Merrimac, and sink it in the narrowest part of the channel. He knew that he and his men would run the greatest danger of being killed, but they were quite willing to take the risk. The Merrimac Sunk. At about 3 o clock in the morning of June 3 the Merrimac sailed into the narrow channel. It was very dark, and the vessel was some distance in before the Spanish discovered it. Then the batteries and the ships began firing fiercely, and shot rained from every side upon the ship. But it kept on until the desired spot was reached. Here the anchor was dropped, and Hobson tried to steer his craft across the channel ; but the rudder had been injured and would not work. He then exploded the torpedoes which had been arranged outside the vessel, and jumped overboard with his men as it sank to the bottom. Their boat had been destroyed by the Spanish fire, and nothing was left them but an old catamaran or raft. Many Spanish boats soon appeared, and one of these, containing Admiral Cervera, took them off. Not one of them had been hurt. Result of the Exploit. The exploit of the gallant Hobson and his men was highly praised, and Congress promised to reward them by promotion for their work. The plan had failed, for the ship lay lengthwise in the channel and there was room to pass it ; but their courage was everywhere admired. Admiral Cervera saw that the prisoners were kindly treated, and they were exchanged on July 7, after the battle of Santiago. McKINLEY S ADMINISTRATION. 457 The Army Takes Part. While the navy was thus en gaged, preparations were made to send an army to Santiago. A call for 125,000 and another for 75,000 volunteers had been made, and the regular army was ordered to be in creased to 61,000 men. Other regiments were added, suffi cient to make the total strength of the army 278,500. On June 14 a force of over 15,000 men, mostly regulars, under Major-Gene ral Shatter, sailed from the camp at Tampa, Florida, for Santiago. A landing-place had been captured by a force of marines at Guantanamo Bay, about fifty miles east of Santiago, but it was thought best to land the army at a small mining village called Baiquiri, fifteen miles east of the city. Roosevelt s Rough Riders. It was a poor landing-place, and the army was set in motion before its supplies could be got on shore. The road leading to Santiago was a mere mud track through thick bushes, passing at places over steep hills. In advance of the army marched several troops of dismounted cavalry, the regulars taking a lower road and the volunteers, popularly known as "Roosevelt s Rough Riders," following a road over the hills. They were attacked by a large body of Spaniards in ambush, and a fierce fight took place. The Americans lost a considerable number in killed and wounded, but they pushed on, drove the Spaniards from the bush, killed many of them, and won the victory. Condition of the Army. The 30th of June found the American army facing the Spanish works in front of San tiago. The Spaniards were strongly intrenched on a hill known as San Juan, and in the village of El Caney. The difficult roads had prevented the bringing of guns and sup plies to the front, and the army had but three days rations and only four batteries of light artillery. The heat was intense, and the clothes of the soldiers were so heavy that 458 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. half of them had been thrown away. General Shafter had been overcome by the heat and lay in his tent two miles back. But in spite of all this he determined to fight, and gave orders for a battle the next day. The Battle of Santiago. Early on July 1 the army ad vanced. There was so little artillery that infantry charges had to be depended upon. The Rough Riders and other regiments charged up the steep San Juan hill in the face of a hot fire and drove the Spanish from their works. The same was the case at El Caney. Here the battle continued most of the day, charge after charge being made. In the end the Spaniards were driven back with great loss. On the next day .the Spaniards made a desperate effort to regain their lost works. It was in vain, the Americans held every foot of ground they had won, and the Spanish army was driven to its inner line of defences. The American loss was over fifteen hundred in killed and wounded ; that of the Spaniards was much greater. Pate of the Spanish Fleet. On July 3 the Spanish fleet made a desperate effort to escape. Passing the sunken Merrimac, the four cruisers dashed at full speed out of the harbor, firing as they fled. Behind them came two torpedo- boats. Admiral Sampson being temporarily absent, Com modore Schley was in control of the fleet. One of its leading ships was the battle-ship Oregon, which had joined the fleet after a thirteen thousand mile journey from San Francisco around Cape Horn. The American fire was so fierce and sure that one after another of the Spanish ships was set on fire and driven ashore. The two torpedo-boats were sunk by an armed yacht, the Gloucester. The Cristobal Colon ran about fifty miles along the coast, but was chased so sharply by the Brooklyn and the Oregon that she, too, was driven ashore, and the victory made complete. Most of the McKINLEY S ADMINISTRATION. 459 Spanish sailors had been killed, and the remainder were taken prisoners. Of the Americans, only one man was killed. It was a victory equal to that in the harbor of Manila. Surrender of the Spanish Army. The Spanish were strongly intrenched in Santiago, but food was scarce and they were surrounded, while their fleet was lost. A demand for their surrender was made by General Shafter. After a week or two of debate it was acceded to, and all the Spanish soldiers in the eastern end of Cuba were sur rendered as prisoners of war, the American government agreeing to send them back to Spain. Financial Measures. While the war was going on the government at Washington was taking active steps for its support. Before the war began Congress had voted fifty million dollars for defence. Two hundred million dollars were afterward borrowed from the people at an interest rate of three per cent. To pay the expenses of the war an internal tax was laid on the country. Documents of nearly all kinds had to be stamped, and various other things were taxed. Hawaii Annexed. In July a final vote was taken in Congress on the question of annexing the Hawaiian Islands in the Pacific Ocean. The bill passed the Senate on July 6, and was signed by the President on July 7. This act of Congress added a large and fertile group of islands to the United States. It was the first addition to this country at a distance from the continent. Porto Rico Invaded. Shortly after the surrender of the Spaniards at Santiago, Major-General Miles took a large army to the island of Porto Rico. Little opposition was made by the Spanish soldiers, and soon a large section of that fertile island was in American hands. The people there gave a glad welcome to the American soldiers, and 460 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. loudly cheered the American flag. They were eager to es cape from the rule of Spain. The Capture of Manila. After the defeat of the Spanish fleet at Manila, a large force of soldiers, under General Merritt, and several powerful war-ships were sent to rein force Admiral Dewey. On July 31 an unsuccessful effort was made by the Spanish garrison of Manila, during a vio lent storm, to surprise the American camp ; and on August 13 the city was taken by a combined assault of the Ameri can army and fleet. The natives of the island had, during this period, kept up a close investment and siege of the city. After its capture they became hostile to the Ameri cans, and a severe conflict with them began in February, 1899, which continued for several months. A Treaty of Peace. Meanwhile, Spain, in despair of success, asked for terms of peace, and a protocol, or pre liminary treaty, was drawn up and signed on August 12, and hostilities came to an end. Soon after, peace commis sioners were appointed by the United States and Spain, and met at Paris, where they concluded a formal treaty of peace on December 10. This treaty was ratified by the United States Senate on February 6, 1899, was signed by the Queen Regent of Spain on March 17, and was received in Washington on April 11, and the ratified treaties were exchanged. Immediately the President issued a proclama tion that peace was restored, and appointed a United States minister to Spain. Terms of the Treaty. By the treaty Spain granted the independence of Cuba and ceded to the United States the islands of Porto Rico and Guam and the Philippine Archi pelago. For the latter the United States agreed to pay Spain $20,000,000, as an indemnity for the public buildings and other improvements in the islands. McKINLEY S ADMINISTRATION. 461 Philippine Affairs. The treaty with Spain was finally consummated on July 3, 1899, on which day it was ratified by the Spanish Senate. Meanwhile, the $20,000,000 paid by the United States had not secured for that country the Philippine Islands. Under a daring and able leader, Emilio Aguinaldo, the people of the island of Luzon broke out in insurrection and began a war for independence, and on the night of February 4, 1899, an assault in force was made on the American outposts at Manila. It ended in the repulse of the assailants, who were driven back from the vicinity of the city. Advance of the Army. The advance of the American forces against the Filipinos began on March 25. It met with considerable resistance, but Malolos, Aguinaldo s capi tal, was occupied on the 31st, and in the succeeding months a number of Filipino strongholds were taken. In July the coming on of the rainy season put an end to active opera tions, but they were resumed in the autumn with great success, the natives no longer strongly maintaining their positions against the American troops. Efforts for Peace. Efforts were made in vain for a peaceful solution of the difficulty. A Philippine Commis sion visited the islands, and offered the natives a system of government under which they would have enjoyed a large measure of liberty, but Aguinaldo refused to accept any thing less than complete independence. Dewey Honored. Meanwhile, the distinguished services of Commodore Dewey had been rewarded ; at first by his promotion to the rank of rear-admiral, afterwards, on March 3, 1899, to that of admiral, the highest rank in the Ameri can navy, and one which only Farragut and Porter had previously enjoyed. \ Outcome of the "War. During 1900 the conflict in the 462 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. Philippines degenerated into a guerilla warfare, of very an noying character, which continued into 1901. A new com mission, with enhanced powers, visited the islands in the latter part of 1900 and arranged a system of civil govern ment which many of the natives accepted, and which promised to bring peace and prosperity to the islands. The Troubles in China. While these events were pro ceeding in the Philippines a serious outbreak took place in the neighboring empire of China, a warlike society known as " Boxers 11 attacking the missionaries, and finally entering Peking and besieging the foreign ministers in their legations. The German minister was killed, and the others were saved from death only by an advance on the capital of a strong force of allied troops, including a detachment of American soldiers. Peking was captured in August, 1900, the min isters were rescued, and negotiations with the Chinese authorities began, ending in the exaction of very severe terms of retribution for the unparalleled outrage. Re-election of President McKinley. In the Presidential campaign of 1 900 William McKinley and William J. Bryan, the candidates of 1896, were renominated, the respective candidates for the Vice-Presidency being Theodore Roose velt, Governor of New York, and Adlai E. Stevenson, late Vice-President. The election resulted in the return of the Republican candidates by a greater majority than in 1896, McKinley receiving two hundred and ninety-two electoral votes, Bryan one hundred and fifty-five. A bill had been passed by Congress, March 6, 1900, making the gold dollar the standard of value in American money, and the demand for the free coinage of silver was now supplanted by the questions of the trusts or business combinations and Amer ican control in the Philippine Islands. The second inaugu ration of President McKinley took place on March 4, 1901. McKINLEY S ADMINISTRATION. 463 Pan- American Exposition. Of the events of 1901, one of the most notable was an exposition held at Buffalo, New York, for the purpose of displaying the products of the American republics. It was on a much smaller scale than the World s Fairs of 1876 and 1893, but formed a beautiful and artistic exhibition, its vari-colored buildings being very attractive and its electrical display far surpassing anything of the kind ever before seen. On December 1, 1901, an attractive " South Carolina, Interstate, and West Indian Exposition" was opened at Charleston, South Carolina. Census of 19OO. An important event of the year 1900 was the taking of the twelfth census of the United States. This gave a total population of 76,303,387, being an in crease of more than 13,000,000 since 1890. Of this popu lation, the foreign born numbered 10,460,085 ; the colored, 8,840,789; the Indian, 266,861 ; the Chinese, 119,050; and the Japanese, 85,986. Many of these Chinese and the bulk of the Japanese were in the Hawaiian Islands, which had been made a Territory of the United States on April 30, 1900. The census showed one city, New York, of over three millions population ; two, Chicago and Philadelphia, of considerably over one million each ; three, St. Louis, Boston, and Baltimore, of over half a million each ; thirty- two between one hundred thousand and half a million, and a total of one hundred and fifty-nine cities of over twenty- five thousand population. The number of cities of over one hundred thousand population had nearly doubled in twenty years. Capture of Agninaldo. In March, 1901, an important event occurred in the Philippine Islands in the capture of Aguinaldo, the leader of the insurrection. This was accom plished through strategy by General Frederick Funston, a soldier who had greatly distinguished himself in the Philip- 464 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. pine war. As a result many of the leaders surrendered, and the conflict soon came to an end. On July 1, 1902, civil government in the Philippines was established, William H. Taft being made Governor, and most of the official posi tions filled by natives of the islands. Schools were opened, trade developed, and satisfaction with American rule grew general. A Pacific telegraph cable from San Francisco to Manila was laid, the first message being sent July 4, 1903. Affairs in Porto Rico. The treaty of peace with Spain had made Porto Rico a dependency of the United States. Shortly afterwards a hurricane swept the island, doing im mense damage and causing great suffering among the people. They suffered also from tariff discrimination. A bill was therefore passed reducing the tariff, under which business was resumed. Subsequently free trade with the United States was instituted, and business became prosperous and the people contented. The Saxnoan Treaty. By a treaty concluded in Decem ber, 1899, the Samoan islands were divided between Ger many and the United States, the latter country gaining the island of Tutuila and some smaller islands. The value of the acquisition lay in the harbor of Pago Pago, probably the finest in the Pacific Ocean. Assassination of President McKinley. The second term of President McKinley was brought to a sudden and disastrous termination. On the 6th of September, 1901, during a visit to the Pan-American Exposition, he was shot by an anarchist while receiving the people. The assassin, Leon Czolgosz by name, held a pistol in his hand concealed by a handkerchief, and, as the President was about to shake hands with him, discharged the weapon twice. The exalted victim survived for more than a week, and strong hopes of his recovery were entertained, but his hurt proved fatal, and ROOSEVELT S ADMINISTRATION. 465 he died in the early morning of September 14. He was the third President of the United States to die by the hand of an assassin. The McKinley Obsequies. The murder of President McKinley excited universal grief and called forth the sym pathy of the crowned heads of the nations. The days that followed his death were days of mourning throughout the country. His funeral train passed from Buffalo to Wash ington, and thence to Canton, Ohio, the President s place of residence, the whole route being lined with throngs of sorrowing citizens. The final ceremonies took place on Thursday, September 19, when the honored remains were committed to the tomb at the close of solemn and impres sive services. On October 29 the assassin paid the legal penalty of his crime, being executed in the electric chair. 9. IRoosevelt s EDmtntetration. Accession of President Roosevelt. On the day of the President s death Theodore Roosevelt, the Vice-President, took the oath of office at Buffalo, and was installed as the twenty-sixth President of the United States. Born in New York City in 1858, he was in his forty-third year, being the youngest man to be made Chief Executive of the nation. His upward progress had been remarkably rapid. In 1897, after a period of membership in the New York legislature and of official service in New York City, he was appointed THEODOBE ROOSEVELT Assistant Secretary of the Navy, and in 1898 became a popular favorite for his gallantry as leader of the "Rough Riders" in the Santiago campaign. 30 466 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. Late in the same year he was elected Governor of New York, and in 1900 reluctantly accepted the nomination for Vice-President of the United States. Within less than a year after his election the crime of an assassin made him President of the great republic of the West. Roosevelt s Policy. Roosevelt entered office free from obligations to politicians or party leaders. On taking the oath of office he stated that he would maintain the policy of President McKinley, and this he soon showed his pur pose of doing. He had been a member of the Civil Service Commission and began his career with a rigid adherence to its principles, refusing to appoint any man to office on any standard but that of merit. His first message to Congress, in December, 1901, was a very able state paper, and showed that the new President thoroughly grasped the situation, and would administer with moderation but firmness the duties of his great office. The Cuban Republic. In 1900 a convention assembled to form a Constitution for the island of Cuba, and adopted one similar to that of the United States. Naval stations in the island were granted to this country, and the powers of the Cuban government were limited in some other particu lars. On May 20, 1902, the flag of the United States was lowered and the troops were withdrawn, the Republic of Cuba coming into legal existence on that day. A treaty of commerce was subsequently made, and finally ratified in December, 1903, by which the United States tariff rates were reduced twenty per cent, on Cuban products, and Cuban rates from twenty to forty per cent, on all American products except tobacco. The Isthmian Canal. The project of making an Ameri can ship-canal from the Atlantic to the Pacific was taken up by the United States in 1901, after a French company ROOSEVELT S ADMINISTRATION. 467 had long sought in vain to construct such a canal across the Isthmus of Panama. The route selected by the United States was that across Nicaragua, utilizing the channels of San Juan River and Lake Nicaragua, but early in 1902 the French canal company offered their partly completed work to the United States for $40,000,000. Congress decided to accept this offer, provided satisfactory control of the canal route could be obtained from the republic of Colombia, and a treaty was negotiated with that country. This was ratified by the United States Senate on March 17, 1903, but when brought before the Senate of Colombia was rejected by that body. The Treaty with Panama. On November 3, 1903, the people of Panama, angry at the rejection of the treaty, seceded from Colombia and proclaimed their independence. On the 6th the new republic was recognized by the United States, and soon afterward a canal treaty, of very favorable character, was made with Panama. So, in the beginning of 1904, the way was at length open to begin work on the canal. The Anthracite Coal Strike. An industrial conflict of the highest importance took place in 1902, in a strike of the entire body of anthracite coal miners of Pennsylvania. The strike continued for five months, from May to October, by which time millions of people were destitute of coal, winter was at hand, and the dread of suffering from cold had grown intense. No other strike in modern history had affected so many people. A settlement was finally effected through the influence of President Roosevelt, a committee of arbitration being appointed to adjust the questions in dispute. On October 23 the miners returned to work and the trouble came to an end. Department of Commerce and Labor. A new depart ment was added to the Executive branch of the government 468 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW NATION. by Act of Congress in February, 1903, to be entitled the Department of Commerce and Labor, and to have under its supervision the commercial and industrial interests of the United States. George B. Cortelyou, who had been private secretary to Presidents McKinley and Roosevelt, was appointed the first Secretary of the new department and became the ninth member of the Cabinet. Alaska Boundary Arbitration. The opening of the Klondike gold-mines in 1897 made it important to settle the long-pending boundary question between Canada and Alaska. The question was submitted to arbitration in 1903, three commissioners being appointed on each side. The decision, rendered October 20, 1903, favored the American claim, the line fixed on following the mountain crests ten leagues back from the water, instead of crossing the head of the inlets, as the Canadians desired, that they might reach the sea without crossing United States territory. St. Louis Exposition. A great World s Fair, in com memoration of the centennial anniversary of the purchase of Louisiana in 1803, was opened at St. Louis in the .spring of 1904, the buildings having been dedicated, with appro priate ceremonies, on April 30, 1903. It was proposed to make this officially named the Louisiana Purchase Expo sition the greatest the world had ever seen, an area of 1180 acres being provided and twelve immense exhibition buildings constructed, while many others of striking archi tecture were erected by the American States and by foreign countries. The grouping of the buildings and the arrange ment of the grounds were all in the highest style of land scape art, and the displays within the buildings were of the most varied, artistic, and striking character. The electrical display surpassed anything of the kind ever before seen, this being made the great feature of the exposition. PART XI. STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. i. GOVERNMENTAL CONDITIONS IN THE COLONIES. Purposes of Spanish and French Colonists. It was per haps a fortunate result of the conditions of nature that the region of the United States did not prove attractive to the early settlers of either France or Spain. A century after the discovery of America there were only two Spanish set tlements in this region, St. Augustine and Santa Fe. There were no French settlements. This fact is not difficult to understand. It was the search for gold to which the Spanish activity in colonization was due. Agriculture was long a minor consideration. But the explorations of De Soto and Coronado had failed to find gold or other precious products in the north. Hence the Spanish settlers neglected this section of America. The French, like the Spanish, were not strongly inclined to agriculture. After their failure to found a colony in Florida they confined their settlements to the region of the St. Lawrence, attracted by the fur-trade and the fisheries, which promised to be more lucrative than the cultivation of the ground. Region of British Occupation. For the reasons here given the Atlantic coast between Florida and Acadia re mained unoccupied until the beginning of the seventeenth 469 470 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. century, when the English awakened to the advantage of colonization. The English colonies differed essentially in character from those of Spain and France. Those of Spain began as royal colonies, and remained so. Those of France, though formed by proprietors, quickly became royal col onies. In none of these was there any civil or religious liberty. The colonists were subjects of autocratic govern ments at home, and looked for nothing better abroad. Political Conditions of the English Colonies. The colonies of England were formed by the people, not by the crown. Though most of them eventually became royal colonies, they had a long period of self-government, during which they were left almost without interference from the mother-country. The colonists also differed greatly from those of France and Spain in degree of political education. They had exercised the right of suffrage and possessed representative government at home, and lost no time in establishing a similar form of government in America. There were exceptions to this. In some colonies an effort was made to establish a paternal or autocratic government. But this quickly failed and representative government be came general. Paternal Government. Paternalism, similar to that pre vailing in Canada and Spanish America, was attempted in Virginia, New York, Carolina, and Georgia. That in Vir ginia soon ended. In Carolina and Georgia the vigorous opposition of the people to paternalism in time brought it to an end. In New Amsterdam, paternalism prevailed throughout, and continued in the English colony of New York until 1683, when the Duke of York, at the sugges tion of William Penn, ordered the election of a representa tive assembly. In all these cases representative succeeded paternal government. GOVERNMENTAL CONDITIONS IN THE COLONIES. 471 Representative Government. In Pennsylvania, Mary land, and New Jersey representative government was at once established by the proprietors, and in the New Eng land colonies by the people themselves. Its development, and the growing liberty of the people, were greatly aided by the revolutionary movements in England, where two kings had been driven from the throne for tyranny. This struggle for free institutions in the mother-country was reflected in the colonies, where the spirit of liberty grew steadily stronger. And the ruling powers in England were for many years so occupied at home that they interfered but little with what was taking place abroad. The Plymouth Compact. One colony came to America without charter or proprietor, and without lord or master. This was the Plymouth colony, which was left free to devise what form of government it pleased. In accordance with English example, a self-governed democracy was es tablished. A compact was drawn up and signed in the cabin of the Mayflower in which the Pilgrims declared their purpose of making laws for the " general good of the colony. 1 A governor was chosen from among themselves, and in this way New England began its existence as a free commonwealth, in whose government England had no part. The government established was of the most primitive form. It was not a representative government, but one composed of the whole people, every freeman taking part directly in the making of the laws. It was their custom to meet in an assembly of the community, and enact laws, which were enforced by the governor and his council. This was an interesting instance of government of the people by the people. It still exists in New England and. some other parts of the United States as the " town meet- 472 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. ing, 1 in which the people of small localities meet to make laws for their local government. The Massachusetts and Maryland Systems. The colony of Massachusetts Bay began its existence with the same simple form of government as that of Plymouth. It was, however, not free to all, since only members of the Puritan Church could take part in legislation. No others could vote or act in the assembly. Maryland, when first settled, was given a similar simple form of government by Lord Baltimore. It was broader in its idea of liberty than that of Massachusetts, since it made no sectarian restriction. All Christians were given a voice in the law-making body. A Representative Assembly Chosen. This simple system soon proved inapplicable except for local affairs. By 1634 there were many settlements, miles apart, around Massachusetts Bay. It became next to impossible for the whole people to meet and make laws. In that year, there fore, deputies or representatives were elected to act for the people in a " General Court" l or legislature, which at first served both as a court of law and a legislative body. In this way personal government was widened into repre sentative government. The legislature in Massachusetts and New Hampshire is still called the General Court. The Two-House Legislative System. Massachusetts took a second step of progress in 1644. Until then the legislature had formed one body. It was now divided into two, on the plan of the Houses of Lords and Commons in England. The governor and his councillors sat in one 1 A " General Court" was prescribed in the charter, and the first was held in Boston, October 19, 1630. This was an assembly of the whole people, not a representative body. The charter required all freemen to assemble four times a year. GOVERNMENTAL CONDITIONS IN THE COLONIES. 473 chamber, the representatives in another. The governor and council were elected annually by the whole body of freemen ; the representatives by the several settlements. Thus was first constituted the American legislature of two houses, now the prevailing form. This system of two legislative houses was adopted in time by all the colonies but Pennsylvania, though outside of New England the upper house was not elected by the people, but chosen by the governor or proprietor. It did not, therefore, represent the people. Pennsylvania pos sessed a single legislative assembly elected by the people. An executive council to assist the governor was also elected, but it had no law-making functions. Connecticut and Rhode Island. In the New Haven settlement, as in the Massachusetts, only church members could vote. The Connecticut settlement was more liberal and gave all citizens the right to vote. No official but the governor was required to be a church member. In Con necticut, as in Massachusetts, the governor and legislature took oaths of allegiance to the commonwealth, not to the crown. Connecticut drew up a written constitution, in which no mention was made of the king. It was the FIRST WRITTEN CONSTITUTION ever framed by a body of citizens for their own government. Rhode Island went farther in the development of politi cal liberty than any other American colony. There every citizen, whether Christian or pagan, had the right of suffrage and of official position. Every man who was the head of a family was a member of the General Court of the colony. Rhode Island was thus a pure democracy, there being no religious restriction to political privilege. As the colony widened a representative government like that of Massa chusetts was adopted. 