THE TAPPAN-KENDALL HISTORIES A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS BY REUBEN GOLD THWAITES, LL.D. Late Superintendent of Wisconsin Historical Society Author of "The Colonies" "France in America" "Daniel Boone" "Rocky Mountain Explorations" etc. AND CALVIN NOYES KENDALL, LL.D. Commissioner of Education for the State of New Jersey Formerly Superintendent of Schools, Indiancpolis^ Indiana New Haven, Connecticut, eic^ ".. . ; HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO Cambridge Revised Edition THE TAPPAN-KENDALL SERIES OF ELEMENTARY HISTORIES BY EVA MARCH TAPPAN, PH.D. AND CALVIN NOYES KENDALL, LL.D. AMERICAN HERO STORIES, Grades IV-V by Eva March Tappan. ELEMENTARY HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY Grades V-VI by Eva March Tappan. OUR EUROPEAN ANCESTORS, Grades VI-VII by Eva March Tappan. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Grades VII-VIII by Reuben Gold Thivaites . and Calvin Noyes Kendall. Fourteenth impression January, 1920 COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY REUBEN GOLD THWAITES AND CALVIN NOYES KENDALL COPYRIGHT, IQiS, BY JESSIE P. THWAITES AND CALVIN NOYES KENDALL ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CAMBRIDGE MASSACHUSETTS U S . A PREFACE WE have in the present book subordinated unimportant events and facts in American history to the essentials; many details commonly contained in other texts have, therefore, been omitted. This has made it possible to throw into relief the really great scenes and periods in the story of our country s evolution : for example, the explora tions of Columbus, the Revolution, the westward movement of our population, the division and rehabilitation of the Union, and the latter-day industrial development of the nation. This emphasis upon important facts is further indi cated by the illustrations: thus, the full-page pictures are representative of four of the most significant epochs in our history the discovery of America, facing page I; the in dependence of the United States, page 150; the ending of sectional disputes, page 349; and the expansion of the nation, page 402. Throughout the book the larger text illustrations focus attention upon the men and events of most far-reaching influence. So far as is consistent with historical scholarship and teaching requirements, we have sought to present an attrac tive story of our country s career to make this a child s book. A dry-as-dust text, cluttered with unnecessary detail, is apt to arouse in the class an unfortunate spirit of revulsion against any serious study or reading of history. We believe that this is also, in a marked degree, a teacher s book. Especial attention has been paid to the pedagogical equipment, which we have sought to construct along the line of the best modern methods. The composition subjects . may be used both as a part of the historical work and for exercises in English ; and suggestions are offered for drama tization, with a view of making the story still more vivid. At the end of each Period is a review chapter; also care- 44G792 iv PREFACE fully classified reading lists for both teachers and pupils. With this wealth of equipment, the detailed Suggestions to Teachers ( pages xvii-xxvi), and the carefully constructed Index, even the instructor of small experience should be able to make American history a live study. No pains have been spared to secure suitable illustrations. These include reproductions of many celebrated historical paintings and portraits, such as every child should know, con temporary engravings, views, and documents indicating the spirit of the times, and photographs and drawings showing the development of the country s natural resources, the means of transportation, and the like. Each of these, together with the many helpful maps, has passed the inspection of competent historical experts. They are, with their descrip tive legends, intended to be studied, not merely to be looked at. In the preparation of the book we have had assistance from so many persons that it would be quite impracticable in this restricted space to mention them all. We are, how ever, under special obligations to the following teachers who have read and often re-read the manuscript, and offered numerous valuable suggestions that we have been glad to adopt: Miss Elizabeth Hodgdon, principal of the Scranton Street School, New Haven, Connecticut; Miss Lydia Blaich and Miss Anna Brochausen, supervising principals, and Miss Flora Swan and Miss Grace Shoup, departmental teachers of history, in the Indianapolis public schools. Dr. Carl Russell Fish, of the University of Wisconsin, has, among others, read critically the entire book. Dr. Louise Phelps Kellogg, of the editorial staff of the Wisconsin His torical Society, has rendered important service in many directions, especially in the preparation of reading lists and maps, in the verification of data, and in assistance on the Index. REUBEN G. THWAITES, CALVIN N. KENDALL. CONTENTS SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS xvii THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY I. THE STORY OF COLUMBUS i i. Early trade with the Orient. 2. The trade with the Orient is in terrupted. 3. Barriers to ocean navigation. 4. Portuguese dis coveries. 5. Increasing interest in exploration. 6. Columbus in Portugal. 7. Columbus decides to make a voyage into the West. 8. He seeks aid. 9. The expedition starts. 10. The voyage. ii. Land discovered. 12. Taking possession of the New World. 13. The land and the people. 14. The new land supposed to be India. 15. Searching for wealth. 16. Triumphant return. 17. Other voyages by Columbus. 18. Death of Columbus. II. IN THE FOOTSTEPS OF COLUMBUS 17 19. England discovers North America. 20. Americus Vespucius and the naming of America. 21. Spanish explorations and con quests. 22. Magellan s voyage around the world. 23. Results of Magellan s exploit. 24. De Soto s expedition. 25. Coro- nado s great march. 26. Spanish settlements. 27. Spanish mis sionaries. III. ENGLISH AND DUTCH DISCOVERIES 26 28. English buccaneers. 29. The Grand Armada. 30. Drake s voyage. 31. Henry Hudson s discovery. IV. FRENCH DISCOVERIES AND SETTLEMENTS 31 32. New France founded. 33. Champlain s explorations. - 34. French relations with the Indians. 35. Fur-trade posts. 36. Jesuit missionaries. 37. The French explore the Mississippi. 38. La Salle s explorations. 39. Founding of Louisiana. V. THE INDIANS 40 40. Three great groups. 41. Characteristics. 42. Religion. 43. Mounds. 44. Villages and houses. 45. Food, tools, and clothing. 46. The Indian in War. 47. What the Indians taught the white men. 48. Aid given to white settlers. 49. The pioneers view of the Indians. REVIEW, AND RECOMMENDED READINGS 47 vi CONTENTS THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION VI. EARLIEST ATTEMPTS TO SETTLE VIRGINIA 50 50. America a land of opportunity. 51. England ready to colo nize. 52. Raleigh s colonies. 53. The father of English settle ment in America. VII. THE COLONY OF VIRGINIA 54 54. Two companies organized. 55. Popular interest in coloniza tion. 56. The first colonists. 57. Founding of Jamestown. 58. Captain John Smith. 59. The starving time. 60. Indi vidual ownership. 61. Tobacco raising. 62. Slavery. 63. A representative assembly. 64. Importation of wives. 65. Vir ginia becomes a royal colony. 66. Cavaliers and Roundheads. 67. Bacon s Rebellion. 68. Progress of the colony. 69. Col lege of William and Mary. VIII. OTHER SOUTHERN COLONIES 68 70. Maryland. 71. The Carolinas. 72. Georgia. IX. THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES .75 73. John Smith names New England. 74. Struggle for religious liberty. 75. Puritans and Separatists. 76. The Pilgrims. 77. The Pilgrims in Holland. 78. Sailing of the Mayflower. 79. Landing at Plymouth. 80. Self-government established. 81. Getting established. 82. Massachusetts Bay Colony. 83. Town meetings. 84. Increase of immigration. 85. Public instruction. 86. Religious intolerance. 87. Religious disturb ances. 88. The rule of Andros. 89. Founding of Maine and New Hampshire. 90. Founding of Connecticut. 91. Founding of Rhode Island. 92. New England Confederation. 93. King Philip s War. X. THE MIDDLE COLONIES 94 94. New Netherland established. 95. New Amsterdam. 96. Early prosperity. 97. Captured by the English. 98. Struggles for liberty. 99. The planting of New Jersey. 100. Pennsyl vania founded. 101. Penn s arrival in the colony. 102. Phil adelphia founded. 103. Adoption of the Great Law. 104. The Great Treaty with the Indians. 105. The Mason and Dixon Line, 106. Later history of Pennsylvania. 107. Delaware. XL COLONIAL LIFE AND CONDITIONS IN 1750 . ... . .107 108. Three groups of colonies. 109. Southern society. no. Southern occupations and commerce. in. New England society. 112. New England occupations and commerce. 113. Society in the Middle Colonies. 114. Occupations in the Middle Colonies. CONTENTS vii 115. Navigation laws, and smuggling. 116. Domestic manu factures. 117. Houses. 118. Furniture and interiors. 119. Clothing. 120. Churches. 121. Education. 122. Amuse ments and sports. 123. Roads, travel, and taverns. 124. Crimes and punishments. 125. "In good old colony days." XII. THE CONQUEST OF NEW FRANCE BY ENGLAND . . . .121 126. Wars between France and England. 127. French claims. 128. English counter claims. 129. Rivalry in the Ohio River Val ley. 130. The French ordered off by Virginia. 131. Washing ton s winter journey. 132. Washington defeated. 133. The Albany plan of union. 134. Braddock s defeat. 135. Removal of the Acadians. 136. Guarding the Western frontier. 137. Wil liam Pitt. 138. The fall of Quebec. 139. The end of New France. 140. Effect of the war. 141. Pontiac s War. REVIEW, AND RECOMMENDED READINGS 134 THE REVOLUTION XIII. THE GROWTH OF DISSATISFACTION 135 142. The two points of view: British and Colonial. 143. The King threatens the Americans. 144. Methods of coercion. 145. The Navigation and Manufacturing Acts. 146. The standing army. 147. The Stamp Act. 148. Fighting the Stamp Act. 149. Taxa tion and representation in England. 150. Import duties levied. 151. The Boston Massacre. 152. An offer of cheap tea. 153. Colonial "tea-parties." 154. The "Intolerable Acts." 155. Re sisting the new laws. 156. First Continental Congress. 157. Americans will not yield. XIV. THE COLONISTS DECLARE THEIR INDEPENDENCE. . . .151 158. Beginning of hostilities. 159. Second Continental Congress. 1 60. George Washington appointed commander. 161. Ticon- deroga and Crown Point. 162. Battle of Bunker Hill. 163. Washington takes command. 164. The British evacuate Boston. 165. Urging independence. 166. The Declaration of Independence. 167. The Signing of the Declaration. 168. The contestants. XV. Two YEARS OF FIGHTING IN THE MIDDLE STATES . . .167 169. The British go to the Middle States. 170. They capture New York. 171. Washington retreats across New Jersey. 172. Bat tle of Trenton. 173. The patriotic services of Robert Morris. 174. Battle of Princeton. 175. Distinguished volunteers from Eu rope. 176. Burgoyne s surrender. 177. Battles of Brandy wine and Germantown. 178. The dreadful winter at Valley Forge. 179. France aids the United States. 180. England offers peace. 181. Battle of Monmouth. 182. Watching the British. viii CONTENTS XVI. CLOSING YEARS OF THE REVOLUTION 178 183. Indian depredations. 184. The brilliant services of George Rogers Clark. 185. The storming of Stony Point. 186. The treason of Benedict Arnold. 187. John Paul Jones and the priva teers. 1 88. The British in Georgia and South Carolina. 189. Greene wins victories. 190. Marion, Sumter, and " Light-horse Harry" Lee. 191. The British surrender at Yorktown. 192. News of the surrender. 193. The effect in England. 194. The treaty of peace, and evacuation of New York. 195. Washing ton s farewell. REVIEW, AND RECOMMENDED READINGS 189 THE FORMATION OF THE UNION XVII. UNDER THE CONFEDERATION 192 196. Articles of Confederation adopted; formation of public domain. 197. The Articles of Confederation prove co be weak. 198. Adop tion of the Ordinance of 1787. 199. Troubles under the Confedera tion. XVIII. THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION . .... 199 200. The Constitutional Convention. 201. Changes wrought by the Constitution. 202. Ratification. 203. Election and in auguration of Washington as President. XIX. THE CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY IN 1790 206 204. Population. 205. The appearance of the country. 206. Roads and travel. 207. Postal service. 208. Education. 209. Slavery. 210. Invention of the cotton-gin. 211. Chari ties and reforms. REVIEW, AND RECOMMENDED READINGS 213 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT XX. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE GOVERNMENT^ RELATIONS WITH FRANCE AND GREAT BRITAIN 215 212. Federalists and Anti-Federalists. 213. "Liberal construc tion" and "strict construction." 214. Hamilton restores our pub lic credit. 215. Revenue, "Protection," and Federal Bank. 216. The Whiskey Rebellion. 217. France asks for American aid and is refused. 218. Great Britain treats us harshly. 219. Jay s Treaty. 220. Relations with the Indians. 221. Washington s Farewell Address. CONTENTS ix XXI. THE WAR WITH FRANCE: ALIEN AND SEDITION LAWS: NULLI FICATION RESOLUTIONS 225 222. Our War with France. 223. Alien and Sedition Laws. 224. Virginia and Kentucky pass Nullification Resolutions. 225. Death of Washington. XXII. THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE: THE LEWIS AND CLARK Ex- PEDITION: RELATIONS WITH GREAT BRITAIN AND FRANCE . 230 226. Election of President Jefferson. 227. Americans covet the Province of Louisiana. 228. The United States purchases Louis iana. 229. Some results of the purchase. 230. The Lewis and Clark expedition. 231. Results of the Lewis and Clark expedition. 232. Invention of the steamboat. 233. Impressment of Ameri can seamen; and injuries to our commerce. 234. The Embargo Act. 235. Jefferson refuses a third term. XXIII. THE WAR OF 1812: THE PROTECTIVE TARIFF OF 1816 . .241 236. Trickery of Great Britain and France. 237. Impressment of seamen by Great Britain. 238. Congress declares war against Great Britain. 239. The British desire peace. 240. The Ameri cans unprepared. 241. The Americans fail to capture Canada. 242. Old Ironsides. 243. " Don t give up the ship." 244. Perry s victory on Lake Erie. 245. The British are reinforced. 246. The British are repulsed on Lake Champlain. 247. The British attack Washington and Baltimore. 248. The Battle of New Orleans. 249. Peace concluded. 250. What the war accomplished. 251. The protective tariff of 1816. 252. The National Road. XXIV. THE ERA OF GOOD FEELINGS: THE MISSOURI COMPROMISE: THE MONROE DOCTRINE . 256 253. The Era of Good Feelings. 254. The Florida Purchase. 255. Westward migration. 256. Slave States against free States 257. The Missouri Compromise. 258. The Monroe Doctrine. 259. Our northern boundary Oregon under joint control. XXV. CANALS AND RAILWAYS: THE BEGINNINGS OF TEMPERANCE REFORM 264 260. Opening of the Erie Canal. 261. The first steam railways. 262. The crudeness of early railways. 263. The beginnings of temperance reform. XXVI. THE " SPOILS SYSTEM ": BEGINNING OF ANTI-SLAVERY AGITA TION 270 264. Differences between the North and South. 265. Election of President Jackson. 266. "The spoils system." 267. The be ginning of slavery agitation. 268. Calhoun revives the nullifica tion doctrine. 269. "Our Federal Union: it must be preserved." 270. An American Dictionary. x CONTENTS XXVII. A PERIOD OF RECKLESS SPECULATION: THE PANIC OF 1837 . 281 271. Election of President Van Buren. 272. A period of reckless speculation. 273. The panic of 1837. XXVIII. RELATIONS WITH GREAT BRITAIN AND MEXICO: THE ANNEXATION OF TEXAS . . . .... . . .286 274. Election of Harrison and Tyler. 275. Death of Harrison. 276. Tyler succeeds to the presidency. 277. Tyler breaks with his party. 278. The Webster-Ashburton Treaty. 279. Texas becomes independent of Mexico. 280. Annexation of Texas. 281. Invention of the telegraph. XXIX. THE OREGON QUESTION, EXPLORATIONS, AND THE MEXICAN WAR: THE DISCOVERY OF GOLD IN CALIFORNIA . . . 293 282. Election of President Polk. 283. Our claims to the Oregon country. 284. The Oregon Trail. 285. "Fifty-four forty or fight." 286. The Texas boundary dispute. 287. Our war with Mexico. 288. Fremont s explorations. 289. California rises in revolt. 290. Land acquired by us from Mexico. 291. The dis covery of gold in California. XXX. CONTRASTING CONDITIONS IN NORTH AND SOUTH: THE COM PROMISE OF 1850: THE FUGITIVE SLAVE LAW . . . .307 292. The North prosperous. 293. The South backward, because of slavery. 294. Slavery against freedom. 295. Election of Taylor and Fillmore. 296. Threats of breaking up the Union. 297. The Compromise of 1850. 298. Fillmore becomes President. 299. The Fugitive Slave Law. 300. The Underground Rail road. 301. "Uncle Tom s Cabin." XXXI. THE STRUGGLE FOR KANSAS: OUR FIRST TREATY WITH JAPAN . 316 302. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill. 303. The struggle for Kansas. 304. Formation of the Republican party. 305. Commodore Perry in Japan. XXXII. THE PANIC OF 1857: THE DRED SCOTT DECISION: JOHN BROWN S RAID 321 306. The financial panic of 1857. 307. The Dred Scott decision. 308. "Honest Abe" Lincoln. 309. Discovery of gold in Colorado. 310. Petroleum found in Pennsylvania. 311. John Brown s raid. XXXIII. IMPROVEMENTS AND GROWTH 328 312. Great inventions and discoveries. 313. Improvements in the care of unfortunate classes. 314. Immigration greatly increases. REVIEW, AND RECOMMENDED READINGS . . ...... . . . 33 1 CONTENTS xi THE CIVIL WAR XXXIV. THE BEGINNING OF LINCOLN S ADMINISTRATION: SECES SION OF THE SOUTHERN STATES 336 315. Election of President Lincoln. 316. South Carolina secedes. 317. The Confederate States of America organized. 318. The Confederates seize Federal property. 319. President Lincoln s in auguration. 320. Unfortunate condition of the Government. 321. Fort Sumter captured by Confederates. 322. The President calls for troops. 323. The effect in the South. 324. The strength and weakness of both sides. 325. How geography affected the war. XXXV. THE BATTLES OF 1861 AND 1862; THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION 35 326. Battle of Bull Run. 327. Both sides make their plans for war. 328. Blockade-running. 329. The exciting affair of the Trent. 330. How Europeans felt toward the war. 331. Con federate privateers. 332. Fighting in the East, 1862. 333. Duel between the Monitor and Merrimac. 334. Fighting in the West, 1872. 335. The Federals capture New Orleans. 336. President Lincoln s Emancipation Proclamation. XXXVI. THE CAMPAIGNS OF 1863 AND 1864; THE CONFEDERACY is SPLIT IN Two 365 337. Chancellorsville and Gettysburg. 338. Lincoln s Gettysburg Address. 339. The capture of Vicksburg and Port Hudson; the Union triumphs on the Mississippi. 340. Chickamauga and Chatta nooga. 341. The "Hammering Campaign." 342. Grant fighting in the Wilderness. 343. Sherman s great march from Atlanta to the sea. 344. The service of the navy. 345. Farragut captures Mobile. XXXVII. THE CLOSE OF THE WAR: ITS COST AND ITS RESULTS . . 379 346. The President enters on a second term. 347. Lee is sur rounded. 348. The surrender of Lee. 349. The assassination of President Lincoln. 350. The disbandment of the armies. 351. What the war cost, in lives and treasure. 352. How the money was raised in the North. 353. How the money was raised in the South. 354. The effect of the war on Northern homes. 355. Its effect on Southern homes. 356. What was accomplished by the war. REVIEW, AND RECOMMENDED READINGS 389 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL EXPANSION XXXVIII. RECONSTRUCTION OF THE UNION, AND OUR FOREIGN RELATIONS : THE ATLANTIC CABLE 393 357. The impoverished South; the conduct of the negroes. 358. President Lincoln s method of reconstruction. 359. Johnson sue- xii CONTENTS ceedsLincoln. 360. Johnson s reconstruction methods. 361. Why Congress objected to Johnson s plan. 362. The Congressional plan of reconstruction. 363. The Tenure-of-Office Act. 364. The President is impeached. 365. Carpetbag government in the South. 366. The Atlantic Cable. 367. Our foreign relations. XXXIX. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE WEST, AND THE PANIC OF 1873 403 368. Election of President Grant. 369. Reconstruction com pleted. 370. The Alabama Claims. 371. The development of the West. 372. Panics and labor troubles, 1873-1877. 373. The Centennial Exposition. XL. THE END OF CARPETBAG GOVERNMENT IN THE SOUTH, AND THE RESUMPTION OF SPECIE PAYMENTS 411 374. The election of President Hayes. 375. The end of carpetbag government in the South. 376. The resumption of specie pay ments. -- 377. Captain Eads s Mississippi jetties. XLI. CIVIL SERVICE REFORM: THE NEW SOUTH AND ITS PROS PERITY 4I5 378. The assassination of President Garfield. 379. Civil service re form. 380. Raduction in postage. 381. The New South and its prosperity. XLII. RELATIONS BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR: THREE FAMOUS LAWS 420 382. Election of President Cleveland. 383. Death of General Grant. 384. Labor troubles; anarchy in Chicago. 385. The Australian ballot. 386. Three famous laws. XLI 1 1. THE RUSH TO OKLAHOMA, AND THE ADMISSION OF WESTERN STATES : \\ T OMAN SUFFRAGE - . . 426 387. -The election of President Harrison. 388. The McKinley Tariff Bill. 389. The opening of Oklahoma. 390. Several new Western States are admitted: Woman suffrage. 391. The Pan- American Congress. XLIV. INDUSTRIAL AND INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION . . . .431 392. The second election of Cleveland; the Wilson Tariff Bill. 393. The Columbian Exposition at Chicago. 394. The panic of 1893. 395- Railway and coal strikes. 396. International arbitration. THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER XLV. THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR, AND TERRITORIAL EXPANSION : THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER . . . . . . 437 397. The Dingley Tariff. 398. National prosperity, and Greater New York. 399. The causes of our war with Spain. 400. War is CONTENTS xiii declared. 401. We capture the Philippines. 402. Objects of our campaign in Cuba. 403. The Spanish are driven into Santiago. 404. Admiral Cervera s fleet is destroyed; the war ends. 405. The cost of the war. 406. The treaty of peace and the territory it brought to us. 407. The annexation of Hawaii and other Pacific islands. 408. We become a world power. 409. The Chinese Boxer uprising and the "open door." 410. The Hague Peace Tri bunal. 411. The establishment of a gold standard. 412. The Pan-American Exposition. 413. Assassination of President Mc- Kinley. XLVI. THE PANAMA CANAL: CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RE SOURCES: THREE IMPORTANT LAWS ...... 454 414. The Panama Canal. 415. A cable message around the world, and wireless telegraphy. 416. Roosevelt as a peace-maker. 417. Our battle fleet encircles the globe. 418. Two fires and an earthquake. 419. Conservation, and the "House of Governors." 420. Three important laws. XLVI I. TAFT S ADMINISTRATION: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS : TAR IFF AND RECIPROCITY : THE INSURGENT MOVEMENT . . 464 421. William Howard Taft. 422. The tariff is revised. 423, The Insurgents. 424. The progressive measures. 425. Election reforms. 426. Peace and reciprocity. 427. Mexico in trouble. 428. The Forty-eighth star. 429. Labor and capital. 430. "Unscrambling" the trusts. 431. The Progressive party. XLVI II. WILSON S ADMINISTRATION: SOCIAL PROGRESS SINCE THE CIVIL WAR: TARIFF, TRUSTS, AND FINANCE: THE MONROE DOCTRINE 473 432. Woodrow Wilson. 433. Changes in Congress and the Consti tution. 434. The changing world: aircraft and motors. 435. Social progress. 436. What the people thought. 437. Shall women vote? 438. The Underwood tariff. 439. The federal reserve banks. 440. The trusts and the Federal Trade Commis sion. 441. The new Monroe Doctrine. 442. The Panama Canal and the Exposition. XLIX. WILSON S ADMINISTRATION: THE WORLD WAR: THE EURO PEAN SYSTEM AND OURS : PROBLEMS OF NEUTRALITY : GER MAN INTRIGUE 482 443. The European system and ours. 444. Prussia 445. " DerTag." 446. The attack on Servia. 447. Neutrality. 448. Belgium. 449. The future of peace. 450. American defense. 451. Machinery of modern war. 452. The submarine as a weapon. 453. Blockades and neutrals. 454. The Lusitania. 455. Preparedness. 456. The navy stands ready. 457. The National Defense Act. 458. Intrigue "and sedition. 459. Mexico. 460. Villa on the border. 461. The Sussex. 462. The reelection of Wilson. 4.63. The pro gram of peace. 464. German defiance. xiv CONTENTS L. WILSON S ADMINISTRATION: "A WORLD SAFE FOR DEMOCRACY": THE UNITED STATES AT WAR 496 465. War against Germany. 466. The destroyers at work. 467. The appeal of Joffre. 468. Pershing in France. 469. Men. 470. Labor. 471. National labor policy. 472. Money. 473. Food. 474. Ships. 475. From cantonments to the base in France. 476. Russia: delivered and betrayed. 477. The appeal to democ racy. 478. The German drive of 1918. 479. Pershing, Foch, and the single front. 480. The War Cabinet. 481. Chateau-Thierry and the Marne. 482. Saint-Mihiel and the Argonne. 483. The Armistice, November u, 1918. 484. President Wilson goes to Paris. 485. The League of Nations. 486. The Death of Theodore Roosevelt. 487. The Eighteenth Amendment. 488. Problems of Reconstruction. REVIEW, AND RECOMMENDED READINGS . 512 SIGNIFICANT DATES 516 APPENDIX A. THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES .... B. PRESIDENTS AND VICE-PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES C. THE STATES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO ORIGIN . xix D. STATISTICS OF THE STATES xx E. TERRITORIAL GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES .... xxii F. POPULATION xxiii INDEX . e xxv MAPS THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY Mediaeval routes of trade between Europe and Asia .2 The world as known before the voyage of Columbus 3 fe map Columbus used 7 The four voyages of Columbus . . . 13 The earliest voyages to America and around the world . . . . .21 Map showing French forts and portage routes 35 Distribution of the Indian tribes, East of the Mississippi (colored] . . 40 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION Regions open to London and Plymouth Companies . . . -54 The Southern colonies 7 1 Homes of the Pilgrims and their route to America 76 Settlements on the New England coast 87 Settlements in the Connecticut Valley 88 Spanish, English, French and Dutch claims in North America about 1650 (colored) . 94 Settlements about the Hudson River 98 The Middle Colonies ... 99 The French frontier in the North . . . . . . . . .122 Spanish, French and English claims in North America about 1750 (colored) 124 North America after the peace of 1763 132 THE REVOLUTION Boston, Lexington, Concord and vicinity 151 The field of war during the Revolution . . . 166 The campaign of George Rogers Clark 179 THE FORMATION OF THE UNION The United States in 1783, with the conflicting Western claim (colored) . 192 The Northwest Territory , 196 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT The United States before 1803 . 234 The United States after 1803 .... 235 The field of the War of 1812 245 Areas of freedom and slavery in 1820 (colored) . 260 The Texas-Mexican frontier , . 297 Trails to the West, and routes of the principal railroads to the Pacific . . 299 xvi MAPS THE CIVIL WAR Areas of freedom and slavery in 1854 (colored] 316 The United States in 1863, showing extent of the Southern Confederacy (colored) 342 The scene of war near Washington and Richmond ...... 350 The blockaded Southern coast . 352 The field of the Western Campaigns 368 The Chattanooga Campaign 375 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL EXPANSION Continental Expansion of the United States (colored] 392 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER Manila Bay - 44 2 The Santiago Campaign 443 The Caribbean Region (colored) 446 The United States and its possessions 449 The Panama Canal and the Canal Zone 454 The Westward Movement, 1790-1910 469 Woman Suffrage in the United States 478 The Berlin to Bagdad Railway 486 The Eastern Front 53 The Italian Front 504 The Western Front . 55 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS THE GENERAL USE OF THE BOOK MANY pupils do not know how to use a book economically or intelli gently. The suggestion is accordingly offered, that at the beginning teachers and pupils together make an examination of the book. There should be a brief discussion of the purpose and use of the table of con tents, index, pictures, maps, questions and directions for pupils, lists of books, review chapters, material in the appendix, and a typical chapter of the text. The attention of the class should be called to the Periods into which the history of the country is divided. The blackboard may be used to in dicate the dates of each Period, the pages given to each by the authors, and the significance of the name of each Period. A line drawn to a scale on the board, with different colors used for the Periods, may represent the time which has elapsed since 1492. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR PUPILS It is believed that the questions and suggestions at the close of each chapter are such as first, to stimulate thoughtful reading and study; second, to suggest good methods of studying and profitable topics for dis cussion; third, to furnish a review of important geographical facts; and fourth, to arouse interest in the problems of the present. The questions have not been framed for the purpose of reviewing facts that are obvious from the text. Of course no pupil will be expected to answer all of the questions or to follow all of the directions. Some may be assigned to individual pupils who may be called upon to report to the class; this will afford good material for home study or investigation. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS The suggested composition subjects may be used either as a part of the historical work or as an exercise in English; or better still, as a correlation of the two. Letter-writing is a profitable form of describing events; here the imagination may be employed and the individuality of the pupils encour aged. DRAMATIZATION There will be found suggestions for dramatization; this is one of the most efficient methods of vivifying historical facts. Many teachers bear testimony that it affords means of arousing interest when others fail. It is natural for children to act out events ; this instinct may be used with ad van xx SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS Reviews conducted in this way give pupils valuable bird s-eye views of important subjects and furnish an even more valuable training in the use of books. A list of the maps in the book will be found in the Index, under the cap- "ion " Maps." BIBLIOGRAPHIES AND OUTSIDE READING No subject in the schools can be more reinforced by wide reading than history. The books and titles listed under " Recommended Readings," at the close of. each Period, have been carefully selected with a view of being serviceable to both teachers and pupils. It will be observed that fiction and poetry find a place therein. It is not assumed that the teacher or pupil will make use of all the reading suggested, but every teacher and pupil should use some of it. The arrangement of the lists of Recommended Readings is, under "History and Biography," roughly, (i) source books; (2) general, simple works covering the whole field; (3) the fuller histories; (4) the standard histories; (5) books on special topics; (6) biography. It will thus be seen that the recommendation is not to read only the books listed first, but to proceed to varied and continued reading judiciously selected from the whole list. The arrangement under "Fiction" and Poetry" is alphabetical by authors. If the books are available, outside daily or weekly reading should be as signed; in this way pupils acquire the habit of using books not an unim portant consideration. They also get another point of view from that of the authors of the text-book, and interest is added to the recitation be cause of the variety of views presented. Pupils should be encouraged to read widely; the more they saturate themselves with history, the better. The teacher will be repaid if she takes time to train children in the use of Tables of Contents and of Indexes. Teachers are urged to read to the class short extracts episodes, inci dents, etc., from such historians as Parkman, Fiske, Rhodes, Winsor as a means of arousing interest in outside reading and to cultivate a taste for history. Stevenson 1 s Poems of American History is a serviceable anthology which will be found to contain most of the poems recommended for reading. ILLUSTRATIONS "Merely looking at pictures is not studying them. They cannot be seen as a whole. They must be analyzed. Have a definite plan for studying each illustration. Do not merely tack one bit of information on to another. Observe how the teacher of English develops a description. A proper use of illustrations in history should help materially the work in English in more ways than one. The pupil should grow rapidly in his ability to analyze quickly and interpret correctly maps, drawings, and other illustrations met elsewhere." l Teachers should encourage pupils to find illustrations in other histories and in magazines, to supplement those in this book. It will prove conven ient in future work, if notes are kept of the most helpful of these sources. 1 From American History to 1763 : A Catalogue of Slides and Photographs with Study Notes, New York State Education Department, Division of Visual Instruction, Albany. New York, 1911. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS xxi The use of drawings, approximately correct, on the blackboard is in valuable; for example, a lock on the Erie Canal; the Eads Jetties; or the Monitor and its revolving turret. Notes on the Full-Page Illustrations Columbus at the Court of Ferdinand and Isabella. (Brozik.) Facing page I, "Study the figure and bearing of Columbus. Observe the close attention given by the Queen and others to what is being said. The Queen s ad visers, several of whom are present at this conference, were beginning to favor the idea of Columbus, and some of them frankly advised the Queen to authorize the expedition. Observe that Ferdinand does not appear in tthis picture. He was at no time as favorable to the idea as was Isabella. On the table and in the hands of an attendant are jewels, which, accord ing to an oft-repeated story, the Queen pledged for the expense of the voyage a story not resting on contemporary evidence, and one that is extremely improbable, still one that illustrates well the interest of the Queen. Notwithstanding the fact that the Queen was completely won over to the cause of Columbus, the conference was broken up without any favorable action. The terms offered by Columbus were not accepted, and for a third time he determined to seek aid in a foreign land." 1 The Declaration of Independence. (Trumbull.) Page 150. The scene is the hall of the Continental Congress, in Independence Hall, Philadelphia, as it was at the time. John Hancock, President of the Con gress, is seated at the table, and in front of him stand the Committee of Five selected to draft the Declaration, John Adams. Roger Sherman, Robert R. Livingston, Thomas Jefferson, and Benjamin Franklin. Note the earnest dignity of all the participants. It can be seen at a glance that they realize the far-reaching importance of their act. On the day of sign ing John Adams wrote: " I am apt to believe that it will be celebrated by succeeding generations as the great anniversary festival. It ought to be commemorated as the day of deliverance, by solemn acts of devotion to God Almighty. It ought to be solemnized with pomp and parade, with shows, games, sports, guns, bells, bonfires, and illuminations, from one end of this continent to the other, from this time forward, forevermore." After Congress passed the Declaration it was " Resolved, that copies of the Declaration be sent to the several assemblies, conventions, and committees or councils of safety, and to the several commanding officers of the Conti nental troops; that it be proclaimed in each of the United States, and at the head of the army." The resulting public celebrations in Philadelphia, New York, and throughout the country showed the jubilation of the people over the event. The Fiftieth Anniversary of the Battle of Bull Run. July 21, 19-11. (Photo graph.) Page 349. This occasion was probably the first instance in history where sur vivors of both sides in a battle met and exchanged friendly greetings ^on the same field fifty years after the day of actual combat. The illustration 1 From American History to 1763. xxii SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS shows the Union veterans on the right, and the Confederates, under a flag bearing the Virginia coat of arms, on the left. The troops in the middle dis tance are United States cavalry and Virginia militia. Under the trees in the background, planted in 1865 by soldiers of the Army of th<*Potomac, around a rude monument then dedicated to the memory of comrades who fell at the first battle of Bull Run, public exercises of welcome were held just previous to the scene here shown. Later, in the town of Manassas, President Taft and the Governor of Virginia addressed the veterans of the two armies, some six hundred in number. By an interesting coinci dence the Union veteran who originated this semi-centennial anniver sary was, at the close of the war, the signal officer of Sherman s army at Raleigh, North Carolina, who, on April 26, 1865, sent the last signal message of the Civil War " Peace and Good -Will." The Completion of the Union Pacific and the Central Pacific Railroads Page 402. The first transcontinental rail.line was completed by the meetingof the tracks of the Union Pacific and of the Central Pacific on the Northern shore of the Great Salt Lake (at Promontory Point, Utah). While the final spike was being driven home, this being reported by telegraph, corresponding blows were struck on the bell of the city hall in San Francisco, and at the last blow a cannon was fired. There were also cele brations in Omaha, Chicago, New York, Philadelphia, and other large cities. Bret Harte s poem, "What the Engines Said," was written under the inspiration of the event. All these points show that the people fore saw the immense value of the new railroad to the West. The route of the railroad followed quite closely the trail used successively by Indians, fur traders, and emigrants to California and Oregon. During the construc tion of the road there were frequent attacks by Indians, and Government troops protected the builders. When first projected, the scheme of a railroad to the Pacific had been called nonsense; but in 1857 President Buchanan advocated it as a means of holding the Pacific Coast people in the Union; it was this sentiment that led to the name Union Pacific. Note that an undertaking originally looked upon in this light, and even perhaps as a military necessity, is now regarded as a great commercial highway. THE RELATION OF HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY It may not be necessary here to emphasize the intimate relation between history and geography; for teachers of history increasingly recognize, in their schoolroom practice, the influence of geography on human affairs. In the expanding demands upon the schools, it is becoming more and more necessary to economize in the teaching process. The review of geographi cal facts from the study of history is one means of practicing this economy. Wall maps and globes should therefore be in constant use, both while the pupil is preparing his lesson and in the recitations. Rapid blackboard map- sketching by the pupils should be encouraged ; pupils acquire facility therein if teachers require it. It adds interest to the class work; it aids in making clear historical causes and effects; and it affords opportunity to use the pupil s skill in drawing. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS xxiii The use of the so-called prepared, progressive maps is a good means of showing the influence of geography upon history; but a better plan still is to have^he pupils make their own progressive maps. Important details may be filled in as the study progresses. In this way, numerous series of historical facts may be consecutively treated. Sufficient examples are suc cessive settlements of the several original colonies on the Atlantic Coast, annexations of territory, Western explorations, and campaigns of the Civil War. MAPS "It is absolutely essential to the understanding of history that the ;eography of the sections under consideration be known. Many of the aps are for use not once merely, but can with profit be referred to often. fter studying a picture of an object or event, its location should be fixed in mind by reference to the map. After studying a small sectional map, drawn on a large scale, it is specially desirable that the small section be located on a map representing a larger area, in order that a true concep tion may be gained of relative positions and approximate distances." 1 How TO TEACH HISTORY BY PERIODS Aside from the careful study of a few of the greatest discoverers and explorers (Columbus, Magellan, the Cabots, Hudson, Marquette, and Th P riod ^ a Salle), not mucri time should be taken for this first Period, f Discovery ^ pupils learn to picture to themselves as vividly as possible Ch t L-V t * ie actua ^ experiences and difficulties of typical explorers, this whole movement for the exploration of unknown lands will be clear. Let them realize that this universal instinct for finding the unknown not only made possible the discovery and exploration of the New World in the days of old, but in recent times has led to the exploration of the wilds of interior Africa, the penetration of " forbidden lands " in central Asia, and the discovery of the North and South Poles. Appeal constantly to the imagination of pupils: lead them to picture the conditions in Europe that induced sovereigns to favor and finance these early expeditions of discovery; the courageous figures that led them; the meager equipment of vessels and supplies that made such voyages heroic achievements; the wild, picturesque shores and the silent wilderness that the explorers found here; the hardships and perils that they encountered, and the life and ways of the red men, who at first befriended and then fought them. Special emphasis should be placed on the study of the typical colonies of Virginia and Massachusetts. A careful reading of the history of The Period t ^ ie other colom es . followed by class discussion to bring out O f c i . salient points of likeness and contrast, will usually suffice. tion- Ch^* ^ e c ^ m f l ca l history, however, will make it advisable ter VI XII to stu dy * n some detail the colony in which the pupils are the most interested because of their residence. In this study, pupils should picture the conditions in Europe that led to 1 Frota American History to 1763. xxiv SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS the planting of the several colonies. Have pupils compare the character and motives of the settlers in the different localities, and thus account for the success or failure of each enterprise. They should observe how the char acteristics of a single leader for example, John Smith, Lord Baltimore, or Penn often affected the entire history of a colony. Especially should they observe the increasing impatience of the colonists with the absolute control of monarchs and proprietary companies, and the growing desire for popular self-government, that ultimately brought about the Revolution. Pupils should be able to state the principal causes of the war. They should be made to see that many people in England deprecated the oppressive and unjust treatment of the colonists. This treatment was Th R largely due to a few officials in the motherland who had .. e . great power; of these, George III was chief. . Pupils should fully realize that the great mass of the XVI colonists were either English or of English descent, and that the war was an unnatural one, for England was the mother country. The campaigns in the North, the Middle States, and the South can best be understood by the constant use of maps. The general plans and purposes of these campaigns should be comprehended, but most of the details may be quickly passed over. The masterly generalship of Washington, in the face of the greatest difficulties and discouragements, the patriotism and devo tion of our ancestors who were fighting for a principle, and the aid received by them from France, should be clearly demonstrated. The important results of the war, both to America and to England, should be clearly brought out. The successive steps leading to the formation of the Union should be reviewed, the New England Confederacy, the Albany Convention, the Stamp Act, the First Continental Congress, the Second Con- The Forma . tinental Congress, and the Declaration of Independence ti ono fthe" (use the Index in the study. of these topics). Each step marked a growth away from the mother country and an advance toward self-government. This Period should be studied from the point of view that their experiences when under English rule gave rise to a strong fear of tyranny in the colonies, and that love for their local self-government led the States to adopt the Articles of Confederation. The weakness of the Articles should be dwelt upon, so that pupils may understand why there was a need for calling a Convention to frame a new code of laws to remedy these defects. It is important for the pupils to trace the results that followed the weakness of the Articles of Confed eration. This will help them to see the relationship between cause and effect ; the power to do this should be one of the results of history study. Moreover, this study will throw light on the discussion of present-day problems. Emphasize the fact that this was a critical period. Point out the dif ficulties that faced the Constitutional Convention, and bring out the idea that only by a series of compromises was the Constitution framed. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS xxv The Constitution (see Appendix A, pages xi-xxvii) should be read anc* explained while this Period is being studied. Pupils should at the outset have a mental picture of the country ovefr which Washington was called to act as President. The difficulties which Th P i d confronted the young nation should be emphasized, and it al should be shown how these were overcome by the wise states- o a loni rnanshipof Washington, Hamilton, Jefferson, and Jay. Show Ch - k w tne fundamental necessity for revenue to maintain the Government was met; show the need of establishing the XXXIIl" power of the central Government; and show that the fear of such power found expression in the Whiskey Rebellion, in the protest against the Alien and Sedition Laws, and in the Hartford Convention. This is an opportune time to teach that the Supreme Court decides whether laws passed by Congress are constitutional or not. Not the least of the problems confronting the nation was that of our re lations to England and France. The culmination of this series of events was the War of 1812, the causes and results of which should clearly be de fined in the minds of the pupils. Discuss with pupils the improbability of serious difficulties with these countries ever again arising. Pupils should realize that the purchase of Louisiana was one of the great events in the history of the country. Show how the steamboat, the Erie Canal, and the National Road prepared the way for W 7 estern settlement. Beginning with this Period the material in Appendices B, C, D, E, and F should constantly be used in connection with the text. Let the pupils report on the number of States in the Union at various periods, the extent of territory, the population of the country, etc. Show how the disputes that arose during this Period were the natural result of the development of the country. The rise and increase of manu factures led to disagreements concerning the tariff. The great wave ot westward migration following the War of 1812 led to the demand for easy and cheap means of transportation between East and West, which caused differences of opinion concerning internal improvements at government expense. Westward migration eventually resulted in the admission of new States to the Union, and this gave rise to disputes as to whether slavery would be permitted in them- Make clear that the difference in opinion between the North and the South on these great questions of the day, was largely due to dissimilarity in the climate and soil of the two sections. It is profitable for the pupils to trace the effects of this dissimilarity in the various acts and events of the Period, culminating as it did in the Civil War. The part taken by promi nent leaders on each side should be clearly brought out. Pupils should make a list of reasons why the South fell behind the The Civil North in immigration, in population, and in various lines War -Chan- * mc ^ ustrial activity. They should see that the Civil War ters XXXIV- was not ^ ou S nt merely to stop slavery, but primarily to pre- XXXVII serve the Union. Previous pages in the text, and extracts from speeches of Lincoln and other statesmen, should em- xxvi SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS phasize this fact. It would be interesting and profitable to study the war through a somewhat detailed survey of the life of Lincoln. If pupils have understood how the two sections differed in occupations, in the use of free and slave labor, and in economic and social conditions, they will be able intelligently to discuss the advantages and the disad vantages of North and South, and the course of events during the war. Details of military movements may be avoided. Much of the text can profitably be read with the pupils, emphasizing the influence of topo graphy. Great battlefields should be located and a single battle, like Gettysburg, studied in some detail in order to demonstrate the heroism, the horror, and the awful destruction of the war. The invasions of the North should be noted. A somewhat comprehensive study of the history of the Emancipation Proclamation should be made; this will bring out the attitude toward us of foreign countries. The teacher should aim to be absolutely fair and impartial as she teaches the topics regarding slavery and the Civil War. Pupils should be able to state clearly the questions settled by the war. Make a study of the North and the South at the close of the war, and contrast the two sections. Show how "the New South" has developed since the struggle. Difficulties that faced the President and _, p . Congress in regard to reconstruction should be brought ~ N . out. The period of reconstruction is quite difficult for pupils x a 1 ? na to understand, and it is helpful to work on this topic with , 1 lie United i i books open. States r ^ a Show the various ways in which the Government has aided industry, commerce, and emigration. Examples dis- cussed in the text the Homestead Act, the Reclamation Service, River and Harbor Bill, grants of land to railways, the Interstate Commerce Law, Pure Food and Drug Act, Department of Commerce and Labor, etc. The marvelous growth of the West and the causes of this expansion should be clearly defined. The cause, chief events, and results of the Spanish-American War should be understood by pupils. Particularly should our aims in the World War be made clear to them. Pupils should think and reason and express themselves upon such modern questions as our foreign possessions, civil service reform, labor and capi tal, tariff, territorial expansion, our relations with foreign nations, educa tion in a republic, our great inventions, conservation, regulation of public utilities, methods of taxation, and immigration. They must be made to realize that many of the great national prob lems of this Period are as yet unsolved, and that the responsibility of dealing with these matters will fall upon them, as they become citizens of the Republic. A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ">^X:^;;;T THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY CHAPTER I THE STORY OF COLUMBUS i. Early trade with the Orient. In the middle of the fif teenth century, when Christopher Columbus was a boy living in the large and busy seaport of Genoa, Italy, the richest countries in Europe were those bordering on the Mediterranean and Adriatic seas Italy, France, Spain, and Portugal. These countries had grown rich largely through their commerce with the East. For centuries, merchants in the prosperous cities of southern Europe had carried on a large trade with Persia, India, China, Japan, and other countries of Asia that vast region being then variously called the Indies, the Orient, or the East. 1 Fleets of ships, laden with lumber, metals, and heavy manufactured goods, destined for the Indies, were contin ually sailing from European ports. Some of them went to Alexandria, on the north coast of Africa, whence the goods were carried over the Isthmus of Suez to the Red Sea, and thence by vessels direct to Asia. Other ships went by way of Constantinople to ports on the Black S.ea. Here, cargoes were loaded on the backs of camels and horses. Long and 1 This commerce was one of the important results of the Crusades. The Crusades were expeditions of thousands of Christian men from western Europe, who in the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries made several partly suc cessful attempts to capture the Holy Land from the Turks and Saracens. These expeditions cost enormously in life and treasure; but they were the means of bringing into Europe a knowledge of new peoples, countries, ideas, and customs, and were therefore of far-reaching benefit. 2 THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY picturesque caravans of these animals, guided by drivers in the strange costumes of the Orient, slowly journeyed across the Asiatip :mountains, deserts, and plains, to the far-off mercKaVits : .of the Indies. The same caravans and ships. Jpjo.ught back tp Europe the products of Asia - i^ry,; precious- stones*, gold and silver jewelry, silks, per fumes, and spices. Thus Europeans obtained many com forts and luxuries which they could not otherwise have had. Jort7te>7i Route Vaed^by Genoa Middle Route Souffiem Route .++*.++ Used by Venice MEDIAEVAL ROUTES OF TRADE BETWEEN EUROPE AND ASIA This commerce with the Indies employed thousands of men on land and sea; it greatly enriched the cities engaged in it, and European merchants regarded it as the most im portant business in the world. 2. The trade with the Orient is interrupted. But in 1453, when Columbus was perhaps six or seven years old, there occurred an event of the greatest importance. The warlike Turks, who were Mohammedans, and hostile to Christians, captured much of the eastern country crossed by the traders, and after this robbed the European caravans or forbade them the right to pass through their lands. The people of southern Europe were thoroughly aroused by this great THE STORY OF COLUMBUS 3 calamity and declared that a new way, wholly by sea, must be found by which to reach the Indies. 3. Barriers to ocean navigation. However, the finding of a new water route to Asia proved in those days to be a very difficult undertaking. There were several reasons for this:- (a) Ideas about the size and shape of the earth. Although the people of southern Europe were then the most intel ligent and best educated in the world, they had no idea THE WORLD AS KNOWN BEFORE THE VOYAGE OF COLUMBUS how large the earth really is. Besides their own continent, they knew of but two others, Asia and Africa; and their knowledge of these was very slight. As for the Atlantic Ocean, it was as yet a great uncharted sea. Moreover, few people had come to realize that the earth is a great sphere whirling in space; instead, most of them thought that it was exactly what any part of it seems to be a great, immovable plain. What was beyond the edges of this plain, probably they did not dare even to imagine. To be sure, hundreds of years before this time, learned scientists like Aristotle and Ptolemy had declared their belief that the earth was round; but in the boyhood of Columbus, only a few of 4 THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY the more thoughtful and intelligent men had come to accept what every child is now taught as one of his first lessons in geography. (b) Fear of the ocean. With these mistaken ideas about the world, it is not strange that most of the sailors on the Mediterranean had extravagant fears and superstitions about the Atlantic. To them it was the " Sea of Darkness." They firmly believed that it could not be navigated at a great distance from shore, because of violent storms, mys terious winds and currents, whirlpools that would swal low ships, monster sea-serpents, and other horrible things that would allow neither men nor vessels to return in safety. (c) Smallness of ships. There was still another serious obstacle to the navigation of the Atlantic. The sailing ves sels of Columbus s day were tiny affairs compared with the monster steamships in which we now cross the great seas, and they had very few of the guides and helps to navigation with which we are familiar. The marvel is that men ven tured out in such vessels at all, even upon the Mediterra nean. As for navigating the great and boisterous Atlantic, few sailors in our time would dare cross the ocean in a ship like the best of those of the fifteenth century. 4. Portuguese discoveries. Nevertheless, while the ma jority of sailors continued to be afraid of the " Sea of Dark ness," the bolder spirits among them sometimes ventured to sail upon it, and gradually became more fearless. The most enterprising of all were the Portuguese, who began quite early to make long journeys southward along the African coast, and thus discovered the Azores, the Madeira, the Canary, and the Cape Verd Islands. After the closing of the overland routes to Asia by the quarrelsome Turks, Portugal was foremost among those countries that sought to find the coveted sea route to the Orient. Finally, in 1487, five years before the great voyage of Columbus into the West, Bartholomeu Dias, of that country, discovered the Cape of Good Hope, the southern- THE STORY OF COLUMBUS most point of Africa; 1 and it is interesting to know that a brother of Columbus was a member of that famous ex pedition. 5. Increasing interest in exploration. These daring achieve ments of the Portuguese were gradually, but surely, changing public opinion about the dangers of the unknown Atlantic ; and, together with the pressing need for new routes to Asia, they helped to arouse in the more enterprising class of Eu ropeans a keener interest than ever be fore in exploration. But there were also other reasons why such men were now seeking information about strange parts of the world : (a) Four great inventions. Four great inventions were now coming into gen eral use in Europe the pnnting-^ress, the mariner s compass, the astrolabe, and gunpowder. 2 Through the printing of books of travel, people could learn abcut habitable lands heretofore un known to them. With the compass, mar iners could for the first time safely ven ture far into the sea, out of sight of land ; and with the astrolabe, an instrument for ascertaining position through refer ence to the stars, they could determine latitude and longitude in mid-ocean; while gunpowder made it easy -to conquer peoples who did not have fire-arms. (b) Belief in a sea east of Asia. Among the more keen- minded of the navigators of the day, a belief was growing 1 The Portuguese did not reach India, however, until 1498. 2 It is supposed that the Chinese invented movable types as early as the tenth century A.D.; and many think that gunpowder was made by both Hindus and Chinese long before it became known to Europeans in the thirteenth cen tury. The compass may have been used by Chinese long before the Christian era. Although known as early as the second century B.C., the astrolabe was per fected by Portuguese scientists while Columbus was still a boy; better instru ments, however, have since taken its place. Copyright, Harris and Ewing COLUMBUS A statue by Lorado Taft, in Washington, D. C. 6 THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY that the Indies might be reached by sailing directly west ward. Marco Polo, a Venetian traveler of the thirteenth century, 1 had written a book about his travels in the Far East, in which he had told of a sea lying east of Asia; and although few people fully accepted his story, it had caused some of the best geographers and navigators of Columbus s day to believe in the existence of such a sea. 6. Columbus in Portugal. Among these shrewd and thoughtful men was Christopher Columbus. 2 He became satisfied that the earth is round, and thought that the west ern ocean must surely offer a short, direct highway to the Indies. While still a young man, Columbus was attracted by Portugal s fame in matters connected with exploration, and went to Lisbon, where he earned his living as a map- maker. Here he met and talked with the most skillful geo graphers and navigators of the age, whose beliefs regarding the shape and size of the earth were much like his own. From Portugal, too, he sailed on several long voyages over the Atlantic southward to the equator, and again far into the northern sea to Iceland. 3 7. Columbus decides to make a voyage into the West. The Atlantic, therefore, had no terrors for Columbus, and a daring scheme for making a voyage into the West in search 1 Marco Polo was the most famous traveler in his day. He traversed a large part of Asia and spent many years in China. His remarkable book is well worth reading, for much of what he wrote is a true and vivid account of Asiatic men and things as they were in the thirteenth century. Most Europeans of those times, however, thought that his tales were merely inventions. 2 It is not certain just when Columbus was born, but probably in 1446 or 1447. Little is known about his family or his early boyhood, except that his father was a weaver. When some fourteen years old, he became a sailor, and for several years had many wild and daring adventures on the Mediterranean, for in those days the fleets of rival cities were often at war with each other. In this rough school of adventure, young Columbus quickly developed into a fearless navigator. 3 Norwegians first settled Iceland about 870. Some of the Icelandic Norwe gians settled Greenland in 986. About the year 1000, some of their descendants, under Leif Ericson, planted a colony on the North American continent, prob ably in Nova Scotia, and called it Vinland (or wine-land), because of the wild grapes found there. This settlement lasted for a long time, but was always weak and at last was abandoned. Columbus probably heard nothing of this when he was in Iceland. THE STORY OF COLUMBUS 7 of the Indies took final shape in his mind. In making his calculations, however, he had figured that the earth was a third smaller than it is; that it contained more land than water; and that the island of Japan lay about where the West Indies are. This was a fortunate mistake ; for if Co lumbus had not expected to discover a shorter route to India than that which the Portuguese were seeking by way of the African coast, he might never have sailed on his great jour ney. But he had also at heart another and nobler reason for attempting the voyage than the desire to open a trade route THE MAP COLUMBUS USED Compare this map with the one on page 3, which shows the real position of the continents to Asia: he wished to be the means of bringing Christian ity to the heathen peoples of that far-off land. 8. He seeks aid. Columbus, however, while a good navi gator was poor in purse. He had no money with which tc buy ships and pay and feed sailors, and it was necessary for him to apply to some government for aid in fitting out his expedition. Accordingly, he first presented his plan to the King of Portugal ; but the King said he was a dreamer and turned him away. 1 Thereupon Columbus asked the aid of Portugal s rival, Spain, whose rulers were King Ferdinand 1 The crafty King, nevertheless, secretly sent one of his own navigators out into the ocean, to see what was to be found there. But the man returned after a few days of westward sailing, to report that he had met nothing but fierce storms which threatened to destroy his ship. 8 THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY and Queen Isabella. 1 Just then, however, they were having a long and fierce war with the Moors, and had little time or money to ^pare for explorations. They gave Columbus a small salary and kept him waiting seven long weary years without deciding whether or not they would help him in his pro posed voyage. 2 Meanwhile, the poor navigator, who thought and dreamed of little else, tried hard to get the English and French kings interested in his scheme ; but they, too, were busy with wars, and told Columbus that they had no time to talk with him about mys terious countries on the other side THE SANTA MARIA of the dark ocean, 1 Ferdinand was King of Aragon, a part of Spain; Isabella was Queen of Castile, another part. By marrying, they united their two kingdoms. 2 A council of learned men had been called together by the King and Queen, to consider the plans of Columbus. In spite of all he could say, they would not believe that the world is round. They said that if a ship were to sail beyond the edge, it surely would tumble off; or, if the earth were actually round, as he stated, the vessel would slip downhill, where the earth began to curve. "If this were true," they asked, " how could the vessels get back again to Spain? " It was unreasonable, they said, "to suppose that men could live on the other side of the earth; for they would have to walk with their heads downward, and rain and snow must fall upward." They reported to Ferdinand and Isabella- therefore, that Columbus s ideas were "vain and impracticable," and rested on grounds too weak to merit the support of the Government. THE STORY OF COLUMBUS 9 or about the converting of heathen peoples. Such treat ment was galling to an ambitious man like Columbus, firmly believing, as he did, that he was bound to succeed if only he were given a chance, and convinced, through his deep re ligious fervor, that God had selected him to perform a great work. 9. The expedition starts. At last, however, Columbus s perseverance was rewarded. The wise and generous Queen Etching by Flameng in Belloy s Columbus. Courtesy, Geo. Barrie Sf Sons COLUMBUS S DEPARTURE FROM PALOS Contrast this picture with the Landing of Columbus, on page 11 Isabella consented to help him, with her husband s coopera tion, to make the trial voyage. Columbus was now a man of about forty-five, but had grown gray and old from his many years of trouble and anxiety. He was placed in com mand of three small sailing ships the Santa Maria, the Pinta, and the Nina which had been fitted out for the voy age at the port of Palos. The crews consisted of about a hundred unwilling and sullen men, who had been enlisted with great difficulty, many indeed by force, to embark 10 THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY on this wild voyage, which seemed to promise nothing but disaster and death to them all. 1 Columbus was created admiral and took for his flagship the Santa Maria, the largest vessel ; and the monarchs declared him viceroy and governor of "all the islands and territories which he may discover or acquire." His reward was to be a tenth part of the profits of the voyage. Half an hour before sunrise, on Friday, August 3, 1492, the little fleet started upon the world s most famous voyage. To the people in Palos, who watched the vessels silently Steal out into the broad ocean, this seemed the maddest and most hazardous adventure of which they had ever heard. 10. The voyage. Some time was spent in the Canary Islands, while one of the ships was being repaired, so that it was the end of the first week in September before the fleet actually started toward the west. When land had finally disappeared in the east, the sailors were overcome by fear, and many burst into tears and lamentations. The firm and courageous attitude of Columbus, however, did much to con trol and quiet his men, although sometimes his patience was taxed to its utmost by their cowardice. Every time anything strange or unusual happened, their fear became almost a panic; as when the compass veered round to the west of the North Star, or when great masses of seaweed were found in mid-ocean, suggesting shallow water with rocks beneath. And because the wind had blown steadily from the east for a long time, they feared that there might never be a breeze from the west to carry them safely home again. 2 Again, 1 The voyage cost the Spanish monarchs about $93,000 in our money; of this, the Queen gave over two thirds, and the King the remainder. The vessels were provided free by the town of Palos, which also supplied cannon and am munition; and several private persons helped to meet other expenses. The Santa Maria, the largest of the three ships, called "caravels," was of about 200 tons, only 65 feet long and 20 feet broad, about the size of one of the sailing boats that in our day fish off the New England coast. The largest steamers crossing the Atlantic in our time are of 66,000 tons, and nearly 900 feet long. 2 The explorers were then in the region of the "trade- winds, "so called because favorable to navigation and trade. In many seas, these winds blow for months together in one direction. THE STORY OF COLUMBUS It they could not account for the great number of land birds that they met. It was fortunate for the whole world that this first voyage across the Atlantic was made in calm and pleasant weather. Yet the voyage proved so much longer than had been ex pected that the discouraged and angry sailors finally plotted to throw their leader overboard and return home. Even some of the officers joined in the conspiracy. Paintiniibp Gabrini in the Field Museum, Chicago- THE LANDING OF COLUMBUS ii. Land discovered. But, while they were plotting, the New World was close at hand. At two o clock on the morn ing of Friday, October 12, five weeks after the fleet had left the Canary Islands, and ten weeks after leaving Spain, the lookout on the masthead of the Pinta joyfully shouted " Land! Land! " Columbus had won! So far as was then known, all his theories had been proved true; and his officers and men, humbled and rejoicing, now looked up to him as a great and wonderful man. Later in the day the ships cast anchor in the harbor of a little island in the Bahama group,.. 12 THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY which Columbus called San Salvador (Holy Saviour), be cause he had reached it in safety. Most historians now think it the one called Watling s Island on the maps of to-day. 12. Taking possession of the New World. In full armor, made more resplendent by gorgeous velvet cloaks, feathered hats, and flashing swords, the Admiral and his chief officers were rowed ashore. On landing, Columbus s first act was to kneel upon the sandy beach and with tears of joy thank" God for his great success. Then, a cross made of trunks of trees having been set up, and solemn religious ceremonies concluded, Columbus drew his sword and triumphantly claimed possession of these lands for his sovereigns, the King and the Queen of Spain. 13. The land and the people. The little island that wel comed these first Europeans to the New World was hilly, and densely clothed with palms and the rich vegetation of the tropics. The air was soft and balmy; and in whatever direction the voyagers looked, the view was entrancing. The Spaniards gazed in amazement at the copper-colored and half-naked inhabitants who had flocked to the shore to see them. But what must have been the astonishment of the simple natives, as they beheld these marvelously dressed, pale-faced men, whose like they had never seen before, who had come to them in wonderful ships, straight out of the mysterious ocean? Indeed, so convinced were the timid barbarians that the Spaniards were not men but spirits, that they treated them with the greatest kindness and hospitality. 14. The new land supposed to be India. Columbus de cided that the archipelago he had discovered must be out lying islands of India; in fact, not till after his death was it known to Europeans that he had found a new continent. For this reason he called the natives " Indians," an incor rect name that has clung to them ever since. 15. Searching for wealth. Three months were spent by the adventurers in sailing among the islands that we now call the West Indies; but nothing worth trading for was discovered among the natives, save a few gold ornaments, THE STORY OF COLUMBUS 13 which showed that gold mines must exist somewhere in this new land. Cuba and Haiti were visited, 1 and in Haiti the Admiral built a fort and left forty of his men. When, the next year, he returned from Spain, he found nothing but the bleached bones of the unfortunate settlers, who had been killed by the natives. Thus the conflict between white men and red men had begun in earnest. 16. Triumphant return. In returning from his first voy age, Columbus reached Palos, March 15, 1493. As his fleet entered the harbor, he was greeted by the joyous ringing of church bells and the welcoming shouts of the people who, a few months before, had thought him a madman. He had brought with him six Indians, decked out in paint and finery, and many Indian curiosities, besides rare plants and stuffed birds. The King and the Queen, then at Barcelona, commanded him to visit them ; and upon the long land jour ney thither, the people thronged to see and to applaud the great discoverer and his strange companions. At Barcelona they marched r First Voyage . Second Voyage- _ ? Third Voyage f Fourth Voyage *,., .... THE FOUR VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS into town in a triumphal pro cession, escorted by nobles on horseback, drums and trumpets sound ing. The sover eigns received Columbus as if he were a prince returning victorious from war, and would not let him kneel at their feet as other men must, but bade him sit beside them. After hearing the story of his wonderful journey, they conferred special honors on him and on his family. 17. Other voyages by Columbus. The following year, Columbus was sent out again. This time there was no need 1 Columbus did not discover that Cuba was an island, although he sailed for a thousand miles along its coast. 14 THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY to force men to go with him. Even the Spanish nobles were eager to be of the party ; and several large ships were filled with a goodly company of important people, who thought they had but to pick up gold on the shores of the new land, and thus become wealthy. Similar expeditions were con ducted by Columbus in 1498 and 1502; but none of these journeys was more profitable than the first, and from each of them he and his companions returned home discouraged. 1 18. Death of Columbus. The expense of these several expeditions to the New World had been very great; yet up to this time the Government of Spain could see no gains from them that might be measured in money. Columbus there fore lost the favor of his ungrateful sovereigns, and through the rest of his life was neglected by every one. The people who once had loudly cheered him as the greatest explorer ever known in Spain now complained that he had really found nothing in the West but a wilderness peopled with savages and insects, and mockingly called him " Admiral of Mosquito Land." He died in 1506, a poor, broken-hearted, deserted man, not even himself knowing how important his discoveries had been. 2 Long after his death the real greatness of his deed came to be understood. Men then realized that he had overcome obstacles supposed by others to be insurmountable ; that in breaking the barriers of superstition and fear, he had not 1 In 1498, Columbus saw the mainland of South America, but still thought it to be Asia. Owing to malicious charges against him that he was tyran nical and cruel toward both the colonists and the Indians, that he did not send to Spain all the gold that he found, and that he was seeking to become the in dependent ruler of the West Indies he was sent back to Spain from this voyage, a prisoner in chains. But the people were so indignant at this treat ment of one whom they still regarded as a national hero, that he was released by the King and Queen. In 1502, he vainly sought to find a way by water through the Isthmus of Panama, hoping to find India beyond that. Geographers then believed in the existence of a route of this sort, which on their maps they called "Southwest Passage" or "Southern Passage." 2 He died and was buried in Valladolid, but his remains were moved later to Seville. About 1541, however, they were conveyed to the island of Santo Do mingo, now called Haiti. In after years, they were supposed to have been again moved, this time to Havana, Cuba. In December, 1898, what were thought to be his bones at Havana were once more taken across the ocean to Spain. There are many, however, who think that the dust of Columbus still rests in Haiti. THE STORY OF COLUMBUS 15 only doubled the size of the known world, but had set before mankind a splendid example of courage and perseverance in a noble cause. Since then, all civilized people have honored his memory. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS It is not expected that each pupil in the class will answer all the questions or follow all the suggestions in this and subsequent chapters. Some of these may be assigned to all the class; others may be assigned to individuals for special reports; still others may be used for rapid map-sketching, on the blackboard or otherwise. 1. What part or parts of the world are still little known or have been little explored? Point them out on the globe or map. What reasons can you give why these parts are not known? 2. Show by the globe or map the most direct route by which goods from the Orient are new brought to Mediterranean cities. What great work was done by man to make this route possible? 3. What similar work elsewhere is now being undertaken by the United States? Show to your classmates that the completion of this under taking will give to western Europe the route to the Orient which Co lumbus sought. 4. Dramatize the appeal of Columbus to Queen Isabella. 5. If you had lived in Spain in 1504, would you have considered Columbus a success or a failure? State your reasons. 6. For what qualities do you admire Columbus? 7. Make a list of important geographical names on the American Con tinent which perpetuate the name of Columbus. 8. Explain the origin of the word "Indian." 9. Learn to sing by heart all the stanzas of "America." Why should you stand while you sing it? 10. Important date: October, 1492. Discovery of America by Columbus. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Make a story out of these hints: The boy Columbus is on a wharf at Genoa; a ship returns which has lost its cargo because of a fight with the Turks; Columbus talks with the sailors; he has his first vague dreams of the future. 2. Write the appeal of Columbus to Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand. 3. Give an Indian s description of the coming of the white men; their ships; the landing; their ceremony of taking possession of the land for their sovereign; the language of the whites; their questions; and the red man s opinion about it all. 4. Imagine that you are one of Columbus s men and describe to a friend after your return the first voyage and the sights of the New World. 16 THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY CHAPTER OUTLINE 1. Mediaeval trade between Europe and Asia. 2. Ideas regarding the world. 3. Fears of ocean navigation ; the means by which these fears were partly overcome. 4. Columbus s experiences in procuring aid to find the Indies. 5. The first voyage and its results. 6. Reception of Columbus in Spain. 7. Other voyages; their results. 8. Death of Columbus. 9. His service to the world. CHAPTER II IN THE FOOTSTEPS OF COLUMBUS 19. England discovers North America. Meanwhile, Eng land did not intend that Spain and Portugal should have all the glory and profit of discovering far-distant lands. In 1497, a year before Columbus saw South America, the Eng lish King sent out into the western ocean another bold Genoese sailor, named John Cabot. 1 In order that he might not conflict with the claims of Spain and Portugal, Cabot crossed the northern Atlantic; and, so far as we know, he was the first European, except the early Norwegians from Iceland, to reach the mainland of North America. Just where Cabot first saw our continent, no one now can tell; - some think it was Newfoundland ; others, Cape Breton Island; still others, Labrador. No doubt he visited all of these places before returning to England. The next year he took with him his son Sebastian, and in a fleet of five or six vessels they explored the coast from Labrador to Cape Cod. In later years England based her claim to all of North America upon these discoveries by the Cabots. 2 20. Americus Vespucius and the naming of America. Two great Italians, Columbus and Cabot, had discovered the New World. Yet, by a curious trick of fate, it was named for another Italian navigator, Americus Vespucius, who had merely followed in their footsteps. It is believed by some historians that he visited the northern coast of 1 The map on page 21 shows Cabot s route. 2 The miserly Henry VII, then King of England, rewarded John Cabot with 10 ($50) for discovering the "new isle." This sum would be equal to $700 or $800 in the money of our time. In 1498, the year of Cabot s second voyage and of Columbus s discovery of t-he South American mainland, a Portuguese named Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope and reached Hindustan. He was the first to bring to Europe, by an all-sea route, the Asiatic goods that her merchants had formerly obtained over the old caravan trails. 18 THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY South America as early as 1499. A few years later, in 1501 and 1503, 1 being then in the pay of Portugal, he made two journeys to Brazil, which had already been discovered by a companion of Columbus, and published a map and descrip tion of that country. A professor of geography in a little German town, who read this account, believed that Amer- icus had actually discovered a new continent ; and he sug gested that the name " America " be given to it. At first the name was applied only to Brazil, but gradually it came to signify the whole of the w r estern hemisphere. In this manner the name of a large part of the world was wrested for all time from its real discoverer, Columbus. 2 21. Spanish explorations and conquests. Spaniards were now coming over in large numbers to America, which they still thought was a part of India. In some of the West Indian islands, but more particularly in Mexico and Peru, 3 they found rich mines of gold and silver and built there large towns, guarding them by strong forts. The colonists were so excited by the stories of great wealth made by some of their countrymen, through conquest and mining, that they scorned ordinary employment; they would not cultivate the land and sought only lives of adventure, in 1 Note his route on the map on page 21. 2 Columbia is the poetical name for the United States as in the well- known song, "Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean." Many geographical names in North and South America have been given in honor of Columbus. 3 In 1519, Cortes, an adventurous Spanish soldier, entered Mexico, and in a few years conquered the natives, whom he treated with great cruelty. Pizarro, another Spanish soldier, discovered Peru in 1527, and soon after that conquered the country. AMERICUS VESPUC1US IN THE FOOTSTEPS OF COLUMBUS 19 which many of them found little else than disappointment and misery. Early Spanish towns in America were practically mili tary camps, where everything was managed for the people by the home Government in Spain. Not having to think and act for themselves, there was little else for the inhabit ants to do but to conduct explorations and work the mines with Indian slaves. 1 One of the most courageous of the Spanish explorers was Balboa. In 1513 he climbed a high peak on the Isthmus of Darien, now called the Isthmus of Panama, and, first of all Spaniards, saw the Pacific Ocean or, as he called it, the South Sea. Another famous discoverer was Balboa s aged country man, Ponce de Leon, Governor of Porto Rico, who went to Florida in the same year with a company of soldiers, seek ing not only gold, but a wonderful spring of which the Indians had told him. They said that if an old man like Ponce drank of its waters, he would be made young again. Of course the explorer found no such spring. He returned after a difficult journey, which nearly cost him his life; but he had discovered for Spain a country so beautiful that it well deserved to bear the name he gave it Florida. His own reason for giving the name, however, was that he landed there on Easter Sunday, which the Spanish call Pascua Florida (Festival of Flowers). 22. Magellan s voyage around the world. Most geogra phers had now come to believe that the earth was a sphere, but as yet no one had actually sailed around it. So Ferdi nand Magellan, a brave Portuguese navigator hired by Spain, set out to perform this great feat. In September, 1519, he started southwestward from Spain upon the most daring voyage that any man except Columbus had yet undertaken. In due time, he entered what we now know as the Strait of Magellan. Beyond this he found the mysterious South 1 Thousands of these poor people were put to the hardest kind of work for their white masters, and large numbers died from exhaustion and ill-treatment. 20 THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY Sea. He called it " Pacific," because at first it seemed more quiet than the Atlantic, which had used him very roughly; but he soon saw that the Pacific might be quite as tempest uous as any other sea. Months and months passed in that great unknown deep, with no sight of land. The sailors now believed that they had come to an ocean without end, from which they might never be able to return. Mutinies were frequent; the crew of one ship de serted and steered their vessel back to Spain; others of the ships were wrecked ; starvation threatened ; there was much sickness, and many deaths. Finally, the party landed on the Philippine Islands, and here it was the fate of the brave leader of the expedition to be killed by savage natives. 1 The survivors kept on their way; and on Sep tember 6, 1522, there sailed into a harbor of Spainalittle shipmanned by a crew of eighteen half- starved and ragged seamen, the only ones left to tell the thrilling tale of this first voyage around the world. 23. Results of Magellan s exploit. Two great results followed from Magellan s voyage: (a) It was now proved, beyond doubt, that the earth is round. (b) It was proved that America was not, as most geo- 1 As Magellan had been in this region before, sailing eastward from Europe, he had, on arriving at the Philippines, completely circled the globe. MAGELLAN IN THE FOOTSTEPS OF COLUMBUS 21 graphers had up to this time thought, a group of islands lying off the shore of Asia, but a great new continent. Magellan had sought, upon his voyage, to discover the " Southwest Passage," a sea route to India, lying south of America, but he found that it was too far to the south to be of much practical use to European navigators. After this, most of the ambitious naval explorers who were seeking a westward route to Asia searched for a " Northwest Pas sage," 1 to the north of America. 24. De Soto s expedition. Meanwhile, the Spanish did OLUMNS ,492 THE EARLIEST VOYAGES TO AMERICA AND AROUND THE WORLD not neglect the interior exploration of North America. Hernando de Soto, then the Governor of Cuba, became greatly interested in the report of Ponce de Leon about Florida, as the Spanish at first called all the country north of the Gulf of Mexico. He determined to explore it, and for that purpose sailed from Havana in 1539, with nine vessels and several hundred men. Landing at Tampa Bay, De Soto and his followers set forth on horseback and on foot upon a long and dangerous 1 A sea passage to the north of North America, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, was at last discovered in 1850 by an Englishman, Captain Robert M Clure; but it is in the ice-bound arctic regions, and of no great use to any one. The first ship actually to make this passage, after four centuries of trial, was the tiny Gjoa, commanded by Captain Roald Amundsen of Norway, who pushed through westward from the Atlantic, in the summers of 1904 and 1905. 22 THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY journey through the vast forests and swamps north of the Gulf. Two hundred and fifty of the party died from star vation and sickness or in fights with the Indians, whom they had treated cruelly. Two years later the little army found and crossed the Mississippi River, not far from the present Natchez. While still upon the great river, De Soto died ; and his body was sunk in the stream by his companions, in order that the Indians might not discover the loss of the white leader and think, therefore, that the survivors might safely be attacked. After four years of miserable wander ing the ragged, exhausted remnant of DeSoto sband found their way to the City of Mexico. 25. Coronado s great march. Of all Spanish expeditions into our country, Coronado s was the most remarkable. That brave officer started in 1540 from Mexico to discover the wonderful " Seven Cities of Cibola " and a mysterious country called " Quivira." The Spaniards had been told by Indians that these places lay somewhere in the wilderness far to the north of Mexico, and that their inhabitants, who lived in great castles with thousands of rooms, were so rich that they ate from plates of solid gold. To capture this astonishing wealth was the object of Coronado s march. With him was an army of two hundred and fifty horse men, seventy foot soldiers, over three hundred Indian al lies, and more than a thousand negro and Indian servants. A herd of mules carried their baggage; a great drove of hogs, sheep, and oxen were taken along for food; and cows also were in the caravan, to furnish milk for the officers. It was very hard, dry, and dusty work, this marching over thousands of miles of deserts and plains, in the hot sun; and often the poor wanderers suffered terribly from thirst. When at last they reached " Cibola," the " seven cities " were found to be merely a group of the curious many-storied and many-roomed houses of mud and stone, " pueblos," 1 of the Zuni Indians, in what is now New Mexico. Of course there were no plates of gold in them, nor anything else that 1 Pueblo is the Spanish word for "village." IN THE FOOTSTEPS OF COLUMBUS 23 Spanish adventurers would consider valuable. As for " Quivira," that turned out to be merely a squalid camp of roving Indians in the present Kansas. After painfully trav eling for two years through the region now divided into Arizona, New Mexico, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas, and losing many men from exhaustion and fierce attacks by In dians, the disappointed Coronado returned to Mexico. He had discovered none of the wealth that he sought; but he did make known to Europeans a very large part of our Southwest, including the wonderful Grand Canon of the MAIN STREET OF AN INDIAN PUEBLO IN NEW MEXICO The houses are entered at the top by means of the ladders Colorado. He is among the bravest and hardiest explorers to be met with in American history. 26. Spanish settlements. It was more than half a century after Ponce de Leon discovered Florida that his country men built St. Augustine, about 1565, the oldest city in the United States. About the same length of time after Coro- nado s march through New Mexico, they founded Santa Fe, our second oldest town. In both these places, there are still to be seen ruins and other relics of this early Spanish occupation. 27. Spanish missionaries. Following closely on the path of such men as Coronado, and frequently accompanying them, were Spanish missionary priests. Their only object 24 THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY was to convert the wild Indians to the Christian faith and lead them into paths of civilization, as Columbus himself had desired. In this noble work they often suffered great hardships, and were quite as enterprising and fearless as their adventurous countrymen who sought for gold. Six teen years before Santa Fe was founded, the Fathers came among the Pueblo Indians, whom Coronado had visited. Little by little they ventured into other regions, and in the next century were to be found, far apart from each other, all over our Southwest, building mission houses and teaching the natives how to be farmers. Ruins of many of the old Spanish missions are still to be seen, chiefly in New Mexico and California. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. Indicate on a map of North America the portion of the Atlantic coast discovered by the Cabots. Why was this discovery of great importance? 2. Dramatize the meeting between the English King and John Cabot, the latter being presented with fifty dollars for "finding the new isle." 3. The historian Bancroft says, "DeSoto discovered many ^wonderful things, but found nothing so wonderful as his own grave." Explain this quotation. 4. Trace on a map of North America the region explored by Coronado. 5. Show on a map of North America the region explored by the Spaniards. 6. Compare the motives of the Spanish gold-seekers with those of the Spanish priests. 7. Pupils representing respectively one of the survivors of Magellan s expedition, Balboa, and Coronado, may each relate the story of his adventures to an imaginary Spanish king. 8. Name and locate the two oldest towns in the United States. What reasons can you give why it was such a long time after the discovery of North America before these towns were founded? 9. Compare the present importance of Spain among the nations with its importance during the sixteenth century. 10. Important dates: 1513 Discovery of the Pacific Ocean by Balboa. I5IQ-I5 22 First voyage around the world by Magellan s expedition. i:. Complete the tabulated summary of the important discoveries and explorations made in the interests of Spain, printed on the opposite page. IN THE FOOTSTEPS OF COLUMBUS SUMMARY OF SPANISH DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS Name of Discoverer or Explorer Date or Dates Results I. Discovery of America 2. Exploration or discovery of Brazil 3. Discovery of the Pacific Ocean 4. First circumnavigation of the globe 5. Exploration of Florida 6. Exploration of the South west COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Prepare to write, or talk for about five minutes, on any one of the fol lowing topics: (a) The first circumnavigation of the earth. (6) Vespucius s services to his contemporaries. (c) De Soto s adventures. (d) What the Cabots did for England. (e) Spanish claims in the New World. (/) Balboa and the Pacific. 2. Write five entries in a supposed diary of Coronado, one telling of his hopes at starting; three describing his discovery of the Grand Canon of the Colorado, Cibola, and Quivira respectively; and one telling of his return. CHAPTER OUTLINE 1. Cabot s discovery of North America. 2. The naming of America. 3. Spanish explorations in North and South America. 4. Magellan s voyage around the world. 5. Exploration of the interior of North America by the Spanish. CHAPTER III ENGLISH AND DUTCH DISCOVERIES 28. English buccaneers. At the beginning of the six teenth century Spain was stronger upon the sea than any other European nation. She had thus far outrivaled all of them in exploration and conquest and was at last reaping the harvest in vast quantities of gold, silver, and precious stones that poured into the country from America. Yet she had need of all this treasure to pay the expenses of her many wars in Europe and to defend her American colonies, the latter of which she was finding a costly burden. England, meanwhile, though a country of brave seamen, was as yet too weak to venture into any lands that Spain had settled. But, little by little, Spain grew weaker, 1 and England more powerful. In the middle of the sixteenth century English sea-captains began boldly to plunder fleets of Span ish treasure ships on their way from America to Spain, although at first the two countries were supposed to be at peace with each other. In our time we severely denounce and punish all sea robbers, or pirates; but in those days, when English " buccaneers," as they were called, came sailing into their home ports, with rich cargoes snatched from Span ish galleons, 2 they were welcomed by their sovereign, and the people praised them as the nation s heroes. Through these sea robberies Spain each year met with enormous losses, while England grew more and more wealthy, and her sail- 1 One of the serious troubles with Spain was that her people living at home were envious of the fortunes easily made by Spaniards in Mexico and Peru, and became restless. They did not now care for the slow gains of farming and manu facturing, and became a nation of speculators. The more sober-minded English then took up these neglected industries, sent the products to the markets formerly supplied by Spain, and profited thereby. 2 The largest Spanish ships were called "galleons"; the smaller sort, used by Columbus, "caravels." ENGLISH AND DUTCH DISCOVERIES 27 ors gradually became the most warlike and skillful in Europe. 29. The Grand Armada. The Netherlands was then a rich and busy maritime nation, with fleets sailing to all the great seaports of Europe and Asia. It was, however, under the harsh and often cruel control of Spain. After a time the brave little nation rose in rebellion against her Spanish master, and England aided her during a fierce war that lasted through forty years. Spain had a difficult task in fighting these two seafaring nations at once, because at the same time she was obliged to protect her ships and her far-away Amer ican colonies from the terrible English buccaneers. In 1588 Spain hoped to demolish England by sending against her a great fleet of warships, called the " Grand Armada." But the Armada met with a disastrous defeat, and thenceforth plucky England was the " Queen of the Seas." No Euro pean rival could now prevent her from seeking a new road to India, or from exploring and settling whatever heathen lands she wished to add to her kingdom. 30. Drake s voyage. One of the most famous of the Eng lish buccaneers and sea rovers was Sir Francis Drake. 1 Through a period of thirty years this daring man made many expeditions to America, trading with the Indians and attacking and burning Spanish ships and settlements. But the voyage of his in which we are most interested be gan in December, 1577, when he sailed westward with five ships, to follow the great Magellan s path around the world. 2 Dashing up the South American coast, Drake pillaged Span ish towns in Chile and Peru, and robbed every Spanish treas ure ship that he met. Landing in what is now California, he 1 When eighteen years old, Drake owned a ship. He went on long and daring voyages, dealing in African slaves, and made a business of fighting and robbing Spanish vessels and towns wherever he could find them. Returning from one of his many famous voyages (1572-73), he arrived at Plymouth, England, on a Sunday; the people were so eager to see him that they left the parson alone in the church, and crowded to the harbor to welcome the hero home. He died during one of his raids (1595), and was buried at sea, off Vene zuela. 2 The map on page 21 shows the routes of both Magellan and Drake. 28 THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY took possession of the country and called it " New Albion, M1 in honor of his native land. After some adventures with the Indians, he continued westward over the Pacific and In dian Oceans, doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and arrived in England with but one ship, his others having been lost, after an absence of two years and ten months. Cabot s discovery had given England the right to claim , , the east coast of North America; and now Drake claimed for her the west coast, with all of the great continent that lay between those distant shores that is, all of North America north of Mexico. 31. Henry Hudson s dis covery. The people of the Netherlands, whom we call the Dutch, carried on a large trading business with the East Indies, so called to distinguish them from the West Indies. They, too, wanted to find an all-sea trade route to Asia and for this search hired a brave and skillful English navi gator named Henry Hud son, who had had much ex perience in arctic waters. In 1609 Hudson sailed northward in his ship, the Half Moon, and attempted to go around by the north of Europe, but was stopped by ice. Not at all discouraged, he crossed over to the west side of the North Atlantic and tried, as had several Englishmen before him, to find a passage to Asia through the heart of the American 1 "Albion" is the poetical name for England, just as "Columbia" is for ,he United States. THE HALF MOON ON THE HUDSON RIVER This vessel was about 59 feet lonp on the waterline, 17 feet wide, and 10 feet deep; displacement, 60 tons. The crew probably numbered less than twenty ENGLISH AND DUTCH DISCOVERIES 29 continent, somewhere north of Virginia. While upon this quest he discovered New York Bay 1 and the great river here emptying into the sea from the north. The extent of this body of water caused him to believe that it must surely be the wished-for route, and he ascended it to a point near where Albany is now. But by this time Hudson saw his mistake and turned back, much disappointed. The name of this great explorer has ever since been given to the picturesque river that he made known to the civilized world. 2 Hudson s disappointment came from failure to find here a short route to Asia; but he was greatly pleased with the country that he had discovered. He and his men fre quently went ashore and, in the words of an old narra tive, found the land " pleasant with grass and flowers and as goodly trees as ever they had seen, and very sweet smells came from them." Sometimes the Indians came aboard the Half Moon, bringing to Hudson presents of furs and of grapes and pumpkins that they had grown; and once a chief "made him an oration * and "showed him all the country round about." 1 There is little doubt that, eighty-five years before this (in 1524), New York Bay had been discovered by an Italian navigator, Verrazano, who, in the employ of France, was making explorations along the coast from North Car olina to New England. Only a few people heard of his discovery, and it was soon forgotten probably Hudson never knew of it; the latter s discovery $ however, was at once widely talked about in Europe, and settlers soon appeared in the region. A full-sized reproduction of the Half Moon was in 1909 presented by Holland to New^York City, on the occasion of the three-hundredth anniversary of Hudson s discovery of the river. The quaint little vessel was greeted in New York with great enthusiasm, and has been kept by the city. 2 In 1610, while in English employ, Hudson again tried to find the North west Passage, and discovered Hudson Bay. There, in the summer of 1611, his crew mutinied and set him adrift in a frail boat with his son, John, and five sick sailors. They were never again heard from. THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. Trace on a globe the route of Drake s memorable voyage. 2. Read about the "Grand Armada," and prepare to give your class mates an oral report. 3. Why did the English feel free after 1588 to make explorations in the New World? 4. Important date: 1609 Discovery of the Hudson River. 5. Complete the following chronological outline of the most important events recorded in the first three chapters: Event Nations interested Explorer or Discoverer Motives Results 1492 1497 1513 1519-22 1540 1577-80 1609 COMPOSITION SUBJECTS .c. Write brief biographies of some of the greatest men you meet in Ameri can history. It is suggested that up to this point you take Columbus, John Cabot, Magellan, Hudson. 2. Impersonate Drake and tell Queen Elizabeth your adventures in the voyage around the world. 3. Two boys engage in conversation as they rest under an old oak on the Hudson. The age of the tree and the name of the river suggest events of long ago, which they talk over. Write the conversation. CHAPTER OUTLINE 1. England grows rich and strong, while Spain becomes poor and weak. 2. Drake s voyages and their results. 3. England becomes the "Queen of the Seas." 4. Hudson s discoveries. CHAPTER IV FRENCH DISCOVERIES AND SETTLEMENTS 32. New France founded. Soon after Cabot had discov ered Newfoundland for England, French fishermen set tled in little groups along its shores and there dried the fish that they afterwards sold in the Mediterranean ports. In 1534 the adventurous navigator, Cartier, discovered for France the St. Lawrence River; 1 but it was nearly three quarters of a century after that before any lasting settle ment was made by French people upon our mainland. 2 In July, 1608, Champlain, whom the King made Governor of New France, as French possessions in America were henceforth called, established his little capital on the lofty cliff of Quebec. He thought that this situation could readily be defended against Indian attacks and any possible as sault from the English for the latter claimed that French men had no right whatever to settle in a country that had been discovered by an English explorer. Three years after this Montreal was founded, and grad ually there sprang up other little villages along the St. Lawrence and its tributary streams. Because at first there were no roads, the early French in Canada traveled mostly by boats ; and for this reason every man wanted to live where a river passed his door. 33. Champlain s explorations. Governor Champlain was a remarkably wise and courageous man, and one of the most 1 He ascended the stream "until land could be seen on either side"; and the following year (1535) repeated his voyage, going up as far as the site of Montreal. The Indians of that place, who had never before seen a white man, treated him "as if a god had come down to cure them"; and he delighted them by giving them knives, hatchets, and beads, and having his buglers blow trum pets in their honor. 2 In 1604 Champlain and others settled at Port Royal (now Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia), on the east shore of the Bay of Fundy. They afterward removed to Quebec. 32 THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY venturesome of American explorers. He traveled far and wide with native guides through the dense wilderness of Canada, canoeing l upon rivers with swift currents and perilous rapids and falls, and visiting the wildest and most hostile tribes and making treaties with them. Once he journeyed, amid great dangers, as far west as Lake Huron; it was in 1615 that he discovered this inland sea. 2 Champlain won for his people the warm friendship of the neighboring Algonquian tribes, among whom he intro duced the fur trade. Once, however, he made a serious mistake. A year after building Quebec he good-naturedly went with a war party of these neighbors to help them fight their old enemy, the fierce Iroquois, who lived chiefly in the valley of the Mohawk River, in the present State of New York. The Iroquois had never before seen a white man; and their own weapons being spears and bows and arrows, they of course knew nothing about firearms. When Cham- plain met them on Lake Champlain, which he discovered and named, and fired at them with his heavy, large-barreled gun, he killed several; the others fled in terror before this new and mysterious weapon. 3 The people of New France soon came bitterly to regret this easy victory over the Iroquois, for the latter were the most skillful fighters among North American savages and never forgave the injury. In time, they themselves obtained guns from the Dutch and the English to the south and east of them; and for every Iroquois killed on that memorable day hundreds of Frenchmen in later years paid forfeit with their lives. 1 Europeans soon became skillful in the use of the light bark canoes made by the natives. 2 The Great Lakes were found by the French in this order: Huron and On tario, 1615; Superior, about 1629; Michigan, 1634; Erie, 1640. Although nearthe French settlements, Erie was the last to be visited by Frenchmen because the Iroquois of New York were masters of this water; and the French, who greatly feared them, were long obliged, in making their voyages into the Far Western country, to go by way of the Ottawa and French Rivers and Lake Huron. 3 It is interesting to know that a few weeks after this unfortunate event took place on Lake Champlain, Henry Hudson was exploring Hudson River for the Dutch, only a hundred m ^s to the south. FRENCH DISCOVERIES AND SETTLEMENTS 33 The enterprising Champlain selected several sturdy young men of his colony to live among the Canadian Indians for years at a time, until they had learned the customs and lan guages of the savages and knew how to overcome fatigue and meet danger in the great wilderness. After this vigorous education these , pupils of the forest were sent out on long and hazardous expe ditions upon the far-stretching rivers and lakes of the West. One of this class was Jean Nicolet, who in 1634 was the first white man to visit Lake Michigan and what is now Wis consin. By means of explorations such as these, the bound aries of New France were greatly extended. 1 34. French relations with the Indians. Frenchmen managed to live on better terms with their Indian neigh bors, excepting the Iroquois, than did the English. There were two good reasons for this : - (a) Englishmen cut down the forests and opened farms, and thus drove away the game on which the Indians chiefly lived. The French colonists cared little for farming, raising only produce enough for their own need ; their chief wish was to conduct the fur trade 2 and explore the wilderness. 1 In traveling through the interior of the continent, the French made much use of the "portage" paths which the Indians had from early days established between the headwaters of streams flowing in opposite directions. By means of these they readily passed back and forth between waters flowing into the drainage system of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River, and those waters that reach the sea through the Mississippi River. (See the map of the principal portage paths, on page 35.) 2 Furs were then very fashionable in Europe. Wherever the early explorers Painting by J. L. G. Ferris. Courtesy, Glen Falls Insurance Co. CHAMPLAIN S FIGHT WITH THE IROQUOIS This probably occurred a little north of where Fort Ticonderoga was afterwards built 34 THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY (b) The French often married Indian wives, and mingled with the natives like brothers. On the other hand, English men did not hide their opinion that they belonged to a su perior race, for which the red men would have to make room. The natives were proud and did not relish this treatment; so most of them at first bitterly hated the English, although in later years they realized that the latter nearly always treated them with fairness. 35. Fur-trade posts. At convenient points along the rivers and lakes of New France, the fur traders built small warehouses of logs or stone, in which to store their furs. Sometimes the warehouse was a little fort, or " post," with a few soldiers to protect the traders and their property against unruly Indians who might seek to rob or molest them. In time there came to be a long line of these posts, sometimes several days journey apart, extending all the way from Quebec on the St. Lawrence, up the Great Lakes by way of Detroit, Mackinac, and Green Bay, and down the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, to New Orleans on the Gulf of Mexico. 1 Few of them were strong enough to repel a civilized foe ; but as a rule they could resist the attacks of savages, who had no artillery. From such posts the traders would roam through the vast regions of Canada and the country west of the Allegheny Mountains, barter ing with the Indians, and often meeting with thrilling ad ventures. 36. Jesuit missionaries. Among the brave men who traveled most widely in New France were the members of the Society of Jesus, called Jesuits, who sought to convert the Indians to Christianity. Inprder to do this, the black- (especiaily the French and the English) went, they asked the natives to bring them furs, and gave them in exchange gayly colored glass beads, cheap rings and other ornaments of brass, iron kettles and axes, cloths, blankets, and firearms, articles which the Indians greatly coveted. This trade soon became the principal occupation of the people of New France. 1 Small villages grew up outside the walls of many of these old French posts, and later some of them became American towns of importance. Detroit, Macki nac, and Green Bay, for instance, were important and strongly built posts, and guarded the entrance to large regions of fur-bearing wilderness. FRENCH DISCOVERIES AND SETTLEMENTS 35 gowned Fathers l lived in native villages far in the depths of the forest, learning the daily life and manners of the red man. In the face of the gravest dangers, the Jesuits made long journeys into the wilderness, seeking new tribes to instruct; and thus they often visited regions that no other white men had yet seen. Often they were very badly treated by the wild men whom they sought to help, and suffered terribly + Forts = Portages MAP OF FRENCH FORTS AND PORTAGE ROUTES from starvation and miseries of every sort ; some were even put to death by the savages, with cruel tortures. 37. The French explore the Mississippi. Father Mar- quette, whose little chapel was on the Straits of Mackinac, is the best known of these Jesuit missionaries. In 1673 he set out in company with Louis Jolliet, 2 who had already won fame as an official explorer, to find the south-flowing Mississippi, about which the Indians had told him, and to 1 The Indians called them "black gowns," because of their uniform, a long black robe. 2 Marquette was a native of France. While upon this famous expedition he became ill and spent the next winter at a Jesuit mission in Wisconsin. In the following spring (1674) ne returned to preach to the Illinois Indians, but had to 36 THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY preach Christianity to tribes along its banks. The two ex plorers, with five Frenchmen to help them paddle their canoes, left Mackinac in May, " fully resolved," writes the gentle Marquette in his journal, " to do and suffer every thing for so glorious an undertaking." Their course lay across Lake Michigan, up Green Bay and Fox River, and down the Wisconsin River, until, near the present town of Prairie du Chien, the broad current of the Mississippi was discovered, 1 flowing between high and heavily wooded bluffs forming one of the most charming scenes in America. Amid many perils from swirling eddies and from fierce tribes who had never before seen Europeans, the explorers now voyaged down the Mississippi to the mouth of the Arkansas. Here they turned back ; for they had heard that Spaniards were exploring the north shores of the Gulf of Mexico, and they wished to avoid meeting them. Late in the autumn, the two venturesome Frenchmen reached Lake Michigan by way of the Illinois River and the portage route now occupied by the great city of Chicago. 38. La Salle s explorations. The greatest explorer in New France was La Salle, 2 who traveled chiefly in canoes hurry home toward Mackinac, because his illness broke out again. He died on the journey (May 18, 1675), and was buried at the mouth of Pere Marquette River, where is now Ludington, Michigan. Jolliet was born at Quebec. As a youth he was trained to be an explorer, and no man in New France knew better the Indians and the life of the forest. When the exploration of the Mississippi was completed, he started by canoe for Que bec, with his maps and reports of the expedition. But in descending the fierce rapids at Lachine, just above Montreal, his canoe was upset, he was nearly drowned, and all his papers were lost. In after years he explored Labrador. 1 Over a hundred years before, Spaniards had discovered the lower part of the river; but Marquette and Jolliet did not know of this. The Spanish dis covery did not lead to any results, so that the river was soon forgotten by white men. The French discoverers, however, were at once followed by other French men; and soon the Mississippi became widely known. 2 He was born in France, but came to Canada when twenty-five years old. and next year began his Western explorations. Although he was a shy, stern, proud man, he was much liked by the Indians and a few followers; but he made few friends among white people. La Salle s most constant friend and companion was Henry de Tonty, a young Italian soldier. Tonty had great talent and, though kind and gentle, was a bold, adventurous man. Having lost his right hand in a European battle, he wore in its place one of metal, which much astonished the Indians, who obeyed him as though he were their own chief. FRENCH DISCOVERIES AND SETTLEMENTS 37 but sometimes for long distances on foot through a large part of the Mississippi Basin, 1 fighting Indians, building fur-trade posts, and collecting furs. His object was to com plete the explorations made by Marquette and Jolliet, and to add to New France the broad and fertile region lying at the mouth of the Mississippi River. Such expeditions through the then untrodden wilderness of North America were enormously costly and difficult, and La Salle was obliged to carry on the fur trade to meet his expenses. After many trials he succeeded, in 1682, in descending the Mississippi to its mouth. There he erected a cross and dis played the French flag and coat of arms; 2 and in the presence of the won dering savages, in the name of his sov ereign he took pos session of the entire Mississippi Basin and the northern shores of the Gulf of Mexico. To this country he gave the name "Louisiana," in honor of his king, Louis XIV. But the difficulties were so great and his plans so ambitious and costly that La Salle lost his own fortune and all the money he could borrow. A colony that he planted on the Gulf of Mexico failed miserably, and on his retreat northward through Texas he himself was killed, in 1687, by some of his mutinous followers. 3 1 The "basin" of a river is the entire region drained by that river, also by its tributaries and all their branches, large and small. * The French coat of arms was at that time a representation of the heads of lilies (fleur-de-lis). These, La Salle had had engraved on a metal plate, which he nailed to a post. 3 Father Hennepin, a Franciscan monk, was with La Salle in 1680; and the latter sent him with two other Frenchmen to visit the upper waters of the Painting by J. N. Marchand LA SALLE TAKING POSSESSION OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY 38 THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY 39. Founding of Louisiana. It was not until 1699 that La Salle s plans for founding a colony in Louisiana could be carried out by the French. In that year a daring French Canadian, Iberville, succeeded in planting a permanent settlement at Biloxi. Nineteen years later New Orleans was founded by his brother, Bienville. For many years Bienville wisely governed the province, which then com prised all the southern part of the Mississippi Valley, as well as the country lying to the west of the river itself. 1 By this time the French had established three important cities in North America New Orleans in the south, and Montreal and Quebec in Canada. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. What were the two chief motives of French explorations in America? 2. Compare French motives of exploration with Spanish motives. 3. Trace on a map the journey of Marquette. 4. Thus far, in the text, four nations have made discoveries or explorations in the New World. Indicate on the globe or map the regions claimed by each, because of these explorations. 5. Sketch a map of North America, and write the following names in the places associated with them in history: Balboa, Cabot, Champlain, Coronado, De Soto, Hudson, Jolliet and Marquette, La Salle, Ponce de Leon. 6. Show on the map the claims of the Spanish, the French, and the Eng lish. Point out the places or regions where these claims conflict. 7. Draw a map of the Great Lakes and their outlet ; write on each lake the date of its discovery. 8. What use did the explorers make of rivers? 9. Of what other persons, previously mentioned, do the French mission aries remind you? 10. Why did fur trading not lead to fixed settlements? 11. Make a table showing the French discoveries, explorations, and settle ments. It should indicate: (a) the name of the place or region; (b) the date or dates; (c) the name of the discoverer or explorer; (d) the results. Mississippi. First of all Europeans, these three reached the Falls of St. Anthony, where Minneapolis now is. After being captured by Indians, they were rescued by Duluth, another famous French explorer (for whom the city of Duluth was named), who had a large fur trade in the great region around the head of Lake Superior and we ) respected and obeyed by thousands of fierce savages. 1 Throughout half } century Louisiana and much of the Canadian North west was explored b* French soldiers and fur traders. FRENCH DISCOVERIES AND SETTLEMENTS 39 COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Think of yourself as Tonty, the friend of La Salle. Write a letter to the French King briefly telling of the services of La Salle to France, emphasizing his wonderful courage and untiring zeal. 2. Father Hennepin looks into the future and believes that some day there will be a city at St. Anthony s Falls. He talks over the advan tages of a city here with his companions. What city came to be planted there? 3. Champlain s nephew in France gives an interesting account to his classmates of the wonderful exploits of his uncle in America. Write what he said, remembering the beautiful lake, the skirmish with the Iroquois, the abundance of furs, and the hairbreadth escapes in the wild forests. CHAPTER OUTLINE 1. Early French settlements. 2. Champlain extends the boundaries of New France. 3. Relations with the Indians. 4. French fur trade in North America. 5. Jesuit missionaries. 6. Marquette and Jolliet on the upper M ississippL 7. La Salle s explorations. 8. Louisiana founded. CHAPTER V THE INDIANS 40. Three great groups. It is probable that when Euro peans first came to our country, not over two hundred thousand Indians dwelt within its borders. 1 There were three groups of tribes living east of the Mississippi River: - (a) Most numerous were the Algonquian, 2 who occu pied the greater part of the country north of Kentucky and between the Mississippi River and the Atlantic, as well as most of Canada. (b) The Iroquois 3 lived principally south and east of Lakes Erie and Ontario, within the present States of New York and Pennsylvania. (c) The Southern group, or Muskogee, 4 dwelt south of the Tennessee River. The Dakota, or Sioux, roamed over the treeless plains lying west of the Mississippi. The Pueblo group, whom Coronado visited, is still to be found in the region now divided into New Mexico and Arizona. Besides, there were a number of small groups living in the Rocky Mountains and along the Pacific Coast. 1 Most people suppose that the Indians have decreased in numbers, since Columbus s day; yet there are to-day probably quite as many Indians, all told, within the present United States, as there ever were. Some of the tribes have nearly if not wholly died out ; but now that their methods of living are im proved and they are no longer allowed by our Government to go to war with each other, the total Indian population seems to be somewhat on the increase. 2 Among the most celebrated of the Algonquian tribes were the Chippewa, Delaware, Fox, Massachusetts, Miami, Narragansett, Ottawa, Potawatomi, Sauk, Shawnee, and Wampanoag. 3 The principal Iroquois tribes were the Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onon- daga, and Seneca; these were often called "The Five Nations of New York." The Huron, Erie, Tuscarora, and Cherokee were also related to the Iroquois. By the time of our Revolutionary War, the Tuscarora had joined the Iroquois Confederacy, which after this was called "The Six Nations." 4 The Muskogee included the Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole tribes. THE INDIANS 41 41. Characteristics. The American aborigine is com monly called the " red man " - but he is not really red; the color of his skin resembles dark copper. He has long, coarse, black hair; small, dark eyes; high cheek bones; and is likely to be rather tall and thin. He walks quickly and cautiously, like a wild animal. Wearing his moccasins, he can step so carefully upon the dry twigs and branches of the forest that he makes no more noise than he would if crawling through grass. In the early days, the Indian was trained from child hood to know intimately the habits of birds and animals, so that he might be successful in hunting and fishing; but especially did he learn how to fight and defend himself against his enemies. He was polite and hospitable to his friends ; but he was merciless to his enemies, and he used to believe that no cruelty was too severe for a captive. 1 In council, or when strangers were present, he was dignified and reserved, being too proud to show curiosity or emotion; but around his own fire he was much given to rude talk, joking, and loud laughter. When living in the wilderness the Indian protected his family from enemies and hunted and fished for their benefit. But when he was neither fighting nor seeking food his life was one of idleness; for all other work fell to his squaws (the women), who built the wigwam, cultivated his small crops, hauled firewood and water, cooked the meals, cared for the wigwam and the children, and, when the tribe was on the march to other hunting-grounds, carried the wigwam and all the other family possessions. Yet women had much power over the councils of the tribe, and they owned both the wig wams and the children. 42. Religion. The Indian supposed that earth, air, sky, and water contain both good and bad spirits, called " mani- 1 When, however, as not seldom happened, he took a fancy to his captive and adopted him as a son or brother, to take the place of one that had been killed, the prisoner was kindly treated. THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY tos," and that these controlled all of his affairs. He thought that the smaller manitos are directed by a " great spirit," who looks after all mankind. In order to please these imag inary manitos and their great spirit, he made sacrifices of food, tobacco, or other articles; and for the same purpose he held dances, feasts, and fasts in their honor. 43. Mounds. Long before the white men came, a few tribes, especially in our North Central States, had a curious custom of erecting large mounds of earth, some of which must have taken years to build. Most of these mounds were round, and were used as burial places; but many others were made in the shapes of birds, beasts, and reptiles, the supposed spirits of which were held in great veneration by the natives; and some were walls for protection against enemies. At many places these old mounds can still plainly be seen. 1 44. Villages and houses. The Indians often built several vil lages quite near together; these were either in the dense woods or on wide- From JJevei ley s History of Virginia AN INDIAN VILLAGE The palisade, ten or twelve feet high, incloses nuiherous cabins (wig wams). Within the inclosure, also, is a water supply and a place for afire. The outside fields of corn and tobacco are held in common. The circle of posts surrounding the cabin in the foreground is the scene of Spreading ceremonial dances nes, and usually by the shores of lakes and rivers. Hundreds of our American towns are upon sites first occupied by Indian villages, and many still bear their aboriginal names. 2 But for the most 1 Thousands of them may be found throughout the Mississippi Basin, es pecially along the banks of rivers and lakes. Some of the largest are at Mounds- ville, West Virginia, and Cahokia, Illinois. Ohio and Wisconsin are noted for their fine "effigies" that is, mounds in the shape of animals, etc. 2 Seattle, Tacoma, Spokane, Oklahoma City, Topeka, Chicago, Milwaukee, THE INDIANS 43 part, the great North American wilderness was unoccupied by permanent dwellings ; and over its wide, empty spaces the warriors roamed, hunted, and fought. An Indian s house was generally a portable tent or hut, called " wigwam," " tepee," or " lodge," made of slender poles placed in a circle, with their points tied together at the top. This frame was covered with skins of animals, rush-mats, | <|fe or sheets of the bark of certain .J|p^ 7 trees. Some tribes had " lon^ houses " built of heavy straight | j| 4- poles, covered with layers of A^ bark. Such a dwelling would ! ! Jit accommodate several families, } :& each of which would gather i, T around its own fire. 45. Food, tools, and clothing. At most of the villages east of the Mississippi, the savages cul tivated fields of corn, pumpkins, squashes, beans, watermelons, AN ^ DIAN CHIEF IN WAR and sunflowers, the seed of these last being used as food ; and in some regions tobacco was grown for smoking. They ate also wild fruits, nuts, edible roots, and wild rice; and the wilderness supplied them plen tifully with game and fish. They made arrowheads, spearheads, axes, knives, and other tools and weapons from stone and copper; they also moulded rude pottery, and wove baskets and mats from rushes and tall grasses. The Indian canoe, made either from the bark of birch or elm, was a light and handsome boat ; but some of their boats were logs hollowed out by the use of fire. 1 Such clothing as they needed was made mostly from skins of wild animals. Wampum, or strings of beads made from Oshkosh, Kalamazoo, Saginaw, Kankakee, Chattanooga, Poughkeepsie, and Pawtucket are examples. 1 The whites called a canoe of this latter kind a "dugout." 44 THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY shells, was their principal ornament; among many tribes, this served also as money. Another way of adorning them selves was by means of colored earths, with which they painted their faces and bodies black, red, green, or white. 1 Warriors were fond of wearing eagle feathers in their hair, one feather for each enemy killed in combat. 46. The Indian in War. The Indian s life was a contin ual struggle for existence. He chased enemies from the hunting-grounds of his own tribe ; yet, when food was scarce, he boldly invaded the territory of other tribes, and this led to frequent w r ars, in which the weapons employed were chiefly bows and arrows and spears. He was so skillful a fighter that the white man often found him difficult to conquer. Indian war parties would make rapid journeys for rob bery, murder, and scalping. 2 After quickly striking their blow against an enemy s camp or cabin, often in the dead of night, and gathering their prisoners and scalps, they would glide back again into the dark forest that hid them from sight. In fighting, the Indian tried to do as much harm to the enemy as possible, yet at the same time to keep out of dan ger himself. He did not like to " fight in the open," where he was exposed to view. The greatest hero in the tribe was he who collected the most scalps, no matter by what treach ery he obtained them. The warrior therefore skulked in the woods and grass as does a wild beast before springing on its prey, and often attacked defenseless women and children. Europeans called such conduct cowardly; the Indian, how ever, had no lack of courage, only it was shown in other ways. 47. What the Indians taught the white men. The In- 1 The color and shape of these markings meant many things; they showed to what tribe the savage belonged, some sorrow or joy that he felt, or his inten tion to go to war or to do some other great deed. 2 The young Indian was not allowed to call himself a warrior until he had cut from some fallen enemy a small, round piece of skin towards the top of the head, with the hair hanging to it. This was called the "scalp lock." THE INDIANS 45 dians taught Europeans how to raise and use tobacco, which became a profitable crop in some of the English colonies. The maize that the Indians grew was at once adopted by the whites, who called it " Indian corn," to distinguish it from the cereals of the Old World. This has become one of the largest and most valuable of our North American crops. We owe, also, to the aborigines the common potato. The Indian showed the settler where to find in the forest edible roots, nuts, and fruits, how to gather and cook wild rice, and the way to prepare the hominy and parched corn that often kept white fam- ilies from starving. The " pale-face" hunter learned much from the savage about the habits of birds and wild animals, the paths through the wilderness, and the best methods of the chase. The . Indian s birch-bark canoe ^*" became popular with the conquerors, as did also his HOW THE IND ^ S ES SIGNED THEIR quickly built wigwams and Each drew the animal or bird which had been selected cVifil-f-Ckt- Viiifc TVifi ndti\7-p> as the emblem of his family. The name of the signer Iter IlULb. native and the words "UH mark "were added by a ctork " medicine man " taught the civilized pioneer several methods of healing, especially of the kind of wounds received while hunting or fighting. 48. Aid given to white settlers. Sometimes friendly na tives would save a white village from attacks by war par ties coming from a distance; often, pioneers were saved from starvation by gifts of food from the tribesmen; and the Indian frequently acted as guide to exploring parties. If the red man were treated well, he often befriended the white. 49. The pioneers view of the Indians. When Europeans, especially the English, first came to America, they began to cut down the trees, to make farms, and to plant towns. This frightened off the game on which the Indians chiefly 46 THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY lived; and it began to look as though the aborigines would soon have no food left. It was not long before the new comers drove away the natives themselves and often acted with unnecessary cruelty toward them. This made the Indians angry; and at times they fought the intruders, hoping thus to regain their hunting-grounds. But, in the end, the white man always won. Our pioneer forefathers lived at a time when even white men did not treat each other as kindly as they do now. They believed that the Indian was a cowardly, treacherous, wild man, and must, therefore, like the wild animals, stand aside for the stronger and better race. They thought that, by driving out the native inhabitants, they were doing a real service to civilization. 1 QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. Find several Indian names in your State. 2. Give several words in common use derived from the Indians. 3. In what respects does the white man s idea of honor in war differ from that of the savage? 4. What effect did contact with the white man have on the customs and mode of life of the Indian? 5. What did the white man learn from the Indian? 6. Name a common food, a plant used as a luxury, and a traveling ve hicle first used by the Indians. 7. Find out how many Indians are now living in the United States and report to the class. How does this number compare with the number of Indians in the country in the sixteenth century? COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Perhaps you have heard a story, or legend, of the Indians that has never been printed. If so, tell it or write it. 2. Write a brief account of The Last of the Mohicans, or of any other of the " Leather Stocking Tales " byjames Fenimore Cooper, or of Ramona, by Helen Hunt Jackson, or The Story of Old Fort London, by Charles Egbert Craddock. Tell especially what you think of the description 1 Most of the Indian tribes are now forced by our Government to live in small districts set apart for them, called " reservations. " While there are several such reservations east of the Mississippi River, the majority of them are in the region to the west of it. REVIEW 47 of the Indian in the book you select, and the author s view of the Indian s relations with the whites. Give an Indian s thoughts as he looks on the scene suggested in this stanza from Stevenson s poem The Displaced: As when the Indian to Dakota comes, Or farthest Idaho, and, where he dwelt He with his clan, a humming city finds, Thereon awhile amazed he stares. CHAPTER OUTLINE 1. Three groups of Indian tribes east of the Mississippi River. 2. Characteristics, religion, and mode of life of Indians. 3. The Indian in war. 4. The Indian s relation to the white man. 5. The pioneers view of the Indians. REVIEW OF THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY IN the fifteenth century the world was astir with new id?as. The discovery of gunpowder had revolutionized war, the invention of the printing-press was spreading knowledge abroad, the com pass and the astrolabe made it safe to sail into unknown seas. Finally, in the closing years of that century, came the discovery of America, the land of opportunity. The capture of Constantinople by the Turks threatened the trade routes over which the goods of Asia came to Europe. Men began, in consequence, to hope that a sea route to India might be found. In 1492 Columbus, an Italian, believed that the world was round and that, by sailing west from Europe, one might reach Asia. Procuring aid with much difficulty from Spain, he set out with three ships upon the great unknown waters to prove his theory. He sailed west until he found an island of the Bahamas. Afterward he discovered Cuba and Haiti, and, on a later voyage, the continent of South America ; but he believed them all to be outlying lands of India. The countries of Europe began sending out explorers to these new lands. Before Columbus saw South America, the Cabots had discovered North America for England. Americus Vespucius sailed along the coast of Brazil. Geo graphers gave his name, first to that country, then to the whok continent. 48 THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY More than twenty years after Columbus first saw the New World, the Spaniard, Balboa, discovered, in 1513, the Pacific Ocean from a mountain top of the Isthmus of Panama. It began to be realized that America was not India, but men still thought of it as a barrier between Europe and Asia and continually searched for a passage through it. In 1520 Magellan sailed through the straits that bear his name and on across the broad Pacific. Only one of his ships got back to Spain. For the first time men had sailed around the world. More than half a century later this feat was repeated by Sir Francis Drake, the English buccaneer. Men did not guess that North America was three thousand miles from east to west, and they sought for a northwest passage through it. Cartier, the Frenchman, believed he had found it when he sailed up the St. Lawrence. Hudson, an Englishman, exploring on behalf of Holland, was searching for the Northwest Passage when he discovered, in 1609, the Hudson River. The Spanish discovered the Mississippi. The French explored it from the Falls of St. Anthony to the Gulf of Mexico. To the French also we owe our first knowledge of Lake Champlain and the Great Lakes. The Spanish, on their part, made long jour neys through what is now the southern and southwestern part of the United States. The territory now occupied by the United States was once held by a population of some 200,000 Indians. These Indians had per fected the arts of forest warfare, were skillful hunters, and had made some progress in agriculture. In spite of their excessive cruelty, there was much that was attractive about their char acter. No doubt they were often treated with great injustice by the whites at a time when the world had little idea of any right but the rule of the strong. They were, however, unable to make use of the natural resources of this continent, as their white suc cessors have done. RECOMMENDED READINGS HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY TEACHERS LIST. Hart s American History by Contemporaries* vol. I, pp. 35-40, 60-64, 81-88, 125-144. Thwaites s Colonies, pp. 1-36. Fiske s United States, pp. 1-55. Channing s Student s United Sta es, chap. I. Sparks s Expansion of American People, chaps, i, n. Fiske s Discovery of America, vol. I, chaps, in, v; vol. n, pp. 2-18, 180-210; and New France and New England, chaps. II, iv. Cheney s European Background of American His tory, chaps, n-v. Bourne s Spain in America, chaps, iv, v, vu, ix, xi. REVIEW 49 Thwaites s France in America, chaps. I, in-v. Farrand s Basis of American History, chaps, x, xi, xm-xvii. Parkman s Struggle for a Continent, pp. 123-168, 180-222. Grinnell s Story of the Indian. Markham s Columbus. Ober s Cabot, and Magellan. King s De Soto. Sedgwick s Champlain. Thwaites s Marquette. Parkman s La Salle. PUPILS LIST. Hart s Source-Book of American History, pp. 1-17, 96-98. Elson s Child s Guide to American History. Griffis s Romance of Discovery. Sparks s Famous Explorers. Foote s Explorers and Founders of America. Me Murray s pioneers on Land and Sea (for Magellan, Champlain, and Cortez); Pioneers of Mississippi Valley (for De Soto and Jolliet). Tap- pan s American Hero Stories, pp. 1-37, 96-107. Johnson s World s Dis coverers, chaps. l-v, vni-x. Baldwin s Discovery of Old Northwest. Brooks s Story of the Indian; Columbus. Moores s Columbus. Elton s Drake. Bacon s The Boy s Drake. FICTION TEACHERS LIST. Cooper s Last of the Mohicans. Craddock s Old Fort London. Jackson s Ramona. Kingsley s Westward Ho. Parker s Trail of the Sword. Wallace s Fair God. PUPILS LIST. Catherwood s Romance of Dollard; Story of Tonty. Henty s Under Drake s Flag; By Right of Conquest. Jenks s Ji-Shib the Ojibwa. Judd s Wigwam Stories. Munroe s Flamingo Feather. St. Nicholas s Indian Stories. POETRY Longfellow s Hiawatha. Joaquin Miller s Columbus. THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION CHAPTER VI \ EARLIEST ATTEMPTS TO SETTLE VIRGINIA 50. America a land of opportunity. At the opening of the seventeenth century, many parts of Europe, especially England, 1 were so overcrowded that there was much pov erty and distress, with few chances for poor people to im prove their condition. To them the discovery of America was a great boon. This land of opportunity, such as had never before been opened to Europeans, lay awaiting settle ment and development. 51. England ready to colonize. It has truly been said that u the destruction of the Spanish Armada marks the open ing event in the history of the United States." That is, this great victory, 2 which weakened forever Spanish power upon the sea, at last gave to England her opportunity for colonizing America. 52. Raleigh s colonies. Sir Walter Raleigh 3 was one of 1 Following her victories over Spain, England s commerce grew rapidly, and her merchants and manufacturers became very rich. But it was a hard time for English working people. Wages were low, prices for food and clothing high, and thousands o-f men were out of work. The chief reason for this state of af fairs was that the rich landowners were turning their farms into sheep pas tures, in order to produce wool for the great weaving industry which had lately sprung up in the Netherlands, and fewer men were needed to care for sheep than to cultivate field crops and attend to cattle. There was not enough work to support the population, under these changed conditions. To make matters worse, large numbers of soldiers were returning home from the wars, and they also were looking for employment. 2 See page 27. 3 Raleigh was born in England about 1552, and while still a youth went to fight in the Netherlands. He soon became a great soldier and sailor. One of his acquaintances says he was a very handsome man, "with the fancy of a poet and the chivalry of a soldier, and was unrivaled in splendor of dress and equi page." It is said that one day, seeingQueen Elizabeth out walking, with a muddy place in her path, he gallantly laid down his fine cloak for her to tread upon. EARLIEST ATTEMPTS TO SETTLE VIRGINIA 51 the most enterprising and valiant of England s ship captains. He was much distressed concerning the condition and dis content of the working people among his countrymen, and thought that he knew a remedy. It was his belief that they would have a much better chance to support themselves if sent across the Atlantic to found agricultural colonies in America, where they could get land for almost nothing. He believed, too, that such colonies might be made profitable to England. Having obtained the necessary per mission of Queen Elizabeth, Raleigh sent out an exploring expedition to North America in 1584. So excellent an account was brought back of the region around Pamlico and Albemarle Sounds, that, at the Queen s sugges tion, Raleigh named this beautiful new land " Virginia," in honor of the " virgin queen " herself. 