913 Kit ETCHANG* ft UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA SOCIALISM IN GERMAN AMERICAN LITERATURE BY WILLIAM EREDERIC KAMMAN A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL IN PA ITIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY AMERICANA GERMANICA PRESS PHILADELPHIA 1917 YC 164 9 EXCHANGE AMERICANA GERMANICA MONOGRAPHS DEVOTED TO THE COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE Literary, Linguistic and Other Cultural Relations OF Germany and America EDITOR MARION DEXTER LEARNED University of Pennsylvania XXIV. Socialism in German American Literature (See List at the End of the Book} AMERICANA GERMANICA PRESS PHILADELPHIA 1917 UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA SOCIALISM IN GERMAN AMERICAN LITERATURE BY WILLIAM FREDERIC KAMMAN A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY AMERICANA GKRMANICA PRESS PHILADELPHIA 1917 COPYRIGHT 1917 BY WIUJAM FREDERIC KAMMAN PREFACE. In this monograph the writer has endeavored to trace in out line the introduction, dissemination, and development of German socialistic ideas in the United States from about 1835, to recent years, and to show their influence on German American literature. It begins by showing their influence on certain communistic experi ments, labor organizations, and socialist political parties. Until about 1890 German immigrants were the chief heralds and dissemi nators of modern socialistic ideas in the United States. Since that time the movement has become more and more Americanized. The socialist German American press, largely under the guidance of educated liberals, served as a convenient medium for spreading these ideas. Likewise, the Turner societies and Independent Con gregations served similar ends. All these agencies had an important bearing on the development of German American literature. The final chapter, which is limited chiefly to the consideration of poetical productions and also contains essential biographical details, seeks to show this influence on the content of German American litera ture. Among the authors that tend to reflect the social, political, and economic questions of the times are Weitling, Erbschloe, Koch, Rothacker, Straubenmuller, Schnauffer, Ziindt, Castelhun, Hempel, Kniep, Dorsch, Binder, Bretthauer, Nies, Fritzsche, Lange, Glauch, Beidenkapp, Rosenberg, Reitzel, Drescher, and Sattler. The writer s sources are indicated in the bibliography and foot notes. His purpose was to give an objective account based on these sources. No doubt other valuable source material such as rare files of newspapers, books, and pamphlets of limited distribution, have escaped his notice. Some were inaccessible to him. The usual diffi culty of clothing an accurate statement of fact in a readable garb presented itself constantly. The writer feels deeply indebted to Professor M. D. Learned, of the University of Pennsylvania, for inspiration, encouragement, and most valuable assistance rendered him in this work. He is in debted also for courtesies extended by the authorities of the city libraries of St. Louis, Belleville (111.), Milwaukee, and New York, [51 36 1860 6 Preface and of the libraries of the University of Wisconsin, the Philadelphia Turngemeinde, the Philadelphia Independent Congregation, and the Philadelphia German Society. Further, he feels under obligation to Mr. G. A. Hoehn, of St. Louis ; Hon. V. L. Berger, of Milwaukee ; Dr. W. L. Rosenberg, of Cleveland; Mr. Louis Werner, of Phila delphia, and Mr. Herman Schlueter, of New York, for kind assist ance rendered. WILLIAM FREDERIC KAMMAN. University of Pennsylvania, January, 1917. CONTENTS. Page. CHAPTER I. HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. Early Commu nism. The Transition to Modern Socialism. Modern German Socialism in America .... 9 CHAPTER II. SOCIALISM AND THE GERMAN AMERICAN PRESS 34 CHAPTER III. THE INDEPENDENT CONGREGATIONS AND SO CIALISM 51 CHAPTER IV. THE TURNERS AND SOCIALISM 58 CHAPTER V. SOCIALISM REFLECTED IN GERMAN AMERICAN LITERATURE 64 APPENDIX 119 Bibliography 119 [7] Ye can discern the face of the sky and of the earth; but how is it that ye do not discern this time? Luke 12: 56. There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, Than are dreamt of in your philosophy. Hamlet, I, 5. Socialism in German American Literature. CHAPTER I. V HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. 1 Wo ich niitze, ist mein Vaterland. The beginnings of modern Socialism as a fairly well defined movement may be considered as dating from the publication of the Communist Manifesto of Marx and Engels in 1848. However, the principles of Socialism are evident in the writings of Proudhon, Rodbertus, and others before this time. This movement like others similar to it was destined to spread to America, the land which fur-^ nished a fertile soil for many social experiments. The virgin soil of the New World appeared to the visionaries and discontented, as well as to the enterprising and oppressed to be that far-off Utopia where the individual might shake off the shackles of gray tradition, and create a social system which would not repress, but further his most cherished ideals. Germany, the home of a class of individualists, who chafed under the political and economic revolutions of the third and fourth decades of the nineteenth century furnished many immigrants,* who sowed the seeds of the new movement in America. Before this time, however, Germans had been coming inde pendently and in groups. The thirteen colonies and among them > especially Pennsylvania had become .the refuge* of numerous reli gious sects who had found life uncongenial in the ^)ld World*** Wars, religious persecutions, tyrannical governments, failure of crops, famines, and poverty drove the great mass of enterprising 1 For the history of Socialism in America see : A. Sartorius von Walters- hausen, Der Moderne Sozialismus in den Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika, Berlin, 1890; Hermann Schlueter, Die Anfdnge der deutschen Arbeiterbezve- gung in Amerika, Stuttgart, 1907; H. Semler, Geschichte des Sozialismus und Kommunismus in Nordamerika, Leipzig, 1880; Morris Hillquit, History of Socialism in the United States, New York, 1903; F. A. Sorge in Neue Zeit (Stuttgart) 1890-1892. [9] io Socialism in German American Literature Germans from their native land. 2 The greatest influx began in the decade 1830-1840, when over 152,000 arrived. With the Revolution of 1848 increasing numbers came to our shores; the number had risen to 215,009 in 1854. The greatest number, 250,630, for a sin gle year came in 1882. More Germans than any other single race crossed over to our shores in the last three centuries, and by far the greater majority came for political and economic reasons. To be sure the greater number came from the rank and file of the people, but among them was a generous sprinkling of educated liberals whose influence went far beyond their numbers. EARLY COMMUNISM. Before modern scientific Socialism developed there was a period when Communism was supposed by its advocates to cure all the pre vailing ills of society. During the early part of the nineteenth cen- tury many new social schemes were hatched out in Europe and put on trial in America. Just as in the seventeenth and eighteenth cen turies America had become a refuge for numerous religious sects, so at the beginning of the nineteenth it became the soil on which these new theories of society were exploited. America was untram melled by the restraining traditions of Europe, and it possessed practically unlimited freedom of speech and of the press, conditions which are always favorable to any kind of propaganda. Fourier s and Owen s systems were among the most wide-spread ; the former chiefly among the better educated and the latter among the laboring classes. Nordhoff in his excellent book, 3 The Communist Societies of the United States, discusses eight societies as illustrations of suc cessful Communism in this country. They are the Shakers (estab lished in 1794 in the East, ca. 1808 in the West), the Rappists (es tablished 1805), the Baeumelers or Zoarites (1817), the Eben-Ezers or Amana Communists (1844), the Bethel Commune (1844), the Oneida Perfectionists (1848), the Icarians (1849), and the Aurora Commune (1852). Of their origin he says (page 387) : "the *Der Deutsche Pionier XII, 148 (Rattermann) ; A. B. Faust, The Ger man Element, Boston, 1909 (2 vols.) I, 582 ff.; Fritz Joseephy, Die deutsche iiberseeische Auswanderung seit 1871, Berlin, 1912. * Cf . Bibliography for complete title. Historical Introduction n Icarians are French; the Shakers and Perfectionists Americans; the others are Germans; and these outnumber all the American communists. In fact, the Germans make better communists than any other people unless the Chinese should some day turn their atten tion to communistic attempts." The Shakers, the Rappists, the Zoarites, and the Eben-Ezers consider this life mainly as a preparation for the life to come. They attempt not primarily to beautify the worldly life and to enjoy it, but they renounce worldly pleasures and live in solemn anticipation of the life to come. The idea of the Socialists or other type of Communists of the thirties and forties was not to flee from the world but to reform it ; not to repress natural instincts but to make them count; not to throw aside the arts and sciences but to culti vate them. 4 Their idea was to arrange the world in such a manner that they might enjoy it; they wanted to draw heaven to earth. They intended to educate everybody and thus give each individual an opportunity to develop for the good of all. The attempt of the talented Norwegian violinist, Ole Bull (1810-1889), to establish a colony in the rugged wilds of Potter County, Pennsylvania, about 1850, is an interesting chapter in the history of Utopian social experiments in America. The colony called Oleona after its founder was at first open only to Norwegians. Later, it seems, others were admitted, but as early as the fall of 1853 the colony was already breaking up. Ole Bull, who had sunk practically all his property, had to return to the larger cities and give concerts to gain a livelihood. The members were obliged to sell their property to get food. Even the thoroughbred stock do nated by Cassius M. Clay had to be sold at a great sacrifice. 5 Attempts at Communism of the worldly type were made at Teutonia, McKean County, Pennsylvania, New Helvetia, Missouri, Germania, Wisconsin, and other places in Pennsylvania and neigh boring states ; the history of these latter attempts is rather obscure. 6 *Cf. Der Volks-Tr&un (New York), Sept. 26, 1846. 5 Cf. Republik der Arbeiter (New York), November 26, 1853; and the New York Tribune, May, 1853. "Gustav Korner, Das deutsche Element in den Vereinigten Staaten von Nordamerika, 1818-1848. Cincinnati, 1880, p. 71 ff. See also Mitteilungen des Deutschen Pionier-Vereins von Philadelphia, 1907, VI, 7-12 (C. F. Huch). 12 Socialism in German American Literature Teutonia was the product of the mind of Henry Ginal (born in 1802), a gifted, free-thinking clergyman. In 1841 he founded in Philadelphia a socalled "Begliickungsverein" out of which grew the "Gewerbeverein," a mildly communistic association whose member ship soon numbered 300. Their capital stock in 1842 was $20,000, and part of this was spent to buy 30,000 acres of uncultivated land in McKean County, Pennsylvania, to found Teutonia. Heinrich Schweizer was president of the company, Joseph Ram secretary, and Johann Lago treasurer. Rapp s colony was largely followed as a model. In 1843 the membership of the society had risen to 400, but soon thereafter the colony failed, since there was no strong leader or abiding faith to hold them together. New Helvetia was the result of the dreams of Andreas Dietsch, a brush maker from Aarau, Switzerland. He planned a colony in America where he could carry out his scheme as portrayed in his book, D as tausendjarige Reich. June 2, 1844, a group under the leadership of Dietsch left Switzerland because it was difficult to gain a livelihood there, and went to Missouri. However, the location chosen for the new colony was very unfavorable, and in a short time nearly all the members that did not leave died of fever. Dietsch refused to leave the place to the last. 7 The other colony, Germania, about which much was written in the German American newspapers of the time, seems never to have materialized. The Volks-Tribun of October 10, 1846, reports that only eight persons were in the colony, and these were supported by their fellow-members in New York. These non-religious communist settlements schemes failed as did others. Their leaders were of an impractical turn of mind who did not consider the entirely new conditions of pioneer life, and then dissension arose invariably among the members. Moreover, as Loher remarks, 8 there seemed to be something in the American atmosphere which made each one independent and selfish imme diately. 7 Volks-Tribun, February 7 and 21, 1846. 8 Franz Loher, Geschichte und Zustdnde der Deutschen in Amerika. Cincinnati, 1847, p. 278. Historical Introduction 13 THE TRANSITION TO MODERN SOCIALISM. The most important forerunner of modern scientific Socialism who personally extended his agitation to America was Wilhelm Weitling. 9 He represented the Communism of the working-class which was since then renamed Socialism. 10 Weitling developed con siderable ability as an agitator and leader. He was born at Magdeburg in 1808, under rather adverse cir cumstances as an illegitimate child of the common folk. He learned the tailor s trade and from 1828 to 1835 travelled through various parts of Germany. In 1830 he was at Leipzig, to which city he had already sent some articles and satirical verse to be published in the Tageblatt, which, however, had printed but few of his contributions. Five years he was at Vienna, from which city he soon thereafter travelled to Paris, which was at that time the gathering place for German refugees, who had organized the Society of the Just (Bund der Gerechten) . Outside of a short visit to Germany Weitling spent the years 1836-41 chiefly in Paris, where he became imbued with the teachings of Fourier and Baboeuf. Between the July Revolution of 1830 and the March Revolu tion of 1848 many new social theories were propounded in France. Across the Rhine "Young Germany" had mustered its forces in the cause of political emancipation. The July Revolution was a failure in Germany, especially in regard to the freedom of the press. An exodus of educated leaders and laborers to Paris and Switzerland followed. In Paris the "Bund der Geachteten" was organized; in Switzerland, "das junge Deutschland." Cabet inspired with Owen- 9 Wilhelm Weitling, seine Agitation und Lehre im geschichtlichen Zusam- menhange^ dargestellt von Emil Kaler, Hottingen-Ziirich, 1887; Norddeutsche Blatter, Eine Monatsschrift fur Kritik, Literatur und Untcrhaltung. I. Band, Berlin, 1844 for a biographical sketch; Wilhelm Weitling und sein System (by N. N.) in Die Zukunjt, socialistische Revue, I. Jahrg. 1877-78, Berlin, pp. 583-594, 606-615; Republik der Arbeiter (New York), 1850-55, especially July 19, 1851, p. 108 ff. for an autobiographical sketch of Weitling; A neg lected Socialist, William Weitling, in Annuls of the American Academy, V. 5, pp. 718-739, by Fred C. Clark; Herman Schlueter, Die Anf dnge der deut- schen Arbeiterbewegung in Amerika, Stuttgart, 1907, pp. 49-128; Eight Autograph Letters of Weitling in the library of the University of Pennsyl vania. 10 The words "socialism" and "socialist" were not used before 1833; cf. International Socialist Review, VI, p. 45 ; for the difference between "social ism" and "communism" in 1847 see Engel s Preface to the Communist Mani festo, dated May i, 1890. 14 Socialism in German American Literature ism had returned from, his exile in England and wrote his Voyage en Icarie (1840). In the same year appeared Proudhon s Qu est- ce que cest que la propriete? which book practically converted Marx. The German laborers in Paris were reached by Doctors Ewerbeck, Schuster, and Maurer, all university-bred men and well acquainted with the philosophy of Kant, Fichte, and Hegel. These influences were brought to bear on Weitling who became the chief agitator of the Society of the Just. In this capacity he pub lished his first important work, Die Menschheit, iwe sie ist und wie sie sein sollte (1838). The book was secretly printed and dis tributed. At this time he also translated Lamennais Le livre du pcuple and wrote twelve songs for the people. In May, 1841, he established a branch of the Society of the Just at Geneva, where ap peared also his Hulferuf der deutschen Jugend, a monthly, which was soon forced by the authorities to move to Berne, and then to Vevey, where the name was changed to Die junge Generation. Of the 1,000 subscribers of this paper about 400 were in Paris and 100 in London. At Vevey in 1842 was published his chief work, Garantiefn der Harmonie und Freiheit, which states his principles in a clear and systematic manner. To publish it, four laborers gave all their savings, 200 francs each. In spite of the strict censorship this book passed through several editions in Germany. Das Evan- gelium der armen Sunder appeared in 1843 5 ^ endeavored to prove that Communism was completely in harmony with the Bible s teach ings. While in Zurich Weitling met two kinds of Communists ; among the educated were Julius Frobel and Moses Hess; among the anarchistic atheistic class were Michel Bakunin and Wilhelm Marr, The latter popularized Feuerbach s philosophy among the German laborers. At this time German Communism was atheistic while French Utopian Socialism was infused with the religious spirit of Lamennais. The Swiss authorities instituted an investigation and Weitling was subsequently imprisoned for his agitation. About the same time (1844) Karl Marx was expelled from Cologne for expressing his thoughts too freely in the Rheinische Zeitung, of which he had been chief editor since 1842. Among the Historical Introduction 15 contributors to this paper were Berthold Auerbach, Bruno Bauer, Julius Frobel, Friedrich List, Robert Prutz, Dingelstedt, Hoffmann von Fallersleben, Gutzkow, and Herwegh. Of these List and Frobel had been in the United States. Marx went to Paris where in con junction with Ruge he published the Deutsch-franzdsische Jahr- biicher (1844) of which only two numbers appeared. Weitling was released the same year and went to Hamburg, where Hoffmann and Campe published his Kerkerpoesien. In this publishing house, which was the rendezvous of many critics of so ciety, he met Heine, who gives an interesting and humorous account of this meeting in his Gestdndnisse. Heine says of the Communists in general : "Die mehr oder minder geheimen Fiihrer der deutschen Kommunisten sind grosse Logiker, von denen die starksten aus der Hegelschen Schule hervor gegangen, und sie sind ohne Zweifel die fahigsten Kopfe und die energievollsten Charaktere Deutschlands. Diese Doktoren der Revolution und ihre mitleidslos entschlossenen Jiinger sind die einzigen Manner in Deutschland, denen Leben inne- wohnt, und ihnen gehort die Zukunft." 11 Heine calls Weitling a man of considerable talent and originality. In August, 1844, Weitling went to London, where he spoke to the Communists of many lands urging them to unite. March 30, 1846, he met Marx and Hngels at a Communist meeting in Brussels. These men were driven out of Paris by the policy of Guizot. The Brussels meeting ended in complete disagreement, and a few months later Weitling received a call from a society in New York, of which Hermann Kriege was the leader, to come to that city to edit the Volks-Tribun, a weekly paper representing the interests of the worker. Towards the end of 1846 he arrived in New York just as the Volks-Tribun had discontinued publication. He was penniless but friends aided him and he published and sold a new edition of his Evangelism. When the Revolution of 1848 broke out the "Bef reiungs- bund," which was organized after the model of the Society of the Just, commissioned him to represent their cause in Germany. Dowiat, an exiled clergyman, who had been active in communistic circles in New York, accompanied him and they arrived in Paris at the end of the 11 G. Karpeles, Heines S dmtliche Werke (Hesse) VIII, 37, 40; cf. Elster edition, VI, 45 f. and 553. r 1 6 Socialism in German American Literature June riots. From there Weitling travelled via Frankfort and Heidel berg to Berlin, distributing broadsides and pamphlets as he went. After publishing a short-lived weekly, Der Urwahler, he was expelled from Berlin and subsequently from Hamburg. In the haste of his de parture two trunks containing books and papers were lost. Ger many at this time was not a congenial place for men with new theories of society. In January, 1850, the Central Laborers Union was organized at New York under Weitling s direction. One of its duties was to found and maintain a communistic colony, Communia, in Clayton County, Iowa. The Republik d er Arbeiter, with Weitling as editor, was established as the official organ of the society. At last Weitling had escaped the strict censor and now he had a paper in which he could publish his ideas and outline his plans. The paper was published first as a sixteen-page monthly, then as a weekly, and finally again as a monthly for about five years. The title suggests the goal towards which it aimed. The paper is surprisingly mild in tone and preaches no radical revolutionary measures. In the first number of January, 1850, Weitling has given a somewhat vague picture of his ideas concerning this new republic. The republic is to consist of nothing but laborers, craftsmen, farm ers, artists, and teachers. The laborers and teachers are to hold the elective offices of the government. Everybody must work for the common good, for "Alles, was unsere Dichter, Philosophen, unsere Schongeister und Aristokraten das Hochste nennen, Alles, was sie verehren, anpreisen und zu erreichen streben, ist nur das, was es ist und kann nur erreicht werden, durch ein Volk, das arbeitet, und wird um so eher erreicht, werden, wenn ein Volk sich so einrichtet, dass der Ertrag der Arbeit dem ganzen Volke, das arbeitet, zu Gute kommt und wenn es darum auch diese Einrichtungen durch Arbeiter- wahlen bestimmt und regelt, so dass Jedem der voile Verdienst seiner Fahigkeit und seines Fleisses wird. * * * Jetzt wird der Begriff Arbeiter leider theils verachtlich, theils einseitig aufgefasst. Arbeiter aber sind alle, ob sie nun als Prasidenten des Staats, als , Lehrer, Professoren oder Handwerker fungiren. Der Kapitalist aber ist als solcher kein Arbeiter." The paper had agencies in all the larger cities of the country and its circulation reached a few Historical Introduction 17 thousand. The German American newspapers, as a whole, praised Weitling s undertaking, which also advocated an exchange bank and a workingmen s congress. During 1850 Franz Arnold, a speaker and agitator of ability, spoke at meetings in Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Cin cinnati in the interests of the paper. The number of subscribers in creased but some misunderstanding arose and Arnold gave up the task. Many laborers lost interest in the movement as soon as they were comfortably located. Such articles as, for example, Proben moderner Gefiihlsbildung, Die Entwickelung der Gleicheitstheorien, Der Fortschritt der Menschheit, Die Antriebe sur- Vereinigung, Philosophie des Kommunismus, and Die deutsche Tagespresse in Amerika, which took up a good part of the space, doubtless, did not ordinarily appeal to the man accustomed to earn his daily bread by the sweat on his brow. Nevertheless, the paper enjoyed temporary prosperity. At its call the first national convention of German workingmen met in Philadelphia, October 22-28, 1850. Representatives were present from St. Louis, Louisville, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, New York, Buffalo, Williamsburg, Newark, Baltimore, and Cincinnati. They represented a total membership of about 4,500. The resolu tions passed related to the exchange bank, associations of laborers, the organization of a political party, education and instruction, propaganda, colonies, and the organization of the convention. 12 Some of the principles were rather impracticable, while others were somewhat ahead of the times. The congress voted a monthly edi tion of the Republik der Arbeiter of 4,800 copies. An interesting feature of this convention of labor unions was their intention to found colonies in various parts of the Union. The only attempt was made at Communia in Clayton County, Iowa, where some Swiss communists had settled in the late forties. By Decem ber, 1850, ten colonists were living at Communia. Weitling thought that such a colony would be a haven of refuge for the newly arrived immigrant and for all those who wished to escape the corrupt industrial society of the cities. All property was to be owned in 12 Republik der Arbeiter (1850), I, pp. 169-175. 2 1 8 Socialism in German American Literature common. New candidates were first put on probation for three months as regards conduct, good health, and ability to do a specified kind of work, and then after paying an entrance fee of ten dollars they might be admitted as members. After giving three months notice any member might withdraw and have all, the property he con tributed returned to him, one-third upon leaving, one-third in a year, and the rest within two years. By a two^ttyirds vote a member might be excluded for good reasons. A committee of three chosen by popular vote for one year were to administer the business of the society ; they must report every three months. The revised consti tution of the "Communia Association" states that the purpose of the colony was farming, trading, and manufacturing. All work was to be performed in common. 13 In October, 1851, the colony owned 1,240 acres of land, and the total value of their property was about $6,500. There were eighteen male members. The colonists lived comfortably and were supplied with an abundance of game: deer, quails, prairie chickens, wild pigeons, and ducks. From July I to December 31, 1852, there were, on the average, 40 persons in the colony who consumed provisions worth $486.81, i. e. a daily rate of six and two-thirds cents per per son. 14 In March, 1853, Heuberger, of New York, who had studied law in Germany, gave a report of the colony. He complained that the colony was not protected against the cold north wind and that the water was impure. There were two substantially built buildings, which were occupied by five Wurttembergers, four Prussians, three Badenese, one Nassovian, four Bavarians, one Hungarian, two Swiss, one Low German, and one Saxon a total of twenty-two men. Moreover, there were eight women and sixteen children not classified as to nationality by the reporter. The forty-six colonists represented various degrees of culture. Heuberger found life on the prairie very monotonous with too much work and too little diver sion ; his own work in the kitchen was very irksome. Weitling had great hopes for the success of his colony, but it 13 For the constitutions see Republik der Arbeiter for December, 1850, p. 182 ; and September 3, 1853, p. 282 ff. 14 Republik der Arbeiter, February 5, 1853. Historical Introduction 19 was rather a modest beginning for the nation-wide or even world wide republic of toilers which he thought could be inaugurated. He made at least four trips to Communia and the reports which were published in his paper give interesting pen pictures of the cities through which he passed. In November, 1853, thirty-six men, sixteen women, and eight een children were living in the colony. About the same time Weit- ling was elected "manager," but soon discord arose among the mem bers and in a short time the colony the humble beginning of the majestic republic of toilers was rapidly breaking up. The lack of systematic management, the sinking of money in buying a saw mill, and a dispute over the title to the land hastened its end. At the same time the Workingmen s League (Arbeiterbund) which at its greatest height numbered about 2,000 members, was fast declining and soon ceased to be of much consequence. Withdrawing from public life now, Weitling became a clerk in the Bureau of Immigration at Castle Garden. Aside from his daily duties he studied Astronomy and in a letter to his friend Schilling, July 22, 1869, he was still seeking a publisher for his Astronomy. In the subsequent labor movement he did not take part publicly. January 22, 1871, he was present at the "Verbruderungsfest" of the German, French, and English sections of the International in New York, and three days later he died. In his socialistic agitation Weitling sought the support of such men as Karl Heinzen and Gustave Struve, but they were too aristo cratic and individualistic to join hands with a "Handwerker." Feb ruary 5, 1848, Weitling, who was then at New Orleans, wrote to Heinzen at New York, asking for his support, but the latter an swered : "Kin Kommunist steht mir ebenso fern wie der Kaiser von Russland. Der Kommunismus ist in meinen Augen ebenso frei- heitsfeindlich, kulturwidrig, ja barbarisch wie der Despotismus der gekronten Unmenschen, deren Partei Sie aus Ordnungsliebe er- greifen." 