474 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. United Colonies of New England. New England, whose progress in political evolution surpassed that of the southern communities, took another important step forward in 1643. A confederacy, or federal government, was estab lished. The colonies of Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, and New Haven joined into a federation en titled The United Colonies of New England. Rhode Island was refused admission, its separate existence as a colony not being yet acknowledged. Two deputies were sent annually from each colony to form an assembly, whose purpose was to provide for de fence against the Dutch and Indians and to settle disputes between the colonies. No permission was asked from the king to form this assembly, but no objection was made to it. It will be seen that New England had made a remarkable advance toward a federal republic of the same type as that of the United States of America. Royal Colonies. Gradually the crown encroached upon the rights of companies and proprietors. Virginia was made a royal colony in a few years after its settlement. A similar result came later to New York, New Jersey, the Carolinas, and Georgia. Maryland was a crown colony from 1691 to 1715, when it was restored to its proprietor. Pennsylvania was the only colony which remained (except in 1692-93) under proprietary government throughout. In New England, New Hampshire was made a royal colony. The chartered colonies, Massachusetts, Connecti cut, and Rhode Island, were under royal government for a few years during the reign of James II. During the remain ing period of its colonial existence Massachusetts, though retaining its charter, was under a royal governor. He was, however, in a large measure a servant of the people, since GOVERNMENTAL CONDITIONS IN THE COLONIES. 475 his salary was annually voted by the legislature, and could be decreased if he acted in defiance of the popular will. Connecticut and Rhode Island, on the contrary, were per mitted to retain their previous republican forms of govern ment, and continued politically independent, electing their own governors and all other officials. Connecticut main tained its charter government until 1818, and Rhode Island until 1842. These charters were so liberal in their pro visions that they served for many years as constitutions of independent States. Religious Restrictions. The degree of religious liberty enjoyed by the colonists differed considerably. Of them all, Virginia was the only one in which the principle of Church and State existed throughout. The Church of England was established on the formation of the colony, and its ministers and adherents continued very intolerant. Many of the other colonies were formed by immigrants who left their homes to escape from religious persecution. In this way New England was colonized by Separatists and Puritans, Pennsylvania and New Jersey by Quakers, Mary land in part by Roman Catholics, and Carolina and Georgia largely by Huguenots and German Protestants. In New Amsterdam the Dutch Protestant Church was established. The Church of England was established in New York and New Jersey in 1693, but there was no religious persecution. It became supreme in Maryland after 1691, and was estab lished in the Carolinas in 1706. Degrees of Tolerance. Of the colonies, Massachusetts and Virginia were the most intolerant in religious matters, the Puritans in the one , the Episcopalians in the other, seeking to keep out all settlers of other sects. The same was the case for a time with the Dutch Protestants of New Amsterdam. These efforts failed, and some degree 476 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. of religious liberty was in time admitted in all the col onies. Religious tolerance was provided for in the charter of Maryland, the king perhaps fearing that Lord Baltimore, being a Roman Catholic, might oppress the Protestants. It was adopted in Pennsylvania, Carolina, and Georgia. Of all the colonies, however, Rhode Island was the most tolerant. In the other colonies freedom of worship was restricted to Christians ; there it was extended to all persons without distinction. 2. LATER DEVELOPMENT OF GOVERNMENT. Franklin s Plan of Union. A convention of delegates from the northern colonies, to devise measures of defence against the French, was held at Al bany in 1754. Benjamin Franklin was one of the delegates, and pro posed a plan for a union of the colo nies, which was accepted by the con vention, though it was not adopted by the country. The colonies, jeal ous of their independence, thought 5 ^r/Ffff^ " that it took too much power from BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. them to give to the general govern ment. The British authorities thought that it gave too much power to the colonies. Between these opposite jealousies the plan fell to the ground. 1 1 Before leaving home to attend the convention, Franklin, to whom the necessity for union seemed great, made a warm appeal for it in his paper, the Pennsylvania Gazette, and headed it with a rude but sig nificant wood-cut. This represented the colonies by a snake cut into thirteen pieces, each piece marked with the initial letter of the name j)f a colony. Under it was the motto " Unite or die." LATER DEVELOPMENT OF GOVERNMENT. 477 What Franklin Proposed. The following were the leading features of Franklin s plan. He suggested Philadel phia, the most central large city, as the capital of the pro posed confederacy. The government sitting here was to consist of a grand council, elected every third year by the colonies, but meeting once a year; and a governor-general appointed by the king and with power of veto over all laws. This central government was to have the power to make general laws, to levy taxes, to regulate commerce, and to perform other governmental duties. The proposal was in advance of public opinion, and was rejected, but Franklin lived to see its essential features embodied in the Constitu tion of the United States. The Stamp Act Congress. The next step toward colo nial union was taken in 1765, when the oppressive actions of the British government caused the colonies to elect del egates to a congress to be held at New York, to consider the situation. Delegates came from nine of the colonies. This, which is known as the " Stamp Act Congress," issued an appeal to the king for American rights. The Continental Congresses. A further step toward a congress was taken in the formation of " committees of cor respondence" between the colonies. This was followed by the election of delegates to the " First Continental Congress," which met September 5, 1774, all the colonies but Georgia being represented. On May 10, 1775, a " Second Conti nental Congress" met, with delegates from all the colonies. This issued a " Declaration of Colonial Rights," and in 1776 a " Declaration of Independence." On June 11, 1776, a committee was appointed to prepare a form of confederation for the States, by which name the colonies now called themselves. A plan was formed and gradually ratified by the States, Maryland being the last to 478 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. ratify it (January 30, 1781). The first Congress under the Confederation met March 2, 1781. The Second Continental Congress had continued in existence till that time. Weakness of the Confederation. The Confederation was a weak and almost powerless body. The important power of taxation was retained by the States, which proved a fatal defect. Its Congress, which chose for the new gov ernment the name of the u United States of America, 1 was to meet annually, and to consist of not less than two or more than seven members from any State. There was no President, Congress retaining the executive power. The weakness of the new government soon became evi dent. It could pass laws, but could not make the people obey them. It could incur debt, but could not lay a tax on the people with which to raise money to pay its debts. The States were to provide money for this purpose, but failed to do so. They were jealous of each other, and each acted as an independent nation. " We are," said Washington, " one nation to-day, and thirteen to-morrow." The Constitutional Convention. This state of affairs could not continue. The Confederation grew so weak that the States hardly troubled themselves to send delegates to its Congress, and it became difficult to get a quorum together. It grew apparent that there must be a strong central gov ernment or none at all ; one strong nation or thirteen weak ones. The last alternative frightened the States. They were already pressed and threatened by foreign nations. Feeling that they could not stand alone, they consented to call a convention to revise the Articles of Confederation, and this convention met at Philadelphia in 1787. The Work of the Convention. The convention con tinued in secret session for four months. When it adjourned it was found to have thrown aside the Articles of Confedera- LATER DEVELOPMENT OF GOVERNMENT. 479 tion and formed an entirely new Constitution. This " Con stitution of the United States of America" is the form of government under which our country has risen to its present proud eminence among the nations of the earth. It gave Congress (composed of Representatives, elected by the people, and Senators, elected by the States) full power to make laws and lay taxes. It formed an executive branch of the government (con sisting of the President and Vice-President) with full power to enforce the laws, to make treaties (with the consent of the Senate), and to perform other duties. It added a judicial department (the Supreme Court), whose duty it was to decide what acts of Congress were in accord ance with the Constitution. Any law, treaty, act, or pro posal declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court be comes illegal and cannot be enforced. Several amendments have been made to the Constitution, but in its leading features it remains intact. The several States have also adopted constitutions based largely upon that of the general government. , Election of President. It was considered by the Con vention that Congress could not be trusted to elect the President, since he might be controlled by it in his action. And the people at large seemed too extensive a body to se lect the best man for President. It was therefore decided that in each State a number of men of known judgment and ability should be elected by the people, and that these, known as electors, should nominate and vote for candidates for the Presidential office. 1 If none of those voted for by 1 In the first election under the Constitution it was decided that the electors should be chosen on the first Wednesday in January, they should meet to cast their votes on the first Wednesday in February, and 480 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. the electors had a majority of the whole, the House of Rep resentatives was to select the President from those voted for. Each elector voted for two candidates, the one receiving the highest number of votes to be President, the other Vice- President. This method ceased in 1804, after which they voted expressly for President and Vice-President. It was supposed that the electors would be independent in voting, but they soon became pledged to vote for certain candidates chosen by the parties in advance. Thus the purpose de signed in the Constitution became defeated, and the elec toral system grew useless. It is now looked upon as a piece of political machinery that could well be dispensed with. The Convention System. The first method in which the parties expressed their choice for Presidential candi dates was by a caucus held by the members of Congress of the respective parties. In 1812 a convention of political leaders representing eleven States met in New York and nominated De Witt Clinton for President. In 1830 a nom inating convention was called by the Anti-Mason party. This action was followed in 1831 by the National Republi can, and in 1832 by the Democratic party. Since then all candidates for President and Vice-President have been nom inated by national conventions of the party leaders. The first party platform, or declaration of principles, was made by the Democratic National Convention of 1840. Since then it has been customary for all nominating conventions to adopt a platform of principles. the President should take his seat on the first Wednesday in March. In 1789 this happened to be the 4th of March, and that date is still maintained for the beginning of each new administration and Congress, though the dates of elect on and of the meeting of electors have been changed. LATER DEVELOPMENT OF GOVERNMENT. 481 The Emancipation Proclamation. The most important change in political conditions since the adoption of the Con stitution was made by the Proclamation of Emancipation announced by President Lincoln September 22, 1862, and issued January 1, 1863. Under the action of this, and of the thirteenth amendment to the Constitution, slavery ceased to exist in the United States. The fourteenth and fifteenth amendments made citizens of the recent slaves and gave them the full right of suffrage. Woman Suffrage. For years past an agitation in favor of giving women the right to vote has been kept up. Par tial woman suffrage now exists in a majority of the States. The Territory of Wyoming gave them in 1869 the right to vote at all elections. Full woman suffrage now exists in four States, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, and Idaho. 1 Departments and Cabinet Officers. As it was impos sible for the President to attend to all the executive duties of the government, a number of executive departments have been established by Congress. These consist of the Depart ments of State, War, and the Treasury, formed in 1789 ; the Post-Office, formed temporarily in 1789, permanently in 1794 ; the Navy, in 1798 ; Justice, in 1820 ; the Interior, in 1849 ; Agriculture, in 1889 ; Commerce and Labor, in 1903. They are under the Secretaries of State, War, the Treasury, the Navy, Agriculture, and Commerce and Labor, the Post master-General, and the Attorney-General. No Cabinet, or body of advisers of the President, was contemplated by the Constitution, but President Washington 1 It is proper here lo say that universal male suffrage was only grad ually gained. In colonial times there was in every colony some prop erty or other qualification attached to the suffrage. Even after the adoption of the Constitution these restrictions continued, and were only gradually removed by legislation in the States. 31 482 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. frequently consulted the heads of departments on important subjects. Since then meetings of these officials have been called for joint consultation with the President. They thus became important members of the executive branch of the government, though with no power beyond that of advice. They have long been known, in their combined capacity, under the name of the Cabinet. Presidential Succession. An act was passed in 1886 providing a series of successors to the Presidency in case of the death, resignation, inability, or removal of the Pres ident and Vice-President. Under the present law the order of succession is, (1) the Secretary of State, (2) Secretary of the Treasury, (3) Secretary of War, (4) Attorney-General, (5) Postmaster-General, (6) Secretary of the Navy, and (7) Secretary of the Interior. The Secretaries of Agriculture and Commerce and Labor are omitted from this list, as these departments did not then exist. 3. POLITICAL PARTIES. Diversity of Opinion. As no two men in the world look just alike, so no two think just alike. Political opin ions everywhere vary, and political parties are everywhere formed. The first parties of this country were those of the Revolution, the Whigs and Tories, the former in favor of independence, the latter in favor of English rule. The Tories ceased to exist as a party after independence was gained. The Constitutional Convention of 1787 gave rise to the first political parties of the new republic, the Fed eralists and Anti-Federalists. Federal Party. This party was composed of those who favored a strong central government, and who therefore supported and voted for the adoption of the Constitution. It ceased to exist after the election of 1816. POLITICAL PARTIES. 483 Anti-Federal Party. This party was made up of those who opposed the Constitution, on the plea that it would give the central government a dangerous power. It disap peared after the adoption of the Constitution. Democratic-Republican Party. During Washington s first administration a new party arose, formed of the old A^ti-Federalists and others opposed to the government. It was named the Republican party by its leader, Thomas Jef ferson. During the French Revolution many " Democratic Clubs," formed of those who sympathized with the Revo lutionists, were formed in this country. During 1794r-95 these Democrats united with the Republicans, and the party gradually became known as the Democratic-Republican. It maintained the doctrine of State rights and opposed a strong central government. Democratic Party. The opposition of the Federal party to the war of 1812-15 destroyed its influence as a party, and for a period after its disappearance there was only one party in the country, the Democratic-Republican, which, after 1824, gradually became known as the Democratic. It favored State rights and opposed high duties on imported goods. It still exists as one of the great parties of the country. 1 National Republican Party. In 1828 a party under this name grew out of the Democratic party. It favored high tariff and public improvements by the government. Whig- Party. The National Republicans gradually as sumed the name of Whigs, by which they were generally known after 1836. This party was strong during several 1 In 1827 an organization called the Anti-Mason party arose, on ac count of a murder attributed to the Freemasons. It opposed that order as a dangerous secret party, whose civil duties were subordinated to its society obligations. This party disappeared after 1835. 484 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. administrations, but vanished in the North after 1850. The name was retained in the South till 1860. Liberty Party. In 1839 a political organization was formed calling itself the Liberty party, but generally known as the ANTI-SLAVERY or ABOLITIONIST party. It was com posed of the opponents of slavery, and merged in 1848 into the Free-Soil party. 1 Free-Soil Party. This organization, formed in 1848 by seceding Whigs, was composed of those who opposed the extension of slavery into the Territories. It absorbed the Liberty party. American Party. An organization called the Native American party was formed in New York in 1835. It op posed the rapid naturalization and office-holding of for eigners. It disappeared after 1845, and was succeeded in 1852 by a similar organization, whose motto was " Ameri cans shall rule America." This, called the American party, was secret in its operations, and became known as the KNOW-NOTHING party, as its members, when questioned, professed to know nothing about its secrets. It spread widely, but continued only a few years. Republican Party. In 1854-55 an organization was formed known as " Anti-Nebraska Men," and opposed to the further extension of slavery. They soon adopted the name Republican, under which they were known in the election year of 1856. This party absorbed the remnants 1 During a meeting at Tammany Hall, New York, in 1835, there was much confusion, during which the lights were suddenly extinguished. The meeting was partly made up of a faction of the Democrats, called the Equal Rights party. Some of these were provided with what were then known as loco-foco matches (invented in 1829), and the candles were soon relighted. Thence this party became known as the Loco- Foco party. POLITICAL PARTIES. 485 of the Whigs, Free-Soilers, Americans, and other minor organizations. It advocated a high protective tariff, strong central government, and the non-extension of slavery. It continues one of the leading parties of the country. 1 National Prohibition Party. This organization, often called the TEMPERANCE party, was formed in 1869, and advo cates the prohibition of the manufacture and sale of intoxi cating liquors. 2 Greenback Party. This organization was formed in 1876, and advocated an unlimited issue of " greenbacks, 1 or government paper currency. It soon disappeared. People s Party. An organization of farmers, known as the FARMERS ALLIANCE, was formed about 1873, for the pur pose of securing legislation in favor of agricultural interests. In 1885 a similar party was formed, under the name of FARMERS UNION. These parties were combined in 1889 as the NATIONAL FARMERS ALLIANCE, whose platform made more extended and radical demands. In addition to these there have been various labor par ties, the UNITED LABOR, the PROGRESSIVE LABOR, the NATIONAL, etc., of which the UNION LABOR party, formed in 1887, be came the successor. From these various organizations in favor of agriculture and labor arose in 1891 the PEOPLE S party, more commonly known as the POPULIST party. The 1 In 1860 a Southern section of the Democratic party, favoring slavery, took the title of the National Democratic party. Another Southern party, formed from fragments of the Whigs and Americans, called itself the Constitutional Union party. They each made a nomination in that year. 2 In 1871 a reform section of the Republican party fused with the Democrats, under the name of the Liberal Republican. It disappeared in 1876. The " Stalwarts" were a section of the Republicans who sup ported Grant for a third term in 1880, and the " Mugwumps" the inde pendent Republicans who opposed Elaine in 1884. 486 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. platform of this was strongly radical and socialistic in its demands, advocating the free coinage of silver, government ownership of railroads and telegraphs, government loans on farm produce, etc. 1 4. THE STORY OF SLAVERY. Introduction of Slavery. In the annals of Virginia for 1619 we find the following remark by Rolfe, who married Pocahontas and introduced the culture of tobacco : " About the last of August came in a Dutch marine-of-war, that sold us 20 Negars." With this brief record began the long chain of events that led to the great Civil War. At that period slavery was common in the civilized world, and all the maritime nations of Europe traded in negroes. There were already multitudes of slaves in the West Indies, and now they were introduced into the first British colony. The Apprentice System. Slaves did not increase rapidly in Virginia. Numbers of " apprentices," as they were called, were sent to that and most of the other colonies. These were whites, who were indentured to the planters for a number of years, and kept in a state of servitude that was like slavery. Some of them were criminals, some prisoners of war, some kidnapped persons, some homeless children, while some had bound themselves voluntarily that they might get to America. Spread of Slavery. The system of slave-holding grad ually extended until every colony had slaves. Oglethorpe 1 The 1896 and 1900 elections brought new parties and factions into the field, including the Silver Republican and the National (gold) Democratic, which opposed the main bodies of their respective par ties on the question of the monetary standard, and two factions of the Populist party. There were also the Nationalist, the Socialist Labor, the Social Democratic, and the United Christian parties. THE STORY OF SLAVERY. 487 tried to keep them out of Georgia, but failed. Slaves were never very numerous in the North. They were of no par ticular advantage in the fields, and were kept chiefly in the cities, as house-servants. In the South they were princi pally employed as field-hands, and proved very useful in colonial times in the cultivation of tobacco, indigo, and rice. Malarial fever made the rice-fields dangerous to whites, while it seldom attacked the blacks. Growth of Slavery. By the year 1740 about one hun dred and thirty thousand negroes had been brought to this country. By 1776 more than three hundred thousand had been brought here, and there were probably five hundred thousand in the country. In 1790 there were six hundred and fifty-seven thousand slaves in the South and forty thou sand three hundred in the North. These were found in every State except Massachusetts and Maine, which was part of it. New York had more than twenty thousand. Here they were employed on the farms as well as in the houses. Indentured servants largely took the place of slaves in Pennsylvania. The State constitution of Vermont (not yet admitted to the Union) in 1777, of Massachusetts in 1780, and of New Hampshire in 1783, abolished slavery. Pennsylvania pro vided for gradual abolition in 1780, Rhode Island and Con necticut in 1784, New York in 1799, and New Jersey in 1804. By 1810 there were no slaves in the States north of the Mason and Dixon line. Slave Insurrections. The first serious insurrection of the slaves took place in New York City in 1712. They were treated severely, twenty-four being put to death, some of them in the cruel ways then common. An uprising of slaves took place in South Carolina in 1740, and was only quelled by force of arms. In 1741, on an alarm of an intended 488 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. insurrection in New York City, thirty-three slaves were executed, thirteen of them being put to death by fire. In those days people were far more cruel than they are to day. Objections to Slavery. Slavery was objected to at an early date, and movements in favor of emancipation began soon after 1700. Many of the people of Virginia, and even of Carolina, showed a preference for white labor. The rapid increase of slaves was due to England, not to Amer ica. Laws to restrict the importation of slaves were numer ous in colonial times, but Great Britain found the slave-trade profitable and persisted in sending negroes, whom the colo nists were forced to accept. 1 The feeling of Americans in the eighteenth century is shown by the action of the Second Continental Congress, which, on April 6, 1776, resolved " that no slaves should be imported into any of the thirteen united colonies." This decree was not carried out. A second indication was shown in 1787, in the ordinance for the government of the Northwest Territory, which decreed that slavery should be forever excluded from that Territory. In 1790 a petition was presented to Congress, headed by the name of Benja min Franklin, asking for legislation looking to the ultimate extinction of slavery. Washington and Jefferson both favored this measure. It was fully debated in Congress, which finally decided that this question belonged to the States, and was beyond the powers of the Federal govern ment. Slavery in the Constitution. The word " slave 1 does not occur in the Constitution. Slaves are designated as 1 Rancroft says, " The sovereigns of England and Spain were the greatest slave-merchants in the world." THE STORY OF SLAVERY. 489 " other persons 1 and " such persons." But in drafting the Constitution the question arose whether slaves should be counted in reckoning the number of Representatives in Congress to which each State was entitled. Finally it was agreed that three-fifths of the slaves should be counted. Then arose the question of the slave-trade. Should this be continued. It was finally decided that no slaves should be brought into the country after 1807. It was also agreed that runaway slaves should be returned to their owners. The Cotton-Gin. Up to 1793 slavery was not a highly popular institution North or South. It might have grad ually died out but for the invention, in that year, of the cotton-gin. Before then it had not been profitable to raise cotton in this country. Afterward it became very profit able, and slaves became highly important to the South, as workers in the cotton-fields. Slavery was also important to cotton manufacturers in the North, and the movement for abolition nearly disappeared. In 1 807 Congress passed an act, in accordance with the Constitution, abolishing the slave-trade after January 1, 1808. Since then no slaves have been legally imported into this country. The Louisiana Purchase. The purchase of the great territory of Louisiana by President Jefferson in 1803 opened the way for a new slavery question. Slavery had been abolished in the Northwest Territory ; should it be admitted to the territory west of the Mississippi ? The South advo cated it ; the North opposed it, on the ground that it would give the slave States a controlling majority in Congress. The question was finally settled in 1820 by the Missouri Compromise. Under this, Missouri was admitted as a slave State, but with the condition that all new States north of the parallel of 36 30 should be free States. ^This removed the question from Congress until 1854. 490 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. The Liberator. Meanwhile, a sentiment in favor of the emancipation of slaves arose in the North. Gradual aboli tion was advocated, and a paper was published in Baltimore on this basis, on which was engaged a young man named William Lloyd Garrison. In 1831 he took a new and radical step. On January 1 of that year he began in Boston the publication of a newspaper named The Liberator, in which he advocated " the immediate and unconditional emancipation of every slave held in the United States." This new and extreme demand raised a storm. The South ern planters said that the editor must be mad. Northerners generally seemed to hold the same opinion. Garrison was a man of one idea, and he worked away on that idea until he won many followers. Abolition sentiment began to spread. Abolition Societies. In 1832, Garrison founded the New England Anti-Slavery Society. In 1833 a convention at Philadelphia founded the American Anti-Slavery Society. In 1831 a negro insurrection broke out in Virginia in which more than sixty people were murdered. In consequence of all this a feeling of excitement arose ; the gradual abo lition idea disappeared ; the slave laws were made more severe ; many Southerners believed that Garrison was seeking to rouse the slaves to massacre their masters. Northern Sympathy. In the North there was much sympathy with the South. Garrison and his party were looked upon as dangerous fanatics. Abolition meetings were broken up by mobs. On one occasion a riot broke out in Boston, in which Garrison was dragged through the streets with a rope tied round his body. His life was saved with great difficulty. This violence continued until about 1840. But in spite of it the abolition sentiment grew. In a few years nearly THE STORY OF SLAVERY. 