1 The next year Raleigh sent over to Virginia a colony of about a hundred men and women, who settled on Roa- SIR WALTER RALEIGH noke Island, on the coast of what is From , anold engraving, showing the costume of the time now North Carolina. But, like the Spaniards, these first English settlers wanted only to ex plore for mines; although poor, they refused to labor with their hands, so they nearly starved, and at last returned disgusted to England. Again and again did Sir Walter try to plant colonies upon Roanoke Island. But the people whom he sent over were not earnest, hard-working folk, such as are needed to per- This won for him her friendship. In 1588 he aided in defeating the Spanish Ar mada, and in later years attacked and pillaged Spanish towns in America. Like so many other great men of his age, he at last fell from royal favor and was be headed in London (1618). In placing his head upon the block, he said, "This is sharp medicine, but is a sound cure for all diseases." 1 The name was given by Raleigh to a very much larger extent of country than our present State of Virginia indeed, to the entire region between Canada and Florida. 2 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION form pioneer labor in new lands; moreover, he had not money enough to carry out his plans. His settlements there fore failed. The last one was attacked by Indians, who no doubt killed some of its members and made prisoners of the rest. But what became of the captives nobody really knows; for they mysteriously disappeared. 1 53. The father of English settlement in America. After expending on his ill-fated colonies a sum of money that in our time would amount to over a million dollars, Raleigh sold all his rights in Virginia to a company of merchants. 2 He himself had not been able to plant a permanent settle ment, but he had attracted the serious attention of the best people of England toward this country. He used proudly to prophesy, " I shall yet live to see it an English nation." We should never forget that he was the father of English settlement in America. 3 QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. Why were there so many unemployed in England in Raleigh s time? 2. What was Raleigh s service to England? To America? How is his name perpetuated in the United States? 3. Explain: "The destruction of the Spanish Armada marks the opening event in the history of the United States." 1 In this colony there was born, in August, 1587, Virginia Dare, granddaugh ter of John White, the Governor. She was the first child of English parents born in the New World. A few days after her birth Governor White left for England. He returned some years later; but all the people, including his daughter and granddaughter, had disappeared. On one of the trees was cut the word "Croatan," which possibly meant that the colonists had gone to a neighboring Indian village of that name; but in a long search, no trace of them was found. 2 Raleigh introduced tobacco into Great Britain from Virginia. He had be come fond of smoking this American weed, but at first did not venture to use it in public, because he feared that his friends would call him a barbarian. It is said that one day his Irish serving-man saw smoke coming from his master s mouth, and thought that he was on fire; so he threw a pitcher of water over Ra leigh s head and ran off, screaming for help to save his master from burning. After a time the great sailor introduced tobacco at court, and at once it became fashionable. He also introduced to the British, potatoes from Virginia and North Carolina, and grew them on his fine estate near Cork, in Ireland. 3 Much credit is also due to Bartholomew Gosnold, who in 1602 explored our coast from Maine southward for several hundred miles and landed upon, and named, Cape Cod. His enthusiastic reports did much to influence Englishmen in favor of America. EARLIEST ATTEMPTS TO SETTLE VIRGINIA 53 COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Queen Elizabeth and Sir Walter Raleigh are walking in the Queen s garden, talking about Virginia. Describe the scene. Give something of the conversation. This may be dramatized. 2. An English farm tenant has been ruined by sheep-farming. He is ex plaining to his wife his reasons for wishing to emigrate to America. 3. Write a dialogue between this farmer and a soldier who has just re turned from the wars and is seeking work. Dramatize the scene. CHAPTER OUTLINE 1. England s reasons for planting colonies. 2. Raleigh s attempts at colonization. 3. Raleigh, the father of the English settlement in America. CHAPTER VII THE COLONY OF VIRGINIA 54. Two companies organized. The merchants to whom Raleigh sold his rights decided to make a fresh attempt to plant American colonies, with the idea of gaining large ,^___ profits for themselves. Ac cordingly they obtained in 1606 a charter from King James for two farming and trading companies the London Company and the Plymouth Company to operate in Virginia. They believed not only that Vir ginia held great riches in gold and silver, but that a thriving commerce would soon spring up between that country and England. To the London Company the King gave permission to settle on a strip one hundred miles wide along the sea- coast, somewhere between the southern boundary of REGIONS OPEN TO LONDON AND PLYMOUTH COMPANIES the present North Carolina 1 and the mouth of Poto mac River. The Plymouth Company was to make its first settlement on a similar strip between Manhattan Island and Halifax, in Nova Scotia. It will be seen from the map that under this arrangement 1 The northern boundary of the Spanish claim in Florida. THE COLONY OF VIRGINIA 55 there was an unclaimed district about two hundred miles wide. The charter said that this middle region might be settled upon by either of the companies. 1 The King believed that Cabot s discovery gave England the right to the whole North American continent. He there fore paid no heed, in the charter, to the fact that the French had recently planted the settlement of Port Royal on the Bay of Fundy, squarely within the territory now given to the North Virginia colony. This led, we shall see, to very serious quarrels between the English and the French colo nies in America. 55. Popular interest in colonization. So extravagant were the tales told of America s wealth in precious stories and metals that there was now no lack of candidates for the honor of settling Virginia. 2 English preachers of that day did not know how prophetic were their words when they declared that " Virginia was a door that God had opened to England." Still less did the would-be pioneers, eager for gold and silver, realize the hardships that lay before them in the New World. 56. The first colonists. In 1606, the London Company sent out three small ships with a hundred and five colonists, who were expected to start a farming settlement. But only twelve of the party were farm laborers. There were several artisans; but among them were " jewelers, gold-refiners, and a perfumer," who of course knew nothing about farming. Most of the passengers were " gentlemen," a class that scorned to work with their hands; they were going out simply for adventure, expecting, no doubt, to make their fortunes 1 But it was ordered by the King that their colonies must not be less than a hundred miles apart from each other. 2 In a comedy of that period (called Eastward Ho, acted in 1605); these words are spoken about Virginia by one Captain Seagull, a returned sea-captain: "I tell thee, gold is more plentiful there than copper is with us. ... Why, man, all their dripping-pans . . . are pure gold; and all the chains with which they chain up their streets are massy gold ; all the prisoners they take are fettered in gold; and for rubies and diamonds they go forth on holidays and gather em by the seashore to hang on their children s coats, and stick in their children s caps." It must not be supposed that the English actually believed all such wild state ments. Seagull exaggerates greatly, in order to please the laughing crowd. THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION in a very short time and return to England to enjoy their wealth. But, perhaps, worst of all was the very small number of both women and children to make homes in the new land. 57. Founding of Jamestown. At last the adventurers sailed into Chesapeake Bay, whose broad waters receive four large rivers. Fifty miles up the River James, which they named for their King, the colonists found " a low peninsula half buried in the tide at high water." They selected this as the site of their new home and, landing in May, 1607, called the place Jamestown. A few poorly made huts were soon reared ; and around these they built a stockade of logs, on which can non were mounted as a protection against the Indians. 1 They had chosen, how ever, an .unfavorable spot for their settlement. The drink ing-water was bad, there was little food to be found, and the weather greatly oppressed them, being much warmer than they had known in England. By an important article in the Company s charter no land was to be given to the settlers for a period of five years. All products were to be brought to a common warehouse, 1 Several adventurous men rowed up the James River, hoping to find by that path a passage through to the Pacific; all American explorers in those days were eager to find the supposed short-cut route to Asia, which had been sought since the days of Columbus. But the rowers were stopped by the falls, where Richmond now is, and turned sadly back. Fainting by G. Stevenson, in the John M. Smyth School, Chicago THE LANDING AT JAMESTOWN THE COLONY OF VIRGINIA 57 and the people were to be given what the officers thought they needed. No better incentive to idleness could have been devised ; for the industrious man fared no better under this scheme than the lazy one, and no person had anything that he could call his own. The result was that the majority of the settlers idled away their time and dreamed of the fortunes that they were des tined never to find. At first the savages in the neighborhood of Jamestown gladly sold to the strangers their corn, of which they raised large quantities, for articles made in Eu rope ; but some of the whites began to treat them badly, and after this there was no corn to spare for Englishmen. Star vation and sickness followed, and by autumn half of the men were dead. One of the survivors wrote an account of this " sorrowful year," saying: " There were never Englishmen left in a foreign country in such misery as we were in this new discovered Virginia. ... It would make hearts bleed to hear the pitiful murmurings and outcries." 58. Captain John Smith. Fortunately for the colony, it had one wise, brave, energetic, and public-spir ited man, Cap tain John Smith. Butfor him, mat ters might have been infinitely worse. At first his fellow colo nists did not rel ish his desire to manage every thing, and threw him into prison; but after a time they set him free, and for two years he was their real leader. Smith declared that " he that will not work shall not eat," and obliged all the settlers to take a hand in doing things, whether they liked it or not. He superintended the improvement of Painting by F. C. Yolm owned by the Continental Fire Insurance Co., N. Y, CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH SAVED BY POCAHONTAS 58 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION the fort and the building of several good log houses, drilled the little garrison, explored the neighboring country and made maps of it, often wrote to the Company in London for aid, and traded with the Indians for food. On one of these trading expeditions the neighboring Indian chief, Powhatan, made him a prisoner. Smith afterward reported that he was snatched from death only through the kindness of that chief s daughter, Pocahontas. 1 It was Smith alone who, through his energy and ability, saved the people from the fate that overtook the previous colony at Roanoke. 59. The starving time. The London Company grumbled at Smith, because he did not send home gold to them. 2 He replied that there was no gold to be had, but that farming and fur trading would make the colonists rich if they w r ould only work. Further, he told them that they ought no longer to send " gentlemen " and other useless folk to America, but men who could use farmers and laborers tools a bit of good advice which the Company was slow to follow. Having been injured in an accident, Captain Smith was obliged to return to England in the autumn of 1609. Then came what is called in history " the starving time." Tho people had been too lazy to build enough houses to live in, there were sickness, famine, and angry disputes, and finally utter despair. Of the five hundred people left by Smith, only sixty were alive the following spring. Just as the miser able survivors had concluded to abandon Jamestown, three vessels commanded by the newly appointed Governor, Lord 1 Smith declared that he was sentenced to death by Powhatan. While he was lying on the ground with his head on a stone, and a warrior preparing to kill him with a war club, the young Pocahontas rushed up and, clasping him in her arms, demanded that his life be spared. Powhatan granted the wish of his daughter, who was ever after a good friend of the Jamestown people, warning them whenever the Indians were planning to attack the town. She married aiv English gentleman named John Rolfe, who had settled in Virginia. Later, Poca^ hontas visited England, where the King and Queen treated her as though she were a princess; and she died in that country. Many prominent people in Vir ginia are to this day proud to be her descendants. 2 Some of the settlers found a lot of glittering earth, which they thought to be gold. Although Smith tried to dissuade them, they sent a shipload home to England, where it was found to be the worthless stuff known as iron pyiites. THE COLONY OF VIRGINIA 59 Delaware, arrived with more immigrants, chiefly mechanics and soldiers, and fresh supplies. The colonists decided to remain, and Virginia was saved. 60. Individual ownership. Lord Delaware remained at Jamestown for a year, but was unable to restore order. He was succeeded by Sir Thomas Dale, a stern and hardy sol dier, who severely punished all wrongdoers. If a man even grumbled or failed to go to church, he was liable to have Dale s constables after him. This was harsh government, but it succeeded with the kind of people then in the colony. He gave several acres of land to each settler to cultivate for himself. Afterward, the London Company gave them fifty acres apiece. 1 This system of private ownership proved to be much better than the old community plan, for now each must starve or prosper according to his industry or ability in working his own piece of land. After this the colonists became content, idleness ceased, and crime dimin ished, and a better class of immigrants were encouraged to come over from England. 61. Tobacco raising. The habit of using tobacco, which Raleigh had introduced into England, had become very popular. Not until they had been in America five years, however, did the Virginians seek to cultivate it themselves. There at once sprung up so great a demand for the crop in England that within a few years the settlers were rais ing scarcely anything else ; even the streets of Jamestown were for a time largely given up to this purpose. From that time on, through the whole colonial period, tobacco was Vir ginia s chief crop. Indeed, certificates that were good for certain amounts of tobacco were used like money, and wages were paid in them even the salaries of ministers and the fees of lawyers and doctors. Nearly everything that was sold was reckoned in so many pounds of tobacco. 1 For the equivalent of about five hundred dollars in our money, a settler might buy a hundred acres; and a few men were rewarded for great services to the colony with grants not exceeding two thousand acres each. Every owner was obliged to contribute two and a half barrels of teorn to the town granary, which was a sort of tax to meet the expenses of government. 60 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION There were three important results of this new industry in Virginia: (a) The colony grew rapidly in population, for large num bers of well-to-do people and industrious working folk came over from England to become tobacco planters. (b) Large plantations were formed. The Virginians soon learned that raising tobacco over and over again on the same land is injurious to the soil ; and the planters had either to get new farms from time to time or to buy such large tracts that they could let some of it wear out and yet have fresh lands left. These great plantations stretched along the broad and winding rivers of Virginia, the houses of the owners often being situated many miles apart from one another. To the private wharves of these riverside plantations came the small ocean-going vessels of that day, bringing to the planter manufactured goods and other supplies from Eng land, w r hich were exchanged for cargoes of tobacco. (c) Slavery was established. 62. Slavery. Seven years after the tobacco crop was in troduced, negro slaves were brought over to Virginia from Africa; they were the first seen in America. 1 The greater part of the hard work on Virginia farms had thus far been done by " indentured white servants," who w r ere really slaves. Most of these unfortunate people were English criminals, who had been sentenced to hard labor in America for a certain number of years; many others were gypsies, vagabonds of every sort, or poor orphan children, all of whom had been captured in English towns by " press gangs " and carried off to labor for the tobacco-raising planters in " Earth s only Paradise," as a poet of the day called America. There was, however, another class of indentured servants worthy people who had sold themselves into this sort of slavery for several years, in order to pay for their passage to America, or for debts incurred in the old country. But many planters thought that better service in the to- 1 Says an old Virginia chronicle: "About the last of August [1619], there came in a Dutch man of warre that sold us twenty negars." THE COLONY OF VIRGINIA 61 bacco fields might be had from black slaves, who were accus tomed to work in a hot climate. It must be remembered that in those days not many white people saw any wrong in making slaves out of the heathen blacks; indeed, most Eu ropean nations had had such slaves for centuries. Gradually the business of importing negroes to Virginia increased to such an extent that fewer and fewer indentured white serv ants were needed. 63. A representative assembly. During the first twelve years the governor and council of Virginia were appointed JAMESTOWN IN 1622 From an early Dutch account of Virginia by the Company, and these officers had everything pretty much their own way. But the colonists had long been accus tomed in the motherland to local government by men of their own choosing. They thought that they ought to have this same privilege in America -- the liberty which their forefathers in England had won by many a hard-fought battle. In 1619 the Company yielded to their wishes, declaring that after this the Virginians should have a local parliament of their own, " that they might have a hand in the governing of themselves." l Like the English Parliament and our own Congress and State legislatures, it was to consist of two chambers, or 1 Spanish and French colonists were never given any such self-governing privileges. 62 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION THE OLD CHURCH AT JAMES Kestored to its original appearance houses that is, two separate groups of representatives. The Council was to be the upper chamber and represent the king, while the people were to have as their own represent atives a House of Burgesses, to serve as the lower chamber. 1 The new Parliament met on July 30, 1619, in the choir of the little church at Jamestown, and was the first lawmaking assembly in America. It served as an example to legislatures in other English colonies, as well as a splen did training-school for the statesmen and soldiers of Virginia through colonial, Revolutionary, and state hood days. Among the many patriots famous in our history who have had seats in this great assem bly are Patrick Henry and Presidents Washington, Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe. The formation of this House of Burgesses infused a new spirit into the liberty-loving Virginians and now the colony grew rapidly. Enticed both by the representative form of government and by the fact that every one might buy land of his own, at a low price, men came over from England by the hundreds, so that by 1622 there were fully four thousand people in the settlement. 64. Importation of wives. Only a few women had thus far emigrated to the colony. But the London Company were desirous " for the making of the men to feel at home in Vir ginia"; so they sent over, in the spring of 1619, ninety " young and well recommended maids to become wives." The bachelors of the colony met the vessel at the wharf, and, after each man had made his choice, he asked the 1 Thecolony was divided into eleven boroughs (an old English name for towns) and each borough sent two representatives to the lower chamber. An inhabitant, or representative, of a borough is called a burgess; this was why the chamber was named House of Burgesses. THE COLONY OF VIRGINIA 63 consent of the maid ; if she were willing to take him he paid to the ship s officers the cost of her passage. 1 A minister was then found to unite them, and housekeeping at once began. The girls found such good husbands that a few months later other maids came over from England, and during several years there were regular importations of wives. 65. Virginia becomes a royal colony. Because of bad treat ment the Indians had come to dislike the Virginians, so in 1622 they rose against them and killed three hundred. King James was not fond of granting much liberty to his subjects and was glad to make this an excuse to revoke the charter of the London Company. He thereupon took Virginia under his own charge, and it was henceforth known as a " royal colony." 2 The House of Burgesses remained, how ever ; and slowly but surely its members, who nearly always were the best men to be found in Virginia, managed to win still further liberties for the people. 66. Cavaliers and Roundheads. A few years after Vir ginia became a royal colony, there broke out in England a long and fierce civil war between King Charles I, who wished to restrict the liberties of the English people, and his Parliament, who stoutly contended for their rights. The well-to-do classes, called " Cavaliers," fought for the King; the common people, led by Oliver Cromwell, were known as " Roundheads," and fought on the side of the Parliament. 3 King Charles I was beheaded by Parliament (1649) ; and for eleven years England was governed as a republic, called the Commonwealth. The monarchy w r as restored in 1660 1 The price was a hundred and twenty pounds of the highest grade of tobacco, worth about five hundred dollars in our present currency. 2 A " royal " colony was under the direct control of the King. A "proprietary " colony was ruled directly by the proprietors; a "charter" colony had only such rights as the King s charter gave to it. Up to this time, Virginia had beer, a " charter" colony. 3 The Cavaliers (meaning "horsemen") were so named, because, being rich, they rode fine horses; they also wore expensive clothing, and their hair was long and in curls. Most of the Commonwealth (or Parliament) people had their hair cropped short. The term "Round-heads" is said to have come from a custom among poor people, in those days, of placing a bowl over the head and cutting off the hair close up to the edge of the vessel; this left the remaining hair bushy, and made the head seem quite round. 64 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION and Parliament placed King Charles II, son of Charles I, upon the throne. This fierce political quarrel in England extended, of course, to her colonies. The most influential of the Virginians favored the Cavaliers. The Roundheads were unpopular; and when the tyrannical Sir William Berkeley became gov ernor (1642), he ordered them to leave for either Maryland or New England, where they were gladly welcomed. Under the Commonwealth, Berkeley was removed from office, but many Cavaliers emigrated from England to Virginia, where they were cordially received. 1 Thus between 1650 and 1670 the population of the colony grew from fifteen thousand to forty thousand. 67. Bacon s Rebellion. When Charles II became king, he reappointed Governor Berkeley, and then fresh troubles began. The colonists grew very angry over the many at tempts of the King and the Governor to interfere with their liberties as Englishmen, and they were quite ready for an outbreak when they could find any excuse for it. The occasion soon arrived. The savages had commenced to massacre the settlers, who demanded that the Governor send troops against the tribesmen. This Berkeley would not do, for he was privately making a great deal of money by trading with the Indians for furs. Nathaniel Bacon, an honest and courageous young member of the House of Bur gesses, and but recently arrived from England, was the leader of those who objected to the Governor s conduct; and in 1676 he raised an independent company of armed colonists to go out and attack the Indians. Berkeley called him a " rebel V for doing this, and ordered that he and his men at once lay down their weapons. Instead of doing that, they first went out and defeated the savages and then marched back to Jamestown, where the Governor and the regular militia were waiting for them behind breastworks. 1 Some of the most prominent men in the history of Virginia were descendants of these Cavaliers. General Lee was of this class, and it is thought that Washing ton was also; but there is still some doubt about the English ancestry of the latter. THE COLONY OF VIRGINIA 65 After a sharp fight Bacon s party won the battle, 1 and burned the village. It should be said, however, that James town, having been found unhealthy, had little by little lost its population, so that by this time there were hardly more than forty houses in the place. 2 Not long after this, Bacon died; and there now being no one left to lead the people Berkeley revenged himself on the rebels by hanging twenty-three of them and taking the property of the others. When the King heard of this, he was very indignant and ordered the Gov ernor to give up his office and come back to England, saying: " That old fool has hanged more men in that naked country than I have done for the murder of my father." 3 " If we had let him alone," said one of the leading settlers, "he would have hanged half the country." Berkeley died the next year "of a broken heart," so his friends declared; he thought he had merely done his duty and had been wrongfully punished. 4 1 The rebels compelled some of the Governor s women friends to stand in front of them while the garrison were firing their cannons. This piece of strategy won the day. It was much laughed at, and Bacon was complimented on his "White apron brigade." 2 The town was rebuilt a few years later; but toward the end of the seven teenth century it was accidentally burned down, and this time left in ruins. To-day nothing remains at old Jamestown save a crumbling church tower, a few tombstones, the foundations of three of the five churches, and several monuments and tablets erected in 1907 to Captain John Smith, Pocahontas, the House of Burgesses, etc. These relics are cared for by the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities. This marshy island would long ago have been swept away by the tides but for the protecting sea wall erected by the Fed eral Government in 1901-05. 3 Charles I, who had been beheaded. * The Governor once wrote: "I thank God there are no free schools nor printing in Virginia, and I hope we shall not have, these hundred years." This was very short-sighted in him, yet he subscribed toward founding a school which in later years became the College of William and Mary. GOVERNOR BERKELEY CALLS BACON A REBEL 66 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 68. Progress of the colony. There were many dark years for the colonists as governors came and went, each of them quarreling with the House of Burgesses ; as kings sought to extort money from them or to curb their liberties; as Indian and negro uprisings had to be met and overcome; and as bad seasons now and then brought disaster to the tobacco crop. But it must not be understood that, because these occasional events brought gloom, the life of the colo nists was without joy; we shall see that there really was, all this while, much prosperity, contentment, and steady growth. 69. College of William and Mary. One strong evidence of progress was the founding (1693) of the College of William and Mary at Williamsburg, the new capital of the colony, five miles from Jamestown. This, the second college in the United States, 1 became a famous school; within its walls were trained some of the Revolutionary leaders who, many years later, were to free the colonies from the growing bur den of English rule. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. What discovery was the foundation of the King s right to make grants to the London and Plymouth Companies? Show on the map how these grants conflicted with what, later, were the claims of France. 2. Sketch a map of eastern North America, showing the territory granted to the London and Plymouth Companies. Indicate on the map the overlapping territory. 3. Is the individual ownership of land to be preferred to community ownership ? In your neighborhood what things are ordinarily owned by individuals ? By the community ? 4. Describe the kind of man who would probably have made a success of the Jamestown settlement from the first, if the plan of community ownership of land had not been in operation. 5. Name four things that in later years largely contributed to the prosper ity of the Virginia colony. 6. Relate the services of John Smith to Virginia. What is meant by his being a man of " public spirit "? 1 Harvard College had been founded in Massachusetts in 1636 (p. 84). The first university to be founded in the New World was established at Lima, Peru, in THE COLONY OF VIRGINIA 67 7. Show why conditions made slavery profitable in Virginia and in the other Southern colonies. 8. What events happened in England that induced a worthy class of people to locate in Virginia? 9. Who was the nearer right in Bacon s Rebellion, Berkeley or Bacon? Why? 10. Relate how the people of Virginia secured and maintained in a measure self-government. 11. Why did the Virginians not live in towns? 12. Important dates: 1607 Founding of Jamestown. 1619 Beginning of representative government. First importation of slaves. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. "As our worshipful governor, Captain John Smith, whom the ne er- do-wells of our company affect to despise as willing to work with his hands and therefore no true gentleman, was proceeding forth to deal with the painted savages for corn, he came upon a group of our fine gentlemen who " Complete this passage from an imaginary diary. This may be dramatized. 2. Imagine yourself an industrious Jamestown settler. Write a letter to a brother in England in which you tell of the discouragements of the community plan of ownership. 3. Imagine that you live in Jamestown and sympathize with Bacon in his rebellion. Write a letter to a friend in London, explaining your reasons for this sympathy. CHAPTER OUTLINE 1. Merchants organize colonies for profit. 2. Character of first settlers. 3. The place chosen for settlement. 4. John Smith. 5. Early difficulties and discouragements^ 6. Dale s reforms. 7. Growth of tobacco. 8. Beginning of slavery. 9. Beginning of self-government. 10. Influence of events in England upon the colony. 11. Bacon and Berkeley. 12. Beginnings of education. CHAPTER VIII OTHER SOUTHERN COLONIES 70. Maryland. George Calvert, the first Lord Baltimore, a Roman Catholic noted for his wisdom, his liberal views, and his interest in colonization, obtained from King Charles I the promise of the country lying north of the Potomac River and south of the Plymouth Company s boundary. This territory he called Maryland, in honor of the Queen. But Baltimore died before the signing of the charter; and his son, Cecil Calvert, the second Lord Baltimore, received the grant. This gave him almost royal power in Maryland he could declare war, make peace, appoint all officers, pardon criminals, and do many other things pretty much as he pleased. But in making laws and levying taxes, he must consult the assembly, whose acts did not have to be confirmed by the King. In short, it was left for the proprietor and his colonists to decide among themselves how Maryland should be governed. In 1633 Lord Baltimore sent out his brother, Leonard Calvert, in charge of two hundred colonists, and the next spring they founded St. Mary s. 1 An Indian chief lived on the site, and allowed his wigwam to be used as a chapel. This was the first Roman Catholic church established by the English in America. 2 At that time Catholics were being very harshly treated in England. 3 The Baltimore family had founded this colony 1 Annapolis was founded in 1683, and Baltimore in 1729. 2 The settlers of New France were nearly all Roman Catholics, and had many churches and priests. 3 Any one refusing to attend the services of the Church of England was liable to be fined each month a sum equal to $700 or $800 in our money. In many parts of England Catholics were frequently thrown into foul prisons, and their prop erty taken from them; anybody might insult them without fear of punishment. For many years their life was full of misery. OTHER SOUTHERN COLONIES 69 in order that those who had the same religious beliefs as themselves might thereafter live in peace and comfort. Be ing generous-hearted men, they wished others also to have justice. So, in 1649, they secured the passage by the assem bly of a Toleration Act, which granted freedom of worship to all Christians throughout the province. Thus Maryland set an example of liberty of conscience that some of the Painting by Mayer, in the State Capitol, Annapolis THE PLANTING OF THE COLONY OF MARYLAND other English colonies in America would have done well to follow. A province so wisely planned deserved to prosper, and it did. The settlers sent over were used to working with their hands; they felled forests, raised crops, wisely made friends with the Indians, and did not waste their time in seeking for gold mines. To be sure, there were some disputes be tween the proprietor and the colonial assembly, because the former wanted to make the people pay some of the costs of government; whereas the latter, as usual with Eng lishmen, insisted on their right to decide what taxes should be levied. However, both sides kept in good temper; and 70 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION so long as the Baltimores were in power, the political affairs of the colony ran quite smoothly. But in 1654, during the rule of the Commonwealth in England, the proprietors were driven out, the Toleration Act was repealed, and Ro man Catholic worship forbidden. After four years, how ever, Parliament restored Lord Baltimore to his rights, and freedom of worship was again permitted. There followed a quiet, prosperous term of thirty years. But a revolution then arose in England (1688-89), by which William and Mary came to the throne. This brought about a serious change in Maryland. The power of the Baltimore family again ceased for a time. Catholics were persecuted the same as in England, and for several years there was much disorder in the once peaceful province. In 1715 con trol was restored to the Baltimores, and Maryland once more became prosperous. 71. The Carolinas. A broad belt of unsettled land lay between the English colony in Virginia and the Spanish colony in Florida. It was claimed by England and known as Carolina, in honor of King Charles I. 1 Many early ad venturers from Virginia wandered into the unoccupied ter ritory, traded with the Indians, and bought lands from them But nothing of lasting importance happened here until 1663, when King Charles II, in a fit of generosity, gave it as a present to eight of his friends. Religious liberty was allowed by the proprietors. This attracted to Carolina a large number of French Protestants, called Huguenots, who were being persecuted at home most cruelly. They settled chiefly in the southern part, and being intelligent, well educated, and industrious, made admirable colonists, from whom many of the best families of South Carolina to-day trace their descent. 2 1 The name comes from Carohis, the Latin form of Charles. From 1562 to 1568 French colonies were attempted in Florida; and the entire region, including the country to the north, was named Carolina in honor of their boy-king, Charles IX. When the English settlements were planted, the old French name was retained in honor of Charles I of England. 2 In 1670-71, Charleston, South Carolina, was founded by William Sayle, Many Huguenots settled there. OTHER SOUTHERN COLONIES In the northern part of the province, the settlers were mostly poor, hard-working people who had come to America from different countries of Europe, in the hope that here they would not be lorded over by aristocrats; and they made much trouble for i, . .- v . y | / rr ! PENNSYLVANI^^^^l / the officers set over them. In the southern part, however, were many wealthy planters of rice and indigo, 1 who were aristocratic in their manner of living, had negro slaves to serve them, and were friendly to the proprie tors. So many dissen sions broke out between the two sections that when the disappointed proprietors sold their rights to King George II, he divided the pro vince into North Caro lina and South Caro lina, with much the same bounds that they have in our day. 72. Georgia. England now claimed the Atlantic Coast as far south as St. John s River ; but as the southern bound ary of South Carolina was virtually the Savannah River, there lay between these two streams a wide unoccupied strip. This, King George ordered to be called Georgia, after himself. There lived in England at this time a gallant soldier, Gen- 1 The growing of rice was begun quite early in the history of the colony, near Charleston. South Carolina continues to be the center of this important in dustry in the United States. THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 72 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION eral James Oglethorpe. He was a kind-hearted man, who dis liked to see Englishmen imprisoned for debt as they then were, even for small debts. These poor debtors were some times kept so long in damp and unhealthy jails that they contracted diseases and even died in prison, while their families starved. Oglethorpe obtained from the King per mission to plant a colony of debtors in Georgia. By making such a settlement, he hoped to accomplish two things: - (a) To provide these unfortunate people with a home, where they might make a good living by farming, raising silk, and trading with the Indians for furs. (b) To provide a barrier between Carolina and the Span ish colony of Florida. The Spaniards were making free with Carolina, as though they owned the country, and by trad ing with the Indians interfered with the profits of English traders. At Oglethorpe s request, the King ordered that there should be neither slavery nor liquor trade in Georgia, that no one should own over five hundred acres of land, that for twenty-one years the settlers should have no voice in mak ing the laws, and that all except Roman Catholics should enjoy religious freedom. In 1733 Oglethorpe himself landed with thirty-five fami lies, and founded Savannah. At first his colony grew slowly, because it contained so many idle and worthless people who had not been able to manage their own affairs in Eng land ; but little by little there arrived thrifty Germans and Scotch Highlanders, and then affairs went better. As the Spaniards continued to invade the country Ogle thorpe built several forts along the seacoast to frighten them off. When a war broke out between Spain and England, in 1739, he set forth with eight hundred men and boldly laid siege to the strong fort of St. Augustine. Sickness in his camp soon obliged him to retire without success. Two years later the enemy retaliated by attacking him. This time, however, the English beat off the invaders, and the Span iards never returned to bother their northern neighbors. OTHER SOUTHERN COLONIES 73 The laws of the colony were not popular with the settlers. The well-to-do wanted a chance to have large farms such as other Southern colonists enjoyed, and to use negro slaves; and merchants and sailors wished to engage in the profit able rum traffic with the West Indies. Oglethorpe returned to England in 1743, much chagrined at the disaffection of his people. Six years later new laws were passed, permit ting slavery and the liquor traffic, and giving the colonists the right to make their own laws. In 1752 the founder and his associates surrendered their charter to the King, who thenceforth ruled Georgia as a " royal " province. The peo ple were pleased at all these changes and took fresh interest in the colony, which now began to prosper. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. Locate on the map the territory granted by the King to Lord Balti more. 2. Contrast ^the character of the early colonists of Maryland with those of Virginia. 3. What is meant by religious freedom or toleration? Read the first part of Article I of the Amendments of the Constitution of the United States. (Appendix, page xxi.) 4. Compare the early settlers of North Carolina and of South Carolina. 5. Why did not the French Huguenots settle in the territory discovered and explored by the French? 6. What^motives were in the mind of Oglethorpe in the settlement of Georgia? 7. From the history of the Georgia colony show how poor people fare better now than two hundred years ago. 8. Make a list of six Southern places of importance named in honor of kings and queens. 9. Name the various reasons why English people came to America, as told in this chapter. 10. Maryland, Carolina, and Georgia were the refuge of the weak, op pressed, and persecuted. Which class of these came to Maryland? to Georgia? to Carolina? 11. On a map of the Atlantic Coast south of the Delaware River, locate the five original colonies, the Spanish territory, and four important settle ments. 74 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Describe the trip up Chesapeake Bay by the founders of Maryland. They observe the woods, the red men, the great rivers. The Indians bring them game and fish. One of the white men has a vision of the commercial future of this inlet of the sea. 2. An Indian who is accustomed to trading in Jamestown has visited St. Mary s. He makes a report to his chief in which he shows the dif ferences he has observed in the colonies. 3. Let each member of the class give a different imaginary incident in the life of a Huguenot settler of South Carolina: These incidents may have to do with the selection of a location for the building of the home, the clearing of the soil, the first planting, the first harvest, a strange ad venture with wild beasts, a surprising adventure with the Indians, a letter from France. CHAPTER OUTLINE 1. Maryland, a refuge for the oppressed. 2. Character of early settlers of Maryland. 3. Two classes of people in Carolina. 4. Georgia, a refuge for poor people. 5. Relation of settlers of Georgia to the Spanisho CHAPTER IX THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 73. John Smith names New England. Several years after the founding of Jamestown, Captain John Smith went from England on a fishing and fur-trading voyage to the coast known in that day as " North Virginia," and owned by the Plymouth Company. He found there only Indians, but named the country " New England," which it has ever since been called; and he gave to many of its harbors the names of English seaport towns. This region soon attracted settlers who left their homes in England because they there suffered persecution for their religious beliefs. 74. Struggle for religious liberty. In our day most civil ized nations allow their citizens entire freedom of thought and worship; but three centuries ago, as we have already seen, very few men of the governing class were tolerant in these matters. The people were compelled to worship in accordance with the wishes of their rulers. Large numbers of the people of England bitterly resented this treatment, saying that theirs was a free country, where men ought to be allowed to worship as they pleased. 75. Puritans and Separatists. Roman Catholics were not the only people to be treated in this manner. There were also many Protestants, called " Dissenters " or " Non conformists/ whose opinions differed from those of the Church of England which was the established, or state, religion and who consequently suffered persecution. They were for the most part divided into two classes: (a) The " Puritans." These people wanted to remain in the Church of England, but they sought to purify it of cer tain ceremonies which they said were too much like those of the Roman Church, from which the Church of England had long been separated. 76 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION (b) The " Separatists," who were not so numerous as the " Puritans," thought it impossible to bring about reforms in the church; they therefore wanted to separate from it and form independent congregations. The church officials, however, would not consent to this; indeed, it was contrary to the law of the land. 76. The Pilgrims. Several Separatists lived in and about the quaint little English village of Scrooby, 1 and secretly formed themselves into an independent congre gation. For the most part, they were of the working class sturdy men, poor of purse, but of high character, who lived simply and were deeply religious in their thought. A few, how ever, were educated and fairly well-to-do people. All of them were respec- HOMES OF THE PILGRIMS AND THEIR , , , *V> ROUTE TO AMERICA table > peaceable citi zens; but they were breaking the law in thus meeting secretly and worshiping God after their own manner. King James I therefore treated them as rebels, casting some into prison and persecuting all in one way or another. The King had said, " I will make them conform, or I will harry them out of the land." As they did not intend to conform to the church, the Scrooby Separatists decided to get out of the land before they were further harried. So in 1608 they escaped to Holland, in which little country they would be granted more liberty than in England. These poor fugitives were called " Pilgrims," 1 Scrooby to-day has not more than one hundred and fifty inhabitants, yet it is probably as large as it was three hundred years ago. Each year it is visited by many Americans, who go to see the old home of several of the Pilgrim Fathers. It lies nearly one hundred and fifty miles north of London and some ninety miles east of Liverpool. THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 77 because of their wanderings and the hardships they suf fered for the sake of their religion. 77. The Pilgrims in Holland. Holland was then the only nation in Europe that opened its doors to Christians of every belief. Nevertheless, the Pilgrims soon discovered the following drawbacks to their remaining in that coun try: (a) It seemed likely that war would soon break out again between Spain and Holland, and in that event the Pilgrims might be forced to take part in it. (b) Their children were becoming Dutch in speech and manners. (c) The Pilgrims found it difficult to obtain employment in that small and thickly settled country. Accordingly, after much thought and prayer they finally decided tc move to America. In that far-away wilderness, they said, they would build a new England, where Sepa ratists might be free to worship as they wished. 78. Sailing of the Mayflower. King James I was asked whether he would permit these obstinate people to dwell in America. He did not actually consent, but promised that so long as they behaved properly over there, he would not disturb them. 1 In July, 1620, the little sailing ship Speedwell took about a hundred and fifty of the Pilgrims from Holland to the English port of Southampton, where her sister vessel, the Mayflower, was waiting for them. 2 The people were now divided between the two ships, which started from South- 1 Having little money of their own, they were obliged to borrow, on very hard terms, from a company of merchants in London. In return for the loan the settlers promised that for seven years they would devote all their time, ex cept Sundays, to farming, fishing, fur trading, etc., for the benefit of this com pany, and would keep all of their property in common. At the end of that time everything was to be divided, half and half, between the company and the settlers, and after this every man must work for himself. Fortunately, after a few years the settlers found themselves able, by great sacrifices, to purchase the shares of the company. In this way they themselves became owners of the colony, with the right to manage their own affairs. 2 Not all of the congregation were on the Speedwell, for some remained in. Holland to see how the American experiment prospered, before going to that country themselves. THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION ampton with their precious cargoes; but the Speedwell soon sprung a leak and put in at Plymouth, England, where she was abandoned. As the Mayflower could not hold over a hundred and two men, women, and children, together with their furniture and other property, the leaders selected that number of the strongest of their party, who seemed the best suited to life in a new colony, and they only were allowed to go to America. For reasons not now known, the captain of the Mayflower pretend ed that contrary mid winter winds would not allow him to sail as far south as the Hudson River, where the Pil grims had planned to set tle. He therefore headed his ship for the country that John Smith had named New England. After a stormy voyage of nearly two months they sighted Cape Cod, whose low- lying shore hems in Massachusetts Bay on the east, and spent more than a month in exploring the region for a proper spot at which to settle. 79. Landing at Plymouth. Massachusetts Bay was fringed with ice, and the forests of cedar and pine were shrouded with deep snow. The poor immigrants must have thought it a very dreary place for their future home. No doubt many a faint heart in the Mayflower s company was by this time yearning for the comforts and more genial climate of Holland or of their own motherland. Finally, on Decem ber 22, 1620, the Pilgrims went ashore and settled at a place called, on Smith s map of New England, Plymouth, which, THE MAYFLOWER IN MID-OCEAN The Mayflower was 82 feet long. 22 feet wide, and 14 feet deep , displacement, 120 tons THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 79 curiously enough, was the name of " the last town they left in their native country." 1 So. Self-government established. While still on the Mayflower, just before landing, forty-one of the men of the party true to the ever-present English desire for local Painting by H. Carmiench THE LANDING OF THE PILGRIMS AT PLYMOUTH following compact for the " home rule " - signed the regulation of the colony : " In the name of God, amen. We whose names are underwritten, the loyal subjects of our dread sovereign Lord King James, by the grace of God of Great Britain, France, and Ireland King, Defender of the Faith, etc., having undertaken, for the glory of God and advancement of the Christian faith and honor of our king and country, a voyage to plant the first colony in the northern parts of Virginia, do by these presents solemnly and mutually, in the presence of God and one of another, covenant and combine ourselves together into a civil body politic, for our better ordering 1 They came ashore in the ship s rowboats. It is said that a small granite boulder, lying on the sandy beach, was used by them in landing, as a stepping- stone. This is called Plymouth Rock, and is still carefully preserved not far from the old landing-place. 8o THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION and preservation and furtherance of the ends aforesaid; and by virtue hereof to enact, constitute, and frame such just and equal laws, ordinances, acts, constitutions, and offices from time to time, as shall be thought most meet and convenient for the general good of the Colony, unto which we promise all due submission and obedience. In witness whereof we have hereunder subscribed our names at Cape Cod, the I ith of November, in the year of the reign of our sovereign lord King James, of England, France, and Ireland, the eighteenth and of Scotland the fifty-fourth. Anno Dom. 1620." Such was the beginning of self-government in New Eng land --a year and a half after the first meeting of the famous Virginia House of Burgesses. 81. Getting established. The Pilgrims at once erected log houses for their families; but food was scarce and the winter far more severe than any they had ever ex perienced. About half of the colony died of various illnesses before spring. Fearing that they might soon have to fight the Indians, Miles Stand ish, a stout-hearted soldier,was chos en military com mander; but for tunately for these poor Englishmen, most of the Indians in this region had recently been swept off by a terrible pestilence, and the few 1 Once, a chief named Canonicus sent to Governor Bradford a curious declara tion of war. It consisted of a number of arrows tied together with the skin of a rattlesnake. Bradford said nothing, but filled the skin with powder and bul lets and returned it to the chief. This meant that he would willingly reply to the war arrows of Canonicus with the white men s firearms. The savage leader at once understood this message, and did not attack the waiting pale faces. Painting by F. T. Merrill. Courtesy, .V. E Mutual Life Insurance Co, THE VISIT OF SAMOSET 1 THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 8r remaining were not strong enough to attack the newcomers. After the colony was a few months old, it was visited by an Indian named Samoset, who had learned a few English words from sailors visiting this coast. With outstretched hands he came into the village, crying, "Welcome, English men! "and later introduced to the Pilgrims Massasoit, the local chief; the latter soon made a treaty with them, which the red men of the neighborhood kept faithfully for fifty years. In the spring of 1621, the Mayflower returned to Eng land. After the terrible experience of that first winter in the wilderness, no doubt some of the Pilgrims were sorely tempted to go with her, forsaking Plymouth in the same manner in which the Jamestown colonists had decided to abandon their settlement. But not a man or a woman of those who survived turned back. They had come to America not for riches, but with a high and earnest purpose; and no hardship could discourage them. 82. Massachusetts Bay Colony^-During the year 1628, sixty Puritans, 1 under the governorship of John Endicott, a man of the gentry class, with a fine reputation for purity of character and strength of mind, settled at Salem, 2 on the shore of Massachusetts Bay, sixteen miles north of the site of Boston, on a strip of land which they had bought from the Plymouth Company. This grant was sixty miles north and south, and stretched westward to the Pacific Ocean. At that time most Englishmen thought the Pacific not far westward of the Hudson River. Two years later they were joined by John Winthrop and nearly eight hundred other colonists, with a large stock of horses, cattle, and goods, filling eleven small sailing vessels. Winthrop was a wealthy man of the sturdy English 1 It has been explained that there were at first two parties dissenting from the Church _of England Separatists and Puritans; but gradually most of those who emigrated to New England became Separatists, even if they were not so when they arrived. For convenience, however, historians call all of these people Puritans, and we shall hereafter give them this name. 2 A word meaning " Peace." The settlers hoped to here find peace from reli gious persecution. 82 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION middle class, and several of his companions were graduates of the University of Cambridge. All of them were seeking religious freedom. By this time the number of settlers in that neighborhood had become too great to be accommodated at Salem; so several new towns were at once started -- Charlestown, Dorchester, Watertown, Roxbury, Lynn, Boston, 1 and Cambridge, then called Newtown. The name Massachu setts Bay Colony was given to this group of towns, Win- throp was made its governor, and Boston was chosen as its capital. The affairs of the colony were looked after by a General Court, which consisted of delegates from the towns, and met once a year. 2 In time most of the other settle ments in this vicinity joined the Massachusetts Bay Colony and sent delegates to the General Court. 3 83. Town meetings. The Puritans and their neighbors and successors managed all public affairs chiefly in town meetings, in which every man who belonged to the Puritan congregation had a right to participate. Nobody else could attend " meeting " and vote on public questions. At these gatherings laws were made, the public business of the town was talked over, even to the smallest affair, and town offi cers were told what to do. When the town meeting passed 1 In 1625 or 1626 William Blackstone, "a solitary, bookish recluse, in his thirty-fifth year," built a little cottage on the west slope of Beacon Hill, and was thus the pioneer settler on the peninsula of Boston, which was known to the Indians as Shawmut. Here he was quietly engaged in "trading with the savages, cultivating his garden, and watching the growth of some apple trees." Governor Winthrop had first chosen the site of Charlestown as the residence of his party. But they found no good water there; so Blackstone went over and informed them of "an excellent spring" at Shawmut, and invited them to be his neigh bors. They accepted at once, and in this way the city of Boston was founded. At first the English gave to Shawmut the name "Trimontaine," because of its three hiils; but they soon shortened this to "Tremont" (a name surviving in one of the principal streets). After a little they selected the name Boston, from a town in England from which some of the settlers had come. 2 It will thus be seen that the Massachusetts General Court was quite simi lar to the Virginia House of Burgesses. The magistrates (judges) had also much influence and power in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. 3 When the Massachusetts Bay Colony got well started, the Plymouth Colony ceased to be of much importance. It was not so well situated for com merce as were Boston and the other towns of that neighborhood. In 1691 Plymouth was annexed to Massachusetts Bay Colony. THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 83 a law, the town officers (called " selectmen ") must strictly enforce it; no favors were shown to any one, no matter how rich or powerful he might be. Thus each town in New Eng- I land was as perfect a democracy that is, for the church ( members themselves as ever existed. When there came to be several towns, it was found in convenient to assemble all of the voters at the capital. There was then of necessity adopted a representative form Copyright, A. S. Burbank A SETTLER S HOUSE AND STOCKADE Notice the vegetable garden within the stockade, the cornfield in the rear, and the fort on the crest of the hill of government, for conducting the business of the entire colony; such was the General Court, just mentioned. But the people still kept to the old town meeting method of managing all local town affairs. 84. Increase of immigration. Immigration to Massachu setts Bay now increased rapidly. By 1634 there were nearly four thousand English men, women, and children settled in this region. The life of the early colonists was one of constant toil; they often suffered terribly from the winter s cold, and crops were sometimes so poor in that stony soil that more than 84 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION once they came near starving. 1 But they had come to Amer ica to work for their living, and to be free; they intended to stay here, no matter how hard their life might be. One of them proudly wrote back to his English friends, " A sip of New England s air is better than a whole draught of Old England s ale." 85. Public instruction. In spite of their poverty the peo ple of Massachusetts Bay would not allow their children to grow up in ignorance. In 1636 the General Court voted 400, a very large sum, considering the narrow means of the colony, to found a college at Cambridge, in order, as they said, that " the light of learning might not go out, nor the study of God s Word perish." Two years later the Reverend John Harvard, who had come out from England in 1637, died, leaving to the college his library and a legacy of 800. Thereafter the in stitution bore his name, Harvard College. In 1647 the General Court decreed that in every township having fifty families or more, there must be maintained by public taxes a school for instruction in reading and writing; every township having a hundred families or more must keep a school wherein grammar" also was taught. In no place was the term over four month3 in a year ; lessons were chiefly con fined to the catechism and the spelling-book, and generally some young minister was the teacher. Such was the modest beginning of the public-school system of the United States. Neither were the Indians neglected. John Eliot, a learned and enthusiastic missionary, devoted his whole life to in structing them in the Christian religion. Amid many dan gers and hardships this noble man and his assistants made numerous converts among the simple red men of Massachu setts and neighboring regions. 86. Religious intolerance. The Puritans had come to 1 The Charlestown records of the winter of 1630-31 state that the "people were necessitated to live on clams and mussels, and grounp 1 nuts and acorns." When the distress of Massachusetts Bay Colony was at its height, a ship arrived from England, "laden with provisions for them all." On February 22, 1631, there was held a "day of Thanksgiving for this ship s arrival." It was the first regularly appointed Thanksgiving Day in the United States. THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 85 America to secure religious freedom for themselves, but they would not receive persons of another faith. This nar row intolerance was common enough in the seventeenth century ; but the Puritans had left England to escape a simi lar injustice toward themselves. Their conduct was very dif ferent from the free and noble spirit in which Lord Balti more planted Maryland. It would have been far better for all the English colonies in America if they had followed his example. 87. Religious disturbances. Although persons who were not Puritans knew that they would be unwelcome in Mas sachusetts, many such persisted in coming over from Eng land. It was a time of great religious disturbance in the motherland, in which many strange sects were being formed ; hence the newcomers brought with them various forms of belief. These greatly disturbed the Puritan leaders, who decided that all " contentious and heretical folk " should be driven forth as public enemies. Just such a " heretic and disturber " was Roger Williams, of Salem. He was in truth an eloquent, lovable, and pious Welshman, whose opinions were far ahead of his time. Sev eral of his ideas struck at the very foundations of the Puritan church and of the colony itself. He held : (a) That every man had a right to practice whatever reli gion best pleased him. (b) That the Government ought not to oblige people to attend church or pay taxes to support worship. (c) That the King had no right to make grants of land in America, for it really belonged to the Indians. 1 The colonial officials declared that such opinions could not with safety be permitted in Massachusetts. The of fender was therefore ordered to leave at once for England ; but instead, he escaped in the bitter cold and deep snow of 1 Another person to disturb the Puritans was Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, an able, keen-witted woman, who attracted large crowds whenever she lectured on religious subjects. But her teachings were not those of the ministers and magistrates, so in 1638 she and her followers were banished. Some of them founded New Hampshire; but Anne herself followed Roger Williams to Rhode Island, and there established Portsmouth and Newport. 86 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION mid-winter, to seek refuge in an Indian hut on the shores of Narragansett Bay. There, he and his few followers founded Providence (1636), which was the first settlement in what is now Rhode Island. Twenty years later a number of newly arrived Quakers made much disturbance in Massachusetts Bay Colony by urging a separation of church and state. They also had religious scruples against paying taxes, or serving in the militia, or taking an oath of allegiance to the colony. Many of them were hanged, others flogged and fined, and the rest of them banished to Rhode Island, which by this time had become a refuge for all manner of religious and politi cal dissenters. Many right-minded folk in Massachusetts now realized, however, that it was unjust to punish in a cruel manner those who differed from the authorities about religion and politics, and protested against it. The spirit of toleration slowly grew, and there came into New England more and more Protestants who were not Puritans. But Roman Catho lics and Church of England people were still badly treated, and complained so bitterly that King Charles II decided to protect them. 88. The rule of Andros. The King was by this time very angry at Massachusetts, for several reasons : - (a) Massachusetts merchants and sailors were not obey ing the " Navigation Laws," which sought to regulate the commerce of the colonies (page 109). (b) The colony manufactured money of its own, and this violated the coinage laws of England. (c) It welcomed persons who in various ways offended the home Government, even some who were accused of treason toward the nation. (d) It harshly treated Roman Catholics and members of the Church of England, and on many occasions showed dis respect for both the English Church and the Government. In 1684 the King punished the colony by taking away its independent charter and making it a " royal " province. THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES He died soon after and was succeeded by his brother, James II, who adopted Charles s plans and ideas as his own and sent over Sir Edmund Andros to be viceroy of New England, New York, and New Jersey. The rule of Andros was arrogant and tyrannical, and the plucky men of Boston were so indignant that in 1689 they re volted against him and imprisoned him. But just then Wil liam and Mary came to the throne of England. They were more liberal monarchs than their predecessor, and Andros was ordered back to London to meet the com plaints that had been made against him by the Bostoni- ans. He was acquitted, how ever, by the home Govern ment, which at the same time tried to satisfy Mas sachusetts by giving her a new charter. This document, however, \vas not so liberal as the colonists had hoped for ; and for many years there were, as in Virginia and most of the other colonies, bitter quarrels between the King s governors and the people. The latter stoutly held out, on every occasion, for a recog nition of their old-time. English rights and privileges, for which the aristocratic governors often had little respect. These contests served, both in the North and the South, to keep alive the spirit of opposition to royalty; so that when at last the Revolution came, the people of nearly every colony were ready for it. 89. Founding of Maine and New Hampshire. In 1622, V/. v : : -V .: :/: ; ; . ; - .;.-: ; -;:\ z &\ap Cod fc, "-^--^ 1 l^ouh.A ^^\ J* > : p^ ; ^ :^v M : \ * n ^ .: o/ :.# vfr: ijc | V^) v SETTLEMENTS ON THE NEW ENGLAND COAST 88 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION N E W H A M P. two years after Plymouth was founded, Sir Ferdinando Gorges and John Mason obtained from the King a large grant of land lying between the Kennebec and the Merri- mac Rivers. A few years later they secured other grants and founded Portsmouth and Dover. From these settlements grew both Maine and New Hampshire, which afterwards were joined to Massachusetts. In 1741 New Hampshire became again a separate colony, but Maine was not detached from Mas sachusetts until 1820. 90. Founding of Con necticut. Some enter prising Plymouth men marched across country in 1633 and built a fur- trading hut at Windsor, in the beautiful valley of the Connecticut River. Soon after this Puritan farmers from Massachu setts, who were now be ginning to feel crowded in their old home, 1 came in large numbers to the Connecticut Valley. They built new towns there and grad ually crowded out the Dutch of New Amsterdam, who were trading with the Connecticut Indians. By 1637 there were eight hundred Englishmen in the towns of Windsor, Hart ford, and Wethersfield; and besides these towns, there was Saybrook, at the mouth of the river. Two years later the representatives from Windsor and Wethersfield joined those 1 When all the convenient tillable land in a New England town had been taken up, a new congregation would be formed, consisting of young married couples and the more adventurous of the older folk. Headed by a minister selected by themselves, the colonists would plant a new town in the wilderness seldom so far distant, however, from the nearest settlement but that they could aid each other in case of attack by Indians. In this manner New England increased in size, town by town, until it contained a large population. M A iS S A C/H U S E/T T S SETTLEMENTS IN THE CONNEC TICUT VALLEY THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 89 elected at Hartford and in that town adopted the first writ ten rules of government made by the people themselves known in the United States. 1 This instrument provided for the political equality of every citizen. It formed the three towns into a republic, 2 with laws " for the people by the people"; and this republic more nearly resembled our present Federal Government than any scheme of union up to that time invented by the other colonies. During the year 1637 the Pequot Indians attacked the whites, but were badly defeated. After this victory, settlers were more willing to come to Connecticut, which was then the " Far West " of English colonization. New Haven, 3 Guilford, Milford, Stamford, and Southold, on Long Island, were quickly established, and soon (1643) formed them selves into a union, which was known as the Colony of New Haven. The laws drawn up by the inhabitants for their own government were closely based on those of Moses; for instance, there were fourteen offenses for which men might be hanged; and there was no trial by jury, because Moses had not provided for it. In 1662 all the towns then existing in what is now the State of Connecticut were united under a charter. 4 1 The reader will remember the laws governing the Virginia colony, also the compact signed on the Mayflower (p. 79). But this Hartford constitution was longer and written in greater detail, hence was more like those adopted in later years by some of the other colonies and afterward by all of the States. The principal man in the Connecticut colony was Thomas Hooker, a clergy man. Unlike Winthrop of Massachusetts, who thought that only a few men were capable of governing, Hooker argued that "the foundation of authority is laid in the free consent of the people." He also said, "In matters which con cern common good a general council chosen by all to transact business which concerns all I conceive most suitable to rule and most safe for the relief of the whole." 2 Nowhere in the constitution was there any mention of the King. 3 New Haven was founded in 1638 by a party of Puritan settlers, mostly from Massachusetts. Thcophilus Eaton, a well-to-do merchant recently arrived from London, was for many years the governor. In this colony, church and state were closely allied. 4 Two noteworthy incidents occurred in the colonial history of Connecti cut: (a) When Charles II came to the throne, he hunted down the " regicide" judges, as he called them, who had ordered his father, Charles I, to be be headed, and cruelly executed those whom he could catch. Three of the judges, Goffe, Dixwell, and Whalley, had fled to New Haven where fhe people helped 90 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 91. Founding of Rhode Island. As Rhode Island had first been settled by persons banished from Massachusetts for their religious opinions, who declared that this new colony should be a home of religious freedom, it was quickly settled by all sorts of dissenters. In 1644 the towns of Providence, Newport, and Warwick obtained a charter from Parliament, under the name of Colony of Providence Plantations. This gave to the people their cher ished English right of self-government, and three years later they passed a law that " all men may walk as their con science persuades them." Owing, however, to the presence of a great number of religious zealots, who were always quarreling with each other, Rhode Island was long a hot-bed of disorder. The colony did not thrive until this turbulent spirit quieted down. 92. New England Confederation. Up to the year 1643 the various towns or colonial groups in New England were practically little independent republics. Each governed it self, and had scarcely any help from its neighbors. But the following troubles were now brewing: - (a) The Dutch of New York were pushing their fur trade to the north of Long Island Sound, and acting as though they owned Connecticut. (b) The Indians were becoming uneasy, and threatening to drive all. Englishmen into the sea. (c) The French in Canada were building fur-trade posts in what are now Maine and New Hampshire; and frequently encouraged the savages to attack the most northern English settlements. (d) The New England colonists were afraid that the fierce them to escape from their pursuers, who chased them even to America. For this reason Charles II bitterly hated the New Haven colony. (b) In 1662 Charles issued a charter to Connecticut, in which he gave the colonists the right to govern themselves under their own free constitution. James II wished to take away this charter, because it was too liberal, and com manded the viceroy of New England, Sir Edmund Andros, to demand its sur render by the colony. Andros, accompanied by a body of troops, went to Hart ford (1687) to get the document, but could not find it because the people had hidden it in the hollow trunk of a great oak tree. THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 91 struggle then going on in England between King Charles I and his Parliament might bring them trouble. (e) The King was declaring that his American subjects, were much too independent, and needed correction. Wise men among the New Englanders saw that unless the colonies could be united in some way, they must remain weak, and thus be an easy prey to the Dutch, the Indians, and to their own king. In 1643, therefore, delegates from the colonies of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven l met in Boston and formed a league, called The United Colonies of New England." Under this agree ment each colony was to manage its own local affairs, but a board of eight commissioners were to look after matters affecting all of the colonies, such as the carrying on of war. This was the first attempt made in our country toward a union of the English colonies. The league lasted for over forty years, and under it the New Englanders grew accustomed to working together for a common purpose. In the time of the Revolution, this ex perience was of great value to them. 93. King Philip s War. New Englanders were much kinder to the Indians than were the people of most other English colonies. But they could not turn the wilderness into farms and villages without driving away the game and thus making it more difficult for the Indians to live. This angered the latter, and now and then they attacked the newcomers. Just a hundred years before the opening of the War of the Revolution, the brave and able King Philip, chief of a tribe dwelling along Narragansett Bay, formed a great league of red men in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecti cut, and tried to drive the whites out of the country. For two years (1675-77), this confederacy carried on a disas trous war, in which hundreds of homes in the outlying settle ments were burned, and thousands of men, women, and 1 Rhode Island was not invited, because Plymouth claimed that the towns in that colony were on land belonging to her; and further, the Rhode Islanders were, as we have just read, not liked by the Puritans. 92 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION children were murdered by the pitiless savages, or carried away as captives, to be adopted into the tribes. The united colonies desperately defended themselves, until at last King Philip and a thousand of his warriors were slain and the revolt was crushed. After that white men were supreme in New England. 1 . QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. Explain the differences in the reasons for English migration to James town and to Plymouth. 2. State clearly the successive events in the history of the Pilgrims from Scrooby to Plymouth. Locate the scene of these events on a globe or on a map. 3. What advantage of location did the Virginia colonists have in contrast to that of the Pilgrims? 4. Were the conditions which forced the Pilgrims to work hard an ad vantage or not? Discuss. 5. Suggest why the King might have been glad to have men of the high character of Endicott, Wiuthrop, and the other Bay colonists leave England. 6. Why was the Massachusetts Bay Colony so much more prosperous from the beginning than the Plymouth Colony? 7. Show that the early New Englanders believed in education. 8. Why did they settle in towns? 9. State the difference between the town meeting and the representative form of government. What qualifications of the Massachusetts voter were then required that are not required now? 1 The Witchcraft delusion. In the days about which we are reading, nearly everybody in Europe as well as in America, believed that certain persons were friendly with evil spirits, and induced these demons to do harm to other people in the neighborhood. Such persons were called "witches," and the evil work which they were supposed to do was known as "witchcraft." Almost any ugly old woman, who acted at all queerly, was in danger of being hanged or even burned if some crazy or malicious person asserted that she had "be witched " him. When an epidemic raged, or an unknown disease broke out, a frenzy of fear would sweep over the neighborhood. At such times even young women and tender children might be accused of witchcraft, and on very flimsy evidence be sentenced to suffer terrible deaths." Such a frenzy broke out in the small Massachusetts town of Salem, in 1692. Before people recovered their senses hundreds of innocent persons were put in jail and nineteen were hanged. The testimony against these unfortunates was so slight that the next year, when the craze was over, the conscience-stricken towns people marveled at their cruel and horrible delusion. This episode will always remain an ugly blot on the fair history of New England. But they were still hanging witches in England, twenty years later, and even to-day the belief in them exists to some extent in all civilized countries, among very ignorant people. THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 93 10. The emigration from Massachusetts to Connecticut was the first western migration in the territory now known as the United States. Beginning with this one, make a list in your history notebook of later western emigrations of which you will read as you study this history. 11. Indicate on the map of New England the six settlements or groups of settlements that had been made by 1640. 12. Why was the New England Confederation important? In what way did it seem intolerant? 13. Explain the following: "God sifted a whole nation that he might send choice grain over into the wilderness." 14. Make a sketch map of eastern North America. From this map dis cuss the dangers to the English from the French and Spanish. 15. Important date: 1620 The founding of Plymouth. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Write a letter from Holland to a friend left at Scrooby, giving reasons why you think it best to go to America. 2. Describe in writing, or dramatize, an interview with Samoset, or Canonicus. 3. The Mayflower is about to sail on the return voyage. Governor Bradford, knowing that some are tempted to return with her, makes an address urging them to remain. Write what he may have said. 4. Write a letter to a friend in Holland describing the terrible first winter in New England, but telling your hopes for the future. CHAPTER OUTLINE 1. The name "New England." 2. Religious intolerance in England. 3. The Pilgrims in Holland. 4. The Pilgrims emigrate to America. 5. Beginning of self-government in New England. 6. The Pilgrims early pioneer experiences. 7. Origin and growth of Massachusetts Bay Colony. 8. Town meetings and the beginning of representative government. 9- Beginning of education. 10. Religious intolerance and disturbances. IT. Troubles with the King about government. 12. Founding of Maine and New Hampshire. 13. Early Connecticut. 14. First written constitution in the United States. 15- Beginning of Rhode Island. 16. The New England Confederation. 17. W r ar with the Indians. CHAPTER X THE MIDDLE COLONIES 94. New Netherland established. Soon after the Hudson River had been discovered for Holland by Henry Hudson (1609), the region was named New Netherland, 1 and en terprising Dutch traders began to buy furs from its ab origines. In 1623 the Dutch West India Company, a rich and powerful corporation which now had a monopoly of the Dutch fur trade in America, sent over a number of settlers, who built Fort Or ange, near the site of the pre sent Albany, 2 and made several other small set tlements in vari ous parts of New Netherland. 95. New Am sterdam. Three years later, it was decided to erect a large fort at the mouth of the Hudson River, to be called New Amsterdam. For this purpose, Governor Peter Minuit, the Company s Amer ican director, bought from the Indians the whole of Manhat tan Island for twenty-four dollars worth of beads, ribbons, 1 New Netherland extended up the Hudson River as far as Albany, and in cluded all the land between the Hudson (then known as "North River") and the Delaware (which the Dutch called " South River"). 2 In 1614 or 1615, Dutch fur traders erected Fort Nassau on an island in the river near Albany ; but because of a flood this place was abandoned in 1617. I aintinyby F/cdencks. Courtesy, Title Guarantee and Trust Co., A . 1 THE PURCHASE OF MANHATTAN ISLAND SPANISH, ENGLISH FRENCH & DUTCH CLAIMS IN NORTH AMERICA, ABOUT 1660 THE MIDDLE COLONIES 95 and other ornaments; this was at the rate of about two and a fifth cents an acre. 1 The Dutch predicted that New Amsterdam would in time become the chief town in North America. This pro phecy was, years later, fulfilled under the American rule; and ever since then not only has the city on Manhattan Island been our most populous seaport but her harbor has been one of the busiest in the world. New Amsterdam grew steadily. Settlers came from vari ous European countries, from which many had been driven because of their religious ideas; for the same reason not a few of the inhabitants migrated here from New England. In 1643 it was reported that eighteen languages were spoken on Manhattan Island. 2 96. Early prosperity. For two years, commencing in 1643, the Algonquian Indians of the neighborhood made war on New Netherland. But fortunately the Iroquois, of northern New York, who were enemies both of the French settlers in Canada and of the Algonquians, soon became friendly with the Dutch fur traders, and helped them put down the uprising. The early governors sent out by the Company were neither sensible nor honest. In 1647, however, there arrived a brave 1 November 5, 1626, one Peter Schaghen wrote to the States-General of the Netherlands, at The Hague: "They have purchased the Island Manhattes from the Indians for the value of 60 guilders [$24 in American money]; t is 11,000 morgens [acres] in size." The present acreage of Manhattan Island is 14,038, for since 1626 there has been much filling along the shores. The assessed valuation of the bare land com posing the island is now over $2,500,000,000; the buildings and other property upon it are valued at about $1,500,000,000 more. A single square foot of soil on Manhattan is, in some places, now worth nearly twenty-five times what Minuit paid for the entire island. 2 In 1629 the Dutch West India Company devised a scheme for inducing farmers to settle along the Hudson River. Any member of the Company might bring over from Europe, at his own expense, at least fifty persons over fifteen years of age, and place them on*1and to be bought by him from the Indians. For this service to the colony, he was given the title of " patroon " (or patron). He made all the laws for his people, to whom he had given tools, cattle, and houses, and he was their governor and judge. For ten years they could not leave their homes without his consent. Several rich Hollanders were attracted to New Netherland by this aristocratic system, and their families long continued to be leaders in the politics and society of New York State. 9 6 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION old soldier, Governor Peter Stuyvesant, who had both of these virtues. He was irritable and tyrannical, and always quarreling with the people; but under his rule the colony prospered as it never had done before, and both the popula tion and the fur trade doubled. 1 97. Captured by the English. In 1664 New Amsterdam had a population of fifteen hundred souls. The village was built on the southern part of the island, and extended from Painting by E. If. Henry. Covrtety, Title Guarantee and lYust Co., A . A STREET IN NEW AMSTERDAM In the distance is shown the old wall from which Wall Street takes its name the East River to the Hudson River. Its northern boundary was a great wall of earth, along the top of which was planted a stout palisade of logs ; the great timbers were set on end, their tops sharpened to a point, and all joined securely to gether by bolts and straps of iron. This formed a barrier against an enemy that might approach by land, from the north. Wall Street, which is now the banking center of the United States, occupies the ground where this old defense stood. At the little stone battery on the southern extremity of the island, overlooking both the bay and the two rivers, 1 Stuyvesant had lost a leg in war for his country. The wooden substitute which he wore was bound with ferules of silver, so the people called him "Old Silverleg." THE MIDDLE COLONIES 97 were stationed twenty small cannon for guarding the ap proach by water. 1 Such defenses were strong enough to repel Indians, but they could not keep out civilized invaders who might come armed with large cannon. One day in August, 1664, when England and Holland were at peace, four English war vessels unexpectedly ap peared off the Battery, bearing the demand of King Charles II that New Netherland surrender, because he claimed that Courtesy, Title Guarantee and Trust Co., N. F. THE SURRENDER OF NEW AMSTERDAM The meeting of the English and the Dutch commissioners took place at Peter Stuyvesant s country home the Dutch were occupying English territory. 2 It was of course useless for Governor Stuyvesant to resist, so Dutch rule in New Netherland came suddenly to a close. 3 England was now in possession of the entire Atlantic Coast from the 1 The name " The Battery " still designates this point in New York s water front. 2 The English had always claimed the entire eastern part of the country because of the discoveries of the Cabots. 3 The garrison consisted of less than two hundred and fifty untrained men, whereas the English had brought a much larger number of skilled soldiers, besides ninety cannon with which to bombard the town if necessary. The Governor fumed and fretted, declaring, " I would rather be carried to my grave than yield." But in spite of him his frightened fellow officers eagerly hoisted the white flag of surrender. 9 8 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION St. Lawrence River to the Spanish possessions in Florida; but perhaps the most important of her holdings was the island of Manhattan, which controlled the great interior route connecting Canada with New York Bay. King Charles gave New Netherland to his brother, the Duke of York, and after that it was called New York, the same name being also given to the city of New Amsterdam. Fort Orange was now called Albany, another of the Duke s titles. Nine years later, during a short war between England and Holland, the Dutch easily recaptured Manhattan; but the following year peace was arranged, and Holland reluctantly gave up the pro vince, which under English rule had grown so fast that it then contained seven thou sand inhabitants. 98. Struggles for liberty. While the people of New York enjoyed religious freedom under their new rulers, the Eng lish, they had various other reasons to complain of them : they did not carry on as good a school system as the Dutch had supported; the colonists were not given a representative assembly; and nearly all the power now rested with the Governor and his Council, who were appointed by the Duke of York. After eighteen years of dissatisfaction, the Duke finally consented to allow the people to have an assembly. But when he became King James II he abolished this body, refused to allow any schools to be carried on except those licensed by the Church of England, and placed New York, together with New England and New Jersey, under the harsh rule of Governor Sir Edmund Andros. New York regained her assembly only when William and Mary came to the throne and the unpopular Andros was ordered home. SETTLEMENTS ABOUT THE HUD SON RIVER THE MIDDLE COLONIES 99 As elsewhere in the colonies there continued to be more or less quar reling, often over very small matters, between the various governors and the people until the opening of the Revolu tionary War. At the time, these , disputes seemed unfortunate ; but they served the very good purpose of teaching the colonists that their only road to political liberty lay in freedom from the rule of England. 99. The planting of New Jersey. When the Duke of York took pos session of New Nether- land he gave to two of his friends 1 the portion thereof lying southwest of the Hudson River. After sev eral changes of ownership New Jersey was (1/02) made a " royal " province. 1 Sir John Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. The province was named New Jersey because Carteret, while governor of Jersey, one of the English Channel Islands, had fought bravely for King Charles II. Philip Carteret, a relative of Sir George, came out as governor and founded the town of Elizabeth; and soon some colonists from Connecticut established Newark and Middletown. Berkeley possessed the western half of the province, or West Jersey, but for five thousand dollars sold his share to a party of Quakers. West Jersey and NT" J ersey wcre reunited when New Jersey was made a "royal" province. New Jersey colonists had religious toleration and a liberal government, with a representative assembly. But large numbers of the Dutch, English, and bcotch settlers had bought their lands from the Indians, and did not enjoy pay ing rent to Berkeley and Carteret. This led to long and bitter wrangling. There was also considerable difficulty with Andros, who tried to levy taxes in New Jersey, claiming that it was still a part of New York. THE MIDDLE COLONIES IOO THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION Its colonists enjoyed a mild climate, and having wisely treated the Indians with respect and paid for their lands were not often troubled by them. Indeed, so friendly were the tribesmen that after one of the land-buying treaties a chief declared that should one of his people find an English man asleep and alone in the woods, he would not disturb the slumber of the red men s friend, but quietly pass by in peace. On the whole, the set tlement was prosperous from the start. loo. Pennsylvania founded. Prominent among the Quakers of England was William Penn, whose father, an admiral in the navy, was a friend of King Charles II. William s family strongly opposed his religious views, but he believed that he was right and would not yield. Distressed at the persecution to which he and his fellow Quakers were being subjected in England, he determined to found a large Quaker province in the American wilderness, which should be "a free colony for all mankind." In 1681 the King signed a charter giving him for this purpose about forty-eight thousand square miles of land 1 that had for merly been owned by the Duke of York, and this new colony was called Pennsylvania. 2 Penn was made governor and sole owner of the colony. The only condition was that the 1 At the time of the death of Penn s father, the English Government owed him eighty thousand dollars. Penn arranged with the King to take in payment this large tract "in the parts of America not yet cultivated and planted." His Majesty welcomed this as an easy way of paying his debt. 2 Meaning "Penn s woods." The proprietor himself wanted it called New Wales; but the King did not like this name, so Penn suggested Sylvania. Against Penn s earnest protest, for he was a modest man, his own name was prefixed by the King, making it Pennsylvania. WILLIAM PENN At the age of twenty two THE MIDDLE COLONIES 101 King should have a fifth part of all gold and silver ore to be found there, and on each New Year s Day was to be given the small present of two beaver skins as a continual reminder that his Majesty was Penn s master. During the first year three thousand persons sailed for Pennsylvania, chiefly from England, Wales, Sweden, France, and Germany. So widely advertised was the colony and so attractive did it seem to the oppressed people of Europe, that within a few years no less than seven thousand inhabitants were comfortably settled along the fertile river banks of eastern Pennsylvania. 101. Penn s arrival in the colony. In the autumn of 1682 Penn himself arrived at the head of a hundred emigrants. " As they sailed up the Delaware River," says an old letter of that time, " they received visits and invitations from the inhabitants, the people being joyful to see him; both Dutch, Swedes, and English coming up to New.Castle, they received and entertained him with great expressiorrs-ol joy." , Dressed in holiday costumes the colonists handed their governor a key to open the little fort of Newcastle. J< They /did deliver also unto him one turf, with a twig upon it, a porringer w r ith river water and soil." This latter was an ancient European ceremony, and meant that he owned the land and water hereabout, and all that grew therein. 102. Philadelphia founded. During the year before Penn s coming there was laid out the principal city, Phila delphia (meaning " brotherly love "), at the junction of the Schuylkill River with the Delaware. While cabins were being built for them, many of the first settlers at this place lived for months in caves dug out of the banks of the Dela ware, all around them being the dense forest, trodden only by Indians and wild animals. But on his arrival Penn found here several small but comfortable houses, and by the close of the following year there were three hundred and fifty- seven dwellings. 103. Adoption of the Great Law. In December, 1682, Penn met at Chester with the first assembly of his province; 102 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION it consisted of delegates from the various little settlements. Acting under his guidance this assembly adopted a set of regulations for the government of the people, which was called "The Great Law." Its leading provisions were these : (a) The Colonial Government must not act in an oppres sive or arbitrary manner. (b) All taxpayers might vote, and public office might -be held by any Christian, no matter what his creed. (c) Each colonist might worship God as he saw fit; he Painting hy Benjamin West, in Independence Hall, Philadelphia PENN S TREATY WITH THE INDIANS could not be compelled, against his will, to attend or sup port any particular church. (d) Prisoners were to work and learn trades, and efforts should be made to reform them. This was the first law enacted by English people, recognizing the duty of reforming criminals. (e) Only treason and murder were to bepunished by death. (/) Like the Puritans the Pennsylvania assembly laid THE MIDDLE COLONIES 103 heavy penalties on swearing, lying, dueling, drunkenness, gambling, " clamorous scolding and railing with their tongues," and attendance on " stage plays " and cruel public sports. (g) Children over twelve years of age must be taught trades or other useful occupations. (h) And what was very important, all laws were to be strictly obeyed, no matter who might be the offender. 104. The Great Treaty with the Indians. During the early summer, Penn held a council with the neighbor ing Indians under a large elm tree, 1 where for many years such conferences had been held between the savages them selves. Here, after much feasting, speech-making, smoking of peace-pipes, shaking of hands and THE pNN TREATY WAMPUM BELT gifts of peace - belts made of wampum, ceremonies of which our Indians have always been fond, the aborigines solemnly promised to be the lasting friends of these peace-loving Quakers, to whom they sold large tracts of land on which to settle. Both acted throughout in a spirit of brotherhood, and the agree ment which they signed has ever since been known as the Great Treaty. 2 Indeed, in all the colonies, the Quakers, whom the ab origines called " Penn s men," in the treatment of their red neighbors followed the Golden Rule; and nearly every where they suffered far less from Indian attacks than did other white men. 105. The Mason and Dixon Line. The boundary between Pennsylvania and Maryland was not clearly described in * This was at Shackamaxon, afterwards Kensington, now a part of Philadel phia. The "treaty tree" was destroyed by a storm in 1810. 2 The wampum peace-belt presented to Penn by the Indians represents, in. rude figures of beadwork, Penn grasping hands with the local chief. It is larger than those used on ordinary occasions, being twenty-six inches long by nine inches wide, and thus indicates the significance attached to the treaty by the Indians. This interesting relic is still preserved by the Pennsylvania Historical Society at Philadelphia. 104 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION the charters of the two colonies, and serious disputes arose as to where it should be. Nearly a hundred years passed before the Penn and Baltimore families came to an agree ment concerning it. In 1767 two London mathematicians, named Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, surveyed and marked for them a satisfactory boundary for two hundred and forty-six miles, and this has ever since been called the " Mason and Dixon line." It is famous in history, because in time it came also to be a part of the boundary between the free and the slave states. 1 1 06. Later history of Pennsylvania. Although Pennsyl vania s treatment of the Indians was wise, and her colonial laws more liberal than those adopted by most of her neigh bors, there was constant trouble in the province. The dif ferent nationalities, English, Welsh, Scotch-Irish, Swedes, Dutch, Germans, and French, could not agree with each other; and the colonists grumbled loudly at having, year after year, to pa} rent to Penn for their land yet this was, the only way in which he could be repaid for his great ex penses. 2 Nevertheless, Pennsylvania prospered in commerce and agriculture, and became more populous than any other colony except Virginia and Massachusetts; and Philadelphia soon became one of the most important and best-built cities in North America. Within two years of its founding, it had a population of two thousand souls. 107. Delaware. New Netherland extended as far as the Delaware River. As early as 1631, some Dutch patroons came over from Hudson River, and planted farming settle ments and fur-trading posts along Delaware Bay and River, 1 In reference to this line, the South is popularly called "Dixie," which is a corruption of Dixon, who represented the Southern claimant, Lord Balti more. 2 Penn stayed in the colony for nearly two years after his arrival. He made a second and last visit from 1699 to 1701. So long as he was present the colonists were quiet, for he had great influence over them; but those who governed for him when he was absent were not so tactful, and thus brought on much trouble for themselves. After Penn s death (1718) his rights fell to his heirs. In 1778 Pennsylvania annulled the charter, and allowed these heirs $650,000 for their unsettled lands in the State. THE MIDDLE COLONIES 105 in what is now the State of Delaware; but the Indians soon destroyed these colonies. After the departure of the Dutch, a party of Swedish fur traders appeared (1638), built a log stockade named Fort Christina, after their Queen, on the site of Wilmington, and called the region New Sweden. Governor Stuyvesant was enraged at the way in which these foreigners made themselves at home on land claimed by Holland; so in 1655 he went with an armed fleet and forced them to sur render their post, thus putting an end to New Sweden. When, nine years later, the English captured all Dutch territory in the Middle Colonies, Lord Baltimore asked Charles II to give him what had been New Sweden. But Penn also wanted this small tract, so that his colonists might have direct access to the ocean, and his wish was granted. After a fewyears he added it to hisprovinceof Pennsylvania, although he allowed it to have its own assembly and deputy governor. Later, in 1704, the little strip was made a sepa rate colony, under the name of Delaware, but it long had the same governor as Pennsylvania. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. Upon what claim did the English base their demand for the surrender of New Amsterdam? 2. How did it happen that New Amsterdam was later called New York? 3. Name four events of interest to you in the early history of New York. 4. What reasons can you give for the marvelous growth of New York City? 5. The Hudson River is famous for the beauty of its scenery; it is also interesting because of historical events connected with it. Make from time to time a list of these events in your notebook. 6. Give a brief account of the settlement of New Jersey. 7. Account for the rapid growth of New Jersey from its settlement to the present time. 8. What was the motive for the settlement of Pennsylvania? 9. Give your estimate of William Penn. 10. Name some of the liberal provisions of Penn s charter and the Great Law. Of what other great Englishman, the founder of a colony, does Penn remind you? 11. Contrast the Quakers of Pennsylvania and the colonists of Virginia and Massachusetts, in their relations to the Indians. 12. Explain the name "Dixie." io6 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Contrast New Amsterdam with New York of to-day. 2. A character study of Governor Peter Stuyvesant. 3. Describe the signing of "The Great Treaty." Quote from the speeches you imagine \\ illiam Penn and the Indians to have made This mav be dramatized. 4. Describe either of the two following incidents in the life of William Penn: (a) the King gives him Pennsylvania; (b) his arrival in Phila delphia. CHAPTER OUTLINE 1. The Dutch fur traders. 2. The growth of New Amsterdam and the character of its inhabitants. 3. Its capture by the English. 4. Disputes with governing officials. 5. Founding of New Jersey. 6. William Penn and the beginning of Pennsylvania. 7. Penn s plan of government. 8. Relations with the Indians. 9. Boundary dispute with Maryland. 10. Beginning of Delaware. CHAPTER XI COLONIAL LIFE AND CONDITIONS IN 1750 108. Three groups of colonies. In many ways colonial life was the same both North and South, but there were marked differences between the geography and climate of the Southern, New England or Northern, and Middle Col onies; and their people also differed much in manners, customs, and occupations. 109. Southern society. The planters were the upper class in the South. They were well educated, had stately man ners, were hos pitable to stran gers, wore fine clothing, and kept numerous black servants. Many planters spent their lei sure in the study of politics, and were fond of mil itary life. From this class came Washington and other Southern leaders of the Revolution; indeed, for a long time after the Revolution, the young nation found in the South, particu larly in Virginia, some of its best soldiers and statesmen. The English were the most numerous nationality; but there were also many French, Germans, Swiss, and Scotch- Irish. no. Southern occupations and commerce. Virginia s C oi/rfesj/, United States National Museum A TOBACCO ROLLER A large hogshead was filled with tobacco; then an axle was run through it, a frame was attached, and oxen drew it from the field to the plant er s wharf io8 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION one great crop was tobacco; but in the Carolinas, rice, in digo, tar, and turpentine were nearly as important, and there were also raised much corn, cotton, and beef. Com merce was carried on with sister colonies to the north, as well as with the West Indies and England. The fur traders of Carolina, Virginia, and Maryland fre quently ventured with their packhorses over the passes of the Allegheny Mountains and down into the valley of the Ohio River where dwelt some of the most warlike tribes. in. New England society. Even the poorest New Eng- lander stood stoutly for his rights, as Englishmen have al ways done, but the wealthy were in their manner quite as aristocratic as any Southern gentleman. At church the rich sat in the front pews, beside the colonial officials who had been sent out by the King. Behind them, in the order named, came farmers, merchants, and mechanics. 1 Practically all of the immigrants who came to New Eng land in colonial days were English, so that for a century and a half its people were almost wholly of that one race . 112. New England occupations and commerce. As farm ing in that thin soil was not very profitable, there were in New England very few large landed estates. Men of the highest class and best ability held public office, or followed such professions as the law, the ministry, and medicine. There also grew up an aristocratic merchant class, who took a prominent part in public affairs and were highly respected by everybody. Indeed, no one was idle in the North. There were but few slaves; this was not because in colonial days New Englanders opposed slavery, for they did not; but because they did not think it profitable, on their small farms or in their other industries, to keep servants who had to be driven to labor, under overseers. Unlike the people of the South, New Englanders made for themselves, chiefly in their own houses, almost all the 1 At Harvard College the students were seated in chapel in the order of their social rank. COLONIAL LIFE AND CONDITIONS IN 1750 109 manufactured goods they wanted, and mechanics, millers, and the like were plentiful in every town. Large numbers of those who lived along the coast ob tained a good share of their living from the sea, as fisher men and sailors. Hundreds of stout little sailing ships, made and owned by New Englanders, not only plied up and down the entire American coast, but made voyages to Europe, Africa, and the West Indies. 1 Outgoing cargoes consisted of the products of their farms, lumber camps, and factories, which were bartered in all parts of the world for the products of other lands, and even for African slaves. 113. Society in the Middle Colonies. In this favored region dwelt many nationalities, Dutch, French, Germans, Swedes, Finns, Welsh, and Scotch-Irish, as well as English, thus bringing together a great variety of speech, customs, and ways of thinking. In New Jersey, and in Philadelphia itself, however, the people were chiefly English. Along the Hudson the Dutch patroons held trade and free labor in high favor, but often owned large numbers of both black and white house servants. The rich Quakers in Pennsylvania were rather aristocratic in their ideas; but on the whole there was more democracy in that province than either in New England or the South. 114. Occupations in the Middle Colonies. Farming was of course the chief industry, but there was some mining of coal and iron, and a few small factories were also operated. As in the South there grew up in New York and Pennsylvania an extensive fur trade with the Indians to the north and west. Ships from the Middle Colonies traded with other colonies both north and south, and even carried cargoes to and from the West Indies, Madeira Islands, Portugal, and England. 115. Navigation laws, and smuggling. All nations having seacoasts prefer that their ocean commerce shall be carried on in vessels built, or at least owned, by their own citizens; a country does not feel independent of others, in case of war, 1 Boston alone employed six hundred ships in her foreign trade, and over a thousand in coast trade and the fisheries. no THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION unless its ships are its own. A hundred years before the voyage of Columbus, England had laws making it an offense "to ship merchandise out of or into the realm" except in English vessels. At first the colonists were not compelled to obey these laws. But it was soon seen that enterprising Dutch sailors were taking a large part of the colonial trade in their ships, and making a great deal of money from it. The English Government, therefore, in the middle of the seventeenth century passed severe laws compelling the colonists to help build up English commerce. These laws were of three classes : - (a) Nobody was allowed to ship any goods into, or from, or between the colonies, except in English-built or colonial- built ships, worked by English or colonial crews. (b) Certain exports, among them tobacco, indigo, copper, and furs, must be sent only to England. Some exports, such as lumber, provisions, and salt fish, were allowed to go to other countries. (c) An American merchant was not permitted to import goods directly from the continent of Europe; he must first have them shipped to London, where an English duty was collected on them ; there they were reloaded and sent on to America, where still another duty must be paid. This was a very slow and costly method of importation. It was difficult, however, to enforce the two last-named regulations, because there were not enough officers in America to search every ship that sailed from or came to our shores, to see if the laws had been obeyed. The Northern Colonies, especially, paid little attention to such laws, and there was a great deal of smuggling which was a practice then common also on the coasts of most European countries. 116. Domestic manufactures. In addition to these Navi gation Acts, as they were called, there were laws practically forbidding American factories to make anything that might be made in England. 1 1 Under these rules iron mined in America might be made here into crude bars (or "pigs"), but must be sent to England to be manufactured into useful and spun COLONIAL LIFE AND CONDITIONS IN 1750 in It was found to be as difficult to get the Americans to obey these oppressive manufacturing laws as it was to force the Navigation Acts upon them. If they could have been enforced, then almost all manufacturing and business inter ests in the colonies would have been ruined. As it was, the laws were broken every day many small colonial in dustries managed to thrive, and a great deal of profitable commerce was car ried on between the colonies. Farmers wives and daughters dressed flax carded _ wool, and Vam and WOVe "* and crudely dyed "homespun" cloth, from which they made clothing for the family. Mittens and socks were also knitted in the homes, and sold in large quantities throughout the colonies. Many straw hats and bonnets were made, but cloth or felt hats were imported from England. A few iron-working mills were to be found, flour- and grist-mills were numerous, ships were built in every colony, and carpenters, ropemakers, and sailmakers found abundant employment. 117. Houses. Up to the opening of the Revolution, most of the smaller country houses were still made of logs which were either left round or roughly squared by the axe articles. The making of hats in America was declared by one law to be "an evil practice." It was forbidden to ship either wool or woolen fabrics outside of the colony where grown and made. New England was particularly hurt by the "Sugar Act," prohibiting the importation into the colonies of any non- English sugar, molasses, or rum this was in order to help the sugar industry in the British West Indies. Similar regulations then governed the colonies of all other European coun tries. In fact, the English acts were less severe than those of France or Spain. Notice the spinntng wne el, the flax-reel, the pewter plates on the shelves, the lanterns and candles on the mantle, the cooking utensils, and the rifle and powderhorn ii2 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION or adze. After sawmills were established the best dwellings were of milled lumber, and, so far as lumber can imitate stone and brick, patterned after the country houses then fashionable in England square, with stately porches, and often with columns in front. 1 In the earliest times, when Indians were liable to attack the settlers, there was at least one log "blockhouse" in each village. This was made as strong as possible, with openings in the sides through which to fire at the enemy. Sometimes a group of blockhouses would be surrounded by a palisade of logs set on end, with heavy gates; this made a strong fort, into which the people of the neighborhood might retreat in time of danger. 118. Furniture and interiors. Most of the furniture used in colonial houses was homemade, and some of it was very crude; but well-to-do people imported their best pieces from England. In Dutch farmhouses great rafters showed in the ceilings, the big fireplaces were framed with pictured tiles, wooden and pewter dishes stood in racks along the kitchen walls, and the floors were spotless, for the tidy Dutch house wives scrubbed and sanded them daily. Fireplaces were long the only means of heating or cooking; 2 in Northern homes the fireside was often, in winter, an uncomfortable place, because of cold drafts. Homemade tallow candles, or flickering lamps burning whale oil, furnished the only artificial light; and in many a household the children were obliged to read and study at night solely by the light of the fire, which must have been bad for their eyes. 119. Clothing. In the early years of every colony, and always upon the outer edges of the settlements, deerskins, tanned as soft as cloth, were much used for men s clothing. The smock, or hunting-shirt, which reached nearly down to the knees, was tightly belted around the waist, so that 1 In the North, doors and windows were few; but in the South there were wide halls for free ventilation, and broad porches on which members of the household could, during the hottest weather, sit in the shade. 2 The Germans of Pennsylvania were the first to use stoves and air-drums. In 1742 Benjamin Franklin invented the "Franklin stove." COLONIAL LIFE AND CONDITIONS IN 1750 113 the upper part might be used for carrying provisions and game, like a large pocket or sack. The moccasins were often stuffed with leaves or dry moss, to protect the wear er s feet when walking on rough ground. 1 In more thickly settled parts, " homespun " was commonly worn. But the well-to-do, if English, had their clothes made in the mother country, according to the latest London fashions this meant ruffled shirts, high neckcloths, shoes with large and expensive buckles, tall hats of beaver-skin, and knee- breeches, cloaks, and coats of fine cloth. If Dutch, rich and poor were of ten clad in the quaint old costumes of Holland. 120. Churches. In New England everybody was obliged to go to church, and at times this was also true of most of the other colonies. But the churches were often extremely un comfortable especially in New England, in winter-time, for they were without heat; the sermon was apt to be sev eral hours long, the high-sided pews were uncushioned, and the people frequently came to stay all day, attending both morning and afternoon services. Many brought with them little fooMvarming stoves, heated with charcoal, and these served also to warm the sleighs in which they rode. The min ister spoke from a high pulpit; in front of him, in elevated pews, sat the deacons or other church officers. In many parts of New England, if a person fell asleep during service, he was tapped on the head by a long stick in the hands of one of these watchful officers, and made to wake up and pay attention to the preacher. 121. Education. Many Southern planters sent their boys to be educated in England, and others kept tutors for them at their homes. For the poor in the South there was a church school in every parish, kept by the minister, who taught the children how to read and write. In Philadelphia there were 1 Usually the outer seams of the trousers and of the smock, and the top of the moccasins, were decorated with narrow fringes of the skin. The settlers borrowed the idea of the moccasin from the Indians; to whom also they were indebted for the useful snowshoe, by the aid of which they could travel in winter through the deepest snow. The ski was brought to America at a much later date, by our Norwegian settlers. IT4 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION public schools supported, as ours are, by public taxation; and New Jersey had county schools maintained in the same way. The Dutch established similar public schools in New York; but after the English came into power, they were not so well managed. In New England, nearly every town had a good public school, and even the smallest places made some provision for popular education. Colleges were to be found in nearly all the Middle and Northern Colo nies ; but in the South only Virginia supported such an insti tution. 1 Public libraries were practically unknown, and the few books or pamphlets printed in America were chiefly on reli gious or political subjects, and not entertaining reading for the young. Weekly newspapers were published in all the leading towns, but they were very small affairs compared with the great dailies of our time. 2 122. Amusements and sports. The people of New Eng land and the Middle Colonies enjoyed many simple sports. Old and young in a country neighborhood would gather in each other s houses, and help at paring and cutting up apples to be dried for later use, husking corn, spinning wool, and building, or " raising," new log houses or barns. These meetings for work were called " bees," and were the occasion for much boisterous fun. Women and girls held " bees " for making quilts or helping with other family sewing. In those days Indians were apt to make trouble, and a good share of the food was wild game ; for these two reasons, every man must know how to handle his rifle or musket with skill. This weapon was generally as long as the tallest frontiersman, and was fired by means of a flint lock. To encourage marksmanship, shooting-matches were frequently held, at which prizes were offered. Some of the men and 1 Several colleges were founded in colonial days: Harvard, 1636; William and Mary, 1693; Yale, 1701; University of Pennsylvania, 1740; Princeton, 1746; Washington and Lee, 1749; Columbia (then Kings), 1754; Brown, 1764; Rutgers. 1766; Dartmouth, 1769. 2 The first public journal in America was the Boston News Letter, begun in 1704. The early papers did not give much attention to local news; their editors thought that only events at a distance were worth mentioning. COLONIAL LIFE AND CONDITIONS IN 1750 115 boys became so skillful with the rifle that they could at long distances snuff a candle without extinguishing the flame, safely put a bullet hole through a tin cup placed on another man s head, or pierce a small object held between a person s thumb and forefinger, and do other astonishing and often dangerous feats that made them heroes of the shooting- match. It is no wonder that during the Revolution our colonists were declared to be among the best marksmen in the world. 1 In the cities and villages, quiet people attended balls, picnics, out-of-door tea-parties, and tavern-parties; while at horse-racing, cricket, club-ball, somewhat resembling our baseball, football, and such field sports, there gathered large and noisy crowds. Sleighing and skating parties, dancing parties, and singing schools were popular winter festivities in the North, as was also story- telling around the enormous fireplaces, during which nuts and cider were passed. The Dutch were extremely fond of bowls, a game played at tavern gardens or on a smooth public lawn, or " green." 2 In the South, where the rich planters lived like English country gentlemen, fox hunting was practiced, and they were fond of " house-parties," at which their guests stayed for a week or more. 3 123. Roads, travel, and taverns. Roads were bad, almost everywhere in the colonies. 4 In the South wagons were 1 To prepare the men to defend their homes when necessary, there were held each year certain "training days," on which a military officer taught the settlers how to march and act together under orders. "Training days" were looked forward to by both men and boys with great glee; for after the military exercises on the town "green," there were athletic sports open to everybody, such as running, jumping, boxing, and wrestling for prizes. 2 Bowling Green, in the heart of lower New York, is where the Dutch of New Amsterdam used to play this game on summer nights. 3 Many Southern planters liked to spend a part of each year, when the legis latures met, at the capitals of their colonies. Their entire families were taken along, with the household servants, and the season went rapidly in a gay round of dancing, card-playing, formal dinners, and governors receptions. The gayest of these capitals was Charleston, where many of the Carolina rice-planters lived throughout the year. 4 In the Middle Colonies and New England, roads began to be improved long before the Revolution. The best were called "turnpikes," or "pikes," and on these a small fee, or " toll," was collected from travelers, to help meet the cost of keeping up the road. There were also many toll-bridges. n6 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION seldom used, for nearly everybody rode horseback or in boats. There were few bridges, so a horseman would either ford a river or be carried over in a boat by the ferry-keeper, while his animal swam behind. The taverns south of the Mason and Dixon line were few and poor, for only now and then was a traveler seen, and he was eagerly welcomed as a guest at the plantations. Inns were, however, quite common in the North, and those of New England were thought to be good ; but on much-used roads, or " pikes," leading to and from the largest towns these houses of " entertainment for man and beast " were sometimes so crowded at night that travelers must be thankful if allowed to lie on rude straw mattresses on the floors of hallways or public rooms. We read of a stage-coach running between Boston and the Rhode Island towns as early as 1718, and after that such coaches were seen in New England rather fre quently. But it was over forty years later than this (1759) before the first line of stages ran between New York and Philadelphia; these made the journey in about three days. 1 124. Crimes and punishments. In most of the colonies punishments were made as public as possible. Each town kept in plain sight its gallows or its gibbet, each of them chiefly used for the execution of pirates, also the whipping- 1 Not until late in colonial days were many private carriages kept indeed, in 1761, there were but thirty-eight in Philadelphia, although Bostonians owned many more. To the PUBLIC. "THE FLYING MACHINE, kept by John Mercereau, at the New-Blazing-Star Feny, near New-York, fcts off from Powles Hook every Mon day, Wednefday, and Friday Mornings, for Philadelphia, and performs the Journey in a Day and a Half, for the Summer Sea/bn, till the ift of November, from that Time to go twice a Week ull the firft of May, when they again perform it three Times a Week. When the Stages go only rwice a Week, they fet off Mondays and Thurf- day* The Waggons in Philadelphia fet out from the Sign of the George, in Second-ftreet, the fame Morning. The Pa/Tengers are defired to crofs the Ferry the Evening before, as the Stages muft fet oft" early the next Morning. The Price for each PafTenger is Twenty Stilling*, Proc. and Goods ai ufiuL Paflengers going Part of the Way to pay in Proportion. As the Proprietor has made fuch Improvements upon the Machines, one of which is in Imitation of a Coach, be hopes to nxrit the Favour of the Public k. JOHV MIRCEREAU. AN ADVERTISEMENT FROM THE NEW YORK GAZETTE, 1771 COLONIAL LIFE AND CONDITIONS IN 1750 117 post and other devices for correcting evil-doers. 1 The in habitants were invited to witness these shocking spectacles by the " town crier," an officer who went about with bell or horn, loudly proclaiming official notices and all manner of news. Great crowds would collect and jeer the offenders, and even pelt them with stones and other missiles. Pirates swarmed in great numbers along the colonial coast, especially in Narragansett Bay and on the sea-islands off the Carolinas. They were the terror not only of sailors, whom they murdered to get their ships and cargoes, but of many small seaside towns, which they sometimes looted. After the Revolution, however, there was organized a na tional coast police, and then these murdering freebooters ceased to be a serious annoyance to American shipping. 2 125. " In good old colony days." We can best understand how people lived in what are often mistakenly called " good old colony days," by making a few comparisons between those days and our own. Dur colonial ancestors had no daily newspaper, steam boat, railroad, electric trolley line, telegraph, cable, tele phone, bicycle, motor car, elevator, typewriter, envelope, or postcard means of communication which we consider absolutely necessary to our comfort. There were then no gas, electric light, kerosene, gasoline, or furnaces. Factories and mills ran only by water or wind power, for steam and electricity had not yet been harnessed for the service of man. 1 For vagrancy, drunkenness, or small thieving, men were fastened by their feet into stocks, set up in the market place. Scolding women were placed in a ducking-stool, and half drowned in river or pond. Disorderly men and wife- beaters were punished at the whipping-post. For several serious offenses there was a pillory, a frame into which both head and hands were fastened. Some kinds of criminals might have branded into their faces or hands, with red-hot irons, the first letter of the name of their crime; or they might be compelled to wear a large letter of this sort, in colored cloth, conspicuously attached to their clothing. 2 One of the most daring of the sea-robbers was Captain William Kidd, who for several years made miserable the life of our American sailors, especially in Northern seas. Another infamous pirate was Blackbeard. He used to hide in the many deep inlets along the North Carolina shore, and like a great spider jump out and attack every passing vessel that seemed an easy prey. At last both of these desperadoes were hunted down and hanged. Ii8 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION Ether and chloroform were unknown, and surgical opera tions were horrible experiences. Even friction matches and hundreds of other small inventions that we use every day, without thinking of their importance, had not been brought into the world. Many arti cles of food now seen on the poorest tables could not then be had. Only the rich could buy the few oranges or bananas occasionally of fered for sale; cauliflower, egg-plant, and tomatoes were unknown, and even the native fruits, apples, pears, cherries, raspberries, and strawberries, were poor, wizened things compared with those which we know. During hot weather, ice was a lux ury for the few, for there were no ice companies; and canned meats, fruits, and vegetables had not yet been heard of. Mails were carried between the chief towns by postmen riding ponies that could travel only thirty miles a day, a dis tance now made by our fastest mail trains in half an hour. The people of the colonies eagerly read in their little weekly papers news from Europe that was three and four months old. Trips across the Atlantic were made in small, uncom fortable, ill-smelling sailing ships, and it took a good part of the summer to make the voyage. A steerage passenger in the smallest and poorest of our ocean-going steamships ordinarily spends no more than twelve days in passing from ports in northern Europe to America, and does not suffer a twentieth part of the discomfort felt by first-cabin passen gers a hundred and fifty or two hundred years ago, It is difficult for us to imagine how it would feel to be without the hundreds of conveniences, necessities, and pleasures that come into our daily life. But our colonial fore fathers, having never known or even dreamed of these things, of course did not miss them. Whether, on the whole, they COLONIAL LIFE AND CONDITIONS IN 1750 "9 were as happy as we of this generation, it is impossible for us to say. Certain it is that their lives were narrow and often -uncomfortable, and that in conquering the wilder ness they faced obstacles such as few people in our time have ever known. The simple pleasures that came to them, however, were no doubt enjoyed quite as heartily as any that are offered to us in such wonderful profusion. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. In general, what conditions in the Old World made people dissatisfied there, and why was America attractive to them? 2. How did it happen that England contributed the largest number of colonists? 3. Why was there little or no manufacturing in the South? How far is this true now? 4. What conditions in New England promoted the growth of seafaring? 5. VVas manual or industrial training as necessary in the schools in colo nial times as at present? Give the reasons for your answer. 6. In what way or ways was necessary work in colonial days turned into amusement? 7. State two reasons why boys learned to shoot well. Note whether this was of any advantage later. 8. How did the absence of newspapers and magazines affect the home life of the people? 9. Trace on the map a journey in colonial times from Maine to Florida and state what languages one would have heard in the successive colonies or regions. 10. Name the different means of travel in colonial days? Why were the roads better in the North than in the South? 11. How did it come about that the Southern plantation owner was so hospitable? 12. Imagine yourself to have been living in England in the early days of the colonies. You desired to emigrate to America. Which colony would you have chosen for your new home, and why? 13. What is the origin of the name of your town or city, county and state? 14. To what country or countries do you trace your ancestry? 15. Make a list of inventions and conveniences common with us but un known in colonial days. 1 6. In what respects are we better off to-day than the colonists were? In what respects, if any, were they better off than we? 17. Prove, if you can, that life in colonial times was a happy one. 1 8. Make at home a small chart of the eastern coast of the United States from Maine to Florida. Show on this chart (a) each of the thirteen 120 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 19. colonies; (6) the nativity of the first settlers of each colony; (c) the motive of colonization of each ; (d) the name or names of one or two men associated prominently with the colonization of each ; (e) the name of some interesting event or events; (/) locate the largest town in each. Complete the following table of comparisons of the three groups of colonies: North Middle South I. Climate 2. Soil 3. Occupations 4. Commerce 5. Society 6. Educational facilities 7. General character of people COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Describe a log-rolling, house-raising, or quilting-bee on the frontier of any of the colonies. Let the conversation and conduct of your people show plainly whether they are in Massachusetts, Maryland, Pennsyl vania, Georgia, or Virginia. 2. Imagine yourself in a stage-coach riding (in 1760) on the route between New York and Philadelphia. Relate the experiences of the trip. 3. The Crossing by Winston Churchill has many descriptions of colonial life. Rewrite the one which seems to you most interesting. CHAPTER OUTLINE 1. Three groups of colonies. 2. Southern colonies: (a) Character of the people, (b) Industries. 3. New England colonies: (a) Character of the people, (b) Industries. 4. The Middle colonies: (a) Character of the people. (&) Industries. 5. Conditions common to all three groups: (a) Restrictions on trade and manufacturing, (b) Home manufactures, (c) Colonial houses. (d) Dress, (e) Worship. (/) Schools and colleges, (g) Recreations. (/O Conditions of travel, (i) Punishments, (j) General conditions. CHAPTER XII THE CONQUEST OF NEW FRANCE BY ENGLAND 126. Wars between France and England. Quite early in our history serious disputes began between the French and English colonies in North America, as to the boundaries that separated them. Besides small conflicts between the colonists themselves, France and England fought four wars over these and other matters, lasting, with only short in tervals, from 1689 to 1760, a period of seventy-one years. 1 The first three of these we may pass over briefly: - (a) King William s War continued from 1689 to 1697. War parties of French and Indians burned the New York village of Schenectady and killed most of its inhabitants, besides destroying several hamlets in New Hampshire and Massachusetts. 2 (b) Queen Anne s War was fought from 1702 to 1713. The English captured and kept Nova Scotia, and the French massacred the inhabitants of Deerfield, in northwestern Massachusetts. (c) King George s War (1744-48) is chiefly remembered for the remarkable capture, June 16, 1745, by untrained but brave and persistent New England militiamen, of the strong French fortress of Louisburg, on the island of Cape Breton. This famous stronghold not only guarded both the Guli and River St. Lawrence, but was a protection to French and Indian war parties which for many years had attacked and 1 During these quarrels between France and England the fighting was not wholly in America; it also went on in Europe. 2 At Haverhill, thirty-three miles north of Boston, one of the branches of this expedition captured several prisoners, among them Mrs. Hannah Dustin, who managed, one night, to kill nine of her twelve savage captors, and returned home in safety. 122 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION burned English settlements in northern New England. At the close of the war, the English Government, to the great disappointment of the New Englanders, good-naturedly gave Louisburg back to France. However, the colonies had been taught an important lesson that they had among them the best sort of righting material, and need no longer fear the warlike French. The French and Indian War, which lasted from 1754 to I76O, 1 was the last and greatest of these struggles for the THE FRENCH FRONTIER IN THE NORTH control of our continent. It was so important in its results that we shall consider it at some length. 127. French claims. Long before the opening of this war, the King of France was claiming ownership of not only what is now included in Canada, but also the northern half of New England, much of New York and Pennsylvania, and almost all of our continent which lies west of the Alle gheny Mountains. This claim was based on the fact that Frenchmen had explored a large part of that vast wilder ness of forests, rivers, and lakes, and had planted almost 1 The fighting began in America in 1754, but war was not officially declared by the rulers of the two countries until the next year. The fighting virtually ended in America in 1760, with the surrender of Montreal. THE CONQUEST OF NEW FRANCE 123 every settlement to be found within it ; moreover, nearly all the aborigines, except the Iroquois, welcomed them as warm friends. 128. English counter claims. Nevertheless, the English had from the first declared that they alone owned the land as far westward as the Pacific Ocean, for their King had given it to them in the colonial charters. Thus far, they said, they had not needed the region lying west of the Alle gheny Mountains, or the "back country," as it was called; and only their fur traders had as yet ventured into it. But now the time had arrived when the Atlantic slope was fill ing up, and English frontiersmen wished to occupy the West with farms. Notice was therefore served upon the French to depart from lands lying west of the English colonies. This the French refused to do ; whereupon there followed the final contest between France and England, to see who should be masters of the North American continent for now it was clearly seen that both nations could no. longer live here in peace, side by side, with such conflicting claims. 129. Rivalry in the Ohio River Valley. The principal French settlements were the towns of Quebec and Montreal, on the St. Lawrence River, and New Orleans, at the mouth of the Mississippi, places over two thousand miles apart, measured by the usual lake and river routes. They were connected only by a number of small and widely separated fur-trade posts along the Great Lakes and the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. Unless the French could keep control of the Ohio River, which flows through the heart of the Western country, and was the principal waterway thither, their supplies and troops could not pass between Canada and Louisiana. In other words, New France would be cut in two. It w T as therefore with great alarm that French officials noticed English trad ers, explorers, and land hunters coming into the Ohio Valley in ever-increasing numbers. The French protested bitterly against this English "invasion," as they called it, and in 1749 sent a small military expedition down the river to warn 124 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION the Englishmen to leave the country, which of course they refused to do. 1 130. The French ordered off by Virginia. In the very year of this useless French expedition, permission was given to the Ohio Company, of which two of George Washington s brothers were members, to place settlers on a large tract of land along the upper waters of the Ohio River, in country claimed by Virginia. In order to protect these proposed settlers, the company decided to build a fort at what was known as the Forks of the Ohio, where the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers unite to form that great stream the site of the present Pittsburg. The French were of course alarmed at this project, and resolved themselves to construct a fort at the Forks before the English arrived. In order, however, to have safe com munication with Canada, so as to obtain supplies, they first erected several small forts along the Allegheny River, and left till later the building of their fort at the Forks. Learning of this activity on their part Governor Dinwiddie of Virginia wrote a letter ordering them to depart at once from what he declared was English territory. 131. Washington s winter journey. The bearer of this message was Major George Washington, a young surveyor who, although only twenty-one years of age, was adjutant- general of the northern division of the Virginia militia. In his many surveying expeditions Washington, a fine-looking man, over six feet tall, had had much experience with Indians and the rude life of the wilderness, and was well known throughout his colony as a clear-headed, fearless officer, with unusual skill in overcoming difficulties. In November, 1753, Washington and his half-dozen com panions, all clad in leather suits, such as frontiersmen then wore, set out on horseback from Virginia. They had a dreary and dangerous winter journey of several weeks, over snow- 1 The commander, named Celoron, carried with him a number of small plates of lead, on which was engraved a statement that the.country belonged to the French King; these he buried at the mouths of tributary streams. Several of them were afterwards found by American settlers. THE CONQUEST OF NEW FRANCE 125 clad mountains, through thick forests, and across brimming streams filled with floating cakes of ice. They found the French at a stout log stockade called Fort le Bceuf , a hun dred and twenty miles north of the Forks. The com mandant curtly told Washington that he would not leave, and the latter hastened home with this defiant message. 132. Washington defeated. Virginia promptly replied by sending some men to build the proposed fort at the Forks, and soon after this Washington followed with a hundred and fif ty militiamen to form a garrison for this strong hold. But before his arrival the French drove away the fort- builders, and, completing the work for them selves, called it Fort Duquesne; they also attack ed Washington when he had almost reached the Forks, and defeated him at Fort Neces sity, near a place in the mountains called Great Meadows. This battle was the opening of the French and Indian War. 133. The Albany plan of union. At this time, there were only 85,000 people in New France, and sixteen times this number in the English colonies. The despotic officers of the French could move them quickly from place to place, with out asking their consent. But the English colonies were jealous of each other, and colonists and governors were constantly quarreling; so that it was seldom possible to Painting by A. Q Heaton, Union League, Philadelphia THE FIRST MISSION OF WASHINGTON The scene is the interior of Fort le Bceuf. Washington is about to re turn with the French commander s reply to the English governor of Virginia. His companions are a frontiersman, as guide, and a Dutch soldier as interpreter 126 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION get the people to agree on any action against the common enemy. Jn order to remedy this unfortunate condition of affairs, a convention of delegates from the several colonies was held at Albany in June and July, 1754. Prominent among the members from Pennsylva nia was Benjamin Franklin, 1 editor of the Pennsylvania Gazette. In this newspaper he had printed a rudely drawn picture of a snake, cut into pieces, 2 to each piece being given the name of a colony; beneath this was the significant motto, " Unite or die." A plan of union which he drew up was adopted by the convention. But the colonists rejected it, as not being sufficiently democratic; and the King s approval could not be obtained, because he thought the plan merely a " step ping-stone to the independence of the colonies." However, it set wise men to thinking and talking of the benefits of such a union, and pre pared them for the one that was BENJAMIN FRANKLIN NC NY OR DIE 1 Franklin was born in Boston in 1706. As a youth he read every book he could buy or borrow, and at an early age began to write newspaper articles and ballads. When seventeen years old he arrived in Philadelphia, seeking employment as a printer, with only a dollar in his pocket. Six years later he owned his own newspaper and printing-office and had become one of the lead ing citizens of Pennsylvania. He was greatly interested in scientific studies, and invented many useful articles. His experiments with a kite showed that lightning is an electrical discharge; this discovery and his writings, chief among the latter being Poor Richard s Almanac, filled with wise and witty sayings, made him as well known in Europe as in America. Franklin was conspicuous in colonial politics, frequently went to Europe as business agent for the colo nies, was one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, and in 1783 helped negotiate at Paris our treaty of peace with England. His simple dress and manners, keen wit as both writer and speaker, strong common sense, and sci entific fame, made him extremely popular in Paris, where scores of artists asked him to sit for busts, portraits, and medals. When he died at Philadelphia, in 1790, he was one of the most famous and best beloved of Americans. 