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 OLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 HEMENWAY COLLECTION. 
 
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 Received June 2Q, 1S96. 
 
 
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ARCHjEOLOG 
 
 OF OHIO 
 
 V 
 
 
 By M. C. READ, 
 
 LATE OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF OHIO; TRUSTEE 
 OF OHIO ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY IN CHARGE AT 
 PHILADELPHIA, 1876; AND ASSISTANT COM- 
 MISSIONER AT THE EXPOSITION AT 
 NEW ORLEANS IN 1884-5. 
 
 PUBMBHKD BY 
 
 <Tlj* Utrotmi Hcoerue ^totortral Sorietij, 
 
 CLEVELAND, OHIO. 
 
El? , 
 
 2,e>6oik 
 
 Approved for publication: 
 
 Lee McBride, 
 
 H. G. Cleveland, 
 Sam Briggs, 
 
 Committee on Printing. 
 
 ff,KVKI,AXD I.KAPKR PRINT. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS, 
 
 The Archaeological Exhibit. ------ 7 
 
 Flint or Chert Implements, ..... 8 
 
 Arrow Points, ... .... 10 
 
 Knives, - - - - - - - - U 
 
 Scrapers, Drills and Perforators. - - - - - 22 
 
 Chert Spades and Hoes, ------ 22 
 
 Stone Implements, ------- 25 
 
 Axes and Battle Axes. ------ 25 
 
 Hammer Stones, ....... 33 
 
 Celts, Skinners, Etc., ...... :; i 
 
 Plumb Balls, Sinkers and Pendants, - - - - - 35 
 
 Mortars and Pestles, ...... 36 
 
 Cup Stones, -------- 39 
 
 Discoidal Stones. - - - - - - 39 
 
 Stone Ornaments, - - - - - • - 40 
 
 Bird-Shaped Ornaments, - ..... 42 
 
 Beads and Tubes, - - - - - - - 42 
 
 Banner Stones, Badges, or Wands. 4o 
 
 Pipes, ----..-.- 46 
 
 Hematite, -------- 52 
 
 Bone and Horn Implements, ------ ,V2 
 
 Copper Implements, ...... 53 
 
 Pottery, --------- 54 
 
 Shells, -------- 56 
 
 Kock Shelters, -------- 50 
 
 Human Effigies. - - ' - - - . - fii 
 
 Fire Hearths, -------- 64 
 
 Picture Writing and Inscribed Rocks, .... 60 
 
 Earthworks, -------- 79, 
 
 Mining by the Mound Builders, ..... 100 
 
 Alphabetic Writing and Engraved Tablets, - - - - 101 
 
 Social and Civil Condition of the Mound Builders. - - 109 
 
 Were the Mound Builders the First Occupants ? - • - 113 
 
 Addendum — What is It ? - - - - - . us 
 
 £960l<o 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 During this centennial year of Ohio, the attention of its 
 citizens will be generally directed to its past. 
 
 The State is remarkable for the number and extent of its 
 earthworks, no spot of equal size on the globe having so 
 many and so extensive monuments of earth. 
 
 Whether one stauds on the grounds of the Agricultural 
 Society, in Licking County, inside the thirty -acre circle, with 
 its high walls shutting out all view of modern civilization, 
 and remembers that this was only one of many works 
 extending tor miles in more than one direction ; whether, as 
 happened to me last summer, he spends three and a half 
 hours clambering along the steep embankments of Fort 
 Ancient, or whether he reads in books alone of these and 
 various wonderful works, remembering again that there are 
 over ten thousand mounds in the State, he will be alike 
 amazed at such and so many remains left by a race so far 
 unknown that it can as yet simply be styled " The Mound 
 Builders.'' 
 
 The interest has been romantic, and the temptation, in 
 absence of evidence, to exercise the imagination, has been 
 quite irresistible. As years have flown and knowledge from 
 many investigators has been added up, it is time that archae- 
 ology shall begin to be certain and a science. The next 
 step requires a competent experience and a sound judgement 
 to decide both what is and what is not proven. For to be 
 right it is quite important to know the limits and certainties 
 of knowledge. 
 
 This Society presents to its members with pleasure this 
 little book, by Professor M. C. Read, of Hudson, Ohio, late 
 a prominent member of the Geological Survey, of the State. 
 He was also, in 1876, the most active Trustee of the State 
 Archaeological Society of Ohio, in charge, with the late 
 
— G— 
 
 President of our Society, Colonel Charles Whittlesey, of the 
 Archaeological Exhibit of the State at the Philadelphia 
 Exhibit. Later he was in 1884-5 Assistant Commissioner at 
 the Exposition at New Orleans, having in charge the archae- 
 ological exhibit there. 
 
 His tastes, experiences, and mental habits, have been such 
 that we think ourselves fortunate in making this, in this 
 centennial year, the first of our new series of publications. 
 
 It has been desired that at this time this publication 
 should be made, and hoped that it will be of value in assist- 
 ing knowledge and directing attention to this subject which 
 it is to be hoped is this year to have the advantage of the 
 largest exhibitions within the State itself. 
 
 This book was mainly prepared for a report upon this 
 subject and most of the illustrations were prepared for it as 
 such and in outline as the amount to be devoted to engrav- 
 ing was small. The author acknowledges his indebtedness 
 to this Society, to the Smithsonian Institution, to Mr. Robert 
 Clarke, of Cincinnati, and Mr. Peter Neff, of Gambier, for 
 the use of engravings and for copies of others. Some of 
 them have appeared in former tracts of the Society, but it 
 has been thought best that Professor Read should be able to 
 present, though not a complete, a typical treatise upon his 
 subject. 
 
 C. C. BALDWIN, 
 
 President of the Western Heserve Historical Society, 
 of Cleveland, Ohio. 
 
The Archaeological Exhibit 
 
 By M. C. READ, Assistant Commissioner, 
 Hudson, Ohio. 
 
 The general attention now given to archaeological studies 
 makes all good exhibits of local archaeology important 
 features in general exhibitions. This was made apparent at 
 the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia. No part of that 
 great exhibit of the industries and arts of the world attracted 
 greater attention of all classes, than the pre-historic relics of 
 the nations represented. The beginnings of civilization, the 
 rude attempts of primitive man everywhere, to conquer the 
 forces of nature, and provide for his ever-increasing wants, 
 are now more carefully studied than ever before. And as 
 there is no State in the Union richer in archaeological remains 
 than Ohio, it was eminently fitting that the exhibit made at 
 New Orleans, intended to illustrate the arts, industries, 
 resources and civilization of this State, should be accom- 
 panied by a like exhibit of its pre-Columbian inhabitants. 
 
 The brief time which could be given to making the col- 
 lections for this exhibit, rendered the making of such 
 a collection as was desirable, wholly impossible. If all of 
 the collections great and small in the State could be examined, 
 and permission obtained to use selected specimens, which 
 were well authenticated, accompanied with descriptions 
 showing when, where and under what conditions they were 
 found, an exhibit could be made which would enable us to 
 commence an accurate classification of these remains, and to 
 
— 8— 
 
 understand at least approximately their significance. Before 
 
 these typical and valuable specimens are lost or carried out 
 
 of the State, such a collection ought to be made, either by 
 
 the State, or by some society, so organized, as to insure the 
 
 preservation of the collection, in some central locality, where 
 
 . it.would.be accessible to all students of archaeology. Every 
 
 ■ year's* delay'ren-ders the making of such a collection more 
 
 ,\ : : di^tftt^atidjwtjulcl: make the collection of less value when 
 
 " 'm&deV' Tts 'preservation could be fully insured by making it 
 
 the property of the State, to be treated as a part of the 
 
 library of the history of the State. 
 
 In -making the selections for the New Orleans Exhibition, 
 many collections could not be visited. Many owners were 
 unwilling, for any monied guarantee, to risk the loss of 
 specimens, and reliance had to be made upon the generosity 
 and public spirit of those who were willing to entrust their 
 Avhole collections to the care of the Commission. Messrs. 
 Baldwin and Bauder, of the Northern Ohio and Western 
 Reserve Historical Society, of Cleveland ; The Ohio State 
 University, of Columbus ; Thomas W. Kinney, of Ports- 
 mouth ; R. W". Mercer and S. C. Heighway, ot Cincinnati, 
 are entitled to the special thanks of the Committee for their 
 generosity in this particular. 
 
 FLINT OR CHERT IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 Of the many thousand articles exhibited, the so-called 
 "flint" implements were the most numerous, and these, 
 from the great variety of forms, and often from their delicacy 
 and perfect workmanship, attract the most attention. They 
 are not made of a true flint, but of a flint-like chert, found 
 in place on the horizons of the carboniferous limestones of 
 the State. Many ancient quarries have been noticed from 
 which this material was mined, the most extensive one being 
 on Flint Ridge, southeast ot Newark, in Licking county. 
 Here many acres are covered, to a depth of several feet, with 
 the broken fragments of chert, taken from the quarries. 
 
The miners had learned that the chert exposed to atmos- 
 pheric agencies did not chip readily, and was poorly adapted 
 to their work. Accordingly they rarely attacked the stratum 
 at its outcrop, but sunk pits to it, where it was covered with 
 several feet of earth. These they carried through the chert) 
 undermined it, and could thus easily work out the blocks 
 into which it was naturally divided. The value they attached 
 •to this material is indicated by the vast amount of waste 
 now remaing upon the surface. Not more than one or two 
 per cent., of the material quarried, would be available for 
 the production of the bettter class of flint implements. The 
 selected material was apparently largely carried to other 
 places to be manufactured, and was probably an article of 
 barter between separated communities. Many places have 
 been noted, remote from these ancient quarries, where the 
 surface soil is filled with chips and flakes, and where broken 
 arrows, knives and spears are conspicuously abundant. 
 
 The typical fossih of the limestones are sparingly found 
 in the chert, and are occasionally seen in the finished imple- 
 ments — reliable witnesses of the material. Two such 
 specimens from my small collection were on exhibition. 
 
 In Mr. Kinney's collection was a large number of beauti- 
 ful specimens, called by the Archaeologists of the Smith- 
 sonian Institute, " leaf-shaped implements." These were a 
 part of a single find of nearly four hundred specimens, and 
 a large number of such finds have been made in the State. 
 Rarely seen scattered upon the surface, they are found depos- 
 ited by hundreds beneath the surface, and, in every case, 
 where definite information can be obtained, on the margin 
 of a stream or lake where they would be kept constantly 
 moist. None of them are notched or fitted to be attached to 
 handles. They appear to be unfinished implements, chip- 
 ped into form and hurried where the flaking character of the 
 material would not be impaired, and to be afterward fitted 
 for their special uses. 
 
— 1 li- 
 lt is related that when the Angel met Moses at the Inn 
 and sought to kill him, his wife, Zippora, evidently suppos- 
 ing that his danger arose from the fact that he had neglected 
 to subject their son to the Abrahamie rite, seized a "sharp 
 stone/' and with it circumcised their child, when the Angel 
 departed. The word rendered "sharp stone" in the Septua- 
 gint version means a pebble from the brook, indicating that 
 the author of the narrative understood that a stone, from 
 which a knife could be extemporized, must be taken from 
 the water. It is also related that the California Indians, in 
 want of a knife, will search in the nearest stream for a stone, 
 chip it to an edge, and with it skin a deer almost as quickly 
 as he could with a modern steel knife. The primitive inhab- 
 itants of Ohio were doubtless equally well informed, and 
 would preserve their unfinished implements where their 
 flaking qualities would not be impaired. One of these de- 
 posits, in Summit County, contained also a number of pieces 
 of matamorphic slate, chipped into the form of the polished 
 stone ornaments, common in the State, but neither per- 
 forated or polished. 
 
 ARROW POINTS. 
 
 What are "arrow points?" is a question which would be 
 differently answered by different collectors. A correct an- 
 swer to this question, and many others which will arise in 
 an attempted classification, can perhaps be reached by 
 learning — 
 
 First. How tribes, still making flint implements, use 
 them. 
 
 Second. What is the form of the first substitutes for them 
 made of metal ? 
 
 Third. What light does any well-authenticated picture 
 writing shed upon the question? 
 
 Now all the flint arrow tips, anywhere obtained, attached 
 to shafts, are very small in comparison with many so-called 
 arrows in most collections, and the modern Indian, who still 
 
—11— 
 
 uses the bow, and has adopted iron or steel for his arrow 
 tips, makes them all small. It is obvious also that the large 
 pieces could be used for arrow points only at short range, 
 and with very strong bows. 
 
 In the illustrations, figure No. 8 represents a very delicate 
 glass arrow point made by a Tin Tin California Indian; Nos. 
 19 and 20, chert points, attached to shafts in the Smith- 
 sonian collection, made by McCloud River Indians; Nos. 21 
 and 22, similar points in the same collection, made by 
 Hoopah Indians, and Nos. 24, 25 and 26, iron points, attached 
 to shafts in the Montana exhibit. 
 
 With these may be compared Nos. 1 to 18, inclusive, repre- 
 senting the different forms and sizes of what may properly 
 be called Ohio arrow points. But there is a gradual increase 
 in size, and no definite line can be drawn between the arrow 
 points and the larger forms. 
 
 KNIVES. 
 
 Chert and rock fragments, which could be chipped to a 
 sharp edge, constituted the only material largely available 
 for the manufacture of cutting implements for primitive men, 
 and natural wants would prompt to the extensive use of this 
 material for such purposes. The forms of the implements, 
 the specimens still found in use attached to their short han- 
 dles, and the few specimens found, in which the handle is 
 wrought out of the same material as the knife, and consti- 
 tuting a part of it, clearly indicate the character of these 
 implements. 
 
 The rudest form is made without any attempt at symmetry, 
 without any provision for the attachment of a handle, and is 
 simply a rock fragment chipped to a single cutting edge. 
 A collection of such knives, taken from a rock shelter in 
 Boston, Summit County, was among the exhibits. Nearly 
 all found at that place were of this character — fragments of 
 shale, quartz, boulders, and other rock, so broken as to give 
 a single cutting edge, of such forms as Nos. 27 and 28 in the 
 
—13— 
 
—14— 
 
 illustrations. From the ash-bed of this shelter seventy-five 
 such knives were gathered, made from all the material avail- 
 able for such uses, to be found in the neighborhood, and the 
 uses for which they were intended could not be mistaken. 
 
 Figure 29 represents one of several specimens of handled 
 flint knives in the Smithsonian collection, reduced one-half 
 diameter. 
 
 No. 3930, of the Smithsonian collection, is a knife of red 
 jaspery chert, obtained from a mound on Warrior River? 
 Alabama, of which the handle is of the same material as the 
 knife, the whole being of one piece. This is also in figure 
 No. 30, reduced one-half. 
 
 Figure No. 31 represents a similar knife from the same 
 collection, and No. 32, still a different form, made of white 
 chert, in the Missouri collection, both reduced one-half. 
 
 These illustrations sufficiently show the manner of attach- 
 ing handles to these implements, which were doubtless used, 
 so far as their wants required, for all the purposes for which 
 modern cutting implements are used. When all the collec- 
 tions in the State are collated and compared, it is probable 
 that specimens from the mounds may be distinguished from 
 later forms, and that a discrimination can be made between 
 local tribal forms. Marked distinctions can now be seen 
 between collections made in different places, in part due to 
 the differences in the character of the material used, and 
 doubtless in part due to the skill and taste of the manufac- 
 turers. 
 
 The forms are almost endless, and pass by incessable 
 gradations into the forms which in collections are classified 
 as daggers and spears. Illustrations of a few of the most 
 typical forms will be given. 
 
 Figure 33 represents a very beautiful specimen, found 
 deeply buried in the glacial drift in Twinsburgh, Summit 
 County. 
 
■15- 
 
10- 
 
—17— 
 
 It has a highly polished, reddish surface, supposed 
 to indicate great antiquity. A precisely similar specimen 
 was in the Rhode Island Exhibit at the Centennial. Mr. 
 Thomas Cleany has, in his very valuable collection at Cin- 
 cinnati, two such specimens taken from a mound in Missouri ; 
 and Mr. Thomas W. Kinney has also one which was on 
 exhibition in his collection at New Orleans, but the locality 
 from which it was obtained is not given. 
 
 A similar form, of yellow jasper, from California, is figured 
 in the description of the typical specimens in the Smith- 
 sonian Collection. 
 
 This peculiar form, from widely separated localities — all 
 the specimens, so far as appears, are very old — some of them 
 from mounds, tends to the conclusion that the Indians 
 occupying, at least the northern part of the United States 
 upon its discovery by Europeans, were preceded by a more 
 artistic people. 
 
 Attempting to make no distinction between knives, dag- 
 gers, and spear points, illustrations of some of the most 
 marked forms are given in the plates of illustrations, figures 
 No. 33 to 66 inclusive. Some of these, particularly No. 36, 
 from Indiana, and No. 46, from North Carolina, are remark- 
 ably similar to modern knife-blades. Quite a large number 
 of the arrow-point form, are symmetrically beveled on the 
 opposite sides of the two edges, of which No. 40, from 
 Knox county, is an illustration. This specimen carries a 
 characteristic fossil of the coal measure limestone. 
 
 This form is by many regarded as intended to give a 
 rotary motion to the missile, but this is very doubtful. Most 
 of these beveled specimens are too large for arrow-points, 
 and if used for spear-points, the small surface of the beveled 
 edges would not give the rotary motion to a heavy missile. 
 This form may be the result of the peculiar character of the 
 material, the symmetrical beveling being determined by the 
 position in which the object was held when chipped. Or, if 
 designed, the object may have been to get a stronger cutting 
 or scraping edge than would result from a flatter chipping. 
 
—IS- 
 
—19— 
 
 Figures 39, from Mr. Kinney's collection, and 47, from 
 Knox County, illustrate forms abundant in the southern part 
 of the State. They are all very thick, short and broad, with 
 long and strong shanks by which they were apparently 
 fastened into sockets ; none of them have notches to aid in 
 binding them in place. Figure 87 illustrates, probably, one 
 of the uses of this form. It is a modern war-club with an 
 iron tooth, doubtless of the form of the flint tooth formerly 
 used. Bancroft, in his "Native Races of the Pacific States," 
 Vol. IV., page 210, gives an illustration of Yucatan sculpture, 
 in which a figure is represented armed with probably what 
 the Spanish invaders called stone swords, consisting of a 
 club into which was fastened four chipped stones or flints ; 
 the weapon is illustrated in figure 88. These stout Ohio 
 forms were very probably used in a similar manner. 
 
 Figure 45, from S. C. Heigh way's collection, represents a 
 form found in nearly all the collections in the southwest 
 part of the State. All are very symmetrical, very elegantly 
 chipped, generally of pretty large size, the specimen figured 
 being one of the smallest. The shank is often very much 
 smaller than that of the one figured, and often so delicate 
 that if fastened to a handle it would be very liable to be 
 broken. Every modern man or boy is not equipped for work 
 or play, without his pocket knife ; and it is suggested that 
 the notched shanks of these and similar forms were not made, 
 at least in all cases, for the purpose of attaching handles, 
 but rather for attaching strings, by which the knives were 
 securely tied to the clothing, to be always ready for all the 
 uses made of the modern pocket knife. 
 
 Figure 53, from Logan County, is beautifully toothed on 
 each edge, and is a remarkably delicate specimen of chipping. 
 It could not be designed for use as an ordinary knife or spear, 
 but was probably used as a kind of saw. 
 
 No. 44 is of white chert, very beautifully chipped, and 
 Avas picked up on the site of an old manufactory of chert 
 
-20- 
 
-21— 
 
—22— 
 
 implements in the northern part of Trumbull County, and at 
 a remote distance from any natural deposit of chert. 
 
 SCRAPERS, DRILLS AND PERFORATORS. 
 
 Figures 67 to 79 illustrate some of the forms of drills and 
 scrapers from Mr. Kinney's collection, and 80, 81, and 84, 
 specimens from Mr. Heighway's collection. There is almost 
 an endless variety of forms, and some of them show won- 
 derful skill in the art of chipping. 
 
 Figures 82, 83, and 85, represent specimens put on exhibi- 
 tion at Philadelphia by H. H. Hill, of Cincinnati, and are 
 introduced to show some of the most unusual forms. 
 
