$B 5M fiMT '« THE UNITED STATES I'OWINSLOW D-OHEATM Sf COMPANY SOS'i'ON & VlBRARf OF THE UNIVERSITY OF * P^LIFOR^ II THE UNITED STATES 105° Longitude UNITED STATES Capitals of Countries : © Capitals of States: © Other Cities: . Principal Railroad Lines: 200 300 400 500 Scale of Statute Miles % V- -*\\ MU^" 1 ^ IV ^Madison' Sioux pity \ Land] +*&** ansing® , " llt8 '^K 8S> i W A w A v ^^r--^ Des Mohies^/jCMt)?jE>; //_.^f" .__- ^ i i /J 1 vr :n~ TTrL I -X_,i;™nal)0 /Topel j Jefferson City j MISSOUR ^kHlouis^l 'v (Viz ) \V \ iA- e c \esW ft O f c Wte^- •£] Beaurflont_ I , / MobB' * BaWnlUjifpo-*- Hf£3"^ ^Galveston IT L F O M*xA C0 95° GEOGRAPHY READERS— II THE UNITED STATES BY I. O. WINSLOW 3^< BOSTON, U.S.A. D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 1910 WINSLOW'S GEOGRAPHY READERS The Earth and Its People The United States Our American Neighbors Europe Distant Countries Copyright, 1910, by D. C. HEATH & CO. Education lxbN 6/7 < 3 W£. PREFACE The purpose of this series is to occupy middle ground between the customary text-books and geographical readers, and to combine the essential advantages of both. The two extremes, whether employed separately or to- gether, fail to meet the practical needs of the average school- room. The text-books adhere to the scientific method, at a sacrifice of the practical or pedagogical method. The teacher finds it difficult either to assign a definite lesson for study from the books or to use them for class exercises in reading and discussion. In their completeness the text-books con- tain so much that selection is difficult, and the attempt to teach the whole is disastrous. Geographical readers, in the form of stories of travel, go so far to the other extreme that they also fall outside of the daily task of the geography teacher. Courses of study very properly call for definite concepts and facts. After serious attention has been given to these, there is but little time to spare in the regular curriculum for lighter reading. There is need of books that shall select the essentials and set them forth in such an explicit and straightforward man- ner that they may be easily used, both for preparatory read- ing and for study and recitation. It is the design of these books to supply that want. Since they occupy a unique position, they should not be judged according to existing standards, but according to practical needs. It is the purpose of this second book and the remaining books of the series to build upon the foundation laid in iii iv PREFACE Book One, and to complete a treatment of the essentials of an elementary course in geography. Such topics as have been given with full details in the primary book are omitted, or briefly mentioned, or treated from a more mature stand- point, in the later books. Unusual attention has been given to the industrial and commercial aspects of the subject, in the belief that these are of fundamental importance and of natural interest to children. The fact that political geography, or the geog- raphy of locations, is wrought out in close connection with such industrial and commercial development renders it more significant and more easily remembered. Topics of fundamental importance are fully explained in the text, but many minor points, which may be easily ascer- tained or inferred by pupils, are reserved and given at the end of each chapter, either in the form of questions or brief statements accompanied by questions. These exercises, supplemented by map sketching and other work that is here and there suggested, will provide definite lessons for the study period, which many teachers find it difficult to arrange. The review questions relate to principal points explained in the text, and may be employed either for the daily assign- ment of lessons or for occasional review. It is believed that these questions, together with the exercises given in connec- tion with each chapter, include as much as pupils of ele- mentary grades should be expected to learn. CONTENTS PAGE The United States .......... 1 The Physical Features 2 Climate 6 The People 12 The Government 17 The Great Glacier 21 Effects of the Ice Sheet 26 The Northeastern Section 80 Manufacturing 80 Agriculture 37 Forests 43 Fishing . .......... 47 Building Stones 52 Coal 57 Iron 61 Oil, Gas, and Salt 65 The Ocean 70 The Atlantic Coast 74 Cities 77 Interesting Localities 83 Review 87 The Southern Section . . .91 The Physical Features 91 Cotton 97 Rice and Sugar 102 Forests 107 Various Products Ill Cities 115 The Central Section 123 The Physical Features 123 The Mississippi River System 129 Wheat and Corn , . 134 v vi CONTENTS PAGE Livestock 139 Various Products 144 Coal and Iron 148 Other Minerals 151 Cities near the Great Lakes 156 Cities along the Rivers 160 Review 164 The Western Section 166 Physical Features and Climate 166 The People 173 Mining 176 Agriculture 180 Forests I 86 Cities 191 Interesting Localities 107 Review 202 Appendix ........•••• 206 Area and Population of States 206 Population of Cities of over 35,000 ....... 207 Longest Rivers and Highest Mountains 209 Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 210 LIST OF MAPS United States {colored) Frontispiece PAGE North America {colored) facing 1 Relief Map of North America 4 Rainfall of North America 8 Path of a Cyclone 11 Map showing the Southern Limits of the Great Glacier .... 25 Northeastern States {colored) 32-33 Lumber Regions 42 Fishing Banks 48 Map showing Coal Areas 56 Petroleum Regions 66 Southern States {colored) 92-93 Cotton Regions 98 Central States {colored) 124-125 Distribution of Cattle in the United States 140 Western States {colored) 167 Reclamation Centers of the West 184 National Forest Reserves 190 World {colored) 205 vii THE UNITED STATES The subject of this book is our own country. The name United States comes from the fact that we have many separate states united in one. Among foreign people our country has been known as the United States of America, but it is becoming customary to use the briefer name America and to call our people the American people. This name is from that of Ameri- cus Vespucius, one of the early explorers of our coast. It is a pity that the country did not receive the name Columbia r , , £ m. • x i /^ Great Seal of the United States irom that 01 Christopher Co- lumbus, who was the first explorer to cross the Atlantic, and who deserves the greater honor. The United States is, in many respects, the most inter- esting country in the world. It should certainly be of greatest interest to us. It is so vast, and its different parts differ so greatly from one another, that to know it well is to know much of the subject of geography. After we understand thoroughly the geography of the United States, it will be easy to understand the geography of the remaining countries of the world. Our country occupies the best part of the continent of North America, and we shall begin by giving some attention to the entire continent. 1 THE UNITED STATES i. The Physical Features The most interesting part of geography is that which gives us a knowledge of the occupations and habits of the people who dwell in a country. But we should also understand why the people live where they do and why they are engaged in certain occupations, and we Copyright by Detroit Publishing Co. Scene in the Appalachian Mountains, North Carolina shall learn much about these reasons by a study of the physical features and the climate. The welfare of the people of a country depends largely upon the form of the land surface, and especially upon the height of its different regions above the level of the sea. Mountain ranges and the elevation of other regions of land make great differences in temperature, in winds, and in the amount of rain and snow. PHYSICAL FEATURES North America, like other continents, was once be- neath the ocean and was slowly raised above the water by the shrinking and wrinkling of the earth's crust. In some places there were long ridges, and these became mountain ranges. Because the regions that are crossed by mountain ranges have been pressed upward, the land near the mountains is generally high above sea level. Scene in the Rocky Mountain Region In some places the hard crust was broken and thrown up in ridges, forming an uneven surface. In others large sections were raised without much folding, pro- ducing extensive regions of comparatively level land high above the sea. A region of this kind is called a plateau. Two great highland regions, with systems of moun- tain ranges, extend across North America. In the eastern part is the Eastern Highland and the Appa- lachian system of mountains. Across the Western THE UNITED STATES Highland there are several mountain ranges, the loftiest of which is the Rocky Mountain system. PACIFIC OCEAN Relief Map of North America The mountains of the Appalachian system have been worn down much more than the mountains of the PHYSICAL FEATURES 5 West. The highest of the Appalachian Mountains is not much more than a mile high, while some of the mountains in the West are more than three miles high. In some places, as in the state of Maine, the mountains have been worn away until only low hills remain. North of the United States, in the eastern part of Canada, there is a highland of less importance, called the Laurentian Plateau. Copyright by Detroit Publishing Co. A Prairie Scene Southeast of the Appalachians the land slopes toward the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. This sec- tion is called the Coastal Plain. In the central part of the country there is a gentle slope from the mountains on both sides toward the Mississippi River. This sec- tion is called the Great Central Plain. Some of the most nearly level parts of this plain are called prairies. A more elevated, but comparatively level section, east of the Rocky Mountains, is called the Great Plains. 1. Give the names of the different mountain ranges in the western part of North America. (See the map facing page 1). 2. Which of these is farthest east ? 3. Give the names of six large rivers in North America. 6 THE UNITED STATES 4. Name the three oceans that border on North America. 5. Name several large gulfs and bays. 6. What large island is east of the Gulf of St. Lawrence ? 7. What group of islands is east of the Gulf of Mexico? 8. Sketch a map of North America, showing the mountain ranges, the principal rivers, and the names of the large bodies of water around it. 2. Climate The prevailing weather, or climate, of a country has much to do with making it desirable as a home for man. The temperature, the motions of the air in winds, and the amount of rain are matters of great importance. The air has weight and everywhere presses down against the earth. Warm air is lighter than cold air. Hence, whenever a body of air at any place on the earth becomes warmer than another body near it, the heavier cold air moves under the lighter warm air and forces it upward. When the wind blows, a body of air is moving toward a region where the air is lighter. It is easy to think of illustrations of such move- ments of the air. Smoke rises from a fire because the hot air is rising and carrying the particles of smoke up- ward. There is a good illustration in breezes at the sea- shore. In warm summer days the surface of the land becomes warmer than the surface of the ocean. On this account the cooler and heavier air over the water moves toward the land, pressing upward the warmer and lighter body of air. At night the reverse is true. After the sun sets, the land cools faster than the water and the air moves toward the sea. The prevailing winds and the temperature vary greatly in different parts of the United States. In the western part the winds generally blow over the land CLIMATE from the Pacific Ocean. These winds are not very cold in winter and not very warm in summer. The tempera- ture of the ocean changes very slowly and is not much lower in winter than in summer. The surface of the water is warmer in winter and cooler in summer than the surface of the land. Hence the winds on the Pacific coast make the temperature in winter and summer much more even than it would otherwise be. Ml a^ i ■• : Vi' : £^«^$ K^f . % €Ms W ■ t'^WV ( 't^MIi Copyright by Detroit Publishing Co. Winter Scene in Southern California Across the entire northern part of the United States the prevailing winds are from the west, but as the land over which they blow becomes cold in winter and warm in summer there is a corresponding difference in the temperature of the air, hence these winds tend to increase the extremes of heat and cold in the eastern portion of the country. In the eastern parts of the United States the winds are variable. At all times, except in the hot midsum- 8 THE UNITED STATES mer, the west winds are generally cool. But sometimes the wind blows over the land from the southeast or south, bringing warm air from the ocean or the Gulf of Mexico. Sometimes it blows from the norths it, bringing chilly air from the colder water farther north. Over the Great Central Plain, where there are few mountains or hills to check its force, the wind sometimes blows violently. The air moves easily north and south, air into the cold- er regions aud colder air into the warmer re- gions, thus mak- ing the cold of winter and the heat of summer less severe. W herever water is exposed to dry air some of it evaporates. This means that the water changes to invisible vapor and passes into the air. After a cer- tain amount of moisture has mingled with the air, the process of evaporation cannot continue. In warm air, however, there may be more moisture in invisible form than in cold air. When a body of air filled with moisture cools, some of the moisture collects in tiny drops. This form is called fog, or mist, or a cloud. When moisture enough collects in this manner, raindrops, snowflakes, or hailstones, are produced. CLIMATE The air gathers some moisture from the land, but- more from the surface of the ocean. As the wind blows, the air is carried from the ocean over the land, and when it is cooled, rain falls. If there were no wind to bring moisture from the sea, there would be but little rain on the land, and every country would be a desert. The air may be cooled enough to cause rain by rising from the earth into colder regions above, by passing over mountains, or bv mingling with other colder cur- Winter Scene in Northern New England rents of air. Rain may fall from the air in showers when a body of moist air becomes heated and rises into cooler regions, as in the afternoon of a warm day. In the northwestern part of the United States west winds from the Pacific Ocean bring an abundant supply of moisture. As the air is cooled when it is raised to a higher altitude in crossing the mountains, a large amount of rain falls. After the air has crossed the mountains. 10 THE UNITED STATES it is drier and is not often cooled enough to produce much rain. Hence the climate is dry east of the mountains. In the eastern part of the country much moisture is brought by winds from the Atlantic Ocean. As the Appa- lachian Moun- tains are not very high, the air in passing over them is not cooled enough to con- dense a great amount of its moisture, and much is car- ried to the region west of the moun- tains. In the central part of the country the moisture A small Western Cyclone is increased by winds from the Gulf of Mexico. Most of the rain in the northern and eastern parts of the United States occurs in cyclonic storms. These storms usually commence in either the northwestern or the southern part of the country and move to the east or the northeast. Sometimes they continue across the ocean to Europe. Occasionally a storm begins in the West Indies and moves first northwest, then northeast, over a section of the country near the Atlantic coast. CLIMATE 11 The air in the center of a cyclonic storm is rising, and the air everywhere round about moves toward the center and whirls about it in a direction opposite to that of the hands of a clock. When a storm is approaching, the wind usually blows from the southeast, east, or northeast. After the storm center passes, the wind is usually from the north, northwest, or west. THE PATH OF A CYCLOX showing the location of the Center on successive days. A cyclonic storm may cover so large an area as to produce rain at the same time over a region a thousand miles wide. There may be two or more storm centers over the country at the same time. A weather map shows where storm centers are located, the directions of winds, the pressure of the air, and the temperature in different parts of the country. The Weather Bureau of the United States has stations scattered over the country from which reports are frequently received. From these reports is made a forecast of what the weather will probably be for the fol- lowing day or two. The work of the Weather Bureau is of great convenience and value to millions of people. 12 THE UNITED STATES By the annual rainfall of a region is meant the amount of rain, snow, and hail that falls in that region in a year. It is expressed in inches of depth. When we say that a certain region has a rainfall of twenty inches, we mean that if all the rain that falls in that region for a year, together with all the melted snow and hail, should re- main upon the surface of level land, it would be twenty inches deep. In the state of Washington, on the west- ern slopes of the mountains, the annual rainfall is more than a hundred inches, but there are regions east of the mountains where it is not more than five inches. Wherever the rainfall is less than twenty inches, the climate is considered too dry to produce farm crops. 1. Why will a piece of paper rise when placed over the chimney of a burning lamp? 2. Why is the west wind warmer in summer in the eastern part of the country than in the western part ? 3. Why is there usually less snow upon the ground in winter near the seacoast than in places at a distance from the coast ? 4. Why are there often clouds around mountains when the air is clear on the lowlands? 5. Why is the air more clear and dry in the eastern part of the country when the wind blows from the west than when it blows from the east ? 6. What would be the effect upon the rainfall of the United States if the wind never blew in any other direction than from the west? 7. If the Appalachian Mountains were much higher than they are, what effect would this have upon the amount of rain in the central and eastern parts of the country? 3. The People The Indians, who inhabited the United States before the white settlers came, were of different classes. Many of them roamed about from place to place, hunting, fish- ing, and fighting. Others lived in villages, and the THE PEOPLE 13 women and children raised a little corn and tobacco, while the men went away to hnnt or engage in war. In the southwestern part of the country there lived a few Indians who were much more nearly civilized. Besides cultivating the land, they made articles from gold and silver, and pottery from clay, and knew how to weave blankets. As white people settled the country farther toward the west they conquered all the tribes of Indians and took them into their charge. The United States Government has placed the Indians on lands set aside for the purpose in different parts of the coun- try. These lands are called Indian reservations. This arrangement is really no hardship for the Indians. They are simply deprived of the privilege of wandering over the country and hunting and fighting whenever they choose. The amount of land in the Indian reser- vations may seem small, but their number is very small in comparison with the population of the country. All the Indians of the country together would amount to less than one half as many people as there are in the city of Boston. There will be land enough for all of them upon their reservations when they learn to culti- vate the soil and to live as white people do. Kiowa Squaw, Papoose, and Teepee 14 THE UNITED STATES Nearly one third of all the Indians of the country live in the state of Oklahoma. This state was once called Indian Territory because a large part of it was occupied by tribes of Indians. Many white people set- tled among the Indians and many white men married Indian wives. The Indians gradually adopted the habits of civilized life, and they were finally induced to give up their tribal customs and to divide their land Sioux Indian Camp into separate farms. The territory afterwards became a state and the Indian inhabitants became American citizens. There are small Indian reservations in Maine, New York, and Florida, and larger ones in the western part of the country. Formerly the Government supplied all the Indians with food and clothing. Now they do not receive sup- plies, but are assisted in finding work to do instead. At some time probably all the Indians will learn to live upon farms and support themselves. The French people who once settled in Canada went down the Mississippi River to its mouth and took pos- THE PEOPLE 15 session of the Mississippi Valley. They called the region Louisiana in honor of their French King Louis. The Spaniards, who gained possession of Mexico, in- cluded in their territory a section of what is now the western part of the United States, extending as far north as San Francisco. The present state of Texas also was once a part of Mexico. Old Mission built by the Spaniards San Fernando, Calif. The English at first had only a narrow section be- tween the Appalachian Mountains and the coast. The settlements there were colonies of Great Britain, but they gained their independence in the war of the Revo- lution and afterwards succeeded in getting possession of the whole country from the Atlantic to the Pacific. There are now many other people in this country be- sides the Indians, the English, and the French and Spanish who first settled here. Negroes were first brought from Africa to Virginia as slaves in the year 1619. Afterwards large numbers were brought to work on plantations in the Southern States, where cotton, sugar, and rice are raised. The 16 THE UNITED STATES were made free by the Civil War. Most of them still live in the South, but some have gone to the states in the North and the West. There are now over nine million colored peo- ple in the country. A large number of immigrants have come to the United States from the coun- tries of Europe, and some Chinese, Jap- anese, and others, from Asia. There is room enough for all, and the people of this country are willing to receive as many as will become good cit- izens, but we have laws which forbid the admission of criminals and paupers and other undesirable people. 1. The eastern half of the United States contains nearly nine tenths of the people of the country. Give reasons for this. 2. At the close of the Revolutionary War there were about four million people in the country. Where did most of them live? 3. Why are many of the people of Texas of Spanish descent? 