Main L- 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 OK 
 

/ / OF PRACTICAL AND SCIKSTlllfej^^.^ 
 
 * AGRICULTURE, 
 
 ITTCKDKD KOK THR USB Of 
 
 COLLEGES, SCHOOLS, AND PRIVATE STUDENTS; 
 
 AS WELL AS FOB 
 
 THE PRACTICAL FARMER 
 
 INCLUDING 
 
 ANALYSES BY THE MOST EMINENT CHEMISTS. 
 
 BY CHARLES FOX, 
 
 KflOR BDITOR OY THK " FARMER S COMPANION, AMD HORTICULTURAL OAZXTTB ; 
 LECTURER OX AGRICULTURE IX THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN \ 
 
 COR. MEM. OF THE N. Y. LYCEUM OF NAT. HIST. J 
 
 ASD 01 THE PHILADELPHIA AND CLEVELAND ACADEMIES Of SCIKKCRfl \ 
 MKMBER OF U. 8. AGRICUL. SOCY., &C. 
 
 .. 
 
 DETROIT: 
 
 PUBLISHED BY ELWOOD AND COMPANY. 
 1854. 
 

 Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1S"4, by 
 
 S. D. Kr.wooD & COMPANY, 
 In the Cterk u Office for the District of Mu-hi>fan. 
 
 DETROIT: 
 fi. A. WALKS, Printer, Advertiser Steam Pressei. 
 
TO 
 
 DR. SILAS H. DOUGLASS; 
 
 PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY, GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, &C. y IN THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN; 
 TO WHOSE EXERTIONS AND ENERGY, TUB 
 
 ESTABLISHMENT OF AGRICULTURAL LECTURES 
 
 IN THAT INSTITUTION, 
 
 IS, 
 
 TO A GREAT EXTENT, DUE. 
 
 AND WHO, FROM AN EARLY DAY, HAS EARNESTLY 
 
 AND PERSEVERINGLY LABORED IN THE CAUSE OP SCIENCE I 
 
 THIS STATE . 
 
 THIS VOLUME 
 
 IS DEDICATED BY HIS MOST SINCERE AKD 
 OBLIGED FRIEND 
 
 THE AUTHOR, 
 
 86197 
 
f\ 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 THE following work is strictly \vhat it professes to be 
 A TEXT BOOK. It is not intended so much to teach the Sci 
 ence and Art of Agriculture, as to enable the Teacher to teach. 
 In its character it is suggestive, and makes no pretensions to be 
 a perfect Encyclopaedia of the subject. At the same time it is 
 believed that there is no point so far as the work professes to 
 go on which it is important that the Teacher should enlarge, 
 or the student leara, to which they will not find their attention 
 directed. Nor will the experienced Farmer, or the general rea 
 der fail to be interested. Practice and science are brought to 
 gether, and compelled to assist each other; instead of being un 
 naturally divorced, as, unhappily, they have too long been in 
 this department of knowledge. 
 
 This little work is the offspring of a sorely felt necessity. A 
 year since, the Author was unexpectedly called upon to deliver 
 a course of lectures on Agriculture, before the newly organized 
 " Scientific Department" of the University of Michigan. He 
 had for some years studied the subject, both practically and 
 theoretically, and collected a valuable library in connection with 
 it. But this he had done merely for his own gratification, with 
 out any direct object in view, and certainly with no intention of 
 ever becoming a teacher of Agriculture. A sense of duty to 
 the public would not allow him to refuse the invitation ; and 
 
VI. PREFACE. 
 
 painfully conscious of his deficiencies, he assumed the office, de 
 termined to do the best fee could. Upon the very threshold, 
 however, he met with an unexpected difficulty. He could find 
 no book, published either in America or Europe, adapted for a 
 collegiate class, many of whom were practical and middle-aged 
 fanners, and some to whom the very terms of Science were un 
 known. Professors Johnston, Norton, and Nash have each pub 
 lished elementary works, most excellent so far as they go ; but 
 they are confined almost entirely to the chemical portion of the 
 subject^ and "Practical Agriculture in its connection with Sci 
 ence" was the topic demanded. There are other books again, 
 but deficient on the other side, consisting merely of directions 
 how to cultivate the land, being chiefly compilations, and ma 
 king no pretensions to a higher or scholastic character ; so that 
 the Author was obliged to prepare and write his entire course 
 of lectures, and the students lost much from the want of some 
 work which they might study in private, or refer to from time 
 to time. This loss was chiefly felt in regard to analyses, figures 
 and scientific words. It is quite impossible that a student can 
 understand the one, or recollect the other by merely hearing 
 them ; and yet if these portions are lost, much of the value of 
 the succeeding information is lost likewise. 
 
 Within the few last years, the study of Agriculture in the 
 United States, has assumed a new form. It is beginning to be 
 introduced, not only into Colleges, but also into Primary Schools ; 
 and in conversing with other gentlemen, the Author found that 
 this want was as sensibly deplored by others, as it had been by 
 himself. He therefore undertook to write out the substance of 
 his lectures. Neither his more important engagements, nor his 
 
PREFACE. V1L 
 
 health permitted him to anticipate more. But having made 
 a beginning, he found the subject constantly enlarging, and he 
 has, to the best of his ability, collected and arranged a synopsis 
 of all that is known, so far as he could ascertain it of the the 
 oretical and practical truths and principles of Agriculture, up to 
 the present moment. The analyses which are given, are, it is 
 believed, the very latest that have been made, and, perhaps 
 without exception, are worthy of all credit in the present posi 
 tion of the Science. The more strictly technical portion is either 
 the result of the Author s own experience and experiments, or 
 it is compiled from the most trustworthy sources adapted to the 
 present position and necessities of the American Famer. 
 
 The only novelty, which can be claimed as such, is the ar 
 rangement, each subject being complete within itself. Much 
 more might have been introduced, and one of the chief difficul 
 ties that have been experienced has been compressing the mat 
 ter, the omitting of all which did not appear to be absolutely 
 necessary for the object in view, and the using as few words as 
 possible. 
 
 It was essential that the book should be of moderate size, and 
 cheap this the Publisher insisted upon as a sine qua non, and 
 consequently much that might have been inserted has been left 
 out. Thus, it is taken for granted that the Teacher or the Stu 
 dent is already familiar with Botany, and the elements of Ag 
 ricultural Chemistry. Had these topics likewise been intro 
 duced farther than they have been, they would have swelled 
 the work far beyond the requisite size. For the boundaries of 
 agricultural knowledge are like those of the horizon, ever enlarg 
 ing as we travel on, till they embrace almost the entire circle of 
 
viii. 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 the sciences and Arts. So vast are the subjects, that a writer 
 attempting to include the whole, would find that a library, not a 
 volume, would be the result of his labors. Besides, with the 
 excellent elementary works already mentioned, and Prof. Gray s 
 Botanical Text-book, repetition could not have been avoided, and 
 this too, has been most scrupulously abstained from, as regards 
 works in general circulation among us. So again, the topics 
 treated upon in the early chapters are presented merely in out- 
 lino. Agricultural Meteorology though essentially a most inte 
 resting and important application of Science, is yet in its ear 
 liest infancy ; and the materials do not exist for accurate or ex 
 tended instruction ; while the Natural History of Plants, the Air, 
 Water, &c., belong rather to the department of the Chemist and 
 the Vegetable Physiologist, than to the practical Agriculturist. 
 Enough only is written on these subjects to serve as an intro 
 duction to what follows. 
 
 In many instances, and always in the Analyses, the authority 
 quoted is mentioned, chiefly in order that the Teacher may be 
 able to refer directly to the original, where he will usually meet 
 with a more complete elucidation of the subject than could be 
 admitted into these pages. 
 
 It will be observed that the work is printed in type of three 
 sizes. Those portions which are considered as peculiarly im 
 portant, or as being capable of comprehension by students of all 
 ages, are printed in the largest type ; that which is abstruse is 
 in a second sized ; and that which peculiarly interests the prac 
 tical farmer is in the smallest type. The Chapters are likewise 
 BO arranged as to permit the teacher to select such subjects as he 
 chooses. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 No one can attempt to teach an irregular science, or a "sci 
 entific art" such as Agriculture is rapidly becoming, without 
 discovering how much he must depend for explanation and il 
 lustration on his own resources. The strict sciences, such as 
 mathematics, may bo entirely taught by books ; but in agricul 
 ture there is still so much that is uncertain, and so many scien 
 ces and arts are combined within it, that without taking into 
 consideration tha discoveries that are almost daily made a life 
 time, laboriously devoted to the subject could scarcely render 
 one individual master of the whole. It is hoped, therefore, that 
 the Teacher who may use this book will enlarge upon the vari 
 ous subjects, and explain that which is difficult in one word, 
 that he will consider it as the mariner does his chart, as a di 
 rector of his course, but a director from which he is at liberty 
 to differ should his superior experience and knowledge induce 
 him to do so. 
 
 The Author has no desire to assume to himself more credit 
 than is due, nor to make excuses which are not strictly true. 
 But constantly and seriously occupied in various other duties; 
 for a length of time at a distance from the Press ; and com 
 pelled to search for materials in a large number of books con 
 siderably over one hundred volumes having been consulted and 
 compared he has not only found the labor of compiling these 
 sheets a very arduous one, but is well aware, that had he been 
 able to devote more time to the object he could have rendered 
 them more truly worthy of the acceptance of the public. Should 
 another Edition be called for, many emendations will probably 
 be male. 
 
 The limits of this volume forbid the subject of Domestic 
 
X> PREFACE. 
 
 Animals, and some other topics being touched upon. For an 
 other work, a large amount of materials is on hand, and 
 should life and health be spared, the writer may, perhaps, 
 include them in another volume. That, however, must depend 
 upon the success with which this meets. 
 
 University, Ann Arbor, Mick., ) 
 Feb. 14, 1854. y 
 
\ * ft A R p^ 
 
 r~x.it 
 
 
 ( XflSrr ><! 
 
 ; :;^f . 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 1. The word AGRICULTURE is derived from two Latin word*, 
 AOER, a Field, and CULTURA, Cultivating or Tittiny. It there 
 fore means, strictly, The working of tlie soil; but is now used 
 to describe every process connected with Farming. 
 
 2. Agriculture may be divided into (a,) growing of grains ; 
 of edible plants ; of oil bearing plants ; of vegetables used -in 
 dying, &c.; (b,) of grasses; (c,) breeding of stock; (d,) fat 
 tening of stock ; (e>) producing wool ; (f,) manufacture of cheeae 
 tend butter; (g,) cultivation of fruit; (h,) of vegetables and 
 flowers; (i,) viticulture, (or the culture of the grapevine,) and 
 wine making ; (j t ) Planting, or the production of cotton, rice , 
 augar, tobacco, &c, And, in Europe, to the above are added, 
 (k,) forest matters; (I,) manufacture of beet sugar; (m,) tl 
 j>roduction of silk ; and of some other minor articles. 
 
 3. Any of these processes may be pursued by itself; though, 
 in most instances, it is found profitable to include more than one 
 of the above divisions on the same farm. In this respect, agri 
 culture differs from manufactures; the latter becoming mow 
 profitable as the division of labor becomes more simple, 
 
 4* Agriculture is an ART, which, to be truly understood, 
 pequires the study of many SCIENCES. 
 
 AEJ is the application of knowledge to practical parpoees. Scienet is 
 a knowledge of the principles of Art. If the knowledge be merely ae- 
 
 1 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 oGmulited experience, its application is empirical art; but if it be expe- 
 riauce reasoned upon and brought under general principles, it assume* 
 a higher character, and becomes a scientific art. 
 
 5. The following are usually considered the Sciences which 
 are naturally included in the Art of Agriculture : I. Matlt#~ 
 maiical Science: (a,) arithmetic; (b,) algebra; (c,) geometry ; 
 (d,) mechanics ; (e,) surveying ; (fj levelling ; (gj stereome 
 try, (the measuring of solid bodies,) (h,) linear drawing. II. 
 Physical and Natural Sciences: (a,) physics; (b,) meteov- 
 dogy ; (cj mineral chemistry ; (d,) mineralogy ; (e,) geology ; 
 (ft) botany. III. Technological Sciences: (a,) organic chem 
 istry ; (b,) scientific agriculture ; (c,) arboriculture ; (d,) sylvi 
 culture ; (e,) vegetable and animal physiology ; (f,) veterinary 
 art; (g,) zoology; (h,) equitation. IV. Zoological Sciences: 
 (a,) rural architecture ; (b,) forest economy ; (c,) book-keeping ; 
 (djj rural economy; (e,) rural law. Each of these, again, ia 
 divisible into several sub-divisions; and the list may be still 
 further added to with practical advantage. 
 
 6* While a knowledge of all these sciences is necessary to th* 
 thoroughly educated farmer, only a part of them is included in 
 what is commonly termed practical agriculture. Of this latter 
 portion, meteorology, chemistry, geology, mineralogy and botany, 
 are usually taught by themselves ; leaving field-work, arboricul 
 ture, animal physiology, zoology, and veterinary art in a clap* 
 by themselves. To these last, the following pages will be de- 
 Totecl. It must, however, be observed, that so closely are the 
 majority of these sciences interwoven in forming the agricultural 
 art, that it is impossible entirely to disconnect the one from the 
 other. This is especially the case with chemistry and botany : 
 a knowledge of the principles of which must bo considered aa 
 absolutely essential, and which, together with certain depart 
 ments of geology, must be frequently referred to. 
 
 7. The farmer is a manufacturer. His art converts the soil and air 
 into grain, meat, wool, oil, and other substances. He creates nothing : 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 3 
 
 he only causes a change of arrangement of materials already exiiting; 
 which materials are governed by known and fixed laws. "What the &- 
 roer, therefore, requires, is an intimate acquaintance with these material^ 
 id with the natural laws to which they are subject. The earth and air 
 are composed of a certain number of simple elements. But in thig primi 
 tive shape, they are unfit for the support of animal life. Yet thay viH 
 become either weeds or useful plants, according to the mode in which 
 they are used. Again, if they become the latter, the quality produced 
 on a given area will be large or small according to known and fixed 
 rales ; and if domestic animals are reared, these will be large or Boaal^ 
 healthy or unhealthy, according to the same certain and unalterable 
 laws. It depends, therefore, rpon the knowledge which the practical 
 farmer has of these laws, and the uge he makes of this knowledge, 
 whether he receives the largest possible return for his lafbor or not^ 
 
 8. The object of the practical farmer is to raise from a given 
 area of land the largest quantity of the most profitable produce 
 at the least cost; and not only to avoid impoverishing the Boil, 
 but to render it gradually more productive, A knowledge of 
 the above named sciences will enable him to do this ; and thus 
 he is repaid pecuniarily for the labor of his mind, as the work 
 man is repaid for the labor of his body. 
 
 10. The earliest effort in Europe for the establishment of an Agri 
 cultural School, was made by M. L Abbe Rosier in 1775; but, owing 
 to the neglect of the government, it failed to go into operation. lu 1799, 
 Fellenberg, of Switzerland, established the Hofwyl School, vhich ap 
 pears to have been the first institution of the kind. In 1818 1822, M. 
 do Domsbasle commenced a Model Farm, of 375 acres, in connection 
 \vith a place of education, at Roville, in France* In 1827, the Royal 
 Agronomic Institution of Grignon, near Paris, was commenced, by th 
 government. It owns a farm of 1,250 acres, and receives yearly a grant 
 of about $12,000. In Germany, in 1806, the celebrated Dr. A. D. Thaer 
 opened an Agricultural Academy at Moegelin, in Prussia, to educate 
 superintendents for large estates. In 1845, the Royal Agricultural 
 College of Cirencester, England, was chartered. Such institutions ar 
 nov abundant in every part of Europe. 
 
 11. Dr. E. Hitchcock, in the " Report of Commissioners to the Oora- 
 monwealth of Massachusetts concerning an Agricultural School, January, 
 1351," gives the following list of Agricultural Educational Establish 
 ments in Europe : 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 SCHOOLS. 
 
 Sa 
 il 
 
 3 "o 
 
 CGO 
 
 >> 
 
 ft 
 lo 
 ll 
 c o 
 
 o> 
 
 M 
 II 
 
 ^ 
 
 on 
 
 2*3 
 
 O 
 
 J3 
 G. o 
 
 y) r 
 
 Connected 
 with Colleges 
 & Universities] 
 
 Total 
 
 In England, ... 
 
 1 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 In Ireland, .... 
 
 1 
 
 25 
 
 34 
 
 
 3 
 
 63 
 
 In Scotland, 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 In France, ... 
 
 5 
 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 In Italy, .... 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 2? 
 
 In Belgium, .... 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 In Prussia, 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 32 
 
 In Austria. - - 
 
 4 
 
 
 3 
 
 25 
 
 1 
 
 33 
 
 In Wurtemberg, 
 In Bavaria, .... 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 32 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 7 
 35 
 
 In Saxony, 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 5 
 
 In Brunswick, ... 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 In Mechleuburg Schwerin, 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 In Schleswig Holstein, 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 In Anhault, ... 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 In. Duchy of Hesse, ... 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 In Duchy of Weimar, 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 In Duchy of Nassau, 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 In the Electorate of Hesse, - 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 lu Duchy of Baden, 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 In Duchy of Saxe Meiningen, 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 In Russia, .... 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 51 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 68 
 
 Total, .... 
 
 22 
 
 54 
 
 214 
 
 48 
 
 14 
 
 352 
 
 12. Besides theie, there aro Colleges devoted to instruction in Vete 
 rinary Art, the most important of which are, the Imperial School a* 
 Alfort, ID France, and the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, in 
 London. In these institutions, a very complete education is afforded. 
 Veterinary Colleges were first organized in France and Germany, in the 
 beginning of the eighteenth century ; and a great many valuable works 
 from the pens of eminent practitioners have appeared on this subject. 
 The first English College owes its origin, in 1792, to a Frenchman of the 
 name of Saint Bel. In France, Veterinary Surgeons hold a high pro 
 fessional and social position, and many of them aie members of the 
 Order of the Legion of Honor. These schools, as well as the agricultural, 
 receive annually liberal grants of money from government. One point of 
 great importance is, that a Hospital for diseased animals is connected 
 wiih each College, so that not only have the students an opportunity of 
 studying living pathology ; but, on the appearance of an endemic, theje 
 U great probability of the cause and cure being ascertained speedily. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 5 
 
 13. Agricultural education is necessarily divided into the theoretical 
 and th practical or the Science of Agriculture and the Art of Agricul 
 ture. The former involving the reasons of action, is properly learnt first ; 
 and may be imparted -without any connection with a farm ; the second, 
 including, as it doe?, manual dexterity, comparison, and experiment, 
 must necessarily be taught in the field. Or the two may be taught 
 imultaneously. There appear, however, in many cases, to be serious 
 reasons against the latter course. A student of law or medicine firei 
 completes his theoretical education, and then proceeda to practice ; and 
 thU seems to be the most rational course in agricultural education alao. 
 la the higher European Colleges, lectures are given in the field, afters 
 large amount of information has been acquired ; but, it is believed, that 
 the students are not required to labor. There is certainly no efficient 
 reason why a student of agriculture must necessarily spend a given poi- 
 tion of his time in physical toil ; the more especially, as the manual 
 operations of a farm are intrinsically simple, are easily learned, and 
 require rather the exercise of the muscles than of the mind. A museum of 
 rural objects, including models of implements, with likenesses of the best 
 stock; and a hospital for diseased animals; connected with occasional 
 visits to the best farms in the neighborhood, and to agricultural fairs, 
 will supply everything that is requisite for the full education of a young 
 man brought up on a farm ; the practical skill being acquired when be 
 returns home, to make agriculture the serious occupatian of his life. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 PI.ANTS.-THE AIR.-WATER. 
 
 14. Plants are formed by a re-arrangement of simple sub 
 stances, (or elements,) already existing in (a,) the air, (b,) the 
 water, and (c,) the soil Animals are formed by a re-arrange- 
 inent of these plants, of water, and of air. These changes are 
 not simply mechanical, but chemical ; and are under the direc 
 tion of a power called LIFE, of which very little is yet known. 
 Heat, light, electricity, the wind, the rain, and the sun, have alao 
 a powerful influence over vegetable and animal existence. 
 
 15. Wherever the proper elements and circumstances unite, 
 there will vegetable life exist. 
 
 16. While all plants are composed of a certain quantity of 
 different substances, the various orders of plants demand either 
 a different proportion of the elements; or one requires an 
 element which is not requisite to the existence of another plant. 
 Thus, one species of plants grows in earth containing a large pro 
 portion of potash or soda, as wormwood (artemisia) and aspara 
 gus ; while another requires little or no potash, as Indian corn. 
 One grows in water, without any connection with the soil ; while 
 another grows in the air like the wind-plant of Florida ; or the 
 mistletoe of Europe, forcing its radicles into the sap wood of 
 another tree, 
 
 17. W T hile plants grow naturally where they find the ele 
 ments, and other circumstances necessary for their formation ; 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 7 
 
 they are also abundant or rare, according to the proportional 
 existence of these circumstances. 
 
 18. A plant not indigenous to a given locality, will grow and 
 flourish, if transplanted, in exact proportion as it finds the ma 
 terials and circumstances in its new locality the same as in ite 
 native one, 
 
 1 9. These facts are the ground-work of Agriculture as an in 
 telligent art 
 
 20. Comparatively few plants exist which are useful to man, 
 and these, in their wild state, are naturally confined to narrow 
 bounds. The business of the Farmer is, therefore, to cause such 
 plants as he requires, to grow where he wishes them ; and not 
 only to grow, but by artificial adaptation of circumstances to 
 compel them to yield so abundantly that their intrinsic valu* 
 ia greater than that of the labor bestowed upon them. 
 
 21. A striking example of this principle may be given in th 
 growth of the Pine Apple in England. This is a plant requir 
 ing the heat of a long tropical summer in order that it may 
 perfect its fruit Until steamships plied between the West In 
 dies and Great Britain, this fruit could not be carried to the 
 laiter country, without rotting. But so delicious is the flavor, 
 that the English were not willing to be deprived of it They 
 consequently formed, by means of glass-houses and furnaces, a 
 tropical atmosphere : they imitated the rich organic son 1 in which 
 this plant is found to flourish ; they supplied the moisture neoe- 
 ary at certain periods of growth; and not only brought th* 
 fruit to perfection, but greatly improved it in size and flavor. 
 
 22. The principles may therefore be laid down, (a,) u that 
 out of nothing, nothing is made ; " if it is desired to grow a 
 given plant in abundance, all the elements that enter into that 
 plant must be supplied in abundance, (b J all other circumstan 
 ces requisite to its perfection in its native state must also be fui- 
 nished ; (c,) that plants cannot be grown where these requisites 
 are deficient ; (d,) but that it is in the power of the Farmer, by 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 the acquisition of knowledge and by intelligent labor, so to mo 
 dify existing circumstances as to cause a plant to grow profitably 
 where naturally it could not do so. 
 
 23. On those simple principles, depends the utility of plow 
 ing, harrowing, manuring, irrigation, and the other mechanical 
 processes of cultivation. 
 
 24. In other words, the art of Agriculture, when confined to 
 growing plants, is simply adapting the soil, and surrounding ci*- 
 omnstances to the natural demands of the plant; each plant 
 rarying somewhat from another, in its requirements. 
 
 25. In order to do this, it is necessary to understand, (a,) tie 
 materials which are or can be supplied by air, water, and soil; 
 (for in this connection, manure is merely a modification of the 
 mil,) (b,) the materials which enter into the composition of each 
 plant; and (c,) the incidental changes, which meteorology and 
 chemistry may produce. 
 
 26. THE AIR or ATMOSPHERE. According to M. Regnault, 
 100 cubic inches of atmospheric air, deprived of aqueous vapor 
 and carbonic acid, weigh 30.82926 grains. At 62 Fahr. air 
 is 810 times lighter than water, and 11,000 times lighter than 
 mercury. 
 
 The chemical composition of air is, (Dumas and Boussin- 
 yaxdt) : 
 
 Air by Weight. Air by Volume. 
 
 100.00 100.00 
 
 Besides these constituents, the atmosphere always contains a 
 variable quantity of watery vapor and carbonic acid gas, besides 
 other gasses and vaporous bodies which are observed to enter 
 into it The younger Saussure has ascertained that the mean 
 : proportion of carbonic acid is 4.9 volumes in 10,000 volumes of 
 air; or almost exactly 1 in 2,000 volumes; but it varies from 
 8.2 as a maximum to 3.7 as a minimum, in 10,000 volumes. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 Its proportion near the surface of the earth, is greater in sum 
 mer than in winter, and during night than during day. It is 
 dLso more abundant on the summits of high mountains than in 
 the plains, 
 
 27. COMPOSITION OP DRY AIR BY VOLUME. 
 Kitrogen, - ?912 
 Oxygen, - - 2080 
 Carbonic acid, 4 
 Carburetted hydrogen, 4 
 Ammonia, (3 vols. of hydrogen with one of 
 
 nitrogen,) - - - varies 
 
 Ozone, - " 
 
 Organic matter, and salts, - 
 
 28. Prof. Hereford, in experiments made in Boston, Mass., in 
 1849, (Am. Assoc. of Science,) found the quantity of ammonia 
 in. the air greatly to exceed that detected by Freseuius, at Wies 
 baden. Liebig, at Giessen, found it in rain-water and snow ; and 
 estimates that one pound of rain-water contains a quarter of -a 
 grain of ammonia. * 
 
 " 4 field of 26,910 square feet must receive annually upwards of 88 Ibs. 
 of ammonia ; or 71 Ibs. of nitrogen ; for by the observations of Schub- 
 ler, about 770,000 Ibs. of rain falls over this surface in four months, and 
 consequently the annual fall must be 2,310,000 Ibs." Liebig, Agricul. 
 Chemistry, 
 
 Liebig assumes, and justly, that such salts as are found in rain 
 water must have been held in suspension in the air, and washed 
 out by the shower. 
 
 29. M. Barrall, of Paris, has lately examined the composition 
 
 The following table exhibits the results of several determinations by Prof. Here 
 ford, at Boston, Mass., of the relative quantities of ammonia found in rain and snow 
 \rater. 
 
 AMM051A IK RiEt AITO WELTED 8!fOW IK OKE CCBIC METRE. 
 
 1S1D Dec r 22, in rain, 1.56 grains. 
 
 " 29, in snow, 2.63 " 
 1350 April 4, in rain, 0.24 " 
 
 1850 March 18, in snow, 1.49 grains. 
 
 " 22-3, in snow, 0.96 
 July 16, in rain, 1.29 * 
 
 4, in snow, 0.72 
 
 Annual of Scientific Discov. 1851, p. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 of rain water ; and from these examinations we find that if we 
 take the annual depth of rain to be about 24 inches, this quan 
 tity conveys to every acre of land the following substances t 
 Nitrogen, . _ 451 jj^ 
 
 Nitric acid, - - - . 103" 
 
 Ammonia, . . 19A- " 
 
 Chlorine, - 12^-" 
 
 Lime, - - 35 
 
 Magnesia, - - 11 " 
 
 227 fte. 
 
 30. Thence it appears that the quantity of ammonia held in 
 the air varies according to the locality; and, probably, other ei*- 
 oumstances. 
 
 31. Horsford, in continuing the experiments above referred 
 to, found that at Boston, in the summer, when vegetable and 
 animal decay is most rapid, the quantity of ammonia in the air 
 k at a maximum, and afterwards decreases regularly until the 
 winter season, when it is at a minimum. The following table 
 shows the amount of thirteen different analyses : 
 
 Date. Ammonia in 1,000,000 
 
 parts, by weight of aur. 
 
 ! July 3, - - 42.9995 
 
 2. July 9, - . 46.1246 
 
 3 - July 9, - 47.6308 
 
 4. September 1 to 20, - 29.7457 
 
 5. October 11, - 28.2396 
 
 6. October 14, . 25.7919 
 
 7. October 30, - - 13.9315 
 
 8. November 6, 8.0953 
 
 9. November 18, 12 and 13, 8.0953 
 
 10. November 14, 15 and 16, - - 4.7066 
 
 11. November 17 to December 5, - - 6.1328 
 
 12. December 20 and 21, - - 6.9885 
 
 13. December 29, ... 1.2171 
 
 Annual of Scient. Disc. 1850,^. 221. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 1 1 
 
 Liebig (Agri. Chem.) observes " that tlio ammonia contain 
 ed in rain and snow water possesses an offensive smell of per 
 spiration and animal excrements, a fact which leaves no doubt 
 respecting its origin." These experiments have been repeated 
 in France, Germany, America, and England with the same re- 
 suite. It is probable that in the neighborhood of large cities, 
 and in densely peopled countries, the air contains a much larger 
 proportion of this valuable alkali, than in the wild and thinly 
 settled districts. Some curious agricultural and pathological 
 phenomena may be explained by these facts ; but the subject 
 still requires more extended and minute examination. 
 
 32. Henry and Chevallier have detected acetic acid and 
 probably hippuric acid in the atmosphere. Horsford supposes, 
 as the result of his experiments, that the organic effluvia in the 
 air are of acid character. 
 
 33. Ozone, also, appears to vary in quantity. 
 
 Ozone is believed to be a form of oxygen, and is produced when elea- 
 tric sparks are taken through perfectly dry oxygen. It is formed in tha 
 air during thunder storms. Air impregnated with it acts very much a* 
 if a trace of chloiine gas were present, which ozone appears to resemble. 
 Little is yet known of it, but it probably has some connection with 
 LealtL and epidemic illness ; and is suspected to act on plants by effect 
 ing their growth. 
 
 34. Yaughan (Am. Assoc. of Science,) states that by means 
 of feeble currents of electricity, the amount of carbonic acid 
 which water and moist surfaces continually absorb from the air, 
 is decomposed, and serves to supply the principal part of tbi 
 humus of the soil. 
 
 35. Although, they have not been detected, there can be Tto 
 doubt that the Sporules (seeds) of minute Cryptogamic plant% 
 such as Mould, Rust, d-c., are generally floating in the air, 
 ready to take root wherever they find proper conditions. The 
 atmosphere is also full of Animalcules and infusorial forms. 
 
 36. Dr. Smith (Proc. of British Assoc.) in experiments on 
 
1 2 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 the air of towns, detected sulphuric acid, chlorine, and a Bub- 
 stance resembling impure albumen.* In a warm atmosphere the 
 albuminous matter very soon putrifies, and emits disagreeable 
 odors. By oxidation, this substance gives rise to carbonic acid, 
 ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen, and probably to other gasses. 
 37. Mulder found free muriatic acid in the rain water of Am 
 sterdam, which he ascribes to the decomposition of the chloride 
 
 This substance, vrhich has been noticed in rain and snow water by Feveral Chrm- 
 iflte, has recently been carefully examined by Dr. A. A. Hayes, of Massachusetts. 
 (Proc. ofAm.Assoc. of Science, 1850, B.pp. 207-212 .) It has been named Pyrrhx*. 
 Obtained from carefully filtered solutions, it appears as ft brown yellow adhesive sub 
 stance, having a strong oder of perspired matter, generally containing the remains of 
 animalcula, spores of fungi, and atmospheric dust. After its solution has been freed 
 from ammoniacal salts, the changes following in its fermentation produce ammonia. 
 Dr. Hayes is inclined to attribute to this substance, a powerful influence over vegeta 
 tion. When fertile soil is undergoing fermentation, the vapors, by condensation, af 
 ford a substance much like Pyrrhin ; but the state of admixture here renders it more 
 compound than when it is obtained from the atmosphere through the aid of falling 
 rain. To the falling of this substance from the air, Dr. H. attributes the remarkabta 
 growth of vegetation observed in New England and other places, when heavy rain 
 nceeeds a long continued period of dry weather in summer. " The more fertile a 
 soil, either naturally or as resulting from judicious cultivation, the more the quantity 
 of matter, having the character of a ferment, we always find in our analysis." 
 
 The following passage bearing on this subject appears in Silliman s Am. Journal 
 of Science and Arts, for September, 1853, page 273 . " In continuation of his long 
 researches on the composition of arable soils, M. Verdeil and M. Rissler have recog- 
 uized in the aqueous extracts of these soils, the constant presence of a substance libs 
 angar ; and also a large proportion of mineral substances, little soluble or even insol 
 uble in water. Thus in 100 parts of aqueous extract, they found 49 of organic matter 
 and 54 of inorganic, consisting of sulphate, carbonate, and phosphate of lime, oxyda 
 of iron, alumine, magnesia, all insoluble in water (or scarcely soluble) ; and a the 
 presence of carbonic acid alone is not sufficient to explain the presence of these sub- 
 gtances in the aqueous extract, MM. Verdeil and Rissler have sought for the cause of 
 thig solubility, and concluded that it is due to the saccharine ingredients, for only a 
 Tery little water is required along with this sugar to dissolve largo quantities of inst^ 
 nble salts. They have recognized again the fact that nitrogen which enters into tha 
 composition of humus is found in the condition of an ammoniacal salt, and not in 
 that of an organic substance ; for they have collected the whole under the form of 
 ammonia in boiling the concentrated extract with milk of lime." 
 
 We refer to this not as yet proving anything certain, but as a subject well worthy of 
 more investigation. There are many unexplained phenomena connected with vege 
 tation which may receive elucidation if these facts prove to be correct. The rapid 
 growth and change of color of plants after a thunder storm in summer has long been 
 noticed by the writer, and probably by most persons living in the country. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 13 
 
 of magnesium contained in the waters of the lake of Haarlem, 
 by the action of the sun s raya, 
 
 38. The quantity of water in tho atmosphere varies considei^- 
 ably, at different times and in different places. It is, besides, 
 dependent on the temperature of the air and of tho water evap 
 orating from the earth s surface. The proportion of aqueous 
 rspor has been determined by Verver, for the Netherlands. In 
 1000 volumes of air, he found the minimum 5.8 ; the maximum 
 10.18. The average of fifty observations during May, August, 
 and September was 8.47. From an early hour in the morning 
 to- 1.0 o clock, A. M. it was 7.97 from 10 to 2 o clock, P. M., 
 8.S8 ; and from 2 o clock till the evening, 8.85 (Mulder.) 
 
 The atmosphere in New England is believed to be much 
 drier than that of Germany, At a meeting of the Boston Nat 
 ural History Society, 1852, this difference was discussed. In 
 New England the dew point is several degrees lower. Various 
 differences are noticed by foreign artizans in the processes of 
 their different callings, attributable to this dryness of the aii. 
 The climate of New England is regarded as more nearly resenv 
 IJing that of the high Alps than that of any other part of En- 
 rope. Missouri, on the contrary, appears to have a still wetter 
 atmosphera At the winter season of the year the air of New 
 England is so nearly anhydrous, (free from moisture y ) that such 
 articles as raw hides dry in a temperature just below freezing, 
 without being frozen. (Annual of Scitnt. Discov^ 1853 J 
 
 39. All these constituents of the atmosphere have an impor 
 tant influence upon the character and luxuriance of vegetation* 
 Of ihe whole, however, carbonic acid and water are the most 
 important. Carbon, and the elements of water form the prin 
 ciple constituents of vegetables; the quantity of the substances 
 which do not possess this compositon being in a very small pro 
 portion, 
 
 40. The leaves and other green parts of a plant exposed te> 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 the light, absorb carbonic acid, decompose it, retain the carbon, 
 and emit an equal volume of oxygon. 
 
 Plants thus improve the air by the removal of carbonic acid nnd by 
 by the renewal of oxygen, \vhich is immediately applied to the use of 
 man and animals. The horizontal currents of the atmosphere bring with 
 thorn as much as they carry away, and the interchange of air between 
 the upper and lower strata, which their difference of temperature causw>, 
 is extremely trifling when compared with the hoiizontal movements of 
 the winds. Thus vegetable culture heightens the healthy state of a 
 country ; and a previously healthy country would be rendered quite un 
 inhabitable by the cessation of all cultivation. 
 
 47. But in the dark, or during the night, the reverse action 
 takes place. Then green plants emit carbonic acid and absorb 
 OKygen ; while the whole volume of air undergoes diminution at 
 the same time. From the latter fact it follows that the quanti 
 ty of the oxygen gas absorbed is greater than the volume of 
 carbonic acid seperated ; for if this were not the case no dimi 
 nution could occur. 
 
 42. Liebig has endeavored to prove that plants absorb di 
 rectly from the atmosphere much of the nitrogen (ammonia,} 
 which they require in their composition ; but his views are now 
 generally considered unsound ; and the ablest physiologists teach 
 that plants in a normal state imbibe carbonic acid and water 
 only through the leaves, while all other constituents enter by the 
 roots through the soil. Mulder lays down the following princi- 
 pie as sufficiently established : It is the function of the roots 
 to convey to plants water, ammonia, organic salts, and a small 
 quantity of inorganic salts; but that of the green parts, espe 
 cially of the leaves, to increase the amount of the non-nitroge 
 nous constituents of plants, by the absorption of carbonic add, 
 accompanied with an emission of oxygen. 
 
 43. The other components of the atmosphere must, therefore, 
 reach the plant through the soil ; they being generally impart 
 ed to the soil by rain or snow. Their value and importance 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 15 
 
 will be better understood when we come to speak of the SOIL, 
 of DRAINING, and of MANURES. 
 
 44. WATER consists of two volumes of hydrogen gas with one 
 roiiune of oxygen, chemically combined: or by weight: 
 
 Oxygen, 88.91 8 
 
 Hydrogen, - 11.09 1 
 
 100.00 9 
 
 The oxygen and hydrogen are therefore combined exactly in 
 the proportion 8 to 1, as appears by the proportion of the last 
 column. (Graham.) 
 
 45. From the chemical combination of hydrogen ami oxygsn in water, 
 a scries of special consequences follows in the- organic kingdom. It is a 
 known fact that, when substances, chemically combined, are again de 
 composed, the action of other substances also, which are contained in tbe 
 circle of action is reciprocally awakened. Wherever in the organic 
 kingdom, water is decomposed and this frequently happens the de 
 composition re-acts on the substance from which the influence proceed 
 ed, and produces impoitant chemical transformations of all the substances 
 included in the circle of action. This chemical action proceeds, as 
 regards water, from two elements, which are both chief constituents of 
 organic bodies. (Mulder. ) 
 
 46. (a.) The first effect of water on plants is that they are 
 moistened by it It acts chemically, forming hydrates with or 
 ganic compounds ; also, merely as a liquid, to moisten, dissolve, 
 or keep solid substances in suspension. 
 
 47. (b.) Water is indispensable to keep the fleshy parts soft, 
 to enable them to grow and be fed. 
 
 48. (c.) also as a dissolving and suspending fluid. 
 
 For it is only by the circulation of a fluid through the existing 
 parts of an organic whole, that the support and nourishment of 
 the. whole organism can be effected ; and many of its actions 
 rest entirely upon this process. 
 
 49. (d.) The action of water differs in plants and animals as 
 
16 AGRICULTURAL TEST-BOOK. 
 
 U> tho way i,n which it disappears again from the organic sub 
 stances. 
 
 50. Plants receive water from (a,) the dew, (b,) from ruin, 
 (c+) from the soil by evaporation; in case of irrigation, and in 
 certain localities, directly (d,) from streams or ponds, and fa) 
 from vapor held in suspension in the atmosphere. 
 
 Jl. A cubic inch of water at 62 Fahr, Barometer 30 inches, weigh* 
 in aJr 252,458 grains. The imperial gallon Las been defined to contain 
 10 pounds avoirdupois (70,000 grains) of distilled water at that temper- 
 ntnre and pressure. Its capacity is, therefore, 2 7 7. 19 cubic inches. Th 
 specific gravity of water at 60 Fahr. is 1, being tho unit to which thw 
 densities of all other liquids and solids are conveniently referred ; it is 
 8t5 times heavier than air at that temperature* 
 
 Water readily combines with or absorbs a great variety of 
 sriid or gasous bodies ; and it is by means of water that most 
 of tho materials of the structure of plants are introduced. Con 
 sequently the composition of the water which cultivated planfe 
 may receive in any given locality is of great importance to tl* 
 Farmer. 
 
 53. We have already seen (28-37) that rain, washing the 
 air, receives a variety of substances from the atmosphere which 
 it conveys to the soil and plant; but the amount of these substan 
 ces varies in different positions. Thus Dr. Madden has calculated 
 that the quantity of rain which falls at Penicuick, in Scotland, 
 in a year, brings down upon each acre of land in tliat neighbor 
 hood more than 600 ibs. weight of common salt, (Johnston.) 
 while in countries remote from the sea it is believed that no 
 salt is held in suspension in the atmosphere. And thus, M 
 nan may supply or withhold an important element of vegeta 
 tion. 
 
 54. Rain water is purer than spring, river, or sea watei. 
 Dew is believed to be purer than ordinary rain water. 
 
 Dew is caused by the cooling of the earth, plants, (fee., by noctur 
 nal rqdialion. The appearance of dew always follows, never precede* 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 1 7 
 
 the fall in temperature of the bodies on which it is deposited ; thence 
 the phenomenon cannot be attributed to anything more than a s mple 
 condensation of the watery vapor contained in the air, comparable in all 
 respects to that which takes place upon the surface of a vessel contain 
 ing a fluid that is colder than the air. The quantity of the moisture 
 dissolved in the atmoaphere is so much the greater as the temperature 
 is higher. In very warm climates the dew is so copious as to assist 
 vegetation essentially, supplying the place of rain during a great part of 
 the year. When the sky is clear and calm during the night, vegetables 
 cool down and very soon show a temperature inferior to that of the air 
 which surrounds them. Thus plants are often destroyed by frost in 
 spring, when the thermometer, a few feet above the ground, stands 
 above the freezing point. But clouds, preventing the rapid radiation, 
 also prevent plants cooling to the same point ; and on cloudy nights, 
 as also on those preceeding severe rain storm?, there is no dew. 
 The Farmers of Peru, South America, whose crops are often destroyed 
 by this nocturnal radiation, have long boon in the habit of making arti 
 ficial clouds by setting fire to a heap of wet straw or dung, and b} this 
 means raising a cloud of smoke which destroys the transparency of the 
 atmosphere, from which they have so much to apprehend. Unless the 
 plants and surface of the earth cool below the temperature of the air there 
 cannot be dew. (Boussingautt. ) 
 
 55. But it is from springs, and the water otherwise contained 
 in the earth that plants cheifly receive their inorganic nourish 
 ment. As such water is always rising to the surface, it brings 
 with it whatever substances are held in suspension by it, and 
 deposits them either near the roots of the plants or on the sur 
 face, to be washed down again by rain. Thus the great marl 
 beds, which form the bottom of most of the small lakes of the 
 interior of Michigan, are deposits of lime dissolved in springs, 
 and which becomes a carbonate of lime, and therefore insoluble, 
 when exposed to the atmosphere. The great beds of nitrate of 
 potash and soda, (saltpetre,) and other salts, found on the sur 
 face in various parts of the world, are believed to owe their 
 existence to the same cause. Tables of the analyses of various 
 waters will be here given, by which it will be seen how impor 
 tant an element it is in the production of vegetation : 
 2 
 
18 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 56. SEA WATER, (Schweitzer,) from the English Channel. 
 Water, - 96,474 
 Common Salt, - - 2,706 
 Chloride of Potassium, 76 
 Chloride of Magnesium, - 366 
 Bromide of Magnesium, - 3 
 Sulphate of Magnesia, - - 229 
 Sulphate of Lime, - - 140 
 Carbonate of Lime, ... 3 
 Iodine, - - traces. 
 Ammonia, - * traces. 
 
 100,000 
 
 57. SCUTLKILL WATER, (B. SiUiman, Jr.,) taken from the 
 Fairmount Reservoir, Philadelphia : 
 
 Grains in 1 gallon. 
 
 Chloride of Sodium, - 0.1470 
 
 Chloride of Magnesium, - - 0.0094 
 
 Sulphate of Magnesia, - 0.0570 
 
 Carbonate of Lime, - - 1.8720 
 
 Carbonate of Magnesia, 0.3510 
 
 Silica, - ., 0.0800 
 
 Carbonate of Soda, - 1.6436 
 Organic and other matter, volatile at red heat, 1.2400 
 
 5.5000 
 
 Carbonic acid given off by boiling from 1 gallon, 3.879 cubic 
 inches. 
 
 TlIE SOLID, FIXED, AND INSOLUBLE RESIDUE OF THE SAME 
 
 WATER. 
 
 Grains in 1 gallon. 
 
 Solid residue at 212 fahr. - - 5.50 
 
 Fixed at a red heat, - - - 3.69 
 
 Insoluble in water, - - - - 2.145 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 19 
 
 The Sclmylkill water, when settled clear, is water of superior 
 purity. 
 