 Figure 86 is quite unique, and illustrates a specimen 
 belonging to Florien Giouque, Esq., of Cincinnati. The 
 peculiar form is plainly designed, and not the result of acci- 
 dent, or of any flaw in the material. He calls it a fish spear, 
 and the name may stand in default of a better one. 
 
 CHERT SPADES AND HOES. 
 
 Some remarkably excellent agricultural implements were 
 put on exhibition, especially in the collection contributed by 
 Mr. L. F. Bauder and Judge C. C. Baldwin, of Cleveland. Some 
 of these were fully one foot long and six inches wide, chipped 
 from chert in a way which would puzzle any modern artificer, 
 with all his appliances, to imitate. Ordinary chert arrows 
 and knives can be readily imitated, as the material yields to 
 simple pressure upon the edges and can be flaked in shape. 
 But how sufficient pressure could be applied to these large 
 pieces to flake them into shape, and not entirely crush them, 
 is a difficult problem to solve. These spades and hoes were 
 attached to handles, and fastened in place by some material 
 which covered from one-third to one-half their surfaces. 
 This is shown by the limitation of the polished surface, as 
 some of them have been used until the part brought into 
 contact with the earth became as smooth as glass. Taking 
 into account the difficulty in finding blocks of chert without 
 
54 
 
-24— 
 
—25— 
 
 flaws, large enough for the production of these tools, and 
 the labor required to shape them, it is probable that spades 
 and hoes to-day, of beaten gold, would not cost as much in 
 days' labor as these old implements cost. Surely in the 
 sweat of their faces did these old agriculturists eat their 
 bread. 
 
 STONE IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 The boulders of the drift famished the great supply of 
 material tor what are ordinarily called stone implements. 
 These are found in the State in great profusion and of a 
 variety of forms, some very roughly wrought, and others 
 very highly polished. But in Ohio material does not exist 
 for the determination of a paleolithic and neolithic age, 
 unless we limit the latter to post- Columbian times. Very 
 delicately cut and highly polished pipes of catlinite are 
 occasionally found, probably wrought with modern tools 
 obtained from the whites. Several such specimens were 
 obtained from small mounds near Monroeville,Huron County. 
 In other places pipes of this material are found inlaid with 
 lead ornaments. Of course these are quite modern. The 
 carefully wrought pipes, and other articles obtained from the 
 mounds, indicate greater skill in the working of stone than 
 was manifested by the hunting tribes, who occupied the 
 territory upon the advent of the white settlers. So that it 
 we should seek for a rough stone age and a polished stone 
 age, the latter would be prior in time. The builders of the 
 mounds evidently had a higher social organization than the 
 hunting tribes, and would naturally excel them in the 
 rudiments of the arts of civilization. 
 
 AXES AND BATTLE-AXES. 
 
 The grooved axes are among the most remarkable of Ohio 
 finds. They present a great variety of forms, and range in 
 size from a weight of one to sixteen pounds. Some even of 
 the largest are highly polished, very symmetrial in form, are 
 
—26— 
 
-27- 
 
—28— 
 
 brought to as sharp an edge as the material will permit, 
 each evidently representing many months of continuous 
 labor. 
 
 Many of the forms indicate that they were handled by 
 bending a flexible branch of the size of a small hoop-pole 
 around the groove, and fastening it in place by thongs, or 
 some similar material. A groove is sometimes made on one 
 of the narrow sides, at right angles with the groove for the 
 handle, and evidently intended to keep in place a wedge 
 driven in to tighten the fastenings of the handle. 
 
 When we imagine one of the largest of these axes, with a 
 handle proportioned, like the handle of a modern axe, we 
 have to imagine with it a man to wield it, larger and stronger 
 than Goliath, of Gath. 
 
 Through the kindness of W. H. Abbott, I obtained at the 
 Exposition the cast of an axe found in Lake County, Illinois, 
 at a place where several small mounds were plowed over. 
 The axe and handle are wrought out of one piece, and the 
 specimen doubtless illustrates the relative proportions of the 
 axes and handles, when wooden handles were used, a pro- 
 portion which must have been substantially preserved to 
 enable any one to wield these large axes. The length of the 
 axe, from poll to edge of bit, was seven inches ; width of edge, 
 four and a halt inches ; entire length of axe and handle, 
 nine and three-fourths inches. It was intended to be used 
 with one hand, and grasped so near to the axe the imple- 
 ment does not seem unwieldy. A greatly reduced outline of 
 this axe is given in figure 03. Whether used in peaceful 
 avocations, or as battle-axes, especially by foot soldiers, such 
 short handles would be indispensable. For purposes of com- 
 parison, figures 95 are given, showing the size of battle axes 
 in the hands of warriors, from sculptures copied by Rawiin- 
 son in his "Ancient Monarchies." At the right of each is a 
 line showing the height of the figure of the soldier carrying 
 the axe. Figure 94 is a copy of the battle-axe in the hands 
 of a warrior, taken from one of the published cuts of the 
 
— so— 
 
—31— 
 
 " Wilmington Inscribed Stones." The line at the right also 
 shows the height in the engraving of the warrior carrying 
 it. As he is evidently represented as on the war-path, 
 carrying a spear in his left hand, and this battle-axe in the 
 other, it is evident that the artist intended to represent an 
 axe to be wielded with one hand. If the manner in which 
 the axe is fastened to the handle is compared with the 
 obvious mode of fastening two pieces, crossing each other at 
 right angles as represented in figure 96, from a figure of a 
 sculpture from Guatemala, and the use that is made of one 
 of these delicate crescents of metamorphic slate, so common 
 in Ohio, is noted, it will be evident that the artist com- 
 mitted about as many blunders as could be crowded into the 
 delineation of a single object. If the relative proportions 
 are observed, and the warrior was of the stature of six feet, 
 the axe would be one foot long and with a handle of the 
 length of about four and a half feet. It is attached to the 
 handle in an impossible manner. An expensive ornament is 
 attached to the end of the handle, the most inconvenient 
 termination that could be devised, but which would for- 
 tunately be shattered by the first blow with the axe. 
 Whoever may be the artist, and in whatever age he lived, he 
 has certainly given us a fancy sketch of no value except to 
 illustrate the skill and imagination of the artist. 
 
-32— 
 
 
 
 \ 89 
 
 f 
 
 
 ^zzri^ 
 
—33- 
 
 Ficrure 90 is a full-sized illustra- 
 te 
 
 tion of a very beautiful and highly 
 polished ornamental axe, of bluish 
 green metamorphic slate, found 
 near Fort Hamilton, in Hamilton 
 County, which, so far as known, 
 is a unique specimen. Figures 89 
 and 92 represent more common 
 forms reduced one-half. 
 
 A systematic classification of 
 the different forms is impossible. 
 The workmen apparently selected 
 natural boulders as near the form 
 92 and size of the utensil to be 
 
 formed as possible, and worked them into a useful shape 
 with as little labor as possible, so that the forms they finally 
 assumed were often more the result of accident than of the 
 design of the workman. 
 
 Not all of the axes are grooved ; occasionally a double- 
 grooved specimen is found, and one double-bitted axe was 
 on exhibition. It will be apparent that none of these axes 
 were efficient cutting implements, yet a specimen of wood 
 taken from a mound, and belonging to the Ohio State Uni- 
 versity, shows that a log could be cut off" with a nearly 
 square butt with these stone axes, and the marks of the axe 
 upon it indicate a rapidity of execution quite remarkable. 
 
 HAMMER STONES. 
 
 These are symmetrical stones, oblong or round — sometimes 
 plain, sometimes grooved — and occasionally double-grooved, 
 two grooves passing around the stone at right angles to each 
 other. While commonly called hammer stones, specimens 
 obtained from the Western Indians are conclusive evidence 
 that they were sometimes used, with handles attached, as 
 war clubs, and very likely were mainly designed for this use. 
 
— ;34— 
 
 Sitting Bull's war club, exhibited in the Montana collec- 
 tion, is a symmetrical stone in the form of two cones, applied 
 base to base, grooved at the centre, to which is attached a 
 flexible handle covered with raw buffalo hide, by which it is 
 attached to the stone. The handle is thirty inches long and 
 the whole constitutes a very formidable weapon for hand to 
 hand combat, in the hands of a mounted man. Specimens 
 similar to this, with a stiff handle made of the leg bone of a 
 deer, and ten or twelve inches long, all covered with raw- 
 hide, are used by unmounted Indians. 
 
 Another specimen in the Montana collection shows another 
 similar mode of using these stone balls. A spherical stone, 
 about two and a half inches in diameter, is neatly covered 
 with rawhide, which at one side is continued into strings, 
 braided into a stout cord a few inches long. The end of 
 this cord is attached to a flexible handle, the whole forming 
 a slung-shot with which an enemy could be terribly punished. 
 
 Figures on Trojans column represent 
 the Kelts in battle, loaded with such 
 stones, which they are using as missiles, 
 some throwing them with the hand, 
 others with a sling. They were doubt- 
 less used by our Indians for a variety of 
 purposes, peaceful and warlike, and some 
 of them by their abrasion show thei r 
 
 Grooved Hammer. 
 Rockport, Cuyahoga county, 
 
 Ohio, \ nature. continued use as hammer stones. 
 
 CELTS, SKINNERS, ETC. 
 
 Of these there was a very large variety in the exhibit. 
 They are chisel-shaped stones of different sizes, all brought 
 to an edge, and some showing long-continued use. By some 
 they are called bark-peelers, and if their name was to be 
 determined by the purpose for which they were most used, 
 it is probable that this name would be adopted. 
 
—35— 
 
 Lumbering, with the Indian, was bark-peeling, and there 
 was nothing within his reach supplying so many of his wants 
 with so little labor, as bark. An Indian Paley would find in 
 the fact that at certain seasons of the year the bark was so 
 easily separated from the growing tree, his most marked 
 evidence of a beneficent design, intended for the comfort of 
 the race. With the whole sheets of bark he built his houses ; 
 with the inner layers he made baskets, clothing, thread, cord, 
 ropes, etc., and doubtless used it many ways not suspected 
 by us. In the gathering and preparing of this material 
 these implements would be used, and also many of the sharp 
 or serrated edged chert knives. Until we can compile a 
 history of their arts, we can not determine all the uses of 
 any of these implements. 
 
 PLUMB-BALLS, SINKERS AND PENDANTS. 
 
 The forms of these are almost as numerous as the speci- 
 mens : some spherical, some cylindrical, some oval, some 
 simple circular disks; and the kinds of material of which 
 they are made almost equally diverse. They all have this 
 in common, that they are relatively small, and are so per- 
 forated as to be easily suspended by a string, or have a small 
 groove in which a string can be tied, for purposes of sus- 
 pension. In the collection of the Smithsonian Institute 
 obtained from Alaska, are stone sinkers, one of which is 
 six and a half inches long, and over an inch in diameter at 
 the largest point, attached as sinkers to the lines furnished 
 with hooks for fishing. One would be slow to suspect the 
 use of so heavy stone sinkers with so small fishing lines as 
 those in this exhibit. Almost all tribes have learned the 
 art of fishing with hook and line, and specimens of hooks 
 found in Ohio, as well as in all parts of the country, indi- 
 cate the practice everywhere here of the art which good 
 old Isaac Walton has made classical. 
 
 With lines made of bark and the coarse fibers available, 
 and unevenly and poorly twisted, requisite strength would 
 
—36— 
 
 require large lines, and these would require correspondingly 
 heavy sinkers. Doubtless these articles were sometimes used 
 for other purposes, but none of them are too heavy sinkers 
 for fishing, and it is probable that they were oftener used for 
 this than for any other purposes. 
 
 MORTARS AND PESTLES. 
 
 Natural instinct everywhere prompts to the crushing, or 
 grinding of grain to prepare it for food, and the first flour- 
 ing mill is composed of two stones, one of which can be used 
 with the hand in crushing the grain poured upon the other. 
 This would soon be developed into the pestle and mortar, 
 so easily made and so efficient that civilized man everywhere 
 reverts to their use when better appliances fail. 
 
 When the Confederate forces were driven from Mission 
 Ridge, flouring mills were found scattered along the whole 
 length of the ridge. Each consisted of the stump of a tree 
 hollowed out with the axe, and a round boulder picked up 
 in the neighborhood. With these the soldiers prepared the 
 grain for their corn-dodger rations. In the bed of a stream 
 in a forest, in the north part of Ashland County, is a granite 
 boulder of considerable size, in the top of which a cavity of 
 a capacity of a peck or more has been laboriously picked. 
 It would have been carried away long ago, to do service in 
 an archaeological collection as a splendid specimen of an 
 Indian mortar, had it not been disclosed that it was the 
 work of a pioneer hunter who remained long enough in that 
 locality to raise small crops of corn, and needed a mill in 
 which to grind it. It still deserves to be rescued from its 
 retreat and preserved as an illustration of pioneer history. 
 
 The indigenous races here seem never to have advanced 
 beyond the pestle and mortar, although the hand-mill of 
 two stones, one turning upon the other, seems to be readily 
 suggested by them. Such a mill is a machine — the pioneer of 
 all machinery — and these races apparently made no machines. 
 Tools and implements of a great variety of forms, with 
 
which the working power is muscular force, they had the 
 skill to make, but not the skill to subject any of the forces 
 of nature to their control. The hand-mill substitutes the 
 force of gravity for muscular force. 
 
 The most intelligent animals use tools — the Gibbon fights 
 with a war club, the monkey cracks nuts with a stone, and 
 the elephant drives away the Hies which annoy him, with a 
 brush. The savage makes tools, but no machines. His bow 
 and arrow and his blow-tube are not in the highest sense 
 machines, for his muscular energy drives the missile. 
 
 The beginning of real civilization is made in the construc- 
 tion of machines by which the strength of animals and the 
 forces of nature become a substitute for human muscular 
 work. When the hand-mill is discovered, the force of the 
 running stream is soon harnessed to it, and out of this com- 
 bination grows the modern liouring mill with all its im- 
 provements. This first step was not made by these primitive 
 races, and they must be classed as savages. While they did 
 not advance beyond the mortar and pestle, they expended 
 much labor upon them, and with very creditable results. 
 As the mortars are generally very heavy, only two were put 
 on exhibition, but the pestles were very numerous and of a 
 great variety of forms. While they had no flouring mills, 
 they prepared their grain both by the grinding and the 
 roller process. The pestles with one broad, rounded end, 
 were used for grinding; the long specimens, largest in the 
 middle and tapering slightly toward each end, were used in 
 the roller process as they are now used with the metate by 
 the New Mexican and Pueblo Indians. 
 
 An unusual form of pestle is represented by figure 93, 
 reduced one-half. It has a broad grinding surface, with a 
 handle just long enough to be clasped with one hand and a 
 peculiarly ornamented top. It was found upon the surface 
 in Summit County. An illustration of a common form from 
 the Cleveland Historical Society's Collection is also given, 
 (figure 93a.) 
 
38— 
 
 Fig. 93a. 
 
—39— 
 
 CUP STONES. 
 
 These are sometimes called nut stones, and oftener foot- 
 rests for spindles. They are very common in the State, and 
 have been picked up in large numbers at the site of a series 
 of old fire hearths in Summit County. A large collection 
 shows that the cavities were commenced by an instrument 
 like a pick, which left a conical, rough cavity, and were 
 finally shaped by rotating some object in the cavity. When 
 brought to the size of about one inch in diameter, they were 
 apparently no longer used, as new cavities are commenced 
 near their margins which enlarged to the same size would 
 cut into them. They are made on natural fragments of 
 rock, in this locality almost exclusively the debris of the 
 carboniferous conglomerate, a coarse sand-stone with a sharp 
 grit. With few exceptions throughout the State they are 
 made in similar rock. A single fragment often bears several 
 of these cavities and sometimes on opposite sides. If used 
 as spindle rests, it is strange that so coarse a stone is selected 
 which would make the friction much greater than if a 
 harder rock were used. 
 
 Dr. Ran reports that some of the specimens in the Smith- 
 sonian collection still show traces of red paint in the cavities, 
 and it is possible they were generally used to grind down 
 pieces of hematite for paint. The specimens from this 
 locality show no indication that they were formed by crack- 
 ing nuts. 
 
 DISCOID AL STONES. 
 These, of various sizes, are tolerably abundant in the State, 
 and some remarkably fine and large specimens were exhib- 
 ited in the collection. Those of smaller size, and perforated 
 at the center, were probably used as spindle weights. The 
 larger and imperforated ones, perhaps in some game. Dr. 
 Rau quotes from Adair a detailed description of the game of 
 chungke asTplayed with such discs, and this explanation of 
 their use is the most probable one. See also " Relics of the 
 Mound Builders," Western Reserve Historical Society Tract 
 JS T o. 28, by C. 0. Baldwin. 
 
40- 
 
 STONE ORNAMENTS. 
 
 The metamorphic slate, found in the drift, was the favor- 
 ite material for the manufacture of stone ornaments. It is 
 often beautifully banded, is moderately hard, takes a fine 
 polish, and is not easily broken or scratched. Oblong pieces, 
 generally called "shuttles," are very abundant. Of these 
 there are a great many forms, generally with two perforations 
 on a central line, each one generally about equi-distant 
 from the center and one of the ends. These holes are 
 apparently counter-sunk, so that if attached to the clothing 
 by cords passing through the holes, having a knot at the 
 end, the knot would be below the surface. Unfinished 
 specimens show that in perforating them, conical drills were 
 used, giving a counter-sunk form to the holes. It has been 
 suggested that they were used as shuttles in weaving, in 
 smoothing sinews or cords drawn through the holes, or in 
 twisting double-stranded cords, but the holes are almost 
 uniformly as perfect as when first drilled, and either of these 
 uses would quickly destroy their symmetry — certainly the 
 striae left by the drill. That they were not made purely for 
 ornaments, is indicated by the fact that a much coarser 
 material than this ornamental slate is sometimes used in 
 making them. An unfinished specimen from fine grained 
 yellow Waver] y sand-stone was picked up in Summit County, 
 and a rock-shelter in the same county, in which all the 
 remains were exceedingly rude, yielded one specimen from 
 Waverly shale, unpolished, unperforated, but which had 
 apparently been abraded or worn longitudinally on one side 
 by a softer material than that by which it was formed. 
 
 It may have been attached to the left arm as a protection 
 against the bow-string, and it is possible that the more 
 perfct specimens were used for the same purpose. This use 
 is rendered more probable by the fact that specimens are 
 found in graves in such position as indicates that they were 
 attached to the arm of the buried body. 
 
—41— 
 
 £ Nature. Assorted Shuttles from Stones— Northern Ohio; Collection of the Fire Lands 
 
 Historical Society. 
 
 J Nature. Assorted Shuttles from Stones — Northern Ohio: Collection of the Fire Lands 
 Historica Society. 
 
— 4*»- 
 
 BIRD-SHAPED ORXAMENTS. 
 
 These were largely represented in the collection, and are 
 abundant in Ohio. They are formed out of this ornamental 
 slate, and in most of the specimens the bird-form is very 
 clearly intended. Some of them have projecting eyes that 
 give them a strange appearance. They all have this pecu- 
 liarity in common with several other ornamental forms into 
 which this material is worked. On a central line at the 
 base of each end a hole is drilled diagonally through the 
 corner by which the ornament could be sewed to the cloth- 
 ing or other fabric in such a manner that the thread by which 
 it was fastened in place would be concealed. Other orna- 
 mental pieces, of such form as not to admit ot these concealed 
 holes, are drilled through the central line from the top, the 
 holes being so conical that a knot at the end of a cord 
 drawn through the hole would be concealed, and the same 
 result obtained, that is, the mode of fastening would be 
 concealed. 
 
 In the collection of Dr. Griste, of Summit County, is one 
 of these ornamental stones, exhibiting that peculiar polish 
 which shows lone 1 continued use, v\hile the striae left in 
 drilling the diagonal holes are not worn down in the slightest 
 degree. 
 
 BEADS AND TUBES. 
 
 Ornamental beads, sometimes nearly two inches in diam- 
 eter, and flattened upon one side, composed of this same 
 material, are sparingly found, and a few were included in 
 the exhibit. Strings of similar beads are seen around the 
 necks of sculptured figures from Mexico and Central America. 
 It is obvious that such beads would be worn only by distin- 
 guished personages, and on state occasions. 
 