491 two thousand societies were formed. Petitions against the extension of slavery were poured into Congress. John Quincy Adams, who was their leading advocate, sometimes presented more than two hundred of them in a single day, despite the opposition of Southern members. The Underground. Railroad. While all this was going on, many slaves were escaping to the North, where they were sheltered and protected by the abolitionists. Slaves were rescued from the officers who sought to arrest them, and many were aided to escape, and were concealed and passed on secretly to Canada. This grew into a regular system, which became known as the Underground Rail road. It was aided by the feeling of opposition to the new fugitive slave law. Several States passed laws to prevent negroes from being seized and returned without trial to slavery. Uncle Tom s Cabin. In 1852 was published a book whose influence was remarkable. This was Mrs. Stowe s " Uncle Tom s Cabin," which depicted in vivid dramatic language the darker aspects of slavery. It was read by millions, roused strong feeling, and added enormously to the number of abolitionists. The Kansas Troubles. In 1854 an act was passed by Congress which virtually repealed the Missouri Compromise. In Kansas, which came within the free territory fixed by that compromise, it was left to the decision of the inhabitants whether it should be admitted as a slave or a free State. Civil war on a small scale ensued. In the end the North ern party won, but the feeling of bitterness grew more intense. The Dred Scott Decision. In 1857 a negro named Dred Scott claimed freedom from his master on the plea that he had lived with him for years in a free State. The 492 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. Supreme Court decided against his plea, and affirmed that owners might take their slaves into any State without for feiting their rights. This decision, which opened the way for the taking of slaves into the free States, increased the strength of abolitionism. The John Brown Raid. John Brown s raid upon the United States arsenal at Harper s Ferry in 1859, and his proclamation of freedom to the neighboring slaves, was another important event in the history of slavery. His effort added greatly to the irritation of the South, and increased the general excitement on the great question of the day. The Republican Party. The growth of abolition sen timent in the North played a leading part in the forma tion of the new Republican party, which in 1856 showed strength enough to gain eleven States for its candidate. In 1860 it swept the North, and elected Abraham Lincoln to the Presidency. Slavery in the War. Civil war followed. Lincoln de clared that it was his duty to restore the Union, not to suppress slavery. But some action on this subject could not be avoided. It pressed itself on the attention of Union generals. In May, 1861, General Butler refused to return some fugitive slaves to their owner, saying that they were " contraband of war." In August, 1861, General Fremont issued a proclamation proclaiming the freedom of the slaves of enemies of the United States. This action was annulled by the President, as was also a subsequent proclamation by General Hunter, who declared the slaves in South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida to be free. The Emancipation Proclamation. Lincoln, meanwhile, was carefully considering the subject, and at length decided that the sentiment in the North in favor of freeing the PROGRESS OF FINANCE. 493 slaves was so strong that it was time for him to act. He waited a suitable time to speak, and this seemed to come after the battle of Antietam. He therefore, on September 22, 1862, issued a proclamation, in which he stated that on the first day of January, 1863, u all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State, the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States, shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free." The Thirteenth Amendment. The Emancipation Proc lamation did not free all the slaves. Those in territory under Union control at the time of its issue remained in slavery. The final step was taken in 1865 when Congress and the States adopted an amendment to the Constitution which forever abolished slavery within the limits of the United States. Results of Emancipation. During the period that has since elapsed the bitter feeling which once existed regard ing slavery has happily passed away. A new and satisfac tory system of labor has arisen, and slavery would not be accepted again were the opportunity offered. Its aboli tion has stimulated a more varied series of industries in the South, manufacturing is growing there with highly en couraging rapidity, and a condition of wealth and pros perity is arising which certainly could not have appeared in so brief a time under the former conditions of slave labor. 5. PROGRESS OF FINANCE. Colonial Finance. The money needed to conduct the affairs of the colonies was raised by various forms of tax ation. Quit-rents, or small annual payments for grants of land, satisfied the king and the proprietaries. Virginia laid an export duty on tobacco. Other colonies raised money 494 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. by duties and port charges. To some extent money was obtained by direct taxation, or taxes on the property and products of the people. But the government expenses were light and taxation was rarely a burden. The most expensive government was that of New York, due largely to its border wars. Here the taxes were levied in an unjust and oppressive manner that caused much irritation. Paper Money. The expensive Port Royal expedition of Massachusetts in 1690 threw that colony into debt, and paper money was issued as a temporary expedient. Wars and other causes in time brought debt upon the other colo nies, and all except Virginia followed this example. This paper currency depreciated largely in value, but it was grad ually redeemed with money raised by taxation, and the system worked fairly well in enabling the colonies to meet sudden emergencies. The colonies vigorously retained the right of taxing themselves, and in many cases of paying their own officials, and the attempt of the British government to tax them without their consent was the main cause of the Revolu tionary War. Colonial Coinage. The people of the colonies, in their early days, employed various substitutes for money. Wam pum (the circulating medium of the Indians) was used, 1 also furs and cotton cloth. Corn and bullets at times served for money, and in Virginia tobacco long did the duty of coin, passing as money according to its market value. 1 The Dutch, finding that the Indians would receive wampum for furs, made it themselves. It was made of sea-shells ruhbed smooth, cut into pieces, pierced with holes, and strung. It came to pass as money between the whites,. and the first church in New Jersey is said to have been paid for by contributions of wampum, each string being worth about a dollar. PROGRESS OF FINANCE. 495 A mint was established in Boston in 1652 which issued silver coins of several values. These bore various devices, the best known be ing the " Pine-Tree" shilling. Maryland in 1659 had shil lings, sixpences, and pennies, coined in England by Lord Baltimore. In 1722 PINE-TREE SHILLING. Great Britain issued a coinage for America, the coins being twopence, pence, and half-pence. Several of the States issued coins during the Revolution. Revolutionary Finances. The Continental Congress was given no power to tax the States. The people were poor. They had lately come out of an expensive war, carried on by the aid of paper money, which had sunk in value. Con gress adopted the colonial plan of issuing paper money, but it failed to demand from the States the power of laying taxes to provide for the redemption of this money, and the currency soon began to sink in value. The first issue was for two million dollars, the second for one million dollars, the third for three million dollars. More MONEY. was soon needed, and more was issued, until the total grew very large for so poor a country. The mistake was made of supposing that the war would be very short. t& Bearer ttreceM TWENTY S ED DOLLARS tr<& Arafa Gold or Sihrer, to a. 496 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. As the war went on the financial difficulty grew great. A Confederation was formed, but it left Congress without the power of laying taxes, and the States contributed very little toward its support. In the later years of the war some money was borrowed from France, Holland, and Spain, and some loans were obtained from the people. But the paper-mill continued the chief resource, and in the end the currency became almost worthless. Later Finances. At the end of the Revolution the coun try was deeply in debt and the government destitute of credit. There was abundance of paper money, but no one would take it for goods. In 1781, Robert Morris, who had lent much to the government during the war, was made Superintendent of Finance. He established at Philadelphia the Bank of North America, the oldest bank in this country. By its aid, by that of his own means and credit, and by some foreign loans, he partly relieved the strain. But Con gress continued without power, the States gave it very little help, claims remained unpaid, and the country was in a bankrupt condition. Even Robert Morris was not repaid the money he had advanced, and the ungrateful country permitted its benefactor to go to prison for debt. Hamilton s Methods. The new Constitution changed the situation by giving Congress the power of taxation. Alexander Hamilton was made Secretary of the Treasury. He found the debt of the country to be over seventy-five million dollars, a heavy burden for the United States at that time ; but by his wise methods the burden was soon lifted. He persuaded Congress to assume the debt of the States, and undertook to pay the whole debt, including the de preciated Continental currency. For this purpose he had a tax laid on imported goods and on distilled spirits. A mint and a national bank were established at Philadelphia. The PROGRESS OF FINANCE. 497 whole debt was made a government fund, at interest, and a sinking fund was founded for its gradual payment. These measures restored the credit of the government. Progress of the Debt. Now that the people were re ceiving interest on their claims, and could sell them or pass them off in trade, their payment was not demanded. For ten years the debt was not reduced, there being heavy expenses from the Indian wars and the naval war with France. After 1801 the debt began to decrease. In that year the internal revenue taxes were abolished, and the government afterward depended on import duties alone. In 1812, on the outbreak of the second war with Great Britain, the debt was forty-five million dollars. To pay the expenses of this war loans were made amounting to over eighty million dollars ; but so great were the discounts and depreciation that the government received only thirty-four million dollars from these loans. A new charter had been refused to the United States Bank, and the notes of the State banks, which succeeded it, sank greatly in value. In 1816 the public debt was over one hundred and twenty- seven million dollars. Gallatin, Secretary of the Treasury, demanded an internal revenue tax and a restoration of the United States Bank. After much opposition in Congress he finally obtained both. In 1817 the internal taxes were again taken off, and from that time until 1861 the government depended on import duties for its revenue. The Debt Paid. Twenty years afterward (1836) the United States found itself out of debt, and with a large sum of money on hand. Part of this came from the tariff duties, part from the sale of public lands. Congress decreed that this surplus, less five million dollars retained, should be 32 498 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. divided among the States in proportion to their population. The sum to be divided was over thirty-seven million dollars. But after three-fourths of it had been paid, the financial panic of 1837 came on, and the country found itself on the verge of bankruptcy. Causes of the Trouble. -President Jackson had vetoed the bill to renew the charter of the United States Bank, and removed the public money from its vaults. This money was deposited in State banks, and was freely loaned to speculators. A panic followed, many of the State banks failed, the public money was lost, and the government became unable to pay its debts. Treasury notes, or government paper money, which had been issued during the war of 1812, were again issued, money was borrowed, and the difficulty was thus got over. Subsequently what is known as the Sub-Treasury plan was adopted, the public money being kept in the United States Treasury building at Washington and in sub-treasuries in the principal cities. This method is still in use. It has the disadvantage of withdrawing large sums of money from circulation, and thus reducing the amount of currency in the hands of the people. The Civil War Period. When the Civil War began the public debt was about sixty million dollars. It increased with great rapidity, money being freely borrowed. .To meet the expense the tariff was increased, taxes were laid on many articles, and a tax was laid on the incomes of the people. Treasury notes were issued in abundance. The loans authorized reached the high total of $2,600,000,000. On the 1st of September, 1865, the debt of the United States was $2,756,431,751. The Confederate States had also a large debt, principally in the form of paper money, which had lost all its value through depreciation. PROGRESS OF FINANCE. 499 Paying the Debt. Since that date the country has been occupied in paying its enormous debt. Its paper money had greatly depreciated in value, at one time a dollar in gold being worth nearly three dollars in paper. For years the business of the country was conducted on the paper money of the government, and that issued by the national banks which the government had established during the war. The money of these banks was not like that of the old State banks. They bought government securities and deposited them in the United States Treasury, so that the government became responsible for their bank-notes. The credit of the country grew, till its paper became as valu able as gold, and on January 1, 1879, specie payments were resumed, the government being now able to redeem its paper in gold and silver coin. Since the close of the war the debt has been enormously reduced, more than $1,600,000,000 having been paid. In addition nearly all the internal revenue taxes have been taken off, and the rate of interest has been reduced to about half what it was in war times. No other country in the world has ever- shown so great a progress in the paying of a great war debt, and each of the great countries of Europe, except Germany, has now a much larger debt than this country. United States Coinage. The decimal system of United States coins was suggested by Robert Morris, shortly after the Revolution. Jefferson suggested that the dollar should be the monetary unit. There was no coinage (except some copper coins) until after the establishment of the United States Mint in 1791, the first coins being issued in 1792. The total United States coinage to the end of the fiscal year of 1901 was : Gold coins, $2,266,153,828 ; silver coins, $831,436,658 ; copper, bronze, and nickel coins, $35,513,537. 500 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. Silver Coinage. The recent great interest in silver coin age calls for some special statement on this subject. The coinage of silver dollars was authorized April 2, 1792, and began in 1794, at the ratio of fifteen ounces ofsilver to one of gold. The coinage was to be free and unlimited and the dollars to be legal tender for all debts. In 1834 an act of Congress was passed to reduce the weight of gold coins. This made the ratio 16.002 to 1. In 1837 the ratio was again changed, and was made 15.988 to 1. This ratio still holds good. It is usually called 16 to 1. The gold dollar contains 23.22 grains of pure gold ; the silver dollar 371.25 grains of pure silver. Each is alloyed with ten per cent, of copper, so that each is nine-tenths pure metal and one-tenth copper. In 1873 the coinage of silver dollars was discontinued. The silver dollar was then worth more than a gold dollar, and none had been in circulation for years. Up to that time the total coinage of silver dollars had been $8,045,838. In 1878 the coinage of silver dollars was resumed, under a law which said that not less than two million or more than four million dollars 1 worth of bullion should be pur chased monthly. They were to be legal tender for all debts unless otherwise stipulated. The Sherman Silver Bill, passed in 1890, required the purchase of not less than four million dollars in silver bullion monthly. This bill was repealed in 1893, and since then no silver has been purchased. Up to that date the total coinage of standard silver dollars had been over four hundred and thirty-one million dollars. Meanwhile, the mercantile value of silver had fallen until the bullion value of a dollar was little more than fifty cents. In 1900 Congress passed a law making gold the sole standard of value in this country, the gold dollar being made the monetary unit. POPULATION AND IMMIGRATION. 501 6. POPULATION AND IMMIGRATION. The Original Colonists. The territory of the United States was settled by people from five nations of Europe, Great Britain, France, Spain, Holland, and Sweden. The great bulk of the colonists were English. Of the original colonists, aside from the English, only the French of Louis iana and Canada and the Dutch of New York have left any distinct traces. Later Immigrants. Subsequently to the original settle ments, immigrants came from various countries of Europe. There was a considerable immigration of Scotch-Irish, 1 several hundred of whom settled at Londonderry, New Hampshire, and others in the Carolinas and Georgia. Many came to Pennsylvania, five thousand arriving in Philadel phia in 1729. They formed a very thrifty and useful portion of the population. Another very desirable class of immigrants were the French Huguenots, who settled in every colony, but mostly in the Carolinas. They brought with them the mulberry and olive and introduced many choice varieties of pears. Germany also sent large numbers of useful immigrants, driven from their country, like those already named, by re ligious persecution. Thirteen thousand Germans from the Palatinate were sent over in Queen Anne s time, four thou sand of them going to New York, others to the South. To Georgia came Moravians from Austria, fleeing from perse cution, German Lutherans, and Highland Scotch. The Pennsylvania Dutch. Among the most persistent in their characteristics of the non-English settlers have been 1 Presbyterians from Scotland who had settled in the north of Ireland. 502 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. those known as the " Pennsylvania Dutch," though really of German descent. In 1776 the population of Pennsylva nia was only about one-half English. One-third was Ger man and the rest Swedish and Irish. The Germans remain a distinct element of the population, still speaking a lan guage known as Pennsylvania Dutch, but really the provin cial German of the past century, with many changes in dialect. They are industrious farmers, very conservative in character and habits. The Dutch of New York have been also persistent in character, and a number of customs, now wide-spread in the country, were introduced by them. The Negroes and Indians. The negroes, who came here as slaves, but are now all free, constitute a strongly marked and numerous element of the population. The remnant of the Indian population, now settled in communities and on reservations, are also strongly marked in their characteris tics, though they may in time be absorbed by the whites. A Mixed Population. These various early elements, with the still more varied immigrants who have sought this country within the present century, make up a population of an unusual variety of origin. Yet it has largely amal gamated, and may eventually combine into a single new type of man. What that type will be it is yet too early to say. Numbers of the Population. Just how many people were in this country at various colonial periods we do not know. It is believed that in 1689 there were about 200,000 ; in 1750, about 1,100,000 ; in 1763, about 1,800,000 ; and in 1776, about 2,500,000. In 1790 the first census gave a population of 3,929,214. Since then the population has doubled, on the average, every twenty-five years, and in 1900 was 76,303,387. POPULATION AND IMMIGRATION. 503 States and Cities. In 1776 Virginia had the largest pop ulation, about five hundred thousand. Pennsylvania had about four hundred thousand, and Massachusetts about three hundred thousand. Connecticut, New York, Mary land, North Carolina, and South Carolina had about two hundred thousand each, and the other colonies each less than one hundred thousand. Of the cities, Philadelphia, the largest, had in 1790 a pop ulation of 42,520; New York, 33,131; Boston, 18,038; Charleston, 16,359; and Baltimore, 13,503. Of inland towns, Lancaster, Pennsylvania, was the largest, with some thing over six thousand inhabitants. There were only five cities with over ten thousand population. In 1900 there were four hundred and twenty-three. Location of the People. In 1790 nearly all the Amer ican people lived along the Atlantic seaboard, few having gone more than two hundred and fifty miles westward. The centre of population was then about twenty-three miles east of Baltimore. Since then this centre has moved stead ily westward, keeping nearly on the same parallel of latitude (39), at the rate of about fifty miles every ten years. In 1890 it had reached a point near Greensburg, in southeast ern Indiana. It may be further said that there has been a steady tendency toward increase of city life. In 1790 only three out of each one hundred people lived in cities. In 1840 this had increased to nine, and in 1890 to twenty-nine per one hundred. The Movement "Westward. After the Revolution an active movement westward set in, and soon towns arose west of the Alleghanies. Settlements were made in Ken tucky and Tennessee at an earlier date. The first settle ment in Ohio was at Marietta, in 1788. In the same year was founded a village, which in 1790 was named Cin- 504 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. cinnati. In 1803, St. Louis was a little village of log cabins, containing about eight hundred people. On the lakes De troit had been settled early by the French. In 1831 a dozen settlers had built their cabins around Fort Dearborn, on Lake Michigan. In 1833 this was a town of five hundred to six hundred people, and took the name of Chicago. To-day it is a city of more than a million inhabitants. Many like stories might be told of the marvellous rapidity with AN EMIGRANT TRAIN. which the enterprising American people have settled the great West, pushing their way in much less than a century to the Pacific, and occupying all the habitable territory be tween. In the history of mankind there is nothing that bears comparison with it. Routes of Travel. The Ohio formed a ready channel of movement westward from the Middle States, bold navi gators daring in rude craft the arrows and bullets of am bushed warriors. In the South hardy pioneers made their POPULATION AND IMMIGRATION. 505 way over the difficult barrier of the mountains. In the North they pushed westward through the forests, driving before them a frontier of hostile savages as they went. The National Road. The first great national road was begun at Cumberland, Maryland, on the Potomac, and grad ually extended across the mountains to Wheeling, Virginia (now West Virginia), on the Ohio. During the Monroe ad ministration this was extended into Ohio, and eventually it was carried by the State governments to the Mississippi. It was a broad and solid avenue, the first great work of road-making in the United States. Along it moved a con stant stream of emigrant wagons, often so close as to form a continuous line. Day by day, year by year, they moved onward, while the great West gradually filled up with the grand army of thrift and enterprise. This road has long since been superseded by the vast net work of railroad lines, and the slow-moving flat-boat has yielded to the rapid steamboat. By their aid the progress of settlement has been greatly intensified, and the hardships of emigration have almost disappeared through the replace ment of the lumbering emigrant wagon by the iron horse and its swift-moving train. Immigration. While the older population of this country has been flowing in a steady stream westward, new settlers have been pouring into the country eastward. Immigration has been more or less continuous since the date of the origi nal settlements, but toward the middle of the present cen tury it began to grow very large, an earnest desire spring ing up among the poverty-stricken and oppressed laboring people of Europe to enjoy the freedom and plenty of this prosperous country. A line of steamships began to cross the ocean in 1840 ; others followed ; immigrants poured in at the rate of three thousand per week ; and in the decade 506 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. between 1840 and 1850 nearly two million people were thus added to our population. This was almost twice as many as had arrived between 1800 and 1840. They were largely Irish, their great migration being due to the famine of 1845-46. Germany sent almost as many, while few came from other countries. Change in Character of Immigration. Until and for some time after the Civil War the immigrants were generally desirable in character, and readily assimilated with the peo ple. Since then there has been a change. The numbers of immigrants have enormously increased and they have become lower in grade. Formerly they were mainly from Great Britain and the Teutonic countries. Now they are largely from Italy and Eastern Europe. Formerly they were from the better classes of farmers and artisans. Now they are largely from the most ignorant and untrained class of laborers. Numbers of paupers, criminals, and others of the lowest class of Europe have been sent to this country, and a strong feeling of objection to such immigrants has grown up. The total immigration to this country since 1790 has been about twenty millions. Of these, more than five millions came in the ten years from 1880 to 1890, and nearly four millions in the succeeding decade. The Chinese. Chinese immigration to this country began about 1850. It increased rapidly after 1880, more than one hundred thousand landing in a few years. They worked for very low wages, thus disturbing the industrial conditions of the country. They brought no families, their purpose being to get what they could out of the country and then return home to enjoy it. It began to appear as if America would be flooded from the lowest class of Chinese laborers, who could not assimilate with our people and might in time lower the grade of our civilization. Consequently a law was TRANSPORTATION AND POSTAL FACILITIES. 507 passed forbidding their immigration. Their numbers are now steadily decreasing, as many go home and few return. Other Restrictive Laws. Congress has passed laws to prevent the immigration of paupers and criminals, of those brought here under contracts to perform certain labor, and in general of all not able to pay their own way and without means to begin life in this country. Yet these laws have not proved sufficient. Undesirable immigrants still reach our shores in large numbers, and more stringent laws are demanded. It is now considered desirable to keep out all people who cannot read and write and all who do not intend to become permanent citizens of the United States, since numbers come here for a season s labor and then return home ; also all Anarchists. Laws to this effect will be very useful, by restricting immigration to a better class. 7. TRANSPORTATION AND POSTAL FACILITIES. Early Travel. The facilities for travel in colonial times were small, and few people left their homes. Most of the travel took place by boats on navigable streams and vessels along the seaboard, land travel being very slow and attended with many hardships. Inland travel was mainly performed on foot through the forest, or on foot or horseback over rude and primitive roads. As the roads grew better some carriages appeared, but travel continued chiefly on horse back or by boat. Very little took place, and even in Phila delphia, the largest city, a stranger in the streets was looked at with curiosity. Dr. Franklin s Journey. An interesting example of this is given by Dr. Franklin, in his story of how he came from New York to Philadelphia in 1723. Part of this journey was made with great difficulty by boat from New York to 508 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. Amboy, and part by boat down the Delaware. Across New Jersey he went on foot, the whole journey taking five or six days. By coasting vessels, with favorable winds, this dis tance could be traversed in three days. Lack of Roads. Franklin found roads, but through most of the country nothing better existed than Indian trails and bridle-paths. Such goods as needed to be trans ported were carried on pack-horses. In 1753, Washington travelled five hundred and sixty miles through the wilder ness, the journey occupying forty- two days. It could now be performed in less than a day. No wheeled carriages were used until the middle of the eighteenth century, and few until after the Revolution. Those who could not afford a horse went on foot. Military Roads. Braddock, on his march toward Fort Duquesne, made a road as he went. Subsequently Gen eral Forbes, on a similar march, spent so much time in road-building as almost to defeat the object of the enter prise. Washington accomplished it by making a rapid advance to Fort Duquesne through the woods. Franklin came to Braddock s aid by providing for him a number of the famous Conestoga wagons of Pennsylvania. These were large, canvas-covered wagons used by the farmers and traders of that State to transport their produce to Philadelphia. They were each drawn by six or eight horses. At one time as many as ten thousand traversed the roads leading to that city. Stage Travel. It was late in the eighteenth century before a stage-coach line was started between Philadelphia and New York, the two largest cities in the country. At first a wagon running twice a week sufficed for all the travel. The roads were bad and the travel slow, about three miles an hour being the average time. In 1766 coaches were put TRANSPORTATION AND POSTAL FACILITIES. 509 on that made the journey in two days. They were adver tised as " flying machines. 