C.CC < <_"- * <oC c \<:C .c< Ct CCC CC C cc r - cc cc: C*C C<Tx CC cjC:-C CTC c^C c cc c ^"^ <C? cc cc rr cc c- ftT< cr :< cc ,, C - (C **~ "^ ^ vCii r cc <<: c j c v ... c c & CT i < & <::: .-,^c *:< <<: < < Ar ^ ccr .< -c< <c <t CC c C <- j * f$?f V c &i& .fef 5 C 7 A HISTORY UNITED STATES IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER From the Discovery of America in 1492 TO THE YEAR 1885, INCLUDING NOTICES OF MANUFACTURES AS THEY WERE INTRODUCED; OF OTHER INDUSTRIES; OF RAILROADS, CANALS, TELEGRAPHS, AND OTHER IMPROVEMENTS ; OF IN VENTIONS, IMPORTANT EVENTS, ETC. BY .EMERY E. NEW YORK. BAKER & TAYLOE. 1886. /T4 COPYTtTGHT, 1885, BY EMERY E. CHILDS. M. H. GREEN, PRINTER, ELECTROTYPKB AND BINDER, 324-330 Pearl Street, NEW YORK. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, 1492 CHRISTOPHEB COLUMBUS, in the service of Ferdinand and Isa bella, King and Queen of Spain, sailed from Palos with the de sign of finding a passage to Asia by the western ocean. On the 12th of October he discovered one of the West India islands, which he named San Salvador. Continuing his voyage he saw several islands, and touched at three of the largest of them, which he named St. Mary of the Conception, Fernandina, and Isabella. On the 27th of October he discovered the island of Cuba, where he remained more than a month. Sailing from Cuba on the 5th of December, he arrived the next day. at an island called by the natives Hayti, which he named Hispa- niola. Here he erected a fort, and, leaving it in charge of three of his officers and thirty-eight men, prepared to return to Spain. Having the opinion that these islands belonged to the regions of Asia comprehended under the name of India, he gave them the name of the West Indies. 1493 On the 25th of September Columbus sailed from Cadiz on his second voyage to the New World. He discovered numerous other islands, and in December laid the foundation of a town on the island of Hayti, which, hi honor of the queen, he named Isabella. 1494 On the 5th of May Columbus discovered the island of Jamaica. 1496 While Columbus was successfully establishing the founda tions of Spanish power in the New World, his enemies were assiduously laboring to deprive him of his merited honor and emoluments. Resolved to return to Spain to vindicate himself from those false charges which had been made against him to the Spanish Court, he intrusted the government of the islands to his brother, and on the 10th of March set sail for Spain. After his departure his brother removed the colony from Isa bella to the south part of the island, and began a settlement there, which he named Santo Domingo. The discoveries of Columbus excited great attention in Eng land, and John Cabot sought and obtained a commission from King Henry VII., for himself and his three sons, to prosecute discoveries in the New World, and to occupy and possess such places as they could subdue. 2 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 1497 In May John Cabot and his son Sebastian, with three hun dred men and two vessels, commenced their voyage. On the 24th of June they discovered land, which is supposed to have been a part of Labrador, and soon afterwards returned to Eng land. 1498 Sebastian Cabot sailed from England on another voyage of discovery. He first saw land at some point north of Newfound land, and thence coasted along the shores of the continent in a southerly direction as far as, or near to, Albemarle Sound, whence he returned to England. Columbus sailed on his third voyage, and on the 31st of July discovered an island which he named Trinidad. On the next day he first saw the southern continent. 1499 Alonzo de Ojeda sailed from Spain on the 20th of May, on a voyage of discovery, and ranged the coasts of South and Central America a considerable distance beyond where Colum bus had voyaged. Accompanying this expedition was Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine, eminently skilled in all the sciences per taining to navigation. By the publication of his account of the voyage it is supposed that his name came to be given to the New World. 1500 Gaspar de Cortereal, a Portuguese, explored several hundred miles of the coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador. 1508 Thomas Aubert made a voyage from Dieppe to Newfound land, and, proceeding thence to the river St. Lawrence, was the first to sail up that river to Canada. On his return he car ried to Paris some of the natives. 1512 Up to this time the explorations of the Spaniards had been confined to the West India islands and the coasts and islands of Southern and Central America. On the 2d of April of this year Juan Ponce de Leon discovered the North American con tinent, in 30 degrees 8 minutes north latitude, to which he gave the name of Florida. The Spaniards claimed Florida from this discovery, and the English the whole continent from the prior discoveries of the Cabots. 1524 John de Yerazzano, on a voyage of discovery in the service of Francis I., King of France, coasted along the shores of North America between the 28th and 50th degrees of north lati tude, and called the country New France. 1535 Jacques Cartier, under a commission from the King of France, entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence upon the day of that saint, from which circumstance the name was given to it. Pro ceeding thence into the great river emptying into the gulf, he ascended and explored it for three hundred leagues, and, tak ing possession of the country in the name of his king, called it New France. He gave the name of Montreal to a large Indian settlement which he visited. By this time the Spaniards had discovered and conquered Mexico, Peru, and other southern countries. 1537 California was discovered by the Spaniards under Cortez. 1539 Ferdinand de Soto, Governor of Cuba, sailed on an expedi tion to Florida, to explore the country and conquer the natives. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 3 1541 Ferdinand de Soto, having spent nearly two years in his wanderings in the wilderness, encountering many hardships and disasters, arrived on the first of May on the banks of the Mississippi, near the site of the present city of Memphis, and was the first discoverer of that great river. 1562 A considerable number of French Protestants, in an expedi tion under the command of John Ribault, commenced a settle ment on the island of Port Royal, in the present State of South Carolina, but their supplies being reduced, they were forced to abandon the country. 1584 A French expedition, under the command of Rene Laudon- niere, arrived in Florida on the 25th of June, and built a fort at the mouth of the river St. John s, which they called Fort Caroline. This fort was captured by the Spaniards in the following year, and nearly all the French were massacred. 1565 Don Pedro Melendez was sent by the King of Spain to drive out the French from Florida. He arrived there in August, and on the 8th of September commenced to lay the foundation of a town, which he named St. Augustine, from having seen land on the anniversary of that saint. This is the oldest town in the United States. John Ribault sailed on a second vovage, to found a colony of French Protestants in America. Arriving off the coast of Florida, his vessels were wrecked on the rocks, and himself and his men were massacred by the Spaniards. 1568 Dominique de Gourges, commanding an expedition of three ships, sailed from France for Florida to take revenge against the Spaniards for the massacre of his countrymen. He arrived there in April, assaulted and took the Spanish forts, and mur dered large numbers of the garrisons. 1580 New Mexico was discovered by Augustin Ruys, a Spanish missionary. 1584 An English expedition, sailing under a patent granted to Sir Walter Raleigh by Queen Elizabeth, visited the southern parts of North America, north of the Spanish possessions. Upon the return home of the adventurers the queen gave to the country they had explored the name of Virginia. 1585 Sir Walter Raleigh sent another expedition to America, and planted the first English colony in the Western World. The settlement was made in Carolina, on the island of Roanoke, but it was abandoned the next year. 1587 Raleigh again attempted to found a colony in America. He sent out one hundred and fifty men and women in three vessels, with a governor and council for the government of the colony; and the company arrived on the coast of North Carolina in July. On the 18th of August a daughter of the governor gave birth to a child, which was the first English child born hi America. This colony had but a short existence, and what became the fate of the colonists was never known. 1602 Cape Cod, Martha s Vineyard, and other places on the New England coast were explored by an English expedition under the command of Bartholomew Gosnold. 4 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 1606 King James of England granted patents to two corporations to colonize that part of America which lies between the 34th and 45th degrees of north latitude. The southern half of that territory he granted to the London Company; the northern, to the Plymouth Company. The supreme government of the colonies that were to be settled, was vested in a council resi dent in England, to be named by the king, according to such laws and ordinances as should be given under his sign-man ual; and the subordinate jurisdiction was committed to a council resident in America, which was also to be nominated by the king and to act conformably to his instructions. 1607 The first permanent English settlement in America was this year established in Virginia by the London Company, and in honor of the king was named Jamestown. The Plymouth Company sent out a small colony, w r hich commenced a settlement at the mouth of the Kennebec River. The settlers, however, abandoned the country in the following year and returned to England. 1609 Hendrick Hudson, in the service of the East India Company of Holland, sailing on an expedition to discover a western passage to the East Indies, discovered and entered the river which bears his name. The next year the Dutch sent six ships to trade with the natives occupying the shores of that river. In September, Jamestown contained between fifty and sixty bouses. In that place and the surrounding country there were about five hundred colonists, who were well supplied with tools, arms, and ammunition. They commenced the manufac ture of glass, so as to furnish beads and other trinkets for traffic with the Indians. The French under Champlain explored the country south of Montreal, and discovered the lake which now bears his name. 1612 The first bricks manufactured in America were made by the Virginia colonists. 1614 The Dutch built a fort on the extremity of the island where the city of New York now stands, and another at or near the site of the present city of Albany, and called their possessions in America New Netherlands. Captain John Smith of Virginia ranged the coasts from Cape Cod to the Penobscot, and gave to that part of the coun try the name of New England. 1616 Tobacco about this time began to be cultivated in Virginia by the English. 1618 A number of Danes emigrated to this country about this time, and made a settlement at the mouth of the Hudson River, to which they gave the name of Bergen. This was the first settlement in New Jersey. 1619 The people in Virginia were now so numerous that they established a provincial assembly. Thomas Dormer, who had been sent out from England, on a fishing voyage coasted from Kennebec to Virginia, sailing be tween the main-land and Long Island, and was the first person who ascertained that to be an island. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 5 1620 The first permanent settlement in New England was com menced this year. A large number of the English Congrega tion at Leyden, formed of Puritans who had been driven out of England by persecution, sailed from Holland in July to found a community in America. After a long and boisterous voyage, they anchored in the harbor of Cape Cod on the llth of November. Before landing, all the men signed an instru ment, by which they combined themselves into a body-politic, to be governed by the will of the majority, thereby establishing a republican form of government the first of its kind formed in America. This contract was signed by forty-one men, who with their families constituted one hundred and one persons the whole colony that arrived in New England. After explor ing the coast, they agreed upon a place of settlement, and landed, on the 22d of December, on the rock which posterity has marked in commemoration of the Pilgrims. To this settlement they gave the name of Plymouth, in memory of the hospitalities which the company had received at the English port where they stopped on their passage over from Holland. Ninety young women were sent from England to Virginia by the London Company, and a price was fixed for each, as a charge for their transportation, of one hundred and twenty pounds of tobacco, to be paid by the person taking any one of them for a wife. Sixty more were sent over in the next year. The first negro slaves imported into the country were landed at Jamestown from a Dutch vessel and sold. 1621 Fiftv-five thousand pounds of tobacco were exported from Virginia this year. 1623 The first settlements in New Hampshire were made at this time, at several places on the Piscataqua River, under a patent granted John Mason and others. The Dutch commenced laying out a town on Manhattan Island, to which they gave the name of New Amsterdam ; and the building of a fort on the Delaware River, which they called Fort Nassau. 1624 Dissensions among the members of the London Company, and other reasons, led the king to seek a dissolution of its charter. Legal proceedings were therefore instituted to that end, and the charter was declared vacated and the Company dissolved. 1625 Three ships and a yacht arrived at Manhattan Island from Holland, bringing a number of settlers, and one hundred head of cattle. 1626 On the 4th of May Peter Minuit arrived at Manhattan, in the capacity of Director-General of New Netherlands. He or ganized a provisional government, and purchased Manhattan island from the Indians. 1627 The use of wampum as a currency was introduced by the Plymouth colonists. A company was formed in Sweden to encourage colonization in America; and a number of Swedes and Finns were sent over. They first landed at Cape Henlopen, and some time after pur- 6 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. chased from the natives the^land from that cape to the Falls of Delaware, and obtained peaceable possession. The colonists of Plymouth purchased from the Plymouth Company all the lands and interests of that corporation in America for 1800, in nine equal annual payments. 1628 The foundation of the colony of Massachusetts was laid this year. The Council for New England on the 19th of March sold to six gentlemen, residents of Dorchester in England, a belt of land stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific, extend ing three miles south of the river Charles and the Massachusetts Bay, and three miles north of every part of the Merrimac River. A few people under the government of John Endicot were first sent over to prepare for settling a colony. Endicot on his arrival laid the foundation of Salem, the first permanent town in Massachusetts. 1629 The Massachusetts Company on the 4th of March obtained a charter from King Charles I. , by which the company was in corporated by the name of " The Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England ;" to have perpetual succession ; empowered to elect forever out of the freemen of the company a governor, deputy governor, and eighteen assist ants, to be newly chosen on the last Wednesday in Easter term yearly, by a majority of the company ; and to make laws not repugnant to those of England. The company soon after met in London and settled a form of government for the new colony, and elected John Endicot governor for the first year. It was also agreed that every member who had ad vanced 50 should have two hundred acres of land assigned him, and that fifty acres apiece should be allowed the colonists who emigrated at their own charge. Several persons of con siderable importance in England joined the company, who, for the unmolested enjoyment of their religion, resolved to re move to Massachusetts. In May, three ships sailed from the Isle of Wight, carrying about two hundred persons; and in June arrived at Salem. Some of the colonists being dissatisfied with that place, removed and laid the foundation of a town, which they named Charlestown. They laid out the town in two-acre lots, one of which was assigned to each inhabitant. The people at Salem commenced at once the manufacture of brick, and built the first brick-kiln established in New England. To encourage the co-operation of capitalists in the settlement of New Netherlands, the Dutch West India Company offered to any of its members who should plant a colony of fifty adults in any part of New Netherlands, excepting on Manhattan Island, certain exclusive privileges, coupled with certain condi tions, and he should be acknowledged as the feudal chief or patroon of such colony. John Mason procured a new patent, which granted to him the territory between the Merrimac and Piscataqua rivers, which tract was afterward called New Hampshire. 1630 The Massachusetts Colony was augmented by the arrival of large numbers of colonists, many of whom were of consid- HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 7 erable standing. Settlements were now made at and named Boston, Watertown, Dorchester, and Roxbury. On the 23d day of August the first court of assistants met since the arrival of the colonists, and voted that houses should be built, and sala ries raised for the ministers at the common charge. 1631 The settlement of Portsmouth in New Hampshire, and of Newtown, afterward called Cambridge, in Massachusetts, was commenced. The Earl of Warwick having in the year before obtained a grant of the tract of land since formed into and known as the Connecticut Colony, assigned it over on the 19th of March to Lord Say and Seal, Lord Brooke, John Hampden, and others. 1632 The erection of the first church in Boston was com menced. King Charles I. granted a patent to Lord Baltimore of the tract of land in America bounded by the ocean, the fortieth degree of latitude, the meridian of the western head of the Po tomac, the river itself from its source to its mouth, and a line drawn due east from Watkins Point to the Atlantic, and gave that territory the name of Maryland, in honor of the queen. 1633 A few emigrants from the Plymouth Colony made a settle ment on the Connecticut River, at the place since called Wind sor. Upon ascending the river their passage was unsuccess fully opposed by the Dutch, who had established a fort on the site of the present city of Hartford. At Windsor the settlers immediately commenced the erection of a house from materials brought with them from Plymouth. This was the first house built in Connecticut. The first church on Manhattan Island was erected this year, on the site of the present Pearl Street, between Broad and Whitehall streets. 1634 The first market, tavern, and store established in Boston were set up this year. The custom of preaching election-day sermons, which pre vailed in New England more than two hundred years, started, and continued, upon the commencement of the practice by the Rev. Mr. Cotton in Massachusetts upon the general election for magistrates held on the 24th of May. Lord Baltimore sent about two hundred Roman Catholic colonists to Maryland to found a settlement. Upon their ar rival, they purchased an Indian town, to which they gave the name of St. Mary s. 1635 On the 20th of October, about sixty men, women, and chil dren, with their horses, cattle, and swine, commenced a re moval from Massachusetts through the wilderness to the Connecticut River. Some of these settled at Windsor; others at the place afterward called Hartford; and others began a set tlement which they called Wethersfield. Men, ordnance, ammunition, and 2000 sterling were sent over from England to build and fortify a fort at the mouth of the Connecticut River. This fort was given the name of Say- 8 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. brook Fort, in honor of Lord Say and Seal and Lord Brooke, two of the proprietors of the Connecticut patent. The authorities of Massachusetts enacted a law that musket bullets should be used as currency. 1636 The ministers of Newtown in Massachusetts, Hooker and Stone, with their entire congregation, removed to the settlement on Connecticut River, which the next year received the name of Hartford. They purchased the land from the Indians, and commenced to lay out a town. Springfield was settled early in the year by William Pynchon and others from Roxbury. Roger Williams, having been banished from Massachusetts on account of religious differences, and, refused an asylum in the Plymouth Colony, travelled southward with some fol lowers, and planted a settlement which he named Providence. 1637 The Pequot Indians having murdered some of the colonists and committed some depredations, the colonists of the three towns on the Connecticut River organized a body of troops who, with about five hundred friendly Indians, marched into the Pequot country and attacked one of their forts. In this con flict about seventy wigwams were burned and between five and seven hundred of the enemy perished, either by the sword or flames. Other expeditions against the unfriendly tribe were instituted, and by their success hostilities ceased for a time. 1638 John Davenport, a celebrated minister of London, accom panied by Theophilus Eaton and Edward Hopkins, merchants of that city, with several other respectable persons, arrived at Boston in the preceding year. Some of their number were sent to Connecticut to explore the coast to discover a suitable place for settlement, which they found at Quinnipiack. Here they erected a hut, in which a few men remained through the winter. The way being prepared, the company sailed from Boston on the 30th -of March, and in about two weeks arrived at their destination. They purchased two large tracts of land from the Indians, and near the bay of Quinnipiack laid out a town in squares, and called it New Haven. Eighteen emigrants from Massachusetts purchased an island in Narragansett Bay from the natives, formed themselves into a body-politic and commenced the settlement of Newport. Harvard College was founded at Newtown, and the name of that place changed to Cambridge. The town of Exeter in New Hampshire was founded. 1639 The members of the Connecticut Colony adopted a constitu tion of government, and chose John Haynes governor. The New Haven Colony was similarly constituted, and Theophilus Eaton chosen governor. Settlers from the New Haven Colony founded the towns of Milford, Guilford, Stratford, and Fairneld. George Fenwick, a gentleman of considerable wealth, founded the town of Saybrook. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 9 The first printing-press in North America was set up this year by Stephen Day, at Cambridge in Massachusetts. General assemblies in Plymouth and in Maryland con vened this year for the first time. 1640 About forty families from Lynn, Massachusetts, emigrated to Long Island, and founded the town of Southampton. Settlements under the jurisdiction of the New Haven Colony were made on both sides of Delaware River and Bay; also on Long Island, where the settlers founded the town of Southold. The first book printed on the continent north of Mexico was published this year at Cambridge, Massachusetts, and was titled " The Bay Psalms Book." The first distillation of brandy in the colonies was com menced by the Dutch on Staten Island. 1641 The manufacture of rope was commenced in Boston. Here tofore it was only obtained from England. 1642 New England at this time contained about fifty towns and villages. A settlement on the island of Martha s Vineyard was com menced by Thomas Mayhew. A stone chuich and a stone tavern were erected at New Amsterdam. The tavern was built on the East River near the present Coenties Slip, and was afterward converted by the Dutch into a City Hall. 1643 The colonies of Massachusetts, Plymouth, New Haven, and Connecticut united in a confederation for amity, offence and defence, and mutual advice and assistance, under the , title of The United Colonies of New England. The English Parliament passed an ordinance appointing the Earl of Warwick governor-in-chief and lord high admiral of the American colonies, with a council of five peers and twelve commoners. It empowered him, in conjunction with his as sociates, to examine the state of their affairs, to send for papers and persons, to remove governors and officers and appoint others in their places, and to assign over to these such part of the powers that were now granted as he should think proper. The colonists in New Netherlands suffered from the ravages and depredations of the Indians in this and the next year. 1644 Roger Williams obtained from the Earl of Warwick a patent for the incorporation of the towns of Providence, Newport, and Portsmouth. A terrible massacre was committed upon the English in Virginia by the Indians, who had confederated to exterminate the colonists. The massacre began in the out-parts of the colony, and continued two days. Three hundred of the English were killed. The settlement of Hempstead,on Long Island, was commenced by some emigrants from England. 1645 In the colony of Connecticut there were now eight towns: Hartford, W indsor > Wethersfield, Stratford, Fairneld, Say- brook, Farmington, and Southampton on Long Island. In the colony of New Haven there were six: New Haven, Milford, 10 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Guilford, Stamford, Branford, and Southold on Long Is land. Massachusetts passed the first law in New England for estab lishing public schools. William Clayborn and Richard Ingle raised a rebellion in Maryland, seized the administration, and compelled Governor Calvert to flee to Virginia. The rebels exercised the govern ment of the province more than a year, and distinguished the period of their dominion by disorder and misrule. John Winthrop, Jr., with some associates, obtained from the town of Boston three thousand acres of the common lands at Braintree, for an encouragement or bounty for setting up iron works, and a monopoly of that business for twenty-one years. 1646 John Eliot, a minister of Roxbury, Massachusetts, com menced his labors among the Indians, which procured for him the title of " The Indian Apostle." A settlement on Long Island, on the site of the present city of Brooklyn, was already commenced, and now it received a village charter under the name of " Breuckelen," from the ancient village of the same name in Holland. The settlement was es tablished on the present Fulton Avenue near Hoyt and Smith streets. There were a few houses at the water s edge near the present Fulton Ferry. This hamlet was known as The Ferry. " 1647 The freemen of the several settlements on Rhode Island con vened for the first time in general assembly, and established a code of laws. 1648 The first instance of capital punishment for witchcraft occur ring in colonial history was this year, in Massachusetts. The settlement of New London, in Connecticut, was com menced. 1650 Negro slaves were introduced into New Netherlands about this time. 1652 The Swedes attacked and took a fort which the Dutch had established on the Delaware in the preceding year. A mint for coining money was erected in Massachusetts. The money coined was in shillings, sixpences, and threepences. The settlement of Newtown and Flatbush, on Long Island, was commenced under patents of the Dutch governor. The first iron forge in America was established this year in Raynham, a town of the Plymouth Colony. 1654 The inhabitants of Flatbush erected a church, which was the first one built on Long Island. 1655 The Dutch, under Governor Stuyvesant, sailed from New Amsterdam on an expedition against the Swedes on the Dela ware. The Swedish forts were all taken, and the garrisons sur rendered. Some of the Swedes took the oath of allegiance to the Dutch Government. The rest returned to Sweden. A conflict took place between the Catholics and Protestants in Maryland, and several were killed. 1656 The first Quakers that appeared in New England arrived this year in Massachusetts, and were banished the colony. At this period New Amsterdam contained seventeen streets, HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 11 one hundred and twenty houses, and about one thousand inhab itants. 1658 The settlement of Stonington, in Connecticut, was com menced. The place was first called Southerton. Stone pavements were now laid in New Amsterdam. The street first paved still retains the name of " Stone street." 1659 Two Quakers who returned to Massachusetts after banishment were executed. Another one, a woman, was convicted and sen tenced to die, but was reprieved on condition of her departure from the jurisdiction within forty-eight hours. The woman returned again, and was also executed in the next year. Thomas Macy, with his family, removed from Massachusetts, and commenced the first settlement on Nantucket. The manufacture of bricks was now commenced at New Amsterdam, and brick buildings from this time began to be erected, Before this bricks had been imported from Hol land, and used only for chimneys and ovens. 1660 New England contained at this time about thirty-eight thou sand inhabitants, Maryland twelve thousand, and Virginia thirty thousand. 1681 The translation ^ of the New Testament into the Indian lan guage by John Eliot was printed this year. 1662 Connecticut obtained a charter from King Charles II., under which the colony was granted many important privileges. The Virginia Legislature passed stringent laws against Quak ers, and sectarians of every denomination. Two licensers of the press were appointed in Massachusetts. A few French Protestant refugees were granted leave by the authorities of Massachusetts to reside in that colony. Maryland passed an Act to establish a mint. 1663 King Charles II. granted a charter to the Earl of Clarendon and associates for colonizing and for the government of the coun try lying between the 31st and 36th degrees north latitude. The name of Carolina was given to the new province. King Charles II. conferred a charter on Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. An Act of Parliament was passed to monopolize the colonial trade for England. All goods purchased in Europe by the colo nists must pass through the British ports. On the 7th of June the Dutch settlement of Esopus, since called Kingston, was attacked by the Indians. Twenty one of the inhabitants were massacred and forty-five carried away captive. A new settlement near by, called the "Rondout," was almost annihilated by the savages. The translation of the Bible into the Indian language, by John Eliot, was printed this year. 1664 King Charles II. granted a patent to his brother, the Duke of York and Albany, for several tracts of land in America, a part of which territory was subsequently reconveyed to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, under the name of New Jer sey. An expedition was fitted out in England, under the command 12 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. of Richard Nichols, for the conquest of the Dutch in America, Nichols appeared in the harbor of New Amsterdam in August, and demanded the surrender of the town and fort from Gov ernor Stuyvesant. Letters and messages were exchanged, and at length the Dutch governor agreed to capitulate. Articles to that end were signed on the 27th of August. By the terms of the surrender the Dutch were to continue free denizens, to retain their estates, to enjoy their ancient customs with regard to inheritances, to enjoy their modes of worship and church discipline, and they were allowed a freedom of trade to Holland. In honor of the Duke of York, New Amsterdam now took the name of New York. On the 24th of September the Dutch garrison and settlement at Fort Orange surrendered to the English, and in honor of the Duke the place was called Albany. On the 1st of October the Dutch and Swedes on the Delaware capitulated. The English now exercised domin ion over all New Netherlands. The settlement of Newark, Middletown, Shrewsbury, and Elizabethtown, in New Jersey, was commenced by removals from New England and Long Island. The Legislature of Massachusetts passed a law prohibiting the establishment of any printing-press, excepting in the town of Cambridge. Nichols made a treaty with the Indians of the Five Nations, by which they ceded their lands and submitted to the King of England. 1665 The colonies of New Haven and Connecticut formed a union, uniting into one colony under the name of the latter. There were now nineteen towns in the united colonies. The town of Branford dissented from this union, and most of the inhabi tants removed to Newark, in New Jersey. The city of New York was incorporated, and a mayor, five aldermen, and a sheriff were chosen. t Emigrants from Barbadoes commenced a settlement in Caro lina under the leadership of John Yeamans, who was appointed Governor of the County of Clarendon, which had lately been laid out by the proprietors of the province. St. Augustine, in Florida, was sacked and plundered by John Davis, a pirate. 1666 Connecticut established four counties : Hartford, New Haven, New London, and Fairfield, with a court in each county. The first church built in Brooklyn was erected this year, on the site of Fulton Avenue, near Lawrence Street. 1668 The province of Maine, upon application of some of its in habitants, was put under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts. The Legislature of Massachusetts granted to Daniel Gookin and others a township of land eight miles square, by the name of Worcester. The first permanent settlement within the limits of the pres ent State of Michigan was made this year, by Father Mar- quette, a French missionary, who established a mission at Sault Ste. Marie. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 13 1669 The Old South Church in Boston was erected this year. This was the third church built in Boston. 1670 A colony of settlers arrived in Carolina from England, and commenced a settlement on the neck of land between the Ash ley and Cooper rivers, where in the next year they founded a town, which they called Charlestown. 1671 Virginia, at this period, contained about forty thousand in habitants, of whom two thousand were slaves. The Assembly of Maryland passed an act encouraging the im portation of negro slaves. 1672 The English Parliament passed an act imposing customs upon the colonies, to be collected by revenue-officers to be appointed by the crown. The whale-fishery business was commenced at Nantucket. 1673 A war having broken out between England and Holland, the Dutch sent an expedition to destroy the commerce of the Eng lish colonies in America. After ravaging the coast of Virginia, learning the defenceless condition of New York, the Dutch proceeded to that city and forced its surrender, and soon after compelled all New Netherlands to submission. This conquest extended to the whole province of New Jersey. Upon the exe cution of a treaty of peace between the two nations in the fol lowing year these possessions were restored to the English. New England, it was estimated, contained at this time about one hundred and twenty thousand inhabitants, of whom fifteen hundred families resided in Boston. The first mail between Boston and New York was established this year, for a more speedy intelligence and despatch of af fairs." The letters were to be carried by a messenger, who was directed to go and return once a month. The Mississippi River was explored for a considerable por tion of its length by Father Marquette, a French missionary, and Joliet, a citizen of Quebec. 1674 The authorities in Massachusetts granted to John Foster the privilege of setting up a printing-press in Boston. 1675 A war commenced between Philip, a king of one of the In dian tribes in New England, and the colonists, which soon ex tended to other tribes, and lasted more than a year. The colonists experienced great cruelties and suffering, and lost about six hundred, who were either massacred or taken captive. Twelve or thirteen towns were destroyed. 1676 A rebellion broke out in Virginia under the leadership of Nathaniel Bacon, which cost the colony 100,000. The prin cipal causes of this rebellion are supposed to have been the ex tremely low price of tobacco, and the ill-treatment of the plant ers in the exchange of goods for it ; the splitting of the colony into proprietaries, contrary to the original charters, and the ex travagant taxes to which they were subjected to relieve them selves from those grants ; the heavy restraints and burdens laid upon their trade by act of parliament ; and the disturbance given by the Indians. New Jersey was now divided into two parts, called East 14 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Jersey and West Jersey. East Jersey was governed by Carte- ret, and West Jersey became a dependency of New York. 1677 The province of Maine was purchased of its proprietor by an agent of the Massachusetts Colony in England. From this time Maine formed a part of Massachusetts. Burlington, in West Jersey, was laid out and soon settled by English emigrants. A collector of customs was sent from England to Carolina, who rendered himself obnoxious to the people. An insurrec tion broke out, and the insurgents overturned the government, which they exercised for two years with all the authority of an independent State. The authorities of Massachusetts passed a new law for the apprehension and punishment of every person found in attend ance at a Quaker meeting. A postal system was inaugurated in Massachusetts to insure regularity in the delivery of mail. Heretofore it had been the custom to deposit letters at the Town House, to be taken and forwarded at the pleasure of those who visited the place. 1678 The province of New York contained at this time about twenty-four towns and villages. There were three hundred and forty -three houses in the city of New York. 1679 A collector of royal customs for New England was now ap pointed, and Edward Randolph was sent over in that capacity. Upon his arrival at Boston he was considered as an enemy and opposed by the people, who considered their chartered privi leges invaded. A conflagration broke out in Boston about midnight on the 8th of August, and destroyed above eighty dwellings, seventy warehouses, and a large amount of property. The loss was computed to be 200,000. La Salle built a ship on Niagara Eiver, above the Falls, and sailed into Lake Erie. This was the first vessel ever seen on the great lakes. In this vessel La Salle sailed across Lake Erie and through the strait and lake which he named St. Clair, and through Lake Huron into Lake Michigan, where he constructed a trading house at Mackinaw. Thence he proceeded to Green Bay. From that place he sent his vessel back with a cargo of rich furs, and he proceeded with a part of his company in canoes, fifteen hundred miles from the nearest French settle ment, into the Illinois country, where he erected a fort near Lake Peoria. 1680 By orders from England, New Hampshire was now set apart from the jurisdiction of Massachusetts and erected into a sepa rate province, against the will of the inhabitants. The first pro vincial assembly convened at Portsmouth on the 16th of March. Connecticut contained at this time twenty-six towns, and Rhode Island nine. The foundation of a new town in Carolina was laid, and called Charlestown. The inhabitants of the old town called by that name removed to the new place, and it was made the seat of government. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 15 The upper part of the Mississippi River was explored this year by Father Hennepin. He discovered the falls which he named the " Falls of St. Anthony of Padua." 1681 William Penn received on the 4th of March from King Charles II. a charter and grant of the lands in America lying between Delaware Bay and River and the province of Maryland, to which territory was given the name of Pennsylvania, Ad vertising this fact, many single persons and families, chiefly of the Quaker denomination, prepared to remove from England to the new province. A number of merchants formed an associ ation and purchased from Penn twenty thousand acres for 400. On the llth of July Penn entered into certain articles with the purchasers and adventurers, which were entitled "Conditions and Concessions." The preliminaries being settled, a colony was sent over during the year, and upon its arrival commenced a settlement above the confluence of the Schuylkill and the Delaware. 1682 William Penn published a frame of government for the new province, with a body of laws agreed upon in England between himself and the purchasers. To prevent all future pretence of claim to the province by the Duke of York, he obtained from him a deed of release for it. In the month of August, Penn, accompanied by about one hundred colonists, chiefly Quakers, embarked for America, and landed at Newcastle on the 24th of October. On the 4th of December he called an assembly of the people at the place since called Chester, and instituted laws for the government of the province. He then entered into a treaty with the Indians, and made purchases of some of their lands. Penn next proceeded to lay out a place for a proposed city, to \vhich he had already assigned the name of Philadelphia. The city was immediately begun, and within less than a year eighty houses and cottages were built. Newark, in East Jersey, contained at this time about one hundred families. Settlements were commenced this year on the Jersey shore of the Delaware by three hundred and sixty emigrants from Europe. At this period New Hampshire contained about four thousand inhabitants. M. de la Salle descended the Illinois into the Mississippi, and down that riv^r to the sea, and formally taking possession of all the country watered by that river for the King of France, named it, in his honor, Louisiana. The first English settlements west of the Alleghanies were now made on the east side of the Mississippi, near the site of the present city of Alton, in Illinois. 1683 About twenty families from Germany arrived in Pennsyl vania, and commenced a settlement about seven miles from Philadelphia, which they called Germantown. On the 17th of October, the inhabitants of the province of New York convened for the first time in general assembly at the city of New York, and passed several important laws. A controversy having arisen between Massachusetts and tlic 16 HISTOKY OF THE UNITED STATES. crown, principally concerning the collection of royal customs at Boston, an order of council was passed on the 26th of July for issuing a quo warranto against the charter of Massachusetts, with a declaration from the king that if the colony before prosecution would make full submission and resignation to his pleasure, he would regulate their charter for his service and their good, and with no further alterations than should be necessary for the support of his government there. The propo sition of the king divided the Massachusetts Legislature. The .governor and a majority of the assistants voted not to contend in law, but to submit to the king s pleasure. The representa tives, after a fortnight s consideration, refused their concurrence in this vote, and a letter of attorney was sent to an agent in England to appear and answer in behalf of the colony. The first printing-press set up in the colonies south of Bos ton was introduced about this time into Virginia, and immedi ately suppressed by the governor. This action was approved by the king, and he sent positive instructions that no printing- press should be allowed in Virginia. 1684 On the 18th of June the High Court of Chancery, in Eng land, gave judgment for the king against the colony of Massa chusetts ; their charter was declared forfeited, and the liberties of the colonists seized into the hands of the king. The Indians composing the Five Nations made a treaty of peace with the English, at a grand convention held at Albany on the 3d of August. Philadelphia now contained three hundred houses and about two thousand inhabitants. The French erected a fort at the falls of Niagara. 1685 King Charles II. died, and was succeeded by his brother under the title of James II. The new king caused a quo war ranto to be issued against the charters of Rhode Island and Connecticut. A collector of royal customs was established in Carolina at the port of Charlestown. The first printing-press established in Pennsylvania was set up this year, near Philadelphia, by William Bradford. The first publication was an almanac. 1686 The attorney-general of England was ordered to prosecute writs of quo warranto against" East and West Jersey. King James, designing to establish an arbitrary government for New York, deprived that province of its immunities. He also or dered that no printing-press should be established there. Sir Edmund Andros arrived at Boston on the 20th of De cember, with a commission from the king for the government of New England. Among his instructions was one that no printing-press should be allowed. He was also instructed to give universal toleration in religion but encouragement to the Church of England; to execute the laws of trade, and prevent frauds in customs. To support his authority, two companies of soldiers were sent over from England. Immediately after his arrival Andros proceeded to Rhode Island, dissolved the government, and assumed the administration. IIISTOKY OF THE UNITED STATES. 17 Under the encouragement of the new administration an Episcopal society was organized in Boston, which was the first in that place. 1687 Andros introduced the Episcopal service in the Old South Church in Boston, against the will of its proprietors. In Oc tober Andros went to Hartford, accompanied by his troops, where the general assembly was in session, and, demanding the surrender of the Connecticut charter, declared the government under it to be dissolved. The charter, however, was preserved, through the zeal of Captain Wadsworth, of Hartford, who se creted it in the hollow of an oak-tree. That tree, known in history as the Charter Oak, was held in veneration until it was blown down by a storm more than one hundred and fifty years afterward. 1688 The administration of the government by Andros was so op pressive to the inhabitants of Massachusetts, they despatched an agent to England to represent their grievances to the king. The first Episcopal church edifice in Massachusetts was built in Boston and called the King s Chapel. 1689 The news of the abdication of King James and of the acces sion of William and Mary to the throne arrived in Boston in May. In April, before the news of the revolution in England had reached America, the people of Boston and the surround ing country rose in arms, seized and confined Andros, and such of the council as had been most active, together with several of the inhabitants who had made themselves obnoxious, and re instated the old magistrates in power. The freemen of Rhode Island, on hearing of the imprison ment of Andros, met at Newport on the first of May, and voted to resume their charter; and replaced all the general offi- cers who had been displaced three years before. The government of Connecticut was re-established by the freemen of that colony in May, and the laws which had been suspended were declared to have the same force as they had before. Information of the accession of William and Mary to the throne was received in New York with great satisfaction. About fifty of the inhabitants seized the garrison, formed them selves into a committee of safety to hold and rule the province until the government should be established by the new king. A bitter strife and feud were now inaugurated between two con tending factions of the citizens for the temporary control of the government. New Rochelle, in New York, was settled this year by a colony of French Huguenots. The French language was chiefly spoken there for at least two generations. 1690 The French in Canada organized three expeditions, com posed of French and Indians, to devastate the English colonies. One party entered the village of Schenectadv on the night of the eighth of February, surprised the inhabitants when asleep, and set the town on fire. Sixty men, women, and children were massacred, and twenty-seven carried away pris- 18 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. oners; the rest fled, nearly naked, towards Albany. Another party surprised Salmon Falls, in New Hampshire, on the 18th of March. The place was pillaged and burned; about thirty of the inhabitants were killed, and fifty -four made prisoners. On the 17th of May the fort and settlement of Casco were attacked and destroyed. These depredations alarmed the country, and preparations were soon made to make an attack on the French settlements in Nova Scotia. A fleet of eight vessels, earrying nearly eight hundred men, was despatched under the command of Sir William Phips to attack Port Royal. Upon the arrival there of the expedition, the place, being in no condition to stand a siege, surrendered with little or no resistance. Sir William Phips now took possession of all the coast from Port Royal to the English settlements. An expedition was soon after organized to subjugate Canada, and on the 5th of October it arrived at Quebec. On learning the strength of the place, the invaders abandoned their project and returned to Boston. Success had been so confidently expected, that adequate pro vision had not been made for the payment of the troops. In this emergency the government of Massachusetts issued bills of credit as a substitute for money, and these were the first that were issued in the American colonies. A large number of French Protestant refugees emigrated to America this year, and settled in Carolina and Virginia. The whale-fishery at Nantucket was commenced on a large scale at this time. The first newspaper published in America was issued at Boston on the 25th of September, and was called Public Occurrences. Before the second number appeared the legis lature suppressed its publication. The first paper-mill in America was established this year, by William Bradford, near Philadelphia. 1692 King William granted to Connecticut and Rhode Island the right to resume their old charters, and he gave to Massachusetts a new charter. Under this the colony of Plymouth was united with that of Massachusetts. The jurisdiction of Massachusetts extended over the provinces of Maine, Nova Scotia, and other territory. Twenty persons were put to death this year in Massachusetts, upon their conviction of the charge of practising witchcraft. A party of French and Indians surprised and nearly de stroyed the whole town of York, in Maine, on the 25th of January, massacring about seventy-five of the inhabitants and carrying away captive about the same number. A charter was obtained from the crown for a college to be established in Virginia under the name of "The College of Willliam and Mary in Virginia. " A whipping-post , pillory, and ducking-stool were established in the city of New York. 1693 William Bradford was appointed printer to the government of New York, and set up the first press in that province. 1694 A body of Indians commanded by a French officer attacked HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 19 a village on Oyster river in New Hampshire, burned twenty houses and massacred and took captive in all about one hun dred of the inhabitants. 1695 The planting of rice in Carolina was commenced this year. A brigantine from Madagascar touching at Carolina on her way to Great Britain, anchored off Sullivan s Island. The captain of the vessel presented a bag of seed-rice to one of the colonists, and gave him directions how it should be planted, with infor mation of its growth in Eastern countries, and of its incredible increase. The rice was distributed among several of the inhabi tants, who made the experiment of planting it in different soils. The success fully equalled their expectations, and from this small beginning arose the staple commodity of Carolina, which soon became the great source of its opulence. The first Episcopal church in Pennsylvania was erected this year in Philadelphia. 1696 At this period, New England had about one hundred thou sand inhabitants and one hundred and thirty churches. The city of New York contained five hundred and ninety-four houses and six thousand inhabitants. The Reformed Protestant Dutch Church, at New York, received a charter of incorporation. The Spaniards built a church, a fort, and some dwelling houses at Pensacola. A cargo of negro slaves direct from Africa arrived in Rhode Island. Some were sold there and the remainder in Boston. 1697 Trinity Church in New York was completed, and opened for worship on the 6th of February. Paper was commenced to be manufactured at German town, Penna. The streets of New York were now ordered to be lighted oy the Common Council. The lighting was to be done in a lantern suspended from a pole stretched out from the win dow of every seventh house. A night-watch was also insti tuted. 1698 A town was laid out in Virginia, and called Williamsburg in honor of the king. The seat of government was removed there from Jamestown. There were at this time about four thousand Indians in Massachusetts. Louis XIV. of France projected the settlement of a colony in ijouisiana, and sent over two vessels to visit the country and gather information in regard to it. 1699 The seat of government for Maryland was removed from St. Mary s to Annapolis. William Kidd, the noted pirate, was apprehended in Boston, committed to prison, and sent to England for trial, where he was afterward condemned and executed. Kidd was formerly known as one of the boldest and most successful shipmasters that sailed from New York. In May, 1691, the Common Council of New York awarded him 150 for service to the colony. Receiving from King William a commission as captain of a galley of thirty guns for the suppression of piracy, he sailed 20 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. from England in 1696, but turning pirate himself, returned in 1698 with a large booty to New York 1700 The authorities of New York and Massachusetts passed acts for the banishment of all Popish priests and Jesuits from those provinces. At this period Boston contained about 7000 inhabitants and about 1000 houses. There were about 5500 whites in Carolina. The first public library instituted in America was this year founded in New York. This library was subsequently merged with the Society Library, which was founded in 1754. 1701 Yale College was founded this year. It was chartered by the Assembly, and its trustees appointed Saybrook for its loca tion. The number of the inhabitants in the American colonies at this period was estimated at 262,000. The first permanent settlement in Michigan was founded this year by the French. Sieur de la Motte Cadillac, accompanied with one hundred men, departed from Quebec on the 8th of March, and arrived on the site of the present city of Detroit on the 24th of June. He at once erected a fort, a palisaded structure, near the present Jefferson Avenue, Shelby and Woodbridge streets. 1702 King William died on the 8th of March, and was succeeded by Queen Anne. A rupture having taken place between England and Spain, the Governor of Carolina organized an expedition against St. Augustine. The enterprise was unsuccessful, and entailed a debt of 6000 on the colony ; to pay this, the provincial assembly of Carolina passed an act for the issue of bills of credit. This was the first paper money issued in Carolina. East and West Jersey were now united under one government by Queen Anne, and received the name of New Jersey. The first Episcopal society in that province was organized. The erection of the first Episcopal church at Newport was commenced. The Episcopal was made the established Church in Maryland, and all the citizens were required to be taxed for its mainte nance. A pestilent fever brought from the West Indies to New York ravaged that city, and carried off one tenth of the population. 1703 Virginia contained at this time about 6000 inhabitants. Several settlements in Maine were attacked by the French and Indians, and about one hundred and fifty of the inhabitants were massacred or taken away captive. The " King s Farm " in the city of New York was granted to Trinity Church by Queen Anne. This gift laid the founda tion of the vast revenues of that society. 1704 The Legislature of Maryland passed an act to prevent the growth of Popery in that province. A party of French and Indians set fire to the town of Deer- field, in Massachusetts, massacred forty-seven of the inhabit ants, and took away one hundred and twelve as captives. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 21 The Church of England was made the established church in Carolina. The first newspaper published in America (excepting the single issue in 1690) was issued on the 24th of April, at Boston, and called The Boston News Letter. It was published weekly, and was printed on a half sheet twelve inches by eight. The first Episcopal church built in New Jersey was erected at Burlington. 1706 A large force of French and Spaniards sailed into the harbor of Charleston, in Carolina, to assault that place, but they were repulsed by the colonists, with a loss of three hundred men. 1707 Two regiments embarked from Nantasket, Mass., in May, to proceed against the French at Port Royal. They made an at tempt to bombard the fort and failed, and the enterprise was abandoned. The first Episcopal society in Connecticut was formed at Stratford. 1708 A body of French and Indians attacked the town of Haver- hill, in New Hampshire, burned several houses, and plundered the rest. Nearly forty persons were massacred, and many car ried away as prisoners. 1709 An extensive plan was determined on by the colonies of New York, New Jersey, and New England, to subdue the French in Canada, Arcadia, and Newfoundland. Five regiments of regu lar troops were to be sent from England to join in the enterprise. Affairs on the Continent obliged England to abandon sending her troops to America, and the project was thereby frustrated. To defray the expenses of this projected expedition, the colonies of New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut issued bills of credit for the first time. The first printing-press established in Connecticut was set up this year in New London. A slave-market was established in the city of New York. 1710 An expedition set sail from Boston, on the 18th of September, against the French fort at Port Royal. On the 3d of October the place capitulated, and its name changed to that of Annapo lis, in honor of Queen Anne. A post-office establishment for the colonies in America was created by an act of Parliament. The chief office was made at New York, and sub-offices at such other places as the Postmas ter-General might direct. 1711 A large expedition, consisting of an armament from England and a large body of colonial troops, sailed from Boston on the 30th of July, to attack the French in Canada. In proceeding up the St. Lawrence River the fleet struck upon the rocks, and eight or nine of the transports were wrecked, and about one thousand lives lost. Upon this disaster the design was relin quished and the fleet turned about, and the English vessels returned directly to England. Another large expedition, in tended to act in concert with the other, left Albany on the 28th of August, and commenced a march toward Canada, but bear- 22 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ing of the failure of the Boston expedition the whole enterprise was abandoned, and the forces returned home. A conflagration in Boston, in October, destroyed the Town Hall and about one hundred other buildings. A regular weekly mail was established between "Boston and Maine, and a bi-weekly mail between Boston and New York. 1712 A war between the colonists of Carolina and the Indians broke out, in which a large number of the inhabitants were massacred. The Indians were conquered, and nearly all of them in the northern part of that colony extirpated. At this period the settlers in Louisiana numbered twenty- eight families. The negroes in the city of New York formed a plot to set fire to the city, and in its execution killed several of the inhabitants. Nineteen of the negroes were convicted and ex ecuted. Albany contained at this time about four thousand inhabi tants. 1713 At this period there were forty-five towns in Connecticut. The settlement of Worcester, in Massachusetts, was com menced. 1715 About four hundred of the inhabitants of South Carolina were killed this year in a war with the Indians in the central and southern parts of the province. The manufacture of pig and bar iron was commenced in Virginia. 1717 The college heretofore instituted at Say brook was removed this year to New Haven, and in honor of Governor Yale, its great benefactor, was named Yale College. New Orleans was founded by the French. 1718 Emigrants to the number of eight hundred arrived in Louisi ana, and most of them settled at New Orleans and Natchez. 1719 The first newspaper published in America, outside of Boston, was issued in Philadelphia, and called The American Weekly Mercury. The first Presbyterian church built in New York was erected this year on Wall Street. Tea began to be used in New England for the first time. 1720 About this time clocks were first introduced into America. Heretofore time was marked by the hour-glass. The manufacture of iron was commenced in Pennsylvania, about this time, by a settler named Nutt, who erected a forge in Coventry. 1721 The small-pox devastated Boston and vicinity, attacking nearly six thousand people. Inoculation for that disease was now first introduced into New England, and met with violent opposition. 1722 Massachusetts contained at this period about ninety-four thousand inhabitants. The first manufacture of hemp-duck in America was com menced about this time, in Rhode Island. 1723 The Province of Pennsylvania for the first time issued paper HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 23 money. In March it emitted 15,000, and 30,000 in the latter part of the year. The Episcopal society in Stratford, Conn., completed a church this year. This was the first Episcopal church erected in Connecticut. 1725 The first newspaper published in the province of New York was issued on the 16th of October by William Bradford, in the city of New York, and called the New York Gazette. 1726 The first printing-press in Maryland was set up at Annapolis. The printing for that province was done before this in Phila delphia. A prin ting- press was also set up in Virginia about this time. 1727 The first newspaper printed in Maryland was published at Annapolis, and called the Maryland Gazette. Fredericksburg, in Virginia, was founded by an act of the assembly. 1729 The province of Carolina was divided this year, and two dis tinct governments instituted. North Carolina and South Caro lina were the names given the respective divisions of the terri tory. The Indians attacked the French settlement of Natchez, and killed about two hundred of the inhabitants. Of all the peo ple residing there, not more than twenty whites and six negroes escaped. One hundred and fifty children, eighty women, and nearly as many negroes were carried awav as prisoners. Baltimore was incorporated by the Legislature of Maryland, and laid out into town-lots. 1730 Rhode Island contained at this time about 18,000 inhabitants, 3800 of whom resided in Newport and 3700 in Providence. At this period there were 28,000 negroes in South Carolina. The Governor of Louisiana dispatched an expedition against the Indians, in revenge for their massacre of the French at Natchez, which succeeded in capturing nearly the whole tribe. The prisoners were transported as slaves to St. Domingo. The first printing-press established in either of the colonies of Carolina was set up at Charleston. The first paper-mill established in New England was erected at Milton, in Massachusetts; the proprietor receiving as encour agement from the legislature certain privileges for ten years. A line of stages was established between New York and Philadelphia to make bi-monthly trips. The small pox again ravaged Boston, and carried off about five hundred of the inhabitants. 1731 At this period Massachusetts contained about 120,000 inhab itants; Philadelphia, 12,000 and 2400 houses; and Charleston, in South Carolina, between 500 and 600 houses. The first newspaper published in South Carolina was issued on the 8th of January at Charleston, and called the South Carolina Gazette. The first fire-engines used in New York arrived from Eng land. A fire department for the city was at once instituted. 1732 The yellow-fever raged at Charleston, S. C., four or five Y 24 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. months, carrying off large numbers of the population. Busi ness was almost entirely suspended. The province of New York contained a population of about 65,000; Pennsylvania, about 30,000; and Virginia, about 60,000. The town of Salem, in Massachusetts, contained 520 houses, and about five thousand inhabitants. The first Episcopal church erected in New Hampshire was completed at Portsmouth. The first printing-press set up in Rhode Island was estab lished at Newport; and the first newspaper published in that colony was issued from that press, this year, and called the Ehode Island Gazette. A corporation was formed in England, and received a char ter from King George II. , for the colonization of the large un occupied tract of country lying between South Carolina and Florida, to which, in honor of the king, was given the name of Georgia. That province completed the number of English colonies in America that afterward constituted the original thirteen United States. 1733 James Oglethorpe, one of the trustees named in the charter for Georgia, arrived in that province in February with one hundred and sixteen colonists, and commenced building a fort and laying out a town, which he called Savannah, from the Indian name of the river which ran by it. He called a con vention of the Indians inhabiting the province, at which fifty chieftains attended, and concluded with them a treaty of amity and peace. The first lodge of Free Masons in America was opened at Boston on the 30th of July. Maryland now contained a population of 36,000. The first Catholic church erected in the colonies north of Maryland, and the only one previous to the Revolution, was built this year in Philadelphia. 1734 The second Masonic lodge in America was established in Philadelphia. 1735 The first newspaper in America printed in a foreign tongue was issued at Germantown, in Pennsylvania, in the German language. Boston at this time had about 16,000 inhabitants. 1736 About four hundred emigrants, mostly Scotch and Germans, arrived in Georgia this year. Oglethorpe built a fort on the Savannah River at a place called Augusta ; a fort and town called Frederica, on an island near the mouth of the river ; and another fort, called Cumber land, on an island nearer the sea. The Parliament of Eng land voted 10,000 to defray the expenses of these public works. A large body of French and friendly Indians were defeated in a battle with the Chickasaws in Louisiana. The first newspaper published in Virginia was issued on the 6th of August, at Williamsburg, and called The Virginia A regular line of stages was established between Boston and HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 25 Newport, and exclusive privileges were granted it for a num ber of years by the Legislature of Rhode Island. 173S Through Spanish influence an insurrection of the negroes in South Carolina broke out, and spread desolation over a large district. The negroes were subjugated and the leaders put to death. There were at this time about forty thousand negroes in the province. A college was founded at Princeton in New Jersey, and called Nassau Hall. At this period New Jersey contained a population of 43,388 whites and 3981 slaves. Brooklyn, L. I., at this time had 721 inhabitants, of which number 184 were blacks. 739 The celebrated Methodist preacher George Whitefield ar rived at Philadelphia from England in September, and preached to multitudes in various parts of the colonies in this and the following year. The first church in Baltimore was erected, and occupied by the Episcopalians. 1740 Oglethorpe, with a force of two thousand men, made an un successful attack on St. Augustine. A conflagration broke out in Charleston, South Carolina, and destroyed three hundred of the best buildings in the town, besides other property of great value. The English Parliament voted 20,000 in aid of the sufferers. The Legislature of South Carolina passed an act to prohibit the teaching of negroes to write. 1741 A conspiracy of negroes and others was f ormed in New York to burn the city. Twenty-two of the incendiaries were exe cuted, thirty burned to death, and great numbers transported. The first literary journal published in the country was issued by Benjamin Franklin at Philadelphia, and called The Gen eral Magazine and Historical Chronicle. 1742 Faneuil Hall, in Boston, was erected by Peter Faneuil, and presented to the town. The first public library in Pennsylvania was instituted, through the exertions of Benjamin Franklin. Richmond, in Virginia, was established by an act of the leg islature. 1743 A German edition of the Bible was published at German- town, in Pennsylvania. The cultivation of indigo was introduced into South Carolina at this time. A year or more before this date, Mr. Lucas, Governor of Antigua, sent some indigo seed to his daughter in South Carolina, to plant for her amusement. Learning its success, he sent over from Montserrat a man accustomed to making indigo, who built vats on Wappoe Creek, and there made the first indigo that was produced in America. Very soon afterward the planting of indigo in South Carolina became common, and in a year or two it became an article of export. 1745 An expedition of four thousand men sailed from Massachu setts against the French town and fort at Louisburg, on the 26 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. island of Cape Breton. The place was captured, and prizes valued at upwards of 600,000 taken. The census of New Jersey showed a population of 61,403. 1746 The first iron rolling and slitting mill in Pennsylvania was established in Thornbury Township. 1747 The first public library in Rhode Island was established at Newport. 1749 Several persons in Virginia and England associated them selves together into a company called the Ohio Company, anii obtained from the king a grant of 600,000 acres of lands about the Ohio River, in territory claimed by the French. This transaction was one of the causes which led to the ensuing war between France and England. There were at this "period 2076 houses in Philadelphia. Rhode Island contained about 31,500 inhabitants, of whom about 3000 were negroes. 1750 The English Parliament, to protect the iron industry in Eng land, passed an act prohibiting the erection of any iron rolling or slitting mill, or any forge, in the American colonies. An amateur theatrical performance was played in Boston, which led the Legislature of Massachusetts to pass an act for bidding theatrical entertainments in the province. Pennsylvania received this year immigrations of 4317 Ger mans and 1000 English and Irish. The population of New England was now about 354,000, and of South Carolina, 64,000. An Academy was instituted in Philadelphia from which the University of Pennyslvania afterward originated. The first theatre established in New York was opened on Nassau Street, on the 5th of March, with the play of Shake- peare s tragedy of King Richard III. Regular performances were continued for more than fifteen months. 1751 Philadelphia at this time contained a population of about 17,000 people, of whom 6000 were negroes. The first printing-press in New Jersey was set up at Wood- bridge. 1752 Heretofore in all the British dominions the new year com menced on the 25th of March. By an act of parliament it was made to date hereafter on the first day of January. The small-pox visited Boston this year, of which disease about 550 died. The town contained at this time 17,574 inhab itants. Benjamin Franklin made his grand electrical discoveries this year. The first theatre established in Virginia was opened at Wil- liamsburg on the 5th of September. The performers came from London, and the first play acted was " The Merchant of Venice." 1754 The encroachments of the French in the territory west of the Alleghanies impelled the Legislature of Virginia to send an ex pedition against the invaders. The colonial troops were attacked by an overwhelming force of the enemy, and surren- HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 27 dered. By the terms of the capitulation the English were re leased upon the condition that they would return to the inhab ited parts of Virginia. George Washington was one of the officers of the Virginia troops engaged in this enterprise. The colonists, anticipating a war between France and Eng land, held a convention at Albany to take measures of defence. A treaty was concluded with the Indians composing the Six Nations, and a plan was proposed to form a union of all the colonies under one central government. All the delegates, ex cept those from Connecticut, voted for that measure, but it was rejected by the different colonial legislatures to whom the plan was referred for ratification. The Legislature of New York granted a charter for the incor poration of a college to be called "The Governors of the Col lege of the Province of New York, in the City of New York, in America." The president of the college was ever to be of the Episcopalian denomination. 1755 The British Government sent a body of troops to America, under the command of General Braddock, to aid the colonists in driving out the French from territory claimed by the English. Upon Braddock s arrival a convention of the colo nial governors assembled, and determined that three expeditions against the French should be organized. The first under Gen eral Braddock, with his British troops, was to attack the French fort called Fort du Quesne at the junction of the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers; the second, under Governor Shirley with American regulars and friendly Indians, to attack the French fort at Niagara; the third, composed of militia from the northern colonies, to attack Crown Point on Lake Cham- plain. While preparations for these enterprises were in prog ress a force of three thousand men sailed from Boston to at tack the French forts in Nova Scotia. This expedition was successful, and for the purpose of extirpating the French from that territory seven thousand of the inhabitants were carried away and dispersed among tha American colonies. On the 10th of June General Braddock with 2200 men started on his .expedition into the wilderness. Pushing forward with 1200 troops in advance, he fell into an ambuscade of French and Indians, who routed his army with great slaughter. Braddock and sixty- four other officers and one half of the privates were killed or wounded. Braddock soon after died from his wounds. George Washington was aide-de-camp to the com- mander-in-chief , and won distinction by his valor. The second expedition under Governor Shirley advanced as far as Oswego, but the season getting late, it was postponed until the next year. The third expedition under General Johnson met and de feated a large French and Indian force at Lake George. In the engagement Baron Dieskau, the French commander, was mor tally wounded. The English established a fort called Fort Edward, and another at the south end of Lake George called 28 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES. Fort William Henry. The French took possession of Ticon deroga and fortified it. The Governor of South Carolina made a treaty with the Cherokees, by which they ceded a large tract of territory to the King of Great Britain, and agreed to move further inland away from the English settlements. The first newspaper published in Connecticut was issued at New Haven, and called the Connecticut Gazette. The first newspaper issued in North Carolina was published in December at Newburn, and called the North Carolina, Gazette. At this period New England contained a population of about four hundred and thirty-five thousand. 1756 The French under General Montcalm captured the English forts at and near Oswego, with 1400 men as prisoners. The first newspaper published in New Hampshire was issued on the 7th of October at Portsmouth, and called The New Hampshire Gazette. The first permanent settlement in the territory since formed into the State of Tennesee was made this year on the Tenne- see River, about thirty miles from the site of Knoxville. 1757 f A French army of 9000 men laid siege to Fort William Henry, in New York, and compelled its surrender, with between 2006 and 8000 of the garrison as prisoners. At this time the French in Louisiana numbered about ten thousand. The city of New York contained about 12,000 inhabitants, and Philadelphia about 13,000. 1758 The English formed an expedition against the French fortress of Louisburg, on the island of Cape Breton. The place capitu lated, and 5600 men were taken prisoners and carried away ta England. The English under General Abercrombie, in an expedition against the French at Ticonderoga, were defeated, with a loss of nearly two thousand men killed and wounded. The English under Colonel Bradstreet captured the French fort Frontenac, with a large amount of provisions and military stores. An English army under General Forbes attacked the French fort Du Quesne and captured it. He changed its name to Fort Pitt. Virginia exported this year 70,000 hogsheads of tobacco. 1759 The English under General Amhcrst captured the French forts at Ticonderoga and Crown Point; and under General Johnson, the French fort at Niagara. t An English army of 8000 men under General Wolfe laid siege to Quebec, captured the place, killed one thousand of the enemy, and took as many prisoners. General Wolfe was mort ally wounded, and about 600 of his men were killed or wounded. 1760 A large army under the command of General Amherst, com bined with the army from Quebec, compelled the capitulation of all Canada to the King of England. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 29 Georgia issued 7410 in paper money this year. A conflagration destroyed about one tenth part of the town of Boston on the 20th of March. A war with the Cherokees broke out in Carolina and Georgia, and continued until the next year, when the Indians were com pletely subjugated. 1761 At this time there were about six hundred and fifty slaves in Newport, R. I. The first newspaper issued in Delaware was published at Wilmington, and titled TJie Wilmington Gazette. In Massachusetts disputes arose between the people and the the royal authorities concerning a proposed arbitrary method of collecting customs, which increased the bitter feelings exist ing against the government. 1762 The first newspaper published in Providence was issued this year, under the name of The Providence Gazette. The first printing-press in Georgia was set up in Savannah. 1763 A treaty of peace between France, Spain, and England was signed at Paris on the 10th of February. By this treaty, Ca nada, Nova Scotia, and the island of Cape Breton were to be long to Great Britain ; France relinquished her claims to all territory east of the Mississippi, and was confirmed in her right to the country west of that river ; Spain ceded to Great Britain Florida and all its title to territory east of the Mississippi. The Georgia Gazette issued its first number at Savannah on the 17th of April. This was the first and only newspaper pub lished in Georgia before the Revolution. A ferry was now established between New York and Paulus Hook, since called Jersey City. 1764 The English House of Commons voted that the government had the right to tax the American colonists without their being represented in parliament; and passed an act imposing certain duties in America, with severe penalties attached for non-pay ment. The sentiment expressed in this act caused great dis satisfaction in America, and protests against it were forwarded to England. The Legislature of South Carolina offered large bounties in land as an encouragement to settlers; and, in consequence, large numbers of Germans, French Protestants, and poor peo ple from England and Scotland emigrated to that province. By a treaty concluded between Spain and France, all of Louisiana was ceded to Spain. St. Louis was laid out hi town-lots, and its settlement com menced. The first newspaper published in Hartford, and the fourth in Connecticut, was issued on the 29th of October, and called the Connecticut Courant. 1765 In the beginning of this year the English Parliament passed an act for raising a revenue, by a general stamp-duty, through out all the American colonies. The Legislature of Virginia was in session when intelligence of the passage of that act was received, and it passed several spirited resolutions, asserting 30 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. colonial rights, and denying the right of taxation in America by parliament. The Legislature of Massachusetts passed simi lar resolutions, and proposed that a general congress of all the colonies should be convened. In pursuance of that resolution delegates from nearly all the colonies assembled at the city of New York on the 7th of October. This congress declared that the colonies had the exclusive power of taxation in their territories, and resolved to petition the king, and send a me morial on the subject to each of the houses of parliament, and recommended the several colonies to appoint special agents to present their grievances to the king. About the 1st of No vember, on which day the Stamp Act was to go into operation, tumults occurred in Boston, and great excitement prevailed throughout the colonies, and, in some, associations were formed, styled " Sons of Liberty," for mutual support and resistance. Pittsburg, in Pennsylvania, was laid out, and its settlement commenced. 1766 The decided opposition of the American colonies to the Stamp Act, and the eloquent appeals of their advocates in the House of Commons, induced parliament to repeal the obnox ious measure. News of the repeal excited great satisfaction in America, where it was celebrated by the ringing of bells, fire works, and festivals. Louisiana contained at this time a population of five thousand five hundred whites and five thousand nine hundred negroes. The Methodist Episcopal Society in the United States had its origin in a society founded by Philip Embury, this year, in his own house at New York. 1767 The project of taxing the colonies was resumed by the English Government. Parliament passed an act, imposing a duty to be paid by the colonists on paper, glass, painters colors, and teas imported into the colonies. This act met similar opposition hi America to that of the Stamp Act. It called forth resolves, petitions, addresses, and remonstrances from the inhabitants. The Connecticut Journal and New Haven Post Boy appeared at New Haven in October. The last part of the name was dropped in 1775. 1768 In August the Boston merchants and traders generally sub scribed a paper, in which they engaged not to import nor to purchase any kind of goods or merchandise imported from Great Britain during the whole of the next year, excepting a few enumerated articles. The merchants of Salem, Connecti cut, and New York entered into similar agreements. In the latter part of September a large number of British soldiers arrived at Boston to protect the revenue officers in the collection of duties, which gave the place every appearance of a garrisoned town. The first paper-mill established in Connecticut was erected at Norwich. Dartmouth College, in New Hampshire, was incorporated. Philadelphia contained at this time 4474 houses. The settlement of Bangor, in Maine, was commenced. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 31 The second theatre in New York was opened, on Beekman Street, near Nassau Street. The street since named in honor of Robert Fulton was at this time known as Beekman Street. 1770 On the 5th of March, some British soldiers, being insulted by the populace in the streets of Boston, fired into the crowd, killed three persons, and dangerously wounded five others, causing great commotion and indignation in the community. The Massachusetts Spy appeared in Boston in July. It was removed temporarily to Worcester in 1775. The New York Chamber of Commerce, founded in 1768, was incorporated by the legislature. The first manufacture of tinware in this country was com menced about this time in Berlin, Connecticut. 1771 The first newspaper published in Albany was issued in November, under the title of The Albany Gazette. Some of the inhabitants of North Carolina, complaining of oppressions practised in the law and by the judicial court, rose in arms, to the number of about fifteen hundred, under the name of regulators, for the purpose of shutting up the courts of justice, opposing the officers of government and all lawyers, and of prostrating government itself. The governor marched against them with about one thousand militia, and in a battle on the 16th of May totally defeated them. Three hundred of the regulators were killed on the field, twelve more of the in surgents were tried and condemned for high treason, and six of them were executed. 1772 Umbrellas were now first introduced into this country. They were imported from India and landed at Baltimore, and at first were scouted as an effeminacy. The colonists of Rhode Island made a daring resistance of encroachments. The Gaspee, an armed schooner which had been stationed at Providence, excited much resentment by firing at the packets to oblige their masters to haul down their colors as a salute, and upon their refusal chasing the vessels into the docks. A packet coming up to Providence with passengers, refusing to pay that tribute of respect, was fired at by the Gaspee, and chased. The packet led the Gaspee into low-water, where that vessel was grounded, and the packet proceeded on her way to Providence, where a plan was laid to destroy the obnoxious vessel. Several whale-boats were manned with armed men in the night, and proceeded to the vessel. The commander and his crew, with their personal effects, were put ashore, and the Gaspee with all her stores was burned. A large reward was offered by the government for the detection of the perpetrators of the deed, but they could not be discovered. 1773 The British Government, being unable to obtain any revenue from duties on tea shipped to America, because it could not be sold, resolved to accomplish by policy what was found to be impracticable from restraint. It effected an arrangement with the East India Company, whose warehouses were overstocked with that article for want of a market, by which shipments of tea could be sold to the colonists at prices with the duties less 32 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. than had been charged before duties were imposed. The colonists, however, continued in their determination- to firmly adhere to their principles, and not be taxed in any manner whatsoever without their own consent. It was the prevailing sentiment throughout the country, that this new plan of the government was a direct attack on the liberties of the people, which was the duty of all to oppose. The East India Com pany, confident of finding a market for their tea, reduced as it now was in price, freighted several ships to America with that commodity, and appointed agents for the disposal of it. Cargoes were sent to New York, Boston, Philadelphia, and Charles ton, S. C. The* inhabitants of New York and Philadelphia sent them back to London. The tea at Charleston was stored in cellars, where it could not be used, and where it finally perished. In Boston, a number of armed men disguised as Indians boarded the ships and threw their whole cargoes into the sea. The settlement of the territory afterward comprised within the State of Kentucky, was commenced, by the emigration there of Daniel Boone accompanied with several families. The English settlements on the east side of the Mississippi River, in the Natchez country, were increased by emigrations in June and July of about four hundred families. About three hundred families of Germans removed from Maine, and settled in the south-western part of South Carolina. Within one year six thousand negro slaves were imported into South Carolina. The first newspaper published in Baltimore was issued on the 20th of August, under the title of The Maryland Journal and Baltimore Advertiser. The first steam engine constructed in America was built at Philadelphia. 1774 Intelligence of the destruction of the tea at Boston was officially declared to parliament by the king, and he represented in his communication that the conduct of the colonists was not merely an obstruction to the commerce of Great Britain, but as subver sive of the British constitution. In accordance with that senti ment, parliament passed an act by which the port of Boston was declared to be legally closed, and another act by which the charter of Massachusetts was altered so as to essentially abridge the liberties of the people. In the apprehension that in the exe cution of these acts riots would take place, and that trials for murders committed in suppressing them would be partially de cided by the colonial courts, another act was passed declar ing that if any person were indicted for any capital offence committed in aiding magistracy in Massachusetts, the governor might "send the person so indicted to Nova Scotia or to Great Britain for trial. General Gage was appointed governor of Massachusetts as the most proper person to see to the execution of the laws respecting that colony and its capital, and he arrived at Boston on the 13th of May. On the 1st of June, the dav designated when the Port Bill should go into operation, busi- HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 33 ness was closed in that city, and the harbor shut up against all vessels. In sympathy with the inhabitants of that city, the day was observed in many of the colonies as a day of fasting and mourning, and subscriptions were set on foot for such poor in habitants as should be deprived of the means of subsistence by the operation of the act. The necessity of a General Congress was now perceived throughout the colonies, and that measure was adopted by every colony from New Hampshire to South Carolina. On the 4th of September delegates from eleven colonies appeared at Phila delphia, and the next day, having formed themselves into a congress, chose Peyton Randolph president, and Charles Thompson secretary. A declaration of rights was soon agreed on, the several acts infringing and violating those rights recited, end the repeal of them resolved to be essentially necessary to the restoration of harmony between Great Britain and the colo nies. A non-importation, non-consumption, and non-exportation agreement was adopted. On the 14th of September deputies from North Carolina arrived and joined the congress. In Octo ber an address was prepared to the king and the people of Great Britain, and forwarded to the colonial agents established there. In the mean time the people of Boston were further incensed by the arrival there of numerous British troops and proceedings instituted by General Gage. Toward the close of the year news arrived of a proclamation of the king prohibiting the exportation of military stores to America. The people of Rhode Island immediately secured to themselves from the public battery about forty cannon, and the legislature passed resolutions for obtaining arms and mili tary stores and for arming the inhabitants. In New Hampshire the colonists took forcible possession of the fort at the entrance of Portsmouth harbor, and carried away upwards of one hun dred barrels of powder. Parliament voted to dismiss Benjamin Franklin from his office of deputy postmaster-general in America, because of his sympathy with the measures of the colonists. The Creek and Cherokee Indians ceded to the King of Great Britain several millions of acres of land in Georgia. The Indians on the Ohio having become hostile, the Gov ernor of Virginia sent about fourteen hundred troops into that country. In a battle which took place on the 10th of October the troops were defeated, with a loss of four hundred killed and one hundred wounded. At this time there were 6464 negroes in Connecticut and 3761 in Rhode Island. The streets of Boston for the first time were lighted with lamps. The first dwelling-house in Kentucky was erected this year, on or near the site of the town of Harrodsburg. 