UC-NRLF 
 
 137 
 
LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY Of 
 CAllPOtNIA 
 
 f " 
 
 - ^^ ; . 
 
 EX Ll-BRtS 
 
 JAMES M C P1 
 
 WOOD 
 
IEj)I of progress: 
 
 ESSAYS, LECTURES AND MISCELLANIES 
 
 THEMES OF THE DAY. 
 
 WM. MAXWELL WOOD, M. D., 
 
 SURGEOX U. S. NAVY. 
 
 Author of "The True Sources of Subordination," " Wandering Sketches in South 
 America, Polynesia," &c. 
 
 BUFFALO : 
 
 DERBY, ORTON AND MULLIGAN. 
 AUBFRN: DERBY & MILLER. 
 
 J 8 5 3 . 
 
GIFT 
 
TO 
 
 JOSHUA I. COHEN, M. D., 
 
 OP THE CITY OF BALTIMORE. 
 
 THE FRIEND, 
 
 UOVEN BY TIME AND THE HOUR OF NEED 
 THIS LITTLE VOLUME 
 
 13 
 
 OEttf) f&cra JFceltnjj of (Grateful &rmrmfcrancf, 
 
 RESPECTFL LLY INSCRIBED, 
 
 BY 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
 89 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The most which the author claims for the collection 
 which forms this volume is, that it may be taken as evi 
 dence that, according to his humble ability, he has endea 
 vored to do what he believed to be his duty, as a citizen 
 of the republic, as a member of the profession, and of the 
 service to which he belongs. 
 
 A sufficient motive for making the publication may be 
 found in the natural desire, to gather up, at least a part of 
 the dispersed, and, in some instances, unnamed members of 
 his literary family. He has felt encouraged to do so by 
 the fact that such of the essays and lectures as have been 
 published have met with a friendly reception ; and as the 
 questions to which they relate are still in progress, he hopes 
 that their usefulness, if they have any, may be continued. 
 
 The medical address "was originally written for the pages 
 of the Buffalo Medical Journal, and at the solicitation 
 of eminent professional brethren was published in pam 
 phlet form. It was issued under the auspices of the Fac 
 ulty of the Buffalo Medical College, and owing to the 
 recommendation of these gentlemen and of the medical 
 press, it was culled for in all sections of the Union. F\r 
 more than thirteen years the author has been a writer upon 
 
P 11 E F A K . 
 
 the subject of naval reform, and at times under great dis 
 couragements. Public and naval opinion seems now settled 
 upon the necessity for such reform. It is advocated by the 
 press at large, and by some of the most able and efficient 
 writers in the country. But, still, it <s not yet effected. 
 The essay upon "The Naval Institutions of a Republic" is 
 the last of five pamphlets which its author has produced 
 upon this subject, all of which have had the favorable 
 notice of the newspaper and periodical press generally. 
 Two editions of this essay have been published, and it 
 has been read from with approbation upon the floor of 
 Congress. 
 
 The lecture upon the " Obligations of Young Men to the 
 Republic," and the Historical View of Erie County, Pa., 
 have never before been published. 
 
PARTY PRESIDENTS. 
 
[As the following article bad the honor of being- 
 attributed by the Philadelphia U. S. Gazette, to the 
 Hon. Daniel Webster when Secretary of State in the 
 administration of President Tyler, I hope that I may 
 now be permitted to claim its responsibility. 
 
 I am as fully aware, as any of my readers will be, 
 of the hasty judgment which led to the error; but 
 still the fact is worth mentioning, if only as an in 
 stance of the mistakes which may be made even by a 
 paper of so much character as the Gazette then 
 under the editorial charge of the Hon. JOSEPH R. 
 CHANDLER.] 
 
PARTY PRESIDENTS. 
 
 " Those who are not for us are against us " is the 
 uncompromising motto of party discipline; a discipline 
 which, like the bed of Procrustes, brings the short and 
 the long to the same stature, and admits of no standard 
 of merit but blind conformity to its will. The wild 
 storm of party spirit has swept with tornado violence 
 over the institutions of our Republic, prostrated its 
 prosperity, and will yet howl over its destruction, un 
 less a true and firm patriotism breasts its fury. The 
 politics of honesty and those of party are wholly 
 incompatible with each other ; for the former would 
 inquire into the bearing of measures upon the public 
 good, and the minds of men being proverbially various, 
 those who might be united upon certain measures 
 would differ upon others: a universal agreement marks 
 a sinister purpose the selfish advancement of the 
 
 party for its own sake. This being the great end, 
 1* 
 
1 V A H T V PRESIDENTS. 
 
 measures become only worthy of consideration as they 
 tend to the advancement of this end, and the public 
 good is lost in the good of the party. 
 
 As all organizations require some one to lead 
 and control them, these leaders alone are permitted 
 to think for, and to devise the measures of the party; 
 and to them every other individual surrenders the 
 independence of his thought and action. 
 
 The only inquiry to be made is Is a measure sanc 
 tioned or opposed by the party to which I belong? 
 and, accordingly, it is carried out or destroyed without 
 further investigation. 
 
 When the great mass of the population of this Union 
 united under the banner of General Harrison in oppo 
 sition to the administration of Martin Van Buren, 
 that mass was composed of men of every variety of 
 political sentiment, and their common bond of union, 
 was opposition to the selfish policy of an administra 
 tion, which had no political principles but such as led 
 to the dominancy of the party, and consequently, ad 
 vocated every principle according to the locality of its 
 popularity. While such trimming would answer for 
 
PARTY PRESIDENTS. 11 
 
 a time, and, unfortunately, for too long a time, it 
 finally became apparent to the good sense of the com 
 munity, and instituted the league of honest, though 
 differing politicians, against the unanimity of selfish 
 and dishonest ones. 
 
 Had the Whig party, made up as it was of so many 
 different views, found any one who would have suited 
 the views of each division, it must have been by a 
 deceptions course toward each component branch of 
 the party, and a change of administration would have 
 been only driving out one set selfishly devoted to its 
 own interests, to introduce another of precisely the 
 same character. No man could entertain honest po 
 litical sentiments of his own and agree with every 
 section of the then Whig or opposition party. 
 
 From their own compound principles, no political 
 union could have greater reason for forbearance to 
 ward the sentiments of those, who from their personal 
 and general popularity were appointed the leaders of 
 this union; and the greatest evidence which could be 
 given of the popularity of the selection, and of the 
 honesty of these leaders, was given by their daring to 
 
12 PARTY P U E S i D K N.T.S . 
 
 differ from portions of the party which elevated them 
 to power; preferring to be honest men, rather than to 
 seek popularity by trimming to all ; and being unwil 
 ling to sacrifice what they believed to be the best 
 interests of the country to their own good. 
 
 Honesty in the administration of our government 
 is its only security ; for erroneous opinions in the minds 
 of honest men will be openly exposed and subjected 
 to correction ; but dishonest and able men will seek to 
 make every national interest bend -to the particular 
 course or opinions upon which their own power may 
 depend. Therefore our great national interests are 
 safest in the hands of those, who have the firmness 
 and integrity of purpose to adhere to the honest con 
 victions of their own minds, rather than to sell every 
 sacred principle to the exactions of a blind party 
 spirit. 
 
 The editorial columns of the " United States Ga 
 zette," a few days after the appearance of the fore 
 going article, quoting the opening paragraph, com 
 mented as follows: 
 
! A It T V P R E S 1 1) fc X T S . 1 3 
 
 "It is understood that the cabinet officers who write 
 for the Madisonian, have the use of the editorial col 
 umns; and the W. which stands as the signature of 
 the pen from which the above is extracted, would seem 
 to intimate a high origin to the communication." 
 
 Although flattered by the mistake of authorship, I 
 Lad no reason to feel in the least so, by the remarks 
 upon the sentiments and principles of the article, and 
 the best excuse I can make for not relieving Mr. 
 Webster from censure, which was due to my humble 
 self, is, that he could better afford to bear it ; and the 
 correction would have been indulging vanity under 
 the affectation of magnanimity. I, however, felt, un 
 der the circumstances, the more bound to utter my 
 protest against the assaults made upon him at that 
 time, which I did in the following article: 
 
 A citizen of this Union, who refuses to become the 
 humble tool of party leaders, who disdains to have 
 his intellectual views bandaged by party measures, 
 
J 1 DANIEL W E 15 8 T E R . 
 
 but who maintains the independent right of a freeman 
 to examine into the great measures affecting the 
 national interests, to separate them from the personal 
 popularity of their advocates, and to investigate their 
 intrinsic character and bearing; who chooses to be the 
 patriot rather than the partisan ; while such a citizen 
 may, from a conviction of their injurious tendency, 
 array himself in opposition to the measures of any 
 statesman, he will yield him respect, proportioned to 
 the dignity of intellect, and honesty of character, by 
 which these measures are sustained. While he may 
 dissent from their principles, he will feel proud that 
 his country can produce men, who, though of diverse 
 views, sustain their respective principles by an amount 
 of intellectual power claiming the admiration of the 
 world, and he will regard their eminence as a legiti 
 mate source of national pride. 
 
 But a debased party spirit, selfish and groveling in 
 its character, and blinded by prejudice, cannot perceive 
 the brilliancy of a pure and lofty character. Acknowl 
 edging no incentive but party success, it reduces the 
 motives of others to the standard of its own compre- 
 
D A N 1 E L W K I! W T K K . 
 
 hension, and is incompetent to judge of high motives 
 of action. Love of country, and a sense of duty, are 
 incentives too lofty to be appreciated by the spirit 
 which, Arnold like, would sacrifice national honor and 
 prosperity to its own interests. 
 
 The gentleman whose name heads this article has 
 been assailed as a prominent mark, by an unprincipled 
 party spirit; and every true-hearted citizen of the 
 United States, who has felt a personal pride in the 
 great names which his country has given to fame, and 
 to history, must have felt pained, humbled and morti 
 fied by the vituperation and abuse which this spirit 
 has hurled upon the fame of Daniel Webster. Who 
 and what is the man thus assailed ? Let the intelli 
 gence and the heart of every patriot, aye, almost of 
 every child, give the answer. It is he to whom the 
 world points with confidence, when we would claim 
 the admiration of strangers for the eloquence and 
 statesmanship of our country. Eloquence which has 
 raised still higher the already lofty character of our 
 Senate Chamber, and which has gone to the minds 
 and hearts of men wherever the English language is 
 
T) A N I K 1. W E 13 S T E K . 
 
 known : an eloquence which not alone soothes the ear 
 and excites the fancy by harmonious periods and 
 glowing figures, but which takes possession of the 
 most capacious minds by the vigor of its thought and 
 the power of its judgment. The man, now, thus 
 assailed, is he from whom, but a little while since, we 
 justly derived a national compliment, in seeing him, 
 the plain republican, the architect of his own fortune, 
 a splendid but genuine production of democracy 
 receiving the homage of the most haughty aristocrats 
 of Europe; asserting in his own character the dignity 
 of the nobility of nature, in the midst of that of 
 coronets, and unassumingly receiving the courtesies of 
 those whose brows they decorated.* It is he who 
 stands preeminent in the front rank of the statesmen 
 of the world, and whose fame is almost a part of the 
 most perfect existing political organization, the per 
 petuity of which is a guarantee for that of the name of 
 Daniel Webster; and even though the constitution 
 itself should be overwhelmed by the turbulence and 
 
 Mr. Webster had not long before this returned from England. 
 
D A N i E L W E B S T E R . 1 7 
 
 convulsions of political strife, its very ruins become 
 an enduring monument to the fame of him who was 
 its most firm defender and most able expositor. 
 
 Why is it that the man whose character has become 
 a national monument is thus assailed? Is it because 
 in a time of great need, and when extensive national 
 interests are to be adjudicated, he occupies an impor 
 tant official station, which enables him best to serve 
 his country ? Those who are actuated by a desire for 
 the spoils of office, would prostrate the most able men 
 of the age, that they may reach those spoils, and sup 
 pose all men to be actuated by the same mean motives 
 which influence themselves. Degraded, indeed, must 
 be the mind which can suppose no other inducement 
 to encounter the labor and responsibilities of elevated 
 office, but pecuniary compensation. But even those 
 of such limited views we think, would reflect, that he 
 whose professional reputation can command more 
 employment than any human mind or body could 
 accomplish, would find, in the salary of office, but 
 little inducement to encounter its labors. Its extrinsic 
 honors can weigh but little with one of such extended 
 
18 DANIEL WEBSTER. 
 
 fame, and the office of Secretary of State, can add 
 nothing to the fame of Daniel Webster save as it marks 
 his readiness to devote his powers to the service of his 
 country. Surely, patriotism and virtuous motives of 
 action are yet to be found among our countrymen, 
 and we can no where look for them with so much 
 confidence as in those whose whole lives have been 
 one continued flow of patriotic exertion. The true 
 sphere of such men is in the councils of the nation. 
 
 The spirit of party which thus assails the personal 
 character of its political opponents, is more than the 
 spirit which would, with vandal barbarism, destroy 
 the libraries, specimens of art, and monuments of a 
 hostile nation ; for it seeks to mutilate and destroy the 
 most honorable specimens of its country s greatness; 
 to overturn and deface that which it cannot appreciate. 
 What are patriotism and considerations of national 
 greatness with those who are led on by spoils and 
 plunder? They are unknown; they can not be un 
 derstood by them. 
 
 The political course of Daniel Webster is U-l oiv the 
 nation; let those opposed to it attack it; expose its 
 
DANIEL WEBSTER. ]9 
 
 defects, defeat it. But when selfish politicians, inca 
 pable of higher modes of attack, attempt to blacken 
 his name with low abuse and vile slanders, they arouse 
 the honest patriotism of all who are not under their 
 evil influences, whether his political friend or oppo 
 nent, and as the foreign invader, who, in the hour of 
 triumph, mutilates our monuments of marble, excites 
 indignation and contempt, these emotions are far 
 greater toward him whose traitor pen would desecrate 
 the more noble, intellectual monuments of his country s 
 fame. 
 
SPIRIT OF DEMOCRACY. 
 
SPIRIT OF DEMOCRACY. 
 
 That influence, which, next to and confederate with 
 Christianity, has done more for the dignity of human 
 nature, and contributed most to the happiness of the 
 human family, is the Spirit of Democracy. It is an 
 influence springing from the nature of man, and both 
 blind and vain is any contest between the narrow, 
 selfish and exclusive institutions established for the 
 benefit of a favored few, and that steadily advancing 
 principle which is a law of God, and which has for its 
 ultimate object the benefit of the whole human race. 
 History has done much to conceal the influence of this 
 spirit, in effecting the improvements in man s condition 
 which have marked advancing ages; for, in recording 
 the deeds of prominent individuals, it has too often 
 forgotten to point out how far those individuals were 
 the creatures of the times in which they lived, and 
 
24 SPIRIT OF DEMOCRACY. 
 
 how f-di- their characters were moulded and controlled 
 by that of the masses whose movements they appeared 
 to direct or lead. Such individuals are but the points 
 upon which the prevailing spirit of the age concen 
 trates itself, and are the levers through which the mov 
 ing power acts. Even the glorious character of our 
 own Washington, the most perfect one history pre 
 sents, was the creation of a spirit of liberty which had 
 been diffusing and extending itself among the people, 
 from the time when the refugees of political and eccle 
 siastical tyranny first sought an asylum in the wilds 
 of our continent. 
 
 What have individuals, who have been sustained by 
 all the institutions of despotism, and had control of its 
 forces, done for the people ? How have they directed 
 these influences otherwise than against the interests of 
 the people, save when, from weakness or danger threat 
 ening themselves, they have been compelled to pay 
 a tribute to popular privilege, for the aid and support 
 asked of the mass. Monarchs and aristocracies have 
 made brilliant contributions to national glory, but not 
 
SPIRIT OF DEMOCRACY. 
 
 in contests to establish principles beneficial to the 
 people at large, so much as from selfish motives, to 
 sustain their personal interests which they have re 
 garded as those of their nation. 
 
 The spirit of democracy, which lurked a hidden 
 spark among the people in their darkest days, has 
 won every human right from despotism in despite of 
 the powers of despotism, and contrary to the habits, 
 thoughts and education of the people themselves. 
 Who, then, shall calculate its influence when it no lon 
 ger lurks a hidden spark, but from almost an entire 
 continent, in open blaze, sheds its light upon the world, 
 and even where it is forbidden to manifest itself, burns 
 with scarce controllable force beneath the institutions 
 which seek to suppress and extinguish it ? The spirit 
 of democracy has never receded; every political con 
 vulsion, no matter what the result, has tended to the 
 healthful advancement of democratic principles. Even 
 the splendid drama of Napoleon s history has been 
 subordinate to this end. It swept from the mind of 
 Europe the paralyzing influence of legitimacy, and 
 showed that the people could erect from themselves a 
 
26 SPIRIT OF DEMOCRACY. 
 
 throne, mocking, by its power and splendor, that of 
 regal descent. 
 
 The enemies of democracy point to its turbulent 
 out-breaks as evidence of its unhappy influences upon 
 domestic existence, and stigmatize democracy as 
 mobocracy. We are far, very far, from advocating or 
 defending any violations of law or order, and we deny 
 that such violations are the consequence of democracy ; 
 but before condemning any organization for its imper 
 fections, it will be well to examine if greater imper 
 fections do not manifest themselves in opposing organ 
 izations. 
 
 The outbreaks of a mob, not being a systematic vio 
 lation of human rights and justice, to which observation 
 has become accustomed, strike the attention promi 
 nently and forcibly ; while outrages upon right and 
 justice, beyond all comparison far more extensive, may 
 be committed under the sanction of a legalized des 
 potism, without attracting general remark, and with 
 this great difference: the injuries of a mob are, in 
 time and place, limited and local ; those of a despot 
 ism wide as its domain, and ever acting, night and 
 
SPIRIT OF DEMOCRACY. 27 
 
 day. What injury to life and property can be com 
 mitted by any mob, to be measured by those horrible 
 outrages which rob a whole people of their sustenance, 
 and drive them to vice, jails, and alms-houses, that a 
 favored few may riot in splendid pageantry, and laugh 
 in luxury at surrounding misery? Again, the legal 
 outrages of despotism are, in most cases, the delibe 
 rate result of studied vice and selfishness; the irregu 
 lar outrages of a mob are the spontaneous rush of 
 many minds to one point, and that point a principle of 
 virtue. No matter what the violation of law and order, 
 no matter how degraded the agents, the purpose of a 
 mob is generally to vindicate what it believes to be 
 some violation of law, right or virtue. The motive is 
 good, is proof of the purity and dignity of the Dem 
 ocratic spirit, though the mode of its exhibition is 
 bad, and is to be deplored. Better, however, that this 
 spirit in its exuberance should occasionally storm the 
 law under virtuous impulses, than that an uniform 
 quiet should be produced by a systematic violation of 
 virtue, human rights and human happiness. 
 
 The enemies of democracy also contend that the 
 
28 SPIRIT OF DEMOCRACY. 
 
 necessarily uneducated condition of the mass is ad 
 verse to their capability for self-government. Such 
 persons have looked superficially to the influences of 
 the spirit of democracy. Those who live under its in 
 stitutions, even though without the acquirements of 
 letters, are not uneducated. From their earliest youth 
 they are thrown into unrestrained rivalry and colli 
 sion with each other, which brings into play all their 
 resources and develops their faculties, under the stimu 
 lus that success, in any pursuit, depends more upon 
 individual merit, than upon adventitious circumstances. 
 Each one feels that he has a personal interest and 
 control in the policy of his country ; its principles are 
 discussed before him and by him; they are submitted 
 to his judgment and decision. Hence, the citizens of 
 a republic, however illiterate, coarse and unrefined, are 
 educated; have their faculties under continual cultiva 
 tion, for the practical purposes of life. Increasing 
 time will proportionally mark the effects of this edu 
 cation, as our national character is yet forming under 
 the influence of our institutions. 
 
 The spirit of democracy has, likewise, a favorable 
 
SPIRIT OF DEMOCRACY. 29 
 
 and humanizing effect upon the manners of those with 
 in its influence. The manners of a democratic people 
 may riot be marked by the conventional forms and 
 ceremonies, which characterize a courtly or aristocratic 
 society, but there are principles at work which give a 
 general diffusion to a courtesy springing frcm the heart, 
 although it may be sometimes ungracefully manifested. 
 In a country where people are divided, by polit 
 ical institutions, into ranks and castes, peculiarity of 
 manner will attach to those divisions; and those who 
 pride themselves upon belonging to the higher orders, 
 will naturally seek to mark their position by a reserve 
 or even rudeness toward those unknown to them, or 
 known to be beneath them ; on the other hand, those 
 of inferior rank, when with admitted superiors, will 
 display an humiliating subserviency, for which they 
 will endeavor to compensate themselves, when their 
 true position is unknown, by vulgar imitations of the 
 arrogance of their superiors, and hence, in the promis 
 cuous intercourse of society, manners will be marked 
 by the polished assumption and arrogance of pride, or 
 its coarse and vulgar imitations. But in a country of 
 
30 SPIRIT OF DEMOCRACY. 
 
 political equality, the highest social rank is that of a 
 gentleman, and this being defined by no station or 
 pursuit, all feel that they have a claim to it, and will, 
 to a greater or less degree, according to circumstances, 
 cultivate corresponding manners, making affability and 
 courtesy general, as has been testified to by foreign 
 writers upon our country. 
 
 The literature of our country will take its tone and 
 character from the spirit of democracy, and will again 
 have a reflected and stimulated influence upon that 
 spirit. The influence of hereditary usages and au 
 thority, of superior and exclusive classes, is to give 
 weight to dogmas and doctrines; to make the precepts 
 of individuals and the dicta of schools superior to the 
 principles of truth; and it is only by such influence 
 that these usages, authority and exclusive classes can 
 maintain their position, and hence it is inculcated as a 
 greater merit to adhere to long established and pre 
 scribed views, than to be guilty of the heresy of show 
 ing forth their weakness or error. The continuance of 
 despotic governments and governmental religions de 
 pends upon the suppression of the freedom of thought 
 
s i i n i T o F u ]: M o e i; A c v . 31 
 
 and investigation. The influence of democracy, on 
 the contrary, is to send forth all minds boldly in search 
 of those truths and facts which contribute most to the 
 general good and happiness. So untrammeled are 
 incus minds, that many strange and novel ideas, theo 
 ries and plans may be presented, as is seen in the 
 sphere of mechanical invention, but none will become 
 permanent but such as stand the test of the general 
 welfare. 
 
 In connection with this part of our subject, we will 
 notice another charge often brought against the prac 
 ticability of democratic governments: the want of 
 permanency and stability in their measures. We 
 think that, from the very nature of democracy its 
 being a law of God, established among men, and the 
 same in all ages, having at all times the same ultimate 
 object in view, and that object the universal good of 
 the human race that its measures are those alone 
 which will be permanent and stable. True, measures 
 and policy must be experimental and varying until 
 those which are in exact accordance with the principle 
 of democracy are discovered, and none can exist but 
 
32 SPIRIT OF DEMOCRACY. 
 
 those which have this accordance. Measures which 
 are now the settled and permanent policy of our 
 country, have had to struggle into existence through 
 the discord of opposing influences; and measures 
 which are now subjects of doubt, contest and opposi 
 tion, will eventually be acknowledged as the true fruit 
 of democratic principles and claim a general reception. 
 The spirit of democracy is ever onward, it cannot re 
 cede, and none can see its limits or its end. The in 
 fluences, at which we have glanced, are constantly 
 acting and reacting upon each other, imparting new 
 impulses, and giving and receiving new strength. 
 Every elevation and every dignity, won for the mass, 
 gives it a claim to higher elevation and higher dignity. 
 Already is conceded to the people a respect and a po 
 sition which, in former days, would not have been 
 conceded to many of the influential and exclusive 
 classes. As the advance of democracy tends to the 
 general welfare of man, and as this welfare is founded 
 in virtue alone, no human power can rise superior to 
 it, and it must finally lead to the establishment of laws 
 and usages consistent with the principles of virtue. 
 
SPIRIT OF DEMOCRACY. 
 
 The spirit of democracy has a fitting temple in the 
 architecture of our country; and while contemplating 
 our mountain ranges, vast rivers with their teeming 
 valleys, our ocean lakes, broad and fertile prairies, or 
 listening to the thunders of Niagara s flood, may every 
 member of the republic be urged to make our coun 
 try s noble architecture, the type of its future moral 
 and political destiny. 
 
ON THE PRACTICAL INFLUENCES 
 
 OF 
 
 POPULAR INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 LKC TURK, 
 
ON THE PRACTICAL INFLUENCES 
 
 OF 
 
 POPULAR INSTIUTIONS. 
 
 A LECTURE 
 
 WRITTEN" FOR THK IKYING LITER All V IXSTITUTF., OF ERIE, PA. 
 
 GENTLEMEN OF THE IRVING INSTITUTE: 
 
 I owe yon an apology fur riot rendering an earlier 
 reply to the invitation with which you have honored 
 
 me, to deliver a lecture before your Association. The 
 delay has arisen from a wish to render myself useful 
 to you in some way, should I he compelled to decline 
 that pointed out by yourselves. 
 
 It was with much pleasure that 1 learned, soon 
 after my arrival in your town, that such an institution 
 as yours was in existence, affording to the young men 
 of the place a stimulus to mental exertion and im 
 provement; a theater and material for intellectual 
 recreation, and a refuge from the worse than profitless 
 employments, through which the activities of our 
 
38 POPULAR INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 nature will run riot, and retaliate for any neglect of 
 their proper direction. 
 
 I do not intrude upon you my opinions respecting 
 your Association, from an assumption that they have 
 any special value or claim to your attention. The 
 impulses which have called you together the literary 
 pursuits in which you are engaged, give assurance that 
 you are incited by refined tastes, and governed by 
 obligations which make you, to some extent, independ 
 ent of the approbation of individuals; even of those 
 not so humble as myself. But every citizen who 
 properly values the institutions of our Republic must 
 rejoice, and has a right to express his gratification at 
 anything which tends to sustain and to advance those 
 institutions. Their continued success and future ad 
 vancement depend so much upon the direction given 
 to the energies and faculties of our young men, that 
 it becomes a source of the highest gratification to see 
 any of them acting up to a sense of their responsi 
 bilities, by the aid of such associations as that you 
 have organized; and I am invited by the reflections 
 
 O J 
 
 it has suggested, to address you this letter upon -on 
 
POPULAR INSTITUTIONS. 39 
 
 of the practical influences of popular institutions; our 
 obligations to them ; and the dangers to which they 
 are exposed. 
 
 It may not be an unwarrantable egotism, to say 
 that my remarks are not altogether the result of closet 
 theories, but are drawn from opportunities of practical 
 observation of society as it exists under various grades 
 and manners of organization. It has been my lot to 
 mingle in close association with my fellow- man, as he 
 appears amid the simple wants, untutored passions, 
 and insulated independence of barbarism; to have 
 seen him awkwardly moving in the restraints of a 
 new civilization; to have dwelt with him in the loo- 
 
 O 
 
 cabins of our western forests and prairies, where, in 
 the pride of self-reliance and local independence, he 
 felt the dignity of his union with a grand and widely- 
 extended social system; displaying faculties educated 
 and strengthened by influences independent of scho 
 lastic acquirements and unvarnished by the polish of 
 refinement. Again, I have seen him with his whole 
 nature hidden beneath the artificial splendor of con 
 ventional usages; arid from this experience I have 
 
40 POPULAR INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 learned that there is much to respect where the adven 
 titious aid of ornament is wanting, and much to regret 
 and deplore amid its most improving splendor. It 
 has taught me to be thankful that this is " my own, 
 my native land," and to place a jealous value upon its 
 institutions. 
 
 The utility and consequent success of popular gov 
 ernment depend so much upon the culture and self- 
 government of each of its members, that the youth of 
 our country have their individual obligations extend 
 ing to a much wider range than that of their personal 
 success. Each can say, the " state ! t is I ; " for each is 
 the state in epitome, and his cultivation is that of the 
 state. As every member of an oligarchy is bound to 
 the interests of his class, so in our country we are 
 bound to those broad principles which, repudiating 
 the limited interests and exclusive rights of aristocracy, 
 go to show that the great and good lies sown broad 
 cast among the people, to spring up in a wide-spread 
 and useful harvest. Such obligations may involve 
 more active duties than are at first apparent. It is not 
 enough, that we live quietly under our institutions, 
 
POPULAR INSTITUTIONS. 41 
 
 and give them the acquiescence of tacit enjoyment. 
 In the words of a poetical philosopher 
 
 " Of him on whom the riches were bestowed 
 Of liberty, the rays of streaming light 
 Will be required ; liberty demands 
 Intense exertion. Stolid despotism 
 Can rest unmoved like inorganic stuff, 
 And yet may last a time ; not freedom so. 
 Freedom is like organic life, suspended 
 Between the two unalterable points 
 Unceasing action or a putrid death. 
 The, terms of earnest freedom are not light ; 
 For freedom is but plenitude of light, 
 And every honest right a hugging twin 
 Of obligation they were born together ; 
 They are like woof and warp of choicest web, 
 A scurril rag, if one be ravelled out. 
 The gospel of stout civil liberty 
 Is like the enfranchisement of Christian souls, 
 Imposing greatest tasks of right and truth. 
 But freedom, too man s healthiest existence, 
 Is like the joyous life of sylvan tribe. 
 Each tree, each vine they hide their laws of growth ; 
 They spread., entwine, and struggle toward the light ; 
 
42 POPULAR INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 The vernal ray infuses wak ning warmth, 
 And life pervades Hie whole community." 
 
 Inaction would be culpable, were there no opposing 
 principles to be encountered and contended with; but 
 unfortunately there is no such unanimity, and while 
 we know that much of the world is arrayed against 
 us, both in sentiment and political organization, there 
 is too much evidence that in our midst there are two 
 classes hostile to the existing arrangement of our polit 
 ical system. One which regards with admiration and 
 favor the splendors of aristocracy, and another which 
 would level all to barbarian rudeness, and loosen the 
 bonds which hold in check the wildest passions of our 
 nature. 
 
 In the various grades of human intellect, there are 
 undoubtedly feeble minds which bow r before the cir 
 cumstance of aristocratic pomp, or 11 utter around the 
 tinsel which glitters over its principles and conceal 
 their enormous pretension pretension to separate 
 men into ranks and stations, without respect to the 
 claims of talent and virtue; principles which make 
 plebeian the intelligent mechanic, the engineer, the 
 
POPULAR INSTITUTIONS. 43 
 
 architect, the painter, the poet those whose minds 
 are the thrones of intellect, and whose hands are the 
 instruments of skillful genius; while he may be patri 
 cian, whose occupation and ambition are to fill the 
 various degrees which range between the bully of the 
 pugilistic ring and the enervated lounger of a fash 
 ionable drawing-room. In addition to those who, 
 from mental organization, may be the admirers of the 
 splendors of aristocracy, it can not be questioned that 
 many who have successfully achieved the high posi 
 tion which is consequent upon fame and fortune, not 
 satisfied with the influence justly earned by them, 
 sigh after the exclusive privileges enjoyed by those on 
 the top round of the social ladder, in countries of 
 political organization different from our own. They 
 look with distaste upon the institutions, through the 
 protection of which they have made their own ascent, 
 because they can not enroll their blood in a higher 
 register than that of the humble masses from which 
 they sprung. There are many influences encouraging 
 these tendencies, and disseminating erroneous impres 
 sions. Notwithstanding the great lessons taught by 
 
44 POPULAR INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 our Republic, since its formation, in regard to the true 
 dignity of man, few of us are educated out of the fic 
 tions and prejudices handed down from the ages of 
 feudality, arid still embodied in the political systems 
 of great nations. Not only romance and poetry lend 
 their fascinating powers to the same errors, but most 
 of the works put in the hands of youth, as unexcep 
 tionable history, deepen and extend the false impres 
 sion, until it becomes difficult to estimate man ab 
 stracted from the "guinea stamp" of rank, or to 
 conceive that all the qualities and sensibilities of a hero 
 may be found in the hearts and heads of those en 
 gaged in what are called the humble pursuits of life. 
 Society will, of course, form itself into cliques and 
 associations, according to the tastes and sympathies of 
 those so associating; and as we all, in the various 
 occupations of life, exhibit this social disposition, it 
 must be conceded even to those who are bound by a 
 common folly, and who unite for the purposes of 
 fashionable frivolity. But the popular judgment will 
 claim to establish the standard of what is best; and 
 what was best under other institutions, and in past 
 
POPULAR INSTITUTIONS. 45 
 
 ages, ceases to be so now ; last of all will it be con 
 ceded in an utilitarian age, and to the votaries of folly 
 and fashion. And any such claim may be looked 
 down upon with contempt by all engaged in the truly 
 noble pursuits of usefulness. 
 
 It is to be deplored, that men do not always rest 
 satisfied in the dignity which should emanate from 
 the consciousness of being useful ; but, by manifest 
 ing envy and jealousy toward the pretensions of 
 self- constituted exclusives, they in some measure ac 
 knowledge the importance of those pretensions, and 
 pay tribute to them, by making an unworthy confes 
 sion of inferiority. These are the feelings which 
 beget the levelers arid disorganizes of society, and it 
 is important to be shown that such feelings are hostile 
 to our institutions, and consequently hostile to popular 
 rights. 
 
 Experience and observation teach that the inclina 
 tions and desires of the human heart, when inordinate 
 in power or irregular in direction, obey a law of re 
 tributive justice, and while they punish the individual 
 manifesting them, even in the reward of success, they 
 
46 POPULA.Il INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 make his punishment tributary to the common good. 
 Contemplate, for a moment, the inordinate desire for 
 wealth. He who is cursed with this lowest of pas 
 sions toils on and on ; denies himself the legitimate 
 enjoyments of life. Blinded to the beauties and har 
 monies of nature and art, he loses the pleasure of 
 their contemplation. Too often, the well-springs of 
 joy, which should flow in streams of human affec 
 tion, are dried at their source, and a life of avarice 
 becomes a path in a moral desert, while the promised 
 joy is a flying phantom, ever beyond the unreachable 
 more. Thus it is with the individual. But what is 
 the effect upon the community ? The whole man 
 energies of soul, of mind, and body, have been coined 
 into public wealth. New sources of wealth have been 
 opened under the individual desire, arts originated, 
 manufactories instituted, and mines, forests, and seas 
 explored. In like manner, the same wise law makes 
 the follies, extravagances, and vices of those who have 
 accumulated the stores of society, tributary to industry, 
 energy, and integrity, by again distributing among 
 the people the wealth which these latter qualities had 
 
F O P U L A R I N S T I T U T 1 O N S . 47 
 
 gathered together. Thus the beauty, harmony, and 
 adaptation of our institutions are vindicated, and the 
 individuals composing the various classes of society 
 made interchangeable, according to their capabilities ; 
 and the causes for class hostility, envy, and jealousy, 
 are removed or done away with. It is a disregard of 
 these laws, the confounding of political with social 
 equality, which has been among the errors of French 
 republicanism, and is the error of socialism. It is 
 unjust to human nature, to legislate an equality of 
 wealth, or a conformity of manners, irrespective of 
 merit and tastes, as endow by law organized aristocra 
 cies with exclusive privileges. Every attempt at this 
 forced equalization gives facility to the sophistical 
 deductions of the advocate for exclusive privileges; 
 when he tells you, in support of his views, that nature 
 points to such an arrangement, because men are born 
 unequal in physical and mental powers; and when 
 he claims for man the same hereditary law of pure 
 blood which is so carefully respected in unreasoning 
 animals. These laws of inequality, and hereditary 
 transmission, none can deny; but we can use them 
 
48 POPULAR INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 against both aristocrat and socialist. We claim that 
 each individual be left free and untrararaeled, to 
 achieve the position to which this inequality resigns 
 him; and in regard to the law of hereditary trans 
 mission of qualities, we demand the evidence to show 
 that the good and the bad are necessarily limited to 
 particular stations in life. The physiological his 
 tory of man, teaches that prominent qualities of 
 mind and body may lie dormant for several gen 
 erations, and then appear in their original force in 
 the same line of blood. It is apparent, then, that 
 during this sleep of ennobling powers, families may 
 sink to the humblest stations; and from these stations, 
 then, the sun of genius may arise, to dazzle the world 
 with a splendor in brilliant contrast with the clouds 
 of obscurity from which it has burst. 
 