1 In wet seasons the wagons often stuck in the mud, and had to be pulled out with the aid of the passengers. The first stage route was from Prov idence to Boston. The journey took two days. In 1789 THE CONESTOGA WAGON. it took a week to travel from Boston to New York by stage. There were no bridges, and all large rivers had to be crossed in boats. In cold weather the journey was a terrible one. Brie Canal. After 1800 active efforts began for improvement in means of transportation. Con gress considered the im portance of lending gov ernment aid to the build ing of roads and canals, and the State of New York undertook to build the great Erie Canal from Albany to Buffalo, a dis tance of three hundred and sixty-three miles. This grand enterprise, carried across what was mainly a wilderness, took eight years for its ac complishment. It was completed in 1825. Its effects were very important. Before it was built it took three weeks FULTON S STEAMBOAT. (The Clermont.) 510 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. and cost ten dollars to carry a barrel of flour from Buffalo to Albany. By the use of the canal this could be done in a week at a cost of thirty cents. The Steamboat. The development of steam as a source of power led to many experiments in the moving of boats and carriages by steam. John Fitch succeeded in moving boats by steam before 1790, but Robert Fulton was the first to attract public attention in this direction. His boat, the Clermont, placed on the Hudson in 1807, took thirty-two hours to pass from New York to Albany. SB . THE OCEAN STEAMER OP TO-DAY. This invention made a great change in modes of travel, the steamboat being soon widely adopted. The first boat was put on the Ohio in 1811, but in a few years many boats were traversing the Western rivers, adding greatly to the westward movement of emigration. These were rude paddle-wheel boats. Subsequently John Ericsson invented the screw-propeller, which added greatly to the power of steamboat propulsion. Steamships. It was soon deemed possible to cross the ocean by the aid of steam, and in 1819 the Savannah, pro- TRANSPORTATION AND POSTAL FACILITIES. 511 pelled partly by wind and partly by steam, crossed the Atlantic from Savannah, Georgia, to Liverpool. Vessels moved by steam alone followed, and in 1838 two English steamships entered the harbor of New York. In 1840 the Cunard Line of steamships was established between Liver pool and Boston. Soon after a line was opened to New York. These were the vanguards of the vast fleet of steam ships which now sail from our ports to all quarters of the globe. The first steam-vessels were rude affairs as com pared with the " floating palaces" which now make ocean travel a luxury. The Railroad. While Robert Fulton was experiment ing with his steamboat on the Hudson, Oliver Evans was experimenting with the steam-carriage in the streets of Philadelphia. The railroad was invented in England, and was first used for horse traffic. George Stephenson was the first to invent a practical steam-carriage to run on iron rails. The railroad soon reached this country, the first one, completed in 1826, being a few miles long and used with horses. The first railroad intended for passengers was begun in 1828. It ran from Baltimore westward, and forms part of the present Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. It was at first worked with horses. The first American loco motive was built at Baltimore by Peter Cooper (founder of the noble Cooper Institute of New York). The road was then thirteen miles long and the distance was accomplished in something less than an hour. A fine horse belonging to a Baltimore stage-coach line raced the locomotive on its return, but the wheezing little machine won the victory. That indicated the end of the stage-coach age. Growth of the Railroad System. In 1830 there were in all twenty-three miles of railroad in the United States. 512 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. In 1840 there were two thousand eight hundred and eigh teen miles, and the length doubled every five years for twenty years. There are at present about one hundred THE LOCOMOTIVE OF TO-DAY. and ninet y thoU sand miles, with more than thirty-six thousand engines and one million two hundred thousand cars, while the capital invested aggre gates over five billion dollars. To-day the continent can be crossed from New York to San Francisco in five days, three thousand miles being traversed in the time it took to go two hundred and fifty miles by stage-coach travel. The teas, silks, and spices of Asia, which formerly took five or six months to reach us, now do so in a month, while vast quantities of the products of our own country are daily transported over the rails. The Express System. The express system of this coun try was initiated in 1839 by a man named Harnden, who began by carrying articles in a small hand-bag. Now the business is immense in scope, thousands of railroad cars being used in its service. The Telegraph. While men s bodies were being carried at such speed, efforts were being made to carry their thoughts with much greater speed. Mechanical methods of telegraphy had long been used, but it was not until after 1830 that ex periments in electric telegraphy began to be made. The first electric telegraph in this country, the invention of Pro fessor Morse, was completed from Baltimore to Washington in 1844, the first business message sent being the news of Folk s nomination to the Presidency by the convention at Baltimore. At present there are more than one hundred TRANSPORTATION AND POSTAL FACILITIES. 513 and ninety thousand miles of line and over nine hundred thousand miles of wire in this country, and thousands of miles under the ocean, extending to other parts of the world. Messages can also now be sent for long distances without the use of wires. This, one of the most wonderful of modern inventions, is known as wireless telegraphy. The Telephone. The telephone or speaking telegraph was first exhibited in 1876. There are now one million four hundred thousand miles of wire in use, and many hun dred thousands of people daily speak to each other over miles of distance. The Street Railway. The street railway has made sim ilarly encouraging progress. Begun about forty years ago, and run until recently by the aid of horses, these have been almost entirely superseded by the aid of power engines. The first cable-cars ran in San Francisco in 1873. The first electric railway was started in Richmond, Virginia, in 1888. Now many thousands of miles of electric trolley roads are in use, extending from the cities far into the country, and the trolley system is beginning to supersede the steam loco motive. The Bicycle and Horseless Carriage. The bicycle is one of the great inventions of the age. Vast numbers of them are now in use, and they promise to make a revolution in the development of our roads. The horseless carriage, or automobile, moved by steam, electric or other motors, is an invention of much importance which has come widely into use, reducing the need of horses. Postal Progress. The first regular mail route of which we know in this country was started in 1672 between New York and Boston, by way of Hartford. It made the round trip once a month. In 1729 the mail between Philadelphia and New York was carried once a week in summer, once a 33 514 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. of the regular mail. THE PONY EXPRESS. fortnight in winter. The mails were carried by men on horseback, their saddle-bags sufficing for all the letters sent. In remote places a mail was sent out when enough letters had collected to pay the cost of carriage. The old carrier is said to have jogged slowly onward, knitting stock ings to pass the time. Newspapers did not then make part In 1753, Benjamin Franklin was ap pointed postmaster-gen eral, and spent five weeks in making a tour of the country to perfect his plans. The service was much improved under his management. Postal Service in 1790. In 1790 there were seventy-five post- offices in the country, and five mails a week between New York and Philadelphia. It took two days for a letter to go this distance. The mail routes were then eighteen hundred and seventy-five miles in length, and about two million letters were carried yearly. They are now over five hundred thousand miles long, and more than eight thousand million pieces of mail matter are carried yearly. There are more than seventy-seven thousand post-offices. The cost of carrying the mails is much over $100,000,000. Rates of Postage. In 1792 the rates of postage on a single letter-sheet were eight cents for a distance under forty miles, ten cents under ninety miles, and so on. It cost sev enteen cents to send a letter from New York to Boston and twenty-five cents to send one to Richmond. Two sheets were charged double. In 1845 postage was reduced to five cents per half-ounce for distances under three hundred INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS AND DEVELOPMENT. 515 miles ; ten cents for greater distances. In 1851 it was re duced to three cents for distances under three thousand miles ; six cents for greater distances. In 1863 the rate was made three cents for all distances. In 1883 it was reduced to two cents per half-ounce, and in 1885 to two cents per ounce. In addition to letters, millions of newspapers and books now pass through the mails, and small parcels are carried in vast numbers at low rates. 8. INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS AND DEVELOPMENT. Agriculture. The tillage of the ground was the industry to which the Americans most largely devoted themselves in colonial times. The forests gradually receded before the axes of the pioneers, and wider tracts of land were brought under cultivation, until a vast area of former wilderness was converted into fertile farms. The grains and fruits of Europe were in troduced and cultivated, and certain native plants proved of high utility. Chief among these was maize or Indian- corn, whose culture has extended until now it is one of the leading food-plants of the world. Its product in this coun try far surpasses that of any other grain, reaching in some years the enormous aggregate of over two billion bushels. The potato is another American food-plant whose cultiva tion has spread throughout the world, and which forms a great portion of the food of mankind. CUTTING GRASS WITH THE SCYTHE. 516 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. THRESHING WITH THE FLAIL. Tobacco. Tobacco, found first by Raleigh s colonists in 1585 on Roanoke Island, began to be regularly cultivated in Virginia in 1612. Its culture soon became the great industry of that colony. In 1619 over forty thousand pounds were shipped abroad ; in 1640 over one million five hundred thou sand pounds. At present over four hundred million pounds are annually produced in this coun try, worth more than twenty- seven million dollars. Nearly one-half of this is grown in Ken tucky, which has become the great tobacco-producing State. The commerce of America be gan with tobacco. The demand for it in Europe grew rap idly, new ground was constantly cleared for its cultivation, and the plantation system, with slave labor, was introduced. At one time it was planted even in the streets of Jamestown. It served as money, the salaries of clergymen and public officers were paid in it, and until the Revolution it was almost the only currency of Virginia. Wheat, Rice, Indigo, and Sugar. Wheat, introduced from Europe, was largely cultivated in New York, New Jer sey, and Pennsylvania. In the last-named State thousands of Conestoga wagons were used to bring the crop to Phila delphia. To-day wheat is one of the most valuable agricul tural products of the country and a leading article of export. In 1693 rice was introduced into South Carolina by a vessel from Madagascar. It grew luxuriantly, and soon became the principal product of the State. The indigo plant INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS AND DEVELOPMENT. 517 was introduced in 1741, and was so developed that before the Revolution Charleston exported over a million pounds a year. Another staple of considerable importance was sugar. The cultivation of the sugar-cane was introduced into Lou isiana about 1750, but did not become important until after 1800. The annual product of sugar in this country is now over five hundred thousand tons, of which seventy-five thousand are produced from the sugar-beet. Cotton. Another staple of Southern agriculture, cotton, developed very slowly, from the difficulty of removing the seeds from the fibre. After the invention of the cotton-gin, in 1793, its development was rapid, and this country is now the most important cotton-producing country in the world. The yield of 487,000 pounds in 1793 had increased to 38,118,000 pounds in 1804. In some recent years it has been more than eleven million bales, averaging 487 pounds each. Other Products. The agricultural products of this coun try have become enormous in quantity and widely varied in character. An interesting feature is the great production of tropical fruits, the orange being raised in vast quantities in Florida and California, while lemons, raisins, and other tropical products are largely produced. The total value of farm products in the United States in 1889, as given in the census of 1890, was $2,460,107,454. Animals. None of the farm animals of Europe were found in this country, neither the horse, the ox, the pig, nor the sheep. These were all introduced by the early settlers, but have very largely increased. The total value of these animals in the United States is now more than two billion dollars, nearly equalling all other farm products. The only animal suitable for domestication found here was the bison, 518 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. or buffalo, as it is commonly called. These were found in myriads, but no attempt was made to domesticate them, and they have been wantonly destroyed until only a few hundreds remain. Similarly all the birds of the farm, except the turkey, were introduced from Europe. Thus while America gave several highly useful plants to the world, it has given but one do mesticated animal, the turkey. Agricultural Implements. Farming in former centuries was a very laborious occupation. None of the labor-saving machines now in use were then known, and the severest hand labor was necessary. Grass was cut with the scythe, grain with the sickle, and threshing was done on the barn floor with the flail, or the grain was trodden out by the feet of animals. The plough in use was a rude affair, with iron plates roughly fas tened on the mould-board. Results of Invention. All this has been overcome by the inventive genius of our people. Reaping, mowing, and harvesting ma chines now do most of the work of the fields. The seed is planted, the grain cut and bound into sheaves, by ma chines which seem to act almost with human intelligence. Machines thresh out the grain, swift-running railroad trains COLONIAL PLOUGH. STEAM-PLOUGH. INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS AND DEVELOPMENT. 519 convey it to market, great elevators store and load it on shipboard, and in a thousand ways the aid of invention has been called in to decrease the labor and add to the produc- STEAM THRESHING-MACHINE. tiveness of the farm, and to lessen the cost of conveying its produce to market. Irrigation. The area of farm lands in the United States has of late years been largely increased by irrigating the soil in the rainless region of the West. The water of rivers and mountain streams is conveyed by canals to the fertile lands, and there spread over the ground by numerous small channels. In this way millions of acres have been made very productive, and millions more will be in the future. Fur Products. The early colonists quickly found another valuable source of profit in the great number and variety of fur-bearing animals that dwelt in the forests of this coun try, and whose furs brought high prices in Europe. At first these were purchased from the Indians, and to this traffic the Dutch settlers of New York particularly devoted them selves. Then the whites began the business of hunting and trapping. This was particularly the case with the French of Canada, who penetrated the country deeply in all direc tions in search of furs. British settlers in time vied with them in activity, and as 520 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. early as 1670 the Hudson Bay Company was established for the purpose of seeking fur animals in the wintry regions of the far north. In time this company extended its field of labor to the Pacific, absorbing other compa nies, and making a vig orous effort, which hap pily failed, to convert Oregon into a British colony. The quantity HARVESTING AND BINDING MACHINE. of furs obtained in the United States has now greatly decreased, and Alaska is the principal field remain ing. There the fur seal, once of great value, is in danger of being entirely destroyed by reckless adventurers. Forestry. The vast forests of the United States have proved another very valuable source of wealth. At first used mainly for firewood or recklessly burned to clear the soil, these forests have long supplied almost unlimited quan tities of useful timber. The white pine of the Northern woods has proved of the utmost value as a source of easily worked wood for house- and ship-building, while from the pines of the South great quantities of turpentine, tar, pitch, and rosin have been obtained. Of hard woods, suitable for cabinet purposes, the supply has been very great, and American walnut is one of the most highly valued of woods for furniture-making. Yet the forest wealth of this country has been frightfully wasted, by the heedlessness of the woodsman and the care lessness with which the woods have been set on fire. Much more timber has been burned than has been used, and our forests are rapidly disappearing. At present the lumber consumed in the United States annually is over twenty-four INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS AND DEVELOPMENT. 521 billion cubic feet, three-fourths of which is used for fuel. About twenty million dollars worth is destroyed every year by fire. Forest Preservation. At the present rate of cutting and waste there will soon be a wood famine in this country. To prevent this efforts are being made to preserve the forests. State forest commissions have been instituted, and the American Forestry Association is actively at work. Forest reservations embracing many millions of acres have been made by the general government. The institution of Arbor- Day, for the voluntary planting of trees by the people and to encourage a love of trees among school-children, prom ises to be very useful. In the future the reckless waste of the past is not likely to be continued. The Fisheries. Another highly important field of labor lay in the fisheries of the Atlantic coast, which in the early days of this country swarmed with food fishes of great variety and value. Codfish were enormously abundant in the vicinity of Newfoundland, the shad, herring, mackerel, and salmon were prolific, and the whale-fisheries led to daring excursions into the open seas. The oyster-beds were also rich and extensive, and the waters of the coast fur nished much of the food of the people and materials for export in colonial times. The fisheries, with the exception of that for the whale, still continue highly productive, the total value of water products for the census year of 1890 being $45,312,818. Of this, $18,000,000 was the product of the oyster- and clam-fisheries. Of recent years the very abundant salmon- fisheries of the Pacific coast have added greatly to the annual yield. For years it looked as if many of the fish would suffer the fate of the forests, and be destroyed by reckless pursuit. But the new methods of fish-culture are 522 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. beginning to restore the former abundance of these in valuable animals. The Fishery Dispute. By the treaty of 1783, which closed the American war for independence, all the coasts, bays, and fishing-banks of Canada were thrown open to United States fishermen. In 1814, at the close of the second war with Great Britain, the British peace commissioners held that this war had invalidated the earlier treaty, while the American commissioners claimed that the rights granted in 1783 could not be revoked. The matter was left open, and a dispute began which continued for many years. In 1818 the Americans were granted the right to fish outside of three marine miles from the Canadian coast, but the right to fish in the Bays of St. Lawrence, Fundy, and Chaleurs was disputed. The ques tion regarding the Bay of Fundy was settled by arbitration in favor of the United States, but other matters remained open till 1871, when, by the treaty of Washington, the fish eries of each country were thrown open to the fishermen of the other. But Great Britain claimed that the American fisheries were of little value, and that she ought to be paid for the difference in value. She claimed $14,280,000 as her just due for twelve years, the period of treaty. The question was arbitrated, and the sum of $5,500,000 was awarded. In 1888, the former treaty having expired, a new one was signed. This fixes a three-mile limit from the Canadian coast within which American fishermen must not enter. It also reserves all bays of ten miles or less in width. American vessels can only land, sell, or other wise dispose of their cargoes in Canadian ports in case of distress. Manufactures. But little manufacturing was done in this country in colonial times. It was prevented by the INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS AND DEVELOPMENT. 523 stringent regulations of the British government, which sought to confine the colonies to the production of raw material and convert them into markets for British goods. Sheep might be raised, but their wool must be sent to England to w r eave. Iron might be smelted, but not a nail or a horseshoe must be made. The beavers from whose furs hats were made were native to America, but the busi ness of the hatter was greatly restricted. Hats might be made for local use, but could not be sent from colony to colony, or even from one plantation to another. What little manufacturing took place was principally within the limits of the farm-house, where wool and flax were carded, spun, and woven into cloth by the women of the house, while clothes, hats, shoes, furniture, and farming implements were similarly made at home. Mrs. Washing ton is said to have kept sixteen spinning-wheels going. In 1789 there were very few manufactures within the United States, and the bulk of the people were farmers. Progress in Man ufactures. During the recent century, and particularly since the close of the second war with Great Britain, the progress of manufac tures in this country has been stupendous, and it has given rise to an activity of in vention and a development of labor-saving machinery which are without rivalry in the world s history. As evidence of this it will suffice here to say that in 1900 the value of POWER-LOOM. 524 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. manufactured products in the United States reached the vast total of $13,019,251,614. Commerce. Commercial activity early displayed itself in the New England colonies, where many ships were built, and a profitable trade was kept up with the West Indies and Europe. So many vessels were built for sale as to bring loud complaints from British builders. The exports were principally fish, furs, lumber, and iron. The South exported rice, indigo, tobacco, tar, and turpentine. The effort of Great Britain to confine the trade of America to British ports failed, and smuggling went on largely, tea and other luxuries being freely brought from Europe, and sugar, molasses, etc., from the West Indies. During the last century the progress of American com merce kept pace with that of manufactures. Once con fined to the exportation of agricultural produce and im portation of manufactured goods, this country has now an extensive export trade, and in all the respects here men tioned is to-day one of the leading nations of the world. On July 1, 1901, the exports of the United States were valued at nearly $1,500,000,000, the imports of the same year being about $820,000,000. General Industrial Progress. Within the nineteenth century there was an extraordinary increase in wealth and population, the former consisting of rich products from mines and vast amounts of goods from farm and factory, while there has been a remarkable variety of inventions, including machines for almost every imaginable purpose. LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND ART. 525 t 9. LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND ART. Colonial Literature. The early colonists were too busily occupied in combating with savage nature to trouble them selves much about literature, science, or art. For books they had the Bible, and it sufficed for most of them. There were writers, but they produced nothing of living value. Most of the books were collections of sermons or treatises on theology. Cotton Mather, the leading early writer, showed his lack of intellectual development by his activity in the witchcraft persecution. Jonathan Edwards, the most famous colonial author, wrote only on theological subjects. He was one of the deep thinkers of the world. Benjamin Franklin was the only writer on general subjects whose works are now read. His story of his life and the homely wisdom of " Poor Richard s Almanac" are still good popular literature. And he had a pleasant vein of humor and satire which can still be enjoyed. Revolutionary Literature. During the war for inde pendence and the subsequent period men s thoughts ran largely on politics, and the writings were principally politi cal. Patrick Henry made his famous speeches, Thomas Paine wrote his stirring " Common Sense" and " Crisis" pamphlets, Hopkinson and Trumbull produced humorous political poems, and Jefferson wrote that famous state paper, the u Declaration of Independence." The ablest political literature of the period is found in the " Federal ist," a collection of the writings of Hamilton, Jay, and Madison in support of the Constitution. This has been called " The political classic of the United States." Later Literature. Not until after the beginning of the nineteenth century did many Americans gain the leisure and culture necessary to the development of the higher order 526 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. of literature. The first writer to acquire feme in this period was Washington Irving, whose humorous " Knickerbocker s History of New York" appeared in 1809, and his delightful u Sketch Book" about ten years later. In 1812, Bryant, then only eighteen years of age, produced his famous " Thanatopsis," and with it began the brilliant career of American poetry. Much verse had been written before, but little poetry. Of later poets of fame it will suffice here to name Poe, Whittier, Longfellow, Lowell, and Holmes. Fiction. Shortly after the beginning of the century novels began to appear, but the earliest writer of lasting fame was Cooper, whose "Spy" appeared in 1821. Na thaniel Hawthorne was the first writer of high powers to follow him. These two have been succeeded by numerous able writers of fictitious literature. History and Philosophy. The United States has been prolific of able historians, of whom we need only name Bancroft, whose " History of the United States" began in 1834; Prescott, the author of many brilliant histories; Motley, the historian of the Dutch republic ; and Parkman, whose records of French history in this country are charm ingly rendered. Of philosophical writers it will suffice to name Emerson, whose fame as a brilliant essayist is world wide. Other Literature. The scope of American literature is too broad for all its fields to be named in this brief re view. It must suffice to speak of Wheaton, whose work on international law is the highest authority on the subject ; Webster and Worcester, who produced the first standard dictionaries of the English language ; and the famous works on ornithology of Audubon and Wilson. The list here given might be greatly extended by the names of living LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND ART. 527 writers of fame and ability, but they are too numerous and varied to mention. Periodical Literature. While the literature of the learned was thus growing and spreading, the literature of the masses, the newspaper, was making steady progress. The first printing-press in this country was set up at Cam bridge, Massachusetts, in 1639. Compared with the power- presses of to-day it was an extraordinarily rude and slow- moving affair. No newspaper press was needed until 1704, when the Boston News Letter, the first weekly ever regularly published in this country, appeared. 1 Other papers were afterward started in Boston, one, the New England Courant, by the brother of Benjamin Franklin, on which that famous author and statesman learned the printer s art. Coming to Philadelphia in 1723, he found there a paper, the American Weekly Mercuric, established in 1719. In 1729 the Pennsylvania Gazette was founded. This Franklin quickly purchased, and continued to issue until 1748. It was published afterward until about 1820. Newspaper Progress. In 1750 there were only seven newspapers in the colonies. These at the time of the Revolution had increased to thirty-seven, of which New England published fourteen, New York four, Pennsylvania nine, and the South ten. But these small sheets, issued weekly, with little news and few advertisements, and their information from Europe several weeks old, were but dwarf ish predecessors of the giant daily newspapers of to-day. The first daily paper, The American Daily Advertiser, 1 The first attempt to issue a newspaper in America was made in Boston in 1689, and a second (Publick Occurrences) in 1690 ; but both were immediately suppressed by the authorities. Only one copy of the first and two of the second of these papers are known to exist. 