4. La Salle raised the banner of France at the mouth of the Missis- sippi in the year 1682. How long ago was that? 5. The Indians had no domestic animals such as horses or oxen. How did this fact make it more difficult for them to cultivate the land? 6. There are about 285,000 Indians in the United States. About how many other people are there for every Indian? Copyright by Underwood & Underwo Immigrants landing at Ellis Island, New York THE GOVERNMENT 17 4. The Government We have reason to be proud of the government of the United States. There is no other country in which the attempt to give all the citizens a right to take part in managing public affairs has been so successful. The people of the United States have been glad to ex- pend large sums of money for the education of all the The Capitol at Washington children in public schools. This is not only to benefit the children, but also because without such general edu- cation it would be impossible for our government to continue. The first colonists from England came in com- panies and settled at different places along the Atlan- tic coast. The people of each company chose a simple government, adopting forms to which they had been accustomed in England. Some of the companies that settled on the New England coast were parts of church congregations who, with their pastors, had left 18 THE UNITED STATES England because they were not satisfied with the way in which church affairs were managed. In this country the members of each congregation naturally wished to live near each other in order that they might be able to attend the same church. Another reason why these early settlers made their homes so near together was that but little of the land was good for agriculture. On this ac- count there were no large plantations. The families of a community lived close to- gether, each one cultivating only enough land to supply its wants. By living in this way they were also better able to defend themselves against the Indians. It was natural that these communities should select a form of government similar to that of the parishes in England. They organized what have been known since that time as towns or townships. Those who settled in Virginia and along the coast farther south found it profitable to engage in farming on large plantations. This made their homes more scat- tered than those of the settlers farther north, and they naturally adopted the county form of government, which applies to a larger extent of territory than the township. Copyright by Detroit Publishing Co. Old Town Hall at Marblehead, Mass. THE GOVERNMENT 19 In the states farther west that were mostly settled at first by New England people the township form of govern- ment was generally adopted. In others counties were at first established. As the country has become more fully settled, counties have been formed by uniting several towns under a county government ; and where counties were at first formed, many of these have been divided into smaller parts with separate township governments. Wherever the number of inhabitants of any town becomes that so the ■•X\j' \ \\\j 4 ' - K - 'W| \ lA'Jv Nft ^ ) I \ M f I fsjE &/ YKV cv / W(y Pfj| i • f — „._ En r [If. S Si-L' s : large town govern- ment is unsuit- able, a city government is adopted. We have thus five forms Of gOVernment, Copyright by Detroit Publishmg Co. applying to the 01d County Court House at Portsmouth > Va - township, the city, the county, the state, and the nation. Matters that concern the interests of the nation as a whole, and that could not be so well managed in the smaller localities, are in the charge of the national government. Other affairs are managed by the governments of the separate states. Still other affairs are left to the people of the counties, the cities, and the towns, with their local forms of government. The capital city of the whole country is Washington, in the District of Columbia. The President resides in Washington, in a house called the White House, and 20 THE UNITED STATES the senators and representatives from all the states meet in the Capitol Building to make laws for the country. The District of Columbia is not a part of any state, but belongs to the whole nation. The city of Washing- \ HLR u ittw! *— : ^*^[ ^^H^^^^^^^^y^ ^U feMflflfl The White House and the President' s Office ton was selected by George Washington for the national capital at a time when it was only a village. At that time there were no states except those along the At- lantic coast, and Washington was in nearly a central location. 1. Why would it be a poor plan to have no form of government ex- cept the national government ? 2. Why would it not be so well to have state governments, without any national government? 3. What would be the difficulty in a time of war if there were no national government? 4. Why would it not be so well for each state to take charge of carrying the mail, instead of the national government? 5. Why would it not be so well for each state to make the money to be used by its own people? THE GREAT GLACIER 21 6. Why is it not necessary that the capital city of each state should be the largest city of that state ? 7. Between what states is the District of Columbia ? Glaciers forming at the Summit of the Cascade Range 5. The Great Glacier There are many things connected with the geogra- phy of the northern part of the United States that we cannot understand until we know the story of the Great Glacier, or Ice Sheet, which once covered that part of the country. We know that there must have been such a glacier because the effects that we see are precisely like those produced by glaciers at the present time. In temperate regions of North America the snow that falls upon the ground in winter melts away as soon as the weather becomes warm. Farther north, where the 22 THE UNITED STATES winters are longer, the ground is covered with snow for a greater part of the year. Still farther north so much snow falls in the long winter, and the summer is so short, that there is not time for all the snow to be melted, and the ground is always covered. On the tops of high mountains in temperate regions it is as cold as in the far north. Since there is not Moraine left by an Oregon Glacier warm weather enough on these mountains to melt as much snow as falls in the colder weather, the snow be- comes deeper and deeper and by its great weight is pressed into masses of ice. These masses, which are called glaciers, do not re- main at the tops of the mountains, but slowly move down the mountain sides and along the valleys. Some glaciers appear like great rivers of ice. Their motion, however, amounts to only a few inches or a few feet in a day. It is difficult to understand how a glacier can move at all and yet move so slowly. But we know that THE GREAT GLACIER 23 even on level ground a very deep mass of ice would grad- ually become flattened and its edges pressed out in vari- ous directions. In a similar manner a piece of soft wax is slowly flattened and spread out when a weight is placed upon it. A Glacier in Alaska As a glacier moves along over the rock of a mountain it is so heavy and presses with such great force that it breaks off and drags along pieces of rock, grinding them into smaller pieces and grinding the rock beneath into sand or soil. When the ice has been pushed down the mountain to a region where the weather is warm enough, it is melted, and the water flows away to form brooks and rivers. At points where this occurs the soil and rocks that were in the ice are left in a mass, called a moraine, or are washed farther down by streams of water. 24 THE UNITED STATES In some places along the coast far to the north the weather is not warm enough to melt the front of a glacier before it reaches the ocean. The front is slowly pushed out into the water and from time to time great pieces break off and float away until they are melted. Such floating masses of ice are called icebergs. An Iceberg Nearly the whole of Greenland is covered with an immense glacier. In the central part the ice is piled up thousands of feet deep. This ice moves slowly to- ward the coast. In the southern part of Greenland, in the summer season, the ice is melted before it reaches the ocean and there is a little bare ground, but else- where the ice is pushed out into the sea and breaks off in icebergs, some of which are hundreds of feet wide. These float away in the ocean to the south, where the water is warm enough to melt them. Thousands of years ago there was a period of time when the climate of North America was colder than it THE GEEAT GLACIER 25 is now. In .parts of the country where the snow now melts in the spring, it was then so cold that the snow accumulated and formed an immense glacier like that which covers Greenland. It reached across what is now Canada and the northern part of the United States. This vast sheet of ice slowly but constantly moved to- Map showing the Southern Limits of the Great Glacier ward the south until the front edge reached a climate warm enough to melt it away as fast as it was pushed along. The time when this occurred is called the Ice Age or the Glacial Period. 1. Why do glaciers in cold countries extend as far as the sea, while those in warm countries do not ? 2. There are many small glaciers in the Rocky Mountains. Why are there none in the Appalachian Mountains? 3. Why does muddy water flow from the front of a glacier? 4. Why is it dangerous for vessels to sail where there are icebergs? 5. II ow can we tell by the scratches on rocks in what direction the Great Glacier moved? 26 THE UNITED STATES 6. Why are these scratches parallel to each other? 7. Give the names of the states across which the front edge of the Great Ice Sheet extended. 8. Make a map of the United States, showing the line of the front of the Great Glacier at the time when it extended farthest south. Island in Puget Sound, rounded by a Glacier 6. Effects of the Ice Sheet The Great Ice Sheet made many wonderful changes in the northern part of our country. Some of these changes are of great benefit to the present inhabitants and some are a disadvantage. Many of the hills of the country were formed by the ice. In some places the soil and rocks under the ice be- came heaped up, and as the ice moved over such masses it formed smoothly rounded hills. There are many such hills in the state of Massachusetts and in other regions which were covered by the ice. In places along the front or beneath the front of the ice, where it melted away as it moved forward, the drift was piled up in deep masses. Streams from the melting ice washed out valleys in this moraine and carried some of the drift a long distance. Many hills in the south- EFFECTS OF THE ICE SHEET 27 eastern part of New England, and some islands near the coast, are parts of the moraine of the Great Glacier. As the climate gradually became warmer the front of the ice sheet melted faster than it moved forward and left the ground covered with drift. On this account much of the soil in the northern part of the United States consists of glacial drift. In some of the regions that were covered with ice there are many rocks of various sizes, with edges and corners worn away. Some of these lie upon the soil ; Pasture Boulders left by a Glacier others are buried in it. Because these rocks are unlike the rock under the soil in the locations where they are found we know that they must have been carried to their present positions from other regions. It has been found that they must have been brought by the Great Glacier from regions farther north. Large rocks of this kind are called boulders. 28 THE UNITED STATES Streams that flow into ponds and lakes are constantly depositing soil. After a long time the ponds and lakes are entirely filled with soil, and become level land with streams flowing through it. We may be sure that those which have not yet been filled are not very old. Most of the ponds and lakes of the country were caused by the Ice Sheet. Although the many thousand years Pond made by a Glacier that have passed since the ice melted seem like a very long period of time, it is really a very short time in comparison with the millions of years that have passed since the continent itself was formed. In some places the ice scraped out basins in the soil or the rock, and in others it piled up drift across valleys, forming basins which were filled by valley streams. Many rivers were turned out of their old courses and caused to flow elsewhere. This was because the old courses were filled with drift so that the water could no longer flow through them. EFFECTS OF THE ICE SHEET 29 These changes were the cause of most of our water- falls. As we know that our ponds and lakes are not very old, we also know that the waterfalls must have been caused by some change that took place not very long ago. The preci- pice over which the water flows at any waterfall is constantly worn away. After a long time it will either become a long slope in the bed of the stream or will disappear alto- gether. Many of the brooks and rivers that Waterfa11 and Precipice flowed across the country in new courses after the ice melted, dashed over steep slopes and precipices, and thus new waterfalls were formed. 1. Why do not the hills that have been formed by the ice consist of solid rock in the center, like other hills and mountains? 2. Why is some of the soil that was produced by the Great Glacier now found in regions farther south than those that were covered with ice? 3. Why are not large rocks found in the glacial drift that was carried farther south than the ice extended ? 4. What will probably become of the thousands of ponds and lakes in the northern part of the country after a very long time? 5. What will become of the waterfalls? 6. Why are there not many ponds and lakes in the southern part of the United States? 7. Why are there not many loose rocks in the soil in the southern part of the country? 30 THE UNITED STATES THE NORTHEASTERN SECTION 7. Manufacturing Our country is so large and its parts differ so widely from one another in respect to climate, the nature of the land, and the occupations of the people, that it is best to think of it as divided into separate sections and to study each section by itself. We naturally begin with the Northeastern Section because that was first settled by white people. The descendants of the early settlers, although they are now scattered over all parts of the country, have a feeling of respect for old New England and the other states of the Northeast. Portions of a number of states southwest of the New England States are similar to the latter in physical fea- tures, climate, and occupations. It is convenient to in- clude these in our treatment of the Northeastern Section, which we may regard as consisting of the six New Eng- land States together with New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl- vania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, and West Virginia. This is one of the great manufacturing regions of the world. Thickly scattered over it are towns and cities, many of whose inhabitants work in mills or factories. From what we have learned about the Ice Sheet it is easy to understand that its effects have been one of the chief causes of so much manufacturing in a large part of this section. By changing the courses of many rivers it produced waterfalls and hence water power for the mills. MANUFACTURING 31 Ponds and lakes also, which were caused by the ice, are of great assistance. Ihey serve as reservoirs to hold back a supply of water. If there were no ponds, a large part of the water from heavy rains and melting snows would run into the streams at once and flow away to the ocean. In a short time the water in the streams would be low and the water power would Mills run by Water Power be small. When the water runs first into ponds, it afterwards runs gradually out into the streams, and so there is a supply of water for the mills. The amount of water held back in ponds is often in- creased by dams built across the outlet. The water is allowed to pass through the dams as it is needed, and keeps the mills running through periods of dry weather. The people who settled along the shore of the country in the early times made most of the articles that they Bfi Lon g itude S0° AY est M Sault siivNliiii V *#• ^r"?;^^ 1 ^ <7 Georgian* Sag; Lansing" O N C J finavv^ j\Bay City | ^-^yf\ort Huror < J J O^ ^ J>etroitY/ 1 ^ 'ToiftntoV^ ■n tyunkir}^Pyledo' ?Z, .1 vWayl TIerelandl ^oungstbwrR Cahton foil City TTe n n s I \ /o Indianapolis CoWnVtol^N ,UCil,Uati ^Portsmouth Wheeling/ I 7 Ml rkersburg %W E <& _ V I RVl NOf' JHuntingtJmfi Charleston v/ ^Koanoke' * ^ /^J^Lynchburg- )anville ^Oswego \ "^yi Rome Q; ' -ZjSvTvI Saralbga U"o* n Springs, MAS St.Alban^ Rutlal Iff*. Rochester ^B(kton^ incetofl UiiTadcl&li ilmini [timpre (PovbrJ \Dela Inn&polfe/ \^Ycape May ™$U . \\ DELAWARE NORTHEASTERN STATES Capitals of Countries: @ Capitals of States: ® Other Cities: i Principal Railroad Lines: 25 50 100 150 200 I I I I I I Scale of Miles THE M.-N. WORKS. 34 THE UNITED STATES needed by hand work at home. Very soon, however, they began to build small mills by the waterfalls, to grind grain and to saw lumber for buildings. For clothing, wool or flax was raised. It was spun into yarn, and woven into cloth, by the women and girls of each household. After a time machines were invented in England by which the yarn could be spun and cloth could be woven much more rapidly than by hand, and factories were built for this purpose in America, like those in England. Since that time many woolen mills have been built beside waterfalls, along the rivers. Small mills for weaving cotton cloth were first built in Rhode Island. Since these were successful and cotton could be obtained from the South, many large mills have been built in different parts of New England. The people of this section have learned, by years of experience, to manufacture various articles with skill and profit. They have continually built new mills, and manufactured vast quantities of goods. An Old-fashioned Loom MANUFACTURING 35 In many places, where there is not sufficient water power, mills are run by steam power, produced by burning coal. Besides goods from cotton, wool, iron, and lumber, many other articles are manufactured in this section, such as boots and shoes, and jewelry and other articles from the different metals. It does not require |NUJIJHP&33«t Courtesy of Regal Shoe Co. Cutting Room in a Shoe Factory much power for manufacturing many of these things. The work could be done as well in other parts of the country, but the people of this section are so much interested in manufacturing that they are inclined to produce articles of many different kinds. The mills have given this section a dense population. A large mill employs hundreds of persons, and when we consider that usually only one or two persons from each family work in the mills, we can readily see that there may be families enough supported by even a single mill to make a town of considerable size. 36 THE UNITED STATES The New England States and other states in the North- east are small in comparison with the states of the West, but when the num- ber of people and the amount of prop- erty that they pos- sess are taken into account, the case is quite different. California, for ex- ample, is more than nineteen times as large as Massachu- setts, but it has not nearly so many people. The little state of Rhode Is- land has between three hundred and four hundred peo- has less than one Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N.Y. Weaving Room in a Cotton Mill pie per square mile, while Nevada person for each square mile. The amount of goods produced in a single one of the numerous manufacturing cities of this section is surpris- ing. The cotton mills of Fall River produce more than two miles of cloth in a minute. If all the cloth manu- factured in the mills of that city in a year could be drawn out in one continuous piece, it would very nearly reach from the earth to the moon and back again. The goods manufactured in New England are sent to all parts of the world. AGRICULTURE 37 1. Cotton manufacturing in this country was begun at Pawtucket in the year 1790. In what state is Pawtucket? 2. Providence contains some of the largest cotton mills in the world and manufactures much jewelry. About how far is it from Boston ? 3. More cotton cloth is made in Fall River, New Bedford, Lowell, and Manchester than in any other cities of the country. Locate these cities. 4. The Merrimac River turns more spindles than any other river in America. Name the cities on that river and the state in which each is situated. 5. Large quantities of hardware and firearms are manufactured at New Haven. In what part of Connecticut is it? 6. Cars are made at Hartford and Springfield. Locate these cities. 7. In a single factory in Waltham over two thousand watches a day are made. In what part of Massachusetts is Waltham ? 8. More shoes are made in Haverhill than in any other city. In what direction is it from Boston ? 9. Worcester is noted for a great variety of manufactures. In what part of Massachusetts is it? '?*& W***m 8. Agriculture The most important and necessary business in a great country like ours is agriculture. Although in many localities the leading occupation of the people may be manufacturing, or lumbering, or mining, the welfare of all the people of the country depends more 38 THE UNITED STATES upon agriculture than upon any other industry. When the farmers are able to produce large crops, there is an abundant supply of materials for food and clothing for all the people and much to sell in foreign countries. Nearly one half of our entire people are engaged in agri- culture, but this is not true of the people in the North- eastern Section. A large proportion of these are engaged in other occupa- tions. The early set- tlers along the east- ern coast of the country were nearly all farmers. They cut down trees, tilled the land, and raised crops to supply their families with food and clothing. But while these people could obtain from their small farms enough for their simple wants, this part of the country was not suitable for the business of agriculture in a large way. Much of the land is very hilly and rocky and in many sections the soil contains so little plant food that it is necessary to purchase large quan- tities of fertilizers to enrich it. Since the soil here was brought from various regions in the north by the Ice Sheet, it differs greatly in different Digging Potatoes AGRICULTURE 39 localities. Here and there finely pulverized clay and other varieties of soil are found, which make good land for farms. In other places so many large rocks were dropped by the ice that the land is nearly worthless for cultivation. In several regions the land is good for raising special crops, and in these agriculture is a successful business. Shipping Milk to the City In the northern part of Maine thousands of acres of potatoes are raised every year. In the fine soil along the valley of the Connecticut River a large amount of tobacco and other crops is raised. In the states of this section to the west and southwest of New England there are larger regions of good farming land. Dairying is an important industry in parts of New England, especially in Vermont, and in the states of New York and Pennsylvania. The rough lands afford pasture for cows in summer, and in the cultivated fields hay, corn, and other crops are raised to supply food for winter. 40 THE UNITED STATES • A large amount of milk is required to supply the numerous towns and cities. A very large quantity also is manufactured into butter and cheese. Instead of making butter or cheese at home, many farmers send milk or cream to a creamery, where it can be manufac- tured in large quantities with less labor. Nearly all of the cheese now pro- duced in the United States is made in factories. Cream is sepa- rated from milk in different ways. It is lighter than skimmed milk, and if milk is kept cold in ice water for a time, the cream rises to the top and is then re- moved. It is removed much more quickly by a machine called a separator. Every boy knows that if he fastens a stone to a string and whirls it about, it will pull hard upon his finger as it tends to % away. The heavier an object is the more it will tend to pull away. When milk is whirled about very rapidly in a separator, the skimmed milk, which is heavier than cream, crowds to the outside and is there drawn off through a tube, while the cream is drawn off through another tube. Cream consists of particles of butter fat surrounded with buttermilk. In a churn cream is stirred and Copyright by Keystone View Co. A Great Churn This churns 800 pounds of butter at once. AGRICULTURE 41 beaten about so forcibly that the particles of fat are separated from the milk and form butter. In a cheese factory milk is carefully heated to a certain temperature, and then a liquid called rennet is stirred into it. In a short time the white substance of the milk forms a curd and this is pressed into cheese. : "^^^ *■ Hi i ( fcy. :$*■■£& Ml ^/':i*% p • rj y-;r^ v; , . ■ "JSL ~ * ; j 1 5..V38 * \> *'*' mlLJ :ii§ A Vineyard in New York So many vegetables are needed for the numerous cities of this section that many people living near each of them are engaged in the business of truck farming. The farmers receive such good prices for fresh vege- tables that they can afford to buy fertilizers enough to make the land produce good crops. In the state of New York, along the southern shore of Lake Ontario, grapes and various other fruits are raised in great abundance. In the vicinity of Eochester there are noted nurseries which supply young trees and shrubs to the fruit regions of the state. 42 THE UNITED STATES Large quantities of strawberries, peaches, and other fruits are produced in the states of New Jersey and Delaware. Thousands of farmers in New England and in north- ern New York are able to add to their income by ac- commodating summer boarders who go there to rest and to escape the heat of cities farther south. 