 Tubes of this slate, sometimes entire, but more frequently 
 broken, have been gathered from all parts of the State. 
 They are of various sizes, and many of them are as perfect 
 
— 4:3— 
 
 as if turned in a lathe and bored with a modern drill. 
 Unfinished specimens show that in some cases, at least, the 
 drilling left a core after the manner of the action of a diamond 
 drill. The drill was doubtless a node of cane, its action 
 assisted by sand and water. 
 
 The use made ot these tubes is not clear, but the words, 
 pipe and tube, have originally the same signification, and 
 the earliest record of tobacco smoking on the continent 
 shows that it was done by the use of tubes. The following 
 is quoted from a small vol ume entitled, "A Paper of Tobacco," 
 "By Joseph Fume," published at London, in 1839 : 
 
 "Oviedo appears to have been the earliest writer on the 
 history of America, who mentions the word tobacco, and 
 from the account which he gives of the ahumadas, or smok- 
 ings of Hispaniola, we learn that the word, tabaco, as it is 
 spelled by him, properly signified a smoking-tube, and not 
 the plant nor the stupor which was the result of the Indian 
 manner of smoking it. His chapter entitled, ' Of the 
 Tabacos or Smokings of the Indians of the Island of His- 
 paniola,' appeared for the first time in the second edition, 
 published in 1535, from which the following is quoted : 
 "The Indians inhabiting this island have, among their other 
 evil customs, one which is very pernicious, namely, that of 
 smoking, called by- them, tobacco, lor the purpose of pro- 
 ducing insensibility. This they effect by means of the 
 smoke of a certain herb which, so far as I can learn, is of a 
 poisonous quality, though not poisonous in appearance. * 
 * * The manner in which they use it is as follows : The 
 caciques and principal men have small hollowed sticks 
 about a span long and as thick as the little finger; they are 
 forked in the manner here shown, Y, but both the forks and 
 the stalk are of the same piece. The forked ends are 
 inserted in the nostrils and the other end is applied to the 
 burning leaves of the herb, which is rolled up in the manner 
 of pastils. They then inhale the smoke till they fall down 
 in a state of stupor in which they remain as if intoxicated? 
 
—U— 
 
 for a considerable time. Such of the Indians as can not 
 procure a forked stick, use a reed or hollow cane for the 
 purpose of inhaling the smoke.' " 
 
 His descriptions show that the smoke was taken into the 
 lungs, hence the speedy intoxication and stupor produced. 
 This practice was evidently at first followed by Europeans, 
 and was called drinking tobacco, as witness the following 
 stanza of a moralizing tobacco-drinking poet, of the time 
 of James I.: 
 
 " The Indian weed withered quite, 
 Green at noon, cut down at night, 
 Shows thy decay — all flesh is hay, 
 Thus think, then drink tobacco." 
 
 These quotations help to an understanding of the use of 
 tubes for smoking, and suggest a reason for the very small 
 bowls of very many of the pipes into which the tobacco was 
 placed for smoking. Taken directly into the lungs, the 
 smoke from a very small quantity would suffice. 
 
 The large, slightly trumpet-formed pipes from the Pacific 
 Coast, described by Dr. Abbott, and the similar tubes taken 
 by Prof. Andrews from Ohio mounds, were doubtless used 
 for smoking, and probably substantially in the way first 
 described by Oviedo, and if these Ohio stone tubes were 
 used for the same purpose, they must be very old. When 
 pipes with bowls were devised, of much easier construction, 
 and more convenient for use, they would certainly supersede 
 the smoking-tubes. These, as they became scarcer, might 
 become more highly prized, and in places, be retained for 
 sacred and ceremonial uses, as were flint knives by the 
 Hebrews and stone axes by the Romans. Their use was, in 
 places certainly, continued to recent times, as is evidenced 
 by the iron mouth-piece attached to one of the specimens 
 described by Dr. Abbott. 
 
 At the time of the construction of the Lake Shore Rail- 
 road, a pottery tube nearly of the shape and size of the 
 largest tubes figured in Dr. Abbott's report, was taken from 
 
—45— 
 
 a mound near Collinwood, east of Cleveland. It lias a 
 highly-polished surface, simulating salt-glazing, which is 
 probably simply the result of long use. The base gradually 
 diminishes toward the smaller end and about three-fourths 
 of an inch from it is much reduced by a square offset. In 
 it when found was a slightly flattened pottery ball, which 
 would drop down the tube until stopped by this offset. It 
 is called a horn, and by blowing in it, a sound can be pro- 
 duced audible at a long distance. 
 
 The fact that a louder sound is produced when the ball is 
 in the tube, and the mouth of the tube elevated, favors the 
 idea that it was designed as a horn. This interesting relic 
 belongs to F. M. Wait, of Northfield, Summit County, and 
 was loaned by him for the exhibition. 
 
 BAIOTER STONES, BADGES, OR WANDS. 
 
 These are made from the slate already described, all highly 
 polished and exhibit great varieties of form. They are too 
 fragile to bear any very rough usage ; are all of a symmetrical 
 bilateral form, and bored at the center with great accuracy to 
 fit them for attachment to handles. Some of them are 
 perfect crescents, but the gradual transition from these 
 through pick-like forms to specimens quite straight, and 
 from these to the winged and double-crescent forms renders 
 it improbable that any were intended to represent the crescent 
 moon. They represent no animal forms, and the ornamental 
 battle-axe, previously described, is the only attempt I have 
 observed to imitate any implement of peace or war. They 
 can not be connected with any of the symbolic forms of the 
 old world, and if intended to be symbolical, they belong to 
 a sealed book of human history. The clew to their signifi- 
 cance has not been found. They were doubtless used in 
 civil or religious ceremonies, which were held in high con- 
 sideration, as is evidenced by the number and variety of the 
 specimens found, and by the great labor expended in their 
 production. Unfinished specimens show that large blocks 
 
—46— 
 
 were sometimes taken and carefully chipped away to a com- 
 paratively small size. Collectors of relics should remember 
 that one rough, unfinished implement which many would 
 throw aside as worthless, is often of more value than many 
 highly-prized perfect specimens. It may help to a knowl- 
 edge of primitive art not to be learned in any other way. 
 The Indian picture-writing, it is believed, throws no light 
 upon the use of these banner stones, and they probably belong 
 to the age of the builders of the mounds, where a more 
 dense, stationary and peaceful population and a more 
 advanced organization would result in civic and religious 
 ceremonials not practiced by hunting tribes. We may 
 imagine the old priests or chiefs carrying these badges or 
 wands in solemn procession, and of course understanding 
 their significance, while we speculate in vain effort to 
 understand them. 
 
 A broken specimen of one of these crescentic forms made 
 of green gypsum, has been recently picked up in Summit 
 County. This material is so fragile as to clearly indicate that 
 it was intended only for ornamental or ceremonial use. 
 
 PIPES. 
 
 Smoking pipes of stone and of pottery of a great variety 
 of forms and sizes are abundant in the State, and were well 
 represented in the exhibit. In the State cabinet are some 
 forty casts of elegantly carved specimens, obtained by Squire 
 & Davis from Ohio mounds. Photographic copies of these 
 were in the collection exhibited, and the remarkable char- 
 acter of the whole find is shown by the following quotation 
 from Dr. Rail's report on the Smithsonian Archaeological 
 Collection : 
 
 "Numerous stone pipes of a peculiar type were obtained 
 many years ago, by Messrs. Squire & Davis, during their 
 survey of the ancient earthworks of the State of Ohio. They 
 have been minutely described and figured by them in the first 
 volume of 'Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.' The 
 
— 4T— 
 
 originals of these remarkable smoking utensils (presently to 
 be described) are now in the Blackmore Museum, at Sails- 
 burg, England ; but the National Museum possesses casts of 
 them, which enable visitors to become acquainted with their 
 character. These pipes were formerly thought to be chiefly 
 made of a kind of porphyry, a substance which by its hard- 
 ness would have rendered their production extremely 
 difficult. That view, however, was erroneous, for since their 
 transfer to the Blackmore Museum they have been carefully 
 examined and partly analyzed by Prof. A. H. Church, who 
 found them to consist of softer materials, such as compact 
 slate, argillaceous iron stone, ferruginous chlorite and cal- 
 careous minerals. Nevertheless they constitute the most 
 remarkable class of aboriginal products of art thus far 
 discovered ; for some of them are so skillfully executed that 
 a modern artist, notwithstanding his far superior modern 
 tools, would find no little difficulty in reproducing them. 
 
 "Four miles north of Chillicothe, Ohio, there lies close to 
 the Sciota River, an embankment of earth somewhat in 
 shape of a square with strongly rounded angles and enclosing 
 an art a of thirteen acres, over which twenty-three mounds 
 are scattered, without much regularity. This work has been 
 called "Mound City," from the great number of mounds 
 within its precinct. In digging into the mounds, Squire & 
 Davis discovered hearths in many of them which furnished 
 a great number of relics, and from one of the hearths nearly 
 two hundred stone pipes of irregular form were taken, many 
 of which, unfortunately, were cracked by the fire or otherwise 
 badly damaged. The occurrence of such pipes, however, 
 was not confined to the mound in question, others having 
 been found elsewhere in Ohio, and likewise in mounds of 
 Indiana. In their simple, or primitive form, they present a 
 round bowl rising from the middle of a flat and somewhat 
 curved base, one side of which communicates by means of a 
 narrow perforation, usually one-sixteenth of an inch in 
 diameter, with the hollow of the bowl and represents the 
 tube, or rather the mouth-piece of the pipe, while the other 
 
—48- 
 
 u imperforated end forms the handle by which the smoker held 
 the implement and approached it to his mouth. A remark- 
 ably fine specimen of this kind was found in a mound of an 
 ancient work in Liberty township, Ross County, (Fig. 177.) 
 In the more elaborate specimens from Mound City, the bowl 
 is formed, in a few instances, in imitation of the human 
 head, but generally of the body of some animal, and in the 
 latter cases the peculiarities of the species which have served 
 as models are frequently expressed with surprising fidelity. 
 The human heads, undoubtedly the most valuable specimens 
 of the series, evidently bear features characteristic of the 
 Indian race, and they are further remarkable for the head- 
 dress, or method of arranging the hair, (Fig. 178.) A few 
 of the heads show on the face incised ornamental lines, 
 obviously intended to imitate the painting or tattooing of 
 the countenance. The following animals have been recog- 
 nized : The beaver, (Fig. 179 ;) the otter, with a fish in its 
 mouth, (Fig. 180 ;) the elk, bear, wolf, panther, wild-cat, 
 raccoon, opossum, squirrel and sea-cow (Manati, Lamantin, 
 Trichecus, manatus, Tin.) Of the animal that is supposed to 
 represent the sea-cow, seven carvings have been found. This 
 inhabitant of tropical waters is not met in the higher lati- 
 tudes of North America, but only on the coast of Florida, 
 which is many hundred miles distant from Ohio. The 
 Florida Indians called this animal the "big beaver," and 
 hunted it on account of its flesh and bones. More frequent 
 are carvings of birds, among which the eagle, hawk, falcon, 
 turkey-buzzard, heron, (Fig. 181 ;) several species of owls, 
 the raven, swallow, parrot, duck, and other land and water 
 birds have been recognized. One of the specimens is sup- 
 posed to represent the toucan, a tropical bird not inhabiting 
 the United States ; but the figure is not of sufficient dis- 
 tinctness to identify the original that was before the artist's 
 mind, and it would not be safe, therefore, to make this speci- 
 men the subject of far-reaching speculations. The amphibious 
 (?) animals likewise have their representatives in the snake, 
 toad, frog, turtle and alligator. One specimen shows the 
 
—49— 
 
 snake coiled around the bowl of the pipe. The toads, in 
 particular, are faithful imitations of nature. Leaving aside 
 the more than doubtful toucan, the imitated animals belong, 
 without exception, to the North American fauna, and there 
 is, moreover, the greatest probability that the sculptures in 
 question were made in or near the present State of Ohio, 
 where, in corroboration, of this view a few unfinished pipes 
 of the described character have occurred among the com- 
 plete articles. 
 
 "Pipes of this type are generally of rather small size, and 
 in many the cavity of the bowl designed for holding the 
 narcotic is remarkable for its insignificant capacity. These 
 pipes were probably smoked without a stem, the narrowness 
 of the perforations in their necks not permitting the inser- 
 tion of anything thicker than a straw or a very thin reed. 
 Yet most of the pipes of earlier date, occurring in mounds 
 or on the surface of the ground, are provided with a hole of 
 suitable size for the reception of a stem. A very remarkable 
 stone pipe of this character, obtained during the survey of 
 the Ohio earthworks by Squire & Davis, was found within 
 an ancient enclosure twelve miles below the city of Chilli- 
 cothe. It represents the body of a bird w T ith a human head, 
 exhibiting strongly-marked Indian features, (Fig. 182.) The 
 original, not having been exposed to the action of the fire, 
 is in an excellent state of preservation and retains its 
 original beautiful polish. 
 
 "The name * calumet pipes ' has been given to large stone 
 pipes which were smoked with a stem, and are usually fash- 
 ioned in imitation of a bird, mammal or amphibian, and 
 sometimes of the human figure. They were thus called, on 
 account of their bulk, which seemed to indicate their char- 
 acter as pipes of ceremony, to be used on solemn occasions. 
 It was further thought these pipes had not been the property 
 of individuals, but that of communities, a view which does 
 not seem to be altogether correct, since some have been 
 discovered in burial mounds, accompanying a single skeleton. 
 
■50— 
 
—51— 
 
 "A pipe of the kind just mentioned, is made of ferruginous 
 sandstone, and represents, rather rudely, a human figure 
 with a snake folded around its neck, (Fig. 183), from Paint 
 Creek, Ross County. Another large calumet pipe, carved 
 in imitation of a quadruped of the canine family, (probably 
 a wolf,) consists of chlorite, and was found in Ross County." 
 
 The small size of the bowl cavities of these pipes may prob- 
 ably be explained by the primitive mode of smoking already 
 described, for which a very small quantity of tobacco would 
 suffice, and so far as we can learn the primitive use of all 
 narcotics and intoxicants was designed not to quiet the 
 nerves or produce a pleasurable enjoyment during their use, 
 but to produce the complete suspension of all sensation, and 
 as quickly as possible. 
 
 These artistically-wrought pipes from the mounds show a 
 much higher degree of skill than was shown by the hunting 
 tribes, indicating a higher culture on the part of the mound 
 builders, and a greater advance toward civilization. 
 
 Among the casts in the State collection is one of a calumet 
 pipe representing a bird, with partially expanded wings, 
 measuring a little over nine by twelve inches. This was 
 found in Mississippi. 
 
 Near Willoughby, in Lake County, is a site of an Indian 
 village which has furnished a great variety of relics. A very 
 interesting and instructive collection of pipes, finished and 
 unfinished, was made from this locality, which is now in 
 the Metropolitan Museum, of Central Park, New York. 
 These show that water-worn pebbles were selected, exhibit- 
 ing slightly an animal form, which the pipe-maker pecked 
 into a more perfect animal shape without much apparent 
 design of imitating any particular species. These were the 
 work of modern Indians, and greatly inferior to the speci- 
 mens obtained from the mounds. 
 
 Pottery pipes of various forms are more sparingly found, 
 and one specimen only have I seen from hammered copper. 
 Pipes of catlinite, the sacred pipe-stone of the Indians, are 
 found, but they seem to be quite modern. 
 
— b'Z— 
 
 HEMATITE. 
 
 This seems to have been esteemed one of the precious 
 stones, and was wrought by much labor into many forms. 
 In Mr. Kinney's contribution were several highly polished 
 small celts or axes, but whether intended as ornamental 
 tools or for use, it is hard to determine. It contained also 
 a very artistically-carved image of the beaver, only about 
 one inch long, and considering the hardness of the material, 
 perhaps the most perfect specimen of carving found in the 
 State. It contained also several highly polished pendants 
 or sinkers, and a number of half spheres ot this material. 
 These were worn on all sides by rubbing, and probably the 
 abrasion of the material by rubbing furnished one of the 
 most valued of paints. There are indications that the com- 
 mon Ohio iron ores were used for paint, and that the 
 advantage of roasting them for that purpose had been 
 learned. 
 
 In a mound at the top of a hill several hundred feet high, 
 opened by Mr. Peter Neff, in Knox County, a considerable 
 amount of roasted iron was found which must have been 
 taken from the plain below. 
 
 BONE AND IRON IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 Messrs. Bauder and Baldwin exhibited a collection of bone 
 bodkins, awls and needles, obtained from the site of the 
 Indian village, near Willoughby, already mentioned. This 
 place has furnished the most perfect collection of bone and 
 horn implements of any place in the State, much of which 
 was collected by Mr. Williams, of Chagrin Palis. Speimens 
 of deer's horn obtained show the work of cutting instru- 
 ments operating like saws by which the thickest part of the 
 horn was cut into strips longitudinally effecting a great 
 saving of material and adapting it to the production of small 
 bodkins and needles. The bones of almost all animals were 
 utilized, but mainly for the production of sharp-pointed 
 instruments. 
 
—53— 
 
 Mr. Kinney's collection contained many specimens of 
 bears' teeth and claws perforated to be strung as ornaments, 
 and several long strings of bone and shell beads ; also several 
 perfect imitations of bears' claws in cannel coal. The teeth 
 and claws of predaceous animals seem to have been highly 
 prized everywhere as ornaments, and were probably worn as 
 evidence of the prowess of the hunters in overcoming these 
 formidable animals. 
 
 COPPER IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 Col. Charles Whittlesey has collected information in regard 
 to 720 pre-historic copper relics found in Ohio, and nearly 
 all of these were taken from mounds. The number of 
 specimens found in other localities is so small that we may 
 safely assume that the manufacture of implements from this 
 material was confined to the builders of the mounds. 
 
 It was, in their hands, a maleable stone. They did not 
 understand the art of melting it, and casting objects from 
 it. Laboriously hammering it into the desired forms, it was 
 only the larger fragments that could be put to the best uses 
 and with much waste in trimmings, that could be utilized 
 only for beads and small ornaments. 
 
 This mode of working it developed a quality which has 
 puzzled many archaeologists. It gave to the metal a degree 
 of hardness which it never acquires under the ordinary mode 
 of working it, and resulted in better cutting tools than 
 could be made by castings unless the copper was alloyed 
 with other metals. 
 
 .Relics of this metal are so highly prized that the owners 
 are reluctant to take the risk of sending them to distant 
 localities, and but few specimens were exhibited. Several 
 were exhibited by Mr. Kinney, among them a very beautiful 
 axe in the form of a modern Indian tomahawk, the history 
 of which was not given ; but it is pretty certainly not the 
 work of the Indians or of the mound builders. 
 
— 5-i— 
 
 In the collection of the Ohio University, there was a 
 copper adz, chisel, and bodkin, taken from a small mound in 
 Summit County, with a number of stone implements of 
 peculiar construction, a large stone pipe, many large sheets 
 of mica, and a large piece of galena. These articles thus 
 grouped show a system of exchange by which articles were 
 secured from distant localities 
 
 But a very small part of Ohio mounds have been thor- 
 oughly explored, and a completion of the explorations will 
 doubtless increase very largely our knowledge of the pre- 
 historic copper implements of the State. 
 
 POTTERY. 
 
 The remains of pottery in the form of fragments are very 
 abundant in the State, while perfectly preserved vessels are 
 comparatively rare. They are all of coarse character, im- 
 perfectly burned, and generally composed of clay and 
 powdered shell. Specimens obtained from a rock shelter in 
 Summit County, show the use of powdered quartz pebbles of 
 the adjacent carboniferous conglomerate, mixed with clay. 
 These exhibit markings on the outside such as would be 
 produced by beating the inner bark of the basswood,macerated 
 in water, until the fibres were crushed and separated, and 
 using this as lining to a cavity or model to be plastered with 
 the prepared clay. The upper margin is generally turned 
 outward aud pierced with holes for handles, made while the 
 material was soft and plastic. An entire vessel from the 
 collection of the Fire Lands Historical Society, of Norwalk, 
 exhibited at Philadelphia, indicates the use of grass as 
 a lining to the mold in which it was formed. 
 