15 Heinzen was accustomed to dub the communists "Schwefelbanditen" and the latter termed him a "Communisten- fresser." Heizen believed that the "true Republicanism," as he "Karl Heinzen, Erlebtes (II. Theil), Nach meiner Exilirung. Gesammelte Schriften, IV. Bd., Boston, 1874, p. 139. 2O Socialism in German American Literature delineated it, offered the solution for all political and social prob lems. 16 Weitling has characterized the situation thus : "J e der will ein Blattchen herausgeben, jeder will einen Verein lei ten, jeder eine Kasse griinden, jeder allein auf seine Faust fur irgend eine Phrase Volkslehrer sein. Da mischt der Bine Decentralisation mit Socia- lismus, der Andere Atheismus mit Vernunft, der Dritte turnt socia- listisch, der Vierte wirkt fur den entschiedenen Fortschritt. Der Eine will den Geist, der Andere die Menschheit, der Dritte die Volker, der Vierte die Arbeiter, der die Sanger, ein Anderer die Schneider, die Turner, die Fliichtlinge u. s. w. in Vereine bringen. Und hundert Andere wollen dies Alles auch, aber mit einer kleinen Veranderung." 17 Struve was accused of having spent his best years filling his head with the erratic teachings of science and phrenology. The first man to spread the doctrines of Weitling among the Germans of the United States was Hermann Kriege, who at the head of his society, "]ung Amerika," had invited the former to edit the Volks-Tribun. Kriege, who was the founder of this period ical, had landed at New York in 1845 as a young man of twenty- five, having been born in Westphalia. He was educated at Leipzig and Berlin, where he had come under the influence of Hegelian phil osophy. At the latter city he organized a socialist reading circle and also lectured to the soldiers and workingmen on Weitling s Garantien der Harmonie und Freiheit. One of his friends was the ill-fated Robert Blum. After a term of imprisonment he was forced to flee to Belgium, whence he went via London to New York, where he established the Volks-Tribun in January, 1846. In America he sought to elevate the political position of the Germans, condemned slavery, joined the Free Soil movement, and worked for the home stead laws. His Communism was declared compromising and not repre sentative of European Socialism in 1846, by Engels, Gigot, Heil- 18 For articles on Heinzen see Amerikanischer Turner-Kalender, 1881, p. 59 ff. (J. Lucas) ; 1882, p. 71 ff. (C. H. Boppe) ; and Heinzen-Gedenkbuch. Zur Hrinnerung an Karl Heinzen und an die Enthullungsfeier des Heinzen- denkmals am 12. Juni herausgegeben. Boston; Deut-Am. Geschichtsblatter, Chicago, 1915 (Schinnerer). 17 Republik der Arbeiter, 1850, p. 180 ff. Historical Introduction 21 berg, Marx, Seiler, von Westphalen, and Wolf, who were then in Brussels. Kriege considered them academic Socialists who were not interested in the practical application of their theories. 18 In 1848 Kriege returned to Germany and agitated Socialism, but after attending the workingmen s convention at Berlin he be came disillusioned and wrote to a friend: "Das Proletariat, fur das wir geschwarmt, lebt nicht." After his return to America the next year he became thoroughly disheartened with Communism and declared himself outright for "democracy." After going from place to place intending to follow a literary career, he finally succeeded Arno Voss as editor of the Illinois Staatszeitung, which now became a tri-weekly. His mind had for some time been on the verge of be coming unbalanced. He resigned his position and went to New York, where he died December 31, 1850. Kriege was too idealistic and temperamental to succeed in organizing the people for action. Another contemporary of Weitling, who spread socialistic and revolutionary ideas in New York, was Dr. Edmund Ignatz Koch. He distributed about a thousand copies of Blanqui s revolutionary writings. Other members of the Society of the Just who were parties in the celebrated Communist trial at Cologne in 1851, and who subsequently came to America, were Dr. Abraham Jacobi, a physician in New York, August Willich, who gained fame in the Civil War, Dr. Everbeck, and August Becker; however these men were not very active in making propaganda. Many of the political rights for which they fought in Germany were in practice in the United States and so their ardor cooled. Even before this time Heinrich Koch, the "Antipfaff," of St. Louis, was exercising all his powers to reform the church, state, and society. Koch was born at Baireuth in 1800, learned the watch maker s trade, and followed it until his radical ideas on politics landed him in prison. He was among those present at the cele brated Hambacher Fest, May 27, 1832. After his arrest and release he sailed for America, where he arrived at Baltimore the same year. Later at St. Louis he entered politics, advocating the Democratic cause, but having become imbued with the ideas of Fourier, Brisbane, Volks-Tribun, June 27, 1846. \L> 22 Socialism in German American Literature and R. D. Owen, he became a communist newspaper editor and founded first the Antipfaff, later called the Vorwaerts, and then a radical political paper, Die Reform. Thus, says Anton Eickhoff, 19 he fought on three fronts, using both prose and poetry as his wea pons ; besides he was a brilliant, popular orator. During the forties the labor movement spread over the whole United States, but was confined almost exclusively to German "Handwerker." In St. Louis the Germans were divided into two camps, the workingmen and the somewhat aristocratically inclined "Lateiner," however Koch was at first on a friendly footing with both and many of his poems appeared in the Anzeiger des Westens, the organ of the latter. Koch was the first to advocate Communism in St. Louis and as early as 1846 he founded a Communist Society which he as their captain led to the front when the Mexican War broke out. He helped equip the company at his own cost, even mort gaging his house in so doing. After the war he took up his trade again as watchmaker and editor, but soon abruptly changed his course, sold all his property, and with his family and a few faithful followers established a communist colony on the prairies of Iowa. In a very short time his project proved a dismal failure; it cured him of his radical notions and made him more tolerant towards the ideas of others. Now at the age of fifty he made a serious attempt to conform to social convention, and started to learn English more thoroughly. Since then he plied his trade at Dubuque, Iowa, and continued to write poems and articles for German American news papers. His death occurred in 1879. Koch s activities in St. Louis introduced Weitling s ideas. Meetings were held, societies were organized, and propaganda was made. Attempts were made to Americanize the movement, so that it might not be confined to the Germans. Calls were made upon the Eastern branches to print pamphlets and extracts from the Republik der Arbeiter in English. 20 On many days of 1849 from one hundred to five hundred Ger man immigrants arrived in St. Louis. 21 The floods, an epidemic " Der Deutsche Pionier, XII, pp. 211-215. 20 Republik der Arbeiter, 1850, p. 141. 91 Der Deutsche Pionier, V, p. loif. Historical Introduction 23 of cholera, and destructive fires caused much suffering among the immigrants. About 25,000 Germans were living in the city at this time, of these quite a number were political refugees. These ref ugees, as a rule, cherished grievances against the tyrannical author ities of Germany, but did not generally advocate Communism, never theless all found many things even in democratic America which needed reforming or had to be abolished. By i84j:he German laborers had some form of organization in all the larger cities, especially in New York, Philadelphia, Balti more, St. Louis, Cincinnati, and Louisville. These organizations were, in general, based on Weitling s theories. They met with con siderable opposition since they were foreign, and also the conserva tive German element decried the spread of Communism. It was also the period when the forty-eighters, who were not, as a rule, in clined to associate with the "Handwerker," were still arriving in large numbers. Friedrich Hassaurek, speaking of the second period of the po litical immigration of the forty-eighters, remarked : "Sowie vorher die Revolutions-Vereine, so bildeten sich jetzt eine Menge von poli- tischen, religiosen oder vielmehr anti-religiosen, socialistischen und kommunistischen Reform und Fortschritts-Vereinen, die eine ganz merkwiirdige Thatigkeit entwickelten. "Es kamen die Frei-Manner-Vereine und Freien Gemeinden, die es hauptsachlich auf religiose Aufklarungs-Propaganda abgesehen hatten, dabei aber auch andere Gegenstande in den Kreis ihrer Besprechungen zogen. "Es entstanden eine Menge socialistischer und kommunistischer Vereine und zahlreiche Arbeiter-Organisationen, die ihre Theorien sogleich praktisch in s Werk setzen wollten. Der Franzose Cabet griindete die Colonie Ikarien in Illinois, und der deutsche Schneider Weitling die Colonie Communia in Iowa, die natiirlich bald zu Grunde gingen." 22 M From an address delivered at Cincinnati, May 25, 1875, at the seventh anniversary of the founding of the German Pionier-Verein, in Der Deutsche Pionier, VII, pp. 112-125. 24 Socialism in German American Literature MODERN GERMAN SOCIALISM IN AMERICA. Probably the first of the forty-eighters to spread the doctrines of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels as expounded in the Com munist Manifesto (1848) was Joseph Weydemeyer ( 1818-1866 ), 23 a Prussian military officer, who consecrated himself to aid the laborer. Later he became a radical Communist and a newspaper editor. He was expelled from Germany for radical utterances in his paper, so he emigrated to America, landing at New York, November 7, 1851. Slavery, protective tariff, free soil, and the anti-rent troubles in New York were the political questions of the day. Weitling was thoroughly stirring up the German laborers of New York. In the spring of 1852 Weydemeyer published a monthly, Die Revolution, of which but two numbers appeared. In the second of these was published Marx Der achtzehnte Brumaire des Louis Bonaparte. 2 * For advocating these new things Weydemeyer was attacked in the German American newspapers by some of the older class of Com munists, but he in conjunction with Dr. Jacobi and A. Cluss pub lished a rejoinder in the New York Criminals eitung of November 7, 1853. Hermann Meyer, a German merchant, was also a faithful co-worker of Weydemeyer, who gathered about himself a "Pro- letarierbund" and who took part in founding an "Amerikanischer Arbeiterbund" in Mechanics Hall, New York, March 20, 1853. The movement was supported by a few faithful followers in Boston, in Newark, and those in New York. Weitling did not agree with these exponents of Marxism, and Weydemeyer called the former s paper an antique sheet, of interest only to research students and antiquarians. The movement never attained large pro portions, and in 1856 Weydemeyer went to Milwaukee, where he became a surveyor and journalist. 25 23 Joseph Weydemeyer und sein Anteil an der deutschen Bewegung der 40er Jahre und an der amerikanischen Bewegung der $oer Jahre, in Pionier (New York Volks-Z eitung Kalender} 1897, P- 54 ff- by F. A. Sorge. 24 Weydemeyer was a personal friend of Karl Marx. 25 During the winter of 1859-60 Weydemeyer and a certain Left published a Chicago paper for a short time, after that the former contributed to the Illinois Staatszeitung. The latter year he returned to New York and di rected the surveying of Central Park. In the spring of 1861 he superintended the construction of ten forts around St. Louis under Fremont. After serving throughout the war he became a contributor to the St. Louis Westliche Post. Later he and Hilgard published a weekly, Die Neue Zeit. In 1865 he became auditor of St. Louis. He died August 20, 1866. Historical Introduction 25 Some of the refugees of the Revolution of 1848 founded the Communist Club in New York, which held its first meeting October 25, 1857. Its purpose was to exercise absolute free thought in reli gious matters and to disseminate socialistic doctrines. They recog nized no creed, no privileged class, no distinction of color, and broke with tradition generally. The members were not laborers but edu cated liberals influenced by Marx. It corresponded with Marx in London, Weydemeyer in Milwaukee, J. P. Becker in Geneva, the juornalist, Otto Reventlow, in Cincinnati, and with the Icarians through the musician Albrecht in Philadelphia. 26 The club attracted some attention when in 1858 it held a celebration attended by sev eral thousand people of various nationalities in memory of the June riots of 1848 in Paris. One prominent man who took part in found ing the club was F. A. Sorge 27 (1828-1906), a fugitive of the Badenese Revolution, who arrived in the United States in 1852. Be fore this in Geneva he had come in contact with Moses Hess, Wil- helm Liebknecht, Dronke, J. P. Becker, Fritz Kamm, Fritz Jacoby, and others. From his father, who was a clergyman, he inherited rationalistic tendencies, and he remained primarily a Freethinker even for a time after joining the Communist Club. Later he became the most active representative of Marxian Socialism in America. From 1869-1876 he was the chief leader of the German American laborers. After meeting Marx and Engels at The Hague in 1872 he was more enthusiastic than ever in spreading the doctrines of scien tific Socialism. From 1861 to 1867 the Communist Club held no meetings, for the Civil War had absorbed all their attention. A large number died to save the Union. The club was reorganized March 8, 1867, when Conrad Carl moved that it unite with the German general labor union (allgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiter Verein), which motion was carried several months later. This led to the founding of the Social ist Party for New York and vicinity toward the close of 1867, under the leadership of C. Carl, C. Eilenberg, A. Kamp, F. Krahlinger, and 29 Cf. Pionier Kalender (N. Y. Volks-Zeitung), 1906, pp. 55-68, (Her mann Schlueter). "Die Neue Zeit (Stuttgart), XXV, pp. 145-147; Pionier Kalender, 1908 (Schlueter). 26 Socialism in German American Literature E. A. Petersen. This party consisted chiefly of Germans; it was only short-lived and did not succeed politically ; 28 nevertheless it has the distinction of being the first political party in America with modern socialistic views. Not only the educated class, but also German "Handwerker," brought in the ideas of Marx and Lassalle after the Civil War. In 1865 a small labor society of fourteen members was organized on the principles of Lassalle. They discussed such works as Lassalle s speeches and the Communist Manifesto, and also celebrated all sorts of commemoration days in order of prominent leaders as Blum and Lassalle. In Chicago, during 1865, some followers of Lassalle joined a labor society which dated from the fifties. This society was represented at the convention of radical Germans at Cleveland in 1863. Some devoted followers of Marx established the "Deutscher Bildungsverein" at New York, which resulted in the first real asso ciation of American and European laborers in April, 1866, when it joined the I. A. A. (Internationale Arbeiter- Association ). These were some of the earlier attempts to organize the Germans with socialistic ideas in America. Since the sixties definite endeavors were made to crystallize the socialistic sentiment in America, which effort later resulted in the formation of a political party. At first this movement stood largely under the influence of the I. A. A. organized by Karl Marx at Lon don in 1864. London at that time was the gathering place of the refugee Communists of many lands. Two other noted exiles there were Engels and Mazzini. The I. A. A. extended its influence to America when in 1867, at New York, a German branch was organ ized under the leadership of F. A. Sorge. This section planned to organize similar branches in all the cities of the Union. Reiter and Cohnheim, two forty-eighters, were instrumental in organizing a branch at San Francisco as early as 1868. The number of sections grew to thirty or more after 1871, and these were originally com posed chiefly of Germans. The chief centers were New York, San Francisco, Chicago, New Orleans, and Newark. The most zealous and influential man in the movement was F. A. Sorge, the friend and co-worker of Marx and Engels. Waltershausen, Der Moderne Sozialistrms, p. 38 ff. Historical Introduction 27 In the meanwhile the Americans had organized the N. L. U. (National Labor Union). At its first convention at Baltimore in 1866 E. Schlegel, a Lassallian and representative of the German Workingmen s Association of Chicago, acquainted the English- speaking contingent with German Socialism. The union from now on became gradually permeated with Socialism. At the third con vention held at New York in 1868 the Labor Reform Party, under the guidance of W. H. Sylvis, was organized. Socialism was taking root in American soil, and the N. L. U. and the I. A. A. were grad ually approaching each other in their principles. At the fifth con vention held at Cincinnati in 1870 the N. L. U. declared in favor of the I. A. A. and expected to join it soon. F. A. Sorge was instru mental in bringing about the union, but already in 1870 the N. L. U. practically dissolved into a political and a trade union faction. With this ended the first or diplomatic phase of the I. A. A. in America. 29 When the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 broke out the German American sympathizers of the I. A. A. in New York, Chicago, and St. Louis protested vigorously against the bloodshed, but the spirit of nationalism prevailed. Among those protesting were the news paper, the Arbeit er-Union, "der Allgemeine deutsche Arbeiter- verein," the "Bund der Freidenker" of New York, and the German Socialists of Chicago. During the year the cause of Socialism was at a low ebb. There were but a few hundred Socialists in New York City. But the next year the I. A. A. increased from six to twenty-four sections and the number of members reached the maximum of about 5,000, most of whom were Germans. A few of the members were educated Amer icans whose socialistic ideas harked back to the Fourierism of the forties. January 27, 1871, the various sections of New York held a "Verbruderungsfest" at which Weitling made his last public ap pearance. July 6, 1872, the first convention of the I. A. A. in America was held ; twenty-two sections were represented. The newly elected "federated council" was composed of three Germans, two French men, two Irishmen, one Swede, and one Italian, with no native M John R. Commons in Archiv fur die Geschichte des Sozialismus und der Arbeiterbewegung, etc., Leipzig, 1911-1914. 28 Socialism in German American Literature American on the list. During this year the general headquarters of the I. A. A. were transferred to New York, and F. A. Sorge became general secretary. Sorge resigned in August, 1874, when the old I. A. A. practically ended as the result of dissension. In the summer of 1874 one faction organized the Social Demo cratic Labor Party of North America, whose platform was a com promise between the realistic views of the American laborers and the idealistic views of the German agitators. The union of the German Social Democrats at Gotha in 1875 made the American factions de- sirous to unite, and at their first annual convention at Philadelphia it was decided to pacify the quarreling members and bring about harmony. The next year, 1876, the various factions united at Phila delphia to found the Workingmen s Party of the United States. The delegates were Sorge from Hoboken, Weydemeyer from Pittsburgh, Conzett from Chicago, Braun from Philadelphia, Strasser from New York, Gabriel from Newark, and McGuire from New Haven. 30 They represented about 3,000 members of different organizations. At the second convention of the party, December 25-31, 1877, at Newark, New Jersey, the name Socialist Labor Party of North America was adopted. The party remained essentially in the hands of Germans and never won a large following, although it made earnest efforts to gain adherents among English-speaking workers. A large faction objected to a fusion with the trade unions, fearing that thereby they would have to sacrifice some of their socialistic principles. By 1899 the party had only 4,500-5,000 paying members, of whom one-fourth lived in New York. 31 i/ Socialism received a new impetus through the hard times of 1877-78, and the strikes that accompanied them. It was estimated that 2,000,000 people were out of work in the United States; of these 50,000 were in New York City alone. This state of affairs furnished a fertile soil for propaganda, and violence often resulted in the industrial districts. The public generally associated this lawless ness with political Socialism; it failed to distinguish clearly be tween the violence of the Paris Commune and Marx criticism of 30 Waltershausen, Der Moderne Sozialismus, p. 107 ff. 31 Die Neue Zeit, XVIII, i: 111-118 (Dietzgen). Historical Introduction 29 capital. Socialism made gains in Chicago, St. Louis, Milwaukee, Louisville, New York, Philadelphia, and San Francisco. Since the suppression of the Paris Commune in 1871 and espe cially since the passage of the anti-Socialist laws of 1878, following the attempted assassination of Emperor William the First, a large number of German Socialists came to America. 32 Most of them were laborers and craftsmen; some were journalists; and a few had been members of the Reichstag. Some of the moving spirits coming over at that time were F. Leib, Paul Grottkau, Gustav Lyser, and Heinrich von Ende, who were all active in making propaganda. The year 1879 showed a marked increase in the number of German immigrants. An interesting publication relating to the effects of the anti- Socialist law of 1878 is Nach Zehn Jahren, Material und Glossen zur Geschichte des Sozialistengesetzes. I. Historisches, 1889. //. Die Opfer des Sozialistengesetzes, 1890. London. The facts were obtained through a questionnaire sent out by a committee of the fugitives in New York. It contains among other things a list of names of persons driven from Germany, and a list of books, period icals, and other printed matter excluded from Germany during the years i878-88. 33 Serious attempts were made to crystallize and Americanize this exotic socialistic thought. So well did they succeed that an article appeared in the North American Review in 1879, which proposed to show "how far this element of German Socialism has already fixed its fangs in the most susceptible portion of our people, and threatens, with a larger increase of representatives and loquacious agitators, to diffuse its poison into all classes sufficiently indigent and sufficiently ignorant to join the great caravan of the discon tented." 35 The author proceeds to show how well organized the movement was and how threatening it loomed up. "No one could 32 Cf. Eduard Bernstein, Die Geschichte der Berliner Arbeiter Bewegung. 3 Bde., Berlin, 1907. See II : 338 ff. for a reprint of the "Ausnahmegesetz" ; cf. also Joseephy. 33 Cf. also Zwolf Jahre Sozialistengesetzes. Hin Beitrag zur Geschichte des Sozialistengesetzes und der sozialdemokratischen Bewegung in Deutsch- land. Berlin, 1890. "Vol. 128, pp. 371-387 and 481-492. 35 Ibid., p. 375. 30 Socialism in German American Literature have been more surprised at the discovery of so perfect an organiza tion, the fanatic earnestness of its followers, and the strength of its numbers." 36 The writer accuses Bismarck of secretly encourag ing the emigration of Socialists to America and of paying their ex penses in addition. He concludes (page 492) : "The powerful and growing organization which now honeycombs the country must be laid low before we have forgotten the smouldering fires of Pitts burgh and the insurrection which extended through fourteen states of the Union." 37 The writer exaggerated the situation, but there is little doubt that the Socialists did carry on a vigorous propaganda. Adolf Douai in the Jahrbuch fur Soziale Wissenschaft (1879) reported that the whole press of the country which two years ago took no note of Socialism was then filled with articles decrying the spread of it. To the press and the general public Socialism meant robbery, arson, and other disturbances. Native Americans stood aghast and so few joined the movement that Lawrence Gronlund is reported to have said that in 1880 he could count all the native American So cialists on the fingers of one hand. In 1 88 1 the German Social Democrats sent Louis Viereck and F. W. Fritzsche, two Socialist deputies in the Reichstag, to America to acquaint the German Americans with the plight of their party under the severe anti-Socialist laws. They arrived at New York in February and were welcomed by large numbers at mass meetings in New York, Newark, Philadelphia, Milwaukee, Chicago, and other cities. Several thousand dollars were collected for their cause. This lecture tour aroused interest anew in Socialism but the interest soon subsided. Soon after his return to Germany Fritzsche again re turned, this time with J. Vahlteich, another Socialist deputy, and the former retired to private life in Philadelphia. The Socialist press accused him of being a slacker and even a turncoat. During the eighties anarchism and revolutionary socialism threatened to disrupt the Socialist Labor Party ; the former predom inated in New York and the latter in Chicago. Until the fall of 38 Ibid., p. 387. 87 Cf. William Haller, Reply to an Article in the North American Review for April and May, 1879. Cincinnati, 1879. Historical Introduction 31 1882 the Socialists under Paul Grottkau maintained the leadership. Then John Most, who had just served a sixteen months sentence at hard labor in London for an article in his Freiheit congratulating the Nihilists upon the assassination of Alexander the Second, came to America. Most had early imbibed socialistic doctrines and be come a most ardent and fearless defender of them, so much so, that he was thrown into prison successively in Austria, Saxony, Prussia, and England. He now started on a lecture tour of the United States, throwing out his fire-brands. As a result of his agitation from 1882-83 over a score of revolutionary clubs sprang up and flourished. A convention of anarchists and revolutionary Socialists from twenty-six states met at Pittsburgh in October, 1883, to dis cuss ways and means of agitation. Most of the representatives were laborers of German extraction. Spies and Most, of New York, were the most prominent speakers. The International Working Peo ple s Association was organized and various radical doctrines were promulgated. John Most as a journeyman bookbinder had early become ac quainted with Socialism and he carried on a vigorous campaign in its behalf in Austria, and Germany. In the meantime, under the influence of Reinsdorf and Dave, he became a practical anarchist. Upon his arrival at New York, December 18, 1882, he delivered a lecture in Cooper Institute, preaching the coming revolution. On his subsequent lecture tours he received considerable notice from the American press which, however, almost invariably subjected him to scathing ridicule. At Cleveland a German sent him a rope with the legend : "Ferschtekiller Johann, was willst Du im freisten der Lander ? Nimm Dynamit oder hang selbst urn den Hals Dir den Strick." For a few years Most preached his radical doctrines to his heart s content, but finally he also came into conflict with the American au thorities. After the execution of the Chicago Anarchists his agitation had almost spent its force. The ardor of the indefatigable Most was cooling, for in Zwischen Gal gen und Zuchthaus he confesses : "In Amerika gleichen wir den Rufern in der Wiiste deren Stimme ungehort verhallt. Der Socialismus hier ist deutsch and der Anar- chismus ein Veilchen, das im Verborgenen bluht," and continuing 32 Socialism in German American Literature further on, "Weshalb ich all dies sage? Weil ich es uberdriissig bin, mich selbst und andere in Illusionen zu wiegen." 38 Anarchism had made serious breaks in the Socialist ranks who were at that time none too well united. The radical element increased and native Americans condemned Anarchists and Socialists alike, but the labor unions were gradually adopting socialistic principles. Efforts were made to unite the different factions before the advent of the Baltimore convention, December 26-28, 1883, but only the delegates of the Socialist Labor Party appeared, and they denounced Most and his party. At the Cincinnati convention two years later the party reiterated the right of citizens to bear arms, but they did not advocate the propaganda of the deed. On account of the Hay- market tragedy of 1886 Anarchism was finally discredited and the summary and sweeping punishment that followed gave it a setback from which it has not been able to recover. It lingered on for a time, but even the few faithful ones quarreled among themselves and were unsparing in denouncing each other. In the fall of 1886 Socialism received a new stimulus through the arrival of Dr. Aveling and his wife Eleonore Marx-Aveling, the daughter of Karl Marx. They lectured at various places under the auspices of the Socialist Labor Party, and sowed the seeds of the doctrine among the English-speaking laborers. They published their book, The Labor Movement in America, at London in 1888. About the same time Wilhelm Liebknecht spoke to the German American workmen on the merits of Socialism. He was severely attacked by the Freiheit of New York, but its influence was waning. He pub lished Hin Blick in die neue Welt at Stuttgart in 1887. As a political party the Socialists were not united; one faction was opposed to the participation in politics while the other advocated alliance with the labor unions to increase their voting strength. This disagreement between the factions continued and the member ship of the party dwindled. In the meanwhile organized labor had gained enormously and socialistic principles gradually crept into their platforms. Many of the former were recent immigrants who 38 For Most see Waltershausen, Chap. VIII; Acht Jahre hinter Schloss und Riegel. Skizzen aus dem Leben John Mosts von Anonymous Veritas, New York, 1886; John Most, Memoiren, Erlebtes, Hrforschtes und Erdachtes, New York, 1903-05; and other writings of Most Historical Introduction 33 were not very familiar with the conditions. As late as 1894 it was still difficult for the Socialist Labor convention to transact its busi ness in English, since most of the delegates were Germans and did not speak English very fluently. 