 The socialist and the aristocrat are alike the ene 
 mies of human progress and efficient freedom. The 
 socialist takes from man, by diffusion, the property in 
 and responsibility for himself, and impedes advancement 
 by paralyzing energy. The aristocrat produces the 
 same result by monopolies, which leave nothing for 
 
POPULAR INSTITUTIONS. 49 
 
 the privileged to gain, and but little for the excluded 
 to hope for. Individualism a close, responsible indi 
 vidualism is the spirit of progress and soul of freedom. 
 
 At this present moment, some poor artisan, anxious 
 to escape from the oppression of poverty, and the hu 
 mility of obscurity, robs nature of food and rest, in the 
 study of some new combination of mechanical powers, 
 which is to contribute to the comfort and enjoyment 
 of his fellows; but the rewards of fame and fortune 
 are to be his own. 
 
 Some lawyer, just entering upon his profession in 
 an obscure village withdrawn from the seductive plea 
 sures of society, is studying, working, drudging in the 
 loneliness of his office; concentrating the powers of 
 his intellect upon a case which is to elicit and establish 
 principles most interesting to the community. His 
 mind is to deduce them, the radiations are to go from 
 him, and, perhaps, flash far beyond the limited locality 
 of his residence. He works with the eyes of the world 
 upon him. A physician in the silent watches of the 
 night, is deep buried in his study, enthusiastically 
 engaged in the contemplation of some disease, or 
 3 
 
50 POPULAR INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 specimen of disease, externally most disgusting, but to 
 him it speaks in clear and beautiful language, silently 
 written by the finger of the Almighty, and tells of 
 laws and actions over which his mind expands itself in 
 boundless enjoyment : he feels impatient to invite the 
 world to share his pleasure. His own mind is then a 
 kingdom embracing the welfare of the whole human 
 family. 
 
 Such is individualism acting under the guaranty of 
 free institutions, and bearing the torch of Hope along 
 its path. 
 
 We will now give some attention to the influence of 
 individualism, and to the bearing of our institutions up 
 on that virtue which " covereth a multitude of sins" 
 Charity and the word is used in its limited application 
 to the relief of the sufferings of our fellow-creatures. 
 
 Some years ago, circumstances threw me into con 
 stant and intimate association with an intelligent and 
 educated foreigner, resident in our country. Upon 
 one occasion, a wondering and commiserating crowd 
 was gathered around a poor wretch writhing in the 
 convulsions of epilepsy. My companion came at 
 
POPULAR INSTITUTIONS, 51 
 
 once to the conclusion, that it was only a feigned ap 
 peal to public sympathy, and acting upon this convic 
 tion, he pushed his way through the crowd, pinched 
 up a fold of skin upon the neck of the convulsed per 
 son, and thrust through it the blade of a sharp knife. 
 The victim of this barbarous test proved to be a genu 
 ine epileptic. At another time, a well fingered written 
 petition was presented my companion by a tottering 
 old man a revolutionary relic, " Whose trembling 
 limbs had borne him to our door." My friend called 
 a boy, who happened to be near, placed the old man s 
 petition and a sixpence in the boy s hand, and directed 
 him to deposit the paper upon the opposite pavement, 
 and to keep the money for his trouble. Weak and 
 trembling as he was, I was glad to see the fire of 76 
 sparkle in the old man s eye, as, raising his cane, he 
 made an assault upon rny companion, threatening a 
 severe chastisement for his heartlessness. 
 
 A citizen of our own or any other country, might 
 have acted just as this person did, but no one of our 
 countrymen possessing the mental and moral organ 
 ization of the individual alluded to, would have done 
 
52 POPULAR INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 so. The acts were inconsistent with his general char 
 acter; hence it is fair to infer that his uncharitable 
 feelings were attributable to the circumstances under 
 which his character had been formed, and I think it 
 may be shown that such an effect might be the result 
 of certain political and social arrangements. 
 
 Look, for instance, at a country which, by artificial 
 arrangements, such as the laws of entail and primogen 
 iture, secures a small portion of its people in enormous 
 wealth, and its consequent luxury and splendor. This 
 unequal distribution of course increases the chances of 
 poverty and distress among the masses and multiplies 
 the subjects of charity. The favored class is so far 
 removed from the sufferings of those who are not pro 
 tected, that their common humanity is almost forgot 
 ten and sympathy is deadened. Permanent wealth 
 and luxury is apt to induce a morbid and refined sen 
 sibility, which shrinks from contact with the revolting 
 misery which would identify the common humanity ; 
 and money which has not the value imparted by labo 
 rious acquisition, is often distributed to purchase an 
 exemption from the painful exercise of an active and 
 
POPULAR INSTITUTIONS. 53 
 
 discriminating charity; and tliis easy liberality invites to 
 feigned distress and imposture. Suppose, further, that 
 such a country, to meet the necessities it has created, 
 loads the industrial classes with heavy taxes and poor- 
 rates. With the fund thus accumulated, let large and 
 showy edifices, devoted to charitable purposes, be 
 glared in the public eye. Externally this will appear 
 a people of splendid charity ; but let us lift the vail 
 and see what heart beats beneath it. The industrial 
 classes look with a jealous and angry eye upon the 
 amount forced by law from their earnings. They look 
 around them and see the domes, and walls, and 
 grounds of the splendid establishments, to which they 
 are bound to contribute, and in which are maintained 
 a retinue of officials. They naturally learn to consider 
 poverty as a legal prey upon their purse; to look 
 upon it as an offense, and to regard every case of des 
 titution as of the same factitious character as those 
 created by the- indiscriminate liberality of the upper 
 classes. When appeals are made to them, the reply 
 is : the law has been met. Their poor-rates have been 
 paid, and the sufferer loo often is turned from their 
 
54 POPULAR INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 door, to perish, perhaps, in sight of these institutions, 
 which, for want of certain formalities, he cannot enter. 
 Charity having thus become law has ceased to be 
 feeling. It is represented by the magnificent brick 
 and stone walls, and like the cement which binds them 
 together, it has indurated into more than marble hard 
 ness. The charity of law, is cold, formal and routine. 
 From such effects as these, our institutions have so far 
 preserved us, and may we never seek to loose our in 
 dividual obligations in a boastful display of public 
 charities; and may we ever bear in mind that our pe 
 cuniary aid may be a barren gift unless accompanied 
 by a kind and cheering spirit, which can light the 
 gloom of despondency and tell the victims of want 
 and privation, that there is a hope of life and happi 
 ness for them in the companionship and brotherhood 
 of humanity. 
 
 Kindred to such a spirit is that which imparts kind, 
 courteous, and gentlemanly deportment to our inter 
 course with each other; and it adds no small consider 
 ation to the value of our institutions, and to the obliga 
 tions we owe them, if they contribute to the diffusion 
 
POPULAR INSTITUTIONS. 55 
 
 and equalization of refined manners. I do not allude 
 to the conventional forms and masonic rules which are 
 necessary to establish a membership with exclusive 
 classes and fashionable circles, those Chesterfieldian 
 arts and grimaces which have been not inaptly called 
 the manners of a dancing-master ingrafted upon the 
 principles of a scoundrel. I refer to those natural and 
 spontaneous graces which spring from benevolence of 
 heart, Christian charity, and from the external influ 
 ences, teaching the self-respect which prevents servility, 
 and the appreciation of the rights of others which for 
 bids arrogance. The respect paid by mankind to refined 
 manners, is as natural as the respect paid to the virtues 
 of which the manners are the external signs, and the 
 sense of their appreciation is similar to that which de 
 rives enjoyment from the beauties and harmonies of na 
 ture and art. Therefore, those who affect a coarse, rude, 
 and offensive deportment, under the idea that it indicates 
 honesty and sincerity of character, violate the natural 
 common sense and good taste of their fellow-men, and 
 with such endorsers, the claim to honesty may be con 
 sidered counterfeit. The Bible, adapted by Divine 
 
56 POPULAR INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 wisdom to all the circumstances of life, offers the best 
 rules^and strongest injunctions of gentlemanly deport 
 ment. In a curious book by De Foe, called " L Re- 
 ligious Courtship," a conversation is carried on between 
 a pious sister, and her irreligious brother. I quote 
 the following remarks of the sister: 
 
 " Let the scripture be judge, whether the rules of 
 life dictated by the apostles to the Christian churches, 
 were not such, as not only agree well with that of a 
 gentleman, but indeed with that without which no 
 man can be a gentleman; if you look almost through 
 the epistles in the New Testament, you will find it so ; 
 I ll name you a few : 
 
 Phil. i. 9, 10. That your love may abound in 
 knowledge and all judgment. There s wisdom and 
 learning. 
 
 That you may approve things that are excellent. 
 There s solid judgment. 
 
 That ye may le sincere and without offence. There 
 is the honesty and open-hearted ness of a true gentle 
 man. 
 
 1 Peter, iii. 8. Love as brethren, le pitiful, le 
 
POPULAR INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 courteous. There is the charity, the beneficence, and 
 the good-breeding of a gentleman. 
 
 Col. iii. 12. Put on bowels of mercy, kindness, 
 humbleness of mind, meekness, d-c. Who can be a 
 gentleman without these? 
 
 Col. iv. 8. Whatsoever things are honest, just, 
 pure, lovely, and of good report, thinlc of these things. 
 What think you now? Can the practice of these 
 things dishonor a gentleman ? or do they honor and 
 illustrate, and indeed make a gentleman ? 
 
 In lowliness of mind let each esteem others letter 
 than themselves. What becomes a gentleman more 
 than such humility ? I could name you many others. 
 Will any man that needs these rules say they are not 
 suitable to a gentleman ? No, brother, it shall ever be 
 a rule to me, that the only complete man on earth is 
 a religious gentleman." Manners such as these pre 
 cepts teach, need not be limited to any station or oc 
 cupation in life, and it is the tendency of our institu 
 tions to diifuse them throughout society. Where men 
 are fixed in their positions by birth and occupation, 
 and no change in their general relations is dependent 
 3* 
 
58 POPULAR INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 upon their deportment, there is, of course, but little, if 
 any inducement for those in humble occupations to 
 refine their manners; but where, as in our country, 
 every one possessed of the characteristics has a right 
 to call himself a gentleman, courteous and gentlemanly 
 demeanor is found to"t) e of more general existence, 
 and foreigners are compelled to express their admira 
 tion of the tone and bearing which mark among us 
 those engaged in pursuits which, with them, would be 
 associated with rudeness and vulgarity. We may re 
 joice that such are the humanizing influences of our in 
 stitutions, for were their effect upon the general manner 
 of those living under them, of an opposite character, 
 as is alledged by the advocates of aristocracy, we 
 might be tempted to adopt the language and senti 
 ments of Hazlitt, when he says : " I cannot describe 
 the contempt and disgust I have felt at the tone of 
 what would be thought good company, when I have 
 witnessed the sleek, smiling, glossy, gratuitous assump 
 tion of superiority to every feeling of humanity, hon 
 esty, or principle, making part of the etiquette, the 
 mental and moral costume of the table, and every 
 
P U L A K INS T 1 T U Tl O N S . 59 
 
 profession of toleration for the lower orders, that is, for 
 tlie great mass of our fellow-creatures, treated as indeco 
 rum, and breach of the harmony of well-regulated so 
 ciety. In short, I prefer a bear-garden to the adder s 
 den." 
 
 In addition to the hostility which our institutions 
 have to encounter from the domestic treachery of 
 those whom the favors of fortune have seduced into 
 the belief that they are worthy of exclusive privileges, 
 and of those who by a system of forced leveling would 
 deprive man of his natural rights, popular government 
 is exposed to the assaults made upon it by the pens of 
 able, systematic, and interested advocates of opposing 
 modes of government, and in this contest of varied 
 forces it falls to our young men to array themselves 
 into an army of moral influences, which shall bear on, 
 and on, the banner of enlightened freedom, until it 
 floats triumphant over class privileges, and leaves them 
 a ruin for the wondering contemplation of the political 
 antiquary. 
 
 The August number, for the present year, of the 
 popular and extensively read Blackwood s Edinburgh 
 
60 POPULAR INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 Magazine, contains an eloquent review of Lamartine s 
 Revolution of 1848, in which the writer brings all his 
 powers, of ridicule and argument, to bear against both 
 the theory and practice of republican government. It 
 may, perhaps, appear presumptuous in me to contro 
 vert the opinions of a writer for a periodical of such 
 established reputation and influence as Blackwood, 
 and I am only tempted to do so by a conviction of 
 the truth and strength of ray cause which renders it 
 independent of the deficient skill and ability of its 
 advocate. 
 
 False argument and erroneous opinions, sometimes 
 gain force and currency when placed in connection 
 with or behind prominent and generally acknowledged 
 truths. When alluding to the causes which unfit the 
 French, particularly, for popular institutions, and give 
 that people a tendency to turbulence and revolution, 
 the reviewer says: "The irreligion, or rather general 
 oblivion of religion which commonly prevails in the 
 towns, is a part, though doubtless a most important 
 part, of this universal disposition. Christianity is ab 
 jured or forgotten, not because it is disbelieved, but 
 
1 U P U L A K 1 M ti T i 1 U T I O >. ,S . O I 
 
 because it is disagreeable. Men do not give them 
 selves the trouble to inquire whether it is true or false; 
 they simply give it the go-by, and pass quietly on the 
 other side, because it imposes a restraint, to them in 
 supportable, on their passions. Dispositions of this 
 sort are the true feeders of revolution, because they 
 generate at once its convulsions in like manner as pas 
 sions which require gratification, poverty which de 
 mands food, and activity which pines for employment." 
 The sentiments above quoted claim our assent and win 
 our approbation. The restraints of religion and the 
 searching self-discipline of Christianity are essential to 
 the success of popular institutions. So closely are they 
 associated, that it may be questioned whether the one 
 will not lead to the other whether the establishment 
 of popular rights has not gone hand-in-hand with the 
 spread of pure and unadulterated Christianity; and 
 whether the continued existence of popular govern 
 ment does not facilitate the spread of those Christian 
 principles upon which it so essentially depends. It is 
 most certain that the irreligion and immorality alluded 
 to by the reviewer were the growth of the corrupting 
 
POPULAR INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 influence of despotic and aristocratic institutions. He 
 substitutes effects and their results for primary causes. 
 In another place the reviewer tells his readers that 
 " self-government is the dream of the enthusiast, the 
 vision of the inexperienced ; oligarchy is the history of 
 man. In vain are institutions popularized, nobles de 
 stroyed, masses elevated, education diffused, self-gov 
 ernment established : all that will not alter the char 
 acter of man ; it will not qualify the multitude for 
 self-direction it will not obviate that first of necessi 
 ties to mankind the necessity of being governed. 
 What is the first act of every assembly of men associ 
 ated together for any purpose, social, political or chari 
 table? To nominate a committee by whom the 
 common affairs are to be regulated. What is the first 
 act of that committee ? To nominate a sub-committee 
 of two or three, in whom the direction of affairs is 
 practically vested." This language of the reviewer, 
 uttered in the bold confidence of wrong, falls with the 
 impress of surprise and astonishment upon our ears. 
 But it is well for us to know that such sentiments are 
 promulgated and read, and believed by thousands, 
 
! O P U L A K I N rf T i T f T 1 O N S . (j 3 
 
 notwithstanding their glaring sophistry, and that their 
 contradiction lies written over the vast surface of out- 
 republic, in all the eloquence of its achievements in 
 arts and arms in statesmanship and diplomacy in 
 the production of the individually great, and in the 
 diffusion of morals and religion, prosperity and general 
 happiness. This very disposition to nominate a few 
 to manage the affairs of all, so sneeringly alluded to, 
 constitutes the security, efficiency and superiority of 
 self-government. The convocation of all gives to each 
 an individual interest and responsibility in what is go 
 ing on, his faculties are quickened and his judgment 
 strengthened. The few selected, are chosen from all 
 for superior capacity, or facilities for managing the 
 business in hand, and their efficient action is secured 
 in the highest sense of individual responsibility the 
 agents are not independent of those who call them in 
 to existence. But let the chief agents in the business 
 of society, and the right to high station be designated 
 by the accident of birth, and social and political inter 
 ests may, as they have, fall into the management of 
 imbecile idiocy; the dispensation of charity, to the 
 
04 POPULAR INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 cold and selfish, and the affairs of religion to the pro 
 fane and licentious. 
 
 The selection of public men by the popular voice, 
 gives the guarantee of self-interest that better men 
 shall be chosen than if the decision is by chance. It 
 is well known that those destitute of principle them 
 selves, respect it in others, and even an assemblage of 
 bad men, obliged to trust their interests to a few or 
 one of their number, will naturally select those in 
 whom they can most confide ; and in the characters 
 of mixed good and evil which constitute society, the 
 aggregate judgment must fall upon the principle of 
 goodness and capacity, as that only in which they can 
 have a common faith. The judgment of men may 
 sometimes be erroneous as to the individuals selected 
 by them, but the disposition and the interest is to 
 choose the best. One of the most remarkable laws of 
 nature gives the security for correct judgment and 
 points out popular government as that best adapted to 
 man. However humble may appear the intellectual 
 endowments of the individuals of the mass, compared 
 to the exceptional possessors of great genius and 
 
POPULAR INSTITUTIONS. C5 
 
 intellectual power, it is only the common sense of the 
 aggregate mass which can correctly determine the 
 questions relating to the interests of mankind. Guizot, 
 in his history of civilization, tells us that " It is com 
 mon sense which gives to words their proper significa 
 tion, and common sense is the Genius of Humanity." 
 In the essay of Beattie on Truth, it is said that "com 
 mon sense or instinct, which prompts men to trust to 
 their own feelings, hath in all ages continued the 
 same ; but the interests, pursuits, and abilities of phi 
 losophers are susceptible of endless variety, and their 
 theories vary accordingly." 
 
 The facts which have been laid before you in this 
 letter, and the great law to which allusion has been 
 made, show conclusively, the bold ignorance of the 
 Blackwood essayist; and they prove not only that 
 man is capable of self-government which offers a 
 security against the imperfections of human nature. 
 So progressive have been its influences, that from ob 
 servation of the past, there is reason to hope for the 
 breaking down of all old prejudices and external dis 
 guises, until moral greatness becomes the principle of 
 
CO POPULAR INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 distinction among men. An eloquent and philosophic 
 writer of our own country has these words: "Hitherto 
 the world has seen only aristocracies; moral greatness 
 is the truly republican condition of society. A more 
 than human teacher has declared, " In my Father s 
 house are many mansions," yea, an open and honored 
 place for all that enter in. It is a civilization founded 
 on moral culture, on the life of the affections, that 
 must yet be the great leveling principle in human 
 society, equalizing all conditions of life, ennobling all 
 lawful avocations, encircling with its zone of kindest 
 sympathies, the loftiest and the lowliest dwellings. 
 
 There is hope for the speedy advent of this millen 
 nial condition of society, in the fact that the several 
 principles of greatness that have been reversed in suc 
 cessive ages, have supplanted one another, each with 
 more rapid footsteps than the preceding. For the 
 first half of the world s history, we trace no higher 
 principle than brute force. The ascendency of the 
 military spirit makes the next two thousand years. 
 But the reverence of birth, of wealth, of intellect, have 
 succeeded each other by much shorter intervals; and 
 
POPULAR INSTITUTIONS. 67 
 
 moral greatness is even now, we trust, winning the 
 ascendency. 
 
 Christian benevolence already belts the globe. Art 
 lends its fire-wings ; science its eagle vision ; wisdom 
 its age gathered. We will hope, then, that an early 
 posterity may witness the entire supremacy of faith, 
 truth, and love. 
 
 Gentlemen of the Irving Literary Institute, having 
 made use of your Association as the text for the fore 
 going reflections, I shall bo most happy if they prove 
 in any way useful to you. 
 
POPULAK EDUCATION. 
 
 A REPORT 
 
 TO THE EDUCATIONAL SOCIETY OF EKIE COUNTY, PA. 
 
POPULAR EDUCATION. 
 
 It would seem to be almost unnecessary, at this 
 time and in this country, to say anything upon the 
 importance and the necessity of general education. 
 But, unfortunately, while all give a formal assent to 
 its value, there is too much reason to fear that the 
 public mind is not so deeply and so earnestly im 
 pressed with the worth of education as the general 
 verbal admission would imply. Few individuals be 
 come workers in the cause of education proportioned 
 to their acknowledgment of its value, or in any degree 
 proportioned to its influence upon the interests of 
 every member of the community. 
 
 This prevailing apathy and indifference could not 
 exist, were the true nature of education fully under 
 stood, and its whole influence upon individual pros 
 perity and happiness correctly appreciated; were it 
 
72 POPULAR EDUCATION. 
 
 seen to be an elevating power, and an element of suc 
 cess, not only to the man of literary and scientific 
 pursuits, but to the laborer and mechanic. It shall 
 be the endeavor of this report, briefly to set forth the 
 nature and importance of general education, and its 
 relations to individual and national prosperity and 
 happiness. The object of education is " to develop in 
 each individual all the perfection of which he is sus 
 ceptible."* To cultivate man to the full and produc 
 tive exercise of all the faculties with which he has 
 been endowed by the Creator; and, hence, it is a 
 necessity to render every human being fit for his 
 greatest usefulness ; and society has not done its duty, 
 while, to any individual, the opportunity for this full 
 development is wanting. 
 
 So extended a view of the nature of education 
 embraces the cultivation, in just proportion, of all the 
 human powers physical, mental, and moral, none 
 of which can be neglected without detriment to 
 the others. Such is their mutual dependence and 
 
 * Kant. 
 
POPULAR EDUCATION. 73 
 
 support, that no education is efficient which does not 
 apply to all the faculties of the human organization. 
 Without physical energy, the frame sinks beneath the 
 nervous exhaustion of mental labor, and firmness is 
 wanting for the fulfillment of moral obligations. For 
 titude abandons the weak and nervous, and industry 
 is a virtue beyond the reach of the enervated and lan 
 guid. "To exercise an art, it is necessary to com 
 mence by procuring the instruments; and, to render 
 these instruments useful, it is necessary that they be 
 made sufficiently firm and solid. To learn to think, it 
 is necessary, then, to exercise our limbs, senses, and 
 organs, which are the instruments of our intelligence; 
 and, to make these instruments the more available, it 
 is necessary that the body which furnishes them should 
 be robust and healthy. Thus, so far from the reason 
 proper of man forming itself independently of the 
 body, it is the good constitution of the body which 
 renders the operations of the mind easy and sure." * 
 Without mental power and cultivation, physical 
 
 Rousseau s Emile. 
 4 
 
74 POPULAR EDUCATION. 
 
 energies fail of tlieir entire usefulness ; and, without 
 moral control, both physical and mental power become 
 engines of vice instead of the supports of virtue, and 
 are annihilated by their corrupt and vitiated manifes 
 tations. With these few remarks upon the nature of 
 education, in its whole signification, our further in 
 quiry shall be directed to that part of it embracing 
 mental culture. 
 
 Much of the popular indifference in relation to in 
 tellectual acquirements may arise from the error of 
 regarding acquirements as the whole of education. 
 Those who take this view of the subject may well 
 argue that it is a waste of time to expend it in the 
 acquisition of knowledge which is not directly appli 
 cable to their special pursuits. Languages, mathe 
 matics, and science, they may say, are useless to him 
 whose vocation in life has no dependence upon those 
 branches of knowledge. This is very far from a cor 
 rect view of the subject. Acquirements are not, in 
 themselves, the whole of education. They are but 
 the means of effecting it, and knowledge is the neces 
 sary result of that discipline and training which gives 
 
POPULAR EDUCATION. 75 
 
 mental capacity and power. If it were possible for 
 any knowledge to be entirely useless, it would still 
 have served a valuable purpose, by the powers devel 
 oped in the process of acquisition. 
 
 Take away all the attainments which form a com 
 plete and accomplished education, and yet the mental 
 power, which has been developed ill the progress of 
 attainment, remains for application to the practical 
 purposes of life. The fact is illustrated every day by 
 those who, for want of use, have forgotten the studies 
 of their youth, and yet exhibit the mental vigor which 
 those studies have imparted, and go on through life in 
 the exercise of this cultivated strength, until nature 
 yields to the infirmities of age. Man is bidden, by a 
 law of " Him who doeth all things well," to employ 
 his youth in disciplining his faculties for the work of 
 life ; for it is a physiological law, that only through 
 the period of growth and youth are the faculties sus 
 ceptible of development and increase ; and when the 
 period of culture terminates in that of action, when 
 the active duties of life prohibit, in most men, the con 
 tinuance of study, the mind has attained the greatest 
 
76 POPULAR EDUCATION. 
 
 strength of which it is capable. It may go on to 
 new applications of its power, but it is now too late 
 to increase its force, and the man must, for the re 
 mainder of his existence, suffer the penalty of neglect 
 during the time assigned by nature for the purposes 
 of education ; and the community which permits this 
 neglect is responsible, beyond evasion, for all the men 
 tal power which is thus lost. In this view of the sub 
 ject, the neglect of early education is not only the 
 loss of acquirement, but the loss of the power to ac 
 quire; it is not only removing objects of beauty and 
 pleasure from before the eye. but destroying the power 
 of sight. It is the failure to bring the man up to the 
 full purpose of his creation, to that earthly develop 
 ment which foreshadows the expansive powers of his 
 future immortality, and the higher intellectual associa 
 tion of his disembodied existence. None know more 
 assuredly the duty and importance of mental culture 
 than those whose scientific investigations are with the 
 materiality through which mind manifests itself. The 
 following passage is from the pages of one of the most 
 distinguished living physiologists: 
 
POPULAR EDUCATION. 77 
 
 " By this immortal soul, the existence of which is 
 thus guessed by man, but of whose presence within 
 him he derives the strongest assurance from ReveJa- 
 tion, man is connected with beings of a higher order, 
 among whom intelligence exists, unrestrained in its 
 exercise by the imperfections of that corporeal mech 
 anism through which it here operates; and to this 
 state a state of more intimate communion of mind 
 with mind, and of creatures with their Creator, he is 
 encouraged to aspire, as the reward of the improve 
 ment of the talents here committed to his charge."* 
 
 These facts, relative to intellectual culture, are illus 
 trated by every-day observation of the laws of the 
 physical frame. Let the arm of man be, during his 
 period of growth, still and inactive; it acquires no 
 muscular development, and retains in adult years the 
 feebleness of childhood; but let it swing the me 
 chanic s hammer, or the wood-chopper s axe, and it 
 grows, swells, and hardens to its fullest capability ; and 
 
 * Principles of Human Physiology, by Wm. P. Carpen 
 ter, M. D, F. II. S. 
 
POPULAR EDUCATION. 
 
 that being reached, is retained by constant use through 
 the whole of vigorous manhood ; but the felled forest, 
 or the result of the mechanic s blows, are like the 
 acquirements of intellect, not the education but the 
 means by which it has been effected, and the man 
 made ready for his work. 
 
 "Mental philosophers have always admitted that 
 if a man, through imperfect education, has never had 
 his reasoning faculties called forth, the instrument of 
 that power becomes more or less atrophied, and the 
 power is more or less lost. For instance, take two 
 boys born of the same parents, and with the same, or 
 nearly the same original capacity. Suppose them dif 
 ferently educated, the one brought up in the fields 
 and all mental culture neglected, the other trained for 
 a learned profession. When these two have arrived 
 at maturity, oblige them to change places, and the 
 incapacity of the brain of the peasant would only be 
 surpassed by the incapacity of the muscular system 
 of the student. The same applies to moral as to 
 intellectual culture. And hence the same import 
 ance of early education for the formation of moral 
 
POPULAR EDUCATION. 79 
 
 strength, as for the formation of intellectual or mus 
 cular strength."* 
 
 Such being the effect of intellectual culture to in 
 crease mental vigor, its necessity and advantages can 
 not be limited by individual occupation or pursuit; 
 but they result from the nature of man, and impose 
 upon that nature an obligation which can not be neg 
 lected without the guilt and the penalty of crime. 
 The educated mechanic, laborer, or farmer, wiil have 
 that advantage over his uninstructed neighbor which 
 strength has over weakness ; arid, in his business, and 
 all other relations of life, will have the greater chance 
 of success, let them be in morals, skill, and all other 
 respects equal. Such a truth scarcely needs illustra 
 tion, but we will take one from the observations of a 
 learned foreigner f upon the influence of education in 
 the factories of Lowell : 
 
 "Some of the factory girls have been teachers in 
 
 * The Human Brain ; by Sarmiel Solly, F. R. S, 
 t Frederick Van Raumer, Professor of History in the 
 ITniversitA r of Berlin. 
 
80 POPULAR EDUCATION. 
 
 the schools, and some, after the accumulation of a lit 
 tle money, return to that occupation. It is commonly 
 found that those girls who diligently attended school 
 make more rapid progress in the factories, and earn 
 more than the uneducated. The printed productions 
 of some of the workwomen, ( The Lowell Offering, ) 
 show a degree of cultivation of which one has no 
 idea in the European factories." 
 
 That an educated intellect is not incompatible with 
 the pursuits of labor, is testified to by the fact that all 
 men are born with the capabilities for cultivation, and 
 it is inconsistent with the arrangements of Providence 
 to endow beings with powers which are to be useless 
 to them. We have evidence, too, of the harmonious 
 combination of mental culture and manual labor, in 
 the fact that several learned and scientific pursuits re 
 quire as much mechanical labor as ordinary mechanic 
 arts. Such is the necessity for a combination of active 
 labor with mental exercise, that many judicious liter 
 ary men seek the labor in amateur workshops, or as 
 laborers on their farms, or in the fatiguing amuse 
 ments of the chase. On the other hand, mechanics 
 
POPULAR EDUCATION. 81 
 
 in the constant exercise of their calling have become 
 eminently learned, -and the time lost by the ignorant 
 in idleness and low dissipation would be amply suf 
 ficient for extensive intellectual acquirements, had their 
 faculties been developed and educated to the capacity 
 and want, and the pleasures of mental occupation. 
 
 The evils of ignorance, and the hourly dependence 
 of the uneducated, their subjection to imposture and 
 delusion, may be taken as evidence that general 
 education is among the first duties imposed by Provi 
 dence on a community of rational beings. The igno 
 rant man falls a ready prey to the vultures of society. 
 Insane fanaticism leads him away from the purity and 
 simplicity of Christian truth. Mercenary lawyers rob 
 him of his money and mar his prospects in the halls 
 of justice ; ignorant physicians impose upon his cre 
 dulity, consume his substance, and ruin the health of 
 himself and family ; pretenders to science bewilder his 
 judgment, and tax his faith in their impositions ; in 
 competent teachers leave his children to grow up in 
 ignorance, and dishonest politicians make him the 
 
 tool of their selfish purposes, and often a traitor to the 
 4* 
 
82 POPULAR EDUCATION. 
 
 happiness and prosperity of his country. Such being 
 the result of ignorance, every honest member of soci 
 ety must feel that he has a personal interest in the 
 cause of general education. 
 
 Having thus far endeavored to point out the influ 
 ence of education upon the success and happiness of 
 individuals, and to show its entire compatibility with 
 the pursuits of labor, it will now be our duty to con 
 sider its bearing upon society in its political organiza 
 tion. 
 
 In those countries which have their government 
 vested in hereditary sovereigns, and their laws enforced 
 by military power, it would seem that the less gen 
 eral education, the less manliness of intellect existing 
 among the people, the greater the security of the con 
 trolling powers. Some despotic governments, recog 
 nizing the relationship between popular ignorance and 
 popular subjection, have discouraged, or even prohib 
 ited all means of mental culture; have made war upon 
 books, newspapers and schools, and cowering before the 
 intellect which spoke in dramas, or breathed in the mu 
 sic of operas, have prohibited them from presentation 
 
POPULAR EDUCATION. 83 
 
 to the public. Such means of education, as these 
 governments have established or permitted, have been 
 colleges and universities for the education of the higher 
 classes only. 
 
 There are, however, most honorable instances of 
 despotic governments, whose monarchs, either yielding 
 to the demands of the people, or prompted by a 
 philosophical liberality which overleaped selfish inter 
 ests, or, it may rather be, overruled by that Provi 
 dence which sees the " end from the beginning," have 
 established the means of popular education through 
 out their dominions. Under its influence, man is as 
 cending to his true dignity, and armies, in ignorance 
 the mere machines, the engines of despotism, being 
 educated, are promising to become the most efficient 
 means of accomplishing civil freedom. 
 
 " No country can rival Germany in the general dif 
 fusion of knowledge, and common school education 
 is the more widely extended, as parents are forced by 
 the law to send their children to school, or at least to 
 give evidence of having in a suitable manner provided 
 for their education. The children of the poor enjoy, 
 
84 POPULAR EDUCATION. 
 
 of course, tha benefits of instruction, free from ex 
 penses. The total number of children, frequenting 
 the common schools in Germany, amounts to more 
 than six millions. About fifteen millions five hundred 
 thousand Prussian dollars are, in Germany, annually 
 bestowed upon this branch of education. That, with 
 these arrangements, scarcely none above six years old 
 are to be found throughout Germany who can not 
 read, and but very few who can not write, is not to be 
 wondered at. Some years ago, there were, among 
 122,897 men of the standing . Prussian army, only 
 two soldiers who could not write, and these were not 
 Germans, but Poles from the province of Posen." * 
 
 Such has been the course of a portion of Europe in 
 *egard to this important subject, and the mental power, 
 thus called, into action, is beginning to assume its con 
 trol over the destiny of nations. It presents the most 
 wonderful historic evidence of the extended, benefi 
 cent, and humanizing influences of general education. 
 
 A writer, who thinks deeply, and expresses himself 
 
 * Europe, Past and Present, by Francis H. Ungewitter, 
 LL.D. 
 
POPULAR EDUCATION. 85 
 
 forcibly, offers us the following thoughts on this sub 
 ject : 
 
 " But events, the current of which often frustrates 
 the purposes of the unprincipled, interfered to disturb 
 the calculations of despotism. When the light of 
 civilization began to illuminate the face of society, and 
 to warm into life their hopes and aspirations after 
 freedom, it was found impossible to remove the army 
 beyond the reach of this genial influence. Public 
 opinion found its way into the barracks and mess- 
 room, followed the soldier to camp and garrison, 
 accompanied him to the battle-field, and gradually 
 inspired him with the wish to be like other men, an 
 argumentative, logical free preacher, in matters of 
 thought altogether his own master, and, therefore, 
 inclined to inquire into the causes of these wars, 
 which his valor, patriotism and intellect could alone 
 conduct to a happy issue. 
 
 " From the moment this change was effected in the 
 military service of Europe, it became manifest that 
 the doom of arbitrary power was sealed ; though it was, 
 and is still, impossible to foretell the date of its final 
 
86 TOPULAR EDUCATION. 
 
 overthrow, still, the order of things which owed its 
 existence to an unreasoning army, must obviously pass 
 more or less rapidly away, when that representative 
 of the nation s energy and courage assumes the right 
 to exercise the privilege of thought. 
 
 " Despotism is conscious of reposing upon a basis? 
 hollow and uncertain, filled with combustible and ex 
 plosive materials, to which, at any moment, the spark 
 may be applied that will shatter into ten thousand 
 fragments the whole structure. Doubts, misgivings, 
 alternate boasting, and timidity a confident appeal to 
 the sword at one moment, and at another an appre 
 hensive shrinking from it characterize the policy of 
 contemporary governments. It is felt that the army 
 is no longer what it was a blind instrument wielded 
 by weakness and perfidy, for their own aggrandize 
 ment. Into the mind of the European soldier, the 
 notion has found its way that he is a citizen also, and 
 that it consequently behooves him to investigate, in 
 that capacity, the nature and objects of the designs he 
 is first, of all men, called upon to accomplish. 
 
 "The prestige of loyality is gone, and whenever 
 
POPULAR EDUCATION. 87 
 
 events, whether sooner or later, shall open up to the 
 Germans a rational prospect of establishing their free 
 dom, nothing can be calculated upon with greater cer 
 tainty than the defection of the army to the people. 
 
