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QUACKENBOS, LL.D., AUTHOE OP " FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION," " ADVANCED COURSE OF COMPOSITIfl^ AND EHETOKIC," "AN ENGLISH GRAMMAR," "ILLUSTRATED \P LESSONS IN OUR LANGUAGE," ETC. iS ST. PAUL, MINK: D. D. MERRILL, 35 EAST THIRD ST. 1878. BY THE SAME AUTHOR. Illustrated School History of the United States: A Comprehensive Treatise, containing a full Account of the Aborigines, Biographical Notices of Distin guished Men, numerous Maps, Plans of Battle-fields, and Pictorial Illustrations. 12mo, 550 pages. Elementary History of the United States : Made easy and interesting for beginners. With numerous Illustrations and Maps. 16mo, 216 pages. Illustrated Lessons in Our "Language ; or, How to Speak and Write Cor rectly. Designed to teach children English Grammar without its Technicalities. 16mo, 180 pages. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 18T7, by G. P. QUACKENBOS, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. GffT t/7? / Q/7 PREFACE. THE calls that have been made on the Author for a text-book on the history of our country, intermediate in size between his larger and his Elementary History of the United States, have led to the preparation of the present volume. It is an entirely new work, freshly compiled, different from, and independent of, the manuals just mentioned ; and it is hoped that it may meet the wants of teachers who desire a course brief while it is complete, and interesting while it is condensed. Accuracy and impartiality in stating facts have been the author s spe cial aim. He has earnestly labored to avoid the use of fragmentary para graphs, devoid of logical connection ; to clothe the narrative in an attractive style ; to accompany it with abundant maps and illustrations that will throw light upon the text ; to adapt it to the improved modern methods of teach ing ; and to awaken in the student a taste for historical reading. In the belief that the history of a country is something besides a mere record of its battles, revolutions, and conquests, it has been attempted to give an idea of the state of society at different times, and to show the improve ments in domestic life, as well as the more important inventions and dis coveries, that indicate the progress and intellectual growth of the people. In the different systems of topical reviews analytical, geographical, chronological, and biographical appended to the several chapters, and in the presentation of a bird s-eye view of contemporaneous events at certain periods, it is believed a feature will be found that will meet with general approval. While many teachers pursue methods of their own deduced from experience, it may be Avell for those who have no better system to follow the suggestions thrown out in connection with these reviews for their practical use. NEW YORK, June 28, 1877. In the figured pronunciation, sound a like a in fate ; a like a in India ; and eh like e in met ; ow like ow in cow ; it like the French u ; gh like g in go ; n like the French nasal n. CONTENTS. CHAPTER PAGE I. The Western Continent, 5 II. Discoveries of Columbus, 9 III. Mound-Builders. Indians. Esquimaux, . . . .15 IV. Early Discoveries of Different Nations, .... 26 V. Early English Voyages. Settlement of Virginia, . . .39 VI. Dutch Settlements. New France, 51 VII. First Settlements in New England, 56 VIII. Settlement of Connecticut, Maryland, and Delaware, . . 67 IX. The New World from 1640 to 1675, 75 X. King Philip s War. Bacon s Rebellion, .... 83 XI. Founding of Pennsylvania, 88 XII. The New World at the Close of the Seventeenth Century, 92 XIII. Queen Anne s War. Settlement of Georgia. The South-west, 101 XIV. King George s War. Washington s Mission, . . . 107 XV. French and Indian War begun, Ill XVI. French and Indian War concluded, 118 XVII. The Eve of the Revolution, 126 XVIII. Beginning of the Revolution, 139 XIX. Revolutionary War: Events of 1776, .... 147 XX. Revolutionary War : Events of 1777, 158 XXI. Revolutionary War : Events of 1778-1779, ... 168 XXII. Revolutionary War : Events of 1780, 176 XXIII. Revolutionary War: Events of 1781, .... 184 XXIV. Close of the Revolutionary War. Formation of the Con stitution, 193 XXV. The Early Presidents, 199 XXVI. War with Great Britain, 1812-1815, . , .. . . 213 XXVII. After the War of 1812, i : - . 281 XXVIII. The Mexican War, . .248 XXIX. Taylor, Fillmore, Pierce, Buchanan, .... 256 XXX. The Civil War, 1861-1865, 264 XXXI. Events since the Civil War, 292 Declaration of Independence. Constitution of the United States. JOHN S. PRELL l & Mechanical Engineer. SAN FRAK CISCO, GAL. AMERICAN HISTORY. CHAPTER I. THE WESTERN CONTINENT. The Fifteenth Century (extending from 1400 to 1500 A. D.) was an era of great changes in Europe. It put an end to the darkness of the Middle Ages. It witnessed the revival of learning and science, and the birth of many use ful arts, among which not the least was Printing. The in vention of the Mariner s Compass in the preceding century having enabled sailors to go out of sight of land, a thirst for exploring unknown seas was awakened. Long voyages were undertaken, and important discoveries made. It was in this age of mental activity and growing knowledge that AMERICA WAS DISCOVERED. America is often called the New World; not that it is younger than the other continents, but because at the time of its discovery in 1492 it was unknown, or new, to Euro peans. It is also called the Western Continent, to distin guish it from the Eastern, which embraces Europe, Asia, and Africa, and the South-eastern, or Australia. Position of the Western Continent. The map on the next page shows how these continents lie. The Western is sep arated from the Eastern, on one side by the Atlantic Ocean, varying in width from 800 to 3,600 miles ; and on the other, by the Pacific. The Pacific, from its greatest width of 10,000 miles nar- 6 THE WESTERN CONTINENT. rows toward the north by reason of the convergence of the shores. It will be seen from the map that the north-west ern point of the Western Continent approaches very near to the north-eastern extremity of Asia. Behring (beer ing) Strait, which separates them, at its narrowest part, is only thirty-six miles wide. Size. Divisions, The Western Continent includes more than one-fourth of the land-surface of the earth. ]t is nearly divided by an arm of the Atlantic into two parts, dis tinguished as North and South America, connected by the Isthmus of Panama (pan-a-mah f ), or Darien . The present territory of the United States embraces nearly half of North America, and one-fourth of the entire continent. The other half of North America is composed of the British Possessions, Mexico, and the republics of Central America. In South America are included the em pire of Brazil and a number of independent republics. Natural Features. The natural features of the New World are on the grandest scale. Its lakes and rivers, un surpassed in size and number, afford wonderful facilities for inland navigation. It is traversed throughout its length by a vast mountain-chain, containing numerous snow-crowned ANIMAL LIFE. peaks and volcanoes of stupendous grandeur. From this great chain spread out immense table-lands, which lose themselves in low plains rendered fruitful by the streams that intersect them. Six-sevenths of the soil is capable of cultivation, and much of it is unsurpassed in fertility. In valuable fields of coal, and rich deposits of the useful and precious metals, are found in various parts. Animal Life. Remains found buried beneath the surface show that gigantic animals, now extinct, once inhabited the Western Continent. Among these were the mammoth, a clumsy, hairy ani mal resembling the elephant, the mas todon, similar in appear ance but larger, with tusks over ten feet long, and a tenant of the waters, seven ty feet in length. The wild ani mals now found in America, how ever, are mostly inferior to the corresponding ones of the Old World. The lion of the Eastern Continent is here re placed by the puma (panther, or cougar), the tiger by the jag uar, the rhinoceros by the tapir, the camel by the llama. But to the New World belong the largest members of the bear and the deer family. The horse, the ox, and other domestic animals, were in troduced by Europeans after the discovery of the continent. Among birds, the wild-turkey, the toucan, and the humming bird are peculiar to America. Discovery by Norsemen. We have said that America THE MAMMOTH. 8 THE WESTERN CONTINENT. was discovered in the fifteenth century; but the northern parts of the continent were known to the bold sailors of Norway nearly fiv r e hundred years before. Iceland (see Map below), discovered by accident, was colonized by these Norsemen (Northmen) in 874 ; and somewhat later a Nor wegian navigator, attempting to reach the island, was driven by a storm to the south-west. Here he discovered a snowy headland, which he named Hvidsaerk (white shirt), and which is now known as Cape Farewell, the southern extrem ity of Greenland. No attempt to follow up this discovery appears to have been made for more than a hundred years ; till finally Red Er ic, compelled to fly from Iceland, sought this distant coast of which traditions were still preserved, found it, and spent three years in exploring the surrounding waters. Through his efforts, the Greenland coast was speedily set tled ; and in the year 1000 one of Eric s sons sailed thence to the south-west in quest of new discoveries. He coasted the mainland for many miles, sighted Cape Cod, and finally wintered in what he called Vinland (vine-land), supposed to be identical with parts of Rhode Island and Massachu setts. SCANDINAVIAN SETTLEMENTS. 9 Many subsequent voyages were made to the American mainland for wood, and it was even attempted to plant a permanent colony in Vinland, but without success, on ac count of the hostility of the natives. After three centuries of prosperity, however, the Scan dinavian colonies in Greenland began to decay. Emigration thither was forbidden ; " the black death " carried off many of the people, and the rest fell victims to the natives, and to a piratical fleet which made a descent upon the coast. With the unfortunate colonists died out all knowledge of Vinland, except what was buried in Icelandic records and traditions. The Western Continent, once more lost to the civilized world, remained to be rediscovered by the genius of CO LUMBUS. QUESTIONS ON THE MAPS. Map, p. 6. Which is the largest of the three continents shown? Which is the smallest ? Which extends farthest south ? What would be the most direct way of reaching the Western Continent from Europe ? From Africa ? From Asia ? Which of the oceans is the largest ? What part of the Pacific is broadest ? What part is narrowest ? What three grand divisions constitute the Old World ? What two, the New World ? Map, p. 8 What were Norway and Sweden anciently called ? What islands lie about midway between Norway and Iceland? In what part of Greenland were the Norse settlements ? What land south-west from Greenland ? Describe the route of the Norsemen to the New World. CHAPTER II. DISCOVERIES OF COLUMBUS. Christopher Columbus was born about 1435, at Genoa, then one of the leading commercial cities of Italy. Well grounded in geography, astronomy, and navigation, at the 10 DISCOVERIES OF COLUMBUS. age of fourteen he went to sea, and for the next twenty- eight years was engaged in various voyages, extending beyond Iceland on the north, southward to Guinea, and as far west as the Azores , which islands the Portuguese had discovered shortly before. The profitable East Indian trade, carried on at this time by way of the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, was chiefly in the hands of Venice. The two most enterprising mari time countries were Portugal and Spain. Portuguese navi gators had coasted Africa to its southern extremity ; which, in the anticipation of reaching the Indies by rounding it, they had called the Cape of Good Hope. Their voyages had proved that the earth was not, as once believed, encir cled by a belt of impassable heat at the equator ; but super stitious fears of terrible storms, frightful monsters, and a " Sea of Darkness " out of which a gigantic hand would rise to crush the too venturesome mariner, had prevented any attempts to explore the western waters of the Atlantic. The shape of the earth and its revolution round the sun had not at this time been established. Most that was known of Eastern Asia was derived from the wonderful stories of Marco Polo, who had drawn lively pictures of Cathay (Chi na), with its mountains of precious stones and lakes of pearls, and of Cipango (Japan), with its golden-floored palace and other marvels of wealth but had conveyed lit tle geographical knowledge that could be relied on. The studies of Columbus had convinced him that the earth was round ; and, supposing it to be much smaller than it really is, he believed that Asia could be easily reached by standing boldly out across the unknown Atlantic. \ r arious objects evidently not of European origin had been driven by west winds on the Azores ; among them, the bodies of two men that seemed of a new race. Whence could they come, but from some land across the ocean? This land Columbus determined to reach ; but he was poor HIS FIRST VOYAGE. 11 he had no ships. He must enlist some state in the enter prise, and thus obtain the necessary outfit. Full of religious enthusiasm, he regarded this voyage to the western seas as his peculiar mission, and himself (as his name CHRISTOPHER imports) the appointed Christ-bearer, or Gospel-bearer, to the natives of the new lands he felt that he was destined to discover. First Voyage of Columbus. After unsuccessful negotia tions with the king of Portugal, Columbus in 1484 betook himself to the court of Spain. Ferdinand and Isabella, the sovereigns of that country, were then warring with the Moors, and their treasury was wellnigh exhausted. Yet Isabella, though the plans of Columbus after years of dis couraging delay were condemned as visionary by a council of her learned men, was at length persuaded to fit out two vessels for the voyage. To these small car avels, which had no decks and would now be regarded as unfit even for coast ing purposes, Columbus, with the aid of his friends, added a third and larger vessel. Men having with difficulty been obtained, and Columbus having been furnished with a letter from the king and queen to the Grand Khan of Tartary, the little squadron sailed August 3, 1492, from Palos (pah loce), a seaport on the south-western coast of Spain. The trials of the voyage commenced when the farthest land of the Canaries faded from sight (September 9th). Then the hearts of the sailors failed, and many gave way to tears. Columbus vainly strove to quiet their fears ; and when, after many days passed without sight of the ex pected land, it was found that the needle varied from the north, despair almost drove them to mutiny and throw their commander overboard. Columbus, however, kept on with unfaltering faith ; and soon, to his delight, indications of the neighborhood of land appeared. Watching throughout the night himself in eager expectation, he beheld a dim moving light. The joyful cry of "LAND !" was raised ; and when 12 DISCOVERIES OF COLUMBUS. clay dawned (October 12th), a wooded island was seen in the distance, with wondering natives crowded on the shore. At sunrise Columbus and his officers landed. His first act was to kneel down, and thank God with tears ; his sec ond, to unfurl the royal banner and take possession of the EECEPTION OP COLUMBUS BY FERDINAND AND ISABELLA, OK HIS EETURN. country in the name of his sovereigns, receiving the homage of his men, and of the natives, who looked upon the Span iards as gods come down to earth. The land thus discovered was San Salvador , or Guanahani (ywah-nah-hah ne), one of the Baha mas (see Map, p. 38). Columbus next directed his course to the south, and dis covered Cuba, Hispanio la now called Hayti (ha te) and HIS LATER VOYAGES. 13 other islands. On Hispaniola he left some of his men as a colony ; and setting out on his return with several of the natives and specimen products of the New World, after riding out a terrible storm, he reached Palos in safety. Roaring cannon and pealing bells heralded his progress to the court of Ferdinand and Isabella, where he was hailed as the great discoverer of his age. His Subsequent Voyages. Columbus made a second voy age in 1493, taking out a number of adventurers as settlers ; in the course of this expedition, Jamaica and Porto Rico (re ko) were visited. A third voyage (1498) resulted in the discovery of Trinidad and the mainland of South America. The object of his fourth voyage (1502) was to find a pas sage to India by keeping on to the west. He failed of course in this, but explored the coast of Central America for many miles. Obliged to beach his weather-beaten vessels on the coast of Jamaica, after many hardships he succeeded in making his way to Hispaniola, and thence to Spain, only to find Queen Isabella dead, Ferdinand ungrateful, and to drag out his two remaining years in poverty and gloom. To the very close of his life, Columbus had no idea that he had discovered a new continent, but supposed the lands he had reached to be outlying islands of India. In this belief, he called the natives Indians. Administration of Columbus. In his original commission Columbus had been appointed viceroy of all the lands he should discover, and in this capacity he ruled the colony planted under his auspices in Hispaniola. During his long absences, however, affairs were badly managed, and com plaints were raised against his administration. The settlers became rebellious. The proud Spaniards whom he tried to force to honest labor could ill tolerate the orders of a for eigner of humble birth, whose high honors they envied. Their expectations of sudden riches were disappointed, and no less the king s, who had hoped to swell his revenues 14 DISCOVERIES OF COLUMBUS. with the storied treasures of Cathay. Nor did the viceroy s enslavement of the natives, who rapidly wasted away under the cruel exactions of the Spaniards and were even exported to Spain for sale, please the gentle Isabella. Accordingly, in 1496 Columbus found it necessary to return to Spain, to defend himself against the intrigues of his enemies. He succeeded in regaining the royal favor ; but on landing at Hispaniola after his third voyage, he found affairs worse than ever. Sickness prevailed ; famine was imminent ; disorder was everywhere. Hardly had he resumed the reins of government, when an agent of the crown appeared, who treated the great discoverer as a con victed criminal and sent him back in irons to Spain. His authority was never restored. Though he was sent out, as we have seen, on a fourth voyage, it was with an inferior outfit and without his former powers. Even when merely seeking temporary safety from an approaching tem pest in his own harbor at Hispaniola, he was peremptorily ordered to leave by the governor. It seems a righteous retribution that, in the hurricane which followed, fourteen ships just sailing from the island went to the bottom with the enemies of Columbus and their ill-gotten gains, while the little fleet that had been driven from the harbor sur vived the storm. Under the successors of Columbus the colony grew, while the natives, wholly unfit for the hard labor imposed on them by their taskmasters, perished by thousands, and in a few years became extinct. To supply their place, Af ricans were imported, and slavery became an established institution of the Spanish colonies. Cuba was overrun, its natives were subdued, and various Spanish settlements made on the island, early in the six teenth century. Name of the New World. In poetry the New World is often called COLUMBIA, and certainly that should have been NAME OF THE NEW WORLD. 15 its name. But the first detailed account of the newly-discov ered lands was written by Amerigo Vespucci (ah-ma-re go ves-poot she), a Florentine residing in Spain. In 1499 he fok lowed the track of Columbus in a private expedition, and on a subsequent voyage, in the service of Portugal, coasted South America to its southern extremity. His letter at tracted much attention ; and a German, republishing it in a geographical work in 1507, gave the whole continent the name of AMERICA from this Amerigo, whom he unjustly represented as its discoverer. CONTEMPORARY EVENTS AND RULERS. 1492. AMERICA DISCOVERED BY COLUMBUS. Granada (gra-nah </), the last stronghold of the Moors in Spain, taken by Ferdinand and Isa bella. The Jews expelled from Spain. Spain becomes a strong consoli dated monarchy. John II. king of Portugal. France a powerful kingdom under Charles VIII. England advancing in prosperity under Henry VII. Alexander VI. (Borgia) elected pope. Last year of Lorenzo the Magnifi cent in Florence. Ivan III. (e-vahn ) the Great, czar of Muscovy (Russia). Copernicus, the discoverer of the true system of the universe, nineteen years old. CHAPTER, III. MO UND-B UILDERS. INDIANS. ESQ UIMA UX. The West Indian Natives. The natives whom Columbus found on the islands he visited, were of a different race from Europeans. They were erect, well-formed, and copper-col ored. They had long black hair, but no beards ; wore gay feather head-dresses, but little or no clothing ; were fond of ornament gentle, grateful, and friendly when well treated, fierce when provoked by wrong. The Red Men of the mainland farther north, with whom the subsequent explor ers came in contact, were of the same race and general ap- 16 THE MOUND-BUILDERS. pearance, but warlike and ferocious, crafty and treacherous, and more barbarous than the islanders in their habits and modes of life. Origin of the Natives. Whence, how, and when Amer ica was first peopled, is unknown. But whether it was first reached from the Atlantic coast of Europe, by vessels driven over by stress of weather, or from the Pacific shores of Asia, by wanderers making their way from island to island, . or by crossing Behring Strait, through which a current sets toward the American shore, and which in severe sea sons is frozen over, one thing is certain, that it was settled at a very remote date. The Mound-builders. Remains found in different parts of America show that, many hundred years ago, parts of the continent were thickly inhabited by a people possessed of great mechanical and architectural skill, such as the later Indians have never displayed. Among these re mains may be mentioned vases of elegant pat tern, isinglass mirrors, pipe- bowls with quaint carvings, well- MOUXD AT MARIETTA, OHIO. burned bricks laid in fireplaces and chimneys, and a great variety of copper ornaments and implements. These have been found at various depths beneath the surface ; in some cases, under trees that have been growing for centuries. RELICS OF THE HOUND-BUILDEKS. 1, 2, 3, 4, stone pipe-bo\vls ; 5, earth en pipe ; 6, earthen vase ; 1, water-cool er ; 8, 9, mortar and pestle ; 10, speci men of pottery; 11, copper knife; 12, stone bill, or mace ; 13, two awls of bone ; 14, stone hatchet; 15, drill ; 16, copper spear-head; 17, stone arrow-head; 18, hammer-head; 19, copper wrist-bands ; 20, instrument for making twine. The most remarkable relics, however, are the mounds and earthworks which are scattered through parts of the United States, Mexico, and Central America, to the number of many thousand, and which have procured for the early race with whom they originated the name of MOUND-BUILDERS. These works seem to have been thrown up for purposes of defence, observation, or worship, or else served as burial-places and garden-beds. Some of the mounds are nearly a hundred feet high ; many of the embankments ex tend for miles ; and, as there were no beasts of burden to 18 THE MOUND-BUILDEKS. draw the earth, multitudes must have engaged in their con struction. To support the workmen while thus laboring, other multitudes must have tilled the soil. From these mounds many of the relics just mentioned have been taken ; also, half -burned wood (perhaps the remains of altar-fires), skeletons nearly turned to dust, and skulls quite different from those of the Indians. ANIMAL-MOUNDS. Some of the earthworks in Wiscon sin, Iowa, and Ohio, are especially curious, representing by their shape different animals in relief, men with out stretched arms, birds with wings extended, fish, and various mathematical figures. In one, the form of an elephant can be distinctly traced ; in another, that of an alligator. A third, over a thousand feet long, represents a serpent, the body extended in graceful curves, the tail coiled, and the open jaws enclosing an oval mound of regular outline. RUINS. No less interesting are the ruins of ancient pyramids and temples in Mexico and Central America, and of massive stone fortresses in New Mexico and elsewhere. The sites selected for defence were generally well chosen ; and some of the fortifications were provided with moats, parallel walls, and covered ways, which display great skill in engineering. There is no evidence of the use of iron by the mound-builders, but they turned copper to good account, and drew largely, as do we, on the rich deposits of this metal near Lake Superior. They also carried on the manu facture of salt in Illinois. How these mound-builders looked, unless they resembled their own representations of the human face (see Figure 1, p. 17) we do not know ; for long before white men first reached America, they had disappeared. The Indians, who succeeded them, but possessed neither their civilization nor persevering industry, had no traditions that threw light upon the history of this ancient race. The American Indians. That part of America embraced THE AMERICAN INDIANS. 19 within the present limits of the United States, when first known to Europeans, was thinly inhabited by different In dian tribes. Those living east of the Mississippi and south of the St. Lawrence (perhaps 200,000 in number) have been arranged, according to their languages, in eight families, of which the Algon quin and Huron-Iroquois (ir-o-Jcicoy 1 ) were the most important. The Algonquin s covered the largest territory (see Map, p. 38) ; to this family belonged the At lantic tribes, as far south as Cape Fear. The Huron-Iro quois, distinguished for intelligence and courage, occupied most of the present state of New York, and extended be yond Lakes Erie and Ontario. The southern Atlantic and Gulf tribes constituted the Mobilian family ; while the Cher- okees inhabited the mountain fastnesses of what is now Ten nessee and Carolina. CHARACTERISTICS. The general characteristics of the natives were the same. They were mostly grave and taci turn, hospitable, generous, brave, and possessed of wonder ful self-control in both bearing pain and repressing all show of joy or sorrow. On the other hand, they were often de ceitful and treacherous, always cunning and suspicious, cruel, improvident, and indisposed to labor except in war and the chase. They never forgot either a kindness or an injury. They were given to few words, but their language was full of eloquence. Their sight and hearing were re markably acute. Nothing escaped their observation, and they were singularly sagacious in drawing conclusions from signs which Europeans would not notice at all. For the hunting-grounds and graves of their ancestors they cher ished a patriotic attachment. DRESS. In summer, and in the more southerly regions, the dress of the Red Men was scanty. In winter, till the pale-faces supplied them with blankets, they wore robes of skins cured by drying and smoking, and on their feet moc casins of deer-skin. The women let their long, coarse, black 20 THE AMERICAN INDIANS. hair float over their shoulders ; the warriors plucked out their thin beards, if any appeared, and generally removed their hair with the exception of the scalp-lock on the crown. Porcupine-quills, feathers, and beads made of clam-shells, served them as ornaments. They were in the habit of paint ing their bodies, using different colors and devices to express grief or exultation, war or peace ; also, of tattooing on the chest the totem, or figure of some animal or bird a bear, deer, beaver, turtle, eagle, crane, etc. the great original of which was thought to be the special guardian of their clan. FOOD, ETC. Having neither iron implements nor domes tic animals to help them, the Indians cultivated the soil but little. They raised tobacco to smoke (not to chew), and also produced small crops of maize, beans, and squashes. But their principal food consisted of animals and birds taken in hunting, and fish which they speared, or caught with bone hooks and rude nets. When food was plenty, they ate like gluttons, but took no care to provide for the future, and therefore often suffered from hunger. The Indians were extremely agile ; it was not uncom mon for their runners to go seventy-five miles in a single day. Constant exercise in the open air kept them for the most part healthy. Pestilences, however, would sometimes sweep through the land, and these, with frequent wars, kept their ranks thinned. The doctor, or " medicine-man," was believed to be endowed with supernatural knowledge. Be sides his herbs, he used magical rites to drive out the evil spirits which were supposed to possess the sick. Indian Life. The Indian home was a wigwam, or cabin made by covering poles with skins or bark. A low opening was left for an entrance, and the ground served for seat, bed, and table. Many wigwams, and sometimes more per manent tenements, were grouped together in villages. But the warrior s life was essentially a roving one. Small hunt ing or war parties, leaving their women and children, would IXDIAN LIFE. 21 go out for weeks together. During such expeditions they were without shelter a fire at night, to keep off wild beasts, being their sole protection. . J The original weapons of the natives were the bow and arrow, the spear, war-club, and stone hatchet, or tomahawk. These, though rudely made, theyused with great efficiency. Their ingenuity was perhaps best shown in the construction of light and graceful birch-bark canoes, in which with skill ful strokes of the paddle they shot dangerous rapids in safety. Labor was looked on as beneath a warrior, and fell to the lot of his poor wife, or squaw. She not only cooked 22 THE AMERICAN INDIANS. and took care of her little papoose, but carried the bag gage on a march, erected the wigwam, gathered the wood, tilled the soil, and acted as drudge in general. Trade there was little or none. Wampum, consisting of beads made from clam-shells, strung in chains or fastened together in belts, served as money, or passed from hand to hand as a token of alliance or friendship. Government. Every tribe had its sa cJiem, or chief, who owed his position sometimes to descent, sometimes to supe rior bravery or cunning. In war he was the leader ; and at the council-fire, where the braves gathered to consider im portant questions, after smoking a long time in silence, he was the first to deliver his opinion. Ordinarily, however, he exercised little authority, for there were no laws, and whoever suffered a wrong was allowed to avenge it. Children of both sexes were taught to weave mats, string wampum, and make bows and arrows. The boys were early trained to endure fatigue and hunger, and to perform feats requiring dexterity and courage. They were instructed by their elders in the traditions of their people, and as they approached manhood were in some tribes prepared for an honorable career by long fasts and other rigorous ordeals. War was the Indian s favorite pursuit. It was carried on by small parties and personal encounters ; the discipline which enables large bodies to act together was wanting. On the war-path, the chief cautiously led the way, following the trail of his enemies with unerring accuracy. The object was to surprise the foe, and to take as many scalps as pos sible without losing any in return. A captive was sometimes adopted into the tribe of the victors, but more frequently put to death with exquisite tortures, which, to maintain his reputation, he had to bear without a groan. While his flesh was roasting in the flames, he would chant his war-song, or boast of his exploits, or denounce his persecutors as women who knew not how to LANGUAGES AND PICTURE- WRITING. 23 torture a chief, or tell how he had made their bravest war riors quail at the stake. Happy the sufferer, if at length the tomahawk of some enemy provoked beyond endurance cheated the flames of their prey. The Indian Languages contained comparatively few words, for they lacked the terms of art, science, and the trades, as well as names for abstract ideas. As spoken, they were soft and musical. None of them were written, for let ters were unknown. Facts, however, were recorded with some precision, by pictures and symbols. These were painted on birch-bark or chiselled on rocks. The following copy of a bark letter will give an idea of Indian picture-writing. INDIAN PICTUBE-WRITTNG. This letter was fixed on a pole by a party of Sioux (soo), who, under the direction of a United States officer, had gone out to make a treaty with some Chippewa hunters, but were disappointed in finding them. The scroll was intended to let the Chippewas know that the Sioux had been search ing for them, and was at once understood by the Chippewas, who came to the spot and read it shortly afterward. 1 represents the United States flag ; 2, the cantonment of the troops 3, the officer under whose auspices the expedition was made ; 4, the lead ing Sioux chief ; 5, the second chief, whose totem was the black dog, in command of fourteen lodges (6) ; 7, a third chief, with thirteen lodges, and a bale of goods (8) devoted to the object of the peace ; 9, a fourth chief, with thirteen lodges (10). THE AMERICAN INDIANS. Religion. The Indians had no idols. They worshipped as God the mighty Jtfanitou, the ruler of all things. Many believed also in evil spirits, and reverenced the sun, moon, stars, thunder, fire, water, etc., as inferior divinities. A future life, blissful for the upright, miserable for the wicked, was very generally believed in. Happy hunting- grounds, abounding in game, awaited the spirit of the good Indian in the other world. Hence the custom of burying with the deceased his weapons, and whatever else it was thought might be of use to him in the spirit - land. Different modes of burial pre vailed. In some localities, the bodies carefully wrapped around were placed on elevated plat forms, or sus pended from the branches of trees. Elsewhere they were deposited in shallow graves in a sitting posture, or laid on the surface of the earth and covered with bark. The Esquimaux. The extreme northern parts of North America were inhabited by a people quite different from the Indians, calling themselves INNTJITS (our folks, men), but generally known as ESQUIMAUX (es ke-mo -fish-eaters). It was they that helped to exterminate the Scandinavian colo nies in Greenland. The Esquimaux belong to the Mongolian race, and resemble the tribes of north-eastern Asia. They are short, dirty in their habits, dress in seal-skins and bear skins, and live principally on raw animal food. Their dwell- INDIAN BURIAL. ANALYTICAL REVIEW. 25 ings are either huts of snow, or inclosures of stone, raftered over with walrus-bones and roofed in with earth, hides, or mosses. They move rapidly from place to place, on sleds drawn by packs of hungry, wolfish-looking dogs. ANALYTICAL, REVIEW. The following are given as specimens of Analytical Reviews that may be used with advantage. Let one of the class place the Abstract on the black board, and the different topics be assigned in turn to different pupils called on promiscuously, each to tell all that he knows about his topic without being questioned. TJie Western Continent. I. NAMES. Why so called. II. POSITION. III. SIZE. IV. DIVISIONS. 1. Natural. 2. Political. V. NATURAL FEATURES. VI. ANIMALS. 1. Extinct species. 2. Existing species. a. Wild. b. Domestic. VII. DISCOVERY. 1. By Norsemen. a. Greenland. 6. Vinland. 2. By Columbus. a. Circumstances. b. Contemporary events and rulers (p. 15). Locate the Vinland of the Norse men on the Map, p. 38. Natives of America. I. MOUND-BUILDERS. 1. Remains. #. Specimens of art. b. Mounds; earthworks. c. Fortifications. 2. Inference as to their at tainments, etc. II. INDIANS. 1. Principal families. 2. Personal appearance. 3. Characteristics. 4. Dress; painting; tattooing. 5. Food. 6. Life; wigwams. 7. Weapons; canoes. 8. Government. 9. Early training, 10. Wars ; torturing captives. 11. Languages; writing. 12. Religion. 13. Modes of burial. III. ESQUIMAUX. Description. Draw a map showing the points visited by Columbus, and embracing the West Indies, together with an outline of the adjacent mainland from Florida to the mouth of the Orinoco River. Consult the Map on p. 38. 2 26 EARLY ENGLISH DISCOVERIES. [l497 CHAPTER IV. EARLY DISCOVERIES OF DIFFERENT NATIONS. English Discoveries. News of the success of Columbus spread like wildfire through Europe, and produced an ardent thirst for discovery among the nations. England at this time had a smaller population than the single city of London has at present, and was just recovering from the effects of a long civil war ; yet her thrifty king, Henry VII., was among the first to encourage ventures in the New World. Under his commission to the CAB OTS, Venetians resident in Bristol, two voyages were made. These resulted in the discovery of the mainland of America (1497) fourteen months before it was seen by Columbus, the exploration of the northern coast as far south as Carolina (1498), and the find ing of such " multitudes of big fishes " on the Banks of New foundland (nu fund-land) "that they sometimes stopped the ship ! " The Cabots directed their attention to the north-west, hoping to find a passage to India in that direc tion, and the land they first saw is supposed to have been Newfoundland or Lab rador. Great ice-fields turned them to the south ; and at various points of the coast they landed and took possession of the country for their king. This was the foundation of England s subsequent claim. But nothing immediately followed from these voyages, save the establish ment of a profitable codfishery. Portuguese Discoveries. Portugal, chagrined at having thrown away the honor which the genius of Columbus re flected on Spain, confined her efforts mainly to attempts to reach India by doubling the Cape of Good Hope. This was finally accomplished by VASCO DA GAMA (vah slco dah gah - mah) in 1497. In following up his discovery with a large fleet, CABRAL (Jcah-brahl ), carried far to the west after 1500] EAKLY SPANISH DISCOVERIES. 27 leaving the Canaries, accidentally discovered Brazil, and took possession of it in the name of his sovereign. Spanish Discoveries. Spain was naturally the most ex cited by the wonderful stories told about the New World, with its sands of precious stones and nuggets of gold as big as oranges. As Columbus wrote, there was " not a man down to the very tailors " that did not want to become a discoverer. The fever ran to such a height that some vil lages were almost drained of their inhabitants. According ly, for several years after the death of Columbus (1506) the coast of Central America and the adjacent isthmus was visited by a host of unprincipled Spanish adventurers, who cared for nothing but gold, and in searching for it practised all kinds of fraud and violence on each other as well as on the unoffending natives. THE PACIFIC. One of the boldest of these adventurers was BALBO A, whom we read of as successively loaded with debt in Hispaniola, escaping thence, and supplanting the commander of a little colony on the Isthmus of Darien, searching the surrounding country for gold, and establish ing his authority over its native inhabitants. Hearing of a great sea to the south, whose tributary streams flowed over beds of gold-dust, he determined to find it ; and with his stoutest men arrayed in armor, and friendly Indians as guides, he commenced a toilsome expedition across the isthmus. For many days the little band labored on, amid tangled forests, up ragged heights, through opposing natives, whom they attacked with bloodhounds and mowed down with their superior weapons. At length, foot-sore and famished, they reached the base of the peak from which the ocean was said to be visible. Halting his men, Balboa climbed to the summit alone, and there beheld spread out in all its majesty before him the great Pacific (1513). This discovery showed that the new lands were no part 28 DISCOVERY OF THE PACIFIC. [1513 BALBOA S FIRST SIGHT OF THE PACIFIC. of Asia, but an inde pendent continent a fact that could no lon ger be doubted, when in 1520 MAGEL LAN, trav ersing the strait since called by his name, passed out into this same ocean, which from its peaceful character he called Pacific, and continuing his westerly course for many miles finally reached what were indeed outlying islands of Asia. One of Magellan s ships, still keeping on to the west and rounding the Cape of Good Hope, finally reached Spain, being the first vessel to cir cumnavigate the globe, and thus prove that Columbus was right in supposing the earth to be round. FLORIDA. A story generally believed, that somewhere 1512] EXPLORATIONS OF FLORIDA. 29 among these western isles bubbled a fountain whose waters bestowed perpetual youth, led PONCE DE LEON (pone tha da la-on ), once a fellow-voyager of Columbus, to cruise among the Baha mas in search of it. Reaching at length what he took for a large island (1512), he called it Florida, from the Spanish name for Easter-Sunday, the day on which he landed. Everywhere was a profusion of gay flowers, but nowhere the fabled fountain ; bathe as he would in every inviting pool, he found himself no younger than before. Made governor of the land he had discovered, De Leon subsequently attempted to colonize it, but abandoned the effort on being wounded by the Indians with a poisoned arrow. After De Leon s time, Florida (the whole region north of the Gulf being then so called) was visited by other Span iards ; but they confined themselves mostly to explorations of the coast as far as the mouth of the Mississippi. The first attempt to penetrate to the interior was made by DE NARVAEZ (da nar-vah-eth ), with a well-appointed force, under a commission from the Emperor Charles V. (1528). Hoping to find rich cities and great empires to spoil, he pressed on from his point of debarkation on Tampa Bay (see Map, p. 38), through tangled everglades, till it was un certain whether famine, malaria, or the natives, would prove his deadliest enemy. Eight weeks brought him to the great Indian capital his imagination had filled with palaces a wretched village of forty huts in the heart of a swamp. The disappointed Spaniards fought their way back to the Gulf ; but only four wretched survivors, after wandering six years through wil dernesses now embraced in Texas and Mexico, reached their countrymen on the Pacific coast. Very similar was the history of a later expedition into Florida, undertaken in 1539 by DE So TO, governor of that country and of Cuba. He, too, landed at Tampa Bay. 30 DE SOTO S EXPEDITION. [1539 His force consisted of six hundred picked men armed cap- a-pie, besides priests and mechanics. A forge with which to make new weapons as they were needed, a herd of swine, to serve as food in the wilderness, and bloodhounds indispen sable in Indian-hunts, formed part of the equipment. Start ing in the same direction as his predecessor, De Soto moved hither and thither through northern Florida, Georgia, Ala- DEATH OF DE SOTO. bama, and Mississippi, as directed by the natives, who, anx ious to rid themselves of their oppressors, always repre sented the gold-country as just beyond. Desolation followed in the Spaniards path. The natives with whom they came in contact escaped death, only to be treated as slaves or beasts of burden. Fields and granaries were plundered, villages burned, and fiendish cruelties per- 1519] EXPEDITION OF CORTEZ. 31 petrated. The Indians retaliated as opportunity offered, and the invading force was gradually diminished. After three years of toilsome wanderings, extended as far west as the present capital of Arkansas, De Soto fell a victim to disappointment and sickness. His body was com mitted in the darkness of night to the great 4< Father of Waters" the Mississippi which several months before (1541) he had discovered. The remnants of the party first tried to reach the nearest Mexican settlements by land, but failed. Then, returning to the Mississippi, they renewed the attempt in frail brigantines of their own construction ; and crawling along the coast, half-starved, their fine armor exchanged for skins, themselves "looking more like wild beasts than men," they at length found safety among their countrymen. MEXICO. Meanwhile the Spaniards, though thus seem ingly shut out from Florida, were more successful farther south. Several adventurers from Cuba, touching at points of the Mexican coast, had brought back stories of a rich and powerful nation in the interior. The governor of Cuba determined on its subjugation, and placed at the head of an expedition for this purpose the unscrupulous but energetic COK TEZ. Nine years before De Narvaez made his ill-starred descent on Florida, Cortez landed with 617 men ; and hav ing founded the town of Vera Cruz (va rah Jcroos) and sunk his ships that retreat might be impossible, he pushed on with his little force for the conquest and conversion of a great empire numbering its inhabitants by millions. The earliest occupants of Mexico of whom we have any knowledge were the Toltecs, a people of considerable culture. After a stay of about four centuries, diminished by war and pestilence, the Toltecs mostly withdrew to Central America, leaving sculptured columns, massive aqueducts, stone tem ples, and imposing pyramids, as monuments of their archi tectural skill. The few that remained, imparted much of 32 THE AZTECS. [1519 their civilization to the Aztecs, who succeeded them, and who, having extended their sway over the neighboring tribes during their three hundred years of occupancy, were the dominant people when the Spaniards landed on their coast. The Mexicans at this time had many flourishing cities, a well-organized government, laws, courts, public schools, hos pitals, an ingenious system of hieroglyphics, and a literature consisting of chronological records and other writings. They were skillful cultivators of the soil, wove cotton cloth for garments, embroidered with great beauty, and out of the gay plumage of tropi cal birds made an ex quisite f eatherwork for the hangings of apart ments and their own mantles. With iron they were unacquaint ed, but lead, copper, silver, and gold, were mined ; and from the precious metals, as well as bronze, were made a great variety of graceful vessels and ornaments of unequal led workmanship. They acknowledged one supreme being, a4id many inferior divinities, whose im ages they worshipped. To the god of war, human sacrifices were offered in stately temples throughout the empire. Twenty thousand captives are said to have been sacrificed every year in these bloody rites, their bodies being after ward served up at horrible banquets. Five thousand priests were attached to the principal temple in the city of Mexico, their capital. When Cortez began his invasion, Montezuma AZTEC WARRIOR AND WOMAN. 1519] CONQUEST OF MEXICO. 33 (mon-te-zoo mtf) was at the head of this great empire. He claimed to be lord of the world, and lived in barbaric splen dor. Six hundred nobles formed his retinue. His shoes were soled with plates of gold. Four times each day he changed his dress, and never put on the same garment twice. Cortez was successful, but only after two years and a half of carnage, cruelty, and perfidy. His sixteen mounted men and few small field-pieces gave him an immense ad vantage. The natives, who had never before seen a horse, imagined that horse and rider formed one mysterious mon ster, and looked on the discharges of the guns as thunder and lightning from the angry gods. Again and again Cortez met the Mexican hosts with his insignificant force always victorious, except in the terrible struggles of that " Dismal Night," as the Spaniards called it, when for a time he was driven from the capital. Montezuma perished early in the contest. The intrepid Guatemozin (gwah-te-mo zin), the last of the Aztec em perors, in vain put forth heroic efforts to save his people and his throne. The Spaniards, re-enforced by their own countrymen and by large numbers of the tributary nations, whom they incited to throw off the Aztec yoke, fought their way back to the capital, and after destroying seven-eighths of the city and 200,000 of its inhabitants, once more became its masters (August 13, 1521). From this time Mexico was an appendage of Spain, and in view of its mineral treasures her most important colony. Its territory was enlarged by the conquest of other native tribes and by explorations in Lower California, till it ex tended 1,200 miles on the Atlantic, 1,500 on the Pacific. Within four years a new and splendid capital rose on the site of the old city, 400,000 Indians having been set at the work. Cortez was for a time governor-general of New Spain, as Mexico was at first called ; but losing the favor of the EXPEDITIONS OF PIZARRO. Emperor Charles V., he returned to the Old World with out, however, obtaining any recognition of his claims. PERU. What Cortez was to Mexico, PIZAR RO was to Peru. With less education than Cortez (for he could nei- SEA -. Cape Horn (Jloun.ltU.1016) ther read nor write), but equally false, cruel, avaricious, and brave, Pizarro made three expeditions from Panama, on the Pacific coast, for the subjugation of the rich empire of the CONQUEST OF PERU. 35 Incas. The first two were unsuccessful ; but on the third, undertaken in 1531 by authority of the Emperor Charles V., with less than two hundred men, he marched across the mountains, and managed treacherously to seize the Peruvian Inca, or sovereign, after massacring several thousand of his unarmed attendants. On promise of his release, the Inca sent out agents to strip his temples of their decorations, and made over to his captors gold and silver to the value of seventeen millions of dollars only to find that a Spaniard s promise to a heathen meant nothing, and to be put to death by his perfidious conqueror. Taking advantage of the consternation that followed, Pizarro pushed on to the ancient capital Cuzco (koos ko), noted for its magnificent temple of the Sun, the most splen did structure of the New World. Raising a new Inca to the throne as a puppet, the Spaniards proceeded to pillage the palaces and religious edifices, to divide the land among themselves, and to parcel out the wretched natives, like slaves, for its cultivation or for labor in the mines. Thus in 1533 was brought under the Spanish yoke (though not without a subsequent hard struggle for inde pendence) another vast empire, 2,500 miles in length, em bracing almost the entire western coast of South America. Its industrious and happy population of millions, who equalled the Mexicans in civilization while their worship of the Sun was free from the bloody rites of the Aztec religion, was reduced to the condition of serfs. A new capital, Lima (le mah see Map), was built six miles from a commodious harbor on the coast, and other cities destined to become im portant marts were founded. Pizarro for a time ruled like a king, but in 1541 fell by the hands of conspirators a fit ting end for his life of violence. SPANISH EXPLORATIONS. Meanwhile Central America and New Granada (now the United States of Colombia) had been colonized. Thus before any other European power 36 FRENCH DISCOVERIES. [l523 save Portugal had established a permanent settlement on the continent, the possessions of Spain extended from the northern coast of the Gulf of Mexico, across the Isthmus, along the Pacific nearly to Patagonia. Under the name of Florida, was claimed, besides, the rest of North America as far as Canada. Before 1550, exploring parties had penetrated the Gulf of California and the Colorado (kol-o-rah do) River which empties into it, had coasted Upper California, and made their way into the territory now known as Arizo na and New Mexico. In the last-named region, the Spaniards first met with " a new kind of ox, wild and fierce," the bison of our western plains. French Discoveries. What was France doing all this time ? Her fishermen had made many profitable voyages to the Banks of Newfoundland ; but nothing was done in the way of discovery till the rich spoils which Cortez sent home to the Emperor Charles V. awakened the envy of his rival, the French king, Francis I. The latter, declaring that * he would like to see the clause in Adam s will which entitled Spain and Portugal to divide the New World between them, sent out a fleet of exploration under a Florentine named VEEEAZZANI (ver-rat-tsah ne). This navigator sailed along the coast from Carolina to Nova Scotia, trading with the natives, and taking formal possession of the country, which he called New France. King Francis now had enough to do with his European wars, so that ten years elapsed before any more expeditions were sent out. At length, in 1534 and 1535, CAETIEB (kar-te-a ) continued the work, sailing round Newfoundland, and discovering a noble bay and river to which he gave the name of St. Lawrence. The river he ascended to the site of the present city of Montreal. An attempt made five years later to plant a French colony in this northern region, failed ; as did also a similar undertaking at Port Royal on the south- 1565] SETTLEMENTS IN FLORIDA. 37 ern coast in 1562, though a fort was built there, and the country was called Carolina, in honor of Charles IX. of France. In 1565, RIBAULT (re-bo ) came over, and assumed com mand of a colony of French Protestants that had been planted the year before on the St. John s River, in Florida. Hardly had the settlement begun to prosper, when a force of Spaniards under Melendez (mOrlen deth), who had been hastily dispatched to punish this intrusion on Spanish terri tory, and who had discovered and named the harbor of St. Au gustine near by, surprised the French fort, and massacred the settlers, men and women, young and old. The same fate befell the Spaniards themselves. A French soldier of renown, De Gourgues (deh goorg }, determining to avenge his countrymen, borrowed from his friends a sufficient sum to equip three vessels. With these and a handful of men, carefully concealing his purpose, he landed near the scene of the massacre ; and calling to his aid the natives, whom Spanish outrages had made eager for vengeance, he fell on three forts belonging to the enemy, carried them by surprise and storm, and put the garrisons to death. Too weak to await an attack from the Spaniards in the neighbor hood, he then hastily recrossed the Atlantic. Thus ended the French attempts at colonizing Florida. Spain was left in undisturbed possession. St. Augustine, founded by Melendez, is the oldest town within the present limits of the United States. CONTEMPORARY EVENTS AND RULERS. 1 5SO. The Spanish possessions in the New World, embracing the West Indies, Mexico, and western South America from the Caribbe an Sea to Patagonia, governed by viceroys. The mines of America pouring their wealth into the treasury of Spain. A printing-press, the first in the New World, at work in Mexico. Money coined in Mexico. Universities of Mexi co and Lima founded, 1551. Order restored in Peru, after civil war. No settlements as yet north of the Gulf of Mexico. MAP SHOWING EARLY DISCOVERIES. AND THE LOCATION OF THE PRINCIPAL INDIAN p 38 EAELY ENGLISH VOYAGES. 39 Portuguese settlements in Brazil ; San Salvador de Bahia (bah-e ah\ founded in 1549, the capital. Portuguese colonies in the East Indies ex tensive and prosperous. Spain, Germany, and the Netherlands, under the Emperor Charles V. John III. king of Portugal. Henry II. king of France. Edward VI. king of England. Review. Let one member of the class write on the blackboard the names of all the Spanish discoverers mentioned in Chapters II. and IV. Let another place opposite to each the name of the country he discovered or explored, and a third supply the dates. Do the same with the English, Portuguese, and French, discoverers and explorers. CHAPTER V. EARLY ENGLISH VOYAGES. SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. Hawkins. Hore. England had not forgotten the dis coveries of her Cab ots. Her fishermen had brought back many a good cargo from the Banks of Newfoundland ; and Sir John Hawkins, the first Englishman to engage in the slave-trade (1562), had made his voyaging still more profit able, for he had found that " store of Negros " were to be had in Guinea, and that they were " very good marchan- dise " in Hispaniola. But little had been done in the way of exploration. A Londoner named Hore, it is true, with a small company, spent a summer in Newfoundland during the reign of Henry VIII. But they nearly starved to death, and, on the arrival of a French vessel, stole aboard and sailed off while the crew were ashore, leaving the poor Frenchmen to get home as best they could. Francis Drake, also, commissioned by Queen Elizabeth, had made several voyages to the New World, but it was chiefly for the purpose of harrying the Spanish settlements. His most notable voyage lasted three years (1577-1580). 40 EAELY ENGLISH VOYAGES. [l578 Sailing through the Strait of Magellan, he entered the Pa cific, capturing Spanish galleons with their rich freight, and pillaging the ports of Chili and Peru. Afraid of encoun tering the Spaniards in superior force if he retraced his way, he kept on in search of a north-east passage to the Atlantic, but was at last driven back by the cold off the coast of Oregon. He passed several weeks in the harbor of San Francisco, and took possession of California, under the name of New Albion, in behalf of his royal mistress then crossed the Pacific, and returned to England by way of the Cape of Good Hope. Drake was thus the first English commander that circumnavigated the globe, and Queen Elizabeth showed her approval of his enterprise by knight ing him on the deck of his own vessel. The North-west Passage. Meanwhile English navigators became more and more of the opinion that the coveted passage to Cathay, which Spain had failed to discover in the south, would be found, if at all, in the north. FKOB - ISHER made three voyages in quest of it (1576-1578). He reached the inlet in the far north since called by his name, but found no passage to the Indies ; and the supposed gold ore with which he filled his vessels for the return-voyage, turned out to be nothing but worthless stones. Sir Humphrey Gilbert, a firm believer in the North-west Passage, after a previous unsuccessful effort, sailed in 1583, under a charter from Queen Elizabeth, but with the purpose of colonization rather than discovery. He reached New foundland, read his commission to the motley crowd of fish ermen assembled there, and erected the arms of England. Then turning south to plant his colony in a more genial climate, he lost his largest vessel off the coast of Nova Scotia. Provisions ran short, no hospitable haven appeared, and it was decided to return to England. But Gilbert lived not to plant his colony ; the little vessel that bore him foundered in a storm. 1585] RALEIGH S SETTLEMENT. Among the most intrepid searchers for the North-west Passage was JOHN DAVIS (1585-7). He made three bold voyages, pushing up among the icebergs and floes west of Greenland (to which he gave the name of Desolation), and discovering the strait that still preserves his name (see Map. p. 8). But his search, like that of many a later Arc tic explorer, was fruitless. Raleigh s Settlement. Sir Humphrey Gilbert s attempt at colonization was promptly followed up by his half-brother WALTER RALEIGH, one of the great men of the age, under a new patent from Queen Elizabeth. An ex ploring party sent out in 1584 reached the coast of North Carolina, and on its return drew such inviting* pictures of the " sweete, fruitfull, and wholesome soile " and the " handsome and goodly " natives, that the Virgin Queen knighted Raleigh, and allowed him to call the land Virginia in honor of herself. The next year, a colony was sent out under Sir Richard Grenville, and planted on Roanoke Island, near the entrance to Albemarle Sound (see Map, p. 42). But the Indians were provoked by Grenville s severity ; and under Lane, who became governor on Gren ville s departure, their hostility and the shortness of pro visions threatened to exterminate the colony. The arrival of Drake, fresh from the plunder of St. Augustine, gave the settlers an opportunity of returning to England. They took with them two products of the New World whose use SETTLEMENT ON EOANOKE ISLAND. [1587 has since become widely extended potatoes and tobacco. Smoking soon became fashionable at the English court ; even Queen Elizabeth and her ladies are said to have in dulged in it. An attempt to renew the settlement on Roanoke Island (1587) succeeded no better. Such as survived sickness and famine were cut off by the Indians ; at least so it was sup posed, for no traces of them could ever be found by those who afterward visited the region. Raleigh s means were now exhausted, and his efforts to colonize Virginia at an end, though he still predicted that he should live to see it "an Inglishe nation." Settlement of Virginia. We next hear of English voy ages farther north, and the discovery of Cape Cod (1602), and various bays and islands on the coast of Maine (1603). The favorable reports brought back, led once more to zealous efforts at colonization. King James I. encouraged the movement by di viding (1606) the whole territory from the mouth of the Cape Fear River to the east ern extremity of Maine, without any limit on the west, between two companies the Lon don Company to have jurisdiction over the southern portion, the Plymouth Company over the northern. The latter at once sent out EASTERN PAKT OF LONDON COMPANY S GBANT. 1607] SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. 43 settlers to New England, but they did not succeed in estab lishing themselves ; and the first permanent English settle ment was planted by the London Company in Virginia, in 1607. This first English colony, consisting of 105 men, was taken out by Captain Newport. Bearing north of Roanoke Isl and, they entered Chesapeake Bay, giving the names of the princes Charles and Henry to the capes at its entrance. Ascending a noble river, they finally established themselves on a peninsula about fifty miles above its .mouth, calling the river James, and the settlement JAMESTOWN, after the reigning king. A small party, intent on finding that much talked-of passage to the South Sea, soon started on a voy age of discovery, and explored the river fifty miles farther, to the falls on which the present city of Richmond is situ ated. Here, in a village of twelve wigwams, they were well received by Powhatan , the head of twenty native tribes that occupied the adjacent region. The country around Jamestown was delightful. But unfortunately the new settlers wei;e mostly "vagabond gentlemen," not fond of work. So, not long after New port returned to England, food became scarce. Sickness set in, many died, dissensions arose, affairs were badly man aged, and it was only by placing the prudent and energetic SMITH at the head of the infant colony that it w T as saved from destruction. Captain John Smith has been justly called " the Father of Virginia." His previous life had been full of ad.venture. As a traveller and a soldier, he had seen much of Europe. He had borne himself gallantly in divers wars, and had received from the Prince of Transylvania a patent of nobil ity and a coat of arms a shield bearing three Turks heads in commemoration of his slaying three Turkish cavaliers, whom he met in single combat like the knights of old. Afterward taken prisoner, he had been sent to Constanti- 44 SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. [l608 nople, and thence to the Crimea as a slave. There, mad dened by the cruel treatment he received, he killed his Tar tar taskmaster, exchanged the wretched skins with which he had been clothed for the dead man s garments, and made his way on horseback to a Russian garrison. He had reached England in time to seek with Newport a new field for adventure in America. Smith s measures were wise and vigorous. He main tained discipline, and proceeded to the erection of suitable houses and defences. For the purposes of trade and dis covery, he undertook several voyages up the James and the Chickahominy. In one of these, his men having been surprised, Smith was himself severely wounded. But seiz ing one of his Indian guides, he bound him to his left arm as a buckler against the hostile arrows ; and, firing and re treating by turns, would probably have made good his escape had he not suddenly sunk to the waist in a swamp. There was no choice but to surrender. Admiring his bravery, and interested in his pocket-com pass and what he told them of the earth and the stars, his captors spared him for the time, and carried him round as a curiosity to he villages of their confederacy far and wide. At length the victorious party arrived at the court of Pow- hatan, and the captive was doomed to die. The fatal war- club was raised above his head, when Pocahontas, a favorite child of the chief, whom Smith had pleased during the hours of his captivity, rushed forward and interceded in his behalf. His life was granted to her prayers, and he was soon once more safe in Jamestown. Matters there were in a bad state, and so continued in spite of Newport s arrival soon after with a fresh company of fortune-seekers. Like their predecessors, they were averse to honest labor ; but mistaking for gold-dust parti cles of mica that were found near the mouth of a neighboring stream, they loaded Newport s ship with a worthless freight 1608] EARLY DAYS OF VIRGINIA. 45 for the return-voyage. Meanwhile Smith, who had been unable to repress this gold-fever, made a thorough explora tion of Chesapeake Bay and its tributary rivers. Three months were thus spent, and three thousand miles traversed in an open boat. After his return there was a further ac cession of numbers, but not of real strength, to the colony. The Starving-Time. All that man could do with the wretched material at his disposal, Smith did for Virginia. It was a sad day for the colony when in 1609 he was so injured by the accidental discharge of a bag of gunpowder as to be obliged to return to England. After his departure, idleness, improvidence, and disorder, were followed by fam ine, sickness, and death. The winter of 1609-10 was justly called " the starving-time." The Indians, no longer in awe of Captain Smith, and provoked by the exactions of the pale-faces, refused to bring in supplies, fell on the remote plantations, and even formed a plan for destroying the whole colony. Out of 490 persons whom Smith had left in Virginia, spring found but sixty alive, and these almost at the point of perishing. Lord Delaware. Meanwhile, under a new charter which extended the limits of the colony, the virtuous Lord Dela ware had been made governor. In June, 1610, the newly- appointed governor, coming up the James River with fresh immigrants and supplies, intercepted the miserable few who had survived the starving-time, in the act of abandoning their settlement. They were persuaded to return ; and from this time, though Delaware s administration was short, for the most part the colony prospered. Better Times. Those who sought Virginia under Lord Delaware were of a better class, and the bad habits that had before prevailed in the colony were laid aside. Profanity had been so common in the earlier times that Smith had found it necessary to punish every oath by making the swearer hold up his arm and throwing a pail of water down 46 EARLY DAYS OF VIRGINIA. [l610 his sleeve ; but now the day was commenced with service in the little church, which was kept dressed with wild flowers. Regular hours of labor were once more required, and new plantations were laid out. The Indians were frightened into peace. As an additional inducement to industry, land was granted as individual property to the settlers, in stead of being held in common. Corn was raised in abundance. Tobacco, which had come into such request in England that a poor man would sometimes spend " 4:d. of his day s earn ings at night in smoke," came to be largely cultivated for export, even the streets of Jamestown contributing to the crop. In the colony it was used as money, a pound of to bacco being worth about 75 cents. Marriage of Pocahontas. Peaceful relations with the Indians were strengthened, in 1613, by the marriage of Pocahontas to one of the colonists named Rolfe. This amiable young Indian princess, from the day she had saved Captain Smith, had been the firm friend of the English, bringing them corn in the time of their sorest need, and even on one occasion by a midnight visit to Jamestown put ting them on their guard against a meditated attack by her own countrymen. Before her marriage she was converted from the religion of her fathers, and baptized by the name of Rebecca. This alliance, securing Powhatan s friendship, was of great service to the colonists ; though King James, who had high notions of royal blood, talked of punishing Rolfe for treason, for marrying a princess without his permission. In London, whither her husband took her, " the Lady Rebecca" was much admired for her simple grace. In a few months, however, she fell a victim to the climate (1617), leaving an only son whose descendants still live in Virginia. Captain Smith survived by fourteen years the gentle Pocahontas, who had saved his life. He never returned to Virginia, but explored the coast of New England, which was first so called by him. 1619] FIRST GENERAL ASSEMBLY. R"nS- : N MARRIAGE OP POCAHONTAS. The First General Assembly. The laws by which the colony was governed were at first drawn up in England, and were none of the wisest. Whipping, piercing the tongue with a bodkin, branding on the hand, and cutting off the ears, were at one time among the punishments. Death was made the penalty, not only of serious crimes, but also of such slight offences as trading with the Indians without a license, and killing a chicken without permission even though it were one s own property. But in 1619 the colonists were wisely allowed a voice in their own government. The law- making power was vested in a General Assembly, composed of delegates from the different boroughs the first repre sentative body in the New World. 