1. Why do not the farmers of the Northeastern Section, raise food enough for the people of that section ? 2. How can many farmers on small farms near cities make as much profit as those on larger farms farther away ? 3. Why have many farming people removed from New England to the West ? 4. Why is the soil thin on most of the uplands of New England ? 5. St. Albans, Vermont, is a great center for dairy products. In what part of the state is it ? 6. Lancaster is in the midst of a rich farming country. In what part of Pennsylvania is it? 7. Large quantities of fruit and vegetables are canned at Baltimore and Wilmington. In what states are these cities ? 8. There is much tobacco manufactured at Lynchburg and Danville, in Virginia. Locate these places. LUMBER REGIONS \ r | | Heavily Timbered r '' j Moderately Timbered FORESTS 43 9. Forests The eastern part of our country was once mostly covered with forests, but now the greater part of the trees have been cleared away to make farms for the cultivation of crops and for pasturing domestic animals. This process has continued as the people have gone farther and farther back into the woods, taking the A Logging Camp in Maine forests for farms, until most of the large forests have disappeared. Those that remain are chiefly in regions where the land is not desirable for farms or in districts far away from settled communities. In the northern part of New England there are still extensive forests. There are large forests also in the region of the Adirondack Mountains in New York and along the Appalachian Mountains in the states farther south. The largest forests in the Northeast are those 44 THE UNITED STATES in northern Maine. These once contained man} 7- tall pine trees, and Maine is still sometimes called the " Pine Tree State," but most of the pines have been cut and forests of spruce have grown in their places. Most of the timber that is cut in these northern forests is drawn upon snow in winter to the banks of streams. In the spring, when the water runs high in the streams on account of rains and melting snow, the A Sawmill logs float down over the rough and rocky places into the deeper rivers, and finally to mills, where they are sawed into lumber. The most favorable locations for lumber mills are at points near waterfalls, which can be reached by vessels from the ocean. Logs can be floated to such mills, the waterfalls furnish power, and the lum- ber can be easily shipped away. The city of Bangor, which is a noted lumber center, has all these advan- tages. But the lumber from many mills is sent to market on railroads, and wherever water power cannot be obtained, the mills are run by steam power produced FORESTS 45 by burning sawdust and refuse wood that come from the process of manufacturing. The forests have been cut away very fast since paper began to be made from wood. Spruce and hemlock are the best kinds of wood for pape making, but other varieties also are used. A large part of the mate- rial for wrapping paper, newspapers, and books is now made from wood. The American peo- ple use so many books and read so many papers that a great amount of material is re- quired for them. The demand has increased so fast that the forests have been cut down faster than new forests can grow, and a large amount of wood for the paper mills of the country is now imported from the forests of Canada. It is said that the paper for a single edition of a New York Sunday newspaper requires as much wood as several hundred acres of land will produce in thirty or forty years. When we consider how many newspapers are published in all the cities of the country, it is not surprising that the forests are disappearing. Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N.Y. Making Paper from Wood Pulp 46 THE UNITED STATES It has been discovered recently that paper can be made from corn stalks, from the stalks of the cotton plant, and from some kinds of coarse grass. If this discovery is successful, it will help to save the forests. It is most discouraging when, in the dry summer season, the air becomes filled with the smoke of great forest fires. Camp fires carelessly left in the woods often destroy thousands of acres of valuable timber. It takes as many as a hundred years for large forest trees to grow and when all the trees, both large and small, have been destroyed by fire or by the woodsman's ax, there can be no hope that other forests will soon take the places of those that are gone. Our national government and the governments of some of the states are now striving to protect the forests by checking forest fires, by encouraging the planting of trees, and by preventing lumbermen from destroying small trees when cutting large ones. The bark of hemlock trees and oak trees is used for tanning purposes in making leather. Much hem- lock bark is obtained in the eastern part of Maine, and oak bark in the states farther south. 1. Mt. Katahdin is in the midst of extensive forests. In what part of Maine is it? 2. On what river is the city of Bangor? 3. There are paper mills at Waterville and Augusta. By what river are logs floated to these cities ? 4. Large quantities of paper are made at Bellows Falls, Vermont, and at Holyoke, Massachusetts. On what river are they ? 5. William sport, in Pennsylvania, has an extensive lumber business. In what part of the state is it ? 6. Watertown, New York, has large paper mills. Near what forest region is it ? FISHING 47 10. Fishing Fishing has always been an important industry along our northeastern coast. There are shallow waters along the coast from Cape Cod to the island of Newfoundland. A part of this region of shallow water, near Newfound- land, is called the " Grand Banks." Here the icebergs from the north float into warmer water, and are melted, i_j, m ;^,/JgM Copyright by Detroit Publishing Co. Unloading a Cargo of Fish and the soil and rocks which they have brought from the glaciers of the north are dropped year after year, building up the bottom of the ocean. Many fish live in these shallow waters because they find more food there than in other parts of the ocean. A part of their food consists of very small plants that float in the water. Large fishes feed also upon smaller ones. This seems like an unfortunate custom of the world of fish, but probably our supply is not greatly 48 THE UNITED STATES reduced by it. So many millions of tiny fishes are hatched every year that if all of them should escape the jaws of their hungry neighbors, the ocean could not fur- nish food enough for such an immense number, and a large proportion of them would die of starvation. In the early times there were many small villages along the Atlantic coast, and fishing, for either a part or all of the time, was the occupation of large numbers of people. This was a good training school for sailor boys. Many young men, who became accustomed to the sea by fishing, afterwards served on larger merchant ships or ships of war. Fish were formerly found in great abundance near the shore, and fishermen went out in small boats to catch them, but now it is necessary to go farther from the shore and in larger vessels. The lives of fishermen are full of hardship and dan- ger. In their small vessels they are exposed to many violent storms. In the dense fog, which is very com- FISHING 49 mon on the Grand Banks, their boats are liable to strike against icebergs or abandoned wrecks, or to be sunk by large ocean steamers which pass across the " Banks " on their way to Europe. For many years there has been an average of more than a hundred fishermen lost average Copyright by Detroit Publishing Co. Drying Fish at Gloucester, Mass. annually from the boats which have gone out from the single city of Gloucester, Massachusetts. But the business is profitable, and thousands are will- ing to risk its dangers. The fishermen of New England bring in about ten million dollars worth of fish every year. Several hundred fishing vessels go out from Gloucester. Many of these go to the Grand Banks and some of them even to Greenland and Iceland. Boston is one of the greatest fish markets in the 50 THE UNITED STATES world. Over one hundred million pounds of fish have been brought into Boston in a single year. Codfish are caught with baited hooks on lines. On the fishing ground a long rope, called a trawl, is fas- tened to floats, and hundreds of hooks are attached to the trawl. Men go out from the larger vessels in small dories and gather in the fish and bait the hooks. This work is especially dangerous. The small boats are liable to be caught in a fog and lose their way, or to be sunk in a storm. Some codfish are sold while fresh, but most of them are split, cleaned, soaked in brine, and dried. After they are cured in this way they may be kept for a long time and sent to distant markets. Halibut are also caught with lines. These fisl* are very large. Some of them weigh several hundred pounds each. Some smaller fish, like mackerel, swim together in large schools. When a school of mackerel is swim- ming near the surface, a net is drawn around the fish as they are crowded together in the water and large numbers are gathered in. Shad swim up the rivers from the ocean, and many are caught in the rivers that flow into Chesapeake Bay, as well as in those farther north. Trout in the mountain streams, and perch, pickerel, bass, and other fish in ponds and lakes, provide much sport ; but these fish are generally small and do not con- tribute greatly to our supply of food. Lobsters are caught along the coast. They are es- pecially abundant on the coast of Maine. Traps con- FISHING 51 taining bait are lowered to the bottom and lobsters crawl into these in search of food. Clams and oysters also furnish considerable food from the sea. Clams live in the mud near the shore, and are dug when the tide is low. When oysters are young, they are very small, active animals, far different from the form in which we see them, and swim about in the water. After a time they go to the bottom, fasten themselves to bits of rock or other objects, form shells about themselves, and remain in the same positions through their lives. They are found in the quiet waters of some of the bays along the shore south of Cape Cod, but are most abundant in Chesapeake Bay. 1. Find about how far fishing vessels sail in going from Gloucester to the Grand Banks. 2. Give reasons why Boston is naturally a large market for fish. 3. Baltimore and Norfolk are noted for canning oysters. Why are so many canned at these places? 4. Why are fishermen forbidden to catch and sell young lobsters? 5. Name as many kinds of salt-water fish as you can. 6. Name as many kinds of fresh-water fish as you can. 7. Draw a line representing the coast line of the northeastern part of the country and locate Portland, Gloucester, Boston, Providence, Norfolk, and Baltimore. i Dredging for Oysters in Chesapeake Bay 52 THE UNITED STATES ii. Building Stones The solid rock, which is everywhere to be found be- neath the soil of the land and under the mud at the bottom of the ocean, has an interesting history. Most of the rock near the surface is in layers and most of these layers have been formed from sand and mud. The rivers are continually carrying mud into the ocean, where it is spread out over the. ocean bottom. In a very long time the particles of this mud become ce- mented together and the whole mass changes to stone. During the millions of years since the crust of the earth was formed, with the ocean waters upon it, one layer of stone after another has thus been made. Stone that has been formed from a layer of sand under the water is called sandstone. Slate rock has been formed from mud composed of finer particles than those of sandstone. Limestone contains the shells, or skeletons, of tiny ani- mals that have lived in the ocean. Millions of these live near the surface of the water and when they die, their bodies, which contain lime, sink into the mud at the bottom. Such a layer of mud, when it hardens, be- comes limestone. By the slow movements which have taken place in the crust of the earth, portions of the bottom of the ocean have been brought above the surface of the water. In the rock at the tops of mountains fossils are sometimes found showing the prints of seashells. This indicates that even the tops of the mountains were once at the bottom of the ocean. BUILDING STONES 53 Rock that was formed in layers, or strata, is called stratified rock. Deep' below the stratified rock, and sometimes appearing at the surface, there are other kinds called crystalline rock. When melted sugar is slowly cooled, it forms crystals, as in making rock candy. Some of the hot, melted matter beneath the outer crust of the earth, by slow cooling, has formed crystals of rock. Granite has been formed in this way. The rock that m ImJvtrf* 3 • .^*^2^**^- 1#T**\J!> "-T— 5^ *■_ ; - J&^S*'^ iA^'J-i 1 **^' 11 f SmT.. •5 * * ^'jgwftjS £5^r mfcjfn ._ jao£m Wfct^ A* jfattaflHWIM Stratified Rock is formed by the cooling of lava that comes from vol- canoes is another kind of crystalline rock. A small amount of the rock of the earth's crust is used by man for various purposes. It is obtained in the most convenient places, and these are called quarries. When mountains were formed by the wrinkling of the earth's surface, the granite, which was under the stratified rock, was raised beneath the strata and formed the lower central part of the mountains. In places 54 THE UNITED STATES where the old Appalachian Mountains have been mostly worn away, the granite has been uncovered. In the case of some very old mountains almost everything ex- cept the granite has been worn away. Mt. Washington and Mt. Katahdin are almost wholly granite. It costs so much to carry heavy rock long distances on land that it is usually quarried only when it is found A Granite Quarry near cities, or near the water where it can be loaded upon vessels. A large amount of granite is shipped from the coast of Maine and Massachusetts to cities that can be reached by vessels. It is used for buildings, pav- ing stones, and other purposes. Marble is much softer than granite and can be sawed into pieces of regular sizes. It is used for buildings, monuments, and statues. It is more scarce and valu- BUILDING STONES 55 able than granite and is often shipped long distances on railroads. The most noted marble quarries are near Rutland, Vermont. Most marble is nearly white, but that of the Rutland quarries is streaked with blue. Slate rock is valuable because it is composed of thin layers with smooth surfaces. It is used largely to cover the roofs of houses. Slate is found in various parts of the New England States and in Pennsylvania. Marble Quarry at Rutland, Vermont Limestone is valuable in constructing buildings. It is used also in blast furnaces for smelting iron ore. Quicklime is produced by heating pieces of limestone in limekilns. Every one has seen masons preparing plaster for building walls or chimneys or plastering houses. They pour water upon pieces of lime. Very soon the water disappears and the lime becomes hot and crumbles. Lime has a strong attraction for moisture. The heat of a limekiln drives off the moisture ; but when water is 56 THE UNITED STATES thrown upon quicklime, particles of lime seize upon par- ticles of water and hold them in a solid form. It is the process by which particles of water and lime are united that causes so much heat. Sandstone is often used for foundation walls and other parts of buildings. 1. Footprints of animals are sometimes found on layers of stone deep below the surface of the land. What does this show ? 2. How do we know that mountains that have a surface of granite are very old ? 3. Why is not granite quarried at Mt. Washington ? 4. Why is New Hampshire called the Granite State? 5. The Quincy granite quarry is not far from Boston and not far from the coast. Why are both of these facts of great advantage? 6. There are granite quarries at Concord, New Hampshire, Glouces- ter, Massachusetts, and Westerly, Rhode Island. Locate these places. 7. How do we know that the beds of marble were once at the bottom of the sea ? 8. There are valuable limestone beds at Rockland, Maine. Locate that city. Map showing Coal Areas COAL 57 12. Coal The most important of all the minerals that are taken from mines is coal. The coal mines of our country are its storehouses of heat and power. Coal furnishes steam power for mills and workshops, for railroad loco- motives, and for steamboats. It supplies heat for cook- ing food and for comfort in millions of households. Vegetation of the Age when the Making of Coal Began Man lived on the earth for thousands of years with- out knowing that coal could be burned. If its useful- ness had never been discovered, how different would the progress of the world have been ! For some purposes wood might have been used instead of coal, but only with great inconvenience. Think of an express train stopping here and there to take on a supply of wood for the engine. Think of a steamship taking on wood enough to drive it across the ocean. It would require 58 THE UNITED STATES so much space that there would be no room for cargo or passengers. Besides such difficulties, if we depended upon wood for heat, all the trees of the world would soon be consumed, and then mankind would be in a sad plight. Man could never have reached his present stage of civil- ization without coal. How fortunate it was that millions Mammoth Vein of Coal One Mile under Ground of years ago, before man appeared upon the earth, this substance was stored away for his needs. Coal was formed in what is called the Carboniferous Age of the earth. At a time when portions of North America sometimes rose above the surface of the ocean and sometimes sank again below the waters, and layers of rock were formed, layers of coal were formed in some regions between the layers of rock. In moist regions trees and other plants grew and fell. The accumulation of many years produced a layer of vegetable matter similar to the layers of muck or peat which are now to be found in swampy places. When COAL 59 the land sank and water washed over it, this layer of vegetable matter was covered with a layer of mud, which was afterwards changed to stone. As such changes continued for millions of years, several layers of stone were formed, one upon another, with now and then a layer of vegetable matter. As the vegetable Train coining from Bituminous Coal Mine matter was crowded down by the weight of the rock formed above it, it was slowly changed to coal. In some places the layers of stone and coal have been so tilted by movements of the earth's crust that layers of coal appear at the surface, but it is usually necessary to find them by sinking shafts through layers of rock. A large part of the coal found in the country is soft, or bituminous coal. In the northeastern part of Penn- sylvania, in the region of the old Appalachian Moun- tains, a different kind is obtained, which is called hard, or anthracite. In this region where mountains were formed by folds in the earth's crust there was an unusual amount of pressure and the coal became very hard. 60 THE UNITED STATES Anthracite is much more desirable than bituminous coal for some purposes, and since it is found chiefly in this one region in Pennsylvania, it is shipped to various parts of the country. More coal is now produced in the United States than in any other country of the world. There are layers of coal beneath more than one sixth of the entire surface of the country. 1 . Name the states through which the eastern or Appalachian coal fields extend. (See map on page 50.) 2. In what two other states east of the Mississippi River are there large coal fields ? 3. What three states west of the Mississippi have large beds of coal ? 4. Name ten other states in which there are smaller coal fields. 5. A very large amount of coal is obtained near Pittsburg. In what part of Pennsylvania is this city? 0. There are beds of anthracite coal near Wilkesbarre and Scranton. In what part of the state are they? 7. Why is the price of coal low in such regions as Pennsylvania and West Virginia? 8. W r hy do the people in the northern part of Maine, Michigan, and certain other states, burn wood for fuel, although coal may be more desir- able? 9. Does coal probably cost more in Boston or in Philadelphia ? 10. Make a map of the state of Pennsylvania, locating the mountains, the largest rivers, and the cities that are important coal centers. Coal as seen through a Microscope Section of Earth's Crust showing Layers of Coal IRON 61 13. Iron The second important substance obtained from mines is iron, the most useful of the metals. Iron is so com- mon and cheap that we may think but little of it ; but we use so much that the amount obtained from the mines is worth far more than the gold from our gold mines. What should we do without iron and steel for engines, boilers, and machines in our factories, for locomotives and rails for our railroads, for bridges, for the frames "*!F^"^3»^ jjL ■,*r!K*{0$' A m - Loading Ore at a Pennsylvania Iron Mine of great buildings in our cities, for stoves and furnaces in our homes, and for hundreds of other things ? Iron is so valuable to mankind that even uncivilized people have learned to use it. Many barbarous tribes in Africa, before they had seen a white man, obtained iron by melting iron ore and with it made spear heads and ornaments. There are small quantities of iron in many of the rocks and in the soil. Iron in the soil often gives it a 62 THE UNITED STATES reddish or a brown color. As water passes slowly through soil or porous rocks that contain iron, it dissolves a little of the metal and carries it away. In certain places to which dissolved iron is thus carried, it separates from the water again and in a long period of time a large amount accumulates. Sometimes iron is found deep in the earth, in places to which water has carried it and where it has filled Coke Ovens spaces between rocks, and sometimes in beds near the surface, where it has settled from standing water. In the form in which it is first found it is not pure iron but iron ore, or iron combined with other sub- stances. It must be separated from these substances before it can be used. This is done by mixing iron ore with limestone and heating it very hot in blast fur- naces, a process that is called smelting. For smelting ore, coke is used instead of coal because it produces greater heat. Coke is prepared from coal. Large coke ovens, called "beehive ovens," are filled with coal and a fire is started. After the coal has become IRON 63 very hot the draughts are closed. This prevents the coal from being consumed and converted into ashes, because air is necessary if anything is to burn, but the great heat drives off certain other substances, leaving coke, which is the part of coal that will produce the hottest fire. One substance driven away from coal in coke ovens is common illuminating gas, such as is used in city A Bessemer Converter making Iron into Steel houses. At city gas works this gas is obtained by heat- ing coal, and the coke, which is not needed at the gas works, is sold for other purposes. Common iron, or pig iron, is used for many purposes, though it contains impurities. It may be rendered harder and stronger by processes that change it into steel. One process consists in burning some of the impurities by forcing blasts of air through melted iron. Steel must be used, instead of iron, for rails on rail- 64 THE UNITED STATES roads, for bridges and the framework of buildings where great strength is needed, for tools with sharp edges, and for many other purposes. By certain other means iron and steel are made soft and flexible for such articles as wire and nails. In Pennsylvania and West Virginia there are mines of iron ore, and the coal and limestone necessary for smelting it are found in abundance. The production of Panorama of Pittsburg and Allegheny City iron and steel and the manufacture of various articles from these is a leading industry of that region. In the states near by, to which iron can be sent without great expense, much iron and steel work is carried on. The city of Pittsburg is a great center of the iron and steel industry. Its products are sent to the most remote countries of the world. It has furnished loco- motives for the Siberian railroad, bridges for the rivers of Asia and Africa, and armor plate for the battleships of many countries. OIL, GAS, AND SALT 65 1. Why is iron of greater importance to the world than gold? 2. Name some improvements that could not have been made so easily if no iron had been found in the earth. 