 There were two perfect vessels in Mr. Kinney's collection 
 in New Orleans, one in the form of a small basin, the other 
 a large vase. 
 
 The forms and texture of the pottery from all parts of the 
 Mississippi Valley, are very much alike, but with an increased 
 tendency to the west and southwest to adopt the human and 
 
— 00 — 
 
 animal forms so abundant in iTew Mexico. Specimens 
 obtained in Ohio are mostly found in rock shelters and in 
 mounds. 
 
 The earliest manufactured vessels everywhere were of 
 pottery, and the study of ancient ceramic art is especially 
 interesting to the archaeologist. Similar forms are found 
 everywhere, and are often continued in more costly material. 
 In many instances these forms can be traced back to the 
 time when all vessels were formed of natural products. The 
 delicate long-necked bottles or vases, now made of Bohe- 
 mian glass, are substantially of the same form as the orthodox 
 whiskey bottle of forty years ago ; are exact copies in glass 
 of the pottery water coolers now made in India, Africa and 
 South America, of which many specimens were exhibited at 
 Philadelphia, and which are found in the earliest collections 
 of pottery known. All are imitations of the earliest bottle 
 used — the gourd with its long neck. The Rhyton, brought 
 to the Greeks from Egypt, and of which substantially similar 
 forms were exhumed by Schlieman, perpetuated by the 
 Greeks and Romans in silver and other costly material, was 
 a drinking cup which could not be set down until its contents 
 were emptied. Its origin is clearly preserved in its name, 
 "drinking horn," and its use, in the slang phrase, "taking a 
 horn ;" and the practice still preserved in many places in 
 drinking bouts of reversing the cup upon the table as an 
 indication that it is empty. Originally it was a veritable 
 horn which could stand only in a reversed position. The 
 ancient vases found in America, in pottery, and in Europe 
 in silver-and other costly material, with small rounded bases 
 which required tripods for their support, w T ould never have 
 taken such forms as original inventions. They were imita- 
 tions of vases made from the shells of nuts and other natural 
 productions. Hence similar forms found in widely separated 
 localities, do not indicate community of race or commercial 
 intercourse, but that man everywhere was at first dependent 
 upon natural productions, which he adapted to his wants, 
 and afterward imitated, and gradually modified their forms. 
 
-56- 
 
 SHELLS. 
 
 Fresh and salt water shells were largely utilized by the 
 primitive inhabitants of the State. The sharp edges of the 
 fresh water muscles made them valuable as knives and 
 scrapers, and the contents of mounds show that they were 
 used as spoons, cups for holding paint and other articles. 
 From the large salt-water univalves they made excellent 
 dippers, and inscribed circular ornamental disks which were 
 apparently worn upon the breast and were often buried with 
 the dead. They were favorite material for the beads, of 
 which many are found preserved in graves, and would 
 naturally be used for a variety of purposes, some of which 
 may. not be apparent to us. 
 
 ROCK SHELTERS. 
 
 Caves adapted to human habitation are very rare in Ohio, 
 but rock shelters, which would afford protection from the 
 weather, are abundant. These have been very inadequately 
 explored. Every rocky projection under which a benighted 
 hunter would seek protection, if there is a dry surface below 
 it, will, on examination, show evidences of human habitation, 
 and sometimes of a habitation greatly prolonged. Such a 
 rock shelter in Summit County, already referred to, was 
 explored by me some years ago, and a description contributed 
 to the American Antiquarian. As this may be regarded as a 
 typical rock shelter, and a description of it may lead to other 
 explorations, the greater part of the communication to the 
 Antiquarian is here copied : 
 
 "In the eastern part of Boston township, the outcrop of 
 the carboniferous conglomerate exhibits bold bluffs, fissured 
 with ravines, with large masses of detached rocks at the 
 base of the bluffs, where the rock has been undermined, and 
 broken by its own weight, or else detached and pushed out 
 of place by the ice. So-called caves, which are simply long 
 fissures in the rocks, are abundant, often with springs of 
 pure water at the bottom, while the margin and detached 
 
—57— 
 
 rocks afford shelters which would be attractive places for ■ 
 residences to those unable to build comfortable dwellings. 
 Among these detached rocks is one shelter composed of two 
 large blocks, twenty or more feet in diameter, separated 
 about fifteen feet with a huge block resting upon the top at 
 the height of about twelve feet, making a large, perfectly 
 protected room, open only at the north and south, and the 
 northern opening perfectly protected from storms by its close 
 proximity to the adjacent bluff. Such a rock shelter it is 
 evident would afford a much better family dwelling than 
 could be easily erected without good cutting tools, and would 
 certainly be occupied by people having the characteristics of 
 our native races. The abundant springs of water, the 
 abundance of game to be found in this wood-covered, broken 
 region, not far from the Cuyahoga River, which was one of 
 their channels of communication, would be sure to attract 
 occupants. 
 
 •'The exploration of this shelter was made in the early 
 part of June, 1878. After removing a few inches of vege- 
 table mold, a mixture of ashes and earth was reached extend- 
 ing to the depth of from four and a half to five feet at the 
 bottom, filling fissures and covering rock fragments which 
 originally rested on the floor of the cave, and which the 
 occupants did not attempt to remove. These scattered 
 blocks covered the sandy debris of the conglomerate and 
 were gradually buried beneath the accumulated deposits of 
 ashes and dirt, the evidences of long-continued occupancy. 
 
 "The whole of this material was filled with evidences of 
 the use of the place as a human residence — pottery, bones, 
 shells, and stone implements. In the deposit of these there 
 was no sudden transition. The bones near the top were in 
 a good state of preservation ; those that had not been 
 changed by the fire, not blackened, but colored slightly 
 yellow by lapse of time. They became darker and less 
 abundant as the excavation was carried deeper, and sub- 
 stantially disappeared before the bottom of the excavation 
 
—58— 
 
 was reached, showing that the earliest occupancy was so 
 long ago that the bones in the dry shelter had been con- 
 sumed by time. 
 
 "Over two hundred and fifty fragments of pottery were 
 collected. This had been manufactured in the immediate 
 neighborhood, for it was composed of clay in which had 
 been mixed coarsely pulverized fragments of the quartz 
 pebbles of the conglomerate. It was all coarse without any 
 attempt at ornamentation for the sake of ornament. The 
 outside of most of it and the inside of a part of it was 
 minutely marked by sharply-defined depressions or casts, 
 not the marks of basket work or braided grass, but such as 
 would be produced if a mold for the formation of a vessel 
 had been lined with the macerated and beaten bark of the 
 elm or basswood. The mode of manufacture indicated is as 
 follows : A cavity was formed in earth or sand, ot the form 
 of the outside of the vessel ; a coating of bark was prepared 
 by macerating in water, beating it with stones until the 
 fibers were partially separated, and the whole mass 
 rendered soft and plastic. With this the cavity was lined 
 and then plastered with the prepared clay. After it had 
 sufficiently dried, the whole was lifted out of the mould and 
 ultimately burned in the fire. In other cases a mold was 
 formed of the form of the inside of the proposed vessel, 
 covered with bark, and the clay plastered upon the outside 
 of it. This of course results in leaving the bark markings 
 on the inside of the vessel. 
 
 "Three forms of the rim or upper edge of the vessels were 
 observed, one terminating abruptly without any curve, or 
 angle ; one with an outer angle about three-fourths of an 
 inch from the margin, and one with a regular outward curve. 
 Small holes were made in the pottery, when soft, near the 
 edge of the rim, and in one fragment a hole had been drilled 
 of a conical form, after it was burned, probably — certainly 
 after it was dry. The pottery near the bottom of the exca- 
 vation was less abundant, heavier and coarser, but made in a 
 similar manner. 
 
—50— 
 
 "The stone implements were abundant, but most of them 
 rude and coarse, only eleven flint or chert implements, and 
 among these two small perfect arrow points, one fragment 
 of a spear or knife, two scrapers and one rimmer; the others 
 were flakes or irregular fragments. 
 
 "There was one fragment of a polished stone implement- 
 This was the bit of a flat-sided celt or gouge, which was of 
 especial interest from the fact that it had been broken at the 
 edge, and repaired by bringing the nicked part down to an 
 edge; this was done by pecking out the substance of the 
 stone in a groove running back a little over an inch till a 
 new edge was obtained by a depression in the bit. The 
 repaired portion was not polished. 
 
 "There was one fragment of a polished granite hammer, 
 several water-worn boulders, evidently gathered for hammer- 
 stones, fourteen flakes from conglomerate pebbles, and sixteen 
 from water-worn drift pebbles. Both of these materials 
 were utilized by striking a slice from one side, w T hich would 
 naturally produce a cutting edge on the side opposite to that 
 on which the breaking force was applied. Oblate forms of 
 these pebbles were selected, as they would yield a better 
 shaped flake. One wrought but unfinished stone implement 
 was found of the form called by some, 'shuttles,' but unpol- 
 ished and without perforations. It was from the material of 
 the local shales. 
 
 "The most abundant of the stone implements were cutting 
 tools or knives. Of these, seventy-five were gathered, made 
 from the local shales and the shales of the drift. They were 
 all primitive forms of the stone knife, the material split 
 in such manner as to secure a cutting edge, with the least 
 labor, and without any attempt to secure any particular form, 
 some showing that after the cutting edge had been dulled 
 by use, it was sharpened by blows upon the edge. 
 
 "Besides these there were about twenty rock fragments 
 apparently broken out for rude scrapers or as a material 
 from which to make cutting" tools. 
 
—60— 
 
 "All showed a meagre supply of material, and but very 
 slight skill in adapting it to use. The great bulk of the 
 material was from the immediate neighborhood, the pebbles 
 of the conglomerate and of the drift and the shales which 
 crop out in the valley. 
 
 "JSTot a single article was found designed for ornament, nor 
 was there any attempt to ornament any of the articles found. 
 Everything seemed adapted to the necesssities of the lowest 
 savage life. 
 
 "The relative proportions of the different kinds of imple- 
 ments, and the fact that the most of those of polished stone 
 and chert were fragments, and the mode of repairing one of 
 these fragments, indicate that the crude forms alone were of 
 home production, while the others were either picked up 
 from the ground, or obtained Irom other tribes. 
 
 "An abundance of bone fragments indicated the large 
 use of animal food. Every shaft-bone, and the lower jaws 
 of all the larger animals were so broken that every particle 
 of the marrow could be extracted, and there was a rude 
 attempt to fashion a few of the bone fragments into useful 
 forms. Over a half-bushel of these fragments was collected, 
 and from the meagre supply of materials for tools, it was 
 quite remarkable that no more use was made of these 
 fragments. 
 
 "Among the bones could be identified those of the bear, 
 the wolf, the beaver, the hedgehog, the deer, the buffalo, the 
 raccoon, the skunk, the chipmunk and the fox. There were 
 a number of the bones of birds, of which those of the turkey 
 and large blue herron were probably identified. A number 
 of mussel shells from the Cuyahoga were also found. In the 
 fragments of the jaws and in the whole jaws the teeth were 
 ordinarily in place, showing no attempt to use these as orna- 
 ments or otherwise. The fire seemed to have been built 
 near the center of the shelter, and the bulk of the bone 
 fragments were found upon the west side, and of the pottery 
 upon the east, showing the ordinary savage division of labor, 
 
—61— 
 
 the care of the cooked food being given to those on one side 
 of the shelter and that of the cooking and cooking utensils 
 to those occupying the other side. It is not difficult to 
 imagine that the latter was the quarter of the women." 
 
 HUMAN EFFIGIES. 
 
 Effigies of the human face and figure, carved in stone, are 
 abundant in Ohio relics. An entire figure in a sitting posi- 
 tion laboriously worked out of granite and with marked 
 Indian features, was exhibited by Mr. Kinney, and called an 
 "Idol," but there is no evidence that it deserves that name, 
 unless it is used in its primitive sense, meaning simply an 
 image and not suggesting any religious worship. Children 
 and savages everywhere make early attempts to delineate 
 the human figure, and with results remarkably similar. 
 Attempts to carve the human figure soon follow the attempt, 
 involving greater labor, but producing much more satisfac- 
 tory results, for savage artistic skill is never equal to giving 
 any roundness or projection to a drawing. A pretended 
 savage drawing that attempts to do this may pretty safely be 
 set down as a fraud and the work of one who has learned 
 something of the laws of perspective. 
 
 Several images have been obtained from Stark County, one 
 a grotesque figure carved in variegated marble and represented 
 as obtained in sinking a well and at the depth of twelve 
 feet, aud below a stratum of very compact yellow clay. It 
 was discovered in a bucket of boulders when brought to the 
 surface from the bottom of the well, and believed by all 
 present to be taken from the bottom. If really found in 
 such a place, it would carry back the life of the sculptor to 
 the age of the drift. All who have seen it seem to have 
 no doubt of its being a work of art, but its very crude 
 character, as shown by an engraving from a photograph, 
 suggests the possibility that the form is the result ot 
 accident. (A wood-cut of this image is here introduced.) 
 
62— 
 
 the evening, aiu 
 
 The probabilities are so much 
 against the finding of a carved image 
 in such a position, that it would be 
 more reasonable to suppose, if a 
 genuine carving, that it was loosened 
 from the soil near the surface, and 
 dropped without being observed into 
 the well. 
 
 A tew years ago, workmen, in dig- 
 ging a well, in Hudson, brought up 
 from a depth of about eighty feet in 
 compact blue drift clay, a live frog, 
 which they were sure they dug out 
 at that depth. One of its legs had 
 been cut off apparently by a mowing 
 machine. Its life in the well was 
 evidently measured by a part of the 
 time between cessation of work in 
 ommencement of work in the morning. 
 
 Quite an artistically carved 
 head in sandstone was dug up 
 while opening the Sandy & 
 Beaver Canal, in Columbiana 
 County, which now belongs to 
 J. F. Benner & Son, of New 
 Lisbon, a cut of which is here 
 given ; and a carving in sand- 
 stone picked up on the surface 
 in Norristown, Carroll County, 
 now in the cabinet of G. G. B. 
 Greenwood, of Minerva, shows 
 characteristic Indian features. 
 
 These are illustrated in a pamphlet published by Col. Charles 
 
 Whittlesey. 
 
—63— 
 
 Many other carvings of images and faces have been col- 
 lected, but none of them have any special significance, except 
 a single specimen to be heieafter described. They do not 
 exhibit that degree of artistic skill which would make them 
 reliable evidence of race or tribal characteristics. They 
 show how much work, with poor tools, was expended in the 
 production of images, having no form or comeliness to make 
 them worthy of admiration, but which were doubtless 
 esteemed by the artists and their contemporaries as remark- 
 able triumphs of artistic skill. 
 
 Mr. Peter Neft, of Gambier, has a mask-like face, carved 
 in sandstone, which was plowed up in a field in Jackson 
 township, Coshocton County, in 1851. It measures 3Jx2f 
 inches, not including two projections or blunt horns rising 
 on each side of the top of the head. It is of especial interest 
 from its close resemblance to similar faces worn on the breast 
 of priest-like personages represented on Central American 
 sculptures, of which illustrations are given by Bancroft in 
 his "Native Races of the Pacific States." In his illustrations 
 these face-ornaments are in one instance suspended by a 
 string of very large beads, apparently quite similar to the 
 large metamorphic slate beads found in this State, and 
 previously described. 
 
 The projections from the top of Mr. NefFs specimen were 
 plainly intended for purposes of suspension, and if suspended 
 from a string of these large Ohio beads the whole would be 
 a complete repetition of the ornament figured by Bancroft. 
 A precisely similar face, except having only one projection 
 from the top of the head, has been found in Missouri. A 
 cut 3-5 size of Mr. left's specimen is here inserted. 
 
•64— 
 
 FIRE HEARTHS. 
 
 In all parts of the State are found hearths formed of rough 
 stones, laid snugly side by side, and generally several feet 
 square. They are usually in groups, and show the long- 
 continued action of tire. They are the sites of ancient 
 village communities and encampments, and the abundance 
 of relics about them indicate long-continued occupancy. 
 Along the banks of the Ohio, above Portsmouth, Mr. Thomas 
 W. Kinney has found such hearths, disclosed by the 
 encroachment of the river, which are now six and eight feet 
 beneath the surface ; and Col. Whittlesey reports such 
 hearths fifteen feet below the surface, indicating very great 
 antiquity. 
 
 PICTURE- WRITING AND INSCRIBED ROCKS. 
 
 Col. Charles Whittlesey, of Cleveland, Ohio, has given 
 more attention to the study of these remains than any other 
 man in the State, and by his permission the following 
 extracts from a chapter on ancient rock sculptures, prepared 
 by him for the Centennial report, are here copied : 
 
—65— 
 
 "In many places within the State rude effigies of man and 
 animals have been observed, chiseled or picked into the 
 natural surface, of the rocks. They are most numerous in 
 the eastern half of the State, where the grits of the coal 
 series furnish large blocks or perpendicular faces of sandrock, 
 which are easily cut, and which are, at the same time, im- 
 perishable. These surfaces are never prepared for inscriptions 
 by artificial smoothing. The figures are sunk into the stone 
 by some sharp-pointed tool like a pick, whick has left the 
 impression of its point similar to the rough- hewn stone of 
 our masonry. This tool has not been found in the form of 
 a pick, and was probably only a small angular stone, held in 
 the hand and used as a chipper until the points and angles 
 were worn off. Many artificial stones of flint, trap, and 
 greenstone are seen in all large collections, from two to four 
 inches in diameter, evidently worn into a partially rounded 
 form by blows that have chipped off* the projecting corners. 
 Some are quite thoroughly rounded and even polished like 
 the spherical balls. Such balls, sometimes called "sling- 
 stones" or "slung-shots," could, in their rough condition, 
 have answered the purpose of a picking tool, at the same 
 time being itself brought into shape for a weapon or an 
 ornament. Such contrivances, to save labor by accomplish- 
 ing two purposes at once, are visible in other fabrications of 
 the early races. Rude picks of the early races in Europe 
 have been found, which were made by inserting a pointed 
 stone in the prong of a deer's horn. Such an implement 
 seems to be required to finish some of the channeling observed 
 on some of our rocks, and may yet be found. How ancient 
 the intaglios are can not yet be determined, but there is one 
 instance at Independence, Cuyahoga County, where soil had 
 accumulated over them to a depth of one to one and a half 
 feet, on which were growing trees of the usual size in that 
 region. The Western Reserve Historical Society has pro- 
 cured several tracings of them on muslin, of the size of 
 nature, which were forwarded for exhibition. 
 
—m— 
 
 "It has been found that sketches, even by good artists, are 
 so deficient in accuracy as to be of little value. By clearing 
 out the channels sunk in the rock, painting them heavily, 
 and pressing a sheet of muslin into the freshly-painted 
 depressions, an exact outline is obtained. This is pho- 
 tographed to the size intended for engraving, and thus the 
 reduced copy remains an accurate fac simile of the original. 
 Those which are mentioned below were traced and reduced 
 in this manner. 
 
 " Track Rocks Near Barnesville, Belmont 
 County, Ohio. 
 
 "In 1857 or 1858, Mr. Thomas Kite, of Cincinnati, exam- 
 ined the 'track rocks' near Barnesville, and took casts of 
 some of the sculptured figures. Jas. W. Ward, Esq., of the 
 same city, soon afterward made a detailed sketch, which he 
 caused to be engraved and circulated. In 1869 Dr. J. 
 Salisbury and myself made a visit to the place with a view 
 to get a tracing on cloth, but were compelled to give it up 
 for want of time. An arrangement was made with Dr. Jas. 
 W. Walton, of Barnesville, to take tracing for this Society, 
 which, however, was not received until the fall of 1871. The 
 discussion which took place at the Indianapolis meeting of 
 the American Association, in August, 1871, was based upon 
 Mr. Ward's sketch, which had been made with much care, 
 he being not only an artist but an antiquarian. 
 