1775 The British Government continued its coercive measures against the American colonies, notwithstanding the opposition 34 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. of some of the most eminent members of parliament. The petition from congress to the king had been referred by him to the House of Commons, which body refused to hear and discuss it by a large majority. Bills were passed restraining the trade of New England, and to prohibit the colonists from engaging in fishery on the banks of Newfoundland. Acts were passed soon after restraining trade and commerce in some of the Middle and Southern colonies. In the colonies preparations for defence in case of hostilities were made in all parts. In Massachusetts a rupture was im minent at any time, and the people of Boston were so exasper ated that they were ready for open war. The occasion soon arrived. A quantity of military stores were stored at Concord, a place about eighteen miles inland from Boston. General Gage on the 19th of April sent about eight hundred British troops to destroy them. On the arrival of the soldiers at Lexington, they met about seventy armed colonists, who were ordered to disperse by the British officer. Upon their not obeying this order instantly, he directed his troops to fire upon them. This order was obeyed, and eight of the colonists were killed and several wounded ; the rest dispersed. The firing continued after the dispersion, and the fugitives stopped and returned the fire. The British detachment proceeded to Concord. The in habitants of that town having received the alarm, drew up in order for defence, but observing the number of the British troops, they retired and waited for reinforcements. A party of light infantry followed them, while the main body proceeded to execute their commission. They disabled cannon, threw five hundred pounds of ball into the river and wells, and broke in pieces about sixty barrels of flour. In the mean time a skir mish ensued between the colonists and the light infantry, and the British troops were forced to retreat with some loss. They were soon joined by the main body, and the detachment re treated w r ith precipitancy. All the people of the adjacent country were by this time in arms, and they attacked the re treating troops in every direction until they drew near to Bos ton. The battle at Lexington was a signal of war. The forts, magazines, and arsenals throughout the colonies were instantly secured by the people. Regular forces were raised, and money issued for their support. An army of twenty thousand men appeared in the environs of Boston, and formed an em- campment from Roxbury to the Mystic River. This army was soon increased by a large body of troops from Connecticut ; and by these collective forces the king s troops were closely blocked up in the peninsula of Boston. It was soon perceived by the colonists that the possession of Ticonderoga and Crown Point would be of great importance. An expedition consisting of about two hundred and thirty men from New Hampshire Grants under Colonel Ethan Allen, joined with a small body of Connecticut militia under Colonel Benedict Arnold, proceeded on that enterprise. On the 10th of May they surprised the fort at Ticonderoga garrisoned by HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES. 35 British soldiers, and compelled its surrender, with many valu able stores. Crown Point was taken soon afterward, and the command of Lakes George and Champlain secured by the colonists. Toward the end of May a considerable force of British troops arrived at Boston from England, and about the same time Generals Howe, Burgoyne, and Clinton, who had gained con siderable reputation in preceding wars. The movements of the British army excited an apprehension that General Gage in tended to penetrate into the country. It was therefore ordered by congress that measures should be taken for the defence of Dorchester Neck, and to occupy Bunker Hill. This hill, which is high and commanding, stands at the entrance of the peninsula of Charlestown. Orders were accordingly issued on the 16th of June for a detachment of one thousand men to take posses sion of that eminence, but by some mistake Breed s Hill was marked out instead of Bunker Hill for the projected intrench- metits. About nine in the evening the detachment moved from Cambridge, and passing silently over Charlestown Neck, ascended Breed s Hill and reached the top without being ob served. The Americans immediately commenced their work, and labored with such diligence that by dawn of day they had thrown up a redoubt about eight rods square. At break of day the work was discovered in Boston, and General Gage de spatched thirty companies of troops with artillery to dislodge the Americans, but they perceiving that the hill was well forti fied concluded to await reinforcements from Boston. Mean while the Americans were reinforced, and they awaited the as sault. The battle soon commenced. The British were twice repulsed with great loss, and driven back in confusion. Upon a third attack the ammunition of the Americans gave out and a retreat was ordered, after an obstinate resistance with their bayonets. Meanwhile the British set fire to the village of Charlestown and destroyed about four hundred houses. In the engagement the British employed about three thousand men, and lost in killed and wounded 1054; the number of Americans engaged was about fifteen hundred, and their loss was 453. On the 10th of May a second Continental Congress met at Philadelphia, and voted that 20,000 men should be immediately raised and equipped, and unanimously chose George Washing ton, who was then a delegate from Virginia, to be commander- in-chief of all the continental forces. It was also voted to issue bills of credit to the amount of three millions of Spanish dollars to help defray the expenses of the war. On the 3d of July General Washington arrived at Cambridge and took com mand of the American army. Two expeditions against the British in Canada were organ ized: one under General Montgomery captured Montreal, took a large number as prisoners, and secured considerable valuable property, and thence proceeded to Quebec. The other expedi tion under the command of Benedict Arnold marched through the wilderness of Maine and Canada, and joined the forces of 36 HISTOEY OF THE UNITED STATES. Montgomery before Quebec. On the last day of the year an assault was made on that place, in which General Montgomery was killed. Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut each armed and equipped two vessels to operate against the enemy. Con gress also resolved to equip an armament of thirteen vessels. On the 29th of November an American privateer captured three ships from London, Glasgow, and Liverpool, containing military stores for the British army. Congress voted that a line of posts should be established from Maine to Georgia, and appointed Benjamin Franklin Postmaster- General . Colonel Moultrie, of the South Carolina militia, took posses sion of Fort Johnson, on St. James Island, in September. A British ship, with other armed cruisers, sailed into the har bor of Bristol, R. L, on the 7th of October, and fired upon the town, doing great damage to the place. On the 10th of De cember they destroyed the buildings on Conanicut Island. In July a great number of the chiefs and warriors of the Six Confederate Nations assembled in Montreal, and agreed to sup port the cause of the king. In the autumn General Gage sailed for England, and the command of the British army devolved upon Sir William Howe. The first anti-slavery society in America was formed in Phil adelphia on the 14th of April, and was composed mostly of Quakers. 1776 The measures of the British Government accelerated an event which, if anticipated and wished for by a few of the colonists, had not hitherto been generally desired. Independence was not the object of the controversy on the part of the colonies, but constitutional liberty. During the last session of parlia ment the ultimate plan for reducing the colonies was fixed. The Americans were declared out of the royal protection, and seventeen thousand foreign mercenaries were to be employed to aid in their subjugation. On the 7th of June a motion was made in congress for declaring the colonies free and independ ent. After a full discussion, on the 4th of July the measure was approved by nearly an unanimous vote. The Declaration of Independence concluded with these words: "We, there fore, the representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly declare that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, FKEE AKD INDEPENDENT STATES; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as free and independent States they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which independent States ought to- HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 37 do. And for the support of this declaration, with a firm reli ance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor." Since the arrival of General Washington at Cambridge, his time had been principally engaged in organizing an army out of new recruits, and in efforts to provide them with ammunition and suitable clothing. The time of the first volunteers had ex pired, and the army had disbanded. The effective regular force of the Americans in February was a little over fourteen thousand men; in addition to which about six thousand of the militia of Massachusetts were at the disposal of the Comman- der-in-Chief . With these troops he determined to take posses sion of Dorchester Heights, whence it would be in his power greatly to annoy the enemy s ships in the harbor and the troops in the town. To conceal his design and to divert the attention of the garrison, a heavy bombardment of the town and lines of the enemy was begun on the evening of the 3d of March, and repeated the two succeeding nights. On the night of the 4th, immediately after the firing began, he directed a considera ble detachment to take possession of the Heights. This was silently accomplished, and by working all night, works were constructed that would protect them in a measure from the shot of the enemy. When the British at daybreak discovered this undertaking, they became aware that they must either dis lodge the Americans or evacuate Boston. They chose the lat ter alternative. A fortnight elapsed before that measure was effected. On the 17th of March the last of the British em barked in their ships and sailed away; and General Washington marched into the town, where he was joyfully received as a de liverer. General Arnold continued the blockade of Quebec, but in a council of war it was unanimously determined that the troops were in no condition to make an assault, and the army was re moved to a more defensible position. The Canadians at this juncture receiving considerable reinforcements, the Americans were compelled to relinquish one post after another, until by the 18th of June they evacuated Canada altogether. The British, in their projected campaign of this year, pro posed two objects : one to make an attack on some of the south ern colonies ; the other was to take possession of New York. The execution of the first was committed to General Clinton and Sir Peter Parker ; that of the latter to Sir William Howe and his brother, Admiral Lord Howe. On the 28th of June the British forces made an attack on the fort on Sullivan s Island in the harbor of Charleston, S. C. The bombardment continued upward of ten hours, when the enterprise was aban doned. The British lost more than two hundred men in killed and wounded ; the Americans, thirty-two. In honor of the commander of the fort, its name was now changed to Fort Moultrie. General Washington, assuming that the British would make 38 H1STOEY OF THE UNITED STATES. an attempt upon New York, removed the greater part of his army to that city soon after the evacuation of Boston by the enemy. General Howe, with the force which he had com manded in Boston, arrived at Sandy Hook on the 25th of June, and in less than three weeks was joined by his brother, the Ad miral, with reinforcements from England. Soon afterward the British forces were augmented by the arrival of General Clinton and his troops from Charleston, and another reinforce ment from England of Hessian and other foreign soldiers. The number of the British forces then amounted to about twenty- four thousand men. The British commanders, having resolved to make their first attempt on Long Island, landed their forces on the 22d of August at Gravesend Bay. The Americans, to the amount of fifteen thousand men, under General Sullivan, were posted on a peninsula of Long Island opposite New York. Here they had erected strong fortifications and a line of in- trenchments inclosing a large tract of ground near the village of Brooklyn, within which stood the American camp. On the 27th of August an engagement took place between portions of the armies, in which the Americans were defeated, and the enemy encamped within six hundred yards of the American lines. On the 30th, as the American army appeared to be in a critical position, and the British fleet indicated an intention to force a passage into the East River, it was determined to re treat from Long Island, and cross to New York. This difficult movement was accomplished with success. It was now deemed prudent, in a council of war called by General Washington, that the army should evacuate the city. This was accomplished, although all the heavy artillery and a large portion of the bag gage and military stores were unavoidably left behind and abandoned to the enemy. General Washington now retreated to the upper part of New York island, the British having en tered and taken possession of the city. A demonstration was soon made by the enemy to get in the rear of the Americans, who thereupon retreated into Westchester ; General Washing ton first assigning about three thousand men for the defence of Fort Washington, near the junction of Hudson and Harlem rivers. At White Plains a battle was fought on the 28th of October, with the loss of several hundred men on each side ; and soon afterwards the Americans retreated to the heights of North Castle, about five miles beyond White Plains. Here they were in so strong a position, General Howe decided to change the plan of his operations. General Washington, leav ing about seventy-five hundred men at North Castle under Gen eral Lee, crossed over to New Jersey with the remainder of his troops, and encamped in the neighborhood of Fort Lee. Sir William Howe now determined upon the reduction of Fort Washington, where he shortly appeared and made an attack, and on the 16th of November compelled its surrender with all the garrison. Soon afterward, the British crossed the river to attack Fort Lee, which they took without assault, the Ameri cans evacuating the place upon their approach. They im- HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 3& mediately started in pursuit of General Washington, who re treated from place to place in New Jersey, and crossed the Delaware into Pennsylvania, opposite Trenton. On the day of General Washington s retreat across the Dela ware a portion of the British forces made a descent on Rhode Island, and took possession of the bay, blocking up the ports of that State. Fearing that Philadelphia and its neighborhood would now become the seat of war, congress removed from that place and established itself at Baltimore. The American army having been reinforced, General Wash ington resolved to recross the Delaware and surprise the British at Trenton. On the night of the 25th of December he accom plished that purpose, and on the next day routed the enemy and took about one thousand prisoners, together with a large amount of arms and military stores. After the retreat of the Americans from Long Island, Nathan Hale, a captain in the American army, passed in disguise to that island, examined every part of the British army stationed there, and obtained intelligence of its situation and intended operations. Upon returning his purposes were discovered, and he was apprehended and executed as a spy. On the first day of this year a British fleet attacked the town of Norfolk, in Virginia, and destroyed the place. On the 27th of February a large party of Americans in North Carolina attached to the royal cause were defeated in an en gagement with the militia, and lost a large amount of ammuni tion and military stores. This defeat prevented further efforts on the part of the royalists in that State. On the llth of October there was a severe naval engagement on Lake Champlain, which lasted four hours; one of the Ameri can vessels was destroyed, and the others retired to Crown Point. The Cherokee Indians commenced a war in South Carolina in July, which lasted three months. The Indians were defeated, and all their settlements destroyed east of the mountains. A conflagration occurred in New York on the 21st of Sep tember, and destroyed four hundred and ninety-three buildings, including Trinity Church. In the spring of this year New York was supplied with water conveyed through pipes in the streets. A reservoir was constructed on the east side of Broadway, near Pearl Street, into which water was raised by pumping from wells sunk on the premises and from the Collect pond. The first permanent settlement in California, was made this year by Catholic missionaries, near the site of San Francisco. Soon afterward a few houses were erected on the site of the city, and this settlement was called Yerba Buena. 1777 The Americans had hitherto been very deficient in arms and ammunition, but in the spring of this year a ship arrived at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, from France, with upward of eleven thousand stand of arms and one thousand barrels of gun- 40 HISTOEY OF THE UNITED STATES. powder, and about the same time ten thousand stand of arms arrived at anotherport. The operations of the army under General Washington during this year were confined to New Jersey and Pennsylva nia. The British were driven out of New Jersey, and they then formed the plan of taking possession of Philadelphia, by an approach by the way of Chesapeake Bay. In August, Sir William Howe sailed from the harbor of New York, with six teen thousand men, and arrived on the 24th at the head of Elk River, in Maryland, near the borders of Delaware. Thence the army marched in tw T o columns toward Philadelphia. On the llth of September, the British approached the American army, which was posted on the Braudywine River, and in an engage ment defeated them with considerable loss, and compelled them to retreat. On the next day General "Washington entered Phila delphia. On the 19th, the Americans crossed the Schuylkill, and encamped on the eastern bank of that river, while detach ments of the army were posted at the several fords over which the enemy would probably attempt a passage. In the night of the 20th, General "Wayne, who with fifteen hundred Americans had concealed himself in the woods with the intention of har assing the rear of the British army, was surprised by the enemy and lost about three hundred men. On the 23d, Sir William Howe, having secured the command of the Schuylkill, crossed it with his whole army, and on the 26th he advanced to Ger- mantown, and on the succeeding day took peaceable possession of Philadelphia. The American army being reinforced, now amounting to about eleven thousand men, took a position on the east side of the ScLuylkill and about sixteen miles from Germantown. At this last place lay the main body of the Brit ish army. While General Howe was occupied in reducing the forts on the Delaware so as to secure a safe passage for the Brit ish fleet, General Washington f ormed a plan to surprise his army at Germantown. This attempt was unsuccessful) and the Americans suffered in a battle that took place a loss of about twelve hundred men. The campaign in Pennsylvania ended for the season soon afterward, and General Washington retired to winter quarters at Valley Forge and the British to Phila delphia. While General Washington was conducting the war in New Jersey and Pennsylvania, events of great importance transpired in the North. A principal object of the British in the cam paign of this year was to open a free communication between New York and Canada, with the hope that by affecting that object, New England might be severed from the other States and compelled to submission. In prosecution of this design, an army of British and German troops, amounting to a little over seven thousand men, exclusive of a corps of artillery, was put under the command of General Burgoyne, who was to advance from Canada by the way of Lake Champlain, and force his way to Albany, or so far as to effect a junction with the royal troops which were to advance from the city of New HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 41 York. Another body of British troops under the command of Col. St. Leger, with a large force of Indians and a regiment of New York loyalists, were to ascend the St. Lawrence to Lake Ontario, and from that quarter to penetrate towards Albany by the way of the Mohawk River. Before the campaign was opened, the British dispatched two expeditions for the destruc tion of military stores deposited by the Americans at Peekskill and Danbury. At Peekskill they captured a large amount of provisions, forage, and other valuable property. At Danbury, the British destroyed eighteen houses, 800 barrels of pork and beef, 800 barrels of flour, 2000 bushels of grain, and 1700 tents. These predatory excursions were not long after retaliated. On the 23d of May a body of Connecticut troops crossed the Sound and surprised the town of Sag Harbor, on Long Island, and burned a large amount of forage which had been collected there for the British army. Tw r el ve vessels were also destroyed. General Burgoyne proceeded up Lake Champlain on the 20th of June and landed near Crown Point, where he was reinforced by a large number of Indians. Upon the approach of the British, the Americans evacuated Fort Ticonderoga, and the enemy took possession. A few days afterward a considerable detachment of the British army met and defeated an inferior force of the Americans, who suifered a loss of about one thou sand men in the engagement. On the 30th of July General Burgoyne reached Fort Edward, and the American army under General Schuyler crossed the Hudson and took position at Saratoga. Meanwhile the army under St. Leger had ascended the St. Lawrence and arrived at Lake Ontario, and with an army of about eighteen hundred men, on the 3d of August invested Fort Schuyler, at the head of the Mohawk River. This fortress was garrisoned by about six hundred American troops. On the first approach of the British troops, General Herkimer, who commanded the American militia in that neighborhood, assembled them in considerable force for the relief of the garrison. St. Leger receiving information of his approach, sent out a strong detachment of regulars and Indians, to waylay him on the road by which he was to march. Herkimer fell into this ambuscade, and his men were defeated with great slaughter. His loss was estimated at about four hundred men. General Arnold was now dispatched with a brigade of troops to attack St. Leger ; but his force being inferior to the British, he resolved to accomplish by strategy what he could not expect to do by force. He sent a spy into the British camp to spread the news of an exaggerated account of the size of his army. The stratagem was successful ; the Indians fled, and St. Leger decamped in confusion and returned to Montreal, leaving be hind him his tents and most of his artillery and stores. About the same time General Burgoyne dispatched about six hun dred of his German troops, and soon afterwards another body of five hundred men, to Bennington, a town in the New Hamp shire Grants, for the purpose of seizing a large depot of pro visions and carriages stored there for the northern army. On 42 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the 16th of August these forces were attacked by General Stark, who was on his march with about sixteen hundred men, to join the northern army. The British were defeated, and suffered a loss of more than one half their forces, besides a large amount of arms. General Burgoyne having collected about thirty days provisions and thrown a bridge of boats across the Hudson, crossed that river on the 13th and 14th of September, and encamped on the heights and plains of Saratoga. General Gates, who had recently taken the chief command of the north ern department of the American army, advanced towards the enemy and encamped three miles above Stillwater. On the night of the 17th General Burgoyne encamped within four miles of the American army, and on the 19th advanced in full force against it. An engagement took place, in which a consid erable portion of the armies took part. Each side suffered a loss of about six hundred men. Both armies lay for some time in sight of each other, the British being daily reduced by desertions of the Indians, and the American army continually augmented by reinforcements. To aggravate his distress, no intelligence had yet been received of any diversion in his favor from the army at New York. In this emergency General Burgoyne made preparations to effect a retreat to the lakes by dislodging the Americans from their posts on the left. In this attempt he met with defeat and a loss of several hun dred men, including some of his most valuable officers ; also a loss of nine pieces of artillery, and the encampment of a Ger man brigade with all their equipage. General Gates now posted fifteen hundred men on the heights opposite the ford in Saratoga, two thousand in the rear to prevent a retreat to Fort Edward, and fifteen hundred at a ford higher up. The British were now almost encircled ; the Americans, already superior in numbers, were daily reinforced, and there seemed to be no avenue for Burgoyne to escape. In this dilemma the British commander called a council of war, in which it was unani mously resolved to enter into a convention with General Gates. Preliminaries were soon settled, and the royal army surrendered prisoners of war. The whole number that surrendered were 5752. Besides these, there were left 528 of sick and wounded in the British camp when Burgoyne began his retreat. At the same time there were taken 39 brass cannon, 5000 stand of arms, 400 sets of harness, and a considerable amount of other military property. The British lost between the 6th of July and the 16th of October, in killed, wounded, and desertions, nearly three thousand men. Soon afterward the British aban doned Ticonderoga, which post was then immediately occupied l>y the Americans. Although Sir Henry Clinton afforded no relief to General Burgoyne, he succeeded in capturing Forts Clinton and Mont gomery on the Hudson River in October, which if done earlier might possibly have had that effect. On the 15th of November the thirteen States by their repre sentatives in congress entered into Articles of Confederation. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 43 By these articles the style of the confederacy was to be " The United States of America," and each State was to retain its sovereignty and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right which was not expressly delegated to the confedera. tion. A firm league was entered into, by which the States were to be united for the common defence and for securing their liberties and mutual and general welfare. These articles were to be submitted to the legislatures of the several States for their approval and ratification. Congress resolved that the flag of the confederacy should be of thirteen stripes, alternate red and white, and that the Union be thirteen white stars in a blue field. Congress resolved to appoint the Marquis de la Fayette, who offered his services to the cause, to the rank of major-general in the army of the United States. The first newspaper published in New Jersey was issued at Burlington on the 3d of December, and called the New Jersey Gazette. Cold-cut iron nails were now manufactured at Cumberland, R. I., and it is said these were the first made in this or any other country. 1778 The success of the Americans in the northern campaign of the last year rendered it less difficult to secure foreign aid and influence. A plan of treaty to be proposed to foreign powers had been formed by congress, and commissioners were sent to Paris to solicit its acceptance by the King of France. For more than a year they were kept in a state of uncertainty. They received private encouragement, but could obtain no public acknowledgment. The capture of Burgoyne fixed the wavering policy of the French court, and on the 6th of Febru ary the King of France entered into a treaty of alliance with the United States, in which it was declared that if war should break out between France and England during the existence of that with the United States, it should be made a common cause, and that neither of the contracting parties should conclude either truce or peace with Great Britain without first obtaining the formal consent of the other; and they mutually agreed not to lay down their arms until the independence of the United States should be formally or tacitly assured by the treaty or treaties that should terminate the war. On the alliance of America with France it was resolved in Great Britain immediately to evacuate Philadelphia, and to con centrate the royal force in the harbor and city of New York. In pursuance with this resolution, the British army on the 18th of June passed over the Delaware into New Jersey and com menced its march to New York. At Monmouth they were at tacked by the Americans, and a battle ensued in which both sides claimed the victory, although the British loss was much greater than their opponents. Soon after the evacuation con gress removed to Philadelphia. In July a French fleet with about four thousand troops under the command of Count D Estaing, arrived on the coast 44 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. of Virginia. Failing in his object of surprising the British fleet in the Delaware, he proceeded towards New York for the purpose of attacking them there; but rinding that to be imprac ticable, he sailed for Newport upon the advice of General Washington, to act in conjunction with the Americans in an at tempt on Rhode Island, where he arrived on the 25th of July. Soon afterward a British fleet appeared for the relief of New port, and the two fleets sailed out to sea. After manojuvring for two days without coming to action, they were separated by a violent storm, and the French fleet sailed to Boston to refit. The year was drawing to a close, and no important advance had been made by the British. The commander-in-chief there fore resolved to make a demonstration upon the Southern States. A project was formed to invade Georgia from the north and south. On the 27th of November a fleet sailed from New York with about two thousand men, to act in concert with the British troops stationed in East Florida. On the 29th of December an attack was made upon the Americans who were defending Savannah. The British were victorious, killing about one hundred of the Americans and taking prisoners thirty-eight officers and four hundred and fifteen privates. The town and port of Savannah were captured, with forty eight cannon, twenty-three mortars, all the ammunition and stores, the shipping in the river, and a large quantity of provisions. A horrible massacre w r as committed at the village of Wyom ing, in Pennsylvania, by a body of Tories and Indians. More than two hundred of the inhabitants were slaughtered, and nearly all the houses and property in the place destroyed. On the 6th of August, M. Gerard, the minister appointed from France for the United States, arrived at Philadelphia. On the 14th of September Congress appointed Benjamin Franklin Minister Plenipotentiary of the United States to the Court of France. The number of American prisoners confined in the jails of Great Britain, early in the year, was computed to be 924. A meeting in London was convened to relieve their distresses, and subscriptions were raised there and in the country of nearly twenty thousand dollars for that purpose. Vermont was constituted a State on the 13th of March. In August a fire in New York consumed about three hun dred houses on the eastern side of the city. 1779 The campaign of this year was barren in important events. At the North a few enterprises were inaugurated by small de tachments of the opposing armies. In July a predatory expe dition was undertaken by the British against the towns on the Connecticut coast. About twenty-six hundred men, under Governor Tryon, accompanied by a fleet of armed vessels, sailed from New York and anchored at West Haven. A de tachment of the troops marched into New Haven, and for about seven hours ravaged and plundered the town. Thence they successively plundered and burned the towns of Fairfield, HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 45 Green Farms, and Norwalk. In the same month the Americans made an assault on the fort at Stony Point, on the Hudson River, and captured it, taking about five hundred and fifty prisoners, and a considerable quantity of military stores. An expedition, composed of a large force, sailed from Boston in July to dislodge the British at Penobscot, hi Maine, where they had erected strong fortifications. The fleet consisted of twenty-four transports and about twenty armed vessels and privateers. The enterprise was unsuccessful; the vessels were all taken or destroyed by the British. The greater portion of the sailors and troops, however, escaped, and returned home on foot, exploring their way through a trackless wilderness. A more fortunate expedition was undertaken against the In dians belonging to the Six Nations, in New York, under the command of General Sullivan. The Indians, on hearing of the projected attack, collected their strength, took possession of a favorable location for defence, and strongly fortified it. Gen eral Sullivan attacked them in their works more than two hours, when they fled with precipitation. The victorious army, penetrating into the heart of their country, destroyed their villages, and laid their fields and gardens desolate. In March, in an engagement on the Savannah River, a body of about fifteen hundred North Carolina militia and sixty Con tinental troops were defeated. The greater part of the militia threw down their arms, and fled in confusion. About three hundred men were killed or taken prisoners. In May, a large British force appeared at Charleston, S. C., and summoned the town to surrender. The demand not being complied with, the enemy, having intelligence that a considera ble reinforcement of American troops were on the way, re solved to retreat, and they departed at night without inflicting any injury upon the town. In the latter part of September an expedition composed of a part of the Southern army, and the French fleet under Count D Estaing, consisting of eleven frigates and twenty sail of the line, made an attack on the fort and town of Savannah. It being at length ascertained that considerable time would be necessary to reduce the place by regular approaches, it was de termined to make an assault. The assailants, composed of about thirty-five hundred French troops and one thousand Americans, were repeatedly driven back in confusion by the enemy s batteries; and after sustaining their fire for an hour, were ordered to retreat. About nine hundred French and American soldiers were killed or wounded. Immediately after this unsuccessful assault, the American militia, discouraged, retired to their homes, and the French fleet left the country. In May, a British land and naval force made a descent on the coast of Virginia. They took possession of Portsmouth and Norfolk ; destroyed the houses, naval stores, and a large maga zine of provisions at Suffolk ; made a similar destruction at Kemp s Landing, Shepherd s, Gosport, Tanner s Creek, and other places in the vicinity ; and after setting fire to the houses 46 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. and other public buildings in the dockyard at Gosport, em barked with their booty for New York. The seat for the government of Virginia was removed from Williamsburg to Richmond by act of the assembly. At this time Richmond was so insignificant as scarcely able to afford accommodations for the officers of the government. 1780 No sooner did Sir Henry Clinton receive certain information that the French fleet had left America, than he set forward an expedition, consisting of large land and naval forces, against South Carolina. In April he had accomplished the investment of Charleston by sea and land, and on the 6th of May com pelled the garrison of Fort Moultrie to surrender. The capi tulation of the city soon followed, and the British took posses sion of the place, securing above five thousand surrendered prisoners of war, besides upwards of four hundred pieces of artillery. Sir Henry Clinton, leaving about four thousand men under the command of General Cornwallis for the southern ser vice, embarked early in June for New York. On the 16th of August a battle took place near Camden, in South Carolina, in which the Americans were defeated with severe loss. During the year several engagements and skirmishes took place at the South with varying successes and defeats. The most flagrant instance of treachery during the war oc curred this year. For the defence of the Hudson River a strong and impregnable fortress had "been built at West Point, and this had been intrusted to the command of General Benedict Ar nold. A negotiation with Sir Henry Clinton had been begun by Arnold, and was afterward concluded ; by which, for a cer tain remuneration in money and rank in the enemy s service, he agreed to make such a disposition of his garrison as would enable the British general effectually to surprise and capture that stronghold. The agent employed by Sir Henry Clinton in the negotiations was Major Andre, adjutant-general of the Brit ish army. To favor the communications, the Vulture, a Brit ish sloop of war, had been stationed in the river, as near Arn old s post as could be without exciting suspicion. On the night of the 21st of September, Arnold sent a boat from the shore to the vessel to fetch Major Andre, and they met on the beach to discuss their plans. Their business not being finished, until it was too near morning for Andre to return to the Vulture un observed, it was necessary that he should remain on shore in con cealment until night time. Meanwhile, the vessel having at tracted the suspicious attention of people on the shore, sailed farther away, and the boatman who remained to carry Andre back refused, against all remonstrances, to do so. There was, therefore, no way for Andre to return to New York except by land. This he hesitatingly concluded to do. Changing his uniform for citizen s clothes, and mounted on a good horse, ac companied with a guide and a negro servant, and having a pass port signed by Arnold, he crossed the river at Verplanck s Point early in the morning, and proceeded toward White Plains. When they reached, as they supposed, neutral ground beyond the HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 47 American lines, the guide and servant turned back, and Andre rode on alone towards New York. When near Tarrytown, he was stopped and questioned by three armed militiamen whom he met on the road. Not being satisfied, even when shown Arnold s pass, they insisted upon searching him, and discovered, con cealed between his stockings and feet, the papers given him by Arnold. Andre now offered his captors tempting bribes to be allowed to pass on, but these were rejected with indignation, and he was escorted to the nearest American quarters, and de livered up. General Washington referred the case of Andre to the examination and decision of a board consisting of fourteen officers, who, without examining a single witness, founded their report on his own confession. They adjudged that he ought to be considered a spy, and that, agreeably to the laws and usages of nations, he should suffer death. He was accordingly hung on the 3d of October at Tappan, at the age of twenty-nine years. His youth, accomplishments, and manners endeared him to all, and his fate was deeply regretted on both sides of the At lantic. His king caused a mural monument to be erected to his memory in Westminster Abbey, and in 1831 his remains were taken to London, where they have since rested among those of many heroes and poets of England. Arnold received intelligence of Andre s capture very soon after that occurrence, and he immediately abandoned everything, and fled on board the Vulture, which took him to New York. The traitor, al though unsuccessful, received 10,000 guineas from the British treasury, and the commission of a brigadier from the king. He died in obscurity in London, in 1801. Henry Laurens, late president of congress, while on his pas sage to Holland, to which country he had been appointed minis ter from the United States, was captured by a British frigate off Newfoundland. He was taken to England, where he was examined by the privy council, and committed close prisoner to the Tower, on an accusation of high-treason. He remained there a prisoner for more than fourteen months. The first regular glass factory established in the United States was erected this year in the town of Temple, New Hampshire. The works were operated by Hessians and Wai- deckers, deserters from the British army. In August, the first buildings on the site of Cincinnati were erected. They were two block-houses, built by a detachment of American troops. Virginia ceded to the United States all its right and title to the vast territory lying north of the Ohio. Louisville, Ky., was founded and settled by about six hun dred people, who emigrated there in the spring of this year. In May, the Legislature of Virginia passed an act incorporating the town. 1781 The military movements of the year were confined princi pally to the Southern States. The British were defeated in two important and several minor engagements in South Carolina, which closed the war in that State. In Virginia a large British 48 HISTOEY OF THE UNITED STATES. army surrendered, which decided the result of the Revolution ary war. The principal engagements in South Carolina were at the Cowpens and at Eutaw Springs. At the former place up wards of three hundred of the British were killed or wounded, and five hundred taken prisoners. A large amount of arms and other military property were taken by the Americans. In the battle at Eutaw Springs, the British lost, in killed, wounded, and prisoners, upwards of eleven hundred men. Virginia was intended by the British commander-in-chief to be the principal seat of operations in his plan of the campaign for this year. To carry out that object, Lord Cornwallis marched northwardly from South Carolina, and arrived with his army at Petersburg on the 29th of May. Here he formed a junction with the British troops stationed in that neighbor hood, and he found himself in command of an army number ing upwards of seven thousand men. The British fleet stationed on the coast was intended to be reinforced by their navy in the West Indies. That design was frustrated by the arrival in the Chesapeake of a French fleet of twenty-eight sail of the line, commanded by Count de Grasse, and soon afterwards of another squadron from Rhode Island under Count de Barras. In Sep tember Lord Cornwallis transferred his army to Yorktown, and Gloucester opposite, and strongly fortified those places. At this time the American forces under the command of Lafayette, Steubcn, and Wayne were not sufficient to attack the British in their new position with any prospect of success. While the operations in Virginia were in that condition, French troops under Count de Rochambeau, which had arrived in Rhode Island from France in the preceding year, joined General Washington on the Hudson, and the allied armies, eluding the vigilance of Sir Henry Clinton at New York, marched to Virginia. They rendezvoused at Williamsburg, twelve miles above Yorktown, and on the morning of the 28th of September marched in two divisions by separate roads to invest the British. They were occupied in preparations for the siege until the 9th of October, when a general discharge of cannon commenced upon the British works. Perceiving his peril, Cornwallis at tempted to escape to Gloucester, and thence flee northward to New York. With that purpose he embarked a large number of his troops on the vessels on York River, when a fierce tornado arose and made the passage of the river too perilous for the consummation of that plan. Despairing of either victory or escape, or of aid from the navy with French ships of war guarding the mouth of the York, Cornwallis made overtures for capitulation. The arrangements were concluded, and on the 19th of October the articles were signed, by which the British forces surrendered prisoners of war. The army, with the artillery, arms, accoutrements, military chest and all public stores, were surrendered to General Washington, the ships and seamen to the Count de Grasse. The prisoners, exclusive of seamen, amounted to 7073. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 49 Early in the year, Benedict Arnold, now a British officer, with about fifteen hundred men, made a descent on the un protected coasts of Virginia, and committed extensive ravages. While the allied armies were advancing to the siege of Yorktown, Arnold conducted an expedition against New London, in Connecticut. He took Fort Trumbull, and Fort Griswold on the opposite shore of the Thames, and reduced to ashes the town of New London and the stores contained in it. On the 1st of March the State of New York ceded to the United States all its lands in the country north of the Ohio. The first newspaper published in Vermont was issued in February, at Westminster under the name of The Vermont Gazette or Green Mountain Post Boy. In 1783 the paper was removed to Windsor. The first bank established in the United States was incorpo rated by Congress, under the name of " The President, Direc tors, and Company of the Bank of North America." Its loca tion was at Philadelphia. 1782 The capture of a second British army in America rendered the war unpopular in Great Britain. Commissioners for nego tiating peace were appointed by both nations, and on the 30th of November they agreed on provisional articles, which were to be inserted in a future treaty of peace to be finally concluded between the parties when peace should take place between. Great Britain and France. The United Provinces of Holland acknowledged the inde pendence of the United States on the 19th of April. The first newspaper published in Brooklyn, L. I., was issued on the 8th of June, and called The Brooklyn Hall Super-Extra, Gazette. The first manufacture of fustians and jeans in this country was commenced at Philadelphia. 1783 On the 20th of January an agreement was entered into be tween the Ministers Plenipotentiary of the United States and the Minister Plenipotentiary of Great Britain, relative to a ces sation of hostilities. On the llth of April, Congress issued a proclamation declaring the cessation of arms on land and sea, and enjoined its observance. The definite Treaty of Peace be tween Great Britain and the United States was signed at Paris on the 3d of September. At the same time a treaty was con cluded between Great Britain and Spain, by which the former nation ceded to the latter East and West Florida. The independence of the United States was acknowledged by Sweden on the 5th of February, by Denmark on the 25th of February, by Spain on the 24th of March, and by Russia in July. A ship from Massachusetts arrived at Riga, in Russia, on the 1st of June, and was the first American vessel that ever visited any Russian port. Before the dissolution of the army, the American officers in stituted a society, denominated " The Society of the Cincinnati." Its objects were to perpetuate the remembrance of the Ameri- Y 50 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. can revolution, as well as a cordial affection among die officers, and to extend acts of beneficence to those officers and their families whose situation might require assistance. Congress issued a proclamation on the 18th of October, that the army should be disbanded on the 3d of November. On the 25th of November the British army evacuated the city of New York, and the Americans took possession of the city the same day. Charlestown, the capital of South Carolina, was incorporated by the legislature of that State by the name of "The City of Charleston." " The American Spelling Book," by Noah Webster, was first published this year, and was the first book of the kind printed in America. The lighting of the streets of Baltimore and a day police were established by the town authorities. 1784 The Legislature of Connecticut passed a law for the gradual abolition of slavery in that State. The towns of Hartford, New Haven, New London, Norwich, and Middletown were incorpo rated as cities. The second bank in the United States went into operation in Boston, and was called the Massachusetts Bank. The New York Chamber of Commerce, instituted by the colo nial government, was continued a corporation by the State legis lature, with enlarged privileges. The Empress of China, of Boston, sailed from New York for Canton in February, and returned in the next year. This was the first voyage from the United States to China. The census taken in Massachusetts showed a population of 353,133 whites and 4377 negroes. The territory north and west of the Ohio was provided with a temporary government by act of congress. The first daily newspaper published in America was estab lished at Philadelphia. It was until this time issued as a weekly under the title of The Pennsylvania Packet or the General Advertiser. The Massachusetts Centinel and tJie Republican Journal issued its first number at Boston on the 24th of March. In the year 1840 it was merged in the Boston Daily Advertiser. Pittsburg, in Pennsylvania, was laid out into town lots and its settlement commenced. The town of Hudson, in New York, was founded, and Burlington and New Brunswick, in New Jersey, incorporated as cities. 1785 An organ was set up in the First Church in Boston. This was the first instance of the introduction of instrumental music into a Congregational church in New England. Harrisburg, in Pennsylvania, was laid out into town lots. The first daily newspaper published in New York, and the second in this country,, was issued this year under the name of The New York Daily Advertiser. The first newspaper published in Maine was issued on the first of January, and called The Falmouth Gazette. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 51 The introduction of the Lombardy poplar into America was made this year by Michaux, who was sent over by the King of France to collect trees and shrubs for his establishment at Ram - bouillet. The regular exportation of cotton first commenced this year ; one bag was sent from Charleston to Liverpool, twelve from Philadelphia, and one from New York. The first Philadelphia Directory was issued, and was the first city directory published in the United States. 1786 An insurrection broke out in Massachusetts, and Daniel Shays, a captain in the Revolution, was chosen leader of the insurgents. They complained that the governor s salary was too high, the senate aristocratic, the lawyers extortionate, and taxes too bur densome to bear, and they demanded an issue of paper money. Bodies of armed men interrupted the sessions of the courts in a number of counties, and in December, Shays, with a large force, prevented the holding of courts at Worcester and Spring field. In the following month he marched with about two thousand men to capture the arsenal at Springfield, but being fired upon by the militia the insurgents fled, the leaders making their way to New Hampshire. Shays remained in Vermont about a year and was afterwards pardoned. Portland, in Maine, was incorporated. The place was here tofore known as Falmouth. The State of New York contained at this time 220,000 white population and about 19,000 negroes. The first Roman Catholic church erected in New York was built this year on Barclay Street, and called St. Peter s. The first Sunday School in the United States was opened by Bishop Asbury, of Virginia. The first newspaper published west of the Alleghanies was issued on the 29th of July at Pittsburg, and called The Pitts- burg Gazette. That part of the country known subsequently as Tennessee formed at this period a part of North Carolina. The inhabit ants of that section being dissatisfied with the government, met in convention at Jonesborough, and voted to secede from North Carolina and form an independent State, to which they gave the name of Falkland. A violent contest soon arose between the conflicting authorities, which was prevented from growing into a civil war only by the interposition of the United States Government. 1787 In May, delegates from all the States excepting Rhode Island assembled at Philadelphia to adopt a more perfect and stronger Union. The form of confederation answered the purposes of the government during the war ; but no sooner had that period elapsed than the total inefficiency of the federal government was perceived. An enormous debt had been contracted, and public credit was in the lowest state of depreciation. Congress had devised a system of revenue, with a provision for discharging the existing debts. This system was transmitted to the several State legislatures, with an address strongly recommending its 52 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. adoption; but from the various and interfering interests of the different States it was but partially adopted, and never put into operation. In some States the treaties with foreign powers were disregarded or openly violated. Other defects in the ex isting constitution were clearly evident. In this state of affairs it was the opinion of the wisest citizens that an energetic sys tem of national government only could revive the ruined state of commerce, restore public and private credit, give a national character to the States, secure the faith of public treaties, and prevent the evils of anarchy and civil war. On the 17th of Sep tember the delegates unanimously agreed on a Federal Consti tution, and the articles soon afterward were transmitted to the legislatures of the several States, in order that they might be submitted to conventions of the people for ratification. There was a struggle in the convention touching the basis of rep resentation in congress, in which the question of slavery min- led. It originated in a strife between the larger and smaller tates, the latter contending for an equal and the former for a proportional representation. The resolution, however, was passed, incorporating into the Constitution a provision that the base of representation should be on free inhabitants and three fifths of all other persons. By this vote the half a million of slaves in the Southern States and their increase in coming years were to be counted in the basis of representation in the national House of Representatives and in the Electoral College, so that an owner of slaves would be entitled not only to his own vote, but three votes more for every five slaves he possessed. This meas ure placed large powers in the hands of the slaveholding class in the subsequent political struggles in national politics. The convention also passed a resolution providing for the rendition of slaves escaping from one State into another. Connecticut ceded to the United States all its lands west of Pennsylvania, excepting about 4,000,000 acres. Of this reserve, 500,000 acres were granted to the inhabitants of New London, Fairfield, and Norwalk, whose property had been destroyed by the British troops in the Revolutionary war. Congress passed an act for establishing a government for the vast territory bounded by the lakes, the State of Pennsylvania, and the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. It was provided in the ordinance that slavery and involuntary servitude, except in pun ishment of crimes, should be forever prohibited in that district. The State of South Carolina passed an act for the cession of its western territory to the United States. Columbia College of New York was incorporated, and the College of Physicians at Philadelphia was founded. About one hundred houses were consumed by fire in Boston, on the 24th of April. At this period Baltimore contained 1959 dwelling-houses, nine churches, and one hundred and sixty -four warehouses and stores. The first newspaper issued in Kentucky was published in August at Lexington, under the title of The Lexington Gazette. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 53 The first cotton-mill in the United States went into operation this year at Beverly, Mass. From its imperfect machinery it soon closed. It manufactured corduroys and bed-ticks. The settlement of Binghamton and of Syracuse, in New York, was commenced. The manufacture of salt was com menced about this time near Syracuse. 1788 The new Federal Constitution proposed the last year to the people of the United States by the several conventions was adopted in all the States, excepting Rhode Island and North Carolina. Mass was performed for the first time in Boston. John Greenwood, a dentist, established an office in New York. This was the first one of the kind in the United States. The settlement of Marietta was commenced on the 7th of April. This was the first permanent settlement in Ohio. In this and the preceding year, twenty thousand persons emi grated to the Northwestern Territory. 1789 The first Congress under the Constitution of the United States, assembled at New York on the 4th of March. Delegates soon arrived from all the States, excepting Rhode Island and North Carolina. On opening the votes of the electors chosen by the several States, it was ascertained that George Washington was unanimously elected President, and John Adams, hav ing the next highest number of votes, Vice-President. On the 23d of April, the President-elect arrived at New York, where he was received by the Governor of the State, and con ducted with military honors through an immense concourse of people to the apartments provided for him. Here he received the salutations of foreign ministers, public bodies, and private citizens of distinction. On the 30th of April the President was inaugurated. After a laborious session, Congress adjourned on the 29th of September, to meet on the first Monday in January. The national government encountered from its formation a powerful opposition. The friends of the Constitution were de nominated Federalists, while those who had opposed its adop tion were called Anti- Federalists. In the first congress, there was but a small majority of Federalists, and these were in favor of the measures recommended by the administration. In November, North Carolina adopted the Constitution, and was admitted into the Union. The first Episcopal convention in America convened at Phil adelphia, and settled a constitution for the " Protestant Epis copal Church in the United States of America." The Rev. Dr. Carrol of Maryland was consecrated bishop of the Roman Catholic Church. He was the first one consecrated in the United States. The first Roman Catholic church in New England was founded in Boston. The seat of the government for South Carolina was removed from Charleston to Columbia. Cincinnati was laid out as a town in the beginning of the year ; a few months later, a log-cabin was erec >egmning 01 me ted, and the set- 54 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. tlement of the town commenced. The settlement of Knoxville, in Tennessee, was commenced. The first successful crop of Sea Island cotton was gathered in South Carolina. The first geography of the United States was published by Jedediah Morse. 1790 Congress passed an act for the assumption of the debts of the several States, incurred in the prosecution of the Revolutionary war, and for funding this national debt. At the same time, an act was passed fixing the location of the capital of the United States on the Potomac. There had been a wrangle among the members of congress relating to the permanent location of the national capital ; the Southern members contending for the Potomac ; those from the North, for a place in Pennsylvania, on the Susquehanna, called Wright s Ferry. At the same time, there was a disagreement among them concerning the policy proposed in the assumption by the national government of the several State debts : the Southern members opposed it ; the Northern advocated it. At length, a compromise was effected, whereby the South gained the capital, and the North assump tion. The removal to the Potomac was designated to take place in the year 1800 ; in the mean time, the seat of govern ment was to be established at Philadelphia. Accordingly, the transfer to that city from New York was made in the autumn of this year. The vast tract of country south of the Ohio was organized under a territorial government. The District of Columbia, by act of congress passed on the 16th of July, was located and surveyed for the seat of the na tional government. About sixty square miles of this territory on the north side of the Potomac was ceded to the United States by Maryland, and forty square miles on the south side of that river by Virginia. This latter portion was reconveyed to Virginia in 1846. The Salem Gazette, at Salem, Mass., made its first appearance. It succeeded the Essex. Gazette, established in the year 1768. The District of Kentucky, at this time a part of Virginia, was detached from that State by consent, and made application to be admitted into the Union. The State of Rhode Island, represented in a convention at Newport, adopted and ratified the Constitution of the United States, and was subsequently admitted into the Union. By the census, the population of the United States at this period was 3,929,326, of which number 695,655 were slaves. Congress passed an act accepting the cession by North Caro lina to the United States of its western territory. This cession was subsequently formed into the State of Tennessee. This cession was made in accordance with an act passed by the legis lature of North Carolina, in the preceding year, which provided the condition, that no regulation made or to be made by Cong ress should tend to the emancipation of slaves in the ceded ter ritory. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 55- The first manufacture in this country, of brooms from broom corn, was commenced at Philadelphia. The first voyage of an American vessel around the world, was commenced by the ship Columbia, from Boston, on the 30th of September, 1787, and was completed this year. It de parted for the north-west coast of America, thence, freighted with furs, sailed to China, and from there returned home by the way of the Cape of Good Hope. On the 5th of June a boat with twelve oars, propelled by steam, invented by John Fitch, made her first trip as a passen ger and freight boat on the Delaware, between Philadelphia and Trenton, running eighty miles within thirteen hours against the tide and a strong wind. This was the most successful experiment of a steamboat in this or any country. The boat continued to perform regularly advertised trips for four months, running about three thousand miles during the season. 1791 Vermont was admitted into the Union on the 18th of Febru ary. Congress appointed General St. Clair Governor of the Northwestern Territory, and instructed him to destroy the In dian villages on the Miami River, to expel the savages from that district, and to connect that part of the country with the Ohio by a chain of military posts. In commencing to carry out those instructions St. Clair met Tvith an engagement with the Indians in November, in which he was defeated, with a loss of about six hundred and fifty men. The Legislature of North Carolina passed an act to lay out a new town to be called Raleigh, for the seat of the government. The United States Bank, with a capital of ten millions of dollars, went into operation at Philadelphia. It was chartered on the 25th of February by congress to aid the operations of the government. By its charter it was established for twenty years, with the privilege of creating branches in any of the States. The national government was authorized to subscribe for two millions of the stock, and private individuals the re mainder. The first successful cotton factory established in America went into operation by Samuel Slater at Pawtucket, in Rhode Island. The nrst bank established in New York was incorporated under the title of the Bank of New York. The first American whaling-ship to the Pacific sailed from Nantucket this year. The first daily newspaper published in Baltimore was issued on the 24th of October, and called the Baltimore Daily Re pository. The first newspaper in Harrisburg, Pa., appeared un der the name of the Oracle of Dauphin. The first furnace in Kentucky was erected by government troops on Slate Creek, a branch of the Licking River. It was worked until the year 1838. The existence of anthracite coal, in Carbon and the adjacent counties in Pennsylvania, was accidentally discovered this year 56 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. by a hunter named Ginther. Ginther took a piece to Colonel Jacob Weiss, who lived near the site of Mauch Chunk, and he carried the specimen to Philadelphia, where, after having been examined by several mineralogists, it finally came into the hands of Mr. Charles Cist, a printer. Cist was the first person who appreciated its merit, and insisted that arrangements should be immediately undertaken to secure the lands where the discov ery was made. Accordingly, Weiss obtained several thousands of acres from the Land Office, and formed an association to de velop the mines, under the name of the Lehigh Coal Mine Company, composed of several enterprising and wealthy capi talists. The company, however, failed to find purchasers for the coal, and suspended operations, and it was not until the year 1820 that success was attained. 1792 There were two great political parties at this tune, of about equal strength, and which united only on the name of Wash ington. The Federalists supported the measures of the gov ernment; the Anti- Federalists, to whom was now given the name of Republicans, opposed the financial measures of Ham ilton and other acts of the administration. The French Revo lution also had an important influence on the politics of the United States at this time. Mr. Jefferson and his Republican friends sympathized with the French nation in their struggles for liberty and their contests with other nations, while Hamil ton and his friends, of the Federal party, considered it important to the interests of the United States to maintain friendly rela tions with Great Britain, which power was at this period at war with France, and they were unwilling to sacrifice either the peace or the interests of the nation to any sympathies they might have in favor of the revolutionists of France. In this state of public opinion the Presidential election of this year took place. Notwithstanding the high party feeling among the people, Washington received the unanimous votes of the electors to serve a second term as President. John Adams re ceived seventy -seven votes, and was re-elected Vice-President. George Clinton, the candidate of the Republican party, re ceived fifty votes, and five votes were given to other persons. The total number of electors at this time was one hundred and thirty-two. In accordance with an act of Congress a mint was established in Philadelphia. Bullion was to be assayed and coined free or exchanged for coin at a reduction of one half per cent. Horse power was used for coining until 1815, when a steam-engine was procured. The mint was ready for operation on the 7th of September. Kentucky was admitted into the Union on the 1st of June. The Stmth Carolina Bank, the Bank of Pennsylvania, the Bank of New Hampshire, and the Bank of Albany were estab lished. The latter bank was the second one founded in the State of New York. The Union Bank of Boston received a charter. The Columbia River, in Oregon, was discovered and entered HISTOBY OF THE UNITED STATES. 57 by Captain Gray on the 7th of May; and he gave it the name of his ship, which name has since been retained. Congress passed an act fixing the rates for postage, which rates were not changed until the year 1815. The rate for single letters for a distance of thirty miles was six and one quarter cents; beyond that the rate increased with the distance. 1793 George Washington and John Adams were inaugurated for a second term of office as President and Vice-President, respec tively. In April Citizen Genet arrived in this country as minister from the French Republic. It having been expected in France that the United States would engage on its side against Eng land and other nations, Genet, on his arrival, issued commis sions to vessels of war to sail from American ports and cruise against the enemies of France. Whereupon the President is sued a proclamation, declaring the policy of this government to be that of pursuing a conduct of friendship and impartiality toward the belligerent powers; and that whosoever of the citi zens of the United States should render himself liable to pun ishment or forfeiture under the law of nations, by committing, aiding, or abetting hostilities against any of the said powers, or by carrying to any of them those articles which were deemed contraband by the modern usage of nations, would not receive the protection of the United States against such forfeiture and punishment. The President also gave instructions that prose cutions would be instituted against all persons who should, within the cognizance of the courts of the United States, vio late the laws of nations with respect to the powers at war, or any of them. Mr. Genet, after this, threatened to ap peal to the people; but finally, after many controversies with him, the President demanded his recall by the French Govern ment, which demand was acceded to. Genet is said to have in troduced into this country the idea of "democratic societies," in imitation of the Jacobin clubs of Paris. On the 30th of May one was instituted at Philadelphia. Others were formed in other cities, and from their name the term Democrat first came to be used in the politics of this country. Congress passed an act by which slave-masters and their agents were given summary power to seize, hold, and return to slavery their fugitive bondsmen escaping from one State into another. The yellow-fever devastated Philadelphia, and more than one half the houses in the city were deserted by people who fled the place. The first printing-press in Tennessee was set up at Knoxville, and the first newspaper issued called the Knoxville Gazette. The first newspaper published north of the Ohio vas issued at Cincinnati on the 9th of November, and called The Sentinel of the Northwestern Territory. The first Sunday-school opened in New England was estab lished at Pawtucket by Samuel Slater. This year is marked by the invention by Eli Whitney of the 58 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. cotton-gin. Up to this time the cleaning of cotton from the seed was done by hand, one laborer accomplishing about six pounds a day. By this invention about one thousand pounds of cotton could be cleaned in the same time. The city of Washington was founded, and the corner-stone of the Capitol laid by President Washington, on the 18th of September. The first mill in the United States for the manufacture of cotton-yarns wi - erected by Samuel Slater at North Provi dence. The first manufacture of clocks as a business in America was started by Eli Terry, at Plymouth, Conn. 1794 At this time the western forts on Lake Erie were still occu pied by the British, contrary to the treaty of 1783. American vessels were seized by vessels of that nation on their way to Trench ports and American seamen were impressed. In view of those facts, the President, after many remonstrances with the British Government, fearing that the United States might get involved in war with England, sent John Jay as a special envoy to London, to endeavor to avert that calamity by negotiation. In November a treaty with Great Britain was signed, and was afterward ratified by the United States Senate. As this treaty was considered favorable to Great Britain, the publication of it in this country tended to heighten the asperity of political par ties, and to increase the feelings of hostility toward England which were entertained by the opposition to the administration. An insurrection broke out in Pennsylvania caused by the pas sage by congress of acts imposing duties upon spirits distilled, and upon stills. From the commencement of the operation of those laws, combinations of distillers were formed in the four western counties of Pennsylvania to defeat them, and violence was repeatedly committed. In July about one hundred armed men attacked the house of an inspector of the revenue and wounded several persons. They seized the marshal of that district, and compelled him to enter into stipulations to forbear the execution of his office. Both the inspector and the marshal were obliged to flee from that part of the country. These and many other outrages induced President Washington to issue a proclamation commanding the insurgents to disperse. In Octo ber the President proceeded to Bedford at the head of a body of militia, where he gave out instructions to Governor Lee of Maryland, whom he appointed to command the forces for the suppression of the rebellion, now supported by several thousand men. Governor Lee with fifteen thousand troops marched into Pennsylvania, and compelled the insurgents to lay down their arms and solicit the clemency of the government. General St. Clair having resigned the command of the army since his defeat, General Wayne w r as appointed to succeed him. On the 20th of August General Wayne had a battle with a large body of Indians at the rapids of the Miami, in which he defeated them; he then desolated their country, and erected forts in the heart of their settlements. HISTOKY OF THE UNITED STATES. 59 The foreign and domestic debts of the United States on the 1st of January were a little more than seventy-four millions of dollars. As an offset, there were about twenty-six millions appli cable to the sinking-fund. The Insurance Company of North America, in Philadelphia, and the Insurance Company of Pennsylvania, were incorpo rated. The first turnpike road in the United States was completed by a private company, and connected Lancaster with Philadel phia, a distance of sixty-two miles. The first cotton sewing-thread manufactured in the United States was made this year at Pawtucket. Samuel Morey built a steamboat with a stern-wheel, and navi gated it from Hartford to New York. Dayton, in Ohio, was laid out into a town and the lots dis posed of by lottery. The first newspaper published west of the Mississippi was is sued at New Orleans under the name of The Moniteur. The first theatre established in Boston was opened on the 4th of February, under the name of The Federal Street Theatre. The law forbidding theatrical performances had been repealed in the preceding year. By an act of congress the addition of two stars and two stripes was made to the national flag. On the 27th of March congress authorized the construction of six frigates as the foundation of a navy. The vessels of the Revolutionary war were disposed of at the end of that con test. 1795 The reserve lands belonging to the State of Connecticut were sold, for twelve hundred thousand dollars, and the proceeds of the sale were appropriated for the support of schools in the State. The exports of the United States for this year amounted to more than forty-seven millions of dollars. The Massachusetts Fire Insurance Company of Boston was incorporated. The yellow-fever attacked the city of New York, and more than seven hundred persons died from it. The first newspaper established in the United States exclu sively for commercial topics was issued at Boston on the 5th of September, under the title of The Boston Prices- Current and Marine Intelligencer, Commercial and Mercantile. 1796 The third presidential election took place this year. Wash ington was earnestly solicited to be a candidate for re-election, but he positively declined. John Adams and Thomas Pinck- ney were supported by the Federalists as President and Vice- President. The Republicans were unanimously in favor of Thomas Jefferson for President, but were not united on the subject of Vice-President. At the election, of the electoral votes John Adams received 71; Thomas Jefferson, 68; Thomas Pinck- ney, 59; Aaron Burr, 30; Samuel Adams, 15; Oliver Ellsworth, 11; George Clinton, 7; John Jay, 5; James Iredell, 3; George 60 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Washington, 2; J. Henry, 2; S. Johnson, 2; and Charles C, Pinckney, 1. By the constitution as it stood at this period, the person receiving the highest number of electoral votes was elected President, the next highest Vice-President, Accordingly John Adams was the successful candidate for President, and Thomas Jefferson became the Vice-President elect. Tennessee was formed under a State government and admit ted into the Union. Knoxville was made the capital until the year 1802. The census of Albany showed a population of 6021. The first Methodist Church established in Boston was opened this year. On the 20th of June a conflagration at Charleston, S. C., con sumed three hundred houses ; and one at Savannah on the 25th of November destroyed three hundred and fifty. There was a large emigration to Ohio of people from the East ern States. At this period Cincinnati contained about six hun dred inhabitants. At this time there were four daily stages between New York and Philadelphia, and one between Philadelphia and Baltimore. The first successful manufacture of sugar from cane was made at a plantation a few miles above New Orleans. Cleveland, in Ohio, was founded, and Baltimore incorpora ted with a city charier. The first directory in Baltimore was published. A conflagration in Savannah destroyed property valued at one million of dollars. The first newspaper published in Washington was issued on the llth of June, and called The Washington Gazette. The first daily newspaper established in Boston appeared on the 6th of October, under the name of The Polar Star and-Bos- ion Daily Advertiser. The first manufacture of morocco leather in the United States was started at Lynn, Mass. 1797 John Adams was inaugurated President, and Thomas Jeffer son took the oath of office as Vice-President, on the 4th of March. There were at this period four hundred and eighty post-offices in the United States. Detroit at this time contained three hundred houses. The first American vessel on Lake Erie was launched near Erie, Pa. Western New York received a large emigration from the East this year. The introduction of cast-iron ploughs commenced at this time, and soon superseded wooden ploughs, which were heretofore ex clusively used. At first there was a prejudice against the new plough it being stated that cast-iron poisoned the land and spoiled the crop. The first scientific periodical in America was established in New York, and called The Medical Repository. 1798 Congress passed an act in March establishing the Mississippi Territory. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 61 In May, Harper s Ferry, in Virginia, was designated as the site for a government armory and manufactory. "Hail Columbia" made its first appearance and was a great success. It was composed by Joseph Hopkinson, of Philadel phia, and was adapted to the air called "The President s March." The yellow-fever raged with violence in Philadelphia and New York. In the first 3645 persons died of the disease ; in the last 2086. It appeared as an epidemic in Boston for the first time, where 145 died of it. The new State-House in Boston was completed. The manufacture of straw-braid for hats and bonnets was originated at this time in Dedham, Mass. The first American vessel on Lake Ontario was launched at Hanford s Landing, near Rochester. 1799 Although there was no declaration of war either on the part of France or the United States, hostilities actually commenced on the ocean between the two nations. The United States fri gate Constellation, of thirty-eight guns, on the 9th of February fell in with and captured the French frigate L Insurgente, of forty guns. This action took place in the West India seas, and lasted about an hour. The American navy consisted at this period of forty-two ves sels, carrying nine hundred and fifty guns. The Legislature of Pennsylvania established the seat of gov ernment at Lancaster. 1800 The north wing of the Capitol was finished this year, and the seat of government for the United States was removed to Washington. Congress met there for the first time on the 22d of November. A treaty was concluded between Spain and France, by which the sovereignty and property of Louisiana were conveyed to France. The Mississippi Territory was organized; and Indiana Terri tory formed, with St. Vincennes as its capital. By the second census the population of the United States was found to be 5,305,482, of whom 896,849 were slaves. The population of the city of New York was 60,489 ; of Philadel phia, about 40,000 ; Baltimore, 23,971 ; Boston, 24,937 ; Wash ington, 3210 ; Providence, 7614 ; and Charleston, 18,712. The first Roman Catholic church in Philadelphia was erected. More than one thousand of the inhabitants of Baltimore died from the yellow-fever. The United States frigate Constellation met the French frigate Le Vengeance at sea on the 1st of February, and in an action which took place for five hours, silenced the French ship. A squall enabled her to escape, with the loss of one hundred and sixty men killed and wounded. At the presidential election thisyear,the Republican candidates were Thomas Jefferson, who received seventy -three electoral votes ; and Aaron Burr, who received the same number. The Federalists gave John Adams sixty -five votes, Charles C. Pinck- 62 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. . ney sixty-four, and John Jay one. The votes for Mr. Jeffer son and Mr. Burr being equal, by the terms of the Constitution which prevailed at this period, there was no choice, and the election was thrown into the House of Representatives, to be decided which should be President, Jefferson or Burr. After a contest of seven days, on the thirty-sixth ballot Thomas Jefferson was elected President, and Aaron Burr was made Vice-President. The name of the Republican party now began to be changed to the Democratic. Water was first introduced into Boston, by a private corpo ration, from Jamaica Pond, about eight miles distant. 1801 Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr commenced their terms of office as President and Vice-President, respectively, on the 4th of March. The President despatched a small squadron to the Mediter ranean, to protect American commerce from the depredations of the cruisers of Tripoli. The exports this year from South Carolina were 65,000 barrels of rice ; 8,000,000 Ibs. of cotton ; 8,500 barrels of indigo, and 5,996 hogsheads of tobacco. There were at this time two hundred newspapers published in the United States, of which number seventeen were dailies. The compound blowpipe was invented by Professor Robert Hare of Philadelphia. Congress established a navy-yard at Brooklyn, L. I. Buffalo was laid out into town-lots. There were at that place at this time one tavern, five dwellings, and one store, all built of logs. Philadelphia commenced, on the 27th of June, to be supplied with water conveyed through pipes laid in the streets. The Evening Post issued its first number, at New York, on the 16th of November. It was edited by William Coleman, and supported the Federal party. The pillory was used for the last time in Boston on the 22d of November. 1802 Ohio was authorized by congress to be erected into a State, and admitted into the Union. The admission was consummated the next year. The number of its white inhabitants was esti mated at about 75,000. Georgia ceded to the United States all her western territory upon condition that congress should not prohibit slavery in tfcat district. A manufactory of sheet-copper was started in Massachusetts, which was the only one of the kind in the United States. Congress established a military academy at West Point. The first newspaper published in Mississippi was issued at Natchez, and called The Natchez Gazette. 1803 The United States purchased from France all of Louisiana, for the sum of fifteen millions of dollars. This purchase em braced all the country west of the Mississippi River and east of tbe Rocky Mountains, and from the Mexican dominions on the south to Canada on the north. Governor Claiborne, of Missis- HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 63 sippi Territory, and General Wilkinson were appointed com missioners by congress to receive formal possession of the territory. Upon their arrival at New Orleans, the Commissary of France, acting in behalf of the French Government, formally delivered the country over to the United States commissioners, and vested Governor Claiborne with the powers before exercised by the French governor. Commodore Preble, commanding an American fleet, bom barded the town and forts of Tripoli, on the Mediterranean. The frigate Philadelphia, commanded by Captain Bainbridge, struck on a rock in the harbor of Tripoli on the 81st of October, and his officers and crew, numbering three hundred men, were taken prisoners. The officers were well treated, but the men were reduced to slavery. The tribe of Kankasia Indians ceded to the United States all the territory in its possession extending along the Mississippi River, from the Illinois to and up the Ohio. The first bank in Cincinnati was opened, and called The Miami Exporting Company. The first cotton-mill in New Hampshire was erected at New Ipswich. 1804 A proposed amendment to the Constitution was ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the several States, and became a part of the Constitution. This amendment concerned the manner of electing the President and Vice-President so as to designate which person was voted for as President, and which as Vice-President ; instead of the original article in the Consti tution which required the electors to vote for two persons for these offices, of whom the one who had the highest number of votes was to be President, and the next highest, Vice-President. In the presidential election this year the Democratic party nominated Mr. Jefferson for re-election as President, and George Clinton as Vice-President. The Federalists nominated Charles C. Pinckney for President, and Rufus King for Vice-President. The Democratic candidates secured all the one hundred and seventy-six electoral votes, excepting fourteen. The Legislature of New Jersey passed an act on the 15th of February for the gradual abolition of slavery in that State. It made all persons free that should be,born after the fourth day of the following July. The children of slaves to become free males at twenty-five years of age, and females at twenty-one. Congress passed an act separating the district purchased from France into two territories, divided by a line drawn along the thirty-third parallel of north latitude. That on the south of this line was called the Territory of Orleans ; that on the north The District of Louisiana. Orleans contained at this time about fifty thousand inhabitants, of whom more than one half were slaves. The principal town in that territory was New Orleans, which contained a population of about eight thousand. St. Louis was the chief settlement in the District of Louisiana. The Delaware Indians ceded to the United States their title to an extensive territory east of the Mississippi. This tract 64 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. contained all the country between the Wabash and the Ohio, south of and including the road from the Rapids to Vincennes. Tripoli was bombarded a second time in August. About this time Sunday-schools began to be established in different sections of the country, and their introduction gradu ally increased from this period. Fort Dearborn, on the site of the present city of Chicago, was established, and garrisoned by a company of about fifty men. The Middlesex canal, connecting Boston harbor with Concord River, was completed, and was the first canal in the United States opened for the transportation of passengers and mer chandise. A conflagration in New York destroyed property valued at two millions of dollars. The Richmond Enquirer issued its first number on the 9th of May, at Richmond, Va. On the llth of July, Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury under Washington, was fatally wounded by Aaron Burr, Vice-President of the United States, in a duel fought at Weehawken, in New Jersey, opposite the city of New York. This event caused intense excitement throughout the country, and was deeply deplored. 1805 Thomas Jefferson was inaugurated President of the United States, on the 4th of March, and George Clinton took the oath of office as Vice President. Large purchases of lands were made from different tribes of Indians in the western and also in the southern territories. A treaty of peace was concluded with Tripoli on the 3d of June. Michigan Territory was formed by act of congress from a portion of Indiana on the llth of January. The first dry -goods commission house established in the United States was opened at Philadelphia, for the sale of cot ton yarns and threads manufactured in Providence. The first cargo of ice exported from this country was shipped this year from Boston to Martinique, and consisted of one hun dred and thirty tons. 1806 England being at war with France, declared the whole coast of the continent of Europe, from Brest to the Elbe, in a state of blockade. France retaliated by declaring the British isles under blockade, and forbade the introduction into France of the products of Great Britain and her colonies, whether in her ow r n ships or those of other nations. These edicts inflicted great damage upon American commerce, which before their passage had been seriously interrupted by acts of the British Government. At last great feeling was excited throughout the country, and most of "the principal towns memorialized con gress or the executive on the subject. The continued impress ment of American seamen afforded a further cause of com plaint. On the 15th of April congress passed an act prohi biting the importation of specific articles of British growth or manufacture, to take effect on the llth of November. The President sent an expedition consisting of twenty-eight HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 65 men, under the command of Captains Lewis and Clarke, in the year 1804, to explore the Missouri, and to find the best com munication from that river to the Pacific, and they returned this year. They ascended the river more than three thousand miles, traced it nearly to its source, crossed the Rocky Moun tains, and descended the Columbia River to the ocean. In this and the following year Lieutenant Pike ascended the Missis sippi to its source, and ascertained the geography of that coun try, which was not heretofore known. .1807 The frigate Chesapeake, commanded by Commodore Bar- ron, sailing from Hampton Roads on a cruise to the Mediterra nean, was come up with by the British ship of war Leopard, one of a squadron then at anchor within the waters of the United States. An officer was sent from the Leopard to the Chesapeake, with a note from the captain respecting some de serters from some of his Britannic majesty s ships, supposed to be serving as part ot the crew of the Chesapeake, and required per mission to search for them. Commodore Barren sent answer that he knew of no such men as described ; that the recruiting officers of the Chesapeake had been particularly instructed by the government not to enter any deserters from English ships, and that he had been instructed never to permit the crew of any ship under his command to be mustered by any officers but his own. The Leopard, shortly after this answer was sent, ranged alongside of the Chesapeake, and commenced a heavy fire upon her. The Chesapeake, unprepared for action, made no resist ance, when, having suffered much damage, and lost three men killed and eighteen wounded, the commodore ordered his colors to be struck, and sent an officer on board the Leopard to surrender his vessel. The commander of the British ship then took possession of the Chesapeake, mustered her crew, and, carrying off four or five of the men, abandoned the ship. Commodore Barron at once returned to Hampton Roads and reported the occurrence to the government. On receiving the information of this outrage, the President, by proclamation, interdicted the harbors and waters of the United States to all armed British vessels, and forbade intercourse with them. A United States vessel was dispatched with instructions to the American minister to London to call on the British Govern ment for the satisfaction and security which the outrage required. In November, the English ministr} issued new orders in council, proclaiming a blockade of pretty much all Europe, and forbidding any trade in neutral vessels, unless they had first gone into some British port and paid duties on their car goes. In December, France proclaimed a new decree, by which it was declared that any ship was lawful prize that had any thing to do with Great Britain, that should pay it tribute, that should carry its merchandise, or that should be bound either to or from any of its ports. On the 22d of December, congress passed an act laying an embargo on all shipping in the ports of the United States. The depariure of any vessel from any port 66 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. of the United States bound to any foreign port was forbidden, except by the express commission of the President. Foreign armed vessels with public commissions, and foreign merchant- ships in ballast, or only with such cargo as they had when notified of the act, were excepted. Coasting-vessels were to give bonds in double the value of their cargoes, to reland the same in the United States. Aaron Burr was arrested on the charge of prosecuting a scheme for the separation of the western country from the Union, and the subjugation of New Orleans, but after a pro tracted trial, no overt act of treason being proved against him, he was released. The practicability and advantages of propelling boats by steam-power was for the first time demonstrated to the satis faction of the public this year, by Kobert Fulton. In the spring his steamboat, called the Clermont, was launched, and an engine procured from England put in her. On the 1st of August the first trip was commenced, and the boat ran from New York to Albany, a distance of one hundred and fifty miles, against the current, in thirty-two hours. The boat soon after ran regular trips between those places, and proved a success. A log- cabin was erected on the site of the city of Rochester, which was the first house built there. 