3. Name a number of articles that are made of iron. 4. Name as many articles as you can that are made of steel. 5. Why are many steel ships made in Philadelphia ? 6. Much iron is manufactured in New York City. Is this city nearer the iron mines than Philadelphia or farther from them ? 7. At Wilmington, Delaware, many cars and steel ships are made. In what part of the state is that city ? 8. A large amount of iron is manufactured at Wheeling, in West Virginia, and at Roanoke, in Virginia. Locate these places. 9. Many stoves are made at Albany and Troy. By what river may iron be shipped to these cities ? i '•"W^ * ^i^Bw^j P \ £ ~ *£"****•**' ^fiSij ^, it *f* \ v& -TM> V? Vi; i \ * «* * « *■.*. ; '/-"•3»L- ■, wg9fit&..'^s v -— _ — —• msm mmmmm m\^"nmm\ ' ^ : -.-- ■ ; ' " • In the Oil Region 14. Oil, Gas, and Salt Other useful substances besides coal and iron are found in the earth in the northeastern part of the coun- try. At a time when this region was beneath the ocean, large numbers of animals and plants died and sank into the mud at the bottom. As they slowly decayed oil and gas were formed. When the whole mass was 66 THE UNITED STATES changed to stone, the oil and the gas were held in the pores of the stone. A similar kind of oil is now obtained from fish, and we know that similar gases are produced when plants decay. In places along the western border of the Appala- chian Mountains oil is obtained by drilling wells deep PETROLEUM REGIONS \ f into the rock. It is found in great abundance in the northwestern part of Pennsylvania and the southwestern part of New York. There are valuable oil regions in Texas and California, as well as in various other parts of the country. In the oil regions there are many tall frames or der- ricks for drilling the wells. There are also immense tanks in which oil is stored. Sometimes the oil that is reached by drilling a well is under such pressure in the rocks that it will rise to the surface and flow away without pumping. Sometimes the pressure is so great at first that the oil will spurt high into the air. At most of the wells, however, it is pumped with steam pumps. OIL, GAS, AND SALT 67 This oil is called petroleum, which means rock oil. It is also sometimes called coal oil. As it first comes from the earth it has a dark yellow or reddish color. Before it is suitable for use it must be purified, or re- fined. The refineries at which this work is done are mostly situated at seaports or lake ports from which the oil may be shipped on vessels. Petroleum from the wells in dif- ferent parts of the country is conveyed to the refineries in a peculiar manner. It is not usually carried on railroads, but is pumped through large pipes. We know how water for the supply of a city is pumped through a pipe into a reservoir. In a similar way petroleum is pumped through hun- dreds of miles of pipe. There is a pipe line that extends from the state of Kansas to Chicago and thence to the Atlantic coast, a distance of seven- teen hundred miles. The pipe is gen- Gushing ou Well erally buried in the ground and beneath the beds of rivers. Steam pumps located here and there along the way pump the petroleum from one point to another till it reaches its destination. By the process of refining petroleum a great number of useful substances are obtained, such as gasoline, benzine, and vaseline. It is said that there are more than two hundred of these products, but by far the most useful is kerosene. 68 THE UNITED STATES The discovery of petroleum and of the method of producing kerosene was of great benefit to mankind. Before that time people depended upon candles and lamps without chimneys. These lamps smoked and gave only a dim light. Oil from the refineries of the United States is not only used in all parts of our own country, but is carried to A Whaleback Oil Steamer the most remote parts of the world. It is sent on rail- roads to the various cities of the country by tank cars. It is carried to foreign countries in steamers built for the purpose, which are really floating tanks. At the re- fineries kerosene is pumped into the steamers and at foreign ports it is pumped out and distributed. There is scarcely any part of the world in which travelers do not see American oil. It is carried on the backs of camels across the deserts of Africa, on wheel- barrows through the streets of the cities of China, and on sledges over the snows of the frozen north. Natural gas also is obtained by drilling deep holes OIL, GAS, AND SALT 69 into the rock. When a reservoir of gas is reached, the gas rushes out, and continues to do so for a very long time. Through pipes it is conducted into houses and factories. Some towns and cities are entirely supplied with natural gas instead of that produced from coal at Syracuse Salt Works gas works. In Pittsburg natural gas is used in furnaces for making glass and for other purposes. Beds of salt are found in some places buried beneath the surface of the ground. These are probably the beds of ancient salt lakes which dried up and were afterwards buried. There are a few lakes at the pres- ent time which contain so much salt that some is de- posited in crystals along the shores or at the bottom. Not only common salt but other salts also are found in beds of this kind in the state of New York. In some places large shafts are sunk and the salt is broken in pieces and brought up, as coal is obtained from a mine. Sometimes only a small hole is drilled. Water is then poured down, and after it has dissolved as much salt as 70 THE UNITED STATES possible, the brine is pumped up and the water is evap- orated until only the salt remains. 1. The cities of Bradford and Oil City are near the oil wells of Penn- sylvania. In what part of the state are they ? 2. Why do most of the pipe lines lead to the seacoast ? 3. Why are some pipe lines built to cities on the Great Lakes ? 4. Natural gas is used at Wheeling. Locate that city. 5. There are important salt and soda works at Syracuse. In what part of New York is it ? 6. Salt is obtained also near Rochester. In what direction from Syracuse is it ? 7. Make a map of the states of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylva- nia, and Delaware, showing the mountains, the largest rivers, and the cities that have been mentioned. 15. The Ocean In studying geography we give our attention chiefly to the bodies of land because these are the homes of man. We are interested in the ocean because we may pass over it in ships to other countries and because it yields us fish and other useful products. Aside from these facts the ocean is to us a vast expanse of water remaining ever the same, except that the waves upon its surface rise in time of storm and settle in calm weather. Along the shore, however, where the ocean meets the land, its waves produce important effects. Waves are caused by wind. The air moving over the water and pressing against it forces it up into ridges. These ridges immediately fall again and by the down- ward pressure crowd up other water in front. This process keeps the form of the wave continuous, although the water in the wave is perpetually changing. Along the shore where the water is shallow the body of water THE OCEAN 71 in a wave can no longer make room for itself by falling, but is driven up for some distance upon the land. The larger a body of water is, the higher the waves, because there is a longer time for the wind to blow against them and heap them up before they reach the shore. The largest waves are, of course, upon the ocean. Storm waves there are sometimes fifty feet high. " Combing " Waves As waves run up the shore and fall back again they move to and fro the small stones, which they slowly grind into sand or mud. In times of severe winds huge waves strike violently against cliffs along the shore and slowly wear these away also. Much of the sand or mud thus produced is spread over the ocean bottom, but in some places it remains upon the shore and makes sandy beaches. Those who live near the seashore are aware that the ocean does not remain at the same level, but that it slow- ly rises for a time and then settles again. This is due to the coming and going of the tidal wave, or the tide. 72 THE UNITED STATES The tidal wave is thousands of miles wide, but while passing across the ocean it is not more than one or two feet high. It is caused chiefly by the moon, which is constantly at- tracting, or pull- ing, the earth. By a force called gravity, every ob- ject in the uni- verse attracts The Waves break the Rocks and make Sand eyery other ob j ect toward itself. Objects fall upon the ground because the earth attracts them. By this force the moon at- tracts the water on the side of the earth that is turned toward it, and for other reasons, strange as it may seem, there is a similar wave on the opposite side. O As the earth rotates once in twenty-four hours, caus- ing the moon to seem to revolve around the earth in the opposite direction, these tidal waves follow the moon and both of them pass every point on the ocean once in about twenty-four hours. As the wave approaches the shore the water gradually rises, and as it passes away the water gradually falls. When the water is rising, we have flood tide and when it is falling, we have THE OCEAN 73 ebb tide. The tide rises for about six hours and then falls for about the same time. Although the moon is very much smaller than the sun, it pulls upon the earth and raises the water more than the sun does, because it is so much nearer the earth. The attraction of the sun has a lit- tle effect of the same kind as that of the moon. When the moon and the sun are on the same side of the earth or on opposite sides of it, they act to- gether in draw- ing out the water upon the earth, and the tide is higher than usual. On an un- broken coast exposed to the open sea the rise or fall of the tide is comparatively slight. Where the tidal wave passes into a bay or the mouth of a river, and the space between the opposite shores becomes narrower as Low Tide — Eiver flowing' "West Reversing Falls, St. John, N.B. 74 THE UNITED STATES the wave advances, the water, having less space to spread out, rises higher and higher. In parts of the Bay of Fundy, in the time between low tide and high tide, the water often rises from fifty to seventy feet. Some rivers in their lower courses are nearly as low as the ocean, and the rise and fall of the tide affects them for some distance above their mouths. The condition of the tide is a matter of much im- portance to sailors. Large ships must often wait for high tide before sailing up a river or before returning to the sea. 1. Are waves higher when the wind is blowing toward the coast or when it is blowing away from the coast ? 2. Why are pebbles found upon the shore usually very smooth ? 3. Why are sandy beaches usually found in bays rather than on coasts which extend out into the sea ? 4. Why do many cliffs that are worn by waves appear rough and un- even in places ? 5. The time after high tide before high tide occurs again is about 12 hours, 26 minutes. If it is high tide to-day at 12 o'clock, at what time will it be high tide to-morrow? 6. How long is it from high tide to low tide ? 7. In some places mills are run by water wheels which are turned by the tide. Would such a water wheel turn always in the same direction? 8. Copy the diagram, showing how tides are caused by the moon. 16. The Atlantic Coast The form of the coast along the northeastern part of the United States affords good illustrations of the changes brought about by waves and other causes. The wearing effects of waves are to be seen everywhere. Here and there are pleasant bays with sandy beaches, and reaching out into the ocean are many cliffs worn into rough and jagged forms by the dashing of storm waves. THE ATLANTIC COAST 75 Notice, by the map, how the eastern part of Massa- chusetts has been washed away and carried to the north and south. This land is not solid rock, but a part of the sandy moraine of the great glacier. On that ac- count it has been the more easily carried away. Notice also that the islands of Marthas Vineyard and Nan- Cliff showing that the Land has Risen The notch marking the upper line of the undermining of the waters is now three feet above the water line. tucket have a smooth coast line on the sides that are exposed to the ocean, while the coast line on the opposite side is very irregular. The principal cause of the uneven coast is the fact that the land has been slowly sinking. The slow move- ments of the crust of the earth have not entirely ceased. It is known that along some coasts the land is higher than it was many years ago and that the ocean does not flow over it so far as formerly. This is true along 76 THE UNITED STATES the shores of Hudson Bay. But farther south our northeastern coast has settled and some of the land has sunk below the water. It has been observed that the coast of New Jersey is sinking at the rate of about two feet in a century. Before this sinking took place, the land near the coast of New England contained many hills and valleys. As it gradually sank, the water flowed into the valleys, and the hills became either capes extending out into the water or islands entirely surrounded. The vast number of islands along the coast of Maine were once a part of the hilly mainland. The sinking of the New~ England coast has been of great benefit to the people. The bays, some of which extend far inland, provide safe harbors and make it pos- sible for vessels to go into the country. This settling of the land has in many cases lowered the river beds below the level of the sea, and hence has made such rivers deeper and wider for long distances inland. In some instances rivers have been changed to broad bays. Such river valleys are called drowned valleys or estuaries. Narragansett Bay, the Hudson River , and Chesapeake Bay are special instances of drowned valleys. 1. Which one of the New England States has no seacoast? 2. W r hich one has but eighteen miles of seacoast ? 3. What part of an inch a year does a coast settle if it settles two feet in a century ? 4. Are there more islands and capes along a coast that has been sink- ing or along a coast that has been rising? 5. Why are there usually good harbors along a coast that has been sinking? 6. Why was the form of the New England coast favorable for the first settlers? CITIES 77 7. How has the sinking of the Hudson River valley been a benefit to New York City V 8. What cities are near the heads of Narragansett Bay and Chesa- peake Bay ? 9. Draw a line representing the coast line of the Northeastern Sec- tion and locate the cities that have good harbors. Copyright by Detroit Publishing Co. The Hudson River North of West Point 17. Cities In this Northeastern Section there is a greater number of cities and large towns in proportion to the area than in any other part of the country. It would not be profitable to us to try to remember many facts about them all. Cities resemble one another in many respects. They have many streets where people live, and other business streets on which crowds pass to and fro to the shops and offices that are necessary for supplying the wants of all. In nearly all cities there is some manu- facturing, and commerce is carried on either by rail- roads or by water. Most of the cities of this section are manufacturing centers because of the great amount of water power and 78 THE UNITED STATES the abundant supply of coal. Many may also be called distributing centers, because they send to all parts of the country and to various countries of the world manu- factured articles or the agricultural products of the West. We are specially interested in those cities that excel others in some respects or that are noted for par- ticular industries. New York is both the greatest manufacturing city and the greatest distributing, or commercial, city in the country. This is largely because it has a conven- ient location for carrying on trade both with for- eign countries and with the interior of our own country. It has an ex- cellent harbor and long lines of docks for the ac- commodation of ships. It can send goods to the West more easily and cheaply than many other cities can. The necessity of build- ing railroads to the West from Atlantic ports across the elevated regions of the Appalachian Mountains has been a serious difficulty. It costs much more to draw heavy trains up an ascending grade than along a level route. The lowest pass for a railroad across the East- ern Highlands is by the valley of the Mohawk River, Copyright by Detroit Publishing Co. Wall Street and Trinity Church, New York CITIES 79 which flows into the Hudson. The New York Cen- tral Railroad has four parallel tracks running through this valley and connecting with New York City. The Erie Canal runs through the same valley, and by the waterway of this canal and the Hudson River and by railway accommodations vast quantities of goods are The Mohawk Valley- Showing the New York Central Kailroad, the West Shore Kailroad, and the Erie Canal. moved to and from the great city. More than one half of the foreign commerce of the country is carried on through this port. New York is, next to London, the largest city in the world. The increase of population is so rapid that we can hardly comprehend it. Every year immigrants from Europe and Asia, sufficient to populate a city of good size, enter New York and remain there. Think how many new dwelling houses, school buildings, and other accommodations it is necessary to provide for such an increase. To enable the throngs of people to go from their homes to their places of business there are not only trolley lines through the streets, great bridges 80 THE UNITED STATES over the rivers, and ferries across the rivers, but rail- roads elevated above the streets, in subways under the streets, and through tunnels under the rivers. Boston is the largest and wealthiest city of New England. It has a fine harbor and is next to New York the most important seaport on the Atlantic coast. Boston Common, looking toward the State House It is a natural distributing center for the manufactured goods of New England as well as for some of the farm products of the interior of the country. The people of Boston are noted for their education and refinement. The city is of great historic interest. Everybody knows the story of the Boston Tea Party, of Paul Revere' s Ride, and of the Battle of Bunker Hill. Next after New York, Philadelphia is the greatest manufacturing city in the country. It has water power from the Schuylkill River and plenty of cheap coal from the mines of Pennsylvania. More than five thousand persons are employed in its carpet factories. It has CITIES 81 sugar refineries, locomotive works, and shipyards. Some of the largest ships of our navy are built there. It is at the head of the tide waters of Delaware Bay and can be reached by ocean vessels. Railroads extend from Philadelphia to the West through the lowest passes in the mountains. Copyright by W. II. Ks Philadelphia, showing City Hall and Office Buildings Philadelphia was founded by a company of Quakers led by William Penn. It is often called the " City of Brotherly Love." Among its interesting buildings are Independence Hall and Carpenter's Hall, which are con- nected with the early history of the country. Baltimore is near the head of Chesapeake Bay and is connected with the interior of the country by railroads through the water gap of the Potomac River. It is therefore an important shipping port. The city of Washington, the capital city of the United States in the District of Columbia, is regarded as one of the finest capital cities of the world. It has become a 82 THE UNITED STATES large city, not because of manufacturing and commerce, but because thousands of people must live there to attend to the public business of our country. The streets of many eastern cities are irregular, nar- row, and inconvenient, but Washington was planned from the beginning for a national capital and has long and broad streets and many beautiful parks. The Congressional Library Visitors to the capital city are interested in the pub- lic buildings. The Capitol building, near the center of the city, is one of the largest government buildings in the world. The Congressional Library is regarded by many as the most beautiful building in the country. Among other noted buildings are the Patent Office, the Treasury Building, and the White House, which is the home of the President. 1. Name the capital city of each of the New England States. 2. Name the largest city of each of the New England States. 3. Name the capital city of each of the other states of the Northeast- ern Section. 4. Name the largest city of each of these states. INTERESTING LOCALITIES 83 5. Name three cities on the Kennebec River. 6. Name five cities on the Merrimac River. 7. Name three cities on the Connecticut River. 8. Name three cities on the Hudson River. 9. About how far is it from Boston to New York ? 10. About how far is it from New York, through Philadelphia and Baltimore, to Washington ? 11. Make a map of the Northeastern Section and locate all the cities that have been mentioned. Copyright by Detroit Publishing Co. Baltimore from Federal Hall 1 8. Interesting Localities There are many points of interest in this section out- side the busy cities. Thousands of people leave the cities every summer and go into the country, to the mountains, or to the seashore. Thousands also from other parts of the country spend their summers in the East, where they can enjoy a cool climate and interesting scenery. Many a farmer in this region depends upon summer boarders for a large part of his income. Summer hotels and boarding houses, in ever increasing numbers, are opened in the early summer and closed again as the cool- ness of autumn comes on. The population of many 84 THE UNITED STATES localities is more than doubled during the summer months. It is estimated that as much as five million dollars is left in the state of New Hampshire every year by summer visitors. Northern New England is dotted over with lakes which were produced by the Ice Sheet. In the state of Maine there are over eighteen hundred ponds and lakes. Copyright by Detroit Publishing Co. In the Adirondack Mountains The surface of these, together with that of all the rivers, amounts to about one tenth of the entire area of the state. Most of these bodies of water are among wooded hills, which afford beautiful locations for summer homes. To the forest regions of the northern half of Maine many go to enjoy camp life and hunting and fishing. The region of Moosehead Lake and that of the Rangeley Lakes are popular resorts. Those who enjoy mountain scenery may go to the White Mountains, the Green Mountains, the Catskills, or the Adirondacks. At some points the White Moun- tains rise to a height of over a mile above the level of the INTERESTING LOCALITIES 85 sea. Since the temperature is about one degree lower for each three hundred feet above sea level, it is always cool on such mountains, even in the hottest weather. The coast line of Maine, with its numerous islands, varied scenery, and cool sea breezes, attracts many summer visitors. One of the most favored island resorts is Bar Harbor on Mt. Desert Island. Bathing Beach at Asbury Park Farther south, although the climate inland is often very warm in summer, the coast is cool and comfortable. At some points on the shore and on islands away from the shore people enough assemble in the summer months to make cities of cottages and hotels. The greater part of the New Jersey coast is a con- tinuous sandy beach. It is so near a number of large cities that it affords convenient summer homes for many thousands of people. Long Branch, Asbury Park, At- lantic City, and Cape May are popular summer resorts on this coast. Along the shore the wind may be warm at times, 86 THE UNITED STATES when it is blowing from the land, but on such islands as Marthas Vineyard, Nantucket, and Block Island there is a cooling effect from the water on all sides. Newport, at the entrance to Narragansett Bay, is the most fashionable shore resort in the country. Niagara Falls Other interesting points in the state of New York are Saratoga, noted for its wonderful springs with medici- nal properties, and Niagara Falls, which is one of the grandest waterfalls in the world. 