4:8 EARLY DAYS OF VIRGINIA. [l619 Many now came over with the intention of residing per manently in Virginia, and pleasant homes began to arise. Up to the time of Newport s third voyage there had not been an Englishwoman in Virginia, and then only two came over ; so that at first society was rude enough. It was a happy thought of the Company to transport to the colony, at their own expense, a number of agreeable young women. They were eagerly sought in marriage by the planters, who were glad to pay back to the Company the price of their passage from 100 to 150 pounds of tobacco. Negro Slavery was introduced about this time (1620). Twenty Africans were landed at Jamestown from a Dutch man-of-war, and sold at auction to the planters. The trade was continued, principally by the Dutch, and slavery thus became an institution of Virginia. There was also a system of apprenticeship, under which persons were brought over from England and sold to service for a term of years. The cultivation of cotton commenced in 1621, and the first grist mill was erected the following year. Indian Massacre of 1622, On the death of Powhatan in 1618, his younger brother became the head of the confeder ate tribes. Viewing with suspicion the increasing numbers of the pale-faces, in 1622 he laid a murderous plan for their extermination. Different bodies of savages were to fall on the different settlements at an appointed hour, and not a soul was to be spared. The Indians to the last kept up the usual appearance of friendship, and in the distant settle ments the plot was carried out with success. Jamestown and the neighboring plantations were saved by a Christian Indian, who the night before revealed the conspiracy to an Englishman for whom he worked. To this cruel massacre, about 350 men, women, and children fell victims. It was a heavy blow, that for a time staggered the colony. Much sympathy was awakened in the mother-country. Even King James was moved, and 1624] VIRGINIA A ROYAL PROVINCE. 49 sent over as a present some old arms that had been laid aside in the Tower of London as good for nothing. Cap tain John Smith, who still loved Virginia, offered to go over and protect the colonists with his stout arm, if the Company would equip men for the purpose. But the Company had no money to spare ; so the colonists had to protect them selves. Bloody was the vengeance they wreaked on the Indians, hunting them from place to place, burning their vil lages, and killing a Red Man at sight as they would a snake. It was ten years before peace was re-established. Virginia a Royal Province. King James did not like the independent way in which the London Company managed their own affairs. Accordingly, after ineffectual attempts to induce them to give up their charter for a new one, he dissolved the Company, and Virginia became a royal prov ince (1624). The colonial Assembly, however, was allowed to exercise its former powers, and continued still to do so under Charles I., who in 1625 succeeded his father James. It even went so far as to refuse his Majesty a monopoly of the tobacco raised in the colony, which he sought as a source of profit to the crown. The importance of Virginia now began to be felt. People of substance came over ; a thousand immigrants arrived in the single year 1627. They did not congregate in towns, but coming to till the soil spread out, on large farms, wherever fertile lands invited them. Social Life. Things were quite different 250 years ago from what they are at present. In England, at that time, we are told, plastered walls were confined to the houses of the rich. Glass windows were so valuable, that when a country-gentleman went to town for any length of time he had the sashes taken out and carefully packed away; the poor substituted for panes of glass coarse paper made trans parent by being soaked in oil. Straw beds, with fagots for pillows, were in common use. Mechanics received about 3 50 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. five shillings a week for wages, and lived chiefly on hard bread made out of ground oats or rye. Wooden plates and pewter spoons were the ordinary table-furniture, and fingers served in place of forks. Books were expensive luxuries. Education was limited ; very few could even spell correctly. Husbands were in the habit of whipping their wives, just as masters did their ser vants. Scolding women were seated on "the cucking- stool," at the end of a balanced beam, and ducked in ponds. Millers, when they stole grain left with them for grinding, and other dishonest tradesmen, were fastened bareheaded on a low cart, and driven through the town to be hooted at and pelted. The style of dress did not ac cord with the present fashions, as may be seen from the accom panying engraving. These facts will give some idea of life in the mother-coun try at the commencement of the seventeenth century. We may be sure it was no better in the colony of Virginia. ENGLISH COSTUMES IN THE TIME OF JAMES I. CONTEMPORARY EVENTS AND RULERS. 16O7, VIRGINIA FOUNDED. Spanish cities growing in Mexico, Cen tral America, and Peru. The mines of Mexico and Peru yielding abun dantly ; one-fifth of their products paid to the Spanish crown. St. Au gustine, Florida, forty-two years old. Portuguese settlements in Brazil. Many of the natives of Paraguay living under the restraints of civilization, through the instruction of Jesuit missionaries. A French settlement at Port Royal, in what is now Nova Scotia. Henry Hudson, searching for a North-west Passage, penetrates to within ten degrees of the north pole. James I. king of Great Britain. Sir Walter Raleigh under sentence of death, on a charge of treason, in the Tqwer of London. Forty-seven DUTCH MARITIME ENTEEPEISE. 51 learned English divines at work on our present standard version of the Bible. The Dutch the leading commercial nation of the world. Spain declining in power, but enjoying the golden age of its literature. Portugal under the dominion of Spain. Henry IV., of Navarre, king of France. An age of great men in Europe : Shakespeare, the poet, and Lord Bacon, the philosopher, in England ; Kepler, the great astronomer, in Ger many ; Galile o, the distinguished natural philosopher, in Italy ; Guido (gwe do) and Ru bens, the illustrious painters. The Spanish people laughing over "Don Quixote," the First Part of which had been published two years ; Cervan tes, its author, sixty years old. After studying the Map on page 34, draw the Pacific coast of South America, showing the extent of the Empire of the Incas, and locating the various cities founded in or before the year 1550. CHAPTER VI. DUTCH SETTLEMENTS. NEW FRANCE. Maritime Enterprise of the Dutch. At the commence ment of the seventeenth century, the Dutch (as the people of the United Netherlands were called) were masters of the ocean. They could boast of 3,000 merchant-vessels and men-of-war, and nearly 100,000 seamen. Engrossing at this time most of the Eastern trade, they naturally desired to find a short passage to the Indies ; and their navigators had sought it by an easterly route, to the north of Europe and Asia, through the frozen wastes around Spitzbergen and No va Zembla. But all attempts had failed ; and one party, detained hi the ice all winter, barely escaped with their lives from famine and the fierce attacks of polar bears. Hudson s Discoveries. Undiscouraged by previous fail ures, the Dutch East India Company in 1609 sent out Henry Hudson, an English captain of experience, with instructions still to search for a North-east Passage. Unable to force his little vessel, the Half-moon, through the ice in that 52 HUDSON S DISCOVERIES. [1609 direction, Hudson at last struck a westerly course for the New World, hoping there to find a North-west Passage. After exploring the northern coast and discovering Dela ware Bay, he was attracted by a wide strait which he thought might lead him to Cathay, and cast anchor inside of Sandy Hook. Passing up the Narrows, Hudson next found himself in a spacious harbor, at the mouth of the noble river that preserves his name. He as cended the Hud son about 150 miles, till its shoaling waters convinced him that this was no highway to the Eastern seas. The Indians at first took the Half-moon for a huge fish, but on a nearer view thought it must be the boat of the great Manitou. For the most part they were friendly, and gladly bartered their otter and beaver skins with the sailors for knives, beads, and trinkets. Hud son met them, gathered through curiosity from far and near, and in token of his regard made them drunk with the " fire water " which was destined to prove so fatal to their race. Hudson never revisited the pleasant region he had dis covered ; but again searching for a North-west Passage (1610), he traversed the great bay to which his name has MANHATTAN ISLAND AND YICINITY. 1014] DUTCH SETTLEMENTS. 53 been given, and perished in its stormy waters, having been cast adrift in a small boat by his mutinous crew. His dis coveries, however, gave the Netherlands a claim to the country, and led some merchants of Amsterdam to fit out a vessel for traffic with the natives. The venture was suc cessful, and a profitable trade sprung up, of which Manhat tan Island was the principal depot. By 1614 some rough buildings and a fort were erected there the germ of the present great city of New York. The infant settlement was called New Amsterdam, the whole region NEW NETHER- LAXD, and the river which Hudson had ascended the Mauri tius, in honor of Prince Maurice, the Dutch Stadtholder. New Netherland. The active traders of New Nether- land soon pushed through the unbroken forests that covered the country, far into the interior ; and its no less enter prising seamen explored the surrounding waters. Delaware and Narragansett Bay were visited, Long Island was cir cumnavigated, and New Netherland was looked upon as ex tending from New France on the north to Virginia on the south. A trading-post was established on an island just be low the present city of Albany, in 1615. None but traders sought New Netherland, until, in spite of England s remonstrances against the intrusion on her ter ritory, the Dutch West India Company was organized in 1621. Under its auspices there went out a number of fami lies (mostly Walloons , Protestant refugees) who settled at New Amsterdam, on Long Island, and the Jersey shore. A few found their way to the banks of the Delaware, others to the Connecticut, and others again sailed up the Mauritius and settled around Fort Orange on the site of Albany (1623). Minuit s Administration. Minuit became governor in 1626. He believed in paying the Indians for their lands, and gave them 824 for the island of Manhattan. The Dutch were a thrifty people, and New Netherland prospered. The colony, however, did not increase very fast ; in 1628, NEW NETIIERLAND. [1628 Manhattan contained less than three hundred souls. So the Company offered to any of its members who would be at the expense of planting a colony of fifty adults in any part of New Netherland except New Amsterdam, a tract fronting sixteen miles on any navigable river and as wide as the occu pants might need. The proprietor, who was required to pay the Indians for the land selected and to support a school- DUTCH COSTUMES AND ARCHITECTURE, 1600-1C25. master and minister, was invested with the control of the territory as its "Patrooii" or lord. Under this arrange ment, several wealthy Dutch merchants became patroons. Individual settlers, while they were denied all voice in the government, were exempted from taxation for ten years, and furnished with as many " blacks " to till the soil as the Company could supply. Slavery was thus early introduced. New France. We have spoken of New France. This 1605] NEW FRANCE. 55 was the name given to the northern territory settled at a few points by the French, in following up after many years the discoveries of Cartier (p. 36). Port Royal, on the Bay of Fundy, was founded in 1605, the adjacent parts of what are now Nova Scotia and New Brunswick being called Acadia (see Map, p. 56). Quebec was commenced on the St. Lawrence in 1608, by Champlain (sham-plane }, who labored hard to bring about the colonization of the country, and has been called " the Father of New France." Hearing of a beautiful lake in the south, Champlain, in company with a party of Canada In dians on the war-path against the Iroquois, penetrated to its banks and gave it his name. REVIEW BY DATES. Let the student prepare a CHRONOLOGICAL RECORD of the principal events in the New World up to the year 1600, according to the following MODEL. 1492. The New World discovered by Columbus (San Salvador, Cuba, Hayti). 1497. Mainland of North America discovered by the Cabots. 1498. Mainland of South America discovered by Columbus. 1507. The New World first called AMERICA. 1512. Florida discovered by the Spaniard Ponce do Leon. Continue the above by recording the following years, with the event that distinguishes each (the word in parentheses will suggest it) : 1513 (Balboa). 1534 (Cartier). 1565 (St. Augustine). 1520 (Magellan). 1541 (De Soto). 1576 (Frobisher). 1521 (Cortez). 1549 (Bahia, p. 39). 1580 (Drake). 1533 (Pizarro). 1551 (Universities). 1585 (Raleigh). If this Record is drawn up in ink, preserved, and added to hereafter at intervals, as required, the student will have, at the end, a valuable Chrono logical Table of the most important events of American History, prepared by himself. As a review, the Chronological Record may be placed on the black board, and the different events assigned in turn to different pupils, each to tell what he knows about his topic without being questioned. 56 GRANT TO PLYMOUTH COUNCIL. [1620 CHAPTER VII. FIRST SETTLEMENTS IN NEW ENGLAND. The Council of Plymouth. The Plymouth Company, having failed to plant any permanent colony in North Vir ginia under the charter received from James L, was at length dissolved. It was succeeded by the Council of Plym outh, consisting of forty persons of wealth and rank, to whom in 1620 the same king granted the territory extend ing from the 40th to the 48th parallel of latitude, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. IN.Lat.4S .NXat.40 EASTERN PART OP THE GRANT TO THE COITNCIL OF PLYMOUTH. This immense tract embraced more than a million square miles, and on the east reached from near the southern boun dary of the present state of Pennsylvania to the northern extremity of the province of New Brunswick. It included, 1620] THE PILGRIM FATHERS. 57 as will be seen on the map, a portion of New France already settled by the French, as well as the flourishing Dutch col ony of New Netherland. But what cared King James for that ? Had not England the prior right to lands which her Cabots had discovered and taken possession of for the crown more than a century before ? The Pilgrim Fathers. Six days after this liberal grant was made, without any knowledge of the Council or any warrant from the king, a little vessel bearing 101 emigrants, who were destined to make the first permanent settlement in New England, appeared off the coast of Cape Cod. The vessel was the Mayflower. The emigrants were "the Pil grim Fathers," stout-hearted, energetic Englishmen, who sought in these western wilds freedom to worship God according to their own consciences. For seventy years in England there had been growing up a sect that had separated from the established church, called in derision Puritans, because they professed to follow the pure word of God. The Puritans were stiff and formal, discountenanced amusements and frivolous fashions of dress, but were good citizens, hard-working, temperate, and moral. In these times it was common in England, as well as in other countries, for the rulers to persecute those who differed from them in religious belief, and the Puritans had suffered accordingly. A few had escaped to the Nether lands, where for twelve years they had enjoyed liberty of worship. But still looking upon themselves as " pilgrims in a strange land," and yearning for English institutions and English laws, some of these refugees, with others of their creed in England, had found the means of embarking with their wives and children for the New World. Plymouth Colony. The Pilgrims had meant to strike the coast near the mouth of the Hudson, but were carried far ther north. After a long voyage not without its dangers and hardships, they finally anchored in a safe harbor, which 58 FOUNDING OF PLYMOUTH. [l620 they called PLYMOUTH after the last town they had seen in Old England. December 21, 1620, must be remembered as the date of their landing. " Forefathers Rock," on which they first stepped, now covered with a handsome canopy of granite, still preserves the memory of this event in the present town of Plymouth. Before disembarking, the Pilgrims solemnly bound them selves to obey such laws as should be enacted, and chose a governor. Their first care was to erect shelters as soon as possible. But dreary and sad was the winter. Cold and exposure brought on fatal sickness ; at one time, but seven could stand on their feet. Before summer death had carried off half the party, including Carver, the first governor. It was well that the natives did not molest the settlers in these trying days. There seemed to be none in the immediate neighborhood, though graves, and buried corn, and standing corn-stalks were found, showing that the place had not long been uninhabited. There was a story that some years before the Indians had boasted to a Frenchman, who threatened them with the anger of God for their cru elty, that they were so numerous God could not destroy them if he would ; and that shortly afterward a pestilence broke out, and almost exterminated the coast tribes. Early History, In the spring several Indians visited the little settlement, and a treaty was made with the Wampa- no ags, the nearest tribe on the south-west, which remained in force for more than half a century. Visits were inter changed with their chief Mas-sa-soit , and a traffic with the natives was established. The formidable Narragan setts, indeed (see Map, p. 62), numbering five thousand braves, sent in a declaration of war (1622), which led the settlers to erect stout palisades around their seven dwellings and two public buildings ; but the spirited answer returned frightened the natives and happily averted hostilities. Wild-turkeys, deer, and other game, helped to keep 1623] PLYMOUTH COLONY. 59 the Plymouth colonists in food, and in 1623 they observed a day of thanksgiving (the origin of our annual festival) for the fruits of the earth. Yet there was sore scarcity at times ; and, the supply of corn having once entirely given out, life was supported on lobsters or clams, or what few fish they could catch with their poor tackle, or the scanty provisions that some passing vessel doled out at extrava gant prices. But the Pilgrim Fathers bore their trials patiently, looking with -faith for better times and better times came. In 1623 a great stimulus was given to industry by ap portioning the land among the colonists, and allowing each to retain the results of his own labor. The following year, cattle were introduced. In 1627, by purchasing the rights of their fellow-stockholders in London, who had advanced the necessary capital, the colonists became independent, though no royal title protected them, and three years elapsed before they obtained from the Council a legal title to their lands. Growth, and Government. The Plymouth colony grew but slowly ; at the end of ten years, the population amounted to only three hundred. There was no lack of enterprise, however. Exploring parties were sent out ; a fishing-station was established at Cape Ann, and a patent was obtained for a tract on the banks of the Kennebec. The government was purely democratic. The laws, enacted with entire independence of the mother-country, were exe cuted by a governor elected by the people, and all impor tant questions were decided by the whole body of male in habitants. Not till 1639 had so large a territory become settled as to make a representative government necessary when a legislature was established, to which each town sent deputies. Religious services were at first held in the lower part of a square wooden building, put up for a fort and protected 60 PLYMOUTH COLONY. PURITANS MAKCHING TO MEETIKC by six small cannon mounted on its flat roof. On Sunday mornings the Pil grims assembled by beat of drum, and marched to meeting three abreast, each with his musket, es corting Elder Brewster, who offi ciated as preacher, and the gov ernor in his long robe. Men and women occupied differ ent seats during the service, and were required to listen attentively to the long sermon, which sometimes lasted two hours or more. If one was seen standing on a stool at meeting, he was known to be undergoing punishment for breaking some law, the offence being specified on a paper fastened to his person. Those absent from church were looked up by officers ; if the offence was persisted in, they were liable to have their feet put in the stocks, or to be MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY. 61 stood up with their necks stretched out in a wooden frame called the pillory. William Bradford, Carver s successor, served as govern or twenty years. In those days men were not so fond of office as at present ; for in 1632 the colony had to pass a law laying a fine of 20 on any one elected governor who should refuse to serve. Miles Standish, a man of small stature but of great spirit, was the military leader of Plym outh. Massachusetts Bay Colony. Meanwhile different grants had been obtained from the Council of Plymouth, and set tlements were made at several points on the coast farther north at Wey mouth (see Map, p. 62) in 1622 and 1623 at Salem in 1626 and at Chelsea in 1628. In the year last named, the zealous Endicott brought over a party of Puri tans who fixed their abode at Salem. They were followed by others, who founded Charlestown (1629). The year 1630 was signalized by the arrival of fifteen ships bearing a thousand immigrants and the good JOHN WINTHROP as their governor. Most of the new-comers took possession of an inviting peninsula containing about 600 acres at the head of Massachusetts Bay, called by the In dians Shaiomut, by the English (from three of its hills) Tri- mountain. Their infant settlement they named Boston^ after an English town from which some of the principal col onists had come. Within a few months, Dorchester, Water- town, Roxbury, Medford, Lynn, and Cambridge, were founded. Settlements thus dotted the entire coast of the MASSACHU SETTS* BAY COLONY, as it was called ; which, according to the terms of the grant, confirmed by royal charter, extended from a line three miles north of the Merrimac to three miles south of the Charles. Boston was made the capital. At first, as had been the case in "the Old Colony" (Plymouth), sickness and scarcity of provisions severely * An Indian name, meaning " blue hills." 62 MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY. [1630 tried the new settlers ; but in time their labors were re warded with prosperity. Good crops were raised, mills estab lished, vessels built, and a nourishing coast-trade was carried . _ , on. The people, assem bled freely in town-meeting, discussed all pub questions, laid taxes for local purposes, elect ed town-officers, and filled vacancies in the Board of Assistants, in which, _ with the gov ernor, the law- making power was for a time vested. The governor was at first elected by this board ; afterward by the citizens di- rectly, the right of voting being in 1631 confined to church-members. Ministers were supported at the public expense, and advised with the civil authorities, by whom a general control over religious as well as other matters was claimed and exercised. Settlement of Rhode Island. Against this claim, how ever, one voice was raised. ROGER WILLIAMS, an earnest young preacher who joined the colony in 1631, held views on some points at variance with those of his Puritan breth ren, and boldly denied that the civil power had any right to inquire into a man s belief or punish any other than civil offences. The Puritan authorities could not brook such EARLY SETTLEMENTS IN EASTEKN MASSACHUSETTS. 1636] FOUNDING OF PROVIDENCE. 63 dangerous doctrine. They not only drove Roger Williams from the pulpit of Salem, but banished him from the colony, dispatching men to arrest him and put him on board a vessel bound for England. The stanch advocate of freedom of opinion, however, was forewarned in time to make his escape. Leaving his family, he started out in the depth of a New England winter, to brave the dangers of an unknown wil derness. For more than three months Williams endured the ex tremes of cold and hunger, till at length he found safety in the wigwam of the friendly Massasoit, at Mount Hope (see Map, p. 64). In the spring (1636) he bought a tract on Narragansett Bay from the natives, whom he regarded as the rightful owners of the soil, and on a favorable site began a settlement, to which in gratitude for his protection he gave the name of Providence. To all who would join him, he offered perfect liberty of conscience. Many came from Salem and elsewhere, and the Providence Plantation pros pered. Roger Williams was thus the founder of RHODE ISLAND, and there carrying out his peculiar religious views established the first Baptist church in America. Still more serious religious troubles disturbed the peace of the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1636. Ann Hutchin- son, a woman of great gifts and ready with the tongue, took it upon her to hold meetings in Boston, at which she de nounced certain doctrines of the Puritan ministers and ad vanced her own in opposition. In vain for a time was it sought to silence her. She drew over, not only many of her own sex, who thought that she preached "better Gospell than any of the black-coats," but also some of the leading men, including even magistrates and the young governor, Henry Vane. The quarrel became hot, and the colony was almost rent in twain. But at length Mrs. Hutchinson was brought to trial, and, in spite of her claim to be inspired, her teachings were condemned and she herself was banished. 64: SETTLEMENT OF EHODE ISLAND. [1638 =1 I C With a number of her followers she took refuge in the charming island of Aquiday (ak we-da], in Narragansett Bay, which by the advice of Roger Williams was bought from the Indians, for forty fathoms of white wampum, twenty hoes, and ten coats. The Indian name was changed to the Isle of Rhodes, and a settlement commenced near the north ern extremity. Part of the settlers afterward moved to the southern end of the island, and founded New port in 1639. The same freedom of opinion was al lowed here as in Providence ; and in 1644, a charter hav ing been obtained by the efforts of Roger Williams, the Rhode Island and Providence Plantations were united. Political Troubles. There were political as well as re ligious troubles in Massachusetts Bay. The arbitrary con duct of Charles I. drove so many of his subjects to the New World that measures were taken in England to stop emigra tion ; and thus, it is said, some of those who afterward de throned the king were kept at home. Commissioners hos tile to the Puritans were also appointed, with absolute power over the American colonies, to interfere with their religious regulations and even take away their charters. The charter of Massachusetts was more than once demand ed ; but the authorities of the colony, while they quietly prepared for resistance, urged different pretexts for not sur- iPoint o C IS JV EIIODE ISLAND AND PROVIDENCE PLANTATIONS. 1622] SETTLEMENT OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 65 rendering it, until the king s own troubles gave him enough to do at home without molesting his subjects across the Atlantic. Settlement of New Hampshire. In the mean time, north and east of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, settlements had been made at various points on or near the coast. In 1622, a large tract beyond the Merrimac was granted to Gorges (gor jez) and Mason, two enterprising members of the Coun cil of Plymouth, and under their auspices settlements were made where Portsmouth and Dover now stand, by adventurers interested in the fisheries. In 1629, the do main before held in common was divided between the two pro prietors. Mason ob tained the part west of the Piscat aqua, EAELT SETTLEMENTS IN NEW HAMPSHIBE AND MAINE. and called it NEW HAMPSHIRE, after the English county in which he resided. Emigrants from Mas sachusetts Bay increased the population, and Exeter was founded in 1638. Maine. The country east of the Piscataqua was covered by patents to the indefatigable Gorges and others, who established a few fishing-stations, Saco (saw Jco) being the most important. In 1639, Gorges obtained a royal charter for his tract, and gave it the name of MAIXE, probably to distinguish it as " the main," or mainland, from the islands off the coast. The Plymouth people had attempted to establish trading-posts on the Penobscot and farther east ; 66 ANALYTICAL REVIEW. but the French, who claimed the coast as far as Pem maquid Point, had broken them up. The New Hampshire settlements came under the juris diction of Massachusetts Bay in 1641, those of Maine in 1652. The latter remained united with Massachusetts dur ing the whole period of colonial history, but New Hamp shire was ultimately made a royal province and independent colony. ANALYTICAL REVIEW. Let the Abstracts be placed on the blackboard, and each pupil, taking a topic in turn, treat it exhaustively without being questioned. Spanish Settlements. (Pages 13, 14, 27-36.) I. WEST INDIAN SETTLEMENTS. 1. Hispaniola. 2. Cuba. II. EXPLORATIONS OF THE MAINLAND. 1. Of the Isthmus of Darien. 2. Of Florida. a. By Ponce de Leon. b. By De Narvaez. c. By De Soto. HI. MEXICO. How situated ? 1. Early inhabitants. a. TheToltecs. b. The Aztecs. 2. Invasion by the Spanish. 3. Results of the conquest. 4. Cortez ; his character. IV. EMPIRE OF THE INCAS. Describe it. 1. Invasion by the Spanish. 2. Peru, as a Spanish prov ince. 3. Pizarro ; his character, fate. V. OTHER EXPLORATIONS AND SET TLEMENTS BY THE SPANISH. VI. SPANISH AMERICA IN 1 550 (p. 37). English Settlements. (Pages 26, 39-50, 56-66.) I. EARLY VOYAGES OF NOTE. 1. The Cabots . 2. Drake s. 3. Frobisher s. 4. Gilbert s. 5. Davis s. II. SETTLEMENT ON ROANOKE ISL D. III. SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. 1. Adventures of Capt. Smith. 2. The Starving-Time. 3. Lord Delaware s adminis tration. 4. Subsequent history. 5. Social life, customs, etc. IV. SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. 1. Planting of Plymouth Col ony. a. Its history ; growth. b. Religious usages. 2. Massachusetts Bay Colony. a. Origin. b. History. 3. Rhode Island. 4. New Hampshire. 5. Maine. SETTLEMENT OF CONNECTICUT. 67 CHAPTER, Till SETTLEMENT OF CONNECTICUT, MAR YLAND, AND DELA WARE, Settlement of Connecticut The Dutch were the first to become acquainted with the rich valley of the " Quonekta- cat" (long], or Connecticut River. Buying land from the natives, they erected Fort Good Hope, on the present site of Hartford (1633), and claimed the whole territory as belong ing to New Netherland. Hardly was this done, when a small company from Plymouth sailed past the fort in de fiance of the Dutch, and planted themselves at Windsor, six miles farther up. Parties from Massachusetts Bay followed in 1635, and Wethersfield was founded. EAELY SETTLEMENTS IN CONNECTICUT. Meanwhile the Council of Plymouth had granted a patent for the region west of Narragansett Bay. John Winthrop, son of the governor of Massachusetts, and two others, were sent over to act for the proprietors ; and a fort (Saybrook) 68 SETTLEMENT OF CONNECTICUT. [l635 was built without delay at the mouth of the Connecticut. The Dutch of New Amsterdam, coming shortly afterward to take possession of the same region, were frightened off, and ultimately gave up the post they had established fifty miles above. The last party that emigrated from Massachusetts to the Connecticut Valley in 1635, suffered untold hardships ; and some, at the hazard of their lives, even retraced their steps in the depth of a severe winter. Yet the following summer, the whole congregation of Cambridge, led by their minister and driving their cattle before them, took their way through the woods to Connecticut, and made a permanent settlement at Hartford. The close of the year 1636 found about eight hundred souls in the Connecticut Valley, and an independent government was soon organized. Thus originated the colony of CONNECTICUT. Pequod War. The Indians were more numerous in Con necticut than along the Massachusetts coast. Particularly formidable were the Pe quods, whose strongholds were near the mouth of the Thames (tamz) River, while their hunting- grounds extended thence to the Connecticut. No sooner had the settlements just mentioned been established, than they were exposed to the horrors of a war with these fierce natives. Hostilities arose in this wise. In 1634, the crew of a Virginia trading-vessel had been cut off by the Pequods in the Connecticut River. Two years later, the natives of Block Island (Map, p. 67) had boarded the bark of a New England trader, and murdered its master. Without inquiring what provocation might have been given for these outrages, the men of Massachusetts Bay proceeded to avenge them. A descent was made on Block Island, its wigwams an d standing corn were destroyed, and two Pequod villages on the mainland were burned. The Pequods retaliated, and the exposed settlements of Connecticut suffered severely. At 1636] PEQUOD WAR. 69 this juncture, the Narragansetts were kept from joining their red brethren only by the efforts of the magnanimous Roger Williams, who risked his life to perform this service for the men that had driven him from Salem. War was formally declared against the Pequods by the authorities of Connecticut in the spring of 1637, and a force of English and friendly Mohegans under Captain Mason promptly took the field. The principal Pequod village near the Thames was surprised, and its occupants rushed from their blazing wigwams, which the English had fired, only to be shot down. A second body of Pequods, coming from a neighboring fort to aid their friends, was repulsed. The power of the nation was thus completely broken, and the disheartened survivors were hunted from one hiding- place to another, till they were almost exterminated. The Colony of New Haven. Puritans from England founded another colony on the soil of Connecticut in 1638. Land was obtained by treaty with the natives, and the col ony itself, as well as its chief settlement, was called NEW HA VEX. John Davenport was its pastor, and Theophilus Eaton for twenty years its governor. An Assembly of the colonists, held in a barn, ordained that only church-mem bers should have the full rights of citizens, and the Bible was adopted as the sole guide in public affairs. The Indian troubles over, both this colony and Connecti cut (which absorbed the Saybrook colony in 1644) enjoyed peace and prosperity. Thriving villages sprung up ; and in 1665 they were all united in the single colony of Connecti cut, under a royal charter of great liberality granted by King Charles II. in 1662. Puritan Peculiarities. By the year 1640, fifty settle ments had been made in New England, at an expense of not less than a million dollars. In almost all of them, Puritan principles prevailed. The people generally were austere ; they forbade dancing, the drinking of healths, cards, and 70 LIFE IN NEW ENGLAND. dice. Their laws in some cases interfered with private rights. At Hartford, everybody had to get up when he heard the watchman s bell in the morning. No one under twenty was allowed to use tobacco ; those over that age could smoke one pipe a day, but only at a distance of ten miles from any dwelling. In Plymouth, a fine of 2s. was imposed on any person found smoking on the Lord s-day, going to or from meeting, or within two miles of the meet ing-house. Citizens were liable to a fine, if they did not vote. To their religious duties, the New Englanders attended rigorously. At one time, in Massachusetts Bay, there was a law against erecting a dwelling in a new town more than half a mile away from a meeting-house. Their Sabbath, which in Connecticut began at sunset on Saturday, was observed as a strict day of rest. Intolerance in religion was a fault of the age ; we must expect, therefore, to find it in New England in those early days. Jesuits were not allowed in Massachusetts Bay, and we shall presently see how Quakers were treated there. The Puritan leaders objected to the cross in the English flag ; and on one occasion Endicott, when commanding at Salem, went so far as to cut it from his colors. The holidays of the English Church were their abhorrence ; even the eating of mince-pies on Christmas was denounced as wicked. Under lying all this were an intense love of liberty and an untiring energy, which have impressed themselves on our national character. Life in New England. The style of living was at first necessarily simple. Extravagance in dress was expressly forbidden, especially in the matter of " ribands and great boots." The low houses of logs or boards, with their small prison-like Avindows, thatched roofs, and clay-plastered chim neys, were not much like the present tasteful dwellings of New England. Inside, the most important apartment was the great kitchen and sitting-room, where the capacious fire- LIFE IN NEW ENGLAND. 71 A NEW ENGLAND KITCHEN IN THE OLDEN TIME. place, andirons, and bellows, the crane and pot suspended from it, showed that the day of stoves was not yet. There would be found the high-backed settle, quite necessary to keep off the wind, whistling through the crannies ; the mor tar and pestle, with which the corn was pounded before mills became common ; the spinning-wheel, plied by the good mother as she found leisure ; and the trusty firelock hang ing over the mantel, ever ready in case of an Indian foray. " Good man " and " good woman," often abbreviated into " goody," were the common titles. Mister and Mis tress were respectful forms of address for persons of rank or ministers and their wives. The New England leaders were educated men, and as soon as it was practicable made provision for schools. Har vard College, established at Cambridge in 1637, was the ear- 72 SETTLEMENT OF MARYLAND. [l632 liest institution of the kind in the colonies. It was so called from the Rev. John Harvard, who left to it his library and half his estate. At the same place was set up the first printing-press brought to the colonies ; a version of the Psalms in metre, long used in the New England churches, was one of its earliest productions (1640). Settlement of Maryland. Roman Catholics, no less than Puritans, were exposed to persecution in England. This led the Catholic Lord Baltimore to look for some spot in the New World where those of his creed might enjoy their wor ship unmolested. He tried Newfoundland, but it was too cold and barren. He tried Virginia, but found the people there more intolerant than in England. So in 1632 he ob tained from King Charles I. a large tract, to which the name of MARYLAND was given from the queen, Henrietta Maria. The same year, on his father s death, Cecil (ses il) Cal- vert became Lord Baltimore, and succeeded to the grant. His charter was most liberal. The colony was left to gov ern itself, and was to pay no tax to the king, but only a royalty of one-fifth of whatever gold and silver might be found. To all Christians perfect religious freedom was afterward guaranteed by a law of the colony. In 1634, a number of Catholic gentlemen, with their ser vants in all about two hundred came over from England under Leonard Calvert, the proprietor s brother. Not far from the mouth of the Potomac they commenced the little town of St. Mary s, the first in their new colony. The " Pilgrims of St. Mary s " treated the natives with equity and kindness. Their chief troubles arose from one Clayborne, who had established himself as a trader on an island in Chesapeake Bay, denied Lord Baltimore s author ity, and even menaced the new-comers with attack. A fight ensued, Clayborne s party was defeated, and his island seized. Land-grants at low rents were offered as inducements to set tlers, and prosperity smiled on the shores of the Chesapeake. 1638] NEW SWEDEN. 73 The irrepressible Clayborne, indeed, reappeared upon the stage, and, exciting a rebellion among the Marylanders, for a time established his authority over the entire colony, but only to be a second time driven out by Governor Cal- vert, with a force from Virginia, New Sweden. The first settlement in the present state of Delaware was made by emigrants from Holland (1631), who for three years occupied a tract near the mouth of the Delaware River, but were cut off by the Indians. Perma nent colonization was commenced in 1638, by a party of Protestant Swedes under the leadership of Minuit, who had entered the Swedish service after being recalled from the governorship of New Netherland. Purchasing from the natives a tract at the head of Delaware Bay, they gave it the name of NEW SWE DEN, and erected Fort Christiana, so called after their youthful queen. Pres- ,, . . , , ,, MARYLAND AND NEW SWEDEN. ently joined by others from their fatherland, they pushed on up the Delaware till they reached what is now Southwark, in Philadelphia. Here in the banks of the river they dug caves, which afforded them shelter for a year or two, till they were able to build 74: A GENERAL REVIEW. log huts plastered with mud and lighted by holes in the wall. The authorities of New Amsterdam remonstrated against these intrusions on territory that they deemed their own, but for a time hesitated to resort to arms. GENERAL REVIEW AND MAP QUESTIONS. (Eefer to the Maps on pages 42, 56, 62, 64, and 67.) Write on the blackboard the names of the colonies founded before 1640, in the order of time, the earliest first. Name them in the order of place, beginning with the most northerly. Describe the situation, and mention the chief settlements, of each. In which of the present states of the Union were settlements made at this time (not forgetting St. Augustine) ? What colonies and settlements were named after royal personages ? What was the origin of the name Massachusetts ? New Hampshire ? Provi dence ? Maine ? Connecticut ? Mauritius ? Delaware ? What Indians in Maine ? In Virginia ? In Plymouth Colony ? Near Providence Plantation ? In Connecticut ? To what great family did all these tribes belong ? Where was Acadia ? Ligonia ? Laconia ? Mount Hope ? Block Island ? Pemmaquid Point ? Saco ? Portsmouth ? Providence ? Dover ? Exeter ? What early settlements in Massachusetts, north of Boston ? South of Boston ? West of Boston ? On which side of the river were the early settlements in Connecticut ? What was the original name of the Isle of Rhodes? What settle ments on the Charles River ? On Massachusetts Bay ? In New France ? The Mauritius was sometimes called the North River, in contradistinc tion to the Delaware, or South River ; what settlements on the former, and what colony at the mouth of the latter ? Which of the colonies were of Puritan origin ? Which was Catholic ? In which did the Church of England prevail? In which, the Baptist Church ? In which the Dutch Reformed Church ? N. N. In which the Swedish Lutheran Church ? N. S. Draw a map of the eastern coast of Massachusetts, showing the Merri- mac and Charles Rivers, the Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth Colonies, and the chief settlements in each. Draw a map of the vicinity of Jamestown, showing the James, Chicka- hominy, and York Rivers, Chesapeake Bay, and the first permanent Eng lish settlement in America. UNION OF NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 75 CHAPTER IX. THE NEW WORLD FROM 1640 TO 1675. New England, The most important event of this period in the northern colonies was the union of Massachusetts (with its New Hampshire towns), Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven, in a confederacy called " the United Colo nies of New England." This league, formed in 1643, was designed for mutual protection and attended with highly beneficial results. Questions of war and peace, and the management of all foreign relations, were intrusted to a council of two delegates (church-members) from each col ony. Massachusetts was much the most important member of the union, and next to it was Connecticut. The civil war between King Charles I. and the English Parliament ended with the overthrow and execution of the monarch. In 1649 royalty was abolished in England, and " the Commonwealth " established in its place, with Oliver Cromwell at its head. The New England colonists, who had sympathized with Parliament during the struggle, enjoyed the favor of the new government and rapidly increased in strength. When in 1660 monarchy was restored and Charles II. was seated on the throne of his ancestors, New England had to make her peace with him as best she could. Agents were sent over to London. Liberal charters were obtained for Connecticut and Rhode Island ; but Massachusetts, in re turn for a recognition of her charter, was required to toler ate the Church of England and make other unpalatable concessions. By evasion and delay, the colony for a time managed to avoid compliance. Meanwhile it kept growing. Boston, though its streets were narrow and its houses mostly of wood, was much the largest town in the colonies. In 76 THE NEW WORLD FROM 1640 TO 1675. 1675 it contained more than 8,000 souls, and carried on a flourishing trade with Virginia and the West Indies. NEGRO SLAVERY was allowed in New England as well as Virginia. It found its way into all the colonies, and con tinued to exist throughout the colonial period. JOHN ELIOT was prominent among the good men who flourished in New England at this time. He devoted his life to labors among the natives, journeying from village to village, preaching to them in their own language, establish ing schools, relieving their wants, and teaching them the arts of civilized life. He acquired unbounded influence over them, and succeeded in forming several communities of "praying Indians." In 1663, he completed at Cambridge his translation of the Scriptures into the language of the Massachusetts Indians the first Bible published in Amer ica. So well known was Eliot s kindness of heart that once the treasurer, on paying him his salary, tied it up in a hand kerchief with as many knots as possible, lest the charitable " apostle of the Indians " should give it all to the needy on his way home. QUAKERS were objects of special abhorrence to the Mas sachusetts Puritans. Relying on " the inner light," opposed to all forms and ceremonies, denouncing a hireling ministry, and refusing to bear arms or to take oaths, the Quakers, or " Friends " as they called themselves, were regarded as dan gerous to both church and state. Nor can we wonder that the staid people of Boston were provoked, when they saw some of these enthusiasts disturbing public worship, hooting from windows at magistrates and ministers as they passed, and even parading the streets half-naked to show their dis approval of worldly fashions. Milder penalties failing to keep " the accursed sect " away, Quakers entering the colony were at length condemned to lose their ears, to be branded on the shoulder, to have their tongues bored with red-hot irons, and, if the offence was repeated, to be hanged. After NEW NETHERLAND. 77 four had suffered death (1659-1661), a milder punishment was substituted to be stripped, tied to a cart s tail, and whipped from one town to another over the border and the Quakers at last stopped coming. New Netherland. Kieft, who was governor of New Netherland from 1638 to 1647, by his folly, cruelty, and treachery, brought on a terrible war with the Indians, which at one time threatened every Dutch settlement in the coun try with destruction. He was succeeded by the old soldier Peter Stuyvesant (sti ve-s&nt\ who had lost a leg in the service of his country a stubborn and choleric man, dis posed to override the people, but brave and honest. Stuy vesant maintained the honor of the Dutch arms by capturing Fort Christiana and annexing New Sweden, " the jewel of the Swedish crown " (1655). He made an efficient governor, adopting various measures for the public good, and winning the confidence of the Indians by his fair dealing. Stuyvesant, however, was unwilling to give way to the spirit of liberty which began to prevail among his people, threatening that if any one appealed from his decisions he would make him "a foot shorter." So, when in 1664 an English fleet appeared in the harbor of New Amsterdam and demanded the surrender of the fort, the gallant veteran could not induce the burghers to support him in its defence. To his bitter mortification, he was obliged to haul down his colors. The whole colony submitted without bloodshed to the English. Its name, as well as that of the town on Man hattan Island, was changed to NEW YORK, in honor of the Duke of York, afterward James II. ; to whom the king his brother, disregarding the counter-claim of Holland, had granted the region from the Connecticut to the Delaware. The Duke of York being also Duke of Albany, the latter name was given to Fort Orange. The country between the Hudson and the Delaware was granted by the duke to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Car- 78 THE NEW WORLD FROM 1640 TO 1675. teret, who called it NEW JERSEY from the Isle of Jersey, of which Carteret had been governor. Neither here nor in New York were the Dutch settlers disturbed ; and, though the English element increased, Dutch continued for some time to be the tongue commonly spoken. THE ENGLISH GOVERNORS of New York proved arbitrary and inefficient, and in 1673 the colony was allowed again to fall into the hands of its former masters. It was restored STATE-HOUSE AT NEW AMSTERDAM, UNDER GOVERNOR STUYVESANT. to the English, however, the following year, and Major Ed mund Andros became governor. His administration was no improvement on his predecessors . The Dutch of the New "World were a thrifty, honest, hos pitable people, never in a hurry, not given to many words, fond of good cheer, and of smoking their pipes on the stoops of their neat and comfortable houses. Manhattan Island, in the olden time, was dotted with " boweries," or country-seats. NEW NETHERLAND. VIRGINIA.. 79 The town was at the lower extremity, a palisade having been run across the island at what is now Wall Street, to keep off the Indians. The better class of buildings rejoiced in roofs of red and black tiles, and gables of bricks that had crossed the ocean. A good house rented for $14 a year. At first the mode of living was plain. After a time, house-servants in some cases, negro slaves became common. At a still later period, a fondness for finery was exhibited. The ladies were gay with jaunty jackets of cloth or silk, elaborate col ored skirts, and girdle-chains, to which on Sunday handsome Bibles or hymn-books were attached. The fine gentlemen wore knee-breeches, silver shoe-buckles, long velvet waist coats, and coats set off with bright silver buttons. Under the second English governor the first mail was dispatched from New York to Boston, the round trip taking a month. Virginia. Sir William Berkeley was commissioned as governor of Virginia in 1641. Though he was no friend of popular rights, and once thanked Heaven that there were neither free schools nor printing within his jurisdiction, yet for a time the colony throve grandly. The Assembly, or House of Burgesses, revised the laws ; land-titles were ad justed, taxes more equitably laid, and punishments of undue severity abolished. But in religious matters great intoler ance was manifested. Conformity to the Church of England was required in all teachers and preachers. Puritans were not allowed to hold office, while Quakers and Catholics were forbidden to enter the colony under heavy penalties. In 1644 Virginia suffered from an Indian war, which cost the lives of several hundred colonists. The Red Men, how ever, were soon subdued and driven from their lands. So ciety after a time assumed an aristocratic air, and distinct lines were drawn between the upper and lower classes. Landed estates descended to the eldest son. The large planters indulged in display, surrounding themselves with servants, and exercising a generous hospitality. 80 THE NEW WORLD FROM 1640 TO 1675. The Virginians were loyal to Charles I. during his war with Parliament. They were obliged to recognize the Com monwealth, but rejoiced at the restoration of Charles II. Their fidelity, however, was ill rewarded. The restored king laid restrictions on their commerce, cut them off from all markets for their tobacco except England, and gave away their best lands to his dissolute courtiers. More than this, an aristocratic faction, favored by Governor Berkeley, controlled the House of Burgesses, and ground the faces of the poor with iniquitous taxes, while they exempted the large landholders and provided liberally for their own sala ries. Things were ripe for trouble. Settlement of Carolina. As far back as 1562, the French had given the name of CAROLINA to the region south of Vir ginia (p. 37), though they had failed to colonize it perma nently. Meanwhile, disregarding the claims of both France and Spain, English emigrants from Virginia and Plymouth had settled near Albemarle Sound and on the Cape Fear River (see Map, p. 42). But Carolina was to have other owners. In 1663, Charles II. granted this whole territory, as far south as the St. John s River in Florida, to several noblemen; and the philosopher Locke was employed to draw up a constitution for their magnificent domain. Great philosophers are not always practical men ; and so it turned out that Locke s " Grand Model," with its array of feudal lords, was wholly unfit for the free deer-hunters of Albe marle, who would call no man master. Nor was it more successful in the south, where a party sent out by the proprietors established themselves on the Ashley River (1670). A republican government was adopted instead ; and in 1680, Charleston, so called after the king, was founded. The genial climate and rich soil of Carolina attracted settlers, not only from the northern colonies, but from the mother-country, the United Provinces, and even France, CAROLINA. NEW FRANCE. 81 whence the persecuted Hu guenots (Protes tants) were but too glad to escape to a land of liberty. Little or no trouble was experienced with the Indians ; but the misrule of bad gov ernors tried the people for a time, till they took matters into their own hands and drove out the tyrants. About the close of the century, rice began to be Cultivated in SOUth- CHABLESTON AND VICINITY. ern Carolina, from seed brought from Madagascar ; and soon after 1700, cotton and silk were produced in small quantities. New France, While these things were going on in the English colonies, the settlement of New France was slowly progressing. In 1642, Montreal was founded with solemn ceremonies as a mission-station. This place and Quebec soon became the head-quarters of devoted priests and Jesuits, whose one great aim was the conversion of the Indians. De terred by no dangers, they pushed out into the wilderness, some making their way eastward as far as the Kennebec and Penobscot, and others penetrating the region of the Great Lakes. Not a few proved their sincerity by laying down their lives in this perilous service. FRENCH EXPLORATIONS. The Iroquois (see Map, p. 38), filled with jealousy and hatred of the French, resisted these missionary efforts, harassed the settlers on the St. Lawrence, and at one time even threatened Quebec with destruction. But other tribes were impressed by the earnest preachers. Allouez (al-loo-a ) raised the cross among the Sioux (soo), 82 FKENCH EXPLOKATIONS IN THE WEST. .the Chip pewas, and curious throngs from distant nations that visited his little chapel on Lake Superior. He first brought back an account of the wonderful Pictured Rocks, where for miles the sandstone, from one to three hundred feet in height, has been worn into arches and columns like those of some ancient ruin. Following the example of this devoted missionary, Mar- quette (mar-feet ) and Joliet (zhole-ya 1 ) next explored north ern Michigan, and discovered the Mississippi at the mouth of the Wisconsin (1673). For hundreds of miles they de scended the great river in canoes, to the point where it is joined by the Arkansas. Marquette afterward preached to the natives in what is now northern Illinois, and touched their hearts with his words of love. Coasting Lake Michigan on his return, he went ashore to perform his devotions, and while so engaged breathed his last. Flourishing cities in the regions they visited, preserve the names of Marquette and Joliet. The next explorers were Hen nepin and La Salle (lah sahl), commander of Fort Frontenac, which stood at the foot of Lake Ontario, on the site of the present city of Kingston (see Map, p. 112). When they had reached the Illinois River, La Salle turned back, while Hennepin directed his course to the upper Mississippi, and was the first white man to behold the Falls of St. Anthony. In 1682, La Salle, with a well-equipped party, started on a second expedition, and this time descended the Mississippi to its mouth. The coun try on its banks he took possession of, in the name of King Louis XIV. of France, and called LOUISIANA after this " Grand Monarch," then at the height of his glory. Thus, while England held the entire Atlantic coast from the Pe- nobscot to Florida, and claimed the whole country west to the Pacific, France, by actual explorations and the establishment of occasional posts, acquired a conflicting title to the basin of the Great Lakes and the vast valley of the Mississippi. 1675 KING PHILIP S WAK. 83 ANALYTICAL REVIEW. Treat the following Abstracts as heretofore directed (p. 66). Such sub jects as the teacher sees fit, may from time to time hereafter be made the bases of similar exercises. French Explorations. (Pages 36, 37, 55, 66.) I. FISHING VOYAGES. II. VERRAZZANI S VOYAGES. 1. Patronized by whom ? 2. Results. III. CARTIER S VOYAGES. IV. ATTEMPTS AT COLONIZATION. 1. On the St. Lawrence. 2. In Carolina. 3. In Florida : Ribault. a. Spanish massacre. b. French reprisals. De Gourgues. 4. In Acadia. V. CHAMPLAIN S EXPLORATIONS. 1. Founding of Quebec. 2. Lake Champlain. VI. COLLISIONS WITH THE ENGLISH ON THE COAST OF MAINE. New Netherland. (Pages 51-55, 77.) I. DUTCH MARITIME ENTERPRISE. II. HUDSON S VOYAGES. 1. Hudson River discovered. 2. Hudson Bay discovered. III. EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 1. On Manhattan Island. 2. Up the Hudson. 3. Of Walloons. IV. MINUIT S ADMINISTRATION. V. " PATROON " SYSTEM. VI. KIEFT S ADMINISTRATION. VII. STUYVESANT S ADMINISTRAT N. 1. Conquest of New Sweden : its early history. 2. Character and course. VIII. CONQUEST BY THE ENGLISH. Change of names. IX. SOCIAL LIFE AND MANNERS. CHAPTER X. KING PHILIP S WAR. BACON S REBELLION, King Philip s War. After the Pequod War, New Eng land experienced little trouble from the Indians till 1675. Then broke out King Philip s War. Philip, whose chief seat was Mount Hope (see Map, p. 64), was chief of the Wampanoags and son of the old Massasoit, who for more than forty years had remained the unwavering friend of the Plymouth colonists. KING PHILIP S WAR. [1675 Philip knew the power of the pale-faces, and had not desired war. But he was powerless to keep down the fires kindled in the breasts of his people when they saw them selves gradually crowded out from the hunting-grounds of their fathers, and at last shut up in two small peninsulas on the northern shore of Narragansett Bay. Slight causes suf ficed to fan the smouldering fire into a blaze. When three Red Men were executed for murdering a Christian Indian who had given information of their hostile designs, war could no longer be deferred. Philip accepted his fate, though he wept when he heard of the first shedding of Eng lish blood. He soon had all the tribes, as far as the distant forests of Maine, united in one common cause against the whites. Then were experienced all the horrors of Indian warfare the deadly ambus cade the fearful war-whoop, curdling the blood at mid night the shooting down by invisible foes of all who ventured outside of palisades or block house the burning of villages, and scalping of women and children. The Massachu setts settlements in the Connecticut Valley suffered espe cially, in the fall of 1675. Several were reduced to ashes. Hadley, surprised while its inhabitants were at meeting, was saved by a strange-looking old man who suddenly appeared among the people to rally them from their fright and repel the savages, and then as mysteriously vanished. The sav- BLOCK-HOUSE AND PALISADES. 1675] iour of Hadley was at first thought to be an angel, but was afterward ascertained to be one of the fugitive judges that had condemned Charles I., General Goffe, who had been living in concealment in the neighborhood. For a time, Philip seemed to be everywhere. His venge ful arm was felt even within eighteen miles of Boston, a sudden attack having been made on Weymouth. The Rhode Island towns suffered with the rest, and even the remote settlements of Maine and New Hampshire were rav aged. Panic seized the colonists, who beheld in this ter rible war a judgment for their sins for their pride, in wearing long curled hair and gay apparel for their hurry to leave meeting before the blessing was pronounced. Their imaginations painted phantom horsemen on the clouds, and turned the howling of wolves into an omen of ill. Yet the yeomen of Massachusetts and Plymouth were not idle. They had laid waste the Wampanoag country, had sought Philip in the field; and in December, 1675, a thousand men invaded the territory of the Narragansetts, and completely broke the power of that once formidable tribe. The following spring, the Indians began to be hard pressed for food and ammunition. While attempting to fish at the Falls of the Connecticut, a considerable party of them was attacked and sustained a heavy reverse. At length without followers or resources, hunted from spot to spot, Philip returned to his old haunts near Mount Hope. The last bitter blow was the capture of his wife and boy. A few days after, surprised by his enemies in the re cesses of a swamp, the heart-broken chief was shot by one of his own people who had deserted to the whites (August, 1676). His head was sent to Plymouth, where it was ex posed on a gibbet, and the little grandson of the faithful Massasoit was sold as a slave in Bermuda. During this brief but destructive war, six hundred buildings were burned, and as many of the settlers slain. 86 TROUBLES IN VIRGINIA. [l675 Virginia in 1675. We left Virginia (p. 80) a royal prov ince under Sir William Berkeley, and its people oppressed and discontented. In 1675, Indian depredations added to their troubles. Maryland had been the first thus to suffer, from the incursions of certain tribes, driven from their homes near the mouth of the Susquehanna by the victorious Senecas. Virginia had succored the sister colony. The Indians had sent embassadors to sue for peace, and these had been treach erously slain by the whites. Thus provoked, the Indians re taliated wherever a defenceless plantation invited their attack ; and these barbarities, occurring at the same time with King Philip s War in New England, led the Virginians to suspect a general Indian plot for their destruction. Bacon s Rebellion. Governor Berkeley, who derived profit from the Indian trade, and who at the same time no doubt honestly disapproved of the treachery that was the immediate cause of the war, would take no efficient meas ures to protect the people. Nor, when a commission to lead a force against the savages was asked for by NATHANIEL BACON, a young and popular lawyer from England who had a seat in the governor s council, would he grant it. So Ba con, hearing soon after of an attack on his own plantation, took the liberty of proceeding against the Indians without a commission (April, 1676). For this, though successful, he was denounced by Berkeley as a traitor. Peace was for a time preserved by Bacon s making con cessions ; but the commission was still withheld, and soon the popular leader appeared before Jamestown with several hundred men, and extorted it from the unwilling governor. The Indians were defeated ; but, during Bacon s absence on the expedition, Berkeley declared him and his men rebels, and there was no alternative but civil war. The people gen erally sided with Bacon, as the champion of their rights. Jamestown fell successively into the hands of either party, and in September, 1676, was burned by the patriots, several 1676] BACON S REBELLION. 87 of them firing their own dwellings, to prevent it from becom ing a stronghold of the enemy. Success crowned the efforts of the popular party, and they were on the point of witnessing the triumph of liberal principles when their able young leader sickened and died (Oct. 1, 1676). The " rebellion " soon died out, and the malig nant Berkeley wreaked a terrible vengeance on the patriot leaders that survived. Nothing short of their life-blood would satisfy him. " God hath been inexpressibly merciful to this poor province," he wrote, after giving an account of one of his hangings ; but he himself showed no mercy. Culpepper, to whom, with Lord Arlington, King Charles II. had granted Virginia, came over in 1680 as its governor for life. His sole aim seems to have been to get as much money as possible out of his province. There would prob ably have been another <c rebellion," had not the king re voked the grant and recalled Culpepper. But the new gov ernor was of the same stamp, and Virginia as a royal prov ince was for a while little better off than before. REVIEW BY DATES. Continue the CHRONOLOGICAL RECORD for the following years, accord ing to the model on page 55. The words in parentheses will suggest the events. As a review, let the events be assigned in turn to different pupils, and each tell what he knows about his topic without being questioned. 1606 (Grant). 1607 (Jamestown). 1608 (Champlain). 1609 (Hudson). 1614 (Manhattan). 1619 (Assembly). 1620 (Pilgrims). 1622 (Massacre). 1628 (Mass. Bay). 1630 (Boston). 1633 (Connecticut). 1634 (Maryland). 1635 (Connecticut). 1636 (Providence). 1637 (Pequods). 1638 (New Haven). " (Swedes). 1639 (Newport). " (Gorges). 1641 (New Hampshire). 1643 (Union). 1644 (Indian War). 1652 (Maine). 1653 (North Carolina). 1655 (New Sweden). 1663 (Carolina). 1664 (N. Amsterdam). 1665 (Union). 1670 (South Carolina). 1673 (New York). 1674 (Andros). 1675 (War). 1676 (Rebellion). 88 QUAKERS IN NEW JEESEY. CHAPTER XI. FOUNDING OF PENNSYLVANIA. Quaker Settlements in New Jersey. Berkeley, one of the proprietors of New Jersey (p. 77), sold out his share to two Quakers, and in 1676 the province was divided into East Jer sey and West Jersey, Carteret retaining the former. The Quakers, or Friends, originated in England about 1650, through the teachings of George Fox, who from a shoemaker s ap prentice became an earnest itinerant preacher. One of their leading doctrines was the equality of all men ; they kept their hats on even be- EARLY SETTLEMENTS IN NEW JERSEY. f ore the king himself, and used thou and thee no matter whom they addressed. They thought war wrong, even when waged in self-defence, and never returned evil for evil. We have seen how these generally inoffensive Friends were treated in New England and Virginia. In the old country, also, persecution was for years their lot. They were reviled by the lowest of the low ; their women and children were dragged by the hair through the streets ; their meeting-houses were pulled down ; their preachers were fined 1681] WILLIAM PENN S GRANT. 89 and imprisoned in filthy dungeons. It is not surprising, therefore, that they flocked to the asylum provided for them on the genial banks of the Delaware, and reared the flourish ing villages of Salem and Burlington. After the death of Carteret, East Jersey also was purchased by an association of Quakers, at whose head stood William Penn. William Penn was a son of Admiral Penn, a favorite officer of the Duke of York. "While at Oxford University, the young William had embraced the doctrines of the Friends ; and having with some others gone so far as to tear the college gown from the backs of his fellow-students, he was expelled from the university. For this and for stand ing firm in his new faith, on his return home, he was beaten by his father and turned out of the house. But neither the admiral s anger nor the brilliant prospects that awaited him if he would yield his religious convictions, could shake his belief. He became a great preacher, the defender of his sect, and earnestly embarked in the work of colonizing his people where they could enjoy their principles unmolested. Founding of Pennsylvania. Colonization in the New World had engaged the attention of William Penn, even before he became interested in New Jersey. As early as 1681 he had obtained from Charles II. a large grant west of the Delaware, in payment of 16,000 which had been owed his father by the government. To this territory the king gave the name of PENNSYLVANIA, though the modest Penn wanted it called simply Sylvania (forest-land), and actually offered one of the secretaries twenty guineas to have the name so changed. A liberal " frame of govern ment " was drawn up for the new colony ; the three south ern counties (constituting the present state of Delaware) were added to Penn s domain ; and in 1682 the proprietor himself set sail with a considerable company. "I will found," said he, " a free colony for all mankind." Penn s grant embraced the territory once called New 90 PHILADELPHIA FOUNDED. fl683 Sweden. The Swedes had shown themselves an intelligent, moral, and religious people. Sending back messages by every traveller, they had begged that godly men would come from old Sweden to this strange land to keep them in the faith of their fathers. And godly men had come, and had taught their catechism not only to their own people but to the neighboring Delawares, freely rendering the petition of the Lord s Prayer, Give us this day our daily bread, in the Indian tongue, " Give us always plenty of venison and corn." There were but three books in the whole colony, yet they were used so faithfully that every child could read. Though, on the conquest of New Sweden by the Dutch, such of the inhabitants as refused allegiance to Holland were sent back to Europe, many thrifty Swedes remained ; and from some of these, who were settled there, Penn bought a tract at the confluence of the Schuylkill and the Delaware. Here, in 1683, he laid out in regular squares the city of Philadelphia, its name (meaning brotherly love) being an earnest of the principles that were to govern the Quaker colony. Governor Penn shortly afterward made his famous treaty with the neighboring Indians, who were won by his loving words, and promised to live in peace with William Penn and his children as long as the moon and the sun should endure. This treaty was never broken. Philadelphia grew apace ; within three years it could boast of six hundred houses. Solid comfort was character istic of the city, rather than show. One of the residents at this early period wrote of the town : " There are no begars nor olde maydes, neither Lawyers nor Doctors, with lycense to kill and make mischeef." An Assembly of delegates from the different counties was convoked, which passed on laws proposed by the gov ernor and council. Swedes and Dutch were allowed equal rights with English settlers. Ship-loads of emigrants came over. The name of Germantown, founded in 1684, shows 1683] THE THREE LOWER COUNTIES. 