1808 The operations of the embargo law, although the measure was sustained by a majority of the American people, was the occasion of great distress, particularly among the commercial community throughout the United States. Dependent as we were on foreign markets for the sale of our redundant products, now that we were not permitted to export them, they fell to half their wonted price, and even less. To many of the pro ducers they did not repay the cost of production. The supply of foreign merchandise, too, which habit had made necessary, and of which there was no domestic supply or an insufficient one, being cut off, its price rose proportionally high, and thus the expenses of the agricultural classes increased in the same pro portion that their means of defraying them diminished. It bore still harder on the sailors and ship-owners, who were thrown entirely out of employment, and here the pressure was most severely felt in the States that were most addicted to navi gation. It operated as a bounty on manufactures, but this, at first, benefited but a small proportion of the community^. In Boston and in Portland soup-kitchens were established in aid of the suffering. At the presidential election held this year, the candidates of the Democratic party were elected. James Madison received one hundred and twenty-two electoral votes for President, and George Clinton one hundred and thirteen for Vice-President. The Federalists nominated Charles C. Pinckney for President, and Ruf us King for Vice-President, and each received forty-seven votes. Of the Democratic votes, six were given to George Clinton for President. The States which supported tlie Fed- HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 67 eral nominations were New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Delaware. The Choctaws ceded to the United States their lands which formed the southern part of Mississippi. A large part of Michigan was purchased from the Ottawas, Chippeways, Wyandots, and Pottowatomies. By a report of the Secretary of the Treasury, it appeared that a great number of roads were built in the Eastern and Mid dle States, while few had been constructed south of the Poto mac. The roads were chiefly turnpikes, varying in cost from less than a thousand dollars a mile to fourteen thousand. The toll collected paid au interest on the investment, in some instances less than three per cent, in others as high as eleven. Connecticut since 1803 had incorporated fifty turnpike com panies. In New York, in less than seven years, sixty-seven companies for building roads had been incorporated, and twenty-one more to build toll- bridges. It was recommended that the National Government should spend two millions of dollars yearly for ten years in improving the communication between different parts of the Union. The importation of negro slaves into the United States was prohibited by act of congress in 1806, to take effect on the 1st of January of this year. The steamboat Phoenix, built by John Stevens, ran from Hoboken, on the Hudson, to Philadelphia. This was prob ably the first steam-vessel ever navigated on the ocean. The first book printed west of the Mississippi was published, containing the laws of Louisiana Territory. The first newspaper published in St. Louis was issued in July, and named The Missouri Gazette. The first one in Indiana was published at Vincennes. The first settlement in Oregon was made by the Missouri Fur Company, by the establishment of a trading-post on the Lewis River. The first Temperance Society recorded, established in this country, was formed in March by forty-three members resid ing in Saratoga County, N. Y. The first church edifice erected in Williamsburg was com pleted for the Methodists. 1809 James Madison was inaugurated President of the United States, and George Clinton took the oath of office as Vice- President. Congress, in March, repealed the embargo law as to all nations excepting Great Britain and France ; and as to those nations all commercial intercourse with them was interdicted, whether by exporting or importing, either directly or circuit- ously. An act was also passed for increasing the army and navy. On the 23d of April, Mr. Erskine, minister from Great Britain to the United States, pledged his court to repeal its anti-neutral decrees by the 10th of June ; whereupon the Presi dent proclaimed that commercial intercourse would be renewed on that day. The king refused to ratify the arrangement made 68 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. by Mr. Erskine, and recalled him. The President therefore issued a second proclamation, reviving the non-intercourse law. Mr. Jackson succeeded Mr. Erskine, and he soon giving offence to the American Government, the President refused all intercourse with him, and he was also recalled. Illinois Territory was formed and established by act of con gress, on the 3d of February. It embraced the present States of Illinois and Wisconsin. Sails were about this time made in Boston, from the first cotton-duck manufactured in this, if not in any other country. The first church Sunday-school formed in the United States was established at Pittsburg. From this period began the transfer of the control of Sunday-schools from individuals to churches, and the change made from paid to voluntary teach ers, and from secular to religious instruction. 1810 The Rambouillet decree, alleged to be designed to retaliate the act of congress which forbade French vessels to enter the ports of the United States, was issued by the French Govern ment on the 23d of March. By this decree all American ves sels and cargoes arriving in the ports of France, or of countries occupied by French troops, were ordered to be seized and con demned. On the 1st of May congress passed an act exclud ing British and French armed vessels from the waters of the United States ; but providing that if either of those nations should modify its edicts before the 3d of March ensuing, so that they should cease to violate neutral commerce, of which fact the President was to give notice by proclamation, and the other nation should not within three months after pursue a similar step, commercial intercourse with the first might be renewed, but not with the other. On the 2d of November the President issued his proclamation declaring that the French decrees were revoked, and that intercourse between the United States and France might be renewed. England, however, continued her restrictions on American commerce, and the better to enforce them, stationed ships of war before the principal ports of the United States, to intercept communication. On the 10th of the same month a proclamation was issued interdicting commer cial intercourse with Great Britain. At this period the number of paper-mills in the United States was one hundred and eighty. The importation of rags was now commenced. The first agricultural exhibition held in this country was opened at Georgetown, D. C. The first lot of cotton goods printed from engraved rollers was put on the market from a factory near Philadelphia, on the 6th of October. The cylinder machine was imported from England, and the new process now began to supersede that of block-printing, previously in use. Astoria, in Oregon, was founded by the Pacific Fur Com pany of Oregon, of which John Jacob Astor was the chief pro prietor. The first foreign missionary society founded in the United HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 6& States was formed under the title of the " American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions." 1811 Reparation was made by the Government of Great Britain for the attack of the Leopard upon the Chesapeake. On the 16th of May there was a fight between the American frigate President, of forty-four guns, and the English sloop of war Little Belt, of eighteen guns. This vessel belonged to the British squadron which was ordered to the American coast to break up the trade from the United States to France, and the President was one of the few ships the government had for the protection of her commerce. The ships met a few miles south of Sandy Hook, chased each other in turn, then fired into each other without any reasonable pretext for the first shot, which each accused the other of having fired. The loss on board the English ship, in an encounter which lasted only a few minutes, was over thirty in killed and wounded, while only a single man was slightly wounded on board the President. The affair cre ated great excitement, and a court of inquiry was instituted, which found that the first shot was fired by the Little Belt. Hostilities with Great Britain being apprehended, congress passed an act for raising an additional force of twenty -five thousand men. A theatre in Richmond, Va., was burned on the evening of the 26th of December, when more than six hundred persons were present. Nearly seventy lives were lost on the occasion, and many more died afterward from injuries received. A fire occurred in New York on the 19th of May, destroying about one hundred buildings ; and at Newburyport on the 31st, con suming more than two hundred buildings and other property, valued at six hundred thousand dollars. The frontier settlers being seriously alarmed by hostile indi cations on the part of the Indians, General Harrison, early in November, commanded an expedition for demanding satisfaction of the savages, and to put a stop to their threatened hostilities. On the 7th of November his camp was surprised about four o clock in the morning by the enemy, and a bloody and doubt ful contest ensued. The Indians were finally repulsed with considerable loss. General Harrison then destroyed their prin cipal settlement, called Tippecanoe, and established forts in their country. The first steamboat which ran on the Western waters left Pittsburg on the 29th of October, bound for New Orleans, where it was intended to ply between that city and Natchez. Five steamboats were running between New York and Albany at this period, and one between New York and New Brunswick, N. J. The first ferry-boat propelled by steam in this, and probably in any other country, commenced to ply between New York and Hoboken. At this period there was but one dry-goods store in Brook lyn. Mails passed through Long Island but once a week. The manufacture of chemicals, the first of its kind in New England, was commenced at Salem, Mass. 70 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. The charter of the United States Bank, incorporated in the year 1791, expired this year, and its renewal was defeated in congress, principally through the influence of those who desired to establish smaller banks for themselves. 1812 Congress passed an act, on the 3d of April, establishing an embargo for the period of ninety days on all vessels in and ar riving in port ; and soon afterwards an act to prohibit the ex portation of specie, goods, wares, and merchandise during the continuance of the embargo. In June, congress passed a bill declaring war with Great Britain, which was signed by the President on the 18th. The reasons given for this action were the impressment of American seamen by the British ; the seiz ure of persons as British subjects on the high seas, sailing un der the American flag ; the violation of the rights and the peace of our coasts by British cruisers ; the blockading of their ene mies ports without an adequate force ; and the orders in council affecting neutral rights. At the same time a suspicion was suggested that the Indians had been incited to hostile acts by British agents. The declaration of war found many opponents throughout the country, who strongly expressed their disapprobation of the policy of the government. At the same time a majority of the people were exasperated by the aggressive conduct of Eng land, and supported the measures of congress to sustain the dig nity of the nation. In Baltimore the contending parties were particularly aggressive. The editors of the Federal Republican, a newspaper printed in that city, having published strictures on the declaration of war, a mob assembled at night, tore down their office, and destroyed their printing materials. The paper was afterwards established at Georgetown, and a house was engaged in Baltimore from which the papers were -to be dis tributed. One of the editors, with General Henry Lee, General Lingan, and many others, having provided arms and ammuni tion, they determined, if attacked, to defend themselves in the exercise of their rights. In the evening of the 27th of July a mob collected, and assailed the house with stones. While they were forcing the door several muskets were fired, by which two persons were killed and several wounded. On the arrival of the military a compromise was effected. The persons within the house surrendered on a promise of safety in the prison. On the following night the mob reassembled, broke open the jail, killed General Lingan, bruised and mangled eleven others, eight of whom, supposed to be dead, were thrown in a heap in front of the jail. Some of the ringleaders were tried, but they es caped punishment. The funeral obsequies of General Lingan were attended at Georgetown by three thousand persons. The prosecution of the war commenced on the Canadian borders. The programme for the campaign was the invasion of Canada at three points, namely, Detroit, and Niagara and St. Lawrence rivers. General William Hull, Governor of Michigan Territory, commenced crossing the river at Detroit to the Canadian shore on the 12th of July, w r ith a considerable HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 71 force, with the intention of capturing Port Maiden, about eighteen miles below. After spending nearly a month in in action, Hull received intelligence of an advance of a British army under General Brock for the relief of the fort, and he im mediately ordered his forces to abandon Canada and return to Detroit, much to the disappointment and indignation of his officers and men. Soon afterward the British projected a siege of Detroit; but scarcely had it commenced when Hull, on the 16th of August, displayed a white flag from the fort and soon made its surrender, without having fired a shot or made any effort to stay the course of the enemy. By the terms of the capitulation all of Michigan Territory was surrendered to the British, a large amount of arms, ammunition, and provisions, and three thousand men as prisoners of war. General Hull was soon exchanged, and in the year 1814 was tried and con demned by court-martial for cowardice and sentenced to be shot, but he was pardoned by the President on account of his services in the Revolutionary war. An American force under the command of General Van Rens- selaer crossed the Niagara River on the 13th of October, and made an attack on the British stationed on Queenstown Heights. At first the Americans were successful, but later on were totally defeated, with a loss of about two hundred killed and wounded, and upwards of one thousand surrendered as prisoners of war. In the battle General Brock, the British commander in-chief , was slain. A naval engagement occurred on the 19th of August off the American coast between the United States vessel Constitution, commanded by Captain Isaac Hull, and the British frigate Guerriere. After a severe action at close quarters of about half an hour the enemy s vessel surrendered, but was found to be so much injured she was burned. The enemy s loss was fifteen killed, sixty-four wounded, and twenty-one missing; of the Constitution, fourteen killed and wounded. On the 18th of October the Wasp, a United States schooner under the com mand of Captain Jones, fell in with a squadron of British merchantmen, convoyed by the British sloop of war Frolic, off the coast of North Carolina. A severe engagement ensued, in which the American vessel was victorious. The sea was very rough, and it required much nautical skill to manage the ves sels. At one time they were so near that they touched each other, and the destruction wrought by their guns was terrible. At length the Americans boarded the enemy, but they found no man to oppose them. The decks were covered by the dead and wounded, and every man who was able had gone below, except the seaman at the wheel. Very soon after the victory was secured the Poictiers, a British seventy-four gun ship, ap peared, and captured both the Wasp and her prize. On the 25th of October Captain Decatur, of the frigate United States, captured the British frigate Macedonian, after an action of an hour and a half. The loss of the enemy was thirty -six killed and sixty-eight wounded; of the Americans, twelve killed and wounded. 72 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. On the 29th of December the Constitution, commanded by Commodore Bainbridge, had an engagement with the British frigate Java which lasted three hours, in which the latter was captured by the Americans. In the course of the action the Java was reduced to a wreck. She was entirely dismasted, a large number of her guns were disabled , her hull was much shat tered, and her bowsprit was shot away, while the Constitution did not lose a spar. The Java was bound to the East Indies and had on board upward of one hundred officers and men des tined for service in the East. Her officers and crew numbered over four hundred, and of these twenty-two were killed and one hundred and two wounded. The Constitution lost nine killed and twenty-five wounded. Congress passed an act admitting the Territory of Orleans into the Union as a State under the name of Louisiana, and changed the name of the territory lying north of it from that of the District of Louisiana to the Missouri Territory. At the presidential election this year the Democratic candi dates were successful, and the war policy of the government was sustained, which was the most important issue between the two parties. James Madison, the nominee of the Democrats for President, received one hundred and twenty-eight electoral votes, and Elbriclge Gerry one hundred and thirty-one votes for Vice-President. The Democratic party, however, in the State of New York nominated De Witt Clinton against Mr. Madison, and Jared Ingersoll against Mr. Gerry. Those nominations were also supported by the Federalists throughout the country, Clinton receiving eighty-nine and Ingersoll eighty-six electoral votes. Columbus in Ohio was laid out and made the capital of the State. The seat of government for Pennsylvania was removed from Lancaster to Harrisburg. Rochester in New York was surveyed into lots, and a post-office and store were established there. The scarcity of Virginia bituminous coal, which, up to this time, was that principally in use, incited further experiments in introducing anthracite. Nine wagons loaded with that coal were hauled to Philadelphia from a distance of one hundred and six miles, two of which w r ere sold at the cost of transporta tion and the remainder given away, and difficulty was experi enced in finding persons who would accept it. The owner of the coal narrowly escaped prosecution for swindling by those who had made unsuccessful trials to burn the " stone," as it was called. The first manufacture of pins in this countiy was commenced at New York by some English workmen, who brought with them to this country the necessary implements. The business was encouraged by the high price of pins, which had advanced to one dollar per paper; but it was abandoned at the close of the war, and the article then continued to be imported as before. The first cotton-mill at Fall River, Mass., was erected and put into operation. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 73 The first steam-ferry between New York and Jersey City was established in August, and about the same time one went into operation between Philadelphia and Camden. The first rolling-mill established in Pittsburg was erected this year. 1813 James Madison was inaugurated President of the United States, and Elbridge Gerry took the oath of office as Vice- President. The scene of military operations this year continued princi pally on the Canadian frontier. On the 22d of January, Brigadier-General Winchester of the United States army, and nearly five hundred officers and men, were made prisoners at Frenchtown, in Canada, by a di vision of the British army from Detroit. General Dearborn embarked on the 25th of April, with a force of seventeen hundred men, at Sackett s Harbor, for the purpose of capturing the British stores at York now Toronto. The landing was successfully effected, in spite of the enemy s re sistance, and an assault conducted under General Pike, when, during the advancing movement, the magazine blew up, kill ing and wounding several hundred men, and among the latter the commanding officer, who did not long survive. The Amer ican troops, however, soon rallied and carried the place, and captured seven hundred and fifty prisoners, together with a large amount of baggage and public property; the British gen eral and the remainder of his forces escaping with much diffi culty. The American squadron returned to Sackett s Harbor, and soon after set sail for the Niagara frontier. The British, taking advantage of this movement, proceeded to Sackett s Harbor, and landed a force of one thousand men under Sir George Prevost. The small body of American regulars left to defend the place made an effectual resistance to the enemy s approach; and General Brown meanwhile rallied the militia, which at first had given way, and inarched them towards the landing. Sir George, apprehending this movement as designed to cut off his retreat, withdrew in great haste to his boats and sailed away. On the same day that the British were repulsed at Sackett s Harbor, the American expedition made an attack on Fort St. George, on the Niagara frontier, and captured it, taking above seven hundred and fifty prisoners. On the 2d of May the British attempted to capture, by as- .sault, Fort Stephenson, at Lower Sandusky, but were repulsed with a loss of about one hundred and fifty men. A movement was commenced in September by a large body of soldiers under General Harrison against the British and their Indian allies at Detroit and Maiden. On the 27th the troops embarked on the fleet, and were transported to Maiden; but on their approach the British destroyed the fort and public stores, and retreated along the river Thames, where they were pursued by the Americans. On the 5th of October, a severe battle was fought between the two armies, in which the Amcri- 7*4 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. cans were victorious. In this battle the famous chief Tecum- seh was killed, and the Indians fled. The British loss was about six hundred and seventy in killed, wounded, and prison ers. On the 29th of September the Americans took possession of Detroit, which, on the approach of Harrison s army, had been abandoned by the British, and General Harrison issued a proclamation re-establishing the government of Michigan. A body of Americans were defeated in a battle at Williams- burg, Upper Canada, with a loss of about three hundred and fifty men. Fort Niagara was surprised by the British on the 19th of December, and of the three hundred men composing the garri son, no more than twenty escaped. On the 30th of the same month the British proceeded to Buf falo and burned the entire village. On the 10th of September, Commodore Perry, with a fleet of three brigs, a ship, and five schooners, carrying fifty four guns, made an attack on a British squadron of six vessels, carrying sixty-three guns, on Lake Erie, and captured the entire fleet. On the 13th of June three British frigates entered Hampton Roads. Two days afterwards they were reinforced by thirteen vessels. On the 22d an action took place in Chesapeake Bay, between a detachment of the British fleet and an American naval force, manned by four hundred and eighty Virginia militia and one hundred and fifty sailors, in which the British lost in killed, wounded, and drowned about twelve hundred men. On the 1st of June Captain James Lawrence, commanding the United States frigate Chesapeake, sailed out of Boston har bor, and engaged the British frigate Shannon. The Chesa peake was captured in an action of eleven minutes, and Cap tain Lawrence mortally wounded. The United States sloop of war Argus was captured by the British sloop of war Pelican, in St. George s Channel, on the 14th of August; and on the 5th of September the British brig Rover was captured by the United States brig Enterprise, off Portland. The British sloop of war Peacock was taken by the American sloop of war Hornet, but was retaken by the British ship Poictiers. The British under Admiral Cockburn took possession of Havre de Grace, in Maryland, on the 3d of May, and plun dered and burned the town. A conflagration occurred at Portsmouth, in New Hampshire, on the 22d of November, and destroyed upwards of three hundred buildings. The first stereotyping in America was done by Mr. Bruce at New York; also by Mr. Watts, who printed a catechism, which, it is believed, was the first book issued from stereotype-plates in this country. The Albany Argus issued its first number on the 13th of Janu ary at Albany, N. Y. The first successful daily paper pub lished in Boston was called the Daily Advertiser, and issued its- first number on the 3d of March, HISTOEY OF THE UNITED STATES. 75 The first steam ferry-boat between New York and Brooklyn commenced running on the 10th of May. 1814 The war continued on the northern frontier. On the 3d of July, the American forces, consisting of about three thousand men, under the command of Generals Scott and Ripley, crossed the Niagara River, and took possession of Fort Niagara with out opposition. On the 4th, General Brown with two thousand men advanced to the village of Chippewa, to attack the British force there intrenched under General Riall. On the 5th the British general drew out his troops and offered battle, but was compelled to retire with a loss of five hundred men. On the 25th the advance of the two armies again encountered at Lun- dy s Lane, not far from the Falls. The battle was obstinately fought by the advance on each side till the main body came up. The battle lasted from four in the afternoon until midnight. The loss of the British was upwards of eight hundred in killed and wounded, besides two hundred men and twenty officers as prisoners. The British general was wounded and taken prisoner. On the 15th of August a large British force made an assault on Fort Erie, and were repulsed with great loss. On the llth of September an American fleet on Lake Cham- plain, under Captain Macdonough, in an action with a British squadron of superior force, lasting about two hours and a half, sunk or captured the entire fleet of the enemy. The British commander was killed, and nearly nine hundred of his men ta ken prisoners. It was the declared intention of the British to lay waste \ the whole American coast, from Maine to Georgia. Their first attack, as a part of this plan, was made early in April on a part / of Saybrook, called Pettipauge, near the mouth of the Con- J necticut River, where they destroyed twenty -five vessels. About the middle of August a British squadron of between fifty and sixty sail arrived in the Chesapeake, with troops des tined for the attack on Washington, the capital of the United States. A body of five thousand of them having landed, an ac tion was fought at Bladensburg, six miles from Washington, in which the Americans were repulsed, and the British advanced towards the capital. Upon their approach the President and heads of departments fled from the town. The British took possession of Washington, burned the Capitol, the President s house, the public offices, the arsenal, the navy -yard, and the bridge over the Potomac. On the 29th the city of Alexandria capitulated to the British. On the llth of September the British admiral appeared at the mouth of the Patapsco, four teen miles from Baltimore, with a fleet of fifty sail. The next day six thousand land forces were disembarked at North Point, and commenced their march towards the city. On the 12th a battle was fought, in which the Americans were compelled to retreat. The British, however, were repulsed in an attack on Fort McHenry, and abandoned the attempt to get possession of the city. They retired to their shipping on the 14th, and soon after left the Chesapeake, 76 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. , On the llth of July, a British fleet took the town of East- port, in Maine ; on August 9th, they bombarded Stonington, in Connecticut ; on the 1st of September they took possession of Castine, in Maine. The naval operations at sea were continued with various suc cess. On the 28th of March, the United States frigate Essex, after a desperate action, was captured in the Bay of Valparaiso, in South America, by a British frigate and a sloop of war. On the 29th of April, the United States sloop of war Peacock cap tured the British brig Epervier off Canaveral, Florida, after an action of forty-five minutes. The Indians continued their hostilities at the South which they had commenced in the preceding year. In January, Gen eral Andrew Jackson made an excursion into their country, and defeated them in several engagements. On the 24th of December, a treaty of peace was signed at Ghent between the plenipotentiaries of Great Britain and the United States. Delegates appointed by the legislatures of the several States in New England met at Hartford in convention on the 15th of December. The proceedings took place with closed doors, but the journal was afterwards made public. The convention em bodied their views in a report, which was immediately made public and extensively circulated. It was a statement of griev ances, many of which were real, but which necessarily arose out of a state of war, and a recommendation of several amend ments to the Constitution. As the news of peace arrived soon after the convention adjourned, the causes of disquiet were re moved ; but as the delegates were all of the Federal party, the convention, before and after their meeting, was denounced in the severest terms by the administration, as being treasonable to the general government, and the name of the " Hartford Convention" became with the Democratic party a term of re proach. Congress passed an act on the 23d of December, establishing new rates of postage after the 1st of the following February. The rates on letters were to be as follows, viz. , for any distance not exceeding forty miles, twelve cents ; between forty and ninety miles, fifteen cents ; between ninety and one hundred and fifty miles, eighteen and three quarters cents ; between one hundred and fifty and three hundred miles, twenty-five cents ; between three hundred and five hundred miles, thirty cents ; and over five hundred miles, thirty-seven and one half cents. Double letters to be double price. Suspension of specie payments was declared by the banks in New Orleans, in April ; in Philadelphia and the District of Columbia, in August ; and in September by nearly all in the Middle and Southern States. The " Star-Spangled Banner" was first sung at the Holliday Street Theatre, in Baltimore, in October. The first newspaper in Illinois was published about this time, at Kankaskia, and called The Illinois Intelligencer. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 7 The first religious newspaper published in America was- issued at Chillicothe, Ohio, and called The Recorder. The manufacture of carriages was commenced at Albany and at New Haven. The town of Williamsburg, L. I., contained at this period seven hundred and fifty-nine inhabitants. 1815 The last battle of the war took place before New Orleans, on the 8th of January, between the British troops, consisting of twelve thousand men, commanded by General Packenham,, and the Americans, amounting to six thousand, under General Jackson. About two weeks before, a large British force landed! about six miles below New Orleans for the purpose of attack ing that city. A few days after landing, General Jackson ordered a movement to check the advance of the enemy, and defeated them in a battle with severe loss. On the 1st of Jan uary, the British attacked General Jackson s line of defence and were repulsed. Upon another attack on the 8th, they were defeated with great slaughter, and retreated to their landing- place, where they embarked and sailed away. The treaty of peace between Great Britain and the United States, concluded at Ghent, was ratified by the President on the 17th of February. War was declared in March by the United States against Algiers. The causes for this step were, that the Dey of Al giers had violently and without just cause obliged the consul of the United States and. all American citizens in Algiers to leave that place in violation of the treaty subsisting between the two nations ; that he had exacted from the consul a large sum of money, to which he had no just claim ; and that these acts of violence and outrage had been followed by the capture of, at least, one American vessel and her crew, and by the seiz ure of an American citizen on board of a neutral vessel ; that the captured persons were yet held in captivity ; that efforts to obtain their release had proved abortive ; and that there was some reason to believe they were held by the Dey as means by which he calculated to extort from the United States a de grading treaty. An expedition was accordingly ordered to the Mediterranean, under the command of Commodore Bainbridge. Before its arrival, a squadron under the command of Commo dore Decatur captured an Algerine brig of war and an Alger- ine frigate of forty-four guns and six hundred men. Decatur then hastened to the port of Algiers, where he readily obtained a treaty of peace, by the terms of which the claims and de mands of the United States were wholly satisfied. He also ob tained indemnity from Tunis and Tripoli, and procured the release of captives held by those powers. The water-works at Fairmount, for supplying Philadelphia with water, were completed. Cincinnati contained at this period about eleven hundred buildings and six thousand inhabitants. 1816 Treaties were concluded with several tribes of Indians at the 8 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. South, by which they ceded large tracts of land to the United States. The second religious newspaper published in the United States was issued at Boston, on the 3d of January, under the name of The Eecorder. Indiana was admitted as a State into the Union. Upwards of seven thousand emigrants arrived at New York } this year. Congress passed an act establishing a National Bank for twenty years, with a capital of thirty-five millions of dollars ; the main office to be at Philadelphia, with branch-offices at such places as might be designated by the board of directors. The United States Government was to take seven millions of dol lars of the stock. At the presidential election of this year, James Monroe for President, and Daniel D. Tonipkins for Vice-President, were the candidates of the Democratic party, and they re ceived one hundred and eighty-three electoral votes. The Fed eralists nominated Rufus King for President, who received thirty-four votes. Their votes for Vice-President were divided among several persons. The first Episcopal church erected in Louisiana, was opened on the 14th of April, at New Orleans. The first steamboat which appeared at Charleston, S. C., ar rived there from Savannah, on the 23d of June. Travelling between New York and Philadelphia, at this time, was accomplished between sunrise and sunset. The common council of New York forbade chimney-sweep ers from crying their trade in the streets. The first savings-banks established in the United States were formed this year. The Savings Fund Society of Philadelphia was opened for business on the 2d of December ; and the Provi dent Institution for Savings, at Boston, on the 13th of the same month. The Bank of Savings was founded at New York, at a public meeting, held on the 25th of November, but did not go into operation until the 3d of July, 1819. The lighting of streets with gas was first established in the United States at the city of Baltimore. At Philadelphia, a theatre was thus lighted on the 25th of November, and it was the first place of amusement in America illuminated iu that manner. The common council of the city of New York dis cussed measures for its introduction there. 1817 James Monroe was inaugurated President on the 4th of March; and Daniel D. Tompkins took the oath of office as Vice-President. Mississippi was divided; the eastern portion being erected into the Territory of Alabama, and the western portion admit ted into the Union as a State, on the 10th of December. On account of the increasing display of hostile intentions by the Seminole Indians, the government on the 26th of December directed General Jackson to repair to Fort Scott, and assume the immediate command of the forces in that quarter of the HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 79 southern department. The regular forces there at this time .were about eight hundred, and one thousand more were added from the militia of Georgia. The strength of the Indians was estimated at twenty-seven hundred. The Hartford Ttmtff made its first appearance at Hartford, Conn. "Work commenced in building the Erie Canal on the 4th of July. Property valued at one million of dollars was destroyed by a flood in the Kentucky River. The first bank established in Vermont was incorporated by the legislature, to be located at Windsor. The State exacted a bonus from the institution. The first steamboat which was seen at St. Louis arrived there from Louisville on the 2d of August. The first regular line of packet ships between New York and Liverpool was established, and called the "Black Ball Line." It consisted at first of four ships of four hundred to five hun dred tons each. The first institution in the United States for the instruction of the deaf and dumb went into operation at Hartford, Conn., on the 17th of April, with a class of seven pupils. 1818 Illinois was admitted into the Union as a State on the 3d of December, and the seat of government was removed from Kas- kaskia to Vandalia, where it remained until its removal to Springfield in the year 1839. All the territory lying north of Illinois and Indiana was annexed to Michigan. Congress enacted that the national flag should consist of thirteen stripes with twenty white stars on a blue field, and that a star should be added, from time to time, au additional States should be admitted into the Union. The Indians of Ohio ceded by treaties all their lands in that State to the government. The Chickasaws also ceded all the land lying between the Mississippi and the northern course of the Tennessee. The remains of General Montgomery, the hero of Quebec, were transferred, at the expense of the State of New York, from their resting-place in Canada, and were deposited, with military honors, on the 8th of July, beneath the mural tomb in front of St. Paul s Church, in the city of New York. The first steamboat on Lake Erie was launched near Buffalo, and commenced its first trip to Detroit on the 23d of August. The first religious newspaper in the United States devoted to the Methodist Society was established at Boston. Shoe-pegs became introduced about this time. On the 19th of March a powder-mill near Wilmington, Del., blew up killing thirty-five persons. The shock was felt forty miles distant. The principal part of Table Rock, at Niagara Falls, broke off by its own weight, and fell into the gulf below, The first savings-bank in Baltimore was established. 1819 A treaty for the cession of the Floridas to the United States by Spain was signed at Washington on the 23d of February, 80 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. and ratified by the United States ; but in August the King of Spain refused to ratify it. It was ratified, however, in 1821. By the terms arranged, the United States Government was to pay the sum of five millions of dollars, and cede to Spain its disputed title to the undefined territory of Texas. Treaties were concluded with the Kickapoo and Chippewa tribes of Indians, by which they ceded large tracts of land in Michigan, Indiana, and Illinois to the United States. Alabama was admitted into the Union on the 14th of Decem ber as a State. That part of the Missouri Territory lying south of the latitude of thirty-six degrees thirty minutes was erected into a separate district called the Arkansas Territory, and was organized under a territorial government. The settlement of Indianapolis was commenced. At the end of the year there were fifteen families in the place. A case relating to Dartmouth College, the adjudication of which was considered of great importance as affecting other corporations, was decided by the Supreme Court of the United States. Its opinion was that the charter granted by the British crown to the trustees of Dartmouth College in the year 1769 was a contract within the meaning of that clause of the Consti tution of the United States, which declares that no State shall make any law impairing the obligations of contracts ; that the charter was not dissolved by the Revolution ; and that an act of the legislature of the State of New Hampshire altering the charter without the consent of the corporation was unconstitu tional and void. The first periodical published in the United States devoted to agriculture commenced its issue on the 2d of April, at Balti more, under the name of the American Farmer. The first religious newspaper devoted to the Baptist denomi nation appeared at Boston, in May, under the title of the Watchman and Reflector. f The Anakctic Magazine, for July, contained the first pub lished specimen of American lithographic printing, an art but a short time before introduced from Germany into England. The stone was procured from Munich. Up to this time forty steamboats had been built on the west ern waters, seven of which had been wrecked and abandoned. On the 19th of May, the first steamboat which navigated on the Missouri River arrived there from St. Louis on a passage of seven days sailing. The first steamboat on Lake Huron ap peared there in June. A conflagration at Wilmington, N. C., destroyed more than one hundred and fifty dwellings and stores, which, with other property consumed, were valued at one million of dollars. A fire raged for about three weeks in the forests near Spring field, N. J., consuming as estimated about three thousand acres of timber. The yellow-fever appeared in many of the Southern cities this year. ^ In New Orleans, upwards of twelve hundred died during a period of sixty days ; in Natchez, business was suspended, and HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 81 those that were able fled the city. In Mobile, Savannah, Charleston, and Baltimore large numbers died from the disease. The introduction of the secret society of Odd Fellows was instituted in this country on the 26th of April by five members at Baltimore, who organized a lodge under the name of Wash ington Lodge, No. 1, of Odd Fellows. A charter was soon afterwards obtained from the "Manchester Unity," of England, for the Washington Lodge, as the Grand Lodge of Maryland and the United States. The first specimen of patent or japanned leather produced in this country was made as an experiment by Seth Boyden of Newark, N. J. In 1822 he commenced its manufacture on a small scale, and about the year 1826 established a large fac tory for its production. The first steamship which ever crossed the Atlantic sailed from Savannah about the 24th of May, and arrived at Liver pool on the 20th of June. All its coal was consumed within ten or twelve days, and the remainder of the voyage was made under sail. The steamer was built in New York for some citi zens of Savannah ; was of about three hundred and eighty tons, and named the Savannah. The experiment did not demon strate the utility of steam for transatlantic voyages. 1820 The district of Maine was separated from Masachusetts in the preceding year, formed into a separate State, and admitted into the Union on the 3d of March. Congress passed an act prohibiting any citizen of the United States from engaging in the slave-trade under the penalty of death. At the presidential election held this year, James Monroe was re-elected President, and received all the electoral votes except ing one. Daniel D. Tompkins received all the electoral votes excepting fourteen, for a second term as Vice-President. The former distinctions of party had at this time almost if not quite disappeared, and new questions of great national interest arose to divide public sentiment. Among the most prominent of the subjects agitated were additional protection to American manu factures, internal improvements by the general government, and the acknowledgment of the independence of the South Ameri can republics. At this period there was great pecuniary distress throughout the country. There had been heavy importations of foreign merchandise, which tended to depress prices and to ruin those engaged in manufactures in the United States. The currency was also in a deranged state ; a spirit for banking companies prevailed, and an unusually large number of those institutions were authorized in many of the States of the Union. The coun try was flooded with paper-money issued by these banks, many of which were unable to redeem their bills when presented, and the most disastrous results soon followed. The outstanding pa per currency, which in 1815 and 1816 was estimated to be one hundred and ten millions, had been reduced to about forty -five millions by the contraction of bank discounts. Flour, which 82 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. was selling from ten to fifteen dollars a barrel in 1817, was now five to six. The prices of other staples were equally reduced ; all manufacturing interests suffered severely, factories and work shops were closed, and the workmen thrown out of employ ment. Little Rock was laid out, and established as the seat of govern ment for Arkansas Territory. Memphis, in Tennessee, was also laid out. At this period the city of New York contained a population of 123,706; Philadelphia, 108,116; Baltimore, 62,738 ; New Orleans, 21,176 ; Charleston, 24,780 ; Boston, 43,298 ; Wash ington, 13,247 ; Cincinnati, 9732 ; Albany, 12,630 ; Providence, 11,761 ; and Brooklyn, 5210. A conflagration at Savannah destroyed one half the town on the llth of January. Four hundred and sixty -three buildings were consumed, valued, with their contents, at four millions of dollars. On the 20th of June, one hundred and twenty of the best buildings in Troy, N. Y., were destroyed by fire, involving a loss of nearly one million of dollars. The first steamboat on the Arkansas River ascended to the village of Arkansas in May. The first steamboat on Lake Michi gan made its first appearance there in July; it sailed from De troit to Green Bay, carrying two hundred passengers and a large cargo. The first steamship line established between New York and New Orleans commenced running in June. The yellow-fever raged in Savannah during the summer and autumn, carrying off about seven hundred of the inhabitants. Many of the people fled, leaving three hundred and forty-three houses unoccupied. The first newspaper published in Arkansas appeared at Ar kansas village under the title of The Arkansas Gazette. The New York Observer made its first appearance this year. About this time portable and, so-called, fire proof safes were introduced for sale into New York. They were imported from France, and constructed of iron and wood. The first manufacture of carpenter s steel squares in the Unit ed States was commenced at North Bennington, Vt. The great national road, the work of the general government, extending from Cumberland to Wheeling, was completed this year. It was fourteen years in process of construction, and cost seventeen hundred thousand dollars. The intention originally was to extend the road to the Mississippi. The first regular commencement of the anthracite- coal trade was made this year by the Lehigh Coal Company, an organiza tion formed in July, 1818. The improvement of the navigation of the Lehigh River, by which shipments could be made to tide-wa ter at small expense, and proper means of lighting the coal having been discovered, removed some of the difficulties heretofore en countered in attempting its introduction. About three hundred and sixty five tons were shipped to Philadelphia during the year, but much difficulty was experienced in disposing of so large a HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 83 quantity. The first experiment of manufacturing iron by the use of anthracite coal was made at this time by some of the members of the Lehigh Coal Company. Daily mails were established between New York, Brooklyn, and Jamaica. The whale-fishery business commenced about this time at New London. 1821 James Monroe was inaugurated President of the United States on the 4th of March, and Daniel D. Tompkins took the oath of office as Vice-President. The treaty for the cession of the Floridas, concluded at Wash ington on the 22d of February, 1819, between Spain and the United States, having been ratified on the one part by the King of Spain and by the President of the United States on the other part, possession was taken of those provinces according to treaty. On the 1st of July, General Andrew Jackson, who had been ap pointed governor of the Floridas, issued a proclamation declar ing that the government heretofore exercised over the said provinces under the authority of Spain had ceased, and that of the United States was established over the same; that the inhabi tants thereof would be incorporated in the union of the United States as soon as it might be consistent with the Federal Con stitution, and admitted to the enjoyment of all the privileges, rights, and immunities of the citizens of the United States; that in the mean time they w r ould be maintained and protected in the free enjoyment of their liberty, property, and the religion they professed, and that all laws and municipal regulations which were in existence at the cessation of the late government would remain in full force. Missouri was admitted into the Union as a State, after a vio lent contest in Congress and intense excitement throughout the country upon the subject whether it should or should not be admitted with a constitution giving its inhabitants the right to hold slaves. A compromise was at length effected between the opposing parties in Congress, by which slavery was permitted in Missouri, but forever prohibited in the territory of the United States, excepting Missouri, lying north of thirty-six degrees thirty minutes north latitude. The American Colonization Society secured from the African authorities of Cape Mesurado, by purchase, a tract of territory in that country for the establishment there of colonies of free blacks from the United States. A foundation of a settlement was laid near Mesurado River, to which was given the name of Liberia, and a new town was commenced and called Monrovia. Indianapolis was laid out as a town for the seat of govern ment for Indiana, and given its present name. Lowell, in Massachusetts, was founded by a company which was subsequently organized under the name of the Merrimac Manufacturing Company, which purchased four hundred acres of land at that location for manufacturing purposes. The first mill was started in September, 1823. The remains of Major Andre were removed from their rest- 84 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ing-place at Tappan in August, and placed on board a British frigate, to be transferred to England for interment in West minster Abbey. The city council of Charlestown, S. C., passed an ordinance to prohibit the opening of night and Sunday schools for the in struction of negro slaves. Severely cold weather was experienced in New York the latter part of January. The North River from Cortlandt Street to Jersey City was crossed on the ice by loaded sleighs. The first religious newspaper published in the United States devoted to the Unitarians, was issued at Boston on the 20th of April, and called The Christian Register. The receipts of anthracite coal at Philadelphia were ten hundred and seventy -three tons, all of which was mined by the Lehigh Company. 1822 A conspiracy of negroes in Charleston, S. C., was discovered in June, and on trial seventy-two were convicted, thirty-five of whom were executed and the remainder sentenced to banish ment. The Lehigh mines shipped twenty -four hundred and forty tons of coal to Philadelphia during this year. The first strictly commercial newspaper published in the United States south of Boston, was issued at New Orleans on the 27th of July, under the title of The New Orleans Prices- Current. The first newspaper established in Indianapolis was pub lished on the 28th of May. Owing to the irregularity -of the mails, the paper was issued without established dates. At this period there was but one copper-rolling mill in the United States, and that was operated near Baltimore. The first Brooklyn Directory was issued in May. In 1796 there was a publication called " The New York and Brooklyn Directory and Register for 1796," but which contained the names only of those residing on two or three Brooklyn streets. Boston was organized under a city charter, and its first mayor elected. Gas as a means of illumination was adopted. The cotton-culture in Texas was commenced this year. The manufacture of cotton duck was begun at Patcrson, N. J. The first regular steamship line between New York and Nor folk commenced running in the autumn. 1823 In October, the Erie Canal was finished between Rochester and Albany, and the first passage of boats was made on the 8th. The yellow -fever appeared at Natchez, and out of its popu lation of three thousand, all, excepting between three and four hundred, fled the place. The first steam-power printing-press in the United States was put in operation in New York in June, printing an abridgment of Murray s English Grammar the first work "done. The manufacture of wine was commenced about this time in Cincinnati. The first three-story house erected in Brooklyn was built this year. The first paving of streets was commenced on Sands HISTOKY OF THE UNITED STATES. 85 Street, and houses were first given numbers. Henry Street was opened, the Apprentices Library organized, and the first bonded warehouse in the town erected. At this time its popu lation was about seven thousand. The New York Gas Light Company was incorporated, but did not begin successful works until the year 1827. 1824 By a treaty concluded between the United States and Russia, the southern boundary-line of their possessions on the Pacific was fixed at fifty-four degrees and forty minutes of north latitude. On the 13th of March a treaty was concluded between the United States and Great Britain for the suppression of the slave-trade. By the terms of the treaty, vessels were to be em ployed by each of the nations to cruise on the coasts of Africa, of the West Indies, and of America, and their commanders were to be authorized under certain restrictions to detain, ex amine, capture, and deliver over for trial and adjudication by some competent tribunal any ship or vessel concerned in the illicit traffic of slaves, and carrying the flag of the other. General Lafayette having received an invitation from Con gress to visit the United States, resolved to accept it. He ar rived in the harbor of New York on the 15th of August, and proceeded to Staten Island, where he was received as a guest at the residence of the Vice-President. A committee of the corporation of the city of New York and a great number of distinguished citizens proceeded to Staten Island to give him welcome. An escort of steamboats, decorated with the flags of all nations, and bearing thousands of the citizens, brought him to the view of the assembled multitudes at New York, who mani fested their delight at seeing him by shouts and cheers. At the City Hall the officers of the city and many citzens were presented to him, and he was welcomed by an address from the mayor. While he was at New York deputations from many of the principal cities arrived with invitations for him to visit them. After remaining a few days at New York, he pro ceeded to Boston, where he met with the same cordial recep tion. Soon afterwards he returned to New York, visited Al bany and the towns on the North River, and afterwards passed through the intermediate towns to Virginia, where he visited the tomb of Washington. He returned to Washington during the session of Congress, and remained there several weeks. The custom of making nominations for President and Vice- President by caucuses of the members of Congress, which pre vailed heretofore, became unpopular, and was broken up at this period. The result of the election this year showed that no choice for President had been made by the electoral colleges, and according to the provisions of the Constitution, the decision was referred to the House of Representatives, which body was required to make a choice in such an exigency from the three names who had received the highest number of votes. John C. Calhoun received one hundred and eighty two votes for 86 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Vice-President against seventy-eight for all others, and was elected. For President, Andrew Jackson received ninety-nine votes, John Quincy Adams eighty- four; William H. Crawford, forty -one; and Henry Clay thirty-seven. The result in the House was the election of John Quincy Adams. Tallahassee was laid out, a settlement of the place commenced, and made the capital of Florida. The first bank in Brooklyn, called the Long Island Bank, and the first insurance company, called the Brooklyn Fire Insurance Company, were established. A conflagration took place in the forests of Suffolk County, Long Island, extending over nearly twenty thousand acres, and consumed, as estimated, as much timber as would have made from seventy to eighty thousand cords of wood. The Boston Courier appeared in Boston, on the 2d of March. Anthracite coal was first introduced at New York, this year. There was such prejudice against its use, that families were offered grates free of charge, and in some instances some coal besides, as inducements to try it. The yellow-fever raged at New Orleans with more violence than ever before, and compelled almost a complete suspension of business. The manufacture of flannel by water-power was commenced at Amesbury, Mass., and a piece was exhibited at a Fair which is said to have been the first flannel produced in this or any other country, excepting that made by hand. The introduction of marble as a building material in New York was commenced, and the first building erected with a marble front, excepting the City Hall, was the American Museum, on the corner of Broadway and Ann Street. Such was the prejudice of builders against its use, that they would not undertake its introduction, and a convict at Sing Sing was pardoned for the express purpose of superintending the work. 1825 John Quincy Adams on the 4th of March was inaugurated President of the United States, and John C. Calhoun took the oath of office as Yice-President. Congress voted two hundred thousand dollars in money and twenty -four thousand acres of fertile land in Florida, to Lafayette, as a reward and remuneration for his services to this country during the Revolutionary war. It was shown that in the six years from the year 1777 to 1783, Lafayette had expended for the American service, from his personal resources, the sum of one hundred and forty thousand dollars, and that he had left the enjoyments of rank and fortune to .come and serve the American cause, and without pay. He equipped and armed a regiment, and freighted a vessel with arms and ammunition, for the United States service. It was not until the year 1794, when almost ruined by the French Revolution, that he would accept the naked pay, without interest, of a general officer for the time he had served. He was entitled to land as one of the officers of the Revolution, and eleven thousand five hundred acres had been granted to him, to be located on any of the public HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 87 lands of the United States. His agent located one thousand acres adjoining the city of New Orleans, and Congress after wards, not being informed of that circumstance, granted the same ground to that city. His location was valid, and he was so informed ; but he refused to adhere to it, saying that he would have no contest with any portion of the American people. Lafayette made an extensive tour through the South ern and Western States, and on the 15th of June he, on his return, reached Boston. On the 17th he assisted at the cere monies attendant upon laying the corner-stone of Bunker Hill monument, and then visited the principal places in New Eng land. On the 8th of September he bade adieu to the shores of America, and started on his return voyage to France. A treaty was concluded with the Creek Indians, by which they agreed to accept lands westward of the Mississippi, in exchange for an equal number of acres in the State of Georgia to which they claimed the title. They also agreed to remove from Georgia to the new territory assigned to them. Treaties were also made with the Osages and Kansas tribes, by which they ceded vast territories to the United States. The first newspaper for Sunday sale and circulation in the city of New York was issued, under the name of The Sun day Courier, early in the year, but was soon discontinued for want of patronage. The Erie Canal was completed its entire length in October, and early in November the event was celebrated w r ith great enthusiasm. On the 26th of October, the Erie Champlain and Hudson Canal was completed. The Italian Opera was introduced into the United States, the first performance of which came off at the Park Theatre, in New York, on the 29th of November. The homeopathic practice of medicine was first introduced into this country, by a physician who removed to the city of New York from Copenhagen, Denmark, where he had practised that system. The manufacture of Queensware, the first of its kind in the United States, was commenced at Philadelphia. The tinder-box, flint and steel, which up to this time were the usual means by which fire was struck, were now being super seded by a new and better invention, consisting of a bottle filled with an acid and cotton surmounted with phosphorized pine- sticks. By a report of the Comptroller of the State of New York, it appears that nearly ninety thousand dollars were paid out of the treasury during the preceding ten years for the destruction of wolves in that State. An article appeared in a newspaper published in New York in October which stated that a lot on the Bowery two hundred feet in front and the same depth had been sold for one hundred and five thousand dollars, the purchaser intending to erect a theatre upon the plot. 88 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 1826 The seat of government for Tennessee was changed from Murfreesborough to Nashville. An event occurred this year of a singular character, from which a powerful political combination grew into existence. A roan named William Morgan, a member of the Masonic frater nity residing in the western part of the State of New York, was reported to be engaged in a publication exposing the secrets of that society. The Masons in the vicinity were angry, and re solved to prevent" the publication, and made several forcible but ineffective attempts for that purpose. Morgan was soon missing, and the unsuccessful search for him excited an interest in the public mind which increased to a high degree of agitation. A committee was appointed at a public meeting to ascertain all the facts, and to bring to justice any criminals that might be found. It was discovered that he had been twice arrested on false charges, that he was taken from the Canandaigua jail in the evening about nine o clock, gagged and bound, thrown into a carriage, and hurried off to Rochester. By relays of horses and by different hands he was borne along until he was lodged in the magazine at Fort Niagara, where he was put to death. A great crime had apparently been committed, and investiga tion showed that Masons only were implicated in it. Arrests were made, but it was impossible to secure conviction where judges, sheriffs, juries, and witnesses were Masons. The excite ment soon became political. It was alleged .that Masonry held itself superior to the laws, and that Masons were more loyal to their Masonic oaths than to their duty as citizens. Masonry, therefore, was held to be a fatal foe to the government and to the country, which must be destroyed ; and in several town meetings in Genesce and Monroe counties, Masons, as such, were excluded from office. At the next general election the Anti- masons nominated a separate ticket, and they carried five counties against both the great parties. A State organization followed, and in the election of 1830 the Anti-Masonic candidate was supported by the National Republicans, and secured within eight thousand votes enough to insure an election. From a State organization the Anti-Masons became a national party, and in 1832 nominated a presidential candidate, who was also supported by the National Republicans, and the union be came the Whig party, which so triumphantly elected its presi dential candidate in 1840. A railroad was put into operation on the 7th of October at Quincy, Mass., for the purpose of transporting stone from the granite quarries at that place to tide-water, a distance of about three miles. Granite sleepers were used, upon which timbers were placed, and on those flat bars of iron were spiked. The cars were drawn by horses. The novelty and advantages of this invention excited great attention. It has been stated through mistake that this railroad was the first one in America. There was a small road built before this one in the Lehigh coal district in Pennsylvania. The first daily newspaper published in Cincinnati appeared HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 89 this year, under the title of The Commercial Register. The first daily newspaper established at Rochester, N. Y., was issued on the 25th of October, and called The Rochester Daily Advertiser. The Richmond Whig appeared in Richmond, Va., and the New Orleans Bee at New Orleans. Earthen sewer-pipes were exhibited at a Fair held in Balti more, in November, and that article soon became generally introduced from this time. The manufacture of palm-leaf hats in this country was com menced in Massachusetts, the material having been imported from Cuba. The first manufacture of axes and other edge tools was com menced this year, at Hartford, Conn. The manufacture of school-slates, the first of its kind in the United States, was established in Pennsylvania, near the Dela ware River. The introduction of the mulberry-tree into the United States was made for a nursery at Flushing, L. I. The tree was im ported from France. The English tragedian Macready made his first appearance on the American stage on the 3d of October, at the Park Thea tre, in New York. 1827 The era for the commencement of the construction of rail roads in the United States dates from this year. The success of the small railroad at Quincy, Mass., demonstrated the fact that much heavier loads could be drawn, and more easily with the same power, in cars with wheels running on iron rails than in wagons upon common roads, even when those roads were in the most passable condition. News of the success of railroads in England had just reached the United States, and had at tracted much attention here, where the necessity for improved highways was felt to be more imperative. At this period locomotives had not been used, even in England, and the first railroads there, as well as here, were intended for horse power only. As an evidence of the public sentiment of the time con cerning railroads, the following extract from Niles Register, of the 3d of January, 1829, is quoted, viz.: " The public mind is every day more and more settling into a belief that railroads will .supersede canals, or at least be preferred, unless when the latter can be made under peculiarly favorable circumstances, for certain reasons, best fitted for some particular business. It is believed that railroads are much less expensive than canals as to their construction or repair, and transportation on them is far less liable to interruption on various accounts, and may be continued throughout the whole year. The ascent of consid erable heights over which railroads shall pass, will possibly be assisted by stationary engines, or the use of additional horse power ; but we rather think that from improvements now pre sented, locomotive engines will never come into general use, the power necessary for the transportation of ponderous com modities being so reduced as to become unworthy of much consideration compared with the work performed," The ad- 90 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. vantages of railroads worked by horse-power over other known means of land transportation were generally appreciated by the public. A charter was granted by the Legislature of Maryland, for the construction of a railroad to connect Baltimore with Wheeling, and books for subscriptions to the stock were opened at Baltimore on the 20th of March of this year. The city made a subscription of five hundred thousand dollars, and fifteen hundred thousand dollars more were solicited. Upon closing the subscription-book on the 31st of March, it was found that offers were made for a considerable amount more than twice that required. The projectors of the road in ask ing for a charter, stated to the members of the legislature that the whole distance between Baltimore and Wheeling could be travelled at an average rate of four miles an hour. The en thusiasm on the railroad question was not confined to Balti more. The Legislature of Massachusetts by a large majority, authorized the appointment of commissioners and an engineer for the purpose of determining a proper line of railroad be tween the city of Boston and the Hudson River. In May a railroad was completed at Mauch Chunk, in Pennsylvania, for the transportation of coal from the Summit mines to the land ing on the Lehigh. The cars ran down by gravity, and were drawn back by mules. At this period, Indianapolis contained twenty-five brick, sixty frame, and about eighty hewn-log houses ; a court-house, jail, and three churches. The population of Hartford was at this time six thousand nine hundred; of New Haven, seven thousand one hundred ; of Newark, N. J., six thousand five hundred; and of New Bruns wick, six thousand seven hundred. The manufacture of fire-bricks was commenced at Baltimore, Before this they were obtained only from England. The gen eral use of grates and furnaces was established about this time. The first lithographic establishment in the United States was started this year at Boston. The artists and materials were im ported from England. About this date the first store in this country for the sale of American hardware was opened at Philadelphia, by Amasa Goodyear and his son, of india-rubber celebrity. The Journal of Commerce issued its first number at New York on the 1st of September. It was aided in starting by Arthur Tappan, and was established in the interests of Aboli tionism. Eventually it came into the possession of David Hale and Gerard Hallock, and became a conservative organ. The Morning Enquirer was started at New York in May ; and these two papers were rivals for the mercantile advertisements of the city, and tried to surpass each other in size, whence the term "blanket-sheets" was given them. To get the commer cial news they established swift schooners and pony-expresses. In 1829 the Morning Courier w r as united to the Enquirer, and in 1861 merged in the New York World. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 91 1828 At the presidential election this year John Quincy Adams was the candidate of the National Republican party, which ad vocated a high protective tariff, and the aid of the government to be given in carrying out a system of internal improvements. General Andrew Jackson was the nominee of the Democratic party, which opposed those measures. After a spirited contest, in which much personal abuse was mingled, General Jackson was elected, receiving one hundred and seventy-eight of the two hundred and sixty -one electoral votes. The question of a protective tariff was now one of the main issues in party strife ; and a tariff act passed by Congress in May was an event which commenced a serious division between the North and South. In the early years of Federal legislation the duties imposed were all moderate, and the Southern States were as ready as any part of the Union in extending protection to home indus try, and some of their statesmen were among the foremost in promoting that policy. As late as 1816 some of the Southern statesmen were still in favor of protection. After that year the tariff bills took a sectional aspect : the Southern States, with the exception of the sugar-planting interests in Louisiana, against them ; the New England States also against them ; and the Middle and Western States in their favor. After the year 1824 the South alone was against that policy. A newspaper, printed partly in English and partly in the Cherokee language, named The Phcenix, was published at New Echota. The types used were furnished by the United States Government. A three-story brick house, on a lot twenty-nine feet in front and one hundred and fifty feet in depth, with a brick stable in the rear, on Park Place, in New York, was sold at public auc tion on the 25th of October for twenty-eight thousand eight hundred and fifty dollars A lot on Wall Street, twenty-five feet in front and one hundred and twelve in depth, was sold at private sale at about the same time, for thirty-five thousand four hundred dollars. The improvements upon it were of little value. An antiquarian book-store was established in Boston, and it was the first one of the kind opened in this country. The first damask table-linen manufactured in the United States was made this year at Pittsburg. The city of New York purchased from James Blackwell the island in the East River bearing his name, for the sum of thirty- two thousand dollars. The city afterwards was obliged to pay an additional sum of twenty thousand dollars for the release of a dower interest which was unexpectedly discovered to be a lien upon the property. The first edition of Webster s Dictionary was published. It was issued in two volumes, quarto. The first periodical devoted to agriculture, published south of Baltimore, was issued at the city of Charleston, under the title of the Southern Agriculturist. The first periodical exclusively designed for the tastes of 92 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ladies, issued in the United States, was established at Boston, and called the Ladies Magazine. It was united with Godey s Ladies Book in Philadelphia in 1837. The first steamboat belonging in Boston commenced making excursion-trips in the harbor. It was called the Benjamin Franklin. A premium was awarded by the Franklin Institute in Phila delphia, in October, for an exhibition of an assortment of malle able-iron castings made by Seth Boyden of Newark, N. J. It was the first attempt in this country, known to the committee, to anneal cast-iron for general purposes. The first manufacture of varnish, except for individual use, was commenced at New York. The first manufacture, in this country, of paper from straw and hay was commenced at Meadville, Pa. The paper w r as of a yellow color, strong and smooth, and an edition of the New Testament is said to have been printed upon it, which cost only five cents a copy. Three hundred reams of the paper were shipped to Pittsburg on the 30th of November. The celebrated planing-machine patented by William Wood- worth was introduced, and acquired an extensive sale. The first trip of a locomotive upon a railroad in America was made upon the Carbondale and Honesdale Railroad in Penn sylvania. The engine was made in England, and was run by Mr. Horatio Allen, under whose direction it had been built. This trip was made about one year before the first steam rail road in England was opened. On the 4th of July the corner-stone of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was laid at Baltimore w r ith imposing ceremonies. This road, as well as all other of the early roads constructed in this country, was built of longitudinal wooden rails pinned down to cross-ties of stone or wood imbedded in the ground, with fiat bars of iron fastened with spikes placed on top of the wooden rails. This method of construction was soon found to involve great danger, and consequent expense ; the ends Of the iron bars becoming loose and starting up, were occasionally caught by the wheels and thrust up through the bottom of the car. A boat passed in October for the first time through the entire length of the Blackstone Canal, connecting Worcester with Prov idence. The canal w r as commenced in 1826, and is forty-five miles in length. One ton of coal was brought to Lowell from Boston in a wagon. It was the first anthracite coal seen in the place, and was considered a sufficient supply for the Lowell market for a whole year. 1829 Andrew Jackson as President, and John C. Calhoun as Vice- President, commenced their terms of office on the 4th of March. After the adjournment of the Senate, the President made one hundred and seventy-six appointments for office among his po litical adherents, principally in consequence of a general re moval of his political opponents. Never before had so total a HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 93 change been made in the public offices, and the conduct of the executive was subjected to severe animadversions. During General Washington s administration of eight years there were but nine removals ; in John Adams of four years, only ten ; in Jefferson s of eight years, but thirty-nine ; in Madison s of eight years, but five ; in Monroe s of eight years, but nine ; and in John Quincy Adams of four years, only two. A conflagration at Augusta, Georgia, on the 3d of April, de stroyed upwards of three hundred buildings. On the 10th of the same month, one hundred buildings, with a large amount of rice and other products, were consumed by fire at Savannah ;, and on the same day the Lafayette Theatre in New York, to gether with a large number of other buildings, were burned. The boiler of the steam-frigate Fulton, a receiving-ship sta tioned at the Brooklyn Navy Yard, blew up on the 4th of June, killing upwards of thirty persons and dangerously wound ing twenty-three others. The first asylum for the blind in the United States was founded in Boston, and incorporated under the name of the New England Asylum for the Blind. " Sam Patch," famous for his jumps at the falls of the Passaic at Paterson, and later at Niagara, was killed on the 13th of November, in jumping from the Genesee Falls at Rochester. Many thousand persons were collected to witness his feats. The first public school in Baltimore was opened on the 21st of September. The first one in Louisville, Ky., was also estab lished this year. The first daily newspaper published in Portland, Me., was issued on the 13th of October, under the title of the Daily Courier. The following-named canals were completed this year: The Chesapeake and Delaware Canal, connecting the Delaware River with Chesapeake Bay; the Cumberland and Oxford, in Maine; the Farmington, in Connecticut; the Oswego, con necting Lake Ontario with the Erie Canal at Salina; and the Delaware and Hudson Canal, one hundred and eight miles in length, extending from Honesdale, Pa., to the Hudson River. The United States Mint at Philadelphia was completed. The first figured muslin woven on a power-loom in this and, probably, in any other country, was made, in the summer of this year, at Central Falls, R. I. The use of Turkey-red in calico-printing, which had for a long time given the French an advantage over English and American prints, was this year successfully introduced by manufacturers at Lowell. The manufacture of penknives and pocket-knives, articles hitherto exclusively imported, was commenced at Worcester, The first manufacture of sewing-silk by machinery was commenced at Mansfield, Conn. 94 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. The first manufacture of bricks by machinery was com menced at the city of New York. Large establishments for the manufacture of fire-bricks were erected about this time, and soon afterwards the importation of those articles was wholly stopped. Galvanized iron was invented, at this time, by John W. Revere, M.D., of New York, and on the 27th of March the result of his experiments was laid before the Lyceum of Natural History, in that city. 1830 Mormonism was founded this year, and Joseph Smith, the originator of that sect, published his book entitled " The Book of Mormon, an Account written by the Hand of Mormon, upon Plates taken from the Plates of Nephi." Smith professed to have translated this English version from the original plates, discovered to him by angels. This " divine revelation " was found to be a corrupt version of a religious romance, called "The Manuscript Found," written, in the year 1809, by Solomon Spaulding. A Mormon church was organized by Smith at Manchester, in Western New York, on the 6th of April; and at the first conference held in June about thirty converts attended. In the following year the Mormons re moved to Kirtland, Ohio. A severe storm was experienced in some parts of Tennessee, on the 31st of May. The town of Carthage was a heap of ruins; almost every house in the place was destroyed or greatly damaged. At another town fifty-three buildings were blown dow r n, killing five persons and injuring many others. In July, a heavy storm swept both sides of Lake Champlain, continuing for three days. The streams emptying into the lake were so swollen that mill-dams and mills, iron-works and other factories, bridges and crops, were almost universally destroyed. Chicago was surveyed and laid out as a town, and the map recorded on the 4th of August. The first sale of lots took place in the autumn. It was estimated there were at this period thirteen hundred and forty-three miles of canal in the United States completed, eighteen hundred miles more in progress, and four hundred and eight miles projected. The first arrival at Oswego of a vessel from Lake Erie occurred on the 3d of August, by the Welland Canal, now just completed. The first steam-railroad that went into operation in America, designed for the transportation of both passengers and merchan dise, was the South Carolina road, laid out to connect Charles ton with Hamburg, on the Savannah River, opposite the city of Savannah. Six miles of the road were completed in the summer of this year, and a locomotive was run on it. This locomotive was constructed in New York, and was the first one built in this country. It was a small four-wheeled engine, with upright boiler and the flues close to the bottom, the flames circulating around them. It is a noteworthy fact that this road was designed and wholly constructed, for the use of locomo- HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 95 tives, upon the advice of Mr. Horatio Allen, before they were known in this country, or established in Great Britain. The road was built upon piles, and some of the swamps and rivers were crossed at an elevation of fifty feet. The Hudson and Mohawk Railroad, connecting Albany with Schenectady, was commenced. On the 24th of May, fourteen miles of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad were completed and opened for use. The first telescope used in this country for astronomical purposes was set up at Yale College. Charles Kean, the celebrated actor, arrived in this country, and commenced his first engagement at the Park Theatre, in New York, on the 1st of September. The first penny paper published in Philadelphia was issued under the title of The Cent. It had but a brief existence. The Christian Intelligencer, an organ of the Dutch Reformed Church, made its first appearance at New York. The Boston Transcript appeared at Boston, in July, and the Globe at Washington, in December. The Albany Evening Journal was also established this year. The first omnibus in New York commenced running this year. It had the word "Omnibus" painted in large letters on both sides, and was a puzzle to most pedestrians, who pro nounced it variously. The name was generally supposed to be that of the owner. The first Fourdrinier machine, used in the manufacture of paper, made in this country was built at Windham, Conn. Very few were afterwards imported. 1831 A negro insurrection broke out in Virginia, near the North Carolina border. It started with a party of three white men and four slaves, who commenced killing several families, and impressing into their service all slaves on their route, until a force of nearly two hundred accumulated, spreading desola tion everywhere in their path. Fifty-five white persons were murdered before the insurrection was quelled. Troops were called out by the authorities of Virginia and North Carolina, who succeeded in killing or capturing all the insurgents. Fear ing that this outbreak was but a part of a grand conspiracy of the negroes generally, martial law was proclaimed in many places, and every negro who could not give a satisfactory ac count of himself was arrested. In South Carolina the " Vigi lance Association of Columbia" offered a reward of one thou sand dollars for the apprehension and conviction of any person who should be detected in distributing or circulating in that State the abolition paper called the Liberator, published in Bos ton, or the pamphlet called " Walker s Pamphlet," or any other publication of a seditious tendency. Chloroform was discovered this year by Dr. Samuel Guthrie of Sackett s Harbor, N. Y. It was at first used only as a medi cine, and its valuable qualities were not perceived until some time later. A conflagration destroyed the town of Fayetteville, N. C., 96 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. on the 29th of May; only a few buildings on the outskirts es caped. All the public buildings, and about six hundred pri vate houses, were consumed, with their contents. Groton monument, on Groton Heights, opposite New Lon don, was completed. A three-story house and lot, on the corner of Pine and Wil liam streets, in New York, was sold for twenty -two thousand dollars, in October. The lot was twenty-eight feet on Pine and sixty-eight on William Street. The first sporting paper published in the United States was issued at New York, and called The Spirit of the Times, The Louisville Journal appeared in Louisville, Ky. ; and on the 9th of November the Daily Morning Post, at Boston. The first passage of boats on the Morris Canal, between New ark, N. J. , and the Delaware River, was made in November. The great Pennsylvania line of improvements, connecting Philadelphia with Pittsburg, commenced in 1826, \vas com pleted in March. This line comprised eighty-two miles of rail road from Philadelphia to Columbia; one hundred and seventy- two miles of canal from Columbia to Hollidaysburg; thirty-six miles of railroad over the Alleghany Mountains to Johnstown; and one hundred and five miles of canal thence to Pittsburg. The line of railroad over the mountains consisted of a series of inclined planes, and was worked by stationary engines. These improvements were built by the State, and cost upwards of twelve millions of dollars. The Hudson and Mohawk Railroad, between Albany and Schenectady, was opened for travel on the 1st of September. This road was first designed to be worked by horse-power, with the exception of two inclined planes, where stationary engines were to be employed. Before its completion it was decided to substitute steam-power, and a locomotive was ordered to be built for it at New York, which was used on the first trip at the opening of the road, and ran the distance of sixteen miles in forty-six minutes. Pine wood was used for fuel. The first railroad built in Virginia was opened. It was con structed for the transportation of coal from the mines near James River to Manchester, opposite Richmond, a distance of thirteen miles. The first railroad in Louisiana was opened on the 23d of April, and connected New Orleans with Lake Ppn- chartrain, a distance of four and a half miles. Its construction across the swamp was considered a great feat of engineering. Six miles of the Baltimore and Susquehanna Railroad were completed and opened on the 4th of July. The cars were drawn by horses. In the next year sixteen miles were opened, at which time steam-power was adopted. The construction of the Harlem and the Ithaca and Owego railroads in the State of New York, and of the Lexington and Ohio in Kentucky, was commenced. The important arrangement of four-wheeled trucks for cars was introduced on the South Carolina Railroad, and were the first car-trucks used in this or any other country. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 97 1832 Upon the passage of a tariff bill by Congress in July, the representatives of South Carolina issued an address to the peo ple of that State, asserting that, by the act passed, the burden of government was thrown exclusively on the Southern States, and meetings were held in South Carolina, denouncing the tariff, and pledging the persons attending to support the State government in any measures it might adopt to resist it. In De cember the Legislature of South Carolina passed acts prohibit ing the enforcement of the United States revenue laws within the State, and authorizing the governor to call the militia into service to resist any attempt of the national government to en force them. Ten thousand stand of arms, and the requisite quantity of military munitions, were ordered to be purchased. At this crisis the President determined to enforce the revenue acts, with an entire disregard to the pretended rights of sover eignty which were assumed by the State of South Carolina, and he, accordingly, ordered all the disposable military force to assemble at Charleston, and a sloop of war to be scut to that port to protect the revenue officers, in case of necessity, in the execution of their duty. On the 10th of December, the Presi dent issued a proclamation, in which he plainly and forcibly stated the nature of the American government, and the supre macy of the Federal authorities in all matters intrusted to their care, and exhorted the citizens of South Carolina not to persist in a course which must bring upon their State the force of the confederacy, and expose the Union to the hazard of dissolu tion. The revenue laws under the protection of the United States forces were carried into effect without any opposition by violence, and, at a meeting of the leading milliners at Charles ton, it was resolved that all collision between the State and Federal authorities should be avoided, in the hope that the con troversy might be satisfactorily adjusted in Congress by the passage of bills modifying the tariff. That hope was realized, and the tariff controversy in South Carolina ended. At the presidential election of this year the Democratic party voted for General Andrew Jackson for re-election as President, and Martin Van Buren for Vice-President , and those candidates were successful; General Jackson receiving two hundred and nineteen electoral votes, and Mr. Van Buren one hundred and eighty-nine. At this time an Anti-Masonic party had been in stituted, which nominated William Wirt for President and Amos Ellmaker for Vice-President, and they received seven electoral votes. The old Federal party had gone out of exist ence, and the opponents of the administration were now de nominated National Republicans. That party nominated Henry Clay for President, and John Sergeant for Vice-President, and they each received forty-nine votes. The State of South Caro lina gave its eleven electoral votes to John Floyd for President and Henry Lee for Vice-President. A war broke out in Illinois between the Indians and the whites. In the year 1830, some Indians of the tribe of the Sacs and Foxes two tribes united in one made some depredations 98 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES. on the white settlers near the mouth of Rock River. In conse quence the United States Government made a treaty with Keo- kuk, the chief of that tribe, by which he agreed to remove with his Indians across the Mississippi. Black Hawk, a noted war rior, however, refused to recognize the authority of Keokuk to make that treaty, and, with many of the Indians, declined to re move from Illinois. He gathered about him all the restless spirits of the tribe, set himself up as their chief, and commenced depredations on the white settlements. Troops were called out by the governor, and the United States Government sent de tachments of the army to assist in breaking up the war. Suc cessive engagements were fought, with various success, and many atrocities committed by the savages. On the 2d of Au gust, a battle took place with the main body of the Indians, which closed hostilities. The Indians were defeated with great loss, and Black Hawk, with his two sons and seven other warriors, were captured, and sent prisoners to Fortress Mon roe, Va. The source of the Mississippi was discovered on the 13th of July by an exploring expedition under the command of Henry R. Schoolcraft. The Asiatic cholera, which had been devastating Montreal and Quebec for some time, made its first appearance in the United States at the city of New York -on the 21st of June. The disease spread in various directions, reaching Philadelphia, Albany, and Rochester in July, and Boston, Baltimore, and Washington in August. In October it reached New Orleans, having previously appeared at Cincinnati and the intermediate cities. In Quebec, Montreal, New York, and Philadelphia, alone, there were eighteen thousand cases and eight thousand deaths. A disastrous flood swept the valley of the Ohio in February. The water continued to rise from the 7th to the 19th, when it attained the height of sixty-three feet above low-water mark at Cincinnati. The towns and villages along the banks of the river were submerged in some instances so deeply as to force the inhabitants to take refuge on the neighboring hills. It was impossible to make any accurate estimate of the value of the property destroyed. The steamboat Brandywine took fire on the evening of the 9th of April, on the Mississippi River, near Memphis, and of about two hundred persons on board all but seventy- five perished in the flames or by drowning. The first instance of chloroform being used by inhalation was at New Haven in January. The renowned gymnasCs and pantomimists, the Ravel family, made their first appearance in America, at the Park Theatre in New York, on the 16th of July. The popularity of this troupe continued undiminished for more than thirty years. Charles Kemble, the celebrated comedian, and Fanny Kem- ble, equally celebrated as an actress, made their first appear ance in America, at the Park Theatre in New York, on the 17th of September. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 99 The manufacture of hosiery by steam or water power was first commenced in this country in October, at Cohoes, N. Y. The first steamboat seen at Chicago arrived there on the 10th of July, having on board General Winfield Scott and United States troops destined for the scene of the Black Hawk war. The first house built in Iowa was erected this year near the site of the city of Davenport. The Paterson and Jersey City Railroad, the Schenectady and Saratoga, the West Chester in Pennsylvania, the Philadelphia, Germantown and Norristown, and the Louisville and Bards- town railroads were all completed this year. On the 15th of November, Philadelphia and Harrisburg were connected by a continuous line of railroad. Operations were commenced on the Boston and Worcester Railroad in August. The first street railroad in America was completed between the City Hall and Fourteenth Street in New York, and opened for travel in November. The road was built by the Harlem Railroad Company, and some tune afterwards was extended up Fourth Avenue. 