 58. THE WATERS OF THE DEAD SEA, ( Poggendor/,) pro 
 cured near the North end, not far from the mouth of the Jordan : 
 Chloride of Calcium, - 2.894 
 
 Chloride of Magnesium, - - 10.534 
 
 Chloride of Potassium, 1.398 
 
 Chloride of Sodium, - 6.578 
 
 Chloride of Aluminum, 0.0 1 8 
 
 Bromide of Magnesium, - - - 0.251 
 
 Sulphate of Lime, 0.088 
 
 Silica, - .-*-,- - - - 0.003 
 
 21.773 
 
 59. Water from the GREAT SALT LAKE, Utah Territory, 
 (Dr. L. D. Gale.) The water was perfectly clear, and had the 
 specific gravity of 1.1 7 0. 
 
 100 parts evaporated to dryness, and heated to 300 Fahr., 
 gave solid contents 22.422, and consisted of 
 
 Chloride of Sodium, - 20.196 
 
 Sulphate of Soda, - 1.834 
 
 Chloride of Magnesium, 0.252 
 
 Chloride of Calcium, - - 0. trace. 
 
 CO. WARM SPRING, OF SALT LAKE CITY, (Dr. L. D. Gale,} 
 100 parts of water gave : 
 
 Sulphuretted hydrogen, absorbed in the water, 0.037454 
 " combined with basis, 0.000728 
 
 Carbonate of Lime, precipated by boiling 0.075000 
 
 Carbonate of Magnesia, " " 0.022770 
 
 Chloride of Calcium, - 0.005700 
 
 Sulphate of Soda, - - 0.064835 
 
 Chloride of Sodium, - 0.816600 
 
 1.023087 
 
20 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 61. THE ARTESIAN WELL, AT GRENALLE, near Paris, (Pay en,) 
 contains in 100,000 parts: 
 
 Carbonate of Lime, - 6.80 
 
 Carbonate of Magnesia, - - 1.42 
 
 Bicarbonate of Potash, - 2.96 
 
 Sulphate of Potash, - 1.20 
 
 Chloride of Potassium, - 1.09 
 
 Silica, - - 0.57 
 
 Yellow matter, not defined, - - 0.02 
 
 Organic nitrogenous matter, - - 0.24 
 
 14.30 
 
 62. SEVERAL SPRINGS AT HARTFORD, Connecticut, (Bidl) 
 give in 10,000 parts of water: 
 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 Sulphate of Lime, 
 
 0.69 
 
 0.61 
 
 0.30 
 
 0.79 
 
 0.89 
 
 Chloride of Magnesium, 
 
 0.41 
 
 0.23 
 
 0.22 
 
 0.81 
 
 0.41 
 
 Chloride of Calcium, 
 
 1.12 
 
 0.70 
 
 0.39 
 
 
 1 79 
 
 Chloride of Sodium, - 
 
 1.91 
 
 
 
 
 2.67 
 
 Carbonate of Lime, 
 
 2.25 
 
 1.31 
 
 0.21 
 
 1.48 
 
 
 Carbonate of Magnesia, 
 
 0.19 
 
 
 
 
 1.51 
 
 Crenato of Magnesia, - 
 
 
 0.13 
 
 0.76 
 
 0.44 
 
 
 Carbonate of Soda, - 
 
 0.22 
 
 1.09 
 
 1.19 
 
 2.35 
 
 2.67 
 
 Oxide of Iron, - - ^ 
 Alumina, - - - $ 
 
 0.04^ 
 
 0.38 
 
 0.14$ 
 
 0.04^ 
 
 trace. 
 
 Lime, - 
 
 
 
 
 0.23 
 
 
 Silica, 
 
 0.18 
 
 0.60 
 
 0.14 
 
 0.04 
 
 0.10 
 
 
 10 
 
 0.46 
 
 
 0.18 
 
 1 78 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i . 4 O 
 
 Total fixed ingredients, 
 
 7.11 
 
 5.51 
 
 3.35 
 
 6.36 
 
 11.82 
 
 63. These examples are sufficient to show how water in 
 the earth is charged with foreign matter, varying constantly, 
 according to circumstances. The absolute quantity of saline 
 matter contained in spring water, has been shown by Grange to 
 be influenced in some cases, (as in the valley of the Isere,) by 
 the relative height of the locality, and increases from the tops 
 of the mountains towards the valleys. The relative quantities 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 21 
 
 of the different salts is variable ; the soluble salts, particularly 
 the chlorides, were found in this instance to diminish ; while the 
 insoluble, or difficultly soluble salts, gypsum and carbonate of 
 lime increased as the site of the spring was at a lower level. 
 The nature of the soil, likewise, alters the relative quantities of 
 the different salts. The chlorides preponderate in magnesian 
 soils, and vary from 25 to 32 per cent, while in anthracitic soil 
 they do not amount to more than 10 or 16 per cent., and in 
 calcareous soil to only between 4 and 8 per cent, of the saline 
 matter. The sulphates are found in nearly the same proportions 
 in calcareous and anthracitic soils ; in the former, they vary from 
 24 to 31, and in the latter from 18 to 37 per cent. In the 
 Nicomien, they do not amount to more than 5 or 12 per cent, 
 of the dissolved saline matter. The carbonates vary from 36 
 to 47 per cent, in granitic soils; from 48 to 71 in anthracitic, 
 and from 83 to 88 per cent, in chalk soils. Soda salts, (chlorides 
 and sulphates,) preponderate in magnesian, and particularly in 
 anthracitic soils; the total quantity of sulphates in the latter 
 soils is much greater. Magnesian salts are remarkably constant 
 in water from magnesian and anthracitic soils; their relative 
 quantity averages between 19 and 23 per cent in water from 
 granitic salts and slates; and between 11 and 23 in anthracitic 
 formations. ( Kn app.) 
 
 64. The quantity of saline and earthy matter in spring water, 
 varies from about 20 grains to 1,800 grains in the gallon; when 
 above 100 grains per gallon, it constitutes a mineral water. The 
 average quantity in ordinaiy spring water is from 20 to 80 
 grains. The most common salts are sulphate and carbonate of 
 lime, sulphate, muriate, and carbonate of potash and soda. 
 
 65. The presence of phosphoric acid in some waters has re 
 cently been discovered. 
 
 66. Three-fourths of the weight of the body of man and of 
 the higher animals is composed of water ; and the lower ani 
 mals are constituted in like manner. Even the wood of trees 
 
22 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 contains one-third and more of its weight of water. Dr. Salis 
 bury gives the following tables exhibiting the per centage of 
 water, dry matter, and ash in the horse chestnut, (^Esculm hip- 
 pocastanum,) at Albany, N. Y., at two different periods : 
 
 MAY , 1849. 
 
 
 1 "^ 
 
 118 
 
 1 
 
 flf 
 
 ill 
 
 "5 2 
 
 
 1111 
 
 - 
 
 III! 
 
 Sl gfe 
 
 Hi ?* 
 
 Per cent, of water, - 
 
 80.000 79.408 
 
 88.987 
 
 51.000 
 
 56.130 
 
 Per cent, dry matter, - 
 
 20.000 
 
 20.592 
 
 11.013 
 
 49.000 
 
 43.870 
 
 Per cent, ash, - 
 
 1.852 
 
 1.838 
 
 1.271 
 
 5.000 
 
 0.510 
 
 Per cent, ash, cal. on dry ? 
 matter, - $ 
 
 9.359 
 
 8.927 
 
 12.479 
 
 10.204 
 
 1.162 
 
 MAY 18, 1849 
 
 
 Peduncles. 
 
 ! 
 
 Young twigs 
 und petioles. 
 
 * .5 sj 
 
 j| 
 
 Per cent, of water, 
 Per cent, dry matter, - 
 Per cent, ash, - 
 Per cent, ash, cal. on dry ) 
 matter, $ 
 
 87.047 
 12.953 
 1.313 
 
 10.133 
 
 78.485 
 20.515 
 1.582 
 
 7.746 
 
 84.730 
 15.270 
 1.100 
 
 7.209 
 
 50.500 
 46.500 
 4.290 
 
 9.226 
 
 48.000 
 51.970 
 0.550 
 
 1.116 
 
 67. The air in water is a mixture of the same constituents as 
 atmospheric air, but they are not present in the same propor 
 tions the air contained in water being much richer in oxygen, 
 and containing 32 per cent, of its volume of that element 
 (Knapp,) and in water from freshly melted snow 34.8 per 
 cent. The quantity of air retained by water at an altitude of 6 
 to 8000 feet is reduced to one-third of its usual proportion. 
 Hence fishes cannot live in Alpine lakes. 
 
 63. Water contained in the soil may be so impregnated with 
 salts or organic acids as to destroy vegetation. Some of the 
 salts of iron are thus destructive. A cure may be effected by 
 thorough draining. Water containing the salts of lime is called 
 Hard Water. Its effect on horses is very remarkable. Hard 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 23 
 
 water drawn fresh from the well will make the coat of a horse 
 unaccustomed to it stare: and it will not unfrequently gripe 
 and otherwise injure him. (Youatt.) Milk, I utter, and cheese 
 are also sensibly affected by the quality of the water drunk by 
 the cow. Dr. Wilson has found fluoride of calcium in milk, as 
 well as in the blood and urine of animals, which must have been 
 derived from this substance dissolved in the water usually drunk. 
 (Proc. British Assoc.) 
 
 69. Goitre and Cretinism, diseases common in the vallies of 
 the Alps, as well as in the other parts of the world, are believ 
 ed to arise from the deleterious action of the water containing 
 salts of magnesia, and the absence of a sufficient quantity of 
 lime. In some places cattle are subject to a disease of the bones 
 in consequence of a want of lime in the water. On the contra 
 ry, carbonic acid acts favorably on vegetable life. Dr. Daubeny 
 found by experiments, that although very large quantities of 
 carbonic acid were injurious to plants, yet that when present in. 
 water, from one to five per cent more than is natural, it is bene 
 ficial 
 
 70. M. Lassaigne has found arsenic present in the natural 
 deposites of the mineral waters of Wattviller to the amount of 
 2.8 per cent.; but the poisonous property of the arsenic is de 
 stroyed by its combination with peroxide of iron. Free sulphuric 
 acid has also been detected in springs in Virginia. 
 
 71. River water differs much in its constituents from spring 
 water. It takes its character from the geological formations 
 through which it flows. It is apt to hold in suspension much 
 sand, earth, and organic matter. The quantity of sediment dis 
 charged by the Mississippi River annually is estimated at from 
 2,137,061,974 cubic feet (Marr) to 28,188,083,892 cubic feet 
 (Brown and Dickeson.) 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE SOU,. 
 
 72. To a common observer the soil is a heavy, cohesive, 
 torpid substance ; varying in color ; and, more or less, mixed 
 with stones. Examined scientifically, it is a compound sub 
 stance ; made up of many materials, each of them differing in 
 its qualities ; some of them lying in mere mechanical contact ; 
 others chemically combined. The soil is usually divided into 
 two parts, (a,) the surface soil ; (b,) the sub-soil. They usual 
 ly differ (c,) in constitution ; (d,) mechanical structure ; and 
 (e,) by the first (a,) containing more organic matter, and less 
 salts than the other. 
 
 73. Strictly all accumulations of loose materials resting upon 
 rock constitutes the soil. These loose materials vary in depth 
 from a few inches to one or two hundred feet ; and occasionally 
 consist of different layers or beds placed one over the other. 
 
 74. The earthy matter of all soils has been produced by the 
 gradual decay, degradation, or crumbling down of previously ex 
 isting rocks. 
 
 75. Soils are formed (a,) immediately from the rock upon 
 which they rest ; or (b,) from deposites, drift, &c., brought by 
 water and other geological causes from a distance. In the latter 
 case, the soil may have no relation whatever, either in mineralo- 
 gical characters or in chemical constitution, to the immediately 
 subjacent rocks. To these constituents must be added the re 
 mains of plants and animals ; and carbon. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 25 
 
 76. The principal rocks whose decay has given rise to the formation 
 of soil may be briefly enumerated as follows : (Mulder.) 
 
 (a,) Quartz Rocks; (ft,) Feldspar Rocks; (c,) Mica Rocks; (d.) 
 Hornblende Rocks ; (e,) Serpentine Rocks; (/,) Augite Rocks ; (#,) 
 Alumina Rocks ; (A,) Lime Rocks; (i,) Gypsum ; (j,) Iron. 
 
 77. The value of Irrigation for the purpose of manme depends upon 
 the geological formation through which the stream passes. 
 
 79. Soils differ much in the relative quality of the substances 
 which compose them ; but all fertile soils contain the same ma 
 terials. 
 
 80. The great bulk of all such soils consists of three earths : 
 (a,) Silica, (or sand,) (b,) Alumina, (or clay,) (cj Lime. Gen 
 erally, these lie in juxtaposition, inert, and producing no effect 
 on each other. To these must be added (d,) Water, which is 
 always present uniting them. Deprived of water, soil becomes 
 dust ; but the water varies in its relative quantity according to 
 the proportionate mixture of these three materials. 
 
 81. The economical character and usefulness of the soil varies 
 in proportion to the predominance of one or other of these sub 
 stances. 
 
 82. On a general average, the earthy part of the soil consti 
 tutes about 96 per cent, of its whole weight when free from 
 water. (Johnston.) 
 
 83. By Silica, is meant siliceous sand or siliceous gravel of various 
 degrees of fineness from an impalpable powder to sand-stones. By Clay 
 a finely divided chemical compound consisting very nearly of 60 per 
 cent, of Silica and 40 per cent, of Alumina, with a little oxide of iron, 
 and from which no sandy matter can be separated mechanically or by 
 decantation. By Lime Carbonate of Lime, in the shape of chalk, lime 
 stones, marl, shell-sand, (fee. 
 
 84. Soils may be classified as follows : 
 
 (a,) Pure Clay, pipe day, = 60 per cent. Silica, 40 per 
 cent. Alumina, oxide of iron chemically combined, (b,) Strong 
 est clay soil, brick clay, pure clay (a,) with 5 to 10 per cent, 
 of sand which can be separated by boiling and decantation. 
 (cj) Clay loam = 15 to 30 per cent, fine sand and pure clay. 
 
26 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 (d,) Loamy clay =30 to 60 per cent, sand and puro clay. 
 (e,) Sandy loam = 60 to 90 per cent, sand and puro clay. 
 (/J Sandy soil contains no more than 10 per cent, of pure clay. 
 (g,) Marley soils, in which the proportion of lime is more than 
 5, but does not exceed 20 per cent, of the whole weight of the 
 dry soil, (h,) Calcareous soils, in which the lime exceeding 20 
 per cent, becomes the distinguishing constituent, (i,) Vegeta 
 ble soils of various kinds, from garden mould which contains 
 from 5 to 1 per cent., to the peaty soil in which the organic 
 matter may amount to 60 or 70 per cent. These soils are also 
 clayey, loamy, or sandy, according to the predominant character 
 of the earthy admixtures. 
 
 85. The only use of the great bulk of the soil appears to be 
 (a,) the upholding of the plant, and giving it a fing basis from 
 which to spring; (b,) the absorption of gasses, and the imbib 
 ing and retaining of other elements; (c t ) the supplying of 
 water. 
 
 86. The remaining constituents of the soil may be divided 
 into (a,) Organic matter; (b,) and chemical substances and 
 salts, or Inorganic matter. 
 
 87. All soils contain organic matter in a greater or less pro 
 portion. This organic matter consists, in part, of decayed ani 
 mal, but chiefly of decayed vegetable substances ; sometimes in 
 brown or black fibrous portions ; sometimes forming only a fine 
 brown powder intimately intermixed with the mineral matters 
 of the soil ; sometimes scarcely perceptible in either of these 
 forms ; and existing only in a state of organic compounds more 
 or less devoid of color; and at times entirely soluble in water. 
 In soils which appear to consist only of pure sand or clay, or 
 ganic matter in this latter form may often be detected in con 
 siderable quantities. 
 
 88. Chemically the organic compounds of the soil are thus termed : 
 (a,) Crenic acid ; (6,) Apocrenic acid ; (c,) Geic acid; (rf,) Humic 
 acid ; (e,) huniin, (or humus) ; (/,) Ulmic acid ; (#,) Ulmin. Hurnin 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 27 
 
 and ulmin are insoluble in alkalies and in water ; the others are readily 
 soluble in alkalies, and more or less in water also. 
 
 89. All organic matter may be resolved into the four gasses, 
 carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen ; with or without a little 
 ash, or inorganic matter. 
 
 90. The nature and quantity of organic matter in the soil have 
 great influence upon its character and fertility. 
 
 91. The most useful portions of plants are chiefly organic; 
 as the woody fibre, starch, gum, sugar, gluten, and albumen ; 
 and in animals, the flesh, milk, butter, cheese, &c. Barn-yard 
 manures, are also chiefly composed of water and organic matter. 
 Thus, in well-preserved manure is found (Richardson,) in 100 
 parts : 
 
 Water, - - - 65 parts. 
 
 Organic matter, 24J- " 
 
 Inorganic salts, - - 10 
 
 92. The inorganic matter forms the smallest portion of the 
 soil, but it is absolutely essential for the production of useful 
 vegetation. Without it plants will not produce seed ; and the 
 deficiency of a single element may render the soil entirely 
 barren. 
 
 93. The names of these inorganic elements are: 
 
 Nome. In combination with Forming 
 
 Chlorine, (Bleaching Gas,) Metals, Chlorides. 
 
 Iodine, - " Iodides. 
 
 Sulphur, - " Sulphurets. 
 
 - Hydrogen, Sulphuretted Hydrogen. 
 
 " - Oxygen, Sulphuric acid. 
 
 Phosphorus, - " Phosphoric acid. 
 
 Potassium, - " Potash. 
 
 - Chlorine, Chloride of Potassium. 
 
 Sodium, - Oxygen, Soda. 
 
 - Chlorine, Common Salt. 
 
 Calcium, - " Chloride of Lime. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 Calcium, - - Oxygen, Lime. 
 
 Magnesium, - Magnesia, 
 
 Aluminum, - " Alumina, (Clay.) 
 
 Silicon, - Silica, (Sand.) 
 
 Iron and ) ( Oxides. 
 
 Manganese, j - Sulphur, ( Sulphurets. 
 
 94. With the exception of Iodine, the above appear to be es 
 sential to the composition of all cultivated plants. 
 
 95. The organic and inorganic elements are chemically com 
 bined, and are always undergoing change. They perhaps never 
 exist in plants in a simple form. 
 
 96. These inorganic materials may be so carried away from 
 the soil by injudicious cropping that at last the land refuses to 
 bear grain, until they are replaced, or, in other words, till the 
 land is manured. Again, manure, by its chemical action, may 
 set free these elements in the soil which were previously unfit 
 for absorption by roots. To recapitulate 
 
 97. A fertile soil consists of three earths: (a,) Sand; (bj 
 Clay, and (c,) Lime, mechanically combined; (d,) of four 
 gasses, forming organic matter ; and (e,) of eleven or twelve in 
 organic elements, in small quantities, chemically combined. 
 
 98. Practically, the difference between a rich and an impov 
 erished soil is this : A rich soil contains every thing a plant 
 requires in a soluble state, ready to be at once absorbed by the 
 roots of the plant. A worn-out soil contains the same constitu 
 ents but in an insoluble state, not capable of being dissolved in 
 water, and therefore unable to enter into the roots. 
 
 99. On whatever soil a plant is grown, if it shoots up in a 
 healthy manner, and fairly ripens its seed, the quantity and qual 
 ity of the ash is nearly the same. 
 
 100. No two plants of a different order contain the same 
 quantity and quality of inorganic matter. The more widely two 
 plants differ in their natural character, (e. g. turnips and wheat,) 
 the wider will be the difference between their constituents. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 29 
 
 101. On these principles, in practical farming, is based the 
 utility of fallowing;, and the rotation of crops. 
 
 102. The mechanical texture of the soil has a strong influence 
 upon its practical fertility; very heavy clays, and very light 
 sands, being both, for opposite reasons, apt to produce badly. 
 The soil in which the particles are the finest, so that the air can 
 enter, and the roots spread without difficulty, is, other things 
 being equal, the best. In clay soils this division of the particles 
 must be produced by the plow and other mechanical means; 
 while in loose sands it is too great, and must be amended by an 
 admixture of clay and other substances. The great fertility of 
 the bottom lands of the Scioto River, Ohio, is attributed to the 
 remarkable comminution of the particles of these soils, 
 
 103. The sub-soil also produces a sensible effect on the con 
 dition of the soil above it. If the soil is clay, it is impervious 
 to water, and if the sub-soil is clay also, it also is impervious to 
 water. The immediate effect of this arrangement is to render 
 both soil and sub-soil habitually wet, and therefore cold, or per 
 haps barren, until evaporation dries first the one and then the 
 other. A retentive sub-soil may render even a porous, sandy or 
 gravelly soil above it habitually wet. A gravelly sub-soil, which 
 is always porous, greatly assists in keeping a clay soil diy. When 
 a porous soil rests on a sandy sub-soil, water can do no injury, 
 while in dry weather, the evaporation from below may do great 
 good. On the other hand, a clay sub-soil retains manure, while 
 a sandy one allows it to leach away, and in practice, renders the 
 soil incapable of improvement. Rock may act either as a re 
 tentive or porous sub-soil, according to its structure. In many 
 clay sub-soils, draining is absolutely necessary. In sandy and 
 gravelly sub-soils, very rarely so. 
 
 103*. There is an important element which must always be 
 taken into account in estimating the value of soils their depth 
 or thickness. In miming & deepish furrow in a cultivated field, 
 we generally distinguish, at a glance, the depth of the super- 
 
30 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 ficial layer, which is commonly called the mould or vegetable 
 earth; this is a layer generally impregnated with humus, and 
 is looser and more friable than the sub-soil upon which it rests. 
 The thickness of this superficial layer is extremely variable; 
 varying from two inches to two feet. Depth of mould or vege 
 table soil is always, practically, advantageous; it is one of the 
 best conditions to successful agriculture. If we have depth of 
 soil, and the roots of our plants do not penetrate sufficiently to 
 derive benefit from the fertility that lies below, we can always, 
 by working a little deeper, bring up the inferior layers to the 
 surface, and so make them concur in fertilizing the soil. Farther, 
 a deep soil suffers less from excess or deficiency of moisture \ 
 the rain that falls has more to moisten, and is therefore absorbed 
 in greater quantity than by thin soils; and, once imbibed, it 
 remains in store against drought. 
 
 104. Soils also vary much in color, as (a,) black; (b^) white; 
 (cj blue ; (d,) red ; (e,) brown. The colors of soil have a 
 considerable influence in regulating the quantities of heat ab 
 sorbed from the sun s rays; the darker colored absorb more 
 heat than the lighter colored ; and the dark colored reflect the 
 least. 
 
 105. According to Shubler, while the thermometer was 77 in the 
 shade in August, sand of a natural color indicated a temperature of 
 112} c ; black eand, 123> ; and white sand, 110 c , exhibiting a dif 
 ference of 13 in favor of the black color. 
 
 106. Color also influences the power of soil in retaining the 
 heat of the sun. Dark colored soils, in the absence of the sun s 
 rays, radiate or part with the heat more quickly than light col 
 ored. Thus sand cools more slowly than clay, and clay than a 
 soil containing much vegetable matter. This principle has a 
 strong practical influence on the deposit of dew, and injury to 
 vegetation by night frosts. 
 
 107. Soils also vary in their power of absorbing and retaining 
 moisture. The absorption is greatest in clay soils, especially 
 when they contain humus, (vegetable matter.) 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 31 
 
 Schubler gives the following table of the relative absorbing power of 
 soils : 
 
 KIXDS OF EARTH. 
 
 1,000 grains of earth on a surface of 50 square 
 inches, absorbed in 
 
 12 lu.nrs.J24 h>urs.|48 limns 
 
 72 hours. 
 
 Siliceous sand, 
 Sandy olay, 
 Loamy clay, 
 Brick clay, 
 G:av pure clay, 
 Garden mould, - 
 Arable soil, 
 Humus, 
 
 Grains. 
 water 
 21 " 
 25 " 
 30 " 
 37 " 
 35 " 
 16 " 
 80 " 
 
 (Train*. 
 wuter. 
 26 
 30 " 
 36 " 
 42 " 
 45 " 
 22 " 
 97 " 
 
 Grains. 
 water 
 28 
 34 
 40 
 48 
 50 
 23 
 110 
 
 Grains. 
 water 
 28 " 
 32 " 
 41 
 
 49 " 
 
 52 " 
 23 " 
 120 " 
 
 Thus, while sandy lands may suffer from long continuance of 
 dry weather, a neighboring field abounding in humus may ab 
 sorb sufficient moisture from the air to serve all the requirements 
 of vegetation. 
 
 108. The power of saturation by water, and the retention of 
 moisture, vary in the same manner, and nearly in the same 
 
 109. Another important physical property of soils, is their 
 power to absorb oxygen from the air. 
 
 According to Schubler : 
 Grains. Cubic inche.v 
 
 1,000 Siliceous snnd, in a wet state, absorbed oxygen, 0.24 
 
 1,000 Sandy clay, - - * - 1.39 
 
 1,000 Loamy clay, .... ].G5 
 
 1,000 Brick clay," - - - - 204 
 
 1.000 Gray pure clay, .... 2 29 
 
 1,000 Garden mould, .... 2.60 
 
 1,000 Arab e soil, ..... 2.4.3 
 
 1,000 Humus, - - - - 304 
 
 Soils lose, in drying, the property of absorbing oxygen from 
 the air, but regain it in the same proportion as before, on being 
 moistened. The action of organic manures, and the production. 
 of carbonic acid, depend on the existence of oxygen in the soil ; 
 and, in practice, the difference is very great. Every farmer 
 knows how little good is effected by his barn-yard manure on a 
 crop in a very dry season, compared with a moderately wet one. 
 
 -.= 
 
32 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 And, in the same manner, such manures act more rapidly in 
 soils rich in humus than in those chiefly consisting of sand. 
 
 110. The different classes of soils are distinguished by grow 
 ing different classes of weeds ; and frequently by the existence 
 of different noxious insects. 
 
 111. The capillary power of soils also differs. 
 
 Capillary attraction or power, means the power by which a liquid 
 ascends in the interior of a capillary tube, or tube of small bore, 
 above the surface of the liquid which surrounds it. The phenomenon 
 occurs in solid bodies which are capable of being wetted. Thus, 
 when water is poured into the basin of a flower-pot, the soil gradu 
 ally sucks it in, and becomes moist even to the surface. The same 
 takes place in the soil in the open fields. The water from beneath 
 that contained in the subsoil is gradually sucked up to the surface. 
 Where water is present in excess, this capillary action keeps the soil 
 always moist and cold. 
 
 Evaporation takes place from the surface of the land, and as 
 each atom of moisture is taken up into the atmosphere, its place 
 is supplied by another atom, communicated by the contact of 
 the particles of soil, the more superficial acting on the deeper 
 particles like so many pumps, to elevate the water, and supply 
 the loss. Thus a naturally porous soil may be kept injuriously 
 wet by an impervious sub-soil several feet below. 
 
 Ordinary soils possess the power of separating, from solution 
 in water, the different earthy and alkaline substances presented 
 to them in manure. But these substances, necessary for the 
 growth of the plant, are rapidly carried, by rain and other causes? 
 down into the sub-soil, beyond the reach of roots. Were there 
 no counteracting influences, these substances would soon be lost, 
 and all soils become barren. But when warm weather comes, 
 and the surface soil dries rapidly, then by capillary action the 
 water rises from beneath, bringing with it the soluble substances 
 that exist in the sub-soil, through which it ascends. And as 
 this ascent and evaporation go on as long as the dry weather 
 continues, the saline matter accumulates about the roots of the 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 33 
 
 plants, so as put within their reach an ample supply of every 
 soluble substance which is not really defective in the soil. Prac 
 tically, this principle is of great importance in manuring and 
 draining. 
 
 The relative capillary power of soils has not yet been thor 
 oughly tested ; but, generally, in sandy and light soils, of which 
 the particles are very fine, this capillary action is of great impor 
 tance, and is intimately connected with the power of producing 
 remunerating crops. 
 
 112. The following analyses are given as examples of various 
 classes of Soils : 
 
 I. CLAY -.Three specimens from the Zulder Zee, in the Netherlands 
 (E. H. von Eaumhauer. ) 
 
 First. 
 
 Second. 
 
 Third. 
 
 Insoluble quartzose sand, with alumina 
 and silica, ... 
 
 Soluble silica, ... 
 
 Alumina, - 
 
 Peroxide of iron, 
 
 Protoxide of iron, ... 
 
 Protoxide of manganese, - 
 
 Lime, .... 
 
 Magnesia, ... 
 
 Potash, .... 
 
 Soda, - - 
 
 Ammonia, - 
 
 Phosphoric acid, - 
 
 Sulphuric acid, ... 
 
 Carbonic acid, ... 
 
 Chlorine, .... 
 
 Hurnic acid, ... 
 
 Crenic acid, - 
 
 Apocrenic acid, - 
 
 Humin, vegetable remains, and water 
 chemically combined, 
 
 Wax and resin, 
 
 Loss, 
 
 57.646 
 
 51.706 
 
 55.372 
 
 2.340 
 
 2.496 
 
 2.286 
 
 1.830 
 
 2.900 
 
 2.683 
 
 9.033 
 
 10.305 
 
 11.864 
 
 0.350 
 
 0.563 
 
 0.200 
 
 0.283 
 
 0.354 
 
 0.284 
 
 4.092 
 
 5.096 
 
 2.480 
 
 0.130 
 
 0.140 
 
 0.128 
 
 1.026 
 
 1.430 
 
 1.521 
 
 1.97Q 
 
 2.069 
 
 1.937 
 
 0.060 
 
 0.078 
 
 0.075 
 
 0.466 
 
 0.324 
 
 0.478 
 
 0.896 
 
 1.104 
 
 0.576 
 
 6.085 
 
 6.940 
 
 4.775 
 
 1.240 
 
 1.302 
 
 1.418 
 
 2.793 
 
 3.991 
 
 3.428 
 
 O.T71 
 
 0731 
 
 0.037 
 
 0.107 
 
 0.160 
 
 0.152 
 
 8.324 
 trace 
 0.542 
 
 7.700 
 trace 
 0.611 
 
 9.340 
 trace 
 0.753 
 
 100.000 10U.OOO 100.000 
 
 3 
 
34 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 SOLCBLE IN 
 W.4THR. 
 
 A.2.470prct 
 B. 0.147 " 
 
 These are very rich soils, and derive their origin from the 
 country, and are the product of decayed rocks. 
 
 113. II. Cotton Lands of Mississippi. (J. P. Norton,} 
 
 A. 
 Organic matter, - - 4.740 
 
 Silica, - - 1.299 
 
 Iron, alumina, and phosphates, 0.230 
 
 Lime, - ... 0.389 
 
 Magnesia, ... 0.090 
 
 Manganese, - - C.034 
 
 Potash, 0.248 
 
 Chloride of sodium, (common salt,) 0.107 
 Soda, .... 
 ^ Sulphuric acid, .. 
 
 Silica, .... 
 
 Alumina, - .. 
 
 Iron, .... 
 Lime, ... 
 
 Magnesia, ... 
 
 Manganese, .. 
 
 Potash, 
 
 Soda, 
 
 Sulphuric acid, 
 
 Phosphoric acid, .. 
 
 SOLUBLE n 
 
 ACID. 
 
 A 4.96 pr ct. 
 B.5.19 " 
 
 LNSOLCBLB 
 PORTION. 
 
 r Silica, - 
 
 Iron and alumina, 
 j Lime, - 
 A.87.83prct. Magnesia, - 
 B 88.373 " |^ Manganese, 
 
 100.059 
 
 Rhine 
 
 B. 
 
 6. "290 
 0.072 
 0.019 
 0.020 
 none 
 none 
 0.120 
 
 .... 
 
 0.015 
 
 0.144 
 
 0.009 
 
 0.409 
 
 0.920 
 
 1644 
 
 1.820 
 
 1.448 
 
 0.670 
 
 0.535 
 
 1.340 
 
 0.576 
 
 0.080 
 
 0.002 
 
 nore 
 
 0.348 
 
 0.070 
 
 
 
 0.180 
 
 0.070 
 
 0.080 
 
 0042 
 
 0.003 
 
 78.845 
 
 84.930 
 
 5.946 
 
 2370 
 
 1.098 
 
 0.260 
 
 1.142 
 
 0680 
 
 0623 
 
 none 
 
 89.867 
 
 A. is from a strong cotton soil. B. was originally the samo soil, hut 
 has been worn out by long cultivation. This analysis is peculiarly val 
 uable as an illustration. The first table gives the organic elements 
 soluble in water, and which alone are available for the growth of the 
 plant. In the new soil this amounts to about 2*- per cent, of the 
 whole. In the worn out soil, it is very trifling. A plant grown in the 
 latter would be nearly starved ; while it would be entirely deficient in 
 two elements of nutrition. The second table gives the inorganic ele 
 ments soluble in acid, but not in water. While, therefore, these are not 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 35 
 
 available for a growing crop, yet by means of rest, by the action of car 
 bonic acid, and of the atmosphere, or by fullomng, and by the appl ca- 
 tion of chemical or dissolving manures, they may, to a certain extent, be 
 rendered soluble in water, and the producing power of the soil be restor 
 ed. Thus, shut up, there are materials enough to grow twice the amount 
 of crops already taken fiom the land. The third table gives the inor 
 ganic constituents, which are not soluble by any available means ; and 
 therefore they must be considered only as the basis for the others. 
 
 Another fact to be observed is the very small proportion of such con 
 stituents available at any one time for the growth of plants ; and the 
 facility with which soils may be impoverished. In each 100 Ibs. of the 
 soil, free from moisture, only about 2 Ibs. can be converted into vegeta 
 tion. 
 
 This table will be again referred when we coma to consider the sub 
 ject of manures : but it is necessary to remark that, in actual growth, a 
 plant may receive more than the above of necessary nutrition by means 
 of water evaporating from below. ($111.) 
 
 114. III. Fertile pasture soil (A), 
 or unfruitful soil (C). (Johnston.) 
 
 Silica, Quartz, Sand, and Silicates, 
 
 Alumina, ... 
 
 Oxides of iron, 
 
 Oxide of Manganese, 
 
 Lime, - 
 
 Magnesia, ... 
 
 Potash and Soda, 
 
 Phosphoric acid, - 
 
 Sulphuric ncid, 
 
 Chlorine, 
 
 Humicacid, - 
 
 Insoluble humus, 
 
 Organic matter, containing nitrogen, 
 
 Water, .... 
 
 Carbonic acid united to the lime, 
 
 Fertile arable soil (B). Barren 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 c. 
 
 71.849 
 
 87.143 
 
 61.576 
 
 9.350 
 
 5.666 
 
 0.450 
 
 5.410 
 
 2.220 
 
 0.524 
 
 0.925 
 
 0.360 
 
 trace 
 
 0.987 
 
 0.564 
 
 0.320 
 
 0.245 
 
 0.312 
 
 0.130 
 
 0.007 
 
 0.145 
 
 trace 
 
 0.131 
 
 0.160 
 
 " 
 
 0.174 
 
 0.027 
 
 
 
 0.002 
 
 0.036 
 
 " 
 
 1.270 
 
 1.304 
 
 11470 
 
 7.550 
 
 1.072 
 
 26.530 
 
 2.000 
 
 1.C11 
 
 .... 
 
 0.100 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 0.080 
 
 trace 
 
 The first is from a fertile alluvial district of Hanover, from the banks 
 of the West-r ; the second, from the banks of the Ohio River, is celebra 
 ted for yielding successive crops of corn for a long period without ma 
 nure : and the third is from a moor in East Freisland. 
 
36 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 115. IV. The following (A,) is from an analysis of an inferior whest 
 soil, at Three Rivers, Michigan, by Dr. S. H . Douglass, compared with 
 a good and fertile soil (B,) analyzed by Prof. Norton. 
 
 1000 parts gave soluble in water A. B. 
 
 Humic acid and ammonia, ... 0.264 4.740 
 
 Silica, - 0,063 1.299 
 
 Lime, - .... 0.256 0.389 
 
 Potash and Soda, ..... 0.243 0.445 
 
 Iron, alumina, and phosphates, 0.120 .... 
 
 1000 parts gave insoluble in water 
 
 Silica, - 902. 788.45 
 
 Lime, - - - 1.7 10.98 
 
 Iron, alumina, and phosphates, - 34. 59.46 
 
 Humic acid, ..... 4.7 
 
 Potash and Soda, - - - 2.04 
 
 Organic matter, ..... 54. 
 
 Not ascertained, .... % 654 
 
 116. V. Analysis of an impoverished soil in the town of Freehold, 
 Monmouth County, New Jersey, (A,) with the constituents which it 
 ought to contain to render it productive, (B.) (Dr. Antisell.) 
 
 A. B. 
 
 Organic matters, - - - 4.50 9.70 
 
 Silicates, ... . 87.60 
 
 Alumina, - - - - 3.65 5.70 
 
 Lime, ...... 0.45 5.90 
 
 Magnesia, - - trace 
 
 Per-oxide of iron, - - - - 1.39 .... 
 
 Potash, ... 0.01 0.20 
 
 Soda, 0,08 0.40 
 
 Chlorine, - - - - 0.06 0.20 
 
 Sulphuric acid, - - - 0.12 0.20 
 
 Phosphoric acid, with iron as phosphate, * 0.03 0.40 
 
 Carbonic acid, - - - - 4.00 
 
 Moisture, - - . 2.00 
 
 Loss, ... . 0,01 
 
 100.00 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 37 
 
 117. VI. Marl from Bordentown, (A,) and from Squankum, (B,) 
 New Jersey . (Dr. AntiscU . ) 
 
 A. B. 
 
 Silicates, insoluble in hydrocholoric acid, - - 68.66 76.00 
 
 Alumina, - - 7.00 5.00 
 
 Lime, - - 1.40 2.85 
 
 Magnesia, - - - 0.38 0.18 
 
 Peroxide of iron, - ... 9.00 3.20 
 
 Potash, - - . . . 3.70 5.80 
 
 Soda, - . 0.30 1.10 
 
 Chlorine, ... . 0.20 0.40 
 
 Sulphuric acid. . 1.30 0.90 
 
 Phosphoric acid, - - 0.23 0.46 
 
 Carbonic acid, - - - 1.84 
 
 Moisture, - 6.46 2.00 
 
 Sulphur, combined with iron, - - 1.32 0.27 
 
 100.00 100.00 
 
 118. VII. Green Sand Marl, Shrewsbury, Monmouth county, New 
 Jersey; two varieties. (H. Wurtz.) 
 
 A. B. 
 
 Silica, - . 48.24 47.83 
 
 Alumina and oxide of iron, > - - 32.89 34.98 
 
 Potash, - - 6.38 4.94 
 
 Magnesia, - . - -2.60 
 
 Hygroscopic water, - - 4.81 > 
 
 Combined water, - -5.69$ 
 
 100.61 99.25 
 
 119. VIII. Red Marl, Springfield, Mass. (Dr. C. T. Jackson.") 
 
 Water, - 8.5 
 
 Silex, - . 51.3 
 
 Alumina, - . - 16.0 
 
 Peroxide of iron, with a trace of manganese, ... 20.0 
 
 Lime, - - - 2.8 
 
 Magnesia, - - - -1.0 
 
 99.6 
 
38 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 120. IX. Amlyses of Shell Marl, Forfarshire, (A,) and Clay Marl, 
 Ayrshire, (B,) Scotl^, (Johnston.) 
 
 +*f* A. B. 
 Carbonate of lime, - - 81.7 
 
 Oxide of iron and alumina, - 0.6 2.2 
 
 Organic matter, - ... 14.6 2.8 
 
 Clay and silicious matter, - - - 3.1 84.9 
 
 Water, - - 1-4 
 
 1000 99.7 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 M E T E O R O L, O Q Y . 
 
 121. A good soil, well worked, with good seed, is not the 
 only element of success in farming ; the CLIMATE has a powerful 
 controlling influence on agricultural pursuits; an influence to 
 which the farmer is compelled to submit. By knowledge, how 
 ever, he may so adapt his business to the climate, as to render 
 the changes to which it is subject, beneficial, instead of injurious 
 to him. 
 
 122. The study of the laws which govern the climate is called 
 meteorology. 
 
 The word " meteorology " means, literally, the science of meteors ; but 
 the term is applied, more extensively, to the investigation ol all the 
 physical causes which affect the condition of our globe ; and particularly 
 to the effects of light, heat, and winds on the earth, the ocean, and the 
 atmosphere, and the results of these agents in the production of climate- 
 
 123. As meteorology is in itself an abstruse science, it will 
 only be necessary, in this place, to give such principal laws and 
 facts as bear upon agriculture. 
 
 124. The main elements of climate are, (a,) the temperature 
 of the air ; (b,) of the soil ; (c,) the quantity of rain and dew 
 that fall ; (d,) the character of the prevailing winds ; (e^) the 
 length of the seasons of heat and cold ; and (f t ) the seasons at 
 which, and the mode in which the rains prevail. 
 
 125. There is (a,) a general climate, and (b,) a local climate. 
 The first is equal, over the whole globe, on the same Iso-thermal 
 
40 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 lines ; the second depends on local circumstances, such as moun 
 tains, table lands, large forests, lakes, &c., which affect the dis 
 tribution of heat and ram; and which may render the local 
 climate better or worse than the general one. In the United 
 States, the local climate is found to change as the country is 
 settled and cleared; and it often varies sufficiently, within a 
 comparatively small area, to influence the sort of crops to be 
 grown, and the stock to be kept 
 
 Iso-thcrmal lines are lines of equal temperature ; a term applied to 
 imaginary lines drawn on a map connecting all those places on the sur 
 face of the globe which have the same mean temperature. Lines drawn 
 through places having the same summer temperature, are termed Iso- 
 theral; those drawn through places having the same winter temperature, 
 are called Iso cheimal; while lines drawn through places having other 
 common temperatures, receive other appropriate names. Fully to ex 
 plain this to the student, it will bo necessary for the teacher to exhibit a 
 physical atlas of the globe, where the various lines are laid down. 
 
 126. The climate may "be practically changed, to a certain 
 extent, by the farmer, by means of cutting down forests, drain 
 ing, deep plowing, high walls, and plantations of trees ; and by 
 the gardener, to any extent, by means of hot-beds, hot-walls, 
 glass-houses, manures, &c. 
 
 127. The following changes take place, owing to the culti 
 vation of a new country : (a.) Fogs disappear, and with them 
 agues and other diseases ; sometimes naturally ; almost always, 
 by a proper and sufficiently extensive system of drainage. * 
 (Brown & Dickeson, Prof. Johnston.) (b.) Dews are less 
 heavy ; the quantity of running water is diminished ; lakes and 
 marshes dry up ; hail-storms become more frequent ; early and 
 late frosts are more injurious to vegetation. (Bomsingault.) 
 
 128. On the contrary, by neglect* a previously healthy conn- 
 
 * A very striking; instance of the improvement of health, and the ceasing of mias 
 matic diseases throughout a whole township, in consequence of draining, in Beverly, 
 Mass., is given in the Abstract from the Returns of Jgricul. Soc. in Mau., for 1846, 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 41 
 
 try may become incapable of sustaining human life, as in the 
 marshes surrounding Rome, Italy ; and the waters may again 
 encroach and cover land that was previously retrieved from them, 
 as in the Aragua Valley, Venezuela, So. America. (Boussin- 
 gault.) 
 
 129. The cultivation of perennial plants is limited by the 
 lowest temperature of winter ; that of annual plants by the mean 
 temperature of summer. Thus a country so cold as to be inca 
 pable of sustaining trees, may yet have a sufficiently long and 
 hot summer to mature grains and vegetables ; and annual plants 
 may prosper in a latitude so for North that perennial ones, indi 
 genous to the same climate, would perish from cold. 
 
 The heat of the atmosphere is measured by an instrument called a 
 thermometer, consisting of quicksilver or alcohol, enclosed in a vacuum 
 tube, with a hollow bulb at one end. This is placed upon a scale, 
 graduated by actual experiment ; and the quicksilver rises and fal s in 
 the tube, according to the amount of heat. Three different modes of 
 graduation are employed in different countries ; Fahrenheit s in America 
 and Great Britain ; Centigrade in France ; and Reaumur s in France and 
 other parts of Europe. 
 
 212 degrees, ( c ) of Fahrenheit equal 100 Centigrade, and 80 
 Reaumur. 
 
 32 degrees of Fahrenheit equal Centigrade, and Reaumur. 
 
 There are various forms of the Thermometer, but all on the same 
 principle. 
 