528 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. appeared in Philadelphia in 1784. Since then there has been a remarkable progress in newspaper enterprise in this country, far surpassing that of Great Britain and any other land. The first one-cent daily, the New York Daily 8un { appeared in 1833. This was a small sheet compared with the many-paged one-cent papers now issued. There are at present published in this country more than twenty thousand newspapers, while the whole world only pub lishes about fifty thousand. They deal with every subject, commerce, science, industry, society, art, religion, etc., while their circulation has become enormously great. Magazines. Magazine literature began in this country in the later years of the eighteenth century, though the pro ductions of that period have long since ceased to be read. The oldest existing American magazine is the North Ameri can Review, first issued in 1815. The existing magazines of this country are of great excellence, particularly in their illustrations, in which they have no equals in the world. Some of these richly illustrated American monthlies have a circulation in all parts of the British empire. Science. The cultivation of science began in the colonial period. American astronomy began with Rittenhouse, a friend of Washington, and Godfrey, the inventor of the quadrant, so useful to mariners. More famous was Frank lin, whose electrical discoveries became the admiration of Europe. In botany the two Bartrams (father and son) won wide-spread fame. Somewhat later appeared Audubon, whose studies of bird-life read like a romance. Of more recent students of science in this country may be named Agassiz, the famous zoologist ; Dana, the geologist ; Grey, the botanist ; Morton, the discoverer of anaesthetics ; Thomp son, to whom we owe the theory that heat is a mode of motion ; Draper, the student of photography ; and Henry, LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND ART. 529 the electrician. This is but a partial list, while the names of more recent scientists of high ability are too numerous to be here given. To-day the United States stands among the leading countries in the pursuit of science. Museums and Scientific Institutions. The earliest sci entific body in this country was the American Philosophical Society, instituted at Philadelphia a century and a half ago. The earliest museum was the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, organized in 1812. Such societies and museums are now very numerous and many of them of high standing. In the making of telescope lenses American opticians are the first in the world. Libraries. Public libraries began in this country with the Philadelphia Library, founded by Franklin in the middle of the eighteenth century. Libraries are now found every where, several of them very large, while free libraries are rapidly multiplying. The largest is the Library of Congress, whose number of books is rapidly approaching a million. The Boston Public Library, with nearly six hundred thou sand volumes, comes next. Others of large size exist in various cities. Of private libraries the oldest is that of Har vard University, which began in 1638. It now contains more than three hundred thousand volumes. Art. The eighteenth century produced several painters of note in this country, of whom the best known were West ? Copley, Stuart, Allston, and Trumbull. Later appeared Cole, Huntington, Church, Bierstadt, and others, including Morse, the inventor of the electric telegraph. Of famous sculptors may be named Greenough, Crawford, Powers, Rogers, and Story. In recent times, and particularly since the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia, with its useful lessons in industrial art, this country has greatly advanced in artistic taste and feeling. Of art museums the Pennsyl- 34 530 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. vania Academy of the Fine Arts, at Philadelphia, stands as the pioneer. Many other academies and schools have suc ceeded, while industrial art is being taught in numbers of institutions. 10. EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS. What Education Includes, The word " education" has a much wider meaning than is usually given to it. It com prises instruction in two series of events, those of the past and of the present. The former must be mainly derived from books, since it only exists as a record of man s doings. The latter is largely gained by observation, and is derived from association with mankind, and the study of methods of business, industry, etc. But when we speak of educa tion, we usually mean that which is obtained in schools, through the aid of books and teachers. The other is known as life experience, and is the practical education which every living person gains in some measure, even those who are destitute of book-learning. The Puritan Schools. The necessity of general educa tion was quickly felt in Massachusetts, and as early as 1635 steps were taken to establish a public school in Boston. The other towns of the colony soon followed this example, and in 1647 the General Court of Massachusetts passed an act requiring every town to establish a free school. If there were a hundred families a grammar school was demanded. Penalties were laid on every town that did not comply with this requirement. In this action was laid the foundation of the common- school system of this country. The other colonies of New England proved as active in this direction as Massachusetts. A public school was started at New Haven in three years and at Newport in two years after their settlement. Every EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS. 531 town in Connecticut was required to keep a school open for three months in the year, under penalty of fine. Laws were passed in every colony but Plymouth compelling every child to attend school. How these laws worked we do not know. There are such laws to-day, but they do not work very well. Education in Virginia. An attempt was made to estab lish schools in Virginia at an early date, but education in that colony was afterward much neglected. In 1671 Sir William Berkeley wrote, " I thank God there are no free schools nor printing ; and I hope we shall not have, these hundred years. God keep us from both." Fortunately his wish did not bear fruit. A free school was endowed five years afterward. Yet education remained very backward in the Southern colonies. Even the children of the wealthy planters found no suitable schools, and were chiefly edu cated by tutors at home or were sent to school in England. Schools in Other Colonies. An act was passed in Mary land in 1694 for the establishment of free schools, but the first school under it did not appear till 1723. A free school was founded at Charleston in 1712. A school was opened by the Dutch in New Amsterdam in 1633, but the cause of education advanced very slowly, falling off under the Eng lish, and it was not until 1732 that a school of Latin, Greek, and mathematics was founded. The Quakers of Pennsyl vania were more active in preparing for education. A school was opened in Philadelphia in the year of its set tlement, and in the sixth year a free academy was founded. There were many successful private schools in the middle colonies, but little of the public money was spent for edu cation. Higher Education. Schools preparatory to college were founded in several colonies, and three of these of very 532 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. early establishment still exist. These are the Boston Latin School, founded in 1635, the Collegiate School, at New York, in 1633, and the William Penn Charter School, at Philadelphia, in 1689. Harvard College. In 1636. six years after Boston was settled, the General Court voted a year s tax of the colony, four hundred pounds, for the establishment of a seminary or college at Newtown, afterward called Cambridge. Two years later the Rev. John Harvard, of Charlestown, left to this school his library of three hundred and twenty volumes and seven hundred and fifty pounds in money. In recog nition of this gift the institution was named Harvard Col lege. It is now the flourishing Harvard University. So great was the interest felt in this college that in 1645 every family in the colony gave it either a peck of corn or a shil ling in money. Yale College. Similar action was taken in Connecticut. In 1700 two ministers brought together such books as they could spare, saying, " I give these bookfe for founding a college in Connecticut." In this humble way Yale College began. It was founded in 1701, at Saybrook, but removed to New Haven, where it still remains, in 1716. It was named after Governor Yale, who had been generous in its aid. "William and Mary College. There was a school founded at Elizabeth City, Virginia, four years before Harvard Col lege, it being endowed with two hundred acres of land and eight cows. In 1693 there was founded at Williamsburg, the capital of Virginia, William and Mary College, the sec ond in this country. This college, before the Revolution the richest in the country, has much declined in importance. Other Colleges. The other pre-Revolutionary colleges were founded at the following dates: Princeton, 1746; EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS. 533 King s (now Columbia), 1754; Pennsylvania, 1755; Brown, 1764; Dartmouth, 1769; and Rutgers, 1770. Conditions of Early Education. The free schools of colonial times, and until long afterward, gave but poor and sparse education. The schools were few and far apart, the teachers and text-books were indifferent, and the instru/> tion was rudimentary. The only reading-books in early times were the Bible, the Psalter, and the New England Speller. After the Revolution the Columbian Orator be came very popular and Webster s Spelling-Book was widely used. The grammars and arithmetics were crude produc tions. Writing-books were generally home-made, and ruled by the pupil with lead-pencils made by himself. The boys also whittled out their own slate-pencils, while the teacher made the pens out of goose-quills. The use of the penknife, and of the switch on the backs of the pupils, took much of his time. The teacher was paid partly by the town, partly by the scholars, receiving from one hundred and twenty-five to three hundred dollars a year in money and produce. General Establishment of Common Schools. The con stitutions of Georgia in 1777, Massachusetts in 1780, Penn sylvania in 1790, and Connecticut in 1795, required free schools, but these requirements were often evaded. In New York common schools were established by Governor Clinton in 1795. An important step in the development of education was taken in the ordinance for the government of the Northwestern Territory in 1785. This required that section sixteen of every township should be set aside to maintain public schools. School Funds. When Connecticut donated her western territory to the United States, a portion was reserved on Lake Erie to provide a school fund. This, the u Western 534 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. Reserve," was afterward sold for more than one million dollars, and from its proceeds Connecticut has now a school endowment of about two million dollars. In 1848, when Oregon Territory was organized, sections sixteen and thirty-six of every township were set aside for public schools. Every new State since has taken similar action with its public lands, and each has a large school fund. Other lands have been given, and in all about eighty million acres of land have been thus devoted. In 1862 Congress donated thirty thousand acres of public lands for every Senator and Representative in Congress for the purpose of maintaining an agricultural college in each State. Slow Growth of the School System. With all that was done, the common school system advanced but slowly out side of New England, and until 1830 private academies prospered. Progress was particularly slow in the South, there being before the Civil War only four States south of Mason and Dixon s line with a public school system. Since the war free schools have multiplied in the South, and much has been done for the education of the former slaves. Normal Schools. The first normal schools, for the education of teachers, were founded in Massachusetts in 1839. Schools of this kind now exist in nearly every State. Everywhere the common schools have risen greatly in grade, and with the aid of the high schools, and the public colleges which some of the States have founded, an excel lent education can now be obtained at the public expense. Recent Progress in Education. During the nineteenth century immense progress was made in provision for the higher education. Colleges and universities are now widely distributed, many of them richly endowed by contributions from wealthy citizens ; colleges for the higher education of women have been founded ; technical and scientific schools THE NATION OF TO-DAY. 535 have arisen widely, and excellent facilities for a liberal edu cation now exist. In the improvement of text-books and other requirements for the attainment of knowledge equal progress has been made, while the recent adoption of object teaching in place of the memory teaching of the past has rendered the acquirement of knowledge an easy and pleas ant process, in place of the slow and painful methods with which our forefathers gained their education. ii. THE NATION OF TO-DAY. The New South. The period since the close of the Civil War has been marked by a change in the conditions of the South that is almost revolutionary in character. Here, where formerly almost the sole mercantile products were cotton, tobacco, and naval stores (tar, turpentine, etc.), to day there is a highly diversified industry and promise of great future prosperity. Agriculture is still the leading pursuit, but it has greatly widened in scope ; iron, coal, and phosphate rock are largely mined, cotton- and iron-mills have become numerous, and an immense lumber industry has been developed. The railroad mile age is five times as great as in 1860, and in almost every re spect marked prog ress has been made. Despite this diversity AN IRRIGATION CANAL. of interests the cot ton crop has more than doubled since 1860, and the cotton seed, which was once thrown away, now yields large quan tities of valuable oil. 536 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. The New West. The West has been settled with phe nomenal rapidity and become immensely productive. Its two great industries are agriculture and mining, but these have been remarkably developed. Five of the Western States yield more than half the vast corn crop of the United States, and six States nearly half the wheat. The gold and silver product is unequalled in any other part of the world, while copper, iron, and various other minerals are largely pro duced. In addition to these sources of prosperity, nature has provided vast areas of timber, and grazing for mighty herds of cattle and sheep, while the production of semi- tropical fruits in California forms a great and increasing source of wealth. Progress in the North. While the South and West have been thus progressing, the North has moved on unceasingly in the lines already indicated, and has manifested, particu larly in manufactures and commerce, a remarkable activity and enterprise. Railroads have reached almost every ham let in the land, telegraphic wires cover the country like a net work, the development of coal, iron, copper, and other mines has been equally great, while a new mining industry, that of petroleum, has proved a vast source of wealth and utility. Petroleum and Natural Gas. The first petroleum wells were sunk in Western Pennsylvania before the Civil War. Speculation aided their development, and the rock-oil pro duced is now sent to all parts of the world. From the wells sunk for oil a natural gas sometimes flowed out in great quantities. In 1884 gas from some of these wells was carried by long pipes to Pittsburg, where it was burned to give light to houses and heat to factories. Oil and gas have since been found in other States, and the gas in various localities has taken the place of coal for manufacturing pur poses, though it is decreasing in quantity. THE NATION OF TO-DAY. 537 Inventions. The immense progress which the United States has made in almost all directions within a century has been greatly aided by the inventive genius of the people, whose ability in this direction no other country equals. Within the past sixty years more than half a million patents have been issued for new inventions, and patents are now being issued at the rate of more than twenty thousand a year. Many of these are of slight importance, but others have proved of the utmost utility. The cotton-gin, the steam boat, and the telegraph have been mentioned. They include also the reaping-machine, the sewing-machine, the vulcan izing of rubber, the cylinder printing-press, the electric light, the trolley car, the telephone, the phonograph, the type-writer and type-setter, and others too numerous to mention. American activity in this direction has done more for the comfort and prosperity of mankind within a century than was achieved by all the progress of many preceding centuries. Change made by Inventions. Within the lifetime of persons now living more inventions of leading importance have been made than perhaps in all the ages before, and in this field of progress the United States has taken the lead. Our forefathers had only the horse and the boat for travel and conveyance of freight. Steam has changed all this, and we can go round the world to-day in less time than it took to sail from England to America a century ago. In those days rock-oil, gas, and the electric light were unknown, stoves were little used, cloth was woven and dyed by hand, and a variety of articles that are now made rapidly and cheaply by machinery were produced slowly by hand, or were entirely unknown. As an example, wood, coal, gas, steam, and hot a> have been used successively for heating 538 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. our houses, and electricity is now coming into use for this purpose, and may in time furnish the world s heat-supply. Amusements. The comfort of our people has not alone been considered. The art of entertainment has also greatly advanced. The theatre has developed until now plays are presented with a richness and naturalness of effect that would have astounded our ancestors, while operatic enter tainments and music in general have been similarly devel oped. Of the extension of galleries of art and museums of science we have already spoken. Out-door exercise has also much advanced, and the college and other games of to-day attract thousands of interested spectators. Parks. A more widely enjoyed opportunity for health ful and pleasurable out-door exercise is furnished by the charming parks and public gardens which have been added to nearly all our cities, and which furnish recreation and delight to millions of our people. In addition to these, parks for public enjoyment, furnished with ample provision for popular amusement, are being founded by railway and steam boat lines in the vicinity of the large cities. Architecture. Not least among the advances of the time is that which has been made in architecture. The log cabin and the rude frame house of the colonies are now to be found only in the most undeveloped regions, while in the cities palatial mansions and business houses are rising by hundreds, in which great attention is paid to architectural beauty and effect. A late development in this direction is the great apartment or business house, reaching for many stories into the air, and a hive of human life. These lofty edifices are the outgrowth of the invention of the elevator, which alone has rendered them possible. Temperance. Among the promising steps of progress of recent times, none are more so than the development of the THE NATION OF TO-DAY. 539 temperance sentiment. Up to 1825 intoxication was so common a vice in this country as scarcely to attract notice. All classes of the community drank freely, and even clergy men did not hesitate to follow the bad example. In 1825 the first temperance society was formed, and in the suc ceeding years a wave of temperance sentiment swept over the land. To-day this is not so active as formerly, but drunkenness is no longer respectable, and a large portion of the population look upon it as a degrading vice. Nearly all the States have passed laws which require school-chil dren to be taught the necessity and advantage of temper ance and the evils which arise from the use of intoxicating liquors. Public Benevolence. Within late times the spirit of kindness and benevolence has greatly developed in this country. The cruel punishments of past centuries have come to an end through the awakened sympathy of the people, and this spirit of kindly care has been extended to include animals, for whose comfort few people cared in the past. Charitable institutions have everywhere arisen, and every year millions of dollars are given by the benevolent for the care of the afflicted and helpless. Great sums have also been given to endow colleges and universities, and this sentiment of benevolence and public spirit is growing with the greatest rapidity. Its results must be of immense bene fit to mankind. Extension of Territory. Since this country gained its freedom from Great Britain its territory has very greatly increased. By the treaty of 1783 it acquired a territory of over 827,000 square miles, extending from the Atlantic to the Mississippi. The subsequent accessions of territory were as follows : In 1803 the purchase of Louisiana added about 920,000 square miles, more than doubling our terri- 540 STAGES OF PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES. tory. The purchase of Florida in 1819 added 59,268, and the annexation of Texas in 1845 376,133 square miles. In 1846 a treaty with Great Britain gave us Oregon, con taining about 255,000 square miles ; and as a result of the war with Mexico there were purchased New Mexico and California, embracing 545,783 square miles. In 1853 another portion of territory, the Gadsden Purchase, was bought from Mexico, embracing 45,535 square miles. A later acquisition was that of Alaska, purchased from Russia in 1867, and containing about 577,000 square miles. In 1898 the Hawaiian Islands, in the central Pacific Ocean, of 6740 square miles area, were acquired by annexation, and the island of Porto Rico, in the West Indies, of 3668 square miles, was gained by conquest from Spain. The war with Spain also yielded the Philippine Islands, of 115,000 square miles, in the eastern Pacific, which were acquired through the treaty with Spain ratified by Con gress in February, 1899. At present the United States has an area of about 3,725,000 square miles, more than four times its original area. This area is about equal to that of all Europe, and more than half that of South America. There are twenty-four of our States each of which is larger than England. Natural Conditions of Progress. This vast area, inhab ited by more than seventy million people gathered from all the civilized and many of the uncivilized nations of the earth, has unequalled natural advantages. Its soil is capa ble of supplying abundant food for a much larger popula tion, while its mines of varied products and its immense forests are rich reservoirs of wealth. No other territory of equal extent is more abundantly supplied by nature with navigable waters, including the Mis sissippi and its affluents in the vast interior and the Great ISLANDS WEST OF PORTO RICO , Same Scale as Large Map #$**\+ v % %. Vv_ c ^%- 10RTO RICO Srale jf Miles 5 10 15 20 Explanation. SDADS_._ !l iOADJ \ g-ht 1902 by J. B. Llppincott Company Pt. Arenas Pt. Occidental Pt. Vuci C A R I B B L 65, 30 ISLANDS EAST OF RTO RIC< Scale aa Large Map ej.nmt t .ON ..CM, .O.TON 18 SEA p ORTO RICO Same Scale as Large Map THE NATION OF TO-DAY. 541 Lakes on the north. The Falls of Niagara and the rapid descent of many of the smaller streams yield water-power of enormous extent. This power is being utilized for the production of electricity, and in time may replace the greater part of the working force which is now derived from coal. The Future of the Republic. This great republic of the West has undoubtedly before it a grand future. For more than a century it has served as an object-lesson to the nations of Europe, teaching them the blessings of political freedom, the advantages of free education, and other lessons of great importance. Its mission as a teacher of new ideas and new methods will continue, as its own institutions develop and new methods of public administration, indus try, and education unfold, and for a long period to come it may serve as an example of political, social, and industrial evolution to the world. There are many important prob lems still to be solved before it can reach the goal toward which it is moving. What the United States of the far future will be no one to-day can predict. But we can scarcely doubt that it will continue to occupy one of the foremost places among the nations of the earth. THE MAYFLOWER COMPACT. IN the name of God, Amen ; We whose names are under-written, the loyall subjects of our dread soveraigne Lord King James, by ye grace of God of Great Britaine, France and Ireland, King, defender of ye faith, &c., haveing undertaken, for ye glorie of God and advance- mente of ye Christian faith, and honour of our King and countrie, a voyage to plant the first colonie in ye Northerne parts of Virginia, doe by these presents solemnly and mutually in ye presence of God, and one of another, covenant and combine ourselves together into a civill body politick, for our better ordering and preservation and furtherance of ye ends aforesaid ; and by vertue hereof to enact, constitute and frame such just and equall lawes, ordinances, acts, constitutions and offices, from time to time, as shall be thought most meete and conve nient for ye generall good of ye colonie, unto which we promise all due submission and obedience. In witnesse whereof we have here- under subscribed our names, Cape Cod 11 of November, in the yeare of the raigne of our soveraigne Lord King James of England, France and Ireland 18, and of Scotland 54. Anno Domini, 1620. 542 THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, IN CONGRESS, JULY 4, 1776. A DECLARATION BY THE REPRESENTATIVES OF THE UNITED STATE* OF AMERICA, IN CONGRESS ASSEMBLED. WHEN, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed; that, whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organ izing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes ; and, accordingly, all experience hath shown, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accus tomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies, and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present king of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object 543 544 THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these States. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world : He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and press ing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be obtained ; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. ;He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the legislature; a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncom fortable, and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. He has refused, for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected ; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise ; the State remaining, in the mean time, exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States ; for that purpose, obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners ; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. He has made judges dependent on his will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance. He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, without the consent of our legislature. He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation : For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us : THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 545 For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States : For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world : For imposing taxes on us without our consent : For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury : For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offences : For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies : For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments : For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves in vested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. fle has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protec tion and waging war against us. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. He is, at this time, transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun, with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civil ized nation. He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country* to become the executioners of their friends and brethren? or to fall themselves by their hands. He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us? and has endeav ored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages^ whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruc tion of all ages, sexes, and conditions. In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress, in the most humble terms ; our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have 35 546 THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. conjured them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of man kind, enemies in war, in peace friends. We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in general Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that, as free and independent States, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which independent States may of right do. And, for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the pro tection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. JOHN HANCOCK. New Hampshire. JOSIAH BARTLETT, WILLIAM WHIPPLE, MATTHEW THORNTON. Massachusetts Bay. SAMUEL ADAMS, JOHN ADAMS, ROBERT TREAT PAINE, ELBRIDGE GERRY. Rhode Island. STEPHEN HOPKINS, WILLIAM ELLERY. Connecticut. ROGER SHERMAN, SAMUEL HUNTINGTON, WILLIAM WIL LIAMS, OLIVER WOLCOTT. New York. WILLIAM FLOYD, PHILIP LIVINGSTON, FRANCIS LEWIS, LEWIS MORRIS. New Jersey. RICHARD STOCKTON, JOHN WITHERSPOON, FRANCIS HOP- KINSON, JOHN HART, ABRAHAM CLARK. Pennsylvania. ROBERT MORRIS, BENJAMIN RUSH, BENJAMIN FRANK LIN, JOHN MORTON, GEORGE CLYMER, JAMES SMITH, GEORGE TAYLOR, JAMES WILSON, GEORGE Ross. Delaware. CAESAR RODNEY, GEORGE READ, THOMAS McKEAN. Maryland. SAMUEL CHASE, WILLIAM PACA, THOMAS STONE, CHARLES CARROLL of Carrollton. THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 547 Virginia. GEORGE WYTHE, RICHARD HENRY LEE, THOMAS JEFFERSON. BENJAMIN HARRISON. THOMAS NELSON, FRANCIS LIGHTFOOT LEE, CARTER BRAXTON. North Carolina. WILLIAM HOOPER, JOSEPH HEWES, JOHN PENN. South. Carolina. EDWARD RUTLEDGE, THOMAS HEYWARD, THOMAS LYNCH, ARTHUR MIDDLETON. Georgia. BUTTON GWINNETT, LYMAN HALL, GEORGE WALTON. THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. WE, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect Union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this CONSTITUTION for the United States of America. ARTICLE I. SECTION I. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. SECTION II. 1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature. 2. No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such a manner as they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one Repre sentative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose 3 ; Massachusetts, 8 ; Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, 1 ; Connecticut, 5 ; New York, 6 ; New Jersey, 4; Pennsylvania, 8; Delaware, 1; Maryland, 6; Virginia, 10; North Carolina, 5; South Carolina, 5, and Georgia, 3. 1 1 See Article XIV., Amendments. 548 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 549 4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. 