1. Why is New Hampshire sometimes called the " Switzerland of America " ? 2. Why is it generally cooler in summer at the seashore than at a distance from the shore ? 3. At the rate of a fall of one degree of temperature for three hun- dred feet of elevation, how much cooler would it be at the top of a mountain a mile high than at a neighboring inland place 180 feet above sea level ? 4. In what parts of the state of Maine are Moosehead Lake and the Rangeley Lakes? 5. About how far is it from Boston to Bar Harbor ? REVIEW 87 REVIEW 1. Explain how the mountain ranges of North America were formed. 2. Name the great highland regions of North America. 3. Where are the Atlantic Coastal Plain, the prairies, and the Great Plains of the United States? 4. Explain the cause of wind. 5. Why are there sea breezes in warm days at the seashore? 6. Why are the winters mild along the western coast of the coun- try? 7. Why are the winters cold in the interior of the country ? 8. Explain the cause of fog, clouds, and rain. 9. Give three different ways in which rain is caused. 10. Why is the climate very dry in the regions east of the western mountain ranges? 11. What winds in the eastern part of the country bring rain? 12. Describe the cyclonic storms of the United States. 13. Explain the work of the Weather Bureau. 14. What is meant by the annual rainfall? 15. State some of the customs of the American Indians. 16. Where do the Indians live at the present time? 17. What parts of the United States once belonged to the Spaniards ? 18. Why were slaves first brought to this country? 19. Why did the people who settled along the New England coast form towns or townships ? 20. Why did the people who settled farther south adopt a county form of government ? 21. Name the five forms of government in this coun- try. 22. Explain the cause of glaciers on mountains. 23. Why are soil and rocks deposited in places where glaciers melt ? 24. How are icebergs formed ? Boulder left by the Ice Sheet 25. Describe the Greenland ice sheet. 26. Describe the great Ice Sheet of the Glacial Period. 27. What are boulders? 28. How were hills formed by the Ice Sheet? 88 THE UNITED STATES 29. What effects did the Ice Sheet have upon the soil in the northern part of the United States ? 30. How do we know that our ponds and lakes are not very old? 31. What was the cause of the waterfalls? 32. How did the Ice Sheet aid manufacturing in the northeastern part of the country? 33. Why has this section of the country a dense population ? 34. Make comparisons in population between some eastern states and some western states. 35. Why is agriculture of great importance in our country? Seams of Coal inclosed in Sandstone, California 36. Why does the soil differ so greatly in different parts of the North- eastern Section? 37. Explain how cream is separated from milk. 38. How are butter and cheese made ? 39. State where fruits are produced in abundance. 40. In what parts of this section are there extensive forests ? 41. Describe the business of lumbering in these forests. 42. What industry is causing forests to be cut down more rapidly now than formerly ? 43. What are the Grand Banks ? 44. Why are there many fish on the Grand Banks ? 45. Why is the occupation of fishermen dangerous? 46. How are codfish caught and cured ? 47. Name several other kinds of fish that are caught in the ocean. 48. How are lobsters caught ? EEVIEW 89 49. Tell about the life of an oyster. 50. Explain how layers of sandstone have been formed. 51. How has limestone been formed ? 52. Why do we sometimes find the prints of seashells on mountains ? 53. Explain how crystalline rock was formed. 54. Explain why we are able to obtain granite in certain places. 55. Why are those granite quarries usually the most valuable that are situated on the seacoast ? 56. Explain how quicklime is produced from limestone. 57. Why is coal the most important of all our minerals ? In the White Mountains 58. How were layers of coal formed ? 59. Why do layers of coal appear at the surface in some places ? 60. What kinds of coal are found in the eastern parts of the country ? 61. Give reasons why iron is the most valuable of all the metals. 62. How has iron ore been formed ? 63. Describe the process of smelting iron ore. 64. What is coke, and how is it prepared ? 65. State a method by which iron is changed to steel. 66. What becomes of many of the iron and steel products of Pitts- burg ? 67. How were oil and gas probably formed in the rock of the earth? 68. How is petroleum obtained? 69. How is it conveyed from the wells to the refineries ? 70. In what ways is kerosene sent to different parts of the country and to foreign countries ? 90 THE UNITED STATES 71. Name some substances that are obtained by refining petroleum. 72. What uses are made of natural gas? 73. How is salt obtained from mines ? 74. Why do waves run up on the shore ? 75. How do waves produce sand and mud upon the shore ? 76. Describe a tidal wave. 77. Explain how the moon causes tides. 78. Why is the tide very high in some places ? 79. Why are cities on some rivers located at the head of tide water ? 80. How have the waves affected the eastern part of Massachusetts ? 81. How have many islands been formed along the NewEngland coast? 82. Why has the sinking of the coast been an advantage to the pres- ent inhabitants of the country ? 83. What is a drowned valley ? 81. Explain how the location of New York has helped to make it a very large city. 85. Tell about the increase of the population of New York. 86. State some of the measures that have been taken to accommodate so many people. 87. Tell about the city of Boston. 88. Name some interesting historic events that occurred in Boston. 89. What advantages for manufacturing has the city of Philadelphia ? 90. Name some articles that are manufactured there. 91. What famous buildings are there in Philadelphia? 92. Describe Baltimore. 93. Why has Washington become a large city ? 91. Name some of the public buildings of Washington. 95. Why is the population of some portions of the Northeastern Section much increased during the summer months ? 96. Describe the scenery of the state of Maine. 97. Name the most important mountain resorts of the Northeastern Section. 98. Describe the coast of Maine. 99. Name several watering places on the New Jersey coast. 100. Name some other summer resorts of New England. 101. In what direction from Boston are Marthas Vineyard and Nan- tucket Islands? 102. In what direction from New York is Block Island? 103. Name other interesting points in the state of New York. 104. In what part of New York State is Saratoga ? 105. Between what lakes is Niagara Falls ? THE PHYSICAL FEATURES 91 THE SOUTHERN SECTION 19. The Physical Features In passing from the northeastern part of the country to the southeastern part, we go from a region of rocky hills and many lakes to one containing a great amount of comparatively level land well suited to agriculture. The Appalachian system of mountains extends nearly across the eastern part of this section. In the South, as in the North, these ancient mountains have been so worn down that in places they have become mere hills, or even level land. In North Carolina and Tennessee there are still hills and mountains of con- siderable height. Mount Mitchell, the highest of the sys- tem, is more than a mile high. A wide belt of country lying next to the mountains on the east is nearly level, or covered with low hills with river valleys among them. This sec- tion is sometimes called the Piedmont Belt. The word piedmont means foot of the mountain. The name is given to the section because it lies along the foot of the Copyright by Keystone View Co. Mount Mitchell, from Pinnacle Mountain A "stiny£B renhanA | s an Antonio, \\ Galveston Bay Galveston 3* fiprpus Christi L T ■Matamoros • 7/ Ciudad^Victoria Doctor Arro sc THE M.-N. WORKS on K) E N (c ^ Y * WES' 1/V K c Durham^ , >.; ^Nashville ;.//^-^2_^ >\ ^mS t - chf Wo^Salefr* ]/6ree^boroV Rale igr rlotte 'Games viVLeXT S ft,! rilei'i Columbus' rcplumb'jaN^ -—--O \ A^niatonX-jJ -^Atlanta \ 'Kike 5c S seTyeryT^irininKl»a^ m iyy j \j > ^i *A->A /'^'Tuscaloosa / /*i!r' w»9 A\ > ^^v "^ Ti V 5 * tfA. \ f \ CKTuscalooi «ij/ Montgomery I / _C£- / ^Eufaula W gorget-own Cape Fear Mot>ile\ M^ ^"saeo/a ?*ie a«s ^-~Xi_5 v0< A- \jj7 • jT" Jf Cape V— San Bias 7^\ TaliarTs P^Ai)alachee\ T s Bay ** cC ■L palatta -yOcala it ^ acksouvi w era\ Delta of the. Mississippi. Tamfa Bay I *7 t Lab M E I c\ o &* N STATES ) Other Cities: • ad Lines: • (0 200 250 30 I Miles Cape Sable^ Key West* 11 orUla Strait 94 THE UNITED STATES Appalachian Mountains, where the land has been formed by the wearing away of the mountains. The strip of country between the Piedmont Belt and the ocean is generally low, level, and sandy. It is a part of the Atlantic Coastal Plain. All this land was once beneath the ocean. The soil was formed by the wearing effect of waves on the shore, or from mud carried into the ocean by rivers. A Southern River There is a striking contrast between the northern and southern coasts. While in the North the sinking of the land has produced islands, drowned valleys, and deep harbors, in the South the land has risen enough to make dryland of a strip of the ocean bed. Since mud was spread evenly by the waves over the ocean floor, this floor became level land after it rose above the water. The even bed of the ocean made an unbroken coast line, without many capes and bays. Since this period of rising, the southern coast has settled again a very little. This has been an advantage by increasing the depth of the water in the mouths of rivers and in the harbors. In the shallow water near the shore the waves have washed THE PHYSICAL FEATURES 95 up sand from the bottom and formed long islands called sand bars or barrier reefs. In a similar manner a low coastal plain has been formed along the Gulf of Mexico. A large part of southern Florida is elevated but little above the sea, and portions of it consist of extensive marshes, or swamps. The largest of these is called A Florida Swamp the Everglades. The islands near the southern coast are called the Florida Keys from a Spanish word which means islands. The surface of portions of the land in southern Florida and upon the Keys has been formed by minute animals called coral polyps. In parts of the ocean where the water is warm and shallow these ani- mals live in great numbers attached to the bottom, and when they die their stony skeletons remain. They con- tinually grow and die, and as the masses are raised above the surface, coral reefs or coral islands are formed, which the force of the waves slowly crumbles into soil. 96 THE UNITED STATES In the Southern Section we may include the states bordering on the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico, from North Carolina to Texas, and the states of Tennes- see, Arkansas, and Oklahoma. These states, which are usually called the Southern States, are among the richest possessions of the country. For many years they have suffered the terrible results of the Civil War, in which they lost a vast amount of ]3roperty and the lives of many of their bravest young men. But since the close of that war they have ad- vanced rapidly in wealth and general prosperity. When the rich and well-watered lands of the " sunny South " are fully occupied and cultivated, they will provide homes for many millions of people. Texas is the largest of all our states. It is difficult to realize its size. It contains four times as much territory as the whole of New England. It is larger than any country of Europe except Russia. It is believed that it will at some time be able to support one half as many people as the whole country now contains. 1. Across which of the Southern States do the Appalachian Moun- tains extend? 2. What states south of Delaware border on the Atlantic Ocean ? 3. What states border on the Gulf of Mexico ? 4. Name several rivers of the Southern States that flow into the At- lantic Ocean. 5. Name several rivers that flow into the Gulf of Mexico. 6. Name two rivers of the Southern States that flow into the Mississippi from the west. 7. What river forms the boundary between Texas and Mexico ? 8. Why are there fewer good harbors in the Southern States than in the states of the Northeast? 9. Sketch a map of the Southern States, locating the mountains and the principal rivers. COTTON 97 20. Cotton The leading occupation of the people of the South is agriculture. The early settlers of this region found the country very different from that occupied by the colonists in the North. The land was more level and fertile and the summers were longer and warmer. These conditions were favorable to agriculture, and for a long time but few people were engaged in anything else. Scene on a Cotton Plantation The leading crop for most of the Southern States, including those from North Carolina around the coast to Texas, has been cotton. The cotton plant requires fertile soil, long, warm summers, and plenty of moisture, which is brought by winds from the ocean and from the Gulf of Mexico. There was a good market in the cities of Europe for all the cotton that could be raised in the South. The great difficulty was the lack of people to do the work. 98 THE UNITED STATES To plant the crop, to care for it during the summer, and to harvest the cotton and prepare it for market in the fall required the labor of many people on each plantation, and the population of that part of the country was small. At that time slaves from Africa were sold in different parts of the world, and the planters of the South COTTON REGION \ found that the most profitable way to raise cotton was by the purchase of these slaves. The Africans were accustomed to a warm climate and they could easily be taught to do the simple work in the fields. After Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin, in 1793, the business of raising cotton became much more profit- able than before because this machine removed the cotton seeds very rapidly. After that time slaves were brought into the country in great numbers. Although these people are no longer slaves, the greater proportion of them still live in the South. In some of the agricul- tural regions there are at the present time more colored people than white people. COTTON 99 We are all proud of the cotton crop of the South. The United States is the greatest farming country in the world, and we have immense quantities of various crops to sell, but we receive more money for the cotton that we sell to foreign countries than for any other crop. The people of the South raise about three fourths of all the cotton that the world produces. Some is raised in India, and a little in Egypt, China, South America, and other countries. For- eign nations have en- couraged their people to raise cotton upon their own territory instead of buying so much from America, but without much success. We have the best soil and climate Cotton Gin for the cotton crop, and our planters have had many years experience. For a long time to come we shall probably furnish the world the greater part of its supply. On account of its cheapness cotton is used more than any other substance for clothing. Only about one third of the human race have become so far civilized as to clothe themselves completely. As the remaining two thirds become accustomed to wearing more clothing, the demand for cotton will increase, and this will en- courage the planters of the South to cultivate more land and raise larger crops. 100 THE UNITED STATES It is a gratifying thought that we are able to supply the wants of so many people. If our planters should cease to raise cotton, it would be a world-wide calamity. A large part of the manufacturing of New England and of the South would be ruined, the mills of Great Britain would close, millions of employees would be reduced to distress, and clothing would become scarce and expen- sive in every country of the world. Copyright by Detroit Publishing Co. Cotton at the Railway Terminus in Savannah More than one half of our crop of cotton is sent to other countries. The manufacturers of Europe are paying our planters, upon the average, more than a million dollars a day for their supply. Formerly the greater part of the cotton that remained in this country was manufactured in New England, but within the past few years so many mills have sprung up in the South that more cotton is now manufactured in the region where it grows than in the North. COTTON 101 On islands near the coast of South Carolina and Georgia a special kind of cotton grows. It is called sea-island cotton. The plant reaches a height of ten or twelve feet and the fibers are much longer and stronger than those of the ordinary " upland cotton." This variety sells at a high price and is used for the finest threads, laces, and cambrics. Copyright by Detroit Publishing Co. A Georgia Cotton Mill Besides the cotton fibers, other parts of the plant, called the by-products, are becoming more and more valuable. Cotton-seed oil, obtained by pressing the seeds, is used for making cottolene, which is a substitute for lard, and for manufacturing soap. Much of it is used instead of olive oil. Miners burn it in their lamps. Small fish, called sardines, are packed in it. Over one hundred million dollars a year is now obtained for oil and meal produced from cotton seed that was once thrown away as useless. It has been discovered that paper can be made from the stalks of the cotton plant. These stalks, which have been an inconvenience in the fields after the har- 102 THE UNITED STATES vest, may increase the profits of the planters by many million dollars more. 1. When our cotton crop amounts to eleven million bales, each weigh- ing about five hundred pounds, about how many pounds do we produce? 2. What would the value of this crop be at an average price of ten cents a pound? 3. If the seed from this cotton were worth one hundred million dollars, about what part of the value of the cotton would be equal to the value of the seed ? 4. Who was President of the United States at the time when the cotton gin was invented? 5. Name several New England cities in which a large amount of cotton is manufactured. G. More cotton is raised in Georgia and in Texas than in any other states. Name a seaport in each of these states from which cotton may be shipped away. 7. On what bodies of w>ater would a vessel sail in carrying a load of cotton from Galveston to Liverpool, in England ? 8. Describe the voyage of a ship carrying a load of cotton from New Orleans to Hamburg, in Germany. 21. Rice and Sugar Rice and sugar are important crops on some of the low, fertile land along our southern coast. Rice is the chief food of about one half of the world's people. Many millions in China, Japan, and India live almost wholly upon it. It is more expensive than other grains because more labor is required to produce it. A comparatively small amount is raised in the United States because there is only a small portion of land upon which the crop can be made profitable. Rice plants thrive only where the climate is warm and the soil is very moist. During a part of the time while they are growing the land must be covered with water. Portions of the low coastal plains in some EICE AND SUGAR 103 of the Southern States are favorable for the crop. Formerly South Carolina and Georgia produced more than other states, but in recent years Louisiana and Texas have raised large quantities. On low and level regions in these states the land can be flooded easily through canals from rivers or by pumping water to ele- Copyright by Keystone View Co. Cultivating Rice in South Carolina vated positions from which it will flow over the fields. In some localities water for the rice crop is obtained from artesian wells. When the crop is ripe, the water is drawn off, and the harvesting is done by teams and machines like those used in wheat fields on the prairies. As the grain comes from the thresher it has a dark color on account of the hulls in which the seeds are tightly wrapped. Before it is ready for the market it is run through machines that remove the hulls and polish the seeds. Sugar was once made almost entirely from sugar cane, and since that plant requires a long, hot summer, it could be raised only in very warm regions of the earth. Sugar 104 THE UNITED STATES forms a part of the substance of a great variety of vege- tables and fruits and might be obtained from them if the process were not too expensive. Many years ago it was discovered in Germany that sugar could be made profit- ably from beets, and since beets will thrive in a cool climate, that discovery has greatly increased the territory in which sugar may be produced. Countries situated in Copyright by Keystone View Co. A Field of Sugar Beets in Colorado temperate regions were once obliged to purchase all their sugar from abroad. Many of these are now able to produce at least a portion of what they consume. More sugar is used in the United States than in any other country. The average American citizen consumes more than one half of his weight in sugar every year. But we produce in our home country only a small part of this sugar. The money that we receive for all the EICE AND SUGAR 105 wheat that we sell to other countries is not sufficient to pay for the sugar that we are obliged to buy. This is because we have not yet raised a very large amount of beet sugar and because there is only a small amount of land in the country where sugar cane will grow well. Since the island of Porto Rico, the Hawaiian Islands, and the Philip- pine Islands have come into our possession, we have considerably increased the amount of our territory upon which sugar cane will grow. We now raise sugar Planting Sugar Cane more beet than cane sugar, and the time will probably come when we shall buy less than we do now from other countries. Most of our cane sugar is produced in Louisiana on the plains of the valley and delta of the Mississippi. Many of the plantations there are very large. Some of them extend for fifteen or twenty miles along the banks of the river. The crop is raised by burying stalks of cane in fur- rows. Sprouts spring up from these and become plants resembling Indian corn. When the crop is mature, the tall stalks are cut down, loaded on cars, and drawn to 106 THE UNITED STATES the mill, which is usually erected uear the center of the estate. Here the cane is run through rollers which press out the juice so completely that the remaining part is dry enough to use as fuel for the fires. The juice is then boiled until the water escapes from it and there remains a mixture of brown sugar and molasses. The refuse molasses, which is separated from the sugar, is of very poor quality and is used as food for stock or for certain manufacturing processes. Molasses and sirup, which are used for cooking and for the table, are prepared from the pure juice of the cane. Dark-colored sugar, produced in this manner, is called raw sugar. It must be purified, or refined, before it is ready for the market. Since a sugar re- finery is very expensive, much of the sugar produced on the islands in tropical regions and on the smaller plantations in the South is first sold in the raw state and then shipped to refineries. On some of the larger plantations refining is done in the mills where the sugar is first produced. 1. How many tons of sugar per year would ninety million people consume, if each should consume seventy -five pounds, upon the average? 2. What would be the value of this sugar at five cents per pound ? 3. Name several ports to which imported raw sugar may be taken to be refined. 4. What states would a vessel pass in carrying a load of rice from Charleston to New York ? 5. Find about how long the voyage of a ship would be from Galves- ton to Boston. 6. On what bodies of water would a vessel sail in taking a load of sugar from New Orleans to Baltimore ? 