 By the term mean temperature, is meant the temperature obtained by 
 adding together the temperatures of the days or months required, and 
 dividing by the number of days or months. Mean annual temperature 
 is obtained by adding together the temperatures of all the months of the 
 year, and dividing the sum by the number of the months ; so that the 
 mean annual temperature expresses* the height at which the thermometer 
 would stand at any place, if we could suppose it perfectly stationary 
 throughout the year. 
 
 1 30. For the cultivation of annual plants, it is only necessary 
 to know the mean temperature of the climate during the num 
 ber of months requisite for growth and the maturation of the 
 seed. 
 
42 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 Boussingault gives the following list of temperatures favorable 
 to the particular plants, in the success of which man is more 
 especially interested. Some of them require a mean annual 
 temperature, others only a mean summer temperature, as below : 
 
 NAME. 
 
 Maximum. 
 
 Minimum. 
 
 NAME. 
 
 Maximum. 
 
 Minimuru. 
 
 C/UUCOiUlti i>cUu, 
 
 Banana, 
 Indigo, 
 Sugar Cane, 
 Cocoa Nut, 
 Palm, 
 Tobacco, 
 Maize, 
 French Beans, > 
 ( Haricots, $ 
 
 &X~ i . 
 a 
 
 16- 
 
 64 
 71 
 71 
 
 78 
 78 
 65 
 59 
 
 59 
 
 j tlice, 
 Pine Apple, 
 Melon, 
 Coffi-e, 
 Wheat, 
 Barley, 
 Potatoes, 
 Flax, 
 Apple, 
 Oak. 
 
 b!* s 
 
 79 
 
 74 
 ft 
 
 75 
 74 
 72 
 67 
 
 75 = 
 
 68 
 67 
 74 
 44 
 59 
 52 
 54 
 59 
 61 
 
 Thus we can grow melons, which only require a short period 
 of summer for growth and maturation ; but cannot grow pine 
 apples, which require at least two years before they bear fruit ; 
 although the former only needs one degree of mean temperature 
 less than the latter. 
 
 131. The number of days that elapse between the commence 
 ment of vegetation and the period of ripeness is by so much the 
 greater as the mean temperature is lower. Thus, wheat, with a 
 mean temperature of 59 F., requires 137 days to mature; 
 with a temperature of 56 , 160 days; with a temperature of 
 76 , 92 days. In other words, the lower the mean tempera - 
 ture of the climate, the longer the crop must be in the ground 
 before harvesting. And thus Indian corn may ripen in a shel 
 tered valley, but be annually cut off by frost on a mountain side 
 a few miles distant. 
 
 Experiments, however, prove that many grains, brought from a climate 
 with a markedly lower mean summer temperature, to one higher, only 
 acquire the power of ripening early by degrees of successive annual crops, 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 43 
 
 a fact which is practically important in the growth and quality of cer 
 tain grains. 
 
 Upon every parallel of latitude, at all elevations above the 
 level of the sea, the same plant receives in the course of its ex- 
 istance an equal quantity of heat. 
 
 132. The temperature of the soil, in summer, greatly exceeds 
 that of the air. At Albany, N. Y., the temperature of the soil 
 rises to 100 F. five feet below the surface, and to 140 half 
 an inch below. (Johnston.) But this temperature varies accord 
 ing to the color and quality of the soil, the evaporation, the 
 amount of water it contains, the nature of the subsoil, &c. This 
 internal heat is of great importance in practical farming ; a warm, 
 dry soil allowing the seeds to sprout early in the spring; forcing 
 forward the plant, as in a hot-bed; regulating the amount of 
 dew deposited; controlling early and late night frosts; and 
 probably influencing, favorably for the farmer, the growth of 
 parasitic fungi, such as rust, mildew, &c. It also causes manures 
 to act, and produces other beneficial effects, such as electrical 
 currents. It can be regulated and increased by artificial means, 
 but chiefly by proper drainage. 
 
 133. Seeds require a given temperature of air and soil for 
 healthful germination ; various plants differing in this respect : 
 some requiring a much higher temperature than others. On 
 this point^ the following laws have been laid down : (a.) When 
 the temperature at noon is given, (other things being equal,) the 
 time necessary for the development of a seed may be ascer 
 tained, (b,) If the period of germination be given, the meridian 
 temperature of the country during the period may be deter 
 mined, (c,) "When the seed fructifies in the same year in which 
 it is planted, the proper time for putting it into the ground is 
 when the meridian temperature is such as to produce vegetation 
 in the shortest period, (d,) An increase of temperature beyond 
 a certain point, does not expedite the vegetative process. 
 
 The following table has been drawn up from actual experiment, 
 
44 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 (J. T. Plummet;) but it would have been more perfect if the tempera 
 ture of the soil had also been recorded: 
 
 .a~~ 
 
 o 
 
 " (5-2 => F. 
 7fi 
 
 Lima Beans, soaked, require 
 
 20 days. 
 7 "" 
 
 "i 
 
 t U 
 
 88 
 
 do s. .... 
 
 7 " 
 
 a 
 
 51 
 
 Peas, s. 
 
 19 " 
 
 3 
 
 59 
 
 do s. .... 
 
 13 " 
 
 a 
 
 74 
 
 do s. 
 
 11 " 
 
 
 80 
 
 do 
 
 14 " 
 
 2 
 
 60 
 
 Bishop s early Peas, .... 
 
 10 " 
 
 
 62 
 
 do do .... 
 
 8., 
 
 
 55 
 
 Radishes, s. 
 
 12 - 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 do s. .... 
 
 7 " 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 do B. 
 
 3 " 
 
 C 
 
 
 62 
 
 Ouion seed, R. .... 
 
 15 " 
 
 r * 
 
 77 
 
 do s. 
 
 9 " 
 
 1 
 
 54 
 
 Drum-head Cabbage, .... 
 
 12 " 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 do s. 
 
 6 " 
 
 
 75 
 
 do s. .... 
 
 5 " 
 
 bn 
 BO 
 
 61 
 
 Red Cabbage s. 
 
 6 " 
 
 > 
 
 61 
 
 Beet, s. .... 
 
 11 " 
 
 5 
 
 63 
 
 do 
 
 22 " 
 
 3 
 
 67 
 
 do s. .... 
 
 8 " 
 
 a 
 
 79 
 
 do s. 
 
 5 " 
 
 
 58 
 
 Cucumber, 
 
 30 " 
 
 ^ 
 
 , 81 
 
 do 
 
 7 " 
 
 It is stated that at Albany, N. Y., of Indian corn planted 
 when the temperature of the soil was but 45 in the spring, 
 the seed all rotted; but when planted, when the temperature 
 was about 60 , it vegetated. 
 
 This subject is one of great importance to the farmer ; large 
 quantities of seed and labor are annually lost in consequence of 
 inattention to such particulars ; and there is yet much to learn 
 that is valuable in this regard. The proper time for seed-sowing 
 may be accurately ascertained by means of experiment ; and by 
 the use of the thermometer and meteorological tables. 
 
 134. As is well known, a ray of the sun s light, consists of 
 seven rays of different colors, which, uniting, form the ordinary 
 white light But, besides this, the sun s rays contain three dif 
 ferent kinds of rays: (a,) a ray of light; (b,) of heat; (c,) of 
 chemical agency. The effect of these on vegetation is essen- 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 45 
 
 tially different. Yellow light, (a,) impedes germination, and 
 accelerates that decomposition of carbonic acid, which produces 
 wood and woody tissues. Under its influence, leaves are small 
 and wood short jointed. Red light, (b,) carries heat, and is 
 favorable to germination if abundance of water is present, in 
 creases evaporation, supports the flowering quality, and improves 
 fruit. Under its influence, color is diminished, and leaves are 
 scorched. Blue light, (c,) (also called chemical action, or ac 
 tinism,) accelerates germination, and causes rapid growth. Under 
 its influence, plants become weak and long jointed. (Hunt.) 
 These three agencies exist in different proportions in the sun 
 beam in the spring, summer, and autumn. The blue, (c,) is 
 greater in spring; the yellow, (a,) in summer. The blue, 
 (chemical ray,) is less in the fall ; and then the heating ray, red, 
 (b,) predominates. Thus the sun s rays differ in their properties 
 at different seasons of year; and are adapted to the peculiar 
 needs of the plant at the time. Still further, the proportion of 
 these agencies vary in different latitudes and climates. Daguer 
 reotypes, depending on these principles, are poor in England, 
 better in France, superior in New York, but best in the North 
 western States. Probably the chemical rays are more abounding 
 in the above proportion, but there is yet much to learn on this 
 subject ; and it is not unlikely that the many differences known 
 to exist in animal and vegetable life in these countries will be 
 found to be more or less controlled by these peculiarities of the 
 sun s rays. Gardeners have attempted to make practical use of 
 these facts by means of colored glasses, but, apparently, without 
 much success. 
 
 135. Rain is necessary for the life of most plants. In those 
 countries where rain never falls, vegetation is either wanting, or 
 depending on dews very limited. In other countries, where 
 it only falls at a certain season, leaving many months at a time 
 without a shower, plants only grow during the rains, and are 
 parched up and disappear during the rest of the year. The 
 
46 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 amount of rain that falls in a year is governed by known laws. 
 It varies in different parts of the same country, but is nearly the 
 same, each year, in any given locality. 
 
 Rain is measured, for meteorological purposes, by inches. The instru 
 ment used is called a Rain Guage, anu sometimes a Pluviometer. They 
 are of various forms, but all acting upon the same principle that of re 
 ceiving the rain into a vessel of known size, with a graduated measurer, 
 divided into inches and parts of inches. The one generally used in the 
 United States is known as the " Conical Rain Guage of DeWitt" 
 equally simple and perfect. It consists of a copper cone, with a perfora 
 ted cap to prevent evaporation. It is fixed on a post, in a situation 
 sheltered from winds, about 8 feet from the ground. The measurement 
 is made by putting down perpendicularly to the bottom of the guage, a 
 measuring stick, graduated in inches and their decimals. 
 
 136. In Agriculture, rain is important as regards (a,) the 
 season, and (b,) the mode in which it falls, whether in heavy 
 storms, with long intervals between them, or frequently, in small 
 quantities at a time ; and (c,) the direction from which it comes. 
 If rain chiefly fell late in the Fall, in Winter, or in early Spring, 
 vegetation would receive but little benefit from it. If it fell 
 continuously at seed and harvest time, it would preclude cultiva 
 tion ; if it fell in heavy storms, with long intervals between them, 
 plants would be alternately forced forwards, and retarded. 
 Where rain is very constant, as in the mountains of E no-land 
 and Scotland, grass-growing and cattle-raising are substituted for 
 grain. Consequently, the annual amount of rain is of less im 
 portance than the frequency of it, and the seasons of the year 
 over which it is spread. 
 
 The annual amount of rains, averages : 
 
 Under the tropics of the New World, 115 inches. 
 
 " " " " " Old World, - - Y6 
 Within the tropics generally, - 95j " 
 
 In the United States, - 45 " 
 
 Europe, - 3 If " 
 
 Generally over the world, - ... 34 J 
 
 - 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 47 
 
 Much more rain falls annually in the United States than in 
 Great Britain, if a few mountain districts in the latter be except- 
 ed ; but the mode of falling is different in the two countries. 
 
 The following table will serve as an illustration of this subject, 
 although being drawn from single years, it is not strictly accu 
 rate as regards each locality : 
 
 PLACE. 
 
 Rainy Days 
 
 Inches. ; Snowy Days. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Truro, - 
 
 England, 
 
 152 
 
 50 | 
 
 
 
 Exeter, 
 
 it 
 
 150 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 Bechington, - 
 
 H 
 
 185 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 Greenwich, 
 
 (( 
 
 167 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 Liverpool, 
 
 
 
 190 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 Hightield, - 
 
 || 
 
 213 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 Whitehaven, - 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 45 
 
 
 
 Durham, - 
 
 II 
 
 152 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 Newcastle, 
 
 ( 
 
 140 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 Saco, Maine, 
 
 U. States, 
 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 Cambridge, Mass., 
 
 tt 
 
 
 56 
 
 
 Mendon, - " 
 
 
 
 *81& 
 
 
 26 
 
 
 Worcester, " 
 
 <( 
 
 88 
 
 37 
 
 24 
 
 61 
 
 New York, N. Y., 
 
 <( 
 
 57 
 
 39 
 
 8 
 
 31 
 
 Savannah, Geo., 
 
 H 
 
 72 
 
 59 
 
 
 
 Natches, Miss., 
 
 (( 
 
 87 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 Ann Arbor. Mich., 
 
 H 
 
 79 
 
 23 
 
 33 
 
 
 * Average of 15 years 
 
 In England, more rain falls on the West than on the East 
 side of the Island ; and the practical effect is that more green 
 crops, which require more moisture than grain, are grown on 
 the former; such crops making a larger return on the western 
 side. 
 
 137. Every inch of rain falling annua^y is equal to a weight 
 of rather more than 112 tons on each impei-ial acre ; so that the 
 mean annual weight of rain falling in the United States, exceeds 
 the mean amount of rain on the eastern coast of England, by 
 several hundreds of tons per acre. 
 
 138. Another important consideration is (a,) the season of 
 the year in which rain chiefly falls; and (b,) the distance of 
 
48 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 of time which usually intervenes between one day of rain and 
 another. 
 
 Thus, in 1841, according to the Army Meteorological Re 
 gister, there fell at Detroit, Mich., and New Orleans, La., the 
 following inches of rain and snow in each quarter of the year, in 
 so many days : 
 
 DETROIT. 
 
 i. 
 
 H. 
 
 ra. 
 
 ,v. 
 
 I N.ORLEANS 
 
 I. 
 
 n. 
 
 m. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Inches, 
 Days, 
 
 5.36 
 25 
 
 7.87 
 20 
 
 7.84 
 19 
 
 5.99 
 30 
 
 1 Inches, 
 
 |Days, 
 
 31.50 
 30 
 
 9.90 
 3? 
 
 7.17 
 28 
 
 11.96 
 4? 
 
 Thus we see, that in Detroit, during this year, of 27.06 inches 
 of rain, 11.35 or less than half fell during the six winter months ; 
 leaving 15.71 inches for the use of vegetation; while in New 
 Orleans, 43.46 inches, or nearly three quarters of the whole 
 year s supply, fell during the winter months, leaving only 17.07 
 for the six summer months. So that, while there is much less 
 rain in Michigan, it is more equally distributed. 
 
 139. The yield of grains, and root crops depends upon the 
 mode in which the rain falls, whether in light showers, and 
 dense fogs ; or in heavy storms ; and at the particular time of 
 vegetating or flowering. These particulars again vary according 
 to the soil, whether it is sand or clay, drained or undrained. 
 Thus oats appear to demand a constantly damp atmosphere ; 
 buckwheat and peas light showers while flowering ; while wheat 
 is apt to be injured by rust, if much warm rain falls at the time 
 it is ripening. The size and average weight of stock also seem 
 to depend upon the mode in which rain falls. The health of 
 sheep is certainly dependent on this peculiarity of the climate ; 
 and the naturalization of varieties probably depends upon it. 
 
 Dr. P. A. Brown, of Philadelphia, observes " that if a line be drawn 
 diagonally through the United States from the South-east corner of New 
 Hampshire to Texas, it will be for.nd, that the woolly sheep, (Merino 
 variety,) will breed and thrive everywhere North-west of it, and the 
 hairy sheep, (long-woolled varieties,) every where South-east of this line; 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 49 
 
 but that neither will thrive on the other sides, respectively, of that line, 
 nor will they if the species are crossed." The same peculiarities are 
 found in other parts of the world. The cause is not yet satisfactorily 
 ascertained, but is undoubtedly more or less dependent on climate. 
 
 140. Through a perfectly dry argillo-calcareous soil, in a 
 state of fallow, rain descends in one day six times the depth of 
 the quantity fallen. Thus a fall of 4-10ths of an inch will sink 
 in a day through nearly 2j inches. (Gasparin*) 
 
 141. The power of the soil to absorb and retain" moisture, is 
 practically, an important consideration, and greatly influences 
 the effects of the annual quantity of rain falling. The amount, 
 of water which a cubic foot of various soils can contain before 
 they allow any of it to run off was determined by M. Schubler : 
 
 A cubic foot of 
 
 Siliceous sand held of water 27,3 Ibs. 
 
 Calcareous sand " SI. 8 " 
 
 Sandy clay " 38.8 
 
 Loamy clay " 41.4 " 
 
 Stiff clay, or brick earth, " 45.4 fa 
 
 Arable soil " 46.8 
 
 Garden mould " 48.4 
 
 142. The relative degree of rapidity with which rain water 
 is evaporated, was also ascertained. Of 200 parts of each earth 
 exposed for four hours, on a thin surface in a closed room, at 
 65f Fahrenheit, there was an evaporation of absorbed water as 
 follows : 
 
 Siliceous sand lost 88.4 parts in 100 parts of absorbed water. 
 Calcareous sand " 75.9 " " " 
 
 Sand clay " 52.0 " " " " 
 
 Loamy clay 45.7 " 
 
 Stiff clay, 35.9 
 
 Arable soil " 32.0 " 
 
 Garden mould " 24.3 " 
 
 It is readily perceived how different must be the effect of 
 dry weather upon crops grown in these various soils. 
 4 
 
30 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 143. Wheat, and probably other grains, vary in their quality 
 and nutritive powers according to the warmth and relative dry- 
 ness of the climate. Sir Humphrey Davy found in 1,000 parts 
 of seed wheat in its natural state : 
 
 
 Mucilage 
 or Starch 
 
 Gluten. 
 
 Total. 
 
 From Middlesex, England, 
 
 765 
 
 190 
 
 955 
 
 Thick-skinned Scicilian Wheat, 
 
 725 
 
 230 
 
 955 
 
 Thin-skinned Scicilian Wheat, - 
 
 722 
 
 239 
 
 961 
 
 Wheat from Poland, - 
 
 750 
 
 200 
 
 950 
 
 North American Wheat, - 
 
 750 
 
 225 
 
 975 
 
 Thus the gluten of wheat, from the warm and dry climate of 
 Sicily, far exceeded that of English wheat; while in wheat from 
 the United States, the starch and mucilage, (the heat-giving 
 constituents,) are nearly equal to those of England, and the 
 gluten, (the flesh-forming constituent,) is far superior; or, in 
 other words, the last is much more nutritious than the first. 
 
 " The real value of wheat and of the other cereals and bread stuffs 
 depends mainly upon the proportion of gluten and albumen which they, 
 contain, their starch, glucose, and dextrine, or gum, not being considered 
 nutritive." (L. G. Beck.) 
 
 According to Prof. Beck, American wheat flour shows the following 
 comparative analysis: 
 
 Water, - - 11.75 to 14.05 per cent. 
 
 Gluten, 9.90 to 14.36 
 
 Starch, 66.00 to 70.20 
 
 Glucose, Dextrine, <tc., - - 4.96 to 11.05 
 
 144. The quantity of water contained in wheat greatly effects 
 its value, as regards, (a,) keeping ; (b,) the quantity of bread 
 it yields. 
 
 (A.) Large amounts of Western flour are annually damaged 
 by a chemical change which takes place, owing to the water 
 contained in it. This water amounts, on an average from 24 to 
 26 Ibs. in every barrel of common flour. The total annual loss 
 to the United States, from this cause alone, was estimated, in 
 
from S l^iaD^aoe^to^o^UUjlJUir 1 * 1 ^^ not only the 
 which injures flour; but the gluten, anl therefore the 
 nutritive quality, is actually diminished. In Poland, and in 
 some parts of the United States, wheat is dried before grinding, 
 in which case, no change takes place. As much as 18 Ibs. of 
 water have been expelled from a barrel of Ohio flour. 
 
 (B.) Wheat grown in dry climates yields more bread than 
 when grown in wet climates. A quarter of English wheat has 
 yielded 13 Ibs. more bread than the same quantity of Scotch 
 wheat. 
 
 Wheat grown in New Jersey, lower Pennsylvania, the South- 
 era part of Ohio, Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas and Georgia, 
 contains less water, and more nutritive matter than that from 
 the more northern States Experiments have proved that 
 manures produce an effect similar to climate in raising the 
 nutritive value of wheat, in proportion as they contain nitrogen; 
 and it is not improbable that the manure received from the air 
 in dry climates has an especial effect in this respect. 
 
 145. "It is impossible, when we are examining these facts, 
 not to feel how closely the meteorology of a neighborhood influ 
 ences even the composition of the grain which it produces. The 
 English miller is well aware of these things ; he mixes with the 
 wheat produced in the damper districts of that Island the dry 
 wheat produced in lands where the mean temperature is much 
 higher, the rain-fall considerably less, and, in consequence, more 
 free from moisture. Such facts, too, are of practical use to the 
 agriculturist, for he well knows how, by improved systems of 
 cultivation, the obstacles presented by even climate are over 
 come." (C. W. Johnson.) 
 
 There is no reason for believing that the moon has any influence on 
 the weather, or the crops, except as imparting light and heat. There 
 are many old superstitions still popular on this (subject. It has been 
 closely investigated both in Germany for fifty \ears, and in England for 
 twenty, ;ind no connection between the moon and the wealher could I e 
 
\ 
 
 W JB^ 
 
 T ^^ 
 
 detected. In every, .phase; the moon is the samejto t us, as a material 
 agent, except asfregards the power of reflected light ; and no one sup 
 poses that moonlight produces wet or dry. Why, then, should ^hat 
 point in the moon s course, when it begins to emerge from the sun s 
 rays, have any influence on our weather? Twice in each revolution* 
 when in conjunction with the sun at new, and in opposition to it at the 
 full, an atmospheric spring-tide may be supposed to exist, and to exert 
 some soi t of influence. But the existence of any such tide at all is 
 denied, and the absence of fluctuations of the barometric pressure favors 
 the negative of this proposition. Night-feeding birds and animals, 
 however, and oysters, grow fat or thin, according to the state of the moon 
 and tides. In Kentucky, horses are said to be subject to disease of the 
 eye, amounting to blindness, during the period of full moon, which is 
 not the case when the moon does not shine. Dark stables are the reme 
 dy ; and the philosophy of the disease is easily understood. 
 
 In conclusion, every farmer is recommended to procure and use a good 
 Barometer. It will, at all times warn him of the approach of rain and 
 wind storms ; and after a little experience, he will find no difficulty in 
 deciding upon the weather for twelve or twenty-four hours in advance. 
 "When he goes to bed at night, he can make a shrewd guess whether it 
 will rain or not in the morning; and during harvest he will be forewarned, 
 and can prepare for rain, and thus often save his hay and grain from 
 damage. At sea, a barometer is now of essential necessity. Mr. Red- 
 field, of New York, has lately pointed out the great service it will render 
 to those navigating our large lakes ; and to the farmer, it is quite as 
 useful As agriculturists become more familiar with the barometer, they 
 will cease to put faith in the weather-superstitions of the dark ages ; and 
 will find innumerable useful and interesting practical questions de 
 cided by it. There are two kinds in common use, the perpendicular or 
 circular Barometer, depending for its action upon Mercury (Quicksilver); 
 and the Aneroid Barometer a French invention depending on the ac 
 tion of gas in a thin metal case. The first is the most complete and 
 expensive, but the latter is quite sufficient for ordinary purposes, is not 
 easily damaged, and is much more compact. It requires, however, to 
 be occasionally compared with a standard mercury barometer. 
 
I * < 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 FORMATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 146. It lias been already stated that plants are formed of or 
 ganic and inorganic elements, which they receive from the soil 
 and air. (See 81-93.) The living plant possesses the power 
 of receiving into itself these bodies, of changing or digesting 
 them, and of re-arranging them in a different way, so as to pro 
 duce new substances. In the same manner a new born animal 
 swallows milk, and changes the milk into blood, bones, muscles, 
 brain, &c. The perfect tree is only air, water, and a portion of 
 the soil in which it is growing ; as the animal, a few months 
 old, is only milk in a different shape. If the soil does not con 
 tain all the materials requisite to form a plant> it either will not 
 grow at all, or it will grow unhealthily. 
 
 147. A perfect plant consists of three parts, (a,) a root, which 
 remains in the soil, (b,) a trunk or stem which branches into 
 the air, and (c,) leaves. Each of these is differently formed, 
 generally contains different proportions of the elements, and is 
 endowed with a peculiar function. 
 
 148. The stems of plants differ in their construction, some 
 being much more simple than others. The stem of a tree con 
 sists of three parts : (a,) the pith, in the centre ; (b,) the wood 
 surrounding the pith ; and (c,) the barks which cover the whole. 
 The pith consists of soft celular tissue (or parenchyma,) which 
 is at first gorged with the nourishing juices of the plant, but 
 
% AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 which in time become exhausted, leaving the older pith dry and 
 light, or mere empty cells, which are of no further use to the 
 plant. The wood consists of woody fibre, among which vessels 
 are more or less copiously mingled, capable of cany ing liquids 
 up and down between the root and the leaves. The branches 
 are only a continuation of the stem, and have a similar structure. 
 The bark consists of three portions ; (a,) the liber which lies 
 next the wood; (b,) the outer bark, composed of two parts, 1, 
 the green or cellular layer, 2 the corky layer, and (c,) the epi 
 dermis or skin which invests the whole. 
 
 149. The root, immediately on leaving the trunk or stem, 
 has also a similar structure ; but as the root tapers away, the 
 pith gradually disappears, the bark also thins out, the wood 
 softens, till the white tendrils, of which its extremities are com 
 posed, consist only of a colorless, spongy mass, full of pores, (or 
 minute holes,) but in which no distinction of parts can be per 
 ceived. In this spongy mass, the vessels or tubes which descend 
 through the stem and root, lose themselves, and by them these 
 spongy extremities are connected with the leaves. 
 
 150. A leaf is an expansion of the stem. Like the stem 
 therefore, the leaf is made up of two distinct parts, the cellular 
 
 and the woody. The leaf is a highly organized structure, con 
 taining innumerable rounded globules, cells, and veins, regularly 
 arranged. It is also full of pores through which air can enter. 
 
 151. In a growing plant, the sap enters by the extremities of 
 the roots, (spongioles,) ascends through the vessels of the wood, 
 and is passed over the inner surface of the leaf by the fibres 
 which the wood contains. Thence, by the vessels in the green 
 of the leaf, it is returned to the bark, and through the vessels of 
 the inner bark it descends to the root. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 WHEAT. (Triticum.) 
 
 152. There are three kinds of grain on winch mankind prin 
 cipally feed, (a,) Wheat, (b,) Rice, (c,) Indian Corn or Maize. 
 Of these, Wheat is chiefly confined to the colder regions of the 
 world ; and, in the United States, is second in importance to 
 Maize. It belongs to the botanical family of Grasses. It is not 
 found in a wild state, and the country in which it originated is 
 unknown. 
 
 Wheat has lately been produced by the continued cultivation of a plant 
 \nld on the shores of the Mediterranean, called JEgilops. This is no 
 more extraordinary than the origin of most of our garden vegetables. 
 
 Wheat grows in a great variety of climates. In Europe, the 
 polar limits are stated to be as follows : 
 
 
 
 Mean Temperature. (Fahr ) oT~ 
 
 
 LATITUDE. 
 
 TEAR. | WIN-HPER. 
 
 SUMMER. 
 
 Scotland, (Ross-shire,) 
 
 58 
 
 46 
 
 35 
 
 57 
 
 Norway, (Drontheim,) 
 Sweden, 
 
 64 
 
 62 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 25 
 25 
 
 59 
 59 
 
 Russia, (St. Petersburg!!,) 
 
 60 15 
 
 38 
 
 16 
 
 61 
 
 The iso-thermal curve of 57 2 , which appears to be the 
 minimum temperature requisite for the cultivation of wheat 
 passes, in North America, through the uninhabited regions of 
 the Hudson s Bay country. At Cumberland House, lat. 54 
 N., long. 102 20 West, this grain is successfully raised. The 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 possible cultivation of wheat towards the Equator oscillates be 
 tween lat. 20 and 25. It is 1 grown successfully in Chili, and 
 Rio de la Plata. In southern Peru it grows at a height of 
 8,500 feet; and at the foot of the volcano of Arequipo, at a 
 height of 10,600 feet. 
 
 The introduction of this grain into the United States was in 
 1602, when it was sown on the Elizabeth Islands in Massachu 
 setts. In 1611 it was sown in Virginia; and in 1648 many 
 hundred acres of it were cultivated in that colony ; though it 
 was afterwards neglected to give place to Tobacco. It was in 
 troduced into the Mississippi Valley in 1718, but owing to the 
 character of the soil and climate, succeeded badly, running to 
 straw instead of grain; yet in 1746 it became an article of ex 
 port from the Wabash to New Orleans. The principal wheat- 
 producing States are 
 
 
 BUSHELS. 
 
 POPULATION. 
 
 1840. 
 
 1850. 
 
 1840. 
 
 1850. 
 
 New York, - - - 
 New Jersey, - - 
 Pennsylvania, - - 
 Delaware, - - - 
 Maryland, - - - 
 Virginia, - - - 
 
 Ohio 
 
 12.286,418 
 774,203 
 13,213,077 
 315,165 
 3,345,783 
 10,109,716 
 16,571,661 
 4,803,152 
 2,157,108 
 4,049,375 
 3,335,393 
 1,037,386 
 212,116 
 154,693 
 
 13,121,498 
 1,601,190 
 15,367,691 
 482,511 
 4,494,680 
 11,232.616 
 14,487,351 
 2,140,822 
 4,925,889 
 6,214,458 
 9,414,575 
 2,981,652 
 4,286,131 
 1,530,581 
 
 2,428,921 
 373,306 
 1,724,033 
 78,085 
 470,019 
 1,239,797 
 1,519,467 
 779,828 
 212,267 
 685,866 
 476,183 
 383,702 
 30,945 
 43,112 
 
 3,097,394 
 489,555 
 2,311,786 
 91,535 
 583,035 
 1,421,661 
 1,980,408 
 982,405 
 397,654 
 988,416 
 851,470 
 682,043 
 305,191 
 192.214 
 
 Kentucky, - - - 
 Michigan, - - - - 
 
 Indiana,- - - - 
 Illinois, - - - - 
 
 Missouri, - - - 
 Wisconsin, - - - 
 
 Iowa, - - - - 
 
 During these ten years there was a gain on the whole crop 
 of the United States of 15,645,378 bushels; while the crops of 
 New England decreased from 2,014,000 to 1,090,000 bushels. 
 In 1849, the wheat crop of the United States amounted to 
 100,503,899 bushels. It is estimated that one bushel of seed 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 57 
 
 is used for every ten bushels produced; and that an average of 
 three bushels is annually used by every individual of the popu 
 lation. 
 
 153. Botanists distinguish eleven species or sub-species, viz : 
 
 1. Triticum cestivum, Spring Wheat. 
 
 2. " hybernum, - Winter Wheat, 
 
 3. " compositum, - Egyptian Wheat. 
 
 4. " turyidum, - - Turgid Wheat. 
 
 5. Polonicum, - Poland Wheat. 
 
 6. " Spelta, - Spelt Wheat, 
 
 7. monocuccum, - One-grained Wheat. 
 
 8. " compactum, - Compact Wheat. 
 
 9. atratum, Dark-spiked Wheat. 
 
 10. " hordeiforme, - - Barley-like Wheat. 
 
 11. " Zea, - Far Wheat. 
 
 154. Of these, however, some may only be varieties. In the 
 United States, two only, the Spring and Winter Wheat, are 
 generally grown; though it is believed that Spelt may occa 
 sionally be met with as a spring wheat. The latter, which is 
 the hardiest of the family, is cultivated in the south of Europe 
 and Germany ; and is known by its almost solid straw, and the 
 chaff adhering to the grain so as to be separated with great dif 
 ficulty. It may be grown on poor soils, but yields an inferior 
 flour in small quantities. The others have no peculiar merit, 
 
 155. Spring Wheat was known in England as early as 1666, 
 but has been cultivated only to a small extent there ; and not to 
 a much greater one in Scotland. In the United States, it does 
 
 o 
 
 not appear to be as popular as formerly, except in districts, where 
 Fall Wheat is apt to be killed during winter. As a general thing, 
 the grain is not as large, contains more gluten, makes flour of a 
 different quality and flavor, and brings a lower price in tiie 
 market. Sir John Sinclair informs us that from 1767 to 1812 
 it was a practice with the best Scotch fanners to sow Fall Wheat 
 
58 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 in Spring, from February to April, though March was general 
 ly the favorite month. The real Spring Wheat does not ap 
 pear to have been generally known in that country till the be- 
 giiiing of this century. Though sown in April or May it ripen 
 ed as early as winter sown wheat. It was not, however so pro 
 ductive as winter wheat sown either in Winter or Spring, and 
 the ears were shorter. There are many nominal varieties in the 
 United States, the best probably being the Italian, the Siberian 
 Bald, or Tea Wheat, and the Black Sea Wheat. Of this last 
 there are again two varieties, the red and the white chaff ; both 
 of which are bearded. It is not known that the practice of 
 sowing Fall Wheat in Spring has ever prevailed in this country, 
 though there is no apparent reason why it should not succeed 
 as well as in Scotland, and be profitable in certain localities. 
 In the Northern States, it is considered important that Spring 
 Wheat should be sown as early as the season will permit. 
 The soil may be lighter than for the Fall variety ; it ought to 
 be in good condition ; and is generally better if it has been 
 plowed, and laid up dry in the Fall. From one and a half to 
 two bushels is the proper quantity of seed per acre ; more gen 
 erally the latter. The after processes of harvesting and thrash 
 ing are similar to Fall Wheat. 
 
 156. The varieties of Fall Wheat are very numerous, differ 
 ing not only in appearance, but also in constituents, in adapta 
 tion to soil and climate, in hardiness as regards disease and in 
 sects, and in productiveness. There appears to be one fact as 
 certained regarding them, which is, that they are constantly un 
 dergoing change in their relative productiveness. A new varie 
 ty will be introduced into a given locality, and for a few years 
 will succeed better than any other, after which it begins gradu 
 ally to deteriorate in the qualities which at first recommended 
 it. The ancient varieties appear to have been much inferior to 
 some in the present day. There are four distinct divisions, (a,) 
 White, (I,) Red, (c,) Bald, (d,) Bearded: the Red being gen- 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 59 
 
 erally hardier, but coarser than the White ; and the same may 
 be said of the Bearded as compared with the Bald ; but in 
 other respects there is no material practical difference. 
 
 General Harmon, of Wheatland, Monroe County, N. Y., who has de 
 voted a long life to the study ol and experiments upon Wheat, in 1844 
 gave the following as the best varieties known in the United States: 
 
 1. White Flint, probably introduced from the Black Sea into New 
 Jersey, in 1814. Its peculiarities are, (a,) strong straw ; (6,) solid 
 grain with thin bran ; (c,) the chaff adheres to the grain so that it does 
 not readily shell out ; (</,) it is little affected by frost ; (<?,) it has with 
 stood the Hessian Fly better than any other now cultivated. Its usual 
 yield is from twenty to twenty-five bushels per acre, but it has produced 
 fifty-four bushels to the acre. 2. Improved White Flint. It is superior 
 to the last in the size of the berry, the thinness of the bran, and the 
 weight par bushel. 3. White Provence, introduced from France, (a,) 
 it grows rapidly, yielding much straw ; (6.) ripens four or five days 
 earlier than the common varieties ; (c,) withstands cold, and is not in 
 jured by insects ; but the straw is soft and it is apt to fall down. It is 
 bald, berry very large and white ; yielding flour well and of good qual 
 ity. 3. Old Red Chaff, originated in Southern Pennsylvania. It is a 
 bald wheat, with red chaff but a white grain ; and in other respects is 
 similar to the la*-t. On new uak lands it succeeds admirably, but on old 
 lands it is subject to rust, mildew, insects, and winter-kildng. 4. Ken 
 tucky White Bearded, (Hutchinson, Bearded Flirt, Canada Flint,") a 
 white chaff, bearded wheat. 5. Indiana Wheat, originated in Indiana, 
 a white chaff, bald wheat ; peculiarly adapted to strong soils. 6. Velvet 
 Beard, or Grate Wheat ; introduced from England twenty-five years 
 ago : a red chaff, bearded, large berried wheat. It is very hardy, not 
 apt to be thrown out by frost, nor injured by insects. 7. Whcalland 
 Red, originated from the Virginia May, by Gon l Harmon : it is red 
 chaff, bald wheat, and not apt to rust. 8. Golden Drop, an English 
 variety. 9. Mediterranean, introduced from the South of Europe fifteen 
 years since. It is a light red chaff, bearded, berry red and long, bran 
 thick, and flour inferior ; but it is not injured by insects, and ripens ear 
 ly. 10. El uc Stim, cultivated in Virginia about fifty years since, but 
 now generally grown in the Northern States. Formerly it was a red 
 wheat, but it is now changed to a beautiful white. It is very produc 
 tive. 
 
 This list might be much extended, but it could not be of any practi 
 cal utility. 
 
60 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 157. The qualities desirable in Wheat may be thus shortly 
 enumerated : Straw of medium length and size, not apt to fall 
 down, to be attacked by insects or rust, nor killed by frost or 
 wet ; able to stool out or tiller, so that each grain gives several 
 roots and stalks. The heads long, well filled ; the chaff ad 
 hering to the grain so that it does not easily shell : the kernel 
 white, flinty, solid and large, with thin bran, and yielding a 
 white homogeneous flour in large quantity of first quality ; the 
 skin elastic, not breaking up into small particles in grinding, and 
 filling the flour with specks of bran so small as to be incapable 
 of fceperation ; not apt to sprout if necessarily exposed to wet 
 after harvesting ; germinating rapidly, and growing steadily af 
 ter sowing. Any wheat that united all these qualities would 
 be nearly perfect. 
 
 158. Wheat is expected to weigh sixty pounds to the Amer 
 ican bushel. The crop varies from eight to sixty bushels to the 
 acre; the average throughout the United States is between 
 twelve and fifteen bushels per acre. Occasionally a bushel of 
 wheat will weigh as high as sixty-six pounds. 
 
 The American Bushel contains, ... 2,150.42 cubic inches. 
 
 The English (Imperial) Bushel contains - 2,218.192 
 
 The English quarter of Wheat is eight Imperial Bushels of 70 Ibs. 
 
 each, equal to 9} -3 American Bushels of 60 Ibs. each. Wheat is sold in 
 
 the States by the Bushel of 60 Ibs. In England by the quarter of 560 Ibs. 
 
 159. Ultimate ANALYSIS of Wheat grown at Bechelbronn, 
 1837. ( Boussingault.) 
 
 Carbon, 46.10 48.48 4838 
 
 Hydrogen, 5.80 5.41 5.21 
 
 Oxygen, 43.40 38.79 39.09 
 
 Nitrogen, .... 2.29 0.35 0.35 
 
 Ash, 2.41 6.97 6.97 
 
 10000 100.00 100.00 
 160. The composition of Wheat varies greatly according to 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 61 
 
 many circumstances, such as (a,) the soil; (b,) the manure 
 used ; (c,) the variety ; (d,) the climate ; (e,) the time it is 
 harvested, <fec. The following analysis by Sprengel may be 
 taken as an average. 100,000 parts dry wheat contain 1177 
 parts of ash or inorganic matter; the same quantity of wheat 
 straw contains 3518 parts of ash. They consist of the follow 
 ing substances : 
 
 GRAIN. STRAW. 
 
 Potash, - - 225 20 
 
 Soda, 240 29 
 
 Lime, - 96 240 
 
 Magnesia, - - 690 32 
 
 Alumina, 26 90 
 
 Silica, - 400 2870 
 
 Sulphuric Acid, - 50 37 
 
 Phosphoric Acid -40 170 
 
 Chlorine, 10 30 
 
 1777 3518 
 
 161. Analysis of the organic, or combustible portion. 100 
 parts of wheat in its natural state contain. ( Gregory.) 
 
 Albumen, ...... 3 Q 
 
 Gluten, - - - 9.9 
 
 Starch, - - . 55.7 
 
 Gum, Dextrine, Pectine and Sugar, - - -4.6 
 
 Fibre and Husk, . -11.9 
 
 82.31 
 
 162. Or according to another analysis (Gregory,) the parts 
 may be thus divided : 
 
 Water, . . 12.9 
 
 Organic Matter, ....... 35.3 
 
 Ash, - . . Ii9 o 
 
 163. The influence of variety of seed and mode of culture 
 are shown by the following results of the examination by Bous- 
 singault of several varieties of wheat grown in the Botanic 
 Garden at Paris : 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 
 HubK or Bran 
 iu the grain, 
 per cent. 
 
 Water ui tue 
 Fiour, per 
 cent. 
 
 Hour iu the 
 grain, per 
 cent. 
 
 Oiuien, &c. in 
 the Flour, per 
 cent. 
 
 Cape Whtsat, - - 
 Russian Wheat, - 
 Dantzig Wheat, - - 
 Red Foix Wheat, - 
 Barrel Wheat, - - 
 Winter Wheat,- - 
 
 19 j 
 
 18 
 24 
 
 18.5 
 22 
 
 31 
 
 81 
 
 82 
 76 
 81.5 
 78 
 62 
 
 7.0 
 64 
 7.3 
 9.3 
 8.8 
 141 
 
 20.6 
 24.8 
 25.8 
 26.1 
 27.7 
 33.0 
 
 164. The time of cutting affects the weight of produce, as 
 well as the relative proportions of flour, bran, and gluten. 
 Thus from three equal patches of the same field of wheat in 
 Yorkshire, cut twenty days before the crop was ripe, ten days 
 before ripeness, and when fully ripe, the produce was in grain. 
 (Johnston.) 
 
 20 days before. 10 days before. Fully ripe. 
 
 166lbs. 220 Ibs. 209 Ibs. 
 
 and the per centage of flour, sharps, and bran, yielded by each, 
 and of water and gluten in the flour was as follows : 
 
 Whn cut. in the grain, per cent. in the flour, per cent. 
 
 Flour. Sharps. Bran. 
 
 20 days before it was ripe, 74.7 7.2 17.5 
 10 days before, - - 79.1 5.5 132 
 Fully ripe, - - 72.2 11.0 16.0 
 
 When cut a fortnight before it is ripe, therefore, the entire 
 produce of the grain is greater, the yield of flour is larger, and 
 of bran considerably less, while the proportion of gluten con 
 tained in the flour appears also to be in favor of that which was 
 reaped before the wheat was fully ripe. 
 
 165. Bran, as is well known, constitutes, notwithstanding its 
 dry appearance, a very excellent food, and is fattening for stock. 
 Used in bread, it adds much to the nourishing qualities of it, es 
 pecially in the case of children. The average composition of it 
 
 Water. Gluten. 
 15.7 9.3 
 155 9.9 
 15.9 9.6 
 
 is represented as follows 
 
 Water, 
 
 Albumen, (coagulated,) 
 
 Oil, 
 
 Husk and a little starch, 
 
 Saline matter, (ash,) 
 
 (Johnston.) 
 
 13.1 percent. 
 J9.3 
 
 4.7 
 55.6 
 
 7.3 
 
AGRICULTURAL TBXT-BOOK. 63 
 
 The following is a more minute analysis of Bran from a Soft 
 French Wheat, grown in 1848 : (Millon.) 
 
 Starch, dextiine and sugar, - 53.00 percent. 
 
 Sugar of Liquorice, - - - - 1 .00 " 
 
 Gluten, - - - 14.90 
 
 Fatty matter, - - 3.60 " 
 
 Woody matter, - - 9.70 
 
 Salts, (inorganic,) - - 0.50 " 
 
 Water, - 13.90 " 
 
 Incrusting matter and aromatic principles, - - 3.40 " 
 
 100.00* 
 
 A large portion of the inorganic matter in Bran is Phosphate 
 of Magnesia, a very valuable salt both in food and for manure. 
 Common bran, however, owing to the flour adhering to it, is 
 generally much richer than the above analyses, 
 
 166. The following is another view of the constituents of 
 wheat, being the extremes of fourteen analyses of as many dif 
 ferent varieties, lately made by Peligot : 
 
 Water, - - 13.2 to 15.2 percent. 
 
 Fatty matters, - - 1.0 to 1.9 " 
 
 Nitrogenous matters insoluble in water, - 8.1 to 19.8 " 
 Soluble Nitrogenous matter, (albumen,) - 1.4 to 2.4 " 
 
 Dextrine, - 54 to 10.5 
 
 Starch, - - 55.1 to G7.1 
 
 Cellulose, (woody matter,) - - 1.4 to 2.3 
 
 Saline matter, - - - 1.4 to 1.9 " 
 
 *Thc reader is referred for further information on the nutritious value of Bran to 
 an Essay bj Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, published in Edinburgh, Scotland ; and to the Re- 
 port of Prof. L. C. Beck in the Patent Office Report for 1849, p. 55. Dr. Daubeny 
 observes " that according to the experiments of Magendie, animals fed upon fine 
 flour died in a few weeks, while they thrived upon the whole meal bread. Brown 
 bread, therefore, should be adopted not merely on a principle of economy, but also as 
 providing more of those ingredients which are perhaps deficient hi the finer parts of 
 (lie flour." 
 