 "This was reproduced, with a detailed description, by Mr. 
 Ward, in the first number of the American Anthropological 
 Journal, issued in January, 1872, at New York. When Di\ 
 Walton's/ac simile tracings, size of nature, were received, it 
 was evident that notwithstanding the care exercised by Mr. 
 Ward, there were important omissions, which destroyed the 
 value of the discussions at Indianapolis, based upon his 
 sketch. It is now conceded that eopies of such sculptures 
 must be made by casts, squeezes, or tracings, in order to be 
 reliable. In the different representations that have appeared 
 
—67— 
 
 of the'Dighton Rock/ the supposed Grave Creek stone, the 
 'Big Indian Rock,' on the Susquehanna, and the 'Independ- 
 ence Stone,' of this county, something material is omitted, or 
 palpably distorted. Mere sketches are of little or no ethno- 
 logical value. I think the mode adopted by us leaves little 
 room for errors, either in size or proportion, but there may be 
 in the manner or aspect that belongs to every object, and 
 which is known by the plain but forcible expression, 'life- 
 like.' The rock was first thoroughly cleaned of the moss and 
 dirt, as Dr. Walton explains in his letter accompanying the 
 tracings. All of the artificial depressions were then filled 
 with paint, and a sheet of muslin, covering the entire block, 
 pressed into the sculptured figures. This coarse grit is so 
 nearly imperishable that whatever distinct markings were 
 originally cut upon it are doubtless there now and are not per- 
 ceptibly injured by exposure. These groups present the first 
 instance among the rock inscriptions of Ohio, where it can be 
 said that we now have complete and entire, in their primitive 
 condition, all the figures that are capable of being traced,not 
 mutilated by man, or obliterated by the elements. Dr. 
 Walton's description will now be both intelligible and 
 interesting : 
 
 " 'The copies I send you exhibit every definite figure those rocks contain,and 
 indeed many more than will be noticed by a casual observer of them. 
 
 " 'Some of them were discovered only after removing the lichens of ages; 
 others after glancing the eye along the surface of the rocks from every point 
 of the compass; and others after the sun had declined low in the west, casting 
 dim shadows over depressions too shallow to be seen before. And there are 
 many indistinct impressions on each of the rocks that could not be copied — 
 these resemble the indefinite remains of innumerable tracks of men and 
 animals, overlying each other, as may be seen on our highways, after a rain 
 has effaced almost every outline. 
 
 u 'Upon examining the print of the smaller rock it will appear that two 
 men, each accompanied by a dog, seem to have passed over it in opposite 
 directions. This idea has never, so far as I have learned, occurred to any 
 person who has heretofore examined the rocks; the figures being regarded as 
 distinct and disconnected, as they appear on the larger stone. I did not catch 
 the idea until after I had painted all the distinct figures on this stone, and had 
 impressed the cloth on the paint, when, upon removing and examining the 
 
—68— 
 
 print, I found, say, first a right foot print, then a left one at its appropriate 
 position, then a right foot where it should be, but the succeeding left one 
 wanting. 
 
 " 'This set me on a more careful examination of the motley indentations 
 covering this part of the rock for traces of the lost feet, and it was not a great 
 while before I found sufficient remains of just what was wanting, and at their 
 appropriate places, but in exceedingly indistinct impressions. 
 
 " 'The rude cuts of human faces, part of the human feet, the rings, stars, 
 serpents, and some others are evidently works of art, as in the best of them 
 the marks of the engraving instrument are to be seen; and it is barely possible 
 that the residue of those figures were carved by the hands of men; however, 
 I must say that the works of the best sculptors do not surpass the equisite finish 
 of most of the tracks on those rocks.' " 
 
—69— 
 'Plate I.— Barnesville Track Eocks No. 1— 1-20th of Nature. 
 
—70— 
 
 'Plate II.— Enlarged Figures of No. 1— 1-7th of Nature. 
 
 "Block No. 1.— 1-20th of Nature. 
 
—71— 
 
 "In all cases, whether single or in groups, the relative 
 dimensions of the figures are preserved. The surface of this 
 block is eight by eleven feet. An error has crept into the 
 engraving of this group, in regard to the east and west 
 sides, which should be reversed : for east read west, and for 
 west, east. 
 
 "a 1 — human foot, greatest length 15 inches. 
 
 "a 2 — human foot, greatest length 10 inches. 
 
 "a 6 — human foot, greatest length 3J inches. 
 
 u b — Nos. 1 and 2, awparently the fore foot of a bear, 5£ to 9 inches long. 
 
 u c — hind foot of a wolf or dog, breadth across the toes 3| inches. 
 
 "c 1 — hind foot of a wolf or dog, breadth across the toes 2h inches. 
 
 u d — probably the hind foot of a bear, length 5} inches. 
 
 "e — Nos. 1 to 5, buffalo tracks, length 2 to 5 inches. 
 
 fjf— Nos. 1 to 13, so called 'bird tracks,' 3J to 5 inches in length. 
 
 "g — Nos. 1 to 4, snakes, or portions of them, 13 to 21 inches in length. 
 
 "h — effigy of a bird, greatest length 22 inches. 
 
 u i— Nos. 1 to 9 resembles the spread out skin of an animal, 3 to 8 inches 
 greatest diameter. 
 
 u k — not recognized as an animal form, length 6 inches. 
 
 u l — an imperfect figure. 
 
 "n— probably a variation of i, with a groove that may have been part of the 
 figure. 
 
 "o — apparently incomplete. 
 
 "P — greatest length 6 inches. 
 
 "q — spirit circle, diameter 7J inches. 
 
 "x— Nos. 1 to 3, outlines of the human face, breadth 3£ to 6 inches. 
 
 "There is a rock in Georgia, described by the antiquarian, 
 C. C. Jones, of that State, on which are a number of circles 
 like 'g,' a sign used by the Chippeways to represent a 
 spirit. 
 
—72- 
 
 "Plate III.— Barnesville Track Rock No. 2 — 1-19 and 
 1-7 of Nature. 
 
 'Block No. 2, 7 feet by 8, Lying 20 Feet South of No. 1. 
 
—73— 
 
 '•a — Nob. 2, 6, 7, and 8, human foot 9 inches long. 
 
 "a 10 — human foot oh inches long. 
 
 "c— Xos. 1 and 10 to 16, hind foot of a dog or wolf, 2J to 4 inches broad 
 across the toes. 
 
 "c— Xos. 2, 3, 4, and 5, five toes, greatest breadth 4 to 5} inches across the toes 
 (the animal not recognized.) 
 
 "d — hind foot of a bear. 
 
 "e l — buffalo track, 3 inches long. 
 
 "e 2 — buffalo track 1^ inches long, a pair. 
 
 '^■—so-called "bird tracks," 3£ to 5 inches long. 
 
 "g — snake, 21 inches long; g^ — part of same. 
 
 "t — groove, 5 inches long. 
 
 "We have here as good representations as it is possible to 
 procure of an entire rock inscription. The copy of the 
 Independence stone embraces only a fragment of the original, 
 not exceeding one-fourth of the surface once covered with 
 sculptured effigies. If the figures had a general relation to 
 each other, it could not be determined by an inspection of 
 only a portion of them. 
 
 "The inscriptions near Newark, in Licking County, Ohio, 
 originally covered a vertical face of conglomerate rock, fifty 
 or sixty feet in length, by six and eight feet in height. This 
 rock is soft, and, therefore, the figures are easily erased. As 
 the place was partially sheltered from the weather by over- 
 hangs, the injury done to them by exposure was not much ; 
 but from the earliest settlement of the country, about the 
 year 1800, it became a place where white men sought to im- 
 mortalize themselves by cutting their names across the old 
 inscriptions. When Dr. Salisbury, in 1864, undertook to 
 rescue what remained of them, it was only possible to trace 
 the ancient figures over a space about seven feet by thirteen, 
 and here many of them were restored with difficulty, by 
 great patience and labor. His copy is in the hands of the 
 American Antiquarian Society, and is in the course of 
 publication. It is, therefore, like the Independence stone, 
 only a fragment. 
 
—74— 
 
 "On the rock-faces and detached sandstone blocks of the 
 banks of the Ohio River, there are numerous groups of 
 intaglios, but in them the style is quite different from those 
 to which I have referred, and which are located in the 
 interior. Those on the Ohio River resemble the symbolical 
 records of the North American Indians, such as the Kelley 
 Island stone, described in Schoolcraft by Captain Eastman, 
 the Dighton Rock, the Big Indian Rock of the Susquehanna, 
 and the 'God Rock' of the Alleghany River. In those the 
 supposed bird track is generally wanting. The large sculp- 
 tured rock, near "Wellsville, which is only visible at low 
 water of the Ohio, has among the figures one that is prom- 
 inent on the Barnesville stones. This is the forefoot of the 
 bear, with the outside toe distorted and set outward at right 
 angles. 
 
< 
 
 Plate IV. — Independence Slab, 4 \ by 6 Feet, now in the West 
 Wall of the Church — 1-14th of Nature. 
 
 "AAA — Irregular patches slightly worked with a pick. 
 
—76— 
 
 "THE INDEPENDENCE STONE. 
 
 "Great care has been taken to obtain a correct sketch of 
 what remains of this inscription. A very rude drawing of 
 it was published in Schoolcraft's great work upon the Indian 
 tribes, in 1854. He probably regarded it as the work of the 
 red man. In 1869, Dr. J. H. Salisbury, who has long been 
 engaged in the investigation of rock inscriptions at the 
 West, in company with Dr. Lewis, of the Asylum at New- 
 burgh, made a copy, by means of full and exact measure- 
 ments. 
 
 "As no sketch is of equal authenticity with a photograph, 
 Mr. Thos. T. Sweeney, an artist at Cleveland, went to 
 Independence, and took a copy with his instrument. The 
 light on that day was not favorable, but the outlines of all 
 the artificial work upon the stone were thus secured with 
 exactness. For the purposes of the engraver, the figures 
 were filled in by Dr. Salisbury from his sketch. Without 
 expressing an opinion as to the authors ol these inscriptions, 
 I present, in connection with the engraving, the details 
 furnished by Dr. Salisbury: 
 
 "'Mr. W. F. Bushnell, who resides at Independence, and M. B. Wood, of 
 Cleveland, state that these markings were discovered about 1853, while strip- 
 ping the earth from the surface of a quarry on the north brow of the hill on 
 which the village of Independence stands. Here the rocks projected in the 
 form of a perpendicular cliff, from twenty to forty feet in height. On the top 
 of this cliff, aud near its edge, the markings were discovered. The soil over 
 the markings was from five to eight inches in depth, and was black, having 
 been formed from decaying vegetation. A tree was growing directly over the 
 markings, that was one foot or more in diameter. Within a few feet of the 
 spot there was an oak tree over four feet in diameter. This tree, some years 
 previous to the discovery of the sculptured rock, had fallen nearly across the 
 markings, and, in 1853, was much decayed. Besides the markings represented 
 in the engraving, there were others adjacent, belonging to the same group, 
 which had been destroyed by the quarrymen before Messrs. Bushnell and 
 Wood were aware of it. Among the markings destroyed, were the outline 
 figures of a man and woman, very well executed. There were also the repre- 
 sentations of a wolf's foot, and figures of the feet of other animals. 
 
 "'At the time of the discovery the stone church at Independence was being 
 built, and, at the suggestion of Deacon Bushnell and others, all the markings 
 not previously destroyed were carefully cut out, and the block placed in the 
 
—77— 
 
 rear wall of the church, about eight feet above the ground. It was prudently 
 placed at this height to prevent its being defaced, for they are not very 
 distinct. 
 
 " 'In company with Dr. Lewis, Superintendent of the Northern Ohio 
 Lunatic Asylum, I visited the locality on the 5th day of June, 1869, and made 
 careful drawings of all the markings visible on the block in the rear wall of 
 the church. These, with accurate measurements, are represented here, made 
 more perfect by the use of Mr. Sweeney's photography. 
 
 '"The rock here described only contains a portion of the inscription; the 
 balance was destroyed in quarrying. The markings on the portion of the 
 rock preserved consist of the human foot, clothed with something like a 
 moccasin or stocking; of the naked foot; of the open hand; of round mark- 
 ings, one in front of the great toe of each representation of the clothed foot; 
 the figure of a serpent; and peculiar character w, which might be taken for 
 rude representation of a crab or crawfish, but which bears a closer resemblance 
 to an old-fashioned spear head, used in capturing fish. 
 
 " 'The clothed feet are of five different sizes. There are eighteen impressions 
 of this kind, arranged in nine pairs. Of the largest size there are five pairs — 
 a, c, g, /, m; of the next size smaller there is only one pair — o; of the next 
 smaller size one pair — g; of the next smaller size one pair — e; of the 
 next smaller size one pair. Of the naked foot there is only a 
 single figure, which is rudely carved, and which is much longer 
 than the clothed representations. There are two figures of the open hand — 
 one with a large palm and short fingers, the other smaller, with fingers long 
 and slender. 
 
 " 'The sculptures have all been made with a sharp-pointed instrument, by 
 the process of pecking, and sunk in throughout instead of being mere outlines. 
 The cuttings are from one-eighth to half an inch deep. The two hands are 
 sculptured the deepest. In the illustrations I have endeavored to give an idea 
 of the markings left by the tool used, though these are less evident than the 
 representations. 
 
 " 'The length of the largest feet in figures a, c, g, I, m, from the extremity of 
 the great toe to the heel, is six and three-fourths inches, and the width, at the 
 widest place, two and three-fourths inches. The length of the next in size, o> 
 is five inches, and the width two and one-eighth inches; and of g, five inches 
 by two inches. Length of next smaller size, e, three and a half inches, and 
 width one and three-fourths inches, and three and three-fourths inches by 
 one and a half inches. The length of the naked foot, s, is nine inches, and 
 greatest width, four and three-fourths inches. , The great toe is one inch long, 
 the second toe one and one-fourth inches long, the third toe one and a half 
 inches long, the fourth toe one and a fourth inches long, and the little toe one 
 inch long. 
 
 " 'In the large hand, t, the palm is five and a half inches long and three and 
 a half inches wide. The length of the thumb is one and a half inches, the 
 index finger one and three-fourths inches, the middle finger two inches, the 
 
—78- 
 
 ring finger one and three-fourths inches, and the little finger one and a half 
 inches. In the other hand, u, the palm is three and a half inches long and 
 two and a half inches wide. The length of the thumb is two and one-fourth 
 inches, the index finger two and a half inches, the middle finger two and three- 
 fourths inches, the ring finger two and a fourth inches, and the little finger 
 two inches. 
 
 " 'The diameter of the circular markings, invariably found in front of the 
 clothed feet, are as follows: b, one and one-eighth inches; d, one and three- 
 fourths inches; /, three-fourths inch; h, one inch; k, half inch; n, one and a 
 half inches; p, one and one-fourth inches; q, one inch. 
 
 " 'The diameter of the serpent's head is two and three-fourths inches; length 
 of body, ninety-four inches, making the entire length of the figure about 
 eight feet. 
 
 u 'In the sculptured figure, w, the measurements are omitted. 
 
 " 'It is evident this slab does not contain the entire description. The tracks, 
 I, are only partially present, while it is very probable that more tracks 
 occurred in the direction a, b, arranged in a line as those are from c to I, where 
 there are ten tracks and eight round characters, and which are probably not 
 all that were originally in this line previous to the stones being quarried. 
 The round markings in front of the clothed tracks may have been intended to 
 represent the track of dogs or wolves, but at present they are so smoothed by 
 time that it is impossible to make out anything but simple irregular circular 
 depressions. 
 
 " 'The rock on which the inscription occurs is the grindstone grits of the 
 Ohio Reports, an extensive stratum in Northern Ohio, about one hundred and 
 fifty feet below the conglomerate. It is almost pure silex, and possesses the 
 property of resisting atmospheric changes to a remarkable degree. Boulders 
 and projecting portions of the formation, from which this block was obtained* 
 that have been exposed to the weather for ages, preserve perfectly their sharp, 
 angular projections. As a building stone it is superior on account of its 
 extreme durability. This durability of the rock, and the fact that these 
 markings were covered with earth, explains why they have been so finely 
 preserved. 
 
 " 'The markings a, c, e, g, /, m, o, and q, have been supposed by some to 
 represent the tracks of the buffalo. After carefully measuring them, however, 
 I have come to the conclusion that they were designed to represent tracks of 
 the clothed human foot, and as such have described them. 
 
 '' 'The so-called bird tracks, which are few and faint on this slab, are num- 
 erous and bold on most of the rock inscriptions of Ohio.' " 
 
 It is difficult to determine whether any of these sculptures 
 can be properly called picture writings. There is no regular 
 order of arrangement ; no systematic grouping of characters 
 pointing to a serial connection between them. In a specimen 
 
—79— 
 
 of modern Indian picture-writing, purporting to be the life 
 of a Chippeway, and deposited in the Museum of the 
 Natural Science Association, of Detroit, the characters are 
 arranged in regular order, there being two series on each 
 side of a wooden tablet, the feet of the figures of men and 
 animals directed toward the edge of the tablet, clearly 
 indicating a methodical arrangement, and that the record is 
 to be read from one end to the other, along one series of 
 characters, when the other edge of the tablet was to be 
 turned upward and the reading continued to the place of 
 beginning. It is not apparent whether the reading should 
 be from right to left or the reverse, nor where the reading 
 should begin. It is certainly a much more perfect specimen 
 of picture-writing than any of the rock inscriptions in Ohio, 
 and all of the latter are probably the work of modern 
 Indians. 
 
 EARTH WORKS. 
 The ancient earth works of Ohio, in their variety, magni- 
 tude and extent, excel those of all the other States. Single 
 mounds of greater size are found elsewhere, but no other 
 State has such a variety of these works, or such numbers of 
 them as Ohio. When it is remembered that the builders of 
 these works had no beasts of burden, or draught, no metal 
 tools of a size or character to be of any use in their con- 
 struction ; that all the material must have been laboriously 
 carried to its place in baskets, it will be obvious that the real 
 labor expended upon some of them was not much, if any, 
 less than that expended upon the largest pyramid of Egypt. 
 Such works could be constructed only by a people who had 
 a compact, civil organization, with a central authority which 
 could control the labor of the masses, and with dominant 
 civil or religious ideas which would induce the masses to 
 submit to long-continued labor. The more extensive works 
 peculiar to the State, indicate large, fixed commuities, which 
 involves the practice of agriculture and habits of life very 
 different from that of the hunting tribes, roaming over the 
 State, upon its first occupancy by the whites. 
 
—80— 
 
 The most of these works are confined to the valleys of 
 the streams where there is land specially adapted to the 
 cultivation of maize or Indian corn, which was the basis of 
 pre-Columbian American agriculture. They are much more 
 abundant in the northern and southern than in the central 
 parts of the State, a fact which might be easily explained 
 from the small extent of the alluvial valley, on the table 
 and. Still there is a marked difference in the character of 
 those in the northern and southern regions. The former 
 have more the appearance of defense works, both in their 
 location and mode of construction. They ordinarily occupy 
 •elevated spurs, projecting from the table land into the 
 valleys, overlooking extensive alluvial plains — often where 
 erosion has left these spurs with a narrow connection with 
 the table land, and a wider expanse of surface on the part 
 projecting into the valley. In such cases the works consist 
 of one, two, or three ditches and embankments across the 
 neck, plainly intended to protect the spur against aggression 
 from the table land. The enclosed surface often shows evi- 
 dence of having been leveled off, the material removed so 
 deposited as to increase the angle of the slope rising from 
 the valley ; and in some cases the location of an old foot- 
 path leading from the summit into the valley can be clearly 
 traced. The enclosed surface is generally filled with pit- 
 holes and shows evidence of long occupancy. The valley of 
 the Cuyahoga is lined with such works, which have been 
 figured and described by Col. Whittlesey. Typical forms of 
 these works are to be seen at the junction of Furnace Run 
 with the Cuyahoga, in Summit County, and at the junction 
 of Payne's Creek with Grand River, in Lake County. 
 These protecting walls and ditches take different shapes, 
 determined by the form of the surface to be protected. Two 
 in Northampton township form complete enclosures with 
 the exception of a single gateway in each opening toward 
 the alluvial bottom land to which doubtless a foot-path 
 originally led. Were these purely military works, or such 
 defences as pertained to the ordinary life of their builders? 
 