1833 Andrew Jackson, as President, and Martin Van Buren, Vice- President, commenced their terms of office on the 4th of March. There ensued great commercial distress throughout the country this year, caused by a general system of retrenchment that the directors of the United States Bank were obliged to institute, with a view to safety on account of an evident existing hostility to that corporation. The President of the United States was particularly opposed to the bank, and he caused all the public deposits, amounting to nearly ten millions of dollars, to be withdrawn from it, the greater part of which within a period of four months. Almost simultaneously with this step an attempt was made to destroy the credit of the bank, by sud denly presenting for payment at one of the distant branches a large amount of circulating notes which had been secretly accumulated. Emigrations were made to Iowa this year. From this time the progress and extension of settlements in that district were rapid, and the population increased with far greater rapidity than in any new Territory heretofore. The town of Chicago was incorporated on the 10th of Au gust. At that time there were one hundred and seventy -five houses and five hundred and fifty inhabitants. The first news paper published in the place was issued on the 26th of Novem ber, under the name of The Democrat. The first church organ ized was formed on the 26th of June, by the Presbyterians belonging to the garrison of Fort Dearborn. On the 19th of October, a Baptist society was formed. Massachusetts, New York, and Pennsylvania passed laws for the suppression of lotteries. The United States Treasury building at Washington was consumed by fire on the 31st of March. Nearly all the valu able papers contained in it were saved. On the 30th of April, a fire broke out in the extensive stables 100 HISTOEY OF THE UNITED STATES. of Kipp & Brown on Hudson and Bank streets, in New York, and spread until over one hundred and thirty buildings were consumed. It was estimated that three hundred families were thereby rendered homeless. The city of Boston contracted for sperm-oil for street-lamps, ninety cents per gallon for summer oil and one dollar for winter. Nashville, Tenn., was supplied with water conveyed hi pipes through the streets. The first theatre erected in the United States expressly for operatic performances was opened on the 18th of November. It was built on the corner of Church and Leonard streets, in New York; but the enterprise proved a failure, and the building was used for theatrical purposes until it was destroyed by fire in the year 1841. Millerism, as it was called, commenced making converts at this time. William Miller began to lecture upon the subjects of the millennium and the early destruction of the world, which he at first stated would take place in 1843. He secured disci ples, who were called Millerites, to the number, as estimated, of nearly fifty thousand. After the failure of his predictions, several years and days were successively designated for the destruction of the world, and the sect existed for many years. The first exportation of American ice to the East Indies was made by Mr. Frederick Tudor, of Boston. It was sent in May, and delivered at Calcutta in the autumn. In the follow ing year he sent the first cargo to Brazil. At this time there were seventy -six omnibuses running in the streets of New York, one hundred and ninety-four licensed hackney-coaches, twenty-four hundred and fifty-nine carts, and one hundred and fifty -seven porters with either barrows or hand-carts. On the 5th of October, one hundred and fifty-one lots, each twenty-five feet front and one hundred in depth, on Prospect Hill in Brooklyn, L. I., three miles from Fulton Ferry, were sold at an average price of one hundred and twenty-five dollars -apiece. The first public trial of reaping-machines took place on the 2d of July, before the Hamilton County Agricultural Society in Ohio. The exhibition was of the machine patented by Mr. Obed Hussey. The first newspaper issued in Wisconsin was published at Navarino on the llth of December, and called The Green Bay Intelligencer. The Boston Daily Journal made its first appear ance this year. The first successful penny paper established in the United States issued its first number on the 8th of Septem ber at New York, and was called The New York Sun. The progress of enterprise in American journalism took a step forward this year. The New Yoi*k Journal of Commerce estab lished a horse express from Philadelphia to New York, with relays of horses, by which the paper was enabled to publish Congressional news one day in advance of its contemporaries in HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 101 New York. This example was soon followed by other papers, until the government itself established an express between those cities, whereupon the Journal of Commerce extended its relays to Washington. The constitution of Massachusetts was amended, making the individual contributions for the support of the ministry volun tary, instead of obligatory as they had always been for about two hundred years. The Ohio Canal, connecting the Ohio River at Portsmouth with Lake Erie at Cleveland, a distance of three hundred and seven miles, was completed and opened for navigation. The South Carolina Railroad between Charleston and the Savannah River, one hundred and thirty- six miles in length, was entirely completed. This was the first railroad upon which the United States mails were carried, and the longest continuous line yet completed in this or any other country. The Camden and Amboy Railroad, between Am boy and Bordentown, N. J., was opened for travel in September. The Petersburg and Ro- anoke Railroad in Virginia, about sixty miles in length,, was also completed. The ceremony of breaking ground for the commencement of the Providence and Stonington Railroad took place at Stonington on the 14th of August. 1834 An unusual excitement and tumult took place in New York, ending in a riot, at the city election held on the 8th, 9th, and 10th days of April, caused by a bitter feeling existing between the Jackson men and their political opponents, who at this time were called by the new party name of " whigs." Great confusion and violence ensued; political meetings were disturbed and brok en up, and in the Sixth and Eleventh wards proceedings were so riotous that the military were called out to quell the disturbances. Many of the citizens were dangerously injured, and several of the rioters were arrested and imprisoned. Citizens remained under arms all night, fearing that the banks would be sacked, as an at tack on them was loudly threatened. Business was almost entire ly suspended in Wall and other down-town streets. The election resulted in favor of the " whigs," and the victory was celebrat ed by that party in many sections of the country. Salutes were fired, and other demonstrations of rejoicing were manifested. In Philadelphia, a grand barbecue was instituted, and fifty thousand people attended, as estimated. A meeting of the American Anti- Slavery Society held in New York on the 4th of July was broken up by a mob. A few days afterwards another mob sacked the house of Lewis Tap- pan, a noted abolitionist, and then assaulted and damaged several churches, school -houses, and homes of colored families. The anti-abolition excitement spread to other places. At New ark, N. J., on the evening of the llth of July, a minister introduced a colored man into his pulpit, against the previously ascertained will of his people. When the populace found it out, they assembled in great, numbers, took the colored man forcibly from the pulpit, conveyed him to jail, and threatened to tear it down unless the jailer received him. They then re- 102 HISTOEY OF THE UNITED STATES. turned to the church, broke the windows, tore down the pulpit, and reduced the edifice to a shell. In Norwich, Conn., a mob, headed by a band of music, entered a church where a lecture was being delivered by an abolitionist, forcibly took the lecturer from the pulpit, and forced him to march before them, at the same time playing the Rogue s March, till they drummed him out of the town. In Philadelphia, a riot commenced on the even ing of the 13th of August, and continued for three nights. Forty -four houses inhabited by blacks were assaulted, damaged, and many of them destroyed. Other similar demonstrations occurred in several places in different sections of the country. A report having been circulated in Boston that a girl was confined against her will in a convent of Ursuline nuns at Charlestown, great excitement was manifested in the city, and soon prevailed in the neighboring tow r ns. On the night of the llth of August, a large number of persons, disguise din fantas tic costumes, assembled before the convent, and after waking and warning the inmates to make their escape, made an assault on the house. The doors and windows were forced open, the furniture broken, and the building set on fire and destroyed ; other buildings belonging to the convent were also burned. The cemetery was then visited and the graves w r ere desecrated. The next day a large meeting of the citizens of Boston was held in Faneuil Hall to express their indignation at the outrage, and prompt measures were instituted to discover the perpetrators. Several persons were arrested, but were released for want of proof, and only one suffered conviction. Congress passed an act to establish branch mints at New Or leans, Dahlonega, Ga., and at Charlotte, N. C. The earliest emigrations of settlers to Oregon commenced at this period. The streets of New Orleans were lighted with gas for the first time. At this period but one mail a week arrived at Chicago from the East, and that was brought from Niles, Mich., on horse back. Brooklyn, L. I. , was incorporated as a city, and the first mayor and other city officers elected. Rochester was also incorporated, and Burlington in Iowa laid out as a town. The wholesale clothing business in the United States was first commenced in the city of New York at this time. The first steam-power printing-press set up at the West was established at Cincinnati, for the publication of the Gazette. The first gun rifled in the United States was accomplished at South Boston, Mass. Hammered-brass kettles began at this time to be manufactured in this country at Wolcottville, Conn. Wood- screws, for the first time manufactured by machinery, were made at Providence. The first table cutlery of American manufacture was made in January, at Greenfield, Mass. The New Jersey Railroad, from Jersey City to New Brims- HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 103 wick, was completed. The Philadelphia and Trenton Railroad was opened for travel on the 1st of November. 1835 Riotous demonstrations continued to be exhibited in various sections of the Northern States against the blacks and the abo litionists; churches and public halls were assaulted, and anti- slavery speakers rudely handled. Great excitement prevailed at the South, in consequence of the circulation there of papers and pamphlets sent by the different antislavery societies at the North. On the 29th of July, the post-office at Charleston was forced by a mob, the mails rifled, and all autislavery publi cations destroyed. Great attention was excited throughout the country by publi cations in the newspapers of interesting discoveries concerning the moon, made by means of a newly invented telescope, which, when the facts became known, were designated as the "Moon Hoax." Richard Adams Locke, the editor of the New York Sun, wrote an article in that paper which purported to be an account of discoveries made by Sir John F. W. Her- schel at the Cape of Good Hope, and pretended to be taken from a late number of an Edinburgh journal, in which the author proceeded to delineate the geographical features and the inhabitants of the moon with graphic power and such show of probability, that the gravest journals accepted the account as actual fact. The papers throughout the country copied the ar ticle, and commented upon the wonderful discoveries, which, for the time, created much speculation and wonder. The dis covery of the hoax excited general merriment, and more so against those journals which, hoping to gain credit for enter prise, had pretended to have copied the article themselves from the Edinburgh journal. The President, in his Message, announced the extinguishment of the national debt. The duties on imports and the sale of the public lands had produced the money for that purpose. The resources of the State of Ohio had been greatly devel oped within the preceding five years. The State, at this time, contained a population of about one million. One hundred and twenty-five newspapers were established in sixty-five towns. Cincinnati was seven days distant from Pittsburg, fourteen from New York, and twenty-one from New Or leans. Miss Charlotte Cushman made her first appearance on the stage at the Tremont Theatre in Boston, on the 8th of April, in the character of the " Countess" in the marriage of Figaro. She made a great success, and her popularity as an actress con tinued more than forty years. The first house at Yerba Buena, the germ of San Francisco, was built. At this period the residents of Harlem and Yorkville, at the upper portion of New York Island, could reach the city by public conveyance only, uufrequently, by using a stage-coach plying between New York and Danbury, Conn. An hourly stage between the city and Harlem was established this year, at 104 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. a charge to Yorkvttle of eighteen and three quarter cents, and to Harlem of twenty-five. The New York Herald issued its first number on the 6th of May, from its office of publication in the cellar of No. 20 Wall street. The editor, Mr. Bennett, was his own reporter of the police news, of the city items, and of the money market. This latter department was the first of the kind published in America. The manufacture of mineral teeth for the market was first established in the United States about this time, by D. W. Stockton of Philadelphia. The manufacture of horse-shoes by machinery was estab lished at Troy. Up to this date they were made only by hand. At this period there were but two manufactories of hair-cloth in the country. One of these, the first in New England, was but recently started at Deerfield, Mass. The first manufacture of pins by machinery was commenced at New York in December, by a company called the Howe Manufacturing Company, from the name of the inventor of the machines. About this period an improvement was made in the manu facture of hosiery, which, with the introduction of the power-loom, in 1832, gave rise to the establishment of that business on an extensive scale in this country. This new in vention consisted in knitting the goods in one continuous circu lar web. Heretofore they were knit in strips, cut up into proper lengths, and the circle formed by sewing the web lengthwise. The first tiles for draining purposes are said to have been made this year, near Geneva, N. Y. Samuel Colt secured a patent for the famous revolving pis tol bearing his name. A fire-department was organized at Chicago on the 19th of September, and two fire-engines and one thousand feet of hose ordered. In December, the first bank in the place went into operation. The first fire-engine in Indianapolis arrived there in September from Philadelphia. A conflagration occurred on the night of the 16th of December at New r York, in the business part of the city devoted principally to the wholesale dry-goods trade, destroying about seven hundred buildings, and involving a loss of, as estimated, seventeen mil lions of dollars. All insurance companies failed, excepting two, that insured in that district, the loss absorbing their entire assets, inflicting distress upon a class of people owning the stocks who relied upon the dividends for support, such as widows and orphans, which increased the extent of the catas trophe. The burned district covered an area of about fifty acres, in which only one store escaped entire. It embraced the blocks from Coffee House Slip along South Street to Coenties Slip, thence to near Broad Street, along William to Wall, and down the south side of that street to the East River. A rage on the subject of silk-culture was developed in many HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 105 sections of the country at this time, particularly in New Eng land. Congress and several of the State legislatures, within the past few years, had promoted the growing interest n that business by means of publications, bounties, and other meas ures. Large profits were realized by some in the sale of young mulberry- trees, and large numbers of persons were induced to fo into the business of raising silk. The speculative fever isted several years, and many fortunes were made and lost in the business. The Boston and Providence Railroad was opened for travel on the 2d of June ; the Boston and Lowell, on the 27th of June ; the Boston and Worcester, on the 6th of July ; and the Baltimore and Washington, on the 25th of August. The New York and Erie was commenced on the 7th of November. il836 The presidential election, this year, was warmly contested. The Democratic party nominated Martin Van Buren for Presi dent, and Richard M. Johnson for Vice-President. The oppo sition party now took the name of Whig. There were different sections of this combination, and although they were unable to unite upon a single candidate, they were in hopes of defeating the election of Mr. Van Buren by throwing the final choice in to the House of Representatives. The result of the election was as follows : For President, Martin Van Buren, who re ceived one hundred and seventy electoral votes ; William H. Harrison, seventy -three ; Hugh L. White, twenty-six ; Daniel Webster, fourteen ; and W. P. Mangum, eleven. For Vice- President, Richard M. Johnson received one hundred and forty- seven votes ; Francis Granger, seventy-seven ; John Tyler, forty-seven ; and William Smith, twenty-three. Martin Van Buren received a sufficient number of electoral votes for elec tion ; but by the terms of the Constitution, there was no choice of Vice President, in which case the Senate of the United States was designated to make it. By the vote in that body Richard M. Johnson was elected, he receiving thirty-three votes against sixteen given Mr. Granger. Arkansas was admitted into the Union on the 15th of June, with a constitution permitting slavery within the State. Texas rebelled against the Mexican authorities, and, on the 2d of March, proclaimed her independence and adopted a re publican form of government. Wisconsin was organized under a territorial government, with jurisdiction over the " District of Iowa." The latter Ter ritory, at this time, had a population of ten thousand five hun- dred. Madison was made the capital of Wisconsin, and was situated in the midst of a wilderness. The settlement of Janes- ville in Wisconsin, and of Davenport in Iowa, was com menced. The office of The Philanthropist, an abolition paper published in Cincinnati, was attacked by a mob, on the 29th of July, en tered and pillaged, the types scattered, and the press broken ^and thrown into the river. On the 9th of June, the Seminole Indians, under Osceola, 106 HIStOEY OF THE UNITED STATES. were repulsed in an attack on the United States fortified post at Micanopy, Fla. On the 12th of August they were victorious at Fort Doane. On the 15th of December, the United States Patent Office, with all its contents, occupying a portion of the General Post- office Building, in Washington, was destroyed by fire. The first astronomical observatory built in the United States was erected at Williamstown, Mass. New Orleans was supplied with water pumped from the Mis- sissipi into a reservoir, and thence conveyed to the houses by means of pipes. The city of Philadelphia was lighted with gas, for the first time, on the 10th of February. Miss Ellen Tree made her first appearance in America on the 12th of December, at the Park Theatre, in New York, and proved to be the most popular actress, excepting Fanny Kem- ble, known to the New York stage. The first penny newspaper in Baltimore issued its first num ber on the 10th of March, under the title of The Baltimore Transcript. The Neic York Express commenced publication on the 20th of June, and the Public Ledger, at Philadelphia, on 25th of March. The first manufacture in this country of wrought-iron tubing and fittings for gas, water, and steam pipes was commenced at Philadelphia. The manufacture of fine-cut chewing tobacco was com menced at Centreville, Mich., and, until the year 1847, was made at no other place west of Detroit. Felt cloth was first successfully manufactured at Norwalk, Conn. The first exportation of varnishes was made this year. The manufacturers of New York shipped a considerable quantity to South America and Mexico. Heretofore, railroad cars were pulled up heavy grades by means of stationary engines. On the 10th of July, on the Phil adelphia and Columbia Railroad, it was for the first time dem onstrated that ascents could be made by locomotives, without the aid of stationary engines and ropes, which fact resulted in the adoption of a new principle in the construction of railroads, and the saving of great expense. It was also demonstrated, by an experiment on the Beaver Meadow Railroad in Pennsylva nia, that anthracite coal was a better fuel than wood for loco motives. The Utica and Schenectady Railroad, seventy-eight miles in length, was opened for travel on the 1st of August. The Brooklyn and Jamaica Railroad was completed on the 18th of April, and ground broken for its continuation throughout the whole length of Long Island. 1837 Martin Van Bureri, as President, and Richard M. Johnson, as Vice- President, commenced their official terms on the 4th of March. This year is marked by a remarkable pressure in the money HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 107 market, and great commercial distress resulting therefrom. Numerous banks had been chartered in the preceding year by the different State legislatures, to supply a supposed want of banking capital consequent upon the refusal of Congress to prolong the existence of the United States Bank, the charter of which was about to expire. These new banks being without any check to prevent excessive issues of paper circulation, the facilities of bank accommodations occasioned a scene of specu lation which extended far and wide over the whole Union, and all classes of citizens were more or less entangled in the opera tions which ensued. Extensive purchases of the public lands, by individuals and companies, were among the schemes of the day, for the employment of the abundance of bank paper. At length, the government required all payments for the public lands to be made in specie, which sometimes produced large drafts on the banks for that commodity, and not only prevent ed them from extending their lines of discount, but compelled them to commence calling in their circulating notes. An order had also been issued directing the surplus funds of the govern ment to be distributed among the several States, and, from the mode in which that was managed, contributed to the derange ment of the currency, Another cause of pecuniary embarrass ment and pressure was an excessive importation of merchan dise from abroad, beyond the wants and abilities of the coun try ; payments for which falling due, and American credit be ing impaired in London, occasioned a large exportation of spe cie to Europe. On the 10th of May, all the banks in the city of New York, by common consent, suspended specie payments; the banks of Boston, Providence, Hartford, Albany, Philadel phia, and Baltimore, and others in every quarter, adopted the same course. During the preceding two months, unprecedent ed embarrassments and difficulties were experienced among the mercantile classes, and were felt in all the commercial towns in the United States, especially in New York and New Orleans. The number of large failures which took place in New York in a short time was about three hundred, their liabilities amounting to many millions. In two days, houses in New Orleans stopped payment, owing an aggregate of twenty-seven millions of dol lars. In Boston, one hundred and sixty-eight failures took place in six months. Michigan was admitted into the Union on the 26th of Janu ary. t Osceola, the Seminole chief, was captured near St. Augus tine. His capture ended the Seminole war. He had come un der a flag of truce, to hold a conference with the American general, and by the general s orders was detained. He was sent as a prisoner to Fort Moultrie, in Charleston harbor, where he was kept until the next year, when he died. A mob attacked and fired a building in Alton, 111., on the 7th of November, in which was printed an abolition newspaper published by Rev. E. P. Lovejoy. The editor was murdered, and the press broken and thrown into the river. 108 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Chicago was incorporated as a city on the 4th of March. On the 1st of July its population was forty -one hundred and sev enty, and the number of buildings in the place about five hun dred. On the 8th of May, the large Louisville and New Orleans packet Ben Sherrpd, while ascending the Mississippi and when about fourteen miles above Fort Adams, caught fire about one o clock at night, and the passengers, about three hundred in number, had no alternative but to jump into the river without having time to save even their clothes. More than two hun dred lives were lost by this catastrophe. The boat was engaged in a race at.the time, and the firemen, to raise more steam, used pine-knots for fuel and sprinkled resin on the coal. About fifty lives were lost on the night of the 27th of Decem ber, on the Mississippi, by the explosion of the boiler belonging to the steamboat Black Hawk as it was near the Red River. The Baltimore Sun appeared on the 17th of May, and the New Orleans Picayune on the 25th of January. The first successful introduction of the screw in steam-navi gation was made this year, on the steamer Thames, by Captains Ericsson and F. P. Smith. The dynamometer, an invention for ascertaining the power used in driving machinery, was first put to use this year. The invention of one-day clocks with brass movements was introduced at this time in Connecticut, and resulted in a com plete revolution of the clock business. The manufacture of clocks with wooden movements was immediately stopped. The first establishment erected for the exclusive manufacture of machinists tools was opened at Nashua, N. H. A man was publicly whipped on the court-house parade in Providence, on the 14th of July, for horse-stealing. This method of punishment had never been legally abolished, though it had been discontinued for a long time. The law was soon after repealed. The railroad between Richmond and Fredericksburg, in Virginia, was completed; the Michigan Central, from Detroit to Ypsilanti, a distance of thirty miles, was opened for travel ; the road from Baltimore to Wilmington, also, on the 19th of July; and the Providence and Stonington, on the 10th of November. On the 26th of October, the tunnel between Thirty -fourth and Forty second streets, in New York, was completed by the Harlem Railroad Company. The Chenango Canal, connecting the Susquehanna at Bing- hamton with the Erie Canal at Utica, was completed. 1838 The Mormons expelled from Missouri by persecution, whither they had emigrated from Ohio, established themselves in Hancock County, Illinois, and commenced building a town, which they called Nauvoo. They numbered at this time about twelve thousand. The Atlantic Ocean was crossed for the first time by vessels exclusively propelled by steam-power. There were two steamers, called the Sirius and the. Great Western, which arrived at HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 100 New York in the summer, within a few hours of each other, TheSirius started from London, and was seventeen days on her passage; the Great Western, from Bristol, fifteen days. From this period regular passages across the Atlantic were established. A legacy amounting to over five hundred thousand dollars., left the United States by Mr. James Smithson of England, ar rived in August from London. The money was bequeathed by Smithson for the advancement of knowledge, and was used for the establishment of the Smithsonian Institution at Washington. The first manufacture of gold thimbles and spectacles was commenced at Long Meadow, Mass. The first solid-headed pins made in the United States were manufactured at Birmingham, Conn., by the Ho we Pin Company which had removed to that town from New York. This new style of manufacture soon superseded the spun-headed pins heretofore used. The first zinc manufactured in the United States w r as made at the arsenal at Washington, from the red oxide of New Jersey. It was used in the brass designed for the standard weights and measures ordered by Congress. The expense of its manufacture was so great, that for a long time any further attempts to use this ore were abandoned. The Richmond and Petersburg Railroad in Virginia, the Nashua and Lowell, and a portion of the Mad River Railroad in Ohio, were completed and opened for travel. On the 27th of April, a destructive conflagration occurred at Charleston, S. C. Eleven hundred and fifty-eight buildings were destroyed, and nearly one half the city was desolated. Property valued at three millions of dollars was lost. On the afternoon of the 25th of April,* the steamboat Moselle, bound for St. Louis, left her landing at Cincinnati, with an unusually large number of passengers on board, supposed to be nearly three hundred. The boat proceeded about a mile up the river, to take on some German emigrants, and just as it was moving from shore at that point her four boilers exploded simultaneously, blowing the upper part of the vessel to atoms. The remainder, after floating a short distance, sank in the river. About one hundred and thirty persons lost their lives, and several others were badly injured. 1839 On the 10th of October, the United States Bank failed, and closed its doors, on account of ruinous speculations in cotton. During the preceding year it bought cotton for a rise, and for a time it advanced to sixteen cents a pound, but soon declined in price, causing great loss to the bank. It made great exertions to sustain itself by the sale of bonds in Europe, and by issuing post-notes, which were sold in Boston and New York at a discount of eighteen to twenty-four per cent. This failure and cotton speculations caused a large number of bank suspen sions, principally at the South and West. Three hundred and forty- three banks closed business entirely, and sixty-two partially. The government lost two millions of dollars in. deposits by these failures. 110 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. The seat of Government for Illinois was removed from Van- dalia to Springfield. Greenwood Cemetery, in Brooklyn, was incorporated on the llth of April, and in October lots were first offered for sale. The first printing-press established west of the Rocky Moun tains was set up at Walla Walla, in Oregon, a place founded by *ome Presbyterian missionaries. The first Normal School in America was opened on the 3d of July, at Lexington, Mass. The first successfully constructed screw-propeller was built this year by Captain Ericsson, in England, and navigated to this country. It demonstrated the value of screws over pad- dles for boats used for certain purposes. The first carpets woven by a power-loom, in this or any other country, were produced this year at Lowell. The first successful attempt to use anthracite coal in the manufacture of iron was made at a furnace in Pottsville, Pa. The proprietor was rewarded with a present of five thousand dollars, subscribed by citizens of the State. The first white settlement on the site of Sacramento was made by J. A. gutter. The express business in this country originated on the 4th of March, when Mr. W. F. Harnden of Boston, according to previous advertisement, made a trip from that city to New York as a public messenger. He had in charge a few books and some Southern and Western bank notes for delivery. His route was by railroad from Boston to Stonington, thence by steam boat to New York. He proposed also to take charge of freight and attend to its early delivery, he having made a contract with the railroad and steamboajt line on that route for that purpose. Charles Goodyear obtained his first patent for vulcanized india-rubber in February. The Western Railroad, between Worcester and Springfield, was opened for travel on the 1st of October. The Syracuse and Utica, and the Syracuse and Auburn, railroads, were also com pleted this year. 1840 Congress established the Independent Treasury. The new system proposed to separate the government entirely from any dependence upon the banks in its fiscal operations, the collec tion, safe-keeping, transfer, and disbursements of the public money to be performed by agents of the government alone, and only specie to be used in all transactions of the govern ment. This act was repealed during the administration of Mr. Tyler. The result of the presidential election this year, after a cam paign more than usually exciting, was successful for the candi dates of the Whig party. These were William H. Harrison, for President, who received two hundred and thirty-four elec toral votes, and John Tyler for Vice-President, who received the same number. Martin Van Buren was the nominee for President of the Democratic party, and he received sixty votes. For Vice-President, Richard M. Johnson received forty-eight HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Ill votes, L. W. Tazewcll eleven, and James K. Polk one. A third party, in favor of the abolition of slavery, had been or ganized for some time, and this year nominated James G. Bir- ney for President, who received some scattering votes in the Northern States, but not sufficient in any one to give him a single electoral vote. The census of Iowa showed a population of forty-three thous and ; and of Wisconsin, of thirty-one thousand. The town of Scranton, Pa., was founded. Water was supplied to the city of Chicago by a private cor poration. It was pumped from the lake into a reservoir about twenty-five feet square and eight feet deep, and thence con veyed to the citizens by means of pipes made of logs. This year, Mr. P. B. Burke and Mr. Alvan Adams com menced to take charge of freight, and packages of money and goods, and attend to their delivery, between Boston and New York, by the way of Springfield, in competition with Mr. Harnden, who had established the business in the preceding year by the Stonington route. This enterprise was the founda tion of the Adams Express Company. The first manufacture of gold pens in this country was com menced at New York. The first iron-front building in America was erected on Washington Street, in Boston, this year, upon the guarantee of the builder that it should be taken down at his own expense if it proved a failure. The first successful daguerreotype portraits were made at the New York University, by Dr. Draper. The process, invented by Daguerre, in France, was purchased by the French Govern ment, and was never used in copying landscapes and likenesses, and was only adapted to statuary and architecture. When the news of Dr. Draper s discovery reached London, its success was ascribed to the peculiar brilliancy of the American sun light. A tornado visited the city of Natchez, on the 7th of May, occasioning an immense destruction of property and loss of life. Several steamboats were destroyed at the wharves, and many persons who had embarked in them were drowned. A large number of flat-boats were wrecked by the gale, and a number of boatmen, estimated at upwards of two hundred, perished. The wreck of one steamboat was afterwards found at Baton Rouge, with fifty-one dead bodies on it. Of one hundred and twenty flat-boats at the landing, all but four were lost. The water in the river was agitated to that degree that the best swimmers could not save themselves. Many houses were blown down and several unroofed. The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal was completed from Georgetown, D. C., to Cumberland, Pa., a distance of one hundred and ninety-one miles, at a cost of about sixteen mil lions of dollars. The Housatonic Railroad, in Connecticut, was completed from Bridgeport to New Milford on the 12th of February; 112 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the Raleigh and Gaston, and the Wilmington and Roanoke, in North Carolina, in April; and the New Bedford and Taunton, in Massachusetts, on the 1st of July. Mdlle. Fanny Elssler, the celebrated danseuse, made her first appearance in America at the Park Theatre, New York. Her engagement was a great success, and a tour through the coun try was one of unabated triumph. 1841 William Henry Harrison was inaugurated President on the 4th of March, and died exactly one month afterwards, when he was succeeded by John Tyler, the Yice-President. On the 7th of November, a brig from Richmond, Ya., sailed for New Orleans with one hundred and thirty-five slaves on board. When near the Bahama Islands, nineteen of the slaves arose and took possession of the vessel to secure their liberty. In the struggle which ensued, a slave-vender was killed, and the captain, first mate, and ten of the crew were severely wounded. The vessel was then sailed to Nassau, and being on English soil, the slaves retained their liberty. A riot took place at Cincinnati in September, lasting two days, incited by the mob against the abolitionists and blacks. Bands of armed men patrolled the streets in search of negroes ; a colored meeting-house and several houses were demolished. The first exportation of American clocks was made this year. They were sent to England, and the invoice appeared to be so- ridiculously low to the custom-house authorities at Liverpool that they were at first seized for under-valuation. This ven ture proving successful, the business was continued, and devel oped into one of large dimensions; and clocks were sent to the different countries of Europe, to Asia, and South America. Before the use of brass movements, shipments were not made across the ocean, as the old wooden clocks then in use would be ruined, because exposure to the humidity of the sea caused the movements of the clocks to swell and ruin them. The grain-drill for planting wheat was patented in March, and its introduction among \he farmers attempted, but was only after the lapse of years that its value was recognized and acknowledged. The first steam fire-engine in this country was completed and put to use in New York, under a contract made with the associated insurance companies. It was, however, afterwards sold and converted to other purposes, its great weight proving to be a fatal objection to its use. The express business continued to make progress. It was continued this year as far south as Philadelphia, and west to Albany. The New York Tribune issued its first number on the 10th of April, edited by Horace Greeley. It was about one third its present size, and commenced with about six hundred subscrib ers, procured by the exertions of a few of the editor s personal and political friends. The expenses of the first week of its existence were five hundred and twenty-five dollars ; and the receipts, ninety-two dollars. HISTOEY OF THE UNITED STATES. 113 The Western Railroad was completed on the 21st of Decem ber, and communication was opened by railroad between Bos ton and the Hudson, opposite Albany. The railroad between Auburn and Rochester was also completed, thus making a con tinuous railroad between Boston and Rochester, excepting the ferry at Albany. 1842 It was provided in a treaty executed between Great Britain and the United States, that the latter nation should keep a force of one thousand men and eighty guns on the coast of Africa to assist in suppressing the slave-trade. On the 1st of August, the colored people in Philadelphia at tempted a celebration in commemoration of West India eman cipation. Their procession w r as assailed by a mob, who exe cuted many deeds of violence and bloodshed. A public hall and a church were burned, and several private houses de molished. Disturbances of like nature occurred at New Bed ford, Nantucket, and other places. Anti-slavery meetings were broken up, halls damaged, and people assaulted. Pennsylvania and Maryland this year made default in the payment of interest on their State debts. A government expedition, consisting of twenty -eight Cana dians and Creoles who were accustomed to prairie life, com manded by John C. Fremont and accompanied by the cele brated Kit Carson as a guide, left Choteau s trading-house, on the Missouri River, for the purpose of exploring the country between the frontier of Missouri and the South Pass in the Rocky Mountains, on the line of the Great Platte and Kansas Rivers. On the 14th of July they reached Fort Laramie, on Laramie River, a post belonging to the American Fur Com pany, and inhabited by a motley collection of traders, with their Indian wives and parti-colored children. In August they came to their destination, and Fremont ascended the loftiest peak in that range of the mountains, about one hundred miles south of Oregon. This peak is thirteen thousand five hundred and seventy feet above the level of the Gulf of Mexico. On one side of the mountain could be seen innumerable lakes and streams and the springs of the Colorado, and on the other the Wind River Valley, where were the sources of the Yellowstone branch of the Missouri. Soon after the party set out on their return, and on the 17th of October arrived at St. Louis. The Bunker Hill Monument was entirely completed on the 23d of July. The obelisk is thirty feet square at the base, fif teen feet square at the top, and two hundred and twenty-one feet high. It is built of Quincy granite. Rhode Island was agitated this year by "Dorr s rebellion," as it was called. The old charter was and always had been the basis of the organic law for the State, and allowed the right of suffrage only to owners of a certain amount of real estate, and to their eldest sons. Mr. Dorr for several years, while a member of the assembly, exerted himself without avail to procure the substitution of a liberal constitution in place of the old charter. He then resorted to popular agitation, and organized a suffrage 114 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. party in opposition to the charter party. The suffrage parly, after holding several large mass conventions, called a delegate State convention to frame a new constitution, which was sub mitted for ratification to the popular vote. It received fourteen thousand votes, a clear majority of the citizens of the State. The charter party, however, contended that a large proportion of the votes were fraudulent. Mr. Dorr and his party assumed that the new constitution was the fundamental law of the State, and proceeded in accordance with it to hold an election for State officers. Mr. Dorr was chosen governor, and a legislature, composed exclusively of his supporters, was elected. The charter party also held an election, polling fifty-seven hundred votes, while the suffrage party claimed to have polled seventy- three hundred. On the 3d of May, Mr. Dorr s party attempted to organize at Providence. The other party formed a State government on the same day at Newport, with Samuel W. King as governor. Governor King proclaimed the State under martial law, called out the militia, and asked and obtained the aid of the United States troops to suppress the movements of Dorr and his party. On the 18th of May a portion of the suf frage party assembled at Providence under arms, and attempted to seize the arsenal, but dispersed on the approach of Gov ernor King with a military force. They assembled again at a place about ten miles from Providence, but being attacked by the State troops they dispersed without resistance. Mr. Dorr took refuge in Connecticut and afterward in New Hampshire. A reward of four thousand dollars was offered for his appre hension by the authorities of Rhode Island. He soon returned to the State, was arrested, tried, and convicted of high treason and sentenced to imprisonment for life. He was subsequently- pardoned and restored to his civil rights, and the record of his sentence expunged. He lived to see his State under a liberal constitution, and his party in legal possession of the govern ment. The Croton Aqueduct, for supplying water to the citizens of New York, was completed, and on the 14th of October the event was celebrated. Its length is about forty miles, and cost about twelve and a half millions of dollars. The city of Dubuque, in Iowa, was incorporated. It is the oldest town in the State, it having been settled by the French in 1788. The first manufacture of piano and damask table-covers by power-looms was commenced in Pennsylvania. The first submarine telegraph in this country was laid on the 18th of October, between Governor s Island in the harbor of the city of New York, and the Battery in that city. It was invented by Professor Morse, and consisted of a copper wire insulated by means of a hempen strand coated with tar, pitch, and India-rubber. The next morning communications were beginning to be received through it, when the wire was caught by an anchor upon being hauled up, and a large portion of it destroyed. This disturbance of the experiment led Professor HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 115 Morse to invent the method of transmitting the current across a body of water, by means of extending the wires a distance proportionate to the width along the banks on each side, and causing the poles to terminate each pair opposite each other in large metallic plates in the water. The first introduction of wire-ropes was made by Mr. John A. Boebling, who manufactured them for use on the inclined planes of the Alleghany Portage Railroad, crossing the moun tains and connecting the eastern and western divisions of the Pennsylvania Canal. Hemp-ropes had been heretofore used upon that railroad, at an annual expense of about twenty thou sand dollars. On the 21st of September, George Vandenhoff , who afterwards made himself universally popular as a dramatic reader, made his first appearance in America, at the Park Theatre in New York. On the 4th of October, Mr. John Brougham appeared for the first time in this country at the same place. The railroad froin Rochester to Buffalo, the last link in the line from Boston to Lake Erie; and the Philadelphia and Read ing Railroad, were completed this year. The Concord and Nashua Railroad was opened for travel on the 1st of Septem ber. On the 15th of April, the steamboat Medora, belonging to the Baltimore Steam Packet Company, when about starting from Baltimore on a trial trip, exploded her boiler, killing twenty-seven persons and scalding and seriously injuring forty others. 1843 About one thousand men, women, and children assembled at Westport, on the Missouri frontier, in June, and commenced an emigration to Oregon, where they arrived, after a laborious and fatiguing journey of more than two thousand miles, in October. Other emigrations soon followed, and before the close of the year over three thousand settlers were in Oregon. A second exploring expedition, commanded by John C. Fre mont, consisting of thirty-nine men, Americans, Creoles, and Canadians, left the town of Kansas, on the Missouri frontier, on the 29th of May, for Oregon and California. On the llth of July, they came in sight of Pike s Peak, having passed numer ous trams of emigrant wagons on their way, and on the 13th of August they crossed the Rocky Mountains at South Pass, which is about half-way between the Mississippi River and the Pacific Ocean. In September they visited the Great Salt Lake, and on the 25th of October they reached the Columbia River. On the 4th of November, they proceeded in boats to Fort Vancouver, on the Columbia, about one hundred miles from its mouth, and on the 25th, started on their return journey by a southern route. A submarine telegraph cable was laid between Coney Island and Fire Island and the city of New York, by Mr. Samuel Colt, and operated with success. The cable was insulated by l)eing covered with a combination of cotton yarn, asphaltum, and beeswax, and the whole inclosed in a lead pipe, gutta-percha l)eing unknown at this time. 116 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Cincinnati was lighted with gas for the first time on the 14th of January. The express business was extended from Philadelphia to Bal timore, under a partnership company called Adams & Com pany. The first lake-propeller was launched at Cleveland. It used the screw of Ericsson s patent. The Miami Canal, connecting the Ohio at Cincinnati with Lake Erie at Toledo, a distance of two hundred and fifteen miles, was completed. The work was formally commenced on the 4th of July, 1825. The Georgia Railroad, one hundred and seventy-one miles in length, connecting Augusta with Atlanta ; the Georgia Central, one hundred and ninety-one miles, between Savannah and Ma- con ; and the Boston and Maine, between Boston and Berwick, were all opened for travel this year. The renowned violinist Ole Bull made his first appearance in America on the 25th of November, at the Park Theatre in New York. Charles Walcott, for many years considered among the best light and eccentric comedians on the stage, made his debut at the Olympic Theatre in New York. 1844 The candidates of the Democratic party this year were James K. Polk for President, and George M. Dallas for Vice-President. The Whig candidates were Henry Clay^and Theodore M. Fre- linghuysen. The most important issue in the election contest was the question of the immediate annexation of Texas to the United States, the former party advocating it, the latter oppos ing. Some opposed the scheme because they feared the exten sion of slave territory, others that the United States would be involved in war with Mexico. The result of the election was successful to the Democratic candidates, Mr. Polk and Mr. Dallas each receiving one hundred and seventy electoral votes, and Clay and Frelinghuysen one hundred and five. Mr. Bir- ney was again nominated by the Abolitionists for President, and received of the popular vote nearly sixty-five thousand. The people of Illinois, in the neighborhood of Nauvoo, felt scandalized at the doctrines and practices of the Mormons. A newspaper was started to agitate the question of their expulsion from the locality. By the orders of Smith the Prophet, the obnoxious press was destroyed, the printing materials dispersed, and the editors were obliged to flee for their lives. At Carthage, warrants were prepared for the arrest of Smith, his brother, and sixteen others, accused of being accessories in the destruction of the printing-office. The constables sent to arrest them were expelled from Nauvoo. The people of the county were re solved to vindicate their laws, and the militia were ordered out. The Mormons fortified their city, and the governor of the State took the field in person. To avoid bloodshed, he parleyed with the Mormon leaders, and persuaded Smith and his brother to surrender themselves to the civil authority, with the assurance that they would receive protection and .justice. The fiercest animosity existed between the people of Hancock County and HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the Mormons. The idea prevailed that at the connivance of the governor the Mormon leaders would be allowed to escape. To prevent this, a mob with blackened faces assembled on the even ing of the 27th of June, fell upon and dispersed the guard at Carthage jail, and rushed into the prison where the two Smiths were confined. Smith was mortally wounded while attempting to jump from the window, and his brother was shot dead in the cell. The murderers were never identified. Upon the death of Smith, the choice of a new head for the sect fell upon Brig- ham Young. Disturbances occurred from time to time after this, until in the year 1846 the Mormons resolved to remove beyond the limits of civilization. The Fremont Exploring Expedition returned to Kansas, its starting-point, on the 31st of July, having visited this year the southern end of the Great Salt Lake; the Pass in the Sierra Ne vada, a point within two degrees of the Pacific Ocean, far south of the latitude of Monterey; and a portion of New Mexico. On their return they crossed the Rocky Mountains about one hun dred and ninety miles south of the South Pass. This year is marked by the introduction, by Professor Morse, of the magnetic telegraph, and vulcanized India-rubber invented by Charles Goodyear. As to the first, Professor Morse had in terested Congress in his invention, and secured an appropriation of thirty thousand dollars for the construction of an experi mental line between Washington and Baltimore. The con ducting wires were first put into tubes placed in the ground, but that system soon proved to be impracticable, and then they were strung above on poles. The wires were covered with rope- yarn and tar, to protect them against the weather. By the month of May, the whole line was laid, and magnets and re cording instruments were attached to the ends of the wires at Mount Clare Depot, Baltimore, and at the Supreme Court Cham ber in the Capitol at Washington, and messages were success fully transmitted. Mr. Morse then sought further government patronage, which was declined upon the advice of the Post master General, who, in his report upon the subject, declared his belief that the telegraph, although an interesting experi ment, could never become of practical value, and consequently a very moderate offer made by Professor Morse for the sale of his entire invention to the government was declined. An appeal to the enterprise was then made to the business men of the country. In order to bring the invention to their attention, Mr. Ezra Cornell, who had superintended the erection of the ex perimental line, opened for exhibition a short line of telegraph in Boston. Finding but little encouragement in that city, the exhibition Avas soon abandoned there and transferred to New York, where an experimental line was opened in the autumn, between No. 112 Broadway to a point just above the present Metropolitan Hotel. So little attention did the invention then receive, that Mr. Cornell and his assistant found it extremely difficult to maintain themselves in the most humble manner upon the admission-fee of one shilling per head, charged to view 118 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the exhibition. Early in the next year Mr. Amos Kendall, who had been selected by Mr. Morse as his agent for the purpose, made exertions with the public to secure capital for a line of tele graph from New York to Baltimore and Washington. Meeting with little favor, he thought best to attempt its construction first between New York and Philadelphia, and to limit the request for capital to the probable cost of that section. The estimated cost of a line from Philadelphia to Hudson River was fifteen thou sand dollars, which sum was with difficulty secured, chiefly outside of New York. Mr. Corcoran of Washington was the first to contribute. It was provided in the original subscription that the payment of fifty dollars should entitle the subscriber to two shares of fifty dollars each. A payment of fifteen thou sand dollars, therefore, required an issue of thirty thousand dollars stock. To the patentees were issued an additional thirty thousand dollars of stock, or half the capital, as the consider ation of the patent. The capital stock was therefore fixed at sixty thousand dollars. Meanwhile an act of incorporation was granted by the Legislature of Maryland the first telegraphic charter issued in the United States/ The name of the company mn ten years, years after he had discovered the secret of vulcanization, succeeded in conducting his process with abso lute certainty. It was in 1820 that a pair of rubber shoes was seen for the first time in the United States. They were covered with gilding, and resembled in shape the shoes of a Chinaman. They were handed about in Boston only as a curiosity. Two or three years after, a ship from South America brought to Bos ton five hundred pairs of shoes, thick, heavy, and ill-shaped, which sold so readily as to invite further importations. In 1830, vast quantities of the raw gum reached the United States, covered with hides, in masses, of w r hich no use could be made, and it remained unsold, or was sent to England. The raw rubber could then be bought in Boston at five cents a pound, and the idea of finding some means of utilizing it was suggested to Mr. E. M. Chaffee, a foreman of a Boston patent-leather fac tory. He experimented with the article, and succeeded, as he supposed, in making an invention of great value. He made some specimens of cloth spread with rubber, which, after being dried in the sun, presented a surface firm and smooth, that appeared to possess the good qualities of patent-leather, with the additional one of being water-proof. A number of capi talists were convinced of the value of his invention, and they formed a company in 1833 at Roxbury, with thirty thousand dollars capital. The success of the enterprise was astonishing, and within a year the capital was increased to one hundred and forty thousand dollars. Before another year expired this was increased to three hundred thousand, and in the year following to four hundred thousand. The company manufactured many articles of cloth covered with rubber, such as coats, caps, wagon curtains, coverings, and shoes of pure rubber without cloth. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 119 The goods sold more rapidly than they could be manufactured. The prosperity of the Roxbury company called into existence similar establishments in other towns. Manufactories were started at Boston, Framingham, Salem, Lynn, Chelsea, Troy, and Staten Island, with capitals ranging from one hundred thousand dollars to half a million, and all of them appeared to prosper. It was in 1834, when the business was most flourish ing, that Mr. Goodyear s attention was called to a rubber life- preserver, and he thought he could make an improvement in the inflating apparatus. He explained his contrivance to the agent of the Roxbury company, and offered to sell it. The agent, struck with the ingenuity displayed in the invention, took Mr. Goodyear into his confidence, and suggested his aid in overcoming a difficulty that threatened the company with ruin. He told him that the prosperity of the rubber companies was fallacious. Vast quantities of shoes and fabrics had been sold by his company at high prices in the cool months, but during the following summer the greater part of them had melted. Twenty thousand dollars worth had been returned, reduced to the consistency of common gum, and emitting an odor so offen sive that they had been obliged to bury it. Experiments made to overcome the difficulty had proved unsuccessful. Goods would become sticky in the sun and rigid in the cold. The agent urged Goodyear not to waste time upon minor improve ments, but to direct all his efforts to finding out the secret of successfully working the material itself. This chance conver sation with the agent led Goodyear to investigate the subject, and to continue his experiments year after year, against almost overwhelming discouragements and adversities. Meanwhile the business of all the rubber companies began to decline, and before the close of 1836 ceased altogether, resulting in a loss of about two millions of dollars. The first operations in copper-mining in the Lake Superior region were commenced this year. The second attempt in the United States to establish a theatre for operatic performances exclusively w r as made in New York by Ferdinand Palmo, who erected a building for the purpose on Chambers Street, in the rear of the City Hall. The enter prise was a failure, and the building was subsequently sold to William E. Burton, who used it for light comedy. A treaty was made between the United States and China, by which the citizens of this country were permitted to frequent, trade, and to reside at the ports of Kwang-chow, Amoy, Fu- chow, Ningpo, and Shanghai. In June occurred a rise of the Missouri and the middle sec tion of the Mississippi rivers, which far exceeded all former floods of those rivers ever known, destroying an immense amount of property. The steamboat Shepherdess, while ascending the Mississippi, about eleven o clock on the night of the 2d of January, struck a snag when about three miles south of St. Louis. In less than two minutes after the water rose to the lower deck, where many 120 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. of the passengers were sleeping. Upwards of forty lives were lost by this catastrophe. On the 25th of October, three of the boilers of the steamboat Lucy Walker burst, the boat caught fire, and over fifty lives were destroyed, besides several persons injured. This calamity took place on the Ohio, near New Al bany, Indiana. More than eighty persons lost their lives by a collision between two steamboats on the Mississippi on the 1st of March. The concussion was so violent as to sink one of the boats in five minutes. The first American newspaper established on the Pacific coast was issued at Oregon City, and called the Flumgudgeon Gazette, or Bumble Bee Budget. The Evening Journal was established at Chicago. The Polka dance was introduced this year into this country; and a piece entitled " Polka Mania" was played at a theatre in New York, where the dance, from its novelty, attracted great crowds to witness the performance. 1845 On the 4th of March, James K. Polk and George M. Dallas commenced their terms of office as President and Vice-President of the United States. Congress passed a bill for the annexation of Texas to the United States, wbich was signed by President Tyler on the 3d of March. The debate upon this subject had been long and violent. On the 16th of June, the Texan Congress accepted the terms of annexation, and on the 4th of July it was made com plete. In December, Texas was admitted into the Union as a State, with a constitution permitting slavery within her limits. The Convention of Texas having authorized and requested the President of the United States to occupy and establish posts without delay upon the frontier and exposed positions of that republic, and to introduce such forces as were deemed necessary for the defence of the territory and people of Texas, an " army of occupation" was despatched from the United States, under the command of General Taylor, and on the 26th of July a body of United States troops landed from steam-vessels, at Aransas Bay, on which day the American flag was first planted in Texas, upon the south end Of St. Joseph s Island. This movement and the measures of annexation agreed upon by the United States and Texas, were looked upon by the Mexican Government as acts of hostility towards Mexico, and prepara tions were made by the republic for an appeal to arms. Congress passed acts admitting Florida and Iowa into the Union. Congress reduced the rate of postage, making it five cents on single letters not exceeding three hundred miles, and ten cents over that distance. Congress passed an act fixing the Tuesday after the first Monday in November as the day of the presidential election in all the States. Heretofore the election was held at different times in the different States, and frequently its result was finally influenced by the votes in the States which held the first elections. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 121 The first Express business established west of Buffalo went into operation in April, under the name of Wells & Company. Petroleum was obtained in boring for salt near Tarentum. on the Allegheny, thirty-live miles above Pittsburg. Before this, the Seneca Indians gathered supplies of it, and it was known as Seneca oil, or Genesee oil, from its being found also near the head of the Gencscc River. Atlanta, Ga., was laid out as a town. Improvements in the manufacture of carpets were introduced, by the invention of machinery for making Brussels and tapestry goods, by which eighteen to twenty yards of those carpets could be manufactured in a day, against four or five heretofore made by hand. By the improved method of pro ducing figures, they would match, which operation when done by hand would match only imperfectly. A conflagration occurred at Pittsburg, on the 10th of April, by which a large portion of the city was laid waste, and a greater number of houses destroyed than by all the fires which had previously visited the city. Twenty squares, containing about eleven hundred buildings, with their contents, were destroyed, involving a loss, as estimated, of ten millions of dollars. A conflagration occurred at New York on the 19th of July, de stroying property of the estimated value of over five millions of dollars, including three hundred and forty -five buildings. The burned district embraced New, Broad, Beaver, Market- field, Stone, and Whitehall streets, Exchange Place, and lower Broadway. As the steamboat Marquette was leaving her wharf at New Orleans, on the 1st of July, all her boilers exploded simul taneously, killing about fifty persons. On the night of the 8th of January, the steamboat Belle Zane, while on her way from Zanesville, Ohio, to New Orleans, struck a snag in the Mississippi, and immediately capsized. Of the ninety persons on board, only fifty escaped drowning, and many of those who succeeded in reaching the shore were afterwards frozen to death. Others suffered amputation of their limbs, which were badly frozen. Mrs. Anna Cora Mo watt, a very popular actress, made her debut at the Park Theatre, in New York, on the 13th of Jane. 1846 The northern boundary of Oregon was settled by treaty between the British Government and the United States, on the 15th of June, to be on the forty-ninth degree of north latitude. By this treaty the last remaining subject of controversy between the two nations was removed, and the relations of the United States and Great Britain were thus placed on the most firm and amicable footing. Congress declared war against Mexico on the 13th of May, and soon passed other acts for carrying it on with vigor. The army under General Taylor arrived at the left bank of the Rio Grande about the last of March, and occupied a position opposite Matamoras. The Mexican generals commanding their troops on the Rio Grande declared that the advance of the 122 HISTOKY OF THE UNITED STATES. American army was a hostile movement, and commenced hostilities by capturing a detachment of American troops which were out on a reconnoitring expedition. The Mexican Govern ment claimed that the boundary of Texas was the river IS ueces, while the Americans claimed that the territory of Texas ex tended to the Rio Grande. On the 8th of May, General Taylor encountered the Mexicans in considerable force at Palo Alto, where an action ensued, and the Mexicans were defeated. On the next day the hostile forces again met seven miles in advance, when the Americans were again victorious, and the Mexicans retreated, with great loss, across the Rio Grande. During General Taylor s absence, Fort Brown, opposite Mata- moras, was bombarded by the Mexican batteries from the 4th to the 9th of May. After establishing his base of opperations on the Rio Grande, General Taylor, on the 18th of May, took military possession of the city of Matamoras, and then moved into the enemy s country in the direction of Monterey. Another portion of the army under General Wool was concentrated at San Antonio de Bexar for a movement upon Chihuahua. The army under General Taylor arrived before Monterey, on the 19th of September, and commenced the attack on that strongly fortified city on the 21st, the battle continuing through that and the two succeeding days. The Americans attacked the enemy in his fortified position, captured his batteries and various fortresses, when the place capitulated. General Wool penetrated the Department of Coahuila, to Monclova, and afterwards formed a junction with the forces under General Taylor at Saltillo. Another army under the command of Gene ral Kearney, moved from Fort Leaveuworth upon Santa Fe,. where it arrived, after a march of eight hundred and seventy- three miles, on the 18th of August, and took military possession of New Mexico without resistance. After establishing a civil government for that territory, General Kearney departed with a portion of his forces for California. On his route thither he met an express sent by Commodore Stockton and Captain Fremont, who reported that they were already in possession of California. On receiving this intelligence, General Kearney sent back a portion of his troops and continued his march to California, where he arrived in December. After various actions and skirmishes with the enemy, the American forces remained in possession of the Californias. Commodore Stockton, in conjunction with Captain Fremont, who was in command of a third United States exploring ex pedition, conquered California after a few skirmishes with the Mexicans, and established a civil government for that country. An expedition, consisting of two ships under the command of Commodore Biddle, was despatched to Japan by the United States to open negotiations for commerce with that empire. The expedition reached the Bay of Jeddo in July, but being imperatively refused in its requests, after remaining there ten days it sailed away on its return to America, without accom plishing the object of the voyage. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 123 The Mormons having been persecuted by the citizens of Illinois, and having found that they could not practise their religion and customs in that State without continual war with the inhabitants, resolved upon removing to the distant wilder ness. In February, a portion of the sect, consisting of sixteen hundred men, women, and children, crossed the Mississippi on the ice, and travelling with ox- teams and on foot, penetrated the country to the Indian Territory, near Council Bluffs, on the Missouri, which they reached, under the guidance of President Brigham Young, at the opening of summer. From that place they journeyed on until the following spring, when they settled upon the Great Prairie inhabited by the Omahaws. Here they built a city of seven hundred houses, a tabernacle, constructed mills and workshops, and established a newspaper. They sent missionaries to Oregon, California, the Sandwich Islands, and even to Australia, to secure converts. Some were sent to fix a home still farther away from civilization, and they selected the valley of the Great Salt Lake for a permanent habitation. In 1848, a general migration of the Mormons set in for that local ity. The New Jerusalem was laid out within an area of four square miles, with broad streets and spacious sidewalks. The work of building a city went on rapidly. A spacious house was built for Brigham Young and his council, and in less than two years after the advent of the pioneers in the valley, a convention was called at Great Salt Lake City to organize a civil government. A free and independent government, by the name of the State of Deseret, was ordained, and a constitution was adopted, designed to remain in force only until the Congress of the United States should erect the settlement into a Territory. A Territorial government was established in 1850, and Brigham Young was appointed governor by the President of the United States. The seat of government for Alabama was removed from Tuscaloosa to Montgomery. A patent for a sewing-machine was granted Elias Howe, Jr., on the 10th of September. This was the first complete sewing- machine designed for domestic and general use. From this invention started the immense sewing-machine business of this country. At first Howe met with disappointment in establish ing its introduction, and he went to England, where he met the same scepticism as to its merit and utility. Returning to the United States, he found that his machine was imitated and in troduced, and he became involved in law-suits, which continued until 1854. when the principal infringers acknowledged his rights, and arranged to manufacture sewing-machines under licenses from him. The discovery that sulphuric ether, when inhaled, produced insensibility to pain, was made this year. The Magnetic Telegraph Company completed the line of telegraph between Philadelphia and Fort Lee, on the New Jersey side of the Hudson, opposite Audubon s, on the upper end of New York Island, and from the latter place into the city on the 124 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 20th of January. Communication between Fort Lee and Audu- bon s was first established by means of a cotton- covered copper wire saturated with pitch and enclosed in a lead-pipe laid on the bottom of the river; but that plan soon proving to be a failure, messages were conveyed between the tw r o points by boatmen. Soon afterwards the New Jersey termination was changed to Jersey City, and messages were taken across the river by ferry at frequent intervals, and delivered in New York. Soon after the completion of the New r York and Philadelphia line, the capital of the company was enlarged sufficiently to pay the expense of its continuation to Baltimore, which line was com pleted on the 5th of June. The cash receipts of the business of the company during this year W 7 ere forty-two hundred and twenty-eight dollars. In September, a telegraph line was com pleted between Philadelphia and Harrisburg, and on the 29th of December it was extended to Pittsburg, and opened for business. On the 3d of July, telegraphic communication was opened between Boston and Buffalo, and between New York and Albany on the 9th of September. The line between Boston and New York was completed on the 27th of June. The lower section of the Northern Railroad in New Hamp shire was opened this year, and the whole road completed in the next year. 1847 On the 22d of February was fought the battle of Buena Vista, near Saltillo, the capital of Coahuila, by the American troops under General Taylor, and the Mexican army under General Santa Anna. The latter consisted of twenty thousand men, while the American forces were less than one fourth that number, not five hundred of whom were regulars. The action continued two days, after which the Americans were left in possession of the field, and the Mexicans retreated to San Luis Potosi. The loss on both sides was severe that of the Mexicans over fifteen hundred, and of the Americans about seven hun dred and fifty, in killed and wounded. During the month of February an American land and naval force was concentrated on the Gulf of Mexico, the military being under the command of Major-General Scott, and the naval forces under Commodore Connor, who was afterwards relieved by Commodore Perry. On the 9th of March, the troops were debarked at Vera Cruz, and on the following clay a rapid fire of shot and shells was opened from the city and castle, upon the position occupied by the American army. The landing of the mortars and guns for the American batteries was delayed for a few days; consequently the arrangements for a bombardment were not completed until the 22d of March, when General Scott summoned the city to surrender, which demand was refused by the Mexican governor. Orders were then given to fire upon the city, and a continued fire from the American batteries was kept up with terrible effect until the 26th of March, when the batteries ceased playing, and articles of capitulation were signed on the following day. The surrender of the city took place on the morning of the 29th, when the Mexican soldiers marched HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 125 out to a plain one mile outside of the town, where the Ameri cans were drawn up to receive them. The Mexicans laid down their arms and departed for the interior. A succession of tattles with uniform success was fought by the army under General Scott, on their march from Vera Cruz to the city of Mexico. On the 18th of April, they fought a battle at Cerro Cordo with a Mexican army of twelve thousand men, com manded by Santa Anna, in which the Mexicans were defeated with a loss of one thousand in killed and wounded left on the field, and three thousand prisoners. General Scott s force con sisted of eighty-five hundred men, and his loss was four hun dred and thirty. In August the American army, recruited to the number of about eleven thousand men, advanced upon the city of Mexico. On the 20th one of the fortresses defending that city was assaulted and taken, with about one thousand prisoners, the Mexicans losing about fifteen hundred men in killed and wounded. On the same day the battle of Churu- busco was fought, in which a Mexican army of about thirty thousand men was engaged, and they were again defeated, leav ing the city at the mercy of the Americans. In this battle the Mexicans lost ten thousand men, one fourth of whom were prisoners, the rest killed and wounded. An armistice was soon concluded with Santa Anna for the purpose of negotiating a peace. In September hostilities commenced again, each party accusing the other of violating the armistice. On the 8th the Americans stormed and carried the fortified works of Molino del Rey, the Mexicans losing about twenty-eight hun dred men, the Americans eight hundred. On the 13th Chapul- tepec was assaulted and carried, and the Mexicans defeated with great loss. On the 14th, the Americans entered and took pos session of the city of Mexico, and hostilities ceased from this time. On the 29th of November, a party of Indians attacked the fortified post at Walla Walla, in Oregon, murdered fifteen Americans, and carried away captive sixty -one prisoners. Upon the receipt of the news in the Willamette settlements, troops were raised and an expedition sent against the Indians, who were defeated in three battles, and their villages and crops de stroyed. The first American school in Minnesota was established this year at St. Paul. The city of Indianapolis was chartered, and, on the 1st of May, organized under a city government. At this period the place contained a population of about six thousand. The first wholesale dry-goods house was established. The first theatre in Chicago was opened on the 28th of June. The Chicago Tribune issued its first number. The first importation of gutta percha into the United States was made; Twenty- five thousand pounds arrived direct from Singapore. The zinc-mines in Lehigh County, Pennsylvania, were dis covered this year. 126 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. The first successful type-revolving press in this or any other -country was made by R. Hoe & Col, in New York. Several lines of telegraph were completed this year, in differ ent sections of the country, and from this time they continued to spread in every direction. On the 19th of November, two steamboats came in collision on the Mississippi, near Cape Girardeau. One of the boats sunk, drowning more than fifty persons. Two days afterwards, in the morning before daylight, the steamer Phrenix, on Lake Mich igan, near Sheboygan, caught fire, and more than one hundred and sixty persons, principally emigrants from Holland, were burned to death or drowned. On the 29th of December, the steamboat A. N. Johnson exploded her boiler, on the Ohio, about twelve miles above Maysville, Ky., killing from sixty to eighty persons, and injuring many others. 1848 A treaty of peace was signed on the 2<1 of February, at the city of Guadalupe Hidalgo, between the Mexican commission ers and Mr. Trist on the part of the United States. By this treaty the Rio Grande was acknowledged as one of the bounda ries between the United States and Mexico, thus confirming the claims of the United States to Texas, and the territory between the river Nueces and the Rio Grande. New Mexico and Cali fornia were ceded to the United States, in consideration of which the United States agreed to pay to Mexico the sum of fifteen millions of dollars; and to assume the claims due her citi zens, to an amount not exceeding three and one fourth millions of dollars. The treaty was duly ratified by the Mexican Con gress and the United States Senate. Oregon was erected into a Territory, and Wisconsin admitted into the Union. At the presidential election this year, the Democratic party voted for Lewis Cass for President, and William O. Butler for Vice-President. The candidates of the Whig parly were General Zachary Taylor for President, and Millard Fillmpre for Vice-President. The agitation of the question of restrict ing or prohibiting slavery in the territory acquired from Mexi co by the United States, caused the formation of a third party, called the Free-Soil party, merging in its ranks most of those who had been organized as abolitionists, and drawing addition al strength from both the Whig and Democratic parties in the Northern States. This party nominated Martin Van Buren for President, and Charles Francis Adams for Vice-President. The election resulted in the choice of the Whig candidates, each of whom received one hundred and sixty-three electoral votes. The Democratic candidates received, each, one hundred and twenty-seven. The Free- Soil candidates obtained no electoral votes, but polled over two hundred and ninety thousand of the popular vote. Gold was discovered in the Sacramento Valley, California, early in the year. This fact got noised abroad, and in about three months upwards of four thousand persons were at work there, digging for gold and achieving remarkable success. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 127 Further explorations showed that deposits of gold extended over a vast extent of country. This discovery at once changed the character of California. Its people, before engaged in cul tivating small patches of ground and guarding their herds of cattle and horses, flocked to the mines, and the fever of getting suddenly rich raged among and pervaded the entire commun ity. The Pacific Mail Steamship Company was incorporated. The manufacture of gutta-percha was commenced in this country this year. The first submarine cable, in this or any other country, insulated with gutta-percha, was laid across the Passaic and Hudson rivers for the telegraph line between Phil adelphia and New York. The Illinois and Michigan Canal, connecting Lake Michigan with the Illinois River, at La Salle, was completed in the spring. The suspension bridge across the Ohio at Wheeling was completed. Its span was ten hundred and ten feet. The corner-stone of the monument to General Washington, was laid at the city of Washington, on the 4th of July. The first importation of guano into this country was made this year. One thousand pounds were received. The first satisfactory experiment of recording time from a clock stationed at a distance was made on the 17th of Novem ber. A delicate clock was especially contrived and wires were put up for the purpose, at the expense of the United States Coast Survey, between Cincinnati and Pittsburg. a distance of four hundred miles. The clock placed in the electric circuit recorded its beats at all the offices along the line upon a gradu ated fillet of paper, on the plan of the Morse apparatus. St. Louis and Brooklyn were both lighted with gas this year, for the first time. A conflagration in Brooklyn on the 9th of September de stroyed about three hundred buildings and property valued at one and one half millions of dollars. The blocks bounded by Fulton, Henry, and Orange streets, and Fulton, Sands, Wash ington, and Concord streets, were laid waste. The Cochituate water was introduced into Boston on the 25th of October. The phenomena at Rochester, N. Y., called "Rochester Knocking^," appeared this year, which soon caused not only great excitement at that place, but was a subject of wonder and newspaper comment throughout the country. Mysterious rap- pings occurred in the houses of "mediums," as they were called, which appeared to answer questions put by visitors. Much excitement was manifested in several places in the country, and, many people believing the communications and the phe nomena proceeded from spirits, they began to be designated as Spiritualists. A fourth exploring expedition under John C. Fremont left the Upper Pueblo Fort, near the head of Arkansas River, on the 25th of November. The previous expeditions of Fremont 128 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. were for the benefit of the government, but this one was a pri vate enterprise, with a principal object in view of discovering a proper highway connecting the Mississippi River with the Pacific Ocean. A terrible catastrophe attended an excursion on the Poto mac, on the 28th of February, of the United States steamer Princeton, by the explosion of a gun, the power of which was being exhibited. Mr. Upshur, the Secretary of State, and Mr. Gilmer, Secretary of the Navy, were killed, and several dis tinguished persons seriously injured. On the 27th of May, the steamer Clarksville, a regular packet-boat plying between New Orleans and Memphis, was destroyed by fire near Ozark Island, by which disaster thirty passengers ana nearly all the crew lost their lives. On the 9th of August, a flue on the steamer Ed ward Bates collapsed on the Mississippi, near Hamburg, 111., causing the death of fifty-three persons, and wounding forty others. Twenty eight persons were killed and several wounded by the bursting of the boilers of the steamer Concordia at Plaqueminc, La., on the 16th of September. 1849 On the 5th of March, Zachary Taylor, as President, and Millard Fillmore, as Vice-President, took the oaths of office. On the 3d of March, Congress passed an act for organizing Minnesota under a Territorial government. St. Paul, con taining at this time but a few log-huts, was made the seat of government. The United States ship Preble, forming a part of the Ameri can fleet in the China seas, sailed for Japan in February to res cue sixteen American seamen, who had been shipwrecked on the coasts of some of the Japanese islands, and had there been detained and imprisoned. As the ship approached the coast of Japan, an unsuccessful attempt was made to oppose her progress, and the object of her visit was attained only after threats of violent measures if the demand were further refused. The cholera visited America again this year. The disease prevailed at New Orleans nearly eight months, carrying off about thirty-five hundred persons. Almost every vessel which left the city had cases on board, which spread the disease over different sections of the country. The deaths from cholera in Memphis were 290; Nashville, 805; St. Louis, 4557; Chicago, 678; Buffalo, 858; Sandusky, 285; Albany, 334; Boston, 611; New York, 5071; and Philadelphia, 1022. Information of the gold discoveries in California spread in every direction, and adventurers flocked there from all quar ters; from the Pacific coast of Mexico and South America, the Sandwich Islands, and China. The American emigration commenced to arrive there by sea in July and August, and by overland in September. It was estimated there were fifteen thousand foreigners there in July. At a place called Sonorian Camp it was supposed there were ten thousand Mexicans alone. They had quite a city of booths, tents, and log-cabins, hotels, stores, and shops of all descriptions. An enclosure made of the trunks of trees, and lined with cotton-cloth, served as an am HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 129 phitheatre for bull- fights and other amusements. The foreign ers resorted principally to the southern mines, the Americans to the northern. The first season the laborers averaged about one ounce of gold per day. It was estimated that during this and the preceding year gold to the value of about forty mil lions of dollars was collected, one half of which was taken out of the country by foreigners. The first regular banking- house established in California was started at San Francisco on the 9th of January. In January, the first frame house on the banks of the Sacramento was erected at Sutter s Fort. Some few months later, the settlers at that place removed to the site of the present city of Sacramento. In June, Rev. Theobald Mathew, commonly called "Father Mathew," arrived in New York, whence he visited many of the important cities of the Union, and delivered lectures upon temperance to immense audiences. Edwin Booth, the celebrated tragedian, at this time not quite sixteen years of age, made his first appearance on the stage at the Boston Museum, on the 10th of September. The first degree of " M.D." given in the United States to a woman was received by Elizabeth Blackwell from the Medical School of Geneva, N. Y., after she had made unsuccessful ap plications at the schools of Philadelphia, New York, and Boston. The first newspaper in St. Paul was established there on the 28th of April, under the name of the Pioneer. The New York Associated Press Association was formed. It was composed of the Journal of Commerce, Courier and En quirer, Tribune, Herald, Sun, and Express. In the month of May, occurred at New York what has been known as the Astor Place Riot. In consequence of an un friendliness of long standing between Mr. Edwin Forrest and Macready, the celebrated English tragedian, the friends of the former actor threatened to prevent the appearance, as an nounced, of Mr. Macready in New York. On the night of the 7th, when he appeared as " Macbeth" at the Opera House in As tor Place, such was the confusion prevailing in all parts of the house, the manager was obliged to drop the curtain before the termination of the performance. Mr. Macready was thereupon inclined to cancel his engagement; but upon the publication of a card signed by many citizens, requesting him to continue, and promising to protect him in the discharge of his duties, he consented to perform on the evening of the 10th. On that oc casion, owing to the precautions taken to preserve order in the house, he succeeded in acting his part, and at the end of the play was called out by the audience, whom he thanked for his protection and support. Outside the theatre, the friends of Forrest, after vainly endeavoring to effect an entrance, com menced an attack on the building with stones and missiles. The police being unable to restrain the mob, which was in creasing in numbers and violence, and the reading of the riot act proving ineffectual, the military were called out and were 130 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. obliged to discharge several volleys of musketry to quell the disturbance. Twenty-two persons were killed and thirty -six wounded. Mr. Macready escaped in disguise, and, making no further attempt to perform in New York, he soon left the country. A fire on the 17th of May destroyed a large part of the busi ness portion of the city of St. Louis, involving a loss, as esti mated, of three millions of dollars. In March, a flood devastated the city of New Orleans which was the most destructive that ever visited that place. Many of the streets were ten feet under water, and a large amount of merchandise was destroyed. The plantations above were overflowed, and the rush of water over the fields in some places was irresistible, carrying away everything which op posed the current, which was believed to move at the rate of sixty miles an hour. The damage sustained by planters and others was estimated at sixty millions of dollars. 1850 On the 9th of July, President Taylor died, and Millard Fill- more succeeded him in office. In September, Congress passed bills, after a vehement and protracted struggle upon the slavery question, for the admis sion of California into the Union as a State ; for providing Territorial governments for Utah and New Mexico ; for the suppression of the slave-trade in the District of Columbia ; and a fugitive-slave bill. The bill authorizing the admission of California into the Union recognized the constitution of that State as framed by a convention >f the people which prohi bited slavery within her borders. The fugitive-slave bill im posed a fine of one thousand dollars, and six months imprison ment on any person harboring fugitive slaves, or aiding them to escape. It was estimated that there were more than twenty thousand fugitive slaves residing in the free States, a large number of whom had intermarried with free persons, and the passage of this bill struck terror upon the whole colored popu lation and their sympathizing friends. Public meetings were held in different sections of the Northern States in condemna tion of the bill. Eight days after the passage of the act, an agent armed with the power of attorney from a slave-owner in Maryland, appeared in New York in search of one James Hamlit, a husband and father, a member of the Methodist church, and a resident in the city three years. He was seized while at work, hurried into a retired room, tried in haste, delivered to the agent, handcuffed, taken away without an opportunity to bid farewell to his family, and put into prison in Baltimore. A few days afterwards, a similar scene was en acted in Philadelphia. In Detroit an attempt to arrest a fugi tive excited a popular resistance, to suppress which it was necessary to invoke the aid of the military. Congress passed an act donating the right of way and a grant of land to the States of Illinois, Mississippi, and Alabama, in aid of the construction of a railroad from Chicago to Mobile. Popular interest was excited this year by an invasion of Cuba HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 131 from the American shores. An expedition of three hundred men, under the command of General Lopez, sailed from New Orleans on the 25th of April and the 2d of May, and landed at Cardenas on the 19th of May. A brief struggle ensued be tween the invaders and the Cuban troops, in which the latter were repulsed; an attack was then made on the governor s palace, which was plundered, a large amount of money seized, and the governor taken prisoner. The invaders had counted upon accessions to their ranks from the Spanish army and from the disaffected inhabitants. In this, however, they were en tirely disappointed, and Lopez re-embarked with a few of his companions, and made his escape to New Orleans, leaving the great body of his followers behind. These were taken prison ers by the Cuban authorities, but were subsequently released upon a demand of the United States Government. Lopez was arrested upon his arrival in the United States on a charge of having violated the neutrality laws. An expedition fitted out by the government, at the expense of Mr. Henry Grinnell of New York, sailed from that city on the 24th of May, for the arctic regions, in search of Sir John Franklin. It consisted of two ships under the command of Captain De Haven, and returned in October of the next year without accomplishing the object of the voyage. The number of inhabitants in Williamsburg, L. I., was estimated at thirty-one thousand. The first directory was pub lished and a gas company organized. The cities of Nashville, Chicago, and Lowell were lighted with gas. In Chicago a Board of Trade was established. The first establishment west of the Alleghanies for the manu facture of copper and brass was started near Pittsburg. This was the first factory in the United States projected for work ing American copper exclusively. F. B. Conway made his first appearance in America, at the Broadway Theatre in New York, on the 19th of August ; and at the same place, Madame Ponisi appeared in this country for the first time, on the llth of November. On the 4th of the same month, Signorina Teresa Parodi commenced an engagement at the Astor Place Opera House, in the same city. Jenny Lind arrived at New York on the 1st of September, amid great enthusiasm of the people, and demonstrations of welcome far exceeding any which had ever before greeted the arrival in America of any foreign songstress or actor. On the evening of her arrival she was serenaded by The New York Musical Fund Society, numbering on that occasion two hun dred musicians. On the llth she made her first appearance on the stage in America at Castle Garden, and this concert was fol lowed by five others. The number of persons present on each occasion exceeded seven thousand. The receipts on the first night were about thirty thousand dollars, and Jenny Lind im mediately bestowed ten thousand upon several of the worthiest charities of the city. During the next nine months she gave ninety-three concerts in the principal cities of the Union and 132 HISTOEY OP THE UNITED STATES. at Havana, -which produced receipts, as it was stated, of up wards of seven hundred thousand dollars. The Galena and Chicago Union Railroad was completed from Chicago to Elgin, 111., a distance forty-two miles. This was the first road built from Chicago running in any direction, and the first one in the State. It was chartered in 1836, but its construction was not commenced, on account of the finan cial situation of the country, until the year 1847, at which time the first rail was laid. A fire occurred in Philadelphia on the 9th of July, destroy ing property exceeding one million of dollars in value, causing a loss of thirty -five lives, and injuring about one hun dred more persons. The area swept by the fire was one of the most densely populated in the city, occupied principally by poor people, who suffered greatly by the calamity. A fire destroyed about three hundred buildings and much valuable property in San Francisco, on the 14th of June. A new steamer, called the Anglo-Norman, left New Orleans on the 14th of December, on an experimental trip, having on board a large pleasure-party, consisting of two hundred and ten persons. Soon after starting, all her boilers exploded, kill ing and wounding nearly half the people on board. 