64 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 167. The composition of wheat may, therefore, be roughly 
 stated, as : 
 
 Heat-producing constituents, Starch, Sugar, Gum, - 50 to 60 per cent 
 Flesh-forming " Gluten and Albumen, 16 to 18 
 
 Water, " 10 to 18 " 
 
 Useless, " woody fibre, - 22 to 26 
 
 Inorganic, " various salts, - 2 to 4 " 
 
 168. In damp climates, such as that of Great Britain, the 
 grain of wheat is generally larger and plumper than in hot, dry 
 climates ; but analyses show that the small grain raised in the 
 hotter and drier air greatly surpasses the former in its nutritive 
 value. 
 
 169. Prof. Beck, in his numerous examinations, found that 
 the wheat and wheat-flour of the United States are equal to, if 
 not greater in nutritive value than those afforded by samples 
 produced in any other part of the world. 
 
 170. The following is an analysis of Michigan (A,) and 
 of Richmond Mill (B,) Flour: (Beclc.) 
 
 Water, - 12.25 11.70 
 
 Gluten and Albumen, - - 10.00 13.00 
 
 Starch, - - 67.70 67.50 
 
 Glucose, Dextrine, &c., - 8.75 6.90 
 
 Bran, - 0.75 0.50 
 
 Ash, 0.55 0.40 
 
 100.00 100,00 
 
 171. The proportion of gluten in flour not only increases the 
 nutritive value, but also the economical. It is to the peculiar 
 mechanical property of this gluten that wheat flour owes its 
 superior power of detaining the carbonic acid engendered by 
 fermentation, and thus communicating to it the vesicular, 
 spongy structure so characteristic of good bread. Where the 
 proportion of gluten is large, the bread, absorbing more water, 
 &c., weighs heavier. Thus, on an accurate and careful experiment, 
 two pounds of Cincinnati flour, and two pounds of Alabama 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 65 
 
 flour were each, separately, mixed with a quarter of a pound of 
 yeast, and were made into loaves and baked in the same oven. 
 
 The Cincinnati loaf weighed 3 ll>s. 
 
 The Alabama loaf weighed - - 3^- Ibs. 
 
 The gain in the latter is 22 percent, over the former; or fivo 
 barrels of Southern flour are equal to six of Northern flour. 
 (Pat. Off. Rep., 1846, p. 150.) 
 
 172. When fermentation, or rising, in bread is affected by 
 the addition of yeast or leaven to the paste or dough, the char 
 acter of the mass is materially altered. A larger or smaller 
 proportion of the flour is virtually lost; according to Dr. W. 
 Gregory it amounts to a loss of one sixteenth part of the whole 
 of the flour. To avoid this, it has been recommended to raise 
 bread by means of carbonate of soda and muriatic acid, which 
 produce the same effect as yeast, while the sugar and gluten 
 are saved ; these two former materials forming common salt ; and 
 giving off carbonic acid gas. 
 
 173. The best SOILS for Wheat are those which contain a 
 good proportion of clay and lime. Light and sandy soils do 
 not usually produce good wheat. 
 
 Boussingault gives the following classification of soils : 
 
 Soils according to composi 
 tion. 
 
 ! 
 
 Usually Designated. ^ 
 
 1 6 
 
 1 
 
 S . 
 11 
 
 Humus. 
 
 Clay with humus, 
 
 Rich wheat land, 
 
 74 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 11.5 
 
 66 it <C 
 
 (. a 
 
 81 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 8.5 
 
 " 
 
 ft (t 
 
 79 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 6.5 
 
 Marly Soil, 
 
 (( (t 
 
 40 
 
 22 
 
 36 
 
 4 
 
 Light soil, with humus, 
 Sandy Soil, humus, 
 Argillaceous land, 
 
 Meadow land, 
 Rich Barley land. 
 Good Wheat land, 
 
 14 
 20 
 
 58 
 
 47 
 67 
 36 
 
 10 
 3 
 2 
 
 27 
 10 
 4 
 
 Marly Soil, 
 
 Wheat land, 
 
 56 
 
 30 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 Argillaceous land, 
 
 u u 
 
 60 
 
 38 
 
 
 2 
 
 Stiffer " " 
 
 a t( 
 
 48 
 
 50 
 
 
 2 
 
 Clay, 
 
 " " 
 
 68 
 
 30 
 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 Soils according to composi 
 tion. 
 
 Usually designated. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Lime or 
 Chalk. 
 
 H 
 
 Stiff argillaceous land, 
 
 U 
 
 Sandy Clay, 
 Clayey Sand, 
 
 a 
 
 Sandy Soil, 
 
 Barley land, 1st class, 
 2d class, 
 
 (( U tt 
 
 Oat land, 
 
 .. 
 
 Rye land, 
 
 u u 
 
 38 
 33 
 28 
 23.5 
 18.5 
 14 
 9 
 4 
 2 
 
 60 
 65 
 70 
 75 
 80 
 85 
 90 
 95 
 97.5 
 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 1.5 
 1.5 
 1 
 1 
 0.75 
 0.5 
 
 Besides these constituents, a good wheat soil should contain 
 a notable proportion of potash, soda, phosphoric acid, and nitro 
 gen. In Great Britain, the introduction of turnips and clover 
 culture and drainage has greatly extended the range of wjieat 
 producing soils; this grain being now cultivated in rotation, 
 with profit, even on sandy soils ; so true is it, that science can 
 adapt the earth and climate to almost any crop which it is de 
 sirable to cultivate. 
 
 174. "Wheat, is considered a scourging crop, rapidly impov 
 erishing the soil, in consequence of its requiring for its compo 
 sition large quantities of materials, chiefly inorganic, which are 
 naturally rare in soils. In this respect, it is placed at the head, 
 of grains. According to Boussingault, a medium crop of wheat 
 takes from one acre of ground : 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 ACIDS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 **< 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J* 
 
 
 Q 
 
 
 Dry Crop. 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 Phosphoric 
 
 Sulphuric. 
 
 Cldorine. 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 Potash and 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 Ibs 
 
 Ibs 
 
 Ibs 
 
 Ibs 
 
 Ibs 
 
 Ibs 
 
 Ibs 
 
 Ibs 
 
 Ibs 
 
 Ibs 
 
 Ibs 
 
 Wheat, - - - 
 
 1052 
 
 2.4 
 
 25 
 
 12 
 
 0.3 
 
 
 0.8 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 04 
 
 
 Wheat Straw, - - 
 
 2558 
 
 7.0 
 
 179 
 
 5 
 
 1.5 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 9 
 
 17 
 
 121. 
 
 11 
 
 Total, - - - 
 
 3610 
 
 9.4 
 
 204 
 
 17 
 
 1.8 
 
 1 
 
 15.8 
 
 13 
 
 24 
 
 121.4 
 
 U 
 
xfY$ n A R v 
 
 \A\t v - 
 
 lti-- 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 67 
 
 An average crop takes of organic matter the following, iu 
 grain and straw : 
 
 Carbon, - - 2259 Ibs. I Oxygen, - - 1923 Ibs. 
 
 Hydrogen, - - 2<>2 " I Nitrogen, - 2 *< 
 
 or, as Ammonia, C3 Ibs. 
 
 In consequence, it is found, in practice, that it is impossible 
 even upon the best wheat soils, to grow this grain for several 
 years in succession, without injuring the land; and, in most 
 ?.ases, the crop becoming so small as to be unprofitable. What 
 is taken away must be replaced cither -directly by manures, or 
 by growing other crops which do not require the chief constit 
 uents of wheat. 
 
 175. There are many rich soils in the Western Slates, sucii 
 as Prairies, and River Bottoms, in which wheat runs to straw, 
 and produces very little grain. This is commonly said to be 
 owing to the land being " too ricli^ but, in reality, it must be 
 in consequence of a deficiency of some constituents of the 
 wheat-; which judicious manuring would supply. We are not 
 aware that a comparative analysis of such lands lias been yet 
 made, but they will probably be found deficient in the alkalies 
 and lime. 
 
 176. The manures for wheat necessarily vary according to 
 the nature of the soil, and the mode in which it has been crop 
 ped. It may, however, be stated as general proposition, that our 
 wheat lands appear deficient in ammonia, and that they cannot 
 fail to be benefltted by nitrogeneous manures, such as guano, 
 flesh, blood, sheep-dung, well-saved barn-yard manure, and such 
 like. 
 
 There are probably few fields in the country in which the 
 <rop may not be greatly increased by judicious manuring ; and 
 very many that require manures to continue them at or brm<r 
 them up to their original fertility. 
 
 177. It has been already stated (159,) that the composition 
 of wheat varies greatly according to the manure employexL 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 Thus, manures which are rich in nitrogen (ammonia,) not only 
 increase the crop, but also produce a grain richer in gluten, and 
 therefore intrinsically more valuable. On ten patches, each one 
 hundred square feet, of the same soil (a sandy loam,) manured 
 with equal weights of different manures in the dry state, 
 Hermbstadt sowed equal quantities ( Ib.) of the same wheat, 
 collected, weighed, and analyzed the produce. His results are 
 represented in the following table : 
 
 
 tj 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 si 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 . 
 
 t2 
 
 *3 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 Cu 
 
 a 
 Tc 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 li 
 
 3 t. 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 \ 
 
 Is 
 
 A 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 O 
 
 ao 
 
 i 
 
 Cu 
 
 O 
 
 >*& 
 
 t> 
 
 RETURN 
 
 Hfld 
 
 HUd 
 
 I2fld 
 
 12fld 
 
 12fld 
 
 lOfld 
 
 9 fold 
 
 7 fold 
 
 5 fold 
 
 3 fold 
 
 Water, - - - 
 
 4.3 
 
 4.2 
 
 4.2 
 
 4.3 
 
 4.2 
 
 4.3 
 
 4.3 
 
 4.2 
 
 4.2 
 
 4.2 
 
 Gluten, - - - 
 
 34.2 
 
 33.9 
 
 32.9 
 
 32.9 
 
 35.1 
 
 13.7 
 
 12.2 
 
 12.0 
 
 9.6 
 
 9.2 
 
 Albumen, - - 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.1 
 
 0.9 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.8 
 
 0.7 
 
 Starch,- - - - 
 
 41.3 
 
 41.4 
 
 42.8 
 
 42.4 
 
 39.9 
 
 61.6 
 
 63.2 
 
 62.3 
 
 65.9 
 
 66.(> 
 
 Sugar, - - - 
 
 1.9 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.5 
 
 1.5 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.9 
 
 1.9 
 
 1.9 
 
 1.9 
 
 Gum, - - - - 
 
 1.8 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.5 
 
 1.5 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.6 
 
 1:9 
 
 1.9 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.8 
 
 Fatty oil, - - 
 
 0.9 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.9 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.9 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 Sol.phosphates.&c 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.9 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.3 
 
 Husk and Bran, 
 
 13.9 
 
 14.0 
 
 13.8 
 
 14.2 
 
 14.2 
 
 14.0 
 
 14.0 
 
 14.9 
 
 14.0 
 
 14.0 
 
 
 99.8 
 
 99.7 
 
 99.7 
 
 99.7 
 
 99.7 
 
 99.6 
 
 99.8 
 
 09.7 
 
 99.8 
 
 99.7 
 
 It must not, however, be forgotten, that these are garden ex 
 periments ; and while the theory is probably quite true, in field 
 culture the farmer may be unable to produce exactly the same 
 results. Such experiments must be considered rather as illus 
 trating a general principle, than as positively useful in practice, 
 except to a limited extent. 
 
 178. The only mode in which a farmer can judiciously use 
 manure, is by having an analysis of his land, showing what con 
 stituents are soluble, what may easily be rendered so, and what 
 is wanting. 
 
 179. In many parts of the United States, wheat soils are manured by 
 the complex action of closer, plaster (sulphate of lime) and sheep dung 
 The philosophy of this is as follows: The surface soil is naturally, or 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 69 
 
 has become by cultivation deficient in soluble lime and sulphuric acid, 
 two constituents consumed iu large quantities by clover ; and which 
 must be supplied before clover can grow. The clover is therefore sown 
 with powdered plaster which contains these two elements, and it grows 
 luxuriantly. But while the surface soil has been impoverished, the sub 
 soil remains full of salts ; and the clover sends down its deep tap roots 
 into the subsoil, collects such inorganic matter as its finds there, and 
 brings it to the surface. The sheep eat the green part, and scatter the con 
 stituents of the clover over the ground, together Kith theammonia formed 
 in the urine. The clover is then plowed up, and all that it has received 
 from the subsoil and the air, is again rendered more or less soluble by 
 decay, and supplied to the surface soil where the wheat roots find it. 
 This can scarcely be called real manuring. With the exception of a lit 
 tle lime and sulphuric acid, nothing is supplied to the field but what it 
 or the air contained before. The clover has acted as a collector. It has 
 brought together on the surface what was before scattered in the sub 
 soil, but it affords nothing new. The effect, in time, of such practice 
 must be, that not only the surface but the subsoil also becomes impov 
 erished ; and each crop of wheat carries off the constituents of a larger 
 area, than it could possibly do without clover. Unless, manures from 
 the barn-yard or other sources are also supplied, the soil must, finally, 
 be very serously injured. 
 
 180. There are various modes of preparing the land for 
 Wheat; (a,) summer following, with three distinct plowings, 
 (b J plow ing once ; (c,) plowing once and rendering the surface 
 mellow with a cultivator; all of which have their advocates, 
 and all are probably good for peculiar soils, and under peculiar 
 circumstances. (See PLOWING.) 
 
 181. There are also various modes of covering the grain, (a,) 
 by a harrow or drag; (b,) by plowing it in with a shallow fur 
 row with a plow or cultivator; (c,) by ribbing; (d,) with a 
 Drill Machine. (See IMPLEMENTS.) 
 
 182. Wheat is sown (a,) either broadcast by hand or by a 
 machine ; (b,) by a drill ; or in England (c,) by a dibble. 
 
 183. It is harvested (a,) by hand with a sickle or reaping- 
 hook ; (b,) with a cradle ; (c,) by a machine worked by horses. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 
 
 In all cases, it is usually bound with a band made of its own* 
 straw into sheaves, and set up in shocks to dry. 
 
 184. It is either (a t ) stacked out of doors, or (b,) put into 
 a barn ; (c,) or thrashed in the field. 
 
 185. It is thrashed faj by a flail; (bj by horses or cattle 
 treading on it; (c,) by a machine moved by horse-power; (d,) 
 or, among the French, by a machine called Le Liable. 
 
 186. The chaff is separated from the grain by (a t ) a Fan 
 ning Mill, or (b t ) by the wind. 
 
 186. It is then ready for (aj storing in the granary, or (b,) 
 sending to market, which is usually done in bags holding two 
 measured bushels. 
 
 188. It has been already stated (163) that the comparative- 
 ripeness affects the weight and quality of the grain. The best 
 practical rule is to cut when a grain of wheat pressed between 
 the finger and thumb is easily crushed, and yields a considera 
 ble quantity of juice ; and when the straw is still more or less 
 green, especially near the root. Some experience, however, is- 
 requisite in determining the exact time. 
 
 189. For seed, on the contrary, wheat should be allowed to- 
 stand until it is quite ripe ; and then selected with care. The 
 best wheat is raised from seed carefully selected from large heads. 
 In former days, when wheat was winnowed by the wind, the 
 largest and heaviest grains were preserved for seech Great im 
 provement, both in the variety and crop, may undoubtedly be 
 affected by exercising care in this particular. Experiments seem 
 to prove that wheat thrashed by a machine frequently has the- 
 germinating power destroyed; and though it may throw out 
 leaves is deficient in roots, and therefore perishes. 
 
 The Boston Cultivator, 1845, gives an instance of a farmer in Ver 
 mont, who saved his seed wheat, who used, before thrashing, to select 
 the best sheaves, and striking them over the side of an empty barrel as 
 it lay on the floor, three or four times, he obtained a very superior seed 
 wlaeat. Thus the largest and ripest kernels were seperated arid collect- 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 71 
 
 ed. While the process was kept secret, so high a reputation had this 
 wheat, that the neighbors willingly paid double the usual price for it. 
 
 190. The quantity of seed sown to the acre varies in the 
 United States from one and a half to two bushels, broadcast; 
 and about one bushel if drilled. In Great Britain, where much 
 more seed of all the cereals is sown than with us, three to four 
 bushels is the usual quantity, when broadcast. 
 
 191. The waste of seed in the soil is very great, especially 
 when broadcast; chiefly in consequence of the irregular depth 
 at which the grain is planted. The following calculation has 
 been made, (Stephens.) " Wheat at 63 Ibs. to the bushel, gives 
 87 of its seeds to the drachm ; or 701,568 to the bushel (in 
 apothecary s weight,) or 865,170, (in avoirdupois weight.) 
 Now three bushels of seed are sown on the acre, or 2,595,510 
 grains of wheat. Suppose that each grain produces one stem ; 
 and every stem bears an ear containing the common number of 
 32 grains, the produce of the acre should be 96 bushels; but 
 the heaviest crop in Scotland rarely exceeds 64 bushels to the 
 acre, or 33 per cent, of the seed is lost in the best crops, and 58 
 per cent, in an ordinary one of 40 bushels." It is very impor 
 tant that such experiments as these should be made in the Uni 
 ted States, so as to ascertain the exact quantity of seed to be 
 sown in each soil and climate. 
 
 192. The depth at which seeds are sown, is also very impor 
 tant. In order to germinate, a seed must have acccess to mois 
 ture, air, and warmth, but be excluded from light. If covered 
 too deep, it will not sprout ; if too shallow it is apt to perish for 
 want of moisture and from other causes. Seeds of different 
 plants germinate at various depths. It is laid down as a rule 
 that wheat sown before winter should be as deeply covered with 
 earth as to be beyond the reach of injurious frost, say four or 
 five inches ; but when sown in spring it should be lightly cov 
 ered, little exceeding one inch. In no case should wheat be 
 deeper than six or seven inches. In light dry soils it should be 
 
72 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 deeper than in wet adhesive clays; and where clods are numer 
 ous more seed is requisite than where the earth is in fine tilth. 
 The following table is given on the authority of M. Moreau, of 
 Paris. He formed thirteen beds in which lie planted one hun 
 dred and fifty kernels of wheat at various depths : 
 
 At Depth of 
 
 Come up. 
 
 No. of Heads. 
 
 No. of Grains. 
 
 7 inches, 
 
 5 
 
 53 
 
 682 
 
 6 " 
 
 14 
 
 140 
 
 2,520 
 
 5f " 
 
 20 
 
 174 
 
 3,818 
 
 4J " 
 
 40 
 
 400 
 
 8,000 
 
 4| 
 
 73 
 
 700 
 
 16,500 
 
 3| " 
 
 93 
 
 992 
 
 18,534 
 
 23 " 
 
 123 
 
 1417 
 
 35,434 
 
 2J " 
 
 130 
 
 1560 
 
 34,349 
 
 2 " 
 
 140 
 
 1590 
 
 36,480 
 
 11 
 
 142 
 
 1660 
 
 35,826 
 
 1 " 
 
 137 
 
 1561 
 
 35,072 
 
 1J " 
 On surface, 
 
 64 
 20 
 
 529 
 107 
 
 10,587 
 1,600 
 
 From these experiments it would appear that the grain should 
 not be sown at much greater depth than two inches, nor nearer 
 the surface than one inch. The soil is not stated. 
 
 193. Wheat a year old is considered to be better for sowing 
 in the Fall than new wheat. New wheat germinates quicker, 
 but is more easily affected by bad weather and insects, and gen 
 erally the stalks are neither as numerous nor as strong. 
 
 194. Wheat is frequently steeped or pickled (a,) to act as a 
 manure ; (b,) to destroy the sporules or seeds of smut. Various 
 substances are used, as (c,) salt and water; (d,) green vitriol, 
 (sulphate of iron,) (e,) stale urine ; f/J arsenic, &c. Arsenic, 
 however, has been proved to be decidedly dangerous to the 
 sower, and the use of it is forbidden by the French government. 
 Various modes of steeping, according to convenience, are used ; 
 and the seed is dried with wood ashes, plaster, slacked lime, 
 powdered clay, &c. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 3 
 
 195. In judging of seed wheat^the dimpled end of the grain 
 should be distinctly marked, and the point from which the lit 
 tle roots proceed must be somewhat prominent ; the end from 
 which the blade springs should also be slightly covered with 
 hairiness or wooliness. The little protuberances at either of 
 those ends must not have been nibbed off, as the grain is there 
 by deprived of vitality. Kiln-drying spoils grain for sowing. 
 It may be known by unusual hardness, and a smoky odor. 
 Wheat that has heated in the stack will taste bitter ; if slightly 
 sprouted, sweet ; and if long kept in the granary it will smell 
 musty, and look dull and dusty. If eaten by the weevil it may 
 be detected by pressing the kernel with the fingers. If rusted 
 it will be shrunk ; if smutty, it will have a black appearance and 
 a peculiar smell. 
 
 196. The weeds that principally injure wheat in the United 
 States are (a,) Cockle, (Lychnis Githago ) (b,) Chess or Cheat, 
 (Bromus secalinus;) (c,) Pigeon-weed, or Red-root, Steen- 
 crout, Stony-seed, Wheat-thief, ( Lithospermum arvense;) (d,) 
 (chiefly in spring wheat,) Field-mustard or Charlock, (Sinapis 
 arvensis;) (e,) Vetch, or Black-pea, Tare, ( Vicia sativa ? and 
 Americana?) (f,) Wild-radish, also called Charlock. (Ra- 
 phanus Raphanistrum.) These are all annuals; for perenni 
 al weeds are confined to no particular crop. 
 
 Cockle (a,) is a strong growing upright plant, one to two and a half 
 feet high, with a purple flower, and seed pod full of black seeds. It in 
 jures the wheat chiefly in grinding for flour, discoloring it, and giving 
 an unpleasant bitter flavor. 
 
 Chess, (>,) a species of grass. There are two other species of the 
 same genus indigenous to the United States, and two more introduced 
 from England. The leaves and stalk, in their earlier stages, greatly re 
 semble wheat, but the flowers, stamens, and seeds, are very different. 
 It grows chiefly in soil plowed in the Fall, but is also met with in mead 
 ows, and among spring crops, where no wheat was ever sown. It is 
 probably a native of most parts of the Northern States, and like other 
 weeds, the germs are contained in the soil ready to vegitate as soon as 
 the conditions of growth are favorable. The seeds are very numerous. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 Seven thousand kernels have been counted growing from one root ; 
 enough to seed three hundred acres thickly the third year, were it culti 
 vated. They are also very difficult to destroy, passing through animals 
 and fowls without losing the germinative power. It was formerly as 
 plentiful in England as it is with us, but by care in sowing clean seed, 
 it is now all but exterminated. There is a notion among some farmers 
 that "wheat turns into chess ;" but this is wholly opposed to all facts 
 and analogies ; and the belief may be classed among the superstitions of 
 the dark ages that still linger in our profession. (See Patent Office Re 
 ports, 1849, p. 455; 1851, p. 650.) By sowing wheat seed peifectly clean 
 of chess, it soon disappears. It is chiefly troublesome by drawing the 
 nourishment from the growing wheat, and overpowering it ; arid injur 
 ing the flour. When crushed, it is good food for horses and poultry, and 
 if boiled, for hogs. 
 
 Pigeon-weed, (c,) has been introduced from Europe. It is an annual 
 plant "slender, hoary with m in nte oppressed hairs, somewhat branched ; 
 leaves lanceolate, acutish, nearly veinless ; racemes few-flowered, the 
 lower flowers remote ; corolla (yellowish white) not longer than the 
 calyx." (Gray.) 
 
 This weed appoars to be confined to certain soils, such as in K"ew 
 York are known by the name of Marcellus Shales, and in Michigan, as 
 Oak Openings, and Burr Oak Plains. In this latter State, it is found in 
 the Interior, while it yet seems to be unknown in the heavy clays, form 
 ing a belt around the Peninsula. Where it becomes plentiful it is ex 
 ceedingly injurious to the wheat crop. It is not above thirty }ears 
 since it was introduced into New York, and it has now spread wherev 
 er it finds a congenial soil. The peculiarities of the character and habit 
 of this weed consist (a,) in the hard shell with which its seed or nut ia 
 covered ; (b,) in the time at which it comes up and ripens its seed ; (c,) 
 in the superficial way in which its roots spread. The seed is so hard 
 that it passes uninjured through cattle and birds, and lies for years in the 
 ground without perishing. It grows very little in spring, but shoots up 
 and ripens in the Fall, and its roots spread through the surface soil on 
 ly, and exhaust the food by which the young wheat should be nourished. 
 It is said to be so prolific as to increase more than two hundred fold an 
 nually. When it has once got into the land, two or three successive 
 crops of wheat will give it entire possession of the soil. In Yates 
 County, N. Y., the seeds are crushed with linseed, for the oil they con 
 tain, which is about 4 Ibs. per bushel ; and for the addition which the 
 husk makes to the oil cake. The only mode of exterminating it is, 
 when slight, to pick it out of the growing wheat by hand ; and when 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 75 
 
 abundant, to plow ouc*j or twice in the fall, after the seed has sprouted ; 
 and to cultivate spring hoed crops, avoiding wheat for some years. The 
 seed must on no account be mixed with manure or given to stock, as it 
 will thus be spread everywhere. As ordinary care and good farming 
 will prevent its spreading further west, and as, in lands that suit, it is 
 the most injurious wheat-weed in the United States, it is important that 
 the whole community should attend to it. If allowed to grow on one 
 farm, it will inevitnbly spread to others, being carried by birds, and 
 other means. 
 
 Field Mustard (<f,) and Wild Radish, (/) are known by their bright 
 yellow flowers. They are injurious by taking the place of the grain, 
 and overpowering it. The seeds are small, numerous, and very persis 
 tent. The best mode of eradicating these plains, is to pull them by 
 hand when in blossom. 
 
 Vetch, (e,) is a small creeping pea-like plant, adl ering to the grain 
 by its tendrils. In some soils it is very plentiful ; and is chiefly inju* 
 rious in grinding, discoloring the* flour and giving it a bad flavor. The 
 seeds are small, round, and black. It may be exterminated by one or 
 two hoed spring crops, and laying the land to pasture for a year or two. 
 A good fawning-mill would probably clean the grain completely, but the 
 writer has seen wheat brought to mill in Western Canada, containing 
 one third of the seeds of the Vetch. It appears to be confined to rich 
 clay and loamy lands. 
 
 197. The parasitic fungi which are injurious to wheat are 
 (a,) Smut or Bunt ; (b t ) Rust ; (c,) Mildew. 
 
 A Fungus is a cellular flowerless plant, deriving its nutriment by 
 means of spawn. It lives in air, and is propogated by spores, which 
 are naked, or by sporidia, so called when enclosed in little vesicles. 
 Fungi may be said to consist of a mass of little cells, or little threads,. 
 or of both combined in various ways. They have no seed or fruit ex 
 cept their sporules, spores or sporidia, of which the methods of attach 
 ment are singularly curious and beautiful. They derive their nourish 
 ment from the substance on which they grow, and not from the media 
 in which they exist, Well known Fungi are Mushrooms, Toadstools, 
 Puftballs, mould on cheese, &c., most of which are poisonous. Many 
 of them grow on living plants, as Smut and Rust ; but the small ones, 
 to a great extent, on animal substances in a state of partial decay ; or 
 where they can find nitrogenous compounds, as in bread, &c. The 
 spores are often of exceeding minuteness, and epidemic diseases hare 
 
1* 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 been attributed to their influence. Certain species are found in the liv 
 ing human body; and in the inferior animals. These are called Ento- 
 phyta. A striking instance is the disease which kills so many silk 
 worms, known as the Miueardine, where the Fungus is planted in the 
 fan and grows externally. Dr. Lddy,( Smithsonian Contrib.to Knowl ) 
 has described ten species of this order found in men. 
 
 198. There are two species of Smut, (a,); the one (b,) Ure- 
 do caries, or fatidum, a brownish black dust, greasy, and fetid, 
 taking the place of the kernel of wheat. It does not appear 
 externally, being confined within the husk. The other (c,) 
 Uredo segetum, (Black care, Brand, Dust Brand, Burnt Cora, 
 &c.,) is met with in Barley and Oats as well as Wheat. It re 
 sembles a black dust, growing within the glumes of the plant. 
 It destroys the seed, and its envelopes. " The spores are so 
 small that a square inch could contain 7,840,000 of them, and 
 within these again are inuraerable sporoles. Smut (a,) is un 
 doubtedly propagated from the wheat seed to the living plant. 
 M. Bauer (Trans, of Linnean Soc y., London, vol. xviii.,p. 
 468 J has shown that " Smut-balls" on grain can certainly be 
 produced by inoculating the seed with the sporoles of the fun 
 gus. These bodies are carried into the interior of the plant by 
 the sap, after being absorbed by the roots. Johnston says it 
 can be seen where they have come up through the stalk. When 
 examined, the tubes of the stalk were filled with black matter 
 that had come through the vessels, affecting first the straw, then 
 getting into the ear, whence it spreads itself all over. Thou 
 sands of the sporules may be attached to a single grain of 
 wheat, and yet be invisible to the naked eye. This disease is 
 most common on damp undrained soils, with impervious sub 
 soils ; and may be eradicated by (a,) thorough draining of the 
 land; (b,) and by washing the grain previous to sowing in 
 some saline mixture (193) and drying with slacked lime. 
 
 199. Of Rust (b,) there are also two species. One (q) is 
 found scattered over the inner surface of the outer chaff scales, 
 the skin of which is raised into blisters. This is called by 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. / * 
 
 Botanists Uredo rubigo; it is of an orange yellow color; and 
 when severe, causes the grain to shrink, and prevents matura 
 tion. The other (d,) Uredo linearis is confined to the straw 
 and leaf, and is the color of the rust of iron. It causes the 
 epidermis to split, and it is supposed to permit the emission of 
 the juices. The grain is affected by this in the same manner 
 as by the former. 
 
 Wet soils are most subject to these fungi, but they especially 
 appear during sultry, wet weather towards the flowering of the 
 plant. 
 
 200. Mildew (i.e. m el-dew, from an old notion that it was 
 produced by honey-dew falling from the air,) or Blight, (c,) is 
 produced by Puccinia graminis. It forms blackish brown pa 
 rallel, lives upon the straw, and seems to affect the entire plant, 
 BO that it deprives the sap of the power to form seed in a 
 healthy state, and hence the grain is very much shrivelled, or 
 no grain at all is formed. The spores of this fungus enter the 
 straw by its breathing pores, which are closed in dry weather, 
 but opened in a wet or damp atmosphere. This disease, like 
 the last, attacks the plant in warm, moist weather, and often 
 with remarkable suddeness and severity. Wet soils, and over- 
 manured land are chiefly subject to it ; and earth containing 
 a large proportion of the salts of iron appears to add to the ten 
 dency. Draining is probably the only cure. 
 
 201. Wheat is also subject to attacks from various insects. 
 The injury caused by these is sometimes so great and perma 
 nent as to prevent the culture of wheat at all, as has been the 
 case in some parts of New England and New York. We shall 
 shortly enumerate those most common in the United States, re 
 ferring the student for scientific descriptions to Dr. T. W. Har 
 ris 1 Treatise on some of the Insects of New England which 
 are injurious to vegetation, 2d. Ed., Boston, 1852, and for 
 further information to the Patent Office Reports from 1844, 
 
78 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 and to the older volumes of the Agricultural Periodicals of the 
 United States. 
 
 202, (A J Insects injurious to the seed, when sown, and to 
 the young plant: 
 
 In Indiana, wheat has been injured botL before and after germinating 
 by a "red ant." It bores a small hole into the kernel, and consumes 
 the germ ; or cuts off the sprout, and eats into the grain. Drilled wheat 
 appears to escape these ravages. (Annual Report of Indiana Slate Board 
 of Agriculture, 1852. 2. The Prairie Farmer, in 1844, describes a 
 small fly, a little more than an eighth of an inch in size, with four 
 wings, and the odor of a bed-bug, \\hich did much injury in Illinois. 
 It first destroyed the heads of wheat previous to harvest , it then took 
 to the corn-fields, killing that which was not too far ripened ; and then 
 attacked the young wheat, cutting it off just beneath the surface of tho 
 earth, " taking all clean as they go. They are of all stages of growth, 
 and have been from the first, and the ground is perforated \vith theboka 
 made by them." 3. In common with many other grains and vegeta 
 bles, young wheat is sometimes injured by the "Cut-worms," (Agroti* 
 didce.) "Wire-worms," (lull,) and "Grub-worms," (Melolontkad Ge,) 
 but these will be referred to more particularly hereafter. 
 
 (,) Insects which injure the straw of wheat while growing : 
 
 1. The Chinch-bug (Lggceusleucopterus. SAY.) has done much se* 
 vere injury in the South and West, including Wisconsin and Illinois. 
 In its perfect stat) it is winged, and measures three-twentieths of an 
 inch in lergth. The eggs are laid in the ground ; and the young make 
 their appearance on wheat about the middle of June, and still later at 
 tack all kinds of grain, corn, and herds-grass, during the whole sum 
 mer. 2. The Joint- worm (Eurytoma ?) has proved eminently 
 
 destructive in Virginia. It varies from one-tenth to nearly three-twen 
 tieths of an inch in length, is of a pale yellowish white color, with an 
 internal dusky streak, and is destitute of hairs. It buries itself in the 
 straw, generally at a joint, in or near the second or third joint from the 
 ground. The substance of the straw for a distance exceeding half an 
 inch is much swollen, and changed to a wood-like texture, while tho 
 surface exhibits long, pale spots, slightly elevated like a blister. The 
 worm finally changes to a winged insect. Burning the stubble as soon 
 BS the grain is harvested is recommended as a cure. 3. The Hessian 
 Fly (Cecvlomyia. destructor,) is supposed to hnvc been introduced from 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 70 
 
 Germany into Long Island, R. I., by the Hessian troops, under Sir W. 
 Howe, in 1776. Thence it gradually spread over the Southern parts of 
 New York aud Connecticut, at the rate of fifteen or twenty miles ayear. 
 It was found west of the Alleghany Mountains, in 1797. In many 
 places, the culture of wheat was abandoned in consequence of its rav 
 ages. The body of the perfect insect measures about one-tenth of an 
 inch in length, and the wings expand a quarter of an inch or more. 
 Two broods are brought to maturity in the course of a year, and the 
 flies appeir in the spiing and fall In the latitude of New England, the 
 female begins to lay its eggs on the blade of the young wheat at the 
 end of September, or beginning of October. In four to fifteen days 
 the egg hatches ; the maggot, of a pale red color, crawls down the leaf, 
 and works its way between it and the main stalk, passing down till it 
 comes to a joint, just above which it remains, a little below the surface 
 of the ground, with the head towards the root of the plant. Here it 
 rests till its tiansformations are completed. It inether eats the stalk, 
 nor penetjates within ir, but lies lengthwise upon its surface, nourished 
 wholly by the sap. As it increases in size, it becomes imbedded in the 
 side of the stem, by pressure. If two or three are fixed in this manner 
 they frequently ctuse the plant to fall down and die. In five or six 
 weeks they grow to full size tbrue-twentieths of an inch in length. 
 About the first of December, they harden and change to a bright chest 
 nut color; in which Jorm they are commonly likened to a flix seed. 
 In this state, they gradually change to a fly, and appear again as such 
 at the end of April or beginning of May. Very soon after, they are 
 ready to lay their eggs on the leaves of the wheat sown in the previous 
 fall, or the same spring. In three weeks they entirely disappear from 
 the field. Undergoing the same changes, the maggets from these eggs 
 take the flax-seed form in June and July. In this state they are found 
 at the time of harvest, and when the grain ia gathered they remain in 
 the stubble in the fields. Some, however, are carried to the barn 
 The principal migrations of the flies t;ike place in the middle of Au 
 gust and September. 4. In 1843, Miss Morris discovered in Pennsyl 
 vania, another species of the Hessian Fly. (Cecidomyia culmlcola.) It 
 differs in its habits from the former, by depositing its eggs early in June 
 in ths grain. The egg remains unhatched till the gain is sown and 
 germinates, and the maggot soon eats its way into and burries itself in 
 the straw. Here it remains till it is ready to assume the flax-seed form, 
 and then, emerging, fixes itself to the outside of the stalk. It has since 
 disappeared from the locality, but may probably be met with else* 
 where, being mistaken for the first species. 
 
80 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 5. The larva or maggots of Oscinis lineata, Chlorops pumilionis, an d 
 Chlorops glabra, and other flies allied to them, live within the lower 
 part of the steins of wheat, rye, and barley, thereby impoverishing the 
 plants, and causing them to become stinted in their growth. They are 
 rather larger insects than the Frit-Fly. It is highly probable that some 
 of these species, or the Oscinians with similar habits may be found in 
 the stems of wheat, and other grains, and perhaps also in the ears. "A 
 careful examination of all the insects that inhabit our fields of grain is 
 very much wanted." (Harris.) 
 
 G. The Patent Office Report, 1845, p. 144, mentions n worm which ap 
 peared among wheat in Buck s Co., Penn. " It is a green worm about 
 an inch long ; its head is brownish green, with two brown spots on it. 
 It ascends the stalk of wheat, soon after it has headed, cuts off the 
 head, and feeds upon the top of the standing part." 
 
 ( C,) Insects which injure the grain of wheat in the field : 
 
 1. Wheat-fly, Grain-worm, Weevil, (Cccldomayia Tritici.) This is a 
 small fly, one-tenth of an inch long, somewhat resembling a musquito 
 in form, and was probably introduced from England. It is said to have 
 been first seen in America in 1828, in North Vermont, and Lower Can 
 ada. It has since spread to Upper Canada, New York, New Hamp 
 shire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and probably other States ; and has, 
 in some instances, caused the growth of wheat to be relinquished. The 
 female appears from the beginiug of June to the end of August, in the 
 wheat fields, in immense swarms, when they lay their eggs in the open 
 ing flowers of the grain. The eggs hatch in about eight days, and a 
 little yellow maggot is produced. It never exceeds an eight of an inch 
 in length. From two to twenty have been found within the husk of a 
 single grain. They prey on the wheat in its milky state, and stop when 
 it becomes hard; in consequence, the kernels never fill out. Late it) 
 July and early in August, these maggets change their skins and enter 
 the g -ound, where they remain through the winter ; at the depth of 
 an inch. Deep plowing in the fall, and the use of caustic lime as a 
 manure are recommended for their destruction, as the best among many 
 receipts. 
 
 2. Another small fly, very similar in its effects (Tkrips cerealium,) 
 has been met with in New Hampshire. 3. Brown Weevil, Grey Worm, 
 Wheat-worm, (Caradrina cubicularis ?) This, which has proved very 
 injurious in Western New York, Northern Pennsylvania, and other lo 
 calities, has not yet been distinctly recognized as a species, nor is its 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 81 
 
 full history known. It is a catapillnr or apan-worra, from three to five- 
 eighths of an inch long, of various shades of brown or yellow in color. 
 It feeds not only on the kernel in the milky state, but also devours the 
 germinating end of the ripened grain, without burying itself within the 
 hull; and it is found in great numbers in the chaff when the grain is 
 thrashed. They continue to eat the grain after harvest. Hot water 
 should be poured on those met with in thrashing, and none should be 
 allowed to escape. 
 
 (D,) Insects which injure grain in the granary : 
 
 1. The Grain Weevil, (Calandra or Curculio granarius.) This be 
 longs to the same family of insects as the Curculio which destroys 
 plums. In its perfect state it is a slender beetle of a pitchy red color, 
 about an eighth of an inch long. The female deposites her eggs upon 
 the wheat after it is housed, and the young grubs hatched therefrom 
 immediately burrow into the wheat, each individual occupying alone a 
 single grain, the substance of which it devours so as to leave nothing 
 but the hull, and the loss of weight is the only external evidence of the 
 mischief that has been done. The adults also eat the grain. In Eu 
 rope, it has proved peculiarly destructive to stored grain. Roasting or 
 kiln-drying the wheat, effectually destroys the grub. 2. The Grain- 
 moth (Tinea granclla.) 3. The Angoumois moth (Anacampsis cereal- 
 did,} are small moths, resembling the well known carpet-month of 
 houses, the grubs of which prey on stored grain. They have spread 
 very generally over the United States. The last species was probably in 
 troduced into Virginia from France 
 
 There are probably many other insects than the above injurious to 
 Wheat at various stages of its growth ; but unfortunately practical 
 farmers pay little attention to entomology, and are apt to confound not 
 only one known species with another, but also those which are de 
 scribed with those which are not. An intelligent farmer would confer 
 a great benefit on the community were he to study carefully the habits 
 of all insects injurious to vegetation in his own locality, and make the 
 results known. Insects injurious to the farmer appear to be increasing 
 in all parts of this country, and it is very essential that their habits 
 should be accurately studied so that remedies may be devised. It is 
 only by our becoming thoroughly acquainted with the character find 
 peculiarities of our enemies, that we can hope to overcome tliem. Mero 
 guesses, and random experiments, rarely if ever, prove of any benefit. 
 The loss annually sustained by the country in consequence of the de- 
 6 
 
82 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 predations of insects is exceeding great, and is calculated by millions of 
 dollars. 
 
 203. The manufacture of flour is, in itself, a business inde 
 pendent of the farmer. It employs a largo amount of capital, 
 requiring expensive buildings and machinery; and consumes 
 much timber in the making of barrels. It is not necessary to 
 refer to it any further in this place, otherwise than to say that 
 a good farmer will always endeavor to take his wheat to market 
 iu the best and cleanest condition. In 1850, 2,202,335 bar 
 rels of Flour were exported from the United States. 
 
 It is extremely important to the practical farmer to know the cost of producing 
 wheat, so that he may be able to make his calculations, and avoid losses. The Com 
 missioner of Patents has more than once endeavored to acquire a Knowledge of the 
 expense of bringing a bushel of wheat to market, in various parts of the United 
 States ; and though, owing to difficulties in the way, it has been found impossible to 
 arrive at an accurate estimate, the actual cost of every bushel of wheat, to the farmer 
 may be stated to be from 50 cents to $1>8 according to the location, the value of the 
 land, and the need of manure, &c. The following, which is a bonafide account by 
 a very intelligent, practical farmer, may be considered as the actual cost in the older 
 settled parts of Michigan. The field contained 12 and 2-100 acres of land. 
 
 Plowing, 7 days, 3 pair oxen, 1 pair horses, 2 men and 1 boy, - - $21,00 
 
 Harrowing 2 days with team, -..-. 2,00 
 
 Cultivating 2 days, ---... . 2,00 
 
 19> bushels seed at 51,00, - ... 19,50 
 
 Sowing 1 day, ---.-. - - 63 
 
 Cultivating 3 days and harrowing 1 day, - ... 5^0 
 
 Fnrrow ng and cleaning furrows, 2 days, - .... ] ( 50 
 
 Weeding Y t day, - - 31 
 
 Harvesting, &c., 37 days, ....... 32,38 
 
 Team, ------. 1,50 
 
 Thrashing and cleaning, ....... 28,82 
 
 Manures, ...... .. 7^5 
 
 Interest on value of land, ($6 per acre,) . . . 7,55 
 
 $128,95 
 
 The produce was B45 bushels of wheat or about 45 bushels per acre, making the 
 cost about 23 cents a bushel. But if the crop had averaged 90 bushels only, which, 
 on the average is a large crop, it would have cost nearly 54 cents a bushel. And had 
 the crop been smaller still, say 15 bushels per acre, a fair average for the State, it 
 would have cost over 71 cents a bushel, which is more than wheat was then selling 
 for. 
 
 There is one apparent error in this account, and that is in the interest charged 
 upon the lard : land of su h richness, drained; worked, and manured as it must be 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK* 
 
 So produce Snch a crop, and with its share of the necessary buildings, was at tho 
 time worth from $40 to $50 an acre, intrinsically. Say the smallest sum, (f 40,) and 
 die interest charged, instead of being $7,56, ought to have been $48,00 for twelve 
 months-.; but it is usual to charge eighteen months interest on land employed in. 
 growing wheat, or $72,00. This would still further raise the cost of the grain, ou 
 the farm, without allowing anything for profit, or remuneration for skill, or expen 
 ses of marketing. The straw, however, is generally considered an equivalent f<w tte 
 (L. Cone. Tram. r,f Slaic Jgficul^. Soty. of Mcth., !850,^, 4b7j 
 
 AGRICULTURAL 
 
 UBflARy, 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 RYE .(Secalc cereale.) 
 