2 The popular belief was, that if the parts of a snake that had been cut to pieces were brought together they would unite ; otherwise the snake would die. THE CONQUEST OF NEW FRANCE 127 finally formed for the carrying on of the Revolutionary War. 134. Braddock s defeat. The English King, George 1 1, saw that conditions were now getting serious in America, and in 1755 sent over General Edward Braddock, a brave and skill ful but very stubborn officer, to help the colonists capture the Ohio Valley from the French. He had with him several hundred well-trained soldiers, and was also accompanied into the wilderness by the Virginia troops, headed by Wash ington, and a few friendly Indians. Washington advised Braddock to order his soldiers to seek shelter behind trees, when attacked by the savages, just as the Virginians had learned to do. But Braddock thought it disgraceful for regular soldiers to fight under cover. The expedition was suddenly attacked by a small party of French and Indians, in a bushy ravine not far from Fort Duquesne. Braddock s men, being forbidden by the general to conceal themselves, huddled in frightened masses and were an easy target for the foe, secreted in the forest, who slaughtered them as though they were a flock of sheep. Few of the regulars es caped, and they owed their lives to the coolness and bravery of Washington and his militiamen. Four bullets passed through Washington s clothes and two horses were shot under him, yet he was everywhere in the fight, and was the hero of the day. 1 135. Removal of the Acadians. Another English expedi tion was sent during the same year to Nova Scotia, or Acadia. This province, formerly belonging to France, was now owned by England; but the French farmers, who made up the greater part of the population, were rebellious anr made a great deal of trouble for English officials. The Aca dians were easily quieted, and seven thousand of them were exiled to various settlements along the coast, all the way from Massachusetts to Georgia. 2 1 Daniel Boone, afterwards a famous hunter and the explorer of Kentucky, was driving the horses of a baggage wagon; but he cut the traces that held his animals and rode off in safety. 2 Longfellow s beautiful poem, Evangeline, is based on this incident; but the 128 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 136. Guarding the Western frontier. The ease with which Braddock had been defeated made the French and their Indian allies believe that if diligent they might drive the English entirely out of the Western country. Their war par ties therefore began a series of fierce attacks on the settle ments along the mountainous western borders of Pennsyl vania, Maryland, and Virginia a frontier line of three hundred and fifty miles. Hundreds of backwoodsmen and their wives and children were murdered, or taken to the Indian villages as prisoners to be tortured ; others were driven back to the east of the mountains, their houses burned, and their cattle killed. Fom 1755 to the end of the war the story of the Western frontiers is one long chapter of misery. The man who undertook the difficul t and dangerous defense of this back door of the colonies, and prevented the savage enemy from forcing their way into the small settlements east of the mountains, was George Washington, who was then but twenty-four years of age. He was, however, considered the most skillful Indian fighter of his time, and was greatly beloved by his rude but brave militiamen, who were now fifteen hundred in number. Although without uniforms, nearly all of them wore fringed buckskin suits, and coarse felt hats or coonskin caps, with the tails hanging behind: they carried long, homemade flintlock rifles, and from their belts hung powderhorn, scalping-knife, and tomahawk. Many were the valiant deeds performed by Washington and his followers, as they hurled back the enemy from the rear of the settlements. But for them the war might have had a quite different ending. 1 137. William Pitt. During 1756 and 1757 the English poem must not be regarded as strictly true to history. France had in 1713 ceded Acadia to the English, yet for forty years its people stubbornly reiused to take the oath of allegiance to England ; they aided her enemy, and many served in the French army. English officers decided that their removal was a necessary war measure. 1 Under Washington s direction the border men erected numerous log forts, which were garrisoned by the neighboring settlers. Washington and his rudely clothed riflemen marched quickly hither and thither, as their services were needed by these local garrisons. THE CONQUEST OF NEW FRANCE 129 generals in America were almost always unsuccessful in their expeditions, and it began to look as though the French, few in number but plucky fighters, might win after all. But in 1758 affairs began to mend, chiefly because of the energy of one great-hearted, honest, and patriotic man, William Pitt, afterwards Lord Chatham, who had recently become the chief adviser of the English Government. He selected the best military men he could get, and aroused his fellow country men to make a last and desper ate attempt to defeat France, the ancient enemy of the king dom. New and fresh troops, well < officered and equipped, soon be- j gan to arrive in America from the mother country; and naval ? vessels patrolled the Canadian coasts, to prevent New France from receiving supplies from Europe. During the year 1758 Fort Du- VILLIAM PITT quesne was captured by the per sistent English and renamed Fort Pitt (afterwards it was called Pittsburg) ; this opened to them the Ohio Valley, and gave them an easy pathway into the Western country. In the same year, after a brilliant siege, the great fortress of Louisburg once more fell a prize to the English, who never again let it slip out of their grasp. In the summer of 1759 Fort Niagara, which guarded the Great Lakes, also fell to the English; so likewise did the forts of Crown Point and Ticonderoga thus giving to them, at last, control of the long-coveted route to Canada, by way of the Hudson River and Lake Champlain. 138. The fall of Quebec. Every obstacle lying in the path of an English attack on Montreal and Quebec, the two prin cipal towns of New France, had now been removed. An expedition against Quebec was at once organized, 130 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION A FRENCH OFFICER A FRENCH SOLDIER with General James Wolfe at the head of the militacy forces. He was only thirty-two years of age a quiet, modest gen tleman, with charming manners and keen intellect, mingled with rare courage and enterprise. The English fleet carried less than nine thousand sailors and soldiers, and arrived off the steep cliff of Quebec in the last week of June, 1 759. Next to Louisburg, it was the strongest fortress in America, and had a garrison of about sixteen thousand whites and Indians, un der command of the Marquis de Montcalm, who bore a high repu tation in the French army. All summer long Wolfe tried to reach the top of the cliff, thinking he might win if he could meet the French in an open battle before the walls of their great fort. But they bravely re sisted his assaults. Finally, he discovered a narrow path up the steep hillside, made by goats ; one September morning, before daylight, he and about four thousand of his best men secretly climbed up this path to the Plains of Abraham, a plateau just outside the walls. 1 In the terrible battle that followed, the English were vic torious. 2 The French garrison ran up the white flag, and 1 While the attacking party sat in rowboats under the deep shadow of the cliff, waiting for the signal to land, Wolfe recited these prophetic lines from Gray s Elegy written in a Country Churchyard, saying, " I would rather have written those lines than take Quebec." "The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, And all that beauty, all that wealth e er gave, Await alike the inevitable hour; The paths of glory lead but to the grave." 2 In this battle both Wolfe and Montcalm were killed. While Wolfe was being carried to the rear, shouts of victory were heard on the field. One of his officers exclaimed, " See them run !" "Who run? "eagerly whispered the General. On being told that the French were retreating, he cried, "Now God be praised, I die happy ! " and fell dead in the arms of his companion. About the same time, Montcalm also died from a severe wound. THE CONQUEST OF NEW FRANCE 131 the troops of England triumphantly marched into the for tress. 139. The end of New France. Montreal was easily cap tured by the English, the next year, and soon after that the remaining French forts in the interior of the continent were also handed over to the victors. The banner of England now floated from practically every flagpole east of the Missis sippi River. 1 The treaty of peace, which was not signed until Febru ary, 1763, in Paris, left to France the country west of the Mississippi; but later it became known that, three months before this, she had secretly given that enormous tract, all of which was then called Louisiana, to her ally, Spain. Thus the old-time claim of the English colonists that their ter ritory reached to the Pacific was no longer in force. 2 Most of the French in Canada remained in their old homes and became English citizens. 140. Effect of the war. This long and terrible contest between the English and the French was of great importance in Ameri can history. Unlike the English colonists, the people of New France had no trial by jury, no town meetings, no representative assembly; all their affairs were under the control of the despotic King of France, and many of the officials whom he sent to govern Canada were harsh and dishonest. The population of New France was small, and a third of her people were engaged in the fur trade, which caused them 1 France kept New Orleans; also two small islands, St. Pierre and Miquelon, south of Newfoundland, on which her fishermen might live. 2 Another important result of the war was Spain s cession of Florida to Eng land. The latter had captured Havana not long before, and in exchange for this Spain reluctantly yielded up Florida, which guarded the Gulf of Mexico on the north. ENGLISH SOLDIERS 132 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION to wander far from home. The arts of farm-making, town- building, mining, forestry, manufacturing, and the like, which Englishmen prac tice with such energy as soon to make even j^-j the wilderness of a new country a hive of industry, were almost unknown in Canada, during its French own ership. Had the French been allowed to control our continent as they wished, the English col onists would have been SIP A N ! S H NORTH AMERICA AFTER THE PEACE OF 1763 able to dwell only upon the Atlantic coast; in that narrow space they could never have built up a great nation. The fighting with the French united the English colonies, and prepared them for ultimate union in defense of their liber ties. But quite as important was the fact that now the English race, with its ideas of liberal government, was to be allowed opportunity to expand far westward into the interior of the North American continent; and to establish here a home for such of those people from other lands as wished to live under these laws, carry out these ideas, and help make our country a still greater and better nation. 141. Pontiac s War. The Indians 1 had become very fond of the French, who w r ere content to allow the forests to re main as the home of fur-bearing animals. They foresaw in the coming of the English, however, the opening of farms and the building of towns, which would drive away the game and crowd out the natives. Pontiac, the principal chief of the Ottawa, therefore organized among the red men of the West a great conspiracy to drive out these new mas ters. But although the Indians captured from the English 1 Except, of course, the Iroquois. THE CONQUEST OF NEW FRANCE 133 many forts and massacred their garrisons, and for two years (1763-65) carried on a terrible war against the backwoods men, they were at last defeated, and remained quiet until near the opening of the Revolutionary War. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. On a map of the United States indicate (a) the territory explored by the English; (b) by the French; (c} by the Spanish. What evidences of their occupations of those regions exist to-day? 2. Discuss the question, "Were the English or the French more entitled to the Ohio and Mississippi Valleys?" 3. State the advantages of the English at the beginning of the French and Indian War; of the French. 4. In what way was the Appalachian range of mountains a barrier to the western extension of English settlements? In what way, if any, was it fortunate that these mountains existed? Why are these mountains no longer a barrier? 5. Why had the French entered the country so far to the north? 6. W T hy were the Indians generally warm friends of the French and ene mies of the English? 7. Draw a line on a map of North America connecting the French forts from Louisburg to New Orleans and indicate their location. 8. Justify, if you can, the removal of the Acadians. Choose from Long fellow s Evangeline some lines that bring out pleasing features of the country and of the home life. Find some lines that show the cruelty of the separation. Mark these passages and read them in the class. 9. Show why the capture of Quebec was one of the decisive battles of the world. 10. Name two important acquisitions of territory by the English as a result of the French and Indian W r ar. 11. Name ten towns of French origin, to be found in the United States. 12. Read portions, at least, of Parkman s Montcalm and Wolfe. 13. Important dates: 1759 Capture of Quebec by the English. 1763 Treaty of Peace. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Write two letters from the commandant at Louisburg to the King of France. Let the first boast of the impregnability of his fortress, and the second tell of its capture by New England militiamen. 2. Imagine that you are an Indian in Illinois in the eighteenth century. Tell a white captive whether you like the French or the English better, and why. 134 THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 3. One of Washington s men argues with one of Braddock s men about the advisability of seeking cover when fighting the red men. Dramatize the scene. 4. A little maid from Grand Pre tells a Quaker woman, who has befriended her, of her expulsion from her old home. CHAPTER OUTLINE 1. English and French claim the same territory. 2. English attempt to gain control of the Upper Ohio Valley. 3. The Albany plan of union. 4. Events of 1755. 5. George Washington, commander of the Western frontier. 6. Capture of important forts by the English. 7. Fall of Quebec. 8. End of the War and treaty of peace. 9. Results of the War. REVIEW OF THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION WHEN this period begins, men had found out that the two Americas were not India, but a great continent barring the way to the East, and they had searched in vain for a waterway through the barrier. On the north, France entrenched herself on the St. Lawrence and soon began to grasp the Great Lakes and rivers to the south and west. On the south, Spain held Mexico and Peru with outposts in New Mexico, Florida, and the West Indies. Raleigh s colonizing schemes had failed, and the great English- speaking race, that later was to make North America its own, had not a single foothold upon it. From Canada to Florida was un broken wilderness, inhabited only by roving red men. Soon after the beginning of the seventeenth century two wedges of English settlement had begun to enter the wilderness one in Virginia in 1607, another in Massachusetts in 1620. By the close of the century, all the English colonies except Georgia had been founded. The only important settlement not English was the Dutch province in eastern New York, and of this England took forcible possession in 1664. Many of these colonies, especially those of New England, and Pennsylvania and Maryland, were founded by men seeking religious liberty; other settlers were "gentlemen adventurers" who came to advance their fortunes; and still another class was composed of the poor, the debtors, and the petty criminals whose labor was sold for a term of years. In the South, with its warm climate and fertile soil, where agri- REVIEW culture became the principal source of wealth, the land was in large estates, owned by rich men and cultivated by negro slaves. In the North, with its severe climate arid less productive soil, farming, on a much smaller scale than in the South, was supple mented by manufactures, shipbuilding, fisheries, whalmg, and commerce. In the South, because of negro slavery, it was by many people considered hardly respectable for a white man to work with his hands; in the North, all labor was considered honorable. During this period the colonies had little trouble with their Spanish neighbors on the south, but the contest with the French and their Indian allies was long and severe. The victory of Wolfe on the Plains of Abraham in 1759 settled the fate of the continent and is reckoned among those few decisive battles of the world that have changed the course of history. At the close of this period the colonies had begun to accumu late wealth in farms, commerce, and manufactures. They had es tablished colleges and made considerable provision for public schools. They were good shipbuilders and skillful sailors. They were a nation of sharpshooters, accustomed to forest warfare, and not without experience against regular troops. They were trained in self-government, prompt to resent interference with their rights, and had already learned to act together against a common enemy. Though they had sometimes been forced to op pose the will of their colonial governors, they were still loyal to England, and proud to be called Englishmen. RECOMMENDED READINGS HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY TEACHERS LIST. Hart s American History ^ by Contemporaries, vol. I, parts 3-5 ; vol. II, parts 4, 5. Thwaites s Colonies, chaps, in-x, xii. Fiske s United States, pp. 59-176. Channing s Student s United States, chap. in. Sparks s Expansion of American People, pp. 24-56. Judson s Growth of American Nation, chap. iv. Low s American People, chaps, v-ix. Bancroft s United States (edition of 1891), vol. I, chaps, vi-vm, x, xn. Tyler s Eng land in America, chaps. Jtdy. Fiske s Old Virginia, vol. I, chaps, n-vii; vol. n, chaps, x-xin, xvn ; Dutch and Quaker Colonies, vol. I, chaps. IV, IX, xi; vol. n, chaps, xii, xv, xvi. Pryor s Birth of a Nation, chaps. I, n, v, vi, x-xm, xxi. E.-Eggleston s Beginners of a Nation, part I, chaps, n, in; part 2, chaps. H-IV; part 3, chaps, i, u. Griffis s Story of New Netherland, chaps, n-iv, vii, xii, xv-xix. Parkman s Struggle for a Continent, pp. 301- 450. Thwaites s France in America, chaps, ix-xvi. G. C. Eggleston s Life in the Eighteenth Century, chaps, iv, vi-ix, xm, xix-xxi. Bogart s Econo mic History, chaps, iv-vi. Goodwin s Colonial Cavalier. Fisher s Men, Women, and Manners, vol. I, chaps, i-m; vol. n, chaps, vm, ix. Singleton s Dutch THE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION .New York, chaps, i-viu, xn, XIH. Pepper s Maids and Matrons of New France, pp. 220-286. Warner s Captain John Smith. Twitchell s John Winthrop. Hodge s William Penn. Cooper s James Oglethorpe. Casgrain s Montcalm and Wolfe. PUPILS LIST. Hart s Source-Book of American History, pp. 33-122; Colonial Children, pp. 133-233. Elson s Guide to American History, chaps. iv-vi. Guerber s Story of the Thirteen Colonies. Tap^an s Our Country s Story, chap, ix; Letters from Colonial Children; American Hero Stories, pp. 59-96. Hawthorne s Grandfather s Chair, parts I, 2. Wright s Children s Stories in American History. Griffis s Romance of American Colonization. Brooks s Century Book of American Colonies; Stories of Old Bay State. Cof fin s Old Times in the Colonies. Drake s Making of Virginia and Middle Colonies; Making of New England. Earle s Child Life in Colonial Days; Home Life in Colonial Days. Stone and Fickett s Every-day Life in the Colo nies. G. Brooks s Dames and Daughters of Colonial Days. Kelly s Sir Walter Raleigh. Eggleston s Pocahontas. Johnson s Myles Standish. Ab bott s King Philip. FICTION TEACHERS LIST. Barr s Bow of Orange Ribbon. Bynner s Agnes Sur~ riage. Doyle s Refugees. Hawthorne s Scarlet Letter. Johnston s To Have and to Hold; Audrey. McLennan s Span o Life. Parker s Seats of the Mighty. Wilkins s Heart s Highway. PUPILS LIST. Austin s Standish of Standish; Betty Alden. Dix s Soldier Rigdale. Goodwin s White Aprons. Henty s With Wolfe in Canada. Mun- roe s At War with Pontiac. Pyle s Jack Ballister s Fortunes. POETRY Butterworth s Thanksgiving in Boston Harbor. Hemans s Landing of the Pilgrims. Longfellow s Courtship of Miles Standish; Evangeline. Sted- jnan s Peter Stuyvesant s Call. Thackeray s Pocahontas. Whittier s John Underhill; The Kings Missive. THE REVOLUTION CHAPTER XIII THE GROWTH OF DISSATISFACTION 142. The two points of view: British and Colonial. France and Great Britain had made their peace. Although heavily indebted from the long and costly war, the latter must try to hold her territory, now more than double the size of the old coast colonies, not only against Indian enemies, but against Spain as well. The Americans were prospering; so the Government in London decided that hereafter they must pay a larger share than before of the cost of their own management and defense. Accordingly Parliament adopted new plans of colonial taxation, without stopping to ask the consent of the colonial assemblies. This arbitrary conduct, together with the harsh methods by which King George III .and his officers sought to enforce these taxes, aroused the anger of the Americans and finally led to the Revolution. In coming to America the British colonists did not give up the principle upon which Englishmen had for genera tions insisted that they be allowed to manage their own local affairs, and pay only such taxes as were voted by their representatives in Parliament. All through the colonial period most of the quarrels between the assemblies and the royal governors had their beginning in attempts of the latter to interfere in local matters or to levy taxes without the con sent of the assemblies. 143. The King threatens the Americans. King George was an obstinate and narrow-minded person. He had formed a hatred for his American subjects because of their u disobedience and lawlessness." He was eager to teach 136 THE REVOLUTION them a lesson, and announced that any opposition to the new taxes would promptly be crushed. William Pitt, later Lord Chatham, and Edmund Burke, one of the greatest of British orators, warned his Majesty, from their seats in Parliament, that harshness was neither a proper nor a safe method of |f\ managing dissatisfied English- \ men, whether at home or in I \ the distant colonies ; but words /^flfe ^ w i s dom n ^e these were thrown away on a man like King George. 1 144. Methods of coercion. In the course of a few years the King and his Parliament adopted four forcible meas ures : (a) The old Navigation and Manufacturing Acts (p. 109) were ordered to be strictly en forced. (b) A standing army of ten thousand soldiers was sent to America, to aid in this enforcement. (c) The Stamp Act was passed, to raise money for the support of this army. This was a new and direct tax on the people of the colonies. (d) Additional duties were laid on imported articles com monly used in the colonies. 145. The Navigation and Manufacturing Acts. The Americans had never paid much attention to these arbi trary laws. But the King insisted that they must hereafter be strictly obeyed. He sent over special officers in warships to enforce these laws. The insolent and high-handed way in which they attempted to do this, aroused intense indigna- KIXG GEORGE III 1 Pitt s eldest son was in the army; but his father withdrew him, fearing that he might be called on to serve against the colonies. THE GROWTH OF DISSATISFACTION 137 tion among the people. Under the authority of general war rants, known as " writs of assistance," the King s repre sentatives seized vessels and cargoes, and broke into stores, warehouses, and private dwellings, pretending to search for smuggled goods; and suspected citizens were dragged to prison and either punished by the King s judges on very slight evidence or kept in jail for a long time without trial. Such proceedings violated several important principles of English liberty. One of these was that private citizens should not have their houses invaded or their property seized ex cept on special warrants, to be issued only when this was absolutely necessary for the public good; another was that an accused person should be given a speedy trial by a jury of his fellow citizens. James Otis, an able Boston lawyer, made a thrilling speech upholding the rights of the colonists. Such abuse of power had in the motherland, he said, " cost one king of England his head, and another his throne." 1 But the King s officers paid little attention to such criticism. 146. The standing army. The excuse for sending over the soldiers was that the Americans on the Western frontiers needed the protection of experienced regular troops against the Indians. The colonists, however, believed that this army was sent really to keep them in subjection. 147. The Stamp Act. At least a part of the expense of feeding, equipping, and paying these unwel come soldiers was to be raised under the Stamp Act which was passed in the spring of 1765. By this Act every newspaper, pamphlet, ad vertisement, bill of merchandise, and business or legal document, together with every permit of any kind, must bear a government stamp. A STAMPS 1 John Adams of Massachusetts heard this speech, and said that "then and there the child Independence was born." 2 The black patch is a fastener of tin foil inserted through slits in the stamp and the paper to which it was attached. The stamps were not printed on gummed paper, like our postage stamps, but w r ere impressed by means of a seal. Sometimes, instead of being on separate paper, they were impressed upon the 138 THE REVOLUTION These stamps cost all the way from one cent to fifty dol lars, according to the importance of the paper to which they were affixed. The colonists at once protested that, as they were not represented in the British Parliament, that body had no right to oblige them, against their will, to pay taxes of any kind whatsoever. To the King and his friends this seemed most stubborn and unreasonable conduct. They forgot that the colonists were simply insisting on what tens of thou sands of Englishmen, both at home and in the colonies, had long cherished as their right to pay no taxes except such as were approved by their own representatives. 148. Fighting the Stamp Act. On the day the Stamp Act went into effect the bells in many colonial towns were tolled as if for a funeral, and public meetings were held to protest against what was called " the death of liberty." Merchants pledged themselves to import no more goods from the old country until the act was repealed. Large numbers of the men formed clubs called " Sons of Liberty," l whose members promised to buy no more British-made articles. Even the women organized similar clubs, named " Daughters of Liberty," and met each week in " Spinning Societies," to weave homespun cloth for men s and boys wear. The various colonial assemblies passed indignant resolu tions against the Stamp Act. The most memorable scene was in the Virginia House of Burgesses, where Patrick Henry, an eloquent young lawyer, made himself famous for all time by a fiery speech, in which he cried: " Tarquinand Caesar had each his Brutus; Charles I his Cromwell, and George III - " Treason! treason! " shouted the presiding officer in an effort to stop him - " may profit by their ex ample," concluded Henry deliberately. "If this be treason, make the most of it! " The news of this speech quickly spread throughout the colonies, and everywhere aroused the spirit of patriotism among the people. 1 This name came from a phrase in a ringing^ speech opposing the Stamp Act made by an Englishman, Colonel Isaac Barre in the House of Commons. THE GROWTH OF DISSATISFACTION 139 In October, 1765, there was held in New York a con vention called the " Stamp Act Congress," at which nine of the thirteen colonies were represented. This body declared that the Americans were loyal to the King, but would allow none but their own representatives to tax them. It instructed Franklin, who was then in London, to explain to the Government that the Ameri cans were firm and united on this question. A great debate arose in Parlia ment over the rights of the Ameri cans, during which Pitt exultingly cried: " I rejoice that America has J r AlKILK rl,NKY resisted! Three millions of people so dead to all the feelings of liberty as voluntarily to sub mit to be made slaves would have been fit instruments to make slaves of all the rest." However, the Parliamentary majority did not heed Pitt s remonstrances. But they did listen to the London merchants, who were wild with dismay over the disaster which threat ened their once profitable business in America, for at this time a third of Great Britain s enormous trade was with her colonies; these men clamored loudly against so annoying the Americans that they would no longer buy British goods. In order to please the merchants the Government now re pealed the Stamp Act. In the American towns this victory was celebrated with noisy glee, for the colonists had by this time learned what strong and united action could do; they also were encouraged to find that their cause had many powerful friends in England. 149. Taxation and representation in England. The histor ian 1 Fiske has so clear and interesting an account of the situa tion and sentiments of the English people at this time, that we cannot do better than quote a few of his paragraphs :- 1 In A History of the United States for Schools. 140 THE REVOLUTION "The people of London were delighted at the repeal of the Stamp Act, and it seemed .as if all the trouble were at an end. So it might have been, but for that agreement of opinion between the Americans and Pitt. In getting such a powerful friend in Pitt, the Americans found an implacable enemy in the new king, George III, who had come to the throne in 1760, at the age of twenty-two. 1 There was then going on in England a hot dis pute over this very same business of no taxation without rep resentation, and it w T as a dispute in which the youthful King felt bound to oppose Pitt to the bitter end. Let us see just what the dispute was. "In such a body as the British House of Commons or the American House of Representatives, the different parts of the country are represented according to population. For example, to-day New York, with over 9,000,000 inhabitants, has forty-three representatives in Congress, w r hile Arizona, with about 200,000 inhabitants, has only one representative. This is a fair proportion ; but as population increases faster in some places than in others, the same proportion is liable to become unfair. To keep it fair it must now and then be changed. In the United States, every tenth year, after a new census has been taken, we have the seats in the House of Representatives freshly distributed among the States, so that the representation is always kept pretty fair. . . . "Now in England, when George III came to the throne, there had been nothing like a redistribution of seats in the House of Commons for more than two hundred years. During that time, some old towns and districts had dwindled in population, and 1 Early in his reign, the King alienated the sympathy and support of the people of England by his folly and malicious willfulness. Here are three strik ing instances of how he did this: (1) Pitt, the stanch friend of the American colonies, and the man whom, as Secretary of State, the English people had trusted and sustained, was driven from office in 1761. During the next five years he led, in Parliament, the op position to the King. (In 1766 he was again made a member of the Cabinet. Ill health made it impossible for him to bear the strain of leadership; and his ideas were completely thrust aside by his colleagues.) (2) The government was placed in the hands of the "King s Friends," ministers who, though odious to the people, retained office merely because they proved themselves so pliant to the King s will. (3) The King made a malignant attack upon the freedom of the press, ar represented by one John Wilkes, a newspaper publisher who had dared criti cize the King, and who was a member of Parliament. Wilkes was expelled fron Parliament by order of King George (1764) and fled to France. Later he re turned to England, appealed to the people -for support, and was reflected to Parliament. He was again expelled and thrown into prison. A third time he was reflected to Parliament, whereupon the King s party placed the defeated can didate in Wilkes s seat. After much excitement and riotous tumult, Wilkes finally triumphed, and took his seat in Parliament in 1774. THE GROWTH OF DISSATISFACTION 141 some great cities had lately grown up, such as Manchester and Sheffield. These cities had no representatives in Parliament, which was as absurd and unfair as it would be for a great state like Missouri to have no representatives in Congress. On the other hand, the little towns and thinly peopled districts kept on having just as many representatives as ever. . . . "The result was that people who could not get representa tion in Parliament by fair means got it by foul means. Seats for the little towns and districts were simply bought and sold, and such practices made political life at that time very corrupt. Par liament did not truly represent the people of Great Britain; it represented the group of powerful persons that could buy up enough seats to control a majority of votes. " During the reigns of the first two Georges, this group of power ful persons consisted of the leaders of the party of Old Whigs. They ruled England, and reduced the power of the crown to in significance. Their rule was mostly wise and good, but it was partly based on bribery and corruption. Among their leaders were such great men as Charles James Fox and Edmund Burke. "When George III became king, he was determined to be a real king, to set the Old Whig families at defiance, and to rule Great Britain according to his own notions. In these views the young King was generally supported by the Tories. In order to succeed in their schemes, it was necessary to beat the Old Whigs at their own game, and secure a steady majority in Parliament by methods involving bribery and corruption. "Beside these two parties of Tories and Old Whigs, a third had been for some time growing up. It was called the party of New Whigs. Among sundry reforms advocated by them, the most important was the redistribution of seats in the House of Com mons. They wished to stop the wholesale corruption, and to make that assembly truly represent the people of Great Britain. The principal leader of this party was William Pitt. "We can now see why the antagonism between the King and Pitt was so obstinate and bitter. With a reformed Parliament, the King s schemes would be ruined; their only chance of success lay in keeping the old kind of Parliament with all its corruptions. So when Pitt declared that it was wrong for the people of great cities, like Leeds and Birmingham, who paid their full share of taxes, not to be represented in Parliament, the King felt bound to oppose it by every means in his power. " Now the debates on the Stamp Act showed that the same principle applied to the Americans as to the inhabitants of Bir mingham and Leeds. No taxation without representation/ the watchword of Patrick Henry and Samuel Adams, was also the 142 THE REVOLUTION watchword of William Pitt. 1 The King, therefore, felt that in the repeal of the Stamp Act, no matter on what ground, the New Whigs had come altogether too near winning a victory. He could not let the matter rest, but felt it necessary to take it up again, and press it until the Americans should submit to be taxed by Parliament. This quarrel between George III and the Americans grew into the Revolutionary War. In that struggle, the people of England were not our enemies; we had nowhere better friends than among the citizens of London, and on the floors of the House of Commons and the House of Lords. As a rule, the New Whigs and Old Whigs sympathized with the Americans; of the Tories, some went heartily with the King, while others disapproved his measures, but were unwilling to oppose them." 150. Import duties levied. Parliament had yielded in the matter of the Stamp Act. It was so blind, however, as to Pf reist , that Jt ha j d the H ^ ht tO tax the colonies, and went about the an IMPORTER-,^ the matter in a new way. In 1767 it BRAZEN HEAD, ordered the colonists to pay new and heavy duties on many im- TOWN-HOUSE, ported articles in common use, and oppo/ite the Tvwn-Pump y in for example paper, glass, and tea. Cr,.hi, BOSTON. S troops were to be fed and paid, and governors, judges, and other Tt is defired that the SONS and colonial officers of the King were DAUGHTERS of LlBERTr, t o have their salaries. Up to this would not buy anyone thing of time such officers were ;d b him, for info doing they will bring . U1 . , i .i_ Difgrace upon a*feh**, and the* the assemblies, and unless they Parity, for ever and ever, AMEN acted to suit them they received A HAND-BILL CIRCULATED nothing; hereafter they would be IN BOSTON ABOUT 1768 independent of the assemblies. The Massachusetts assembly took the lead in opposition to the new taxes, and sent out a circular letter inviting cooperation from all the colonies. The King was angry at this, and threatened to order the assembly to adjourn unless it rescinded this letter; where- 1 In after years, when the Americans had won their cause, it was agreed that hereafter, in Great Britain, representation should go hand-in-hand with taxation. THE GROWTH OF DISSATISFACTION 143 upon Otis, who was then speaker of that body, uttered these defiant words: " We are asked to rescind, are we? Let Great Britain rescind her measures, or the colonies are lost to her forever." Once more the people of the colonies signed pledges to " eat nothing, drink nothing, wear nothing " that had to come from Great Britain, until the duties were taken off. Again did British merchants complain at the destruction of their large American trade, so that in 1770 Parliament once more felt forced to pacify them. It removed all of the new duties except one of six cents a pound on tea, which article was much used by the colonists; this was retained, it was said, " to keep up the right." Parliament s persistence in. claiming such a privilege left the Americans quite as angry as ever. 151. The Boston Massacre. Several quarrels now arose be tween the King s soldiers and the colonists. 1 The worst of these took place in Boston, on March 5, 1770, when the soldiers killed three men and wounded several others an event known in history as the Boston Massacre." A large town meeting was held the following day, and in obedi ence to its demand the troops were removed to an island in the harbor. 2 Under the masterly guidance of Samuel Adams, clerk 1 In the summer of 1769 Otis was savagely beaten by a number of British officers, and so badly injured in the head that for a time he was insane. He was able, however, to take part in the battle of Bunker Hill. 2 In Rhode Island one of the King s revenue vessels, the Gaspee, engaged in hunting down smugglers, was burned by the colonists. In North Carolina the Governor ordered his troops to fire upon a public meeting. Such are ex amples of events that happened in various parts of the colonies during these stirring times. SAMUEL ADAMS 144 THE- REVOLUTION of the Massachusetts assembly, 1 the- massacre led to the appointment of " committees of correspondence " in the several towns, to keep the people informed by letters of what was going on. 152. An offer of cheap tea. The King and his ministers now resorted to a new trick. They arranged to have several shiploads of tea sent over to the principal American seaports, and offered for sale at prices lower than the colonists could get it by smuggling. King George laughingly declared that the Americans w r ere a thrifty, saving people, who could never turn away from a bargain. They would, he said, eagerly buy this cheap tea, and thereby pay on it the duty of six cents, thus agree ing to the Par liamentary tax which had been levied just "to keep up the right." But he did not understand of what stuff his American subjects were made. They readily saw through his scheme, and flatly refused to import any tea whatever through the custom houses, no matter how low the price. 153. Colonial " tea-parties." Most of the dealers to whom the tea had been sent were forced by the local com mittees of correspondence to promise that they would not 1 Samuel Adams was a cousin of John Adams, later President, and born in Boston in 1722. He was city tax collector, and had great influence with the people when the troubles with England began. From 1765 to 1774 he was a member of the assembly and its clerk; as such he drew up most of its important resolutions, addresses, and reports. He headed the committee of correspondence, and did more than any one else to manage the Massachusetts quarrel with the King; he came, indeed, to be called the "Father of the Revolution." In 1774 he was elected to the first Continental Congress, and became prominent in that body. In later years he was lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts, and died in 1803. Courtesy, D. Appleton If Co. THE BOSTON TEA-PARTY THE GROWTH OF DISSATISFACTION receive it from the ships. . In such cases it was landed by customs officers, but the latter could get no one to pay the duties and take it from the Government warehouses. Upon the arrival of the tea ships at Boston, however, the dealers would not refuse to receive their consignment. Accordingly there was held in the famous Old South Meeting-House, 1 a monster town meet ing under the con trol of the tireless SamuelAdams. Pas sionate speeches were made, but the dealers stood firm. Soon after nightfall, a wild war-whoop was heard in 1 he street outside the church, and about fifty men dressed as Indians rushed to the wharf, followed by several thousands of their fellow townsmen, and boarded the tea vessels. Here, encouraged by cheers from the people on shore, the masqueraders promptly ripped open three hundred and forty-two chests of tea, and threw the contents, valued at $90,000, overboard into the harbor. The crowd then quickly dispersed. 3 1 This church, built in 1730, was much used for public meetings of the Re volutionary Party. During the siege of Boston the British used it as a riding- school. It is now used as a museum for historical relics, and as a hall for popular lectures on history and other patriotic subjects. 2 Faneuil Hall is a celebrated meeting-place in Boston. It was built in 1742 by Peter Faneuil, a merchant, who gave it to the city. The lower floor was to be used as a market, as it still is, and the second as a town hall. As most of the Revolutionary meetings were held there, it is called the "cradle of liberty." The Old South Church, however, could hold larger audiences. 3 The "Boston Tea-Party," as it is called, was held December 16, 1773. In a popular song of that day, Columbia is represented as saying to Britain at this party : "You may have your tea when t is steeped enough, But never a tax from me." Ari engraving published in 1788 FANEUIL HALL, BOSTON, IN 17752 146 THE REVOLUTION This bold act greatly encouraged the spirit of independ ence in other colonies and towns. A few months later the first tea ship arrived in New York Harbor, and was also boarded by a committee of citizens, who quietly dumped the cargo into the water. 1 154. The " Intolerable Acts." The King said that Mas sachusetts, with her " tea-parties " and other riotous pro ceedings, was setting a very bad example to the rest of the colonists. He therefore caused Parliament early in 1774 to pass four laws that were meant to hurt all of the colo nists in some manner, but particularly rebellious Massachu setts. " The Intolerable Acts," as the angry Americans called them, were:- (a) The Port Bill. This closed the port of Boston against all trade until the destroyed tea should be paid for. (b) The Regulating Act. This provided that hereafter all Massachusetts judges and sheriffs, and some other officers, should be appointed and paid by the governor, and not by the assembly. Town meetings, in which from the earliest days the inhabitants had met to make laws for themselves, were also abolished in that colony. The King said that these meetings were " hotbeds of disloyalty." (c) The Quartering and Trial Act. This obliged citizens of Massachusetts to take the King s troops into their houses and board them free. It further provided that when soldiers were accused of killing colonists they should be taken for trial to England. Americans believed that this meant the murderers would in time be set free. (d) The Quebec Act. This provided that the country west of the Alleghenies and north of the Ohio River should be a part of the Province of Quebec; and therefore be ruled by the old French law, under which there was no representa tive government. Settlers were forbidden, without leave, 1 In Annapolis, Maryland, the same year, a mob burned a tea-laden vessel. A year later a crowd of South Carolinians emptied tea chests into the har bors of Charleston and Georgetown. Some tea that had been landed by Charles ton customs officers was about three years later sold for the benefit of the Revolutionary cause. THE GROWTH OF DISSATISFACTION 147 to go into this vast region, which was to be kept as a forest for the benefit of the fur trade. American frontiersmen did not obey this command, but nevertheless they were irritated at the King s attempt to prevent them from expanding toward the west. 155. Resisting the new laws. The King now sent to Massachusetts a military governor, General Thomas Gage, who was ordered to use the soldiers in enforcing " the In tolerable Acts," and to send all rebellious persons to England for trial. Committees of correspondence in the other colonies sent word to Boston to stand firm to the last, no matter what happened; for if its citizens failed, would be over. 156. First Con tinental Congress. The colonists prompt ly held conventions and elected their most distinguished men l as delegates to a Con gress to be held in September, 1774, at Philadelphia, to discuss these impor tant matters. In the Virginia convention, Patrick Henry exclaimed, " There is no longer any room for hope. . . . We must fight! ... I know not what course others may take, but as for me, give me liberty, or give me death! The Congress sent to the King a " Declaration of rights and grievances." In this paper Parliament was plainly 1 George Washington, Patrick Henry, and Richard Henry Lee were among those from Virginia; John and Samuel Adams represented Massachusetts; Roger Sherman of Connecticut was also prominent. Many of these great lead ers of the Revolution now met each other for the first time, and in the defense of their country became firm friends. INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIA, IN 1776 148 THE REVOLUTION told that it was not supreme over the colonies, which would obey only their own assemblies. The members also ar ranged to keep the country promptly informed by letters and mounted messengers as to what was occurring in Bos ton, the center of disturbance. 157. Americans will not yield. The colonies and their many supporters in England enthusiastically approved of these proceedings. George Washington declared, " I will ra ise one thousand men, subsist them at my own expense, and march myself at their head for the relief of Boston." Pitt told Parliament, " For solidity of reason, force of sa gacity, and wisdom of conclusion under a complication of difficult circumstances, no nation or body of men can stand in preference to the general Congress at Philadelphia." Plans for conciliation were urged in Parliament by him and by Burke, also by Franklin, who was in England as the agent of the colonies. But all their efforts proved vain, for the insolent majority seemed eager to please the hot-headed King. The Americans now saw that nothing remained for them but to follow the example of their ancestors in England, and fig ht for the cherished principle of self-government. THE GROWTH OF QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. What was the argument of the British Government for taxing the colonists? 2. Show that the people of England were not united in their attitude toward the colonists. 3. In what way were the colonists used to representative government? 4. Note that the British Government attempted to make use of two meth ods of raising money in the colonies. State what these methods were. Show that the United States Government now uses these two methods of raising money. 5. What good effect did the "Stamp Act Congress" have on the colonists? 6. What was the mistake of Parliament after it repealed the Stamp Act? 7. State clearly the history of the "Tea Tax." 8. After the "tea troubles," what was the next step of Parliament which greatly annoyed the colonists? What was the effect in the colonies? 9. When and where was the first Continental Congress held? What was its purpose? 10. What colonies led in opposing the King? n. If you had lived in the colonies in 1774, what statement would you have made of the grievances against the mother country? 12. Dramatize the meeting in the Old South Meeting-House. 13. Dramatize a meeting of a "Spinning Society." Give an imaginary conversation. 14. Make an outline of the chapter. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Write a brief biography of Patrick Henry, James Otis, or Samuel Adams. 2. Write in brief form what might have been an appeal from Franklin to the King, after the Stamp Act Congress. 3. Imagine that you took part in the Boston Tea-Party. The next day you visit your uncle in Cambridge and tell him about it. He thinks you were wrong and you try to convince him of the justness of your course. Write the conversation. 4. "You cannot, my lords, you cannot conquer America. ... If I were an American, as I am an Englishman, while a foreign troop remained in my country I never would lay down my arms; no, never, never, never!" [Extract from a speech by WILLIAM PITT.] Write a brief paper on William Pitt s efforts to prevent war with the colonies. CHAPTER XIV THE COLONISTS DECLARE THEIR INDEPENDENCE 158. Beginning of hostilities. General Gage began to throw up earthworks around Boston, and his soldiers, 1 whose numbers were now steadily increasing, each day grew more insolent. On their part the colonists organized themselves into com panies of " minutemen " - so called because pledged to be ready at a minute s notice to spring to the defense of their liberties. Drill ing was practiced on every town green, and firearms, bayo nets, ammunition, and other materials for use in war were secretly stored in convenient places. Some of it was hid den at Concord, a village twenty miles out of Boston, and this Gage deter mined to capture. In the night of April 18, 1775, he secretly sent thither eight hundred of his best soldiers, who were instructed to stop on the way, at Lexington, and arrest the two leaders of the patriots, John Hancock and Samuel Adams, who were stay ing there. But the news of this expedition leaked out. In accordance with a prearranged signal a lantern was hung by the Boston committee in the belfry of Old North Church; 1 Because of their scarlet jackets, the Americans called them " redcoats," BOSTON, LEXINGTON, CONCORD, AND VICINITY 152 THE REVOLUTION its flashing light conveyed information that the soldiers had started. Paul Revere, who was waiting in Charles- town for this purpose, galloped ahead of the troops on a fast horse, and with warning shouts awakened the farmers living along the highway leading to the threatened villages. 1 Some minutemen who were guarding the house in Lexington where Hancock and Adams were stopping, called to him, Painting by Chappel THE RETREAT OF THE BRITISH FROM CONCORD Here the troops are entering the town ot Lexington " Don t make so much noise!" " Noise! " cried the indig nant Revere, " you 11 soon have noise enough; the regulars are coming! " When the redcoats marched into Lexington early in the morning they found the highway blocked by a large party of minutemen who silently awaited their approach. These hardy and courageous fellows, mostly farmers of the neighborhood, 1 Longfellow s poem, Paul Revere s Ride, has helped to immortalize this stirring incident. William Dawes did a similar service to the southwest of Boston, by way of Roxbury, for it was feared that troops might also be sent in that direction. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 153 had been told by their commander, " Don t fire unless you re fired on ; but if they want a war, it may as well begin here." The British officer cried, " Disperse, you rebels! " But as they would not stir, the soldiers poured a volley into their ranks, and eight were killed the first American patriots to lose their lives in the Revolutionary War. Hancock and Adams easily escaped ; x but later in the day the war material at Concord, although stoutly defended at the town bridge by four hundred minutemen, was destroyed by the British. From Lexington messengers had hurried on horseback to alarm the neighboring towns. As a consequence the regu lars found the highway, on their return march to Boston, lined with more than a thousand minutemen, who from be hind houses, stone and rail fences, trees, and rocks, poured a merciless fire into the retreating column. The troops finally reached Boston exhausted and panic-stricken, having lost about a third of their number in killed and wounded. The long-expected war had begun in earnest. 159. Second Continental Congress. In the following month (May 10, 1775), the Second Continental Congress began its session at Philadelphia, and was presided over by John Hancock. 2 Throughout the war this body served as the general Colonial Government. On the whole, the Congress was a body of distin guished and patriotic men, worthy of our nation s deepest gratitude. 160. George Washington ap pointed commander. Among the first things done by Congress was JOHN HANCOCK 1 The two patriots started at once for the Continental Congress at Phila delphia. As they walked across the fields, the rattle of musketry was heard, and Adams exclaimed, "Oh! what a glorious morning is this!" He saw in it the be ginning of the Revolution that was to set his country free. 2 The most prominent of the new members was a young Virginia lawyer named Thomas Jefferson. Although neither an orator nor debater, he had ft wide knowledge of law and was an ardent patriot. 154 THE REVOLUTION to provide for a Continental army, under the command of George Washington. The nucleus of this army was the large body of minutemen now encamped around Boston. The Revolution owed its success chiefly to this remarkable leader. He proved to be one of the most skillful soldiers the world has ever known ; his character was strong and sin cere; he had sound judgment, was firm, resourceful, and un selfishly devoted to the cause of his countrymen. One of his most remarkable traits was his patience. He could calmly bear great responsibilities; never was he guilty of rashness or caprice, and he had courage to meet and overcome those who misrepresented him. Once he wrote, " Defeat is only a reason for exertion; we shall do better next time." These qualities made him one of the greatest men in history. 1 161. Ticonderoga and Crown Point. On the very day that Congress assembled, some of the Vermont patriots, called " Green Mountain Boys," surprised and easily cap tured Fort Ticonderoga, on Lake Champlain. Ethan Allen, their bold and dashing leader, told the astonished English commandant that he took possession of the stronghold " In the name of the great Jehovah and the Continental Con gress." Two days later, Crown Point, lying to the north, also fell into American hands, and with it large stores of British pow r der and ball. 2 162. Battle of Bunker Hill. By the first of June, the British garrison in Boston had by reinforcements from Eng land grown to ten thousand. They were besieged by sixteen thousand determined militiamen. Overlooking Boston on the north is Bunker Hill , in Charles- town; Dorchester Heights commands the city from the southeast. Gage decided to occupy both of these hills, to pre- 1 The face of this noble-hearted man would sometimes light up into a pleas ant smile; but when at rest, it was stern, and in moments of indignation he showed that he had a quick temper. However, he kept this well under con trol, and was one of the most courteous, dignified, and distinguished-looking gentlemen of his day. 2 These two forts guarded the old portage route between Canada and the Hudson River. The Americans needed them to protect New York against at* tack from Canada. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 155 rent their falling into the hands of the " rebels." He wished first to take Bunker Hill, and for this purpose on June 17 sent an expedition of three thousand men under General Howe. This force found the eminence occupied by about twelve hundred patriots under Generals Putnam and War- A contemporary engraving THE BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL In this curious old picture can be seen the Old North Church and the English camp and batteries in Boston ; the bombardment and burning of Chariest own; some English troops in boats moving to the assault, and others on the slope of the hill firing upon the American lines at the crest ren and Colonel Prescott, who had hastily thrown up earth works during the night. Throughout the fighting which followed, the British ships steadily cannonaded the American redoubt. The people of Boston excitedly watched the battle from their windows and housetops, and some of them from the church stee ples. 1 Twice did Howe gallantly lead his regulars up the steep slope, only to be repulsed. The undisciplined minute- men coolly waited behind their breastworks until the 1 In Holmes s vivid poem, Grandmother s Story of Bunker Hill Battle, the nar rator is supposed to have seen the fight from the belfry of a Boston steeple. 156 THE REVOLUTION soldiers, who outnumbered them two to one, were in close range, and then poured murderous volleys into the solid red ranks. The regulars advanced a third time, and drove the Americans from their breastworks, but only after a sharp hand-to-hand fight, the colonial forces having exhausted their ammunition. Each side lost about a third of its force. Among the Americans who fell was the brave Warren him self, who had been an inspiring leader in the battle. 1 The volunteers had lost the hill ; but their splendid fight ing qualities caused the colonists everywhere to rejoice. Washington heard the news while he was hurrying north from his home in Virginia, to take charge of the Continen tal army, and declared, with more enthusiasm than he com monly showed, "The liberties of the country are now safe!" A wise king would have felt that such brave Englishmen were worth better treatment than they were receiving. 163. Washington takes command. Washington finally arrived at Cambridge, in the outskirts of Boston, and on July 3, 1775, took command of the assembled volunteers. 2 But the ;< Continentals," as the men of his army were now called, had had little military practice, their supplies were meagre, and cannon and powder were scarce. Not until these glaring defects were remedied could Washington begin active operations against the enemy in Boston. 3 164. The British evacuate Boston. Early in March, 1776, 1 A tall stone monument stands on Bunker Hill as a memorial of the fight. Its corner-stone was laid on June 17, 1825, the fiftieth anniversary of the battle, by General Lafayette, who was then revisiting the United States. On that oc casion Daniel Webster delivered one of his most famous addresses. 2 The elm tree under which he stood during the ceremony is still standing. 3 While Washington was improving his army he sent two small parties to Canada, hoping that the French in the Province of Quebec might join in the protest against the King: (a) General Montgomery went by way of Lakes George and Champlain, and having captured Montreal proceeded to Quebec. (b) Colonel Benedict Arnold marched to Quebec over one of the portage trails connecting Maine and Canada. For six weeks his detachment suffered from exposure and starvation in the forests of Maine, and lost many men from deser tion. On December 31, 1775, the combined American forces stormed Quebec, but failed to take it, Montgomery being killed and Arnold badly wounded. The Americans then retreated from Canada, which remained friendly to Great Britain. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 157 after a busy winter of drilling, Washington felt that at last his small army was sufficiently trained and equipped for action. 1 While feigning to attack Boston from his Cam bridge camp, he took advantage of the confusion to slip quietly around to the rear, with two thousand picked men, and occupy Dorchester Heights, of which the British had By the KING, A PROCLAMATION, For fuppreffing Rebellion and Sedition* GEORGE R. ^HEREAS many of Our Subjcfts in divers Parts of Our Colonies and Plantations in North America, milled by dangerous and ill-defigning Men, and forgetting the Allegiance which they owe to the Power that has protected and fuftained them, after various disorderly Acls committed in Disturbance of the Publick Peace, to the Obftrudlion of lawful Commerce, and to the Oppreflion of Our loyal Subjects carrying on the fame, have at length proceeded to an open and ta avowed Rebellion, by arraying thcmfclves in holtile Manner to withftand the & Execution of the Law, a;id traitoroufly preparing, ordering, and levying -War f(3Q$6Gbttpy againft Us- And whereas, iher- i ReaC.v .nfftsAiirf eiai luch Rebellion hath been iiiucn promoted and encouraged by the traitorous Correfpondcnce, Counfels, and Comfort of THE OPENING LINES OF THE KING S PROCLAMATION AGAINST THE AMERICAN COLONIES, AUGUST 23, 1775 neglected to take possession. From this point he threat ened to bombard the town if it were not at once evacuated. Howe, who now commanded the British, 2 was mortified at being thus outwitted through the cleverness of one whom he called " a mere militiaman." He had, however, learned caution at Bunker Hill, and rather than have another such fight, he marched all of his soldiers on board ships and sailed 1 Some of the cannon captured at Ticonderoga were brought on ox-sleds across country to Boston. 2 Gage had been ordered home to England in October, 1775. 158 THE REVOLUTION away with them to Halifax, in Nova Scotia. A thousand or more citizens who were still loyal to the King, accompa nied Howe and settled on the seacoast of Canada. 1 When Washington marched into Boston the following day, he found there large quantities of ammunition and cannon that Howe Jn his hurry had left behind. These were an important addi tion to the scanty stores of the Revolutionary army. 2 165. Urging independence. A small party of radicals, like James Otis and Samuel Adams, had from the first urged the colonists to free themselves from the rule of the mother country. But up to the close of 1775 most people disliked the thought of independence. They were hopeful that when the King learned of the earnestness and strength of the Americans, he would ask Parliament to grant them their rights as self-governing Englishmen. 3 But the stubborn King would not even look at the " De claration of rights and grievances " sent to him by the Con tinental Congress. He promptly hired about sixteen thou sand German soldiers 4 to put down the "open and armed rebellion " in America. This conduct roused the colonists to immediate action. 5 1 Not all of the Americans sided with the Revolutionary Party. In every colony many remained loyal to the King. They were called Tories or Royalists, but historians now generally style them Loyalists. They were at the time bitterly hated and reviled by those who wanted to be free from British rule, and they suffered abuse, loss of property, and even imprisonment. But among them were hundreds of men and women of fine education and high character, who did not deserve this persecution. 2 On June 28, 1776, the patriot garrison of Fort Sullivan, a small log stockade in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina, was attacked by a British fleet which was seeking to punish the rebels in the Carolinas. The attacking party was driven back through the bravery of Colonel Moultrie, Sergeant Jasper, and others. The fort was then renamed Moultrie. 3 Washington once wrote: "When I first took command of the Continental army, I abhorred the idea of independence." 4 Called Hessians, because they were largely furnished by the princes of Hesse, who had the right, under ancient laws, to sell the military services of their subjects. These soldiers therefore could not help taking part in the American war. The German people were as a rule very indignant at this mercenary proceeding. King George was obliged to employ foreign troops because of the difficulty of raising armies in England. Before applying to the princes of Hesse, he had been refused troops by Empress Catherine of Russia. 6 One of the most effective means of stirring up the people was a pamphlet by Thomas Paine, called Common Sense, in which he eloquently demanded for DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 159 a 2<^*&* Ay ^^^u^^ jtL WffTZV OF AMERICA ^ G~<JL Cm^, -*/awo i/r>. f^j. oou/ru^ A kusrn&n, u*tma jt /<x*rrvo VVLMJ^UYI, vv4 WAX^v /vx^v-c t^rtfr^JUt^^J b sr^^AA^iZZZrt&r, (tsmL to .,./,. ../. __ ^j-jjjn__ ___ ft. It ,i. M. _ */ * ^ 4-^ -- ^~ i^ V jd >* cum^vfl c >rW6^> W <f\ V <^ -*vxfi*^-0 V ^o^ ^e^tcfj^. n\t*^ t to /&. <T7>v*vo<rTxx> ^ T*v^rvv(i^Q x^n^<J /^<vt /Kt THE OPENING SENTENCE OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE In the handwriting of Thomas Jefferson, showing his corrections. A few slight changes were further made when it came to be printed 166. The Declaration of Independence. Congress ap pointed a committee 1 to draw up a Declaration of Independ ence. 2 The actual writing of this great document was in trusted to one of this committee, Thomas Jefferson, whose ringing phrases will always live in the memory of our people. The delegates listened to its reading with bated breath, for it meant that they were now risking their lives and property in order that they and their descendants might enjoy here, in America, " life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." The Declaration reads as follows : 3 - " In Congress, July 4, 1776. The Unanimous Declaration of the thirteen United States of America. " When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connect ed them with another, and to assume among the powers of the the Americans "the rights of mankind," urged his fellow citizens at once to declare independence, and boldly wrote: "Of more worth is one honest man to society, and in the sight of God, than all the crowned ruffians that ever lived." Later, Paine published a periodical called The Crisis. The first number, beginning with the memorable sentence, "These are the times that try men s souls," was by Washington s order read aloud to the army in camp. "We fight," said Paine, " to set a country free, and to make room upon the earth for honest men to live in." 1 Composed of Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston. 2 As early as May, 1775, a committee in Mecklenburg County, North Caro lina, declared that British government in America had ceased. 3 This is an exact copy of the words, spelling, and punctuation of the docu ment, as finally printed. 160 THE REVOLUTION earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Na ture and of Nature s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. " We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are crea ted equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Govern ments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles, and or ganizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to affect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shown, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations pursuing invariably the same Object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this let Facts be submitted to a candid world. " He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. " He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. " He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inesti mable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. " He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 161 " He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly for oppos ing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people. " He has refused for a long time after such dissolutions to cause others to be elected, whereby the Legislative powers, incapable of Annihilation have returned to the People at large for their exercise, the State remaining, in the meantime, exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within. " He has endeavoured to prevent the population of theseStates ; for that purpose obstructing the Laws of Naturalization of For eigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands. " He has obstructed the Administration of Justice by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary powers. " He has madejudges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. " He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our people, and eat out their sub stance. " He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our. legislatures. " He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil power. " He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation: For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us: For pro tecting them, by a mock Trial from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States: - For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world: For im posing Taxes on us without our Consent: For depriving us in many cases of the benefits of Trial by jury: For transport ing us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences : For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies: For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments: For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. " He has abdicated Government here by declaring us out of his Protection, and waging war against us: " He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the Lives of our people. 1 62 THE REVOLUTION " He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Merce naries to compleat the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation. " He has excited domestic insurrection among us, and has en deavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merci less Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undis tinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions. " He has constrained our fellow citizens taken Captive on the high Seas, to bear arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands. " In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injuries. " A Prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. " Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our British breth ren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity and we have conjured them by the ties of our com mon kindred to disavow these usurpations which would inevit ably interrupt our connection and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must therefore acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separa tion and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends. " We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress Assembled, appealing to the Su preme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colo nies, solemnly publish and declare, that these United Colonies are and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved ; and that as Free and Independent states, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. "And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes, and our Sacred Honor." DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 163 167. The Signing of the Declaration. On the evening of July 4, 1776, this momentous paper that made us a Nation was solemnly agreed to by the representatives of twelve States. Later, when the document was signed by the dele gates, John Hancock, president of the Congress, wrote his name first, in a large, bold hand, saying, as he did so, " There! John Bull can read my name without spectacles." " We must indeed all hang together," said the wise and witty Franklin; and then grimly added, with a smile, " or most assuredly we shall all harig separately." Great was the rejoicing of the colonists, far and near, as the news was carried to them by swift-riding mes sengers. Statues and other emblems of royalty were torn down, 1 banquets were held, bonfires were lighted, bells were rung, there were public processions, and thanksgiv ing services were held in the churches. Said Samuel Adams, to whom the result was in large part due, " The people seem to recognize this resolution as though it were a decree promulgated from Heaven." 1 68. The contestants. It certainly required much brav ery on the part of the Americans to cast loose from the motherland, and to fight so powerful a country. At first the chances seemed to be much against them. Great Britain was rich, and every one was eager to lend her money. Congress had no money of its own, and no au thority either to levy taxes or to borrow. But the volunteers must be clothed, fed, and paid, u.tr n T ic u LX D Sixtjo fairs. Bill fie Bearer ta recei ue Sixty Spanifh mill- id DOLLARS, fe Value tfereoj* in jold or Silvec. &c- ardingtaa Refoki- hatted Q MONEY USED DURING THE REVOLU TION The full size of this bill is 1% by 3% inches 1 In New York City, the lead statue of King George III was melted into bullets by the Revolutionists. 164 THE REVOLUTION so there were printed large quantities of so-called " paper money." There was, however, so poor a prospect of these bills ever being redeemed in gold or silver that storekeepers often refused to accept them for goods, and they became almost worthless. 1 Great Britain s navy was then, as it now is, the largest in the world. Our navy consisted of but a few small vessels. The British army was well trained, and had everything ne cessary for comfort and efficiency. The colonial volunteers were at first unskilled and undisciplined, and nearly always were wretchedly supplied and fed; except the officers few had uniforms; and the terms of enlistment werg short. But, on the other hand, most of them were rugged pioneer farmers, used to hardships and dangers, and trained marks men. They had led simple, earnest, and devout lives, with abundant exercise out of doors, and in their hearts was a deep faith in the ideas which they upheld. Gradually the officers learned the business of war, and on many a hotly contested field were valiantly supported by their men, who had in them the material for making the best of soldiers. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. Locate Lexington, Concord, and Bunker Hill on a map of the vicinity of Boston. 2. Read Emerson s Concord Hymn. Explain: "Here once the embattled farmers stood And fired the shot heard round the world." 3. Read Holmes s Grandmother s Story of Bunker Hill Battle. 4. Show why George Washington was best fitted to be commander-in- chief of the American armies. 5. What was the attitude of the colonists toward independence at the beginning of the war? 6. What important strategic move was made by Washington at Boston? As we go on with the history of the Revolutionary War, note^other similar movements of Washington. Contrast the winning of a victory by strategy without battle, with winning one by battle. 1 The bills were called "continentals," because issued by the Continental Congress. "Not worth a continental" is a phrase still often heard. In 1781 it took a thousand paper dollars to buy one silver dollar. It was many years after the Revolution before the country recovered from the evil effects of these floods of paper money. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 165 7. State the immediate causes that led to the Declaration of Inde pendence. S. Read the Declaration in class and note or underline the passages that show most strongly why the colonists felt they were justified in their position. 9. What advantages had the Americans m the contest? What disad vantages? TO. Contrast the purpose of King George with that o< the Aifcerfc^hs. - 11. What events do you associate with these places: St. JohnV Chlrrch, Richmond, Virginia ; Faneuil Hall ; Old South Church ; Concord Bridge ; Old North Church; Washington Elm, Cambridge? 12. Prepare a chronological table of important Revolutionary events in the New England section; thus: New England in the Revolution Date Event Names of Leaders Effect on the Colonists 13. Make an outline of the chapter. 14. Important date July 4, 1776. Declaration of Independence. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Imagine that you are thirteen years old on April 19, 1775, and that you live on the road between Boston and Lexington. What wakens you in the night? What do you hear and see during the day? 2. "What heroes from the woodland sprung!" From the suggestion in this line by the poet Bryant, review the scene when George Wash ington took command of the army at Cambridge. Describe the land scape, the commander, the onlookers, and the army. Of what sorts of individuals was the army composed? 3. Give a conversation between a Tory boy and the son of a " Patriot." CHAPTER XV TWO YEARS OF FIGHTING IN THE MIDDLE STATES 169. The British go to the Middle States. When Howe evacuated Boston, British military operations were, for this and the two following additional reasons, transferred from New England to the Middle States: - (a) The Middle States people were supposed to be more loyal to the King than were the New Englanders. (b) The Middle States had more good harbors and rivers than New England, in which to land troops and supplies. 170. They capture New York. The British planned to capture Manhattan Island. They hoped by this means not only to make it impossible for Americans to attack Canada over the Hudson-Champlain waterway, but to cut off the Middle and Southern States from any help that they might expect from New England. In the hope of preventing this, the Continental Army hur ried to protect the city of New York. On August 27, 1776, a sharp battle took place on Long Island, in which Howe s forces, now twice as large as Washington s, and in far better condition, easily defeated the Americans. Washington would have been unwise to fight when the odds against him were so great, so he followed the methods often adopted by the best generals, -when they are outnumbered, by seeking a more secure position, whence he could hope to worry the enemy in some other way. 1 Under cover of a dense fog he successfully retreated at night across East River with ten thousand of his men. The enemy pressed him so closely, how ever, that about a fortnight later he felt obliged to evacuate t l This waiting method is called the "Fabian policy," because it was prac ticed by a famous Roman general, Fabius Maximus. 1 68 THE REVOLUTION Manhattan Island and retreat a short distance up the Hudson River. 1 171. Washington retreats across New Jersey. Having taken New York, Howe next prepared to capture Phila delphia. Hearing of this, Washington took most of his soldiers over into New Jersey, thus placing himself as a barrier between the enemy and the Quaker capital. The British followed him closely; but his movements were more rapid than theirs, and he burned bridges behind him, be sides destroying food and such other material along his road as might have been useful to the foe. This so delayed the British that once they were three weeks in marching seventy miles. 172. Battle of Trenton. Nevertheless, Washington saw that he was not yet strong enough to hold New Jersey. He had ordered General Charles Lee to join him, with seven thousand soldiers, from the east side of the Hudson; but that officer had himself aspired to be commander-in-chief and disobeyed, apparently hoping that Washington would be beaten. On account of this, the latter, early in Decem ber (1776), deemed it prudent to retreat across the Dela ware River into Pennsylvania. In doing so he seized al! the boats on this broad and deep stream, up and clown for a hundred miles, in order that the enemy might not easily follow him ; for having no boats they would have to wait until the river froze over, so as to cross on the ice. Over a thousand Hessian soldiers were stationed at the vil lage of Trenton, near the east bank, to prevent the Ameri cans from returning into New Jersey. But their officers were careless and did not keep a good watch of the " rebels," 1 While Washington was in New York, and Howe occupying the abandoned American trenches on Brooklyn Heights, across the East River, Captain Na than Hale, a talented and lovable young colonial, twenty-one years of age, was sent as a spy into Howe s camp, to learn about the movements of that gen eral. In performing this duty he of course ran a great risk, for a spy caught in the act expects, under the rules of war, to suffer death. He was captured, and after somewhat harsh treatment was hanged the following morning. Before dying, Hale declared, "I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my coun try." FIGHTING IN THE MIDDLE STATES 169 for whose military ability they had much contempt. On Christmas night, while the Hessians were feasting, Wash ington and his men at great risk secretly recrossed the Delaware, which now w r as filled with cakes of floating ice, and in a heavy snowstorm captured most of the astonished revelers, together with their valuable military supplies. 173. The patriotic services of Robert Morris. But al though Washington had won this victory, his army was Painting by Leutze WASHINGTON CROSSING THE DELAWARE slowly breaking up. The soldiers were poorly armed, clothed, and fed, and were not receiving their pay, upon which their families must be supported. Moreover, the men had enlisted for short terms, which in most cases had ended ; and worn-out and discouraged they now wished to return to their homes. At this critical time there came to the rescue a rich and influential Philadelphia merchant and banker, Robert Morris, to whom Washington had appealed for aid. He hot only himself gave freely to the support of the patriot army, but went from house to house in that city and borrowed money to pay the poor, barefooted, and half-starved soldiers. He was soon able to send $50,000 to the army ; and this sum, 170 THE REVOLUTION together with what Washington was lending to the Govern ment from his own fortune, kept the forces together, by restoring their confidence and inducing them to reenlist. After this, Morris ably managed all of the money affairs of the Revolution. 174. Battle of Princeton. Washington s army now fol lowed him with zeal, and a few days after the battle of Trenton he was able to surprise and defeat the enemy at Princeton, on January 3, 1777. The remainder of the win ter was spent comfortably at Morristown, in northern New Jersey, where the volunteers, who now arrived in increased numbers from the several States, were carefully drilled. ^ At first, Washington s men had not understood his cau tious methods of waiting and watching for chances to injure the enemy; but by this time they had gained confidence in him, and all realized that their leader was a really great general. 1 175. Distinguished volunteers from Europe. In the summer of 1777 Washington was joined by several well-trained officers from European armies, who had obtained permission to aid the Americans. One of these was Baron Steuben, of Prussia, a celebrated military engineer, who helped to drill the raw Con tinentals and make them over into good fighting material. Oth ers were Baron de Kalb, a Ger man veteran who came with La fayette, and serv^t as a general, and two Polj^f^roicers, Pulaski and Kosciu^zko. LAFAYETTE But most noted of these Eu- 1 Washington s success was partly due to his being a close and constant stu dent of military art. Throughout the Revolution, he read as many military books as possible, and always sought to test his own ideas by those of Euro pean generals. FIGHTING IN THE MIDDLE STATES 171 ropean volunteers was the Marquis de Lafayette, a young French nobleman but nineteen years old. Being made a general in our army, he clothed and equipped many of the men in his command, and became a warm friend of Wash ington and of the United States. During the war, and until his death long years afterward, he was idolized by our people, who admired his frank, winning manners, and his democratic ideas. 1 176. Burgoyne J s surrender. Although Washington and the greater part of his army had left the Hudson River in 1776, Howe had not as yet been able to control the Hudson- Champlain route to Canada, for Ticonderoga was still in the hands of the Americans. But in the summer of 1777 General Burgoyne, of the British army, at the head of nearly ten thousand regulars, besides many Loyalists and Indians, came south from Canada and captured the famous fortress. Burgoyne had expected to be joined on the Hudson River by two other British expeditions one was to have come up the rivet from Manhattan Island under Howe himself; another, consisting of Indians and Loyalists under Colonel St. Leger, was to march from Oswego down the valley of the Mohawk River. Had these three columns joined as planned, no doubt they would have been able to capture the entire route between New York Bay and the St. Law rence River, and thus sever New England from the rest of the country. If that had been done, the American States could not then have all united in helping each other, and the Revolutionary cause would probably have failed then and there. But through some mischance Howe failed to receive his orders from England to assist Burgoyne, so did not go north- 1 Lafayette was born in i7, of a family long distinguished in French his tory. After the war he returned to his native country, where he also became a general; but in the French Revolution he was not radical enough to suit its leaders, and fled to Belgium. He passed several years in political prisons in Austria, and suffered greatly. When Napoleon won, he was set free and again became prominent in France. In 1824-25 he revisited the United States by invitation of Congress, and was everywhere received with great enthusiasm. Ten years later he died in. Paris. 172 THE REVOLUTION ward to meet him; and St. Leger, while laying siege to Fort Schuyler, 1 was defeated in a fierce ambush near Oriskany, by a body of buckskin-clad backwoods riflemen under Gen eral Herkimer. Burgoyne was thus left alone to grapple with the Ameri cans, and soon found himself surrounded by great numbers of New England volunteers, 2 who obliged him to surrender near | Saratoga, on Oc tober 17, with the last vestige of his army. There had been killed or captured in this campaign, from Ticonderoga to Saratoga, about a third of all the King s troops then in America. 3 Many military experts in Europe had closely watched this campaign for cutting off New England from the rest of the country. When it failed, they believed that, under so per sistent and competent a commander as Washington, the Americans had now a fair chance to win, if only they could hold out long enough. 177. Battles of Brandy wine and Germantown. While 1 Fort Schuyler, formerly called Fort Stanwix, at what is now Rome, New York, had the honor, in this campaign, of being, probably, the first fort to fly the " Stars and Stripes " of the new nation, on August 3, 1777. The first regular battle fought under the new flag was Brandywine. 2 While .Burgoyne was struggling through the wilderness south of Lake Champlain, he sent a thousand of his men to Bennington, Vermont, to capture supplies. This foraging expedition was attacked by a body of frontier farmers under Colonel John Stark, who killed or captured nearly nine hundred of the redcoats. 3 The historian Creasy calls the engagement near Saratoga one of the fifteen decisive battles of the world. Painting by F. C. Yokn. Courtesy, Glens Falls Tnstt THE SURRENDER OF BURGOYXE FIGHTING IN THE MIDDLE STATES 173 these important events, which he directed from a distance, were taking place in the North, Washington himself was having bad fortune. He had outwitted the British in New Jersey, so that they had failed to reach Philadelphia by marching across that State. But now came news that Howe had landed seventeen thousand men from ships, at the head of Chesapeake Bay, and intended to march overland THE AMERICAN ENCAMPMENT AT VALLEY FORGE from that point to Philadelphia, where Congress was then assembled. Washington hurried to the defense of that body, but his troops were just then in poor condition, and he met defeat on Brandy wine Creek, September 10, 1777. Two weeks later the British entered Philadelphia and soon secured control of the Delaware River, up which they could now bring their ships direct to the town. The Americans tried to drive out the invaders from the suburb of Germantown, but were again repulsed. The season now being late, Washington felt obliged to go into winter quarters at Valley Forge, a hilly region about twenty miles northwest of the city. 174 THE REVOLUTION 178. The dreadful winter at Valley Forge. Howe and his officers had a gay season in Philadelphia, where the Loyal ists freely opened their houses to them, and gave dinners and balls in their honor. In striking contrast, Washington and his army were suffering severely on their cheerless hillsides. They passed the long and harsh winter in rude log huts, with insufficient fuel, clothing, and food, and were the mis erable victims of camp diseases, caused by poor nourishment and unsanitary conditions. When the British were approaching Philadelphia, the au tumn previous, Congress had fled first to Lancaster; then to York, where several of its members formed a conspiracy to remove Washington, whom they charged with incompetency , because he so often retreated, and to put in his place General Gates. These men did not then understand, as the best of the soldiers did, that Washington s courage, patriotism, self-sacrifice, and wisdom, as well as his military genius, were the real backbone of the Revolution. 1 During these sad months at Valley Forge the great Vir ginian was feeding his comrades at his own expense, and trying to drill the new recruits to become efficient soldiers. Although he seldom lost his patience, he did so at this time, and from his dreary camp wrote indignantly, " Two thou sand eight hundred and ninety-eight men are unfit for duty because they arc barefoot or otherwise naked. It is a much easier thing to draw remonstrances in a comfortable room, by a good fireside, than to occupy a cold, bleak hill, and sleep under frost and snow without blankets." 179. France aids the United States. After the signing of the Declaration of Independence, Congress had sent to France three commissioners, headed by Franklin, who was now famous in Europe as a scientist and public man, to ask England s ancient enemy to aid the Americans in their struggle for independence. The French hesitated at first, 1 This conspiracy is called in history the "Conway cabal," because it was managed by General Conway, a meddlesome French officer, who was disap pointed because Washington did not want him promoted. Conway resigned in 1778, and returned to France. FIGHTING IN THE MIDDLE STATES 175 because it was hardly worth while, they said, for France to waste her energies in aiding a fight that seemed sure to be lost. After Burgoyne s surrender, however, the outlook was more hopeful, and in 1778 France signed a treaty by which she recognized the United States as an independent nation, and agreed to lend her troops and money. 1 180. England offers peace. Great Britain was much alarmed at this turn of affairs, and at once declared war THE EVOLUTION OF THE AMERICAN FLAGS against our ally, for interfering in her " family quarrel." At the same time Parliament offered us peace, and said that we might now, if we wished, send representatives to sit in that body; moreover, it promptly repealed all of the tax 1 There were two parts to this treaty : by the first, France declared her friendship for the United States ; by the second, France offered to aid us in case Great Britain declared war against her. 2 The flag on the left is the British ensign. The union jack in the corner is a combination of the English red cross of St. George with the Scottish white cross of St. Andrew, upon a blue ground. The flag on the right is the one used by General Washington, at Cambridge, in January, 1776, and for a year or more afterward. It is like the British ensign except that thirteen red and white stripes (representing the thirteen revolting colonies) are substituted for the solid red of the former. The flag at the top was adopted by Congress Jurte 14, 1777. A union of thirteen white stars in a circle on a blue ground is substituted for the British union. The present American flag differs from this in the number and arrange ment of stars; one has been added for each new State, so that there are now forty-eight. June 14 of each year is now called " Flag Day," and this anniversary is celebrated in many of the States, 176 THE REVOLUTION laws and other regulations that had so offended the Ameri cans. But it was now too late for any other offer than complete independence. The United States had become a nation; and, having tasted freedom, wished no longer to be tied to the apron strings of the motherland; moreover, it would not be fair to make peace without the consent of her ally, France. Accordingly, Congress rejected the overtures from London, and the war continued. 181. Battle of Monmouth. There were at that time fifteen thousand British soldiers in Philadelphia. But having heard that a French fleet was on its way across the Atlantic to bombard them, they left that city hurriedly, crossed the Delaware River, and started to march eastward across New Jersey to New York. Washington was quickly upon their trail, with his now fairly well-organized army of about the same size. He fell upon their rear guard at Monmouth, June 28, and would have annihilated them had he been properly supported by General Charles Lee. But that officer was so obstinate and disobedient that Washington sharply rebuked him and ordered him to the rear. The battle was severe, but owing to Lee s conduct was indecisive. 1 Later, Lee was tried by court martial and dismissed from the army in disgrace. 182. Watching the British. The British troops, who had suffered great losses, now continued on their way to New York, which they held until the war closed ; but Washing ton, who once more occupied the highlands of the Hudson, a short distance above the city, watched them closely, to see that they did not penetrate too far into the interior of the country. After two years fighting in the Middle States the pros pects for the patriots had much improved. The victory 1 It was a very hot day, 96 in the shade, and many men on both sides died simply from overwork in the fierce sun. The fighting spirit of the Americans is shown in the case of a brave woman who was called "Moll Pitcher," although her real name was Mary Hays. Her husband was a cannoneer, and she as sisted him as best she could. When he fell dead, she took up his work, and *mid the cheers of her comrades served in his place through the rest of the pattle. FIGHTING IN THE MIDDLE STATES 177 over Burgoyne had brightened their hopes, the French al liance added greatly to their strength, and Washington s army was now much better trained and equipped than before. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. Why did the British leave New England and transfer the war to the Middle States? 2. State how Washington was aided by Robert Morris, Lafayette, and Baron Steuben. 3. Why was the battle near Saratoga called a " decisive battle"? What other decisive battle occurred in North America nearly twenty years before? 4. Give a brief history of the American flag and tell what each part of it signifies. 5. On a sketch map of the Middle Atlantic States indicate American victories with blue crosses; defeats with red ones. 6. Explain the many American successes in spite of their inferior equip ment. 7. Relate important events of Washington s career as a general, mentioned in this chapter. 8. Prepare a chronological table of important Revolutionary events in the Middle States, thus: - The Middle States in the Revolution Date Event Names of Leaders Effect on the Colonists 9. Make an outline of the chapter. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Write what purports to be a translation of three entries in the diary of a Hessian officer. Let the dates be December. 24, December 25, and December 26, 1776. 2. Write out a conversation between Robert Morris and a patriot at whose house he begged for money; another one with a man who was doubtful about joining the army because uncertain as to the possibility of success 3. Washington at Valley Forge, as described by the poet Lowell : "Dumb for himself, unless it were to God, But for his barefoot soldiers eloquent, Tramping the snow to coral where they trod, Held by his awe in hollow-eyed content." CHAPTER XVI CLOSING YEARS OF THE REVOLUTION 183. Indian depredations. Throughout the war the Amer ican settlers along our northern and western borders suf fered severely from Indian raids, which were often led by Loyalists. The most cruel of these were in 1778, when the people of Wyoming, in Pennsylvania, and Cherry Valley, in New York, were horribly massacred by the savage allies of the British. The settlers of Kentucky were so often troubled by the Indian war parties which were sent out by the British com mandants of Detroit and other posts north of the Ohio River that for several years their little towns needed the constant protection of blockhouse forts. Through this long practice in defending their homes the Kentuckians became expert riflemen, and were the most successful Indian fighters in the country. 1 ^ 184. The brilliant services of George Rogers Clark. George Rogers Clark, a tall, hardy, and fearless young Ken tucky surveyor, determined in 1778 to put a stop to these savage assaults, by driving out all of the British garrisons lying north of the Ohio River. He enlisted a hundred and fifty of the most daring backwoodsmen he could find, and with^this little army soon captured Kaskaskia and Cahokia in western Illinois. In order to take Vincennes, in western Indiana, he was obliged to make a long journey over land; and in doing so he had a thrilling experience. This was early in 1779, when the Wabash and other rivers in that region were swollen by spring floods and the marsh 1 The best-known Kentuckian was Daniel Boone, a hunter and land sur veyor. He first visited Kentucky (from North Carolina) in 1 769, and much of his lite thereafter was filled with perilous adventures. CLOSING YEARS OF THE REVOLUTION 179 lands were overflowed. The patriots were obliged, with little food and almost no rest, to march for long distances through ice-cold water that often reached the shoulders of tall men, and they suffered all manner of hardships. But although exhausted from fatigue and _^ exposure, they at last reached their goal, surprised the Brit ish, and after a sharp fight captured Vincennes. This splendid victory put Clark in possession of nearly all the country north of the Ohio River, and east of the Mississippi; and now that \ THE CAMPAIGN OF GEORGE ROGERS CLARK the British were driven out, Kentucky had little more trouble from Indians. 185. The storming of Stony Point. During the summer of 1779 the British remained well fortified in New York, and at the same time captured two American forts on the Hudson River, Stony Point and Verplancks Point. But Washington, who was then encamped in the highlands, resolved to regain the bold promontory of Stony Point, and for this difficult feat chose the impetuous and daring General Anthony Wayne. At the head of twelve hundred picked men, who carried no ammunition but had their bayo nets set, Wayne made his assault on July 15, and swept everything before him. 186. The treason of Benedict Arnold. General Benedict Arnold had been one of .our most courageous and experienced officers. He had won laurels at the battles of Quebec and Saratoga, and was much beloved by Washington. But he was disappointed because some of his political enemies in Congress prevented him from being promoted. On being placed in command of West Point, then the most important fortress in the United States, he determined to revenge him self on Congress and surrender the fort to the British. i8o THE REVOLUTION As a reward for this treason the latter promised to give him a large sum of money and make him a general in the King s army. An accomplished and popular English officer, Major Andre, was sent to meet Arnold and complete the bargain. But in trying to regain the British lines, near Tarry- town, Andre was arrested by some American pickets, and the papers on his person disclosed the wretched plot. He was hanged as a spy, but Arnold escaped to a British war- vessel. Twenty-one years later, Arnold, who had in the meantime served as a British general, died in England, dis graced, in poverty, and embittered by remorse. 1 187. John Paul Jones and the privateers. There were plenty of gallant sailors in the American colonies, especially among the New England fishermen, who manned many small vessels; but the regular navy was at first small. Private shipowners were therefore given authority to " distress the enemies of the United States by sea or land," and to take their pay from the sale of the prizes that they captured. These " privateers," as they were known, ranged up and down our own coast and into Canadian and West Indian waters, and in their boldness were frequently within sight of the British Isles themselves. They were able to take or destroy hundreds of the enemy s merchant ships, and thus do great damage to his commerce. 2 The most famous of our naval officers w r as John Paul Jones, who, after a long and exciting career in his little ship 1 It is told that when death approached, he said to his family: "Bring me, I beg you, the epaulettes and sword-knots which Washington gave me; let me die in my old American uniform, the uniform in which I fought my battles. God forgive me for ever putting on any other." 2 Massachusetts and Pennsylvania had about -five hundred ships each, in this service. It is thought that at one time 70,000 Americans were engaged in th work. The first captain thus to carry our flag and win prizes within sight of the British coast was Lambert Wickes. John Barry in the Alliance had numerous fierce encounters with the enemy and successfully cruised on both sides of the Atlantic. Once this stout-hearted patriot, who was a native of Ireland, was offered $100,000 and the command of a British frigate if he would return to the allegiance of the motherland ; but he indignantly replied, "Not the value and command of the whole British fleet can seduce me from the cause of my country." CLOSING YEARS OF THE REVOLUTION 181 Ranger, was, after the alliance with France, given charge of five vessels that had been a part of the French navy. His own vessel, the flagship of this fleet, was called Bon Homme Richard. 1 On the evening of September 23, 1779, when off Flamborough Head, in northeastern England, the flagship engaged the British frigate Serapis in a desperate hand-to- hand combat. This was one of the most remarkable fights in the history of naval warfare, and lasted until half-past ten at night. It ended in the surrender of the Serapis. Each vessel lost more than half of her men in killed and wounded, and two days later the Bon Homme Richard sank, having been riddled by THE BON cannon shot, but her crew escaped to the captured English frigate. Jones at once became a pop ular hero both in France and America. 2 The British, long supposed to be masters of the sea, felt much humiliated at being thus beaten almost within gunshot of their own shores. 188. The British in Georgia and South Carolina. At first the British had tried to conquer New England, but had been driven out. In the Middle Colonies they were not meeting 1 A pet name given by the French to Franklin, because of his Poor Richard s Almanac, mentioned in note on p. 126. 2 The location of his grave, long unknown, was finally discovered in Paris, in March, 1905. His remains were removed to this country in July following, under an escort of United States war- vessels, and now rest at the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland. Painting hy Paton HOMME RICHARD AND THE SERAPIS The ship at the right is one of Jones s allies. Her captain was accused of treacherously firing upon the Bon Homme Richard 182 THE REVOLUTION with marked success. In 1778, therefore, they transferred the seat of war to the South, under the charge of Generals Clinton and Cornwallis. The many Loyalists in Georgia and South Carolina hastened to their support, and soon those two States seemed to be completely under British control. It now began to look as though the Americans had lost the entire South, and many half-hearted people in that region hastened to swear allegiance to the King. Clinton now con tentedly returned to New York and left Cornwallis in charge, 189. Greene wins victories. Washington said he did not propose to let the enemy keep the South; but against his will, Congress sent General Gates to take command in that section. There, as elsewhere, however, Gates proved ineffi cient and cowardly, and was badly defeated in a fight at Camden, South Carolina, August 1 6, 1780. General Greene succeeded Gates. He was a brilliant soldier, whom many historians place next to Washington in ability. The new commander soon began to win victories for the patriots. Just previous, however, to his arrival in the South, fortune turned in favor of the patriots at King s Mountain, on the border between North and South Caro lina. In this battle, October 7, 1780, the hardy frontiers men of that region stubbornly drove off the enemy. f ? Another British disaster took place at the Cowpens, in South Carolina, where, on January 17, 178 1 , General Morgan gallantly captured the greater part of an army headed by Tarleton, one of Cornwallis s best cavalry officers. Washington now planned to entice the British army northward, if possible, to the seacoast of Virginia, where the French fleet could aid in attacking them. He there fore sent orders to Greene to retreat slowly through North Carolina, and lead the enemy after him. This was so cleverly done that Cornwallis supposed he was driving Greene be fore him, and several sharp battles were fought between them on the way. 1 1 The most important of these was at Gtiilford Court-Bouse, North Carolina (March 15), where Cornwallis lost a fourth of his array, a,n.d Greene displayed great courage and efficiency. CLOSING YEARS OF THE REVOLUTION 183 190. Marion, Sumter, and "Light-horse Harry " Lee. While these principal events were in progress, there was also severe fighting, on a smaller scale, at many other points in the South. The Southern frontiersmen, who had neither discipline nor uniforms, and carried the crudest kind of weap ons, Were called " rangers." They fought independently of the Continental army, and their principal leaders were Generals Marion and Sumter. Hiding in swamps, deep forests, or mountain glens, the rangers would suddenly pounce upon the enemy, and after crushing him quickly disappear from view, to be next met, when least expected, at some far-distant point. Their marches were surprisingly rapid, and they suffered great hardships from heat and cold, generally sleeping without cover and often going hungry for days. Stories of their bravery, endurance, and thrilling adventures are still told by the people of Georgia and the Carolinas. Local cavalry leaders also took a prominent part in South ern campaigns. The most famous of these was Colonel Henry Lee, 1 known as " Light-horse Harry," whose swift- moving " legion " did splendid work for Greene. 191. The British surrender at Yorktown. Cornwallis was much annoyed that he could not catch the wary Greene. So he settled down at Yorktown, on a narrow neck of land near the mouth of York River, and sent for reinforcements, which were to come by sea, both from New York and the West Indies. He thought that from this point he might by brilliant dashes easily finish the conquest of the South and thus end the war. Cornwallis was probably the ablest English general then in America, but he soon learned that the watchful "rebels " were more sagacious than he. To his chagrin he found that the gallant and youthful Lafayette had skillfully cut off his retreat by land; and the promised naval aid did not arrive. Instead, there now came to him ominous reports of 1 General Robert E. Lee, the Confederate leader during the Civil War (see page 346), was the son of this Revolutionary soldier. 184 THE REVOLUTION the approach into Chesapeake Bay of a large fleet of French war-vessels under Count de Grasse. Meanwhile, Washington, who was still on the Hudson River, made a pretense of preparing to attack Clinton in New York, and thus kept that general at home, busily look ing after his defenses. When all was ready the American leader quietly slipped away with a large part of his men, marched southward to the head of Chesapeake Bay, and then sailed on the French vessels to Yorktown, to catch Corn- wallis in a trap. It was one of the most brilliant movements in all military history, and had been completed before the unsuspecting Clinton understood what was going on. 1 The astonished Cornwallis attempted to escape, but in vain, for he was completely hemmed in. The French fleet, now lying off Yorktown, cut off all help that he might ex pect from the sea; and on the land side there was a hostile army of sixteen thousand men. 2 The brave and determined British general stood out for seventeen days against almost hourly storms of American and French shells and cannon- balls. But on October 19, 1781, he was forced to surren der. 3 Seldom had soldiers of England been so completely beaten. Washington s small army of villagers and farm ers had had little practice in the art of war and lacked proper equipment, clothing, and food, but they had ex cellent officers, and were fighting for their homes and the freedom of their country, facts which in war always count for a great deal. Without the aid of the French, however, Yorktown could not have been won. 192. News of the surrender. In an early hour of October 1 Clinton hoped to draw Washington back to New York by sending the traitor Arnold to raid towns on the Connecticut coast ; but after he had done much dam age, local militiamen drove the invaders back to their ships. 2 Americans, nine thousand; French, seven thousand. 3 The story has been told that just before the hour fixed for the British army to come from behind their breastworks and lay down their ^arms, Washington addressed his soldiers, saying: "My boys, let there be no insults over a con quered foe! When they lay down their arms, don t huzza; posterity will huzza . for you !" CLOSING YEARS OF THE REVOLUTION 185 24, the usually quiet streets of Philadelphia rang with the clatter of a galloping horse, bearing the messenger whom Washington had sent to carry the splendid news to Congress. Soon the night watchman, pacing sleepily upon his rounds, was crying in drawling tone, " Past three o clock, and Corn- wallis is taken!" Windows and doors were quickly thrown open, men shouted to each other to wake up the town, Painting by Trumbull THE SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS s the Capitol The painting represents the moment when officers of the British army, conducted by General Lincoln, are passing between the lines of the French on one side and the Americans on .the other bells clanged noisily, and until dawn the streets were filled with a joyous people, now eager to shout the praises of the brave and energetic Washington. The report spread quickly to other cities and towns, where bonfires soon blazed on the greens, residences were alight with candles in the windows, processions of people marched and sang, and orators gave voice to patriotic sentiments. 193. The effect in England. A month later, November 186 THE REVOLUTION 27, the Prime Minister of Great Britain, Lord North v re ceived the sorrowful news. Shaken with excitement v he cried, wildly, " It is all over! It is all over! " King George blustered, and talked of abdicating, but later said that he was glad enough to be rid of these troublesome Americans. On the other hand, the many English sympathizers with our country openly rejoiced ; and Paris itself was never gayer, for the French fleet had enabled the Americans to win a brilliant victory in behalf of human liberty. In time the Revolution brought greater freedom to Eng lishmen as well as to Americans, and in all parts of Europe it encouraged the friends of democracy. Thus was the con test a turning-point in the history of European as well as American liberty. 194. The treaty of peace, and evacuation of New York. When Parliament met, in 1782, King George declared to its members, with tears in his eyes, that he was at last willing to have his American colonies form an independent nation ; but he generously hoped that " religion, interest, and affec tion might prove a bond of permanent union between the two countries." The treaty of peace between Great Britain and the United States was signed at Paris on September 3, 1783. To our nation was granted the w r hole region lying east of the Mis sissippi River, south of Canada, and north of Florida which latter country, then including parts of Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, Great Britain had returned to Spain. 1 When the news of the signing of the treaty reached New- York, the British army, which had continued to occupy Manhattan Island, returned to England. Thereupon Wash ington and his troops marched into the city (November 25, 1783), and the day and night were given up to bonfires, fireworks, and a farewell dinner to those of the American 1 During the last two years of the Revolution, Spain, which was engaged in the same general European war as was France, aided the United States by captur ing Natchez, Mobile, Pensacola, and other British settlements in the far South. CLOSING YEARS OF THE REVOLUTION 187 Painting by Trumbull in the Capitol WASHINGTON RESIGNING HIS COMMISSION officers who were anxious to leave for their homes as soon as possible. 1 IQ5- Washington s farewell. After affectionately bidding his fellow officers good-bye at New York, 2 Washington went in December to Annapolis, where Congress was then sit- 1 Failure to get their pay had made many of the soldiers discontented and mutinous. In the spring of 1782, some of the officers attempted to make Washington the king of the new nation, but he severely reprimanded them. In March, 1783, he nipped in the bud another military scheme to seize the government until the army should be paid. In June following, several hundred drunken soldiers, shouting for their wages,. drove Congress from Philadelphia to Princeton. Later in the year, Washington s influence alone prevented the army rising in rebellion. The fault lay not in Congress, however, but in the weak form of federal government, which did not allow Congress to raise money from the States by taxes. It was a very impressive scene. As his faithful officers and comrades clus tered around him, their eyes moistened with tears, he said with stately dignity, but voice shaking with emotion: "With heart full of love and gratitude, I now take leave of you, most devoutly wishing that your latter days may be as pros perous and happy as your former ones have been glorious and honorable. I cannot come to each of you to take my leave, but shall be obliged if you will come and take me by the hand." They did so; and Washington affectionately embraced each one; then, in silence, he turned and entered his barge at White hall Ferry, and waved his hat in farewell greeting. 188 THE REVOLUTION ting, and to that body tendered his resignation as com- mander-in-chief of the Continental army. 1 The great gen eral was received by the statesmen with a warmth of love and admiration that much affected him; but modestly hurrying from the scene where he was the lion of the hour, he quietly proceeded to his beautiful home at Mount Ver- non, on the Potomac River. He refused any pay whatso ever for his services, and asked only that his own expenses and the money he had spent in paying and feeding his comrades in arms 2 might, when convenient, be repaid by the young Republic. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. What great services did George Rogers Clark render to his country? 2. Find, in a larger history, the details of Arnold s grievances, and report to the class. 3. Sketch from memory a map showing the situation of Cormvallis at Yorktown. 4. Contrast present methods of transmission of news with the slow methods which prevailed at the close of the Revolution. 5. Name the acts of Washington, at the close of the war, which show his high character. 6. Draw or trace on a map the boundaries of the new nation. 7. Name the thirteen original States. 8. The following are objects of great historic interest to all Americans; tell where each is, and why it is historically interesting: Inde pendence Hall, Lexington Green, Plymouth Rock, Jamestown, Mount Vernon. 9. Name two Americans who by speeches and letters greatly influenced the Americans to resist the British Government; name two others (not soldiers or generals) who contributed greatly to the American cause. Name a great English statesman who was the steadfast friend of Amer ica. /o. Relate any incident of the war in which you are particularly interested. II. Explain why there was rejoicing by many people in England at the outcome of the war. 1 Briefly addressing the president of Congress, Washington said: "The great events on which my resignation depended having at length taken place, I have now the honor ... to claim the indulgence of retiring from the service of my country. ... I here offer my commission, and take leave of all the employ ments of public life." 2 1 1 amounted to nearly $75,000, which in that day was thought to be a good- sized fortune. CLOSING YEARS OF THE REVOLUTION 189 12. State the date and place of the beginning and of the end of the war. 13. What is the feeling between the United States and England to-day? 14. Make an outline of the chapter. 15. Important dates: 1777 Surrender of Burgoyne. 1781 Surrender of Cornwallis. 1783 Treaty of Peace. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Apply to the life of Benedict Arnold this quotation from Scott: "The wretch, concentred all in self, Living shall forfeit fair renown, And, doubly dying, shall go down To the vile dust from which he sprung, Unwept, unhonored, and unsung." 2. After reading the account in Alice of Old Vincennes, by Thompson, or The Crossing, by Churchill, tell of the capture of Vincennes from the British. 3. Read the first four stanzas of Whittier s poem Yorktown, and then write a prose description of the scene. 4. Describe Washington s parting with Lafayette when the latter started for Europe at the close of the war. This may be dramatized. REVIEW OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR THE French and Indian War had shown the colonies that they were stronger when they acted together, and that they had military power. The colonists were proud, however, to be called Englishmen and were loyal subjects of the throne. They consid ered that they had all the rights of Englishmen in England, a funda mental one being that which depended on the ancient principle, "No taxation without representation." They were willing to pay all taxes voted by their colonial assemblies, but no others. Great Britain, through her Parliament, violated this principle by the Stamp Act and by laying additional duties on imported goods. She also sent over an army to enforce the old Navigation and Manufacturing Acts. Parliament was forced to withdraw the Stamp Act by a colonial boycott of goods imported from her shores, but she foolishly levied new duties among them, an import tax on tea. The colonists responded by destroying the tea brought to their harbors. The mother country retaliated with the "Intolerable Acts," which still further angered the colonists. The colonists organized com mittees of correspondence, and, in 1774, the First Continental Congress met in Philadelphia. 190 THE REVOLUTION Pitt and Burke pleaded in Parliament for the colonies, but aL overtures were rejected, and on April 19, 1775, war was begun with the righting at Concord and Lexington. The Battle of Bunker Hill followed. The Second Continental Congress placed George Washington in command of the American armies. On July 4, 1776, this Congress passed the Declaration of Independence, de claring the colonies to be sovereign States, independent of British control. Notable in the War of the Revolution were the capture of New York and Philadelphia by the British, Washington s victory at Trenton, Burgoyne s surrender near Saratoga, the terrible winter at Valley Forge, the Battle of Monmouth, the Wyoming massacre, the momentous expedition of George Rogers Clark, the naval battles of John Paul Jones, and the victories in the South of Greene, Morgan, and "Light-horse Harry" Lee. The Americans were almost Without money; they were not ac customed to union; Charles Lee proved mutinous, and Benedict Arnold traitorous ; Washington was continually harassed by open, and secret enemies. Yet the Americans were fighting in their own country and for their own liberties, and in Washington they had a wholly unselfish leader of brilliant generalship, untiring patience, and indomitable energy. George III had added to American wrath by hiring Hessians- and persuading Indians to fight against his American subjects. The colonists were extremely fortunate in their European friends. The aid of France was invaluable; without her the colonists could scarcely have succeeded in their struggle. Among America s best friends in the time of need, were Pitt and Burke in England; John Paul Jones and Barry, sea fighters born in the British Isles; the Germans Steuben and De Kalb ; the Polish officers Pulaski and Kosciuszko; and the brilliant young Frenchman, Lafayette. The end came in the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown in 1781 ; but the treaty of peace with England was not finally signed till 1783. RECOMMENDED READINGS HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY TEACHERS LIST. Hart s American History by Contemporaries, vol. II, PP- 383-93. 402-33, 454-63, 482-518, 540-90- Fiske s United States, pp. 181-241. Elson s United States, chaps, xi-xiv. Howard s Preliminaries of the Revolution, chaps, i, n, vi-xi, xm. Van Tyne s American Revolution, chaps, I, n, vn, vni, x, xn, xv-xvii. Fisher s Struggle for American Independence, vol. I, chaps. I, vi, vni, xiv, xv, xxv, xxvi; vol. n, chaps. LVIII-LXII, xc-cin, ex. Fiske s American Revolution, vol. I, chaps. IV-VH; vol. II, chaps, vill, IX, xn-xiv. Wilson s History of American People, vol. REVIEW 191 II, chaps, in, IV. Burke s Conciliation with America (Old South Leaflets, No. 200). Roosevelt s Winning of the West, vol. I, chaps, vi, x; vol. n, chaps, i-iv, x. Sparks s Men Who Made the Nation, chaps, i-vn. Hap- good s George Washington. Bolton s Private Soldier under Washington. Morse s Franklin. Hosmer s Samuel Adams. Tyler s Patrick Henry. Thwaites s How George Rogers Clark Won the Northwest, pp. 1-72; Daniel Boone. Buell s John Paul Jones. Oberholtzer s Robert Morris. Wharton s Martha Washington. Myers s Sally Wister s Journal. PUPILS LIST. Hart s Camp and Firesides of the Revolution. Elson s Guide to American History, pp. 70-103. Coffin s Boys of 76. Hawthorne s Grandfather s Chair, part 3. Scudder s Boston Town, chaps, ix-xi. Drake s Watch Fires of 76. Baldwin s Conquest of Old Northwest. Tappan s Our Country s Story, pp. 120-67; Hero Stories, pp. 143-207. Lodge and Roose velt s Hero Tales, pp. 1-79. Frothingham s Sea Fighters, chaps, xvm- xxi. Cleveland s Stories of Brave Old Times. Blaisdell and Ball s Hero Stories from American History. Perry and Beebe, Four American Pioneers (for Boone and Clark). Hill s On the Trail of Washington. Wister s Seven Ages of Washington. Brooks s Franklin; Lafayette. Holden s Our Country s Flag. FICTION TEACHERS LIST. Churchill s Richard Carvel; The Crossing. Ford s Janice Meredith. Frederick s In the Valley. Jewett s Tory Lover. Mitch ell s Hugh Wynne. Thompson s Alice of Old Vincennes. PUPILS LIST. Altsheler s Young Trailers. Barnes s For King or Coun try. Eggleston s Carolina Cavalier; Long Knives. Henty s True to the Old Flag. King s Cadet Days. Ogden s A Royal Little Redcoat. Otis s At the Siege of Quebec. Stoddard s Guert Ten Evck. Tomlinson s Washington s Young Aids (also others of his "Revolution Stones"). True s Scouting for Washington (and its sequels). POETRY Anon., Rodney s Ride. Bryant s Song of Marion 1 s Men. Carleton s Little Black-Eyed Rebel. Drake s American Flag. Emerson s Concord Hymn. Hale s New England s Chevy Chase. Holmes s Ballad of Boston Tea-Party; Grandmother s Story of Bunker Hill Battle; Lexington. Lanier s Lexington. Longfellow s Paul Revere* s Ride. Lowell s Under the Old Elm. Pierpont s Warren s Address. Whittier s Yorktown. THE FORMATION OF THE UNION CHAPTER XVII UNDER THE CONFEDERATION 196. Articles of Confederation adopted; formation of a public domain. When the colonies separated from Great Britain, they were like thirteen little nations, with no per manent bond of union between them. Their representatives sat in the Continental Congress, which adopted the De claration of Independence; and this body successfully car ried on the Revolutionary War. But its members saw that now the war was over, the States could not continue to work together and unite in building up a great American nation until they had formed some sort of permanent central, or federal, government that should be able to manage those large affairs that affected all of them. At first, however, in many of the States, there was a good deal of objection to any such central authority. Men were very fond of the State governments under which they lived. These governments protected them in their homes and looked after their roads, bridges, schools, and all other local matters in which they were interested. Americans had just broken away from a strong central power that had sought to rule tyrannically over them, and they feared that the proposed new Federal Government might prove to be just as arbitrary. It took several years to convince them that a union would be a greater protection to them against their enemies, and in many ways would serve them much better than if there remained only thirteen separate State governments, each a little nation by itself. The States needed to be taught the value of " team work," and to learn THE TJKITED STATES I3ST 1783, UNDER THE CONFEDERATION 193 that there could not be a union without some sacrifice of individual rights for the greater good of all. It was 1781, the last year of the war, before the Articles of Confederation, which had been proposed by the Conti nental Congress, were ratified by all of the States. A sugges tion by Maryland was the cause of much of the delay. She desired that before she signed the Articles, all States claiming lands beyond the Alleghenies by virtue of their " sea- to-sea" colonial charters should surrender those lands, and that these should form- a great public domain under control of the new Federal Government. She suggested that the lands in this domain be sold to settlers for the benefit of the Federal Treasury, which in this way might recover some of the great cost of the Revolution ; and she further pointed out that as population increased in the Northwest, new States could be formed there, and thus the Union would grow and strengthen. The States having Western land claims gener ously adopted Maryland s suggestion, and between 1780 and 1786 all of the trans- Allegheny country north of the Ohio River was ceded to Congress, as she had desired. 1 This was the first public land owned by our National Gov ernment. The cession had two great and lasting results: - (a) No longer could the Eastern States have serious boundary disputes over their Western lands. Virginia and Pennsylvania, in particular, had had much trouble of this sort before the Revolutionary War. (b) The people of all the States soon became interested in the newly acquired public lands in the West, which were owned equally by every American. From this common ownership there sprang up, almost for the first time, a general feeling of regard for the new nation. 197. The Articles of Confederation prove to be weak. When at last the Articles of Confederation were put into 1 In making her cession (1786), Connecticut reserved a strip one hundred and twenty miles long, on the south shore of Lake Erie. This is still known as the "Western Reserve" of Ohio. A part of it was sold for the benefit of the Connecticut schools, but in 1800 the remainder was turned over to the nation. South of the Ohio River, cessions were not made until later dates than those north of it South Carolina, 1787; North Carolina, 1790; Georgia, 1802. 194 THE FORMATION OF THE UNION operation, it did not take long for our best statesmen to realize that no strong nation could be developed by this plan of union. It proved to be too weak for our needs, and for these reasons : - (a) No matter how large or small each State was, it had but one vote in Congress, so that little Delaware, for ex ample, had just as much voice in deciding questions as the great State of Virginia. The larger States bitterly com plained of this. (b) Congress could pass no laws unless nine of the thirteen States consented to them. There was so much jealousy between them that it was very difficult to get the consent of nine to any measure. (c) The laws could not be enforced, for there was no Presi dent to execute them. (d) Congress was only an adviser to the States. It had no real authority of its own. It could not even raise taxes for its own needs; it had only such money as might be given to it by the State Legislatures it could not oblige them to pay if they refused. This fact had led to a great deal of trouble in carrying on the Revolution, and often caused much suffering in the army. Because of it, Washington had often to draw upon his private fortune to pay and clothe the Nation s defenders. Because of it, Congress had no means ot paying the great debts of the nation, caused by the war. That body had borrowed large sums of money in France and Holland which it could not pay, and in addition had issued vast quantities of paper money which it could not now redeem in real money. In consequence of this plight of our Federal Government, the national credit sank very low. Having no power of its own, Congress could not de fend itself from insult. Once, toward the close of the war it was forced to hurry from Philadelphia to Princeton, be cause threatened by a large body of unpaid soldiers who demanded that they at once be given the money due them. (e) Congress had no power to regulate our trade with UNDER THE CONFEDERATION 195 foreign countries, or between the States. Some States sought to make commercial treaties of their own with Eu ropean nations, and collected duties on imports. Several States even levied duties on imports from each other, a form of commercial warfare that led to many serious dis putes between them, and interstate trade was for a time nearly ruined. 1 (/) Congress had no power to settle the disputes that frequently arose between citizens of different States. This resulted in some injustice, especially when a citizen of one State refused to pay debts owed by him to a citizen of an other State. When the new Government was established, Thomas Paine had exultingly said, " The times that try men s souls are over." But he was wrong. In the words of Daniel Webster, the Union under the Articles of Confederation was " merely a rope of sand." 198. Adoption of the Ordinance of 1787. However, the Congress serving under the Articles rendered one most im portant service to the nation, by adopting a form of govern ment for the new public domain, which henceforth was to be called the " Northwest Territory." This document is known as the " Ordinance of 1787," because it was passed in that year. 2 It is famous in our history, because : (a) It provided for religious freedom throughout the Territory. (b) It declared that " the means of education shall for ever be encouraged." A law adopted two years before had decreed that large tracts of public lands should be sold for the benefit of schools and colleges in the Territory. 1 For instance, New Jersey s country produce was taxed on entering both Philadelphia and New York. In retaliation for the latter, New Jersey placed- a tax of $1800 on a New York lighthouse standing on the Jersey shore. Connecticut admitted cargoes in English vessels duty free, but shipments to that State from Massachusetts must pay duty. Firewood shipped from Connecticut paid a tax in New York. 2 In 1784 Thomas Jefferson had offered in Congress a plan for governing this territory and dividing it into States; but his plan had been rejected. It had, however, many of thr features of the Ordinance of 1787. I 9 6 THE FORMATION OF THE UNION (c) It declared that human slavery should never be mitted within the borders of the Territory. The adoption of the Ordinance strengthened the interest in the West which the people of the whole country were beginning to feel. Revolutionary soldiers and other settlers began at once to pour into the region, which grew rapidly population. In in later years it was divided into the States indicated on the map. All of these owed their early prosperity to the successful work ing of the Ordinance of 1787. 199. Troubles under the Confed eration. The his tory of our Union under the weak Ar ticles of Confedera tion is called the " critical period," because during that time the future of the young nation seemed very dark and uncertain. We have read of some of the reasons for this condition. There were also others: (a) Our people had ceased to be British subjects, and for that reason the markets controlled by Great Britain were now virtually closed to them. Thus American ocean com merce was at a standstill; and our once thriving industry of shipbuilding was nearly dead. (b) The country was flooded with paper money; yet the people who owed debts and the war had made most Ameri cans poor demanded that additional bills be printed, and THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY The shaded portion shows the Territory, also its later division into States. Ohio was admitted to the Union in 1803; Indiana, 1816; Illinois, 1818; Michigan, 1837; Wisconsin, 1848. A part of the Territory is also included in Minnesota, admitted in 1858 UNDER THE CONFEDERATION 197 they be allowed to pay their debts in this " cheap " money. Most of the States unwisely yielded to this popular clamor. Their action threw business into still worse confusion, for merchants and manufacturers refused either to buy or sell if they had to take this worthless paper in exchange for their goods. 1 Citizens almost lost their confidence in the future of the nation. There w r as little respect for the laws, crime was widespread, and life and property were insecure. Every thoughtful American now realized that there is something far worse than tyranny, and that is anarchy. They saw r that a stronger, more efficient Federal Government must surely be formed, or the new Republic would soon go to pieces. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. What were some reasons for the lack of a strong national feeling after our independence had been won? Why would you have expected the contrary to be true? 2. The thirteen colonies under the Articles of Confederation did not understand the meaning of our term "team work." Show that this was true. W hat is the underlying principle of team work? Why necessary in our nation? 3. The historian Fiske says the acquisition of the Northwest Territory "prepared men s minds for the work of the Federal Convention." Explain. 4. What makes the Ordinance of 1787 such an important document? How is its influence felt to-day? 1 In their practice regarding paper <money, there were two classes of States: (a) Those, of which Rhode Island ws an example, in which the legislature yielded to the popular clamor, and issued paper money, and then passed " legal tender " laws that sought to compel merchants to receive it. In such States, business was destroyed. (6) Those, of which Massachusetts was an example, in which the legislature refused to issue such money. This refusal also led to much distress, for there was little real money to be had, with which to pay debts and taxes. During the winter of 1786-87, a rebellion of debtors broke out in Massachusetts, led by Daniel Shays (called "Shays s Rebellion"). The rioters prevented the courts from imprisoning debtors as was then the cus tom, and for seven months created much disturbance by burning property and terrorizing the police; but finally they were quelled. This rebellion taught : (a) That the Articles of Confederation had brought the country to a condition in which its citizens were led to revolt against a State Government, and Congress was powerless to prevent it. (b) That a new set of laws was a necessity, if the country was to be peaceful and grow strong. 198 THE FORMATION OF THE UNION 5. Learn this quotation from the Ordinance: 11 Knowledge, religion, and morality being necessary to good govern ment and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of educa tion shall forever be encouraged." 6. What is the meaning of "Confederation"? "Ordinance"? "Critical Period ? What historical fact or period does each bring to mind? 7. Make an outline of the chapter. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. The Revolutionary soldiers have received land grants in the North west Territory. One has decided to settle in the Western Reserve, one near Detroit, one on the banks of the Ohio, and one near Vincennes. Let four members of the class impersonate these soldiers, and each state what he believes to be the advantages of the locality he has. chosen. 2. Imagine that you are the fourteen-year-old son of a soldier killed in the Revolution. Tell of the uselessness of the fortune in paper money as left to the family by your father. Tell of your joy at finding one hundred silver dollars he had hidden away. 3. Write -a letter to your cousin in England in which you set forth the troubles and difficulties because of a lack of union among the States. CHAPTER XVIII THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION 200. The Constitutional Convention. The commercial war between the States was so disastrous for the business interests of the country that statesmen and leading mer chants and shipowners soon began strongly to demand that this warfare cease. A convention was called to meet in Annapolis, Maryland, in 1786, to see what could be done for the better regulation of trade between the States and with foreign countries. But only five of the thirteen States sent delegates. Nothing, therefore, was actually decided by the members, further than to ask Congress itself to call a national convention for the adoption of a constitution. It was now seen by many wise men that the only way out of the difficulty was to have a much stronger central govern ment than the Articles of Confederation provided for, -and to abolish all barriers to trade between the States. The great Constitutional Convention, which opened at Philadelphia on May 25, 1787, had for its purpose the providing of a " more perfect Union " between the States. Its president was General Washington, who was the fore most citizen of the Republic; and among the fifty-five members were other leading men from every colony ex cept Rhode Island, which was not represented. Benjamin Franklin was the oldest delegate, also one of the wisest, and had great influence; James Madison took so promi nent a part in drafting the new instrument that he has been called the " Father of the Constitution"; and Alex ander Hamilton, the youngest member, 1 won lasting fame 1 Hamilton was born in the West Indies, in 1757; but he was sent to school in New York, where he arrived in 1772, when fifteen years old. Two years later he attended a great open-air meeting in that city, and made an eloquent speech in favor of the Revolution; this, and two pamphlets that he wrote at the time. 200 THE FORMATION OF THE UNION for his sound judgment in all matters relating to Federal finances. Almost every delegate had strong opinions of his own, and sometimes it seemed as though it would be impossible to get all of them to agree on any one thing. Finally, various compromises were arranged on the matters chiefly in dis pute. 1 The Constitution under which we now live was signed on September 17, and Congress at once sent it to the States for their approval or disapproval. 2 201. Changes wrought by the Constitution. 3 The Con stitution made many changes in the manner of governing made him at^once a political leader, and after that he was in the front rank of the "rebels.] Through the war he was on the staff of Washington, who found young Hamilton s pen and voice of great service to the cause; to him is due a very large share of credit for securing the adoption of the Constitution. He be came the leader of the Federalists, and until 1795 served with great distinction as Secretary of the Treasury. After this he was the most prominent lawyer in New York City. But in 1804, following a political quarrel with Aaron Burr, he was killed by the latter in a duel. This event awakened widespread sorrow, for Hamilton was greatly beloved and honored as one of the most brilliant men of his day. 1 The two most important compromises were the following: (a) Should the number of votes in Congress allowed the States be propor tioned to the number of their inhabitants? The large States said "Yes," for otherwise the small ones would have -as much power in the Government as themselves, and to them this seemed unfair. The small States said "No," because they feared that the large States would lord it over them. A com promise _was arranged by which Congress was divided into two houses the Senate, in which each State, large or small, was to be represented by two members; and the House of Representatives, whose members were to be in proportion to the population. (&) Should slaves be counted as population? If so, then the South, which said " Yes," would have a larger power than would seem to be just, considering the small number of its white population. The North wanted only freemen to be counted as population. The convention finally compromised, by agreeing that when Representatives in Congress were being chosen, only three-fifths of the slaves should be counted as population ; in other words, five slaves would be counted as three persons. This method was also to be followed whenever direct taxes were apportioned "according to population" but taxes of this kind have been assessed only a few times in the nation s history. 2 The great English statesman, Gladstone, once said of our Constitution that it was "the most wonderful work ever struck off at a given time by the brain and purpose of men." But although the written instrument was made in only four months, the Constitution had in reality been of slow growth; for it was the direct product of the experience of the colonists in self-government, and that experience reached far back to the training of their liberty-loving forefathers in the motherland. 3 The complete text of the Constitution will be found in the Appendix, com mencing at page xi. THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION 201 the United States. Four of these were of the greatest im portance :- (a) The Nation was now to have a President, to execute the Federal laws. The only real executives under the Ar ticles of Confederation were the governors of the thirteen States. (b) Congress was given authority to raise taxes to meet the cost of carrying on the Federal Government. No na tional government can have any real strength unless it has money to pay its army and navy, its judges, and other officers and employees. (c) There was now to be freedom of trade between the States; that is, any citizen of the United States might buy or sell anywhere in the country, without paying export or import duties to any State. To Congress alone was given the power of saying how trade between citizens of different States should be conducted. (d) A Federal Supreme Court was established to decide all questions as to how much authority the Federal Gov ernment should have under the Constitution. It was also to settle disputes between citizens of different States and in later years it began to decide whether or not the laws passed by Congress agreed with the Constitution. When ever a law is found by this court to be" unconstitutional/ it ceases to have the force of law. 202. Ratification. Long and exciting debates arose in the several States, over the ratification of the Constitution, which had to be voted on by the people. On this question citizens were divided into two great political parties : - (a) The Federalists. 