91 that some of these were from Germany, pioneers in a great movement from that country, which afterward rapidly in creased the population of Pennsylvania. The Three Lower Counties. Lord Baltimore s grant and Penn s covering in part the same ground, there was long a dispute as to the line between Maryland and Pennsylvania. The present east-and-west boundary was fixed in 1761 by two surveyors, Mason and Dixon, and in the days of slavery was often referred to as "Mason and Dixon s line." Penn s title to the " three Lower Counties " was confirmed. But their inhabitants, growing dissatisfied, were in 1701 allowed a distinct Assembly of their own, and thus became virtually independent under the name of DELAWARE. They remained, however, under the same governor as Pennsylvania till 1776. Penn s Latter Days were clouded. The Assembly took advantage of his absence in England to infringe on his rights and divert his reve nues. After the fall of the Stuarts and the accession of William and Mary in 1689, he was thrice arrested on false charges of treason and conspiracy, growing out of his friendship for the deposed king, James II. Dishonest agents involved him in debt; and, when he asked the As sembly of his colony for a moderate loan, he was re fused. After a life devoted to the service of others, the pure and gentle Friend died in 1718, having received little reward in this world except the approval of his own con science. 92 THE NEW WORLD AT THE CLOSE QENERAL REVIEW AND MAP QUESTIONS. (Refer to the Maps on pages 73, 88.) How was New Sweden situated ? When and where was it first settled ? Who led the Swedes ? What have we heard about Minuit before ? Who claimed the territory of New Sweden ? On what ground ? Describe the people of New Sweden. What city afterward covered the site of their northernmost settlement ? What became of New Sweden ? In what four colonies was it successively incorporated ? What name did the greater part of New Sweden bear, when included in Pennsylvania ? When, and under what name, did " the three Lower Coun ties " become an independent colony ? Whence was the name of the colo ny, river, and bay, derived ? Tell all you know about Lord Delaware. By what other name was the Delaware River known among the Dutch ? How was Fort Nassau situated ? What Indians lived on the eastern shore of Maryland ? Why was New Jersey so called ? By whom, and in what part, was it first settled ? How was it divided ? Which was the larger division ? Name some of the early settlements in East Jersey. Men tion some in West Jersey. Where do we first hear of Quakers in the New World ? Where next ? How did New Jersey fall into their possession ? Tell all you know about the origin and peculiarities of the Quakers. How was William Penn con nected with New Jersey ? How with Pennsylvania ? With what sovereigns of England had Penn to do ? Mention three early settlements in Pennsyl vania. Draw a map of New Jersey and the adjacent part of Pennsylvania, showing the division into East and West Jersey, the early settlements, and the city of Philadelphia. CHAPTER XII. THE NEW WORLD AT THE CLOSE OF THE SEVEN TEENTH CENTURY. New York. Major Edmund Andros, who became gov ernor of New York after its reconquest from the Dutch in 1674, was the fit tool of his tyrannical master, the Duke of York. Under his rule, the people had nothing to say about OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 93 laying taxes or making laws ; the idea of their having any rights in such matters was laughed at. The duke s grant extended from the Connecticut to Maryland ; so Andros, in the summer of 1675, sailed with a little fleet for Saybrook, to let the people know that he was their governor. The brave men of Connecticut refused to recognize his authority, and not liking their resolute looks he sailed back to New York. A similar attempt was made in New Jersey, but without much better success. Complaints against the administration of Andros finally led to his recall. Dongan, his successor, was authorized to convoke an Assem bly, and allow the people, for the first time, a voice in their own government (1683). Under Dongan the boundary between New York and Connecticut was settled, nearly as it is at present. An im portant treaty was also made with the Iroquois in western New York. Hostilities between these Indians (the Five Nations) and the French broke out soon after ; Canada was overrun, Montreal laid waste, and hundreds of the settlers of New France were massacred. When the Duke of York became King James II. in 1685, the concessions that had been made to the people of New York were revoked, and there was a return to the tyranny of former times. So, on hearing in 1688 that James had been driven from the throne, the New Yorkers expelled his repre sentative, and, while declaring their loyalty to the new sov ereigns, William and Mary, made Jacob Leisler (lice ler) provisional governor. Three years afterward, the governor appointed by William and Mary arrived, and Leisler surren dered his authority, but only to be tried on a charge of treason and hanged. The new governor did little for the colony. His succes sor, Fletcher, displayed some energy in repelling an incur sion of the French from the north ; but, while he was sus pected of favoring the pirates that infested the coast, he 94 NEW ENGLAND UNDER ANDKOS. [l686 proved himself no friend of popular rights. With the ap pointment of the Earl of Bellamont as governor, in 1698, a better era dawned. New England under Andros. Shortly after his accession, James united the New England colonies under one royal governor-general, and appointed his old favorite, now Sir Edmund Andros, to that position (1686). The charter of Massachusetts had been declared forfeited ; Plymouth had none, Not receiving from Rhode Island the surrender of her charter, according to his demands, Andros suppressed the existing government of that colony, and then (October, 1687) proceeded to Hartford to take away the charter of Connecticut, The Assembly was in session, and the much-prized instru ment was produced. A warm debate, in the presence of Andros and an excited throng of towns-people, was pro tracted into the night. The Assembly was on the point of yielding to the governor s demands, when the lights were suddenly put out, and in the dark the precious document was spirited away. It was concealed in a hollow tree known as " the Charter Oak," carefully cherished by the citizens of Hartford till it was blown down during a violent storm in 1856. Andros failed to effect his object, but he declared Connecticut a part of his government, and after the last entry in the records of the Assembly wrote the word Finis (THE END). The old Puritan order of things was now indeed, for the time, at an end in New England. The Episcopal Church was established. Persons that wished to be married had to go from all parts of Massachusetts to Boston, for there was the only Episcopal minister. New taxes were imposed. The title of the old settlers to their lands was called in ques tion, and to make it good heavy fees had to be paid. No one was allowed to leave the colony without a pass from the governor. With all this the men of Massachusetts were so 1687] NEW ENGLAND UNDER ANDKOS. 95 disgusted that they would not observe their annual Thanks giving, because Andros appointed it. But one day, news came that James was no longer king. Then it was the people s turn. They rose and imprisoned Andros ; and by the middle of May, 1689, the old govern ments were reinstated in all the New England colonies. ANDROS DEMANDING THE CHARTER OP CONNECTICUT. After two years importunity Massachusetts obtained a new charter from William and Mary, by which Plymouth and Maine were incorporated in that colony (1692). At the same time, Sir William Phipps, a native of Pemmaquid, was appointed governor. An illiterate ship-master, who had been knighted for having fished up treasure from an old Spanish wreck off St. Domingo, Phipps did not particularly distin guish himself, and retained the government but a short time. 96 FLETCIIEK IN CONNECTICUT. [l693 Fletcher in Connecticut, In 1693 the good people of Connecticut were put to another trial. The commission of Fletcher who has just been mentioned as governor of New York, gave him authority over the militia of Connecticut as well as of his own province, and he went to Hartford to assume command of them. But the militia of Connecticut preferred to be commanded by their own officers. The troops were paraded ; but as soon as Fletcher s secretary began to read the governor s commission, Captain Wadsworth ordered the drums to beat. Fletcher commanded silence, and again the reading began ; again, at a sign from Wadsworth, the drums drowned every other sound. The enraged Fletcher began to storm, when Captain Wadsworth, significantly stepping up with his drawn sword, bade the drummers go on. "If you interrupt them again," said he to Fletcher, "I will m?ke the sun shine through you." And Fletcher inter rupted them no more. King William s War. A collision between the French and English in the New World had to come, sooner or later. French missionaries and fur-traders had explored the western rivers, and dotted the shores of the Great Lakes with scat tered posts, few and feeble, it is true, but sufficient for France to base on them a claim to the whole Mississippi Valley. But this was embraced as well in the English grants, which ran west to the Pacific. The shores of Hud son Bay, and Newfoundland, valuable on account of its proximity to the fishing-banks, were also disputed territory. The French, weakened by their recent conflict with the Five Nations, were outnumbered ten to one by the English, but had powerful allies in the eastern Indians. James II., driven from the throne of England, took refuge with Louis XIV. of France, who engaged to assist him in recovering his crown. War between the two countries broke out in 1689. It spread to their colonies in America, and was there known as "King William s War." Count 1689] KING WILLIAM S WAR. 97 Frontenac, now in a green old age, was a second time made governor of New France. The French and Indians soon spread terror along the frontier. The tribes of Maine and New Hampshire took the war-path against the English, and Dover and Pemmaquid suffered from the tomahawk and scalping-knife. Schenectady, in New York, the gate of its palisade left unguarded, was surprised one bitter night in February, 1690, by a band from Montreal. The houses were fired, the sleeping inhabitants murdered, and but few escaped into the woods half-naked, to make their way through a driving snow-storm to Albany 16 miles distant or perish in the drifts. The settlements on the Salmon Falls River and Casco Bay (see Map, p. 65) suffered in like manner. The northern colonies, having to bear the brunt of the contest, united for their own protection. Two expeditions were projected ; one by land against Montreal, the other by sea against Quebec. The former failed, Frontenac repulsing the advanced division, and the main body not even reaching the Canadian border. The attack on Quebec was equally unsuccessful, Phipps (afterward governor of Massachusetts) moving so slowly that Frontenac was prepared for either assault or siege. Phipps, however, took Port Royal and other posts in Acadia. Massachusetts met the expenses of the expedition with bills of credit, ranging from 5s. to 5, the first paper-money ever issued in the English colonies. Hannah Dustin. King William s War continued to afflict the colonies till 1697. Its later operations were car ried on mainly by the Indian allies on either side. One in cident connected with this savage warfare has made the name of Hannah Dustin memorable. This heroic woman was confined to a sick-bed in her home near Haverhill (ha ver-il see Map, p. 62), in north-eastern Massachusetts, when the town was attacked by Indians. Her husband, at work in a neighboring field, kept off the savages with his gun while seven of his children made their 5 98 HEROISM OF MRS. DUSTIN". [1697 escape, but could not prevent the murder of his new-born babe or the capture of Mrs. Dustin and her nurse. The two latter were driven along, till they reached an island in the Merrimac a few miles above Concord. Here Mrs. Dustin, learning that she was to be taken many miles further, resolved to regain her freedom. A boy was her fellow - captive. Waking him and her nurse one night when the Indians were asleep, she assigned a part to each, and bade them strike their captors. Despair nerved the feeble arms, and ten stalwart sav ages were slain with their own tomahawks. More merciful than they had been to her, Mrs. Dustin spared an Indian child, and one woman escaped. Seiz ing on the canoe that had brought them thither, the two women and boy then descended the Merrimac, and were soon safe among the friends who had mourned them as lost. A granite monument reared on the spot (in Bos cawen, N. H.) commemorates this deed. The Witch-Mania. In savage warfare atrocities were to be expected, but they were almost outdone by the bloody scenes enacted in 1692 in that part of Salem now called Danvers. A strange delusion on the subject of witchcraft, originating in the family of the minister of Salem and en couraged by the credulous Cotton Mather, a learned young THE DCSTIN MONUMENT. 1692] THE WITCH-MANIA. 99 minister of Boston, seized on the people of Massachusetts. A weak-minded or malicious person had only to declare that he was pinched, pricked, or bruised by invisible fingers, and some friendless old woman, or mayhap one of his own kin dred, would be arrested as a witch, convicted on worthless testimony, and then put to death on the gallows. Twenty innocent persons thus suffered judicial murder not to mention those who were thrust into prison before the eyes of the people were opened, and the horrors wrought by a few fanatical magistrates and ministers were brought to an end. Most of those concerned in the witch-prosecu tions finally saw and lamented their error ; but Mather be lieved in witches to the last, and wrote a book to justify the murder of the innocents he had helped to condemn. Maryland. In 1691, William and Mary made Maryland a royal province, revoking its charter. The Church of Eng land was established, and the people taxed for its support. The capital was removed from St. Mary s (1694) to Provi dence, on the Severn River, afterward called Annapolis in honor of Queen Anne. The liberal provisions of Lord Baltimore were for a time set aside ; but after twenty-four years the colony was restored to the representative of the Calverts as proprietary, and its government remained in his family till about the time of the Revolution. Baltimore was laid out in 1730, and Frederick in 1745. Virginia. In Virginia, Sir Edmund Andros turned up as governor in 1692 ; and here, for the first time in the New World, he was popular. In 1698, provision was made for the building of a new city as a capital, in stead of James town. Its site was fixed on the peninsula between the York and the James River (see Map, p. 112) near the spot where a college endowed by the sovereigns and bearing their names William and Mary had already been erected. The new capital was called "Williamsburg, and was laid out in the form of a W, in token of the loyalty of its builders. 100 THE NEW WOELD IN 1700. CONTEMPORARY EVENTS AND RULERS. 1 TOO. Massachusetts, New York, Maryland, and Virginia, royal provinces, ruled by governors appointed by the crown. New Hampshire united to Massachusetts. Connecticut and Rhode Island under charters which allowed them to choose their own governors. Government of the Jerseys unsettled, in consequence of conflicting claims. Pennsylvania, in cluding " the three Lower Counties," under William Penn as governor. All Carolina held by the same proprietors, who appointed different governors for the north and south. Bellamont governor of New York and Massachusetts. Captain Kidd, arrested in Boston, awaiting trial in England as a pirate. The original edifice of Trinity Church, New York City, on its present site, four years old. Swearing and drunkenness punished with ten lashes or a fine of five shil lings, in Virginia. The woollen-manufacture discouraged in the colonies by act of Parliament. Love of liberty and impatience of oppression charac teristic of all the colonies. Population of the colonies about 300,000. Annual exports to England about $1,500,000. Boston the largest city. Two colleges (Harvard, Wil liam and Mary) in operation. First meeting of trustees to found a college in Connecticut, resulting in the establishment of Yale, first at Saybrook (1702), afterward at New Haven (1717). D Iberville (de-bare-veel 1 ), a Cana dian navigator in the service of France, exploring the lower Mississippi. Mexico and the other possessions of Spain in the New World under viceroys, who were almost absolute. The colonies sacrificed to the mother- country. The colonial offices, even the lowest, bestowed on Spaniards, and sometimes sold in Madrid to the highest bidder. Natives kept in ignorance. In Mexico, the colonists prohibited from cultivating flax, hemp, the vine, etc., from certain manufactures, and from foreign trade on pain of death. Tobacco-raising a government monopoly. Annual revenue of Mexico, $3,000,000. Guiana in possession of the Dutch and French. Jamaica, in the West Indies (taken from the Spanish by Admiral Penn in 1655), under English rule. Agriculture and trade flourishing, having received an impetus from the Buccaneers, or pirates, who spent their gains freely on the island between 1660Hind 1680. The western part of St. Do mingo (Hayti) in possession of France. William III. king of England and stadtholder of the United Provinces. England enjoying the light of literature and science ; Sir Isaac Newton at the height of his renown. Louis XIV. of France in the fifty-seventh year of his reign ; his greatness waning. Peter the Great, of Russia, defeated at Narva by Charles XII., of Sweden. INCIDENTS OF QUEEN ANNE s WAK. 101 CHAPTER XIII. QUEEN ANNE S WAR. SETTLEMENT OF GEORGIA. THE SOUTH- WEST. Queen Anne s War. Queen Anne, having succeeded William III. on the throne of England in 1702, immediately engaged in the War of the Spanish Succession with France and Spain. It extended to the American colonies, and was there called "Queen Anne s War." In September, 1702, Governor Moore of South Carolina made a descent on the Spanish settlement of St. Augustine. He took the town ; but, while he was waiting for artillery with which to attack the fort, two men-of-war belonging to the enemy made their appearance ; and Moore, thinking discretion the better part of valor, beat a hasty some said a cowardly retreat. Three years afterward, this same governor, with a few English and many friendly Creeks, undertook another expe dition, against the Spanish-Indian settlements near Appa- lachee Bay (see Map, p. 102), on the Gulf coast of northern Florida. He succeeded in plundering several villages, and taking many Indian prisoners, who were transplanted to the banks of the Altamaha (awl-td-md-haw ). The French, at tempting an attack on Charleston in 1706, were repulsed. The Deerfield Massacre. In New Hampshire and Mas sachusetts, Queen Anne s War was characterized by the usual Indian barbarities. The massacre at Deerfield, in northern Massachusetts (February, 1704), was full of hor rors. The place was surprised just before dawn, after the sentinels had retired from their posts. Climbing over the palisades on snow-drifts which reached their top, a legion of yelling savages were soon firing the houses and scalping the inhabitants. Those who escaped immediate death were dragged as prisoners to Canada. 102 CAROLINA DIVIDED. [1729 One day years afterward, when Deerfield had been re built, a woman attired as a squaw entered the village. In reply to the inquiries of the people, she declared herself a daughter of the former minister of the place, who had been taken captive the day of the massacre. Then only seven years old, she had grown up and married among the Indians. Curiosity had led her to revisit the home of her childhood ; but she was deaf to all entreaties to remain, and after a brief stay returned to her husband and children in Canada. The Treaty of Utrecht (yoo treki) terminated Queen Anne s War in 1713. By its terms, the peninsula of Acadia, thenceforth known as Nova Scotia, and the island of New foundland, were ceded to the English. Founding of Georgia. In 1729 Carolina was divided into two royal prov inces, distin guished as North and South, King George II. hav ing purchased the rights of the proprietors. The settlements of the south ern province stopped short of the Savan nah ; and the region west of that river, as far as the Alta- EARLT SETTLEMENTS IN GEORGIA. . maha, the king in 1732 granted to James Edward Oglethorpe and others, who called it GEORGIA in honor of their royal patron. 1733] SETTLEMENT OF GEORGIA. 103 Debt was at this time in England punished with impris onment, and the jails had been full of unfortunates who had no means of recovering their liberty. Oglethorpe, as benevo lent as he had proved himself brave under Marlborough and Prince Eugene, filled with compassion for these helpless debtors, had obtained the release of many, and now sought to provide homes for them and for the poor generally be neath the pleasant sky of Georgia. The official seal of the trustees of the new colony a group of silk-worms, with the legend Not for themselves, but for others was a fitting em blem of their unselfish aims. Savannah. Oglethorpe led the first company of emi grants in person, and chose for their place of settlement a sightly bluff on the west bank of the Savannah River, eigh teen miles from its mouth, having first obtained the consent of its Indian owners. Here he commenced the beautiful city of Savannah, with its wide streets, and cheerful houses surrounded with gardens. Early History of Georgia. Jews, Protestant Austrians, Moravians or United Brethren, and Scottish Highlanders, found a home in Georgia. Friendly relations were early established with the Indian tribes far and near. Oglethorpe, having returned to England, in 1736 brought out a larger party than before, the brothers John and Charles Wesley, afterward distinguished, with the eloquent Whitefield (whit - field], as the founders of Methodism, accompanying him. The Spanish, who claimed the coast almost as far north as Charleston, naturally felt aggrieved at the intrusion of this English colony, particularly when Oglethorpe estab lished posts at intervals as far as the mouth of the St. John s River, which he looked upon as the dividing line between English and Spanish territory. War was inevitable ; and in the summer of 1740, Oglethorpe, desiring to anticipate the enemy, made a sudden attack on St. Augustine. But the place was too strong for his little army. 104 EARLY HISTORY OF GEORGIA. [1742 In 1742 the Spaniards retaliated, appearing in strong force before Frederica (fred-e-re ka see Map, p. 102). They would no doubt have taken it, but for a ruse of Ogle- thorpe. By means of a letter written to a deserter in their camp as if he had been a spy, he led the enemy to believe that a British fleet was near at hand, and thus frightened them into a retreat after an unsuccessful attempt to reach the town. Peace returned to the colony in time, but without bring ing, for several years, the expected measure of prosperity. Some of the settlers were not the right stuff for pioneers ; nor were the regulations laid down by the trustees, though well-intended, always the wisest. Indigo and silk were pro duced in the Moravian settlements, but elsewhere agriculture languished. Slavery, at first prohibited as opposed to the interests of poor white laborers, was finally allowed in com pliance with the wishes of the people. From that time planting was carried on more largely and profitably. In 1752 the charter was surrendered to the king, and as a royal province Georgia grew steadily in population and wealth. , French Settle ments in the South west. Following up La Salle s explorations (p. 82), the French, just as the seven teenth century was closing, attempted to colonize Louisiana. They founded Biloxi (be-lok se), on the Gulf of Mexico, in 1G99, and seventeen years later Fort Rosa lie (ro-za-le )y on the FBENCII SETTLEMENTS IN THE SOUTH-WEST. ITll] SETTLEMENTS IN LOUISIANA. 105 Mississippi, where the city of Natchez now stands the first settlements in the present state of Mississippi. Several posts were also planted within the limits of what is now Ala bama. Mobile, which dates from 1711, was the early capital of the French province. New Orleans, the first permanent settlement in our pres ent Louisiana, was laid out by colonists sent over in 1718, and was called after the Duke of Orleans, then regent of France. Its beginnings were humble, the occupants of the few huts first thrown up among the canes and trees ap parently " waiting for houses." Its advantages for com merce, however, were so evident that in 1723 it superseded Mobile as the capital. The Mississippi Scheme. From 1717 to 1732, Louisiana was under the control of a company which had obtained from the French government grants of its colonial posses sions, as well as a monopoly of the foreign trade, and on these as a basis of credit made an enormous issue of paper- money. " The Mississippi Scheme," as it was called, man aged by an unscrupulous gambler named Law, infatuated the whole French people. Inexhaustible mines were to be opened in Louisiana and to enrich everybody connected with the company. Nobles, priests, ladies, all classes, contended for the stock, and the shares soon rose to sixty times their original price. But the frenzy was as short-lived as violent. One day in May, 1720, the bubble burst ; and the next, a man might have had millions of Law s paper-money in his pocket and yet starved. "Mississippi" and "Louisiana" were for a time names of evil omen among the French people, and immigration came to a stand-still. Louisiana at this time contained several thousand inhab itants. Agriculture was carried on chiefly by slave-labor. Rice was the principal crop ; tobacco and indigo were also raised. Grain for the support of the settlers came down the Mississippi from the growing Illinois settlements, in increas- 106 EAELY IIISTOKY OF LOUISIANA. [1729 ing quantities. The French at Fort Rosalie, attempting to wrest from the Natchez Indians their ancient capital, were massacred by the latter (1729) ; and a few months afterward the Natchez were in turn destroyed as a nation by a force from New Orleans. Two attempts were made by the French to punish the Chickasaws, who were suspected of having in stigated the attack on Fort Rosalie, but neither succeeded. There is nothing further to note in the history of Lou isiana till 1762, when it was ceded to Spain. REVIEW THE THIRTEEN COLONIES. We have now traced the events connected with the birth of the Thir teen Colonies, extending from 1607, the date of the founding of Virginia, to 1733, when the first settlement was planted in Georgia. During this period, England had the following sovereigns : JAMES I., . . . 1603-1625 CHARLES I., . . 1625-1649 Commonwealth, . 1649-1653 Protectorate, . 1653-1659 OLIVER CROMWELL, 1653-1658 RICHARD CROMWELL, 1658-1659 Restoration, . . .1660 CHARLES II., JAMES II., WILLIAM AND MARY, WILLIAM III., . ANNE, GEORGE I., GEORGE II., 1660-1685 1685-1688 1689-1694 1689-1702 1702-1714 1714-1727 1727-1760 Hevicu: Let one scholar write on the blackboard in a column the names of the Thirteen Colonies, in the order of their settlement. Let an other, in a second column, write opposite to each what nation planted the first settlement. Let a third supply the dates ; a fourth write the name of the first settlement, or where it was made. Other members of the class may be called on to tell who was sovereign of England when each first set tlement was made (see Table above) What person was most prominent in the founding of each colony, and facts connected with his history Any in teresting circumstances connected with the founding What colonies, once distinct, do not appear among the Thirteen, having been absorbed in some other Which of the colonies were royal provinces. What was the political condition of Maine ? In which of the colonies did slavery exist ? At the beginning of the eighteenth century, what moun tains virtually bounded the English colonies on the west ? How far did they claim to extend ? What powers besides England had settlements in North America ? Where were the French settlements ? Where the Spanish ? 1745] CONQUEST OF CAPE BKETON. 107 CHAPTER XIV. KING GEORGE S WAR. WASHINGTON S MISSION. King George s War, Queen Anne s War (p. 101) was followed by peace with France till 1744. In this year, Vir ginia and Maryland sought to strengthen their title to the lands in the basin of the Ohio, by purchasing the right and interest of the Iroquois therein. This of course increased the suspicion of the French, and when France and England arrayed themselves against each other in the Old World, in the War of the Austrian Succession, their American colonies at once followed the example. The struggle was here known as " King George s War." The Capture of Louisburg, a fortress of immense strength on the eastern coast of Cape Breton Island (kape brit fn see Map, p. 56), was the great event that signalized this war. It was taken from the French by some four thousand New Englanders fishermen, lumberers, mechanics, and farmers commanded by Gen. Pep perell, a native of Maine, and aided by a British fleet. Merrily rang the bells of Boston, when it was announced that after six weeks siege "the Gibraltar of America," with its walls 40 feet thick and 25 feet high, defended by a hun dred cannon, had surrendered to the colonial army (June 17, 1745). Equally great were the rejoicings when, in the two following years, two powerful expeditions sent by the French for the recovery of Cape Breton utterly failed. And equally great was the mortification when, by the treaty which closed the war in 1748, the men of New England saw the fruits of their prowess wrested from them and Louisburg restored to France, while the boundaries were still left in dispute. But, if attended with no other advantage, King George s War had taught the colonies their own strength. 108 CONFLICTING CLAIMS. [l749 French and English Claims. The peace that followed was necessarily of short continuance. How could it be otherwise, when the English were gradually working their way west under royal grants and Indian deeds, while the French based their claims on discovery and actual occu pancy, and had, to support them, a cordon of forts from New Orleans to Detroit? A grant made by the English crown in 1749, of 500,000 acres on the Ohio, for the pur pose of planting settlers beyond the Alleghanies and trad ing with the western tribes, brought matters to a crisis. The Ohio Company soon had surveyors at work on their lands ; but not before the French, pushing down from their strong post of Presque Isle (press keel ) on Lake Erie, had established forts at Le Boeuf (leh buff ) and Venango in the north-west of Pennsylvania. The next movement on the part of the French was to break up an English post in what is now western Ohio, and to carry off its occupants as captives. The governor of Virginia saw the storm com ing, and the necessity of preparing for it. But first by a trusty messenger he would send a remonstrance to the French commander, and demand his withdrawal from the Ohio Valley. For this delicate mission GEORGE WASHING TON, the future saviour of his country, was selected. Youth of Washington, Washington was born on the Potomac, in Westmoreland County, Virginia, February 22, 1732. His father, one of the high-toned planters of Vir ginia, left him an orphan at the age of eleven ; and on his mother, whose virtues he reverenced and whose early pre cepts he ever remembered, devolved the duty of moulding his character. His youth was full of promise. An accom plished horseman, proficient in all manly exercises, he was no less amiable in disposition, modest, and truthful. His mother summed it all up years afterward, when he had be come the nation s idol ; " I am not surprised at his success," she said, " for George always was a good boy" 1748] YOUTH OF WASHINGTON. 109 In his studies, which were plain and practical, George acquitted himself with credit. He became a good mathematician, and at the age of sixteen was employed by Lord Fairfax to sur vey his extensive lands beyond the Blue Ridge ; a respon sible work for one so young, and not without its dangers, yet most satisfactorily performed. At nineteen he was ap pointed adjutant-general of a military district, with the rank of major. This position he held two years afterward, when the governor of Virginia sent him on the mission referred to, saying with a broad Scotch accent, " Ye re a braw lad, and gin ye play your cards weel, ye shall hae nae cause to rue your bargain." Washington s Mission. The "braw lad" started from Williamsburg, October 31, 1753, on his journey of five hun dred miles much of it through a wilderness full of perils. 110 WASHINGTON S MISSION. [1753 His course (see it traced on the Map, p. 112) led him to the upper Potomac, across the Alleghanies, down a tributary of the Monongahela and that river itself, to where it joins the Alleghany to form the Ohio. Noting the commanding ad vantages of this position, Washington went on to Logstown, where he had a conference with the Indians, already thor oughly alarmed inasmuch as, between "their fathers the French " and " their brothers the English," they found them selves likely to be left without land enough to raise a wig wam on. He succeeded in obtaining from them new prom ises of friendship, and accompanied by three of their chiefs struggled on through the storms of early winter to the French forts, Venango and Le Boeuf. The wily Frenchman received Washington courteously, but declared that he must obey his orders ; while the other officers made no secret of their intention, as soon as spring opened, to sweep the English from the whole Ohio Valley. At the same time every effort was secretly made to cor rupt Washington s Indian companions, by plying them with liquor and promises. It was with difficulty that the young ambassador, having received a formal reply in writing for the governor, could get his red allies away from the fort. On the way back, Washington was environed with dan gers. His horses were jaded, and deep snows made the journey on foot toilsome and perilous. The streams were swollen, and drifting ice jerked him from a raft into the Al leghany, where he narrowly escaped being swept away and drowned. Lurking savages lay in wait, and a treacherous Indian guide fired at him from a distance of fifteen paces. But Providence saved his life. He completed his mission in safety, and brought back, not only the Frenchman s reply, but also full particulars as to the enemy s preparations gathered by his own eye, as well as important information gleaned from some deserters, respecting the French forces at the posts on the Mississippi. 1754] FRENCH AND INDIAN WAK. Ill A great struggle was at hand. It is known as the FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR, and lasted from 1754 to 1763. The English colonies at this time contained about 1,500,000 souls ; New France, scarcely 100,000. REVIEW BY DATES. Continue the CHRONOLOGICAL RECORD from page 87, according to the following suggestions. As a review, let the several events, as filled in, be assigned in turn to different pupils, and each tell what he knows about his topic. 1698 (New capital). 1699 (Mississippi). 1700 (D Iberville). 1702 (War). 1704 (Massacre). 1711 (City founded). 1713 (Acadia). 1718 (City founded). 1729 (Carolina). 1676 (New Jersey). 1680 (South Carolina). 1681 (Wm. Penn). 1683 (City founded). 1686 (Andros). 1689 (War). 1692 (Plymouth). " (Witchcraft). 1694 (New capital). 1729 (Massacre). 1730 (The Natchez). " (City founded). 1732 (Washington). 1733 (Georgia). 1744 (War). 1745 (City taken). 1749 (Grant). 1753 (Washington). CHAPTER XV. FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR BEGUN. Commencement of Hostilities. Hardly had Washington made his report, before a party of Virginians were at work on a fort at the junction of the Alleghany and Monongahela Rivers. Troops were enlisted and dispatched as promptly as possible, to protect the laborers. Illness disabling their colonel, the leadership devolved on Washington, who had been second in command. Before this little force was near its destination, a thousand Frenchmen from Venango swooped down on the unfinished fort, captured it, and going on with the work gave it the name of Du Quesne (du kane ) 9 the governor-general of New France. 112 FBENCH AND INDIAN WAR. [1754 The Indian allies of the English, now exposed to attack, sent urgent messages to Washington to hurry to their aid. But cutting roads and dragging cannon through an untrod den wilderness were slow work. At length, informed that a party of French was hovering about him with hostile de signs, and that his Indian allies were not far off, the young commander threw up a rude stockade, af terward very proper ly named Fort Neces sity, and with a few of his Virginians pressed on to meet the Red Men. With them he planned an immediate attack on the enemy, who were found to be but a SCENE OF HOSTILITIES IN THE OHIO VALLEY. reconnoitring -party, and who fancied themselves secure in a concealed encamp ment near at hand. A few moments sufficed for the defeat and capture of the French. Their leader was slain, and but one of the party escaped. Washington was unhurt, but " heard the bullets whistle, and found something charming in the sound." The French were soon moving in strong force from Fort Du Quesne, to avenge this reverse. Straitened for supplies Presque Isle now Erie Tt.LeBoeuf ,, Water/or d Venango ,, Franklin Ft.Du Queme , , Pittsburgh }\~> ixJtinyton s Route 1754] PEOPOSED UNION. 113 and disappointed of expected re-enforcements, Washington fell back to Fort Necessity and there awaited the enemy. But their numbers were overwhelming. For a day (July 3, 1754) the unequal contest was maintained ; but at its close the English were glad to accept the honorable terms offered by their assailants. The next morning they marched out with drums beating and colors flying, leaving Fort Necessity, and with it the whole region west of the Alleghanies, in the hands of the French. Proposed Union of the Colonies. Shortly before the capitulation of Fort Necessity, a meeting of representatives from the colonies north of the Potomac was held at Albany. They met for two purposes : first, to take such measures as would confirm the wavering loyalty of the Iroquois of west ern New York (commonly called " the Six Nations," after the Tuscaroras were received in 1714) ; secondly, to bring about a confederation of the colonies, with a view to united action during the struggle with the French. Presents and promises somewhat appeased the sachems who attended the conference, though they complained of the slow movements of the English ; but the proposed union failed. The plan submitted to the colonies, prepared in the main by Benjamin Franklin, a delegate from Pennsylvania, proved unsatisfac tory and was rejected. Franklin, one of the shining lights in the early history of America, was born in Boston in 1706. First an assistant to his father in the art of making candles, and later an ap prentice in an elder brother s printing-office, where he em braced every opportunity to store his mind with useful knowledge, he finally at the age of seventeen started out to seek his fortune, and arrived in Philadelphia with but a dollar in his pocket. From this time we find him steadily advancing enlarging his ideas by a visit to London estab- lishing a printing-office of his own in Philadelphia found ing the first circulating library in America publishing 114 FBENCH AND INDIAN WAE. [l755 " Poor Richard s Almanac " and filling different official positions with ability, till at last he was made postmaster- general for the British colonies. Franklin was a great philosopher as well as statesman. His establishment of the fact that thunder and lightning are simply the results of electric discharges in the clouds, ranks among the great discoveries of the age. This he proved with a kite raised in the air during a thunder-storm (June, 1752); the electric fluid was collected in a key attached to the string, and passed in a spark to his knuckle when presented. The invention of the lightning-rod followed. An eminent French statesman justly said of Franklin, that " he wrested the thunderbolt from heaven and the sceptre from tyrants." Braddock s Campaign. England and France professed to be at peace, yet both sent forces to the New World to sup port their colonies. On the part of the former, Gen. Brad- dock was intrusted with the chief command. He brought over two regiments, which were to be strengthened with colonial levies, and meeting several of the governors on the Potomac arranged the plan of the campaign. The principal expedition was undertaken by the commander-in-chief in person. It had in view first the recovery of the Ohio Val ley, and then the reduction of Forts Niagara and Frontenac (see Map, p. 112). Washington joined Braddock s army as aid. In spite of great difficulties of transportation, the ad vanced division, on the 9th of July, 1755, reached a point on the bank of the Monongahela about seven miles from Fort Du Quesne. Here the French, who had with difficulty persuaded their savage allies to join in an attack on the approaching army, had laid an ambuscade ; into which Braddock, inexperienced in Indian wiles and disregarding the warnings of Washing ton, but too easily fell. The terrible war-whoop was sud denly raised, and a heavy fire opened on both flanks. In vain the British troops returned it ; the foe, sheltered be- 1755] BKADDOCK S CAMPAIGN. 115 hind trees and rocks, were invisible. In vain the British officers, who behaved with the utmost bravery, tried to lead their men into the covert, to clear it with the bayonet. Un used to such warfare, even the veterans were panic-struck. Braddock was mortally wounded. The order to retreat was given, and then commenced a disgraceful flight. Braddock s fine army was destroyed. The French, who had expected no such result and had actually thought of abandoning Du Quesne, gained a complete victory. Washington, ever in the thickest of the fight, had two horses shot under him, and received four bullets through his coat, but escaped without a wound. Many years afterward, an old chief told him that he had been fired at repeatedly by both himself and his braves, but that finding him proof against their bullets they at last gave it up, convinced that he was under the special protection of the Great Spirit. With his few surviving Virginia Rangers, he covered as well as he could the melancholy retreat. But everything was lost ; even the post at the mouth of Will s Creek, where the city of Cumberland now stands, was abandoned. The fron tier of Virginia and Pennsylvania was thus left at the mercy of marauding bands, and many who had established them selves beyond the Blue Ridge sought safety in the older settlements. Braddock s expedition having failed, the colonial force that was to have acted with him against Forts Niagara and Frontenac accomplished nothing but the building of a new fort at Oswego, on the south-eastern shore of Lake Ontario. Movements near Lake George. Braddock s plan had in cluded an expedition under Gen. William Johnson against the French fortress at Crown Point. This place, on the western side of Lake Champlain, was important as one of the keys to Canada. Fort Edward having been built on the upper Hudson, Johnson advanced with several thousand co lonial troops to the head of the beautiful Horicon, whose 116 FEENCII AND INDIAN WAK. [1755 Indian name he changed to Lake George in honor of the reigning king. While he was here waiting for boats, Dieskau (clees ktiw), with an army of French and Indians from Montreal, was re ported to be but a few miles off. A detachment sent out to hold him in check was driven back in confusion ; and Dieskau, pursu ing the fugitives to camp, made a vigorous assault on the main body (September 8, 1755). His In dians, however, refused to come to close quar ters ; the colo nial troops stood their ground gal lantly ; Dieskau was thrice se verely wounded; and the French, after a sharp struggle, were repulsed with loss. But John- LAKE GEORGE AND VICINITY. . , son, in stead of following up this victory, for which the country was little in debted to him though it procured him the honor of knight- 1755] CONQUEST OF ACADIA. 117 hood, allowed the French to take post at Ticonderoga, and contented himself with building Fort William Henry near the scene of the battle. Conquest of New Brunswick. Nova Scotia had for forty years been under British rule ; but the country from the isthmus to Maine, constituting what is now New Brunswick, was still in possession of the French, who had three weak forts to protect it. These were easily taken, and with them the whole region, by a naval and land force sent out from Boston in May, 1755. The innocent Acadians were then with wanton cruelty required to leave the province ; their thriving flocks, and fruitful farms, and pleasant homes, must be given up to satisfy the greed of their conquerors. Thou sands of this hapless people were forced on board of British vessels half-clad, without resources, and broken-hearted, children separated from parents, wives torn from husbands and distributed among the colonies, to die in exile and despair. England had not much to boast of in her subjuga tion of Acadia. Movements of 1756. In the spring of 1756, France and England could no longer ignore the state of things in Amer ica, and war was formally declared. The accomplished Mar quis de Montcalm (mont-kahm 1 ) was appointed to the chief command of the French forces, the inefficient Lord Loudoun (Idw d n) to that of the English. Soon after his arrival, Montcalm made a dash upon Oswego ; and by the middle of August it was in his hands, with its artillery, stores, boats, and sixteen hundred prisoners. Loudoun did nothing, and New York had the pleasure of feeding a host of idle officers through the winter. GENERAL REVIEW. Tell all you know about the founding and situation of ST. AUGUSTINE, JAMESTOWN, QUEBEC, NEW YORK, ALBANY, PLYMOUTH, BOSTON, HARTFORD, PROVIDENCE, NEW HAVEN, NEWPORT, MONTREAL, CHARLESTON, PHILADELPHIA, 118 FRENCH AND INDIAN WAE. [l757 ANNAPOLIS, WILLIAMSBURG, DETROIT (1701), MOBILE, NEW ORLEANS, BALTI MORE, SAVANNAH. Recount all the circumstances you can remember, connected with THE PEQUOD WAR, 1636, 1637 KING PHILIP S WAR, 1675, 1676 BACON S REBELLION, 1676 KING WILLIAM S WAR, 1689-1697 QUEEN ANNE S WAR, 1702-1713 KING GEORGE S WAR, 1744-1748 CHAPTER XVI. FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR CONCLUDED. Loudoun at the Front. As his work for the summer of 1757, Lord Loudoun proposed the capture of Louisburg (p. 107). He sailed to Halifax, Nova Scotia, in June, with both regulars and colonial troops, and was there heavily re- enforced from England. If Loudoun could have taken Louis- burg by drilling his fine army on the parade-ground at Hali fax, he would have done it. But when he heard that there was one more ship in the French fleet than his own, he gave up the enterprise and sailed back to New York, the laugh ing-stock of the colonies. Capture of Fort William Henry. Montcalm was cast in a different mould. Moving rapidly from Canada and ascend ing Lakes Champlain and George at the head of an army of French and Indians, he threw himself on Fort William Henry (see Map, p. 116). Here Colonel Monro was in command. He held the fort till half of his guns had burst and there was little or no ammunition left with which to serve the rest, in the hope that Gen. Webb, who lay with 4,000 men at Fort Edward, only fourteen miles away, would hasten to his relief. But no such thought was in Webb s mind. He wrote to Monro that he had better surrender, and talked himself of falling back on Albany. 1757] CAPTURE OF FORT WILLIAM HENRY. 119 For Monro, there was nothing left but to capitulate. This he did, August 9, 1757, on the promise of a safe escort to Fort Edward, his men pledging themselves not to serve against France for eighteen months. But no sooner had the evacuation commenced, than the Indians began plunder ing the English soldiers and slaying them if they resisted. Vainly the French officers risked their lives to protect their late enemies ; the retreat was turned into a flight and mas sacre. Fort William Henry was destroyed. Webb, glad to be let alone, made no effort even to harass the French as they withdrew. The incompetency of her leaders had cost England dear. At the close of 1757, her territory in Amer ica was reduced to one-twentieth of that held by France. Events of 1758. The year 1758 opened under better auspices. The far-seeing statesman, William Pitt, called to the head of affairs in the mother-country, had taken ener getic measures for conducting the war. The weak Loudoun was recalled, and abler generals were sent over. The colo nies were invited to raise troops, and it was now for the first time conceded that their officers should rank with offi cers of corresponding grades in the regular service. REPULSE AT TICONDEROGA. "The great Commoner," as Pitt was called, was the people s idol ; and the colonies responded heartily to his call. Nine thousand provincial troops were soon on the shores of Lake George, to co5perate with 6,000 regulars under Generals Abercrombie and Howe, for the capture of Ticonderoga (see Map, p. 116). Montcalm held this post with less than 4,000 men, but he was a host in himself. Howe was the main reliance of the English army, but unfortunately he was slain in a skirmish before the French works were reached. Abercrombie rashly ordered an assault before his cannon were brought up. When af ter repeated attempts and great slaughter his men were beat en back, he seems to have forgotten his artillery altogether, and abandoning the enterprise beat a precipitate retreat. 120 FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. [lT58 This failure was partially compensated by the capture of Fort Frontenac, on Lake Ontario (see Map, p. 112), with its garrison, valuable stores, and several armed vessels an achievement due to Gen. Bradstreet and the provincial troops. CONQUEST OF CAPE BRETON. Shortly after Abercrom- bie s repulse, the colonies were gladdened by the news that Louisburg, and with it Cape Breton and Prince Edward Island, had been taken (July 26th) by Gen. Amherst, with 10,000 British troops direct from England and thirty-seven men-of-war. Along the whole eastern coast, the French flag was no longer visible. Louisburg was abandoned, Hali fax having already become the chief naval station of Great Britain in this quarter. CAPTURE OF FORT Du QUESNE. The third expedition, toward which the central colonies contributed largely, had in view the recovery of Fort Du Quesne. Owing to ill- judged delays, success was doubtful, when Washington ob tained permission to push on with a brigade of provincials. The French stayed not for their coming, but hastened down the Ohio by the light of their burning works, to which they had themselves applied the torch. On the 25th of Novem ber, 1758, the British flag was raised over the smoking ruins of Du Quesne. In honor of the great minister who had so nobly retrieved the fortunes of his country in America, the new fortress speedily erected on the site was called Fort Pitt, whence the name of the present city of Pittsburgh. Washington, not yet twenty-seven, returned from this expedition covered with glory, and six weeks afterward married Mrs. Martha Custis. With her he settled down at Mount Vernon, a fine estate on the Potomac inherited from his brother. Here, except when Washington was required at Williamsburg as a member of the House of Burgesses, they passed the next fifteen years the husband industrious ly managing his large plantation, and indulging his taste for 1759] EVENTS OF 1759. 121 MOUNT VERNON. duck-shooting and fox-hunting the wife, ever attentive to her household duties, superintending fifteen spinning-wheels, and entertaining her numerous guests with peculiar grace. The results of the year s campaign were highly encourag ing to England. The French colonists, on the other hand, ill supported by the home government and almost famine- struck, began to cry for "peace, no matter with what boundaries." The Campaign of 1759 was planned with judgment and carried out with vigor. General Amherst, to whom the chief command was assigned, seized on Ticonderoga and Crown Point, the French retiring before him into Canada without giving battle. Equally bloodless was the recovery of the country between Fort Pitt and Lake Erie. Fort Niagara, at the point where the Niagara River enters Lake Ontario, stood a brief siege, but toward the close of July fell before the English arms. THE CAPTURE OF QUEBEC was now the sole link that re mained to complete the chain of British triumphs. Before 6 122 FKENCH AND INDIAN AVAR. [1759 this seemingly impregnable fortress, defended by 2,000 French regulars and four times as many brave but untried Canadian militia under Montcalm, near the end of June appeared Gen. James Wolfe, with 8,000 British regulars and more than forty armed vessels. The lower town was soon razed to the ground ; but the citadel, perched on a lofty promontory, every approach to which bristled with guns, defied his utmost efforts. A month went by, and Wolfe, chafing under the delay and resolved not to disappoint his country, planned an as sault on the French lines below the city resting on the Montmorency (mont-mo-reri se) River. The attempt was bravely made, but as bravely met and de feated by his vigilant adversary. Another month passed, and Wolfe was almost in despair. At length, while closely inspect ing the cliff above the town, the quick eye of the commander espied a narrow path leading up from the river, rugged and dif ficult indeed, yet not impassable to resolute men. Could this pathway be ascended, the slender guard at the top be surprised, and the British army be formed upon the Plains of Abraham, which extended along the brow of the cliff, success was almost certain. Slight though the chance, Wolfe felt that it was worth the risk. The attention of the enemy was diverted by feints in other quarters, and on the night of September 12th the English army floated noiselessly down with the tide, QUEBEC A:ND THE VICINITY 1759] WOLFE S CAPTURE OF QUEBEC. 123 landed, and began to climb the precipitous bluff. A few shots dispersed the Canadian picket that guarded the height, and in the gray dawn, the British host stood ready for bat tle on the Plains they had so long desired to reach. Montcalm, though thunderstruck at the news, hastened to give battle. But the discipline of the British veterans was too much for the burghers of Quebec, and even for the regulars whom they supported. The French wavered, and when charged by their enemies led by Wolfe in person gave way at every point. But in the very arms of victory the youthful hero was mortally wounded. The shades of death had gathered on his brow, when he was told that the French were in full flight. " Now God be praised I die happy ! " were his last words. No less glorious was the fate of Montcalm, who, after performing prodigies of valor, received a musket-ball while rallying his men. Informed that he must die in a few hours, he exclaimed: "So much the better ; I shall not live to see the surrender of Quebec." Nor did he. The next morning he breathed his last ; the city held out four days longer. How the true hearts in England and the colonies leaped with joy at the news that Quebec was taken ! Close of the War. In the spring of 1760, the French, descending from Montreal, tried to recapture Quebec, but after winning a battle near the city were driven off by a British squadron. Four months later (September, 1760) three English armies, advancing respectively from Oswego, Quebec, and Crown Point, were concentrated before Mon treal. Resistance to this overwhelming force was out of the question. The French governor at once surrendered, not only the city, but all Canada. Thus gloriously to the English arms terminated the land operations of the French and Indian War. When the young king, George III., took his seat on the throne in October, 1760, he found his rivals in the New World completely hum- 124 FKENCH AND INDIAN WAK. [lT62 bled. The French islands in the West Indies were soon taken by a British fleet ; and in August, 1762, Havana, the capital of Cuba and key to the Gulf of Mexico, was wrested from Spain, which had rushed madly into hostilities with England. France could no longer protract the struggle. By a treaty ratified in 1763, she gave up all her territory in America the country east of the Mississippi, New Orleans excepted, to the English all the rest, New Orleans and Louisiana west of the great river, to the Spanish, as an in demnification for their losses in the war. Spain, in exchange for the captured Havana, ceded the whole of Florida to England. The people of Louisiana did not like the transfer from France to Spain ; and, as the latter power did not take im mediate possession, they set up an independent government. But it was short-lived. A fleet was sent over in 1768, the popular leaders were put down, and Spanish authority was finally established. Cherokee War. Before the capture of Montreal as just related, difficulties had arisen with the Cherokees (see Map, p. 38), up to this time faithful allies of the English. Wise counsels might easily have averted war ; but unfair treat ment on the part of the pale-faces provoked the red moun taineers to dig up the tomahawk, and the frontier of Carolina suffered. It was not till the Cherokee country, situated in the upper valley of the Tennessee River, was ravaged by an invading army, not till their villages were burned and many of their warriors were killed, that peace was restored (1761). Pontiac s War. As soon as England had taken -posses sion of the posts acquired in the French and Indian War, a stream of emigration poured into the fertile plains beyond the Alleghanies. The western Indians at once took alarm. Under the inspiration of Pontiac, a sagacious chief of the Ottawas, they formed a secret plot for the extermination of 1763] PONTIAC 1 S WAR. 125 the new-comers. Treacherous attacks were simultaneously made on the different garrisons, and all the western posts except Fort Pitt, Niagara, and Detroit, fell into the hands of the savages. Failing to surprise Detroit, Pontiac beleaguered it in person, showing great skill in his conduct of the siege, and issuing birch-bark notes, signed with the figure of an otter and always punctually met, to pay for his supplies. But Detroit held out till relief came from the east. In .the sum mer of 1764, most of the tribes, tired of the siege and awed by the preparations of the English, signed a treaty of peace. Pontiac, worthy of a better fate, was murdered by an Indian bribed with a barrel of rum to commit the crime. GENERAL REVIEW AND MAP QUESTIONS. (Refer to the Maps on pages 112, 116, 122.) Name three French posts in what is now north-western Pennsylvania, at the commencement of the French and Indian War. How was Presque Isle situated ? On what river was Venango ? What place now covers the site of Presque Isle? Of Fort Le Boeuf? Of Venango ? Of Fort Du Quesne ? How was Fort Du Quesne situated ? Narrate the incidents connected with its erection. What Indian town stood on the Ohio, just below Fort Du Quesne ? What places were in Pennsylvania, on or near the Susque- hanna ? What capital has grown up at Harris s Ferry ? Give an account of Washington s mission. What was the general di rection of his route ? Through what places did he pass ? Where was Fort Necessity ? Relate the events connected with this fort. What river connects Lake Erie with Lake Ontario ? What fort stood at the mouth of the Niagara River ? What is the outlet of Lake Ontario ? Where was Fort Frontenac ? In what connection did you first hear of Fort Frontenac ? Where is Oswego ? In what connection was Oswego first men tioned ? Where were the Six Nations ? To what great Indian family did they belong ? How is Albany situated ? Schenectady ? Give an account of the mas sacre at Schenectady. How was Fort Edward situated ? Where was Dieskau defeated ? Where was Fort William Henry ? By whom was it erected ? 126 THE EVE OF THE REVOLUTION. [l763 With what body of water is Lake George connected ? What place on Lake Champlain, just below the inlet from Lake George ? How was Crown Point situated ? Under what circumstances was Lake Champlain discovered ? What place stood near its head ? What is Skenesborough now called ? Whitehall. What was the Indian name of Lake George ? What was its French name? Saint Sacrement (sans sak-rc-monQ }. Describe the situation of Quebec. What rivers empty into the St. Lawrence near the city ? What point opposite Quebec, and what island near by ? In what direction from the city was the point where Wolfe made his first attack ? In what direction from Quebec is Wolfe s Cove, where the ascent was made ? CHAPTER, XVII. THE EVE OF THE REVOLUTION. Clouds gathering. While England had gained glory and territory by the French and Indian War, she had also added largely to her debt. No sooner was peace restored than she determined to get back from her American possessions what she had spent in defending them. The colonies thought England pretty well compensated for the cost of the war by the acquisition of Canada and Florida; yet they would willingly have borne part of the load, had they been allowed a voice in laying the duties or taxes to be imposed. But they insisted that taxation without representation was an infringement on the rights of freemen ; that the power to tax them should be vested in their own colonial assemblies, or that, if Parliament were to exercise it, they should be represented in Parliament. Accordingly, we find the history of the next twelve years (1763-1775) a history of unwise attempts on the part of the mother-country to increase her revenues at the expense of the colonies ; and, on the part of the colonies, of spirited and united resistance to these attempts. The clouds on the 1761] WEFTS OF ASSISTANCE. 127 horizon rapidly spread, till they darkened the whole heavens ; and in 1775 the storm burst, in what is known as the REVO LUTIONARY WAK. Writs of Assistance. Oppressive measures were nothing new to the colonies. Their trade and manufactures had for years been restricted in the interest of England. Heavy duties had been laid on certain imports, and as a consequence smuggling had become common. To put a stop to it, on the accession of George III. a short-sighted, tyrannical, and stubborn prince " Writs of Assistance " were authorized. Provided with these, the collectors of customs could call sheriffs and constables to their aid, search any man s house or store, and carry off merchandise suspected of having evaded the duty. Such interference with private rights was violently de nounced in the colonies. At Salem, Mass., the issuing of Writs of Assistance was formally opposed in court ; and when the question was argued in Boston (1761), James Otis, who appeared for the people, poured forth such a torrent of eloquent reasoning that the judges durst not decide against him. Every man in the vast audience seemed ready to fly to arms rather than submit to the wrong. " American inde pendence," said John Adams, afterward president of the United States and one of Otis s auditors on this occasion, " was then and there born." Samuel Adams, also, an inflexible patriot of Boston, whose every dip of the pen the wincing governor declared stung "like a horned snake," dealt telling blows at the usurpations of Parliament. And so in the South. Virginia declared the taxation of America subversive of the constitu tion ; and the Assembly of North Carolina set forth the ex clusive right of the colonies to impose their own taxes. The people everywhere resolved to deny themselves the dutiable articles. They would drink no wine ; they would dress in sheep-skin with the wool on. 128 THE EVE OF THE REVOLUTION. [1765 SPECIMENS OF STAMPS. The Stamp Act. Notwithstanding, the men in power in Great Britain (Pitt had resigned in 1761) kept their obnox ious laws in full force. The climax was capped when in 1765 Parliament passed the notorious Stamp Act. This act required that every contract, deed, bond, will, note, lease, etc., also every pamphlet, alma nac, and news paper, should bear a stamp. The prices of stamps ranged from a half penny to 6 ; and for every advertisement in a colonial paper, 2s. was to be paid as an impost. Now, indeed, the sun of liberty seemed to have set. Patrick Henry. Among the members of the Virginia House of Burgesses at this time was Patrick Henry ; who, having tried farming and merchandise without success, had settled down at the law. His first appearance in court had been in 1763, in the famous " Parsons Cause." The clergy, by an old statute, were allowed salaries of 16,000 pounds of tobacco a year. The House of Burgesses, in a season of short crops, had made this salary payable in cash, rating the tobacco at much less than its real value. The clergy in sisted on their rights, and appealed to the law ; Patrick Henry conducted the case against them. His awkward opening gave little promise ; but as his genius was aroused, the whole man became transformed. His grand flow of language, his withering sarcasm, his impassioned appeals, swayed every heart, triumphantly gained his case, and pro claimed him one of the world s great orators. This was the man who, when the news of the Stamp 1765] THE STAMP ACT. 129 Act s passing reached Virginia, after vainly waiting for the older members to take action, threw a fire-brand into the House in the shape of five resolutions, which declared that the right of taxing the colonies belonged to the colonies themselves and to them alone and that the Stamp Act, and every other act that contravened this right, was destructive of freedom. These resolutions he advocated with an elo quence which Washington, who was a member of the house, and Jefferson, the future president, an interested listener in the lobby, never forgot. " Caesar had his Brutus," thundered the orator, " Charles I. had his Cromwell, and George Ill.-r-" " Treason ! trea son ! " interrupted angry loyalists in different parts of the house. " And George III.," repeated the speaker, his eye lighted up with the flame of patriotism, " and George III. may profit by their example. If that be treason, make the most of it." The resolutions were carried, and from this time Patrick Henry was an acknowledged leader in the cause of liberty. Mutterings of the Tempest. The same spirit of deter mined opposition was displayed in Maryland and Carolina, as well as in the north and east. A Colonial Congress was proposed, and in October, 1765, delegates from nine of the colonies met in New York, who put forth a Declaration of Rights and memorialized Parliament on the subject of their grievances. But no matter what king or Parliament might do, the people of the colonies resolved to nullify the odious act. The stamps sent over were either prevented from land ing or seized and destroyed. The officers charged with their sale were driven out. Any one who should use the hated stamps was threatened with vengeance. The merchants agreed to import no goods from England till Parliament should rescind the bill. Associations known as the Sons of Liberty, pledged to resist oppression, were formed in sev- 130 THE EVE OF THE REVOLUTION. [1765 eral of the colonies. Great was the excitement on the 1st of November, 1765, when the Stamp Act was to go into effect. In some places, the shutters were kept up at the windows, people gathered in the streets dressed in mourn ing, the flags were placed at half-mast, the bells were tolled it was as if Liberty were being buried. Soldiers sent over. Parliament saw that the Stamp Act could not be enforced, and listening to Pitt, Burke, and Lord Camden, after excited debate repealed it (1766). But it reaffirmed its right of taxation, and the following year laid a duty on all paper, glass, painters colors, and tea, imported into the colonies. This produced a new storm of indigna tion in America, which was height ened when it was told the patriots of Boston that British troops were to be sent to that city (1768). Faneuil (fan you- /) Hall resounded with the denuncia tions of indignant patriots, and when the troops landed it was hard to find quarters for them. Their presence was regarded as a standing insult, and their overbearing conduct involved them in brawls with the citizens. The Boston Massacre (March 5, 1770) was the most serious of these collisions. Provoked by a mob of boys and men, who hooted them as " bloody-backs " and " lobsters " in allusion to their scarlet coats, and it was said threw mis- FANEUIL HALL, "THE CRADLE OF LIBERTY." 