 " Despotism now stands in awe of its own instru 
 ments. It called them up and subjected them to the 
 modifying force of discipline, to further its own de 
 signs; but, having completed the organization of its 
 military establishments, it trembles at its own handi 
 work. As hitherto, the army has allied itself with 
 the few against the many, so there seems to be every 
 reason to believe that its practice will, henceforward, 
 be reversed, and that, belonging chiefly to the many, 
 will side with them against the few." * 
 
 Can we contemplate a more stupendous illustration 
 of the benefits of general education than is here shown 
 of its bearing upon civil liberty, converting, by the 
 power of developed intelligence, the organized and 
 systematic enemies of freedom into its most ardent, 
 
 * United Service Magazine. Article, " Military Crisis in 
 Europe." 
 
88 POPULAR EDUCATION. 
 
 powerful, and efficient supporters? If monarchies 
 have done thus much for the popular intelligence 
 which must shake their thrones, and finally overturn 
 them, what then is the duty of the people of this no 
 ble republic, having its whole fabric resting upon the 
 intelligence of the people ; where each individual is a 
 part of the sovereignity each individual a maker of 
 the law where mental and moral discipline, and gov 
 erned passions form the power of efficient obedience, 
 make submission to law a guardian principle , and the 
 people a law-abiding people! Shall the sovereign 
 and law-making power be an ignorant one, and yet 
 produce enlightened government? Shall that men 
 tal power which takes the place of bayonets, and ren 
 ders them unnecessary, be an untrained, blind, and 
 undisciplined force, and yet preserve harmony and 
 security? 
 
 While our institutions assert the capability of man 
 for self-government, they imply that it is the attribute 
 of an educated, and not of an ignorant people ; and 
 hence, we are under obligations to the whole human 
 family to found the principle of self-government upon its 
 
POPULAR EDUCATION. 89 
 
 own sure basis, that of general education ; and it is 
 not going too far to say that if we fail of our duty, in 
 this respect, we are guilty of treachery to the institu 
 tions of our country and to the rights of mankind. 
 
 Our responsibility upon this subject derives increased 
 force from the nature of our population. It is not 
 composed only of those born under our institutions 
 and venerating them as the work of their fathers, but 
 from the freedom with which we open all the advan 
 tages of our conntry, and confer all civil rights upon 
 those who have no traditional alliance with our consti 
 tution, but rather prejudices with other lands and 
 other civil organizations, it is necessary that the na 
 tional intelligence be kept so deep and clear as to 
 absorb the varied and mingled streams of foreign pop 
 ulation, and yet be marked by no other trace of the 
 union than increased volume. The wonderful national 
 prosperity which has blessed our country, and the 
 success which has so far attended its progress, give us 
 the assurance that we have in part done our duty, and 
 are receiving the rich reward of our work. Those 
 who are remote from the operation of the causes of 
 
90 POPULAR EDUCATION. 
 
 our national prosperity, and who can contrast them 
 with a different state of things, are, perhaps, more 
 advantageously placed than ourselves, for appreciating 
 the true causes of the prosperity which blesses us, as a 
 nation. It becomes the part of wisdom to hear their 
 report to listen to their evidence, and to be influenced 
 in the future, by the instructions of the past. The 
 following remarks are taken from an article in an Eng 
 lish periodical* upon the subject of "Education in 
 America :" 
 
 " What is the enterprise and general prosperity of 
 the Americans to be attributed to, (their country is not 
 naturally so rich or fruitful as Mexico,) except to their 
 general enlightenment ? The oldest manufactories of 
 cotton in the world are the Hindoos ; labor with them 
 is cheaper than it is in any other part of the world, 
 yet we take the cotton that grows at the doors of their 
 factories, bring it 13,000 miles to this country, manu 
 facture it here where labor is so expensive, take it 
 back 13,000 miles, and undersell the native manufac 
 turer. Labor is dearer in America than in any other 
 
 Frazcr s Magazine. 
 
POPULAR EDUCATION. 91 
 
 part of the world, and yet we dread and fear their 
 competition more than that of any other nation. The 
 reason of all this is obvious. All the advantages 
 which the Hindoo possesses are far more than counter 
 balanced by his intellectual inferiority to ourselves; 
 while we dread the American with reason, because he 
 is, intellectually at least, our equal, and, considering 
 the general intelligence and good conduct of the 
 hands he employs, our superior. To what cause, ex 
 cept that of decided superiority in captains and crews, 
 can we attribute the fact that the Americans have de 
 prived us of so large a portion of the whale-fishery 
 as in a measure to have monopolized it ? 
 
 " American clocks, which we now see in every hall 
 and cottage, ought to set us thinking. We may be 
 sure of this, the commerce of the world will fall into 
 the hands of those who are most deserving of it. If 
 pclitical or philanthropic considerations should foil to 
 show us the necessity of educating our people, com 
 mercial considerations will one day remind us of what 
 we ought to have done. We can only hope that the 
 reminder may not come too late. 
 
92 POPULAR EDUCATION. 
 
 " Enlightenment is the great necessity and the 
 great glory of our age ; ignorance, the most expen 
 sive, most dangerous, and most pressing of all our 
 evils. Among ourselves, we find a variety of motives 
 converging upon this conclusion. The statesman has 
 become aware that an enlightened population is more 
 orderly, more submissive, in times of public distress, to 
 the necessity of their circumstances; not so easily led 
 away by agitators; in short, more easily and more 
 cheaply governed. The political economist is well 
 aware of the close connection between general intelli 
 gence and successful enterprise and industry. The 
 greater the number of enlightened and intelligent, the 
 greater is the number of those whose thoughts are at 
 work in subduing nature, improving arts, and increas 
 ing national wealth. The benevolent man is anxious 
 that all should share those enjoyments and advantages 
 which he himself finds to be greatest. Both church 
 man and dissenter know well enough that they are 
 under the necessity of educating. And the manufac 
 turer, too, who is employing, perhaps, many more 
 hands than the colonel of a regiment commands, is 
 
POPULAR EDUCATION. 93 
 
 now becoming well aware how much to his advantage 
 it is that his men should prefer a book or a reading- 
 room to the parlor of a public house ; should under 
 stand what they are about, instead of being merely 
 able to go through their allotted task as so many 
 beasts of burden; and that they should have the 
 strong motive of making their homes decent and re 
 spectable, and of bettering their condition. All these 
 motives are now working, strongly too, in the public 
 mind, and have begun to bear fruit." 
 
 This is profitable testimony, as to the bearing of 
 general education upon the individual interests of 
 each member of the community, and upon the pros 
 perity of the nation. While it presents encouragement 
 for what we have done, it by no means presents the 
 assurance that we have performed our whole duty, but 
 only offers a reason for the vice, the wretchedness, and 
 the criminality, which are the natural consequences 
 of the want of general education, and leads to the 
 conviction that as men, or as a nation, we have not 
 done our duty while there is one individual among us 
 who has not had the opportunity for that kind of 
 
94 POPULAR EDUCATION. 
 
 mental culture which shall give his faculties their ful 
 lest possible development. Who, now, may put it off 
 and say it is none of his business ? It is the business 
 of every man, who wishes social virtue, security and 
 peace, and who would give to himself and his children 
 those guarantees for correct conduct, which are afford 
 ed by an intelligent, orderly, and well-regulated neigh 
 borhood. 
 
 Having, in this brief manner, endeavored to present 
 the importance of general education to every man in 
 the community, no matter what may be his pursuit, 
 the next endeavor shall be to indicate the mode of 
 development, which shall be of general practicability. 
 
 Generally speaking, there may be said to be three 
 classes of study developing three correspondent divi 
 sions of mental power, and all of which are necessary 
 to complete mental culture, and to prepare the indi 
 vidual for his future studies and labors. The studies 
 of languages, mathematics, and the sciences of obser 
 vation, develop, in harmonious dependence upon each 
 other, various faculties which make up the human 
 intellect. 
 
POPULAR EDUCATION. 
 
 Language is a comprehensive mental process; it is 
 the connecting link between mortality and immor 
 tality, between the operations of the mind and soul, 
 and their expression for earthly use ; and here it alone 
 implies a wide range of mental culture, and the in 
 crease and development of many faculties. 
 
 Some diversity of opinion exists as to the relative 
 importance of ancient and modern languages. Many 
 contend that the time occupied in the study of Latin 
 and Greek is thrown away, and had better be devoted 
 to the acquirement of a modern language, which they 
 argue may be of more practical utility. This dif 
 ference of view may arise from the error of regarding 
 the language studied as the object only, and not the 
 means of mental culture ; and it may not be out of 
 place to offer here suggestions which should be con 
 sidered in relation to this subject. The study of the 
 dead languages, the foundation of modern languages, 
 and the materials of which they are formed, would 
 seem to be better fitted for disciplining the mental 
 processes concerned in the acquisition of language. 
 To be well acquired, they train the powers of memory, 
 
96 POPULAR EDUCATION. 
 
 attention, and application, and, being mastered, they 
 render the acquisition of modern languages easy, from 
 the strength they may have given to the faculty of 
 studying language. But upon the ground of practical 
 utility, it is questionable whether the ancient languages 
 have not advantages over the modern. The occasion 
 for the use of a modern language occurs to very few 
 persons, and to those upon rare occasions in a lifetime. 
 How few of those who study French, Spanish, and 
 Italian, ever find a necessity for the use. German, in 
 some sections of our country, is more useful, though 
 rarely necessary. On the other hand, scarcely a page 
 of English can be read, or a study entered upon, with 
 out the utility of the ancient languages being felt, in 
 the precision they give to the many words derived from 
 them, and in our scientific and theological investiga 
 tions they are essential. 
 
 The influence of mathematical studies, in giving 
 firmness and endurance to the attention, in strength 
 ening the reasoning powers, and guarding the mind 
 against hasty conclusions, is generally understood 
 and admitted. There are few to whom scientific 
 
POPULAR EDUCATION. 97 
 
 knowledge is not of every-day utility ; but if it had no 
 other value than the wide and pleasurable range it gives 
 the mind, its neglect would be inexcusable. There is a 
 wide difference between the man who sees in the boil 
 ing fluid, the burning taper, and the glowing fire, the 
 falling dew and gathering clouds, nothing but every 
 day facts, familiar by use, and suggesting no range of 
 thought, and him who sees in all of them kindred 
 processes in the vast laboratory of nature, illustrating 
 beautiful and extended laws, over which the mind 
 expands with pleasure, until it reaches, through his 
 works, the great Cause and Ruler of all. 
 
 The laboring man, who goes to his work with his 
 mind open to such contemplations, from all he may 
 see the flower, the rock, or the earth upon which he 
 treads ; the metal, or the wood in which he works, is 
 a man of higher nature, and has greater sources of 
 happiness than he who toils in mental vacancy, and 
 passes from the fatigue of labor to the enjoyments of 
 sense and animal indulgence. To these studies may 
 
 be advantageously added the art of drawing, which 
 5 
 
98 POPULAR EDUCATION. 
 
 imparts accuracy to the eye and hand of practical 
 utility in almost every occupation in life. 
 
 The means of education being supplied to the peo 
 ple, there is ample time for acquiring well all the stu 
 dies essential to mental development, during the period 
 of growth of the mental faculties, and before entering 
 upon professional, commercial, or mechanical pursuits. 
 In the latter case, the mental cultivation might go, 
 step by step, with all the manual labor which should 
 be required of youth. It is unnecessary to enter into 
 a detail of the specific studies in each division of men 
 tal culture, as these are either self-indicated or might 
 be influenced by circumstances, or would be contin 
 gent upon the views and capabilities of those who are 
 the instructors of youth. 
 
 General education, or mental development, having 
 so important an influence upon the welfare of the in 
 dividual and of society, it is evident that the process 
 should be committed only to the most competent, and 
 hence the business of the teacher becomes one of the 
 greatest trust and responsibility. His mistakes and 
 neglects are too often beyond the reach of correction. 
 
POPULAR EDUCATION. 99 
 
 Until the community will recognize the importance of 
 the teacher s duties, and, by competent rewards, respect, 
 and honor, invite to their profession its appropriate 
 talent and character, there can be no efficient general 
 education. In addition to the acquirements to be im 
 parted, the teacher should possess a knowledge of 
 human nature and skill in its management, which can 
 only be acquired by steady devotion to his pursuit ; 
 such a devotion as will only be given to a pursuit 
 which presents the inducements of a permanent occu 
 pation. Under the existing circumstances of the pro 
 fession of teaching, many, the most capable of its 
 duties, make it but a means of reaching other profes 
 sions, and abandon teaching just as they become fit 
 for pursuing it. This must be fatal to progress in the 
 art, but such must continue to be the case until the 
 community honors the profession of teaching in pro 
 portion to its intrinsic value and nobility. Some, of 
 the greatest intellectual power, have given their lives 
 to duties of instruction, and have impressed their men 
 tal stamp upon those who have exhibited it in various 
 walks of intellectual greatness. As we honor mind in 
 
100 POPULAR EDUCATION. 
 
 its highest manifestations, we honor and respect that 
 occupation which gives to mind its form and direction ; 
 those who commence that culture which produces the 
 eminent in art, science, literature, and statesmanship, 
 to adorn, honor, and benefit their country. 
 
 But, despised as his pursuit may be by the unthink 
 ing, unrewarded as he may feel to be his labors and 
 devotion, the teacher who has done his duty cherishes 
 within his bosom the proud consciousness that to him 
 has been intrusted the honored duty of lighting up 
 the double flame of intellect and religion ; the one to 
 shed its brilliant gleams along and around his pu 
 pils path through time; the other, more brilliant, to 
 brighten the darkness of the tomb, and to light the 
 soul on to immortality. 
 
HISTORICAL ACCOUNT 
 
 EfilE COUNTY, PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 WRITTEN FOR THE HISTORICAL SOCIETY O MAUVLANJ). 
 
HISTORICAL ACCOUNT 
 
 ERIE COUNTY, PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 EVERY year during the season of travel, thousands 
 of voyagers embark at Buffalo, in the state of New 
 York, on board the magnificent steamers leaving that 
 port for the voyage of the great lakes. The first point 
 of interest at which these steamers stop, is the har 
 bor and town of Erie, the only port possessed by 
 Pennsylvania upon the lakes, and formerly known by 
 the name of Presque Isle. This place is distant from 
 Buffalo, ninety miles, and thus early in the voyage 
 commences the enjoyment and interest derived from 
 picturesque scenery and beauty of location. The lake 
 shore rises into a bold bluff, the base being a slaty 
 rock, to the height of eighty feet, and then spreads 
 out into a broad irregular plain, covered with thickets 
 of wild roses, with forests and farms. This plain is 
 
104 HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF 
 
 broken by ravines, through which are flowing rivulets 
 either quietly to join the lake, or to tumble their wa 
 ters in mimic falls over the rocky bed from which 
 they have washed the superimposed soil. Seen from 
 the deck of a steamer, the country back rises and sweeps 
 away in a beautiful slope of varied hue, until its dark 
 forest- crowned summit, at almost a mountain elevation, 
 cuts against the sky. In reality it is a succession of 
 plains, or ridges, as though there had been successive 
 elevations of the land, or depressions of the lake. 
 
 The harbor or bay of Presque Isle, is formed by a 
 low and thickly-wooded point or peninsula, which, 
 shooting out from the bold bluff, bends around like a 
 bowed arm, until its free extremity approaches a shoal 
 or spit shooting from the coast below, and thus hugs 
 in this beautiful bay, called Presque Isle, from the 
 almost island character of this peninsula. The beau 
 tiful bay thus shut in is five miles in length by two in 
 breadth, and has a depth of eighteen feet. Its entrance 
 between the approaching points of land had originally 
 but four or five feet; the erection of stone piers upon 
 these points, by confining the channel, has given 
 
ERIE COUNTY, PA, 105 
 
 greater force to the currents and washed it out to the 
 depth of nine feet. 
 
 On the plain overlooking this bay and peninsula, 
 stands the town or borough of Erie, containing now 
 between five and six thousand inhabitants. 
 
 This locality, so interesting in its natural arrange 
 ments and adornments, is also worthy of attention from 
 its historical associations. Here was the commence 
 ment, within our territory, of the chain of French forts, 
 which, crossing to the Ohio and Mississippi, were in 
 tended to unite Canada with Louisiana, and to shut 
 out British rule from this region. 
 
 Here is located the scene of the youthful and dar 
 ing adventures of Washington. Here General An 
 thony Wayne terminated his earthly career; and this 
 point is intimately associated with one of the proudest 
 naval achievements of our last war with Great Britain. 
 
 Before doing more than allude to these interesting 
 associations, it may be better to give a short statement 
 of the early political history and settlement of the 
 country. 
 
 When the courtier quaker, as Macaulay represents 
 5* 
 
106 HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF 
 
 him, Wm. Penn, received from Charles II. the grant 
 of Pennsylvania, the charter prescribed that " the said 
 lands were to be bounded on the north by the begin 
 ning of the three-and-fortieth degree of north latitude." 
 No measures were taken to ascertain where the said 
 line would be located on the ground, until so late as 
 the year 1785. Commissioners were then appointed 
 on the part of Pennsylvania and on that of New York, 
 to ascertain the northern boundary of the state from 
 the river Delaware westward, to the north-west corner 
 of Pennsylvania. The commissioners first appointed 
 were David Rittenhouse, upon the part of Pennsyl 
 vania, and Samuel Holland, on the part of New York. 
 They proceeded to act in pursuance of their appoint 
 ment, and in December, 1786, ascertained and fixed 
 the beginning of the forty-third degree of north lati 
 tude, erected suitable monuments thereof at and near 
 the river Delaware, but were prevented, by the in 
 clemency of the weather, from proceeding further in 
 the survey. The next year Andrew Ellicott was ap 
 pointed a commissioner for the above purpose, on the 
 part of Pennsylvania, and James Clinton and Simeon 
 
ERIE COUNTY, PA. 107 
 
 Dewit, on the part of New York. In the year 1787, 
 they completed the running and marking of this north 
 ern boundary line, two hundred and fifty-nine miles 
 and eighty-eight perches, from its commencement at 
 the Delaware river to its termination in Lake Erie, 
 five or six miles east of the Ohio state line, and through 
 out the whole distance marked by mile-stones, each 
 one indicating the number of miles it is distant from 
 the river Delaware. In addition to these stones there 
 are also throughout the line, mile-trees marked, in the 
 same manner. In 1789, an act of Assembly was 
 passed confirming the acts of the commissioners and 
 establishing the line run by them as the boundary be 
 tween New York and Pennsylvania. This line run 
 ning with such undeviating straightness from east to 
 west, first gave to Pennsylvania a little corner upon 
 Lake Erie, without port or harbor a mere tantalizing 
 look-out upon its broad expanse of blue waters, with 
 out any facilities for participating in the commerce 
 which they were destined to bear. This county of 
 Erie, and harbor of Presque Isle, were not then in the 
 state of Pennsylvania. But by reference to the map, 
 
108 HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OP 
 
 we see that the northern boundary of Pennsylvania is 
 not now a rigid straight line, but that it makes a sin 
 gular and sudden projection or shoulder jutting out 
 upon Lake Erie that the boundary line, as it draws 
 near the lake, makes a sudden turn more to the north 
 and runs out into the lake, cutting out a " huge can tie " 
 of what was the acute, south-west angle of New York, 
 and we now proceed to some notice of this u Triangu 
 lar Tract," as it is technically called. 
 
 To the jurisdiction and ownership of this important 
 little piece of territory there were conflicting claims. 
 New York claimed jurisdiction by virtue of her charter. 
 Massachusetts made the same claim the possession 
 and ownership of the soil were with the aborigines. 
 
 The statesmen of Pennsylvania at an early day per 
 ceived the importance of having a front with a harbor 
 upon the lake, and took the necessary measures to ef 
 fect it. In pursuance with negotiations had upon that 
 subject, New York ceded her right to the United 
 States, and Massachusetts did the same. In the mean 
 time Pennsylvania entered into arrangements to pur 
 chase from the Indians their right to the soil and 
 
ERIE COUNTY, PA. 109 
 
 jurisdiction of the same tract; and on the ninth of 
 January, seventeen hundred and eighty-nine, these 
 were ceded for the sum of twelve hundred pounds. 
 This, it is believed, was the last purchase made from 
 the Indians by the state of Pennsylvania, extinguish 
 ing all native claim to lands within her borders the 
 same just and peaceful character marking the closing- 
 transaction on Lake Erie, in 1789, with which the 
 first negotiation commenced on the Delaware in 1681. 
 
 On the third of March, 1792, the United States, 
 for the sum of one hundred and fifty-one thousand 
 six hundred and forty dollars and twenty-five cents, 
 ceded to the state of Pennsylvania this important 
 " Triangular Tract," containing two hundred and two 
 thousand one hundred and eighty-seven acres. 
 
 Although the political right of possession and juris 
 diction was now settled, this tract was still to be the 
 subject of much individual dispute and litigation, very 
 much retarding its settlement and improvement, or 
 rather breaking them up after they had commenced. 
 On the third of April, 1792, a law was passed by the 
 state for the sale and settlement of all the vacant land 
 
110 HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF 
 
 lying north and west of the Ohio and the Alleghany 
 rivers, and Connewango Creek. This included all the 
 lands from Pittsburgh to Lake Erie and west of the 
 Alleghany river. Portions of this land in the differ 
 ent districts had been appropriated by the state in the 
 way of donation to the officers and soldiers of the 
 Pennsylvania line in the war of the revolution. 
 
 The law which provided for the sale and settlement 
 of the vacant lands, stipulated that they should be 
 granted to actual settlers in tracts of four hundred 
 acres. The settlement, the extent and kind of which 
 were specified, was required to be made within two 
 years from the time of the grant, unless obstacles arose 
 from the enemies of the United States, meaning, more 
 particularly, the Indians. Under this law the lands 
 were chiefly taken up by large speculating companies, 
 though each tract was nominally in the right of sepa 
 rate individuals. The companies failed to comply 
 with the stipulations of the law, requiring settlement, 
 cultivation and improvement, within two years, and 
 individuals thinking the company claim vacated, proj 
 ceeded to settle and to make improvements upon the 
 
ERIE COUNTY, PA. Ill 
 
 land. Here, again, were three kinds of claims: tlie 
 revolutionary donation, the company settlement, and 
 the individual occupation. 
 
 After much and protracted litigation, the final set 
 tlement was in favor of the company title, upon the 
 plea that the Indians had offered obstacles to the set 
 tlement within the prescribed period. These difficul 
 ties spread abroad the impression that the titles to land 
 in this district were not safe, and hence emigrants 
 passed by and went into the adjoining part of Ohio 
 the Western or Connecticut Reserve, as it was formerly 
 called and hence the Western Reserve has an earlier 
 and more wealthy settlement than this part of Penn 
 sylvania. These uncertainties have, however, long 
 since been terminated, and the county is steadily pro 
 gressing in wealth, numbers, and improvements. 
 
 There have been few, if any, pioneers in any of our 
 new country who have had to encounter greater pri 
 vations, hardships, sufferings and dangers, than the 
 first settlers of Erie county. To a very late period 
 the country was a wilderness, and the unprotected 
 population was exposed to the murderous attacks of 
 
112 HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF 
 
 the Indians. So recently as May, 1795, a Mr. Rut- 
 ledge and his son were murdered by the savages at a 
 point which now forms the junction of two of the 
 principal streets of Erie. 
 
 Without roads through this wilderness, all the sup 
 plies had to be procured from Pittsburgh or through 
 Canada. From Pittsburgh the supplies ascended in 
 keel boats, the Alleghany river, French Creek, Le 
 Boeuf Creek, to where the village of Waterford now 
 stands, fourteen miles from the lake shore, and from 
 this point they were carried on pack-horses. The 
 transportation from Canada was by bateaux. The 
 first wheat grown in Erie county was carried more 
 than one hundred miles to Chippewa, Canada, to be 
 ground. 
 
 The county of Erie and the adjoining county of 
 Crawford, were surveyed and laid out into tracts of 
 400 acres, as early as 1794, and a few adventurers 
 pushed their way into the county of Erie at that time, 
 but no permanent settlements were made until 1705 
 and 1796. 
 
 The great southern road which leaves the lake 
 
ERIE COUNTY, PA. 113 
 
 shore at Erie for Pittsburgh, immediately commences 
 ascending the succession of ridges which have been 
 described as characteristic of the formation of the coun 
 try, giving us at each step a more extended view over 
 the forests beneath us, the town, the bay, and the lake. 
 About ten miles from the lake shore, the greatest ele 
 vation, about six hundred feet, is reached, and at the 
 distance of fourteen miles, on the southern border of 
 the county, we descend into the pretty little valley, in 
 which, on the banks of a miniature lake, stands the 
 town of Waterford. The little lake, called Le Boeuf, 
 empties its waters by a small creek of the same name 
 into French creek, and by this into the Alleghany and 
 Ohio rivers. We have here these waters taking their 
 rise in the same hills, and in proximity to each other, 
 finding their way to the Atlantic, by the distant chan 
 nels of the Mississippi and the St. Lawrence. But we 
 have now come to this point, from its interesting his 
 torical associations, as being the scene of the youthful 
 achievements of Washington when in his 20th year, in 
 the service of Great Britain, and commissioned by 
 Governor Dinwiddie, of Virginia, he accomplished his 
 
114 HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF 
 
 mission to the French posts of this region. It may 
 not be out of place to recall the circumstances which 
 required him to enter upon this service. 
 
 In Sparks Life of Washington, chapter 3d, it is 
 stated " The time was now at hand when the higher 
 destinies of Washington were to unfold themselves. 
 Intelligence came from the frontiers that the French 
 had crossed the lakes from Canada in force;" friendly 
 Indians, seeing these aggressions and the strength of 
 the French, were intimidated from their fidelity, and 
 those of hostile feelings were encouraged to open ag 
 gression. One messenger had already been sent to 
 meet these threatened dangers, but had shrunk from 
 the accomplishment of his task. Under these circum 
 stances, Washington was commissioned to proceed to 
 the posts of the intruders to protest against their 
 aggressions and to warn them of the consequences. 
 
 The journey before him was nearly seven hundred 
 miles, over rugged and untracked mountains ; through 
 a savage wilderness and savage tribes. Commissioned 
 on the 31st day of October, 1753, he left Williams- 
 burgh, the Virginia seat of government, on the same 
 
ERIE COUNTY, PA. 115 
 
 day, and on the llth of December arrived at the 
 French post on the little lake of Le Boeuf. Washing 
 ton records in his journal that on his way out, during 
 an interview with an Indian chief, the Half King, tho 
 chief " informed me that they had built two forts, one 
 on Lake Erie, and another on French creek, near a 
 small lake, fifteen miles asunder, and a large wagon 
 road between them. They are both built after the same 
 model but different in size, that on the lake being 
 largest. He gave me a plan of them of his own 
 drawing." 
 
 From his journal of the thirteenth of December, two 
 days after his arrival, we have the following description 
 of this fort : 
 
 " The chief officers retired to hold a- council of war, 
 which gave me an opportunity of taking the dimen 
 sions of the fort and making what observations I could. 
 
 "It is situated on the south or west fork of French 
 creek, near the water, and is almost surrounded by the 
 creek, and a small branch of it which forms a kind of 
 island. Four houses compose the sides. The bastions 
 arc made of piles driven into the ground, standing 
 
116 HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF 
 
 more than twelve feet above it and sharp at the top ; 
 with port holes cut for cannon, and loopholes for the 
 small-arms to fire through. There are eight six-pound 
 pieces mounted on each bastion, and one piece of four 
 pounds before the gate. In the bastions are a guard 
 house, chapel, doctor s lodging, and the commander s 
 private stores ; round which are laid platforms for the 
 cannon and men to stand upon. There are several 
 barracks without the fort for the soldiers dwelling, cov 
 ered, some with bark, and some with boards, made 
 chiefly of logs. There are also several other houses 
 such as stables, smith shop, &c." 
 
 The locality of this early and important mission is 
 now, as before mentioned, the village of Waterford. 
 The French fort has disappeared, and the present road 
 passes over part of its site; and frequently an old 
 cannon ball, or some implement of corroded metal, 
 turns up as a relic of its bygone days and occupants. 
 The Le Boeuf Hotel is in part constructed of the block 
 house which succeeded the French work, and the 
 road from this work to that on the lake shore is still 
 traceable. 
 
ERIE COUNTY, PA. 117 
 
 It seems net a little remarkable, that Washington, 
 at a time of life when curiosity is most active, being 
 within two hours ride of the great lakes, and a good 
 road to conduct him to their shores, should not have 
 visited them; especially, as in that day they must 
 have been, from the great difficulty of reaching them, 
 even a much greater wonder than they are now. From 
 the minute character of his journal, it is evident that 
 if he had visited the lake it would have been men 
 tioned; and there is no reason to believe that the 
 French would have prevented him. He was at the 
 Fort from the eleventh until the sixteenth of Decem 
 ber, and that he did not seek to gratify the natural 
 curiosity: which he must have felt, isVorthy of remark, 
 as showing how completely, even in such early youth, 
 all private feelings were sacrificed to public duty.^His 
 constant vigilance was necessary, to^Tprevent his In 
 dians from being seduced from himand on the 15th 
 he says, "I can notjsay that everjn my life I suffered 
 so much anxiety as I did in this affair ; " and in a pre 
 ceding part of the journal he says, " As I had orders 
 to make all possible dispatch." When he had reached 
 
118 HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF 
 
 the French commander on Le Boeuf Creek, the point 
 to which duty called him was reached; and although, 
 after six weeks hard and perilous journeying, he was 
 within a few hours of one of the most interesting 
 natural phenomena of our globe, the youth of twenty 
 in fulfillment of his duty, turned from wonders which 
 annually invite hundreds across the Atlantic. 
 
 On the eastern edge of the town of Erie, are still 
 to be seen the remains of the fort on the lake shore. 
 It was picturesquely situated, at a point where the 
 bluff is broken by a ravine through which flows a 
 small creek. Here, then, was the commencement of 
 the chain of works within our own territory, which 
 was to unite Canada with Louisiana, and shut out the 
 British rule and the British race from the belted ter 
 ritory. What an illustration of the pride and power of 
 nations ! of human sagacity and foresight ! Scarcely 
 one hundred years have rolled away; and as one 
 stands amid these ruins of the monuments and means 
 of military power and aggrandizement of monopoliz 
 ing associations, the mind is pleasantly oppressed by 
 the wonderful events which crowd the time marked 
 
Eli IE COUNTY, PA. 119 
 
 by these mementos of the past, and by the present 
 moment. The lilies of France, which once floated 
 here, where are they ? No longer the emblem of a 
 nation or a race ; while the rival Cross of St. George 
 has yielded to the Star-spangled Banner the emblem 
 of a nation and of institutions then tmthought-of and 
 unimagined. Beneath the folds of the new-born flag, 
 the blue waters before us are dotted by the sails of 
 commerce, and dashed into foam by rushing steamers. 
 The brook beneath us, which brawled through a lonely 
 wilderness, is now silenced by the clattering mills on its 
 banks ; while the solitary fortress has mouldered into 
 a ruin, before the civilization, the peaceful arts and 
 animation of the populous city. The stripling youth 
 who trod this wilderness, the modest messenger to 
 France s proud knight, St. Pierre, has his name and 
 fame written on marble monuments, and in the hearts 
 of men, as the founder of a nation the warrior of 
 its flag, and the hero of the world. 
 
 Standing on the ruins of the old French fort, and 
 looking over the ravine to its opposite bank, the eye is 
 arrested by an isolated block-house, of time-blackened 
 
120 HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF 
 
 timbers, rising from the grass-covered brow of the 
 hill. This block-house was erected in the winter 
 of 1813-14, by the Pennsylvania volunteers, then in 
 the service of the United States. But on the spot 
 where it stands, and in a block-house which preceded 
 this, one of America s most gallant sons breathed his 
 last It was here that "Mad Anthony" General 
 Wayne ended his mortal career. He was on his way 
 from the west, where he had been in the service of his 
 country, when, in December, 1796, he sickened and 
 died at this place, and was buried near the flag-staff. 
 In 1810, his remains were removed by his family, and 
 found in such a state of peculiar preservation that the 
 form of the body and features was preserved. 
 
 During the wanderings of his youthful exile, in our 
 country, the late King of the French, Louis Phillippe, 
 found kindness and hospitality in Erie county. His 
 host, a gentleman by the name of Reese, has but 
 recently died. The cabin of this gentleman stood on 
 what is now the corner of Second and French streets, 
 in the town of Erie; and here he received and enter 
 tained the Prince who was destined to a future of 
 
ERIE COUNTY, PA. 121 
 
 such varied and diverse fortune from exile and beg 
 gary to a throne, and from that again to banishment 
 and the protection of foreigners. 
 
 On the eighth of April, 1793, the first act was 
 passed authorizing the laying-out of a town at the Bay 
 of Presque Isle, on the lands reserved at that place for 
 the use of the state. Nothing appears to have been 
 done in pursuance of this act; and in April, 1795, 
 another act was passed, authorizing the Governor to 
 appoint commissioners for the purpose. Andrew Ellt- 
 cott, with others, were designated to survey and lay 
 out a town at Presque Isle, to be called "Erie." It 
 seems that, even at that early day, magnificent antici 
 pations were formed of the importance and growth of 
 this place, and room enough was given to gratify the 
 largest expectations. The commissioners were directed 
 to survey and lay out one thousand six hundred acres 
 for town lots, and three thousand four hundred acres 
 for out-lots. The town thus laid out was divided into 
 three sections, called the first, second, and third sec 
 tions of the town of Erie, the whole fronting three 
 miles on the Bay. The first section, with a sprinkling 
 6 
 
122 HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF 
 
 in the second, is all that the town of Erie has so far 
 been able to occupy. The anticipations of its early 
 projectors may be realized, now that it promises to 
 reap to the full the benefit of modern improvements. 
 Plank roads are opening to it the surrounding country, 
 and railroads are connecting it with the Hudson river 
 and with the city of New York. At present, the 
 population of Erie consists of 5,800, and the county 
 of forty thousand. Besides the towns of Erie and 
 Waterford, on the north and south lines of the county, 
 it has two very pretty villages of about one thousand 
 inhabitants each; North-East, as its name indicates, 
 in the north-east corner, and Girard, on the western 
 border. 
 
 Just inside of the mouth of Presque Isle Bay, and 
 to the right hand coming in, is a small sheet of water 
 spreading into a curvature of the land, or peninsula, 
 which forms that side of the harbor. Vessels running 
 in from a gale, or waiting for the abatement of one 
 before putting to sea, make this a place of refuge, and 
 hence it is called "Misery Bay." Through the waters 
 of a shoal part of this bay, the blackened remains, the 
 
ERIE COUNTY, PA. 123 
 
 ribs of a sunken vessel are seen projecting; and not 
 far from her, but entirely beneath the water, which is 
 as clear as glass, lie the remains of another ; and there 
 they have lain for more than thirty years. These are 
 the remains of two vessels, associated with one of our 
 most brilliant naval achievements; and though the 
 fragments of their wrecks will soon be entirely gone, 
 their names will never be lost while our history re 
 mains. They are the Lawrence, Commodore Perry s 
 flag-ship at the battle of Lake Erie, and the Niagara, 
 to which he went in an open boat, exposed to the fire 
 of the enemy, after the Lawrence was disabled. Their 
 history is a part of that of Erie county. In its forests 
 was their birthplace, and appropriately they lie en 
 tombed beneath the transparent waters of this beauti 
 ful bay. 
 
 The story of the battle of Lake Erie is that of the 
 glory of these vessels. The fire of the whole British 
 squadron was directed against the " Lawrence," Com 
 modore Perry s flag-ship, until she was almost a wreck, 
 and then, as is stated in Cooper s " Naval History," 
 " Captain Perry, finding himself in a vessel that had 
 
124 HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF 
 
 been rendered nearly useless by the injury she had 
 received, and which was dropping out of the combat, 
 got into his boat and pulled after the Niagara, on 
 board of which vessel he arrived at half-past two. Soon 
 after, the colors of the Lawrence were hauled down, 
 that vessel being literally a wreck. 
 