1 These were the men who favored the Constitution, and wanted to have it adopted just as it came from the Convention. They believed that the Union needed the strong central Government which the Constitu tion provided for. Among those of this way of thinking were Washington, Franklin, Hamilton, and Madison. Washing ton wrote to Patrick Henry: " I wish the Constitution 1 This name is derived from a Latin word meaning union or league. 202 THE FORMATION OF THE UNION which is offered had been more perfect; but I sincerely be lieve it is the best which could be obtained at this time. And as a constitutional door is open for amendments here after, the adoption of it, under the present circumstances of the Union, is in my opinion desirable." He pointed out that as " the political concerns of this country are in a manner suspended by a thread," anarchy might result if the instru ment were rejected. | - I PARADE IN NEW YORK IN HONOR OF THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION, 1788 (b) The Anti- Federalists. This was the name given to those who feared that the proposed new Federal Government might in time become so strong as to destroy the people s liberties, and that the President might become a despot. They also complained that the Constitution contained no " bill of rights," or promise that the lives, liberty, and property of the people should be protected by the Govern ment. The makers of the Constitution had not thought it necessary to insert such a promise in that document, which gave only definite powers to the National Government; but to satisfy this objection, a " bill of rights " was later THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION 203 supplied in the first ten Amendments. The Anti-Federalists insisted that the States should continue to have greater power than "he Nation, as was the case under the Arti cles of Confederation. They proposed, therefore, merely to amend the Articles, so as to give Congress a little more power as well as some revenue of its own. Patrick Henry and Richard Henry Lee belonged to this party. As soon as nine State conventions, the smallest number necessary for adoption, were carried in favor of the Con stitution Congress announced to the people in June, 1788, that the new Government could be organized. 1 Later, the other four States also gave their consent. " Now," triumph antly wrote John Adams, who was a strong Federalist, " the thirteen clocks all struck together." 203. Election and inauguration of Washington as Presi dent. In the first presidential election, the electors provided for in the Constitution expressed the wish of a large ma jority of the people by unanimously choosing Washington as President and John Adams as Vice- President. Early in April, 1789, this result was made known to the country by Congress, then holding its session in New York City, which had been selected as the first capital of the Republic under the Constitution. On April 16 Washington started from Mount Vernon and rode on horseback to the seat of government. Every where along the route, village and city streets were deco rated in his honor with evergreens, laurels, banners, and triumphal arches ; 2 and demonstrations of love and enthu- 1 The majority of the people hailed the news with noisy rejoicing. In Phila delphia where the Continental Congress had met, the Declaration of Inde pendence had been adopted, and the Constitutional Convention had done its great work there were great demonstrations of delight. On the following Fourth of July, cannon saluted the sunrise, bells pealed joyously, there was a marching procession of five thousand people, orators proclaimed the coming glory of our country, and at night nearly every building was illuminated with candles in the windows. 2 The one over the bridge at Trenton, across which he had led his little army to the battle of Princeton, was especially fine. It had been planned by the women, and bore the words, "The Defender of the Mothers will be the Pro tector of the Daughters." Surmounting this structure was a large dome with the motto, "To Thee Alone." 2O4 THE FORMATION OF THE UNION siasm came from the thousands of men, women, and chil dren who crowded the roadsides to greet the most eminent citizen of the Republic. When at last he reached New York, Congress received him amid roaring naval salutes and cheer ing crowds. This heartfelt homage of the people pleased I amting by F. C. Yohn owned by the Continental Fire Insurance Company of *\ew York WASHINGTON LANDING AT THE FOOT OF WALL STREET, NEW YORK Governor Clinton and General Knox were among those waiting to receive him the distinguished leader of the Revolution, who before this had hardly understood how deeply they appreciated his great services to the nation. On April 30, 1789, he took the oath of office on the bal cony of Old Federal Hall on Wall Street, while the multi tude of spectators joyously cried, " Long live George Washington, President of the United States! " THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION 205 QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. Let the class organize a constitutional convention, and choose a presi dent. Discuss the voting power in Congress of the different States. A compromise is suggested and adopted. 2. What is a compromise? Turn to the Index of the book, and note Compromises which were made later in our history. State why com promises are necessary in a government like ours. 3. Report the names of prominent men who took part in making both the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. 4. What three departments of government did the Constitution create? Which is absolutely necessary in every form of government? Why? 5. Show how your school, in a way, represents a federation of states. What regulations are enforced by the principal? By your teacher? 6. Compare the two houses of Congress as to the number of members, how chosen, qualifications, and term of office. (See Appendix A, pages xi, xii.) 7. Name some laws affecting your community made by (a) Congress, (b) the State Legislature, (c] local officials city, village, township, etc. 8. Turn to the Constitution in Appendix A, page xiv, and enumerate some of the principal powers of Congress. Why should these be national rather than State powers? 9. Name the various plans of union among the colonies from the New England Confederacy to the adoption of the Constitution ; consult the Index, under the caption Union. 10. Briefly relate the causes or conditions which led to the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the Constitution. 11. Make an outline of the chapter. 12. Important date: 1789 the election of Washington as President and the beginning of our National Government. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Imagine that you spent an hour in the Constitutional Convention. Briefly describe what you saw and heard, telling the subject under discussion, and in dialogue form show the part taken by some of the great men present. 2. Write a letter to your cousin in Virginia telling him of your marching in the procession of celebration, and of the other events of the Fourth of July, 1788, in Philadelphia. 3. Imagine that you were one of the girls who strewed flowers in Wash ington s path as he approached the bridge at Trenton. Many years later you tell your granddaughters of the events of that day. CHAPTER XIX THE CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY IN 1790 204. Population. The first Federal census, taken in 1790, showed that the United States had at that time a population of about 3,900,000, a fifth of whom were negroes. 1 This was a smaller number than is contained in the present New York City, or in the State of Ohio. New York, which was then the largest city, had only 33,000; Philadelphia came next, with 28,500; then Boston, with 18,000; Charleston, 16,000; and Balti more, 13,000. There are now in our coun try upwards of a hundred cities larger than the New York of that day. In fact, the United States was in 1790 1 There were perhaps 100,000 people west of the Allegheny Mountains, chiefly in Kentucky and Tennessee. The heaviest population was along the Atlantic Coast. Settlement was most dense on the shores of Massachusetts Bay and upon the southern coasts of New England and New York; but there was also a good sprinkling in the Hudson and Mohawk River Valleys, along the highway between New York and Philadelphia, and in the valleys of Eastern Virginia. At that time the United States comprised all of the country south of the pre sent boundary between the United States and Canada, and lying east of the Mississippi River, except Florida, a narrow strip along the gulf coasts of Ala bama and Mississippi, and so much of the present Louisiana as lies east of the Mississippi River. Florida and the Gulf-shore strip just alluded to, also the greater part of the country beyond the Mississippi, belonged to Spain. See map facing page 192. From a contemporary engraving A STREET IN PHILADELPHIA, ABOUT 1800 This view shows Second Street, looking north from Market Street THE CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY IN 1790 207 a small and insignificant nation, with less population, wealth, and influence than is in our time possessed by either Den mark or Belgium. 203. The appearance of the country. Even in the oldest settlements along the Atlantic Coast, our country still pre sented a rural appearance; for example, the streets and sidewalks of Boston were as yet unpaved, and strangers to that city were gazed at as curiosities. The land west of the Alleghenies comprised, for the most part, vast lonely for ests, or immense treeless prairies of waving grass, bright ened by gorgeous flowers. Towns in this wideregion were small and far sepa rated ; and now and then the savages made murderous raids against the frontiersmen. The conditions there were much the same as they had been in the East in Colonial days. The back woods cabins were of logs, and in the center of each hamlet usually stood a stout palisaded fort, or blockhouse. 206. Roadsand travel. Most of the highways, East or West, were still almost impassable in wet weather, and horseback and the slow and cumbersome stage-coach were the only means of travel by land. There were then two principal roads from the East to the country beyond the mountains : - (a) Daniel Boone s " Wilderness Road," which extended from North Carolina and southern Virginia, through Cum berland Gap, into Kentucky and Tennessee. For many years thousands of hardy pioneers traveled westward along this narrow mountain trail, taking with them their live A STAGE-COACH CHANGING HORSES AT AN INN 208 THE FORMATION OF THE UNION stock and farming tools, ready to open new plantations in the West. The men and boys went chiefly on foot; the women and girls rode horseback, and at each camping-place cooked for the party and looked after the many small children, for the settlers of those days usually had large families. Now and then hostile savages attacked these trav elers. Though the men well knew how to defend themselves with their long-barreled rifles and broad-bladed hunting- knives, many fell victims and were buried by the wayside. (b) A rough route for wagons and horses was cut through the forest and over the hills, all the long way from Philadel phia to Pittsburg. Should the traveler wish to go still far- **** ther into the West, he must descend the Ohio River from Pittsburg or Wheel ing, on a raft or in a boat; 1 but upon this journey he was liable to be shot at by fierce Indians hiding in the dense forests which lined the banks. 207. Postal service. The most constant traveler was the post-rider, who carried the mails. Often he was an eccen tric character, who amused himself as he jogged patiently along on horseback by trying to read the letters carried in his saddle-bags, or possibly by knitting socks or whittling some article out of a stick. 2 1 A variety of rude vessels were used on the Ohio. The most common were flatboats propelled and steered by great sweeps, or oars, and keel-boats, using sails. There were also many oddly .shaped, roughly built craft, known as "arks" or "broad-horns." 2 The mails were carried between Boston and New York three times a week in summer, and twice a week in winter. In 1792 the postage rate was fixed at six cents for thirty miles or less; for over thirty miles the rate gradually increased, until it cost twenty-five cents to send a letter any distance beyond four hundred and fifty miles. THE CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY IN 1790 209 208, Education. The schoolhouses were crude and poorly furnished. There were few textbooks, and often these be longed to the teacher. Almost the only studies were spell ing, reading, a little arithmetic or " ciphering," writing with quill pens, and stories from the Bible. Nearly all the lessons must be learned "by heart"; the " dunce" could expect no mercy, and was made to stand on a stool for hours at a time, wearing a tall paper hat. The school master s birch rod was a highly respected instrument of torture, being used without stint on unruly pupils. Young people were expected to read only " edifying " books, and these were usually solemn and exceedingly dull. As each household owned but a few volumes, these, together with those that could be borrowed from the neighbors, must be read over and over again by the boy or girl fond of reading. There were, of course, more newspapers than in 1750, but these paid little attention to local news. As for public libraries none had as yet been thought of in America. Several colleges, however, had been established. 1 209. Slavery. At this time negro slavery existed in all of the thirteen original States, North as well as South, 2 al though for several practical reasons it flourished better in the latter region than in the former: (a) It was then commonly believed that white people could not work at hard labor in a warm climate, and keep their health, but that Africans were not harmed by it. (b) The Africans were as yet but partly civilized, and Between 1776 and 1794, fourteen colleges were founded. These were in addition to those earlier ones named in the note on page 114. 2 Several of the New England colonies had quite early in their history passed laws against slavery, but they were not enforced. The constitution of Massa chusetts, adopted in 1780, had declared that no man might be a slave in that State. This example was soon followed elsewhere in New England. ^In_ 1780 Pennsylvania passed a law providing for the gradual freeing of slaves within its borders. New York followed with a similar act in 1799, and New Jersey in 1804. ^ Three years previous to the Revolution the courts of Great Britain had de cided that human bondage could not exist in the British Isles, but it was not abolished in her colonies until 1834. Slaves became free in Mexico in 1829; in the French colonies in 1848; in Russia in 1861; in Dutch colonies in 1863. Gradually, since our Civil War, all other civilized lands have abolished the system . 210 THE FORMATION OF THE UNION such men work best in gangs, under overseers. This sys tem was well suited to the Southern plantations, with their great single crops of tobacco, rice, and cotton, that required only rude and simple hand labor. It did not seem a desir able system, however, for the busy little workshops of New England, or for the small Northern farms, where were raised a variety of crops that needed separate and intelligent treat ment. 210. Invention of the cotton-gin. It is possible that the South might in time have decided to abandon slavery, for many of her prominent citi zens did not ap prove of it, and this opposition seemed to be growing. But in 1792 an event occurred which entirely changed the situation. This was Eli Whitney s 1 in vention of the cotton-gin, a machine that quickly and easily separates the cotton fiber from the many seeds it incloses. This had here tofore been a slow and costly process, for a negro "hand" could in the old days " clean up " only five or six pounds a day. But by means of Whitney s gin he might clean from 1 Eli Whitney was born in Massachusetts in 1765. After graduating from Yale he went to Georgia as a teacher, but spent most of his time in inven tion. The cotton-gin brought him little reward, partly because other men wrongly claimed to have invented one before him, partly because the patent laws at that time were not as favorable to inventors as they now are, and partly because of the destruction of his factory by fire. Later he made a for tune by manufacturing firearms at New Haven, Connecticut, where he died in 1825. Robert Fulton, inventor of the steamboat, declared that Arkwright, who invented the cotton-spinning frame, Watt, who constructed the first steam engine, and Whitney "were the three men that did most for mankind of any of their contemporaries." Courtesy, Library of Congress WHITNEY S COTTON-GIN THE GONDITTON OF THE COUNTRY IN 1790 211 three hundred to a thousand pounds, which put an entirely new face on the profits of cotton-growing. 1 The new machine at once gave a tremendous impetus to the industry among Southern planters. Negro " field hands " were now in far greater demand than ever. before, 2 and slavery seemed so necessary that it was thenceforth securely fastened upon the South. However, the North also profited much by this institution, for hundreds of mills were built in New England to manufacture cotton cloth; and many of the New England shipoAvners carried on the un lawful but very profitable business of importing slaves from the West Indies and Africa for the Southern cotton-fields. 3 211. Charities and reforms. When Washington began his administration, men in most of the States were still being imprisoned for debt; organized charities were un known ; and as yet there had been little attempt to reform criminals or to improve the condition of the unfortunate classes of the population. 4 Insane and other defective people were kept either at home or in public jails; and as most prisons in that day were extremely unhealthful, the condi tion of those placed in them was often most lamentable. Not until long years after this did our people awake to the serious importance of these matters, and begin to insist that prison and social reforms should be carried out in the United States. 1 Cotton was raised in a small way in most of our Southern colonies, but there was no important shipment to Europe before 1784 (see page 417). 2 A negro man slave, eighteen years of age or over, was at this time worth or the average about $300 in tobacco-growing Virginia; but in the great cotton- growing States of Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana such a man was worth, about the year 1820, from $800 to $2000. 3 In 1778 Virginia prohibited the importation of slaves, except those brought in by travelers or new settlers. By 1803 all of the States and Territories, ex cept South Carolina, had passed similar laws; and in 1807 Congress did the same for the nation. Nevertheless, it has been estimated that 270,000 negro slaves were brought into our country by smugglers, from Africa and the West Indies, between the years 1 808 and 1860. 4 See Oglethorpe s attempt to improve the condition of poor debtors in Georgia, page 72. 212 THE FORMATION OF THE UNION QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. What was the population of the United States in 1790? What is it at the present time? How many immigrants came to our shores during the past year? Give an argument for and one against admitting so many foreigners. 2. Point out on the map the five largest cities of the United States in Washington s time; in our own time; give reasons for the change. 3. Name the various means of travel in 1790. How did the difficulty of travel and communication influence the attitude of the States toward each other? 4. Trace on a map of the United States the two principal routes of com munication between the East and the West. 5. Compare the difficulties encountered by a settler west of the Alle- ghenies in 1790, with the difficulties encountered by the homesteaders of to-day. 6. Choose any two of the older cities of the country and name some of the^ objects of historical interest which may be seen there. Show a picture or make a drawing or model of one of these. 7. Tell why slavery gradually ceased to exist in the northern part of the country. 8. Make a list of important inventions, unknown in Washington s time, that have helped to bring about a closer relation among men. 9. In what charitable and social reforms is our country much interested at the present time? 10. Review the^ period of the Formation of the Union by selecting the striking incidents that could be represented in a series of floats for a Fourth of July parade. 11. Make an outline of the chapter. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. The America of to-day compared with the America of 1790. Tell what you think we have gained and what we have lost. 2. Imagine that your father and mother, your sister, and yourself are traveling from Virginia to your new home in Kentucky, Time, 1780. Tell of an adventure on the way. 3. Describe and then dramatize "A Day in School in 1790." Introduce the master, the dunce, a writing-lessor/, and a spelling-lesson. REVIEW 213 REVIEW OF THE FORMATION OF THE UNION DURING the Revolutionary War, Congress adopted a provisional form of government set forth in the Articles of Confederation. This agreement was not ratified by all the States until 1781. One cause of the delay was the disputed ownership of what came to be the Northwest Territory. In the interests of harmony the various States finally ceded to the Union their individual claims to this rich section. This new domain was governed by the Ordi nance of 1 787, which provided for religious freedom and prohibited slavery in this region and set aside portions of the land for the benefit of public education. Under the Articles of Confederation, Congress had no power to levy taxes and there was no executive to enforce its decrees. The individual States made tariff laws against one another and even endeavored to make commercial treaties with European na tions. A Constitutional Convention was called in 1787 to form a more perfect union. In this convention the two great causes of dispute were slavery and the fear of the small States that the large States would encroach on their liberties. These and other questions were finally settled by various compromises, and the great document, which cemented the Union and made us a nation, was submitted to the States to be ratified. It gave to the United States all the powers necessary for an effective central government, but left all local matters to the individual States. It provided a Congress of two houses to make the laws, a President to execute them, and a Supreme Court to interpret these laws. A bitter controversy followed between the Federalists, who urged the adoption of this Constitution, and the Anti-Federalists, who opposed it. However, it was ratified by nine States, the necessary two thirds; and later, the other four States followed their example. Washington was elected the first President and inaugurated in 1789. The census of 1790 showed a population of less than four mill ions. The roads were few and far from good, and the mails infre quent and postage high. Beyond the Alleghenies the Indians were still an ever-present danger. Schools were primitive; to read, write, and cipher was the extent of an ordinary education. Slavery was soon abolished in the Northern States, where it had never been profitable. Eli Whitney invented the cotton-gin 214 THE FORMATION OF THE UNION and made the raising of cotton by slave labor so profitable that slavery was firmly established in the South. A STUDY OF THE CONSTITUTION STEPPING STONES TOWARD UNION 1643. The New England Confederation (^[ 92), 1754. The Albany Plan of Union (t 133). 1765. The Stamp Act Congress (^ 149). 1773. The Committees of Correspondence (^f 151). 1774. The First Continental Congress (f 156). 1776. The Declaration of Independence (f 166). 1781. Articles of Confederation adopted (f 196). 1786. The Commercial Convention at Annapolis (^ 1787. The Constitutional Convention (^ 200). 1788. Ratification of the Constitution (^[ 202) 2oo v RECOMMENDED READINGS HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY TEACHERS LIST. Hart s American History by Contemporaries, vol. in, diaps. n-xn. Elson s United States, chaps, xv, xvi. Fiske s Critical Period, chaps, ni-v, vii. Walker s Making of the Nation, chaps, i-iv. McLaughlin s Confederacy and Constitution, chaps. I, vn-ix, xn-xvin. Sparks s Expan sion of American People, chaps, vii-x, xn. McMaster s United States, vol. I, chaps, i-v. Roosevelt s Winning of the West, vol. in, chaps. I, vi. Bogart s Economic History, chaps, vm-x. Hurlbut s Boone s Wilderness Road. DuBois s Suppression of the Slave Trade, pp. 48-69. Lodge s Hamil ton. Gay s Madison. ^ PUPILS LIST. Hart s Source-Book of American History, chap. x-How our Grandfathers Lived. Elson s Side Lights on American History, vol. I, chaps. ii, in.^ Blaisdell and Ball, Hero Stories from American History, chap. x. Coffin s Building of the Nation, chaps. I, n, v-vn. Stone and Fickett, Days and Deeds a Hundred Years Ago. Shelton s Salt Box House. Earle s Stage. Coach and Tavern Days. Burton s Four American Patriots (Hamil ton). Morris s Heroes of Progress in America (Hamilton, Whitney, and Ful ton). Perry, Four American Inventors (Fulton, \Vhitney), FICTION TEACHERS LIST. Atherton s Conqueror. Barr s Trinity Bells; Maid of Maiden Lane. Bellamy s Duke of Stockbridge. PUPILS LIST. Hale s Man Without a Country. POETRY Bryant s 0, Mother of a Mighty Race. Byron s Washington. Hopkinson s New Roof (the Constitution). Whittier s Vow of Washington. THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER XX THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE GOVERNMENT: RELATIONS WITH FRANCE AND GREAT BRITAIN 1789-1797 212. Federalists and Anti-Federalists. During the long and sometimes bitter debates over the adoption of the Con stitution, it was natural that men should form very decided opinions about the best methods of carrying on the government of the proposed union of the States. By the time Pre sident Washington be gan his Administration, two political parties had come into being Fed eralists and Anti- Feder alists. 1 Citizens joined one party or the other, according to their way of thinking; and, as is al ways the case in times of great political excite ment, they were very im patient at the ideas of those who differed from them. 2 1 The Anti-Federalists afterwards called themselves Republicans, and then Democratic- Republicans; and still later, Democrats. After the adoption of the Constitution, both Federalists and Anti- Federalists favored that instrument; they then differed only as to how it should be interpreted. 8 It was Washington s desire to have both parties represented in the Govern- Painting by Sfuart in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts GEORGE WASHINGTON 21 6 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 213. " Liberal construction " and " strict construction." The most important question at the beginning of the Govern ment was, How much power should the Nation have over the affairs of individual citizens of the various States? The framers of the Constitution did not make this at all clear; they left the legislative branch of the Government (Con gress), together with the judicial branch (the Federal Su preme Court), to decide that great question in the future. 1 Federalists and Anti-Federalists held opposite views as to how it should be decided : - (a) Should Congress have the authority to do anything and everything in the way of government except only those things that the Constitution expressly said it should not do? The federalists said " yes " to this; for they believed in making the Union a strong central power, stronger than the States composing it. They asked for a " liberal construc tion " of the Constitution, and " national supremacy." (b) Should Congress have such authority as was expressly given to it by the Constitution, and no more ? Such was the opinion of the Anti-Federalists, who stood for " strict con struction " and " state rights." They did not believe in centralized power, for they wished the States to remain Stronger than the Nation. It was to be many long years before the question as to whether the Nation should be greater than the States could be settled. Little by little, however, the " liberal construc- tionists" won, for the decisions of the Federal Supreme Court as to what the Constitution means, have nearly all leaned to this view. 2 We shall see that the controversy led ment; of the offices named below, the Federalists held a majority, Jefferson and Randolph being the only Anti-Federalists. Washington s first Cabinet consisted of four members: the Secretary of State, Thomas Jefferson; the Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton; the Secretary of War, General Henry Knox (these three Administrative Departments were the only ones in existence at this time) ; and the Attorney-General, Edmund Randolph. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court was John Jay. 1 If a law passed by Congress is not in accord with the Constitution, then the Court may annul it. (See page 201.) 2 Decisions of this kind began when the court was presided over by Chief Justice John Marshall, of Virginia, who was appointed by President John Adams. ALEXANDER HAMILTON 217 at last to the great Civil War, which resulted in the final triumph of the Federalist idea of " National Supremacy over " State Rights." 214. Hamilton restores our public credit. On account of the enormous expense of carrying on the Revolutionary War, the treasury of the new Government was almost empty, and it owed enormous debts for money borrowed from its own citizens and Europe to pay, feed, and equip the Con tinental army. Alexander Hamilton, the Secretary of the Treasury, insisted, as a matter of honesty and to keep our national credit, that not only should all these ob ligations be promptly paid in full, but the United States should pay the war debts of the several States, so far as they remained unpaid; for these latter, he said, had been incurred in defending the Nation. Most of the Southern States, however, had already cleared off a large share of their own debts and did not relish being taxed to pay those of other States. 1 While this important matter was being discussed, a heated argument arose over the permanent location of the Federal Capital. Northern Congressmen wanted it to be somewhere on the Delaware River, whereas Southern mem bers preferred to have it on the Potomac. Hamilton there upon shrewdly arranged to obtain Northern votes for the Potomac site, in exchange for Southern votes for his plan of paying the State debts. Thus, to nearly every one s His biographer says of him: "He found the Constitution paper, and made it power; he found it a skeleton, and clothed it with flesh and blood." 1 South Carolina, however, favored the plan, because deeply in debt, but Pennsylvania opposed it, because she had nearly met her obligations. ALEXANDER HAMILTON 218 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT satisfaction, the Federal city, named Washington, after the President, was located in the South, 1 and it was agreed that all war debts, state and national, should be assumed by the Nation. 2 The result was just what Hamilton said it would be. When people at home and in Europe saw that every dollar we owed was going to be paid, the national credit was at once firmly established ; and although the treasury was then empty, we were after this able to borrow whatever money was needed to carry on the Government. Hamilton thereby rendered a very great service to the country, and for this his name deserves to be remembered for all time. It was once said of him, " He touched the corpse of public credit, and it sprung to its feet." 215. Revenue, " Protection," and Federal Bank. Hamil ton was now called upon to advise Congress how to raise the money to pay all of these war debts, and to meet the large expenses of conducting the Federal Government. On his recommendation Congress passed a law providing that duties, or taxes, be laid on certain imported goods, such as spirits, wine, tea, coffee, molasses, sugar, and articles made in foreign factories. This "tariff" was not only to raise revenue, but to " protect " our manufacturers against com petition from goods made in Europe. Protection was chiefly demanded by the owners of Northern factories. The Southern planters were strongly opposed to it, for they had always imported most of their manufactured articles from Europe in American vessels, and did not want the new na tion to tax them for doing this. In later days the continued 1 That the new city might have room in which to grow, it was placed in the midst of a large tract, selected by President Washington himself, which was named District of Columbia. The District, which is governed by Congress, is sixty square miles in extent. Land for the purpose was given to the Federal Government by Maryland. New York was the first capital, and there Washington was inaugurated. Then for ten years the capital was Philadelphia. Jefferson was the first President to be inaugurated in Washington. 2 The national indebtedness, including interest, was about $54,000,000, of which $12,000,000 was owed in Europe, chiefly to France. In addition to this, the debts of the States amounted to $21,000,000. THE WHISKEY REBELLION 219 protest of the South against Northern protection led to a serious quarrel between the two sections. It was not long before the Government was receiving a good revenue from the new duties and the other forms of taxation that followed in their wake. Daniel Webster was right when he said that Hamilton " smote the rock of public revenue, and copious streams of wealth came forth." While these revenue laws were being passed, Hamilton was busily drawing up still other measures for the improve ment of our finances, and these were in time adopted by Congress. Chief among them was the establishment at Philadelphia of a Federal Bank to issue bills that should be equally good everywhere throughout the nation. This was welcomed by business men as a great convenience ; for up to that time the only bills were those which each State had issued, and they were not always accepted in other States. A mint also was opened in Philadelphia, for the making of gold and silver coin ; and a system of national currency was for the first time established. 1 216. The Whiskey Rebellion. Among the new, and often heavy, taxes which Congress levied at the suggestion of Hamilton was one, in 1794, on spirituous liquors made in this country. 2 It was fiercely opposed by the mountaineers in western Pennsylvania, for whiskey-making was then their principal business. They tarred and feathered one of the Federal officers sent to collect the tax, and engaged in serious riots, which the Governor could not quell. President Washington thereupon sent to the scene of disturbance 1 Americans had until this time kept their accounts in English pounds, shill ings, and pence; but thereafter the legal unit was the dollar, divided into ten dimes or^a hundred cents. This decimal system is far easier to reckon in than the English Currency. Virtually all of the leading European countries, except Great Britain, now have some form of decimal currency. 2 There was much opposition to this method of raising revenue. The people have always disliked to pay to the Federal Government "direct " taxes that is, those levied on their incomes, their business, or their property ; for they do not relish having tax collectors inquire into their private affairs. They have much preferred to pay "indirect" taxes on the articles they buy, or on foreign-made goods imported through custom-houses; for this does not require them to give information about their personal matters. 220 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 13,000 militiamen, who restored order. This was his method of teaching the important and very necessary lesson that Federal laws must be obeyed everywhere throughout the Union. 217. France asks for American aid, and is refused. The people of France, who had long been fretting under the rule of the aristocrats, at last rose in rebellion, formed a re public, in 1792, and beheaded their unpopular King. This led them into a war with Great Britain, for the latter had sympathized with the dead ruler. The leaders of the French Republic sent over to America an agent named Genet, to persuade this nation to help them with money, men, and supplies, in return for the great assistance that France had given us during the Revolutionary War. President Washington, however, strongly advised Ameri cans to have nothing to do with this war. Popular sympathy was very naturally with France ; but the President pointed out to his countrymen that if we meddled in European affairs, we might continually be getting into trouble; more over, said he, we could not at that time afford either money or men to go to war with anybody. He therefore issued a proclamation declaring that our nation would remain neu tral, and he obliged the French Government to order Genet to return home. This made the French very angry, and their agents tried to stir up Americans to force him to change his decision. As usual, however, he remained firm, and in time the people came to see that he was right. 1 218. Great Britain treats us harshly. This trouble with France was not the only difficulty our nation had at that time with European powers. Great Britain had made a treaty of peace with us, after the Revolutionary War; but although she was no longer fighting the United States with 1 Under the treaty of alliance made in 1 778 (see page 175) between the United States and King Louis XVI of France, each Government agreed to help the other in case of war. The leaders of the French Republic claimed that this bound our nation to help them fight Great Britain. But Washington said that the treaty was made with a monarch now dead, who had no successor; he de clared, moreover, that it referred only to defensive wars, whereas the French began the attack on Great Britain. JAY S TREATY 221 her army and navy, she was in other ways greatly injuring us: (a) Many of our merchant vessels that were engaged in the business of carrying cargoes of food to France or to the French colonies, had been captured by Great Britain. At the same time, however, France was giving us trouble, for she had captured several of our vessels engaged in carrying similar cargoes to British ports. (b) Great Britain was taking from our vessels naturalized American sailors who had once been her subjects, and often with great brutality " impressing " them into her own navy. Her plea was that these men were still citizens of the mother land; for no British subject, she said, could change his nationality. (c) She was interfering with, and trying to stop, our trade with the West Indies, because there we competed with the business of her merchants. (d) She owed our citizens for thousands of slaves that had been taken away by British officers and exiled Loyal ists at the close of the Revolutionary War. (e) She was still keeping possession of several of our forts Jying south of and near the international boundary. She said that she would continue to hold these strongholds until the States paid certain debts due to Loyalists and British merchants for property taken from them by Amer icans during the Revolution. 219. Jay s Treaty. This unsatisfactory condition of af fairs lasted until 1794, when there was signed at London a compact between the two nations, known as Jay s Treaty. 1 There were several adjustments effected by this compact: arrangements were made by which the United States was to pay the Loyalist claims, and Great Britain was to pay the claims of our citizens against her for the seizure of American ships ; the British agreed to evacuate the Amer ican forts in 1796; and citizens of both countries were now free to trade with each other. 1 Because negotiated by John Jay, then Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, who had been sent to England as American commissioner for this purpose. 222 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT But nearly all the people of the United States were in tensely indignant at the treaty, and did not wish the Senate to ratify it. This was because it avoided the two leading matters of dispute. Great Britain had not consented to recognize the right of British subjects to change their na tionality and become American citizens ; and no assurance was given that neutral American ships trading with an enemy of Great Britain would be unmolested. Jay was so unpopular that effigies of him were burned in several cities. Hamilton, who urged that the treaty be accepted, was stoned in New York while addressing a crowd; and besides other disturbances, there were riots in front of .the houses of British consuls. For a time even the President lost much of his popular ity, 1 because he also favored the treaty. But he plainly saw that unless the Senate accepted it, we should probably at once have another war with Great Britain, and for this we were not then prepared. An unsatisfactory treaty was to be preferred, he said, to a disastrous war, so the Senate con firmed the agreement. What Jay s Treaty really did was to postpone war with Great Britain for eighteen years. 220. Relations with the Indians. While these stirring events were taking place the Indians north of the Ohio River were making trouble. They had become alarmed over the great number of white settlers now pouring into their old hunting-grounds and crowding them out. For several years they waged a destructive war against the unwelcome newcomers. But finally they were severely punished by General Anthony Wayne, the hero of Stony Point, in a great battle at Fallen Timbers, near Maumee Rapids, in Ohio. During the next fifteen years there was little disturbance from the Indians of this region. 221. Washington s Farewell Address. President Washing ton served two terms of four years each. The country had prospered under his Administration ; manufactures had in- 1 Washington was much mortified over the abuse showered on him at this time. WASHINGTON S FAREWELL 223 creased, commerce showed much growth, and three new States Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee had been added to the Union. Large numbers of his fellow citizens suggested that he serve as President for a third term. He was, however, not only wearied from the constant worry of public life and therefore eager for a few quiet years at his Mount Vernon home, but he believed that it would be better for the coun try to have a change in the office of Presi dent. A few months be fore leaving the presi dential chair, Wash ington published in the newspapers a Farewell Address to the people of the United States. 1 This is one of the noblest and most inspiring papers that has ever been issued by any of our chief executives. In it he ap pealed to Americans to stand for high principles in their Government to cultivate a " cordial, habitual, and im movable attachment " to the Union; to make no " perma nent alliances with any portion of the foreign world," and to be just and act in good faith toward all other nations. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. What would probably have been the result if our country had shirked its duty of paying the Revolutionary debts? 2. State the difference between a tariff for protection and a tariff for revenue. 3. How did Washington make the Whiskey Rebellion serve a good pur pose? MOUNT VERNON Washington s mansion on the Potomac River 1 It first appeared in the Daily Advertiser of Philadelphia, September 19, 1796. 224 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 4. Show that Washington s policy toward the French Revolution was wise. Explain how it has influenced our subsequent history. 5. You notice that the writers of this book give two points of view regard ing Jay s Treaty. Select a current question of importance to your community your State, or the Nation, and save clippings from peri odicals on^both sides of the question, grouping them as "For," or Against. 6. Read aloud Washington s Farewell Address. Make a list of some of the wise suggestions in it. 7. Lodge, in his Life of Washington, says: "The goodness and kindness ot a man s heart, however, are much more truly shown in the little de tails of life than in the great matters which affect classes or communi ties. Washington was considerate and helpful to all men." Bring incidents to class to illustrate this side of his character. 8. Again, Lodge says, "A soldier by instinct and experience, he never grew indifferent to the miseries of war." Prove both the first and second parts of this statement. 9. What events happened in Washington s Administration which showed his moral courage? 10. Learn the stanza beginning, "Soldier and Statesman, rarest unison," from Lowell s Under the Old Elm. Explain its meaning by telling the story that justifies each statement. 11. Make an outline of the chapter. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. A group of veterans see Washington pass in his coach and six. They fall into conversation about the man as he appeared on various occa sions. One saw him at Braddock s defeat; one describes him when crossing the Delaware; one heard him praying at Valley Forge- another saw him when the British surrendered at Yorktown. Relate and dramatize the conversation. 2. A crowd of mountaineers in western Pennsylvania is angrily con fronting a group of men come to collect the whiskey tax. One of the mountaineers makes a speech urging war. Another says he will not fight against the Government for which he fought at Trenton and Brandywine. ( fl ) Write the latter speech, (b] Dramatize the scene. 3. Describe some act of Washington s Administration you particularly admire and tell why you admire it. 4. Suppose you were a Federalist living in Washington s Administration. \\ rite a letter to a friend who is an Anti-Federalist, explaining your position and try to show him wherein you believe he is wrong. CHAPTER XXI THE WAR WITH FRANCE: ALIEN AND SEDITION LAWS: NULLIFICATION RESOLUTIONS I797-I80I 222. Our War with France. Washington s successor was John Adams of Massachusetts, a Federalist. 1 Just as he came into office, France was trying to take revenge upon the United States for not help ing her to fight Great Britain, also for signing Jay s Treaty. Her cruisers captured some of our merchant vessels out at sea; but what was worse, some of her private agents went secretly to the Ameri can envoys in Paris, and said that the French Government would make war on us unless we paid a heavy bribe to its principal officers. Adams indignantly noti fied Congress of this insolent proposal ; but in his message he prudently called the French agents X, Y, and Z, without revealing their names. The documents which he presented were therefore popularly known as the " X, Y, Z Papers." Everywhere, Americans 1 John Adams was born in 1735 at Braintree, Mass., graduated from Harvard College, and was a lawyer. While a member of the Continental Congress he strongly advocated separation from Great Britain. At the close of the Revo lution he was one of the commissioners to arrange the treaty of peace. He also served for several years as our envoy in France, and as our minister to Lon don. Adams was selected as the presidential candidate of the Federalists by the leaders of that party, for then there were no national party conventions. He died in 1826. JOHN ADAMS 226 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT were intensely angry at France, their watchword being, " Millions for defense; not one cent for tribute! " France retorted by attacking American vessels. Our army was reorganized, with Washington as its commander, but the fighting was wholly on sea. 1 Each nation captured several of the other s vessels; but the American navy was gradually getting the better of it, when Napoleon Bona parte, 2 who had just come to power in France, made peace with us (i8oo). 3 223. Alien and Sedition Laws. While this war was in progress, still more serious trouble was brewing at home. Many of the newspapers in the United States were at that time conducted by men, mostly foreigners, who favored France. These editors made a practice of viciously abusing President Adams and his Government, and trying to get our country into trouble with Great Britain. Congress tried to check these offenses by passing two laws, 1798: - (a) The Alien Law authorized the President to banish from the country any foreigner whose presence here was harmful to the nation. This law was never put in force. (b) The Sedition Law provided for the punishment of persons who spoke or wrote maliciously about the President or the Government. Under this law a number of persons were punished. 224. Virginia and Kentucky pass Nullification Resolu tions. These laws aroused the fierce anger of the Demo cratic-Republicans. They declared that such legislation concentrated power in the hands of the Federal Govern- 1 The outbreak of this war led to the establishment of our Navy Depart ment, which was created by Act of Congress, April 30, 1798. 2 Napoleon rose to be the national hero of France, because of his victories- as a general in her wars with other European nations. The people first made him head of the French Republic (1799), and then Emperor (1804). In 1814 he was forced by his allied foes to abdicate, -and for several months was im prisoned on the island of Elba; but he escaped, and for a few months again ruled France, until defeated at Waterloo (June 18, 1815). He died (1821) a prisoner of the British on the lonely island of St. Helena, in the South Atlantic Ocean. 8 During the great popular excitement attending this war, Joseph Hopkinson, a Philadelphia lawyer, wrote the stirring song, " Hail Columbia," whichat once became a favorite throughout the country. VIRGINIA AND KENTUCKY RESOLUTIONS 227 ment, interfered with freedom of the press and freedom of speech, and was not according to the intent of the Con stitution. The legislatures of Virginia and Kentucky went so far as boldly to resolve that these obnoxious Fed eral laws were " unconstitutional," therefore " void and of no force," and that the States would be justified in not allowing them to be enforced within their borders. 1 Congress soon repealed the two laws that had aroused such opposi tion. But the passage of the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions continued to be events of great importance, be cause of their new and startling claim that Federal laws might be nullified 2 by States that did not approve of them. Those who believed in " strict construction" of the Constitution, or " state rights," were inclined to favor this doctrine, that the Constitution was merely an agreement between * sovereign States, which any of them might break whenever they wished. The Federalists pointed out, how ever, that if nullification were to be permitted whenever a State disliked some Federal law, there would soon be no Union at all. Thus the mo mentous question as to w r hether or not the rule of the Union was to be 1 The Virginia Resolutions were written by Madison, and were not so bitter as those of Ken tucky, which were drafted by Jefferson. 2 That is, declared not binding on the object ing State. . IT is with the deepeft grief ftal e announce to 1 the public the deatl Our tmjt dj/linguijhed fcllow<itf Lieut. Central George Wajhing- on. He died at Mount Vernon ctf Saturday evening, the t3th infl. o. in inflammatory affection of ttre hroat, which ^ut a period 10 his ex. itence in 13 hours. The grief which we fuffer on Tllli ruly mournful occafion, would tx Q fome degree aleviated, if v?e pof cDed abiliries to do julticc to tb( writs of his lUu/lriotu benefa&er g) nankin J; but, confcious of our in eriority, we ftuink from the fubli miry of the fubjed. To the itupar ial and eloquent biftorian, there fore, we confign the high and grate ul office of exhibiting the life o jearge Wafhington (o the prefers! ige, and to generations yet uubom ik a perfedl model of all thit v;r uotu, noble, great , and dignified it man. Our feelings, however, wil not permit us to forbear obfcr hat the very difintereft d and tm portant fervices rendered by Georgt ingtiit to thefe United btatja both In the Field and La ihe Cabinet fiave ercfled ia the hearts of hi countrymen, monumeats of Cncer. and unbounded gratitude, wbicl he mouldering hand of Time can "Ot deface ; and that in every qi er of the Globe, where a tree Co .wiiuent U ranked atnongft th choice/I bleffings of Providence, on virtue, morality, religion, and / atria are Kfpefted, THE NAME o WASHINGTON WILL BE HELD < veneration, . EDITORIAL UPON THE DEATH OF WASHINGTON In the New York Gazette 228 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT supreme over that of the States had again come to the front to threaten the welfare of the Nation. 225. Death of Washington. While the country was being agitated over this serious dispute, upon which its prosperity so much depended, Washington died at Mount Vernon, December 14, 1799, when he was sixty-seven years old. During the Revolution there were some who could not appreciate his greatness as a military leader. While he was President he was viciously attacked by his political oppo nents; he was accused of being an aristocrat, of not sym pathizing with the common people, and even of seeking to be king. But before his death Americans of every class, rich and poor, whether they agreed with him in politics or not, had come to love and venerate the nation s leading citizen and they sincerely mourned his death. 1 Congress paid special honors to his memory; and even European powers sent us glowing words of praise for the man who, as one of the orators of that day well said, was " first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen." 2 QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. What stand would you have taken towards the Alien and Sedition Laws? Why? Should there be any limit put upon freedom of the press and freedom of speech in this country? 2. Locate the capital of the United States. How long has it been the capital? What places in and about the city would you be specially interested in visiting? See Washington (city) in the index. 3. Why should not a State be allowed to nullify an act of Congress? 4. What, means is provided by the Constitution for deciding whether an act is constitutional or not? 1 Jefferson, who at times had severely criticized Washington, wrote, "He was, indeed, in every sense of the words a wise, a good, and a great -man." A little later, Jefferson said that he was "Our first and greatest Revolutionary char acter, whose preeminent services have entitled him to the first place in his coun try s love, and destined for him the fairest page in the volume of faithful his tory." 2 This phrase was contained in resolutions presented in the House of Repre sentatives at Washington, December 19, 1779, by John Marshall, who in a fa mous eulogy announced the death of Washington; but the resolutions them selves were written by General Henry Lee. Washington s birthday, February 22, is a legal holiday in every State. The first recorded celebration of this event was at New York, in 1783. THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 229 5. Turn to the index of this history to determine what attempts have been made to nullify acts of Congress. (See " Nullification.") 6. When was there a period during which each State could nullify an act of Congress? What was the effect of such action then? 7. Make an outline of the chapter. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Look up the life of John Adams and choose an incident to tell orally. 2. Imagine that you are a girl in Baltimore. One evening your father reads an account of the " X, Y, Z Papers " and his anger runs high. Then you play on the harpsichord while he sings a new song, "Hail, Colum bia!" Describe the scene. 3. Imagine that you are a child visiting Washington, the new capital. Write a letter to a friend in the old capital describing the new town. 4. Choose successive events in the life of Washington, each member of the class taking one of the events and relate them in order the whole forming a brief biography. CHAPTER XXII THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE: THE LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDI TION: RELATIONS WITH GREAT BRITAIN AND FRANCE I8OI-I8O9 226. Election of President Jefferson. President Adams was a candidate for reelection; but largely owing to the unpopularity of the Alien and Sedition Laws he was defeated by Thomas Jefferson, leader of the Democratic-Republicans. 1 Jefferson was one of the most remarkable men in our history. He was a fine scholar, and could with ease read and speak several languages. Duringtheeightyears of his presidency he helped to in crease the growth and commerce of the United States and to spread popular education. He met peo ple in a friendly, sociable way, and showed his interest in their THOMAS JEFFERSON affairs. His clothing and the fur- 1 Under Article II, section 3, of the Constitution (now superseded by the Twelfth Amendment), the presidential electors were to choose two eminent citi zens as President and Vice-President. There was but one ballot, each elector naming two candidates; the man receiving the most votes was elected Presi dent and the one receiving the next highest number, Vice-President. This led, in the third election (1796), to men of opposite parties getting the two offices President Adams and Vice-President Jefferson; whereat there was much popular discontent, for it was believed that the President and Vice-President ought to be of the same party. In the contest about which we are now reading seventy-three electors voted for Jefferson, a like number for Aaron Burr of New York, and sixty-five for John Adams. This was a "tie" between the two highest. The House of Re presentatives was therefore obliged to decide, after a long and exciting contest, and chose Jefferson for President and Burr, who was very unpopular, for Vice- THE PROVINCE OF LOUISIANA 231 nishings of his house were plain, and he disliked extravagance of any kind. Ceremony and parade displeased him, and on becoming President he did away with the formalities which IVashington had introduced and which Adams had kept up. 1 227. Americans covet the Province of Louisiana. Spain, although she had become a weak nation, still owned the Province of Louisiana, consisting of nearly a million square miles at the mouth and westward of the Mississippi River. For many years our settlers in Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio had sent their supplies, grain, and live stock in flat- boats down the Mississippi to the Spanish city of New Orleans, where they were reloaded into seagoing vessels bound for Atlantic ports. Spain had frequently tried to prevent this commerce; in 1795, however, she made a satis factory arrangement with the United States, and Americans supposed that there would be no more difficulty on that score. But in 1802, during Jefferson s administration, Spain suddenly revoked her agreement with us, and the West was greatly excited over this reclosing of the river. More- President. This result also displeased the people, who thereupon insisted on amending the Constitution (Twelfth Amendment, 1804), so that the electors, must cast separate ballots for President and Vice-President. In reality, how ever, they now merely go through the form of voting for the men whom the people have themselves already chosen at a general election. 1 Jefferson was born in Virginia in 1743. Graduating from the College of William and Mary, he became a lawyer, and when the Revolution broke out was a prominent member of the Virginia House of Burgesses. He was elected to the Continental Congress and wrote the greater part of the Declaration of Inde pendence. After the Revolution, he was for a time governor of Virginia, five years acted as our minister to France, and served as Secretary of State until the close of 1793. After being President, he retired to private life, founded the University of Virginia, and died in 1826 at his home "Monticello," near Charlottesville in that State. His simple tastes were shown on his first inauguration day, when he wore ordinary clothes, and with a few friends walked from his boarding-house to the unfinished Capitol in Washington, where he took the oath of office. He would often ride to the Capitol on a horse, instead of in a coach, as President Washing ton had done. Visitors were allowed to call on Jefferson at any time, whereas Washington held weekly reception days. Jefferson entertained all manner of people without formality; one of his visitors found him dressed in a "red waist coat, yarn stockings, and slippers down at the heel." Washington, on the other hand, was always most carefully attired. Jefferson also endeared himself to many people by his fondness for hunting and horseback riding, popular sports of the day, in which he excelled. 232 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT over, many of our frontiersmen were saying that the United States ought now to own the trans-Mississippi region; we needed it, they claimed, for our westward expansion. As a matter of fact, hundreds of Americans, among them the great hunter Daniel Boone, were already living west of the river on land claims obtained by them from Spain; they were hoping and waiting for the time when the United States should occupy that fertile wilderness. 228. The United States purchases Louisiana. The change was nearer than any one supposed possible. It came about in this way : Napoleon had been ambitious to found another New France in America; so in 1800 he had induced Spain to hand over to him the Province of Louisiana. President Jefferson and the Westerners were much alarmed at this. They saw danger ahead of us if a European pow er stronger than Spain began to control the Mississippi River and to block not only our commerce over that stream but our overland progress toward the Pa cific. But, fortunately for us, it happened that, before Napoleon could place any of his soldiers in Louisiana, he was again at war with Great Britain, and all of the men and money he could get together were needed at home to carry on this contest. Moreover, he now feared that, even should he colonize Louisiana, the British, who also fainting by Tliulstrup TAKING POSSESSION OF LOUISIANA in the background is the old Spanish Cabildo, or Court House, New Orleans THE PURCHASE OF LOUISIANA 233 coveted the trans- Mississippi, might soon reach out from Canada and capture it from him. He therefore r in 1803, secretly offered the province to the United States for 15,000,000, which was less than three cents an acre. Jef ferson promptly accepted the bargain, and thereby proved himself a wise and far-seeing statesman. By the stroke of a pen he acquired for us the heart of the continent as far west as the crest of the Rocky Mountains, and thereby virtually doubled the area of the nation. 1 It is said that on signing the great transfer, Napoleon, who was glad to get the money for his war, showed that he also fully- realized what a benefit it would be to us; for he exclaimed, " This accession of territory establishes forever the power of the United States. I have given to England a maritime rival that will sooner or later humble her pride." 229. Some results of the purchase. This splendid pur chase had several important results: - (a) Had Napoleon retained and colonized Louisiana we should have had endless disputes, and possibly war, with France about our Western boundaries. From this grave danger we were now saved. (b) No longer might Great Britain hope to acquire the trans-Mississippi region, and thus close our westward patn. (c) The uneasy Westerners were now satisfied, for the} were free to navigate the Mississippi River, from its source, to its mouth. (d) The immigration movement from Europe was soon strengthened, for a vast area of cheap lands beyond the Mississippi was awaiting settlement. 2 1 The purchase included the present States of Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Ne braska, and North and South Dakota, and parts of the States of Minnesota, Kansas, Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, Oklahoma, and Louisiana. The total area was somewhat less than that of the United States territory prior to 1803, but larger than Great Britain, Germany, France, Spain, Portugal, and Italy combined. 2 Another result of the Louisiana Purchase was to make it easier than it other wise would have been, to put an end to a dangerous political conspiracy set on foot by Aaron Burr in 1805-06. Although a man of great ability, he was a self- seeking politician, for whom few people had respect. He sought to organize a military expedition of Western settlers, to create a new government in our 234 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT THE UNITED STATES BEFORE 1803 230. The Lewis and Clark expedition. The most imme diate result of the purchase was an exploring expedition, headed by Captains Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, sent by Jefferson in 1804* to gather information about the Far West and to open up the fur trade with Indian tribes living in the valleys of the Missouri and Columbia Rivers. The two captains and forty-three companions made their long and toilsome journey up the great Missouri, in three large boats. Some of the party generally walked along, the banks to hunt game and study the plants and ^ftijj animals. After many thrilling experiences with fierce cur rents, inclement weather, grizzly bears, and hostile Indians, Southwest, of which he should be the head. But his plans fell through, be cause the frontiersmen were now satisfied with their chances of westward growth. Burr was tried for treason in trying to break up the Union; but no thing could be proved against him in the courts, and he was set free. 1 Lewis started westward from Washington on July 5, 1803, a few days after news was received in that city of the purchase from Napoleon. Clark joined him in Kentucky with the other men of the expedition. The party spent the win ter of 1803-04 in Illinois, opposite the mouth of the Missouri River, making boats and gathering supplies for the journey, which began May 14, 1804. THE LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION 235 B R UT r^ THE UNITED STATES AFTER 1803 they spent a long, bitterly cold, and almost starving win ter not far from the present Bismarck, North Dakota. The expedition made a fresh start the next spring, this time with thirty-two in the party. 1 After entering the nar row gorge called the Gates of the Rocky Mountains, 2 they were often obliged to haul their boats around difficult rapids and waterfalls. When the hardy adventurers reached a small mountain spring 3 which they decided must be the source of the Missouri, they hid, or cached, their boats, and hired some Indians with horses to aid them in cross ing the bleak mountains to the headwaters of the west- 1 Some of the men had left to engage in the fur trade, but several new peo ple joined. Among the latter was an Indian woman named Sacajawea (mean ing " Bird Woman"). She was born on the upper waters of the Missouri and proved very useful to the party as a guide. In memory of this great service to the expedition, there is a beautiful statue erected to her memory at Portland, Oregon. 2 Near the present Helena, Montana. 3 This spring is three thousand miles from the mouth of that river, and ten thousand feet (nearly two miles) higher than the level of the ocean. One of the men here " stood with a foot on each side" of the stream and " thanked his God that he had at last lived to bestride " the mighty Missouri. 236 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT flowing Columbia River. Here they made new boats and descended that noble stream, 1 until in November, 1805, they pitched their camp on a beach of the Pacific Ocean, - the first white men to have crossed the American con tinent within the United States, and in this neighborhood they passed their second dreary winter. The following spring the explorers set out on their return. After great difficulties and perils they finally reached St. Louis, which at that time (1806) was a small village. The inhabitants welcomed their return with great joy; for it had commonly been believed that these intrepid men had lost their lives in the unknown wilderness. 231. Results of thaA^is and Clark expedition. The path having now beejS Bi by Lewis and Clark, wander ing fur traders soonSpPB^d into the Far West. 2 Man} r American settlers also opened farms in what came to be known as the Oregon Territory, and their presence furnished a basis for our later claim to the Northwest Coast. Elsewhere throughout the great Louisiana Purchase there were several daring explorations, most of them by army officers or Federal officials. The most important of these was the one led by Captain Zebulon M. Pike, in 1806- 07. Sometimes using boats, and sometimes horses, he and his men advanced across Kansas and Colorado, a vast country which up to this time had been unknown to Amer icans. They obtained valuable information about the geo graphy, tribes, animals, and plants of that region ; were frequently stopped by hostile Indians; suffered much from thirst on the arid plains, and discovered Pike s Peak and 1 Discovered in 1792 by Captain Robert Gray, commanding a Boston trading vessel called Columbia, from which he named the river. A few years before this, Gray had gone around the world in the Columbia, the first vessel to carry the American flag on such a trip. 2 John Jacob Astor, head of the Pacific Fur Company, established at the mouth of the Columbia River, in 1811, a trading-post named Astoria, from which he hoped to control all commerce with the large tribes of Indians living along the Northwest Coast. But in the War of 1812 Astoria fell into the hands of the British. The interesting story of this enterprise has been told by Wash ington Irving in his famous book, Astoria. INVENTION OF THE STEAMBOAT 237 other mountains. They also went into New Mexico, which was a region not included in the Louisiana Purchase, but the Spanish objected to having Americans spy into their lands, and for a long time kept Pike s party prisoners. 232. Invention of the steamboat. One day in August, 1807, there appeared on the Hudson River a crudely built craft, propelled by paddle-wheels which were made to re volve by a lot of ugly and noisy machinery. This was the Clermont, built by Robert Ful ton, of New York. The river-banks were lined with excited spectators, who had heard that the experiment was to be made. At first they scorned the idea that a crazy-looking machine like this would work; but in their presence the great inventor made his first successful trip from New York to Albany, one hundred and fifty miles. This proved to a doubting and startled world that water craft could really be propelled by steam. 1 Within four or five years steamboats came to be familiar sights on our principal rivers and lakes, and along the coast. In 1811 a steamer was first seen on the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, carrying settlers into the fast-growing West. It greatly astonished the frontiersmen by being able to ascend those streams against strong currents. Other steam craft 1 Early American steamboat inventors were: James Rumsey, of Maryland, 1784; John Fitch, of Connecticut, 1786; and John Stevens, of New Jersey, about 1804. But Fulton, born in Pennsylvania in 1765 of Irish descent, was the first to bring forth a real success. The Clermont was for a time jeered at as "Ful ton s Folly." When it actually worked, however, at a speed of five miles an hour, the inventor quickly became celebrated. The first commercially success ful English steamboat did not appear until 1812. FULTON S STEAMBOAT, THE CLERMONT This vessel made the trip between New York and Albany in thirty-two hours. Steamers of the present day require less, than ten hours, including stops at points along the way 238 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT soon followed on the Great Lakes, and in 1819 the Sa vannah crossed the Atlantic to England. She was the fore runner of the countless steam craft that to-day act as ferries across every ocean on the globe. 233. Impressment of American seamen; and injuries to our commerce. The home affairs of our nation were now in a hopeful condition, but its relations with Great Britain anc/ France continued to be far from pleasant. Great Britaii was still impressing American seamen, under pretense tha<i they were British subjects. She was still at war with France, and each country insisted that none of our ships should take cargoes of food to the other country. Some vessel-o\vners were wiU.mg, to run the risk of capture, but under such conditions .American ocean commerce could not prosper, and such commerce was then our principal business. 234. The Embargo Act. Several of the European coun tries were by this time getting a good share of their food supplies from the United States. President Jefferson thought that if we refused to let Europeans have any more supplies, we could make it so uncomfortable for them that France and England would feel it necessary to make peace and cease annoying American ships. He therefore induced Congress to pass the Embargo Act, in December, 1807, by which all American vessels were forbidden to leave our ports for Europe. But to his great surprise and disappointment Europe seemed at that time quite able to live without our products although in our day she probably could not do so. France and Great Britain would not alter their rules against us, neither were their neighbors disposed to inter fere. The result was that our once busy seaports and fac tory towns had nothing to do, thousands of people were thrown out of work, hard times came, and American vessels lay idle and rotting at their wharves. For a time it looked as though this country might be ruined. So violent was the popular clamor against Jefferson s un wise experiment that Congress felt compelled to repeal the THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 239 Embargo Act. 1 There was substituted for it a Non-Inter course Act, which sought to prevent American trade with France and Great Britain only. Our commerce was some what improved by this new law, but still our trade with Europe was much less than in the days before the Embargo Act. 2 235. Jefferson refuses a third term. The President lost a good deal of his popularity because of the Embargo Act. Nevertheless, the people respected his wisdom in other matters, his high character, democratic manners, and pa triotism, and they wished him to serve for a third term. But he wrote: " General Washington set the example of voluntary retirement after eight years. I shall follow it. And a few more precedents will - oppose the obstacle of habit to any one after a while who shall endeavor to extend his term." Jefferson was right in predicting that this habit of holding no more than two terms would in time become an established usage among our Presidents. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. What reasons can you give for the defeat of John Adams? 2. Describe the method of electing the President and the Vice-President of the United States. Is this method better than electing these officials by a majority or plurality of all the voters of the United States? Give reasons. In several States the voters in each party indicate their choice of candidates for the presidency in a primary election. Discuss this plan. 3. Read Rale s The Man Without a Country. Was Philip Nolan s punish ment too severe? 1 The repeal went into effect on March 4, 1809, the last day of Jefferson s Administration. 2 Commerce on the Mediterranean Sea then suffered from the cruel and half- savage pirates of the Barbary States, the Moors of Algeria, Morocco, Tripoli, and Tunis. These ruffians captured cargoes, burned the ships, and made slaves of crews and passengers. Each year the leading European nations and our own tnade costly presents to the Moors, to induce them not to attack their vessels. The Pasha of Tripoli, who was receiving large sums from our Government, de clared war against us in 1801 ; but our navy severely defeated him. It was not until 1815, however, that all the pirates had been whipped by our fleets, and a stop put to their outrageous conduct. 240 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 4. Where was the Far West at the beginning of Jefferson s term? At its close? 5. Point out on the map the route traveled by Lewis and Clark, and re late some of the incidents of their journey. 6. Livingston, our minister to France, said after the Louisiana Purchase: "We have lived long, but this is the noblest work of our whole lives." " This treaty," he continued, "will prepare ages of happiness for innu merable generations of human creatures." Show that he was right. 7. Explain the reasons that led President Jefferson to favor the Embargo Act. What effect would such an act have upon us to-day? Upon Eu ropean nations? 8. Imagine that you^are an artist and receive the following order, " Paint a series of five pictures, showing the striking incidents in Jefferson s Administration." (a) Give the names of your pictures, (b) Briefly de scribe one of the pictures, telling what characters you would put in it, in what setting you would place the characters, and what you would represent each one as doing. 9. Sketch a map of the United States. Indicate the thirteen original States, the Northwest Territory, and the Louisiana Territory. Write on each the date that you associate with it. 10. Keep track of the successive events which have expanded our territory. (See "Expansion of Territory" in the Index. Consult Appendix E and the map between pages 392 and 393.) 11. Make an outline of the chapter. 12. Important date: 1803 Purchase of Louisiana. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Imagine that you are living in Washington during Jefferson s Adminis tration. Write your journal for any day you may select; describe some of the important things that you see ; relate the heated discussion of some subject that you may have heard; record the news received from the West, or from abroad. 2. Use for the first sentence of a composition, "Jefferson was one of the most remarkable men of our history." In your composition, tell why you think so. 3. Describe the crowd gathered to see the first trip of the Clermont. 4. Imagine that you were with Zebulon M. Pike when he ascended Pike s Peak, and that you wrote up the experiences for your local news paper. Tell what you wrote. CHAPTER XXIII THE WAR OF l8l2: THE PROTECTIVE TARIFF OF l8l6 1809-1817 236. Trickery of Great Britain and France. Jefferson s successor as President was James Madison, 1 who was in augurated in March, 1809, just as the Non- Intercourse Act came into force. France and Great Britain were still at war, and of course each was in dignant at a law forbidding ship owners to carry American cargoes to her ports. For a time each re taliated by seizing any of our ves sels that ventured out to sea, no matter to what country they were bound. Thus, though American commerce had somew^hat im proved after the repeal of the Em bargo Act, it still was in a bad way. The new President wanted, if possible, to put an end to this un fortunate condition. The British minister had told him that if American ship-ow r ners would send fish, grain, cotton, and other supplies to England, and promise not to send any to France, they would be protected by Great Britain. This seemed an excellent way of reopening trade, so Madison con- 1 Madison was born in Virginia in 1751, and early became prominent in the legislature of that State. He was also one of the principal members of both the Continental Congress and of the Constitutional Convention, and shared with Hamilton the chief burden and honor of securing the adoption of the Consti tution by the States. Madison next became a leader in Congress, then Secre tary of State, and served as President for eight years. He died in 1836. JAMES MADISON 242 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT sented, and the delighted American merchants sent to Eng lish ports over a thousand heavily laden ships. But after they had set sail, word came that the British minister had no authority from his Government to make such a promise. Consequently, many of these valuable cargoes, instead of being sold at a large profit, as had been expected, could not be landed in the harbors of England. Americans, especially in New England, where most of the ships were owned, were very angry and discouraged at this treatment, which they thought to be merely "an English trick." Soon after this France made a similar arrangement with the President, to receive American foodstuffs provided that none be sent to Great Britain. But when our ships, with cargoes worth ten millions of dollars, arrived in French ports, they were not allowed to unload there, thus repeat ing the "trick " played by Great Britain. 237. Impressment of seamen by Great Britain. All this occurred while our coast was being patrolled by British war- vessels, which frequently kidnaped sailors from Ameri can ships and meddled with our trade to foreign countries. More than six thousand naturalized Americans had thus far virtually been enslaved in Great Britain s navy, with poor food, low wages, and harsh treatment, and they were obliged, under threat of severe punishment, to assist in annoying their fellow countrymen. No doubt some of these kidnaped men actually were deserters from the British navy, as its officers claimed; but the majority were really Americans, and were taken simply because the British wanted these able-bodied fellows for their own ships. 1 238. Congress declares war against Great Britain. The newly elected Congress, which met in December, 1811, was largely composed of aggressive young Democrats. 1 About this time Tecumseh, chief of the Shawnee Indians of Ohio, aided by his brother, "the Shawnee Prophet," formed a confederation of Western tribes, to drive ofif American settlers. It was said that the British aided these savages with arms and ammunition. In the autumn of 1811, during Tecum- seh s absence, General William Henry Harrison, governor of Indiana Terri tory, marched against the Shawnee and defeated them on Tippecanoe Crec~. This battle made Harrison a popular hero. WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 243 They were new men in national politics, and the most active and able of them came from the West and the South. 1 Angry at Great Britain for her conduct toward us, they were deter mined to have another war with her, to obtain what they called our " sailors rights." The "war hawks," as they were dubbed, thought that it was only necessary to capture Canada, which lay at our door apparently almost unpro tected by soldiers or navy. With Canada once in our hands, declared one optimistic orator, we could " dictate peace at Quebec or Halifax." The following summer, President Madison, acting under instructions of Congress, issued a proclamation declaring war against Great Britain, charging her with four serious offenses against this nation : - (a) Impressing American sailors. This was the offense that chiefly angered the people. (b) Patrolling our Atlantic Coast with armed vessels, which tried to " bottle up " our ports and prevent our trad ing with other nations. (c) Capturing our merchant vessels on the high seas. (d) Encouraging the Indians to attack, rob, and murder our settlers west of the Allegheny Mountains. 239. The British desire peace. Great Britain did not want to go to war with us. She still had on her hands a giant struggle against Napoleon and his European allies, which was all the fighting she felt able to do. Before Madison s declaration had reached London, for then there was no At lantic cable, and the fastest ships took several weeks to cross the ocean, she had ordered her navy to cease annoy ing American shipping. But Congress was under the firm control of the " war hawks," and insisted on fighting. In the seaports of New England, however, the war spirit 1 Two of the new members of the House of Representatives were Henry Clay, of Kentucky (who had been a senator), and John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina. They were orators and statesmen of great power, who long continued to be leaders in the House. Clay was Speaker of that body, and at the head of the party that favored war. By this time the statesmen who had carried on the Revolution were most of them grown old, and were not now in control of the Government. 244 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT of the West and the South found few friends. The people of that section feared that the English navy might utterly destroy our ocean commerce, and this would ruin thousands of New Englanders. 1 240. The Americans unprepared. Congress had entered upon this war with entire confidence in our ability soon to whip the enemy. But as a matter of fact, we were not at all prepared for such a task. It was necessary to raise heavy special taxes and borrow money to equip, feed, and pay our forces; for at that time the Federal revenue was barely enough to support the Government in time of peace. Our regular army contained less than seven thousand men, who knew almost nothing about fighting. Most of the Re volutionary veterans were now too old for service, so that the large and well-trained British army must be fought almost entirely by our volunteers and militia. At the begin ning of the struggle we had, besides six small ships, but ten naval vessels that were capable of going out to sea, and seven of these were poorly armed. The British, how ever, had nearly a thousand men-of-war, many of them much larger than the best of ours. This last fact seemed most discouraging; but, when a number of splendid new frig ates were added to our navy, those which met the British proved quite the equal of the enemy in seamanship and fighting qualities. This is saying a great deal, for the British navy had for over two centuries, since it defeated the Span ish Armada in 1588, been the most effective in the world. 241. The Americans fail to capture Canada. Congress having thought it quite easy for us to capture Canada, and then to annex it, our army officers at once prepared to send against that colony three land expeditions. All of these were failures: - 1 This feeling grew stronger and stronger as the war went on. In December, 1814, delegates from the New England States held a convention at Hartford, Connecticut. The meeting virtually threatened that those States would se cede from the Union unless they were permitted to retain for their own protec tion during the war, the Federal customs duties collected within their borders. Fortunately the end of the war came before their address could be presented to Congress. CAMPAIGN AGAINST CANADA 245 (a) General William Hull went from Ohio with 2000 men, to keep Detroit from falling into British hands. He chopped out a road through two hundred miles of dense forest; but on arriving at Detroit he found himself outnumbered by Canadians and Indians, and surrendered to them. 1 This gave the enemy control of a large region bordering upon the upper Great Lakes. (b) General Stephen Van Rensselaer entered Canada by way of the Niagara River. He intended to seize the British rm ^rwf \ ^ ^ : ^Hl5i^^i L&^S.ililia *bHI * / % /5<\ ^^-4--<;-.-x ( : -l-^- .-^ >^e^;;J !PE)NN$Y>V/ANIAI g (LjSlNOis .S ^ O H 10 f^y r : V JlU /delpW*- ^ND4ANAJ -- CVi .o m - B __- 7 fcp4^ lL -- : ^rr^^V / ^JER^Y r|r THE FIELD OF THE WAR OF 1812 fort at York, now Toronto, and join Hull, who had ex pected to march eastward from Detroit ; it had been planned that these two generals should then march against Mon treal. But Hull had met defeat, and now Van Rensselaer was also beaten with heavy losses at Queenstown, a few miles north of Niagara Falls. (c) General Henry Dearborn went northward by way of the old Hudson-Champlain route. His purpose was to join 1 This was on August 16, 1812. The day before, the Indians in the neighbor hood of Fort Dearborn, on the site of Chicago, had massacred its garrison. In July Mackinac had been taken by the British. 246 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT Hull and Van Rensselaer in the proposed attack on Mon treal. After that the three generals were to storm Quebec. But as the other two had been defeated, Dearborn alone could do nothing. 242. Old Ironsides. Thus the year was one of contin uous disaster on land. But meanwhile, American seamen won a brilliant victory; indeed, the entire three years contest was chiefly a na val war. The American frigate Constitution, commanded by Captain Isaac Hull, a nephew of the general, was cruising off Nova Scotia, AugUSt u. _, HC met ontlSri trig- a e Guerriere At the end of a half- hour s sharp fight, the Guerriere was badly shattered and beginning to sink, so her captain surrendered. The Consti tution, however, was so skillfully managed that she was not much hurt. After her victory, which aroused great en thusiasm throughout the country, she was fondly called " Old Ironsides." 1 Several American naval victories quickly followed this affair. During October, five hundred miles east of Chesa peake Bay, the British brig Frolic was beaten by the Ameri- 1 Oliver Wendell Holmes wrote a patriotic poem on this famous vessel, at a time when, too old to be longer serviceable, it was proposed to destroy her. She was, however, preserved and restored to her original appearance, and can still be seen at the navy yard in Charlestown, Massachusetts. Courted A*. Entfand Mutual Ltfe Insurance Company THE FIGHT BETWEEN THE CONSTITUTION AND THE GUERRIERE The Constitution was of 2200 tons displacement, and 204 feet in length. Cost, f 302.719. Crew, 400 officers and men. Compare with the New PERRY S VICTORY 247 can sloop Wasp, and the frigate United States captured the frigate Macedonian, off the North African Coast. In De cember the Constitution destroyed the frigate Java, north east of Rio Janeiro. In February, 1813, the Hornet sank the British-Peacock, near the northeast coast of South America. These exploits greatly encouraged our small navy, and dis mayed the British, who were not used to defeat. 243. " Don t give up the ship." The British navy had been diligent in blockading 1 our harbors and " bottling up " several of our new ships. However, a few were able to elude the enemy on foggy days or on dark nights, and slip out to sea. Among these was the frigate Chesapeake, under Captain James Lawrence. On the first day of June, 1813, this vessel fought valiantly with the British warship Shannon. Lawrence fell mortally wounded while shouting to his men, " Don t give up the ship! " The enemy at last compelled the crew of the Chesapeake to surrender, but Lawrence s dying words have ever since been the war- cry of the American navy. 244. Perry s victory on Lake Erie. Our land forces had, up to this time, failed either to capture Canada or to keep the region of the upper Great Lakes from falling into the hands of the enemy. And now there seemed to be great danger that the British might get possession of all the Great Lakes, and possibly send troops across Lake Erie to occupy our soil. But the plucky navy came to the rescue, and Amer ican control in our Northwest was regained through the enterprise and courage of Captain Oliver H. Perry. That gallant commander collected for this purpose a fleet of nine armed vessels, five of which were built from green timber which his men cut on the banks of the lake. On September 10, 1813, he was attacked off Put-in-Bay by a British fleet of only six ships, but carrying larger crews and many more guns than his own. A fierce battle followed, in which the 1 When a harbor or a coast is blockaded by an enemy, his ships are so placed that no other vessels may either leave it, or approach it from outside, without danger of being attacked. 248 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT Commodore s flagship, the Lawrence, 1 was sunk. Escaping from the wreck, Perry and his twelve-year-old brother were rowed by sailors, through the thick of the fight, to another ship. It was a perilous experience; the rowboat was fre quently hit, and the lad s cap was torn by bullets. Victory soon came, how ever, with the entire destruc tion of the ene my s fleet. In the hour of his great triumph the American com mander sent to General Harri son, who was de fending Ohio, his famous message, hurriedly writ- ten on the blank page of a letter that he had in his pocket, " We have met the enemy, and they are ours! " The battle was a turning- point in the war. Aided by Perry s fleet the American army was not long in forcing the British to retreat from Detroit, and after this our control of the entire Northwest was un challenged. 2 245. The British are reinforced. The enemy did not re main idle. Napoleon having met temporary defeat in 1814, Great Britain did not need to keep so many of her soldiers in Europe as before. Large numbers of them were accord- 1 Named after Captain Lawrence, and bearing a flag with that commander s stirring motto, "Don t give up the ship!" 2 The fleet ferried Harrison northward across Lake Erie, and in October he defeated a large number of British and Indians in a battle on Thames River, in Ontario. Tecumseh was killed in this fight, and thereafter the Northwest savages ceased aiding the enemy. On March 29, 1814, General Andrew Jack son, at the head of a large body of Tennessee militia, defeated the Creek Indians in the battle of Horseshoe Bend, Alabama. This was to punish them for molest ing American settlers in the South. Painting by Powtll in the Capitol COMMODORE PERRY AT THE BATTLE OF LAKE ERIE Transferring the colors from the Lawrence to the Niagara THE BATTLE OF LAKE CHAMPLAIN 249 ingly sent to Canada, and they prepared to invade the United States at three points: Lake Champlain on the north, the Mississippi River on the south, and, in order to scatter the American troops, at various harbors on the Atlantic Coast. Several interesting events now occurred, which we will take up in turn. 246. The British are repulsed on Lake Champlain. Early in September 12,000 British soldiers and sailors from From a contemporary engraving THE AMERICAN NAVAL VICTORY ON LAKE CHAMPLAIN Notice the flotillas of open barges, which forme d part of each fleet Canada appeared in vessels on Lake Champlain. Their intent was to destroy our settlements in the northern part of New York State. But Lieutenant Macdonough, with a smaller American fleet, met the invaders off Plattsburg and won a brilliant victory. A land attack .on Plattsburg by a large British force was also gallantly repulsed. 247. The British attack Washington and Baltimore. The British ocean fleet, which carried a large body of soldiers, first assaulted and burned several New England coast towns that could easily be reached by landing-parties. The men-of-war then suddenly appeared in Chesapeake Bay, 250 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT not far from the city of Washington, which at that time contained only some 8000 inhabitants. The American troops were defeated in a battle at Bladensburg, Mary land, four miles from Washington, and this left the capital exposed to the enemy. The Federal officials and many of the residents fled in wild panic. The President was with the army, when a messenger reached the White House to urge Mrs. Madison to hurry to a place of safety. She ordered the silvenvare and other valuable household articles to be loaded on a wagon, and then escaped in her carriage to a country tavern, sixteen miles away, where her husband joined her. 1 The year before this the American general, Dearborn, had captured York, and some of his soldiers, entirely with out orders, had wantonly burned the fine Parliament House at that place. In revenge for this the British plun dered and burned the Capitol, the White House, and some other public buildings, with all their priceless records and other valuable contents. It was a disgraceful act of van dalism, of which no civilized army would in our day be guilty. About three weeks later, Fort McHenry, which guarded Baltimore, was cannonaded by the same British ships. Fortunately the Americans were here able to stand their ground, and the enemy soon withdrew from Chesapeake Bay. 2 248. The Battle of New Orleans. The British fleet now 1 Mrs. Madison, known to her friends as "Dolly," also saved a famous pic ture of George Washington, by the artist Gilbert Stuart, together with the original copy of the Declaration of Independence. 2 On the day before the battle Francis Scott Key, a Baltimore gentleman, visited the British fleet in the harbor, to arrange for an exchange of prisoners. He was not permitted to leave for home during the bombardment, which lasted throughout the whole night. From the deck of one of the vessels he watched anxiously, hour after hour, fearing that the flag of Fort McHenry might be hauled down in token of surrender. His great joy at seeing the "Stars and Stripes" still floating triumphantly at the dawn of the new day, was expressed in a thrilling song, "The Star-Spangled Banner," which he quickly wrote on the back of a letter. A few hours later it was sung in public by an actor in the city. Within a few weeks Americans everywhere were familiar with the verses, and Key had become a national celebrity. THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS 251 continued its voyage to New Orleans. Its officers hoped easily to capture that city, and with it the control of the Mississippi River and the interior of the continent. General Andrew Jackson, a popular Indian fighter from Tennessee, was in command of the defenses. His little army of nearly 5000 leather-clad volunteers had mostly been collected from the backwoods of the South and the West. Few of them had had military training, but nearly all were Expert hunt- From an old engraving THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS ers, who with their long-barreled, flintlock rifles could hit the smallest mark. The British vessels entered Lake Borgne, a few miles east of the city, and by means of small boats landed 5500 skilled veterans under General Pakenham. Several small battles were fought in the cypress swamp lying between New Orleans and the river, but the final British advance against the American defenders was not made until January 8, 1815. Jackson and his sharpshooters quietly arranged themselves behind their hastily built fortifications of earth and logs. They knew no fear; every man of them was as cool as if at a target match in his own frontier town, a;id 252 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT fired only when he had selected a redcoat as a victim. Under this unerring aim the British general fell dead, and over two thousand of his brave men were either killed or wounded, while the American loss was only twenty-one. 1 The British survivors tarried in the vicinity for nearly three weeks, and then returned to their ships and sailed away, greatly chagrined at this unexpected and terrible defeat. The stirring news of victory quickly spread from one end of our country to the other, and soon the name and fame of Andrew Jackson were familiar to every American man, woman, and child. 249. Peace concluded. The British Government had come to realize, by the autumn of 1814, that although our young nation was weak and unprepared for war, it could not easily be beaten. The American army of regulars and militiamen had been effective in the defense of Plattsburg and Baltimore, and under Jackson at New Orleans. But from the fact that it had largely been a naval war, the greatest honors were earned by our sailors, who in the fifteen notable battles at sea had won twelve. Great Brit ain s powerful vessels blockaded American ports, " bottled up " many of our small w r arships, and prevented our regular trade with foreign countries. By 1814 she had, through her blockade, driven the most of our vessels from the ocean; during 1812 and 1813, however, over five hundred Yan kee" privateers, well armed and manned, had scoured the Atlantic, preyed on British craft wherever found, and made large profits in selling captured vessels and cargoes. Great Britain s commerce had, therefore, very greatly suffered, and she now sought peace. On Christmas Eve, 1814, there was signed at Ghent, in Belgium, a treaty which provided that the war cease, that each side surrender to the other all conquered territory, and that all disputes about boundaries be settled. Nothing 1 Our loss in this principal battle was but eight killed and thirteen wounded. But at the same time there was another battle in progress on the west bank of the Mississippi River, in which the American loss was fifty; making the total loss seventy-one. WHAT THE WAR ACCOMPLISHED 253 was said in this treaty, however, about the real causes of the war. 1 News then traveled very slowly between Europe and America. Neither Jackson nor Pakenham knew of the peace when they fought the decisive battle of New Orleans, two weeks after the treaty was signed. 2 Ever since that memor able struggle in Louisiana, the people of Great Britain and the United States have been at peace. Of late years they have become the firmest of friends, which certainly should always be the case between these two great divisions of English-speaking folk. I 250. What the war accomplished. War is a crude, costly, and cruel method of settling disputes between nations, and whenever possible it should be avoided. Still, this unfortu nate conflict did result in several benefits to the Union: (a) The Republic had displayed its ability, especially on the sea, to defend itself and to enforce its rights. Until a nation can do this, it cannot be sure of peace. (b) The stoppage of importation from Europe had led to the establishment among us of a large number of "native industries," especially in New England. (c) When the war began most Americans still thought of the Union as a mere confederation of independent States. But the brilliant victories of Federal soldiers and sailors, together with the rapid settlement of the West, greatly in creased our national pride. Men now saw that the Union had ceased to be an experiment. It had grown to be a strong and enduring nation. 251. The protective tariff of 1816. One of the results of the war was to reopen our commerce with Europe, which had been stopped by the Non- Intercourse Act. American manufacturers saw with dismay that goods made in foreign 1 But after the peace, the British ceased to search our vessels and impress our seamen, so that this one question was no longer important. 2 News of this battle reached Washington on February 4, about a week before the Federal officials had tidings of the proceedings at Ghent. The British fleet also long remained uninformed of the close of the war; for on February 1 1, a month after the victory at New Orleans, it captured an American post on Mobile Bay. 254 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT countries, where labor was much cheaper than in the United States, were now coming to our ports in vast quantities and being offered at lower prices than they could afford to sell American products. Congress yielded to their wishes, and passed the tariff of 1816, which imposed much higher duties than before. It was the first really protective tariff that the United States had enacted. 252. The National Road. The introduction of the steam boat, in Jefferson s Administration, had done much to ce ment the bond between the States. This great invention made it easier for people of different sections to travel about and get acquainted, and therefore friendly, with each other. Another great aid to travel was the broad and well- made National, or Cumberland, Road, which was built by Congress to facilitate commerce by land. It was com menced at Cumberland, Maryland, in 1811, and led west ward, partly by way of General Braddock s old military road, over the Allegheny Mountains to the Ohio River, which it reached at Wheeling, West Virginia. Gaudily painted stage-coaches, drawn by fast horses which were often changed, rolled frequently along the smooth surface of this highway. Their passengers put up for the night at log taverns, where food was coarse and often scarce, and sleeping-room likely to be at a premium. The majority of the West-going settlers, however, who brought with them their families, household goods, ard live stock, traveled in great canvas-covered wagons, labori ously hauled by long teams of mules. On arriving at the Ohio River, steamboats took the " movers " to their new homes along the banks of that and other Western streams. Gradually Congress extended the National Road still farther westward. Passing through Columbus, Indianapolis, and many other frontier settlements that now are flour ishing cities, it finally reached Illinois in 1838. There it stopped, after having cost the nation $6,800,000, for by that time railroads had been introduced, and most travelers preferred this quicker and easier way of reaching the West. THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 255 QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. What forces are at work to-day which might have prevented the War of 1812? 2. " Don t give up the ship" has become a motto in America. What his toric event does it recall? 3. What is the meaning of the word "vandalism"? Why do the author? say that no civilized army to-day would be guilty of such conduct? 4. Locate the scenes of the campaign of 1814-15. 5. Learn the words and music of The Star-Spangled Banner. During the playing of this music, soldiers and sailors are required to stand at "attention." All audiences should show the same respect for the flag. When the national colors are passing on parade, spectators should, if walking, halt; or if sitting, rise, the men and boys remov ing their hats. 6. Give reasons why England and America especially should be friends, 7. Make an outline of the War of 1812, under these headings: - Important Events Leaders Results 8. Bring to the class pictures contrasting land transportation of the early nineteenth century with that of the early twentieth century. 9. Trace on a map the National Road. Why was it important in the early nineteenth century? Why did the Government discontinue its building? 10. Make an outline of the chapter. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Imagine that you are an American sailor impressed into service on a British man-of-war. You smuggle home a letter telling of your im pressment, the cruelty of your treatment, your plans for escape. 2. Imagine that when young you served with Lawrence on the Chesa peake and you are telling your grandchildren of his death. 3. Imagine that you were Perry s brother. Relate your experience in the Battle of Lake Erie. 4. Imagine that you were .n American official in the White House when the news oi the British attack is received. Picture Dolly Madison s presence of mind in the midst o{ the confusion. CHAPTER XXIV THE ERA OF GOOD FEELINGS: THE MISSOURI COMPROMISE: THE MONROE DOCTRINE 1817-1825 253. The Era of Good Feelings. In March, 1817, James Monroe 1 became President. As sooi. as summer arrived, he made a long tour through the Northern States, urging his fellow citizens to cease their old-time sectional jealousies and party quarrels, and to work together for the welfare of the country. Only in this way, said the President, could the nation grow great and strong. Every where the people greeted with enthusiasm the popular war vet eran, who continued to wear the Revolutionary uniform, and they came in great throngs to clasp his hands. The political party to which he belonged, the Demo cratic, had brought on the War of 1812, and this had greatly angered the New Englanders, for it had seriously in jured their shipping interests. Nevertheless, they warmly welcomed him as a messenger of peace. One Boston news paper said, " Party feeling and animosities have been laid aside, and one great national feeling has animated every 1 Monroe was born in Virginia in 1 758. When the Revolu tion broke out, he was a student in William and Mary College, but left school to become a lieutenant in a Virginia regiment. At Trenton he led the advance guard. He was in the bat tles of Brandywine, Germantown, and Monmouth, and became a lieutenant- colonel. After serving in the Virginia Assembly, the Confederation Congress, and the Federal Senate, he was minister to France and Great Britain, gov ernor of his State, and a member of President Madison s Cabinet. He died in New York City in 1831. THE FLORIDA PURCHASE 257 class of our citizens." Another Boston paper called it the " Era of Good Feelings," and by that happy name Mon roe s Administration has ever since been known. 254. The Florida Purchase. However, the President was not only a peacemaker; he could act with vigor when there was need for it. The Spanish Province of Florida 1 was the home of smugglers, pirates, and other lawless classes, includ ing unruly Seminole Indians and runaway negro slaves. These people, who lived in the midst of great swamps and dense forests, frequently made raids against American set tlements lying to the north of them, to plunder and murder. Monroe determined to put a stop to this, and in 1818 he sent General Jackson to punish any raiders whom he found within our territory. That experienced Indian fighter did not stop at the Florida boundary, but marching southward chased the offenders out of their hiding places and pun ished .them without mercy. Spain was, of course, much annoyed at having her soil invaded by our troops, but deemed it unwise to quarrel with us about it; so, to avoid further trouble, she sold the province to the United States, in 1819, for $5,000,000. In this way there were added to our possessions, at a cost of about eleven cents an acre, seventy-one thousand square miles, a region about fourteen times the size of Connecti cut. 2 The Florida Purchase was our second step in national expansion; our first was, it will be remembered, the Louisi ana Purchase. 255. Westward migration. Immediately after the Treaty of Ghent migration into the West increased more rapidly than ever before. A traveler on the National Road wrote in 1817: " Old America seems to be breaking up and moving west ward; we are seldom out of sight, as we travel on this grand track towards the Ohio, of family groups behind and before 1 There were two Spanish provinces, East Florida and West Florida. We commonly refer to them collectively, however, as Florida. 2 Two other agreements were made with Spain, at this time: First, she aban doned all of her claims to the Oregon region, which we were coveting; second, we abandoned our claim to what afterwards was called Texas, a country which before this we had thought was a part of our Louisiana Purchase. 258 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT us." But the people of old Europe, great numbers of whom had been made very poor by Napoleon s wars, which had ruined the farms and destroyed the towns and villages through large sections of country, were also moving west ward to the new land across the Atlantic. Thousands of them arrived each year, and formed a part of this grow ing procession toward the fertile region of the trans-Alle gheny. 1 Most of the settlers opened farms or built towns east of the Mississippi River and north of the Tennessee. But there was also at this time, and for many years after, a steady westward movement of planters from the Carolinas and Geor gia, who sought new and larger rice and cotton fields in Ala bama, Mississippi, and Louisiana. Some of them, indeed, did not stop until they had crossed the Mississippi River into the Louisiana Purchase. They went with their families in heavy wagons, which rolled and pitched on the rough roads; while trudging in their rear were gangs of slaves, having in charge droves of horses, cattle, and sheep. Thus was the system of slavery being rapidly extended into what was then called the Southwest. 256. Slave States against free States. Because of this great migration to the interior of the continent, 3 new States 1 It is believed that between 22,000 and 30,000 immigrants came from Europe to America in 1817, chiefly to the ports of Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore. 2 So called from the place in Pennsylvania where the first wagons of this style were made. Originally used for freight transportation in southern and western Pennsylvania, they later became the usual conveyance for emigrants to the West. 3 The population of Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee grew nearly ten times a.* fast as that of New England. Courtesy, Cinted States National Museum A CONESTOGA WAGON* SLAVE STATES AND FREE STATES 259 were frequently being added to the Union, in the South as well as in the West. 1 And the time did not now seem far distant when other States would have to be formed within the Louisiana Purchase itself. But the question now arose, and we shall see that it was a very serious one, Should these new States be homes of slavery or of freedom? Vermont, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, four of the States that were ad mitted to the Union after the original thirteen, did not allow slavery. In the States of Kentucky, Tennessee, Lou isiana, Mississippi, and Alabama, however, it was lawful to hold slaves. The people of Missouri, the first State except Louisiana itself to be formed out of the Louisiana Purchase, were chiefly Southerners. In 1818 they asked Congress to admit them to the Union, with slavery. The South favored the request and for this reason: the largely populated North out- voted the thinly populated South in the Federal House of Representatives, and was beginning to show a desire to interfere with slavery. But in the Federal Senate, where each State, big or little, has just two votes, the slave States and the free States were evenly divided eleven on each side. 2 Now if Missouri came into the Union with slavery there would be twelve slave States, which would give the South the control of the Senate, and thus enable it to de feat any anti-slavery movement that started in the House. The Northerners, on the other hand, declared that all States created west of the Mississippi River should be the homes of freemen. They said that free laborers were the only really valuable agricultural settlers, and that such men would not work alongside of slaves. Moreover, they declared that slavery was a bad system and ought no more to be introduced into a new State than weeds should be 1 Ohio in 1803; Louisiana (the southern part of the old French Province of Louisiana), 1812; Indiana, 1816; Mississippi, 1817; Illinois, 1818; Alabama, 1819. 2 Free States: Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. Slave States: Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana. 260 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT sown in a newly opened farm. Then, again, the North suspected that the South, which wanted free trade, would, if it could, use the Senate to prevent the adoption of a tariff for protecting Northern industries. 257. The Missouri Compromise. It happened that about this time Maine was likewise knocking at the door of the Union for admission as a State. She wanted to be a free ~<T^^/^ State. Southern Congressmen re- ~j fused to vote for her unless Mis souri were at the same time admit ted with slavery ; for, if Maine were permitted to enter the Union alone, the free States would have a major- ^L. ity in the Senate. There followed a long and angry debate. The only way out of the difficulty seemed to be a bargain called the " Missouri Compromise," that was adopted by HENRY CLAY Congress in I82O. 1 Its provisions were as follows : (a) Maine was to be admitted as a free State. This was done in the same year. (b) Missouri was to come in as a slave State, which she did in 1821. (c) But so much of the remainder of the Louisiana Pur chase as lay north of Missouri s southern boundary (parallel 36 31 ) was forever to remain free. 2 Thus the Senate was still evenly divided twelve free States and twelve slave States. Nearly everybody thought 1 One of its prominent advocates was Henry Clay, who^ was born in Virginia in 1777, but spent the greater part of his life in Kentucky. His education was obtained at a log schoolhoyse, and as a boy he worked on a farm. He became a lawyer when twenty years old, and soon adopted a political life, being several times a United States "Senator, and for many years Speaker of the House of Representatives. Clay was one of the foremost of American statesmen in his time, and a powerful debater. He was several times nominated for the presidency, but failed of election. He favored a gradual freeing of the slaves. 2 Thirty-four years later this provision was repealed; but it existed long enough to make Iowa and other new States in the Northwest free. THE MONROE DOCTRINE . 261 that this arrangement would be a permanent solution of the slavery dispute, 1 and for a time our people were happy over it. It did not prove to be permanent; nevertheless, the Missouri Compromise kept the peace between North and South for nearly thirty years. 258. The Monroe Doctrine. President Monroe s Admin istration is famous for still another event of great import ance the announcement of what is known as the " Mon roe Doctrine." It came about in this way : For seventy years Russia had been trading for furs with the Alaska Indians. At the opening of our War of 1812 she began a fur-trading colony in California, on what was then Spanish territory. Soon after this Mexico and several other Spanish colonies in Central and South America rose in rebellion against their harsh mother country and formed free republics. Russia was suspected of having joined an alliance of several Euro pean monarchies in a promise to help Spain win back her colonies. Monroe feared that if this were true, and they succeeded in such an attempt, Russia might, as payment for her services, ask for a large grant of Spanish land in America; and that other members of the European alliance might, in time, also seek colonies on this side of the Atlantic. Accordingly, the President sent a message to Congress, December 2, 1823, setting forth the " Monroe Doctrine," which European nations have ever since accepted as our policy toward them : - (a) " The American continents," said he, " by the free and independent condition which they have assumed and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers." Russia s reply to this doctrine was a prompt abandonment of all of her claims to our Pacific Coast south of Alaska. (b) Speaking of "the political system of the allied powers" of Europe, Mr. Monroe declared " that we should consider 1 Jefferson did not think so, however, for in writing to a friend he said: "This momentous question, like a fire bell in the night, awakened me and filled me with terror. ... It is hushed, indeed, for the moment. But this is a re- rjrieve only, not a final sentence." 262 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT any attempt on their part to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety," and " the manifestation of an unfriendly disposi tion toward the LTnited States." (c) The President also pointed out that we had always acted on ^the good advice given in Washington s Farewell \ddress, and had never meddled in the political affairs of Europe; and now Europe was expected to keep her hands from our affairs. In short, Monroe desired to keep " Amer ica for the Americans." 259. Our northern boundary Oregon under joint control. Still another important event of this Administra tion was an agreement with Great Britain about such part of the boundary between the United States and British America as stretched from the Mississippi River to the sum mit of the Rocky Mountains. Our treaty of peace with Great Britain, by which the United States obtained its independence, had described this boundary between the two nations l as far westward as " the most northwestern point " of the Lake of the Woods ; west of that lay the great Province of Louisiana. When, in 1803, we purchased that province from France, its northern boundary was not de scribed to us by France, for no one then knew exactly where it was. In 1818, however, our Government entered into a treaty with Great Britain, by which both nations agreed that the boundary should be a line drawn south from the northwestern point of the Lake of the Woods to the forty- ninth parallel of north latitude, and thence westward along lhat parallel to the Rocky Mountains. All land north of this ine was to be Canada, and south of it the United States; and that is still the boundary between us. Beyond the Rockies lay the great Oregon country, now Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia, whose bounda ries and ownership could not at that time be agreed upon, 1 But so little was known at that time about American geography that this description was very vague. It required many surveys and treaties, in later years, to come to an agreement about it with Great Britain. THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 263 for it was claimed by both nations. It was therefore decided in this same treaty that the Oregon region should for ten years be held by both of them jointly. 1 QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. Draw a map of the United States. On it indicate the original thirteen colonies; the region settled soon after the Revolution; and the region settled soon after the War of 1 8 1 2. Draw the outline of your own State, and write on it the date of its admission to the Union. 2. Begin to make in your history notebook an outline of the development of the slavery question, beginning with the date 1619. Note every occurrence in which the question of slavery was brought up. (See "Slavery " in the Index.) 3. Jefferson wrote, "The Missouri question is the most portentous one which ever threatened our Union." What did he mean? 4. What did the Missouri Compromise really settle? 5. It was at this time that Clay received the title, "The great Pacificator." Watch his career .from now on, to see whether he deserved the title. W T hat did he do during this period? 6. Learn the portion of the Monroe Doctrine quoted in the text. Show if possible from recent history that this doctrine makes the United States the guardian of the Western Hemisphere. 7. What is a treaty ? Note what other treaties have been made between 1789 and the present time. (See "Treaty " in the Index.) 8. Name four great accomplishments of Monroe s Administration. 9. Make an outline of the chapter. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Tell what you know of the immigration of your ancestors to this coun try or of their migration to your State. 2. Imagine that you are a poor traveler on the National Road in 1817. Your wife is ill, and your wagon has broken down. Who comes to your aid? W hat is the fortunate end of your troubles? Try to introduce the spirit of the time into your descriptions and conversations. 1 In 1824 General Lafayette, of France, who had aided the American Revo lution, revisited the United States after an absence of forty years. He was now nearly seventy years of age. His tour lasted almost fourteen months, and in cluded the principal cities in each State. Everywhere he was received with great friendliness, especially by his Revolutionary comrades; and in June, 1825, the fiftieth anniversary of the battle, he laid the corner stone of Bunker Hill Monument. As a partial return for the money which he had taken from his private fortune to aid the American Revolution, Congress presented him with ?4,ooo acres of " any unoccupied public lands " and $200,000 in money. He had <ost what was left of his, property through political changes in France, but the American grant made easy the remaining nine years of his life. CHAPTER XXV CANALS AND RAILWAYS: THE BEGINNINGS OF TEMPERANCE REFORM 1825-1829 260. Opening of the Erie Canal. The first important event in the Administration of President John Quincy Adams l was the opening of the Erie Canal, which connects the Hudson River, near Albany, with Lake Erie, at Buffalo, by way of the Mohawk River Valley. This is a distance of three hundred and sixty-three miles. The canal was the result of the desire of Western settlers for some better and cheaper way of sending their crops to Eastern markets. Governor DeWitt Clinton of New York, a man of foresight and energy, persuaded the people of his State to undertake the great and costly improvement. At first they good-naturedly laughed at the scheme, and called it " Clinton s big ditch." But when, the " ditch " was opened to traffic, in October, 1825, with impressive ceremonies, everybody w r as glad that the Governor had persisted in having it dug. Great crowds cheered him lustily as he rode in a gayly decorated canal boat from Buffalo to New York City. The enthusiasm reached its height when he solemnly 1 John Quincy Adams was a son of John Adams, the second President, and was born in Massachusetts in 1767. As a child, he witnessed from a distance the Battle of Bunker Hill. In his eleventh year he went to France with his father, and at fourteen was private secretary to the American minister at St. Petersburg. Returning at eighteen, after extensive travels through Europe, he was graduated from Harvard at twenty. Before being elected President, Adams had been our minister at five European capitals, a professor at Harvard, a Boston lawyer, a member of the United States Senate, and Secretary of State. In the election of 1824 there were four candidates for President Adams, Henry Clay, of Kentucky, Andrew Jackson, of Tennessee, and William Henry Crawford, of Georgia. None of them received a majority of the electoral votes, so the House of Representatives was obliged (as provided in the Constitution) to decide be tween them, and chose Adams. After his presidential term he was a conspic uous and useful member of the Federal House of Representatives, and died in Washington in 1848. THE ERIE CANAL 265 emptied into the sea the contents of two kegs containing Lake Erie water. He said in a speech that this act was to celebrate "the navigable communication which had been accomplished between our Mediterranean Seas [by which he meant the Great Lakes] and the Atlantic Ocean." Henceforth, the stream of traffic to and from the West was chiefly along this new route. Before the building of the canal it had taken three weeks to transport a barrel of flour from Albany to Buffalo, and the cost was ten dollars; after 8^M^h Ipt B A CANAL WITH LOCKS This shows, on a very small scale, the principle on which the Panama Canal and the Erie Canal are constructed the canal was opened, it took but a week, and cost only thirty cents. The Western settler could get Eastern-made tools and supplies at a much lower price than before; and he might cheaply and quickly send his wheat, corn, and live stock to the Eastern markets. This, in turn, benefited the people in Eastern cities; for now that the supply was more abundant than ever before, they paid less for their food. In short, the canal made living and farming in the West almost as convenient as in the East ; it was a long step forward in the development of the interior of the continent. 1 1 The Erie Canal long continued to be an important highway of commerce between the Atlantic Coast and the Great Lakes. But after railways came 266 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 261. The first steam railways. In 1807 Fulton had proved that boats could be propelled by steam. Later it was asked whether " steam wagons " were possible, for use on land. George Stephenson, an English engineer, said that they surely were possible, and in 1825 he demonstrated this by opening the first steam railway in England - 1 A year later, John Ste vens built the first steam loco motive in Amer ica, and oper ated it on a lit tle experimental railway at Ho- boken, New Jer sey. But for three or four years little more was heard of this new invention. Between 1828 and 1830 the Baltimore and Ohio Railway, which had wooden rails with a flat strip of iron on top, was built for a distance of sixty miles out of Baltimore; its destination was the Ohio River. 2 At first the cars were drawn by horses, although unsuccess- its use was not so great as before. In our day, however, there is a new interest in artificial waterways. In 1911 the State of New York began widening and deep ening this channel, at a cost of a hundred million dollars. This is to enable great barges carrying a thousand tons of freight safely to pass between Buffalo and the Hudson River. 1 A timid person asked Stephenson what would happen if a cow should get on the track, ahead of his steam engine. With a twinkle in his eye, he re plied, " T would be very bad for the cow!" 2 The Baltimore and Ohio was the first "through" railway to be built in America that is, to carry passengers and freight a considerable distance. But several other short roads, using horse power, were being built at the same time in different parts of the country. ONE OF THE FIRST RAILWAY TRAINS IN AMERICA This train was run on the Mohawk and Hudson Railroad. The first ex cursion trip was made from Albany to Schenectady, on August 9, 1831. The locomotive was one of the earliest built in America for actual use. It weighed about four tons, and used wood for fuel. The cars were simply stage-coaches placed on flange wheels THE FIRST STEAM RAILWAYS 267 ful experiments had been made with sails. In August, 1830, a small engine, called "Tom Thumb," built by Peter Cooper, of New York, made its first trip over thirteen miles of this road. 1 The " Tom Thumb " could follow sharp curves and climb steep grades, whereas the English railways were quite straight and almost level ; and it could go much faster than any of the English-built engines. It was, therefore, better adapted to the conditions that existed in this country. Pro gress had been slow, but it had been sure; and inventors were much encouraged over it. By the end of 1831 several American railways, which before this had been using horses, were experimenting with steam locomotives. These machines were very clumsy and ugly, differing greatly in appearance from the graceful and powerful engines now in use. Most people had at first little faith in these noisy and strange-looking " steam- wagons." They shook their heads and expressed doubts as to the sanity of the rattle-brained folk who were, as one writer said, " proposing to hurl their fellow citizens through the air at the preposterous rate of fifty or sixty miles an hour, to do away with horses and drivers, and to use up all the coal in the country over their fantastic experiments." 2 Similar objections were heard against automobiles and electric trolley cars, only a few years ago; but like the railways, they also seem to have come to stay, for people realize the practical advantage of rapid travel, and after all rather enjoy being " hurled through the air." 262. The crudeness of early railways. In the early years of the railways, however, their methods and equip ment were very crude, compared with what we are used to. For instance, it was not at first thought to be possible to cross the Allegheny Mountains with steam locomotives. For a long time " portage " cars were hauled up or let down 1 The "Tom Thumb" was but little larger than one of our ordinary hand cars. The boiler was about the size of a large wash-boiler, and the flues were made of old musket-barrels. It took seventy-two minutes to run the thirteen miles from Baltimore to Ellicott s Mills. 2 The people of Dorchester, Massachusetts, voted in town meeting (1842) to "use their utmost endeavors to prevent, if possible, so great a calamity to our town as must be the location of any railroad through it." 268 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT U. S. MAIL LINES PHIUL WILMINGTON & BALTIMORE RAILROAD, over the steepest parts by stationary engines. This system lasted until about ten years before the Civil War. The passen ger who in those days wished to go farther west than Pitts- burg, must, as in the time of the National Road, proceed by steamboat down the Ohio River. For many years nearly every little stretch of railroad was built and owned by a separate company. The rules and gauges that is, the distances between the rails of these various lines often differed greatly from each other, and there had to be frequent transfers of " through " pas sengers and freight. But lit tle by little the " roads of steel" were combined into the great "systems" that now cross our entire con tinent in every direction, and give us what is on the whole the best railroad ser vice in the world. 263. The beginnings of temperance reform. Hard drinking was then far more common than now, among both rich and poor, and it was not considered, as now, a disgrace. Liquor was often given to ministers at " donation parties." Sales were com monly " sealed " by the two parties taking a drink together. Men and women freely drank each other s "good health" at dinners, "work-bees," and other social occasions. Several Boston men realized the grave danger of this bad habit that had become fastened upon the nation. They therefore organized, in 1826, the American Society for the Promotion of Temperance. By temperance, they meant the moderate use of liquor. This reform soon became quite popular, especially in the cities, where the old custom was Bore will leare ibe Depot, Elctenlbi Dally (cf ccpt Sunday.) al 8 o rlocl. A. M.; and Dailt, m 4, P. M. The abo. Lot. will KM** Boliinoro for Ph.ladclpkin Daily (eueft SMd.J.I .1 9 O clock. A. M.. and 8 .Mock, P. M. The Lior, .,. New Ca.llc aod Freaoblowo. by SlcambMt fran> Ooch ireel WHart will be djacontiioed <D aod .fur lhal day. AND F1TTS3UHOH. Depot. Pa FREIGHT ACCOMMODATION LINE. A RAILROAD POSTER OF 1845 BEGINNINGS OF TEMPERANCE REFORM 269 at its worst. Later, temperance societies sprang up whose members went a step further and practiced total abstinence from all that can intoxicate. From that time on, the reform grew in strength, until to-day the United States is probably the most temperate among all the great nations of the world. Indeed, in many of our States, the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors is prohibited by law. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. Why was the Erie Canal of great importance in 1825? Why is there now a revival of interest in it? 2. When Charles Carroll broke ground for the building of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad he said he considered the act " second only to that of signing the Declaration of Independence." W hy did he think so? 3. Find out the names of some of our longest railroads. Find out what lines you can take to go from your home to New York; to San Fran cisco. Compare the present rate of travel with that of 1830. 4. Compare the relative merits of canals and railroads as a means of transportation. 5. Prove that steam and electricity have had a powerful effect in making us a nation. 6. What new mode of travel is interesting us to-day? Who are some of the prominent men connected with the working-out of this idea? \Vhy are they not called "rattle-brained folk" as were the men who first experimented in steam locomotion? 7. Make an outline of the chapter. 8. Important dates: 1825 Completion of the Erie Canal. 1829 First railroad in America. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Write an account of the opening of the Erie Canal for a newspaper or a magazine. 2. Imagine that you traveled behind the "Tom Thumb." Describe the trip. 3. Woodrow Wilson says of our country at this period, "It was a big, ungainly, rural nation." Agricultural communities, not cities, had grown up. Contrast a bird s-eye view of the United States in 1825 with such a view of to-day. 4. Ask the older people whom you know to tell you of conditions of rail road travel in their early days. Tell the class what you learn about this. CHAPTER XXVI THE SPOILS SYSTEM : BEGINNING OF ANTI-SLAVERY AGITATION 1829-1837 264. Differences between the North and South. The North and the South differed from each other both in the physical characteristics of the land, and in the habits and opinions of the inhabitants. (a) The South had few important towns, and not many factories. The principal business was farming, and this was done on large plantations. The warm Southern climate is well suited to out-of-door life ; and we have seen that the soil of that region is adapted to the raising of large single crops, like tobacco, cotton, rice, and indigo. The North has a colder climate than the South, which leads to the indoor employment of many of its people, and thus to larger centers of population and manufactures. By 1830 that section had come to contain many prosperous cities and towns. Numerous factories of different kinds had been established, and Northern merchants and shipowners carried on a profitable commerce with all parts of the world. The farms of the North were small, compared with the great Southern plantations, and on them were raised a consider able variety of crops. (b) Northern manufacturers had, by this time, come to be eager for high-tariff legislation that should virtually shut out all foreign-made goods. 1 But the Southern planters 1 The argument of the manufacturers was that a high tariff would encourage men to start new industries in the United States; that these would employ large numbers of workmen, at good wages, who would purchase produce from the farmers; that a manufacturing nation could be independent of other na tions, in time of war; and that the tariff on imports would at the same time bring much revenue to the Government. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NORTH AND SOUTH 271 would have liked to continue their trade with Europe, which they could easily carry on by means of the sailing-vessels that took their crops across the Atlantic. They were opposed to a high tariff, for it caused them to pay large prices for all their imports. They thought they ought to be allowed " free trade " that is, the right to bring over to their planta tions whatever foreign-made articles they wished, free of duty. They had almost no manufactures of their own, and were not pleased at being forced to pay out of their own pockets for " fostering the infant industries " of New Eng land. (c) Northern manufacturers and merchants wanted to sell their goods to settlers in the interior of the continent. For that reason they asked the Federal Government to deepen the rivers upon which boats and barges might carry cargoes toward the West; and where necessary, to build canals connecting east-flowing with west-flowing waterways. Their wishes were heeded by Congress, which consented to undertake several such schemes of "internal improve ments," some of them at great cost. 1 The South was provided by nature with as many navi gable rivers as it needed for its own ocean-going vessels, so was not much interested in these improvements. The cost of them ought, Southern statesmen said, to be met by the States that were directly benefited, not by the entire Nation. The fact that a good share of the money collected at the custom-houses because of the tariff was spent on internal improvements was very annoying to the South. (d) The North had almost no need for slaves, for it was not profitable to use such ignorant and shiftless labor in factories or on small farms. She had, therefore, by this time freed nearly all slaves within her borders and many North erners had come to believe that slavery was wrong. In the South slavery had long been established, and most South erners thought it a proper condition for the blacks to be in. 1 Between 1824 and 1828, two and a third million dollars were voted by Congress for this purpose. 272 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT Many Southern planters were now moving into the West and the Southwest, and carrying their slaves with them. They therefore wanted Congress to declare the new States to be slave territory that is, territory in which it should be lawful to hold slaves. The Northerners, however, in sisted that these States should be free. Thus on the three great political questions of tariff, inter nal improvements, and the extension of slave territory, the wishes of the North and the South were directly opposed to each other. As neither side would yield, there early arose serious disputes between the two sections. In the period that we are now studying, these dis sensions led slowly but surely toward the terrible, and prob ably unavoidable, Civil War. 265. Election of President Jackson. General Andrew Jackson, of Tennessee, who became President in 1829, was extremely popular throughout the country as a military hero. He belonged to the class of Western pioneers who had conquered the wilderness by their own hard work, and did not look with favor on the "aristocratic" element from which all the Presidents before him had been chosen. 1 1 Jackson was born in 1767 on the border line between North and South Carolina. His Scotch-Irish ancestors were hardy and adventurous folk, who oncoming to America went almost immediately to the hilly country lying west of the coast colonies. The Scotch- Irish were about the first people to establish homes west of the Alleghenies. Andrew was the son of a frontiersman. As a young man he became a champion at rifle-shooting matches; he could also break and ride the most vicious horses, and because of his strength was famous all along the border. In the Revolution, while a lad, he was captured by British soldiers and cruelly treated because he would not black an officer s boots. Al though he never had much opportunity for education, he practiced law for several years in North Carolina and Tennessee, and was elected United States Senator in 1797 and again in 1823. We have already seen him serving in the regular army as a general in the War of 1812, and later in the Creek and Semi- ANDREW JACKSON THE SPOILS SYSTEM 273 The new President was impulsive and high-tempered ; he had no patience with men who did not think as he did, and was fearless and independent. The common people, who felt that he was one of them, admired his courage and sterling character, honest warmth of heart, and good intentions. 266. " The spoils system." Before Jackson s presidency, the Federal Government had employed clerks, postmasters, and other minor officials on the same principle that business Courtesy, Library of Congress "CLEAR THE KITCHEN," A CARTOON OF PRESIDENT JACKSON Jackson s harshness in overruling his Cabinet and members of Congress is here carica tured. He regarded as personal enemies those who di ffered from him or opposed him or manufacturing houses engage their assistants that is, competent persons were selected, and they w^ere kept in office just as long as they were satisfactory, no matter what their political party. But Jackson turned out of office about a thousand government employees who had not voted for him and put in their places his own political friends. His principal excuse for this was that he did not believe the nole campaigns. Jackson was the idol of his troops on account of his great daring and bravery, and had such tough muscles and could endure such great fatigue that they called him "Old Hickory," a nickname which clung to him for the rest of his life. He served eight years as President, and died in 1845. 274 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT men whom he found in office were honest; so he said that he would turn them out. He also believed that a perma nent office-holding class was being formed in this country, and that every taxpayer ought to be given a chance to hold office. He did not know that he was thus beginning a "spoils system" 1 that was to continue in the Federal Government until quite recent years, growing to enormous proportions. It still exists in many of the States and cities of our country. 2 267. The beginning of slavery agitation. As early as the adoption of the Constitution thousands of Americans, both North and South, disliked slavery. Naturally, this senti ment was strongest in the North, where slaves were few; nevertheless, there were many Southerners who were quite as much opposed to human bondage as the Northerners, and there were several anti-slavery societies in that sec tion. 3 But it was in the North that the violent agitation for abolition began. In 1831 an enthusiastic, fearless, and talented young man named William Lloyd Garrison began to print in Boston a little paper called the Liberator. In this journal he declared that slavery was a sin, and that "immediate and unconditional emancipation" should be granted to every negro slave in the United States. He asserted that as the Federal Constitution allowed slavery, it was "a cove nant with Death." 4 Later, he said it would be better to break up the Union than to continue under this sinful Constitu tion; then the slaveholders of the South would, he believed, 1 This term was invented by United States Senator Marcy, of New York. He declared that "to the victor belong the spoils." This meant that a govern ment office, with its salary, was in his opinion a perquisite of the party winning the election; and could be taken just as "spoils" or "loot" is of ten taken by a conquering army. 2 Americans are now realizing^that the Federal, State, county, and city gov ernments should follow the business-like methods in such matters that now prevail in most foreign countries. This improvement is called "civil service reform." " Civil " employees of the Government are those who are not serving in the army or navy. 8 Between 1820 and 1830 more than one hundred such societies were formed Vi various parts of the Union. 