39 Prominent leaders as Victor L. Berger saw the need of Americanizing the movement. He did much to reconcile the various factions and to make them effective at the polls. Berger, who is of German parentage, was born in Austria in 1860, and has the distinction of being the first Socialist to be elected to the Congress of the United States. July 29, 1901, a convention of Socialist delegates representing thirty states and territories, the largest convention to date, met at Indianapolis to bring about har mony. Here all except the more irreconcilable faction of the So cialist Labor Party united in the Socialist Party. This party has grown rapidly since then, while the Socialist Labor Party has grad ually lost political prestige. Hillquit states that according to a re cent census seventy-one per cent, of the members of the Socialist Party are native citizens of the United States. 40 18 St. Louis Arbeiter Zeitung, August 10, 1901. 40 Morris Hillquit, Socialism Summed Up, New York, 1912, p. 107. CHAPTER II. SOCIALISM AND THE: GERMAN AMERICAN PRESS. With the coming of the political refugees of the third and fourth decades of the nineteenth century German American jour nalism received a new stimulus and attained a higher grade of ex cellence. The press now became the vehicle for the thoughts and sentiments of these impetuous and energetic fugitives who were bubbling over with rage at the arbitrary censorship placed on Ger man journalism. Almost all the German American papers of this period, excepting religious publications, became more or less revolu tionary and progressive and tinged with communistic and socialistic ideas. The press was the literary life of these off-shoots of Young Germany. The political tendency of many newspapers established during the thirties is indicated by their titles as, for instance, the Freiheits- freund, established at Chambersburg in 1834, and edited by Victor Scriba ; since 1836 it was published at Pittsburgh. The Weltbilrger was founded at Cincinnati in 1834, and another with the same title at Buffalo three years later. Among the best known editors is Lud- wig A. Wollenweber, whose maternal grandfather had fought against the British at Yorktown. Wollenweber associated with the extreme Liberals in Germany, among them being Wirth, Sieben- pfeiffer, Rotteck, Welker, Harro Harring, Fein, Baer, Schiller, and Savoy. However, before he could have the pleasure of attending the "Hambacher Fest" 41 in May, 1832, he was compelled to flee to America, for having transgressed the edict of the German censor. He came by way of New York to Philadelphia, where he contributed to Wesselhoeft s Alte und Neue Welt, and later on August 28, 1837, he established Der Freisinnige, the second attempt at a German American daily. Some of the other men connected with this short lived paper were Wilhelm Beschke, Stephan Molitor, and Major von 41 See Memoirs of Gustave Koerner, 1809-1896, (Cedar Rapids, Iowa, 1909), I, pp. 187-195, for an account of it. [34] - -</ Socialism and the German American Press 35 Fehrenthal. The next year Wollenweber became editor of the newly established Philadelphia Demokrat. 42 Buffalo, likewise, had a Demokrat, and St. Louis a Tribune in 1838. The Democrats of Cincinnati began to publish the Volksblatt in 1836, and elected Heinrich Rodter, an acquaintance of Dr. Wirth and Siebenpfeiffer all of whom took a prominent part in the Ham- bacher Fest to the editorship. The New York Herold established in February, 1836, was edited by Zerlaut, an exile from Baden, who stood for radical views in politics. Forsch, a rationalistic preacher, founded the Vernunftglaubiger in 1838, and Samuel Ludvigh began publishing his Wahrheitssucher the next year; both appeared in New York. Most of the names of the newspapers established dur ing the two decades beginning about 1832 had their counterpart among the German papers of the time. 43 In general, the editors re flected views rooted in European conditions of the time. In the majority of papers of this period the liberal tendency ii politics and religion is dominant. Heinrich Koch began publishing his Antipfaff at St. Louis, April 18, 1842, which since May 10, 1845, was called the Vorivdrts. It discontinued publication the next year, but January 2, 1847, Koch came out with Der Reformer, a radical progressive weekly, the organ of the Communist Club. However on account of Koch s antagonism towards old well established institu tions and his domineering attitude towards the society, the paper soon had to discontinue publication and the society lost members. 44 Another early St. Louis periodical exhibiting radical tendencies in social and religious matters was Der Freisinnige f a weekly, first ap pearing November 24, 1846; its publisher was L. F. Volland, and its editor G. Scho. It was but short-lived. Among the active Com munists in St. Louis at this time were August Marie, Joseph Heise, and Dayler ; of these the two former contributed to Kriege s Volks- Tribun. In 1849 two talented journalists, Karl L. Bernays and Heinrich 42 For Wollenweber see Mitteilungen dcs Dcutschen Pionier-Vereins von Philadelphia, Hefte: XIII, 1-32; XIV, 1-28; XV, 1-28, containing autobio graphical material with comment by C. F. Huch. 43 Cf . Ludwig Salomon, Geschichte des Deutschen Zeitungswesens. 3 Bde. Oldenburg and Leipzig, 1906. "Der Deutsche Pionier, IV, p. 4 (1872). 36 Socialism in German American Literature Bornstein, who had been associated with noted Communists on the staff of the Vorwarts at Paris, arrived at St. Louis. Bernays was editor of the Mannheimer Abendzeitung in 1840, but his articles were too radical for the authorities and he fled to Paris where Bornstein, the founder and editor of the Vorwarts (1845), met him. Bernays became the responsible editor of the Vorwarts** Of this newspaper venture Bornstein later wrote: "Bald trat Bernays mit mir in die Redaktion des Vorwarts, seine Freunde Arnold Ruge, Karl Marx, Engels, Weber, Burgers, Bakunin folgten seinem Beispiele und es bildete sich durch ihre und die thatige Mitwirkung von Heine und Herwegh ein Kreis von Mitarbeitern am Vorwarts heraus, wie ihn damals gewiss kein zweites Blatt aufzuweisen hatte." 46 Subsequently Bornstein was editor of the Anzeiger des West ens for many years, however his radical views were tempered in the New World. He was connected with the German theater at St. Louis, and translated and adapted many plays. He wrote a novel, Die Geheimnisse von Saint Louis, in 1851, and his memoirs appeared in 1881. In 1865 he returned to Europe where he wrote articles for American papers. His death occurred at Vienna in I8Q2. 47 The first socialistic German newspaper of New York was Vic tor Wilhelm Frohlich s Die Zeit, a weekly, dating from 1844. . The New York Schnellpost, established in 1843, by Wilhelm Eichthal, published much correspondence from Europe which propagated Communism. 48 The V olks-Tribun, Organ derdeutschen Socialre- form- Association, edited by Hermann Kriege and published from January 5 to December 31, 1846, was the first German labor paper in New York. It was called a continuation of Baboeuf s Tribun du 45 Ibid., V, p. 182. An article by Fr. Schnake. "Bornstein in Der Westen (Sunday edition of the Illinois Staatszeitung) , August 3, 1879. Reprinted in Der Deutsche Pionier, XI, p. 458 ff. " Briimmer, Dichterlexikon. 48 After Eichthal s death in February, 1848, Karl Heinzen became editor. Now the paper became unpopular and lost subscribers. It finally suspended publication September i, 1851 ; the New York Deutsche Zeitung followed as a continuation of it, which paper in turn stopped publication in a few months. Heinzen also published a "Probenummer" of the weekly Volkerbiind, and then the Janus in the early part of 1852. In the latter part of 1853 he edited the Herold des Westens, of Louisville, and with 1854 began his famous Pionier (Louisville, Cincinnati, New York, Boston 1854 to 1879). Heinzen opposed Communism, slavery, and priestcraft, and championed woman s rights, republicanism, and radical free thought. Socialism and the German American Press 37 peuple by Kriege. On the title page was a warning vignette of the Neapolitan Masaniello, "der grosse Fischer, der fiir Eine zertretene Unschuld ein ganzes Reich in Flammen setzte," and beside it the motto: Halt! Die Arbeit hoch! Nieder mit dem Kapital! March 7, 1846, the sub-title was changed to Organ des Jungen Amerika.** After July fourth the vignette and motto no longer appeared. As to the policy of the paper Kriege says : "Also Tribun des Volkes soil unser Blatt sein, d. h. der Armen, der Gequalten, der Zertretenen, die reichen Unterdriicker werden keinen sonderlichen Geschmack daran finden. Ebensowenig die Pfaffen; die Advokaten, die ^mterjager aller Art, fiir sie enthalt es keinen Buchstaben, sie brauchen s gar nicht anzusehen. "Dem Kapitalisten mag es gleich das Motto sagen, wie wir s mit ihm meinen. * * * "Annoncen fiir Geld finden in unserm Blatte keinen Platz, es ist nicht auf den Geldverdienst berechnet." 50 A notice in its columns indicated its attitude towards labor and capital : "Einzelne Blatter werden an Arbeiter zu vier cents ausge- geben. Kapitalisten miissen den ganzen Jahrgang pranumerieren." The Tribun was an ardent exponent of the Free Soil movement. It opposed colonization schemes and advocated political action of the laborers. The Free Soil movement was also supported by the New Yorker Staatszeitung, Buffalo Telegraph, Philadelphia Demokrat, Hochwdchter of Cincinnati, Chicago Volksfreund, and the Wiscon sin Banner. The Communists of Philadelphia were, likewise, organizing and spreading their principles in the forties. Some of the more promi nent ones who had formerly been associated with the Society of the Just in Europe were Benzon, Kroner, Porter, Ruelius, Bauer, Mundt, and George Dietz, editor of the Adoptivbiirger, a labor paper, pub lished in that city. Before this time Dietz had published the Pitts- burger Beobachter. The Adoptivbiirger was practically discontinued in January, 1846, although a few numbers appeared later. Frederick W. Thomas 51 (1808-1877), who came to America in 1837, founded the Freie Presse of Philadelphia, May 27, 1848. "For the principles of Jung Amerika see Volks-Tribun, January 31, 1846. 50 Volks-Tribun, January 5, 1846. 81 For short biography see Mitteilungen des Deutschen Pionier-Vereins von Philadelphia, 1907, V, 21 ff. 38 Socialism in German American Literature Weitling in March, 1850, called its editor, Wm. Rosenthal, a faith ful co-worker. It was originally a labor paper, but since 1856 it became a Republican organ. 52 The Beobachter am Ohio (Louisville) established March 16, 1844, by Heinrich Beutel, endorsed the pur poses of Weitling s Republik der Arbeiter upon its appearance in 1850. The Cincinnati Hochwdchter dating from about 1845 an ^ published by Johann G. Walker, disseminated liberal ideas in politics and religion. It stopped publication in 1851, but was revived by Friedrich Hassaureck. Dr. Samuel Ludvigh (1801-1869), a native of Styria, wrote a book against Metternich in 1833, and consequently had to start on his travels. Four years later he arrived at Philadelphia, where he edited the Alte und Neue Welt a few months. In 1839 he was publishing the W ahreitssucher at New York, but in the next year he established the Wahrheitsverbreiter at Baltimore. Here also arose his Fackel, a progressive quarterly, which was published suc cessively at Baltimore, Boston, New Orleans, St. Louis, Charles ton, St. Paul, and since 1865, at Cincinnati, where it expired with Ludvigh four years later. Ludvigh seems not to have associated much with the Communists, but was chiefly concerned in spreading his rationalistic views. The German American newspapers of the forties were, for the most part, edited by political refugees from Europe, which was not a congenial place for journalists with liberal views at that time. In America they found almost unlimited freedom of the press of which opportunity they took due advantage. Accordingly the language used in the papers was frequently rather strong and certainly not elegant. One journalist who had high ideals respecting the press in a nation was George F. Seidensticker, who, upon becoming the editor of the Philadelphia Demokrat in the fall of 1846, addressed his readers in the following fashion : "Es verkennt jetzt wohl kein Mensch mehr, dass die Zeitungs- presse in alien civilisirten Landern, vorzuglich aber in den Vereinig- ten Staaten, worin wir das Gliick haben zu leben, einen solchen Ein- fluss besitzt, dass man sie fuglich eine Macht nennen kann. Aber sie ist nur dann eine Macht, wenn sie in der That dem lautern Geiste * 2 Der Deutsche Pionier, IX, p. 282 f. Socialism and the German American Press 39 und Willen des Volkes Worte verleihet, wenn sie der getreue Aus- druck der offentlichen Meinung, der Herold der Volkssouveranitat ist. Hieraus ergiebt sich von selbst die hohe Pflicht und Verant- wortlichkeit der Zeitungsschreiber. Sind diese sich ihrer Stellung irgend bewusst, so miissen sie erkennen, das zunachst eine anstan- dige wurdevolle Sprache ihre erste, unerlassliche Pflicht ist. Wenn Konige sich Majestaten, Hoheiten u. s. w. nennen, so hat ein grosses Volk, wie das der Vereinigten Staaten, noch mehr recht dazu ; denn dieses hat seine Macht und Hoheit in und durch sich selbst, wahrend Jene die ihrige nur vom Volke entlehnen. Was ist ein Konig ohne Volk?! Wenn also Zeitungen, welche im In- und Auslande gewis- sermassen den Geist und Willen des Volkes reprasentiren sollen, in ihrer Sprache Anstand und Wiirde bei Seite setzen, so beleidigen sie offenbar die Volkshoheit und konnen nimmermehr als Ausdruck der offentlichen Meinung betrachtet werden." 53 Seidensticker also solicited contributions for his paper from Europe. He corresponded with Freiligrath, who was then in Lon don, and who promised to become a contributor. Freiligrath tried to interest Karl Biichner, Hoffman von Fallersleben, and Karl Hein- zen. Before many contributions arrived, however, Seidensticker severed his connection with the Demokrat and began to issue Der Biirgerfreund, which appeared every Saturday from May I, 1847, to March 18, 1848, and, moreover, contained some correspondence from London and Germany. 54 During the decade preceding the Civil War a considerable number of German American periodicals of a socialistic leaning sprang up. 55 In 1850 the Freie Heimath, edited by August Glaser, who was also contributing to Weitling s newspaper, began publica tion at Philadelphia. March 30, 1850, the Volksuertreter, a daily, was established by Glaser, N. Schmitt, and J. M. Reichart, also at Philadelphia. Both these papers did not exist long. In January of this year Weitling began to put out his Republik der Arbeit er, which existed till July, 1855. It came out first as a sixteen-page monthly; April 1 8, 1851, it changed to a weekly, and it ended again as a monthly in 1855. On the title page is represented a balance on one tray of which are the words Pflichten und Arbeiten, on the other 58 Volks-Tribun, November 14, 1846. (Quoted.) M German American Annals I, I, p. 75 ff. ; for a list of papers existing in 1848 see Philadelphier Demokrat, June 21, 1848. 58 Cf. Der Deutsche Pionier, V, 334 f. 40 Socialism in German American Literature Rechte und Geniisse. April 18, 1851, the sub-title Centralblatt der Propaganda fur die Verbruderung der Arbeiter is added. In December, 1850, Weitling expressed himself as being well satisfied with the attitude taken by the German American editors, generally, towards his undertaking. In Germany he says, where the press was edited with a certain "Gelehrtendiinkel," perhaps only three of the score of dailies would have supported his theories, but here the New Yorker Demokrat, the Philadelphia Freie Presse, and the Ohio Beobachter endorsed them unreservedly, while the follow ing were favorable : New Yorker Staatszeitung, under the editor ship of W. Dietz, later publisher of the Virginia Staatszeitung, the Cincinnati Arbeiterzeitung, later the Union, the Pittsburgh Courier, the New Orleans Republikaner, the Fackel, the Illinois Staatszei tung, the Baltimore Correspondent, the New York Tribune, the Milwaukee Volksfreund, the Michigan Tribune, the Baltimore He- rold, the Buffalo Demokrat, the St. Louis Anzeiger des Westens, the St. Louis Tribune, the Philadelphia Demokrat, the New York Schnellpost, and the Cincinnati Volksblatt. The movement was op posed by the Zuschauer, a Whig paper of Washington, the various religious periodicals, the New Yorker Abendzeitung, the Buffalo Weltburger, and the Westboten of Columbus. 56 New Orleans, via which city many German immigrants came in this period, had an Arbeit er-Blatt, a weekly, established in 1850, and edited by A. Kattmann. During the early part of 1852 Leopold Stiger published the Communist at Cleveland. During 1853 Adolph Strodtmann, the poet, literary historian, and journalist, was publishing his illustrated comic weekly, Die Lokomotive, at Philadelphia. Like so many papers of the time it was a losing venture financially. It was somewhat in the position of a post-Faustian character in a three act farce published in it who remarks : "Da steh ich nun, ich armer Thor, Und bin so dumm, als wie zuvor, Und hab kein Geld, doch viel Humor. Abersch mit dem Humor ohne Geld Is kein Fortkommen in der jitzigen Welt." 57 M Republik der Arbeiter, 1850, p. 190 f. B7 Die Lokomotive, p. 88. Cf. the poem by Beyschlag, p. 94. Socialism and the German American Press 41 In the spring of 1852 Joseph Weydemeyer, a personal friend of Marx and Engels, published a few numbers of the monthly, Die Revolution; the second number contained Marx Der achtzehnte Brumaire des Louis Bonaparte. Dr. Gottfried Kellner, 58 a univer sity-bred man from Gottingen and Heidelberg, who had poured out his wrath in a little volume of Hessen-Lieder directed against the Hessian princes and who had edited the Hornisse of Cassel, es caped to New York in 1852, where in the next year he was elected editor of the Reform. Three years later he went to Philadelphia to edit the Demokrat, since he was not in thorough sympathy with the Communists of New York. Weydemeyer succeeded him as editor of the Reform, which came out as a daily since October 15, L853, but suspended publication in April of the next year. Dr. Abraham Jacobi, of Communist fame in Cologne, was connected with this paper. Schliiter calls it the most important of all communist and socialist labor papers established by the forty-eighters. 59 Another Reform was established by the German laborers of Baltimore in 1850. The Wecker, which succeeded the Baltimore Her old in 1851, with C. H. Schnauffer as editor, was at first in sym pathy with Weitling s agitation but later changed its policy. The Neu-Hngland Zeitung, of Boston, likewise supported the labor movement of the fifties, as did the Newarker Zeitung, pub lished by Fritz and Mathilde F. Anneke. Mathilde Franziska Anneke (1817-84) had already entered upon a journalistic career in Germany where as a young woman of about twenty she edited the Westfdlisches Jahrbuch in conjunction with Levin Schikking, Freiligrath, and others. At one time she received a pension from the King of Prussia for her talent as a writer, but she had to forego this when she espoused Communism. In 1847 sne married Fritz Anneke, a former Prussian military of ficer, and the next year when the latter was a political prisoner, she established the Neue Kolnische Zeitung, which was soon suppressed. She transformed the paper into a Frauenzeitung, which stood for M For a short biographical sketch see Mitteilungen des Deutschen Pionier- V ere ins von Philadelphia, 1909, X, 26-31. ^Hermann Schliiter, Die Anfdnge der deutschen Arbeiterbewegung in Amerika, Stuttgart, 1907, p. 148. 42 Socialism in German American Literature woman s rights and the cause of labor. Continued political turmoil caused them to emigrate in 1849 to America, where in 1852 Mrs. Anneke began publishing the Deutsche Frauen-Zeitung at Milwau kee. Later they moved to Newark, where Anneke founded the Newarker Zeitung, which labored in conjunction with Weitling for the organization of labor. From 1860-65 Mathilde Anneke was in Switzerland and contributed to the New York Belletristisches Jour nal and the Illinois Staatszeitung. Since 1865 she lived for the most part in Milwaukee until her death in 1884. During 1850 and 1852 Karl Marx contributed a series of articles on Germany to the New York Tribune. 60 Marx had been recom mended to the managing director, Charles A. Dana, by Ferdinand Freiligrath. He was subsequently engaged as regular London cor respondent. The letters were popular, for on the twelfth of March, 1852 Dana wrote: "It may perhaps give you pleasure to know that they (i. e. the letters on Germany) are read with satisfaction by a considerable number of persons, and are widely reproduced." The Tribune was then edited by Horace Greeley and among its con tributors were Bruno Bauer, Bayard Taylor, George Ripley, and many of the Brook Farmers. Marx was living in London at that time. On March 2, 1853 some laborers and journalists of New York gave a banquet in the Shakespeare Hotel in honor of August Willich who had just arrived from Europe. Red flags and the tri color decorated the hall where 250 plates were laid. Willich spoke in an address of the failure of the revolution in Europe, but proph esied that it would break out again on account of the oppression of the lower classes. Addresses were also delivered by Weitling, Rodel, Hunemann, Krantz, Schramm, Dr. Kellner, Standau, H. Richter, Komlossi, and H. Ahrens. A sword was presented with appropriate ceremony to Willich, and $20.18 was collected for the imprisoned comrades in Cologne and Paris. The New Yorker Staatszeitung reported the banquet as follows : 61 Revolution and Counter-Revolution or Germany in 1848 by Karl Marx. Edited by Eleanor Marx Aveling. Chicago, 1914. Note by the editor is dated Sydenham, April 1896. 61 Quoted by Repwblik der Arbeiter, March 12, 1853. Socialism and the German American Press 43 "Griinthum losgelassen. Blutrothes Melodrama im neusten Cou- lissenreiszerstyl. Zu dem, dem Burger Willich zu Ehren veran- stalteten Banquet batten sich am Mittwoch Abend vielleicht mehr als 300 bartige Germanen in dem geraumigen Saale des alten kom- munistischen Hauptquatiers versammelt. * * * Die aufgetragene Mahlzeit und auch der Wein fanden, wie wir berichtet wurden, all- seitiges Lob; aber die Zuthaten zu dem Gastmahl, die Reden, in denen die Revolution im Nu gefixt , alle Egoisten gehangt und das gesammte Eigenthum der Welt unter die wohlmeinenden Revo- lutionare und Kommunisten vertheilt wurde, sollen einigen der Anwesenden doch etwas unverdaulich im Magen gelegen haben." Willich subsequently furthered the cause of Communism in Cincinnati, Louisville, Milwaukee, and St. Louis. For a while pre ceding the Civil War in which he served with distinction he edited the Republikaner of Cincinnati. Among the obscure Communist newspapers of the fifties were Wilhelm Rothacker s Menschenrechte and Rittig s Unabh dngiger, both published at Cincinnati. Of similar character was the Prole- tarier of Chicago founded by H. Rosch in 1853. Mention is made in May, 1855, f an Arbeiterfreund of New York published by a certain Heerbrandt who sought to gain influence among the work ers. 62 About this time Heinrich Loose occasioned the publication of the Arbeiter at Milwaukee which paper stood for social demo cratic principles. From March 27 to May 8, 1858 the Workingmen s League of New York maintained as their organ, Der Arbeiter, the only Ger man labor paper in that city openly supporting slavery. 62 W. Banque was its editor. On the latter date it changed to the New York Morgenzeitung, a Democratic organ. From April 24, 1858 to May 26, 1860 the General Workingmen s League issued the Soziale Republik, Organ der freien Arbeiter, which was a radical anti-slavery weekly. February 18, 1860 the sub-title was replaced by the motto : Freiheit, Gleichheit, Brilderlichkeit. Gustav Struve was the editor. Other prominent journalists connected with it were Wilhelm Kopp, Adolf Douai, Theodor Bracklow, and P. Rodel. Just before the outbreak of the Civil War Joseph Weydemeyer was publishing the Stimme des Volkes, a labor paper of Chicago. 62 Schliiter, Die Anfdnge, etc., p. 156; ibid., p. 169. 44 Socialism in German American Literature During the war there was a lull in the activity of the communis tic propagandists ; regardless of their various economic and political theories the German Americans nobly followed the flag to ex tinguish slavery and save the Union. From September, 1864, to December, 1865, the New Yorker Arbeit erzeitung, Wochlenblatt fur Unterhaltung und Belehrung, was published by George Degen. It spread the doctrines of Schulze- Delitzsch but was chiefly intended for general reading. 63 It corn- batted the plans of Lassalle. By 1868 the International had estab lished the Abendpost at San Francisco. This same year the Revo lution of New York was advocating woman suffrage and espous ing the cause of labor. Towards the close of the decade Der Deutsche Arbeiter, a short-lived weekly, made its appearance in Chicago ; it was published by the German Central Union of Work- ingmen. Much general reading matter was presented to the sub scribers by the Arbeiter Union of New York existing from June, 1868 to September 17, 1870. It changed from a weekly to a daily on May 23, 1869. Its readers were chiefly laborers but by no means all Socialists. Since this time the most widely distributed German Socialist papers have followed the policy of making their contents of general interest to satisfy readers of different tastes. At the time of the Franco- Prussian War the Arbeiter Union strongly advocated internationalism which proved unpopular, so that it gradually lost subscribers and was finally forced to suspend publication. After Dr. Landsberg, Adolf Douai was its editor for two years. Karl Daniel Adolf Douai (1819-88) was probably the ablest journalist to advocate and popularize Marx scientific Socialism in America from 1868 to 1888. Practically every New York Socialist newspaper and many others of this period contained well written articles from his pen. He was a descendent of a French refugee family and a native of Altenburg. From 1838-41 he studied at Leipzig and then for six years he was a private tutor in Russia before he established his Realschule at Altenburg. Being arrested for taking part in the Revolution of 1848 he could not continue his school, so he emigrated to New Braunfels, Texas, where he taught 3 Schluter, Die Internationale, p. 16 ff. Socialism and the German American Press 45 school and later published an abolitionist paper at San Antonio until he was forced to flee. For four years he lived in Boston where in 1859 a workingmen s association founded by him helped him or ganize a school with a kindergarten, the first in Boston. In 1861 he went to Hoboken and since 1866 he was active as a teacher and journalist in New York. When the New Yorker Volkszeitung was established in 1878 he was elected associate editor. Douai was a very intelligent and persistent advocate of his cause. He remarked that originally the Social Democrat agitation could turn only to the philosophically minded Germans, French, Scandinavian, and Czech immigrants since English translations of Marx and Lassalle were lacking. Furthermore scientific Socialism had to be popularized, for he remarks : "Fur die angelsachsische und irische Bevolkerung aber ist die Philosophic neben dem Nichts zuhause, und das ab- strakte Denken muss ihnen nach hergebrachten Schablonen zuge- schnitten sein um Anklang zu finden ; Kritik ist ihre schwache Seite." 64 Douai was, after all, less of a politician than a writer and teacher. 65 During the early seventies Socialism was somewhat dormant, but with the panic of 1873 an( ^ tne labor troubles of 1877 it was revived and new journalistic ventures were undertaken. The Ar- beiterzeitung of New York controlled wholly by workingmen and edited by the tailor, C. Carl, was founded in 1873 and continued about a year when disagreement put an end to it. F. A. Sorge at tempted to have Liebknecht of Leipzig appointed a contributor but his efforts were in vain. The Arbeit erstimme and the Sozialdemo- krat, both of New York, were first issued in 1874; the former was succeeded in January by the Volkszeitung which has since then with able editors as Adolf Douai, Sergius E. Schewitsch, Alexander Jonas, and Hermann Schliiter grown to be, probably, the most im portant German Socialist newspaper in America. Alexander Jonas, a Berlin Social Democrat, contributed much to establish the prestige of the Volkszeitung through his remarkable business ability and jour- M Die Sozialdemokratie in den Vereinigten Staaten, in Neue Gesellschaft II, p. 139 ff- (i879). ^Cf. Kindergarten und Volksschule als sozialdemokratische Anstalten, Leipzig, 1876. 