1771] THE REG-ULATOKS. 131 siles at them, a few of the soldiers fired into the crowd, kill ing three and wounding eight. The town was immediately wild with excitement. The next day, Samuel Adams, as the mouth-piece of the infuriated citizens, demanded the imme diate withdrawal of the soldiers. The governor, not liking his resolute front yet hating to yield, consented to remove one of the regiments. " Both or none ! " demanded Adams with flashing eye. The people triumphed ; and " Sam Adams s regiments," as they were afterward called, found safer if less comfortable quarters in the adjacent castle. The Regulators. Meanwhile, in North Carolina, the ex tortion and insolence of dishonest officials were resisted by a body of stout-hearted farmers leagued together under the name of Regulators. Governor Tryon, who had spent large sums wrung from the people on a palace for himself at New- bern, in 1771 marched against the Regulators as " rebels," took and hanged some of them, ravaged their fields, and confiscated their property. Many fled to the west, and there in the wilderness beyond the Alleghanies, on lands leased from the Cherokees, laid the foundations of the common wealth of TENNESSEE. Tea-Parties. The absence of orders from America, in consequence of the compact between the leading importers there, seriously affected trade in England, and led in 1770 to the repeal of all duties except that on tea. But this did not satisfy the colonists, who were contending for a prin ciple. Tea remained under a ban, and accumulated in the warehouses of London. In vain did Parliament, by abolish ing the export duty before imposed, enable shippers to lower the price, as a bait to the colonies. The cargoes sent over found no market. At Boston, the governor determined that the tea should be landed ; the people said no. Thousands gathered in a town-meeting held on the subject and protracted into the evening (December 16, 1773) ; when suddenly a war-whoop 132 THE EVE OF THE REVOLUTION. [l773 rent the air, and fifty men dressed as Mohawks were seen passing swiftly to the wharf. They mounted the sides of the three vessels, not yet unloaded, and in the presence of a vast crowd broke open the tea-chests and scattered their contents over the water. Long was "the BOSTON TEA- PAKTY" remembered, The example was followed in New York. At Philadelphia and Portsmouth, the tea-ships were turned back. At Charleston, nobody would buy " the per nicious weed ; " and the whole cargo, though landed, was spoiled in damp cellars. The patriots of Annapolis burned the tea sent to that port, together with the ship that brought it. The Boston Port Bill was passed by Parliament in tho spring of 1774, as a punishment for this audacity. No ves sel was now allowed to discharge or receive freight in Boston harbor, and the commerce of that port was thus destroyed. Sympathy was awakened on every side. Salem and Marble- head placed their wharves at the disposal of the Boston merchants. The Burgesses of Virginia appointed a day of fasting and prayer, and their house was dissolved in conse quence by the governor. On the almost simultaneous rec ommendation of this body, the Connecticut legislature, and various public meetings, a congress of representatives from all the colonies was called for September, to take such measures as the crisis required. Spirit of Young America, General Gage became gov ernor of Massachusetts in May, 1774. One of his first efforts was to buy over Samuel Adams with a profitable office under the crown, but that honest lover of his country was proof against the bribe. In all the signs of the times, Gage read the coming con flict. He was waited on one day by a party of Boston boys, who complained that the soldiers broke up their skating- ponds and interfered with their sports generally ; they had told the captain, and been laughed at and called young 1774] THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS. 133 rebels for their pains. "Yesterday," continued the leader, " our works were destroyed for the third time, and we will bear it no longer ! " Gage listened with admiration. " Even the children," said he, " draw in the love of liberty with every breath. Go, my brave boys ; if my soldiers trouble you again, they shall be punished." Nor were the boys elsewhere slow to imbibe the spirit of their sires. In some neighborhoods there were sympathizers with the mother-country ; these were stigmatized as Tories a name applied in England to the advocates of royal power. The schoolmaster at New Brunswick, N. J., belonged to this class, and offended many by his free remarks about " the rebels." So one day his boys, printing the word TORY in big letters on a piece of paper, slyly pinned it to his back as he was leaving school at recess, and then with high glee and grotesque capers, but carefully keeping out of reach of his cane, followed him as he stalked majestically down the street unconscious of the trick, to the great amusement of the passers-by. The Storm ready to burst. The first CONTINENTAL CON GRESS met, according to appointment, in Philadelphia, Sep tember 5. 1774. It had drawn together some of the leading minds of the colonies Washington, Richard Henry Lee, and Peyton Randolph, of Virginia ; Rutledge and Gadsden, of South Carolina ; John Jay, of New York, the first chief- justice of the United States ; the Adamses, and others of like standing. On the action of this body depended the fate of America. The members felt the awful responsibility ; and after the house was organized, there was a pause no one seemed ready to speak. At length a tall, thin, plainly-dressed man arose ; and one who was present regretted that a seeming country par son should so far have misjudged his own talents as to take the lead in that august assemblage. But soon the impas sioned eloquence that burst from the speaker s lips touched 134 THE EVE OF THE REVOLUTION. [1774 every heart, as if with an electric spark; and when the whisper went round that it was Patrick Henry, the great champion of constitutional liberty, the course of the con gress was easily foreseen. Though it took no action looking toward a severance from the mother-country, this body re solved that Massachusetts should be supported, drew up a remonstrance to Gen. Gage against fortifying Boston Neck as he had begun to do, and prepared a respectful but plain- spoken petition to the king. In October, a " Provincial Congress " met in Massachu setts the successor of the Assembly, or General Court, which had been dissolved by Gage. This body, with John Hancock, a man of education and statesmanship as well as large fortune, at its head, promptly prepared for war. A Committee of Safety was ap- pointed, with power to call out the militia, and provision was made for obtain ing military stores. Similar measures were adopted in the other colonies ; one spirit animated all. Patrick Henry sounded the keynote when in March, 1775, he told the conven tion of Virginia, assembled in "the Old Church" at Richmond, that they must fight, and cried, " As for me, give me liberty or give me death ! " The time had indeed come. Already had Par- THE OLD CntiRcn " (Sx. JOHN S), RICHMOND. 1775] THE EYE OF THE REVOLUTION. 135 liament declared (February 7, 1775) that rebellion existed in Massachusetts ; and, to suppress it, a fleet and several thousand additional troops had been ordered to Boston. Before entering on the history of the conflict, it may be well to glance at the state of society at this time in the colonies. The People. The population of the Thirteen Colonies, at the commencement of the Revolutionary War, was about 2,800,000. It lay mainly in a narrow strip along the Atlan tic. A few bold pioneers had, indeed, crossed the moun tains. Tennessee had given refuge to some hundreds of emigrants from Carolina. Daniel Boone and kindred spir its had found a paradise in Kan-tuck-kee, the dark and bloody battle-ground of hostile tribes. What is now Ohio could boast of settlers here and there. But, for the most part, the Alleghanies were the western limit of civilization. The people, sprung from different sources, differed also in their habits and religious views. They were alike in their passionate love of freedom, and many of them had been well trained to the use of arms in the French War and Indian frays. Virginia led the other colonies in wealth and num bers. New York was surpassed in population by Maryland, and equalled by North Carolina. Philadelphia, New York, and Boston, each containing not far from 20,000 souls, were the chief cities. Charleston had several thousand inhabit ants, Baltimore was but a village, and in all Virginia there was no large town. Industrial Pursuits. Agriculture was the chief pursuit. The implements were rude, but the virgin soil yielded over flowing harvests. Wheat, corn, and potatoes, were the staples of the northern and middle colonies. In Virginia, tobacco was a more profitable crop, the yield in 1775 being estimated at $4,000,000. South Carolina was famous for its rice, which, exported annually to the value of $2,000,000, enabled her aristocratic planters to live in luxury. Cotton 136 THE EVE OF THE REVOLUTION. [l775 was cultivated somewhat, but only for domestic use in coarse fabrics. Manufactures and commerce, at one time flourishing, languished under the selfish policy of the mother-country. Some necessary simple articles, indeed, were made in every household ; but English factories had the exclusive privilege of supplying all the better fabrics for clothing, all expensive furniture, all iron machines and implements, even down to the nail unless the farmer himself hammered out his own nails in winter. The Boston ship-yards had once turned out many a well-modelled bark, which had been exchanged for sugar and rum in the West Indies ; but the day for this was over. The fisheries, both cod and whale, gave employment to many, and had trained up a host of adventurous sailors along the whole New England coast. Education, In most of the colonies, every village had its church and school. In the Dutch towns, the dominie often officiated as schoolmaster. Several colleges besides those heretofore mentioned, had been established ; among these were the College of New Jersey at Princeton, and King s College (now Columbia) at New York. Printing-presses had multiplied, and standard English books were no longer rare. Except the theological works of Jonathan Edwards and Cotton Mather, colonial litera ture had as yet produced little besides sermons and political pamphlets. The three largest cities could each boast of five newspapers, but there was no daily. Travelling in those days was an undertaking, especially when the roads, never too good, were breaking up in spring. The day of steam was not yet. Travellers, both men and women, went on horseback, or, between important places, in public wagons, sometimes without springs. In 1772, the first stage-coach in the colonies was put on the route be tween Boston and Providence, taking two days for the trip. When the vehicles of a new line accomplished the journey 1775] THE EVE OF THE REVOLUTION. 137 TRAVELLING IN THE OLDEN TIME. from New York to Philadelphia in two days, the astonished public called them " flying-machines." Sloops carried pas sengers on the rivers, and between places on the coast. Habits and Usages. A hundred years had wrought great changes in the New World as well as the Old. Com forts had increased ; the views of the people had become more liberal. As to dress, in the cities at least it was losing its primitive simplicity. Pantaloons had not yet come into fashion ; but knee-breeches of broadcloth and plush were worn, with velvet surtouts and camlet cloaks. Gay silks and velvets adorned the ladies, with cambric caps and aprons of lawn or taffeta. A kersey short-gown was the common home-garb. Soft feather-beds, with fine home-spun sheets and calico quilts of cunning patchwork, were the special pride of the housewife. China and silver ware were scarce ; most peo ple put up with delft and polished pewter. Stoves and franklins were used a little, but the open fireplace still had 138 THE EVE OF THE REVOLUTION. [l775 the preference. Mahogany furniture was fashionable for those who could afford it ; and straight-backed chairs, high- post bedsteads, solemn sideboards, and big tables with leaves, were the ornaments of the best rooms. The southern planters were proverbial for their hospi tality ; their tables always groaned under a weight of good things. New England was famous for its succotash beans boiled with corn in the milk an Indian dish ; also, for its Saturday dinner of salt codfish, its baked pork and beans, and its " hasty -pudding " of boiled corn-meal, eaten with milk, butter, or molasses. Coffee was hardly known in America before 1750. By that time tea had become a favorite beverage, though costly ; in 1745, it sold for seven dollars a pound. REVIEW OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. Let different members of the class be called on to mention in order the events in the following ABSTRACT. As each event is mentioned, let one write it on the blackboard, while another tells all that he knows about it. 1754. French take the fort begun by the English on the site of Pittsburgh. Washington defeats a party of French at the Great Meadows. Washington surrenders Fort Necessity. 1755. English conquer New Brunswick. Acadians driven out. Braddock s campaign and defeat. Dieskau, at first victorious, defeated at Lake George. 1756. French, under Montcalm, take Fort Oswcgo. 1757. Loudoun drills his army at Halifax, to take Louisburg. French, under Montcalm, take Fort William Henry. 1758. English, under Abercrombie, repulsed at Ticonderoga. English, under Amherst, take Louisburg and Prince Edward Island. Washington forces the French to evacuate Fort Du Quesne. 1759. English, under Amherst, take Ticonderoga and Crown Point. English, under Sir William Johnson, take Fort Niagara. Wolfe takes Quebec, dying in the arms of victory. 1760. French fail in an attempt to recapture Quebec. Montreal and all Canada surrendered to the English. 1762. English take the French islands in the West Indies. 1763. Treaty of Paris ends the French and Indian War. England gains 1775] BEGINNING OF THE REVOLUTION. 139 CHAPTER XVIII. BEGINNING OF THE REVOLUTION. Lexington and Concord. In the War of the Revolution, the first blood was shed at Lexington. This town was ten miles north-west of Boston, on the road to Concord, where the patriots had collected cannon and stores. To destroy these, as well as to capture Samuel Adams and Hancock, who were regarded as the arch-rebels, Gage secretly made ready a detachment of 800 men ; and an hour before mid night, April 18, 1775, they crossed to Lechmere s Point (see Map, p. 148) and commenced their march. But Boston s Sons of Liberty had hung a lantern in the steeple of the North Church the preconcerted signal to inform their friends in Charlestown that the soldiers were astir. Bells sounded the alarm, and messengers galloped through the country to arouse the minute-men, pledged to assemble at a moment s notice with firelock, powder-horn, and bullet-pouch. When the British reached Lexington at daybreak (April 19th), they found about sixty provincials drawn up on the common. Disregarding an order to lay down their arms, the min ute-men received the fire of the British, returned a few shots, and then dispersed, eight men having been killed and more wounded. The regulars pushed on to Concord, took posses sion of the village, and destroyed such stores as they could find, the greater part having been already removed by the patriots. The American militia, who on the approach of the enemy had fallen back, wrought up beyond endurance on beholding the flames of their burning property, advanced to a bridge leading to the town. A British guard posted there saluted them with a volley, but broke and fled when the Americans returned their fire. " Now," said one of the min- 140 BEGINNING OF THE REVOLUTION. [l775 ute-men to his comrades, " the war has begun, and no one knows when it will end." The Retreat. His work finished, the British leader, not liking the signs around him, gave the signal for retreat. It was a retreat traced in blood. The yeomen of the neighbor ing towns were pouring in by twos and threes ; it seemed to the enemy " as if they rained down from the clouds." Tak ing post behind trees and walls, on both sides of the road they knew the British must follow, under no military orders but acting each for himself, they poured in a destructive fire on the regulars, driving them like sheep all the way to Lex ington. Here, their ranks thinned, their ammunition almost exhausted, themselves worn out, they were saved from sur render only by meeting a re-enforcement from Boston under Lord Percy. Still was the pursuit kept up with a galling fire from the American sharp-shooters, till the red-coats, ready to drop, found safety at Charlestown under the guns of their shipping. The British major, at a tavern in Concord, had boastfully remarked, as he stirred a glass of brandy with his finger, " I mean to stir the Yankee blood before night, as I stir this." He had indeed stirred it to its depths. Connecticut and Rhode Island promptly sent aid to their sister-colony. The men of New Hampshire, under the veteran Stark, hastened across the Merrirnac. Putnam, true as steel, left the stone wall that he was building, and without waiting to change his check shirt spurred his horse to the camp at Cambridge. Within a week, Gage found himself closely beleaguered in Boston. First Declaration of Independence. South as well as North was fired by the tidings that Massachusetts had measured swords with England, and had not come off second best. At Charlotte, Mecklenburg County, N. C., representa tives of the people went so far as formally to renounce their allegiance to the crown, and make provision for their own 1775] CAPTURE OF TICONDEROGA. 141 government (May 31, 1775). This was the first declaration of independence, for the men of the North were simply fighting for their rights as subjects of Great Britain. In July, the demonstrations in North Carolina were such that the governor deemed it prudent to take refuge on a man-of-war ; an example which the governor of South Caro lina and the garrison of Charleston followed two months later. Governor Duiimore, of Virginia, had before this seized the powder in the magazine at Williamsburg ; where upon the exasperated people, under the leadership of Patrick Henry, compelled him to pay for it, and shortly afterward drove him too on board of an armed vessel. Capture of Ticonderoga. Early in the spring, the au thorities of Connecticut had resolved to strike a blow on their own account. Knowing how useful the artillery and stores of Ticonderoga and Crown Point (see Map, p. 116) would be to the provincial army, they furnished means to fit out an expedition against these places, giving its command to Ethan Allen. Allen had emigrated from Connecticut to what is now southern Vermont, and had there become a leader of "the Green Mountain Boys." This was an organ ization of settlers, who, having received grants of their lands from the governor of New Hampshire, had refused to pay for them a second time to New York officials, and had re sisted the attempts of New York to extend her jurisdiction over them. Eighty-three of these hardy pioneers landed under the walls of Ticonderoga, at daybreak on the 10th of May, 1775. Surprising the sentinel, they entered the works at his heels; and when the commander appeared in his night-clothes at the door of his room, to see what the matter was, Allen with uplifted sword demanded the surrender of the place " in the name of the great Jehovah and the Continental Congress." Resistance was useless ; in a moment this fortress, which had seemed almost impregnable, was in the hands of the 142 SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS. [lTT5 Americans. Two days afterward, Crown Point was taken. Benedict Arnold, then a true and dashing soldier though afterward the traitor of the Revolution, was equally success ful at Skenesborough, and, embarking a small force on a captured vessel, surprised also a post at the foot of the lake. Many of the two hundred cannon captured in these success ful expeditions afterward thundered on the British from the heights around Boston. Second Continental Congress. The Continental Congress, in whose name Ethan Allen had summoned Ticonderoga to surrender, commenced its second session at Philadelphia on the very day that post was taken, and with short intervals of adjournment continued sitting throughout the Revolution. We shall find this body taking the whole responsibility of the war, providing ways and means, raising armies, appoint ing officers, and negotiating with foreign powers. The second Congress numbered Washington and Frank lin, the Adamses, Henry, Lee, and Jefferson, among its mem bers ; John Hancock was made president. Some hope of reconciliation with the mother-country was still entertained, and a final petition to the crown was drawn up ; at the same time vigorous preparations were made for war. Three mill ions of dollars were issued in bills of credit. The forces in front of Boston were adopted as the Continental army, and on the 15th of June Washington was unanimously elected its commander-in-chief. He accepted the command, while expressing doubt as to his fitness for it, but declined the pay which Congress had attached to the position. Gage re-enforced. Before summer Gage s army was swelled to more than 10,000 men, by the arrival of re-en forcements under Generals Howe, Clinton, and Burgoyne. " What ! " exclaimed the last-named officer, as he sailed up the harbor and saw the " rebel " encampment ; " ten thou sand peasants keep five thousand king s troops shut up ! Let us get in, and we ll soon find elbow-room." 1775] FORTIFYING BREED S HILL. 143 Feeling himself strong enough to proceed to extremities, Gage now proclaimed martial law, but offered pardon to such as would lay down their arms, except Samuel Adams and John Hancock, whom he threatened with condign punish ment. His proclamation had little effect, and he was about extending his line by fortifying the heights of Charlestown, when the patriots, learning his intention, anticipated him. Bunker Hill. On the evening of June 16th, a thousand Americans under Colonel Prescott silently marched from Cambridge, over Charlestown Neck, with instructions to throw up intrenchments on Bunker Hill.* Breed s Hill, THROWING UP INTRENCIIMENTS ON BREED S HILL. however, was selected in stead, either by mistake or because it was better suited for their purpose. They got to work with their picks and spades by midnight, and at dawn the British were thunderstruck to see the hill, which commanded Charlestown and Boston, crowned with earth-works six feet * For the localities mentioned in this connection, see Map, p. 148. 144: BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL. [l775 high. The Americans coolly continued their labors, while the British guns rained grape-shot on them from Copp s Hill and the shipping in the harbor. Gage saw that these works must be taken, if he would hold the city. He wondered if the rebel leader, whom he discerned with his glass, would wait to receive his veterans ; before night he found out. The Battle. About one o clock on that intolerably hot 17th of June, 3,000 British troops under Howe arid Pig ot landed at Morton s Point, to storm the American works. The provincials had been but sparingly re-enforced. Jaded by the toil of the preceding night, hungry and thirsty, ill supplied with ammunition (there were said to be less than fourteen barrels of powder in the whole American army on the day of the battle), they yet gallantly threw the flag of New England to the breeze, as they beheld the enemy pre paring for the assault. Twice did the British charge up the hill with determined bravery. Twice did the Americans, from behind their works, drive them back with deadly vol leys, aiming low and waiting till they could see the whites of the enemy s eyes, according to the orders of Prescott and Putnam. Meanwhile Charlestown had been fired by shells from Copp s Hill, and Clinton had brought over a thousand fresh troops to join in the attack. A third attempt was made ; it succeeded, for the ammunition of the patriots gave out. The British forced their way over the works ; and, though the Americans still offered what resistance they could with stones and clubbed muskets, the bayonet forced them to give way. The retreat was covered by Stark and his New Hampshire regiments, who had gallantly maintained their position behind a rampart of rails filled in with new-mown hay. Stubbornly disputing every inch of the way, the pro vincials recrossed Charlestown Neck, and intrenched them selves on Prospect Hill, whither the enemy showed no dis position to pursue them. 1775] INVASION OF CANADA. 145 The British lost 1,054 men, killed and wounded, at Bun ker Hill ; the Americans 452 but among them was the ac complished Dr. Joseph Warren, president of the Provincial Congress of Massachusetts, who served in the battle as a volunteer, and whom Howe estimated as worth five hundred common rebels. Though the British were the victors, it was a glorious day for America. So thought the thousands who from the surrounding hill-tops, and the roofs and steeples of Boston, witnessed the unflinching valor of their countrymen. Invasion of Canada, The year 1775 closed with an in vasion of Canada, undertaken by Congress with the view of securing the war-materials stored at Quebec, and affording the people an opportunity of taking part in the Revolution. Gen. Richard Montgomery was to move by way of Lake Champlain and Montreal ; while Arnold was to advance di rectly on Quebec, through the wildernesses of Maine and Canada, with an auxiliary force, in whose ranks were Mor gan and Aaron Burr, afterward noted in their country s his tory. Arnold and his men were the first to arrive, after endur ing trials that would have turned back a less determined party ; for a time, after dog-flesh and their moose-skin moc casins gave out, they had to subsist on roots. Montgomery took several French posts, and finally Montreal (November 13th), but lost some of his followers by the expiration of their term of enlistment. When the two bodies united near Quebec, they together mustered but nine hundred men, poorly armed and ill prepared for a Canadian winter. This was a petty force with which to assail a fortress like Que bec, but Montgomery faltered not. He had seen Wolfe win laurels there, and would himself earn equal glory. Three weeks cannonading leaving no impression on the massive walls, an assault was made on the last day of the year. Three feet of frozen snow lay on the ground, and the air was filled with blinding flakes, when at dawn Montgomery 7 146 ATTACK ON QUEBEC. [l775 made a desperate attempt to enter the city on the St. Law rence side. The Canadians were prepared, and, sweeping the narrow pass with cannon and musketry, killed the Amer ican general and drove back his little force. Arnold, mean time, storming the other side of the town, was wounded at the head of his division. Morgan, assuming command, car ried the first barrier, but then, unable either to penetrate farther or to extricate his men from overwhelming numbers of the foe, was obliged to surrender. The remnants of the two divisions effected a junction, and for a time maintained an imperfect blockade of the city. But spring brought succor to the British. The Americans had to raise the siege, fell back on Montreal, were driven thence by a superior force, and so from post to post till they had crossed the Canada line. Montgomery s fall was mourned as a national loss. Happy had it been for Arnold, if he had shared the fate of that true-hearted chief. GENERAL REVIEW. When, and under what circumstances, did the English add New York to their colonial possessions? When and how did they obtain Acadia? Newfoundland ? New Brunswick ? Cape Breton and Prince Edward Island ? The Ohio Valley ? Canada? Florida? What European powers had possessions in North America at the close of 1763, and what was the boundary between them ? Tell all you have learned in the preceding pages about WILLIAM PITT ; MONTCALM ; WASHINGTON ; FRANKLIN ; SAMUEL ADAMS ; PATRICK HENRY. State, in order, the causes that led to the American Revolution, and the events that immediately preceded it. Map, p. 148. How were Bunker and Breed s Hill situated ? When was Charlestown founded ? Where was Lechmere s Point ? Prospect Hill ? Copp s Hill ? Charlestown Neck ? Boston Neck ? What was the Indian name of the peninsula on which Boston stands ? What name did the Eng lish give it ? The shape of the peninsula has since been changed by filling in, and the area of the city has been greatly enlarged by the absorption of Charlestown, Noddle s Island (East Boston), Dorchester, Roxbury, West Roxbury, and Brighton. 1775] WASHINGTON GETTING KEADY. 147 CHAPTER XIX. REVOLUTIONARY WAR: EVENTS OF 1776. Getting ready. As soon as possible after his appoint ment to the chief command, Washington set out for Cam bridge. He arrived there July 2, 1775, and immediately entered upon the difficult task of making an efficient army out of the 14,000 undisciplined and poorly-equipped men whom he found in the American camp. Obstacles met him at every step the want of experienced officers and skillful engineers, want of money, want of stores. At one time he found, to his consternation, that the entire supply of powder was but half a pound to each man. To crown all, the sol diers, exposed to privations and needed at home, were with difficulty induced to remain when their time expired. But Washington had faith and patience. During the long fall and winter, while British cruisers were spreading terror in Narragansett Bay, and British guns were re ducing Falmouth (now Portland, Maine) to ruins, and Dunmore was wreaking his vengeance on Norfolk, Virginia, and Tryon, who had become governor of New York, was doing his best to buy over the wavering citizens, while even the friends of freedom were losing patience and clam oring for something to be done, Washington was all the time diligently strengthening his works, collecting military stores, drilling his army, and preparing it, when it did strike, to strike telling blows. Evacuation of Boston. The American lines, extending about nine miles from Dorchester, girding the shore as far as the Mystic River, effectually penned the British in Bos ton, where they were reduced to great straits for fuel and provisions. Charlestown Heights had been occupied ever since the battle by the royal army ; but on the south the 148 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. [177-0 city was commanded as well by the heights of Dorchester, which the British had neglected to seize. These Washing ton, with the view of bringing on an action or dislodging the enemy from Boston, at length determined to occupy. On the night of March 4, 1776, a similar movement was made to that which had succeeded so well on Breed s Hill, BOSTON AND VICINITY IN 1776. The British awoke the following morning, to behold intrench- ments raised as if by magic, and cannon frowning on them and their ships from Dorchester Heights. Gen. Howe, who in October had succeeded the inefficient Gage in the chief command of the royal army, immediately decided to attack these fortifications ; but a violent storm set in ? and by the 1776] BRITISH ATTACK ON CHARLESTON. 149 time it ceased they had been so strengthened that he aban doned the idea, and thought only of saving his army and fleet by evacuating the city. He was allowed to do so, on condition of not setting it on fire, and Washington entered it in triumph, March 17th, to the great joy of its suffering 1 inhabitants. Fifteen hundred loyalists had been taken off in the British ships. British. Attack on Charleston. An attack on the south ern colonies formed part of the British plans for their cam paign of 1776. In May, a squadron direct from England, bearing 2,500 fresh troops, effected a junction off the coast of Carolina with a detachment from the north under Gen. Clinton, and the combined armaments soon appeared in the neighborhood of Charleston. Here the vigorous efforts of Rutledge, Moultrie (mole tre), and Gadsden, had made ready for their reception. A fort of palmetto-wood had been has tily thrown up on Sullivan s Island (see Map, p. 81), at a point commanding the entrance to the harbor, and works at the other end defended the approaches to it by land. The attack was made on the 28th of June, the British fleet under Admiral Parker opening fire on the palmetto fort, while a land-force under Clinton endeavored to carry the works in the rear. Both attacks failed, though hotly maintained for nine hours. The British balls buried them selves in the spongy wood of which the fort was made, with out doing any harm, and Clinton s men were kept at bay by the riflemen of Carolina. On the other hand, the patriot guns inflicted fearful damage on the British ships. One grounded and was destroyed ; the rest withdrew in the night utterly discomfited, and after refitting found their way to New York. The fort was under the immediate com mand of Colonel Moultrie, and was afterward called by his name in honor of his heroic defence. Before the battle, Gen. Lee, who had been dispatched by Washington to the aid of the Carolinians, had expressed 150 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. [l776 the opinion that it would take the British guns but ten min utes to demolish the fort. " In that case," replied Moultrie, " we will lie behind the ruins, and still prevent the enemy from landing." Sergeant Jasper was one of the heroes of the defence. A ball having severed the flagstaff, so that the flag fell outside upon the beach, Jasper leaped down amid the hurtling missiles from the fleet, picked up the flag, attached it to a sponge-staff, and amid the cheers of his com panions restored it to its place. This repulse changed the British plans, and the Carolinas were for a time left unmo lested. The Hessians. King George III. had returned no answer to the respectful petition of the second Continental Con gress. Parliament had shown its feeling by forbidding trade with the rebel colonies, and authorizing the seizure of all ves sels sent thither for traffic, by largely increasing the forces in America, both land and naval, for crushing the insurrec tion, and, as enlistments in England were slow, by authoriz ing the employment of 17,500 German troops, at $36 a head, to be paid to their respective princes. These mercenaries, coming mainly from Hesse (hess) Cassel, were known in America as Hessians ; their brutality throughout the war caused them to be looked upon with horror by the patriots, and even with disgust by the English themselves. Declaration of Independence. From all this it was clear that nothing was to be hoped for from the mother-country ; Congress, therefore, began to think of renouncing allegiance to the crown. The people of Charlotte, N. C., had set the example the preceding year. Thomas Paine, in his widely- circulated pamphlet "Common Sense," had prepared the public mind for such action ; the Virginia Convention and other bodies had recommended it. So, in June, Richard Henry Lee introduced a resolution: "That these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states ; and that their political connection with Great Brit- 1776] DECLAEATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 151 ain is, and ought to be, dissolved." A committee of five was thereupon appointed to draft a formal Declaration of Independence. This document was written by Thomas Jefferson as chair man, and received a few verbal alterations from John Adams JEFFERSON BEADING THE DECLARATION IN COMMITTEE. and Franklin, of the committee. It was presented to Con gress July 1st, and after being carefully considered and amended was passed on the 4th of July ever since observed as the birthday of American freedom. The bell of the old state-house, in which Congress was assembled, at once rang out the glad tidings. The people, south and north, hailed the news with delight, kindling bonfires, illuminating their houses, and receiving the Declaration, as read by their ora tors, with heart-stirring acclamations. A statue of the king 152 THE REVOLUTION ART WAR. [l776 in New York was dragged from its pedestal and cast into bullets, some of which did good service during the savage Tryon s raids in Connecticut (1777). Howe s Offers of Peace. After the evacuation of Bos ton, Gen. Howe took his army first to Halifax, and thence to the harbor of New York. Here he was soon joined by his brother, Admiral Howe, with re-enforcements from Eng land, including eight thousand of the odious Hessians, and also by the British force repulsed from Charleston. The Howes were authorized to treat with the " rebels " for peace, and tried to communicate with George Washington, Esq., for that purpose. But Washington would receive no letter that did not recognize his position as General / and so nothing came of their proposal, which after all was only an offer of pardon in case of submission. Battle of Long Island. Failing in this attempt, Howe landed 15,000 men on the south-western extremity of Long Island (August 22d, 25th) with the view of crushing the American army of 9,000 men stationed near Brooklyn, car rying the defences there, and then falling upon New York. By direction of Congress, Washington had done his best to make this city defensible ; but it was a long line to hold with only 17,000 men, scant and inferior artillery, and hard ly muskets enough to go around. Gen. Greene, who had been in command on Long Island, was unfortunately prostrated with fever just before the battle, and Putnam was sent over to assume command. Putnam was ignorant of the ground. This may have been the reason why, on the day of the battle of Long Isl and (August 27th), the Jamaica Pass was left unguarded. Clinton was thus enabled to gain the rear of the Americans, and to cut off almost the entire division under General Sul livan. Stirling, nearer the bay, by the sacrifice of his young Marylanders, held the flanking force of the enemy under Cornwallis in check till part of his division was safe, though 1776] BATTLE OF LONG ISLAND. 153 many were drowned or taken in their flight across Gowan us Creek. This defeat cost the Americans nearly 2,000 men, while the British loss was less than 400. Among those most mourned by the patriots was Gen. Woodhull. Taken pris oner near Jamaica, the day after the battle, he was ordered by a British officer to cry " God save the king ! " " God save us all ! " said Woodhull ; whereupon his enraged cap tor dealt him a blow with a broadsword which in three weeks caused his death. His fate, however, was enviable, com pared with that of some who were captured, and who were soon perishing by inches in one of the foul prison-ships kept by the British throughout the war near the Brooklyn shore. Remembering Bunker Hill, Howe preferred throwing up a redoubt and employing his artillery on the American works at Brooklyn to risking the lives of his men in an assault. Washington, who had crossed from New York only to be hold his brave men slaughtered without the power to help them, learned on the 29th that the British fleet was prepar ing to ascend the East River and intercept him ; an imme diate retreat was imperative. He accomplished it in a mas terly manner that same night, under cover of the darkness and a thick fog. The last boat was just out of gunshot, when about dawn a body of the enemy s horse, dispatched as soon as the movement was discovered, galloped down to the river. A tory s wife living near the ferry had found out what was going on early in the night, and sent word to the British leader by a negro ; but providentially he fell in with Hessians, who could not understand him, and the American army was saved. New York abandoned. Washington now had his men safe in New York, but could not long remain there, for the enemy threatened the city, and with an army disheartened by the recent defeat he could offer no effectual resistance. Overtures again made by Howe this time to Congress > 154 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. [l776 were again unsuccessful ; and on the 15th of September the British and Hessians crossed from Long to Manhattan Island, three miles above what was then the city. Most of the Americans had already been withdrawn, but the rear-guard under Putnam was still in the city, and owed its escape to the device of a lady, who detained the British generals at her house two hours with conversation and re freshments, while her countrymen were making their toil some way to the north. New York, thus taken by the Brit ish, remained in their possession till the end of the war. Battle of White Plains. The next day a skirmish took place near Harlem, with advantage to the Continentals. Then followed an attempt on the part of Howe to outflank the Americans, which obliged Washington to extend his line northward to White Plains (see Map, p. 183 ). Near this place a battle was fought, October 28th, between portions of the two armies, and the Americans were obliged to fall back. The main body, however, was so strongly posted that Howe put off any further attack till re-enforcements should arrive from New York ; and meanwhile Washington retired to high grounds in the direction of the Croton River. Howe still making no demonstration, Washington feared that a descent on Philadelphia was intended. Accordingly, leav ing 4,000 men under Gen. Lee, he moved the rest of his army nearer to the Hudson, and ultimately across that river to Fort Lee. Capture of Fort Washington. Howe now threw himself on Fort Washington, which, contrary to the advice of the commander-in-chief, Congress had decided to defend. The works here had been planned by Alexander Hamilton, after ward a distinguished statesman, at this time a youth of twenty ; the skill displayed in their construction recom mended the young engineer to Washington, whose aid and secretary he presently became. But Fort Washington was obliged to surrender to overwhelming numbers (November 1776] RETREAT ACROSS NEW JERSEY. 155 16th), with its garrison of nearly 3,000 men, the British losing before its walls about one-third of that number. Washington is said to have wept, as he saw through his glass some of the defenders of the fort bayoneted by the Hessians while begging for quarter. Eetreat across New Jersey. Fort Lee could be held no longer ; an immediate retreat was ordered. It was none too soon, for Cornwallis had , __ A crossed the Hudson higher up and was sweeping down like an avalanche. Then commenced that melan choly retreat across New Jersey through Hacken- sack, Newark, New Bruns wick, Princeton, and Tren ton, the frozen ground marked in places with blood from the unprotect ed feet of the fugitives. The pursuit was sharply pushed, the music of the British entering a town being often heard by the Americans as they left it. Gladly would Washington have made a stand, but it was impracticable. His army since the late reverses had melted rapidly away, till at the end of November but three thousand were left, dispirited, ill-fed, ill-clad. How could they face twice their number of well-supplied veterans, flushed with victory ? Lee had been sent for with his division, but paid little attention to the summons, and the militia were back ward in coming to the support of a cause so desperate. Washington was greatly relieved when, having secured the boats for many miles, he succeeded in placing the Delaware between himself and his pursuers. Cornwallis here gave up the chase, waiting till the river should be bridged with ice, BATTLE-FIELDS IN XEW JERSEY. 156 THE KEVOLTJTIONAKY WAR. [l776 and quartering the different divisions of his army at Trenton, Princeton, and other points within supporting distance. Dark Hours. At this juncture, everything looked dark. The British had appeared in force on Lake Champlain, and despite the gallantry of Arnold, who commanded a hastily- prepared flotilla, had destroyed most of the American vessels, taken Crown Point, and only waited for a more favorable season to besiege Ticonderoga. A fleet from New York bearing Gen. Clinton and four brigades had made a success ful descent on Newport, then the second town in New Eng land, and was blockading Continental cruisers at Providence, and threatening the adjacent country. Congress, fearing for the safety of Philadelphia, had left that city for Balti more (December 12th), after taking measures to provide a permanent army at Washington s urgent request ; they shortly afterward showed how desperate they thought the state of affairs by clothing the commander-in-chief with almost absolute power. Something must be done, or the patriot cause would be ruined. Battle of Trenton. So Washington felt ; and the arrival of some Pennsylvania recruits and part of Lee s division, swelling his army to 7,000 men, enabled him to make a bold dash at the enemy. It was resolved to cross the Delaware on Christmas evening, and surprise a detachment 1,500 strong, mostly Hessians, stationed at Trenton. Two divi sions that were to cooperate were unable to get across, by reason of the wind and ice ; but Washington, with Sullivan, Greene, Stirling, and Mercer, effected the perilous passage with 2,400 men. The enemy, thinking the war virtually over, had relaxed their vigilance ; one of the British generals had remarked that he could keep the peace in New Jersey with a corporal s guard. The Hessian colonel had been enjoying Christmas, drink ing and playing cards all night. At daylight a note was brought him from a tory, informing him that the Americans 1776] BATTLE OF TRENTON. 157 were on the road. Thrusting it unopened into his pocket, he continued his game soon to be called to a game of a different kind by the rattle of musketry. He was himself among the first to fall, and a thousand of his men, offering little resistance, laid down their arms. Some British light- horse made good their escape. That same night, Washington took his prisoners and spoils across the Delaware in safety. This invaluable vic> tory cost him but two men frozen to death, two men killed, and a few wounded. Confidence in the American cause was at once restored. Many of the soldiers who were about leaving re-enlisted ; others came forward to their country s aid. Thus encouraged, Washington determined again to cross into New Jersey. January 1, 1777, found him posted at Trenton with about 5,000 men. CONTEMPORARY EVENTS AND RULERS. 1776. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. Most of the states (the loyalist governors having been driven out) under the rule of Provincial Congresses or State Conventions, representing the people. Patrick Henry governor of Virginia under the new regime, John Hancock president of the Continental Congress. John Adams at the head of the War Department. Powder-mills, and manufactories of arms and military stores, established. Laws passed in some of the states, subjecting loyalists to confiscation of property, im prisonment, and banishment. The tory element strong in New York and Philadelphia. Nearly one-third of the city of New York laid in ruins by fire (September 20th). Cherokees, influenced by British agents to com mence hostilities against the back settlements, subdued by Carolinians and Virginians. George III. king of Great Britain ; Lord North prime-minister. Louis XVI. king of France. Maria There sa empress of Austria. Frederick II., the Great, king of Prussia. Catharine II. empress of Russia. Review. Mention in the order of time the events of the Revolution ary War in 1775, favorable to the Americans. Mention those favorable to the British. Sum up the events of 1776 in which the Americans had the advantage. Recount those in which the British had the advantage. 158 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAK. [l777 CHAPTER XX. REVOLUTIONARY WAR: EVENTS OF 1777. Battle of Princeton. Cornwallis, who was about sailing for England on leave of absence, was promptly ordered back to New Jersey. On the 3d of January, 1777, he confronted Washington at Trenton with a well-appointed army. His attempts to cross a creek that separated him from the Amer icans were successfully resisted till night ; when Washing ton, leaving his camp-fires burning, noiselessly withdrew his forces in the direction of Princeton (see Map, p. 155), to surprise the British reserve at that place. Cornwallis awoke on the 3d, to find the American camp deserted and himself outgeneralled. On nearing Princeton at daybreak, the American army encountered two British regiments on the march to re-en force Cornwallis. A sharp action ensued, which cost the precious life of Gen. Mercer, but resulted in the discomfiture of the British. Pushing on to Princeton, Washington routed the remaining regiments of British, making prisoners of a number in the college buildings. One of his cannon- balls passed through a portrait of King George II. hanging in the chapel, the frame of which is now filled with a portrait of Washington himself, painted by Peale. Cornwallis had followed closely, but came up too late for the engagement. After his victory at Princeton, Washington moved on to Morristown. Here he remained the rest of the winter, and by a series of successful movements recovered nearly the whole of New Jersey. New Brunswick, however, whither Cornwallis had marched after his mortifying failure "to catch the fox," remained in possession of the British, whose Hessian allies excited great indignation in the neighborhood by their wanton violence. The larder and blankets of many 1777] THE STAKS AND STRIFES ADOPTED. 159 a thrifty housewife, as well as the fences and barns of the husbandmen, suffered severely from their depredations. Till summer, Howe contented himself with sending an expedi tion up the Hudson, and another to Danbury, Conn., which burned the town and stores collected there. The National Flag. June 14, 1777, was signalized by the adoption of the stars and stripes as the national banner. For the union of the British flag before used, was substi tuted a blue field with thirteen stars, representing the original thirteen states, arranged in a circle, the em blem of perpetuity. A new star was afterward added for each new state admitted, and the arrange ment of the stars was changed. Paul Jones, a naval hero of whose achievements we shall presently hear, was the first to give the new flag to the breeze on his eighteen- gun vessel, the Ranger. FIRST ClIEBR FOB THE STARS AND STRIPES (lt7). 160 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. [l777 Aid from France. In 1777, in response to an appeal from Congress, the French government, ever hostile to England, secretly sent over ordnance, muskets, and powder, to aid the patriots. A most valuable accession to the cause was also received in the young Marquis de Lafayette (deJi lah-fa-et ). He had heard of the stand taken by the colonies with enthu siastic admiration ; and leaving home, friends, brilliant pros pects, and a young wife, he came to offer his sword to the struggling friends of freedom. Though he was not yet twen ty, Congress commissioned him as a major-general, and he became the life-long friend of Washington. Kosciusko (Jcos- se-us ko) and Pulaski (pu-las ke), illustrious Poles whom the misfortunes of their country had driven into exile, and the Baron De Kalb, an experienced German officer, joined the service about the same time. Burgoyne s Campaign. An invasion of the states from the north formed a prominent part of the British plans for 1777. Gen. Burgoyne, who was intrusted with the com mand of the expedition, was to ascend Lake Champlain, fall on Ticonderoga, take Albany, and with aid from New York by way of the Hudson reduce the American posts in the Highlands. New England would thus be isolated from the Middle States, and unable to aid Washington, who was meanwhile to be hard pressed by Howe. Burgoyne started with about 10,000 men. Having been joined near Crown Point by 400 warriors of the Six Nations, he issued a high- flown proclamation bristling with threats against any who should venture to offer resistance. On the 1st of July the British reached Ticonderoga. The American garrison at this place consisted of less than 3,500 men, scantily provided with stores and ammunition. When their general, St. Clair, saw the enemy in possession of a neighboring height which commanded his works and which he had neglected to occupy, he realized that he must either lose his army or evacuate the place. In the night 1777] BURGOYNE S CAMPAIGN. 161 following July 5th, sending his stores up the lake to Skenes- borough (see Map, p. 116), he withdrew his army, on the Vermont side. The British were soon in hot pursuit. The American vessels, with their contents, they succeeded in capturing or destroying ; and St. Glair s rear-guard was overtaken and worsted with heavy loss. While Burgoyne pushed slowly on toward the Hudson, part of the flying Americans succeeded in reaching the main body of the northern army at Fort Edward. Gen. Schuyler, who commanded the department, obstructed the enemy s ad vance in every way he could, but was obliged to fall back before them ; and it seemed as if the whole upper valley of the Hudson were at their mercy. Jane McCrea. The atrocities committed by Burgoyne s Indians brought odium on a cause which could tolerate such inhuman warfare. The tragical fate of Jane McCrea (mak- kra ) may be mentioned in this connection. While the in vading army was near Fort Edward, a party of savages car ried her off from the house of a friend with whom she was staying. Shortly afterward they appeared in camp with her scalp. Whether she was tomahawked on the way by her captors, in consequence of their quarrelling among them selves or, as they alleged, was killed by a shot from a pur suing party of Americans, and then scalped according to Indian usage the barbarous deed awakened universal loathing. St. Leger s Expedition. At the same time that Bur goyne left Canada, Colonel St. Leger had been dispatched with 700 Rangers to the Mohawk Valley, by way of the St. Lawrence and Oswego. After overrunning the country and calling out the Indians and tories, he was to effect a junc tion with his chief at Albany. St. Leger encountered lit tle or no resistance till he reached the spot where Rome, N. Y., now stands. Here, his force increased by 1,000 tories and Iroquois, he halted to besiege Fort Schuyler, 162 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. [l7T7 held by Colonel Gansevoort and a determined garrison (August 3d see Map, p. 170). Unprovided with a flag, they managed to manufacture one out of an old shirt, pieces of scarlet cloth, and the blue cloak of one of their captains no very elegant banner, yet one which they determined to defend to the last extremity. A body of militia from the neighboring country, advanc ing to the relief of the fort under Gen. Her kimer, fell into an ambuscade at Oris kany, and though they retained pos session of the field failed of their object. On receiving this news, Schuyler sent Arnold with some volunteers from his camp, to raise the siege. They succeeded in so doing, by an ingenious stratagem. Arnold pardoned a half-witted tory who had been condemned to the gallows, on condition that he would make the besiegers believe that an immense host of Americans was at hand. The tory played his part to perfection. Rushing into the camp as if pursued, with bullet-holes through his coat, he communicated such a panic to both Indians and whites, that they were soon in full flight for Oswego. So ended St. Leger s expedition (August 22d). Battle of Bennington. For the purpose of replenishing his supplies, Burgoyne, before hearing of St. Leger s fail ure, sent out a strong party under Colonel Baum to Ben- nington, in what is now south-western Vermont. They were met on the 16th of August by Gen. Stark, whom the Assembly of New Hampshire had sent to the frontier of the state with a brigade of militia. "To-day, men, we ll beat the red-coats, or Molly Stark s a widow," was the veteran s inspiring address to his men before engaging. And they did beat the red-coats not only Baum s detachment, but another sent to re-enforce it, which arrived soon after the first battle. Seven hundred prisoners, with four field- pieces, as many ammunition-wagons, and nearly a thou sand stands of arms, were among the trophies of Ben- nington. 1777] BUEGOYNE S CAMPAIGN. 163 First Battle of Stillwater. These two blows proved fatal to Burgoyne, leading the Indians and Canadians to desert, deterring the tories from joining his ranks, and putting him to great straits for provisions. On the other hand, the Americans kept gathering strength ; the militia poured in, and two brigades arrived from the Highlands. Just at this juncture, when his labors seemed on the eve of being crowned with victory, Schuyler, by order of Congress, was superseded by Gen. Gates. Deeply wounded as he was by this in justice, Schuyler did not resent it ; on the contrary, he still spared no effort for his country, and helped his rival reap the harvest which of right belonged to himself. Gates was soon in a condition to assume a bolder front, and determined to arrest the progress of the invad ers at Be mis s Heights, which Kosciusko was charged with fortifying. Moving slowly amid dif ficulties that began to look serious, on the 19th of September Burgoyne approached the American lines, and a general action was brought on. This first battle of Stillwater, as it is called, was fought with the most determined bravery, Morgan s rifle men and Gen. Arnold particularly distinguish ing themselves on the American side. The field was several times succes sively won and lost by 164: THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. [l777 the contending parties. When night fell, the Continental troops withdrew within their lines, with a loss of 300 men to 500 on the part of the enemy, though the latter claimed the victory in consequence of finally holding the field. The next day, the British, finding their adversaries indisposed to renew the engagement, retired to their encampment two miles north of where the Americans lay. Meanwhile Burgoyne s communications with Canada had been severed by the capture of posts in his rear. Many of the provision-boats which were now his sole reliance had become the spoil of enterprising parties of militia. It hardly looked as if the British chief would eat his Christmas dinner in Albany, surrounded by the trophies of victory, as he had boasted. No news came from New York, whither pressing messages had been sent for help ; nothing was left but to risk another engagement, with the view of forcing a passage through the American lines. The Second Battle of Stillwater took place October 7, 1777, on ground a little west of the former battle-field. It was a terrible conflict, in which Gen. Frazer was the hero on the British side, while Morgan and Arnold were foremost among the patriots, Gates prudently keeping out of harm s way in the camp. Arnold, deprived of command by the jeal ousy of Gates, remained a looker-on as long as he was able; but at last he could restrain himself no longer, and dashed upon the foe, heading charge after charge, stimulating his men to desperate deeds, carrying dismay into the hostile ranks, challenging death, and finally falling severely wound ed but not till the battle was won, in great part by his valor. Night put a stop to the conflict ; before morning Burgoyne had moved his army and camp to the north, with the view of retreating to Fort Edward. Burgoyne s Surrender. But retreat the British general could not ; he was surrounded by vigilant enemies. His camp was filled with wounded and dying ; food he had 1777] BURGOYNE s SURRENDER. 165 little ; even his supply of water was uncertain, for women had to bring it from the river, the American sharp-shooters picking off any soldiers that were sent for that purpose. On the 13th of October, Burgoyne proposed to capitulate. The terms were agreed on and the papers drawn, when, on the night of the 16th, a messenger from below brought word that Gen. Clinton had taken Forts Montgomery and Clinton (see Map, p. 183), and was coming up the river. Burgoyne felt like reconsidering ; but when, the next morning, Gates, with his army in battle array, demanded an immediate answer, the British general had to yield. That same day (October 17th), 5,791 men all that was left of his grand army surrendered on the plains of Saratoga. Valu able ordnance and small-arms at the same time fell into the hands of the victors. Thanksgivings rose from every true heart, as the joyful news of Burgoyne s surrender sped from lip to lip. Howe s Campaign. While Gates was winning laurels in the north, Washington was vainly trying to stem the tide of British invasion in Pennsylvania. Howe, unable to bring his adversary to a general engagement in New Jersey, had sailed from Staten Island in July with 18,000 men, intending to fall on Philadelphia by way of the Delaware. Learning, however, that the Americans had obstructed the channel of the river, he changed his course to Chesapeake Bay, and landed near its north-eastern extremity, whence a march of fifty miles would bring him to Philadelphia. Battle of Brandywine. Washington, though his effective force was but 11,000 strong, could not let this important city be taken without a blow in its defence. Accordingly, he threw himself in Howe s path at Brandywine Creek (see Map, p. 155). A division under Cornwallis, crossing the stream higher up, fell on the American flank, and caused the whole line to retreat in confusion and with great loss (Sep tember llth). 166 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. [l77T Four days afterward Washington brought up his army for another battle, but after some skirmishing a violent storm put an end to fighting for the time. Howe then made a feint of marching on Reading (red ing), and, when Washing- ington turned aside to protect this place, availed himself of the opportunity to push on to Philadelphia. Surprising an American detachment left to check his advance, he entered the metropolis of Pennsylvania, September 26th. Germant own. Forts Mifflin and Mercer. The principal operations during the remainder of the year were a surprise of the British at Germantown by Washington (October 4th), which, though at first promising* success, terminated in a re pulse, and the opening of the Delaware to the British fleet, by the capture of Forts Mifflin and Mercer below the city (see Map, p. 155). Fort Mercer withstood a fierce assault ; but the garrison of Fort Mifflin, after holding out against a continued attack till their guns were disabled, set fire to what remained of the works and crossed the river to Fort Mercer. On the approach of a greatly superior British force, it was found necessary to abandon this fort also, and to leave the river in possession of the enemy. Valley Forge, on the Schuylkill River, twenty-two miles from Philadelphia, was selected by Washington for the win ter-quarters of his army. Thither, on the llth of December, he led his suffering men, some of whom bare-footed left their tracks in blood upon the ground. Dreadful were the trials of the dreary winter that followed. Only pure love of coun try could have enabled the shivering and hungry followers of Washington to bear the hardships of Valley Forge. Nor were Washington s trials less. His defeats were contrasted with the splendid victory which had but lately humbled the British lion in the north. For the moment some of the best friends of freedom lost confidence in him, and a plot was even formed in Congress to raise Gates to the chief command in his stead. So gloomily closed the 1777] THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 167 VALLEY FORGE. year 1777. No wonder that, as one who overheard him tells us, Washington in this dark hour knelt in a thicket and wrestled in prayer with the God of battles. REVIEW BY DATES. Continue the CHRONOLOGICAL RECORD from page 111, according to the following suggestions. Review as heretofore directed. 1754 (War begun). " (Great Meadows). " (Fort Necessity). 1755 (New Brunswick). " (Braddock). " (Dieskau). 1756 (Oswego). 1758 (Ticonderoga). " (Louisburg). 1766 (Act repealed). 1767 (Duties laid). (Fort Du Quesne). 1770 (Massacre). 1759 (Ticonderoga). " (Quebec). 1760 (Canada). 1763 (Treaty. War). 1757 (Ft. William Henry). 1765 (Act passed). Sum up the operations of the Revolutionary War in 1777, favorable to the Americans. Mention those in which the British had the advantage. 1771 (Regulators). 1773 (Tea-party). 1774 (Port Bill). " (Gen. Gage). " (Congress). 168 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAK. [l778 CHAPTER XXI. REVOLUTIONARY WAR: EVENTS OF 1778-1779. Rays of light shot now and then athwart the darkness that brooded over Valley Forge. Thither came Baron Steu- ben, who had served in the Seven Years War under Fred erick of Prussia, the Great Captain of Europe, and who, ap pointed inspector-general of the Continental army, soon made his skillful management apparent in every depart ment. Still better, through the arguments of Dr. Franklin, supported by the overthrow of Burgoyne, the French gov ernment had become convinced that the States would ulti mately triumph, and on the 6th of February, 1778, recog nized their independence. In case of Great Britain s resent ing this action (as she did), France was to make common cause with America. Finally, the storm that had gathered over Washington broke away, the intrigues against him exciting general indignation, especially in the army. Evacuation of Philadelphia. As a French fleet might now at any moment appear in the Delaware, the British thought it best to evacuate Philadelphia. Before they did so, Howe, recalled at his own request, surrendered the chief command to Gen. Clinton. Commissioners, also, arrived from England, who proposed a suspension of hostilities, and offered everything that the colonies had at first demanded. Congress, however, declined to treat until the British troops should be withdrawn or the independence of the United States acknowledged. So the negotiations failed ; and Clin ton, having sent his fleet to New York, commenced his march thither across New Jersey, at the head of 12,000 men. Battle of Monmouth. Washington immediately broke camp at Valley Forge, and, leaving Arnold with a small detachment to take possession of Philadelphia, followed the 1778] BATTLE OF MONMOUTH. 169 enemy. Overtaking them at Monmouth (see Map, p. 155), he resolved to risk a general engagement. Lee, who had advised to the contrary, was directed to commence the at tack, and did so, on. a hot Sunday morning, June 28, 1778. Lee s movements, however, were so strange as to excite the suspicions of Lafayette, who sent an urgent message to the commander-in-chief to hasten forward. As Washington came up at the head of the main body, he was thunder struck to meet Lee s division in full retreat. Then was seen Washington s power as a commander. Staying the flight, inspiring confidence, bringing order out of confusion, he turned defeat into victory. At twilight he remained master of the field, with his army advantageously posted to renew the battle in the morning ; but in the morn ing no enemy was there. The American loss was 229, the British considerably greater ; many fell on both sides from the excessive heat. Clinton withdrew his men unmolested to Sandy Hook, whence his fleet conveyed them to New York. The American army made its way across the Hud son, and encamped near its old quarters at White Plains. Molly Pitcher s heroic conduct in this battle has made her name famous. She was a gunner s wife, and already renowned for her bravery at Fort Clinton, where, when her husband threw down his match at the sight of the British mounting the rampart, she had caught it up and fired the last shot at the approaching foe. At Monmouth, seeing her husband struck by a ball and no one to take his place, she sprang to the gun and served it so well that the next day she was commissioned as sergeant, and afterward went by the name of Captain Molly. Attack on Newport. The expected French fleet, with 4,000 troops on board, arrived early in July, 1778. Its com mander, Admiral D Estaing (des-tan 9 ), after threatening New York, determined to attack the British at Newport ; Sullivan, with Greene, Lafayette, and 10,000 Americans, 8 170 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. [1778 ^Si ^ 2V was sent to cooperate with him. The island was occupied, and the siege commenced. At this juncture, just as the French and the English fleet were about to engage, a great storm separated them, and obliged the former to make for Boston to refit. Feeling that without assistance he could not carry the siege to a successful issue, Sullivan gave it up, and, after repulsing an attack of the British, skillfully withdrew his men from the island. Indian and Tory Raids. WYOMING. After St. Leger s flight from Fort Schuyler, the tories and Indians gave no trouble in that quarter for a time ; but in July, 1778, a body of them 1,100 strong, under Colonel John Butler and the Seneca chief He-that-walks-in-smoJce, entered the lovely val ley of Wyo ming, in Pennsylvania, on the Susquehanna River. Most of the able- bodied men had gone to fight for their coun try, and the small force that sallied forth to meet the invaders was beaten back, and fled in confusion. No mercy was shown to the prisoners ; the flames, the war-club, and the tomahawk, sealed their fate. Queen Esther, an In dian half-breed, infuriated by the loss of her son shortly be fore, murdered fourteen with her own hands. Two days after, the defenceless people who had taken refuge in the adjacent fort surrendered, on the promise of protection for their lives and property. But the Indians SCENES OF INDIAN MASSACRES, 1TT8, 1779. 1778] INDIAN AND TORY RAIDS. 