 " The manner in which the Lawrence was cut-up, 
 being almost without an example in naval warfare. It 
 is understood, that when Captain Perry left her, she 
 had but one gun on her starboard side, or that on 
 which she was engaged, which could be used, and 
 that gallant officer is said to have aided in firing it, in 
 person, the last time it was discharged. Of her crew, 
 22 were killed and 61 were wounded, most of the 
 latter severely. When Captain Perry left her, there 
 remained on board but fifteen sound men. 
 
 " Although much has been justly said of the man 
 ner in which the Bon Homme Richard and the Essex 
 were injured, neither of these ships suffered, relatively, 
 in a degree proportioned to the Lawrence. Distin 
 guished as were the two former vessels, for the in 
 domitable resolution with which they stood the 
 
ERIE COUNTY, PA. 125 
 
 destructive fire directed against them, it did not sur 
 pass that manifested on board the Lawrence." 
 
 Of the Niagara it is stated, " At this critical mo 
 ment, (when the victory was thought to have been 
 with the English,) the Niagara came steadily down, 
 within half pistol-shot of the enemy, standing between 
 the Chippeway and Lady Prevost on one side, and 
 the Detroit, Queen Charlotte, and Hunter on the other. 
 In passing, she poured in her broadsides, starboard 
 and larboard, ranged ahead of the ships, luffed athwart 
 their bo\v, and continued delivering a close and deadly 
 fire. The shrieks from the Detroit told that the tide 
 of battle had turned," 
 
 Having separated the individuality of the Lawrence 
 and the Niagara from the general action in which 
 they were engaged, it will now be proper, as one of 
 the historical incidents of Erie county, to trace the 
 difficulties through which they were called into exist 
 ence, and carried into the battle which mado them so 
 glorious. They were built in and launched from the 
 mouth of a small ravine on the western side of the 
 town of Erie. 
 
126 HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF 
 
 The following account of the building and arming 
 of these vessels is in the words of Captain Daniel 
 Dobbins, at this time an aged and most worthy resi 
 dent of Erie. He was then a sailing master in the 
 navy, and commanded the " Ohio," one of Perry s 
 squadron, but which, having been sent to Erie for 
 supplies, was not in the action : 
 
 "On the 27th of December, 1810, Commodore 
 Chauncey and Mr. Eckford arrived, and gave farther 
 instructions to prepare timber for the two brigs. In 
 February, Mr. Noah Brown arrived out, with a party 
 of carpenters; and in March, Captain Perry arrived; 
 and by May the fleet was in a great state of forward 
 ness. There being no arms of any kind, except a few 
 dilapidated muskets, at this point, Captain Perry kept 
 me employed in transporting guns, etc., from Buffalo, 
 by water in boats, and by land in wagons. On the 
 6th day of April, I arrived at Cattaraugus from Buf 
 falo, on the ice, with six teams; one wagon, loaded 
 with a gun weighing thirty-two hundred, arriving at 
 Erie on the eleventh. This gun of thirty-two hun 
 dred was the first piece of ordnance for the defense 
 
ERIE COUNTY, PA. 127 
 
 of the fleet then building, except two three-pound 
 field-pieces borrowed from the state, and they without 
 any shot. All the long guns were brought from New 
 York city, and the short carronades from Washington 
 City. They were all transported by wagons; those 
 from New York via Buffalo, and those from Wash 
 ington via Pittsburgh. The shot was principally cast 
 at Pittsburgh; the rigging came mostly from New 
 York; the heavy anchors from Philadelphia, and the 
 small from Pittsburgh. Fine oakum was not to be 
 had, and we were compelled to calk them with rope- 
 maker s oakum. " 
 
 Captain Perry having brought the remaining ves 
 sels of his squadron into Presque Isle Bay, was there 
 blockaded by the British, until the prospect of roast 
 beef and plum pudding drew John Bull from his 
 watch. Having received an invitation to dine in Can 
 ada, at the town of Dover, the British fleet departed 
 on the festive enjoyment. This was Friday, August 
 2d; two days afterward, on Sunday, Captain Perry 
 commenced the operation of getting his squadron out 
 of the harbor. There were but seven feet water on tho 
 
128 HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF 
 
 bar, and the brigs, the Lawrence and the Niagara, 
 drew more than this water. The guns of the Law 
 rence and Niagara, loaded and shotted, were taken out 
 and landed on the beach. Beams were run through 
 the forward and after ports, and rested on scows* 
 sunken to the water s edge ; the beams, or timbers, 
 were then blocked up on these foundations, and the 
 water being pumped out of the scows, the vessels 
 were lifted over the bar. Continuing the narrative of 
 Captain Dobbins, he says : " We had succeeded so far, 
 that day, as to get the Lawrence and one or two of 
 the smaller vessels over, when, on the following morn 
 ing, the blockading squadron hove in sight. The Ni 
 agara was on the bar, with all her guns on shore ; but 
 it so happened that the wind was in such a direction 
 that the Lawrence, tending to the wind, headed the 
 same way as the Niagara." The enemy was deceived 
 by this circumstance, and did not know that the Ni 
 agara was fast on the bar ; the foremost ship laid her 
 maintopsail to the mast, and after exchanging signals, 
 bore up and stood off. Captain Perry immediately ap 
 plied to officers of the army, and obtained a detachment 
 
ERIE COUNTi , I A. 129 
 
 of infantry, by the aid of which he got the fleet 
 all over, mounted the guns, and sailed in pursuit of 
 the enemy that night. This account is a little more 
 detailed than that in Cooper s history, and also differs 
 as to the vessel on the bar. Captain Dobbins says 
 that it was the Niagara, and not the Lawrence. This, 
 however, is of no moment. 
 
 The result of the first duty of these ships is well 
 known, and is briefly summed up in that memorablo 
 dispatch, "We have met the enemy, and they are 
 ours." Besides the wrecks of the Niagara and Law 
 rence, in Misery Bay, the citizens of Erie have a more 
 animated and noisy memento of the battle of Lake 
 Erie, in the bell which swings in the belfry of the 
 shabby old brick court-house. This, which now marks 
 the time for republicans, and calls them to their pub 
 lic assemblages, is the same which tolled the watches 
 on board the Queen Charlotte, the flag- ship of the 
 British squadron. 
 
 Going back to the commencement of the commer 
 cial navy which now floats upon the waters of Lake 
 
 Erie, we find that the first vessel built on the American 
 6* 
 
ii 1 b T O 11 I C A L AGO O U N T O F 
 
 side of the Lake was built in this county, near the 
 town of Erie. This was the sloop " Good Intent," of 
 forty tons, built by Captain William Lee, about the 
 year 1795. In 1798, a person by the name of Beebe 
 built a sloop, called the Washington; and in 1800 
 another, called the Harlequin. Soon after the com 
 mencement of the war, every merchant vessel had dis 
 appeared from the Lake. 
 
 The first improvement, for deepening the channel, 
 was by the appropriation of ten thousand dollars, by 
 the state, in 1822. In 1824, the general government 
 appropriated thirty thousand dollars for the improve 
 ment of the harbor, and General Bernard designed 
 the plan of the works. The old channel was very 
 crooked, and had but four and a half feet water, and 
 was therefore abandoned. At the time the present 
 piers were erected there was only two and a half feet 
 water where the channel now runs. A great increase 
 was given to the business of this locality by the con 
 struction of the Pittsburgh and Erie canal. 
 
 The object of this little paper has been more to col 
 lect those events and incidents associated with the 
 
(JO UN TV, 1 A. 
 
 history of Eric county, or of general interest from their 
 nature, rather than to follow out minutely every trans 
 action of interest only to this particular section; and 
 I have been instigated to do so by an inclination to 
 contribute what little may be in my power to the de 
 signs and purposes of the Historical Society of my 
 native state and city ; and I make the present offering 
 as an^ovidence more of my wish than my ability to be 
 useful. 
 
PRACTICAL REFLECTIONS 
 
 -P\j(fioi) of ii|e H . 
 
THE GROG RATlOiN OF THE U. S. MVY. 
 
 " Give Jack his Grog," it is reported, was an ex 
 clamation heard upon the floor of the House of Rep 
 resentatives, just as the final vote was taken during 
 the last Congress, and which vote rejected the propo 
 sition to abolish the Grog Ration of the United States 
 Navy. The exclamation and the vote were most prob 
 ably the impulse of a generous feeling, and arose from 
 a popular, though false, impression of "Jack s" char 
 acter. Romance writers and poets have seemed dis 
 posed to eudow sailors with certain qualities of charac 
 ter, independent of the natural influences moulding 
 human nature ; and popular opinion has seemed wil 
 ling to tolerate gross propensities and vices in men of 
 this class on account of the virtues, not belonging so 
 extensively to mankind in general, which is attributed 
 
lot) THE GUOG KAT1ON 
 
 to thorn by the popular imagination. Boldness, reck 
 lessness, generosity, are among the supposed peculiar! 
 ties of seamen as a body, and for these sensuality, 
 ungoverned impulses, low appetites, and a disregard 
 for rule and order, are to be tolerated and justified. 
 If the supposed peculiarities really existed, and were 
 really virtues, it may fairly be questioned whether they 
 offer a sufficient compensation for the outrages upon 
 morality and order consequent upon the tolerated 
 vices, 
 
 The popular impression respecting nautical charac 
 ter and the indulgence with which its irregularities 
 are regarded, do much to keep up the affectation of 
 peculiarity in the public eye, by men who, under other 
 influences, would have no disposition to exhibit an 
 assumed recklessness, nor to descend to low vice. The 
 sailor, during his short sojourns ashore, is on exhibi 
 tion he is only dramatizing the part allotted to him 
 by public expectation. The man, to be seen in his 
 true character, and out of his stage costume, must be 
 studied in his ordinary and every-day life on ship 
 board. 
 
OF T HE U. 8. NAVY. 13? 
 
 In the prosecution of his duty, the writer has been 
 brought into much and intimate association with sea 
 men on ship-board, and he has found them to be sel 
 fish, narrow and base in proportion to their devotion 
 to animal indulgence and degrading vices; to be 
 equally with other men*obedient to degrading or ele 
 vating influences, and to be trustworthy in "proportion 
 as they obey the latter. It is. well known to officers, 
 that when a special duty is to be performed, requiring 
 confidence to be reposed in those to whom it is en 
 trusted, such, for instance, as taking care of the sick, 
 that if possible those are selected who have characters 
 for sobriety, discretion and prudence, above that which 
 is usually attributed by popular prejudice to sailors. 
 
 The time is only passing away when to be even an 
 officer of any marine service it was thought almost 
 necessary to be what would characterize the citizen as 
 a blackguard ; and it is a proud and happy reflection 
 that the individuals composing the commercial and gov 
 ernment marine of the United States, have more than 
 any other elevated the character of their pursuit. In 
 the commercial marine, where there are no legislative 
 
138 THE GROO RATION 
 
 obstacles counteracting the elevating influences of 
 our institutions, this improvement is more marked ; 
 and it is not an insignificant fact, that with increased 
 respectability, the American merchant sailor abandons 
 the external badges of his calling. After his voyage 
 is made or his day s work is done, you meet him in 
 the garb and with the manners of any other respect 
 able citizen. This goes to show that there is nothing 
 in his calling to individualize him or to remove him 
 
 O 
 
 from the influences which affect other men ; nothing 
 to endow him with especial good qualities and nothing 
 to entitle him to the indulgence of bad; and conse 
 quently a terrible responsibility rests upon those who, 
 in the spirit of blind indulgence, cry " Give Jack his 
 grog." Upon this principle our national ships were 
 once legitimated brothels, and in foreign ports, com 
 manding officers, who claimed to be respectable men 
 when at home, thought they did no more than right 
 by filling their vessels with prostitutes and facilitating 
 open, general and disgusting licentiousness. Thanks 
 to the moral sense of the community, we have reached 
 a step above this degradation, and there is hope that 
 
OF THE U. 8. NAVY. 139 
 
 "Jack" may yet be elevated above the necessity for 
 
 If, then, there is nothing in the character of the 
 sailor which protects him from the influences which 
 are found to be demoralizing in men generally, and 
 nothing which gives him the right to demoralization, 
 there must, it would be supposed, exist some good 
 reasons for exposing him to so dangerous and destruc 
 tive a habit as the repeated daily exhibition of ardent 
 spirits; rousing his passions and exciting and inflaming 
 his physical and moral temperament. Can such rea 
 sons be found? All impartial observation, and all 
 established physical laws show that they can not. The 
 grog ration neither contributes to the strength of the 
 body, nor preserves it from the influences of cold or 
 heat. It diminishes the ability and the disposition 
 to labor; all of which facts have been established by 
 close and accurate observation, as well as deduced from 
 natural laws. 
 
 In a most scientific and impartial paper on the 
 "Physiological effects of Alcoholic Drinks, published 
 in the British and Foreign Medical Review for October, 
 
140 THE GROG K ATI ON 
 
 1847, the writer, Dr. Carpenter, an eminent physi 
 ologist, says: 
 
 "In the exercise of our duty as cool-judging critics, 
 we now propose to inquire, in the first place, into the 
 present state of our knowledge as to the physiological 
 action of alcohol on the human body; next to con 
 sider how far the results of the comparative experience 
 of those who make habitual but moderate use of fer 
 mented liquors, and of those who entirely abstain from 
 them, under a variety of circumstances, warrants the 
 assertion that total abstinence is invariably, or nearly 
 so, compatible with perfect health, or is even more 
 favorable to health than habitual but moderate in 
 dulgence." 
 
 The writer then goes on to show by a body of con 
 clusive scientific evidence that, from the laws of animal 
 chemistry, alcoholic drinks can contribute nothing to 
 the muscular substance of the human body, and refers 
 to the practical application of this fact among men 
 whose success depends upon the development of 
 
OF THE U. 8. NAVY. 141 
 
 muscular power. u ln the preparation of the body for 
 feats of strength, the more experienced trainers either 
 forbid the use of fermented liquors altogether, or allow 
 but a very small quantity to be taken." 
 
 Animal Chemistry also shows that alcohol, although 
 it may temporarily stimulate the nervous system, is 
 not necessary to the supply of nervous matter; and 
 so far from being useful " to keep the cold out," its 
 being taken into the system retards the evolution t>f 
 animal heat. Having set forth these facts and princi 
 ples, Dr. Carpenter remarks : 
 
 "The inference to which we are thus conducted by 
 physiological reasoning, instead of being negatived by 
 general experience, (as it is commonly supposed to be,) 
 is fully confirmed by it. The Esquimaux, Greenland- 
 ers, and other inhabitants of the coldest regions of the 
 globe, effectually maintain their animal heat by tho 
 large consumption of fatty matter ; and whatever may 
 be the temporary effect of an alcoholic draught, wo 
 believe that all arctic and antarctic voyagers agree 
 that continued resistance to cold is most effectually 
 
142 THE GROG RATION 
 
 maintained without alcohol, or at any rate with u 
 much smaller quantity of it than is commonly sup 
 posed necessary. A very striking proof of this is 
 afforded by the arrangements recently made for the 
 overland arctic expedition, on which the best authori 
 ties have of course been consulted by government. 
 
 "In the programme of these arrangements, it is ex 
 pressly stated that no fermented liquors are to be used 
 by the parties who proceed upon it. We have heard 
 many of the now almost extinct race of stage-coach 
 men, who had been induced to give up their former 
 habit of imbibing a glass of ale or brandy and water 
 at every stage, and to substitute an occasional cup of 
 hot coffee and a rasher of toasted bacon, speak most 
 decidedly in favor of the superior efficacy of the latter 
 system, and we doubt if any man who had the reso 
 lution to adopt it, ever returned to his habits except 
 for the love of liquor." 
 
 So far as cold is concerned, there is no advantage 
 derived from the use of alcohol. It gives no increased 
 ability to labor, but, on the contrary, diminishes the 
 
OF THE U. 8. NAVY. 143 
 
 power to do so. Much and carefully collected expe- 
 perience goes to show that " alcoholic liquors ingested 
 during the performance of severe labor, in very hot 
 situations, cause a very rapid and decided failure of 
 strength." 
 
 Not being necessary as a protection against cold, 
 and being an obstacle in the way of labor, few, it is 
 presumed, will imagine any benefits from its use in 
 warm latitudes. It is in warm seasons and climates 
 that the wisdom of nature, by diminishing the appe 
 tite for food, proportions its supply to the languor and 
 diminished power of the human system. Stimulants 
 counteract this wholesome provision, and enable the 
 stomach, by an artificial, temporary and delusive vigor, 
 to oppress the system by an amount of food which it 
 neither requires nor can dispose of, and the result is 
 disease and death. In the information which Dr. 
 Carpenter gives us upon this subject, he tells us that 
 the official returns of the Inspector- General of the 
 British army in Bengal, "for the first six months of 
 1838, show that the average daily percentage of sick 
 belonging to the Temperance Society was 3f, while 
 
144 THE GROG RATION 
 
 the daily percentage among the remainder was 10 1-5." 
 The best medical writers upon tropical climates have 
 but one opinion upon this subject. 
 
 Among the many and overwhelming facts which 
 are given, showing the effects of alcoholic drinks 
 upon laboring men in hot situations, we quote only 
 the following: 
 
 "In the manufacture of 23 millions of bricks, the 
 abstinent averaged each season 35,131 over the beer 
 drinkers. The head of a firm, employing between 
 one and two thousand men in the manufacture of ma 
 chinery, reports that he allows nothing but water on 
 his premises, and that in the summer time the men 
 engaged in the strongest work, such as strikers to the 
 heavy forges, drink water very copiously. In general, 
 the men who drink water are really more active, do 
 more work, and are more healthy than the workmen 
 who drink fermented liquors. The same testimony is 
 adduced from large numbers of laborers in harvest 
 fields, whose work for a succession of years has been 
 carefully compared with that of those using stimulants, 
 
OF THE U. S. NAVY. 145 
 
 and the conclusion is very much in favor of the absti 
 nent workman both as regards the amount of work 
 and the condition of the laborer, and the economy of 
 the work, allowing compensation for the drink which 
 had been relinquished." 
 
 In this article there is not space, nor is it perhaps 
 necessary to detail the immense array of evidence in 
 favor of abstinence brought forward from forges, 
 foundries, glass and gas works, and other laborious 
 pursuife ; but the following is so appropriate to the 
 subject of this paper that it must not be omitted : 
 
 " A vessel, on her passage from I^Tew South Wales 
 to England sprung a leak, and the continued labor at 
 the pumps of the crew, officers and passengers, was 
 necessary during the remainder of the passage, three 
 months, to keep her afloat. At first, the men were 
 greatly fatigued at the termination of their " spell " at 
 the pumps; and after drinking their allowance of 
 grog, would " turn in " without taking a proper sup 
 ply of nourishment. The consequence was, that their 
 
146 THE GROG RATION 
 
 vigor was decidedly diminishing, and their feeling 
 of fatigue of course increasing, as our physiological 
 knowledge would lead us to expect. Coffee and 
 Cocoa were substituted for the grog a pot mess of 
 these beverages being provided, with biscuit and meat 
 at the conclusion of every watch. The consequence 
 was, that the men felt inclined for a good meal off the 
 latter, their vigor returned, their fatigue diminished, 
 and after twelve weeks of incessant and severe labor, 
 (with no interval longer than four hours,) the ship was 
 brought into port with all on board of her in as good 
 condition as they had ever been in their lives." 
 
 If then the use of alcoholic drink renders the hu 
 man frame more susceptible to cold in cold climates, 
 brings upon it disease and death in warm climates, 
 imparts neither muscular nor nervous matter, and 
 unfits the system for continued labor, why should it 
 be continued, even though it brought no other evils ? 
 But are these impairments and diminutions of useful 
 ness all its effects ? 
 
 There being no good reason for the retention of the 
 
OF THE U. S. NAVY. 147 
 
 grog ration, the inconveniences and insecurity, to 
 which it subjects a ship s company, would be suffi 
 cient motive for its abolition. The space now devoted 
 to the spirit stores could be given to the increased 
 accommodation of the ship s company, or to the stor 
 age of provision, water and wood. For a cruise of 
 six months a frigate carries three thousand gallons of 
 whisky; a sloop of war carries twelve hundred. The 
 risk of fire would be diminished by the removal of so 
 much inflammable matter, and the ship relieved from 
 the many annoying precautions necessary to protect 
 it from this danger. For instance, when the spirit 
 room of a vessel is about being filled, the alcoholic 
 vapor pervades all the apartments ; she smells like a 
 distillery, and it becomes a necessary precaution to 
 extinguish the lights and fires. In the larger ships, 
 the spirit room is in the vicinity of the apartments 
 of officers, and all these being below the reach of day 
 light, renders the constant use of candles necessary. 
 Every time the spirit room is opened, six times a day, 
 once to take out, and once to return the grog tub at 
 each serving, the occupation of the inmates of these 
 
148 THE GROG RATION 
 
 apartments is interrupted by the extinction of the 
 lights. This would of course not be an inconvenience 
 to be complained of, only as an attendant upon a pro 
 vision not only unnecessary, but useless and highly 
 injurious; but that it is no slight annoyance will be 
 readily appreciated by those in the habit of any con 
 tinuous useful occupation or study. 
 
 But we will proceed to notice more positive evils. 
 Long before the temperance spirit exercised the influ 
 ence which at present belongs to it, and before the 
 idea of abolishing the spirit ration was much debated 
 or generally entertained, the writer was in the habit of 
 observing the general effects upon the ship s company 
 of the three times served daily allowance of grog, and 
 it early led him to doubt the advantages of this long- 
 established usage. After taking their grog, and par 
 ticularly that portion served before the morning meal, 
 the faces of the men are seen to be flushed and turgid, 
 their tongues voluble and their tempers irritable. Of 
 this evident condition of artificial morbid excitement, 
 the stomach and digestive organs participate, and the 
 first effect is the ingestion of an unnecessary amount 
 
OF THE U. S. NAVY. 149 
 
 of food ; and of this excitement and overloading the 
 system the consequences must be the generation of a 
 variety of diseases, enfeebling the service and charging 
 the government hospitals with a heavy burden of 
 chronic invalids. Let gentlemen who are not strictly 
 abstinent men, but who are in the occasional habit 
 of taking a glass of spirit and water, ask themselves 
 what would be the effect upon their habits and health, 
 of taking a glass of spirit and water three times regu 
 larly every day, and beginning before breakfast ? Let 
 them ask themselves what would be their opinion of 
 the habits of an acquaintance whom they saw devoted 
 to such a custom ? The expenses incident to the dis 
 ease generated, directly or indirectly, by the grog ra 
 tion, would render its abolition a measure of economy, 
 even with a substitution of some other article, and an 
 increase of seamen s wages. 
 
 It is unnecessary to enter into an argument to show 
 that the grog ration must be promotive of intempe 
 rance, for should any dispute this, it is hardly to be 
 supposed that any argument would convince them. 
 No justification of so dangerous a usage is found in 
 
150 THE GROG RATION 
 
 the facts that it is optional with each person to draw 
 grog or not ; that it is a matter of volition whether he 
 become a drunkard or not, and that intoxication is 
 followed by its appropriate punishment. Men are so 
 much under the influence of surrounding circumstances 
 that the government cannot be permitted to avoid 
 its responsibilities by such pleas as these. In civil life, 
 it is a matter of every day observation that men whose 
 habits are not fixed, use stimulating drinks or not, 
 according to the society in which they happen to be 
 at the time. But when whisky is legitimated and 
 justified by statutes and dignified by formalities and 
 ceremonies, its dangerous power is entirely lost sight 
 of, its use becomes respectable, and one of the preserv 
 atives of good habits shame for bad is removed. 
 Observation will show that the habits of >en, as re 
 gards intemperance, will be greatly influenced jy the 
 views entertained by the officers under whom t ley 
 serve. Unfortunately there are officers who, enter 
 taining the erroneous notion that sailors are an excep 
 tion to human nature, honestly believe and encourage 
 the idea that true sailors must get drunk and must be 
 
OF THE U. S. NAVY. 151 
 
 flogged. A commander of one of our ships of war, 
 upon its being reported to him that a certain seaman 
 had returned from a visit to the shore sober, observed 
 openly "Well, he must be a d d rascal, and will 
 run the first chance." In that ship the punishments 
 for intoxication, and its consequences, were most fre 
 quent; the crime and the flogging were not looked 
 upon as being disgraceful, but as a natural circum 
 stance incident to the service. The very men who, 
 under such influences, felt it to be right and proper to 
 get drunk, when occasion offered, being brought under 
 the direction of officers who manifested, by a manner 
 of disgust and contempt, their opinion of the low 
 position in the scale of humanity occupied by the 
 drunkard, had their pride aroused, and in some instances 
 voluntarily reformed themselves. This shows that 
 the sailor is susceptible of elevation of character, even 
 under unfavorable circumstances. 
 
 Under the official sanction, many go to the grog 
 tub, who under other circumstances would blush to 
 be seen there. Should a youth, new to the service, 
 in obedience to principles which have been inculcated 
 
.152 THE GROG RATION 
 
 upon him, or to a proper caution and prudence, avoid 
 the tub around which his associates are crowded, the 
 grog laws find many active disciples to aid their influ 
 ence in his conversion. The influence of numbers 
 and example is against his continued resistance ; he is 
 hunted by the insults, jeers and censure of those to 
 whom his abstinence is a tacit reproof, and against 
 the proverbial tyranny of a safe majority there is no 
 refuge, and the grog-drinking crowd, as at the roll of 
 the drum they gather around the tub, welcome the 
 reluctant youth, over whose good sense and better 
 resolutions it has triumphed. It is the most heartless 
 tyranny for the government to enact punishments for 
 the drunkard, its laws and usages have thus been edu 
 cating. Such inconsistency and such tyranny become 
 the most unjustifiable cruelty if, as scientific writers 
 now assert, intemperance is an uncontrollable physical 
 and moral disease, requiring medical treatment rather 
 than physical punishment. 
 
 In a recent treatise upon intemperance, by Dr. Hills, 
 of Ohio, it is asserted that the habitual drinker is as 
 much and as certainly the victim of disease as one 
 
O if THE U . S . iS A V Y . 153 
 
 with phthisis pulmonalis, another with ascites, or 
 another with gangrene. He says: 
 
 "I know not why we should thus delay our ideas 
 of the existence of bodily ailment in this any more 
 than in other affections, until the closing scenes of 
 secondary stages are developed. In their contempla 
 tion we go back to the remotest period, when the 
 slightest variation from a state of health becomes 
 manifest; and why not in this? If we do, will we 
 not finally arrive at that point when, from the occa 
 sional use of intoxicating beverages, a thirst for more 
 is produced a constant longing for the repetition of 
 its influence? * * Thus it is rendered probable, 
 if not certain, that the ordinary opinion upon this 
 subject as to cause and effect, should be reversed. That 
 habitual drinking is an involuntary consequence of dis 
 eased action, that may have been started by occasional 
 voluntary libations, is true; but that the habit is a 
 true and legitimate consequence and evidence of 
 disease." 
 
154 THE GROG RATION 
 
 Such views being correct, the government is put in 
 the position of disseminating a most destructive poison, 
 and then scourging the backs of those unfortunate 
 enough to be infected by it; and if the subject is still 
 one of doubt, worthy of scientific discussion and in 
 vestigation, the government has no moral right to 
 assume the question settled, and to blindly take the 
 hazard of propagating the disease or of punishing its 
 victims. 
 
 It is not often that the victims of legalized grog- 
 drinking have the disposition, the opportunity or the 
 ability to testify to the steps by which their ruin has 
 been accomplished; but if one speaks, he utters the 
 experience of multitudes, and the following remarks 
 made by a criminal before a court-martial for an 
 offense, the result of drunkenness, are sufficient in 
 themselves to mark the grog ration with criminality. 
 They were furnished the writer by a talented and cul 
 tivated friend, who was at the time an officer of the 
 Navy and member of the court before which the 
 culprit was arraigned. The substance only of the 
 defense is given : 
 
OFTIIEU. S. NAVY. 155 
 
 " I was brought up in the county of , in the 
 
 State of . At the age of 12, I went to sea; 
 
 shipped in the service ; rose rapidly, and as soon as I 
 was of legal age received the rate of ordinary seamen. 
 / never had tasted liquor until that time. My ship 
 mates persuaded me to draw my ration. I did not 
 wish to do so, but thinking it more manly and sea - 
 manlike to drink my grog, I was induced to do it. 
 I forced myself to swallow the whisky. The effect 
 was stupefying and disagreeable in the extreme. The 
 other boys laughed at me. Gradually I acquired the 
 taste for ruin. The first time I went on shore, I got 
 " mad drunk" Step followed step. When paid off, 
 I gave full vent to my new passion. I was ashamed 
 to go home. In a few days, plundered, stripped and 
 
 beaten half to death in , I shipped again. To 
 
 cure the horrors, I got drunk on board of the receiv 
 ing ship, was insolent to the officer on deck, and put 
 in irons. Through the forbearance of the officer, I 
 was let off without a court-martial. Nothing can 
 equal the misery I endured while lying in irons ex 
 pecting to be tried for my life. I firmly resolved, and 
 
156 THE GROG RATION 
 
 most solemnly swore before God, never again to taste 
 rum. For twenty or thirty days after I was released 
 from confinement, I was enabled to keep my resolu 
 tion, and when the drum tolled for grog, I would re 
 main at the top to keep out of the way of temptation. 
 In an evil moment, I lingered one day on the main 
 deck, while the men were drinking their rations. I 
 was overcome. 2 drank too. It was like pouring oil 
 on a fire. I could no longer contend with my appe 
 tite. I pailed with all that I could dispose of to pro 
 cure rum from shore. The ration was not enough for 
 me. When I got to sea, I was forced to keep sober, 
 
 but a few days after our. passage to I again 
 
 got liquor enough to make me drunk, was mutinous, 
 tried for my life, and received in commutation of death 
 one hundred lashes. From that time I have become 
 more and more the slave of drunkenness, and I now 
 stand before this honorable court a second time in 
 jeopardy of my life. I have nothing to say in my 
 defense except what you have heard. I throw myself 
 on your mercy ; but I beg you to reflect upon the 
 causes which have brought me to my present miserable 
 
THE U. S. NAVY. 157 
 
 condition. I was trained up to drunkenness by that 
 very government which has pronounced the crime 
 of which itself is the cause a high offense. I am to 
 be punished for violating laws which, with one hand, 
 tempt and lead to sin, and with the other prepare a hal 
 ter for their own victim. Give the sailor rum, make him 
 a drunkard from his youth up, and when you have fully 
 confirmed him in his evil habits, then hany him for 
 doing the very act toward which the whole system of 
 education necessarily tends. Before God, I solemnly 
 believe and honestly assert that I should never have 
 been guilty of the offense for which I expect to suffer 
 had there never been such a place as a spirit-room, 
 and such a destroying poison as it deals out. At the 
 door of the government will be my blood. I leave 
 myself in your hands. Your duty is to make me an 
 example, and I wish that I shall be justly dealt with. 
 I should be willing to suffer the utmost if I thought 
 
 ^ O 
 
 that mv sad case would be the means of banishing 
 
 - O 
 
 whisky from among my ship-mates." This man was 
 sentenced to lashes. 
 
158 THE GHOG RATION" 
 
 The evil effects of the grog ration are not limited 
 to the men. By inducing degrading habits in the 
 mass of the naval community, some of this unhappy 
 influence must be extended to the officers themselves. 
 
 The importance and interest of their nautical and 
 military duties become almost secondary to the neces 
 sity of watching and guarding a drunken crew. Often 
 are they obliged to prowl through sinks of iniquity 
 in search of men who, in drunken recklessness, have 
 abandoned their duty and broken their laws; and 
 often, too, are their men seen wounded, bloody and 
 dirty, conducted in charge of their officers through the 
 streets of foreign cities. Officers in constant contact 
 with such beings must, to a great degree, loe their 
 respect for their kind, and will almost involuntarily 
 descend to a language and manner discreditable to 
 themselves and unworthy of their position. Losing 
 sight of the influences which have produced such 
 effects, they learn to regard the sailor as a being sui 
 (/eneris, and below the elevating influences to which 
 humanity is obedient. An intelligent and efficient 
 officer, one who appreciates all the mischief of the 
 
U b T 11 K II . fl . JM A V Y. 150 
 
 grog ration, in speaking of this subject remarked, that 
 his most constant and harassing duties were those 
 which imposed upon him the necessity of playing the 
 part of constable and jailor to a drunken crew. If 
 the grog ration promotes drunkenness, (and who can 
 doubt it,) then is the grog ration mainly responsible 
 for these disgusting scenes. Its abolition would not, 
 probably, put an end at once to all this mischief, be 
 cause the service has yet to recover from all the evil 
 which has been done ; but so long as the grog ration 
 is continued, there is no commencement of improve 
 ment, and no hope for it; but when it is terminated, 
 there is much reason to believe that such an elevation 
 and tone will be given to the service, that men dis 
 posed to lawlessness, riot and intoxication, men worthy 
 of the lash and needing it, will be driven from the 
 service, or find themselves compelled to amend while 
 in it, and officers would learn to look upon sailors as 
 beings not necessarily associated with the grog tub, 
 drunkenness and the cats. 
 
 If the grog ration contributes nothing to the power 
 of labor, affords no protection against inclement or 
 
ICO THE GKOCI RATION 
 
 exhausting climates, why retain it? If, on the con 
 trary, it promotes fatigue and exhaustion, begets 
 moral and physical disease, fosters drunkenness, em 
 barrasses duties, endangers and annoys ships, leads to 
 court-martials, fills hospitals and taxes the government, 
 degrades men and officers, why not at once abolish it ? 
 Shall the government continue to sanction and sustain 
 all these evils? shall it legitimate obstacles and barriers 
 lo the elevation of the character of the sailor, rather 
 than accord in the tendencies of our institutions to 
 elevate and dignify those who live under them ? Shall 
 it adapt the naval service to the character of the re 
 spectable young men of our country, or shall it invite 
 into the service the low and mercenary refugees from 
 foreign services, and thus bring our young men down 
 to their standard ? 
 
 The grog ration and many of our usages are blindly 
 conformed to the character of the British seamen, or 
 tar, as novelists and poets prefer to call him, without 
 any reference to the different conditions of the two 
 countries, and two peoples. 
 
 The British sailor, however respectable the individual 
 
OF TilE U. S. NAVY. 1(51 
 
 may be, belongs to a class so low in the artificial 
 scale of aristocratic institutions that vice can scarcely 
 place him socially lowev, and virtue has no power to 
 elevate him to social respectability. He is, therefore, 
 beyond the power of true influential principles. We 
 have no such fixed class from which our seamen can 
 come. Every one feels that his respectability and 
 position in society depend very much upon himself, 
 and the American sailor, after being relieved from his 
 obligations to the service, may move in a family and 
 social circle equal to that of any other person. Scarcely 
 any citizen of the United States could enter the naval 
 serrice, but who would be conscious of some degree 
 of family respectability to be maintained, and, to their 
 honor, many refuse to enter a service which inculcates 
 vicious habits as part of its system, and requires the 
 relinquish ment of self-respect; and so long as these 
 usages continue, we shall never have a Navy worthy 
 of the Republic. Our principle should be, not to 
 bring our Navy up to the standard of other Navies; 
 but, as we have done in other things, up to the stand 
 ard of the nation; and it is to be hoped that the 
 
162 THE GROG RATION. 
 
 thirty-first Congress will begin the work by putting 
 an end to the gro^ ration, and then look further into 
 this huge bundle of time-rotten usages and antique 
 mouldy formalities which the country has borne as 
 a burden upon its back until the people begin to ask, 
 Cui bono? 
 
T 11 E 
 
 Ji)sf [fijiic^s of 
 
 AN ADDKKSS 
 
 TVKITTSN FOR 
 THE IRYIXG LITERARY INSTITUTE, OF THE CITY OF ERIE, FA. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 REFORM naval reform, is tlie general cry. Every rank 
 and grade of the navy calls for it. 
 
 Those who hold the position of command say : there is 
 no efficient discipline, and we have more trouble with offi 
 cers than with men. Put two gentlemen of the highest 
 grade in the navy on board ship one to command the 
 ship, and the other to command the squadron to which she 
 belongs and even though they both be men of good sense, 
 and good feeling, the ill-defined position of each soon leads 
 to discord and dissension ; and, if the government is not 
 burdened, and the service disgraced by a court-martial, 
 one is compelled to abandon the duty which has been 
 assigned him, and to return to his home. 
 