 204, Next to Wheat, Rye is most consumed by mankind m 
 those latitudes which are too cold for Indian Corn, It is be- 
 Kcved to be a native of Western or Central Asia. 
 
 M. DeCandolk says that a M. Koch, who has traversed Anatolia, Ar 
 menia, the Caucasus, and Crimea, affirms that he has found Ryo under 
 circumstances where it appears to be really spontaneous and native. 
 On the mountains of Pont, in the country of Hemschin, upon granite, 
 at an elevation of five or six thousand feet, he found our common rye 
 along side the road. It was thin in the ear, and about one to two and a 
 half inches long. IToone remembered that it had ever been cultivated in 
 the neighborhood, and it was not even known as a cereal. 
 
 205. It is cultivated, to the North of Europe, in Scandina 
 via, on the western side of the parallel of latitude of 67 N.; 
 and on the eastern side to latitude $5 or 66 N. In Russia, 
 the polar limit of rye is indicated by the parallel of latitude 
 26 30 . It is extensively cultivated in Europe, forming the 
 chief part of the bread of Germany, Poland, Russia, Switzer 
 land, and other countries. In Great Britain, and the southern 
 countries of Europe it is little used. In America, it does no 
 appear to be grown in Pembina, on Red River, in the Hudson 
 Bay Territory, latitude 47 N., A houjrh wheat, barley, maize, 
 tobacco, potatoes, &c., are cultivated with profit. It was in- 
 troducea into the North American colonies soon after their 
 settlement by the Erglkh, into Nova Scotia, 1622 j into 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 85 
 
 New England, 1648, and into South Virginia previous to 
 that year, 
 
 206. The production of rye in the United States decreased in 
 1850, 4,457,000 bushels when compared with 1840 ; but in New 
 York it had been increased in 1850 by about 40 per cent. In 
 1840 the total product of the country was 18,645,567 bushels: 
 in 1850, 14,188,639 bushels. 
 
 The chief Eye producing States are (1850:) 
 
 Pennsylvania, - - 4.805,160 
 New York,- - - 4,148,182 
 Massachusetts, - - 481.021] 
 Virginia, - - - - 458,930j 
 
 BUSHELS. 
 
 Connecticut, - - 600,8 93 
 
 Ohio, - - 425,718 
 
 Kentucky, - - - 415,073 
 
 New Jersey, - - 1,255,57s 
 
 Michigan, - - - 105,871. 
 
 It is grown, more or less, in all the States except California 
 and New Mexico ; but, with two exceptions, (Maryland and North 
 Carolina,) none give over 200,000 bushels. It has been chiefly 
 used for distilling and feeding stock, though bread is made of it 
 in some localities. The export in 1850, was 44,152 bbls. of 
 flour. 
 
 207. There is only one cultivated species, but several varieties : 
 (a,) Common; (b,) Multicole; fa) St John s Day; (d,) Sibe 
 rian; also, fa) Spring, (fj Winter, and (g,) Southern, 
 
 Of the Common (a,) nothing need be said. The Multicofe 
 (many rooted,) (b,) was introduced into this country by means 
 of the Patent Office about 1844-5. It was found to produce 
 heavy crops, and to stool out very perfectly, ten to twenty 
 stalks growing from every seed. It also appears to be well 
 adapted for high northern latitudes. The St. John s Day fa) 
 is a native of the Italian Alps, and was introduced into Eng 
 land about ten years ago for soiling purposes. The seed is very 
 small, dark, and hard, but the straw grows with great rapidity, 
 to a great height, affording a remarkable quantity of green fod 
 der. The Siberian (d,) is a German variety, noted for the gi 
 gantic product of grain and stalk. The grain is large with a 
 
86 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 thin skin, yielding an excellent flour. The other varieties have- 
 arisen from the period of sowing, or climate. 
 
 The yield is from ten to thirty, or more bushels per acre, 
 weighing from 48 to 56 Ihs. per bushel. In Michigan the legal 
 weight of a bushel is 56 Ibs. 
 
 208. Ultimate ANALYSIS of Rye and straw : (Boussin- 
 gault.) 
 
 Carbon, ... 
 
 Hydrogen, 
 
 Oxygen, 
 
 Nitrogen, 
 
 Ash, - 
 
 GRAJX. 
 
 46.35 
 
 5.38 - 
 44.21 
 
 1.69 - 
 
 2.37 
 
 100.00 
 
 STRAW. 
 
 49.88 
 5.58 
 
 40.56 
 0.30 
 3,68 
 
 100.00 
 
 209. Inorganic analysis of the gram of Rye. The grain of 
 Rye leaves 2.425 per cent of ash, which is thus composed: 
 
 Will and Fresenius. Bichon. Mean. 
 
 Potash, - - - 32.76 11.43 22.08 
 
 Soda, .... 4.45 18.89 11.67 
 
 Lime, - - 2.92 7.05 4.93 
 
 Magnesia, - - 10 13 10.57 10.35 
 
 Oxide of iron, - 0.82 1.90 1.36 
 
 Phosphoric acid, - - 4729 51.81 49.55 
 
 Sulphuric acid, 1.46 0.51 0.98 
 
 Silica, - - - 0.17 0.69 0.43 
 
 210. Organic analysis of Rye, dried at 212 F. (Horsford 
 d- Krocker.) 
 
 I Rye flour from 
 Vienna. 
 
 Rye flour from 
 Hohenheim. 
 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 Schilf. 
 
 StondeB. 
 
 Gluten and albumen, 
 
 11.92 
 6091 
 
 18.69 
 5448 
 
 17.73 
 
 45 09 
 
 15.76 
 47 42 
 
 Woody fibre, gum, sugar, 
 Ash. 
 
 24.74 
 1.33 
 
 24.49 
 1.07 
 
 35.77 
 2.43 
 
 35.25 
 2.37 
 
 
 98.90 
 
 98.73 
 
 101.02 
 
 100.80 
 
 13.78 | 14.68 | 1394 | 13.82 
 
 211. It will be observed from the above, that Rye varies 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 87 
 
 much in its composition according to the soil in which it is 
 grown. Hermbstadt experimenting with the grain as he did 
 with wheat (177,) found in 100 parts: 
 
 
 
 be 
 
 s 
 
 ~&~ 
 
 
 
 
 T 
 
 "iT 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 "S 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 J 
 
 i. 
 
 Manured with 
 
 | 
 
 ? 
 
 m 
 
 is 
 
 "Iv 
 
 il 
 
 -a 
 $ 
 
 
 " 
 
 ii 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 s 
 
 j 
 
 P 
 
 sl 
 
 - s 
 
 t 
 K 
 
 1 
 
 ^2 
 t* 1 
 
 3 
 
 Gluten and albumen, - 
 Starch, gum, sugar, fat, - 
 Increase in tfrain, - - 
 
 15.6 
 63.0 
 14 fold. 
 
 15.6 
 63.1 
 
 lb.6 
 62.7 
 
 19 X^f 
 
 592 
 13f 
 
 51.5 
 
 15.1 
 63.1 
 
 t.s^f 
 
 14.7 
 60.8 
 llf 
 
 ISi.P 
 648 
 9f 
 
 11.4 111.2 
 56.0 167.3 
 6f 4f 
 
 212. Inorganic analysis of Rye straw. 100,000 pails of the 
 straw, contain 2793 pails of inorganic matter. (Sprengel.) 
 
 Potash, 
 Soda, - 
 Lime, 
 Magnesia, 
 Alumina, 
 Oxide of iron, 
 
 32 
 
 * 11 
 
 178 
 
 12! 
 
 25 j 
 
 Oxide of manganese, 
 Silica, 
 
 Sulphuric acid, 
 Phosphoric acid, 
 Chlorine, 
 
 2297 
 
 170 
 
 51 
 
 17 
 
 2793 
 
 213. The flour of rye is not white like that of wheat, but has 
 a pretty strong, grayish brown tint, and does not bind so firmly 
 with water. It yields a short, much less tough dough, out of 
 which it is impossible to seperate the gluten from the starch by 
 washing with water. The cause of this is probably to be sought 
 in some peculiarity of the gluten of rye. It contains very little 
 fibrin, and on the contrary a nitrogenous substance, which Heldt 
 has ascertained to be vegetable gelatin. The starch is of the 
 same nature as that contained in other seeds. 
 
 214. Dombaste found that 100 parts of rye flour yielded, 
 when baked, 145 Ibs. of bread, or nearly the same quantity as is 
 yielded by northern wheat Johnston found rye bread, when 
 leavened, to lose 44, when yeasted, 46 per cent, of water. 100 
 Ibs. of flour containing naturally 16 per cent, of water, must 
 then have yiekled from 150 to 160 Ibs. of bread. 
 
 215. The SOILS best adapted for rye are of a light, sandy 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 cliaracter. As wheat is the cereal of the clay, so rye is the ce 
 real of the sandy soils. It will, however, grow well on all soils 
 if rendered suficiently friable, and not damp. 
 
 216. As will be observed by the analysis, (208,) the princi 
 pal inorganic constituents are Potash, Soda, Magnesia, and Phos 
 phoric acid, but the per centage of ash is very small, rarely, if 
 ever, above 2 per cent, of the dry grain. Wood ashes, either 
 unleashed or leached are the most available manures. 
 
 217. Rye is sown as a winter and spring crop, generally as 
 the former. One plowing is given and the seed dragged in. 
 If more care is taken in the preparation of the soil the crop will 
 be larger. It is a custom in some localities to sow rye among 
 standing corn, hoeing it in, and leaving the ground as level as 
 possible. After the corn is removed, the rye is rolled. Har 
 rowing and rolling in the spring, are recommended. 
 
 218. The time of sowing in the fall is, in the Northern States, 
 from 20th August to 20th September. From 1-J to two bush 
 els of seed are sown, the richest lands demanding most. In 
 spring it should be sown as early as the climate will permit. 
 
 219. In other respects, the culture, harvesting, &c., resemble 
 those of wheat. 
 
 220. If cut before fully ripe, the grain makes better flour, 
 and in larger quantity ; but if intended for seed it should be 
 fully ripened. 
 
 221. In some countries, rye and wheat are sown together. 
 In England this mixture is called Mcsling, Mescelin, or Mas- 
 /?, (from an old French word mester, to mingle.) 
 
 222. Rye is frequently sown for fodder, being either pastured 
 during the winter and spring, or cut green for soiling stock in 
 stables. It affords a large amount of valuable food, and the 
 crop of grain is improved by pasturing to a certain point. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 89 
 
 223. It is also employed to plow in as a green manure. In 
 the lighter class of wheat soils, it is recommended, after harvest 
 ing the wheat^ to plow, and sow rye as early as possible ; pasture 
 with sheep and young stock through the winter, and then plow 
 in for a spring crop. This system, alternated with two or more 
 years of grass or clover, will rapidly restore impoverished soil?. 
 For this purpose the Multicole, and probably St. John s Day 
 variety are the best, but we are not aware that the latter has yet 
 been tried in the United States. 
 
 224. There are no weeds peculiar to rye; but those which 
 are troublesome to wheat will generally be found among this 
 grain, according to the season in which it is sown. 
 
 225. The only parasitic fungus affecting rye is ERGOT (Scle- 
 rotium clavis.) 
 
 Ergot is a kind of spur which issues from the grain of rye. It is not 
 a fungus itself, but a morbid growth caused by the existence of minute 
 fungi in the grain. It is not confined to rye alone, but has been ob 
 served occasionally in wheat and barley, and some of the grasses. It 
 is a poison when eaten in bread, producing a spontaneous gangrene, 
 called ergotism. It is also a powerful medicine, for which purpose it was 
 first used iu the United States, in 1807. The composition of the ash of 
 ergot is as follows : (Engelmann.) 
 
 Potash, - - 45.38 j! Sulphuric acid, - 0.02 
 
 Soda, - - - 16.791 1 Chlorine, - - 2.36 
 
 Lime, - - 1.68 1| Silica, - - 15.60 
 
 Magnesia, - - 5.341] 
 
 Oxide of iron, - 2.34J 104.95 
 
 Phosphoric acid, - - 15.44;! 
 
 Per centage of Ash, - 0.36 
 
 It is chiefly found where rye grows in damp adhesive soils. Ani 
 mals should not be allowed to eat it ; as some will do when it is mixed 
 with grain. 
 
 226. There are no insects peculiar to this cereal. 
 
 227. The straw, owing to its length and stiffness, is useful for 
 many economical purposes, but not as good for feeding stock as 
 some other sorts, unless cut and bruised. 
 
90 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-HOOK. 
 
 227* Petri gives an experiment made to ascertain the proper depth 
 for planting rye, as follows : 
 
 Depth of seed, 
 
 % inch. 
 
 1 " 
 
 2 inches. 
 
 3 " 
 
 4 " 
 
 5 " 
 
 6 " 
 
 Appeared above ground in 
 
 Kths. 
 all. 
 
 Jl days. 
 12 
 
 18 
 20 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 7B- 
 
 The root stalk forms itself always next below the surface of the 
 ground ; and if we place the grain deep, it must first put out its sprouts 
 to the surface, and form its side branches in a nearer connection with the 
 air. We never find that the sucker-roots are arranged from below to 
 above, but the contrary. 
 
 No. of plants that came up. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 BARLEY .(Hordeum.) 
 
 228. The native country is unknown. 
 
 229. Barley is cultivated further north than any other of the 
 grains. In Europe, its northern limits are as follows : 
 
 Orkney and Shetland Islands, Lat. 61 N. 
 
 Faroe Islands, - " 61 to 61 15 N. 
 
 Western Lapland, - - " 70 N. 
 
 Russia (White Sea,) - " 67 to 68 N. 
 
 Archangel, - " 68- N. 
 
 Central Siberia, - - - " 58 to 59 N. 
 
 It cannot be grown in Iceland, lat. 63 30 to 66 N". 
 
 In summer mean temperature, the northern limit varies be 
 tween 46 4 and 49 F., in the latter being injured by rains, 
 Its northern limit, in America, does not appear to have been as 
 certained. 
 
 230. It is cultivated in the four quarters of the globe: in 
 Syria and Egypt for more than 3,000 years. 
 
 231. It was introduced into the United States by Gosnold in 
 1602, and by colonists into Virginia in 1611. By the year 
 1648, it was raised in abundance in that colony, but it after/ 
 wards diminished in quantity. 
 
 The annual amount of Barley grown in United States was, in 
 1840, 4,161,504 bushels; in 1850, 5,167,016 bushels. The 
 principal States that produce it are, (1850:) 
 
92 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 New York, 3,585,059 j Pennsylvania, - 165*584 
 
 Maine, - 151,731 
 
 Massachusetts, - 112,385 
 
 - . 354,358 
 
 Wisconsin, - 209,692 
 
 Michigan, . . 75,249 
 
 All the other States, except Florida, Louisiana, and Oregon, 
 raise more or less, though four of them did not produce a thou 
 sand bushels each in 1850. There is little or none exported. 
 It is chiefly consumed in the manufacture of malt and spiritous 
 liquors, while some is fed to hogs and o.her stock. 
 
 232. Six species or varieties are cultivated: 
 
 1. Hordeum distichum. Two-rowed Barley. 
 
 2. gymno-distichwn. Two-rowed naked Barley. 
 
 3. disticho-zeocriton. Two-rowed Sprat, or Battle 
 
 dore Barley. 
 
 4. " hexastichum. Six-rowed Barley. 
 
 5. " gymno-hexasticum. Six-rowed naked Barley. 
 
 6. hexasticho-zeocriton. Six-rowed Sprat> or Bat 
 tledore Barley. 
 
 Of these again, there are some thirty sub-varieties, such as 
 tiie Chevalier Barley; the Hudson s Bay, &c. 
 
 The two-rowed variety is most commonly cultivated. The 
 sub-varieties are distinguished by the quality of their grain, 
 their period of ripening, and productiveness. In mild climates 
 barley is sown, like wheat, in the fall, and is known as winter-bar- 
 ley. Occasionally the color of the corolla is black. In the 
 naked barley, the corolla is not attached to the grain, and it 
 thus resembles wheat. It was introduced into England in 
 
 & 
 
 1768, and is known in the United States, but in neither coun 
 try does it appear to be much cultivated. The Sprat Barley 
 has the spike short and conical, the awns long and spreading, 
 and the seeds more compressed than in the first sort. The 
 straw, also, is very short. It is little cultivated. In six-rowed 
 Barley, three rows of flowers on each side of the spike are fer 
 tile, and consequently three rows of grains on each side are 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 
 
 perfected. The chief sub-variety of this is known as Bere of 
 Bigg. It is more hardy and productive then the two-rowed y 
 and is used for fall sowing. In Europe it is much cultivated; 
 in the United States but little. The yield of Barley is from 
 twenty to sixty bushels per acre, weighing from 45 to 55 Ibs. 
 per bushel according to variety. In Michigan the legal weight 
 of a bushel is 48 Ibs. 
 
 233. Ultimate ANALYSIS of Barley, dry (A,) and with water, 
 (B.) (Thompson.) 
 
 Carbon, - 461 [ 
 
 Hydrogen, 
 
 Nitrogen, - - - 1.91 
 
 Oxvgen, .24 
 
 Ash, - - 3 - 09 
 
 Water, " 
 
 100.00 100.00 
 
 233. Inorganic analysis of Barley. (Thompson,) 
 Silica, -; 29.67 
 
 Phosphoric acid, - 
 Sulphuric acid, 
 
 Chlorine, - - - - 15 
 
 Peroxide of iron, . - - 
 
 Lime, 3 - 23 
 
 Magnesia, - 
 
 Potash, - 
 
 Soda, - 8 86 
 
 Mean of ten analyses of Barley grain, ( Way & Ogaden,) 
 from calcareous soils, Dorset, England: 
 Ashes in 100 parts, ID crop as taken from the ground, 
 Ashes in artificially dried plants, 
 
 Potash, 19 77 
 
 Soda, 3 - <J3 
 
 Magnesia, 8 - 55 
 
 Lime, 2 53 
 
 Phosphoric acid, 
 
$* AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 Sulphuric acid, - 
 
 o i 
 
 Silica, . . . 
 
 Peroxide of iron, . . . . - 1 43 
 
 Chloride of sodium, - .. fc . Q ^ 
 
 In some specimens the chloride of sodium amounted to 1.01, and 
 chloride of potassium to 5.C5 per cent. 
 
 235. Organic analysis of Barley dried at 212 R 
 tr and Horsford, and Thompson.) 
 
 . 
 
 Hnlienhrim. 
 
 ley Hohenheim ] Scotland. 
 
 Gluten anu 
 Starch, - 
 Husk, Gum 
 
 albumen, - 
 , Sugar, 
 
 17.70 
 38.31 
 42.33 
 
 14.72 
 42.34 
 42.46 
 
 15.24 
 39.86 
 46 \9 
 
 Ash, - 
 
 - 
 
 552 
 
 284 
 
 
 Moisture in 
 
 the first irrain, 
 
 1380 
 
 16.79 
 
 12.71 
 
 236. Barley has been less perfectly examined than any of 
 the other cereals, except oats, and the nature of the gluten con 
 tained in them is totally unknown, All that can be said with 
 certainty upon this point is confined to the observation that the 
 gluten of these two grains is mechanically separated with much 
 greater difficulty than that of either wheat or rye; that by the 
 agency of some other substance in the flour, it is almost whol 
 ly dissolved in water, and is much less abundant than in either 
 of the other two. It is also probable that it contains but little 
 fibrin, and resembles in this respect the gluten of rya 
 
 237. Hermbstadt, in experimenting with Barley, found that 
 Che action of nitrogenous manures tends rather to increase thd 
 crop than to the production of gluten. 
 
 238. According to Proust, the greater part of the non-nitro 
 genous constituent in Barley is not starch, although a substance 
 similar to it, but insoluble in boiling water, which he called hor* 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 95 
 
 239. Analysis of Barley straw, (A,) (Fresenius) and awn, 
 (B.) (Way.) 
 
 \ / \ 
 
 A 
 
 Sand and Silica, ... 
 
 43,8 
 
 Potash. 
 
 21.0 
 
 Soda, 
 
 0.8 
 
 Litne, 
 
 7.2 
 
 Magnesia, 
 
 3.3 
 
 Oxide of iron, 
 
 0.2? 
 
 Chloride of Potassium, J . . . 
 
 8.9 
 
 Chloride of Sodium, $ 
 
 
 Phosphoric acid, 
 
 3.1 
 
 Sulphuric acid, 
 
 11.7 
 
 Carbonic acid, - 
 
 
 
 0.8 
 
 7 7 
 0.4 
 
 1(U 
 1.4 
 
 2.0 
 
 240. The value of Barley depends much on the relative 
 hardness of its husk, and this appears to be influenced by soil 
 and manure in its culture. A soft thin skin adapts it better for 
 malting, and a light chalk soil is best suited to produce it of 
 this character. Fromberg has ascertained that the Kard Barley 
 contains less gluten and albumen than the softer kinds : thus 
 be found : 
 
 Nitrogen equal 
 Water. to gluten, &e 
 
 Soft or malting Barley to contain pr.ct., -13.55 10.93 
 
 Flinty or Pot Barley, 13.4 8.03 
 
 The effect of soil upon the Barley crop is known to all practical farm- 
 ergso that, in Great Britain, the terms barley-land and wheat-land are 
 the usual designations for light and heavy soils. On clay lands the pro 
 duce of barley is greater, but it is of a coarser quality and does not malt 
 so well, on loams it is plump and full of meal, and on light chalk soils 
 the crop is light, but the grain is thin in the skin and of a rich color, 
 and well adapted for malting. (Johnston.) 
 
 241. Malt is Barley which has been made to germinate by 
 moisture and warmth, and afterwards dried, by which the vital 
 ity of the seed is destroyed. By this process, a peculiar nitro 
 genous principle, called diastase, is produced. This, though it 
 does not constitute more than l-500th part of the malt, serves 
 
06 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 to affect the conversion of the starch of the seed into dextrine 
 and grape sugar. 100 Ibs. of barley yield about 80 Ibs. of malt, 
 part of which difference is the loss of the water previously con 
 tained in the barley. Thompson gives the following compara 
 tive table of barley ; and malt made from the same grain ; show 
 ing the change which takes place in the organic constituents : 
 
 Carbon - 
 Hydrogen - 
 Kitrogen 
 Oxygen --..-- 
 Ash 
 Water 
 
 , 
 
 BARLEY. 
 
 MALT. 
 
 41.64 
 .02 
 1.81 
 37.66 
 3.41 
 9.46 
 
 33.95 
 5.31 
 0.88 
 34.46 
 1.34 
 4.06 
 
 100.00 
 
 80.00 
 
 Or the loss sustained by barley in malting may be stated 
 follows : 
 
 Water, 
 
 Saline matter, 
 Organic matter, 
 
 6.00 percent. 
 0.48 
 12.52 
 
 242. Barley is rarely or never used in America and Great 
 Britain as bread, but it is eaten in soups and given to the sick 
 as Pot and Pearl Harley, in which condition it is considered 
 very nourishing. This form is produced, by nibbing the grains 
 in an appropriate machine, till they are deprived of the husk 
 and outer coats, and become spherical. Such barley is generally 
 imported into the United States from Scotland, but there is no 
 reason why it should not be prepared here. A porridge mack 
 of barley meal is used in Scotland. 
 
 243. The quantities of mineral matter removed from the acre 
 by a crop of 40 Imperial Bushela of Barley, and 2650 Ibs. of 
 straw are as follows : 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 97 
 
 
 By the Grain. 
 
 By the Straw. 
 
 TOTAL. 
 
 Potash 
 
 7.24 Ibs. 
 
 10.29 Ibs. 
 
 17.53 Ibs. 
 
 &oda - 
 
 4.32 " 
 
 0.92 " 
 
 5.24 " 
 
 Magnesia - 
 Phosphoric acid 
 Sulphuric acid - 
 Chlorine 
 
 3.97 " 
 20.74 " 
 0.05 
 0.02 " 
 
 5.25 " 
 6.02 
 2.66 " 
 1.58 " 
 
 9.22 " 
 25.76 " 
 2.71 
 1.60 " 
 
 
 36.34 Ibs. 
 
 25.72 Ibs. 
 
 62.06 Ibs. 
 
 244. As has been already observed, Barley succeeds best 
 on lands more sandy and lighter than those adapted for wheat, 
 yet containing a good proportion of calcareous matter. In the 
 United States it is always sown in the spring ; and in the North 
 ern States, the earlier it is in the ground the better, so that it- 
 may have a lone: period of growth. Unless the soil is very 
 light, it is well to plow in the fall, and again in the spring, and 
 to render the earth mellow by the use of the cultivator and 
 harrow before sowing* For a good crop the land should bo 
 rendered rich by previous manuring; but barn-yard manure ap 
 plied directly to the crop is supposed to be injurious. From 
 two to three bushels of seed are generally sown to the acre ; and 
 the land should be rolled immediately, or, which is perhaps pre 
 ferable, as soon as the young plant is from one to two inches 
 high. The productiveness of barley appears to depend much 
 upon rolling. Judge Buel, of Albany, N. Y., recommends 
 steeping the seed in a weak solution of Saltpetre (Nitrate of 
 Potash or Soda,) for twenty-four hours; and some use the 
 black water which collects in barn-yards around manure-heap 
 for the same purpose. 
 
 245* Barley is known to be ripe by the disappearance of the 
 reddish hue on the ear; and by the ears beginning to droop 
 against the stem. Unless intended for seed, it should be cut 
 before it is fully ripe, both on account of the better quality and 
 weight of the grain, and to prevent waste by shelling. 
 7 
 
98 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK- 
 
 246. Harvesting of barley is the same as of other grains, ex 
 cept that it sometimes happens that the straw is too short for 
 cradling, when it may be mowed and raked into bundles to dry. 
 
 247. The straw is used for fodder and litter, but for the for 
 mer purpose is not so good as wheat and oat straw. 
 
 248. It is the best grain with which to sow grass and clover 
 seed. 
 
 249. There are no weeds peculiar to this crop. 
 
 250. The only parasitic fungus which usually attacks barley 
 is the smut ( Slack Heads,") Uredo segetum, (197, c,) but in 
 some parts of the United States this has proved very injurious, 
 especially on the six-rowed varieties. 
 
 251. In New England, barley has, at times, suffered severely 
 from the Joint- worm (Eurytoma,) (201, b, 2.) Other insects 
 may probably injure the crop, but they do not appear to have 
 been described. 
 
CHAPTER IX, 
 
 OATS . Aveiia. 
 
 252. Tlio Oat is supposed to be a native of Asia* A species 
 4s found wild in California. 
 
 253. The Northern limits of this grain in Europe appear to 
 be in 
 
 Scotland, - - - Lat. 58 40 N, 
 
 Norway, - Lat. 56 
 
 Sweden, Lat. 63 30 
 
 Russia, Lat. 62 30 
 
 It is extensively cultivated in the Northern, but not in the 
 Southern parts of Europe, It grows well in Bengal, India, 
 lat. 25 N. In America it is cultivated as far as settlements 
 extend Northwards. It was introduced into the United States 
 at the same time as Rye. In this country it is confined prin 
 cipally to the middle, western, and northern States. Its profit 
 able production would appear to depend much on the frequen 
 cy of rain during its growth. 
 
 254. The total produce of the United States in 1840 was 
 123,071,341 bushels, in 1850, 146,678,879 bushels. 
 
 The chief oat-producing States are (1850:) 
 flew York, - 26.552,814 buah.j {Illinois, - - 1 0,087.24 1 busk 
 Pennsylvania, - 21,538,156 " Kentucky, - - 8.201,311 
 
 Ohio, - - 13,,472,742 
 Virginia, - - 10,179,045 
 
 Tennessee, - 7,703.086 
 Misssouri, - - 5,278,079 
 
 Michigan, - 2,866,056 bush. 
 
 All the other States produce more or teas,- fifteen of them 
 from one to four millions of bushels. With the exception of 
 
about 60,000 bushels used in making liquors, the wnole is con 
 sumed in feeding stock. There is scarcely any exported, 
 355, Fire species are cultivated: 
 
 1. Avena strigosa. Bristle -poiMed Oat- 
 
 2. Avena brevis, Short Oat 
 
 3. Avena saliva* Common Oat/ 
 
 4. Avena orientalis. Tartarian Oat 
 
 5. Avena nuda. Naked Oat 
 
 These again are divided into many varieties/ 
 
 The first two are of inferior quality, but hardy, fteing cu^ti- 
 tated in the mountainous parts, the one of Scotland, the other 
 of France. The common oat is best known,- and has been muck 
 improved by careful culture. The Tartarian oat, has its pan 
 icles shorter than the last, nearly of equal length, all on the same 
 side of the rachis (flower stalk) and bearded, It is so hardy 
 sea to thrive in soils and climates where the other grains cannot 
 1)0 raised, It is much cultivated in England and not at all in 
 Scotland. " It is a coarse grain more fit for horse feed than to* 
 make into meal," (Stephens.) The corolla is frequently 
 Black, The naked oat, like wheat and naked barley/ has thcr 
 corolla detached from the seed. It has long been cultivated in 
 Europe, and it is said to t>e productive/ and the meal to t>e fine, 
 The popular varieties such as the Potato, Hopetown, Georgian, 
 .Siberian, Dyock oate, &c., belong to the common oat, (3) 
 
 256, In Scotland the oat yields very large crops, from 36 to 
 ll 4 bushels per English acre. In the United States, the crop 
 probably does not much exceed 30 bushels per acre, except in 
 Very favorable localities ; but 90 bushels per acre have been 
 raised, and prize crops of 60 to 75 bushels alre not uncommon/ 
 The soil and climate of Michigan are not favorable to it, Th# 
 weight^ per bushel, varies from 30 to 48 Ibs., according to variV 
 ty and culture. In Michigan, the legal weight of a bushel i 
 32 Ibs. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 10! 
 
 .Stephens says that in Scotland : 
 
 The potato oat, weighing 47 Ibs. per bushel, gives 806,144 grains per 
 
 bushel. 
 
 The Siberian early oat, -weighing 46 Ibs. per bushel, gives 641,792 
 
 grains per bushel. 
 
 White Tartarian oat, weighing 42 Ibs. per bushel, gives 731,136 grams 
 per bushel. 
 
 257. Ultimate ANALYSIS of the grain (A,) and straw (B,) of 
 oats ( Boussingault.) One part of dried oats leaves 0.0398 of 
 ;ash : one part of straw leaves 0.0509 of ash. 
 
 A B 
 
 Carbon, - 51.09 50.21, 
 
 Hydrogen, - - 6-44 5.48 
 
 Oxygen, - - - 35.25 38.80 
 
 Nitrogen, - - - 2.24 0.38 
 
 , 398 5.09 
 
 100.00 100.0 
 
 258. Inorganic analysis of oat grain. ( Way & Qgsdeu* 
 ;and Norton.) 
 
 
 rf 
 1 
 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 S 
 
 
 
 If 
 
 ci 
 
 ^1 
 
 iii 
 
 h 
 
 
 
 | 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 s 
 
 -S r 
 
 t<-i S "S 
 
 C 
 
 30, 
 
 
 | 
 
 1 
 
 "0 
 
 c 
 j 
 
 O ~ 
 
 "3 3 
 "o 
 
 II 
 
 sic 
 
 53 iO 
 
 C; , P 
 
 IIS 
 
 
 9 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 PH 
 
 
 aa 
 
 s 
 
 
 A&hesin 100 p&rtsin crop ? 
 as taken from ground > 
 
 2.27 
 
 2.45 
 
 2.65 
 
 2.22 
 
 2.14 
 
 2.90 
 
 2.18 
 
 6.7 
 
 Ashes in artificially <Med < 
 
 2.50 
 
 973 
 
 2.97 
 
 
 
 
 
 3.02 
 
 
 
 
 
 plants, 5 
 Potash - 
 
 17.80 
 
 19.70 
 
 24.30 
 
 21.22 
 
 31.15 
 
 16.76 
 
 26.18 
 
 8.13 
 
 Soda - 
 
 3.84 
 
 1.35 
 
 5.51 
 
 
 
 
 
 2.49 
 
 
 
 
 
 Magnesia - 
 
 7.33 
 354 
 
 8.25 
 1.31 
 
 8.26 
 2.65 
 
 11.26 
 6.69 
 
 8.64 
 5.21 
 
 7.70 
 3.92 
 
 9.95 
 5.95 
 
 l. t 
 3.!.S 
 
 Phosphoric -s.cid - 
 Sulphuric *cid 
 Silica - 
 
 26.46 
 1.10 
 
 38.48 
 
 18.87 
 0.10 
 50.03 
 
 14.49 
 1.74 
 
 41.86 
 
 38.48 
 18.36 
 3.60 
 
 49.19 
 2.54 
 1.73 
 
 18.19 
 1.29 
 
 47.08 
 
 43.84 
 10.45 
 267 
 
 1.54 
 6.4f; 
 76,1 
 
 {Peroxide of iron 
 
 0.49 
 
 0.27 
 
 0.69 
 
 
 0.80 
 
 0.64 
 
 0.40 
 
 1.32 
 
 Chloride of sodiam 
 
 0.92 
 
 0.07 
 
 0.45 
 
 
 
 
 
 0.20 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chloride of potassrara - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 ~ 
 
 0.14 
 
 
 
 259. Inorganic analysis of oat straw, (Mean of Levi and 
 BoussiugaulL) 
 
102 
 
 AGRICULTURAL 72XT-BOGK. 
 
 Potash, 
 Soda, 
 Lime, 
 Magnesia, 
 Oxide of irr/n, 
 Phosphoric acid, 
 Sulphuric acid, 
 Chlorine, 
 Silica, - 
 
 39.14 
 9.69 
 8.Q7 
 3.78 
 1.83 
 2.56 
 3.26 
 325 
 
 48.42 
 
 100.00 
 
 The nutritive matter afforded by an acre o oat straw weigh ing 2700 Ibs- 
 is, of husk or woody fibre 1210 Ibs. ; of starch, sugar, Ac., 950 Ibs. ; of 
 gluten, &c., 36 Ibe.; of oil or fat, and of saline matter 175 Ibs. (Sts- 
 pkens.) 
 
 260. Organic analysis of four varieties of Scotch oats, (Nor 
 ton and Fromlerg,) viz: Hopetown oats, Northumberland, 
 (A,) Hopetown oats, Ay shire, (B,) Hopetown oats Ayrshire 
 (C,) Potato oats, Northumberland (D.) 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 
 
 D. 
 
 Starch 
 
 _ 
 
 65.24 
 
 64.80 
 
 64.79 
 
 65.60- 
 
 Sugar 
 
 - 
 
 4.51 
 
 2.58 
 
 2.09 
 
 0.80 
 
 Gum - 
 
 _ 
 
 2.10 
 
 2.41 
 
 2.12 
 
 2.28 
 
 Oil 
 
 - 
 
 5.44 
 
 6.97 
 
 6.41 
 
 7.38 
 
 Avenin, 1 
 
 
 C 15.76 
 
 16.26 
 
 17.72 
 
 16.29 
 
 Albumen > 
 
 nitiogciious 
 
 < 0.4S 
 
 1.29 
 
 1.76 
 
 2.17 
 
 Gluten, ) 
 
 compounds, 
 
 ( 2.47 
 
 1.46 
 
 1.33 
 
 1.45 
 
 Epidermis 
 
 (or skin) - 
 
 1.18 
 
 2.39 
 
 2.84 
 
 2.28. 
 
 Alkaline salts and loss, 
 
 2.84 
 
 1.84 
 
 0.94 
 
 1.75 
 
 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 | 100.00 
 
 From these analysis it appears that the oat is very rich in 
 oily matters and flesh-forming compounds. 
 
 Avenin is a substance resembling casein (or cheese -when chemically 
 pure) precipitated by acetic acid from the aqueous solution of oat meal. 
 It appears to differ but slightly from albumen in its ultimate composi 
 tion ; and in its utility, as food, it is probably rather more nourishing. 
 
 261. The proportions of nitrogen aud protein (flesh-forming} coia- 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 103 
 
 pounds in nine specimens of oats have been determined as follows: 
 (Norton.) 
 
 1 =^ | Oat* 
 
 Hopetownoats Potato oats Oats from i Wig- 1 from 
 tonshire. Scotl dl^Y. 
 
 otein 01 
 
 . 2.351 a.JW| 2761 2.82 
 14.0 \4.7H\ 14.04 1 1 7-36J17.77 
 
 *. 13 
 
 2b9] 6.611 2.491 30<> 
 18.24 28.0lh5.66J 18-86 
 
 The relative proportions of nitrogen and protein compounds in the 
 husk, (A,) grain (B,) and whole oat (C,) areas follows : 
 
 A B C 
 
 Nitrogen, - - 0.30 282 
 
 Protein compounds, - - 1-88 17.77 
 
 The mean of eight samples of Scotch oats gave Mr. Norton 
 Grain, - 7G 28 
 
 Husk, - - 23 6B 
 
 The maximum of husk being 28.2, and the minimum 22.0. Fresh 
 oats contain from 16 to 21 per cent of water. 
 
 The organic composition of the Husk is : 
 
 Hopetown Oat. Potato Oat. 
 
 Oil, - - 1-50 0.92 
 
 Sugar and gum, - - 0.47 
 
 Gluten and coagulated albumen, 
 
 Cellulose,- - 89.68 89.46 
 
 Saline matter, (ash,) - - 6.47 
 
 262. Animal manures increase the crop and weight of the 
 husk rather than the proportion of gluten. 
 
 2G3. In America, oats are used solely for feeding animals, 
 and for this purpose they are equal to any other grain; com 
 bining the largest amount of useful qualities. For horses do 
 ing hard work, or wliere great speed is required nothing can 
 replace them; and as the proportion of oil which they contain 
 is but little inferior to that in Indian corn, while it is probably- 
 more readily digested and received into the system, they are 
 used with great advantage for fattening hogs and other stock. 
 For this purpose, however, owing to the hard husk, they ought 
 to be crushed, and are preferable if boiled. 
 
 Where crushing or grinding cannot be effected, boiling serves nearly 
 as good a purpose. 
 
 
- AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 The peculiar form of the casein or avenin appears to gire 
 oats a nourishing power little inferior to that of animal food. 
 
 In Ireland, Scotland, and other countries, oat meal constitutes almost 
 the entire food of the majority of the people ; and those who live on it 
 are not only phjbically perfect, but are able to undergo great exertion, 
 and bear up against severe exposure and hardship. Owing to the small 
 proportion of gluten, yeast-bread cannot be made with oat meal as with 
 wheat flour, and it is usually eaten boiled, or made into thin cakes, dried 
 in the air. Before grinding, it is necessary to kiln-dry oats ; and they 
 are ground in a mill constructed for the purpose, the mill-stones being 
 different from those used in flouring mills. 
 
 264. Oats will grow upon almost any kind of soil, but the 
 clays, and loams that are sufficiently retentive of moisture are 
 the most favorable. 
 
 Owing to this facility of cultivation less pains are frequently 
 bestowed upon this crop than upon others ; though it will well 
 repay proper culture. 
 
 There is a prevalent notion that oats particularly exhaust the 
 soil on which they are grown, but we believe it to be a mistake. 
 The form of the roots, however, predisposes the soil to collect 
 in clods, and hard lumps, which are afterwards broken with dif 
 ficulty, and unless these are carefully disintegrated, they may 
 probably affect the succeeding crop injuriously. Barley, on the 
 contrary, seperates the soil, rendering it mellow with its roots. 
 As a mechanical agent, therefore, the roots of the oat plant may 
 act unfavorably. The different varieties, containing such dif 
 ferent proportions of organic constituents, are adapted to dif 
 ferent soils and circumstances. 
 
 2G5. A crop of 50 bushels of oats, and 3800 Ibs. of straw 
 takes from the acre of soil the following quantities : 
 
 By the prain. By the stravr. Tofnl. 
 
 Potash and soda, - - 10.88 Ibs. 64 78 Ibs. 75 66 Ibs 
 
 Magnesia, - 3.52 " 8.95 " 1247 " 
 
 Phosphoric acid, 14.48 " 5.38 " 19.86 " 
 
 Sulphuric acid, - . 528" 9.95" 1523" 
 
 Chlorine, - - 0.35 " 8.51 " 886 " 
 
 34.51 Ibs. 97.57 Ibs. 132~081bs. 
 
 (Stephens.) 
 
o v/ 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. o 
 
 ; 
 
 266. In the northern States, oats are always |bwn in spring, 
 from the commencement of vegetation to the begining of June;. 
 They are a favorite crop to sow upon plowed so5f u: ^EJ3ji > .^uaTi- 
 tity of seed varies from two to four bushels an acre; in Scot 
 land six bushels are sown ; under most circumstances, the larger 
 quantity is preferable. The seed should be well harrowed in 
 and rolled. 
 
 267. The best time for harvesting is before the grain isquito 
 ripe, and while the straw is partially green. Oats may be cut 
 with a sickle, cradle, scythe, or machine; but should be left for 
 a few days in swath, before binding, when the grain will ma 
 ture. Oats thus cut before they are quite ripe are larger, and 
 heavier, while the straw, as fodder, is more nutritious. Oats, 
 cut as above, do not appear to be inferior in any respect. 
 (312.) 
 
 268. Oat straw is more esteemed for fodder than that of 
 wheat, barley, or rye. According to experiments made in Ger 
 many by Viet, 200 Ibs. of oat straw with the chaff are equiva 
 lent to 100 Ibs. of good hay, though, for the United States, this 
 estimate is probably too low. If not too ripe when cut, and if 
 saved in good condition, cattle in stables can be kept during 
 winter in improving condition upon this straw alone. Late ex 
 periments in Scotland have proved oat-straw to be fully equal to 
 hay for animals fattening on roots. 
 
 169. In this country, there is no insect peculiarly injurious 
 to oats. In common with other grains, it occasionally suffers 
 from the Wire worm. 
 
 270. Smut (Black heads,) (Ifredo SegetumJ appears to be 
 the only fungus to which it is generally subject, and this, rarefy, 
 to any great extent. 
 
 271. There are no weeds peculiar to this crop. 
 
 In soils where Wild Mustard (Sinapis arvensis,} and Wild Radish 
 (Raphanus raphanistrum,) are abundant, oats are perhaps more seri- 
 
106 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 ously inj iired than any other grain. As many persons are ignoranthow 
 to root out these weeds, it may be well to copy the following rules by 
 a late French writer in the Annalcs dc I agriculture, wbo had been en 
 tirely successful in clearing a farm overrun with them. 
 
 1 . Plow very deep, so as to give all the seeds within reach of the 
 plow facilities for germinating. 
 
 2. JIarrow the ground till every clod is bioken, for the seeds are of 
 ten retained in clods, and only germinate when these are disintegrated 
 by rain, (fee., or by artificial means. 
 
 3. Cultivate two hoed crops before grain is sown, and do not allow a 
 single plant of mustard to so to seed. 
 
 4. For the third crop, grow oats, drilled at a sufficient distance to per 
 mit hand hoeing between the rows. 
 
 By using these means, and not allowing a single plant to seed, the 
 worst fields may be cleared in three or four years. It is important 
 that the first plowing should be deeper than any succeeding one, as the 
 soil frequently contains the seeds to a great depth, which will germin 
 ate as soon as exposed to the air. 
 
 Of course it is requisite that all grain sown should be quite free from 
 the seeds of the mustard. 
 
 272. Common salt, from four to eight bushels per acre spread three 
 or four days before the seed is sown, and lightly harrowed in, has been 
 found an useful manure for oats, especially at a distance from the sea. 
 It supplies the soda, chlorine, and magnesia ; it retains moisture in the 
 soil ; it acts as a solvent on the other constituents of the earth; and gen 
 erally strengthens the straw. We warmly recommend a trial of it in 
 those parts of Michigan where the oat crop is apt to fail. Wood ashes 
 also (unclenched) aie a valuable manure, especially in sandy soils, for 
 oats. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 INDIAN CORN. MAIZE. Zea Mays. 
 
 273. The origin of the word "Maize" is from the Haytien 
 mahiz. This grain is a native of the American continent, and 
 was unknown to the rest of the world till the discoveries of 
 Columbus. It is still found growing wild from the Rocky 
 Mountains to Paraguay, but in this state, instead of having each 
 grain naked, it is completely covered with glumes or husks. 
 A variety of the wild corn has been cultivated of late years in 
 the northern States, under the name of " Texas corn." This 
 grain was found by the first European explorers of the contin 
 ent to be everywhere cultivated by the natives. 
 