7. Make a map of those states of the Southern Section that border on the coast, showing the largest rivers and the cities from which cotton, rice, and sugar may be shipped. FORESTS 107 22. Forests One of the extensive forest regions of the country is in the South. The most common southern tree is the pine. A pine belt about one hundred miles wide extends along the coast of the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. On portions of this Coastal Plain the land is too sandy for agricultural crops, but is well adapted to the growth of pine forests. g&gnn&si mmm * • ,-»-«»• k 1 tlSiiil ■ -i::j--:"rf.p Copyright by Detroit Publishing Co. Southern Pine Woods Lumber from the southern pine is much harder and heavier than that from the white pine of the North. Much of it is used in the North for floors and the in- terior finish of buildings. The pine trees of the South, that are known as "Georgia pine," grow very tall and straight. Many are used for the masts of ships and for heavy timbers. In the absence of water power on these level plains, much of the timber is sawed into lumber by portable steam mills, which are set up in the forests and 108 THE UNITED STATES moved about from place to place. The logs are drawn to these mills on wagons or on cars, and the lumber is shipped away on railroads or on river boats. The pine forests yield a great amount of tar, pitch, resin, and turpentine. These products are called "naval stores." Tar is ob- tained by heating pine wood, and causing the gummy sap to flow out. It is used for calking the sides and decks of vessels to prevent leaking, and in making ropes for the rigging of vessels. Turpentine is prepared from the sap that runs under the bark of pine trees. Strips of bark are cut from the trees, and the sticky sap runs down and fills notches, called " box- es," that are cut in the wood, or flows into cups. Every few days it is collected and taken to the distillery. There it is mixed with water and heated in a great kettle. The sap consists of resin and turpentine. The heat converts the turpentine into vapor, which rises and passes through a tube. The tube is kept cold by a stream of water, and as the vapor cools it changes to liquid again and a stream of turpentine flows out at the end. The resin remains in the kettle, and both turpen- tine and resin are sent to market in barrels. Copyright by Underwood & Underwood Turpentine Boxes and Cups FORESTS 109 Turpentine is used for making varnish and mixing paints. Resin is largely used in varnish and in soap. A tract of pine forest from which turpentine and resin are obtained is called a turpentine " farm." The size of a farm is reckoned in the number of " boxes." A farm may consist of many thousand, or even several hundred thousand boxes. The value of the products of these farms has amounted to over twenty-five million dol- Copyright by Keystone View Co. Resin on Wharf at Savannah lars in a single year. At first the busi- ness of tur- p en t i n e farming was con- fined chiefly to the Atlantic coast, and the products were mostly shipped from Charleston, South Carolina. But after a time trees from which tar products are taken become exhausted and die, and the farming must be transferred to other regions. After the business declined in the forests of South Carolina, Savannah became the chief center of trade in tar, turpentine, and resin. At present turpentine farming is carried on chiefly in the states along the Gulf coast, and more naval stores are shipped from Pensacola than from any other city. 110 THE UNITED STATES In the mountainous regions of the South there are many oak trees. The lumber from these is harder and stronger than pine. The bark of oak trees is used for tanning hides. In the North, hemlock bark is much used for that purpose. The acid of hemlock bark gives leather a red color, but oak bark produces a tan color. Cypress trees from southern swamps are valuable for lumber. Cypress shingles will last for many years. The palmetto tree, the name of which means small palm tree, is very common in the South. South Carolina is often called the " Palmetto State." Another common tree is the live oak, the branches of which are usually covered with mosses hanging in long festoons. 1. A large amount of lumber is manufactured at Macon and at Montgomery. Why are these places favor- able for that business ? 2. A large amount also is manufactured at Mobile and at Chattanooga. Lo- cate these cities. 3. Hard pine lumber is shipped north from Charles- ton, Savannah, Jacksonville, and Pensacola. Locate each of these. 4. Oak and other hard Through what states would Palmettos wood lumber is shipped from Memphis. a carload probably pass on its way to Philadelphia ? 5. W r hy are large quantities of naval stores shipped from Pensacola? 6. Name a number of purposes for which oak lumber is used. VARIOUS PRODUCTS 111 23. Various Products For many years little besides cotton was produced upon most plantations in the South ; but the planters are learning that there is greater profit in raising a variety of crops. Various kinds of plant food are slowly pre- pared in the soil by the processes of nature, and these different kinds of food are needed for different crops. A Tobacco Field Land that has become so exhausted that it will not yield a profitable crop of cotton may produce an excellent crop of some other kind. After two or three years it maybe prepared to support a good crop of cotton again. The flavor of tobacco depends so much upon climate and the quality of the soil that it is a special crop in particular localities. A large amount is produced in Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, and North Carolina. The manufacture of cigars is the most important indus- try of Key West, which is the largest city of Florida. 112 THE UNITED STATES Tobacco for the purpose is obtained from Havana on the island of Cuba. Much Indian corn and wheat are now raised on southern plantations. Considerable corn is used in the South for food, and more for fattening swine. Sweet potatoes are a special crop in North Carolina, and many peanuts are produced in North Carolina and Virginia. Norfolk is the leading peanut market in the An Orange Grove in Florida country. The peanut plant is very peculiar. Pods first form on the ends of stalks, which then bend down and bury the pods in the earth. After they ripen the pea- nuts are dug up and dried. Many southern planters raise early vegetables for northern markets. The states of the Central West obtain their supplies mostly from Mississippi and Louisiana, and those of the Northeast from Florida and Georgia. Parts of the South produce great quantities of fruit. Florida begins to send strawberries to northern markets VARIOUS PRODUCTS 113 as early in winter as December. Pineapples flourish on the Florida Keys. Sweet Florida oranges, which grow in the Indian River section, have a wide reputation. Georgia is noted for its fine peaches. Many cattle are pastured on parts of the Coastal Plain in Georgia and Florida, among scattering forest trees. Mules are well suited to draw loads in warm weather, Cattle on a Texas Ranch and many of these are raised. Kentucky and Tennessee produce large numbers of mules and horses. The western part of Texas, where the climate is too dry for agriculture, is devoted to grazing, and large herds of cattle and sheep are reared upon the plains. The " Llano Estacado," or staked plain, which is now occu- pied by ranches, was once the winter feeding ground of great herds of buffaloes. It is about five hundred miles 114 THE UNITED STATES long from north to south and nearly three hundred miles wide. It received its name because it is so level and so broad that travelers were liable to lose their way upon it and routes of travel were marked with stakes. The South, like Pennsylvania, has its coal and iron re- gion. In the vicinity of Birmingham, in Alabama, coal, iron, and limestone are easily obtained and pig iron is produced very cheaply. A substance called phosphate rock is found in the vi- cinity of Charleston, South Carolina, and in the central part of Florida. It is the fossil remains of the bones of ancient animals. Much of this rock is shipped to the North and to Europe, where it is used as a fertilizer. In Georgia there are valuable quarries of granite and marble. Many public buildings in the United States are made of Georgia marble. The state of Oklahoma has a great variety of natural wealth. It was not open to white settlers till the year 1889, but it is already well covered with prosperous farm homes and contains many thriving towns and cities. In addition to its wealth in fertile land the state contains rich beds of coal and petroleum. 1. Durham, in North Carolina, has large tobacco factories. In what part of the state is it ? 2. Where is Key West situated ? 3. Through what states would peaches probably pass by train from Georgia to New York City ? 4. In what part of Virginia is Norfolk? 5. Many cattle are shipped from Dallas and Fort Worth. In what part of Texas are they ? 6. There are rich oil wells near Beaumont. In what part of Texas is it? 7. There is a rich iron region around Chattanooga, in Tennessee. About how far is it from Birmingham ? CITIES 115 24. Cities There are fewer large cities in the South than in the North. This is partly due to the fact that the people of the South have engaged in agriculture instead of manufacturing and commerce. In agricultural re- gions there are always towns or cities where the farmers or planters may sell their crops and may buy the sup- plies that they need, but these purposes alone do not Jackson Square, New Orleans require very large cities. Cities that become large are usually manufacturing centers and distributing centers. Another reason for the small number of cities in the South is the fact that there are not so many good har- bors along the southern coast as there are along the northern coast. New Orleans, the chief city of the South, is situated about one hundred miles above the mouth of the Mis- 116 THE UNITED STATES sissippi, at a point where only a narrow neck of land separates the river from Lake Pontchartrain. Large ocean vessels can proceed up the river as far as New Orleans, but not much farther. Above New Orleans the shipping is by barges and broad flatboats, which are able to move in very shallow water. The great amount of mud that the Mississippi deposits in its bed has been a hindrance to navigation from New Mississippi Jetties - Orleans to the Gulf, but this difficulty has been over- come by an ingenious device. Jetties have been built out from both banks toward the middle of the river. These make the river narrower and cause it to flow fast enough to carry the mud into the Gulf. New Orleans has several interesting peculiarities. It was founded by the French, and the people in the French quarter of the city retain many of their old customs. The Mississippi, in its lower course, has deposited so much mud upon its bed and along its banks that its surface is higher than that of the surrounding country. For this reason embankments, called levees, have been CITIES 117 built along the river. They are carefully repaired to keep the Mississippi within bounds in time of high water. The slightest leak through the levees would cut away the soft soil very rapidly, and if not repaired, would soon flood the entire city. Copyright by Detroit Publishing Co. On the Levee, New Orleans Everywhere in the city at a short distance below the surface the soil is filled with water. The houses can have no cellars, and the graves in the cemeteries are built of stone above ground. New Orleans not only contains cotton factories and large sugar refineries, but is becoming one of the largest shipping centers of the country. It is the natural center for the commerce of the whole Mississippi Valley. If we were to take a trip up the Mississippi above New 118 THE UNITED STATES Orleans, for hundreds of miles along the way we should meet flatboats, or barges drawn by flatboats. They would be loaded with bales of cotton from the towns and land- ings along the banks, or with coal from Pennsylvania, brought down from Pittsburg on the Ohio River, or with 1 * m^Mtf- #~* ' JF***:>^rcr f^%JkMM}'mj 0£fZ if Mr^f- . : '■ it *! ^m ii'^ *m- Galveston wheat and corn from the Missouri River or the upper Mississippi. At New Orleans cotton and grain are loaded upon ocean vessels and shipped to Europe. It is said that if you kick a barrel of flour at Minne- apolis, it will roll to New Orleans. Of course, this is not true, but it calls attention to the fact that the Mis- sissippi Valley slopes gently downward from the state of Minnesota to the Gulf of Mexico. It is easier to send the products of the great farming regions of the Mississippi Valley to the sea by this route than by rail- roads that cross the Eastern Highlands. The advantage secured by shipping goods out of the country by way of the Gulf has made Galveston, as well as New Orleans, one of the leading ports of the coun- CITIES 119 try. New Orleans and Galveston rank next after New York among our exporting centers. Galveston is situated upon one end of an island near the coast and is connected with the mainland by a cause- way. A great storm swept over Galveston in 1900, destroying many lives and laying a part of the city in ruins. Since that time a sea wall has been built, which, it is hoped, will prevent such a disaster in the future. Copyright by Detroit Publishing Co. Charleston from St. Michael's Church Mobile has the only landlocked harbor on the Gulf of Mexico. Its harbor is so safe that no vessel has ever been lost in it. Gulf port and Pensacola are now ranked among the leading ports of the South. Savannah has a deep harbor, eighteen miles from the sea. The city contains many parks filled with tropical trees, and is called the " Forest City." It is an inter- esting fact that the first steamboat to cross the Atlantic sailed from Savannah in the year 1819. 120 THE UNITED STATES Charleston has a good harbor and, lying between two rivers, has a water front on three sides. Atlanta is situated near the southern end of the Blue Ridge Mountains, and because railroads can be built easily from that point to the West, it is an important railroad center. It is often called the "Gate City." Since the time of the Civil War manufacturing has increased rapidly in the South. There is water power for this purpose on several rivers that flow east from the mountains to the sea. Where these rivers pass from the Pied- mont Belt to the Coastal Plain the water digs out the sandy soil of the Coastal Plain faster than it wears down the harder bed farther west. This causes rapids or falls in the rivers, and the border line along which the falls occur is called the Fall Line. A line of manufacturing cities extends from New Jersey to Alabama along the Fall Line. On this line are the cities of Columbia, Augusta, Macon, and Mont- gomery. It is claimed that there is water power enough in the state of Georgia alone to drive all the mills in the United States. k i • : i in i ii i ! Ill I II 1 i ii i i ui 1 HI 1 1 1 1 II 1 S¥cS idm 1 h. "*;■ 5 ""Iw" m-H ._ -J Peach Tree Street, Atlanta REVIEW 121 A Pineapple Field in Florida 1. St. Augustine was founded in 1565. It is the oldest town in the United States. About how far is it from Jacksonville? 2. Palm Beach is a popular winter resort. In what part of Florida is it? 8. At Key West and Tampa there are many tobacco factories in which cigars are made from Cuban tobacco. Locate those cities. 4. Asheville, North Carolina, is a famous health resort. Is it in a mountainous district or a level district ? 5. At Hot Springs, Arkansas, there are sulphur waters which are beneficial in certain diseases. In what part of the state is it ? 6. Name the capital city of each of the Southern States that border on the Atlantic Ocean. 7. Name the largest city of each of the Southern States that border on the Atlantic. 8. Name the capital city of each of the states, west of Florida, that border on the Gulf of Mexico. 9. Name the largest city of each of these Gulf states. 10. Name the capital city and the largest city of each of the remain- ing states of the southern group. REVIEW 1. How do the physical features of the southeastern part of the country differ from those of the northeastern part ? 2. What is the Piedmont Belt? 122 THE UNITED STATES 3. Explain the formation of the Atlantic Coastal Plain. 4. How do the northern and southern coasts differ? 5. What are barrier reefs ? 6. What are the Florida Keys? 7. How are coral reefs formed? 8. Give comparisons to illustrate the size of the state of Texas. 9. Explain how the cotton crop increased slavery in the South. 10. Name some foreign countries in which cotton is raised. 11. What part of the cotton of the world do we raise? 12. Why is so much cotton used in the world ? 13. What would happen if our planters should cease to raise cotton ? 14. How much cotton do we export ? 15. What part of our cotton manufacturing is done in the South? 16. Describe sea-island cotton. 17. What by-products are obtained from cotton ? 18. How extensively is rice used in the world? 19. Describe the method of raising rice. 20. Why has the discovery of the process of making beet sugar been a great advantage ? 21. How is sugar cane raised? 22. How is sugar manufactured from sugar cane ? 23. Tell about the lumber of southern forests. 24. Name some uses that are made of this lumber. 25. How is pine tar produced? 26. Explain the process of obtaining turpentine and resin. 27. For what purposes are turpentine and resin used? 28. Where is turpentine farming chiefly carried on ? 29. Describe other forest trees of the South. 30. AVhat southern states produce the most tobacco? 31. How do peanuts grow ? 32. What parts of the South produce large quantities of fruit ? 33. Describe the Staked Plain of Texas. 34. Where in the South are coal and iron ore obtained ? 35. What is phosphate rock ? 36. Why are there fewer large cities in the South than in the North ? 37. Describe the location of New Orleans. 38. Explain the use of jetties in the Mississippi River. 39. State some interesting peculiarities of New Orleans. 40. Why is New Orleans a great shipping center ? 41. Describe the city of Galveston. 42. Name several other ports along the southern coast. THE PHYSICAL FEATURES 123 THE CENTRAL SECTION 25. The Physical Features When the people who had colonized the Atlantic coast made their way farther west through gaps in the Appalachian Mountain System, they came to a region surprisingly rich and inviting. Among the rocky hills The Untamed Prairie where they had first settled they had been obliged to clear the land of forests and large stones in order to make crops grow. Even after all the hard labor that this required, they usually had only hilly and rocky land that was not very fertile. West of the mountains they found broad regions of comparatively level land, containing no trees, but thickly covered with grass, and very fertile. Beginning with the Appalachian Mountains and table- of the WoodS Grafton I \JpeviIs Lake jDevils LakT* ^-^GrandFWkS DA Jar S like Jrarga] \Falls\ xBraine/d^^ Aberdeen 120 THE UNITED STATES lands, the surface of the Great Central Plain gradually slopes downward, for hundreds of miles, to the Missis- sippi River. Beyond the Mississippi it gradually rises again, for hundreds of miles, to the foot of the Rocky Mountains. This vast tract of agricultural land, reaching across the country from our northern boundary to the Gulf of Mexico, is the richest farming region in the world. A good part of the wealth of which our country boasts has come from the bountiful crops of our great farm. While the only inhabitants were Indians, all this territory served no useful purpose except as a pasture ground for herds of buffaloes. It has been estimated that before the year 1872 there were as many as eight million of these animals between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains. Immense herds of them moved north or south from one feeding ground to another. In winter they found pasturage in the South, on the great plains of Texas. Their skins, covered with thick, woolly hair, were valuable for winter coats, and as the West was explored and occupied by white settlers the buffaloes were hunted and slain so rapidly that they were nearly all destroyed before measures were taken to protect them. Only a few hundred of these animals now exist. Most of these are carefully kept in the Yellowstone National Park and in other public and private parks of the country. The great central section of the country is mostly free from mountain ranges because in the wrinkling of the earth's crust no high ridges were raised here, as in the eastern and western parts. In the formation of the THE PHYSICAL FEATURES 127 continent, as the land gradually rose above the surface of the ocean or settled below it, this section was raised or lowered more uniformly, instead of being thrown up in ridges. In the rock layers of the central lowland there are found fossils of shells and fish which were once in the ocean. Copyright by Detroit Publishing Co. Buffalo Herd in the Yellowstone National Park The only exceptions to the uniformity of this great plain are two groups of low mountains called the Black Hills and the Ozark Mountains. The soil in the southern part of this section has been mostly formed either by the slow decay of the rocks underneath or from soil washed down from other regions. In the northern part the soil was largely the effect of the Ice Sheet. The ice scraped away and carried farther south the soil that had been previously formed, but left in its place, when it melted away, a deep, rich layer made by the grinding of rocks as the ice moved down from regions farther north. The rocks over which 128 THE UNITED STATES the glacier passed in the central part of the country were softer than those in the East and were more easily ground into soil. This accounts for the larger amount of good soil left by the Ice Sheet in the states of the Central West. Other effects of the Ice Sheet here were similar to those in the East, except that fewer waterfalls were produced. The Great Lakes and a large number of smaller lakes were formed by the ice. There are about ten thousand lakes in the state of Minnesota alone. Different parts of the Great Central Plain have special names. A large region in the central part is called the Prairies. A broad strip of more elevated land east of the Rocky Mountains, which extends entirely across the country from north to south, is called the Great Plains. 1. How did the rivers that flow across the Appalachian ranges to- ward the east make it easier for the settlers to travel across the moun- tains ? 2. Give the names of several of these rivers. 3. Why is it generally cooler in winter and warmer in summer in the central part of the country than in regions near the coast ? 4. What effect do you think the Great Lakes have upon the climate of the regions near them in winter and in summer? 5. Name in order the states that border on the Great Lakes. 6. What two rivers unite to form the Ohio River? 7. What states border on the Ohio River on the north and on the south ? 8. Name the states that border on the Mississippi River on the east. 9. Name the states that border on the Mississippi on the west. 10. Name in their order the row of states immediately west of those that border on the Mississippi. 11. Make a map of the states that border on the Ohio River. MISSISSIPPI RIVER SYSTEM 129 26. The Mississippi River System The Great Central Plain, together with the moun- tain slopes on either side, contains one of the largest river systems of the world. The changes wrought by rivers on the face of nature, and the effects of such changes upon the welfare of mankind, are very impor- Copyright by Detroit Publishing Co. Scene on the Upper Mississippi tant. We should be particularly interested in the effects of our own great river, which the Indians called the " Father of Waters." The Mississippi River is 2600 miles long, and the Missouri 3100 miles long. The combined length of the Missouri and that part of the Mississippi below the mouth of the Missouri is 4350 miles. If we consider the Missouri and the lower part of the Mississippi as one continuous river, we may say that it is the longest river in the world. 