 "I have the command of the ship," says one captain, 
 " assigned me by government, and your interference is an 
 infringement of my rights." . 
 
 "If that is your view," says the commodore, "I am but 
 a passenger here, and one of us had better go home." 
 
 " Reform ! " cry the subordinate grades of the line : "we 
 have no defined rights or duties, and are old men in junior 
 
IV PREFACE. 
 
 grades, some of us, oven, in that of our apprenticeship." 
 " Reform ! " cry the staff corps, " we grow old in the service, 
 not only without any progressive rank to mark our length 
 of service, but without any defined rank, to protect us 
 against the assumptions and arrogance natural to military 
 power." 
 
 Each grade has the remedy for the single defect apparent 
 to itself, while almost the whole country cries out, in con 
 junction with part of the navy, " Throw the grog-tub and 
 the cats overboard, and all is right." This is sheer quack 
 ery ; it is treating the single symptoms, by a pretended 
 panacea, while the diseased constitution is untouched. 
 
 There is an entire want of conformity between the or 
 ganization of the navy, and the character of the people and 
 country to which it belongs ; and sooner or later, one must 
 be brought into harmony with the other ; the sooner the 
 better, for all concerned. 
 
 We have inconsiderately " put new wine into old bot 
 tles;" and patched an old and rotten garment with new 
 cloth. We have put the new and elevated energies of our 
 people into the old forms and institutions of past ages. 
 
 The remarks of this lecture, upon the evil influence of 
 our naval institutions must not be construed into a sweep 
 ing declaration, that every individual is corrupted by them. 
 Forms of government, forms of religion, despotism, mon 
 archy, aristocracy, Mahometanism, may all be attacked, as 
 not the best institutions, without any imputation upon 
 those who live under, advocate, and adhere to them. While 
 there are honorable, upright, and intelligent men in every 
 
PREFACE, 
 
 grade of the service, its organization is not such, as to give 
 to these qualities their proper influence the same as they 
 would have in civil life or to prevent the undue ascen 
 dency of those of imperfect character. 
 
 To effect reform in the navy, the subject must be taken 
 up by the people ; if left to navy boards, it is too apt to be 
 lost in the influence of preconceived opinions. The gen 
 eral principles of naval government, make too low an esti 
 mate of the material it deals with ; there are not appeals 
 enough to man s higher nature. Napoleon is an authority, 
 worth listening to, upon this subject ; he understood the 
 matter when he said, 
 
 "Mankind are, in the end, always governed by superi 
 ority of intellectual qualities, and none are more sensible 
 of this than the military profession. When, on my return 
 from Italy, I assumed the dress of the institute, and associ 
 ated with men of science, I knew what I was doing ; I was 
 sure of not being misunderstood by the lowest drummer in 
 the army," 
 
 This being the principle, it is our duty to get the best 
 ability in the highest place. 
 
ADDRESS. 
 
 GENTLEMEN OF THE IRVING LITERARY INSTITUTE. 
 
 In reply to tlie invitation, extended to me by your 
 Society upon a former occasion, I had the honor to 
 write you a lecture upon subjects, in my opinion, ap 
 propriate to the purposes of your organization, and 
 being willing, so far as lias in my power, to contribute 
 to your efforts for the public good, I again submit to 
 you an essay, which, in default of other and more 
 competent respondents to your call, may aid in the 
 accomplishment of your views. 
 
 I have chosen as the subject of my remarks, " THE 
 NAVAL INSTITUTIONS OF A REPUBLIC-" 
 
170 NAVAL INSTITUTIONS 
 
 A service of nearly a quarter of a century in our 
 own navy has afforded me the opportunities for observ 
 ing to some extent, and reflecting upon, the nature, 
 peculiarities and wants of naval institutions. The cor 
 rectness of my judgment, and the feasibility of my 
 views, it is for time and others to determine. 
 
 Feeling it to be my duty, as an honest citizen, to 
 communicate to the people the real owners of the 
 navy facts which my official position has enabled me 
 to learn, and which the interests of both navy and 
 people demand should be generally known, I have 
 done that duty and leave the matter with you. 
 
 The subject is one of great and varied interest to 
 this nation of interest in a political and pecuniary 
 point of view. All that concerns the condition and con 
 stitutional organization of the individual states of this 
 confederacy is considered of general interest ; and par 
 ticularly would it be so, if there were any features of an 
 individual state, inconsistent with, or adverse to our 
 principles of republican government 
 
OF A REPUBLIC. 171 
 
 Your navy is a most important state ; it belongs to 
 you all ; it is limited by no boundaries short of the en 
 tire world ; it represents you amid the gilded thrones 
 of Europe in the distant isles of the ocean amid 
 Arctic savages and snows and to all nations and peo 
 ples on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of this vast con 
 tinent. In a pecuniary point of view, the navy claims 
 the attention of prudent and practical men. The 
 annual expenditure of this nation for military pur 
 poses, is more than half the entire expenditure of the 
 government. The annual expenditure for the navy 
 alone, is more than one-fourth of the whole national 
 cost including that of Congress, the Executive, the 
 Judiciary, Foreign Ministers, and miscellaneous. 
 
 The annual expense of your navy is more than the 
 annual cost of the six New England states, the great 
 state of New York, and New Jersey together. Then, 
 surely, such an institution is worth your attention ; and 
 it is the duty of the people to see that so important an 
 organization is not one which defies the principles of 
 our government, and gives the lie to all the political 
 theories of our constitution. 
 
172 NAVAL INSTITUTIONS 
 
 The history of the navy, or of any similar institution, 
 is not alone the record of its deeds, be they glorious 
 or ignoble. Its deeper and more significant history is 
 to be found by an inquiry into the influence it has had 
 upon principles ; in destroying or modifying those in 
 existence, or, in creating new ones ; its influence upon 
 human rights, political institutions, and the relations 
 of men to each other. 
 
 The capture of an enemy s ship or squadron is 
 justly a subject of national and patriotic pride ; it is 
 enthusiastically hailed by loud huzzas, from one end 
 of the Union to the other. Let us beware, lest, amid 
 the rejoicing, we lose sight of some false principle, 
 stealing upon us in the noise, the fire, and the smoke, 
 marring the beauty of republicanism, and corrupting 
 the purity of our institutions ; let us beware, lest the 
 victory has a dearer purchase than blood and treasure, 
 and be careful that the flashing glory do not sink into 
 a darkened shame. 
 
 When history was written for the gratification of 
 great personages, it charged upon republics ingrati 
 tude for public services. Now, that history is being 
 
OF A REPUBLIC. 173 
 
 written for the people, it discovers that individuals may 
 value their services too highly, and cry out ingratitude, 
 unless, in addition to the just award of glory, their 
 country places itself, its institutions, and its fortunes at 
 their feet. When people have permitted their grati 
 tude to go thus far, we have Caesars, Cromwells, and 
 Napoleons. In like manner, a grateful nation may, 
 in the glory of an institution, lose sight of the increas 
 ing despotism of its principles, which, worse than per 
 sonal tyranny, live and grow from age to age ; die not 
 with the life of any individual, but require either a 
 violent convulsion, or years of labor and patient per 
 severance to loosen their hold. 
 
 Under a monarchical and aristocratic form of gov 
 ernment, a navy, like an army, or the church, may be 
 organized, to meet two purposes; one, the service of 
 the state, or the propagation of the gospel; the other, 
 that of making places and provision for the members of 
 aristocratic and exclusive classes ; and in such an arrange 
 ment, the rules and regulations of government and dis 
 cipline will be as much to keep up the prestige of aristo 
 cracy, as to affect a healthful and efficient organization, 
 
174 NAVAL INSTITUTIONS 
 
 Very different should be the state of affairs, tinder 
 a republic. In it, there should be no exclusive classes 
 to provide for, and all its rules and discipline might be 
 concentrated in effecting the most efficient service for 
 the state. 
 
 In this singleness of object, a republic, if it remained 
 true to its character, would have great advantages over 
 an aristocracy, in the creation of a powerful navy ; and 
 just so far as it condescends to imitate the organiza 
 tion of a monarchical institution, does it yield its high 
 position, fetter its own power, and dwarf its greatness ; 
 it sacrifices the nation, and national interests, to indi 
 viduals and exclusive classes. 
 
 The population of a republican navy consists of the 
 efficient power of the crews, or men, and officers to 
 direct and control it; both, equally citizens of the 
 commonwealth which they serve, in different, but as 
 sociated capacities. The arrangements should be such, 
 as would secure in all grades, the best talent, and 
 mental, and physical energies which the country can 
 produce. The relations between these grades, their 
 dependence, one upon the other, should be just that 
 
OF A REPUBLIC. 1 75 
 
 which would best accomplish the national purpose, for 
 which the navy is organized and paid, and in nothing 
 should the one be made tributary to the personal pride 
 and arrogance of the other. Definite laws should pro 
 tect the rights of the inferior, or commanded class, and 
 restrict the exercise of the controlling power to its 
 legitimate use. 
 
 So long as a naval establishment observes these le 
 gitimate relations, and is in harmony with, and sub 
 ordinate to, the political institutions of the country, its 
 character will be both republican and efficient. But 
 mark how stealthily, gradually, and insidiously change 
 may come over such a body, even if originally organ 
 ized upon proper principles. The class exercising 
 military authority, is too apt to lose sight of its true 
 official character, representing the laws of the land 
 an honorable and dignified station it learns to feel 
 that all the pomp and parade of high station is a per 
 sonal tribute to those who receive it, and a distinction 
 .to them, as of superior blood to other men, with an 
 intrinsic claim to higher privileges. From this error, 
 it is an easy transition, to exact a blind submission 
 
1 i (j NAVAL INSTITUTIONS 
 
 to every whim and caprice, as a necessary part of mili 
 tary subordination and discipline ; to believe that they 
 have no responsibilities, and their subordinates no 
 rights; until, finally, it becomes more than a vague 
 idea, that ships are built, men paid, and the navy kept 
 up, chiefly for the benefit of the influential classes in 
 the navy. Questions are considered, not so much in 
 reference to the interests of the country, as in refer 
 ence to the institution. Innovation is dreaded, and 
 opposed, lest it should shake exclusive privileges. The 
 broad principle of patriotism is narrowed to that of 
 class interest ; and any one who, faithful to the navy, 
 would throw the protections of reform around its hon 
 orable members, and make the whole an honest, and 
 working institution ; any one who, with honest motives 
 undertakes to point out existing evils and their mode 
 of correction, does it at the risk of being stigma 
 tized as a traitor to the service, and must be content 
 to be hooted at by those, who, like foul birds, do not 
 see the corruptions of the nest to which they cling. 
 
 Such are the gradual changes, which, without the 
 constant vigilance of the people, may influence a 
 
OF A REPUBLIC. 
 
 naval establishment, even if it had a fair beginning^ 
 which ours never Lad; and when this change has 
 been effected, new principles have been introduced, 
 pntirely at war with republicanism. A privileged 
 class has been instituted, to whom a large share of 
 the wealth and honors of the country belong, irre 
 spective of any claim of merit or service. The gen 
 eral character of our institutions has been departed 
 from, and as positive a nobility created, as though its 
 members received the titles of Lord, Earl, Marquis, or 
 Duke a more obnoxious nobility than belonged to 
 kingly France, when her titles, instead of being the 
 inheritance of families, were the meed of distinguished 
 service. A subordinate instrument of the government 
 has thus become an independent institution, and, with 
 out altering one word of the constitution of our coun 
 try, principles have grown up contrary to its whole 
 spirit and purpose. 
 
 Such evil influences are more operative during the 
 quiescence of peace, than during the activities of war. 
 In war, the value of every grade, and of each man in 
 every grade, is felt; the work and the purpose for 
 
178 NAVAL INSTITUTIONS 
 
 which they are put there, are more plainly before 
 them all ; their responsibility to their country is more 
 apparent, and commanding officers feel that their own 
 position, honor and glory are dependent upon the 
 hearty co-operation of all departments of the ships 
 or squadrons placed in their charge : the instruments 
 of success have then their proper weight in the 
 work. 
 
 In peace, on the contrary, there is no such conserv 
 ative dependence ; there is no definite and great ob 
 ject before the eyes of all, to which their energies, in 
 proper relation and subordination, are to be directed, 
 and for which those relations have been established. 
 It is merely seen that one set of men. has great 
 privileges and power ; and that another set is sub 
 jected to the former; relations which, as we have 
 seen, are apt to grow into false views of the position 
 of each. 
 
OF A REPUBLIC. 179 
 
 In the year 1800, at the very commencement of 
 this century, an act was passed by Congress, for the 
 "better government of the Navy of the United 
 States," and, incredible as it may appear, character 
 istic of stagnation in the midst of progress, this law 
 of more than half a century s duration is that which 
 governs the navy now, without a line or word of 
 alteration, excepting the repeal, by the last Congress, 
 of those portions which authorized the punishment of 
 flogging, and the continuance of this improvement is 
 now strenuously resisted. If this law had no greater 
 age than that of its enactment by our Congress, it 
 would still leave the navy far behind the progress of 
 a progressive age, and in this respect there would be 
 a want of harmony between the navy and the coun 
 try ; but when we come to examine this law, we find 
 that it wears but the mask of the republic, and be 
 hind this will be seen the wrinkled features of a 
 barbarian antiquity. 
 
 The two first articles open the law with injunctions 
 
180 NAVAL INSTITUTIONS 
 
 to commanding officers to observe the duties of honor, 
 morality and religion, but no penalty for a disregard 
 of the injunction is mentioned of course any attention 
 to them is optional. The third article relates to of 
 fences in which subordinate officers and privates may 
 be implicated, and becomes a little more vigorous. It 
 reads as follows : 
 
 "Any officer, or other person in the navy, who 
 shall be guilty of oppression, cruelty, fraud, profane 
 swearing, drunkenness, or any other scandalous con 
 duct tending to the destruction of good morals, shall, 
 if an officer, be cashiered, or suffer such other punish 
 ment as a court martial shall adjudge : if a private, 
 shall be put in irons, or flogged, at the discretion of 
 the captain, not exceeding twelve lashes." 
 
 When we come to examine the nature of courts 
 martial, it will be evident that this pompous and cum 
 brous machinery is little likely to be brought to bear 
 against "profane swearing, conduct tending to the 
 destruction of good morals," or even drunkenness; 
 and public observation teaches that much of this 
 part of the law is a dead letter. Not so that which 
 
OF A REPUBLIC. 181 
 
 prescribed the lash. The reports made to the navy 
 department, and called for by Congress, show that, 
 whilst the law permitted this punishment, it was dealt 
 out with an indiscriminating severity, little, if any, 
 modified by the character of the offence, and with a 
 recklessness which should forever prohibit its restora 
 tion. The cats and the colt were relieving substitutes 
 
 & 
 
 for energy, thought, and judgment in the correction of 
 vice. It was much more easy to say " give him a doz 
 en with the cats," than to exercise an intellio-ent and 
 
 O 
 
 judicious prudence in selecting the remedy for crime. 
 
 The remaining articles, relating to such varied of 
 fences as "breach of duty, disobedience of orders, 
 cowardice, negligence, disaffection, treachery, spies, 
 murder, mutiny, sedition, desertion," have one uni 
 form termination " death ! ! or such other punish 
 ment as a court martial shall adjudge." 
 
 I would particularly call attention to the 31st and 
 32d articles, as characteristic of the enlightenment 
 and spirit of the whole code. 
 
 The thirty-first says: "Any master-at-arms, or oth 
 er person of whom the duty of master-at-arms is 
 
182 NAVAL INSTITUTIONS 
 
 required, who shall refuse to receive such prisoners as 
 shall be committed to his charge, or having received 
 them, shall suffer them to escape, or dismiss them 
 without proper authority, shall suffer in such prison 
 er s stead, or be punished at the discretion of a cour* 
 martial." 
 
 The idea of hanging a jailer because his prisoners 
 escape, is nautically summary. 
 
 The whole of this truly wonderful code for th 
 government of the navy is comprised within five oc 
 tavo pages. The minute and specific law under which 
 our army is governed, composes a volume of over 
 three hundred pages, and on the front of this book it 
 is written : " Every officer of the army will be fur 
 nished with a copy; and it is enjoined upon them 
 strictly to observe the rules therein set forth; and 
 every change, alteration, or departure therefrom, un 
 less sanctioned by the War Department, is positively 
 forbidden." Such a code leaves but little room for 
 the tyranny, the caprice, and the dissension of indi 
 vidual opinion. But on the meager pages of naval 
 law, at the 32d article, it is written: 
 
OF A REPUBLIC. 183 
 
 "All crimes committed by persons belonging to the 
 navy, which are not specified in the foregoing articles, 
 shall be punished according to the laws and customs 
 in such cases at sea." 
 
 Here is a broad latitude for the exercise of a capri 
 cious tyranny. Who is to be the judge of the laws 
 and customs, when every commanding officer makes, 
 to some extent, his own laws and customs, and the 
 internal regulations of each ship may differ as widely 
 as though they belonged to different services? If 
 crimes were of sufficient frequency to have established 
 usages, they admitted of definition and specification. 
 This regulation unbinds the hand of power, and leaves 
 the service open to capricious opinion. Under so loose 
 and undefined a system, every variety of view and 
 character impresses itself upon your national ships. 
 One officer may encourage sobriety, morality, and 
 religion ; another pronounce these humbugs, but wil 
 lingly give his men liberty to visit the shore for a 
 drunken frolic, and then flog them for the language 
 and conduct of intoxication. 
 
 A specimen chosen from the reports of punishment 
 
184 NAVAL INSTITUTIONS 
 
 from different ships, shows how absurd and unequal is 
 the punishment of naval crime. 
 
 From one vessel we have a report of seventy-three 
 cases of punishment in two months, for varied offences, 
 and the record shows a uniform allowance of twelve 
 lashes, the limit of the law, to every offence, with the 
 exception of two, and in one of these the crime is 
 "suspicion of theft," and for this the unfortunate 
 suspected received six lashes with the cats on his bare 
 back. From another ship we have the same offences 
 punished with only six lashes on the bare back ; and 
 in a third the flogging is given over the shirt. Such 
 are the different degrees of criminality as measured 
 by punishment, attached to the same offences in ships 
 of the same service. Such is the character of the 
 code of law, which, without revision, amendment, or 
 alteration, has governed the navy for more than half 
 a century, and which, with the exception of the aboli 
 tion of flogging, still governs it. Destitute of rewards 
 and encouragements, destitute of securities for the 
 natural rights of men, it offers no inducements for 
 the respectable American seaman to enter the navy. 
 
OF A REPUBLIC. 185 
 
 Although lie may not be flogged now, he has nothing 
 to look to beyond his subordinate station ; and may, 
 though characterized by every good quality, be con 
 fined, for months, within a few yards of the shore, to 
 the narrow limits of a man-of-war, and tantalized by 
 seeing officers and officers servants hourly passing in 
 and out of the ship, enjoying a freedom denied to 
 him, who finds the floating castles of your country but 
 prisons for their defenders. 
 
 The history of mutinies, from those of the Nore and 
 Spithead, down to those in our own service, shows that 
 one of their most effective causes has been the confine 
 ment of men on board ship ; one of the first demands is 
 for liberty to visit the shore ; and the fact that all au 
 thorities, from officers of ships up to ministers and kings, 
 have been compelled to yield to those mutinies, is proof 
 that discipline cannot be effected by severity ; and also 
 that law should secure to ship s companies the privi 
 lege, when duty would permit, of freely visiting the 
 shore. The opportunity of getting out of a ship under 
 such circumstances becomes an intoxicating excitement, 
 and leads to excess ; whereas, if the privilege of liberty, 
 
NAVAL INSTITUTIONS 
 
 like that of food, was guarantied by law to the deserv 
 ing, it would become a natural enjoyment, instead of 
 a morbid excitement. 
 
 I have seen the strongest men tremble with agita 
 tion, at the privilege of visiting the shore for a few 
 hours, after long confinement on board ship. 
 
 Can desertion, under such circumstances, be a mat 
 ter of surprise ? The very human nature of men is 
 driven to crime by the imperfection of the law, which 
 then comes down with its bloody penalties. 
 
 With such an organization can you expect to create 
 an American Navy, from such stuff as American citi 
 zens are made of ? Would it not be a disparagement 
 of our boasted American character if you could ? The 
 best tribute to our country, and severest commentary 
 upon our navy, is found in the fact that so many for 
 eigners enter our naval service. 
 
 If it were possible that such a code as governs our 
 navy had been devised by wise heads, after careful 
 deliberation and with an intelligent adaptation to the 
 institutions of our country, and the character of our 
 people, it would still be likely to require alteration and 
 
OF A REPUBLIC. 187 
 
 improvement; but, I may ask, does this law bear one 
 single feature of our country in all its changes from 
 the stern landing, upon a wintry rock, of the freedom- 
 seeking Pilgrims, to the waving of our national banner 
 over the golden hills and pearl-gemmed waters of our 
 new Pacific ocean state ? 
 
 It does not. This code of law is older than our gov 
 ernment, older than our people, older than modern 
 civilization ! As a pretended American law, it is an 
 imposture, disgracing our statute books. It is a blind 
 copy, almost word for word, of the British articles of 
 war, framed under George 2d, in 1749, one hundred 
 and three years ago, but actually based upon, and em 
 bodying the ideas, condition of things, and spirit exist 
 ing at the remote origin of the Royal Navy. This is 
 your American, republican code of naval law. But 
 were it a code proposed or devised at the present day 
 for the British Navy, it would still have no applica 
 bility to a single feature of our country. 
 
 One nation has its people, artificially separated into 
 
188 NAVAL INSTITUTIONS 
 
 ranks and classes. Those who serve, are regarded as 
 of another blood from those who command. 
 
 The other nation acknowledges no difference be 
 tween men, but that which shall be made by the in 
 equality of talents and virtue. It takes its highest 
 functionaries from the most humble occupation; and 
 might find its chief magistrate in one who had been 
 a common sailor, as it has in one who had been a com 
 mon soldier, provided he had the vigor of intellect for 
 the duties of the station ; it acknowledges no govern 
 ment of hereditary succession, or divine right, which 
 may make a chief ruler of a feeble infant, or a weak 
 woman. 
 
 The seamen of one nation belong to a fixed rank, 
 or class, so low in the social scale as to be below 
 the sense of degradation, the stimulus of ambition, 
 or the protections of pride. The seamen of our coun 
 try may represent a respectability equal to that of their 
 commanders, or civil rulers. Such broad distinctions 
 would alone be sufficient to prevent the adaptation of a 
 British aristocratic, monarchal code to our republican 
 navy. 
 
OF A REPUBLIC. 189 
 
 Here is a picture of the royal navy which furnishes 
 the code; not drawn by foreign prejudice, but given 
 by a Briton himself: 
 
 " Founded at a period when slavery was universally 
 tolerated, from liberty being comparatively speaking, 
 unknown, the first record we possess of what may fairly 
 be termed a royal navy, goes back to the reign of the 
 7th Henry, who, in 1488, caused the Great Harry to 
 be built and launched. 
 
 " The arbitrary measures which, at that remote pe 
 riod, directed every department of the state, naturally 
 extended to the maritime service, and while the brutal 
 and irrational system of impressment formed the means 
 of manning the navy, the allowance of pay and provi 
 sion were worthy the system which provided the sea 
 men to consume them. 
 
 " Of all the anomalies which have proved a reproach 
 to the British constitution, and an inherent cause of 
 gangrene and disorder, the press-gang has been the 
 most odious in its origin, and the least excusable from 
 its results. Under this remnant of feudal villanage, the 
 arm of undiscrimmating violence was made to sweep 
 
190 - NAVAL INSTITUTIONS 
 
 up for the noblest uses of the country, all who were 
 so poor, so ignorant, so unfriended, or so vicious as tc 
 be thrown at large upon the highways of the empire, 
 without the protection of those inconsistent immunities 
 which arbitrarily acquit the wealthy from protecting 
 their own possessions, to force this onerous task upon 
 those who have nothing to protect. In a community 
 where reason had the slightest voice, or justice the 
 least authority, it would naturally be imagined tha/ 
 those possessing nothing to make life cheerful, should, 
 at any rate, be spared the cares which Providence hat? 
 fixed as the alloy of prosperity. 
 
 " In contradiction of every axiom of this equitable 
 nature, the abject and friendless were seized for no 
 crime, but their poverty and insignificance, and im 
 prisoned in our men-of-war, after no trial, save the 
 capricious will of our inebriated master of the press- 
 gang. Thus a number of outraged individuals were 
 collected in our fleets. If they behaved well, fought 
 the battles of their country, and drudged unrepiningly 
 through the severe life of privations, which alone the 
 navy has to offer, they become valuable to theb 
 
OF A REPUBLIC. 191 
 
 tyrants, and thus unwittingly riveted around their own 
 necks, the chain of that servitude which has to gall 
 them through life. 
 
 " When the pen of truth records the atrocities of 
 such a system in the nineteenth century, which still 
 witnesses its inactive existence, the mind, unaccustom 
 ed to dwell upon such a complicated detail of villany, 
 can, at first, scarcely credit the demonstration of such 
 facts. But the press-gang was merely the first step to 
 the barbarities which, in the Royal Navy of Great Brit 
 ain, ignorance and helplessness have suffered on the one 
 side, and cruelty and power have inflicted on the other. 
 
 " Our fleets having been manned by a force so resist 
 less and relentless, the unhappy wretches imprisoned 
 on board, were treated in every manner befitting felons 
 condemned to so awful a punishment. 
 
 " The unoffending being captured by armed violence, 
 for the naval service of the state, was only allowed, 
 but at rare intervals, and in many cases, never again 
 to land upon that shore with which every thing worth 
 estimating in life, was connected. From the hour he 
 became an involuntary seaman, he was too often cut 
 
192 NAVAL INSTITUTIONS 
 
 off from all communication with friend or relative, and 
 generally sent to an unhealthy climate. 
 
 " There, predisposed to disease from the sudden trans 
 ition, life was either lost, or rendered merely a bur 
 den for the future ; exposed to a duty harrassing in 
 the extreme, he was placed under the absolute dispo 
 sal of a petty monarch, whose slightest caprice, was 
 indisputable law ; yet, under all these oppressive afflic 
 tions he possessed no appeal from any wrong, save to 
 a code of jurisprudence, so severe, that every line ap 
 pears to have been traced in blood, and every other 
 penalty is a shameful death ! " 
 
 In addition to these press-gang victims, the jails 
 were emptied .to man the fleets ; and the code of laws 
 devised for these captured slaves and jail felons of a 
 despotic government, is that which we have conde 
 scended to adopt for the government of a navy of 
 voluntarily enlisted citizens. 
 
 But the picture is not yet complete ; the poor wretch 
 felled beneath the club of the press-gang, and torn 
 perhaps forever, from his family and home, with the 
 fiendish humanity worthy of such a pandemonium, 
 
OF A REPUBLIC. 193 
 
 has the intoxicating draft presented as the balm for his 
 sorrows, that his whirling brain may lose, in this new 
 frenzy, the madness of his wrongs, and all the respect 
 of the man be sunk to the level of his associate felons, 
 to whom the same cup comes as the familiar solace of 
 vice. All this you have borrowed, too ; the spirit-room 
 and the rum cask, still disgrace your national vessels, 
 and the roll of the martial drum is daily heard, calling 
 your crews around the "grog-tub," to receive the 
 potion which shall send them away with inflamed 
 bodies and fired minds, ready for the quarrels, the in 
 solence and insubordination to their officers, which, 
 heretofore has consigned their backs to the " cats," and 
 still turns the sailor over to handcuffs, imprisonment, 
 and the sentry s charge. 
 
 The whole system is, clearly, one calculated to 
 manufacture crime, to degrade man, to nurture the 
 spirit of cruelty, and to supply the food for its exer^ 
 cise. The degradation is not confined to the masses ; 
 the contact of officers with such men, the disgusting 
 criminal police duties, growing out of the those rela 
 tions, have a deteriorating influence upon all. How long 
 9 
 
194 NAVAL INSTITUTION 8 
 
 shall this system be permitted to continue ? The peo 
 ple of this nation are responsible for its existence, and 
 every citizen who does not do his utmost for a reforma 
 tion, is responsible for the evils he may deplore and 
 condemn. 
 
 I know that our naval triumphs are pointed to as a 
 reason for a continuance of the system under which 
 they have been won. They only prove the difficulty 
 of eradicating all that is noble in man ; under the worst 
 influences, and after the loss of every other virtue, he 
 still has left that animal courage, which leads him to 
 desire and strike* for victory. The navies of Europe, 
 under the worst possible institutions, have won glorious 
 victories. The debased machine soldiery of Europe has 
 won splendid triumphs, but they were as nothing, com 
 pared to the magic glories of Napoleon, who peopled 
 his army with citizens, and opened the way from the 
 ranks to the marshal s baton. The history of our glory 
 does not prove that crime, intoxication, and degrada 
 tion are essential to glory, whilst, upon the contrary, all 
 history does prove, that the more elevated in tone and 
 character a military body, the greater are its incentives 
 
OF A REPUBLIC. 195 
 
 to action, the less the trouble of its government, and 
 the more sure the probabilities of success. 
 
 The routinists of Europe were frequent in their pre 
 dictions that our militia would always be easily scat 
 tered by defeat. The events of the late Mexican war, 
 dissipated their theories in astonishment, and then the 
 press of England proclaimed that the American army, 
 was an army of Knights. Why, from the same ma 
 terials, cannot we have a navy of respectable Ameri 
 can citizens ? "We can, and we will. 
 
 But where will the reforming influence come from ? 
 Whose business is it ? It is the business of none so 
 much as the people, and they must impress their 
 wishes upon their representatives in the national le 
 gislature; otherwise, what is the course the matter 
 takes ? Persons interested in a particular measure of 
 reform bring it singly and alone to the notice of some 
 member of Congress; he is pressed with what he re 
 gards as more important business, and which may, in 
 reality, be more important than the single measure to 
 
196 NAVAL INSTITUTIONS 
 
 which his attention is asked, but can scarcely be more 
 so than the general defects from which the single evil 
 springs. He is referred to some other gentleman, 
 who is more prominent in naval matters, and this lat 
 ter, perhaps, owes his prominency to special views, 
 derived from some relative, or intimate friend, in the 
 service, and is already prepossessed against the inno 
 vation. The proposition can scarcely get a hearing. 
 Suppose, however, it advances a step farther, and at 
 tracts .general attention; it may then, with the best 
 intentions, be referred to the executive, and by this to 
 a navy board, with all its prejudices arrayed against 
 change and improvement. " Boards are screens," 
 says Jeremy Bentham. Thus reform revolves in a 
 maelstrom which finally swallows it up. 
 
 That gentlemen who, from childhood, have grown 
 up under the present system strongly advocate its 
 continuance, should not cast any imputation, either 
 upon their intelligence, or the honesty of their opinions 
 There is nothing which so controls the judgment and 
 the opinions of the most powerful minds as the sys 
 tems and institutions under which men have had theii 
 
OF A REPUBLIC. 10 
 
 minds formed. It is almost an impossibility to shake 
 off this influence. Even the restoration of the lash 
 is strongly advocated by gentlemen in the service, of 
 honorable and upright purposes and intelligent minds. 
 At the first view, this seems like the irresistible testi 
 mony of practical experience. But, is it such ? In 
 all inquiries after truth, it is a principle to measure 
 the value of testimony by the bias and influence under 
 which it is given. These gentlemen were honestly 
 opposed to the abolition of the lash, and, consequent 
 ly, were not in that unprejudiced condition to give the 
 reform a fair trial. Would any administration commit 
 its peculiar principles to its opponents, however honest 
 and intelligent, and expect them to be reported upon 
 successfully? The enemies of a measure like this 
 cannot give it a fair trial ; and, conceding to most, hon 
 est efforts to do so, there may be some who would 
 willingly throw odium upon the measure by creating 
 obstacles to its success. Until the attempt to com 
 mand national ships without the lash shall have been 
 committed to those in favor of its abolition those 
 not bound to the notions of a lifetime there is no 
 
198 NAVAL INSTITUTIONS 
 
 testimony upon the subject which meets the character 
 of available evidence ; it is all mere one-sided opinion. 
 By this same kind of testimony, given by the most pow 
 erful minds and honorable men who have ever lived, 
 it can be shown that human happiness and prosperity 
 are dependent upon "sovereignty by divine right," he 
 reditary aristocracy, church establishments, entailed 
 estates, and primogeniture, all of which we deem fal 
 lacious impositions upon men ; and there is no institu 
 tion so glaring in its wrong but it will find advocates 
 in those brought up under, even though oppressed 
 by it. 
 
 One of the most distinguished and deep thinking 
 philosophers of England has illustrated this tendency 
 by the assertion, that if it was proposed to introduce a 
 law authorizing the king, at pleasure, to murder any 
 number of his subjects, there would be none to second 
 it; but if, such a law being in existence, it was pro 
 posed to repeal it, if it passed at all, it would only be 
 at the end of a considerable number of years; during 
 which, every session, would have been emptied upon 
 it the whole quiverfull of those fallacies irrelevant to 
 
OF A REPUBLIC. 
 
 the proposition they are employed to combat, and 
 having an equal force in their application to others. 
 
 To get at the truth of tliis matter, say to those 
 officers who are not committed against reform, who 
 are not the fossilized conservators of usages a thous 
 and years old, " Those of you who can successfully 
 command ships without the lash shall be promoted to 
 the rank of command ; " then permit them to recruit 
 their own men, shut up the grog-tub, give them a 
 system of rewards as well as punishments, suited to 
 the character of our times and people, and then, if 
 you take the testimony of all, you will reach the truth ; 
 its golden sands, instead of being swept on by the 
 rushing stream of prejudice, will be deposited in the 
 eddy of conflicting opinion and experience. Do this, 
 and you will hear no more of the necessity for the 
 lash for the government of American seamen. 
 
 Having thus indicated the defects of naval govern 
 ment, I will now direct your attention to the fact, that the 
 plan upon which the navy is officered is an ti republican ; 
 
200 NAVAL INSTITUTIONS 
 
 does not present the opportunity of getting into the 
 public employ the best abilities, and may exclude those 
 who have the best claims and the most fitness. 
 
 When appointments are to be made to the lowest 
 grade of officers in the line of promotion midship 
 men instead of being thrown open to general compe 
 tition, and given to those who, after a proper examina 
 tion, give evidence of having the highest mental, moral, 
 and physical qualities for the station, they fall only to 
 those youth who have the aid of family or political in 
 fluence ; and thus your officers are made by accident, 
 and not by the claim of capability. Fortunately, the 
 general character of the youth of our country is such 
 that a majority prove worthy of their selection, and un 
 der congenial circumstances would develop high charac 
 ter. But the questions are: Is the plan republican? Is 
 it the most expedient ? Is it honest, either to the coun 
 try, or to the youth of the country ? It is neither. 
 That plan is not republican which does not offer an 
 equal chance of elevation to the deserving, be he the 
 child of the chief magistrate, or of the most humble 
 citizen. It is neither expedient, nor honest, for cither 
 
OF A REPUBLIC. 201 
 
 party, if it diminishes the chances of securing the best 
 services for the use of the country, or excludes those 
 capable of rendering them from a trial of their merits. 
 Whilst the accident of influential friends may pension 
 upon the countiy an unworthy incumbent, the friend 
 less youth who, gifted with the qualities to honor his 
 country, desires an opportunity of serving it, must seek 
 it, as an enlisted hand, at the rendezvous; and once 
 there, the stigma of caste is upon him ; he is in a class 
 from which officers are not made ; encircled by a rigid 
 barrier of inferiority, and cut off from the hope of 
 elevation, he soon ceases to deserve it. 
 