5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other officers ; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. SECTION III. 1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six years ; and each Senator shall have one vote. 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year ; and if vacan cies happen by resignation or otherwise, during the recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 3. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. 4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President pro tempore in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. 6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried the Chief Justice shall preside ; and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. 7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States ; but the party con victed shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. SECTION IV. 1. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the. Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make 550 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing Sen ators. 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday of December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. SECTION V. 1. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, re turns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attend ance of absent members in such manner and under such penalties as each House may provide. 2. Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two- thirds, expel a member. 3. Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judg ment require secrecy ; and the yeas and nays of the members of either House on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 4. Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. SECTION VI. 1. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest dur ing their attendance at the session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either House they shall not be questioned in any other place. 2. No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased, during such time ; and no person holding any office under the United States shall be a member of either House during his continuance in office. SECTION VII. 1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other bills. 2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate shall, before it becomes a law, be presented to the Pres- THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 551 ident of the United States ; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his objections, to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that House it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each House respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 3. Every order, resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment), shall be presented to the President of the United States ; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or, being disapproved by him, snail be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. SECTION VIII. The Congress shall have power : 1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States ; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States ; 2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the sev eral States, and with the Indian tribes ; 4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States ; 5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures ; 6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States ; 7. To establish post-offices and post-roads ; 8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive rights to their respective writings and discoveries ; 552 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ; 10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offences against the law of nations ; 11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water ; 12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years ; 13. To provide and maintain a navy ; 14. To make rules for the government and regulation, of the land and naval forces ; 15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions ; 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the appoint ment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress ; 17. To exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the Legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings ; and 18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carry ing into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. SECTION IX. 1. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be pro hibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. 3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in propor tion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. 5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 553 6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another ; nor shall ves sels bound to or from one State be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 7. No money shall be drawn from the Treasury but in consequence of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. 8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States ; and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. SECTION X. 1. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or con federation ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills of credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 2. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any im post or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws ; and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the Treasury of the United States ; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. 3. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. ARTICLE II. SECTION I. 1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : 2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of Sena tors and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress ; but no Senator or Representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. 554 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 3. [The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each, which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the Gov ernment of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose by ballot one of them for President ; and if no person have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said House shall in like manner choose the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the President, the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice- President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by ballot the Vice-President.] l 4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes ; which day shall be the same throughout the United States. 5. No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President ; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States. 6. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resigna tion, or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act accord ingly, until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. 1 This clause is superseded by Article XII., Amendments. THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 555 7. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. 8. Before he enter on the execution of his office he shall take the following oath or affirmation : " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Con stitution of the United States. 1 SECTION II. 1. The President shall be Comrnander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, when called into the actual service of the United States ; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the Senators present concur ; and he shall nominate, and, by and with the advice and con sent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law ; but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of depart ments. 3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall expire at the end of their next session. SECTION III. He shall from time to time give to the Congress infor mation of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and, in case of disagreement between them with respect to the time of ad journment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper ; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States. 556 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. SECTION IV. The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high, crimes and misde meanors. ARTICLE III. SECTION I, The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a com pensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. SECTION II. 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases in law and equity arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls ; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party ; to controversies be tween two or more States ; between a State and citizens of another State ; between citizens of different States ; between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of different States, and be tween a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign States, citizens, or subjects. 2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls, and those in which a State shall be party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before men tioned the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations, as the Congress shall make. 3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury ; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed ; but when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. SECTION III. 1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confes sion in open court. THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. .557 2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of trea son, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or for feiture, except during the life of the person attainted. ARTICLE IV. SECTION I. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which : such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. -j ( SECTION II. 1. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. 2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. 3. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or reg ulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. SECTION III. 1. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other State, nor any State be formed by the junc tion of two or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned, as well as of the Con gress. 2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all need ful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property be longing to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular State. SECTION IV. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion; and, on application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened), against domestic violence. 558 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. ARTICLE V. The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem if, necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Con stitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress : Provided, that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses of the ninth section of the first article ; and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. ARTICLE VI. 1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into before the adoption of this Constitution shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution as under the Confederation. 2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land ; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary not withstanding. 3. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judi cial officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. ARTICLE VII. The ratification of the Conventions of nine States shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratify ing the same. Done in Convention, by the unanimous consent of the States present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thou- THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 559 sand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the Independence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. GEORGE WASHINGTON, President, and Deputy from Virginia. NEW HAMPSHIRE. John Langdon, Nicholas Gilman. MASSACHUSETTS. Nathaniel Gorham, Rufus King. CONNECTICUT. William Samuel Johnson, Roger Sherman. NEW YORK. Alexander Hamilton. ^ NEW JERSEY. William Livingston, David Brearley, William Paterson, Jonathan Dayton. PENNSYLVANIA. Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Mifflin, Robert Morris, George Clymer, Thomas Fitzsimons, Jared Ingersoll, James Wilson, \ Gouverneur Morris. Attest DELAWARE. George Reed, Gunning Bedford, John Dickinson, Richard Bassett, Jacob Broom. MARYLAND. James McHenry, Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, Daniel Carroll. VIRGINIA. John Blair, James Madison. NORTH CAROLINA. William Blount, Richard Dobbs Spaight, Hugh Williamson. SOUTH CAROLINA. John Rutledge, Charles C. Pinckney, Charles Pinckney, Pierce Butler. GEORGIA. William Few, Abraham Baldwin. WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary. AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. ARTICLE I. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assem ble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. ARTICLE II. , A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. ARTICLE III. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. ARTICLE IV. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, sup ported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. /. /; ;/ .n:;: , ARTICLE V. No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation. 560 AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. 561 ARTICLE VI. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence. ARTICLE VII. In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. ARTICLE VIII. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. ARTICLE IX. The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. ARTICLE X. The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respec tively, or to the people. ARTICLE XL The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign State. ARTICLE XII. The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves ; they shall name in 36 562 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President ; and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, Which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the Govern ment of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted ; the person having the greatest number of votes for Presi dent shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers, not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Repre sentatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the repre sentation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President, whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice- President shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have a ma jority, then from the two highest numbers on the list the Senate shall choose the Vice-President ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person consti tutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. ARTICLE XIII. 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punish ment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdic tion. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. 563 ARTICLE XIV. 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States ; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice-President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legis lature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the propor tion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State Legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid and comfort to the enemies thereof. But Con gress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability. 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be ques tioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave ; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legisla tion, the provisions of this article. 564 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. ARTICLE XV. 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce the provisions of this article by appropriate legislation. RATIFICATION OF THE CONSTITUTION. The Constitution was ratified by the thirteen original States in the following order : Delaware, December 7, 1787 ; Pennsylvania, December 12, 1787 ; New Jersey, December 18, 1787 ; Georgia, January 2, 1788 ; Connecticut, January 9, 1788 ; Massachusetts, February 6, 1788 ; Maryland, April 28, 1788 ; South Carolina, May 23, 1788; New Hampshire, June 21, 1788; Virginia, June 25, 1788 ; New York, July 26, 1788 ; North Carolina, No vember 21, 1789 ; Rhode Island, May 29, 1790. RATIFICATION OF THE AMENDMENTS. I. to X. inclusive were declared in force December 15, 1791 ; XI. was declared in force January 8, 1798 ; XII. was declared in force Septem ber 25, 1804 ; XIII. was proclaimed December 18, 1865 ; XIV. was pro claimed July 28, 1868 ; XV. was proclaimed March 30, 1870. Table of States and Territories. NAME. ORIGIN OF NAME. DATE OF AD MISSION. s ** G POPULATION. 1 Delaware In honor of Lord Delaware . . 1787 2,050 184,735 5 Pennsylvania Penn s woodland d 1787 45,215 6 302 115 :>, \ New Jersey ... From the Island of Jersey . . In honor of George II .2 1787 "3 1788 7,815 59 475 1,883,669 2 216 331 R Connecticut Indian long river X 1788 4 990 908,355 6 7 Massachusetts . Maryland ... Indian at the great hill . . . In honor of Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I | 1788 u \ 1788 8,315 12210 2,805,346 1190050 8 1 10 South Carolina . . . New Hampshire . . Virginia In honor of Charles II From Hampshire, England . . In honor of Queen Elizabeth . 2 1788 1788 "g 1 88 30,570 9,305 42,450 1,340,316 411,588 1,854,184 11 12 13 14 15 New York North Carolina . . . Rhode Island . . . Vermont Kentucky In honor of the Duke of York In honor of Charles II Dutch Rood (Red) Island, or, from the Isle of Rhodes. . . French green mountains . . Indian probably hunting land . c 1788 g 1789 K 1790 . . 1791 1792 49,170 52,250 1,250 9,565 40400 7,268,012 1.893,810 428,556 343,641 2 147 174 in Tennessee . Indian crooked river .... . . 1796 42,050 2,020,616 17 Ohio Indian beautiful river .... . . 1803 41,060 4,157,545 18 19 Louisiana Indiana In honor of Louis XIV. . . . From the word " Indian" . . Indian great river . . 1812 . . 1816 - . 1817 48,720 36,350 46810 1,381,625 2,516,462 1 551 270 23 Illinois. ...... From name of river and In dian confederacy . . . . . 1818 56 650 4 821 550 90 Alabama Indian here we rest . . 1819 52,250 1,828,697 > Maine 1820 33 040 694 466 M Indian muddy river . . 1821 69 415 3 106*665 2f> >fi Arkansas Michigan Indian after its main river . Indian great sea . . 1836 . . 1837 53,850 58,915 1,311,564 2,420 982 27 Florida . Spanish flowery . . 1845 58,680 528,542 2(8 Texas Indian name of a tribe or confederacy 1845 265780 3 048 710 29 30 31 32 33 34 Iowa Wisconsin California Minnesota .... Oregon Kansas Indian meaning doubtful . . Indian probably gathering waters Spanish from an old romance Indian cloudy water .... Meaning doubtful Indian meaning doubtful . . . . 1846 . . 1848 . . 1850 . . 1858 . . 1859 . . 1861 56,025 56,040 158,360 83,365 96,030 82,080 2,231,853 2,069,042 1,485,053 1,751,394 413,536 1,470,495 3") 3f, West Virginia . . . Nevada From Virginia Spanish snowy mountains . . . 1863 . . 1864 24,780 110,700 958,800 42,335 37 38 Nebraska Colorado . Indian shallow water .... Spanish red or ruddy .... . . 1867 . . 1876 77,510 103,925 1,068,539 539700 S<) North Dakota Indian the allies . . . . 1889 70795 319 416 10 South Dakota Indian the allies 1889 77 650 401 570 41 42 43 44 4f> Montana Washington .... Idaho Wyoming Utah . Spanish montana, a mountain In honor of Washington . . . Indian gem of the mountains Indian broad plains Indian mountain home . . . . . 1889 . . 1889 . . 1890 . . 1890 1896 146,080 69,180 84,800 97,890: 84,970 243>29 518,103 161,772 92,531 276,749 From Mexico 122 580 195 310 Arizona . . Meaning doubtful ... 113 020 122 931 Oklahoma Indian fine country 39 030 398 245 District of Columbia Indian Territory . . Alaska From Columbus From its Indian inhabitants . Indian great or main land . 70 31,400 577 390 278J718 391,960 63441 Hawaii . . . Given by the Natives . . 6740 154001 565 HO I J ^| 5 sljjitf JJJ.S 5 -2 Sl^-SSS 2 , ^ ^ a a >>a >>>>fl a d >> ^ fl S ^^^5 5 S H H HO H OOeoOr-tcjOO O co H OtoeoOOO O r-t ^S5*ZSe a )SaoSaCco3ooo ao .2-g .2 .2 .2 ill I In >& > > > fl g fl jj O O ^ >.S fe O > I s I g I , fell! I a ?^a SSI flNjb2#aEi a o Sm S *? oj i W 3<1 gra>- o oS RKll ^ S a a a <a 5 I g g^ -5 ^s^a-s^sa o g ,- ^o | o^^g.H^ Illl Hi |||i|s i 566 SUMMARY OF CHRONOLOGY 874. Iceland settled by the Northmen. 986. Greenland settled by the Northmen. 1000. The American continent visited by Northmen. 1492. Columbus discovers America, Octo ber 12. 1497. The Cabots discover North America. 1507. The name America is suggested. 1513. Ponce de Leon discovers Florida. 1513. Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean. 1519-22. Magellan s fleet sails round the globe. 1524. Verrazano explores the North Atlan tic coast. 1528. Narvaez explores the Gulf region. 1535. Cartier sails up the St. Lawrence; names Montreal. 1540-42. Coronado explores the pueblo region. 1541. De Soto discovers the Mississippi. 1542. Cabrillo explores the California coast. 1562. Huguenots reach America. 1565. St. Augustine founded ; Huguenots massacred. 1576. Frobisher explores the Arctic region. 1577-79. Drake sails round the globe. 1578-83. Gilbert s voyages. 1582. Santa F6 founded by Espejo. 1585-87. Raleigh plants colonies on Roan- oke Island. 1602. Gosnold discovers Cape Cod. 1604. Port Royal, Acadia, settled by the French. 1607. Jamestown settled ; first permanent English colony. 1608. Quebec founded by Champlain. 1609. Lake Champlain discovered. 1609. Hudson sails up the Hudson River. 1612. Cultivation of tobacco begins. 1614. The Dutch take possession of New Netherland. 1619. The first representative assembly meets at Jamestown. 1619. Negro slavery introduced. 1620. The Pilgrims land at Plymouth, De cember 21. 1620. Mayflower compact signed. 1623. First settlements in New Netherland. 1625. Pemaquid Point, Maine, settled. 1626. New Amsterdam founded. 1628. The Puritans settle at Salem. 1630. Boston founded by the Puritans. 1633. First settlement in Connecticut, at Windsor. 1634. St. Mary s, Maryland, settled. 1634. Religious liberty granted all Chris tians in Maryland. 1636. Roger Williams founds Providence, Rhode Island. 1636. Religious liberty granted all persons in Rhode Island. 1636. Harvard College founded. 1637. The Pequot War. 1638. New Haven colony founded. 1638. Delaware settled by Swedes at Christiana. 1639. The Connecticut Constitution (the first written one in America). 1643. The New England Confederacy formed. 1654. The Dutch capture New Sweden. 1659-61. Quaker persecution in Massachu setts. 1663. Settlement in North Carolina. 1664. New Jersey settled at Elizabethtown. 1664. New Netherland seized by the Eng lish; New Amsterdam renamed New York. 1668. Sainte Marie, Michigan, settled by the French. 1669. La Salle discovers the Ohio and Illinois Rivers. 1670. South Carolina settled on Ashley River. 1673. Marquette explores the Mississippi to Arkansas River. 1675-76. King Philip s War. 567 568 SUMMARY OF CHRONOLOGY. 1676. Bacon s Rebellion in Virginia. 1680. Charleston, South Carolina, settled. 1682. La Salle explores the Mississippi. 1682. William Penn visits America. 1683. Philadelphia founded. 1686-89. The Andros tyranny in New Eng land. 1692. The Salem witchcraft. 1692. William and Mary College founded in Virginia. 1693. Rice culture begun in South Caro lina. 1701. Yale College founded. 1702. Mobile settled by the French. 1704. The Boston News Letter (first news paper in America). 1718. New Orleans founded by the French. 1729. Carolina divided into North and South Carolina. 1729 Baltimore founded. 1733. Georgia settled at Savannah. 1741. Indigo culture begun in South Caro lina. 1745. Louisburg taken by the British. 1753. Washington s mission to the French forts. 1754. The French and Indian War begins. 1754 Convention of the colonies at Al bany. 1755. Braddock s defeat. 1755. Expulsion of the Acadians. 1757. Massacre at Fort William Henry. 1758. Washington takes Fort Duquesne. 1758. Louisburg taken. 1759. Wolfe captures Quebec. 1763. Treaty of peace signed. 1763-64. Pontiac s war. 1765. The Stamp Act passed. 1765. The "Stamp Act Congress" meets. 1766. The Stamp Act repealed. 1767. Duties laid on tea and other arti cles. 1768. British troops enter Boston. 1770. The Boston massacre. 1773. Tea sent to American ports. 1773. The Boston "Tea Party," December 16. 1774. The port of Boston closed. 1774. The First Continental Congress meets at Philadelphia, September 5. 1775. Battles of Lexington and Concord, April 19. 1775. Ethan Allen takes Ticonderoga, May 10. 1775. The Second Continental Congress meets, May 10. 1775. Washington made commander-in- chief, June 15. 1775. Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17. 1775. The assault and repulse at Quebec, December 31. 1776. The British evacuate Boston, March 17. 1776. The Declaration of Independence, July 4. 1776. Battle of Long Island, August 27. 1776. Washington retreats across New Jer- sey, November 19 to December 8. 1776. Victory at Trenton, December 26. 1777. Victory at Princeton, January 3. 1777. The battle of Oriskany, August 6. 1777. The battle of Bennington, August 16. 1777. The battle of the Brandywine, Sep tember 11. 1777. The British army occupy Philadel phia, September 26. 1777. The victory at Saratoga, October 7. 1777. Surrender of Burgoyne, October 17. 1777. Washington goes into winter quar ters at Valley Forge, December 11. 1778. Treaty of Alliance with France, February 6. 1778. Philadelphia evacuated, June 18. 1778. Battle of Monmouth, June 28. 1778. Massacre of Wyoming, July 3, 4. 1778. Savannah taken by the British, De cember 29. 1779. Wayne captures Stony Point, July 16. 1779. Paul Jones captures the Serapis, Sep tember 23. 1780. The British take Charleston, May 12. 1780. Gates defeated at Camden, August 16. 1780. Arnold s treason, September. 1780. Victory at King s Mountain, Octo ber 7. 1781. The Articles of Confederation adopted. 1781. Greene s campaign in the Carolinas. 1781. Surrender of Cornwallis, October 19. 1783 Treaty of peace signed, September 3. 1783. New York evacuated, November 25. 1786. Shays s rebellion in Massachusetts. SUMMARY OF CHRONOLOGY. 569 1787. Constitutional Convention meets at Philadelphia, May 25. 1787. The Constitution adopted and signed, September 17. 1778. The Constitution ratified, June 21. 1789. Washington inaugurated President, April 30. 1790. Philadelphia selected as the capital for ten years. 1790. The first census taken. 1791. Vermont admitted to the Union. 1791. United States Bank established. 1792. United States Mint established. 1792. Second election of Washington. 1792. Captain Gray discovers the Columbia River. 1792. Kentucky admitted to the Union. 1793. Whitney invents the cotton-gin. 1794. The Whiskey Rebellion. 1794. Wayne defeats the Indians. 1795. Jay s treaty with Great Britain rati fied. 1796. Tennessee admitted to the Union. 1797. John Adams inaugurated. 1798. Naval war with France. 1798. The Alien and Sedition Laws. 1799. Death of Washington, December 14. 1800. The city of Washington becomes the national capital. 1801. Thomas Jefferson inaugurated. 1801. War with Tripoli declared. 1803. Ohio admitted to the Union. 1803. The purchase of Louisiana. 1804. The Lewis and Clark expedition. 1804. Second election of Jefferson. 1804. Burr kills Hamilton in a duel. 1805. The war with Tripoli ends. 1807. Burr tried for treason. 1807. Fulton invents the steamboat. 1807. The Leopard fires into the Chesa peake. 1807. The Embargo Act passed. 1808. The slave-trade abolished. 1809. James Madison inaugurated. 1809. The Non-Intercourse Act. 1811. The battle of Tippecanoe. 1812. Louisiana admitted to the Union. 1812. War declared against Great Britain, June 19. 1812. Hull surrenders Detroit, August 16. 1812. The Constitution captures the Guer- riere, August 19. 1812. Various other naval victories. 1812. Madison re-elected President. 1813. Perry s victory on Lake Erie, Sep tember 10. 1813. Battle of the Thames, October 5. 1814. Jackson defeats the Creeks at Toho- peka, March 27. 1814. Battle of Chippewa, July 5. 1814. Battle of Lundy s Lane, July 25. 1814. Washington captured by the British, August 24. 1814. Battle of Lake Champlain and Plattsburg, September 11. 1814. Hartford Convention, December 15. 1814. Treaty of Peace signed, December 24 . 1815. Battle of New Orleans, January 8. 1815. War with Algiers. 1816. A new United States Bank estab lished. 1816. Indiana admitted to the Union. 1817. James Monroe inaugurated. 1817. First Seminole War. 1817. Mississippi admitted to the Union. 1818. Illinois admitted to the Union. 1819. Alabama admitted to the Union. 1819. The first steamship the Savannah- crosses the ocean. 1819. Florida purchased from Spain. 1820. Re-election of Monroe. 1820. The Missouri Compromise passed. 1820. Maine admitted to the Union. 1821. Missouri admitted to the Union. 1823. The Monroe doctrine stated. 1824. Lafayette visits the United States. 1825. Protective tariff bill passed. 1825. John Quincy Adams inaugurated. 1825. The Erie Canal opened. 1826. Jefferson and Adams die, July 4. 1826. The temperance reform begins. 1828. New high tariff bill passed. 1829. Andrew Jackson inaugurated. 1829. Rotation in office instituted. 1830. First steam railroad, at Baltimore. 1831. Garrison starts the immediate aboli tion movement. 1832. Jackson vetoes the United States Bank bill. 1832. Suppression of the Nullification movement. 1832. Jackson re-elected President. 1833. Compromise tariff bill passed. 1833. Chicago founded. 570 SUMMARY OF CHRONOLOGY. 1834. Rise of the Whig party. 1835. The second Seminole War. 1836. Arkansas admitted to the Union. 1837. Martin Van Buren inaugurated. 1837. Severe business depression. 1837. Michigan admitted to the Union. 1839. The Mormons settle Nauvoo. 1839. The American express system be gins. 1840. The Sub-Treasury system estab lished. 1840. The Cunard line of ocean steamers established. 1841. William Henry Harrison inaugu rated. 1841. Death of President Harrison, April 4. 1841. John Tyler inaugurated, April 6. 1842. The Dorr Rebellion, Rhode Island. 1842. The Ashburton treaty signed. 1842. The anti-rent troubles, New York. 1844. The first line of telegraph com pleted. 1845. James K. Polk inaugurated. 1845. Florida admitted to the Union. 1845. Bill for the annexation of Texas signed. 1845. The anaesthetic qualities of ether discovered. 1845. Texas admitted to the Union. 1846. Oregon boundary settled by treaty. 1846. Iowa admitted to the Union. 1846. Battle of Palo Alto, May 8. 1846. War declared against Mexico, May 13. 1846. Monterey taken, September 24. 1846. California and New Mexico con quered. 1847. Battle of Buena Vista, February 23. 1847. The city of Mexico taken, Septem ber 14. 1847. The Mormons emigrate to Utah. 1848. Treaty of peace signed, February 2. 1848. Gold discovered in California. 