46 Socialism in German American Literature nalistic talent. He also wrote occasional poems and in 1884, published a pamph\et,Re porter und Socialist, Bin Gesprdch liber Ziele und Wege des Sozialismus, a propaganda treatise, which found wide cir culation. The present editor, Hermann Schliiter, is likewise a tal ented journalist and writer of distinguished ability. Other men who have been associated with the Volkszeitung are Grunzig, Degen, Cuno, and Franz. The Fortschritt, a literary weekly, edited by Anna Metz By land, which championed the rights of women began its campaign in 1875. The Philadelphia Tageblatt, Offizielles Organ der Vereinigten Deutschen Gewerkschaften, champions the rights of the laborer, and stands for many socialistic principles. It was established in 1877 and has grown to be one of the most widely read newspapers of its kind. Among the journalists associated with it were J. Franz Paul Lossau, Wyl, and G. A. Hepner. Louis Werner has been associated with it since January, 1879, and under his able and ju dicious editorship, now ably assisted by Dr. Darkow, it has at tained a high position of eminence in its field. Other Eastern papers of this decade were the Freigeist (Bos ton?) which was soon discontinued and the Vorwdrts of Newark, a daily published from 1877 to I &79- In the central West appeared between 1876-77 the Chicago er Socialist and Volkszeitung, the Neue Zeit at Louisville, the Ohio Volkszeitung at Cincinnati, and the Volksstimme des West ens at Saint Louis all dailies. During this decade about twenty-five German Socialist papers of more or less importance supported the party. Among them were, moreover, the Arbeiter am Ohio (Cincinnati), Arbeiterfreund (Chicago), Cali fornia Arbeiterzeitung (San Francisco), Chicago, Arbeiter zeitung with its Sunday edition, Die Fackel, and weekly Vorbote, Der Hman- zipator (Milwaukee), Der Sozialist (Milwaukee), Die Tribune (Buffalo), and Der Volksanwalt (Cleveland-St. Louis). These papers were, as a general rule, conducted on the cooperative plan. Those with the largest circulation were the New York Volkszeitung, the Chicago Arbeiterzeitung, the Saint Louis Volksstimme des Wes- tens, and the Philadelphia Tageblatt. Among the editors of this period were Joseph Brucker, Gustav Lyser, Louis Werner, Paul Socialism and the German American Press 47 Robertstein, Conrad Conzett, Hermann Sigel, George Winter, Otto Walter, Heinrich von Ende, and C. Savary. The Socialist press was still largely in the hands of the Germans. During the decade 1880-90 a number of the above papers stopped publication but others took their place. This was the period when the radical elements threatened to disrupt the movement. Among the periodicals were the Arbeit erzeitung of Belleville, Illinois, the Cleveland Volksfreund (est. 1885) and the Illinois Volkszeitung published in 1886 by Paul Grottkau and Julius Vahlteich, two re cently immigrated Socialists. Grottkau was a careful student of labor problems. Two years later he was editor of the Milwaukee Arbeii erzeitung. Maurice Reinhold von Stern, now a poet of con siderable note, who was in America from 1880-85, founded the New Jerseyer Arbeit erzeitung of Newark. Stern entertained rather radical notions at this time. In 1888 the St. Louis Tageblatt was first issued; its editor was Adolph Hepner, a friend of Bebel and Liebknecht, all of whom were involved in the "Leipziger Hochver- rathsprozess." Hepner and Otto-Walster who were both editors of St. Louis papers have since then returned to Europe. They were also authors of note. In January, 1885, Joseph Dietzgen, 66 called the philosopher of the proletariat" by his friend Marx, became editor of the newly established New Yorker Socialist. However in the following year he went to Chicago to continue the Arbeit erzeitung whose editorial staff were arrested for alleged bomb throwing. His idea was to harmonize the radical and conservative factions, thinking that prob ably Anarchism was a transition stage to a more advanced Social ism. The Chicago Afbe it erzeitung had been established in 1876 when the Vorbote (est. 1874) purchased the interests of the Volks- 66 Dietzgen came to the United States for the first time in 1848, but after a few years returned to Germany. At the outbreak of the Civil War he was again in America for a time but returned again to Europe where he was a factory superintendent at St. Petersburg for a time, and a tanner in Siegburg on the Rhine from 1869 to 1884. In 1869 he published his Das Wesen der menschlichen Kopfarbeit, eine abermalige Kritik der rcinen Vernunft von einem Handarbeiter. At the same time he wrote for the newspapers. Karl Marx and daughter visited him while he lived at Siegburg. From 1884 to his death in 1888 he was active as a journalist in New York and Chicago. His complete works in three volumes were published at Wiesbaden in 1911 by his son Eugen. 48 Socialism in German American Literature zeitung. Early prominent editors of the paper were Conrad Conzett and Paul Grottkau; in 1880 August Spies and Michael Schwab suc ceeded. After the condemnation of the latter two men for the part they played in the Hay market riot of 1886 Christensen became editor. The Milwaukee Vorwdrts was first issued in 1881 and its weekly edition, Die Wahreit, dates from 1888; Victor L. Berger, one of the ablest and most popular Socialists in the country, was the editor for a number of years. At present the Vorwdrts is ably edited by Heinrich Bartel. Another paper of this decade was the Buffalo Arbeiterzeitung dating from 1887. Among the radical sheets the most notorious was John Most s Freiheit, Internationales Organ der communistischen Anarchisten deutscher Sprache, published since 1881 in New York. Its motto was : "Gegen die Tyrannen sind alle Mittel gesetzlich." It ad vocated the propaganda of the deed as a means towards establishing a kind of visionary anarchistic, communistic state. Towards the end of the eighties the Amerikanische Arbeiterzeitung (New York) represented the views of a few dissenting Anarchists. Its most noted contributor was W. Hasselmann, a gifted writer and popular speaker, who arrived in the United States in 1880. He originally supported the principles of Lassalle but on May 4, 1880 he declared that the time for parliamentary prattle had ended and that the time for action had come. 67 His journalistic venture proved a failure and he soon settled down to private life. In 1888 the Boston Liberty edited by Benjamin R. Tucker, started to publish a German bi weekly edition, the Liberia^, which was an exponent of Proudhon s doctrine. As to its policy it stated : (C Libertas besteht auf der Selbst- herrlichkeit des Indiwduums und den gerechten Lohn der Arbeit; auf der Abschaffung des Stoats und des Wuchers; auf der Hin- stellung alter Herrschaft des Menschen uber den Menschen ; und der Einstellung aller Ausbeutung des Menschen durch den Men schen; auf der Anarchie und der Billigkeit." 68 Before this time Nathan Ganz who was formerly connected with the London Freiheit m Bernstein, Die Berliner Arbeiterbewegung, II, p. 44. 68 Quoted by C. H. Boppe in Am. Turner-Kalender, 1889, p. 112. Socialism and the German American Press 49 had expressed his radical notions in the monthly, Anarchist. Three other radical anarchist papers of this period were the Alarm of Chicago, the Parole of St. Louis, and the Nemesis of Baltimore. In 1885 the revolutionary element had seven German, two English, and two Bohemian periodicals. After the Haymarket tragedy the radical press rapidly lost influence and the saner Socialist press re gained its control. The freedom of the press was thoroughly exploited by many of the radical editors and contributors. In America they could pub lish caustic criticisms of European authorities, a venture, which in Germany under the anti-Socialist laws, was very hazardous. Some of the German American papers were excluded by these laws. These are according to Nach Zehn Jakren, (II, 106) : Bdckerzeitung (New York, 1887), Chicagoer Arbeiterzeitung (1879), Calif ornier Arbei terzeitung (San Francisco, 1879) ; Die Fackel (Chicago, 1887), Der Freidenker (Milwaukee, 1879), Die Freiheit (London-New York, 1879), New Yorker Volkszeitung (daily, 1884; Sunday, 1884; weekly, 1879) ; Philadelphia Tageblatt (1885), Der Socialist (New York, 1885), Amerikanische Turnzeitung (Milwaukee, 1885), Vor- bote (Chicago, 1881), Arbeiterzeitung (Belleville, 111., 1880 from Zwickau), Der arme Teufel (Detroit, 1888 from Magdeburg), Der Freiheitsfreund (Pittsburg, 1882 from Leipzig). The year indi cates when the exclusion took effect. A unique weekly of considerable literary merit and which ex hibited radical tendencies was Robert Reitzel s Der arme Teufel, published at Detroit from 1884 to 1900. After Reitzel s death in 1898 it was continued for two years by Martin Drescher. Concern ing the policy of his paper Reitzel said : "Ich machte mir keinerlei Programm und setzte mir keinen Canon, ich verliess mich einfach darauf, zu schreiben, was mir und Andern einfallt. Einer gewissen Aufgabe wurde ich mir jedoch bald klar. Zwei Strome gait es, in ein Bette zu leiten, die man gewohnlich, aber irrtiimlicherweise fur feindliche halt: den revolutionaren Mut des arbeitenden Volkes unsrer Zeit und den sehnsiichtigen Drang aller Menschennatur nach dem Schonen. Schwierigkeiten bereitete mir die Sache genug, und das Ungliick, zwischen zwei Stiihlen mich niederzusetzen, war nie ausgeschlossen. Was gehn uns die Dich- tergeschichten an und Ihre eigenen Liebeleien, schrieb mir der 4 50 Socialism in German American Literature Eine, schreiben Sie mit Flammenschrift, auf dass diese gottver- fluchte Gesellschaft dem Untergang naher komme. Bleib uns mit Deinen Weltverblesserungsvorschlagen vom Leibe, mahnte der Andere, Mensch bleibt Mensch, d. h. ein abwechselnd gewalt- tatiges und feiges Tier, du aber halte dich an das, was die Ausnahme geschaffen, Shakespeare, Gothe, und niitze dein Talent, Verstandige zur schonen Literatur zu animiren. " 69 Reitzel was the life and soul of the paper since he wrote most of the original articles and dominated its policy. It had no party af filiations. As a journalist Reitzel exhibits originality of style and criticizes society by standards rather peculiar to himself. To liter ature he applies like standards. In- selecting reprints for his journal he showed a preference for such writers as Friedrich Vischer, Gutzkow, Borne, Heine, Liliencron, Hermann Lingg, Karl Henckel, C. E. Franzos, J. H. Mackay, Gottfried Keller, Richard Dehmel, Otto Ernst, and others. These authors possess qualities which struck a sympathetic chord in Reitzel s soul. 70 In 1890 twenty-six German American papers of a socialistic leaning, were published according to Ayer s American Newspaper Annual of that year. They were the Arbeiterseitung, the Fackel, and Vorbote of Chicago, the Indiana Tribune of Indianapolis, the Mich igan Arbeiterseitung and Tageblatt of Detroit, the Parole and Tageblatt of St. Louis, the Freiheit, Socialist, Tailor, and Volkszei- tung of New York, the Cincinnati Zeitung, Cleveland Volksfreund, the Volksblatt, Volkszeitung, Vorwarts, and Wahrheit off Mil waukee, and the Tageblatt of San Francisco, Belleville, Buffalo, and Pittsburgh, respectively. The oldest of these, the Chicago Vorbote was established in 1874, while nineteen were founded during the eighties. Among the older are the Arbeiterseitung of Chicago, the Tageblatt of Philadelphia, and the Volkszeitung of New York ; the last named led with a circulation of 21,395 f r its daily and weekly editions. 89 Der Arme Teufel, November 25, 1893, Zum zehnten Waffengang. 70 Cf. A. E. Zucker, Robert Reitzel as Poet, German American Annals, N. S. XIII, p. 58 ff. (1915), and the introduction to Reitzel s Schriften by Max B agin ski. CHAPTER III. THE INDEPENDENT CONGREGATIONS AND SOCIALISM. Rationalism had steadily gained ground in Germany from 1750 to 1835, tne y ear when two notable books appeared, Bauer s Die christliche Gnosis oder die christliche Religions philosophic in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwickelung and Strauss Leben Jesu which revo lutionized Biblical criticism. To the industrial and political tur moil of the thirties and forties was now added this blow to the supernatural concomitant with the philosophy of Hegel, Feuerbach, and others. The effects were likewise, to be felt in America. Since 1815 American students had studied at German universities, and German rationalists had emigrated to America. Among the most prominent of the early arrivals was Carl Pollen who came in 1824, and shortly afterwards became a Unitarian minister at Boston. Most of the Dreissiger were men of liberal views in religious matters, and practically all of the newspapers established by them were rationalistic. Among these were J. G. Ritter s Amerikanischer Correspondent (i825), 71 J. G. Wesselhoeft s Alte und Neue Welt (1834), Wollenweber s Der Freisinnige (1838), Thomas Freie Presse (1848), Ludvigh s Wahrheitsverbreiter (1840) and Fackel (1849), Forsch s Vernunftglailbige (1838), Muni s Lichtfreund (1840), and Walker s Hochwdchter (1845). Moreover, in 1847 Thomas published a German translation of the theological works of Thomas Paine, which passed through several editions. In Germany there arose in the early part of the last century the so-called Independent Congregations (Freie Gemeinden) as a revolt of rationalistic thought against revealed religion. An early organ ization were the "Protestantische Freunde" or "Lichtfreunde" (1841) under the leadership of Uhlich and Wislecenus. The Cath olics under Johannes Ronge also established independent congrega tions, the first being at Breslau. Among the prominent men con nected with the movement at this time were Rupp, Baltzer, Nees von 71 The years are the date of founding in each case. [51] 52 Socialism in German American Literature Esenbeck, Hofferichter, Vogtherr, Robert Blum, Rossmassler, Dul ler, Sachse, Hrabowsky, Scholl, Albrecht Rau, Czerski, Ludwig Wiirkert, and August Specht. In 1845 tne Catholic congregations formed a union and two years later the Protestants followed. Other organizations were formed since then. In 1851 the independent movement numbered 312 congregation^ with 150,000 members, while in 1906 the number had decreased to 100 congregations with 40,000 members. 72 This decline is ascribed to persecution by the authorities and a side-tracking of interest towards a unified Ger many and towards Socialism. The position taken by most Socialists towards the established church is practically the same as that of the independent congregations. As early as 1836 an independent congregation was established at Philadelphia by Heinrich Ginal; this existed till 1855. Ginal has been mentioned in connection with the communistic experiment at Teutonia. 73 In 1846 he established another congregation at Mil waukee. August Glaser, who preached to the congregation at Phil adelphia in 1848, said that rationalism had long been the essential basis for the theory of the equal rights of man and that Ginal was the first to pass from the word theory of it to active Communism in the United States. 74 Ginal s rationalism was based on the theories of Paulus Neander and Schwarz. In the spring of 1846 Ronge received a written promise of sup port from some dissenting Catholics of Reading, Pennsylvania. 75 Towards the end of the same year Dr. Giustiani, a former Fran ciscan monk, was instrumental in founding an independent congre gation of about 200 people of German descent at New York. Later he was also active in Philadelphia, and by 1851 there were two in dependent German Catholic congregations in that city. In September 1835 Heinrich Scheib became the pastor of Zions church at Baltimore which belonged to no synod, and three years 72 Max Hempel, Was sind die Freien Gemeinden? 3. rev. Aufl., Mil waukee, 1906. 73 Chapter I, p. 12 f . 74 Volks-Trtbun, June 13, 1846. 75 Mitteilungen des Deutschen Pionier-Vereins von Philadelphia, n. Heft (1909), p. 7; see also lola K. Eastburn, Whittier s Relation to German Life and Thought, Americana Germanica, XX (1915)* P- IO1 f- The Independent Congregations and Socialism 53 later he and P. M. Wolsieffer were publishing the Allgem-eine Schukeitung. Before 1848 Forsch and Ludvigh were active in organizing the liberal minded Germans of New York. The failure of the Revolution of 1848 proved disastrous to the Freie Gemeinden of Germany as to all other bodies of liberal convictions. As a result, many of the oppressed came to America where they sought to express in word and deed their confused complexes of radical ideas. The ensuing effect upon politics and the press has already been discussed in chapters one and two. The "Freimannervereine" of the fifties which were even more radical than the independent congregations arose as a result of this immigration. The movement began in full force at Cincinnati in 1850 where Friedrich Hassaurek, the author of the novel, Hierarchic und Aristokratie , and the editor of the Hochw dchter, was the chief leader. Here a large hall was built and from it the movement radiated to the neighboring states for about five years when lack of agreement and dissensions practically put an end to it. Other societies were organized in this same decade by the free- thinking German element, and in many instances, they started to publish a periodical. Jakob Mueller says of them : "Zwischen 1852 bis 1854 enstanden fast in jeder grosseren and mittleren Stadt in den Vereinigten Staaten radikale und freisinnige Tageszeitungen, Wochen und Monatsschriften, meist von hochgebildeten Menschen, und talentvollen Kopfen redigirt, und bestimmt, der Aufklarung, dem politischen wie sozialen Fortschritt zu dienen." 76 Most of these had but a limited circulation and were short-lived. With these un dertakings were connected such men as: Hollocher, Fenner von Fenneberg, Kompe, Heinrich Rochotte, August Thieme, Christian Esselen, John Klippart, Karl Heinzen, and others. The movement was hampered by lack of agreement and united effort among the leaders. Moreover, their ideas which were rooted in the social conditions of Europe were somewhat out of place in America with its freedom of speech, of the press, and of assembly. There was no "Jakob Mueller, Aus den Brinnerungen eines Achtundvierzigers, Cleve land, 1896, p. 27. 54 Socialism in German American Literature strong external force, no decided opposition, to crystallize the move ment. 77 From 1850 to about 1860 the chief centers of the independent con gregations were New York, Boston, Milwaukee, St. Louis, and Phil adelphia. In 1850 Eduard Schroeter founded a congregation at New York, and during the next year he extended his activities to Boston where he also met Theodore Parker. G. Grahl, Heinrich Loose, and Carl Liideking also supported the organization in New York and Domschke went to Boston. Another congregation was initiated at Buffalo by J. de Marie in 1850, and a year later one was instituted at Galveston, Texas. Two other leaders at New York in 1853 were Rudolph Dulon and Karl Schramm. Dulon declared that man alone is the source of all truth and that scientific investi gation must replace blind faith in the traditional. It must be noted, however, that these free thinking Humanists did not generally asso ciate with the unschooled proletarian disciples of Weitling. Franz Schmitt, a former member of the Frankfort Parliament, was instru mental in organizing the first independent congregation of its type in America at St. Louis November 6, i85o. 78 Other leading ex ponents in this city were Carl Liideking, G. R. Doehn, W. Wurpel, and J. B. Engelmann. The inception of the Philadelphia congrega tion in 1852 was due to Eduard Graf of Wiesbaden. Two early presidents of this congregation were Nicklaus Schmitt and Dr. Georg Seidensticker. Two years later under the speakership of Fr. Schunemann-Pott it began a flourishing career, and also be came closely associated with the independent Sunday school of the Arbeiterbund. Especially through the efforts of Ed. Schroeter al most a dozen congregations were organized in Wisconsin after i852. 79 In 1853 Hr. Loose succeeded Schroeter as editor of the Milwaukee Humanist (est. 1851). Loose and Willich helped or ganize the "Sozialer Turnverein" of Milwaukee. Subsequently Loose became a champion of social democratic principles and found- 77 Cf. Metzners Jahrbilcher I, pp. 241-249, Die freien Deutschen in Wis consin, Kentucky, and Ohio (from Turnzeitung of April 15, 1854) ; also the Freidenker Almanack, Milwaukee, 1878. 78 Hempel, Was sind die Freien Gemeinden? p. 7- w Mitteil d. Pionier-Vereins v. Phila. XI, p. 12. The Independent Congregations and Socialism 55 ed the Arbeiter. Later leaders at Milwaukee were Graf, Biron, Fr. JV* Schiitz, ]. Brucker, and Hr. von Ende. The "Kommunistenklub" initiated at New York in 1857 de- clared in the first paragraph of its constitution : "Die Mitglieder des Kommunistenklubs verwerfen jeden religiosen Glauben; in welcher Art und Weise er sich auch gestalten moge, sowie jede nicht auf unmittelbare Sinneswahrnehmung beruhende Anschauung."* This indicates the similarity of principles supported by the Communists and Freethinkers. This club joined with the Workingmen s League of New York in 1868 and formed a Socialist Party, the first po litical labor party with modern socialistic views in America. The Communist, E. I. Koch, 81 became a speaker of an independent con gregation at New York in 1865, the year, when E. ]. Lowenthal and A. Douai led in establishing another congregation at Hoboken. In the following year these two men and Schunemann-Pott initiated the "Bund der Freidenker" at New York. In 1869 K. T. Bayr- hoffer, formerly a professor at Marburg, organized some farmers of Putnam and Lasalle Counties, Illinois, into a "freisinniger Verein." BayrhofTer, a compatriot of Dr. Kellner, was secretary of the con gress of laborers at Frankfort on the Main in June, 1848, when Julius Frobel served as chairman and Hermann Kriege was also present. 82 These facts indicate how closely the Communists, So cialists, and Freethinkers were associated. After the Civil War F. A. Sorge was active in a secret order, the "Secularisten," at New York, which was atheistic in nature and sought to push social reforms. They believed that all theological doctrines in the world are based on ignorance and that they formed an insuperable barrier against the mental, moral, and social progress of mankind. 83 The society was the meeting ground for liberal minds of various tendencies. Later like many of the free thinkers Sorge became interested primarily in Socialism, and became the trusted representative of Marx interests in America. 84 80 Quoted by Waltershausen, p. 32. 81 Chapter I, p. 21. ^Cf. Mitteil d. Deut. Pionier-Verems v. Phila. XI, 21; German Ameri can Annals, V, p. 19-25 (W. A. Fritsch). 83 Pionier, Volkszeitung Kalender, New York, 1908 (Schlueter). ., Die Neue Zeit, Stuttgart, XXV, i: 145 ff. (1906); ibid., XVII. 56 Socialism in German American Literature The independent congregations of Sauk City (Wis.), St. Louis, Dane County (Wis.), and Philadelphia, in the meanwhile, formed the "Bund der Deutschen Freien Gemeinden von Nordamerika" in 1859 at Philadelphia. In 1870 the congregation at San Francisco was established and elected Schiinemann-Pott speaker. At this time Fr. Leis and Hr. von Ende were the chief leaders at New York. The latter arranged for the lecture tour of Ludwig Biichner whose book, Kraft und Stoff, a popular scientific treatise that passed through twenty or more editions, was also extensively read by rationalistic German Americans. Hedwig Henrich-Wilhelmi, a rationalist, champion of woman s rights, and Socialist, also lectured in the United States during the latter eighties. During the centennial year of 1876 a great conclave of radicals, freethinkers, Turners, Socialists, and others met at Philadelphia. Karl Heinzen was the leading spirit in effecting a loose sort of or ganization which did not exist long. In their platform they pro mulgated various radical principles with reference to political, social, economic, and religious questions. 85 Some of their economic prin ciples have since been incorporated into progressive legislation. At the second convention held at Philadelphia in 1879 it was decided to cooperate with the Socialists at elections after previous agreement on principles. The union gradually disintegrated. In 1897 chiefly through the efforts of Max Hempel and C. Her mann Boppe a new union of Freie Gemeinden and Freidenkerver- eine was formed at the Turner convention in St. Louis, which city and Milwaukee have since been the centers of the movement. Other men, besides those already mentioned, prominent in the work are Heinrich Huhn, Max. Grossman, Hermann Pfafflin, Robert Reitzel, C. L. Henning, Paul Carus, Otto Soubron, Ph. Rappaport, and Emil Liess. The independent congregations, as such, have not been very prosperous ; the economic questions of modern society created an interest in the materialistic side of life which tended to draw the attention away from the more idealistic aspirations. Victor L. Berger said in an address on January 28, 1893, deliv ered to an audience of Turners and Freidenker in speaking of the du- "Mitteil. d. Deut. Pionier-V ereins v. Phila. XXIII, pp. 1-20; also XI, p. 23. The Independent Congregations and Socialism 57 ties of the latter towards the working class : "Jede Religion war stets allem wirklichen Fortschritt abgeneigt, jede Religion war stets eine Stiitze des herrschenden Systems, und jede Religion ist jetzt, bei uns in Amerika wenigstens, eine Hauptstiitze des herrschenden Biirgertums. Die herrschenden Machte fiihlen es instinktiv, dass alle Religionen wie Opium wirken. * * * so schlaft das Volk unter keinem Deckmantel fester und sicherer, * * * als eben unter dem Deckmantel der Religion." 86 Many Socialists hold this point of view. The Turners and Freie Gemeinden have long advocated many prin ciples in common ; for example, the Freie Gemeinde at Louisville in 1852 considered its duty to be "durch alle ihm zu Gebote stehenden Mittel die sozialen, politischen und religiosen Reformen im Sinne des radikalen Fortschritts zum richtigen Verstandnisse seiner Mit- glieder zu bringen." 87 The part the Turners played in the history of Socialism in America will be discussed in the next chapter. 86 Die Wahrheit, Milwaukee, February 4, 1893. 87 Quoted in Mitteil. d. Deut. Pionier-Vereins v. Phila., XI, p 26. CHAPTER IV. THE: TURNERS AND SOCIALISM. The first large organization to further the cause of liberalism including many of the principles of modern Socialism were the Turners who, however, were primarily interested in gymnastics and athletics. The Turners had liberal ideas concerning all the larger institutions of society especially in regard to church and state. The first Turnverein in America was organized at Cincinnati on October 22, 1848, and about a month later the New York so ciety was instituted. In the same year the Newark Turners or ganized, and a year later came Boston, Philadelphia, and Baltimore. The St. Louis Turnverein originated in 1850, and in the following year arose the Peoria and Indianapolis societies. Practically all the Turnervereine up to the middle of the fifties arose as a result of the revolution in Germany, especially that of Baden in i849. 88 June 6, 1850 thirty-six dissenting members of the New York society who were laborers created the Socialistischer Turnverein of New York which drew up a provisional constitution designed for the proposed union of all the societies. Paragraph two of this docu ment reads: "Der Zweck des Bundes ist neben den korperlichen Turniibungen dem geistigen und materiellen Drucke entgegenar- beitend, wahre Freiheit, Wohlstand und Bildung fur alle Klassen nach Kraften zu fordern." August 21, 1850 delegates of the two New York Turnvereine and of the Brooklyn Turnverein met in the Shakespeare Hotel to deliberate on the above article. Considerable discussion resulted, also as to the name of the proposed union of societies. This agitation led to the founding at Philadelphia on October 5, 1850 of the Associated Gymnastic Union of North America, which name, however, was changed in the following year to Socialistic 88 For the history of the American Turner movement see Heinrich Metz- ner, Jahrbucher der Deutsch-Amcrikanischen Turner ei. Dem gesammten Turnwesen mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Geschichte des Nordameri- kanischen Turner-Bundes gewidmet. 3 Bde. New York. 1892-94: Amcri- kanischer Turner-Kalender. Milwaukee, 1880 ff. ; also the files of Der Deutsche Pionier and of the various Turner periodicals. [58] The Turners and Socialism 59 Gymnastic Union. 