 "Excelsior" is an impulse of the American heart, 
 and whilst this impulse beats, our youth will not enter 
 an employ which binds them to inferiority ; conse 
 quently, by this plan, we inflict a double injury upon 
 the country. We exclude respectable young men 
 from the ranks of tlve navy, and, as above stated, we 
 limit the chances for the best selection of officers. Sup 
 pose that when vacancies occur in the junior grade 
 of officers, they were, in the true spirit of republican 
 ism, thrown open to general competition, and given to 
 9* 
 
202 NAVAL INSTITUTIONS 
 
 the most competent; the probabilities are that those 
 who had the advantage of some nautical education, 
 with other proper acquirements, would have the best 
 chance of success; and thus would be established a 
 principle elevating your whole naval service ; instead 
 of being the hiding place of the reprobate and criminal, 
 those who need 
 
 " The hangman s whip 
 
 To haud the wretch in order," 
 
 would find no home in your ships. They would be 
 peopled by the energetic, the enterprising and respect 
 able youths of the country; and with such crews and 
 such officers, defeat in war, where victory was within 
 the scope of human effort, would be impossible. 
 
 But what is better, your ships, instead of bearing 
 to other nations the wretched and servile imitations 
 of their own deformities, would carry your country 
 abroad in all the features of its noble, beneficent, and 
 original institutions. Navy and country would be in 
 harmony, and your squadrons abroad evidencing more 
 than the physical power of the nation, would throw 
 
OF A REPUBLIC. 203 
 
 light into darkness, would be eloquent teachers to des 
 pots and their victims, of the humanizing influence of 
 all institutions organized upon an acknowledgement 
 of the rights of man ; and their presence in peace 
 would do more than their armaments in war to shake 
 down old traditions, and to disenthrall our .fellow men. 
 Such are some of the principles for the organiza 
 tion of a republican navy, but we have not yet com 
 pleted the work. 
 
 Defective and unjust as is the mode of appointment 
 to the navy, the principle which decides promotion to 
 the higher grades is still more defective, and is calcu 
 lated to impair the good qualities which may, acci 
 dentally have been brought into the service by the 
 young officer. 
 
 It would be thought very senseless, ridiculous and 
 absurd, if it was proposed that those of your borough 
 and county magistrates who lived the longest, should 
 be the judges of the Supreme Courts of the states, and 
 
204 NAVAL INSTITUTIONS 
 
 those of the state judges who lived to the greatest age 
 should form the Supreme Court of the United States, 
 or that the longest-lived members of the Legislature, 
 should be your representatives and senators in Con 
 gress. Absurd as such a scheme appears, it is pre 
 cisely that upon which naval promotion is regulated. 
 
 The youth who has gained admission upon partial 
 selection, when he arrives at twenty-one years of age, 
 is examined as to his character and acquirements. If 
 successful in this examination, his destiny for life is 
 fixed. This test in his early youth determines the du 
 ties, honors and station he shall fill at thirty, forty, fifty, 
 sixty, or more years of age, no matter how much his 
 character may change in the mean time, or whether, 
 being fit for one class of duties he is entirely unfit for 
 others. The simple rule is, that the longest liver 
 shall have tin 1 , highest rank, and the most pay. Such 
 is the seniority rule of naval promotion. The unre- 
 publican character of this rule is manifest. Honor and 
 station being the consequence of the accident of long 
 life, constitute a nobility as much as if they were the 
 accidents of birth; a nobility existing independently 
 
OF A REPUBLIC. 205 
 
 of the ordinary responsibilities of men. A mechanic, 
 business, or professional man is dependent for suc 
 cess upon the abilities he shall establish in the com 
 munity to which he belongs ; so is it with your public 
 men ; and if these shall, in the progress of their lives, 
 forfeit the confidence they had once merited, they lose 
 the public support. jSTot so with the naval officer; 
 his promotion is independent of the community to 
 which he belongs. The officer of the highest talents 
 and most efficiency may grow old in an inferior station, 
 whilst the most inefficient may occupy the highest. 
 The disastrous effects of such a system are painfully 
 evident in our naval service, and common sense ought 
 to have anticipated them. In the first place the ordi 
 nary incentives to continued labor and improvement 
 are removed. What good can it do the individual ? 
 None, officially. In truth the rewards of such a sys 
 tem are for worthlessness and incompetency ; because, 
 if an officer becomes known to the service, and to the 
 department, for objectionable, or incompetent qualifi 
 cations, he is not put on duty, but permitted to remain 
 at home, on good pay, whilst those of better reputation 
 
200 NAVAL INSTITUTIONS 
 
 do his duties, and yet if he lives up to a vacancy in 
 a higher grade, unless he is eminently notorious, he 
 steps into it with its rewards and honors. The .conse 
 quence of all this is, that those officers who represent 
 the greatest vigor of age, and of mental and physical 
 power, are growing old in subordinate grades; some 
 of them in that of apprenticeship. There are now 
 many passed midshipmen, older than were Perry, 
 McDonough, and Decatur, when they achieved the 
 victories which have given their names to history. 
 
 But, it will be said to me, you have your judicial 
 tribunals ; your courts martial ; true, we have ; and fit 
 courts for such a state, keystones of the whole arch of 
 wrong. 
 
 In civil life, just and wise laws provide that every 
 bias of interest shall be removed from the judicial 
 bench, and particularly, that every influence hostile to 
 the prisoner, shall be provided against. In courts 
 martial just the reverse is the state of things ; every 
 
OF A REPUBLIC. 
 
 interest and prejudice of power; every influence of 
 grade against grade, of station against station, is in 
 operation, to say nothing of the bias of personal par 
 tialities, and enmities growing out of the relations of 
 service. 
 
 An assemblage of men in solemn state around a 
 
 O 
 
 table, each one glittering in gold, embroidery, and 
 epaulets, has an imposing effect to the eye; but it is 
 our business to look behind this covering, at the 
 human beings and human hearts it disguises, and we 
 shall find them with, at least, all the ordinary defects 
 and weaknesses of our imperfect nature. 
 
 Even if there were no truth-distorting influences to 
 act upon these defects, the habits of thought, the ac 
 quirements and the occupations of those who constitute 
 courts martial, are not those which best qualify men 
 for judging evidence, and sifting hidden truth from 
 contradictory, artful, and interested testimony. Some 
 conscientious and intelligent officers admit this them 
 selves. The members of courts martial being always 
 commanding officers, or those exercising military au 
 thority, if a subordinate is brought before them for 
 
208 NAVAL INSTITUTIONS 
 
 trial, or one of their own number is arraigned for acts 
 of oppression, the question is not between two equal 
 individuals, before a disinterested tribunal, but be 
 tween two hostile principles ; between that of power, 
 seeking increase and irresponsibility, as power natural 
 ly will, and that of men, defending at least, supposed 
 rights and it is left to power, and the sympathies of 
 power to decide it. It is unnecessary to say what that 
 decision generally would be. 
 
 Further, there are grades in the service, represent 
 ing your most important interests, and a conscientious 
 performance of the duties of these grades, may bring 
 the officers of them into conflict with those who will 
 bear no questioning of their authority. The questions 
 may concern matters of which the officers to whom 
 they are entrusted, can alone judge, or, at least, can best 
 judge, and yet these officers are never permitted to sit 
 in courts martial, even when one of their own number 
 may be tried fbr a conscientious discharge of his duty. 
 The interests confided to these officers, require as great 
 an amount of intelligence and acquirement, and as hon 
 orable a character, as possibly can be demanded by any 
 
OF A REPUBLIC. 209 
 
 naval duty. For instance ; there is a grade of officers 
 to whom is confided the responsibility of administering 
 the finances of your ships ; each of these officers give 
 heavy bonds for the faithful and honest performance of 
 his duties. There is another grade to which is entrust 
 ed a responsibility, for the health and lives of ships and 
 squadrons. 
 
 A commanding officer may do that which would en 
 danger the public funds, and involve the disbursing 
 officer and his bondsmen; or, he may, without cause, 
 neglect the precautions, for the preservation of ships 
 and their crews, from disease and death. In either 
 case, the disbursing, or medical officer, for doing his 
 duty, may be arraigned before a tribunal of the sym 
 pathizing associates of his prosecutor, without the pres 
 ence of a single officer of his own grade, to aid in the 
 investigation of truth, and to diminish the chances of 
 an erroneous and unjust judgment. 
 
 The decision, a few years ago, of one of these courts 
 was such a violation of evidence, truth, and justice 
 the question being between a medical and command 
 ing officer, just such a question as we have stated that 
 
210 NAVAL INSTITUTIONS 
 
 an indignant, and independent secretary of the navy 
 annulled the proceedings ; in a letter of caustic severi 
 ty, severely censured the court, and yet, the members 
 of that court are in high and honorable station, and eli 
 gible to other courts martial, and most probably have 
 sat in them. 
 
 An essay published by myself ten years ago, con 
 tained the following words. 
 
 " In the national legislature, constantly varying with 
 the varying politics of the nation, the navy has no 
 permanent and practically informed representation. 
 The presiding officer of the navy department deriv 
 ing his official existence from the same unstable con 
 tingencies, that existence is but temporary with the 
 individual ; consequently, each new Congress, and each 
 new secretary derive their information from, and have 
 their actions controlled by those engaged in service, 
 and naturally seek their advice and directions from the 
 highest grade in it; a grade which has the advantage 
 too, of holding with them intimate social relations. 
 
 " Commanders necessarily become, from these cir 
 cumstances, the creators of the powers under which they 
 
OF A REPUBLIC. 211 
 
 act ; and the court of appeal from their own injustice ; 
 powers, which would tempt angels from their purity, 
 and which tend to launch humanity upon an unbound 
 ed sea of corruption." Soon after the publication of 
 this essay, I received from London, a volume by an 
 English writer, upon this subject, from which I make 
 the following quotations, and I do it, to show that if 
 two persons, divided by the Atlantic, without com 
 munication, come to the same conclusions, the one 
 respecting the iniquity of the original system, and the 
 other respecting that of its deformed progeny, it offers 
 some evidence that their conclusions are correct Un 
 less the innovating hand of reform strikes down the evil 
 planted upon our soil, and originates improvement, 
 there can be but little hope of our borrowing it from 
 sources which have sent us the evil. From the writer 
 alluded to, I quote the following remarks upon courts 
 martial. "The only court known to naval law, by 
 which wrongs could be redressed, and injuries punish 
 ed, was a court martial. Under the blood-thirsty 
 enactments to which we have alluded, these courts 
 martial were composed exclusively of admirals and 
 
212 NAVAL INSTITUTIONS 
 
 captains, and if the party tried was of this rank, there 
 naturally arose a prejudice of the court in his favor. 
 On the contrary, if the party complaining,, were be 
 neath this rank, there naturally arose a prejudice of 
 the court against him. All the oaths that were ever 
 taken by mankind, are insufficient to turn back the 
 current of the human heart; this bias might have 
 been most abundantly made evident in numberless 
 instances, that have since occurred. So perfectly well 
 known has this feeling ever been, and so prevalent 
 does it still continue to be in the British Navy, that 
 an axiom has been generated from long experience of 
 its truth that no man, however completely in the 
 right, can safely venture to bring a charge against a 
 superior officer, without being irretrievably ruined in 
 the service. 
 
 " That the barest semblance of justice can be re 
 tained, under such an iniquitous system is impossible * 
 and that it is to be borne without murmuring, by any 
 but a set of helots, is equally unnatural. 
 
 " The climax of this thrice revolting mode of gov 
 eminent* has yet to be told. Whenever, by any 
 
OF A REPUBLIC. 213 
 
 interposition of Providence, some unblushing tyrant, af 
 ter an uninterrupted career of cruelty and power, com 
 mitted some crime so flagrant, that not even the abet 
 tors of this system could pass it over whenever the 
 long reluctant hand of authority was obliged to order 
 the criminal to his trial, and even his prejudiced com 
 peers were unable to acquit him when all these too 
 rarely occurring events of Providence brought about 
 that extraordinary effort of justice, the cashiering a 
 culprit from his rank, the convict retired awhile, it is 
 true, from the command which he had disgraced ; but 
 some parliamentary, or other influence, was always 
 ready to be made with a corrupt minister: and after 
 a temporary secession, and most inadequate punish 
 ment, he was restored to that rank, which he had so 
 infamously abused, and in which he was again placed 
 to enjoy the opportunities of torturing one of the most 
 valuable, best-disposed, and ill-requited classes, in the 
 kingdom. 
 
 " By the laws of England, the felon who commits 
 the most brutal of all crimes, the most savage of mur 
 ders, can only be tried by twelve of his equals. Of 
 
214 NAVAL INSTITUTIONS 
 
 these, lie has not only the unlimited right of rejecting 
 as many as are open to any legal cause of objection, 
 but a further privilege of dismissing from the jury-box, 
 twenty more, without assignment of reason or cause." 
 -Against this humble wretch, the merciful majesty of 
 English justice, allows not one word to be urged in 
 prosecution, that can possibly prejudice the prisoner s 
 case ; not one particle of evidence to be received, that 
 is not in strict accordance with those laws and prece 
 dents which the experience of ages, and the most 
 refined wisdom of English judges have laid down 
 through the long practice of centuries. ]Nbt one wit 
 ness is permitted to open his lips against the prisoner, 
 without being subjected to the severest scrutiny as 
 to his means of knowledge, his motives, his own pre 
 vious good, or bad character, and the degree of credit 
 which may be attached to what he swears. The whole 
 proofs against the criminal are then sifted by a judge, 
 whose entire life has been devoted to the law, and the 
 investigation of truth. 
 
 " Every possible care seems exercised, not only that 
 the seaman shall not be tried by any one, who can be 
 
OF A REPUBLIC. 215 
 
 imagined his peer ; but, that a set of jurors or judges, 
 call them which you will, shall be got together with 
 every possible prejudice of rank, station, habit, and 
 command, militating against the lowly and unfortunate 
 prisoner. 
 
 " As this mockery proceeds, the worst evidence is 
 as often admitted as the best, and hearsay finds quite 
 as much admission from the skillful tribunal, as direct 
 testimony. But for this glaring absurdity, and rank 
 injustice, there is a weighty reason; scarcely one, if 
 any, of the judges could command the knowledge 
 necessary to distinguish the one from the other. If 
 the most perjured and forsworn of witnesses present 
 ed himself against the prisoner ; the only attempt that 
 can be made to supply the want of that safeguard of 
 our personal liberties and happiness, cross-examination, 
 is the slow administration by the prisoner of such ques 
 tions as the court chooses to allow, and which must, 
 generally, if not always, be written down before the 
 witness can be compelled to answer them. By this 
 almost inconceivable folly, the sole hope of examina 
 tion, rapid question and answer is swept away, and 
 
216 NAVAL INSTITUTIONS 
 
 the corrupt perjurer, the malicious fors wearer, gains 
 the most ample time to fabricate any untruth that may 
 most conduce to his ends. 
 
 " The prisoner having made his defence, the court 
 is cleared; those who have dovetailed the widely and 
 properly-revered officers of judge and jury, hold a se 
 cret conclave with closed doors. No impartial head, 
 clear from the agitating and often distracting respon 
 sibility of pronouncing on life or death, reads over to 
 them the evidence, or lends the light of past ages and 
 experience to elucidate what is dark and doubtful. Be 
 the prejudices and liabilities of those men what they 
 may, they are left to expound the statute by which 
 alone, their authority is supported, to decide how far 
 the facts come under the exposition of the statute, and 
 to apportion the degree of punishment to the facts ; an 
 extent of powers, which, on shore, it often requires 
 jury, judge, and crown to compass. 
 
 " If those only, are free whose liberties are un- 
 shackeled; if those are slaves from whom such liber 
 ties are withheld; if the first right of liberty be as 
 Britons boast, a fair unbiassed trial, and English courts 
 
OF A REPUBLIC. 2l7 
 
 of justice form, as mankind generally admit, the most 
 perfect specimens of even-handed justice, what then, 
 let it be demanded, is the position of the officers and 
 seamen of the British Navy, at this hour ? Are they 
 freemen, or they are slaves ? This is clear, under the 
 present system of naval courts martial; justice as it is 
 known and worshiped on the shores of Great Britain, 
 is a thing as little to be expected on those high seas 
 from whence the greatness rose, as that the sun reflect 
 ed on their eternal mirror, shall renounce his light" 
 
 Thus does the honest subject of an aristocratic, 
 monarchical government, stigmatize the enormities of 
 that court martial system, which we, of republican 
 America have condescended to adopt. 
 
 Do any of you think it consistent with the character 
 and institutions of your country ? Is it a judicial sys 
 tem, calculated to winnow the navy of that defective 
 material, which your partial system of appointment 
 may have introduced, or which the deteriorating in 
 fluences we have examined, may have created. 
 
 Some other plan then is necessary, to remedy de 
 fects which have now become so apparent, that the 
 10 
 
218 NAVAL INSTITUTIONS 
 
 navy itself, congressional committees, and the execu 
 tive have all proclaimed the necessity for reform, and 
 ask for its institution. 
 
 One plan proposed is, to annul the blind seniority 
 rule, and leave with the executive the discretionary 
 power of promoting by merit As nothing could be 
 worse than our present system, so any change would 
 be an improvement, and, therefore, even this might be 
 acceptable. The objections to it are, that the execu 
 tive would be ignorant of the characters of officers 
 generally, and would be influenced necessarily, by in 
 formation derived from others ; and these would be the 
 few officers of high rank, in immediate contact with the 
 government, and thus the real power of selection, would 
 be with unknown and irresponsible persons ; a kind of 
 secret tribunal, which could thus gratify the personal 
 partialities or prejudices of its members. This method 
 of selection would likewise be open to family or politi 
 cal influence. 
 
 Another suggestion is, to commit the selection to a 
 regularly constituted board of officers. Similar objec 
 tions lie against this ; it would make all subordinates 
 
OF A REPUBLIC. 219 
 
 dependent upon the good feeling of the few officers 
 likely to constitute the board, and the personal predi 
 lections of these would have too much weight. It is 
 suggested as the best plan, and that most conformable 
 to republican institutions, to make each entire grade a 
 board, to say which of their number have the highest 
 claims for promotion ; every officer being required to 
 give his opinion, and prohibited from voting for him 
 self. The president still having the nominating power, 
 his judgment would be aided by the most instructed 
 information, derived from the verdict of the entire com 
 munity to which each officer belongs. 
 
 The advantages of this plan are numerous ; the most 
 prominent, only, can be alluded to. The character 
 and peculiar abilities of every officer are known to the 
 grade to which he belongs, and, therefore, its opinion 
 rests upon certain knowledge ; as none could advance 
 himself, there could be no inducement to withhold a 
 correct verdict; personal prejudices, enmities, and par 
 tialities would be neutralized in the decision of the 
 entire grade there would be no undue dependence 
 of officer upon officer, and none of commanding upon 
 
220 NAVAL INSTITUTIONS 
 
 subordinate grades, as each officer would owe his pro 
 motion to his equal, and not to those below or above 
 him ; there would be a beneficial influence upon char 
 acter and constant stimulus to improvement, because 
 one promotion would not determine others, but every 
 step must, as in civil life, be won from the good opinion 
 of the community to which the individual belongs; 
 and this is an influence from which no man should be 
 released. 
 
 To create a republican navy, therefore, it is necessary 
 to remodel our whole establishment. 
 
 To throw its commissions open to the whole com 
 munity, selecting for the public service, only those who 
 upon proper investigation, are found to have most 
 fitness. 
 
 This is no great innovation, as necessity has com 
 pelled its adoption in relation to two corps of the navy, 
 as the only plan to fill them with competent officers. 
 I allude to the medical and engineer corps ; as family 
 
OF A REPUBLIC. 221 
 
 or political influence cannot give capacity for the du 
 ties of these corps, so these influences can gain no one 
 admission to them. All have the right of competing, 
 and frequently, those of wealth and station, are exclu 
 ded by the superior claims of those who have raised 
 their fortunes from the friendless gloom of obscurity. 
 
 Next, we want a plan of elevation to the higher 
 grades which shall be independent of seniority, or any 
 other mere accident, and the mode of selection com 
 mitted to a body at once informed upon the subject, 
 and free from the bias of partiality and prejudice. 
 
 Then we want a code of laws framed upon the char 
 acter of the age, the people, the country, and its in 
 stitutions, and finally, 
 
 A judicial tribunal, which shall be instructed in the 
 nature of law and evidence the best mode of inter 
 preting the one, and investigating the other; which 
 shall form its judgment free from the bias of caste, sta 
 tion, rank, grade, with all their conflicting sympathies, 
 prejudices and interests. 
 
 Glorious sea-fights have given victory to all forms 
 of governments and institutions, from the time of that 
 
222 NAVAL INSTITUTIONS 
 
 of pagan Athenians and pagan Persians, at Salamis, 
 down to the present hour. Two hundred years ago, 
 the Dutchman, Von Tromp, with a broom at his mast 
 head, insolently swept the British Channel. Much 
 less than that, English and Dutch fleets succumbed to 
 the naval power of a despotic Bourbon. 
 
 And then we have the whole pile of British glory, 
 St Vincent and Camperdown, the Nile and Trafalgar, 
 with our own seventeen naval victories, one of which* 
 with its booming cannon shook the air of this spot, all 
 gained under an organization embodying, not only the 
 spirit of monarchy and aristocracy, but that of feudal 
 Darbarism. 
 
 Are these victories a reason for returning to pagan 
 ism, to political and civil institutions of the days of the 
 Armada? Do they present a sufficient reason for 
 keeping our navy under the principles which we cast 
 off and far away in 1776 ? 
 
 Shall it not rather be brought up to a level with 
 the country to which it belongs, as that country now 
 
 * Lake Erie. 
 
OF A REPUBLIC. 223 
 
 is, and be to other navies, as this republic is to other 
 nations, a star in the west for their light and guidance ? 
 Manned by those who, humble in position and duties, 
 were yet animated by the consciousness of an enno 
 bling republican citizenship, with its rights and its pro 
 tections, the navy would be a fitting instrument in the 
 sublime contest in which is yet to be won its highest 
 renown that coming struggle between despotism 
 and constitutional government and no stain of de 
 gradation will then accompany the glories of our flag. 
 The loud and million-mouthed shout which wel 
 comes the tidings of each ocean triumph, will not be 
 the outburst of that animal exultation which equally 
 greets the victor mastiff at the bull-fight, or bear-bait ; 
 nor will it be swelled alone by the glory of national 
 power the pride of conquest adding other stars to 
 our constellation. It will burst from our shores over 
 their boundary oceans, and be echoed from the hearts 
 of hoping men of all nations, who will hear the roar of 
 your victorious cannon, proclaiming the spread of our 
 political light over the darkness of despotism and illu 
 mining all institutions of government, on sea or shore. 
 
HINTS TO THE PEOPLE 
 
 UPON THE 
 
 PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 
 
HESTTS TO THE PEOPLE 
 
 UPON THE 
 
 PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 
 
 It is told of an ignorant, but shrewd and impu 
 dent individual who became a wealthy and successful 
 quack, that upon being called upon by a wondering 
 friend who had known him in his lowly estate, and 
 asked how, with so few claims, he had risen to fame 
 and fortune, he took his friend to the window which 
 looked out upon a crowded London street, and asked 
 how many wise or sensible men might be in the 
 passing crowd ? " Not more than one in a hundred, * 
 was the reply. "The remainder are mine." 
 
 The success of quackery, and the popular obstacles 
 thrown in the way of true medical science being 
 based upon those deficiencies of human judgment 
 which are generally called human folly, and which, 
 
228 PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 
 
 proverbially, form so large a portion of human nature, 
 it is almost a hopeless task to correct the evil, and 
 the attempt to do so may be only another manifes 
 tation of the general infirmity. Individuals who oc 
 cupy positions of learning and influence, theologians 
 and lawyers, and who in their general character have 
 not the reputation of being either arrogant or con 
 ceited, constantly and confidently place their own 
 views and opinions in opposition to those of the 
 whole medical profession, and lend the influence of 
 their names and position to the support of opinions 
 which have not been to them a study, in opposition 
 to the judgment of that profession which has made 
 them a matter of most careful investigation. This 
 fact proves that folly is not confined to the illiterate 
 or to those who are marked specimens of imbecility, 
 but that it pervades all classes, dilutes learning, and 
 humiliates station. It shows also that the nature 
 of the profession of medicine is not understood, and 
 that the popular ideas in regard to it are formed 
 from a most narrow and limited view of what con 
 stitutes the profession. These ideas are most probably 
 
PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 229 
 
 derived from an acquaintance with but one class or 
 division of the medical profession, that class which 
 alone is brought into contact with the people. It is 
 composed of those who pursue the profession as an 
 art; its working men, who laboriously and carefully 
 drudge in the application of its means and details 
 to their designed end. It may be that this acquaint 
 anceship is limited to the medical working men of 
 one locality, or at most of one country; and how 
 ever able and skillful the individuals of this class 
 may be, still they constitute but one, though an 
 essential one of the many divisions which are em 
 braced within the whole art and science of medicine. 
 Again, the art of medicine is most probably under 
 stood as signifying only a mere routine acquaintance 
 with the symptoms and names of diseases, and the 
 application to those symptoms and diseases, of certain 
 remedies which experience has taught to be available. 
 Such limited views fall far short of the nature and 
 scope of the profession of medicine. As well might 
 the genius of Sir Humphrey Davy, the science which 
 he adorned, and the philosophic inspiration which 
 
230 PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 
 
 deduced the safety lamp, be sunk in the wire gauze 
 of the little implement, or a view limited only to 
 the miner who carries it. But were such views 
 correct, and sufficiently extensive, it would still seem 
 that a decent modesty would teach those who feel 
 the necessity of deferring to the judgment, in his 
 vocation, of their tailor, shoemaker, or blacksmith, 
 to pay a similar regard, upon medical subjects, to 
 those who have made them their study. 
 
 A very different, and much more expanded view 
 is presented by the profession of medicine to one 
 educated in it. He sees it in the various divisions, 
 and vast arrangements spread out over the civilized 
 world, and acting with all the power which can be 
 derived from an aggregation of the highest order 
 of intellect, disciplined and strengthened to the 
 utmost for its work. In every one of the various 
 departments of his profession, the medical student 
 sees, not one only, but a collection of names desig 
 nating individuals whose mental power demands the 
 admiration of all who can appreciate their labors, 
 labors to which nothing short of the greatest 
 
PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 231 
 
 intellectual strength is adequate. Follow, then, the 
 eye of this student, as it sweeps over the cities of 
 his own country, of England, France, Germany, 
 Egypt, Prussia, and Turkey, and see with him the 
 several divisions of the profession, studying man in 
 health and disease, from the microscopic elementary 
 atom of each organ, up to his full development and 
 arrangement in families, tribes, and nations. 
 
 Medical chemists, day and night, amid the ma 
 chinery of their laboratories, are hunting nature in 
 her hidden recesses, and exposing the principles and 
 laws of combination. Medical microscopists are finding 
 beauty of form and structure, where the naked eye 
 sees not at all, or sees only a confused speck, and 
 they are developing systems as wonderful in their 
 minuteness, as that of astronomy in its magnitude. 
 The anatomist, the physiologist, the pathologist, con 
 centrating all their powers and observations upon 
 the various subdivisions of these extensive sciences; 
 the medical statistician, estimating the influence upon 
 health and life of social and political conditions; 
 of occupations; of population; of concentration in 
 
232 PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 
 
 towns or diffusion in the country; the medical psy 
 chologist, studying the health and morbid manifesta 
 tions of mind. Look, too, over distant parts of the 
 globe, and see the medical corps of armies and 
 navies adding to the common stock, their observa 
 tions upon climates, the habits, diseases and remedies 
 of different nations. Specially devoted to such ob 
 servations and inquiries is the medical traveler, of 
 whom the stationary practitioner may say, he 
 
 "Seeks intelligence in every clime, 
 And spreads the honey of his deep research 
 At his return a rich repast for me." 
 
 The professional inquirer finds, in the large cities 
 of Europe, Asia, and America, extensive hospitals 
 and medical institutions: cities of disease in them 
 selves; some of them devoted to a single variety 
 of disease; and most of them presided over by men 
 whose names have been for years before the profes 
 sion associated with every constituent of professional 
 greatness. These men, placed above the competition 
 of general business, are occupied in gathering in 
 discoveries, in trying supposed truths under every 
 
PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 233 
 
 disadvantage, and with every precaution against fallacy, 
 and then sending forth the proven results of their 
 investigations. We must not, in this analysis of the 
 components of the profession of medicine, lose sight 
 of those professional martyrs, who, sacrificing all 
 occupations of ease and profit, risk fortune, health, 
 and life in the pursuit of scientific truth. Some 
 inoculate themselves with disgusting and poisonous 
 diseases ; others pursue truth side by side with the 
 pestilence, until the fearful race terminates in death. 
 In this general survey of his profession, the physician 
 sees yet other important aids and appliances. Asso 
 ciations of medical talent issuing annual and learned 
 treatises in their volumes of " Transactions," giving 
 an abiding place to every established fact, or subject 
 for further investigation. Medical conventions and 
 national pharmacopoeias, the la-tter treating of every 
 remedy which has the least claim to respect, and 
 the whole undergoing revision, addition, and improve 
 ment at stated periods. We have also before us 
 medical missions and medical missionary societies, 
 in the words of Professor Allison, of Edinburgh, 
 
234 PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 
 
 establishing " the intimate connection that should ever 
 subsist between the pursuit of scientific knowledge, 
 and the reception of the blessed truths of Christ 
 ianity." 
 
 The glance we have so far taken over the pro 
 fession of medicine, rapid as it has been, is yet 
 sufficient to show that it is not sought, in the words 
 of Lord Bacon, "as a couch whereupon to rest a 
 searching and restless spirit^ or a wandering and 
 variable mind to walk up and down with a fair 
 prospect, or a tower of state for a proud mind to 
 raise itself upon, or a fort or commanding ground 
 for strife and contention, or a shop for profit and 
 sale, and not a rich store-house for the glory of the 
 Creator, and the relief of man s estate." 
 
 All these various fountains of knowledge are 
 irrigating the whole profession by the channels of 
 the medical press, and bearing to its humblest and 
 most remote member whatever of fact, truth, and 
 wisdom has been found worth the freighting. In the 
 various modern languages we have, going forth, 
 periodicals upon the profession in general, or upon 
 
PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 235 
 
 branches of it. Most of these journals are in charge 
 of men of eminent literary and professional ability, 
 and any one number of either of the leading jour 
 nals presents a specimen of intellectual ability of 
 which not the profession only, but human nature 
 may well be proud. Opening by chance one now 
 lying on the table, we find thirty-two periodicals 
 English, French, German, American, on its exchange 
 list for the quarter. To present an idea of the scope 
 of such journals, we find a single chance number to 
 contain thirteen analytical and critical reviews of 
 works in German, French, Italian, and English, the 
 works being generally by the most distinguished 
 medical authors of their respective countries. Then, 
 besides medical reports, memoirs, and cases, we have, 
 in the same number, fifteen bibliographical notices 
 of works upon chemistry, diseases, anatomy, social 
 problems, and natural theology; each notice being 
 an interesting synopsis of the work. 
 
 Could all see the profession of medicine even in 
 the dim and feeble light by which we have endeav 
 ored to show its broad and comprehensive operations, 
 
236 PEG FES SI ON OF MEDICINE. 
 
 the mind which could charge upon such a pro 
 fession limited, selfish, and interested motives, op 
 posed to truth, would onlymanifest its own incom- 
 petency to understand the nature and tendency of 
 mental action; and nothing saves the many who 
 utter such illiberal sentiments from contempt, but a 
 general allowance for the blindness in which they 
 are uttered a blindness which must pertain to 
 those not educated in the profession, and not living 
 under its obligations. The professional man sees, 
 with an enlarged vision, into regions closed to his 
 unprofessional brother; in his discourse he proclaims 
 results of this vast system of moral, intellectual, and 
 mechanical machinery, while the latter forms his pos 
 itive opinions upon a few crude and disconnected 
 facts, or supposed facts, seen in the limited circle of 
 his own untutored experience and observation. It 
 is, as though one upon an eminence looks over a 
 broad landscape, and speaks of its brilliant light, 
 varied hues, and strong contrasts of color, while the 
 man blind from birth, obstinately contends that no 
 such things exist, and that all is of one uniform 
 
PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 237 
 
 darkness; or, it is, as though one by unaided vision 
 sees only a black speck in the intellectual atmosphere, 
 while the telescopic aid of art and science shows it 
 to be brilliant with glittering stars. Such consider 
 ations prevent us from impugning either the honesty, 
 or the absolute intellectual ability of those who dog 
 matize boldly upon medical subjects, and though we 
 must still wonder at their imagining themselves more 
 familiar with medicine, embracing a range of sciences, 
 than with any other single science or language which 
 they have not studied, the magnitude and boldness 
 of their error become the measure of their ignorance, 
 and present their claim for forgiveness. For the 
 benefit of all such, and for those who illiberally 
 charge upon the medical profession a bigoted adhe 
 rence to a limited system, or to selfish interests, 
 inconsistent with its nature and mission, a few reasons 
 will be presented why, upon the very constitution 
 of human nature, such a limited action is morally 
 impossible. 
 
 The love of truth is a principle implanted in the 
 human mind, and which, in all ages, and in all 
 
238 PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 
 
 sciences, has asserted its influence against every op 
 posing circumstance. Under its direction men have 
 surrendered every thing else dear to the human heart 
 suffered imprisonment, chains, ignominy, banish 
 ment, and death. None will deny these facts. 
 
 The science of medicine, in its very nature, must 
 be under the influence of this principle, because it 
 is the study of the Deity through his works. Here, 
 then, we have a law of nature, imposing upon the 
 science of medicine a no less boundary than pure 
 truth; and the next inquiry is whether the modes 
 of medical investigation are those calculated to reach 
 the truth. 
 
 We, in pursuit of the answer to this inquiry, see 
 the human mind, such as it is, working in the sci 
 ence of medicine, not on a prescribed line, and up 
 to a limited mark, but spreading out in every direction, 
 according to its inclination and powers, every man 
 according to his "proper gift of God, one after this 
 manner, and another after that," and each class of 
 laborers presenting its claim to the discovery of 
 any truth, and finding reward and honor in the 
 
PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 239 
 
 approbation of the mass of his co-laborers. Here, 
 then, we have every guarantee that attainable truth 
 shall be reached. We have the natural love of this 
 virtue, we have the efficiency * growing out of a 
 chosen direction and concentration of power, we have 
 scientific rivalry, vigilance and ambition, and, finally, 
 we have the interests of every professional working 
 man, stimulating him to make the acquaintance of 
 these elaborated truths, and to apply them practically 
 in the treatment of disease. 
 
 Whilst the profession of medicine is thus working 
 in the main business of its vocation, it casts rich 
 contributions upon subordinate and collateral sciences. 
 To these sciences and their contributions the popular 
 mind gives its admiration, and does not see that 
 they are but chance jewels dug up on the way to 
 the great mine. Look at Comparative Anatomy and 
 Chemistry, Botany and Zoology, Geology and Min 
 eralogy, and, in the words of a distinguished medical 
 writer, "strip these sciences of what has been con 
 tributed to them by physicians, or by those who 
 have had the discipline of a medical education, and 
 
240 PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 
 
 a chasm is left which it would be difficult to 
 fill." 
 
 A profession such as this is, rests upon principles 
 far above the dogmas of any master, school, or Sir 
 Oracle. It has every protection against fallacy which 
 human reason can know, and is alike independent 
 of the eccentricities of brilliant individual genius, and 
 of the follies and vices of its unworthy members. 
 Whilst there can be no influence sufficiently exten 
 sive to warp the common sense and common judgment 
 of all, the intellect of any single individual may be sub 
 jected to honest or dishonest influences leading to 
 fallacy or to wilful deception: hence the student of 
 medicine learns, as the first step in the search after 
 truth, to place no reliance upon individual authority, 
 farther than such authority may be sustained by rea 
 son, and the testimony of established facts. Brilliant 
 names, therefore, when they leave the proper ground 
 of scientific truth to wander in the regions of fancy, 
 are no authority for him, however imposing they 
 may be upon the public. They are not suns, but 
 meteors, and equally unintluential is the clamoring 
 
PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 241 
 
 testimony of the applauding crowds who may be 
 dazzled by them. The medical student is too famil 
 iar with such things in his profession; and out of 
 it he remembers that Hume and Gibbon were infi 
 dels, and that France dethroned Christianity to set 
 up the goddess of reason, and yet Christianity resumed 
 its place and power because it is true. 
 