 Only one species has usually been recognized in this country, but 
 the late M. Bonafous, director of the Royal Agricultural Garden of Tu 
 rin, in his Histoire nalurelle agricole et economique du Mais, describes 
 four distinct species, viz : 
 
 1 . ZEA MAYS with leaves entire. 
 
 2. ZEA CARAGUA, with leaves denticulated. 
 
 3. ZEA HIRTA, with hairy leaves. 
 
 4. ZEA ERYTHROLEPIS, with grains compressed, and red glumes 
 (husks.) 
 
 From these, but especially the first, all the varieties at present culti 
 vated have sprung. 
 
 274. It has a wide range of temperature in America, flour 
 ishing from about 40 of Southern to beyond the 45 of 
 Northern latitude. In Mexico its highest limits vary from 2000 
 to 8000 feet above the level of the sea ; and the time 
 necessary for it to ripen differs from six weeks to seven months 3 ac- 
 
, 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 cording to the moan temperature. In Europe, it is grown from 
 the shores of the Mediterranean as far north as the Nether 
 lands. The region of cultivation appears to be gradually ex 
 tending further north; probably by the origin of new and 
 hardy varieties. It is also grown in Northern, Southern, and 
 Western Africa, India, China, Japan, Australia, the Sandwich 
 Islands, the Azores, the Madeiras, the Canaries, and numerous 
 other ocean islands. With the exception of Rice, it is the food 
 of a larger number of human beings than any other grain. 
 
 275. In the United States, it was first cultivated by the Eng 
 lish on James River, Virginia, 1608; the Indian mode being 
 closely followed,. Since then it has been everywhere a favorite 
 crop, and annually a larger quantity is produced. The increase 
 from 1840 to 1850 was 214,000,000 bushels, equal to 56 per 
 cent over the former period. In New England it has increased 
 nearly 50 per cent, ; and no State has retrograded. 
 
 The following is the production of the most important States 
 according to the census of 1840 and 1850: 
 
 New York, 
 
 10,972,286 
 
 17,858,400 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 14.240,022 
 
 19,835,214 
 
 Maryland, 
 
 8,233,086 
 
 11,104,631 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 34.577,591 
 
 35,254,319 
 
 North Carolina, 
 
 23,893,763 
 
 27,941,051 
 
 Georgia, 
 
 20,905,122 
 
 30,080.099 
 
 Alabama, 
 
 20,947,004 
 
 28,754,048 
 
 Mississippi, 
 
 13,161,237 
 
 22,446,552 
 
 Tennessee, 
 
 44,986,188 
 
 52.276,223 
 
 Kentucky, 
 
 39.847,120 
 
 58,675,591 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 33,668,144 
 
 59,078,695 
 
 Indiana, 
 
 28,155,887 
 
 52.964.363 
 
 Illinois, 
 
 22,634,211 
 
 57,646,984 
 
 Missouri, 
 
 17,332,524 
 
 36,214,537 
 
 Michigan, 
 
 2,277,039 
 
 5,641,420 
 
 Total production of the United States in 1850, 592,326,612, 
 bushels, which at the low average of ten cents per bushel on 
 the farm, gives an annual return of $59,232,661 in this one 
 crop alone. The corn crop, however, represents not only the 
 vegetable food of man, but also animal food in the shape of 
 
AGJttCtJLTURAl ?EXT-B0O, 
 
 p c/rk and beef ; and also various manufactures, such as oil, stea- 
 rine, bristles, Prussian Blue, &c. ; and large quantities of valu 
 able manure f in the shape .ot refuse and oftal, In one or other 
 of these forms, a large amount of corn is annually exported to 
 foreign countries ; and the industry of the United States greatly 
 depends upon it, The same evils, however, which attached to 
 the growth of the potato in Ireland, may, it is feared, hereafter 
 follow the great production of corn in those States where it i 
 most easily raised. 
 
 276, The varieties are very numerous, depending upon the 
 character of the soil and climate, from the small shrubby corn 
 of Northern Canada to the gigantic stalks of the Southern 
 States ; and the composition and nutritive qualities of the grain 
 tary in like proportion. In practice this is a very important, 
 fact, as the nutritive value of corn is constantly varying according 
 to circumstances. 
 
 (A) The Phosphates differ in quantity according to variety. Sued 
 Corn appears to contain the most. Dr. Jackson analyzed two grains of 
 corn (theTuscaroraand Sweet Corn)grown on the same eaf, and he found 
 nearly double the amount of phosphates in the latter, showing that even 
 when mixed, so as to grow on the same plant, each variety retains its 
 power of select ng its appropriate quantity of inorganic salts. A crop 
 of Sweet Corn will take twice as much of the phosphates from the soil 
 as the other variety, but at the same time will give more material to 
 the animal for the formation of bone, On the same principle the 
 stiffness of the joints and lameness of the feet common in horses fed 
 too freely with corn may be explained, these affections arising from an 
 unnatural giowth of bone procured from the corn. 
 
 (B.J The proportion of Starch changes according to the variety and 
 climate. Southern Corn contains more than Northern. Tuscarora con 
 tains the most of any variety elamined. Rice Corn, and Pop Cora 
 contain the least. 
 
 ((7.) The relative proportions of oil and gluten also vaiy in the same 
 manner. Rice Corn contains the most oil ; Pop Corn, Canada Corn, 
 and Brown Corn rank next. Burden Corn has a very fine white oil- 
 
110 AGRICtrLTtrfcAL TEXT-BOOK 
 
 Tviscarora Corn docs not contain either oil or gluten.* There is a dif* 
 forence also in the mode, of distribution of the oily and glutinous parts 
 of corn ; the Southern and Dert varieties having the oil and gluten on, 
 the sides of the elongated seed, while the starch projects quite through 
 the grain to its summit, and by its contraction in dry ing, produces the pe> 
 culiar pit or depression in this variety of grain. Popping Corn contains 
 the oil in little six-sided cell<* in the horny portions of the grain, in the 
 form of minute drops. When heated, the oil is decomposed into car- 
 buretted hydrogen gas, and e^ery cell is ruptured, the grain being com* 
 pletely voluted. 
 
 (D.) The meal of those varieties containing much oil is less liable to 
 ferment and become sour. 
 
 (E.) The colors depend upon that of the hull and of the oil ; the 
 latter, when yellow showing its color through a transpa:ent epidermis 
 (or skin.) The color of the oil varies much in different varieties. Red 
 and blue corn owe their hues to the colors of the epidermis. 
 
 (F.) The oil appears to reside chiefly immediately under the hull, so 
 that when animals do not digest the outer coating of the grain, as is the 
 case when corn is fed unground to hogs, much of the oil is lost. 
 
 ((7.) The inorganic salts, and especially the phosphates appear to be 
 confined to the chit and germ. (Jackson.) 
 
 (H.) The large eight-towed yellow corn contains 13.9 per cent, of 
 albumen, Casein, and gluten, while the Sioux contains 16.5 per cent, of 
 the same. 
 
 The eight-rowed Squaw Corn contains G0.6 per cent> of starch, sugar, 
 oil, and gum, while the eightrowed small white Flint contains 76.6 per 
 cent of the same. If the Squaw Corn is worth fifty cents a bushel for 
 fattening, the Flint would be equally cheap at fifty-eight cents a bushel. 
 (Gould.) 
 
 *There are apparently two sorts of corn known as the " Tuscarora" the one men 
 tioned above as devoid of oi!, if the analysis is correct > and one analyzed by Dr 
 Salisbury (Known also as " Turkey Wheat,") which contains 5.32 per cent, of oil, 
 calculated without the water. "What we ourselves have grown as " Tuscorora," was 
 a peculiarly dry, starchy grain> with a thin skin, apparently deficient in oil. We 
 would here refer the reader to the admirable Essay on Corn by Dr. Salisbury, con 
 taining the most complete and accurate examination of this grain perhaps ever mad?) 
 in the Transactions of the New York State Agricultural Society, vol. viii, 1848. It 
 occupies 199 closely printed octavo pages ; and we would willingly have extracted 
 more from it had our limits permitted. As these volumes, however, are not difficult 
 to meet with, we prefer referring the reader to the Essay itself, as any quotations 
 must prove deficient without the context 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-COOK. Ill 
 
 Froln these facts it will be perceived how important it is that 
 the farmer should study the adaptation of variety to the pur 
 pose intended in consumption. If he wishes to give young an 
 imals large bones, let him feed them on Sweet Corn; but at the 
 same time manure the soil with dissolved bones, or other phos 
 phate-bearing manures. He would endeavor in vain to fatten 
 animals with the Tuscarora, as it contains no oil, while it makes 
 the best bread, and is peculiarly adapted for the manufacture of 
 corn starch. Again, the hard northern gluten-bearing corns 
 are better for working animals than the southern-starch bearing 
 varieties, though the latter, independent of the oil, will make 
 most fat, the former most flesh. An accurate analysis of all 
 varieties grown in the United States would be of great pecuni 
 ary value to the country. 
 
 277. The varieties of corn are generally distinguished by 
 (a,) the number of rows of grain in the ear, as eight, twelve, 
 fourteen, and sixteen-rowed ; or by (b,) the color, as white, yel 
 low, brown, &c., but none of the common divisions are either 
 accurate or scientific. It were useless to recite the names of 
 the many varieties, the more especially as they are constantly 
 changing by hybridizing. It may be noticed that northern 
 com will improve, if removed southwards, in size and product 
 iveness, but southern corn taken to the north will either not 
 ripen at all, or soon degenerate. 
 
 The origin of Su-eet Corn is unknown, but it appears to have been 
 Used by the Indians of New England before the arrival of the Pilgrims, 
 It appears like an unripe grain ; and contains an unusually large pro 
 portion of the Phosphates, and a large quantity of sugar and gum with 
 but little starch ; while the stalks, being small, take up a less propor 
 tion of the saline matters of ihe soil. 
 
 278. The qualities desirable in a good variety differ accord 
 ing to the soil and climate. In the Central and Southern 
 States the following may be laid down as peculiarities to be 
 attained : (a,) good growth of stalk and leaf; (b,) several ears 
 
112 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 on each stalk; ("c,j cob small, but long, and grains long and 
 numerous ; (d,) husk thick and hard so as to shed water, and 
 resist the attacks of birds ; (e,) ripening sufficiently early to es 
 cape early frosts. In the Northeastern States, corn with a short 
 light stalk, but with suckers, or supernumerary stalks bearing 
 ears, as in the Dutton, is preferred* 
 
 279, The weight of a bushel of corn greatly varies. The 
 legal weight in Michigan is 56 Ibs, to the bushel. It is stated 
 that corn on the cob loses 20 to 50 per cent* in measure by 
 shrinkage in seven months, and 10 to 15 per cent, in weight. 
 When sold on the cob by the bushel, 2 to l bushels of ears 
 are equivalent to one bushel of shelled corn according to variety, 
 In the Southern States it is frequently measured by the barrel 
 of. five bushels. 
 
 280 The yield to the acre varies from 20 to 200 bushels of 
 shelled corn. 
 
 The following premium crops of corn were grown in Kentucky in 
 1859. There were nine competitors, and the surface in cultivation tea 
 acres by each competitor. 
 
 J. Mataon, 189 bushels, I quart per acre, 
 
 P.Pean, - 189 
 
 S. H. Chew, - 137> " 
 
 J. Hutchcraft, - - 115 
 
 A.Vanmeter, 108}:, " " 
 
 E. Hedges, - 107 " " 
 
 . W. Hockaday, - 100 " 
 
 Dr. B. W. Dudley, - - 100 
 
 II. Varnon, - 98 " 
 
 nr, 11,440 bushels 10 quarts shelled corn oft 90 acres, perhaps the largest 
 quantity ever raised from the same area. ( D> Lee.) But it shows what 
 corn can produce under good cultivation and favorable circumstances. 
 
 281. I. Inorganic ANALYSIS of white Flint corn, sown on a 
 andy loam and manured in part with coal ashes^ (Salisbury,) 
 New York r 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 113 
 
 
 Keriii-ls. 
 
 Lwiven. 
 
 Cob 
 
 Silica, >*; v 
 
 9.50 
 
 53.550 
 
 13.600 
 
 Alkaline Phosphates, * ? 
 Earthy Phosphates, - * $ 
 Lime, - - < 
 
 35.500 < 
 0.160 
 
 19.250 
 6.092 
 
 23.920 
 0.300 
 
 Magnesia, - 
 Potsish, 
 
 2.410 
 23 920 
 
 1250 
 12.762 
 
 0.900 
 35.802 
 
 Soda, ^* * 
 
 22 590 
 
 8.512 
 
 5.914 
 
 Chlorine, 
 
 11.405 
 
 9.762 
 
 0.132 
 
 Sulphuric acid, 
 
 4385 
 
 4.185 
 
 0.345 
 
 Organic matter, 
 
 0.367 
 
 
 2.314 
 
 Carbonic acid, - 
 
 
 
 6.134 
 
 II. Southern corn (Shepherd,) 100 parts gave 0.95 parts ash, 
 composed : 
 
 Silica, 
 
 Potash, with trace of Soda, 
 
 Phosphate of lime, 
 
 Phosphate of magnesia, 
 
 Phosphate of potash, 
 
 Carbonate of lime, - 
 
 Carbonate of magties a, 
 
 Sulphate of lime and magnesia, - 
 
 Silira, (mechanically present,) 
 
 Alumina, 
 
 L088, - 
 
 38.45 
 
 19.51 
 
 17.17 
 
 18.83 
 
 254 
 
 250 
 
 2.16 
 
 0.79 
 
 1.70 
 
 trace 
 
 1.65 
 
 100.00 
 
 III. Corn, (United States.) (Fromberg.) 
 
 Potash, 
 
 Soda, - - 
 
 Magnesia, - 
 
 Lime, 
 
 Phoaphoric acid, ... 
 
 Sulphuric acid, ... 
 
 Silica, ..... 
 
 Peroxide of iron, - - 
 
 99.08 
 
 It will bo perceived from these analyses that Indian corn va- 
 8 
 
114 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 ries very greatly in its inorganic constituents. But we are led 
 to believe that it varies still more in Europe, if Liebig (AgricuL 
 Chem.,) is correct in stating : " There are certain plants which 
 contain either no potash or mere traces of it. Such is Indian 
 Corn. (Zea mays.) For plants such as these the potash in 
 the soil is of no use, and farmers are well aware that they can 
 be cultivated without rotation on the same soil." 
 
 The water in dry corn varies from 10 to 15 per cent.; but as 
 high as 37 per cent, when first ripened. 
 
 282. Organic analysis of various varieties of corn grown in 
 New York. (Salisbury.) Golden Sioux corn, 1 2, 14-rowed, 
 an improved variety of Buell s Dutton corn (A,) Ohio Dent 
 corn (B,) small 8-rowed corn (C,) White Flint, grown on clay 
 loam, and manured with coal ashes, horse dung, and unleached 
 wood ashes (D,) large 8-rowecl yellow com (E.) 
 
 
 A. j B. 
 
 C. 
 
 D. 
 
 E. 
 
 Starch , 
 
 36.061 41.85 
 
 30.290 
 
 40.34 
 
 49.22 
 
 Gluten, - 
 
 5.00 
 
 4.62 
 
 5.600 
 
 7.69 
 
 5.40 
 
 Oil, - 
 
 3.44 
 
 3.88 
 
 3.900 
 
 4.68 
 
 3.71 
 
 Albumen, - 
 
 4.42 2.64 
 
 6.000 
 
 3.40 
 
 3.32 
 
 Casein, 
 
 1.92 
 
 1.32 
 
 2.200 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.75 
 
 Dextrine, - 
 
 1.30 
 
 5.40 
 
 4.615 
 
 2.90 
 
 1.89 
 
 Fibre, 
 
 18.50 
 
 21.36 
 
 26.800 
 
 18.01 
 
 11.96 
 
 Sup;ar and extractive matter, 
 
 7.25| 10.00 
 
 5.200 
 
 8.30 
 
 9.55 
 
 Water, - 
 
 15.021 10.00 
 
 13.400 
 
 14.00) 14.00 
 
 When the dough of Indian corn is washed with water, a 
 glutinous residue is left different from the gluten of wheat, and 
 characterized by its solubility in alcohol, and therefore altered to 
 vegetable gelatin. 
 
 The organic composition of corn in Europe differs from the 
 above according to the following analyses. (Knapp and 
 Pay en.) 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 115 
 
 
 Indian Meal 
 from 
 Hohenheim. 
 
 Iii.li.-iii M. .-il 
 from Polenta 
 Vienna. 
 
 PAYKK. 
 Grain of Corn. 
 
 Gluten, - ? 
 Albumen, > 
 
 14.66 
 
 13.65 j 
 
 12.3 
 
 Starch, 
 
 66.34 
 
 77.74 
 
 71.2 
 
 Sugar, gum, ) 
 Fatty matter, - 
 Husk, ) 
 
 18.18 
 
 7,6 j 
 
 0.4 
 9.0 
 5.9 
 
 Ash, | 
 
 
 1.2 
 
 The amount of inorganic matter taken from an acre of the 
 soil by the small white Flint com is : ( Gould.) 
 
 Silicic acid, 
 
 Phosphates of iron, lime, and magnesia, 
 
 Potash, 
 
 Soda, 
 
 Lime, ... 
 
 Magnesia, - 
 
 Chlorine, 
 
 Sulphuric acid, 
 
 210.14 Ibs. 
 
 9458 " 
 
 6471 
 
 63.00 
 
 15.69 
 
 9.69 
 
 19.62 " 
 
 30.34 " 
 
 881 .85 Ibs. 
 
 Of organic matter there is taken from one acre : 
 
 Sugar and extract, - 
 
 Starch, (in kernel only,) - 
 
 Rosin, (in cob only,) - - 
 
 Fibre, 
 
 Albumen, - 
 
 Casein, - - 
 
 Zein, (in kernel only,) 
 
 Dextrine and gum, .... 
 
 Oil, (in kernel only,) ... 
 
 Chlorophyl and wax, 
 
 Glutinous matter, - - 420 " 
 
 22,546 Ibs. 
 
 Of this, 8,008 Ibs. are taken off by the kernels, leaving 
 14,538 Ibs. for the rest of the plant. Of the inorganic matter 
 99 Ibs. are contained in the kernels, leaving 782 Ibs. for the stalks, 
 leaves, &c. 
 
 2,892 Ibs. 
 
 5,139 
 
 15 
 
 11,526 " 
 
 817 
 
 396 " 
 
 143 
 
 1027" 
 
 312 
 
116 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 Amount of the several proximate organic bodies in a ton of 
 each of the following parts when ripe. (Salisbury.) 
 
 Leaves. Sheaths Stalks. 
 
 Col). 
 
 Kernels. 
 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ihs. 
 
 Jbs. 1 IDS. I Ibs. 
 
 Sugar and extract, 
 
 336.000 
 
 180.000 
 
 186.660 
 
 94.000 
 
 266.40 
 
 Starch, 
 
 
 
 
 triice. 
 
 1186.00 
 
 Kesin, ... 
 
 
 
 
 12.500 
 
 
 Fibre, 
 
 1086000 
 
 1338.000 
 
 1402 660 
 
 883.760 
 
 170 
 
 Mitrer by potash, - 
 
 139.340 
 
 116.64C 
 
 71 340 
 
 314.240 
 
 11980 
 
 Albumen, - 
 
 160.800 
 
 70.060 
 
 12.000 
 
 10.500 
 
 85.80 
 
 Casein, - 
 
 34.660 
 
 8.040 
 
 72.000 
 
 2.000 
 
 1.60 
 
 Zein, - 
 
 
 
 
 
 33.60 
 
 Dextrine and gum, - 
 
 116.00 
 
 57.600 
 
 185.340 
 
 16.000 
 
 65.20 
 
 Oil, - 
 
 
 
 
 
 72.00 
 
 Resin, clilorophyl ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and wax, - j 
 
 Glutinous matter, - 
 
 82.660 
 
 12.040 
 57.400 
 
 | 84.000 
 
 51.240 
 
 
 Water, 
 
 55.340 
 
 1G7400 
 
 71.400 
 
 626 400 
 
 169.900 
 
 Percentage of dry matter in the following several parts of 
 Small White Flint Corn, when ripe. (Salisbury.) 
 
 Leaves, 
 Sheaths, - 
 Stalk, 
 Tassel, - 
 Sheaths of husks, 
 
 40.103 
 
 - 29.342 
 13.635 
 
 - 58.722 
 30.613 
 
 Ear stalks, 
 Kernels, - 
 Cob, - 
 
 Silks, 
 
 11.12B 
 62.540 
 45.652 
 
 18.825 
 
 The following table shows about the amount of the several proximate 
 organic bodies thrown away in rejecting the cob, calculated from the 
 analysis of the Small White Flint variety. 1000 Ibs. contain not far 
 from 200 Ibs. of cob, and 800 Ibs. of grain. These contain the following 
 -proportions, expressed in pounds and decimals of a pound. (Salisbury.) 
 
 
 200 Ihs. Cobs. 
 
 800 Ibs. grain. 
 
 1000 Ibs. ears. 
 
 Sugar and extract, 
 
 13.582 
 
 115.320 
 
 128.902 
 
 Btarch, 
 
 0.003 
 
 487.384 
 
 487.387 
 
 Fibro, - 
 
 127.687 
 
 7.712 
 
 135.399 
 
 Oil,- 
 
 
 39.824 
 
 39.824 
 
 Zein, 
 
 
 31.856 
 
 21.856 
 
 Matter seperated by pot- ) 
 ash from fibre, - 
 
 45.404 
 
 51.856 
 
 97.360 
 
 Albumen, - 
 
 1.518 
 
 37.136 
 
 38.654 
 
 Casein, - 
 
 0.288 
 
 00.688 
 
 0.976 
 
 Dextrine or gum, - 
 
 2.310 
 
 28.224 
 
 30.534 
 
 Resin, - 
 
 1.806 
 
 
 1.806 
 
 Glutinous matter, - 
 
 7.402 
 
 
 7.402 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 1 1 7 
 
 In the above table the inorganic matter is not seperately considered, 
 it being distributed among the several organic bodies. By rejecting tho 
 cobs of 1000 Ibs. of dry ears about 200 Ibs. of organic mattei is lost 
 which consist of 13}^ Ibs. of sugar and extract, 227 * Ibs. of fibre, 45)^ 
 Ibs. of wator soluble in potash, l}o Ibs. of albumen, % Ib. of casein, 
 2.31 Ibs. of gum or dextrine, 1.8 Ibs. of resin, and 7.4 Ibs. of glutinous 
 matter. Hence the cob, although not rich in nutritive matter, can by 
 no means be said to be destitute of these proximate principles which 
 go to support respiration and sustain animal heat, and those which are 
 capable of being transformed into nerve, muscle, etc., and the phos 
 phates which contribute so largely to the formation of bone. 
 
 Inorganic composition of the ash. of the ripe cob. (Salisbury.) 
 
 Carbonic acid, .... 9.455 
 
 Silicic acid, - - 10.320 
 
 Sulphuric acid, - - 1.336 
 
 Phosphoric acid, ..... 13105 
 
 Lirae, 3833 
 
 Magnesia, ..... 6.745 
 
 Potash, - - 34.400 
 
 Soda, - - 11.495 
 
 Chloride of sodium, - - 1.980 
 
 Organic acids, - - 6.430 
 
 Phosphate of peroxide of iron, ... .445 
 
 99.544 
 
 Of all the twenty -seven varieties of corn examined by Dr. Salisbury, 
 the Rhode Island Sweet is the richest in albumen, oil, and dextrine, and 
 the most deficient in starch. Asa general rule, those varieties with 
 full corneous kernels are richer in the nitrogenized bodies and oil, and 
 less rich in starch than the indented kinds; and of the corneous sorts 
 with distended grains, the yellow seems to be richer than the white in 
 oil, and those bodies which contain nitrogen, and less rich in starch. 
 
 According to Fresenius, the oil of corn consists of : 
 
 Carbon, .... 79.68 
 
 Hydrogen, - - - - 11.53 
 
 Oxygen, - - 8.79 
 
 283. Inorganic analysis of the leaves of corn at different 
 stages. (Salisbury.} 
 
118 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 July 19 
 
 Carbonic acid, 
 
 6.40 
 
 2.850 
 
 0.65 
 
 3.50 
 
 4.050 
 
 Silica, - 
 
 13.50 
 
 19.850 
 
 34.90 
 
 36.27 
 
 58.650 
 
 Sulphuric acid, 
 
 2.16 
 
 1.995 
 
 4.92 
 
 5.84 
 
 4.881 
 
 Phosphates, 
 
 21.60 
 
 16.250 
 
 17.00 
 
 13.50 
 
 5.850 
 
 Lime, 
 
 0.69 
 
 4.035 
 
 2.00 
 
 3.38 
 
 4.510 
 
 Magnesia, 
 
 0.37 
 
 2.980 
 
 1.59 
 
 2.30 
 
 0.865 
 
 Potash, 
 
 9.98 
 
 11.675 
 
 10.85 
 
 9.15 
 
 7.333 
 
 Soda, 
 
 34.39 
 
 29.590 
 
 21.23 
 
 22.13 
 
 8.520 
 
 Chlorine, 
 
 4.55 
 
 6.0201 3.06 
 
 1.63 
 
 2 664 
 
 Organic acids, 
 
 5.50 
 
 2.400| 3.38 
 
 2.05 
 
 2.200 
 
 | 98.14|97.750| 99.58J 99.75|99.523 
 
 Proximate organic analysis of the leaves at different stages of 
 growth, calculated with the water. (Salisbury.) 
 
 
 Aug. 2. 
 
 Aug. 23. | Oct. 18, 
 
 Sugar and extract soluble in alcohol, - 
 Do do insoluble in alcohol, - 
 
 1.110 
 1.890 
 
 | 3.300 
 
 16.800 
 
 Fibre with a little cLloropbyl, 
 Fibre, - . 
 
 1.390 
 8.620 
 
 3.350 
 6.950 
 
 | 54.300 
 
 Matter seperated from fibre by a weak ? 
 solution of caustic potash, 
 
 0.290 
 
 2.380 
 
 6.967 
 
 Albumen, - 
 
 trace. 
 
 6020 
 
 8.040 
 
 Casein, - 
 
 0.730 
 
 0.1 00 
 
 1 733 
 
 Dextrine or gum, ... 
 
 0.850 
 
 1.270 
 
 5^800 
 
 Oil and resin. 
 
 0.150 
 
 0.139 
 
 > 
 
 Chlorophyl and wax, - 
 
 
 
 > 4.133 
 
 Water, - ... 
 
 8G.7G2 
 
 82482 
 
 2.767 
 
 284. Dr. Jackson found 100 grains of the Chit yield 6.4 
 grains of ashes (279. ii) which consisted of: 
 
 2.4 
 0.8 
 32 
 
 Phosphate of lime, 
 
 Phosphate of magnesia, ... 
 
 Phosphoric acid, a little potash, silica, and oxide of iron, 
 
 6.4 
 
 In composition, the Chit difTers materially from the rest of the kernel 
 in containing a very large per centage of oil and albumen, and a small 
 percentage of starch. In the analyses of the Chit, the oil amounts to 
 from 26 to 30 percent., and the albumen from 17 to 20 per cent, of the 
 dry matter, while the starch langes from about 10 to 12) per cent. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 119 
 
 285. The feeding qualities of corn are universally known; 
 and throughout the greater portion of the United States, it is 
 used as bread for man, and depended on for fattening hogs and 
 beef. There do not appear, however, to have been many accu 
 rate experiments made to ascertain how many pounds of corn 
 are requisite to make a pound of meat. There are many diffi 
 culties in the way of arriving at accurate results in these re 
 spects. Different breeds, arid even individuals of the same 
 breed possess different fattening qualities ; we have seen that 
 the variety of the corn used must make much difference ; clean 
 liness, and mode of feeding make more still ; while corn ground 
 and cooked is found to possess much more nutritive power, 
 bushel for bushel, than when fed in its natural state. The fol 
 lowing table, compiled from some experiments by Mr. H. L. 
 Ellsworth, may be considered as an approximation towards the 
 relative value of raw unground, and cooked ground com, 
 though owing to peculiar circumstances the hogs fed on mush 
 did not make as good progress as they ought to have done : 
 
 Weight 
 when put up 
 
 Fed daily. 
 
 Weight at 
 end of 15 
 days. 
 
 Gain. 
 
 Fed in all in 
 15 days. 
 
 Value of corn 
 when pork is 
 3 cents per Ib. 
 
 131 Ibs 4 o/ ( 
 150 Ibs 4 o/5 
 157 Ibs 4 oz? 
 
 120 Ibs 4 oz 5 
 
 !l491bsl3oz) 
 ll65U13oz< 
 
 ISick. \ 
 146 $ 
 
 .i>2 Ibs. meal 
 cooked, each. 
 7 Ibs raw 
 com, each. 
 
 14 Ibs raw 
 corn, each. 
 2^3 Ibs meal 
 [cooked, each 
 
 I491bsl3oz 
 1651bsl3oz 
 1791bsl3oz 
 1461bs 
 
 Is Ibs 9 oz. 
 15 Ibs 9 oz. 
 22 Ibs 9 oz. 
 25 Ibs 12 oz 
 
 29 Ibs 3 07. 
 23 Ibs 3 oz. 
 
 20 Ibs 
 
 (1051bsme:l 
 > 2101bscorn 
 
 55cts pr buj h 
 38>i cprbush 
 
 31 cts pr bush 
 4^ cts pr bush 
 
 End of ,0 
 days. 
 
 In 20 days. 
 
 179 Ibs 
 
 189 Ibs 
 
 16(5 Ibs 
 
 ?2S01bsc rn 
 5 70 Ibs meal 
 
 Thence it is deduced that raw food is to cooked food as 68 
 to 103, making the gain by cooking 55 per cent, over uncooked 
 food ; or 3 bushels of meal cooked is equal to 4-J- bushels of dry 
 hard corn. Or looking at this table in another light ; the farmer 
 selling his corn by turning it into pork, would receive 55 cents 
 a bushel if it was fed cooked, while he would only receive 887^- 
 cents per bushel if fed raw. It is generally estimated that if 
 
120 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 corn is cut up and fed to hogs in the field, 1 5 bushels will fat 
 ten each one; that is, add 100 Ibs. weight of flesh. If hogs 
 at gross weight are worth $3,00 per cwt, this makes corn worth 
 20 cents per bushel. If hogs are confined in pens, raw dry 
 corn is worth 30 cents, and cooked meal 50 cents per bushel ; 
 so that the gain by grinding and cooking, over feeding in the 
 field is 150 per cent. The manure, in the calculation of a skil- 
 full farmer, should cover the incidental expenses of fire, feed 
 ing, &c. It is to be observed, however, from the above experi 
 ment, that hogs fed on mush did riot increase in weight so 
 rapidly as the others. Considering that many millions of bushels 
 of corn are annually fed to animals in the United States, it is of 
 great economical importance, worthy of the attention of the 
 Federal and State Governments, that extensive and accurate 
 experiments should be made as to the most economical mode 
 of fattening stock. If we suppose and we put the case in all 
 respects lower than the truth is believed to be 200,000,000 
 of bushels of corn, bearing a market value of 25 cents per 
 bushel, are annually fed to hogs, and by improved means of 
 feeding a saving of 25 per cent could be made, it would leave 
 50,000,000 bushels, worth twelve millions five hundred thousand 
 dollars to be applied to other purposes; and which now are an 
 nually thrown away, without being of any possible value, either 
 direct, or indirect, to man. 
 
 Mr. Ellsworth, however, observes that " where land is cheap 
 and easily tilled, and labor dear, as in the West, it may be best 
 to make hogs their own harvesters. My present impression is, 
 that [in Indiana] the most profitable way to feed corn, all things 
 considered, is to cut the corn, as soon as it begins to turn hard; 
 then hogs will eat corn, cob, and stalk ; then too, the weather is 
 mild, and swine will thrive much faster in September, October, 
 and November, than in December, January, and February." 
 This calculation is, of course, based on peculiar circumstances 
 confined to certain localities. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 121 
 
 286. Corn meal, owing to deficiency in gluten, &c., does not 
 rise with yeast like wheat flour. The different varieties make 
 different qualities of bread. The Southern and " Oregon" va 
 rieties are preferred for this purpose, as containing more starch. 
 Yellow corn has more flavor, and absorbs more water than the 
 white. In France it has been found that 150 Ibs. of corn will 
 make from 215 to 223 Ibs. of good bread. Mr. Ellsworth 
 found that 14 Ibs. of good corn meal, thoroughly cooked, will 
 make 90 Ibs. of mush, so thick as not to run when taken out of 
 the kettle ; so that, in this form, the power of absorbing water 
 is very great. The quality of bread likewise depends upon the 
 mode in which the corn is ground. In the South, the mill 
 stones are dressed so as to cut the meal into sharp particles, and 
 not to crush, it into powder as is done in wheat-flouring mills, 
 the corn being fed to the stones by handfuls at a time. Meal is 
 often mixed with rye or wheat flour, and thus made into loaves. 
 
 Dr. Clos has lately given, in the Journal d Agriculture pratique, the 
 result of certain experiments made to ascertain ihe comparative econo* 
 mical value of Yellow and White coin, grown in the South of France. 
 He found that Yellow corn meal when cooked absorbed water, and made 
 mush as follows : 
 
 Weight of Meal 
 employed. 
 
 Weight of Mush. 
 
 Difference, or weight 
 of water absorbed. 
 
 Kilogramme. 
 
 Kilogramme. 
 
 Kilogramme. 
 
 3.794 
 
 1 1 .932 
 
 8.138 
 
 3438 
 
 11 136 
 
 7648 
 
 3.549 
 
 12 054 
 
 8.505 
 
 Total, 10831 - 35122 - 24.291 
 White corn meal, cooked in the same manner gave: 
 
 3.977 - - 11075 - - 7.098 
 
 3.977 - - 11.442 - - 7.465 
 
 4.161 - - 11687 - 7.526 
 
 Total, 12ll5 - 31204 22.089 
 
 The Yellow corn gives a larger quantity of mush in proportion to tbe 
 meal used, and each kilogramme of meal absorbs over two kilogrammes 
 of water, while the White corn meal absorbs less than two kilogram noes, 
 
122 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 or the mush of the Yellow is in proportion of 39.285 to 34.204 of the 
 White from the same weights of meal. The Yellow meal, on sifting, 
 gave less bran and more useful meal than the White by one-twentieth. 
 It was further sho*n (a,) that the Yellow corn is drier "and harder ; (fi,) 
 resists moisture and is kept more easily ;and (c,) weighs more per bush 
 el than the White. The same experiments repeated in America coultl 
 not fail to be useful. (A kilogramme, is 21-5 Ibs. avoirdupois.) Mr. 
 Gould has stated that 10 Ibs. 12 oz. of Long Island corn grew on a given 
 space, while 15 Ibs. 2 oz. of large 12-rowed red corn grew on the same 
 space of a precisely similar soil. The large White Flint yields 2.4 tons 
 of grain to the acre on the same soil where the large Yellow Sioux 
 yields 3.5 tons per acre. 
 
 287. The stalks, leaves, and husks, have a great nutritive value 
 for fodder. When well saved, being cut before they are fully 
 ripe, they are probably very nearly equal in this respect to com 
 mon hay. They contain much sugar; and are believed to be 
 more valuable than hay when fed to milk cows ; producing a 
 larger quantity of milk ; but no accurate experiments seem to 
 have been made. In 1848, the Commissioner of Patents pro 
 cured from seventeen States, estimates of the supposed value of 
 corn fodder, and it varies from $1 to $5 per ton; exclusive of 
 manure made from it. If stalks are given to cattle in their 
 natural state, a large portion, and that the heaviest, is wasted ; 
 but if cut and mixed with a little meal, nearly the whole will 
 be eaten. The relative value, therefore, will of course depend 
 on the mode of feeding. Again, it must be taken into consid 
 eration whether the husks are left on the stalks or not; the 
 practice varying in different localities. The size of stalks also 
 makes a difference, the small northern corn containing more 
 consumable fodder than the large southern ; and some varieties 
 are believed to be much richer in sugar, and probably albumen 
 than others. 
 
 288. The cob, also, when divested of grain, contains a nota 
 ble amount of nutriment. Most animals will eat it when soft, 
 but refuse it when hard. Mr. Ellsworth had cobs crushed and 
 ground, and kept his store hogs and other stock through the 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 123 
 
 winter upon the rneal. The cob is often crushed and ground 
 with the com when intended for fattening animals, and produ 
 ces a good effect mechanically as well as nutritiously. Oxen, 
 however, are supposed to suffer from the fibres collecting in and 
 obstructing the intestines. 
 
 289. Green corn stalks afford a saccharine juice which can be 
 crystallized into sugar. Many experiments were made in this 
 direction a few years ago, but the cost was found too great to 
 compete with cane sugar. The time, however, may come when 
 this manufacture will prove profitable, as that of Beet sugar is 
 at present in France. 
 
 290. Corn is frequently sown broadcast to be cut green for 
 soiling, when the grain becomes of secondary importance. 
 
 291. Corn may be made to grow, with manure and skilful 
 cultivation, upon almost any kind of soil, but the land peculiarly 
 adapted to it is that which contains a large per centage of veg 
 etable matter, is fine, friable, warm, deep, and sufficiently sup 
 plied with moisture by evaporation. Prairies, and diluvial de- 
 posites along rivers, may be called the natural habitat of corn. 
 It will grow where wheat prospers, but wheat will frequently 
 not mature profitably in the best corn lands. 
 
 The following is an analysis of a rich corn-bearing soil in Ohio, oc 
 casionally overflowed by the Scioto River. It has been cultivated fifty- 
 one years ; and has borne forty-five crops of corn, and two or three of 
 wheat, and been a few jears in grass or clover. With the most ordinary 
 culture it yields 80 bushels of corn to the acre. (D. A. Wells.} 
 
 I. Constituents soluble in pure water : 
 
 Extract of earth, alkaline, chlorids, etc., - 0.032 
 
 Organic matter, crenic acid, - - - 0.010 
 
 Iron, lime and silica, .... 0.012 
 
 II. Constituents soluble in dilute acid : 
 
 f Iron, alumina, and manganese, 2.760 
 
 I Organic matter, combined with the above, - 0.860 
 ,., _..- , 
 
 Phosphoric acid, - traces. 
 
 Potash and soda, - 0.161 
 
124 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 Organic matter rendered soluble by ammonia, % 3140 
 
 " - 4P 1.030 
 
 " remaining with insoluble residue, - 1.720 
 
 Insoluble silicates, - 1 - . 83.010 
 
 100 parts of the insoluble residue gave 59 parts silicioue, and 41 parts 
 
 clayey matter. 
 
 Water, hygroscopic and combined, ... 3.500 
 
 Resinous and waxy matter, ----- .03G 
 The most striking fact in connection with these soils is the exceeding 
 
 fineness of their particles, 
 
 A deep rich mellow soil, in which the roots can freely extend 
 a great distance in depth and laterally ; and where, owing to tho 
 fineness of the soil, they will not be injured by drought, nor hid 
 den from the heat of the sun, and from atmospheric influence, 
 is what the corn grower should provide for this crop. A com 
 pact clay which excludes alike air, water, and rapid growth of 
 roots, forbidding all chemical changes, is not the soil for corn. 
 As it grows rapidly it requires a constant supply of food, and 
 this can only be attained where there is water enough to act as a 
 solvent to the solids. As will have been observed in the inor 
 ganic analyses, the per centage of ash in corn is comparatively 
 small, organic matter and water forming the great mass of the 
 tissue. 
 
 292. A great variety of manures are applied to this crop ac 
 cording to the requirements of the soil. Organic manures, 
 barn-yard dung and such like are those which will most gen 
 erally prove serviceable ; and next to these, decayed vegetable 
 matter. In consequence, corn is found to succeed well on grass 
 or clover sod. Of the inorganic manures, dissolved bones, un- 
 leached wood ashes, salt, and plaster, promise to do good, if the 
 soil is deficient in these elements. 
 
 293. When corn is planted on sod, (a,) spread manure on 
 the grass; (bj plow deep, laying the furrow flat; (c,) roll, and 
 (d,) harrow with a long sharp toothed harrow, or a cultivator, 
 till the surface is rendered friable two or three inches or more, 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 125 
 
 deep; both of these processes being lengthwise of the furrow; 
 ( e,) spread compost, or well decayed dung, and harrow it in 
 again. If corn is to be planted on stubble, one plowing, and a 
 thorough harrowing, with the same application of manure, is 
 all that is requisite. 
 
 204. Corn is planted, (a,) by hand with a hoe, or (b,) by a 
 drill, either (c,) in hills, or (d,) rows ; and these latter either 
 (ej equal or (fj alternate. If by hand, the lines are laid out 
 by (y,) a light plow drawing a shallow furrow both ways across 
 the field, so as to divide it into squares, at the proper distance, 
 or (k,) by a corn mar Jeer, a coarse implement made somewhat 
 similar to the form of a hay rake, with the teeth or pins at the 
 distance apart proper for the corn ; the whole being drawn by 
 a horse ; ft) the drill will plant either in hills or rows. The 
 usual distance apart for hills is three to five feet each way, ac 
 cording to the size of the corn ; for rows three to four feet, and 
 the plants nine to twelve inches apart in the row. 
 
 The amount per acre of the crop depends much on the mode of plant 
 ing. In a favorable soil it rarely happens that each original stalk does 
 cot produce one ear; allowing these ears to produce in shelled corn ono 
 gill each, the amount produced per acre by different methods of plant 
 ing will be as follows, four stalks being allowed to each hill when 
 planted in that form : 
 
 One acre in hills 4 feet apart, gives 2,722 hills or 10,885 stalks. 
 3 " 4,840 " 19,360 
 
 3 ft. by 2> ft- " 5,808 " " 82,232 " 
 
 " in drills 3 ft. and 6 inches for plants, 29,040 " 
 " " in double drills thus : 
 
 * * * 
 
 * * * * * * * 
 
 6 inches apart, the plants 9 inches in the rows, and 3 feet 9 inches from 
 Ihe centre of the drills would have 30,970 stalks. An acre planted 3 
 rows in a drill thus : 
 
126 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 rows 6 inches apart, and the plants 9 inches in the rows, with a distance 
 of 3 feet from the centre of the drills would have 43,560 stalks, or 170 
 bushels ; while the hills, 4 feet by 4 feet, could only give 42 bushels. A 
 crop of 170 bushels to the acre was actually raised, some years since, in" 
 Madison county, New York, on the three row system. 
 
 295. The proper depth at which to plant the corn is about 
 1 inch to 1 J inches. 
 
 The following experiment was made by Burger, in Germany : 
 
 Indian corn which was planted at the depth of 
 
 No. 1, 1 inch, came up in 8|- days. 
 
 No. 2, 1-J- inches, came up in 9-J- days. 
 
 No. 3, 2 inches, came up in 10 days. 
 
 No. 4, 2 J inches, came up in 1 1-J- days. 
 
 No. 5, 3 inches, came up in 12 days. 
 
 No. 6, 3 inches, came up in 13 days. 
 
 No. 7, 4 inches, came up in 13j days. 
 
 No. 8, 4J inches, came up in days. 
 
 No. 9, 5 inches, came up in days. 
 
 No. 10, 5^ inches, came up in 17J days. 
 
 No. 11, 6 inches, came up in days. 
 
 Nos. 8, 9, and 11, were dug up after 22 days, when it was 
 found that No. 8, had an inch more to grow to reach the sur 
 face. Nos. 8, and 11, had just sprouted but were short, and 3 
 inches below the surface. No. 10, came up in 17J days, but 
 withered after 6 days growth. The more shallow the seed was 
 covered by the earth, the more rapidly the sprout made its ap 
 pearance, and the stronger, afterwards, was the stalk. 
 
 Corn will not germinate unless the temperature of the soil 
 attains to 55 Fahr., and at a temperature higher than 110 
 it equally refuses to vegetate. 
 
 " Much of the damage which is supposed to arise from planting in 
 the wrong time of the moon, is really due to planting when the soil 
 is at the wrong temperature, and if the time ever arrives when the aver 
 age crop of the country is equal to what our premium crops now are, it 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 127 
 
 must be when every farmer owns a thermometer and knows how to use 
 it." (J.S. Gould.) 
 
 An experiment was made in Connecticut in 1844 to plant corn three 
 inches deep. It came up and grew well until it was three or four inches 
 high, and then stopped for a fortnight, while the same corn planted at a 
 less depth grew rapidly. On examination it was found that a joint had 
 been formed about nn inch and half above the kernel, and that the roots 
 had sprouted out from the joint leaving all below to perish. While the 
 process of changing roots was going on the plant ceased to grow above 
 ground, but in about a fortnight recovered its vigor; and it was about 
 that length of time later in maturing the grain, than theseeds which were 
 planted shallower. 
 