89 They adopted a platform containing the fol lowing provision : "Die vereinigten Abgeordneten des ersten Tur- nertagssatzung in Nordamerika erkennen als obersten und leitenden Grundsatz des Turnerbundes an ; Die Beforderungen des Sozia- lismus und der Bestrebungen der sozialdemokratischen Partei. Sie sind daher der Ansicht, dass es bei der korperlichen Ausbildung des Menschen mit im Hauptzweck der vereinigten Turngemeinden liege, sich am jetzigen Kampf zur Erstrebung der vollkommensten Unabhangigkeit des Einzelnen, (wie sie die sozialdemokratische Partei zu erreichen sucht), mit ganzer Kraft zu betheiligen und unterwerfen zu dem Zwecke f olgende Satzungen : " 90 Gradually the strict intention of the Turners definitely to propa gate socialism was somewhat tempered. Changes in the names of the societies resulted. The word "social," or "social-democratic," or "socialistic" was dropped in many cases. Take for example the so ciety at Philadelphia. In 1852 the Verfassung der Social-Turnge- meinde reads in paragraph one : "Der Zweck der Gemeinde ist das Turnwesen und den Socialismus durch Wort und That aufs Kraf- tigste zu fordern." By 1860 the constitution gives the name of the society as "Social Demokratische Turngemeinde" and its purpose (paragraph 2) : "Das Turnwesen und die Grundsatze des Socialis mus durch Wort und That aufs Kraftigste zu fordern." The con stitution and by-laws of the Philadelphia Turngemeinde revised and adopted in January, 1866 state that the purpose of the society is : "durch all ihm zu Gebote stehenden Mittel die radikale Reform- bestrebung auf socialem, politischem und religiosem Gebiete zum richtigen Verstandnisse seiner Mitglieder zu bringen." In all the societies there was more or less discussion as to how far radically socialistic movements and doctrines ought to be supported which condition frequently resulted in dissension among the members. 88 The word "socialistic" had a somewhat different connotation in 1850 than at present; it was then generally used to characterize the extreme left of the forty-eighters, the most radical of the revolutionists, who hoped to found a republic in Germany. In the minds of many Turners "socialistic" pertained to being politically free. Schliiter, Die Anfdnge der deutschen Arbeiterbewegung in Amerika, p. 202. 90 For the names of the early leaders of the Turners see : Namenliste der Pioniere des Nord-Amerikanischen Turnerbundes der Jahre 1848-1862. Im Auftrag des Bundesvororts zusammengestcllt z on Hugo Gollmer, corresp. Schriftwart. St. Louis, 1885. 60 Socialism in German American Literature The most recently immigrated were, as a rule, most severe in their denunciation of existing social conditions. During the early period socialistic or social-democratic Turn- vereine were organized in New York, Utica, Brooklyn, Rochester, Baltimore, Indianapolis, Newark, Philadelphia, Albany, Columbus, O., Elizabethtown, Madison, Ind., New Haven, Pittsburgh, Staten Island, Washington, Cleveland, Yorkville, Germantown, Alleghany, Rahway, Providence, Trenton, Memphis, Orange, Joliet, Chicago, Milwaukee, Poughkeepsie, and elsewhere. At first most of the Turners were laborers who had received their ideas of the corrupt condition of society and government in Europe. It often happened that the same men were active in both Socialist and Turner circles, as for instance, Franz Arnold and Joseph Weydemeyer who wrote articles for the Turnzeitung. 91 The first Turner paper in the United States was published by the Cincinnati Turngemeinde from January to October of the year 1851. It appeared as a monthly and Heinrich Essmann, Wilhelm Rothacker, and Gustav Tafel were its editors. November 15, 1851 the first number of the Turnzeitung made its appearance in New York with Sigismund Kaufmann as editor. It was first a monthly and later a weekly. By 1853 it was published by Wilhelm Rapp and Gottfried Becker at Philadelphia. Later it was published at Cin cinnati and in 1861 it had been transferred to Baltimore where its office was stormed by pro-slavery men. These early numbers con tain many illuminating articles with reference to the early history of the Turners in America. In 1853 the executive offices of the Turner Union were trans ferred from New York to Philadelphia. Gradually the Turners became more diversified in their interests. Wilhelm Rapp, the editor of the Turnzeitung, advocated "unser Bund soil ein Sammel- platz sein fiir alle Elemente des entschiedenen Fortschritts, fur alle Feinde der Geldaristocratie, des politischen Stillstandes und des Pfaffenthums" 92 The organization was not to exist for Socialists alone; it was no longer primarily to effect an economic reform of 91 Cf. the article Sozialismus und Turnerei presumably from the pen of Franz Arnold in Metzners Jahrbiicher I, p. 145 ff. 92 Metzners Jahrbucher I, p. 202 f . The Turners and Socialism 61 society. 93 In time some of the Turners who were laborers became small business men which change tended to affect their attitude towards Communism. However at the fourth general "Turnfest" in 1854 Rapp asserted that "with few exceptions the members of the Turner Union belonged to the working class." In 1855 the settlement company of the "Sozialistischer Turner- bund von Nordamerika" was organized and a committee was ap pointed to select a location for a colony. In the next spring W. Seeger and W. Pfander of Cincinnati and Chas. Preusser of Cleve land, who constituted the committee appointed, after travelling through several states of the West finally decided upon New Ulm, Minnesota, as a suitable location for the project. They made an agreement with the settlers who were already there and in the spring of 1857 the Turners colony became a fact. It prospered sub sequently, only during the Civil War (August 18, 1862) when a large number of men were at the front the Indians massacred a large number. 94 The Turners were strongly opposed to slavery and when the Civil War broke out they volunteered in large numbers. This colossal conflict overshadowed all other questions. Some of the more prominent Turners of communistic convictions who took part in the war were Joseph Weydemeyer, August Willich, Fritz Jacobi, Robert Rosa, Alois Tillbach and Dr. Beust. Willich was a member of the London communist league in 1848 together with Marx and Engels. He enlisted at the outbreak of the war, and having ad vanced rapidly to the ranks of lieutenant and colonel, he was com missioned brigadier-general in 1862. Rosa, an ex-officer of the Prussian army and a member of the New York Communist Club, served in the Forty-fifth New York Regiment and achieved the rank of major. Jacobi enlisted as a private and advanced to the rank of lieutenant, and fell at Fredericksburg. 83 Schliiter in his Die Anfdnge der deutschen Arbeiterbewegung (p. 214) comes to the conclusion : "Der Sozialismus des amerikanischen Turnerbundes war mehr ein Name, als eine Vertretung wirklich sozialistischer Prinzipien. Eine proletarische Organisation ist diese Vereinigung nie gewesen, und was in ihr als Sozialismus zum Ausdruck kam, war ein Gemisch von biirgerlichem Radikalismus und unklarem sozialistischem Streben, das mehr im Gefiihl, als in Einsicht und Erkenntnis seinen Ursprung hatte." 94 For accounts of New Ulm see Der Deutsche Pionier, III, IV, and VIII. 62 Socialism in German American Literature After the war the Turners became more interested in American politics and their socialistic propaganda receded into the back ground. Even the name of the organization was changed. Al though in 1876 there were a "sozialistischer Turnverein," a "sozia- listische Turnschule," and a "sozialistischer Turnklub" in New York, who however had little influence on the Turnerbund, which no longer strongly advocated Socialism. They did not favor the social ist state of the future, but they did advocate better pay and better living conditions for the laborer. About half of the members were now small business men, officials, teachers, lawyers, and editors, while the other half belonged to the better paid wage earning class. 95 Since 1882 some of the Turner societies have advocated the principles of Socialism again. By 1885 the Turnerbund was urging the local societies to debate the question, of the collective ownership of the means of production. 96 The position taken by the various Turner societies of Chicago towards the labor troubles of 1886 was divided; a part sympathized with the radicals and some of the Illinois societies were finally ex cluded from the Turnerbund. Some of the Milwaukee Turners also sympathized with the accused. In New York there was a movement on foot to exclude all the advocates of Communism and Anarchism, but the influence of the wage-earning element was too powerful in the Turnerbund, so the central board and the organ of the Bund opposed the step. The Turnvereine are no longer of great importance in spread ing Socialism. They have ceased to be a distinctly German organi zation, and as the English language encroached upon the German the subject of Socialism lost its original medium of dissemination. Fewer German books relating to the subjects are read. Many of the books still found in the Turner libraries were quite popular about the middle of the last century, but the younger generation takes little interest in them. However, the Turners have not stopped agitating the question of Socialism at their conventions and other meetings. A man who in recent years was a prominent Turner and Socialist propagandist was Philipp Rappaport of Indianapolis. A character- 95 Waltershausen, Der moderne Sozialismus, p. 34. M Amerikanischer- Turner-Kalender for 1885, p. 112. The Turners and Socialism 63 istic list of his lectures taken from an announcement issued by the authority of the Turnbezirk Philadelphia des Nordamerikanischen Turnerbundes, June i, 1903, includes the following subjects: Die materialistische Weltanschauung, Hunger und Liebe, Der Sozialis- mus vom historischen und ethischen Standpunkte, Die sittliche Wir- kung der Konkurrenz, Des Menschen Kampf urns Dasein in Natur und Gesellschaft, and Die Familie in Vergangenheit, Gegenwart, und Zukunft. Emil Ljess of San Francisco delivers lectures on similar topics. Many of the principles advocated by the North American Gymnastic Union are now generally considered socialistic. They oppose, for example, the extreme concentration of wealth, and political power in the hands of a few, the exploitation of labor by capital, and they defend the rights of the individual. 97 "G. A. Hoehn, Der Nordamerikanische Turnerbund und seine Stellung sur Arbeiterfrage, 1882 ; Die Stellung des Nordamerikanischen Turnerbundes zur sozialen Frage und zur Politik, in Turner-Kalender, 1887, P- 49 ff- (J- Lucas) ; Allgemeine Grundsdtse des Nordamerikanischen Turnerbundes. Angenommen von der 23. Bundestagsatzung in Chicago am 28., 29. und 30. Juni und I. Juli 1908. CHAPTER V. SOCIALISM REFLECTED IN GERMAN AMERICAN LITERATURE. Was soil die zeronnene Herrlichkeit, Wie Traume und Marchen sie kiinden? Wir sind die schaffenden Kinder der Zeit ; Wir singen die Schuld, wir singen das Leid, Wir singen der Welt ihre Sunden f Wir suchen mit brennenden Seelen Erlosung aus tosendem Streit, Und ob wir auch irren und fehlen, Wir dienen in Tretie der Zeit. 98 German American literature did not develop as a succession of well-defined currents. It remained essentially a transplanted prod uct springing up spontaneously wherever Germans collected. Var ious organizations such as the Turners, the churches, the labor organizations, and singing societies did, however, tend to bring about a similarity of theme and unity of effort in given channels. The sadness of parting from the fatherland with all that this term signified to the German heart, and the ensuing memories gave rise to the sweetest notes. The press with its corps of able editors did much to cherish all that was dearest in German culture. The lead ers and almost all the authors were connected with it. But the struggle for existence in a strangely new land, and the constant encroachment of the English language hindered the development of a German American literature as such. In characterizing German American literature Amalia von Ende says strikingly: "Heimat, Vaterland, Muttersprache ihnen weiht der Genius der deutsch-amerikanischen Dichtung den weitaus grossten Teil seiner Bluten und viele, erschreckend viele haben etwas Blutarmes und Sehnsuchtkrankes. Nur ganz vereinzelt schlagt er andere Saiten an, und dann wird die Kluft zwischen modernem deutscheuropaischem und modernem deutsch-amerikanischem Den- ken offenbar. Es ist eine ganz kleine Gemeinde, die mit dem Zeit- 98 Konrad Nies, Funken, p. 183 f. [64] Socialism Reflected in German American Literature 65 geist Schritt gehalten hat." 99 This chapter will trace the reflection of this Zeitgeist in German American literature. The literature of the early German settlers was largely of a re ligious nature, for they had come mainly to seek religious freedom. The writings of the early Communists consist, likewise, chiefly of poetry and treatises on religious subjects. 100 There is nothing strikingly new about it, since it was, for the most part, a reflection of the Pietistic movement. With the economic and political changes of the early part of the nineteenth century, and especially with the revolutions of the thirties and forties the quest for the mysterious "blue flower" of Romanti cism was abandoned for the more realistic services of the Zeitgeist. The common people led by educated liberals began to realize their own individuality, their own importance, in a country manifestly governed by arbitrary tyrants. Such poets as Herwegh and Freili- grath put their whole soul into the struggle of the people for their political rights. It was the beginning of a new realistic epoch in literature, and Biese rightly calls the death of Goethe (1832), the Hambacher Fest (1832), and the opening of the first German rail way (1835) the "drei Marksteine der deutschen Geschichte im neunzehnten Jahrhundert, welche zugleich den Abschluss der grossen idealistischen Kulturepoche und die ersten Anfange einer neuen realistischen bezeichnen." 101 The transition was represented by Young Germany who opposed the classicists and romanticists alike and demanded that poetry should serve the common weal and politics in general. They called attention to the weaknesses in man s social institutions and made poetry a handmaid of reform. They were only following the prin ciple of ethics and politics already propounded by Jeremy Bentham : the greatest happiness for the greatest possible number. The news paper which was from now on to serve the man on the street as well as the leisure class at court developed rapidly and became the forum of public opinion. When America became the "political 99 Das literarische Echo, I, p. 998 (May 15, 1899). 100 Chas. Nordhoff, The Communist Societies, New York, 1875, p. 421 ff 101 Alfred Biese, Deutsche Literaturgeschichte, II, Miinchen, 1911, p. 557. 66 Socialism in German American Literature Utopia" of Young Germany this new movement took root in the New World and found unhampered expression. 102 Industrial and social Europe was in the throes of a sweeping transition period. Many Europamiide left for the wilds of America to escape the corrupt and diseased Europe. New conditions in the economic world demanded new standards of the conduct of life, but Ernst Willkomm complained in his notable book, Die Europamuden (i837) 103 that Europe was suffering from the epidemic of judging the confused times by standards long since antiquated. The old man portrayed in the book hates to leave his beloved Germany but, "Es ist nicht mehr moglich, als ehrlicher Mann durch die Welt zu kommen in jetziger Zeit. Alles bricht zusammen, die Armuth macht widerspenstig und irreligios. * * * in Gottes Namen, Kinder, gehen wir hiniiber nach Amerika" where his children may have a future. 104 At another place the author maintains : "Die Siinden der Welt sind die Folgen der fluchwiirdigen Verhaltnisse, die geboren wurden aus socialer Unnatur, mystischer Heuchelei " 105 Reinhardt Erbschloe, a forty-eighter, depicts the economic con ditions of the times in his Walther und Martha in zwolf Gesangen with the hexameters : So war der Zustand in Deutschland und den benachbarten Landern Gegen das Ende der ersten Halfte uns res Jahrhunderts. Viele Verhaltnisse waren nicht mehr wie fruher bestehend, Neue Erfmdungen stiirzten so manches iiber den Haufen, Und wenn das Volk auch per Dampf konnte reisen fur wenige Kosten, Hatte es noch nicht begriffen den Vortheil der eisernen Schienen, Viele verloren ihr Brot und wussten nicht, was zu beginnen, Uebervolkerung machte sich fiihlbar in alien Bezirken. Tausenden blieb nur das Auswandern iibrig als einzige Wahl ; Aber es war auch das einzige Mittel, um alles zu helfen ; Freiheit versprach es, bei Duldung des Glaubens und Brot. Sein Utopien konnte sich wahlen ein Jeder nach Lust, Wie das Bediirfnis ihn trieb, dem Vaterland zu entsagen. 102 Cf. T. S. Baker, America as the Political Utopia of Young Germany, in Americana Germanica I, No. 2; pp. 62-102 and Der Deutsche Pionier, VII and VIIL 103 Ernst Willkomm, Die Europamiiden, Leipzig, 1837, I, p. 26 ff. 104 Ibid., II, p. 106 ff. 105 Ibid., I, p. 353- Socialism Reflected in German American Literature 67 Nordamerika war fur die meisten das Land der Verheissung ; Tausende batten gefunden daselbst die gewiinschte Begliickung, Hundert Tausende waren bereit, ihr Heil dort zu suchen. 106 This was the time of the industrial revolution in Europe when group production was replacing individual effort and the factory system was crowding out the old guild system. As a result many new economic theories were developed in England and France which spread to neighboring lands. After the revolutions of this period Geneva, Paris, Brussels, and London became the meeting places of the refugees of the countries in turmoil. Societies were founded by them and political tracts published. This social ferment in the nations was threatening to disrupt the social fiber to its very foundation. Old ties and customs were broken up and people began to think for themselves. Many Germans fled to Paris and Switzer land where they met and organized to spread the new political and economic doctrines to Germany. This upheaval in society caused many an obscure laborer and scholar to break out in lyrical gushes which, however, were fre quently curbed by the strict censorship of the German authorities. In France a whole school of "Arbeiterdichter" flourished. Much of the best of their poetry was subsequently collected and translated by Adolph Strodtmann who was himself captivated by the move ment. 107 In his Brutus schldfst Du? he uttered the battle cry: Das Auge hell, die Stirne hoch und frei : So bricht das Schwert von starker Faust umschlossen, Der Arbeitsmann sein Sklavenjoch entzwei! Auf ! lasst die Banner fliegen ! Es gilt ein letztes Kriegen ! Hinaus zum Kampf ! Die Freiheit fiihrt uns an ! Fortan gehort die Welt dem Arbeitsmann. Most of the poetry was of an inferior type written by dille- tantes; only occasionally did the pent-up feeling of the agitated laborer find an adequate expression. Karl Heinzen in one of his critical attitudes calls the poetry of the Communists "eine wahre Hunger und Jammerpoesie, die in lw Gedichte. St. Louis, 1864, p. 184. 107 Die Arbeiterdichtung in Frankreich, New York, 1863? 68 Socialism in German American Literature ihrer geschaftsmassigen Produktion und Absichtlichkeit schon eine bedeutende Hohe auf dem Parnass der Abgeschmaktheit erstiegen und vollig aufgehort hat, eine menschliche (soziale), ja Poesie uberhaupt zu sein. Mit ihrer Poesie geht es den Herren wie mit der Prosa; obschon ihre Hauptgegenstande die popularsten der Welt sind; namlich Essen und Trinken, so kann sie es doch nicht zur Popularitat bringen. Nichts aber ist natiirlicher, als solch ein Re- sultat; wenn man von der einen Seite die trivialsten Marktobjekte zum Gegenstand aufgeriebener Doktrinen macht und von der an- deren das Ideale, das man mit der Idee vom Staat fahren und von einem bornirten Realismus verschlingen lasst, nur durch Bier und Leberwurst zu ersetzen weiss." 108 This political and socialistic tendency first found expression in America in the writings of the "Vorachtundvierziger" and then in those of the "Achtundvierziger." The literature resulting was of a varied character periodicals, treatises on social, economic, and political questions, and polite literature. 109 In this chapter the writer will endeavor especially to trace the socialistic tendency in the latter. The word socialistic in this treatise is construed in its widest sense as relating to conditions affecting man which have resulted from the historical development of social institutions such as : political strug gles, the contrast between the rich and the poor, labor and its suf ferings and rewards, the people at work and at play, society and crime, and the like. Weitling s primary interests were to reshape the social fiber and to elevate the masses. Most of his writings had this purpose in view. 110 In 1844 Hoffmann and Campe published his Kerkerpoe- sien, which appears to be the. only volume of poems that he wrote. It is not of the first class but some of the poems are products of gen uine emotion. A number were reprinted in the Republik der Ar beit er. The poem, Die Nacht, written in January, 1844, will serve as an illustration; it was reprinted in the above paper July 12, 1851. 108 Karl Heinzen, Die Opposition, Mannheim, 1846 p. 47. 109 Cf. Chapter II, and also the Bibliography. 110 For Weitling s career see p. 8 ff. Socialism Reflected in German American Literature 69 The poem depicts very vividly the experiences of a night spent in prison : Entschwunden ist die matte Tageshelle ; Mit starken Schritten naht die stille Nacht, Dem trauernden Gefang nen in der Zelle, Der seinen Schmerz den stummen Wanden klagt ******* So schweigend, denkend, wird in stiller Zelle Von Manchem hier der Abend zugebracht ; Denn lichter sprudelt die Gedankenquelle In stiller Einsamkeit und fmst rer Nacht, Mein HofTnungsgnin soil dieser Quell erfrischen Das Wissen sich drin neue Perlen fischen. Gedanken nahren Geist und Hoffnung noch. Das freie Wort kann ein Tyrann wohl hemmen, Doch den Gedanken kann er uns nicht nehmen, Was unser Geist durchdacht, das bleibt uns doch. Da draussen fiillt bei grossen Festgelagen Sich mancher Schlemmer noch den weiten Bauch ; Viel Andre nimmt der Hunger bei dem Kragen, Wie hier im Haus die armen Schlucker auch, Aus welchen Frost und Elend Thranen pressen, Gesundheit, Muth und Lebenskraft, indessen, Ein And rer sich fette Renten macht. Das nennt man Freiheit ! dieses Sklavenjoch! Und "sie soil leben" schrien die Pinsel noch. Ist s moglich ! Gott, welch finst re Geistesnacht ! Es schlagt jetzt acht. Der Spulen und der Rader Geschnurre schweigt. Das Tagwerk ist vollbracht ******* Soon the author imagines that the people everywhere retire but he hears the clock strike the hours. In the dead stillness of night he exclaims : Horch ! Was war das ? Es krachte ! Da, schon wieder ! Das sind die dicken Balken an der Thiir. Der Zahn der Zeit nagt dieses Bollwerk nieder; Bald wird es fallen aber friiher wir. Vereinigt hat der Mensch den Bau errichtet, Vereinzelt aber wird er drin vernichtet, Vereinigt kann er draussen widerstehen, Wenn Neider und Tyrannen sich vermessen, Aus ihm der Thranen bitterste zu pressen ; Vereinzelt muss er hier zu Grunde gehn. 7O Socialism in German American Literature After the hours have crept by he continues Die Uhr schlagt f iinf ! Gleich wird der Wachter lauten. Die Nacht ist aus, ein neuer Morgen graut. O holde Freiheit! schonste von den Brauten, Die traumend meines Geistes Auge schaut, Wann wirst du unser Hochzeitbett bereiten, Wann mich heraus aus diesem Kerker leiten ? Was mich erfreute, gab ich fur dich hin; Ich lebte ja nur, um fur dich zu werben; Ich muss dich haben, oder fur dich sterben, So wahr ich hier fur dich im Kerker bin. At another time in December, 1843, when the monotony of im prisonment has brought on another night he soliloquizes : Ein Traum, ein Wahn ist dieses kurze Sein, Ein Wogenspiel oft was wir denken, schaff en ; Ein Wellenschaum, den wir zusammenraffen, Hiillt unsers Lebens ganzes Wirken ein. Jetzt fluthen wir noch stolz und kiihn daher, Im Augenblick darauf sind wir nicht mehr. Horch, heulend dart sich Wog auf Woge bricht, Wo meines Glaubens dunkler Leuchtthurm steht, Und meiner Hoffnung letztes Banner weht. Hier Muth gefasst mein Herz, verzage nicht I 111 These examples will suffice to illustrate the nature of Weitling s Kerkerpoesien. When Weitling was released he devoted himself wholly to agitating the cause of the laborer. Other poems written by obscure authors and plain handicraftsmen appeared in the Re- publik der Arbeiter. They bore such titles as Proletarier Gedanken, Das Geld, Verbruderung, Stllles Gebet am Grabe der Reaktion, Kom- munistenfresser-Lied, and so on. The second of these, Das Geld, begins : So manches erhabene schone Talent Geht oft f iir die Welt verloren ; Denn es braucht zu seiner Entwickelung Geld Und ist zur Armuth geboren. u Republik der Arbeiter for 1851, p. 160. Socialism Reflected in German American Literature 71 Das Geld nur allein ist der Fortschritt der Welt, Des Geistes, Wissens, der Kunste; Aber das Geld den Armen in Schranken halt, Dem Reichen schafft es Verdienste ; ******* Weitling s position with reference to Christianity and property is expressed in his Der kleine Kommunist. Ich bin ein kleiner Kommunist Und brauche niemals mehr Als mir zum Leben notig ist, Das andre geb ich her. Ich bin ein kleiner Kommunist Der seine Briider liebt Und alles, was sein eigen ist, Auch gerne Anderen gibt. ***** Ich bin ein kleiner Kommunist Und frage nicht nach Geld, Da unser Meister Jesus Christ Davon ja auch nichts halt. Ich bin ein kleiner Kommunist, Ich bin s mit Lieb und Treu. Und trete einst als treuer Christ Dem Arbeitsbunde bei. 112 Weitling s favorite project was Communia where he expected to create a Utopian society. He has given us a fine description in a rather attractive style of the surrounding country as it appeared to him early one morning in May, 1853 : "Nie werde ich die angenehmen Eindriicke dieses nachtlich friihen Spazierganges vergessen. Es war eine wahrhaft italienische Nacht so wie ich sie oft in Biichern geschildert gefunden habe. Eine milde, laue Friihlingsluft umwogte uns, kein Nebel lag auf den Bergen oder stieg aus den Thalern empor. Das Mondlicht dammerte in seiner Mischung mit dem nahenden Morgenlichte tauschend durch die Baume des Waldes, dessen bliihende Krauter und Baume uns stellenweise ihr erquickendes Aroma zufiihrten. Endlich wurde es Morgen und welch ein Morgen ! Wir befanden uns hier im vollen Friihling. Da bliihten in den Waldern und Praierien, an den 112 Republik der Arbeitcr, January i, 1853. 72 Socialism in German American Literature Bachen und Abhangen die wilden Aepfel , Pflaumen und Kir- schenbaume und die von den letzteren zu unterscheidenden Wild- cherries zugleich mit den Krdbeeren und Maiapfeln in voller Pracht, umkranzt vom jugendlichen Fruhlingsgriin der Walder, Felder, Wiesen und Biische. Der Wipperling, welcher in der Neige der Nacht und bis zum dammerenden Morgen uns durch seinen ein- tonigen Gesang ergotzt hatte, verstummte allmahlig, um die Laub- frosche das grosse Friilingskonzert fortsetzen zu lassen." 113 A poetical view of the surrounding country appeared in the Republik der Arbeiter for December 6, 1851. It was doubtless writ ten by Weitling and is modelled after Goethe s Mignon. Kennst du das Land der griinen Praierien, Durchschnitten von der Walder schattig Griin? Das hohe Land in heit rer reiner Luft, Gewiirzet von pikantem Krauterduft, Das Land, an dem der klare Turkey fliesst, Der mit kristall nen Armen es umschlingt? Kennst du es wohl, dahin, dahin, Mocht aus der Stadte Larm und Dunst ich ziehn ! Kennst du das Land, kennst du die Praierien, Durch die der Squalls und Blackbirds Schaaren ziehen? Wo tief versteckt im Gras das Feldhuhn liegt Und flatternd, wenn du nahst, von dannen fliegt ? Wo hoch im Kreis der kleine Geier zieht, Und tief im Thai die wilde Rebe bluht ? Kennst du es wohl, dahin, dahin, Mocht ich mit alien meinen Freunden ziehn! Kennst Du das Land, durch dessen Waldesgrim Die stolzen Hirsche nach der Tranke ziehn? Wo der Fasan in dunklen Buschen weilt ? Und der Raccoon vor Deinen Schritten eilt? Wo wilder Enten gold ne Farbenpracht, Dir Wald und Flur zum Paradiese macht? Kennst Du es wohl, dahin, dahin, Mocht ich mit alien guten Menschen ziehn ! Kennst Du das Land so still und doch so schon Wo zwischen Hiigeln einige Hauser stehn? Wo durch der Praierien frisches Griin, Die f etten Heerden auf die Weiden ziehn ? 