 The misapplication or misunderstanding of a single 
 word is often a fruitful source of a train of false 
 ideas, false reasoning, and false conclusions. This is 
 the case in regard to the word " system," as used 
 in popular com 7 ersation upon medical science, and 
 some considerations will now be presented upon this 
 subject, which should be borne in mind by all de 
 sirous of forming a correct judgment upon the pro 
 fession of medicine. The word " system " as applied 
 to any medical dogma, theory, or scheme, on the 
 one hand, and to the science of medicine on the 
 other, naturally suggests the idea that the science of 
 medicine is limited to some other and opposing 
 dogma, or theory, to maintain which all its energies 
 
 are directed. Hence, the advocates of any peculiar 
 11 
 
242 PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 
 
 dogma are fond of using the terms new system and 
 old system new school and old school and by the 
 acknowledgment of such distinctions, a whole train of 
 error is founded. From what has already been said, 
 the impropriety of such an application of terms, it is 
 thought, must be apparent. A science which seeks 
 for truth cannot be limited by any system, but must 
 pick up truth how and where it can; hence, that 
 of medicine, in its very nature, repudiates systems. 
 
 " In the present state of medical science, we feel 
 well assured that the only true system is the absence 
 of all systems. JSTo premature attempt to generalize 
 can have more than a temporary success. Be it 
 ours to seek for light wherever it shall break in ; to 
 amass knowledge, even if we have to pick it from 
 the mire; to draw wisdom from the errors and fol 
 lies of our rivals, without disdaining to profit by 
 their success;" and, then, "other systems will pass 
 away, ours will be permanent; nourished, indeed, to 
 some extent, by the very elements which come from 
 their decay, as the eternal oak flourishes and grows 
 green for ages from the decomposition of the tran- 
 
PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 243 
 
 sient vegetation, of which generations are springing 
 up and perishing around it." 
 
 Before a correct and exact mode of investigation 
 was established, all science, morality, and religion, 
 were wrapped up in the dogmas of the schools and 
 of the fathers, and men surrendered their minds to 
 captivity and submission. Astronomy and chemistry, 
 so exact now, wandered in the mazes of astrology 
 and alchemy. Visionary theories agitated the pro 
 fession of medicine; and as there was no law of 
 truth and fact by which to try them, there was no 
 limit to the wildness of unrestrained and imaginative 
 intellects. Taught by such experience, all true science 
 now repudiates systems and theories, or only recog 
 nizes them as based upon established facts, and as 
 offering a reasonable supposition or direction for seek 
 ing the law of those facts a conjecture as to the 
 right road, formed upon the best existing knowledge, 
 but which conjecture a little farther progress may 
 show to be wrong. 
 
 That investigation which works within a system, 
 has too limited and narrow a space to embrace the 
 
244 PROFESSION OF MEDICINE, 
 
 whole truth: a system can no more contain the 
 whole science of medicine than a part can contain 
 the whole. But, in their subordinate relations, all 
 systems may be made tributary to science. For in 
 stance, a certain series of facts is observed, their 
 phenomena, and the relations of those facts are seen 
 and admitted by all there is no dispute or differ 
 ence in regard to them. Genius, taking the facts, 
 endeavors to devise or discover a theory or law 
 which shall embrace all of them. Different indi 
 viduals suggest equally plausible theories; each has 
 its partizans, investigation is carried on in various 
 directions, to confirm the views of one set of theo 
 rists, and to confute those of others. In the pro 
 gress of this investigation new facts are discovered 
 which none of the theories will cover, and however 
 satisfactory and beautiful they have, before this, 
 appeared, they must now give way to those having 
 a broader foundation in truth. 
 
 The entire profession of medicine may, then, be 
 in accord as to certain facts, but may differ as to 
 the general law influencing these facts. The facts 
 
PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 245 
 
 alone are part of trie profession. Such theories are 
 very different from the wild schemes and visions 
 which are engendered in some individual brain, and 
 then the facts to sustain them imagined or asserted. 
 Fever and inflammation have both afforded the mate 
 rial for many theories, and yet the facts constituting 
 these diseases have been apparent to all. Difference 
 of theory does not necessarily imply difference of 
 treatment; indeed, the treatment of a disease upon 
 which all are agreed, may be one of the facts upon 
 which is founded different theories as to the nature 
 of the disease. One set of theorists contend that the 
 phenomena of inflammation depend upon an increased 
 action of the blood-vessels of the part, and hence 
 the heat, swelling, redness, and pain; other theorists 
 say that these symptoms are the result of a dimin 
 ished action, a want of tone in the vessels, in con 
 sequence of which the blood accumulates and 
 stagnates in them, Both theorists, however much 
 they may argue about their opinions, agree upon 
 their remedies, but one explains their action by say 
 ing that the remedies allay excitement, diminish tone, 
 
246 PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 
 
 and the other contends that they impart strength 
 and power to the debilitated vessels. 
 
 Many of the theories and systems in medicine 
 have been splendid monuments of the power and 
 wealth of the human mind ; but as the rich materi 
 als of their creation lie scattered in ruin, they emblem 
 the fallibility of the most exalted human intellect, 
 and show that no genius can dare to leave the 
 foundation of fact and truth, and yet hope to erect 
 a firm and enduring structure. The science of med 
 icine sits in judgment upon them all, and examines 
 the claim of each in calm and philosophic impar 
 tiality, but refuses to any the privilege of fastening 
 its link upon the chain of established law, until it 
 presents that link in all the unyielding firmness and 
 crystal transparency of truth. 
 
 The science of medicine, then, by its very nature, 
 by the principles which govern the human mind, by 
 every stimulus of interest and ambition, can limit 
 itself to nothing shprt of attainable truth, and it 
 cannot be limited by, or bound to any system. In 
 the science of medicine there can be no " old school " 
 
PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 247 
 
 or " new school, " and the use of such terms creates 
 a false impression, and misleads the* popular judgment 
 in regard to any scheme or pretension which aspires 
 to independence of the profession of medicine. It 
 has been endeavored to set forth the means, powers, 
 combinations, and appliances necessary in so extensive 
 an inquiry as that of professional truth, and they 
 are seen to be such as impart efficiency to the hu 
 man intellect and offer the best guards against fallacy. 
 The decision of such a scheme of mental and scien 
 tific operations ought surely to claim respect and 
 confidence from the popular mind. History has sus 
 tained its decisions upon by-gone medical delusions, 
 no matter how strongly those delusions have been 
 supported by popular enthusiasm, and it is certain 
 that, what the science of medicine now pronounces 
 to be delusions will prove to be such. If any system 
 or scheme sets itself above that professional investi 
 gation which is bound to seek for truth, and claims 
 to be a new school or system, the claim and the 
 pretension are alone proof that it is not true, If it 
 contains any grain of truth, according to the laws 
 
248. PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 
 
 which mind must obey, that single grain must be 
 found and added to the stores of general medical 
 science. It is no argument to say that any " new 
 school " system or sect has its colleges, hospitals, and 
 journals, independent of general medicine. If such 
 is the case, it only proves that the disciples of such 
 an arrangement have shut themselves within a nar 
 row circle, and prohibited themselves from the broad 
 search for truth, wherever it may be found; they 
 have bound themselves to a one-man dogma, to a 
 system, and not to a science. As well might theo 
 logy be taught by schools of Swedenborgianism and 
 Mormonism; and if they become schools of general 
 science and theology, they cease, of course, to be 
 those of a sect. 
 
 Persons who regard with favor some new scheme 
 or pretence in the art of healing, strengthen their 
 faith, and justify th.eir opinions, by pointing to peo 
 ple in the respectable ranks of society who have 
 given it their support. It may be that they name 
 those distinguished in the literary world, or famed for 
 their eloquence in the pulpit, and ask triumphantly, 
 
PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 240 
 
 if it be not true, would such intelligent persons as 
 these be found supporting this system? It is, per 
 haps, too common a mistake to imagine, because 
 some particular merit, or accidental circumstance, 
 elevates an individual to a superior station, that he 
 necessarily has a correct judgment upon all matters. 
 It may be that the very qualities which give him 
 distinction, unfit him for close reasoning, or accuracy 
 of judgment. If an excursive imagination, ingenious 
 speculations, or that faculty of view and argument 
 which can make the bad appear the better reason, 
 are the causes of distinction, the chances are that 
 the individual would be a bad interpreter of the 
 truth, even were he acquainted with the particular 
 sciences in which it is sought. But when an indi 
 vidual, unacquainted with any one of the series of 
 sciences which constitute the profession of medicine, 
 undertakes to give the support of his name and opin 
 ions to some system in opposition to general medical 
 science, this act proves him to be wanting in com 
 mon intelligence and correct judgment, whatever may 
 be the general intelligence of the class or occupation 
 
250 PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 
 
 lie represents. His course is no less absurd than 
 would be that of an individual who, without any 
 knowledge of the sounds, letters, construction or 
 meaning of a language, should dispute the inter 
 pretation of that language by those skilled in its 
 knowledge. 
 
 The adherents of any special system, whether they 
 may be its professors, or its disciples and admirers, 
 are incompetent to judge of truth independent of 
 their system. Their minds are filled with that and 
 nothing else. The student of general medical science 
 sees, that while the stream of scientific truth has 
 pursued its steady course from age to age, many 
 such systems, schemes, and wild imaginings, have 
 risen on its banks, and attracted the clamoring ad 
 miration of unthinking multitudes, whose fidelit}^ only 
 endures until a new pretence raises them from that 
 which preceded it. The student of general medicine 
 sees these peculiar notions in every age, making the 
 same claims, presenting the same evidence, sus 
 tained by the same enthusiasm, and pointing among 
 
PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 251 
 
 their followers to persons of the highest rank and 
 respectability, and pretensions to intelligence. 
 
 If the retrospect runs back into the days of classic 
 antiquity, pagan gods aTe seen to have been infal 
 lible physicians, with emperors for their patients, 
 and whole nations testifying to their skill and suc 
 cess. In more modern times and countries, the 
 altars of saints are seen covered with votive offerings 
 in wax, silver or gold, representing arms, legs, hearts, 
 heads, and whole figures of those whom the saint 
 has cured of disease. The medical student can refer 
 to one pill whose virtues were testified to by seven 
 teen earls, eight viscounts, seventeen lords, fifteen 
 bishops, six right honorables, seventeen coronets, five 
 reverends, and many members of parliament, and yet 
 the name of that pill is no longer heard. 
 
 When any individual, representing a respectable 
 station in society, is asked to give his name to the 
 support of quackery, or novel and peculiar systems, 
 let him remember that while he may be flattered by 
 his importance, in the eyes of charlatans, quacks, and 
 pretenders, science smiles in pitv and contermoL to 
 
252 PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 
 
 see him registering his name among the long list 
 of those who have certified to their own ignorance, 
 vanity and folly. 
 
 Continuing our review of -some of the prominent 
 delusions to which reference has been made, it is 
 remembered that all France was once mad after the 
 quack Mantacino, when all the continent, with a 
 Prussian empress and princess, were subject to the 
 delusions of the count and countess Cagliostro, who 
 professed to restore, not only health, but youth and 
 beauty, and received five thousand louis d ors as a 
 single fee. Mrs. Mopps " Crazy Sally," as she called 
 herself, ruled the popular mind of England, patrician 
 and plebeian, and drove once a week to the Grecian 
 Coffee House in a coach and six, with outriders. 
 " We all remember, " says the historian of this folly, 
 "that the absurdity and impracticability of her own 
 promises and enjoyments, were by no means equal 
 to the expectations and credulity of those who ran 
 after her; that is, of all ranks and conditions of 
 people, from the lowest laborer or mechanic, up to 
 those of the most exalted station; several of whom 
 
PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 253 
 
 nut -wl/ did not hesitate to believe implicitly tiie 
 niobi extravagant assertions, of an ignorant, illib 
 eral, drunken female savao-e, but even solicited her 
 company at least seemed to enjoy her society." 
 Add to these, the advent of mesmerism, the reign 
 of Perkinism and " tracto ration." 
 
 No delusion of the present, however strongly it 
 may be supported, has more general, more respecta 
 ble, or more intelligent unprofessional advocates than 
 had those past medical schemes which all unite now 
 in calling folly and delusion. 
 
 Familiar as the student of medicine is with such 
 and similar transactions, he may well be excused for 
 paying more deference to the calm, cautious, and 
 philosophic decisions of his profession, than to vis 
 ionary schemes and fanciful systems, however sup 
 ported by the authority of names, rank, and 
 numbers. 
 
 Whilst showing the unavoidable obligations which 
 the profession of medicine has to the pursuit of truth, 
 and the varied means by which it pursues the in 
 vestigation, it cannot be supposed, by any, that it is 
 
254 PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 
 
 claimed for every individual practicing the healing 
 art, even under the sanction of a college certificate, 
 that he represents that profession; far from it. 
 Unfortunately the popular judgment of the profession 
 is generally formed from those members who mis 
 represent it; and the illiberal, and ungentlemanly 
 intercourse which grows out of professional rivalry, 
 has given rise to a proverb, which is passed from 
 mouth to mouth, conveying a fallacy in reference to 
 the profession at large. We shall endeavor to dis 
 abuse the public mind of that fallacy. "Doctors 
 differ " is the general expression of the general senti 
 ment, and if it is meant that like rival statesmen, 
 rival authors, rival mechanics, they manifest the 
 jealousies, and business animosities of human nature, 
 there is no disputing the unhappy fact; indeed, it 
 may be admitted that their differences, or business 
 quarrels, are more conspicuous, perhaps more frequent, 
 because, in the pursuit of their vocation, they are 
 brought into personal contact with each other. But 
 the popular interpretation of the proverb, "Doctors 
 differ," means much more than business quarrels. 
 
PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 255 
 
 It means, that each individual of the profession, is 
 the embodiment of certain professional principles, 
 which differ from those held by each other individ 
 ual, and that the difference is a legitimate one. It 
 implies the fallacy that each practitioner is the foun 
 der, or inventor of his own peculiar system of prac 
 tice. From the nature of the view we have taken 
 of the profession of medicine, it must be seen that 
 they cannot be so, but, in proportion as the prac 
 titioners of medicine are instructed in the scientific 
 truths and principles of their profession, they must 
 agree. They represent general truths, not individual 
 opinions. Information, with honesty, must produce 
 concord. But if illy instructed, each practitioner, 
 instead of being influenced by fixed principles, may 
 become the advocate of ignorant and opposite opin 
 ions. For instance: a case of disease may be marked 
 by known and determined symptoms, and for these 
 symptoms or their cause, there may be a fixed and 
 rational mode of treatment. Now, gather around 
 
 o 
 
 this case, practitioners who are badly informed, igno 
 rant of the mode of investigating disease, ignorant 
 
256 PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 
 
 of the signification of symptoms, and ignorant of 
 their management when ascertained, and each one 
 will make his own guess, and maintain it with a 
 warmth proportioned to its want of truth. Bring to 
 the same case well informed practitioners from 
 America, from England, from Germany, from France, 
 and they will agree as to the nature of the disease, and 
 as to the principles of its treatment. 
 
 Differences, therefore, among medical men, however 
 disgraceful to the individuals, cannot justly be im 
 puted to the profession of medicine. From these 
 circumstances it is evident that none are worthy of 
 confidence, as practitioners of medicine, but those 
 who, with intellectual capacity for acquirement, have 
 had mental training, time and opportunity for study 
 ing the vast range of medical science, and that in 
 dustry, application, and sense of moral obligation 
 which ensure the fulfillment of the high responsibil 
 ities of the profession of medicine. Such a rule of 
 judgment would exclude a great many who are 
 now successful practitioners, but if people would only 
 keep before them the common sense view of the 
 
PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 257 
 
 science of medicine, and see it not a string of mys 
 tery and magic, but one requiring, for even the 
 most talented, long and laborious application, they 
 would exercise a safer discrimination as to the quali 
 fications of their medical attendants. There are, un 
 doubtedly, many practitioners who honestly believe 
 themselves qualified for the duties they undertake, 
 simply because they have not penetrated sufficiently 
 far within the domain of medical knowledge to 
 perceive its broad extent and varied character, or 
 else are naturally incapable of this extended vision. 
 Such ignorance may give a boldness in proffering 
 relief, which better information would very much 
 moderate. 
 
 Besides those too credulous persons who believe 
 in all medical novelties and pretensions, there are 
 others who repeat the maxim "nature is the best 
 physician," and refuse all aid for their maladies. 
 Such sceptics imagine that their view is sustained, 
 because the most intelligent teachers of medical sci 
 ence inculcate that our wisdom is to be derived from 
 the observation of the laws of nature. There is no 
 
258 PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 
 
 relation, whatever, between the popular opinion to 
 which we have alluded, and scientific obedience to 
 the laws of nature. An acquaintance with these laws 
 implies a vast amount of information, and teaches 
 the natural means by which their irregularities and 
 aberrations are to be corrected ; and teaches also the 
 certain and overwhelming danger, which permits the 
 aberrations of nature s laws to go without correction. 
 If an individual had one of his arteries divided, and 
 saw his life blood pouring forth with fearful rapidity, 
 he would not wait and say " nature is the best phy 
 sician," but he would apply to some one who, from 
 the observation of the processes of nature, has learned 
 how to stop the flow of blood. As great and as 
 fatal injuries, from the progress of disease, may be 
 going on in internal organs; the truster in nature, 
 or rather, the willful contemner of nature does not 
 see it, and therefore does nothing and dies of a 
 "medicable wound," which would be very apparent, 
 to the physician whose eye had been taught to search 
 it out. It is true, nature is the best physician, but 
 she requires an industrious and devoted worship to 
 
PROFESSION OP MEDICINE. 259 
 
 secure her attendance, and is very apt to visit the 
 penalty of disease and death upon those who neg 
 lect her. The best ministers of nature, then, are 
 those who most assiduously study her laws; and an 
 acquaintance with those laws constitutes extensive 
 learning. Unfortunately, too many of those who look 
 to the physicians for medical aid, expect him to be 
 the bold controller of nature, instead of her vigilant 
 observer, faithful follower, and intelligent assistant. 
 Certain and mechanical results are confidently looked 
 for where true and high science teach that nothing 
 but probabilities could be reached by human skill. 
 Correct scientific or professional knowledge increases 
 those probabilities, but those who study the science 
 of medicine most profoundly, know, that while their 
 chances of arresting disease depend upon the extent 
 and variety of their acquirements, nothing attainable 
 by human faculties can give the power of certainty. 
 Hence, the conscientious practitioner of medicine is 
 stimulated to add to his professional attainments, and 
 feels it to be a moral duty to go from one acquire 
 ment to another. 
 
260 PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 
 
 One so enlightened will promise no certain cure 
 for the slightest ailment, for he well knows that 
 under the mysterious agency of vital laws, which are 
 hidden "by Providence from the scrutiny of man, 
 death may result from the slightest derangement of 
 the human organism: a scratch may terminate in 
 fatal mortification; lock-jaw and death result from 
 the extraction of a tooth, or even a too close clipping 
 of the nails; and the sting of a wasp has been 
 known to terminate life in fifteen minutes. Hence 
 the well informed physician, although he may be 
 confident of his abilities to select with knowledge 
 and judgment among the various remedies with 
 which he may be familiar, and though he may know 
 that they are naturally suited to the case he may 
 be treating, awaits with cautious hope, rather than bold 
 assurance, a result it is not with him to determine. 
 
 The uncertainty which attends the profession of 
 medicine, is applicable to every avocation connected 
 with the laws of nature. All such professions must 
 acknowledge the same subjection to influences beyond 
 their control, as that which attaches to the ail 
 
PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 261 
 
 whose province is to deal with the living, thinking 
 human being, and must submit all their hopes to 
 contingencies, which they can never foresee nor 
 prevent. 
 
 The agriculturist, who, with a practical knowledge 
 of his pursuit, has an intelligent acquaintance with 
 the principles which influence it with the control 
 of climates and seasons, and with the nature of 
 soils has a much greater chance of success, than 
 one who works in blindness and ignorance, and, du 
 ring a series of years, his average returns will be 
 much greater and more secure; but with the appli 
 cation of all his knowledge and skill, he cannot, on 
 any one year, feel an assurance of success. Droughts 
 may parch his fields, or floods drown them, frosts 
 nip his fruits in the bud, or blight his grain in the 
 ear. 
 
 The prudent and intelligent navigator, carefully 
 studies the currents which sweep noiselessly through 
 the ocean, and the laws which govern the winds 
 blowing over its surface, and when his vessel is trusted 
 to this vast machinery of nature, it is in no igno- 
 
262 PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 
 
 ranee of the forces and powers to which it is sub 
 jected. The addition made of late years to the 
 stores of nautical knowledge in all its branches, has 
 not only shortened the time of distant voyages, but 
 added to the total average security with which the 
 ocean is traversed ; and it is evident that the proba 
 bilities of a safe voyage will be greater for the vessel, 
 in proportion to the intelligence and professional 
 acquirements of those having her in charge. But, 
 the finest ship that ever floated, navigated with all 
 the skill that man s intellect can display, may never 
 reach her port may be cast, a shattered wreck, 
 on the shore, or if she be brought into harbor, it 
 may be dismantled, rigging, spars, and cargo all gone, 
 and yet, in this crippled condition, she may be the 
 witness and trophy of more nautical science than if 
 she had made her voyage unharmed. 
 
 Such considerations apply with yet greater force 
 to the art of medicine, which deals, not only with 
 nature and its physical law, but with the moral and 
 intellectual constituent in man; and this wonderful 
 combination of average and increasing success, with 
 
PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 263 
 
 an ever existing uncertainty, is a beautiful exhibition 
 of the harmonious laws by which the wisdom of 
 Providence reconciles apparent contrariety. A gen 
 eral and progressive success is given to stimulate man 
 to general and progressive exertion; but were he to 
 reach certainty, where the laws of nature are con 
 cerned, he would be robbing the Deity of his pre 
 rogative, and become independent of his Maker ; and 
 hence, all the arrangements and protections of science 
 and philosophy are prostrated before the asserted 
 omnipotence of the Deity, and yet man has no 
 excuse to refrain from the acquisition of knowledge. 
 It is an ignorance of, or want of reflection upon 
 these principles which forms the foundation for the 
 prevalence of -quackery. The pretender to medical 
 science meets the popular expectation by promising 
 infallible remedies for every disease. The quack, 
 however, is not always an imposter. He partakes 
 of the popular ignorance, and popular expectation, 
 and promises infallibility because he believes infalli 
 bility to be a possibility; and ignorant of the labo 
 rious process of scientific induction, believes that he 
 
264 PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 
 
 can jump at the results of those processes, as cer 
 tainly as those who reach them by the steps of 
 learning. 
 
 The reasonable expectations of professional useful 
 ness being thus lost sight of the common sense 
 means those in which cause and effect bear an 
 apparent relation, are set aside also, and to accomplish 
 wonderful expectations, wonderful means are resorted 
 to means whose mode of action is as incompre 
 hensible, as their expected effects are inconsistent 
 with the teachings of nature, and the designs of 
 Providence. 
 
 For all this ignorance, misconception and error, a 
 fearful retribution is visited upon the community. It 
 pays the penalty of half its life, and consequently 
 half its usefulness and happiness. With all the ele 
 ments of health and long life in our country, sta 
 tistics lead to the fearful conclusion that our average 
 length of life is but little, if any more than half 
 that enjoyed by overcrowded, overworked, vicious, and 
 half-starved Europe. There, some care is taken that 
 those to whom is entrusted the health and lives of 
 
PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 265 
 
 the people shall be qualified for their duties by 
 suitable education. Here, every ignorant or conceited 
 pretender is permitted to assume the solemn respon 
 sibility of managing the health of his fellow-citizens, 
 and their lives become the plaything of his blind 
 folly and vain presumption. 
 
 That so terrible an evil as that which results from 
 the existing popular notions of the art of healing, 
 should permanently continue in an enlightened com 
 munity or age is impossible. The dawn of a better 
 day is seen in the fact that the Executive of the 
 state of New York has made special mention of the 
 subject of medical education. The following is taken 
 from a message of the late governor of New York: 
 "No subject more universally affects all classes, and 
 all members of the community, than that of the 
 public health. I therefore earnestly request your 
 attention to the existing laws on the subject, and 
 suggest their careful review and amendment, especially 
 with a view to secure the benefit of the combined 
 experience of scientific and learned men throughout 
 
 the state, with respect to the origin, the causes, the 
 12 
 
260 PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 
 
 progress and the treatment of all malignant or in 
 fectious diseases. It may also be well to consider 
 whether the time has not arrived when the state is 
 called upon to contribute its aid, more efficiently 
 than it has hitherto done, to advance the cause of 
 medical education. Every inhabitant of the state, at 
 some time or other, feels the need of the physician, 
 and is interested that he should be learned and 
 skillful." 
 
 "Learned and skillful," yes! these are the requi 
 sites, but how are they to be attained? There are 
 medical schools in the north, the south, the east, 
 and the west, and every year sees these schools 
 sending forth crowds of young men certified as being 
 qualified, " learned and skillful " in the art of healing, 
 and this after a term of study too short to acquire 
 thoroughly any one of thes ciences, which, in the 
 aggregate, make up the profession of medicine. Al 
 most every country neighborhood sees some young 
 man too sickly, too lazy, or perhaps too stupid to 
 learn a mechanical pursuit, go off to study medicine, 
 provided that, for two or three winters, he, or his 
 
PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 267 
 
 friends can raise a few hundred dollars; and at the 
 end of this time he comes back a qualified doctor, 
 with a diploma in his pocket. Every one knows 
 that he was entirely deficient in that preliminary 
 education which is the key to professional knowledge. 
 The people soon learn to feel as much respect for 
 the spontaneous quack of the neighborhood, as for 
 him of college growth, or perhaps the natural 
 shrewdness and intelligence of the former give him 
 an advantage. Of course so long as the granting 
 of diplomas is a mere trade, and medical schools are 
 but shops for their sale, the multiplicity of these 
 shops begets a competition which lowers the terms 
 and standard so as to attract the greater number of 
 customers, and those who should be the guardians 
 of the profession of medicine, send forth such rep 
 resentatives of it, as lead to the erroneous popular 
 opinions of the nature of the science itself. 
 
 No one may here oppose the popular objection 
 that we would limit the facility for acquiring a 
 knowledge of the profession of medicine to the few 
 whose wealth would enable to attend expensive 
 
268 PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 
 
 schools remote from their homes. Just the reverse; 
 we would make the domain of medicine a true 
 republic, and only ask of its members if they have 
 the requisite knowledge; not, where they got it; 
 whether amid the halls, laboratories, and libraries of 
 large cities, or, through the inspiration of genius, by 
 the light of a pine torch in a forest cabin. Let 
 every village have its medical school, if it may be 
 thought expedient. Indeed it is a question whether, 
 if medical education, or a knowledge of the princi 
 ples of medicine, were a part of general education, 
 there would not be greater confidence in the pro 
 fession, and more respect awarded to those who 
 pursue it? An illiterate person might apply to a 
 quacking juggler, or to any one less illiterate than 
 himself, for information upon some abstruse point of 
 chemistry, geology, mineralogy, or astronomy, but all 
 having only the ordinary school knowledge of these 
 sciences, would know that only those eminent for 
 their learning would be likely to give the required 
 information. The same thing is seen when regularly 
 instructed members of the profession . apply for 
 
PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 269 
 
 information to those of the profession having* greater 
 skill and learning than themselves. Many gentlemen, 
 particularly in the southern states, study medicine 
 for the sake of mental occupation, with no intention 
 of pursuing it as a business, and many who have 
 been in the profession, abandon it for other pursuits ; 
 yet these gentlemen, who are informed upon the 
 nature of the profession, seek the best attainable 
 medical advice for the relief of the ailments of them 
 selves or their families. These facts lead very strongly 
 to the inference that popular medical education 
 would be fatal to the existence of quackery, and 
 would leave the practice of medicine in the hands 
 of those having the best natural and acquired gifts 
 for its pursuit; and those so gifted would occupy a 
 high and honored place in the confidence of an 
 intelligent constituency. 
 
 Whilst, then, we make no objection to the multi 
 plication of schools and teachers of medicine, we 
 doubt very much the expediency and propriety of 
 these schools and teachers having the interested 
 power to grant diplomas to certify to the merits 
 
270 PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 
 
 of their own numerous offspring; and while this 
 system endures, the public is justified in its contempt 
 for diplomas. It is suggested that a better mode 
 wdlild be to compose an examining board in each 
 state, in which all the schools might be represented, 
 and thus examine each other s pupils, or all candi 
 dates presenting themselves; the faculty of the state 
 might also be represented, and even the people, 
 through their executive, or a committee of their 
 legislature. 
 
 If some such system as this were adopted, the 
 results would show what teachers and schools were 
 worthy of most confidence; the despotism of insti 
 tutions which have grown powerful from adventitious 
 circumstances would be broken down, and the people, 
 having a part in the process of conferring medical 
 degrees, would be more ready to oppose quackery 
 by legislation. 
 
 In setting forth the influences which tend to de 
 grade the profession of medicine from its true and 
 high position, it would be a serious and disrespectful 
 omission to say nothing of that of the public press, 
 
PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 271 
 
 at once the exponent, and controlling power of public 
 sentiment. If the stately essays and the dignified 
 leaders of respectable papers are alone taken into 
 consideration, the profession of medicine has nothing 
 to complain of. These generally pay a formal trib 
 ute to scientific principles, institutions, and men. 
 Their columns contain paragraphs for the instruction 
 of the people, and cautions against humbug, deceit, 
 and imposture; but turn to the page for advertise 
 ments, and, for the lure of an advertising fee, we 
 find columns of absurd notices of quacking pills and 
 potions, such palpable impostures as to have no in 
 fluence with the educated and discriminating, but 
 intended, and too successfully effecting the intention 
 of deceiving the ignorant and unthinking. None but 
 those whose professional avocations bring them into 
 association with the humble and laboring classes, can 
 imagine the amount of money which is robbed from 
 these classes by such advertisements, particularly in 
 the country districts; and the amount of disease and 
 suffering caused by these ignorantly compounded, 
 and ignorantly administered poisons, is deplorable. 
 
272 PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 
 
 Many of these notices are upon subjects which should 
 never be obtruded upon the public eye, and convey 
 licentious and obscene ideas into the bosom of fami 
 lies, and they propagate the vices for whose effects 
 they pretend to offer a remedy. All this is certainly 
 a great moral wrong, and it argues much against 
 the moral sense of the community, that the press, 
 the assumed custodian of the public virtue, shall be 
 guilty of this wrong, and yet claim to be respectable. 
 The list of varied and contrary diseases which 
 these nostrums pretend to cure, is alone sufficient 
 evidence of their false pretension, and should be such 
 to those who become the vehicle of imposing the 
 falsehood upon the public. Any of the ordinary 
 and every day diseases of which people complain, 
 may have their origin in a variety of morbid 
 changes, each one requiring a different mode of 
 treatment, and of course, no one means of cure being 
 applicable to all. We will take "headache" as an 
 illustration. This painful and distressing affection 
 may have its cause within the contents of the skull, 
 or in its external covering, and may arise from 
 
PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 273 
 
 different affections of these parts. It may, as is 
 most frequently the case, depend upon derangement 
 of remote organs the stomach, liver, or bowels. It 
 may be a symptom of debility or of a too full and 
 plethoric habit. The following list of causes which 
 excite headache into action, is taken from the Cyclo 
 pedia of Practical Medicine, and they are sufficiently 
 varied to show that no remedy will reach all. 
 
 "1. Rheumatic affection of the pericranium. 2. 
 Inflammation, or a more chronic morbid condition 
 of the pericranium. 3. Inflammation of the mucous 
 lining of the frontal sinus. 4. Intense mental excite 
 ment. 5. Strong impressions on the external senses. 
 6. Excessive impetus of blood to the head. 7. Im 
 peded return of blood from the head. 8. Congestion 
 within the head. 9. Suppression of accustomed 
 evacuations. 10. Inflammation of the brain or its 
 membranes. 11. Tumors, or other morbid changes 
 of structure within the head. 12. Morbid affections 
 of the stomach ; as from over excitation or disten- 
 tion; from irritating ingesta; from imperfect diges 
 tion; the presence of bile in the stomach, <fec. 
 12* 
 
274 PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 
 
 13. Costiveness. 14. Narcotics. 15. Worms. 16. 
 Diminished pressure of the atmosphere. 17. A 
 heated, humid, or deteriorated atmosphere. 18. Sud 
 den changes of temperature. 19. Exposure to a 
 current of air, or to a cold wind, especially from the 
 east." Headache has been chosen as an illustration, 
 from the frequency of its occurrence, and not because 
 it has a more varied origin than any other of the 
 every day diseases for which quack remedies are 
 offered. 
 
 It is not probable that those who are most exposed 
 to the wrong of quack advertisements, will see these 
 remarks, and hence it is the more incumbent upon 
 all who may accord in the views now presented, to 
 use their influence to prevent the spread of danger 
 ous errors amongst those classes of the community, 
 in which they may do the work of mischief, and be 
 without the reach of correction. 
 
 Assailed as the profession of medicine is by popu 
 lar misconception; misrepresented by unworthy 
 members, and unsustained by legislative protection, 
 it is thrown upon itself for protection, purification, 
 
PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 275 
 
 and elevation, and these ends it is now endeavoring 
 to accomplish by voluntary association. The " Ameri 
 can Medical Association," or national congress of the 
 profession, organized by members from the various 
 medical literary institutions, from state and county 
 societies, is using its influence to elevate the stand 
 ard of medical education, and is concentrating the 
 wisdom of the profession in this country upon the 
 investigation of subjects of importance to the health 
 and happiness of the community. It has promulga 
 ted, for the guidance and government of its mem 
 bers, a code of morals defining the duties of medical 
 men to the community, and to each other, upon 
 principles of courtesy, honor, and Christianity, and 
 preventing the evil results of local rivalries and jeal 
 ousies. The county societies serve as tribunals or 
 courts to secure the observance of the moral laws of 
 the profession. They also indicate to the people what 
 medical men are in good repute with their brethren, 
 and under obligations for the conscientious perfor 
 mance of their duties. These local societies also 
 collect from their vicinity, and from the members 
 
276 PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 
 
 wlio form them, those facts of interest to the public 
 weal, which would otherwise be lost, but being con 
 tributed to the general store, form a vast amount 
 of valuable information j for, it is a mistake, and one 
 fruitful of evil to the community, to regard the 
 medical profession as limited in its duties to the 
 relief of the sick who may come under the charge 
 of individual members of the profession. It has a 
 far more extended mission than this. To remove 
 the general sources of disease to prevent sickness 
 and suffering to ascertain the physical and moral 
 sources of human depravity and to indicate the 
 means of their removal, are among the high objects 
 of professional organization ; and most nobly has the 
 profession come up to its work. Notwithstanding 
 the vulgar, illiberal, and ignorant sneers of those 
 who charge upon medical men a wish for the in 
 crease of disease, their profession has been found the 
 most active in the promotion of measures of general 
 health and sanitary reform; although in its labors 
 it has had to contend with popular prejudice, 
 
PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 277 
 
 legislative indifference, and opposing pecuniary in 
 terests. 
 
 The subjects bearing upon general and individual 
 health, to which professional attention has been of 
 late actively directed both in Europe and America, 
 are, the water supply and sewerage of towns and 
 villages; the drainage of the soil; the construction, 
 arrangement, and ventilation of dwellings; the inves 
 tigation of cholera and other epidemics; the estab 
 lishment of public baths and wash houses; the 
 registration of marriages, births, and deaths; and the 
 temperance reform. The efforts of the profession to 
 arrest the evils of quackery are correspondent to its 
 whole sanitary action, although, unfortunately, they 
 are attributed to interested motives ; whereas, in truth, 
 the evidence goes to show, that the more quackery 
 prevails, the more is the employment for scientific 
 medicine, and the " Family Medicine," whether a 
 book or a pill, is a fertile source of fees to the family 
 physician. 
 
 The organization of the profession in county, state, 
 and national associations, has been efficient, among 
 
278 PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 
 
 other matters, in calling the attention of legislators 
 to the necessity of the law for the registration of 
 births, marriages, and deaths. The following remarks 
 upon this subject are taken from the " Report of the 
 Committee of the House of Representatives of 
 Pennsylvania." 
 