4 A quotation from the Prophet Isaiah. ANTI-SLAVERY AGITATION 275 be so anxious to rejoin the North that they would agree to give up their slaves and have the Constitution amended, so as to free the North from the great moral wrong of com plicity with the South in the institution of slavery. Some of Garrison s friends tried to dissuade him from talking and writing like this, for he was angering thousands of his fellow countrymen. But he indignantly replied, " I am in earnest. I will not equivocate. I will not excuse. I will not retreat a single inch, and I will be heard! " The astonished people of the South thought that the man must have gone insane. They said that not only was he doing his best to break up the Union, but that such talk might cause a rebellion of the slaves against their masters, which was a calamity that the South had always feared. 1 Even in the North, Garrison was thought to be doing great harm to the country. Mobs hooted him when he spoke at public meetings, and once some rough fellows dragged him through the streets of his own town. However, such perse cution did not in the least stop the abolition movement in the North. Indeed, it grew amazingly on account of this agitation. Great numbers of people who previously had given little thought to the matter now joined the two thou sand anti-slavery societies that soon were formed north of the Mason and Dixon line. Congress was bombarded with petitions from these societies, asking that slaves be freed in the District of Columbia; also that men living in one Southern State be forbidden to purchase slaves in another State. 2 So numerous were these petitions that Congress petulantly voted to receive no more of them. 3 1 Soon after Garrison began his agitation a small slave insurrection did occur in Virginia, in which about a hundred blacks and sixty whites were killed. But it was proved that the rebellious negroes had never seen or heard of Garrison s paper. 2 Some people believed that slavery might slowly be abolished by purchas ing the slaves from their masters. This was done in the West Indian colonies of Great Britain, in 1833. It cost the British Government $100,000,000. 3 John Quincy Adams, the former President, was then a member of the House of Representatives, and in bitter language denounced his fellow mem bers for denying the people their right of petition, as guaranteed them by the Constitution (see the First Amendment, in the Appendix, page xxi). He per sisted in offering to the House all the anti-slavery petitions that reached him. 276 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 268. Calhoun revives the nullification doctrine. Mean- while there was much excitement about another serious mat ter. In 1828 Congress had passed a tariff law that levied higher duties on imports than had ever before been col lected. In the South, where it was called "the Tariff of Abominations," there was intense indignation, and several State legislatures passed resolutions declaring it to be an outrage. John C. Calhoun, of South Caro lina, then Vice- President of the United States, was the leader of this South ern opposition to the new tariff law. 1 He now startled the nation by reviving the doctrine of " nullification." The tariff, he declared, was for the sole benefit of the North and greatly in jured the South ; it was, therefore, un constitutional, and he said that his JOHN c. CALHOUN State would be justified in disobey ing it. 269. " Our Federal Union: it must be preserved." Thus there was again to the front the old, old question that had troubled our statesmen since the close of the Revolu tion : Which should be the stronger, the Union or the States that compose it? If Calhoun was right, and any State might at her pleasure nullify a Federal law and prevent its enforce ment within that State, then the Union was indeed a mere " rope of sand," no better than the Confederation that pre ceded it. 1 Calhoun was born in South Carolina in 1782 and graduated from Yale College. He became a memfcw of Congress in 1811, and was elected Vice- President in 1824 and in 1828^ But when, in 1832, his State nullified the tariff laws of 1828 and 1832, he resigned as Vice-President and was elected to the United States Senate in order that he might champion the nullification policy. Mr. Calhoun was one of the most eloquent men of his times. Everybody re cognized his courage and honesty in contending for what he believed to be right. Upon his death, in 1850, Daniel Webster, one of his chief opponents in debate, said of him: " He had the indispensable basis of all high character; and that was unspotted integrity and unimpeached honor. . . . I do not believe he had a selfish motive or selfish feeling." LIBERTY AND UNION 277 President Jackson sympathized with the South in its dissatisfaction with the new protective tariff; but he saw clearly that, however wrong might be that law, the nation must remain strong and enforce its laws, or there would no longer be a republic in North America. At a great dinner of Southerners in Washington he boldly proposed to them this defiant toast: "Our Fed eral Union: it must be pre served! " Another powerful voice in fa vor of the Union was that of Daniel Webster. In January, 1830, he replied in the United States Senate to Senator Hayne, from South Carolina, who up held the nullification doctrine. This famous speech thrilled the North and made her people feel more strongly than ever that true patriotism lay in strength ening the hands of the Federal government. 1 He closed with the ever memorable excla mation: " Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable!" In 1832 Congress adopted a new tariff act, that lowered the duties to about what they were before the law of 1828, But the Southerners declared that they did not care so much about the amount of the duties; their objections were chiefly against protection itself. South Carolina voted that after the first of February, 1833, she would pay no duties on articles imported through the Charleston custom-house, 1 Daniel Webster was born on a New Hampshire farm in 1782, and died in Massachusetts in 1852. Graduating from Dartmouth College he soon com menced life as a lawyer, and in 1813 was sent to the lower house^of Congress from New Hampshire. He soon moved to Massachusetts and in 1822 was again elected to Congress. After that he was constantly in public life, serving in both branches of Congressand in the Cabinet. On questions of constitutional law Webster stood without a rival. His Reply to Hayne is considered by good judges as in many ways the greatest speech ever delivered in Congress. DANIEL WEBSTER 278 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT and would offer armed resistance to any Federal officer who should attempt to collect them. Preparations were at once made to send troops and war ships to Charleston to enforce the law. Before their depart ure Jackson dispatched this peremptory message to his South Carolina friends: " If a single drop of blood shall be shed there in opposition to the laws of the United States, I will hang the first man I can lay my hand on, engaged in such treasonable conduct!" These vigorous words were From an old lithograph. Courtesy, Chicago Historical Society CHICAGO (FORT DEARBORN) IN 1831 This sketch was made at the time by Mrs. John H. Kinzie, wife of one of the earliest settlers of Chi. cago. The Kinzie home, on the north bank of Chicago River, is at the right of the picture, fronted by poplar trees. Compare this illustration with the one on page 432 keenly resented in the South ; but by this time it was clearly understood in that section that a forceful man was in the presidential chair, and that any attempt to weaken the Union would be resisted to the utmost of his power. However, the quarrel did not then get so far as most people feared it would. Congress was inclined to soothe the anger of the South and in 1833 adopted what is known as "the Compromise Tariff," which was offered by Henry Clay. It provided for a gradual reduction of duties on many ar ticles of necessity. This seemed to satisfy the South, and THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 279 South Carolina s threat of nullification was not carried out. 1 270. An American Dictionary. In 1828 Noah Webster, of Connecticut, first issued his famous American Dictionary of the English Language. 2 Up to that time even the best- educated people had different ways of spelling the same English word. Webster aimed to make spelling uniform and introduced several changes with a view to greater simplic ity. 3 In our day, when dictionaries are numerous and every person who has been to school is supposed to know how to spell correctly, it is difficult for us to understand what a great sensation was created when the new dictionary ap peared. 4 QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. Be sure to keep up your outlines on the slavery question during the period from 1829 to 1860. 2. What arguments did the Southerners bring forward against the tarLf of 1828? How did the Northerners answer them? 3. What internal improvements are going on to-day? By whom are they supported? 1 Another stirring incident of Jackson s Administration was his war on the Bank of the United States, to which Congress had granted a charter in 1816. This institution was quite similar to the Federal Bank, described in section 215 (page 219), and its branches in the leading cities of the country came into com petition with the State banks, which were popular institutions. Moreover, the United States Bank was suspected of interfering in political affairs, and it had bitter enemies, especially in the West and South. When its charter expired in 1836, Congress voted to renew it; but Jackson, who hated the Bank, vetoed the bill, and the institution went out of business. There was much popular ex citement over this affair. 2 Americans and Englishmen alike were then using a lexicon prepared sev enty-three years before by the celebrated scholar, Dr. Samuel Johnson, of London. But hundreds of words familiar in the United States in the time of Jackson were not to be found in Johnson s book. Webster worked diligently for twenty years on this great volume, and it contained twelve thousand words and between thirty and forty thousand definitions not in Johnson. 3 For example, Webster omitted the k after c at the end of words of more than one syllable thus "publick" was thereafter to be spelled "public." The u was omitted in words like "honour," which was now to be spelled "honor." The final letters re, in such words as "chambre," "centre," and " theatre," were transposed so as to make them "chamber," "center," and "theater." These changes were accepted by most Americans, and are taught in our schools to day; but in England, the old-fashioned spellings are still used by most people. 4 Another innovation of that time, was a one-cent newspaper the New York Daily Sun, which appeared in 1833. It was the first paper published in America at so low a price. 280 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 4. What is meant by the "Spoils System"? By "Civil Service Reform"? Of which do you approve? Why? YVhat government employees, if any, in your city or town are under civil service rules? 5. What is the difference in meaning between "anti-slavery" and "aboli tion"? 6. Jackson, in his answer to South Carolina, said, "To say that any state may at pleasure secede from the Union is to say that the United States are not a nation." Explain. 7. What patriotic service did Jackson render to the nation? 8. Account for the popularity of Jackson with the people. 9. Recite the quotations from speeches, etc., given in this chapter and explain the circumstances of their first utterance. lo. Make an outline of the chapter. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Write a letter to a weekly paper in 1832 upholding Jackson s course. 2. Imagine that you were a page in the Senate at the time of the Web- ster-Hayne debate. Describe the scene in a letter to a friend. 3. Imagine that you received a dictionary for your birthday present in 1829. W T rite a letter of appreciation, speaking of its value to you and others. 4. Describe and dramatize striking incidents in Jackson s life. CHAPTER XXVII A PERIOD OF RECKLESS SPECULATION: THE PANIC OF 1837 1837-1841 271. Election of President Van Buren. Had he wished it, Jackson could have been reflected in 1836; but he pre ferred to follow the now well-established tradition that our From a contemporary engraving THE CITY OF WASHINGTON IN 1839 A view from the White House Presidents should remain in office no more than two terms. He was succeeded in 1837 by Martin Van Buren of New York. 1 272. A period of reckless speculation. From quite early 1 Van Buren was born in a village in the State of New York in 1782, and died there in 1862. He was a lawyer by profession. He became a member of the United States Senate in 1821 and next served as governor of New York. He was for a time Secretary of State in Jackson s Cabinet, then minister to Great Britain, and in 1832 became Vice-President. 282 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT days in the history of our country there had been a wide spread demand from the people for paper money. During the Revolutionary War each State had issued so much of this, and its effect on business had been so disastrous, 1 that the Constitution forbade the States to issue any more. But this provision was soon evaded. The States granted charters to numerous small banks and these printed and circulated large quantities of bank bills. The competition among the banks was very great, and they were so eager to lend their bills that borrowers could obtain them with but little security. The result was most unfortunate. So long as money could be got easily, thousands of persons went into all manner of reckless speculations. One of the favorite methods of specu lation was to buy lands in the fast-growing West, with the hope of selling them at high prices. 2 As usual when money seems to be plenty and people are spending it freely, prices rose rapidly. This was especially bad for people living on salaries or wages that increased slowly or not at all , for with the increased cost of everything they found it hard to get along. 273. The panic of 1837. Both Jackson and Van Buren felt uneasy over this situation. A large part of the receipts of the Federal treasury now came in the form of bills from the State banks, and many of these were worth much less than the number of dollars printed on them. Jackson had feared that the Government would suffer great loss if the banks failed, as many wise business men prophesied that they soon would do. Moreover, he wanted to discourage the use among 1 See page 197. 2 In. 1831 the sales of Western public lands brought in only $2,300,000 to the Federal Government; in 1836 they amounted to $24,900,000. Ordinarily an acre is cut up into five house lots; but some of the speculators of 1836-37, who had paid to the Government only $1.25 an acre, made their lots as small as the tenth of an acre; and these were sold for from $10 to $20 each. The maps of this land often showed courthouses, city halls, churches, schools, factories, and public parks that existed only in the imagination of some dishon est speculator, for not a tree had been cut or a prairie sod turned in that locality. Some of the so-called "cities" were situated in great swamps and other impos sible places. In Charles Dickens s novel, Martin Chuzzlewii, the hero visits "Eden," one of these much-advertised Western cities, and finds it to consist of a score o* wretched log cabins, half of them empty, situated in a malarial swamp. THE PANIC OF 1837 283 the people of so much paper money. In July, 1836, he is sued an order, called the "specie circular," that the Govern ment would henceforth receive only specie gold and silver -in payment for Federal lands. The circular had two im portant effects, which President Van Buren had to face:- (a) It alarmed the bankers. If, after this, land buyers would not take bank bills, but insisted on drawing only specie for their pay ments to the Gov ernment, the banks would have little coin left to loan to anybody else or to redeem their bills. Therefore, many banks refused to lend any more specie to land speculators; some banks, indeed, would pay out no more specie to any body. 1 (b) Cautious people felt that if the bank bills were not good enough for the Government, they were not good enough for them. They therefore would not accept for their property or for their labor any such bills at the full value printed on their face; as for the bills of weak banks, they would not take them at all. Much of this paper money, therefore, became almost worthless. 1 There was another source of trouble. The Federal Government was now out of debt, but it still collected a great deal of revenue at custom-houses, under the high tariff laws, and from the rapid sale of public lands. Thus it had more money than it could use. Congress therefore in 1837 loaned to the several States nearly $30,000,000 of the accumulated surplus. The various banks throughout the country, in which the Government s surplus was deposited, had suddenly to surrender this vast amount and pay it out in specie to the States, which would not accept bank bills. These banks had been badly enough hurt by the specie circular, but to have it soon followed up by this new order, which took from them about all of the coin they had left, was more than most of them could stand. From a contemporary lithograph WALL STREET, NEW YORK, IN 1837 The building at the right is the Custom House. Trinity Church Is seen at the end of the street 284 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT It now seemed to men engaged in commerce or manufac turing as though the country were going to pieces. They had traded their goods for bank notes that now nobody seemed to want, even at a great depreciation in value ; they owed large sums of money, but found it almost impossible to get loans from the banks to pay their creditors. Yet they must have money with which to meet their expenses and pay their employees. In order to raise means for this purpose thousands of men began, all at the same time, to offer for sale their houses, stores, factories, bonds, and other property. But whenever there are more goods offered for sale than the people want, prices are sure to drop suddenly. That is what then happened. Nearly everybody was eager to sell, and very few wished to buy. Banks, fearful that depositors would draw out all their money, now closed their doors, and refused to pay even what they owed to the Government; factories, mines, and stores shut down because there was no market for their wares ; and tens of thousands of wage-earners were suddenly thrown out of work, with no money to purchase food and clothing. 1 Consternation seized the American people. No man had confidence in his neighbor, for credit was now entirely destroyed. The day of reckless speculation was followed by a night of black despair. The panic of 1837 will long be remembered in our history. It was several years before business men began again to have courage to enter upon new enterprises, and before prosperity returned to the United States. 2 1 During the height of the speculation, or "boom," described in paragraph 272, some of the States had been engaged in building railways, canals, and highways at public expense, and for^this purpose had borrowed enormous sums of money in Europe, and especially in England nearly $200,000,000 all told. 2 Up to this time the Federal Government had kept its money in banks, and it frequently lost much by failures of these institutions. In 1840, however, Congress established a national treasury at Washington, with subtreasuries or branches in a number of other cities. The Government itself does not, therefore, now suffer loss when the banks meet with disaster. THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 285 / QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. Summarize the chief causes that led to the panic of 1837. 2. Contrast "speculation" and "investment." 3. Meaning of the term "currency"; "specie payment." Read carefully the statements on a one-dollar or a five-dollar bill. Discuss the meaning of paper currency. How do our bills differ from the paper currency issued by the State banks previous to the panic of 1837? 4. What did the Government learn from the panic of 1837? 5. What security have depositors against bank failures to-day? 6. Make an outline of the chapter. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Look at the view of Wall Street, New York, in 1837 (page 283) ; com pare this with the pictures on pages 96, 97, and 438. In view of the growth of the city since 1664, write a prophecy as to its extent, popula tion, and conditions of life in the year 2000. 2. A man buys land at high prices in the boom of 1836 and is ruined by the crash of 1837. After years of poverty he strikes oil in his land and makes a fortune. Introduce the characters and tell the story. CHAPTER XXVI II RELATIONS WITH GREAT BRITAIN AND MEXICO: THE ANNEXATION OF TEXAS 1841-1845 274. Election of Harrison and Tyler. In 1840 the Demo crats renominated Van Buren for the presidency. The Whigs 1 selected as their leader General William Henry Har rison, of Ohio, hero of the famous battle of Tippecanoe and several other Indian fights. For Vice-President they named John Tyler, of Virginia, who was known as a Demo crat, although he had occasionally acted with the Whigs. Harrison was lovingly called by his friends " Old Tippe canoe." The fact that a portion of his house was a simple log cabin and that he was said to be fond of cider became what the politicians call the " keynote " of the contest. 2 Never before had there been such a presidential campaign. The Whigs held immense open-air mass meetings, to which, from far and near, whole families came in canvas-covered wagons, on horseback, or afoot, and for days together camped out in tents. Often the multitude would cover many acres of ground. 3 Eloquent orators held them spellbound, 4 and they were fed at monster barbecues, where animals 1 After 1834 the National Republicans called themselves Whigs. This was the name adopted by the patriots in the American Revolution, to distinguish them from the Tories, who remained loyal to the King. A Whig was supposed to be an enemy of arbitrary government. 1 Van Buren was accused by his enemies of being an "aristocrat," .and of using in his home a tea set of real silver. 3 A great Whig camp-meeting at Dayton, Ohio, attracted 100,000 people, and when the crowd was standing it took ten acres of ground to hold it. 4 In the slang of our day, political speakers are called "spell-binders." In earlier days, they were called "stump-speakers." This latter was in allusion to frontier conditions, when the forest had but recently been cut down to make room for farms and villages. Political speakers addressing out-of-door crowds would often do so from the top of a stump. A speaker starting out on his campaign would therefore "take the stump " or "go stumping." THE ELECTION OF 1840 287 were roasted whole and barrels of cider were provided for drink. There were also noisy and jubilant marching proces sions, sometimes several miles long. On such marches the Whigs carried gay banners bearing political mottoes, and drew a small log cabin on wheels; a live coon was chained to the cabin roof, and a barrel labeled " Hard Cider " stood by the open door ; while the dusty crowd sang lustily, as they trudged along, a ringing lyric which set forth the qualifications of " Tip- pecanoe and Tyler too! " A writer of that time reports that " For several months the people gave themselves up to the wild est freaks of fun and frolic, caring nothing for business singing, dancing, and ca rousing night and day." By an overwhelming vote Har rison 1 was elected Presi dent, and Tyler Vice-Presi- dent. 275. Death of Harrison. The new President was sworn into office on March 4, 1841. He was then sixty-eight years old, and not in good health. The long and tiresome journey from Ohio, which in those days had to be made mainly on horseback and canal-boat, told heavily on his strength ; the weather was disagreeable on inauguration day, and in his weak condition he caught a severe cold. The 1 William Henry Harrison was born in Virginia in 1773, the son of Benjamin Harrison, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. Before gradu ating from college, young Harrison left his studies (1791) to enter the army, which at that time was fighting the Western Indians. Here he won a fine re putation, and while he was governor of Indiana defeated Tecumseh s warriors at Tippecanoe! Harrison next became commandant of the Northwest, but re tired from the army in 1814 and went to live on his farm in Ohio. from a campaign almanac A PICTURE USED IN THE HARRISON CAMPAIGN 288 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT duties of the position, particularly the persistence of a horde of office-seekers, were too burdensome for a sick man like himself, who was not used to that sort of life. On April 4, to the dismay of the triumphant Whigs who had elected him, the old Indian fighter suddenly died, being the first of our Presidents to pass away while in office. 1 276. Tyler succeeds to the presidency. The Constitu tion provides that when a President dies, the Vice-Presi- dent shall succeed him. Harrison s death, therefore, placed John Tyler in the presidential chair. 2 277. Tyler breaks with his party. Tyler had been elected by the Whigs but was at heart a Democrat, and soon vetoed some of the laws passed by the Whig Congress. This led at once to an open quarrel between Congress and himself. All the members of his Cabinet, except Daniel \Yebster, the Secretary of State, promptly resigned. The Whig Con gressmen issued an address to their fellow Whigs throughout the country, declaring that Tyler was no longer a member of their party. 3 During the three and a half years remaining of his term, the Chief Executive of the nation was actually without a party, so of course he had no influence whatever over Congress. 278. The Webster-Ashburton Treaty. \Vebster had stayed in the Cabinet simply that he might help in fixing the international boundary line between our country and Canada, particularly along the Maine border. For many years there had been a somewhat bitter controversy between the two nations over this matter, and previous efforts to ar rive at a decision had failed. In 1842 Webster came to an 1 As it is often bad weather in Washington early in March, there has long been an attempt, thus far unsuccessful, to change the date of inauguration day to a better season of the year. At President Taft s inauguration (March 4, 1909) there was a storm of sleet and snow. 2 Tyler was born in Virginia in 1790, and died there in 1862. Graduating from William and Mary College in 1807, he became a lawyer. Previous to elec tion as Vice-President, he had been a member of both houses of Congress. Tyler was not opposed to the extension of slavery, but did oppose South Carolina s nullification doctrine. As Federal Senator, however, he would not vote to force that State to obey the Federal laws. 8 The politicians call this, being "read out of the party." TEXAS BECOMES INDEPENDENT 289 agreement upon it with Lord Ashburton, the British minis ter, and the treaty that followed is known by their names. 1 Soon after this event Webster resigned from the Cabinet. 279. Texas becomes independent of Mexico. About the year 1821 large numbers of American citizens, among whom were General Sam Houston and Stephen F. Austin, began to settle in Texas, which then belonged to Mexico. By 1833 it was estimated that over 20,000 of these pioneers, mostly from the Southern States, had taken up homes in that broad region. The Mexican officials who lived in Texas were greatly alarmed at this rapid increase in the number of Americans; for the latter seemed to think that they owned the country, and it looked as though the Mexi cans might soon be crowded out by these aggressive for eigners. The officials therefore began to discourage further immigration from the United States, and to treat the newcomers with much harshness. This conduct caused the Americans to rise in rebellion in 1836, and after much fighting and loss of life on both sides 2 they finally succeeded in defeating and driving 1 This treaty also reaffirmed the agreement of 1818, by which the northern boundary of the United States was to extend westward from the Lake of the Woods, along the forty-ninth parallel, to the Rocky Mountains. 2 At San Antonio, from February 23 to March 6, 1836, a small body of Americans, who had collected in a fort called the Alamo, heroically resisted a Mexican force of ten times their number. Nearly all of the besieged men perished from wounds and starvation, but at last the fort was taken by the enemy, and the six survivors were murdered by their captors. "Remember the Alamo!" therefore became the war-cry of the Texas patriots, who sought vengeance for this deed. THE ALAMO 2go THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT out the Mexican army. 1 They now declared themselves freed from Mexican rule and organized the independent Republic of Texas; or, as it was called by the people of the United States, the " Lone Star State." 2 280. Annexation of Texas. The Texans next sought to join the United States. At first they were refused admis sion, for the leaders among them were slaveholders and wanted to remain such. It was pointed out by Northerners that this proposed new slave State was equal in size to nine or ten ordinary free States in the North, and might some day be cut up into that number. 3 To admit it to the Union would very greatly extend the slave territory and increase the number of slaveholding members of the Federal Senate. The anti-slavery men of the No rth did not propose to allow this if they could possibly help it. Therefore, although Texas persistently knocked at the door, she was kept out of the Union for several years. But in the spring of 1844 President Tyler startled the country by asking the Federal Senate to agree to a treaty which he had secretly made with the Republic of Texas, under which the " Lone Star State " was to be annexed to the Union. The Senate rejected the treaty by a large majority. There upon the Democrats, who were friendly to the South, loudly demanded that Texas be annexed; and this became one of the burning questions in the presidential election of the following November. The Democrats won this election, and thus clearly showed that the majority of our people favored the admission of Texas as a State. Congress, therefore, promptly yielded to their demand in March, 1845. 4 1 The final struggle was the battle of San Jacinto, April 21, 1836, wherein eight hundred Texans, under Houston, defeated five thousand Mexicans, led by Santa Anna, President of Mexico. This was because the flag of the Texan Republic contained but one star. 3 Texas is nearly eight times the size of the large State of New York. Daniel Webster declared that it is so broad that a bird could not fly across it in a week. * The Republic of Texas owed debts amounting to $7,500,000. These were paid by the United States. Our people then considered this an enormous sum; and as it had to be collected from them by taxation, the saying was common that the name "Texas" was but a misspelling of the word "Taxes." THE TELEGRAPH 29! 281. Invention of the telegraph. Just at the time when President Tyler was astonishing our grandfathers with his Texan annexation treaty, the citizens of Washington and Baltimore, and the villagers and farmers living between these two cities, were filled with merriment over certain curious experiments being carried on by a New York pro fessor, Samuel F. B. Morse. 1 This eccentric person, with a gang of workmen, was planting tall poles by the roadside, upon which were strung slender copper wires. Through these wires the Professor declared he was going to transmit electric signals between the two cities a distance of forty miles as quick as lightning. By making these signals long or short, he explained that he could spell out words; and from these words, of course, entire messages might be made up. But most amazing of all, people thought, was the fact that Congress had in a moment of good nature given this unpractical dreamer $30,000 to help him pay the cost of the ridiculous experiment. WHAT HATH GOD WROUG HT THE FIRST MESSAGE SENT BY THE TELEGRAPH INSTRUMENT In the Morse alphabet, different combinations of dashes, dots, and spaces Indicate the various letters. The appropriate letter is here inserted below each symbol May 24, 1844, was a day ever to be remembered in the history of civilization. The Washington end of those little copper wires led into the room of the Federal Supreme Court, in the Capitol, and was attached to a crude tele graphic sounder. Seated before this instrument, which was of his own invention, Professor Morse ticked off the words, " What hath God wrought." 2 Almost instantly this mes- 1 Professor Morse was born in Massachusetts in 1791, and died in New York City in 1872. After graduating from Yale, he began life as a portrait-painter, but, after considerable success in this field, turned his attention to the study of electricity. As early as 1835, while a professor in the University of the City of New York, he said that he had hopes of some day being able to telegraph around the world. But until aided by Congress he was almost penniless; for he had spent all his money in experiments. When at last he won success, he became very wealthy, and received honors from nearly every civilized country. a These words, dictated by one of Morse s young lady friends, are a quota- 292 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT sage was received by Morse s assistant at the Baltimore end of the line, and he triumphantly repeated it back to the sender in Washington. The astonished guests who had wit nessed this experiment could hardly believe that telegraph wires would in time carry news not only across the conti nent, but under the ocean ; yet these were among Professor Morse s prophecies, and we are familiar with the develop ments of his wonderful invention. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. Make a log cabin, mount some of the banners, and have a parade such as took place in 1840. 2. Why was Van Buren defeated for reelection? 3. State the causes which taxed the physical strength of Harrison. Briefly discuss whether a new President in our time suffers from such causes. 4. Note from the index of this book what other international controver sies than the one mentioned in this chapter have been settled by treaty or by arbitration. (See " Treaty " or " Arbitration " in the Index.) 5. Make a brief outline of the successive events relating to Texas. 6. It is suggested that some boy interested in electricity bring his appa ratus to class and explain its operation; and that some other pupil give the history of the uses of electricity. 7. Make an outline of the chapter. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Contrast the trip taken by Harrison to his inauguration with the similar trip taken by the present President. 2. Write a letter of approval to Webster for remaining in the Cabinet until the work which he had begun was completed. 3. Read Amelia Barr s Remember the Alamo and tell the story of the Alamo to the class. 4. Describe the interest and astonishment of the group present at the trial of the telegraph. tion from Numbers xxiu, 23. The original paper on which were printed the telegraphic characters making this message can still be seen in the Athenaeum at Hartford, Connecticut. CHAPTER XXIX THE OREGON QUESTION, EXPLORATIONS, AND THE MEXICAN WAR: THE DISCOVERY OF GOLD IN CALIFORNIA 1845-1849 282. Election of President Polk. The Democrats carried the next presidential election, their candidate l being James K. Polk, 2 of Tennessee, who was inaugurated on March 4, 1845. 283. Our claims to the Oregon country. Oregon was the name popularly given, in those days, to the entire stretch of country north of California, which still belonged to Mex ico, lying between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific seacoast. Our Government claimed that we owned all this region as far north as the parallel of 54 40 , which is the southern boundary of Alaska, and it based this claim on three facts : (a) In 1792 Captain Robert Gray, a Boston sea-captain, discovered the Columbia River, which he named after his ship. (b) In 1805 Captains Lewis and Clark explored that 1 The convention that nominated Polk was held at Baltimore in May, 1844. The first public message to be sent over Morse s new telegraph line was one noti fying Silas Wright in Washington of his nomination as Vice-President, which Wright at once declined by wire. His dispatch was read to the convention, whose astonished members could not believe it to be genuine, because so little time had elapsed between the original telegram and the reply. They there fore adjourned until the following day, in order that a committee might be sent to Washington "to get reliable information." 2 Polk was born in North Carolina in 1795, and died in Tennessee in 1849, about three and a half months after the close of his term. Like most of his predecessors, he was trained as a lawyer. Before becoming President he served fourteen years in Congress and was for a time governor of Tennessee. Among the Presidents he was the earliest instance of a " dark horse " candidate. This name is given by politicians to a man not widely known throughout the country, whose candidacy is concealed until the last moment. 294 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT stream from its headwaters to the sea, and spent a winter near its mouth. (c) In 1811 Americans established at the mouth of the Columbia the fur- trading post of Astoria. On the other hand, Great Britain declared that so much of Oregon as lay between Alaska and the Columbia River, latitude 46 , rightfully belonged to her, for the reason that it was discovered by Sir Francis Drake, and afterward vis ited by the English explorers Cook, Vancouver, and Mac kenzie. In 1818 the two countries had agreed that they would jointly occupy the disputed district, leaving to the future the question of the location of the boundary. English and American fur traders were rivals, therefore, side by side, in a large business with Indian tribes living along the sea- coast and up the Columbia. 284. The Oregon Trail. As far back as 1832 small Ameri can settlements began to be planted in the Oregon country, and others soon followed. Among the most enterprising of the earliest settlers were missionaries, who cultivated farms, but spent most of their time in teaching Christianity to the Indian tribes along what we still call the Northwest Coast. 1 Many of the fur traders and missionaries went from the Eastern States to this distant part of our land by means of sailing-vessels going around Cape Horn. But when the great immigration " thither began, in 1843, the majority of the settlers traveled over what was known as the Oregon Trail, a rude, ungraded wagon track, two thousand miles long, that extended across prairies and over mountains from Missouri to the valley of the Columbia. 1 One of the most prominent of these missionary pioneers was Dr. Marcus Whitman, a physician. He and Rev. Henry H. Spalding went to Oregon in 1836, with their wives. They traveled with a wagon over South Pass, and the two ladies were the first white women to cross the Rocky Mountains. In the winter of 1842-43 Dr. Whitman made a difficult trip eastward over the mountains, and nearly perished in the terrible snow and sleet storms which overtook him. He visited Eastern cities and aroused much interest both in the Oregon missions and in emigration to that region. THE OREGON TRAIL 295 It generally took about three months to make this long and weary overland journey. In dry weather the path lay thick with dust; in rainy seasons it became a sea of mud. Deep gullies and great swamps made travel difficult in some places, and now and then broad rivers must be crossed either by rafts or by swimming. Game was generally plentiful, but sometimes it was scarce, and then there was little food for human beings. In droughts the animals suffered piteously from lack of grass and water. Terrible storms sometimes swept over the plains and the mountains; and now and then a belatedcompany was obliged to endure the fierce Copyright, C. H. Nicholt AN EMIGRANT TRAIN ATTACKED BY INDIANS rigors of a moun tain w r inter. From the fact that the travel ers were often attacked by In dians, it was ne cessary to band themselves together in caravans and go heavily armed. Women, children, and household goods were carried in great wagons with canvas tops, which at a dis tance so much resembled sails that these vehicles were called "prairie schooners." The men and older boys rode along side on horses, driving herds of cattle, and acting both as hunters and as protectors of the caravan. 1 285. "Fifty-four forty or fight" Now that large numbers of Americans were living in the Oregon country, 2 the United States might well lay claim to it solely by right of possession, which has always been considered the strongest possible 1 In the year 1843 over a thousand bold and restless frontiersmen traveled over the Oregon Trail to the fertile fields of the Columbia River Basin; and the number steadily grew, until in 1845 it reached nearly six thousand. 2 In 1846 the number was estimated at 6000. 296 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT title that a nation may have to a new land. There were, to be sure, a good many British fur traders in the region, living in small forts which protected them and their goods from the Indians. As yet these men had planted no real settlements, but preparations had been made by some of th&m to bring in a party of English farmers from Canada. The American pioneers had suffered great hardships in order to reach and occupy this land, and now felt alarmed at the prospect of having rivals from a foreign country; they were therefore anxious to know certainly whether or not they were living on United States territory. The Federal Government was accordingly asked to make a permanent treaty with Great Britain and settle this question of own ership at once. Most Americans thought there was no reason whatever to doubt that we owned Oregon. One of the planks of the Democratic platform l in the presidential election of 1844 declared that " our title to the whole of the territory of Oregon is clear and unquestionable," as far^orth as the parallel of 54 40 . During the campaign Democrats de fiantly cried, " Fifty-four forty or fight! " On this clear- cut issue they won the election. A treaty without war, however, was made between Great Britain and the United States in 1846, by which each very sensibly yielded a little to the other, and the forty-ninth parallel was decided on as the boundary between the respec tive countries, all the way westward from the Lake of the Woods to the Pacific Ocean. 2 In this manner we acquired an area nearly equal to six States the size of New York. Oregon was made a Territory in 1848; but later it was divided into the States of Oregon and Washington, and a portion was given to Idaho. 1 The "platform" of a party is the declaration of principles on which it "stands." Each separate declaration is called a "plank." Another Demo cratic "plank," in 1844, was the annexation of Texas, referred to in chapter XXVIII. 2 _ The international boundary is marked every few miles by "monuments," which consist either of pillars of iron or wood, or of mounds of earth or stone. WAR WITH MEXICO 297 286. The Texas boundary dispute. The people of Texas claimed that their western boundary was the Rio Grande River, from its mouth to its source; and beyond that, a line extending northward to the forty-second parallel. 1 The Mexicans, however, declared that the proper boundary was the Nueces River, and they threatened to eject the many Americans who had settled between the Rio Grande and the Nueces. This dispute aroused much excitement in the United States. Texas had been settled by Southerners, and was slaveholding territory. The lead ing men of the South naturally took the side of the Texans, who were trying to make that State just as big as possible. Some of the leaders said that if Mexico carried out her threats, we ought to declare war against her and seize the territory in question; but Northern statesmen replied that such a land-grabbing war against a friendly neighbor would be very unjust. 287. Our war with Mexico. President Polk took the Southern view, and sent General Zachary Taylor into the disputed district to hold the Rio Grande Valley for the United States. Taylor es tablished himself at Fort Brown, opposite Matamoras, but some three months after his arriva|Ftl|e Mexicans crossed the Rio Grande and attacked him. Mexico had thus begun the war, which was what the President wanted; he was now able to tell Congress that our neighbor had " invaded our territory, and shed American blood upon the American 1 This would have included the eastern half of the present New Mexico and a portion of southeastern Colorado. THE TEXAS-MEXICAN FRON TIER 298 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT soil." * Congress thereupon, on May 13, 1846, declared that Mexico had commenced to fight us, " notwithstanding all our efforts to avoid it." The United States at once hurried 50,000 volunteers to the front, besides as many men of the regular army as could be spared. Our forces were much more intelligent and better trained than the Mexicans, and had larger and better supplies of clothing, food, arms, and ammunition. But, on the other hand, we had fewer soldiers in the field than had the enemy, who had the additional advantage of fighting on their own ground. Nevertheless, our army won all of the several spirited battles that occurred during the following sixteen months. 2 The real end of the war came when General Winfield Scott, the American commander-in-chief , made a triumphal entry into the City of Mexico. By this time the Mexicans saw that further resistance was useless, and peace followed in February, 1848. 3 288. Fremont s explorations. While these stirring events were taking place in Mexico, the unfortunate Mexicans were also losing their hold upon New Mexico and California. But in order to understand what was going on there, we must turn back to the year 1842, when preparations were being made for the great rush of pioneers to Oregon. At that time President Tyler sent Lieutenant John C. Fremont, an army engineer, to explore the South Pass in w r hat is now Wyoming, to see if that were not the best place for the Oregon Trail to cross the Rocky Mountains. Fremont s guide was Kit Carson, 4 of New Mexico, a 1 There seems to be no doubt, however, that Taylor was really invading soil that was claimed by Mexico. He was seeking, under the President s orders, to provoke Mexico into a quarrel. 2 In the Civil War most of the officers prominent in the Mexican War fought in either the Union or the Confederate army. 3 Nearly all American historians agree with General Grant, who in his Personal Memoirs calls the Mexican War "a war of conquest " against a weaker power. 4 Kit Carson was a great hunter, and knew the Rocky Mountains as thor oughly as any man could in those days. Much of the success of Fremont s explo rations is due to him. He was the best of guides; he was wise in dealing with FREMONT S EXPLORATIONS 299 famous scout, who was also with him on later expeditions into the Rocky Mountains. The long hazardous journey was successful, and the leader brought back much valuable information about the great mountains of the West. He went out again in 1843, this time over the Santa F6 Trail a p a th across the plains and mountains that had TRAILS TO THE WEST, AND ROUTES OF THE PRINCIPAL RAILROADS TO THE PACIFIC for many years been used by traders, hunters, and explorers between Kansas City and the capital of New Mexico. After many perilous adventures Fremont turned north to explore the basin of Great Salt Lake, and reached the Pacific by way of Columbia River, having carefully examined and mapped all of the country along the way. This great expedi- the Indians, who both loved and feared him ; and he was noted for his modesty. Later, Carson was a soldier in the Civil War and afterwards served as Govern ment Indian agent in New Mexico. He rendered important service in making treaties with the tribes of that region. 300 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT tion of discovery led to his being called " the Pathfinder," and he became almost as well known in Europe as in America. A third time he was sent out, in 1845, and, crossing Kansas, Colorado, and Utah, spent the winter in the mountains of northern California. 1 289. California rises in revolt. In spite of the fact that California was still owned by Mexico, a few Americans had found their way thither as early as 1838. They settled chiefly around San Francisco Bay, although several of them were in the Sacramento Valley. When these men heard of the Mexican War, they feared that the Mexican soldiers who were then stationed in California would attack them. They therefore hastily formed a little republic of their own, in 1846, which came to be known as the " Bear State," be cause its flag bore the picture of a grizzly bear. 2 Messen gers were hurriedly sent to seek Fremont, who was camp ing in that vicinity, and ask his assistance. He accordingly returned to the Sacramento Valley with his strongly armed exploring party. After several skirmishes with the Mexi cans, the Americans gained control of the country and elected Fremont governor. He was fortunate in being soon reinforced by Commodore Robert Stockton, of the navy, who had been patrolling the coast in his frigate. 3 1 Before Fremont s expeditions nearly all Americans believed that the broad plains east of the Rockies (the present States of Nebraska, Kansas, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Texas, Colorado, and Wyoming) were a vast desert, much like the famous sandy wastes of Africa and Asia. The explorer Pike, who visited that region in 1806, was largely responsible for this incorrect notion; for in his report to the Federal Government he said that these fine grazing plains were "a des ert placed by Providence to keep the American people from a thin diffusion and ruin." By this he probably meant that had the plains been a fertile region our people would have thinly settled them, and then the Indians would in time have attacked and ruined such settlements; whereas, if Americans were forced to remain eastward of the plains, they would settle the Eastern country thickly and grow up to be a strong nation. In the American school geographies before 1850, the plains were called "The Great American Desert." Much of this "desert," however, is now artificially irrigated, and populated by millions of prosperous Americans. The flag, like that of Texas, bore but one star. It had also the figure of a grizzly bear, and the words "California Republic." The grizzly was chosen as the new State s emblem, because it was common in the Rockies and represented "strength and unyielding resistance." * Early in 1847 Colonel Stephen W. Kearny, of the army, arrived and took THE GADSDEN PURCHASE 301 290. Land acquired by us from Mexico. Thus, by means of the Mexican War and the adventurous migration of American pioneers westward, the United States had come into possession of a large part of the territory owned by the Mexicans. In February, 1848, the two nations signed a treaty by which Mexico was paid $15,000,000 for such of her lands as lay north of the Rio Grande and Gila Rivers, which was all that the United States cared to keep. Besides that, we paid certain claims held against Mexico, amounting to $3, 250,000 more. This added to our national domain 529,189 square miles, from which have been carved the States of California, Nevada, Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona; and which in cluded also portions of the present Colorado and Wyoming. 1 When the surveyors came to mark the line between the Rio Grande and the Gila Rivers, some further disputes arose as to the proper boundary between the two nations. The matter was satisfactorily arranged in 1853, when we further purchased from Mexico a tract of 29,671 square miles in the southern parts of New Mexico and Arizona, for which we paid $10,000,000. This transaction was arranged by James Gadsden, our minister to Mexico, and for that reason it is called the " Gadsden Purchase." 2 charge of American affairs. He had taken possession of New Mexico the pre ceding summer, and reached California by way of an old trail made by Span ish traders and American hunters across the wide stretch of plains, desert, and mountains lying between Santa Fe and Los Angeles. 1 In 1846, while Congress was considering a bill to pay Mexico for the terri tory that was about to be taken from her, Congressman Wilmot, of Pennsyl vania, offered an amendment which has ever since been called "the Wilmot Proviso." This declared that the money should be paid to Mexico, provided slavery was forever prohibited in all territory that might be acquired from her she having freed her own slaves in 1827. The House of Representatives adopted the Proviso, but the Senate rejected it; so it failed. Senator Calhoun s objection was that it prevented an American citizen from carrying his property wherever he wished, within the territory of the United States. Although the Wilmot Proviso was not adopted, it soon grew into a question of great import ance in the dispute between North and South over the question of extending the area open to slavery. 2 With the $18,250,000 paid for the Mexican Purchase of 1848, the $10,000,- ooo expended for the Gadsden Purchase in 1853, and the $7,500,000 Texas debt which we had assumed in 1845, the total cost of Mexican territory acquired by us was $35,750,000. In those days most people thought this an outrageous price. The total area, however, was over eleven times the size of New York State, and almost two thirds that of the United States at the close of the Revolution. The cost to us was about ten cents per acre. 302 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 291. The discovery of gold in California. Nine days be fore the treaty of peace was signed between Mexico and the United States, in February, 1848, a startling event occurred at Fort Sutter, in far-off California. This fort protected from marauding Indians and Mexicans several thousand acres of land in Sacramento Valley, which its wealthy owner, Captain John A. Sutter, a Swiss pioneer, used chiefly as pasturage for sheep and cattle. One day, while some of Sutter s men were building a water-power sawmill on one of his streams, they discovered some shining particles of GOLD MINE FOUND. - in the newly metal that looked like gold. made raceway of the Saw Mill recently These were taken to the erected by Captain Sutter, on the Ameri- American garrison at Mon- can Fork, gold has been found in consider- terey, where the officers able quantities. One person brought thirty ^ ^ finders ^^. ^ dollars worth to New Helvetia, gathered , , there in a short time. California, no doubt, metal really was what it is rich in mineral wealth; great chances Seemed to be, and that here for scientific capitalists. Gold has there must be a great deal been found in almost every part of the o f ft in the neighborhood countr y- l from which the specimens came. It proved to be the first important gold discovery in the history of North America. It was an unlucky " find," however, for poor Captain Sutter. His land was soon overrun by gold-seekers, many of them rude, lawless fellows, who hurried thither from every settlement west of the Rocky Mountains. Soldiers deserted from the American garrisons then in California, sailors ran away as soon as their ships came to anchor, trades were stopped, all business was at a standstill, towns were left almost empty. Even Sutter s men threw down their tools and joined the throng of " prospectors," who, without stopping to ask permission, dug great pits into almost every acre 1 The first newspaper notice of the discovery of gold in California. From the San Francisco Calif ornian, March 5, 1848. An equal amount of space was given to a horse-race, so little did even the people of California at first realize the importance of the discovery. DISCOVERY OF GOLD IN CALIFORNIA 303 he owned, and made the land worthless for a ranch. The throng of adventurers stole the Captain s cattle, horses, lumber and supplies, used his streams for washing out their gold, and in every way wickedly disregarded his rights. The discovery became known in our Eastern States by the summer of 1848 and aroused tremendous excitement. Early the following year thousands of men, and with Contemporary cartoon, in the Library of Congress "HOW THEY GO TO CALIFORNIA" Flying machines and dirigible balloons were facetiously suggested to the impatient gold-seekers as means of conveyance them hundreds of women and children also, from Europe as well as from our own land, all feverishly eager to win riches quickly, started for the gold-fields of California. Many went on sailing-craft and steamers, by way of Cape Horn, or by the quicker route of the Isthmus of Panama, 1 1 Steamers went from New York to the Isthmus, and there disembarked their passengers, who traveled across to Panama on muleback, and there took other steamers that carried them to San Francisco. The express company doing business over this line charged three dollars for sending a small daguerreotype from New York to San Francisco, and twelve dollars for a parcel the size of this history ; larger packages cost seventy-five cents a pound. A railway across the Isthmus was completed in 1855. 304 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT where large numbers caught deadly fevers. But most of the gold-seekers joined caravans of prairie schooners and rode or trudged westward along the Overland California Trail. 1 Upon that long and dusty wagon track, months of toil and danger were passed before the far-distant goal could be reached. To add to the horrors of mountain storms, swollen rivers, Indian attacks, thirst, and starvation, an epidemic of cholera attacked the miserable travelers. Like the Ore gon Trail, the weary road to California was plainly marked by the bleaching skeletons of animals and the graves of men, women, and children. 2 Many faint-hearted ones turned back, discouraged at the appalling difficulties of traveling under such conditions; nevertheless, eighty thousand persons from the East ar rived that autumn either by land or sea, in the valley of the Sacramento and the neighborhood of San Francisco Bay. 3 Mining-camps sprang up in every direction. But some of the newcomers were wise enough to remain in the settle ments, which were now rapidly being formed, for in the long run they who sell food, tools, and supplies to a mining-camp are apt to win more profit than those who are doing the dig ging. With each succeeding year the throng increased. 4 Soon 1 The Oregon Trail was followed as far as the South Pass, which Fremont had Explored. Travelers for California then branched off to the southwest and ctirrrbe^Loyer the Sierra Nevada Mountains, until at last they descended to the head of SaiTFrancisco Bay. 2 By May 1 8, 1849, there had crossed the Missouri River alone, at points between Independence, Missouri, and Council Bluffs, Iowa, over 4000 w y agons, 38,000 oxen and mules, and 18,000 persons, all bound for California. Fully 100,000 persons crossed that river in each of the years 1850, 1851, and 1852, going westward on the same journey. 3 In after years these pioneers were called "forty-niners," because they went out to California in 1849. An old and popular California song has this refrain: " T was in the days of old, In the days of gold, In the days of forty-nine." 4 Ferries, trading-posts, forts, and a monthly mail service were soon estab lished on the California Trail. In 1858 there was opened a passenger stage-line between St. Louis and San Francisco, by way of El Paso and Fort Yuma (a dis tance of 2759 miles), with heavily built and gayly painted "Concord Coaches " drawn by galloping mules, that made the journey in from three to four weeks. There was weekly mail service over this line. A still more rapid pony express THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 305 San Francisco grew into a city of 20,000 people, represent ing almost every race and language, and at her wharves lay ships from every civilized land. By this time, Califor nia had become one of the best known regions in the world. As usual in new mining-camps there was at first much lawless- ness, and life and property were not safe. There were virtually no policemen, and the courts were not able to enforce tha laws. A "vigilance commit- tee was therefore organized by A PONY EXPRESS the best citizens for the severe punishment of all evil-doers, and in this manner order was gradually restored. 1 Few of the settlers found in Cali fornia the great wealth they had expected, 2 but they did succeed in building up a great and prosperous State, which was admitted to the Union in 1850. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. Draw a map indicating the growth of the United States since 1789, and enlarge it, as you continue the study of this book. Give date of the acquisition of new territory and state how it was obtained. Appendix E and the map at pages 392-393 may be consulted. 2. Locate the Oregon country. Which nation had the greater right to it? Why? 3. Had you lived in 1846, would you have been for or against the war with Mexico? Why? was begun in 1860. Light-weight boys and men rode fast horses, and carried the mail and small packages from California to Missouri, byway of Salt Lake City, in eight days. It cost five dollars to send a letter between California and the Eastern States by this pony express. One of the riders was William F Cody, afterwards known as " Buffalo Bill." This system ceased in the autumn of 1 86 1 when the overland telegraph reached California. 1 The vigilance committees or "vigilantes" met in secret, and acted both as judge and jury. Many of the offenders were hanged, and others were or dered to leave California. 2 It is estimated that between 1849 and 1856 nearly $500,000,000 worth of gold was taken from California. But it has also been estimated that the labor expended in getting this (including, of course, the labor of the gold-seekers who failed to get any); represented several times that value. 306 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 4. Account for the fact that the United States had war with Mexico rather than with England, over boundary disputes. 5. Indicate on the map the several explorations of the "Pathfinder." 6. Contrast the speed and comfort of travel in 1849 with that of to-day. 7. From the Index find what other important discoveries of gold have taken place in our history. 8. Show how the discovery of gold in California had a great influence on the development of the Western country. 9. Review the successive expansions of our territory. (See " Expansion " in the Index.) 10. Make an outline of the chapter. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Describe a meeting of the American settlers in Oregon at which they discuss their difficulties and resolve upon action. This may be drama tized. 2. Place, a New England home; time, 1849. The news of the discovery of gold in California has been received. Two sons decide to start for California. Describe the scene. Dramatize. 3. Imagine that you lived in a cabin on the Overland California Trail. Write a letter describing the scene from your doorstep in 1849. 4. Imagine that your father established a store in California in 1849. In telling how he prospered, weave in some of the life of that period. CHAPTER XXX CONTRASTING CONDITIONS IN NORTH AND SOUTH! THE COMPROMISE OF 1850: THE FUGITIVE SLAVE LAW 1849-1853 292. The North prosperous. The North had prospered greatly. Her factories and mines had multiplied ; her cities had grown with almost mushroom speed; her commerce had developed enormously both at home and with Europe and Asia. Immigrants from Europe continued to settle throughout all the Northern States and to increase the population of this section. Colleges, academies, schools, and churches could everywhere be seen throughout this wealthy and rapidly growing portion of the Union. 293. The South backward, because of slavery. But since the Revolution the South had unfortunately made com paratively little progress in wealth and population. This was due chiefly to slavery, which was injurious in several ways : - (a) Few European immigrants went into the South. These newcomers were usually poor, and must wwk for their living. But a Southern planter would not pay for the labor of a white man when he could get the labor of a slave for the cost of the latter s bread and clothes, and the in terest on the value of the slave in money; he could also own the children of the slave. 1 Thus the free white work man could not compete with the enslaved black. Moreover, 1 In 1850 there were 3,200,000 slaves in the South, owned by 347,000 persons. But most of these owners had no more than one or two each; a large majority of the slaves were held by men who had fifty or more of them there were two men, for example, who owned over a thousand each. At the same time there were about 2,500,000 "poor whites." The rich slave holders having bought up all the best lands, these unfortunate people had to content themselves with farming poor, worn-out tracts, from which they were never able to get more than a bare living. 308 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT the slaveholders did not care to have wage-earners in their neighborhood, for fear that the slaves might be discontented when they saw laborers who could save money and buy their own homes. The immigrants therefore went to the North and West, and helped to build up those sections. Without immigration, the South could not make much growth in white population, and thus she was doomed to a minority representation in Congress. (b) The Southern planter supposed in those days that he could make a profit only when he cultivated one or two large crops that required little skill and on which his ignorant and unwilling slaves could be worked in gangs, under overseers. Therefore he planted tobacco, cotton, or rice, and scarcely anything else. But in so doing he rapidly exhausted the soil by planting it over and over again to the same crops, and he needed frequently to seek fresh land for planting. This was one of the chief reasons for his eagerness to extend slavery into the West and Southwest. In our own day, under free dom, the Southern planter has learned that diversified crops, that do not greatly exhaust the soil, are also profitable in his region. (c) The slaves had no object in working when the over seer s back was turned, so that it often took two or three of them to do as much as one enterprising free white laborer could do in the same time. Thus the owning of slaves was not as profitable as it seemed. Moreover, many masters did little but enjoy themselves, leaving their overseers to manage the plantations which is usually an unprofitable method in farming. (d) The unskilled labor of the slaves was not satisfactory in mills or mines, where the operators need to have con siderable intelligence. Whites might have been used in such places, thus leaving the blacks to work in the fields, but we have seen that it was not thought best to have free laborers in the same neighborhood with slaves. The South, therefore, had few factories and paid little attention to her abundant mines of iron and coal. She was dependent on the SLAVERY AGAINST FREEDOM 309 North for most of her tools, clothing, and other goods, and on the West for much of her food. Thus little benefit had come to her from the many great inventions and discoveries that enriched and strengthened the rest of the country. 294. Slavery against freedom. Most of the intelligent Northerners believed that the system of slave labor was ruining both whites and negroes in the South. For this reason they wanted the West to be made free territory, in which slavery should be forbidden. They believed that if the laws were rightly interpreted, every slave would be a free man the moment his master carried him over the border into a free State. But the Southerners honestly believed that slavery was a most excellent institution, quite as good for the blacks as for the whites. 1 They wanted to take their slaves with them, like other property, when they moved to the new lands of the West. They feared that if the North were once able to prevent this, through having a majority in Congress, it would next be proposing laws to abolish slavery altogether. This, they believed, would mean the ruin of the South, for her wealthy class had a very large amount of money in vested in slaves. 2 It was, therefore, of great importance to the South that, when new States came to be formed from the vast stretch of lands recently acquired from Mexico, as many as possible of these should be made slave States, that would send to Congress men pledged to vote against any proposal to abolish slavery. On its part the North was just as deter- 1 They pointed out that in Africa the negro was a savage, yet that in America, during two centuries as a slave, he had been developed into a civil ized being although still far behind the white man. They said, and this was quite true, that those negroes who had been reared as house servants were, as a rule, well cared for and had a deep affection for their master s family; and that crime was little known among them. The field-hands, who did the hard labor, were, no doubt, under some masters, badly treated; but Southerners asked whether, if free, getting wages, and shifting for themselves, the negroes would be better off than in slavery, or be better laborers. 2 The South did not realize how great a burden slavery was, for she had never known any other system of labor. She feared that were the negroes freed, not great loss, but that there would willing to take the places of the blacks, and plant and gather the crops. , only would their owners suffer a great loss, but that there would be no laborers 310 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT mined that most, if not all, of the proposed new States should be free. 295. Election of Taylor and Fillmore. In the presidential election of 1848 the Whigs elected their candidates for President, General Zachary Taylor, of Louisiana, an army officer who had been prominent in the Mexican War; for Vice-President, Millard Fillmore, a New York lawyer. Taylor was inaugurated in March, I84Q. 1 296. Threats of breaking up the Union. There were now fifteen States in the Union where no human being could be born into slavery, 2 and an equal number in which slavery was permitted. This made the Federal Senate, where each State has two votes, evenly divided on the slavery question; but in the House of Representatives the North had a ma jority, because of its larger population. California was now applying for admission, and, having been settled chiefly by Northern men, wanted to come in as a free State. But if she were allowed to enter the Union there would then be sixteen free as against fifteen slave States, which in the Senate would mean a majority for the North, and to this proposal the Southern Congressmen quite naturally would not agree. 3 The feeling over this matter became very strong, and the men of each section uttered many threats as to what they would do. For a time there was fear that the United States might have to break up into two republics one in the 1 General Taylor was born in Virginia in 1784. When he was a year old, his father moved to a Kentucky farm, on which Zachary was reared. Becoming a soldier, he served with great credit through the War of 1812 and the Mexican War, and after the latter retired to his plantation in Louisiana. 2 Florida and Texas were admitted as slave States in 1845. To balance them, Iowa entered in 1846 and Wisconsin in 1848 both of them free. This made the list of States as follows: Free States: Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa. Slave States: Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, Missouri, Tennessee, Kentucky. 3 They were willing, however, that California should be divided in the middle, the southern half to be a slave State and the northern free. THE COMPROMISE OF 1850 311 South composed of States in which slavery was lawful; the other in the North, consisting of free States. It was said that the two rival nations might then divide the new West ern territory between them, in such manner as they could agree upon. Patriotic men who loved the Union were much alarmed over the serious situation into which our country had been brought by the quarrel in regard to slavery. SACRAMENTO ABOUT 1850 from an old lithograph 297. The Compromise of 1850. Affairs were in this peril ous condition when the great statesman Henry Clay who had been called " the Great Pacificator," because on several important occasions he tried to prevent trouble between the two sections * proposed to Congress what is known as the Compromise of 1850. This consisted of several bills that made the following concessions to both the North and the South : (a) To please the North, Clay proposed to admit Cali fornia as a free State. 1 In 1820 he helped to secure the Missouri Compromise. In 1833 he was prominent in the compromise that settled the nullification difficulty with South Carolina. 312 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT (b) Also to please the North, he sought to make it unlaw ful hereafter to buy or sell slaves in the District of Columbia; this did not prohibit slavery in the District only the slave trade. (c) To please the South, he asked that Federal officials be given authority to hunt for slaves that had escaped into the North, and, without any trial by jury, to return them to their masters. This was called the Fugitive Slave Law. 1 (d) He proposed to allow the formation of the Territories of New Mexico and Utah. Their settlers were to be given the right to decide, when the time came for the two Terri tories to be admitted to statehood, whether they should come into the Union as slave or as free States. 2 The proposed compromise at once aroused an angry dis cussion, not only in Congress, 3 but everywhere that Ameri can citizens met on the streets, in social gatherings, hotels, restaurants, and markets, and on canal-boats, railway trains, and steamers. In every city, village, or town in the land, it was the chief topic of daily conversation. The clause that most angered the North was the one allow ing the return of fugitive slaves. Daniel Webster tried to amend the bill so as to secure a jury trial for the runaways before they should be given up; but when he failed in this he spoke earnestly in favor of Clay s entire plan. He said 1 This act provided: (a) When any white person claimed a runaway slave as his, or her, slave, Federal commissioners were promptly to capture the runaway and hand him (or her) over to the one making such claim. (6) The commissioners were given authority to call on all citizens to help them make such captures. (c) Any one refusing to help, or who in any other way assisted the negro to escape, was to be severely punished by fine and imprisonment. (d) The negro s own testimony as to whether or not he was the claimant s slave was to be of no value whatever. 2 But this proposal to leave the question to the settlers was a violation of one of the provisions of the Missouri Compromise (1820) by which Congress had forever prohibited slavery north of latitude 36 30 in the Louisiana Purchase. 3 The debate in the Senate was long and brilliant. Clay urged compromise between the North and the South; but Calhoun stood firm for what he thought to be the rights of Southerners, to carry their property to any part of the United States. THE FUGITIVE SLAVE LAW 313 that it was the only method to keep peace between the two sections, and to break up the Union would be a greater crime than slavery itself. Other Northerners, who would yield nothing to the slaveholders, bitterly reviled him for acting as he did. 298. Fillmore becomes President. The excitement was at its height, when, in the summer of 1850, President Taylor died, and Vice- President Fillmore l succeeded him at the White House. 299. The Fugitive Slave Law. During the next autumn Congress passed all of the various laws which Clay proposed in his compromise. And now nearly every one on both sides of the Mason and Dixon line was for a time happy in the belief that there would be no further talk of breaking up the Union. But fresh trouble soon arose, for the harsh methods used in enforcing the new Fugitive Slave Law aroused in tense indignation among Northern people. During the thirty or more years preceding the enactment of the law, a great many negroes had escaped from bondage in the South and were living peaceably as freemen in the North. As soon, however, as the law went into effect, num bers of men who charged large prices for catching runaway slaves came into the North, eagerly searching for refugees. In hundreds of cases they were successful; but now and then they met with serious resistance. Mobs of white men and negroes would sometimes snatch from them their poor victims, and violently drive the captors out of the State. 2 300. The Underground Railroad* Thousands of negroes 1 Fillmore was a native of New York State (born in 1800), and died there in 1 872. He was trained as a lawyer, and before his election to the vice-presidency had been prominent in Congress. 2 Several Northern States passed personal liberty laws, making it unlawful for their citizens to assist in the capture and return of slaves. Officers were instructed (to quote the words of the Wisconsin Act) "to use all lawful means to protect, defend, and procure to be discharged every person arrested or claimed as a fugitive slave." This action was, of course, a defiance of the Federal law, and the effect was the same as that of the nullification act of South Carolina, years before. But Northerners said that there was a "higher law" than any act of Congress, and that was the Golden Rule, bidding men to do unto all human beings as they would be done by. 314 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT on Southern plantations had now become eager for free dom. In spite of the slave-catchers and the enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Law, they escaped to the North in larger numbers than ever. Northern Abolitionists so strongly sympathized with these unfortunate people that they or ganized among themselves a well-arranged method for aiding the flight of the fugitives. If the escaping slave could but From Siebert s Undtryround Railroad. Copyright, 1898, by the Macmillan Co. THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD Fugitive slaves arriving at a " station in Cincinnati, Ohio once cross the Mason and Dixon line and reach the house of an Abolitionist, he v*;ould be secure/y hidden until the search for him had quieted down; then, in the dead of night, he was sent still farther North, to the care of some other sympathizer, until by degrees he at last reached the inter national border and was escorted into Canada, where the Fugitive Slave Law had no effect and all men were free. This system of secretly helping slaves to reach Canada was popularly known as the " Underground Railroad." l 1 Each hiding place was called a "station"; the friendly Abolitionist who owned it was a "station- keeper." The manner in which the "railroad" worked is described in Uncle Tom s Cabin, and in Elson s Sidelights to American History. THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 315 301. "Uncle Tom s Cabin." In the midst of the great discussion over slavery, there appeared Harriet Beecher Stowe s Uncle Tom s Cabin. In the form of a very read able tale of life among the blacks on a Southern planta tion, Mrs. Stowe made a powerful appeal for the abolition of slavery. Her book very greatly exaggerated the worst side of slavery; we now know that it gives its readers many false ideas about the South. Nevertheless it was at once accepted in the North as being a true picture of plantation life, and was eagerly read and re-read in hundreds of thou sands of households. From this time forth probably most people in the North were determined that human bondage must in some way or other be brought to an end in the United States. 1 QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. Why did immigrants select the North for settlement in the middle of the nineteenth century? Is this equally true to-day? Give reasons. 2. Explain how slave labor affected the public opinion of the South toward manual work? 3. Be able to state clearly the events which led to the Compromise of 1850. Of what other famous compromises have we read? 4. What do you think of the fairness of the Fugitive Slave Law? Present both the Northern and the Southern point of view. 5. "Webster stands to-day as the preeminent champion and exponent of nationality." Explain. 6. Make an outline of the chapter. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Describe a scene in a Northern village, where a group of people is dis cussing the Compromise of 1850. Perhaps the discussion turns upon the action of Daniel W ebster. Dramatize. 2. Write a letter to Henry Clay in which you praise him for his work as a statesman. 1 John C. Calhoun died in the spring of 1850. Henry Clay, by this time an old and broken-down man, died in Washington on June 29, 1852. Daniel Webster passed away on the following October 24. These three men were the last of the great statesmen who had been connected with the beginning of the dispute between the North and the South over the slavery question. By the time of their deaths they had been succeeded in Congress by younger men, who were carrying on the controversy commenced by them. Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, took the same point of view that Calhoun had adopted; and Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, one of the strongest orators this country has ever known, seemed to step into the place occupied by Webster. CHAPTER XXXI THE STRUGGLE FOR KANSAS: OUR FIRST TREATY WITH JAPAN 1853-1857 302. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill. President Franklin Pierce, who was the nominee of the Democrats, became President in March, I853. 1 In his inaugural address he promised that the Compromise of 1850 should be strictly enforced. But in a few months the old quarrel was again being waged as fiercely as ever. In January, 1 854, Stephen A. Douglas, one of the United States Senators from Illinois, introduced in Congress a bill to create two new Territories, Kansas and Nebraska, from that part of the Louisiana Pur chase lying west of Missouri and Iowa. The bill provided that the people of Kansas and Nebraska were to decide whether they should enter the Union with or without slav ery. This proposed right was commonly called " popular sovereignty "or " squatter sovereignty." 2 This was a violation of the Missouri Compromise, which provided for freedom in all of the new States that might be formed west or north of Missouri. 3 But Douglas said that the Compromise of 1850, with its popular sovereignty clause, had taken the place of the Missouri Compromise. His proposition aroused a storm of indignation throughout the North. Whenever, in that section, he appeared in pub lic, he was hissed and hooted, and denounced as a public 1 Pierce was born in New Hampshire in 1804, and died in that State in 1869. Like most of his predecessors he was a lawyer; but served in the Mexican War as a brigadier-general in the regular army. 2 " Squatters " were those settlers in the West who did not go to the expense of buying their land from the Federal Government, under the "preemption " laws, but simply settled on it without leave. If undisturbed for a certain num ber of years they might then hold it as their own, the same as if they had pre empted it. 3 That is, north of the parallel of 36 30 . THE KANSAS-NEBRASKA BILL 317 enemy. Rude effigies composed of men s clothes stuffed with straw, and labeled " Douglas the Traitor," were burned amid the cheers and groans of ex cited crowds. The " Little Giant " 1 himself declared that he might travel between Chicago and Wash- / ington and have his path lighted [ > <*&iJ[ the whole way by the blaze of these bonfires. He now knew that he had ! seriously blundered; for although \ he had won the applause of the \ v South, he had lost the esteem of his X; ,, Northern friends. After a long and bitter fight in STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS Congress, the slaveholders won, and the Kansas-Nebraska Bill became a law on May 30, 1854.2 Throughout the North church bells were tolled on that day, as if mourning the death of freedom. In the South there was great rejoicing. The result was announced to the people of Washington by the booming of cannon. Two of the leading anti-slavery Senators, Salmon P. Chase, of Ohio, and Charles Sumner, of Massachusetts, met on the steps of the Capitol and listened to the guns. * They cele brate a present victory," said Chase, " but the echoes they awake will never rest until slavery itself shall die." 303. The struggle for Kansas. The Southerners were willing to allow Nebraska to become a free State ; but they said that Kansas, the southernmost of the two, properly belonged to them. The anti-slavery men, however, were determined that it should remain free. There now began a desperate and often bloody struggle, lasting through the next summer, autumn, and winter, to see which side could 1 Douglas was so called by his friends because of his short stature and his great ability as an orator and statesman. 2 Nebraska and Kansas Territories were very much larger than the present States of those names. The two extended westward to the Rocky Mountains, and included parts of what are now Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, and South Dakota. 3i8 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT pour into Kansas the largest number of settlers, before the vote should be taken for or against slavery. In March, 1855, there was an election for members of the Territorial Legislature, and in this the slavery men won ; although the anti-slavery people claimed that they had been cheated in the count of the ballots, and really had twice as many voters on their side. This legislature passed laws not only permitting slavery in the Territory, but providing heavy penalties for aiding slaves to escape, or even for saying * anything against human bondage. Thereupon the anti- slavery men elected a rival legislature of their own, which asked Congress to admit Kansas as a free State. But the President declared that this second body was not lawful; so he ordered it to be dispersed by Federal soldiers. By this time Kansas was in a condition of civil war. Each party was struggling fiercely to gain control by killing or driving out the other. Gangs of lawless men marched up and down the country, raiding the farms and villages of their opponents, setting fire to houses, whipping and otherwise misusing persons whom they did not like, and now and then murdering them. The region was everywhere, and rightly, known as " Bleeding Kansas." 1 In the end, however, when the power of the slaveholders was broken, the wish of a large majority of her people was granted; in 1861 she was admitted to the Union as a free State. 2 304. Formation of the Republican party. The managers of the Whig party had taken a neutral position in regard to slavery, and thus had pleased neither the South nor the North. Those Whigs who opposed slavery now joined a new political organization, formed in 1854 an d calling itself 1 Charles Sumner, United States Senator from Massachusetts, made a bitter speech on "the crime against Kansas." In this he spoke harshly against Sena tor Butler of South Carolina. Congressman Preston Brooks, a relative of But ler, savagely attacked Sumner, as the latter sat at his desk in the Senate, and with a stout walking-cane rained blow after blow on his head. Sumner s in juries were very severe. The incident created intense excitement in the North, and Sumner s assailant and his friends were bitterly denounced. 2 Minnesota had been admitted in 1858 and Oregon in 1859, both of them free States. COMMODORE PERRY IN JAPAN 319 " Republican." x With them were associated many North ern Democrats, who were dissatisfied because their old political leaders were friendly toward slavery. The Repub lican party was enthusiastic and strong enough to hold a national convention in 1856 and nominate a presidential ticket. 2 305. Commodore Perry in Japan. Another interesting event in Pierce s Administration was the visit made to Japan in March, AN AMERICAN CLIPPER SHIP These vessels were extensively used in the Californian, Austra lian, and East Indian commerce through the middle of the nine teenth century in 1854, by Commo dore Matthew Cal- braith Perry, bro ther of the hero of the Battle of Lake Erie, with a fleet of our naval vessels. Perry entered into a friendly commer cial treaty with the Island Empire, which before that time had refused to have anything to do with the nations of Europe or America. Ever since Perry s visit Japan has been a firm friend of the United States. 3 1 The churches also were now splitting up on the question of slavery. The Baptists, Methodists, and Presbyterians divided into Northern and Southern branches on this issue. 2 Another new party to enter this presidential election was that of the 41 Know Nothings," a name originating in the fact that it was a secret organize - tion; when members were questioned about it, they said they "knew nothing" about the matter. These men were afraid that European immigrants would soon overrun our country and lord it over native Americans; so they asked for restrictions on naturalization, and laws forbidding the foreign-born to hold office. After exhibiting much strength for several years their party went to pieces. 3 Another event of importance was the holding in New York City, in 1853, of a World s Fair. In a great building made of glass and iron, called the Crystal Palace, exhibits were collected from every leading country on the globe. It served to show the Americans that in all kinds of labor-saving inventions, es pecially in farming implements, this nation had, as a whole, made more progress than any other in the world. 320 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. Show whether the Kansas-Nebraska Bill was a movement toward Nationalism or States rights. 2. Let the class imagine it is the Senate. Debate the Kansas-Nebraska Bill. Some are Southerners, some are Northerners, some believe in compromise for the sake of peace. 3. One writer says, "The Kansas-Nebraska Bill sowed the wind; the whirlwind was not long in coming." Show the truth of this statement. 4. In the struggle for Kansas, immigration became a political rather than a personal matter. Explain. 5. Why was Perry s mission to Japan particularly difficult? What has the opening of Japan meant to us? To Japan? 6. If you had helped plan the exhibits for the World s Fair of 1853, what particular inventions of the previous half-century would you have recommended for exhibition? 7. Make an outline of the chapter. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Write a speech for a mass meeting called to protest against the Kansas- Nebraska Bill. 2. Imagine that you have gone to Kansas in 1855- from Wisconsin. Write a letter home in which you describe the experience of a day. 3. Imagine that you were with Perry in Japan. Write your impressions of this unknown people and the part they are likely to play in the world. CHAPTER XXXII THE PANIC OF 1857: THE DRED SCOTT DECISION JOHN BROWN S RAID 1857-1861 306. The financial panic of 1857. James Buchanan 1 was the next President. He had been in office but five months when the country was visited by one of the worst financial panics in its history. It is easy to trace the origin of this disturbance. Business men, manufacturers, and speculators had had their fingers burned in 1837; so after that, for a few years, they were very cautious. But as business slowly grew better, they gradually became more daring and eager in seeking riches, and took greater and greater risks. As usual, their investments were largely in city lots and Western lands, and in the building of more railroads and factories than the country as yet needed. A large share of these pur chases of lands and goods was not made with real money, but with notes, which are merely promises to pay money, - that is, the transactions were made on credit. Nearly every body seemed to be doing business in this way. But credit is like a soap-bubble; it can be stretched and stretched to a certain size at last, however, comes a moment when it is stretched too far, and then the bubble bursts. The crash came in August, 1857. A business house in Cincinnati was unable to pay its bills, and it failed. Just as a box built of cards collapses when one card is withdrawn, so hundreds of banks, factories, and stores suddenly failed because of this one failure. Indeed, the entire commercial system in the United States seemed to go to pieces all at once. The shock was felt throughout the civilized world, and busi ness did not fully recover from it for several years. 1 Buchanan was born in Pennsylvania in 1791, and died there in 1868. After being educated as a lawyer, he sat in the legislature of his State, and later in both houses of Congress. He was President Folk s Secretary of State, and served as our minister to Russia and then to England. 322 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 307. The Dred Scott decision. In the spring of 1857 occurred another event that brought even greater and more lasting harm to the nation than had the disastrous panic. The anti-slavery men had always contended that when a slave was taken by his master into a free State, and lived there awhile, he thereby became a free man. But the Fu gitive Slave Law, which provided for the return of runaway slaves to their masters, had been passed under the idea that a slave could not obtain freedom either by running away to a free State or by living on free soil. Now, if this were so, any slaveholder might take his negroes into the free States and Territories and keep them there as securely as in the South ; so that it really would make no difference to him whether Congress declared a new State to be free or slave. It had become very important, therefore, that the Federal Supreme Court should decide as to which was the correct view. A few days after Buchanan s inauguration the Court made such a decision. Some years before, a negro named Dred Scott had been taken by his master from the slave State of Missouri into a free State of the North, but re cently he had been carried back again to Missouri. Scott thereupon asked the courts to declare him a free man, for the reason that he had so long resided on free soil. But the Supreme Court said : - (a) That Scott was still a slave and not a citizen, there fore he had no legal rights and could not seek justice in our courts. He had gained nothing by living on free soil. (b) That slaves were just like horses, cattle, and other property, and might be taken into the Territories of the United States, if the owner wished. (c) That the Missouri Compromise of 1820, which had set aside certain Northern soil as free, was null and void, for Congress had no right to exclude slavery from the Terri tories. This meant that the long and terrible struggle over Kan sas had been in vain; and that slavery might be carried HONEST ABE LINCOLN 323 into the free Territories of Oregon and Washington. The South was pleased at this decision. But Northerners were staggered at the utter defeat of their hopes, and sullen dis content was expressed in tens of thousands of homes. Every where men were now coming to realize that the two sections could not live happily together so long as slavery continued. 308. " Honest Abe " Lincoln. In the summer of 1858 the eyes of the whole nation were directed to Illinois, where there was being waged one of the fiercest political battles ever known in this country - it was really a contest over the Dred Scott de cision, popular sovereignty, and the extension of slavery into the Territories. Stephen A. Douglas, the " Little Giant " who had intro duced the Kan sas-Nebraska Bill, wished to be reflected to the Federal Senate, and was the candidate of the Democrats for this office. The candidate of the Illinois Republicans was Abraham Lincoln, 1 one of the ablest and most popular lawyers in that State. As his parents were extremely poor, he was in youth obliged to do the hardest and coarsest kind of work, such as splitting rails for fences and serving as a hand on a fiatboat, and for many years his only home was a rude log cabin. Little by little he worked his way up, until by this time he had become a leader in his profession. In person, he was tall, lean, and ungainly; but his qualities of heart 1 See biographical sketch of Lincoln, on page 336. A PIONEER CLEARING Lincoln s birthplace was in similar surroundings 324 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT and mind were very attractive. In the years of his later success he never forgot the friends he made during those early years of poverty. He had unusual power as a public speaker, and was fond of telling humorous stories ; but every story skillfully illustrated a point under discussion. Lincoln was very earnest, and sympathized keenly with all human suffering. No man knew better than he how to win and keep the confidence of other men, so that, with all these splendid qualities, it is no wonder he was beloved by his fellow citi zens, who called him " Honest Abe." Each candidate sought the election to the legislature of men who were pledged to vote for him ; for the State leg islature is the body which elects the Federal Senators. They held several public debates, 1 in which Douglas spoke for popular sovereignty, and Lincoln took the side of the Mis souri Compromise and the Wilmot Proviso. During the campaign Lincoln uttered these memorable words concern ing slavery in the United States: " A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this Government cannot per manently endure half slave and half free. . . . I donot expect the house to fall, but I do expect it will cease to be divided." The legislature reflected Douglas as Senator ; but Lincoln had now won a national reputation, which soon made him the banner-bearer of Free-State men in the great conflict so close at hand. 309. Discovery of gold in Colorado. One day in that same summer of 1858, a year after the great panic, a party of miners discovered gold in the bed of Dry Creek, at the base of the Colorado hills a few miles south of where the city of Denver now lies. The exciting news spread rapidly throughout the \vorld, and the usual stampede at once set in, toward the new gold-fields of the Far West. By the following spring tens of thousands of men of every age and race were pouring into the " Pike s Peak country," as 1 Seven meetings were held in different parts of the State. Enormous crowds came long distances by train, wagon, and on foot, to hear the great discussion. The fame of this debate spread all over the country, and_it is still considered one of the leading events in the history of American politics. PETROLEUM FOUND IN PENNSYLVANIA 325 the entire region was then called. 1 At the close of the sum mer of 1859 Denver had become a town of a thousand in habitants. By 1860 it had grown to be a city, with theatres, newspapers, and a Government mint for making gold coin. 310. Petroleum found in Pennsylvania. In 1859 the first petroleum well was sunk near Titusville, Pennsylvania. Before this, Americans obtained their artificial light chiefly from gas, coal oil, 2 and oil made from the fat of the sperm whale; nowadays good illuminating oil might beobtain- ed cheaply from the earth in al most unlimited quantities. The discovery caused great excite ment. Prospect ors and specu lators rushed in large numbers to the oil region, and hundreds of wells were bored not only in Pennsylvania but also in Ohio and Indiana. Afterwards this industry was also opened in New York, West Virginia, Kansas, Texas, California, and elsewhere. Years later, lines of iron pipes were laid in the ground, stretching from the 1 Soon daily stages were put on between Leavenworth and Denver. This journey took fifteen days for the 687 miles, and the fare was $100. Silver had been discovered in Nevada as early as 1853. Gold had been found there in 1849, but not in paying quantities until the summer of 1859. 2 Oil made by distilling coal was introduced in 1850. Just before this, sperm oil was selling at over two dollars a gallon; the new "coal oil" sold for only one dollar, but it had a very strong and disagreeable odor. Petroleum had been found in various parts of the world long before 1859, but in small quan tities and by accident, when men were digging for other things. The Titusville well was the first bored for the definite purpose of finding oil. Kerosene is one of the forms of refined petroleum. THE OIL DISTRICT OF PENNSYLVANIA These frameworks, called derricks, support the machinery for boring the oil-wells. The oil is pumped to reservoirs; and thence through pipe-lines to distant cities. 326 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT oil-fields to some of the largest cities of the country. Through these pipe-lines is pumped a good share of the enormous quantities of the petroleum that we now use every day for fuel, light, and power. 1 Some fifteen years after petroleum was introduced, it was found that natural gas existed in the neighborhood of the wells, and might be bored for the same as oil. For a long time this gas was very freely used for fuel and light in those cities and towns that were near the oil-fields. It is still in use for this purpose, but the supply is not so great as before. 311. John Brown s raid. John Brown was one of the most active anti-slavery men engaged in the struggle for Kansas. When the trouble ended in that State Brown and his three sons moved to the neighborhood of Harper s Ferry, Virginia. Here they secretly formed a plot to help the negroes of the South rise in rebellion against their masters and liberate themselves. With eighteen followers Brown seized the Federal Armory at Harper s Ferry and distributed firearms to the negroes of the region. But at once the plotters were surrounded by a party of indignant whites, and placed in prison. After a brief but regular trial Brown was hanged on the charge of treason against his country. 2 In the North the feeling was so strong against the South that many thousands of citizens declared Brown to be a martyr in the cause of liberty. 3 Southerners, on the other hand, believed that Northerners wished to bring about a slave insurrection with all the horrors that must accompany such an event. The bitterness between the two sections was 1 The total length of these lines is about 25,000 miles. Some of them extend from the Pennsylvania oil-fields to Cleveland, Buffalo, New York, Philadel phia, and Baltimore; and others from Ohio fields to Cleveland and Chicago. 2 Before dying he wrote: "I, John Brown, am now quite certain that the crimes of the guilty land will never be purged away but with blood. I had, as I now think vainly, flattered myself that without much bloodshed it might be done." J His deed was celebrated by a popular song, with this chorus: John Brown s body lies mouldering in the grave; But his soul is marching on!" JOHN BROWN S RAID 327 daily growing; and often, when Northerners and South erners met each other in public places, hot words and threats were exchanged between them. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. What were the causes of the panic of 1857? Compare with the causes of the panic of 1837. 2. Explain why the Dred Scott decision meant that the Kansas struggle had been in vain. 3. Did the Western people favor Nationalism or State sovereignty? Why? 4. How do you explain the fact that the Lincoln-Douglasdebatesattracted so much attention? 5. What events were happening in the North which increased its pros perity? 6. Make an outline of the chapter. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. The news of the Dred Scott decision is received by mail at a village store. Describe the scene and the resulting discussion. This may be dramatized. 2. Let some member of the class read, from a book or magazine, an ac count of one of the Lincoln-Douglas debates the crowd, the appear ance of each of the speakers, the impression that each made, etc., and retell it to the class. 3. Write two editorials on the death of J Jhn Brown, one for a pro-slavery and one for an anti-slavery newspaper. CHAPTER XXXIII IMPROVEMENTS AND GROWTH 1830-1860 312. Great inventions and discoveries. In 1836 John Ericsson, a famous Swedish inventor, introduced the screw propeller for steam vessels; but not until he came to live in America, three years later, was this invention appreciated by shipbuilders. It was a great improvement over the old paddle-wheel. In 1839, Samuel F. B. Morse, later the inventor of the telegraph, and John W. Draper took the first portraits ever made by the photographic process called daguerreotype," which had recently been invented in Paris. It required thirty minutes to make the exposure, and the pictures cre ated widespread interest. In 1839, also, there was introduced a system for carry ing parcels between New York and Boston. From this small beginning the business slowly extended throughout the country, and was the origin of the great express com panies of America. 1 An important invention made known in 1845 was Hoe s revolving printing-press, which enormously increased the rapidity with which printing could be done. The most important and beneficent discovery of the nine teenth century, in the field of medicine, was the use of ether as a means of creating insensibility to pain. A Boston dentist brought this anaesthetic to the attention of medical men in 1846; and since that time surgical operations have been robbed of most of their old-time agonies. Chloroform and other anaesthetics are now also much used by surgeons. 1 Iri most European countries the Post-Office Department conducts the express, telegraph, and telephone services. IMPROVEMENTS AND GROWTH 329 During the same year (1846) Elias Howe patented the first successful sewing-machine, and thus relieved women from much of their hand-sewing. In 1850 came the first successful steam fire-engine. Dur ing the next year appeared both the electric fire-alarm and the breech -loading rifle. The year 1855 witnessed the com pletion of the great suspension bridge across the yawning chasm of Niagara, which was then considered the most daring engineering feat in the world ; also, the introduction into America of the Bessemer process of making steel, an English invention. American inventors quite revolutionized the methods of planting and harvesting crops. They made it possible for the Western farmers, with machinery worked by horse-power, to carry on their large farms with but little help in addition to their own families. Cyrus H. McCormick s reaper, in troduced in 1840, 1 enabled one man to do work that formerly employed five. About the same time the threshing-machine, which had been an invention of slow growth, reached some thing like its present perfection. Little by little these great labor-saving inventions were followed by scores of less im portant but very useful farm machines. Without these devices the West, on account of the scarcity of hired la borers, probably would have grown much more slowly than it did. 2 313. Improvements in the care of unfortunate classes. With the rapid growth of our population, the coming to our shores each year of many thousands of foreigners, and the increased crowding of our cities, new problems arose in re gard to the care of the defective classes and criminals. Grad ually there arose a feeling that we should study the condi tion of these people and see if preventives and remedies might not be applied. This led to the building of institu tions for the better care of the defectives, the erection of 1 Invented in Virginia in 1831, but not offered for sale until 1840. 2 Edwin M. Stanton, who was Secretary of War under President Lincoln, said that the McCormick reaper "carried permanent civilization westward more than fifty miles a year." 330 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT public hospitals, improvements in the sanitation of jails, and attempts to teach trades to prisoners and to reform them. Not all of the old problems were solved by these new meth ods, but by 1860 there was a great advance in such matters over the earlier years of the century. 314. Immigration greatly increases. In 1840 there was opened a regular line of steamers across the Atlantic Ocean, between the United States and Europe. Immigration to America from the Old World began at once to increase rapidly. 1 Cheap and rapid ocean transportation was one reason for this movement toward our shores ; but there were also other reasons : - (a) Discontent among the poorer classes of northern Eu rope, arising partly from hard times and partly, in some countries, from the harshness of their rulers. (b) Our cheap Western lands. (c) Our great demand for laborers. The United States was growing rapidly, and more and more workmen were needed in our railroads, mills, and other industries. Between 1840 and 1860 English, Irish, and Germans were the most numerous of the immigrants. The Germans and the English usually wished to locate in a section where the soil could be cultivated; therefore large numbers of them went to the settlements in the Middle and Western States. The Irish were not so fond of pioneer farming and for the most part sought employment in the mines and the in dustrial cities of the East. 1 The German attempt at a liberal revolution in 1848 and the Irish "potato famine" of 1845 and 1846, gave rise to extensive emigration from Europe. Many of the Irish settled around New York City and joined the Democratic Party in politics. Most of the Germans went further westward, and settled near Cincinnati, Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Louis. They generally became Republican after 1856. The Germans of Missouri prevented the secession of that State in 1861, while those of Wisconsin, headed by the young revolutionist, Carl Schurz (see p. 412), supported the Union cause and aided later reforms. The visit of the Hungarian patriot, Kossuth, to America in 1851, increased the interest of Americans in the European exiles who had come to the United States in search of free government. There had been about 3,000,000 immigrants before 1850; and there were 2,600,000 between 1851 and 1860. IMPROVEMENTS AND GROWTH 331 QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. Draw a map of the United States of 1860. Indicate ten of the most im portant cities. 2. Plan a pageant to cover the era from 1830 to 1860. (a) What striking historic incidents would you present? What characters would you represent in each? (b) What inventions and discoveries would you show? (c) What stages in transportation and the sending of news might be represented? 3. Let each of several pupils read in class, without mentioning the name, a short biography of some inventor, discoverer, explorer, or scientist who lived in this" period, the class to decide whom he represents. 4. What incidents or what persons do the following dates call to mind? - 1829, 1833, 1837, 1844, 1846-48, 1849, 1850, 1854, 1857, 1859. 5. State four important things that the period from 1830 to 1860 stands for in your mind. 6. What institutions have your State and community provided for the care of unfortunate classes? 7. From which part of Europe did most of the immigrants of the nine teenth century come? From what part of Europe do most of our immigrants now come? What is being done to-day to make the im migrants good American citizens? 8. Make an outline of the chapter. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Let each member of the class who has an old daguerreotype at home bring it to school; let the class choose one about which to write a story. 2. The farmer has a large field of wheat to cut and finds that he cannot get hands. The newly invented reaper saves the day. Introduce characters and tell the story. 3. It is suggested that each member of the class whose grandfather or grandmother came to this country from Europe relate to the class a brief account of the reasons for the immigration, and the early experi ences of his ancestor or ancestors in this country. REVIEW OF THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT THE most important issue before the country during the early years of the Period of National Development, was the strict or the liberal construction of the Constitution. This question usually manifested itself in the opposing ideas of states rights and Federal power. The Federalists believed in a strong central government; the Anti-Federalists desired that the States should have more 332 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT power than the Nation. Washington and Hamilton were Federal ists; Jefferson was the most prominent of the Anti-Federalists. The decisions of the Supreme Court have throughout our history usually leaned toward liberal construction of the Constitution, in favor of enlarged powers for the Federal Government. The States were slow to accept the idea of Federal authority. In Washington s Administration occurred the Whiskey Rebellion in Pennsylvania; in John Adams s Administration the legislatures of Virginia and Kentucky declared that the Alien and Sedition Laws were null within their borders; and during the W 7 ar of 1812, threats of secession came from New England. It was largely due to Hamilton s persuasion that Congress voted that -the Nation should pay the war debts of the States, thus es tablishing public credit. Revenue for paying this debt was pro vided by a protective tariff, and internal revenue taxes. The young nation had many difficulties with France and with the British. In 1793 Washington issued his Neutrality Proclama tion, declaring that we would take no part in the efforts of the French to form a republic. In 1798 occurred our brief war with France, ended by the intervention of Napoleon. In connection with our differences with France should be remembered the Alien and Sedition Laws and the U X, Y, Z" affair. For many years France and Great Britain were at war and each was continually seizing our vessels laden with foodstuffs for the other. Jay s Treaty (1794), the Embargo Act (1807), and the Non- Intercourse Act (1809) all had to do with these commercial troubles. Our greatest grievance, however, was the impressment of Ameri can seamen by the British. There were conflicts with the Indians in the country west of the Alleghenies. The Americans claimed that the savages were encouraged by the British to attack settlers. In June, 1812, war was declared against Great Britain. The Americans undertook to capture Canada, but were repulsed by the British, who later were successful in taking Washington. The Americans, however, were almost uniformly successful at sea; out of fifteen notable naval battles we won twelve. One of the most striking events of the war was Andrew Jackson s victory at New Orleans, an unnecessary battle because fought two weeks after the signing of the treaty of peace. The war unified the United States, improved the business of her factories, and proved to Europe her ability to look out. for herself. In 1803 Jefferson bought Louisiana of Napoleon for $15,000,000. This vastly increased our territory and opportunities and is one of the most important events in our history. Fur traders and agri cultural settlers pushed westward in the footsteps of Lewis and REVIEW 333 Clark, beyond the bounds of the Louisiana Purchase into what was known as the Oregon Territory. In 1819 the Spanish sold us the Province of Florida for $5,000,000, thus further increasing our domain. After the War of 1812 there was a great westward migration. New States had been admitted to the Union and it was seen that others would soon be applying for admission. The question was whether the new States of the future should be slave or free, for the dispute over slavery was beginning to have a threatening aspect. When Missouri asked to be admitted to the Union in 1818, the slavery question in such States as should be carved from the Louisiana Territory was temporarily settled in 1820 by the Missouri Compromise. In 1823 President Monroe sent a message to Congress contain ing the famous Monroe Doctrine, declaring that the American continents should not henceforth be considered as open to Euro pean colonization. Our foreign policy has ever since been largely based on this doctrine. With our increase of territory questions of transportation be came urgent. The need was met by new undertakings and in ventions. In 1807 the Clermont made its first trip on the Hudson; after that, the use of the steamboat spread rapidly. The National Road was built between 1806 and 1838 ; the Erie Canal was opened in 1825, and soon after that the earliest steam railroads were built in various parts of the country. During the period from 1829 to 1860 the dispute over slavery grew fiercer from year to year. Jackson, Calhoun, Daniel Webster, Hayne, Sumner, John Quincy Adams, Clay, John Brown, Douglas, and Lincoln were prominent advocates on one side or the other. It became increasingly evident that this question threatened the permanence of the Union. "A house divided against itself cannot stand." There were also sectional differences as to tariff and internal improvements that increased the bitterness of feeling. Important events in connection with slavery during this period were the annexation of Texas, the war with Mexico, the Compro mise of 1850, including the Fugitive Slave Law, the struggle for Kansas, the formation of the Republican party, the Dred Scott decision, John Brown s raid, and the debates between Douglas and Lincoln. Financially we may note the Compromise Tariff of 1833, the struggle over the National Bank, the establishment of many small banks that issued their own notes, and periods of extravagant speculation with the resultant panics of 1837 and 1857. Other important events of this period were the effort at nulli fication by South Carolina, the introduction of the spoils system, 334 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT the Webster- Ashburton Treaty, the publication of Noah Webster s Dictionary, the annexation of Oregon and of the land conquered and purchased from Mexico, the discovery of great deposits of gold, anthracite, petroleum, and natural gas, and Perry s treaty with Japan. The American showed his genius for invention by giving to the world during this period the telegraph, the submarine cable, the use of anaesthetics, the sewing-machine, the revolving print ing-press, the reaper, and the thresher. The immigrants during this period were chiefly English, Irish, and German, the two latter peoples being driven here by famine in Ireland and political disturbances in Germany. The Irish settled in the large cities of the East and the Germans through out the farms and villages of the Middle West. There was a general spread of humanitarian ideas, shown not only by interest in the slave, but by care for defectives, improve ment in the treatment of criminals, and the erection of hospitals. The year 1860 found the United States extending from Canada to Mexico, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, prosperous and pro gressive, but distracted by sectional differences of feeling and policy. RECOMMENDED READINGS HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY TEACHERS LIST. Hart s American History by Contemporaries, vol. in, chaps, xm-xxiv, xxvi-xxix; vol. iv, chaps, n, iv-vn. Fiske s United States, pp. 253-350. Sparks s Expansion of American People, chaps, xn- Xiv, xx-xxix. Channing s Jeffersonian System, chaps, v, vii, xn. Bab- cock s Rise of American Nationality, chaps, v-xi, xv. Turner s Rise of New West, chaps, v, x, xn, xm. McDonald s Jacksonian Democracy, chaps. I, in-v, ix, xvni. Hart s Slavery and Abolition, chaps, iv, vn-ix, xvm. Garrison s Westward Expansion, chaps, in, vi-xi, xm. T. C. Smith s Parties and Slavery, chaps. I, n, v, vii, ix, xu, xm, xvn, xix, xx. Mc- Master s United States, vol. in, chap, xxn: vol. iv, chap, xxxm; vol. v, chaps. XLI, XLIV, XLVII; vol. vi, chaps. LVIII, LXI, LXV, LXIX, LXXVII, LXXIX, LXXXV; and With the Fathers, pp. 1-54. Wilson s History of Ameri can People, vol. in, chaps, in, iv. Henry Adams s History of United States, vol. i, pp. 185-91. Rhodes s United States, vol. I, chaps. I, iv; vol. n, chaps. vii, ix, x; vol. in, chap. xii. Roosevelt s Winning of the West, vol. iv, chaps. I, ii. Hosmer s Short History of Mississippi Valley, chaps, vi, vii. Thwaites s Rocky Mountain Exploration, pp. 81-187; Wilson s Washing ton the Capital City, vol. I, chaps, i-ix. Laut s Story of the Trapper. Gar rison s Texas, chaps, xvni, xxi. Page s Old South, pp. 143-85, 277-344. Schafer s Pacific Northwest, chaps, ix, xii, xiv. Preble s History of Steam Navigation, pp. 35-66. Carter s When Railroads were New, chaps. I, n. Wright s Industrial Evolution, pp. 133-42. Thwaites s "McCormick," in Wisconsin Historical Society Proceedings, 1908, pp. 234-59. Morse s REVIEW 335 Jefferson. Gay s Madison. Goodwin s Dolly Madison. Gilman s Monroe. Sumner s Andrew Jackson. Schurz s Henry Clay. Lodge s Webster. Gold- win Smith s Garrison. Thurston s Robert Fulton. Morse s Morse. PUPILS LIST. Hart s Source-Book of American History, chaps, xi-xvii; How Our Grandfathers Lived. Elson s Child s Guide to American His tory, pp. 104-259; Side Lights on American History, vol. I, chaps, vi- x, xn-xvi. Tappan s Our Country s Story, pp. 171-207; American Hero Stories, pp. 207-54. Coffin s Building of the Nation, chaps, vni- xvi, xix, xx, xxin, xxv-xxxi, xxxiv. Lodge and Roosevelt s Hero Tales, pp. 103-47, 171-81. Blaisdell and Ball s Hero Stories from American History, chaps, xi-xiv. Hurlbut s Lives of Our Presidents, pp. 85-169. Bolton s Famous American Statesmen, pp. 133-272. Abbott s Blue Jackets of 1812. Seawell s Twelve Naval Captains, pp. 53-82, 102-29, 182-91, 208- 33. Beebe s Four American Naval Heroes (Perry). Barnes s Giant of Three Wars (Winfield Scott). Brooks s First Across the Continent. Sparks s Book of Famous Explorers (Lewis and Clark). Irving s Astoria. Kingsley s Four American Explorers (Fremont). Perry and Beebe s Four American Pioneers (Crockett and Carson). Dana s Two Years Before the Mast. Park- man s Oregon Trail. Wright s Children s Stories of American Progress, pp. 191-229. Rale s Stories of Invention, pp. 259-83. FICTION TEACHERS LIST. Allen s Choir Invisible. Altsheler s Heralds of the West; Wilderness Trail. Atherton s Splendid Idle Forties. Bacheller s D ri and I. Bank s Oldfield. Cable s Grandissimes; Old Creole Days. Ed ward Eggleston s Circuit Rider; Graysons; Hoosier Schoolmaster; Roxy. G. C. Eggleston s Dorothy South. Hale s Philip Nolan s Friends. Bret Harte s Luck of Roaring Camp; Tales of the Argonauts. Johnston s Lewis Rand; Old Times in Middle Georgia. Paulding s Westward Ho! Stowe s Minister s Wooing; Uncle Toms Cabin. PUPILS LIST. Aldrich s Story of a Bad Boy. Barr s Remember the Alamo. Barton s Prairie Schooner (tale of Black Hawk War) . Brady s Reuben James. Brooks s Boy Emigrants. Butterworth s Log School House on the Columbia. G. C. Eggleston s Big Brother (and its sequels). Garland s Boy Life on the Prairie. Hale s New England Boyhood. Harris s Aaron in the Wildwoods. Henderson s Strange Stories of 1812. Howells s A Boys Town. Larcom s A New England Girlhood. Munroe s Golden Days o f 49; With Crockett and Bowie. Seawell s Decatur and Somers; Little Jarvis; Midshipman Paulding. Stowe s Oldtown Folks. Tomlinson s Search for Andrew Field (alsoothersof his "Stories of 1812"). Trowbridge s Cudjo sCave. Twain s Tom Sawyer. POETRY Butterworth s Death of Jefferson; Whitman s Ride for Oregon. Halleck s Death of Drake. Holmes s Old Ironsides. Key s Star-Spangled Banner. Longfellow s Slave s Dream. Lowell s Biglow Papers. Miller s Defence of the Alamo. Proctor s Sacagawea. Mrs. Sigourney s California. Stedman s How Old Brown took Harper s Ferry. Whittier s Angels of Buena Vista; Crisis; Farewell of a Slave Mother; Kansas Emigrants; Texas; Yankee Girl. Willis s Death of Harrison. THE CIVIL WAR CHAPTER XXXIV THE BEGINNING OF LINCOLN S ADMINISTRATION: SECESSION OF THE SOUTHERN STATES 315. Election of President Lincoln. The presidential election in November, 1860, resulted in the election of Abra ham Lincoln, of Illinois, 1 the candidate of the new Republican party. The Republicans had insisted in their platform that Con gress should not allow sla very in the new Western Terri tories, or in the States that should be formed from those Terri tories. The new ly elected President and members of Congress had promised to carry out this policy. The Southern lead ers feared that the Repub licans would not only re fuse to extend the bounds of slavery, but would next attempt to free the slaves in every section of the Union. They therefore re solved at once to prevent such an attempt. As a matter Capyrirjht, 1891, by M. P. Rice ABRAHAM LINCOLN From a photograph taken in 1864 1 Lincoln was born in 1809, in Hardin County, Kentucky. When he was seven years old the family moved to Indiana; but in his twenty-first year they left that State on foot, with an ox team, and emigrated two hundred THE CONFEDERATE STATES OF AMERICA 337 of fact, however, neither the President nor Congress at that time wished to take any such step. 316. South Carolina secedes. On December 20, 1860, about six weeks after Lincoln s election, 1 delegates from all parts of South Carolina met in convention at Charleston and passed an " Ordinance of Secession." This convention repealed the laws under which that State had ratified the Federal Constitution and declared " that the Union now subsisting between South Carolina and other States, under the name of * The United States of America, is hereby dis solved." Having done this, the members passed laws pre paring the State for war, for they feared that the Federal Government might attempt to force her to remain in the Union. 317. The Confederate States of America organized. South Carolina s example was promptly followed by Mis sissippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. These seven seceding States sent delegates to a convention held at Montgomery, the capital of Alabama, commencing February 4, 1861. This convention organized a new govern ment, called " The Confederate States of America." Its con stitution was much like that of the United States, except that:- (a) It forbade any protective tariff. (b) It upheld the right of State sovereignty. (c) It agreed that the " institution of negro slavery as it now exists in the Confederate States shall be recognized and protected." miles westward to central Illinois. His parents were poor, hard-working pio neers, and the boy was obfiged to begin earning his own way as soon as possible. At eight years of age he could chop wood for the household, and as a young man he split fence rails for a living. He was six feet four inches tall, and of enor mous strength; and he needed it all in the vigorous out-of-door_ life which he then led. He was a constant reader of the few books to be obtained in the neighborhood, and in 1834 he began the study of law in Springfield. Twelve years later this frontier lawyer had become one of the leading men in Illi nois and was elected to Congress. His debates with Douglas, which gave him a national reputation as one of the great thinkers and statesmen of his age, have already been mentioned. 1 Lincoln, of course, had not yet been inaugurated. The President at the time that South Carolina seceded was Buchanan, whose term had begun in 1857. THE CIVIL WAR CHAPTER XXXIV THE BEGINNING OF LINCOLN S ADMINISTRATION: SECESSION OF THE SOUTHERN STATES 315. Election of President Lincoln. The presidential election in November, 1860, resulted in the election of Abra ham Lincoln, of Illinois, 1 the candidate of the new Republican party. The Republicans had insisted in their platform that Con gress should not allow sla very in the new Western Territories, or in the States that should be formed from those Territories. The new ly elected President and members of Congress had promised to carry out this policy. The Southern lead ers feared that the Repub licans would not only re fuse to extend the bounds of slavery, but would next attempt to free the slaves in every section of the Union. They therefore re solved at once to prevent such an attempt. As a matter Copyright, 1891, by M. P. Rice ABRAHAM LINCOLN From a photograph taken in 1864 1 Lincoln was born in 1809, in Hardin County, Kentucky. When he was seven years old the family moved to Indiana; but in his twenty-first year they left that State on foot, with an ox team, and emigrated two hundred THE CONFEDERATE STATES OF AMERICA 337 of fact, however, neither the President nor Congress at that time wished to take any such step. 316. South Carolina secedes. On December 20, 1860, about six weeks after Lincoln s election, 1 delegates from all parts of South Carolina met in convention at Charleston and passed an " Ordinance of Secession." This convention repealed the laws under which that State had ratified the Federal Constitution and declared " that the Union now subsisting between South Carolina and other States, under the name of The United States of America, is hereby dis solved." Having done this, the members passed laws pre paring the State for war, for they feared that the Federal Government might attempt to force her to remain in the Union. 317. The Confederate States of America organized. South Carolina s example was promptly followed by Mis sissippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. These seven seceding States sent delegates to a convention held at Montgomery, the capital of Alabama, commencing February 4, 1861. This convention organized a new govern ment, called " The Confederate States of America." Its con stitution was much like that of the United States, except that:- (a) It forbade any protective tariff. (b) It upheld the right of State sovereignty. (c) It agreed that the " institution of negro slavery as it now exists in the Confederate States shall be recognized and protected." miles westward to central Illinois. His parents were poor, hard-working pio neers, and the boy was obfiged to begin earning his own way as soon as possible. At eight years of age he could chop wood for the household, and as a young man he split fence rails for a living. He was six feet four inches tall, and of enor mous strength; and he needed it all in the vigorous out-of-door life which he then led. He was a constant reader of the few books to be obtained in the neighborhood, and in 1834 he began the study of law in Springfield. Twelve years later this frontier lawyer had become one of the leading men in Illi nois and was elected to Congress. His debates with Douglas, which gave him a national reputation as one of the great thinkers and statesmen of his age, have already been mentioned. 1 Lincoln, of course, had not yet been inaugurated. The President at the time that South Carolina seceded was Buchanan, whose term had begun in 1857. 338 THE CIVIL WAR Jefferson Davis, 1 of Mississippi, was elected by the con vention as President of the Confederacy, as it was popu larly called, and Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia as Vice- President. Montgomery was chosen as the capital ; but later the seat of government was removed to Richmond. Meanwhile, a strong attempt was being made in Congress to restore harmony between the States. One proposition was to ask the Northern States to re peal their personal liberty laws, that made it impossible to en force the Fugitive Slave Law within their borders; another was to provide for the gradual free dom of slaves by compensating their owners for the loss of their property. But these efforts failed, for the fire-eaters were in control of the South and Northern leaders were both angry and divided. It did not seem possible to prevent war between them. 318. The Confederates seize Federal property. When, in 1832, South Carolina had merely threatened to secede, President Jackson had promptly sent troops to prevent her, declaring that he would never allow the Union to be broken, no matter what the excuse. President Buchanan, however, whose term of office was, in 1860, nearing its end, was a weaker man than Jackson. He said that it was wrong for 1 Davis was born in Kentucky in 1808. After graduation from the United States Military Academy at West Point, he served for several years in the army, chiefly in the West, and became a colonel. Then he settled down as a cotton planter in Mississippi, and in 1845 was elected to the Federal House of Represent atives. After serving in the Mexican War he became a member of the Federal Senate, then Secretary of War under President Pierce, and again a Senator. But he withdrew from the Senate when Mississippi seceded, and soon was elected President of the Confederacy. After the Civil War he was imprisoned at Fortress Monroe for two years, charged with treason; but he was never tried, and in 1868 was, with other Secessionists, pardoned by Congress. He lived in retirement at his home in Mississippi until his death in 1889. JEFFERSON DAVIS LINCOLN S INAUGURATION 339 the States to secede, but he made no attempt to keep them in the Union. A majority of the navy yards, arsenals, and forts of the Union were at that time located south of the Mason and Dixon line. The Secessionists promptly seized most of these, together with the majority of the mints, custom-houses, and other Federal property in that region. As a rule, it was quite easy for them to do this, for the officials who had charge of such property were in most cases Southerners, who were more loyal to their native States than they were to the Na tion. Such men made little resistance, and often none at all, to the demands of the Confederacy. Thus the Federal Government suffered great losses in the South, and the cause of secession was correspondingly strengthened. 319. President Lincoln s inauguration. When President Lincoln entered upon his high office in March, 1861, there was tremendous excitement throughout the country, both North and South. In his inaugural address he earnestly declared : - (a) That he had " no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of slavery " in the States where it existed. (b) That he purposed " to preserve, protect, and defend " the Union; for " the Union of the States is perpetual. No State can lawfully get out of the Union." This was the position taken by Jackson nearly thirty years before. (c) That he would carry out the laws of the Union in every State and would " hold, occupy, and possess " all the prop erty of the Federal Government, wherever it might be. (d) That, if there must be war, he would not begin it. He concluded the statement of his position with these words, addressed to the South: " In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow countrymen, and not in mine, is the momentous issue of civil war. The Government will not assail you. You can have no conflict without being yourselves the aggressors. We are not enemies but friends." The North was greatly pleased with this stirring address, 340 THE CIVIL WAR for the President had stated the opinions then held by a large majority of the people of that section. 320. Unfortunate condition of the Government. The resources of the United States Government were at that time at a low ebb. President Buchanan s weak policy of non- resistance to secession left the army and navy almost with out men, officers, money, or supplies. 1 Only a few small forts and navy yards in the South had remained in Federal hands, Some of the best vessels in the navy were on cruises in dis tant seas; about forty were in home ports in the North, but of these only three were really effective ships. The national treasury was almost empty, and bankruptcy seemed to stare the Union in the face. Large numbers of the most compe tent officers of the army and navy were Southerners. When their States seceded, they resigned their positions in the Fed eral service and entered that of the Confederacy. Many of our ablest statesmen were also from the South, and they too followed their States into the ranks of secession. The new Republican Administration was composed of men with little experience in conducting a great government. This would have been unfortunate even in times of peace; but it was far worse in times of unrest, with a civil war threat ening the land. 321. Fort Sumter captured by Confederates. President Lincoln was true to his promise not to begin a war with the South. But an event soon happened that brought on the conflict much sooner than had been expected. Major An derson, the commander of Fort Sumter, which guarded the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina, remained loyal to the Union and would not surrender to the Confederates; they therefore tried to starve out him and his garrison by driving off vessels that sought to reach the fort with food and other supplies. Finding themselves unable to force a 1 General Winfield Scott, a native of Virginia, and a popular hero of the Mexican War, was commander-in-chief of the army of the United States at the time the Civil War began. He was loyal to the Union, but old age and infirm ity prevented him from taking part in the war and he retired from the service on full pay. He died at West Point in 1866, being then eighty years old. THE CIVIL WAR BEGINS 341 surrender in this way, the Confederates bombarded the fort, on April 12; and after a brave resistance of thirty-four hours, Anderson and his men were obliged to haul down the Stars and Stripes that floated above their shattered walls. Up to this time a majority of the people in the North had hoped that civil war might be averted. Even those who were fearful of the results of those startling proceedings in the South were divided in opinion as to whether it was wise to attempt to compel the seceding States to come back into the Union. Many prominent Northern men had declared that the "erring sisters" ought to be "allowed to go in peace." But the firing on Fort Sumter and the country s flag at once changed all this. The news of the exciting event was instantly telegraphed far and wide and stirred the Northern people like an insult from a foreign foe. They were aroused to action, and virtually every man, woman, and child in that section at once demanded that the Secessionists be severely dealt with and brought back into the Union. 1 322. The President calls for troops. President Lincoln wisely took advantage of this strong outburst of loyal feel ing in the North, and promptly asked the States to send him 75,000 volunteers to " cause the laws to be duly exercised." The call awoke the North to the highest pitch of military en thusiasm. Men were eager at once to leave their farms and trades, their shops, stores, and factories, and their professions, and enlist in the volunteer army. Thousands of college stu dents deserted their classrooms and hurried to the recruiting offices. Even boys of fifteen and sixteen enlisted in the ranks, and often lads of twelve served as drummer boys. Many more offered themselves than the President could accept. When, after learning how to drill, the hastily formed companies and regiments were ready to leave their cities and villages for the front, the people crowded the streets 1 When the Confederate Cabinet decided to try to capture Fort Sumter, such action was opposed by one of its members, Robert Toombs. He said: "The firing upon that fort will inaugurate a civil war greater than any the world has yet ? seen." He declared that the proposed assault would be "striking a hornets nest," whose "legions now quiet will swarm out and sting us to death." 342 THE CIVIL WAR to see the smartly dressed soldiers l march to the railway stations with their flags flying and with the stirring sound of fife and drum. Often the school-children, in holiday attire, lined the roadside, sang patriotic songs, and scattered flow ers in the paths of the volunteers. It was generally ex pected that there would be but little fighting, and that the North would win an easy victory. There were, neverthe less, many heartrending scenes, when mothers, wives, sis ters, and sweethearts parted from loved ones who, they feared, might never return to their homes. But lightening this sorrow of leaving was the buoyant spirit of patriotism, for every man or boy felt that he was serving his native land in a time of the gravest peril. In obeying the call of the President, he was gladly offering his life, if needed, to the cause of the Union and its flag. 323. The effect in the South. The President s call for volunteers had been sent to all of the States, including of course those in the South that had not yet seceded. But the governors of such States refused to send men to assist Presi dent Lincoln in coercing their neighbors who had gone out of the Union. The governors said that the Secessionists had a perfect right to withdraw, if they saw fit to do so, and any attempt to prevent them was " unlawful interference with their local affairs." The feeling of resentment and the eagerness for war were so strong in the South that Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and North Carolina soon withdrew from the Union themselves and joined the Confederacy, which now consisted of eleven slave States. When Virginia went out, she sought to take with her the stronghold of Fortress Monroe, but its commander success fully defended the Stars and Stripes. Virginia did contrive, however, to seize the navy yard at Norfolk and $10,000,000 worth* of military supplies that happened to be in the State. People dwelling in mountain valleys are apt to be poor, for usually they can have only small farms and these con- 1 The Union uniform was blue; the Confederate color was gray. STRENGTH AND WEAKNESS OF BOTH SIDES 343 tain but little level, rich land on which to grow crops. There were but few slaves in such communities, for the mountain eers could not afford to own them; and leading isolated lives, they were, also, lovers of freedom. Such was the char acter of the settlers in the narrow valleys of the Alleghenies and the Blue Ridge. They were opposed both to slavery and to secession. In 1863 the people in the western mountains of Virginia withdrew from their slaveholding neighbors to the east and entered the Union as a new free State, under the name of West Virginia. The so-called " Border States" Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri would not vote to leave the Union; but while the majority of their citizens favored the North and many served in its armies, large numbers of them joined Confederate regiments. While the North was with such patriotism and confidence raising an army to preserve the Union, the South was, with equal vigor, enthusiasm, and certainty of an early victory, raising its own army to resist that of the North. The same scenes were taking place on both sides of the Mason and Dixon line the same heroism on the part of the men and youth, the same sacrifices on the part of the lonely women who stayed behind to care for their homes, the same fond and tearful farewells as the volunteers left for the front. 324. The strength and weakness of both sides. Each side in the great American Civil War, which now followed, began the conflict with certain advantages and certain dis advantages : - (a) The white population of the South was about one fourth that of the North. 1 This meant that the South could not raise so large an army as could the North, for there were not so many men to draw from. Less than half of the North ern men and boys who were subject to military duty, from eighteen to forty years of age, actually served in the Federal army, either as volunteers or as drafted men; the others 1 The twenty-three States that remained loyal to the Union contained about 22,000,000 people; there were only 9,000,000 in the eleven seceding States, of whom probably 3,500,000 were slaves. 344 THE CIVIL WAR were not needed. In the South, nine tenths of the men and boys of proper age were soldiers. 