1848. Wisconsin admitted to the Union. 1849. Zachary Taylor inaugurated. 1850. Death of President Taylor, July 9. 1850. Millard Fillmore inaugurated, July 10. 1850. California admitted to the Union. 1850. Passage of Fugitive Slave Law. 1851. The Maine Prohibition bill passed. 1863. Franklin Pierce inaugurated. 1853. World s Fair at New York. 1854. Perry s treaty with Japan. 1854. Kansas-Nebraska bill passed. 1855. The struggle in Kansas begins. 1856. Assault on Senator Sumner. 1856. Rise of the Republican party. 1857. James Buchanan inaugurated. 1857. The Dred Scott decision. 1857. Business panic. 1858. First Atlantic cable (failed). 1858. Minnesota admitted to the Union. 1859. Oregon admitted to the Union. 1859. Discovery of silver in Nevada. 1859. Discovery of petroleum in Pennsyl vania. 1859. John Brown s raid on Harper s Ferry. 1860. South Carolina secedes, December 20. 1861. Abraham Lincoln inaugurated. 1861. Steamer Star of the West fired upon, January 9. 1861. Kansas admitted to the Union, Jan uary 29. 1861. Other States secede, January and February. 1861. Southern Confederacy formed, Feb ruary 4. 1861. Jefferson Davis elected President of the Confederacy, February 18. 1861. Bombardment and surrender of Fort Sumter, April 12-14. 1861. The President s call for volunteers, April 15. 1861. Troops attacked at Baltimore, April 19. 1861. Secession of Virginia, Arkansas, Ten nessee, and North Carolina (May and June). 1861. Battle of Bull Run, July 21. 1861. Seizure of Mason and Slidell, No vember 8. 1862. Capture of Fort Henry, Tennessee, February 6. 1862. Roanoke Island taken, February 8. 1862. Capture of Fort Donelson, February 16. 1862. Battle of Pea Ridge, Arkansas, March 7, 8. 1862. Fight of the Monitor and Merrimac, March 9. 1862. Battle of Shiloh, April 6, 7. 1862. Capture of Island No. 10, April 7. SUMMARY OF CHRONOLOGY. 571 1862. Capture of New Orleans, April 25. 1862. Yorktown taken, May 4. 1862. Battle of Williamsburg, May 5. 1862. Jackson drives Banks across the Potomac, May 26. 1862. Corinth, Mississippi, taken, May 30. 1862. Battle of Fair Oaks, May 31, June 1. 1862. General Lee succeeds Johnston, June 3. 1862. The Seven Days battles at Rich mond, June 25 to July 1. 1862. Second battle of Bull Run, August 29, 30. 1862. Jackson takes Harper s Ferry, Sep tember 15. 1862. Battle of Antietam, September 17. 1862. Battle of Fredericksburg, Virginia, December 13. 1862. Sherman s repulse at Vicksburg, De cember 29. 1862. Battle of Murfreesboro , December 31, January2, 1863. 1863. Lincoln s Proclamation of Emanci pation, January 1. 1863. National banks established, Feb ruary 23. 1863. Battle of Chancellorsville, May 2, 3. 1863. West Virginia admitted to the Union, June 19. 1863. Battle of Gettysburg, July 1-3. 1863. Surrender of Vicksburg, July 4. 1863. Surrender of Port Hudson, July 9. 1863. Draft riot in New York, July 13-16. 1863. Battle of Chickamauga, September 19,20. 1863. Battles at Chattanooga, November 24,25. 1863. Siege of Knoxville raised, Decem ber 4. 1864. Grant made lieutenant-general and commander-in-chief, March 3. 1864. Battle of the Wilderness, May 5, 6. 1864. Battle of Spottsylvania Court-House, May 8-12. 1864. Battle of Cold Harbor, June 3. 1864. The Kearsarge sinks the Alabama, June 19. 1864. Sherman s advance to Atlanta, May to July. 1864. Early s raid on Washington (July). 1864. Mine explosion, Petersburg, July 30. 1864. Farragut in Mobile Bay, August 5. 1864. Weldon Railroad seized, August 18. 1864. Sherman captures Atlanta, Septem ber 2. 1864. Sheridan s campaign against Early, September and October. 1864. Nevada admitted to the Union, Oc tober 31. 1864. President Lincoln re-elected. 1864. Sherman s march to the sea, Novem ber 12 to December 21. 1864. Battle of Nashville, December 15, 16. 1864. Sherman takes Savannah, Decem ber 21. 1865. Fort Fisher, North Carolina, taken, January 15. 1865. Sherman marches northward. 1865. Battle of Five Forks, Virginia, April 1. 1865. Capture of Petersburg, April 2. 1865. Grant takes Richmond, April 3. 1865. Lee surrenders his army, April 9. 1865. President Lincoln assassinated, April 14. 1865. Andrew Johnson inaugurated, April 15. 1865. Johnston surrenders his army, April 26. 1865. Jefferson Davis captured, May 10. 1865. Thirteenth Amendment to the Con stitution. 1865. Tennessee readmitted to the Union. 1866. A successful Atlantic cable laid. 1867. Alaska purchased from Russia. 1867. Nebraska admitted to the Union. 1868. President Johnson impeached ; ac quitted on trial. 1868. Six of the Southern States read mitted. 1868. Fourteenth Amendment to the Con stitution. 1868. Treaty with China. 1868. Proclamation of Amnesty. 1869. Ulysses S. Grant inaugurated. 1869. Pacific Railroad completed. 1870. The remaining Southern States re admitted. 1870. The Weather Bureau established. 1870. Fifteenth Amendment to the Con stitution. 1871. Great fire at Chicago. 1872. Great fire at Boston. 1872. Settlement of the Alabama claims. 572 SUMMARY OF CHRONOLOGY. 1873. Severe business depression begins. 1875. The Whiskey Ring exposed. 1876. The Centennial Exhibition at Phila delphia. 1876. Colorado admitted to the Union. 1876. War with the Sioux Indians. 1877. The Electoral Commission formed. 1877. Rutherford B. Hayes inaugurated. 1877. Great railroad strike. 1878. Yellow fever at the South. 1878! The Bland Silver bill passed. 1879. Resumption of specie payments, January 1. 1881. James A. Garfield inaugurated. 1881. Assassination of President Garfield. 1881. Chester A. Arthur inaugurated, Sep tember 19. 1882. Great overflow of the Mississippi. 1883. Civil Service Reform bill passed. 1884. New Orleans Cotton Exhibition. 1885. Grover Cleveland inaugurated. 1885. The Washington Monument dedi cated. 1886. Anarchist riot at Chicago. 1886. Presidential Succession Act passed. 1886. Great earthquake at Charleston. 1887. The Interstate Commerce Act. 1888. The Chinese Exclusion Act. 1889. Benjamin Harrison inaugurated. 1889. Opening of Oklahoma to settlers. 1889. The Johnstown disaster. 1889. The Pan- American Congress. I8"89. Four States (North and South Da kota, Montana, and Washington) admitted. 1890. The Sherman Silver Purchase Act 1890. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1894. 1896. 1896. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1901. 1901. 1901. 1901. Idaho and Wyoming admitted. The McKinley Tariff adopted. The Bering Sea controversy. The Homestead riot. Great business depression. Grover Cleveland s second inaugura tion. The Columbian World s Exhibition at Chicago. The Sherman Silver bill repealed. The Pullman car strike. Wilson Tariff bill adopted. Utah admitted to the Union. Civil Service Reform extended. The Free Silver election contest. William McKinley inaugurated. Sinking of the Maine and War with Spain. Cuba set free and Manila taken. Cession of Porto Rico and Philip pine Islands to the United States. War in the Philippines. William McKinley reinaugurated. Assassination of President McKin ley. Theodore Roosevelt inaugurated. The Pan-American Exposition. LIST OF BOOKS FOR REFERENCE. The list here given is suggestive only, and may be greatly extended by those who have ready access to libraries. Historical fiction and poetry may be usefully read in connection therewith. Abbot s Battle-Fields of 61 ; Blue Jackets of 76; Blue Jackets of 61. Adams s History of New England Federal ism. American Statesman Series of Biographies. Bancroft s History of the United Slates; History of the Formation of the Constitu tion. Benton s Thirty Years View. Biographies of American historical char acters. Elaine s Twenty Years of Congress. Bryant and Gay s Popular History of the United States. Bryce s American Commonwealth. Catlin s North American Indians. Champlin s Young Folks History of the War for the Union. Coffin s Old Times in the Colonies, and other historical works. Cooper s Naval History. Curtis s Constitutional History of the United Davis s Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government. De Tocqueville s Democracy in America. Dodge s Bird s- Eye View of Our Civil War. Doyle s The Puritan Colonies; Virginia, Maryland, and the Carolinas. Drake s Indian History for Young Folks. Draper s Civil War. Eggleston s The Beginners of a Nation. Ellis s The Red Man and the White Man. Fiske s Discovery of America ; Beginnings of New England ; American Revolution ; Critical Period of American History ; and American Political Ideas. Frothingham s Rise of the Republic of the United Stales. Franklin s Autobiography. Oilman s American People. Greeley s American Conflict. Greene s Historical View of the American Revolution. Harper s First Century of the Republic. Hart s Epochs of American History ; Old South Leaflets. Higginson s Larger History of the United States. Hildreth s History of the United Slates. Hinsdale s The Old Northwest. Irving s Life of Columbus; Life of Wash ington. Johnston s American Politics; United States. Lalor s Cyclopsedia of United States History. Lewis and Clark s Expedition. Lodge s English Colonies in America. Lossing s Pictorial Field-Book of the Revo lution; War of 1812; Civil War. McCullough s Men and Measures of Half a Century. McMaster s History of the People of the United States. McPherson s Political History of Recon struction. Mead s American History Leaflets. Morgan s League of the Iroquois. Morris s Half-Hours with American History. Nichols s Story of the Great March. Nicolay s The Outbreak of Rebellion. Palfrey s History of New England. Parkman s Pioneers of France in the New World, and other works on the history of the French in America. Parton s Life of Benjamin Franklin; Fa mous Americans. Pollard s Lost Cause. 573 574 LIST OF BOOKS FOR REFERENCE. Roosevelt s The Naval War of 1812; Win ning of the West. Schouler s History of the United States. Schuyler s Colonial New York. Scribner s American History Series. Scudder s American Commonwealth Series. Sparks s American Biography Series. Squier and Davis s American Antiquities. Stephens s War between the States. Swinton s Army of the Potomac; Decisive Battles of the War. Thorpe s Government of the People of the United States. Watson s Annals of Philadelphia. Watson s Camp-Fires of the Revolution. Weise s Discovery of America to the Year 1525. Williams s Negro Race in America. Wilson s Slate and Federal Governments of the United States. Winsor s Narrative and Critical History of America; Reader s Hand-Book of the American Revolution. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. What two discoveries of America were made ? How did they differ in conditions? What caused the nations of Europe to seek a new route to India? What do the years 1000 and 1492 suggest? What discovery aided navigation in the fifteenth century? What theories were held about the shape of the earth ? What were the results of the voyages of Columbus ? Was Columbus in any way to blame for his ill-treatment? Who were the first English explorers? What parts of the continent did the Spanish settle? The French? The English ? What were the leading purposes of each ? Why were the natives named Indians? What relation did the Mound-Builders bear to the modern Indians ? What was the character of the Indian government? Name the Indian families east of the Mississippi. What were the leading characteristics of the Indians ? What was the effect of Champlain s attack on the Iroquois ? Where are the Indians settled now ? How many are there ? Name a noted discoverer and discovery of each nation in America. Describe an important discovery. Why was the continent named America? What events are suggested by the names St. Augustine, Jamestown, Quebec? By the names Columbus, John Smith, John Winthrop, Miles Standish? Upon what did England rest her claim to American territory? What caused the decline in Spanish enter prise ? What region was named Acadia ? What was its original and what its later extent? Why did Raleigh s colonies prove failures? Why PophanTs? What was the purpose of Frobisher? Of Hudson? Why was it important to find a new route to Asia ? By whom was it learned that America is a separate continent ? How ? Has a northwest passage io Asia ever been discovered? Is it of any use to commerce ? Where may geographical discovery still be sought ? Is the discovery of America yet complete ? How did the Spanish treat the Indians? How the English and French? Why did Menendez treat the French colonists so cruelly ? What historical events gather about the site of Ticonderoga ? What do you know about the American fisheries ? What fish and other animals are sought? What are the principal localities of the 575 576 QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. fisheries? From what animals are furs obtained? What historical results arose from the fur-trade ? What trouble has arisen about the fur seal ? Where was the first English settlement made ? The second ? How did these two settlements differ in character? What system of prop erty-holding was first established at Jamestown and Plymouth ? What brought it to an end? Why were slaves of value to the settlers? What are the chief objections to slavery ? Does it now exist in any civilized nation? Where may slavery now be found? Why was the apprentice system founded? What became of the apprentices when set free? What do the dates 1619, 1787, 1808 suggest about slavery ? How did the English colonial governments differ from the French and Spanish ? What was the system of government in England ? Where was the first representative assembly established in America ? The second ? Did the English kings favor free government in America ? What kings sought to overthrow it ? Where was the first confederacy formed? For what purpose ? What were Governor Berkeley s views about free education ? What those of the Puritans ? Was Berkeley right in calling Bacon a rebel ? What is a rebel ? What is now the usual route from Europe to Asia? What new route may be opened in the future ? (via Panama and Nicaragua Canals.) What reasons induced Englishmen to emigrate to America in early times ? Why was Massachusetts so rapidly settled ? Did the English kings demand any return for their grants of land ? Name some in stances. What was the first colony within the United States limits ? The second? The third? The fourth? Does a new country call for harder work than an older one? Why? Name some things which the whites obtained from the Indians ; the Indians from the whites. What classes of settlers were there ? From what class of settlers did Washington descend ? What were the ideas of religious liberty at the time of Charles I.? What are they to-day ? What were the religious views of the Puri tans? What those of the Pilgrims? How did Roger Williams differ in opinion from the Puritans ? What is meant by intolerance in re ligion ? What was Roger Williams s idea of religious tolerance ? What Lord Baltimore s ? What made the Puritans bitter against the Quakers ? How did the Quakers triumph over persecution ? Who were the-regicides ? Why did Charles II. annul the charter of Massachusetts? What rights were lost? What colonies kept their QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 577 charters? Tell the story of Charter Oak. Why has Rhode Island two capitals? Why had Connecticut? What is meant by Navigation Laws ? Why were these laws not obeyed ? Is it ever right to disobey laws ? When ? Did England find the New England colonies easy to govern ? What kind of government did they establish ? What events are suggested by the names Plymouth, Salem, Boston, New Amster dam ? How came New Netherland to be named New York ? Tell about the estates of the patroons. What was done about the pirates ? Was Jacob Leisler treated justly? In what way did William Penn have less power than Lord Baltimore ? What was the purpose of Mason and Dixon s line? Did it separate all the free and slave States? What colonies were tolerant in religion from principle? What forced to become tolerant ? What is meant by a state church ? What three religious sects refrained from persecution? What sects were intolerant? Why is the word New added to so many American names ? Why did Manhattan Island sell so cheaply in 1626 ? What idea have you of its value to-day? What is meant by hereditary right ? Has there ever been a nobility in America ? Can any Ameri can have a title of nobility? Why not? What were the large cities of colonial times? When was each founded, and by whom? Name some of our largest cities to-day. What historic buildings exist in Philadelphia ? In Boston ? In New York ? How do our cities com pare in age with those of Europe ? Who were the dissenters ? Who the Huguenots ? Did any Huguenots settle in the French and Spanish colonies ? Why not ? Where did the Scotch-Irish come from ? What was the condition of debtors in Oglethorpe s time? By what classes of people was Georgia settled ? How did the various colonies treat the Indians ? By which proprietaries were they treated justly ? What colonies were founded under proprietaries? What under charters ? What under royal government ? In what did these classes of colonies differ ? WTiat was the greatest extent of New France ? What territory did Spain hold within the United States region ? How far west did the English grants of land go? On what did the English base their claims ? On what did the French ? In what way did Irdian wars differ from white wars ? What justification had the Englif.h in the expulsion of the Acadians ? What wars took place between the English and French? What results came from the first three wars ? What gave rise to the French and Indian War? Describe Braddock s campaign. Where was the 37 578 QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. decisive battle fought ? What was the result of this war ? What new arrangements of territory took place ? How did this war prepare the colonies for the Revolutionary War ? What nations successively pos sessed New York ? What nations the lands on the Delaware ? Describe the Swedish settlement of 1638. How did it end ? Where was Fort Duquesne? What made its location important? Where was Fort Ticonderoga ? What is meant by a stamp act? Why is it a convenient form of taxation ? Why did America object to being taxed by England ? What principal provocations drove the colonies to rebellion ? Why was the tea rejected? Why did the Revolutionary War begin in Massachu setts? Describe Paul Revere s ride. What was its result? What events led to the Declaration of Independence? Who wrote it? What was the result of its adoption ? What causes led to the Constitution ? What objections were made to it? What rights does the Declaration of Independence claim for all men ? What does it say on the sources of government? How many Continental Congresses were there? What was done by the first ? What by the second ? How does the organization of the present Congress compare with that of the Conti nental Congress ? Why were the Articles of Confederation unsatisfac tory ? Why was a new Constitution necessary ? Is there any author ity higher than the Constitution ? Can State laws and Federal laws conflict ? What body decides if laws are constitutional ? What was the condition of the American cause in December, 1776? What event changed this condition? Describe the taking of New York; of Philadelphia. What was the purpose of Burgoyne s cam paign? What effect did his capture have on Europe? Why were Hessian soldiers hired by England ? How did the Americans regard them ? Which were the leading battles of the Revolution ? How was Washington treated? Wherein was Washington especially great? What important plan did the British seek to carry out in the North ? How was the war conducted in the South ? What induced Arnold to turn traitor ? What led to the capture of Cornwallis ? What was the financial condition of the country in the Revolution ? Name the compacts or state papers connected with 1620, 1776, 1787. 1863. Who were the Tories? What did the battle of Bunker Hill teach the British ? Give three important incidents in the life of Wash ington. Why were the Massachusetts militia called minute-men? State some of the leading features of the Constitution. How did the Cabinet originate ? Who were the leaders in the Constitutional Con- QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 579 vention ? To what great series of state papers did the adoption of the Constitution give rise ? What part of the continent did the United States originally embrace ? What does it now embrace ? What was the Northwestern Territory ? How obtained ? Into what States divided ? What department of the government has charge of foreign affairs ? What was the latest de partment instituted ? Which department has charge of Indian affairs ? 01 the signal service ? Name three acts of England that led to the Revolution. Who were the most prominent statesmen in the Constitu tional Convention? What were the principles of the Anti-Federal party? What of the Federal? What events are suggested by the names of Franklin? Hamilton? Jefferson? Of Saratoga? Detroit? Gettysburg? State some fact about financial affairs in Washington s administra tion. In Jackson s. What can you say about the Louisiana purchase? What were the causes of the war of 1812 ? Could it have been honor ably averted? What is meant by right of search? What was the purpose of the embargo? How did it work? How did Napoleon treat this country? Why was war declared against England rather than France? Where was the war of 1812 principally fought? Why had the United States such success on the sea? What caused the failures of the first year of the war ? What excuse did the English give for burning Washington ? What were the results of the war of 1812? Name some evils of war. Some benefits. How can nations avoid war? What conditions indicate high civilization? What in dicate low ? What have been the causes of most of our Indian wars ? Were the whites just to the Indians in the past? Are they to-day? When was the first United States bank established? When the second ? Why did Jackson veto the bank charter ? What President was elected without a contest? What was meant by the " era of good feeling"? What parties were there before 1820? What caused the decline of the Federal party ? What party advocated internal improve ments ? What great road was built by the government ? What great water-way by the State of New York ? How was the opening of the Erie Canal announced to New York City ? What effect had the Erie Canal on commerce ? What important event is associated with the 4th of July, 1826 ? What other President died on the 4th of July ? What was the Missouri Compromise? Name a statesman connected with it. What was the purpose of the Liberator newspaper ? By whom published? What is meant by the "spoils system"? What 580 QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. was the condition of office-holding before Jackson s administration? What afterward? What causes led to the panic of 1838? What great business depressions has this country experienced ? What led to the Mexican War ? Which were its principal campaigns ? Did the Mexi cans win any battles? What great territorial acquisition did the United States obtain ? What portion of this territory proved the most valuable ? Why ? What is meant by the Gadsden Purchase ? Why was it made ? What was the Wilmot Proviso ? Which Presidents died in office ? Which were assassinated ? What was the tariff law of 1828 ? In whose administration made ? To what action did it give rise in South Carolina? How was this trouble ended? By whom? What is a tariff? What revenue for protection ? What free trade ? Is there any tariff between the States ? What party sustains a protective tariff? What tariff for revenue? Is there direct taxation in the United States? Against what levied? Do the people who have no property pay any tax ? In what form ? What privilege does it give them? Tell how our Northern boundary was settled. By what various means did the United States acquire terri tory ? What compromise was made in the admission of California ? What were the effects of the Fugitive Slave Law ? What was the plat form of the Know-Nothing party? Define the Dred Scott decision. What is meant by squatter sovereignty? When did the Republican party arise? What were its principles? What gave rise to the troubles in Kansas? What can you say about the ownership of Florida? What internal improvements are provided for by the United States ? What by individuals ? For what purposes is the revenue of the United States expended? What are the objections to the spoils system? Should offices be given as political rewards? Why not? What is a veto ? Does it necessarily defeat a bill ? What kinds of money have the United States issued? Why were compromises on the slavery question important? What compromises were made? Did they avert the difficulty? What was the purpose of the Fugitive Slave Law ? What its effect ? What is meant by the Underground Railroad? Why did runaway slaves seek Canada? What was the first political party that opposed slavery? On what did the South base the right to secede ? Has the power that made the United States the right to dissolve it? What were the imme diate causes of the Civil War? What effect had the attack on Fort Sumter ? What is meant by drafting men for an army ? Why is it unpopular? What violence did the draft law occasion in New York? QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 581 Why did the South suffer more than the North in the war? In what cases did the North suffer from invasion ? What was the purpose of the Army of the Potomac ? Name its suc cessive commanders. A battle under each and its result. State in order the four great wars of the United States. Some important ques tion involved in each. What was settled by each? What is State sovereignty ? What squatter sovereignty ? What nations of Europe recognized the Confederates as belligerents? What privileges does such recognition confer? State some event connected with Balti more, Harper s Ferry, Charleston, Savannah, during the war. What was the purpose of John Brown s raid ? What the result? How did President Buchanan act toward the seceded States? How President Lincoln? Describe the national influence of Lincoln, Sum- ner, Clay, Webster, Calhoun. Of the Louisiana purchase. Name three prominent generals and three statesmen of the Confederacy. Name the generals of the Civil War who became Presidents. What was the Webster- Ashburton treaty ? How was Texas acquired ? Florida ? Oregon ? Alaska ? Name an American statesman connected with the Missouri Compromise ; Wilmot Proviso ; Kansas-Nebraska bill ; Fugitive Slave Law. How were lands acquired from the Indians ? What was done with the Indians of the South ? What gave rise to the Seminole War? The Pontiac? The Black Hawk? Where are the Indians now principally located ? Under what conditions and organi zation ? Where was the first great battle of the Civil War ? What its result ? Where was the first battle of ironclads fought ? How did these iron clads differ? What was the result? What first made General Grant famous? How did he succeed in capturing Vicksburg? How was New Orleans taken ? What great battles took place near Chattanooga ? In what battle was Albert Sidney Johnston killed ? In what Stonewall Jackson ? What was the result of the second Bull Run battle ? What of the battle of Antietam ? When was the battle of Gettysburg fought ? How long did it continue ? What were its results ? What route did McClellan take for the siege of Richmond ? What was the result of his campaign ? What route did General Grant take ? What great battles did he fight? What city did he besiege ? What was the route of General Sherman s march ? How far did it extend ? Why was Richmond evacuated? When and where did General Lee surrender? When was Lincoln assassinated ? What was the purpose of the assas sins? 582 QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. What was the purpose of the Emancipation Proclamation ? What the object of the thirteenth amendment to the Constitution ? The four teenth? The fifteenth? What was the Tenure of Office act? The Civil Rights bill? Why was President Johnson impeached? What body conducted the impeachment trial? What was the result? When was the first Pacific Railroad laid ? When the first ocean telegraph? How many of each are there to-day? What is meant by specie payment ? When has it been suspended in American history ? Why ? Is paper money real money ? What gives it value ? Why did the Continental currency lose value ? How did Union victories affect the price of gold ? To what premium did gold rise during the war ? When was specie payment resumed ? What was the highest United States debt ? What is the debt to-day ? What is meant by treason? Is war as cruel now as of old? Is private property more respected ? Why did the United States object to the French invasion of Mexico? What American policy did it violate ? What gave rise to the Monroe Doctrine ? On what great occasions has it been applied ? Why was it wrong for Great Britain to let the Alabama sail? What injury was done to our commerce? What was the purpose of the Alabama arbitration ? How much did Great Britain pay for her fault ? How much did the United States pay on account of the fisheries ? What objections are there to universal suffrage ? What arguments in its favor ? What was the purpose of the Electoral Commission of 1877? From what bodies was it taken ? What was the result? What is meant by Civil Service Reform? In whose administration did it begin ? When and why was President Garfield assassinated ? What has been the result of the Civil Service Reform movement? What large body of office-holders are still appointed by the President ? How many Presidents have served two terms ? How did Cleveland s two terms differ from those of the others? How many Presidents were military men? How many were civilians? What important tariff changes have taken place since 1860? What great tracts of land have been set aside by the United States as public parks ? Why ? What is the purpose of forestry reservations ? What different systems of government existed in the colonies? What was Franklin s plan of union ? What Congresses were held in colonial times ? What were the defects of the Articles of Confedera tion ? To what danger did these give rise ? How was this danger avoided in the Constitution? What are the three branches of the QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 583 present government ? The duties and powers of each ? What govern mental departments are there ? Who are the Cabinet officials ? Who the successors of the President in case of death ? What do you know of the progress of American finance ? What of the postal system ? Who was the first Postmaster-General ? At what rate has immigration grown? Why are many of the present immigrants undesirable ? Why were the Chinese excluded ? What led to the rapid settlement of the West? What of the Pacific slope ? How have means of transportation developed ? What great invention was made in the eighteenth century ? What have been the leading inventions of the nineteenth century ? At what rate has the population increased ? How did the population in 1790 compare with that in 1890? INDEX. A. Abolition movement, 304, 320, 340, 490. Acadia, settlement in, 50; capture of, 148. Acadians, expulsion of the, 160. Adams, John, 184, 201, 232 ; adminis tration of, 256. Adams, John Quincy, administration of, 295. Adams, Samuel, 186, 188, 191. Agriculture, conditions of, 515, 518. Aguinaldo, 461, 463. Alabama admitted, 291. Alabama, capture of the, 402 ; claims arbitrated, 419. Alaska, purchase of, 417 ; gold discover ed in, 452 ; boundary arbitration, 468. Albany, site of, 102. Albemarle colony, 122. Algiers, pirates of, 254; war with, 284. Alien and sedition laws, 258. Allen, Ethan, 195. Amendments to the Constitution, 249, 260, 413, 414, 418, 493. America, discovery of, 22 ; named, 25. American commerce, outrages on, 271. American party, 337, 484. Amnesty to South, 416. Amusements in New England, 136. Anaesthesia discovered, 318. Anarchists, Chicago, 437. Anderson, Major, 350, 405. Andre", capture of Major, 226. Andros, Edmund, 99, 106, 109. Animals, domestic, 517. Annapolis, Nova Scotia, 50, 148 ; Mary land, 119. Anniversary celebrations, 443. Antietam, battle of, 377. Anti-Masons, 298. Anti-renters, 313. Appalachian Indians, 149. Apprentice system, 69, 486. Arbitrations, 419. Archdale, John, 125. Architecture, American, 538. Arkansas admitted, 306. Armies of the North and the South, 355 ; strength of, 410. Army, disbandment of, 234; strength of the, 456; condition of, in Cuba, 457. Arnold, Benedict, 198, 203, 215, 216, 226, 229. Arthur, Chester A., elected Vice-Presi dent, 431 ; becomes President, 433. Artists, American, 529. Assemblies dissolved, 182. Assembly, the first, 71, 472. Atlanta, capture of, 396; exhibition, 444. Atlantic telegraph, 417. Australian ballot, 442. B. Bacon s rebellion, 76. Balboa discovers the Pacific, 27. Baltimore founded, 119; attacked, 282; soldiers attacked in, 351. Baltimore, Lord, 116, 119. Banks, General, on Red River, 400. Barcelona, Columbus at, 23. Bennington, battle of, 213. Bering Sea question, 441. 