113 Letter from Communia, May 27, 1853, published in the Republik der Arbeiter. Socialism Reflected in German American Literature 73 Kennst Du auch dort der Menschen guten Sinn, Und sehnst Du Dich nach solchen Menschen bin? Ich kenn es wohl, mein Freund, drum sag ich : Ja ! Ich zieh mit Dir! zieh nach Kommunia! The prairies with their natural charms were very attractive to Weitling, who was well acquainted with many of the corrupt phases of European civilization. His earnest desire was to furnish the peo ple of limited means an opportunity to enjoy life. In all of his writings he felt that the material rewards of life were unequally distributed, that the common people were chafing under this lack of proper adjustment. For instance, after visiting Niagara Falls his only wish is that every inhabitant of New York, whether rich or poor, might see this wonder of the world. After the failure of Communia he practically disappeared from further notice during the last eight een years of his life. He seems not to have written anything of note during this seclusion. In Europe the new scientific Socialism based on English political economy and the Hegelian philosophy as advocated by Mario, Rod- bertus, Marx, and others overshadowed all. When Heinzen (1809-1880) first came to New York in 1848 Weitling sought to win him over to his cause, but the former was too aristocratic and individualistic to associate with an unschooled tailor whom he considered an old fogy. 114 He saw little good in Weit ling s Communism and less that was practical. Heinzen s activities consisted largely in combatting arbitrary governments and revealed religion. For his sharp criticism in Die preussische Bureaukratie (1844) he was forced to flee to Belgium, where he continued writ ing newspaper articles until he was finally compelled to emigrate to America, where he arrived at New York in January of 1848. In a short time he returned to Europe to take part in the revolution of the same year, but returned and became the editor of the Schnell- post, which now became unpopular on account of its caustic edi torials. After several unsuccessful attempts he finally succeeded in founding the famous Pionier (1854-1879), which was largely writ- 114 Cf . Heinzen, Erlebtes, II, Weitling s letter on page 165 ff. and Hein zen s answer following. 74 Socialism in German American Literature ten by himself, and in it he fought with bitter satire for the "teut- scher Radikalismus," whose zealous champion he was. Heinzen corresponded with Freiligrath in London, and in 1846, when the revolution broke out in France the latter sent him his poem, Im Hochland fiel der efste Schuss, which was published in the Schnellpost. Heinzen also became acquainted with Karl Marx at Cologne, where the latter was then editing the Rheinische Zeitung, however he called all the Communists "Schwefelbanditen," and is unsparing in his criticism and lambasting of Marx. 115 Weitling says of Heinzen : "Heinzen ist ein ausgezeichnetes Rasonniertalent, aber kein Denker, kein schaffender Genius, kein entschieden consequenter Charakter. Er hat sich mit seinen Raison- nements gegen Gott und alle Welt und seiner Sucht, einen originellen Gedanken aufzufischen, aus der teutschen Republik in die Deutsche Zeitung, aus der Bekampf ung des Kommunismus bis in die Abschaf- fung der Erbschaft, in die Mondreisen und Knielangen Damenhosen, ja sogar in die Einfuhrung der Weiberparlamente verirrt, und dabei ausser seinen Damenhosen nie einen originellen Gedanken noch ein consequent zusammengestelltes Gesellschaftssystem gefunden. Man erwarte daher von ihm weiter nichts als Kritiken nach alien Seiten hin, gegen Alles, was besteht, denn nach ihm ist alles, was nicht durch und fur Heinzen besteht, auch werth, dass es zu Grunde geht." 116 The writings of Heinzen are numerous, consisting of radical and political essays, addresses, plays, and poetry. 117 Aside from the articles on the labor question Hermann Kriege s Volks-Tribun printed numerous poems advocating its cause. Char acteristic in its way is one entitled Auf! fiir den freien Boden, by Otto Kornich, which begins : Gieb ihn frei, Dass er aller eigen sei ! Freier Boden, f reie Erde ! Dass der Irrthum Wahrheit werde, 115 For Heinzen s relations with Marx see Heinzen s Hrlebtes II, p. 423 ft. Republik der Arbeiter, October 4, 1851. 117 Paul O. Schinnerer, Karl Heinzen, Reformer, Poet and Literary Critic in Deutsch-Amerikanische Ges<chichtsbldtter, Chicago, 1915, pp. 84-145. Socialism Reflected in German American Literature 75 Gieb den Boden endlich frei, Tyrannei ! * * * * # Or Joseph Heise, of St. Louis, in Fur Freiheit und Gleichheit rather prosaically demands: Macht frei, macht frei den Boden von dem Gelde, Der nur fur den ist, der ihn selbst bestellt, Baut euch darauf der Eintracht heil ge Zelte, Und lebt als Briider hier in dieser Welt. These attempts at poems were written during the Free Soil agita tion, and they are exceedingly didactic in nature. Somewhat more successful was a Milwaukee Communist who addressed Dr. George F. Seidensticker, the political martyr, upon his arrival in 1846, after the following fashion: Willkommen hier auf fremder Erde, Du Mann des Wortes und der That ! Willkommen du, den die Beschwerde Des Kerkers nicht gebeuget hat! ***** * * Es schwelgt im Ueberfluss der Eine, Der Bruder darbt in Noth und Schmach. Was kiimmert, ob der Bettler weine, Den reichen Whig im Prunkgemach ? Millionen schmachten an der Kette, Weil sie aus Afrika entstammt, Millionen jagen um die Wette Dem Golde nach und einem Amt. * * * * * * * Drum, wackrer Kampfer, in die Schranken, Der Fortschritt sei Dein Losungswort, Bis Wahn und Vorurtheile wanken, Bleib Du dem Volk ein sichrer Hort ! Another poem of interest published in the Volks-Tribun is the Tischgebet der Communisten in den Vereinigten Staaten, a poem of twenty-three stanzas, with the melody : Es soil uns der NIaturgeist walten ; oder : Wer nur den lieben Gott lasst walten. 76 Socialism in German American Literature The poem begins Natur! du giebst uns alien Speise, Nicht nur dem Menschen, auch dem Vieh ; Nicht nur dem Fisch, auch der Ameise, Erhaltst, ernahrst und trankest sie. Und was ist diese Wunderkraft ! Die alles dies erzeugt und schafft? Es ist das ewig stille Wirken, Was immer, ewig fort geschafTt. ******* The author also reminds us that there is enough land for all and that no one needs to suffer. He ends after the fashion of Hans Sachs : Es singe dies, wer singen kann, Mit Johann Heinrich Wiedemann ! The poem shows the influence of Ludwig Feuerbach s pantheistic philosophy as expounded in Das Wesen des Christenthums (1841), which had been popularized among German laborers by Wilhelm Marr. This crass materialistic philosophy was severely attacked by the churches in the United States. Another author who contributed occasionally to the Folks- Tribun was Paul Harro-Harring 118 (1798-1870), a restless soul and native of Sleswick-Holstein. He took part in the Greek Revolution of 1822, and the Polish Revolution of 1832. Two years later he came to the United States and later went to South America to espouse the cause of freedom. In 1848 he took part in the Sleswick- Holstein-Danish War. His restless liberty-loving spirit drove him about from place to place until his death, which occurred at London in 1870. In the name of humanity and freedom Harro felt it his duty to draw the sword for all young nations striving for liberty. He advocated a sort of poetical humanity, which sees a world of free peoples who live and labor together in perfect harmony. 119 He 118 Werke. Auswahl letzter Hand. 2 Bde. New York 1844 and 1846. 119 In a letter to Kriege published in the Volks-Tribun of Feb. 28, 1846, Harro writes: "Du forderst (in Erwiderung meiner Behauptung) von uns einen Musterstaat, der den Geist unserer National-Verbindungen beurkunde? Ich nenne dir La Buade oriental e y Uraguay (Montevedio) als Staat im Geist der Humanitat, der seit Zehn Jahren mehr Blut der edelsten seiner Sohne vergossen im Kampf gegen den Despotismus, als cure Communisten jemals Geld geopfert haben, zur Verwirklichung cures Systems." Socialism Reflected in German American Literature 77 accuses the Communists of espousing the crass materialistic inter ests of a separate class and of overlooking the "spiritual element of freedom" through which alone a people can realize their dignity. In the poem Der Menschheit Auferstehung he prophesies: Es ist kein Traum ; es muss verwirklicht werden ; Die Volker werden wieder auferstehen ! Das Himmelreich der Liebe wird auf Erden Im Morgenglanz hervor ins Leben gehn. Gelindert werden endlich die Beschwerden Der Menschen, wenn sie klar erst eingesehen, Was noth ist, und in Liebe sich verbinden : Das Reich des Herrn auf Erden zu begriinden. 120 Most of the space of the Volks-Tribun is naturally taken up by discussions on the labor question, besides it contains other articles relating to the social and cultural conditions of the times. Charles Vetter announced in its columns historical philosophical lectures on Communism and Socialism, and on German literature for laborers. Poems of Friedrich von Sallet, Alfred Meissner, and others are re printed among them is Herwegh s Bettelmanns Hochzeit, written originally for Weitling s Die junge Generation. Heinrich Koch (Antipfaff), of St. Louis, was a contributor, and he reported that the paper had seventy subscribers in his city. August Glaser sketched interesting pen pictures in his Wanderungen durch New York. Considerable space is also devoted to the interests of Kriege s "Jung America," who participated actively in American politics. During the late forties Leopold D. S. Alberti (1816-1892) was active as a journalist in New York. For a time he was the editor of Weitling s Republik der Arbeiter. At the age of thirty-eight he 120 Quoted in the Volks-Tribun of January 31, 1846. With Lord Byron and many other enthusiasts Harro-Harring idolized Greece as shown in the following stanza quoted from the poem Lord Byron, published originally in the Alte und Neue Welt (Philadelphia) October 15, 1836: Und sollst du, Hellas, rettungslos versinken, Du schone Jungfrau in der Jugend Glariz? Sollst du den bittren Kelch des Todes trinken? Grunt deinem Haupt nur der Zypressenkranz? Gebt mir ein Schwert ! Dein Ritter steht geriistet, Freiheit und Hellas ! sei das Losungswort ! Und Tod dem Hunde, dem s nach der geliistet ! Die Freiheit ruft dich edler Lord! 78 Socialism in German American Literature went to Columbus, Ohio, to study theology and later entered the Lutheran ministry, however, in 1871 he returned to Germany, where he died in 1892, in Siilfeld bei Oldesloe. In 1865 he published a volume of poems, Palingenesie der Holle, and in 1898 appeared Gedichte zweier Bruder, by Leopold and Eduard Alberti. A few stanzas from his poem, Die Rauber, will serve to illustrate the social istic tendency in his poems : Was ist Geistesdrang und Bildung In der Armuth Fluch und Haft ; Nur als Elend in dem Elend Trug ich Geistesglut und Kraft. In dem Muthe der Verzweiflung Schwollen meine Muskeln an, Und den ganzen Menschen gab ich Willig in der Arbeit Bann ; Und von alien Erdenschatzen Wollt ich durch der Miihe Schweiss Nur den gar bescheid nen Zins. Zum Eintritt in der Menschheit Kreis. 121 It must not be overlooked that some of his best poems are of a different nature, as for instance : Idyll; Kindergruppe; Hinig, einig, deutsches Folk; and Der obere Delaware im Fruhling 1853, Quite a different personality than Alberti was Gustav von Struve (1805-1870), a journalist and author, who came into contact with the German labor movement of New York during the fifties. He and Hecker were two of the most prominent leaders of the Revolution of 1848, which resulted so disastrously for them. Al though Struve associated with the refugee Communists in London, he kept more or less aloof from them as he did later in New York. Up to May, 1859, he was editor of the newly established Soziale Republik, Organ der freien Arbeiter, of New York. In it he pub lished among other matters Bine Proletarierin, Roman aus der Revo- lutionszeit. Although Struve s works were chiefly of a political character he also wrote the dramas, Die Verfolgnng der Juden durch Hmicho (1846), and Bines Fursten Jugendliebe (1870), Gedichte, ^Republik der Arbeiter, December 27, 1851. Socialism Reflected in German American Literature 79 published in 1906, and Handbuch der Phrenologie (1845). ^ s wife sympathized with him in politics and wrote the novel, Die Zither- schlagerin (1850), and other treatises of a biographical and historical nature. During this same period Victor Wilhelm Frohlich, a personal friend of Uhland, Kerner, and Lenau, was driven by some unknown impulse to the shores of America. In 1844 he was editing Die Zeit, a liberal weekly with communistic leanings, at New York, while shortly afterwards he held the same position on the staff of the Cincinnati Volksblatt. Here he also translated Sue s Les Mysteres de Paris, wrote on the temperance question, and started to write a history of political parties in the United States. During 1847 Froh lich was the most noted poet in Cincinnati, however, his productions were didactic. He died in obscurity on Ward s Island, New York. 122 While the communist agitation was carried on at New York and Cincinnati, Heinrich Koch was championing the cause of liberalism in the church, state, and society at St. Louis. With prose and poetry in his journalistic endeavors he met the enemy on these three fronts. He was a convincing, popular orator, and had great influence with the laborers. 123 Many of his poems appeared in the German American papers of the time, a large number in the Anzeiger des Westens, the organ of the local "Lateiner." In spite of the abyss existing between the laborers and the latter, Kooh was on a friendly footing with both. After his newspaper ventures had failed he addressed his Com munist brethren in the East in the columns of the Volks-Tribun (March 14, 1846) : Da giebt es wohl Schreiber, die Zeitungen schreiben Furs Pfaffengesindel, fiir n wuchernden Gauch, Doch Hiilfe dem Armen, das lassen sie bleiben, Sie sorgen nur liebend fiir n eigenen Bauch. Auch mir ging zu Herzen das Elend der Bruder Zu helfen ergrifFs mich mit Wort und mit That Gleich schimpften entsetzlich politische Schmierer, Und schrien von Umsturz, Mord, Raub und Verrath. . Der Deutsche Pionier IV, p. 22, and IX, p. 432 ff. See the article by A. Eickhoff in Der Deutsche Pionier XII, p. 211 ff. 8o Socialism in German American Literature A few months later he spoke in a more resigned if not optimistic tone: Drum lasset uns wirken und schaffen und bauen, Und pfliigen und pflanzen mit emsiger Hand, Und was wir einst ernten, der Zukunft vertrauen, Was heut nicht verstanden, wird morgen erkannt. Die Menschheit lebt ewig ! Zum ewigen Reif en Kann ewige Wahrheit nicht fiiichtig gedeihen. Was wir nicht, das werden einst Andre begreifen, Was die nicht, der Zukunft kein Rathsel mehr sein. Koch s revolutionary attitude became somewhat mellowed when age approached ; in the poem, Kartatschen-Prinz, he confesses : Kartatschenprinz, wie gern hatt ich dich Vernichtet einst mit wahrer Herzenslust, Im bittren Hass, der ganz erfiillte mich, Der immer tiefer grub sich in die Brust! Nun bin ich alt, alt sind wir Beide heut , Und hoch im Alter geh n wir Einen Pfad, Du als ein Konig, ich ein Sohn der Zeit, Der Zeit, die dich gepruft, gelautert hat. Another tyrant hater who is characterized by Rattermann 124 as the "reddest of a red Republican" and a thoroughgoing free thinker was Karl von Schmidt-Biirgeler (1820-1875). He studied theology at Giessen, was disinherited for marrying an actress, and then in tended to join the Adelskolonie in Texas, but his plans went amiss. After his arrival, in 1846, in America he was forced to do all sorts of menial labor. For a time he was an actor in Cincinnati. Later he contributed to Rittig s and Rothacker s Der Unabhangige, and to the Volksblatt and Volksfreund. A stanza from his poem, Der blinde Bettler, reflects industrial conditions and the plight of the defec tive Ich hore wohl der Arbeit riistig Weben, Hor wie der Webstuhl saust ; der Hammer drohnt. Hor die Maschine sich im Takte heben, Hor wie des Dampfes Kraft sich muht und stohnt. 124 For biography by Rattermann see Der Deutsche Pionier, IX, pp. 461- 465. Socialism Reflected in German American Literature Si Doch ich bin blind, arbeiten kann ich nicht, In meine Nacht kein Sonnenschimmer bricht ; Euch hat Gott giitig belles Leben gegeben ; Doch ich bin blind, bin blind, und muss doch leben! The forty-eighters brought a mass of new ideas to America. Although there was no one set of constructive ideas to bind them together, nevertheless, they were all exiles who were united in de nouncing arbitrary governments and old well-established traditions in general. They were a product of the newly developed German universities. At first most of them expected to return to Germany when the turmoil of the revolution had subsided, later many enter tained the idea of establishing a great German Republic probably within the confines of the United States, or even to found a United States of the World. However, such lofty aspirations slackened and were diverted into other channels. "Wie manche geistige Kraft," remarked Eickhoff, 125 "welche die damaligen revolutionaren Stiirme in Europa iiber den Ocean trieben, ist unter dem rauhen Himmel der neuen Welt seitdem verwittert !" Some of them rose to promi nence in American politics, a few returned to Europe, and a large number became journalists and authors of more or less note. Some of the well-known forty-eighters who were at some time in their career interested in furthering socialistic ideas are : Edmund Marklin, Eduard Leyh, Gustav Struve, Julius Frobel, A. C. Wiesner, E. I. Koch, Carl Schnauffer, Fr. Hecker, G. T. Kellner, Wm. Rapp, Rittig, Fr. Hassaurek, Thieme, K. L. Bernays, Hr. Bornstein, A. H. Strodtmann, Gertrud and Maria Blode, Dr. Tiedemann, Otto Rup- pius, Domschke, Fritz and Mathilde Anneke, E. A. Ziindt, Chr. Esselen, Ed. Dorsch, Fenner von Fenneberg, Hugo Andriessen, Aug. and Gottfried Becker, Otto Dresel, Wm. Rothacker, R. Solger, R. Erbschloe, Herm. Raster, Niklas Miiller, Emil Praetorius, Hr. Binder, Carl Beyschlag, Otto Bretthauer, Karl Schramm, J. H. Wiedemann, and Karl D. A. Douai. In fact, all of the forty-eighters were more or less acquainted with the communistic ideas developing in Europe during the forties, however, they were not generally in Der Deutsche Pionier XII, p. 215. 82 Socialism in German American Literature sympathy with the "Handwerkerkommunismus," as advocated by such men as Weitling. Many of the ideas held by them are now, generally, considered socialistic. Friedrich Hassaurek said in an address delivered at Cincinnati May 25, 1875, of the forty-eighters : "Es wiirde amiisant sein, wenn man alle die Vorschlage zusam- menstellen konnte, die damals discutirt und befiirwortet wurden. Abschaffung der Prasidentschaft und des Zwei-Kammersystems, Abschaffung der einzelnen Staats-Regierungen, Abschaffung der Ehe und Erziehung der Kinder durch den Staat, Abschaffung des Geldes oder wenigstens Einfiihrung von Progressiv-Steuern, durch welche es den Reichen unmoglich gemacht werden wiirde, mehr als ein gewisses vorgeschriebenes Vermogens-Quantum zu besitzen, Ab schaffung des Erbrechts, Bekleidung und Verkostigung der armen Kinder wahrend der Schuljahre auf offentliche Kosten, natiirlich auch Abschaffung der Sclaverei, Einfiihrung eines Systems der Riickberufbarkeit der Volksvertreter u.s.w. Nach alien Richtungen hin wurde abgeschafft und in alien Himmelsgegenden wurden die Luftschlosser eines neuen und perfekten Staatswesens aufgebaut. Im Himmel hatte der Hebe Herrgott und in der Holle der Teufel keine Ruhe. Ein Jeder wollte weiter vorwarts gehen und mehr bieten, als alle die Anderen. Wer nicht mit den Weitesten ging und dieselben womoglich zu iiberbieten verstand, wurde als Reaktionar oder als konservativer Leisetreter und Feigling verschrieen." 126 One of the most talented poets of the forty-eighters was Adolf Heinrich Strodtmann (1829-1879), a native of Flensburg, who re mained but four years in the United States and then returned to Europe. He took part in the Sleswick-Holstein war, and in 1848 entered the University of Bonn, from which he was soon expelled, for writing a satirical poem on Gottfried Kinkel. After spending some time in Paris he went to London and in 1852 the "Europamude" poet sailed to America: Ein wilder Geselle auf wildem Meer, Gewappnet in blinkender Liederwehr, So komm ich vom kranken Europa her Zu euch hiniibergeschwommen. *********** Kein Traumer bin ich, den Kampf erschreckt, Kein Tor, der bleiche Systeme heckt *Der Deutsche Pionier VII, p. 112 ff. Socialism Reflected in German American Literature 83 Mich hat aus dem Schlummer die Zeit geweckt, Ihr Schaffen riistig zu teilen ; Und so komm ich zu euch ! was die Stunde bringt, Ob sie Ketten bricht, ob sie Schwerter schwingt, Ob sie jauchzende Lieder der Zukunft singt ; Ich will es glaubig erlauschen, Will mich stellen zu euch in Kampf und Pein, Bis vom letzten Sklaven die Erde rein, Und der Gleichheit Banner im Morgenschein Der Armen Tempel umrauschen. Strodtmann opened a book-store in Philadelphia, and published an illustrated comic weekly, Die Lokomotive (1853), a small eight- page sheet, which soon proved to be a failure financially. In 1856 he returned to Europe. He was a very productive author and translator. Most of his writings were inspired in Europe, but America left an indelible im pression on his memory. His Brutus schldfst duf Zeitgedichte (1863) and also Die Arbeit erdichtung in Frankreich, a collection of French verse in translation, are distinctly socialistic in character. German American Socialist newspapers frequently reprint poems from these collections. Both of the books were excluded from Ham burg by the anti-Socialist in 1878. Such poems as Volk und Furst, Fur Polen, and Arbeiterlied have as a central thought the oppression of the people that toil by the arrogant ruling class. The latter is a war-cry of the toilers as they march forth to champion the rights of the oppressed. Besides numerous works Strodtmann also wrote the first scientific biography of Heine. 127 Among the poets who were active in Turner circles and whose works show a tendency to reflect social conditions are Wilhelm Rothacker (1828-1859), Johann Straubenmiiller (1814-1897), Carl H. Schnauffer (1823-1854), Ernst A. Ziindt (1819-1900), Friedrich C. Castelhun (1828-1906), Max Hempel (1863-1906), and Karl Kniep (1845- ) The Turner literature which is not extensive and is chiefly lyrical did not, as a rule, take up economic questions, but was chiefly interested in the mental and physical development For a list of his works see B rummer f Dichterlexikon. 84 Socialism in German American Literature of the individual as a free citizen. 128 The Turners were especially vehement in their denunciation of "Pfaffentum," "Muckertum," and "Temperenz." They opposed oppression of any kind and were un compromising in their attitude towards slavery. Rothacker was born in Baden in 1828. Disliking the study of law at the University of Freiburg he went to Tubingen to study lit erature and aesthetics under the liberal minded Friedrich Theodor Vischer. For his participation in the Revolution of 1848 he had to flee, so he went to Switzerland. From there he went to England and sailed on the same ship with Karl Heinzen for New York, arriving in October, 1850. In America he was connected with the West Penn- sylvanische Staatszeitung, of Pittsburgh, and the Hochw dchter, of Cincinnati. In 1853 he founded the Menschenfechte in the latter city, which, however, did not prosper, and four years later he be came editor of the Albany Freie Blatter, which post he left the next year to edit the Turnzeitung at Dubuque. He lived but thirty-one years. His Hinterlassene Schriften were published by friends at Cincinnati in 1860. Johann Straubenmiiller, the son of a craftsman, was born in Germany in 1814 and died at New York in 1897. During the revo lutionary days of 1848 and 1849 he was a writer, popular orator and agitator, which got him into difficulty with the authorities, who sen tenced him, but later pardoned him on condition that he emigrate to America. After landing at Baltimore in 1852 he followed the pro fession of a teacher and journalist. His Herbstrosen, gesammelte Gedichte, were published at New York in 1889; other poems ap peared in the Turner-Kalender. The poems Wunsch und Bitte, Die Arbeit, Neujahrswiinsche, Bin faules Lied, and Zum 4. Juli, reveal the author s attitude towards the laborer, who is pictured as being the producer of much good, but is constantly oppressed by the moneyed class. His attitude finds expression, for example, in the aphorism : Angeerbte Millionen Sind meist angeerbter Raub. Weg mit dem histor schen Rechte, m Cf. M. D. Learned, German American Turner Lyric, Baltimore, 1897. Socialism Reflected in German American Literature 85 Das die Masse macht zum Knechte Und den Armen driickt in Staub ! 129 . . : . . or in Die Prominenten Wir sind umsonst nicht prominent, Wir haben Millionen ! Wir haben das Erwerbstalent Und wissen zu belohnen. Wir geben stets den schonsten Ball, Die bestbesuchten Feste, Und leben flott beim Jubelschall Der aufgefrischten Gaste. Wir sind nun einmal prominent, Wir ziehen hohe Renten, Das Geld ist unser Element, Wir fangen gold ne Enten. Gesetze braucht der arme Mann, Wir konnen sie entbehren, Der wahre Mensch fangt doch nur an Bei uns den Millionaren ! 130 Ernest Anton Ziindt was born at Georgenberg, Suabia, in 1819, and subsequently received a university training at Munich. In 1857 he emigrated to America, where he was active as a teacher and editor of various newspapers until his death in 1900. His Hbbe und Flut. Gesammelte Lyrische Dichtungen und Jugurtha, Trauerspiel in fiinf Akten was published at Milwaukee in 1894. Some poems also appeared in the Turner-Kalender. Ziindt sternly opposed in fringement upon the individual s liberty, be it in the material or spiritual concerns of life. 131 He believed in the saving powers of science and combatted theological dogmas. One of his poems which reflects industrial conditions is Heim- kehr von der Arbeit; the day has ended and the father returns home from work : Zur Neige geht der Tag ; der Hammer ruht ; Das Feuer ist geloscht ; der Dampf verbraucht, m Amefikanischer Turner-Kalender, 1881, p. no. 130 Ibid., 1891, p. 68. 131 Cf. the poems Geistiges Turnen in Turner-Kalender for 1884,, and Unentwegt in the 1889 edition. 86 Socialism in German American Literature Und Vogel fliegen, wo der Schlot geraucht. Nur in der Asche glimmt noch etwas Gluth ; Und aus der Werkstatt kommt der miide Mann ; Er athmet auf und tritt den Heimweg an. The remaining stanzas present an idyllic family scene and there is no tendency to become didactic, but in the poem Brot the attitude is different: Verstande jeder doch den Sinn von Brot; Nur wer es schwer verdient, weiss es zu ehren ; Ein Heiligtum der kummervollen Not, Nichts Jenen, die von gold nen Schiissem zehren. Wer s nie erfleht, weil Hunger ihn gequalt, Der kennt nicht jene schlaflos bangen Sorgen, In denen man die bittern Stunden zahlt, Erschreckend vor dem hoffnungslosen Morgen. The whole poem depicts the want and misery of the needy. In Mahnruf the author hints at a coming revolution : Er muss kommen, der Tag des Gerichts, Der die goldenen Schalen wegfegt Von den Tischen der Schlemmer, Der die Waage senkt f iir das Volk, Der nach dem luftreinigenden, Dem vernichtenden Wetter Friede, Bruderliebe, Wahrheit HeraufTuhrt fur Alle, Den Lohn fiir die Darbenden, Die Vernichtung den Bosen. 132 Many Socialists believe in a coming revolution or catastrophe, and that misery is constantly increasing. Zundt strongly favored gymnastic exercises so that the indi vidual might champion his own inherent rights. Wer recht im Turnen sich geiibt, Der springt auch sonst, wo s gilt, Stimmen der Freiheit, p. 667 f . Socialism Reflected in German American Literature 87 So hoch, als es die Freiheit liebt, Von der sein Herz erfiillt. Wer auf dem Turnplatz Sieger bleibt, Steht iiberall seinen Mann; Was Schwachlinge zum Fliehen treibt, Ficht keinen Turner an! Another enthusiastic Turner and herald of freedom was Carl Heinrich SchnaufFer, a native of Wiirttemberg, who already as a student at the University of Heidelberg gained recognition as a poet. Among his acquaintances here were Hecker, Struve, and Blind. In 1848 and 1849 ne to k part in the unsuccessful attempt of the people to gain their liberties. He was compelled to flee, seeking a refuge in Switzerland from where he soon went to England and in com pany of a student friend visited the Scotch Highlands. While there he wrote his drama, Cromwell. About a year later he landed at Baltimore and established the Wecker, which was supported by the Turners and German workingmen. He was not, however, a typical representative of the labor movement of the fifties and Weitling soon found fault with his views. SchnaufTer s promising literary career was cut short by his untimely death in 1854 at the age of thirty-one. 133 Among his poems which reflect economic conditions are Der Weber, in which man is represented as a weaver engaged at the weaving loom of time. Der in London verhungernde Savoyarden- knabe vividly portrays the struggle of the poor in winning their daily bread. Der Wanderer represents a type of vagabond poetry ; it characterizes those individuals who do not fit into the social struc ture. Der Emigrant is one of the numerous German poems reflect ing the thoughts of the departing emigrant. Mahnruf is a call to work written for the first number of the Wecker. In Der Arbeiter Messias steam is hailed as the deliverer of mankind from grinding toil. Need and oppression is depicted in the poem, Gedanken eines deutschen Handwerksburschen. SchnaufTer s poems reflect the social and economic conditions of the times but are not socialistic in the modern sense of the word. 133 His works are Totenkranze (poems), 1850; Kbnig Carl I. oder Crom well und die englische Revolution. Trauerspiel in funf Akten, 1854; Stu- dentenbriefe und Schilderung des Fliichtlingslebens, 1851 ; Lieder und Ge- dichte aus dem Nachlass, 1879. 