1 But the South had an advantage in the fact that she could spare nearly all of her white male population for the war; for there were few industries to keep them at home, and most of the negro slaves, whom it was not considered safe to arm, remained on the plantations and raised the crops that fed the Confederate army. These plantations had up to that time, however, raised almost nothing else than cotton, rice, and tobacco, for the South had obtained much of her grains and meat from the North. The negroes knew little about the raising of food crops. The North, however, raised al? of its own food supply. And the recent introduction of horse power machinery on the farms made it possible for North ern women and children to plant and gather crops while the men were away in the army. (b) The South had very few factories, mills, foundries, shipyards, or skilled mechanics. But the North had all these in great abundance, and thus could make nearly all of her own war material, from a pair of shoes to a gunboat. Her great mines could supply coal and iron to carry on these industries, and her many railroads and steamboats were able quickly to transport troops and supplies to any point at which they might be needed ; but the South had almost no mines and but few railroads or steamboats. (c) The wealth and resources of the North were vastly greater than those of the South. In the North were thousands of banks, that readily loaned money to the Federal Govern ment to carry on the war ; and the Government was also able to borrow money for this purpose in foreign countries. The South did not have the credit of a great Government, as had the North ; she could raise little money except by selling her crops in Europe, particularly in England and France, which for many years had been her principal customers; but the 1 Owing to the scarcity of men drafts were more frequent in the South than in the North toward the last, all Southerners between the ages of seventeen and sixty were liable to be called on for military service. STRENGTH AND WEAKNESS OF BOTH SIDES 345 Southerners hoped that these old-time friends would now generously come to their assistance witfy men, money, and arms. It was important to the North, therefore, that the Federal Navy should be able to keep close guard over the Southern seacoast, or blockade it, in order to prevent South ern cargoes from reaching Europe or European vessels from bringing aid to the South. If this blockade could be made successful, and the South be cut off from communication with Europe, then the resources of the Con federacy would be poor indeed. Although the Federal Government had at the beginning of the struggle a weak navy, it was able at once to buy merchant vessels that could quick ly be made over into warships, and Northern shipyards were soon busy making men-of- war. It was not long */ > c before the Union navy was big enough and strong enough for the work which it had to do. (d) In the North were many men who had been trained to manage large business and industrial enterprises. The Union army could have their advice and help in the trans portation, feeding, and clothing of troops, the management of railroads, the building of bridges, and such work; and among the soldiers in every regiment were sure to be hun dreds of skilled workmen of all kinds, who could at a mo ment s notice make or repair roads, bridges, wagons, barns, houses, clothing, harness, tents, and the many other arti- GENERAL ROBERT EDWARD LEE 346 THE CIVIL WAR cles constantly needed by an army in the field. The North ern navy, also, was largely made up of brave and experi enced sailors, the sort who so splendidly manned our ves sels in the War of 1812. The South had few sailors. But the Federal naval and military supplies which she captured before war was declared were of great advantage to her; so also were her many army officers who had been educated at West Point. The greatest of these was General Robert E, Lee, who soon became the head of the Southern army. 1 (e) The South had still another important advantage - during most of the period of the war she was acting on the defensive. Her soldiers were familiar with the hills, rivers, roads, bridges, and fords of their own region; thus a small number of them often were able to repel the attack of a much larger Federal body that did not know the coun try. Then, again, men can always fight best when defending their homes. For these reasons the South really needed fewer soldiers than did the invading army from the North ; and as the Southern troops were nearer home, it did not cost so much to move them about from place to place as it did the Northern volunteers. 325. How geography affected the war. The geography of the United States had much to do with the result of the Civil War. Some of the great rivers of the West, like the Mississippi, the Cumberland, and the Tennessee, were partly within the Union, but also ran through the heart of the seceding States. The question to be settled was, Would the Federal Government be able to send armed steamboats 1 Robert E. Lee was born in Virginia in 1807, a son of "Light-horse Harry" Lee, of Revolutionary fame, was educated at West Point, and served gallantly in the Mexican War. He was a lieutenant-colonel in the army when Virginia withdrew from the Union, and was opposed to secession, but he felt it his duty to follow his State. " I cannot," he said, consent to fight "against my relatives, my children, my home." General Lee was a man of the highest and purest character, passionately fond of his State, one of the most skillful soldiers of history, and greatly beloved by all Southern people. Some years after the Civil War, Lee became president of Washington College, at Lexington, Virginia. His services to this institution were such that after his death, in 1870, his name was coupled with that of George Washington in the designation of the college, which is now called Washington and Lee University. HOW GEOGRAPHY AFFECTED THE WAR 347 through the entire length of those waterways, and thus con trol them? If she could do this, the Confederacy would be cut in two; the Secessionists west of the Mississippi River could then no longer help their friends on the Atlantic Coast ; and in the interior of the continent, where the largest food crops were raised, the Union would be stronger than the Confederacy. In the East the Confederates had certain advantages. The deep and sheltered mountain valleys of Virginia, which run northeastward, made it easy for Southern troops to approach with comparative safety to the neighborhood of Washington and southern Pennsylvania. On the other hand, Northern troops on their march towards the Confederate capital at Richmond had to cross many broad rivers; these were bordered by thick forests and wide swamps, through which they found it extremely difficult to travel, especially in wet weather. But the Union had control of Chesapeake Bay, which has several arms reaching up into Virginia. By means of some of these waterways her naval vessels were able to approach quite closely to Richmond, carrying troops and supplies to the Federal army while it was besieging the city. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. Name at least three occasions previous to 1860 when State sovereignty was ^ threatened. How are we tending to-day, toward a stronger National or a stronger State feeling? 2. Contrast Buchanan s attitude towards nullification with that of Jack son. 3. Which did Lincoln care for more, the preservation of the Union or the destruction of slavery? Prove your answer. 4. What steps had been taken to settle the slavery question peaceably? Why were they not effective? 5. Lincoln said in 1861, "I cannot but know . . . that . . . there has fallen upon me a task such as did not rest even upon the Father of his Country." Show that he was right. 6. When and where was the first Secession Convention held? At that time some one wrote, "The excitement of the greac masses of the people is great under a sense of deep wrongs." Name the wrongs that the South felt she had been made to endure. 348 THE CIVIL WAR t 7. Locate Charleston, Montgomery, Washington, Richmond. 8. "The news of the capture of Sumter had an instant and tremendous effect. For the moment the North seemed a unit." Compare the feel ing throughout the North before and after the fall of Fort Sumter. 9. Learn the five stanzas beginning "Once to every man and nation comes the moment to decide," and the final stanza in Lowell s The Present Crisis. 10. Show how the geographic conditions of what is now West Virginia influenced the people in the stand they took in the beginning of the Civil War. 11. Draw a map of the United States. Indicate by one color the Confeder ate States, by another color the Union States, and by still another color the Border States. 12. Make an outline of the chapter. 13. Important date: April, 1861 Beginning of the Civil War. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Imagine that you are a member of a Kentucky family. You have noticed that the older members of the family have been serious for several days. One evening your father announces that he will join the Confederate army, your eldest brother that he will join the Union forces. Describe the parting and give the conversation that took place. 2. Write two entries in the diary of an officer in the United States army in 1861. His State has seceded. Shall he serve his State or the Union? Let the second entry show his decision. 3. A young man of eighteen was very anxious to join the Union army in one of the^ Border States, but was refused admission on account of some physical defect. During the war he did a courageous deed that made him quite a hero. Write an original story from these facts. CHAPTER XXXV I A THE BATTLES OF l86l AND 1862 ; THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION 326. Battle of Bull Run. Washington and Richmond, the respective capitals of the Union and of the Confederacy, are less than a hundred miles apart, in a straight line. For a long time the chief desire of the opposing armies was to capture each other s seat of government. The people of the North, who now were eager for the war, kept prodding the President and the army with the cry, " On to Rich mond! " The Southern peo ple just as eagerly urged their army to push " On to Washington!" At first the Confederate forces held the greater part of the Potomac River and its banks. They were able to advance as far as the Bull Run, a small stream at Manassas Junction, within thirty miles of Washington. Union troops were hurried southward from all the loyal States, to thrust the enemy back from such close prox imity to the capital. One of the Massachusetts regiments was marching through Baltimore when it was attacked by. a mob and several soldiers were killed theirs was the first blood to be shed in the war. 1 On a hot Sunday, 1 In the bombardment of Fort Sumter, no one on either side was killed or seriously wounded. THE SCENE OF WAR NEAR WASH INGTON AND RICHMOND THE BATTLES OF 1861 AND 1862 351 July 21, 1 86 1, the first real battle of the war was fought, along the banks of the Bull Run. The Northern volun teers were " gre.en," for neither officers nor men had yet learned how to fight; but the Southern troops were under old and experienced army officers, and they drove the Union forces in confusion from the field. 1 327. Both sides make their plans for war. This defeat made it plain to the North that there had now begun a serious war, one that was not to be ended by raw volunteers in a few months, as had at first been hoped. However, very little fighting took place in the six months following Bull Run. The inaction of the Union troops now encamped along the Potomac River caused much discontent in the North ; and the frequent report of their commander, " All quiet on the Potomac," was greatly ridiculed. But both sides were busy enough in organizing and drilling their armies, col lecting arms, ammunition, clothing, wagons, and other war material, and making plans for a long and serious conflict. The North s plans for subduing the rebellion were three fold:- (a) To capture Richmond, and then to drive the Con federate army southward along the Atlantic Coast. (b) To obtain control of the full length of the Mississippi River and its principal Southern tributaries chiefly the Cumberland and the Tennessee; then, having expelled the enemy from these waters and thus driven a wedge through the Confederacy from north to south, to send an army east ward from Tennessee to the Atlantic Coast, and split the South in two the other way. (c) To blockade the Southern coast and as far as possible to prevent the Confederates from doing business with Europe. 1 It was in this battle that General Thomas J. Jackson of Virginia, one of the greatest of the Confederate commanders, won his famous nickname, "Stone wall" Jackson. Once the Southern soldiers were wavering, but they rallied under Jackson s orders, and " gave the bayonet" to the " Unioners." In shout ing encouragement to his men, one of the Confederate officers pointed to the General as an example, saying, "Look! There is Jackson standing like a stone wall!" 352 THE CIVIL WAR The plans of the Confederates were almost wholly those of defense. But, as we shall see, they sent out privateers against Northern shipping; they hoped by bold strokes to take Washington and to make raids across the Union lines into some other parts of the North ; and they were confident that after a time they would become masters of all the doubtful Border States. 1 328. Blockade-running. The owners of cotton mills in England were almost wholly dependent for their raw ma terial on the cotton of the Southern States. They needed it quite as badly as the plant ers needed the money which would be paid to them for their crop. When, \ therefore, the Union blockade made it very difficult for the South to ship cotton to Europe, there was wide spread consternation on both sides of the ocean. The price of this ar- x i c THE BLOCKADED SOUTHERN COAST tide at once fell to a low figure in the South, because the planter could not easily reach his customers. But in Europe and also in the North, since trade with the South was 1 Great Britain and several other European countries soon recognized the Confederate States as a belligerent that is, the people of these States were declared by these foreign powers not to be rebels against the Union , but to be conducting a regular war against a hostile nation. Under the rules of interna tional law, therefore, the United States was henceforth obliged to treat all cap tured Confederates as prisoners of war, and not to punish them for treason against the Federal Government. THE BATTLES OF 1861 AND 1862 353 now suspended the scarcity of the article and the cost of getting it made the price very high. When a cargo managed to reach the European manufacturer he paid a large sum of money for it ; but nearly all the profits went to the men who sailed the blockade-runners. These were small, fast, and heavily armed vessels that, under cover of dark and foggy nights, stole their way into Southern ports, past the watchful Union vessels. Hastily loading at the wharves with bales of cotton, they passed out again to sea, sometimes, how ever, having a sharp fight with the blockading fleet, and steered for the West Indies. There the cotton was reloaded into ocean-going vessels that sailed for Europe. But the dangers of this traffic were so great that only now and then could such a cargo successfully cross the Atlantic. The trade was very small, indeed, compared with that which had prevailed before the war. Nothing hurt the South quite as much as the Union blockade. For a long period of years Southerners had proudly said, " Cotton is King." This meant that with cotton they were able to buy about everything they wanted they could command the mar kets of the world. 1 But now their great crop could hardly be sold at all none of it to New England, and but little to Europe. Thus the South was able to buy but few manu factured articles and her army suffered for lack of materials for carrying on the war. 329. The exciting affair of the Trent. Early in the war (1861), the Confederate Government appointed two com missioners, Mason and Slidell, to go to France and England to seek the aid of those countries. These men successfully ran the blockade and reached Cuba, where they embarked on the English steamer Trent. But Captain Wilkes of the United States war-sloop San Jacinto boarded the Trent and made prisoners of the two commissioners. The news of this proceeding created tremendous excitement both in 1 In 1860 the South raised nearly 5, 400,000 bales of cotton. Had shebeen able to sell a cotton crop as large as that, in Europe, every year of the Civil War, she would have been able to buy over there all the war material she could use. 354 THE CIVIL WAR England and America. In searching a British vessel and taking prisoners from her, Wilkes had done just what, in 1812, we had objected to English naval officers doing on our vessels. Our indignation at that time was one of the causes that led to our declaring war against Great Britain. Most Northerners now insisted, however, that Wilkes had acted rightly; but of course the British Government was very angry. For a time it looked as though we should soon be fighting Great Britain as well as the Confederacy, which would have been most unfortunate. But President Lincoln courageously and very wisely released Mason and Slidell, and the trouble at once ended. 330. How Europeans felt toward the war. In giving up the commissioners we had made our peace, for the time, with the Government of Great Britain. Nevertheless there was a strong feeling among the wealthy and governing class of Englishmen in favor of the Confederacy. The fact that the Union prevented Southern cotton from being sent to Eng land had led to the shutting-down of large numbers of cotton mills in that country. This had seriously hurt the business of the manufacturers, who naturally did not feel kindly toward the North. The Confederates hoped that because so many English middle-class and working people were thrown out of employment by the shutting-down of the cotton mills, they also might favor the South and insist on their Government breaking the blockade. But English men of this sort were stoutly opposed to human slavery. They declared that the South was founded on that system, and for this reason they would do nothing to help her. The Government at London did not dare to oppose their wishes ; so the only help that the Confederates received in England was a laxness in enforcing neutrality laws and the allowing of war -vessels to be bought, outfitted, and sheltered in her ports. The French Government was as much opposed to the North as were the wealthy men of England. Russia, on the other hand, was friendly to the Union. THE BATTLES OF 1861 AND 1862 355 331. Confederate privateers. Not being able to obtain help from Europe to break the Union blockade, the Confed erates resorted to the practice of authorizing privateers to assist their cruisers in attacking Northern merchant craft at sea. Many of these privateers and cruisers were bought and equipped in Europe, and when closely pursued by Union war-vessels they retired for safety to neutral ports. Prominent among the Confederate cruisers were the Sumter, the Shenandoah, the Florida, and the Alabama, which cap tured and destroyed many valuable vessels and cargoes. 1 332. Fighting in the East, 1862. The strong attempt of the Union army to capture Richmond, and the equally strong attempt of the Confeder ates to take Washing ton, caused most of the fighting on the At lantic Slope, during the war, to be done in Virginia. The Confederate Army of Northern Virginia was commanded in per son by General Lee. The Union Army of the Potomac, which faced Lee s forces, was at first under the leadership of General McClellan, a young, dashing, and well-trained officer. STONEWALL JACKSON In the spring and early sum mer of 1862 McClellan marched southward through great swamps, across swollen rivers, and often knee-deep in mud, until he was but four miles distant from Richmond. But in the remarkable Seven Days battles Lee was the victor, and the Union volunteers withdrew hastily toward Washing ton. The national capital had for some time been menaced by Stonewall Jackson, who was conducting a series of bril liant raids through the Shenandoah Valley and destroying 1 The Alabama ranged the seas for nearly two years and captured fifty-seven Northern merchant ships. She was finally sunk by the Union warship Kearsarge (June 19, 1864), off the French harbor of Cherbourg. In all, the North lost two hundred arid fifty-eight vessels to Confederate cruisers. 356 THE CIVIL WAR supplies of every sort that might be of value to the Union army. Jackson s operations, and the withdrawal of McClellan to oppose them, greatly encouraged Lee. Believing that Richmond could now safely be left to the protection of her long lines of batteries, he moved northward, toward Union territory. In August occurred the second battle of Bull Run, in which Jackson still further humbled the Federal troops. Lee then advanced into Maryland, with the hope of forcing that Border State to join the Confederacy. But after the great battle of Antietam, or Sharpsburg, on Sep tember 17, in which each side lost about 12,000 men, 1 Lee slowly retreated into Virginia, disappointed at the failure of his raid. Meanwhile McClellan had become unpopular because he had not prevented Lee from advancing quite near to Wash ington. He was therefore succeeded by General Burnside, who boldly attacked Lee at the heights of Fredericksburg r December 13, on the Rappahannock River. But Lee had so securely de fended himself there that he was able to repulse his enemy, although with terrible loss to both sides. The two opposing armies in Virginia were now, THE CONFEDERATE at t ^ ie c ^ ose ^ tne year, in about the BATTLE-FLAG same position they occupied at the commencement of the war. 333. Duel between the Monitor and Merrirnac. The Union vessels engaged in blockading the Southern coast 1 "Losses" in battle include killed, wounded, and missing. Generally, thegreat part of the missing are taken prisoners by the enemy. Fox s Regimental Losses in the Civil War says: "Antietam was the bloodiest battle. More men were killed on that day than on any other day of the war. There were greater battles, with greater loss of life, but they were not fought out in one day as at Antietam. . . . [It] commenced at sunrise, and by four o clock that afternoon it was over." The Confederate historians do not con sider that Antietam was a Union victory; they say that the result was indecisive but as Lee was now obliged to give up his northward raid, the advantage lay with the Union armv. THE BATTLES OF 1861 AND 1862 357 had their principal rendezvous at Hampton Roads, a spa cious and sheltered harbor near Norfolk, Virginia. In March, 1862, there were gathered here a large fleet of the best of these blockaders. All of them were made of wood, for up to this time nearly every shipbuilder in the world thought that wood was the only material that he could use for this purpose. The Union forces had abandoned the Norfolk Navy Yard, leaving there a virtually sunken vessel, the Merrimac. 1 The Confederates raised her, cut away the masts, coated her with a double layer of sheets of iron, and armed her with a great ram and fif teen cannon. Thus fortified, the Merri mac steamed forth to attack the Union ships that lay at an chor in the Roads. She is said to have resembled the roof of a barn floating on the water. Thunder ous volleys of cannon balls were poured upon this strange monster of the deep, but they had no effect upon her stout iron sides, and during the day one of the best vessels in the fleet fell a victim to her deadly ram. She retired at night fall, but returned next day, her commander fully expecting to sink several other Northern ships and thus weaken the blockade which shut in the South like a great stone wall. But he was now unexpectedly met by a peculiar little craft that at once challenged him to battle. Her level iron deck hardly rose above the water, and in the center of this deck was a revolving iron turret, looking much like a great nting by Hawaii, In the Capitol THE MONITOR AND THE MERRIMAC The first fight between ironclads. Both vessels had features which were developed and perfected in warships of later years. the Monitor s revolving turret and the Merrlmac s armored casement and ram bow 1 The Southerners renamed her " Virginia "; but historians usually give her the old name in their accounts of the duel. 358 THE CIVIL WAR cheese-box, and carrying two cannon. This was the Monitor, which had recently been invented by John Ericsson. 1 She had secretly arrived from New York during the night. Through five long and exciting hours the fight between the two ironclads was breathlessly watched by the anxious crews of the Union fleet and by great crowds on the shores. It was a strange duel, as they fought fiercely at close quar ters, the Merrimac once attempting to ram her adversary, while the air quivered with the roar of bursting shells and the deafening clang of hammered iron. The Merrimac had met her match in the Monitor. Neither could conquer the other; but the Merrimac, damaged by running aground and having lost her ram, finally withdrew, and the Union fleet was saved. This celebrated battle in Hampton Roads hastened a change in the construction of every navy in the civilized world. It was now seen that the old wooden ships, which for centuries had fought the great sea battles of the world, hereafter stood no chance against ironclads. 2 Ever since then war-vessels have been heavily armored with iron or steel. 334. Fighting in the West, 1862. In the West the cam paign of 1862 opened with the Union army, the larger part of which was commanded by General Halleck, facing the south along a line whose principal points were Paducah at the mouth of the Tennessee River, Cairo at the junc tion of the Ohio and the Mississippi, and St. Louis. Halleck hoped to capture the valleys of the Cumberland and the Ten nessee and all of the Mississippi Valley lying south of Cairo. To protect these valleys from the proposed Federal ad vance the Confederates had a line of troops extending from the Kentucky towns of Mill Spring and Bowling Green to Fort Donelson, on the Cumberland River, and Fort Henry, on the Tennessee, thence over to Columbus, New Madrid, and Island Number 10, in the Mississippi. 1 Ericsson also invented the hot-air engine and the screw propeller. 2 A few ironclad ships had, before this, been built in Europe as experiments. THE BATTLES OF 1861 AND 1862 359- General Ulysses S. Grant, who at that time was one of Halleck s subordinates, soon captured Fort Henry. He then marched up the valley of the Cumberland and attacked Fort Donelson. After a gallant defense its commander asked the Union general what terms he would give to the garrison if it hauled down its flag. Grant s reply became famous: Contemporary engraving UNION GUNBOATS AND MORTAR BOATS IN ACTION ON THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER " No terms except unconditional and immediate surrender can be accepted. I propose to move immediately upon your works." 1 Fort Donelson fell into Grant s hands on Feb ruary 1 6, with 12,000 to 15,000 prisoners and large supplies of war material. After this, Grant returned to the Tennessee River and on April 6-7 fought a terrible battle at Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh, 2 with the able Confederate general, Albert S. John ston. Johnston was killed, and his army was obliged to retire southward. The losses in this engagement were so appalling that the people of the entire country, both North 1 U. S. Grant was thereafter fondly called (because of his initials), "Uncon ditional Surrender" Grant. ? Some of the heaviest fighting occurred around Shiloh Church, two milesi from Pittsburg Landing, therefore many historians call it the battle of Shiloh. THE CIVIL WAR and South, were greatly shocked. They were now at last coming to realize what a terrible thing war is. It was not long before the Federals, under General Thomas, were in possession of all Kentucky and the eastern part of Tennessee. As for New Madrid and Island Number 10, they also fell after a long and severe siege by Union gunboats ; and Corinth and Memphis likewise came into possession of the North. Thus the Confederate line in the West had been thrust southward for a long distance, 1 and Federal vessels could now navigate the Mississippi River as far down as Vicks- burg. But below that place the great waterway was for a long distance strongly guarded by Confederate forts. 335. The Federals capture New Orleans. New Orleans is about a hundred miles from the sea. Seventy-five miles below the city the Confederates guarded the Mississippi River by two well-built forts, situated on opposite banks. Below the forts great iron chains extended across the river to prevent Union vessels from ascending the stream; above the forts lay a fleet of fifteen river vessels, heavily armed. Southerners supposed that New Orleans was in this way thoroughly protected against capture by the Union navy. But in April, 1862, a powerful fleet of eighty-two Union ships, under the brave and skillful Captain Farragut, 2 gal lantly forced its way through the chains, overcame the forts, captured the enemy s vessels, and landed an army of 15,000 men in New Orleans. This was a severe blow to the Confederacy, for now both the lower and upper portions of the Mississippi River, the 1 In the last days of die year (December 31, 1862, to January 2, 1863), Union forces who were chasing the Confederates through Tennessee dealt them a serious blow at Murfreesboro (or Stone s River), where for three days a fierce battle was waged. The total losses of both sides amounted to nearly 25,000, almost a fourth of all the men in the fight. 2 David Glasgow Farragut was born in Tennessee in 1801, and when only nine years old became a midshipman in the navy. He served with credit in the War of 1812, and in the Mexican War, and at the opening of the Civil War was put in command of the Union squadron in the Gulf of Mexico. After his brilliant success at New Orleans he was made an admiral. He died in 1870, after sixty years of continuous naval service. THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION 361 main avenue to the interior of the continent, were in Federal hands. The strongholds of Vicksburg and Port Hudson,with their batteries planted on high bluffs beyond the reach of Farragut s cannon, alone stood unconquered; they were the sole tie connecting the Confederates west of the Mississippi with their brethren to the east. But until land forces could Painting bj/ Carpenter, in the Capitol THE CABINET DISCUSSING THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION President Lincoln Stanton Chase (War) (Treasury) Welles Smith Se ward (seated) Hlair Hates CSavy) (Interior) (State) (Postmaster- (Attorney- General) General) also be brought against them, the Union naval officers thought it best not to attempt their capture. 336. President Lincoln s Emancipation Proclamation. Lincoln was strongly opposed to slavery. However, like most Northerners, he had before the war been ready to do almost anything to please the South and keep the Union together, provided that slavery was not extended into the new Territories and States of the West. 1 Even after the war began he asked Congressmen from those slave i The President wrote in August, 1862, to Horace Greeley,a New York news paper editor: " My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union ^and. it is not either to save or to destroy slavery " ; but he added that it was his ott- ^xpressed personal wish that all men everywhere could be free." 362 THE CIVIL WAR States that had remained loyal to the Union to advise their fellow citizens to sell their slaves, on condition that the Federal Government pay $300 apiece for them. But this request was not heeded. 1 Most of the blacks remained at home with their masters families during the war, and worked for and protected them. Nevertheless, large crowds of dissatisfied slaves escaped into the Union lines. Had the Northern generals ordered them to return home, they would have been used in raising food crops for the Confederates. It seemed best, therefore, to declare them to be "contraband " of war like food and other supplies intended for the enemy. Large numbers of these so-called contrabands were set to work for the Union army. 2 This was the first step toward freeing the slaves. A second step was not long in coming. The President and other thoughtful Northern statesmen realized that slavery had been the real cause of this terrible quarrel be tween the North and the South. They said that some time it surely must be abolished, or the two sections could never again live together happily. That " some time " was hast ened by the discontent that had arisen in Europe because the Union blockade prevented Southern cotton from reach ing the mills of England and France. Something must be done to keep these countries from helping the Confederacy. If the Union should favor the abolition of slavery in America, the common people of Europe, most of whom detested hu man bondage, would not allow their governments to assist the slaveholders. At that time there was nothing in the Constitution of the United States forbidding men to own slaves. In times of peace neither the President nor Congress has any authority to take away a man s property without paying him for it. Yet if the Federal Government freed the slaves it would 1 In April, 1862, acting on his advice, Congress agreed to a money compensa tion, and paid a million dollars to slave owners in the District of Columbia and the Territories. 2 Later, negro regiments were enlisted, to serve in the army of the North. THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION 363 be the same thing as unlawfully confiscating millions of dollars worth of private property. However, the President is also commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the nation. In times of grave public danger that officer has to be given great powers. Lin coln decided that it was " a fit and necessary war meas ure" to set all the slaves in the South free. Acting as commander-in-chief, and not as President, he startled the world by issuing in September, 1862, an Emancipation Pro clamation. 1 Its intent was to destroy the property of the enemy and thus to cripple the Confederacy, which depended so largely on slave labor. This famous document declared that on the following New Year s Day, " all persons held as slaves" within the Confederate States "shall be then, thence forward, and forever free." Negroes running away from their Southern masters were now sure of protection within the lines of the Union army. As fast as Confederate ter ritory was captured by the Federal troops, all of its negroes at once became "freedmen." 2 The proclamation had the effect on Europe that had been expected. It created among the common people of the Old World a strong sympathy for the Union. No longer was there any talk there of helping the slaveholding Con federacy. In the North there was at first some opposition ; but gradually the people of that section came to look on the war as a gigantic crusade against human bondage in America. This high moral purpose gave new strength to the soldiers of the North. 1 The original draft of the Emancipation Proclamation, in President Lincoln s own hand, was presented by him to the Northwestern Sanitary Fair, held at Chicago in October, 1863, for the benefit of the sick and needy soldiers. Later, this priceless paper came into possession of the Chicago ^Historical Society, and was burned in the great Chicago fire in 1871. The official copy of the Pro clamation, that was actually signed by the President, ready for publishing, is now owned by the New York State Department of Education at Albany. 2 The proclamation did not apply to the Border States, whose slaveholders kept their blacks until either the States themselves or the Thirteenth Amend ment to the Constitution abolished the system. 364 THE CIVIL WAR QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. On an outline map note and fill in from day to day the places men tioned in the text relating to the campaign in the West; in the East. 2. Prove that Lincoln was right in the Mason and Slidell affair. What kind of courage did he show in making his decision? Mention other instances in our history of similar courage on the part of public men. 3. Fill in the following outlines: /. In the East Chief Battles Northern Leaders Southern Leaders Result II. In the West Chief Battles Northern Leaders Southern Leaders Result 4. Which section, the North or the South, suffered the most from the war? Why do you think so? 5. In his first inaugural address Lincoln said, "I have no purpose, di rectly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of slavery in the States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so." Why, then, did he issue the Emanci pation Proclamation? By what right did he do it? 6. Make an outline of the chapter. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. After the battle of Bull Run a Northern soldier wrote a letter home giving an account of the battle and expressing a sincere admiration for the training and courage of the Southern soldier. Write such a letter. 2. W r rite an editorial that an anti-slavery man of the North might have written to a newspaper after the Emancipation Proclamation; also one that a slave owner might have written. 3. A man from the roof of a building near the shore of Hampton Roads saw the duel between the Monitor and the Merrimac. Write the let ter he might have written describing the scene. CHAPTER XXXVI THE CAMPAIGNS OF 1863 AND 1864; THE CONFEDERACY IS SPLIT IN TWO 337. Chancellorsville and Gettysburg. During the win ter of 1862-63 Lee remained in Fredericksburg. To the north of him was encamped the Union Army of the Potomac, which was now commanded by General Hooker, a daring officer whom his men proudly called " Fighting Joe Hooker." ^Br yjjjjjmf^, ^jjg/F^ From a contemporary engraving THE BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG In the spring of 1863 Hooker advanced southward to meet the enemy. He crossed the Rappahannock River above Fredericksburg, but met defeat in the great battle of Chan cellorsville (May 1-5), and was obliged to return to the north bank of the river. Although the victory was with the Confederates, they suffered a very severe loss in the death 366 THE CIVIL WAR of " Stonewall " Jackson, who was one of the best of Lee s .generals. Lee was encouraged by this success over Hooker s army, and a month after the engagement at Chancellorsville he set out to invade the North. Crossing the Potomac River with 75ooo men, Lee pushed past the Army of the Poto mac and hoped to reach Philadelphia by way of Harrisburg. In his path, however, lay the little Pennsylvania village of Gettysburg which controlled the roads between him and his supplies on the Potomac. Here he was confronted by General Meade, who had succeeded Hooker as the leader -of the Army of the Potomac. A three days battle followed (July 1-3), to decide whether Lee or Meade should occupy Gettysburg. Both Northern and Southern armies were then composed of well-equipped and finely trained and experienced soldiers. The fighting was probably the most severe it certainly was the most deadly of the entire war. The climax came in the afternoon of the last day. Fifteen thousand Confeder ates under General Pickett formed in the shape of an enor mous wedge. With a mighty rush they swept across a mile of open space and sought to dislodge from an opposite hill a great body of Union troops headed by General Hancock. The charging mass of gallant men in gray was torn by round after round of artillery fire, and by repeated rifle- volleys. Pickett s ranks quickly melted under this terrible onslaught. Nevertheless many Confederates reached the hill, some of them even forcing their way through the Union lines. But from the fierce hand-to-hand struggle which followed few emerged alive, and most of them became prisoners to the Union army which had so stubbornly held its ground. 1 The South had gone into the battle of Gettysburg with the fullest hopes of victory. Her prospect for success had never been quite so bright as on the morning of July I ; the tide of the Confederacy was then at its height. But on 1 The Union loss in the three days fighting was about 23,000; the Con federate, about 28,000. LINCOLN S GETTYSBURG ADDRESS 367 the evening of the third day, it was realized that the tide had ebbed, and might never turn. The Confederate army was hurled back into Virginia, and never again sought to invade the country north of the Mason and Dixon line. 1 338. Lincoln s Gettysburg Address. On November 19, 1863, a part of the battlefield of Gettysburg was dedicated as a " cemetery wherein to bury the bodies of the slain." Lincoln was present and delivered the following short ad dress. It instantaneously affected the country, whether people were educated or unlettered, as a great speech. This impression has deepened with time, and the address will always be considered one of the best specimens of Ameri can eloquence: " Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedi cate a portion of that field as a final resting-place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. But in a larger sense we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember, what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us- to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us, that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion; that we here 1 After the battle of Gettysburg, the Federal Government needed more .oldiers and sought to get them by forcing into the service some of those citizens who had not volunteered. This was done by a system of selection by lot, called "the draft." This first draft led to violent disturbances, the worst being in New York City, which for four days, in the middle of July, 1863, was con trolled by a ruffianly mob who robbed houses and stores and threatened the lives of negroes and Abolitionists. The riots were everywhere put down with the strong hand of the military. But the great majority in both Northern and Southern armies volunteered willingly, whenever their governments issued calls for additional troops* 368 THE CIVIL WAR highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain; that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth." 339. The capture of Vicksburg and Port Hudson; the Union triumphs on the Mississippi. Let us now turn to the campaign of 1863 in the West, where the Union generals were still attempting to gain full control of the Mississippi River. It will be remembered that by the close of the year 1862 the Federal army and navy were in possession of all of that stream above Vicksburg, and from the Louisiana town of Port Hud son southward to the sea. But between these two strongly fortified places lay a stretch of two hundred miles of river remaining in the hands of the Confeder acy. Across this strip of territory they obtained food for their army from the rich farms of Louisiana, Arkan sas, and Texas. Indeed, there came to Lee by this route a good deal of war material overland from Mexico. He was not able to import such material direct from Europe through Southern ports, because of the close watch kept over the Confederate coast by the Federal navy; hence this back-door journey through Central America. It was of the greatest importance to the Union to get control of the entire length of the river and break up this westward line of Confederate communication. THE FIELD OF THE WESTERN CAMPAIGNS THE CAMPAIGNS OF 1863 AND 1864 369 Vicksburg was the principal Southern fortress upon the Mississippi; it was called the " Gibraltar of the Confeder acy." Early in the spring of 1863 Generals Grant and Sher man x began a campaign to capture this stronghold. They had at their command 75,ooo soldiers, and in the river a fleet of ironclad gunboats. But the city was very stoutly defended, and the task of conquering it was long and diffi cult. Day by day and night by night, for several weeks in suc cession, an almost constant storm of ex plosive shells poured into Vicksburg from the Union batteries and vessels. The in habitants and the garrison of nearly 30,000 men made a splendid defense. But at the end of June the town had been almost battered to pieces by the terrible bombardment, and the people were forced to live in caves dug out of the hillside on which Vicksburg is built. All manner of supplies were gone. Even the newspapers had to be printed on the back of wall paper. The horses and mules had been eaten; there was no meat left, except for those who were willing to live 1 General William Tecumseh Sherman was a native of Ohio, born in 1820. When twenty years old he graduated from West Point and became an artillery lieutenant. After serving in California he left the army for several years, being by turns banker, lawyer, and street-railroad president. When the war broke out he was made a colonel, but soon rose to be a major-general (1862), He aided Grant at Pittsburg Landing, and was his principal assistant in the Vicksburg campaign. When Grant became President, Sherman was called to be head of the army. He died in 1891. A VICKSBURG NEWSPAPER Four columns were printed to the page. Here only half the paper is shown. The lower part is folded to show the wall paper on which the news was printed 370 THE CIVIL WAR on cats, dogs, and rats save that the soldiers still had a little pork to eat with the one cracker a day that was allowed to each of them. There was now nothing to do except starve or surrender to the besiegers. Surrender was decided on, and this took place on the morning of July 4, the day following the Confederate defeat at Gettysburg. These two great Union victories were disastrous blows to the Confederacy. They came so closely upon each other as to cause a joyful " Fourth " in the North, but in the South it was a very sorrowful one. Four days later Port Hudson also surrendered. At last the Mississippi River from its source to its mouth had become a Union highway. The States west of that stream could never after give much aid to the cause of secession. The Confederacy had been split in twain. 340. Chickamauga and Chattanooga. But the capture of the Mississippi River was only a part of the great Union campaign for splitting the Confederacy in two, from north to south. The Confederates still held the upper part of the valley of the Tennessee, and with it the mountain passes ly ing to the east of that river. Chattanooga, which lies among the hills of southern Tennessee, was even then an important town. It was the principal place in that region, and a Con federate stronghold. From it several highways and rail roads ran southward through the heart of the Confederacy and eastward into Virginia. Over these roads the Confeder ates sent men, food, and supplies from west of the Alle gheny Mountains into Virginia and the Carolinas, to help the army of the South. From Chattanooga, also, they could and did raid and destroy the farms and towns in eastern Ken tucky and Tennessee, where there were many families that remained friendly to the Union. It was, therefore, very important to the Union that Chattanooga should be cap tured ; not only to stop the Confederates from using it, but that it might serve the Northern army as a center from which to raid the interior of the Confederacy. The campaign against Chattanooga was placed in charge THE CAMPAIGNS OF 1863 AND 1864 of General Rosecrans. With him were several able subor dinates Generals Thomas, Sherman, and Hooker. The leader of the Southern forces was General Bragg. He was soon driven out of Chattanooga itself ; but he heavily forti fied the neighboring heights of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge, and for a long time remained master of the situation. The first really great battle of the campaign took place at Chickamauga (September 19-20), twelve miles to the east of Chat tanooga. Here Rosecrans and Thomas met a much larger body than their own, and were badly defeated in one of the fiercest en gagements fought during the war. The Union loss would have been far greater had not Thomas stood firm and protect ed the rear of the column as it re treated. He did this so effectively that he well earned the famous nickname which he bore ever after, "The Rock of Chickamauga." The Union forces now returned to Chattanooga, where Bragg kept them shut up for two months. But reinforce ments, food, and clothing soon poured in to them from the North and West, and Grant arrived personally to direct the defense. By the last week in November Grant was strong enough to attack the enemy. This he did with great vigor. Hooker was sent with a part of the army to drive the Con- Photograph by Brady INFLATING A WAR-BALLOON Balloons were occasionally used during the Civil War for making observations. At the present day, aeroplanes would be used. Com pare the illustration on page ii at the back of the book. 372 THE CIVIL WAR federates from Lookout Mountain. It was a hard scram ble for the Union soldiers up the steep and rugged slopes, which were strewn with great boulders and gullied by deep ravines. But little by little they fought their way up, in the face of a desperate resistance by the Confederates. Much of the time the contestants were hidden from each other in the thick cloud of mist which hung upon the mountain-side. But emerging from this, as they climbed, the men in blue dealt their last blows in the clear upper air, with the masses of cloud far below them. That night their camp-fires dotted the summit and sides of Lookout Mountain, a sign to the armies encamped in the valley below that Hooker had won in the " Battle above the Clouds." The next day other Union troops made a brilliant charge up the face of Missionary Ridge and drove the Confederates over into Georgia. Thus the year 1863 ended in the West with the Confederate line pushed far southward of where it was at the beginning of the year. Both east and west, the cause of secession was rapidly losing strength. 341. The " Hammering Campaign." By this time Grant had proved himself the ablest of the Union generals. In the spring of 1864 he was placed at the head of all the Federal troops. Sherman was given charge of the army in the West, which was now 100,000 strong, while Grant himself went to the East to confront Lee, and if possible to capture Rich mond. He had under him 120,000 men, or about double the number that served under Lee. Grant and Sherman began their operations for this year with an agreement between themselves that hereafter, no matter what happened, they would keep " hammering " at the foe. They were convinced that only by thus patiently destroying the Confederate armies little by little, as fast as possible, could the war be brought to an end. This is why their movements in 1864 and 1865 are called the " Hammer ing Campaign." 342. Grant fighting in the Wilderness. Grant made the first move in this campaign. Early in May, 1864, he began THE CAMPAIGNS OF 1863 AND 1864 373. to advance with his forces toward Richmond. His path lay through a wild, gloomy, thinly settled region of sand and scrubby trees lying south and east of the Rapidan River, and commonly known as " The Wilderness." The great man said but little, but he was cool-headed and deliberate in thought, and wonder fully quick in action. For two weeks he was persistently attacked by some of the best gen erals in Lee s small but well-disciplined army, and only by the greatest skill did he save him self and his men from defeat. After emerging from the Wilderness his pro- J gress toward Richmond was so bitterly opposed that Grant was forced to fight some of the bloodiest battles of the war Spottsylvania Court House (May 8- 18) and Cold Harbor (June 3). Both of these were won by the Confed erates, but the loss to each army was appalling. However, the plucky Union leader was not shaken from his purpose of "hammering." Said he, "I ... propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer." And he was true to his word. But Grant found that Lee had thoroughly protected Richmond against any attack from the north. Thereupon he suddenly shifted his position and swung around to Petersburg, which is twenty-three miles south of the Con federate capital. This place also was found to be strongly Copyright, M. P. Rict GENERAL ULYSSES SIMPSON GRANT From a photograph of 1864 374 THE CIVIL WAR fortified by the enemy. There was now nothing else to do but to lay regular siege to it. This proved to be a long and hazardous undertaking. It lasted through eight weary but exciting months. 343. Sherman s great march from Atlanta to the sea. The Union forces had in 1863 opened the entire length of the Mississippi River to the use of Northern vessels. They had also thrust the enemy out of all of the Western country north of Georgia. The next movement in the Union pro gramme must be the sending of an army through the heart of the South, from the west to the east, and thus again cut the Confederacy in two, along another line. It had been arranged between Grant and Sherman that when Grant entered the Wilderness on his way to Rich mond he was to telegraph to Sherman, and then the latter would also begin his advance southward. When Grant s telegram arrived, Sherman set forth. After a long and bloody campaign he took Atlanta on September 2, 1864^ This was the principal manufacturing city of the Confed eracy. He destroyed all of its shops, mills, and factories, and thereby deprived the South of one of its chief sources oi strength. Some ten weeks later, about the middle of November, after breaking up the retreating Confederate army, Sherman started from Atlanta on his famous march southeastward to Savannah- " from Atlanta to the sea." His object in making this long raid was not only to sever the Confederacy, but to create through the center of the seceding States " a broad area of desolation " in which the Southern troops could not exist. Sherman suspected that the authorities in Washington might seek to interfere with his operations, so he destroyed the telegraph wires and railroad lines con necting his army with the North. His column thus " de tached itself from all friends," and for food and supplies was entirely dependent on the country through which it marched. 1 He telegraphed to the President, "Atlanta is ours, and fairly won." THE CAMPAIGNS OF 1863 AND 1864 375 Sherman s raiders numbered 62,000 seasoned veterans, horsemen and infantry. In marching " through Georgia, smashing things to the sea," 1 they traveled in two wings, and carried but few tents and little baggage. They slept on the ground or in barns or houses, wherever night overtook them ; and they " foraged " on the country that is, helped themselves to whatever food they could find for themselves and their horses. Throughout a width of sixty miles and a length of three , hundred, railroads and tele graph lines were demolished, towns and farms were bereft of all their supplies, hundreds of buildings were burned, and immense quantities of all kinds of property were destroyed. The path behind them was lined with blackened ruins; they left nothing upon it that could support man or beast. And in the rear of the army trudged thousands of liberated slaves, who in quaint and lusty songs of joy sounded the praises of " Massa Sherman" and his men. It was a terrible experience for the South, from which it took many years to recover. But to Sherman it seemed necessary as a " war measure," to help shorten the agony of the conflict. Nobody regretted it more than he did himself. 2 1 This march was made the subject of a stirring and still very popular song, "Marching through Georgia." z In his official report Sherman wrote: "We have consumed the corn and fod der in the region of country thirty miles on either side of a line from Atlanta to Savannah, as also the sweet potatoes, cattle, hogs, sheep, and poultry, and have carried away more than 10,000 mules and horses, as well as countless numbers of their slaves. I estimate the damage done to the State of Georgia and its military resources at $100,000,000, at least $20,000,000 of which has inured to our advantage and the remainder is simply waste and destruction." This is an example of the terrible loss in property caused by war, to say nothing of the destruction of human life. THE CHATTANOOGA CAMPAIGN This shows also Sherman s line of march 376 THE CIVIL WAR The great march lasted not quite a month. By the middle of December Sherman had captured Fort McAllister, to the south of Savannah; and the next week he took possession of that city itself. He sent the news to President Lincoln in this message, which went by sea to Fortress Monroe and from there by telegraph to Washington, where it arrived on Christmas Eve : - SAVANNAH, GA., December 22, 1864. To his Excellency, President Lincoln: I beg to present you as a Christmas gift, the city of Savannah with 150 heavy guns and plenty of ammunition, and also about 25,000 bales of cotton. W. T. SHERMAN, Major General. Five weeks later Sherman turned northward, intending to drive the enemy before him. His goal was Richmond, where he hoped to join Grant in a final assault on the enemy s capital. While marching from Atlanta to Savan nah he had met with little armed resistance, for the Con federate army in the West had been entirely broken up in the Atlanta campaign. But from Savannah northward he was frequently beset by foes, and had to fight his way through South Carolina. Upon reaching Columbia, Sherman burned the warehouses and supplies of the Confederates. Un fortunately and without design, the flames got beyond the soldiers control and the town itself was destroyed. In the last week of March, 1865, the Union army won a stoutly contested battle at Goldsboro, North Carolina. 344. The service of the navy. While these victories were being won by Federal troops in the interior of the Confederacy, the Federal navy was doing important work. It transported land troops from place to place, kept up the blockade, did its best to protect Northern ships from Con federate cruisers, and captured many of the important river towns and seaports of the South. 345- Farragut captures Mobile. New Orleans had been captured by the Union forces in 1862. It now remained to THE CAMPAIGNS OF 1863 AND 1864 377 take Mobile, the other great port upon the Gulf of Mexico. This task was given to the daring and energetic Admiral Farragut, who had taken New Orleans and assisted Grant in the siege of Vicksburg. On August 5, 1864, about six weeks before Sherman took Atlanta, Farragut advanced with a strong fleet against Mobile, which was protected by several ships, besides shore forts and batteries. Lashed high up in the rigging of his own vessel, he could see above the smoke of battle and was the better able to direct the movements of his captains. After a sharp fight the Admiral demolished the enemy s fleet and silenced the shore guns. The loss of Mobile was severely felt by the Confederates, for they had now completely lost control of the Gulf, which had been their chief outlet for the blockade runners that smuggled cotton to England. By the close of the year 1864 it was plainly to be seen that the South was being gradually closed in upon by the stronger forces of the North. It was now merely a question of time when the Confederacy must collapse. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS I. Fill in the following outline of the campaigns of 1863-64: Chief Battles Northern Leaders Southern Leaders Result 2. Trace on a map the route followed by Lee in his attempted invasion of the North. 3. Compare, as to number engaged and number killed, the decisive battle of the Revolution with the decisive battle of the Civil War. Fix the date and location of each. 4. Read Andrews s A Perfect Tribute. 5. Learn Lincoln s Gettysburg Address, page 367. 6. Was Sherman justified in laying waste the whole country through which he passed to the sea? Debate. 7. What was Grant s strongest trait as a general? Give proofs of your statement. 378 THE CIVIL WAR 8. YVhich of the Northern generals do you admire most? Why? Which of the Southern? Why? 9. Make an outline of the chapter. 10. Important dates: July 1-4, 1863 Battle of Gettysburg and the Sur render of Vicksburg. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1 . Write a short sketch of the life of the leader in the Civil War whom you most admire. 2. Read in a large history an account of Pickett s charge and describe it to the class, using the blackboard. 3. Give an account of a boy who is trying to persuade his father to allow him to enlist in the war as a drummer boy. Dramatize. CHAPTER XXXVII THE CLOSE OF THE WAR: ITS COST AND ITS RESULTS 346. The President enters on a second term. Lincoln was reflected President, and his second inauguration took place on March 4, 1865. In his inaugural address he elo quently said: " With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right as God gives us to see the right, let us strive to finish the work we are in, to bind up the nation s wounds, to care for him who shall have borne the battle and for his widow and his orphan to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations. * By that time events were happening that foreshadowed the speedy end of the long and terrible war. 347. Lee is surrounded. During the winter of 1864-65 Lee s army was gradually being surrounded by the much larger, better-fed, and better-equipped army of the Union. One by one all sources of supply for the Confederate forces were being cut off. After the fall of Chattanooga and At lanta, and Sherman s destructive march to the sea, Lee could no longer get either men or food from west of the Alle gheny Mountains. The coast of the Gulf of Mexico was under Union control. Sherman was now driving or destroy ing everything before him, on his way northward from Sa vannah, and thus made it impossible for Richmond longer to receive help from the South. In a series of brilliant dashes, Sheridan 1 was likewise devastating the fertile Shenandoah 1 Philip Henry Sheridan was a native of New York State, where he was born in 1831. Having been educated at West Point, he was an infantry captain at the outbreak of the Civil War. But he soon went into the cavalry, and was so brave and dashing a leader that it was not long before he was a major- general. In October, 1864, when he was in command of the Army of the^ Shenan doah, a part of his troops were surprised by the enemy. He was himself at Winchester, twenty miles away, but on hearing the roar of battle rode rapidly 38o THE CIVIL WAR Valley, which was Lee s pathway to the rich farming coun try of Maryland. Thus, wherever the Confederate com mander turned, he faced Union troops; and soon his soldiers were suffering severely for lack of proper and sufficient food. Their^ clothing was also worn to shreds, even their shoes were in bad condition. 348. The surrender of Lee. On the night of April i, 1865, the silent and persistent Grant at last hammered down the formidable defenses of Petersburg. The next day Lee in de spair retreated to the west under cover of darkness, and on April 3 Grant floated the Stars and Stripes above the roofs of Richmond. The President soon arrived from Washing ton, and the Union camp was a scene of triumphant joy. But Lee had escaped. To capture him and his army was now Grant s chief % ^ desire. The Con federate general had hoped to join his half -starved forces to those of General Joseph E. Johnston, and to make another stand against the enemy. SST, by 77,, Century Co. Sheridan s trOOpS THE VILLAGE OF APPOMATTOX COURT HOUSE 1 blocked the Way, however, at the small village of Appomattox Court House, seventy-five miles west of Richmond. The leader of the Confederate army was no longer able to fight. Therefore, with nearly 27,000 of his toward the scene and met his men in full retreat. He is reported to have shouted to them, "Face the other way, boys! We aregoing back to our camps!" They at once turned and drove their pursuers from the field. This incident is im mortalized in Thomas Buchanan Read s thrilling poem, "Sheridan s Ride." Sheridan was in 1888 made general-in-chief of the army, and died a few months later. "Little Phil," as his soldiers called him, because of his small stature, was never defeated in battle. 1 From a war-time photograph reproduced in Battles and Leaders of the Civil War. The house on the right, with the veranda, is Mr. McLean s house, in which the articles of capitulation were agreed upon and signed. THE CLOSE OF THE WAR 381 men, he surrendered to Grant on April 9. This important event took place in the parlor of a small brick house in the village, in the presence of a few Confederates and the leading generals of the Eastern army of the Union. Feelings of bitterness at once ceased between the two rival armies. The " boys in blue " freely shared their food with the famished and worn-out " boys in gray," whom they Copyright, ISH7, by The Century Co. UNION SOLDIERS SHARING THEIR RATIONS WITH CONFED ERATES AFTER LEE S SURRENDER 1 now treated as guests. Grant sent 25,000 rations to the Confederate camp, a good evidence of his magnanimity. The terms of surrender, also, were as generous and honor able as any ever recorded in the history of warfare. The Union general permitted the men and officers of the Con federate army at once to leave for their homes, on giving up their guns and promising no longer to carry on war against the United States. All of them were allowed to take with them their baggage and side-arms (pistols and swords), also their horses and mules. 2 Grant said to Lee 1 From a war-time sketch reproduced in Battles and Leaders of the Civil War. 2 The animals used in the Union army belonged to the Federal Government; but Lee told Grant that in the Confederate army they were the private property of the cavalrymen and artillerymen who rode them. 382 THE CIVIL WAR that as most of the men in the Confederate ranks were small farmers, " and as the country has been so raided by the two armies, it is doubtful whether they will be able to put in a crop to carry themselves and their families through the next winter without the aid of the horses they are now riding." In other ways, also, the victorious general was kind to the conquered army. He would not allow his men to fire any salutes or hold any sort of celebration over the result. He declared that respect and sympathy must now be felt by Union soldiers for the men who had so long been their foes, but who now were their fellow citizens. Nothing whatever was done by the army that might seem to be mocking at the unfortunate Southerners in this bitter hour of their defeat. On April 26 Jormston and his followers also surrendered to Sherman, near Raleigh, North Carolina. The conditions were the same as Grant had allowed to Lee, and there was the same silent respect on the part of the Northern troops. This event virtually ended the war. 1 349. The assassination of President Lincoln. On the night of April 14, 1865, only five days after Lee s surrender, President Lincoln was attending a play at Ford s Theater, in Washington. An actor named John Wilkes Booth, who was a fanatical sympathizer with the defeated South, shot him through the brain, and at once fled. 2 Tremendous excite ment followed, in the midst of which the assassin suc ceeded in escaping from the theater; but he was soon after ward discovered hiding in a barn in Virginia and shot by some soldiers. The President died from his wound the morn ing of April 15. 3 1 When Lee abandoned Richmond, Jefferson Davis, President of the Con federacy, fled to Irwinsville, Georgia, but was captured by Union cavalry on May 10. 2 In his flight the assassin shouted " Sic Semper Tyrannis! " (So may it al ways be with tyrants). These words are the motto on the seal of Virginia. 3 Booth was one of several conspirators who had hoped also to kill other prominent members of the Federal Government. William H. Seward, the Sec retary of State, was wounded while lying in bed, at about the same time that the President was attacked. Four of the conspirators were hanged, and others imprisoned for life. None escaped. THE CLOSE OF THE WAR 383 The assassination of the President, which so quickly fol lowed the victory which he had helped to bring about, was felt as a cruel blow by the entire North. His splendid ability, his lofty character, the purity of his heart and mind, and his many other lovable qualities, had made him, while living, the idol of the loyal States. He had now fallen as a martyr to the Union cause ; and at his death, the South realized that she, too, had lost her best friend. Lincoln will ever be re garded in history as the savior of his country one of the greatest of Americans. Stanton, his Secretary of War, said that he was " the most perfect ruler of men the world has ever seen." 350. The disbandment of the armies. Shortly after the declaration of peace, the two great contending armies of citizen soldiers disbanded. The greater part of the Union veterans, now a million strong, marched home through Washington. 1 Here at the nation s capital two days were given up to splendid parades, which were reviewed by the principal officers of the Government, and witnessed by enor mous and enthusiastic crowds. Then, as the Confederate veterans had already done, they returned quietly and seri ously to their homes in the several States. There most of them at once resumed the occupations that they had left when the war broke out on the farms and plantations, in mines, factories, offices, and workshops. Thousands, how ever, from both South and North, took up new farms or built new towns in the West, which vast region had now become the most rapidly growing part of the Union. 351. What the war cost, in lives and treasure. The foul years of warfare had cost the lives either by direct death or from wounds and sickness of over half a million of the most promising citizens of the nation. This appalling loss 1 There were 2,778,304 enlistments in the Union army and navy; but many of the men reenlisted when their terms of service expired. It is not now known how many different men there actually were possibly not much over two millions. The Commissioner of Pensions, in a letter written in 1911, estimated that of these enlistments, 2,159,798 were men twenty-one years of age or under. Nearly every great army in history has been mostly composed of youths and young men. 384 THE CIVIL WAR was about equally divided between North and South. 1 The cost to the Union, in money, was the enormous sum of about three and a quarter billions of dollars. The Confed eracy probably spent half as much. 2 352. How the money was raised in the North. The Federal authorities were very skillful and energetic in raising this extraordinary amount of money. They did it in two ways : - (a) By greatly increasing the taxes. In addition to the usual taxes on land and other property every man paid a tax on his yearly income if it was over $600. He also paid special taxes on the luxuries he owned such as horses, carriages, gold watches, and pianos. When he signed a check on the bank or a deed for land that he had sold, or gave a receipt for money paid to him, he was obliged to affix to the paper an internal revenue stamp. This was quite similar to a postage stamp. Its cost varied according to the amount of money mentioned in the paper. The duties on imports were likewise greatly increased. (b) By borrowing. This was done in various ways: First, by selling government bonds. These were pledges to pay back to the holder the money paid for the bond, at some future time, twenty, thirty, or forty years, with a good rate of interest. Second, by printing and issuing great quan tities of paper money -- which is another kind of promise to pay back gold or silver money, but without interest. 3 Every citizen was obliged by law to accept this paper money just as he would gold, in payment for all debts that were owed him. But in spite of this, paper money grew less and less valuable, for such enormous quantities of it were issued that most persons feared the Government might never be 1 The loss to the Union was 359, 528 men. How many the South lost will never be known because of imperfect records, but probably as many as the North. 2 The freeing of the negroes by the Emancipation Proclamation nieant a loss of about $2,000,000,000 to the Southern slaveholders. This is allowing $500 as the value of each slave. 3 The small bills, for sums below a dollar, were popularly called "shinplas- ters"; the bills for one dollar or more were known as "greenbacks," because of their color. THE CLOSE OF THE WAR 385 able to redeem it all ; so they did not like to take it. At one time (July, 1864) a paper dollar was worth only about thirty-five cents in gold coin. This meant that if you went to a store and wanted to buy a pair of boots you were asked two different prices for them $3.50 if you could pay in gold, but $10 if you offered paper money. Long years after the war, however, the Government paid up its bonds and redeemed a large part of the paper money. What paper money we still have, is issued only because it is thought in most portions of the country to be more convenient than gold coin. 1 Most of the people of the North severely felt the hardship of these war taxes and the high prices which came from the large issues of paper money. They were, however, quite willing to suffer privations in order to help pay the cost of carrying on the struggle. But the business of the North was not seriously injured during the four years of conflict. Indeed, the industries of that region thrived upon the war, for the Government was constantly buying for the army, at high prices, enormous quantities of clothing, food, and other military supplies. In return for these benefits, the prosperous owners of factories, mines, and farms could well afford to pay their share of the burden. During the war many new mills and factories were built, mines were opened, the West made marked growth, ships and railroads were well patronized, and there were enough men who did not go to the front, to carry on all these enterprises. 353. How the money was raised in the South. But in the South there were but few mines, factories, or large business enterprises to help pay the war taxes. The Union blockade had almost stopped the sale of Southern crops in Europe so that the planters had little money to give to their Govern ment. Moreover, hostile armies frequently raided the seced ing States, and left in them little of value. The war reduced the South to poverty. 1 On the Pacific Coast, however, coin is used more frequently than paper. 386 THE CIVIL WAR To make up for the lack of taxes the Confederates issued almost countless bonds and paper bills. So long as they were confident of victory, the people of the South willingly accepted this paper. But as the war went on, doubt arose as to the success of their cause, and there seemed little chance of the bonds and paper money ever being paid. The Southerners had then to be forced to take them in payment for labor or supplies. Consequently, when bills were offered, the prices asked were ridiculously high at one time a barrel of flour brought $1000. Amusing stories were told of how men had to take with them a wheelbarrow load of paper money CONFEDERATE BILL to buy a pair of shoes or a hat. Unlike the bonds and paper money of the Union, those issued by the Confederacy were never redeemed, and to-day are worth nothing except as curiosities. 354. The effect of the war on Northern homes. The most serious effect on the North was the enormous loss of life. Nearly every family in the land was in mourning, because husband, father, son, or some beloved relative had never returned from the Southern battlefields. Widows and orphans were numerous in almost every neighborhood, and thousands of these were left without any means of support. 1 War is more cruel to women and children than it is to the soldiers themselves. The women of the North were very active throughout the war. Thousands of them, together with their children, worked the farms or carried on small factories or shops, while the 1 The Federal Government has spent nearly four billions of dollars since the war, in pensions for the surviving soldiers and sailors of the Union, or for the widows and dependent relatives of those who have died. There are nearly one million of such pensioners on the pay-roll of the Pension Office. THE CLOSE OF THE WAR 387 men of the families were serving their nation as soldiers. In hundreds of towns the women formed soldiers aid socie ties and sent to the camps clothing, food, bandages for the wounded, medicines for the sick, books, and papers. They even went themselves to the battlefields and army hospitals as nurses, and in many other ways encouraged and helped the troops. Two great and skillfully conducted national organizations were formed, chiefly by women, to carry on this work the Sanitary and Christian Commissions. Both of these bodies, especially the former, were very powerful aids to the welfare and success of the Union army. 355. Its effect on Southern homes. The families of the South suffered far more than those of the North. A much greater proportion of Southern men were soldiers. The loss of life in each neighborhood, therefore, was proportionately larger; and destitute widows and orphans were even more plentiful than in the North. The Southern women, like those of the North, made clothing and prepared food for their loved ones at the front; but they had little money to spend for such articles, and no Sanitary or Christian Commission to help them in their work. Moreover, the Southern women and children who were left at home suffered great hardships from the fact that their country was the scene of nearly all the fighting and destructive raiding. The Southern hospital service was much poorer than that of the North, so the sick and wounded could not be well cared for. Seldom was the Confederate army supplied with proper food or clothing; and most of their guns, swords, and cannon were much inferior to those supplied to the troops of the Federal Government. When the war ended such towns of the South as had not been destroyed were almost empty. Her plantations, rail roads, and bridges had been ruined. Her trade and her slaves were gone. Her planters, who a few years before were men of wealth, were now poor. Few countries have ever been quite so severely prostrated by the terrible shock of war. 356. What was accomplished by the war. Probably it 388 THE CIVIL WAR was out of the power of any one to have prevented the great conflict. Most Americans thought at that time that only a war could settle the two burning questions that for thirty years had agitated this nation : - (a) Whether dissatisfied States should be allowed to se cede from the Union. If so, this country would be split up into two or more small independent nations, and these would quite likely often be at war with each other. (5) Whether slavery in America should be allowed to con tinue and to spread. Must the South always be obliged to live under the terrible blight of bondage? The war settled these great questions in the negative, and apparently they will never again arise. In 1830 Jackson had insisted that " Our Federal Union: it must and shall be preserved." In 1858 Lincoln had declared that " A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this govern ment cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. . . . It will become all one thing or all the other." These men were prophets, and their words have come true. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. Learn the quotation from Lincoln s second inaugural address given in the text. 2. Lincoln said in 1864, "We have not been fighting aliens, but misled, misguided friends and brothers, members of our own household." Bring incidents to class to show that the Northern generals and their soldiers felt this way also. 3. Compare the transferring of soldiers during the Civil War from place to place with the mode of transfer during the Revolution. Account for the difference. 4. Let each pupil bring to class a story to illustrate some trait of Lin coln s character; e.g., his patience, his humor, his freedom from bit terness or prejudice, his power to think and to act for himself. 5. Without using any names describe several of the foremost leaders of the North and the South. At the close of each sketch see if your classmates can guess whom you have described. 6. Throughout the war who was recognized as the chief general of the Southern forces? Note the number of changes in the Northern generals before the right leader was found. 7. Learn Whitman s Captain! My Captain! Also the portion of Lowell s Commemoration Ode referring to Lincoln ; begin with the line. REVIEW 389 "Life may be given in many ways," in stanza v, and end with the close of stanza vi. 8. Compare the gain with the loss of the Civil War. 9. State the different ways of raising money in the North for carrying on the war; in the South. 10. Be able to state clearly what the North fought for; what the South fought for; what the war decided. 11. Make an outline of the chapter. 12. Important date: April, 1865 Lee s surrender at Appomattox ; death of Lincoln. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Imagine that you are a Southern planter whose property lay in the path of Sherman s march to the sea. Write of your struggle to bring order out of the chaos left by the Northern army. 2. Describe and dramatize the return of a soldier to his home. 3. The place is a farm in the North. News is received of the death of Lincoln. Describe the scene. 4. Write four paragraphs, one describing each of these scenes in the life of Lincoln: (a) An event of his boyhood. (b) A debate with Douglas. (c) The signing of the Emancipation Proclamation. (d) The visit to Richmond after the surrender. REVIEW OF THE CIVIL WAR THE struggle between the principle of states rights on the one hand and that of centralized government on the other, together with the irritation caused by sectional differences as to slavery, culminated in the greatest civil war that the world has ever seen. The war began in 1861 with the firing on Fort Sumter. The plan of war east of the Allegheriies consisted chiefly in the efforts of the opposing armies to take Richmond and Washington. In 1862 the Northern advance toward Richmond was foiled by Lee and Jackson in the Seven Days battles and the second battle at Bull Run; and Lee was turned back from his advance toward Washington by McClellan at Antietam. In 1863 Lee defeated Hooker at Chancellorsville and started to invade the North. He was defeated and turned back by Meade in the great three days battle at Gettysburg during the first week of July. In 1864 Grant invaded Virginia. Every inch of ground gained by the North was stubbornly contested by the Confederates. In this campaign occurred the battles of the Wilderness, Spottsyl- 390 THE CIVIL WAR / vania, and Cold Harbor. The movement ended in the siege oi Petersburg, twenty-three miles from Richmond. West of the Allegheny Mountains the fighting centered on the rivers. The South had strongly fortified many posts along the Mississippi, Cumberland, and Tennessee Rivers. Unless she could hold the Mississippi she would be cut off from the aid of Arkan sas, Louisiana, and Texas. The Cumberland and the Tennessee were highways into the heart of the Confederacy. In 1862 post after post on these three rivers surrendered to the forces of the Union. Forts Henry and Donelson, Pittsburg Landing, Island No. 10, Corinth, Memphis, and New Orleans were successively taken. In 1863 Vicksburg and Port Hudson were captured. The Confederacy was cut in two from north to south. In the latter part of this year, the Northern victory at Chattanooga, following the defeat at Chickamauga, completed the story of Union suc cess in the West. In 1864 Grant, who had made his reputation in these Western campaigns, was put in charge of all the Union armies. He placed Sherman at the head of the army of the West at Chattanooga and ordered him to move southward. After weeks of fighting Sherman captured Atlanta. Then began his famous devastating march to the sea, which destroyed all the resources of that sec tion of the South and ended in the capture of Savannah. The Confederacy was now cut in two from west to east. Sheridan desolated the Valley of the Shenandoah. The end was now inevitable. In April, 1865, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appo- mattox Court House. This, with the surrender of Johnston to Sherman, practically ended the war. In this war there was comparatively little fighting on the high seas, but the Union navy s blockade of the Southern ports was a most invaluable help to the North. The success of the Moni tor against the Merrimac was essential to the Union cause; had the Merrimac won, she might have compelled the raising of the blockade. This, the first combat between armored ships, showed that wooden warships were out of date. Farragut captured New Orleans and Mobile, and he, Porter, and Foote did gallant service with gunboats on the Western rivers. Throughout the war Lincoln was, in practice as well as in theory, the commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States. He appointed and removed generals and consulted with them as to their plans of campaign. He issued the Emancipation Proclamation, and it was at his word that the Mason and Slidell incident was dealt with so wisely. His death was the greatest loss that could have befallen the nation and added greatly to the diffi culties of reconstruction. REVIEW 391 Such great commanders as Grant, Sherman, Thomas, and Sheridan, and Lee, Johnston, and Jackson were brought forward by the crises of the war. Each side fought with the greatest hero ism. The loss to the nation in the four years of struggle is beyond computation. This mighty war settled two questions in this country, probably for all time to come: the question of slavery, and the right of States to secede from the Union. RECOMMENDED READINGS HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY TEACHERS LIST. Hart s American History by Contemporaries, vol. iv, pp. 151-92, 211-89, 309-444. Fiske s United States, pp. 350-84: Missis sippi Valley in the Civil War, chaps, n, in, v-vm. Wilson s Division and. Reunion, pp. 204-52. Chadwick s Causes of the Civil War, chaps, vn-ix, xvn-xix. Hosmer s Appeal to Arms, chaps, i-vm, xin, xiv, xvm, xix; Outcome of Civil War, chaps, n-v, x-xn, xv-xvu. Dodge s Bird s- Eye View of the Civil War, chaps, i-iv, vin, x, xix-xxn, xxv-xxx, LIX, LX. Rossiter Johnson s Short Story of the Civil War, chaps, iv, vi, vin, ix, xn-xvii, xxvii-xxix. Rhodes s United States, vol. HI, chaps, xm-xv; vol. iv, chaps, xxi, xxn; vol. v, chaps, xxiv-xxix. Grant s Memoirs (selected parts). Sherman s Memoirs (selected parts). Sheridan s Personal Memoirs (selected parts). Battles and Leaders of the Civil War (written chiefly by commanders of each great battle). Mrs. Pryor s Reminiscences of Peace and War, chaps, vin, ix, xn-xxiv. Mrs. Burton Harrison s Re collections Grave and Gay, chaps, i-x. Clark s Short History of U. S. Navy, chaps, xv-xxn. Wilkinson s A Blockade Runner. Fite s Social and Industrial Conditions in the North during the Civil War, chaps. I, vn, IX- XI. Alcott s Hospital Sketches. Wise s End of an Era, chaps, xi-xiv, Xix-xxii. Trumbull s War Memories of a Chaplain, chaps. HI, V-VH, xi, xn. Lincoln biographies thoseof Noah Brooks, Hapgood, Morse, Schurz, andTarbell are all recommended. Nicolay and Hay s is the great life of Lincoln; it has been condensed into one volume, Short Life of Lincoln, Dodd s Jefferson Davis. Lee biographies those of Bruce, Page, and Trent are recommended. Mahan s Farragut. W hite s Stonewall Jackson. PUPILS LIST. Hart s Source-Book of American History, pp. 298-335; Romance of Civil War. Elson s Child s Guide to American History, chaps. xvn, xvm ; Side Lights, vol. n, chaps, i-v. Famous Adventures and Prison Escapes of Civil War. Tappan s Our Country s Story, pp. 208-28. Champ- lin s Young Folks History of War for the Union, chaps, m-vii, xiv, xvn-xxi, xxvui, XLIII-XLVI. Coffin s Drumbeat of the Nation; Marching to. Victory; Redeeming the Republic; Freedom Triumphant. Abbot s Battle fields of 6 1 ; Battlefields and Campfires; Battlefields and Victory; Blue- Jack ets of 61. Lodge and Roosevelt s Hero Tales, pp. 185-260, 281-335. Kief- fer s Recollections of a Drummer Boy. Lives of Lincoln those of Moores, Baldwin, Noah Brooks, Helen Nicolay, and Sparhawk are recommended. Lives of Grant those of Allen, Brooks, and Helen Nicolay are recom- 392 THE CIVIL WAR mended; also Burton s Four American Patriots (Grant). Barnes s Son of Light Horse Harry Lee. Beebe s Four American Naval Heroes (Farragut). FICTION TEACHERS LIST. Cable s The Cavalier. Churchill s The Crisis. Crane s Red Badge of Courage. G. C. Eggleston s Master of Warlock; Southern Soldier Stories. John Fox s Little Shepherd of Kingdom Come. Glasgow s The Battle Ground. Johnston s The. Long Roll. Page s Burial of the Guns. PUPILS LIST. Andrews s^ Perfect Tribute. Civil War Stories retold from St. Nicholas. Goss s Jed; Tom Clifton. Harris s A Little Union ScouL Henty s With Lee in Virginia. Page s Among the Camps; Two Little Con federates. Stoddart s Strange Stories of the Civil War. Trowbridge s Drum mer Boy; Three Scouts. POETRY Beers s Picket Guard. Bryant s Our Country s Call. Gibbon s Three Hundred Thousand More. Gilmore s When Johnny Comes Marching Home. Harte s John Burns of Gettysburg. Lowell s Commemoration Ode. Ran dall s My Maryland. Read s Sheridan s Ride. Root s Shouting the Battle Cry of Freedom. Whitman s My Captain. Whittier s Battle Autumn of 1862 ; Laus Deo; Barbara Frietchie. Work s Marching through Georgia. . i yy? \ -*T ^x?v c \ A ~ A eai^To"* ; -. ~ !7 > F ^ B 100 Ixm t . C W^t 130* ftom D O, M . UQ* E CONTINENTAL EXPANSION OF THE UNITED STATES Since 1783. SCALTOT Mim onpitude 95 West G from 90 Greenwich H THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL EXPANSION CHAPTER XXXVIII RECONSTRUCTION OF THE UNION, AND OUR FOREIGN RELATIONS: THE ATLANTIC CABLE 1865-1869 357. The impoverished South; the conduct of the ne groes. When the soldiers of the South returned to their homes, it was to an impoverished country. Weeds and bushes were choking the land. Hardly any cattle, horses, pigs, or chickens had been left by the devastating armies. Most of the farm buildings and tools had either been de stroyed or had fallen to pieces. In the towns and villages there was very little business going on. The banks had failed and their doors were closed. Confederate bills were worthless, and there was not much other money in the coun try. A third of the men and youths had either been killed in the conflict or were so crippled that they could do little work; and there were many helpless widows and orphans. This was sad enough. But still more serious was the ques tion of what to do with the negroes, who in some of the Southern States were more numerous than the whites. Ever since these poor blacks had been living under civilized conditions, they had been dependent on the white men who owned them, and for whom they worked either under the power of love or of fear. They had now suddenly been re leased from this dependence, and were freemen. But they were so ignorant and inexperienced that they hardly knew what to do with their liberty. Large numbers of them de sired to see the world, so they traveled about from place to place and swarmed into the towns, where they were often 394 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL EXPANSION disorderly and many committed crimes. The Southern whites were greatly alarmed, and feared that negro anarchy would soon be upon them, which might be even worse than war. 358. President Lincoln s method of reconstruction. Meanwhile, an abundance of other trouble for the South was being prepared at Washington. As the war drew to an end, Federal statesmen began to ask themselves how the shattered Union should be " reconstructed." That is, how and under what conditions should the seceded States be brought back into the Union, and the Secessionists them selves be readmitted to citizenship in the nation? President Lincoln wished to be generous to the defeated Confederates. As commander-in-chief of the army he granted amnesty, or pardon, to large numbers of them who were willing to take an oath of loyalty to the United States. But he would not do this for the officers of the Confederate Government, or for those Confederates who having held United States offices when the war broke out then deserted the Union. He offered to recognize any State as being re constructed when a tenth of its voters had taken the oath of loyalty. Such reconstructed States ought then, he said, to be permitted to send their Senators and Representatives to Congress, as before the war. But of course he realized that only Congress itself could name the conditions under which members of the two houses should be admitted. His liberal ideas were not shared by all of the Congressmen. Had he lived, however, probably his wisdom would have found some way out of that difficulty, and the nation might have been saved much of the serious trouble that followed his death. 359. Johnson succeeds Lincoln. Only a few hours after President Lincoln had passed away, Vice- President Andrew Johnson took the oath of office and became his successor at the White House. 1 Upon his shoulders now fell the ex- 1 Andrew Johnson was born in North Carolina in 1808. When ten years of age he began to learn the tailor s trade. In his eighteenth year he and his family moved to Tennessee, their household goods being drawn in a two- wheeled cart by a blind pony. There Andrew worked at his bench, and had almost no education until he married, when his wife taught him to write. He became a RECONSTRUCTION PLANS ^395 tremely difficult task of restoring the authority of the Union within the borders of the seceded States. 360. Johnson s reconstruction methods. The new Presi dent s ideas about reconstruction were much like those of Lincoln. But Lincoln s plan was formed while war was in progress; whereas Johnson s was offered after the contest was over, which was a very different situation. Johnson, also, could not manage men as well as his predecessor did ; he was arbitrary and made enemies of those whom he needed as friends. Like Lincoln he granted amnesty to a large number of Southerners who took the oath of loyalty. He went further, however. Congress could not meet until December, several months away. He therefore was free from interruption until that time, and he took advantage of this fact to appoint provisional governors in each of the seceding States. These governors called together constitutional conventions that : (a) Declared null and void the Ordinance of Secession by which the State had joined the Confederacy. (b) Declared that the Confederate debt should never be paid. (c) Ratified the Thirteenth Amendment to the Federal Constitution. This Amendment had been proposed by Con gress in January, 1865, and went into effect the following December. It forever prohibited slavery in the United States, and did for the entire nation what the Emancipation Proclamation had done for the seceding States alone. (d) Made arrangements for the elections of State Legisla tures (who were to elect the Federal Senators) and of Rep resentatives to Congress. 361. Why Congress objected to Johnson s plan. Now, said President Johnson, it only remained for Congress to admit the Senators and Representatives from the South, powerful orator, and prominent in politics. After serving with ability in various State offices, he became a member of Congress, then a Federal Senator, and during the^var military governor of Tennessee. He was chosen Vice-President at Lincoln s second election (November, 1864). He was elected a Federal Sen ator from Tennessee in January, 1875, and died the following July. 396 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL EXPANSION and reconstruction would be complete. But the Northern Congressmen would not consent to receive them. They believed that the South should not be allowed representation in Congress until it was quite certain that the former slave owners would allow the emancipated negroes to have all the rights of freemen. They said that the President was going beyond his authority in doing as he had done; and that it was for Congress, and Congress alone, to say howre construction should be brought about. 362. The Congressional plan of reconstruction. Congress had meanwhile formed a reconstruction plan of its own : - (a) First, it resolved to protect the negroes. In March, 1866, it passed the Civil Rights Bill. This gave author ity for the former slaves to use the courts for suing persons who owed them debts, or for recovering damages in case of wrongs done to them. 1 It also gave to the negroes the pro tection of the military in case the whites did not give them all their rights as citizens. The President vetoed this meas ure because not all of the States in the Union were repre sented in Congress. But that body promptly passed it over his veto. (b) Congress next passed, in June, 1866, the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, and the States ratified it. This gave to the negro, beyond power of any future Congress to repeal them, all the rights of citizenship, except that the privilege of voting was not assured him; and it prohibited the States from doing anything to take away his rights. It also provided that no man should be elected to Congress or to any important State office who had, previous to seces sion, sworn allegiance to the United States and after that had taken part in the war, unless this disability had been removed by act of Congress. (c) The Reconstruction Act followed, in March, 1867. This placed the unreconstructed States under the manage ment of military governors, with troops to aid them. But if any of the States consented to the Fourteenth Amendment 1 It will be remembered that in the Dred Scott decision the Federal Supreme Court held that negro slaves had no rights before the courts. IMPEACHMENT OF THE PRESIDENT 397 and adopted new constitutions giving negroes the right to vote, such States were to be readmitted to the Union and to be allowed to send Senators and Representatives to Congress. Under this arrangement six States came back into the fold in June, 1 868: North Carolina, South Carolina, Florida, Alabama, Louisiana, and Arkansas. 1 (d) In 1869 the Fifteenth Amendment was adopted, mak ing the negro a voter. So far as Federal laws could do it, he was now the political equal of the white man ; it was left for the States to establish their own requirements for citizenship. (e) Congress had in 1865 passed the Freedmen s Bureau Bill. This measure sought to educate and care for the helpless and bewildered negroes ; to allow them to buy gov ernment land on very easy terms; and to give them still further military protection. In 1868 Congress decided to continue the work of the Bureau; but the President vetoed this decision. Congress, "nevertheless, voted that the Bu reau should proceed with its undertaking in spite of his objection. 363. The Tenure-of-Office Act. Throughout the four years of his Administration, President Johnson and Congress were continually quarreling over matters like these. In his anger he began to discharge all those men holding import ant Federal offices who were not of his way of thinking. Most of the Presidents before him, since Jackson s time, had turned out officeholders for a like cause, and Congress had * said nothing. But Congress became intensely indignant upon being called by Johnson " a factious, domineering, and tyrannical" body which persisted "in breaking up the Union "; and it also wanted to protect the Federal officers who were carrying out the Reconstruction Act. It therefore passed a law called the Tenure-of-Office Act, which forbade the President to discharge government employees without the consent of the Senate. 364. The President is impeached. President Johnson soon showed his contempt for Congress by removing the Secretary of War, Edwin M. Stanton, and thus disobey- 1 Tennessee had been readmitted in March, 1866. 398 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL EXPANSION ing ^the Tenure-of-Office Act. This brought the matter to a crisis. Congress now impeached l the President, in 1868, for misdemeanor in office, and he was tried before the Senate. He was, however, acquitted by a close vote. ^ 365- Carpetbag government in the South. Affairs in the Southern States grew far worse after the Fifteenth Amend ment was put in force. In those States where the black voters outnumbered the whites, 2 the legislatures were made up almost wholly of former slaves. Many of these men were densely ignorant as well as dishonest, and nearly all the officers appointed by them, including even the judges, were of the same sort. 3 Numbers of rascally Northern white men, called " carpet baggers," 4 went into the South and easily got control of .the negro legislators. They persuaded them that their old masters hundreds of whom were disfranchised because of having been Confederate officers were plotting to get them all back again into slavery. They made the black voters believe that their only hope was to elect as their leading officers white men from the North the North having given them their freedom. The vain and inex perienced negroes were easily flattered by these designing Northerners, who seemed to take so great an interest in them, and they did as they were told. The carpetbaggers and the corrupt negro politicians conspired together and plundered the State treasuries in every way they could think of. They voted to themselves large salaries and all sorts of luxuries. They also bought supplies for the government offices and institutions, or con tracted to erect public buildings, at extravagant prices; 1 To impeach is to accuse. Under the Constitution, the House of Represent atives brings in the charges, and the Senate acts as the Court. 2 This region is called "the black belt." 3 In South Carolina there were two hundred negro judges who could not read or write. 4 In those days, the ordinary valise was a large hand-bag made of carpet. The white Northerners who got the Southern State governments into their hands came into the South as strangers, with their carpetbags. Hence they were com monly called "carpetbaggers." THE ATLANTIC CABLE 399 and they pocketed their part of the profits which the dealers or contractors shared with them. By these and scores of other dishonest methods many of the carpetbaggers and their negro conspirators quickly grew rich. In order to raise money for all this corruption, large is sues of bonds were voted by the legislatures, and very high taxes were levied. These taxes were chiefly raised from the property of the dis franchised class, who really were the lead ing citizens. In the legislatures where the blacks were in the majority there were frequently scenes of great disorder. Ev erywhere public af fairs were shocking ly mismanaged. The negroes, now that the power was in their hands, were glad to wreak vengeance in this way on the men who had once be^n their owners. These conditions could not possibly last. There came a time when the white men of the South decided to drive out the carpetbaggers and to take away the political power of the negroes. In this attempt they were successful ; but their methods were often harsh and cruel. 1 366. The Atlantic Cable. In 1858 a telegraph cable had 1 A great and widespread secret society, called the Ku-Klux-Klan, was or ganized. Its members went about at night heavily armed and disguised by masks and white robes. They flogged and sometimes killed the terrified negro leaders, and carpetbaggers were forced to flee from the country. For several years these operations turned the black belt into a condition of anarchy. At last the Ku-Klux-Klan was broken up by Federal authorities. LANDING THE ATLANTIC CABLE ON NEWFOUNDLAND The steamship is the Great Eastern. This ship, launched in 1858, was the largest of her time, displacing 32,000 tons. Her best record across the Atlantic was 11 days. The largest ships of the present time (66,000 tons) make the passage in about 5 days 400 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL EXPANSION been laid from Newfoundland to Ireland, a distance of seventeen hundred miles. For three weeks it did its work, and hundreds of messages were sent between the two con tinents through this great wire lying along the bottom of the sea. Then it unfortunately broke, and for eight years we had no further telegraphic communication with Europe. At last the important enterprise was carried to success in 1866. It was originated by an American company of which Cyrus W. Field was the leader. 1 There are now cables stretching across the floors of every ocean. They enable the daily papers of both hemispheres to print the latest news from all parts of the civilized world. 367. Our foreign relations. In 1867 the United States purchased from Russia the great region of Alaska, which comprises nearly six hundred thousand square miles in the extreme northwest corner of our continent. The price we paid for it was $7,200,000, or a trifle less than two cents an acre. But Alaska was then supposed to be a snow-clad waste, inhabited only by a few Indians, and therefore worth almost nothing, except for the fur trade and some seal fish eries along the shores of its outlying islands. Russia had wanted to get rid of it, however, and as she had been the friend of the Union in the Civil War, none of our people very seriously objected; although a few Congressmen grumbled a little at " adding a refrigerator to the United States." Later, important discoveries were made in Alaska of gold, coal, and other valuable deposits. These, and its splendid forests and fisheries, have made our far northwestern ter ritory of great value to the nation. 1 Mr. Field was born in Massachusetts, in 1819, and died in 1872. He was a merchant, but early became interested in ocean telegraphy. He would have sooner repaired his broken cable of 1858, but during the Givil War he could not borrow the large sums of money that he needed. In 1865 he tried a second time and laid twelve hundred miles, when the cable again broke. Undaunted, he tried a third time and succeeded. A great English statesman, John Bright, said that Mr. Field was the "Columbus of modern times, who, by his cable, had moored the New World alongside of the Old." In 1903 Americans opened the first cable between the United States and Asia; this completed a telegraphic circuit around the world and realized the dream of the inventor Morse, who had vainly hoped that he might live to see this done. OUR FOREIGN RELATIONS 40* An interesting episode of Johnson s Administration was in connection with Mexico. Emperor Napoleo^ III of France sympathized with the South during the Civil War and allowed the Confederates to buy and shelter their ves sels in French ports. Later, taking advantage of a time when the United States could not interfere, he ignored our Monroe Doctrine by overthrowing the Mexican Republic, and establishing as emperor of that country Archduke Maximilian of Austria. But when our war was over the United States threatened to invade Mexico and turn Maxi milian out. The French troops thereupon promptly with drew and left poor Maximilian to his fate. He was captured and shot by the Mexicans, who at once reestablished their republic. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. Find out in which States the negro population outnumbers the white and in what proportion. 2. State the provisions of each of the three amendments to the Constitu tion respecting the negro. (Consult Appendix F.) 3. Name some unusual difficulties which confronted the President and Congress in regard to reconstruction. 4. What means did the South use to protect itself against the results of the reconstruction policy? 5. What questions have arisen of late in regard to the resources of Alaska? 6. What characteristic do you admire most in Cyrus W. Field? Name some other great leaders who have shown the same trait. 7. Make a list of the most important events connected with slavery,, from the beginning, with names of leaders, dates, etc. (See " Slavery " in the Index.) 8. Make an outline of the chapter. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Write a letter from a Southern white man, describing conditions under carpetbag government. 2. Write two articles about Alaska one in 1867, as it was supposed to be, and one at the present time, as it is known to be. 3. Write a brief account of the unusually important events of Johnson s Administration. CHAPTER XXXIX THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE WEST, AND THE PANIC OF 1873 1869-1877 %, 368. Election of President Grant. General Grant had been so successful in the war that at the close of the conflict he was the popular hero of the North, and the people elected him the eighteenth President of the United States. He was inaugurated in the spring of 1869 and in 1872 was reelected for a second term. 1 369. Reconstruction completed. By 1870 the last of the eleven seceding States had promised to obey the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to the Constitution. The next year every State was for the first time since i860 fully represented in both houses of Congress. Not until then was the reconstruction of the Union complete. 2 370. The Alabama Claims. The United States was much displeased at the conduct of Great Britain during the Civil War. The Alabama and several other Confederate cruisers had been openly bought, fitted out, and sheltered in English ports. It was the duty of the British Government, as a neu- 1 Ulysses S. Grant was a native of Ohio, born in 1822. He graduated from West Point and won distinction in the Mexican War. He left the army, how ever, and joined his father in the leather business at Galena, Illinois. At the opening of the Civil War he became colonel of an Illinois regiment of volun teers. He soon was promoted to be a brigadier-general of volunteers and was put in charge of the forces at Cairo. He later became a major-general, first of volunteers and then in the regular army, and after that was in command of all the armies of the Union. His title was lieutenant-general, since, under the Constitution, the President is the commander-in-chief. 2 In 1872 Congress granted amnesty to all Southerners who had taken part in the war, except from three to five hundred of their leaders. The pardoned men now had all the rights of Federal citizenship the same as Northerners. Complete and final amnesty to those heretofore unpardoned was granted by the Federal Government in 1898. 404 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL EXPANSION tral nation, to have prevented this assistance on the part of its citizens. Yet it had not lifted a hand to stop such pro ceedings, and these cruisers had captured and destroyed hundreds of Union ships and their valuable cargoes. When the war closed, the United States asked Great Britain to recompense the owners of these lost merchant ships and their cargoes. A demand like this might easily have led to another war. But in 1871 the two powers sensibly agreed to the Treaty of Washington. Under this, the "Alabama Claims," as they were called, were together with several other disputes between America and Great Britain sub mitted to a Tribunal of Arbitration, which met the same year at Geneva, Switzerland. This tribunal decided that Great Britain should pay the American owners $15,500,000 in damages, which amount was promptly handed over to them, and the two nations continued at peace. 1 Thus was set a splendid example of international arbitration that has since often been followed by our own and by other countries. 371. The development of the West. The West, particu larly the Mississippi Valley, developed rapidly during and just after the war. The spread of population westward was greatly aided by the introduction of labor-saving farm ma chinery. These inventions made it easy for settlers from the Eastern States and Europe to open and operate farms on the prairies and in the forests of the great valley. Congress also helped this expansion in two important ways : (a) By the Homestead Act, in 1862. Under this law a man and his family might " preempt " one hundred and sixty acres of Western land belonging to the Federal Gov ernment. If he continued to live upon it and cultivate it for five years, the land became his property free of charge, 1 Other questions settled by the Treaty of Washington were: (a) An adjust ment of our northwest boundary, between the United States and Canada. The German Emperor was asked to decide as to the correct line through the Straits of Fuca. His decision was in favor of the Americans, but was satisfactory to both sides, (b) A commission was appointed to settle disputes between Canadian and American fishermen, as to their rights along the Atlantic Coast and the shores of Newfoundland. DEVELOPMENT OF THE WEST 405 except for a small fee. 1 This generous law brought throngs of enterprising pioneers into the West. (b) By the gift (1862-64) of large tracts of land and the loan of millions of dollars in money to the Union Pacific and Central Pacific transcontinental railways to induce them to build across the thinly settled plains. 2 At that time railway lines extended from the Atlantic Coast as far west as Omaha. If a traveler wanted to go be yond that city he must do so by the overland stages along the California and Oregon wagon-trails. But the growth of. Western popu lation had now made it neces sary to give the people better means of trans portation to and from the region beyond the Mis souri River. The Union Pacific be gan its line at Omaha and built westward. In most places it closely followed the old wagon-trail as far as the mountains. At the same time the Central Pacific was being built eastward from San Francisco, which is nearly two thousand miles from Omaha. In May, 1869, the two construction parties met each other near Ogden,Utah, and there, in the presence of a large crowd of spectators, con- 1 Between 1830 and 1862 any man who actually settled on government land might buy one hundred and sixty acres of it for $1.25 an acre. The new law gave the land free to such settlers. 2 In later years Congress also aided in this manner the Atlantic and Pacific, Northern Pacific, Texas Pacific, and Southern Pacific lines; and from time to time it gave Federal lands very freely to several shorter lines in the West. The Government has, altogether, given more public land to aid the builders of wagon-roads, canals, and railways than was contained in the thirteen original States of the Union. A contemporary lithograph AN EXPRESS STAGE IN THE FAR WEST 406 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL EXPANSION nected their tracks by the driving of a golden spike. 1 Thus was completed the laying of the first continuous railway line across the North American continent. East and West were now more effectually united than ever before. The most immediate effect was greatly to hasten the settlement of the Pacific Coast and of the broad plains lying to the east of the Rocky Mountains. Pioneers from the Atlantic Coast with their families, farm utensils, and live stock might hereafter reach the Far Western country, the trip requiring about a week, much more easily and quickly than their fathers and grandfathers, fifty years before, could have reached Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Wisconsin by means of the Erie Canal and the Great Lakes, or by the Ohio River. Tens of thousands of earnest, hard-working men and women now poured into the country beyond the Missouri River and divided it into farms. Others discovered there new mines of gold, silver, and coal. Frontier hamlets, such as Omaha, Kansas City, and Denver, grew into flourishing cities with almost the speed of mushrooms. Factories were opened. New and rich States were formed 2 where only a few years before were Indian camps, villages of prairie dogs, and roving herds of buffalo and antelope feeding on the grasses of the plains. Within a single generation, or about thirty years, a large part of the once-dreaded " American Desert " was transformed into a land of peace, industry, and plenty. One of the most important methods of developing this vast region has been artificial irrigation of large areas where there is not enough rainfall to moisten the ground for crops. This has been done on a large scale by individuals and cor porations; but in 1902 the Federal Government itself began to aid in the work. Its engineers are now building and oper ating for the settlers enormous dams, tunnels, canals, and pumping- works. 3 The time is soon coming when large por- 1 The spike is now in the museum of Leland Stanford Junior University at Palo Alto, California. 2 Kansas in 1861, Nevada in 1864, Nebraska in 1867, and Colorado in 1876. 3 In 1910, the Federal Government opened at Cody, Wyoming, the Shoshone Dam, said to be the highest in the world. The Roosevelt Dam, in Arizona, an- PANICS AND LABOR TROUBLES 407 tions of this so-called desert will be among the best farm ing districts known to mankind. Four millions of prosperous people now inhabit the Pacific Slope. For a long time gold and silver were thought to be its chief products. But now there are other and quite as profitable out puts lumber, wheat, and apples in the north, and lemons, oranges, grapes, and nuts in the south. Together with these industries, the de lightful climate of that region each year at tracts from the Eastern States hundreds of thou- The water stored in the basin formed by this dam irri gates 270,000 acres of arid land in Arizona. The supply is secured from the Verde and Salt Rivers. Dimensions of dam: height, 284 feet (in this view 100 ieet are below the water) ; length, bottom, 235 feet, top, 1080; thickness, bottom, 176 feet, top, 16 THE ROOSEVELT DAM sands of persons seeking health and pleasure. 1 Los Angeles and San Diego are fast-growing and beautiful cities in the midst of the " climate and fruit belt"; and Seattle, Tacoma, Portland, and San Francisco have become important ports for a growing commerce with other lands bordering on the Pacific Ocean South America, Asia, and Australia. 372. Panics and labor troubles, 1873-1877. The quick growth of the West led to much speculation in that region during the years just following the war. A great deal of this speculation was in farming lands and city lots. Many people made money from the rapid advance in the values of land; but thousands of others paid more for their farms and lots than they could sell them for. There were also more mines other Federal undertaking, was opened by ex-President Roosevelt in 1911. It is claimed that this is the second largest dam ever built. 1 The Pacific Slope has several varieties of climate, ranging from the English- like weather of Washington and Oregon to the almost tropical conditions of Southern California. 408 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL EXPANSION opened and factories and railroads built throughout the en tire country than could as yet pay a profit. And prices of all manner of property were unnecessarily high, for the country was still flooded with the paper money that had been issued by the Federal Government during the Civil War. The result was a disastrous financial panic that visited this country in 1873. There were a large number of failures both East and West, and great distress among merchants, manufacturers, and investors. Thousands of men and women lost every dollar they owned, and laboring people were thrown out of work in every city in the land. About six years passed before the United States again had good times. During the hard times that followed the panic, fac tories and railroads made very little profit many of them made none at all. Their managers therefore threatened to lower the wages of employees. But the railroad men work ing on lines east of the Mississippi River refused to work for less pay, and went on strike (July, 1877). For two weeks all trains stood still, to the great annoyance of the entire nation. When the companies tried to put new men in the places left by the strikers, the latter began rioting and destroyed $10,000,000 worth of property locomotives, cars, tracks, roundhouses, freight houses, and stations. Federal troops were used to restore order, and then the railroads were able to resume business. While these events were happening there were similar strikes by thousands of coal-miners and factory hands. They were friendly to the railroad men, and would not work for companies that shipped goods over the offending lines. When the railway trouble ended, these disturbances also ceased. 1 373. The Centennial Exposition. In 1876 there was held 1 A labor disturbance of another sort broke out on the Pacific Coast. This was a protest of American workmen against competition- from Chinese labor ers, who had been coming into this country in large numbers and working for smaller wages than those on which our people could live. There were several fierce riots in San Francisco and Chinamen were roughly treated. After long agitation Congress passed the first Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882. This forbade any more Chinese laborers from entering the United States. THE CENTENNIAL EXPOSITION 409 in Philadelphia a great Centennial Exposition or World s Fair; it was in honor of the hundredth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence. Enormous crowds of visitors came from all parts of the civilized world. The Centennial had two important results: - (a) It clearly demonstrated that the work of mankind was now largely being done by machinery. Nearly all of the useful inventions that had been made in the twenty-five years previous to the fair, tended toward making life more pleasant and enabled men to perform many times as much work as formerly. Americans saw with pride that a large share of such devices had had their origin in the United States, and this stimulated their patriotism. (b) Never before in this country had so many artistic objects from all lands been assembled at o ne time and place. The display made a deep impression on Americans. From that time onward they aimed to make their homes more attractive than before in architecture, furniture, and household decorations. 1 1 While the Centennial was helping the cause of peace throughout the world, we were engaged in an Indian war. Gold miners in the Black Hills had driven the Sioux from that region to Montana; but the United States wanted the tribesmen to live only on their reservations, which they refused to do. When General Custer, a brave and dashing cavalry leader, attacked them on the Little Bighorn River in southern Montana, at the head of less than 300 men, their 3000 warriors, under Crazy Horse, Rain-in-the-Face, and Sitting Bull, killed him and all of his troopers. See Longfellow s poem, Revenge of Rain-in-the- Face. Soon after this massacre the Indians were conquered and many of them fled to Canada. In the autumn of 1871 there were several terrible conflagrations in the West. At Chicago flames destroyed 18,000 buildings having a total value of $200,000- ooo. About the same time widespread forest fires raged in Wisconsin, Michi gan, and Minnesota. These wrought enormous loss of property in standing treesandsawed lumber. Several villages in the woods were completely destroyed, hundreds of settlers lost their lives, and thousands were crippled. The next year (1872) Boston suffered from an $80,000,000 fire in the heart of the city. Another event of 1871 was the unearthing of a gang of thieving officeholders in New York City, led by W. M. Tweed, political "boss" of the city. The "Tweed Ring" robbed the public treasury of about $160,000,000, largely through fraudulent contracts. Tweed died in prison in 1878. 410 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL EXPANSION QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. Name the Presidents who had been in military life before their election. Discuss the question whether such military experience fits a man for the presidency. 2. Name the causes which led to the growth of the West. Of these; which was the most important, and why? Review from the beginning the various migrations to the West. (See "Western Migration" in the Index.) 3. Trace on the map the route of the first transcontinental railroad. Indicate on a map of the United States the other principal railroad routes connecting the Mississippi Valley with the Pacific Coast. 4. What great natural resources are found in our Western States that promote the growth of that section? What is the United States Government doing to promote this growth? 5. What were some of the causes of the panic of 1873? Contrast this panic with others in our history. 6. Locate the cities mentioned in this chapter. 7. Contrast the arts and inventions shown at the Centennial with those that you think will probably be shown at the World s Fair at San Francisco in 1915. 8. Make an outline of the chapter. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. A family moves from Connecticut to central New York in 1810. A son of the family moves to eastern Nebraska in 1860. His son removes to Oregon in 1910. Contrast the methods of travel in each of the mi grations. 2. Imagine that you are a girl whose father is a homesteader in Dakota. Write a letter to a friend "back East" in which you describe your new home. 3. Imagine that you are a spectator at the historic scene near Ogden in 1869. Write a letter in which you describe the event. CHAPTER XL THE END OF CARPETBAG GOVERNMENT IN THE SOUTH, AND THE RESUMPTION OF SPECIE PAYMENTS 1877-1881 374. The election of President Hayes. As a result of the national election held in November, 1876, the presidential electors gave one more vote for Rutherford B. Hayes, the Re publican candidate for President, than was given to Samuel J. Tilden, the Democratic candidate. The Democrats com plained at this. They declared that Tilden should be the President; for in reality, they said, the people of the several States had chosen more Democratic electors, pledged to vote for him, than they had Republican, pledged to vote for Hayes. They charged that the Republican State offi cials who superintended the voting in South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana which were still being ruled by carpetbaggers had practiced fraud ; and had wrongly cer tified to the election of Hayes electors from those States, when actually the Tilden men had a majority. Each party now became violently bitter against the other. For a time the excitement was so great that some timid people feared that the Democratic South might break out into war against the Republican North. In order to settle the troublesome question Congress appointed an Electoral Commission. This body consisted of five members of the Federal Supreme Court, five Senators, and five Represent atives. The Commission listened to all of the testimony and then decided, by a vote of 8 to 7, that Hayes had honestly won the election. The decision keenly disappointed the Democrats. But in common with all other Americans, these men had a deep respect for law and order. They remembered Washington s warning, in his Farewell Address, " against 412 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL EXPANSION the baneful effects of party spirit. Accordingly they ceased their opposition, and Hayes was peacefully inaugurated in March, 1877. l 375. The end of carpetbag government in the South. One of the first acts of the new President was to withdraw Fed eral troops from South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana. The soldiers had not been entirely successful in securing for the former slaves their rights under the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Constitutional Amendments ; and the presence of the military created among the whites a great deal of bitter ness and unrest. President Hayes thought that the South would never be able to regain industrial prosperity until its white citizens were allowed to manage their local political affairs in their own way. Thousands of Northerners sharply criticized his with drawal of the army. They felt that the Federal President ought with all his power to force the Southerners to allow negroes to vote and to hold office ; but many others in the North just as firmly believed that the President was right. Of course the South heartily welcomed the change. It had these three results: - (a) It put an end to the corrupt rule of the carpetbaggers. These men could not remain in office without the negro vote; and only a small part of that vote could be cast unless the troops kept guard over the polling places. (b) It left the political control of the South in the hands of the whites. They were now free to settle the " color question " in their own way. (c) It prepared the way for a gradual renewal of friend ship between the two sections. 376. The resumption of specie payments. During the Civil War and for a few years after it, many citizens feared that the Federal Government would never be rich enough to redeem in specie all of its enormous issue of " greenbacks." 1 Hayes was born in Ohio in 1822. He was made a brigadier-general during the Civil War, and was three times elected Governor of Ohio before becoming President. His cabinet included John Sherman, the great financier, and Carl Schurz, the celebrated German-American reformer, who was already a leader in the movement for civil service reform (see p. 415). RESUMPTION OF SPECIE PAYMENTS 413 Therefore, for a long time people could not buy as much with a greenback dollar as with a gold dollar. But as the nation kept growing stronger, and easily obtained vast sums of money every year as taxes or as custom-house duties, there was a gradual increase of confidence in its ability to redeem the paper money. After a time, the man who held a green back found that he was able to purchase with it at the stores very nearly as much as though he carried with him only gold coin. Consequently, the difference between these two kinds of money became very small, and even this dif ference was at last removed by an act of Congress. The Federal Treasurer was ordered, after January I, 1879, to exchange all greenbacks for gold specie, dollar for dollar, whenever any one asked for such an exchange. This action of the Government was called the "resumption of specie payments." It immediately restored our national credit to a sound condition. For just as soon as people knew that they could get gold for their greenbacks any moment they asked for it, there ceased of course to be any distinction in value between a dollar in paper and a dollar in specie. 377. Captain Eads s Mississippi jetties. The currents of the Mississippi River and of its great tribu- taries are so strong and swift that they are continually car rying to the Gulf of Mexico enormous quantities of mud, sand, and gravel. The Mississippi has A MISSISSIPPI RIVER STEAMBOAT five mOUths Or Boats of this type, having a light draft, are used on the rivet for transporting both passengers and freight passes. When the great current is divided among all these, it slows down, and then the material which it carries sinks to the bottom and forms great sand bars. By 1875 the bars had become so large as to interfere with navigation. Deep-draft boats 4H THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL EXPANSION could with difficulty float over them, and channels were kept open only by continual and costly dredging. In that year Congress voted money for carrying out a pro posal of Captain Eads, a St. Louis engineer, 1 for putting a stop to this continual obstruction and expense. Eads s plan was to narrow the channel at South Pass, which is one of the outlets of the river, by building along its sides artificial banks or " jetties." His object was to force the current to go through that channel more swiftly than it had gone before ; then, he said, the s.and would be carried out with a rush to the deeper waters of the Gulf of Mexico, where it would give no more trouble. This was a bold and magnificent idea, worthy of a great engineer. When he was able to put it in practice, it proved entirely successful. After 1879 there was no further difficulty with the sand bars, and New Orleans could then easily be reached by large trans- Atlantic steamers. 2 QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. What was the cause of the disputed claim to the presidency in 1876? What would prevent a similar dispute now? (See page 423.) 2. Why was President Hayes s withdrawal of the troops from the South an act of courage? Name other similar acts of moral courage on the part of our Presidents. 3. What race questions have confronted the people of the United States? Use a map in this discussion. 4. Why is a paper dollar at present of as much value as a gold or silver dollar? 5. Explain by means of blackboard drawings the Mississippi jetties. What is the "deep waterways" movement? 6. Make an outline of the chapter. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Imagine that you are a Southerner. Write a letter to President Hayes, thanking him for the withdrawal of the troops. 2. Let each of five members of the class describe an event of importance in connection with the history of the Mississippi River. 1 He was the builder of the first steel arch bridge across the Mississippi at that city. 2 Eads secured a channel thirty feet deep over a sand bar that before this im provement had only about eight feet of water above it. In later years South west Pass was improved in a similar manner. CHAPTER XLI CIVIL SERVICE REFORM: THE NEW SOUTH AND ITS PROSPERITY 1881-1885 378. The assassination of President Garfield. James A. Garfield followed Hayes as President. 1 But he had been in office only a few months when he was shot by a dis appointed and half-crazy office-seeker, and died in the fol lowing September. A few hours after the President s death he was succeeded by the Vice- President, Chester A. Arthur. 2 379. Civil service reform. One of the most important reforms in the history of the United States Government was brought about during Arthur s Administration. For about fifty years it had been the practice of party leaders to reward the men who had in various ways aided the party to get into office, by giving them positions in the civil service. Usually when a new President came into power, the men holding positions of this sort were discharged and new and untrained persons were put in their places. There were serious disadvantages in this so-called " spoils system ": - (a) Changes were so frequent that few of the Govern ment s employees had time to become skillful in their work. 1 Garfield was born in a lonely log cabin in Ohio in 1831. During his youth and early manhood he was very poor, and at one time earned his living by driving the horses of a canal-boat. But after this experience on the towpath he contrived to get an education and graduated from Williams College. He served with distinction in the Civil War and became a major-general. In the midst of the war he was elected to the Federal House of Representatives, and became one of its leading members. 2 Arthur was born in Vermont in 1830. After graduating from Union College he was a lawyer in New York City, but in the early years of the Civil War also acted as quartermaster-general of the volunteers from New York State. For several years he was at the head of the New York Custom- House (1871-78). He was elected Vice-President in 1880. He died in 1886. 416 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL EXPANSION There was, indeed, little encouragement for them to acquire skill, for they were liable soon to lose their places. (b) The public business was not likely to be well done, for few of the officeholders took much pride in their work. They had been appointed because they were successful in politics, not because they were well fitted to perform the tasks for which the Government paid them salaries. It was a wasteful and unsatisfactory way of doing the work of the nation. (c) The President, Senators, Representatives, and other lead ers of the party in power were continually being annoyed by men who wanted Federal posi tions " office-beggars," as they were called. The leaders should have spent their time in perform ing the important duties of their JAMES ABRAMG^FIELD Wn offices ; instead of that, a large share of their attention was taken up by these hangers-on. 1 Under Presidents Grant and Hayes attempts were made to improve the methods of selecting persons for the civil service; but the attempts were not successful. The assassination of President Garfield, however, by a disap pointed office-beggar, called public attention very strongly to the evils of the old system. Accordingly, in 1883, a Civil Service Reform Act was adopted. This provided for a board of commissioners to examine applicants for some of the classes of positions and to decide whether or not they were competent to fill them. After that, the chief officials were obliged to select their assistants from among those persons who had passed such examinations. An assistant 1 When the war broke out President Lincoln ought to have been able to spend every wakeful moment of his time in attending to public business. Instead of that he was bothered by office-beggars almost every hour of the day. He said that he felt "like a man so busy in letting rooms in one end of his house that he cannot stop to put out the fire that is burning at the other." THE SOUTH AND ITS PROSPERITY 417 chosen in this way could not be discharged by his chief so long as he acted properly and did his work well. In our time nearly all classes of government employees are placed under this law. The result has been a great im provement over the old system. The chief officials no longer spend much of their time in listening to appeals from office-hunters. At the same time the efficiency of the em ployees has been increased. And what is also important, every American citizen has now an equal chance with every other citizen to hold a government position, provided he is fitted for it. A like reform has also been adopted in the civil service systems of several of our States and large cities. 380. Reduction in postage. In the same year as the be ginning of civil service reform (1883) came a much- welcomed reduction in the rate of postage. During the early years of the Republic a letter weighing not more than half an ounce was carried by the Government at charges varying from six to twenty-five cents, according to the distance. Little by little these rates were lowered until only three cents were charged for a letter of that weight to all parts of the United States, near or far. This rate was maintained for a long time. The law of 1883 reduced the price to two cents. Two years later came a still further benefit. Instead of half an ounce one might thereafter send a full ounce weight for the two-cent stamp. Our letters are now taken at this low rate to every American possession, no matter how far distant, as well as to Cuba, Mexico, Canada, and Great Britain; also, under certain conditions, to Germany. 381. The New South and its prosperity. The first im portant shipment to Europe of American cotton was made in 1784, from Charleston, South Carolina. The one-hun dredth anniversary of this event was celebrated in 1884 at New Orleans in a great Cotton Centennial Exposition. It was really an exhibition of all the industries of the South, and attracted many thousands of visitors. 1 1 In 1 88 1 there had been a celebration at Yorktown, Virginia, of the one- hundredth anniversary of the surrender of the British army under Lord Corn- 418 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL EXPANSION This exposition was much of a surprise to most Northern people. They now saw that the South had wonderfully changed of late years, almost without their knowing it. Before the war that section had scarcely any other industry than agriculture. But after the rule of the carpetbaggers ceased and good order was restored, enterprising men opened in the South great mines of coal and iron, and built there many kinds of factories, especially cotton mills. Places that in old slave days had been sleepy little villages were now cities, whose inhabitants were familiar with the clang of hammers and the whir of spindles. The railways had been increased, lengthened, and in many ways im proved. The great crop of cotton had grown to nearly three times the size of the one picked in the year before the war. 1 Southerners deserved to be proud of the pros perity of their region, and to be ambitious for its future. They began to call it by a happy name, "The New South." At last they realized that slavery had long kept them back, commercially and industrially. Under the system of free labor most of the whites had by this time won back almost all that they had lost in the war; and many of them particularly those who, before the war, had been poor and had not owned slaves were much more prosper ous than they had ever been before. vvallis. France sent over some of her soldiers and several naval vessels, and there were parades, naval re-views, and the like, by both nations. 1 In 1860 it was about 5,400,000 bales; in our own time, it occasionally reaches 13,000,000. A SOUTHERN COTTON FIELD THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL EXPANSION 419 As for the freed negroes, they too were fast making pro gress. Good schools had been provided for their race. 1 Many were able to acquire considerable wealth; so that by twenty years after the fall of the Confederacy the former slaves had added millions of dollars to the assessment rolls of the South. 2 QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. Which Presidents have died in office? 2. What is meant by reform in the civil service ? What officeholders in your community are under civil service rules? 3. How has the usefulness of the postal service of the Government been increased of late years? 4. Explain why the South is more prosperous with free labor than it formerly was with slave labor. 5. Make an outline of the chapter. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Write and dramatize a morning-hour at the White House in which Garfield receives a friend of towpath days, several soldiers who had served under him, and an office-seeker. 2. Imagine that you lived in 1881. Shocked at the assassination of Garfield, you write a newspaper editorial against the spoils system. 3. It is suggested that the class write two paragraphs, one descriptive of the best aspects of the Old South, and one of the New South. 4. Peter Stuyvesant has returned to New York. Write his impressions as he sees the Brooklyn Bridge and the life of the city. 1 The colored industrial schools especially have been very successful. The Tuskegee Institute, in Alabama, is conducted by Booker T. Washington, the leader of the negro race in America. At Hampton, Virginia, is the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute, a famous school of this sort for both negroes and Indians. 2 Among the events of the Arthur Administration was the opening (in 1883) of a suspension bridge over East River, connecting New York with Brooklyn. It cost $15,000,000, a sum then thought to be enormous. There are now, how ever, three bridges joining Manhattan Island and Long Island. Besides these overhead highways, there are several tunnels, or "tubes," for fast electric trains; some of these run under East River to Long Island, others under Hudson, or North, River to the New Jersey shore. CHAPTER XLII RELATIONS BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR: THREE FAMOUS LAWS 1885-1889 382. Election of President Cleveland. For twenty-four years the Republicans had controlled the Federal Govern ment. But in the autumn of 1884 the Democrats won the presidential election. Their candidate, Grover Cleveland, 1 was inaugurated in the fol lowing March. 383. Death of General Grant. One of the earliest events of the new Administra tion was the death of General Grant, which took place near Saratoga, New York, in July, 1885.2 The public funeral of the great soldier was held in New York City. The proces sion was eight miles long and passed between lines of veter ans of the Civil War, among whom were many famous Confederate officers. It was the most imposing spectacle of the kind that Americans had ever seen. The body was deposited in a temporary tomb in Riverside Park, overlooking the Hudson River, and here in after years a beautiful monument was erected. 1 Cleveland was born in New Jersey in 1837. His family moved to New York State when he was quite young, and he became a lawyer in Buffalo. His first important public office was that of mayor of his city (1881); then he was elected governor of New York (1882); and two years later President of the United States. He died in 1908 at Princeton, New Jersey. 2 He had but recently completed his Memoirs, a two-volume work telling in a most interesting manner the story of his life down to the close of the war. GROVER CLEVELAND THE AUSTRALIAN BALLOT 421 384. Labor troubles; anarchy in Chicago. During the year 1885 and the winter of 1885-86, there was widespread dissatisfaction among American workmen. They asked their employers to shorten the number of hours in a day s work, to give them better pay, and in other ways to improve the conditions of labor. But these demands were not granted. In the spring and early summer of 1886, therefore, strikes on railroads and street-car systems and in mines and fac tories were common all over the thickly settled parts of the country. Many of these strikes gave rise to disturbances in which considerable property was destroyed. The most violent outbreak of this kind occurred in Chi cago, where 40,000 men suddenly stopped work and crowded the streets of the city, to denounce their " bosses " for ap parently having no sympathy with laborers. A band of vio lent anarchists 1 took advantage of this uprising to make speeches to the excited mobs. They advised their hearers to abolish all forms of government and to kill those soldiers and policemen who attempted to interfere with them. One of these anarchist meetings was held in Haymarket Square, but the police broke it up. In the turmoil an anarchist threw at the officers a bomb filled with dynamite. Its ex plosion killed several and wounded others. The leaders in the terrible assault were caught and four of them were hanged after a fair trial in court. Since then anarchists have been severely dealt with in this country. 