1851 Congress passed an act fixing the rates of postage on letters at three cents on single letters if prepaid, and five cents if not pre paid, on all distances under three thousand miles, and double those rates over that distance. An act was passed authorizing the President to send a gov ernment vessel to the Mediterranean to bring Kossuth, the Hun garian general, and other exiles among his countrymen, to the United States. In September, the United States steamship Mississippi sailed from Constantinople through the Dardanelles to Kutaya, where Kossuth and his comrades embarked. The ship proceeded to Marseilles, but being refused a passage through France by the French Government, Kossuth remained on board the steamer until she reached Gibraltar. Having de termined to make a hasty visit to England, he left the Ameri can ship, and proceeded to Southampton in an English steamer. Having received a cordial welcome from the people of several parts of England, Kossuth embarked for the United States in the steamer Humboldt, and arrived in the harbor of New York on the 5th of December. He remained in that city for some days as its guest, receiving great demonstrations of respect and sympathy. His entry into the city was celebrated by a grand military and civic procession, amid a vast concourse of people assembled to welcome him. His address on the occasion was remarkable for its bold and dignified sentiments, and for the highest order of eloquence. On the llth a banquet was given him by the city council, and afterwards various other enter tainments were given him in the city, and deputations of citizens of different classes, and from various parts of the United States, waited on him with their welcome. From New York Kossuth proceeded to Washington, stopping on his way HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 133 at Philadelphia and Baltimore, where he was welcomed as in New York. On the 31st he was presented to the President of the United States, on which occasion he expressed his gratitude for himself, his associates, and his country, and for the encourage ment and sympathy shown by our government for the Hunga rian cause. Kossuth visited various sections of the Union, and was received everywhere with demonstrations of welcome and enthusiasm for himself and his cause. Kossuth at length re turned to New York, whence he embarked for England, in July, 1852. Another invasion of Cuba, by four hundred and eighty men under General Lopez, took place on the llth of August. Many of his followers were killed, and others taken prisoners and shot. Lopez himself was taken captive, and executed on the 1st of September. Several attempts were made in the Northern States by agents of Southern slave-owners to seize their fugitive slaves. Some of the fugitives were rescued by force and others by subscrip tions raised and paid for their freedom. Davenport, Iowa, was incorporated under a city charter. It Contained, at this period, a population of about two thousand. The Hudson River Railroad was completed between New York and Albany, and opened for travel on the 8th of October. The New York and Erie Railroad was completed in April, from Dunkirk, on Lake Erie, to Piermont, on the Hudson River. The formal celebration of the opening of the road took place on the 14th of May, and among the distinguished guests who attended were the President of the United States and some members of his Cabinet. The Wabash and Erie Canal, connecting the Ohio River at Evansville, Ind., with Lake Erie, at Toledo, a distance of four hundred and sixty-seven miles, was completed. The first iron-front building in Indianapolis was erected. The first number of the New York Times appeared on the 18th of September. The first newspaper published in Minne sota, outside of St. Paul, was issued during the last week in May, and called The St. Antfwny Express. Lola Montes, the famous danseuse, made her first appearance on the stage in the United States, at the Broadway Theatre, in New York, on the 29th of December. Her world-renowned adventures had given her name a celebrity, which attracted great crowds in New York and the principal cities of the coun try where she visited. Crimes against property and the person had become so fre quent in San Francisco, that numbers of the citizens formed themselves into a Vigilance Committee, and adopted measures for the punishment of crime more sure and summary than those furnished by the administration of law. A conflagration in San Francisco, on the 3d of May, destroyed a large part of the business portion of the city. Twenty -five hundred buildings were consumed, involving a loss of three and a half millions of dollars. The custom-house, seven hotels, 134 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. and the post-office were among those burned. On the 22d of June another tire occurred at the same place, which destroyed five hundred buildings, involving a loss of three millions of dollars. In Illinois, Missouri, and Iowa, and along the whole course of the Upper Mississippi, great damage was done, in June, by an unusual and long- continued flood of that river. Many towns of considerable size were quite overflowed. At St. Louis, during the greater part of that month, the levee was entirely submerged, and all the stores on Front Street filled with wa ter to the depth of several feet. For a vast extent along the Mississippi, Missouri, and their tributaries, the bottom-lands were submerged for so long a time as to destroy the growing crops. A sad accident occurred in New York on the 27th of No vember. In a large public school in the Ninth Ward one of the teachers was seized with paralysis. The circumstance alarmed her pupils, and their screams created a sudden panic throughout the whole school. Immense numbers rushed to the stairs, the banisters of which gave way, and the children fell one upon another, upon the stone floor below. Forty-three were killed by the catastrophe. The steamer John Adams struck a snag on the Ohio, on the 27th of January, and sunk immediately, causing a loss of one hundred and twenty-three lives, mostly emigrants. Upwards of ninety persons lost their lives by a boiler explosion on the steamer Brilliant, on the Mississippi, near Bayou Goula. About sixty persons were killed, scalded, or mutilated, by a boiler ex plosion on the steamboat Oregon, near Island No. 82, on the Mississippi, on the 2d of March. 1852 At the presidential election this year the candidates of the Democratic party w r ere Franklin Pierce for President, and William R. King for Vice-President, each of whom received two hundred and fifty-four electoral votes, and were elected. The Whig party nominated General Winfield Scott for Presi dent, and William A. Graham for Vice-President, and they re ceived forty -two electoral votes those of four States only, viz., Vermont, Massachusetts, Kentucky, and Tennessee. The Free- Soil, or Anti-Slavery party, nominated John P. Hale for Presi dent, and George W. Julian for Vice-President. A portion of the abolitionists nominated as candidates William Goodell for President, and S. M. Piper for Vice-President. The slavery question was now growing into an important issue in national politics, and divisions existed in the two great political parties of the country upon that subject. While Democrats of the Northern States were willing to consider the question of the extension of slavery as settled, those of the South were divided into what were called "Union men" and "Southern-rights men" the latter holding the doctrine of the right of a sove reign State to secede from the Union whenever the rights of the State were violated by the action of the general govern ment. This Southern-rights section comprised a large majority HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 135 of the Democratic party in most of the slave-holding States. On the other hand, the great body of the Whigs at the South were Union men, and satisfied with the measures of the last Congress. But, in the Northern States general!} 7 , the largest portion of the Whig party were dissatisfied with some of the compromise measures of Congress, although acquiescing in the same, and had on all suitable occasions, through their repre sentatives in Congress and otherwise, opposed the extension of slavery in the Territories of the United States. The abolitionists, so called, were a distinct organization on the subject of anti- slavery, and composed of persons drawn from both the Demo cratic and Whig parties. The number of the emigrants to Oregon, this year, was esti mated at ten thousand. The East River between New York and Brooklyn was frozen over on the 20th of January, and a stream of travellers crossed from one city to the other for a few hours in the forenoon. Williamsburg, L. I., organized under a city charter, on the 1st of January. A ferry was established between Greenpoint and New York. Manchester, N. H., was first lighted with gas in September, and Easton, Pa., in November. A system of telegraphic fire-alarms was devised in Boston, and adopted in that^city. The manufacture of galvanized iron was first commenced in this country at Philadelphia, this year. The first working model of Wellman s self top-card stripper was exhibited, and in the next year patented. It is stated that the average cost of stripping by hand was three hundred dollars per annum, all of which was saved by this invention, which also saved from one eighth to one quarter of a cent per pound on the raw cotton. The lens system of illuminating the lighthouses on the Ameri can coast was commenced, and it soon superseded the reflectors which had been used exclusively since their introduction in 1812. Signora Alboni, considered the most distinguished contralto singer of this century, arrived in the United States in June, and for upwards of a year sang in operas, concerts, and oratorios in the principal cities with great success. The Michigan Southern Railroad from Monroe, Michigan, to Chicago, was completed and opened for travel on the 20th of February. This was the first road from the East that entered that city. The Michigan Central followed, and was opened the whole distance between Detroit and Chicago on the 21st of May. The Chicago and Rock Island Railroad was opened for travel between Chicago and Joliet, a distance of forty miles, on the 18th of October. About three fourths of the city of Sacramento were destroyed by fire on the 2d of November. About forty blocks were burned over, consuming about twenty-five hundred buildings, and depriving of shelter nearly one half the inhabitants of the 136 HISTOEY OP THE UNITED STATES. city. Several lives were lost, and the value of the property destroyed was estimated at over five millions of dollars. An unusual number of accidents occurred on the western waters this year. On the 3d of April, the steamboat Glencoe, from New Orleans, arrived at St. Louis, and had just been moored at the levee when three of her boilers burst, causing the death of more than eighty persons. The houses for several squares around appeared to reel under the force of the concussion. On the 2d of the same month, more than twenty persons were killed on the steamboat Bedstone, by the explosion of its boilers, while on the Ohio River, near Carollton. On the 9th of April, the steamer Saluda, bound for Council Bluffs, burst her boilers near Lexington, Mo., killing nearly one hundred persons, most of whom were women on their way to the Great Salt Lake. On the 5th of July, the steamboat St. James ex ploded her boilers on Lake Ponchartrain, near New Orleans, while carrying a large number of passengers returning from the celebration of the previous day. More than forty lives were lost by this disaster. A flue of the steamboat Franklin collapsed when near St. Genevieve, on the Mississippi, on the 22d of August, causing the loss of thirty-two persons. A catastrophe occurred on Lake Erie, before daylight, on the morning of the 20th of August, from a collision which oc curred between the steam-propeller Ogdensburg and the steamer Atlantic. More than one hundred lives were lost by this disaster, the greater portion of them being Norwegian emi grants, who were unable through their ignorance of the English language to avail themselves of the means of safety suggested. The burning of the steamboat Henry Clay, which occurred on the Hudson River on the 27th of July, probably caused greater excitement throughout the community than any other disaster of the year, partly because of the criminal recklessness dis played by the officers of the boat. The steamer left Albany in the morning with a large number of passengers for New York. During the greater part of her way down she ran a race with a rival boat, carrying an extraordinaiy head of steam, and be coming so intensely heated by the large fires kept up that it be came difficult to pass from one end of the steamer to the other. The passengers remonstrated with the officers, but without effect. In the afternoon, when opposite Yonkers, the boat took fire, was run ashore, and it burned to the water s edge. Over seventy lives were lost by drowning and the flames. Another accident occurred on the Hudson River about forty miles below Albany, on the 4th of September. The connection pipes of the steamer Reindeer burst, killing twenty- seven persons and seri ously injuring fifty more. 1853 Franklin Pierce was inaugurated President of the United States on the 4th of March, and William R. King took the oath of office as Vice-President. Congress passed an act erecting a new territory out of the northern part of Oregon, with the name of Washington Terri tory. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 137 A treaty was concluded between the United States and Mexi co, by which a purchase was concluded by the former govern ment of that part of New Mexico called Arizona. Congress, in March, passed an act appropriating one hundred and fifty thousand dollars to defray the expenses of the neces sary surveys and explorations of different routes to determine the most practicable line for a railroad to the Pacific. In ac cordance with the act, four different parties were organized and sent out to make surveys of as many different routes. These parties were fitted out in the most complete manner, with a view to collect all possible information relative to the physical characteristics of the region traversed, including its topography, its elevation above the sea, its climate, its geology, its botany, and its natural history, as well as all details bearing upon the actual construction of the road. In the next year Congress made additional appropriations, and three more exploring par ties were organized for the same purposes. An expedition, consisting of four vessels and a supply-ship, under the command of Captain Ringgold, sailed from Norfolk, Va., in June, to make a thorough exploration of proper routes to be pursued by our vessels between San Francisco and China, and of the whaling-grounds of the Sea of Okhotsk and Behring s Straits. An expedition, fitted out at the joint expense of the govern ment and Mr. Henry Grinnell of New York, to continue the search for Sir John Franklin in the Arctic regions, sailed from that city on the 31st of May. It consisted of a single vessel, named the Advance, with a company of seventeen persons, un der the command of Dr. Kane, and with provisions sufficient for two years, independent of what might be gained by hunt ing. The New York Crystal Palace, erected by private enter prise for a universal industrial exhibition, on Reservoir Square, at Sixth Avenue and Forty-second Street, in the city of New York, was formally opened on the 14th of July. The occasion was marked by the presence of the President of the United States and some of his Cabinet officers. The yellow-fever devastated New Orleans during the sum mer months, and large contributions of money were raised in many of the Northern cities in aid of those rendered destitute by the scourge in that city. The mortality at times exceeded two hundred and fifty a day, and the total number of deaths from the disease was about seventy-two hundred. The disease also raged in other Southern cities. One sixth of the total popula tion of Vicksburg died of it, and about twelve hundred in Mo bile. The Middlesex Canal, in Massachusetts, was abandoned, and its banks were soon afterward levelled, and parts of the channel filled up. The introduction of railroads ruined its business, Madame Sontag, one of the most renowned singers of Europe, made her first appearance on the stage in America at Niblo s Garden, in New York, on the 10th of January. She afterwards 138 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. sang in the principal cities of this country, and then went to Mexico. Upon her return trip from that country she was at tacked with cholera, and died at Vera Cruz in the next year. The celebrated Irish exile, John Mitchel, made his escape from Van Diemen s Land, and reached New York, by way of San Francisco, on the 29th of November. He attended a pub lic banquet on the 8th of December, given in his honor by the authorities of Brooklyn, and on the 19th was complimented by another from citizens of New York. The zinc-works at Bethlehem, Pa., went into operation on the 12th of October. The first locomotive constructed in Chicago was built this year. A company was also formed at that city for making cars. The first successful steam fire-engine constructed in this coun try was completed early in the year at Cincinnati. A paid fire- company was organized in that city, and it was the first one es tablished in this or any other country. The New York Clearing House, an association of fifty -two banks of the city of New York, went into operation on the llth of October. The Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, from Chicago to Freeport, 111., was completed its whole length, a distance of one hundred and twenty-one miles, and opened for travel on the 4th of September. This road was subsequently absorbed in the Chicago and Northwestern Railroad system. The entire line of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, and that of the Boston, Concord and Montreal, and of the Atlantic and St. Lawrence, connecting Portland with Montreal, were completed this year. The New York and Erie Railroad made its eastern terminus at Jersey City in November, instead of Piermont. The Albany and Schenectady, the Utica and Schenectady, the Syracuse ancl Utica, tb.e Auburn and Syracuse, the Auburn and Rochester, the Tonawanda, and the Attica and Buffalo railroads, were all consolidated into one corporation, called The New York Cen tral Railroad Company. The first telegraph-line in California was completed on the 22d of September. It extended from San Francisco, eight miles, to a point nearer the sea, and was built to give early in formation of shipping arrivals. A telegraph-line between San Francisco and Marysville, a distance of two hundred and six miles, went into operation on the 24th of October. The Brooklyn City Railroad Company, of Brooklyn, N. Y., was incorporated on the 17th of December. Cars commenced running for the first time on the 3d of July of the next year. A fire occurred on the 10th of December, in the building occupied by Harper Brothers, in New York, and destroyed property valued at over one million of dollars. All their build ings, the machinery, and stereotype plates, excepting those stored in vaults under the sidewalks, were ruined. A collision took place between two trains at the crossing of the Michigan Central and Northern Indiana railroads, near HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES. 139 Chicago, on the 23d of April, by which about twenty persons were killed outright and a large number injured. A sad disas ter occurred on the New York and New Haven Railroad on the 6th of May. A drawbridge of sixty feet in width, across the Norwalk River, was opened to admit the passage of a vessel. A train advancing at unusual speed, in broad daylight, rushed into the opening and was plunged into the water. Over fifty persons were killed, many of whom were physicians returning from a convention held at New York. Public attention was engrossed at that time upon receiving intelligence of the loss of the steamship San Francisco, which was wrecked off the coast of South Carolina, in the latter part of December. The vessel was new, and was on her first voy age at the time of the disaster. She sailed from New York on the 22d of December, with seven hundred persons on board, nearly five hundred and fifty of whom were United States troops bound for California. On her third day out the ship encoun tered a violent gale, and it soon became so fierce and the sea so heavy that the starboard paddle-box was stripped, her smoke stacks carried away, and about one hundred and fifty of the troops and officers were washed overboard. The ship became utterly unmanageable, and drifted from day to day, until she came near the latitude of Boston, where the survivors were res cued by passing vessels. Nearly two hundred lives were lost by the disaster. The steamer Independence was lost on the island of Margitu, off the coast of Lower California, on the 16th of February. She struck on a hidden rock, and received so much damage that it was found necessary to run her ashore ; in doing this the vessel took fire, and the passengers and crew were driven overboard into the surf. One hundred and twenty- nine persons were lost. On the llth of April, thirty-one per sons were killed by the bursting of a steam-pipe on the steam ship Jenny Lind, while the vessel was on her passage from Alviso to San Francisco. Thirty-eight persons lost their lives by the burning of the steamer Ocean Wave, on Lake Ontario, the 20th of April. 1854 In January, a bill was introduced in Congress which provided for the establishment of two Territories, one to be called Nebras ka and the other Kansas, to consist of the vast tract of country stretching from the western borders of Missouri, Iowa, and Minnesota, to the Territories on the Pacific, and from the Brit ish possessions on the north to the thirty-seventh parallel of north latitude on the south almost twice as large in area as the thirteen original States. By the bill, it was provided that the people in those new Territories were left free to decide the ques tion for themselves, whether they would allow or prohibit sla very within their domain ; by which provision, if passed, the Compromise Act of 1820-21, which provided that the institu tion of slavery should be allowed in Missouri and be prohibited in all territory north of thirty-six degrees and thirty minutes north latitude, would be effectually repealed. The bill was finally passed after a protracted and violent debate of about four 140 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. months, during which period the slavery question was aroused in all its strength and vigor in Congress and the country at large. The whole North became violently excited ; public meetings were held by men of all parties, and petitions and re monstrances against the measure were poured into Congress while the debate on the subject was progressing. One of these petitions was signed by three thousand clergymen of New Eng land. As soon as the bill became a law, there commenced a desperate struggle between the pro-slavery and anti-slavery peo- Ele of the country for an immediate and complete supremacy i Kansas, the most southerly of the two territories, which lay directly west of Missouri, and for future domain in all the States that might be formed from it. To this end, emigration to Kan sas from the free States was at once urged by the opponents of slavery, and on the 24th of July, an emigrant-aid society was formed in Boston. This movement excited the friends of sla very to vigorous action, and in Missouri combinations were at once formed to counteract it. Very soon great numbers com menced flowing into Kansas from the free States, and by Octo ber several towns were founded by them. The Missourians also went into the Territory and founded towns on the Missouri River. In October, Alexander H. Reeder, who had been ap pointed governor by the President, arrived in Kansas. During the rest of the year much ill-feeling was engendered by disputes, boasts, and threats between the opposing parties hi the Terri tory. An event occurred at a region of Nicaragua, on the Caribbean Sea, known as the Mosquito coast, which came near menacing the friendly relations existing between the British Government and the United States. The chief town on the coast was San. Juan or Greytown. In the spring property belonging to Ameri can citizens in the vicinity, it was alleged, had been stolen and conveyed within the town. A demand was made on the au thorities for its restoration ; it was refused, and the United States frigate Cyane having been sent there, bombarded, the town on the 13th of July. The commander of the British ship Bermuda, lying there, protested against the bombardment, and claimed that the place was under British protection. The act was denounced by the English press as an insult to Great Britain, but the gov ernment did not consider the question of sufficient gravity to justify a disturbance of the friendly feelings of the two nations. Congress passed an act granting to a private company the right to establish telegraphic communication between the Mis sissippi River and the Pacific Ocean, with a grant of a right of way two hundred feet in width. In May, the feelings of the people of Boston were greatly agitated at the rendition in that city of a fugitive-slave named Anthony Burns, who was conducted to the ship that was to carry him back into slavery, under the guard of a large police and military force to prevent his rescue. Public meetings were held by the indignant inhabitants, and many of them draped their houses and stores in mourning. HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 141 A copv of a treaty with Japan arrived at Washington by the way of Honolulu, San Francisco, and Panama, on the 12th of July, and was promptly ratified by the Senate. A certified copy of the ratified instrument was at once despatched to Japan by special messenger. The treaty was secured by Commodore Perry, who had been instructed by the United States Govern ment to proceed to Japan with a large squadron which would command the respect of that empire, and he was invested with extraordinary rxwers, diplomatic as well as naval, to procure it. By its terms admission to Japan was allowed American citizens for purposes of trade, and depots of coal were permitted to be established there for our steamers crossing the Pacific. Com modore Perry took his departure from Norfolk, Va., on this expedition the 24th of November, 1852, in the United States steamer Mississippi, and was followed soon afterward by other ships, and their number was augmented by more vessels sta tioned in Asiatic waters which joined the squadron on its arri val there. The cholera visited Chicago and caused the death of over nine hundred of the inhabitants, in the month of July. There were six hundred and fifty of the inhabitants of Brooklyn, N. Y., who died of that disease during the summer. Much excitement prevailed in San Francisco upon the dis covery of forgeries of the city comptroller s warrants of more than one million of dollars which had been committed by Henry Meigs, who had absconded the country. In February the water-works constructed by the city of Chicago were completed, and consisted of a timber crib built out into the lake six hundred feet from the shore, through which the water ran into a well, whence it was pumped up to the top of a cast-iron column one hundred and forty feet high, and thence conducted to reservoirs, capable of holding a night s supply, established in each of the three divisions of the city. Water was also supplied this year to the inhabitants of Jersey City, and of Nashua, N. H. Sacramento was made the capital of California by an act of the State Legislature. The first spelter made from Lehigh ores was produced this year at Bethlehem, Pa. - Guilia Grisi and Signer Mario commenced a season of oper atic performances at Castle Garden, in New York, on the 4th of September. On the 2d of October, the New York Academy of Music on Fourteenth Street was first opened to the public, on which occasion Grisi and Mario appeared there in the opera of Norma. The Great Western Railroad of Canada was completed and opened for travel on the 17th of January, affording communica tion between Detroit and Niagara Falls. In February the Chicago and Rock Island Railroad was completed from Chicago to the Mississippi, a distance of one hundred and eighy-two miles. The Illinois Central Railroad, extending from Cairo, at the mouth of the Ohio River, to Dunleith, in the extreme north- 142 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. western corner of the State, and from Centralia, one hundred and twelve miles above Cairo, to Chicago, a total length of road of seven hundred and four miles, was also completed. The con struction of this road was undertaken prior to the financial crisis of 1837, and about three and one half millions of dollars spent on it ; but then bankruptcy prostrated the State, and work on the road was stopped. The road remained in that condition until the year 1851, when, with the aid of a valuable land- grant, it was pushed on to completion. The initial steps i i transatlantic telegraphic communica tion were made this year. Mr. Cyrus "W. Field, of New York, having been applied to for aid to complete a telegraphic lino between St. John s and Cape Ray, across the Gulf of St. Law rence, which had been commenced, while investigating the sub ject considered the practicability of establishing telegraphic communication between Europe and America by a submarine cable stretching from Newfoundland to Ireland. Believing in the success of the project, he obtained in the early part of this year a charter from the Legislature of Newfoundland, granting an exclusive right for fifty years to establish a telegraph from the continent of America to Newfoundland, and thence to Europe. He now looked about him for coadjutors in the work. The first interested was Mr. Peter Cooper, the next Mr. Moses Taylor, and then Mr. Marshall O. Roberts and Chandler White, all wealthy capitalists of New York. On the 8th of May, these five gentlemen met and organized a company under the name of the "New York, Newfoundland, and London Telegraph Com pany," and subscribed a million and a half of dollars with which to begin the undertaking. Mr. Field thenceforth devoted himself almost exclusively to the execution of this project. The steamer Arctic, during her return voyage from Liverpool, was struck by the Yesta, an iron propeller, on the 27th of Sep tember, about sixty -five miles from Cape Race, a few feet for ward of her paddle-boxes, and was so seriously injured that in about three hours she filled with water and went down stern fore most, engulfing in her ruin all her passengers but about twenty- five and some of her crew. She was running through a dense fog at the time, and when the collision first occurred the shock was so slight that any serious injury to her hull was not appre hended. Of the more than four hundred persons who left Liverpool, many of w r hom were returning from a European tour of pleasure, less than fifty were saved. A terrific tornado struck Louisville on the 27th of August, causing great damage. A church was demolished while the congregation were at worship, and twenty-five persons were killed and sixty-seven injured, many seriously. There were throughout the country this year, one hundred and ninety-three railroad accidents, killing one hundred and eighty- six persons and wounding five hundred and eighty -nine; there were forty-eight steamboat accidents, in which five hun dred and eighty-seven persons were killed, and two hundred and twenty-five wounded. There were also one hundred and HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 143 seventy lives lost by means of eighty-three fires, and the total loss of property by fire was twenty-five millions of dollars. 1855 Confusion and anarchy still prevailed in Kansas. Early in the autumn, and while the exasperation of both parties in that Territory was at its height, the Free-State men held a convention, and nominated Governor Reeder, who had been removed from office in July, as a delegate to Congress, in place of General Whitefield, who, it was alleged, had been chosen at a previous election, not by the votes of actual settlers, but by those of people from Missouri. Reeder was elected in October, and when in February following Whitfield was admitted provision ally to a seat in the House of Representatives, he contested it with him. In the mean while violence reigned in Kansas. On the 1st of December, Governor Shannon telegraphed the Presi dent for United States forces to preserve the peace of the terri tory ; stating that an armed force of one thousand insurgents was at Leavenworth ; that a prisoner had been rescued from the sheriff, houses burned, and the lives of citizens were threat ened. About this time public attention was largely directed to an emigrating expedition to a portion of the territory of the Mos quito coast. Two British subjects claimed to have obtained a grant of that territory from the king of the Mosquito Indians, and tinder that grant Colonel H. L. Kinney fitted out an expedi tion to settle upon and improve the lands. As the Government of Nicaragua claimed jurisdiction over the whole Mosquito country, it protested against this emigration scheme as a viola tion of the neutrality laws of the United States. The President of the United States being convinced that this movement in volved more than emigration for settlements, caused the arrest in June of Colonel Kinney on a charge of violating the neutrality laws. He was admitted to bail, and proceeding secretly to Nicara gua with a few followers, he soon after published a card, calling upon those who had enlisted to join him as soon as possible, by whatever conveyance they might obtain. In the mean while the Government of Nicaragua had issued a decree prohibiting Kinney and his companions from entering the territory, and directing them to be immediately seized and conducted to the seat of government. Another phase of the emigration scheme was now developed. Colonel William Walker, who with a few followers had invaded Sonora from California the year before, was invited by Kinney to join him in improving his grant on Lake Nicaragua. Walker left San Francisco in August, with three hundred armed men, ostensibly to join Kinney, but really to invade Nicaragua. Taking advantage of revolutionary movements in that distracted State, he was suc cessful, and in October marched upon and captured Granada, its capital. He established a Nicaraguan as President, and pro ceeded to strengthen his government, which was recognized by the British consul, and favorably regarded by the resident min ister of the United States. The new government asserted its claim to the Mosquito territory, and Colonel Kinney, who had 144 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. been elected its governor by the white inhabitants, was arrested on a charge of treasonable practices, and ordered to leave the country. The settlers in Oregon and Washington Territory were much disturbed by depredations of the Indians, and many of the in habitants were murdered. Major Haller, while on an explor ing expedition, was, with his company, surrounded by a body of Indians, in Y akima County, Oregon, and kept without food or water for several days. Reinforcements were sent to his aid, but before they reached him, as his position was becoming des perate, his troops fought for fifty hours against an overwhelm ing force of savages. They then charged through the horde, sustaining a loss of one fifth of the company, and all the animals, provisions, and camp equipage belonging to the expe dition. A general uprising of the Indians now took place; whole families were massacred, and the utmost consternation was felt in unprotected parts of the country. General Wool was dispatched from San Francisco to Oregon to organize a movement against the savages. General Kearney attacked a camp of Sioux Indians in Ne braska, and killed eighty-six, and captured seventy of them. An expedition, consisting of the bark Release, and the steam propeller Arctic, under the command of Lieutenant Hartstein of the United States Navy, set sail on the 31st of May, in search of Dr. Kane and his associates, who were supposed to be ice bound in the Northern seas. On the llth of October the ex pedition returned, bringing Dr. Kane and the entire party, with the exception of three, who had died. Dr. Kane sailed from New York on the 31st of May, 1853. On the 12th of September his party were frozen in on the coast of Greenland at the most northerly point ever reached. Here they passed the winter. The next summer was spent in exploring the shores, their vessel remaining all the while fast in the ice. The winter of 1854-55, was of unexampled severity, and their stock of fuel was ex hausted. In May, it was decided to abandon the vessel and return home. They set out in open boats, and reached the Danish settlements on the 6th of August, having performed a journey of thirteen hundred miles in eighty-one days. Here they were on the point of taking passage for England, when they were fallen in with by the expedition sent for their The winter of this year was one of great distress among the poor of New York. Work was scarce and laborers were plenty. Thousands of suffering men gathered in the City Hall Park and elsewhere, and proclaimed their destitution, or pa raded the streets with banners and mottoes appealing for aid. Measures for relieving the needy were devised both by private individuals and the municipal authorities ; relief associations were formed ; soup-kitchens were established, and a system of visitation was organized. In one ward of the city and in one day in the month of January, nine thousand persons were fed by public charity. HISTORY: OF THE UNITED STATES. 145 The yellow-fever ravaged the cities of Norfolk and Ports mouth, Va. , in the summer. Soon after its arrival at Norfolk a panic seized the citizens, and as many took refuge in flight as were able to do so. The population of sixteen thousand was reduced within a short time to five thousand, and that of Ports mouth from eleven to four thousand. Portsmouth was speedi ly almost deserted. Whole streets had only two or three fami lies remaining. Hotels and stores, and even drug-shops, were closed; the great thoroughfares were empty; grass grew up be tween the bricks, and weeds over the roadside. The entire duration of the epidemic was one hundred and thirty -seven days, during which period the mortality in the two cities was about four thousand almost one half the number of those who had not fled. The cholera attacked the passengers on the Pacific steamer Uncle Sam, while on her passage from San Juan to San Fran cisco, in the early part of September, destroying one hundred and eleven persons, besides those who died in hospital after their arrival in port. The same disease appeared on the steamer Sierra Nevada of the Nicaragua line, which left New York on the 5th of September, and carried off ninety-five of her pas sengers. A financial revulsion occurred in San Francisco, creating a panic, and causing the failure, among others, of two of the most eminent of the banking houses largely engaged in the transaction of business between San Francisco and the Atlantic States. Castle Garden, in New York, ceased as a theatre, and was transformed into a depot for the reception of emigrants. It was formerly named Castle Clinton, and was granted to the city of New York in 1790. After the war of 1812, it being no longer needed for military purposes, it was used as a place of amusement, and continued as such until this period, when it be came too distant from the resident part of the city from the continual removal of families to up-town streets. Mdlle. Rachel, the eminent tragedienne, made her first ap pearance on the stage in this country, on the 3d of September, at the Metropolitan Theatre, in New York. The operatic com pany, ^ composed in part of the popular singers Brignoli, Amodio, Rocco, Quinto, and Signorinas Vestvali and Steffone, appeared at the New York Academy of Music. The banks of Boston established a Clearing-house Association similar to the one formed in New York in 1853. The first bridge of any kind erected across the Mississippi River was completed in January, at Minneapolis, Minn. The suspension-bridge across the Niagara River, two miles below the Falls, was completed in March. Operations were commenced in its construction in 1852, and in 1854 the lower floor was opened for travel. The first Hebrew temple in the Mississippi Valley was con secrated at St. Louis on the 7th of September. On January 1st, the cities of Brooklyn and Williamsburg, 146 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. and the township of Bushwick, were consolidated under the name of Brooklyn, with a population of two hundred and five thousand inhabitants. The first city directory of Indianapolis was issued this year, and the system of numbering the houses commenced. An attempt made in August to lay the submarine cable across the Gulf of St. Lawrence, a distance of sixty miles, as the initiatory step in ocean-telegraph enterprise, resulted in failure. The cable was made in England, and on the 24th of August, one end of it was fastened on the shore at Cape Ray, and a steamer towed the bark which had the cable on board out to sea. The labor of paying it out was successfully prosecuted for over thirty hours, but at the end of that time a very heavy gale arose, which threatened the vessel with destruction, broke two of the three copper wires of which the cable was com posed, and rendered the situation of the vessel so exceedingly hazardous that no alternative was left but to cut the cable and abandon the undertaking. This was accordingly done, and forty miles of the cable were sunk in the sea. An excursion train consisting of eleven cars left St. Louis on the 1st of November, to celebrate the opening of the Pacific Railroad of Missouri, at Jefferson City. While the train was crossing a bridge, about one hundred miles from St. Louis, the structure fell, precipitating the cars a distance of thirty feet into the w r ater, by which disaster twenty persons were killed and forty badly wounded. Twenty-one persons were killed and a still larger number injured by a train being thrown from the track on the Camden and Amboy Railroad, on the 29th of August. Thirty -five persons lost their lives by the explosion of the boilers belonging to the steamboat Lexington, on the Ohio River, about ninety miles below Louisville. 1856 Violence and bloodshed continued to prevail in Kansas. On the llth of February the President issued a proclamation, stating that combinations w r ithin the Territory had been formed to resist the laws, and that persons without the Territory con templated armed intervention in its affairs, and declaring that the execution of such plans from within would constitute insur rection, and from without invasion. He concluded by ordering all such persons to disperse immediately. The accounts from Kansas continuing to be alarming and very contradictory, the House of Representatives, on the 19th of March, appointed a committee to proceed thither to investigate the whole matter, and report. They returned to Washington in June, and on the 1st of July the majority of the committee presented their re port, in which was stated that each election in the Territory had been carried by organized invasions from the State of Missouri, by which the people of the Territory had been prevented from exercising the rights secured to them by the organic law; that the alleged Territorial legislature was an illegally constituted body, and had no power to pass valid laws, and their enact ments were therefore null and void; that those laws had not, as a general thing, been used to protect persons and HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 147 property, and to punish wrong, but for unlawful purposes; that the election of General Whitefield to a seat in Congress was not held in pursuance of any valid law; that the election of the contesting delegate, Mr. Reeder, was also invalid; that in the existing condition of the Territory a fair elec tion could not be held without a new census, a stringent and well-guarded election law, the selection of impartial judges, and the presence of United States troops at every place of elec tion. A minority report of the committee declared the state ments of the majority to be in many cases untrue; and so, after a long investigation, both political parties in the Territory and throughout the country were dissatisfied with the result. Kansas affairs not only claimed the direct action of Congress, but were the exciting cause of warm debates. On one of these occasions an event occurred which created a profound sensation throughout the Union and attracted attention and remark abroad. In the Senate, on the 20th of May, Mr. Sumner of Massachusetts, in the course of a long speech on the subject of Kansas affairs, commented with much asperity upon the course pursued by Senator Butler of South Carolina, and others. After the adjournment of the Senate, on the 22d, Mr. Sumner remained at his desk engaged in writing. While so engaged, Preston S. Brooks, a member of the House of Representatives, and a nephew of Senator Butler, accosted Mr. Sumner and com menced beating him with a heavy cane. Mr. Sumner was so much injured, that for many days his life was in great peril, and he was not able to attend to his duties in the Senate during that and the succeeding session, and it was four years before he was pronounced convalescent. The House of Representatives voted on a motion to expel Mr. Brooks, but not receiving the requisite two-thirds majority, it failed to pass. Mr. Brooks im mediately resigned his seat, but was soon re-elected by his con stituents without opposition. At the presidential election of this year, the question of the extension of slavery into Territories already free, assumed a form and dimensions sufficient to overshadow all other national topics, and under its influence new political organizations had grown up. For more than a year previous to the election, a new party, composed of men of all political creeds, united in opposition to the extension of slavery, had been gathering force and bulk, and assumed great proportions when the election oc curred. This was named the Republican party. Another and much older organization, at first secret in its operations, and known as the American, or Know-No thing party, had become a great political power in the country, its chief bond of union being opposition to foreign influence and interference in our domestic concerns, and the domination of Roman Catholicism in our political affairs. The old Democratic party, dating its organization at the election of President Jackson, in 1828, still possessed its prestige and power, but had become divided and weakened by internal feuds and outside pressure, while the old Whig party was virtually annihilated as a distinct organization 148 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. having vitality. The candidates of the Democratic party were James Buchanan for President, and John C. Breckinridge for Vice-President, and they were elected, each receiving one hun dred and seventy-four electoral votes. John C. Fremont for President, and William L. Dayton for Vice-President, received one hundred and fourteen electoral votes from the Republicans. The American party nominated Millard Fillmore for President, and Andrew J. Donelson for Vice-President, and carried the electoral vote of Maryland. Congress made grants of public lands in Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Michigan, and Wisconsin, to aid in con structing railroads in those States. Each alternate section, six sections wide, on each side of the roads, were granted, and the remaining sections belonging to the United States were not to be sold for less than double the usual price, and before being sold to individuals they should be offered for sale at public auction at the enhanced price. Indian hostilities continued in Oregon and Washington Ter ritory. On the 25th of March, about eight hundred Indians attacked Cascades, in Oregon, and burned every building in the town, and killed numbers of the citizens; they also de stroyed the steamer Mary. In the neighborhood of Vancouver they burned and laid waste the whole country. A fight took place in Washington Territory, on the 10th of March, between the volunteers and the Indians, in which more than twenty-five of the savages were killed. The schemes of Walker in Nicaragua continued to attract public attention in this country. During the winter, an alli ance of the Central American States was formed against Walk er, and hostilities were instituted, w r hich lasted all this year and until the following spring, when he was compelled to abandon the country. Baltimore was subjected to riot and lawlessness in the au tumn. On the 12th of September the 17th Ward House, on Light Street, was attacked by the " Rip-Rap" and " Wampan- vag" clubs, and, in the affray which ensued, one man was killed and some twenty men badly wounded. The streets where the contest took place presented the appearance as if oart-loads of bricks had been strewed about. On the 8th of October, a desperate struggle took place between the " Rip- Rap" club and the New Market Fire Company, which was a bloody and protracted battle. A great many persons were wounded and carried from the ground, and the drug-shops near the scene of action were filled with the wounded and dying. At the election, on the 4th of November, a prolonged and des perate fight took place between some Democrats and Know- nothings. Armed and organized associations belonging to both political parties resorted to fire-arms, with which they were liber ally provided. Individual combats and minor affrays occurred at a number of polls, but the most serious took place in the vicin ity of the Second and Eighth wards, where eight persons were killed and about one hundred and fifty wounded. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 149^ Very serious disturbances took place in the month of May, in San Francisco. The immediate occasion was the murder of James King, the editor of the San Francisco Bulletin, by James P. Casey, editor of the Sunday Times. Casey, who had been an inmate of the State Prison at Sing Sing, N. Y., became somewhat prominent as a politician on his arrival in Califor nia. Mr. King in his paper referred to this, and charged Ca sey with having fraudulently procured his election to office. On the 14th of May, Casey shot Mr. King in the street ; an in tense excitement was at once aroused, which resulted in the or ganization of a Vigilance Committee. Thousands of the leading citizens armed and enrolled themselves on this Committee. In two or three days the organization was complete, when they proceeded to the prison where Casey was confined and com pelled the officers to surrender him, together with a notorious gambler and murderer, who had escaped punishment by a disa greement of the jury who tried him. The two malefactors were tried \)j the Committee, found guilty, and executed on the open street. The Committee now determined to deal with the desperadoes and bullies who infested the city, and had acquired a controlling influence in the elections. Some were warned to leave and others arrested and confined for trial. The oppo nents of the Committee held a mass-meeting on the 2d of June, but the sentiment of the community appeared to be ad verse to them. The Governor of the State issued a proclama tion calling out the militia to suppress the illegal action of the Committee, but it was faintly responded to, while the forces at the disposal of the Committee were largely increased. Their rooms were converted into a fortress, and a regular system of vigilance was established. They finally succeeded in their ef forts for establishing peace and justice in the city, and disband ed on the 18th of August, on which occasion more than five thousand of their adherents marched in parade in celebration of the event. The cold weather was very severe at New York early in Feb ruary, and on the 10th the East River was bridged over by ice and streams of people crossed over. The community was startled early in the year by the discov ery of forgeries to an immense amount, committed by Charles B. Huntington, of New York. The forged paper was used mainly as collateral security for the purpose of raising money, and was fora considerable time redeemed before maturity. The counsel of the forger, on the trial, in his defence set up the plea of moral insanity, and stated that the aggregate amount of the forgeries was fifteen to twenty millions of dollars. The railroad bridge, fifteen hundred and eighty-two feet in length, crossing the Mississippi at Rock Island, 111., was com pleted this year. The Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, extending from Chicago to the Mississippi ; The Chicago and Fort Wayne, from Chicago to Fort Wayne ; the extension in Iowa of the Chicago and Rock Island, from the Mississippi to Iowa 150 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. City ; the Penobscot and Kennebec, between Bangor and Wa- tervillc were all completed this year. The first railroad in California, that from Sacramento to Folsom, twenty-two and a half miles in length, was opened for travel on the 22d of Feb ruary. The first street-railway in New England was the Cam bridge Railroad, constructed in the streets of Boston and Cam bridge, and it was opened for travel on the 26th of March. Street-railways, at this period, were considered so much of an experiment, that the originators of this road experienced great difficulty in obtaining subscriptions to its stock and bonds, and the contractors themselves were obliged to take nearly the whole amount. The first passage of a vessel to Europe, through the great lakes, was this year made direct from Milwaukee by means of the Welland Canal and the St. Lawrence River. On the 17th of March, Miss Adelaide Phillips made her de but in opera at the Academy of Music, New York, in the char acter of Azucena, in "II Trovatore." The introduction of sorghum or Chinese sugar-cane, into the United States, was made this year. The Patent-office Depart ment at Washington obtained some seeds from France, and Mr. Orange Judd imported one thousand barrels of the seed for distribution among the patrons of his newspaper. The first manufacture of condensed milk, in this country, was commenced in Litchfield County, Conn. The first experiments with the Bessemer process for the pro duction of steel, were made at the Phillipsburg furnace, in War ren County, N. J. The iron used was obtained from a mine in Sussex County, which was opened before the Revolu tion, and during it was taken possession of by the government, the owners being principally Tories. After the war the mine was abandoned until the year 1847. The first wooden pavement in Chicago was laid on Wells Street, of about eight hundred square yards, and proved a suc cess. The old and memorable Charter Oak, at Hartford, was blown down early in the morning of the 21st of August. Crowds of citizens visited the place, and carried away memen toes of the venerable tree. A dirge was played at noon, and the bells of the city were tolled at sundown. A submarine cable from the mainland to Nantucket was suc cessfully laid on the 21st of August. The passengers who left New York, in April, for California, by the way of Nicaragua, suffered severely in the passage. They found the transit across the Isthmus closed, but about three hundred of them determined to push on. At Granada they were detained a month, during which time seventy-nine died. Proceeding, at length, across the lake, a number more perished. The survivors reached San Juan del Sur, and em barked on board the steamer for San Francisco. Sickness HISTOEY OF THE UNITED STATES. 151 broke out among them, and thirty-three died on the passage. Nearly one half died between Granada and San Francisco. Last Island, a summer resort in the Gulf of Mexico, was struck by a terrific storm in August, which raged three days. The island was entirely submerged, and every house destroyed, involving the loss of about three hundred persons, who were drowned. The French steamer Le Lyonnais, which left New York on the 30th of October, was run into by a sailing-vessel on the night of the 2d of November, and foundered. The sailing- ves sel was lost sight of at once, and it was supposed she sunk. The passengers and crew, numbering one hundred and thirty-two persons, betook themselves to the boats and a raft which was hastily constructed. One of the boats was picked up four days after ; it had contained eighteen persons, but two of them froze to death. Vessels were at once despatched for the missing boats and raft, but without success, and it was presumed all their pas sengers were lost. The Atlantic steamer Pacific left Liverpool for New York on the 23d of January, with forty-five passengers and one hun dred and forty-one officers and crew, and she was never heard from. The American ship Ocean Wave, on her voyage from Rotterdam to New York, came in collision with a British vessel and sunk in a few minutes, carrying down seventy-seven per sons, mostly German emigrants. On the 20th of February, the packet -ship John Kutledge was struck by an iceberg and went down. The passengers and crew numbered one hundred and fifty-six persons, who took to the boats. One of these was picked up on the 28th, but of the thirteen persons who went on board the only survivor was a young sailor ; the others had died under their privations and sufferings. The other boats were never heard from. There was a large number of railroad and other disasters in the month of July, by which one hundred and sev enty persons were killed, and as many more seriously injured. A wharf at the foot of Reed Street, Philadelphia, gave way on the 7th, and more than a hundred persons were precipitated into the water, between twenty and thirty of whom were drowned. An excursion-train, filled with the scholars and teachers of St. Michael s Church, left Philadelphia by the North Pennsylvania Railroad on the 16th, and came in collision with a regular down train, both running at great speed. Five cars of the excursion- train were shivered into fragments, and were set on fire from the engines. Many of those who were imprisoned by the wreck were burned to death, and still a larger number were killed out right or dreadfully wounded by the collision. The total loss of life was not less than sixty. On the 17th, the Lake Erie steamer Northern Indiana caught fire while on her passage from Buffalo to Toledo, and in a few moments was burned to the water s edge. In attempting to launch the life-boat, which was filled with pas sengers, the cranes gave way and all the occupants were plunged into the water. A large number of the passengers who had leaped into the water to escape the flames were drowned ; the 152 HISTOEY OF THE UNITED STATES. total loss of life was about forty. The gales in the autumn upon the great lakes were unusually severe, occasioning great loss of life and destruction of property. Forty-nine vessels, of which seventeen were steamers, were wrecked, involving a loss of more than two hundred lives. The most disastrous of these casualties w r as that of the steamer Superior, which went on shore near the Pictured Rocks, on Lake Superior. Out of fifty persons on board only sixteen were saved. On the 24th of Sep tember, the steamboat Niagara was burned on Lake Michigan, and from fifty to sixty lives were lost. The steam ferry-boat New Jersey, while running from Philadelphia to Camden on the 15th of March, took fire and became unmanageable ; about fifty lives were lost by the disaster. 1857 James Buchanan was inaugurated President on the 4th of March, and Vice-President John C. Breckinridge took the oath of office. Congress passed an act entitled the Atlantic Telegraph Bill, in aid of a company formed for the purpose of establishing a telegraphic communication between our continent and Great Britain. It provided that the sum of seventy thousand dollars per annum might be paid to the company for the transmission of government messages, until the net profits reached six per cent per annum, after which it should not exceed fifty thousand dollars, the tariff of prices to be fixed by the Secretary of the Treasury and the British Government. The bill also provided that the*citizens and the Government of the United States should be put on an equal footing with those of Great Britain, and that Congress might at the expiration of ten years terminate the con tract by giving one year s notice. Congress passed a bill in February, directing that Spanish quarters, eighths, and sixteenths of a dollar should only be re ceived by public officers at the rate of twenty, ten, and five cents, and that they should not be paid out, but sent to the Mint. The object was to drive those worn-out coins from circulation. Provision was also made for the coinage of a new cent, much smaller than the one in use, to be composed of eighty parts of copper and twelve of nickel. A case which had attracted great interest throughout the country was decided by the Supreme Court of the United States in March. A slave named Dred Scott, who was taken by his master from Missouri to Illinois, where he remained two years, and then taken back to Missouri, sued for his freedom, on the ground that since Illinois by its constitution prohibited slavery, by his being domiciled in that State he became free ; and if he became free in that State he continued free, since there was no law in force to remand him to slavery. The majority of the court decided that every person, and every class and description of persons, who were at the time of the adoption of the consti tution recognized as the citizens of the several States, became also citizens of the new political body, but none other ; it was formed by them and for them and their posterity, but for no one else ; the legislation and histories of the times, and the Ian- HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 153 guage used in the Declaration of Independence, showed that neither the class of persons who had been imported as slaves, nor their descendants, whether they became free or not, were then acknowledged as a part of the people nor intended to be included in the general words used in that memorable instru ment ; that they had for more than a century been regarded as beings of an inferior order, and altogether unfit to associate with the white race, either in moral or political relations ; and so far inferior, that they had no rights which the white man was bound to respect ; and that the negro might justly and lawfully be reduced to slavery for his benefit. Two of the judges dissented from that opinion. In September, an emigrant party arrived at Mountain Mead ow, about three hundred miles south-east of Salt Lake City in Utah, and camped at the south end of the valley. They had thirty wagons and several hundred head of cattle. For several days they were attacked by whites and Indians, until a treaty was made by which they were permitted to return to Cedar City, but were compelled to give up their property. After the latter had been complied with the treaty was basely broken, and of the emigrants, one hundred and twenty men, women, and children were massacred. Early in January, the Mormon dignitaries went to the offices of one of the United States Judges at Salt Lake City, seized all the books, papers, and documents belonging to the court, and burned them, upon the plea that as Congress would not admit Utah into the Union, they would not allow the officers of the government to remain in the Territory. For that circumstance, and for the reason that numerous depredations and outrages had been committed upon travellers in Utah said to have been instigated by the Mormons, and that persons arrested for crime could not be convicted by Mormon juries, the President despatched about six thousand United States troops to Utah to compel the Mormons to respect the laws of the Government. Upon receiving intelligence of this, Brigham Young prepared to resist, and issued a proclamation forbidding all bodies of armed men from entering the Territory under any pretext whatever. Meanwhile the grand jury of the United States Court brought in bills of indictment for high-treason against Brigham Young, and nineteen others specifically named, besides a great number of persons whose names were not known to the jury. The difficulties were, however, settled in the next year without bloodshed, the Mormons consenting to the de mands of the government, and their leaders were pardoned. The first attempt to lay the Atlantic cable was made in August. Four vessels composed the expedition, two of them the Niagara and the Agamemnon, containing the cable. It was determined to lay down the wire in a continuous line from Yalentia Bay, in Ireland, to Newfoundland, the Niagara tak ing the first half to the middle of the ocean, and the cable from, the Agamemnon being joined on, that vessel to lay the remain- der. Everything being ready, the ships sailed from the Irish. 154 HISTOKY OF THE UNITED STATES. coast on the evening of the 7th, and the operation of paying cut the cable worked satisfactorily. Early in the morning of the 10th, the water began very suddenly to grow deeper. In the course of eight miles its depth increased from five hundred and fifty fathoms to seventeen hundred and fifty, and soon afterward it reached two thousand fathoms. This occasioned an additional strain upon the cable, causing it to run out at a greater speed than that of the vessel. The retarding force of the brakes was accordingly increased to prevent the too rapid pay-out of the cable, which still, however, continued to run out much faster than the vessel advanced. At this time there was a strong wind and heavy sea. At a quarter before four in the morning of the llth, the engineer of the company, who had personally superintended the working of the machinery, was obliged to go to another part of the vessel, leaving the breaks in charge of another person. In a few moments he heard the machine stop, and when he returned he found that the cable had parted at some distance from the ship. Of the cable three hun dred ani thirty-five miles had been paid out, being fully one hundred miles more than the ship had run. The vessels at once returned. An extraordinary, violent, and destructive financial panic occurred late in the summer and autumn. The first actual shock was the failure, on the 24th of August, of the Ohio Life and Trust Company, which had borrowed largely on -call in New York, and loaned the funds where they were not immediately available. The liabilities were about seven millions. The credit of this institution had been very high, and its failure not only shook public confidence, but involved many corporations and individuals in serious loss. Several stock and money dealers failed in New York, and the daily meetings of the Board of Brokers were characterized by intense excitement. Every in dividual misfortune was announced on the news bulletins in large letters, and attracted curious crowds, which were con tinually fed by the passing throngs. The N. Y. Clearing House report for the 29th of August showed a reduction of four millions of dollars in the bank loans during the previous week. The most substantial securities of the market fell rapidly in price at public sale. Doubts of the safety of bank-notes in circulation were generally entertained. One of the Associated Banks of New York fell into default, at the end of August, and a fraud of seventy thousand dollars by the paying teller roused suspicion of similar misconduct in other institutions. The regular discount of bills by the banks was mostly suspended, and the street rates for money, even on unquestionable securi ties, arose to three, four, and five per cent a month ; on the ordinary securities of merchants, such as promissory notes and bills of exchange, money was not to be had at any rate. House after house of high commercial repute succumbed to the panic, and several heavy banking houses were soon added to the list of failures. The statement of the New York banks for the week ending September 5th showed a further reduction in loans HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 155 of more than four millions of dollars. Commercial embarrass ments became the chief staple of news in all the papers of town or country. The purchase and transportation of produce almost entirely ceased. From this period there was nothing wanting to aggravate the common distress for money. Toward the close of September, three of the leading banks of Philadelphia failed, and the remainder resolved upon a temporary suspension of specie payments. This was followed by a similar step on the part of the banks in Pennsylvania, Maryland, the District of Columbia, and New Jersey. Early in October there was a decided increase in the stringency of the money market, and a consequent accession to the number of mercantile failures. Houses whose assets exceeded their liabilities by hundreds of thousands of dollars were unable to meet engagements of com paratively small amounts. Domestic exchanges became so un settled that it was utterly impossible to remit funds from dis tant points. A steady demand for specie set in upon the New York banks, which was promptly met until the morning of the 18th, when a universal panic prevailed. By noon, the run upon the banks was general; Wall Street was choked by thousands of people endeavoring to force their way into banking-houses to demand specie for notes and checks. Before the close of business hours eighteen city banks were forced to close their doors, and announce that they had suspended specie payments. During the evening a meeting was held of representatives from the other banks. It was found that the specie in their vaults had been reduced from eleven millions four hundred and seventy-six thousand dollars to five millions five hundred thousand dollars. It was then unanimously resolved that all the banks should temporarily suspend the payment of specie. This was done with but one exception. The example of sus pension was at once followed throughout the country. The im mediate effect of the suspension" was that the notes of New York, New England, and other solvent banks were at once received and paid out as usual in all business transactions, and a feeling of relief began to be experienced. The pressure passed away in the course of the winter. The liquidation was rapid, and by spring business was again in motion. The New York banks resumed on the 12th of December, and others followed gradually arid informally. The effect of the panic upon busi ness was disastrous, and it was almost annihilated. The same may be said of the industries of the country. Almost all the large manufacturing establishments either suspended opera tions or worked upon short time. In New York City alone it was estimated that thirty or forty thousand mechanics and workmen were thrown out of employment. All the old books, papers, drafts, checks, and letters which had been preserved in the United States Bank in the long course of its immense business were sold at Philadelphia to a paper manufacturer. The whole mass weighed over forty tons. Ten tons of it consisted of autograph letters of the first statesmen, politicians, and financiers ofthis and other countries. 156 HISTOEY OF THE UNITED STATES. The conductors and others having charge of the freight- trains on the first and second divisions of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad stopped work on the 29th of April, and re fused to do duty. For several days of the following month, these men molested the different freight-trains running into the city, and on two occasions a desperate fight ensued between the rioters and police who had been sent to guard the cars. At last the Governor of the State issued a proclamation, warning all persons to keep away from the neighborhood of the disturb ances, and dispatched the military to the ground. A desper ate fight took place between the troops and the rioters, in which many were killed and wounded before the disturbances were quelled. By an act of the Legislature of the State of New York, the control of the Police Department of the city of New York was transferred from the municipal authorities to those of the State, and a police district was created, comprising the coun ties of New York, Kings, Westchester, and Richmond. Upon this a contest arose between the Mayor of the city and the new ftoard of Police Commissioners for the control of the Police, the Mayor having resolved to retain his power until he could test the constitutionality of the act in the courts. During the progress of the conflict between the two different authorities the Police Department became disorganized, and mob-law and crime increased in the city to a fearful extent. On the evening of the 3d of July, a disturbance commenced between two gangs of rowdies, which was continued on the following day. Sticks, stones, and knives were freely used, and men, women, and children were wounded. A few policemen were dis patched to the spot, but they were driven off with several wounded, and the riot continued. The rioters tore up paving- stones, and seized drays, trucks, and whatever came to hand, wherewith to erect barricades. The greatest consternation prevailed throughout the city ; several regiments of soldiers were called out, but the disturbance was not quelled before six men had been killed and over a hundred wounded. On the 13th another outbreak occurred, lasting two days, but which was finally put down by the police without military aid. From the 23d to the 25th of January, a severe term of cold weather prevailed throughout New England, the mercury ranging from twelve to twenty-four degrees below zero. Rail roads were obstructed by drifting snow, and Boston harbor was frozen over. William Walker was driven out of Nicaragua and escaped to the United States, where he determined to organize another filibustering expedition against the former country. On the 10th of November, he was arrested at New Orleans on a charge of violating the neutrality laws. Being liberated upon giving bail, he departed for Mobile and there embarked on a packet, from which he was transferred to a steamer which had set out with three or four hundred men, as previously arranged, for another expedition to Nicaragua. On the 24th of November, HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 157 Walker arrived at the mouth of the Colorado, a branch of the San Juan, in Nicaragua, where a detachment of about fifty men was landed, who proceeded up the river. The steamer then proceeded to Greytpwn, where a landing was quietly ef fected, although the United States sloop of war Saratoga lay in the harbor. Intrenchments were thrown up, and the mili tary character of the expedition became apparent. On the 6th* of December, the United States frigate Wabash, Commodore Paulding, arrived. The American vessels took up a position commanding the camp of the filibusters, who were summoned to surrender. They complied with the demand, and the men were shipped on board to be brought home. Walker, upon giving his word of honor to surrender himself on his arrival at New York, was permitted to return by the regular steamer from Aspinwall. He surrendered himself to the United States marshal upon reaching that city, whence he was taken to Washington, where he was discharged by the government. The making of watches by machinery, which was commenced in 1850, and subsequently continued with only partial success, was perfected about this time. The Pennsylvania Railroad Company, on the 25th of June, purchased from the State for the sum of seven millions five hundred thousand dollars, its line of canals and railroads completed in 1830, between Philadelphia and Pittsburg, a dis tance of three hundred and fifty-three miles. When the com pany took possession, the canals were in a dilapidated condi tion, and the railroads out of repair. The canals were now soon abandoned, and the two cities connected by one line of continuous rail. The Chicago and St. Louis Railroad was completed this year; the Milwaukee and Mississippi, between Milwaukee and Prairie du Chien, was opened for travel on the 15th of April; the Memphis and Charleston, in May; direct railroad communica tion was established between Baltimore and St. Louis, early in June; and during the year, between Detroit and Toledo. The Parkersburg branch of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was completed on the 1st of May; and some time during the year the Virginia Central, one hundred and ninety-five miles in length, between Richmond and Jackson s River, was also finished. The California steamer Central America left Havana on the 8th of September, for New York, having on board about six hundred persons, passengers and crew. A storm arose during the night of the 9th, which increased till the morning of the llth, when it was discovered that the vessel was leaking badly. The pumps were immediately put in operation, but the water gained rapidly, overflowing the coal-bunkers, cutting off the supply of the fuel, and finally putting out the fires in ^the furnace. The passengers and crew were then formed into gangs for bailing; but in spite of their efforts the water con tinued to rise. The steamer was soon entirely helpless, and labored violently. On the afternoon of the 12th a vessel ap peared in sight, and upon a signal of distress being given bore 158 HISTOEY OF THE UNITED STATES. towards the steamer. The vessel undertook to lie by, and take off as many of the passengers as possible. One of the steamer s boats had been swept away the previous night, and two more were stove in and disabled in launching; the remaining three were successfully launched. Into these three, more than a hundred passengers were lowered, including all the women and children, and safely conveyed on board the vessel, which had now drifted off two or three miles. The bailing was still kept up on board the steamer, and though the water continued to increase there was no general apprehension of immediate danger, until nearly eight o clock in the evening, when the -water swept over the deck. The steamer then made a sudden plunge, and went down in an instant, carrying with her all on board. A few who had secured refuge on fragments of the wreck were picked up by passing vessels, but the total number -of persons lost was estimated to exceed four hundred. There was also a large amount of treasure lost, which, including that in the possession of passengers, is supposed to amount to more than two millions of dollars. 1858 A second attempt was made to lay the Atlantic cable, in June. It was determined that the cable should be transported to mid ocean, one half of it by the Niagara, the other by the Agamemnon; it was then to be spliced; the Niagara to proceed in paying it out towards America, the Agamemnon to pay out at the same time and return to the landing-place in Ireland. The expedition sailed from Plymouth, England, on the 10th of June, and when three days out encountered a heavy gale, which continued without interruption for nine days. The ships kept together for seven days of this weather, when they were compelled to part company. They rejoined at the ap pointed place in mid- ocean, on the 26th. The cable was then spliced, but before five miles had been paid out, it parted on board the Niagara. The ships came together again, a new splice was made, and when each vessel had paid out about forty miles, the electric communication ceased. It was sup posed on each vessel that the separation had taken place on board the other. But when the rendezvous was reached, it was found that the fracture had taken place at some distance from each ship, and apparently at the bottom of the ocean. The vessels came together, and the cable was once more joined. On the evening of the 28th, the third attempt was begun. All worked well on board the Niagara until nine o clock of the evening of the 29th. Something more than a hundred miles had been sailed, and nearly a hundred and fifty miles of the cable had been given out, when the communication suddenly ceased, and it became evident that the cable had parted, and, as was inferred from scientific tests, at or near the Agamemnon. It was then determined to test the strength of the cable. It was blowing freshly, and the immense vessel was allowed to swing by the cable, which endured the strain more than an hour; then a heavy sea snapped it, and the Niagara bore away for Queens, town, where she arrived on the 5th of July. On the 12th the HISTORY OF THE TJXITED STATES. 159 Agamemnon arrived there also. By its report of the breaking of the cable, it appeared that at the time the sea was perfectly calm, the strain upon the cable, as indicated by the dynamo meter, being about twenty-one hundred pounds only one third what it was warranted to bear when all] at once, without the least apparent cause, it parted close by the stern of the steamer. As there was still, notwithstanding the loss of four hundred miles of cable, a considerable surplus over the quantity sup posed to be required, the Directors determined to make another trial. On the 17th of July, everything had been prepared, and the expedition left Queenstown, on the third attempt. The Niagara reached mid-ocean on the 23d, the Agamemnon on the 28th. On the following day the cable was joined, and the steamers proceeded towards their several destinations. The Niagara reached Trinity Bay, Newfoundland, on the morning of the 5th of August, and the Agamemnon, Valentia, in Ireland, on the same day. The two vessels had performed their task almost within the same hour of absolute time, and the cable was successfully laid without a break. The distance between the two termini was sixteen hundred and ninety-five geo graphical miles; of this the Niagara had accomplished eight hundred and sixty-two miles, with an expenditure of ten hun dred and thirty miles of cable ; and the Agamemnon, eight hundred and thirteen miles, expending ten hundred and twenty miles of cable, each vessel having left a surplus of eighty miles. Before night, on the 5th of August, intelligence of the successful laying of the cable was telegraphed throughout the country. Signals were sent over the cable, but the telegraphic apparatus not being arranged for some days, messages could not be transmitted. It had been previously determined that the first dispatches sent over the line should be a message from the Queen of England to the President of the United States, and the President s reply. The necessary arrangements were not completed until the 16th of August, on which clay the messages were transmitted, as arranged. The line was then for some time devoted exclusively to experiments on the part of the electricians; no general dispatches being sent over it until the 25th, when a message dated at Valentia on that day, was published in the New York papers of the following day. The next day a dispatch appeared in the New York afternoon papers dated at London on the morning of the same day. The intelligence of the successful laying of the cable was received everywhere with enthusiasm, and was celebrated by public demonstrations in almost every considerable town. On the 17th of August a hundred guns were fired in the New York City Hall Park, at daybreak, in honor of the event, and the salute was repeated at noon. Flags were raised on all the public buildings, the bells were rung, and at night the city was bril liantly illuminated. The 1st of September was set apart for a public ovation, by the municipal authorities, to Mr. Field and the officers of the expedition. The celebration surpassed every thing of the kind ever witnessed in the city. But these rejoic- 160 HISTOEY OF THE UNITED STATES. ings were premature : the cable proved a failure from some imperfections in its manufacture, so that it could not be used ; and it was only after several years of labor that the projectors of the enterprise finally established success in the undertaking. Minnesota was admitted into the Union on the llth of May. Gold was discovered this year, at Pike s Peak, Colorado. Upon the intelligence of this discovery being noised about, there at once set in a stream of adventurers to the locality, from all sections of the country. Within two years, it is stated, one hundred and seventy- five quartz-mills were in operation in the Territory. A project was set on foot by Walker for another expedition to Nicaragua, and he advertised in the newspapers his inten tions, and asked the co-operation of American citizens and for emigrants to join him, designating Mobile as the place of ren dezvous and departure. Thereupon the President issued a proclamation denouncing the project, and enjoining all officers of the government, civil and military, in their respective spheres, to be vigilant, active, and faithful in suppressing those illegal enterprises. A portion of the filibusters who had assembled at Mobile applied to the collector of the port for clearance, and were refused. On the 6th of December, they sailed secretly from Mobile, in the Susan, a coasting vessel. They were stopped by a revenue-cutter, but pretending to be engaged in a coasting voyage, were suffered to proceed. The vessel was driven by adverse winds on the coast of Honduras and wrecked. With much difficulty the men made their way to Belize, where they found themselves unable to procure a vessel to carry them to their place of destination. The governor at length offer ed to send them back to the United States in a British armed vessel. He w r ould not inquire into their original intentions, but as they had violated no law of England, would consider them simply as shipwrecked Americans. The offer was ac cepted, and the filibusters were landed at Mobile on the first of the following month. Mount Vernon, the home and burial-place of Washington, was purchased by the " Ladies Mount Vernon Association," who designed to hold it in perpetuity as a place of public resort and pilgrimage. The commencement of the work of constructing the Central Park, in New York, was made this year. The first overland mail from California arrived at St. Louis on the 9th of October, having been conveyed from San Fran cisco in twenty-three days and four hours. Mdlle. Piccolomini made her first appearance on the stage in America, on the 20th of September, at the New York Academy of Music. The first steam fire engine used in Baltimore arrived in that city on the 18th of May. In June the police and fire-alarm telegraph was established. In September a paid fire-depart ment went into operation. In November, water was first introduced through street-pipes HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 161 into the city of Brooklyn, and on the 17th of December it was first used in extinguishing a fire. Staten Island became the scene of a riot, growing out of the increased hostility of the inhabitants to the establishment of quarantine on their shores. The State authorities had pur chased in 1798 thirty acres in the town of Castleton, on the island, for quarantine purposes, and subsequently hospitals were erected thereon for fever and small-pox patients. As Staten. Island became thickly settled, the removal of the quarantine was asked for, but nothing was done. In 1856 there were seven hundred and sixty-nine cases of yellow-fever on Staten Island, the adjoining shore of Long Island, and in South Brooklyn. In the following year the legislature authorized the removal of quarantine, and land was bought at Seguin s Point, seven miles farther from New York, but still on the island. Five days after the transfer, a mob burned all the buildings. New ones were put up, but they also were burned, and the site was thenceforward abandoned, and the quarantine remained in the old place. The hostility to the establishment increased in strength ; the Castleton Board of Health declared it a nuisance, and on the night of September 1st the place was attacked by a mob, the sick were carried from the hospitals and laid upon mattresses in the field, the officers and physicians were driven off, and all the buildings, save the woman s hospital, were de stroyed by fire ; the next night the remaining hospital was similarly destroyed. The governor declared the island in re bellion, and sent troops there; but no further trouble occurred. Thirty-two buildings in all were burned. A number of the patients died in consequence of the exposure occasioned by their removal. Floods in the rivers of the west and southwest were unusually destructive this year. The loss was especially great upon the Mississippi, Missouri, Arkansas, Illinois, and Ohio. Early in May the levees about New Orleans gave way, causing the over flow of an immense tract of sugar and cotton country. A month later ^ series of inundations took place in the Upper Mississippi and its northern tributaries. On the 12th of June, the levee above Cairo, in Illinois yielded, and the entire town was sub merged, causing much damage. The western railroads suffered severely by the destruction of tracks, bridges, and station houses. The total loss occasioned by these freshets was estimated at more than thirty millions of dollars, of which nearly one-half fell upon the cotton crop, and one-third upon the grain crop. The iron steamer Austria, plying between New York and Hamburg, was burned at sea on the 13th of September. She left Hamburg on the 3d, with five hundred and thirty-eight souls on board, of whom four hundred and twenty-five were passengers, the remainder being officers and crew. Additional passengers were taken on beard at Southampton. On the after noon of the 13th, when within three or four days of port, the boatswain was ordered to fumigate the steerage by immersing a hot iron hi a bucket of tar. The tar became ignited and the 162 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. flames spread with great rapidity, rushing through the gang ways and hatchways at the entrance of the cabins, cutting off all retreat to those below. Most of those who succeeded in gain ing the deck were on the after-part of the vessel, and her head being to the wind, the flames were driven back upon them, com pelling them to leap overboard. Attempts were made to launch the boats, but of those that were loosed all except one were swamped. As the engines ceased working, the vessel s head swung round, and the flames were driven forward, forcing the people out upon the bowsprit, from which many flung them selves into the sea; some of whom sunk, while others supported themselves upon fragments of the ship. Two vessels were just in sight when the fire took place. By these, ninety-nine persons were saved, some from the water, the others from the wreck. It was supposed all the remainder were lost. The Crystal Palace, erected in New York for an Industrial Exhibition, caught fire on the 5th of October, and was con sumed with the contents, involving a loss exceeding a million of dollars. The Fair of the American Institute had just been opened in the palace, which was filled with objects for exhibi tion, some of which were of considerable value. 