130 THE UNITED STATES All the water that flows in the rivers of this great ter- ritory, with the exception of a small section in the South, finds its way into the Mississippi and then into the Gulf of Mexico. The entire region drained by all these streams is therefore called the Mississippi Basin. We know that every river, from the point where it rises in highlands or mountains to the point where it Great Falls of the Missouri River flows into another body of water, is constantly produc- ing interesting and important changes. Hills and moun- tains are worn down, valleys are filled with rock waste, or soil, and portions of the land of the continent are carried into the ocean by the force of running water. The faster water runs, the greater power it has to wear away the soil, carry off waste particles, and move small rocks along. Near the sources of most rivers, in the hills or mountains, there are many cataracts and falls, and often some farther along in their middle courses. The water, flowing swiftly over these, wears MISSISSIPPI RIVER SYSTEM 131 the rocks into particles and carries the waste along, together with soil that is carried into the rivers by hun- dreds of brooks during heavy rains. Farther down in a river, where it flows more slowly, much of this matter settles and forms a mass of mud in the bed or along the banks. In some parts of such a A Flood Plain river the water moves faster than in other parts. Here the moving water carries away the mud and so wears out a deeper channel. In a very long time the bed in the shallow parts may be built up so high and the channel worn so deep that there will be room enough in the channel for all the water to flow. By this slow process, continued through thousands of years, a tract of level land is formed in a river valley, with the river flowing through it. Such land is called an alluvial plain or the flood plain of the river. The flood plains of some of the rivers of the Missis- sippi System, such as that of the Ohio River, are still so low that there is danger of overflow in times of 132 THE UNITED STATES heavy rain. Buildings are sometimes destroyed and people are drowned when there is an unusual rise in such a river. When a river overflows its banks, soil settles from the water, each time building up the flood plain a little higher. The greatest amount settles when the water first passes over the banks, hence these become higher than the land farther away, and have a gradual slope away from the river. The elevated banks have the Flood on the Ohio Rivei- at Lawrenceburg, Ind. favorable effect of preventing the river from overflowing as much as it otherwise would. Along some rivers it is necessary to make the banks still higher by con- structing levees to prevent the water from overflowing and destroying the crops. Wide sections of the flood plain of the Mississippi near its mouth are lower than the banks of the river. When the river is high, great care is taken to prevent it from breaking through. A river usually flows more slowly as it approaches its mouth, and since in slowly running water only very MISSISSIPPI RIVER SYSTEM 133 small particles of soil can be carried along, the soil of flood plains near the mouths of rivers is usually very fine and fertile. When the Mississippi reaches the Gulf of Mexico, it still carries a large amount of very fine soil, and this has built up a large and fertile delta. Rivers do not usually flow in straight lines, but make curves to the right and left across their flood plains. It is a curious fact that after a slight curve has been started in a river it will continually increase. The running water strikes with greater force against the bank on the outside of a curve than against that on the inside, and digs farther into the land. Sometimes long loops with narrow necks, called ox-bow loops, are formed in this way. After a time the river may wear its way entirely across the neck of a loop and then flow in a more direct course, instead of flowing through the loop. There are so many bends and loops in the Mis- sissippi River that the distance by a river boat from New Orleans to St. Louis is much greater than it is in a direct line. The best farming land of a country is usually on the flood plains of its rivers. The rich soil of these " bot- tom lands," or " intervals," composed of river mud, pro- duces very large crops. In some countries the greater part of the population is to be found on such flood plains. Below its union with the Ohio River the Mississippi flows through a flood plain from fifty to seventy miles wide. 1. In what season of the year do rivers carry away the greatest amount of soil? 2. There are often sand banks, or bars, in rivers at points where they begin to flow more slowly. Why is this ? 134 THE UNITED STATES 3. Why do not ships moving up a river go in a straight line along the middle of the river ? 4. Why is the land in river valleys generally level? 5. Why does the land of flood plains contain no stones? 6. Why are several cities along the Mississippi built upon high bluffs ? 7. Why does a large part of the population of some countries live upon the flood plains ? 8. Make a map showing the Mississippi River and the rivers flowing into it, which are called its tributaries. 27. Wheat and Corn On the Great Central Plain of the United States are the most extensive grain fields and corn fields in the world. The land is generally free from rocks and trees. The fields are so broad and level that the largest and most improved machines can be used in cultivating and harvesting the crops. The soil is very fertile and deep. In other places, as in portions of the eastern part of the country, the soil furnishes so little plant food that ex- pensive fertilizers must be added to make the crops grow, but in this section there is generally so much plant food in the soil that abundant crops will grow year after year, if there is rain enough to prevent drought. ^ Winds from the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mex- ico, passing freely up the Mississippi Valley, usually carry moisture enough to supply the needs of the crops. These winds are frequently a disadvantage. Since they are not checked by mountain ranges, they sometimes blow with great violence and destroy crops and build- ings. In winter severe snowstorms with high winds often sweep over the northern part of the country. Such storms are called blizzards. The use of machines and the great fertility of the soil WHEAT AND CORN 135 make it possible to raise here immense quantities of the great food crops of the world. Some of the cities of Europe depend largely upon this great American farm region for their supply of food. If all the grain fields of the United States were combined, they would cover Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N.Y. A Harvester drawn by Thirty-three Horses a territory as large as five or six of the smaller countries of Europe. Wheat is raised to a large extent in all of the Central States. A section especially noted for the wheat crop is called the Red River Plains because it lies in the val- ley of the Red River of the North. These plains are nearly as level as the ocean. When the Ice Sheet moved down across the country, it extended across the valley 136 THE UNITED STATES of the Red River of the North. It prevented the water from flowing north and caused it to form a great lake in front of the ice. As the ice melted, the soil that it con- tained was spread evenly over the bottom of this lake. When the ice had all melted, the river flowed north again and the bed of the lake became dry and level land. This Machine plows and sows at the Same Time Over this region in summer there are fields of waving wheat as far as the eye can see. The most extensive of these level wheat farms are in Minnesota, North Dakota, and South Dakota. There are farms in that region each containing thousands of acres of wheat and employing hundreds of men. Our entire wheat crop usually amounts to more than seven hundred million bushels a year. This immense quantity furnishes business for many railroads, steam- boats, and canal boats that carry wheat to flour mills and take both wheat and flour to the cities of the East and to seaports from which they are shipped abroad. WHEAT AND CORN 137 The United States is by no means the only country in which a great amount of wheat is raised. Wheat is becoming the most common and popular article of food among the civilized peoples of the world. It is an important crop in so many regions of the earth that at all times of the year there are farmers in some countries Grain Elevators engaged in the wheat harvest. The countries of Europe raise about one half of the world's snpply of wheat, but in addition to this amount they buy nearly all that other countries have to sell. We also raise a vast amount of corn in the Central States. Since we use but little corn for food and see comparatively little carried on cars and boats, it does not attract onr attention as much as wheat. To many it will be a surprising statement that we usually raise more than three times as many bushels of corn as of 138 THE UNITED STATES wheat. Our corn crop usually amounts to over two and one half billion bushels. Some of the corn is shipped away to market, but a large part of it is fed to live stock upon the farms. A considerable quantity of corn is used in manufactur- ing certain products. We all know what corn starch is. More than one half of every grain of corn is composed of starch of fine quality, and there are many factories in the country which manufacture it. By treatment with certain acids the starchy part of corn is converted into a sirup called glucose. From the yellow germs of the grains corn oil is pressed. This is sometimes used as a substitute for olive oil and for making paint and soap. By a process called vulcanizing, corn oil is changed to corn rubber. It is cheaper than gum rubber and is mixed with the gum for making rubbers and rubber boots. Corn stalks, which farmers formerly left in the fields to decay, are very useful. It has been found that good paper may be made from the outer portions. Even the white pith in the interior of the stalks is put to interest- ing uses. It is similar to cotton in composition, and is used in place of cotton in the manufacture of celluloid. Like cotton, when soaked in acids it becomes gun cotton, a very powerful explosive. 1. Why are the farms larger in the central part of the country than in the eastern part? 2. Find about how much the average wheat crop of the country would be worth at ninety cents a bushel. 3. At Peoria, Illinois, a large amount of corn is manufactured into various products. Locate Peoria. 4. Minneapolis has very large flour mills. Where is it situated? LIVE STOCK 139 5. How are the Great Lakes and the rivers in the eastern part of the country an advantage to the farmers farther west? 6. Why have such cities as New York and Baltimore become larger on account of the wheat fields of the West ? 28. Live Stock Cattle, sheep, and swine, so many of which are raised to supply people with food and clothing, are found in greatest numbers in places where their food is most easily obtained. It requires a large amount of land to produce grass and grain for these animals. Those of us who live in cities and towns may never have seen a large herd of cattle because the land near such localities is too valuable to be devoted to pasturage. On a western ranch a single owner may have as many as twenty thousand cattle. On account of cheap land for pasturage, the ease of raising corn and other grains for fattening animals, and the climate which is healthful for live stock, the United States raises more cattle than any other country of the world. The number of cattle in the country is nearly as great as that of all the men, women, and children who live in it. 140 THE UNITED STATES The largest herds of cattle and sheep are pastured on ranches on the Great Plains. The greater part of the land west of the 100th meridian of longitude is too dry for profitable farming, but moist enough during a portion of the year to produce sufficient grass for pastur- age. Bunch grass is the most common kind that grows on these plains. When this becomes ripe and dry, it does not spoil as ordinary hay spoils when exposed to the weather, but is always good food for the animals. On portions of the plains this grass is very scanty, and several CATTLE IN THE UNITED STATES acres are nec- essary to sup- port a single animal. On this account a large herd must roam over an immense territory in order to find sufficient food. Before these cattle are ready for the market they need to be fattened with corn. Corn is sometimes shipped West to the ranches from the corn region, but more fre- quently the cattle are shipped to the corn-producing states. Many a farmer, instead of selling his crop of corn, finds it more profitable to purchase a carload or two of steers from the ranches, feed them corn, and sell them at a much higher price after they are fattened. On most of the corn-producing farms of these Central LIVE STOCK 141 States live stock is raised as the best means of market- ing the crop. In addition to other branches of farming more live stock is raised here than on the same amount of territory in the region of the Great Plains. When the animals have been fattened, it costs much less to ship them to market than it would to send the amount of food that they have eaten. rm m-f Loading a Cattle Train We also raise more hogs than any other country. About one third of our immense crop of corn is fed to swine for producing pork. American pork is a common article of food in many foreign countries. Some cattle are shipped alive across the Atlantic to Europe, in steamships specially fitted for this purpose, but most of the fat cattle, swine, and sheep are sent to meat-packing centers, the largest of which are Chicago, Kansas City, in Kansas, Omaha, and St. Louis. 142 THE UNITED STATES Chicago is the greatest stock market and meat-pack- ing center in the world. The Union Stock Yards, where animals are un- loaded from cars and kept in yards before they are slaughtered, are of astonishing size. They contain twenty miles of streets. It is said that there are one hundred and fifty miles of railroad track in and about the yards for the accommodation of cattle trains. The slaughter houses and meat-packing houses are immense establishments in which thousands of people are employed. The fresh meat when prepared for ship- ment is sent in refrigerator cars to the various cities of the country. Much of the meat is preserved by salting, smoking, and canning. All parts of the animals are saved for some useful purposes. The blood is used as a fertilizer, the hides are tanned for leather, the hair is used for making cheap cloth, some of the bones are manufactured into knife handles, combs, and buttons, and glue is made from the marrow of the bones. Copyright by Underwood & Underwood- Union Stock Yards LIVE STOCK 143 Dairying also is a large industry in the Central States. On many of the farms large herds of milch cows are kept for this purpose. The numerous towns and cities are supplied with fresh milk, and train loads of butter and cheese are shipped away week after week to more distant markets. .*■ isms Horses in a Pasture The " blue-grass " region in the northern part of Ken- tucky is one of the richest pasture regions in the world. Many fine trotting horses and saddle horses are raised there. 1. Name in order the states, from North Dakota to Texas, across which the Great Plains extend. 2. Why is there not much dairying on the Great Plains ? 3. Name cities through which a train would probably pass in going from Chicago to Boston. 4. About how long would it take for a train to go from Chicago to New York at the rate of thirty miles an hour? 5. Name cities through which a train would be likely to pass in going from St. Louis to Philadelphia. 6. More mules are raised in Missouri than in any other state. Why are they specially useful in that region ? 7. St. Joseph has a meat-packing establishment. In what part of Missouri is it? 8. Make a map of the Central Section, showing the location of the meat-packing centers. 144 THE UNITED STATES 29. Various Products Other products besides wheat and corn are raised in the central farming region. The most important of these are oats, barley, flax, hay, potatoes, tobacco, and fruits. We grow, in this country, nearly a billion bushels of oats every year. The number of bushels is sometimes greater than that of the wheat crop. Why then do we make so much more account of wheat than of our oats ? One an- swer is that the figures are decep- tive, because a bushel of oats weighs only about one half as much as a bushel of wheat. Another answer is that oats are chiefly used as feed for horses and do not attract so much attention as wheat and corn, which are used for human food or to fatten animals for producing human food. Oats are used to some extent for breakfast foods, but only a small amount is required for this purpose. More barley is raised in some foreign countries than in our own. It is a kind of grain that will grow and mature in a very short time. It will therefore thrive in the far North, where summers are short. It is raised as Loading Oats VARIOUS PRODUCTS 145 far north as Alaska and Iceland. The principal use of barley in the United States is for producing malt, which is necessary in the process of making beer. Most of the flax of the United States is raised in the Central States west of the Mississippi River. In some countries of Europe flax is raised chiefly for the purpose of manufacturing linen, but until recently farmers in the Pulling Flax, Minnesota United States have raised the crop primarily to obtain the seed, which is called linseed. Only a small amount of linen is produced in this country, and most of that is manufactured into thread and coarse toweling. Linseed oil, which is pressed from linseed, is used for making paint and for manufacturing oilcloth and lino- leum. The remaining part is used as feed for farm animals. Some fruit of various kinds is raised upon the farms here, as in other parts of the country, but in certain places, where the soil and climate are very favorable, fruit raising is a leading occupation. Some varieties of fruit thrive in the vicinity of the Great Lakes where 146 THE UNITED STATES the effect of these vast bodies of water is to modify the cold of winter and the heat of summer. There are many large vineyards in the Chautauqua grape belt, which extends along the shore of Lake Erie, through Pennsylvania, into Ohio. Michigan, which is in the midst of the lakes, produces large crops of apples and peaches, and an abundance of other fruits. Much tobacco is raised in parts of Missouri and southern Wisconsin, where conditions of soil and climate are favorable. Most of the hemp that this country produces is raised in the blue-grass region of Kentucky. It grows like a crop of tall grain. The seed is used as food for caged birds. Hemp fibers are obtained from the stalks, as fibers of linen are obtained from flax, by soaking and softening the stalks until the fibers can be separated. The great prairie region is not so destitute of trees as it once was. Most of the settlers have planted trees about their buildings for shade and for protection against violent winds, and large numbers of small tracts have been planted with forest trees for the purpose of producing timber. In the region of the Great Lakes there are extensive forests of timber. Indeed this region has been regarded as the most important lumber region in the world. The forests of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan supply the greater part of the white pine lumber of the country. This is in great demand for building purposes, and the supply is rapidly diminishing. Waterfalls in these states, caused by the Ice Sheet, furnish power for manu- facturing the lumber, and it is easily shipped away on VARIOUS PRODUCTS 141 the lakes and rivers, as well as by railroads. Such cities as Minneapolis, Duluth, and Superior are great lumber centers. In the Lumber District, Minneapolis 1. Name the states of this section that are west of the Mississippi River. 2. Why will not many kinds of fruit trees thrive in northern Minnesota ? 3. Milwaukee is noted for its large breweries. About how far is it from Chicago? 4. There are large lumber mills at La Crosse and Oshkosh. In what State are they ? 5. Saginaw and Bay City are also lumber centers. Where are they situated ? 6. Grand Rapids is noted for the manufacture of furniture. In what part of Michigan is it? 7. In what way would lumber probably be shipped from Duluth to Chicago? 8. In what way would it probably be shipped from St. Louis? 9. Make a map of this section, showing the lumber regions and the regions where fruits are extensively raised. 148 THE UNITED STATES 30. Coal and Iron Anthracite coal, or hard coal, is found in a compara- tively small region in northeastern Pennsylvania. The coal of the Central States is bituminous, or soft coal. One very large coal field extends across western Penn- sylvania, Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Alabama. Another covers portions of Indiana and Illinois. There are other fields in the states west of the Mississippi River. (See map on page 56.) Since wood for fuel is so scarce in this part of the country, it is fortunate that a plentiful supply of coal is near at hand. Cheap coal also makes manufacturing possible in a section where there is little water power. Coke, which is nsed for smelting iron ore, is prepared from bituminous coal, and the abundance of this is of great advantage in producing iron and in manufacturing articles from iron and steel. Formerly most of the iron ore that was used in this country was taken from the Pennsylvania mines, but in recent years it has been obtained in large quantities in the vicinity of Lake Superior, in the states of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. Rich beds of ore were discovered in several small -ranges of hills or mountains south and west of the lake. These mines are of great value, not only because they contain vast quantities of iron ore, but especially because the ore can be obtained and smelted at small expense. Iron ore is very common in various parts of the world. It is to be found in many of our states. But it is usually of little value because it is in locations where it COAL AND IRON 149 cannot be easily obtained or where it would be expensive to procure coal or coke for smelting it. The ore in the Lake Superior district looks like red earth. A part of it is so soft that it can be scooped up with steam shovels and loaded directly on cars. More frequently it is loosened by blasting. In some places it is taken up through shafts from below the surface. The mines are not very far distant from the lake and the ore is easily drawn to the shore upon short railways. Some of these railways slope slightly from the mines to the lake, and loaded cars will run down to the shore by their own weight. The cars are run out upon great piers built high above the lake, and the loads are dumped into bins under- neath. Boats then pass under the bins and are quickly loaded. These boats carry the ore to cities on the south- ern shores of the lakes, where it is unloaded with great steam shovels. It is then either smelted with coke brought from the coal fields which are not far away, or taken by canals or railroads to Pittsburg or to other points in the coal regions. In an Iron Ore Mine, Mesabi Range, Minn. 150 THE UNITED STATES The great demand for iron and steel and the ease with which ore can be obtained from the Lake Superior dis- trict has rendered this an enormous business. One great corporation has over one hundred freight boats en- gaged in carrying ore. On account of cheap coal and cheap iron ore we produce more iron and steel than any other country, and have become the greatest manufac- turing people the world. Loading a Ship with Iron Ore in 1. Name lake ports that are near the iron mines. 2. The ore at Ishpeming is very soft. Where is Ishpeming? 3. Name several cities on the southern shores of the lakes to which ore may be shipped. 4. What city on the shore of Lake Erie is nearest Pittsburg? 5. How far is it from Pittsburg to Cleveland ? 6. How would a vessel from Superior reach Chicago? 7. About how long is the voyage from Superior to Chicago? 8. How would a vessel from Duluth reach Buffalo ? 9. Find about how long the voyage is from Duluth to Buffalo. 10. Why is not iron ore sent to the coal fields by railroads? 