2 385. The Australian ballot. Before the year 1888 most of the ballots used in American elections were furnished by the candidates for office. These ballots were printed in dif- 1 This dangerous class of men believe that there should be no government. In order to help bring about such a condition of affairs they are willing to destroy the property of the rich and even to take the lives of men who hold high official positions, such as kings and presidents. They are especially violent against the soldiery and the police, whose business it is to compel people to obey the laws. 2 In 1884 the Federal Government organized a Bureau of Labor, to gather and publish useful facts about wages and the conditions under which men and women labor in the United States and foreign countries. Four years later, in President Cleveland s first term, this bureau was enlarged into a Department of Labor. In 1903 there was established the Department of Commerce and Labor, the head of which is a member of the President s Cabinet. 422 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL EXPANSION ferent styles of type, and the paper was of many sizes and colors. The object of this variety was to enable candidates or their, agents, who always stood close to the ballot box, to see just what ticket each citizen was voting. Employers who had ordered their workmen to vote for certain can didates could in this way find out whether they were being obeyed ; dishonest office-seekers, who paid men for voting for them, could also make sure that the purchased vote was cast. This public method of voting deprived large numbers of the common people of their liberty on election day. Tens of thousands of them felt obliged to vote as they were told, from fear of powerful politicians or of their own em ployers. And the system also made easy the abomi nable practice of vote-buying. Between 1888 and 1 894 most of the States introduced a very necessary reform in this mat ter. They ordered that all ballots should in the future be officially printed, should be of the same size and color, and should contain the names of all the candidates, no matter to what party each one belonged. These papers were to be marked by the voter in secret, in a booth arranged for that purpose, and nobody but himself need ever know what can didate he had chosen. The "Australian Ballot," so called because originated in Australia, is now used from one end of this country to the other. It has helped to make our elections more honest. 386. Three famous laws. The first Administration of SKETCH OF A VOTING PLACE To prevent fraud, clerks identify each voter upon his entrance. The voter then marks his ballot in private, at a booth, folds it, and de posits it in the ballot-box THREE FAMOUS LAWS 423 President Cleveland was notable for three important laws passed by Congress and signed by him : - (a) The Presidential Succession Act (1886). The Con stitution provides that when a President dies or is removed from office or otherwise disabled, the Vice- President shall succeed him. This has occurred several times in the na tion s history. But it might well happen that the same cause that took away the President would disable also the Vice- President. Then, until another election could be held, there would be no President. Some arrangement had to be made, therefore, by which the office would surely be filled by some one. Accordingly, it was provided in the Succes sion Act that if for any reason the Vice- President was unable to serve as President, the office should be held by one of the first seven members of the Cabinet, selected in the order in which their departments were created by law. 1 (b) The Electoral Count Act (1887). The serious trouble that had arisen over the count of electoral votes in 1876 caused Congress to try to prevent such a condition occur ring again. This new law ordered that hereafter each State may regulate for itself the manner in which its electoral contests shall be decided. There can now be no fear of the Federal Government controlling the presidential election. (c) The Interstate Commerce Act (1887). This law pro vided for a commission to regulate the manner of conducting all railway traffic, both passenger and freight, that passed through more than one State. Since the Civil War there have grown up in this country, mostly in the North, a large number of rich and powerful business and manufacturing 11 trusts " or corporations. They make very large shipments over the railroads, and previous to 1887 were able to bar gain for much lower freight rates than were charged to the 1 There are now ten members, whose offices were created in this order: Sec retary of State, Secretary of the Treasury, Secretary of War, Attorney-General, Postmaster-General, Secretary of the Navy, Secretary of the Interior, Secre tary of Agriculture, Secretary of Commerce, and Secretary of Labor. But of course no cabinet officer can succeed to the presidency, unless, under the Con stitution, he is otherwise eligible for the position. 424 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL EXPANSION small concerns. Having such low rates to pay, these large shippers were able to sell their goods for much less than could the small firms, and thus they got most of the trade. The latter found it hard to com pete with them, and hundreds were driven out of business. The Interstate Commerce Commission was given author ity to put a stop to this perni cious favoritism, and to oblige the railroads to charge the same rates to all shippers, large or small. But in our day the Commission has still larger power. The Railway Rate Act of 1906 gave it authority to say exactly what charges should be made for carrying passen gers and freight from one State into another State. The Com mission may also dictate what conveniences and comforts of various kinds the railways shall provide for the public. The Federal Government has also forbidden railways to give free transportation to any one except their own em ployees and certain other designated persons, from one State into another State. And in many of the States there are also stringent " anti-pass" laws forbidding free railway tickets within those States. 1 Bartholdi s Statue of Liberty . In 1886 there was unveiled on Bedloe s Island, in the Bay of New York, the largest bronze statue ever made. It was designed by a French sculptor named Bartholdi and represents " Liberty enlightening the World." The Goddess of Liberty is holding aloft a flaming torch, over three hundred feet above low tide, to light the path of Europeans into the gateway of this "Land of Freedom and Opportunity." It was a present to Americans from the people of France, in memory of the days when that nation helped us to gain our independence from Great Britain. LIBERTY ENLIGHTENING THE WORLD 1 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL EXPANSION 425 QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. Begin to make a list of the new problems confronting the nation. 2. Tell why the Australian ballot system is an improvement on the former system of voting. 3. Relate some of the important powers of the Interstate Commerce Commission. 4. Make an outline of the chapter. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Write a brief account of a few of the memorable events in Grant s life. 2. Write an account of how a strike was averted by mutual concessions. 3. Write a newspaper editorial condemning the Haymarket assassinations, CHAPTER XLIII THE RUSH TO OKLAHOMA, AND THE ADMISSION OF WESTERN STATES: WOMAN SUFFRAGE 1889-1893 387. The election of President Harrison. The Democrats, who had elected President Cleveland, wanted to reduce the tariff on imported goods. But the Republicans wished for still higher duties, in order, they said, to give to American industries better protection than before against European competition. At the presidential election in 1888 a majority of the people voted in favor of the protection policy and did not reelect Cleveland. He was succeeded by the Re publican candidate for President, Benjamin Harrison, whose inauguration took place in March, iS8g. 1 388. The McKinley Tariff Bill. In the autumn of 1890 Congress carried out the Republican pledges by adopting what is known as the McKinley Tariff Bill. It increased the duties on many imported articles. The act contained, how ever, a so-called " reciprocity " clause. This provided that if foreign countries would place only small duties on certain American manufactures that we shipped to their ports, we would reciprocate by lowering the duties on those of their products that we imported. 389. The opening of Oklahoma. By the time of Harri son s Administration it was difficult to find good farming land in the West that might be obtained from the Federal Government under the Homestead Act. There had arisen 1 Harrison was born in Ohio in 1833. His great-grandfather was Benjamin Harrison.asignerof the Declaration of Independence. His grandfather, William Henry Harrison, was governor of Indiana, a general in the War of 1812, and for a few months (1841) President of the United States. President Benjamin Harrison was a lawyer in Indianapolis when the Civil War broke out; but he joined the Union army and became a brigadier-general. After the war he served as a United States Senator from Indiana. He died in 1901. THE OPENING OF OKLAHOMA 427 a widespread demand that parts of. the large Western Indian reservations be thrown open for sale to white settlers. Ac cordingly, the United States bought from the aborigines in Indian Territory a large and fertile tract of about 40,000 square miles. It was called Oklahoma, and heretofore it had only been used as a pasture for the cattle and horses of the tribes of that region. The President published a proclamation that lands in Oklahoma would be ready for sale after twelve o clock noon of April 22, 1889. In order that everybody might have an equal chance, he declared that no outsiders should be ad mitted to the territory before that hour. Intense interest was aroused among the people of the entire country. Days OKLAHOMA CITY IN 1889 In 1890, the population was 10,037; in 1910, 64,205. The gain from 1900 to 1910 was over 639 per cent, the highest rate of any city in the country before the opening, 100,000 " boomers," as they were called, were camping along the border ; but a strong guard of United States soldiers kept them from crossing it. The boomers had come from nearly every State in the Union, on horseback, afoot, by railroad, or in prairie schooners. Each was anxious to have the first choice in selecting a suitable location fog either a farm or a place of business. Just as the hands of the commander s watch touched nail midday hour, military buglers sounded the signal. E, now their clear high notes had ceased, tens of thousands f>ods to and boys, and even women and girls, were madly f his will forward into Oklahoma in wagons and buggies, back, or afoot. It was a wild, scrambling race, e . f . * f _. . i i . , m . suffrage States. for itself, to secure those places in the Territory on all matters had picked out beforehand on the maps tha 430 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL EXPANSION QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. What is the meaning of reciprocity? 2. How is the Federal Government increasing the amount of productive 1-and in the West? Let some member of the class ascertain how much land has been made productive in this way, and compare the area of this land with the area of his State. 3. Locate Oklahoma on the map, and tell how the Territory was created. Compare this with the origin of other States. (See Appendix C.) 4. Name the various causes that have extended our territory westward. (See "Westward Migration" in the Index.) 5. Debate the question of woman suffrage. 6. Make an outline of the chapter. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Compare the settling of Oklahoma in 1889 with that of California forty years before. 2. Imagine that you accompanied your father across the line into Okla homa. Write a letter home in which you describe your first day s ex periences. 3. Write a paragraph descriptive of one of the six States admitted in 1889-90. Do not name the State, but see that you make your para graph so distinct that the class will have little difficulty in identifying the State described. CHAPTER XLIV INDUSTRIAL AND INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION 1893-1897 392. The second election of Cleveland; the Wilson Tar iff Bill. During the last years of the Harrison Administra tion the maj.ority of the voters appeared to have changed their minds about the tariff. For a second time they elected Cleveland as President, because the Democrats promised that if they won they would lower the duties on imports. In 1894 this promise was carried out by the new Congress, which passed what was called the Wilson Tariff. Under that law the duties were only about three fourths as much as those levied by the McKinley Tariff, and lumber and wool were allowed to come in free. 393. The Columbian Exposition at Chicago. Two months after President Cleveland s inauguration (1893), he was called upon to open at Jackson Park, on the lake front in Chicago, a great fair known as the World s Columbian Expo sition. This was to celebrate the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America by Columbus. 1 It was in every way an impressive record of the wonderful advancement that civilized men had everywhere made since the discovery of America. But it was plainly to be seen from the exhibits that the United States led the world in many kinds of machinery, in electrical devices, and in nearly all matters relating to popular education. 394. The panic of 1893. The fair at Chicago showed how 1 As the great explorer s first visit to this hemisphere was in 1492, the date of the anniversary was really 1892. But it took so long to prepare for the ex position that it could not be held until the next year. 432 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL EXPANSION fast and well this nation had grown, particularly since the Civil War; how industries and education had made pro gress among us; and how rich the United States seemed to have become. During that summer, however, another financial panic suddenly came upon the country, and the gratification of our people was at once changed to gloom. The Americans had for several years been enjoying "good times. " As usual this condition led them to be careless about their business ventures. They were now speculating Copyright, KauJ mann, Weimerand Fabry Co. A PART OF THE WATER FRONT AT CHICAGO, 1911 This photograph was taken from an aeroplane, 600 feet above Lake Michigan. The perspective is slightly distorted by the camera; notice how the street in the foreground, Michigan Boulevard, is made to appear as it built on a curve, whereas it really is straight too much with borrowed money; thousands were spending more than they could afford to spend ; and capitalists were building more railways and factories than the country as yet needed. This carelessness could not long continue without disaster. There came a time when owners of factories, mills, mines, banks, and stores suddenly discovered that they could not collect all of the money that their customers owed them. They therefore could not pay their own debts. As a result, there followed great numbers of business failures from one end of the country to the other. In the crash thousands of men lost every dollar they owned. But worst of all, many RAILWAY AND COAL STRIKES 433 factories and mines had to stop, and railway lines reduced the number of their workmen ; consequently, large numbers of people were thrown out of employment. Very soon the country seemed to be filled with men who had nothing to do. Many of them could no longer buy enough food and clothing for their families, and there was much intense suf fering in every part of the land. 395. Railway and coal strikes. This unfortunate situation was during the next year (1894) made still worse by great strikes, chiefly by coal-miners and railway men. They de manded more wages and fewer working hours than the em ployers were willing to grant. The worst trouble was at Pullman, a few miles from Chicago, in the shops where sleeping-cars are made. The strike of the three thousand workmen employed there was followed by a " sympathetic strike " on eleven railways centering in Chicago. The pur pose of this was to prevent these lines from using Pullman cars. Almost every railway in the West and the South was " tied up." Great quantities of meat, butter, fruits, and other perishable goods were spoiled because they could not be shipped. For three weeks it was almost impossible to travel either out of or to Chicago, and a large amount of rail way property was destroyed by rioters. Trade in several large Western cities was at a standstill, factories were closed because they could not get material, and virtually everybody suffered some sort of inconvenience. But the blow fell heavi est on the thousands of unemployed people who now had no money to buy food, clothing, or shelter. The effect on the country was almost as disastrous as the panic of the year before. Finally, President Cleveland sent Federal soldiers to Illinois to protect the mail cars and to stop the inter ference with interstate commerce. This ended the trouble. During those three eventful weeks, however, the manu facturers, the railroads, and the workmen had lost over $7,000,000 in property destroyed and wages unpaid. 1 1 In the spring of 1894 several hundred unemployed men gathered in Ohio from as far west as San Francisco. They called themselves "Coxey s Army," 434 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL EXPANSION 396. International arbitration. In the midst of the World s Fair and the panic of 1893 came the peaceful settle ment of a long-standing dispute between the United States and Great Britain. When we bought Alaska we supposed that our ownership extended over all of Bering Sea, whose islands are at certain seasons of the year frequented by valuable fur-bearing seals. But when these animals left the islands and swam out into the open sea, they were killed in such great numbers by foreign seal-hunters that it began to look as though they would soon be exterminated. There fore, United States cruisers captured the vessels and fur cargoes of as many such intruders as possible. The foreign ers protested, however, that we had no right to do this; they said that our authority did not extend beyond a limit of three miles out from shore. Great Britain, indeed, demanded that we return all furs and vessels that our officers had taken from the Canadian hunters. The two countries very sensibly agreed to refer the mat ter to a commission composed of representatives of the United States, Great Britain, France, Italy, and Norway- Sweden. It was decided by this body that while the United States had no right to close all of Bering Sea to the seal- hunters of other nations, it could insist on having the ani mals hunted only in the proper season and by rules that would prevent their extermination. It was far better to have this matter settled in a friendly way than to go to war over it. The verdict pleased Great Britain, for now we could no longer molest foreign sailors; and Americans were also satisfied, for they had only desired to protect the seals from thoughtless hunters. But it was found that even this arrangement was not suf ficient. There were still so many seals secretly caught in because led by a man named Jacob S. Coxey, and marched over the mountains to Washington, where about five hundred of them arrived on May Day. The banners that they carried denounced all capitalists, and declared that they were going to petition Congress to provide work for everybody at good wages. But Congress paid no attention to the "army " and it soon dis banded. INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION 435 the open sea by British, Russian, Japanese, and American hunters that each year the herds grew smaller and smaller. Finally, in July, 1911, during President Taft s Administra tion, a treaty was signed between all four nations by which no fur seals are to be killed in the open waters of the North Pacific Ocean, including the seas of Bering, Okhotsk, Kam chatka, and Japan. During Cleveland s second Administration another seri ous dispute arose between this country and Great Britain, but it also ended peacefully. Venezuela and Great Britain had for a half-century been quarreling over the boundary between the former country and the latter s colony of British Guiana. Great Britain seemed inclined to take advantage of her strength and to establish the boundary where it pleased her. But Cleveland declared that under the Monroe Doctrine we could not possibly allow a European nation to domineer over an American republic. He insisted that the British Government should arbitrate with Vene zuela and put a stop to the unfortunate quarrel. At first Great Britain flatly refused to do this ; whereupon the Presi dent himself appointed a commission to determine the true boundary. For a time there was much fear both in England and America that a war might result from this action. But Great Britain finally agreed (1897) to the proposed arbitra tion with Venezuela, and the affair ended without any further trouble. QUESTIONS AND .SUGGESTIONS 1. Review former panics, and note in what respects the causes of all were similar. (See " Panics " in the Index.) 2. What event in Cleveland s second Administration showed the au thority of the National Government? Make a list of the events in Colonial and Revolutionary history which gradually brought about the establishment of the Union; then make a list of events beginning with Washington s Administration, which established the supremacy of the Union of the States. 3. Recall another instance of arbitration between Great Britain and the United States. (See " Arbitration " in the Index.) Why should peace exist between the two nations? 436 THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL EXPANSION 4. Some of the great questions before the people in Cleveland s second Administration are still public questions. Name them. 5. Make an outline of the chapter. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1 . One of Columbus s descendants visits the fair at Chicago. Write a letter which he might have written to a relative in Spain about his visit. 2. Write a brief argument .justifying President Cleveland in sending the troops to Chicago during the strike. THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER CHAPTER XLV THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR, AND TERRITORIAL EXPANSION: THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER 1897-1901 397. The Dingley Tariff. The majority of American voters were not quite satisfied with the Wilson Tariff, that had been adopted by the Democrats. The Republicans again offered to give to our manufacturers increased pro tection, and succeeded in electing their presidential candidate, Wil liam McKinley, 1 to succeed Presi dent Cleveland. In the first year of the McKinley Administration (1897), Congress, which was also controlled by the Republicans, adopted the Dingley Tariff Bill. This increased the du ties on many imports, and took from the free list wool and several other articles that had been placed there WILLIAM MCKINLEY by the Wilson Tariff. 398. National prosperity, and Greater New York. The ill effects of the panic of 1893 and of the labor disturbances that followed it, had by this time almost wholly disappeared. During McKinley s term of office the prosperity of the United States was much talked about throughout the entire world. American-made hardware, tools, sewing-machines, 1 McKinley was born in Ohio in 1843 , and as a youth taught a country school. At the outbreak of the Civil War he enlisted in the Union army as a private, in the regiment in which Rutherford B. Hayes (afterwards President) was a major. McKinley, beihg a good and brave soldier, gradually rose to be a major himself. When the war was over he became a lawyer, and in 1876 was elected a member of Congress. In 1890 he introduced the McKinley Tariff Bill. 438 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER typewriters, watches, bicycles, copper wire, steel rails, bridges, locomotives, electric cars, and leather goods were to be seen in every continent ; and so also were our great natural products beef, flour, wheat, corn, tobacco, cotton, and petroleum. As a result of the increase of trade and of manufacturing, our cities were growing rapidly in every section North, South, East, and West. 1 The nation s metropolis, New York, had expanded so greatly since the war that not only was Copyright, George P. Rail and Son THE SKYSCRAPERS OF NEW YORK This view Shcrvs on,y a small section of the city. It Is taken from a point nearly opposite the Battery, which is at the extreme southern end of the lone, narrow island on which the city is built. The tower near the center is on the Singer Building. This is forty-nine stories (612 feet) in height Manhattan Island crowded, but on the mainland to the west and on Long Island to the east there was a continu ous and solid settlement stretching out for many miles. As this is chiefly a settlement of people working or doing busi ness on Manhattan, it was now decided to unite into one municipality such of the adjoining towns as lay within the State of New York. Accordingly, on New Year s Day, 1898, Brooklyn and several other suburbs were annexed to the central city, which thereafter was known as " Greater New 1 Early in September, 1900, a great hurricane swept along the Gulf Coast in southern Texas. It was particularly disastrous to the city and neighborhood of Galveston, where 6000 lives were lost and property worth $18,000,000 was destroyed. Galveston is now wholly rebuilt, however, and is even stronger and more attractive than before. WAR WITH SPAIN 439 York." The Federal census taken in 1910 found 4,766,883 human beings within this thickly peopled area. It is now the largest city on the earth, except London. 399. The causes of our war with Spain. For a long time in the history of the world, Spain was one of its most power ful nations and possessed important colonies in every conti nent. But her harsh and corrupt Government ruled these colonies with very little sympathy for the colonists them selves. The aim of Spain was to collect their gold, silver, and other products so as to make the motherland rich ; she did not help her children across the seas to prosper for their own sake. The colonists were rightfully discontented with this mercenary treatment and with the overbearing manner and often despotic methods of the Spanish officials sent to govern them. Hence, when Spain, from various political causes in Europe, grew weak, many of her colonies rebelled and established their independence. All of those in Central and South America did this in the early years of the nineteenth century. In North America Spain had gradually either given aw ay or sold her mainland possessions. 1 But until the year 1898 she still owned Cuba and Porto Rico, in the West Indies; and in the South Pacific Ocean the great archipelago known as the Philippines. 2 For many years the Cubans had felt very bitter toward Spain. They objected to remaining the property of a nation whose only interest in the island was to see how much profit could be got out of it. They were tired of paying large taxes to keep up the expensive and tyrannical military government with which Spain controlled the island. Con sequently, insurrections were frequent, life and property were insecure, and business was continually in a turmoil. Cuba is so close to our shores, and so many Americans live 1 She had returned the Province of Louisiana to France, which sold it to us in 1803. (See page 232.) Mexico revolted in 1821, and later, as a result of the Mexican War (see page 301), sold a large area of her land to the United States. In 1819 Spain abandoned her claims to Oregon and sold us Florida. (See page 257. Refer also to Appendices C and E and the map between pages 392 and 393.) 2 Discovered by Magellan, and in later years named in honor of Philip II of Spain. 440 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER and do business there, that the United States has always felt a strong interest in its affairs. During several of our presidential administrations we tried to buy the island from Spain, or at least to persuade her to arbitrate her disputes with the Cubans. But she stubbornly refused to listen to us. The most serious Cuban uprising began in 1895. Spain tried to quell it by sending over more than 200,000 troops, with orders to use severe methods. One of these was to shut the inhabitants up in their towns and villages and try to prevent the raising of any crops. She hoped in this way to starve them into submission. 1 But the people declared that they would much rather die by starvation than any longer submit to Spanish tyranny; and they appealed to the United States for help. Like most Americans, President Cleveland keenly sym pathized with the liberty-loving Cubans. He said that if the war were allowed to go on, it would mean " the utter ruin" of the island. Both he and his successor, President McKinley, remonstrated with the Spanish Government, but they could not get any satisfactory replies. In the midst of this discussion between the two Govern ments, one of our battleships, the Maine, visited Havana. On February 15, 1898, while lying peacefully in the harbor of that city, she was shattered by a terrible explosion and at once sank with two hundred and sixty-six of her officers and crew. The cause of this disaster has not been officially de termined. There was an explosion inside of the ship. But this may have been accidental, or it may have resulted from the outside explosion of a submarine mine fired by an enemy of the United States. Whatever the cause may have been, Ameri cans at that time generally believed that our seamen had been murdered by a Spanish plot. 2 At once tremendous excitement 1 In the Province of Havana alone this policy caused 50,000 persons to die from disease and destitution. It is claimed that 250,000 lives were thus lost on the entire island. 2 In the winter of 1911-12 the sunken vessel was raised and examined, by order of Congress. The bodies of sailors not previously recovered were taken CAPTURE OF THE PHILIPPINES 441 arose throughout the land. Vengeful cries of " Remember the Maine! " were everywhere heard. Thousands of citi zens and most of the newspapers demanded that the Govern ment fight Spain without delay and make Cuba free. President McKinley yielded to this popular clamor. He sent a message to Congress declaring that " In the name of humanity, in thename of civilization, in behalf of endangered American interests, . . . the war in Cuba must stop." On April 19 Congress passed a resolution declaring that: - (a) " The people of Cuba are, and of right ought to be, free and independent " ; and that Spain must withdraw her troops and surrender the island to the inhabitants. (b) If Spain refused to do this, we should ourselves help the Cubans to obtain liberty. But it was promised that in case we succeeded, our troops would remain no longer on the island than was necessary to establish peace and good order. 400. War is declared. Spain did refuse, and on April 25 Congress declared w T ar against her. The President called for over 200,000 volunteers from the several States and Territories, to assist the regular army, and in a short time all of them were ready for service. Congress did its part by levying special taxes to raise money to carry on the war, such as obliging persons to affix revenue stamps to all checks and other documents, j ust as was done during the Civil War ; and $200,000,000 was easily borrowed from the people at the low rate of three per cent interest a year. 1 401. We capture the Philippines. While the rebellion in Cuba was in progress the people of the Philippines, called Filipinos, were also seeking to overthrow Spanish rule and to set up a republic of their own. Spain was practicing toward them the same harsh and cruel methods with which she had made the Cubans familiar. For this purpose a fleet to the United States for burial. The ship itself was sunk in deep water off the coast of Cuba. 1 The willingness of the citizens to lend this money to the Government was so great that several times the needed amount was offered. But of course no more could be taken than had been called for by Congress. I MANILA BAY 442 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER of her war- vessels, laden with soldiers, had been sent to the archipelago. At the time of the opening of our war with Spain this squadron lay in the beautiful, spacious, and well-fortified harbor of Manila. Commodore Dewey, who had fought under Admiral Farragut in the Civil War, was just then looking after American interests along the Asiatic Coast. He received se cret orders by cable from our Navy Department to hurry to Manila with his nine ships and either " capture or destroy " the Spanish fleet. The battle took place on May I, 1898. Amid thunderous volleys from the forts and bat teries in the harbor, Dewey in a short time destroyed every Spanish ship. This victory was won with the wounding of only seven Americans, and no harm to our vessels; whereas the Spanish lost not only their entire fleet, but three hun dred and eighty-one of their men were killed. Congress promptly rewarded Dewey by making him a rear- admiral, 1 and the War Department ordered 20,000 soldiers to assist him in the capture of Manila itself. On August 13 that city, with 13,000 Spanish troops, who made a desperate resistance, surrendered to the American army and fleet. The power that holds Manila controls the entire archipelago. This victory, therefore, meant the end of Spanish rule in the Orient. 402. Objects of our campaign in Cuba. Meanwhile the Americans were making headway in Cuba. Our campaign for freeing the people of that island consisted of four moVe- ments: (a) To the army was given the task of conquering the Spanish troops on the island. Only 17,000 American sol- 1 The next year he was made an admiral. THE CAMPAIGN IN CUBA 443 diers were actually sent over to Cuba; the rest were kept in readiness for service, in camps near the seacoast of the Southern States. (b) The duty of the navy was to blockade the coast of the island, so that the Spanish soldiers might neither escape nor be reinforced from Spain. The blockading squadron was commanded by Admiral Sampson. (c) It was also necessary that the shores of the United States should be protected. Attacks were expected from the principal Spanish fleet, which in the beginning of the war was at the Cape Verd Islands, and in charge of Admiral Cervera. The duty of watching Cervera s movements was given to a " flying squadron " under Admiral Schley. This consisted of swift cruisers that might at any time hurry to the place where they were most needed. (d) Lastly, the army and navy were to cooperate in the capture of Santiago, on the southeast coast of Cuba. This place controlled the entire eastern end of the island. These various movements culminated within a very short time. 403. The Spanish are driven into Santiago. The land locked harbor of Santiago is shaped much like a jug. It is entered from the sea through a narrow mouth, which was protected by a strong Spanish fortress and many submarine mines. On the land side were numerous defensive batteries. These stood usually on the tops of hills that were girt about by tangles of barbed wire and thick jungles of trees, shrubs, and vines, through which the Americans found it difficult to advance. But notwithstanding these obstructions and the over powering heat, our regiments made several brilliant as- lip Dalqi THE SANTIAGO CAMPAIGN 444 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER saults on the fortified hills, and on July I drove the Spanish back into Santiago with heavy loss. The charge on San Juan Hill became famous, because of an especially fine record made there by a regiment of volunteer cavalrymen, called " Rough Riders." These men valiantly aided the regulars, and were led by Lieutenant- Colonel Theodore Roosevelt, afterwards President of the United States. 1 404. Admiral Cervera s fleet is destroyed; the war ends. Cervera s fleet consisted of six ships, which were much more powerful than those destroyed by Dewey. Just before the battle of Manila the Spanish admiral left the Cape Verd Islands and steamed out to sea. Where was he go ing? Americans could not possibly tell. In those days there was no wireless telegraphy to carry news as to the where abouts of vessels in mid-ocean. Dwellers along our far-stretching seacoast feared that any hour he might enter the harbors of New York, Boston, or even San Francisco, and bombard those cities with power ful long-range guns. Our coast defenses were then few and weak, and such an enemy might easily do enormous damage to property and even life. Hundreds of frightened citizens left their homes and sought safety in the interior of the country. Or did Cervera intend to meet and destroy our fine battle ship, the Oregon, that was coming around Cape Horn from the Pacific Ocean, to join Sampson s blockading squadron off the coast of Cuba? Cervera did none of these expected things. He crept across the Atlantic, evaded our flying squadron and block- aders, and took refuge in Santiago Harbor. The Americans 1 The Rough Riders (1000 men) were organized by Theodore Roosevelt, but theircolonel was Leonard Wood, who in later years became the head of the regu lar army. The members of this command were young men who, like Roosevelt himself, had had much experience in horseback riding on the Western Plains and in the Rocky Mountains. Some were cowboys and ranchmen, others were sons of wealthy Eastern parents, and many were graduates from colleges and universities. The Rough Riders were more talked about than any other body of men in the American army of 1898. Only 560 of them crossed over to Cuba, however, and less than 500 were in the battle of San Juan Hill. THE COST OF THE WAR 445 then teamed that he had good reason for this caution. His ships were short of coal and provisions and were not as well equipped with guns and ammunition as we had supposed. Nevertheless, Cervera must not be allowed to emerge from his hiding place, for he still might do great damage to our coast towns. Sampson and Schley therefore united in a blockade of the harbor. They also sought to " put a cork in the jug," by sinking an American vessel across the mouth. 1 But this obstruction was not placed in the right spot, so that room was still left for Cervera to pass out to sea if he felt strong enough to do so. This he did on July 3, two days after the fall of Santi ago s outlying land defenses. Rather than be caught in a trap, he was willing to take the great risk of an attempt to escape. But the smoke of his vessels was easily seen as they steamed toward the mouth of the harbor. The blockaders promptly formed in line of battle, and a fierce sea-fight fol lowed. In a few hours our ships and sailors won the day. Every one of the enemy s craft was either burned or sunk, and Cervera was taken prisoner. This virtually ended the war in Cuba. Within a fortnight Santiago surrendered, and very soon the island was freed from Spanish control. In Porto Rico there was still some fighting to be done during the next few weeks. Our troops were carrying every thing before them, w r hen, on August 12, news came that the two Governments had on that day agreed to stop their conflict and to make a treaty of peace. 405. The cost of the war. The Spanish-American War had lasted but a little over three months. The direct ex penditures for our army and navy had reached the enor mous sum of $165,000,000. At the same time the expenses of every other department of the Government were also greatly increased because of the war, so that the total cost to us was probably over half a billion dollars. Our death 1 This daring and dangerous exploit was conducted by Lieutenant Hobson. He and his men were captured by the Spanish. 446 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER losses in battle were less than 400; but nearly 3000 American soldiers died from camp diseases and other causes. We had not been prepared for the contest. There was at first some blundering, for few of our officers had had much practice in managing large bodies of troops and in collecting supplies for them. But the war once more showed that even when they lack experience, American soldiers and sailors are good fighters. They displayed great dash and bravery, and they won every battle, both on land and sea. For the first time since the Civil War, Northern and Southern men 1 had fought and camped side by side, under the flag of the Union. In this experience they came to know each other intimately, and formed friendships that have helped greatly in reuniting the two sections. This was one fruit of the Spanish War that will bring us lasting benefit. 2 406. The treaty of peace and the territory it brought to us. The treaty of peace with Spain was signed by represent atives of the two nations on December 10, 1898. It was, however, not ratified by the United States Senate until February 6, 1899. From this agreement came several im portant results : - (a) Spain surrendered Cuba to the Cubans. The United States generously spent large sums of money and much time and care in restoring order in the island, cleaning up its cities, and instructing the Cubans how to govern and care for themselves. Our troops were then withdrawn, and the islanders formed a republic of their own ( 1 902) . But in doing so they promised that if the young nation should get into 1 The leading Southern officers serving in this war were Generals Fitzhugh Lee, a nephew of General Robert E. Lee, and Joseph Wheeler. 2 Another worthy result was to bring into prominence the American Red Cross Society, which is a branch of the international organization of that name. In this our women take a large part. They did the same splendid work in caring for sick and wounded soldiers in 1898 that the Sanitary Commission had done in our Civil War. The Red Cross is just as effective in peace as it is in war. It rights such widespread diseases as consumption. It helps the needy in times of great fires, floods, or other national disasters. During calamities in other lands, like the Italian earthquake in 1909 and the famine in China in 1911, the Red Cross collects money and supplies in America and sends them to the afflicted country. THE TREATY OF PEACE 447 trouble with any foreign country, or the liberty, property, or lives of the people should need protection, the United States should have the right again to take charge of its affairs. Four years later (1906) there was an insurrection against the President of Cuba, and he resigned. Our Government was asked to and did restore order. Under the wise management of William H. Taft, the provisional governor appointed by the United States, several needful reforms were begun, and a new set of native officers were elected. After this we again withdrew, hoping that the Cubans would be more success ful in their second attempt to govern themselves. (b) The Philippines were sold to the United States for $20,000,000^ At first, the Filipinos would not consent to become subjects of the United States; they wished to carry out their plan of forming a republic, and governing them selves. For three years they carried on an insurrection against us, under the leadership of Aguinaldo, and our army had many fights with them. Finally, order was restored, and most of the civilized inhabitants of the islands now seem to be contented with our rule. We have established among them schools and libraries, have done much to develop their, industries, and are trying to civilize some of the wild tribes. The principal officers of the Philippine Government are appointed by the President of the United States, but the natives have their own legislature. When the islanders have acquired the difficult art of self-government, no doubt the United States will grant them complete independence. Meanwhile they are to remain under our protection and guidance. (c) Porto Rico became the property of the United States. 2 1 This enormous archipelago comprises about three thousand islands, of which many are merely barren rocks. The largest is Mindanao, very nearly the size of Pennsylvania. Luzon, whose capital is Manila, the largest Filipino town, is about as big as Ohio. The soil of the archipelago is generally fertile, and the population is not far from 7,500,000, of whom about a million are still in the savage state. When the Americans took charge, there were on the islands about 25,000 Europeans and 40,000 Chinese, in whose hands are a large share of the industries of the archipelago. 2 The island is nearly three times the size of Rhode Island, and has a popu lation of a little over 1,000,000, a third of whom are colored. They were soon 448 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER (d) Guam was also ceded to us by Spain. This is the largest and southernmost of the Ladrone Islands, in the South Pacific Ocean. 1 407. The annexation of Hawaii and other Pacific islands. The group of islands in the Pacific Ocean which are collect ively known as Hawaii had been under American protec tion since 1 893.2 The leading inhabitants of the archipelago asked the United States to annex it. But our Government hesitated to do this, for at that time few Americans thought it wise for us to own such far-away territory. The Spanish-American War, however, caused a remark able change in American ideas about territorial expansion. After Dewey s victory at Manila, it was realized that if we were to keep possession of the Philippines we should have to defend them. We could not do this unless we had coal ing and telegraph stations for our navy, scattered at con venient places through the Pacific Ocean. For this reason we annexed Hawaii in 1898. The next year (1899) England, Germany, and the United States divided between them the Samoan Islands, in the South Pacific. Several of this group fell to our share ; among them is the large island of Tutuila, which contains the fine harbor of Pango Pango. We have also taken possession in that quarter of the world of several other small islands that had not been claimed by European powers. 408. We become a world power. Before the Spanish- American War the United States held possessions only on given a Territorial Government of their own. Our President appoints the governor and some other officers, but the islanders elect the legislature. 1 It is a hundred miles in circumference, is surrounded by coral reefs, and has a population of about 9,000. During the war it had been seized by the United States for use as a station for our naval vessels to stock up with coal and other supplies. 2 Of the population of nearly 200,000, over a half are Chinese and Japanese; a fifth are Hawaiians, and there are nearly that number of whites, many of whom are Americans. Sugar-making is the chief industry. The land area is about 6,500 square miles, or three fourths the size of New Jersey. In January, 1893, there was a successful revolution against the Hawaiian Queen. A pro visional government was formed, under American protection, to serve until "terms of union with the United States of America should be negotiated and agreed upon." THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER 449 the continent of North America. Except for the acquisi tion of Alaska, its territorial growth had been merely an extension of its borders. But the War of 1898 virtually forced upon us, in one way or another, numerous distant islands in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. We thus greatly expanded our bounds, and to our former interests and tasks as a nation we have added what the poet Kipling calls " the white man s burden " that is, the difficult duty of govern ing and educating millions of uncivilized men living in dis- THE UNITED STATES AND ITS POSSESSIONS (Shown by shading and by names in heavy type) tant parts of the earth. We cannot protect the Filipinos and Samoans without being brought into dealings with the great nations of Asia; also with those of Europe who have colo nies in the Far East that lie near to our own. Having suddenly acquired such interests and neigh bors as these, we could no longer prevent ourselves from becoming at last a "world power" -a term given to those countries that feel it necessary, because of their far- off colonies, to take part in all important matters having to do with the peace, comfort, or civilization of the whole world. 450 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER 409. The Chinese Boxer uprising and the " open door." The very next year after we became a world power, our Government was obliged to take part in an important re form in China. That country is great in size, but has devel oped little military strength. Beginning about 1895, several European powers took advantage of her weakness, and on one pretext or another seized for themselves large portions of her seacoast. Each hoped to control its own tract, so that only its citizens might carry on trade with the Chinese inhabitants. But in 1899 John Hay, then our Secretary of State, urged the Europeans to give to the citizens of every country an equal chance to trade in China. He said that there ought to be an " open door " to that vast land. While Mr. Hay and the Europeans w r ere discussing this matter, serious disturbances arose in China (May, 1900). A large body of ignorant fanatics, called " Boxers," tried to exterminate all foreigners. Aided by native soldiers they killed many Americans and Europeans and burned their houses and mission stations. For nearly two months they besieged the houses of foreign ambassadors in the great city of Peking, and it required 19,000 soldiers and sailors from the United States, Great Britain, France, Russia, and Japan to put down the uprising. China was forced to pay large damages to the nations whose citizens had been badly treated. A few years later, however, her Government began to show proper respect to foreigners. Thereupon the United States returned all of its share of this indemnity, except sc much as was actually necessary to pay for losses sustained by Americans. About this time, also, our Government secured promises from European nations to establish the " open door " to China, for which Mr. Hay had asked. This stopped the further splitting-up of that country ; for so long as Europeans could no longer keep the commerce of China to themselves, there was little use of their seizing any more of its land. 1 1 China felt grateful to us for our generosity, and is now one of our best friends. Each year her Government sends over many carefully selected students to be THE HAGUE PEACE TRIBUNAL 451 410. The Hague Peace Tribunal. In 1899 the principal nations of Europe, together with Japan and the United States, established a Permanent Court of Arbitration to sit at The Hague, the capital of Holland. This court consists of judges from all the leading countries. Its object is to decide such international disputes as may be referred to it, and thus to do away, as far as possible, with the necessity for war. It has already settled several important international disputes, and always to the satisfaction of both sides. In the future its services will no doubt be more frequently called on than they have been in the past. 1 411. The establishment of a gold standard. When the United States Mint was first opened at Philadelphia (1792), and we began our decimal system of coinage, the silver dollar was made " the unit of value," or the standard for that sys tem. In after years this coin was, for that reason, often spoken of as " the dollar of our fathers." During the Civil War, however, the people chiefly used paper money. In fact, they found that paper was more con venient to carry than coin. By the year 1873 silver was little used, except for change, anywhere in the world, save in Asia. Congress therefore ordered that the old-time silver dollar be no longer made, 2 and that our only coins be of gold, silver for fractional currency, and copper. It seemed, however, that many Americans had a real affection for the dollar of our fathers, and this action by Congress gave rise to much opposition. After a time Con gress restored the silver dollar, and during several years large educated in our schools and colleges; they are supported from the indemnity fund returned by the United States. These young men are expected to instruct the Chinese in American ideas and methods. 1 Andrew Carnegie, of New York, has given the money to erect a palace at The Hague for the meetings of the Tribunal and of the world s peace conferences which are frequently held in that city. In 1910 he gave a fund of $10,000,000, the income of which is to be used "to hasten the abolition of international war and to establish a lasting peace." Mr. Carnegie likewise gave $750,000 toward the building of a home in Washington, D. C., for the Bureau of the American Republics, which aims to bring about better relations between our selves and the Spanish-American countries. 2 A "trade dollar" was authorized, however. This was worth less than a dollar, and was for use in our trading with Asiatic countries. 452 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER quantities of them were made. But new veins of silver were now rather frequently being discovered in various parts of the world, so that the market value of this metal varied considerably at different times. Once the amount of silver in a dollar was worth only 61 cents in gold. This led Con gress again to make a change, and after 1893 few silver dollars were coined. Finally, in 1900, the United States decided to follow the practice of most other leading nations and establish gold as its only standard. 1 The value of all other money in the United States is at present, therefore, measured by that of a gold dollar. But this action on the part of our Government was, in advance of its being taken, stoutly opposed in some parts of the country, particularly in the silver- producing region. Under the influence of their presidential candidate, William Jennings Bryan, of Nebraska, the Dem ocratic party in 1896 advocated in their national platform "The free and unlim ited coinage of both silver and gold," on the basis of an ounce of gold being worth sixteen times as much as an ounce of silver. Bryan was defeated, for the men of his own party who opposed this WILLIAM j. BRYAN "free silver" plank supported the Re publican candidate. He was renomin- ated in 1900 and again in 1908, but each time met defeat. 412. The Pan-American Exposition. During President McKinley s term of office an international fair of unusual character was held in the United States. This was the Pan- American Exposition (1901) at Buffalo, New York, the pur pose of which was to exhibit to the world the commerce, remarkable inventions, agricultural, mining, and forestry re sources, and various arts and industries of North, South, and 1 Discoveries of gold are less frequent than those of silver. For that reason the market value of the former is the more steady of the two. This is why gold has been selected as the world s standard. THE PAN-AMERICAN EXPOSITION 453 Central America. It was also hoped that the fair would en courage a larger commerce between the several nations of the New World. 1 413. Assassination of President McKinley. The Presi dent visited the exposition at Buffalo on September 5 and 6. 2 On the latter day, while a reception was being given to him in one of the exhibition buildings, he was shot twice by a young anarchist. President McKinley lingered for eight days, during which there were some hopes of his recovery ; but he passed away on the morning of the I4th. His needless death was sincerely mourned by the entire nation. A few hours later, in accordance with the Constitution, the Vice- President, Theodore Roosevelt, took the oath of office as President. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. To what problems has the growth of cities given rise? 2. Contrast the ease of the Government in obtaining money in 1898 with the difficulty it had in raising money in the Revolutionary and Civil Wars. Explain. 3. Look up the history of the Red-Cross Society. It can be found in Johnston s The Little Colonels Hero. 4. "The issue of battles imposes its burdens on the victor." What new burden became ours after the Spanish-American War? 5. Name the wars, their causes, dates, and the results, in which this coun try has been engaged. 6. Make an outline of the chapter. 7. Important date: 1898 Spanish-American War. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Write such an editorial as you think might have appeared in many of the newspapers of the land the day after the destruction of the Maine. 2. Imagine that you were with Dewey at Manila. Write a letter home, telling of your personal part in the action. 3. An ex-Federal, an ex-Confederate, and youths from North and South are gathered around a camp-fire in Cuba. Write and dramatize their conversation. 4. Write a brief account of the history of Spain in North America. 1 In 1898 another interesting fair, the Trans-Mississippi Exposition, had been held at Omaha, Nebraska. 2 He had entered upon his second term of office, March 4, 1901. CHAPTER XLVI THE PANAMA CANAL: CONSERVATION OF NATIONAL RESOURCES: THREE IMPORTANT LAWS 1901-1909 414. The Panama Canal. Ever since the Spaniards dis covered the Isthmus of Panama there has been more or less talk of cutting a canal through it, so that ocean-going vessels might easily pass to and fro between the Atlantic and the Pacific. However, not until 1 88 1 was such a project actu ally started. In that year a French Panama Canal Com pany commenced operations; but after eight years they aban doned the task. For several years nothing further was done about the matter. The United States then made her first move. A few months after Theodore Roosevelt became President (in I9OI), 1 our Government signed a canal treaty with 1 Theodore Roosevelt was born in New York in 1 858. He graduated from Har vard University in 1880. He was amember of the New York Legislature (1882- 84), a United States Civil Service Commissioner (1889-95), president of the New York City Police Board (1895-97), and Assistant Secretary of the Navy (1897-98). After serving in the Spanish War he was governor of New York (1899-1900), being elected Vice-President when McKinley was elected President for a second term. Mr. Roosevelt was elected President for the term of 1905-09 by the largest popular majority ever given to a candidate for this office. When he retired from the presidency, he headed a scientific party in East Africa that secured natural history specimens for the National Museum at Washington. He has written many books on American history and on his numerous hunting expeditions. PACIFIC o c E A y THE PANAMA CANAL AND THE CANAL ZONE THE PANAMA CANAL 455 Great Britain. It was agreed between the two nations that the United States should dig this canal. When completed, it was to be our property and under our control ; but it must be open to " vessels of commerce and of war of all nations ... on terms of entire equality." Therefore, we bought the rights and property of the French company for $40,000,000, l and after some ten years labor, in 1914 completed the canal which they had begun. Now that this work is finished, merchant and war vessels of the largest size, belonging to every nation of the world, may readily pass from one ocean to the other, and thus save the long and often perilous journey around South America. 2 By this means our eastern and western coasts will be brought much nearer together than before; and the farmers and manufacturers of the great Mississippi Valley may then ship their goods direct to every port on the Pacific. 415, A cable message around the world, and wireless telegraphy. Americans had been the first to span the Atlantic with a telegraphic cable. On July 4, 1903, there was opened for messages an American cable across the still broader Pacific, by way of Honolulu, Manila, and Hong kong. This at last completed the telegraphic circuit around the globe, and realized Professor Morse s fond desire. 3 The first dispatch on the opening day, over the entire length of wires from New York around to New York, was sent by President Roosevelt. His words were: " Congratulations and success to the Pacific Cable! " He also sent by the cable cordial greetings to Mr. Taft, who was then governor of the far-away Philippines. A few months before this incident the President had sent (January 18, 1903) a friendly message to King Edward 1 The distance across the Isthmus, from ocean to ocean, at the site of the canal, is but forty and one half miles. In 1903 the United States acquired from the Republic of Panama a wide strip of land on either side of the canal, called the Canal Zone, which is governed by a commission appointed by the President. 2 The canal decreases the distance by sea from New York to San Francisco, by 8500 miles. From New York to Australia, it cuts off 4000 miles. 3 See page 291. 456 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER VII of Great Britain by means of the Marconi wireless tele graph. It was the first important communication across the Atlantic by this marvelous new system. But since that time "wireless" has become quite familiar to us all. It is now much used for messages between land stations and ships at sea, and between the ships themselves. Ocean disasters have frequently been prevented in this way; for a vessel in distress can, by her wireless apparatus, summon help from other craft within a range of hundreds of miles. 416. Roosevelt as a peacemaker. The President made several successful attempts to bring about a spirit of good will between various nations. 1 His greatest service of this kind was in the summer of 1905. For a year and < a half Russia and Japan had been en gaged in a terrible war. There had been an appalling, loss of life and property in this conflict, and it had almost put a stop to American and European commerce with the Far East. When it was clearly seen that Copyright, Harris and Ewing J a p an WaS going tO win, the THEODORE ROOSEVELT dent persuaded both nations to peace, not only for their own good but for the good of all the world. They wisely decided to take his advice, and their commissioners met for this purpose at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, where a satisfactory treaty was signed on September 5. 2 1 During his Administration (1905) our country agreed with Mexico and several other Spanish-American republics to arbitrate future disputes when ever possible. In 1903 Great Britain, Germany, and Italy blockaded the ports of Vene zuela in order to force that country to pay certain debts which it owed to citi zens of those nations. President Roosevelt protested against this, as a violation of the spirit of the Monroe Doctrine. The blockade was accordingly withdrawn, and the case went to The Hague Tribunal for arbitration. 2 Because of his services in this and other international quarrels, the Presi dent was in 1906 awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. This is given each year by the Swedish Academy of Sciences to prominent persons who have helped to bring about peace between nations. ROOSEVELT AS A PEACEMAKER 457 Not only was the President a peacemaker in international disputes. In 1902 he brought to an end a fierce contest in our own country, between capitalists and laborers. A hundred and forty thousand miners of anthracite coal in Pennsyl vania had struck because the mine-owners would not grant them a shorter working-day and higher wages. The strikers had insisted, too, that the owners should make all bargains from a model A SECTIONAL VIEW OF AN ANTHRACITE COAL MINE The larger buildings are the " coal-breakers " in which the coal is prepared and sorted into sizes for the market. To their left is the " shaft," or entrance to the mine, with the hoisting and pumping ma chinery. Passages for ventilating the mine and for drawing water from it are contained in the shaft. Seams of coal are represented by the broad black lines. " Tunnels," starting from the shaft, are bored horizontally, or nearly so, across each seam, and other passages (" gangways") are excavated in the seams themselves. These form the base from which further workings of the mine are begun. They are shown in the seam at the bottom of the illustration about the conditions of labor through the officers of the unions, and not with the individual miners. For five months no coal whatever was taken from the shafts. It began to look as though the people of the United States would not have any hard coal to burn in their stoves and furnaces during the coming winter. There was, consequently, great anxiety in hundreds of thousands of homes. But as usual, in such cases, the families of the miners were the greatest sufferers, for the bread-winners throughout a wide region of country were earning no wages. At last both the em- 458 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER ployers and the employees consented to submit the dispute to a Coal Strike Commission which was appointed by the President. This body carefully inquired into the matter and gave a decision which the owners and their men obeyed without hesitation. Ever since then, most of the industrial disputes in the anthracite coal mines of Pennsylvania have been settled by arbitration. 417. Our battle fleet encircles the globe. Although the President was a peacemaker he insisted that we should have a strong navy. 1 He declared that a show of strength would of itself bring peace, for then no nation would dare attack us. He wanted the world to know that we had many well- equipped war ships in our navy, and well- trained officers and sailors ; and he wanted both ships and men to have some use ful practice on a long cruise. He therefore, in 1907, ordered one of our fleets, comprising sixteen battleships, to go on a voyage around the globe. The total distance traveled was 40,000 miles, the longest voyage ever made by so powerful a fleet. Wherever they touched shore, along the entire route, the American " jackies" received most friendly greetings. 418. Two fires and an earthquake. During Roosevelt s Administration the United States was visited by two great disasters. The first was a fire in Baltimore (1904) which destroyed $50,000,000 \vorth of property. But with sur- 1 Between the close of the Civil War and the administrations of Garfield and Arthur, we made few additions to our navy. But at that time the Government began to build modern warships, like those of other nations. The new American navy grew slowly, but it is now one of the strongest in the world. Courtesy, Ifdvy Department THE BATTLESHIP NEW YORK Keel laid, 1911, at the Brooklyn Navy Yard. Displacement, 27,000 tons ; length, 565 feet ; crew, 1000 officers and men. Cost, 12,000,000. A sistev ship, the Oklahoma, was begun at the same time. Battleships author ized since are even larger and more expensive NATIONAL CONSERVATION 459 prising rapidity the people of that large and beautiful city rebuilt the burned district and made it more attractive than ever. The second loss was much more serious. In 1906 San Francisco was the victim of an earthquake which overthrew and shattered a large number of buildings. A fire at once broke out in the ruins, and this greatly increased the extent of the calamity. Within a short time property worth over $400,000,000 had been destroyed, and refugees without Courtesy, Collier s Weekly A PART OF SAN FRANCISCO, 1911 Less than five years before this photograph was taken, this section of the city was a heap of hot ashes, the result of the fire and earthquake a shelter filled the streets. As soon as the broken tele graph wires could be mended, an appeal for help went out to the people of the United States. Physicians, nurses, workmen, food, clothing, tools, and money soon came pour ing in by every train from all parts of the country, for nearly every city, village, and hamlet in our land sent aid of some sort to the earthquake sufferers. Within less than four years San Francisco was largely reconstructed by her courageous citizens, and the visitor of to-day finds there few traces of the terrible experience of 1906. 419. Conservation, and the " House of Governors." The United States and its various territorial possessions have greater natural resources than any other civilized country in 460 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER the world. These consist of fisheries, game, forests, pastures on the Western Plains, fertile soil, water-power, rivers to irrigate our arid lands, petroleum, natural gas, mines of coal and useful metals, and quarries. During the years when pioneers were felling the hard-wood forests to make room for their farms, and the great pine woods were rapidly being cut down for timber with which to build villages and cities, we often greatly wasted our resources. In some parts of the country this waste is still going on. But nearly everybody now realizes that unless care is taken, there will be no re- THE LUMBER TRADE IN THE NORTHWEST A scene near the largest sawmills in the world, at Port Blakeley, Washington. These vessels all carry away cargoes of lumber sources left for the future inhabitants of the land. We must, therefore, regulate by law the manner in which and when and how fast these resources may be used. This policy is called " conservation." President Roosevelt was its warm friend, and he did much to make the people understand its import ance. The Federal Government can conserve the resources on lands still belonging to the nation. But the greater part of the Union is now under the control of the States. There fore any widespread plan for conservation can only be car ried out by the united action of the States and of the Fed- THREE IMPORTANT LAWS 461 eral Government. In the spring of 1908 President Roose velt asked the governors of the States to meet with him in Washington to discuss this and other matters ; and a simi lar conference, commonly called the " House of Governors, " has been held in each subsequent year. The laws do not provide for such meetings, but this fact does not prevent them from being useful. Already, at the request of the gov ernors, many of the State legislatures have passed laws for the better regulation and protection of their resources, also for other improvements in the manner of governing States. The Federal Government has set a good example to the States by stopping much of the waste on its own lands. Both President Roosevelt and his successor, President Taf t, greatly assisted conservation by withdrawing from sale to agricultural settlers many millions of acres belonging to the Federal Government. These tracts are in the Far West and in Alaska, and contain forests, mines, and water-powers. This same desire to save our resources from waste caused Congress, in 1911, to pass laws establishing large Federal forest reserves in the White and the Appalachian Moun tains. 1 420. Three important laws. The year 1906 saw the pas sage by Congress of three acts that provide for a stricter regulation of some other matters affecting our well-being as a people : (a) The Railway Rate Act. This gave to the Interstate Commerce Commission authority to fix the rates that rail way companies may charge for carrying freight and passen gers between one State and another. 2 (b) The Pure Food and Drug Act. This seeks to protect us from adulterations in our foods and medicines. It de- 1 A large number of rivers and lakes have their headsprings in these mountains. When the uplands are clothed with forests the moss and underbrush act as a sponge to hold the rainfall and let it down gradually into the streams^ "But when the uplands are bare the rain passes off quickly and turns the rivers into raging torrents, which do much damage. In a dry season rivers flowing from treeless mountains shrink to almost nothing, and leave the land in a parched, almost desert-like condition. 2 See also page 424. 462 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER dares that such articles must not be offered for sale under any other than their true names. (c) The Meat Inspection Act. This provides that all meat THE CAPITOL OF THE UNITED STATES, AT WASHINGTON, D.C. offered for sale shall be examined by Federal inspectors, to see that it is clean and healthful. 1 QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. Your parents can give you much information about the occurrences in Roosevelt s Administration. Question them upon some of the im portant ones. 2. Why will the Panama Canal be of value to the people of the Atlantic Coast? Of the Pacific Coast? Of the Mississippi Valley? 3. Locate the Suez Canal and compare it with the Panama Canal. 4. The names of what three men are associated with the development of telegraphy? 5. Let some one pupil look up the route of the battleship fleet in its cruise around the world and report to the class, with the aid of the map. 1 Anniversary Expositions. Two important international expositions were held during Roosevelt s Administration one at St. Louis, in 1904, celebrating the centennial anniversary of the Louisiana Purchase; the other at Portland, Oregon, in 1905, held in honor of the centennial anniversary of Lewis and Clark s exploration of the Columbia River Valley. THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER 463 6. Which do you think of the greater importance the Portsmouth Peace Conference or the trip of the battleship fleet around the world? Explain. 7. Discuss in class whether the present great annual expenditure for new battleships is necessary. 8. What is the meaning of "conservation" in its broadest sense? What are you doing at home or school to prevent waste? 9. Compare the questions before the people in Roosevelt s Administra tion with public questions in Washington s Administration. to. Make an outline of the chapter. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Write or tell about the use of wireless telegraphy in some emergency at sea, of which you have read or heard. Write it in the form of a story if you wish. 2. Let the class select four members, each of whom is to deliver a brief Friday afternoon address on one of the following subjects: The Peace Conference at Portsmouth. The Pure Food Act. The Meat Inspection Act. The Conservation of Forests, Mines, and Water Powers. 3. Let each member of the class tell what may be done in the way of con servation: (a) in school; (b) in his neighborhood; (c) in the country at large. CHAPTER XLVII TAFT S ADMINISTRATION: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS TARIFF AND RECIPROCITY: THE INSURGENT MOVEMENT 421. William Howard Taft. No President of the United States has ever had three terms in office, and Washington (see page 223) urged that two be made the limit. Accord ingly President Roosevelt refused to be a candidate for a third time in 1908. He advised, instead, that his friend and Secretary of War, Wil liam Howard Taft, 1 of Ohio, be nom inated to succeed him. The Demo crats for the third time nominated William Jennings Bryan, and in the debate that followed each party told the people that it would try to carry WILLIAM H. TAFT out the policies of social betterment that had been much discussed since 1900. Mr. Taft was elected, and at once called Congress to meet in special session to fulfill the pledges. 422. The tariff is revised. There were some differences of opinion among the Republicans as to how to revise the tariff. Most of those who lived in the Eastern States, 1 William H. Taft was born in Ohio in 1857, graduated from Yale Univer sity in 1878, and began life as a lawyer in Cincinnati. Before being elected President he was judge in Ohio (1887-90), a solicitor-general. of the United tates (1890-92), a United States circuit judge (1892-1900), president of the United States Philippine Commission (1900-04), and Secretary of War in President Roosevelt s Cabinet (1904-08). While in the last-named office he adjusted the Cuban insurrection, was for a time provisional governor cf that island, and went around the world on various duties connected with the Fed eral Government. After leaving the White House he became a professor of law in Yale University, and in 1918 reentered the service of the Government as head of the National War Labor Board which is engaged in adjusting labor disputes. REVISION OF THE TARIFF 465 Courtesy, International Harvester Co. TRACTOR ENGINE, DRAWING PLOUGHS Gasoline engines are used not only in ploughing, but also for supplying power for harvesting and haying machines, and for all farm uses. Formerly horses or oxen were used where the great factories are,-were content with the Dingley bill as it was (see page 437). But in some of the Western States, where many Republicans were farmers, they thought the high tariff made prices high, and wanted the rates reduced. Presi dent Taft did not try to make Congress pass his own kind of a tariff, but waited until Congress had done its work in August and then signed what was called the Payne-Aldrich tariff. By this time the discon tented Western Republicans were complaining because the rates of duties were not being lowered and were saying that the high tariff Republicans were reactionary, or " stand pat," and favored the trusts. 423. The Insurgents. A few of the discontented Repub licans were so open in fighting the Payne-Aldrich tariff that they were called Insurgents, and as the Insurgents they steadily opposed President Taft from this time. In 1910 the Insurgents and Democrats, voting together, were able to defeat Republican bills, and in the fall elections of that year the quarrel in the Republican party made it pos sible for the Democrats to elect a majority of the House of Representatives, for the first time since 1892. In the new Congress, that met in 1911, Champ Clark, of Mis souri, a Democrat, was chosen Speaker. 424. The progressive measures. The chief demands of the Insurgents were for changes in the machinery of gov ernment so as to let the people more truly rule themselves. They claimed that the party caucus and nominating con- 466 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER vention made it possible for corrupt bosses to control them and to defy the people s will; and that the courts were too conservative and too willing to declare progressive laws unconstitu tional and void. Sometimes the courts declared void laws lim iting the hours of labor on the ground that such limits interfered with the right of free contract ; in A COMBINED REAPING AND THRESHING MACHINE The earliest reaping machine was drawn by two horses. In those days threshing was done with flails, after the grain had been taken to the bams tO reco gnize the fact that in mod- em industry the workman must take his job as it is, and has no right of free contract except to accept the job as offered or go without work. 425. Election reforms. The last great victory for pop ular government, the Australian ballot, had made it possi ble for every man to vote in secrecy as he pleased without fear of punishment because of his vote. Now the short ballot was asked for, so as to reduce the number of indi vidual candidates to be voted for, and make it possible for the voter to know something about each of them. The initiative was now advocated, a measure allowing citi zens by petition to start or initiate a new law. The referen dum was a means of determining upon the final passage of a law by popular vote. It had long been used in the adop tion of State constitutions, or local debts, or prohibition, and was next to be extended to general laws. The recall \yas a method of removing from office by popular referen dum officials who had behaved badly and so had lost the INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 467 confidence of the people. Some wanted the recall to ex tend even to unpopular decisions of the courts. The direct primary was to be a new method of nominating officers. It was to be in substance a preliminary election with the party, protected by law, as the result of which candidates to represent the party in the final election were to be chosen. The candidates at the primary were to be selected by the petitions of their friends. The corrupt practices act was a law to punish candidates who spent too much money upon their election or who used unfair or dishonest meth ods. All of these mechanical reforms were popular among progressive citizens as well as among the Insurgents. 426. Peace and reciprocity. President Taft was deeply interested in maintaining friendly relations with all the world. During 1911 he tried in various ways to make peace more secure. (a) He arranged an agreement for reciprocity with Can ada, by which certain products of Canada would be admitted freely into the United States in return for similar treatment of American goods going into Canada. (b) He also negotiated with England a treaty for the arbitration of any causes which might arise in the future, thus advancing the policy of peaceful settlement of dis putes in which the Geneva arbitration (see page 403) is so great an example. The first of these, reciprocity, was re jected by Canada; the second, arbitration, by the United States Senate. But President Taft was more successful in ending the old difficulty with England over the New foundland Fisheries, and in reaching a friendly agreement with Japan concerning the immigration of Japanese into the United States. 427. Mexico in trouble. The United States does not protect its frontiers with forts, and expects to live in peace with all its neighbors. This fact made it difficult to pro tect the people in Texas when, in 1911, a civil war broke out in Mexico, and the rebels sometimes crossed the Rio Grande into the United States, robbing and murdering 468 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER peaceful American citizens. General Porfirio Diaz, who had been president of Mexico for nearly thirty-five years, and who protected private property while exploiting the national resources, was driven out of the country by Francisco Madero, who succeeded to his position. Ma- AN ARMY ENCAMPMENT NEAR THE MEXICAN FRONTIER dero claimed to be trying to improve the position of the plain farmers, who are generally part Indian in blood, and entirely uneducated; but he was not able to keep law and order. To protect Texas and. to prevent bad Americans from aiding in the Mexican revolt, President Taft sta tioned a large part of the army along the border; but he refused to profit by Mexico s trouble or to invade the country. Early in 1913, Madero was murdered, and suc ceeded by General Huerta, whom many believed to have been his murderer. 428. The forty-eighth star. During Taft s administra tion the forty-seventh and forty-eighth stars were added to the American flag. The old policy of making states out LABOR AND CAPITAL 4691 of territories was completed. Most of the States of the mountain region had been admitted in 1889-90 (North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Wyoming, Idaho, and Washington). Utah, the forty-fifth, had followed in 1896. Oklahoma had come in 1907. The only two territories remaining after the admission of Oklahoma, were New Mexico and Arizona, These territories had gained in pop ulation slowly because so much of their land was dry and barren. Now, at last, New Mexico in 1911 and Arizona in 1912, completed the process of making free states out of free people. The habit of the frontier to be more extreme THE WESTWARD MOVEMENT, 1790-1910 3f: Center of population; .A. center of manufactures in its democracy than the rest of the country was shown in the case of Arizona. Because of an article in the constitu tion of this State providing for the recall of Judges, Presi dent Taft was unwilling to have the State admitted to the Union. Accordingly the people of Arizona withdrew the offending article until after their admission; whereupon they amended the constitution to restore it. In Oklahoma the new State proceeded to provide for a State guarantee of the safety of money deposited in banks. A century earlier the Western States had showed their liberalism by removing the restrictions upon the right to vote. 429. Labor and capital. The last year of Taft s adminis tration was marked by a great strike at Lawrence, Massa chusetts, that showed how all the progress of the last gen- 470 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER eration had left the relations of the worker to his employer still unsatisfactory. Organization of labor in unions in creased steadily after the Civil War. The greatest of the national unions were the Knights of Labor (1869), a secret society at first; and the American Federation of Labor (1881), which was made up of local labor organizations. These worked for the right of workmen to belong to unions and to strike to improve their conditions; and urged upon Congress and State legislatures the passage of laws limit ing the hours of regulating the conditions of labor. They A GREAT STEEL PLANT were hampered in the work by the excesses of the revolu tionary Industrial Workers of the World, who came later and taught that workmen need not obey the law, and that sabotage or deliberate injury to the employer s property was a proper means of enforcing their demands. The strike at Lawrence brought out in sharp and alarming clearness the revolutionary character of the radical leaders and the need for an honest study of the problems of labor. 430. " Unscrambling " the trusts. " Big business " was in as much trouble as labor was. The greed and unscrupu- lousness of some of its " captains of industry" aroused the fear and distrust of the people. President Roosevelt, in 1902, started suit against one of the greatest of the rail- THE PROGRESSIVE PARTY 471 road combinations, the Northern Securities Company, and succeeded in breaking it up. Later Government prosecu tions attacked similarly the Standard Oil Co. and the Steel Corporation, as well as many lesser trusts. Some of these were dissolved. But it began to be seen that punishment was not the best way to regulate business; that the bad part of the trust was not so much its existence as its evil behavior; and that laws to correct the behavior of business concerns ought to be passed. One of the great trust mag nates had asked of the " trust busters": "Can you un scramble eggs?" The answer seemed to be that the eggs, or trusts, could be unscrambled, but that it was better to cook them right at first. 431. The Progressive party. The split in the Republi can party became wider as the election of 1912 drew nearer. President Taft wished to be renominated, and had the support of the "stand-pat" element in the party. The Insurgents opposed his nomination, and began in 1911 to call themselves Progressive Republicans. They wanted one of their number to be the candidate. Others in the party feared that after the defeat in Congress in 1910 neither Taft nor any Progressive could be elected, and accordingly hoped that ex- President Roosevelt could be induced to be a candidate. Roosevelt had gone to Africa on a hunting-trip after 1909, and then to Europe to lecture in 1910. He had supported the progressive measures of the Insurgents after his return. People who opposed him insisted that no man ought to have a third term; his friends said the objection was only to a third consecutive term. In February, 1912, he announced himself as a candidate for the nomination; but the Republican National convention renominated Taft. Upon this, the Progressive Republicans held a convention of their own, formed the Progressive party, and nominated Colonel Roosevelt. 472 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS X tariff* arC the tW mai n P sitio<ns taken to da y in re gard to the thC InSUrgentS f I9I with the Bunders of the Republican 3 noTfi 6 ^^ ^ eX ^ and ^ riz - na n the map " What States were 4- Compare President Taft s treatment of Mexico and President Folk s. COMPOSITION SUBJECTS i. Imagine that Thomas Jefferson attended President Taft s inaueu- twlr him W a r ndMr e 3$?*" ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ be ~ 2 Efands 56 ^ imaginary trip with Presi dent Taft to the Philippine 3. Imagine you were an American living in Mexico during the revolu tion in 1910-11. Tell of your experiences. CHAPTER XLVIII WILSON S ADMINISTRATION: SOCIAL PROGRESS SINCE THE CIVIL WAR: TARIFF, TRUSTS, AND FINANCE: THE MON ROE DOCTRINE 432. Woodrow Wilson. The Republican split gave the Democrats their chance. Mr. Bryan, who had been defeated three times (in 1896, 1900, and 1908) was not a candidate himself, but was able to prevent the nomination of any one of whom he disapproved. After a long fight, in which the friends of the various candidates stuck stubbornly to their choice, the party chose Governor i Woodrow Wilson. 1 Their platform included many of the progressive measures that the Insurgents had wanted, and included also a demand that the Payne-Aldrich tariff be re- copvngi^vns.Moffet^ch^ago vised. In the resulting canvass Mr. WOODROW WILSON Wilson received a huge majority electoral vote, because the Republican vote w r as divided. He had more popular votes than either Roosevelt or Taft, but had only a minority of all. The Socialist party cast nearly a million votes in this election, becoming for the first time an important national party. 2 1 Woodrow Wilson was born in Virginia in 1856. He was graduated ^ at Princeton University in 1879; studied history and politics at Johns Hopkins University, 1883-85; practiced law at Atlanta, Georgia; he was a professor in Bryn Mawr College, 1886-88; in Wesleyan University; in Princeton Uni versity, 1890-1902; president of Princeton, 1902-10; and governor of New Jersey, 191 1-13; holding this office when elected President of the United States. 2 The Socialist party received 895,000 votes in this election. It had beeri growing rapidly since the Spanish War, receiving in 1900, 94,000 votes; in 1904, 402,000; in 1908, 420,000. It had always been managed largely by 474 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER 433. Changes in Congress and the Constitution. Presi dent Wilson was inaugurated on March 4, 1913. A few days later he met Congress, which he had called to revise the tariff. He read his message to it himself, the first Presi dent since Jefferson to do so. It had become the custom for Presidents to send long messages in writing, but Mr. Wilson now began a habit of making them brief and to the point, and reading the more important messages in person . The Constitution too was changing. There had been no new amendments since the close of the Civil War, when the slavery amendments were adopted. Among the earliest acts of Secretary of State Bryan, in 1913, was his proclamation that a sixteenth amendment, giving Congress power to lay a tax on incomes, and a seventeenth providing for the direct election of senators, had been approved by the re quired three fourths of the States, and were in force. 434. The Changing World, Aircraft and Motors. The world that Lincoln knew had shrunk since the days of Washington, and people then told themselves that the railroad and the electric telegraph had changed the face of things. Before \Vilson was inaugurated the world narrowed German-Americans, and after the outbreak of war in 1917 it placed itself on record as opposed to the war. Many of its strongest loyal members, including Benson, its presidential nominee in 1916, resigned from it after this, and the influence of the party was weakened. THE UNITED STATES HALL OF REPRESENTATIVES Showing the new arrangement of seats. In the old arrangement each representative had his private desk. Members now do their personal business in their offices in the Senate and House office buildings MODERN INVENTIONS 475 still more. 1 The amount of work that one man could do was multiplied. 2 The reaper, that Cyrus McCormick had begun to make before the Civil War, had brought the great West under cultivation. The sewing-machine of Howe, and the shoe-machine of McKay, had made new industries pos sible. The telephone of Bell was patented in 1876, and made instant communication possible in the country as well as in the towns. The electric light as well as the electric street car and the bicycle came along in the eighties, and in the nineties inventors began to experiment with horse less carriages," or motor cars. 3 These, convenient, cheap, and reliable, multiplied by millions before 1913, and the gas-engine 1 Commander Robert E. Peary dis covered the North Pole on April 6, 1909. For three hundred years courageous ex plorers had tried to push across the great waste region of ice and snow to reach that goal. Peary had been working at it for a quarter of a century. His achieve ment was rewarded by Congress, which made him a Rear Admiral, and by learned societies all over the world that granted him medals and diplomas. Admiral Peary has of late years led in the campaign for the development of the American air-plane service. On December 14, 1911, Captain Roald Amundsen, of Norway, reached th& South Pole. Nearly the whole world is now known to its inhabitants. 2 In September, 1909, New York celebrated the one hundredth anniversary of the navigation of the Hudson River by Fulton s steamboat, as well as the three hundredth anniversary of Henry Hudson, the discoverer of the river. 3 The first automobile show in America was held in New York in 1900. To-day the millions of motor-cars in use make possible living in the suburbs, caking easy pleasure trips, and extend the limit of business in every direction. Some of the factories can make as many as half a million cars in a single year. Photograph by Brown Brothers COMMANDER PEARY Who discovered the North Pole 476 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER that drove them was modified so as to drive airships. The successful airplanes of the Wright brothers gave the United States another great invention, 1 about 1905 ; and in less than five years more a daring Frenchman had flown across the English Channel from France to England. An Italian, Mar coni, added wire less telegraphy, and Americans, Simon Lake and J.P.Holland, built submarine ships. 435. Social pro gress. The great inventions, and the prosperity of America brought about the growth of large cities, most of whose in habitants were engaged in work at the various industries, and many of whom were poor. City government had not improved in quality with the growth of the cities, and re forms in housing, lighting, sewage, water-supply, and edu cation engaged the attention of public-spirited people. In some years more than a million immigrants had come to the United States, drawn by our free institutions, and by the better chances for themselves and their children that existed here. Because these could speak little English they were easily imposed upon. Some of their selfish leaders even tried to keep alive their old language at school, at i In the year 1900 the Wright brothers, of Dayton, Ohio, began air-glid ing. In 1903 they added a gasoline engine to their glider and thus converted it into a heavier-than-air flying-machine; but it was not until 1908 that they were ready to make exhibition flights. Other adventurous inventors were experimenting ^with dirigible balloons. Airplanes are now used by all the armies. The United States designed in 1917 a new high power engine for its war airplane, known as the Liberty Motor. An airplane mail service between New /ork and Washington and later between New York and Boston was started in 1918. A WRIGHT BIPLANE Compare with the war-balloon, page 371 SOCIAL PROGRESS 477 church, and in their newspapers. To help them, in the crowded slums where many of them lived, settlements had been opened. Jane Addams founded Hull House in Chicago in 1889, and similar centers of Americanism multiplied. Schools began to give manual training. High schools and colleges flourished, so that by 1913 there was no country in the world where ordinary people had so good a start toward success in life. Drunkenness, which had always A MODERN LOCOMOTIVE Length, 120 feet ; weight, 425 tons. This is one of the oil-burning freight locomotives built by the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Kailroad. Compare with the earliest locomotives, page 266 been the plague of the poor, was decreasing. State after State, and county after county under local option, were adopting prohibition. In 1917 Congress adopted a national amendment for prohibition, and sent it out to the States for ratification. 436. What the people thought. The religion, literature, and pleasures of the people show what they really are. The United States, with 91,972,266 inhabitants in 1910 (see table, appendix, page xx), was simple and clean in its amusements, and had ideals that it was not ashamed to show. President Roosevelt s demand for a "square deal" for every one expressed the desire of a nation that loved clean sport and hated a cheat. The great churches that were being built, from the massive cathedrals in New York, to humble missions in little towns, measured an interest in things of the spirit that prosperity had not lessened. Cheap and good magazines, and newspapers that were nearly as good, provided literature for the millions, less artistic than the best, but so far above the ordinary that most of its read ers profited by it. The day of Longfellow and Lowell, Haw- 478 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER thorne and Cooper, had changed into a new day of Clemens (Mark Twain) and Ho wells and O. Henry. Throughout the literature and religion ran unceasingly the old American Meals of real democracy. Even the moving pictures, which had become more popular than the theater had ever been, expressed these same notions of democracy, and their reels spread into every section of the nation the views and ideas of all the rest. Full Suffi ary Suffrage KX?^3 Presidential Suffrage icipal Suffrage unicipal Suffrage Municipal Suffrage in. Charter Cities FvVvTI School Bond or Tax I \No Suffrage for Women WOMAN SUFFRAGE IN THE UNITED STATES 437. Shall women vote? New interest in the welfare of children, and foreign immigrants, and the poor, extended also to women who were at work. Factory laws, to protect them from injury and disease, and liability laws, to ensure them proper treatment when injured while at work, were passed by many States. These laws helped raise the ques tion of the vote. When the United States began not even all men could vote. But every time a new State was made in the West the limitations were removed, By the end of the century religious tests and property tests had entirely disap peared, and all American men of twenty-one had gained WOMAN SUFFRAGE 479 the right to vote. In Colorado, Utah, Wyoming, and Idaho the women had received the same right. Some of them had been asking for it for a long time in other States, and about 1905 the demand was made again, every year with greater force. Most of the Progressives, and many Republicans and Democrats supported the movement for woman suffrage. Other Western States granted it to them, until by 1918 women could vote for President in eighteen States, and President Wilson had urged Congress to pass a new amend ment to the Constitution, extending the right over the whole country. 438. The Underwood tariff. Tariff reduction was the first thing the Democrats had promised to bring about. Under President Wilson s leadership, and at his actual direction, Congress passed a new law in 1913. This law increased the number of articles that could be imported without paying a duty, and included a tax upon incomes which had been authorized by the sixteenth amendment. There is no fairer way of taxing than to make each citizen contribute to the support of the Government according to his earnings or income. Most other countries had adopted income taxes before we did. 439. The federal reserve banks. Congress next set to work upon the banking system. It is the business of banks to take care of money deposited by them, and to lend money or credit to people who are known to be honest and reliable. All men in business have to borrow from the banks; and if the supply of money to be loaned them gives out, there may be a financial panic. Sometimes this supply gives out in one State when there is plenty of money in the next State, but we had never had a banking system that was flexible, or able quickly to shift credit to the places where it was needed most. The great panic of 1893, and a smaller panic in 1907, showed how great was the need for financial reform. Under the new federal reserve system, adopted in 1913, the country is divided into twelve districts, in each of which there is a federal reserve bank, with which all the 480 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER local banks may have business dealings. And through these reserve banks our money and credit have been made flexible enough to meet our needs. 440. The trusts and the Federal Trade Commission. The trusts are great business concerns that are able to control the prices of the things they sell, and are sometimes able to bribe members of legislatures in order to get special favors for themselves. Their existence had been noticed for thirty years ; but no one knew just what to do with them. The Progressives had demanded trust control in 1912, and every one approved when Congress passed in 1914 a new law forbidding unfair practices in business, and another creating a Federal Trade Commission to study and control big business. With the tariff reduced, and the banks reor ganized, and the trusts curbed, it seemed by the summer of 1914 as if the people of the United States might hope for a long period of peace, happiness, and prosperity. 441. The new Monroe Doctrine. Mexico was still dis turbed by her revolution, and General Huerta was unable to restore order; and injury to American property in Mex ico, or to Americans along the border in Texas, was great. Some Americans thought the United States ought to inter vene in Mexico with an army, restore order, and clean up " the country. Many of the people in Mexico feared that the United States would take advantage of her trouble and use the superior strength of a great nation to conquer her. To reassure these, the President announced in 1913 that "the United States will never again seek one additional foot of territory by conquest." And he insisted that Mexico must be allowed to solve her own problems without inter ference. In 1914 and again in 1916 there were invasions of Mexico by the United States, but only for the purpose of protection; and the troops concerned were soon withdrawn. This course gave a new appearance to the famous Monroe Doctrine (see page 261), and indicated that the United States would not claim for itself things that it forbade Eu- pean countries to try to do. It meant that the American republics were safe from conquest. THE PANAMA CANAL 481 442. The Panama Canal and the Exposition. The ap proaching completion of the Panama Canal gave new im portance to the relations between the United States and its neighbors. President Wilson insisted that the canal must be opened on equal terms to all. In 1914 it was an nounced that the great locks were done, the cuts were dug, and on August 15 the canal was to be opened to the world. In celebra tion of this a great world s fair was held in San Fran cisco, in 1915, and the President prom ised to go himself, and to let the pro cession of battleships be headed by the old Oregon whose gallant voyage around South America in 1 898 had shown the real need of the canal. But he could not keep the prom ise, for before 1914 was over the prosperity, the ideals, and even the existence of our country were at stake. THE GATUN LOCKS, PANAMA CANAL By means of a system of great locks the largest ships are raised or lowered over the hills of the Isthmus. The ships are drawn through the locks by electric locomotives that run on tracks along the side of the locks. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. Why is a federal reserve banknote a secure form of money? Com pare with a silver certificate. 2. Make a list of five trusts. 3. Has your State an income tax? What amounts of income are exempt under the United States income tax? COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Write a letter telling of your visit to Washington, D.C. 2. Describe a trip to the San Francisco Exposition. 3. Describe a trip in a submarine; in an airplane. 4. Do you think women ought to be allowed to vote? Why? CHAPTER XLIX WILSON S ADMINISTRATION: THE WORLD WAR: THE EURO PEAN SYSTEM AND OURS: PROBLEMS OF NEUTRALITY: GERMAN INTRIGUE 443. The European system and ours. The growth of the United States in wealth, and its peaceful relations with all the world, made a sharp contrast with affairs in Europe where nations were constantly on their guard against each other. After the wars in which Napoleon tried to conquer Europe, ending in his defeat at Waterloo in 1815, various nations kept great armies constantly ready for defense or attack. England, on an island, and with her "wooden walls" around her, had not done this, nor had the little nations. Belgium, indeed, and Luxemburg, were promised by solemn treaties that they should not be attacked. But the great powers maintained large armies, and even adopted the principle of compulsory military training. They forced every man to spend a certain time in the army, and then, when his service was done to go into the reserve, oubject to be called back into active service if needed. 444. Prussia. There was a long peace after Napoleon s downfall, and western Europe saw no great war until 1864. Then Prussia and Austria robbed Denmark of her rich provinces of Schleswig and Holstein, and in 1866 Prussia took from Austria the spoils of this earlier attack. In 1870 the rivalry of Germany and France produced an attack by Prussia under her great builder Bismarck, with the result that Alsace and Lorraine were torn from France. There- .after France kept her armies for protection, and in the hope of regaining her lost provinces. Prussia, organizing the Ger man Empire about herself, made war her glory and am bition her desire. In the race for leadership among nations, fear of Prussia and ambition in Prussia were the leading PRUSSIAN AMBITION 483 motives. There were no unarmed borders like those of the United States. 445. " Der Tag." The professional soldiers of Germany looked to the day when Germany should rule Europe, if not the whole world. They allied themselves with Italy and Austria for the former purpose; the British navy stood between them and the latter. And so the young Kaiser William II, who began his rule in 1888, dug a canal from Kiel on the Baltic to the North Sea, and built a great modern navy to use it ; while the officers in his army and on his ships drank toasts to " Der Tag" -the day when they should meet England and sweep away her strength. No country in the world lacked some imperialists, men who wanted to gain national power at the expense of weak and inoffensive neighbors, but only Germany allowed them to rule unchecked. The threat of possible war hung low over Europe after 1900. Once or twice it seemed as if it must fall. But the " dreadnaught " battleships, first built in 1905, were so large that the Kiel Canal had to be en larged to carry them, and until this was done Germany could not afford to go to war. 446. The attack on Servia. The new Kiel Canal was opened July i, 1914. Three days earlier the assassination of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne gave a pretext for a war. A Servian had done the murder. Servia stood in the road of Austria. On July 5 there seems to have been a conference in Potsdam, at which Germany and Austria agreed that "Der Tag" had come. On July 28 Austria started war on Servia, Russia came to the de fense of Servia at once, and Germany invaded Belgium and France to prevent France from aiding Russia. The invasion of Belgium, in spite of the solemn agreement that she should be left neutral, brought England into the war. The flames of warfare that had smouldered for a genera tion broke into wild conflagration. 1 1 Germany and her allies, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey, be came known as the Central Powers, because of their location in central Eu- 484 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER 447. Neutrality. The United States looked on aghast. Every nation in the war had sent of its sons to America, and these naturally hoped and believed that the fatherland or motherland was right. President Wilson proclaimed at once that the United States would remain neutral in the war, and allowed American ministers abroad to do friendly services for all the countries. Few dreamed that it could affect the United States or that the war was really a be ginning of a test of strength between autocratic monarchies and the principle of free government, under which the people rule. 448. Belgium. But as the news from Belgium reached America, people began to see that the nation responsible for what was happening there could ^jSjftjjL n t possibly be right. Belgium was *% attacked in cold blood, in spite of "* m *a& treaties written for the special purpose -M I of defending her, and signed by Ger many. Old men and women were shot d| ? Hv in the streets of the Belgian towns. n ^m Children were murdered. Houses were burned. Able-bodied men and women were carried away into slavery in Ger- Copyright by Harris and Ewmg * HERBERT c. HOOVER man 7; , And the unoffending Belgians who organized the relief of Bei- would have starved had not Ameri- SS^aS^^oS. 1 " 1 - cans, led by Herbert C. Hoover, formed a society to raise money and to feed the starving. As Americans saw these things a wide opinion formed that Germany had produced the war, and her con duct was a danger to the world. The Government re mained neutral, but private opinion made up its own mind. rope. Great Britain, Russia, and France were the Allies, or the Entente Allies. Entente is a French word meaning understanding; there had been an under standing or informal agreement among these countries as to how they should protect themselves if Germany declared war. They were- joined in 1914 by Belgium, Serbia, Montenegro, and Japan; in 1915 by Italy and San Marino; in 1916 by Portugal and Roumania; in 1917 by Bolivia, Brazil. China, Cuba, Greece, Liberia, Panama, Siam, and the United States; in 1918 by Guatemala, Haiti, Nicaragua, and Honduras. THE LESSON OF BELGIUM 485 449. The future of peace. American opinion was horri fied at the sufferings of little Belgium, anli admiral the courage with which it refused to yield to the ihvadfer, and by its resistance gave England and Trance tjifce* ta* form their lines and save Paris. But behind it all was the ques tion, Belgium had been guarded by a general treaty, and the treaty had failed to save her: could the United States or any other peaceful nation continue -to rely on promises and good will? In the first year of the war ex- President Taft, and James Bryce, and other distinguished leaders of England and America worked out a scheme for a league of nations to enforce peace and to prevent another war from following this one. Convictions deepened in Great Britain and France that this war must be the last, and that never again must it be possible for a warlike and unscrupulous nation to pick its time and try to rob its neighbors. People began at last to read what German writers had been discussing for many years about German conquest and expansion, the scheme for "Central Europe," and the railroad from Berlin to Bagdad. 450. American defense. The more Americans directed their thoughts to the lesson of Belgium the more clearly they saw that the United States was running a great risk on the chance of peace. There were no forces to be relied upon in case America should be invaded. If the navy should be overpowered by an enemy there were some forts along the coasts, but these were not greater than those that Germany had destroyed in her attack upon Belgium. There was a small regular army, brave and well organized, but not large enough to defend even a single Atlantic seaport. The militia of the States was not uniformly efficient. And the new war was so gigantic that few could say how and where the United States must begin in order to prepare. " Preparedness " became a subject of discussion in 1914 and increased in interest as every few months revealed a new horror of the war. 451. Machinery of modern war. New tools and new BERLIN TO BAGDAD RAILWAY AND STRATEGIC CONNECTIONS JAN. 1918 Middle Europe" and itsTlnnexes ESS The Entente Powers E^Vjl Territory occupied^by Central Powers ISgl Territory occupied by Entente Powers OEBMANY. S MAIN ROUTE TO EAST (Berlin-Bagdad, Berlin-Hodeida, Berlin-Cairo-Capjx p**+ Supplementary Routes Uncompleted sectors THE SUBMARINES 487 methods were used from the start. Great cannon, of which the rest of Europe had been unaware, were brought out by Germany to blow to fragments the steel and concrete forts of Belgium and France. Airplanes flew over the line of battle to inspect the enemy s country, to drop bombs, and to shoot with machine guns. Machine guns seemed to be more numerous than rifles. Instead of fighting in the open, both armies dug deep trenches from which they fought. In April, 1915, the German army sprung a complete surprise by letting loose a wave of poison gas (chlorine) to stifle the English, and gas warfare became a new terror. The next summer the British invented the "tank," a heavily armored motor-car, that could advance over trenches and through walls and houses, and that cut to pieces the barbed wire network with which the trenches were guarded. The war was one of machinery and inventors; with a magnitude beyond anything Americans could yet conceive. 452. The submarine as a weapon. The airplane and the submarine were the most striking of the new weapons. In September, 1914, a German submarine destroyed with tor pedoes three British cruisers on one day, and raised the question of the value of certain types of modern ships. The German navy had mostly remained at home in safety, leav ing the British fleet in control of the oceans. But von Tirpitz, head of the German navy, was determined to use the submarine to terrorize Great Britain if he could, and in February, 1915, it was announced that British merchant men would be sunk in the waters around the British Isles. 453. Blockades and neutrals. The United States and the other neutral countries had of course been inconvenienced by the Great War. Their commerce had been interfered with. Each of the warring powers tried to stop supplies to its enemy, and neutrals suffered. The law of nations per mits neutrals to trade with countries at war, but allows the fighting nations the belligerents (i) to stop contra band of war, such as weapons, ammunition, and materials for making them, bound for the enemy, (2) to search 488 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER neutral vessels to see if they are carrying aid to the enemy, and (3) to declare a blockade of the enemy coast and seize any vessel trying to pass through the blockade. The block ade must be real and thorough, such as the United States stretched around the Confederacy, but all powers recognize its legality. Since Great Britain kept the German fleet at home, it was England, and only England that interfered with neutral trade. Often we felt that the interference was unfair, but the search and seizures were carried on with directness and care, no lives were lost, and all claims for unjust treatment were given prompt attention. What grievances there were because the Allies practice of the laws of w r ar were inconvenient, were soon silenced by the great outrage in flicted by Germany. 454. The Lusi- tania. The German submarine blockade of England began in February, 1915. President Wilson protested against it immediately, calling attention to the fact that no submarine could observe the accepted laws of war. It could not safeguard the lives of passengers on mer chant ships, it could not carry out the search, it could not spare prize crews to take captured vessels to port. He warned Germany that she would be held to "strict account ability" if any lives were taken as result of this new variety of naval warfare. On May 7 the German threat was car ried out in all completeness. The great liner Lusitania, one of the fastest and finest ships afloat, was torpedoed and sunk without warning while on a voyage from the United States to England, and more than a thousand innocent men, women, and children were drowned. Among these were 114 American citizens whose lives were thus taken by THE LUSITANIA PREPAREDNESS 489 Germany, which was professing to be at peace with the United States, and whose subjects, by millions, had sought in America a happiness and prosperity denied them at home. A wave of horror swept around the world, and most real Americans who had not been convinced upon the merits of the war by the destruction of Belgium, now saw Germany in a new and ghastly light. 455. Preparedness. The indignant protest against the murder of the Americans on the Lusitania w^as met with falsehood and evasion. First it was falsely asserted that the Lusitania was secretly armed ; then it was claimed that Germany had a right to retaliate upon England even though retaliation involved the rights and lives of neutrals. To all of this the President replied with the demand that such conduct cease; he began to see, as his country began to see, that the war had become universal and that upon its outcome depended the future of the world. There was just a chance that Germany would check her course short of forcing the United States to war. But in order to be ready for what might come, on the day that the last note was written about the Lusitania President Wilson called upon his secretaries of war and the navy for advice upon pre paredness. It was not to be moderate preparedness but complete; the kind of preparedness that would permit the country if.it must, to bring its whole power into the war for its defense. 456. The navy stands ready. The navy, always the first line of American defense, was ready for action. It is im possible to build warships quickly, and therefore the naval strength of a country cannot be greatly increased after the outbreak of a war, unless the war is prolonged. Our navy had been watched and loved even in time of peace. The voyage around the world (see p. 458) had shown the skill of its officers and men, and many new battleships had been added since 1909. Admiral Dewey, who had been its chief officer since his promotion after the battle of Manila Bay, assured the people that the navy was ready for instant serv- 490 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER ice. Under wise administration it had become a training- school for character, and its enlisted men were more numer ous than ever before. In 1915 Congress created the new office of Chief of Naval Operations to make it easier to use the navy as a fighting machine. The next summer, as a result of the President s demand for great preparedness, the largest single appropriation ever made was voted by Congress for new ships and equipment. The President was resolved to keep the peace if he could,, but to be ready if war must come. 457. The National Defense Act. The navy required only an increase of men and ships ; the army called for complete change of method and organization. In every earlier war we had relied chiefly upon volunteer soldiers, and we had never learned that it would be impossible to meet a real enemy with these, for never had we faced a modern, well-organized enemy. In the Civil War both sides lost two years in training men and leaders; in the Spanish War we tried to raise an army quickly, only to see men die by thousands of unneces sary disease because their officers did not know how to protect them. Since the Spanish War much had been learned. The medical corps had learned how to prevent yellow fever. Typhoid fever, malaria, and diphtheria had ceased to be dangerous, if properly watched. In Roosevelt s administra tion a General Staff had been created to direct the army, and to make plans for its development. In 1916, under the pres sure for preparedness the National Defense Act was passed, carrying an increase in the regular army, a new arrangement for the militia, or national guard, and, most important, a provision for training young officers. It takes fifty thousand officers to command a million men ; to train these a system of camps and a course of study were provided; the evils resulting from untrained volunteer officers were to be avoided in the next war, and professional soldiers were to direct the work. 458. Intrigue and sedition. Germany watched with fear the change in American opinion, the growing hostility INTRIGUE AND SEDITION 49* among the American people, and the new willingness to make sacrifices for a real preparedness. For many years she had believed that the millions of former Germans in the United States would prevent any interference with her plans from us. She had encouraged such organizations as the German-American National Alliance to keep up the use of the German language, and their leaders to talk about the virtues of German kultur. Upon the outbreak of the war her agents in America began to hire men to blow up bridges in Canada, to destroy factories in America making guns and ammunition, and to incite workmen to strike in such factories. These things were proved in courts of law. 459. Mexico. It was also whispered that Germans in America would be armed to raise revolt if the United States interfered. In Mexico she tried to spread distrust of the United States; so also in South America. Her am bassador in Washington, Count von Bernstorff, talked of using money to influence Congress itself. Many of the citizens whom she used for these criminal purposes were only ignorant; a few were willing to turn traitor to the land that had held open to them the door of opportunity. During 1915 and 1916 intrigue and sedition ran high among hyphenated Americans those whose love was for another country than their own. 460. Villa on the border. In the midst of all the great preparations for defense, Mexico continued in a state of revolution. Huerta had been driven out of power in 1914; after him Carranza gained the power, and Villa contested for it. Damage and destruction of American lives and property continued. German intrigue among Mexicans and other Spanish- Americans had spread so much distrust of the United States that an attempt to help Mexico might have been regarded as the beginning of conquest. So Presi dent Wilson continued his policy of patient self-restraint, or " watchful waiting" hoping that Mexico would save herself. In the spring of 1916 he sent an army into north ern Mexico to suppress the bandit Villa, but brought it 492 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER back home the following winter. All the time Germany is now known to have been conspiring to provoke war there, either to tie the hands of the United States or to arouse suspicion of American motives. Early in 1917 she offered to help Mexico conquer Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona in the event of war. 461. The Sussex. While President Wilson was watch fully waiting for peace in Mexico, he was patiently hoping that Germany would refrain from forcing us to war. After sinking of the Lusitania, the submarines avoided the drowning of Americans, and in the fall of 1915 there was room for hope that the wiser counsels would prevail. But in 1916 the Sussex was sunk without warning in the English Channel, and the President declared at once that unless Germany pledged herself to stop this sort of murder he would break off all relations with her. Germany did not believe the United States would or could fight, and still relied upon hyphenated Americans to keep us helpless, but she gave the pledge, and for a few more months peace remained possible. But the plans for preparedness continued during 1916, and on the very day of the Sussex ultimatum the United States seized the papers of a German spy, von Igel, which proved the nature of her secret conspiracy to tie our hands. 462. The reelection of Wilson. American opinion had supported the President in his efforts to maintain our neutrality, and had gradually awakened to the need for preparedness while still holding to the hope that war might be avoided. Business, which had suffered greatly in the first year of the war, improved in 1915, and there was no desire among the Democrats to select any other can didate in the election than President Wilson. He had "kept us out of war," and they believed that if possible he would continue to do so. He had also sternly resisted every call for a war with Mexico. The Republicans tried to heal the breach with the Progressives. Judge Charles Evans Hughes became their candidate upon a platform of UNDILUTED AMERICANISM 493 complete preparedness and " undiluted Americanism." 1 But in the canvass he was greatly weakened by receiving the support of the organized hyphenated German- Americans, who did not care for him, but who wanted to punish Presi dent Wilson for his refusal to grant special favors to Ger many. The election was close, but when the votes were counted it was seen that President Wilson had been reflected because of the strong support which the people of the West gave to his policies. He failed to carry the great States of New York, Pennsylvania, Indiana, and Illinois, yet re ceived both popular and electoral majorities. The center of population had shifted in one hundred and twenty years, from near Baltimore to the vicinity of Indianapolis. It seemed from this election as if the center ?f political influence had shifted as well. Here in the Middle West there were fewer huge cities than in the East, and fewer groups of unassimilated foreigners. The fundamentals of American ism were here most widely prevalent, and now they asserted 1 Charles Evans Hughes was born in New York in 1862, and first came to be well known in 1905 as counsel in the New York insurance investigation, where he showed strength of character and skill in extracting the truth about the mismanagement of the insurance companies. He was elected governor of New York in 1906 and again in 1908, after having been suggested for the Presidency of the United States in 1908. In 1910 President Taft appointed him associate justice of the Supreme Court, -which position he resigned June 10, 1916, the day he was nominated for the Presidency. After his defeat in November he returned to the practice of law in New York. In May, 1918, at the request of President Wilson he undertook an investigation of the charges of mismanagement in the production of airplanes for the army. Photograph by Paul Thompsort RHEIMS CATHEDRAL One of the glories of Gothic art until the Germans deliberately bombarded it 494 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER themselves in the national crisis, speaking for peace, if pos sible, but for a peace without hyphenated interference. 463. The program of peace. Once reflected President Wilson took steps to end the period of uncertainty. In December he called upon all the nations at war to state their aims, so that the neutral world might know which of them were fighting for worthy purposes. The Al lies replied with definite statements, but Germany and her associates, -- the Central Powers, Austria- Hungary, Turkey, and Bul garia, were unwilling to disclose their aims. In Jan uary the President an nounced that the United States was ready to enter into a league to maintain the peace, and to extend to innocent nations in all the world the same guaran tees that the Monroe Doc trine had long preserved in America, and that recently the United States had observed in the case of Mexico. It was becoming clear that the peace which the United States longed for could not be obtained without fighting for it. 464. German defiance. The military autocracy in Ger many that had provoked the war for its own purposes, and that foresaw a revolution against the Hohenzollerns should it not win the war, took no warning from the events in the United States. On February i, 1917, it started a policy of sinking, without warning, merchant ships of whatever nationality, in the waters around England; and continued to defend its submarine piracy on the ground of "military necessity" and retaliation. This was a repudiation of the Photograph by Paul Thomp WITHIN RHEIMS CATHEDRAL After bombardment GERMAN DEFIANCE 495 pledge given after the Sussex case, and when it was an nounced President Wilson at once dismissed the German ambassador, von Bernstorff, and met Congress to tell it of his course. A wave of patriotic devotion spread across the country, with only here and there an unimportant obstruc tion, for the patience and moderation of the American Government had given the people time to realize the issues at stake. Even among the former Germans and Austrians, with whom Germany had tried to conspire, the spirit was generally one of unity and loyalty. 1 QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. Why did Washington wish to avoid "entangling alliances" ? 2. What were the Hague Conferences? 3. How did your State vote in 1916? 4. In what ways has the European War affected the United States? COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. Why should the United States join a league of nations to enforce peace? 2. How were the ideas of neutrality involved in the years 1793-1812? 3. Compare our blockade of the Confederacy with the German block ade of England. 4. Why does it take less trouble to get a navy into action in a war than an army? 1 While our relations with Germany were thus becoming more and more trained, the purchase (March, 1917) of the Danish West Indies greatly strengthened our strategic position in the Caribbean Sea. These islands are of negligible value for their own products, and are wholly dependent upon the United States for a market, and for their imports. But they command the trade routes from Europe to the Panama Canal, and can easily be fortified. *>The United States has twice previously endeavored to purchase these islands. in 1865 a proposition of Secretary Seward, whereby we were to acquire the islands for $7,500,000, failed of ratification by the Senate; in 1902, Secretary Hay concluded a treaty by which the islands were to become ours upon pay ment of $5,000,000. German influence is said to have defeated this treaty in the Danish upper house. The third effort proved successful, the price paid being $25,000,000. By wish of the islanders, the ancient name "Virgin Islands " tvas restored. CHAPTER L WILSON S ADMINISTRATION: " A WORLD SAFE FOR DEMOCRACY": THE UNITED STATES AT WAR 465. War against Germany. Between February and April, 1917, the United States waited in hope that even at the last Germany might remove the necessity for war. Instead of this she torpedoed more ships and intrigued in Mexico. On April 2 the new Congress met in special session to hear the President speak for war : - "We have no quarrel with the German people," he said. "It was not upon their impulse that their Government acted in entering the war. ... It was a war determined upon as wars used to be determined in the old unhappy days when peoples were nowhere consulted by their rulers, and wars were provoked and waged in the interests of dynasties or of little groups of ambi tious men who were accustomed to use their fellow men as pawns and tools. . . . We have borne with their present Government through all these bitter months because of that friendship (for the people of Germany), exercising a patience and forbearance which would otherwise have been impossible." Four days later Congress passed a declaration that a state of war existed with Germany, and pledged all the resources of the country "to bring the conflict to a successful termi nation." 466. The destroyers at work. In less than a month after the declaration of war the navy was carrying a share of its new burdens. Admiral Sims, with a fleet of swift destroyers, was sent to the British coast to help keep up the tight blockade of Germany that the sturdy British fleet had maintained for nearly three years, and to help keep the ocean pathways clear of submarines and floating mines. Other detachments followed him from time to time. And THE APPEAL OF JOFFRE 497 at home the shipyards were soon building ships in great numbers to replace those sunk by the submarines. 467. The appeal of Joffre. England and France still held the line unbroken on the Western Front from Switz erland to the North Sea. Italy stood guard along the Alps. Russia still stood firm along the East. All were resolute, but all were weary with the labor of withstanding the pressure of Germany s military machine. They had suspended their civil life, and convert ed themselves and their factories to war, in order that they might remain free peoples. They welcomed the en try of a strong new nation, and from Brit ain and France came groups of statesmen and generals to greet The Copyright by Harris and Ewiny ADMIRAL SIMS Whose fleet was on duty in European waters in less than a month after war was declared the new ally. French mission in cluded Marshal Joffre, hero of the Marne, and savior of France. His visit recalled the earlier crusade of Lafayette, who in the Revolution had given generously of French courage to our cause of freedom. He stirred the soul of America by his simple eloquence, and when he called for troops to help keep the line in France, the troops were found. 468. Pershing in France. On June 26, 1917, the first American division landed in France. Their commander, General John J. Pershing, had preceded them by a few 498 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER days, and on the Fourth of July some of them were marched through the streets of Paris, as a visible sign that the de mocracy of the West was paying its debt to freedom and its first ally. At the tomb of Lafayette Pershing made a simple speech: "The Americans have come." 469. Men. No method of recruiting ever practiced in the past in the United States would have provided enough men for this war. In modern warfare the whole na tion is at work, each person where his serv ices are needed most. In our earlier wars, in which smaller armies and less machinery were used, volunteering was our chief method of rais ing troops. But volun teering is defective be cause the gallant men who offer themselves first are not always those who can best be spared from the ranks of in dustry. On April 6 ; 1917, there were in ouf military service about 289,000 men (regular army, 127,000; national guard, 80,000 ; navy and marines, 82,000). By voluntary enlistment this total was raised to more than 1,500,000 within a year. To add to this number, Congress passed on May 18, 1917, a selective serv ice or draft act holding all men between twenty-one and thirty-one years of age liable to service if needed. A few days later 9,659,382 young men registered under this act, and in 1918 there were 750,000 more old enough to be added to the Copyright by Harris and Ewing GENERAL PERSHING In command of the American Expeditionary Force, whose first units landed in France June 26, 1917 TO WIN THE WAR 499 list. These men were classified according to their health, their family responsibilities, and their business; and from their number more than a million had been drafted into the national army by the following summer. Before the Fourth of July, 1918, more than a million American soldiers were ac tually in France, or aboard ships going thither. 470. Labor. Men in overalls as well as men in uniforms were needed to win the war. Since 1908 the Democrats had had THE SERVICE FLAG the support of many of the most promi- Each s f n ^ p a 7^rvLe I)er * nent labor leaders because it was believed that the Republicans were unfriendly to labor organization. The American Federation of Labor came out in loyal sup port of President Wilson and the war as soon as it was declared, and adopted a policy of avoiding strikes wherever it was possible, in order to prevent the curtailment of production. It was recognized that whoever interfered with industry, whether by asking too high a wage or by refusing to pay a fair wage, whether as workman or as employer, was giving direct aid to Germany. 471. National labor policy. In 1918, after long confer ences between the labor organizations and the associations of employers, the National War Labor Board was constituted, with ex- President Taft as its head, assisted by a labor advocate, Frank Walsh. This board took a broad view of the needs of labor, not only for a " living wage," but for a comfort wage." It settled large numbers of disputes, many of which were caused by sudden increases in the cost of living that were not met by suitable wage increases. Its work was made easier because the United States had taken over the administration of the railroads and telegraphs as a war measure, and was itself operating many munitions factories. Some varieties of industrial work were regarded as quite as useful as service in the army. Men at work in ship-building, for example, were exempt from the draft. 500 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER 472. Money. Money, too, was needed in this new cru sade in greater amounts than ever before. Congress author ized a series of " Liberty Loans" through which the Gov ernment borrowed about $12,000,000,000 in the first year of war. War savings stamps added to this amount. A great new tax bill, passed in October, raised $3,672,000,000 more, spreading much of the cost of the war upon large incomes or upon the excess profits of those who were making fortunes out of wartime manufactures. No other country has ever lived so well as the American people, and when the time came for sacrifice it was found that they could cheerfully pay heavy taxes, subscribe to tremendous loans, and still have money to give in huge amounts to the Red Cross, the Young Men s Christian Association, the Knights of Columbus, and other agencies that were formed to care for the soldier sons and brothers of those citizens who could not themselves go to war. 473. Food. All of the Allies were in need of food. Most of them, in ordinary times, had to import some of their food from other countries. Now with their young men in the armies they needed to buy still more; but the German sub marines, lying in wait to torpedo cargo ships, destroyed much and hoped to destroy more until they might starve the Allies into submission. "Food will win the War" was the cry of the Government, and patriotic citizens set out to save food, wheat, meat, sugar, and fats, so that we might have not only enough for ourselves but enough to feed our Allies. A new branch of the Government was hurriedly formed to direct the saving of food and fuel, and to keep selfish " profiteers" from charging too much for the necessities of life. While our soldiers were drilling in their camps the ships were carrying cargoes of food to England, Italy, and France. 474. Ships. But there were not enough ships for the work, and what there were were decreasing as the submarines took their toll of boats and lives. A new Shipping Board was created to build more ships, and for a time its work BUILDING THE SHIPS 501 was directed by the great engineer who had just dug the Panama Canal, Major-General George W. Goethals. Many new shipyards were opened, and existing yards were in creased in size. The navy was hurrying to make hundreds of destroyers to watch for submarines, and merchant ships were constructed wherever there was room to build and men to work. Four kinds of ships were made, (i) Wooden ships of the sort that had made the Yankee skippers famous at the beginning of the last century were launched in shipyards that had not heard the hammer for half a century. (2) Steel ships were riveted together from plates that kept busy the rolling mills at Pittsburg and the Lakes. (3) Fabri cated ships were made of steel, but were made in sections, partly finished at the interior mills and finally assem bled at the shipyards. And (4) con crete ships were tried as an experiment, found seaworthy, and built in numbers. In the summer of 1918 the shipping program showed results, with several ships a day sliding into the water, and finished vessels launched in places where a year before there had been only open meadows. More than ninety new ships were launched on the Fourth of July, 1918. 475. From cantonments to the base in France. Once we became convinced that we must fight for peace and freedom all sides of life were shaped to win the war. In the summer of 1917 great camps, or cantonments, were built to house over half a million men. Beginning in September the drafted men were called to camp, uniformed, drilled, formed into regiments and divisions; and, as rapidly as ships were ready, were sent to France. The ports from which they sailed, and those at which they landed, were not revealed, lest the Germans should learn about their movements. But at ports "somewhere in France" the army built great har- Copyright by Harris and Ewin GENERAL GOETHALS Who built the Panama Canal 502 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER bors and docks, warehouses and hospitals, and a railway nearly five hundred miles in length, so that our army might help itself without being a drain upon the strength and re sources of France. In France there were new cantonments and training-schools where the soldiers received their last instructions. Before Christmas many of the troops were standing in the front trenches by the side of comrades who had held back the Germans for three and a quarter years. 476. Russia: delivered and betrayed. There was need for the American troops by the end of 1917, for one of the original Allies, whose deliverance from autocracy had been welcomed, had been betrayed by civil Avar into the hands of Germany. Russia stood up under the stress of attack upon the Eastern Front for three years, but at the outbreak of war she had been impoverished by the costly and dishonest Government of the Czars; and as the war and losses pro gressed revolt had come. In March, 1917, a revolution de throned the Czar Nicholas II, and the Provisional Govern ment proclaimed its determination to stand by its allies; but abandoned the selfish national aims which the former Government had exacted. Once started, the forces of re volt passed beyond the power of the moderate men. Ke- rensky struggled in vain to keep the Government under control. In November the revolutionist Socialists, who called themselves Bolsheviki, overturned him, cast out all persons of property from a share in the Government, and in a few weeks began a negotiation with Germany for a separate peace. Germany professed to negotiate peace with them, but really robbed the defenseless Bolsheviki and the Russia that they had betrayed. She took from them Poland, the Baltic Provinces, Finland, and Ukraine; trying to leave Russia prostrate and unable even to resist. The troops that she needed no longer on the Eastern Front Ger many sent west for another great attempt to break through the line into the heart of France. 477. The appeal to democracy. All through the war the German Government told its subjects that it was fighting THE EASTERN FRONT 504 TtiE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER in self defense against the Allies. Before bringing the full force of the United States into the field President Wilson tried once more to show the German people that safety for free government was our single purpose. He assured them that the United States was not fighting to tear Austria THE ITALIAN FRONT Battle Line, March 1918 anci to pieces, or to destroy Germany, but to establish a world in which they and all honorable nations might hope for freedom and safety. He warned them against the course taken by their autocratic leaders. But when there came from Germany and Austria no sign of protest against their rulers, he proclaimed against them, "Force! Force to the uttermost!" and hurried still more troops to France. 478. The German drive of 1918. All through the winter of 1917 Germany strengthened her forces on the Western Front in the hope of beating the Allies before our men could arrive in large numbers. It told its people that America would not fight, but it hastened to end the war in 1918. On March 21 the drive began, in the direction of Paris and against the point in the line where the British and French armies met. For weeks the line swayed back and forth; ALLIED UNITY OF COMMAND 505 but it did not break. To us the call came to send the men at once, for this was the year that might decide the future of the world. And the camps were emptied to meet the call, and more men were drafted to fill the places left vacant in Battle Line October, 1914 w Battle Line January, 1918 - Battle Line June 5, 1918 our camps, and President Wilson promised that we would continue to send men and food in increasing amounts until they should add enough weight to the line to drive the Germans back across the Rhine. 