 "The Registry Law would teach the laws of 
 human life developed by the natural constitution of 
 our bodies as they usually exist under the influences 
 that surround them, and how far they may be favor 
 ably modified and improved. This can only be done 
 by an accurate knowledge of the facts that are daily 
 occurring among us. These matters are important 
 to the physician to aid him in curing the sick, but 
 far more important to the people to aid them in 
 learning how to live without being sick." It is esti 
 mated that the annual loss in England and Wales 
 alone by preventable disease is greater than the loss 
 of the allied armies at the battle of Waterloo. In 
 the county of Lancaster, eleven thousand adults die 
 annually of removable epidemics, and it is further 
 estimated that the annual pecuniary loss of the 
 
PROFESSION OE MEDICINE. 2*79 
 
 United Kingdom by preventable diseases, is one 
 hundred millions of dollars. A committee of Parlia 
 ment report upon a registration law, that, " It involved 
 matter of great public and national interest as well 
 as individual satisfaction ; and rights and claims to 
 property; that great trouble, vast expense, utter un 
 certainty, capricious changes, and local and general 
 evils exist, while no means are supplied to obtain 
 the information other countries possess and greatly 
 value, as to the state of disease, the operation of 
 moral and physical causes on the health of the 
 people, the progress of the population and other 
 matters, on which accurate knowledge can scarcely 
 be too highly appreciated or too intensely pursued." 
 A consequent bill, introduced by Lord John Russell, 
 became a law in 1837. "The medical profession, 
 with all that science and philanthropy that every 
 where distinguishes them, have wrought upon these 
 rich and abundant results of a varied registration, 
 and elicited great truths. By sharp scrutiny, close 
 and laborious comparison, they have established the 
 comparative health of localities, and with an industry 
 
280 PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 
 
 not less active, having discovered the cause of disease, 
 have pointed out the means of its removal." The 
 following eloquent remarks are from an article upon 
 u Sanitary Reform " in the British and Foreign 
 Medico-Chirurgical Review. 
 
 "The quarterly reports of the Registrar General 
 are among the most interesting and instructive 
 documents of the day. They are to us what, in an 
 inferior degree, the Saxon Chronicles were to the 
 eleventh and twelfth centuries. They engrave, in 
 brief but expressive phrase, the national vicissitudes, 
 prosperities, trials and calamities. With these faith 
 ful and unerring indices, marriages and deaths, the 
 Registrar General measures the robustness of natural 
 vigor, or probes the depth of national suffering. 
 Backed by those ranks of expressive figures, which 
 permit no exaggeration, and are susceptible of no 
 fallacy, he presents to us a true picture of our 
 country and nation. No false rhetoric, or untrue 
 coloring is suffered to mar the truth of the hard and 
 simple outlines. No political creed conceals the facts, 
 or perverts their meaning. No unjust law orders 
 
PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 281 
 
 the distortion of half the truth, Ly the concealment 
 of the other half. These reports are, indeed, some 
 thing more than history; they are the judgment of 
 the time upon itself, and, untinctured as they are 
 by party spirit, and unswayed by personal considera 
 tions, those judgments are as true and faithful as 
 those of future times can be. It is no objection to 
 the value of these records, to say they, chronicle, with 
 greater minuteness and accuracy, the national ills and 
 chastisements, than the national happiness and suc 
 cess. The most dreary and painful side of human 
 existence, is certainly most largely presented to us. 
 The shadow of imperfection and decay tinges 
 all things with its melancholy hues. Our path is 
 rather through the gloomy valley, and under the 
 shade of cypress, than on the invigorating mountain 
 side, resplendent with the light of Heaven. But this 
 seems to be the necessary result of all true histories 
 of the social condition of the people. That which 
 is strongest and most permanent presses aside that 
 which is less vigorous and enduring. Happiness and 
 comfort escape the chronicles; gaunt features of 
 
282 PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 
 
 misery and distress are ever before him. The happy 
 hours of a nation s, as of an individual s life, are as 
 the downy ripples which the advancing tide washes 
 into smoothness ; the hours of sorrow and of trouble 
 are like those ripples fossilized into stone." 
 
 The enlarged sphere of duty pertaining to the 
 profession of medicine, can only be properly met by 
 professional organization. The people have their 
 most solemn interests concerned in sustaining the 
 organization, and have much reason to suspect those 
 who affect to be independent of it. Medical men 
 who voluntarily refrain from the work, are either 
 behind the age, ignorant of their duties and of what 
 the profession is doing, or else are seeking to hide 
 sinister designs and selfish purposes under an affecta 
 tion of individual independence, just as all do, who 
 profess to be independent of the general laws of 
 society. It is an easy mode of getting rid of whole 
 some obligation and restraint, by assuming to be 
 entirely independent of it, and the people who cheer 
 on such lawless spirits, must not complain if they 
 find themselves the victims of lawlessness. An 
 
PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 283 
 
 irregular practitioner in one of the western counties 
 of Pennsylvania, seeking to trap this popular sym 
 pathy, advertises himself, in the most triumphant 
 manner, as independent of the county medical so 
 ciety: a society to which he is, of course, entirely 
 ineligible. Men may affect this independence who 
 have an interest in shunning the light of professional 
 investigation, and may claim the privilege of dark 
 ness as an independent right; hut it cannot be 
 awarded them ; the interests of society forbid it. If 
 the professional man is weak, he owes it to those 
 committed to his professional charge to have the aid 
 and counsel of his professional brethren, and if he 
 is strong, he owes a portion of his strength to the 
 profession and the good of society. The egotism of 
 individual vanity, judgment, and interest, must be 
 under subjection to the " Higher Law " of Christian, 
 professional, and general organization, or Christian, 
 professional, and general communities, have no se 
 curity for the conduct of their members. 
 
 Those who take a correct view of the various 
 difficulties we have suggested as connected with the 
 
284 PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 
 
 practice of medicine will see that it is not a pro 
 fession whose paths are through smooth and flowery 
 walks. But it may be as well to offer a few con 
 siderations for the use of those who are desirous of 
 entering that profession, and, in doing so, our desire 
 is not to diminish the number of "doctors," but to 
 increase the number of those who are qualified to 
 perform the obligations they take upon themselves. 
 It is a maxim with political economists, that cheap 
 ening an article increases its consumption, and, in 
 the aggregate, invites a larger expenditure of money 
 upon that article. The maxim is perfectly true in 
 regard to cheap doctoring ; it costs the people a vast 
 amount of money, and all that is received in return 
 is a worthless and injurious article. It may well be 
 questioned whether the same degree of benefit accrues 
 to the people by cheapening their facilities for medi 
 cation, as arises from the lessened prices of silk and 
 cotton fabrics. A case, unhappily of every day oc 
 currence, will illustrate this position. An individual 
 is affected with some chronic, permanent, and incurable 
 ailment, and yet it may not be one seriously affecting 
 
PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 285 
 
 his life and usefulness . Upon consulting some med 
 ical man well and thoroughly skilled in the laws 
 and nature of disease, after, perhaps, not more than 
 fifteen minutes conference, the patient is told that 
 the use of medicines can be of no service to him, 
 and will only be a fruitless expenditure of his money, 
 his time, and his constitution. If charged for this 
 advice five, ten, or twenty dollars, he may regard 
 it as an outrageous robbery, and yet for want of this 
 learned and honest counsel, he may go from doctor 
 to doctor, and from quackery to quackery, paying 
 but fifty cents here and a dollar there, not for ad 
 vice, but for medicine, until he has expended hun 
 dreds of dollars, weeks, months, and years -of time, 
 and all the vigor of constitution which was necessary 
 to sustain him under the burden of his disease. 
 Hence, fewer and more competent medical advisers 
 would be more to the profit and happiness of the 
 people, and service will be done them, if a due 
 reflection upon the difficulties of the profession shall 
 deter any of the crowds now rushing to the medical 
 schools from their purpose. 
 
286 PROFESSION OP MEDICINE. 
 
 The entire difficulties of the study of medicine are 
 rarely understood by those who commence it: but 
 it may be appreciated when it is considered that the 
 mental faculties and the physical powers are to be 
 given to the acquisition of five or six different sci 
 ences, and to the languages of those sciences. The 
 powers of memory, of observation, of judgment, are 
 to be assiduously cultivated, and with no end to the 
 labor. Those who have studied a language know 
 the time and labor it costs, and those who have 
 not the mental discipline as well as the facilities 
 arising from the acquisition of a language, are unfit 
 for the studies of medicine; and yet the acquisition 
 of language is easy and agreeable, relatively to that 
 of medical science. The medical student may and 
 should have his healthful exercise; but he has no 
 right to amusements or relaxations which distract his 
 thoughts or lessen their vigor. He must have that 
 devotion to philosophy and love of truth which will 
 make the most repulsive investigations agreeable, and 
 keep him days and nights, for much of his life, in 
 damp dissecting rooms, in hospitals, and pestilent 
 
PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 287 
 
 dead houses. The severe discipline of mathematics 
 must have trained his reasoning powers, and his eye 
 and hand have been taught by skill in drawing. If 
 his physical constitution be not good, he will sink 
 beneath the burden of study and exposure, and add 
 to the number of those, who are conducted to the 
 grave by consumption and fever, before their studies 
 are completed. 
 
 The granting of the college certificate, or diploma, 
 is very far from ending the student s labors ; it only 
 opens to him another course of education and more 
 pressing obligations to pursue it. If the diploma 
 has been his object, he is unfit for a profession 
 which imposes upon its members the most sacred 
 obligations to preserve life, and to relieve pain, suf 
 fering and sorrow. If his object is merely to make 
 money to acquire fortune and honor, or to live 
 at ease, he is as unfit for the profession as the pro 
 fession is for him. Statistics go to show that among 
 occupations that of medicine is the shortest lived, 
 and the least successful in the accumulation of wealth. 
 He must look for h-is reward to his own breast, in 
 
288 PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 
 
 the consciousness of being able to do his duty, and 
 in having done it; even though misjudged and cen 
 sured by those whom he has benefited, arid who 
 are incompetent to form any idea of his capabili 
 ties, or of the long and anxious labors by which 
 they have been reached. He belongs to a profession 
 which gives him frequent opportunities of practicing 
 upon the command: "Do good to those who de- 
 spitefully use you." He must give up all command 
 of his time night or day, and be prepared any and 
 every moment for the most harassing emergencies. 
 Even when his active duties may not call him from 
 his home or bed, he must expect to pass anxious 
 hours and sleepless nights from the responsibility of 
 intricate cases, and the consciousness that the lives 
 and happiness of others are dependent upon his 
 skill and judgment, and yet, after all this, he may 
 find every one, from the shoemaker s bench to the 
 pulpit, advancing the most positive . and dogmatic 
 opinions upon medical subjects in opposition to his 
 own, and recklessly prescribing for patients which are 
 to him such a source of mental anxiety; 
 
PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 289 
 
 "As fools rush in 
 Where angels fear to tread." 
 
 After large contributions of gratuitous labor to the 
 poor, lie must be content to see his services valued, 
 by those able to pay him, by the standard of day 
 labor, and may consider himself fortunate if he is 
 not, when he has done his best, dragged before an 
 ignorant and hostile jury, vilified and traduced by 
 hireling lawyers, and robbed of his means and repu 
 tation by the testimony of unprincipled and rival 
 quacks. 
 
 Such are the contingencies of the life of the skillful 
 and conscientious physician ; still more unhappy is the 
 position of him who has undertaken obligations which 
 he is naturally incompetent to meet, or for which 
 he has not fitted himself. When such a one as 
 this enters the darkened chamber of disease, and feels 
 the anxious and hopeful gaze of relatives penetrating 
 his soul, and yet is at a loss for resources to meet 
 the demands made upon him ; is bewildered, not by 
 the intricacy of the case, but by his conscious ina 
 bility to meet it, and fears that the trust reposed 
 13 
 
290 PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 
 
 in him is a false trust, which must close in disap 
 pointment, sorrow, and death, when proper medical 
 qualification would be able to give cheerful encour 
 agement, and to change the gloomy scene to one 
 of happiness and joy: then, if he has any feeling 
 of man, he reproaches his misplaced position, and 
 remembers with bitter agony the hours wasted in 
 selfish enjoyment, which should have been given to 
 the solemn duties of his calling. 
 
 Better for the peace and happiness of such a man 
 had he sought any trade or occupation, however 
 humble and laborious, so that it was but honest and 
 suitable to his character and abilities. 
 
 We have endeavored in this paper to draw the 
 distinction between the true nature of the profession 
 of medicine, and the popular view taken of it; to 
 point out the causes of error, and to suggest certain 
 remedies, which, if efficient for the purpose, will 
 benefit the public by restoring the profession to its 
 proper place, and making its representatives equal 
 to the obligations they have taken upon themselves. 
 Whilst health, life, and morals are matters of general 
 
PROFESSION OF MEDICINE. 291 
 
 import, it is the duty of the educated classes, the 
 pulpit, and the press, to aid the efforts now making 
 by the medical profession to confer upon the people 
 the benefits of true science, and to protect them from 
 ignorance and imposture. The magnitude of the 
 existing evil needs only to be known, to call for the 
 energetic action of every conscientious member of 
 society. 
 
VALUABLE BOOKS 
 
 PUBLISHED AND FOU SALE BY 
 
 , OJRTON & MULLIGAN, ISuJlalo, IV. 
 
 AXD 
 
 DERBY & MII^EK, Auburn, N. Y . 
 
 The White Slaves of England. By JOHN 0. COBDEN. 
 Finely illustrated ; 1 large 12mo vol. 500 pp. Price, $1.50. 
 
 Headley s Women of the Bible: Historical and descrip 
 tive sketches of the Women of the Bible, as maidens, wives 
 and mothers ; from Eve of the Old, to the Marys of the 
 New Testament. By Rev. P. C. HEADLEY. In one 12mo 
 vol., illustrated uniform with " Headley s Sacred Moun 
 tains." 
 
 The Silver Cup of Sparkling Drops, From Many Foun 
 tains. For the Friends of Temperance. Edited by Miss C. 
 B. PORTER. 312 12mo pp. Illustrated. 
 
 Sir John Franklin and the Arctic Regions. Beauti 
 fully illustrated. 
 
 Daring Deeds of American Heroes. With Biograph 
 ical Sketches. Edited by JAMES O. BRAYMAN, Esq. 500 
 12mo pp. and 25 plates. 
 
 " How sleep the brave, who sink to rest 
 With all their country s honor blest." 
 
 Indian Captives, or Life in the Wigwam. Being true Nar 
 ratives of Captives who have been earned away by the In 
 dians from the frontier settlements of the U. S., from the 
 earliest period to the present time. By SAMUEL G. DRAKE. 
 12mo, muslin. 
 
 The Odd Fellows Amulet, or the Principles of Odd Fel 
 lowship defined. By Rev. D. W. BRISTOL. 12mo, with four 
 illustrations ; cloth, gilt. 
 
 History of the War with Mexico, from the commence 
 ment of hostilities with the United States to the ratification 
 of peace. By J. S. JENKINS. 514 pp. 12rno, 20 illustra 
 tions ; gilt back, muslin. 
 
 The Generals of the Last War with Great Britain: 
 
 with portraits of Generals Brown, Macomb, Scott, Jackson ., 
 Harrison and Gaines. By J. S. JENKINS. Muslin, 12rno, 
 
35,000 IN THREE MONTHS. 
 
 PERN LEAVES From Fanny s Portfolio. With 
 eight illustrations by Fred M. Coffin. One volume, 500 pp. 
 12mo. Price, $1.25. 
 
 THE VOICE OF THE PRESS. 
 Brief Extracts from Lengthy Notices. 
 
 Fanny .Fern is immortal. Where will you find excellences stirring, 
 salient points so thickly studded as in her writings. For ourselves, (we 
 say it frankly,) we know not the author, of the present day, certainly, who 
 has written upon so many different subjects and made so many capital hits 
 as the author of " Fern Leaves." There is surely no writer we read that 
 can make such a perfect, glowing picture, with one stroke of the pen, as 
 Fanny Fern. Burlington ( Vt.) Courier. 
 
 It is a beautiful book, abounding with just sentiments, admirably uttered, 
 on almost every topic of practical life. Let it be read by all the circula 
 tion cannot be too large. It will do great good wherever it goes. Chris* 
 turn Ambassador. 
 
 They are sweet, womanly, and surcharged with a tender pathos. A 
 dash of sub -acid now and then thrown in gives a wholesome variety and 
 piques the appetite of the reader. N. Y. Tribune. 
 
 They go right to the feelings, and it is just as impossible to resist their 
 plea as it is to avoid reading them. Nevrport Mercury. 
 
 The dedication of her volume wins the reader s heart in advance ; and 
 as he proceeds, he finds himself in a very April of smiles and tears. New 
 York Mirror. 
 
 Pointed and full of thought, displaying a knowledge of human nature 
 and a power of touching the feelings which only genius can possess and 
 exert. N. Y. Commercial Advertiser. 
 
 It is emphatically a home book, and every word on its neatly printed 
 pages will find its way to the heart, though your bosom is shielded with 
 the iron-mail of hate ; and even your money-loving eyes will melt into 
 tears, as you read the pure thoughts which will greet you there. Clarion, 
 Penn. " 
 
 "We can say " with a clear conscience," that it is truly one of the most 
 superb and finely gotten up books in the whole boundless universe. 
 Toung ladies, if you want a splendid book, just send th required amount 
 to the publishers, and you will receive it free of postage. Sciota Sun. 
 
 If so be there is any one of our readers who has net read it, we would 
 simply say that you are losing time until you do so. Do you wish to 
 laugh ? Read Fanny s book. Do you wish to cry ? Bead Fern Leaves 
 from Fanny s Portfolio. Literary Echo. 
 
 Published by 
 
 DERBY, ORTON & MULLIGAN, Buftalo. 
 
 DERBY fc MILLER, Auburn. 
 
"TRUTH STRANGER THAN FICTION." 
 
 TWELVE YEARS A SLAVE . The Narrative of Sol 
 omon Northrup, a citizen of New York, kidnapped iii 
 Washington city in 1841, and rescued in 1853, from a cot 
 tage plantation near the Red River, in Louisiana. One 
 12mo volume, 336 pp. Price, $1.00. 
 
 Notices of the Press. 
 
 Next to Uncle Tom s Cabin, the extraordinary Narrative of Solomon 
 Northup is the most remarkable book that was ever issued from the 
 American Press. Indeed, it is even a more extraordinary work than that, 
 because it is only a simple, unvarnished tale of the experience of an 
 American freeman of the " blessings " of slavery, while Mrs. Stowe s Un 
 cle Tom is only an ingenious and powerfully wrought Novel, intended to 
 illustrate what Solomon saw and experienced southern slavery in its va 
 rious phases. Detroit Tribune. 
 
 The narrative will be read with interest by every one who can sympa 
 thize with a human being struggling for freedom. Buffalo Courier. 
 
 The volume cannot fail to gain a wide circulation. It will be read ex 
 tensively both at the North and the South. No one can contemplate the 
 scenes which are here so naturally set forth, without a new conviction of 
 the hideousness of the institution from which the subject of the narrative 
 happily escaped. New York Tribune. 
 
 What a tale it tells ; what inexpressible reproofs against slavery ; what 
 occasion for shame and tears on the part of all. We think the story as 
 affecting as any tale of sorrow could be. We believe its perusal will net 
 only excite an absorbing interest, but minister powerfully to the sound, 
 intelligent antislavery sentiment of the country. New York Evangelist. 
 
 This is one of the most exciting Narratives, full of thrilling incidents 
 artlessly told, with all the marks of truth. Such a tale is more powerful 
 than any fiction which can be conceived and elaborated. There are no 
 depicted scenes in " Uncle Tom " more tragic, horrible and pathetic, than 
 the incidents compassed in the twelve years of this man s life in slavery. 
 Cincinnati Journal. 
 
 Published bj 
 
 DERBY & MILLER, Auburn, N. Y. 
 
 DERBY, ORTON & MULLIGAN, Buffalo, N. Y. 
 
THE PILGRIM S PROGRESS from this World to 
 that which is to come. Delivered under the similitude of a 
 Dream. By JOHN BUN Y AN. Price, $1.25. 
 
 The enterprising publishers of this volume are fairly entitled to tho 
 credit of having brought out the best editi< n of Bunyan s immortal work. 
 The type is very large and clear, and there is neither note nor comment of 
 any kind, nor even a preface, except the inimitable poetical one by the au 
 thor. There are a few chaste pictorial illustrations, which will be wel 
 come to all. We can cheerfully recommend this edition to those who 
 want a more than ordinarily excellent copy of the Pilgrim s Progress. 
 Northern Christian Advocate. 
 
 BUNYAN S PILGRIM S PROGRESS. This deservedly popular work, which 
 has gone through so many editions, needs no recommendation of ours. 
 Some have placed it first among all human productions. The dreamer 
 has written a book peculiarly attracting to all classes of society. The old, 
 the young, and middle aged, the impenitent as well as the pious, have been 
 interested and profited by its perusal * * x The edition before us is 
 in clear, open and large type, substantial and elegant binding, adapted to 
 the dim sight of the aged, and will well form an appropriate companion 
 for the Family Bible. Religious Herald. 
 
 THE PILGRIM S PROGRESS . Bunyan needs no encomium to exalt his 
 character in the minds of the good. This book from the Auburn press is 
 creditable to the popular firm. It is large, roomy, and attractive of just 
 such a form and style as pleases one when he sits down to read the Pil 
 grim s Progress. Buffalo Advocate. 
 
 BUNYAN S PILGRIM S PROGRESS. A very fine edition of the immortal 
 Pilgrim, in clear, open type, and elegant binding, which, we hope, will 
 tempt the eye of thousands of new readers. Every attempt to multiply 
 the readers of this great poem should have a hearty approbation. Next 
 to the Bible, it has, probably, the widest circulation of any book, and 
 probably deserves it. New York Evangelist. 
 
 Derby and Miller s edition of Pilgrim s Progress. Good old John Bun 
 yan, the tinker ! Never shall we tire of his volume always shall we wel 
 come it to our heart as well as to our library. The present edition is 
 beautifully printed on large type and fine paper, and is sold at .$1 2f>. This 
 is emphatically a good book, as every body knows who has read it ; and 
 who has not ? Methodist Protestant. 
 
 We doubt whether the idea of rendering himself famous ever entered 
 into the imagination of the honest but enthusiastic tinker of Eleston, when, 
 in the solitude of Bedford jail, he occupied himself in writing this reli 
 gious allegory. Yet such was the result of his labors. The story of 
 Christian and his family has been read and re-read by cotmtless thousands ; 
 it has been translated into most European languages; and has undoubt 
 edly enjoyed a far greater share of popularity than any other work of a 
 similar character. Since its original publication, the world has heen lit 
 erally flooded with books, but it has steadily maintained its place among 
 them ; and the fame of the author seems but to grow brighter with ad 
 vancing years. 
 
 The edition issued by oiir fellow townsmen is one of the best we have 
 ever seen. It is a 12mo volume of nearly five hundred pages, and is beau 
 tifully and appropriately illustrated. The paper is good, the typography 
 clear and neat, and the binding firm and durable. New Era. 
 
 Published by 
 
 DERBY, ORTON & MULLIGAN, Buffalo. 
 
 DERBY & MILLER, Auburn. 
 
MEMOIR OP ADONIRAM JUDSON : being a 
 Sketch of his Life and Missionary Labors. By J. CLEM 
 ENT, author of " Noble Deeds of American Women." $1.00. 
 
 This is a valuable memoir of one of the noblest men that ever lived. 
 Few lives present greater moral heroism than the life of Dr. Judson. He 
 was the founder of East India missions, so far as the Baptist church of this 
 country is concerned. Mr. Clement has executed his task with decided 
 ability. The narrative is at all times clear and well sustained, and occa 
 sionally is very affecting. The first half of the twentieth chapter cannot 
 be read without deep emotion. The work is beautifully printed, and mer 
 its an extensive sale. Christian Advocate, (Methodist.) 
 
 The biography of a noble missionary hero, who lived long, and worked 
 faithfully to the last, in behalf of the heathen. The record of his toils and 
 sufferings, his faith and hope, his trials and his successes, can not fail to 
 awaken or deepen a genuine missionary spirit in Christian hearts. To 
 such as have only heard, in general, of Dr. Judson, this volume will give 
 the interesting particulars of his life ; and in the minds of those who 
 knew him, it will awaken many favorSble recollections. Zio?i s (Baptist) 
 Herald. 
 
 It cannot fail to interest all who admire lofty moral heroism, and we 
 presume will awaken in the bosom of every reader a desire to know more 
 of this good man. Christian (Baptist) Secretary. 
 
 Much labor and research have been bestowed in the collection and ar 
 rangement of the materials ; and the record of his trials and sufferings, 
 his toils and labors, throughout a long and arduous life, from his pen, and 
 other sources of information, could not fail to make an interesting and 
 profitable work. Religious (Baptist) Her aid. 
 
 The biography before us, written by a gentleman of this city, well 
 known for his correct poetic taste, and for his numerous contributions to 
 the rhythmical literature of our country, consists, iu part, of the diary of 
 Mr. Judson, and is, in part, derived from his various published writings. 
 As a record of suffering, devotion, and strong purpose, we have rarely 
 read anything of more stirring interest. Buffalo Courier (Secular.) 
 
 Mr. Clement s work clearly and unobtrusively sketches the [liistory of 
 Dr. Judson s missionary career, and supplies, to the ordinary reader, a 
 connected view of his labors, which could not elsewhere be found. It is 
 WTitten with simplicity, and a proper admiration of Dr. Judson s charac 
 ter ; and presents a great variety of interesting documents and letters that 
 ought not to be forgotten. It is a very animated and impressive work, 
 and will tend not only to prepare the reader for an appreciation of a more 
 complete biography, but give a new and admiring confidence in the cause 
 of missions, and the power of divine grace. New York Evangelist (Pres 
 byterian.) 
 
 Our esteemed correspondent we are glad to welcome as an author. He 
 has here given us a book of good size, in a beautiful dress, and with a fine 
 engraving of Dr. Judson. It designs to sketch his life and labors, and 
 thereby develop the character of this noble man. Nearly one half of its 
 pages are occupied with extracts from his own writings. In connection 
 with these we have a succinct and graphic history of the Burman Mission, 
 which will be here reviewed with deep interest by the reader. Christian 
 Chronicle (Baptist.) 
 
 Published by 
 
 DERBY, ORTON MULLIGAN, Buffalo. 
 
 DERBY & MILLER, Auburn. 
 
THE LIFE OP THE EMPRESS JOSEPHINE, 
 first wife of Napoleon. By P. C. HEADLET. 12mo, 
 pp. 378. Derby, Miller & Co., Auburn, N. Y. Price, 1.25. 
 
 There are few of the female characters of modern history whose lives 
 abound with more interesting events than that of the Empress Josephine. 
 Her whole course was one of romantic, and also of tragic interest. If the 
 illustrious husband was eminent far above other men of his time, for vast 
 intellect and prodigious achievements, Josephine seemed, in the more lofty 
 and majestic traits of character, to transcend the most distinguished of 
 her female cotemporaries. Like her husband, she is a great subject for 
 biography. Many memoirs have been written of her, possessing more or 
 less merit, but none have been without interest. The author of the pres 
 ent book has, we think, been very successful. It is by for the most inter 
 esting history of Josephine that we have yet seen. He seems to have had 
 recourse to the best sources for his materials, which he has combined and 
 put together with skill and judgment. His style is flowing, elegant, and 
 often eloquent. In short, it is a book well worth reading. It will not fail 
 to attract the public attention. As to the mechanical execution of the 
 book, it is but justice to the proprietors to say, that it will compare favor 
 ably with the productions of the press of any city in the Union. It con 
 tains a fine mezzotint portrait of Josephine, showing a beauty of person 
 equaled only by the moral grandeur of her character. Washington Union. 
 
 It is not without its sparkling gems. Occasional flashes of thought 
 make the reader pause to contemplate their freshness and beauty, and re 
 veal a well stored mind, in sympathy with the noblest human truits iu 
 close communion with the glories of nature. His text, too, is happily 
 chosen. Who has not felt a lingering, peculiar, undefinable interest in the 
 highly extraordinary and tragic career of the Empress Josephine ? Would 
 it not extend this notice too far, we should like to touch the more promi 
 nent of the many eventful passages which marked the history of this re 
 markable child of superstition, to gaze for a moment upon the vacillating 
 star of her destiny, and trace its luminous ascent from the veriest depths 
 of agonizing gloom and despair, to the loftiest pinnacle of worldly splen 
 dor and renown, where she grasped for a moment the fleeting phantom of 
 happiness, only to sink again into the arms of misfortune, and feel still more 
 keenly the bitter pangs of adversity. But all this will be found in a very 
 readable form in this interesting volume, and we cheerfully commend it to 
 notice. Utica Observer, 
 
 We do not know of a biography of this important and interesting per 
 sonage, so complete in its historic details, and so congenial to the spirit of 
 her life, as this ; while it has also the advantage of a popular style, and of 
 that view of the subject which accords with the general sentiment. Mr . 
 Headley writes in a clear, well sustained and engaging style evidently 
 entertaining a warm approbation of his subject, and alive to the sublimity 
 and purity of her life. Treating upon one of the most important epochs 
 of French history, the work is finely adapted to enlist the interest of the 
 reader, and to supply a kind and degree of information not readily acces 
 sible elsewhere. It can hardly fail of proving a highly popular, as it is a 
 highly creditable work. N. Y. Evangelist. 
 
 The writer of this book is a brother of J. T. Headley, author of "Napo 
 leon and his Marshals," " Washington and his Generals," &c. There is a 
 strong family resemblance between the two. The qualities which have 
 given such a wide celebrity to the one seem to be fully enjoyed by the other. 
 Both brothers are characterized, by that peculiar vividness and, so to speak, 
 intensity of style which always makes a book readable and interesting. 
 Amherst Express. 
 
 Published by DERBY, ORTON & MULLIGAN, Buffalo. 
 
 DEEBY & MILLER, Auburn. 
 
YOUATT ON THE STRUCTURE AND DIS 
 EASES OP THE HORSE, with their Remedies ; 
 also practical rules to Buyers, Breeders, Breakers, Smiths, 
 &c. Brought down to 1849, by W. C. SPOONER, author of 
 several veterinary works. With a chapter on the United 
 States, by HENRY S. RANDALL. Price, $1.50. 
 
 Youatt is the only man who has written the horse out in xtenso ; others 
 have written on the horse, or about the horse, and we have an abundance 
 of treatises, offering us light in regard to his diseases ; but Youatt s work 
 is the foundation of all that has been produced since his time of any value, 
 and it will probably be a long while before any author will come forward 
 to take his place as authority hi regard to the domestic animals of which 
 he has written. 
 
 The question may be asked if we need another edition of Youatt, since 
 it is but a few years since Mr. Skinner gave us the work under his edito 
 rial supervision. This question will be answered by stating the peculiar 
 object aimed at in the present volume. It has been the aim of the pub 
 lisher to reduce the size without lessening the value of the book. In do 
 ing this, the style has been somewhat changed, by omitting minute de 
 scriptions, and those elaborated passages which rather served to confuse 
 the common reader. The language of Youatt is also simplified by substi 
 tuting popular words for those which are scientific in many instances when 
 no good reason existed for retaining the latter. 
 
 The design has been to produce an edition of Youatt fully adapted to 
 popular use. In this, so far as can be judged, the publishers have suc 
 ceeded. The style of the book, so far as proper typography and engray- 
 ings are concerned, is greatly superior to that of former editions. Those 
 who keep horses will do well to procure Youatt ; they will hardly do bet 
 ter than with this edition. Prairie Farmer. 
 
 Any one at all conversant with that noble animal the horse, is well aware 
 of the merits of Youatt s admirable work on this subject. Mr. Spooner, 
 a veterinary surgeon of high standing, wrote a valuable supplement for the 
 late English edition, bringing the science down to 1849. This, Mr. Ran 
 dall, with excellent judgment, has incorporated into the body of the vol 
 ume before us, in foot-notes, under the different appropriate heads of the 
 work. We think this quite an improvement on the English edition. Mr. 
 Randall s part of the work is well done, and as the publishers have brought 
 it out in handsome style, we trust the book will have a large sale. Amer 
 ican Agriculturist. 
 
 An indispensable book for every owner of this noble and useful animal. 
 School Journal. 
 
 Every man who owns a good horse the noblest as well as the most use 
 ful of animals owes it to himself to understand well matters pertaining 
 to his healthy preservation. Randall s " Spooner s Youatt " is the greatest 
 work of the age upon this particular topic. American Courier. 
 
 No less valuable than the animal it describes. Every man who owns or 
 drives a horse, needs this book as much as a horse needs a harness in 
 which to perform his labors, if he would know how to make his beast of 
 the greatest possible service to him. Boston Farmer. 
 
 Published by DERBY, ORTON & MULLIGAN, Buffalo. 
 
 DERBY & MILLER, Auburn. 
 
NOBLE DEEDS OF AMERICAN WOMEN. With 
 biographical sketches of some of the more prominent. Ed 
 ited by J. CLEMENT. With an Introduction by Mrs. L. H. 
 SIGOURNEY. 
 
 Notices of the Press. 
 
 The work is characterized by good taste and judgment. Though a 
 portion of the contents have elsewhere appeared, more than two hundred 
 of the pages are entitled to be considered as original. These are well wor 
 thy of the subject and the author s reputation as a writer, both in prose 
 and poetry. New York Recorder. 
 
 The work now before us is edited by a Buffalonian, Mr. Clement, who 
 is well known as the popular editor of the Western Literary Messenger. 
 Buffalo Courier. 
 
 It is one of those books that you can open at almost any place and be 
 sure of finding something both interesting and instructive. It should be 
 read by all who want to know who of their countrywomen are entitled to 
 a high place in the pages that commemorate the lives of the great and 
 good. Lockport Democrat. 
 
 The volume is ornamented with an engraving of Mrs. Washington, 
 from Stuart s picture, and is in every respect an honor to the Buffalo 
 press. Syracuse Star. 
 
 Such deeds deserve to be recorded, as well iu honor of the illustrious 
 actors, as for the instruction of those who have succeeded. This is an 
 excellent collection, and well got up, and we commend the volume as one 
 containing instruction with entertainment, and well worthy of a place in 
 every family library. Cincinnati Times. 
 
 The Introduction by Mrs. Bigourney contains more common sense views 
 of woman s sphere, duties, and pleasures, than ever emanated from a 
 score of Woman s Rights Conventions. Cleveland Herald. 
 
 It embraces anecdotes of an exceedingly interesting character, prepared 
 with much taste and judgment. The literary reputation of the editor is a 
 guarantee for the faithful performance of his part of the work. Ulica 
 Register. 
 
 A book with such pasturage as this for the patriotic spirit, needs no 
 commendation. Every American will eagerly possess himself of a copy, 
 and make it a chosen companion in the field and at the fireside. Literary 
 World. 
 
 This is a work of 480 pages, of excellent letter press, in Derby s best 
 style. Columbus (O.) Statesman. 
 
 We hope the volume may be largely circulated. It is enriched with a 
 graceful Introduction by Mrs. Sigouruey, and the letter press reflects the 
 highest credit on the enterprising publishers of the metropolis of the 
 Lakes. Philadelphia Chronicle. 
 
 j2^"Agents wanted to sell the above, with other valuable 
 Books, a list of which, with the wholesale and retail prices, 
 will be forwarded on application, post-paid, to 
 
 DERBY, ORTON & MULLIGAN, Buffalo. 
 DERBY & MILLER, Auburn. 
 
RETURN TO: CIRCULATION DEPARTME 
 198 Main Stacks 
 
 LOAN PERIOD 1 
 Home Use 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS. 
 
 Renewals and Recharges may be made 4 days prior to the du 
 Books may be renewed by calling 642-3405. 
 
 DUE AS STAMPED BELOW. 
 
 
 
 
 3 12001 
 
 
 
 vOCT 1 201 
 
 
 
 SEP 1 2006 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 FORM NO. DD6 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BER 
 50M Berkeley, California 94720-6000 
 
YC13C639 
 

 
 It