171 soon set restraint at defiance, and spread terror far and near, burning and plundering. Wilkesbarre (wilks bar-re), on the opposite side of the Susquehanna, was given to the flames, and the inhabitants of the surrounding country were compelled to flee to the nearest settlements, across mountain- swamps that are still called "the Shades of Death." Many perished from exposure and starvation. One of the fugi tives is said to have thrown himself on the earth, to lap up a few grains of meal that had been spilled ; another carried her dead infant many weary miles, to save its body from the wolves. CHERRY VALLEY. In November, Butler s son and the noted Mohawk Brant made a similar descent on Cherry Val ley, near Otse go Lake, N. Y. They left the place in ruins, and committed murders and ravages in which the savage chief was outdone by his white companion. MIXISINK. The next year (July, 1779), Brant, with some Indians and tories, extended his depredations to Orange County, N. Y., burned the village of Minisink, a settlement near Goshen, and cut off a party of volunteers that went to look for him. In one of their incursions, a school-house lay in the path of the destroyers ; Brant killed the master, but spared the girls, and made some hieroglyphics with black paint on their aprons, which his followers as they came up respected. After several of the boys, who were without such protection, had been tomahawked, these brave girls, at the risk of being killed themselves, threw their aprons over their brothers, and thus saved them from the parties that followed. The necessity of prompt measures to put a stop to such atrocities, was evident. In August, 1779, General Sullivan invaded the Iroquois country, and, defeating Brant with his tory allies on the site of the present city of Elmira, went on to the valley of the Genesee, burning the villages of the Indians and destroying their crops. 172 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. [1779 British Raids, After the battle of Monmouth, Washing ton s army did little during the remainder of the year but watch the British. They spent the following winter in a line of cantonments extending on the south to Middlebrook, on the Rar itan River, N. J. Great damage was done by raiding-parties sent out by Gen. Clinton from time to time. The ruthless Tryon, an adept at this kind of work, found employment for his talents in Connecticut (March and July, 1779) ; and Gen. Matthews, toward the close of spring, made havoc on the James and Elizabeth Rivers in Virginia, burn ing merchant-vessels and ships-of-war, and carrying off to bacco and whatever other booty he could find. Stony Point. About the beginning of summer, 1779, Clinton himself conducted an expedition up the Hudson, and captured the American works at Stony and Verplanck s Point (see Map, p. 183), about forty miles up the river. Washington immediately made such a disposition of his army as to protect the works higher up, particularly the strong fort at West Point, which had been commenced the preceding year by Kosciusko. But the enemy s possession of the two posts thus taken, commanding King s Ferry on the most direct highway to the Eastern States, occasioned great annoyance ; and Gen. Anthony Wayne, who had made his mark at Germantown and Monmouth, was charged with their recovery. A negro who was in the habit of trading with the garri son having been secured as guide, Stony Point was sur prised by a night attack and brilliantly carried (July 16, 1779). Unable to hold the works, in view of the force that could be sent against them from New York, Washington ordered their destruction. The British kept possession of Verplanck s Point, and a few days afterward again occupied the opposite headland. Movements at the South. Meanwhile the British com- mander-in-chief, having made little headway at the north, in 1779] MOVEMENTS IN THE SOUTH. 173 the fall of 1778 dispatched a fleet and land-force to operate in the Southern States. Savannah, the first point attacked, though bravely defended, was taken, and the subjugation of eastern Georgia followed. The next aggressive movements of the British were made in South Carolina (1779). The plantations of "rebels" were overrun and pillaged, slaves driven off, and outrages of every kind committed, while prisoners were maltreated and hanged on both sides. Moultrie drove the enemy from Port Royal (see Map, p. 186), and Pickens broke up a party of North Carolina tories on their way to swell the British ranks ; but Gen. Ashe, with a body of militia, was defeated at Brier Creek. Charleston was seriously threatened, but the militia under Moultrie and Governor Rutledge, aided by Pulaski s Legion, protected the city till Gen. Lincoln s ap proach forced the British to retire (May, 1779). The summer passed, and in the next operations at the south the Americans and French assumed the offensive. D Estaing, after cruising in the West Indies, appeared off the coast of Georgia, and an attack on Savannah was planned between him and Lincoln. The British could not have stood a long siege ; but after a few days cannonading D Estaing became impatient, and threatened to leave unless Lincoln would consent to an immediate assault. Accordingly, a determined but unsuccessful attempt to carry the fortifica tions by storm was made on the 9th of October. Pulaski, one of America s truest friends, fell at the head of his Legion ; D Estaing, disabled, was carried from the field ; Sergeant Jasper, unhurt in performing a similar exploit at Fort Moultrie, just as he had fixed in the parapet the crescent flag of South Carolina, received his death-wound from a rifle-ball. The assailants were repulsed, losing nearly 1,100 men, while the British loss was little more than a hun dred. The French commander refused to continue the siege ; so, while he set sail for France after having effected little 174 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. [1779 FALL OF JASPER AT SAVANNAH. or nothing, the disap pointed Lincoln led back the remains of his army to Charleston. Naval Operations. Congress had not been blind to the importance of establishing a navy, but the efforts made in that direction were not at first particularly successful. While many brilliant achievements had been performed by privateers, the national vessels had, for the most part, either been blockaded in port or destroyed before they were fully equipped. Commodore Biddle had, indeed, maintained the honor of his country on the ocean ; but in March, 1778, during an action with a British vessel carrying twice as many guns as his own, his magazine exploded, and killed him together with most of his crew. Chief among the American naval heroes of this period was John Paul Jones, already mentioned as the first to raise the stars and stripes. In 1778, he made the newly-adopted flag an object of terror on the Scottish and English coasts. Sep- 1770] PAUL JONES. 175 tember of the following year is memorable for his action with the British frigate Serapis. After one of the most des perate conflicts on record, the muzzles of the guns almost touching each other as they were fired, the Serapis struck. The American vessel was so badly cut up that her crew had to be transferred to the prize, and she sunk shortly after ward. GENERAL REVIEW AND MAP QUESTIONS. (Refer to the Maps on pages 155, 163, 170, and 183.) What three places in New Jersey were noted Revolutionary battle fields ? What two places in Pennsylvania ? Mention these five battles in the order of their occurrence. Which of them were favorable to the Ameri cans ? In which did Washington command ? Whom did he encounter at Brandywine ? Whom at Monmouth ? Near what boundary did the battle of Brandywine take place ? How were Forts Miflflin and Mercer situated ? In what direction from Philadel phia was Yalley Forge ? Middlebrook ? Morristown ? In what connec tion have these places been mentioned ? Between what lake and river were the two battles of Stillwater fought ? In what town did the surrender take place ? Near what present village ? In what direction did the field of surrender lie from the battle-fields ? Who particularly distinguished themselves in the second battle ? How was Fort Schuyler situated ? What events took place here ? Where is Oris kany? For what is this place noted? Of what lake is the Susquehanna River the outlet ? What place is near the head of Otsego Lake ? What happened at Cherry Yalley ? At what place east of Cherry Yalley was there once an Indian massacre ? Give an account of it. Where was Wyoming ? What present city on the opposite side of the Susquehanna ? For what is this region now noted ? For Us coal. Where is Goshen ? Minisink ? For what is Minisink memorable ? In which of the massacres just mentioned did Brant take part? Where was the battle of Long Island fought ? Where is Jamaica ? Who was mortally wounded near Jamaica ? Relate the circumstances. Near what river is White Plains ? On which side of the Hudson is Yer- planck s Point ? Stony Point ? What two forts higher up ? Above these, what fort was commenced in 1788 ? What river empties into the Hudson, south of Yerplanck s Point ? Where was the Neutral Ground ? Where was Fort Lee ? What fort opposite to it ? 176 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. [1780 CHAPTER XXII. REVOLUTIONARY WAR: EVENTS OF 1780. Financial Difficulties. Among the difficulties with which Congress had to contend in conducting the war, not the least was the want of money. It had been obliged to resort to bills of credit, issued from time to time in denominations of from $1 to $20, on pledge of the public faith for their re demption in gold or silver. At first this Continental money, OUR DOLLARS. Wo CONTINENTAL BILL. as it was called, passed for its face ; but as the issue in creased, reaching in 1780 the enormous amount of $200,- 000,000, while there seemed to be no prospect of ever pay ing the debt, it naturally fell rapidly in value. A skein of silk at one time cost $10 in Continental money, a yard of calico $85; and, at last, in 1781, no one would take the paper- money at all. The individual states had also issued bills of 1780] CAPTURE OF CHARLESTON. 177 their own, which stood no better than the Continental notes ; $750, for example, in South Carolina money, was asked for a pair of shoes. Speculators of course turned this derange ment of the currency to their own advantage, at the expense of the people. These were evils harder to be overcome than British armies. Small loans, indeed, were obtained after a time in France and Holland, and the establishment of the Bank of North America (December 31, 1781), under the management of Robert Morris, of Philadelphia, with authority to issue notes redeemable on demand in gold or silver, helped to relieve the pressure ; but the financial condition of the country was for a while desperate. Capture of Charleston. The British campaign for 1780 had in view the complete reduction of the Southern States. Early in the year, Gen. Clinton himself took the field with 5,000 troops, and directed his first efforts against Charleston. Gen. Lincoln defended the city with an insufficient force, in the hope of receiving succor. But none arrived, while 3,000 additional troops from New York under Cornwallis swelled the enemy s ranks. The British lines were brought closer and closer, a terrible cannonading was kept up, and Lincoln had finally to capitulate (May 12, 1780). Five thousand men, the chief hope of the patriots of the south, thus be came prisoners. Immediately after this blow, expeditions were sent out in different quarters by the British commander, to overawe the republicans. Augusta, Ninety-Six, and Camden (for places in the Carolinas, see Map, p. 186), were occupied without opposition. Colonel Tarleton, an able but cruel cavalry-offi cer, dashed after a body of Americans that had been on the march to Charleston but had turned back, surprised them at Waxhaw Creek, and cut them to pieces while praying for quarter, so that " Tarleton s quarter " became a byword for barbarity. Many now accepted the offer of British protec- 178 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. [l780 tion, on condition of not being required to bear arms against their country. Clinton, congratulating himself on the com plete subjugation of Carolina, sailed for New York with part of his men, leaving Cornwallis in command of the rest. Partisan Warfare. Cornwallis was neither just nor wise. He broke faith with those who had surrendered and accepted " protections," imprisoning some of the chief men of Charles ton, and seizing their property. He allowed marauding parties to scour the country, destroy the crops, burn the houses, and maltreat the inhabitants. This course only roused the people to desperate resistance. So when Sumter and Mar ion, Pickens and Clarke, raised their standards in the backwoods and swamps, numbers who had been deceived and outraged nocked to support them. Little parties were thus formed, which in time became thorns in the side of the British. Ever on the move, proof against fatigue, fearless riders, unerring riflemen, though perhaps ragged, hatless, and shoe less, they would fall on exposed posts, cut off provision- trains, strike small detachments, break up tory camps, ap pearing when least expected and vanishing before the enemy could strike a blow in return. Cornwallis, when at any strange house out of Charleston, would never trust himself in-doors, but always sat on the piazza, watching lest some of these sharp riders should swoop down upon him. They re lied on the enemy for their supply of muskets and ammuni tion, and, stripping the neighboring mills of saws, had them made into sabres by the country blacksmiths. Marion, "the Swamp Fox," as the British called him, was one of the most successful of the partisan leaders. His " ragged regiment," at first made up of but twenty men and boys, grew to be a formidable element in the war for freedom at the south. He would start from his swamp-camp at sun set, and keep the saddle all night. His men never knew where they were going, nor when, except by watching the 1780] MARIOX, "THE SWAMP FOX. 179 cook and seeing when he was getting ready an extra supply of their poor food. Marion was small in stature and humane in disposition, but would brook no breach of discipline. An incident that occurred somewhat later, illustrates his de cision of character. A major and a captain of his brigade had been guilty of plundering the house of a whig, and had carried off the owner s sword, the major unblushingly wearing it at his side. The fact coming to Marion s ears, he dispatched an officer to demand the sword. "If the general wants it," was the reply, " let him come for it himself." Marion then sent a request that the major would report at his quarters, and both the offenders presented themselves. The general was surrounded by his officers, but there were some dis affected men on whose support the mutineers depended. 180 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. [l780 Marion demanded the sword ; again it was refused. " Ser geant of the guard," said Marion, a bring me a file of men with loaded arms and fixed bayonets." There was dead silence, for it was felt that unless one or the other gave way a bloody scene would be enacted. The stronger will con quered. Just as the guard appeared, the mortified major unbuckled and surrendered the sword, and he was afterward expelled from the brigade. Sumter. If the " Swamp Fox " was noted for cunning, the " Carolina Game-Cock," as Sumter was called, was equal ly distinguished for bravery. With 600 men attracted to his standard by some advantages gained over the British and tories in the up-country, in August, 1780, he won the battle of Hanging Rock, and shortly after made an im portant capture of clothes and stores intended for the Brit ish army at Camden. Battle of Camden. About this time the patriots of Caro lina were in high hopes, for Gen. Gates, with an army or dered to the south at the time of Lincoln s pressing need at Charleston, was approaching Camden. Cornwallis hastened thither, called in his outposts, and made ready for battle. Singularly enough, when the Americans were about twelve miles distant, the two commanders formed each the design of surprising the other by a night attack, and started for that purpose about the same hour. At two o clock, on the morning of August 16th, they met near Camden. The mili tia gave way at the first onset, and the battle resulted in the complete rout of the American army, with heavy loss, De Kalb being among those who fell. Gates, who had thought he would have little trouble in " Burgoyning Corn wallis," came near being " Burgoyned " himself, and drew off his shattered army to North Carolina, where he was soon superseded by Gen. Greene. Greene was one of Washing ton s most trusted officers ; Trenton, Princeton, Brandywine, and Germantown, had witnessed his valor and skill. 1780] BATTLE OF KING^S MOUNTAIN. 181 To crown the misfortunes of the Americans, Sumter, two days after the battle of Camden, was surprised by Tarleton at Fishing Creek. The spoils he had taken were recaptured, and his division was broken up. For a time, Marion was the sole upholder of the patriot cause in South Carolina. King s Mountain. The Old North State, however, did riot give up the contest. Her intrepid mountaineers, with those of Virginia, led by Colonels Campbell, Shelby, and Sevier, put quite a different aspect on affairs, October 7, 1780, by gaining an important victory at King s Moun tain, in South Carolina, just south of the state line. With the loss of but twenty Americans, 1,125 British and tories were here defeated, and the survivors captured. This blow so weakened Cornwallis, who had advanced to Charlotte, N. C., that he fell back, and encamped between the Wa- teree and the Broad. Movements at the North. An expedition into New Jer sey in June, with unimportant results, was about all that was attempted by the British at the north in 1780. Nor was Washington s army, reduced by the withdrawal of regi ments for the southern campaign and distressed by the want of provisions, in a condition to assume the offensive. A French fleet sent over through the influence of Lafayette, arrived in the summer at Newport, which the British had evacuated the preceding fall ; and Washington earnestly desired to cooperate with it in an attack on New York. Before he could get ready, however, some more British ships made their appearance, and the French were blockaded in Narragansett Bay by a superior force. Arnold s Treason. Meanwhile a traitor was at work. The strong fort at West Point had been completed, and its command given, at his own solicitation, to Benedict Arnold, distinguished for his exploits at Stillwater and elsewhere. While in command at Philadelphia, Arnold had lived ex travagantly, contracted debts, used his official position for 182 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAK. [l78O purposes of private gain, quarrelled with the local authori ties, and so mismanaged affairs generally as to be con demned by a court-martial to receive a formal reprimand. The disgrace rankled in his bosom ; he opened a corre spondence with the British, and sought the command at West Point for the express purpose of betraying it into their hands. Clinton, who longed to secure this key to the fortresses on the Hudson, gladly offered the traitor 10,000 and the rank of general in the British service for the betrayal of his trust. The details of the nefarious plot were settled with Major Andre, adjutant-general of the British army, who ascended the Hudson in the sloop Vulture to have an inter view with Arnold. While he was still ashore, within the American lines, the Vulture was fired upon and obliged to drop lower down the river. Having, therefore, exchanged his uniform for an ordinary dress and concealed plans of the fortress in his stockings, Andre crossed the Hudson and proceeded to New York on horseback. The country on the east side of the river for thirty miles above Manhattan Island was called the Neutral Ground. Not included within the lines of either army, it was the prey of lawless forayers known as Cow-boys and Skinners. The Cow-boys were in the British interest, and made it a busi ness to rob the farmers of their cattle, which found a ready sale in the New York market. The Skinners, loud in their professions of patriotism, levied on tories principally, but were not above plundering any one when a fair chance of fered. Andre had just entered this disputed ground, when near Tarrytown he was stopped by three patriots, to whom, in the belief that they were friends, he announced himself as a British officer. Searching his person, they discovered the papers in his stockings ; and, turning a deaf ear to his offered bribes, they carried him to the nearest post. He was there allowed to send a note to Arnold, which enabled 1780] ARNOLD S TREASON. 183 the traitor to escape in a boat to the Vul ture. Washington, returning from an interview with the French commander, reached the spot just after Arnold s flight. He proposed to Clin ton to exchange An dre for Arnold, an offer which, though reluctantly, the Brit ish general felt obliged to decline. Accord ingly, the accomplish ed young officer, found guilty as a spy, was hanged at Tap- pan, October 2, 1780. Benedict Arnold received his reward; but British gold was poor pay for the in famy branded on his name. He afterward indulged his malice against the patriots THE LOWER HUDSON. by carrying fire and sword along the James River, Virginia, as far as Richmond (January, 1781), and by applying the torch to New London, Connecticut, while his Hessians and tories were massacring the garrison of Fort Griswold, op posite the last-named town, after they had surrendered (September, 1781). The inhumanity of the boy who had played cruel tricks on his companions, robbed birds nests, 184: THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. [l781 and maimed the fledglings that he might enjoy the dis tress of the parent-birds, was fully developed in the bar barity of the baffled traitor. GENERAL REVIEW AND MAP QUESTIONS. Recount in the order of time the operations of the Revolutionary War in 1778 that were favorable to the Americans. Sum up those in which the British had the advantage. Do the same with the operations of 1779 : with those of 1780. What part of the country was the theatre of war in the latter year ? Mention in the order of time all the operations in connection with which we have seen Arnold figure. In what battles had Gates the chief command ? Where did Pulaski fall ? De Kalb ? Gen. Mercer ? Gen. War ren ? Gen. Montgomery ? Map, p. 183. How is West Point situated ? On which side of the river was Andre taken ? In what state was he executed ? What battle took place five days after his execution ? Draw a map of the Hudson as far north as Newburg, showing the position of the principal forts in the Revolution. CHAPTER XXIII. REVOLUTIONARY WAR: EVENTS OF 1781. Mutinies. The commencement of the year 1781 was marked by serious troubles in the American army quartered at Morristown. The Pennsylvania troops, half clothed and unpaid, insisted that their term of enlistment had expired, and demanded their discharge. This being refused, they threatened their commander, Gen. Wayne, with death if he opposed them, and took up their march to Philadelphia, to obtain their rights by the bayonet. A committee of Con gress met them on the way and succeeded in satisfying them, but had to grant them the discharge demanded. Two British emissaries who had been sent to tamper with them, 1781] MOVEMENTS IN CAROLINA. 185 were given up and hanged as spies. In a few days, this mutinous example was followed by some of the New Jersey troops ; but Washington in this case suppressed the out break by force, and executed two of the ringleaders. It was about this time that Robert Morris came to the relief of Congress with his fortune, his credit, and his bank. The cause of the Union was also strengthened by the rati fication of Articles of Confederation proposed by Congress. England, meanwhile, had added Spain and Holland to the number of her enemies. Yet she seemed as determined as ever to reduce her rebellious colonies, large appropriations being made by Parliament for conducting the operations of the year. Movements in Carolina. On the day after England de clared war against Holland, Greene took command of the southern army (December 3, 1780). Though he found it ragged and sadly disorganized, he lost no time in commenc ing active operations. Marion and Sumter were at their old game, keeping the British in a ferment ; Tarleton was as active as ever ; whigs and tories were waylaying, robbing, and killing each other ; savage violence was rife throughout South Carolina. The Cowpens, To threaten the British rear and keep down the tories in that direction, Greene placed half his army under Morgan (one of the heroes of Stillwater and Monmouth), and dispatched him to the neighborhood of the Cowpens. At this place, January 17, 1781, took place a des perate encounter between Morgan and Tarleton, who had been sent in search of him. The Americans stootl firm against the fiery charges of the British dragoons, which had so often proved fatal to their countrymen, and with small loss on their side gained a decisive victory. Five hundred prisoners, with horses, baggage-wagons, and much-needed stores, were taken. Tarleton himself narrowly escaped capture by Colonel 186 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. [1781 William Washington, by whom he was wounded in a per sonal encounter while flying from the field. There was some point in the re- A THE SOUTHERN CAMPA IGN I78O-8I con- temptuously re marked that he would like to see this Colonel Washington. "If you had looked behind you at the Cow- pens, colonel," was her sig nificant reply, "you would have had that pleasure." Morgan and Greene s Retreat. Morgan knew that Corn wallis, who was but twenty-five miles off with the main army, would soon be at his heels, and rapidly made for the Catawba. Encumbered by his spoils, he had crossed it but two hours, when the British commander, who had destroyed his unnecessary baggage and hurried on by forced marches, reached the ford. As it was near dark, Cornwallis post poned crossing till morning ; but during the night a heavy rain set in, which swelled the stream so that it could not be forded for two days. This gave Morgan an opportunity to make a safe disposition of his prisoners, and enabled Gen. Greene, who had started almost alone about the same time as Cornwallis, to join the retreating division and direct its movements. tort of a whig lady, before \vxiom -L ciriG T/on. 1781] MORGAN AND GREENE J S RETREAT. 1ST Cornwallis having at length accomplished the passage, another race began for the Yadkin. The Americans had just crossed, when again a providential rain raised the river, and obliged Cornwallis to deviate from the direct course and take a ford higher up. Among the friends of freedom in Virginia the flying Americans would be safe, and to the fords of the Dan on the borders of that state pursued and pursuers now pressed with all speed. Half-way there, at Guilford (ffhiFford) Court-House, the Americans effected a junction with that portion of the army which Greene had left behind ; still they were in no condition to give battle, and the retreat was continued. A light corps under Colonel Williams of Maryland, and Lee, the famous " Light-horse Harry " whose Legion earned glory here and on many a well-fought field, covered the rear of the Americans till the main body had crossed the long- wished-for Dan. Cornwallis came up just too late ; the river was too deep to ford, the boats had been secured by the Americans. A third time foiled, he abandoned the pur suit. Battle of Guilford Court-House. After receiving some re-enforcements of militia, Greene again took the field. Provisions were so scarce that sometimes his men were obliged to appease their hunger with frogs from the swamps. Only now arid then would he receive a meagre supply of money to meet his most pressing wants. His ammunition had to be doled out with the strictest economy. Laboring under these disadvantages, no wonder that in a pitched battle with Cornwallis at Guilford Court-House (March 15, 1781), although greatly superior to the enemy in numbers, he was badly defeated, losing all his artillery, and many of the militia by desertion. Cornwallis, however, found his army so much diminished after his victory, that he imme diately fell back toward the coast. The vigilant Greene, defeated but not crushed, was soon on his track, but failing 188 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. [l781 to bring him to an engagement pushed on into South Caro lina ; while his adversary improved the opportunity to move to the north, and join a corps of British troops from New York that had been operating in Virginia. Hob kirk s HilL The British held a number of scattered posts in South Carolina, but their main body lay at Camden under Lord Rawdon. For this point Greene aimed. Too weak to attack the enemy s intrenchments, he encamped in the immediate neighborhood, at Hobkirk s Hill. Here, April 25th, he was unexpectedly attacked by Rawdon. Vic tory, which for a time seemed within the grasp of the Amer icans, at last declared for the British, and Greene was driven several miles from his position. Lord Rawdon, though suc cessful, found it necessary to fall back from Camden. Meanwhile Marion and Sumter, Lee and Pickens, allowed the enemy no rest ; one by one, the British outposts fell. Nor were the women of Carolina wanting in devotion to their country. Mrs. Motte brought "Light-horse Harry" a bow, that with burning arrows he might fire the roof of her fine dwelling and dislodge the enemy who had made it their stronghold. And so we read of women galloping by night to warn their countrymen of meditated attacks by tories, or carrying secret dispatches through perils that would have appalled less heroic hearts. Siege of Ninety-Six. A garrispn of tories still held Ninety-Six, and to this post Greene himself, after his dis comfiture at Hobkirk s Hill, laid siege (May 22d). The approach of Rawdon, who had been re-enforced at Charles ton with fresh regiments from Ireland, drove the Americans from the works just as the beleaguered garrison, which had made a most gallant defence, was on the point of surrender ing. Rawdon followed Greene a little way, but soon turned back, abandoned Ninety-Six, and slowly retired toward Charleston, Greene hanging on his rear. Battle of Eutaw Springs. During the hot summer, the 1781] BATTLE OF EUTAW SPEIXGS. 189 hostile armies lay resting not many miles apart, active opera tions being confined to the partisan corps. Lord Rawdon now sailed for England, leaving the chief command in Caro lina to Colonel Stuart. The weather becoming cooler, Greene crossed the rivers Wateree and Congaree, and approached Eutaw Springs, where Stuart waited to give him battle. The field was hotly contested (September 8th), and seemed at one time to belong to the Americans ; but the British ral lied, and falling on the militia, who thinking the day was gained were dispersed among the enemy s stores, threw them into confusion and finally won the battle. The loss on both sides was heavy. Stuart was so weakened that he could not hold his position, and the next day saw him in full retreat toward Charleston. Thus closed the campaign in Carolina. Their victories had done the British little good. Through the efforts of Gen. Greene, whom defeat seemed only to inspire with fresh energy, almost the whole of Carolina and Georgia had been wrested from the enemy ; only Charles ton and Savannah, with the country immediately adjacent, remained in their possession. Operations in Virginia. When Cornwallis, after the battle of Guilford Court- House, made for Virginia, it was to effect a junction with a British army under Arnold and Phillips, which had for some time been ravaging the | country. Lafayette had been dispatched to hold the enemy in check, but owing to the in sufficiency of his force he had been but partially successful. Yet here, as throughout the war, he was prudent, skillful, brave, and above all gener- 190 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. [lT81 ous to his men, supplying their wants from his own purse. On many fields this true friend of America had done good service : at Brandy wine, where he was wounded : at Bar ren Hill, near Valley Forge, where his strategy saved a large division from capture : at Monmouth, where his vigorous attack might have decided the battle, but for Lee s untimely order to retreat : at the siege of Newport, when he rode seventy miles in six and a half hours, to be present at the expected action : and not the least at Paris, where his per suasions induced the government to send over material aid, and where it was said to be fortunate that Lafayette did not take it into his head to strip the palace of its furniture for his dear America, for that the king would have been unable to refuse him. Lafayette and Cornwallis were now to measure swords. The British general, after assuming command in Virginia, confident of catching " the boy," pursued him closely for some distance to the north, till he was re-enforced by Gen. Wayne, and then it was Lafayette s turn. Not risking a pitched battle, but disconcerting the enemy s plans and con stantly harassing them as they fell back, he followed Corn wallis successively to Richmond, Williamsburg, and James town. When in September the British general settled down at Yorktown (see Map, p. 273) and fortified himself there, Lafayette took a position on the peninsula a few miles off, anxiously waiting for the arrival of additional forces. Siege of Yorktown. He had not long to wait. Wash ington, and Rochambeau (ro-shon g -bo ), the commander of the French troops at the north, who had been threatening New York, quietly withdrew their men and were far on their way to Virginia before Clinton was aware of their design. Pursuit would have been useless. Cornwallis could receive no succor by land, and the English ships sent to his relief were turned back at the entrance to the Chesapeake by a strong French fleet that had already arrived. The allied 1781] SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS. 191 army, numbering with the militia 16,000 men, took their positions, and on the last day of September the investment of Yorktown was complete. Closer and closer the lines of the allies were brought ; more and more destructive was their fire. The outworks of the British were stormed and carried ; their ships moored near the town were burned ; a desperate sortie was re pulsed ; a bold attempt at flight by crossing to Gloucester (glos ter) at night and cutting a passage through the French lines at that point, was defeated by a violent storm ; further resistance was hopeless, and Cornwallis proposed to surren der. The terms were arranged at Moore s house, on the York River, near the American lines ; and on the 19th of October the SURRENDER OF YORKTOWN took place. Over 7,000 men laid down their arms, in the presence of exulting thousands gathered from the country around. That same 192 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. [l781 day the slow Clinton sailed from New York to raise the siege, with a great fleet and an army equal to Cornwallis s, but only to sail back again, on hearing off the coast of Vir ginia of what had happened. King George Third s prime-minister received the news of Cornwallis s surrender "as he would have received a cannon-ball in his breast." But to the struggling patriots of America it brought new life. They felt that now the days of trial were numbered. At midnight an officer from Washington s camp galloped through the streets of Phila delphia, and roused the president of Congress to listen to the welcome news. The watchmen caught it up, and as they paced their rounds cried out, " Cornwallis is taken ! " Soon the streets were filled ; the bells rang ; and many a knee bent in fervent thanksgiving. GENERAL REVIEW AND MAP QUESTIONS. Sum up the events of the Revolutionary War in 1781, that were favor able to the British arms. Recount those in which the Americans had the advantage. Compare the circumstances that brought about Burgoyne s capture with those that led to Cornwallis s surrender. Mention the battles in which the following officers took part, and what ever else you can remember about them : GREENE ; MORGAN ; " THE SWAMP Fox ; " " THE CAROLINA GAME-COCK ; " LAFAYETTE ; CORNWALLIS ; TARLETON. What French officers have been mentioned as taking part in the Revolu tionary War, and where did they figure ? Continue the CHRONOLOGICAL RECORD, by filling in the principal events for the years 1775, 1776, 1777, 1778, 1779, and 1780. Map, p. 186. Mention the principal Revolutionary battle-fields in South Carolina. In North Carolina. What rivers did Morgan cross in his retreat from the Cowpens to Virginia ? How was Camden situated ? Guil- ford Court-House ? Ninety-Six? Charlotte? For what event in 1775 is Charlotte memorable? Map, p. 273. How is Yorktown situated ? What place is opposite to it ? In what direction from Yorktown is Williamsburg ? What was the first capital of Virginia ? The second ? The present capital ? When was Williamsburg made the seat of government ? When, Richmond ? In 1779. 1782] CLOSE OF THE REVOLUTION. 193 CHAPTER XXIV. CLOSE OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. FORMA TION OF THE CONSTITUTION. Cessation of Hostilities. After the surrender at York- town there was but little fighting. The British still held New York, Charleston, and Savannah, but were in no con dition to make any aggressive movement. Gen. Greene took a position near Charleston, ready to fall upon it if op portunity offered. In like manner, Wayne watched Savan nah, and Washington kept his eye on Clinton s army in New York. George III. was obstinate and weak-minded ; by the ad vice of his ministers, he would have sent over another army to America. But the British people, on whom the cost would have fallen and who had never favored the war, made themselves heard. Burke and Fox raised their voices in Parliament ; and in March, 1782, the House of Commons formally declared that it would consider as public enemies all those who should advise a further prosecution of the war. So Lord North gave place to another minister who was favor able to peace. Gen. Clinton was superseded, and hostilities ceased. In July, the stars and stripes, waving over Savan nah, announced that the enemy had departed from that city ; in December, they took leave of Charleston, Gen. Greene marching in to the tune of " Yankee Doodle." Peace. Commissioners met at Paris to arrange the terms of peace, and on the 3d of September, 1783, a treaty was signed by which THE INDEPENDENCE OF THE UNITED STATES WAS ACKNOWLEDGED the Mississippi being fixed as its boundary on the west, and the Great Lakes on the north. At the same time England made peace with France, Holland, and Spain, and ceded back to the last-named power Florida, 9 THE. VJ XV -LUX-TV 2\.3 UNITED STATES 1783 1783] EVACUATION OF NEW YORK. 195 which had been a British possession for twenty years. Lou isiana, also, belonged to Spain at this time and until 1800, when it passed into the hands of France. The Map on the opposite page shows the territory of the United States at the close of the Revolutionary War. New York, the last place remaining to the British, was evacuated November 25, 1783. Washington, Governor George Clinton, and the American troops under Gen. Knox the efficient head of the artillery corps, who had been with Washington in every battle he had fought immediately took possession. At Fort George, which fronted the Bowling Green in the lower part of the city, the departing British had left their flag nailed to its staff, removed the cleats, and greased the pole to prevent its being ascended. But hardly were they out of the fort, when a sailor-boy was on his way up the flag-staff, and soon the ensign of Britain gave place to the flying colors of the infant republic. Trouble in the Camp, Meanwhile, though danger from the British was over, there had been danger of a different sort. The beginning of the year 1782 found the finances of the country in a terrible condition ; there was not a dollar to pay the army. The states would not, or could not, raise the amounts they were called on to contribute ; and Con gress had no power to compel them to do so. Threats of violence arose in the camp at Newburg ; and, had it not been for Washington s influence, both officers and men would have proceeded to extremities to obtain their dues. Nothing would have been easier than for Washington at this crisis to have made himself a king, according to the suggestions of a letter from one of his dissatisfied officers ; but he indignant ly rejected the proposal. Afterward, by meeting the mal contents and laying before them an address full of noble sentiments, he defeated an insidious attempt to array them against the civil authorities. Disbanding the Army. In November, 1783, the army 196 CLOSE OF THE REVOLUTION. [l783 was disbanded. Congress did all in its power to meet its obligations to the brave men who had suffered and bled for their country, but that all was very little. Washington took leave of his brother-officers, assembled at his quarters in New York. Tears filled every eye, as their beloved commander grasped them by the hand and embraced them in turn. On the 23d of December, at Annapolis, where Congress was in session, he surrendered his commission, and retired to Mount Vernon, accompanied by the blessings of a grateful nation and crowned with the greatest glory ever achieved by man. Articles of Confederation, The United States now con sisted of thirteen republics, whose local affairs were man aged by governors and assemblies of delegates chosen by the people. But separately the states were small and weak, and no sufficient bond united them in one nation to be feared and respected abroad. Articles of Confederation had, indeed, been ratified by the states during the war, by some of them, jealous of their rights, with great reluctance. But these Articles, failing to clothe Congress with power to enforce its recommendations and particularly to lay taxes, were now found wholly inadequate. Without the means of raising money, Congress could neither pay its debts to soldiers and citizens at home, nor discharge its obligations to foreign na tions from whom loans had been received. There was dan ger of anarchy. In more than one place the payment of taxes was resisted ; and in Massachusetts in 1787, Shays s Rebellion, as it was called, had to be put down by Gen. Lin coln and a body of militia. Formation of a Constitution, It was clear that a stronger government and a closer union among the states were needed. To meet these wants by remodelling the Articles of Confed eration or framing a new instrument to take their place, a convention in which the several states were represented by some of their ablest men, assembled at Philadelphia, in May, 1787] THE CONSTITUTION. 197 1787. Washington was chosen president. At the sugges tion of Dr. Franklin, the daily sessions were opened with prayer. " If a sparrow," he said, "can not fall to the ground without God s notice, is it possible that an empire can rise without his aid ? " The convention sat four months ; the fruit of its labors was THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES, under which our government is still administered. Offered to the states for their ratification, the new instrument was warmly sup ported by the Federalists, who favored a strong central government, while it was violently opposed by the advocates of states -rights, who were known as Anti-federalists. In June, 1788, it had received the sanction of nine states, which was necessary to give it force ; and by the summer of 1790 it had been adopted by the rest. Provisions of the Constitution. The Constitution vests the legislative, or law-making, power in a Congress, consist ing of a Senate and House of Representatives. The Senate is composed of two members from each state, who hold office for six years ; the House of Representatives, of members chosen by the people every second year. The executive, or law-enforcing, power is vested in a President, selected every four years by Electors chosen by the people. A Vice-Presi- dent, who presides in the Senate and takes the place of the president in case of the death or disability of the latter, is elected in the same way. To become a law, a bill must be passed by both houses of Congress and be signed by the president ; if he returns it without his signature, it takes effect if passed by two-thirds of both houses. For further details refer to the Constitution itself, which, with a few Amendments subsequently passed from time to time, is ap pended to this History. The " Territory North-west of the Ohio " was organized by Congress in 1787, out of unsettled lands ceded by several of the states to the general government. It embraced the 198 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. region between the Ohio and the Great Lakes, Pennsylvania and the Mississippi (see Map, p. 194). ABSTRACT OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS OF THE REVO LUTIONARY WAR. As a review, mention in order the events of each year, omitting the day of the month, which is given for purposes of reference merely. Differ- ent pupils may then take the events in turn, and enlarge on them without being questioned. 177B. Battle of Lexington, Apr. 19, commences the Revolutionary War. Battle of Concord. Capture of Ticonderoga by Ethan Allen, May 10. Second Continental Congress meets, May 10. Capture of Crown Point by Seth Warner, May 12. First declaration of in dependence, Charlotte, N. C., May 21. Election of Washington as commander-in-chief, June 15. Battle of Bunker (Breed s) Hill, June 17. American invasion of Canada ; Montreal taken ; Quebec assaulted unsuccessfully and Montgomery slain, Dec. 31. 1 776. Hessians hired by the British. Evacuation of Boston by the Brit ish, March 17. Repulse of the British at Charleston, June 28. DECLARATION OP INDEPENDENCE, July 4. Battle of Long Island, Aug. 27. British take possession of New York City. Battle of White Plains, Oct. 28. Cherokee War. Capture of Forts Wash ington and Lee by the British. British take Newport. Washing ton s retreat across New Jersey. Battle of Trenton, Dec. 26. 1777. Battle of Princeton, Jan. 3. New Jersey mostly recovered by the Americans. Arrival of Lafayette. Adoption of a national flag, June 14. Burgoyne s campaign ; capture of Ticonderoga, July 6. Siege of Fort Schuyler. Battle of Oriskany, Aug. 6. Battle of Bennington, Aug. 16. Battle of Brandywine, Sept. 11. First bat tle of Stillwater, Sept. 19. British take possession of Philadel phia, Sept. 26. Battle of Germantown, Oct. 4. Second battle of Stillwater, Oct. 7. Burgoyne s surrender at Saratoga, Oct. 17. Capture of Forts Mercer and Mifflin by the British. Americans go into winter-quarters at Valley Forge. 1778. Recognition by France of the independence of the U. S., Feb. 6. Evacuation of Philadelphia by the British, June 18. Battle of Monmouth, June 28. Massacre of Wyoming. Arrival of French fleet. Unsuccessful siege of Newport by the Americans. Mas sacre of Cherry Valley. Exploits of Paul Jones. Capture of Savannah by the British, Dec. 29. ABSTRACT OF EVENTS. 199 1779. Tryon s raids in Connecticut. Matthews s raid in Virginia. Capt ure of Stony and Verplanck s Point by the British. Recapture of Stony Point by Wayne, July 16. Sullivan s Indian Expedition. Repulse of the Americans at Savannah, Oct. 9. 1 78O. Financial straits. Surrender of Charleston to the British, May 12. Surprise of Americans at Waxhaw Creek, May 29. Arrival of French fleet. Partisan warfare in Carolina. Battle of Rocky Mount, July 30. Battle of Hanging Rock, Aug. 6. Battle of Camden, Aug. 16. Battle of Fishing Creek, Aug. 18. Arnold s treason discovered ; Andre s execution, Oct. 2. Battle of King s Mountain, Oct. 7. 1781. Mutinies in the American camp. Establishment of the Bank of North America. Ratification of the Articles of Confederation. Arnold s raid in Virginia. Battle of the Cowpens, Jan. 17. Mor gan and Greene s retreat. Battle of Guilford C. H., March 15. Battle of Hobkirk s Hill, Apr. 25. Siege of Ninety-Six. Corn- wallis and Lafayette in Virginia. Arnold ravages New London ; massacre at Fort Griswold. Battle of Eutaw, Sept. 8. Siege of Yorktown. Surrender of Cornwallis, Oct. 19. 1782. Evacuation of Savannah and Charleston by the British. 1783. PEACE with Great Britain, Sept. 3. Disbanding of the American army, Nov. 3. Evacuation of New York by the British, Nov. 25. Washington resigns his commission, Dec. 23. CHAPTER XXV. THE EARLY PRESIDENTS. The First President. Soon after the Constitution had been approved by the requisite number of states, an election was held to fill the presidency and vice-presidency. For the former office, Washington was the unanimous choice ; for vice-president, John Adams was selected. Adams had served his country faithfully in the Continental Congress, had represented her at the court of Holland, and there ob tained a loan when it was greatly needed. He had been one of the commissioners to negotiate the treaty of peace 200 THE EARLY PRESIDENTS. [1789 FEDEBAL HALL, NEW YORK. with Great Britain, and the first minister of the United States to that country. Washington was inaugurated on the 30th of April, 1789, at Federal Hall, in the city of New York, on the site of the present Sub -treasury building. Here too was organized the Federal Congress, which was to take the place of the old Continental Congress that had carried the nation suc cessfully through the eight years war. WASHINGTON S ADMINISTRATION, 1789-1797. The Cabinet. One of the first measures of Congress was to create three executive departments, the heads of which were to be known respectively as the Secretary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, and the Secretary of War. These officers were to be appointed by the president, and to constitute his cabinet, or council. To the three depart ments just named, Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, who had for four years represented the United States at the French court, Alexander Hamilton, of New York, and Gen. Knox, his tried army-friend. John Jay, of New York, who had been one of the ablest defenders of the Constitution, was made Chief-Justice. Congress has since created two new departments, the Navy and the Interior ; the heads of which, together with the Attorney-General and the Postmaster-General, now have seats in the cabinet. 1789] HAMILTON 8 FINANCIAL MEASURES. 201 Financial Measures, To Secretary Hamilton was com mitted the most difficult task, that of providing ways and means, at a time when the nation had no credit and was heavily in debt. His policy was just and far-sighted. Debts incurred in carrying on the war by the general gov ernment as well as individual states, were acknowledged to the amount of $80,000,000, and measures taken for their gradual payment. A national bank, to be located at Phila delphia, was chartered for twenty years (1791). Domestic manufactures were encouraged, and a revenue secured, by laying duties on imported goods. These measures restored the public credit, and business promptly revived. Whether as financier for the young republic, as defender of the Con stitution while its adoption was yet doubtful, or as aid, sec retary, and confidant of Washington during the war, Hamil ton never failed to render faithful service to his country. The First Census of the United States was taken in 1790. It showed the total population to be a little short of four millions. The city of New York at this time contained but 33,000 inhabitants ; Philadelphia, the second city of the Union, not so many by nearly 5,000; while the freehold ers, or land-owners, of Brooklyn, which now ranks third, were less than 100 in num ber. Brooklyn was connected with New York by a ferry, FULTON FKK.Y, BKOOKLYN, IN 1T90. which occupied the site of the present Fulton Ferry, but 202 WASHINGTON S ADMINISTRATION. [1790 with its rural surroundings little resembled this busy cen tre. About this time, the first factory for making cotton cloth was established, in Beverly, Mass. ; while the manufact ure of woollens and the printing of calico were commenced at Newburyport. Indian War. Ever since the Revolution, the Indians had given trouble on the western frontier. Emissaries from the posts which the British still retained contrary to treaty, had fired the Red Men with increased hatred toward the settlers now rapidly encroaching on their hunting-grounds. The pioneers who dotted the valley of " the beautiful river," as the French called the Ohio, had suffered in consequence from depredations, which the Continental Congress had no means of preventing. The Indians grew bolder as they saw that their outrages went unpunished, and finally assumed so defiant a tone that an invasion of their territory was deemed necessary. A permanent settlement, the first in Ohio, had been com menced at Marietta in 1788. The same year, some emi grants had fixed their abode on the present site of Cincinnati, and there also Fort Washington had been erected. From this post, in the fall of 1790, 1,400 men, under Gen. Harmer, moved north to lay waste the Miami country. They suc ceeded in burning several villages ; but shortly after, an ambush proved fatal to an important detachment, and the main body suffered a disastrous defeat. Gen. St. Clair, whom we last met at Ticonderoga, was now governor of the North-west Territory ; and in Septem ber, 1791, he started on an expedition against the Miamis. But he fared even worse than Harmer, being surprised by the Indians near the Wabash, in what is now western Ohio (see Map, p. 214), and losing two-thirds of his men, his bag gage, and artillery. Gen. Wayne, whose dashing gallantry at Stony Point had gained him the title of " Mad Anthony," was now made 1794] WASHINGTON S ADMINISTRATION. 203 corarnander-in-chief, and undertook the management of the war. In 1794, he inflicted on the Indians a defeat and loss from which they never recovered. Defiance, Ohio, still pre serves the name of Fort Defiance, which Wayne erected dur ing this campaign ; and Fort Wayne, Indiana, was originally a government-post which the same general built to keep the Indian country in subjection. The hostile tribes, their crops and villages far and near having been destroyed, were soon ready to purchase peace by making an extensive cession of territory to the United States, corresponding in the main with the present state of Ohio. After this, the frontier had rest for some years ; per haps the Indians were frightened by " Mad Anthony s " threat, that he would rise from the grave to punish them if they ever broke the treaty. The Republican Party. From the first some had op posed the Constitution, on the ground of its giving too much power to the general government. These gradually grew into a strong party known as Republicans, and at a later period as Democrats. Among their leaders was Jefferson, who had returned from France so thoroughly imbued with democratic principles that he wore a waistcoat and breeches of scarlet, red being the color adopted by the French revolutionists. The Republicans objected to Hamilton s financial meas ures, opposed the U. S. Bank, and found fault with Wash ington as an aristocrat. They thought " his Excellency " was too much like a king, with his four-horse coach of cream-color, and his grand levees where courtly forms pre vailed. Yet, in spite of politicians, Washington and Adams were elected for a second term. Meanwhile, the seat of government had been removed to Philadelphia, and provision made for the selection of a site on the Potomac for a per manent capital. France or England. Since 1789 a bloody revolution had been in progress in France, which resulted in the overthrow 204 WASHINGTON S ADMINISTRATION. [1794 of monarchy, and the execution of King Louis XVJ. in 1793. War was declared between England and the French Republic, and the question arose which side the United States should take. A bitter feeling generally prevailed against England, on account of her retaining the western posts which she had agreed to surrender, and her unwillingness to enter into lib eral commercial arrangements. On the other hand, France was remembered with gratitude, and the republicans desired that the United States should decide in her favor. But Washington could not decide in favor of a govern ment that had guillotined the king who had aided America, and compelled the good Lafayette to fly for his life. He issued a proclamation of neutrality, that is, that citizens of the United States should refrain from aiding either power. When Genet , the minister of the French Republic, sent out privateers from Charleston to operate against British mer chantmen, arid strove to array the people against Washing ton s policy, his government was requested to recall him. Washington and Hamilton, the federalist leaders, were now assailed with violent abuse. Democratic societies were formed, and the country was distracted with party excite ment. Intelligence arriving that John Jay, as minister- plenipotentiary to England, had succeeded in making a treaty which settled existing differences with that country, he was burned in effigy before his own house in New York. At the close of 1793, Jefferson left the cabinet. Whiskey Rebellion, In the summer of 1794, the opposi tion to government showed itself in a more dangerous form than words. The distillation of spirits had all along been subject to a tax. In many quarters this excise-duty had been evaded ; and when it was attempted to enforce its col lection in western Pennsylvania, armed resistance was made, and various outrages were committed by the disaffected. To put down this "Whiskey Rebellion," the militia had to be called out. 1794] WASHINGTON S ADMINISTRATION. 205 The political excitement, however, gradually subsided. Washington was importuned to serve a third term, but declined, and John Adams was elected to succeed him. No subsequent president has served more than eight years ; though the Constitution does not forbid a third term, the feeling of the people seems to be decidedly against it. Discovery of Coal. A great discovery and a great in vention wonderfully stimulated the industries of the nation, toward the close of the century. In 1791, a hunter, wander ing for game on the bleak Mauch Chunk (mawk chunk) Mountain, in Pennsylvania near the Lehigh River, stumbled against a large black shining stone. Struck with its appear ance, he picked it up ; it was sent to Philadelphia, and there pronounced to be COAL. The mountain was explored, and found to contain an invaluable bed of this precious mineral. The development of the great coal-region of Pennsylvania rapidly followed. Fuel being thus conveniently supplied, the iron deposits of the same state became doubly valuable, and the production of this metal grew into one of its leading industries. The Cotton-Gin. The important invention referred to above, was the cotton-gin. The difficulty of separating the seeds from the fibre by hand had always been a great draw back in the production of cotton. In 1792, Eli Whitney, of Massachusetts, then studying law in Georgia, was asked to devise some way of removing the seeds by machinery, and the result was the invention of the gin. Unfortunately for Whitney, his model was stolen before a patent was obtained, and he was defrauded of his just reward. But the value of his invention to the country was inestimable. A wonderful impetus was given to the cultivation of cotton. The crop in 1791 was 2,000,000 pounds; in ten years, it had increased to 48,000,000. Since then cotton has become the great southern staple, the annual production amounting to from thirty to forty times the quantity just mentioned. 206 WASHINGTON 8 ADMINISTRATION. [1796 Three New States were added to the Union during Wash ington s administration. First was Vermont, which had re sisted the claims of New York till the latter abandoned them in consideration of $30,000 paid by the " Green Mountain Boys." Vermont was first settled in 1724 5 at Fort Dummer, near the present village of Brattleboro ; it was admitted in 1791. Second was Kentucky, where the pioneer in his log cabin, with his rifle and hound, was as independent as a prince. A flourishing common wealth had here sprung up, which, despite a strong inclination on the part of some of the inhabitants to form a separate nation, found a home in the Federal Union in 1792. Third was Tennes see (1796), where, as we have seen, Caro linians had early plant ed themselves ; Fort Loudon, thirty miles from where Knoxville now stands, was the pioneer settlement. The first representative of Tennessee in Congress was a man of decided character, destined to do good service to his country; his name was Andrew Jackson. ADMINISTRATION OF JOHN ADAMS, 1797-1801. John Adams was a federalist. He received a few more votes than Jefferson ; who, standing second, according to the Constitution became vice-president. War threatened, The president s policy of neutrality, PIONEEK LIFE IN KENTUCKY. 1799] ADMINISTRATION OF JOHN ADAMS. 207 following on Jay s treaty with England, greatly exasperated France. French and American vessels met on the ocean, and in the encounters between them, thanks to Captain Truxton and his frigate Constellation, the United States did not come off second best. Preparations were made for war. Washington was again summoned from his retirement at Mount Vernon to the chief command of the army. The for mal declaration of war, however, was deferred ; and when Napoleon seized the sceptre of France as First Consul, a treaty was concluded with that country (1800). Death of Washington. Meanwhile Washington, " the warrior, the legislator, and the citizen without reproach," had passed to his final rest, December 14, 1799. His be reaved countrymen, in whose hearts he was still first, sin cerely mourned his loss. In the same year died another great and good Virginian Patrick Henry. The New Capital. In 1800, the seat of government was removed to the city of Washington, which had been building since 1792 on a site selected by the first president. The surrounding region was a forest wilderness. Mrs. Adams complained of the difficulty of procuring the necessaries of life in this " out-of-the-way settlement." Election of 1800. The popularity of the federalists was waning, and at the next presidential election the republican candidates were successful. Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, a grandson of the distinguished metaphysician Jona than Edwards, having received an equal number of votes, the election was thrown into the House of Representatives ; which, after repeated ballotings, gave the presidency to Jefferson and made Burr vice-president. JEFFERSON S ADMINISTRATION, 1801-1809. James Madison, of Virginia, a moderate republican, served as secretary of state throughout Jefferson s terms. Early in this administration (1802), Ohio was admitted as the seven- 208 JEFFERSON S ADMINISTRATION. [isos teenth state, and the name of Indiana was given to what was left of the North-west Territory. Purchase of Louisiana, A most valuable acquisition of teritory was made in 1803. Three years before, Napoleon had compelled Spain to cede Louisiana to France, intending to colonize it at the mouth of the Mississippi for military purposes. A new rupture, however, having occurred with England, he changed his plans and sold this vast tract to the United States for $15,000,000. The extent of the Lou isiana Purchase, and what states have been formed from it, may be seen by consulting the Map on page 254. An exploring party sent out by government was soon crossing the Rocky Mountains, and traversing wilds which the foot of a white man now trod for the first time. Oregon, included in this purchase, had been claimed by the United States before, in virtue of the discovery of the Columbia River by Captain Gray, of Boston, in 1792. Tripolitan War. In 1803, a lesson was taught to the pirates of the Barbary States, on the Mediterranean coast of Africa. The U. S. government, as well as several Euro pean powers, had been in the habit of paying the beys, or governors, of these states a yearly tribute for the protection of its commerce. Their insolent exactions at length becom ing intolerable, Commodore Preble (preb tfl) was sent with a squadron to vindicate the honor of the flag. This he did, bringing the Bey of Tripoli to terms, after destroying several of his vessels and bombarding his capital. Lieutenant Deca- tur particularly distinguished himself in the Tripolitan War, by recapturing and firing an American frigate under the guns of the fort in the harbor of Tripoli. Aaron Burr. Jefferson was elected president for a second term, and the vice-presidency was conferred on Gov ernor George Clinton, of New York. Vice-President Burr had incurred public odium by fastening a quarrel on Hamil ton, in revenge for political opposition, and by killing this 1807] JEFFERSON 8 ADMINISTRATION. 209 eminent statesman in a duel, July, 1804. Burr afterward engaged in a mysterious enterprise, which aimed either at wresting Mexico from Spain, or at breaking up the Union and making a separate government out of the South-west his own aggrandizement, in either case, being the chief ob ject. Arrested in 1807, he was tried for treason, and, though acquitted for want of proof, he never recovered his former standing. Invention of the Steamboat, The application of steam in a practicable \vay to the propelling of boats was a great scientific triumph that signalized Jefferson s administration. Robert Fulton was the inventor, his boat the Clermont, and the scene of its trial-trip the Hudson River. Attempts to use steam in navigation had been made be fore, and with partial success by John Fitch, also an Amer- THE FIEST STEAMBOAT ON THE HUDSON. 210 JEFFERSON S ADMINISTRATION. [ISOT lean, on the Delaware (1787-90) ; but they had been without practical results. When Fulton s boat ascended the Hudson amid the cheers of wondering spectators on the banks (1807), a new era dawned on inland commerce. To reach Albany in thirty-six hours, as the Clermont did, was a great gain, for previously the trip by sailing-vessels had taken from six to ten days. The Abolition of the Slave-Trade made the year 1808 memorable. The importation of slaves into the United States subsequently to this date was forbidden under heavy penal ties. Provision for the extinction of slavery had already been made in all the northern states, mostly by gradual emancipation. When the North-west Territory was organ ized, slavery was expressly excluded from it. Louisiana, at the date of its purchase, contained 40,000 slaves, with whom Congress did not meddle ; the institution also remained in force in Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia, in Kentucky and Tennessee. British aggressions gave President Jefferson great con cern during his second term. Looking upon herself as mis tress of the ocean, England, during her wars with Napoleon, utterly disregarded the rights of the United States as a neu tral nation. Her cruisers would stop and search American vessels, and seize such able-bodied seamen as were needed, on the pretext that they were British subjects. An Amer ican frigate, not in a condition to resist, having been sub jected to this indignity almost within sight of an American port, after receiving several broadsides for denying the right of search, the President issued a proclamation ordering all British ships-of-war to quit the waters of the United States. Congress also laid an embargo on American vessels, detain ing them at home, but afterward substituted a non-inter course act, prohibiting trade with Great Britain. Yet the latter persisted in her offensive course. While things were thus drifting toward war, Jefferson, isil] MADISON S ADMINISTRATION. 211 declining re-election, was succeeded in the presidency by his secretary of state ; Vice-President Clinton was continued in office for another term. MADISON S ADMINISTRATION, 1809-1817. Tecumseh. Meanwhile there were signs of trouble among the western Indians. Excited by crafty British agents and persuaded by the fiery eloquence of the Shawnee chief Tecum seh, a number of tribes in the valley of the Wabash united in denying the validity of the land-sales that had from time to time been made, and threatened to resist the further occupancy of this region by white settlers. Gen. Harrison, then governor of Indiana Territory, was alarmed at the menacing tone of the Red Men. Hearing that Tecum seh was inciting the southern tribes also to join in a general uprising, he gathered an army at his capital, Vincennes, and took up his march to the north. Tippecanoe, On the Tippecanoe River, in what is now western Indiana (see Map, p. 214), lay the chief town of the hostile natives, under Tecumseh s brother, whose pretensions to supernatural knowledge had gained for him the title of " the Prophet." Encamping for the night in the neighbor hood of this town, Harrison s men were suddenly attacked by a horde of whooping savages, before daylight on the 7th of November, 1811. The conflict was severe, but resulted in the complete discomfiture of the Indians. The Prophet s town was burned, the surrounding country laid waste, and most of the opposing tribes sued for peace. Tecumseh s plans were for the time disconcerted ; but when in the following year hostilities broke out with the British, he appeared in Canada with a number of his braves, and was made a general in the British army. War declared. All hopes of obtaining concessions on the impressment question from Great Britain were at length abandoned. George III., who was still on the throne, had 212 become insane, and the men who managed affairs were as short-sighted as his advisers forty years before, whose folly had provoked the Revolution. Longer submission to the arrogant claims of Great Britain was deemed unworthy of a free nation, and war was formally declared by the United States, June 18, 1812. On hearing the news, most of the American seamen who had been impressed as " British sub jects," at the risk of flogging and possibly of death, refused to serve against their country ; 2,500 such were kept im prisoned in England throughout the war. During the anxious period which preceded the com mencement of hostilities, the state of Louisiana, formed from the territory recently purchased from France, was ad mitted into the Union ; and from the same tract the Terri tory of Missouri was organized, with the growing town of St. Louis as its seat of government. CONTEMPORARY EVENTS AND RULERS. 