88 Socialism in German American Literature Much more positive in his views towards the social question was Friedrich C. Castelhun, a native of Nordheim bei Worms. After completing the course in the Gymnasium at Bensheim he emi grated in 1846 to the United States, where he studied medicine at Cleveland and Ann Arbor. After completing his course at Wiirz- burg, Vienna, and Prague he spent most of his subsequent life as a physician at St. Louis. He published a volume of poems in 1883, which had reached its fourth edition by 1902. In the poem, Auf einem Auswanderer-Schiffe, the author is moved by the pitiless fate of the steerage passengers and his memory harks back to Europe : Befreie den hungernden Armen Aus nagender Erdenqual; Vernichte ohne Erbarmen Die Peiniger allzumal ! Sie feiern rauschende Feste, Wie sehr auch klagende Noth ; Sie laden schwelgende Gaste, Und Tausenden fehlt es an Brot. Sie sind des Gesetzes Hiiter Und rauben und plundern uns auch ; Sie sichern sich Stellen und Giiter, Uns bleibt nicht Scholle noch Haus. Wir miissen fort aus dem Lande, Das, traun ! auch uns gehort, Fiir das im Schlachten Brande Auch wir geschwungen das Schwert. * ***** In Kennt ihr das Land?* the author prophesies that soon the storm of freedom will liberate his oppressed countrymen. The memory of the fatherland is cherished by most German American poets ; its weal and woe is a subject of concern to them. In Auf der Nordsee (1856) the poet laments over Germany s con dition as compared with its past. 184 Cf. the poems of like title all modeled after Mignons Lied by Weitling, Knortz, Jacob Smith, Bayard Taylor, Karl Peter, Heinrich Binder. Socialism Reflected in German American Literature 89 Wie anders, anciers ist es jetzt! Der Name nur noch weilt, Das stolze Banner ist zerfetzt, Das Vaterland getheilt. Die Ruhmeskranze sind verdorrt, Es bliihn nur Schmach und Noth; Die Sohne Deutschlands ziehen fort Um Arbeit und um Brot. Sie ziehen elend und bedrangt Mit ihrer Hoffnung Rest, Ins Zwischendeck hinabgezwangt, Den Blick gewandt nach West! Castelhun s sympathy flows out to the man whose lot it is to spend all his time in manual labor to eke out an existence. For in stance, in Bin Proletar he asks : Von Hand zu Mund, von Hand zu Mund! Was ist das fur ein Leben! Dass auf dem Tisch das Brot nicht fehlt, Sein ganzes, ganzes Streben : Was unsrem Dasein Wert verleiht, Fur ihn ist s nicht vorhanden ; Was uns die Erde Schones beut, Fur ihn ist s nicht entstanden. 135 ******* In Die Arbeiter the workers are encouraged to struggle as a class, for the privileged classes have never been in the habit of vol untarily sacrificing their privileges. This didactic attitude is also maintained in the short poems, Recht und Pflicht zur Arbeit and Den Arbeitern. The principle of the right to demand work is brought up in the distich Arbeiter und Drohnen: Bescheiden ist, was sie verlangen, Das Recht zur Arbeit, meinst du nicht? Doch wer stets miissig ist gegangen, Der scheut und hasst die Arbeitspflicht. 138 Castelhun does not admire the reformers that dismiss with dis dain the questions of the material welfare of life. He does not be- 133 Sfimmen der Freihcit, p. 691. 136 Turner-Kalender, 1891, p. 113. 90 Socialism in German American Literature lieVe that bigotry and revealed religion are alone primarily respon sible for the prevailing lack of social adjustment as the p faff en der Vernunft, Die mit Pathos deklamieren, Alles ware wohlbestellt, Wenn der alte Bibelglaube nicht mehr herrschte auf der Welt. Dass auch dann das Elend stohnte, das bekummert sie nicht sehr. ********* Priester, Prediger und Sprecher, Pfaffen seid ihr alle samt! Although the freethinkers and the socialistically inclined stand, generally, for the same principles, the former emphasize the libera tion of the mind, and the latter the liberation of the individual from economic wants. Another prominent Turner who exhibits a socialistic tendency in his poems is Jakob Heintz, a cabinet maker and furniture dealer of New York, who came to America in 1848. A volume of his poems was published at New York in 1888. Other poems were published in the Turner-Kalender, among them An s Werk (1885), which contains the stanza : So lang noch Gold der Konig ist, Der Wucher sein Minister, So lang noch iibt die f alsche List Der frommelnde Philister, So lang man dient der Corruption, Dem Schwindel, dem enormen, So lange sucht den schonsten Lohn Im Kampfe fur Reformen ! Like a true Turner, Heintz attacks priestcraft and the usurer, and, in short, all elements of society that tend to hamper the free and happy existence of the individual. Heintz thinks that woman belongs in the home, for in Zur Frauenfrage he says : Kin sittsam Weib, sie ist des Hauses Segen, Die Kinderschaar erzieht sie mit Geschick Und Mutterpflicht fiihrt sie auf rechten Wegen Socialism Reflected in German American Literature 91 Zu griinden fest sich ein Familiengliick. Im trauten Heim, Beschiitzerin der Liebe, Da herrsche sie ! nicht im Vereinsgetriebe. 137 Like Heintz, Max Hempel, who came to America in 1880 strove with word and pen to right the lack of adjustment in our social structure. He followed the profession of teaching in St. Louis and Omaha. Later he studied medicine at Washington Uni versity and was graduated in 1901. From 1893 the time of his death in 1906 he was also speaker of the Independent Congregation of North St. Louis, which position gave him a good opportunity to express his monistic view of the universe and other liberal religious ideas. His religious views are shown in such poems as Verschie- dener Glaube, Warum ich nicht glaube an Gott, Dreiheit und Zwei- heit, Der Zweifel, and others. A volume of Turner songs, Turner- leben, appeared in 1883 and his Gedichte were published at St. Louis in 1909. The gulf existing between the rich and the poor, the misery of the one and the extravagance of the other is emphasized in such poems as Sie miissen betteln, wenn sie hungrig sind. A poverty- stricken father in his humble and unsanitary quarters, at the verge of death, feels resentful towards his wealthy employer and exclaims : Euch faulen Reichen kommt das Gliick im Schlafe, Wolliistig wuhlet ihr im Ueberfluss, Indes der arme Arbeitsmann, der Sklave, Mit Weib und Kindern darben muss. O nennt ihr das ein gliicklich Menschenleben, Das nie entrinnet schwerer Arbeit Frohn, Und das sich stiickweis muss an Den vergeben, Der es erkauft um einen kargen Lohn ! 138 The modern factory system is reflected in Zeitbild: Die Schlote rauchen, die Metalle kochen, Der Rader Sausen und der Hammer Pochen Erschiittert bang des Baues leichte Wande. Heiss, wie die immer f rischgeschiirten Brande Der hohen Oef en, wallt die Luft im Saale ; Durch blinde Scheiben schleicht das Licht, das fahle. 37 Turncr-Kalender, 1898, p. 78 f . i3s Stimmen der Freiheit, p. 449 ff. 92 Socialism in German American Literature Die Lungen stohnen und die Muskeln schwellen, Von russgeschwarzten Mannerstirnen quellen Des Schweisses Perlen. Contrasted to this scene is the home of the factory owner : Driiben in dem reichen, Kostbar geschmiickten Hause sitzt im weichen Lehnsessel der Fabrikherr, und er lachelt heiter, Denn auf des Reichtums steiler Stufenleiter Hat er die hochste Sprosse bald erklommen. Er murmelt : "Auf die hochste muss ich kommen, Hs geht zu langsam noch ! Wer Millionen Gewinnen will, darf keine Andern schonen. Die Preise holier ! Nied ren Lohn den Leuten !" 139 The poem continues picturing the strained relations existing between capital and labor and how the Genius of mankind hovers above it all and sees the old system finally collapse. In Das neue Maienlied Hempel likewise stresses the plight of the needy. Quite different in his attitude is Karl Kniep of Newark when in Arbeit ers Liebchen he sings : Will Morgens ich zur Arbeit geh n, Muss erst ich Liebchens Antlitz seh n, An ihrem Haus zieht s mich vorbei, Das sicher mir ihr Anblick sei. Und wenn mein Arm den Hammer schwingt, In s Ohr mir Liebchens Stimme dringt, Und aus der Esse Feuergluth Lacht mir ihr Bildniss lieb und gut. 140 ******** Similarly in another poem, Die Arbeit ruft, where the workingman does not forget his sweetheart from whose presence the factory whistle has hurriedly called him : Will ein Nest Dir bauen, Darf nicht miissig schauen, Hand und Kopf soil zielbewusst Vorwarts streben voller Lust. Dampfwerk stamp ft und drohnet, 139 Stimmen der Freiheit, p. 451. u Durch Sturm und Sonnenschein in vierzig Jahren. Gedichte. New York and Newark, 1906, p. 40. Socialism Reflected in German American Literature 93 Doch im Innern tonet, Denkend Dein hinfort, Von der Lieb manch Wort, Und im Geist mein Aug erschaut Stets die holde, Hebe Braut. 141 Kniep expresses the opinion that modern technics and machines do not crush man s better qualities, and that steam and electricity serve only the rich, but he adds that financial power is frequently misused so that the struggling masses do not get their just dues of the abundance and splendor of modern life. Kniep s idea of art is that it must serve the times and elevate mankind. In Mahnung he maintains : Der Kiinstler, er schwebt nicht am Himmelszelt, Ein Anrecht hat auch an ihn die Welt, Und will die Kunst in der Welt gedeihen, So muss sie sich freundig der Menschheit weihen. Die neue Zeit braucht neues Lied, Ein Lied voll Kampfeslust, Das Jeden machtig vorwarts zieht; Des werdet Euch bewusst ! Und wenn Ihr nicht begreift die Zeit, Wie soil sie Euch versteh n? Dann wird mit andrer Herrlichkeit Auch Eure Kunst vergeh n. 141 Among the collections of poems that have come to the writer s notice is J. A. Kunkel s Gedichte (New York, 1856), which relate chiefly to the political struggles going on in Germany during the forties and fifties. The themes treated are similar to those already discussed. The following stanzas quoted from longer poems will serve as illustrations : Die Bettlerin (1852). Sieh die Arme, deren Haupt Gram und Hunger friih gebleicht, Wie sie wankend dort am Stab Um des Reichen Wohnung schleicht. Der Proletaries 1847 Ein Bild aus Deutschland. Langsam wankt durch die Strassen 1 Ibid., p. 41 and p. 108. 142 For complete title see the bibliography. 94 Socialism in German American Literature Keuchend unter schwerer Last Dort ein armer Proletarier Der nicht einmal Zeit zur Rast. Auswanderer (1852). Was zieh n die Menschen so schweigend furbass, Die Blicke so duster, das Auge so nass, Die Haupter gesenkt zur Erde ? Sie fiihren auf Wagen in diirftigem Schrein Nur wenige Habe und Kinder so klein, Sie scheiden vom heimischen Heerde. ********** Und wenn sie die Kiiste des Landes dann seh n Wo einzig die Banner der Freiheit noch weh n, Dann f iihlen die Brust sie gehoben ; Sie fiihlen vom Druck des Tyrannen sich f rei, Sie fiihlen die Wiirde des Menschen aufs neu , Und blicken, Gott dankend, nach oben. The titles of some of the other poems in this collection will suffice to indicate their character Freiheit und Gleichheit (1848), Robert Blum (Dec. 1848), Proletarier und Arbeiter (1853), Der Reiche (1852), Der Arbeiter. Carl Reuber, a poetically inclined workingman of Pittsburgh, collected and published a small volume of socialistic verse (Pitts burgh, 1872), under the title of Gedanken iiber die neue Zeit. It contains poems originally appearing in Die Zukunft (Indianapolis), Pittsburgh VolksUatt, and Pittsburgh Freiheitsfreund. They are of little merit and their value consists in giving a picture of con temporaneous conditions of society. Two other small volumes of poems relating to the labor question are Franz Schlegl s Feier Stunden, Gedichte furs arbeitende Volk, and Sturmglocken. Sonette (Philadelphia, 1880) by Lina Mater (pseud. A. Lamartine). Alex. Henninger published Arbeit und Fortschritt. Bin Gedicht uber soziale Reform at San Francisco in 1870. The fourth edition of Theodore Bracklow s Die Erscheinung, Episches Zeitgedicht appeared at New York in 1854. Dr. E. J. Lowenthal s tragedy, Robert Blum, was put out in the same city in 1886. Quite a number of occasional poems have been printed for special gatherings or meetings in labor circles; these appeared on Socialism Reflected in German American Literature 95 programs, posters, calendars, and in periodicals. An examination of the files of Socialist newspapers of recent times reveals many re prints taken from German collections of socialistic verse, such as Strodtmanns Arbeiterdichtung in Frankreich; Vorwarts! Bine Sammlung von Gedichten fur das arbeitende Volk; and Stimmen der Freiheit. 1 * 2 Besides other poems often by obscure or nameless authors occur constantly. To illustrate : there appeared in the Volks- stimme des Western (St. Louis), from September i, 1877, to May 26, 1878 poems by Hugo Schlag, Eduard Bertz, R. Sauer, Brachvogel, Fr. von Sallet, Minna Kleeberg, Wighart Karl, Ludwig Kalisch, Johann Ziegler, Karl Schramm, J. A. Mayer, Paul Lossau, A. Otto- Walster, Adolf Strodtmann, Hiils, Fr. Riickert, Herwegh, Prutz, Jakob Audorf. Poems from exchanges are reprinted occasionally. The St. Louis Tageblatt during May, 1888, contained poems by Hieronimus Lorm, Franz Keim, Wilhelm Wiesberg, Otto Wolf, and Freiligrath. In the Arbeit er Zeitung (St. Louis) from August, 1898, to September, 1900, appeared poems by Hedwig Vogel, Jakob Au dorf, H. E. Lange, Adolf Glassbrenner, Emilie Hoffman, Fr. Boden- stedt, Max Kegel, Herman Glauch, Joseph Schiller, Andreas Scheu, Leopold Jacoby, Bertha Schrottenloher, Robert Seidel, Ada Negri, A. F. Sterger, Hr. Binder, Wm. Benignus, Anzengruber, Hr. Bartel, and Georg Herwegh who of all is reprinted most frequently. Prac tically all of the poetry is of a distinctly socialistic character. Mrs. Mathilde Sorge, for instance, addresses Das schlafende Proletariat: Wacht auf ! Nicht ist zum Schlafen Zeit. Arbeiter wacht ! Zieht in den Streit. Fur Freiheit, euer menschlich Recht ! Arbeiter, seid ein frei Geschlecht! Frei sei, was tragt ein menschlich Herz ! Frei sei, wer f uhlt der Armuth Schmerz ! Wars auch zum Tod Kampft fur die Fahne roth! Another favorite type of poem is Die Diebe } Heinesque in character : Da war einmal ein kleiner Dieb, Der stahl ein Brot dem Kind zu lieb, 96 Socialism in German American Literature . Und wurde schier gefangen Und konnte erst in Jahr und Stund, Trotz sein und seines Weibes Mund Die Freiheit wieder erlangen. Dem Andern war s Gliick auch nicht hold, Stahl einen filznen Sack mit Gold Durch Einbruch, still und nachtens ; Und eh noch ein halb Jahr verging, Er am Gevatter Dreibein hing Und das von wegen Rechtens. Der Dritte war ein grosser Dieb, Der stahl sich ganz allein zu lieb Des Volkes Geld und Rechte. Die Countyvater obendrein, Die thaten ein willig Ohr ihm leihn, Und dienten ihm wie Knechte. Nun weiss ich doch wahrhaftig nicht, Wie solch ein dummes Ding geschieht, Und musste doch vermeinen, Dass wenn euch Gott das Urtheil lenkt, Der dritte Dieb viel hoher hangt, Als wie die beiden Kleinen. 143 Among the more modern German American writers who show a decided social conscience is Eduard Dorsch, a native of Wiirzburg, who was driven over the ocean by the political storms of 1848. Ich will dir auch sagen, was mich vertrieb; Ich hatte die Heimath so lieb, so lieb, Und wollte sie gliicklich sehen ; Ich habe geschrieben manch ernstes Wort, Ich sprach: "Jagt eure Drohnen fort!" Da war es um mich geschehen. 144 He had studied medicine at Munich and Vienna where he spent the life of a typical German student. Many of these experiences are reflected in Aus mussigen Stund en eines Munchener Student en (1844). After his arrival he became a newspaper correspondent in New York but finally settled down to practice medicine at Monroe, Michigan. At various times he contributed to the Europa, Grenz- 143 Volksstimme des Wesiens, Sept. 3, 1877. 144 Gedichte, p. 53. Socialism Reflected in German American Literature 97 hot en, and Brockhaus Literaturblatt, and the Sunday edition of the Illinois Staatsseitung. He was especially conspicuous for his ardent championing of radical free thought. Moreover, he took an active part in the presidential campaigns of 1856 and 1860. His poems, Aus der Alien und Neuen Welt, were published at New York in 1884. They reflect the author s conception of the political and economic conditions of the times. Some of them are genuine lyrics and the variety of poetical forms employed is worthy of note. Already as a student he sympathized with the nameless poor. As he sees the candle light flickering near the deathbed of the poor he whispers : Leise, leise meine Lieder! lasst ihn still von hinnen gehn. Lasst ihn sterben, wie er lebte, einsam, arm und unbekannt, Dass vor Hunger er gestorben, Christenliebe wird s genannt ; 145 A vivid presentation of the contrast between the predatory rich and the suffering poor is made in the Ghasele I: Der Reiche trinkt aus goldenen Geschirren Den strafenden Gewissensbiss zu kirren ; Der Arme trinkt aus irdenem Gefasse Die eignen Thranen, bitt rer noch als Myrrhen. Der Reiche lauscht in strahlenden Gemachern Auf seiner Courtisanen susses Girren, Der Arme ringt auf hartem Kerkerlager Umsonst nach Schlaf bei lautem Kettenklirren. 145 In Im Urwald the poet has escaped the strict European censor, and there he need not help to feed the drones of Old World society. In the primeval forest the man of the world can find a quiet refuge from shallow, showy society. The poem, Zwei Liebende, gives an account of the tragic death of two lovers driven by force of circumstances to end their own lives. Dorsch s satire reaches its climax in his Parabasen published at Milwaukee in 1875 which are most caustic in their criticism of modern society. The underlying charge is that priestcraft comes Gedichte, pp. 15 and 27. 7 98 Socialism in German American Literature very near being the root of all evil. In each of the twelve parts of the poem the poet takes a thrust at some evil of society. For example, a farmer spending an idyllic existence next to nature moves to the city where he and his family are exposed to poverty, disease, and crime and finally all succumb. A frivolous society woman whose lack of personal beauty is atoned for by the skillful use of drug store preparations succeeds in cajoling a man into marriage. Wie kann der hohle, reiche Tropf, auf den sie s abgesehen, Den Reizen, acht theils, theils geborgt, noch langer widerstehen. She spends her husband s money at Paris and Newport but fails to do her social duty of rearing children. Part four harks back to German conditions when the poor peasant was forced to leave on account of excessive taxes. The conflict of science and religion looms forth vividly time and time again. He satirizes the relic hunter and antiquarians in general. After he dreamed that he be held flawless Grecian models of men and women in heaven, he longs for the realistic ; even a wart or a red nose would relieve the strain. The machine has increased the production of manufactured articles but poverty goes hand in hand with the factory system. The growth of cities has bred poverty, crime, and disease, and as in Aristophanes times the executers of the law are not doing their duty. "Biirger- tugend" is lacking and money reigns supreme. The whole book is a rather vigorous indictment of the present system, and invariably the author comes back to his thesis that the Christian church has failed to perform its mission. Of a different temperament was the humorist, Otto Bretthauer (1832-1882), who was like Dorsch also a native of Bavaria. After the Revolution he fled to New York where he struggled with poverty as a newspaper correspondent and editor. With Max Cohnheim in 1858 he established the Newyorker Humorist, a veritable thesaurus of wit and humor, which, however, was soon discontinued. Brett- hauer s writings are characterized primarily by a touch of genuine humor, as is shown in the little volume, Ernstes und Launiges. Lieder und Zeitgedichte, Satyren und Epigramme published at New York in 1880. Some of the author s own experiences were, prob- Socialism Reflected in German American Literature 99 ably, related to those suggested in the poem Weihnachten (p. 34) or in Sylvesternacht (p. 35). The contrast of rich and poor is brought out in the latter : Da liegt mein Kind an welker Brust, Ich kann es kaum erwaermen O Gott, wann wird zu Ende sein Dies Leiden und dies Haermen? Mein Aelt ster kauert in der Eck Und nagt an einer Kruste, Die, barfuss wankend durch den Schnee, Er sich zu holen wusste. Er fragt mich, was denn die Musik Im Ballsaal dort bedeute ; Es ist Sylvesternacht o Gott, Mir klingt s wie Grabgelaute. In 1878 on the occasion of a strike he wrote Zwanzigtausend Dollars Salair ^ Q a jibe at the statement that a family of six can live on a dollar a day : Als Beecher vernahm, der Ehrenmann, Vom blutigen "Strike" die Mahr , Da stieg er auf die Kanzel und sprach Von Lohnen und Salair. "Ein Dollar per Tag f iir die Deinen und Dich Geniigt was willst Du noch mehr? Ihr seht doch, dass ich zufrieden bin Bei Zwanzigtausend Salair. Das Gliick des Genusses, dummes Volk, Es ist nur imaginar. Entsagung gewahrt das wahre Gliick Bei Zwanzigtausend Salair. The break in thought at the end of the third line and the repetition of the fourth line is quite humorous but nevertheless telling. 147 148 Ernstes und Launiges, p. 55 ff. 147 An interesting and humorous "Kulturbild" is presented in C. H. Schmolze s travesty on Goethe s Faust, in which appear besides Faust and his Famulus, a "Kramergeist" and the German Michel. In staging it F. Moras, who took the part of the Kramergeist, was dressed to represent a huge money-bag; even his feet represented money-bags. Cf. Kneipzeitung der Namenlosen, a Ms., also Mitteilungen des Deutschen Pionier-Vereins von Philadelphia, 1907, Drittes Heft. ioo Socialism in German American Literature Numerous other poems that reflect the social conscience of their authors have come to the writer s notice. Almost invariably the ruthless transplanting from the German to the American soil gave rise to this point of view which was usually also intensified by the subsequent struggle for a livelihood. Such poems are Auswanderers Schicksal by Julius Dresel (1816-91), Fabrikarbeiter by F. O. Dresel (1824-81), Ein Kunsterlos by Paul Carus (1852 ), and Ein gefallenes Mddchen and Der Landstreicher by Konrad Krez (1828- 1897). Karl Schramm and J. H. Wiedemann wrote considerable socialistic verse for contemporaneous newspapers. The journalist, Heinrich Binder, has not forgotten the stormy days of 1848 in his Liederklange aus vier Jahrzehnten (1895). He resents also the accusation that America is an unpoetical country in the poem, Amerikanische Poesie, for he says : Die (poetry) spricht aus dem Maschinenrad, Aus jeder Esse Gluth, Aus jedem Kessel, der da spriiht Auf sturmbewegter Fluth. 148 Boldly he accuses the magnate who forgets the human element con cerned in business: Fruchtlos ist der Heloten Ringen: Der "Trust" bleibt Herr ! Vergeblich dringen Auf Schutz sie bei dem Gouverneur; Ob, dass man ihrer nicht vergesse, Fur sie auch nimmt Partei die Presse, Die Armen finden nicht Gehor. 148 Drei Epochen, Kennst du den Mann? and Ein gutgemeint Weih- nachtslied treat similar questions. 148 The materialistic philosophy popularized by the Hegelians and especially by Ludwig Biichner s Kraft und Stoff among Germans in America is reflected in Emil Dietzsch s Kraft und Stoff (1884), a volume of poetry, sketching with bold sweeps of the pen various episodes in the political and economic history of the Germanic race from primitive times to the fiftieth anniversary of the founding of Chicago in 1883 all within the confines of 196 pages. To Dietzsch Liederklange, pp. 24, 77, 80, 88, and 94. Socialism Reflected in German American Literature 101 America is the land of freedom where the labors of the poor are frequently royally rewarded. 149 Karl Peter, W. O. Soubron, and Edmund Marklin incline to the socialistic interpretation of modern society. The collected works of Peter who was a decided radical were published at Milwaukee in 1887. Soubron who lives at Milwaukee exhibits similar tendencies. Some of his ideas concerning a more harmonious adjustment of modern society are revealed in the poem, Das neue Lied. 150 Marklin was personally acquainted with Uhland, Schwab, Morike, and other Suabian poets. After the Revolutions of 1848 and 1849 he fled to Switzerland where he met Herwegh and the Socialist Moritz Hess. Subsequently he was confined eighteen months in prison at the Hohenasperg where Wilhelm Rapp was also incarcerated at that time. In 1852 he arrived in America where later at Milwaukee together with Heinrich Loose he published a radical and a labor paper. A second edition of his poems, Im Strome der Zeit, appeared at Milwaukee in 1886. Among the temporary residents who disseminated German socialistic ideas in America were Leopold Jacoby, Julius Frobel, Maurice Reinhold von Stern, A. C. Wiesner, Hedwig-Wilhelmi ; and others. Jacoby (184095), an author, traveller, scientist, and philosopher, lived in America during the early eighties. He was an ardent advocate of socialist principles, for he believed : Alle Menschen sind erhoben, Und sie werden alle gleich Nicht nach unten ; nein, nach oben In dem neuen Weltenreich. 151 One of his most popular works was the collection of verse, Es werde Licht which had already reached its fourth edition in 1893. March 19, 1883 he was present at the celebration in Cooper Institute, New York, given in honor of Karl Marx who had died five days before. For this occasion he wrote a poem eulogizing " 9 Dietzsch, Kraft und Stoff, p. 167. 350 Stimmen der Freiheit, p. 167. Cf. also Deutsch-Athen (verse a la Heine) in Turner-Kalender, 1896, p. 60 ff., and Der Farmerbursch in Turner- Kalender, 1890, p. 42 f. 151 Stimmen der Freiheit, p. 153. IO2 Socialism in German American Literature the father of modern Socialism. 152 Frobel (1805-93), a nephew of the great educator of like name, was connected with various pub lishing ventures in Germany espousing the liberal cause until he and Robert Blum were condemned to die in 1848, but the former was pardoned. From 1849 to I ^55 he was in America connected with a soap factory, trade expeditions and newspapers. In his Sys tem der sozialen Politik ( 1847) he tried to put Socialism on a scienti fic basis, however later experiences estranged him from Socialism. 163 A. C, Wiesner (1824- ), an Austrian army officer, became too free in expressing his views in 1848 and had to flee. He spent part of his time travelling over the United States but returned to Europe. His Psalmen eines Verbannten (1849) were quite popular among his countrymen of similar sympathies in this country. ,.., Maurice Reinhold von Stern who formerly exhibited a decided socialistic strain spent five years (1880-85) in and around New York where he worked for some time as a dock laborer, clerk, miner, and iron-mill worker. Later he became a newspaper reporter and founded the New Jersey Arbeiter Zeitung. Upon his return to Europe in 1885 he published Proletarier Lieder, Gesammelte Dich- tnngen, dem arbeitenden Volke gewidmet. Among his other numer ous works is Von jenseits des Meeres, Amerikanische Skizzen (Glar- us, 1890). Modern conditions are reflected in such poems as Nahmadel: Ich bin ne kleine Nahmamsell Und morgens muss ich ins Geschaft, Oft schon, wenn kaum am Himmel hell Der Tag die Lichtgardinen refft. Dann steh ich vor den Spiegel hin Und kamm, und bind mein blondes Haar, Und denk dabei in meinem Sinn, Wie sonnenarm ich immer war. 154 Josef Schiller of Reichenberg was active for twenty-seven years as a labor agitator in Austria spreading broadcast his thoughts and 152 Stimmen der Preiheii, p. 148. 153 The noted political economist, Friedrich List (1789-1846), was in American from 1825 to 1830 and later returned for another stay. Many of his theories are realized in the Germany of to-day. 154 Lieder aus dem Zaubert hal, Leipzig, 1905, p. 41. Socialism Reflected in German American Literature 103 sentiments with word and pen, in prose and poetry, until an enraged censorship in 1896 drove him to America where he died the next year in abject poverty at Germania, Pennsylvania. He corresponded with Robert Reitzel, and contributed to the Cleveland Volksanwalt, Buffalo Arbeiterseitung, and other papers. 155 Among the women who have disseminated liberal ideas in Amer ica are Hedwig Henrich-Wilhelmi, Johanna Greie, Emma Goldman, and Mrs. Neymann and Aveling. In a certain sense Konrad Nies who was born at Alzey in Rheinhessen in 1862 may be said to represent in his Funken (1891) the transition to a more modern German American poetry. Amalia von Ende calls him "a link between the Old and the New, a man of firm adherence to established aesthetic creeds, but by no means in sensible to the voice of the Zeitgeist" and the foremost poet of Ger man America to-day. 156 Nies is a poet, actor, teacher, journalist, and traveller who came to America in 1883. In his poems, Funken, he gives expression to the usual themes of home-sickness arid the plight of the German poet in America, but also he portrays the ruth less sweep of the modern industrial machine over the romance of the past. The poems, Heute and Auf der Fahrt, and the sonnet, I m Bonn der Hnge, portray vividly the changes that modern life has wrought. The last division of Funken, entitled Fruhrot, is prefaced with a motto from Karl Bleibtreu: "Die Ahnung einer neuen Zeit durch- zuckt den Schoss des Alls." Nies calls on the idle romantic dreamer and the anachronistic conservatist to awaken from the past and to realize the new social duties incident to modern progress that de volve upon them. The social conscience of the poet has been awak ened. Mindful of the misery of the masses he has the wind say : Fiill mit deinem Wein den Becher f risch ! Speis und Trank beut taglich dir dein Tisch. Brotlos aber hungern, darben, schmachten Tausend, Tausend in des Elends Schachten Nur der Abfall von der Uebersatten 155 Stimmen der Freiheit, p. 107 ff. and p. 416 for a poem on Schiller by Henrich Bartel. 