—81 — 
 
 These old agriculturists had three enemies against whom 
 they were compelled to contend : the extension of the 
 forests, the intrusions of wild beasts, and the aggressions of 
 more war-like hunting tribes. The extension of the forests 
 is mentioned because it may have been one of the 
 most efficient causes in the final expulsion of these people. 
 Many attempts have been made to find causes for the exist- 
 ence of the treeless prairies of the West. A more natural 
 inquiry would be, how came the other sections to be covered 
 with forests ? An herbacious vegetation doubtless preceded 
 the forests and has been slowly restricted by the growth of 
 the latter. In the Southern States extensive regions which 
 sustained only an herbacious vegetation when first explored 
 by the whites, are now covered with trees. Early agriculture 
 attained its highest perfection in regions too arid for forest 
 growth, where facilities were afforded for the artificial 
 irrigation of the cultivated land, and was practically restricted 
 to treeless regions until better cutting tools than our mound 
 builders possessed enabled the argriculturists to successfully 
 contend with forest growth. 
 
 These alluvial plains, not long ago covered with water 
 would be the last to be encroached upon by the forest, and 
 were very probably treeless when first subjected to tillage. 
 Land could not be cleared of forests, and its intrusion could 
 with difficulty be resisted with such tools as have been 
 desmbed above. Crowded out by any causes from these 
 regions, they could not transfer their agricultural operations 
 to the treeless plains of the West, where the rank growth of 
 grass would present so formidable obstacles and where 
 countless herds of buffalo roamed. Certainly they sought 
 these alluvial valleys, poorly adapted to the growth of grass, 
 admirably adapted to the growth of Indian corn ; the fortified 
 adjacent bluffs, so selected as to command a view of their 
 cultivated fields below, from whence they could observe the 
 intrusion of man or beast and make provision against the 
 attacks of enemies from the table lands. The sizejof these 
 enclosures seems to be related to the size of the arable land 
 
—82- 
 
 in the adjacent valley, and hence to the size of the village 
 communities that could be supported from them. It seems 
 a reasonable inference that these enclosures were strong- 
 holds, for protection and observation, and designed to meet 
 the normal wants of small communities of argriculturists, 
 and that they were not erected to meet the exigencies of a 
 campaign. The great number of them, and the small size 
 of each, scattered along the bluffs of a single stream, like 
 the Cuyahoga, would tend to confirm this conclusion. 
 
 FORT HILL, NEAEBEREA, CUYAHOGA CO. 
 
 The wood-cut here intro- 
 duced indicates the general 
 character of these fortified 
 spurs. 
 
 In the valley, and at a 
 distance from these pro- 
 tected enclosures, are some- 
 times single mounds, which 
 seem not to have been 
 burial mounds raised to 
 such an elevation merely 
 as would give an extended 
 view above the top of the 
 
 f A— Enclosed space; a. a, a.— Embank- growing COril. 
 ments and ditches. Scale,200 f t.to the inch. 
 
 Such an outlying mound may be seen in the Pymatuning 
 Valley, in Wayne, Ashtabula County. In this whole north- 
 ern region true burial mounds are rare, and those that have 
 been observed are of small size. 
 
 In Copley, Summit County, is a fortified enclosure pre- 
 cisely similar to those known to be made by the more 
 modern Indians, and which may probably be referred to 
 them. A large circular elevation rises like an island in the 
 center of a swamp, which, before the adjacent land was 
 cleared, would be almost impassable. This was enclosed by 
 a ditch and and wall, carried entirely around the elevation, 
 making a secret and pretty secure retreat. It is known 
 
—83— 
 
 that the New England Indians secreted in such places their 
 wives and children when at war with the whites, and when 
 discomfited in battle, often retreated to them, sometimes 
 eluding pursuit, sometimes defending themselves there to 
 the last extremity. It is not certain that they enclosed them 
 with embankments of earth. 
 
 Island Fort-Lot 14, Copley, Summit Qa gome of the hi ~ hest 
 
 County, O., Surveyed August 17, 1877. , .-,, X . T ~ > . , , , , S r 
 
 hills of liichland and Knox 
 
 Counties, are look-out or 
 signal mounds, similar to 
 those which may be traced 
 from these places south to 
 trie Ohio River. In some 
 of these places small 
 mounds have been built, 
 with much labor, of stones 
 brought from the valleys 
 below, and nearly all show 
 the results of surface fires. 
 Many of these, and per- 
 haps all of them, may be 
 the work of modern In- 
 dians, as it is well Known 
 that they were in the 
 habit of telegraphing to scattered members of their tribes 
 or allies by the smoke of fires kindled at such places. 
 
 Licking County seems to be the center of population of 
 the old mound builders of the State, and in it are some of 
 the most remarkable earth-works to be found in the United 
 States. Mounds, some of them of large size, some of earth 
 and some of stone, are scattered over the county, but so 
 remarkable are the works near Newark, now in part occupied 
 by the county agricultural society, that comparatively little 
 attention has been given to the others. This collection of 
 mounds, embankments, enclosures, etc., covers over one 
 thousand acres, and by its extent and character indicates 
 
 Long diameter, 244 feet; short diame- 
 ter, 196 feet. Scale, 200 feet to the inch ; 
 d, d. — Eemains of a beaver dam. 
 
—84— 
 
 that here was the metropolis of the mound builders. The 
 general character of the most important of these works will 
 be better understood by the cut given on another page. 
 
 Mr. Smucker has known the works for more than fifty-fi ve 
 years, and hunted over them when covered with the primeval 
 forests. He reports that they were covered with a mixed 
 growth of walnut, sugar-maple, beech, oak, and wild cherry 
 trees, some ot which, when cut down, showed that they 
 were over five hundred years old, which would indicate not 
 less than from one thousand to fifteen hundred years since 
 the commencement of the intrusion of the forests. It is 
 believed that General Harrison first called attention to the 
 fact, in regard to similar works, that a mixed forest indicated 
 a forest growth of at least two or three generations of trees. 
 A new natural forest is almost if not quite uniformly com- 
 posed of one variety only, and the change to a variety of 
 species is made very slowly. But was this ground ever 
 occupied by forests until the abandonment of these works? 
 Their erection with mound builders' tools, if it involved the 
 clearing of a forest as a preliminary work, is so nearly 
 impossible that we can not imagine it would be ever under- 
 taken. It involved not only the clearing of these lands 
 of the forest, but also the neighboring lands which were to 
 be subjected to tillage. It is with the utmost difficulty, in 
 moist and tropical climates, that men armed with the best 
 of steel tools make a successful battle with the forests. It is 
 much more reasonable to suppose that these works were 
 originally located in a treeless region, and the works 
 evidently of the same age scattered over the county indicate 
 that this treeless region was of large extent, covering prob- 
 ably most of the alluvial valley. The inference would follow 
 that the abandonment of the region marked the time when 
 the slow intrusion of the forests reduced the amount of 
 tillable land below the necessities of the community ; the 
 time since their abandonment marks the whole period of 
 forest growth on the alluvial bottoms. If the question is 
 asked, how long is this period ? the only answer that can be 
 
-85— 
 
—86— 
 
 given is that in the term as applied to human history, the 
 time was long ; how long, no one can tell. 
 
 The most prominent features of these works consist of an 
 octagonal enclosure embracing 50 acres ; a square enclosure 
 of 20 acres ; a circle of 30 acres, and a smaller circle of 20 
 acres. A number of covert ways extended from these 
 enclosures, and various mounds, circles and crescentic em- 
 bankments are connected with them. These walls still rise 
 in places to the height of 30 feet. At the center of the 
 largest circular enclosure is a low mound wiiich Mr. Smucker 
 regards as intended to represent an eagle, with extended 
 wings, measuring from tip to tip ot the wings 240 feet, and 
 from head to tail 210 feet. The largest circular enclosure is 
 reported by Mr. Smucker to have an opening about 100 feet 
 wide, and the door- ways in all are much too wide to admit of 
 the idea that any of them are intended for forts. But for 
 what were they designed ? A cut of the w r orks at Marietta 
 and of those at Circleville are given for comparison, and to 
 bring out the typical character of this class of earthworks. 
 
 The typical characteristics are circular and square, or 
 rectilinear enclosures, the circle with one broad gateway ; 
 the .square with many gateways, the two either closely con- 
 nected, as in the Circleville works, or by long covert ways, as 
 in the Newark works. The absence of the circular enclosure, 
 as at Marietta,indicates that it is an adjunct to the other form 
 of enclosure, and may be dispensed with. The presence of 
 something like an altar or symbolic mound in the centre of 
 the circle is also significant. The large number of passage 
 ways into the rectilinear enclosures show that the dominant 
 idea in making these embankments was not to secure a 
 protected enclosure. Yet the protecting of most of these 
 gateways, or breaks in the wall, by mounds, seems to indicate 
 a use of the whole for protecting the interior. The difference 
 in the numbers of the segments of the rectilinear walls 
 should also be noted. In the Circleville enclosure, 8 ; in the 
 Newark,in one case, 8 ; in another, 6 ; in that at Marietta, in 
 
■87— 
 
 OHIO R'VER 
 
 j- CIRCLEVILLE 
 
—88— 
 
 one case,16 ; in the other,10. Both at Newark and at Marietta 
 there are isolated segments of jnst such embankments form- 
 ing no part of an enclosure, but which could be easily 
 imagined to be the beginning of an enclosure. 
 
 When Vol. IV. of " Contributions to North American 
 Ethnology," by Lewis H. Morgan, was published, his con- 
 clusions, which he advanced, however, as a hypothesis, as 
 simply a possible explanation of the use of these embank- 
 ments, was not very generally accepted. It must be conceded, 
 however, that he undertook the only line of investigation 
 which could lead to correct conclusions. If we can learn 
 the peculiarities of the social life of the mound builders, we 
 may hope to learn the significance of their remains. The 
 communal life of so many of the American races; the asso- 
 ciation of so many families in the same dwelling,or connected 
 series of dwellings, which Mr. Morgan shows was character- 
 istic of tribes most nearly allied in other characteristics with 
 the mound builders, makes it a reasonable conclusion that 
 this was a characteristic of their social life, and the theory 
 may well be accepted, as a provisional one, that these 
 segments of embankments of the rectilinear enclosures were 
 the foundations of residences for closely related families of 
 large tribal villages. The enclosures they formed may have 
 contained the store houses of their common supplies, 
 opening also into the circular enclosure which, the central 
 altar-like mound contained in it, suggests was appropriated 
 to religious or ceremonial rites. The single wide opening 
 into these circular enclosures was evidently adapted to the 
 easy ingress and egress of large masses of men. It would 
 follow that they practiced that form of socialism, 
 or communism, which many modern reformers are 
 advocating, which is characteristic of many savage 
 tribes and is always abandoned before any great 
 advance is made in civilization. A clearly defined 
 distinction, universally admitted, between the tuum and the 
 meum is essential to that personal effort which results in 
 civilization. 
 
—89— 
 
 The apparent use of the circle for the sacred enclosure 
 confirms the above conclusions, as the circle is the primitive 
 form of building. Our children build circular snow forts, 
 and the birds and beavers build in a circle, because this is 
 the natural form, and most easily made — a form always 
 retained by savages until they learn to build with timber, 
 cut into regular lengths, or with stone. The circle, long 
 used as a sacred enclosure and consecrated by custom, will 
 be retained by a natural conservatism for religious uses long 
 after rectilinear buildings are constructed for common uses. 
 
 The engineering skill required for the construction of these 
 works is generally over-estimated. To the eye many of them 
 appear to be perfectly symmetrical. But do we know that 
 they are? They have suffered much from erosion, and it is 
 in every case now impossible to define what was originally 
 the central lines of the embankments or the exact corners of 
 rectilinear enclosures. After all the careful measurements? 
 we do not know the exact dimensions of the base of the 
 great pyramid of Egypt, or whether it is an exact square ; 
 the preponderance of evidence being that it is not. No such 
 care has been given to the measurements of any ot these 
 enclosures, and it is not proved that any of them are exact 
 geometrical figures. A measuring rod and an instrument 
 for laying down a right angle would suffice for the planing 
 of all of them without a knowledge of any of the principles 
 of geometry. 
 
 Associated with these enclosures are many forms of 
 mounds which are also found isolated in various parts of 
 the State, and very abundantly in Licking County. Those 
 that are truncated at the top are usually regarded as temple 
 mounds, and are comparatively rare in Ohio. Explorations 
 in other States show that some of them are true burial 
 mounds. The most noted mound of this character in the 
 United States is located on the rich alluvial land bordering 
 the lower Mississippi, and near the mouth of Cahokia Creek 
 from which it takes its name. It is ninety feet high, with a 
 
—90— 
 
 base seven hundred feet long, and five hundred feet wide, 
 the level surface at the top measuring four hundred and fifty 
 by two hundred feet, and its solid contents estimated at 
 twenty millions of cubic feet. 
 
 Burial mounds are very abundant in this State, of a conical 
 form, generally with a circular, but sometimes with an oval 
 base, usually built of earth, but sometimes of stone. No 
 better idea of the general character of these mounds can be 
 given than is afforded by the following extracts from a 
 paper read before the Connecticut Academy of Arts and 
 Sciences, February 21, 1866, by that careful observer, O. C. 
 Marsh, F. G. S. He says : 
 
 " The mound selected for examination was about two and 
 a half miles south of Newark, on the farm of Mr. Thomas 
 Taylor, and was known in the neighborhood as the < Taylor 
 Mound.' It was conical in form, about ten feet in height, 
 and eighty in diameter at the base, these being about the 
 average dimensions of the burial mounds in that vicinity. 
 It was situated on the summit of a ridge, in the midst of a 
 stately forest. * * * The mound stood quite alone, nearly 
 half a mile from its nearest neighbor, and about three miles 
 from the large earthworks already mentioned. * * * 
 
 " An excavation about eight feet in diameter was first 
 made from the apex of the mound, and after the surface soil 
 was removed, the earth was found to be remarkably com- 
 pact, probably owing to its having been firmly trodden down 
 when deposited. This earth was a light loam, quite different 
 from the soil of the ridge itself, and its peculiar mottled 
 appearance indicated that it had been brought to the spot, 
 in small quantities. In excavating the first five feet, which 
 was a slow and very laborious undertaking, nothing worthy 
 of notice was observed except some traces of ashes, and 
 pieces of charcoal and flint, scattered about at various 
 depths. At five and a half feet below the surface, where the 
 earth became less difficult to remove, a broken stone pipe 
 was found which had evidently been long in use. It was 
 
—91— 
 
 made of a very soft limestone, containing fragments of 
 small fossil shells, apparently cretaceous species. No rock 
 of precisely this kind is known to exist in Ohio. Pieces of 
 a tube of the same material, and about an inch in diameter, 
 were found near the pipe. The cavity was about two-thirds 
 of an inch in diameter, and had been bored with great 
 regularity. Similar tubes have occasionally been found in 
 mounds, but their use is not definitely known. 
 
 "About seven feet from the top of the mound a thin white 
 layer was observed, which extended over a horizontal surface 
 of several square yards. Near the centre of this space, and 
 directly under the apex of the mound, a string of more than 
 one hundred beads of native copper was found, and with it 
 a few small bones of a child about three years of age. The 
 beads were strung on a twisted cord of coarse vegetable 
 fibre, apparently the inner bark ot a tree, and this had been 
 preserved by the salts of the copper, the antiseptic properties 
 of which are well known. The position of the beads 
 showed clearly that they had been wound two or three 
 times around the neck of the child ; and the bones them- 
 selves (the neural arches of the cervical vertebra? , a clavicle 
 and a first rib) were precisely those which the beads would 
 naturally come in contact with when decomposition of the 
 body ensued. The remains evidently owe their preservation 
 to this fact, as they are all colored with carbonate of copper, 
 and the other parts of the skeleton have entirely decayed. 
 The position the body had occupied, however, was still 
 clearly indicated by the darker color of the earth. The 
 beads were about one-fourth of an inch long and one-third 
 in diameter, and no little skill had been displayed in their 
 construction. They were evidently made without the aid of 
 fire, by hammering the metal in its original state; but the 
 joints were so neatly fitted that in most cases it was very 
 difficult to detect them. On th^ same cord, and arranged 
 at regular intervals, were five shell beads of the same 
 diameter, but about twice as long as those of copper. All 
 
—92— 
 
 had apparently been well polished, and the necklace when 
 worn must have formed a tasteful and striking ornament. 
 
 "About a foot below the remains just described, and a 
 little east of the centre of the mound, were two adult human 
 skeletons, lying one above the other, and remarkably well 
 preserved. The interment had evidently been performed 
 with great care. The heads were toward the east, slightly 
 higher than the feet, and the arms were carefully composed 
 at the sides. A white stratum, similar in every respect to 
 the one already mentioned,was here very distinct,and extended 
 horizontally over a space of five or six yards, in the centre of 
 which the remains had been laid. The earth separated 
 readily through this stratum, and an examination of the 
 exposed surfaces showed that they were formed from two 
 decayed layers of bark, on one of which the body had been 
 placed, and the other covered over them. The smooth sides 
 of the bark had thus come together and the decomposition 
 of the inner layers had produced the peculiar white sub- 
 stance, as a subsequent microscopic examination clearly 
 indicated. (This white layer, which was thought by Squire 
 and Davis to be the remains of matting, is a characteristic 
 feature in burial mounds. It has only been found where the 
 interments were unquestionably of mound builders.) Directly 
 above these skeletons was a layer of reddish earth, apparently 
 a mixture of ashes and burned clay, which covered a surface 
 of about a square yard. Near the middle of this space was 
 a small pile of charred human bones, the remains of a 
 skeleton, which had been burned immediately over those 
 just described. The fire had evidently been continued for 
 some time, and then allowed to go out ; when the fragments 
 of bone and cinders that remained were scraped together, 
 and covered with earth. All the bones were in small pieces, 
 and most of them distorted by heat ; but among them were 
 found the lower extremity of a humerus and some fragments 
 of a fibula, which showed them to be human, and indicated 
 an adult rather below the medium size. The two skeletons 
 found beneath these remains were well formed and of 
 
—93— 
 
 opposite sex. The ossification of the bones indicated that 
 the female was about thirty years of age, and the male 
 somewhat older. 
 
 " It is not impossible that these were husband and wife, 
 the latter put to death and buried above the remains of her 
 consort ; and the charred bones may have been those of a 
 human sacrifice slain at the funeral ceremonies. Near these 
 skeletons was a small quantity of reddish brown powder, 
 which proved on examination to be hematite. It was 
 probably used as a paint. 
 
 u On continuing our excavations about a foot lower, and 
 somewhat more to the eastward, a second pile of charred 
 human bones was found, resting on a layer of ashes, charcoal 
 and burned clay. But one or two fragments of these 
 remains could be identified as human, and these also indi- 
 cated a small-sized adult. The incremation had apparently 
 been performed in the same manner as in the previous 
 instance. Immediately beneath the clay deposit, a third 
 white layer was observed, quite similar to that just described. 
 In this layer was a male skeleton, not in as good preservation 
 as those already mentioned, although belonging to an 
 individual considerably older. In this case, also, the head 
 was toward the east, and the burial had been carefully 
 performed. Near this skeleton about a pint of white chaff 
 was found which appeared to belong to some of the native 
 grasses. The form was still quite distinct, although nearly 
 all the organic substance had disappeared. A few inches 
 deeper, near the surface of the natural earth,several skeletons, 
 of various ages, were met with, which had evidently been 
 buried in a hurried manner. All were nearly or quite 
 horizontal, but no layer of bark had been spread for their 
 reception, and no care taken in regard to the arrangement 
 of limbs. These skeletons were in a tolerable state of 
 preservation, some parts being quite perfect. A tibia and 
 fibula, with most of the corresponding bones of a foot, were 
 found quite by themselves, and well preserved. 
 