 296. The following table will show the quantity of seed, re 
 quired, on an average, to plant an acre in hills. 
 
 Distances of the Quantity required Quantity required 
 
 hills apart. 4 grains to a hill. 5 grains to fi hill. 
 
 QUARTS. QUARTS. 
 
 3 feet by 2 feet, 14.52 18.15 
 
 3 " by 3 " - 9.68 12.10 
 3i " by 3 " 8.30 10.37 
 3 " by3J " - 7.11 8.89 
 
 4 by 3 " 7.26 9.08 
 4 " by 3| " - 6.22 7.78 
 4 by 4 " 5.44 6.80 
 
 297. The culture of the corn after it is above ground varies 
 much. While some put a small quantity of ashes and plaster 
 in the hill at planting, others wait until the corn is a few inches 
 high. It will only be necessary shortly to state the various pro 
 cesses which are then pursued ; (a,) hoe, plow both ways, throw 
 ing the earth into hills round the corn, hoe and plow again ; (b,) 
 hoe and plow, as above, but keep the earth level, and not raised, 
 around the roots ; ( cj hoe, but avoid plowing or hilling, cutting 
 up the weeds, and rendering the surface friable with the cultiva 
 tor. It is quite necessary that weeds should not be allowed to 
 grow, and that the earth should be frequently stirred; but 
 whether deep plowing, or the use of the hoe and cultivator 
 alone are best is a disputed point ; and probably depends on the 
 nature and richness of the soil. 
 
128 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 These directions only apply to the Northern and Atlantic States. In 
 the rich Western Prairies and river bottoms, corn culture is a much more 
 simple process. 
 
 298. It is a custom with some to plant corn five to eight feet 
 apart in rows, and in the fall to plow between them, and sow 
 wheat. As a system of rotation, this mode appears to possess 
 peculiar advantages. For particulars, see Mr. BartletCs letter in 
 the Farmer s Companion and Horticultural Gazette, Novem 
 ber, 1853. Pumpkins are generally planted in each alternate 
 hill or row. In Virginia, peas are sown between the rows after 
 the last hoeing, to be afterwards eaten off by hogs. In a 
 similar manner clover is sown in New Jersey. 
 
 299. It is also customary to steep corn before planting to (a,) 
 prevent birds and insects from injuring it; (b,) to act as a ma 
 nure. For the first purpose soak the corn a few hours in warm 
 water, and then mix it with tar thrown into water sufficiently 
 hot to melt it. Each grain will be thinly coated with tar. Dry 
 with plaster or ashes. For the second, use a weak solution of 
 saltpetre, or salammoniac, (Muriate of ammonia,) 1 Ib. to 4j 
 bushels, or 1 oz. to a quart of grain mixed in warm water, 
 and poured over, to remain upon the corn for 1 8 hours before 
 planting. The corn sprouts with a rich green color, and grows 
 rapidly, but whether it finally increases the crop is still dispu 
 ted. 
 
 300. To grow corn broadcast for fodder, rich clean land is 
 required. It is prepared with one plowing, is slightly harrowed, 
 and the corn sown at the rate of 3 to 4 bushels to the acre. It 
 is then harrowed in and rolled. It is sometimes planted in 
 drills, and worked with the cultivator. 
 
 301. The best time for harvesting, or cutting the corn is 
 when the grain is glazed, but not yet perfectly hard, and the 
 stalks still partially green. 
 
 302. Previous to this process, and at the time when the ears 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 129 
 
 but not the grains were fully formed, it used to be the custom 
 to top the corn, i. e., cut off the stalks and le.ives above tlio 
 highest ears ; but this is now generally abandoned. Truer views 
 of the physiology of vegetation have taught that the leaves are 
 necessary for the elaboration of the sap which forms the grain ; 
 and careful experiments proved that when the plant was thus 
 deprived of part of its foliage, the grain was lighter and the 
 . ear not so well filled, although it might ripen a little earlier. 
 
 303. In the Southern States, it is customary to pluck tho 
 leaves of com, dry them for fodder, and stack them, leaving the 
 stalks standing in the field, to be afterwards eaten by stock, or 
 plowed in. As this is generally done before the grain is formed, 
 the same injurious results follow as in topping. 
 
 The following experiment was tried in South Carolina in 184G. 
 Twelve rows of corn, as nearly equal in appearance as could be found, 
 were selected. Nos. 1, 4, 7, 10, (A,) were left with the leaves on, until 
 they were generally dry as high as the ear, and, on some stalks to the 
 top. They were then cut up at the roots; shocked on the field until the 
 other grain was gathered in ; they were then hauled in and husked from 
 the stalk. ISTos. 2, 5, 8, 11, (B,) were left with the blades on until quite 
 ripe. Nos. 3, 6, 9, 12, (C,) were stripped of their blades before ripen 
 ing, but as late as usual. The results were as follows : 
 
 A, wncn shelled, measured 4 pecfcs, 1 gallon, 2 quarts, I pint, weighed 70** ll>8. 
 
 B, " " 4 " 1 " 2 " l " " 71> Ibs 
 
 C, " " 4 " " " ^ " " 55 Ibs 
 
 The fodder, taken from the last, weighed 18 Ibs., which added to the 
 weight of the corn is 73 Ibs. 1 1-2 Ibs. more than the corn alone from 
 which no leaves were taken. It thus appears that this process deprives 
 the corn of nearly the weight of the fodder when cured, without reck 
 oning the time also consumed in taking the leaves off. 
 
 304. Corn is harvested by cutting close to the ground, with 
 a heavy knife manufactured for the purpose, or part of a scythe 
 blade, fixed to a handled of some sort. Several hills are laid 
 together, and bound with a corn stalk ; with straw rope ; or other 
 cheap band. These bundles, to the number of 4 to 8, are then 
 tied around the stalks of a hill left standing for the purpose. 
 
 9 
 
130 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 There are various modifications of this process, but all on the 
 same principle. The com thus stands, until the leaves, stalks, 
 and ears are dry ; in the north, till after the first strong frost, 
 the effect of which is to expel the remaining water. 
 
 Then the bundles are opened, and the ears of each stalk 
 separated from the husk, thrown into baskets, and removed by 
 \vagon to the corn crib. The workman holds in his hand a 
 short, sharp, piece of wood, generally attached by a string to 
 the wrist, to facilitate the opening of the husk. The husks 
 should remain attached to the stalk ; and not be torn off as is 
 too often done. The stalks are then again tied up, and left in 
 the field till it is convenient to haul them to the barn, or stack 
 them. When stacked out of doors great care must be taken 
 that the rain does not get in, otherwise rot will rapidly ensue. 
 
 305. When sown broadcast, the stalks are usually cut while 
 green, and fed to stock in stables. If retained till winter they 
 may be cut, bound, and stacked as above. A little salt scattered 
 among the stalks in stacking will be found useful to prevent 
 moulding, and cause the animals to cat them more perfectly. 
 
 In 1845 over 31 tons of green corn stalks were raised to the acre in 
 Massachusetts. The product of two acres 32 rods, fed 20 cows, 1 heifer, 
 2 bulls, and 5 spring calves for 7 weeks and 5 days ; the dried produce 
 off the same acre being estimated as equal to 15 tons of the best " Eng- 
 ligh" hay. This production, however, is much greater than what is 
 generally obtained. Ten bushels of "white flat Maryland corn" were 
 sown on the 2 32-160 acres. Corn is sometimes sown broadcast for the 
 purpose of plowing it in as a manure for wheat. 
 
 306. Corn is seperated from the cob by (a,) thrashing with 
 a flail; (b,) treading with horses; (c,) a machine called a corn- 
 sheller, of which there are several sorts, some moved by hand, 
 others by horse power. If required to be very clean the corn 
 is then passed through a fanning mill. 
 
 The following is a rule for finding the quantity of corn, shelled or in 
 ear, in a house of any dimensions. Having previously levelled the corn 
 in the house, so that it will be of equal depth throughout, ascertain the 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 133 
 
 length, breadth, and depth of the bulk; multiply these dimensions to* 
 gether; and their product by 4 ; then cut off one figure from the right 
 hand of this last product. This gives the bushels, and decimal of a 
 bushel of shdled conu If corn in the ear, substitute 8 for 4, and cut off 
 one figure as before. 
 
 EXAMPLE : 
 
 1 .2 feet long, 
 1 1 fuel broad, 
 
 1.32 
 6 feet deep. 
 
 792 
 4 multiple for shelled corn. 
 
 316.8 bushels in house. 
 
 When 8 is use! as a multiple to find the quantity of com in 
 the ear, it is on the ground of 2 bushels of such making 1 of 
 shelled grain. 
 
 There are other rules given for the same purpose which do not agree with this, 
 and it appears that the accuracy of this mode of measuring requires further testing. 
 
 307. It is very important that the best ears should be saved 
 for seed ; as corn rapidly degenerates or improves according to 
 the seed planted. Careful farmers select the best ears whilo 
 husking ; leave part of the husk attached to them ; plait them 
 together ; and hang them up in a dry room. Corn not per 
 fectly ripened or dried, heats when thrown together in large 
 quantities, and the germinative power is lost. Two years ago, 
 owing to early frosts, the corn in Michigan was imperfectly 
 dried ; and, in the spring, corn taken from the crib very gener 
 ally failed to grow; while, preserved in the house, as above re 
 commended, it is said no failures occurred. The loss of labor 
 and time, and of the crop in consequence, was estimated at many 
 thousand dollars in this one State alone. It is found advisable 
 to change the seed every few years, procuring the new from a 
 location further north, and from a different soil. 
 
 308. In the southern, and middle western States, it is customary to 
 turn hogs and cattle into the field of standing corn, but this is a very 
 
132 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 wasteful proceeding, unless labor is very costly. In south Ohio, the 
 corn is cut and tied in bundles, arc! daily hauled to a small field, where 
 stalks, grain, leaves, <fec., are thrown on the ground for the fattening 
 cattle to cat. The next day, these are removed to a second field, and 
 their place is taken by a drove of hogs, which pick up what the cattle 
 have wasted or refused. Thus, the two are fed alternately in different 
 fields; and the swine fattened at comparatively little cost. 
 
 309. If the cobs are not ground for feed, they should be 
 mixed with animal manures in a state of fermentation, when 
 they will gradually decay. They contain many valuable ele 
 ments of manure. They are occasionally used for smoking 
 hams, and some other minor domestic purposes. 
 
 310. There are no weeds peculiar to this crop. Indeed 
 skilful farmer will not allow a solitary weed to grow arnono; his 
 corn ; and thence it is an excellent crop for cleaning foul land. 
 
 311. Corn is subject to the growth of a very peculiar and 
 destructive fungus or Brand. 
 
 Maize Brand (Uredo maydis. De Candolle.) attacks all the paren- 
 chyraatous organs of the- corn plant, and more or less completely de 
 stroys them. The stalk, however, the female, and the male blossoms, 
 are the parts which it most especially affects. Its development is a 
 peculiar one, as it forces out great masses of cellular tissue, formed 
 from the tissue of the mother plant, and similar in formation to the lat 
 ter. Son;;:? parts of the organs affected by the brand swell and become 
 white. This species always impairs some blossoms, as soon as it i 
 seated in the ear, while the other blossoms standing near bear good ripe 
 kernels. The brand bladders can be very easily removed from the liv- 
 ig plants by cutting thera out, only this must be done as soon as pos 
 sible, in order that in cutting them out the bladders may not scatter 
 tLeir powder, and thus a future crop of brand not be prevented. For 
 seed only, kernels should be selected from plants which have remained 
 wholly free from the brand. This fungus is, by the structure of its 
 spores, different from all others, and only related to the wheat brand. 
 Corn in rich, damp loam appears more subject to this disease than in any 
 other situation, and draining would probably prove an effectual cure, 
 (See Trans, of N. Y. Agricul. Socy., vol. viii.,p. 842.) 
 In the Patent Office Report for 1847, a description of a disease whib 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 133 
 
 appeared io Maryland is given, and which \ve suspect to be another 
 species of brand. 
 
 " The cap of the injured ear is discolored, and when opened a few 
 grains near the apex of the enr, and one side of it, mark the commence 
 ment of the disease in their sickly and shrivelled appearance ; this in 
 creases in space and intensity until the whole ear exhibits a deadly and 
 gangreneous mass of black, rotten grains, uhile the whole plant on 
 which it grows is erect, and of the most healthy and vigorous appear 
 ance. It did much injury to the crop. 
 
 312. The insects most injurious to the corn are: 
 
 ( A.) Out-worms. These are thick, greasy-looking caterpillars, from one 
 to two inches in length, of a dark ashen grey color, with a brown head, 
 a pale stripe along the back, and several minute black dots on each 
 ring. They are the grub of a species of moth, belorging to a group 
 called by Dr. Harris Agrotidians ; and there aie many species in the 
 United States, each species probably confining itself to a particular 
 family of plants, as one to the cabbage, another to grasses and grain*, 
 The moths fly by night, appearing in July and August. They lay their 
 eggs either in the giound, or on the roors of plants in the autumn, and 
 these are hatched in the spring, the Cut-worm being produced. These 
 feed on plants, concealing themselves in holes in the ground during day, 
 and appearing only at night. During the summer they become chrysa- 
 lids; remain in that state about four weeks; and the moth again ap 
 pears in the fall. The corn Cut- worm, is probably the Agrostis rncsso- 
 <ria of Harris. They feed only on the sprouts and young stalks and do 
 not eat the seeds of plants. 
 
 (Z?) Wire-worm, or lulus, a hard, worm-like form, with the skiu 
 seperated into compartments or rings. It is not a true 7nsecas it un 
 dergoes no transformation; and belongs to the class Myriapodia, a 
 name derived from the great number of feet with which most of the an 
 imals included in it are furnished. There are several species. 
 
 ((7.) Wire-worm. In some localities, especially in new lands, and 
 on plowing up old grass fields, another insect known by this name 
 proves very injurious to young corn. They are long, slender, worm-like 
 grubs nearly cylindrical, with a hard and smoth skin, of a buff or brown 
 ish yellow color, the head and tail only being a little darker ; each of 
 the first three rings are provided with a pair of short legs ; under 
 neath the last ring is a short retractile wart, or prop leg. These are the 
 grub of a species of Beetle, the Slaters or Spring beetles, well known 
 in this shape by the faculty they possess of throwing themselves up- 
 
134 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 wards with a jerk, when laid on their backs. There nre many species, 
 some o which appear to be confined to rotten wood. It is believed 
 that they remain in their feeding or larva state not less than five years, 
 before changing into beetles. The grubs injure corn both by eating the 
 grain when first sown, and also by cutting off the young plant just below 
 the ground, as the Cut-worm eats above the surface. 
 
 (Z>.) Spindle-worm. This is the caterpillar of a moth (Gortyna ZCCR,} 
 and is well known as destroying the spindle of corn. Its ravages, how 
 ever, generally begin while the cornstalk is young, and before the spin 
 dle rises much above the- tuft of lca\es in which it is embosomed. The 
 mischief is discovered by the withering of the leaves, and when these 
 are taken hold of, they may often be drawn out with the included spin 
 dle. On examining the corn, a small hole may be seen in the side of 
 the leafy stalk, near the ground, penetrating into the soft centre of the 
 stalk, which when cut open will be found to be perforated, both upwards 
 and downwards, by a slender worm-like caterpillar, whose excremen- 
 tious castings surround the orifice of the hole. The grub grows to over 
 an inch in length, and to the thickness of a goose quill. The chrysalis 
 is lodged in the burrow formed by it ; it is of a shining mahogany 
 brown. 
 
 (E.) The grub of the May-beetles, (Dor-bng, Cock-chafer, Anornala,) 
 injures corn by eating the roots. It is a white, thick, smooth skinned 
 semipellucid-worm, with a brownish head, and when fullv grown nearly 
 half an inch in diameter. It is frequently thrown out of the ground in 
 digging or plowing. When in a state of rest, it usually curls itself up 
 in the shape of a crescent. It is supposed that it occupies from three to 
 five years in the grub state, before changing. 
 
 (F.) The Granary Weevil. (Fly Weevil Grain moth Angoumoia 
 moth,) Butalis cerealel a,) which is so destructive to stored wheat, is 
 also .njurious to corn in some localities, when it is kept unprotected 
 more than six or eight months. (See 202.) 
 
 (#.) The true Grain Weevil. (Curculio granarius, } also attacks 
 stored corn. (See $ .) 
 
 (ff.) The Grain moth (Tinea grandla,} also feeds on corn under sim 
 ilar circumstances. 
 
 (/.) Corn Weevil (Sihanus Surinamcnsis ,} is very commonly found 
 among stored corn, as well as in other grains, and in sugar. It also in 
 fests mills. It is said that Sassafras Root, mixed with the grain, drives 
 them away. (For a very full description and a plate of this, and Calan~ 
 dra granaria, see N. Y. 2 J rans. of Agricul. Society, voL viii., p. 65G.) 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 135 
 
 313. A great variety of preventives have been tried, but 
 only a few appear to be worthy of use. Salt, perhaps, is the 
 most generally successful against such grubs as live in the 
 ground : Two to four bushels per acre of fine salt being sown 
 broadcast, and slightly harrowed in, a few days before planting. 
 If the corn is to be planted on sod, Ml plowing late in the 
 season will affect some good ; also steeping the grain in salino 
 and ammonical liquors ; and tarring. It has been recommended, 
 and practised with success, to hang the seed corn in the smoko 
 house, and smoke it with the hams : the pyrol igneous acid ap 
 pears to be offensive to insects and birds, while it does no injury 
 to the grain. For insects injuring the ripe corn when stored, 
 abundance of air, and thorough ventilation are the best preven 
 tives. A barrel, impregnated with tar, it is said will drive 
 away the True Grain Weevil, ( C. granarius,) (g,) if it is 
 placed in the granary. It is thus employed in France. 
 The farmer will find much profit in cherishing birds; even 
 the red-winged Black Bird, (Agelaius phoeniceoeus,) and Crow 
 Black Birds, (Qidscalus versicolor and ferrugineus,) on his 
 farm ; for though they destroy some grain, it is but a choice of 
 two evils; it being always found that where birds are driven 
 away the loss by insects becomes extreme. A single pair of 
 Crow Black birds will, in one season, destroy thousands of in 
 jurious grubs. 
 
 The whole subject of insects injurious to vegetation in America, still 
 requires much study and persevering observation ; and notwithstanding 
 Dr. Harris labors, there is yet much of practical importance to learn 
 regarding it. "We believe that the day will come when means will be 
 discovered of preventing these ravages ; but before this can take place, 
 not only must the habits of the insects themselves, but also the peculiar 
 ities of the plants and soil be much better understood than at present. 
 Many facts would lead us to believe, that an impoverishment of the soil 
 is necessary before insects can become seriously injurious, as it is cer 
 tainly connected with diseases of vegetation. 
 
 314. Many of the European physiologists, have for a length of time 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 been end< avoring to decide the question whether grains will germinate 
 before they are fully ripe ? The last writer on the subject, M. Duchar- 
 tre, Professor of Botany in the Agronomic Institution of Versailles, has 
 made many very complete experiments, with satisfactory results. We 
 are only able to give here a summary of the truths be arrived at. 
 
 1. The grains of the cereals are able to germinate, il harvested at least 
 twenty to twenty-five days before maturity, or complete ripeness, al 
 though the germ is yet very imperfect. 
 
 2. Such seeds require a longer time to sprout than those quite ripe, if 
 sown immediately without drying. 
 
 3. The same proportionate number of seeds will grow in both cases, 
 with the exception, perhaps, of barley. 
 
 4. Seed* imperfectly ripened germinate much more surely if they are 
 well dried before sowing. In this case they sprout as oon as perfectly 
 ripe seeds. It would appear that seeds harvested in an unripe slate- are 
 able to mature themselves if kept for some time, the embryo being 
 nourished and developed at the expense of the moisture and albumen. 
 
 5. In practice, there need be no fear as regards sowing seeds of the 
 cereals cut a long time before maturity, but the threshing should be de 
 ferred as long as possibla 
 
 6. Where the crop is large and laborers scarce, the harvest may be 
 commenced much earlier than is usual, without any fear of injuring* tho 
 grain. 
 
 7. The plants grown from seeds gathered twenty-five days before 
 ripening, and allowed to dry for seven weeks, so far from being weak 
 and inferior, were remarkable for their vigor, and on the whole no dif 
 ference in this respectcould be perceived in favor of well ripened gnin. 
 It would be well to make a scries of similar experiments in Americans 
 practically, it is a very important subject. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 RICE. BUCKWHEAT. MILLET. CANARY 
 GRASS. 
 
 315. Rice has been known and cultivated from the earliest 
 periods, and furnishes food to a large portion of the human 
 family. Its native country is unknown. 
 
 316. There are two varieties, (a J Common Rice ; (Orysa 
 sativa) and (I,) Cochin China, Dry, Upland, or Mountain Rice; 
 with several subvarieties, as Long Grain and Small Grain, &c. 
 
 317. The first (a,) is cultivated in marshes; and, for a great 
 part of its growth, is partially under water. It requires a warm 
 climate. On the Eastern continent it matures as high as the 
 45th parallel of north lat. and as far south as the 38th. On the 
 Atlantic side of the Western continent, as far north and south 
 as 38 of lat. On the western coast as far north as 40 or 
 more. It is cultivated in India, China, the Indian Archipelago, 
 Eastern Africa, South of Europe, southern portion of the United 
 States, and in parts of South America. It was introduced into 
 Virginia in 1647, and into Louisiana in 1718. According to 
 Boussingault it requires a minimum temperature of 75 F. 
 
 318. The second variety (&,) grows on mountains and dry 
 soils ; several degrees further north and south than the first. It 
 is found high on the range of the Himalayan Mountains, and is 
 cultivated in the northern provinces of China, in Hungary, 
 Westphalia, Virginia, Maryland, Illinois, Missouri, &c. It was 
 introduced into Charleston, S. C., from Canton, in 1772. 
 
 319. The States in which Rice is chiefly cultivated are 
 
138 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 1840. 
 
 South Carolina, - 60,590,861 Ibs. 
 Georgia, - - 12,384,732 " 
 
 Louisiana, - 3,604,534 " 
 
 North Carolina, 2,820,388 " 
 
 Mississippi, - - 777,195 " 
 
 18SO. 
 
 159,930,613 Ibs. 
 
 38,950,691 " 
 
 4,425,349 " 
 
 5,465,868 
 2,719,856 " 
 
 Besides Virginia, Florida, Alabama, Texas, Arkansas, Ten 
 nessee, Kentucky, Missouri (700 Ibs.) and Iowa (500 Ibs.) 
 The total crop of the United States was, 1840, 80,841,422 Ibs; 
 1850, 215,312,710 Ibs. The rice grown in South Carolina is 
 considered the finest in the world, having much improved in 
 quality in that State. 
 
 320. The Wild Rice, of the JSTorth Western Lakes, \vhicli is gathered 
 and eaten by the Indians, belongs to a different botanical family, and 
 is known as Zizania aqnatica. It is not cultivated. The Patent Office 
 Report, 1846, p. 289, mentions a grain by the name of Hungry Rice, 
 cultivated at Sierra Leone, Africa, as worthy of introduction into this 
 country ; but it is probably a species of Millet, and not a true Rice. 
 
 321. Unhusked rice consists of: (Johnston.) 
 
 Husk, . . 20.91 
 
 Grain, - .... 79.09 
 
 Carolina Rice, (A,) and Rice Flour (BJ gave: 
 
 A. B. 
 
 Water, - . 13.0 14.6 
 
 Ash, . - 0.33 0.35 
 
 322. Considering a rice plant in its dry mature state to 
 weigh 100 grains, the mineral matter in the different parts of 
 the plant are as follows : (Shepard.) 
 
 In the stubble and root, - ... 35 08 
 
 Straw and leaves, - . 36.08 
 
 Husk, - . . 14> 20 
 
 Cotyledon and Epidermis, ... 11.70 
 
 Clean rice, - .... 1.94 
 
 100.00 
 
 323. Dry rice contains: (Payen.) 
 
 Starch, - ... 86.9 
 
 Gluten, <tc., ... 75 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 Fatly matter, 
 
 Sugar nnd Gum, . - - j. " - 5 
 
 O A 
 
 Epidermis, 
 
 Saline matter, (ash) - 
 
 Rice contains less fatty matter than any other grain, and the 
 greater portion of the fat is contained in the outer coats. John 
 ston found in the siftings or cleanings of rice, from 5 to 5 per 
 cent, of fatty matter. 
 
 324. Inorganic analyses of Rice grain (A,) and husk (B.) 
 (Johnston.) 
 
 Potash, - - - - - 1848 1.60 
 
 Soda, - - - 10-67 1-58 
 
 Magnesia, - - - H-69 L96 
 
 Lime, - 1-27 1.01 
 
 Phosphoric acid, - - 53.36 
 
 Sulphuric acid, 
 
 Silica, - ... 3.35 89.71 
 
 Peroxide of iron, - 0-45 
 
 Varieties of rice from India give a much larger per centage 
 of ash than those grown in the United States. This grain is 
 probably less nutritious than any other ordinarily used by man ; 
 as it contains a comparatively small proportion of glutinous or 
 nitrogenous matter. 
 
 325. The soil adapted for the common rice is of a marshy 
 and wet character, containing much organic matter, which can 
 be overflowed or drained when requisite; but it will grow 
 (though less profitably) on light, moist uplands without irriga 
 tion, when cultivated with the hoe or plow. On wet lands, the 
 embankments and ditches being prepared, the soil is well 
 plowed, the seed sown at the rate of If io 2j bushels per acre, 
 and harrowed in with a light harrow, thickly set with teeth. 
 In South Carolina, from April to May, is the usual season. 
 Immediately after, the water is let on, so as barely to overflow 
 the ground. As soon as the grain begins to swell, the water is 
 withdrawn. When the plant is three inches high, the water is 
 
140 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 again let on, leaving the top leaves a little above it. A fort 
 night before harvest, the water is finally drawn oft*. 
 
 326. Rough rice, while the husk is still attached, is called 
 Paddy, and large quantities are exported in this condition. 
 A peculiar mill is required for cleaning the husk from the 
 grain, and in this process large amounts of "Rice flour" are 
 formed. The "flour," the chaflj and the straw are used as ma 
 nure for this crop, and are deemed among the very best. The 
 chaff is spread even over the surface, about three inches deep, 
 and plowed in. The straw can be safely used when the field is 
 fallowed. It is then put on the land thick, and bedded in. 
 Prof. Shepard says "The planter who sells his crop in the con 
 dition of Rough Rice, robs his land of 27.84 per cent of the 
 mineral ingredients of this species of produce, while on the other 
 hand, he who sells it as clean rice, abstracts from them but 2 
 per cent, of these ingredients." 
 
 327. The Upland Rice is sown in April and is ripe in Sep 
 tember. The usual method is to sow it in drills about 18 
 inches apart ; but if the land is well prepared and clean, it may 
 be sown broadcast. 
 
 328. The yield of an average crop of common rice in South 
 Carolina is about 40 bushels per acre, while a good crop will 
 give as high as 55 bushels. We find the product of 16 acres 
 thus described when prepared for market: 
 
 Rough rice, 376 bushels, give of 
 
 Clean rice, 10,7541bs. 
 
 Small rice, 1G^ bushels. 
 
 Floui, - 31 
 
 The Upland Rice yields from 25 to 30 bushels an acre. 
 
 329. Rice is measured by the Barrel of 600 Ibs, and by the 
 Tierce. 
 
 330. This grain is eaten boiled in its clean state ; it is ground 
 into flour; and starch is made from it. Manufactured on a 
 large scale, Patna rice yields 80 per cent of marketable starch ; 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 141 
 
 8,2 per cent, of fibrous starch granules; and 11.8 per cent, of 
 gluten, bran, and a small quantity of light starch. In India, 
 a fermented intoxicating liquor called arrack is prepared from 
 it. When damaged, it is occasionally used for feeding hogs and 
 fowls, and though deficient in oil, the large amount of starch 
 which it contains enables it to fatten. The refuse from rice- 
 mills is probably more fattening than the clean grain. 
 
 331. Microscopic examination of the soil of rice fields shows it to be 
 filled with minute animal forms and shells capable of supplying a large 
 amount of phosphoric acid, the chief inorganic ingredient of this grain. 
 
 332. BUCKWHEAT ( derived from the German Bucluveitzen 
 "Beech-wheat," from the resemblance of the seeds to the Beech 
 mast) is not properly a grain, but belongs to the family of 
 Icnotweeds, of which there are twenty species in the Northern 
 United States. It is probably a native of China. There are 
 three cultivated species ; (a,) Common Buckwheat, Polygonum 
 Fagopyrum; (b,) Tartarian Buckwheat, P. tataricum, and 
 (c,) Notch-seeded Buckwheat, P. emarginatum. There do not 
 appear to be any varieties. 
 
 In the Trans. N. Y. State Agricultural Society, 1848, p. 572, mention 
 is mude of a Blue Buckwheat, grown in Sullivan county. Its peculiari 
 ties are, 1. It is less injured by the sun. 2. Can be sown earlier. 3, 
 Weighs heavier ; and 4. Makes from 3 to 5 Ibs. per bushel more flour 
 of a better quality, than common buckwheat- The flour sold for 25 
 cents per 100 Ibs. more in the New York Market. In one instance it 
 vielded 41 bushels per acre. Whether this is a variety, or one of the 
 above mentioned, we are unable to decide. 
 
 The first is chiefly cultivated in America, the second in Italy, 
 the last in China. In Europe it is grown for food from Russia 
 to Italy, Great Britain excepted; and being a very short time 
 in the ground, can be adapted to great differences of climate, 
 In the United States it can be grown in every section, but is 
 chiefly cultivated north of North Carolina and Tennessee. The 
 total crop in 1840, was 7,291,743 bushels, and in 1850, 
 8,956,916 , New York (3,183,955 bushels) and Pennsylvania 
 
- AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 
 
 (2,1 93,692 bushels) being the largest producers. Michigan is 
 the fifth largest, giving 472,917 bushels, being only inferior to 
 Ohio and New Jersey. It has probably been grown in America 
 about 150 years. 
 
 333. Organic analyses of Buckwheat flour from Vienna (A,) 
 and Tartarian Buckwheat from Hohenheim (B.) (llorsford 
 and Crocker.) 
 
 A B 
 
 Gluten and Albumen, - 0.88 9.94 
 
 Starch, 65.05 44.12 
 
 Woody fibre, Gum, Sugar, - - 2647 46.26 
 
 Asb > 1.09 2.30 
 
 Moisture in fresh substance, ... 15.13 14.19 
 
 334. Inorganic analyses of Buckwheat from Cleves (Bichon) 
 (AJ and New York. (Salisbury,) (B,) 
 
 A B 
 
 Chlorine, - - Q 20 
 
 Potash, - . 8.74 23.33 
 
 Soda, . 20.10 2.04 
 
 Lime, - 6.66 0.14 
 
 Magnesia, - . 10.38 2.66 
 
 Oxide of iron, - 1.05 
 
 Phosphoric acid, - 50.07 Earthy phosphates, 57.60 
 
 Silica, - O.G9 7.06 
 
 Sulphuric acid, - - 2.16 7.30 
 
 There exists a striking identity in the composition of buck 
 wheat and rye. In the seeds of the former there is 27 per 
 cent, of husk. The 73 per cent, of flour, closely resembling 
 that of rye in color and properties, contains 10^ of gluten, and 
 52 of ordinary starch. The greatest resemblance also exists in 
 the constitution of the ash when both plants have been grown 
 on the same soil. The dried grain of rye contained 2.4 per 
 cent, that of buckwheat 2.1 per cent, of ash. 
 
 335. Boussingault gives the following as contained in the 
 grain (A,) and straw (B,) 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 143 
 
 A B 
 
 Water per cent, - I2 5 i16 
 
 Nitrogen per cent, of dried, 2.40 54 
 
 not dried, - - 2.10 0.48 
 
 Ammonia dried, calculated from the nitrogen, 2.94 0.65 
 
 336. Inorganic analysis of Buckwheat straw (Sprenget) 
 100,000 parts of the dry straw contained 3203 parts of ash: 
 
 Potash, 332 
 
 Soda, - 62 
 
 Lime, - 704 
 
 Magnesia, 1292 
 
 Alumina, - - 26 
 
 Oxide of iron, - - - 15 
 
 Oxide of manganese, - 32 
 
 Silica, 140 
 
 Chlorine, - - - - 95 
 
 Sulphuric acid, - 217 
 
 Phosphoric acid, .... ggS 
 
 3,203 
 
 337. An acre of 28 bushels, weighing 56 Ibs. per bushel, 
 gives of the grain, an average of 
 
 Organic matter, - - 1326 Ibs. 
 
 Ash, 22 " 
 
 Nitrogen, - 32 " 
 
 Phosphoric acid, - 11 " 
 
 338. Proximate organic analysis of Buckwheat : (Salisbury.) 
 
 Starch, - 42.47 
 
 Sugar and extractive matter, - 616 
 
 Dextrine and gum, - - 1.60 
 
 Epidermis, 1442 
 
 A light gray matter insoluble in \vater and boiling alcohol, - 10.10 
 
 Albumen, - - - 6.70 
 
 Casein, .... 0.78 
 
 ilfitter dissolved ont of the bodies insoluble in water, by boil- ? o gg 
 
 ing alcohol; rising with a substance analogous to water, 5 " 
 
 Oil, ..... 0.47 
 
 Water, - 12.88 
 
 98.24 
 
144 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 339, Buckwheat is used as food for man and animals, and ie 
 decidedly nutritious. Its fattening qualities are found in prac 
 tice to be higher than could be supposed from analysis; and 
 the meat formed by it is of peculiarly fine quality. The outer 
 husk being hard, this grain should always be ground or cooked 
 before feeding. 
 
 340. The uncrushed grain, and the fresh straw produce a remarkable 
 arid hitherto unexplained effect upon swine. If allowed to feed in a 
 newly harvested buckwheat field, the head and ears are attacked by an 
 eruption, with apparently intense itching, while the animal presents all 
 the symptoms of intoxication. In severe cases death ensues. So, like 
 wise, the fresh grain fed whole in large quantities, disorders the bowels ; 
 but if ground or cooked, these symptoms are not observed. In the latter 
 case the husk is passed by the animal entirely undigested. Further 
 investigation is necessary to explain these phenomena. 
 
 341. The straw is harsh, and not relished by horned cattle; 
 but horses will eat all except the coarsest parts, and keep in 
 good condition upon this alone. Buckwheat straw, unthrashed, 
 and cut up is excellent fodder for working horses. It must be 
 kept in a dry place, as it readily absorbs moisture, ferments, 
 and spoils. If boiled, the straw will form a thick jelly. 
 
 342. Buckwheat is frequently sown for the purpose of plow 
 ing in as a green manure to precede the wheat crop. Though 
 not equal to clover, it is yet beneficial to lands deficient in 
 organic matter. It should be turned under when beginning to 
 blossom. 
 
 343. The lighter class of soils is supposed to be the best for this 
 grain, but it will prosper on any except the heaviest. Generally*, 
 the land receives but one plowing, and a light harrowing ; from 
 2 to 3 pecks of seed to the acre are sown broadcast, and then 
 well harrowed in. In the latitude of Michigan, about the 20th 
 June, is the best time to sow ; but we have known good crops 
 to succeed barley, when the frosts were late. 
 
 344. In harvesting, the best mode is to cradle it ; rake it 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. .. - - 145 
 
 into small bundles, which are fastened by merely twisting the 
 tops; and let it stand till dry. If cut with a scythe and left 
 upon the ground, the seed is apt to shell out; the straw dries 
 slowly ; and much sand and dirt adhere to the grain. It should 
 be thrashed at once as it is drawn into the barn, otherwise it 
 will again absorb moisture, and heat. The best mode of thrash 
 ing is with horses, a machine being apt to break the grains. It 
 must be cut before the whole is fully ripe. 
 
 345. The crop varies from 10 to 30 or 40 bushels; 20 to 25 
 being probably the average. It appears to depend much upon 
 the state of the weather when in the fullest blossom. 
 
 346. The legal weight of a bushel of buckwheat in Michigan 
 is 42 Ibs. 
 
 347. MILLET. Under this name five plants of differing 
 genera, which are cultivated for their seeds, are comprehended. 
 They are all true grasses. 
 
 (A.) Common Millet, Panicum miliaceum. 
 
 (B.) Indian or Grand Millet, Sorghum vulgare. 
 
 (C.) Guinea Corn, Sorghum cernuum. 
 
 (D.) Bengal Grass, or Italian Millet, Setaria italica, 
 
 (E.) German Millet, Setaria germanica. 
 
 Th 3 first (a,) is most generally grown in the United States ; 
 the others being rarely met with. The second and third (b) 
 and (c,J belong to the same family as Broom corn, (Sorghum 
 saccaratum.) In other countries they are used as food for men 
 and animals, and the straw or stalks as fodder. 
 
 The Indian Millet (6,) furnishes the bread of the Arabians and other 
 people of tbe East, as well as of those of Africa. It is also eaten in 
 Italy, Spain, South of Germany, and the West Indies. It matures per 
 fectly in the neighborhood of Detroit. In its mode of growth it 
 resembles Indian corn, but the seeds are different. In this country it 
 is scarcely worth cultivating except as a curiosity, as it requires the 
 ame labor as corn, while its produce is smaller, and of an inferior 
 quality. 
 
 10 
 
140 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 348. As an article of food the Common Millet (a,) is very 
 similar to rice. It does not appear to have been perfectly 
 analysed ; but the following are given as the inorganic con 
 stituents of the grain grown at Giessen, Germany. (Rolic/i.) 
 Potash, - .... 9.58 
 
 Soda, - - -1.31 
 
 Magnesia, ...... 7.66 
 
 Lime, ... . 086 
 
 Pk.jsphoric acid, - - 18.19 
 
 Sulphutic acid, - -035 
 
 Silica, - - . 59.G3 
 
 Peroxide of iron, ..... O.G3 
 
 Chloride of sodium, ... - 1.43 
 
 349. The soil required for this crop is dry, rich, and -well 
 pulverized, sandy, rather than clay. It should be deeply plowed, 
 and well harrowed. If sown broadcast, half a bushel of seed is 
 the proper quantity, but on rich ground a peck may prove suffi 
 cient. If drilled, 8 quarts of seed are enough. If intended as 
 a fodder crop, more seed should be used, it being regulated in 
 proportion to the richness and condition of the soil. It will do 
 well on land that is too light for grass. The time for sowing 
 in Michigan is from the 1st of May to the 1st of July, or even 
 later if intended for soiling; June is the usual month in New 
 York. After sowing, the field should be rolled. When in 
 tended for a grain crop, it must not be allowed to become 
 entirely ripe, or much will be lost by shelling. It may bo 
 cradled and bound, or cut with a scythe and raked into bundles. 
 In New York, as much as 2| tons of fodder, and 32 bushels 
 of seeds have been raised to the acre. As high as 60 to 80 
 bushels of seed per acre are said to have been produced. (Allen.) 
 The usual crops are from 1 to 2 tons of straw, and 20 to 30 
 bushels of seed. 
 
 350. In the United States, Millet seed is never used for 
 human food; but when ground into meal it is excellent for 
 fattening animals. The chief use of Millet is to Uke the placo 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 147 
 
 of hay when that is likely to fail ; or to servo for soiling ; for 
 both which purposes it is admirably adapted. According to 
 Boussingault, dry Millet straw contains 0.96 per cent, of nitro 
 gen, and 147 Ibs. of it are equal in nourishment to 100 Ibs. of 
 ordinary natural meadow hay. If intended for hay alone, it 
 should be cut as soon as the head is formed, and treated like 
 any other grass. 
 
 351. CANARY GRASS, (Phalarls canaricnsis) is rarely culti 
 vated in the United States, and what is used among us for 
 feeding tame birds fits only vakiej is chiefly imported. It is, 
 however, well adapted for most parts of this country ; and might, 
 it is believed, be rendered profitable, if grown on a small scale. 
 It is a n.-itive of the Canary Islands, but is now grown in the 
 south of England, and other countries. It requires a rich, fine, 
 loamy soil. The seeds are drilled about a foot a part, as early 
 in spring as frosts will permi*, at the rate of 4 to 5 gallons per 
 acre. Afterwards, the space between the rows must be kept 
 well worked with a shovel plow, or some similar implement, and 
 perfectly free from weeds. It may bs harvested, cured, and 
 thrashed like any other grain. From 30 to 35 bushels per acre 
 is the ordinary yield, and from that to 50 bushels per acre. 
 The straw is rough and coarse, but may serve for winter fodder 
 and bedding. 
 
 These are all the Cereal plants grown in the Northern United 
 States for their seeds. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. BEANS; PEAS; 
 LENTILS; VETCHES; AND LUPINES. 
 
 352. This class of plants derives its name from the seeds producing 
 tegumin, a substance identical in composition with the casein (or cheese) 
 of milk ; corresponding with the gluten (or nitrogenous compound) of 
 the cereals. It is formed of Oxygen, Hydrogen, Carbon, and Nitrogen, 
 with Phosphate of Lime and Sulphur incorporated ; but the exact 
 quantities do not appear to be accurately ascertained. (Carpenter.} 
 
 353. Under this head several botanical genera are included, 
 most of them natives of temperate climates; and there are 
 many varieties produced by cultivation. The following may be 
 enumerated as those chiefly used by man : 
 
 Common or English bean, Faba vulgaris 
 
 including Field beans, Sow, Horse, Gar 
 den beans, <fec. 
 
 Kidney beans, Phaseolus vulgaris. 
 
 Lima beans, Phaseolus lunatus. 
 
 with several other species and varieties. 
 ( D,) Common lentil, Ervum lens. 
 
 (Ej) Bastard lentil, Ervum Ervilia. 
 
 (F,) One flowered lentil, Ervum monanthos. 
 
 Chick pea, Cicer arietinum* 
 
 Common pea, Pisum sativum. 
 
 with several species and varieties. 
 
 This long cultivated pea as found by Capt. Stansbary s party, growing wild in 
 the Interior of Oregon, and in the vufleys of the Utah, in sandy bottom land. (Explo 
 ration, p. 335.) It is a native of the South of Europe, and is grown in India under tbr 
 name of Gram. It has always been supposed to require a hot climate. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 (I,) Lupines, Lupinus albus. 
 
 (J,) Tare or vetch, Vicia sativa. 
 
 with several other species. 
 
 (Jfj) Broad bean, Windsor bean, Vicia faba. 
 
 354. In the United States the cultivation of leguminous 
 plants is chiefly confined to Kidney Beans (b,) and Peas (A,J 
 eome varieties of which prosper in every section of the country. 
 In the census they are united together ; and no account appears 
 to have been taken of them before 1850. In that year the 
 total crop was 9,219,975 bushels, or nearly double the quantity 
 of barley grown. North Carolina produced the largest amount, 
 viz: 1,584,252 bushels, while South Carolina, Georgia, and 
 Mississippi, alone besides, produced each, over a million of 
 bushels. The crop of Michigan was 74,254 bushels. In tha 
 Northern States, these crops may be considered as of inferior 
 value. 
 
 355. As regards the analyses, it will be most convenient to 
 class them all together; and w shall be obliged to depend 
 chiefly on the labors of foreign chemists. 
 
 The following by Hereford and Krocker of Germany, and 
 Thompson of Scotland are believed to be correct. 
 
 
 Table 
 Pea, 
 Vienna. 
 
 Field 
 Pea, 
 G essen. 
 
 Table 
 Bean, 
 Vienna. 
 
 l-ar^e 
 White 
 Bean, 
 Giessen. 
 
 Lentils, 
 Vienna. 
 
 Sow 
 Bean, 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Vegetable casein & albumen 
 
 2802 
 
 *y 18 
 
 28.54 
 
 2931 
 
 3046 
 
 29.43 
 
 Stnrch, 
 Gum, - 
 
 38 *1 ) -,. 
 28.50 I 66 23 
 
 37.. SO 
 
 2920 
 
 \ 66.17 
 
 40.00 
 25.06 
 
 ;.. 
 
 A*h, 
 
 3.18 279 
 
 433 
 
 4.01 
 
 2.60 
 
 3.9 
 
 Skin, 
 
 7.65 J 6.11 
 
 4.11 
 
 4.41 
 
 ! 
 
 ? 
 
 Moisture in the fresh seed . 
 