1859 An organized attempt to excite an insurrection of the slaves in Virginia was set on foot, which startled and profoundly stirred the nation. On the night of the 16th of October, John Brown, ananlislavery enthusiast, with twenty-two armed men, made a descent upon the town of Harper s Ferry, in Virginia, where was located a United States arsenal, containing a large amount of arms. The purpose of the capture was to hold the place as a refuge for the fugitive slaves who might gain their liberty upon the success of the plans that Brown had formed. The insurgents took possession of the government buildings that were left unguarded, and then some of them proceeded to the residences of two wealthy farmers in the vicinity, made them prisoners with such slaves as they could secure, and brought them to the arsenal. In the morning, as the laborers belonging to the arsenal came one by one to their work they were also made prisoners. As the day advanced, an alarm was given, and military companies from the neighborhood arrived upon the scene. During the day shots were fired on both sides by which several lives were lost. Late at night some United States marines appeared and invested the arsenal until morning, at which time that building was carried by assault and Brown and those remaining of his party were captured. Fourteen of the insurgents had been killed in the strife; of the citizens and sol diers, seven were killed, including the Mayor of the town, and a number wounded. Brown and his accomplices were promptly tried, convicted, and executed. Oregon was admitted into the Union as a State on the 14th of February, with a Constitution prohibiting slavery within its borders. During the year the hostilities of the Indian tribes on our northwestern frontier were unusually frequent. A report from HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 163 the War Department gives in detail official accounts of nineteen separate actions between September 20, 1858, and October 19, 1859. In these engagements, between three and four hundred Indians were killed, wounded, or captured; between fifty and one hundred of our troops were killed and wounded; and a large number of animals of various kinds were taken from the Indians. The interviewing" feature of journalism had its origin this* year. Among those stated to be implicated in the raid of John Brown on Harper s Ferry was Gerrit Smith, a noted anti- slavery advocate. One of the special reporters of the New York Herald was despatched to his residence at Peterboro , N. Y., where he had a long interview with that distinguished philan- tropist. This was published in full, in conversational style, and produced a sensation. From this period that style of re porting was adopted in all parts of the country. Four aeronauts ascended in a balloon from St. Louis, on the first of July, and, after travelling a distance of eleven hundred and fifty miles in nineteen hours and fifteen minutes, landed in Jefferson County, in the State of New York. On the 22d of September, two of the aeronauts ascended in a balloon from Watertown, N. Y., and after travelling four hours, landed in Canada at a place about three hundred miles distant. Mdlle. Adelina Patti made her first appearance on any stage as a dramatic vocalist, at the New York Academy of Music, on the 24th of November. At this time she had not attained her seventeenth year. The art of photo-lithography was first introduced this year, in preparing the maps published in the first volume of " Palfrey s History of New England," issued at Boston; and in Leslie s "Iron Manufacturers Guide," at New York. The Pittsburg, Fort Wayne, and Chicago Railroad Company was formed by the consolidation of the Ohio and Pennsylvania, the Ohio and Indiana, and the Fort Wayne and Chicago rail roads, making one continuous line between Pittsburg and Chi cago, a distance of four hundred and seventy-one miles. Street railways were opened for travel this year, for the first time, in Chicago and Baltimore. 1860 The success of the Republican party, in the presidential elec tion of this year, organized to fight the extension of slavery into newly-formed States and Territories, was the culmination of a long quarrel between the Southern States, where slavery was a " peculiar institution," and the Northern States, where, slavery having long before been given up, a sentiment hostile to it in other sections had been steadily growing for two or three generations. The election of Lincoln as President, in November, was the determining circumstance which led to the civil war that soon followed. Differences of opinion as to the power to regulate the domestic affairs of the States and Terri tories was the political issue involved; the protection and de velopment of the institution on which the prosperity of the South .almost exclusively depended negro slavery was the material 164 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. interest really at stake. Congress was the scene in which the controversy was principally waged. Orators like Wendell Phillips and William Lloyd Garrison raised their voices against slavery in the rostrum; newspapers published earnest articles on the same subject; books were written to picture the oper ations of the system, one of them being Harriet Beecher Stowe s "Uncle Tom s Cabin." Dickens, the English novelist, added his satire to the agitation by his " American Notes." But the vehicle for the feeling thus aroused w r as the Federal Legis lature. Hither numerously-signed petitions came from the North, asking for the abolition of slavery; and hither came verbal and written protests from the South against interference with what was considered a local matter purely, and an in vasion of State rights. Congress itself was a battle-field as early as 1820. When Missouri was admitted to the Union, a pro tracted discussion was had, which resulted, in allowing that State to have slaves but prohibiting the institution in new States and Territories north of latitude 36 30 , or west thereof. Arkansas, which came in later, gave the slave power still greater political influence in the national councils. This was increased further in 1845 by the admission of Texas, which had seceded from Mexico; and a prospect was afforded of more slave States to be erected out of Mexican territory, taken in the war which followed, and extending up north into what is now Colorado. California, also annexed by this war, was ad mitted as a free State in 1850; but only after prolonged debate, and the adoption of a law facilitating the return, to their own ers, of fugitive slaves. New Mexico and Utah were erected into Territories with scarcely less contention. Oregon had been constituted a Territory in 1849 w r ith some such discussion, too. The fiercest struggle between the slavery and abolition parties was for the control of the region next w y est of Missouri and Iowa. In 1854 it was divided into Kansas and Nebraska. The Whigs and Republicans in Congress held, in this controversy, that, by the terms of the Missouri Compromise, these Territories were to exclude slavery. The Democrats, the majority of whom came from the South, insisted, on the other hand, that this understanding had been abrogated by^ certain laws of 1850. Finally, the principle of popular sovereignty, or home rule, expounded by Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois, was adopted regarding Kansas and Nebraska, and the people of those Territories were left free to allow or forbid slavery by their own constitutions, whenever they came into the Union. Thereupon a race ensued between Northern and Southern settlers to fill up and control Kansas. Nebraska was not con tested. For nearly six years the disputed Territory was the scene of much disorder, the colonizers engaging in many bloody affrays. Two constitutions were adopted by different assemblies. One, framed at Lecompton, allowed slavery, but at a popular election it was voted down. Another, adopted at Wyandot in 1859, prohibited slavery; and with this, in 1861, Kansas finally came into the Union. So determined had this HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 165 struggle over slavery been that William H. Seward, as early as 1848, wanted the issue made the chief one in the presidential campaign. Several years later, in the Senate, he spoke of the controversy as an "irrepressible conflict." The more radical Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, in his unsuccessful campaign for the Senatorship in 1858, declared solemnly his belief that the " Union could not permanently endure, half slave and half free. " The Southern people, irritated by what they looked upon as impertinent meddling, threatened the lives of such abolitionists as visited their cities; and sympathizers with the South made it uncomfortable for these agitators even in the North. Two events which greatly embittered feeling between the two sec tions, were the assault on Senator Sumner, in the Senate cham ber, and John Brown s raid into Virginia. The strife in Kansas also agitated the public mind, both at the North and South, increasing the growing animosity between the extremists of both sides, and converting to the ranks of the Republican party large numbers of Northern Democrats, among whom were the names of many eminent men. When Congress met for its winter session of 1859-60, the triumph of the Free State party in Kansas was already achieved, and the would-be State stood knocking at the door of the Union for admission. The Southern party, finding that the scheme of leaving the people of a State to decide this slavery question for themselves had not worked as they expected, took the position that the Federal Govern ment was bound to protect, in the Territories, any citizens of other States who might go there with slaves, and protect them in their possession, too; in short, that no restriction upon the extension of slavery was constitutional. _ The foremost cham pion of this principle was Jefferson Davis, senator from Missis sippi, who presented a series of resolutions embodying the idea, and, after long debate, they were adopted by the Senate on the 24th of May. This doctrine that the Federal Government must protect slaveholders in their " rights " when they settled in a new free State was the central issue of the presidential election in this year. One wing of the Democratic party, noi willing to squarely affirm it, ignored it, and nominated for President the great advocate of popular sovereignty, " the Little Giant," as he was called, Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois. Herschel V. Johnson, of Georgia, was named for Vice-President on this ticket. The more determined factions of the Democracy (Southerners) reiterated Mr. Davis s proposition, and on that platform nominated John C. Breckinridge, of Kentucky, for President, and Joseph Lane, of Oregon (now a State), for Vice- President. The Constitutional Union, or American, or " Know- Nothing " party, took no decided ground on the slavery question. It nominated John Bell, of Tennessee, and Edward Everett, of Massachusetts, as its national candidates. As in 1856, so now, the Republicans emphasized the gospel of the Declaration of Independence that " all men are created equal," and denounced as dangerous heresy this new dogma of the Southerners, and deprecated the threats of disunion which were 166 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. thrown out by the slaveholders. The Democratic split pre vented Mr. Douglas from carrying a single State, left Mr. Bell in the ascendancy in Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee, thus robbing Mr. Breckinridge of part of even the slave States, and defeated him. Lincoln carried every Northern State except New Jersey, which was divided between three candidates. His election quickly brought about secession. The right of a State to withdraw from the Union had been affirmed and debated in Congress and out of Congress for at least three decades. One of the most emphatic assertions of it was made in the tariff con troversy by South Carolina in 1832. Some concessions were made in Congress, however, in tariff legislation the next Feb ruary; and the chief milliners decided to recede from the posi tion they had taken. John C.Calhoun, senator from that State, reaffirmed the doctrine in his speeches, however, repeatedly, and denied the right of the national government to "coerce" a State. The possibility of secession came up for discussion after wards, repeatedly, in connection with slavery, and threats of withdrawal were continually being made by Southern Congress men. It was this association of two ideas that led Daniel Webster, in combating them both, to raise the historic demand for "Liberty and Union, Now and Forever, One and Insepar able." Not merely the notion of secession, but practical meas ures looking to it were considered. Toward the close of the presidential campaign of 1856, a secret council of Southern governors was held in Raleigh, N. C., upon the suggestion of Governor Wise, of Virginia "to lay out a programme for action in case Fremont should be elected. Again, in this year, dur ing the presidential campaign, the idea of secession as a result of Lincoln s election was discussed, openly and secretly, at various meetings at the South. More than once it had been proposed in Congress to abolish slavery in the District of Co lumbia. Should the Republicans gain control of the national government, there was no reason why they should not carry out that scheme, but follow it up elsewhere so the Southerners argued. Not only would the extension of slavery into new States be prevented, and the development of enough Free States be accomplished to overbalance the South, but actual aggression against slavery, where it already existed, might be begun; and the Northern fanatics would not stop until they had completely destroyed the slave system of the South. But this slave system was that by which the chief industry of the South cotton and sugar culture was conducted. Abolition would paralyze all business, ruin agriculture, and, since the millions of slaves were each worth several hundred dollars to their owners, the actual wealth of the whole section would be tremendously diminished by declaring the blacks to be no longer any one s property. Steps to accomplish secession were promptly taken. The South Carolina Legislature was in session in November, when Lincoln was elected. That body immediately considered resolutions declaring this event a menace to the peace and safety of the South, providing for arming the State, and calling a State con- HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 167 vention to consider secession measures. There was some vigor ous opposition to these schemes, but they were carried through. The convention met on December 17, and, three days later, adopted an ordinance of secession without dissent. This in strument formally declared the relations between that State and the others dissolved. A dele gate had been sent to Georgia, whose legislature was in session, to advise similar action. In formal but equally strenuous persuasion was exercised in other States also. Special sessions of State legislatures, governors messages, ardent debates, popular oratory, and other like agencies, were now brought to bear in all the slave States, to secure imitation of South Carolina s example. Much objection was offered to the movement that had now set in. In Georgia, Alexander H. Stephens, a prominent Congressman, took the ground that while the State had the right to secede, it would be inexpedient for her to do so. Nearly all the slave States seceded in the following month. The petroleum oil business was started this year, develop ing intense excitement throughout the country, and an era of wild speculation surpassing any heretofore witnessed in the United States in any line of business. The existence of petro leum about the head-waters of the Alleghany River, in New York and Pennsylvania, was known to the early settlers of that region, but it was collected only in small quantities from the surface of the water as it stood in pools below the springs, and was used only as a medicine. No suspicion appears to have been entertained that the supplies could be increased by sinking deep wells through the sand- stones and shales that underlay the valley; and it was not known that by distillation and chemical treatment the quality of the petroleum could be greatly im proved. The progress of experiments made upon the dis tillation of the oil, and their success, began to direct attention to the localities where petroleum was produced. The first movement in its development was made in 1854, when two men from the city of New York secured the right to the Upper Spring on Oil Creek, Pa. No progress, however, was made until the winter of 1859, when Col. E. L. Drake, of New Haven, completed arrangements for boring a well at Titusville, on Oil Creek. On the 26th of August of that year, at a depth of seventy-one feet, oil was struck, and it rose within a few feet of the surface. This well was the first well ever sunk for oil, and the first petroleum ever obtained by boring. Upon apply ing a large pump, a supply of one thousand barrels per day was produced. This success gave a value to every spot where oil had ever been found, or where it was likely to be. The matter became noised about, and soon attracted a large number of visitors and speculators from the surrounding country. The news had become so wide-spread at the commencement of this year that a scene of excitement beyond description was inau gurated. The Drake well was thronged with visitors arriving from different sections of the country, thousands pouring in from the neighboring States. Everybody was eager to purchase 168 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. or lease oil lands at any price demanded. Almost in a night a wilderness of derricks sprang up and covered the entire bot tom lands of Oil Creek. Oil Creek below Titusville, the valley of the Alleghany River from below Franklin into Warren County, Pa., and other places were soon explored by wells, and around the most successful of these, formerly the most re tired portions of the State, villages began to spring up and rapidly increase in population. It has been estimated that be fore the close of this year, the number of wells in that part of Pennsylvania was two thousand. The Prince of Wales, the heir apparent of the English throne, arrived at St. Johns, Newfoundland, on the 23d of July. After completing his tour through the British Provinces, he ar rived at Detroit, on the 21st of September, and thence pro ceeded, by the way of Chicago, St. Louis, Cincinnati, and Baltimore, to Washington, where he arrived on the 3d of Octo ber. He remained the guest of the President until the 7th, visit ing Mount Vernon in the interval. He then visited Richmond, thence proceeded to New York, stopping at Philadelphia on his way. Everywhere in the United States he was most cor dially received. He reached New York on the llth, and was welcomed by a grand military and civic display. On the fol lowing day he attended a grand ball given him in his honor by a committee of four hundred prominent citizens. On the evening of the 13th, a torchlight procession of firemen paraded in his honor. On the 15th he visited the Military Academy at West Point, thence proceeded to Albany, where he was enter tained by the Governor of the State. From Albany he went to Boston, where he was welcomed by a procession and a ball. He then travelled to Portland, where he arrived on the 20th. After a brief interview with the city officials, he proceeded on board the vessel which was awaiting him, and set out on his homeward voyage. The United States steamer Powhatan arrived at San Fran cisco on the 27th of March, bringing a Japanese embassy to this country. This embassy consisted of two principal ambas sadors, princes of the highest rank in the empire, with two associates of nearly equal rank. Accompanying these were ten officials, two interpreters, two physicians, and fifty-three servants. At San Francisco they were treated with the highest respect and as guests of the city, which appropriated twenty thousand dollars for their entertainment. The Governor of the State, the officers of the corporation, members of the legislature, and many private citizens visited them, and on the 2d of April a Eublic reception, attended by the United States officers, the Dreign consuls, and State authorities, was accorded to them. They brought one hundred thousand dollars to defray their ex penses, and many boxes of presents to the members of our gov ernment, though invited to come as the guests of our country, and at its sole expense. From San Francisco they went to New York, where they arrived in the United States steamer Roanoke on the 9th of May. The embassy did not stop at HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 169 New York, but proceeded in the same vessel to Washington. There the strangers were received with great distinction as guests of the nation, and the treaty which they bore was for mally ratified. From Washington they proceeded to New York, stopping at Philadelphia on their way, arriving there, as the guests of the city, on the 16th of June. They received a similar reception in New York to that in San Francisco, and remained until the 29th, when they embarked on board the United States steamer Niagara, which had been put in readi ness to take them to their homes. The mammoth steamer Great Eastern left England on the 17th of June, and arrived at New York on the 28th, where for several days she was visited by large numbers of spectators. The United States steamers Mohawk and Wyandot, cruising off the coast of Cuba, captured several slavers, and brought their cargoes to Key West. One of these slavers had on board five hundred and ten native Africans brought from Congo River ; another had five hundred and sixty who had been purchased at Whydah, of the King of Dahomey. In all there were seven teen hundred captured slaves gathered at Key West, among whom great mortality occurred. Provision was made by Con gress for sending these Africans to Liberia. Another slaver, owned in New York, was captured near the African coast by the United States steamer Mohican, with nearly nine hundred slaves on board, and eight hundred and sixty of them were landed in Liberia, the remainder having died on the way. William Walker, the filibuster, quietly left New Orleans, in June, on another expedition to Nicaragua. Making a descent upon Honduras, he attacked the town of Truxillo, and cap tured it without any difficulty. In a proclamation to the peo ple of Honduras he informed them that he was making war, not on them, but on their government. In August, the Presi dent of Honduras with seven hundred men approached Tru xillo, and the commander of an English man-of-war in the harbor demanded that Walker should give up the town, on the ground that the British Government had claims upon the re ceipts of the custom-house. Walker then abandoned Truxillo, leaving his sick behind, and with eighty men retired down the coast, followed by a body of native troops, whose attacks were repulsed. In September, he was overtaken by Gen eral Alvarez at the head of a considerable force. He, with his men, surrendered without resistance. Walker and his second in command were delivered to the authorities of Hon duras, but the remainder of the party were sent back to the United States. Walker was brought to trial, condemned, and shot. His partner was sentenced to four years imprisonment. The first steam fire-engine used in Indianapolis was received there on the 30th of March. The New York World made its first appearance in June. During this year work upon the Central Park at New York was sufficiently advanced for it to be opened to the public. In January were completed the last two links hi the great 170 HISTORY -OF THE UNITED STATES. chain of railways from Maine to Louisiana; the first, the last twenty-five miles on the Mississippi Central, and the second of sixty -one miles between Lynchburg and Charlottesville, on the Orange and Alexandria Railroad. By the completion of these roads, a continuous line of railway , about two thousand miles in length, was formed between Bangor and New Orleans, with the exception of four short ferries, two of which were soon after bridged over. On the afternoon of the 10th of January, a serious disaster occurred at Lawrence, Mass. The main building of the Pem- berton Cotton Mills, one of the largest structures of the kind in the country, while the machinery was in motion suddenly fell without warning, burying in the ruins several hundreds of the operatives. Strenuous efforts were made to secure the victims, and many were saved ; but at nine o clock in the evening the ruins took fire from the accidental breaking of a lantern used by one of those engaged in the work of aiding the sufferers. The flames spread with such rapidity as to render it impossible to save those who were shut up among the fallen timbers and machinery, and large numbers were burned to death, in addi tion to those who were killed by the fallen building. Accord ing to a careful canvas of the city made a week after the disaster, the number known to be dead was one hundred and seventeen ; there were eighty-nine missing, most of whom were supposed to be buried in the ruins; one hundred and twelve were severely, and two hundred slightly injured. A dreadful tornado passed over a portion of Illinois and Iowa, on the 3d of June, occasioning a loss of over one hun dred and fifty lives. The tornado travelled ninety miles in Iowa, and seventy in Illinois, causing an immense destruction of property. The steamer Hungarian, on her voyage from Liverpool to Portland, Me., was wrecked on Sable Island, Nova Scotia. It was believed that every person on board perished over two luindred, crew and passengers. On the night of the 7th of September, the steamer Lady Elgin, plying on Lakes Michigan and Superior, was run into by a schooner, and sunk in a few minutes. Of about four hundred persons on board, less than one hundred were saved. 1861 Abraham Lincoln assumed the duties of President of the United States, and Hannibal Hamlin as Vice-President, on the 4th of March. The Legislatures of the Southern States passed ordinances of secession from the Union this year, in the following order: Mississippi, January 9th ; Florida, January 10th : Alabama, January llth ; Georgia, January 19th ; Louisiana, January 26th ; North Carolina, January 30th ; Texas, February 1st ; Virginia, April 17th ; Arkansas, May 6th. The Legislature of North Carolina voted to submit the question to the people; but reassembling on the 20th of May, accepted it, without doing so. That of Texas voted to submit it to the people, and on March 4th that State was declared by proclamation to HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 171 be out of the Union. The Legislature of Virginia refused, April 4th, to submit the question to the people ; but afterwards voted to do so, and a vote for secession was cast on the 25th of June. The Legislature of Arkansas, April 14th, voted to submit it to the people, but reassembling, passed it on the 6th of May. On the 20th of May, Governor Magoffin proclaimed Kentucky neutral. The Legislature of Missouri assumed a similar position. On June 12th, the Governor of Missouri issued a proclamation for fifty thousand militia " to repel in vasion," and fled to the South. The Legislature of Tennessee passed a declaration of independence, to be submitted to the people; and on the 24th of June, the governor proclaimed her out of the Union. On the 21st of June however, a Union con vention was held at Greenville, which issued a declaration of grievances. Seven of the "Free and Independent Sovereignties," as they considered themselves, which had already left the old Union, quickly formed a new one. Their delegates met at Montgom ery February 4th, and by the 8th had organized " The Confed erate States of America," with Jefferson Davis of Mississippi for President, and Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia for Vice- President. Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina, and Tennes see joined the Confederacy upon declaring themselves out of the Union. These additions to the Confederacy made eleven members in all, The other four States, Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware, either voted to remain neutral, or failed to pass an ordinance of secession; but part of their terri tory was debatable ground during military operations; and among their citizens were many earnest and active sympathizers with the South. The South was not allowed to go without some attempt to compromise the difficulty. Andrew Jackson treated nullifica tion as treason. He denied that the Union was a mere league from which any member might withdraw at will. He insisted that the States did surrender part of their sovereignty to the national government when they formed the Union, and that se cession was not a constitutional privilege. An attempt to secede, therefore, he held to be an act of violence and a threat of ruin to the Union, to be resisted and punished. So, now, a. large element in the North held that no compromise should be assented to; but that vigorous measures should be adopted, in order to bring the Southern States back to their allegiance. The attitude of the South was well expressed in the remark of one of her statesmen: "All we want is to be let alone." But many Republicans, taking Jackson s view of secession, did not propose to let the South alone, but to treat her as in rebellion. Others doubted the wisdom of employing force. Some, dazed by what was going on, and uninformed as to Lincoln s pur poses, had no views at all. Others would have let them go in peace. Still others were for friendly overtures and pacifying persuasion. All the winter of 1860-61 Congress and the press .discussed these issues, the right of secession, the right of the 172 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Federal government to coerce a State, and the expediency of concessions. Two peace schemes were conspicuous among sev eral under consideration. One was the Crittenden Compro mise. The Senator from Kentucky, whose name it bore, intro duced it. The essential idea of it was a proposed amendment to the Constitution, fixing the old Missouri compromise line, latitude 36 30 , as the division between free and slavery territory in the West, prohibiting Congress from abolish ing slavery in the District of Columbia, or any State, and providing for a more effectual enforcement of the fugitive- slave law. The other project was submitted to Congress by a peace convention made up of delegates from the vari ous States, called by Governor Wise of Virginia. This body met in February. It adopted a plan forbidding interfer ence with slavery wherever it existed, and allowing new States to decide for themselves whether they would allow slavery, and forbidding the annexation of new territory to the United States without the consent of the South. Neither of these measures was adopted by Congress. Mr. Seward, who, as Lincoln s chief rival in the nominating convention, was looked upon as probable Secretary of State and spokesman for the in coming administration, met them with a third project to call a national convention to consider what amendments were neces sary; but this was rejected also. Without waiting for these top ics to be disposed of, the Senators and Congressmen from the eleven States which had then seceded withdrew from the Na tional Legislature in Washington. South Carolina s senators resigned in November. Most of the withdrawals were in Jan uary, and a few of them were prefaced by short formal speeches. Jefferson Davis was one of those to indulge in this ceremony. This reduction of the Democratic strength made it practicable to admit Kansas, the thirty-fourth State, to the Union in February. The Morrill Tariff Act, which Southern free-traders would have antagonized, was also passed; and only the ordinary appropriations, amounting to seventy millions of dollars, were made for the coming year. Long before the actual outbreak of the war the local State mili tia had taken possession of nearly every fort, arsenal, navy -yard, revenue- cutter, mint, sub-treasury, custom-house, post-office, and other Federal posts in the South. Anticipating this, Major Eobert Anderson, at Fort Moultrie, in Charleston harbor, re moved his little garrison of United States troops to Fort Sum- ter by night in December. Fortress Monroe, at Hampton Roads, Ya., was also in Federal hands; Fort Pickens, near Pensacola, and works at Key West and Tortugas, Fla., also; and this was all that was saved. Some thirty forts, hundreds of cannon, and munitions valued at twenty millions of dollars, fell into Southern hands. John B. Floyd, Buchanan s Secre tary of War, who afterwards became a Confederate general, was accused of stocking the forts and arsenals in the South quite fully, with the view of thus aiding the cause of secession. The way in which the navy was dispatched to foreign waters HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 173 during the winter was also thought to be dictated by a desire to help the Confederacy by disabling, for a time, Lincoln s ad ministration. Mr. Buchanan believed that he had no authority to check secession, and pursued a passive policy, aiming, how ever, to preserve peace until his successor should come m. In deed, he practically pledged himself, by a commissioner se cretly sent South, to remain neutral. The first shot fired at the Stars and Stripes in this contest, perhaps, was that aimed at the steamer Star of the West, sent down to Fort Sumter with provisions, in January. She left New York on the 4th, and reached Charleston harbor on the 9th. As she came up the bay that morning, a cannon-ball was sent into her from Fort Moultrie. This was the act of the South Carolina militia. As yet but one State had seceded There was no Confederacy. Without trying to communicate with Major Anderson the steamer turned about and left the harbor. This was the signal for a rapid occupation of other fortifications by Southern forces. The first decided act of war came three months later. On the llth of April, General G. T. Beauregard demanded of Major Anderson the surrender of Fort Sumter to the Confederate forces, and this being refused, he began a thirty-four hours bombardment next day. The fort was badly damaged, and Anderson s rations were ex hausted, with no prospect of relief. He therefore surrendered. The news of this aggression thrilled the country. Lincoln im mediately called for seventy-five thousand volunteers for three months service in suppressing the rebellion; and May 3d, for eighty-three thousand, including seamen, for " three years or the war." Massachusetts and Pennsylvania soldiers were attacked by a mob while passing through Baltimore April 19th, and, one being killed, fired on the rioters, killing eleven. Gen eral B. F. Butler commanding Fortress Monroe, at the mouth of James River, attempted, June 10th, to take Bethel Church, near by, without success. General T. A. Morris, with Indiana and Ohio troops, invaded Virginia from Parkersburg, and won a slight victory at Philippi. General George B. McClellan, taking command in Western Virginia, followed this up with another more decisive, at Rich Mountain, July llth. Another battle, September 14th, won by General W. S. Rosecrans, practically secured to the Union the region now included in West Virginia. Colonel Lew Wallace drove a small Confederate force from Romney, west of the Blue Ridge, June llth. Gen eral Robert Patterson was thus enabled to safely invade the Shen- andoah Valley from the north. He occupied Winchester, and was instructed to keep General Joseph E. Johnston s Confed erate troops from going eastward to Manassas, where now the chief battle of the year was to be fought. The main Union army under General Irwin McDowell, advanced westward in July from Alexandria, Va. A skirmish with Beauregard s troops occurred near Bull Run, the 18th; and a battle ensued the 21st, at Manassas. The invaders seemed victorious at first; but after noon six thousand of Johnston s soldiers arrived, 174 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. and the Union troops fell back in great disorder to Washing ton. The Confederate loss was two thousand and fifty; Union, about three thousand. The disaster disheartened the North. Lieutenant-General Scott, commander-in-chief, then resigned. McDowell was promptly superseded by McClellan; and Patter son, for not restraining Johnston, was replaced by General N. P. Banks. McClellan threw two thousand troops across the Potomac at Ball s Bluff in October; but on the 21st, before they could be supported, they were attacked and routed. Missouri was invaded by Confederates from Texas and Arkansas in the spring. They were defeated by General Na thaniel Lyon at Booneville, June 17th; by General Franz Sigel at Carthage, July 5th ; and at Wilson s Creek, August 10th. Lyon was killed there, after apparent victory; and Sigel with drew. The Confederates took Ler ngton, which General John C. Fremont recovered October 16th. General David Hunter, and then General H. W. Halleck, succeeded to command in Missouri that fall. Before the year closed the Union forces practically controlled the State. The Confederates had occupied Columbus, Ky. , in the autumn, and Belmont, in Missouri, opposite. General U. S. Grant tried to dislodge them from the latter place, November 7th, but was driven out again by General Folk s men from Columbus. The Union navy blockaded most of the Southern seaports this year, capturing many inward-bound vessels with war-muni tions, and outward-bound vessels with cotton, and helped troops get a foothold along the coast. Commodore Stringham and General Butler took the forts at Hatteras Inlet, N. C., August 29th, and Commodore Pupont and General Thomas W. Sher man captured those at Port Royal, S. C., November 7th. Next day, Captain Wilkes of the San Jacinto stopped the British merchant-steamer Trent, from Havana to England, and cap tured Jflmes M. Mason and John Slidell, Confederate commis sioners, bound on a diplomatic errand to London. The Eng lish people sympathized with the Confederacy strongly. The British Government resented the act, and a declaration of war seemed imminent. But Lincoln s Secretary of State, Seward, having first secured from England an important admission of the sacredness of neutral flags in time of war, the prisoners were surrendered. In Congress, practically nothing was done, during the close of Buchanan s administration, having any reference to the war, as the war was not then a certainty. After the attack on Fort Sumter, however, and President Lincoln had called out the troops, suspended the writ of habeas corpus in the insurrection ary districts, declared a blockade of the Southern ports, and taken other measures which he thought the emergency required, he felt the necessity of moral and pecuniary support from Con gress, especially as the military operations in May and June began to indicate the seriousness of the conflict already in augurated. He therefore called an extra session of Congress to meet on the 4th of July. Accordingly it convened on that HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 175 date, and, after passing measures recommended by the Presi dent, adjourned on the 6th of August. On the 17th of July, Congress passed an act authorizing a national loan for two hundred and fifty millions of dollars. For the loan, coupon or registered bonds, or treasury notes, were to be issued the bonds to bear seven per cent interest, and the treasury notes, of not less than fifty dollars each, interest at the rate of seven and three tenths per cent; or the Treasury might issue notes of less amount than fifty dollars, bearing no interest, or notes bearing three and sixty-five hundredths per cent; provided that no such note should be for less than ten dol lars, and that the amount so issued should not exceed fifty mil lions of dollars. On the 5th of August, Congress passed a supplemental act, authorizing the issue of Treasury notes of a denomination of not less than five dollars, and such notes payable on demand, without interest, not exceeding fifty mil lions of dollars, and that they should be received in payment of public dues. In August, Congress passed an act for confiscating property in transit, or provided for transit, to or from insurrectionary States, or used for the promotion of insurrection. On the 16th the President issued a Proclamation declaring the seceding- States to be in a state of insurrection, prohibiting all commer cial intercourse between them and the other parts of the Union without special permission from the Government, under the penalty of the confiscation of all goods or vehicles conveying them; and declaring that all vessels belonging wholly or in part to any citizen of the insurgent States found at sea, or in a part of the United States, after fifteen days from the date of the proclamation, to be forfeited to the United States. Postal communication with the Confederate States was ordered to be closed on the first of June, and letters directed there to be sent to the dead-letter office. At this period there were about sixteen hundred banks in the United States. Their circulation, on the 1st of January, was estimated by the Secretary of the Treasury at two hundred and two millions of dollars; of this circulation, about one hundred and fifty millions were in the loyal States. Kansas was admitted into the Union on the 30th of January, with a constitution prohibiting slavery within her limits. On the 3d of March, Colorado, Nevada, and Dakota were formed into Territories. The Pacific telegraph-line between St. Louis and San Fran cisco was completed on the 25th of October. For the eastern part of the line the materials and tools were taken to Omaha, at which point everything was gathered in readiness to start westward. For that part of the line were employed four hun dred men, fitted out for a hard campaign, with a rifle and a navy revolver for each man, and with the necessary provisions, including one hundred head of cattle for beef, to be driven with the train and killed as needed. For the transportation of the material and the supplies for this army of workmen, five hun- 176 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. dred oxen and mules, and over one hundred wagons were purchased by the company ; and these not proving sufficient, other transportation was hired, making the total number of beasts of burden seven hundred oxen and one hundred pair of mules. The first pole was set up on the 4th of July, and the work to Salt Lake City proceeded to completion at the rate of about ten miles per day. At the same time that the work was progressing between Omaha and Salt Lake City, another party was building the western half of the line between the latter place and San Francisco, and the two divisions were completed about the same time. California was visited during the autumn and early winter by a disastrous flood. The streams, swollen by continued rains, flooded the valleys, inundated towns, swept away mills, dams, houses, and destroyed property to the estimated value of ten millions of dollars. The rains commenced early in November, and continued to fall without scarcely any cessation for four weeks. On the 14th of November, a destructive fire occurred at Con cord, N. H. , which laid a large part of the business portion of the city in ashes. A conflagration at Charleston, on the llth of December, destroyed property in the business portion of the city, of the value, as reported, of upwards of five millions of dollars. A submarine cable was successfully laid between Baltimore and Fortress Monroe, after a third trial. The feat of telegraphing from an aerial station was accom plished, for the first time, by the aeronaut Mr. Lowe, who ascended in a balloon from the city of Washington, to the elevation of about six hundred feet. On the 10th of August, the aeronaut, Mr. La Montaine, ascended in a balloon from a tug boat in Hampton Roads, to the height of three thousand feet, and successfully observed the position of the Confederate forces beyond Newport News and at Sewall s Point. On the 4th of October, Mr. La Montaine made another ascent in the service of the Union army on the Potomac. He rose to the height of one and a half miles, and was carried directly over the lines of the Confederate army, where, after making satisfactory observa tions, he threw put ballast and rose to the height of three miles, at which elevation he struck a current of air which passed the balloon over Washington, and finally it descended in the State of Maryland. The first steel guns manufactured in this country were made at Trenton, and were ready for service on the 1st of July. The banks of New York, Philadelphia, and Boston sus pended specie payments in December, in consequence of the withdrawal of large amounts of gold by depositors for the purpose of selling it at a premium. The market price per pound of Middling Uplands cotton in the New York market on the 1st of January was eleven and one half cents ; on the 1st of April, twelve and five eighths ; on the 1st of July, fourteen and five-eighths ; and on the first of October, twenty-one to twenty-one and a half cents. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 17? 1862 Military operations in the West and Southwest commenced early in the year. Col. J. A. Garfield won a slight victory at Big Sandy River, in Eastern Kentucky, on the 9th of January. Ten days later, Gen. George H. Thomas secured one more decisive at Mill Spring, in the same region. The Confederate general Zollicoffer was killed there. Further operations in that locality were suspended by the commander of that depart ment, Gen. Buell, to await the result of those directed by Gen. Halleck farther west. The latter sent Gen. Grant against Fort Henry, on the Tennessee River, at the southern border of Kentucky ; the post was evacuated on the 6th of February, its garrison going to Fort Donelson, on the Cumber land, in Northern Tennessee. Grant pursued with 80,000 men, and Commodore Foote co-operated with his gun-boats. Foote was wounded in an engagement the 14th ; a hard battle ensued the 15th; and on the 16th, Gen. Buckner, commander, sur rendered the fort, with 10,000 men as prisoners of war. This was by far the most brilliant and useful victory yet won by Union arms. It practically dislodged the Confederates from Kentucky and Tennessee without another stroke. Federal troops under Grant then occupied Pittsburg Landing, on the Tennessee, near Northwestern Mississippi. Here they were fiercely assaulted, April 6th, by a Confederate army under Gen. Albert Sidney Johnston, and nearly routed, though Johnston was killed. Buell s supporting column, advancing from Nash ville, arrived that night, and next day Grant was able to repel the enemy, who renewed the attack under Beauregard. The losses on each side, the two days, were about 10,000 much the heaviest yet witnessed in this war. Upon withdrawing from Columbus, Ky., the Confederates had fortified at Island No. 10, in the Mississippi. Beset by Gen. John Pope, who had taken New Madrid, on the west bank, and by Commodore Foote s fleet, they surrendered April 7, after twenty-three days bom bardment. Union gun-boats were now able to go down to Memphis, Tenn., which city was peaceably occupied June 6th. While these operations were being conducted in Kentucky and Tennessee, Union troops led by Gen. Curtis crossed into Arkansas from Southwestern Missouri in March. He was vigorously attacked on the 6th and 7th at Pea Ridge, and held his ground. The enemy lost two generals, Mclntosh and Mc- Culloch, but in men the Union losses were heaviest, and Curtis s victory had no practical result. On the 19th of Sep tember, Grant, assisted by Rosecrans, defeated Gen. Sterling Price at luka, Northeastern Mississippi. Grant, with part of his troops, withdrew to La Grange, Tenn., leaving Rosecrans to occupy Corinth, Miss., which Price evacuated. Price and Van Dorn attacked Rosecrans here, with superior numbers, October 3d and 4th ; but, after a stubborn fight, they fell back defeated. In December, Gen. Wm. Tecumseh Sherman moved down from Memphis to Chickasaw Bayou, on the Yazoo River, to threaten Vicksburg, Miss.; and Grant, from La Grange, further east, pushed into Mississippi to support the movement. 178 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. The latter s communications were cut at Holly Springs by Van Dora, the 20th, and he was obliged to retreat, Sherman was badly defeated on the 29th, and precipitately took transports on the Mississippi Kiver for Memphis. Tennessee and Kentucky were again contested this year. Gen. Kirby Smith led one Confederate force rapidly northward in August, taking Richmond, Ky., the 30th, and then Lexing ton, and the State capital, Frankfort. Gen. Bragg, with an other, advanced from Chattanooga, captured four thousand five hundred Union troops at Mumfordsville, Tenn., September 17th, and then tried to join Smith and reach Louisville, Ky. Cincinnati was saved by the exertions of Gen. Lew Wallace ; and Buell, coming up from Nashville, headed Bragg off, forc ing him to retire. A severe but rather indecisive engage ment ensued at Perryyille, Ky., October 8th. Bragg then con tinued his retreat, taking four thousand wagon-loads of spoils from the State. Rosecrans now succeeded Buell in command at Nashville. Bragg was thirty-two miles southeastward, at Mur- freesboro, near which, at Stone River, severe battles were fought, December 31st and January 2d (1863). Bragg was obliged to retire to Tullahoma for the winter. The losses at Stone River were ten thousand or twelve thousand on each side. Rosecrans received hearty official praise for his success. In the Shenandoah Valley, in March, General Banks had ad vanced as far southward as Harrisonburg; but Stonewall Jack son, entering the valley from the eastward at Front Royal, obliged him to hurry back to the Potomac. Fremont, bv a similar manoeuvre, tried to force Jackson to retreat, but in vain. The Union blockading fleet in Hampton Roads, Va., was attacked March 8th by a strange-looking monster, fitted out at Norfolk. It was the iron-clad ram Virginia, constructed from the hull of the old war-ship Merrimac. The frigates Congress and Cumberland were sunk by it. The event created a panic in Northern seaports. The next day, however, the Virginia was met by a small new war-rvessel called the Monitor, in vented by John Ericsson, which arrived in the night from the North. It was iron-clad, and had only a revolving turret, con taining heavy guns above deck. This craft, after a five hours contest, put the Virginia to flight. This brilliant event revolu tionized naval architecture, and opened a new route to Rich mond for the Union army. McClellan had designed advancing upon the Confederate capital from the north; and in March began pushing forward from the vicinity of Washington, with 200,000 men. He haa reached the Rappahanock River without serious resistance, when the War Department compelled him to change his plans. Leav ing Pope in command on the Rappahannock, he took 120,000 troops by water around to Fortress Monroe, whence, April 4th, he pushed northeastward. A siege reduced Yorktown May 4th, and opened most of the peninsula between the James and York rivers to him. Victories at Williamsburg and West Point en abled him to reach the Chickahominy River before the close of HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 179 the month. Having crossed it, he pressed on to Fair Oaks (or Seven Pines), within seven miles of Richmond, where the enemy gave battle the 31st and June 1st. After a hard and bloody struggle the Confederates gave way. Their commander, John ston, was badly wounded. General Robert E. Lee succeeded him, and retained the chief leadership through the rest of the war. McClellan, instead of following up the enemy, now paused to build bridges and roads, and to shift his base from the York to the James River. General Wood had facilitated this by occupy ing Norfolk, from Fortress Monroe. McClellan asked for rein forcements at Washington at this juncture, but did not get them. Lee, at this time, had but 25,000 men near Richmond, although his force was estimated at much more. He summoned Stone wall Jackson s force from the Shenandoah Valley, and, thus recruited, assumed the offensive. At Oak Grove, June 25th, he gave battle, without result; renewed the attack, next day, at Mechanicsville, and was repulsed; delivered another blow the 27th, at Gaines s Mill, forcing Fitz-John Porter to give way; did little fighting the 28th; struck the Union forces, both at Savage Station, where Sumner s corps held its ground firmly, and at White Oak Swamp the 29th. Hostilities were less fierce next day. Meantime, McClellan was retreating toward James River. Here, at Malvern Hill, twelve miles below Richmond, came the most terrible battle of the Peninsular campaign the last of the Seven Days Fight. Lee charged the concentrated Union army July 1st, repeatedly and desperately, but could not dis lodge it. Ten days later, General H. W. Halleck was made general-in-chief at Washington. He soon directed McClellan to bring back his army, by water, to the Potomac. The trans fer was gradually effected late in August. Lee continued the aggressive, and startled the North. Banks was first defeated, and prevented from helping Pope. The lat ter was flanked by Stonewall Jackson, who occupied Manassas, capturing valuable stores. Here Pope, who had fallen back from the Rappahannock, attacked him, August 28th and 29th, hoping to rout him before Lee could come up. The neglect of Fitz-John Porter to support Pope, as directed, made this scheme a failure, and the second battle of Manassas, like the first (in 1861), was a Union disaster. Porter was tried by court-martial, and dismissed from the service. At Chantilly, the Union troops were again defeated, and Generals Kearney and Stevens were killed. Pope and his shattered force having retreated to Washington, Lee advanced without resistance through Freder ick and Hagerstown, Md., captured Harper s Ferry, and threatened the national capital. McClellan, whose magnetism had made him the idol of the Army of the Potomac, and who had shown great mastery of military art in organizing the raw, un disciplined troops which had been given him, had planned a campaign against Richmond early in the year, from the north. With great reluctance he yielded to the command from Wash ington to abandon it and to undertake the Peninsular campaign. This opened with great promise, but ended in disaster. The 180 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. result, he felt, was due to the refusal of the War Department to give him needed reinforcements. The North, however, not knowing the merits of the case, but greatly disappointed in the apparent results, judged him severely. When Hal leek, sum moned in July from St. Louis to Washington to direct all the military operations of the country, ordered McClellan up from the Peninsula to Acquia Creek, on the lower Potomac, the latter was left there inactive, in disgrace. But when Pope was routed at Bull Run, and Maryland was invaded, the hero of Fair Oaks promptly interposed the Army of the Potomac between Wash ington and the enemy, and reached out to the westward, feeling for the latter. He was fortunate enough to capture a general order of Lee s, September 12th, which revealed the whole Con federate plan. Harper s Perry was the principal objective point; and the force thrown out towards Washington was a rear-guard for the rest of the Confederate army. On the 14th, this body was attacked by Generals Hatch and Doubleday on South Moun tain, and defeated with considerable loss. Franklin also won a victory at another gap in the same ridge. The enemy fell back on Sharpsburg, but meantime continued the movement against Harper s Ferry, which fell next day. Just west of South Mountain, Antietam Creek runs southwardly into the Potomac. Along this stream McClellan now formed his forces for a deci sive conflict. On the 16th, Hooker crossed the stream, got around to the northward of Lee, and secured an advantageous position. Next day the two armies came together at Antietam Creek. Hooker began the battle on the right, and Burnside on the left. Porter, near the centre, was kept in reserve until late in the day Mansfield, Sumner, and Franklin were to support Hooker. One of the most bitterly contested spots on the field was a cornfield in Hooker s front. Before night it was literally soaked with blood. Ricketts and Meade s divisions first drove Stonewall Jackson s division across this tract into the woods, with great loss on both sides. Hood coming to Jackson s aid, sent them back with equal carnage. Mansfield now reinforced the Union line, but was struck down, fatally wounded. Hooker rallied the combined corps, but was driven from the field by a painful wound in the foot. Sumner now took command, and brought up fresh troops. Sedgwick now regained the corn field. He, too, was wounded thrice, and forced personally to retire, and his division at length came back over the bloody soil. Franklin s corps now came up, and Smith s division for a third time took the cornfield, with terrible losses on both sides. Good work was done near the centre now by French and Richardson Burnside had pushed out toward Sharpsburg, in the morning; but Lee was reinforced by his troops at Harper s Ferry, and drove the Union left back in confusion. General Rodman, while rallying his division, fell mortally wounded, and McClel lan claimed the result of the day s conflict as a Union victory, although his lines had been advanced but little. The losses were not far from 10,000 on each side. The next day, McClel lan prepared for another advance on the 19th-, but when the HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 181 second day dawned, Lee had disappeared from his front, and was back in Virginia. Pursuit was given cautiously, but not another blow was struck. A Confederate cavalry force under General J. E. B. Stuart made a complete circuit around the Army of the Potomac about this time, and returned to Virginia in safety. McClellan s failure to attack soon after the battle of Autietam excited fresh unfavorable criticism, and, in Novem ber, while his line was extended along the Rappahannock, he was replaced in command by General Burnside. This officer, before sharing in the battle of Antietam, had co-operated with Commodore Goldsboro in the capture of Roanoke Island. This he had followed up by occupying Newberne and Beaufort, 1ST. C. The new commander of the Army of the Potomac threw his force across the Rappahannock in December. Lee waited until the work was done. Then, the 13th, he terribly assailed the Union Hues. He was bravely but ineffectually met. Two nights later Burnside quietly withdrew. General Gillmore, April llth, captured Fort Pulaski, at the mouth of the Savannah River. Admiral Farragut, after a week of hard fighting on the Mississippi, took the forts below New- Orleans, and landed General Butler s troops in that city, April 25th. In February, Congress passed an act for the additional issue of Treasury notes. By it ten millions of dollars in notes for a less denomination than five dollars were authorized to be issued, in addition to the fifty millions previously authorized . These issues were to be receivable for all payments, including customs, that might be due to the government. On the 25th of February, the President approved what was called the Legal Tender Act, passed by Congress. By it, the Secretary of the Treasury was authorized to issue notes to the amount of one hundred and fifty millions of dollars, not bearing interest, payable in Washington and New York, none to be less than five dollars, but fifty millions of dollars of these to be in lieu of the same amount of Treasury notes issued under the act of July 17, 1861, which were to be taken up as soon as practicable. These notes were to be a legal tender for all debts, public and private, and to be received and paid out by the government for all purposes except ing duties on imports and interest on the public debt; those were to be paid in gold. The bill also authorized the issue of Treasury bonds to the amount of five hundred millions of dol lars, bearing interest at the rate of six per cent, payable semi- annually, redeemable at the pleasure of the government after twenty years from date. These bonds, and all other securities of the United States, to be exempt from taxation by any State or county. In July another bill was passed authorizing another issue of one hundred and fifty millions of dollars of Treasury notes. By an act of Congress passed in April, slavery was abolished in the District of Columbia. The act provided, for a commis sion to remunerate loyal owners. Not over three hundred dollars a slave were to be paid, and one million of dollars were 182 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. appropriated for the purpose. One hundred thousand dollars were also appropriated for their colonization. An act was also passed abolishing slavery in the "Territories of the United States now existing, or which may at any time hereafter be formed or acquired by the United States." In July, Congress passed an act to collect an internal revenue. A tax was to be imposed upon domestic manufactures, trades, and occupations, and it provided a system of stamps, licenses, income, and other duties. A tax averaging three per cent on manufactured articles was imposed, most of which were enu merated; of those enumerated, distilled spirits were to pay twenty cents per gallon; ales, one dollar per barrel. Licenses, varying from five to two hundred dollars, were imposed upon almost every profession; stamps, from three cents to one dollar upon the paper used for bills of exchange, and from one to twenty dollars upon conveyances of real estate. The income-tax to be three per cent on the excess over six hundred dollars of all in comes up to ten thousand dollars, and five per cent on those greater. On the 1st of July the President approved an act of Congress granting aid for the construction of a line of railroad from the Missouri River to the Pacific Ocean. The act granted a subsidy of sixteen thousand dollars in government bonds, per mile, for that portion of the line between the Missouri River and the base of the Rocky Mountains; forty-eight thousand dollars per mile for a distance of one hundred and fifty miles through the mountain range ; thirty-two thousand dollars per mile between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada range; forty-eight thousand dollars per mile across that range, a distance of one hundred and fifty miles; and thirty-two thousand dollars per mile for the California section. This subsidy was to be a first lien upon the railroad. By subsequent legislation, that sub sidy was made a second mortgage, and gave the railroad com pany a right to issue a first mortgage to secure its own bonds for an amount equal to those of the government issue. The act also granted to the company a right of way, four hundred feet in width, for the whole distance, and a grant of twelve thousand eight hundred acres of land, on the line of the road, for each mile of the railway constructed. The President, on the 17th of July, approved an act of Congress confiscating the property and emancipating the slaves of all rebels in arms after sixty days, if they did not submit; and on the 25th, he issued a proclamation warning all such per sons to return to their allegiance, under pain of the penalties provided for in the act. The bill provided that any person that should be convicted of treason would be punished by death, or, at the discretion of the court, by imprisonment for not less than five years, and a fine of not less than ten thousand dollars; his slaves in either case to be set free. Any person engaging in or aiding rebellion to be punished by imprisonment not ex ceeding ten years, or a fine not exceeding ten thousand dollars, or both; his slaves to be set free. Persons found to be guilty of HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 183 treason to be incapable of holding any office under the United States. It also provided for the seizure of the property of per sons holding certain specified civil, naval, or military offices un der the Southern Confederacy. Slaves of any person engaged in rebellion, coming in any way into the power of the United States forces, were to be considered prisoners of war, and not again held as slaves. No fugitive slave should be given up, unless the claimant made oath that he had not been engaged in re bellion. By the act, the President was authorized to employ persons of African descent for the suppression of the rebellion, and he might make provision for the colonization of such freed slaves as he should deem expedient. In July, Congress passed an act increasing duties on imports; also a bill authorizing the Secretary of the Treasury to furnish postage and other stamps to the depositories of the United States, to be exchanged for notes, and forbade the issue by any one of tokens, or of checks for less than a dollar, to circulate as money. On the 1st of July the President, in response to the official request of the Governors of eighteen States, issued a call for three hundred thousand additional men for the army. On the 4th of August an order was issued from the War Department, directing that a draft of three hundred thousand more men should be called into the service of the United States, to serve for nine months, unless previously discharged; and also direct ing that if any State should not, by the 15th of August, furnish its quota of the three hundred thousand volunteers previously de manded, and authorized by law, the deficiency would also be made up by a special draft from the militia. The six hundred thousand men directed to be furnished by these orders would bring the effective force in the field up to fully a million. It was expected that the special bounties for enlistments which were being offered by the different States would probably furnish all the three hundred thousand volunteers without the necessity of recourse to drafting. On the 8th of August, the writ of habeas corpus was ordered to be suspended. Orders were also issued for the arrest of all persons who discouraged enlistments. Another order prohibited the issuance of passports, and newspaper correspondents were not to be allowed with the armies. On the 22d of September, President Lincoln issued a procla mation abolishing slavery in the Southern States, unless they re turned to the Union before the 1st of January following. On the 24th he issued another proclamation suspending the habeas corpus in respect to persons held by military authority. This was done to prevent the release of military and state prisoners. On the 22d of November, a general order was issued by the government for the release of all state prisoners. On the 31st of December, an act passed by Congress for the admission of West Virginia, as a State, into the Union, was approved by the President. The water- works at New Haven were completed on the 1st 184 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. of January, and the inhabitants supplied with water from Mill River. Late in the summer the State of Minnesota was the scene of Indian cruelties and atrocities, so much so as to compel the Governor of the State to call an extra session of the legislature for means to be adopted to stop them. United States troops under General Pope were also despatched in the emergency. In September, a large body of the Indians was overtaken at Wood Lake and, after a sharp battle, about five hundred of the savages were taken prisoners, and after being tried by court- martial, three hundred of them were sentenced to be hung, but the President directed that but thirty-eight of them should be executed, and the remainder placed in confinement. By this insurrection it was estimated that not less than three hundred whites were killed, and two and a half millions of dollars in property destroyed. For some months between six and seven thousand persons, mostly women and children, were dependent upon charity. On the 10th of May, a conflagration destroyed property at Troy valued at three millions of dollars, including six hundred and seventy -one buildings, among which were the Union Rail road depot and several churches. Seven lives were lost. The steamer Golden Gate, which left San Francisco on the 21st of July, was destroyed by fire on the 27th, off the Mexican coast, near Manzanilla. The passengers and crew, numbering about two hundred persons, were mostly lost. The treasure on board, amounting to nearly a million and a half of dollars, was also lost. On the night of the 13th of August, the steamer West Point, having on board many sick soldiers, came in col lision with another steamer, on James River, Va., and was sunk, carrying down with her about seventy-five persons. The price of printing paper, of ordinary news quality, was advanced in the autumn from nine cents a pound to twenty- two. Early in the year the price of fine writing papers was ad vanced from thirteen and fourteen cents per pound to seventeen cents for flat cap, and from fifteen to twenty -five cents for letter and note paper. The price of cotton having advanced to an enormous price, the manufacture of twine from paper was commenced. The price of Middling Uplands cotton in the New York market, on the 1st of January, was thirty-five and a half cents per pound; on the 1st of April, twenty-eight; on the 1st of July, thirty-eight and a half; and on the 1st of October, fifty- seven. Gold was first quoted at a premium on the 12th of April. On the 1st of October it was 123. 1863 General Banks, who succeeded Butler at New Orleans, ex tended his lines, early in the year, into Southern and Central Louisiana. He also advanced to Baton Rouge and, in May, laid siege to Port Hudson, a stronghold on the Mississippi River. Severe but unsuccessful assaults were made on the town, the bombardment being partly conducted by Farragut s HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 185 gunboats. In September, Banks made an unsuccessful at tempt to get into Texas, by water, at Sabine Pass. That State remained in Confederate hands through the war. In January, Sherman sent McClernand, with Porter s fleet, up the Arkansas River. On the 10th, they took Arkansas Post and five thou sand prisoners, after a hard battle. Two days before, Confede rates, under Generals Marmaduke and Price, attacked Spring field, Mo., and were repulsed; they had a similar fate at Hartsville, Mo., on the llth, and at Cape Girardeau, April 26th. A Confederate raiding party, led by Quantrell, burned Law rence, Kansas, August 13th. General Steele led a Union force into Little Rock, September 10th, and thereafter Arkansas re mained in his control. Early in the year, for three months, Grant operated against Vicksburg, from the region just north of it, trying to cut a canal across the neck of land where it stands, to let the gunboats past. This enterprise failed Accordingly Porter decided to run the batteries, which he did at night, April 16th, without serious damage. The seen a was terrible and magnificent, however. Six ironclads, one wooden gunboat, and three transports, dropped down the stream quietly, under cover of darkness. But the watchful Confederate picket discovered their approach, and in a few minutes a whole row of batteries along the bluff was flashing and quaking with thunderous discharge. The fleet returned the fire, and silenced a few of the enemy s guns. The roar was deafening, and startled the town of Vicksburg as it had never been startled before. One of the transports was struck and disabled, but towed off by a gunboat. Another got by unscathed. The third was set afire by a shell striking cotton bales piled up for defence on board of her, and she was abandoned. Five more transports then ran down safely, but a sixth was rendered helpless and sunk. Grant now moved his land forces across to the west bank and marched them down stream. On the 29th the fleet opened a fearful cannonade on Grand Gulf, below Vicksburg, to capture the place that Grant might return here to Mississippi. The Confederate position was too strong and too well defended for this attempt to suc ceed. The next day, however, the Army of the Tennessee was brought over, a little lower down, to Bruinsburg. Here a brilliant campaign against Vicksburg was begun. In rapid succession he won victories at Port Gibson, forcing the evacua tion of Grand Gulf, at Raymond, and then at Jackson, the capital city. This last ended Johnston s effort to reinforce General Pemberton in the beleaguered city. Pemberton made a rally, but was defeated at Champion Hills, May 16th. Grant won another victory at Black River bridge next day. On the 19th and 22d, heavy assaults on the town were repulsed with great carnage. Grant now settled down to a siege, Porter as sisting by a heavy bombardment. Starved out, Pemberton surrendered July 4th. Learning of this event, General Gard ner yielded Port Hudson to Banks on the 8th. The whole Mississippi River was now open. During the operations against 186 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Vicksburg, Grierson s Illinois cavalry made a dash from Ten nessee, east of Jackson, to Baton Rouge, destroying railroads and other property. Colonel Streight attempted a like raid into Georgia, but was captured by the Confederates under Forrest. General John Morgan, a daring Southern cavalryman, in the summer pushed up through Kentucky, crossed into Indiana, passing thence to Ohio, where he was caught. General Joseph Hooker, who had done effective service at Antietam, succeeded Burnside in command of the Army of the Potomac after the disaster at Fredericksburg. In the spring he crossed the Rappahannock and Rapidan rivers. Just south of the latter, at Chancellorsville, May 3d, his army received an attack of terrible fury. In this battle Stonewall Jackson was fatally wounded by a volley from his own men. Lee renewed the assault next day. Hooker held his ground for the time, but retreated on the 5th. His loss was seventeen thousand; the Confederates lost five thousand. Just before this event, Gen eral Stoneinan took his cavalry (Union) across the Rappahan nock, dashed down within sight of Richmond, cut Lee s com munications, and returned in safety, May 8th. Lee now gave the North another great fright. He pushed up across the Potomac, reached Chambersburg, Pa., June 22d, and threatened Washington, Baltimore, and Harrisburg. Hooker, whose flank had been turned, followed rapidly. The two armies concentrated at Gettysburg, Pa., for a momentous battle. Here Hooker, at his own request, was relieved of his command. General George Meade succeeded him. The initial contest occurred July 1st. Meade was considerably south of the town, looking for advantageous ground on which to receive Lee. But Buford s troopers and Wads- worth s division of Reynolds s corps, in pushing forward to Seminary Ridge, just west of Gettysburg, came in collision with part of the Confederate corps under Hill. After an engagement was begun, Reynolds brought up his other divi sion, but was himself killed by a sharp-shooter. General Doubleday then took command until Howard arrived with an other corps. But Hill was reinforced by Ewell ; and after a brave resistance the Union line was driven back. The advan tage Avas not followed up, except that the Confederates entered the town without opposition. Howard took a position to the southward, on Cemetery Hill, where General Sickles, coming up with his corps at night, joined him. Meade, then at Taney- town, sent Hancock forward to take command, leaving Gibbons to bring that general s corps to the front. Hancock disposed the troops in a horse-shoe shaped line, Cemetery Hill, nearest Gettysburg, being the toe, Round Top the western heel, and Wolf Hill the eastern heel or right wing. Next day the rest of the Union army was brought up ; and Lee was congregating north and west of Gettysburg. Sedgwick was posted on the extreme left on Round Top ; Sickles came next a little farther north ; Hancock had the centre on Cemetery Hill, looking northward ; Slocum was on the right. Lee was again the ag- HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 187 gressor, July 3d, although not much was done but to assail Sickles s corps, which had exposed itself by advancing from the position Meade had designed it to occupy. To that ground it was driven back with heavy loss. Slocum received a slight attack that day, but with no material result. The great battle came on the morrow. During the forenoon Lee got his artillery into position for a terrible concentrated fire on Cemetery Hill, the chief point of attack ; and shortly after noon these one hundred and fifteen pieces began belching forth their torrent of fire and iron. The Union artillery replied, but the guns be coming heated, their activity abated. Lee now threw forward a solid line of infantry, nearly three miles long, charging not only the Union front on Cemetery Hill, but the left wing around on Round Top. These advances were made with wonderful nerve and force. They were repelled with awful carnage, and renewed with appalling coolness and courage. The desperate struggle lasted for three hours. Each time the enemy came on, the Union line would recede slightly until the Confederates caught the enfilading fire of Meade s guns ; and then the flower of Lee s army would be mown down like grass. The assault failed, and the invader had no resort but to return to Virginia, and on July 4th, while Pemberton was surrendering Vicksburg to Grant, the demoralized rebel horde was hurrying back to a place of safety. The losses in this battle were twenty-three thousand on the Union side, and even more on the other. Sickles lost a leg, and Hancock also was wounded at Gettysburg. Lee made another effort to get north in October, but was checked at Centreville. Rosecrans remained inactive in Tennessee for six months after his victory at Stone River. Late in June he began a series of flank movements, which crowded Bragg southeastward into Georgia, and occupied Chattanooga. The Confederates, out numbering him seventy thousand to fifty-five thousand, turned and struck him severely at Chickamauga Creek, Sept. 19th and 20th. General Thomas s corps withstood the attack firmly, and saved the Union army from utter rout. The other corps were driven back in disorder. Thomas finally withdrew to the Tennessee River into Chattanooga, where the Army of the Cumberland was strongly intrenched. This triumph of Bragg gave new joy to the South, and caused much anxiety in Wash ington, as there was some uncertainty whether even Chatta nooga could now be held. During his Vicksburg campaign, Grant had advised demonstrations by Rosecrans earlier than July, so as either to call off such of Bragg s troops as had been sent into Mississippi to help Johnston, or to invade Georgia while Bragg was himself weakened. But Bragg was able to strengthen himself by recovering his forces from the west be fore his attack at Chickamauga ; for this was two months and a half after Vicksburg fell. He was still further recruited by Longstreet s corps from Virginia. In October, the authorities at Washington created "the Division of the Central Mississippi," embracing the Depart- 188 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ment of the Tennessee, whose army had done the work about Vicksburg, the Department of the Cumberland, com manded by Rosecrans, and the Department of the Ohio, then under Burnside, who was at Knoxville, Tenn. The whole was committed to Grant, the hero of Vicksburg. Grant recognized the great strategic value of Chattanooga, and be fore reaching that point in person, telegraphed to Thomas, who succeeded Rosecrans in command of the Army of the Cumberland, to hold the place at all hazards. Burnside, at Knoxville, was in considerable peril at this time ; but Grant decided that he could best relieve him by defeating Bragg at Chattanooga ; and all efforts were devoted to this work. The little town on the Tennessee, close to the border of Georgia, was now the centre of all interest. Hooker, whose great valor and impetuosity had won him the pseudonym of "Fighting Joe Hooker," was sent from the Army of the Potomac with parts of two corps into Tennessee. Grant had ordered Sher man, who succeeded him in command of the Army of the Tennessee, to repair the railroads in Northern Mississippi and Alabama, and in Western and Southern Tennessee, so as to improve the facilities for sending supplies to Chattanooga and Knoxville. But after considerable work had been done, Grant grew impatient to strike a blow at Chattanooga. As Bragg had detached Longstreet s corps and had sent it eastward of Chatta nooga up to Knoxville, it seemed possible that Burnside, who was making a heroic and skilful resistance, might be overcome before Grant could assist him. Accordingly Sherman was ordered to drop work on the railroads and come with his troops to the scene of action. Meantime such dispositions of troops had been made around Chattanooga as to open up the way for rations ; and the starving, ragged army of Thomas was again well fed, well clothed, cheerful, and courageous. Just south of the Tennessee River is a long narrow hill known as Missionary Ridge. Off to the eastward is Chickamauga Creek, running northward into the Tennessee. West of the ridge is Chatta nooga Creek, also northward bound ; and across the valley rises Lookout Mountain, another loftier range, which, like Mission ary Ridge, trends away to the southwestward. In October, Hooker had been thrown across the river from the north, west of Lookout Mountain, and, after some fighting, he gained a good foothold there. One of the amusing incidents of that task was the alarm given to a force of Confederates, in a night engagement, by the rattling harness of mules which frightened Union teamsters had cut from their wagons, but which stam peded toward the enemy s camp. Hooker held the right of Grant s line. Thomas was at the centre in Chattanooga, on the south bank of the river, just west of the head of Missionary Ridge. To the east and north of that mountain, on Grant s left, Sherman was to operate when he came up. This was not until late in November. On the morning of the 24th, long before daybreak, part of Sherman s men were brought down into their position, on pontoons from up stream, off to the HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 189 northeastward, having come around in Grant s rear. They built bridges quickly, north of Missionary Ridge, and got artillery, Sheridan s cavalry, and the rest of the infantry across. An advance was then made upon the enemy s works at the foot of the hill, and, after some desperate fighting, an advantageous position was secured. Grant stood on top of an eminence called Orchard Knob, watching operations with a glass. Con siderable cloudiness obscured the view through the forenoon ; but he could get occasional glimpses of what was going on, and had better hints from the noise of musketry and artillery. Thomas, whose army Grant was not ready to use, stood beside him much of the time. Hooker, off to the westward, achieved the principal conquest of the day. His movements were con cealed from Bragg s watchmen on Lookout Mountain by the low clouds. But when, in force, he approached that ridge on its western flank, the enemy s pickets discovered him, and resistance was promptly offered. The slope was steep, broken, and wooded, and difficult to climb even if no foe were there. But such enthusiasm pervaded the Union ranks that they charged up the mountain until, at 2 p.m., its very summit was reached. This action has been called "The Battle above the Clouds." Next day (Nov. 25th), the Union advance was re newed. Hooker came eastward across the valley to Missionary Ridge, but was so long delayed by the enemy s destruction of bridges over Chattanooga Creek, that his co-operation was not of much assistance. Grant was again on Orchard Knob watch ing the scene. The day was clear. Thomas was beside him, his army still waiting for the order to strike. Grant did not intend to give this until Sherman had turned Bragg s right as Hooker had turned the left. Part of Sherman s force was on the eastern flank of Missionary Ridge, near the head, and part on the western. Both soon carried some positions in their front. Bra^g concentrated his troops at this point, massing heavily against Sherman. Such was the latter s peril, that Grant sent Sheridan s and Wood s divisions to the scene, with material effect. Sherman now carried the ridge gallantly, and sent Bragg flying. Sheridan, continuing pursuit, dashed off to the southeastward, near Chickamauga Creek, intercepted part of the retreating army, and took a lot of prisoners and stores. The Union loss in the two days fight was five thousand six hundred men. Bragg lost more heavily, but chiefly in prison ers. The victory gave great relief to the anxious North, espe cially to the authorities in Washington. The fruits of past victories were secure ; the enemy were driven still further south, into the Gulf States ; and an important step had been gained in encircling what was left of the Confederacy. The campaign had been one of the most difficult and skilfully planned which the Union forces had waged ; andjts result inspired increased confidence " year it led to Grant s promotion armies three months later. Burnside, who had. been sadly 190 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. beleaguered, but had held out successfully, was easily relieved after the victories of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. Sherman was sent to his assistance ; but before help arrived Longstreet was retreating into Virginia. The Confederate cruiser Nashville was sunk by a Union iron clad, while running the blockade at the mouth of the Savannah River in March. Another, the Georgia, was captured at sea by the Niagara, Captain Craven, August llth. Many other captures, less conspicuous, were made by the fleet. Dupont tried to take Charleston, in April, with a naval expedition, but failed. In June, General Gillmore and Admiral Dahlgren laid siege to the forts in that harbor, in June, from Morris and Folly Islands. Fort Wagner was vainly stormed, July 18th. That work and Fort Gregg were evacuated September 6th. Monitors then came up and bombarded Fort Sumter. On the 1st of January, the President issued an Emancipation Proclamation. It specified Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana (cer tain parishes excepted), Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia (West Virginia and other portions excepted), as the rebellious States to which the proclamation applied. The excepted parts were "for the present, left precisely as if this proclamation were not issued." It then declared as follows: " Aiid by virtue of the power and for the purpose aforesaid. I do order and declare that all per sons held as slaves within said States or parts of States are and henceforth shall be FREE, and that the executive government of the United States, including the military and naval authori ties thereof, will recognize and maintain the freedom of said persons. And I hereby enjoin upon the people so declared free, to abstain from all violence, unless in necessary self- defence; and I recommend to them that in all cases, when al lowed, they labor for reasonable wages. And I further declare and make known that such persons, of suitable condi tion, will be received into the armed service of the United States, to garrison forts, positions, stations, and other places, and to man vessels of all sorts in said service. And upon this act, sincerely believed to be an act of justice warranted by the Constitution upon military necessity, I invoke the consid erate judgment of mankind and favor of Almighty God." The number of slaves declared free by this proclamation was about three millions and one hundred and twenty thousand; the num ber excepted by it, about eight hundred and thirty thousand. Partly by way of anticipating this proclamation, Mr. Davis, as President of the Confederate States, issued a proclamation on the 22d of December, in which, among other orders, he directed that negro slaves captured in arms should be delivered over to the authorities of the States to which they belong, to be dealt with according to the laws of those States; and all com missioned officers of the United States, when found serving in company with insurgent slaves, should be treated hi the same manner. As the laws of all the slaveholding States punished by death insurgent slaves and those who aided, them, this order HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 191 was equivalent to threatening capital punishment to all slaves in arms and the white officers commanding them. On the 3d of March, the President approved a financial bill passed by Congress. The first section of the act author ized a loan of three hundred millions for the current fiscal year, and six hundred millions for the ensuing fiscal year, for which bonds should be issued, to be payable at such times as the Secretary of the Treasury might elect, not less than ten nor more than fortj r years. The second section authorized the issue of Treasury notes to the amount of four hundred mil lions, to run not more than three years, and bear interest at the rate of six per cent, and to be legal tender. The third section, authorized the Secretary to issue one hundred and fifty millions of Treasury notes without interest. The bill also authorized the issue of fractional currency to the amount of fifty millions. To help a market for the bonds, another act was passed author izing the creation of National Banks. By it, banking associa tions could be formed by any number of persons not less than five. Not less than one third of the capital of the banks paid in should be invested in United States bonds, for which circu lating notes to the value of ninety per cent of the current value of such bonds might be issued to the banks, the government to hold the bonds in trust, as security for those issues, the total amount of the bank-notes not to exceed three hundred millions; and they were made lawful money for all purposes excepting custom duties and interest on the public debt. The banks were to pay the government semi-annually one per cent on the cir culating notes to pay the expenses of making them. Congress passed another act, commonly called the " Con scription Act." By it, it was provided that all able-bodied male citizens, and persons of foreign birth who had declared their intention of becoming citizens, and who had voted be tween the ages of twenty and forty-five, were liable to be called into service, unless specially excepted. The exceptions were those who were physically or mentally incapable, a few speci fied officers of the National and State Governments, and the following classes of persons: the only son of a widow or of aged or infirm parents, dependent on his labor for support ; when there were two or more sons of aged or infirm parents, dependent upon them for support, the father, or if he be dead the mother, might select one who should be exempt; the only brother of children without father or mother, under twelve years of age, dependent upon him for support; the father of motherless children under twelve years of age, dependent upon his labor for support; where of the same family and household a father and one or more sons in the military service of the United States, two of the same family and household are to be exempt. Those persons liable to conscription were to be divided into two classes ; the first class comprising all below thirty-five years of age, and all unmarried persons be tween thirty-five and forty-five years of age. The second class comprised married persons between thirty-five and forty-five, 192 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. and were not to be called into service until the first class had been exhausted. It was also provided that any person actually drafted might be discharged from draft by furnishing an ac ceptable substitute, or by paying a sum not exceeding three hundred dollars, to be fixed by the Secretary of War. The entire population of the loyal States, at the breaking out of the war, liable to enrolment under the Conscription law, after deducting all exemptions, was fully four millions. Another act empowered the President to issue letters of marque and reprisal. On the 15th of June, the President issued a call for one hun dred thousand volunteers to repel the invasion by the Confed erates. On the 15th of October, the President made a call for three hundred thousand men, those raised to be deducted from the quotas set for the next draft. The deficiencies to be made .good by the States by a new draft to be made on January 5, 1864. The President in December accompanied his message to Congress with a proclamation of amnesty to the Confederates, stating his purpose to be to present the States wherein the national authority had been suspended, and loyal State Govern ments had been subverted, a mode in and by which the national authority and loyal State Governments might be reinstated. Specified exceptions to the amnesty proclamation were stated. On the 3d of June, a " peace meeting" was held in New York, instituted by leading Democrats. One of the resolutions passed, declared it was recommended by the meeting, that there should be a suspension of hostilities between the contend ing armies of the divided sections of the country, and that a convention of the States composing the Confederate States, and a separate convention of the loyal States, be held to finally settle and determine in what manner and by what mode the contending sections should be reconciled. A serious riot broke out in New York on the morning of the 13th of July. At the outset it was a demonstration against the draft, which was then in progress in the ninth district, inhab ited mainly by laborers, a great proportion of whom were of foreign birth. They had been wrought to exasperation against the clause in the bill which allowed a person whose name was drawn to purchase exemption by the payment of three hundred dollars. When the drawing commenced on the 13th, a sudden attack was made by an armed mob upon the office. The wheel was destroyed, the lists scattered, and the building set on fire. The excitement spread throughout the city, crowds gathered everywhere, with no apparent object ; but during the day the movement seemed to be controlled by leaders in two general directions. The first was an attack upon the negroes; the second an assault upon every one who was sup posed to be-in any way concerned in the draft, or prominently identified with the Republican party. The militia regiments who had always been relied upon to uphold public order in case of emergency, had been sent to Pennsylvania to withstand HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 193 the Confederate invasion; and the only guardians left for the public peace were the regular police and a few hundred sol diers who garrisoned the forts. These were too few to protect the dozen miles between the extremities of the city. The mob, dispersed in one quarter, would reassemble at another, and for four days the city seemed given up to their control. The out rages committed during this time were numerous and aggra vated. Negroes were assaulted, beaten to death, mutilated, and hanged; building after building was sacked and burned; gangs of desperadoes patrolled the streets, levying contributions, and ordering places of business to be closed. A Colored Orphan Asylum, sheltering some hundreds of children, was sacked and burned. After the first day, the riot, which was at first directed against the draft, took a new turn. The entire mass of scoundrelism in the city seemed to have been let loose for in discriminate plunder. Women, half-grown boys, and children were foremost in the work of robbery, and no man felt safe from attack. Gradually the bands of rioters were dispersed, and the peace of the city was restored. Fully a hundred per sons were killed, and property to an immense amount was destroyed. Arizona and Idaho were organized under Territorial govern ments. The free letter-carrier system went into effect in July. Five Russian vessels of war arrived at the harbor of New York, the first which ever visited our ports. The officers, on the 1st of October, were publicly welcomed by the city authorities. The price of Middling Uplands cotton in the New York market, on the 1st of January, was sixty-seven cents ; on the 1st of April, seventy-two to seventy -four cents ; on the 1st of July, seventy-three to seventy-four cents ; and on the 1st of October, eighty- one to eighty- three cents per pound. The market price of gold on the 1st of January was 133f to 133|; on the 1st of April, 156 to 156f ; on the 1st of July, 144| to 144f ; and on the 1st of October, 140| to 142f . 