11. At Buffalo heavy machinery and many car wheels are made. Why is this a favorable place for manufacturing heavy articles of iron? 12. Make a map showing the coal fields and the fields of iron ore in the Central Section. OTHER MINERALS 151 31. Other Minerals More than one half of all the copper of the world is obtained in the United States. The value of our copper is now greater than that of all the gold that is brought from our gold mines. The use of copper has increased rapidly since the invention of electric lights, tele- phones, and electric railroads. Copper is a good conductor of electricity. This means that a current of electricity will pass along copper very easily. Many of the streets, shops, and houses of nearly every city or large town in the country are now lighted by electricity. The electric current is produced at a central power house and goes out along copper wires, which extend through the streets for many miles. Cars on electric railways are driven by the force of electric currents passing along large copper wires. We see telephone wires not only on city streets, but Electric Power House 152 THE UNITED STATES also along many country roads. The telephone has be- come a great convenience in farm homes. It has ren- dered country life less lonely. Over one hundred and fifty million pounds of copper a year have recently been used in extending telephone systems. A Copper Mining Town The pipe leading up the hill carries away sulphur fumes from the smelter Brass contains much copper. It is made by melting copper and zinc together. Bronze is composed of copper and tin. We not only produce copper enough to supply our own wants, but also send a large quantity to Europe and other parts of the world. The greater part of our copper is obtained in the mountainous states of the West, but there are very rich mines in the northern part of Michigan near the south- OTHER MINERALS 153 ern shore of Lake Superior. Indians found beds of cop- per upon the surface when the country was a wilderness, and afterward deep mines were opened. The rock containing copper ore is broken up and brought to the surface, where it is crushed to powder under powerful ham- mers in stamp mills. Streams of water then wash away the lighter particles of rock and leave the heavier particles of copper ore. After this the pure copper is separated by smelt- ing. So many people are employed in this work that several large towns have sprung up in the vi- cinity of the mines. The largest mine in this region is called the Calumet and Hecla. It is one of the richest and most wonder- ful mines in the world. It has produced in a single year over one hundred million pounds of copper. It is the deepest mine in the world. Copper ore is found in veins several feet thick, with layers of rock between them. Shafts are sunk down through veins of ore and Copyright by Detroit Photographic Co. Miners coming up from a Calumet and Hecla Shaft 154 THE UNITED STATES from these shafts tunnels are extended through the veins in all directions. Some of the shafts reach down more than four thousand feet below the bottom of Lake Superior. In this mine there are hundreds of miles of tun- nels, similar to the streets of a town. Through these tunnels trains of cars are drawn by electric locomotives. There are real villages of people under the ground with electric lights on the streets, with police officers and a fire department. From the bottom of the mine the people can talk by the telephone with their friends in Chicago or in other cities. If we should go to the bottom of such a mine, we might find it uncomfortably warm, and this would re- mind us of the truth of what we have already learned, that the earth in its interior is still very hot. The miners are kept comfortable by draughts of air from the surface. Lead and zinc are obtained in the Central States. Some is found in Wisconsin, Kansas, and Arkansas, but more is obtained in Missouri. These two metals are found in small pockets embedded in limestone. Lead is a very soft metal. It is used for roofing and for making pipes. Zinc is a harder metal. It is used in making brass and galvanized iron and for various other purposes. There are many beds of clay in this part of the coun- try. Clay is good for making bricks, but some of finest quality is made into pottery. From a bed of clay near Cincinnati a fine grade of pottery is manufactured in that city. The clay is first moistened and then shaped OTHER MINERALS 155 on a potter's wheel or with a mold into the form of the article desired. After the article has been dried and hardened by baking in a kiln, it is decorated and then covered with glaze. Tn this level section the layers of sandstone and lime- stone are mostly buried deep beneath the soil, but in some places the rivers have worn their beds through Work-room in a Pottery these layers and there the stone may be easily obtained. Large quantities of stone are obtained from quarries in Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. 1. Name a number of articles that are made of copper. 2. Name a number of articles that are made of brass. 3. Much lead and zinc are mined at Joplin. In what part of Mis- souri is it ? 4. The town of Calumet is near the great copper mine. In w T hat part of Michigan is it ? 5. In what part of Ohio is Cincinnati ? 6. Beds of clay were formed by the Ice Sheet. Why are there more of them in the Northern States than in the Southern States? 7. Why is no granite easily found in the Central States? 156 THE UNITED STATES 32. Cities near the Great Lakes We should expect to find most of the large cities of this central part of the country either on the shores of the Great Lakes or along the large rivers, where com- merce may be carried on both by boats and by railroads. ght by Detroit Publishing Co. The Heart of Chicago The great system of lakes is of immense value to the country. Vast quantities of grain, lumber, iron ore, and other articles are shipped across the lakes to the East, and manufactured articles are shipped to the West in return. About one hundred million tons of freight are now transported on the Great Lakes in a year. The cost of shipping goods on lake boats is much less than the cost by railroads. The saving amounts to more than five hundred million dollars a year. Such a great amount of commerce furnishes business for the cities where the goods are shipped or received. CITIES NEAR THE GREAT LAKES 157 The largest of the lake cities and the second largest in the country is Chicago. Nearly all the railroads that have been built across the northwestern part of the country begin or end at Chicago. It has a central position in the section where vast quantities of grain and live stock are raised. Lumber and iron ore are easily brought on the lakes from the north. Chi- cago has become the greatest meat- packing center, the greatest grain market, the great- est lumber market, and the greatest railroad center in the world. Milwaukee is the largest city in Wisconsin. It is, like Chicago, a trading center for lumber, grain, and live stock. It is specially noted for dealing largely in hides and leather. Many of the skins of animals slaughtered in the meat-packing cities are tanned in Mil- waukee with the bark of trees from Wisconsin forests. The word Detroit is a French word that means strait. Detroit is situated at a place where all vessels going east and west must pass, and where railway trains run- Copyright by Detroit Publishing Co. Wisconsin St., Milwaukee 158 THE UNITED STATES ning between the eastern part of Canada and the West are ferried across the narrow strait. It is a convenient center for the manufacture and shipment of goods. At Cleveland, which is situated near the coal-fields, much iron ore is handled, and a large amount of machinery Copyright by Detroit Publishing Co. Lafayette Square, Buffalo and hardware is manufactured. Many ships are built there for commerce on the lakes. A great amount of petroleum, which is brought through pipes from the petroleum fields, is refined at Cleveland. Buffalo has a good harbor on Lake Erie and many rail- roads, and has become a great commercial center. Im- mense quantities of grain are shipped east from there through the Erie canal and by railroad. Electric light and electric power in Buffalo are obtained from Niagara Falls. CITIES NEAB THE GREAT LAKES 159 1. Name the capital city of each of the states of this section that border on the Great Lakes. Name the largest city in each of these states. Name all the cities that are situated on the shores of Lake Erie. About how far is Niagara Falls from Buffalo ? Explain how Buffalo can use the water power of Niagara Falls. Duluth is the eastern terminus of a railroad to the Pacific coast. Why is that city at a favorable point for such a terminus? Boat in Lock on St. Mary's Canal 7. Through the St. Mary's Canal more freight is carried than through any other canal in the world. Where is that canal? 8. Name different kinds of freight that pass through the St. Mary's Canal. 9. What will be the effect upon Chicago when boats are able to pass from that city through a canal to the Mississippi River and down the Mississippi Valley to New Orleans ? 10. Gary grew quickly from a village to a city of considerable size because immense steel mills were located there. About how far is it from Chicago? 11. Make a map of the region of the Great Lakes, showing the loca- tion of all the cities along their shores. 160 THE UNITED STATES 33. Cities along the Rivers Of the cities situated along the rivers of the central part of the country, St. Louis is the largest. It has a favorable location, as it is near the center of the great Mississippi Valley. It is not only on the Missis- sippi River, but is also not far from the mouths of the Missouri and the Ohio, and boats can easily reach it Copyright by Detroit Photographic Co. The Great Eads Bridge at St. Louis from the north, south, east, or west. Two immense railroad bridges, which cross the Mississippi at St. Louis, have tended to make it a great railroad center. It not only deals largely in grain and live stock, but since it is so far south, it also has a large trade in cotton and tobacco. Great quantities of various kinds of goods are manufactured in St. Louis. Minneapolis and St. Paul are called the " Twin Cities of the Northwest." They are only a few miles apart, and from their rapid growth it is probable that within a few years they will practically form one city. Near CITIES ALONG THE RIVERS 161 Minneapolis are the great Falls of St. Anthony, and since the two cities are near the head of navigation of the Mississippi, they have the double advantage of com- merce by the river and power from the waterfalls. The growth of the "Twin Cities" has been remark- able. Only a little more than half a century ago the great Northwest, including what is now Minnesota, western Wisconsin, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Copyright by Detroit Photographic Co. St. Anthony's Falls and the Milling District, Minneapolis Montana, was a wilderness of forests and prairies in- habited by roving Indians. Wheat farms upon the prairies and lumber from the forests have increased busi- ness so rapidly that these business centers of the section have quickly grown from small villages to great cities. At Minneapolis there are great sawmills along the banks of the river. Many of these mills are now silent because some of the forests from which they were supplied with logs have been cut away. But the supply of wheat from prairie farms is never failing. The city has over twenty great flour mills, some of which are among the largest flour mills in the world. All of 162 THE UNITED STATES these mills together are capable of manufacturing fif- teen or twenty million barrels of flour in a year. The manufacture of barrels for such a great amount of flour is of itself an industry of much importance. St. Paul, a short distance farther down the river, has not the advantages for manufacturing that Minne- apolis has, but it is the trading center for a great A, J I J ,./~>*44*:. il. * if- ' Copyright by Detroit Photographic Co. Omaha farming region. From that city the products of the farms are sent east and south, and such articles as farming implements, clothing, and furniture, which the farmers need in return, are sent to the smaller towns. Kansas City and Omaha on the Missouri River are surrounded by a fertile farming country where much grain and live stock are raised. They are naturally great trading and distributing centers for the farmers. They are near the ranching country where large herds of cattle and sheep are raised and have great advan- tages for dealing in live stock and packing meats. CITIES ALONG THE KIVERS 163 The largest city in the valley of the Ohio River, below Pittsburg, is Cincinnati. It is an important manufacturing center. Besides fine pottery made from clay found in the vicinity, it manufactures much ma- chinery and clothing. In such a rich farming region as this, many impor- tant towns and even some large cities spring up at long Copyright by Detroit Photographic Co. Along the Levee, Cincinnati distances from the lakes and rivers. Trading centers are necessary for handling the crops of the farms, and the most convenient and natural locations for these are at points where railroads cross one another. Such railroad centers and trading centers are Columbus, in Ohio, and Indianapolis, the capital of Indiana. The latter is the largest city of the United States not situ- ated near navigable water. 1. The largest river city of Indiana is Evansville. It manufactures much flour. In what part of the state is it? 2. Sioux City is a live stock center. Locate it. 164 THE UNITED STATES 3. Dead wood is a mining center in the region of the Black Hills. In what state is it? 4. Fargo is at the head of navigation of the Red River. In what state is it ? 5. Kansas City is the name of each of two adjoining cities situated in different states. Name the two states. 6. Louisville is the greatest tobacco market. On what river is it ? 7. Name the capital cities of all the states of this section that do not border on the Great Lakes. 8. Name the largest city in each of these states. 9. Make a drawing of the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio rivers, and locate upon them the most important cities. REVIEW 1. Describe the Great Central Plain. 2. Tell about the buffaloes that once lived upon the Great Plains. 3. What mountains are there on the Great Central Plain ? 4. How has the soil in the southern part of this section been formed ? 5. How long is the Mississippi River ? 6. In what part of the course of a river are many falls and cataracts usually found? 7. How are flood plains formed ? 8. Why are levees built on the banks of some rivers? 9. Why is the soil near the mouths of rivers usually very fertile ? 10. Why do we raise more grain and corn than other countries? 11. How were the Red River Plains formed? 12. Where are our largest wheat farms? 13. How large is our crop of Indian corn ? 14. What is done with the greater part of this corn? 15. State several other uses of corn. 16. How are the cattle of the Great Plains fattened for market ? 17. Why do not the farmers sell their corn instead of feeding it to live stock ? 18. Name several meat-packing centers. 19. Describe the Chicago stock yards. 20. AVhat becomes of our large crop of oats ? 21. Where will barley grow, and for what purposes is it used ? 22. What is the chief purpose for which flax has been raised in this country ? 23. Tell about lumbering in the region of the Great Lakes. 24. In what states are the largest coal-fields of the Central Section ? REVIEW 165 i mi v HI v . ! ■■■: f *' % i 1 ^^^m ^E^BiNH' ii-m.i '' ^ ; Copyright by Detroit Publishing C The Campus, Detroit 25. From what states of the section is iron ore obtained? 26. Explain the methods of obtaining iron ore. 27. State what is done with the ore. 28. Why do we produce more iron and steel than any other country ? 29. How much copper do we obtain from our mines? 30. For what purposes is so much copper used ? 31. Tell about the Lake Superior copper mines. 32. How is copper obtained from the mines ? 33. Where are lead and zinc found ? 34. State purposes for which lead and zinc are used. 35. Explain how the Great Lakes are of much advantage to commerce? 36. Describe the location of Chicago. 37. Explain the leading industries of Chicago. 38. Tell about Milwaukee. 39. Why has Detroit a situation favorable for commerce? 40. What are the leading industries of Cleveland? 41. Why has Buffalo become a great commercial center? 42. Why is St. Louis favorably situated? 43. Tell about the lumber business and flour business of Minneapolis. 44. For what articles is St. Paul a great trading center? 45. What can you say about Kansas City and Omaha? 46. Tell something about Columbus and Indianapolis. 166 THE UNITED STATES THE WESTERN SECTION 34. Physical Features and Climate The western part of the United States is a region of wonderful scenery. In sharp contrast with the prairies and plains of the Central Section, it is crossed by moun- tain ranges extending north into Canada and south into Mexico. Most of the territory be- tween these ranges consists of plateaus which, although low in comparison with the height of the mountains, are yet a mile or more above the level of the sea. Some of the mountains rise to a height of two or three miles above sea level. In the northern part of the section the elevated region through which the Columbia River flows is called the Columbia Plateau. In the southern part the region crossed by the Colorado River is called the Colorado Plateau. In the central part, between these plateaus, there is a lower region Canon of Crooked River Showing how the river has cut its course through the Columbia plateau Port A^^mm^^ Mia* 0, yi^§fe Wr 1 / \rf3?Wist.,n' ( ;/"» , ■ Great Falls^r $ M O^N T A / N A .Missoula.^ l§lena InSuah .. M 77 iE.. /The)Da7J<« >. / )< . Duluth (do-loth'), 147. 1 Dur'-rtam, 114. E'-rie Canal ' E'-rie Lake. 33, 123. Es'-tfi-a-rits. J Eureka (u-re'-ka), 191. Ev'-ans-vilte. 1( Ev'-er-glad^, 95. Fall Line, 120. Fall River, 36. 37. Far'-go. 164. -4. Fishing. 47. Flax. 145. Flood plain. 131. Flor'-i-da. 96, 112. Flor'-i-da Keys. 95. Flour. 138. 161. Forests. 43. 107. 146, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190. Forest regions. 190. Forest reserves, 190. Fort Worth. 114. Fun'-dy. Bay of. 7". Gal'-ves-ton. 118. 119. Garden of the Gods, 198, 202. G&'-ry, 169. Gas'-o-line (len), 67. 212 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 114. Geor'-gi-a, 101, 102, 112, 11 Gey'-ser (gl), 199, 200. Gla'-ciers (shers), 21. Gloucester (glos'-ter) , 49, 56. Gold, 173, 177. Government, 17. Grand Banks, 47. Grand Canon (kan'-yon), 200, 201 Grand llapids, 147. Granite, 53, 114. Grape fruit, 184. Grapes, 184. Great Central Plain, 134. Great Lakes, 128, 145, 156. Great Plains, 5, 128, 140. Great Salt Lake, 171, 172. Green'-land, 24. Green Mountains, 84. Gulf -port, 119. Halibut (hol'-i-but), 50. Hart'-fprd, 37. Hat'-te-ras, Cape, 96. Ha-va'-na, 112. Ha'-ver-ftill, 37. Ha-wai'-ian (yan) Islands, 105. Hel'-e-na, 180. Hemlock, 45. Hemp, 146. Hol'-yoke, 46. Hood, Mt., 168, 203. Hops, 181. Hot Springs, 121. Hud'-son River, 76. Hydraulic (hl-dralMk) mining, 177. Ice Age, 25. Ice'-bergs, 24. Ice Sheet, 21, 127, 128. I'-da-ho, 167. Il-li-nois', 155. Im-pe'-ri-al Valley, 184. In-di-an'-a, 155. In-di-an-ap'-o-lis, 163. In'-di-an corn, 134, 137, 138. In'-di-an Reservations, 13, 174. In'-di-an River, 113. In'-di-ans, 12, 174. I'-o-wa, 124. Iron, 61, 148. Irrigation, 181, 182, 183, 184, 186. Ish'-pem-ing, 150. Jack'-son-vh7e, 110. Jap-an-ese', 16, -175, 1* 126, 128, Jetties, 110. Jop'-lin, 155. Kan'-sas, 154. Kan'-sas City, Kan., 141, 162, 164. Ka-taft'-din, Mt., 46, 54. Ken-tuck'-y, 111, 113, 143, 146. Kerosene, 68. Key West, 111, 121. La Crosse, 147. Lakes, 28. Lan'-cas-ter, 42. Lar'-a-m/e, 186. LaSilUe, 16. Lau-ren'-ti-an (shi-an) Plateau, 5. Lead, 154. Lead'viUe, 179, 180. Lemons, 184. Lev-ees', 116, 117. Limestone, 52, 55, 155. Linseed oil, 145. Live stock, 139. LZa'-no Ks-ta-ca'-do, 113. Lobsters, 50. Long Branch, 85. Long Island, 33. Longs Peak, 172. Los An'-ge-les, 173, 194. Louisiana (lo-e-zi-an'-a), 112. Lou'-is-viUe (lo), 164. Loio'-elZ, 37. INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 213 Lumber, 44, 107. Lynchburg (linch'-berg) , 42. Mackerel, 50. Ma'-con, 110, 120. Maine, 43, 76, 84. Manufacturing, 30. Marble, 54, 114. Mariposa (mar-e-po'-za) Grove, 198. Marthas Vineyard, 75, 86. Maryland (mer'-i-land) , 93. Mas-sa-chu'-seMs, 36. Mem '-phis (fls), 110. Mer'-ri-mac, 37. Mex'-i-co, Gulf of, 93. Mich'-i-gan (inish), 146, 148, 152. Mich'-i-gan, Lake, 125. Mil-waw'-kee, 147, 157. Mining, 176. Min-we-ap'-o-lis, 138, 147, 160, 161. Min-ne-so'-ta, 128, 146, 148. Mis-sis-sip'-pi, 112. Mis-sis-sip'-pi Basin, 118, 130. Mis-sis-sip'-pi River, 129, 130, 132, 133. Mis-sow '-ri, 154. Mis-sow'-ri River, 130. Miteh'-ell, Mt., 91. Mo-bile' (bel), 110, 119. Mo'-hawk River, 79. Mon-ta'-na, 161, 179. Mont-gom'-er-y, 110, 120. Moose'-head Lake, 84. Mo-raine', 22. Mor'-mons, 182. M5'-qui (ki) Indians, 174. Mount De-serf, 85. Mules, 113, 143. Nan-tuck'-et, 75, m. Nar-ra-gan'-seU Bay, 76, 86. Navajos (nav'-a-hSs), 174. Naval stores, 108. Navel oranges, 185. Ne-bras'-ka, 124. Negroes, 15. Ne-va'-da, 36, 171. New Bed'-ford, 37. New England, 30, 76. New'-found-land, 47. New Hamp'-shire, 84. New Ha'-ven, 37. New Jersey (jer'-zi), 42, 76. 85. New Mex'-i-co, 173, 174. New Or'-le-ans, 115, 117. Newport (nu'-port), 86. New York City, 65, 78. New York State, 39, 41, 42. Nl-ag'-a-ra Falls, 86. Nor'-fpZk, 51. North Amer'-i^ca, 2. North Car-o-li'-na, 111, 112. North Da-ko'-ta, 161. Northeastern Section, 30. Oak, 110. Oak'-land, 192. Oats, 144. Ocean, 70. Og'-den, 196. O-hi'-o, 155. O-hi'-o River, 131, 132. Oil, 65. Oil City, 70. Ok-la-ho'-ma, 14, 114. O'-ma-ha, 141, 162. On-ta'-ri-o, Lake, 33. Oranges, 112, 113, 184. Or'-e-gon, 170, 180, 186, 187. Osh'-kosh, 147. Ox'-bow loops, 133. Oysters, 50. O-zark' Mountains, 127. Palm Beach, 121. Pal-met'-to, 110. Pan-a-ma' Canal, 195. Paper, 45. 214 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY Paio-tuck'-et, 37. Peanuts, 112. Penw-syl-va'-ni-a, 39. Pen-sa-co'-la, 109, 110, 119. Pe-o'-ri-a, 138. Pe-tro'-le-um, 67. Phil-a-del'-phi-a, 65, 80. PhilMp-pine Islands, 105. Phosphate (fos'-fat) rock, 114. Pied'-mont Belt, 91, 120. Pikes Peak, 172, 202. Pineapples, 113, 121. Pitts'-burg (berg), 60, 149. Placer mining, 177. Pon£-char-tram', Lake, 116. P5rt'-land, Me., 33. Port'-land, Ore., 192, 203. Por'-to Ri'-co (re), 105. Po-to'-mac River, 33. Pottery, 154. Prai'-rks, 123, 128. Prov'-i-denge, 33, 37. Prov'-inge-town, 51. Prunes, 184. Pueblos (pweb'los), 174, 180. Pu'-get Sound, 191, 193. Quarries, 53. Quincy (kwin'-zi), 56. Quicklime, 55, 56. Quicksilver, 180. Rain, 8. Rainfall, 11, 169. Rangeley (ranj'-li) Lakes, 84. Rainier (ra'-ner), Mt., 168. Rec-la-ma'-tion centers, 184. Red River Plains, 135. Refineries, 106. Resin, 108. Rhode Island, 36. Rice, 102. Ro-an-5ke', 65. Roch'-es-ter, 70. RockMand, 56. Rocky Mountains, 3, 197. Rut'-land, 55. Sac-ra-men'-to, 196. Sac-ra-inen'-to River, 185, 191. Sag'-i-naw, 147. St. AP-bans, Vt., 42. St. A?<'-gus-tine (ten), 121. St. Joseph, 143. St. Louis (lo'-is), 141, 160. St. Marys Canal, 159. St. Paul, 160, 161, 162. Sa'-lem, 33. Salmon (sam'-un), 192, 193. Salt, 65, 69. San Diego (de-a'-go), 195. Sandstone, 52, 155. San Fran-cis'-co, 173, 191, 192. San Joaquin (san ho-a-keen') River, 185. San Jose (san ho-sa'), 196. San Pe'-dro, 194. San-ta Bar'-ba-ra, 173, 196. San'-ta F6' (fa), 176. Sar-a-to'-ga, 86. Sa-van'-na^, 100, 109, 110, 119. Schuylkill (skol'-kil) River, 80. Scran'-ton, 60. Se-at'-ae, 193. Sequoia (se-kwoi'-a) , 186, 198. Shas'-ta, Mt., 168. Si-er'-ra (se) Ne-va'-da Mountains, 197. Silver, 178, 179. Sfoux City, 163. Snake River, 171. South Car-o-H'-na, 101. South Da-ko'-ta, 1(51. Southern States, 91. Span'-iard (yard), 15, 173. Spo-kane', 196. Spo-kane' River, 196. Spring'-field, 37. INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 215 Steel, 63. Stock'-ton, 196. Stock yards, 142. Stones, 52. Strat'-i-fied rock, 153. Sugar, 102, 103. Su-pe'-ri-or, 147. Su-pe'-ri-or, Lake, 125. Swine, 141. Syr'-a-cuse, 69, 70. Ta-co'-ma, 193. Tarn '-pa, 121. Tar, 108. Ten-wes-see', 111, 113. Tex'-as, 15, 96, 102, 113. Tide, 72. Timber, 146. Tobacco, 39, 42, 111, 146. Troy, 65. Tucson (to-son'), 180. Turpentine, 108, 109. U'-taft, 171, 182. Vas'-e-line, 67. Ver-mont', 39. Vir-gin'-i-a, 111, 112. Vol-ca'-noes, 168. Walnuts, 185. Wal'-tham, 37. Wa'-satch Mountains, 182. Wash'-ing-ton (wosh), D.C., 20, 81. Wash'-ing-ton State, 170, 180, 186, 187. Wash'-ing-ton, Mt., 54. Waterfalls, 29, 146. Wa'-ter-town, 46. Wa'-ter-vilZe, 46. Waves, 70. Weather Bureau, 11. Wes'-ter-ly, 56. Western Section, 166. West Vir-gin'-i-a, 32. Wheat, 134, 135, 136, 180, 185. Wheel'-ing, 65, 70. White Mountains, 84. Whit'-ney, Mt., 194. Wilkes-Barre (wilks'-bar-e), 60. WiWa'-mette lliver, 192. Wil'-liams-port, 46. Wil'-ming-ton, 42, 65. Wis-con'-sin, 146, 148, 154, 161. Worcester (wus'-ter), 37. Wy-o'-ming, 167. Yel'-low-stone National Park, 126, 127, 199, 200. Yo-sem'-i-te Lake, 198. Yo-sem'-i-te River, 198. Yu'-ma, 186. Zinc, 154. Al5770