—9-4— 
 
 " Our excavations had now reached the original surface of 
 the ridge, on which the mound was erected, and we were 
 about to discontinue further researches, when the dark color 
 ot the earth at one point attracted attention, and an exam- 
 ination soon showed that a cist or grave had first been 
 excavated in the soil before the mound itself was commenced. 
 This grave was under the eastern part of the elevation, 
 about four feet from the center. It consisted of a simple 
 excavation in an east and west direction, about six feet long, 
 three wide, and nearly two deep. In this grave were found 
 parts of at least eight skeletons, which had evidently been 
 thrown in carelessly — most of them soon after death, but 
 one or two not until the bones had become detached and 
 weathered. Some of the bones were very well preserved, 
 and indicated individuals of various ages: Two infants, 
 about a year and eighteen months old respectively, were each 
 represented by a single os illium, and bones of several other 
 small children were found. One skull, apparently that of a 
 boy, about twelve years of age, was recovered in fragments, 
 and this was the best preserved of any obtained in the 
 mound. The skeleton of an aged woman of small stature 
 was found resting on its side. It was bent together and 
 lay across the grave, with its head toward the north. Some 
 of the loose human bones, exhumed from the bottom of the 
 grave, were evidently imperfect when thrown in. Among 
 these was part of a large femur, which had been gnawed by 
 some carniverous animal. The marks of the teeth were 
 sharply defined, and corresponded to those made by a dog 
 or wolf. 
 
 " Quite a number of implements of various kinds were 
 found with the human remains in this grave. Near its 
 eastern end, where the detached bones had been buried, were 
 nine lance and arrow-heads, nearly all of the same form, and 
 somewhat rudely made of flint and chert. * * * These 
 weapons are of peculiar interest, as it appears they are the 
 first that have been discovered in a sepulchral mound, 
 although many such have been carefully examined. They 
 
—95— 
 
 show that the custom — so common among the Indians of 
 this country — of burying with the dead their implements of 
 war or the chase, obtained occasionally, at least, among the 
 mound builders. Not far from these weapons six small 
 hand-axes were found, one of which was made of hematite, 
 and the rest of compact greenstone or diorite, the material 
 often used by the Indians for similar articles. Two of these 
 corresponded closely in form with the stone hand-axe figured 
 by Squire and Davis, as the only one then known from the 
 mounds. With these axes were found a small hatchet of 
 hematite, a flint chisel, and a peculiar flint instrument, 
 apparently used for scraping wood. 
 
 " In the central part of the grave, near the aged female 
 skeleton already alluded to, were a large number of bone 
 implements, all exceedingly well preserved. Among these 
 were five needles or bodkins, from three to six inches in 
 length, neatly made from the metatarsal bones of the com- 
 mon deer, and also a spatula cut from an ulna and probably 
 used for moulding pottery. With these were found about a 
 dozen peculiar implements formed from the antlers of a deer 
 and elk. They are cylindrical in form, from three to eight 
 inches in length, and an inch to an inch and a half in 
 diameter. Most of these had both ends somewhat rounded, 
 and perfectly smooth, as if they had either been long in use, 
 or carefully polished. It is possible these instruments were 
 used for smoothing down the seams of skins or leather ; 
 they would at least be well adapted to such a purpose. A 
 whistle made from a tooth of a young black bear, and several 
 'spoons,' cut out of the shells of river mussels, were also 
 obtained from near the same spot. 
 
 "A vessel of coarse pottery was found near the western 
 end of the grave, but unfortunately was broken in removing 
 it. It was about five inches in its greatest diameter, six in 
 height, and one-third of an inch in thickness. It was with- 
 out ornament, and rudely made of clay containing some sand 
 and powdered quartz. It was filled with soft, black earth, 
 
—96— 
 
 the color being probably due to some animal or vegetable 
 substance, which it contained when deposited in the grave. 
 Fragments of a vase of similar material, but having the top 
 ornamented, were found in another part of the mound- 
 Neither of these vessels were superior in any respect to the 
 pottery manufactured by the Indians. 
 
 "Near the bottom of the mound, and especially in the 
 grave, were various animal bones, most of them in an 
 excellent state of preservation. Many of them belonged to 
 the common deer, and nearly all the hollow bones had been 
 skillfully split open lengthwise— probably for the purpose of 
 extracting the marrow — a common custom among rude 
 nations. * * * 
 
 " The skeletons found in this mound were of medium size, 
 somewhat smaller than the average of the Indians still living 
 in this country. The bones were certainly not stouter than 
 those of Indians of the same size, although this has been 
 regarded as a characteristic of the remains of the mound 
 builders. All the skulls in the mound were broken — in one 
 instance, apparently before burial — and most of them so 
 much decayed that no attempt was made to preserve them. 
 Two, however, were recovered with the more important 
 parts but little injured. Both were of small size, and showed 
 the vertical occiput, prominent vertex and large interparietal 
 diameter so characteristic of crania belonging to the Amer- 
 ican race. In other respects there was nothing of special 
 interest in their conformation. With a single exception all 
 the human teeth observed were perfectly sound. The teeth 
 of all the adult specimens were much worn, those of aged 
 individuals usually to a remarkable degree. The manner in 
 which these were worn away is peculiarly interesting, as it 
 indicates that the mound builders, like the ancient Egyptians, 
 and the Danes ot the stone age, did not, in eating, use their 
 incisive teeth for cutting as modern nations do. This is 
 evident from the fact that the worn incisors are all truncated 
 in the same plane with the coronal surfaces of the molars? 
 
—97— 
 
 showing that the upper front teeth infringe directly on the 
 summits of those below, instead of lapping over them. This 
 peculiarity may be seen in the teeth of Egyptian mummies, 
 as was first pointed out by Cuvier. * * * 
 
 " One of the most remarkable features in the mound was 
 the large number of skeletons it contained. With one or 
 two exceptions none of the burial mounds, hitherto exam, 
 amined, have contained more than a single skeleton which 
 unquestionably belonged to the mound builders, while in this 
 instance parts of at least seventeen were exhumed. The 
 number of small children represented among these remains 
 is also worthy of notice, as it indicates, for this particular 
 case, a rate ot infant mortality (about thirty-three per cent.) 
 which is much higher than some have supposed ever existed 
 among such nations. Another point of special interest in 
 this mound is the evidence it affords that the regular method 
 of burial among the mound builders was sometimes omitted, 
 and the remains interred in a hurried and careless manner. 
 This was the case with eleven of the skeletons exhumed in 
 the course of our explorations, a remarkable fact, which 
 appears to be without a precedent in the experience of 
 previous investigators. It should be mentioned in this con- 
 nection that nearly all these remains were those of women 
 and children. Their hurried and careless burial might seem 
 to indicate a want of respect on the part of their surviving 
 friends, were there not ample evidence to prove that rever- 
 ence for the dead was a prominent characteristic of the 
 mound builders. It is not unlikely that in this instance 
 some unusual cause, such as pestilence, or war, may have 
 made a hasty interment necessary. The various implements 
 and remains of animals found with these skeletons also 
 deserve notice, as they far exceed in number and variety any 
 hitherto discovered in a single mound. They prove, more- 
 over, that if in this instance the rites of regular burial were 
 denied the deposited, their supposed future wants were 
 amply provided for. The contents of one part of the cist, 
 (which is itself a very unusual accompaniment of a mound) 
 
—98— 
 
 appears to indicate that the remains of those who died at a 
 distance from home, were collected for burial, sometimes long 
 after death. The interesting discovery of weapons, which 
 were found with these detached bones, would seem to imply, 
 that in this case the remains and weapons of a hunter or 
 warrior of distinction, recovered after long exposure, had 
 been buried together. 
 
 " The last three interments in this mound were performed 
 with great care, as already stated, and in strict accordance 
 with the usual custom of the mound builders. The only 
 point of particular interest in regard to them is the con- 
 nection which appears to exist between some of the skeletons 
 and the charred human bones found above them. Similar 
 deposits of partially burned bones, supposed to be human, 
 have in one or two instances been observed on the altars of 
 sacrificial mounds, and occasionally in mounds devoted to 
 sepulture, but their connection with the human remains 
 buried in the latter, if indeed any existed, appears to have 
 been overlooked. Our explorations, which were very care- 
 fully and systematically conducted, clearly demonstrated 
 that in these instances the incremation had taken place 
 directly over the tomb, and evidently before the regular 
 interment was completed ; taking these facts in connection 
 with what the researches of other investigators have made 
 known concerning the superstitious rites of this mysterious 
 people, it seems natural to conclude that in each of these 
 cases a human victim was sacrificed as a part of the funeral 
 ceremonies, doubtless as a special tribute of respect to a 
 person of distinction." 
 
 These copious extracts from the report of Mr. Marsh, of 
 his explorations of a mound, doubtless erected by the con- 
 structors of the Newark works, is given, for the important 
 information it affords as to the character of these people, and 
 because the minute and pains-taking care exhibited by him 
 in the exploration may well be taken as a model to guide 
 others in similar explorations. 
 
—99— 
 
 If all the mounds in Ohio, not less than ten thousand in 
 number, were as carefully explored, it would throw a flood 
 of light upon the character and social condition of their 
 builders. 
 
 Mounds of observation are usually smaller than the last, 
 generally occupying elevated places constituting a series of 
 signal stations, and sometimes located on alluuial plains in 
 positions commanding an extensive view up and down the 
 valley. ISTatural elevations often show, by the accumulation 
 of charcoal and burned stones, that they were used as signal 
 stations; but whether these were used by the mound builders 
 or by the more modern Indians, can not be determined, but 
 it is probable they were used by both for this purpose, as 
 were also the burial mounds when properly located. 
 
 A large number of still smaller mounds are called, and 
 probably correctly, altar mounds. They are usually connected 
 with other works and include altar-like constructions of stone 
 or clay on which are found ashes, charcoal, calcined bones,, 
 some of which have been identified as human, and specimens 
 of nearly all the domestic and military utensils and orna- 
 ments of the mound builders. The circular enclosures, as in 
 the instances above given, often have such mounds at the 
 center. 
 
 Of effigy mounds there are comparatively few in the State, 
 but among these the Serpent Mound, of Adams County, and 
 the so-called Alligator Mound, of Licking County, are con- 
 spicuous examples. They are so well known, and have been 
 so often described, that a repetition of the descriptions here 
 is unnecessary. The so-called Alligator Mound is a very 
 poor imitation of an alligator, having a long tail curved in a 
 manner that no American animal could imitate, except the 
 opossum. The walls of Fort Ancient, in Warren County, 
 have been described as two huge serpents, but the early plats 
 of it show nothing to justify this description. 
 
-100- 
 
 MINING- BY THE MOUtfD BUILDERS. 
 
 The extensive pre-historic copper mines of Lake Superior, 
 first accurately described by Col. Whittlesey, are without 
 doubt the work of the mound builders, and the source from 
 which they obtained the greater part of the material for their 
 copper implements and ornaments. Some of it they doubt- 
 less obtained from the drift. These mines were opened by 
 means of their rude tools, with great labor, wooden shovels 
 being used in removing waste material. The rock enclosing 
 the copper was subjected to the action of fire, and broken 
 up by stone hammers and mauls. Pieces from the masses 
 too large to handle were laboriously cut or pounded off with 
 their stone axes, and pieces too large to be handled in any 
 other manner were slowly raised to the surface by prying up 
 the alternate sides, placing small timbers beneath and 
 building them up under the load in the form of a log house- 
 The copper thus obtained was sometimes worked into im- 
 plements in the neighborhood of the mines, as important 
 finds in that region show. Several copper spears and 
 knives have been found together, showing that they were 
 not accidently lost but buried for safe keeping. The great 
 abundance of mica found in the mounds is evidence that the 
 builders made long journeys to engage in mica mining, or 
 maintained a system of exchanges with those who worked 
 the mines. This mineral was held in high esteem, and was 
 obtained in large quantities. Skeletons have been exhumed 
 entirely covered with it. 
 
 Masses of galena have been found in Ohio mounds too 
 large to have been obtained in the State, and which were 
 doubtless the product of galena mining. Lead is so easily 
 obtained from galena that it would be strange if the mound 
 builders did not stumble upon the mode of reducing this ore, 
 but the metal would not be of great value to them. In the 
 State Collection is a lead ornament found in the ditch within 
 the great Circleville enclosure ; but the form is so much like 
 that of the lead tomahawks the school-boys made, when they 
 
— 101 — 
 
 used lead to rule their writing paper, that it is reasonably 
 inferred that it is of modern manufacture. 
 
 Salt was evidently manufactured from natural brine springs 
 by some of the native races in other localities, but the 
 evidence is wanting of its manufacture within the present 
 limits of this State. 
 
 In the " oil territory " of Trumbull County, are pre- 
 historic wells which were apparently sunk to obtain petroleum, 
 but whether the work of mound builders or of the more 
 recent tribes, is not apparent. It is known that the Indians 
 highly prized the petroleum from springs, and used it as a 
 medicine. : : , t . . . . , , 
 
 ALPHABETIC WRITING AND] "£K.GRAJV , J31> :,, ■; :■, : 
 TABLETS. 
 
 On the present site of Cincinnati, at its first discovery by 
 the whites, was a series of mounds, earth-works and 
 embankments, which, according to the account given by 
 General Harrison, were among the most extensive in the 
 State. In one of these mounds, explored in 1841, was found, 
 as it is alleged, the " Cincinnati tablet," which has given rise 
 to much discussion, and has been classed among the " frauds " 
 by expert and conscientious archaeologists ; but the vindi- 
 cation of its authenticity, published by Mr. Robert Clark, of 
 Cincinnati, in 1876, may be regarded as fully satisfactory and 
 as entitling it to a place among the authentic relics of the 
 mound builders. It is made of a dark, fine-grained sand- 
 stone, and as no verbal description could be made to convey 
 an intelligible idea of it, a cut of both sides of it, of full size, 
 is here given, which was kindly loaned for this use by Mr. 
 Clark. An inspection of the cuts will lead to the ready 
 inference that it is not a writing of any kind. There are 
 slight differences between the engraving and a cast of the 
 relic. In the cast the two bars at one end of the tablet are 
 each connected at the middle with the central work, so that 
 all that is included within the outer margins constitutes one 
 
—102— 
 
 on 
 
 CINCINNATI TABLET. 
 
■103- 
 
 CINCINNATI TABLET, REVERSE. 
 
—104— 
 
 figure with bilateral symmetry. It is a work showing much 
 skill in stone-engraving, both in the execution and in the 
 almost exact duplication of the separate parts, but its signi- 
 fication, if it has any, is not apparent. The supposition that 
 the conspicuous markings at the two ends are copies of 
 standard measures of length is scarcely tenable, when it is 
 noted that in the cast neither of the series of divisions are 
 of equal length and that the smaller are not subdivisions of 
 the larger. Mr. Clark sends me a photograph of a somewhat 
 similar engraving said to have been found in a mound. It 
 is smaller, very much less skillfully executed, and lacks the 
 bilateral symmetry of the " Cincinnati tablet." A cut of the 
 reverse side of the latter is given, but it probably has no 
 significance. 
 
 The sand-stone tablet, alleged to have been found at 
 Wilmington, is in some respects like the "Cincinnati tablet.'' 
 According to the engravings published it is far inferior in 
 execution. There is only a partial attempt at bilateral 
 symmetry, and the duplication of parts is inaccurately done. 
 This, and the unintelligible carving on the slate ornament, 
 might pass as genuine relics were it not for the character of 
 the animal and human carvings on the other part of it. The 
 free-hand attempt at shading the animal figures, the graceful 
 outlines of the human figures, the delineation of their 
 clothing, particularly the close-fitting garments of the male, 
 and the character of the weapons he carries, which have 
 been previously described, all indicate that they do not 
 represent barbaric art. A doubt of their genuineness is no 
 imputation upon the integrity of those who have given 
 descriptions of them to the public. The best collections of 
 relics contain forgeries, some of which have been purchased 
 for a large price, and almost every community can furnish 
 those who will take great delight in imposing upon explorers 
 of mounds. If the genuineness of all these relics were 
 conceded, they do not afford, as is claimed, any evidence of 
 the use of writing. What are claimed to be written char- 
 acters in all of the squares, are laboriously unlike in all their 
 
—105— 
 
 details. A writing of that length, either alphabetical, 
 pictorial or symbolical, would certainly exhibit repetitions. 
 
 The controversy over the Hebrew inscriptions, claimed to 
 have been found by David Wyrick, near Newark, is now 
 generally regarded as closed. They were found when evi- 
 dence was eagerly sought to connect the aboriginal races 
 with the house of Israel. Now that the idea of such a 
 connection is abandoned by all, the discovery of Hebrew 
 inscribed stones would be an anachronism, for such forgerie 8 
 will always in some way represent the ideas of the time of 
 the forgery. As an example, the greatest forgery of this 
 century is the book of Mormon. A careful reading of it will 
 disclose to any competent critic very nearly the date of the 
 forgery. It was written during, or very soon after, the 
 controversy between Masonry and Anti-Masonry, and is 
 decidedly Anti-Masonic. It was written during the theolog- 
 ical controversy over popery pedo-baptism ; the salvation of 
 infants ; a paid priesthood, election and free-will, all of 
 which questions it attempts to settle; when the " falling 
 power/' as it was called, was regarded as the work of the 
 Spirit, which it describes and approves ; while the act of 
 divination by looking into a crystal was believed in by some ; 
 while it was believed that the native races here were Israel- 
 ites ; and before contact with Europeans, worshipers of the 
 Great Spirit, and while it was popularly believed that the 
 linguistic peculiarities of our bible were wholly character- 
 istic of the languages in which it was originally written, and 
 not of the state of the English language at the time of its 
 translation. These internal evidences &x the date of its 
 composition as about fifty years ago. 
 
 Mr. Wyrick's first find was the inscribed key-stone in the 
 form of a Masonic emblem on which was carved in Hebrew 
 of the twelfth century, " The King of the Earth." " The 
 Word of the Lord." " The Laws of Jehovah." " The Holy 
 of Holies." In the year following he "found," enclosed in a 
 neat stone box with a closelv fitting cover, a stone tablet 
 having on it an effigy of Mose3 in priestly robes and an 
 
— 106 — 
 
 epitome ot the ten commandments in Hebrew. Surely no* 
 better evidence could be secured of a Hebrew migration to 
 this country. It is significant that Mr. Wy rick's published 
 account of the "finds" was largely devoted to an attempt to 
 prove that they could not be forged, and that upon his 
 death there was found in his working-room a Hebrew Bible 
 which doubtless aided him much in finding Hebrew 
 inscriptions. 
 
 These Holy relics were sold to David M. Johnson, of 
 Coshocton, Ohio, who in 1867 employed laborers for several 
 days in exploring a mound from which one of the inscribed 
 stones, he obtained from Wyrick, was taken. His search 
 was rewarded by finding inside of a human skull a conical 
 stone about three (3) inches long on which was also a Hebrew 
 inscription. No one seems to have been surprised by the 
 peculiarity of the place in which it was found, or to have 
 doubted its genuineness. It is probable that no archaeologist 
 of fair standing can now be found to advocate its genuine- 
 ness or that of the Wyrick finds. 
 
 Perhaps no relic has been the cause of more discussion in 
 Ohio, and among archaeologists everywhere, than a small 
 piece of sand-stone covered on one face with inscribed 
 characters and which it is alleged was taken from a vault 
 in the Grave Creek Mound, in 1838. Some years ago, as 
 one of a committee appointed for that purpose by the Ohio 
 State Archaeological Society, I undertook to gather up all 
 the evidence that could be secured in regard to the finding 
 of this relic. Numerous letters were received from those 
 engaged in the exploration, or who were present when it 
 was found. All answered every inquiry fully and frankly. 
 These letters were turned over to the Northern Ohio His- 
 torical Society, of Cleveland, for preservation. From all 
 these letters it may be regarded as well established — 
 
 First. That this relic was first seen in the loose dirt r 
 wheeled out through a tunnel leading to the centre of the 
 mound, and dumped in a pile, from which it was picked up 
 
■107- 
 
 and exhibited to those standing by, all at once assuming that 
 it came from the mound. 
 
 Second. That no one questioned its genuineness or gave 
 it any scrutiny to see whether it showed evidence of recent 
 manufacture. Hence the character of the inscription can 
 now be determined only by an examination of it, or of 
 engravings of it. 
 
 It is very easy to manufacture a series of arbitrary char- 
 acters which would constitute a good alphabet. It is not so 
 easy to forge an inscription with it. In an inscription the 
 letters will be duplicated, or doubled, and will be repeated 
 with a frequency in an inverse ratio to the number of the 
 characters in the alphabet used. The forger of an inscrip- 
 tion will proceed very much as if forging an alphabet, and 
 it will rarely occur to him to double or repeat his characters. 
 In a forged alphabet, also, a genetic relation will frequently 
 be observed between letters and those immediately preced- 
 ing, the one being a modification of the other. In using the 
 same letters in an intelligible inscription this connection will 
 be broken. 
 