18OCX Population of the United States, 6,309,758, 896,849 of the number being slaves. Population of New York, 60,489 ; of Philadelphia, 41,220; of Baltimore, 26,514; of Boston, 24,937; of New Orleans, about 9,000 ; of Cincinnati, 750. Post-offices, 903. Sixteen states in the Union. Washington City, Avith a population of 3,200, becomes the capital of the United States. The Territory North-west of the Ohio, containing 45,000 inhabitants, divided ; the eastern part erected into the Territory of Ohio, the western into the Territory of Indiana. Pro visions made by Congress to regulate the sale of public lands. John Adams president. John Marshall, the biographer of Washington and for thirty-four years Chief-Justice of the United States, secretary of state. John Jay governor of New York. Treaty between the United States and France. Cession of Louisiana to France by Spain. Product of the Mexican mines for the year, $22,000,000. George III. of England in the fortieth year of his reign ; the younger Pitt prime-minister ; Great Britain and Ireland united. Napoleon first con sul of France ; his famous campaign in Italy. Holland, Switzerland, northern Italy, and Genoa, republics the result of the French Revolution. Francis II. emperor of Germany. 1812] WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. 213 CHAPTER XXYI. WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN, 1812-1815. OPERATIONS OF 1812. First Movements. The United States had but an insig nificant force in readiness, with which to commence war upon a great nation. Gen. Dearborn, who had seen service in the Revolution, was made commander-in-chief ; and 3,000 regu lars, with nearly as many militia-men of New York and Ver mont, were collected on Lake Champlain under his direction. The first aggressive movement, however, was made farther west, in Upper Canada, by 1,800 men under Gen. Hull. For several years Hull had been governor of Michigan Territory, which had been set off from the Territory of Indiana. Dilatory at a time when energetic action was specially needed, the government failed to give prompt notice of the declaration of war to its remote western posts. Through this neglect, Mackinaw, which commanded the strait between Lakes Michigan and Huron, and indeed the whole country about the upper lakes, was taken unawares by a force of British and Indians, and obliged to surrender. Hull s Surrender. Hull crossed from Detroit into Can ada ; but, in stead of marching promptly on the British at Maiden (Map, p. 214), he delayed till that post had been too strongly garrisoned to be attacked, and the woods swarmed with Tecumseh s Indians. Then he crossed back again. His timidity invited attack, and a body of the enemy under Gen. Brock crossed from Canada, and was soon marching on the works at Detroit. The Americans had their guns, load ed with grape, trained on the advancing foe, with every prospect of a brilliant victory ; when, to their indescribable mortification, Hull, who seems to have forgotten his man hood, raised a white flag in token of surrender. Army and 214: MADISON S ADMINISTRATION. [1812 stores, Detroit and the whole of Michigan, were uncondi tionally given up to the enemy (August 16th). Hull was afterward exchanged, and tried by court-mar tial for treason and cowardice. He was found guilty of the latter and sentenced to be shot, but in view of his previous services was pardoned by the president. Loss of Fort Dearborn. The day before the disgraceful surrender at Detroit, Fort Dearborn, on the site of the pres ent city of Chicago, was abandoned to the neighboring tribes, who were in the interest of the British. The garri- , v . ^^--.rr^ Cgfy* South JBend <*& Ft.St i eusou and " Sly 1 } Vpr^Ofl nonon^oCFriimont) D^ CrawforasvUl^ / Kichrnona WESTERN BATTLE-FIELDS LOCATED RELATIVELY TO PRESENT CITIES. son were promised an escort through the wilderness to Fort Wayne, but had hardly commenced their march when the savages, provoked by their having destroyed their whiskey and surplus ammunition the night before, fell upon them, and a scene of carnage followed. Some were scalped for the sake of the bounties which the British had offered ; those who survived, were distributed among their captors. The Niagara Frontier next became the seat of war. Gen. Brock hastened thither to repel an invasion by a body of American militia assembling at Lewiston, sup- 1812] BATTLE OF QTJEENSTOWN. 215 ported by a few regulars. The expected troops came tar dily ; but in October Gen. Van Rensselaer, the American commander, determined to attack the enemy at Queenstown. The Niagara was crossed (October 13th see Map, p. 224), and Queenstown Heights were carried in gallant style. In attempting to retake them, Brock fell. The British Gen. Sheaffe (shefe), with re-enforcements from Fort George, now appeared in sight. Anxiously did the Americans, only 600 of whom had as yet crossed, look for succor from the other side of the river but in vain. The dastardly militia, drawn up on the bank, were panic- struck at the sight of the wounded, and refused to enter the boats. Those on the Canadian side, outnumbered two to one, maintained the struggle for a time, but finally surren dered. In this action, Lieutenant-Colonel Scott and Captain Wool, of whom we shall hear more anon, commenced their honorable careers. Naval Operations. If the Americans had reason to blush for their defeats on land, they might well be proud of their triumphs on the ocean. Great Britain had thought it im possible for the few vessels of the young republic to cope with her mighty navy, but she was taught that " Yankee craft" were not to be despised. The Guerriere (gare-e-are ), one of her finest frigates, struck its colors to the Constitu tion (August 19th) as also did the Macedonian to Decatur, of Tripolitan fame, in the frigate United States and the- Java to Commodore Bainbridge, in the same good frigate Constitution, " Old Ironsides," just as the year was closing. The Essex, the President, the Argus, all took valuable prizes. The Wasp, under Captain Jones, was victorious in a terrible encounter with the Frolic, but had to strike to a British seventy-four before she could secure her prize. Nor must we forget the gallantry of Commodore Chauncey on Lake Ontario, nor Lieutenant Elliott, who cut out two armed brigs from under the guns of Fort Erie. 216 MADISON S ADMINISTRATION. [is 12 Madison re-elected. The federalists, accused by the op posite party of sympathizing with Great Britain, had from the outset opposed the war ; the disasters to the American arms furnished them fresh arguments against it. Yet Madi son was re-elected, with Elbridge Gerry (yher re) of Massa chusetts as vice-president. James Monroe, of Virginia, who had distinguished himself in several of Washington s battles, was secretary of state throughout the war. The weakness of the army and navy being apparent, Congress now took measures for strengthening both. OPERATIONS OF 1813. Harrison s Campaign. After Hull s surrender, the west ern frontier would have been entirely unprotected but for a body of Kentuckians, who had responded to the call of gov ernment for volunteers, and had taken the field under the hero of Tippecanoe. Recruits from other states joined Har rison s standard, and he was soon appointed to the command of the North-west with ample powers. Harrison s aim was to recover Detroit. His advance was necessarily slow, and the winter of 1812-13 overtook him in north-western Ohio. In January the advanced divi sion, under Gen. Winchester, had reached the rapids of the Maumee, when unfortunately, having been led to the relief of an exposed settlement across the Michigan line, it was surprised and captured by British and Indians from Maiden, under Gen. Proctor. The Americans surrendered on Proctor s pledge that the disabled should be protected ; in spite of which, all the wounded were cruelly left at the mercy of the bloodthirsty savages. Many of them were scalped, while others were dragged through the streets of Detroit and doomed to tort ure unless ransomed. The British general, more careful for his safety than his honor, hastened back to Maiden imme diately after the battle, with the bulk of his prisoners. 1813] SIEGE OF FOKT MEIGS. 217 There lie paid his allies for the scalps yet covered with blood, and complimented them on their bravery. Siege of Fort Meigs. Weakened by the loss of this di vision, Gen. Harrison could not continue his advance on Detroit. But with his 1,200 men he moved to the rapids of the Maumee, and there erected Fort Meigs (see Map, p. 214). Hardly were the works finished, when the active Proctor and the dusky followers of Tecumseh appeared be fore them. The siege was vigorously pressed for some days ; but, though a division of Kentuckians coming to the aid of their countrymen was defeated and captured, no im pression could be made on the fort. Tecumseh, as his share of the spoils, had been promised the person of Gen. Harri son, whom he specially hated ; his brother, the Prophet, was to have had the whole of Michigan. Both were disappointed. The siege was raised ; and Proctor fell back to Maiden, his reputation stained with a still darker dye by the atrocities he had permitted toward the Kentuckians he had taken. Capture of York. Meanwhile an invasion of Canada was projected by Gen. Dearborn, at Sackett s Harbor, on the eastern shore of Lake Ontario. On the 25th of April, 1,700 picked men under Gen. Pike embarked on Commodore Chauncey s flotilla, and sailed up the lake to York, the capital of Upper Canada, now the flourishing city of To ronto. The invaders landed, drove the enemy before them, carried two batteries, and were about entering the block house, when the earth shook with an appalling explosion. The British had retired from the works, having first lighted a slow-match connected with their magazine. Stones and timbers filled the air, and the effect on the assailing column was terrible ; but York was taken, with some 300 prisoners, a vessel-of-war, and abundant stores. Gen. Pike was among those mortally injured. The cheers of his men fell on his ears as he lay dying. " What does it mean ? " he asked. " Victory," was the reply ; " the 10 218 MADISON S ADMINISTRATION. [1813 stars and stripes are going up." The captured British flag was placed beneath his head just as his breath was ceasing. There was a sad fulfillment of the wish he had expressed in a letter to his father a few days before : " If we are des tined to fall, may my fall be like Wolfe s to sleep in the arms of victory." Capture of Fort George. The victorious army, re-en forced, next proceeded to Fort George, near the mouth of the Niagara River (see Map, p. 224). The enemy hastily blew up their magazine, and evacuated not only this post, but also the whole line of the Niagara. About the same time, however, they ran over from Kingston, attacked Sack- ett s Harbor, now left feebly garrisoned, and succeeded in doing some damage before they were driven back to their ships by Gen. Brown. Attack on Fort Stephenson. While Harrison was still waiting for re-enforcements, Proctor, having now 5,000 men under his command at Maiden, made a second attempt on Fort Meigs. Failing in an artifice by which he had hoped to draw out the garrison, he advanced against Fort Stephen- son, situated where Fremont, O., now stands (see Map, p. 214). This post was commanded by Major Cro ghan, a young Kentuckian, and the bravest of the brave. The British attempted to take the fort by storm ; but such good use did Croghan make of his solitary six-pounder that the assault resulted in a bloody repulse and disorderly retreat. Proctor withdrew his army the following night. Battle of Lake Erie. Commodore Chauncey was master of Lake Ontario, but the command of Lake Erie belonged to the enemy. To wrest it from them, and thus clip Proc tor s wings and aid in the recovery of Michigan, was the important service required of Captain Oliver H. Perry in the spring of 1813. Vessels had to be built, equipped, and manned. Perry pushed the work rapidly, and by the mid dle of August was ready to exchange broadsides with his 1813] BATTLE OF LAKE ERIE. 219 adversary. The British fleet was commanded by Commodore Barclay, one of Nelson s veterans ; it carried the most guns, but consisted of only six vessels to Perry s nine. The plan of the campaign having been arranged with Gen. Harrison, Commodore Perry manoeuvred to bring about an engagement, but for some time in vain. Proctor s In dian allies became impatient, and Tecumseh was hardly sat- PEERY LEAVING ins FLAG-SHIP. isfied with the explana tion that " the canoes of his great father King George were not ready." The necessity, however, of keeping open the com munications by which supplies were received, at last drove the British fleet from its haven, and on the 10th of Septem ber the long-expected battle took place. For two hours the enemy s fire was concentrated on Perry s flag-ship, which was riddled till it became almost a wreck ; his crew was dis abled ; the issue of the fight seemed doubtful. Then a sud den inspiration seized the American commander; he would 220 MADISON S ADMINISTRATION. [1813 transfer his broad pennant to another vessel which seemed uninjured, half a mile away. He performed the feat success fully, standing erect in his boat, while a storm of grape-shot and musket-balls made the water boil around him. This movement decided the battle. Plunging through the enemy s line with his new flag-ship, he delivered deadly broadsides right and left. In a few minutes most of the hostile vessels had struck ; two tried to escape, but failed. The whole British fleet was captured. On the back of an old letter, four hours after the action began, the victor of Lake Erie wrote his famous dispatch to Gen. Harrison : " We have met the enemy, and they are ours ; two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and a sloop." Battle of the Thames. The way to Canada was now open. In seventeen days, Harrison s army, embarked on the victorious and vanquished vessels, was on its way to Maiden. Proctor, taking counsel of his fears, had retreated, much to the disgust of Tecumseh, who compared his brother- general to " a fat dog, which, when affrighted, drops its tail between its legs and runs off." Harrison lost no time in giving chase, and on the 5th of October he came up with the enemy on the Thames River, about sixty miles north east of Maiden (see Map, p. 214). The battle was soon over. A spirited charge of Colonel Johnson and his Kentuckians broke the British line, and the regulars immediately surrendered. The Indians for a time stood their ground ; but when they saw their great chief Tecumseh fall with a mortal wound, they broke into flight. Proctor had deserted his men early in the battle, and within twenty-four hours had placed sixty miles between himself and the incensed Kentuckians. Some Canadian women near the battle-field, judging the American leaders by their own general, are said to have thrown their children into the Thames, to save them from being killed by the victors. Thus gloriously did the battle of the Thames vindicate 1813] CREEK WAK. 221 the honor of the American arms. The power of the hostile Indians was broken. Michigan was recovered. Creek War. Meanwhile Tecumseh s appeals had not been lost upon the southern Indians. The Creeks dug up the tomahawk, and south-western Alabama became the scene of savage violence. A massacre at Fort Mimms, on the Ala bama River, aroused the people of the neighboring states, and preparations were made for an invasion of the Creek country with several thousand men. Gen. Jackson, ably supported by Gen. Coffee, had the chief command. Jackson has already been mentioned as representative from Tennes see ; the Indians knew him as " the Sharp Knife," and with good reason. At Tallushatchee, Tallade ga, Autosee, Emuc- fau, and finally at the Great Horseshoe Bend of the Talla- poosa River, where in their " Beloved Ground " they believed themselves invincible, the Creeks were defeated, with such loss that the survivors gladly purchased peace by the cession of most of their territory. Renewed Invasion of Canada. Dearborn s misfortune in losing 600 men, surrounded in the neighborhood of Fort George and obliged to surrender, led to his being super seded by Gen. Wilkinson. In the fall of 1813, the latter undertook an expedition against Montreal. While he was descending the St. Lawrence, a sharp action with the enemy took place at Chrysler s Field (November llth). But Wil kinson was inefficient ; Gen. Wade Hampton, who was ex pected to cooperate in the attack from Plattsburg, refused to do so ; and the expedition was abandoned. Fort George was evacuated and destroyed by the Americans toward the close of the year, the neighboring village of Newark having been first set on fire ; a wanton act, which the British re taliated by burning the towns on the New York side of the Niagara from Youngstown to Buffalo. Naval Operations. Successes on the ocean were this year intermingled with reverses. Captain Lawrence, in the 222 MADISON S ADMINISTRATION. [isis Hornet, took the British brig Peacock (February 24th), but shortly afterward lost the frigate Chesapeake in an engage ment with the Shannon. His last words, as he was carried below with a mortal wound, " Don t give up the ship," were inscribed on the flag that Perry embalmed with glory on Lake Erie. The Argus had to strike her colors to a British sloop in the English Channel (August 14th) ; but, on the other hand, the American brig Enterprise captured the Boxer, and Commodore Porter, in the Essex, made prizes of a number of armed British whalers, during a successful cruise in the Pacific. The enemy s men-of-war blockaded the Atlantic coast more closely than in the preceding year. Their depredations gave much annoyance along the shores of the Chesapeake, and gained for them the name of " water Winnebagoes." OPERATIONS OF 1814. Peace Movements. For some time the peace-party had been gaining strength, particularly in New England. An offer on the part of Russia to act as mediator had been accepted by the United States, but declined by Great Britain. When the latter, however, intimated her willing ness to treat directly, commissioners were at once appointed by President Madison (January 14, 1814). Among these was Henry Clay, " the mill-boy of the Slashes," so called from a district of Virginia in which he was born. Already one of the great statesmen of the country, Clay had repre sented Kentucky in Congress, and was Speaker of the lower House at the time of his appointment. Warlike Preparations, The commissioners proceeded to Europe ; but both parties prepared none the less actively for the campaign of 1814. Congress made provision for in creasing the army, and authorized a loan of $25,000,000. On the other hand, England sent over 14,000 additional troops. The abdication of Napoleon in April left her vet erans who had been warring with France at liberty, and 1814] NAVAL OPERATIONS. 223 thus enabled her to assume the offensive at different points, as she could not do before. The American Congress at this time contained some of the ablest men of the nation. Among the ardent support ers of the war was John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina. Daniel Webster, who had entered the House of Represent atives as a federalist from New Hampshire, but was after ward identified with Massachusetts, made his first speech in that bcdy in the summer of 1813. Naval Operations. The close blockade of the coast by British cruisers made it difficult for the American men-of- war to leave port. Hence there were fewer naval battles, and in these victory declared alternately for either side. The Essex, which we left in the Pacific in the midst of a successful career, was attacked at Valparaiso (vahl-pah-ri so) by two British vessels that had been seeking her, and had to haul down her colors, " unfortunate, but not disgraced," as Commodore Porter wrote. The American brigs Rattle snake and Syren met with a similar fate. To counterbal ance these reverses, the Peacock captured the British brig fipervier (a-pare-ve-a ), and the Wasp made a prize of the Reindeer and sunk the AVon. First Aggressive Movements. The campaign was opened by the Americans. Late in March, Wilkinson with 4,000 men attempted a second invasion of Canada. Attacking a stone mill which the British had made an outpost, he was easily repulsed, and in chagrin at his defeat gave way to Gen. Jacob Brown, without having accomplished anything. The Niagara Frontier. Brown, who had displayed vigi lance and skill in repelling several British attacks along the St. Lawrence, commenced operations on the Niagara fron tier. He was ably seconded by Gen. Scott, to whom for a time he left the command of the troops on their march west ward, while he returned to Sackett s Harbor, now threatened by the British from Kingston. They, however, attacked Os- 224 MADISON S ADMINISTRATION. [1814 wego instead, took the fort, and then contented themselves with blockading Sackett s Harbor. Brown thereupon hastened to Buffalo, and carried the war into the enemy s country. July 3d, he crossed the Niag ara ; Fort Erie displayed the white flag without striking a blow. Re - enforcements had been sent for its defence by Gen. Riall ; but on hearing of its surrender, they halted at the Chippewa River. Thither the Americans marched to meet them, and on the 5th of July the battle of Chippewa was fought. It resulted glo riously to the American arms > and added to the laurels of Gen. Scott. Lundy s Lane. After the battle, the enemy retreated toward Lake Ontario. While Gen. Brown was waiting for the arrival of Commodore Chauncey s fleet to cooperate with him against Fort George, the British received re-enforce ments from Kingston under Gen. Drummond, and marched up the Niagara to the neigh borhood of the Falls, 4,500 strong. Scott s brigade, numbering 1,200, sent out to threaten Fort George in ignorance of the enemy s move ments, toward sunset on the 25th of July unexpectedly found itself confronted by the whole British army. Scott hesitated not to give battle. The main body came THE NIAGARA FRONTIER. 1814] BATTLE OF LUNDY s LANE. 225 up to his support ; and there, at Lundy s Lane, or Bridge- water, the roar of artillery drowning that of the great cat aract, took place one of the hottest engagements of the war. The issue of the battle turned on the capture of a British battery posted 011 a hill. It was carried in gallant style, and held against repeated attempts to recapture it, by Colonel Miller, whose answer, " I will try, sir," when asked whether he could take it, has become proverbial. Near midnight the conflict terminated in a victory for the Amer icans. Scott s praises were on every tongue. Generals Brown and Scott were so severely wounded that they had to be removed to the American side. Their suc cessor in command, throwing away all the advantages that had been gained, withdrew his men to Fort Erie. Here they were besieged by the British, again re-enforced. A night- attack of the enemy was repulsed with severe loss, and a well-planned sortie on the 17th of September completed their discomfiture. Four days afterward, Drummond beat a hasty retreat to Chippewa. The approach of cold weather rendering further operations in that quarter impracticable, Fort Erie was blown up in November, and the American army recrossed the Niagara River. Battle of Lake Champlain. In the summer of 1814, the British, having concentrated 14,000 men near the foot of Lake Charnplain, undertook an invasion of the States, some, what on the plan of Burgoyne in 1777. There had been skirmishing throughout the season ; but when in August most of the American troops were transferred to the Niag ara frontier, Gen. Prevost improved the opportunity to march upon Plattsburg (September 1-7). Here Gen. Macomb (m<%-7coom f ), in command of the Americans, had made all the preparation in his power for a vigorous defence ; but he had only 2,000 efficient men and lacked ordnance, while his works were still incomplete. Commodore McDonough had also strained every nerve to 220 MADISON S ADMINISTRATION. [1814 make ready for the British fleet, which was to act in con junction with the army. His flag- ship was launched within forty days from the time that the trees used in its construc tion were standing in the forest. Despite all his exertions, however, in the number of his vessels, guns, and men, he was inferior to the enemy. The British army, having reached Plattsburg, was there held in check -by Macomb, who, strengthened by the brave militia of Vermont and New York, had taken a position on the south side of the Sar anac River. But the fate of the expedition was to be decided on the water. On the llth of September, the British flotilla drew near to Plattsburg, and McDonough joined battle, after having on the deck of his vessel invoked the blessing of God upon his cause. Two hours of terrible fighting resulted in a victory for the Amer icans as signal as Perry s on Lake Erie. The British com mander, who had boasted that with his flag-ship alone he could whip the whole Yankee fleet, was killed, and his entire squadron struck. While this glorious victory was being gained on the lake, the British army had made several at tempts to drive Macomb from his position, but without suc cess. Prevost became alarmed, and under the cover of night made a disorderly retreat, leaving behind his stores and wounded, besides 2,000 deserters. So ended his invasion of New York. British Descent on the Coast. Simultaneously with Pre- vost s expedition, important movements were made by the British on the Atlantic coast. A fleet conveying an army of veterans arrived off Virginia in August, and there separated one division ascending the Potomac and Patuxent, and the other sailing up Chesapeake Bay. Both Washington and Baltimore were threatened. Commodore Barney, who had been trying to check the depredations of the enemy on the Chesapeake, had to burn his little fleet in the Patuxent (see Map, p. 268), and then as the invaders, 5,000 strong, 1814] BRITISH DESCENT ON THE COAST. 227 moved up the river, retired before them with his 400 seamen. Gen. Winder (wme der) had hastily collected what forces he could for the defence of the capital. He attempted to withstand the invaders at Bla densburg, six miles north-east of Washington (August 24th) ; but his raw militia soon gave way, and Barney s gallant sailors were too few to make any effectual resistance. That same evening the British general, Ross, entered Washington, whence the officials and many of the inhabitants had fled in dismay, and fired the Capitol, the president s house, the treasury -building, and the arsenal. After this wanton destruction of property, the in vaders returned to their ships. The inefficiency displayed at Washington during these operations brought down a storm of public odium on the administration. The seaboard cities, exposed to like attacks, were greatly alarmed, and some of them made active preparations for defence. Attack on Baltimore. The British next sailed to Balti more, which city they particularly desired to punish in re turn for the blows inflicted on their commerce by its fast- sailing " clippers." The attack was expected ; for days the citizens had been laboring on the defences, and 10,000 men were ready to meet the invaders. While part of the British fleet moved up the Patapsco to attack Fort McHenry, which commands the channel two miles from the city, the army landed at North Point, at the mouth of the river, twelve miles below (September 12th). On the march to Baltimore, a skirmish with some Amer ican sharp-shooters took place, in which Gen. Ross was slain. The British, however, continued to advance, till they came within reach of the American artillery. A spirited ac tion then ensued, which resulted in the Americans falling back to a new position nearer their intrenchments. Here they awaited the enemy the following morning; but the enemy had little relish for continuing the attack. Their fleet had been so roughly handled at Fort McHenry that it 228 MADISON S ADMINISTRATION. [1814 was thought best to let Baltimore alone. The next night was dark and rainy, and under its cover they retreated to their shipping. It was during the bombardment of the fort that Francis S. Key, an anxious spectator of the battle from an Amer ican vessel, uncertain in the darkness whether the stars and stripes still waved, composed "The Star-spangled Banner," the national song dear to every American. The South-west had not been overlooked in the enemy s plans for 1814. In September, a party of British and In dians attacked the fort at the entrance of Mobile Bay, but were repulsed. They had been allowed to fit out their ex pedition in the Spanish port of Pensacola ; and Gen. Jack son, the hero of the Creek War, made reprisals by invading Florida with some mounted Tennesseans and taking the city just named. Thence he hastened to New Orleans, where a panic prevailed in consequence of a threatened at tack by the British army from the Chesapeake, re-enforced from Europe. Battle of New Orleans. By his energetic measures, Jackson now showed the stuff of which he was made. The British having landed on a bayou communicating with Lake Borgne (born) and ad vanced to within nine miles of the city, he fell upon them at night (De cember 23d), and taught them that they had un dertaken no easy task. His line of defence was four miles below the city. Here, with the deadly riflemen of the South-west, particular ly his trusted Teniies- G UL F OF MEXICO NEW OBLEANS AND TUB VICINITY. 1815] BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS. 229 seans, he repulsed a fierce attack of the enemy on the 28th of December, and on the 1st of January following responded with telling effect to the heavy British batteries planted within a quarter of a mile of his works. A general assault on Jackson s line was made on the 8th of January. In vain Wellington s veterans, led by Gen. Pakenham, second only to Wellington himself among the British military leaders, tried to scale the American breast works ; they were mowed down by scores. There was no standing in the face of such a murderous fire. Pakenham fell ; nearly every offi cer was disabled. The assailants, hopelessly defeat ed, with a loss of two thousand men retreated to their boats. The Amer icans lost but 27 in killed and wound ed. Jackson was hailed by a grate ful country as the saviour of New Orleans. Close of the War. Meanwhile, on the 24th of Decem ber, a treaty of peace between Great Britain and the United States had been signed at Ghent, in Belgium. The British commissioners, at first unreasonable in their demands, had lowered their tone after the defeats at Plattsburg and Balti more. Though no concessions were made on the impress ment question, the announcement of peace was received EQUESTBIAN STATUE OF JACKSON, NEW ORLEANS. 230 with delight throughout the land, and the treaty was ratified by the Senate on the 18th of February. Party-feeling had all along run high against the war, and some uneasiness had been created in December by the assembling of delegates from the New England States at Hartford. It was feared that the Hartford Convention might take some action look ing toward the restoration of peace to New England, with out reference to the rest of the country ; but such appre hensions were unfounded. After the War. The war, of course, left the finances of the country in a deplorable state the treasury exhausted, a heavy debt outstanding, specie scarce, and business de pressed. As a relief-measure, Congress in 1816 chartered the Bank of the United States, the old national bank having ceased to exist five years before. This institution, with its various branches, provided the nation with a currency re deemable in gold or silver. . There remains to be chronicled under Madison s adminis tration a brief war with Algiers, growing out of renewed depredations on American commerce. Decatur brought the pirates to terms, and made Tunis and Tripoli, also, pay for American vessels which the British had been allowed to take in their harbors. Indiana became a member of the Union in 1816. ABSTRACT OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS OF THE WAR OF 1812. Follow the directions given with the similar Abstract on p. 198. 1812. War declared against Great Britain, June 18. Hull invades Cana da, July 12. Capture of Mackinaw, July 17. Hull retreats, Aug. 7, 8. Essex captures the Alert, Aug. 13. Massacre at Ft. Dear born, Aug. 15. Hull s surrender, Aug. 16. Constitution takes the Guerriere, Aug. 19. Battle of Queenstown, Oct. 13. Wasp takes the Frolic, and is taken by the Poictiers, Oct. 18. Frigate United States takes the Macedonian, Oct. 25. Constitution takes the Java, Dec. 29. THE WAR OF 1812. 231 1813. Battle of the Raisin River, Mich., and surrender of Winchester, Jan. 22. Hornet takes the Peacock, Feb. 24. Americans capt ure York, Canada, Apr. 27. Siege of Ft. Meigs, May 1-9. Ameri cans capture Ft. George, May 2*7. British descent on Sackett s Harbor, May 29. Com. Porter s cruise on the Pacific. Shannon takes the Chesapeake, June 1. Attack on Ft. Stephenson, Aug. 2. Argus taken, Aug. 14. Massacre at Ft. Minims, Ala., Aug. 30. Enterprise takes the Boxer, Sept. 5. Battle of Lake Erie, Sept. 10. Battle of the Thames, Oct. 5. Battle of Tallushatchee, Nov. 2. Battle of Talladega, Nov. 9. Battle of Chrysler s Field, Nov. 11. Americans evacuate Ft. George, Dec. 10. British take Ft. Niagara, Dec. 19. 1814. Battle of Emucfau, Ala., Jan. 22. Battle of Great Horseshoe Bend, March 27. U. S. frigate Essex taken, March 28. Wilkin son s second invasion of Canada, March 30. Peacock takes the Epervier, Apr. 29. Wasp takes the Reindeer, June 28. Ameri cans capture Ft. Erie, July 3. Battle of Chippewa, July 5. Bat tle of Lundy s Lane, July 25. Assault on Ft. Erie repulsed, Aug. 15. Battle of Bladensburg, Aug. 24. British burn public build ings at Washington, Aug. 24. Wasp sinks the Avon, Sept. 1. Battle of Plattsburg, Sept. 11. Battle near Baltimore, Sept. 12. Bombardment of Ft. McHenry, Sept. 13. American sortie from Fort Erie, Sept. 17. British land near New Orleans, Dec. 22. Jackson s night-attack, Dec. 23. 1815. Battle of N. 0., Jan. 8. American frigate President taken, Jan. 15. "Old Ironsides" takes two British ships, Feb. 20. Hornet takes the Penguin, March 23. PEACE PROCLAIMED, Feb. 18. CHAPTER XXVII. AFTER THE WAR OF 1812. MONROE S ADMINISTRATION, 1817-1825. James Monroe, of Virginia, succeeded Madison in the presidency on the 4th of March, 1817, and Daniel D. Tomp- kins, of New York, became vice-president. For his secre tary of state Monroe selected John Quincy Adams, son of 232 MONKOE 8 ADMINISTRATION. [1817 the second president, and, after the war, minister of the United States at the British court. Internal Improvements. The importance of public im provements for developing the western country was gener ally recognized ; but there was a difference of opinion as to the propriety of the general government s engaging in such works. Appropriations, however, were made by Congress for constructing several military roads, and especially a great national highway over the Alleghariies. Nor did the individual states overlook the necessity of encouraging en terprises for their own internal improvement. In works of this kind, New York took the lead, Through the efforts of De Witt Clinton, for several years her governor, the construction of a canal to connect the Great Lakes at \ FIKST BOAT ON THE ERIE CANAL. Buffalo with the Hudson at Albany, and thus virtually with the Atlantic seaboard, was undertaken by the state. The Erie Canal was 363 miles in length, crossed the Mohawk River twice, and cost nearly $8,000,000. When the first boat passed over it, there were great rejoicings, for it was felt that a new era of commercial prosperity was dawning on 1819] PURCHASE OF FLORIDA. the state. The Erie Canal was begun and completed in the same years with Monroe s administration. A triumph in navigation, of a different kind, was also connected with this period. It was in 1819 that the first ocean-steamer, the Savannah, crossed the Atlantic. Florida. On the borders of Georgia and Alabama, but in the Spanish territory of Florida, lived the Seminoles. The neighboring American settlements across the line hav ing suffered from the depredations of these Indians, Gen. Jackson was sent to restore security to the frontier (1817). The Seminoles were soon punished, but Jackson went further. Finding that the Indians had been incited by the Spanish and supplied with arms by two British traders, he summarily hanged the latter, and seized the Spanish forts at St. Mark s and Pensacola. Trouble seemed likely to follow from these acts, which were condemned by many even of Jackson s own country men. But the representations made by Mr. Adams satisfied Great Britain ; and Spain was induced, not only to overlook the invasion of her territory, but also (1819) to cede the whole province to the United States, on the promise of the latter to pay claims of American citizens on the Spanish government amounting to $5,000,000. When Spain sur rendered possession of Florida in 1821, it was organized into a territory ; and Gen. Jackson was made its first gov ernor. Five New States were admitted during Monroe s adminis tration : Mississippi, in 1817 ; Illinois, in 1818 ; Alabama, which had formed part of Mississippi Territory, in 1819 ; Maine, before embraced in Massachusetts, in 1820 ; and Mis souri, set off from the Louisiana Purchase, in 1821. The admission of Missouri gave rise to angry debate as to whether she should come in as a free or slave state. The North demanded that slavery should be prohibited within her limits ; but her people desired slavery, and many 234 insisted that every state, on its admission, had the right to say whether it should be slave or free. After much dis cussion the question was settled, chiefly through Clay s efforts, by the MISSOURI COMPROMISE, which remained in force till 1854. This bill provided that Missouri should come in as a slave state ; that states formed thereafter from territory south of 36 30 , the latitude of Missouri s southern boundary, might be slave or free as they should decide for themselves on being admitted, but that north of that line the institution should not be allowed. The South American Republics. The eloquence of Hen ry Clay, "Kentucky s favorite son," also persuaded Con gress to recognize the independence of the South American republics. Governed for many years, as we have seen, by Spanish viceroys and with no gentle hand, they had profited by the example of the United States, and thrown off the yoke of the mother-country. We may with advantage glance for a moment at their history. The first colonies to revolt were Chili and Buenos Ayres (bo nos a riz) ; from the latter, Uruguay (oo-roo-gwi ), Para guay (pah-rah-gwi f ), and the Argentine (ar jen-teen) Re public, were ultimately formed. A similar movement hav ing been made in the northern provinces, the republic of Colombia was established in 1819, with Simon Bolivar, just ly called " the Liberator of South America," as its president.* From Colombia, Venezuela (ven-ez-we f lah) and Ecuador (ek-wah-dor 1 ) were afterward set off. Last of all, Peru took up arms, and with the aid of the Colombians drove out the Spaniards. Upper Peru became a separate republic in 1825, and was named Bolivia in honor of the pure-minded patriot who had devoted his life to securing the independence of the Spanish provinces the Washington of South America. * It will be a profitable exercise for the student to copy the outline of South America from the Map on page 34, and, by comparing with a modern map, to mark in the boundaries of the countries here named. 1822] THE SPANISH-AMERICAN REPUBLICS. 235 Thus the whole continent south of the Isthmus enjoyed the blessings of a free government, except the colonies of Guiana, the barren Patagonia, and the empire of Brazil. Brazil, by a revolution in 1822, established its independence of Portugal, but retained its monarchical government. Central America became infected with the same spirit. In 1823, the five Spanish colonies composing it formed them selves into a federal republic of independent states, which lasted sixteen years. Since the dissolution of this union, other confederations have been formed and dissolved ; the Central American republics now constitute separate states. Though the subsequent history of these Spanish- Amer ican countries presents a painful record of assassinations, revolutions, and civil wars, yet their condition is better than it was under Spanish rule, and some of them have progressed rapidly in education and the industrial arts. This is espe cially true of Chili and the Argentine Republic, to which European emigrants have been attracted. It was in connec tion with the South American republics that the president put forth the famous MONROE DOCTRINE, that "the Amer ican continents were thenceforth not to be considered as subjects for colonization by any European power." The last year of Monroe s prosperous administration was signalized by a visit from America s old and true friend, Lafayette, who had seen stirring times in France since he sheathed his sword after helping to secure American liberty. He made a tour through the country, and was everywhere honored as the nation s guest. Monroe had been elected for a second term with little opposition. At its close there were four candidates for the succession ; Gen. Jackson received the greatest number of votes, but not a majority, though John C. Calhoun of South Carolina was chosen vice-president. The election, therefore, devolved on the House of Representatives, which bestowed the presidency on John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts. 236 JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. [l825 ADMINISTRATION OF JOHN QUINCY ADAMS, 1825-29. John Q,uincy Adams was qualified for his high office by an extended experience in various official positions. Much of his life had been passed at European courts, as a boy with his father John Adams, and afterward as the representa tive of his country in the Netherlands, Portugal, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain. Henry Clay served throughout his term as secretary of state. Protective Tariff. President Adams favored a high pro tective tariff ; and, according to his views, in 1828 the duties on imported cotton and woollen goods and other manufact ured articles were increased. This was of advantage to the North, largely engaged in manufacturing industry, because it prevented foreign goods from underselling those produced at home ; but it was violently opposed at the South, where the planters were made to pay just so much more for arti cles of common use. At Charleston the flags were placed at half-mast when it was announced that the bill had passed. National Bereavements. The fiftieth anniversary of the declaration of independence, July 4, 1826, witnessed the death of two of the fathers of the republic John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, the one at the ripe age of ninety, the other eighty-two. In 1828, New York suffered the loss of one to whom she may always point with pride De Witt Clin ton, already mentioned as the projector of the Erie Canal. Mr. Adams failed to obtain the presidency for a second term, and surrendered it to Gen. Jackson, who was elected his successor. Calhoun was continued in the vice-presi dency. JACKSON S ADMINISTEATION, 1829-1837. Andrew Jackson was born in 1767, in the Waxhaw set tlement, near the line that divides the two Carolinas. Re moving to Nashville at the age of twenty-one, he had become identified with Tennessee, and had deserved well of his coun- 1829] JACKSON S ADMINISTRATION. 237 try in all the important trusts she had confided to his care. He was a man of inflexible will, and in his administration showed the same self-reliant energy that had saved New Orleans from the British. Jackson made Martin Van Buren, of New York, his secretary of state. He introduced the practice which has been followed by his successors, of removing officials of the opposite party and filling their places with those of the same political principles as himself. Nullification Troubles. We learned that the tariff adopt ed during the preceding administration was extremely dis tasteful to the South ; a new one passed by Congress in 1832 was still more so. In South Carolina the bill was declared unconstitutional, and it was resolved to prevent its enforcement in the port of Charleston by armed resistance or by withdrawing from the Union ; while in Congress the right of individual states to nullify acts of Congress was openly maintained. The leading Nullifiers were Hayne, of South Carolina, and John C. Calhoun, who had resigned the vice-presidency for a seat in the Senate that he might be heard on this im portant question. Daniel Webster, expounding the Consti tution on the other side, denied the right to nullify, and declared liberty and union one and inseparable. So strong was the feeling on this subject that the Union was threatened with dissolution ; but Jackson declared that it must and should be preserved, and ordered troops to Charleston, The Nullifiers then deferred their intended action, and the difficulty was finally settled by a compro mise bill introduced by Clay, which provided for gradual reductions of the tariff extending through ten years. Clay s action alienated many of the tariff-men. He was warned that it would cost him the presidency ; " I would rather be right than be president," was his reply. Difficulties with the Indians disturbed Jackson s admin- 238 JACKSON S ADMINISTRATION. [1832 istration not a little. In each case the exciting cause was the same the encroachments of the whites, and the reluc tance of the Indians to give up lands which they or their fathers had sold or ceded by treaty. First came BLACK HAWK S WAR. Black Hawk was a chief of the Sacs and Foxes, who refused to leave his hunting-grounds on the Mississippi, though they had been bought by the United States some years before. The militia of Illinois were called out to protect the settlers who had purchased these lands, and Black Hawk retreated into what is now Iowa. In the spring of 1832, however, he re- crossed the Mississippi ; and his followers, sepa rating into squads, rav aged the whole Rock River country (see Map). Gen. Scott was sent against them ; but at Chicago, the cholera, then epidemic and very fatal in the United States, broke out among his troops, and he was un able to reach the scene of action. The Indians, however, were driven north to the Wisconsin River, defeated in two battles, and removed to a reservation near the present capi tal of Iowa. Thither also in time went Black Hawk, who had been captured, and was convinced by a visit to the east ern cities that resistance to the pale-faces was hopeless. THE CHEROKEES. Similar troubles arose in Georgia. There the Cherokees, 15,000 in number, had made advances in civilization and established a republic of their own. The general government had agreed to buy the Cherokee lands o Owatonna 31 1 N N E S O Ter.l849;State.l858 ^ VALLEY OF THE UPPEB MISSISSIPPI. 1835] SEMINOLE WAR. 239 for the state of Georgia and remove their occupants, but failed to do so ; and, Georgia having taken the matter into her own hands and passed laws oppressive to her Indian population, the Red Men appealed to the president for pro tection. He, however, proposed moving the Cherokees be yond the Mississippi ; and in 1834, to provide for this and similar cases, Congress set apart the Indian Territory * for the occupancy of such tribes east of the Mississippi as it might be desired to remove. The Cherokees did not want to go, and for some time were proof against both arguments and threats. At length, in 1837, the payment of $5,000,000 and the firm tone of Gen. Scott, who was charged with their removal, induced them to yield. THE SEMINOLE WAE, in Florida, was the most serious. It commenced in 1835 with massacres planned by the crafty chief Osceo la, and was continued into the next administra tion. At first the Indians gained some advantages, and car ried desolation throughout the peninsula, the settlers being obliged to flee to the forts for safety. Even when larger armies were sent out, under such leaders as Scott and Tay lor, afterward distinguished on the battle-fields of Mexico, it was hard to strike the Indians, who would retreat to their inaccessible everglades. The U. S. forces suffered much from exposure and sickness, but at length broke the power of the Red Men in a hard-fought battle on Christmas-day, 1837. Most of the surviving Seminoles were removed to In^ dian Territory, as also were the Creeks, who had aided them, Jackson s Second Term. Though Jackson had many politi cal enemies, the people indorsed his administration, and re- elected him with Martin Van Buren as vice-president. Two exciting subjects engrossed public attention during Jack son s second term : * Indian Territory, and the location of the various tribes within its boi- ders, may be seen on the Map on page 261. 24:0 JACKSON S ADMINISTRATION. [1833 First, his opposition to the U. S. Bank. The charter of this institution expired in 1836 ; Jackson had vetoed a bill providing for its renewal, and in 1833 removed the public funds, which had been deposited in it, and placed them in state banks. The consequence was alarm and distress in the mercantile community. Strenuous efforts were made to in duce " Old Hickory " to recede from his position ; but he stood firm, and confidence gradually revived in business circles. Second, his peremptory tone toward France, which led that country to pay $5,000,000, due according to agreement, for injuries done to American commerce during Napoleon s wars. This decided course gained for the United States the respect of European powers. Political Matters. We have now to mention only the admission of Arkansas as a state in 1836, that of Michigan the following year, and the election of Martin Van Buren as Jackson s successor. The supporters of Jackson and Van Buren, known as " Democrats," were the successors of the old republican party. The " Whigs," in whom the federal ists had become merged, voted for Gen. Harrison. Richard M. Johnson, of Kentucky, was chosen vice-president by the Senate, there being no election to that office by the people. VAN BUREN S ADMINISTRATION, 1837-1841. Martin Van Buren was born at Kinderhook, N. Y., in 1782, and was a lawyer by profession. Besides the official positions he has already been mentioned as holding, he had been a member of the U. S. Senate, governor of New York, and minister to Great Britain. A Business Revulsion, which brought ruin on thousands, occurred early in Van Buren s administration (1837). Specu lation had been rampant, importations ruinously large ; busi ness had been too much expanded, and an unsound credit- system prevailed. The banks were obliged to suspend specie 1837] VAN BUREN S ADMINISTRATION. 241 payments ; a commercial panic and failures to an enormous amount were the consequence. Congress in vain tried to relieve the country ; the recovery was slow. To prevent a recurrence of such evils and insure the safety of the public funds, Van Buren recommended his famous Sub-treasury scheme, which received the sanction of Congress in 1840. Since then the public money, in stead of being deposited in banks, has been kept in the Treasury at Washington, and in offices in the chief cities of the Union known as Sub-treasuries, under the custody of officers who give bonds for the faithful discharge of their trust. Insurrection in Canada. Friendly relations with Great Britain were endangered in 1837 by an insurrection which broke out in Canada. The people of the United States sympathized with the movement, and some New Yorkers even went so far as to seize an island in the Niagara River for the purpose of aiding the insurgents. A neutrality -proc lamation from the president, however, and prompt measures on the part of Gen. Wool, who was sent to the Niagara frontier, preserved the peace. Gen. Scott was equally suc cessful in the north-east, where the disputed line between Maine and New Brunswick had also given rise to difficulties with Great Britain. Railroads. Meanwhile the application of steam in the locomotive had wonderfully facilitated travelling and com merce. George Stephenson, an ingenious English engineer, was the benefactor of the human race who first made the locomotive a practical success. His experiments covered several years, beginning with 1814. The first railroad in the United States, built in 1826, was used in carrying granite from the quarries at Quincy, Mass. ; the first locomotive was imported in 1829. The following } 7 ear, a locomotive, the first successful one ever constructed in this country, was produced at Baltimore, and was used for the transportation of passengers on what is now the Bal- 11 242 VAN BUREN S ADMINISTRATION". 1837 timore and Ohio Rail road. The same year, the Mohawk and Hud son Railroad was be gun between Albany and Schenectady, and in 1832 a load was drawn over it at the rate of thirty miles an hour. From this time roads multiplied rapidly ; and when the revulsion of 1837 occurred, more miles of railway were in operation in the United States than in any other country. Since then, of course, great improvements have been made. The simple engine and plain carriage originally used do not look much like the powerful locomotives and costly cars of the present day. HARBISON S AND TYLER S ADMINISTRATION, 1841-5. The Whigs successful. The financial difficulties under which the country had labored being charged by many to the administration, Van Buren was not re-elected. The Whigs had nominated Gen. William H. Harrison, whose mili tary services the country remembered with gratitude. Sec ond on their ticket was John Tyler of Virginia, who had been governor of that state and also represented it in the U. S. Senate. The presidential campaign was an exciting one. Log cabins and hard-cider barrels figured largely in it, as 1841] TYLER S ADMINISTRATION. 243 emblematical of Harrison s plain farmer-life in Ohio, and the song of " Tippecanoe and Tyler too " rang through the land. The Whig nominees were elected by a large majority. Tyler becomes President. After selecting his cabinet, at the head of which was Daniel Webster, President Harri son died, just one month after his inauguration. This melan choly event devolved the presidency on Mr. Tyler. The first important question that arose under Tyler was the establishment of a U. S. Bank. The friends of such an institution, though defeated under Jackson, had never given up their favorite measure, and in 1841 they secured a ma jority in Congress. Two bills, chartering a national bank, were successively passed, but they were both vetoed by the president. Tyler thus lost the support of his party. Internal Disturbances. After the settlement of the boun dary between Maine and New Brunswick by Webster and Lord Ashburton in 1842, friendly relations were maintained with foreign powers throughout Tyler s term, but disturb ances occurred in some of the states. DORR S REBELLION troubled Rhode Island in 1842. It grew out of the efforts of a portion of the people, calling themselves " the Suffrage Party," to change the old constitu tion which had been in force for nearly two centuries, and make Thomas W. Dorr, one of their partisans, governor. Recourse was had to arms, and U. S. troops were called in before the outbreak was put down. ANTI-RENT DIFFICULTIES arose in New York. The Van Rensselaers, who had for generations held a large tract in Rensselaer County, originally obtained under the old patroon arrangement (p. 54), had divided their lands into farms, which they had leased at nominal rates a few bushels of wheat or fat fowls per year. Small as the rent was, the tenants, who had come to regard themselves as the rightful owners, refused to pay it and resisted legal processes. The disturbances spread to other counties, where lands were held 244 TYLER S ADMINISTRATION. [1844 on a like tenure. It was not till the militia were called out (1846) and some of the leading Anti-renters were taken and punished, that peace was restored. MORMON TROUBLES agitated Illinois. The Mormons, or "Latter-Day Saints," originated with Joseph Smith, who professed to have received a divine revelation in his " Book of Mormon." Their creed, allowing polygamy, or a plurality of wives, was not very moral, nor were their practices any more so ; therefore, when about 1,200 of them settled in Missouri, the Missourians drove them out. They crossed to Illinois, and there in 1840 founded the city of Nauvoo on the bank of the Mississippi. Various crimes were charged upon the Mormons, and collisions soon occurred with the authorities of Illinois. Smith and his brother were arrested, and while in jail killed by a mob. Popular feeling became so strong against the sect that they could not remain in Illinois, but migrated westward. They finally settled in Utah Territory, and built their capital and temple on the borders of Great Salt Lake. Here, under the leadership of Brigham Young and joined by immigrants from Europe as well as from the States, they have grown into a powerful community. " Gentiles," as the Mormons call outsiders, attracted by the mineral riches of the territory, have lately helped to populate Utah, though their coming was at first discouraged. New States. Florida became a state in 1845. Iowa, ad mitted at the same time, did not enter the Union until the following year. The Annexation of Texas was provided for during Tyler s term. This event requires us to glance at what had taken place in Mexico since the beginning of the century. The oppression of Spanish officials led the Creoles, or native Mexicans, after the royal family of Spain had been dethroned by Napoleon, to make an effort for their inde pendence. The first insurrectionary movement, begun in 1844] TYLER S ADMINISTRATION. 245 1810, failed ; a second, in 1821, succeeded. Gen. Iturbide (e-toor be-dd), under whom the revolution was effected, hav ing been proclaimed emperor and assumed arbitrary power, was finally put to death by those who favored a free gov ernment ; and under Santa Anna and Victoria, who next rose to the head of affairs, a federal republic was formed. One by one, we have seen Spain lose all her possessions on the mainland of America : Louisiana, by cession to France ; Florida, by sale to the United States ; her South American provinces, Mexico, and Central America, by revolution. Cuba and Porto Rico are about all that remains to her of her once proud domain in the New World. Texas had been a province of Mexico, largely colonized by Americans. Oppressed by the government, the Texans had declared their independence, and had virtually estab lished it after a hard struggle, closed in 1836 with the battle of San Jacinto. On this sanguinary field Santa Anna was signally defeated by Gen. Sam Houston (hew stun), after ward president of Texas and U. S. Senator. The American population of "the Lone Star* Republic," having rapidly increased, in 1844 desired to be admitted into the Union ; and, the people of the United States having plainly signified their wishes on the sub ject, Texas was annexed in 1845. Election of Polk, The annexation of Texas was made the issue at the presidential election of 1844. The democrats, * The " lone star," the em blem of the republic, has, since her admission into the Union galaxy, been adopted as the de vice on her state seal. STATE SEAL OF TEXAS. 24:6 FOLK S ADMINISTRATION. [1845 with James K. Polk as their standard-bearer, declared in favor of that measure ; the whigs and their favorite leader, Henry Clay, opposed it. Polk was successful, and George M. Dallas, of Pennsylvania, was chosen vice-president. Magnetic Telegraph. The proceedings of the conven tion that nominated Mr. Polk were transmitted from Balti more to Washington by the MAGNETIC TELEGRAPH, the suc cess of which was demonstrated by these first dispatches. For this great invention in its simplest practical working- form, the world is indebted to Samuel F. B. Morse, a native of Massachusetts ; it may be ranked among the crowning triumphs of human ingenuity. Telegraph-wires were soon threading the country in all directions, and now hand in hand with the railroad they unite the Atlantic with the Pa cific. FOLK S ADMINISTRATION, 1845-1849. James Knox Polk was a native of North Carolina, but a resident of Tennessee, of which state he had been governor. James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, served as his secretary of state. War with Mexico resulted, as a matter of course, from the annexation of Texas, for the Mexican government had never recognized the independence of the latter. The old south-western boundary of Texas had been the Nueces (nwa ses) River, but the Texans had claimed to the Rio Grande (re o grahn da great river see Map, p. 249) : and when the United States offered to adjust the boundary by negotiation, Mexico rejected the proposal with contempt. The U. S. government, therefore, directed Gen. Zachary Tay lor, "old Rough and Ready," as he was nicknamed, here tofore mentioned in connection with the Seminole War, to occupy the disputed territory. This he did with a small force, taking post at the mouth of the Rio Grande a move ment which Mexico accepted as a declaration of war. We must reserve the history of the Mexican War for 1846] POLK S ADMINISTRATION. 247 another chapter. Meanwhile, in June, 1846, the North-west Boun dary question, which had threat ened to produce a rupture with Great Britain, was ami cably settled. The 49th parallel of lat itude and the Strait of San Juan de Fuca (sahn whahn da foo kah) were adopted as the di viding line. SCENE IN MEXICO. REVIEW BY DATES. Continue the CHRONOLOGICAL RECORD from page 192, according to the following hints. Let the topics be assigned in turn to different pupils, and treated exhaustively. 1781 (Four battles). " (Surrender). 1783 (Treaty). 1787 (Rebellion). " (Constitution). 1789 (First president). 1790 (Gen. Harmer). 1791 (Gen. St. Clair). " (Discovery). 1792 (Invention). 1794 (Gen. Wayne). " (Rebellion). 1799 (Death). 1800 (Capital). " (Treaty). 1803 (War. Purchase.) 1807 (Burr). " (Steamboat). 1808 (Slave-trade). 1811 (Battle). 1812 (War. Surrender.) " (Land battle). " (Naval battles). 1813 (Land battles). " (Naval battles). " (Indian camp gn). 1814 (Land battles). " (Naval battles). " (Convention). 1815 (Land battle). " (Naval battles). " (Peace). 1817 (War. Canal.) 1819 (Purchase). 1821 (Compromise). 1826 (Death). 1830 (Locomotive). 1832 (War). " (Epidemic). " (Nullification). 1835 (War). 1836 (Battle in Texas). 1837 (Revulsion). " (Insurrection). 1841 (Death). 1842 (Boundary). " (Rebellion). 1845 (Annexation). 24:8 THE MEXICAN WAR. [l846 CHAPTER XXVIII. THE MEXICAN WAR. IN treating of the Mexican War, we may consider first the movements on the frontier under Gen. Taylor ; next, the operations in the north and west directed against Upper Cal ifornia ; and, finally, the march upon the capital, which ended the contest. TAYLOK S CAMPAIGN. Movements on the Rio Grande. We left Gen. Taylor at the mouth of the Rio Grande, opposite Matamo ras. Here Gen. Ampudia (ahm-poo 1 de-aJi) by the middle of April, 1846, had collected a large body of Mexicans, and soon afterward a reconnoitring party of Americans was cut off. The news awakened intense excitement in the United States ; and, when a call was made for 50,000 volunteers, four times that number offered. Gen. Taylor had left a garrison in charge of his supplies on the Gulf, twenty miles farther north, at Point Isabel . The Mexicans beginning to swarm across the Rio Grande, there was danger of their getting in his rear and taking this post. So, leaving a few brave men to hold the fort he had erected, afterward called Fort Brown, he marched to Point Isabel with his main body. The necessary arrangements for its defence having been made, he then set out with a provision-train on his return, and on reaching Palo Alto (pah lo ahl to), May 8, 1846, found a Mexican army nearly three times as large as his own drawn up across his path. There was a hard struggle, but Taylor was completely victorious. And so he was the following day, at Resaca de la Palma (ra-sah kah da lah pahl maTi), where the defeated Mexicans again disputed his passage. It was here that Cap tain May and his dragoons brilliantly charged up to the 1846] CAPTURE OF MONTEREY. 249 Mouth of Faeces B. muzzles of the enemy s guns, and made prisoner one of their generals in the act of applying a match. The Mexi cans after their discomfiture fled in confusion across the Rio Grande, while Taylor reached his fort in safety, to the great relief of its defenders. Eight days bombard ment during his ab sence had severely tried the mettle of the little garrison. Capture of Monte rey. Gen. Taylor now carried the war across the Rio Grande, taking Mata- moras, and one place after another, till he reached the fortified and well-garrisoned city of Monterey (mon-ta-ra r ). This stronghold was car ried by storm Sep tember 23d, Worth, Quitman, Butler, and Taylor himself, animating their men to prodigies of valor. Saltillo (sahl-teel yo) and Victoria were next occupied. At this juncture Taylor received orders to send the greater part of his troops to Gen. Scott, who was preparing for a campaign farther south, to fall back on Mon terey, and merely hold the ground already gained. Buena Vista. It was mortifying to Gen. Taylor to be thus stopped in his career of victory, but like a good soldier he obeyed. The flower of his forces, with many recruits EASTERN COAST OF MEXICO. 250 THE MEXICAN WAR. [l847 whom Gen. Wool had been drilling into efficiency, were soon on their way to swell Scott s army. Santa Anna meanwhile had become president of the republic. Taylor and Wool now seemed to be at his mercy, and he hastened to crush them with 20,000 men. Taylor, however, was not the man to be crushed. In a narrow pass at Buena Vista (bwa nah vees tati) he awaited the approaching Mexicans, with about one-fourth of their number. All day the battle raged. In spite of their over whelming numbers and persistent charges, the enemy were held in check by the artillery of the Americans, and finally they were driven from the field (February 23, 1847). Santa Anna withdrew during the night, abandoning his dead and wounded. Thus gloriously ended Taylor s campaign. The Rio Grande frontier was secured. OPERATIONS IN NORTHERN MEXICO. Kearny and Doniphan. Simultaneously with Gen. Tay lor s operations, important movements had been made for the purpose of reducing the northern provinces of Mexico. The U. S. " Army of the West," under Gen. S. W. Kearny (kar ne), started in June, 1846, from Fort Leavenworth, and after a march of 900 miles occupied Santa Fe (./), the cap ital of New Mexico. Here a new government was organized without opposition. Intelligence that California was already in the possession of his countrymen decided Kearny not to take his whole force thither; so, pushing on himself to the Pacific coast with only a few cavalry -men, he left Colonel Don iphan with the main body to overrun the country southward, and effect a junction with Taylor s army. The energetic Doniphan carried out his programme, and reached Saltillo in safety, after a march of a thousand miles through the heart of the enemy s country, and two victories over armies greatly out numbering his own. Kearny, though in imminent danger 1846] FREMONT IN CALIFORNIA. 251 from overwhelming forces of Mexicans, accomplished his purpose with equal success, arriving in time to take part in the closing battle, which completed the establishment of American power in Upper California (January 8, 1847). Fremont, " the Pathfinder of the Rocky Mountains," had revolutionized California, and cooperating with Commodore Stockton, who opportunely appeared off the coast, had al most subdued it, before Kearny arrived. He had been en gaged in explorations in this quarter prior to the war, and, learning of hostile intentions on the part of the Mexican governor toward the American settlers on the Sacramento River, he had induced the latter to declare their indepen dence. When news was received of the commencement of hostilities between the two countries, and that a IT. S. fleet had arrived, the stars and stripes were substituted for the grizzly bear which adorned the flag of independent Califor nia. The Mexicans, in their attempts to crush Fremont and his followers, had been repeatedly defeated, and after the battle in which Kearny took part gave up the contest. SCOTT S CAMPAIGN. Capture of Vera Cruz. Victory had thus far favored the American arms in every battle ; but it was felt that, to bring the Mexicans to terms, their capital must be taken, and this task was assigned to Gen. Winfield Scott, the vet eran of Lundy s Lane. Assuming the chief command in Mexico, Gen. Scott, on the 12th of March, 1847, made a landing with 12,000 men at Vera Cruz (for the various places mentioned, see Map, p. 249). This city was defended by a castle of great strength, which had frowned on the waters of the Gulf for more than two centuries ; but both city and castle succumbed before Gen. Scott s guns. The March on the Capital Vera Cruz taken, Scott at once began his march into the interior. His route led him over the lofty Cordilleras, up steep ascents, and through 252 THE MEXICAN WAR. [1847 GENERAL Scorr AT VESA CKCZ. difficult passes which afforded every opportunity for defence, and which in some cases he was obliged to carry at the point of the bayonet ; but his march was one series of victories. We find him successively at Cerro (sZr ro) Gordo, routing Santa Anna, who fled in such haste as to leave his wooden leg behind seizing the strong castle of Perote (pa-ro ta) on a towering peak and occupying the ancient city of Puebla (pweb lahMny 15th). After a brief halt at this point, Gen. Scott, re-enforced, continued his march over a succession of table-lands toward the city of Mexico. Santa Anna had concentrated his forces in and about the capital, the approaches to which for a dis tance of ten miles the Americans found defended by a chain of well-planned works. To take these required incredible exertions, but nothing could withstand the impetuous charges of the assailants. The struggle began on the 20th of August. The batteries at Contreras (kon-tra rahs], the well-garrisoned post of San Antonio, the heights of Churu- 1847] CAPTURE OF THE CAPITAL. 