479. Pershing, Foch, and the single front. There had been some American troops in the trenches for several 506 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER months before the drive began. Once it was started, General Pershing offered all his force to be used where most needed, by itself or in connection with either the British or the French. Out of this came a great change that encour aged all the Allies. It was agreed that a single general, or "generalissimo," should command all the troops on the Western Front, whatever their nationality. General Foch, who with Marshal J off re had saved France in 1914, was appointed to the new united command, and the Americans were used all along the line. The blow in March failed to get through. In April the Germans struck at the British in Flanders, and were stopped again. In May they struck again at Paris, pushed through between the glorious cathe dral town of Rheims, and Soissons, and with the head of their force touched the river Marne. And there they found, standing between them and their goal a stubborn line of American troops who helped to turn them back. 480. The War Cabinet. The united command of the Allied armies under Marshal Foch was the beginning of new vigor and unity for the Allies. In the next few months all of their wealth and resources as well as their soldiers were placed in one common "pool," to be used as needed for the common cause. At Versailles, near Paris, their Su preme War Council directed and supported the main cam paigns of Foch, Haig, and Pershing. To assist it other councils were created to divide and share food, money, munitions, and ships. At home, President Wilson began to hold frequent meetings with a group of advisers outside his regular Cabinet, who became popularly known as his " War Cabinet." This group included the chairmen of the War Trade Board (McCormick), War Industries Board (Baruch), and Shipping Board (Hurley), and the directors of the Food Administration (Hoover), Fuel Administration (Garfield), and Railroad Administration (McAdoo). 481. Chateau Thierry and the Marne. On July 15, 1918, the German armies attacked again along the Marne River, hoping still to capture Paris. This time Marshal Foch had THE ARMISTICE 507 learned in advance where the blow was to be struck, and had prepared for it. He made a counter-attack on July 18, using American divisions near Chateau Thierry, where the first and second divisions had fought so well in June. Here was the turning-point of the w r ar. Slowly but irresistibly the French and Americans drove the Germans back, be tween Soissons and Rheims, until by early August they were on a steady retreat. For a second time the enemy had reached the Marne, in vain. 482. Saint-Mihiel and the Argonne. There was new confidence among the Allies in August, 1918. The " bridge of ships " was now pouring " Yanks " into France (244,000 in May, 277,000 in June, 306,000 in July); and at Wash ington it was decided to place eighty divisions nearly 4,000,000 men on the line in the summer of 1919. The draft age (see par. 469) was extended, bringing in all men be tween eighteen and forty-five. The troops already overseas were finishing their training periods. In September General Pershing conducted an American attack against the sal ient at Saint-Mihiel, as a preliminary to a larger use of his forces now well over 1,000,000 men. He was completely successful. On September 26 he began another operation, winning the forest of the Argonne, and pushing in October toward the German railroad line at Sedan. The control of this region by the Allies would throw the whole German army into confusion. 483. The Armistice, November n, 1918. For reasons of sentiment, the Allies desired to retake Sedan and Mons. The Americans took the former, and the British the latter; but the Central Powers had already sensed defeat. First Bulgaria, then Turkey, then Austria-Hungary begged for peace and accepted the terms set by the Supreme War Council. Germany was left alone; and in Germany the common people started a revolution against the Kaiser and the military party. On November 9 the Kaiser sought re fuge in Holland, and two days later the envoys of the Ger man Government signed an armistice agreement imposed 508 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER upon them by the victorious Allies. There were now more than 2,000,000 Americans overseas, with more to come, and with unlimited resources to back them up. The war was won. England, Belgium, and France had saved the world; first by their resistance to the German invasion; then by their patient holding of the line until enough United States troops arrived to turn the tide of battle. No single nation among the Allies won the war, but all of them, united at last in the Supreme War Council. If this could only hold together it would be, as it already was, a League of Nations. 484. President Wilson goes to Paris. A few days after the signing of the armistice, President Wilson announced that he would himself go to Europe, to sit as a member of the Supreme \Var Council, and to act as an American rep resentative at the Peace Conference. The unity among the Allies that had won the war was largely due to his leader ship. He had led in showing to the German and Austrian peoples th^ crimes of their rulers. He had promised that the United States would be willing to become a partner in the right kind of a League of Nations. And he had stated, in January, 1918, " fourteen points " which were necessary to be included in a fair treaty of peace. All the Allies, and now even the Central Powers, had expressed approval of his fourteen points. He was needed in Paris to help include them in the final treaty. No other President had ever gone to Europe ; but no other had ever had need to go. He sailed on the George Washington on December 4, 1918, and was greeted at Paris, Rome, and London as no other American had ever been. To the people of Europe he seemed to rep- resent the miracle that had saved them from Germany, and to promise them that there should be no more wars. 485. The League of Nations. The Peace Conference - including as yet only the Allied nations held its first ses sion January 18, 1919, after several weeks of conferences among the Allied statesmen and within the Supreme \Var Council. In a few days the delegates agreed to frame a PROBLEMS OF RECONSTRUCTION 509 League of Nations as a part of the peace treaty, and ap pointed committees to study this, as well as such other matters as boundaries, reparation, punishment, and labor conditions. On February 14, the outline of the League of Nations was read to the Peace Conference by President Wilson, who was chairman of the committee that drew it up. There started at once, all over the world, an earnest discussion as to whether there ought to be a League of Na tions and whether this was the best possible kind. The next day President Wilson started back to the United States. 486. The Death of Theodore Roosevelt. On January 6, 1919, Theodore Roosevelt, the greatest private American citizen, died. Since the death of General Grant in 1885 (see par. 383), no American had left so many of his fellow-citi zens with a sense of grief and loss. After his retirement from the presidency in 1909, Colonel Roosevelt s judgment had been sought in every crisis; and through his whole career he had stood for good government as he saw it, for clean life and high ideals. He proudly wore four stars in his serv ice pin during the Great War, and when his youngest son was killed in action, his loss was the nation s. He was buried as a quiet country gentleman, near his home at Oyster Bay, with members of the New York police force that he had loved and served on guard at his grave, and with aviators circling above and strewing flowers over it. 487. The Eighteenth Amendment. A new amendment to the Constitution was proclaimed in January, 1919. This was commonly known as the " dry " amendment, and had been urged by temperance reformers for many years. Many of the States had already excluded alcoholic drinks by their own action, and under the principles of local op tion and prohibition most of the area of the country was dry. Under the new amendment the manufacture, sale, transportation, import, or export of intoxicating liquors for beverage purposes was prohibited. This will become effective January 16, 1920. 488. Problems of Reconstruction. The visit of Presi- 5 io THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER dent Wilson to France was cut short by the need to sign bills and assist Congress in its closing days. Congress suf fered in his absence, from the uncertainties of the future, and from the anger of some of its members because he had left the United States. The elections of November, 1918, assured a Republican majority in the House of Representa tives after March 4, 1919; and a few of the Republican party tried to block laws so as to leave the whole business of reconstruction to a Congress that they might dominate. No other war had so greatly upset the life of ordinary peo ple. Russia, Germany, and Austria were in revolution. The problem of reconstruction was whether revolution should spread over all the world, or whether the discontent producing revolution should be lightened by wise laws. Food was high and work was scarce. New laws were needed to help business, education, and labor and to pro tect all persons in their rights in life. The war had been fought to make it possible for democratic government to exist. President Wilson believed that a firm foundation for peace was the first end to be gained. He remained in Washington long enough to approve the necessary laws; went to New York, where he and the only living ex- Presi dent, William H. Taft, pleaded for a League of Nations; and then sailed again on March 5, 1919, for Paris and the Peace Conference. 489. The Treaty of Peace. The treaty of peace was signed on June 28, 1919, in the palace at Versailles, where the German Empire had been proclaimed in 1871. Germany was here forced to accept the terms imposed upon her by the victors in the Great War. These terms, the outgrowth of the "fourteen points" as modified by discussion and local conditions (see paragraph 484), were intended to pre vent any other unprovoked attack upon the peace of the world, and to secure self-government to subject peoples who had been oppressed by Germany and Austria. The opening clauses of the treaty contained the covenant, or agreement, for a League of Nations, to which all the Allies THE TREATY OF PEACE 511 were pledged, and whose council and assembly were to safe guard the peace of the world in the future. 490. The Senate and the Covenant. The treaty and the covenant of the League were sent to the Senate in July, for the Constitution requires that all treaties shall receive the concurrence of two thirds of that body before they become law. Here in the Senate there was a Republican majority, opposed politically to the President; and here also were many senators in both parties who were exasperated because they had not been consulted by him, and who feared that membership in the League might interfere with the Monroe Doctrine by forcing the United States to arbitrate it (see paragraph 258), or might even lessen the independence of the United States, Four months were spent in bitter debate over the covenant and the League, with Senators Lodge, Johnson, Borah, Poindexter, and Reed leading in the criticism. 491. Demobilization. Meanwhile the army was coming home from France. After the Armistice a few of the Ameri can divisions had been marched into Germany with the army of occupation ; and some troops were to remain there for an indefinite time after the war. But most of them were to come home. The huge machinery of docks, ships, rail roads, and supplies was now reversed, and from Brest, Saint-Nazaire, and Bordeaux the "Yanks" came back even faster than they had sailed. Some of the divisions were held together to parade at home the Twenty-Seventh and Seventy-Seventh in New York, the Twenty-Sixth in Boston, the Twenty-Eighth in Philadelphia. At the end came the First Division, in September, 1919, the first to go and the last to return, and this in full strength marched up Pennsylvania Avenue before the White House, with Pershing at the head, in the most imposing parade since the " grand review" in 1865 (see paragraph 350). While the men from the A.E.F. were being demobilized (discharged from military service) there came events that commemorated the difference between this and other wars. 512 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER A British airplane with two occupants flew from New foundland to Ireland, where it landed after a sixteen-hour flight, on June 15, 1919. It had been preceded in flying across the Atlantic by an American naval airplane, com manded by Lieutenant-Commander Read, flying from New foundland to the Azores, and thence to Spain and England ; and was followed by a British dirigible that came from England to New York direct. The conquest of the air in these crossings of the Atlantic marked the birth of a new world. 492. Labor Unrest. But the new world was not yet at peace, and was suffering from unemployment, lack of hous ing, and high prices, so that a series of great strikes by labor unions engaged in railroad, coal mining, and other industrial work was the result. The war boards (see paragraph 471) were nearly all disbanded by the summer of 1919, and could not mediate between labor and capital, in the interest of all the people. President Wilson urged labor to wait in patience, though prices were nearly double what they had been in 1913; and he urged Congress to pass new laws to enable the Government to punish profiteering and to force the prices down. On October 6, 1919, there met at his invi tation in Washington an Industrial Conference, composed of representatives of capital, labor, and the general public, to consider the relations that ought to exist in the industrial world. The conference broke up in a few days because labor and capital, or their spokesmen, could not agree. The President could not control or lead them because his health had failed, and he was sick in the White House. 493. Bolshevism. The labor unrest was believed by some to be the deliberate work of the "reds," or radical revolu tionists who called the Government " capitalistic " and wanted to overturn it by force. Some of these openly wished to imitate the Russian revolution (see paragraph 476), and to erect soviet government or government, not by de mocracy, but by classes and industrial groups. These agi tators were called "Bolshevists" after the Russian revolu- UNREST AND UNCERTAINTY 513 tionary party, and there was much talk of excluding from the United States Bolshevist or anarchist immigrants, and of punishing attempts to overturn the Government. A great strike in the steel industry, beginning September 22, was led by men, some of whom were in this class. It was kept within bounds, at Gary, Indiana, by United States troops under General Leonard Wood, for President Wilson was determined that the law should be respected and peace maintained. 494. Uncertainty. The treaty and the covenant were meanwhile still in the Senate, and Great Britain, France, and Italy, who had already ratified, were waiting to learn what the United States proposed to do, and to launch the League of Nations. President Wilson spoke for the treaty in the Western States in September, believing that the future peace of the world and the return to domestic quiet depended upon prompt ratification ; and while on this cam paign he broke down and was sent home by his doctors. The unrest and uncertainty aroused deep fears; but many Americans recalled that more than once before, in the days of Washington, and Jackson, and Lincoln, and Grant, the Nation had been disturbed to its foundations, yet had seemed to retain an inherent power to right itself. 5H THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 1. Why did Marshal Joffre want American troops at once? 2. What was the American debt to France? 3. Explain what Thrift Stamps are? \Var Savings Stamps? Liberty Bonds? 4. What did you give up or go without to help win the war? COMPOSITION SUBJECTS 1. The experiences of a drafted man. 2. What would Washington have said at the tomb of Lafayette? 3. Which of the countries of Europe have sent us the most immi grants? 4. Write a speech for a school child of France to make on the return of the American troops. REVIEW OF THE PERIOD SINCE THE CIVIL WAR THE period since the Civil War has been a period of steady preparation of the nation to face and carry responsibilities. Good feeling between the warring sections returned slowly. Hayes, by a policy of wise moderation, made possible home rule for the South. Prosperity in the next decade did much to heal the wounds. And finally the Spanish War brought together, side by side, the sons of the Blue and the sons of the Gray. The former slaves are making advances in welfare. Schools have been established to help them, like that at Tuskegee, founded by Booker T. Washington. They have made progress as farmers, and their sons, like the sons of their old masters, are now fighting in the trenches in France. Among the developments of this period have been the concen tration of financial power in the hands of certain captains of industry, and the appearance of the multi-millionaire. The great parties have taken up the problem of controlling the use of this great wealth, so that it may not be of injury to the country. Labor has organized in unions in order to be better able to make agree ments with employers. Many laws were passed at the end of the period to lessen unfair competition and to preserve fair play for all. Important events in our financial history are the panics of 1873 and 1893, the resumption of specie payments in 1879, the triumph of the gold standard in 1896, and the creation of the Federal Reserve banking system. After passing successively the REVIEW 515 McKinley, Wilson, Dingley, Payne- Aldrich, and Underwood tariff bills, Congress has inaugurated a scientific study of im ports and taxes by creating a Tariff Commission. The reform of the Civil Service has been of value in protecting the stability of the Federal Government; and the Australian Ballot system and the Direct primary have served to safeguard the rights of voters. The United States has constantly led in urging upon all coun tries the adoption of arbitration instead of war. As far back as 1823 the Monroe Doctrine expressed a willingness to protect the weaker nations of America. Japan was led into relationships with other powers by the United States; and the confidence shown in our Government by the Chinese was justified when at the time of the Boxer Rebellion our demands were moderate and our in fluence restrained the excessive demands of Germany. The "Open Door" policy was a natural development from our old practices. Cuba was set free and kept free. In Porto Rico and the Philip pines our administration has been for the benefit of the peoples living in the islands. For nearly three years in the Great War we held to our policy of rigid neutrality, in the hope that at last Ger many would moderate her policies; when she instead drove us into the struggle we entered with no hope or desire of profit for ourselves, but to help our Allies keep the world open for free institutions. In this period we have increased our territory about one fourth. Alaska, Porto Rico, Hawaii, and the Philippines have come to us, but we have fought no war to gain territory, and have re frained from attacking Mexico even after great provocation. Our population in 1860 was about thirty- two millions; it has grown to about one hundred millions, with great cities in which nearly one half of the people live. We have profited by inventions and engineering enterprises. The skyscraper, the subway; the airplane, the submarine; irri gation projects, Mississippi River jetties, the Panama Canal; the Hoe press, the typewriter, 1 the type-setting machine, the incandescent light, 2 --all have helped to make our .world a brighter and better world to live in. We have continued to hold out the hand of welcome to the im- e l Patented in 1868 by Christopher Latham Sholes of Milwaukee, Wiscon sin. His first typewriting machine is now preserved in the museum of the Buf falo (N.Y.) Historical Society. 2 Thomas A. Edison, of New Jersey, made the inventions that made pos sible the incandescent light. It was first used on a large scale at the World s Columbian Exposition in Chicago, in 1893, where rows of the lights outlined the roofs and columns of the buildings. 516 THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER migrant. Until 1880 western and northern Europe sent most of our newcomers (see footnote I, page 330). After 1880 Italy, Russia, Poland, and Austria began to send us large numbers. These we have welcomed. As they have come to include more and more uneducated and impoverished races, we have inspected them more and more carefully, sending home those unlikely to make good citizens. Our schools have been open to their chil dren, and among our most loyal people to-day are many whose fathers came, or who even came themselves, from the countries with which we are now at war. In the future we must take even greater pains to give them a chance to grow quickly into real Americans, and to make sure that those who come here and re main do so because they desire to live among a free people in a real democracy. RECOMMENDED READINGS HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY TEACHERS LIST. Hart s American History by Contemporaries, vol. FV, pp. 458-668. Fiske s United States, pp. 393-411. Wilson s Division and Reunion, pp. 254-357; History of American People, vol. v, pp. 1-44, 115- 300. Andrews s United States in Our Own Times, chaps. I, n, iv, v, vn- ix, xvi-xvin, xxvn-xxx. Peck s Twenty Years of the Republic, chaps. l-viil, xin-xvi. Dunning s Reconstruction, chaps, I, v, viu, ix, xiv, xvn- xxi. Sparks s Expansion of American People, chaps, xxx, xxxiv, xxxv; National Development, chaps. I, m-v, xn-xv, xix. Dewey s National Problems, chaps. I, vn. Latane s America as a World Power, chaps, i-v, xu, xiv. Rhodes s United States, vol. vi, chaps, xxxm, xxxvi, xxxviii; vol. vii, chaps. XL, XLIV. Coman s Industrial History of United States, pp. 347-74. Bogart s Economic History, chaps, xxvi-xxx. Hubert s Inventors, n, in, Vi-vui. Roosevelt s Rough Riders, chaps. I, iv, v. Griffis s America in the East, chaps, i-v, xvin-xx. Grady s New South, pp. 144-267. Wash ington s Up from Slavery. Riis s Making of an American, chaps, n, ix- xiii. Stanwood s History of the Presidency, pp. 313-509. Mrs. Logan s Thirty Years in Washington, chaps. XLVI-LIII. Le Roy s Philippine Life in Town and Country. Hill s Cuba and Porto Rico, chaps, ix-xn, xvm, xix. McLaughlin s My Friend the Indian, chaps, vin-xn, xvm. Mrs. W. H. Taft s Recollections of Full Years. Thayer s John Hay. New York Times Current History. U.S. Committee on Public Information s War Cyclo pedia; How the War Came to America; Flag Day Address. PUPILS LIST. Hart s Source-Book, pp. 336-92. Elson s Side Lights on American History, vol. n, chaps, vn-xiv. Tappan s Our Country s Story, pp. 229-52. Hurlbut s Lives of Our Presidents, pp. 184-282. Alton s Among the Lawmakers. Baker s Boys 1 Book of Inventions; Boys Second Book of RECOMMENDED READINGS 517 Inventions, pp. 28-29, 207-54, 293-320. Perry s Four American Inventors (Edison). Williams s Romance of Modern Locomotion. Iles s Flame, Elec tricity and the Camera. Avary s Dixie after the War, chaps, vi, vn, xxm- xxviii. Eastman s Indian Boyhood. Mrs. Custer s Boots and Saddles; Following the Guidon; Tenting on the Plains. Thompson s Gold-Seeking on :he Dalton Trail. Brooks s Story of Our War with Spain. Abbot s Blue Jackets of 98. Ross s Heroes of Our War with Spain. Beebe s Four Ameri can Naval Heroes (Dewey). Twombley s Hawaii and its People. Mac- Clintock s Philippines. Seabury s Porto Rico. Hall and Chester s Panama and the Canal. Matthews s Remaking the Mississippi. Jones s Life of Edison. Paine s Life of Mark Twain. Empey s Over the Top. Aldrich s A Hilltop on the Marne. Hall s High Adventure. FICTION TEACHERS LIST. Alice Brown s King s End. Cable s John March, Southerner. Carryl s Lieutenant -Governor. Churchill s Mr. Crewe 1 s Career; Coniston. Craddock s Prophet of the Great Smoky Mountains. Foote s Led Horse Claim. Ford s The Honorable Peter Sterling. Fox s Crittenden. Garland s Main Traveled Roads. Glasgow s Romance of a Plain Man. Grant s An Average Man. Harris s Gabriel Tolliver. Howells s Rise of Silas Lapham. Jewett s Country of the Pointed Firs. Kelly s Little Citizens. Page s Red Rock. Hopkinson Smith s Colonel Carter of Cartersville. Octave Thanet s Heart of Toil; Missionary Sheriff. Warner s A Little Journey in the World. White s A Certain Rich Man. Wilkins s Portion of Labor. Wi&ter s The Virginian. Rinehart s Amazing Interlude. PUPILS LIST. Andy Adams s Wells Brothers. Austin s Uncle Sam s Secrets. Mary Austin s The Basket Woman. Brooks s Last of the Strong Hearts. Codd s With Evans to the Pacific. Grinnell s Jack the Young Ranch man; Jack among the Indians. Hough s Young Alaskans. Johnston s The Little Colonel s Hero. Kipling s Captains Courageous. Otis s When Dewey Came to Manila. Stoddart s Little Smoke; Talking Leaves; Two Arrows. Western Stories Retold from St. Nicholas. POETRY Austin s Anglo-American Entente. Carryl s When the Great Gray Ships Come in. Cawein s Ku-Klux. Cheney s San Francisco. Finch s The Blue and the Grey. Holmes s Broomstick Train. Hovey s Word of the Lord from Havana. Kipling s White Man s Burden. Longfellow s Revenge of Rain- in-the-Face. Stedman s Hymn of the West; Liberty Enlightening the World. Whittier s Cable Hymn; Chicago; Centennial Hymn. Woodberry s My Country; Rhymes of a Red Cross Man. SIGNIFICANT DATES 1492. Discovery of America (the West Indies) by Columbus (f n). 1497. Discovery of the continent of North America by Cabot (U 19). 1513. Discovery of the Pacific Ocean by Balboa (1f 21). 1519-1522. First voyage around the world by Magellan s expedition (H 22). 1534. Exploration of the St. Lawrence River by Cartier (H 32). 1540. Exploration of the Southwest by Coro- nado (1 25). 1565. Founding of St. Augustine, Florida (U 26). 1577-1580. Drake s voyage around the world (130). 1588.. Defeat of the Spanish Armada (If 29). 1607. Founding of Jamestown, Virginia (U 57). 1609. Discovery of the Hudson River (If 31). 1619. First importation of slaves (If 62). Beginning of representative govern ment (H 63). 1620. Founding of Plymouth, Massachusetts (1 79). 1639. The Constitution of Connecticut ( 11 90) . 1643. New England Confederation formed (11 92). 1664. New Netherland became New York (11 97). 1673. Discovery of the Mississippi River by | Marquette and Jolliet (f 37). 1682. Louisiana claimed for France by La Salle (H 38). 1754. Plan of colonial union adopted at Al- i bany (f 133). 1759. Capture of Quebec by the English (II 138). 3763. Treaty of Peace ending the French and Indian War (1f 139). 1765. Parliament passed the Stamp Act (11 148). 1774. First Continental Congress (If 156). 1775. Battles of Lexington and Concord (If 158). Battle of Bunker Hill (f 162). 1776. Declaration of Independence (1f 166). 1777. Surrender of Burgoyne at Saratoga (1 176). 1778. French alliance with the United States (If 179). 1778-1779- Clark s conquest of the Northwest (11 184). 1781. Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown (1 iQi). Articles of Confederation adopted (I 196). 1783. Treaty of Peace ending the War of the Revolution (1f 194). 1787. Northwest Ordinance adopted (1f 198). Meeting of the Constitutional Conven tion (H 200). 1789. Election of Washington as President (11203). 1792. Invention of the cotton gin (1f 210). 1798-1799. Kentucky and Virginia Resolu tions (If 224). 1803. Purchase of Louisiana (If 228). 1807. First steamboat navigated the Hudson River (If 232). 1812-1815. Second war with England (IfU 238- 249). 1819. Purchase of Florida (If 254). 1820. Missouri Compromise (H 257). 1823. Announcement of the Monroe Doctrine (11 258). 1825. Completion of the Erie Canal (II 260). 1829. First railroad in America (1f 261). 1832. Nullification in South Carolina (If 269). 1844. First successful use of the telegraph (f 281). 1846-1848. War with Mexico (If 287). 1848. Discovery of gold in California (1f 291) 1850. Compromise on slavery (1f 297). 1854. Kansas-Nebraska bill (1f 302). Perry s visit to Japan (If 305). 1857- The Dred Scott case (H 307). 1860. Election of Lincoln (1f 315). 1861. Beginning of the Civil War (1f 321). 1862. Duel between the Monitor and the Mer- rimac (If 333). 1863. Lincoln s Emancipation Proclamation. (1f336). Battle of Gettysburg (f 337). Surrender of Vicksburg ( H 339) . 1865. Lee s surrender at Appomattox (1f 348). Assassination of Lincoln ( 11 349) . 1866. Completion of the Atlantic cable (f 366). 1867. Purchase of Alaska (If 367). 1869. Completion of the first railroad to the .. Pacific (H 37i). 1898. War with Spain (IfU 400-406). Annexation of the Hawaiian Islands (U 407). ; 1903- Construction of the Panama Canal be gun (If 414). Completion of a telegraphic cable around the world (If 415). , 1909. Discovery of the North Pole (If 422). 1914. The World War began (If 446). 1917. The United States entered the War (If 465). 1918. The World War ended (If 489). APPENDIX A --THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES (Adopted in 1787) PREAMBLE WE, the people of the United States, in order to form a^more perfect union establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitu tion for the United States of America. ARTICLE I. THE LEGISLATIVE, OR LAW-MAKING POWER Section I. Congress in General All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representa tives. Section II. The House of Representatives 1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen very second year by the people of the several States, and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature. 2. No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according tc their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three. 4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the executive authdrity thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. ii APPENDIX 5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. Section III. The Senate 1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof, 1 for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 3. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. 4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. 6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two thirds of the members present. 7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust or profit under the United States: but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment and punishment, according to law. Section IV. How Senators and Representatives shall be chosen, and when they are to meet 1. The times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing Senators. 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. 1 Some persons believe that United States Senators should be elected by the people at large, as governors of States are elected. To do this would require an amendment to the Constitution of the United States; but under present laws a State can indicate its choice for Senator at what is called a primary. The result of such a primary, while not legally binding upon the legislature, is considered as morally binding. THE CONSTITUTION iii Section V. Rules of Procedure 1. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns and qualifica tions of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties as each house may provide. 2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two thirds, expel a member. 3. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either house on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 4. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the con sent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. Section VI. Compensation, Privileges, and Restrictions 1. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to.be ascertained by law and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. 1 They shall in all cases, except treason, felony and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either house, they shall not be questioned in any other place. 2. No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time; and no person holding any office under the United States, shall be a member of either house during his con tinuance in office. Section VII. Mode of Passing Laws 1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Repre sentatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other bills. 2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his objections to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration two thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting 1 At present both Senators and Representatives receive $7500 annually, with an additional allowance for clerk hire, stationery, and traveling expenses. iv APPENDIX for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house re spectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall jnot be a law. 3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a ques tion of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations pre scribed in the case of a bill. Section VIII. Powers granted to Congress The Congress shall have power: 1 . To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States; 2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States; 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes; 4. To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; 5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures; 6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States; 7. To establish post offices and post roads; 8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries; 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; 10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations; 1 1. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water; 12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years; 13. To provide and maintain a navy; 14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces; 15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions; 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of- training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress; THE CONSTITUTION v 17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other need ful buildings; and 1 8. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any depart ment or officer thereof. Section IX. Powers denied to the Federal Government 1. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, un less when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. 3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 4. No capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. 5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. 6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another: nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. 8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States: and no per son holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without the con sent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign State. Section X. Powers denied to the States 1. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make any thing but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 2. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing it s inspection laws: and the net produce of all duties arid imposts, laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the^Treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. 3. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of ton- vi APPENDIX nage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. ARTICLE II. THE EXECUTIVE, OR LAW-ENFORCING POWER Section I. The President, the Vice-President, and the Presidential Electors 1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected, as follows: 2. Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. 1 . . . 4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same throughout the United States. 5. No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United States, at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President ; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been four teen years a resident within the United States. 6. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. 2 7. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services, a com pensation which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. 3 8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the follow ing oath or affirmation: " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend the constitution of the United States." 1 Clause 3 has been omitted here, since its provisions, governing the method of the selection by the electors of the President and the Vice-President, have been changed by Article XII of the Amendments, adopted in 1804. See foot-note i, page 230, for an account of the working of the original plan. 1 In 1886, Congress passed the Presidential Succession Act. See page 423. 1 The first salary act, 1789, fixed the President s salary at $25,000 a year; in 1873 this was changed to $50,000, and in 1909 to the present salary, $75,000. In addition Congress pays_cer- tain expenses connected with the White House, and makes other allowances for expenses inci dental to the presidential office. THE CONSTITUTION vii Section II. The Powers of the President 1. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, when called into the actual service of the United States; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer 1 in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices^ and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Sen ate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law: but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies ^ that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall expire at the end of their next session. Section III. The Duties of the President He shall from time to time give to the Congress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement be tween them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States. Section IV. Impeachment The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, trea son, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. ARTICLE III. THE JUDICIAL, OR LAW-INTERPRETING POWER Section I. The Federal Courts The judicial power of the United States, shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, re ceive for their services, a compensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. * The President is authorized by Congress, subject to the confirmation of the Senate, to ap point a cabinet, which consists at the present time of the secretaries of the following departments: State, War, Treasury, Navy, Interior, Agriculture, and Commerce and Labor, and of the Attor ney-General and the Postmaster-General. Each of these is at the head of an important executive branch of the Government. Cabinet officers, therefore, are assistants to the President. The Cabinet as a whole acts as an advisory body to the President. viii APPENDIX Section II. Their Powers and Jurisdiction 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, aris ing under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party; to controversies between two or more States; between a State and citizens of another State; between citizens of different States; between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign States, citizens or subjects. 1 2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a State shall be party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, bot 1 as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. 3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury ; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crime shall-have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. Section III. What Treason is, and how it shall be punished 1. Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. 2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted. ARTICLE IV. RELATIONS BETWEEN THE STATES AND THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT Section I. State Authority to be recognized Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, re cords, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, records and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. Section II. Privileges and Immunities of Citizens; Extradition 1. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and im munities of citizens in the several States. 2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. 3. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, 1 This paragraph has been modified by Article XI of the Amendments, adopted in 1798. THE CONSTITUTION ix escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. Section III, Admission of New States; Congress to rule Territories 1. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new Stats shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of the legislatures of the States con cerned as well as of the Congress. 2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular State. Section I V. States to be protected by the Nation The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a republi can form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion; and on application of the legislature, or of the executive (when the legisla ture cannot be convened) against domestic violence. ARTICLE V. How THE CONSTITUTION is TO BE AMENDED The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it neces sary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the applica tion of the legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a con vention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be pro posed by the Congress; provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article; and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suf frage in the Senate. 1 ARTICLE VI. THE PUBLIC DEBT, THE SUPREMACY OF THE CONSTI TUTION, THE OATH OF OFFICE 1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the adop tion of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. 2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof; and all treaties made, or which shall b.e made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. 1 It is therefore impossible to reduce the number of Senators from a State with a small di minishing population. x APPENDIX 3. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the mem bers of the several State legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. ARTICLE VII. RATIFICATION AND ESTABLISHMENT OF THE CONSTI TUTION The ratification of the conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same. Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the States present the seventeenth day of September in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven and of the independence of the United States^of America the twelfth. In witness whereof we have hereunto subscribed our names. Go: WASHINGTON, Presidt. and Deputy from Virginia. Attest WILLIAM JACKSON Secretary Attest: New Hampshire. JOHN LANGDON. NICHOLAS OILMAN. Massachusetts. NATHANIEL GORHAM, RUFUS KING. Connecticut. WM: SAML. JOHNSON, ROGER SHERMAN. New York. ALEXANDER HAMILTON. New Jersey. W T IL: LIVINGSTON, DAVID BREARLEY, WM. PATERSON, JONA. DAYTON. Pennsylvania. B FRANKLIN, THOMAS MIFFLIN, ROBT. MORRIS, GEO. CLYMER, THOS. FITZ SIMONS, JARED INGERSOLL, JAMES WILSON, Gouv MORRIS. Delaware. GEO: READ, GUNNING BEDFORD, jun JOHN DICKINSON, RICHARD BASSETT, JACO: BROOM. Maryland. JAMES MCHENRY, DAN OF ST THOS. JENIFER, DANL CARROLL. Virginia. JOHN BLAIR, JAMES MADISON, Jr. North Carolina. WM: BLOUNT, RICHD. DOBBS SPAIGHT, Hu WILLIAMSON. South Carolina. J. RUTLEDGE, CHARLES PINCKNEY, CHARLES COTES WORTH PINCKNEY. PIERCE BUTLER. Georgia. WILLIAM FEW, ABR. BALDWIN. WILLIAM JACKSON,. Secretary. THE CONSTITUTION xi AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION (The first ten are commonly called the " Bill of Rights ") - [The first ten Amendments were proposed at the First Session of the First Congress of the United States. They were declared in force December 15, 1791. These Amendments were accompanied by the following explanatory preamble and resolution: CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES, begun and held at the city of New York, on Wednesday, the 4th of March, 1789. The conventions of a number of the States having, at the time of their adopting the Constitution, expressed a desire, in order to prevent misconstruction or abuse of its powers, that further declara tory and restrictive clauses should be added; and as extending the ground of public confidence in the Government will best insure the beneficent ends of its institution: Resolved, by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, two thirds of both houses concurring, That the following articles be proposed to the legislatures of the several States, as amend ments to the Constitution of the United States, all or any of which articles, when ratified by three fourths of said legislatures, to be valid, to all intents and purposes, as part of said Constitution, viz:] ARTICLE I Freedom of Religion, Speech, and the Press ; Right of Assembly Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to peti tion the Government for a redress of grievances. ARTICLE II Right to keep and bear Arms A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed. ARTICLE III Quartering of Troops, only by Consent No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be pre scribed by law. ARTICLE IV Limiting the Right of Search The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. xii APPENDIX ARTICLE V Guaranty of Trial by Jury; Private Property to be respected No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be de prived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. ARTICLE VI Rights of Accused Persons In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been pre viously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. ARTICLE VII Rules of the Common Law In suits at Common Law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. ARTICLE VIII Excessive Bail, Fines, and Punishments prohibited Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. ARTICLE IX Other Rights of the People The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be con strued to deny or disparage others retained by the people. ARTICLE X Powers reserved to States and People The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. THE CONSTITUTION xiif ARTICLE XI 1 Limiting the Powers of Federal Courts The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign State. ARTICLE XII 2 How the President and V ice-President shall be elected The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the persons voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the per~ son voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-Presi dent, and of the number of votes for each, which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate; The President of the Senate shall, in presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted; the person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as Presi dent, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. The per son having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. ARTICLE XIII 3 The Abolition of Slavery I. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 1 Declared in force January 8, 1798. * Declared in force September 25, 1804. 8 Declared in force December 18. 1865. xiv APPENDIX 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. ARTICLE XIV l Section I. Definition of Citizenship All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Section II. How Representatives shall be apportioned Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States accord ing to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice- President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for par ticipation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. Section III. Disability resulting from Insurrection No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State Legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or com fort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two thirds of each House, remove such disability. Section IV. Public Debt of the United States valid ; Confederate Debt void .The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void. 1 Changes resulting from the Civil War. Declared in force July 28, 1868. THE CONSTITUTION xv Section V. Congress to enforce the Article The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article. ARTICLE XV l 1. The right of the citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account oi race, color or previous condition of servitude. 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. ARTICLE XVI 2 The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. ARTICLE XVII 3 1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislatures. 2. When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies: Provided, That the legislature of any State may em power the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct. 3. This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution. ARTICLE XVI II 4 The Prohibition of Intoxicating Liquors 1. After one year from the ratification of this article the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the transportation thereof from the United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof, for beverage purposes, is hereby prohibited. 2. The Congress and several States have the concurrent power to en force this article by appropriate legislation. 1 Declared in force March 30, 1870. 2 Declared in force February 25, 1913. 3 Declared in force April 8, 1913. 4 Will become effective January 16, 1920. Congress The President 1. House of Representatives 2. Senate APPENDIX To the Pupil : Learn the Preamble to the Constitution. THE PROVISIONS OF THE CONSTITUTION. (A) The Constitution provides for three departments of the Government of the United States: I. Legislative, or Law-making Power II. Executive, or Law-enforcing Power III. Judicial, or (i. Courts Law-interpreting Power (2. Judges (B) Provisions of the Constitution relative to the Congress: How chosen Term . . I. Representatives Qualifications - 2. Senate Number How determined . When determined Presiding officer. . Sole power Number Term How chosen How distributed. . Qualifications Presiding officers Sole power THE CONSTITUTION (C) Provisions of the Constitution relative to the President : Term. How chosen Qualifications The President Death or Inability to act I Oath of Office [ Impeachment ... (D) The Important Powers of Congress: - i 10 2 ii 3 I2 4 13 c 14 6 15 7 6 8 17 9 (E) Important Powers and Duties of the President: i 6 2 , 7 3 8 4- 9- 5 10. ..,. (F) How Amendments to the Constitution may be made: Proposed by -! or Ratified by ...:.. xvu XV111 APPENDIX es 3 r*i la ~n o Q E e j- 2 o < O O Q S.-S.S 5 .2, -| s *?- 2 u ^ < < ^l 55 "^* h -2 1 6 .1 * t. S a cC * - 1 8 * 3 S Ss Ifot^fl i 1 jri!?^ a |l If f l If I f ||| mil in | jffii i fi ^ s trE- ^^ ^^^f^^i? i s a wiigSei i? sg!S .- .ii .ii c i s. " ~ ll I 8"S a, x Q O OQ -^ I" -g; H <n ~ M 00 M P u n e ^a n > c J3 .5 .= U e S ^ >" S M S ^ o2 1 J , J - ^ S S s ooE M OObflo) feM MMt^^ ^ *- O 2 c fe - ,2 o o .- .Z o .- u o u o o Ja 15 !3 > > >S Z Z> >Z>ZZO. ^ Z O 00>ZO . .>R - *" <" oc!? - . ^ " e O ZO > STATES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO ORIGIN xix APPENDIX C THE STATES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO ORIGIN * 1. The thirteen original States: Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, Connecticut, Massa chusetts, Maryland, South Carolina, New Hampshire, Virginia, New York, North Carolina, Rhode Island. 2 2. States formed directly from other States: Vermont from territory disputed between New York and New Hampshire; Kentucky from Virginia; Maine from Massachusetts; West Virginia from Virginia. 3. States from the Northwest Territory (U 198) : - Ohio Illinois Wisconsin Indiana Michigan Minnesota, in part 4. States from other territory ceded by States: Tennessee, ceded by North Carolina Alabama, in part ceded by South Carolina and Georgia ^ Mississippi, in part ceded by South Carolina and Georgia 5. States from the Louisiana Purchase (^ 228) : Louisiana, in part Nebraska Montana, in part Arkansas Iowa Minnesota, in part Missouri North Dakota Wyoming, in part Kansas, in part South Dakota Colorado, in part Oklahoma, in part 6. States from the Florida Purchase (If 254): Florida Louisiana, in part Mississippi, in part Alabama, in part 7. State by annexation (Tf 280): Texas 8. States from territory defined by treaty with Great Britain (1f 285) : Oregon Washington Idaho Montana, in part Wyoming, in part 9. States from Mexican cessions (f 290) : California Wyoming, in part New Mexico, in part Nevada Colorado, in part Arizona, in part Utah Oklahoma, in part Kansas, in part IO. States from the Gadsden Purchase (Tf 290) : New Mexico, in part Arizona, in part i The States which, as a preliminary to admission, have never been Territories of the United States, are, in addition to the original thirteen, Maine, Vermont, Kentucky, West Virginia. Texas, and California. 1 Arranged in order of adoption of the Constitution. APPENDIX APPENDIX D I. A TABLE OF THE STATES Year Name Area !n Square Miles (land and water) Population 1910 Delega tion in Con gress f 1787 Delaware ... . 2 170 2O2 "^22 1 1787 Pennsylvania 4^ 126 7 66"^ III 7 -*- 1787 New Jersey 8 224 2 ^7 l67 IJ. 1788 Georgia 5Q,26S 2 609 121 X 4- IA. to 1788 Connecticut 4 .o6s I 114 7^6 7 1788 Massachusetts 8 266 3^66 A 1 6 18 0, 1788 Maryland 12 1^7 I 2Q C ( ld.6 g 1 1788 1788 South Carolina New Hampshire 30,989 0,11.1 1,515400 4^O S72 9 ? 1788 Virginia 42 627 2 06 1 6l2 12 a 1788 New York 40 2O4 9T T -? f\TA A ^ 8 I78q North Carolina C2 426 2 2O6 287 4D 12 < 1 1790 Rhode Island 1,248 542,610 r 1 7Q I Vermont 9c64 -7CC QC5 1 702 Kentucky 4O S08 2 280 QO^ 1 1 1706 Tennessee.. . 42 O22 2 184 780 1 o 1 2 1801 Ohio 41 O4O 4 767 121 2/1 1812 Louisiana 48 ^06 I 656 388 -^+ IO 1816 Indiana ^6 ^4 2 700 876 T S 1817 Mississippi 46 86^ 1,707.1 14 1 D IO 1818 Illinois *,666* c 6^8 ^oi 2Q 1819 Alabama CT QQ8 2 1^8 OQ ? *y 12 1820 Maine 7-7 O4O 7d.2 ^71 6 1821 Missouri 60 42O 3201 T.T.Z 18 1816 Arkansas Cl I T.C I.S74 440 c 18^7 Michigan C7 080 2 8lO I7"2. T r * 1845 Florida 58,666 7^2,6l9 *D 6 ^ l8A N Texas 265 806 -7 806 ^42 2O <u 1846 Iowa 56.147 2 224 771 T-J 1848 \Visconsin 56066 2 111 86O T 1 5 ; I85O California ic8 207 2 5 .77 ^4O O 1 1 c i8s8 Minnesota 84 682 2 O7^ 7O8 1 o 12 *o iuju TgCQ Oregon 06 600 672 76^ 4-J 1861 Kansas 82 i=;8 I6QO Q4Q IO *p 1863 West Virginia 24 I7O I 221 1 19 8 -o 1864 Nevada no 690 81 87^ < 1867 Nebraska 77 C2O I 192 214 8 1876 Colorado IO^ Q48 7QQ O2A. 6 1889 1889 North Dakota South Dakota 70,837 77 6l C 577,056 cS-j 5 1889 Mfontana Id.6 QQ7 "^76 O^" 2 . 1889 \Vashington 60 127 1IAI QQO 7 1890 Idaho 83 888 22^ ^04 1890 ^^yoming 07,014. 14^ 06^ 1806 Utah 84,000 J,7 7 1 7CI 4. IQO7 Oklahoma 7O O^7 i 6^7 ms IO IQI2 New Mexico 122 6^4 -727 ^OI 1912 Arizona 1 1 J oc6 204., l^td. -i TERRITORIES AND INSULAR POSSESSIONS xxi THE DELEGATION IN CONGRESS Every ten years, after the Federal census is taken, Congress decides how many Representatives there shall be from each State according to a certain fixed ratio. In August, 1911, the ratio for the next ten years was fixed at one Representative to each 211,877 inhabitants (but States having a population of less than that number are given one Representative). This establishes the present total number of Representatives at 435. A State s "Delegation in Con gress" consists of its proportionate number of Representatives and its 2 Sena tors. The number of Presidential Electors from each State is the same as the number of its Delegation. The total of Presidential Electors for 1912, there fore, is 531 (see opposite page for the Delegation of each State). II. TERRITORIES AND INSULAR POSSESSIONS Year Organized Name Area Population, 1910 1791 1868 District of Columbia Alaska 60 S90.884 331,069 64,^6 IQOO Hawaii 6.44Q 191 ,909 1 9OO Porto Rico 7.4-?^ I, Il8,OI2 1 9O2 Philippines 115,026 7, 6^,426 l Guam, estimated Tutuila group, Samoa, est. Panama Canal Zone est. . . Virgin Islands . 2IO 77 436 I ^O 9,000 6,100 50,000 T.T. QOO THE FORM OF GOVERNMENT (1) The District of Columbia. The residents have no vote in the election of either local or national officials, nor are they represented in Congress by a Delegate. Congress itself acts as the local legislature for the District, and administrative powers are vested in a board of three Commissioners ap pointed by the President with the consent of the Senate. (2) Alaska. This Territory is still in the first stage of Territorial development, having no legislative body. Its officials are appointed by the President , and it is represented in the Federal House of Representatives by a Territorial Delegate who is elected by the people; he may debate in the House, but not vote. (3) Hawaii. This is a regular Territory, with a Governor appointed by the President and a legislature of two houses. The people are represented in the Federal House of Representatives by a Territorial Delegate, who can debate but not vote. The Territory takes no part in the election of the President. (4) Porto Rico, and the Philippines. These are dependencies, not Territories. Their local affairs are administered by a legislature of two houses. They are represented in the United States by Resident Commissioners elected by the legislatures one for Porto Rico, two for the Philippines. The de pendencies, of course, take no part in the election of the President. (5) Minor dependencies. Guam and the Tutuila group, Samoa, are under the control of naval officers in command of the naval stations; while our smaller islands in the Pacific Ocean require no government, being practi- 1 The figures for the Philippines are from the official census taken in 1903. XXII APPENDIX cally uninhabited. The Panama Canal Zone is governed by the Isthmian Canal Commission under the supervision of the War Department. The Virgin Islands are at present governed by an officer of the navy, appointed by the President. A permanent form of government is being worked out. APPENDIX E TERRITORIAL GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES, 1783-1918 Territorial Division Year Acquired Area added. Square miles Purchase price Ceded by Louisiana Purchase . . . Florida 1803 l8lQ 827,987 72 101 $15,000,000 6 489 768 1 France Texas "^845 ^89.166 Annexed Oregon Territory i8j6 286 vll 2 Mexican cession Purchase from Texas . . Gadsden Purchase Alaska 1848 1850 1853 1867 529,189 4 29,671 CQO 88.1 i8,25o,ooo 3 10,000,000 10,000,000 Mexico Texas Mexico Hawaii . Porto Rico 1898 1800 6,449 7 Al^ Annexed Spain Guam l8qq 2IO Philippines Tutuila Group, Samoa . 1899 1899 115,026 77 20,000,000 Spain Great Britain Panama Canal Zone . . . Virgin Islands J904 1917 436 150 10,000,000 25,000,000 and Germany Panama Denmark Total 2,851,322 $121,939,768 1 Includes interest payments. 2 Our title to the Oregon territory was contested by Great Britain from 1818 to 1846, during which years the two nations jointly occupied the region. 3 Of which 53,250,000 was in payment of claims of American citizens against Mexico. 4 Area purchased from Texas amounting to 123,784 square miles is not included in the column of area added, because it became a part of the area of the United States with the admission of Texas. POPULATION xxin APPENDIX F POPULATION I POPULATION DURING THE COLONIAL PERIOD AND AT THE FIRST UNITED STATES CENSUS The figures of population for the colonies which became the thirteen original States are taken from estimates prepared by the Census Bureau. The first U. S. census was taken in 1790. 1650 1700 1750 1790 Virginia. 17,000 72,000 275,000 747,610 Massachusetts 18,000 70,000 180,000 378,787 New Hampshire 1,400 6,000 3 1 ,000 141,885 New York 3,000 19,000 80,000 340,120 Delaware * 59,096 6,000 24,000 100 ooo 2^7 Q46 Maryland 4-.SOO 3 1 ,000 I T>7 OOO 2IQ 728 Rhode Island 800 6,000 T.S.OOO 68 825 North Carolina S,ooo 80,000 707 7KI New Jersey 14,000 66,000 184., I^Q South Carolina Pennsylvania 8,000 20,000 68,000 150,000 249,073 4-24,777 Georgia 5,000 82,548 Vermont Kentucky Tennessee Maine 2 . . ;;;; .... 85,425 73,677 35-961 06,54.0 3 During the Colonial Period the population of Delaware was included with that of Pennsyl- Maine was a part of Massachusetts until admitted as a State in 1820. At the time of the First Census the population of Maine as a " District " was taken separately. II. TOTAL AND URBAN POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES Census Years Total Population Urban Population l Census Years Total Population Urban Population l 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 3,929,214 5,308,483 7,239,88! 9,638,453 12,866,020 17,069,453 23,191,876 131,472 210,873 356,920 475,135 864,509 1,453,994 2,897,586 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 31,443,321 38,558,371 50,155,783 62,947,714 75,994,575 91,972,2662 5,072,256 8,071,875. 14,772,438 22,720,223 30,797,185 42,623,383 1 By " urban population " is meant the total number of inhabitants in places of over 2500 population. * This total is made up of five elements: (a) native whites of native parentage, 49,488,441; (b) foreign whites or of foreign parentage, 32,244,246; (c) negroes or of negro descent, 9,828,294; (d) Indians, 265.683; (e) Asiatics, 145,602. Element (a) comprises more than half the total popu lation in 29 States; element (b), in 13 States Minnesota, North Dakota, Rhode Island, Wis consin, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Michigan, South Dakota. Mon tana, Utah, and Illinois; element (c) in South Carolina and Mississippi. In Florida, element (a) is over 49 per cent of the total population; and in Louisiana, over 46 per cent. In Nevada, ele ment (b) is over 47 per cent; and in Arizona, over 45 per cent. THE USE OF THE TABLE OF CONTENTS AND INDEX FOR OUTLINES, SUMMARIES AND REVIEWS BOTH the Table of Contents and the Index will be found valuable for outlines and reviews. The Table of Contents (pages v-xiv) may be used by the pupil as a guide in his study of a lesson or by the class and teacher working together. Each pupil should frequently make for himself an outline or a summary of a period after class discus sion has emphasized important phases. The teacher will also find the Table of Con tents very helpful in assigning lessons. The Index may be used for reviews in several ways, of which two are suggested : (1) Important subjects may be assigned alphabetically as they are found in the Index, or chronologically, or topically, as desired. Have the class itself determine, yzr^what is already known about each subject, and, second, what subjects are relatively of sufficient importance to justify special study of them. These may be assigned to the class as a whole or to individual members who will report to the class on them. In reporting on these subjects, encourage pupils to put brief outlines on the board as a guide for the discussion. (2) Related topics may be looked up as an aid to the understanding of current events. It is to be hoped, and it may be assumed, that the course in United States History has been accompanied by a discussion of current events, i.e., of history in the making. In this history, in the midst of which they have been living, will be found the interests which will produce the questioning mind to guide the pupils in their review. Let them, with the teacher s help, formulate their own questions, questions that relate to the vital present. Several such are here suggested. 1. What is the history of our government s relation to shipbuilding and ship control? 2. What has been the history of women in this country? 3. What has been the history of transportation in our country? Let us briefly consider how the first question may be studied with the Index as a guide. 1. We shall naturally turn to some significant word relating to our question, say the word ships. There we find references that lead to a study of the development or evolution of ships. This phase of the subject does not interest us now and we pass along to the subheading, "in colonial times." These and the following references we must look up, but we must keep in mind our question or problem, namely, "Our government s relation to ships," discarding all that does not bear on this. 2. Having exhausted the references under "ships," we note that we are directed to "see also Navy, etc." We should now turn to this word and follow the references under it. 3. But there are other guiding words relating to our question. The pupils should themselves think of suggesting words and make a list of them. Every one does this who investigates a subject. The list the pupils make will include, for instance, shipbuilding, commerce, trade, etc. Each of these words should be looked up in the Index, and the references consulted. Detailed outlines or extended exposition of the possibilities that lie in this kind of review and this kind of use of the Index, are unnecessary, but two illustrations may be cited. Events so widely separated as the Spanish Armada and the Monitor- Merrimac episodes emphasize the value in a nation of the initiative of private citi zens. In a democracy everything must not be left to the government. That is only the instrument which the people use. Again under " shipbuilding" the first reference reveals one of the fundamental reasons for the government control of shipping, a reason that has been so clearly in evidence in the present national crisis. INDEX KEY TO PRONUNCIATION a as in fat a as in Persia o as in not a as in mute G German as in Ham a as in fate e as in met 5 as in note u as in pull burg a as in far e as in mete 6 as in move ii German ii, H Spanish G before e a as in fall e as in her 6 as in nor French u andi a as in ask e as in prudent o as in valor n as in pound TH as in them a as in fare i as in pin 9 as in abrogate h French nasal ch German ach a as in errant I as in pine u as in tub izing n " secondary accent ABOLITIONISTS, 274, 275, 314- Acadians, removed by English, 127. Adams, John, 137, 144, 14?, i5y; Vice-Presi dent, 203; President, 216, 225-228. Adams, John Quincy, President, 264-269; in Congress, 275, 333; biography, 264. Adams, Samuel, patriot, 141, 143, 144. T 45; in Continental Congress, 147; arrest attempted, 151-153; urges independence, 158, 163. Addams, Jane, 477- Africa, i, 3~5, 7, 109. Agriculture, in colonial times, 109; in 1790, 210; in 1860, 329. See also Lands and Planta tion System. Aguinaldo (a-ge-nal do) , E., Filipino leader, 447. Airplanes, 476, 487. Alabama, part of Florida, 186, 206; settled, 258; admission to Union, 259; slave State, 259, 3io; cotton State, 211; secedes, 337; readmission, 397. Alabama, Confederate cruiser, 355; claims for, 403, 404. See also Arbitration. Alamo (a la-mo), massacre at, 289. Alaska, fur trade in, 261; purchase of, 400, 434, 449; southern boundary, 293, 294; con servation in, 461. Albany (N. Y.), Hudson at, 29; origin of name, 98; founded, 94; transportation ter minal, 237, 264-266; on map, 98. Albany Plan of Union, 125, 126. Aldrich, Nelson W., tariff bill, 465, 473. Algeria (al-je ri-a), hostilities with, 239. Algonquian (al-gon ki-an) Indians, described, 40; relations to colonists, 32-34, 95- Alien and Sedition laws, 226, 227, 230, 332 Allegheny (al lf-gen-i) Mts., traders cross, 108; railroads, 267, 268; settlers in, 343. Allegheny River, forts on, 124. Allen, Ethan, captures Ticonderoga, 154. America, origin of name, 17, 18; found to be a continent, 134. American Desert, 300; transformed, 406. Amundsen, Capt. Roald, 475. Amusements, in colonial times, 114, 115; at present, 478. Anaesthetics (an-es-thet iks) , discovered, 328. Anarchists, in United States, 421. Anderson, Maj. R., at Fort Sumter, 340, 341- Andre (an dra), Maj. John, executed, 180. Andros, Sir Edmund, governs New England, 86, 87, 90; New York, 98; New Jersey, 99. Annapolis (Md.), founded, 68; during Revo lution, 146, 187, 188; convention at, 199; naval academy, 181; on map, 71. Annapolis Royal (N. S.). See Port Royal. Anti-Federalists, oppose Constitution, 202, 213; favor "strict construction," 2*5, 331. Antietam (an-te tam), battle at, 356, 389. Appalachian Mts., forest reserve, 461. Appomattox (ap-o-mat oks) Court House, surrender at, 380-382, 390; on map, 350. Arbitration, of Alabama claims, 403, 404; Bering Sea dispute, 434, 435; of labor dis putes, 458; international, 456, 467; court for, 451. See also Peace Movement and Treaties. Arizona, explored by Coronado, 23; Indians of, 40; part of Mexican Purchase, 301; admis sion to Union, 469; irrigation in, 406. Arkansas (ar kan-sa), in Louisiana Purchase, 233; American Desert, 300; a slave State, 310; secedes, 342; during Civil War, 368, 390; readmission, 397. Arkwright, Sir Richard, inventor, 210. Armada (ar-ma da), attacks England, 27, 50. Arnold, Gen. Benedict, march to Canada, 156; treason, 179, 180, 190; in Connecticut, 184. Arthur, Chester A., President, 415-419. Ashburton, Lord, negotiates treaty, 228, 229. Asia, early trade with Europe, 1-3, 17; search for route to, 3, 5-7, 56; commerce, 56. Astoria (Ore.), founded, 236, 294. Astrolabe (as tro-labe) , invented, 5. Atlantic Ocean, feared by mariners, 3-6; crossed by Columbus, 10-14; by Cabots, 17, 28, 51; by steamships, 238, 330; cable, 399, 400. XXVI INDEX Austin, Stephen F. f Texas settler, 289. Australia, commerce with, 319, 407. Australian ballot, 466. Austria, attacks Servia, 483. Automobiles, 475- Azores Islands, Portuguese at, 4; on map, 3. BACON, Nathaniel, rebellion, 64, 65. Bahama (ba-ha ma) Islands, Columbus at, ii, 12, 47; on map, 124. Balboa (bal-bo a), Vasco Nunez, 19, 47- Ballot reform, 421, 422, 466. Baltimore, Cecil Calvert, Lord, 68, 70, 105. Baltimore, George Calvert, Lord, 68. Baltimore (Md.). founded, 68; in 1790, 206; transportation terminus, 258, 266, 267, 326; in War of 18 2, 250, 252; in Civil War, 350; first telegraph, 291-293; fire, 459. Banks, issue bills, 282-284; aid Union, 344; United States Bank, 219, 279, 333; federal reserve, 479- Barre, Col. Isaac, 138. Barry, Capt. John, naval officer, 180, 190. Bay of Fundy, settlement on, 31, 55. Belgium, invaded, 483; oppressed, 484. Bell, A. G., invents telephone, 475. Bennington, battle of, 172; on map, 166. Bering (be ring) Sea, American rights in, 434. Berkeley (berk-li), Sir John, 99. Berkeley, Sir William, 64, 65. Bienville (byari-veT), Jacques le Moyne, 38. Biloxi (Miss.), founded by French, 38. Bismarck (N. Dak.), explorers at, 235. Blackstone, William, Boston colonist, 82. Bladensburg (Md.), battle near, 250. Blockade, during Civil War, 351-353, 357, 362, 368, 376, 377, 390; blockade running, 352, 353; map of, 352; blockade of Cuban coast, 443; during World War, 487, 488. Blockhouses, described, 112. Blue Ridge, settlers on, 343- Bolsheviki, 502. Bon Homme Richard (bo-nom -re-sharO , 181. Boone, Daniel, in Braddock s army, 127; ex plores Kentucky, 178; makes road, 207; becomes Spanish citizen, 232. Booth, John Wilkes, assassin, 382. Boston (Mass.), settled, 82; in colonial times, 87, 91^ 109; during Revolution, 143-147, 151-157, 167; in 1790, 206, 207; stage route to. 116; newspapers, 114, 256, 274; temper ance reform, 268; immigrants, 258; anti-tax hand-bill, 142; on map, 87. Boundaries of United States, in 1790, 206; northeast, 288, 289; northwest, 262, 289, 296, 404; southwest, 297. Bowling (bo ling) Green (Ky.), 358. Braddock, Gen. Edward, defeat of, 127; builds road, 254. Bradford, William, 80. Bragg, Gen. Braxton, in Civil War, 371. Brandywine Creek, battle on, 172, 173, 256. Bright, John, English statesman, 400. British Columbia, boundaries, 262. British Guiana, boundary, 435. Brooklyn (N. Y.), in Revolution, 168, bridges, 419; navy yard, 458; annexed to New York, 438. Brown, John, 326, 327, 333. Brown University, founded, 114. Bryan, William J., Democratic leader, 452, 464; Secretary of State, 474. Bryce, James, 485. Buchanan, James, President, 321-327, 336, 338-340; biography, 321. Buffalo (N. Y.), transportation terminus, 264- 268, 326; mayor, 420; exposition at, 452, 453; McKinley assassinated at, 453. Buildings: Indian dwellings, 42, 43; made by colonists, 83, 96, in, 112; Dutch houses, 96, 97; blockhouses, 34, 112; schoolhouses, 209; pioneer log-cabins, 207, 287, 323; Oklahoma shanties, 428; sky scrapers, 438. Bull Run, first battle at, 350, 351; second bat tle, 356, 389; on map, 350. Bunker Hill, battle of, 143, 154-156, 190, 264; anniversary, 263; monument, 156, 263. Burgoyne (ber-goin ), Gen. John, surrenders to Americans, 171, 172, 177, 190. Burke, Edmund, friendly to colonists, 136, 141. 148, 190. Burnside, Gen. Ambrose E., 356. Burr, Aaron, Vice- President, 230; duel with Hamilton, 200; conspiracy of, 233, 234. CABINET, 423; Washington s, 216. Cable. See Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and Telegraph. Cabot (kab ot), John, discovers North Amer ica, 17, 47, 55, 97- Cabot, Sebastian, explorer, 17, 47, 97. Cahokia (111.), Indian mounds at, 42; cap tured by G. R. Clark, 178; on map, 179. Calhoun (kal-hon ), John C., enters Congress, 243; champions slavery, 276, 301, 312, 333; death, 315; biography and portrait, 276. California, Spanish in, 24; Drake visits, ?7, 28; Russians in, 261; part of Mexico, 293, 298, 300, 301; conquest of, 300; gold found in, 302-305; admission to Union, 305, 310, 311; trail to, 304, 405; oil found in, 325; com merce, 319; equal suffrage in, 429. Calvert, Leonard, governor of Maryland, 68. Cambridge (Mass.), settled, 82; college at, 84; during Revolution, 157, 175; on map, 87. Camden, battle of, 182; on map, 166. Canada, Indians of, 40; belongs to France, 95, 123; England, 156, ^33; during Revolution, 156, 167; War of 1812, 243-246, 249, 332; boundaries, 134, 186, 262, 288, 289, 404; postage to, 417. See also New France. Canals, foster commerce, 271; built by States, 284. See also Erie Canal. Canary Islands, Portuguese at, 4; Columbus, 10, i: :; on map, 3. Canonicus (ka-non i-kus), Indian chief, 80. INDEX XXVll Cape Breton (brit on) Island, Cabot at, 17; fort on, 121 ; on map, 122. Cape Cod, named, 5C- explored, 17; Pilgrims at, 78; on map, 87. Cape Horn, route via, 294, 303, 444- Cape of Good Hope, discovered, 4, 5, i~; Drake at, 28. Cape Verd Islands, Portuguese at, 4; Cervera s fleet at, 443, 444; on map, 3. Caravans, in Oriental trade, 2, 17; with Coro- nado, 22; on National Road, 254, 257; on Oregon trail, 299; on California trail, 304. Carnegie, Andrew, 429, 451. Carolina, colonized, 70, 71; Spanish trade with, 72; fur trade, 108; products, 108; piracy in, 117. See also North Carolina and South Carolina. Carson (kar son), Christopher, 298, 299. Carteret (kar ter-et) , Sir George, 99- Carteret, Philip, governor of New Jersey, 99- Cartier (kar-tya ), Jacques, discovers St. Lawrence River, 31, 48. Catholics, first English service in America, 68; persecuted, 70; debarred from Georgia, 72. See also Missions. Cavaliers (kav-a-lers ), in Virginia, 63. Cayuga (ka-yo ga) Indians, Iroquois tribe, 40. Celoron (sal-o-ron ) , Pierre Joseph, on Ohio River, 124. Central America, revolts from Spain, 261, 439; in Pan American Union, 429; relations with United States, 451. Cervera (thar-va ra) , Admiral Pascnal, Span ish commander, 443; defeat of, 444. Champlain (sham-plan ), Samuel de, 31-33- Chancellorsville (Va.), battle of, 365, 366, 389; on map, 350. Charities, in 1790, 211. Charles I, King of England, 63; colony named for, 70; grants land, 68; trouble with Par liament, 91; beheaded, 63, 65, 89. Charles II, King of England, 64, 65; exiled, 99; hunts regicides, 89, 90; land grants, 70, 97, 98, 100, 105; cancels charter, 86. Charleston (S. C.), settled, 70; in colonial times, 115; in Revolution, 146, 158; in Civil War, 340; port, 277, 278, 417; on map, 71. Charlestown (Mass.), settled, 82; records, 84; in Revolution, 152, 154; navy yard at, 246; on map, 151. Charter colonies, denned, 63; Connecticut and Rhode Island, 89, 90. Chase, Salmon P., anti-slavery leader, 317. Chatham, Lord. See William Pitt. Chattanooga (Tenn.), origin of name, 43; in Civil War, 370-372, 390; on map, 368. Cherokee Indians, 40. Chesapeake Bay, in colonial times, 56; in Revolution, 173, 184; in War of 1812, 249, 250; in Civil War, 347. Chicago, origin of name, 42; portage at, 36; massacre, 245; great fire, 409; labor troubles, 42i,433;Douglasat,3i7;World sFair,43i,432. Chickamauga, battle of, 37i, 39O. Chickasaw Indians, 40. China, early trade with Europe, 1-3; Marco Polo in, 6; famine, 446; Boxer rebellion, 449- Chinese, early inventions by, 5; exclusion of, 408; educated in United States, 450, 451; in Philippines, 447; in Hawaii, 448. Chippewa Indians, 40. Choctaw Indians, 40. Christian Commission, work of, 387. Christina (kris-te na) , Queen of Sweden, 105. "Cibola" (sib a-la), sought by Spanish, 22. Cities, in 1790, 206; in North, 270; enlarged by immigration, 329, 33o; recent growth, 307, 438, 470, 476, 477- Civil Rights Act, in Johnson s Administration, 396. Civil service reform, 274, 469; under Arthur, 415-417; commissioner for, 454. See also Spoils System. Civil War. See Wars: Civil. Clark, Champ, Speaker of the House, 465. Clark, Gen. George Rogers, conquers North west, 178, 179, 190. Clay, Henry, enters Congress, 243; proposes compromises, 260, 278, 311-313; presidential candidate, 264; on slavery, 333; death, 315; biography and portrait, 260. Clermont, steamboat, 237, 333- Cleveland, Grover, President, 420-425, 431 436, 440; biography and portrait, 420. Clinton, DeWitt, plans Erie Canal, 264. Clinton, Gen. Henry, British officer, 182, 184. Coal, mined in colonies, 109; in South, 310, 418. Cold Harbor (Va.), battle of, 373, 39O. Colonial life, described, 107-119- Colonization, Spanish, 19, 22, 23; French, 38, 55; early English efforts, 50-52; first per manent, 54-66; in Maryland, 68-70; Caro lina, 70, 71; New England, 75~92; Middle Colonies, 94-104; Georgia, 71-73; types of, 63; review, 134. Colorado, explored by Pike, 236, 237; by Fre mont, 300; in Louisiana Purchase, 233; Mex ican, 301; claimed by Texas, 297; part of Kansas, 31?; gold found in, 324. 325; admis sion, 406; equal suffrage in, 429. Columbia College, founded, 114. Columbia River, discovered, 293, 294; explored. 234-236, 299, 462; post on, 294; settlers, 295 Columbus, Christopher, early life, i ; first voy age, 4, 9-13, 47; other voyages, 13, 14. J 7 death, 14, 15; discovery celebrated, 43 1. names in honor of, 18; biography, 7. Commerce, between Europe and Asia, 1-4; in colonial times, 107-110, 134. !39; during Confederation, 195-197, 199, 201, 213; in Washington s Administration, 223; in Jeffer son s, 221, 222, 231, 238, 239; in Madison s, 241, 242; after War of 1812, 253, 255, 270, 271; in 1800, 307; aided by canals, 264, 265, 455; recent growth, 437, 438; on Pacific XXV111 INDEX Slope, 407, 450. See also Interstate Com merce Act. Communism, in Virginia, 57. Compass, invented, 5- Compromises: of the Constitution, 200, 213; on location of capital, 217, 218; Missouri, 260, 261, 311, 312, 333! on tariff (1833), 278, 279, 333; of 1850, 3H-3I3, 3i6, 333- Concord (Mass.), battle at, 151-153, 190. Confederacy, organized, 337; officials, 338; reizes Federal property, 338, 339; commis sioners, 354, 355; divided, 378. Confederation, Articles of, 192-197, 213. Congress, Stamp Act, 139; First Continental, 144, 147, 189; Second Continental, 153, 154, 158, 176, 190; at Philadelphia, 173, 174; Princeton, 187, 194; of Confederation, 192, 193, 213; of United States, 228, 271, 272, 275, 291, 395-397. Connecticut, in colonial times, 88-92, 99; in Revolution, 184; under Confederation, 195; land cession, 193; free State, 259, 310. Connecticut River, map of settlements on, 88. Conservation, Federal and State, 459-461. Constitution, convention for, 199, 200, 213; adoption, 200-202; permits slavery, 274, 275; construction of, 215, 216, 331, 332; First Amendment, 203, 275; Twelfth, 230; Thir teenth, 363, 395; Fourteenth, 396, 403, 412; Fifteenth, 397, 398, 403, 412; Sixteenth and Seventeenth, 474, 479; text, Appendix A. Constitution (Old Ironsides), warship, 246. Continentals (money), origin of term, 164. Conway, Gen. Thomas, 174. Cornwallis, Lord Charles, British officer, 182, 183; surrender, 100, 183-185, 190, 417. Coronado (k6-ro-na =H6), Francisco Vasquez de, explorations, 22, 23, 40. Corrupt Practices Act, 467. Cortes (kor-tas ), Hernando de, conquers Mexico, 18. Cotton, Southern crop, 108, 210, 211, 270, 344; first raised, 211, 417; size of crops, 308, 353, 418; during Civil War, 352-354, 362, 377. Cotton-gin, invented, 210, 211, 213. Cowpens (S. C.), battle at, 182. Crawford, VV. H., presidential candidate, 264. Creek Indians, 40; war with, 248, 272. Crimes and punishments, in colonial times, 116. Croatan (kro-a-tan ), Indian village, 52. Cromwell, Oliver, ruler of England, 63. Crown Point, captured by colonists, 129, 154- Crusades, explained, i. Cuba, visited by Columbus, 13; his remains, 14; discovered, 47; Spanish governor, 21; Spanish colony, 439, 440; revolts, 440, 441; United States army in, 442-445; independ ence, 446, 447; Taft aids, 464. Cumberland River, in Confederacy, 346, 351, 358, 359, 390. Cumberland Road. See National Road. Custer, Gen. George A., 409. DA GAMA (ga ma), Vasco, Portuguese naviga tor, 17. Dakota Indians, 40. Dale, Sir Thomas, in Virginia, 59. Dare, Virginia, birth of, 52. Darien (da ri-en) , Isthmus of. See Panama. Dartmouth College, founded, 114. Davis, Jefferson, agrees with Calhoun, 315: Confederate President, 338; captured, 382. Dearborn, Gen. Henry, in War of 1812, 245, 246, 250. Declaration of Independence, author, 231; adopted, 159, 190, 192; text, 159-162; Dolly Madison saves original of, 250; centennial celebrated, 409. Deerfield (Mass.), massacre at, 214. De Kalb. See Kalb. Delaware, Lord, governor of Virginia, 59. Delaware, colonial history, 104, 105; represen tation in Congress, 194; slave State, 259, 310; in Civil War, 343. Delaware Bay, settlers on, 104. Delaware Indians, 40. Delaware River, in colonial times, 101, 104; during Revolution, 168, 169, 173, 176. Democratic- Republicans, principles, 226-228; in power, 230. Democrats, in War of 1812, 256; national con vention, 293; desire Texas, 290; desire Ore gon, 296; joined by Tyler, 288, 290; elect President, 316, 420, 431; contest elections, 411; advocate free silver, 452. Denver, growth of, 324, 325, 406; on map, 392. Departments: Navy created, 226; Commerce and Labor, 42 1 . See also Cabinet. De Soto, Hernando, explores North America, 21, 22. Detroit, French post, 34; in Revolution, 178; in War of 1812, 245, 248. Dewey, Commodore George, 442, 448, 489. Dias (de as), Bartholomeu, discovers Cape of Good Hope, 4, 5. Diaz (de ath), Gen. Porfirio, President of Mex ico, 468. Dictionary, first American, 279. Dinwiddie, Robert, 124. Discoveries: in North America, 8-n, 17, 28, 47, 48, 97; South America, 17, 47; Florida, 19; Philippines, 20; Pacific Ocean, 19, 47; Hud son Bay and River, 28, 29, 32, 48; Northwest Passage, 21; Great Lakes, 32; Mississippi River, 22, 35-37; Columbia River, 293; North and South poles, 475. District of Columbia, formed, 218; slavery in, 275, 312, 362; government, 218. Dorchester (Mass.), disapproves railways, 267; on map, 151. Douglas, Stephen A., Democratic orator, 315- 317, 333; debates with Lincoln, 323, 324. Dover (N. H.), settled, 88; on map, 87. Drake, Sir Francis, explorer, 27, 28, 48, 294. Draper, John W., inventor, 328. Dred Scott decision, 322, 323, 333. INDEX XXIX Duluth (du-loth ), explores Northwest, 38. Dustin, Mrs. Hannah, captivity, 121. Dutch, explorations by, 28, 48; colonization, 94-07, jog, 134; in Connecticut, 88, 90; in New Jersey, 99; in Pennsylvania and Dela ware, 104, 105; surrender to English, 96-98; trading, 60, 94, no; colonial customs, 114, US- Dutch West India Company, 94, 95. EADS (edz), Capt. James B., engineer, 413. East River, bounds Manhattan Island, 96; in Revolution, 167, 168; bridged, 419. Edison, Thomas A., inventor, 509. Education in colonial times, 65, 66, 113, 114; in New England, 84; in New York, 98; in Northwest Territory, 196, 213; in 1790, 209: Jefferson aids, 231; in Philippines, 447; at present, 477- Edward VII, King of Great Britain, 455, 456. El Paso (el pa so), route via, 304; on map, 392. Electoral Count Act, 423. Electricity. See Telegraph and Telephone. Eliot (el i-ot), John, Indian missionary, 84. Elizabeth, Queen of England, 50, 51- Elizabeth (N. J.), founded, 99- Emancipation, in foreign countries, 209, 275; Lincoln s proclamation, 361-363, 384, 390; completed, 395. Embargo Act, under Jefferson, 238, 239, 332. Emigration. See Immigration and Western Migration. Endicott, John, settles Salem, 81. England, discoveries, 17, 27, 28, 47, 48, 55, 97; discovers Northwest Passage, 21; buccaneers, 26-28; conditions at home, 50, 51, 63, 70, 75, ?6, 90, 92; defeats Armada, 50, 51; coloniza tion, 50-105, 109, 134; colonial wars, 121- 133; oppresses colonists, 135, 138-148, 189; Revolution against, 151-188; impresses American seamen, 220-222, 238, 242, 332; in War of 1812, 242-253, 332; relations to Florida, 131, 186; to Louisiana, 232, 233; to Oregon, 294, 296; emancipates slaves, 209, 275; immigrants from, 330, 334; during Civil War, 352-354; Alabama claims, 403, 404; minister to, 256, 281, 321; arbitration with, 434. 435, 467; in China, 450; hostage to, 417. See also Treaties. Ericson (er ik-son), Leif (life), in America, 8. Ericsson, John, inventor, 328, 358. Erie Canal, opened, 264-266, 333. Ether, discovery of, 328. Europe, relations with the nations of. See Eng land, France, Holland, Russia, Spain. See also Arbitration, Colonization, Commerce, Explorations, Immigration, Religion, Slavery, Tariff, Treaties, Wars. Expansion of Territory: Louisiana Purchase, 232-234, 333, 439; Florida Purchase, 257, 333, 439; annexation of Texas, 290; Oregon acquisition, 296, 333; Mexiean Purchase, 301, 334; Gadsden Purchase, 301; Alaska, 400; after Spanish-American War, 446-449; Hawaii, 448; Panama Canal Zone, 455. Explorations, Portuguese, 4, 5, 18; Spanish, 9-14, 18-24, 47, 48, 56; English, 17, 27, 28, 47, 48, 51, 52, 294; Dutch, 28, 29, 48; French, 31-38, 48, 122; Lewis and Clark, 234-236, 293, 294; Pike, 236, 237; Captain Gray, 293; Fremont, 298-300; polar, 475. Express, overland, 304, 305; companies, 328. FALLEN TIMBERS, battle of, 222. Falls of St. Anthony (an to-ni), 38, 48. Faneuil (fan el), Peter, Boston merchant, 145. Farragut, David B., captures New Orleans, 360, 361, 390; Mobile, 377. 39O. Federalists, favor constitutions, 201-203, 213; urge "liberal construction," 215, 216, 227, 331, 332; in office, 225. Ferdinand, King of Aragon, aids Columbus, 7-10, 12. Field, Cyrus W., lays Atlantic cable, 400. Filipinos (fil-i-pe nos) , revolt from Spain, 441; from United States, 447. Ste also Philippine Islands. Fillmore, Millard, President, 310, 313-315. Finns, in United States, 109. Fisheries, in colonial times, 109, no; dispute concerning, 266, 404; arbitrated, 467. Fiske, John, quoted, 140-142. Fitch, John, inventor, 237. Five Nations Indians. See Iroquois. Flags, stars and stripes first used, 172. Florida, discovered, 19, 21; extent of, 21; Span ish in, 23, 54, 70, 134, 206; ceded to England, 131; retroceded to Spain, 186; purchased by United States, 257, 333, 439; admission to Union, 310; secedes, 337; readmission, 397; election frauds in, 411; Federal troops leave; 412. Foch., Gen. Ferdinand, 506. Foote, Commodore A. H., in Civil War, 390. Fort Christina (Del.), built, 105. Fort Dearborn (Chicago), 245. Fort Donelson (Tenn.), captured, 358, 359, 390; on map, 368. Fort Duquesne (dii kan ), built, 125, 127; sur rendered, 129; on map, 35. Fort Henry (Tenn.), captured, 358, 359, 39O- Fort le Bceuf (buf), on map, 35- Fort McAllister (Savannah), 376. Fort McHenry (Baltimore), besieged, 250. Fort Moultrie (mol tri), 158. Fort Nassau (nas a) . See Albany. Fort Necessity, Washington at, 125; map, 35- Fort Niagara (N.Y.), taken by English, 129. Fort Orange. See Albany. Fort Pitt (Pittsburg), named, 129. Fort Schuyler (ski ler), flies new flafi, 172. Fort Stanwix (N. Y.), on map, 166. See alsa Fort Schuyler. Fort Sullivan (Charleston), attacked, 158. Fort Sumter (Charleston), captured, 340, 34 L 35O, 389; on map, 352. XXX INDEX Fort Sutter (Cal.), gold found near, 302. Fort Ticonderoga (N. Y.), site, 33; in colonial wars, 129; in Revolution, 154, 157, 171, 172. Fort Yuma (yu ma) , route via, 304. Fortress Monroe (Va.), in Civil War, 338, 342, 376; on map, 350. Fox, Charles James, 141. Fox Indians, 40. Fox River (Wis.), Marquette on, 36. France, trade with Orient, 1-3; refuses to aid Columbus, 8; discoveries, 29, 48; coloniza tion, 31, 38, 55, 70, 122, 123; relations with Indians, 31-34, 95, 132; settlers in English colonies, 70, 90, 101, 104, 107, 109; colonial wars, 121-133; aids American Revolution, 174-176, 181-184, 186, 190; debts to, 194; Revolution (1793), 171, 220; American dis putes with, 225, 226, 242, 332; cedes Lou isiana, 232, 233, 439; friendly to Confed eracy, 354, 401; begins Panama Canal, 454, 455; soldiers in China, 450; arbitration treaty with, 434. See also New France. Franklin, Benjam in, Revolutionary patriot, 126, 159, 163; agent for colonies, 139, 148; in France, 174; at Constitutional Conven tion, 199; Federalist, 201; an inventor, 112; nickname, 181; biography and portrait, 126. Fredericksburg (Va.), battle, 356; on map, 350. Freedmen s Bureau Act, 397. Fremont (fra-mont ), John C., explorations, 298-300, 304. Fugitive Slave Law, 312-315, 322, 333- Fulton (ful ton), Robert, inventor of steam boat, 210, 237; invention celebrated, 475. Fur trade, French in, 34, 35, 37, 38, 90, 131; Dutch in, 89, 90, 94-96; English in, 64, 72, 108-110, 123; in Northwest, 235, 236, 261, 294, 296, 332; territory kept for, 146, 147. GADSDEN PURCHASE, 301. Gage, Gen. Thomas, governor of Massachu setts, 147; commands at Boston, 151, 154; returns to England, 157. Galveston (Tex.), 438; on map, 392. Gama. See Da Gama. Garfield, James A., President, 415. Garrison, William Lloyd, abolitionist, 274, 275. Gaspee (gas-pe ), British tea vessel, 143. Gates, Gen. Horatio, 174, 182. Genet (zhe-na ), E. C., French agent, 220. Geneva, arbitration tribunal at, 404. Genoa (ien o-a), Italy, i. George II, King of England, 71, 73, 127. George III, King of England, 135, 136, 138- 148, 158, 160-163, 186, 190. Georgia, settlement of, 71 -73; during Revolu tion, 181-183; land cession, 193; slave State, 259, 3io; emigration from, 258; secedes, 337; in Civil War, 372, 374~376. Germans, immigrants in colonial times, 72, 101, 104, 107, 109, 112; in recent years, 330, 334; emperor as arbitrator, 404. Germantown (Pa.), battle at, 172, 173, 256. Germany, rivalries of, 482; invades Belgium 483, 484; terrorism, 487-489; foreign intrigue, 458, 459; war with, 496-507. Gettysburg, battle of, 366, 367; Lincoln r speech at, 367, 368; on map, 350 Gila (ne la) River, 301. Gladstone, W. E., commends Constitution, 200 Goethals, Gen. George W., 501. Gold, in Oriental trade, 2; West Indies, 12-14; Spanish colonies, 18, 26; English search for, 52, 54, 55, 58; King s share, 101; discovery of in California, 302-305, 334- Colorado, 324, 325, 334, Nevada, 325, Alaska, 400; amount ?e- cured, 305, 407 ; as specie, 283; standard, 452. Goldsboro (N. C.), battle at, 376; on map, 352. Gorges (gor jez), Sir F., land grant to, 88. Gosnold, Bartholomew, explorer, 52. Government, of colonies, 61-63, 73, 79, 80, 82, 83, 86, 87, 90, 91, 98, 101-103, no, 125, 126, 135-138, 146, 147, 189; during Revolution, 147, 148, 153, 159-163, 190; under Confed eration, 192-197; changes made by Consti tution, 200, 201; of Confederacy, 337, 338; control of railroads, 423, 424, 461; control of food and drugs, 461, 462. Governors, meet at Washington, 461. Grant, Gen. Ulysses S., in Civil War, 359, 369- 374, 380-3&2, 389-391; President, 403-410, 416; death, 420; Memoirs, 298, 420; biogra phy, 403. Grasse (gras), Count Francois de, 184. Gray, Capt. Robert, 236, 293. Great Britain, Revolution against, 151, 188; in War of 1812, 242, 253, 332; arbitration with, 434. 435, 467. See England, and Treaties. Great Lakes, discovered, 32-34, 48, 134; French possess, 123; forts on, 129; first steamboat, 238; in War of 1812, 245, 247; connected with ocean, 265. Great Meadows, Washington at, 125. Great Salt Lake, explored, 299. Greeley, Horace, editor, 361. Green Bay (Wis.), 34; Marquette at, 36. Greene, Gen. Nathanael, 182, 183, 190. Greenland, Norwegians in, 6. Guam (gwam), ^48, Guilford (gil frod), settled, 89; on map, 88. Guilford Court House (N. C.), battle at, 182. Gulf of Mexico, Spanish in, 21, 22, 34, 36, 48; French, 37; during Civil War, 360, 377, 379; hurricane, 438. Gulf of St. Lawrence, explored, 54; in colonial wars, 121. Gunpowder, invented, 5. Guthrie (Okla.), built, 428; on map, 392. HAGUE (hag), 451. Haiti (ha ti), discovered, 13, 47; Columbus buried at, 14. Hale, Nathan, executed as a spy, 168. Half Moon, Hudson s ship, 28, 29. Halifax (Nova Scotia), Howe at, 158. Halleck, Gen. Henry W., 358, 359. INDEX XXXI Hamilton, Gen. Alexander, services to Consti tution, 199-201, 241; Secretary of Treasury, 216-219, 222, 332; biography, 199, 200. Hampton Institute (Va.), 419. Hampton Roads (Va.), battle in, 357, 358. Hancock, John, I5i-i53, 163. Hancock, Gen. Winfield S., at Gettysburg, 366. Harper s Ferry (Va.), captured by Brown, 326. Harrisburg (Pa.), threatened by Confederates, 366; on map, 350. Harrison, Benjamin, signer of Declaration, 287. Harrison, Benjamin, President, 426-430. Harrison, William Henry, defeats Indians, 242 ; British, 248; President, 286-288. Hartford (Conn.), settled, 88; in colonial times, 89, 90; in War of 1812, 244; on map, 88. Harvard, Rev. John, endows college, 84. Harvard College, founded, 84, 108, 114; grad uates, 225, 264, 454. Havana (ha.-van a), Cuba, under Spanish re gime, 14, 21, 440; captured by English, 131. Hawaii (ha-wi e), annexed, 448. Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 478. Hay, John, Chinese policy, 450. Hayes, Rutherford B., in Civil War, 437; elec tion contest, 411; President, 411-416. Hayne, Robert Y., 277, 333. Hennepin, Father Louis, 37, 38. Henry VII, King of England, 17 Henry, Patrick, 62, 138, 141, 147, 201. Merkimer (her ki-mer) , Gen. Nicholas, 172. Hessians, in Revolution, 158, 168, 169^ 190. Hobson, Lieut. Richmond P., 445. Hoe, Richard M., inventor, 328. Holland, Pilgrims in, 76, 77; abolishes slavery, 209; creditor of United States, 194- See also Dutch. Homestead Act, 404, 405, 426. Honolulu (ho-no-16 lo), cable to, 455- Hooker, Gen. Joseph, Unfon commander, 365, 366, 371, 372, 389- Hooker, Thomas, Connecticut pioneer, 89. Hoover, Herbert C., 484. Hopkinson, Joseph, author of song, 226. Horseshoe Bend (Ala.), battle of, 248. House of Representatives, chooses President, 230, 264. See also Congress. Houston, Gen. Sam, in Texas, 289, 290. Howe, Elias, inventor, 329, 475. Howe, Gen. William, British commander, 155, 156, 168, 171, 173, 174; evacuates Boston, 157, 158, 167. Hudson, Henry, discoveries, 28, 29, 32, 48, 94! death, 29; discovery celebrated, 475. Hudson, John, death, 29. Hudson Bay, discovered, 29. Hudson River, discovered, 32, 48, 94; named, 29; settlers on, 78, 95, 109, 206; during Rev olution, 129, 154, 167, 168, 171, 176, 179, 184; War of 1812, 245; terminus of Erie Canal, 264, 266; first steamboat on, 237, 333; tunneled, 419. Huerta, Gen. Victoriano, 468, 480, 491. Hughes, Judge Charles Evans, 492, 493- Huguenots, in Carolina, 70. Hull, Capt. Isaac, naval captain, 246. Hull, Gen. William, surrenders Detroit, 245, 246. Huron Indians, 40. Hutchinson, Mrs. Anne, 85, 86. IBERVILLE (e-ber-vel ) > Pierre le Moyne, founds Louisiana, 38. Iceland, Columbus in, 6; Norwegians in, 6, 17. Idaho, in Oregon country, 296; admission to Union, 428; woman suffrage in, 428. Illinois (il-i-noi ), during the Revolution, 178; Lewis and Clark in, 234; admission to Union, 195, 259; National Road in, 254; free State, 259, 3io; slavery debates in, 323; Lincoln, 336, 337; presidents from, 336, 403. Illinois Indians, mission for, 35- Immigration, in colonial times, 109; to Louisi ana Purchase, 233; after European wars, 258; to North, 307, 308; increase, 329, 330, 334, 476, 477; opposition to, 319. See also Chinese. Impeachment of Johnson, 397, 398. Indentured servants, 60. Independence Hall, 147. Independent treasury, established, 284. India (Indies), early trade with Europe, 1-3; reached by Portuguese, 5; water route to, 6, 7, 14, 17; Columbus confounds with West Indies, 12; route thither sought, 47, 134. Indians (in di-anz), population, 40,48; mounds, 42; villages, 22, 23, 42-44; dress, 43; moc casins, 113; religion, 41, 42; missions for, 24, 34, 35, 84; customs, 48; relations to whites, 44-46; to Spanish, 12-14, 19, 22, 23; to French, 31-34. 36, 38, 132; to Dutch, 95, 105; to Virginia, 52, 57, 58, 63, 64; to Mary land, 68, 69; to New England, 75, 80, 81, 89- 92, 95, 132-134; to Quaker colonies, 100- 102; during colonial wars, 108, 112, 121, 127, 128, 137; during Revolution, 171, 178, 179, 190; later wars with, 213, 222, 234-236, 242, 243, 245, 248, 257, 272, 273, 286, 287, 294-296, 300, 332, 409; in Alaska, 261; trade with, 27, 33, 34, 72, 88, 109, 236; sell land, 85, 94, 99, 100, 103; reservations, 46, 427; school for, 419; map of tribes, 40. See also Fur trade, Missions, and Treaties. Indian Territory, Oklahoma formed from, 427; added to Oklahoma, 428. Indiana, a territory, 242; admission to Union, 195, 259; free State, 259, 310; oil found in, 325; President from, 426. Indigo, Southern crop, 71, 108, no, 270. Industrial Workers of the World, 470. Initiative, the, 466. Internal improvements, 271, 272, 284, 333. Interstate Commerce Act, 423, 424; commis sion for, 424, 461. Intolerable Acts, passed by Great Britain, 146-147, 189. XXX11 INDEX Inventions: American progress in, 319, 328, 329, 334,474-477; gunpowder, printing, com pass, 47; stoves, 112; cotton-gin, 210, 213; sewing machine, 329, 475; steamboat, 237; stfam engine, 266, 267; telegraph, 291, 292; cable, 399, 400; telephone, 475; typewriter, 509; wireless, 406. Iowa, in Louisiana Purchase, 233; admission to Union, 310; free State, 260. Irish immigrants, 330, 334. Iron, mined in colonies, 109, no; manufac tured, in; in South, 308, 418. Iroquois (ir-o-kwoi ) Indians (Five Nations, Six Nations), 32, 40, 95, 13 Irrigation, in West, 300, 406, 407. Irving, Washington, 236. Isabella of Castile, aids Columbus, 7-10, 12. Island Number 10, in Civil War, 358, 360, 390. Italians, navigators, 1-3, 6, 17, 18, 29, 47; as arbitrators, 434; sufferers from earthquake, 446. JACKSON, Gen. Andrew, in War of 1812, 248, 251-253, 332; invades Florida, 257; candi date for President, 264; President, 272-279, 281; attitude toward Union, 276, 277, 333, 338, 388; biography and portrait, 272. Jackson, Gen. Thomas J. (Stonewall), 351, 355, 356, 366, 389, 39i; portrait, 355- James I, King of England, 54, 55, 58, 63, 76, 77, 79; places named for, 56. James II, Duke of York, 98-100; King of Eng land, 87, 90. Jamestown, Virginia colony, 56-59, 64, 65. Japan, early trade with Europe, 1-3; visited by Perry, 319; sealing troubles with, 434, 435; cooperates in China, 450; in arbitration court, 451; treaty with, 467; in Hawaii, 448. Jay, John, chief justice, 216; negotiates treaty, 221, 222. Jefferson, Thomas, Revolutionary patriot, 62, 153; writes Declaration of Independence, 159; in Washington s cabinet, 216; Presi dent, 230-239; inauguration, 218; purchases Louisiana, 232, 233, 332; policy, 196, 332; opinions, 227, 228, 261. Joffre, Marshal, 497. Johnson, Andrew, President, 393-401. Johnston, Gen. Albert S., 359. Johnston, Gen. Joseph E., Confederate com mander, 380; surrenders, 382, 390, 391. Jolliet (zho-lya ), Louis, 35, 36. Jones, John Paul, 180, 181, 190. KALB, Baron Johann de, 170, 196. Kamchatka (kam-chat ka) Sea, 435- Kansas, explorations, 23, 236, 300; in -Louisi ana Purchase, 233; American desert, 300; slavery struggle in, 317, 318, 322, 326, 333; admission, 318, 406; oil found in, 325. Kansas City (Mo.), terminus of Santa Fe trail, 299; growth, 406; on map, 299. Kansas-Nebraska bill, 316, 317. ! Kearny (kar ni), Stephen W., 300, 301. | Kentucky, during Revolution, 178, 179; road to, 207; in 1790, 206; admission to Union, 223; resolutions of 1799, 226-228, 332; growth, 251, 258; slave State, 259, 310; in Civil War, 343, 360, 370; statesmen from, 243, 260. Key, Francis Scott, 250. Kidd, Capt. William, pirate, 117. Kiel Canal, 483. King Philip, Indian chief, 91, 92. King s College. See Columbia College. King s Mountain, battle of, 182; on map, 166. Know Nothings, political party, 319. Knox (noks), Gen. Henry, 204, 216. Kosciuszko (kos-i-us ko), Gen. Tadeusz, in the Revolution, 170, 190. Ku-Klux-Klan, 399- LABOR, in colonial times, 56, 57, 60, 108; North and South compared, 270, 271, 307-309, 418; unemployed, 284, 433; organized, 470; strikes, 408, 421, 433, 457, 458, 469, 47O See also Panics and Slavery. 1 Labrador, Cabot s voyage to, 17; explored, 36. I Ladrone Islands, 448. See also Guam. Lafayette (la-fa- yet ) , Marquis de, 170, 171, 183, 190; revisits America, 156, 263; biogra phy and portrait, 170, 171. Lake, Simon, inventor, 476. Lake Borgne (bor ny), British fleet in, 251. Lake Champlain, discovered, 32, 48; forts on, 154; route via, 129, 156, 167, 171, 245; bat tle, 249. Lake Erie, 32; Indians near. 40; united with Hudson, 264, 265; naval battle, 247, 248. Lake George, route via, 156. Lake Huron (hii ron), discovered, 32. Lake Michigan, 32, 33; Marquette on, 36. Lake Ontario, 32; Indians near, 40. Lake Superior, 32; explored, 38. Lake Winnipeg (win i-peg), French visit, 38, J Lake of the Woods, on boundary line, 262, 289, 296; on map, 192. Lancaster (Pa.), Congress at, 174- Lands: in colonial times, 51, 56-59, 62, 72, 73, 95; States cede, 193, 213; speculation in, 282, 321; Homestead Act, 404, 405; grants to railroads, 405; Oklahoma opened, 427, 428; forest reserves, 461. See also Conser vation and Irrigation. La Salle, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de, 36-38. Lawrence, Capt. James, 247, 248. Lee, Gen. Charles, 168, 176, 190. Lee, Gen. Fitzhugh, 446. Lee, Col. Henry, 183, 190, 228^^.5. Lee, Richard Henry, 147, 203.^^ Lee, Gen. Robert E., ancestors, 64, 183; joins Confederacy, 345; battles, 355, 356, 365, 366, 368, 372, 373, 379, 38o, 38,9, 39i; sur renders, 380-382, 390. Lewis and Clark, exploring expedition, 234- 236, 293, 294, 332, 333; centennial of, 462 < INDEX XXXI 11 Lexington (Mass.), battle at, 151-1 S3, IQO. Lincoln (ling kon), Abraham, debates with Douglas, 323, 324, 333; election, 336, 337! in auguration, 339; call for troops, 341 . 342; releases Mason and Slidell, 354; cabinet, 329, 361; slavery sentiment, 333, 339; Eman cipation Proclamation, 361-363, 390; Get tysburg address, 367, 368; second inaugural, 379; on Union, 388; at Richmond, 380; mes sage to, 376; reconstruction plan, 39O, 394! assassination, 382, 383, 390. Lincoln, Gen. Benjamin, 185. Lisbon (Portugal), Columbus at, 6, 7- Little Bighorn River, fight on, 409. Livingston, Robert R., 159. London Company, charter, 54, 63; grants, 59; colony, 55-58, 61-63; grants on map, 54- Long Island, settled, 89; battle of, 167; bridge to, 419. Longfellow, H. W., 127, 152. Lookout Mountain, battle of, 371, 372. Los Angeles, (los an je-les), Kearny at, 301; growth, 407; on map, 299. Louisburg, captured, 121, 122, 129 . Louisiana (16-e-ze-an a) , State, in Louisiana Purchase, 233; War of 1812, 253; settled, 258; admission to Union, 259; slave State, 259. 3io; cotton State, 211; secedes, 337; in Civil War, 368, 390, 397; reconstruction in, 397, 411, 412; President from, 310. Louisiana Province, named, 37; colonized by French, 38, 123; ceded to Spain, 131, 206, 231; retroceded to France, 232, 439; sold, 232-234; eastern limit, 186. Louisiana Purchase, 232-234, 332, 439; ex plored, 234-237; boundaries, 257, 262; settle ment in, 258, 259; organized, 316; slavery in, 312, 333; centennial exposition, 462. Loyalists, 158, 171, 174, 178, 182, 221. Lumber, exported, 109, no. Lusitania, torpedoed, 488. Luzon (16-zon ), Philippine Island, 447. Lynn (Mass.), settled, 82. McCLELLAN, Gen. George B., 355, 356, 389. McClure, Capt. Robert, 21. McCormick, Cyrus H., 329, 475. Macdcnough (mak-don o), Lieut. Thomas, defeats British, 249. Mackenzie, Sir Alexander, explorer, 294. Mackinac (mak i-na), French post, 34, 36; captured (1812), 245. McKinley, William, tariff bill, 426; President, 437-453; assassinated, 453. Madeira (ma-de ra) Islam^^. 109. Madero, Fran^ho, 468.^^ Madison, James, in Virginia assembly, 62; father of Constitution, 199, 201; Virginia Resolutions by, 227; President, 241-255. Magellan (ftia-jel an), Ferdinand, circum navigates globe, 19-21, 47, 48; discovers Philippines, 439; portrait, 20. Maine, coast explored, 52; part of Massachu setts, 88; settlements, 87, 88; fur trade, 90 during Revolution, 156; admission to Union. 260; free State, 260, 310; boundary, 288. Maine, battleship, 440, 441. Manassas (ma-nas as) Junction, battle rcar, 350. See also Bull Run. Manhattan (man-hat nn) Island, purchased of Indians, 94, 95; in colonial times, 96, 98; in Revolution, 167, 168, 171, 186; recent times, 410, 438. See also New York City. Manila (ma-ne la), Philippine capital, 447; under Americans, 442, 449, 455. Manila Bay, battle in, 442. Manufactures, in colonies, 109-111, 134; about 1790, 222, 223; during War of 1812, 253, 332; in Northern States, 270, 271, 307; protected, 218; North and South contrasted, 344; dur ing Civil War, 385; in recent times, 418, 438, 469, 470; center of, 469. See also Tariff. Manufacturing Acts, 189. Maps : Civil War: Atlanta Campaign and Sher man s March, 375, Blockaded Coast, 352, in the East, 350, in the West. 368; Colum- bus s, 7; Columbus s Voyages, 13; Connec ticut Valley, 88; Early Voyages, 21; French and Indian War, 122; Indian Tribes, 40; London and Plymouth Companies Grants, 54; Mediaeval Routes of Trade, i; Mexican War, 297; Middle Colonies, 99; New England Coast, 87; New Netherland, 98; North America in 1650, 94; North America in 1750, 124; North America after 1763, 132; Northwest Territory, 195; Panama Canal Zone, 454; Pilgrims in Europe, 76; Portage Routes, 35; Revolution: near Boston, 151; Revolution: in general, 166; Revolution: in West, 179; Southern Colonies, 71; Spanish-American War: Manila Bay, 442; Spanish-American War: Santiago Cam paign, 443; United States: in 1783, 192; United States; before 1803, 234; United States: after 1803, 235; United States: in 1820, 260; United States: in 1854, 316; United States: in 1863, 342; United States: Continental expansion, 392, 393; United States, and its possessions, 449; War of 1812, 245; Western Trails and Railroad Routes, 299; Westward Movement (center of population and manufactures), 469; World before Columbus s voyage, 3. Marconi (mar-ko ne), Guglielmo, 456, 476. Marion (mar i-on), Gen. Francis, 183. Mark Twain (S. L. Clemens), 478. Marquette (mar-ket ), Father Jacques, 35, 36. Marshall, John, chief justice, 216, 217, 228. Maryland, in colonial times, 64, 6870, 103, 104, 128, 134; fur trade in, 108; forces West ern land claims, 193; cedes District of Co lumbia, 218; slave State, 259, 310; during Civil War, 343, 356, 380. Mason, James M., 353, 354, 390. Mason, John, obtains grant, 88. XXXIV INDEX Mason and Dixon line, surveyed, 103, 104; boundary between slave and free States, 313, 314. 339, 367. Massachusetts (mas-a-cho sets) , Indians, 40; in Revolution, 142-144, 146, 180; free State, 209, 259, 3io; in Civil War, 350; presidents from, 225, 264. Massachusetts Bay, settlements near, 78, 206. Massachusetts Bay Colony, settled, 81-84, 134; charter, 87; General Court, 82-84; ex pels dissenters, 85, 86, 90; colonial life, 88- 92, 121. Massasoit, Indian chief, 80. Maumee (ma-me ) Rapids, battle near, 222. Maximilian (mak-si-mil i-an), 401. Mayflower, Pilgrims ship, 77-80. Mayflower Compact, 79, 80, 89. Meade, Gen. George G., 366, 389. Meat Inspection Bill, 462. Mecklenburg (mek len-berg) County (N.C.), Declaration of Independence, 159. Mediterranean (med"i-te-ra ne-an) Sea, early navigation of, i, 4, 6; piracy in, 239. Merrimac, duel with Monitor, 356-358, 390. Merrimac River, 88. Mexico, under Spain, 18, 22, 23, 26, 28, 134; revolts from Spain, 261, 439; abolishes slavery, 209; trouble with Texas, 289, 290; includes California, 293; sells lands to U.S., 301, 334! boundary dispute, 297; Maxi milian in, 401; in Postal Union, 417; recent troubles, 465, 467, 468, 480, 491. See also Wars: Mexican. Mexico City, 22, 298. Miami (mi-am e) Indians, 40. Michigan, admission to Union, 195; a free State, 310; forest fires in, 409. Middle Colonies, social customs, 109, 114, 115; in the Revolution, 167-177. Middletown (N.J.), founded, 99. Milford (Conn.), settled, 89. Mills, colonial, in. See also Manufactures. Mindanao (men-da-na o), Philippines, 447. Mining, in Spanish colonies, 18, 19; in English colonies, 58, 109, no; during Civil War, 385; in South, 308, 418; labor troubles, 408. See also Coal, Gold, Iron, and Silver. Minnesota (min-e-so ta) , in Louisiana Pur chase, 233; admission to Union, 195, 318; forest fires, 409. Mint, established, 219, 451. Minuit (min u-it), Peter, 94. Minutemen, 151-154. Miquelon (mek-lon ) Island, 131. Missions, in Spanish colonies, 23, 24; in New France, 34, 35, 37; in New England, 84; in Oregon, 294. Missionary Ridge, battle of , 37L 372. Mississippi, part belongs to Spain, 186, 206; settled, 258; admission, 259; slave State, 259, 310; cotton State, 211; secedes, 337. Mississippi River, discovered by Spanish, 22; by French, 35-37, 48; settlement of, 123; flatboats, 231; free navigation, 231-233; in War of 1812, 249, 251; in Civil War, 346, 347, 351, 358, 360, 361, 368, 370, 374! first steamboat, 237; jetties, 413, 414. Mississippi Valley, Indian mounds in, 42; French in, 37, 38; development, 404, 455. Missouri (mi-zo ri), in Louisiana Purchase, 233; admission to Union, 259, 260, 333; slave State, 260, 310, 322; does not secede, 343. Missouri Compromise, 260, 261; repealed, 316, 317, 322. Missouri River, explored, 234, 235; terminus of route, 294, 304; settlement beyond, 405, 406. Mobile (mo-bel ), 186; in War of 1812, 253; in Civil War, 377, 390; on map, 352. Mohawk Indians, Iroquois tribe, 40. Mohawk River, 32, 171, 206, 264. Money, in colonial times, 86; during Revolu tion, 164, 194, 196, 197; before panic of 1837, 282-284; in Civil War, 384-386; before panic of 1873, 408; specie payments, 412, 413; coinage, 219; free coinage of silver, 451, 452; gold standard adopted, 452; in World War, 500, 507. Monitor, duel with Merrimac, 356-358, 390. Monmouth (mon muth), battle of, 176, 190, 256; on map, 166. Monongahela (mp-non-ga-he la) River, 124. Monroe (mun-ro ), James, in Virginia assem bly, 62; President, 256-263. Monroe Doctrine, declared, 261, 262, 333; later applications, 401, 435, 456, 480. Montana (mon-ta na), in Louisiana Purchase, 233; part of Nebraska Territory, 317; In dians of, 409; admission to Union, 428. Montcalm (mont-kam ), Marquis de, 130. Monterey (mon-te-ra ) , 302; on map, 297. Montgomery, Richard, invades Canada, 156. Montgomery (Ala.), Confederate capital, 337- Monticello (mon-te-sel lo) , 231. Montreal, founded, 31; French settlement, 38, 123, 129; surrenders to English, 122, 131; in Revolution, 156; on map, 122. Moors, war with Spain, 8; with United States, 239- Morgan, Gen. Daniel, at Cowpens, 182, 190. Morris, Robert, 169, 170. Morse, Samuel F. B., 291-293, 328, 400, 455. Moultrie (mol tri), Col. William, 158. Mount Vernon, Washington s home, 188, 203. Muskogee (mus-ko ge) Indians, 40. NAPOLEON I, wars of, 226, 243, 248, 332; frees Lafayette, 171; sells Louisiana, 232-234. Napoleon III, interference in Mexico, 401. Narragansett (nar-a-gan set) Bay, colonized, 85, 91; pirates in, 117. Narragansett Indians, 40. National Defense Act, 490. National-Republicans, merge in Whigs, 286. See also Democratic-Republicans. National Road, built, 254, 255,333; travel on. 257, 258. INDEX XXXV National War Labor Board, 464. 499- Navigation Acts, in colonial times, 109, no, 189; enforced, 136, 137- Navy, during Revolution, 164, 180, 181; war with France, 226; in Barbary wars, 239; in War of 1812, 244, 246-249, 252, 332; in Civil War, 345, 346, 351-353, 376, 377, 390; in Spanish War, 441-445; Pacific stations for, 448; voyage of battleship fleet, 458; in World War, 489, 490, 496. Nebraska, in Louisiana Purchase, 231, 233; American desert, 300; a territory, 316, 317; admission to Union, 406. Negroes, in Northern army, 362; problems of, 393-397, 412; progress, 419, 508. Netherlands, rebel against Spain, 27. Neutrality, Washington proclaims, 220; Wilson proclaims, 484. Nevada (ne-va da) , part of Mexican Purchase, 301; precious metals in, 325; admission, 406. New Amsterdam, described, 94~97, nS- See also Manhattan Island, and New York City. New England, coast explored, 29; early fish eries, 10; named, 75, 78; colonized, 75^92, 134; royal governors of, 87, 90, 98; religious persecutions in, 64, 92, 96; colonial customs of, 108-111, 113-116; during colonial wars, 121, 122; in Revolution, 167, 171; in 1790, 206; disapproves War of 1812, 242-244, 256; anti-slavery laws, 209. See also Boston, and the respective colonies. New England Confederation, 90, 91. New France, founded, 31-34; growth, 34~37; in colonial wars, 121-129; surrendered to British, 129-133; population, 125; religion, 68. See also Canada. New Hampshire, first settlements, 86-88; fur trade in, 90; in colonial wars, 121; a free State, 259, 310; President from, 316. New Haven (Conn.), settled, 89; colonial gov ernment, 89, 91; on map, 88. New Jersey, colonial history, 99, 100, 109, 114; royal governor, 87, 98; during Revolu tion, 168-170, 176; during Confederation, 195; a free State, 209, 259, 310; in recent times, 419. New Mexico, Indians of, 40; during Spanish regime, 22-24, J 34, 237; part of Mexico, 298; claimed by Texas, 297; in Mexican Purchase, 301; territory, 312; admission, 469. New Netherland, colonized, 94-97; becomes New York, 98; extent, 104. New Orleans, French settlement, 34, 38, 123, 131; under Spanish, 231; in War of 1812, 250-253, 332; in Civil War, 360, 390; recent times, 414, 417, 418; on map, 124. New Sweden, history of, 105. New York (State), Indians of, 32, 40; taken from Dutch, 98, 99; royal governor, 87, 98; population in 1673, 98; colonial customs, 114, 116; in colonial wars, 122; in Revolu tion, 178; in Confederation, 195; War of 1812, 249; a free State, 209, 259, 310; builds Erie Canal, 264, 266; oil in, 325; governor, 281, 420; presidents from, 281, 313, 415, 420, 454- New York Bay, discovered, 29; importance of, 98; Statue of Liberty in, 424. New York City, in colonial times, 96, 97, us. 134; during Revolution, 146, 154, 163, 167, 168, 176, 179, 183, 187, 190; population in 1790, 206; United States capital, 203, 218, 222; celebrates Erie Canal, 264, Civil War, 367; in recent times, 258, 319, 326, 409, 438, 439; Hudsen- Fulton celebra tion, 29, 4755 newspapers, 116, 227, 279. Newark (N.J.), founded, 99- Newcastle (Del.), Penn at, 101; on map, 99. Newfoundland (nu-found land) , Cabot s voy age to, 17; cable terminus, 399, 400; fisheries, 404, 467. Newport (R.I.), founded, 86; chartered, 90. Newspapers, in colonial times, 114; in 1790, 209; first one-cent, 279; in Oklahoma, 428. Niagara River, 245, 329. Nicolet (nik p-la), Jean, in Northwest, 33- Nina (nen ya), Columbus s ship, 9. Nobel (no-bel ) peace prize, to Roosevelt, 456. Non-Intercourse Act, 239, 241, 332. Norfolk (Va.), navy yard, 342, 357- North, Frederick, Lord, British statesiuan, 186. North, anti-slavery sentiment in, 274, 290, 297, 301, 310, 313-315, 326; economic conditions in, 260, 270-272, 307-310; effect of Civil War in, 326, 385-387. North America, discovered, 17, 47, 55; claimed by English, 28. North Carolina, in colonial times, 29, 51, 54, 71; during Revolution, 143, 182; land cession of, 193; emigration from, 207, 258; a slave State, 310; secedes, 342; in Civu War - 376; readmission, 397. North Dakota (da-ko ta), in Louisiana Pur chase, 233; admission to Union, 428. North Pole, discovered, 475- North River. See Hudson. Northwest, explored by French, 38; during Revolution, 178, 179; forts kept by British, 221; in War of 1812, 247, 248. Northwest Passage, search for, 21, 29, 48. Northwest Territory, organized, 195, 196, 213; Indian war in, 222; map of, 195- Norwegians, in Iceland, 6; in Nova Scotia, 17; explorers, 21, 475; arbitrators, 434. Nova Scotia, Norwegians in, 6; under English rule, 121, 127, 128, 245. Nueces (nwa ses) River, as a boundary, 297. Nullification, in 1798-99, 226-228, 332; in South Carolina, 276-279, 288, 311, 334! in Wisconsin, 313. OGDEN (Utah), railroad junction, 405, 406. Oglethorpe (o gl-thorp) , Gen. James, founder of Georgia, 71-73, 211. Ohio, Indian mounds in, 42; Western Reserve XXXVI INDEX in, 193; Indian wars in, 222; admission to Union, 195, 259; immigration to, 258, 330 a free State, 259, 310; commerce, 231; oil found in, 325, 326; presidents from, 287, 403, 412, 415, 426, 437, 464- Ohio Company, formed, 124. Ohio River, forks of, 124, 125; mouth, 358; Indians near, 108; posts on, 123; as a bound ary, 146, 178, 179, 193, 222; route to West, 34, 208, 254, 257, 268; craft on, 208, 237. Ohio Valley, 123-125, 129. Okhotsk (o-chotsk ) Sea, sealing in, 435. Oklahoma (ok-la-ho ma), explored, 23; in Louisiana Purchase, 233; American desert, 300; settled, 426-428; admission, 428. Oklahoma City, origin of name, 42; built, 428. Old North Church, 151, 152, 155. Old South Meeting-House, 145. Omaha (o ma-ha), growth, 405, 406; exposi tion at, 453; on map, 299- Oneida (o-ni da) Indians, 40. Onondaga (on-on-da ga) Indians, 40. Ordinance of 1787, 195, 196, 213. Oregon, climate, 407; explored, 332; early set tlements, 236, 295, 298; joint occupation, 262, 263, 293-296; Spanish claims, 257, 439; annexation, 296, 334; a territory, 323; ad mission to Union, 318. Oregon trail, described, 294, 295, 304, 405. Orient, trade with Europe, 1-7; Dutch in, 28; modern commerce with, 319, 450, 456. See also China, India, and Japan. Oriskany (o-ris ka-ni) , battle of, 172. Oswego (N.Y.), in Revolution, 171. Otis, James, 137, 143, 158. Ottawa (ot a-wa) Indians, 40, 133. Ottawa River, route via, 32. PACIFIC COAST, Indians of, 40; Drake explores, 28; Lewis and Clark on, 236; Fremont on, 299; settlement on, 293-296; growth, 406; population, 407. Pacific Ocean, discovered, 19, 47; named, 20; sought, 21, 56; crossed, 28, 47, 48; commerce in, 407; cable, 400, 455; possessions in, 448, 449. See also Orient. Pacific Railroads, 402, 405, 406; on map, 299. Paine, Thomas, 158, 159, 198. Pakenham, Gen. Edward, 251-253. Palos (pa-los ), Columbus s departure from, 9; his return to, 13. Pamlico (pam-le ko) Sound, explored, 15. Panama (pa-na-ma ), Isthmus of, barrier to navigation, 14; discovery, 19, 47, 454; during gold rush, 303; Canal, 454, 455; Exposition, 481. Panama Canal Zone, government, 455. Pan-American Congresses, 429. Pango Pango, Pacific port, 448. Panics: of 1837, 282-284, 333; of 1857, 321, 333; of 1873, 407, 408, 508; of 1893, 431-433, 508. Patroons, Dutch colonists, 95, 104. Pawtucket (R.I.), origin of name, 43. Payne, Sereno E., author of tariff, 465. Peace movement, 467, 485, 494. Peary (pert), Robert E., discovers North Pole, 475- Peking (China), siege of, 450. Penn, William, founds Pennsylvania, 100-105; portrait, 100. Penn, Sir William, English admiral, 100. Penn family, proprietors of Pennsylvania, 104. Pennsylvania: Indians of, 40; in colonial times, 100-105, 120, 126, 128, 134; boundary dis pute, 103, 104, 193; during Revolution, 168, 172-174, 178, 180; early transportation, 208, 258; State debts, 217; Whiskey Rebellion in, 219, 332; free State, 209, 259, 310; during Civil War, 347; oil discoveries in, 325, 326; labor troubles, 457, 458; newspaper, 126; President from, 321. Pensacola (pen-sa-ko la) , Spanish capture, 186; on map, 192. Pensions, for war veterans, 386. Pequot (pe kwot) Indians, war with, 89. Pere Marquette (par mar-ket ) River, 36. Perry, Matthew Calbraith, in Japan, 319, 334- Perry, Capt. Oliver H., naval officer, 247, 248. Pershing, Gen. John J., commands American troops in France, 497, 498, 506. Personal Liberty laws, 313, 338. Petersburg (Va.), siege, 374, 390; captured, 380; on map, 350. Petition to Congress, right of, 275. See also Constitution, Appendix A. Petroleum, discovery, 325, 326, 334; pipe lines for, 326. Philippine (fil ip-in) Islands, discovered, 20, 439; captured, 442, 443; United States in possession, 447, 448. Pickett, Gen. George E., at Gettysburg, 366. Pierce (pers), Franklin, President, 316-320, 338; biography, 316. Pike, Zebulon M., 236, 237, 300. Pike s Peak, discovered, 236, 237; gold near, 324, 325. Pilgrims, in England, 76; in Holland, 76, 77; come to America, 77-80. Pinta (pen ta), Columbus s ship, 9, u. Piracy, in colonial times, 117. Pitt, William, English statesman, 128, 129; friendly to colonists, 136, 139, 140, 141, 148, 149, 190. Pittsburg (Pa.), site of, 124; origin of name, 129; Western port, 208, 268; on map, 392. Pittsburg Landing (Tenn.), battle at, 359, 369, 390; on map, 368. Pizarro (pi-za ro), Francisco, 18. Plains of Abraham, battle of, 130, 134- Plantation system, begins, 60; in colonial times, 107, 108, 134; in 1790, 210; in later South, 270, 271. See also Lands. Platform, of political party, 296. Plattsburg (N.Y.), battle near, 249, 252. INDEX XXXVll Plymouth (plim uth), Drake at, 27; Pilgrims at, 78, 79; on map, 76. Plymouth Colony, founded, 78-82; emigration from, 88; joins Confederation, 91. Plymouth Company, charter, 54 i grant, 68, 75; on map, 54- Pocahontas (p5-ka-hon tas) , 58, 59, 65. Polk (pok), James K., President, 293-306. Polo, Marco, early traveler, 6. Ponce de Leon (pon tha da la-on ), Juan, dis covers Florida, 19, 21. Pontiac (pon ti-ak), Ottawa chief, 132, 133- Pony express, 304, 305. Popular sovereignty, proposed, 316, 31?. Population, Indian, 40; in 1790, 206, 213; center of, 469. Port Hudson (La.), Confederate fortress, 361, 368; captured, 370, 390; on map, 368. Port Royal (N. S.), founded, 31, 55- Portage routes, 33; map of, 35- Porter, Admiral David D., 390. Portland (Ore.), 235. 4O7, 462; on map, 392. Porto Rico (re ko), a Spanish colony, 19, 439; ceded to United States, 445; government, 447, 448. Portsmouth (ports muth), New Hampshire, settlement, 88; treaty at, 456; on map, 87. Portuguese (por-tu-gez ) , trade with Orient, 1-3; exploring voyages, 4-7, 17-19; Colum bus among, 6, 7; trade with, 109. Postal service, in colonial times, 118; in 1790, 208; rates reduced, 417- Potawatomi (pot-a-wot o-mi) Indians, 40. Potomac (po-to mak) River, in colonial times, 54, 68, 188; Civil War, 350, 351, 366. Powhatan (pou-ha-tan ), Indian chief, 58. Prescott, Col. William, at Bunker Hill, 155. Presidency, in Constitution, 201, 213; form of election changed, 230; third term for, 223, 239, 281; in House of Representatives, 230, 264; Succession Act, 423. Primary, direct, 467. Princeton (N. J.), battle at, 170, 203; Congress at, 187, 194; college, 114; on map, 166. Printing-press, invented, 5, 47; cylinder press, 328, 334- Prison reform, 330. Privateers, in Revolution, 180; in War of 1812, 252; in Civil War, 352, 355. Progressive party, 471. Proprietary colonies, defined,^. Providence (R. I.), settled, 85, 90. Prussia, warlike and ambitious, 482, 483. Public domain, formation, 193; organized, 196. See also Lands. Pueblo (pweb lo) Indians, 22-24, 40- Pulaski (pu-las ki), Count Casimir, 170, 190. Pullman (111.), labor troubles at, 433. Pure Food and Drug Act, 461, 462. Puritans, in England, 75, 76; in America, 81, 82, 84, 85, 89. Put-in-Bay, battle near, 247, 248. Putnam, Gen. Israel, at Bunker Hill, 155. QUAKERS, in New England, 86; in New Jersey, 99; in Pennsylvania, 100, 109; treatment of Indians, 103. Quebec, under French regime, 31, 34, 38, 123; captured by British, 129-131; during Revo lution, 156, 179; on map, 122. Quebec Act, 146. Queenstown (Ont.), battle at, 245. "Quivira," search for, 22, 23. RAILROADS, earliest, 266-268; built by States, 284; across Panama, 303; transcontinental, 402, 405, 406; regulation of, 423, 424, 461; passes forbidden, 424; strikes, 408, 433. Railway Rate Act, 424, 461. Raleigh (ra li), Sir Walter, colonizing, 50-52, 54, 134; biography, 50; portrait, 51. Randolph (ran dolf), Edmund, 216. Rapidan (rap-i-dan ) River, in Civil War, 373- Rappahannock (rap-a-han ok) River, in Civil War, 306, 365. Reciprocity, in tariff act, 426, 467. Reclamation Service. See Irrigation. Reconstruction, Lincoln s plan, 394; Johnson s, 395; Congressional, 395-397; completed, 403- Red Cross Society, objects of, 446. Referendum and recall, 466. Reforms, 329, 330, 334, 476, 477- Regicides, in America, 89, 90. Religion, of the Indians, 41, 42; motive for ex plorations, 7, 24, 36; toleration in Southern colonies, 69, ?o; struggle in England, 75~77; motive for colonization, 77, 82, 100; intoler ance in New England, 84-86; liberty in col onies, 90, 98, 99; New England churches, 108, 113; denominations divided by slavery, 319- See also Catholics and Missions. Representative assemblies, in colonies, 61-64, 66, 98, 99, 101-103. Republican party, formed, 318, 319, 333; elects presidents, 336, 411, 426, 437; defeated, 420; in Illinois, 323; in South, 411. Revere (re-verO, Paul, warns colonists, 152. Rhode Island, colonized, 85, 86, 90; in colonial times, 91, 92, 116, 143; during Confederation, 197, 199; free State, 259, 310. Rice, grown in Southern colonies, 71, 108, 115; crops of, 210, 270, 308, 344. Richmond (Va.), site visited, 56; Confederate capital, 338, 347, 35o, 35 1, 372; attempts to capture, 3SO, 356, 373, 376, 379, 389; taken, 380, 382; on map, 350. Rio Grande (re-6 gran da) River, as a bound ary, 38, 297, 301; fighting near, 467, 468. Roads, in colonial times, 115; improvements in, 207, 208, 213, 254, 257. See also National Road and Trails. Roanoke Island, settled, 51, 52; on map, 54- Rocky Mountains, discovered by French, 38; explored, 235, 298-300; Indians of, 40. Roosevelt (ros velt), Theodore, in Spanish- American War, 444; in cabinet, 454; Vice- XXXV111 INDEX President, 453; President, 407, 454-463; nominee of Progressive party, 47 1 . Rosecrans (rd ze-kranz) , Gen. William S., 37 1. Rough Riders, in Spanish War, 444. Roundheads, in Virginia, 63, 64. Roxbury (Mass.), settled, 82; in Revolution, 152; on map, 151. Royal colonies, denned, 63; Massachusetts, 86; New Jersey, 99; Carolina, 71; Georgia, 73. Rumsey, James, inventor, 237. ~"^ Russia, in North America, 261; abolishes slav ery, 209; friendly to Union, 354; sells Alaska, 400; seal hunters, 434, 435; in China, 450; in W T orld War, 483, 502. Rutgers (rut gcrz) College, founded, 114. SACAJAWEA (sak-a-ja-we a) , 235. Sacramento (Cal.), gold found near, 302; Fre mont in, 300; on map, 299. St. Augustine (Fla.), founded, 23; siege of, 72. St. John s River (Fla.), as boundary, 71. St. Lawrence River, discovered, 31; explored, 33, 34, 48; as boundary, 98, 171; settlements on, 121, 123, 134. St. Leger (sant lej er), Col. Barry. 172, 181. St. Louis (Mo.), 236, 304; in Civil W 7 ar, 358; bridge at, 414; exposition, 462. St. Mary s (Md.), founded, 68. St. Pierre (sah-pyarO Island, 131. Salem (Mass.), settlement at, 81; witchcraft, 92; on map, 87. Samoan (sa-mo an) Islands, divided, 448; our possessions in, 449. Samoset (sam 6-set) , visits Plymouth, 80. Sampson, Admiral William T., 443-445. San Antonio (san an-to ni-o), battle of Alamo, 289; on map, 297. San Francisco (Cal.), in gold mining days, 303- 305; anti-Chinese riots, 408; Pacific Coast port, 405, 407; earthquake, 459. San Francisco Bay, settlements on, 300, 304. San Jacinto (san ja-sin to), battle of, 290. San Juan (san H6-an ) hill, charge on, 444. San Salvador (san sal-va-dorO Island. See Watling s Island. Sanitary Commission, work of, 387. Santa Anna, Gen. Antonio L., 290. Santa Fe (fa), founded, 23; trail to, 299, 301. Santa Maria, Columbus s ship, 9, 10. Santiago (san-te-a go) , Cuba, in Spanish- American War, 443-445; map, 443. Santo Domingo. See Haiti. Saratoga, battle of, 172, 179, 190; on map, 166. Saskatchewan (sas-kach e-wan) River, 38. Sauk Indians, 40. Savannah (Ga.), founded, 72; in Civil W r ar, 374-376, 390; on map, 352. Savannah, first ocean steamship, 238. Savannah River, as boundary, 71. Saybrook (Conn.), settled, 88. Schenectady (ske-nek ta-di) , in colonial wars, 121 ; first railroad to, 266; on map, 122. Schley (shla), Admiral Winfield S., 443-445. Schuylkill (skol kill) River, 101. Scotch, in Georgia, 72; New Jersey, 99. Scotch-Irish, immigrants, 104, 107, 109, 272. Scott, Gen. Winfield, in Mexican War, 298. commander-in-chief, 340. Screw propellers, invented, 328, 358. Scrooby (Eng.), home of Pilgrims, 76. Seal fisheries, disputes over, 434, 435. Seattle (Wash.), 42; growth, 407; on map, 392. Secession, threatened by New England, 244; of Southern States, 337-339; Northern opin ions, 341; settled by war, 388, 389, 391. Seminole (sem i-nol) Indians, 40, 257, 272, 273. Seneca (sen e-ka) Indians, Iroquois tribe, 40. Separatists, in England, 76. Servia, attacked by Austria, 483. Seven Days Battles, in Virginia, 355, 389. Seville (sev il), Columbus buried at, 14. Seward, William H., attempt to kill, 382. Sewing machine, invented, 329, 475. Shackamaxon (shak-a-max on) , treaty at, 103. Shawnee Indians, 40, 242. Shawnee Prophet, revolt of, 242. Shays, Daniel, leads rebellion, i9 Shenandoah Valley, in Civil War, 355, 356, 379, 38o, 390. Sheridan, Gen. Philip H., in Shenandoah Val ley, 379, 380, 390, 39i; biography, 379, 380. Sherman, Roger, 147, 159. Sherman, Gen. William T., at Vicksburg, 369; at Chattanooga, 371; march to the sea, 374- 376, 390; advances North, 376, 379, 382, 391; biography, 369. Shiloh (shi lo) . See Pittsburg Landing. Shipbuilding in the colonies, 109, in, 134, 196; in the World War, 500, 501. Ships, early European, i, 4; Columbus s fleet, 9-11; New England fishing vessels, 10; Spanish caravels, 10, 26; galleons, 26; in colonial times, 77, 78, 109, 118; frigates, 180, 181; ironclads, 357, 358, 390, 438. See also Navy, Screw propellers, and Steamboats. Sholes, Christopher L., inventor, 509. Shoshone (sho-sho ne) dam, for irrigation, 406. Sierra Nevada (ne-va da) Mountains, 304. Silk, attempt to raise, 72. Silver, in Oriental trade, 2; Spanish find, 18, 26; mines, 325, 407; free coinage, 451, 452. Sims, Admiral William S., 496. Sioux (so) Indians, 40, 409. Six Nations Ind.ans. See Iroquois. Slave-trade, in colonial times, 27, 109; for bidden, 211. Slavery, Indians in, 19; negro, in Virginia, 60, 61; in colonies, 71-73, 107, 108, 134; British abduct slaves, 221; forbidden in Northwest Territory, 196, 213; constitutional com promise on, 200; about 1790, 209-211, 213, 214; foreign nations abolish, 209, 275; west ward extension of, 258-261, 271, 272, 288, 311-315; agitation against, 274, 275, 319; in Texas, 290, 297; in Mexican Purchase, 301; in Kansas, 316-318; Supreme Court INDEX XXXIX decision on, 322, 323, 333; during Civil War, 344, 354; abolished by war, 361-363, 388, 389,391; effects of, 307-310. See also Eman cipation, and South. Slidell (sll-del ), John, 353, 354, 39O. Smith, Capt. John, in Virginia, 57, 58; saved by Pocahontas, 57; explores New England, 75; monument, 65. Smuggling, in colonial times, no, 143; of slaves, 211. Socialist party, 473. Sons of Liberty, colonial society, 138. South, in colonial times, 107, 108, 115, 134; during Revolution, 181-185, 190; economic conditions, 260, 270-272, 307-310, 326; urges Mexican War, 297; at beginning of Civil War, 342-345; at close, 385-387, 393, 394; reconstruction in, 398-403, 411, 412; New South, 417-419; in Spanish-American War, 446. See also Reconstruction, Slavery, and Wars: Civil. South America, discovered, 14, 17, 18, 27, 47; revolts from Spain, 261, 439; relation with United States, 407, 429, 451. See also Pan- American Congresses. South Carolina, settlement, 70, 71; during Revolution, 181-183; land cession, 193; State debts, 217; emigration from, 258; slave State, 259, 310; nullification in, 276-279, 288, 334; secedes, 337; Sherman in, 376; readmis- sion, 397; reconstruction in, 397, 398, 411, 412. See also Carolina. South Dakota, in Louisiana Purchase, 233; in Nebraska Territory, 31?; admission, 428. South Pass, 294, 298, 304. South Pole, discovered, 475. South Sea. See Pacific Ocean. Southampton (Eng.), Pilgrims at, 17. Southold (Conn.), settled, 89. Southwest, explored by Coronado, 22, 23, 48; settlement of, 258. Southwest Passage, sought by Columbus, 14; discovered, 21. I Spain, trade with Orient, 1-3; aids Columbus, 7-io; discoveries and explorations, 18-23, 47, 48, 134; profits from New World, 17, 26, 27; Indian policy, 14, 18, 19; colonial policy, 4395 hostility to England, 26-28, 50, 51; set tlements in United States, 23, 24; in Florida, 54, 70, 72, 98, 276; cedes Florida to England, 131; retakes Florida, 186; sells Florida to United States, 257, 333, 439; possesses Loui siana, 131; cedes Louisiana to France, 232; refuses navigation of Mississippi, 231, 232; loses American colonies, 261; arrests Pike, 237; treatment of Cuba, 440, 441; war with United States, 440-446. See also Treaties. Specie payments. See Money. Speedwell, Pilgrim ship, 77, 78. Spoils system, under Jackson, 273, 274, 334; under Johnson, 397; disadvantages, 415, 416. See also Civil Service Reform. Spottsylvania Court House, battle at, 373, 389. Squatter sovereignty, 316, 317. Stage-coaches, 116, 207. Stamford (Conn.), settled, 89; on map, 88. Stamp Act, passed, 136; opposed, 137-139, 189; repealed, 139, 142, 189. Standish, Miles, in Plymouth colony, 80. Stanton, Edwin M., in Lincoln s cabinet, 329, 383; removed by Johnson, 397, 398. "Star-Spangled Banner," composed, 250. Stark, Col. John, Revolutionary officer, 172. Steamboats, invented, 237; on ocean, 10, 238, 330; centennial celebration, 475. Steel, Bessemer process, 329. Stephens (ste venz), Alexander H., 338. Stephenson, George, English engineer, 266. Steuben (stu ben), Baron Friedrich, drills Continental Army, 170, 190. Stevens, John, inventor, 237, 266. Stockton, Com. Robert, in California, 300. Stony Point, captured, 179; on map, 166. Stowe (sto), Harriet Beecher, 314, 315. Straits of Fuca (fu ka) , boundary in, 404. Straits of Mackinac (mak i-na), French in, 35. Straits of Magellan (ma-jel an), 19. Stuart, Gilbert, artist, 250. Stuyvesant (stl ve-sant) , Peter, 96, 97, 105. Submarine, as a weapon, 487. Suez (so ez), Isthmus of, i. Suffrage, for negroes, 397-399; for women, 428, 429, 4/8, 479- Sugar Act, in colonial times, in. Sumner, Charles, 317, 318, 333. Sumter, Gen. Thomas, 183. Supreme Court established, 201, 213; impor tance, 216, 217; Dred Scott decision, 322,323, 333- Sussex, sunk, 492. Sutter, Capt. John A., 302, 303. Swedes, colonize Delaware, 105; in Pennsyl vania, lor, 104; aid arbitration, 434; give Nobel prizes, 456. See also Scandinavians. Swiss, in South, 107. TACOMA (ta-kS ma), origin of name, 42; growth, 407; on map, 392. Taft, William H., governor of Philippines, 455; in Cuba, 447; inauguration, 288; President, 464-471; aids conservation, 461. Tampa Bay, De Soto in, 21. Tar, produced in Carolina, 108. Tariff, revenue from, 283; theories of, 270-272; first, 218, 219, 332; of 1816, 253, 254; of 1828, 276-278; of 1832, 277, 278; of 1833 (com promise), 278, 279, 333; in Confederacy, 337; McKinley Act (1890), 426, 509; Wilson (1894), 431, 509; Dingley (1897), 437, 509; Payne- Aldrich (1909), 465, 4735 Underwood (1913), 479- Tarleton (tarl ton), Col. Sir Banastre, 182. Tarrytown (N. Y.), Andre captured at, 180. Taverns, in colonial times, 115, 116. Taxation, by English Parliament, 135, 138, 142-145, 175, 176, 189; during Confedera- xl INDEX tion, 194; provided by Constitution, 201; Hamilton s plan for, 218, 219; during Civil War, 384; in Reconstruction, 399; Spanish War, 441; income, 479. See also Tariff. Taxation and representation, 139-142. Taylor, Gen. Zachary, in Mexican War, 297, 298; President, 310-313; biography, 310. Tea, taxed by British, 142-145. Tecumseh (te-kum se), Shawnee leader, 242, 248, 287. Telegraph, first used, 291-293; across the ocean, 399, 400; around the world, 400, 455. Telephone, service, 328, 475. Temperance reform, begun, 268, 269; in colonial Georgia, 72, 73. Tennessee (ten-e-se ), in pioneer times, 206, 207, 231; admission to Union, 223; growth, 258; in War of 1812, 248, 251; slave State, 259, 3io; secedes, 342; during Civil War, 351, 36o, 370; readmitted, 397; Presidents from, 272, 293, 394. Tennessee River, during Civil War, 346, 351, 358, 359, 370, 390. Tenure-of-Office Act, 397- Texas, explored by Coronado, 23; by La Salle, 37; belongs to Spain, 257; independence of, 289, 290; annexation, 290, 291, 296, 333; admission to Union, 310; boundary, 297; in American desert, 300; slave State, 310; se cedes, 337; during Civil War, 368, 390; oil found in; 325. Thames (temz) River (Ont.), battle near, 248. Thanksgiving Day, first celebration, 84. Thomas, Gen. George H., 360, 371, 391. Ticonderoga. See Fort Ticonderoga. Tilden, S. J., candidate for President, 411. Tippecanoe (tip"e-ka-no ), battle at, 242, 286. Titusville (Pa.), oil found near, 325. Tobacco, grown by Indians, 45; taken to Europe, 52; in colonial Virginia, 59, 60, 63, 107, 108, no; a Southern crop, 210, 211, 270, 308, 344- Toleration Act, in Maryland, 69, 70. Tonty (ton te), Henry de, French explorer, 36. Toombs (tomz), Robert, Confederate states man, 341. Tories, 141. See also Loyalists. Toronto (to-ron to), in War of 1812, 245, 250; on map, 245. Town-meetings, in New England, 82, 83; sup pressed by British, 146. Trade. See Commerce. Trails, on Western plains, 294, 295, 298-301, 304; map, 299. Transportation, in colonial times, 115-118; in 1790, 207, 208; after War of 1812, 254, 257, 258; early canals and railroads, 264-268; to Far West, 294, 295, 298, 299, 303-305; after Civil War, 404-406. Treaties: with Indians, 102, 103; arbitration, 467; commercial, under Confederation, 194, 213; with France (1763), 131; (1778), 175, 220; with Great Britain (1783), 126, 186, 190, 225, 262; (Jay s, 1794), 221, 222, 225, 332; with Spain (1795), 231; with Great Britain (Ghent, 1814), 252, 253, 332; (1818), 262, 263, 289, 294; with Spain (1819), 257; with Great Britain (1842), 288, 289, 334; with Texas (1844), 290; with Great Britain (1846), 296; with Mexico (1848), 298, 301; with Japan (1854), 319, 334; with Great Britain (1871), 404; with Spain (1898), 445- 448; Russo-Japanese (1905), 456. Trent, British steamship, 353, 354. Trenton (N. J.), battle at, 168, 169, 190, 256; Washington s reception at, 203. Tripoli (trip o-li), hostilities with, 239. Trusts, legislation concerning, 423, 424, 470, 480. Tunis (tu nis), hostilities with, 239. Turks, capture Christian countries, i, 2, 4, 47. Turpentine, produced in Carolina, 108. Tuscarora (tus-k?,-ro ra) Indians, 40. Tuskegee (tus-ke ge) Institute (Ala.), 419. Tutuila (to-to-e la) , Samoan Island, 448. Tweed, William M., political boss, 409. Tyler, John, President, 288-292, 298; biog raphy, 288. UNDERGROUND RAILROAD, 313, 314. Union, steps toward: New England Confeder acy, 90, 91; Albany plan, 125-127; Stamp Act Congress, 139; Committees of Corre spondence, 144, 147, 189- First Continental Congress, 147; adoption of Independence, 159-163; Articles of Confederation, 192, 193; necessity for stronger, 192-194, 196,197, 199; Annapolis Convention, 199; Constitutional Convention, 199, 200; ratification, 201-203; strengthened by War of 1812, 253; Jackson defends, 276-278; threatened by Secession, 310, 3331 Lincoln on, 339; effect of Civil War, 388; completed, 468, 469. Union Pacific Railway, built, 402, 405, 406. United Colonies of New England. See New England Confederation. University of New York City, 291. University of Pennsylvania, founded, 114. University of Virginia, founded, 230, 231. Utah (u ta), part of Mexican Purchase, 301; Fremont explores, 300; a territory, 312; admission to Union, 428; equal suffrage in, 429. VALLADOLID (val-ya-THd-le^H ), Columbus buried at, 14. Valley Forge, 173, 174, 190; on map, 166. Van Buren (van bu ren), Martin, President, 281-286; biography, 281. Vancouver (van-ko ver), George, 294. Van Rensselaer (van ren se-ler) , Gen. Stephen, in War of 1812, 245, 246. Venezuela .(ven-e-zwe la), dispute with Great Britain, 435, 456. Vermont, in Revolution, 154, 172; admission to Union, 223, 259; free State, 259, 310. INDEX xli Verrazano (ver-rat-sa no) , Giovanni da, dis covers New York Bay, 29. Vespucius (ves-po che-us) , Americus, explorer, 17, 18, 47; portrait, 18. Vicksburg (Miss.), Confederate fortress, 360, 361; besieged, 368-370, 390; on map, 368. Villa, Francisco, 491. Vincennes (vin-senz ), in Revolution, 178. Vinland, Ericson in, 6. Virgin Islands, purchased from Denmark, 495- Virginia (ver-jin i-a), named, 51, first settle ments, 50-52, 54-66, 134; population in 1670, 64; representative assembly, 61-64, 138, 231; colonial products, 52, 107, 108, 211; Western claims, 108, 124, 125, 128; boundary dispute, 193; land cession, 193; during Revolution, 147, 182-185; under Confedera tion, 194; in 1790, 206, 207; resolutions of 1798, 226-228, 332; slavery in, 211, 275, 3io, 359; secedes, 342; during Civil War, 347, 355, 367, 389, 390; motto on seal, 382; presidents from, 203, 230, 241, 256, 287, 288, 310. WABASH RIVER, in Clark s campaign, 178, 179. Wampanoag (wam-pa-n5 ag) Indians, 40. Warren, Gen. Joseph, at Bunker Hill, 155; killed, 156. Wars: Barbary States, 239; Civil, 336-391; Colonial, 72, 121-133, 189; England (1812), 242-252, 332, 354; European, 232, 238, 241, 243; French, 225, 226,332; Indian, 89, 91,92; Pontiac s, 132, 133; in Northwest, 222, 242; Sioux, 409; Mexican, 297, 298, 333, 439; Revolution, 135-190; Russo-Japanese, 456; Spanish, 439-446; Texan, 289, 290; the World, 482-495; against Germany, 496-507. Washington, George: ancestry, 64, 107; in co lonial wars, 124, 125, 127, 128; in Virginia as sembly, 62; delegate to Congress, 147, 148; commander-in-chief, 153, 154, 159, 190; in command, 156, 175; Boston campaign, 157; 158; New Jersey campaign, 167-170; at Val ley Forge, 172-174; conspiracy against, 174; near New York, 177, 179, 182; captures Cornwallis, 184, 185; farewell to army, 186- 188; in Constitutional Convention, 199; ap proves Constitution, 201, 202; a Federalist, 201, 332; inauguration, 203, 204, 213, 218; President, 215-223; unpopularity, 222; re tires, 222, 223, 239; loans money to gov ernment, 170, 194; on Independence, 158; farewell address, 223, 262; neutrality procla mation, 220, 332; death, 228; character, 124, 184, 188, 228; portrait, 215. Washington City, made national capital, 217, 218; capitol built, 231; inaugurations at, 231, 288; in War of 1812, 249, 260, 332; first tele graph at, 291-293; during Kansas struggle, 317; in Civil War, 347, 350, 352, 355, 356, 389; Lincoln assassinated, 382; review of troops, 383; in recent years, 429, 434, 461; buildings at, 284, 451, 454. Washington (State), climate, 407; in Oregon country, 262, 296; Territory. 323; admission to Union, 428; equal suffrage in, 429. Washington and Lee College, 114, 346. Watertown (Mass.), settled, 82. Watling s Island, Columbus on, 12. Watt, James, discoverer of steam power, 210. Wayne, Gen. Anthony, at Stony Point, 179; defeats Indians, 222. Webster, Daniel, statesman, 277, 290, 312, 313, 315; makes treaty, 288, 289; citations from, 195, 219, 276, 333; Bunker Hill oration, 156; death, 315; biography, 277. Webster, Noah, maker of dictionary, 279, 334- Welsh, in United States, 101, 104, 109. West, during colonial wars, 122-125, 128, 137; annexed to Quebec, 146; during Revolution, 178, 179; States cede claims in, 193; organ ized, 195, 196; conditions in 1790, 206-208; Indian troubles in, 222; wants free Missis sippi navigation, 231, 232; speculation in lands, 282, 321; explorations of Fremont, 298-300; emigrants aid in development, 308, 330; during Civil War, 358-360, 368-372, 374, 39o; recent development, 404-407, 426- 429, 460, 461. West Indies, visited by Columbus, 7, 11-14; belong to Spain, 18, 134, 439; trade with, 73, 108, 109, 221; sugar grown in, in; harbors of, 183, 353. See also Cuba and Porto Rico. West Point, during Revolution, 179, 180; mili tary academy at, 338, 346; graduates, 369, 379, 403. West Virginia, admission to Union, 343; oil found in, 325. Western migration, to Connecticut, 88, 89; trans- Allegheny, 196, 207, 208, 222, 237, 272; into Louisiana Purchase, 232; after War of 1812, 253-255, 257-259, 333; aided by canals and railroads, 264-267; into Texas, 289; into Oregon, 295; into Mexican Purchase, 301; into California, 302-305; into Colorado, 324, 325; after Civil War, 383, 404-407; to Okla homa, 426-428. Western Reserve, in Ohio, 193. Wethersfield (Conn.), settled, 88. Wheeler, Gen. Joseph, in Spanish War, 446. Wheeling (Va.), on route to West, 208, 254. Whig party, elects President, 286-288, 310; broken up, 318. Whiskey Rebellion, 219, 220, 332. White Mountains, forest reserves in, 461. Whitman, Dr. Marcus, 294. Whitney, Eli, inventor, 210, 213. Wilderness, battles of, 373, 389. Wilderness Road, to West, 207, 208. Wilkes, Capt. Charles, 353, 354- Wilkes, John, 140. William and Mary, English sovereigns, 87, 98. William and Mary College, founded, 65, 66, 114; graduates, 230, 231, 256, 288, 415. Williams, Roger, founds Providence, 84. Williamsburg, capital of Virginia, 66. Wilmington (Del.), founded, 105. xlii INDEX Wilmot Proviso, 301, 324. Wilson, Woodrow, President, 473-507; attitude on Mexican question and Panama Canal, 480, 481, 491; proclaims neutrality, 484; pro tests submarine blockade, 488; dismisses German ambassador, 495; urges war, 496. Winthrop, John, emigrates to America, 81, 82. Wisconsin, Indian mounds in, 42; discovery, 33; French in, 35, 36; admission to Union, 195; free State, 310; migration to, 330; nulli fies slavery law, 313; forest fires in, 409. Witchcraft, in New England, 92. Wolfe, Gen. James, captures Quebec, 130, 134. Women, among Indians, 41; in colonial Vir ginia, 51-53, 62, 63; in colonial New Eng land, 78, 83, 85, 86, 88, 91, 92, in, 117; in Middle Colonies, 112, 114, 115, 117; in Can ada, 127, 128: during Revolution, 138, 155, 176; greet Washington, 203, 204; guide Lewis and Clark, 235; at White House, 250; in Western migration, 208, 257, 294, 303, 304, 427; dictate first telegram, 291 ; in Civil War, 342, 386, 387; in reforms, 268, 315, 446; equal suffrage for, 428, 429, 478, 479. Wright (rlt), Orville, aviator, 476. Wright, Silas, 293. Wright, Wilbur, aviator, 476. Writs of Assistance, 137. Wyoming (wi-6 ming), in Louisiana Purchase, 233; explored, 298; part in Mexican Pur chase, 301; Plains of, 300; in Nebraska Ter ritory, 317; admission to Union, 428. Wyoming Valley (Pa.), massacre in, 178, 190; on map, 166. X, Y, Z affair, 225, 226, 332. YALE COLLEGE, founded, 114; graduates of 276. 291, 464- York (Can.). See Toronto. York (Pa.), Congress at, 174; on map, 166. Yorktown (Va.), surrender at, 183-186, 190. ZUNI (zo nye) Indians, pueblos of, 22. ID F CALIFORNIA LIBRARY