585 586 INDEX. Berkeley, Lord, 108. Berkeley, Sir William, 74, 76. Black Hawk War, 305. Elaine, James G., 435. Blockade of the South, 351, 353, 354, 359 ; of Cuba, 454 j of Santiago, 455. Books for reference, list of, 573. Boone, Daniel, 233. Booth, John Wilkes, 406. Boston settled, 84; soldiers in, 183; massacre, 184; tea-party, 186; port bill, 187; fortified by Gage, 191; be sieged, 193 ; evacuated, 199 ; fire, 421. Boundaries of nation, 232; settlement of, 314. Braddock s defeat, 158. Bradford, William, 81. Bragg, General, in Kentucky, 369; at Chickamauga, 388; at Missionary Ridge, 389. Brandywine, battle of, 211. British retreat from Concord, 193. Brown, John, in Kansas, 336 ; at Har per s Ferry, 341. Bryan, William J., 450, 462. Bryant, William Cullen, 518. Buchanan, James, administration of, 340 ; inaction of, 346. Buell, General, 366, 370; commander- in-chief, 376. Buena Vista, battle of, 323. Bull Run battle, first, 357; second, 376. Bunker Hill, battle of, 196. Burgoyne, General, 210, 211, 213, 216. Burnside, General, 369 ; replaces Mc- Clellan, 378; at Frederic ksburg, 379. Burr, Aaron, 260, 265, 266. Business depression of 1837, 309; of 1857, 343; of 1873, 425; of 1893, 445. Butler, General, at New Orleans, 368. c. Cabinet, formation of the, 249, 481. Cabots, discoveries of the, 26. Cabrillo s voyage, 44. Calboun, John C., 273, 297, 301, 333. California explored, 44; conquered, 324; purchased, 326; emigration to 328 ; progress of, 329. Calverts, the, in Maryland, 116-121. Canada, first settlement, 48 ; ceded to England, 168 ; invaded, 198, 275, 279. Canal, Erie, 292, 509; Isthmian, 466, 467. Cape Breton discovered, 45. Cape Cod, Pilgrims at, 79. Cape Verde squadron, 455 ; destruction of, 458. Carolinas, the, 121-126 ; divided, 125 ; life in, 143 ; invaded by Indians, 149. Carpenters Hall, 189. Carpet-bag governments, 415. Carteret, Sir George, 108. Cartier, Jacques, 46. Cass, Lewis, 329. Catholics in Maryland, 118-120. Census of 1890, 442; of 1900, 463. Centennial Exhibition, 426. Champlain s career, 50. Chancellorsville, battle of, 380. Chapultepec taken, 325. Charles I., 72, 85, 98. Charles IL, 75,98, 111. Charleston settled, 123; attacked, 149; taken, 224, 403 ; earthquake, 437. Charter Oak, 100. Charter, Puritan, 84; Rhode Island, 92; Connecticut, 97; Pennsylvania, 111; Maryland, 117; Carolina, 122. Cherokeee, 305. Chesapeake affair, the, 268 ; capture of the, 277. Chicago founded, 306; fire, 421; an archists, 447. INDEX. 587 Chickamauga, battle of, 388. Chile, trouble with, 440. China, treaty with, 417 ; troubles in, 462. Chinese exclusion, 436, 506. Christian Commission, 410. Chronology, summary of, 507. Cincinnati founded, 242. Cities in 1790, 244, 245. Civil service reform, 432, 447. Claims of European nations, 60. Clarendon colony, 123. Clark, George R., Colonel, 220. Clay, Henry, 273, 291, 296, 297, 302, 307, 312, 319, 333. Clayborne trouble, the, 119. Cleveland, Grover, President, 435 ; de feated, 438 ; re-elected, 445. Cliff-dwellers, 39. Clinton, George, 265, 269. Clinton, Sir Henry, 218. Coal, use of, 244; strike of miners, 467. Coinage, colonial, 494 ; United States, 499. Cold Harbor, battle of, 392. Colfax, Schuyler, 418. Colleges in the colonies, 532, 534. Colonies, diversity of, 61; customs in, 131-141 ; rebellion of, 188. Colonists, Spanish and French, 469; British, 470 ; original, 501. Colorado admitted, 426. Columbia River discovered, 250. Columbian World s Exhibition, 443. Columbus, Christopher, 17-24. Commerce and Labor, Department of, 467. Commerce, early, 14, 15, 173 ; checks to, 267, 271 ; British, 244, 286, 524. Committee of Correspondence, 188. Compromise tariff, 302; of 1850, 331. Concord, British at, 193. Confederacy of New England, 98 ; Southern, 346. Confederation, articles of, 478. Congress, Continental, 189, 190, 195; weakness of, 237 ; first under Consti tution, 246, 477. Connecticut settled, 94 ; government of, 97; charter saved, 100. Conscription, 439. Constitution and Guerriere, 276. Constitution of the United States, 540 ; compromises of the, 239 ; ratification of the, 240 ; effect of, 247 ; branches of the government under the, 479. Constitution of Virginia, 71 ; of Con necticut, 97 ; first written, 473. Constitutional convention, the, 238, 478. Continental Congress, first, 189, 190; second, 195, 477. Convention system, the, 472. Conway cabal, the, 217. Cookery in New England, 133. Copyright law, 441. Corinth, battle of, 370. Cornwallis, General, 206, 208, 228-230. Coronado s expedition, 44. Cotton-gin, the, 246, 489, 517. Cowpens, battle of, 227. Coxey army, the, 446. Credit, Mobilier, 422. Creek Indian War, 282. Creeks, removal of the, 297. Cuba, discovery of, 23 ; war in, 448 ; insurrection in, 452 ; starvation of people of, 452 ; blockade of, 454 ; in vasion of, 456 ; independence of, 466 Cumberland road, the, 292. Custer, General, death of, 424. D. Dale, Governor, 66. Davis, Jefferson, President of the Con federate States, 346, 349, 406. Davis, John, 54. De Ayllon, 42. Debt, public, 497-499 588 INDEX. Debtors, a colony of, 127. Decatur destroys the Philadelphia, 262. Declaration of Independence, the, 202, 543. Deerfield, massacre at, 148. De Gourgues s revenge, 48. Delaware, Lord, 66. Delaware, settlement of, 116. Delaware, settlements on the, 110; Washington crosses the, 207. Demarcation, line of, 27. Democratic party, 296, 483. De Monts in Acadia, 49. De Narvaez, Panfilo, 42. Departments, government, 467, 481. Deposits removed, 303. De Soto, Fernando, 43, 44. Detroit, surrender of, 274 ; recapture of, 279. De Vaca, Cabeza, 43. Dewey,Commodore, 454; Admiral, 461. Dinwiddie, Governor, 154. Dorr rebellion, 313. Douglas, Stephen A., 344, 345. Dover settled, 92. Draft riot, 410. Drake, Sir Francis, 53. Dred Scot case, 341, 491. Dress in New England, 135 ; of Dutch, 139 j in South, 142. Drinking habits, 136, 143. Dunmore, Lord, 200. Dustin, Mrs., escape of, 147. Dutch explorers, 58 ; in Connecticut, 94; settlements, 102; church, 104; take New Sweden, 105, 110 ; colony, 138-140. E. Eads, J. B., 431. Early s raid, 393. Earthquake, Charleston, 437. Education, 530. Electoral Commission, 427. Electors, system of, 479. Emancipation proclamation, 379, 481, 492. Embargo act, 268. Emigrants to the West, 243. Emigration, 318, 504. Endicott, John, 83, 86. England, trouble with, 236, 254. English explorers, 53; first colony, 58; take New Amsterdam, 105. Era of good feeling, 286. Erie Canal, 292, 509. Ericsson, John, 306. Essex taken, the, 278. Europe, mediseval, 11 : early commerce of, 14. European nations, claims of, 60. Express system organized, 512. F. Fair Oaks, battle of, 374. Farragut, Admiral, 302, 368, 401. Federal party, 240, 285, 482. Federalist, The, 525. Fenian raid, 416. Field, Cyrus W., 343. Fillmore elected Vice-President, 329; President, 332 ; defeated, 339. Finance, colonial, 493 ; of Revolution, 495 ; Morris and Hamilton, 496. Financial measures, 459. Fisheries, 521, 522. Flag, American, 214. Florida discovered, 42; French in, 47; ceded to England, 169 ; ceded to Spain, 232; purchased, 289; admitted, 317. Forest preservation, 456, 520, 521. Fort Carolina, 47 ; Orange, 102 : Nas sau, 102, 108; Duquesne, 156. 165; Necessity, 157 ; William Henry, 162, 163; Ticonderoga, 162, 163, 195; Moultrie, 199; Washington, 205; Lee, 205; Stanwix, 214; Sumter, 346, 359, 405; Henry, 365; Donel- son, 365; Pillow, 400; Fisher, 401. INDEX. 589 Forts seized in South, 346; taken at New Orleans, 367. Fountain of youth, 41. France loses her colonies, 169; treaty with, 217; hostility with, 257; naval war, 258. Franking privilege, 422. Franklin, Benjamin, 176, 180, 201, 232, 476, 507, 527. Fredericksburg, battle of, 378. Freedmen s Bureau, 413. Free silver campaign, 450. Free-soil party, 328. Fremont, John C., 324, 339, 355. French and Indian War, 152; results of, 170. French explorers, 45 ; claims, 52 ; in Louisiana, 129; forts, 154; fleet, 218, 219, 230. Friends in Pennsylvania, 110. Frobisher s voyages, 54. Frontenac and the Iroquois, 146. Fruits, culture of, 517. Fugitive slave law, 332. Fulton invents the steamboat, 266, 509. Fur seals, 441. Fur traders in New York, 103. Furs, 519. G. Gadsden Purchase, 326. Gage, General, 183, 189, 191. Garfield, James A., election of, 430; assassination of, 432. Garrison, William Lloyd, 304, 490. Gaspee burned, the, 184. Gates, General, 216, 224. Genet, French minister, 253. George III., character of, 172. Georgia settled, 126; laws of, 128; in vaded, 151; Indians of, 297. Germantown settled, 115; battle of, 211. Gerry, Elbridge, 285. Gettysburg, battle of, 383-385. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 54. Gold discovery, 327, 452; fever, 328; premium on, 407 ; reserve, 429. Goodyear s india-rubber, 333. Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, 90. Gosnold s expedition, 56. Government, new, 240 ; organized, 249 ; difficulties of, 250; paternal, 470; representative, 471 ; of colonies, 472, 413; departments of, 481. Grand Model government, 124. Grant, Ulysses S., first command of, 364; captures Forts Henry and Don- elson, 365; at Shiloh, 367; captures Vicksburg, 386 ; commands in West, 389 ; commander-in-chief, 390 ; plan of campaign, 391; advance on Rich mond, 392; Lee surrenders to, 405; President, 418; re-elected, 424; tomb of, 442. Gray, Captain, discovers the Columbia River, 250. Great Law of Pennsylvania, 112. Greeley, Horace, 425. Greene, General, in South, 227-229. Greenland discovered, 12. Guilford Court-House, battle of, 228. H. Hale, Nathan, 204. Halleck, General Henry W., 355 ; com mander-in-chief, 375. Hamilton, Alexander, 238, 249, 251, 265, 496. Hancock, John, 190, 191, 195, 201. Hancock, General Winfield S., 431. Harper s Ferry, 341, 377. Harrison, Benjamin, President, 438, 445. Harrison, William Henry, 272, 275, 279, 307; President, 310, 311. Hartford founded, 94 ; convention, 284. Harvard College, 532. Harvey, Sir John, 74. Haverhill, massacre at, 147, 148. 590 INDEX. Hawaii, 447 ; annexation of, 459. Hawkins, Sir John, 53. Hayes, Rutherford B., 426; President, 427, 428. Hayne supports nullification, 301. Hayti discovered, 23. Helderberg War, 314. Hendricks, Thomas A., 435. Hennepin explores the Mississippi, 51. Henry, Patrick, 179, 190. Herkirner, General, 214. Hessians hired, 198. Historians, American, 526. Hobart, Garret A., Vice-President, 449. Hobkirk s Hill, battle of, 229. Hobson, Lieutenant, and the Merrimac, 456. Homestead strike, 443. Hood, General, at Atlanta, 396 ; invades Tennessee, 397 ; defeat at Nashville, 398. Hooker, General, at Chancellorsville, 380 ; resigns, 382 ; at Lookout Moun tain, 389. Hospitality, Southern, 141. Houses in New England, 131-134; in New Amsterdam, 139. Houston, General, in Texas, 316. Howe, General, 196, 203, 210. Hudson, Henry, 58. Hudson River explored, 58. Huguenots in Florida, 46 ; in Carolina, 123. Hull, General, surrenders Detroit, 274. Hutchinson, Anne, 87-92. I. Iceland, discovery of, 12. Idaho admitted, 439. Illinois admitted, 291. Immigration, 501, 505, 506. Impeachment of President Johnson, 415. Inauguration of Washington, 248. Independence, resolution for, 201 ; dee- laration of, 202. Indian massacres in Virginia, 72-74, 75; wars in Carolina, 126; question, 423. Indiana admitted, 285. Indians named, 23, 28; enslaved, 25; character and customs, 28-40 ; Brad ford s dealing with, 81 : Penn s treaty with, 114; war with Western, 252. Indigo cultivated, 124, 516. Industrial exhibitions, 434. Industries of the country, 243. Inter-State commerce, 436. Intolerable acts, the, 187. Inventions, 246, 306, 537. Iowa admitted, 326. Ironclads, first battle of, 361. Iroquois Indians, 50, 103, 146, 220. Irrigation, 519. Irving, Washington, 526. Isabella, Queen, 19, 25. Island No. 10, 366. Italy, trouble with, 440. J- Jackson, Andrew, 282, 283, 289, 295 ; administration of, 299, 300, 302, 303. Jackson, Stonewall, 358, 373, 375, 376, 377, 381. James I., 71. James II., 99. Jamestown founded, 58 ; story of col ony, 61-66. Japan opened, 338. Jasper, Sergeant, 200, 224. Jay, John, 232, 249, 254. Jefferson, Thomas, 201, 249, 255; ad ministration of, 261, 264, 265. John Brown raid, 484. Johnson, Andrew, Vice-President, 403 ; President, 412 ; impeachment of, 415. Johnston, General Albert S., at Shiloh, 367. INDEX. 591 Johnston, General Joseph E., 354, 357, 373, 390, 405. Johnstown flood, 439. K. Kansas, 335; fighting in, 336; ad mitted, 342 ; troubles, 483. Kearny, General, in New Mexico, 324. Kentucky admitted, 250 ; invaded, 364. Key, Francis S., 282. Kidd, Captain, 107. King George s War, 149. King Philip s War, 89. King William s War, 145. King s Mountain, battle of, 225. Kitchen, New England, 134. Klondike, gold found on the, 452. Know-Nothing party, 337, 484. Knoxville, siege of, 390. Labor associations, 437. Lafayette, Marquis de, 209, 229, 293. Lake Champlain, battle of, 280. Lake Erie, battle of, 278. Lake George, battle of, 161. Landing of the Pilgrims, 79. La Rabida convent, 19. La Salle, story of, 51, 52. Laudonnire, 47. Lawrence, Captain, death of, 277. Lee, General Charles, 205, 218. Lee, General Henry, 227, 252. Lee, Richard Henry, 201. Lee, General Robert E., 354; in com mand, 374; attacks McClellan, 375; at Bull Run, 376; at Antietam, 377; at Fredericksburg, 378 ; at Chancel- lorsville, 380 ; at Gettysburg, 384, 392, 403; surrender of, 405. Legislature, first, 70 ; two houses, 464. Leisler rebellion, 107. Lewis and Clark expedition, 264, 265. Lexington, battle of, 192. Libraries, 521. Lincoln, Abraham, 322, 344, 345; ad ministration of, 348 ; proclaims eman cipation, 379, 403; death of, 406. Lincoln, General, 224. Literature, 525-528. Livingston, Robert R., 201. London Company, 57. Long Island, battle of, 204. Longstreet, General, at Gettysburg, 384; at Chickamauga, 388; at Knox ville, 390. Lookout Mountain, battle of, 389. Lord North, 183. Louisburg taken, 150, 151, 164. Louisiana settled, 129; crops of, 138; ceded to Spain, 169 ; purchase, 263 ; admitted, 285. Louisville founded, 242. Lyon, General, 355. M. McClellan, General George B., in West Virginia, 357 ; commander-in-chief, 371 ; before Richmond, 372 ; seven days battle, 375 ; at Antietam, 377 : removal of, 378; candidate for Presi dent, 403. McDonough, Commodore, 280. McDowell, General Irwin, 357, 373. McKinley, William, President, 451, 462; assassination of, 464. Madison, James, 237 ; elected Presi dent, 269 ; policy of, 270. Magellan s voyage, 27. Magruder, General John B., 372. Maine, settlement of, 90 ; admitted, 292. Maine, sinking of the, 453. Manhattan Island, 60, 102. Manila, battle in bay of, 454 ; capture of, 460. Manufactures, American, 173, 243, 523. Marietta settled, 242. Marion, General Francis, 225. 592 INDEX. Marquette on the Mississippi, 51. Marshall, Chief Justice, 260. Maryland settled, 116-120; invaded, 376. Mason and Dixon s line, 121. Mason and Slidell, 359. Mason, John, 91. Massachusetts, colony, 83; growth of, 85; new government, 101; provincial Congress, 190, 196. Massacre at St. Augustine, 48 ; in Vir ginia, 72, 74, 75; in New York, 104; in King William s War, 146 ; in Queen Anne s War, 148. Massasoit, treaty with, 81, 89. Matamoras occupied, 323. Maximilian in Mexico, 416. Mayflower compact, the, 542. Mayflower, voyage of the, 79. Meade, General George G., 383. Mecklenburg County resolutions, 200. Memphis, capture of, 368. Menendez, Pedro, 47. Merrimac, the, in Hampton Roads, 360 ; blown up, 373. Merrimac, sinking the collier, 456. Mexican War, 321 ; results of, 326. Mexico, city of, occupied, 325. Michigan admitted, 306. Military service in New England, 138. Minnesota admitted, 342. Mint founded, 252. Minuit, Governor, 102. Minute-men. 190. Missionary explorations, 51. Missionary Ridge, 389. Mississippi admitted, 291. Mississippi River, 43 ; discovered by De Soto, 44 ; Marquette on, 51 ; La Salle on, 52; opened, 387; jetties of, 430; overflow of, 451. Mississippi scheme, the, 130. Missouri admitted, 292 ; contest for, 356. Missouri Compromise, 291, 489. Mobile founded, 129 ; taken, 401. Monitor and Merrimac, 361. Monmouth, battle of, 218. Monroe doctrine, 290, 447. Monroe, James, 263 ; President, 285. Montana admitted, 439. Montcalm, Marquis de, 162 ; death o 167. Monterey taken, 323. Montgomery, General, killed, 198. Montreal taken, 168. Morgan, Daniel, 227. Morgan s raid, 387. Mormons, the, 317. Morris, Robert, 233, 496. Morse, telegraph discovered by, 318. Morton discovers anaesthesia, 318. Morton, Levi P., Vice-President, 438. Mound-builders, the, 37-39. Murfreesboro , battle of, 370. Museums, 529. N. Napoleon, duplicity of, 271. Narragansett Indians destroyed, 89c Natchez Indians destroyed, 130. National banks, 408, 499. National parks, 448. National Republican party, 296. National road, 267, 505. Nat Turner insurrection, 304. Natural gas, 536. Naval victories, 276, 278. Naval squadrons, 454. Navigation laws, 74, 172. Navy, United States, 449. Nebraska, 335 ; admitted, 417. Nevada admitted, 410. New Amsterdam, 102, 104, 105< Newark founded, 108. New-Bern founded, 123. New Castle, Penn at, 112. INDEX. 593 New England named, 77; first settle ment, 80; customs of, 131-138; trade of, 174. Newfoundland, fisheries of, 45, 191. New France, 46. New Hampshire settled, 90. New Haven colony, 96. New Jersey, 108, 109. New Mexico occupied, 324; purchased, 326. New Netherland, 102; Company, 103. New Orleans founded, 130; battle of, 283 ; taken, 368. Newport settled, 92. Newspapers, 527, 528. Netv Sweden, 105, 110. New York, 102, 105; customs in, 138; taken, 204. Non-intercourse act, 269. North, advantages of the, 352. North Carolina settled, 122. North Dakota admitted, 439. Northmen, the, 12. Northwest passage, 53. Northwestern Territory, 236, 237, 242. Nova Scotia, 149. Nullification, 297, 302. O. Ocean telegraph, 343. Office-holding, 300. Oglethorpe, colony of, 126, 127; inva sion of Florida by, 151. Ohio admitted, 263. Ohio Company, the, 153. Oklahoma opened, 438. Old Dominion, the, 77. Old Stone Mill, the, 13. Orders in council, 273. Oregon explored, 264; question, 315; admitted, 342. Oregon, voyage of the, 458. Oriskany, battle of, 214. Oswego taken, 162. P. Pacific discovered, 27 ; explored, 44. Pacific Railroad, 420. Packingham, General, death of, 28? Paine s " Common Sense," 201. Palo Alto, battle of, 323. Palos, 20, 23. Panama Canal and treaty, 467. Pan-American Congress, 439 ; Exposi tion, 463. Panic of 1837, 308; of 1857, 343; of 1873, 425. Paper money, 494. Parks, public, 538. Patroons, the, 103. Patterson, General Robert, 357, Paul Jones, John, 221. Peace with France, 168 ; with Englan 1, 232, 283; with Spain, 460. Pea Ridge, battle of, 371. Penn, William, 109, 110; in America, 112; treaty, 114, 115. Pennsylvania settled, 111; Dutch, 501. Pensions, 441. People of Pennsylvania, 140; location of the, 503. People s rights, 104, 106, 118 ; party, 485. Pepperell, William, 150. Pequot War, 95. Perry, Captain, on Lake Erie, 278, 279. Perry, Commodore, in Japan, 338. Perryville, battle of, 369. Petersburg, siege of, 392, 395. Petroleum discovered, 536. Philadelphia founded, 112; growth of, 114: life in, 140; taken, 211 ; evacu ated, 218. Philip, King, 89. Philippine Islands, cession of, 460; war in, 461. Phipps, Sir William, 148. Pickett s charge at Gettysburg, 384- Pierce, Franklin, President, 334. Pilgrims, landing of, 79. 38 594 INDEX. Pinckney, Charles, 257. Pirates, the, 107. Pitt, William, 164, 191. Plantation life, 141. Plymouth Company, 57, 77; colony, 80-83; compact, 471. Pocahontas, 63, 68. Political conditions, 454 ; parties, 482- 486. Polk, James K., President, 319, 320. Polk, General Leonidas, 364, 366. Polo, Marco, 11, 15. Polygamy, 434. Ponce de Leon, 42. Pontiac s War, 170. Pope, General John, 366, 376. Popham, Sir George, 57. Population, 241, 502, 503. Porter, Commodore, 368. Porto Rico, invasion of, 459 ; cession of, 460 : affairs in, 464. Port Royal, 46, 49, 148. Portugal, 15, 41. Postage rates, 514. Postal reform, 333 ; service, 513. Potato, the, 515. Powhatan, 63. President and Little Belt, 272. Presidential succession, 482. Presidents, table of the, 566. Princeton, battle of, 209. Proprietaries of Carolina, 128; govern ment of, in New Jersey, 108. Protective tariff, 288. Providence founded, 87. Public improvements, 292, 297. Pueblo Indians, 38. Pulaski, Count, death of, 224. Pullman strike, the, 446. Punishments in the colonies, 137 Puritans in England, 78 ; seek America, 83 ; bigotry of, 86 ; in New Jersey, 108 ; in Maryland, 119 ; dress of, 135. Putnam, General Israel, 193. Q. Quakers, persecution of, 88 ; buy New Jersey, 109 ; settle Pennsylvania,110. Quartering Act, the, 181. Quebec, settlement of, 50 ; taken by Captain Kirk, 145 ; attacked, 148 ; be sieged and taken by Wolfe, 165-167. Queen Anne s War, 148. Questions for review, 575. Quincy, Josiah, 184. R. Railroad extension, 420, 503; strike, 430. Raleigh s colonies, 56. Randolph, Peyton, 189. Reconstruction Acts, 414. Red River expedition, 400. Regicides, the, 98. Religious liberty in Rhode Island, 93; in Maryland, 116, 118; strictures in New England, 131 ; restrictions, 475. Representative Assembly, first, 71, 471. Republican party, 253, 338, 484, 492. Resaca de la Palma, 322. Revenue surplus, 303; during war, 407. Revere s ride, Paul, 192. Reynolds, General, death of, 383. Rhode Island settled, 92 ; religious lib erty in, 93 ; contest in, 314. Ribault, Jean, 46, 121. Rice planted, 124, 516. Richmond, panic at, 373 j McClellan s siege of, 372 ; Grant s advance on, 392 ; surrender of, 403. Right of search, 272, 314. Roads, early, 508. Roanoke Island colony, 56. Rolfe, John, 67. Roosevelt, Theodore, in Spanish War, 457; Vice-President, 462; becomes President, 465. INDEX. 595 Rosecrans, General William S., in West Virginia, 357; at Corinth, 370; at Chickamauga, 388. Rotation in office, 300. Royal colonies, 101, 106, 109, 120, 125, 128, 474. S. St. Augustine founded, 48 ; taken, 149 ; besieged, 151. St. Louis Exposition, 468. St. Leger s campaign, 212. St. Mary founded, 118, 120. Salary grab bill, 422. Salem settled, 83 ; witchcraft, 90. Sampson, Admiral William T., 454. San Francisco, 328, 444. Sanitary Commission, 410. Santa Fe" founded, 45. Santiago, blockade of, 455; battle of, 458 ; surrender of, 459. Saratoga, battle of, 216. Savannah founded, 127 ; taken, 223, 400. Saybrooke settled, 95. Schenectady, massacre at, 146. Schley, Commodore Winfield S., 455. Schools, 530, 533, 534. Schuyler, General Philip, 212, 218. Scientists, American, 528, 529. Scott, General, victories of, 279; cam paign in Mexico, 324 ; candidate for President, 334. Seal, fur, 441. Seamen, impressment of, 269, 272. Secession of Southern States, 345. Seminole War, 305. Separatists in Holland, 78. Seven days battle, 375. Seward, Secretary, attempt io kill, 406. Sewing-machine invented, 333. Seymour, Horatio, 41 8. Shafter, Major-General, 456. Shays s rebellion, 235. Sheridan, General, in Shenandoah Val ley, 394; cuts off Lee s march, 404. Sherman, General, at Vicksburg, 370; at Missionary Ridge, 389; com- mander in West, 390; capture of Atlanta, 396 ; march through Georgia. 399 ; march North, 403. Sherman, Roger, 201. Shiloh, battle of, 367. Silver legislation, 429 ; Bland bill, 430 ; Sherman bill, 442 : repeal of bill, 448 ; coinage, 500. Sioux outbreak, 371 ; War, 423, 441. Six Nations, 126. Slavery introduced, 70; problem of 330 ; story of, 486-493. Slave-trade abolished, 267. Sloughter, Governor, 107. Smith, Captain John, 62-65, 73, 78. Smith, Joseph, 317. Smuggling in New England, 174. Soldiers in Boston, 183 ; mutiny of, 234. Sons of Liberty, 179. South Carolina settled, 123; overrun, 224; regained, 229; nullification in, 302 ; secedes, 345. South Dakota admitted, 439. Southern officers secede, 354. South, hostile acts of, 351 ; advantages of, 353 ; exhaustion of, 398 ; finances of, 408 ; new, 535. South Mountain, battle of, 377. Spain aids Columbus, 19; treaty with, 255 ; war declared against, 454 ; treaty of peace with, 460. Spanish army, surrender of, 459. Spanish explorations, 41 ; claims, 45. Spanish fleet, destruction of, 455, 458 Specie payments resumed, 429. Speculation, fever of, 304. Spoils system, the, 300. Spottsylvania, battle of, 392. Stage travel, 508. Stamp act, 178-180; Congress, 477; 596 INDEX. Standard time, 434. Standish, Captain Miles, 82. Stark, John, 193, 213. Starving time, the, 65. State repudiation, 309 ; governments formed, 413. States and Territories, table of, 565. States, disunion of, 236; ratify Consti tution, 240 ; readmission of seceded, 414,419. Steamboat invented, 266, 510. Steamship crosses the Atlantic, 266, 510. Stephens, Alexander H.,Vice-President of Confederacy, 346. Stevenson, Adlai E., Vice-President, 445. Stony Point taken, 221. Stowe, Mrs. H. B., 340. Street railways, 513. Strikes, 430, 443, 446, 467. Stuyvesant, Governor, 104. Sub-treasury system, 309, 327. Suffrage in Rhode Island, 312. Sugar culture, 517. Sullivan, General, defeats the Indians, 220. Sumner, attack on Senator, 336. Sumner, General Edwin V., 374. Sunday in New England, 132. T. Table of States and Territories, 565; of Presidents, 566. Tariff question, 288; of 1827, 297; of war, 407.; McKinley, 441; Wilson, 446; of 1897, 451. Tarleton, Colonel, 224, 227. Taxation of colonies, 178, 181. Tax on tea, 185. Taylor,General Zachary,on Rio Grande, 321 ; at Monterey, 323 ; at Buena Vista, 323; elected President, 329; death of, 332. Tea, tax on, 185; party, Boston, 186. Tecumseh, war with, 272 ; killed, 279. Telegraph invented, 318; ocean cable laid, 343, 512. Telephone invented, 513. Temperance reform, 298, 538. Tennessee admitted, 250 ; occupied, 361. Tenure of office act, 415. Territorial extension, 539. Texas, insurrection in, 316 ; annexed, 316; war in, 321. Thames, battle of, 279. Thomas, General, 366 ; at Chickamauga, 388; at Missionary Ridge, 389; at Nashville, 398. Ticonderoga, Fort, built, 162 ; battle at, 163; taken by Ethan Allen, 195. Tilden, Samuel J., 426. Tobacco taken to England, 56; grown in Virginia, 67; culture of, 516. Tories, treatment of, 236. Townsend Acts, 181. Travel, colonial, 507. Treasury notes issued, 498. Treaty of peace, 168, 232, 283, 460. Trenton, victory of, 207; result of, 208. Tripoli, war with, 262. Troops called out, 350. Tuscarora Indian War, 126. Tyler, John,Vice-President, 311 ; Presi dent, 811. U. " Uncle Tom s Cabin " published, 340, 483. Underground railroad, 332, 491. United Colonies of New England, 474. United States, independence declared, 201 ; recognized by France, 217: in dependence acknowledged by Eng land, 232; Articles of Confederation of, 234; Constitution of, 240, 548; INDEX. 597 Hawaii annexed to, 459; territory won from Spain, 460. United States Bank, 251, 284, 303, 497, . 498. Upland, village of, 112. Utah settled by Mormons, 318; admit ted, 448. V. Van Buren, Martin, Vice-President, 307; President, 307 ; candidate, 310, 329. Vera Cruz taken, 324. Vermont admitted, 250. Verrazano, voyage of, 46. Vespucci, voyages of, 25 ; America named after, 25. Vicksburg, expedition against, 370. capture of, 386. Vigilance committee, 328. Vineland discovered, 12 ; voyages to, 13 ; Virginia named, 56 ; North and South, 57 ; colony in, 61 ; government of, 66-70 ; a royal province, 72 ; joins Confederacy, 354 ; in 1862, 371. W. Wallace, General, defeated by Early, 393. War declared against England, 273 ; seat of, 274 ; declared against Mexico, 321; civil, 363; preparations for, 453; declared against Spain, 454; results of, 460. Ward, General Artemas, 196. Warner, Seth, 195. Warren, General, death of, 197. Washington, city of, taken by the British, 280; threatened by Early, 393. Washington, George, mission to French forts, 154; at Fort Necessity, 157; with Braddock, 159 ; takes Fort Du- quesne, 165 ; commander-in-chief, 195 ; at Boston, 197 ; at New York, 203; retreat to the Delaware, 205; at Trenton, 207 ; at Princeton, 208 ; at Morristown, 209; defends Phila delphia, 211 ; at Valley Forge, 212, 217; at Monmouth, 219; at York- town, 230 ; president of convention, 238 ; President of the United States, 247; retires, 255; death of, 259; monument to, 434. Washington, Colonel William A., 227. Washington, state of, admitted, 439. Wayne, General, at Stony Point, 221, 253. Weather Bureau, 421. Webster, great oration of, 301, 312, 314 ; death of, 333. Wesleys in Georgia, 128. West, settlement of the, 242 ; situation of, 369, 504, 536. West Virginia, war in, 357 ; admitted, 410. Weyler, General, cruelty of, 452. Wheat culture, 516. Whig party, 307; opposes Tyler, 312, 483. Whiskey War, the, 252; ring, 422. Whitefield in Georgia, 128. Whitman, Dr., saves Oregon, 315. Whitney, Eli, 246. Wild-cat banks, 308. Wilderness, battle of, 392. William and Mary College, 532. William, King, 101. Williams, Roger, 86, 92. Williamsburg, battle of, 372. Wilmot Proviso, 326. Wilson, Henry, Vice-President, 425. Winthrop, John, 83; colony of, 95. Wisconsin admitted, 326. Witchcraft, Salem, 90. Wolfe, General, at Quebec, 165 ; death of, 167. 598 INDEX. Woman suffrage, 448, 481. Women brought to Virginia, 69. World s Fair, New York, 339 ; Centen nial, 426 j Columbian, 443. Writs of Assistance, 175. Wyoming, massacre of, 219. Wyoming, State of, admitted, 439. Y. Yale College, 532. Yellow fever in South, 431. Yorktown taken by Washington, 230 ; besieged by McClellan, 372. Young, Brigham, 318. THE END. 117 Longitude Longitude 107 TERRITORIAL ACQUISITIONS BY THE UNITED STATES THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO *1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. JAN DEC OCT 15 \S34 8 J954LU APR? 1957, ;C O MOV W LD 21-50m-8, YB 20646 /f 221722