1864 Banks, with Porter s gun-boats co-operating, went up Red River, in Louisiana, early this year. He took Natchitoches March 19th, but was defeated at Mansfield April 8th, and Pleasant Hill the 9th. He then abandoned the campaign. General Canby succeeded him in command. From Vicksburg Sherman sent out one force into Eastern Mississippi to cut rail roads and burn cotton, in February ; and General A. J. Smith led another thither from Tennessee. -Forrest made an incur sion into Kentucky from the South, unsuccessfully attacking Paducah in March, withdrawing to Tennessee, taking Fort Pillow by storm, slaughtering the garrison, half negroes, and then retreating. Second in importance only to the advance on Richmond, and first, perhaps, in practical results this year, was the work accomplished by William Tecumseh Sherman. When, in March, Grant was transferred to the supreme command of the 194 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Union armies, the hero of Missionary Ridge was promoted from his charge of the Army of the Tennessee to that of the division of the Central Mississippi, which now included not only his old command and the armies of the Cumberland and the Ohio, but also that of the Arkansas. Sherman was in Memphis at this time. He went East to confer with the lieutenant-general about their future operations, and then proceeded to Chattanooga to lay out his work. He began his march southward early in May, with nearly one hundred thousand men; this number diminished through casualties, and the posting of forces to guard his line of communications. Johnston, in his front with Hardee s, Hood s, and Folk s corps, mustered between fifty thousand and sixty thousand at the outset, but increased those figures somewhat as he fell back. Bragg after his defeat the previous November, had been retired from command in Georgia. Atlanta, an im portant railroad centre in the heart of that State, and the site of valuable manufactories and machine-shops, was Sherman s objective point. In his advance of one hundred and twenty miles or more he had several severe engagements. There was considerable fighting before Dalton May 7th, but by a flank movement the retirement of Johnston was forced three or four days later. On the 15th a lively contest occurred near Resaca, to which the Confederates had withdrawn. They were finally driven from the town, and the Union advance entered next day. Manoeuvring and fighting near Dallas occupied the next fortnight, at the end of which John ston was again forced, by being flanked, to retreat. The next stand was made near Kenesaw Mountain and its neighbors, Lost and Pine mountains, twenty miles from Atlanta. The Confed erates had here a strong position. Sherman crowded them from the 14th to the 27th of June. On the first day, Polk, the Louisiana bishop and general, was killed by a cannon-ball while making observations with Johnston and Hardee. On the last, Sherman made an attack, which was repulsed with much slaughter. He now resorted to his favorite tactics. A flanking column was thrown onward to the Chattahoochee next day, and at nightfall it compelled an evacuation of the much- contested Kenesaw. Johnston held the stream until July 10th, and then withdrew inside his formidable intrenchments around Atlanta. He was here deprived of his command for a time by Jefferson Davia, who did not esteem him as highly as others did ; and Hood was assigned to the defence of the Gate City. While the Union troops were making another advance, on the 30th, they were repulsed, and General McPherson, commanding one of Sherman s corps, was killed. General John A. Logan succeeded to the command. Sherman again tried to force the enemy on the 22d, and met with another hard blow, though before night he had changed his defeat into victory. His loss, however, was nearly four thousand, while Hood suffered to an even greater extent. Raids for the destruction of railroads were now planned and executed by Sherman. A cavalry expedition to Macon, with a view to liberate Union prisoners at Andersonville, HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 195 was also undertaken by Stoneman, but with disastrous results. On the 27th a flanking force was pushed forward on the Union right, under Howard, now commanding the Army of the Tennessee. Logan s corps caught the worst of the sudden charge with which Hood retaliated. Again and again the Con federates came up, but they were mown down murderously. At length, after a loss estimated at five thousand, Hood ceased to strike, and Howard held his ground. Nearly a month later, after various cavalry raids, Sherman broke camp in front of Atlanta, moved rapidly around by the westward to the south of the city. On the last night of August, the Confederates blew up their magazines, burned their stores, destroyed their machine-shops and foundries, and abandoned the place to Sherman. During the next few weeks, by aggressive raids to the northward, Hood threatened most of the Union posts all the way up to Resaca, but Sherman reinforced and saved them. He would not, however, allow himself to be drawn out of the State. Hood at length withdrew into Northern Alabama. Mobile was a point of great interest this season. The city is at the head of a bay thirty miles or more long and from ten to twenty miles wide. Long sand-bars nearly close the entrance, with an opening between them not more than two miles across. This was guarded by Fort Gaines on the west and Fort Morgan on the right. Before this gateway Admiral Farragut, who had conducted the conquest of New Orleans two years before, appeared on August 4th. He had a fleet of fourteen men-of- war, besides four iron-clads. The wooden vessels were fastened together in couples, and Farragut was lashed to the masthead of the flag-ship Hartford more easily to superintend the action. Next day the fleet ran the gauntlet of the forts, and encounter ed the fire of several Confederate vessels inside the bay, return ing the attack with great spirit. The engagement was furious, and the air was filled with cannon-balls. One Federal iron-clad, the Tecumseh, was sunk by a torpedo ; but a rebel gun-boat was driven ashore, and another put to flight up the bay. The rebel ram Tennessee, however, proved a formidable antagonist, and only after several wooden vessels had damaged themselves by butting her, and the iron-clads had come to the rescue, was she forced to surrender. Farragut now devoted himself to the land forces. On the 9th he compelled Fort Gaines to surrender, and on the 22d Fort Morgan followed. No attempt was made at this time to capture the city of Mobile, although Sherman had hoped it would be done, and a. supporting column thrown out to co-operate with him in Georgia. But an important port into which blockade-runners were bringing supplies was effectually closed up, and Farragut added to his laurels. In November, Sherman began his famous " March to the Sea," a movement of singular boldness. Having sent his sick back to Chattanooga, and reinforced Thomas at Nashville, he de stroyed the remaining ironworks in Atlanta, tore up all the neighboring railroads, cut the telegraph-wire which had taken his messages to Washington, and, on the 14th, started southeast- 196 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. ward. He formed two columns, under Generals Howard and Blair, with cavalry out on the wings, and advanced without meeting much resistance. He rendered all railroads useless, and subsisted on the country through which he passed. By spreading out over a broad region, he concealed his strength and position, and misled the enemy as to his plans. No great concentration against him was therefore practicable. Finally, on December 10th, he reached the rear of Savannah. Already Union troops held Fort Pulaski, at the mouth of Savannah River. The town was now in peril, and on the 20th Hardee abandoned it and moved up to Charleston. Sherman took possession two days later. This result of the mysterious and risky disappearance from Atlanta awakened great enthusiasm in the North. As had been anticipated, Hood, in Northern Alabama, or ganized a campaign against Nashville even before Sherman started for the sea. But Thomas was amply warned and well supported. Sherman had perfect confidence in his lieutenant, and this was justified by the event. Hood, first crushing Schofield at Franklin, advanced to tbe capital of Tennessee. Here, falling upon him December 15th, Thomas routed him completely, taking twenty -five thousand prisoners. Bragg, with a mere handful of men, escaped to Alabama. Grant was made lieutenant-general March 2d, and placed in command of all the Union armies. Having laid out Sherman s campaign, as nearly as he could in advance, he took the offen sive himself in Virginia in May. Accompanying Meade s vet erans of the Army of the Potomac, he advanced from Culpepper on the 3d. Just south of the Rapidan, in the Wilderness, not far from the battlefield of Chancellorsville, he met Lee on the 5th, and for three days, with stubborn energy and awful slaughter, he fought the Confederates there, but could not drive them from their intrenchments. Not discouraged by their re sistance, nor by any possible criticism of his sacrifice of life, he declared that he meant to " fight it out on this line if it took all summer." He now moved to the left, and, beginning again on the 9th, he renewed the attack at Spottsylvania Court-House, fighting for four days. Here Hancock took four thousand prisoners one day. Advancing further to the left, Grant re newed the struggle at Cold Harbor, June 1st, and continued it three days. Up to date he had lost sixty thousand men, and Lee thirty-five thousand. Unable to turn Lee s flank and get at Richmond from the north, he decided to push on and attack from the south. At Bermuda Hundred, June 15th, he joined Butler, who, with the Army of the James, had pushed up from Fortress Monroe, and approached Petersburg. Lee came to its defence before a severe blow had been struck. Sheridan s cavalry carefully examined the whole Confederate line from north of Richmond to south of Petersburg to find a weak spot without avail. Near the latter town, July 30, under a Confed erate fort, a mine was exploded, and colored troops were then pushed into the gap to break the line, but without success. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 197 Warren was sent out on the Weldon road to cut Southern con nections, and some other minor blows were struck, without much result. Meade s and Butler s losses in this campaign were one hundred thousand. Lee was too much occupied to make another northward movement. The Shenandoah Valley was the scene of more contests dur ing the w r hole war, perhaps, than any other region of its size ; and some of the most brilliant exploits of the opposing forces there were performed this year. Early, the daring and skilful Confederate commander there, defeated first Sigel and then Hunter in May and June, and then made a bold raid on Wash ington. He had no such force at his command as that which McClellan turned back from Antietam in 1862, or Meade re pulsed at Gettysburg the following summer ; but it was a startling movement, nevertheless. It came early in July, just after Grant had forced Lee down near Richmond, and when few troops were left near the Federal capital. Early s advance came within seven miles of the latter city. Checked at Monocacy, on the 9th, by Lew Wallace, he was subsequently driven back into Virginia by Wright s corps, which oppor tunely arrived. To put an end to this distracting business, Grant sent Sheridan, whom he had come to value highly after the latter s service in the Chattanooga campaign, to take command in the valley. The bold young commander quietly waited, a little south of Harper s Ferry, until he got word from his su perior officer to " Go in I" A vigorous attack was made on Early at Winchester, September 19th, and, after a hard-fought battle, in which the cavalry gave material help, Sheridan forced the enemy through and out of the town, and chased him up the valley. Resistance was again encountered and overcome ; and the Union advance did not stop until Harrisonburg was reached. To preclude any more trouble from a Confeder ate force in the valley, Sheridan now destroyed the means of subsistence. The autumn crops were harvested, and these were destroyed along the whole line where they could not be carried off. Then Sheridan fell back, and, leaving his army intrenched at Cedar Creek, ran up to Washington to con fer with the authorities. Early had followed the invaders down the valley, however, and discovered their commander s absence. This chance was improved with a well-planned at tack. The Union soldiers were surprised in their camps before breakfast, October 19th, by a flank movement, and the left and centre of their line driven in. General Wright, ranking officer, whose corps was on the right, stayed the retreat two or three miles back, and tried to reorganize the shattered army. Meantime Sheridan was on his way back from Washington. He had slept in Winchester over-night, twenty miles away. One of the first sounds that greeted his ears as he started on his south ward way in the morning was artillery, and he quickly divined that a battle was in progress. Alert and fiery, he put spurs to Ms steed, and rode furiously on. In an hour or two he began to meet the fugitives always to be seen in the rear of such a 198 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. battle as Cedar Creek, and, his zeal and anxiety increasing, he urged his horse to the top of its speed. The outlook at the front was gloomy enough when the Union commander came up. On the way he had reproved and encouraged the fright ened stragglers, and persuaded many of them to return. But when he finally dashed on to the hesitating, imperfectly-restored line which Wright had formed, a wonderful change came over his command. He was a man of such magnetism and so idol ized by his men that, as he rode down past them, shouting that he was going to take them back to their abandoned camps that night, his own enthusiasm and courage was imparted to the whole army. Long after noon, the formation beinj at last com pleted, he began his advance. Back to Cedar Creek the Union line now swept, carrying everything before it, and working w r orse disaster upon the apparently victorious Confederates than they had accomplished in the morning. So badly demoralized was Early s army by this defeat that it never again tried to reoccupy the valley. " Sheridan s Ride," that so brilliantly turned the tide of battle on this occasion, has been celebrated in a well-known poem. The most destructive of the rebel cruisers, several of which were built in British ports, was the Alabama. She captured sixty-six prizes, worth $10,000,000, in her short career. Ra phael Semmes commanded her. She encountered the Union frigate Kearsarge, Captain Winslow, near Cherbourg, France, June 19th, and was sent to the bottom. Her officers and crew were picked up by the friendly English yacht Deerhound, which came out to see the fight. Another Confederate cruiser, the Florida, was taken at Bahia, Brazil, by the Wachusett, Captain Collins. A daring and useful feat was performed by a boat s crew commanded by Lieutenant Gushing of the Navy, October 27th. The rebel ram Albemarle, in the sound of that name, had been making destructive raids upon Union shipping down on the coast, and it was a formidable obstacle to any invasion of that region. Approaching stealthily, by night, Lieutenant Gushing planted a huge torpedo under her, and blew her up. Congress, in February, passed an act modifying the existing Enrolment bill in some particulars. It authorized the Presi dent to call for as many men into service as the necessity might require, and drafts to be ordered if the quotas were not filled. Substitutes might be furnished by those enrolled ; all persons under forty-five to be enrolled ; drafted persons could furnish substitutes ; commuters exempted only from the special draft ; all male persons of African descent, between twenty and forty- five, whether citizens or not, to be enrolled ; and colored troops not to be assigned as State troops, but to be mustered into regi ments or companies as United States volunteers. Congress, in March, passed an act establishing a Bureau of Freedmen s Affairs. By it all questions relating to persons of African descent were to be determined, with authority to make HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 199 regulations for their employment and treatment on abandoned plantations. Congress passed a bill reviving the grade of lieutenant-gen eral, which was approved by the President, who at once ap pointed General Grant to the position, and, on the 9th of March, gave him, in person, his commission. Subsequently, the Presi dent approved a bill creating the rank of vice-admiral, of equal grade with that of lieutenant-general in the army. Admiral Farragut was given the position. Authority was given the Secretary of the Treasury to issue bonds not exceeding two hundred millions of dollars, payable in five or forty years in coin, and bearing interest not exceeding six per cent, payable in coin. Subsequently, another bill was passed authorizing the issue of four hundred millions of bonds of like tenor; or, in lieu of an equal amount of bonds, the Sec retary of the Treasury might issue two hundred millions in Treasury notes, in denomination of not less than ten dollars, payable in three years, and bearing interest at the rate of seven and three tenths per cent per annum, payable "in lawful money," and to be a legal tender to the same extent as United States notes. An act was approved by the President, on the 3d of June, amending the National Bank Act, by which the entire issue of notes for circulation under the act was confined to three hun dred millions ; the banks to be allowed to charge seven per cent interest on loans; and no bank established under the act to have a capital less than one hundred thousand dollars, and, if located in a city of more than fifty thousand inhabitants, not less than two hundred thousand dollars. The Fugitive Slave Acts of Congress, passed in the years 1793 and 1850, were repealed by act of Congress approved by the President on the 28th of June. A new Tariff Act went into effect on the 4th of July. Among the articles specified, teas were to be charged a duty of 25 cents per pound; sugar, according to grade, 3 to 5 cents; bran dies, $2. 50 per gallon; other spirits, $2 per gallon; champagnes, not less than $6 a dozen for quarts; spirituous liquors not enu merated, 100 per cent upon the value; ales, porter, and beer in bottles, 35 cents; not bottled, 20 cents per gallon; cigars, from 75 cents to $3 per pound, besides from 20 to 60 per cent, ad va lorem; tobacco, 35 to 50 cents per pound; iron, various rates, but none less than 33 per cent on the value; coal, from 40 to 125 cents a ton; lead, on an average, 2 cents a pound; gems, unset, 10 per cent; wools, from 3 to 10 cents, according to grade, with 10 per cent additional ad valorem; woollen goods, various specified rates, none less than 50 per cent on the value, and many more than this; cotton, 2 cents per pound; cotton manufactures, from 5 to 7^ cents per square yard, besides from 10 to 35 per cent ad valorem; linens, 35 to 40 per cent; silk, 25 to 40 per cent; silk goods, generally, 60 per cent; china and earthenware, 40 to 45 per cent; books, 25 per cent; fancy 200 HISTOEY OF THE UNITED STATES. soaps, 10 cents a pound, and 25 per cent ad valorem; and plain soaps 1 cent a pound and 30 per cent ad valorem. An Internal Revenue Law was passed, imposing licenses upon every trade and profession, varying from the presumed amount of business; discrimination being made against liquor- dealers, shows, lotteries, gift enterprises, and the like. Ev ery person whose profession was not specially enumerated was to pay a license of ten dollars if his business should bring an income of one thousand dollars. Every possible legal docu ment, to be valid, was required to be stamped; all patent medi cines and similar preparations were made subject to excise, the general principle being to impose one cent for every twenty-five cents of the price of the article; almost every article of manu facture was noted with a special tax, amounting as nearly as possible to five per cent on the value; railroads, express com panies, and similar branches of business, to pay from two to five per cent of their gross receipts, and a special tax was im posed upon many articles of show and luxury. An act was passed guaranteeing to certain States, whose gov ernments had been overthrown or usurped, a republican form of government, and authorizing the President to appoint a Pro visional Governor for such States until a regular State Govern ment should be established. On the 1st of February, the President ordered a draft of five hundred thousand men, to begin on the 10th of March, to serve for three years or the war. On the 15th of March, he made a call for two hundred thousand volunteers; on the 18th of July, for five hundred thousand more; and on the 20th of December, for three hundred thousand. The Territory of Montana was authorized to be organized, and Nevada was admitted to the Union as a State. On the 19th of October, the town of St. Albans, in Vermont, about fifteen miles from the Canadian frontier, was subjected to a raid, accompanied by bloodshed, by armed Confederates entering the State from Canada. They overpowered the em ployes of three banks, seized over two hundred thousand dol lars in money, and, stealing all the horses they could in the streets and livery -stables, escaped into Canada. The city of Detroit was thrown into great excitement, on the 30th of October, by a report that a raid on the city was to be made during the night by armed parties of the enemy from Canada. Soldiers were called out; artillery was brought from the barracks and posted in the streets; the steam fire-engines were made ready for sudden use, and the depots and public buildings guarded. No enemy, however, appeared. The money- order system 01 the post-office department went into operation in November. The postal-car service the as sorting of mail -matter while in transit commenced on the Iowa division of the Chicago and Northwestern Railroad, on the 28th of August. It next went into operation between New York and "Washington, and subsequently on other prominent railroad routes. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 201 Street-railway cars commenced running for the first time in the cities of Indianapolis and Lowell. The "Colt Armory," at Hartford, was partially destroyed by fire on the 8th of February, destroying property valued at a million of dollars, and throwing about nine hundred men out of employment. On the night of the 22d of December, the steamship North America, which left New Orleans on the 16th, sunk at sea. Of those on board, nearly two hundred persons were lost, most of whom were sick soldiers. At the presidential election held in November, the Republi can candidates were Abraham Lincoln, for re-election as Presi dent, and Andrew Johnson for Vice-Prcsident, and they were elected, receiving the electoral votes of tw T enty-two States, two hundred and thirteen in all. The Democratic party nominated General George B. McClellan for President, and George H. Pendleton for Vice-President, and secured the electoral votes of the States of New Jersey, Delaware, and Kentucky, only twenty- one in all. The platform adopted by the Democratic party, with other less important resolutions, declared, " That this Convention does explicitly declare, as the sense of the American people, that after four years of failure to restore the Union by the experiment of war, during which, under the pre tence of a military necessity or war power higher than the Constitution, the Constitution itself has been disregarded in every part, and public liberty and private right alike trodden down, and the material prosperity of the country essentially impaired, justice, humanity, liberty, and the public welfare demand that immediate efforts be made for a cessation of hos tilities, with a view to an ultimate convention of all the States, or other peaceable means, to the end that, at the earliest practi cable moment, peace may be restored on the basis of the federal union of all the States." The platform of the Republican party resolved that the rebellion should be suppressed without compromise, and that slavery should be abolished by Constitu tional amendment. On the 18th of May, the Journal of Commerce and the World, New York City newspapers, were suppressed by order of the President, and their editors directed to be arrested. A forged proclamation, purporting to be issued by the President, calling for half a million more troops, was distributed to all the city papers the night before, and was published in these two only, its character having been suspected. The ar rest of the editors was subsequently vacated by the Presi dent s order. The forgers were discovered and imprisoned. Several attempts to fire the city of New York caused great excitement, in the belief that they were made by the Confede rates, and an order was issued that all persons residing in the city should register themselves or be treated as spies. One per son was arrested for setting fire to several hotels; he confessed his crime, and was executed. The New York quotations of gold were, on the 1st of Janu- 202 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ary, 152; on the 1st of April, 166^; on the 1st of July, 245; and on the 1st of October, 19H to 193^. The market price of Middling Uplands cotton in New York, on the 1st of January of this year, was 81 to 82 cents; on the 1st of April, 76 cents; on the 1st of July, 150 to 152; and on the 1st of October, 115 to 120 cents. 1865 Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated President, for a second term of office, on the 4th of March, and Andrew Johnson took the oath of office as Vice-President. The military operations, early in the year, brought the war to a speedy conclusion. Grant began operations late in the winter. With the idea of cutting Lee off completely, he pro posed that Sheridan should push southward from the Shenan- doah Valley to Lynchburg, in Southwestern Virginia, and con nect with the Union lines extending westward, south of Peters burg. In February this was undertaken. Sheridan advanced with such rapidity as to annihilate Early s force at Waynes- boro, and the Confederate commander barely escaped in person. Lee was too well prepared, however, for the consummation of Sheridan s plan, and the proposed junction west of Petersburg could not be effected. The Army of the Shenandoah was therefore brought around, north of Richmond, in March, to assist the armies of the Potomac and the James in their opera tions, not, however, until he had destroyed manufactories, stores, and bridges at Charlottesville and the vicinity. Lee did not wait for Grant to begin, but himself assumed the offensive early in the spring. One of the principal Union works east of Petersburg, Fort Steedman, was suddenly charged by an in fantry force, commanded by General Gordon, March 25th, and taken without much resistance. The captors turned the guns, which were now in their hands, upon Fort Haskell, and upon the latter another charge was made. A cut in Grant s line was imminent. The demonstration promised to call to this point Union troops that were threatening Lee s right and rear, south of Petersburg, and thus enable the Confederate commander to regain the Weldon road which Meade had seized in the winter. But the assault on Fort Haskell failed, and two thousand of the assailants were captured. Meade improved this chance to make an attack himself, off to the Union left, and gained some ground that day. Warren and Humphreys, each with a corps, were sent out to the southwest of Petersburg, with Sheridan and his ten thousand cavalry still further to the south, to turn Lee s right, if possible. The possibility of the Confederate army withdrawing into North Carolina and helping Johnston deliver a crushing blow to Sherman was perceived by Grant, who also realized that Lee s supplies must come from that quarter. Hence this movement. Warren encountered consid erable opposition March 29th, but advanced beyond Hatcher s Run. Sheridan sent out a force next day from Dinwiddie to Five Forks; where Lee s right was strongly intrenched. No attempt to drive it in was made, however. On the 31st Lee tried to crowd Warren back, but without success. Sheridan HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 203 meantime took Five Forks. From this position his cavalry were driven, however, before night. Next morning Sheridan advanced again from Dinwiddie to Five Forks, regaining his lost ground. The final stroke there was not delivered until nightfall, when Warren s troops, which were put at Sheridan s disposal, were hurled against the enemy in a fearful charge. Over five thousand prisoners were taken, and Lee s right wing was badly damaged. That very night Grant s artillery before Petersburg began a terrific bombardment of the town; and the slowly closing grasp of the besieging army was contracted still further next day by a series of vigorous charges. Wright, Parke, Humphreys, and Ord drove the stubborn Confederates from their intrench ments at several points, while Sheridan crowded in a little more to the southwest. When night fell, Lee s lines were broken in three places, and Petersburg was at Grant s mercy. The next day, April 3d, was Sunday. Jefferson Davis sat in his pew in church when, at 11 A.M., a messenger brought him a dispatch from Lee, revealing the situation. The downfall of Petersburg, now practically assured, meant the downfall of Richmond. Acting on this intelligence, Mr. Davis and the leading officers of the Confederacy prepared for rapid departure, which was effected that night south westward by the Danville Railroad. Great confusion prevailed in the Confederate capital, where the utmost effort was made by those who could to escape and remove their worldly goods. That night the few troops left there were withdrawn, and the city set on fire at several points. General Weitzel, commanding the Union troops in front of the city, suspected what was taking place from the sound of explosions and from the distant lights. Captured rebel pickets and deserters revealed the truth before dawn, and by 6 A.M. Weitzel rode into Richmond, over which the Stars and Stripes were soon floating. A few days later President Lincoln came down there in person for a brief visit, and then returned to his tragic fate in Washington. Peters burg was also evacuated, silently, on the 2d of April, and on the 3d was occupied by the forces immediately in its front. But Grant was massing off to the southwestward, with Griffin s (formerly Warren s) corps at Sutherland s, ten miles west of the town, and Sheridan ten miles further in the same direction. Lee, forced out of his splendid earthworks, with a starving, much disjointed army, was now trying to save his men by pushing westward or southward. If he could, he wanted to go down the Danville road toward North Carolina, or at best move westward along the Appommattox River. Awaiting supplies, he concentrated at Amelia Court-House, while Sheridan, pushing on, seized the Danville road at Jeters- ville, where nearly the whole Union army was gathered on the 6th. The previous night Lee had pushed on to the westward, trying to find a point where he could get down to the south ward; but Sheridan outstripped him, and two or three wagon trains and some prisoners were taken. Swell s corps was cut off from the Confederate army and captured after a plucky re- 204 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. sistance, and Ewell and four other generals were taken. Re duced by starvation, as well as strategy and superior force, Lee was now virtually overcome. Grant demanded his surrender, on the 7th, to avoid further bloodshed, and Sheridan empha sized it by capturing valuable supply-trains coming to Lee s relief, and then swinging around in Lee s front at Appomattox Court- House. This was the final stroke. Next day Lee re plied to Grant by proposing a conference on the 9th. This was held underneath an apple-tree, and the surrender was there ar ranged. Lee and his officers were to retain their swords, and the Confederate soldiers were to keep their horses. " You will need them for your spring ploughing," Grant said. And the vanquished army was allowed to disperse and go home, unmo lested so long as its men refrained from further hostility to the Federal government. General Terry led an expedition, in January, against Fort Fisher, near Wilmington, N. C., and carried the work by storm the 15th. General Butler had tried it in the preceding month, and failed. Fugitive Confederates now blew up their cruisers Tallahassee and Chickamauga, to prevent their capture. Both were British built, less than a year old, and had ravaged the ship ping on the Atlantic coast. The Chickamauga destroyed thirty- three vessels during her short career, causing a loss of five hundred thousand dollars. The blockading fleet, during this winter, as- through previous years, had been vigilant and successful at the rapidly diminishing number of Confederate ports, and had made numerous valuable captures. During the war no less than one hundred and fifty blockade-runners, inward-bound, laden with arms, ammunition, clothing, railroad iron, and other useful products for the conduct of the Confederate campaigns, or out ward-bound, with cargoes of cotton worth nearly or quite a dollar a pound, were caught, and sent North to be sold. A large share of the proceeds went as prize-money to the captors. Most of the commerce thus broken up was with England, and the losses fell largely on the people of that country. Sherman started northward from Savannah in February. He occupied Columbia, S. C., the 17th. The town was de stroyed that night by fire, started, it was said, by smouldering tufts blown about from cotton which Wade Hampton burned on evacuating. Hardee evacuated Charleston the same day, and on the 18th the Union forces in the harbor occupied it. As Sherman advanced, Union troops from Wilmington, Newberne, and other points near the coast, joined him. A Union cavalry raid from Eastern Tennessee into North Carolina, by Stone- man, also facilitated his progress. After meeting occasional resistance from Johnston, he occupied Kaleigh, April 13th. Negotiations for surrender were begun, but delayed by con sideration of civil as well as military matters. The former were finally ruled out, and the last Confederate army laid down its arms April 26th. Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederacy, was taken prisoner while fleeing through Georgia, in May, and sent to HISTORY CP THE UNITED STATES. 205 Fortress Monroe for confinement, where he remained as prisoner two years, when he was released on bail. In 1868 he was in cluded in the general amnesty. The leading event of the year, taking precedence of all others, even military, was the assassination of President Lincoln by J. Wilkes Booth, an actor by profession, on the evening of the 14th of April, at Ford s Theatre in Washington. Mr. Lincoln, ac companied by his wife, Major Rathbone, and Miss Morris, oc cupied a box at the theatre, that evening. The door of the box opened inward, and was approached by a narrow passage. The box was about twelve feet above the stage, looking directly upon it. Booth, being well known in the theatre, had free ac cess to all parts of the building at any hour, and was perfectly acquainted with all its arrangements and the ways of entrance and exit. His arrangements were carefully made: a small hole had been bored in the door opening from the passage into the box, through which could be had a complete view of the ul terior of the box. Outside of the theatre, near the private en trance to the stage, he had a horse in waiting, and close by was an accomplice, mounted, and ready to accompany him after his escape from the theatre. Abouthalf-past nine, Booth silently, and unperceived by the occupants, entered the box and fastened the door behind him. At this time, as Booth knew, the action of the piece required the stage to be vacant for a moment. All eyes were turned to the stage, waiting for the entrance of the next actor. At that instant the report of a pistol was heard, and Rathbone turning saw through the smoke a man between the door and the President. He sprang up and grappled him; but the man making a thrust with a large knife and inflicting a severe wound wrested himself away and rushed to the front of the box. Rathbone endeavored to seize him again, but only caught hold of his clothes as he leaped over the railing upon the stage. His spur caught in the folds of a flag, and was torn off, and he fell nearly prostrate, receiving a severe injury. Not withstanding this, he sprung to his feet, brandished his knife, shouted " Sic semper tyrannis," and rushed through the coulisses, by passages well known to him, to the rear exit of the stage, before the specta- tators were aware of what had occurred. The man, however, was identified as Booth by several actors who saw him on the stage. The interval between the shot and the leap of Booth to the stage was hardly thirty seconds. The ball entered just be hind the President s left ear, driving fragments of bone before it, and lodged in the brain. The President was carried to a private house opposite the theatre. He was unconscious from the moment of the shot, and died early the next morning. Just about the time when the President was assassinated, a man presented himself at the residence of Mr. Seward, the Secretary of State, who was lying in his bedroom in a critical state from injuries received from having been thrown from his carriage. Pushing abruptly past the servant, who hesitated to admit him, the man made his way toward the sick-room. Before reaching the room the slight disturbance had aroused several 206 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. persons in the house. Foremost of these was a son of the Sec retary. He received a blow from a heavy pistol, which frac tured his skull and left him insensible. The man then reached the door of Mr. Seward s room. Within were a daughter of the Secretary, and George Robinson, a soldier, who was attend ing the invalid. Robinson, hearing the disturbance, opened the door and received a passing stab from the assassin, who rushed to the bedside of Mr. Seward and endeavored to strike him with a knife. Robinson grappled with him, and a severe struggle en sued. The assailant, a very powerful man, seemed bent upon reaching Mr. Seward. He succeeded in striking him slightly two or three times; but the wounded man managed to roll from the bed to the floor. The struggle had now aroused the house; and the assassin broke away, rushed downstairs, mounted a horse at the door, and made his escape. The whole detective force of the government was at once called into requisition to arrest the assassins. Various circumstances led to the belief that the assailant of Mr. Seward was John Surratt, whose mother, a resident of Washington, had made her house a ren dezvous for disloyalists. Her house was seized. Before day light on the morning of the 18th a man dressed as a laborer came to the door and was arrested. He said his name was Payne; that he was a common laborer, born in Virginia, and had been engaged to repair a gutter of the house. His statements were unsatisfactory and contradictory. He was found to be in dis guise, his light hair dyed black. He was in the end fully iden tified as the man who attacked Mr. Seward. Meanwhile the energies of the government w r ere directed to the arrest of Booth. It was discovered that he rode some thirty miles into a part of Maryland where the inhabitants were notoriously dis loyal. His wounded leg was dressed by a physician, who fur nished him with a crutch. Crippled as he was, Booth worked his way for ten days, hiding in swamps by the way, and more than once narrowly escaping discovery, accompanied all the while by a companion named Hen-old. The pair at length got across the Potomac into Virginia. By means of infor mation volunteered by blacks, and extorted from whites, the fugitives were traced to a house near Bowling Green. The pursuers, twenty-seven in number, were led by Colonel Con ger. Among them was Boston Corbitt, a sergeant in the cav alry. Booth and Herrold were hidden in a barn. They were called upon to surrender. A long parley ensued, for the pur suers wished to take the fugitives alive. Herrold gave himself up and came out; Booth refused; fire was set to the dry straw in the barn. Booth, brought to bay, wished to sell his life dear ly. Leaning on his crutch, he was in the act of aiming at one of his pursuers, when his fire w r as anticipated by a pistol-shot from Corbitt, who had watched his movements through an opening in the boarding. Booth died after suffering intensely for four hours. The murder of the President aroused a feeling of regret deeper than was ever before known in our history. Men and papers who had opposed his policy and vilified him HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 207 personally, now vied with bis adherents in lauding the rare wisdom and goodness which marked his conduct and character. It was decided that his body should be interred at his home, in Springfield, 111. The long journey was one great funeral pro cession, lasting from the 21st of April, when the embalmed body left Washington, till the 4th of May, when it was entombed at Springfield. The ceremonies at New York, on the 25th of April, were by far the most imposing ever known in that city. It was estimated that sixty thousand people marched in the pro cession. By the death of Mr. Lincoln, Andrew Johnson, elected as Vice-President, became the President of the United States, taking the oath of office on the 15th of April. Of those found upon trial as having been the accomplices of Booth, and abet tors in his escape, four were hung on the 7th of July, three were sentenced to imprisonment at hard labor for life, and one for six years. An act was passed by Congress chartering the Freedmen s Savings and Trust Company at Washington. The last war- loan of $600,000,000, to be exempt from taxation, was author ized in March, just before Lee s surrender. The civil war being ended in April, measures were necessary to brin the seceded States back into their proper relation with the Union, and protect the emancipated colored people therein from possible violence. President Johnson framed a plan of Reconstruction, which resembled that which Lincoln had con templated. It w r as to appoint provisional governors in the Southern States, who were to call conventions of the people, which in turn were to order elections of complete State govern ments. The conventions were required to declare the acts of secession null and void; to declare slavery forever abolished; to repudiate the State debts incurred in aid of the rebellion, and to provide that the State officers elected should be safe and loyal men. If the reorganization failed, troops were to be on hand in every State to maintain order and authority. To aid this plan, April 29th, the President by proclamation opened the Southern ports to trade, except in arms, uniforms, and rail road and telegraph material, these restrictions being all re moved subsequently. May 29th, a proclamation was issued granting " amnesty and pardon, with restoration of all rights of property, except as to slaves" and lawful confiscations, to all the Southern people, except to specified classes of the leaders and officials of the rebellion. In May, June, and July the provisional governors were appointed, except in Tennessee, Louisiana, Virginia, and Arkansas, where the existing State governments were accepted as satisfactory. The plan of reor ganization as outlined above was carried out at once, and be fore the end of the year State governments w r ere in operation in every State. In a few months time the social and commer cial relations of the South with the rest of the country were thus re-established. The political conventions of both the Re publican and Democratic parties in the North this year ap proved this plan. Some Republicans, however, were dissatis- 208 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. fied with it, deeming that it inadequately guaranteed protec tion to the freedmen. A resolution submitted by Congress to the several States for approval in March, as an amendment to the Constitution, abol ishing slavery in the United States, was ratified by three fourths as required, and went into effect in December. The proposed amendment was rejected by Delaware, Kentucky, and New Jersey. At the beginning of this year negroes were excluded from voting in all the States, excepting Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island. In Massachu setts, all voters, white or black, were required to be able to read and write their names. In Rhode Island the ballot was only given to every male citizen, white or black, who owned real estate worth one hundred and thirty- four dollars, or rent of seven dollars a year, or, if a native of the State, who paid an annual tax of one dollar. Proposed amendments to the con stitutions of the States of Connecticut, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Colorado, by which the right to vote would be given to negroes, were voted upon in the fall by conventions of the peo ple of those States, and were rejected in all. The total debt of the United States on the 31st of October was $2,804,549,437.50. The circulation outstanding was $704,- 000,000, of which a little over $428,000,000 were in green backs, $185,000,000 in national-bank notes, $65,000,000 in State-bank notes, and the remainder was in fractional cur rency. Another attempt to lay the Atlantic Telegraph Cable was made in July, and was unsuccessful. The cable, stored on the mammoth steamship Great Eastern, left Valencia Bay on the 23d, the heavy shore-end twenty-six miles long having been successfully laid on the preceding day, and spliced to the cable on board the steamer. On the 2d of August, when the steamer was ten hundred and sixty -two miles from Valencia, and thirteen hundred and twelve miles of cable had been paid out, the cable chafed against the projecting rims of the hawse-holes, and finally broke, the end flying overboard, and in a few moments was lost in the ocean. About one half "the entire length of the cable was overboard. Still it was hoped that it might be recovered, although the depth of water was twenty-five hundred fathoms. The Great Eastern steamed back a dozen miles and threw over a grapple attached to a wire-rope, capable of supporting a strain of ten tons; and the vessel steamed back and forth across the line in w T hich the cable must lie. At 4 A.M. on the 3d of August, it was evident that the grapple had caught the cable, and the rope was hauled in. The strain of course increased with every foot of the ca ble that was raised. In six hours eleven hundred and fifty fathoms had been brought on board, when the rope parted, and cable and grapple and rope sunk again to the bottom. But the experiment showed that it was possible to fish up the cable from the bottom of the ocean. During the next four HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 209 days the weather was unfavorable, and nothing was accom plished. Just before noon of the 7th another grapple was flung over, and after dragging until six P.M. the cable was again caught, and at eight the hauling in was begun. The next morning one thousand fathoms had been brought in when the rope broke. The 9th and 10th were spent in unavailing at tempts to grapple the cable. In the afternoon of the llth, it was again caught by the grapple, which was now attached to a rope composed of sixteen hundred fathoms of wire, the re mainder of hemp. In three hours, when seven hundred and sixty fathoms had been hauled in, the rope broke, leaving seventeen hundred and fifty fathoms overboard. The Great Eastern, having no more rope on board for grappling, returned to England. Wall Street in August was startled by the failure of one of the wealthiest banking-houses of New York, and the discovery of forgeries to a large amount committed by Edward B. Ketchum, a junior partner of the firm. In addition, securities had been abstracted from the vaults to the amount of three millions of dollars or more. The forgeries were about one half that sum, and consisted of forged gold certificates pur porting to be signed by wealthy houses, which were negotiated at the banks as security for loans. The first sheet-zinc manufactured in the United States was made at Bethlehem, Pa., in March. Barnum s Museum, at the corner of Ann Street and Broad way, in New York, was destroyed by fire, with the contents, on the 13th of July. About twenty persons were burned to death, and half a mil lion dollars worth of property destroyed, at a fire in Philadel phia on the 8th of February. On the 31st of March, the steam-transport General Lyon, from Wilmington for Fortress Monroe, having on board be tween five and six hundred persons, caught fire when off Cape Hatteras, and was entirely consumed, and nearly all of those on board perished. The following was the published scale of prices for paper in New York, in January: For note-paper, first-class, 55 to 60 cents per pound; good, 50 to 55 cents; common, 45 to 50 cents; for letter and foolscap, five cents per pound less than note- paper; for news, rag, 22 to 25 cents; for news, straw, 20 to 22 cents; for manilla wrapping paper, 18 to 20 cents. The price for Middling Uplands cotton in the New York market on the 1st of January, of this year, per pound, was 118 to 120 cents; on the 1st of April, 45 to 48 cents; on the 1st of July, 43 cents, and on the 1st of October, 45 to 45^ cents. The price for gold per dollar was quoted in the New York market on the 1st of January, at 227f cents; on the 1st of April, 154 cents; on the 1st of July, 136| to 138 cents, and on the 1st of October, at 143 to 144 cents. 1866 Hostility to President Johnson s policy in relation to the Southern States showed in Congress, and led to the appointment 210 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. of a Joint Committee of Fifteen to consider Reconstruction ques tions, soon after the opening of Congress in December, 1865. This action was the beginning of a disagreement between Con gress and the President. At the instance of this committee, the Civil Rights Bill on the 9th of April was passed, and an act en larging the scope of the Freedmen s Bureau. These acts were vetoed by the President, and passed over his vetoes The Civil Rights Bill ordained that all persons born in the United States, and not subject to any foreign power, excluding Indians not taxed, were to be citizens of the United States; and such citizens, of every race and color, without regard to any previous condition of slavery and involuntary service, except as a punishment for crime, whereof the party should have been duly convicted, should have the same right in every State and Territory to make and enforce contracts, to sue, to be sued, be parties and give evidence, to inherit, purchase, lease, sell, hold, and convey real and personal laws and pi are enjoyed punishment, pains and penalties, and to none other; any law, statute, ordinance, regulation, or custom to the contrary not withstanding. President Johnson s objections were that the act was inexpedient, and that the subjects embraced in the numeration of rights contained in the bill, had been considered as belonging exclusively to the States. On the 18th of June, the Committee on Reconstruction made a long report to Con gress, declaring that none of the Southern States had yet placed itself in a position to secure satisfactory relations to the Union, or representatives in Congress, and advised new legislation. On the 8th of July, Congress adopted a resolution proposing the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, establishing the citizenship of all natives of tLis country, imposing legal disabili ties on the Confederate leaders, and prohibiting the payment of the rebel debt or pensions. On the 25th of July, Congress passed an act reviving the grade of general in the army, and creating the grades of admiral and vice-admiral in the navy. The title of general was bestowed upon Grant, and lieutenant-general upon Sherman, while those of -admiral and vice-admiral were conferred upon Farragut and D. D. Porter. There were two or more expeditions organized by the Fenians in the United States for an invasion of Canada and New Brunswick. One, numbering about five hundred men, quietly gathered in April, at Eastport, in Maine ; with an intention of making a descent upon the island of Campobello, belonging to New Brunswick. After a delay of several days, which were spent in holding meetings and parading the streets of Eastport, a schooner arrived from Portland with seven hundred and fifty stand of arms from the Fenian sympathizers in that city. The British consul at that port complained, and the arms were seized by the United States Government. A British war-steamer anchored off Campobello, and troops were summoned to prevent HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 211 the invasion of the Province, and a detachment of United States troops were sent from Portland to Calais, at which point many of the Fenians had congregated. General Meade arrived on the 19th of April, and assumed the command of the United States troops. A few days later, the Fenians, discouraged at the lack of support from their friends in New York, abandoned the enterprise and returned home. On the 19th of May, twelve hundred stand of arms were seized by the United States author ities, at Rouse s Point, in New York, near the Canadian frontier. On the 30th of the same month, the Fenians, coming from dif ferent parts of the country, assembled in secret convention at Buffalo. On the same day, twelve hundred stand of arms were seized at St. Albans by the United States authorities. Canada was thoroughly aroused at the prospect of an invasion, and companies of troops were moving to the threatened points. On the 1st of June, a force of twelve to fifteen hundred Fenians crossed the Niagara River at Buffalo, in canal-boats, and took possession of Fort Erie, an old work then unoccupied. On the 3d, a skirmish occurred between some Fenians and Canadian volunteers, in which some of the latter were reported killed and a large number wounded. On the night of the same day, the Fenians being without supplies, artillery, or reinforcements, at tempted to retreat into the United States, but they were inter cepted by a United States gun-boat, and about seven hundred of their number arrested. General Barry, then in command of the United States forces in that vicinity, accepted a parole from over thirteen hundred of the Fenians, who promised to abandon the enterprise. The officers were relieved by giving bail that they would appear when required for trial for an in fraction of the neutrality laws. Fenians, however, continued to arrive from various parts of the country, but were ordered home by their commanding officers. Simultaneously with the movement from Buffalo, Fenians were reported to be assem bling on the border in Vermont, and Malone, N. Y., and General Meade, commanding the United States troops, proceeded to Ogdensburg to commence operations for preventing the invasion. On the 7th of June, the Fenians, numbering over one thousand, crossed the frontier and took possession of St. Armand, which had been evacuated by the Canadians. On the same day one of the chief officers of the Fenian organization in the United States was arrested at St. Albans, Vt., another at New York, and several other leaders at Buffalo. On the 9th, upon the ad vance of the Canadian troops at St. Armand, the Fenians re tired and recrossed the frontier. General Meade arrested large numbers of the Fenians, accepted their parole, and provided them means of transportation, for all who required it, to their homes. A severe hail-storm passed over Baltimore, on the night of May 1st. Many of the hailstones measured from three to four inches in circumference. The destruction of window-glass was very great, the amount being computed at twenty thousand panes. On the southern and eastern sides of the city, where 212 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the storm spent its fury, there was hardly a window facing north that was not shattered. The churches, public buildings, and buildings with sky-lights suffered severely On the 4th of July, a conflagration in Portland, Me., de stroyed fully a third part of the city, including almost the en tire business portion and a great part of the churches and public buildings. Fully a quarter of the population were rendered homeless. The entire loss was estimated at ten millions of dol lars, endured by a population of forty thousand. The Atlantic telegraph-cable was safely laid, and was put in successful operation in the month of July. The work was begun on the 6th by landing the shore end at Valencia, in Ire land. On the 13th the deep-sea line was spliced to the shore end, and the Great Eastern, with the cable on board, accom panied by three consorts, set out on the voyage. Not a single misadventure occurred, and on the 28th the vessels reached Newfoundland. The whole distance sailed by the fleet was sixteen hundred and eighty -six nautical miles, and the length of cable paid out eighteen hundred and sixty- six miles. The rate of sailing w r as singularly uniform, the least distance made in a single day being one hundred and five miles, the greatest one hundred and twenty-eight. The price of Middling Uplands cotton in the New York market, on the 1st of January this year, was 52 to 53 cents; on the 1st of April, 40 to 42 cents; on the 1st of July, 36 to 38 cents; and on the 1st of October, 40 to 42 cents. The price of gold per dollar, as quoted, in New York on the 1st of January, of this year, was 144f cents; on the 1st of April, 127f to 128i; on the 1st of July, 151 to 153|; and on the 1st of October, 145 to 146. 1867 Congress passed several bills relative to the elective franchise which the President vetoed, and it then passed them over his veto. In March, it passed a law declaring no legal govern ments existed in the South, and ordering that region to be divided into five military districts, with military governors, the existing governments to be deemed provisional until the States were admitted to Congress. This bill was also vetoed, and passed over the veto. On the 23d of March, a law was passed for a registration of the votes of the South under the direction of the military governors. The President carried out these laws, but came into conflict with Mr. Stenton, Secretary of War, as to details, and on the 5th of August called for his resig nation. It was refused the same day. On the 12th of August he suspended Stanton and appointed General Grant as Acting Secretary, and Grant had charge of the office until the next January, Early in the next session of Congress the impeach ment of the President was proposed in the House of Represen tatives, but was disagreed to. On the 7th of September, the President proclaimed amnesty to all but a few of the Southern officials. Jefferson Davis, on a writ of habeas corpus, was taken from Fortress Monroe, arraigned for high-treason, and released HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 213 on bail. The trial was set for November, but postponed until the following March. It never came off. By act of Congress, Nebraska was admitted into the Union as a State. On the 30th of March a treaty was signed by the plenipo tentiary of the Emperor of Russia and the President of the United States, the ratifications of which by the respective pow ers were exchanged on the 20th of June following, whereby the tract of land in America known as Russian America was ceded to the United States, for the consideration of the sum of seven millions two hundred thousand dollars. The formal transfer was made on the 9th of October, General Rosecrans, on behalf of the United States Government, taking possession at New Archangel, on the island of Sitka. The area of this new territory, which subsequently was named Alaska, is estimated at five hundred thousand square miles, with a coast-line greater than that of the United States on the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. The first gold and stock telegraph company organized in this country was incorporated hi New York, on the 16th of August. The purpose of the company was the instantaneous and simultaneous supply of quotations of the sales of stocks, gold, and other values made at the Stock, Gold, and other Exchanges. The Cincinnati Suspension Bridge across the Ohio River, and connecting Covington, Ky., with Cincinnati, was com pleted and opened for travel, this year. The Hudson River Bridge at Albany, forming a connecting link between the New York Central Railroad on the west with the Boston and Al bany on the east, was completed and opened for travel. In the summer and autumn the yellow-fever raged at New Orleans and other places in the Southwest. About twenty-five hundred died from the disease in that city. In Galveston and throughout the coast portions of Texas it was still more severe. There were many cases in Mobile, Natchez, Vicks- burg, and other towns on the Mississippi River. At Quaran tine, New York, there were three hundred and ninety cases, of which one hundred and twelve were fatal. On the 23d of January, the East River between Brooklyn and New York was bridged over with ice, and five thousand persons crossed, as estimated. Towards the close of this year the price of news paper was reduced to sixteen cents a pound. The price of gold this year ranged between 133 and 143, without much fluctuation. 1868 The disagreement between Congress and the President in creased. On the 13th of January, the Senate refused to concur in Stanton s suspension. Grant promptly vacated the office. On the 21st of February the President ordered Stanton s re moval, and directed Adjutant- General Thomas to take charge as Secretary ad interim. Stanton refused to vacate, and had Thomas temporarily arrested on the 22d. The same day the 214 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. House voted to impeach the President for his conduct in this matter. On the 2d and 3d of March the indictment was per fected, and included certain threats and speeches of the Presi dent against Congress. The case came to trial before the Senate, March 23d, and lasted until May 26th, there being thirty-two days in all of the actual trial. The vote was thirty- five for " Guilty" and nineteen for " Not Guilty," but convic tion was lost for lack of a constitutional majority. Therefore the Chief Justice entered a verdict of acquittal. In June, Arkansas, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, and Louisiana were admitted to representa tion in Congress, and reconstruction in their cases was thus completed. At the presidential election of this year the candidates of the Republican party were General U. S. Grant for President, and Schuyler Colfax for Vice-President. Those of the Demo cratic party were Horatio Seymour for President, and Frank P. Blair for Vice-President. The platform adopted by the Republicans at their national convention sustained the meas ures of Congress and denounced those of the President, while that of the Democrats sustained the principles advocated by the President and opposed the measures of Congress. The Republican candidates received the electoral votes of twenty-six States, two hundred and nine in all; the Democratic, those of eight States, casting eighty-five electoral votes. Congress authorized the formation of Wyoming into a Terri tory, and extended the laws of the United States to Alaska, and formed that Territory into one collection-district. The Presi dent was given power to regulate the importation of arms, am munition, and spirits into Alaska, and the Secretary of the Treasury to regulate the fur-trade and seal-hunting there. The Secretary of State, on the 20th of July, officially an nounced that the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution had been accepted by three fourths of the States, thereby be coming a part of the Constitution of the United States. On the 25th of December, the President issued a proclama tion granting amnesty to all, without exception, who had par ticipated in the late rebellion. A calamitous earthquake occurred on the Pacific coast on the 21st of October. The first shock, which was the heaviest, was felt a little before eight o clock in the morning, at San Fran cisco. The worst consequences were experienced on the made ground and the flats, where the foundations of the buildings were unstable. Few structures in that part of the city escaped damage. In one place the ground sunk for a foot or two; in another, the cobble-stones in the street sunk away from the curb stone to the depth of a foot, and the asphaltum sidewalks were twisted and torn out of shape. The walls of the City Hall were split, and several stones in the front wall fell out. Owing to the shattered condition of the custom-house, the business was removed to other places. The post-office was also dam aged, and many stores and dwellings were so badly injured HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 215 that it was found necessary to take them down entirely. Five persons were killed by falling chimneys. In other places in California the earthquake was severely felt, lives were lost, and much property damaged. The Patapsco River, in Maryland, was flooded in July, and almost destroyed Ellicott City, causing considerable loss of life. In Baltimore, several streets were overflowed, with great dam age, which, in and about the city, was estimated at three mil lions of dollars. The most destructive fire that ever visited Chicago, up to this period, occurred there on the 28th of January, burning one en tire block, and buildings elsewhere from falling cinders, with a loss of about three millions of dollars. Fort Lafayette, in New York harbor, was destroyed by fire on the 1st of December. The bridge across the Mississippi River at Quincy, 111., was opened for travel on the 7th of November. 1869 Ulysses S. Grant and Schuyler Coif ax commenced their terms of office on the 4th of March, as President and Vice- President. Congress, in February, adopted a resolution proposing a Fif teenth Amendment to the Constitution, giving the colored peo ple the elective franchise. The right of suffrage was granted to women by the legisla tures of the Territories of Wyoming and Utah. Women were also ordained as deacons in the First Presbyterian Church hi Philadelphia, and were allowed to practise law in Kansas by an act of the legislature. Prominent in the annals of Wall Street were the events which occurred on Friday, the 24th of September a day which has since been designated as "Black Friday." For some time be fore a feeling prevailed that speculating in gold, which had been extensively engaged in throughout the war, was rapidly drawing to a close, and that the country would soon return to specie payments. In the spring of this year gold fell to 131, at which price a clique of speculators in New York purchased several millions, and then, inducing several newspapers to mag nify the probability that difficulties would arise from the Ala bama claims, a European war, the Cuban insurrection, and vari ous other matters, they pushed up the price to 145, and gathered a rich harvest. The price again fell to 131, and there was a gen eral belief that it would soon drop to 120. It was at this time that a conspiracy was formed among several speculators to con trol an immense amount of gold, and advance the price. The financial policy of the government, requiring the payment of duties in gold, continuously created an imperative and legiti mate demand for it. By the operations of that clique the price was advanced to 141 by Wednesday, the 22d of September. Stocks, always sympathizing with a marked change in the value of specie, on that day greatly fluctuated in price, amidst great excitement on the Stock Exchange, causing more surprise than the advance in gold. New York Central fell twenty-two- 216 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. per cent in about as many minutes, and then fluctuated on a range of eight or ten per cent through tne remainder of the day. Hudson River fell thirteen points, and other stocks sym pathized in the fall, placing dealers in great straits. Brokers called on their customers to increase their margins, which the day had wiped out. The money market became very tight, and high rates were paid so that balances could be carried over until the next day. When the dealings of Thursday morning opened it was at once made evident that the clique was in the ascendant, for gold continued to advance. The margins that had been increased with great difficulty the night before were again swept away, and there was a new call for their increase. This was beyond the power of all but the strongest operators. All the small and medium speculators failed, or settled their obligations on the best terms they could. The wealthy dealers only defied the clique. This was a day of excitement, of rushing, and of alternating hope and fear, such as had rarely, if ever, been witnessed, even in the times of the war. The day closed with gold at 144. On the morning of the eventful 24th, New Street, and every passage leading to the Gold Room, was completely blocked up by one dense mass of humanity, all under the greatest state of excitement. At the opening of the Board the price of gold was 150 an advance of six per cent on that of the highest of the day before. It was now well known that the clique themselves held in gold and contracts for delivery something like one hundred and twenty millions, while all the current gold in New York could be scarcely more than twenty millions. The government alone could break the corner by the sale of gold in the sub-treasury, but the deaf ear which had been turned to appeals to Washing ton, if it did not confirm the boast of the clique that members of the government were in league with them, at least destroyed all hope of relief from that quarter. At eleven o clock the price was 155; at half-past eleven 160, and then, 162 and 164. In the midst of the wildest excitement, when the price was vibrating at the highest points, a messenger arrived in the Gold Room with the news that the government would sell gold, and upon the amount being known, the price instantly fell to 135. The power of the clique was at once broken, and the most dar ing plot ever known was defeated, and the great crisis was at an end; but so large had been the dealings that the .Gold Ex change Bank, which was the agent to settle the clearings, had not yet been able to foot up and settle the transactions of the preceding day, so there was still doubt and uncertainty, and the shadow of disaster continued to darken Wall Street and its ramifications. The calamity to the business community which the clique had spread was now felt, and so great was the indig- dation against its members that they were obliged to conceal themselves for safety. The most persistent efforts were made to implicate the President in their transactions, and Congress appointed a committee to investigate the charge, but they proved to be entirely without foundation. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 217 One of the most, if not the most, remarkable contests in rail way strife known in this or any other country, took place over the possesssion of the Albany and Susquehanna Railroad, connecting Albany with the Erie at Binghamton. After seventeen years of desperate struggle for existence, through re peated discouragements and many suspensions of work upon its construction, the Albany and Susquehanna Railroad was finally completed in January of this year. It had been pro jected and built, as a purely local enterprise, to benefit the towns through which it ran, and for this reason had received some aid from the State, and the towns along the line had sub scribed for some of its stock ; but, as soon as all the difficulties were surmounted, and the road was finished, it was found to be of greater value than for local use. If run in connection with the Erie road, it formed the necessary connecting link to render that road a rival of the New York Central for the through business between New England and the West. It was of still greater value in affording the anthracite-coal regions of North eastern Pennsylvania a more direct communication with New England and the country north of Albany, and, as such, was destined to destroy a very profitable part of the business of the branch of the Erie road running to Newburgh. In view of these facts, the managers of the Erie determined to secure the control of the Albany and Susquehanna, by procuring the elec tion of its officers among their friends at the coming election- day, in September. For that purpose, they set out to procure the control, by purchase and otherwise, of a majority of the stock. The president of the Albany and Susquehanna Rail road, Mr. Ramsey, together with his friends, who were opposed to the measures of the Erie managers, were determined to resist them, and retain the control of the road in their own interests. On the 3d of August the treasurer refused to transfer some stock, offered for that purpose by the Erie party, on the ground that it was illegally procured. A war of injunctions followed, the Erie party having a pliant judge at New York who issued anything asked for. At length an angry assertion of con flicting rights prevailed at the offices of the company at Al bany, and became so serious that the police had to be called in to preserve order. Opposing injunctions still continued, and rival receivers of the road were appointed. The Ramsey re ceiver held possession of the Albany end of the road, and the Erie receiver of that at Binghamton. An Erie superintendent was put in charge at that place, and a train standing at the station ready to start was not permitted to proceed till an Erie engine had been substituted, an Erie conductor placed in charge, and an Erie sheriff placed on board to distribute Erie injunctions and writs of assistance, and replace all employes by Erie sympathizers wherever the train stopped. The doings of the Erie men had been telegraphed to Albany, and the Ramsey party had become fully roused, and determined on the most decisive measures. The trains of the two contending parties were closely approaching each other, when the Erie 218 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. train, while nearing Bainbridge station, was hostilely switched on to a side-track, and the Albany train passed on the main line behind the other, stopped, and then made the Erie party prisoners. The Ramsey party, on the following morn ing, started again towards Binghamton. They removed the Erie men placed in charge of that part of the line, and restored the former employes. All went smoothly till they reached a tunnel, about two hundred feet in length, about fifteen miles from Binghamton. At this point they received news of a new Erie train that had come up from Einghamton with several hundred men to give them battle. The Erie party num bered about eight hundred ; the Ramsey about half that num ber. The Erie men put together the heaviest train they could make up, filled it with men, and started through the tunnel. They found a single rail removed by their opponents. This was replaced, and once more they moved forward, having now a down grade. The Ramsey train moved too, and as the Erie train turned a sharp corner, it became suddenly aware of the approach of their enemy, under full headway, with the mani fest intention of a collision. The collision happened, and the shock and panic to Erie was complete. The men leaped from the train, and, without stopping to see what had happened, ran for the Binghamton side of the tunnel with their utmost speed, some running through the tunnel, and others over the hill above it. They were pursued, with shouts, by the Ramsey men, who threw at them sticks, stones, and other missiles. Matters soon assumed such a serious aspect that the civil authorities of Broome County called upon the military for as sistance, and a regiment was sent to the scene of the riot, and soon the disturbance was quelled. At length the governor of the State was summoned from a pleasure-excursion to effect the safe running of trains, and to adopt measures that the courts had failed to accomplish. Finding that he could not induce harmony between the rival factions, he took possession of the road in the name of the State, and appointed two members of his staff to run it until the difficulties could be settled judicially. The courts finally decided in favor of the Ramsey party, and mulcted the Erie managers in a large amount, to indemnify the road for damages. The laying of a submarine telegraphic cable from Brest, (France) to the island of St. Pierre, near the Gulf of St. Law rence, and thence to Duxbury, on the coast of Massachusetts, was successfully accomplished in July. The length of the line is about 3047 miles, and was laid by a company chartered by the French Government. The Union Pacific and the Central Pacific railroads were completed on the 10th of May, the last rail being laid on that day, when a continuous line of rail was formed across the con tinent. On the 15th trains commenced running regularly over the line. The construction of the roads was commenced in 1863, but no considerable amount of work was accomplished till 1865. In that year over one hundred miles were graded HISTOEY OF THE UNITED STATES. 219 and bridged on the Union Pacific, and rails laid upon forty miles. In 1866, two hundred and sixty-five miles of road were completed ; in 1867, two hundred and forty-five; and in 1868, three hundred and fifty miles. The route for the eastern por tion of the Union Pacific is up the valley of the Platte River, which has a course nearly due east from the base of the moun tains. The slope of the valley is very nearly uniform towards the Missouri, at the rate of about ten feet to the mile. Cheyenne, at the base of the mountains, is elevated 6063 feet above the sea, and 5093 above Omaha. From Cheyenne to the summit of the mountains, which is eight thousand two hundred and forty-three feet above the sea, the distance is thirty- two miles. After crossing the eastern crest of the mountains, the line tra verses an elevated table-land for about four hundred miles to the western crest of the mountains, at an elevation of seven thousand five hundred and fifty feet above the sea. Upon this elevated table -land is a succession of extensive plains, which afforded great facilities for the construction of the road. The Central Pacific Railroad Company was organized under the general railroad law of California, with authority to con struct a railroad from Sacramento to the eastern boundary of that State. By act of Congress, July 1, 1862, it was author ized to construct the western portion of the Pacific Railroad, in the government territory, to a junction with the Union Pacific, and the same provision for government aid was made in its favor as in the case of that road. The crossing of the Sierra Nevada mountains, at an elevation of 7050 feet above the level of the sea, in a distance of one hundred and fifty miles, was considered a great achievement in civil-engineering. The work of construction was commenced in February, 1863. The road from Sacramento to Coif ax is one hundred and sixty-five miles in length, and was completed in September, 1865. It was continued to Cisco, ninety-four miles, by November, 1866 ; to the summit of the Sierra Nevada, one hundred and five miles farther, in July, 1867 ; to the Nevada line, one hundred and thirty-eight miles more, in January, 1868 ; to Monument Point, six hundred and sixty-seven miles, in April of this year; and to a junction with the Union Pacific, eight hundred and eighty- one miles in all, on the 10th of May. On the 6th of September, a disaster occurred in the Avondale coal-mine, in Luzerne County, Pa., resulting in the loss of one hundred and eight lives. While the miners were engaged at work in the mine, the shaft, constructed chiefly of combustible material, took fire, and soon the only entrance to the mine was filled with burning timbers, fire, and smoke. No assistance could be rendered the sufferers from without, and, there being no means of escape, all of the unfortunate inmates perished. A disastrous flood occurred in portions of Texas, in July, in consequence of heavy rains of three days continuance. The Ouadalupe, Cormal, Nevada, San Marcos, and Colorado rivers, and Peach Creek, rose to the height of forty-seven feet above their ordinary level, which was never before known. The 220 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. lands on each side, to the distance, in many places, of ten miles and more, were completely submerged., the crops and stores destroyed, and not only all the bridges and mills on the banks were swept away, but the cabins of the negroes and farm-houses far inland were overturned and carried off. The city of San Antonio and the town of La Grange suffered severely, and many of the inhabitants were lost. The loss of property was immense, the damage on the Colorado alone being estimated at three millions of dollars. 1870 Virginia, Georgia, Mississippi, and Texas were admitted to representation in Congress. On the 30th of March the Secretary of State issued a proclamation announcing the ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution. Reconstruction, in form, was now finished, although further legislation to en force the new amendment and authorizing the use of troops at the polls followed. Congress, in May, passed a bill chartering the Northern Pacific Railroad Company. In June, an act was passed re ducing the tax on incomes to two and a half per cent, and in creasing the exemption to two thousand dollars, An act was also passed providing for the redemption of the three-per-cent loan certificates, and for an increase of the national -bank notes; also a bill to authorize the refunding of the national debt, at lower rates of interest. The Kansas Pacific Railroad, extending from Kansas City, Mo., to Denver, in Colorado, was completed on the 15th of August. On the 20th of October, the shock of an earthquake was felt in Northeastern America, from New Brunswick to Iowa, and from the river St. Lawrence to Cincinnati and Richmond. The occurrence was so rare in that region the phenomenon ex cited more than ordinary attention ; in cities, where there are many tall buildings, the earthquake was particularly notice able. In New York, the upper floors of some buildings were so shaken that the workmen engaged in their occupations fled to tne street in alarm; at a public school in Fourteenth Street, where there were twelve hundred children, it caused a panic among them, and it was with difficulty the teachers prevented a catas trophe in the rush to the street. The severest effects of the earthquake were felt in Scranton, Pa. ; Cooperstown, Rondout, Hudson, and Troy, in New York; Montpelier, Yt.; Boston, and New Haven. In the latter part of September, the valleys of the James and Shenandoah rivers in Virginia, were visited by a sudden and disastrous flood, such as had not occurred before during the century. In less than two days the water in the James River rose about twenty -four feet; a large portion of the city of Richmond was flooded, and great damage was done to property. The rise in the Shenandoah River was nearly twice that of the James. The destruction of property in the counties of Rockingham, Shenandoah, Page, Warren, Clarke, and Jef ferson was very great, including the entire crops of corn and HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 221 hay, with the unthreshed crops of wheat, rye, and oats, along the river bottoms. So sudden was the rise of water, the people in the lowlands had no time to preserve their property. Dwell ings, mills, bridges, fences, barns, and manufacturing estab lishments were swept away, and hundreds of laborers were deprived of employment. At Harper s Ferry a large part of the town was submerged, many substantial buildings were de stroyed, and forty lives lost. The loss of property by the flood was estimated at not less than three millions of dollars. A calamity occurred at Richmond, Va., on the 29th of April, by which about sixty persons were killed and more than twice that number injured. A case which had excited unusual in terest in the community was to be decided on that day in the Court of Appeals, and an immense crowd of people, including many ladies, gathered in the gallery of the court-room, which was in the second story of the capitol. Suddenly the over weighted gallery fell on to the floor, which then broke through, and the whole mass of human beings, and debris, were precipi tated into the hall of the House of Delegates below. 1871 In March, Congress passed an Appropriation Bill and, by a clause in it, the President was authorized to prescribe such rules and regulations for the admission of persons into the civil ser vice of the United States as would best promote its efficiency, and ascertain the fitness of each candidate in respect to age, health, character, knowledge, and ability for the service into which he might seek to enter. The President, accordingly, appointed six persons as commissioners to devise a plan where by the reform could best be carried out, and they made their report in November. In July, disclosures were made to the public, by means of the newspaper press, of a conspiracy of some of the officials of the city of New York, which revealed a plot to rob that city to a very large amount, and which proved to be one of the most colossal frauds ever achieved upon any community, the col lective perpetrators of which being subsequently denominated as the "Tweed Ring." In the summer of 1868 a plot was formed in the city to carry the State, in the coming election, for the Democratic party. When the polls closed on election day, the result in the several counties was telegraphed to Wil liam M. Tweed, chairman of the General Committee of Tam many Hall. The count in New York City was delayed, and Democratic votes were returned as having been cast in the city in sufficient number to carry the State. The scheme thus car ried out gave Mr. Tweed great power in both the State Govern ment and that of New York City. In the city he was virtually political dictator. The affairs of the city had been corruptly managed for several years, and a plan was now formed to en rich Tweed and his immediate friends by robbing the city treas ury. The construction of a new County Court -House was arranged for, the estimated cost which w r as two hundred and fifty thousand dollars, but the real cost of which might be made to reach several millions. In the following year, the building 222 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. was begun. The contractors for labor, materials, and supplies were required to increase their bills. The bills were passed by the Board of Supervisors at the dictation of Tweed, who was a member of the Board. They were audited by Auditor Wat son, his tool. The contractors received the amount due them, and from fifteen to sixty-five per cent of the total bills was di vided by Tweed and his friends amongst themselves. Tweed s share was usually twenty-five per cent. In 1870, for the first time in seventeen years, the Democrats, led by Tweed, now had complete control of the State Government of New York. The city government of New York was solidly Demo cratic. In the early part of the year, by the free use of money, Tweed, who was a State Senator as well as Commissioner of Public Works in the city, secured the passage of a new city charter. The power of auditing bills was taken from the Board of Supervisors, and placed in the hands of a board of audit, composed of A. Oakey Hall, Mayor; Richard B. Connolly, , Comptroller; William M. Tweed, Commissioner of Public Works; and Peter B. Sweeney, Commissioner of Parks. The contractors on the new Court-House were required to make out claims for imaginary services, and these bills, to the amount of six millions of dollars, were passed at one meeting. Auditor Watson was then authorized to certify all subsequent bills, the members of the Board signing them separately. More than half the amount of these bills passed into the pockets of the Ring. Over one million of the six millions, before referred to, was traced to Tweed. Before the end of that year, the fraudu lent expenditures on the Court House had reached over eight millions of dollars. To silence criticism, Tweed filled the pay rolls of the city government with multitudes of men, drawing large salaries, who never performed any work, and gave profit able contracts to others at enormous figures. Checks were given for salaries larger than Governors . Police Justices were given larger compensation than the Chief Justice of the United States. The expenses of the city reached twenty -four millions of dol lars a year, or nearly as much as under the entire civil list of the United States Government. The politics of the city were completely debauched. Every influential thief, gambler, and ward politician rolled in money, and shone in diamonds and costly chains. A carnival of vice reigned in every quarter of the city. In two years, Tweed bought one million three hun dred and forty -six thousand eight hundred and seventy -five dol lars of real estate, and, in partnership with Sweeney, Connolly, and others, five hundred thousand dollars more. During that year a rebellion broke out against Tweed, in which ex-Sheriff James O Brien and State Senator Harry Genet were prominent. It was the belief that some of the disaffected ones merely had in view a larger share of the plunder, but O Brien made his op position effectual by giving to The New York Times the facts about the robberies by the Ring, After several significant hints, as early as May of this year, that newspaper, in July, disclosed the operations of the Ring. People were slow to believe. On HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 223 the 4th of September, a mass meeting of citizens was held at Cooper Institute, and a Committee of Seventy was appointed to investigate and punish. Governor Hoffman delegated his powers in the premises to Charles O Conor, an eminent lawyer. The Comptrollerwaspromptly enjoined frompaying any more claims. Soon afterwards, the Comptroller resigned; he was arrested, re leased on five hundred thousand dollars bail, and fled from the country, In the next year (1872) a number of suits were brought against Tweed. A. Oakey Hall was tried in March, but a juror died and the trial was interrupted. He was tried again, when the jury disagreed. In 1873, Tweed was tried from January 6th to the 31st; the jury disagreed. A second trial, lasting from November 5th to 19th, resulted in conviction on every one of the fifty- one counts in the indictment. Tweed wassentenced to twelvey ears imprisonment onBlackwell sIsland and to pay a heavy fine. In April, 1875, a civil suit was begun in the Supreme Court against Tweed to recover six million one hundred and ninety-eight thousand nine hundred and fifty dol lars. In the January following, the Court of Appeals decided that Tweed could be no longer imprisoned, because he had been confined on a cumulative sentence. He was discharged on June 22, 1875, but rearrested on an old indictment. He was held to find fifteen thousand dollars bail in the criminal charge, and three million dollars bail in the civil suit. December 4th, while on a visit from Ludlow Street Jail to his house, in cus tody of officers, he escaped, and made his way to sea in a yacht. In 1876, Tweed was recaptured at Vigo, Spain, and brought back to New York in November. On January 13th of the same year, the civil suit against him was brought to trial, and on March 8th a verdict was obtained for six million five hun dred and thirty-seven thousand one hundred and seventeen dol lars and thirty-eight cents, of which one million eight hundred and seventeen thousand one hundred and seventy-seven dollars and three cents was for interest. He was, after his recapture, sent back to prison on Blackwell s Island. On the 12th of April, 1878, Tweed died in arison. The Ring had by that time been completely scattered and crushed; but the city never re covered more than a small prt of its stolen millions. Serious troubles between the operators and miners in the anthracite coal region in Pennsylvania, commencing in the pre ceding fall, were continued and increased until their culmina tion in the summer of this year. It began in the upper Wyoming region, where the wages of miners, as announced, would be reduced. A strike was ordered by the Working Men s Benevolent Association, a united and compact organiza tion, chartered by the Legislature, and embracing nearly all the entire laboring population of the coal country, and formed with the contemplated object of securing employment to its mem bers, and preventing a reduction of wages. In January, by order of this Association, the strike was continued throughout the Schuylkill, Lehigh, and Lower Wyoming districts. In the early part of April, serious disturbances occurred in the section 224 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. about Scranton, between members of the Association and the non-union men, and their employment was stopped at the mines, the strikers having torn up the track, demolished the cars, and otherwise damaging the works. The operators and miners throughout the coal region at last came to a compromise, and work was resumed. Water was brought into Providence by aqueduct, and on the 30th of November the event was celebrated. A series of earthquakes, computed at over seven thousand different shocks, occurred during a space of two weeks in February, in California, at several points. In Napa County, in Cram Valley, and in the region of Owen s Lake and River, they were felt more severely, and particularly at the latter point. Huge fissures were rent in the earth, and for several miles an embankment of earth was raised where previously it had been a plain. The water of the river and lake ebbed almost to dryness, and then returned in great volume and overflowed the adjacent country. Thirty to forty persons were killed by the earthquake. On the 7th of October, a large fire occurred at Chicago, which involved a loss of one million of dollars, and it was succeeded by the most disastrous conflagration ever before witnessed in the annals of this country. This last great fire commenced on Sunday evening, October 8th, and continued to rage on the forenoon of the following day. The estimated number of lives lost was two hundred and fifty ; of persons rendered homeless, ninety-eighty thousand five hundred ; of buildings consumed, seventeen thousand five hundred ; and the value of the property destroyed, one hundred and ninety- two millions of dollars. It included the business and the best built portion of the city. The total area burned over, including ;streets, the pavements of which were generally rendered worth less, was two thousand acres. The fire did its work so com pletely, that in not more than a dozen cases were the chimneys or fire-walls of the great blocks or any of the buildings left standing. It was possible, standing on the ground, to see across the burned district for two or three miles without anything to obstruct the vision, where, before the fire, were standing huge blocks of buildings of stone and brick. In October, extensive fires raged in the timber districts of Wisconsin, Central Minnesota, and Michigan, sweeping away towns and villages in their path; and in three counties of Wis consin the country was so desolated as to leave no vestige of property remaining to its owners but the bare land. On the cast shore of Lake Michigan, the towns of Manistee and Hol land were almost entirely destroyed. Fires prevailed through out all the pine country bordering on Lake Michigan, Green Bay, and the southern shore of Lake Huron. It was estimated that fifteen thousand people in Michigan lost homes, clothing, crops, farm-stock, and other possessions, by the fire. A serious riot occurred in New York on the 12th of July, arising out of a feud existing between the Irish Protestants, or HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 225 Orangemen, and the Roman Catholics. The Orangemen pro posed to parade the streets on that day in celebration of the Battle of the Boyne, and threats of an attack upon their proces sion were made. To prevent a disturbance, the police authorities issued an order forbidding the parade, but which upon the re quest of the Governor of the State was revoked. A large body of the police and several regiments were put under orders to protect the procession. At one point an assault was made by the crowd, which was repulsed by the military, and in the affray that ensued, over one hundred persons were killed or wounded. On the 27th of January, the steamer H. R. Arthur left Louisville for New Orleans, and when about fourteen miles above Memphis, her boilers exploded, the boat took fire, de stroying by the catastrophe eighty-seven lives. On the 30th of July, the boiler of a Staten Island ferry-boat exploded as it was just starting put of its slip in New York, crowded with pas sengers, injuring two hundred persons, more than half fatally. 