156 Poet Lore, Autumn number, 1906, p. 113. Cf. also Das literarische. Echo, May 15, 1899, I, 097-1003. IO4 Socialism in German American Literature Uepp gem Mahl, Nahm von tausend Siechen, Hungersmatten Bittre Qual. 157 His heart goes out to the ostracized of society as is shown in the sonnet, Ein Begrdbnis: Und Keiner weiss, dass hier ein Herz begraben, Das einst an hohen Idealen reich, Dem Schonen schlug unendlich liebeweich, Bevor die Welt ihm seinen Gott verdarb Und es am Wege schuldzerdriickt erstarb. Die Blatter fallen, und es schrei n die Raben. 157 In his latest volume of poems, Aus westlichen Welten (1905) Nies sings, for the most part, of his travels in search for health, al though in Frau Illusion he approaches again the milieu of metro politan life. On the whole NJes poems avoid the prosaically di dactic. This element stands out clearly again in many of the poems written by Heinrich C. Lange who was born at Hausberge on the Weser in 1842. He emigrated in 1868 and settled at St. Louis. His poems, Feld- und Wiesenblumen appear at St. Louis in three volumes, the first and second in 1898 and the third in 1902. The greater part of them do not pertain to the social and economic ques tions of the day. Socialistic are : Der Handwerker in der Neuzeit, Was wollen sief Bine verzweijelte That, Die oberen Zehntausend, Zukunft und Gegenwart, Der Strassenbahn-Ausstand, Wetterleuch- ten, Den Socialist en, Den Ruhebedurftigen, and Armut und Reich~ turn. They pertain to such themes as the industrial revolution, the despair of the unemployed, the extravagance of the predatory rich, strikes, the intellectual proletariat, the unfair distribution of the world s goods, contrast between rich and poor, and the like. As a cigar maker at Leipzig Lange had already become well acquainted with the teachings of Liebknecht and Lassalle. When F. W. Fritzsche s Blut-rosen, sozial-politische Gedichte (2nd ed.) were published at Baltimore in 1890 Robert Reitzel said 187 Funk en, pp. 181 and 137. Socialism Reflected in German American Literature 105 of the author: "Der Sohn der Armut, Schiiler der Armenschule, Zigarrenmacher, Freidenker und Sozialist, Reichstagsabgeordnete und Exilirte weiss ganz gut in Tonen zu denken." 158 This in brief characterizes Fritzsche who was born in Leipzig in 1825, lived through the storms of 1848 and 1849, organized the laborers and later represented them in the Reichstag. In 1881 he and Louis Viereck came to the United States at the behest of the German Social Democratic Party. Subsequently he emigrated to Philadel phia with his family and for many years contributed to the Tage- blatt. He died in Philadelphia February 5, igos. 159 Of special merit in the Blut-Rosen are Das Grab am Birken- baum, Bin Traum, and Mein Vaterland. In the last named poem he says : Jetzt trennt ein Meer mich von der Heimath Boden, Doch wehret mir das Meer, die Feme nicht, Zu folgen dem, was Sehnsucht mir geboten : "Du darf st es nicht, ob auch das Herz dir bricht !" So sprach der Bann, der mir die Heimath raubte, Mich mitleidsbar in s Elend stiess, Weil ich an Bruderlieb und Gleichheit glaubte, Den Kampf um Gleichheit, Recht und Freiheit pries. 160 Heinrich von Ende, a journalist, musician, and idealist was born at Bremen in 1847. At the time of the Commune (1871) he was in Paris and became thoroughly imbued with communistic ideas which fact led to a break with his highly aristocratic family, and in the next year he left for America. He was secretary to Ludwig Biichner on the latter s lecture tour in this country. He was an active free thinker and Socialist writing articles for the Freidenker and Sozialist of Milwaukee, and later he became editor of the Ohio V olkszeitung, a Socialist paper. He published Gedichte (1870), Des Konigs Freund (1875), and Mississippi und Rhein (1876), a poem. His wife Amalia assisted him in his newspaper work. She has published Vier Lieder (1899), Sonnets of the City and other Poems (1903), and many articles in periodicals, notably those in 158 Der arme Teufel, May 3, 1890. 159 Cf. Chapter I of this treatise; Waltershausen, p. 168 ff., and the intro duction to Blut-Rosen. 180 Blut-Rosen, p. 7. io6 Socialism in German American Literature the New York Nation and Das liter arise he Echo. The poem Gross- stadt published in Neeff s collection 161 illustrates modern metro politan life. Quite a number of lesser lights have shown a tendency to re flect economic conditions of society. Among them is Hugo Schlag (1838-86) who arrived in 1868. He was a compositor by trade who worked in different cities until his death at New York. Besides con tributing poems to the newspapers he wrote the tragedy Thomas Miinser. Paul Loebel a talented and idealistic actor who played in Chicago and other cities during the seventies and eighties, and later became a journalist published a volume of poems in 1879 at Chicago. In the parody on the Harfners Lied he bewails the fate of the German actor in America. 162 He finally committed suicide. 163 Heinrich Bartel, the present editor of the Milwaukee Vorw drts has contributed many poems to German Socialist papers. A collection of sixteen which are essentially protests against certain defects of social adjustments were published in Stimmen der Freiheit. In the style of the folk-song is the one on page 417: Ich bin ein freier Sangersmann, Hab weder Gut noch Geld, Mein Reichtum ist mein freier Sinn, So zieh ich durch die Welt. Und wo ich freie Menschen seh, Da halt ich kurze Rast, Demi wo die Freiheit Wirtin ist, Dort bin ich gerne Gast. ******* So zieh ich singend durch die Welt Und rufe auf zum Streit, Ich will der Freiheit Lanzknecht sein, Ein Sohn der neuen Zeit. Hermann O. Dreisel (1869-1903), a native of Reichenbach, Saxony, came to America in 1884 where he spent the next twelve years struggling for a livelihood as a factory worker and miner. Lande des Sternenbanners, p. 40 f. 162 Gedichte, p. 15. 163/ Quite a number of idealistic German American journalists either met at their own hands or became mentally unbalanced. Socialism Reflected in German American Literature 107 Later he became a teacher at Milwaukee and Chicago. Both he and his wife met an untimely death in the Iroquois Theater fire in 1903. His Gesammelte Schriften consisting of prose and poetry were pub lished at Milwaukee by his friends in 1905. Dreisel defends the rights of the dispossessed masses, and is prone to portray their squalor. Karl Reuter Kerger wrote socialistic verse for the Turner- Kalender and Der arme Teufel. John Most and Julius Vahlteich have published collections of stirring songs for the laborers; while numerous obscure poets have written new words to old popular melodies. Among the most recent versifiers are F. G. Bufe, Friedrich Michel, Julius Zorn, Emilie Hofmann, and Anna Nill. Bufe, a cigar-maker by trade, was born at Wechselburg, Saxony, and emi grated to America in 1884. A small volume of his poems, Licht und Schatten, Diverse Gedichte was published at Moline, Illinois, in 1906. In simple rhymes he treats of the customary themes of the social reformer. Typical is the poem Gegensatze des Lebens in which the equipage of a Mr. Goldman is contrasted with the busy life of a widow and children who work long hours in a factory. 164 Michel, a native of Alsace, immigrated in 1881 and established a ladies hat business which he still superintends. His Asraklange, und cmdere Gedichte (Strassburg, 1906) treat among other sub jects, modern inventions, the social question, and the duties of woman. Zorn was born at Pforzheim, Baden, in 1852, and came to America in 1874. He lives at Cincinnati, and is quite active in the Arbeiter Sangerbund. Some of his verses appeared in Stimmen der Freiheit. William Benignus, Paul Wienand, F. H. Lohmann, and Hugo Bertsch have shown considerable interest in social prob lems. Emilie Hofmann was born at Liebenau in 1844 and emigrated to America about 1872. Her poems which betray but meager poetic talent appeared in various Socialist newspapers, notably those of St. Louis. Anna Nill who is a zealous champion of the proletarian cause hails from Wurttemberg and lives now on Long Island. She writes: "Was ich bis jetzt geschrieben, hat der Wind in die weite Welt getragen, und hat auch einiges Wurzel gefasst zum Wohle der Stimmen der Freiheit, p. 462. io8 Socialism in German American Literature Menschheit, und meiner Zufriedenheit. * * * Eigene Biicher liess ich nie drucken, habe ich etwas auf dem Herzen, so drucken s die Zeitungen gerne." 165 Hermann Glauch, a printer by trade, was born at Dobeln, Sax ony, in 1855, came to Cincinnati in 1872, and soon thereafter went to San Francisco. His poems appeared in the German papers of Cincinnati and San Francisco. His Gedichte were published at Oakland, California, in 1897. In the preface to this book he reveals his state of mind: "Wahrend ihm (the poet) heute das Herz auf- geht in Lust und Freude beim Anblick der Wunder der Natur, im stillen Frieden des Heimes beim Gliicke seiner Umgebung, sieht er morgen das krasse Elend, die bitterste Noth, hort den Jammerruf der Unglucklichen und Unterdriickten " This statement charac terizes this collection of poems. Such poems as Auswanderung, Bin Landstreicher, Ins Armenhaus, Moloch Grossstadt, Unsere Zeit, Ar- beitslos, Handwerker einst! Was jetzt ? are mingled with others that sing the beauty of nature, home and love. The modern milieu is illustrated in Bin Lebensbild beginning : Feuerfunken spriiht der Schlot Auf zum grauen Firmamente, Blutigroth die Flamme loht Tief im Grunde ; ohne Ende Dort Cyclopen, schwarz berusst, Kaum der eignen Macht bewusst, Riihren die geschaft gen Hande. 166 Two men who have been quite active in the circles of organized labor and have written extensively in its behalf are George Bieden- kapp and W. L. Rosenberg. The former who came to America in 1885 at the age of forty-two, published three volumes of poetry, one, Trost in Liedern in Germany, and Sankta Libert as (1893) and Brennende Strophen und Lieder (1900) at New York. Besides he wrote numerous stories, occasional poems, prologues, and songs which were published chiefly in New York papers. His Der Frei- heit Hochgesang, Das freie Wort, Das freie Lied, Das Banner hoch, and Festgruss are often sung at labor gatherings. Two dramas, in 165 Letter of February 25, 1916. 186 Gedichte, p. 67. Socialism Reflected in German American Literature 109 manuscript, Die Sizilianerin and Die von Stachelwitz were per formed with great success before a workingmen s audience. Sev eral collections of his poems are still unpublished. He still con tributes occasional poems to German Socialist papers. Biedenkapp is quite severe almost bitter at times in his indict ment of the predatory rich. He likes to portray the misery of the dispossessed and the extravagance of the rich. Typical are the following two stanzas quoted from Die Hungrigen und die Satten: Hier unnennbarer Ueberfluss In Villen und Palasten, Durchrauscht von Gliick und Hochgenuss Und bachanal schen Festen. Dort nied re Hiitten, morsch und klein, Dem Sturze nah, zerfallend, Und drinnen Elend, Not und Pein Dumpf grasslich widerhallend. 167 The sweat shop he portrays: Im armlichen Kleid im Martergewand Zum Tode verblasst und betriiblich, So sitzt in der Hiitte des "Sklaven" Weib, Hartschaffend und weinend, wie s iiblich. Die Stirn verwelket, der Blick so matt, Das Antlitz, ein schmerzlich Entbehren; Die Nadel, der Faden, kaum gehn sie noch durch, Als wollten dem Elend sie wehren. 167 It is distinctly a poetry of protest written with this intention in view. In the execution of the Chicago anarchists Biedenkapp sees the oppression of labor by capital which leads him to prophesy the coming revolution and the downfall of the second present day Babylon. The capitalist wallows in the abundance extorted from the laborers, and the Gliickauf of the miners sounds to him like a cry from the infernal regions below. The social conscience of W. L. Rosenberg of Cleveland has likewise been thoroughly awakened. As an author and poet he has 167 Sankta Libertas, pp. 30 and 71. no Socialism in German American Literature been a constant and consistent friend of the toiler. He was born at Hamm, Westphalia, in 1850. After receiving a good education he became a teacher of Latin and French at Frankfort on the Main, however, his articles in the Neue Welt and other papers aroused the ire of the censor so that after the passage of the anti-Socialist laws he left in 1880 for the United States. After teaching a while at Boston he was called to Chicago to edit the Fackel. From 1884 to 1890 he was at New York working in the interests of the Socialist Labor Party. The next six years he lived at Cincinnati devoting himself exclusively to literary and journalistic work. Since 1896 he has been engaged in the same line of work at Cleveland. His works include Lieder und Gedichte (1881), Aus dem Reiche des Tantalus (1888), a series of eleven sketches portraying typical experiences of the unfortunate poor, Irrfahrten, Bine soziale Lebensgeschichte (1880), the dramas, Vor der Wahlschlacht (1886), Crumbleton (1898), and a series of other shorter dramas broaching social and political questions. Among his latest books are An der Welten- wende (1910) and Krieg dem Kriege, Gedichte (1915). Rosenberg s productions have a naturalistic trend ; they present the unaesthetic sides of modern society as well as the deepest yearn ings of the human heart. To him truth is more stirring than fiction. He shows great sympathy for the homeless, the oppressed, for all those that fail to fit into the present social structure. The didactic element, although not always prominent, is clearly discernable in his works. Like his fellow-countryman, Freiligrath, he writes stir ring socialistic verse, and like the "Moderne" he tends to the natur alistic in his plays. He considers the Bourgeois poets antiquated and applies the standard of historic materialism to his mode of think ing. He is an ardent advocate of a stage for the laboring classes and some of his dramas were written with this purpose in view. An der Weltenwende is, doubtless, his most pretentious work. The title suggests the author s point of view. The book is dedi cated to the underdog : Ich weiss zwar, dass die Welt nicht denkt, Noch f uhlt, wie ich es tu ; Die Welt vom Konig bis zum Knecht 1st nicht wie ich und du. Socialism Reflected in German American Literature 1 11 Drum schert s mich keinen Deut fiirwahr, Ob sie mich unrecht schilt; Im Kampf mein Arm dem schwachern Hund, Der unten liegt, nur gilt. ******* Among the best in this book are the Trampphilosophien and Aus Per rivals Tagebuch; in the former is the beautiful ballad: Wir gingen zu Viert auf dem Schienenstrang, Vier Tramps, die eiserne Strasse entlang. 168 The latter begins with the verses : Ich weiss nicht, lieber Vater, Warum so arm wir sind? Warum die Mutter muss kargen Und leer ist Schrank und Spind ? Giebt s Butter und Brot nicht in Piille, Und Fleisch und Kleider und Schuh? Man braucht nur gehen und holen. O, Vater, was schweigst du? 169 Robert Reitzel, the famous editor of Der arme Teufel, is often called the foremost writer of German prose in America. He was also a confirmed critic of modern social evaluations and a rebel who strove for inner freedom. His point of view was exceedingly in dividualistic and he gladly gave room in his paper to the dissatisfied Freethinker, Socialist, Anarchist, Turner, and others who had a jibe to take at the formalist, the Gothamist, and the Philistine. He was born at Weitenau, Baden, in the eventful year of 1849. On the night of his birth gendarmes searched the Reitzel home for Georg Uehlin, an uncle, who had taken part in the Hecker insur rection. Robert was to study theology, but he neglected his studies, and read the romantic poets, sang, drank, fought duels, and lived the life of a jovial student generally. When yet a youth he emigrated to America, where he led a wayfaring life for a time until assisted by a friend he got a position as pastor of a German Reformed church in Washington ; however, he was soon dismissed from the 188 An der Welienwende, p. 102. 169 An der Weltenwende, p. 136 ff. Ii2 Socialism in German American Literature synod on account of his heretical ideas. He now became an itin erant lecturer, speaking to Independent Congregations, Turner so cieties, and radical clubs. During this time he read much of Karl Heinzen, Schunemann-Pott, Strauss, Feuerbach, and Karl Vogt, and became a warm admirer of them. To this study and propaganda he added social problems, and the principles of Socialism and An archism. In Socialism Reitzel admired not its science and system, but its revolutionary influence on the torpid masses, and the ensuing stimu lus and stirring-up of the mind in the field of poetry and art. He had the peculiar gift to seek out what was original, genuine, and unconventional. As a poet he remained faithful to the classicists, but also admired Holz, Henckell, Parnizza, Mackay, Wille, Hartle- ben, Hauptmann, and Wedekind. His poems are few in number; a number are published in the second volume of his collected works. The socialistic tendency is quite evident as, for example, in An das Proletariat, beginning: Als Gott sich auf sich selber besann, Da schuf er die Nobeln, die Arier, Als er zum zweitenmale begann, Da wurden es Proletarier. 170 Reminiscent of the Chicago tragedy, he writes in the "Tele- gramstyl" : Dem Armen Wein, Dem Reichen Tranen, Schluckt s nur hinein! Der Stillen Lieb Erfiilltes Sehnen! Dem Hunger Brot, Dem Geiz den Stein O konnt s so sein!* 71 In addition to poems of a socialistic tendency by Reitzel and others, numerous essays of this character appeared in Der arme Teufel. Some of these were reprinted in the third volume of Reit- zel s collected works. armen Teufel gesammelte Schriften, II, 17 ff. 171 Ibid., I, 15 f. Socialism Reflected in German American Literature 113 After Reitzel s death in 1898, Martin Derscher continued Der arme Teufel for two years, when it stopped publication. Drescher took up the spiritual heritage of Reitzel, but he lacks the latter s originality and Heinesque wit. Drescher was born at Wittstock and came to America about twenty-five years ago, where he also had to tramp and make his living by all sorts of odd jobs. Unstat und fliichtig von Land zu Land Bin ich durchs Leben gezogen, Ueber sengenden Wiistensand, Durch des Ozeans schimmernde Wogen. 172 At present he is engaged in journalistic and literary work at Chicago. He has contributed many poems to contemporary news papers, but his fame as a poet rests chiefly on his Gedichte, pub lished at Chicago in 1909. The poems are printed under the head ings: Aus der Tiefe, Wanderzeit, Vom grossen Kampf, Menschen und Werke, Sommerbriefe aus dem Schlupfwinkel, Tagebuchblatter, Aus fremden Garten, and Maria Magdalena, Bin Schauspiel. They are the expressions of some of the emotions resulting from experi ences of the author who longs for the beautiful, yet cannot compre hend how the enjoyment of the beautiful can go hand in hand with an impure social fiber. The poet s sympathy goes out to the shelterless lovers by the wayside, the deserving poor, the outcasts of society, the homeless, the married couple who struggle hard to establish a home, and the like. Many of his poems have a tinge of sadness and but few are marred by didactic preachments, nevertheless the import of all is unmistakable. His "Vaganten-Lieder" are among the best that the German American muse has produced. He portrays the joys and sorrows of the social misfits : Durch die Strassen der Weltstadt streift Langsam ein hagrer Geselle. Ueber die glanzenden Laden schweift Lassig sein Auge, das helle. Gestern noch hundert Meilen fern, Hat er den Frachtzug erklommen, Gedichte, p. 7. 114 Socialism in German American Literature 1st er im Glauben an seinen Stern Nach Chicago gekommen. 173 Vom grossen Kampf has to do with burning social questions of the day, as child labor, the unemployed, love and marriage, the social evil, capital and labor, the revolutionary spirit of labor, and the contrast of rich and poor. Drescher is distinctly critical in his attitude and does not fail to see the dark side. He rejoices to see a crowd of children on the street, but he continues : Flicken tragen sie alle am Kleid, Rechtes Elendsgelichter. Und, so Jung sie, das Herzleid Spricht aus dem Grau der Gesichter. Was ist da los ? Du weisst es nicht ? Warte, dass ich s dir sage: Diese Kinder halten Gericht Ueber die Schmach unsrer Tage. 174 The struggle for mere bread is depicted in Bin bischen Brot, 17 * and in Alltagsgeschichte he pictures the happy home : Die Jahre gingen. Ein Stuck Sonnenschein Lag auf den billig eingekauften Sachen. Durch enge Stiibchen, schmuck und peinlich rein, Klang Vaters Witz, klang helles Kinderlachen. Und wenn ein neuer Zuwachs zappelnd schrie, Die braune Kathe wusste sich geborgen. Sie summte keck nach eigner Melodic: "Zwei harte Fauste werden weiter sorgen." 175 But the unemployment soon brings misery and care. Sometimes the poet forgets the strife of the day and becomes reminiscent as in Sommerfest, Nach zwanzig Jahren, Mutter ist tot, Der Ulmenbaum, and In der Fremde. Among the poets he ad dresses in poems are Poe, Reitzel, Wilhelm Busch, F. T. Vischer, Liliencron, Edna Fern, and Konrad Nies. Drescher employs various strophic forms but he shows a prefer ence for the sonnet of which seventy-four occur in his Gedichte. 173 Gedichte, p. 48 f . 174 Gedichte, pp. 72, and 78. 175 Gedichte, p. 90. Socialism Reflected in German American Literature 115 The strophe of the folk song and the rhymed couplet are also fa vorites. Closely associated with Reitzel and Drescher as writers are Edna Fern (Mrs. Fernande Richter) and Hedwig Vogel. The former has published short stories, Marchen, and poems in which she veils her ideas of life and love. In her sketches she inclines toward naturalism. Her poems usually have nature as a back ground : Doch die Wolken hoch am Himmel Kummert nicht der Vogelschrei, (of "Tendenz") Und der lieben, goldnen Sonne 1st Tendenz ganz einerlei. 176 However the poems Armut und Reichtum, Vagabunden, and Homestead 1892 do broach economic questions. Hedwig Vogel contribtued many poems to contemporary newspapers. They treat chiefly of "der Liebe Lust und Leid," but also of the striving of modern society to attain new ideals. Among the present-day writers is Otto Sattler, of New York. He was born at Emmendingen, Baden, in 1872, learned book-bind ing, studied philosophy and literature at the University of Zurich, traveled for about fifteen years, visiting many parts of the globe, and is now a journalist, writer, and lecturer at New York. Among his published works are Stille und Sturm, Gedichte (1910), New York und die Welt, Gedichte (1913), and Krieg, Gedichte der Zeit (1915). Stille und Sturm takes the reader from the ruins of a mediaeval castle near the author s quiet birthplace to the busy metro politan city of New York. The background of the poems is ex ceedingly modern; there appear, for example, furnaces belching forth smoke and flames, the factory laborer working to the mononto- nous click of the machine, the honk, honk of the automobile, the big ocean liner calling at all parts of the world, the blue electrical sparks, the sweat shop, and the modern Belshazzar s feast. Fre quently Dame Care, an effervescent, nebular something, peeps in at the window. The poet s style shows the characteristics of the "Moderne." 170 Gesammelte Schriften, IV. Leben, Liebe, Gestalten, Dichtungen, p. I. n6 Socialism in German American Literature Like Thoreau he often laments over the fact that modern in dustrial progress mars the beauties of nature Ja, ich liebe dich, du neue Zeit, Ich lieb dein dampfumzischtes Eisenkleid, Die blauen elektrischen Funken. Doch wenn ich durch die alten Walder geh Und sie von unsrer Zeit verwiistet seh, 1st mir, als ware uns ein grosses Gliick versunken. 177 With a few strokes of his poetic brush he brings out the con trast of nature and the machine in Der blaue Morgen * * * Der blaue Morgen iiber der Grossstadt strahlt, Mit lichten Farben Friedensbilder malt Ich schau ihm sinnend zu da ein schriller Pfiff ! * * Ich schreck auf ! : Die Fabrik ! * * * Ich renn in ihren Eisengriff. 178 The many dashes and shortened forms remind one of the "Geniezeit." In Hs bluhen die Linden, little girls, winding wreaths of flowers on a meadow, are contrasted with eight hundred people working in a noisy, unsanitary factory. The symbolical figure of Want also stares into the factory window. Aus den S Mot en treats a similar theme. Konnt ich dock ziehn * * * reminds one of Mignon s Lied and Es dengelte der Bauer is in the vein of the folk song, the second stanza illustrates the style: Es hatte der Bauer ein feuriges Kind, Des Madels Haar loste der lustige Wind Da kamen mir gute Ideen ; Die Ideen, Die lassen sich leicht wohl verstehen. 178 In New York und die Welt are found the typical striking scenes of the metropolis. The elevated train rattles past the clothes lines and fire escapes of the East Side, the steam drill is penetrating the rock for a foundation for a new fifty-story sky-scraper, the clatter of the steel riveting machine is heard, laborers go to work, furnaces glow in short, all the hurry and bustle of a busy city. 177 Stille und Sturm, p. 41. 178 Stille und Sturm, pp. 57 and 53. Socialism Reflected in German American Literature 117 Veilchen illustrates a type of poems in this collection : Aus fahlgelben Gesichtern von kleinen Buben und Madchen gliihn schwarze Augen auf den Werktisch, wo der Kinder schnelle Finger Tuchveilchen formen. Am obern Ende sitzt die italienische Mutter und shan t, und hiistelt, und treibt mit harter Stimme die Kleinen zur Arbeit. Und iiber den Platz kommt der Weg in einer Linie durch den weissen Triumphbogen zur fiinften Avenue New Yorks. Es kommt die Strasse geradeaus von der Holle der Armut zum Himmel der Reichen. 179 Here, as in other poems, Battler s poetic forms become mere dithyrambs and the usual poetic strophes are not employed. A discussion of the prose works exhibiting a naturalistic or so cialistic phase would extend the limits of this paper too far. Just a brief mention will be made. Many of the forty-eighters essayed to portray the times and to clad their pet theories in stories, sketches, and novels. Such writers are Adolf Douai, F. O. Dresel, Reinhard Solger, Udo Brachvogel, George Lippard, Gustave Struve, and others. The popularity of Sue s Les Mysteres de Paris (1842) also spread to Amercia. About 1844 V. W. Frohlich published a transla tion of it in a German paper of Cincinnati, which was later put out in book form by Jakob Uhl at New York without date. In 1850 appeared anonymously Die Geheimnisse von Philadelphia at Phila delphia. The introduction states that the purpose of the book is 178 New York und die Welt, p. 60. n8 Socialism in German American Literature to expose the terrible corruption which undermines a part of our social structure ; it continues : "Wir miissen die einf ache Wahrheit horen und die nackte ungeschminkte Wirklichkeit sehen; wir miissen die kostbaren Palaste der Reichen und ihre augenverblenden- den Schonheiten durchwandern und in die ekelhaft schmutzigen Hiitten der Armen hinabsteigen und von ihrem Elende geniessen !" In chapter one Chestnut and Bedford Streets are constrasted. A year later followed Bernstein s Geheimnisse von St. Louis, and in 1855 Klauprecht s Cincinnati, oder Die Geheimnisse des Western. Lippard s Empire City or New York by Night, Brachvogel s Der Trodler, ein Roman aus dem Alltagsleben and King Corn, and Struve s Eine Proletarierin are likewise naturalistic in their treat ment. More distinctly socialistic and didactic are Otto-Walster s Am Webstuhl der Zeit (1873,) and Allerhand Proletarier (1874). His works seem never to have been collected ; in the newspapers he edited he published numerous novels, and poems. Max Arlberg (pseud, for G. Rhomberg) published Joseph Freifeld, Ein Sozial- roman aus dem deutschamerikanischen Leben (1891), and J. J. Messmer Im Strome der Zeit oder Kapital und Arbeit Bilder arts dem Arbeiterleben der Gegenwart. (1883). Otto Ruppius was greatly interested in the development of the laborer. In his novels he portrays chiefly the struggle of the German immigrant. Charles Sealsfield portrays in his novels the public and private, social, po litical and religious life of a whole people who take the place of the usual novelistic hero. 181 180 Cf . Hellmuth Mielke, Der deutsche Roman, Dresden, 1912, pp. 96-103. 181 Cf. Emigration to America Reflected in German Fiction by P. A. Barba in German American Annals, N .S., XII, 193 ff. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Amerikanischer Turner-Kalender. Milwaukee, 1881, 1882, 1883, 1885, 1886, 1887, 1889, 1890, 1891, 1893, 1894, 1896, 1898, 1900. Annals of the American Academy. Vol. V. Arbeiter Zeitung. St. Louis, 1898-1900. Archiv filr die Geschichte des Sozialismus und der Arbeiter- bewegung. Leipzig, 1911-1914. Das literarische Echo. Berlin, I (1899). Das Westland. Heidelberg, 1837. Der arme Teufel. Detroit, 1888-1894; vols. 4-7, 9, 10. Der Deutsche Pionier. Bine Monatsschrift filr Erinnerungen aus dem Deutschen Pionier-Leben in den Vereinigten Staaten. 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