253 busco (ch<>f>-ro-boos ko), the strong position of Molino del Key (mo-le no del ra king s mill), and finally Chapultepec (chahrpool ta-pek)^ "the monarch fortification of the valley of Mexico," were successively taken Worth, Quitman, Pil low, Twiggs, Shields, Pierce, Cadwallader, and Persifer Smith, vying with each other in gallantry. Mexico taken. On the 14th of September, Gen. Scott made his triumphal entry into the Aztec capital, after a cam paign that has had few parallels in history. Santa Anna and the remnant of his army had fled from the city the pre ceding night. The Mexican general made his escape to the West Indies, and those whom he left in authority were quite ready to give up the contest. A treaty was agreed on, and peace was proclaimed July 4, 1848. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (fjirah-dah-loop a he- daM yo), which closed the war, provided that Mexico should make over to the United States California and New Mexico, as well as her claim to the disputed territory between the Nueces and the Rio Grande. The United States was to pay for the vast tract thus ceded $15,000,000, and to assume debts due from Mexico to American citizens to the amount of 83,500,000. The Gadsden purchase five years afterward secured to the United States another piece of northern Mex ico, south of the Gila (he lah) River. These acquisitions completed the territory of the United States as at present constituted, with the exception of Alas ka, at the north-western extremity of the continent, bought from Russia in 1867 for $7,200,000. By referring to the Map on the next page, the student can see the extent of the country at the close of the Revolutionary War, the several tracts that have been subsequently added, and the names of the states that have been formed from them re spectively. California. The value of the territory first ceded by Mexico was little suspected at the time ; but in January, I V 1848] FOLK S ADMINISTRATION. 255 1848, a discovery was made which startled the world, and showed that the United States had indeed gained a prize. In a bed of sand deposited by the waters of the American River, a tributary of the Sacramento, were found some glit tering particles that proved to be gold. An abundance of the precious metal was soon discovered in the neighborhood. The excited people deserted their ranches, and hastened to the favored spot with picks and pans. The news spread to the States, was borne over the Atlantic, crossed the Pacific to distant China, and attracted hundreds of emigrants from all lands to California. Within four years the population reached a quarter of a million. San Francisco, from a vil lage of a few mean huts, assumed the proportions of a nour ishing city. Gold was found in various quarters. In twenty years the yield amounted to $900,000,000. The supply is still unexhausted, averaging about $20,000,000 annually. Wisconsin was added to the Union in 1848, and the fol lowing March Minnesota Territory was organized. Rail roads were rapidly developing the West, and cities spring ing up as if by magic. The Map on page 238 shows the situation of some of the states formed from the Louisiana Purchase, with a few of their principal cities and the dates at which they were founded. Political Matters. An attempt to exclude slavery from territory that might be acquired by the war, had been made as early as 1846. The Wilmot Proviso, so called from its proposer, had been rejected by Congress ; but a party was organized, under the name of " Free-Soilers," to support the principle it involved. They brought into the field, as their presidential candidate at the next election, Ex-President Van Buren. The democrats nominated Gen. Lewis Cass, U. S. senator from Michigan ; the whigs, Gen. Taylor, whose faithful services in Mexico gave him strong claims on the nation. Taylor was elected, and at the same time Millard Fillmore, of New York, became vice-president. 256 EVENTS OF THE MEXICAN WAK. ABSTRACT OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS OF THE MEXICAN WAR. Use as a review in the way heretofore directed. 1846. Mexicans commence hostilities, capturing Captain Thornton, Apr. 26. Gen. Taylor defeats Gen. Arista (ah-rees tah) at Palo Alto, May 8. Gen. Taylor defeats Gen. Arista at Resaca de la Palma, May 9. Fort Brown bombarded by Gen. Ampudia, May 2-9. Congress formally declares that war exists, May 11. Taylor takes possession of Matamoras, May 18. Revolutionary movements in California, July, August. Taylor takes Monterey from Ampudia, Sept. 24. [Dec. 25. Col. Doniphan defeats Gen. Ponce de Leon at Bracito (brah-the to) 1847. Battle of San Gabriel (sahn gah- bre-d ), California, Jan. 8. Taylor defeats Santa Anna at Buena Vista, Feb. 23. Col. Doniphan defeats Gen. Trias (tre ahs) at Sacramento, Feb. 28. Gen. Scott lands at Yera Cruz, March 9. Vera Cruz and the adjacent castle surrender to Scott, March 27. Scott defeats Santa Anna at Cerro Gordo, Apr. 18. [May 15. Scott takes Jalapa (hah-lali pah}, Apr. 19 ; Perote, Apr. 22 ; Puebla, Scott defeats Gen. Valencia at Contreras, Aug. 20. Scott defeats Santa Anna at Churubusco, Aug. 20. Worth takes San Antonio, Aug. 20. Worth defeats Gen. Alvarez (ahl vah-reth) at Molino del Rey, Sept. 8. Heights of Chapultepec carried by the Americans, Sept. 13. Americans enter the capital in triumph, Sept. 14. 1848. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo signed, Feb. 2. Peace proclaimed in the United States by President Polk, July 4. CHAPTER XXIX. TAYLOR, FILLMORE, PIERCE, BUCHANAN. TAYLOR S ADMINISTRATION, 1849-1850. President Taylor was a resident of Louisiana, though he had been born in Virginia and reared in Kentucky. He had never held any political position, but in his military career had, as we have seen, been eminently successful. John M. 1849] TAYLOR S ADMINISTRATION. 257 Clayton, of Delaware, was appointed secretary of state. The vice-president was a New Yorker by birth and resi dence. He had attained distinction at the bar, and served in Congress. Slavery Discussions. During this administration, the Union was shaken to its centre by exciting discussions on questions connected with the territory recently acquired from Mexico. California, peopled with unexampled rapidity, asked to be admitted as a state, with a constitution prohibit ing slavery. But part of its territory was south of the line fixed by the Missouri Compromise ; its admission as a free state would give the North a preponderance of votes in the Senate, and would be the signal, so the Southern leaders declared, for the disruption of the Union. Then it was that Henry Clay came forward a second time as the great peace maker, advocating concession and forbearance with an elo quence that melted every heart, and inducing Congress, after long debate, to pass a compromise bill that settled all the important points at issue. The Omnibus Bill, as it was called, provided that Califor nia should be admitted as a free state ; that $10,000,000 should be paid to Texas, in consideration of her giving up all claim to New Mexico ; that New Mexico and Utah, which had before been without governments, should be organized as territories with no restrictions as to slavery ; that the re turn of fugitive slaves should be insured by a more rigorous law ; and that the slave-trade should be abolished in the District of Columbia. National Bereavements. While the pulse of the nation was still beating high under the excitements of the slavery agitation, President Taylor died (July 9, 1850). Mr. Fill- more succeeded to the presidency, and Clayton gave way to Daniel Webster as secretary of state. Nor was the loss of the president the only affliction that tried the nation about this time. There had been three 258 THE LEADERS OF THE SENATE. [1850 great statesmen acknowledged for years as leaders, though never called by politicians to the highest office Calhoun, the champion of state s -rights and Southern interests Clay, the idol of the West and Webster, the giant intellect of New England. Seldom has any deliberative body listened to eloquence that could rival the close and vehement reason ing of Calhoun, the persuasive and infectious enthusiasm of Clay, or Webster s grand diction and trenchant arguments. One after another, these bright ornaments of the Senate passed away ; Calhoun shortly before the president s death, Clay and Webster during the succeeding administration, in 1852. FILLMOKE S ADMINISTRATION, 1850-1853. Foreign Relations. After Fillmore s signature to the Omnibus Bill had for a time settled the slavery question, his term was undisturbed, except by temporary troubles with Spain and Great Britain. In the former case, " filibusters " under Gen. Lopez, fitting out an expedition in the United States contrary to law, and making a descent on Cuba for the purpose of revolutionizing it, came near embroiling our government with Spain. Lopez 1851] FILLMOKE S ADMINISTRATION. 259 was defeated and executed at Havana. Soon afterward, France and England, fearing that the United States had de signs on Cuba, asked this country to unite with them in a " tripartite treaty " guaranteeing the possession of that isl and to Spain. Edward Everett, of Massachusetts, Webster s successor as secretary of state, while disavowing all inten tion of infringing on the rights of Spain, declined to enter into any such agreement, and reiterated the Monroe doctrine in the most emphatic terms. The misunderstanding with Great Britain, having refer ence to the right of fishing on the Banks of Newfoundland, was amicably settled by negotiation. When the time approached for another presidential elec tion, Gen. Winfield Scott was put in nomination by the whigs ; Franklin Pierce, of New Hampshire, by the demo crats. The latter, with William R. King, of Alabama, his fellow-candidate, was elected. PIEECE S ADMINISTRATION, 1853-1857. President Pierce had been a successful lawyer in his na tive state, which he had represented in both houses of Con gress, and had also acquitted himself creditably as a general in the Mexican War. He called William L. Marcy, of New York, to the first place in the cabinet. Foreign Relations. Several important questions arose with foreign nations during this administration. First came a boundary-dispute with Mexico, which was settled by the Gadsden purchase already referred to. Next, a sharp dis cussion took place with Austria as to the right of that coun try to seize, in a neutral port, one of her subjects who had taken part in the Hungarian Revolution, but had subse quently declared his intention of becoming an American citizen. The position taken by the United States, that the seizure was unlawful, was established, and the Hungarian in question was given up. 260 PIERCE S ADMINISTRATION. [1854 The opening of Japan, before shut out from commercial relations with the rest of the world by its jealousy of for eigners, was effected in 1854. A squadron under Commo dore Perry, a brother of the hero of Lake Erie, having vis ited the Japanese waters, the emperor was induced to sign a treaty by which Americans were allowed to trade at certain ports. The privilege was subsequently extended to other nations. Six years after, ambassadors bringing the treaty arrived in the United States. They were received as guests of the nation, and took back with them such impressions of the outer world, received during their tour, that since their re turn Japan has laid aside its distrust of foreigners and seized with avidity on the improvements of other countries. It has also communicated with the treaty-powers by subse quent embassies, has sent over young men to be educated, has organized schools, has introduced steamboats, railroads, and telegraphs, and under the new order of things is making rapid progress. Sectional excitement was revived with greater violence than ever during Pierce s term. It arose from the introduc tion of a bill into Congress by Senator Douglas, of Illinois, providing for the organization of a vast tract west of Mis souri, Iowa, and Minnesota, into two territories, Kansas and Nebraska, which should be exempted from the operation of the Missouri Compromise, and allowed to come in as free or slave states according to the decision of their citizens at the time of their admission. This firebrand kindled anew the flame of sectional strife ; but the friends of " popular sov ereignty," as it was called, had a majority in Congress, and in May, 1854, passed the bill. Then began a terrible struggle between the partisans and opponents of slavery to secure Kansas, by peopling it with settlers in sympathy with their respective views. On the one hand, antislavery men from the North-west and the 1855] THE KANSAS STRUGGLE. 261 East flocked into the new territory ; and on the other, Southerners went in with their slaves, while Mis- sourians were charged with crossing the bor der by hundreds and controlling the elections. Two sets of territorial officers were chosen. Anarchy, civil war, and all their attendant evils, followed. For two years (1855-57) "bleed- NEBBASKA, KANSAS, AND INDIAN TERBITORY. ing Kansas " thus suffered, unprotected by the general gov ernment; but at last, in 1861, it was admitted as a free state, as was also Nebraska in 1867. Political Affairs. With Clay and Webster, the old whig party passed away. Some of its supporters, opposed to allowing too much influence in political matters to foreign ers, joined the "American " party, which in 1856 nominated Mr. Fillmore for the presidency. The democrats, declaring for the extension of slavery wherever it found its way by the popular voice, named James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, and John C. Breckinridge, of Kentucky, as their candidates. John C. Fremont was the standard-bearer of the Free-soilers, or Republicans, whose cardinal doctrine was the exclusion of slavery from the territories. Buchanan and Breckinridge were elected, and inaugurated March 4, 1857. 262 BUCHANAN S ADMINISTRATION. [1857 BUCHANAN S ADMINISTRATION, 1857-18C1. President Buchanan, besides serving in both houses of Congress and as secretary of state under Polk, had repre sented his country at the courts of St. Petersburg and Lon don. He invited Gen. Lewis Cass, of Michigan, to the chief seat in the cabinet. Atlantic Telegraph. Another of the great triumphs that mark the world s progress was achieved during Buchanan s administration. This was the completion of a submarine telegraph from Newfoundland to Ireland. Messages were received, and the feasibility of the enterprise was proved, though the line soon ceased to work. In 1866 another cable was successfully laid, and messages are now con stantly transmitted across the ocean with rapidity and pre cision. We have, besides, to record a general business depres sion in the fall succeeding Buchanan s inauguration ; also, the admission of Minnesota into the sisterhood of states in 1858, and Oregon in 1859. But the chief feature of this period was the continued agitation of the slavery question. The " Dred Scott " Decision of the U. S. Supreme Court, in 1857, that slaves could be carried by their owners into the territories or free states without thereby gaining their freedom, awakened violent feeling in the North, and led to the passage of " Personal Liberty Bills " in several of the states, to prevent the return of fugitive slaves. On the other hand, " JOHN BROWN S RAID," in 1859, raised the blood of the southern people to fever-heat. This attempt to liberate the slaves by giving them an opportunity to rise, was undertaken by twenty-one men in spired and headed by John Brown, who had figured as a prominent antislavery leader in Kansas. They succeeded in seizing the U. S. arsenal at Harper s Ferry, Va., on the Potomac, but were not supported as they had hoped to be, I860] SECESSION IN THE SOUTH. 263 and were shortly overpowered by a force of U. S. marines. Except two who escaped, all that participated in the move ment were either killed in the struggle, or taken and hanged; the latter fate was Brown s. These events arrayed section against section with a bitterness that party leaders and a partisan press inflamed almost to frenzy. Secession, When, then, in 1860, Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, the candidate of the republican party, was elected to the presidency (over Stephen A. Douglas, who was sup ported by one wing of the democracy ; John C. Breckin- ridge, representing the other ; and John Bell, of Tennessee, the nominee of the " Constitutional Union Party "), the southern leaders regarded it as a menace to slavery, and proceeded to break up the Union. Efforts at conciliation were made in Congress and out of it, by a Peace Conference, proposed constitutional amendments, etc., but in vain. A convention of the people of South Carolina, December 20, 1860, declared the connection between that state and the Federal Union dissolved, and in the course of six weeks the example was followed by Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. The next steps were the withdrawal of the senators and representatives of the seceded states from Congress, and the formation at Montgomery, Ala. (Februarv 4, 1861), of a union under the title of " the Confederate States of America." Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, an able officer in the Mexican War, and subsequently a prominent defender of southern rights in the U. S. Senate, was chosen presi dent, and Alexander H. Stephens, of Georgia, vice-president. The forts, navy-yards, and arsenals, in the seceded states, T/ith their contents, were seized ; and a detachment of U. S. troops in Texas was surrendered to the state authorities. Little was done to prevent these movements by Mr. Bu chanan, who, on the 4th of March, 1861, gave up the presi dential chair to his successor. 264 THE CIVIL WAK. [l861 REVIEW BY DATES. Continue the CHRONOLOGICAL RECORD from page 247, according to the following suggestions. Use as a review in the manner heretofore directed. 1846 (War). 1850 (Deaths). 1854 (Bill passed). " (Four battles). " (Cuba). " (Japan). 1847 (Eight battles). " (Bill passed). 1857 (Telegraph). " (Capital taken). 1852 (Deaths). 1859 (" Dred Scott "). 1848 (Treaty). 1853 (Purchase). " (Raid). " (Discovery). " (Austria). 1860 (South Carolina). Map, p. 254. Bound the United States as constituted at the close of the Revolutionary War. What territory was organized in 1787 ? What states have been formed out of the Territory North-west of the Ohio, and in what years respectively ? From what did the Ohio River separate the Territory North-west of the Ohio ? What states were formed out of the Territory South of the Ohio, and when ? Out of what were Mississippi and Alabama formed ? When and how was Florida obtained, and when did it become a state ? What was the largest tract obtained by the United States by purchase ? Describe the situation and extent of the Louisiana Purchase. What states have been formed from it ? What states have been formed from the Mexi can Cession ? What territories ? What river separates the original Mexi can Cession from the Gadsden Purchase ? What territories were formed in part from the Gadsden Purchase ? When did Minnesota become a state ? From what was it formed ? When did Colorado become a state ? From what was it formed ? CHAPTER XXX. THE CIVIL WAR, 1861-1865. President Lincoln was a self-made man. Born in Ken tucky in 1809, and brought up in Indiana to farm-labor which left him few opportunities for obtaining an education, he had finally settled in Illinois, studied law, and attained political eminence. He called Wm. H. Seward, of New York, to the department of state ; Salmon P. Chase, of Ohio, to the treasury ; and to the war department Simon Cameron, 1861] FALL OF FOET StJMTER. 265 of Pennsylvania, succeeded within a year by Edwin M. Stan- ton. Hannibal Hamlin, of Maine, was vice-president. Fall of Fort Sumter. Of the national posts within the limits of the seceded states, President Lincoln found in pos session of the government only Fort Pickens at Pensacola, the works at the Florida Keys, and Fort Sumter in Charles ton harbor. The last-named post, held by Major Anderson with seventy-nine men, Buchanan had tried to re-enforce, but the vessel he sent had been turned back by Confederate bat teries. Lincoln renewed the attempt, but with no better success. The Confederates, regarding the intention to sup ply the fort by force as a declaration of war, summoned Major Anderson to surrender. He declined, and Gen. Beauregard (bore-gard), who was in command of 6,000 Confederate volunteers that had gathered at Charleston, on the 12th of April commenced a furious bombardment. Major Anderson replied to the fire, but after thirty-four hours was obliged to give up the unequal contest and capitulate. The Consequences. News of the fall of Sumter created intense excitement both north and south. President Lincoln at once called for 75,000 men, to serve for three months, and in the non-slaveholding states his appeal met with a hearty response. Not so, however, in the remaining southern mem bers of the Union or the border states. Virginia formally seceded, April 17th ; and this step was immediately followed by the seizure of the armory at Harper s Ferry and of the navy -yard at Norfolk. Arkansas, North Carolina, and Ten nessee, were not long behind " the Old Dominion," making eleven states arrayed against the Federal government. The people of Maryland were divided in sentiment, some of the residents of Baltimore sympathizing so strongly with the Confederates that they assailed a body of Massachusetts troops passing through that city for the defence of Washing ton (April 19th). The decided course of Captain (afterward General) Lyon, who commanded the U. S. arsenal at St. 12 266 THE CIVIL WAR. [1861 Louis, checked the secession movement in Missouri ; while Kentucky, though not taking part against the Union, re fused at first to furnish troops for its support. OPERATIONS OF 1861. First Movements. Immediately after the secession of Virginia, large bodies of southern troops were thrown up into that state, and Richmond was made the capital of the Confederacy. On the Union side, volunteers rapidly nocked in, and Gen. Scott assumed command. The authorities at Washington acted with promptness and energy. Steamers were bought, and fitted up as gunboats to blockade the southern ports. The government factories and founderies were driven to the utmost to produce arms and ordnance, particularly improved rifled cannon, the northern arsenals TUB PARROTT EIFLED GUN. having been nearly emptied of their supplies during the pre ceding administration. The president, beginning to appre ciate the magnitude of the struggle that was at hand, called for additional men to serve during the war ; and Congress, summoned for an extra session, made ample appropriations for the expenses to be incurred. 1861] EARLY BATTLES IN VIRGINIA. 267 Operations in Virginia. A large body of Federal troops having thus been brought into the field, forward movements were made in Virginia about the same time at several dif ferent points. Gen. Butler, in command of Fortress Mon roe, near the mouth of the James River (see Map, p. 273), sent out a detachment to surprise a Confederate post at Lit tle Bethel ; but the attempt failed, and the troops, having gone on to Big Bethel, were there repulsed. Colonel Wallace was more successful in a dash which he made on Romney (June llth) with a division of Gen. Patter son s army, which had been in camp in Pennsylvania ; and shortly after the main body marched up the Shenandoah Valley, the Confederates retiring before them to Winchester. Farther west, decisive advantages were gained for the Union cause by Gen. Morris, at Philippi ; * by Gen. George B. McClellan, at Rich Mountain and Carrick s Ford ; by Gen. Rosecrans, at Carnifex Ferry ; by Gen. Kelly, near Rom ney and in subsequent minor engagements ; so that, by the end of the year, Federal authority was completely estab lished in western Virginia. BULL RUN. The great battle of 1861, however, was to be fought nearer Washington. To prevent an advance of the Federal troops from the direction of this city, the Con federates had concentrated their principal force under Beau- regard near Manassas Junction, twenty-seven miles west of Alexandria. Gen. McDowell, sent to dislodge them, with a large army of volunteers, found them posted in force at Bull Run, and a desperate battle took place (July 21st). The Unionists at first had the advantage ; but Gen. Jo seph E. Johnston, having withdrawn most of his army from Winchester without the knowledge of Patterson, who had been sent expressly to prevent him from joining Beaure- gard, reached the field just in time to turn the tide of bat- * The precise dates of the different battles will be found in the Abstract at the close of the chapter. 268 BULL KUN. BALL S BLUFF. [1861 tie. Victory almost won was changed into a defeat, a panic, a rout, which, according to official figures, cost the Fed erals 2,952 men. By their success in this first great battle, the cause of the Con federates was materially strengthened in the border states. Washington was now in dan ger ; and, the aged Scott desir ing to transfer the responsibilities of his position to younger shoul ders, Gen. Mc- Clellan, fresh from his suc cesses in western Virginia, was in trusted with the command of the Army of the Po tomac. Regi- SEAT OF THE CIVIL WAE IN VIRGINIA AND THB VICINITY. ments were hur ried forward, and the Federals were soon sufficiently strong again to attempt aggressive movements. On the 21st of October, they met with a sanguinary defeat at Ball s Bluff, on the Potomac above Washington, but two months later were encouraged by an important advantage gained at Dranesville, Virginia. The Struggle in Missouri. Meanwhile, though Missouri had determined to remain in the Union, her governor and some of the state troops had taken up arms for the Confed- rl^town 1861] OPERATIONS EST MISSOURI. 269 erate cause. The restraints of law were removed, and vio lence ran riot throughout the state. Soon civil war com menced in earnest, Gen. Lyon and Colonel Sigel (se gel), on the part of the Union, making head as best they could against Gen. Price and his Missourians, supported by Mc- Culloch and a force from Arkansas and Texas. Victory, for the most part, sided with the Confederates. Gen. Lyon fell at the head of his men, in a severe action at Wilson s Creek, August 10th. This was followed, the next month, by the surrender of Colonel Mulli gan and 2,640 national troops to Gen. Price and a superior force at Lex ington. Final ly, in Novem ber, a Union force from Cai ro, Illinois, in an attack upon Belmont, on the Mississippi River, after driving back the Confederates and burning their camp, suffered heavy loss in making their way back to the landing-place. Gen. Fremont, who had charge of the department after Lyon s fall until November, could not pre vent the Confederates from gaining possession of a great part of the state. Naval Operations. Two important positions on the coast of Carolina were taken by naval expeditions fitted out by the national government in the latter part of the year ; the forts at Hatteras Inlet by Commodore Stringham and Gen. ALABAMA \ Arkansas Post BATTLE-FIELDS IN THE WEST. 270 THE CIVIL WAE. [l861 Butler, and the fine harbor of Port Royal, with its defences, by Commodore Du Pont and Gen. Thomas W. Sherman. A blockade was maintained along the coast, but on dark nights fast-sailing craft would sometimes slip past the Fed eral vessels, carrying out cargoes of cotton and bringing back much-needed supplies. Several Confederate priva teers, also, got out upon the ocean, and inflicted great loss on northern commerce. An incident which occurred in November of this year came near involving the Federal government in war with Great Britain. Mason and Slidell, appointed Confederate ambassadors to England and France, had run the blockade, and at Havana embarked on the Trent, a British mail-vessel. Captain Wilkes, in the U. S. steamer San Jacinto, over hauled them shortly after leaving port, took them off the Trent, and thus provoked from Great Britain loud com plaints of the indignity offered to her flag and demands for reparation. The threatened collision was avoided by a prompt disavowal of the seizure and the restoration of the prisoners. OPERATIONS OF 1862. The beginning of the year 1862 found not less than 450,000 national troops in the field, nearly half of whom were under McClellan s command near Washington. While he was disciplining them into an efficient army for a move ment on the Confederate capital, important operations were going on elsewhere, with the view to a general invasion southward farther west, and the securing of important points on the coast as bases of operation and for the main tenance of a more efficient blockade. Movements in the West, KENTUCKY became the princi pal battle-field early in the year. A decisive Union victory gained January 19th at Mill Springs, by Gen. George H. Thomas, freed the eastern part of the state from the Con federates, while still more important successes were achieved 1862] MOVEMENTS IN THE WEST. 271 GUNBOAT AXD MORTAR-BOAT. in the west. A fleet of gunboats and mortar-boats had been prepared during the winter at Cairo, 111. These, man aged by Commodore Foote and acting in connection with a land-force under Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, in February effected the capture of Forts Henry and Donelson, situated respec tively on the Tennessee and the Cumberland River, in north western Tennessee (see Map, p. 269). The loss of these positions and the 10,000 men they contained obliged Gen. A. S. Johnston, the Confederate commander of the depart ment, to retire to the south of the Tennessee River. TENNESSEE. The Federal forces soon took Nashville, with valuable stores collected there. Pushing on to the south, they finally reached Pittsburg Landing on the Ten nessee River, near the state-line. Here they were con fronted by a large body of Confederates, under A. S. John ston and Beauregard. While Grant, who commanded on the Union side, was waiting at this point for Gen. Buell to join him with re-enforcements, he was suddenly attacked by the Confederates, who captured one division of his army, 272 THE CIVIL WAK. [l862 and drove the rest with severe loss to the river, where the gunboats protected them (April 6th). During the night Buell came up, and the next day the Federals assumed the offensive, and in turn drove back the Confederates. These desperate encounters, generally called the battle of Shiloh, from Shiloh Church which stood near the landing, were attended with great loss of life ; they cost the national army in killed, wounded, and prisoners, nearly 14,000 men the Confederates, 10,700, including Gen. John ston, who fell in the first day s fight. Gen. Halleck, who now assumed command of the Federal army, followed the Confederates across the state-line to Corinth, Miss. ; but without waiting for his attack at that point, they fell back still farther after destroying their magazines. ISLAND No. 10. When Kentucky was abandoned, the Confederate division that had occupied Columbus seized Island No. 10 in the Mississippi, with the view of controlling the navigation of that river. Gen. Pope with a land-force, and Commodore Foote with his flotilla, attacked them in this strong position, and made it untenable. On their at tempting to withdraw, Pope intercepted them and took 6,000 prisoners (April 8th). The river being now open, the Union fleet ran down to Fort Pillow (see Map, p. 269), which was evacuated by the enemy after a bombardment of several weeks, and the defeat of their gunboats and rams in the river. As the fruit of this success and another victory over the Confederate flotilla, Commodore Davis, on the 6th of June, took the important city of Memphis. BEYOND THE MISSISSIPPI, the Confederate troops had all this time been too hard pressed to succor their friends in the struggles just recounted. Gen. Curtis had driven them from Missouri ; and when, re-enforced, they made a stand at Pea Ridge, in the north-western corner of Arkansas, he inflicted a severe defeat upon them after three davs hard fighting (March 6, 7, 8). 1862] THE MONITOR AND VIRGINIA. 273 Williams-^ Movements on the Atlantic Coast, While the Union arms were thus generally crowned with success in the west, the Union flag was no less triumphant on the Atlantic coast. First came the capture of the Confederate post on Roanoke Island. This was accomplished, February 8th, by an expe dition from Fortress Monroe, under Gen. Ambrose E. Burn- side and Commodore Goldsborough. The capture of New- bern and Beaufort (bu fort), and the works that defended them, speedily followed. Somewhat later Fort Pulaski was reduced by bombardment, and Savannah was thus sealed against blockade-runners. Similar successes were gained on the Florida coast. The Monitor, March 8, 1862, was signalized by an attack of the Confederate ram Virginia on the Union fleet in Hampton Roads, and the destruction of the wooden frigates Cumberland and Congress with a number of their men. The Virginia was built on the hull of the U. S. frigate Merrimac, which had been sunk at Norfolk when the war began. Ordinary projectiles made no impression on her pon derous iron-plated sides, and the utmost consternation pre vailed lest, after finishing her work of destruction in the Roads, she should run out to sea and commit havoc among the shipping in northern ports. But that same night the Monitor, an iron vessel with a revolving turret, built by Er icsson and commanded by Cap tain Worden (wur den), reached Fortress Monroe. When the next morning the Virginia steamed out of Norfolk, to renew the work of the preceding day, the little Monitor NORFOLK .ASTD VICINITY 274 THE CIVIL WAK. [1862 boldly engaged her, and so damaged the formidable iron-clad in a five-hour engagement that she withdrew once more to Norfolk. Government at once showed its appreciation of the Monitor s efficiency by ordering several other floating batteries of the same pattern. Capture of New Orleans. The severest loss experienced by the Confederates at this time was that of the commercial metropolis of the south-west, New Orleans. It was taken on the 25th of April by a fleet under Admiral Far ragut and a land-force under Gen. B. F. Butler. The admiral ran past Forts St. Philip and Jackson below the city (Map, p. 228), and these defences surrendered to Commodore Porter s mor tar-boats three days afterward. Gen. Butler took command in New Orleans, and the fleet proceeded up the river to re duce other places on its banks. McClellan s Peninsular Campaign. All winter the troops under McClellan had been employed in no active service ex cept picket-duty, though " On to Richmond ! " had for some time been the popular cry at the north. But before the 1st of April, the Confederates having been defeated at Win chester March 23d, and having fallen back from Manassas to a, new line of defence on the Rap- pahannock, the Army of the Potomac was in mo tion. It was carried by water from Alexandria to Fortress Monroe, and from the latter point marched up the peninsula between the James and the York, this route having been selected on account of the facilities afforded by the rivers for the transportation of supplies. PICKET-DITTY. 1862] MCCLELLAN S PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN. 275 The Confederates, to whom the gaining of time for the completion of their defences about Richmond was all-im portant, resisted the advance of the Union army at York- town, and again at Williamsburg, but were obliged to give way. Steadily pressing on, McClellan by the close of May found himself but seven miles from Richmond. About that city Gen. Joseph E. Johnston had concentrated his forces. Norfolk, being thus left undefended, was occupied by Gen. Wool with a force from Fortress Monroe ; and, the Confed erates having blown up their ram Virginia, the James River was opened to the Federal fleet as far as Drewry s Bluff, eight miles from Richmond, where the gunboats were driven back by powerful batteries. McClellan had expected to be joined by another corps from Washington, on his march to Richmond. The success ful movements, however, made in the Shenandoah Valley by Generals Evvell and Jackson (familiarly called " Stonewall Jackson " from his having stood with his men as firm as a stone-wall, in the battle of Bull Run) had obliged the presi dent to retain the expected re-enforcements for the defence of the capital. Thus left to his own resources and with his ranks thinned by the malaria of the Chickahominy Swamps, McClellan. was attacked at Fair Oaks, May 31st. The Con federates were repulsed ; and Gen. Johnston, having been wounded, was succeeded in command by Gen. Robert E. Lee, son of the " Light-horse Harry " whose exploits have been related in the history of the Revolution. Notwithstanding the advantage gained at Fair Oaks, the situation of the Federal army was becoming critical. Jack son having joined Lee, McClellan found it necessary to change his base to the James River, where his communications would be protected by the gunboats. On commencing this movement, he was furiously attacked by the Confederates, and for seven days, from June 25th to July 1st, there was almost continuous fighting. Mechanicsville, Gaines s Mill, 276 THE CIVIL WAR. [1862 Savage s Station, White -Oak Swamp, and Charles City Cross Roads, were successively the scenes of bloody battles ; not till the Union army reached Malvern Hill (July 1) was the Con federate pursuit stopped. After this terrible or deal, McClellan s men found rest and safety at Harrison s Landing 1 , on the James. Lee s First Invasion. Richmond being safe, Lee now assumed the offensive, pushing rap idly to the north. His advance was first resist ed at Cedar Mountain (see Map, p. 268) ; but Gen. Pope, in command of the forces that had been gath ered for the defence of Washington, was driven back from one position to another, delaying his assailants, but unable to hold them in check. The Union army suffered heavily a second time at Bull Run, and again at Chantilly, where Generals Stevens and Philip Kearney fell. By stubbornly disputing the way, Pope gained time for McClellan s army, which had been sent for with all speed, to reach the scene of action. Thus Wash ington was saved. Meanwhile 600,000 more men had been called for by the president. Lee now crossed the Potomac into Maryland. Early in September, Frederick and Hagerstown were occupied ; but McClellan, who had superseded Pope, was not far behind, and on the 14th Lee had to give him battle at South Moun tain. The Confederate arms here met with a reverse, but it BATTLE-FIELDS NEAR EICIIMOND. 1862] BATTLE OF FKEDEKICKSBURG. 277 was counterbalanced the next day by the capture of Har per s Ferry and 11,600 men by Stonewall Jackson. On the 17th another great battle was fought, at Antietam (an-te f - tain) Creek. McClellan was the victor, but the loss on both sides was severe, and Lee was allowed to recross the Poto mac unmolested. Burnside s Campaign. In November, Gen. Burnside was appointed to the command in Virginia in McClellan s place. He resolved on an advance to Richmond from the north, and CONSTRUCTING A PONTOON-BllIDGE. soon had his army on the bank of the Rappahannock, oppo site Fredericksburg. Lee promptly appeared on the other side, and, before Burnside could bridge the river with pon toons, he had the heights back of the city strongly fortified. Burnside crossed and made desperate efforts to carry Lee s position ; but it was in vain, and the national army recrossed the Rappahannock, diminished ,by 12,000 men. The capture of Richmond seemed as far off as ever. 278 THE CIVIL WAE. [l862 Western Movements. The Confederates had not given up Kentucky. Two armies, commanded respectively by Generals Kirby Smith and Bragg, entered the state, and de feating the Union forces at Richmond and Munfordsville (see Map, p. 269), threatened Cincinnati and Louisville. Gen. Lewis Wallace saved the former city ; Gen. Buell, though slow in his movements, the latter. In October, Buell engaged the Confederates at Perryville, Ky., with success, and Bragg fell back across the state-line. At the close of the year, one of the most obstinate actions of the war took place between Bragg and Gen. Rosecrans, by whom Buell had been superseded, at Murfreesboro, Tenn., resulting Jan uary 3, 1863, in a Union victory. Rosecrans had previous ly defeated a Confederate army under Gen. Price at lu ka, in the north-east corner of Mississippi, and repulsed Gen erals Price and Van Dorn from Corinth. Financial Measures. The war was costing a million and a quarter dollars a day. To meet this great expense, Con gress imposed heavy taxes and duties, and authorized the issue of bonds bearing six per cent, interest, and "green backs," or government notes, which were made a legal ten der. The general derangement of finances obliged the banks to suspend specie payments, and a paper dollar ceased to be worth its face in gold or silver. At one time during the war, $100 in gold was equal to $298 in greenbacks. OPERATIONS OF 1863. Emancipation Proclamation. January 1, 1863, was sig nalized by a proclamation of the president, abolishing slavery in all parts of the seceded states not held by the Federal government. This was done by the authority of Congress, and according to notice given a hundred days before. Hooker s Campaign. On the 20th of January, Gen. Burn- side surrendered the command of the Army of the Potomac to Gen. Joseph Hooker, who took the field in May. A ter- 1863] LEE S SECOND INVASION. 279 rible conflict at Chancellorsville (see Map, p. 268), in which the Federal loss in killed and wounded amounted to 11,000 men, obliged Gen. Hooker to retreat to the other side of the Rappahannock. This battle cost the Con federates their val ued general Stone wall Jackson; while riding to the rear of his division, he was shot by his own men, who mistook his party in the darkness for Federal cavalry. Lee s Second Invasion. His success at Chancellorsville encouraged Lee to attempt a second invasion of Maryland. He was soon across the Potomac, and this time advanced into Pennsylvania. Chambersburg and York (see Map, p. 268) were successively taken ; but before he could reach Harrisburg, it was necessary to collect his forces to face Gen. Meade, who had succeeded Hooker and was following closely on his track. The hostile armies met at Gettysburg, July lst-3d. Vic tory at first inclined to the Confederate side, but finally de clared decisively in favor of the Union arms. Lee retreated across the Potomac, leaving many prisoners in the hands of his pursuers. Both sides lost heavily on the obstinately con tested field of Gettysburg. Grant s Campaign in Mississippi. At the close of 1862 an attempt had been made to open the Mississippi by the capture of Vicksburg, which was strongly fortified and held by the Confederates. The attempt had failed, and while Gen. Grant was bringing down more troops from Memphis 280 THE CIVIL WAK. [1863 Yazoo City to renew it, Gen. McClernand improved the time to capture Arkansas Post on the Arkansas River, with its garrison of 5,000 men. The fleet and army then returned to the Missis sippi, and effected a junction with Grant s command. Marching his land-force to a point below Vicksburg and making his gunboats run the gantlet of the Confederate batteries by night, Grant soon had his army across the river in the neighborhood of Grand Gulf, which place, after a defeat near Port Gibson, the Confederates evacuated. Then followed from May 12th to 17th a series of victories for the Fed eral army at Raymond, Jack son, Champion s Hill, and Big Black River Bridge. Vicksburg was next invested. Its garrison, 30,000 strong, under Gen. Pem- berton, held out till the 4th of July ; but on that day, all hope of aid as well as the supplies of the city having failed, they were obliged to surrender. Port Hud son, in Louisiana, with more than 6,000 men, fell into the hands of Gen. Banks a few days later. Thus the Mississippi was opened throughout its length. Meanwhile, in the waters of Georgia, the Confederate privateer Nashville had been destroyed by the Montauk, and the ram Atlanta had struck to the Weehawken. The loyal counties in the west of the " Old Dominion " had also been admitted as a new state, under the name of West Vir ginia. The Draft. Volunteers not offering as freely as was desired to recruit the national army, by authority of Con gress a draft was resorted to ; that is, from the whole num- "VlCKSBURQ AND ADJACENT BATTLE FIELDS. 1863] THE DEAFT IN NEW YORK. 281 her of able-bodied citizens between the ages of twenty and forty-five a certain number were drawn by lot, who were obliged either to serve in person or to provide substitutes. The drawing in New York City was the signal for a serious riot. A mob, swelled by thieves and ruffians, had control of the city for three days (July 13-16), the police being unable to cope with them alone, and the military having not yet returned from Pennsylvania, to which state they had gone to assist in its defence. After a number of houses had been burned, and several hundred lives destroyed, a sufficient force was gathered to restore order. Raids had been carried on from time to time by cavalry parties on both sides, making a dash through or around the hostile lines, for the purpose of severing railroad connec tions, destroying stores, striking isolated detachments, etc. On the Union side, Gen. Mitchell in northern Alabama, Gen. Stoneman and Colonel Kilpatrick in Virginia, and Colonel Grierson in Mississippi, had particularly distinguished them selves in these expeditions. Gen. Stuart, on the part of the Confederates, had been equally successful in Pennsylvania. In June, Gen. Morgan, with 2,500 Confederates, crossing from Kentucky into Indiana and following the Ohio River eastward, did considerable damage,, until he was defeated and captured near New Lisbon. Movements in Carolina. Desiring to regain some of the ground they had lost in Carolina, the Confederates in March attacked Newbern, but were repulsed. About the same time, the Federal iron-clads made an aggressive movement in Charleston harbor, but were roughly handled by the Con federate batteries, so that a strong land-force under Gen. Gillmore was sent to cooperate with them. In seven days, Fort Sumter was battered to ruins by Gillmore s breaching- guns ; the works on Morris Island were taken shortly after ; and a fire, destructive though maintained at a distance of four miles, was opened on Charleston itself. Many of the 282 THE CIVIL WAE. [l863 inhabitants had withdrawn from the city, but it was still guarded by a vigilant garrison. Tennessee became an important theatre of war in the early autumn. Rosecrans, by a series of skillful move ments, obliged Bragg to fall back to north-western Georgia. Here he was largely re-enforced, and turning on the Federal army attacked it furiously at Chickamauga Creek, Septem ber 19th. The steadiness of Gen. Thomas s division saved the Union army from rout, but it was defeated with a loss of nearly 17,000 men. Collected at Chattanooga, with its line of communications severed, its situation was critical till Gen. Hooker, arriving with two. corps from the Army of the Potomac, opened the Tennessee River. Gen. Grant, with a large force from Vicksburg, soon after reached the scene of action and assumed command. On the 24th of November a battle took place on Look out Mountain, at such a height that the clouds at times concealed the combatants from the view of those below. Hooker and his men were here completely successful, and the following day the Confederates were driven also from Missionary Ridge. Bragg had to retreat, and Gen. Sher man hastened to raise the siege of Knoxville, in East Ten nessee, w r here Burnside and a Federal division were hard pressed by Gen. Longstreet. In this he succeeded, and Longstreet rejoined Lee with his command. Throughout much of the year, Mississippi and Arkansas were harassed by the march of contending armies and by guerrilla warfare. In all the important engagements the Unionists were successful, and Federal authority was restored in the greater part of both states. OPERATIONS OF 18G4. Red River Expedition. Passing over an expedition of Gen. Sherman east from Vicksburg, which was unproductive of important results on account of the inability of a cavalry- 1864] BED KIVER EXPEDITION. 283 force from Memphis to effect a junction with him, the first undertaking of the year worthy of notice was Banks s Red River Expedition. A strong land-force and Porter s gun boats participated in it ; its object was to open north-western Louisiana. Fort de Russy was taken ; Alexandria and Natchitoches were successively occupied ; but, in advancing from the lat ter town, the army, deprived of the support of the gunboats, met the Confederates in strong force at Sabine Cross Roads. The battle at this point terminated in disaster to the Feder als ; and, though on the following day the assailants were repulsed at Pleasant Hill, the expedition had to be aban doned. The river having fallen, the gunboats found it hard to get back ; but, by the construction of a dam below, the water was raised sufficiently for them to pass over the rapids. The Red River Expedition was thus a failure. We have next to notice the capture of several Federal posts, among which were Fort Pillow, Tenn., and Plymouth, N.C. Sherman s Advance on Atlanta, Early in the year, Grant was raised to the highest rank known to the service of the United States, that of Lieutenant-General, which after Scott s decease no one had held. Making his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac, with which he proposed at once to move on Richmond, he intrusted the 100,000 men at Chattanooga to Gen. Sherman, with directions to advance on Atlanta. Gen. Sherman lost no time in obey ing, and by a series of able movements, now flanking the Confederates and now giving them battle (at Resaca, Dallas, Kenesaw Mountain, and before Atlanta see Map, p. 288), on the 2d of September he gained possession of the city just named. Grant s Advance on Richmond. Grant s tactics with the Army of the Potomac, under the immediate command of Gen. Meade, were similar. Flanking the Confederates un- 284 THE CIVIL WAE. [1864 der Gen. Lee, he obliged them either to fall back or to give battle. A series of terrible conflicts ensued, in which blood was poured out like water at the Wilderness, May 5th- 7th at Spottsylvania C. H., from the 8th to the 12th at Cold Harbor, but a few miles from Richmond, June 3d. Baf fled at the latter point in his efforts to break through the Confederate lines, Grant transferred his army to the south side of the James, and advanced upon Petersburg, twenty- two miles south of Richmond. Lee threw forward a strong detachment for its defence ; an attempt to take the city by storm failed, and it was soon invested by the Federal forces. Strong siege-works were constructed in front of the whole Confederate line, while pickets and small parties of troops thrown out in advance were pro- EIFLE-PITS. tected by rifle-pits. Third Invasion of Maryland. Simultaneously with Grant s advance, two attempts on Lynchburg, west of Rich mond, had been made by divisions of the Federal army, but neither had succeeded. After the latter of the two, the Confederate Gen. Early, finding the Shenandoah Valley left undefended, embraced the opportunity to invade Maryland the third time. The 5th of July found him at Hagerstown ; Gen. Wallace delayed him for a time near Frederick, on the Monocracy River, till a sufficient force could be collected for the defence of Washington ; and when he appeared before the fortifications of that city, he found the opportunity for 1864] SHERIDAN AND EARLY. 285 seizing it passed, and beat a speedy retreat. A body of Federal troops that started in pursuit, after gaining some advantages, was repulsed ; and near the close of July Early sent a detachment of horse again into Pennsylvania, which penetrated to Chambersburg. The invading force was pur sued on its way back and lost a number of prisoners, but Early was still formidable in the Shenandoah Valley till Gen. Sheridan with 40,000 men took the field against him. The battles of Winchester and Fisher s Hill in September resulted in Union victories, as did also an engagement at Cedar Creek, twenty miles from Winchester, on the 19th of October. Here the Federal army was at first driven back in confusion ; but the day was saved by Sheridan s appear ance on the field, after a hurried ride from Winchester. Early, badly defeated, moved up the valley ; and the victors, by the wholesale destruction of stores and other property, made it untenable to the enemy for the future. Achievements of the Navy. England, throughout the war, had manifested no sympathy for the national govern ment. She had even gone so far as to allow Confederate privateers to be built in her ports. Several of these had done great damage to American commerce, particularly the Alabama, commanded by Captain Semmes. Semmes having challenged Captain Winslow of the U. S. steamer Kearsarge to an engagement, the vessels met off the French coast, June 19th, and the Alabama was sunk. The privateer Georgia had already been taken, and the Florida was short ly afterward captured in a Brazilian port. Conspicuous among the naval successes of the year was the defeat of the Confederate fleet, and capture of the forts, in Mobile Bay, by Admiral Farragut. It was here that he had himself lashed to the main-top of his flag-ship the Hartford. Sherman s March. After pursuing into Alabama the Confederate Gen. Hood, who had assumed the offensive, Sherman divided his forces and turned back, leaving Thomas 286 THE CIYIL WAR. [1864 to look after Hood. He had determined to abandon his communications with the interior ; and, after burning Atlan ta (Nov. 15), he com menced a march to the seaboard (see Map, p. 288). His army, divided into two columns, over ran a tract fifty miles wide, subsisting on the country and spreading conster nation in its path. Savannah, evacu ated by the Confed erates, was occupied December 21st, Fort McAllister having been previously taken by assault. Immediately on Sherman s departure, Hood invaded Tennessee. A stubborn battle, fought at Franklin (see Map, p. 269), at first promising him victory, cost him severe ly at its close ; but the Federals withdrew within their in- trenchments near Nashville. Here, December 15th, 16th, a decisive action took place between Hood and Thomas. The latter was completely victorious ; Hood s army was routed with a loss of many prisoners, and thoroughly demoralized sought refuge in Alabama. The Siege of Petersburg was all this time being pushed with vigor. At the end of July, a mine was exploded under one of the forts in the line of defence ; but an attempt of the Federals to enter through the breach was repulsed with heavy loss. Attacks were made at different points of the Confederate lines on both sides of the James River, on the south side, especially for the purpose of severing the com munications of the besieged city. These were attended with varied success, but generally resulted in severe loss to 1864] LINCOLN KE-ELECTED. 287 both sides. In one of them, the Union forces gained pos session of the Weldon Railroad. Re-election of Lincoln. In November, 1864, the republi cans re-elected President Lincoln, over Gen. George B. Mc- Clellan, the democratic candidate, and made Andrew John son, of Tennessee, vice-president. Mr. Lincoln, who always had an apt illustration or good story at hand, said he sup posed the people did not want to swap horses while they were crossing the river. Nevada cast her first presidential vote at this election, having been admitted into the Union, October 31, 1864. Four calls, for an aggregate of 1,200,000 additional men, were made by the president during the year. OPERATIONS OF 1865. Wilmington, N. C., had long been the chief port of entry for blockade-runners. An unsuccessful attempt had been made on Fort Fisher, one of the defences of this city, tow ard the close of 1864 ; the attack was renewed early in 1865, by Admiral Porter and Gen, Terry. Fort Fisher was carried after a terrible bombardment, the other works were taken, and on Washington s birthday the stars and stripes waved once more over Wilmington. The Confederates were losing their strongholds, one after another. The lines were drawing closer. Sherman again in the Field. On Petersburg and Rich mond, where Lee still bade defiance to the besiegers, the whole strength of the Union armies was, if necessary, to be brought to bear. Sherman again took the field, to reduce the Carolinas and participate in the final struggle. The Confederates, though they bravely disputed his progress, particularly at Bentonsville, where an obstinate encounter took place March 19th, could offer no effectual resistance. Columbia, Fayetteville, Goldsboro, and Raleigh, successively yielded, Gen. Johnston retreating to the north-west. Nor could Charleston, in the face of this movement in its rear THE CIVIL WAE. [1865 SHERMAN S MARCH TO THE SEABOARD. and the constant and furious cannonading from Gillmore s batteries, hold out any longer ; the Confederate army re tired, and on the 18th of February this city surrendered. Sheridan in the Saddle, Sheridan also lent important aid. Scouring the upper valley of the Shenandoah, break ing up Early s force at Waynesboro, destroying bridges and many miles of railway, he crossed the James and joined the besieging force south of that river. The Confederates, alive to their critical situation, now determined to arm the slaves. On the 25th of March, Lee made a desperate effort to break the Federal lines, and partially succeeded ; but the lost ground was soon regained, and the Federal lines were ex tended. Close of the War. On the 2d of April, a general attack was made in front of Petersburg, and the Confederates were driven from their intrenchments. That night Petersburg and Richmond were evacuated, and the next day the Fed eral forces took possession of both cities. Lee made a push for Lynchburg, in the hope that he might still protract the struggle ; but he was vigorously pursued by Sheridan, de- 1805] MTJKDER OF THE PRESIDENT. 289 feated at Deatonsville, and on the 9th of April obliged to surrender the remnant of his army, which had now dwindled to 9,000 men, near Appomattox Court-House. Lee s surrender was speedily followed by that of the other Confederate generals Johnston in North Carolina, Taylor in the Department of Alabama and Mississippi, and Kirby Smith in command beyond the Mississippi River. So ENDED THE GKEAT ClVIL WAR. Assassination of the President. The universal joy that followed the termination of the war was suddenly turned into horror and grief by the sad tidings that President Lin coln had been assassinated. He was shot April 14th, in a box at the theatre in Washington, by John Wilkes Booth, who imagined that he was thus avenging the South. The wicked deed excited intense abhorrence south as well as north, and the nation mourned as it had never mourned be fore. At the same time an attempt had been made to mur der Mr. Seward, the secretary of state, who was dangerously ill ; but it was frustrated by his attendants, two of whom, besides Mr. Seward and his son, were wounded. Booth and an accomplice were pursued, and after some days traced to a barn. Booth refused to surrender, and while taking aim at his pursuers was shot down. The ac complice was captured, and executed along with three others implicated in the plot. ABSTRACT OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS OF THE CIVIL WAR. Louisiana, Jan. 26, 1861 Date of secession : South Carolina, Dec. 20, 1860 Mississippi, Jan. 9, 1861 Florida, Jan. 10, " Alabama, Jan. 11, " Georgia, Jan. 19, " Texas, Feb. 1, Virginia, Apr. 17, Arkansas, May 6, North Carolina, May 20, Tennessee, June 8, 1861. APRIL 13, fall of Sumter ; 18, seizure of Harper s Ferry by Confederates ; 21, seizure of navy-yard at Norfolk. 13 290 PRINCIPAL EVENTS OF JUNE 3, battle of Philippi, Va. ; 10, battle of Big Bethel, Ya. ; 11, battle of Komney, Ya. JULY 5, battle near Carthage, Mo. ; 11, battle of Rich Mountain, Ya. ; 14, battle of Carrick s Ford, Ya. ; 21, first battle of Bull Run, Ya. AUGUST 10, battle of Wilson s Creek, Mo. ; 29, capture of forts at Hat- teras Inlet, N. C. SEPTEMBER 10, battle of Carnifex Ferry, Ya. ; 20, battle of Lexington, Mo. OCTOBER 21, battle of Ball s Bluff, Ya. NOVEMBER 7, battle of Belmont, Mo., and capture of Port Royal, S. C. ; 8, seizure of Mason and Slidell. DECEMBER 20, battle of Dranesville, Ya. 1862. JANUARY 19, battle of Mill Springs, Ky. FEBRUARY 6, capture of Fort Henry, Tenn. ; 8, capture of Roanoke Island, N. C. ; 16, capture of Fort Donelson, Tenn. MARCH 6, 7, 8, battle of Pea Ridge, Ark. ; 8, ram Virginia sinks the Cumberland and Congress ; 9, engagement between the Virginia and Moni tor ; 14, capture of Newbern, N. C. ; 23, battle of Winchester (between Generals Shields and Jackson). APRIL 6, 7, battle of Shiloh, Tenn. ; 7, capture of Island No. 10, Mis sissippi River ; 11, capture of Fort Pulaski, Ga. ; 25, capture of Beaufort, S. C., and of New Orleans. MAY 4, capture of Yorktown, Ya., by McClellan ; 5, battle of Williams- burg ; 10, seizure of Norfolk by Gen. Wool ; 30, capture of Corinth, Miss. ; May 31 and June 1, battle of Fair Oaks, Ya. JUNE 6, surrender of Memphis, Tenn. ; 25, battle of Oak Grove, Ya. ; 26, battle of Mechanicsville ; 27, battle of Gaines s Mill ; 29, battle of Savage s Station ; 30, battles of White-Oak Swamp and Charles City Cross Roads. JULY 1, battle of Malvern Hill, Ya. AUGUST 9, battle of Cedar Mountain, Ya. ; 29, 30, second battle of Bull Run ; 30, battle of Richmond, Ky. SEPTEMBER 14, battle of South Mountain, Md. ; 15, capture of Harper s Ferry by Confederates ; 17, battles of Antietam, Md., and Munfordsville, Ky. ; 19, battle of luka, Miss. OCTOBER 4, Confederate repulse at Corinth, Miss. ; 8, battle of Pcrry- ville, Ky. DECEMBER 13, battle of Fredericksburg, Ya. ; Dec. 31-Jan. 3, 1863, battle of Murfreesboro, Tenn. 1863. JANUARY 1, Emancipation proclamation; 11, capture of Ar kansas Post, Ark., by Unionists. THE CIVIL WAR. 291 MAY 1, battle of Port Gibson, Miss. ; 2, 3, battle of Chancellorsville, Va. ; 12, battle of Raymond, Miss. ; 14, battle near Jackson, Miss. ; 16, battle of Champion s Hill, Miss. ; 17, battle of Big Black River, Miss. JUNE 15, commencement of Lee s second invasion of Maryland ; 17, capture of the iron-clad Atlanta. JULY 1-3, battle of Gettysburg, Pa. ; 4, capture of Vicksburg, Miss. ; 8, capture of Port Hudson, La. ; 13-16, riot in New York ; 26, capture of Morgan in Ohio. SEPTEMBER 7, capture of Fort Wagner and Battery Gregg in Charleston harbor ; 10, capture of Little Rock, Ark. ; 19, 20, battle of Chickamauga, Ga. NOVEMBER 18, investment of Knoxville, Tenn., by Confederates ; 24, battle of Lookout Mountain, Ga. ; 25, battle of Missionary Ridge, Ga. DECEMBER 3, siege of Knoxville, Tenn., raised. 1 864. FEBRUARY 1, draft ordered ; 20, Union defeat at Olustee, Fla. MARCH 7, Banks s Red River Expedition starts ; 13, capture of Fort de Russy, La. ; 26, Confederate repulse at Cane River, La. APRIL 8, Federal defeat at Sabine Cross Roads, La. ; 9, Confederate repulse at Pleasant Hill, La. ; 12, capture of Fort Pillow, Tenn., by Con federates ; 18, capture of Plymouth, N. C., by Confederates. MAY 3, Army of the Potomac breaks camp for an advance on Rich mond ; 5-7, battle of the Wilderness, Ya. ; 7, advance of Sherman from Chattanooga, Tenn. ; May 8-12, battles near Spottsylvania C. H., Va. ; 15, battles of Resaca, Ga., and New Market, Ya. ; 28, battle of Dallas, Ga. JUNE 3, battle of Cold Harbor, Ya, ; 14, Grant crosses the James ; 19, engagement between the Alabama and Kearsarge ; 22, 27, battles near Kene- saw Mountain, Ga. JULY 5, Early invades Maryland ; 9, battle of the Monocacy, Md. ; 20, 22, 28, battles before Atlanta, Ga. ; 30, explosion of mine and Union re pulse in front of Petersburg, Ya. AUGUST 5, Federal victory in Mobile Bay; 18, Weldon R. R. seized. SEPTEMBER 2, capture of Atlanta, Ga. ; 19, Federal victory at Winches ter, Ya. ; 22, Federal victory at Fisher s Hill, Ya. OCTOBER 19, battle of Cedar Creek, Ya. ; 27, battle of Hatcher s Run ; ram Albemarle sunk ; 31, recapture of Plymouth, N. C., by Federals. NOVEMBER 30, battle of Franklin, Tenn. DECEMBER 15, 16, battle in front of Nashville, Tenn. ; 21, capture of Savannah, Ga. ; 24, first attack on Fort Fisher, N. C. 1865. JANUARY 15, capture of Fort Fisher, N. C. FEBRUARY 17, occupation of Columbia, S. C., by Sherman ; 18, capture of Charleston, S. C. ; 22, capture of Wilmington, N. C. 292 JOHNSON S ADMINISTBATION. [186.5 MARCH 19, 20, battle of Bentonsville, N. C. ; 21, occupation of Golds- boro. APRIL 2, Confederate lines in front of Petersburg carried ; 3, capture of Petersburg and Kichmond ; 6, battle of Deatonsville, Va. ; 9, Lee s sur render ; 13, capture of Mobile and Raleigh ; 26, Johnston s surrender. MAY 4, Dick Taylor s surrender ; 26, Kirby Smith s surrender. END OF THE CIVIL WAR. CHAPTER XXXI. EVENTS SINCE THE CIVIL WAR. MAIN BUILDING OF THE CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION, PHILADELPHIA, 1876. JOHNSON S ADMINISTRATION, 1865-1869. Andrew Johnson, the vice-president, on Mr. Lincoln s decease, took the oath of office as executive head of the nation (April 15, 1865). He was a native of Raleigh, N. C., began life as a tailor s apprentice, was a stranger to schools, and was seventeen years old before he could read or write. Removing to Greenville, Tenn., he embraced every oppor tunity to improve himself, and rose through a succession of 1865] RESULTS OF THE CIVIL WAR. 293 public offices to become U. S. senator, and military governor of the state after it had been recovered by the national forces. Jefferson Davis, on the downfall of the Confederacy, had made for the coast in the hope of escaping to the West In dies. A body of Federal cavalry, however, intercepted him near Irwinville, in southern Georgia. For nearly four years he was under indictment for treason, part of the time con fined in Fortress Monroe, and afterward released on bail ; but the prosecution was finally abandoned. Results of the War. The civil war is estimated to have cost the country half a million lives, besides nearly as many men more, disabled by wounds or disease. A Federal debt of $3,750,000,000 had been incurred. The industries of the country had been unsettled. In addition to these difficulties, about a million soldiers were now at the close of the war to be discharged, and thrown upon the community without employment. There were fears of disorder, but they w T ere unfounded, the disbanded men returning peaceably to the pursuits of civil life. The most important result of the war was the ABOLITION OF SLAVERY, its exciting cause. This was effected by an amendment to the Constitution (the Thirteenth see Con stitution at the close of the volume), proposed by Congress to the several states, ratified by the requisite number, and on the 18th of December, 1865, announced as forming part of the Constitution. For the protection of the emancipated slaves, Congress afterward established the Freedmen s Bu reau, and in spite of the president s veto passed the Civil- Rights Bill, securing to the freedmen the rights of citizens (April 9, 1866). Reconstruction. The condition of the Southern States, particularly those which had been the principal theatres of war, was pitiable in the extreme. There being no disposi tion on the part of the president to add to the prevailing distress by pursuing a harsh course toward those who had 294 JOHNSON S ADMINISTRATION. [1866 recently been arrayed against the government, he issued three proclamations of amnesty, the last of which, dated on Christmas-day, 1868, extended pardon unconditionally to all. The Reconstruction question, that is, the settlement of the terms on which the seceded states should be restored to the Union, led to serious difficulties between Congress and the president. The former desired more positive guarantees- against infringements on the rights of the freedmen, and accordingly proposed a Fourteenth Amendment to the Con stitution, which recognized all persons born or naturalized in the United States as citizens, and prohibited the several states from making any law which should abridge their privileges. It also provided that the validity of the public debt incurred in the civil war should not be questioned ; but that no debt contracted for the purpose of warring against the Federal government should be assumed or paid by either the United States or any state, nor any claim for the loss or emancipation of slaves. This amendment was adopted in 1868, and was followed two years later by the Fifteenth Amendment, which dis tinctly declared that the right of citizens to vote should not be denied by any state " on account of race, color, or pre vious condition of servitude." Tennessee was the first to ratify the Fourteenth Amend ment, and to be reinstated (July, 1866). In 1868, Arkansas, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, North and South Carolina, followed the example of Tennessee, and were re stored to their former relations. The good work was con tinued under the following administration, by the readmis- sion of Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas ; and in the spring of 1870 all the states were once more represented in Con gress. Impeachment. The breach between President Johnson and Congress kept widening. It led to the passage by Con gress of the Tenure-of -Office Bill, which made the consent of 1869] GRANT S ADMINISTRATION. 