 To illustrate these facts, four different persons were asked 
 to write each an inscription in arbitrary characters, unlike 
 the letters of any alphabet they knew, and without being 
 informed as to the object of the request. These inscriptions 
 are here copied, and all of the characters except the last two 
 of the Grave Creek Mound inscription : 
 
 1. 
 
 Q lib HI US I7J XX DCNL £ 1-3 A A/\ 
 
 2. 
 
 l/\~ vT/\^JAM±nn-x\/vc n 
 
 3. 
 
 rjcrs rrtf Hi TV a vc j i- U 
 
 4. 
 
 h t> h 1 t x / a > //# V < r x ■/ 1 fl A \ 
 
 5. 
 
 i/ty /a^A(I)/(X ) v/0v/^i 
 
—108— 
 
 No. 1. By a teacher'and law student. 
 
 " 2. By a school girl. 
 
 " 3. By a druggist. 
 
 " 4. By a college professor. 
 
 " 5. The Graw Creek inscription. 
 
 The latter may be compared with an engraving copied 
 from the stone, which is here inserted : 
 
 The genetic relations be- 
 tween different successive 
 characters can be clearly 
 seen in all these inscrip- 
 tions, that from the Grave 
 Creek Mound, included- 
 The writer of each often 
 had one character in mind 
 when making the next one, 
 and gave a modified form 
 of it. 
 
 There is no doubling of letters in any of them, and there 
 is no certain repetition of letters. In the Grave Creek 
 inscription, the 4th from the left, is somewhat like the 8th, 
 and the 6th somewhat like the 20th. In a cast of the stone 
 these characters are more unlike than in the engraving. If it is 
 conceded that there are two repetitions, it will be found that 
 taking a sentence of equal length from any known alpha- 
 betical writing, the repetitions will be much more numerous. 
 The inference is that the inscription is not alphabetical, an 
 inference greatly strengthened by the smallness of the char- 
 acters, the fineness and distinctness of the lines forming 
 them. The character of the tools for writing on stone, which 
 the mound builders must have used, if they wrote at all, is 
 apparent from the preceding pages. This inscription requires 
 for its production as good an instrument as a sharp-pointed 
 steel knife. With that it could easily be produced in 'dvery 
 few minutes. 
 
—109— 
 
 As the case now stands, it can well be said that there is no 
 evidence that the mound builders knew or practiced the art 
 of writing. Further, that their social and artistic condition, 
 as disclosed by the study of their remains, was not such as 
 to make the discovery of the art of writing probable. 
 
 SOCIAL AND CIVIL CONDITION OF THE 
 MOUND BUILDERS. 
 
 The social condition of the American hunting Indians has 
 been pretty thoroughly known through the direct contact of 
 the civilized nations ; but that of the "mound builders" is not 
 so easily learned. A special definition of this term is a 
 necessary preliminary to the investigation, for many of the 
 hunting races, inhabiting the country after the advent of the 
 whites, were mound builders, and the erection of mounds, 
 especially in the southern part of the territory now including 
 the United States, was continued to quite modern times. 
 Articles of copper, silver and steel, of unquestioned modern 
 manufacture, are found in southern mounds as deeply and 
 securely buried as the implements found in Ohio mounds. 
 The term, unless the context otherwise shows, will be used 
 to designate the builders of the elaborate structures found 
 in Ohio annd the other works attributed to the same age. 
 
 The facts above recorded, as well as the concurrent testi- 
 mony of all the well established facts, show the want of 
 three very important aids to civilization : domestic animals, 
 iron or steel tools, and the art of writing. The want of the 
 first is almost an inseparable obstacle to emergence from 
 barbarism. The pastoral condition which was here impos- 
 sible, is normally the first advance from the hunting condition- 
 Flocks and herds are the first important accumulations of 
 capital for distant future use, and their possession leads man 
 out of the savage habit of content if his immediate wants 
 are supplied, and induces labor and forethought for the 
 future. The flesh, skin, milk and wool of these animals 
 provides more abundantly for his wants, developes arts for 
 
—110- 
 preparing and utilizing them, secures a more compact social 
 organization, and less vagrant habits. These lead upward 
 to the practice of the art of agriculture and a special appro- 
 priation of land interfering with its pastoral use, followed 
 by controversies like that between Cain and Abel, in which 
 the agriculturist is generally victorious, because his is the 
 superior condition, leading to further advancement. It is 
 not without significance that the descendants of Cain were 
 represented as the discoverers of the arts of metallurgy. The 
 single domestic animal of the Peruvians, valuable for food, 
 as a beast of burden, and for its wool, gave them a great 
 advantage over all other American tribes. Its wool devel- 
 oped the art of spinning and weaving, gave them better 
 clothing, and with many other important advantages, gave 
 them the use of sails and the art of navigation. North 
 America, with its deeply indented coast line, was more 
 favorable to navigation, but a sailboat was nowhere found by 
 its first European explorers. 
 
 The mound builders reached the agricultural without 
 passing through the pastoral condition, but the want of 
 efficient metal tools must have made that agriculture com- 
 paratively unproductive. Their agriculture consolidated 
 them into village communities, gave them a compact, social 
 organization which made the construction of the remarkable 
 works they have left us, possible. If they had stumbled 
 apon the art of producing iron and steel, they would doubt- 
 less have attained to a true .civilization. Without it we 
 should naturally deem this impossible ; and [we in fact find 
 that all the relics of the arts they have left us are barbaric. 
 Their sculptures and carvings often show much skill and 
 very patient, long-continued work, but to the modern eye 
 are not artistic. Their clothing must have been of a prim- 
 itive character. The fragments of textile fabrics preserved 
 are coarse, and the use of strings of bark fibre for their 
 most costly necklaces, as disclosed by remains found in a 
 mound by Mr. Marsh, sufficiently attest the want or scarcity 
 of better spinning fiber. They were doubtless largely clothed 
 
—111- 
 iii the skins of wild beasts, and they perhaps utilized the 
 wooly hair of the buffalo by spinning and weaving it. They 
 found leisure for the attendance of large concourses at 
 religious or civic festivals, as the elaborate and costly enclos- 
 ures evidently designed for some such use, abundantly testify. 
 They manufactured pottery, but it was all rude. They made 
 long journeys in search of copper and mined it in the most 
 primitive manner, but they did not learn the art of making 
 castings of it, or of consolidating the small fragments by 
 melting them. They probably sunk wells for petroleum 
 where it could be obtained from seepings through the earth, 
 but no vessel which is suspected to be a lamp for burning it, 
 or animal fats, for light has been discovered. They wrought 
 chert and stone and shells into about as many useful forms 
 as modern workmen could, with their more perfect tools, but 
 these were all very poor substitutes for modern steel tools. 
 They believed in a future life, and provided the dead with 
 the weapons of war and of the chase and the domestic 
 utensils they had used in life and dispatched with them on 
 their long journey their wives and attendants as companions. 
 Their later history was probably that of a long-continued 
 struggle against the aggressions of hostile hunting tribes and 
 the encroachments of forests, before the combined influence 
 of which they were forced to retreat. 
 
 Standing beside some of their remarkable earthworks, a 
 glamour of admiration leads us to picture, in imagination, a 
 departed race, learned in all the highest arts of civilization. 
 But under the careful study of their remains the picture 
 vanishes, and leaves in its place that of a patient, plodding 
 people, with poor appliances, struggling towards civilization 
 while still on the confines of barbarism. If we compare the 
 artistic remains found in the mounds with those exhumed 
 on the sites of the most ancient Asiatic cities, the contrast, 
 both in the variety of articles and skill displayed in their 
 production, is very great, and precisely such a contrast as 
 we ought to expect between peoples having good metal 
 cutting tools and those without them. 
 
—112— 
 
 If it is asked of what race were these mound builders, it 
 now can only be said they were one of the native American 
 races, closely allied to the hunting Indians, and probably a 
 branch of the same race. There are certain peculiarities of 
 the skulls and jaws of the skeletons, found in the mounds, 
 which are supposed by many to separate them from the other 
 native races. 
 
 The description of the skulls found by Mr. Marsh, in a 
 mound at Newark, as given in the quotation from his report, 
 indicates the character of these peculiarities, which also 
 characterize a skull obtained from a mound at Marietta, and 
 two obtained from a mound near Chattanooga, Tenn. The 
 lower jaw is larger and more prognathous than that of the 
 modern Indian, and so articulated that the incisors of each 
 jaw meet squarely when the mouth is shut, not passing each 
 other so as to give a scissor-like cutting action, as do the 
 incisors of modern civilized people. Hence the action of 
 the incisors is a grinding and not a cutting action, and these 
 teeth are worn off on the same plane as the molars, and of 
 necessity, just as fast. In none of the jaws of these skulls 
 were there any unsound teeth, but all were remarkably worn 
 away, all of the incisors equally with the molars. This 
 rapid wearing away of the teeth, which is frequently observed 
 in savage races, and is seen in the early British skulls, is the 
 result of eating hard, unground grain,or of a want of neatness 
 in preparing food, leaving it filled with dirt and sand. 
 Ordinarily the latter is the cause. Either is incompatible 
 with much advance in civilization. This form of the jaw 
 and mode of its articulation, which brings the incisors of the 
 two jaws into direct contact, is not, as supposed, peculiar to 
 the mound builders, but is often seen in skulls which plainly 
 belonged to modern Indians, and occasionally in the white 
 race, when the one having that peculiarity is said to have 
 double teeth all round. This peculiarity is seen in a skull 
 taken from an Indian burial ground near Fairport, Lake 
 County. Comparing this skull with that from the Marietta 
 Mound, the following differences are observed : The lower 
 
—113— 
 
 jaw of that from the mound is more massive and more 
 prognathous. The front teeth are larger and all the teeth 
 are more worn ; all are sound, while two in the Indian 
 skull were partly decayed. The forehead is narrower and 
 more retreating, and there is a marked occipital protuber- 
 ance greatly exceeding that on the Indian skull, above which 
 is a suture, below the lamboid suture, which is wanting in 
 the Indian, and in most modern skulls. The supereilliary 
 ridge is more prominent, the molar bones larger, but more 
 retreating ; the chin less prominent, the cavities for the eyes 
 less circular, and a little more oblique ; and the nasal cavities 
 smaller in the skull from the mound. All the cranial char- 
 acteristics of the Indian skull, although it is smaller, are of 
 a higher type than are exhibited by the skull from the 
 Marietta mound. 
 
 Note. — The Indian skull was pierced, while living, through the occipital 
 bone with some sharp cutting instrument, about an inch and a half wide,, 
 which pierced the brain, and was evidently the cause of death. 
 
 WERE THE MOUND BUILDERS THE FIRST 
 OCCUPANTS OF THIS REGION? 
 The fire hearths along the banks of the Ohio River,, 
 described by Col. Whittlesey and Mr. Thomas W. Kinney, 
 are doubtless of an earlier date than the mounds, but unless 
 the builders of these were an intrusive people, bringing with 
 them their practice of mound-building,they may have occupied 
 the country for centuries before the building of these structures.. 
 On the banks of the Tennessee River, between Mussel Shoals 
 and a point a little above Chattanooga, a rude chronology is 
 preserved that is of especial interest. Along the banks of 
 the river are many little shell heaps containing various relics 
 of a rude art which clearly indicate the artificial character of 
 these mounds. Scattered through them are many minute 
 bivalve shells, clearly indicating that the water formerly 
 covered the mounds, and that they were probably the 
 accumulated refuse from residences built on piles over the 
 water. The extent of these mounds indicate long-continued 
 
—114— 
 
 occupancy, and if, as appears, by the occupants of pile- 
 dwellings, this fact can probably be demonstrated by the 
 careful excavation of the earth under and around the shell 
 mounds. 
 
 The first terrace above the river is covered with the 
 bleached fragments of river shells, o± such a character as to 
 clearly show that the water of the river covered the terrace 
 when these shells, which are of the same species as those now 
 in the river, were deposited. A little above Chattanooga the 
 soil of the terrace is tilled with these shells, and here on this 
 terrace is a large sepulchral mound which was partially 
 explored in 1864. It was built up from the alluvial soil of 
 this terrace, and contained large numbers of shells like those 
 scattered upon the surface, so well preserved as to show that 
 the mound was built shortly after the recession of the water, 
 and before the shells were bleached by atmospheric influence. 
 On the same terrace, and close to the mound, is the site of a 
 manufactory of pottery and of chert implements, the 
 material for the latter being very abundant in the immediate 
 neighborhood. The soil is filled with flakes of the chert, 
 with broken and perfect chert implements, as well as with 
 fragments of pottery and amorphous masses of partially 
 burned clay. It is difficult to take up a shovel full of earth 
 without taking with it some of these relics, but not a trace 
 of them was found in the mound, making it certain that its 
 erection preceded the rude manufactory. The shell heaps 
 pertain to a human occupancy when the water of the river 
 covered the first terrace, the building ot the mound to an 
 occupancy immediately after the water had fallen to its 
 present channel, and the manufacturing of pottery and chert 
 implements to a time subsequent to the erection of the mound. 
 If the withdrawal of the water from this terrace is to be 
 attributed, as seems probable, to the wearing away of a 
 narrow rock channel of the river directly below Chattanooga, 
 it will carry back the date of the mound and of the preced- 
 ing shell heaps to a very remote period. The mound is in 
 all respects a typical mound builder's sepulchral mound. 
 
—115— 
 
 In explanation of a possible find which may astonish some 
 future explorer, it should be stated that the examination of 
 the mound was made during the war, when the land around 
 it was cultivated by the United States Sanitary Commission 
 as a hospital garden. A tunnel was carried in from the east 
 side to the centre of the mound where a chamber of con- 
 siderable size was excavated. As the walls stood firm, this 
 chamber was utilized by the gardener as a store-house. 
 When all the guns of the forts about Chattanooga were 
 simultaneously discharged in celebration of Lee's surrender, 
 the concussion caused the top of this chamber to fall in, 
 hurrying at the center of the mound a large number of 
 modern gardening tools. The top of the mound was restored 
 to shape, the entrance to the tunnel closed, and the tools 
 left to await a resurrection at the hands of an antiquarian. 
 
 The last occupancy of the banks of the Tennessee disclosed 
 above was doubtless by modern Indians; the next by the 
 " mound builders," as distinguished from modern mound 
 building Indians. Whether the earliest was that of an 
 earlier stage in the life of the mound builders can not as 
 satisfactorily be determined. The probability is that of 
 different tribes. 
 
 The question as to the origin of the mound builders would 
 be answered if the question of the origin of the other native 
 races was solved. Whether the new world, as it is called, 
 which is in tact the old world, was peopled from the old, or 
 the reverse, can not be determined. Linguistic and other 
 evidences indicate a point in Southern Asia,or in a submerged 
 land south of it, from whence an emigration started which 
 gradually spread over all that continent. This, if true, 
 would make it probable that emigration from the same point 
 extended to this continent. This would lead to the infer- 
 ence that it was peopled by some early branch of the 
 Mongolian race, to which the American races are most nearly 
 allied, by the way of Behrings Strait, and the Auletian 
 Islands, perhaps reinforced in South America, Jas Haeckel 
 suggests, by way of the Pacific Islands, from Southern Asiatic 
 
— 11G — 
 
 tribes. If this was the case, this emigration was at a very 
 early date, as nearly all the customs, habits, arts, and even 
 languages of the American races seem to be indigenous. 
 
 The practice of scalping, common to the American Indians 
 and the ancient Scythians, is the most apparent evidence of 
 race affinities between the people of the two continents. It 
 is evident also that the more civilized American races 
 practiced some forms of the sabian and plallic worship which 
 characterized the earliest known religious culture of Asia, 
 and that the use of the cross was intimately associated with 
 this worship in both continents. The ceremony of baptism r 
 called a new birth, pertained to both, and there are indica- 
 tions of the practice of other rites and ceremonies substan- 
 tially the same on both continents. But these points of 
 agreement are few, and if not accidental, point to a time 
 anterior to all written history and to a social condition 
 essentially barbaric. 
 
 To the finds, as claimed, of a stone carving buried beneath 
 ten feet of glacial drift, in Stark County, and of the antique 
 chert knife in the drift in Summit County, may be added the 
 claim of a find of a beautifully polished stone axe, at the 
 depth of twenty feet, in Ashland County. If these finds are 
 accepted as authentic, we must assume that these articles 
 were manufactured before the close of the glacial epoch. 
 But the Summit County specimen was found where there was 
 only two or three feet of drift clay over the rock surface 
 below, and various causes may have carried it from the 
 surface to that depth. 
 
 It is also not claimed that any one saw either of the other 
 specimens in the clay matrix at the bottom of the well. They 
 both appeared in the material dumped from the buckets 
 used in hoisting material from the wells. The evidence of 
 the finding of pre-glacial implements must be so certain as 
 to exclude any other reasonable hypothesis. Such evidence 
 is not afforded in these cases. 
 
 In Europe, rude carvings demonstrate the co-existence of 
 man with some of the extinct animals. Such carvings are 
 
— 117 — 
 
 generally wanting here. But the bones of the elephant and 
 the mastodon are found near the surface, sometimes in 
 marshes that are alternately wet and dry, in a much better 
 state of preservation than some of the human bones at the 
 bottom of burial mounds where the conditions for their 
 preservation are much more favorable. Placing such bones 
 side by side and bearing in mind the places from which they 
 were exhumed, one can not resist the conclusion that the 
 human remains are quite as old as those of these extinct 
 animals. With these facts apparent, there is no intrinsic 
 improbability of the antiquity of the " elephant pipes " in the 
 Davenport collection. The manner in which they were 
 found does not indicate that they were " planted to deceive." 
 They are ot the recognized form of the mound builders' 
 pipe, a form not imitated by modern Indians. The prepon- 
 derance of evidence is in favor of their genuineness, which, 
 if granted, proves the co-existence of the mound builders 
 with the extinct American pachyderms. 
 
 Evidence of a very remote human occupancy, approaching 
 the close of the drift period, is not wanting. Mr. Abbott's 
 many finds of " drift implements" are all found in the 
 modified river drift, and while he makes a pretty strong case 
 that this modification occurred at the close of the drift 
 period, the most conservative archaeologists are awaiting the 
 discovery of undoubted human remains in the unmodified 
 drift. Until such a discovery is made, the existence of man 
 at the time of the glacial epoch on this continent will be 
 regarded as an open question. 
 
Addendum. 
 
 After this report was completed, Mr. Rufus Chapman, of 
 Garrettsville, Ohio, brought to me an unique specimen, 
 obtained by him from a neighbor who plowed it up in a field 
 at a place where several " Indian relics " had previously been 
 found. It is made of blue porcelain ot the form shown in 
 the figure : \1? inches long, and in diameter, 1^ inches and 
 1 inch. It is hollow, as is shown by its weight, and by a small 
 fire-crack in one of the grooves through which the cavity 
 can be explored by a stiff hair. It is smooth, very symmet- 
 rical, and could be formed only in a carefully prepared 
 mold in two pieces, and the parts attached to each other 
 while the material was plastic. The adhesion of the two 
 parts is perfect, leaving a slight ridge, but no other indica- 
 tion of the place of junction. On one of the ridges, near 
 the end of the piece, is an imperfection, showing that after 
 it was taken from the mold, this place was repaired by the 
 addition of the plastic material, which did not make the 
 ridge at that place perfect. 
 
 Mr. Holmes, of the Bureau ot Ethnology of the Smith- 
 sonian Institute, after an examination of it, says : " No one 
 here has seen anything like it. It is made of porcelain, a 
 material unknown to the American aborigines. It is there- 
 fore not aboriginal, and is probably not ancient. It looks as 
 if it might be an implement intended for use in some of the 
 arts — in the manipulation of fiber, skins, leather, or the 
 like. Some one will probably be found who can tell you all 
 about it." 
 
 If designed for such use, the reason is not apparent of the 
 greatly increased labor of making it hollow. A wood cut 
 of the specimen is here given, and information solicited 
 from any who have seen similar articles or have any knowl- 
 edge of the uses to which they were applied. The cut is a 
 little less than one-half natural size. 
 
■110— 
 
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