1872 The work of reducing taxation continued. The tariff on tea, coffee, and some other articles was abolished ; that on some other imports reduced, and internal revenue was modified. By the law of 1870 most of the stamp tax had been abolished already, and the income tax expired with 1871. The "Alabama" claims of the United States against Great Brit ain, springing out of damage to American shipping by Confed erate cruisers during the war, were arbitrated. Several of these cruisers had been built and equipped in British ports, in vio lation of treaties, and had been the subject of dispute for years. By agreement the matter was submitted to five commissioners from Italy, Brazil, Switzerland, the United States, and England. For the acts of the Alabama, Florida, and Shenandoah, Great Britain was held liable, and $15,500,000 damages were award ed to this country by the tribunal, which met at Geneva, Switzerland. Subsequently, Congress established a court of Alabama claims to distribute the money among the losers through the piracy in question. Extensive strikes occurred among the carpenters, bricklayers, and other workmen employed in building in New York City, beginning in April. From 40,000 to 50,000 were thus engaged. The several trades combined against the employers, and the latter combined in self-defence. Most of the laborers surrender ed in June, having lost in the aggregate wages amounting to $1,400,000. The contractors and builders lost $1,100,000. General business was indirectly hurt to the extent of $5,760,000. The strike was not fairly under way until the middle of May. Then a mass meeting was held to discuss the grievances of the workingmen. A number of allied trades, such as painters, upholsterers, cabinet-makers, sewing-machine makers, iron-founders and piano-makers, followed. There were strikes in other cities in the country at the same time, but none of great account. A crowd of strikers forcibly effected an en trance into the Steinway piano factory, June 15th, to persuade 226 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. or force the remaining workmen there to leave. The police ejected the invaders, but only after a violent struggle. This event and the shooting of a non-striking carpenter were the most serious acts of violence attending the strike. Serious trouble, however, was feared at one time, and the State militia were gotten in readiness to assist the police. Soon afterwards the workmen and employers came to an understanding. At the presidential election of this year Grant was re-elected President by 760,000 majority, the largest ever given at any national election in this country. He carried all but seven States. His associate on the Republican ticket was Henry Wilson, of Massachusetts. The Democrats ratified as candidate for President and Vice-President Horace Greeley, of New York, and B. Gratz Brown, of Missouri, who had first been nomi nated by the Liberal Republicans. These men had formerly acted with the Republican party, but in this year withdrew, criticising the use of troops in the South by the Federal Gov ernment as an invasion of State rights, and demanding a re form in the civil service. The Labor party nominated Charles O Conor for President, with no candidate for Vice-President. During the year $200,000,000 of national bonds, drawing 6 per cent interest, were exchanged for the same quantity of a new loan drawing only 5 per cent, and a year later $100,- 000,000 more of the debt was similarly converted, a saving of $3,000,000 in interest annually being thereby effected. Subse quently, a large portion of the national debt was converted into 4 and 4i per cent bonds. On the 27th of February, Congress passed a bill setting apart the Yellowstone Valley, in Montana and Wyoming Terri tories, as a national park. The American District Telegraph Company was organized in New York for the purpose of connecting private residences with central telegraph stations. Up to July 1st the quantity of South Carolina phosphate shipped from Charleston was 242,415 tons, in the crude state, and 90,000 tons of manufactured. The first shipment was made in 1867. A remarkable epidemic among horses prevailed in many parts of the country this year. It had been terribly severe in Canada, and early in October was reported in Boston, Buffalo, Rochester, and Syracuse, and it soon spread to other places. In some of the large cities it almost put an absolute stop to traffic, and in some cases the horse-railroads ceased running entirely for a time. A destructive conflagration began in Boston on the evening of the 9th of November, lasting twenty-four hours, and result ing in the destruction of the very heart of the wholesale trade. From Summer Street north nearly to State Street, and from Washington Street east to the water s edge, with two or three small exceptions, there was nothing but rubbish remaining of the many hundreds of granite and iron structures in which the dry goods merchants, wool merchants, and leather merchants HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 227 of many blocks, carried on trade. Not many public buildings were lost, but the warehouses covering the site of the birthplace of Franklin and the homes of Webster and Everett perished. The loss in buildings and merchandise was estimated at seventy- five millions of dollars, and fifty millions of insurance capital were wiped out. The fire spread over an area of sixty acres. The Metis, a propeller, collided with a schooner on Long Island Sound on the 30th of August, and caused the loss of fiftv lives. About seven hundred miners were killed during the preced ing three years, and seventeen hundred maimed, in the an thracite coal region in Pennsylvania. 1873 Ulysses S. Grant and Henry Wilson took the oaths of office as President and Vice-President on the 4th of March. The Credit Mobilier scandal was ventilated by congressional inquiry early in the year. James G. Elaine, Speaker of the House of Representatives, had offered a resolution calling for such in vestigation in December, 1872, upon the meeting of Congress. The facts brought out were as follows : No private contractors could be engaged to build the Union Pacific Railroad, which Congress chartered in 1862. A corporation was formed, there fore, called the Credit Mobilier, of which the stockholders were mostly stockholders of the railroad company. This new or ganization agreed to build the road in consideration of certain land grants and government bonds issued originally to the rail road company to assist in its construction. The capital stock of the ^ Credit Mobilier was $2,500,000, but by subsequent legislation this was increased 50 per cent, the addition being taken by the holders of the original stock. The Credit Mobilier then went ahead and built the road. The profits derived from this contract were so great that in the winter of 1867-8 the stock was estimated to have a value of $380 or $400 per share of $100. It was not placed on the general market, however, All sales were private, and the character of the scheme was not generally known. In June, 1868, a dividend of $60 a share was declared. This was the largest dividend received by the holders. It appeared subsequently that during this same winter Oakes Ames, a congressman from Massachusetts, had approach ed various congressmen and senators with quiet offers of Credit Mobilier stock at the low price of $100 a share, Some of them, including Schuyler Col fax, then Speaker of the House, and James Brooks, of New York, a government director of the Pacific Railroad, purchased a greater or less quantity, most of them, however, taking only a few shares. Several did not pay cash, but gave personal notes. They afterwards alleged that they saw no impropriety in the purchase, any more than in any other investment, and Ames, in "letting them in on the ground- floor," was apparently doing them only a personal favor. Upon inquiry, it appeared that the Pacific Railroad and Credit Mo bilier companies would not ask for any further legislation from Congress, and so most of the purchasers, if troubled with con scientious scruples, concluded that they might honorably retain 228 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the stock. Some of them, however, growing suspicious, re turned it to Mr. Ames and took up their notes. But, while the corporations did not intend to ask for positive legislation, they were threatened by adverse legislation, against which they wished to sway as many members as possible. There was some popular dissatisfaction with the high rates of transportation charged by the Union Pacific, and in December, 1867, Mr. "Washburne, of Wisconsin, introduced a bill into Congress to provide for their reduction. This had been anticipated, and was known as " the Wash burne movement." An inkling of the profits enjoyed by the Credit Mobilier having been obtain ed in certain quarters, too, there was talk of depriving the Union Pacific of some of its land-grants. This project, how ever, though anticipated by the managers of the Credit Mo bilier, was not carried into effect. But the two schemes afford ed sufficient motive for what, upon exposure, was looked upon as bribery by Mr. Ames. These facts having been reported by the investigating committee to Congress in February of this year, Mr. Ames was expelled from the House of Representatives for his conduct, and Mr. Brooks for accepting bribes. It was also proposed to impeach Mr. Coif ax, who at this time was Vice- President, but after careful consideration the judiciary com mittee advised against it, since the offence of accepting the stock was not committed during the term of office he was now finish ing. Mild censure was passed upon some other congressmen. The scandal attracted wide attention all over the country, and was occasionally referred to, afterwards, in national politics. Modoc Indians, numbering about two hundred, attracted much attention by their stubborn resistance to Federal troops, which were sent to capture them on the southern boundary of Oregon, and to remove them to a reservation. Late in 1872, peaceful overtures were made to them which they haughtily rejected. A fight with troops sent to give moral support to the negotiations followed. Thereupon the Modocs, led by Captain Jack and Scar-faced Charlie, withdrew to some lava beds, just over the frontier in Northern California. Aside from this particular band, the other Indians of the Modoc tribe, together with numerous Klamath Indians in Northern California, were quietly removed to the reservation. The Klamaths were a peaceful class, and had been serving the whites as herdsmen, and in other similar capacities. But cer tain agitators raised the cry that they were rivals of white workmen ; and thus arose the crusade against them. These facts becoming known, during the winter and spring of this year, some opposition was made in the East to the war against the hostile Modocs. But an event occurred in April which robbed them of popular sympathy. A commission had been sent to treat with them again. A meeting under a flag of truce was arranged, and a conference was in progress, the llth, when, without warning, a murderous assault was made upon the government s representatives by the savages. General Canby and Mr. Thomas were killed outright, and General HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 229 Meacham, the third commissioner, was seriously wounded. War against the treacherous redskins was now waged with great bitterness. The nature of the stronghold, which they had oc cupied, was such that their capture was exceedingly difficult. The Federal soldiers were less familiar with the lava beds than the Indians were, and were repulsed with considerable slaughter almost every time they made an attack ; while the Indians suffered but little loss. But the affair had reached a stage where the government was obliged to go ahead, and the siege was pressed, at great expense, for several months. The Indians were finally captured, and the ringleaders put on trial for their murderous assault on the Federal commissioners. Seven of them were convicted and sentenced to be hanged. In the case of four this sentence was commuted. The others were hanged Oct. 3d. What was left of the warrior band, a mere handful, was now removed to a reservation in Dakota. Profound sensation was created by the seizure of a sailing vessel known as the Virginius, carrying the American flag, by the Spanish war steamer Tornado, Oct. 31st, on the suspicion that the former was carrying munitions of war to the Cuban insurgents contrary to international law. Many Americans were in favor of resenting the insult to the flag by declaring war ; and vigorous correspondence over the affair was had be tween the United States and Spanish governments. The Vir ginius was finally surrendered to the United States, Dec. 16th. A demand was made that, in addition, the Spanish authorities should salute the flag, but Secretary Fish consented to waive this, if the Madrid government could establish the fact that the Virginius was not entitled to carry the Stars and Stripes. This was done to his satisfaction, and the salute was not required. The one-cent postal card was first used in this country this year. Congress abolished the franking privilege hitherto enjoyed by congressmen. Subsequently they were authorized to send public documents free, but not letters. A memorable financial panic, from the effects of which the country did not entirely recover for several years, occurred in the fall. A number of causes contributed to it. One of them was the heavy balance of trade against this country. In the flush of prosperity which had followed since the war, people had gotten into the way of buying articles of luxury imported from foreign countries; and the quantity of merchandise brought into the United States, from other lands, so far exceeded our exports that sixty-three millions of dollars of gold coin had to be sent out of the country to square the account. During 1872 the export of coin was sixty-eight millions of dollars. This heavy drainage made gold somewhat scarce, and caused a feeling of insecurity in business matters. A more fruitful cause of dis aster was the immense quantity of bonds issued by towns, cities, states, and corporations, in support of railroad enter prises. Instead of building with capital actually subscribed, localities along the routes were induced to assist by contribu- 230 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. tions in the form of bonds. It was an era of great activity in railroad construction. Not only were vast enterprises, like the Northern Pacific, being pressed with much vigor, but countless lesser schemes were also under way. Scarcely a State in the Union, especially in the North, escaped the fever. In the more thickly settled East the proposed roads were mostly local ; in the less heavily populated West the lines were extensive. In the five years ending with 1873 the enormous sum of one billion seven hundred millions of dollars was spent in building railroads in the United States. Many mining companies, not all of them on a sound basis, were also borrowing money on bonds ; and manufacturing concerns did likewise. A large part of this indebtedness was incurred abroad, especially at first. When the foreigners had taken all of these bonds that they could be induced to buy, the brokers began to place them at home. Savings-banks, trustees of estates, private investors and speculators, upon attractive representations as to the value of the schemes thus engaged in borrowing, took the securities, until finally the country was overloaded. The export of gold made financiers uneasy. Greenbacks were hoarded. The stringency thus created caused increased nervousness. The United States Government was appealed to, to relieve the money market by buying its own bonds, and thus throwing more paper into circulation. It did so, to the extent of fourteen millions of dollars ; but the eagerness of investors to convert even Federal securities into ready money was so great that the sale had to be stopped. Before this point was reached the creditors of some of the banking houses that had most heavily invested in railroad bonds began to make demands which the banks could not meet; and several failures ensued. This precipitated a panic in September. A run was started on numerous savings- banks. The credit system in business was abruptly suspended. Debtors were hard pressed by creditors. Investors became anx ious to realize on their securities, and there was a general desire to sell. Stocks, bonds, and commercial paper rapidly depre ciated. Real estate, manufactures, and all kinds of property suffered similarly. The worst part of the panic was confined to ten days, beginning Sept. 20th, during which the New York Clearing House suspended. The bankers at the metropolis then agreed to pool their greenbacks, to pay only checks certi fied as good through the Clearing House, and to issue ten mil lions of dollars in loan certificates. The savings-banks took ad vantage of the thirty-day notice privilege. And at length the excitement was stayed. Depreciation and stagnation followed. United States bonds suffered less than other securities, falling off only 5 or 10 per cent. Railroad stocks declined anywhere from 10 to 30 per cent, and some even 40 per cent. Factories now found themselves bothered with a surplus of unsalable products. Some of them curtailed their output by running on short time. Others suspended altogether. Thousands of work- ingmen were thrown out of employment, or put on reduced wages. No class of society escaped suffering. The income of HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 231 the rich was greatly diminished. They economized accordingly, especially on imported goods. Trade was dull, and the mer chants could hardly make a living. The credit system was suspended. Failures occurred everywhere ; and a period of financial depression and industrial prostration followed, which extended through the following year or two. From some of the shrinkage in values property never recovered. The work of building the East River Bridge, connecting the cities of New York and Brooklyn, was commenced. The steamship Atlantic, of the White Star line, on her pas sage from Liverpool to New York, while putting into Halifax for a fresh supply of coal, ran into a rock, on the 1st of April, and in a few minutes became a total wreck. Of nine hundred and fifty -seven persons on board, five hundred and thirty-five were drowned. The steamer Wawasset, of Washington, D. C., was burned off Aquia Creek, on the 8th of August, causing a loss of seventy- five lives. A conflagration occurred in Boston on the 30th of May, destroying property valued at thirteen hundred thousand dollars. One in Baltimore, on the 25th of July, destroyed property valued at a little over one million of dollars. On the 2d of August, a fire in Portland, Oregon, destroyed twenty-three blocks of buildings, valued, with other property lost, at one and a half millions of dollars. 1874 A prominent feature of national politics was the movement to secure, by legislation, the issue of a larger quantity of gov ernment paper currency. The Treasury notes, or " greenbacks," had been designed, at first, only as a temporary expedient, and were an outgrowth of the necessities of the war period. Their constitutionality had been seriously questioned, though after wards affirmed by the Supreme Court. But now there was a demand that the government issue paper as a permanent peace currency. The doctrine was enunciated vigorously that intrinsic value was unnecessary in a currency. The government s fiat made it money, though the material was worthless. This inflation movement, which was stimulated by the hard times, which ran for five or six years in politics, and which led to the election of several Governors and Congressmen, was smothered at the outset by the passage of a bill this year considerably in creasing the greenback circulation. This, in April, President Grant vetoed. Another law was then enacted so regulating Treasury administration as gradually to contract the currency, although it was several months before this effect was discov ered. Louisiana was the scene of a violent struggle between rival claimants of the State government. The trouble began as far back as December, 1871, when two different factions each tried to capture the legislature by unseating members of the oppo site party. In January following, Federal troops had been called upon to preserve peace. Again in December, 1872, an other controvery arose as to the result of the election for gov- 232 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ernor and legislators, the Returning Board having split, one part declaring William P. Kellogg governor, and the other John McEnery. The United States District Court, however, enjoined McEnery from acting, on the ground that the return ing board which had proclaimed him elected had done so in defiance of its order. Both claimants were inaugurated; and Federal troops were used to break up the McEnery admin istration, Kellogg being recognized at Washington as the law ful governor. Late in the summer of 1874, McEnery again laid claim to the governorship. Party feeling now ran very high, on account of various fatal affrays between the blacks and whites in Louisiana and elsewhere. September 14th, in McEnery s absence, D. B. Penn, claiming to be lieutenant- governor, organized a militia force and sent it to the State- house to drive Kellogg put. It succeeded, a fight in the streets having first occurred, in which the police and other militia offered resistance. Twenty-six persons were killed and about forty wounded in this conflict. Kellogg appealed to the Presi dent for aid, under the provisions of the Constitution requiring the Federal authorities to guarantee to each State a republican form of government. General Emory, acting under orders from Washington, compelled McEnery, who had now re turned, superseding Penn, to surrender. The trouble broke out again in January, 1875, when, owin^ to a dispute about the election of several members, the legislature divided into two bodies, each claiming to be the legal legislature. Violence attended the split; and Federal troops were again employed to preserve peace and maintain Kellogg. A Congressional com mittee, headed by George F. Hoar, thereupon visited New Or leans, and, after weeks of negotiation, adjusted the contro versy. The dual legislatures combined, a majority of the members being hostile to Kellogg, who was recognized as gov ernor. For the first time since Lincoln was elected in 1860, the Lower House of Congress, by the elections of 1874, was given to the Democrats. Among the newly chosen members were many ex-Confederate generals, and Alexander H. Stephens, Vice-President of the late Confederacy. A magnificent steel railway bridge over the Mississippi River, near St. Louis, was opened to traffic. It was begun in 1867, and composed of three spans, two of them five hundred and twenty feet long, and one five hundred and fifteen. The arches were sixty feet above the water. King Kalakaua of the Sandwich Islands visited the United States, reaching Washington on the 12th of December. He was formally presented to the President on the 15th, and wel comed by Congress on the 18th. A great calamity visited the people of Northwestern Minne sota early in the summer. The locusts devoured every kind of crop, and left the country perfectly bare. Many thousands of persons suffered for food. On the 8th of October, 1873, an election took place in the HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 233 several suburban municipalities of Boston, which resulted in a decision to merge them under one city government the first day of this year. Charlestown, Brighton, and West Roxbury voted aye, and Brookline in the negative. The consolidated city of Boston contained at that time 292,486 inhabitants. The annexa tion of West Farms, Morrisania, and King s Bridge to New York City was also effected, giving a population to the latter of 1,021,000. m The Mill River Reservoir, covering a tract of one hundred acres at Williamsburg, Mass., gave way on the 16th of May, precipitating the vast mass of water it contained down a steep and narrow valley into the village of Williamsburg, and thence further down the valley through the villages of Haydenville, Leeds, and Florence into the ^Northampton meadows. Manu facturing establishments and dwellings representing over a million dollars worth of property were swept away, and about one hundred and fifty people were drowned. On the 14th of July a conflagration occurred in Chicago, de stroying three hundred and forty-six buildings and other prop erty, of the total value, as estimated, of four millions of dollars. A destructive deluge destroyed about one hundred lives and an immense amount of property at Pittsburg on the 26th of July. The steamboat Pat Rogers took fire on the Ohio River, below Aurora, on the 5th of August, and fifty lives were lost by the disaster. 1875 The Civil Rights bill passed Congress. It provided that all citizens, regardless of race, color, or previous condition of servitude, should have equal privileges at inns, theatres, and schools, and on railroad, steamboat, and other transportation lines. This was to enforce the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to the Constitution, its projectors claimed. Charles Sumner, of Massachusetts, was conspicuous in pressing the measure in Congress. It was extensively debated the pre vious year, but left in the hands of a committee. The law was provoked by discriminations, chiefly in the late slave States, against the freedmen in travelling and at places of entertain ment. Bitter opposition to the measure was offered to the en actment by Southern Congressmen, principally on the ground that it was an invasion of State rights not warranted by the Constitution. Some parts of the bill were declared unconsti tutional a few years afterward by the United States Supreme Court. The President, on the 14th of January, approved an act of Congress to provide for the resumption of specie payments. It required the coinage of silver coins to replace the fractional currency; provided for the formation of other national banks, and for every hundred dollars they issued, as a circulation, eighty dollars of greenbacks to be withdrawn, until the green backs in circulation should not exceed three hundred millions of dollars; also that on and after January 1, 1879, the green backs be redeemed hi coin, and to prepare for so doing by sell ing the bonds of the United States. 234 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. In March, Congress authorized Captain James B. Eads to, open the South Pass of the Mississippi at an expense of five millions two hundred thousand dollars. The first cardinal in the United States was appointed Archbishop John McCloskey of New York. The United States Direct Cable was completed June 10th. This ocean telegraph scheme was the first successful one or ganized in opposition to the old Anglo-American line, though afterwards it entered into combination with it. It was pro jected by capitalists working in connection with land lines that were rivals of the "Western Union, the Atlantic and Pacific, and the Franklin Telegraph companies; and it was to be op erated in co-operation with those lines. The work of laying this began in the summer of 1874. A short section from Rye Beach to Torbay, Newfoundland, measuring about six hun dred miles, was laid by the steamer Faraday; and then the long section from the Irish coast Ballinskelligs Bay to America was begun. Late in the season, when the Faraday was nearly through her work, she was overtaken by a series of severe storms, which compelled her to cut the cable and buoy the end in mid-ocean, and at length to abandon it. Badly leaking, she slowly made her way back to England. Grave fears for her safety were entertained, but she got through all right. In April of this year she left England to complete the work. The cable was picked up and spliced to that portion on board. When the Faraday was within twenty miles of America she was obliged to abandon the work again, and come into Cape Breton for coal. After these and other delays the enterprise was finally consummated in June. Cable rates, which had once been ten dollars a word, had recently fallen to fifty cents a word ; and now another drop to twenty-five cents resulted. The first train passed through the Hoosac Tunnel, Massa chusetts, on the 9th of February. The tunnel is four and three-quarter miles long, twenty-five feet high, and twenty- seven feet wide. The system of fast trains for the delivery of the mails went into operation on the 16th of September. This year there were sixteen clearing-houses in operation hi as many cities, and three hundred and thirty-four banks were associated in their support for the purpose of effecting their ex changes. The Gulf of Mexico was visited by a violent cyclone from the 16th to the 19th of September. In Galveston, the water was driven across the island alternately from gulf to bay. Houses were removed, the railroad damaged, and numerous vessels driven ashore. In Indianola over one hundred lives were lost. The place was flooded eight feet deep, and houses, stores, wharves, and the light-house were swept away. Nine- tenths of the houses in the place were destroyed. On the 28th of April, a square mile of the city of Oshkosh, Wis., was destroyed by fire, involving a loss of property val- HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 235 ued at two millions of dollars. The same amount of property was destroyed by fire in the town of Osceola, Pa. Two hun dred and fifty houses were consumed. A fire broke out in the French Catholic church at Holyoke, Mass., on the 27th of May, during a celebration of the feast of Corpus Christi, and seventy-five lives were lost by the disaster. On the 26th of Oc tober, a conflagration at Virginia City, Col., destroyed the en tire business portion of the place, with a loss of four millons of dollars in property. On the 4th of November, the steamship Pacific, on her pas sage between San Francisco and Portland, Oregon, foundered, engulfing and destroying two hundred lives. Nearly seventy lives were lost by the burning of the steamship City of Waco, off Galveston bar, on the 9th of November. .1876 Colorado was admitted as the thirty-eighth State to the Union. The centennial of American Independence was celebrated by an international exposition held at Fairmount Park, Philadel phia, under the management of a commission made up of mem bers from each State in the Union. Gen. Joseph R. Hawley was president. Congress appropriated $2,000,000, the city of Phila delphia $1,500,000, and the State of Pennsylvania $1,000,000 to the project, which was also sustained by the issue of $10,000,- 000 stock to subscribers. A tract of 236 acres was enclosed for the exhibition. The city of Philadelphia spent a great deal of money improving the avenues in the direction of the park, and the railroad companies extended their tracks to the fair-ground, to facilitate the delivery of exhibits. The five principal exhi bition buildings were erected at a cost of $4,500,000. The main edifice was 1880 feet (or more than a third of a mile) in length and 464 feet in width, giving an area of 872,320 square feet for the use of exhibition. This building was used for the display of manufactured articles, and was filled to its utmost capacity, suitable aisles being left for the proper access of spectators. An electric railway made a complete circuit of the building, outside, for the convenience of visitors. All the civilized na tions of the globe had been invited to participate in this exhi bition, and the response was general and hearty. Many years had elapsed since America had had any such fair, and the centennial associations led to this one being made more of a demonstration than might otherwise have been expected. The manufacturing resources of this country were revealed to a wonderful degree, the products of inventive genius, artistic taste, and mechanical skill being represented on a guand scale. Great Britain s contributions were largely textile fabrics, with some pottery. India and Canada also took part. France had a fine display of bronze, lace, porcelain, and other pottery, in cluding the choicest Sevres china, Palissy vases, and faience. Her display of jewelry, also, was excellent. Holland sent ma terials for drainage, model houses, school books and apparatus, and other specimens of industry and progress. Switzerland was principally represented by watches. Sweden surprised 236 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. most visitors by a large variety of iron and its manufactures, other metals, porcelain, military exhibits, and peasant folk in native dress. Denmark s furs, terra-cptta figures, and silver ware attracted much attention. Russia s exhibits were some what in the same line, but supplemented by art-drawings and casts. The display from Italy was not large, but was fine. Wood -carving and mosaics were a prominent feature of it. Portugal sent like goods, and silver filigree work, porcelain, and terra-cotta figures. From Spain came tapestries, glass, and pottery; from Turkey rugs and other Oriental merchandise; and from Egypt much old Saracenic art, steel, gold, silk, and ivory. A particularly elegant and copious contribution was made by Japan, whose bronze, lacquer work, porcelain, and other decorative products, costly, beautiful, and grotesque, pro voked unceasing admiration. China did not rival this exhibit, though well represented. Mexico, Brazil, and other Central and South American countries also participated, as did some of the minor African States. The next largest building was Machinery Hall, measuring 1402x360 feet. As the name indi cates, this was the rendezvous for an immense variety of ma chines, for which motive power was furnished by a steam-en gine of 1400 horse-power, manufactured by George H. Corliss, of Providence, R. I. This colossal motor subsequently went to the city of Pullman, near Chicago, to run the famous car- shops at that place. Great Britain occupied one-third of the space in this building. In the United States building a display was made of apparatus and collections of the several depart ments of the National Government: army materials, naval equipment, coinage and currency, postal equipment, models of inventions, minerals, Indian costumes and weapons, school books and furniture, and so on. In Horticultural and Agri cultural halls fine exhibits were made. A careful and exten sive collection of the products of female industry was made at the Women s Pavilion. There was also an art-gallery, con taining paintings from both Europe and America. No less than twenty-six States had separate buildings for special dis plays and headquarters; and there were thirty erected by pri vate business concerns to advertise their wares. Some foreign countries had their own little edifices, the Turkish bazaar and cafe being a popular one. The exhibition opened on May 10th, and continued six months, Sundays excepted. The attendance in this time was about ten millions. It came mostly from the north and east, and gave the railroads centring at Philadel phia, and many contributing transportation lines, a heavy busi ness all summer. Foreigners attended in large numbers, too, improving this occasion to visit America. The stimulus given to all kinds of trade, by the advertisement gained at the exhibi tion, was decided and quickly perceptible. Hallett s Reef, a dangerous obstruction to the navigation of Hell Gate, where East River emerges into Loner Island Sound, was blown up by General Newton, United States engineer, after over seven years excavation. As early as 1866 work of HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 237 this kind had been proposed. An appropriation was secured in 1868 from Congress, and practical work begun next year. Several smaller but very dangerous rocks Ways Reef, Shell- drake, and Pot Rock were lowered by drilling holes into them and firing high explosives therein. Hallett s Reef was operated upon differently. Its great extent, and the swiftness of the current, led to the fixing of a coffer-dam upon the ledge, and the sinking of a shaft, from which ten horizontal radiating tun nels were made in the stone at a level thirty-three feet under low-water mark. These tunnels ranged from fifty-one to one hundred and twenty-six feet in length, according to the shape of the reef. Into the rock, along the passages, three thousand six hundred and eighty holes were bored, and charged with dynamite and various blasting-powders. Of the former twenty- eight thousand pounds were used; of the latter twenty-four thousand. This work being completed, the mine was filled with water, to tamp the explosives, and these were fired, all at once, by a single shock of electricity, on the 24th of September of this year. Dredging removed the crumbled rock in a few months. Operations at Hallett s Reef were immediately fol lowed up by similar ones at Flood Rock, much the largest ob struction hi the strait. Hallett s Reef projected northeast wardly from Long Island. Flood Rock rose in the middle of the narrow channel. But a small portion of it rose above wa ter; but the section at a level twenty-six feet below low tide was one thousand two hundred feet long, and from three hundred to six hundred and thirty -five feet wide. A shaft had been sunk, and excavation begun in 1875; and, before the final ex plosion, October 10, 1885, all this portion had been under mined, leaving only a shell, with four hundred and sixty -seven pillars holding it up. These were perforated with thirteen thousand two hundred and eighty-six holes, nine feet deep and three inches across. Dynamite and powder weighing two hun dred and eighty-five thousand pounds were employed in the final blast, the tremor from which was felt as far away as Bos ton. In details, this work was done in the same manner as that at Hallett s Reef. The presidential election this year was followed by an ex ceptional and alarming controversy. The Republicans had nominated for President Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio, who the previous year had defeated William .AJlen in a contest for gubernatorial honors, on a hard-money platform. For Vice-President, William A. Wheeler of New York, who had been instrumental hi adjusting the Louisiana troubles peaceably, was chosen. A third term for General Grant had been proposed, but was not received favorably, as a departure from all precedent in America. James G. Blaine came very near being nominated, but failed. The Democrats nominated Samuel J. Tilden, then governor of New York, and Thomas A. Hendricks of Indiana. Their platform condemned the use of troops in the South, and favored a reduction of the tariff. The Greenback party named Peter Cooper of New York and 238 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Samuel F. Gary of Ohio as its candidates. The other parties favored hard money. The Greenback ticket polled over three hundred thousand votes in the country, but carried no State. For several days after the election in November the result re mained in great doubt. Four States were fiercely disputed. The returning board in Louisiana gave the Hayes ticket a majority of about four thousand, but secured that result by throwing out the vote from several parishes, on account of in timidation of voters. The Democrats claimed that these re turns should also be counted, which would give Tilden the State. In South Carolina the returns were canvassed by the legislature. Two bodies claiming to be such were organized. One found a plurality of about eight hundred for the Repub lican ticket ; the other a smaller one for the Democratic ticket. In Florida a similar dispute arose, the majorities claimed by both sides being scarcely over one hundred. Finally, in Oregon, which gave an unquestioned Republican majority, one candi date for presidential elector on the winning ticket was said by Ms enemies to be ineligible on account of his having been post master when nominated. Governor Grover therefore proposed to give certificates of election to his two Republican colleagues, but to a Democrat, Cronin, in his stead. This situation derived the greater importance from the facts that the Democrats had one hundred and eighty -four electoral votes in the country un questioned, while the utmost claims of the Republicans gave them only one hundred and eighty-five. The change of a single vote, therefore, would elect Tilden. When this situa tion was discovered, partisan spirit reached a high pitch. The Tilden party shouted " fraud," and seemed to believe that their honestly won prize was being stolen; while the Hayes party claimed that their returning boards had acted legally and honestly, and that the Oregon Democrats were practising wicked and dangerous games. The complication was increased by the fact that one party controlled each house in Congress ; and as the electoral vote must be counted at a joint session of the two, and double sets of returns would come from four States, a quarrel was sure to arise in Congress which threatened to end disastrously. Impetuous Democrats talked of marching an army of volunteers to instal Tilden as President at all haz ards. Revolution and civil war appeared imminent. The electoral dispute was considered by Congress when it met in December, and, after a few weeks, a bill was passed constitut ing a special tribunal to decide the mooted points when the court began in February. This tribunal consisted of 5 Senators appointed by the Vice-President (3 Republicans and 2 Democrats), 5 Representatives appointed by the Speaker (3 Democrats and 2 Republicans), and 5 Judges of the Supreme Court. The Electoral Commission decided that the Louisiana returning board had only exercised powers clearly accorded by the State law, and that Congress could not go behind the re turns to inquire whether that board had performed its duty honestly or not. South Carolina and Florida were similarly HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 239 disposed of; and all three States were counted for Hayes. The ineligibility of Watts in Oregon was not recognized, and the way in which his electoral vote was cast for Hayes was declared legal. The count, therefore, when completed, gave Hayes one hundred and eighty-five, and Tilden one hundred and eighty- four; but it was not finished until two days before the time for inauguration. Revised returns gave the three disputed South ern States to the Democrats on the State tickets, and restored to that party a " Solid South." An unprecedented number of railway mortgages were fore closed this year, A total amount of nine hundred millions of dollars of indebtedness was represented by the companies foreclosed, in stocks, bonds, and other evidences of debt. The United States troops in Montana, on the 25th of June, under General Ouster, were overpowered in a conflict with the Indians, and the commander and two hundred and sixty-one troops were killed and fifty-one wounded. On the 8th of February, a fire on Broadway, in New York, destroyed property valued at three millions of dollars. On the evening of the 6th of December, the Brooklyn Thea tre, in Brooklyn, N. Y., caught fire during the performance of a play. A panic ensued, and nearly three hundred persons lost their lives by suffocation or the flames. A passenger train on the Lake Shore road, on the 29th of December, fell through the iron bridge spanning the Ashtabula Creek, a distance of seventy-five feet, into the water below. The wrecked cars took fire and more than seventy persons perished by the disaster. 1877 Rutherford B. Hayes and William A. Wheeler commenced their terms of office, on the 4th of March, as President and Vice-President. The first telephone for business purposes was erected and leased to a regular patron the first ^week in April. This was from the house of Charles Williams in Somerville to his business office in Boston, three miles away. The instruments attached were invented by Alexander Graham Bell of Boston. This gentle man had been studying the subject of conveying sound over an electric wire ever since 1867, when he received hints from the work of German investigators. Up to 1874 Mr. Bell experiment ed to produce musical instruments that would respond to each other over a wire, being operated by the voice. In that year he changed his plan, and substituted a membrane like that of the ear as the vibrating receiver and transmitter. Continuing his studies, tests, and invention, he had so far perfected his instru ment in 1876 as to exhibit two of them at the Centennial Exhibi tion. Before the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, which met in Boston that year, he read a paper regarding his invention May 10th. In August he tried it at bis own home, talking audibly over ten miles of wire. The matter was dis cussed before the British Association for the Advancement of Science, at Glasgow, in the autumn. During the winter and spring of this year he made further partially public tests, In 240 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. one of these, two Japanese used the instrument, conversing in telligibly in their own language. Another attended a lecture which he gave in Salem, February 12th. A telephone was set up in the hall, connecting with another in Boston, eighteen miles away. Talk between the two cities was carried on that evening; and the singing in Boston of "Hold the Fort" and other songs was made audible to the Salem audience. A newspaper despatch, the first ever thus transmitted, was sent that evening from Salem to a Boston newspaper, recounting the event. In April, as already stated, the first business tele phone was put in operation. Next month, the Cambridge Water Board ordered one. Then the Pennsylvania Railroad called for another, to be put in at Altoona. Professor Bell lectured in New York in May, first to a limited number of telegraphic experts, and then to a general audience. And his business now gradually but very slowly extended. Thomas A. Edison now began to experiment with telephones, and invent ed one slightly different from the Bell instrument. His patent was bought up, and a number of his instruments put into use in New York City by a corporation closely related to the West ern Union. Elisha Gray of Chicago began studying the subject about the same time as Bell; and he filed a caveat at Washing ton just three hours after the latter applied for a patent. Gray sold his claims to the Western Union; but none of his instru ments were ever made for general business. The Western Union rapidly developed the use of telephones, and, it is said, was the first to organize exchanges with which subscribers were all connected. Bell, having organized a company to take hold of his invention in Boston, brought a suit against the New York concern for infringement of his patent. After considerable ligi ta- tion, beginning in 1878, he achieved a victory. A consolida tion of interests then followed; and the business of the Ameri can Bell Telephone Company then rapidly developed. The busi ness in New York City was sublet to the newly organized Metropolitan Telephone Company in 1880, and in the fall of that year two hundred and seventy-five towns in the country liad telephone exchanges. Daniel Drawbaugh, living near Harrisburg, Pa., obtained a patent for a telephone in July, 1880; and a company to utilize it was formed. But it was sub sequently compelled by the courts to surrender to its rival. Other companies with still other devices, were formed still later in the south, and were likewise sued. The cases are still pend ing. By the close of 1884 the number of telephones in use in this country was three hundred thousand or more, mostly owned and controlled by the American Bell Telephone Company. Various improvements were made in Bell s instrument after 1877, the most important being the Blake transmitter. But the essential principle of his invention is still used in all the electric telephones in the world. The most serious and extensive labor strikes in the history of the country occurred this summer. A reduction of ten per cent in the wages of employees on the Baltimore and Ohio Rail- HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 241 road was followed July 14th by a strike on the several branches of this road. A few days later the workmen of the Pennsyl vania, Erie, and New York Central, and their Western connec tions, including the Missouri Pacific and a few other shorter lines west of the Mississippi, also struck, either because of some less recent reduction of pay or other grievance. The opera tives were aware that the railway managers were hostile to trades-unions, which may have aggravated the trouble. The rich and influential Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers, numbering fifty thousand members in the United States, and holding several millions of dollars in its treasuries, took the initia tive in this strike; but the firemen, brakemen, and other railroad hands, and miners and iron-workers employed by the railroad companies, also participated. The refusal of the men to w r ork, or to allow others to work in their places, stopped all operations on the roads. Freight rapidly accumulated, and there was a general blockade. Shipping agents were obliged to decline freight that was offered for transportation. The employers called upon the various State authorities for militia to protect new employees in moving trains ; but in most cases the inex perience or f aint-heartedness of the militia made it necessary to call for United States troops. A detachment of two hundred or three hundred of these went to Martinsburg, W. Va., on the 19th to assist the local authorities in opening traffic. ^ The President in the mean time ordered those persons combining to interfere with lawful business to disperse. In Baltimore the strikers resisted an effort to clear them from the streets, and a riot ensued July 20th, in which nine were killed and more than twenty wounded. The situation was even worse in Pitts- burg, where the strikers offered violent resistance to an effort to start a train under military protection. As the soldiers ap peared in the streets on the 21st, a vast mob waylaid them and began flinging stones and other missiles at them. Several volleys of musketry were now fired into the crowd with fatal effect, but only to increase the rage and opposition of the throng. The military were obliged to take refuge in a round house of the railroad company; there they were besieged. Oil cars were lighted and rolled up against the building. When the firemen arrived they were not allowed to extinguish the flame. Indeed, the incendiary torch was now applied to machine-shops and other buildings ; and two thousand freight cars were either pillaged or burned. The wildest excesses were indulged in by the frenzied rioters. Barrels of liquor were stolen from the cars, and broached for the crowd; clothing, furniture, and all sorts of goods were stolen from the blockaded shipments, and taken to thousands of houses in town. Women shared in this general thievery. This work was largely Con ducted and incited by a lawless, communistic element entirely distinct from the genuine labor classes. The losses involved in this affair were estimated at nearly or quite ten millions of dollars. Order was finally restored by the assistance of Federal troops. In Buffalo, Columbus, Ohio, and elsewhere, there were other 242 HISTOKT OF THE UNITED STATES. disturbances ; in Reading, Pa., thirteen were killed, and forty-three wounded by a collision between the military and a mob. Another riot in Chicago, Juty 26th, resulted in the kill ing of nineteen persons. Here the police were assisted by United States cavalry in charging the crowd. Inflammatory harangues were being made all this time at labor and socialist meetings in various parts of the country. In Tompkins Square, New York, on the 25th, John Swinton and other prominent com munists addressed a vast assemblage. At the height of the strike, six thousand or seven thousand miles of railroad in the country between New England and the Missouri River were kept from being operated ; and over one hundred thousand laborers took part in the movement. The utmost alarm pre vailed over the whole country, and no one knew to what ex tent the outbreak might yet go. The worst of it was over, however, before the close of the month. A reaction set in about the 27th, when many of the laborers returned to work ; and by the 30th nearly all of the roads, especially east of Buffalo, were in operation again. Considerable political excitement grew out of these events ; and various agitators tried to make capital and votes out of the feeling thus aroused. The prominent features of Hayes s administration this year were the withdrawal of Federal troops from the South, and an order forbidding office-holders to participate in the organiza tion and conduct of party work. A fire broke out in Broadway, in New York, on the 6th of March, and destroyed property valued at over one and a half millions of dollars. On the 24ir of November the United States sloop of war Huron struck the rocks near Oregon Inlet, North Carolina, by which disaster nearly one hundred lives were lost. 1878 Congress passed a bill requiring the coinage of two mil lions of dollars in silver dollars, of 41 2| grains each, monthly. This was the culmination of a movement that had been in progress for three or four years. When the inflationists found themselves unable to get a law for unlimited paper money they began to agitate for silver money. The silver dollars had been out of circulation during the war ; and in 1873 a law was passed making gold the exclusive currency standard. Owing, how ever, to the depreciation of silver, the amount of the metal which formerly went into a dollar was now worth only about ninety cents in gold. Remonetization of silver was therefore opposed by the old hard-money class as a blow at the public credit, and President Hayes vetoed the silver bill when it was first enacted ; but Congress passed it over the veto promptly. Two important sections of the elevated railway in New York were opened for travel this year. An elevated railroad was originally projected as early as 1868, as an experiment, in Greenwich Street and Ninth Avenue, charging no fares. By February, 1869, it was extended to Thirty-first Street. It was a single track road, supported on a single row of iron pillars, and was jocularly called the " one-legged " railroad. It was at first HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 243 operated by a cable moved by stationary engines; but in 1871 dummy locomotive engines were substituted. There were several slight extensions to this first line in the next year or so. The line was sold out under a foreclosure in 1871. In 1872 two new companies were formed, the New York Elevated and the Metropolitan Elevated. These subsequently leased all their lines to the Manhattan Railway Company, which now operates them. Neither of them did much until 1876, when construction began in earnest. The Sixth Avenue line, from Morris Street to Fifty -ninth Street, was opened June 5th, this year, and on August 26th the Third Avenue line, from South Ferry to Forty- second Street, with a branch to Fourth Avenue at the latter point, was also opened. By the close of the year the Third Avenue line was in operation to One Hundred and Twenty- ninth Street, in Harlem, eight and one-half miles from South Ferry. The Sixth A.venue line was extended the following year, through Fifty third Street to Ninth Avenue, and through that thoroughfare and Eighth Avenue to One Hundred and Fifty-fifth Street. The southern extension, from Morris Street across Battery Park to South Ferry, was completed No vember 1, 1881. The original single track road had extended up Ninth Avenue to Fifty-ninth Street in 1876. It was entirely rebuilt by its new owners, and opened May 2, 1880. Mean time various short branches were constructed at several points. The fourth of the great parallel lines, that through Second Avenue, starting from Chatham Square, was opened to Sixty- seventh Street March 1, 1880, and to One Hundred and Twenty-ninth Street the following August. These roads are built on iron pillars about eighteen feet high, set thirteen feet apart lengthwise of the road. On some lines the cross-ties of each track are supported by a separate row of posts, the two being tied together part of the way by cross-braces. On other lines the two rows of pillars, forty feet apart, support regular girders on which the up-track and down-track rest, near each other, and considerably between the pillars. Each of these upright supports is bolted to huge stone and iron foundations set in a mass of cement six feet square. Trains of four cars are run, at a speed of about twelve miles an hour, by fifteen-ton engines. At the busy hours of the day, trains run a minute and a half apart. The stations occur at intervals of one-quarter mile in the lower part of the city, and about one half mile further up town. By 1884 there were two hundred and fifty engines and eight hundred cars running; one hundred and seventy-five stations in use; three thousand five hundred or four thousand employes required; the same number of trains run, daily; a mileage, counting the up and down tracks separately, of sixty-four miles; and over three hundred thousand passengers were carried daily, or about one hundred and three millions a year. During three hours, in the early morning, and three, in the late afternoon, the fare is five cents, at other times ten cents. In October, 1884, the rate on Sunday at all hours was reduced to five cents. The Brooklyn Elevated Road, the first 244 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. one in Brooklyn, the first five-mile section of which was put in operation May 13, 1885, is constructed on much the same plan as the New York lines. The fare is uniformly five cents. Gold and paper money were of equal value, for the first time in seventeen years, on the 18th of December, of this year. Electric lighting became a success in America this year. The first hint of the invention came from Europe. But, as long ago as 1845, Mr. King, an American inventor, patented boih in the United States and England, an incandescent electric light. Into the iron wire which conducted the current of electricity was inserted a piece of carbon or platinum wire, and the latter enclosed in a glass globe, hermetically sealed, from which the air had previously been exhausted. The principle of this lamp was exactly the same as that of the one brought to perfection in 1878. The experiments of Mr. King and the other inventors of his time failed, commercially, because it was impossible then either to produce a perfect vacuum or to gene rate electricity at a low cost. In 1856 Dr. Geissler invented the first mercurial air-pump, and about ten years later Spren- gle perfected the pump on the dropping system/ thus making it possible to secure a practically perfect vacuum. Gramme and Siemens, in Europe, soon after perfected their inventions for generating electricity on a large scale mechanically, by re volving a piece of soft iron rapidly in front of the poles of a horseshoe magnet. The subject of electric lighting revived at once, for the pathway to* success had been cleared of its worst obstacles. In Europe, electric lighting was confined to passing a current of electricity from a large stick of carbon to another stick, the ends of the two being brought very close together, and both being in the open air. The current of sparks, or " arc," as it was called, gave forth a brilliant and dazzling light. In 1875 the attention of American inventors was drawn anew to the whole general subject. In that year Charles G. Brush, of Cleveland, O., an analytical chemist, proposed to George W. Stockley, Vice-President of the Telegraph Supply Company of that city, to invent a machine and an arc-light lamp which would be commercially successful. He was encouraged to try, and in two months he produced both the machine (or dynamo) and the lamp. Both were a success from the start. The Tele graph Supply Company entered at once on the manufacture of the material required to introduce the arc-light into actual use. By 1878 about twenty factories and machine shops in different parts of the United States were using the Brush light for night work. The lamps had been employed to illuminate Niagara Falls at night for the enjoyment of visitors. And a beginning had been made in various inland cities and at Coney Island, New York harbor, in lighting the public streets and prome nades at night. While Mr. Brush was experimenting, J. Bil lings Fuller was engaged in New York City in perfecting a dy namo of different construction from that of any other inventor, and trying to produce both an arc and an incandescent lamp on a new principle. Brush and all other inventors passed the HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 245 direct current of electricity through the lamps. Fuller s idea was to pass the direct current through the centre of an inde pendent coil of wire, in which latter coil an induced current should be excited, the induced current in each case to light the lamp. Fuller died from over-work in February, 1879, just as he was on the point of attaining success. A number of other men also invented special types of dynamos and of arc-lights in this period of three years following 1875. The problem of household lighting by electricity attracted the almost simulta neous attention of another set of inventors. The arc-light was too dazzling for a small room. How to subdivide the electric current so as to maintain a large number of small lights on one circuit was the problem. All of the experimenters recurred at once to the idea of incandescence in a vacuum. Moses G. Farmer, of the United States Torpedo Station at Newport, R. I., was apparently the first in the field. As early as 1875 he was making incandescent lights with platinum, and with plati num and indium wire. In that year he conducted the current from the machine through forty-two different branch wires, and introduced a lamp into each branch. William E. Sawyer of New York City, an electrician, took up the subject next. In August and November, 1877, and June, 1878, he patented an incandescent carbon lamp, and exhibited it in operation in a small shop to a number of capitalists. In his first experiments, he used a glass tube about nine inches long, and instead of ex hausting the air and producing a vacuum he excluded the oxygen by filling the tube with pure nitrogen and then sealing it hermetically. The carbon was a slender pencil of the same material used in the carbons of the arc-lights. A switch was employed to turn the light on and off, and a regulator to pre vent an excess of current. A large company was formed to introduce the light by Mr. Sawyer and Albon Man of Brook lyn, N. Y. The use of nitrogen was afterwards abandoned, and instead of a pencil of carbon, a filament of the material was used, and the long tube was changed for a small glass globe. T. A. Edison, of Menlo Park, N. J. , began his experi ments almost simultaneously with Mr. Sawyer. His first efforts were with incandescent platinum. No regulator could be perfected of sufficient delicacy to prevent f using of the metal from excess of current, and the platinum wire did not present sufficient resistance to insure the commercial value of the lamp. Edison then began the production of filaments of carbon by charring fine strips of paper, pieces of thread, and finally vegetable fibres. In 1878 he had gone far enough in his whole scheme to be entirely confident of final success, and he made, in October his famous announcement that he had discovered how to subdivide the electric current and the light indefinitely, and had invented a practical system for household illumina tion. The manner of the announcement, telegraphed as it was, unexpectedly, to every part of the world, alarmed the stock holders in gas companies, and produced a remarkable fall in the value of gas stocks. In New York City and Brooklyn, 246 HISTOEY OF THE UNITED STATES. where there were thirteen companies, the fall in several cases ranged from 12 to 20 per cent. Edison had discovered that the Sprengel mercurial air-pump, perfected by Dr. Crookes, could produce a practically perfect vacuum, in which a good carbon, made from vegetable fibre, would last from six hundred to one thousand hours, in some cases longer. He had also proved the correctness of the theory, previously advanced in England, that if a main conductor be divided into any number of branches, and if each of the branches be divided into branches again, each of the minor wires would convey an amount of the current exactly proportional to its relative resistance. A com pany with large capital had been formed to enable Edison to carry on his experiments. After 1878, Edison pushed his in vestigations with great vigor, and the details of his system were elaborated one after the other. On the night following the presidential election in November, 1880, nearly three hundred incandescent lamps were lighted on one circuit at Menlo Park, some of them in Edison s shop and house, and the others in the fields and roads surrounding the buildings. The next year steps were taken for creating the plant for the practical intro duction of the system in New York City. There are now, in 1885, in practical use in New York City, the Edison and Saw yer-Man systems of incandescent lighting, and the Brush and United States (Maxim) systems of arc lighting of the streets, wharves, and large work-rooms. Several other lights, but all on the same principles as those above, are seeking for recogni tion, but thus far without success. The steamer Metropolis, bound from Philadelphia to Brazil with workmen and material for a railroad, was driven ashore on the coast of North Carolina, on the 31st of January, in a violent gale, and totally wrecked ; nearly one hundred lives were lost. On the 2d of May, an explosion occurred in the Washburne Flour Mills at Minneapolis, which building caught fire, and that and other large mills were burned, by which property was destroyed valued at one and a half millions of dollars and seventeen lives were lost. On the 8th of October an excursion train on the Old Colony Railroad, returning to Boston from a boat-race, was wrecked by a misplaced switch in the town of Quincy. By this disaster twenty-one persons were killed outright and over one hundred and fifty more injured. 1879 The resumption of specie payments by the United States Government was effected January 1st, in accordance with the law of 1875. Secretary Sherman had, by the sale of bonds, ac cumulated in the Treasury $138,000,000 of coin (mostly gold), which was 40 per cent of the outstanding legal- tender notes. This fact so strengthened public credit, that only $11,000,000 of greenbacks were offered for redemption January 1st. There after, confident that they could get gold if they wanted it, and rather preferring paper money as a matter of convenience, the people quite generally ignored the privilege of exchanging the latter for the former. During the previous four years, the premium on gold had fallen pretty steadily down to nothing at all in the fortnight preceding resumption. How to bring HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 247 about resumption was a problem that atttracted much attention for ten years. It was effected more easily than had been an ticipated. The army appropriation bill this year contained a clause pro viding that no Federal troops should be employed to do police duty in the South. President Hayes, considering this an inva sion of the executive prerogative, vetoed the bill. A special session of Congress was called to enact a new army bill, but the same clause was retained. Congress passed the Arrears of Pensions bill, providing for the admission of a large number of claims formerly ruled out. The estimates of the amount it would draw from the Treasury were at first between $70,000,000 and $150,000,000; but later estimates put it at $300,000,000 or more. A disastrous fire occurred on the 3d of March, in the town of Reno, Nevada, consuming one million dollars worth of prop erty. On the 3d of December, the steamship Borussia, of the Dominion and Mississippi line, sunk at sea, losing two hundred lives. On the 30th of May, a tornado in parts of Missouri, Kansas, and Nebraska, destroyed buildings, swept the fields of their crops, and scooped the water from rivers and wells, involving a large destruction of property, and the lives of more than forty persons, besides injuring eighty more. 1880 At the presidential election this year James A. Garfield of Ohio was elected President. He had been nominated by the Republicans, with Chester A. Arthur of New York for Vice- President. At the convention of this party, a persistent and de termined effort was made to nominate Grant again; and during thirty-six ballots he received the faithful support of about three hundred and six delegates each time. James G. Blaine was his principal rival, with John Sherman of Ohio, Secretary of the Treasury, next in favor. A deadlock having been reached, Blaine and Sherman combined to nominate Garfield. The Democrats nominated General Winfield Scott Hancock, a prom inent Union corps commander during the war, for President, and William H. English of Indiana for Vice-President. Samuel J. Tilden declined in advance to run. The Greenback party nominated Congressman Weaver of Iowa for President, and polled 307,000 votes, but carried no State. In this election the the tariff and negro-suffrage issues were the chief ones. Toward the close of the campaign, a forged letter, purporting to have been written by Garfield, and favoring the introduction of Chinese cheap labor, was printed extensively by the Democrats. Gar- field denied its genuineness, but it hurt him somewhat with the workingmen. Some attempt was also made to connect him with the Credit Mobilier scandal. The country divided by sec tions in this election, the North voting for Garfield, and the South for Hancock. The electoral vote stood two hundred and fourteen to one hundred and fifty-five, in favor of the former. The intrenatipnal postal rate of five cents for foreign letters was adopted this year. On the 18th of April, a tornado swept over parts of the West- 248 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ern and Southern States. The town of Marshfield, Mo., was totally destroyed, and one hundred persons were killed and one hundred and fifteen injured. The town of El Paso, Ark., was also destroyed. On the 25th of the same month, a tornado at Macon, Miss., blew down twenty-two houses, killing seventeen persons, and injuring twenty-two others. The town of Milford, Pa., i was destroyed by fire on the 14th of May, and three thousand persons were rendered homeless. On the 23d of June, the steamboat Seawanhaka, running be tween New York and Glen Cove, L. I., burned in the East River, near Randall s Island, by which catastrophe about fifty lives were lost. About the middle of October, the steamer Alpena of the Goodrich Line, on her way from Grand Haven to Chicago, was lost with all on board, the persons numbering, it was com puted, seventy or eighty. 1881 James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur commenced their terms of office, as President and Vice-President, on the 4th of March. President Garfield was assassinated July 2d, by Charles J. Guiteau, who shot him in the back, at the railway-station in Washington, just as he was leaving town for Elberon, to see his invalid wife. He had intended to go thence to Williams Col lege. James G. Blaine, Secretary of State, and other friends were with the President at the time. The wound did not prove immediately fatal, and part of the time during the next few weeks there was a prospect of the President s recovery. He was removed to the White House, and Mrs. Garfield was sum moned from Elberon. The popular excitement over the das tardly act was much increased by the political situation. Ros- coe Conkling, Senator from New York, felt that he had been deceived and wronged by Garfield a few weeks before, in the appointment of a friend of Secretary Blaine, Judge Robertson, to the New York Custom- House. Conkling and his colleague, Platt, had resigned their seats in the Senate, and were now can didates for re-election, hoping to secure in this way a verdict from their own State condemning the President s act. But they met with decided opposition at home, and a bitter and pro tracted contest was in progress, and Yicc-President Arthur was at Albany using his influence for Conkling, when the assassina tion occurred. One of Guiteau s utterances, when he shot Garfield, was, " I want to see Arthur become President." Many people in the country could not for a time avoid the suspicion that Garfield had been a victim of Conkling s hatred, and that Arthur, if he became President, would work a revolution in the patronage and policy of the Government, in Conkling s interest. Eventually these fears proved groundless, and the feeling tow ard the ex-senator abated. For two months and a half the coun try was kept in profound suspense by Garfield s condition. Sym pathy was universally expressed, many messages coming from foreign potentates and salesmen. Millions of prayers tor the dying man s recovery were offered; and he was idolized as never before. The malarial atmosphere about the White House prov- HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 249 ing hurtful to the patient, he was removed with great care, September 6th, to Francklyn Cottage, Elberon, where after showing slight improvement, he died September 19th. The demonstrations of grief throughout the land were unparalleled since Lincoln s death, but more general than at that time, as the South felt kindly toward Garfield. Many cities draped their buildings in mourning; New York was fairly swathed in black. The body was taken to Washington, exposed to view in the Capitol, and finally removed for burial to Cleveland, with an imposing military and civil escort. One of the expres sions of sympathy which Mrs. Garfield received was a fund of $364, 000 raised by admirers of her husband; and Congress voted her his salary for the rest of his term. Vice-President Arthur took the oath of office as President immediately after Garfield s death. Guiteau, the assassin, was a persistent office-seeker, of erratic ways and eccentric ideas. He had been trying for many weeks to get a foreign appointment from the President, and appears to have been exasperated by disappointment. He confessed to having dogged Garfield s footsteps several days be fore finally shooting him. He was promptly arrested, and barely escaped being lynched on the way to jail. Indeed, September 13th, while confined there awaiting the result of his deed, he was fired at by one of his guards, Sergeant John Mason, though the shot missed its intended victim. Mason, for this breach of discipline was condemned to imprisonment for a year. Guiteau was arraigned in Washington in November, and the trial lasted about ten weeks. His defence was insanity, and a number of experts testified in the case, taking opposite views as to his mental condition. The other testimony showed that there was a taint of insanity in the family. His career had included, among other things, a year or two of life in a free- love community at Oueida, N. Y. In his own behalf, Guiteau testified that he had been inspired by God to " remove Garfield," in the interests of peace in the country. His manner during the trial was flippant, impertinent, and irritable, and the dignity of the proceedings was much impaired by his freaks. The jury convicted him January 25th, 1882; and he was hanged June 30th. Eventually, Mason was pardoned out of prison. Most of Garfield s cabinet officers resigned, one at a time, a few weeks after Mr. Arthur became President; and the latter selected advisers that were more closely in sympathy with him. The town of New Ulm, in Minnesota, was struck by a cy clone on the 16th of July, and more than one hundred houses were demolished, and thirty persons killed or injured. Early in September, forest fires began in Eastern Michigan, spreading over large portions of Huron, Sanilac, and Tuscola counties. Three hundred persons were burned to death, and a vast amount of property was destroyed. 1882 The Star Route trials this year formed one of the most noted political and criminal events in the historv of the country. Early in January, just as a large number of bids were to be opened for postal service on what were known as Star routes, the report of special inspectors was published, stating that ex- 250 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. tensive frauds had been discovered in that service, and advising precautions against anything further of the kind. The revela tions made at this time were that a large number of bonds given by mail contractors for the faithful performance of duty were found to be fraudulent and worthless. No less than two hundred and ninety-six contracts were thus dishonestly obtained, and the bonds given by the contractors exceeded eight millions of dollars. Several of these contractors were arrested for perjury. A few weeks later Stephen W. Dorsey, John W. Dorsey, and Thomas J. Brady were indicted on more serious charges. It was alleged that they were the chief conspirators in a scheme to defraud the government and enrich themselves in connec tion with the Star Route service. Brady had been second as sistant postmaster-general, in which capacity he had the privilege of " expediting" service, or making it more frequent, and compensating it more largely, over Star routes ; and it was charged that he abused this chance to favor the Dorseys and their associates, and had shared with them the ill-gotten plunder. In twelve contracts specified in the indictments, the pay had been raised from thirty thousand five hundred and fifty-two dollars to three hundred and five thousand one hundred and thirty- eight dollars. The necessity for any such increase was denied by the prosecution ; and instances were cited to show that much of the actual work was sublet to other contractors for a small fraction of the compensation received by the "ring." It was alleged by counsel, afterwards, that the government had been swindled out of five millions of dollars by this class of operations. The eminence of the accused persons gave the matter special importance. Stephen W. Dorsey had been a conspicuous poli tician, and in the presidential campaign of 1880 was one of the most efficient members of the Republican National Com mittee. The cases finally came to trial, and a protracted strug gle ensued. Colonel Robert L. Ingersoll, a personal friend of Dorsey, and an eminent lawyer, was among the counsel for the defence ; and Attorney-General Brewster employed George Bliss and other high legal talent to assist the government. The jury, Sept. llth, returned a verdict convicting some of the minor accomplices of the alleged plot, but disagreed concerning the principals, although nine or ten of the twelve jurors voted for conviction. At this juncture, Foreman Dickson stated that he had received overtures from the government looking to a bargain for conviction, in consideration of twenty-five thousand dollars. Subsequent inquiry showed that Mr. Brew ster had never authorized any such negotiation. A new trial, however, was had, beginning in December, and lasting six months. The indictment against Rerdell, Dorsey s clerk, was set aside at this trial, and he turned State s evidence, making some statements concerning the business methods of the ac cused persons which, at the time, were considered damaging. After a six months contest in the courts, however, the jury acquitted Brady and the Dorseys ; and the whole prosecution, which had lasted eighteen months, and had wearied the coun try, went for naught HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 251 A law was passed excluding newly immigrating Chinese laborers from the country, and requiring those already here to take out certificates, if they left the United States, in order to prove their identity before being readmitted. A strong law of this kind was enacted in 1879, but was vetoed by President Hayes. At that time a strong anti-Chinese agitation had been going on in the Pacific coast states ; and it continued until the successful enactment of this year. Congress passed one of the most effective anti-polygamy laws yet recorded on the statute book. It disfranchised and rendered ineligible to office all polygamists. Senator Edmunds, of Ver mont, fathered the measure, and it was named after him. In March there was a great overflow of the Mississippi River and its tributaries, causing the loss of many lives and the destruction of an immense amount of property. According to a report made to the Secretary of War, eighty-five thousand persons were rendered destitute by the floods. On the 18th of June, a cyclone passed over the town of Grinnell, Iowa, and destroyed half the town and killed more than one hundred persons. 1883 The East River bridge between New York and Brooklyn was opened for travel May 24th. The general plan of this structure included a massive stone tower, 276 feet and 9 inches high, on each shore, and perforated for the roadways by two tall, narrow arches beginning 119 feet up from the water ; four steel wire cables, 16 inches in diameter, securely fastened in a mass of masonry 930 feet back from the water s edge on the New York side, stretching up over the top of the tower across the river to the other tower, and then down to another anchor age 930 feet away, in Brooklyn, and a series of stout steel bands, or " suspenders," each capable of holding up one hun dred tons, attached to the cables and hanging down to support the framework of the bridge. The main span is 1595 feet 6 inches long ; the two land spans each 930 feet ; the masonry viaduct, or approach, on the Brooklyn side, 971 feet, and the New York approach 1562, making a total of about six thou sand feet. The approaches are about one hundred feet wide, but the bridge proper is only eighty-five feet. It is divided lengthwise into five passage-ways, the outermost for teams, the next two for cars propelled by cables, and the innermost for foot passengers. From the ends to the centre the structure rises in a gentle curve, and the middle of the bridge is one hun dred and thirty-five feet above water in summer, and, owing to the contraction from cold, one hundred and thirty-eight in winter. This enables most large ships to pass under without lowering their topmasts. The bridge was designed by John A. Roebling, of Trenton, N. J., builder of the first suspension bridge at Niagara, and many others elsewhere ; but he died of lockjaw in 1869, and his son, Washington A. Roebling, suc ceeded him as chief engineer, and, being familiar with his father s work, was able to carry the work to completion, although he, too, was partially disabled in 1872 by certain labor connected with the enterprise. The bridge scheme was 252 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. incorporated by an act of the New York Legislature in 1867, and Congress, as was necessary, formally approved this bridg- ing of navigable waters, to which there was some objection in maritime circles. It was at first intended to make the bridge the work and property of a stock company, in which the cities of New York and Brooklyn might be shareholders, but after wards it was put in charge of a joint board of municipal officers from the two cities, and the money was contributed, one-third by New York and two-thirds by Brooklyn. The first estimate of the total cost was seven millions of dollars, but before it was finished nearly or quite sixteen millions of dollars were ex pended. Operations began January 3, 1870, by the sinking of a huge caisson or coffer-dam of wood in the water on the site of the future Brooklyn tower. This was water-tight, and workmen inside of it excavated the earth until the caisson reached bed rock, forty-five feet below the river bed. Then the crib-work was filled with broken stone and concrete to form the foundation of the tower. When this was effected, a similar caisson was sunk on the New York side. The towers having been completed in 1876, preparations were begun for stretching the cables. These, if made beforehand, would have been too heavy to lift into place, and so they were formed by taking one strand at a time across and binding them together. Each of the four cables contained 5296 steel wires, lying perfectly straight, not twisted. The first wire was stretched from tower to tower August 14, 1876. A sailor s chair was then rigged, and in this, by the wire, E. F. Farrington, master mechanic, crossed the river in mid- air eleven days later. Cable-building, however, did not fairly begin until the summer of 1877, and it was ended in October, 1878. A slender foot-bridge was thrown across the river suspended from the cables, to facilitate work, and at that dizzy height a number of venturesome people crossed East River before the main bridge was completed. The weight of each tower above the caisson is 93,000 tons. The cables, sus penders, truss work, and bed of the bridge weigh 14,684 tons. During the work of construction twenty persons were killed in one way or another. One of the oddest accidents was the escape of one of the strands from the New York anchorage while the men were building cables. The weight of it between the towers drew the end quickly over the New York tower, and it fell into the river. Two men were killed and three injured by its lash. The opening formalities on May 24th of this year were elab orate, including civic and military processions, oratory, salutes by naval vessels, a general decoration of the two cities and the shipping in the harbor with flags, and elaborate fireworks at night. The bridge cars were not put in operation until a few weeks afterwards. At first the fares were five cents by cars and one cent to foot passengers, but afterwards these were reduced to three cents (or ten tickets for twenty-five cents) by cars, and twenty-five tickets for five cents by the promenade. The rate of letter-postage was reduced to two cents, and the transmission of money by postal note began in September. Congress reduced the tariff, and removed nearly all of the re- HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 253 maining internal-revenue tax, except that on tobacco and spirits. The Northern Pacific Railroad was completed August 23d, the last spike being driven in the presence of a large and dis tinguished assemblage; many English and German capitalists were present as the guests of the railroad company. The line was opened to traffic September 8th. From Superior City, Wis. , near Duluth, at the head of Lake Superior, this road ex tends one thousand six hundred and seventy-four miles to "Wal- lula Junction, on the Columbia River, in Washington Territory. One extension was built along the south shore of Lake Supe rior, with a view to connecting it eastward with lines reaching to the St. Mary s River and Canada. Another from Brainerd, Minn., was built to St. Paul and Minneapolis. From Wallula Junction branches were built to Kalama and Portland; others were started towards Tacoma and Seattle on Pnget Sound. On the 10th of January, the Newhall House, at Milwaukee, was destroyed by fire, involving a loss of more than one hundred lives. 1884 The survivors of the Greely party were rescued at Fort Con ger, Lady Franklin Bay, in the Arctic regions, June 22d, by a special relief expedition under Commander Schley of the United States "Navy, and brought back, arriving at St. John s, New foundland July 17th. In the summer of 1881 a party of sol diers, commanded by Lieutenant A. W. Greely was sent to this point by the Signal Service of the United States, to be one of about a dozen at various circumpolar stations, established by sev eral countries, for scientific observation during the next year or two. All of the others were eminently successful, and eventually returned without loss of life. The scheme contemplated an ex pedition to Lady Franklin Ba} r in the summer of 1883 to bring Greely s party back, or at least leaving provisions near enough to his station to be readily found on his retreat southward. In deed, a trip for the latter purpose only was made in 1882 by the Neptune, which landed a quantity of stores at Cape Sabine, hid them in a cache, and suitably marked the spot so that Greely could find it. The relief expedition, proper, in 1883, under command of Lieutenant E. A. Garlington, of the Cavalry Ser vice, comprised two vessels, the steam-whaler Proteus, which had taken Greely up in the first place, and the United States gunboat Yantic. "While near Cape Sabine, and before she had landed many of her supplies anywhere, the Proteus was crushed in the ice and sunk. Garlington escaped with her crew in boats, and with difficulty found his way southward to the Yan tic, which was left in the rear, at Upernavik. He then returned to the United States, his expedition having proved a failure. Great anxiety was now felt for Greely s safety, and a new ex pedition was fitted out, in the following spring, under the aus pices of the Navy Department. The steam-whalers Thetis and Bear were reinforced by a gift of the Arctic exploring vessel Alert, from the British Government. Commander Schley set sail from the Brooklyn Navy Yard with this fleet in May, and pushed forward with great energy. Although much ice was encoun- 254 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. tered in Baffin s Bay and Smith Sound he forced his way through. On the 22d of June, men were sent ashore, in the steam-launch of the Bear, at Brevoort Island to look for papers or other in dications of Greely s whereabouts and condition. Under a pile of stones was a letter locating the camp, and stating that the party were nearly out of provisions. It was dated the previous October. The Bear was advanced as rapidly as possible, and the launch was sent out a second time that day. It succeeded in finding the camp before evening. Only seven men, includ ing Greely, were found alive, and two of them died soon after ward. Eighteen others were already dead, from starvation, most of them having expired within a few days of Commander Schley s arrival. The sufferings which they had endured in- the last few months had been indescribable. When found, the survivors were subsisting on soup made from sealskin boots and reindeer moss, with a few shrimps. Milk punch in small quan tities was given to the men by the rescuing party; but as too much food after such a fast would endanger their lives, they were kept only partly satisfied for many days. Had the relief expedition arrived a few days later, it would have found every one dead. At the presidential election of this year Grover Cleveland was elected President, for the term beginning March 4, 1885. He was governor of New York State at the time, and was nominated by the Democrats. Thomas A. Hendricks of Indiana was their candidate for Yice-President. The Republicans nominated James G. Elaine of Maine and John A. Logan of Illinois. The Southern issue was ignored during the campaign, the Repub licans making their fight chiefly on the tariff, a repeal or re duction of which was threatened by the Democrats; while the latter forced the reform of the civil service forward as their chief argument, Cleveland being an exponent of that idea. Enough Republicans abandoned Blaine for Cleveland to give the latter New York State by the slender plurality of one thou sand and forty-seven, out of over one million one hundred thou sand votes; and as the result depended upon New York State, Cleveland was elected. He received the support of Connecti cut, New Jersey, Indiana, and every Southern State, securing two hundred and nineteen electoral votes. Blaine had one hun dred and eighty-two. A World s Fair was opened in New Orleans December 16th, continuing nearly six months. It was to have been inaugurated on the 1st of December, but the delay was caused by imperfect preparations; and not until well into January was the display fairly arranged. In the extent of the exhibits, especially from foreign countries, and in the attendance, it was not the equal of the Centennial Exposition, although a noteworthy affair. The main building, however, was the largest of its kind ever erected. Mexico and South and Central America were well represented. The machinery was set in motion, through an electric button and wire, by President Arthur in Washington. THE END. *s^ >; > THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $I.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. 17 1946 JO <;:. *> ;:>>>> m^m^^m m,J>/>>>> < LD 21-100m-7, 40 (6936s) >>: TB> > y> s > ^3>> ^> ^>> ^ ~^> >> 3X> ^^ ^ :> 1BK* YC 6^.370 U.C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES M163007 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY ^^^ t