295 the Senate necessary to removals from office. When, in the face of this bill, Mr. Johnson attempted to remove Secretary Stanton from the war department, intense excitement was produced, and the House of Representatives impeached the president with the view of depriving him of his position. According to the provisions of the Constitution, he was tried by the Senate ; but less than two-thirds of that body having found him guilty, he was acquitted. Remaining Events. The purchase of Russian America (Alaska), a cold and barren region valuable only for its fisheries and furs, was made during this administration (Oc tober, 1867). We must also notice the arrival, in the sum mer of 1868, of an embassy from China, important as in dicating that this great empire, with its hundreds of millions of people, is laying aside its exclusive policy and opening its doors to a higher civilization. The presidential election of 1868 resulted in the choice of the republican candidates, Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, and Schuyler Colfax of Indiana, over the democratic nominees, Horatio Seymour of New York, and Francis P. Blair, jr., of Missouri. GRANT S ADMINISTRATION, 1869-1877. President Grant was a graduate of the Military Academy at West Point. After serving in the Mexican War, he had resigned his commission and settled down in mercantile busi ness at Galena, Illinois. The civil war summoned him once more to the field ; to his successes there he owed his ad vancement to the highest rank in the army, and his transfer from that position to the presidential chair. Hamilton Fish, of New York, served as secretary of state during the greater part of Grant s terms. The Pacific Railroad, a great work in which the govern ment assisted, was completed in May, 1869. This important link in the chain of communication between the Atlantic and the Pacific is 1,900 miles in length, and crossing two moun- 296 GE ANT S ADMINISTRATION. [is 71 tain-ranges connects San Francisco, the metropolis of Cali fornia, with Omaha on the Missouri River. Its completion was the occasion of great rejoicings, for its value to the country, particularly to the western section, is incalculable. "The Alabama Claims," growing out of the damages in flicted on American commerce by Confederate privateers fitted out in the ports of Great Britain, at one time threat ened trouble with the power just named. By the Treaty of Washington in 1871, however, it was agreed that this ques tion, as well as the interpretation of the treaty of 1846 as to the north-west boundary, should be settled by arbitration. The Geneva Tribunal, to which the Alabama claims were re ferred, adjudged to the United States $15,500,000, and in September, 1873, this sum was paid into the treasury. The Emperor of Germany, as arbitrator on the north-west boundary, settled the question agreeably to the views of the United States. Fires. The growth of Chicago, the metropolis of the North-west, covering the site of old Fort Dearborn (p. 214), has been without a parallel even among the western cities. First laid out in 1830, it had by 1871 attained a population of 300,000 souls. On the 8th and 9th of October in the latter year, this magnificent city was visited by a terrible conflagration, which destroyed $196,000,000 worth of prop erty and deprived nearly 100,000 persons of their homes. Such was the enterprise of its citizens, however, that within four years few traces of the fire were left. In 1872, a similar conflagration laid in ruins a large part of the city of Boston. The property consumed was esti mated at not less than $80,000,000. Re-election. President Grant was re-elected by the re publican party in 1872, with Henry Wilson, U. S. Senator from Massachusetts, as vice-president. The democratic can didates, Horace Greeley, long prominent in. the country as the conductor of the New York Tribune, and B. Gratz 1872] GRANT S ADMINISTRATION. 297 Brown, of Missouri, carried but six states. Soon after the election Mr. Greeley died, a victim to the excitements and fatigues of the campaign. The Credit Mobilier, a stock-company which had con structed part of the Pacific Railroad and realized large prof its from the work, was the subject of searching investiga tions on the part of Congress during the winter of 1872-3. It was ascertained that some of the stock had found its way into the hands of members of Congress, whose votes were suspected of having been thus corruptly influenced in matters involving the interests of the road. The House of Representatives censured two of its members, and a senator narrowly escaped expulsion. Modoc War. Early in Grant s second term, the Modocs, a tribe of Indians living near the southern boundary of Ore gon, occasioned serious trouble. It was the old story over again. They had bound themselves by a treaty some years before to surrender their lands and go on a reservation ; but, when the time came for their removal, they refused to leave, and, fleeing to inaccessible " lava-beds " in the neighbor hood, defied the efforts of the government to dislodge them. In April, 1873, peace-commissioners went out to treat with them under a flag of truce ; but the interview was suddenly terminated by the savages treacherously firing on the whites and killing two of their number. An active campaign was then carried on against the Modocs till the whole band was captured. The assassins were executed and the rest re moved. Political difficulties occurred in more than one of the Southern States during Grant s administration. In Louisi ana, the struggle between parties for the control of the state was severe and protracted for several years. In 1873, two returning-boards, each claiming to be the legal one, reported two different governors as elected the one a republican, the other a democrat. There was, of course, an immediate con- 298 GRANT S ADMINISTRATION. [1873 flict of authority, resulting in temporary anarchy. Kellogg, the republican incumbent, was sustained by the president, but was looked upon by the opposite party as having no rightful claim to the position. Violent demonstrations were repressed for the time, but broke out in New Orleans in the fall of 1874. Twenty-six persons lost their lives in a street-conflict, and Governor Kellogg was obliged to seek safety in the Custom-House under the protection of the Federal flag. Again the presi dent interposed in Kellogg s favor. The following January, another outbreak occurred, and a committee of the House of Representatives was sent to New Orleans for its adjust ment. At the election held in the fall of 1876, the controversy was renewed with increased bitterness. Fraud was charged on each party by its opponents, and again there were two rival governors and legislatures. President Grant now de clined to interfere any further in the affairs of the state than was necessary to prevent a breach of the peace. His suc cessor, into whose administration the struggle was prolonged, withdrew the Federal troops which had up to this time pre vented the overthrow of the republican government, and the democratic incumbent quietly assumed undisputed control. A similar conflict between parties agitated South Caro lina ; it was similarly disposed of by the president in 1877, and with the like result. Business depression paralyzed the industries of the nation in 1873 and for several years immediately following. It was the natural result of the war, and was attended with ruin to hundreds of commercial and manufacturing establishments, as well as with great distress to the laboring-classes. The revulsions of 1837 and 1857 were neither so far-reaching nor so long continued. Not till 1877 did the clouds in any degree seem to lift. Then there was a slight improvement, and with the blessing; of Heaven on the efforts of the people, 1875] GRANT S ADMTNISTEATION. 299 PACIFIC STATES AND TERRITORIES now taught the necessity of prudence, economy, and unre mitting industry, it was hoped that the country would soon recover its wonted prosperity. Different measures had of course been proposed for the removal of the financial difficulties which overhung the land. " Inflationists " had advocated an increased issue of paper money ; others spurned " the rag baby," as they called it, insisted that inflation would but put off the evil day, and called for a contraction of the currency and a speedy return to specie payments. A majority in Congress favored the 300 GRANT S ADMINISTRATION. [1875 latter view, and early in 1875 a bill was passed fixing Jan uary 1, 1879, as the day when specie payments should be resumed. The Thirty-eighth State, Colorado, whose valuable de posits of the precious metals, as well as its advantages for stock-raising, had attracted to its sightly table-lands a pop ulation of 125,000, applied for admission to the Union in 1875 ; and, in March of that year, Congress granted it au thority to frame a constitution. In the summer of 1876, it took its place in the Union, by the proclamation of the presi dent, as " the Rocky Mountain State." (See Map, p. 299.) Deaths of Public Men. Several whom the nation de lighted to honor were called to their rest during Grant s ad ministration. Among these were William H. Seward, who had ably managed the foreign relations of the country dur ing Lincoln s administration (1872) ; Morse, the inventor of the magnetic telegraph (1872) ; Chief-Justice Chase, who had skillfully provided ways and means during the trying days of the civil war (1873) ; Charles Sumner, of Massa chusetts, a leader in the U. S. Senate (1874) ; and Vice- President Wilson (1875). The Centennial Year, 1876, marking the completion of a century of national existence, was appropriately honored in different parts of the country, particularly on the 4th of July. The crowning celebration of the year was a great In ternational Exhibition, opened at Philadelphia on the 10th of May, the grandest " world s fair " the world had ever seen. The inclosed grounds covered an area of 236 acres, and contained 200 buildings, some of them of great magni tude. All nations contributed of their productions and were represented by visitors, the admissions during the six months that the exhibition remained open falling little short of 10,000,000. Indian War. Though the government had pursued a conciliatory course to the Indians, a hostile disposition was 1876] GRANT S ADMINISTRATION. 301 ClTSTER s LAST BATTLE-FIELD. manifested early in 1876 by the Sioux in Dakota, Montana (mon- tah -nti), and Wyo ming. They refused to settle upon a reser vation, and attacked friendly Indians under the protection of the United States. It was necessary to reduce them by force. In June, Gen. Custer, with part of his regiment, came upon the hostile Sioux, 2,500 strong, near the Little Big Horn River, and without waiting for support dashed upon them. His whole force was overwhelmed and destroyed, Custer himself being slain while fighting gallantly. A brave who was in the battle afterward related how " the White Chief," when his com rades had all fallen and his firearms were emptied, un dauntedly defended himself with his sword, until a bullet laid him in the dust. The Federal army, re-enforced, sub sequently pursued and broke up the Sioux, and compelled most of them to surrender. 302 INAUGURATION OF PRESIDENT HAYES. [l87T The election of 1876 was unusually exciting. The can didates were, on the republican side, Governor Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, and William A. Wheeler, of New York ; on the democratic, Governor Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, and Governor Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana. The contest was close, and the issue for some time doubtful ; charges were made of fraud on the one side and intimidation on the other. From several of the states two opposing certificates were handed in. The trouble was finally settled by the passage of an act of Congress referring all disputed certificates to a commission, consisting of five senators, five representatives, and five judges of the Supreme Court of the United States. The result was that Hayes and Wheeler were declared to have received one more electoral vote than their oppo nents ; and, accordingly, they were inaugurated on the 5th of March, 1877. William M. Evarts, of New York, was appointed secretary of state, and Senator John Sherman, of Ohio, secretary of the treasury. HAYES S ADMINISTRATION, 1877- Rutherford Birchard Hayes was bora October 4, 1822, at Delaware, Ohio. A lawyer by profession, shortly after the Civil War broke out he entered the army, and by faith ful service raised himself from the rank of major to that of brevet major-general. After the war he became one of the standard-bearers of the republican party in his native state, was twice sent to Congress, and three times elected govern or of Ohio. Declared president under peculiar circumstances and amid great political excitement, Gen. Hayes had serious diffi culties to contend with ; but his conciliatory policy toward the South, particularly in relation to the Louisiana and South Carolina controversies (p. 298) cast oil upon the troubled 1877] HAYES S ADMINISTRATION. 303 waters. A portion of the summer was spent by the presi dent, with members of his cabinet, in visiting different parts of the country, and the reception accorded him showed that his course met with general approval. Railroad Strike. The summer of 1877 was memorable for a great railroad strike, which, commencing among the employes of the Baltimore and Ohio Company on the 16th of July, rapidly extended northward to Canada and as far west as the Mississippi. The depression in business having necessitated a general reduction of wages, to which the men were unwilling to submit, they quit work on the different roads as the news of the commencement of the strike reached them, prevented new hands by threats and violence from taking their places, and announced that neither freight nor passenger trains would be allowed to run. The movement soon became so formidable, particularly in West Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, that the militia were unable to cope with it, and the federal govern ment was appealed to for aid in protecting the rights and property of the railroad companies. At Pittsburgh a col lision took place between the state troops and the rioters, which resulted in the destruction of many lives and $6,000,000 worth of property cars, locomotives, machine-shops, depots, and large quantities of freight, being burned by the mob, who controlled the city for two days. Riots also occurred at St. Louis, Chicago, Reading and Scranton, Pa., and other cities. Three weeks elapsed before, with the aid of such national troops as could be gathered, order was fully restored, and the regular running of trains on all the roads was re sumed. The summer of 1877 was one of unprecedented fruitful- ness throughout the country. Immense crops of wheat and corn gave an impetus to business which it had not felt for years. It seemed as if the hopes of reviving prosperity so long entertained were at length to be fully realized. 304 KECENT HISTOKY OF MEXICO AND CANADA. REVIEW BY DATES. Continue the CHRONOLOGICAL RECORD from 1860 to 1877, presenting under each year its principal events. For the years of the war, select the most important battles from the Abstract on pages 290, 291, and 292. For the subsequent years, glean from the text the events that seem to be of most moment. WE may here with profit take a brief view of the recent history of Mex ico and Canada, the nearest neighbors of the United States. MEXICO. After the war with the United States, a series of revolutions took place in Mexico, till in 1858 Juarez (hoo-ah rctJi) established himself as president. His administration became popular, by reason of his instituting various reforms. The inability of the government, however, to meet the claims of France for damages alleged to have been sustained by French subjects resident in the country, afforded the Emperor Napoleon III. a pre text for sending over an army to enforce his demands, which he did in 1863. Part of the country was overrun, the capital was seized, and the government overthrown. Mexico was constituted an empire, and the Archduke Maxi milian, brother of the emperor of Austria, was placed at its head. The United States refused to acknowledge Maximilian, and denied the right of any European power to establish a monarchy in North America. In compliance with its remonstrances, the French army was withdrawn in 1867. Maximilian, unable to sustain himself, was captured and shot, and the republic was restored. Latterly, the country has been comparatively peaceful. Provision has been made for public education, and the condition of Mexico has improved, though the raids of border-thieves into Texas have given great dissatisfaction to the United States. CANADA. The British possessions north of the United States are now, with the exception of Newfoundland, all united in what is known as " The Dominion of Canada." The Dominion consists of seven provinces Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Manitoba, British Columbia, and Prince Edward Island together with Hudson Bay Territory, which was purchased of the Hudson Bay Company and annexed. The affairs of each province are managed by its own legislature, while those of the whole are regulated by a parliament in which all are represented, a governor general being the executive head. This union lias consolidated the strength of the colonies, and led to the undertaking of important internal improvements. PROGRESS OF THE COUNTRY. 305 CONCLUSION. WE have thus traced the history of our country from feeble beginnings, through its early struggles and later triumphs, till we have seen it become one of the great powers of the earth. Our Federal Republic now (1877) consists of thirty-eight states and ten territories, besides the District of Columbia, a tract of sixty-four square miles, in which the national capital is situated. Within ninety years our population has increased from four to forty-five millions. Nearly eighty thousand miles of railroad, and more than that number of telegraph-line, trav erse the land in all directions and connect its principal cities. The West, rich in the precious metals, richer still in its vast fields of the useful minerals, richest of all in its agricultural resources, though populated in parts with unprecedented rapidity, is still in its infancy ; its greatness, when it is fully developed, who can estimate ? The ingenuity of the people of the United States has passed into a proverb. To them are due many of the inven tions which have contributed most to the comfort and im provement of the race. Not to mention other triumphs of their manufacturing industry, their printing-presses and sewing-machines, their safes and fire-engines, their life boats and agricultural implements, have no equals else where. The general diffusion of intelligence, and the com fortable condition of the working-classes, are specially no ticeable ; they are attributable, in a great measure, to the glorious system of common-school education which is the pride of our country. It is not long since it was asked, " Who reads an Amer ican book ? " Now the question is, who does not cherish as household words the names of our charming fiction- writers, 306 AMERICAN WRITERS. Irving, Cooper, and Hawthorne our historians, Bancroft, Prescott, and Mot ley our poets, Bry ant and Longfellow, Halleck and Whit- tier, Lowell and Holmes ? South, as well as North, has contributed stars to the galaxy of Amer ican writers and scientists, as the names of Simms and Kennedy, Poe and Maury, abundantly testify. In magazines and school-books especially, the United States has nothing to fear from a comparison with the most cultivated of the older nations. The record of our country thus far has been honorable and brilliant. Continuing in such a career, with the safe guards of education thrown around its citizens, may it prove to the world, despite the fate of republics heretofore, that there is no reason why free institutions may not be eternal ! THE END. TABLE OF THE SEVERAL STATES, SHOWING THE FIRST SETTLEMENT, DATE OF ADMISSION, AREA, POPULATION, AND NUMBER OF ELECTORAL VOTES. STATE, First Settled at Year of Admis sion. Area in Square Miles. Population, Census of 1870. P Virginia . Jamestown , 88,348 1,225,163 11 New York . New York City . -2 47,000 4,382,759 35 Massachusetts Plymouth OQ 7,800 1,457,351 13 New Jersey New Hampshire . Bergen . Dover, Portsmouth . a 8,320 9,280 906,096 318,300 9 5 Delaware . Wilmington . -2 2,120 125,015 3 Connecticut . Hartford . 2 4,750 537,454 6 Maryland . St. Mary s H 11,124 780,894 8 Ehode Island . Providence a 1.306 217,353 4 North Carolina . Near Albemarle Sound D 50,704 1,071,361 10 South Carolina Port Royal Ec p 34,000 705,606 7 Pennsylvania Georgia . Philadelphia . Savannah . 46,000 58,000 3,521,951 1,184,109 29 11 14. Vermont Fort Dummer 1791 10,212 330,551 5 15. Kentucky 16. Tennessee . Boonesborough Fort Loudon . 1792 1796 37,680 45,600 1.321,011 1,258.520 12 12 17. Ohio Marietta . 1802 39,964 2,665,260 22 18. Louisiana . New Orleans . 1812 41,346 726,915 8 19. Indiana . Vincennes 1816 33,809 1,680,637 15 20. Mississippi . Biloxi . 1817 47,156 827.922 8 21. Illinois . Kaskaskia 1818 55.410 2,539^891 21 22. Alabama . Mobile . 1819 50,722 996.992 10 23. Maine . Monhegan 1820 35,000 626,915 7 24. Missouri St. Genevieve 1821 65,350 1,721,295 15 25. Arkansas Arkansas Post . 1836 52,198 484,471 6 26. Michigan . Detroit . 1837 56,451 1,184,059 11 27. Florida . St. Augustine . 1845 59,268 187,748 4 28. Texas . San Antonio . 1845 274,356 818,579 8 29. Iowa Dubuque . 1846 55,045 1,194,020 11 30. Wisconsin . Green Bay 1848 53,924 1,054,670 10 31. California San Diego . 1850 188,981 560,247 6 32. Minnesota . Fort Snelling 1858 83,531 439,706 5 33. Oregon . Astoria 1859 95,274 90,923 3 34. Kansas 1861 81,318 864.399 5 35. West Virginia 1863 23,000 442,014 5 36. Nevada Carson City . 1864 104,125 42,491 8 37. Nebraska 1867 75,995 122,993 8 38. Colorado . . . . 1876 104,500 39,864 3 Territories. Org^d 1. Utah 1850 84,476 86,786 2. New Mexico . 1850 121,201 91,874 3. Washington . 1853 69,994 23,955 4. Dakota % 1861 148,932 14,181 5. Arizona . t 1863 113.916 9,658 6. Idaho . 1863 86,294 14.999 1864 145.776 20.595 8. Wyoming . . 1868 97.883 9,118 9. Indian . 68.991 68,152 10. Alaska 577,390 29,097 Dist. Columbia 64 131,700 Total . . . . 3,603,884 38,655,620 369 TABLE OF PRESIDENTS AND VICE-PRESIDENTS. No. PRESIDENTS. State. In Office. VICE-PRESIDENTS. 1 2 3 4 5 C 7 8 8 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 George Washington John Adams Virginia Massachusetts. . Virginia Virginia Virginia Massachusetts. . 1789-1797 1797-1801 1801-1809 1809-1817 1817-1825 1825-1829 1829-1837 1837-1841 1841-1 mo. 1841-1845 1845-1849 1849-1850 1850-1853 1853-1857 1857-1861 1861-1865 1865-1869 1869-1877 1877 John Adams, of Mass. Thomas Jefterson, Va. ^ Aaron Burr, N. Y. } George Clinton, N. Y. J George Clinton, N. Y. ( Elbridge Gerry, Mass. Daniel D Tompkins.N. Y. John C. Calhoun, S. C. ( John C. Calhoun, S. C. } Martin Van Buren, N.Y. Eichard M Johnson, Ky. John Tyler, Va. George M. Dallas. Pa. Millard Fillmore, N. Y. William E. King. Ala. John C. Breckinridge, Ky. j Hannibal Hamlin, Me. | Andrew Johnson, Tenn. (, Schuyler Colfax, Ind. ) Henry Wilson, Mass. William A. Wheeler, N.Y. Thomas Jefferson James Madison James Monroe John Quincy Adams Andrew Jackson . . Martin Van Buren William Henry Harrison John Tyler New York Ohio Virginia James Knox Polk . Zachary Taylor. . . Millard Fillmore Louisiana New York New Hampshire Pennsylvania... Illinois Franklin Pierce... James Buchanan... Abraham Lincoln Andrew Johnson Ulysses S. Grant Eutherford B. Hayes... Illinois Ohio LEADING DATES. [If the suggestions made at the ends of the Chapters have been followed, the student will have a CHRONOLOGICAL EECORD of the principal events in American his tory, prepared by himself. We shall here present only a few leading dates, which should be remembered as land-marks.] Discovery of America by Columbus, 1492. First permanent English settlement, at Jamestown, 1607. Landing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth, 1620. Washington born, 1732. French and Indian War, 1754-1763. Stamp Act in force, 1765-1766. Eevolutionary War, 1775-1783. Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776. Government organized under the Constitution, 1789. Washington City made the capital, 1800. Louisiana purchased from France, 1803. War with Great Britain, 1812-1815. Florida ceded to the United States by Spain, 1819. Mexican War, 1846-1848. California obtained by treaty, 1848. The Civil War, 1861-1865. Emancipation Proclamation, 1868. Slavery abolished in the United States, 1865. THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, PASSED JULY 4, 1776. A. Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America, in Congress assembled. WHEN, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just pow ers from the consent of the governed; that, whenever any form of govern ment becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established, should not be changed for light and transient causes ; and, accordingly, all experience hath shown, that man kind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But, when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies, and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present king of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these States. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world : He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be ob tained ; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the legislature ; a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. He has refused, for a long time alter such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have 310 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. returned to the people at large for their exercise ; the State remaining, in the mean time, exposed to all the danger of invasion from without, and convul sions within. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States ; for that pur pose, obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners ; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. He has made judges dependent on his will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of offi cers to harass our people, and eat out their substance. He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, without the consent of our legislature. He has aifected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation : For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us : For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States : For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world : For imposing taxes on us without our consent : For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury : For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offences : For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies : For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and al tering, fundamentally, the powers of our governments : For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection and waging war against us. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and de stroyed the lives of our people. He is, at this time, transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun, with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high-seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress, in tho DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 311 most humble terms ; our repeated petitions have been answered only by re peated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. "We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts made by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would in evitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and consanguinity. We must, therefore, ac quiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends. We, therefore, the representatives of the UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, in general Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, FREE AND INDEPENDENT STATES ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that, as free and independent States, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which independent States may of right do. And, for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other, our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. (Signed) JOHN HANCOCK. New Hampshire. JOSIAH BARTLETT, WM. WHIPPLE, MATTHEW THORNTON. Massachusetts Bay. SAMUEL ADAMS, JOHN ADAMS, EGBERT TREAT PAINE, ELBRIDGE GERRY. Rhode Island. STEPHEN HOPKINS, WILLIAM ELLERY. Connecticut. EOGER SHERMAN, SAMUEL HUNTINGDON, WILLIAM WILLIAMS, OLIVER WOLCOTT. New York. WM. FLOYD, PHILIP LIVINGSTON, FRANCIS LEWIS, LEWIS MORRIS. New Jersey. EICHARD STOCKTON, JOHN WITHERSPOON, FRANCIS HOPKINSON, JOHN HART, ABRAHAM CLARK. Pennsylvania. EGBERT MORRIS, BENJAMIN Eusn, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, JOHN MORTON, GEORGE CLYMER, JAMES SMITH, GEORGE TAYLOR, JAMES WIL SON, GEORGE Eoss. Delaware. C.ESAR EODNEY, GEORGE EEAD, THOMAS M KEAN. Maryland. SAMUEL CHASE, WILLIAM PACA, THOMAS STONE, CHARLES CAR ROL, of Carrollton. Virginia. GEORGE WYTHE, EICHARD HENRY LEE, THOMAS JEFFERSON, BENJAMIN HARRISON, THOMAS NELSON, JUN., FRANCIS LIGHTFOOT LEE, CARTER BRAXTON. North Carolina. WILLIAM HOOPER, JOSEPH HEWES, JOHN PENN. South Carolina. EDWARD EUTLEDGE, THOMAS HEYWARD, JUN., THOMAS LYNCH, JUN., ARTHUR MIDDLETON. Georgia. BUTTON GWINNETT, LYMAN HALL, GEORGE WALTON. CONSTITUTION OF THE FNITED STATES. WE, the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this CONSTITUTION for the United States of America. ARTICLE I. SECTION 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Con gress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. SECTION 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respec tive numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including. those bound to service for a term of years, and ex cluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and w r ithin every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of repre sentatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one representative : and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three ; Massa chusetts, eight ; Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, one ; Connecticut, five ; New York, six ; New Jersey, four ; Pennsylvania, eight ; Delaware, one ; Maryland, six ; Virginia, ten ; North Carolina, five ; South Carolina, five ; and Georgia, three. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the execu tive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other offi cers ; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. SECTION 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six years ; and each senator shall have one vote. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first elec tion, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year ; of the second class, at the expiration of the fourth year ; and of the third class, at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year ; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or other wise, during the recess of the Legislature of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 313 No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. The Vice-President of the United States shall be president of the Senate but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro tern- pore^ in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief-Justice shall preside ; and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to re moval from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States ; but the party convicted shall never theless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. SECTION 4. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators and representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time, by law, make or alter such regu lations, except as to the places of choosing senators. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. SECTION 5. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties, as each house may provide. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its mem bers for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy, and the yeas and nays of the members of either house on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. SECTION 6. The senators and representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall, in all cases except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either house, they shall not be ques tioned in any other place. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United u 314 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased, during such time ; and no person holding any office under the United States shall be a member of either house during his continuance in office. SECTION 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other bills. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States ; if he approve, he shall sign it ; but if not, he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respec tively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. Every order, resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States ; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or, being disap proved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. SECTION 8. The Congress shall have power- To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States ; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States ; To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes ; To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States ; To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures ; To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States ; To establish post-offices and post-roads ; To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing, for limited times, to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writ ings and discoveries ; To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ; To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high-seas, and offences against the law of nations ; CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 315 To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules con cerning captures on land and water ; To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years ; To provide and maintain a navy ; To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces ; To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions ; To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as maybe employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress ; To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may by cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the con sent of the Legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erec tion of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings ; and To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Consti tution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. SECTION 9. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. No bill of attainder or ex-post-facto law shall be passed. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another ; nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence of appro priations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States ; and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. SECTION 10. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money; emit bills of credit ; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex-post-facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 316 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any impost or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws ; and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States ; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops or ships-of-war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. ARTICLE II. SECTION 1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators and representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress ; but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. [*The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by_ ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves ; and they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each, which list they shall sign and cer tify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the president of the Senate. The president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person naving the greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose by ballot one of them for Presi dent ; and if no person have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said House shall, in like manner, choose the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the President, the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice-President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by ballot the Vice- President.] The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes ; which day shall be the same throughout the United States. No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President ; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resig- * This clause has been superseded by the Twelfth Amendment, on p. 821. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 317 nation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the Congress may by law pro vide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act as Presi dent ; and such officer shall act accordingly until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a compensa tion which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oath or affirmation : " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States." SECTION 2. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, when called into the actual service of the United States ; he may require the opin ion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices ; and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present concur ; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate shall appoint, ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States whose appoint ments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law : but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions w r hich shall expire at the end of their next session. SECTION 3. He shall, from time to time, give to the Congress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such meas ures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in case of disagree ment between them with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper ; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully exe cuted, and shall commission all the officers of the United States. SECTION 4. The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and convic tion of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. AETICLE III. SECTION 1. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated 318 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. times, receive for their services a compensation which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. SECTION 2. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls ; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party ; to controversies between two or more States ; between a State and citizens of another State ; between citizens of different States ; between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign States, citizens, or subjects. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls, and those in which a State shall be party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury ; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed ; but when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. SECTION 3. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted. ARTICLE IV. SECTION 1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State ; and the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. SECTION 2. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. SECTION 3. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected witlwn the jurisdiction of any other State ; nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of the Legislatures of the States con cerned, as well as of the Congress. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 319 and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular State. SECTION 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion, and on application of the Legislature, or of the executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic violence. AKTICLE V. The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it neces sary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner aifect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article ; and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. ARTICLE VI. All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the confederation. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirma tion to support thia Constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. ARTICLE VII. The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same. Done in convention, by the unanimous consent of the States present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thou sand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the independence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. GEORGE WASHINGTON, President, and Deputy from Virginia,. (Signed by Deputies from all the States except Rhode Island.} 320 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. The Constitution was adopted by and was ratified by conventions of the viz. : the Convention, September 17, 1787, several States at the following dates, Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maryland, December 7, 1787. December 12, 1787. December 18, 1787. January 2, 1788. January 9, 1788. February 6, 1788. April 28, 1788. South Carolina, New Hampshire, Virginia, New York, North Carolina, Khode Island, May 23, 1788. June 21, 1788. June 26, 1788. July 26, 1788. Nov. 21, 1789. May 29, 1790. ARTICLES IN ADDITION TO, AND AMENDMENT OP, THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES, Proposed by Congress, and ratified by the Legislatures of the several States, pursuant to the Fifth Article of the foregoing Constitution. AETICLE I. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press, or of the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to peti tion the government for a redress of grievances. AETICLE II. A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. AETICLE III. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. AETICLE IV. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. AETICLE V. No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand-jury, except in CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 321 cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation. AETICLE VI. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusa tion ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence. AETICLE VII. In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States than according to the rules of the common law. ARTICLE VIII. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. AETICLE IX. The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be con strued to deny or disparage others retained by the people. AETICLE X. The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. ARTICLE XI. The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign State. AETICLE XII. The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabi tant of the same State with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the president of the Senate ; The president of the Senate shall, in presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall 322 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. then be counted ; The person having the greatest number of votes for Presi dent, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole num ber of electors appointed ; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose im mediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President, whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. ARTICLE XIII. SECTION 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punish ment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. SECTION 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this Article by appropri ate legislation. ARTICLE XIV. SECTION 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States and sub ject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States ; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. SECTION 2. Representatives shall be appointed among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed ; but when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice-President of the United States, representatives in Congress, the executive and judicial offi cers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State (being twenty-one years of age and citizens of the United States), or in anyway abridged, except for participation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be re duced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty -one years of age in said State. SECTION 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or Elector, or President, or Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 323 an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State Legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof; but Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each House? remove such disability. SECTION 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties, for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned ; but neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obli gation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave. But all such debts, obligations, and claims, shall be held illegal and void. SECTION 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this Article. ARTICLE XV. SECTION 1. The right of the citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. SECTION 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this Article by appropriate legislation. GREAT SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES. Adopted by the Continental Congress, June 20, 1782. Readopted by the Federal Congress, Sept. 15, 1789. INDEX. Acadia, 55; ceded to England, 102. Adams, John, 199 ; administration of, 207. Adams, John Quincy, 231 ; his administra tion, as president, 236. Adams, Samuel, 127, 131. Alabama, sunk by the Kearsarge, 285. Alabama Claims, 296. Alaska, purchase of, 295. Algiers, war with, 230. Allen, Ethan, 141. Allouez, 81. America, discovery of, 12 ; its name, 14. American Party, 261. Amerigo Vespucci, 15. Andre, Major, 182, 183. Andros, Sir Edmund, in New York, 92 ; in New England, 94; In Virginia, 99. Antietam, battle of, 277. Anti-renters, in New York, 243. Appomattox C. H., surrender at, 289. Arkansas Post, capture of, 280. Arnold, Benedict, 142, 145, 156, 163, 164; his treason, 182 ; his subsequent career, 183. Atlanta, capture of, 283. Aztecs, the, 32. Bacon s Kebellion, 86. Balboa, 27, 28. Ball s Bluff, battle of, 263. Baltimore, Lord, 72. City of, laid out, 99 ; British attack on, 227. Bank, of North America, 177; United States, 201, 230, 240, 243. Banks, Gen., 2SO, 283. Beauregard, Gen., 265. Belmont, battle of, 269. Bennington, battle of, 162. Bentonsville, battle of, 287. Berkeley, Sir William, 79. Biddle, Commodore, 174. Big Bethel, battle of, 267. Big Black Eiver Bridge, battle of, 280. Black Hawk s War, 288. Bladensburg, battle of, 227, Bolivar, Simon, 234. Boston, founding of, 61 ; destruction of tea in, 131 ; Port Bill, 132 ; evacuation of, by the British, 149 ; great fire of, 296. Boston Massacre, 130. Braddock s Campaign, 114. Brandy wine, battle of, 165. Brazil, discovery of, 27. Brown, Gen. Jacob, 223. Brown, John, raid of, 262. Buchanan, James, 246; administration of, 262. Btiena Vista, battle of, 249. Bull Kun, first battle of, 267; second battle of, 276. Bunker Hill, battle of, 144. Burgoyne, campaign of, 160-165. Burnside, Gen., 273, 277. Burr, Aaron, 207, 208. Cabots, 26. Calhoun, John C., 223, 235, 236, 237, 258. California, discovery of gold in, 255. Calvert, Cecil, 72; Leonard, 72. Camden, battle of, 180. Canada, Montgomery s invasion of, 145 ; Wilkinson s invasions of, 221, 223 ; in surrection in, 241 ; Dominion of, 303. Cape Breton, conquest of, 120. Carnifex Ferry, battle of, 267. Carolina, settlement of, 80. Carrick s Ford, battle of, 267. Cartier, discoveries of, 36. Cedar Creek, battle of, 285. Cedar Mountain, battle of, 276. 326 INDEX. Centennial Exhibition, the, 300. Central America, colonization of, 35; re publics of, 235. Cerro Gordo, battle of, 252. Champion s Hill, battle of, 280. Champlain, 55. Chancellorsville, battle of, 279. Chantilly, battle of, 276. Chapultepec, battle of, 253. Charles City Cross Koads, battle of, 276. Charleston, founding of, 80 ; attack of the British on, in 1776, 149 ; taken by the British, 177; recovered by the Amer icans, 193 ; in the Civil War, 265, 281 ; surrender of, 2S8. Chattanooga, 282, 283. Cherokees, war with the, 124; their re moval to Indian Territory, 239. Cherry Yalley, massacre of, 171. Chicago, rapid growth of, 296; great fire of, 296. Chickamauga, battle of, 282. Chippewa, battle of, 224. Chryslers Field, battle of, 221. Churubusco, battle of, 253. Civil War, the, 264-2S9 ; results of, 293. Clay, Henry, 222, 234, 236, 237, 246, 257, 258. Clinton, De Witt, 232, 236. Clinton, Gen., 165, 169, 177, 193. Clinton, George, 208, 211. Coal, discovery of, 205. Cold Harbor, battle of, 284. Columbus, voyages of, 11, 12, 13 ; adminis tration of, 13. Concord, battle of, 139. Confederacy, formation of the, 263. Confederation, Articles of, 196. Congress, first Continental, 133 ; second Continental, 142 ; organization of the Federal, 200. Connecticut, settlement of, 67 ; its charter demanded by Andros, 94. Constitution of the United States, 197, 812. Continental Money, 176. Contreras, battle of, 252. Cornwallis, Lord, 152, 155, 158, 165; in Carolina, 178, ISO, 187 ; in Virginia, 189; surrender of, 191. Cotton-gin, invention of the, 205. Cowpens, battle of the, 185. Credit Mobilier, 297. Creek War, 221. Crown Point, 115, 121, 142, 156. Cuba, discovery of, 12 ; colonized, 14. Custer, Gen., last battle of, 301. Da Gama, Vasco, 26. Dallas, battle of, 283. Davis, Jefferson, president of the Confed eracy, 263; capture of, 293. Davis, John, voyages of, 41. Dearborn, Gen., 213, 221. Deatonsville, battle of, 289. Decatur, Lieutenant, 208, 230. Declaration of Independence, the Mecklen burg, 140 ; by the Continental Congress, 151 ; 309. Deerfield, massacre at, 101. De Gourgues, 37. De Kalb, arrival of, 160 ; fall of, 180. Delaware, origin of, 91. Delaware, Lord, in Virginia, 45. De Leon, Ponce, 29. De Narvaez, 29. De Soto, expedition of, 30. D Estaing, at Newport, 169 ; at Savannah, 173. Doniphan, Colonel, 250. Dorr s Rebellion, 243. Draft, the, in the Civil War, 280. Drake, Sir Francis, 39, 40. "Dred Scott" decision, 262. Dustin, Hannah, 97. Dutch, maritime enterprise of the, 51 ; set tlements, 53. Early, Gen., his invasion of Maryland, 284. Eliot, John, 76. Emancipation Proclamation, 278. Esquimaux, the, 24. Eutaw Springs, battle of, 189. Everett, Edward, 259. Fair Oaks, battle of, 275. Farragut, Admiral, 274, 285. Fillmorc, Millard, 255 ; his administration, 253. Fisher s Hill, battle of, 285. Fishing Creek, battle of, 181. Fitch, John, 209. Flag, adoption of the national, 159. Florida, explorations of, 29 ; ceded by Spain INDEX. 327 to England, 124 ; ceded back by Eng land, 193 ; purchase of, 233. Fort Clinton, 165. Fort Dearborn, abandoned, 214. Fort Donelson, capture of, 271. Fort Du Quesne, taken by Washington, 120. Fort Erie, 224, 225. Fort Fisher, capture of, 287. Fort George, 218, 221. Fort Henry, capture of, 271. Fort McAllister, capture of, 286. Fort Meigs, siege of, 217. Fort Mercer, taken by the British, 166. Fort Mifflin, taken by the British, 166. Fort Montgomery, taken by Clinton, 165. Fort Pillow, 272, 283. Fort Pulaski, capture of, 273. Fort Schuyler, defence of, 162. Fort Stephenson, defence of, 218. Fort Sumter, fall of, 265. Fort Washington, capture of, 154. Fort William Henry, capture of, 118. France, aid received from, 160 ; independ ence of the States recognized by, 168. Frauklin, Benjamin, 113, 197. Franklin, Tenn., battle of, 286. Fredericksburg (Va.), battle of, 277. Fremont, John C., 251, 261. French and Indian War, 111-124. Frobisher, voyages of, 40. Frontenac, governor of New France, 97. Fulton, Kobert, 209. Gadsden purchase, the, 259. Gage, Gen., governor of Massachusetts, 132. Gaines s Mill, battle of, 275. Gansevoort, Colonel, 162. Gates, Gen., at Stillwater, 163; at Camden, ISO. Genet, minister of France, 204. Georgia, founding of, 102. Germantown, battle of, 166. Gettysburg, battle of, 279. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 40. Gorges, 65. Grant, Gen., 271, 279, 2S8; his administra tion, as president, 295-302. Greeley, Horace, 296. Greene, Gen., 152 ; supersedes Gates, 180, 185 ; his famous retreat, 187. Guadalupe Hidalgo, Treaty of, 253. Guatemozin, 33. Guilford Court-House, battle of, 187. Hadley, surprise of, 84. Hamilton, Alexander, 154, 201, 208. Hanging Eock, battle of, 180. Harmer, Gen., defeat of, 202. Harrison, Gen., 211 ; his campaign in Ohio, 216; at the Thames, 220; his adminis tration, 242. Hartford Convention, 230. Hawkins, Sir John, voyages of, 39. Hayes, Kutherford B., election of, 302. Hennepin, 82. Henry, Patrick, 128, 134 ; death of, 207. Herkimer, Gen., 162. Hessians, 150, 158. Hispaniola, discovery of, 12. Hobkirk s Hill, battle of, 188. Hooker, Gen., 278. Howe, Gen., supersedes Gage, 148 ; offers peace, 152; takes Philadelphia, 166; gives way to Gen. Clinton, 168. Hudson, Henry, discoveries of, 52. Hull, Gen., his surrender, 213. Hutchinson, Ann, 63. Indians, the, origin of, 14 ; description of, 19-24. Island No. 10, capture of, 272. luka, battle of, 278. Jackson, Andrew, 206, 228, 233; his ad ministration, as president, 236-240. Jackson (Miss.), battle of, 280. Jackson, " Stonewall," 275, 279. Jamaica, discovery of, 13; taken by the English, 100. Jamestown, founding of, 43. Japan, opened by Commodore Perry, 260. Jay, John, 204. Jefferson, Thomas, 203 ; administration of, 208-210. Johnson, Andrew, administration of, 292- 295 ; impeachment of, 294. Joliet, 82. Jones, Paul, 159, 174. Kansas, 260 ; troubles in, 261. Kenesaw Mountain, battle of, 283. Kentucky, first settled, 135 ; admitted, 206. 328 INDEX. Kidd, Captain, 100. King George s War, 107. King Philip s War, 83-85. King s Mountain, battle of, 181. King William s War, 96. Knoxville, siege of, 282. Kosciusko, 160, 163, 172. Lafayette, arrival of, 160; at Monmouth, 169; in Virginia, 190; visit of, 235. Lake Erie, battle of, 219. Lake George, Dieskau s defeat at, 116. La Salle, 82. Lee, Gen. Charles, 149, 154. Lee, Gen. Eobert E., 275; his first inva sion of Maryland, 276; his second in vasion, 279 ; surrender of, 289. Lexington (Mass.), battle of, 139. Lexington (Mo.), battle of, 269. Lincoln, Gen., 173, 177. Lincoln, President, administration of, 264 ; assassination of, 289. Long Island, battle of, 152. Lookout Mountain, battle of, 282. Loudoun, Lord, 117, 118. Louisturg, capture of, 107, 120. Louisiana, explored and named, 82; Mis sissippi Scheme, 105 ; ceded by France to Spain, 124 ; purchase of, 208 ; political troubles in, 297. Lundy s Lane, battle of, 224. Madison, James, his administration, 211. Magellan, voyage of, 28. Magnetic telegraph, the, 246. Maine, settlement of, 65; incorporated in Massachusetts Bay Colony, 95. Malvern Hill, battle of, 276. Marion, 178, 181. Marquette, 82. Maryland, settlement of, 72 ; a royal prov ince, 99 ; its capital changed, 99. Mason and Dixon s Line, 91. Mason and Slidell, seizure of, 270. Massachusetts Bay Colony, 61. Massasoit, 58. McClellan, Gen., 267; succeeds Gen. Scott, 268 ; his Peninsular Campaign, 274. McCrea, Jane, tragical fate of, 161. Meade, Gen., 279, 283. MeehanicsvilJe, battle of, 275. Melendez, 37. Mexican War, 248-256. Mexico, conquest of, 31 ; condition of, tinder Spanish viceroys, 100 ; insurrections in, 245 ; its independence established, 245 ; a republic, 245; war with the United States, 246-253 ; capture of the capital by Gen. Scott, 253 ; Maximilian in, 302. Mill Springs, battle of, 270. Minisink, burned by Brant, 171. Minuit, administration of, 53. Missionary Kidge, battle of, 282. Mississippi, first settled, 104. Missouri Compromise, 234. Modoc War, 297. Molino del Key, battle of, 253. Monitor and Virginia, encounter of, 273. Monmouth, battle of, 168. Monocacy, battle of the, 284. Monroe, James, his administration, 231. Montcalm, 117. Monterey, capture of, 249. Montezuma, 33. Montgomery, Gen. Richard, 145. Montreal, founded, 81. Morgan, Gen., 145, 146, 163, 164, 185; re treat of, through Carolina, 186, 187. Morgan s raid, 281. Mormons, the, 244. Morse, Samuel F. B., 246, 300. Mound-builders, the, 16; relics of, 17. Munfordsville, battle of, 278. Murfrcesboro, battle of, 278. Nashville, battle near, 286. New Brunswick, conquest of, 117. New England, life in, 70 ; United Colonies of, 75 ; witchcraft in, 98. New France, 36, 55, 81. New Hampshire, settlement of, 65. New Haven, colony of, 69. New Netherland, 53; under Kieft, 77; conquered by the English, 77. New Orleans, founded, 105 ; battle of, 229 ; capture of, 274. Newport, founded, 64 ; taken by the Brit ish, 156; American attack on, 169. New Sweden, 73. New York, why so called, 77 ; early times in, 79 ; under Andros, 92 ; under Don- gan, 93; under Leisler, 93; under INDEX. 329 Fletcher, 93 ; abandoned to the British, 153 ; evacuation of, 195. Ninety-Six, siege of, 188. Norsemen, discoveries of the, 8. Nullification in South Carolina, 237. Oglethorpe, James Edward, 102. Ohio, first settlement of, 202. Omnibus Bill, 257. Oriskany, battle of, 162. Osceola, 289. Otis, James, 127. Pacific, discovery of the, 27. Pacific Kailroad, 295. Pakenham, Gen., 229. Palo Alto, battle of, 248. Patroon system, 54. Pea Ridge, battle of, 272. Penn, William, 89. Pennsylvania, founding of, 89. Pequod War, 68, 69. Perry, Commodore, on Lake Erie, 219. Perryville, battle of, 278. Peru, conquest of, 85. Petersburg, siege of, 284, 286 ; capture of, 288. Philadelphia, founded, 90 ; taken by Howe, 166; evacuated by the British, 168. Philippi, battle of, 267. Phipps, Sir William, 95, 97. Pierce, President, his administration, 259. Pike, Gen., his capture of York, 217. Pizarro, 34. Plattsburg, battle of, 226. Pleasant Hill, battle of, 2S3. Plymouth, Council of, 56 ; landing at, 58 ; colony of, 58-60 ; incorporated in Mas sachusetts Bay Colony, 95. Pocahontas, 44, 46. Polk, James K., his administration, 246. Pontiac s War, 124. Pope, Gen., 272, 276. " Popular sovereignty " discussion, 260. Powhatan, 43, 44. Princeton, battle of, 158. Proctor, Gen., 216, 217, 220. Providence, founding of, 63. Pulaski, arrival of, 160 ; fall of, 173. Puritans, 57, 69. Putnam, Gen., 140, 152, 154. Quakers, in New England, 76 ; in New Jer sey, 88. Quebec, founded, 55 ; taken by Wolfe, 122. Queen Anne s War, 101. Queenstown, battle of, 215. Kailroads, early days of, in the U. S., 241. Ealeigh, Sir Walter, 41. Eawdon, Lord, 188. Eaymond, battle of, 280. Keconstruction, 293. Eed Eiver Expedition, 283. Eegulators, the, 131. Eesaca, battle of, 283. Eesaca de la Palma, battle of, 248. Eevolutionary War, 139-195. Ehode Island, settlement of, 63. Eibault, 37. Eichmond (Ky.), battle of, 278. Eichmond, Va., 192, 266 ; capture of, 288. Eich Mountain, battle of. 267. Eoanoke Island, settlements on, 41, 42 ; capture of, in the Civil War, 273. Eochambeau, 190. Eomney, battle of, 267. Eosecrans, Gen., 267, 278, 282. Sabine Cross Eoads, battle of, 2S3. San Jacinto, battle of, 245. San Salvador, discovery of, 12. Santa Anna, 245, 250, 252. Saratoga, surrender of, 165. Savage s Station, battle of, 276. Savannah, founded, 103; captured by the British, 173 ; recovered by the Amer icans, 193; evacuated by the Confed erates, 286. Saybrook, colony of, 67 ; absorbed, 69. Schenectady, massacre at, 97. Schuyler, Gen., 161, 163. Scott, Gen., 215, 223; his victory at Lun- dy s Lane, 224 ; his campaign in Mexico, 251 ; nominated for the presidency, 259 ; in the Civil War, 266 ; retires from com mand, 268. Secession of eleven states, 263, 265, 289. Seminole War, first, 233 ; second, 239. Seward, William IL, 264, 289, 300. Shays s Eebellion, 196. Sheridan, Gen., 285, 288. Sherman, Gen. William T., 283 ; his march 330 INDEX. to the seaboard, 286; his campaign in the Carolinas, 287. Shiloh, battle of, 272. Sioux War, of 1876, 301. Slavery, introduced into Virginia, 48; in New Netherland, 54 ; in New England, 76; discussions respecting, 257; aboli tion of, in the United States, 293. Slave-trade, abolition of the, 210. Smith, Captain John, 43. South America, discovery of, 13. South American Eepublics, 234. South Mountain, battle of, 276. Spottsylvania C. H., battle of, 284. Stamp Act, the, 123-130. Stark, Gen., 140, 162. St. Clair, Gen., 160, 202. Steuben, Baron, arrival of, 168. Stillwater, battles of, 163, 164. St. Leger, expedition of, 161. Stony Point, captured by Clinton, 172; captured by Wayne, 172. Stuyvesant, Peter, 77. Sullivan, Gen., 152, 169 ; Indian expedition of, 171. Sumter, 180. Tarleton, Colonel, 177, 181, 185. Taylor, Gen. Zachary, 239, 246 ; campaign in Mexico, 248 ; administration of, 256. Tecumseh, 211, 217, 220. Telegraph, invention of the, 246 ; the At lantic, 262. Tennessee, first settled, 131 ; admitted, 206. Texas, annexation of, 245. Thames, battle of the, 220. Ticonderoga, repulse of Abercrombie at, 119 ; taken by Amherst, 121 ; capture of, by Ethan Allen, 141 ; capture of, by Burgoyne, 160. Tippecanoe, battle of, 211. Trenton, battle of, 156; Cornwallis out- gcneralled at, 158. Tripolitan War, 208. Tryon, Governor, in North Carolina, 131 ; in New York, 147 ; in Connecticut. 172. Tyler, John, 242 ; his administration, 243. Valley Forge, 166, 168. Van Buren, Martin, 237, 289 ; his adminis tration, as president, 240-242. Vera Cruz, capture of, 251. Vermont, admission of, 206. Verplanck s Point, capture of, 172. Verrazzani, 36. Vicksburg, capture of, 280. Virginia, origin of its name, 41 ; first set tlement of, 43 ; first General Assembly of, 47; negro slavery introduced into, 48 ; Indian massacre in, 48 ; a royal province, 49 ; under Berkeley, 79 ; un der Culpepper, 87 ; under Andros, 99 ; the capital changed, 99. War of 1812, 213-231. Warren, Dr. Joseph, 145. Washington, youth of, 108 ; his mission to the French forts, 110; in Braddock s campaign, 115; marriage of, 120; as sumes command at Cambridge, 147 ; his retreat across New Jersey, 155; at Monmouth, 169; surrenders his com mission, 196 ; administration of, as president, 199-206 ; death of, 207. Washington City, burning of the public buildings of, 227. Wayne, Gen., 172, 202. Waynesboro, battle of, 2S8. Webster, Daniel, 223, 243, 258. Wesley, John and Charles, in Georgia, 103. Western Continent, described, 6, 7. West Point, Arnold s treason at, 182. Whiskey Pvebellion, 204. White-Oak Swamp, battle of, 276. White Plains, battle of, 154. Wilderness, battle of the, 284. Williams, Roger, 62. Williamsburg, battle of, 275. Wilmington, N. C., capture of, 287. Wilmot Proviso, the, 255. Wilson s Creek, battle of, 269. Winchester, battle of, 285. Witchcraft in New England, 98. Wolfe, capture of Quebec by, 123. Woodhull, Gen., 153. Wool, Gen., 215, 241. Writs of Assistance, 127. 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His work has been so well done that I do not hesitate to introduce the Primary History upon the strength of his name." J. D. H. Corwine, Princ. of Classical Institute, Logansport, Ind.: "I shall at once introduce it as the BEST work of the kind on this important branch of education." D. APPLET ON & CO:S PUBLICATIONS. [Specimen Engraving^ Illustrated School History of the World, FROM THE EARLIEST AGES TO THE PRESENT TIME, By J. D. QUACKENBOS, A.M., M. D. 1 vol., 12mo, 473 pages. This new School History is written in a style that is a model of clear ness, eloquence, and elegant condensation. It is not a mere record of wars, but portrays as well the social life of the nations, ancient, mediaeval, and modern, their progress in science, literature, and the arts, discovery, invention, and civilization. It leaves insignificant details and repulsive statistics out of view, but presents all that is of real consequence, dealing, in fact, with many interest ing parts of the world s annals which have been heretofore comparatively overlooked. It condenses the whole history of the past into a moderate-sized vol ume that can be readily mastered in the course cf the ordinary school year. It treats ancient countries in the lic;ht of the most recent discoveries. It brings down the history of every country to the present year, with in valuable freshness and accuracy. It is profusely illustrated with ar tistic colored maps, ancient and mod ern, and with magnificent engravings from spirited designs, in which the truth of history is rigidly preserved. It is full of pleasant stories, which relieve the narrative, while some times they give a more vivid view of men and manners than whole pages of description would do. It is adapted to every school, public or private, in which General History is taught. Every possible device has been resorted to, in order to make this manual an attractive school-book, to render the learning of history easy, and to imbue the pupil with a taste for historical reading. EGYPTIAN OBELISK. D. APPLET ON & CO:S PUBLICATIONS. Cornell s Physical Geography ACCOMPANIED WITH NINETEEN PAGES OF MAPS, A GREAT VARIETY OF MAP QUESTIONS, AND ONE HUNDRED AND THIRTY DIAGRAMS AND PICTORIAL ILLUSTRATIONS ; AND EMBRACING A DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE Physical Features of the United States. By S. S. C O E- INT E JL, L . 1 vol. large 4to, 104 pages. The attention of teachers is particularly requested to this new volume by the Author of Cornell s popular Series of Geographies, in the belief that it will be found to embrace all that is valuable and interesting hi this important branch of study, and to be, beyond competition, the best text-look on the subject. It is no mere rehash of time-honored details, but has been drawn from original sources, and is on a level with the present advanced state of the science. Clearness, adaptation to the school-room, inductiveness of arrangement, and the presentation of one thing at a time and every thing in its proper place features which have contrib uted so largely to the success of the other Geographies of the CORNELL Series are among its striking characteristics. It is interesting to the learner. The dry statistical style usual in similar text-books has been avoided, and the great wonders of Nature, always fascinating to the inquiring mind, are presented in the most strik ing manner, so as to rivet the attention and impress the memory. The illustrations are numerous and beautiful, and are used wherever it was thought they would help to elucidate the text. Maps and diagrams have been liberally introduced. The maps are executed in the finest style of the art carefully drawn, distinctly engraved, and tastefully col ored according to the most approved style. Each map is accompanied with questions in great variety. The physical features of our own country receive particular attention in a closing chapter. The student is aided by a fine Physical Map of the United States, which (in addition to the features usually presented) showa the mean annual temperature of diiferent parts of the country, the vege table products of different sections, and their mineral resources, the rela tive values of the precious metals produced in the several States being clearly represented to the eye by an ingenious plan. A Map of Alaska, on a comparatively large scale, is also presented. It is believed that the above features, besides others which there ia no space here to enumerate, cannot fail to recommend this work to all. D. APPLET ON & CO:S PUBLICATIONS. GET THE BEST! Cornell s Geographies SURPASS ALL OTHERS: 1. In philosophic arrangement, the spirit of their motto being fully carried out " First the blade, then the ear ; after that the full corn in the ear." 2. In the gradual progression of their steps, whereby the difficulties usually encountered by beginners are removed. 3. In presenting one thing at a time, and impressing it on the mind before another is introduced. 4. In the adaptation of each part to the age and grade of scholarship for which it is intended. 6. In the admirable mode they prescribe for memorizing the con tents of a map. 6. In their full explanations and explicit directions for describing the natural divisions of the earth, saving the teacher time and labor. 7. In their judicious selection of facts, the usual mass of irrelevant details pertaining to astronomy, history, zoology, botany, etc., being excluded. 8. In the appropriate and instructive character of their illustrations. 9. In consistency between maps and text. 10. In the introduction into the Maps of such places only as are men tioned in the book thus saving the pupil from the discourag ing necessity of groping for a given locality among a labyrinth of crowded names. 11. In the clear representation of every fact, and the analytical pre cision with which each branch of the subject is kept distinct. 12. In being at once practical, systematic, and complete, philosophical in its arrangement, and progressive in its development of the subject. These merits characterize the whole Cornell Series in a preeminent degree. So clearly Is every fact presented, with such analytical precision is one branch of the subject kept distinct from another, so carefully is all that does not legitimately fall within the province of the science excluded, as to leave no doubt as to its decided superiority. The knowl edge acquired from Corneirs books must be digested, and, therefore, long remembered The studeat learns one thing at a time, and learns it well A FULL DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE SENT UPON APPLICATION 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED EDUCATION - PSYCHOLOGY . LIBRARY This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. 7 DAY USE DURING SUMMER SESSIONS FEB ^ 1967 MA? S19S7 ^tiflS&V u-S^gS-u, I LJ STANDARD EDUCATIONAL WORKS. Science Primers : I. CHEMISTEY. By H. E. EOSCOE, Professor of Chemistry in Owens College, Manchester; author of "The Spectrum Analysis," " Lessons in Elementary Chemistry," etc. II. PHYSICS. By BALFOITR STEWART, Professor of Natural Philosophy in Owens College, Manchester ; author of " Elementary Lessons in Physics." With Illustrations. Tinted paper. Flexible cloth covers. 18mo. Spalding s History of English Literature. Sewell s First History of Greece. iSmo. 358 pages. 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