 1343 
 
 19.50 
 
 1341 
 
 15.80 
 
 13.01 
 
 .10.60 
 
 From this table it appeal s that the nutritious qualities of each 
 species is very nearly the same. The flesh-forming constituents 
 are large, and there is sufficient starch for all the purposes of 
 life, but little or nothing to form fat. Other analyses give from 
 1.5 to 2.1 per cent of oil or fatty matter in beans, and from l.d 
 
150 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 to 2.7 per cent, in peas, probably in or immediately beneath tho 
 skin. 
 
 356. Ultimate analyses of White Peas, (A,) and Pea Straw 
 (B,) (Boussingault) raised on manured land, yielding 10 
 bushels per acre, weighing 62 Ibs. per bushel. One part of 
 peas, after complete drying, weighed 0.914; one part of dried 
 peas left of ash 0.0314. Of the straw, the acre produced 22 or 
 23 cwts. (of 112 Ibs.) One part of the straw, after drying, 
 weighed 0.802 ; one part of this left of ash 0.1 1 32. And Scotch 
 Beans, dried at 2 1 2 ( C.) ( Thompson.) 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 ii 
 
 
 
 Carbon, 
 
 46.06 
 
 4G94 
 
 45 80 
 
 45.59 
 
 Hydrogen, 
 
 809 
 
 f.24 
 
 son 
 
 
 Oxygen, 
 
 40 53 
 
 39 50 
 
 35 57 
 
 
 Nitrogen, ... 
 
 418 
 
 418 
 
 2.31 
 
 4.fil 
 
 Ash, - 
 
 3.14 
 
 314 
 
 1 1 32 
 
 396 
 
 10.60 per cent, of water was expelled frt>m the Beans in the process of 
 drying. 
 
 357. Inorganic analyses of leguminous plants: 
 
 
 Will 
 and Fro 
 
 SCIlillR 
 
 Bit-In n 
 
 Bichon 
 
 Le 
 
 vi. 
 
 Thonip- 
 Kon. 
 
 
 Pea. 
 
 Pea. 
 
 Sow 
 Henri. 
 
 Bran. 
 
 Lentil. 
 
 >r.) ch 
 
 H.-.II 
 Meal. 
 
 Boda* - . " - 
 Lime 
 IWairnosia 
 Oxido of Iron 
 Pho li iric, acid 
 Oil- -ride of sodium 
 CliloriiiR 
 fcflj.liuric acid 
 Silica - 
 
 39. H 
 3.9s 
 5.91 
 6.4:i 
 1.05 
 34.50 
 371 
 
 4.91 
 
 12.76 
 24 
 8 60 
 0.9o 
 34.57 
 
 0.3) 
 3.:.6 
 .25 
 
 19( 6 
 72 ! 
 PHI 
 1 03 
 3794 
 
 1.48 
 I 31 
 246 
 
 3*1-9 
 11 78 
 590 
 9 3 
 n.ll 
 31.34 
 
 033 
 247 
 0.44 
 
 34.31 
 13 30 
 fi24 
 
 iJi 
 
 35. b2 
 
 4.r,6 
 1 31 
 
 23.15 
 942 
 5 18 
 903 
 1 ft() 
 35.26 
 
 1 75 
 129 
 13.12 
 
 358. Inorganic analyses of Field Pea (A,) and Straw (B.) 
 (Prof. Way.) 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. V 151 
 
 V^ jk 
 
 A B 
 
 Silica, 1.24 - - 5.36 
 
 Phosphoric acid, - - - 34.81 450 
 
 Sulphuric a -id, 5.68 - - 566 
 
 Carbonic acid, - - 1.82 - 1474 
 
 Lime. - - 632 - - 37.99 
 
 Miigwwia, - - 6.57 - 6.73 
 
 P roxide of iron, 0.59 1.76 
 
 Potash, .... 40.19 - 17.17 
 
 Soda, - - 065 - - 248 
 
 Chloride of sodium, O.G8 3.57 
 
 Chloride of potassium, - 1.42 - 
 
 These analyses prove that pea straw is a peculiarly valuable 
 fodder. According to Boussingnult, dried pea straw contains 
 1.95 per cent, of nitrogen; and 64 Ibs. of it, are equivalent for 
 nourishment to 100 Ibs. of ordinary hay, while 27 Ibs. of white 
 pens, and 25 Ibs. of beans (bj are equivalent to 100 Ibs. of 
 hay. 
 
 359. Nutritive matter derived from an imperial acre of pease, 
 producing 25 bushels or 1600 Ibs. (Stephens.) 
 Hu-k or woody fibre, - 130 Iba. 
 
 Starch, gum, &c. t - 81)0 " 
 
 Gluten, - - - 380 " 
 
 O I or fat, - 34 " 
 
 Saline matter, or ash, - - 48 " 
 
 36* . Sugar appear* to be contained in only a few of the leguminous 
 plants as in tlie ^nyar-pca ; gum, mi the contrary, mucus, anil pectic 
 acid, a wax-like substance, and the same salts as in the cereals, are con 
 stant ingredients in all. In the <-kins, particularly of lentils, tannin is 
 found. A,larj;e quantity of potash and soda, and a larger proportion 
 than usual of sulphuric acid, characterize their ashes. The leguniinvf 
 the pea and bean differs from the gluten of wheat in being soluble in 
 water, and in very dilute acid or alkaline solutions. 
 
 361. THE PEA most commonly cultivated in the Northern 
 States, in fields, is the Grey or Canada Pea, ( Pisum ar- 
 vense;) but varieties of the White Pea (P. Sativum,) are also 
 grown on a large scale. In Virginia and the States southwards 
 
152 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 The Chickasaw Pea, The Cow Pea, The Black-eyed Pea, and 
 others, unknown at the north, are in common use, where they 
 are depended upon for pasture, as clover is with us. 
 
 362. The soil best adapted to this crop is a loam, a little in 
 clining to clay, abounding in the alkalies. Barn yard manures, 
 freshly applied, are injurious as forming much straw at the ex 
 pense of the seed; but ashes, plaster, and lime, and probably 
 guano, may be used with much benefit. Land habitually wet 
 should not be sown with peas. 
 
 363. Unless the soil is very highly cultivated and very fria 
 ble, plow in the fall, laying the furrows up high ; and again, 
 crossways in the spring, so soon as the earth is sufficiently dried. 
 Harrow thoroughly, and deeply. The common quantity sown 
 in New York is 1 to 1^- bushels per acre, but the Scotch use 
 4 bushels ; and in the United States, from 3 to 4 bushels are 
 preferable to the smaller quantity. The goodness of the crop 
 greatly depends upon the roots being so deeply buried that they 
 are beyond the risk of the earth around them drying up in 
 summer. To ensure this, as it is very difficult if not impossible 
 to cover the seed evenly with a harrow, they should be plowed 
 in with a wheat cultivator, so as to leave them from 2 to 2j 
 inches or more below the surface, and then the field should be 
 well rolled. 
 
 364. Harvesting is effected with the scythe, the straw being 
 rather torn up and rolled into heaps than cut; or when fully 
 ripe, the roots may be easily and quickly pulled with a horse 
 rake. Pease are then left on the ground till dry, and are either 
 put away in the barn ; or, as is preferable, thrashed as they are 
 hauled in. This may be done with the flail, or horses, the lat 
 ter being the most expeditious and cheapest. The bottom of 
 the wagon should be tight to prevent waste. 
 
 365. In Virginia, peas are frequently grown among corn, be 
 ing planted between the corn hills, and made at the expence of 
 
\ 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 153 
 
 very little additional tillage, other than what the corn alone 
 would receive. After securing enough for seed, the pease are 
 usually fed off the land to hogs, and in that way, are a very 
 important auxiliary to the crop of corn : while the aung, and 
 straw plowed in, manure the land for the next season. 
 
 366. In other southern States, the Cow, Indian, or Stock 
 Pea, is much relied on for pasture, and as a fertilizer. It is 
 sown broadcast, or in drills, or it is hoed in among corn, when 
 the culture of the latter is finished. Under any circumstances, 
 the pea is valuable as a green manure ; but the cost of seed is 
 too great, and the quantity of straw too small to render it pop 
 ular for this purpose. 
 
 367. The great enemy of this vegetable, and one which dis 
 courages its more extended cultivation is the Pea-weevil, or 
 Pea-bug, (Bruchus Pisi.) 
 
 After the pea-vines have flowered, and when the peas are just begin 
 ning to swell in the pod, the weevils deposite their eggs singly, in the 
 pod, just above the pea, chiefly at night, or during cloudy weather. The 
 grubs, as eoon PS hatched, penetrate into the pense; and in time bore a 
 round hole from the centre to the hull, leaving the latter, and generally 
 the germ of the future sprout untouched. The grub is changed to a 
 pupa within its hole in the pea, in the autumn ; and from November to 
 the spring casts its skin again, becomes a beetle, and gnaws a hole 
 through the ttin hull in order to escape, which frequently does not hap 
 pen before the pe&se are planted for an early crop. Pease containing 
 this insect may be detected by a minute hole, and dimple. It may be 
 killed by immersion in very hot wat^r ; but as the mischief is already 
 done, ai d as the weevil lives on other plants, this process can be of little 
 use. 
 
 These attacks may be escaped, it is said, by sowing in the 
 month of June, after the parent insect has ceased to deposito 
 its eggs ; but as the abundance of the crop appears to depend 
 on a certain amount of rain or moisture while it is in blossom, 
 and as great heat is injurious to it in its early growth, equal 
 difficulties or risks exist in this attempt to finu a remedy. Till 
 lately, the district lying along the River Thames in Canada, 
 
154 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 was free from the weevil, and a large portion of the peas con- 
 sinned in the Northern States were imported thence, but this 
 immunity is said to have passed away. According to Dr. Har 
 ris, the weevil, as late as 1852, was rare in New Hampshire, 
 and still unknown in Maine. 
 
 " The en > \v black I >i nl (Q <iscalus verticolor,) is said to devour great 
 numbt-rsof these beetles in the spring ; and the Baltimore Oriole. (Icte 
 rus tiaUtmorc.) splits open the green pods for the sake of the grub con 
 tained in the pe.ise, thereby contributing greatly to prevent the increase 
 of these noxious injects. The instinct that enables this beautiful bird 
 to detect the lurking grub, concealed as the latter is, within the pod and 
 the hull of the }>e. , is worthy our highest admiration." (H<rrix.) 
 
 368. The Statutes of Michigan provide no standard weight 
 for the bushel of pease. The average crop is from 20 to 25 
 bushels, but as high as 50 bushels per acre is not very uncom 
 mon. 
 
 369. Pease are frequently fed to hogs. As has been already 
 perceived they possess little capability to fatten, but no food can 
 be given which will form flesh more rapidly ; and in this re 
 spect they are essentially useful. They should be either ground 
 and cooked, or soaked and partially soured before feeding. If 
 fed whole, they are apt to swell greatly in the stomach, and in- 
 jire or even kill the animal; but if this does not occur, much 
 will be passed undigested, therefore wasted. At present, ground 
 pease are made into bread in Scotland and some other coun 
 tries. Soup or gruel made of ground pease is an excellent food 
 for calves. 
 
 It is customary, in some localities, to sow pease and oats together, for 
 the purpose, afterwards, of feeding to horses The supposed benefit de 
 rived is the upholding of the pea, HS it clings to the straw of the oat. 
 "VW are inclined to think, however, that the oat will suffer as much or 
 more from the overshadowing of ihe pea, as the pea gains from the pro 
 tection of the oat ; and prefer mixing the two afterwards as we require 
 them. 
 
 In some soils, n heavy crop of pease proves beneficial in destroying 
 ; and leaves the ground both clean aud mellow. The roots of 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 155 
 
 this plant rentier the soil very friable ; and in this respect arc beneficial, 
 mechanically, on adhesive- clnys. 
 
 370. BKANS. In the United States, the English Bean, (a,) 
 (which in that country takes so important a place in the rota 
 tion in clay soilsj does not prosper. Our climate appears to 
 be eilher too hot or too dry for it. With us three species or 
 varieties, belonging to the genus Phaseolus (b,) are commonly 
 grown as a field crop, the la rye white bean, the small white 
 bean, and the China bean, the latter having a spot of deep red 
 upon it. Some 30 other varieties may be found in gardens 
 known as climbing beans and bush beans; and in France and 
 England as Ilarricot Beans. 
 
 371. The above (b,) will grow well on any soil, but sandy 
 or gravelly lands are generally preferred, both on account of 
 their being more easily kept clean, and because upon them the 
 seed is less apt to be damaged in case of rain when ripening. 
 Upon clay and other retentive soils, the pods which lie upon 
 the ground are easily injured and rotted when nearly ready to 
 harvest. Upon sandy lands, also, the seeds ripen earlier and 
 more evenly. 
 
 372. Beans may be grown in hills, in rows, or broadcast. 
 The following is considered the best mode of culture, succeed 
 ing a hoed crop manured the previous season. Plough twice, 
 and harrow well, or plow once, and render the surface fine with 
 the cultivator, and roll. About the 1st June, plant in rows 22 
 inches apart, either usino^ a drill, or having marked out the 
 rows with a corn marker, at the rate of six beans to the foot. 
 Hoe about the 26th of June, and again about the 16th of July; 
 perfectly destroying the weeds. It is believed by the most skil 
 ful growers of this crop, that it is better not to plow, or other 
 wise disturb the ground, if the weeds can be kept down by hoe 
 ing. When the pods have turned yellow they are ready for 
 harvesting, which is done by pulling the plants, and striking the 
 roots against a stick held in the left hand, till they are clean ; 
 
156 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 the plants are then lightly stacked on the ground, rails or blocks 
 of wood having been laid for the purpose. The stacks should 
 not be so large that the sun-shine and wind cannot enter. 
 When entirely dry, they should be hauled, and immediately 
 thrashed by flail, otherwise the pods will again absorb the mois 
 ture, and heat. The beans should be spread for a few days on 
 the barn floor and occasionally turned until they are perfectly 
 dry ; as even, after thrashing, if thrown into too large a heap, 
 they will be apt to mould. 
 
 373. The following is an account of the expense of raising a 
 crop of one acre as above, in Jefferson county, v . Y., in 1851. 
 The kind used was the " small early Vermont Bean." 
 
 Plowing, harrowing and working, - $1 75 
 
 Planting by hand, 75 
 
 First hoeing, - - - 1 13 
 
 Second hoeing, ... 3.09 
 
 Pulling and stacking, - - 2.40 
 
 Drawing, thrashing, cleaning, and measuring, - 1.75 
 
 One bushel of beans for seed, - 1.00 
 
 Board, - - 250 
 
 Interest on land, - - - 3 50 
 
 $17.87 
 
 VALUE OF CROP. 
 
 34 2-32 bushels beans at $1.00, 34 06 
 
 One ton of straw, <fcc., - - - 5 00 
 
 $3906 
 Deduct expences, ... 17.87 
 
 Net proceeds per acre, - - $21.19 
 
 374. The crop varies from 15 to 40 bushels. As high as 60 
 bushels is said to have been raised to the acre in New York. 
 Of late years, the supply has rarely proved commensurate with 
 the demand. 
 
 375. The straw is eaten by horned cattle and sheep. For 
 the last it is, in common with pease and pea straw, particularly 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 157 
 
 excellent in consequence of the large amount of sulphur which 
 it contains this being an important element in wool. 
 
 370. LENTILS are rarely or never cultivated in the United 
 States except as a garden plant. The seed has been distributed 
 (1853) by the Patent Office; and in this manner this useful es 
 culent may become better known. In the south of Europe 
 and in Asia it enters largely into the food of the people. There 
 are several varieties of it, distinguished by the color of their 
 seeds, the greater or smaller growth of their stems, and the 
 earhness of their period of ripening. 
 
 377. The Lentil requires a somewhat light soil and warmth. 
 It is greatly less productive of straw than the pea and the bean, 
 and the produce of seed is also comparatively small. There 
 could be no benefit in introducing it into field-culture in this 
 country. In gardens, it may be cultivated as peas are. 
 
 378. The TARE or VETCH is largely grown in Great Britain 
 as a forage-plant, for which purpose it is much esteemed. In 
 the United estates it does not appear to be usually cultivated, 
 though it will prosper in the northern States. There are sev 
 eral species and varieties ; and in situations where grass is defi 
 cient, and regular rotations of crops are employed; or where 
 grass fails early in the season, as on many of the Prairies, this 
 crop would prove beneficial. All animals are fond of it, and 
 all thrive on it in an eminent degree. Hogs may be fattened en 
 tirely on it. It causes milch cows to give more butter than any 
 species of green food ; and horses can be kept fat on it. 
 
 379. In Europe it is sown both in autumn and in spring, but 
 in our Northern States, it would necessarily be a spring crop 
 only. It requires land in good condition and free from weeds. 
 In Scotland, manure is always given it, and the land is well 
 worked. It possesses the advantage of growing on all classes 
 of soils. It is generally sown broadcast, at the rate of 3 to 4 
 bushels per acre ; but oats are frequently mixed with it, when 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 1 to 2 bushels of Tares, and 1 bushel of oats arc enough. 
 Light or poor soils require more seed. The Hopetown, or 
 White-flowered Tare, is considered the most valuable variety. 
 When intended for fodder, Tares are usually cut and fed to 
 Btock in stables or yards. If intended for seed they may be 
 treated as pease, being cut with a scythe. If fodder is wished 
 for, sowing should take place in rotation : and the plant be used 
 after the pods are formed, but long before the seeds become 
 ripe. 
 
 380. LUPINES are grown with us as a garden flower, but in 
 Italy are used both as food, and to plow under as a green ma 
 nure, a practice derived from the ancient Romans. The flavor 
 is said to be coarse arid bitter. They flourish in light sandy 
 lands, but can be of no value to us. 
 
CHAPTER XI11. 
 
 GRASSES AND OTHER FODDER PLANTS. 
 
 381. As the production of domestic animals, and manure 
 depends on grasses, we consider these as next in importance. 
 The Belgians have a proverb which should be written in letters 
 of gold on every barn-door: "Without dung, no crops; with 
 out cattle, no dung ; without grass, no cattle." 
 
 382. The botanical family of Grasses ( Graminecf ,) is ex 
 tremely numerous; there are few parts of the world where 
 some species are not found growing wild; while in moderate 
 climates they form the great mass of vegetable production. In 
 Agriculture, they are usually divided into (a,) wild grasses, and 
 (bj cultivated or tame grasses. These latter (b,) are grasses 
 of peculiar value, which are regularly sown; while the former 
 (a,) spring up naturally where they are found, without sowing. 
 With very few exceptions, grasses do not change into varieties 
 by cultivation, like other plants, but remain the same as when 
 wild. In England, over thirty distinct species are employed 
 for different soils and purposes. In the United States, not 
 more than half a dozen, at the utmost, are usually sown, though 
 we have a great variety of wild species. Seventy-two have al 
 ready been detected in Michigan, without counting those that 
 have been introduced. The culture of hay, at present, is prin 
 cipally confined to the Eastern, Middle, and Western States, 
 from which the Southern markets are mainly supplied, in the 
 form of pressed packages or bales. 
 
 The reason for using so nwny species of grasses as the English do. 
 
160 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 (and in which respect it is very important that we should follow thei r 
 example,) is that a greater weight can be produced on an acre ; some 
 are of temporary duration, some of permanent ; the period ot matura 
 tion differs, so that, when mixed, some are always in the best condition 
 for pasture; the nutritive power differs ; some are best adapted for pas 
 ture, others for meadow ; and some prosper in one sort of soil, others 
 in another sort. Mixed grasses are found to feed miimals more profit 
 ably than one single kind ; and it may be said, that the improvement 
 of stock in Great Britain commenced, and has kept pace with the intro 
 duction of cultivated grasses, and other fodder plants. Great pains are 
 taken in that country to find and cultivate the best species. In the 
 United States we have been much too negligent in this respect. 
 
 In 1840, the hay crop of the United States was 10,248,- 
 108f tons; in 1850, 13,838,579 tons; in which, however, clover 
 is included. 
 
 383. The following species are the most valuable: 
 
 (aj) Phleum pratense. Timothy, Herd s grass. (Meadow 
 Cats-tail.*; 
 
 (bj) Agrostis vulgaris. Red Top, Herd s grass. 
 
 (cj) Agrostis alba. White Bent Grass, White Red Top, 
 Fiorin. (Marsh Bent Grass.) 
 
 (dj) Muhlenbergia Mexicana. Fowl Meadow Grass. 
 
 (e,) Poa Pratensis. Green Meadow Grass, June Grass. 
 (Smooth-stalked Meadow Grass.) 
 
 (f,) Poa compressa. Blue Grass. 
 
 (g,) Poa trivialis. Rough-stalked Meadow Grass. 
 
 (hj) Dactylis glomerata. Orchard Grass. (Rough Cocks 
 foot Grass.) 
 
 (ij) Lolium italicum. Italian Rye Grass. 
 
 (j,) Lolium perennc. Perennial Rye Grass, or (Darnel.) 
 
 (kj Lolium annuum. Annual do 
 
 There is a species of Rye or Darnel grass (Lolium temulentum,) greatly refemblinjp 
 the Perennial, which is poisonous to every thing but hojs. It is naturalized in Mas 
 sachusetts. In some parts of Europe it is a weed among wheat, and when eaten in 
 flour is frequently filial. (Jib <tr . / of Med. Scien., June 1851, p. 299.) 
 
 The last nime within brackets in this list is that which ia usually uted by English 
 writers. Those marked * belong to the South. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 101 
 
 (I,) Anthoxantham odoratum. Sweet-scented Vernal Grass. 
 
 (in,) Alopecurus pratensis. Meadow Fox-Tail. 
 
 (n,) Cynosurus cristatus. Crested DogVTail. 
 
 (o,) Avena Jlavescens. Yellow Oat Grass. 
 
 (Pi) Triticum dasystachyum. Michigan Coucli Grass. 
 
 (q,) Phalaris Americana. Ribbon Grass. 
 
 (>J Festuca elatior. Tall Fescue Grass. 
 
 (sj Festuca pratensis. Meadow do. 
 
 (t,) Tripsacum dactyloides. Gama Grass.* 
 
 (uj Sorghum halpense. Gained or Egyptian Grass.* 
 
 (v,J Cynodon dactylon. Bermuda Grass.* 
 
 (w,) Grama.* 
 
 Besides these there are several species of Poa and Festuca 
 that are valuable for pasture. When the subject is better in 
 vestigated, undoubtedly many indigenous grasses will be added 
 to the list, especially from California. 
 
 384. We will notice, in as small a space as possible, the peculiarities 
 of these grasses : (a,) is a native of both Europe and the United 
 States. It may be found growing wild in the counties of Ingham, 
 Clinton, Shiawassee, &2., in Michigan, upon certain loamy clay soils, in 
 great luxuriance, and it is known to spring up, without sowing, on 
 clearing off the woods, and plowing. It is the most generally cultiva 
 ted grass for dry soils in the United States, affording 1> to 2J tons of 
 dry hay per acre ; and in favorable situations remains permanently 
 for very many years. It abounds in seed, which is easily saved, yield 
 ing from 10 to 34 bushels per acre. ( Wiggins) To save the seed, al 
 low it nearly to ripen ; mow ; bind and shock like wheat, and thrash 
 with horses. With a proper fanning mill, the seed can be perfectly 
 cleaned, as readily as that of any of the cereals. According to Mr. Sin 
 clair,* the nutritive value is double when ripe compared with the period 
 
 *A few years since a very extensive examination of the nutritive value of the Eng- 
 lish grasses was made by George Sinclair, uncL>r the direction of the Duke of Bed 
 ford at his estate of Woburn; and the results were published in an oct tvo volume, 
 wiih colored copperplate engravings of most of the grasses, under the name of Hortuj 
 Gramineus Woburnensis. The work is now very difficult to obtain. Th only copv 
 we have seen in America is in the library of the Patent Office, Washington. Much 
 interesting information was collected by Mr. S., but his labors are of less value than 
 they ought to have beeu from his want of skill as an analyst, and his ignorance of the 
 principles of nutrition. As, however, no one has gone over the same ground, his 
 book is often quoted and referred to. The chief results will bs fouud tabulated in 
 Mlsris Amcr. Firm Book, p. 110. 
 
 11 
 
162 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 of flowering, while the weight is the same. The ripe crop exceeds the 
 flowering in value as 14 to 5. It is usually sown with wheat in tbe 
 fall, or with oats or barley in spring the latter being preferable and 
 red clover is generally mixed with it. If sown alone, half a bushel of 
 seed, or if with clover 12 quarts of grass, and one pound of clover is 
 the proper quantity. Many persons sow less than this, but there is no 
 economy is stinting grass seed. There should be enough to form a thick 
 sod the first season. In heavy clays even more seed may be requisite. 
 Timothy may be cut in the morning, and hauled into sheds or barns the 
 same afternoon, using a bucket full of salt to each ton ; but if stacked, 
 it must be drier. The faults of this grass are : 1, the coarse stem and 
 head. 2. The deficiency of leaf. 3. The small quantity of the after 
 crop ; and 4, the dying out of the plant in winter in certain classes of 
 soils. It is better adapted for horses and neat cattle than for sheep, and 
 compares badly with the fine, leafy hay of the English meadows. It 
 is well adapted for mixing wUh other grasses. (6) and (c) Both belong 
 to wet or marshy lands, and will not prosper in entirely dry soils ; they 
 can, therefore, scarcely be called cultivated grasses, though they are often 
 sown in such situations. They are natives of the United States. They 
 have creeping roots or stolons, and are very difficult to eradicate. Tho 
 two greatly resemble each other, but the latter has white instead of red 
 heads or flowers. In England, they are not held in much estimation. 
 "With us they are placed as hay, by many persons, on a level with Timo 
 thy, and for sheep they probably surpass it, the stalks being fine, and 
 the leaf abundant. They afford good pasture, and grow rapidly after 
 being cut or grazed. The latter species (c,) is called Fowl Meadow grass 
 in many paits of New York, a name which has led to much confusion. 
 If sown in maishes, they readily exterminate the coarser grasses and 
 weeds, and form a productive meadow. About one bushel of seed to 
 the acre should be used, or two bushels if sown on clean plowed land. 
 About 1}^ tons to the acre of dry hay is the usual product, the grass 
 diminishing greatly in weight after cutting, (c?,) Till lately, this grass 
 has only been sown in Massachusetts, where it is also called Duck-grass, 
 and Swamp-wire-grass, but it is now getting into general favor. It is 
 mentioned by the Rev. J. Eliot, of Connecticut, as early as 1751, from 
 whom we learn that it was supposed to have been brought into a poor 
 piece of meadow in Dedham, Mass., by ducks and other wild water 
 fowls and therefore called by such an odd name. There can be little 
 doubt, however, that it is indigenous to Michigan where it is frequently 
 met with in swamps. It grows tall and thick, and makes a soft and 
 pliable hay. One good quality is that it does not spoil by standing 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 163 
 
 after it is ripe, but may be cut any time from July to October. It is 
 represented as yielding heavy crops ; grows about three feet high ; and 
 is essentially fine in the stalk with abundance of leaf, flower, and seed. 
 Indeed, it appears to be the best American grass for damp soils yet 
 known, and is worthy of very extensive culture. It is found to succeed 
 bast in drained marshes, which can be overflowed for two or three weeks 
 in the spring and winter. When sown in such situations the land should 
 be plowed, and between two and three bushels of seed harrowed in, 
 with or without a grain crop. It may, however, be sown in lands too 
 wet to plow, though yielding in such places an inferior crop; and it 
 would be well to mix the two last species () and (c) with it. (Dr. H, 
 Wkcatlandin Farmer s Companion, vol. ii, p. 5.) (e,) Is or has been 
 abundant in all the Northern States, coming up immediately after the 
 forests have been cut down, though it is now said to fail in the older 
 Eastern States. It belongs to dry soils, and forms a thick, though shal 
 low sod, and excellent pasture, especially for sheep. In heavy timber 
 ed clay soils it is generally mixed with the indigenous white clover. 
 ( Tr >folium repens.) The stalks or culms are short and naked, the leaves 
 reclining partially on the ground, and it is only when peculiarly luxuri 
 ant that it is worth cutting for hay. It is found, however, in all old 
 meadows where the soil is adapted to it. It is rarely, if ever, sown, 
 though the seed may be collected without difficulty. It dries up after 
 flowering in June, but in the damp climate of England, it appears to 
 grow more luxuriantly. "At the time of flowering, the produce on an 
 acre is 10,209 Ibs., when ripe 8,507 Ibs., and the latterraath (aftergrass") 
 is 4,083 Ibs., and bears nearly an equal value with the ripe crop." 
 
 (/,) Is the well known Kentucky Blue Grass, so famous as pasture. 
 It much resembles the last, but is of a deep color, with a bluish hue, and 
 is better adapted for making hay. The late Hon. Henry Clay informed 
 the writer that when he first went to Lexington, Ky., that county was 
 covered with cane-brakes, the trees standing at distant intervals ; and 
 as soon as the cane was destroyed the blue-grass appeared. It is said 
 to be confined to a peculiar geological formation, one of the lower lime- 
 rocks of the great western coal field ; and that the underlying rocks 
 can be distinctly traced both in Kentucky and Ohio by the existence of 
 this grass. If this proves to be everywhere the case, as present circum 
 stances incline us to believe, this grass must be considered as strictly 
 local in its habitat. The seed may be purchased at the Cincinnati seed 
 stores. 
 
 (g,} According to Prof. Gray, this grass is not a native of America, 
 
164 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 though naturalized in some parts of the Eastern States. It resembles 
 the June grass (<?.) Donaldson in his Treatise on Grasses does not 
 speak favorably of its productiveness in England, although it is sown 
 among others for pastures. It requires a sheltered situation on damp 
 clays and strong loamy soils, and is easily hurt by frosts. 
 
 (A,) This grass is also a native of England, but has become entirely 
 naturalized in the Atlantic States. It belongs to dry soils, though it 
 does well in moderately damp situations, and, in its native state, grows 
 in clays and heavy loams. It prospers well in the neighborhood of De 
 troit, proving quite hardy, and is about a fortnight earlier in the spring 
 than either Timothy or June grass. It is a large, strong, tall grass, with 
 somewhat coarse culms, and abundance of leaf ; but, unless annually 
 pastured, it has a tendency to grow in clumps instead of covering the 
 ground. This is corrected by grazing the meadow in spring and fall. 
 It succeeds well under trees, (hence its American name,) and the leaf, 
 when cut or eaten, continues to grow ; unlike Timotlty, which must 
 throw up a new leaf. " The produce, when flowering, is 27,905 Ibs., 
 per acre ; when ripe, 26,544 Ibs., and tlie lattermath, 11,910 Ibs." Un 
 der most circumstances, it is e-sentially a most valuable grass, and is 
 much relished by all kind of stock. It is the favorite grass of the rich 
 pastures around Dublin, Ireland. The aftergrass is very abundant, and 
 does not seem to suffer from heat as much as our grasses. It should al 
 ways be sown with other species, but it ripens about a fortnight befoie 
 Timothy. The Balled Drop-seed grass, (Muhlenbcrgia glomerata, Trin,) 
 somewhat resembles it, and might, we are inclined to think, be profita 
 bly sown with other species in wet places. The latter is a native of 
 Michigan. 
 
 (i,) Undoubtedly stands at the head of all cultivated grasses for pro 
 ductiveness, for feeding qualities, and for hay, but like all the Rye 
 grasses, it has a tendency, if allowed to seed, to impoverish the soil. It 
 is probably a distinct species and not a mere variety . Compared with 
 the common Rye grass, it arrives sooner at maturity ; has a greater 
 abundance of foliage, which is broader and of a lighter color ; grows 
 taller ; spreads less on the ground ; its spikes are longer ; the seed is 
 lighter, smaller, and less in quantity. It is preferred by cattle to any 
 other grass. It grows through winter; is earlier in spring; does not 
 suffer from heat ; and continues growing luxuriantly till checked by 
 frost. The true species is perennial, and prospers well in the neighbor 
 hood of Detroit. The great difficulty we have found with it, is that 
 cattle, horses, and sheep are so fond of it, that when mixed with many 
 other varieties they leave all the rest, and eat this grass deep into the 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 165 
 
 soil, thus destroying it. When not allowed to be pastured, it is very 
 luxuriant, and makes excellent hay, generally seeding twice a year in 
 this latitude. We are inclined to believe that the common and the an 
 nual species, have often been sold for the Italian in the United States , 
 and indeed, it is said that it can only be procured pure from a few- 
 great seed-dealers in England. In that country, it is usually sown with 
 red clover, at the rate of 1 to 3 bushels of grass seed, and 8 to 16 Ibs., of 
 clover seed to the acre. (See Patent Office Reports, 1845, pp. 373, 376 ; 
 1846, p. 258.) 
 
 (/) Is more used in Great Britain for meadows on all kinds of soil, 
 and mixed with other grasses in pastures, than any other species; (&,) 
 resembles it in all respects with the exception that it is an annual, and 
 therefore used in rotations, where one year s grass only is required. 
 Experience has given them a very high leputation, and late analyses, it 
 is said, have proved them to be the most nutritive of grasses. They 
 are generally sown with the clovers at the same rate as the previous one 
 (). They would be found highly profitable in the wheat soils of Mich 
 igan to sow with clover ; the clover not being diminished in quantity, 
 while this excellent grass is added to it. They are gradual!} finding 
 their way into favor in the Atlantic States, though their appearance, 
 compared with Timothy is unfavorable to them. There are several im 
 proved varieties, as Pacey s, Sticknty s, fiussel s, &c. A late writer in 
 the Journal of the Highland Agricul. Society, (October, 1853, p. Ill,) 
 mentions the following objections to the Perennial Rye grass, (j) "Its 
 growth is much stunted by being cropped or cut over ; it is impatient of 
 drought ; it throws out few roots or radicle leaves ; it covers the land dur 
 ing summer with dry innutritions herbage." These objections, which 
 are probably exaggerated, do not apply to the Italian species. 
 
 (I,) Is chiefly valuable as pasture, the leaf being short, and the rich 
 perfume being lost when the grass is ripe or dried. It is to this that 
 the English meadows owe their well known odor ; and the butter made 
 in Delaware County, Pennsylvania, (where this grass has long been 
 naturalized,) its excellent flavor. It prospeis well in the neighbor 
 hood of Detroit, though it is a native of Great Britain. It is there con 
 sidered the earliest of all the grasses, and succeeds best in moist locali 
 ties, such as rich deep loams, but not in wet soils. Its owes its peculiar 
 scent to an aromatic essential oil of which benzoic acid is the base. The 
 same flavor may be imparted to butter, by giving the cows 20 to 30 
 grains of Benzoin twice a day, previously dissolved in hot water, and 
 mixed with meal. This should constitute a part of all mixtures of grass 
 seeds, intended for permament pastures. The seed is difficult to pro- 
 
166 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 cure, and therefore expensive, but it is found that in Pennsylvania, when 
 once it is rooted, it is only exterminated by the plow. (See Patent Office 
 Report, 1849, p. 373.) With the writer, in a very rich damp loam, the 
 culm grows fully three feet high. 
 
 (wi,) Is held to be the best permament meadow grass in England, for 
 rich lands. It so greatly resembles Timothy that it is difficult to distin 
 guish it when not in blossom, but it affords much more leaf, the culm 
 is finer, and the aftergrowth heavier. We have found the winters too 
 cold for it in Michigan, and would not recommend it in this latitude. 
 
 (n,) Is also an English grass, of second rate value, and has proved too 
 tender for this climate. Where it prospers it is chiefly valuable for 
 pasture. 
 
 (o.) The same remarks will apply to this, (p,) Our experience with 
 this has been accidental, it having appeared in the corner of a perma 
 ment meadow, and spread over a large space, exterminating all the 
 other grasses. It is an early, rich growing species, with great abund 
 ance of leaf, stalk and seed, makes excellent hay, and cattle of all kinds 
 prefer it to Timothy. We mention it here that more experiments may 
 be made with it. Should it not prove difficult to exterminate, like the 
 English Couch grass, we know no native species that has more to re 
 commend it on clay soils. (7.) This, known as the Ribbon-grass of 
 the Gardens, prospers luxuriantly in wet marshes, soon covering them 
 over, and forming a dry elastic surface. After a few years, the leaf as 
 sumes one color. Horned cattle eat it, but horses do not appear to like 
 it. It may be planted, by throwing roots into the water, at a foot or 
 two distance from each other. The seed appears to be barren, and it is 
 subject to a species of Ergot. Mr. Allen failed to make it prosper on a 
 clay marsh in New York, (r) and (.s.) Prof. Gray, supposes these 
 grasses to be naturalized from Great Britain, and that the latter is pro 
 bably a mere variety of the former, but a more valuable grass. They 
 prosper best in moist or boggy alluvial soils, but are of little general in 
 terest in this country. Of the Southern grasses we know nothing per 
 sonally. The best accounts of them will be found in various volumes 
 of the Patent Office Reports* 
 
 *Since writing the above, a communication has been received fr.>m J. M. McAllis 
 ter, Esqr., Summerville, Cass Co., Michignn, \vhohnse.\perimented upon a great va 
 riety of native and foreign grasses. He finds Orchard grass peculiarly valuable ; but 
 the most important that he has met with, is Randal Grass, the seed of which was re 
 ceived from Virginia. He has succeeded in introducing this extensively into Cass 
 and the neighboring counties. (See Farmer -a Companion, vol. iii, p.30.) The seed 
 resembles that of the Rye Grass ; the living plant we have not seen, and do not know 
 the botanical name. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 167 
 
 The Tussac Grass, from the Falkland Islands ; and the Pampas Grass, from the 
 Prairies of South America, have been introduced, the first into Ireland, and the lat 
 ter into Scotland, with great promise of success. There is little doubt but that they 
 would be found valuable in our Southern and Middle States. They are both remark 
 able for their feeding qualities. It is believed that the Tussac Grass requires the 
 neighborhood of the Sea ; or at least, of salt springs. 
 
 385. As regards the ANALYSIS of grasses, little seems yet to 
 have been done with accuracy. Perennial and Italian Rye 
 Grass have been carefully examined by Thompson and Way ; 
 but with this exception we have no means of ascertaining what 
 species are included under the terms " Hay" and " Grass," ana 
 lyzed by the various chemists; while the probability is that 
 each grass differs in its constituents, in its amount of nitrogen, 
 and in the peculiar salts which it requires ; and, likewise, accord 
 ing to the soil and climate in which it is grown. The English 
 meadow hay is usually formed of 20 or 30 species, besides 
 clovers; of the German we have no particulars. Mr. Norton 
 gives the following " average of organic substances in Mead 
 ow Hay, from Boussingault and Johnston," but thinks the 
 amount of nutritive matter too high. 
 
 Water, - - 16 
 
 Starch, 4 
 
 Gum and sugar, 12 
 
 Nitrogenous substances, - 7 
 
 Oil, - - 3 
 
 Woody fibre, - - 50 
 - 8 
 
 336. Thompson gives the following analysis " of almost en 
 tirely Rye grass, (Lolium perenne") 
 
 Water, ..... 75 
 
 Soluble Salts, ? -i q/< 
 
 Silica and Insoluble Salts, $ 
 
 Organic matter, - - 23.66 
 
 Or reducing the same to its ultimate constituents, when fresh 
 (A,) and dried at 212F. (B,) together with hay made at 
 Giessen, ( Dr. Will;) species of grass not mentioned (C ;) and 
 hay grown in the neighborhood of Strasburg, France, (Bous 
 singault;) species not mentioned (D) : 
 
168 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 c. 
 
 D. 
 
 Carbon, 
 
 11.35 
 
 45.41 
 
 45.87 
 
 45.80 
 
 Hydrogen, 
 Nitrogen, 
 Oxygen, 
 
 1.48 
 0.4G 
 10.39 
 
 593 
 
 1.84 
 41.54 
 
 5.76 
 1 41.55 
 
 5.00 
 150 
 38.70 
 
 Ash, - 
 
 1.32 
 
 5.28 
 
 6.82 
 
 9.00 
 
 Water. - 
 
 75.00 
 
 
 
 
 Thompson found the amount of solid matter in this grass to 
 vary from 18 to upwards of 30 per cent, according to the early 
 or late period of growth. When grass first springs above the 
 -surface of the earth the principal constituent of its early blades 
 is water, the amount of solid matter being comparatively trifling; 
 as it grows, the deposition of a more indurated form of carbon 
 gradually becomes more considerable; the sugar and soluble 
 matter at first increasing, then gradually diminishing, to give 
 way to the deposition of woody substance. 
 
 Table of Rye grass before and after ripening. 
 
 Water, - - -!. 
 Solid matter, 
 
 18th June. 
 
 23d June. 
 
 13th July. 
 
 76.19 
 23.81 
 
 81.23 
 
 18.77 
 
 69.00 
 31.00 
 
 These are important facts ; for if the sugar be an important 
 element of the food of animals, then the farmer should cut 
 grass for the purpose of hay-making at that period when the 
 largest amount of matter soluble in water is contained in it. 
 This is at an earlier period of its growth than when it has shot 
 into seed, for it is then that woody matter predominates a sub 
 stance totally insoluble in water, and therefore less calculated to 
 serve as food to animals than substances capable of assuming a 
 soluble condition. This is the first point for consideration in 
 making hay, since it ought to be the object of the farmer to 
 preserve the hay for winter use in the condition most resem 
 bling the grass in its highest state of perfection. 
 
 100 parts of the stem and seeds of Rye grass when dried as 
 hay, gave : 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 169 
 
 Water, : 
 Or^uuic matter, 
 Ash, - - 
 
 Stem. 
 
 Stem. 
 
 S-.-.l. 
 
 15.50 
 7952 
 4.98 
 
 1930 
 75.72 
 4.98 
 
 1 1 376 
 
 82.548 
 6.070 
 
 387. Inorganic constituents of Rye Grass (Lolium Peren- 
 ne,) Stem, (A,) and seed (B,) (Thompson,) and Italian Ryo 
 Grass (L. italicum,) in flower, (C,) and in seed (D.) ( Way.) 
 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 
 
 D. 
 
 Silica, 
 
 64.57 
 
 43.28 
 
 59.18 
 
 60.6 
 
 Phosphoric acid, 
 
 12.51 
 
 16.89 
 
 6.34 
 
 6.3 
 
 Snlphmic acid, - 
 
 
 3.12 
 
 2.82 
 
 1.3 
 
 Chlorine, - 
 
 
 trace. 
 
 2.27* 
 
 5.6* 
 
 Carbonic acid, - 
 
 
 3.61 
 
 
 
 Magnesia, - 
 
 4.01 
 
 531 
 
 2.23 
 
 2.6 
 
 Lime, ... 
 
 6.50 
 
 1855 
 
 9.95 
 
 12.3 
 
 Peroxide of iron, &c. t - 
 
 0.36 
 
 2.10 
 
 0.78 
 
 0.3 
 
 Potash, 
 
 8.03 
 
 5.80 
 
 12.45 
 
 10.8 
 
 Soda, 
 
 2.17 
 
 1.38 
 
 3.98 
 
 0.1 
 
 Thompson observes " There is no doubt that these numbers 
 undergo very considerable modifications on different soils." The 
 seed tends to remove a larger portion of phosphoric acid from 
 the soil than the stem ; the quantity of acid found in the seed 
 exceeding that in the stem by one-fourth. The same remark 
 applies to the lime. The quantity of alkalies is twice as great 
 in the stem as in the seed, while the total ash of the seed is a 
 sixth part superior in amount to that of the stem. 
 
 388. According to Boussingault, 10,000 parts good meadow 
 hay (species not mentioned) contain 547 parts of inorganic mat 
 ter, consisting of : 
 
 Potash, 130 
 
 Soda, - 10 
 
 Lime, 107 
 
 Magnesia, - - 43 
 
 Oxide of iron, - 5 
 
 *Chloride of Sodium. The amount of this is remarkable, and may be the reason 
 rhy cattle are so fond of this grass. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 Silica, . - IB 189 
 
 Sulphuric acid, . . 16 
 
 Phosphoric acid, . - 32 
 
 Chlorine, . . 15 
 
 547 
 
 The Nitrogen amounts to 1.G5 equal to 2 per cent of Ammonia ; the 
 fat, wax, or oil to 3.8 ; and the starch, gum, dextrine, and pectine to 50 
 per cent, the rest being woody fibre and wa-te. 
 
 389. Liebig gives the following summary analysis of " Hay :" 
 
 100 parts of hay dried in the air contain 86 of dry matter. 
 
 14 of water. 
 
 100 
 
 100 parts of hay dried at 212F.=:11G.2 dried in air contain: 
 Carbon, - . 45, 
 
 Hydrogen. . 5.0 
 
 Oxygen, - 33.7 
 
 Nitrogen, - - 1 5 
 
 Ashes, - - 9.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 300 Ibs. of hay dried at the ordinary temperature contain 1.29 nitro 
 gen. 
 
 240 oz. of such hay=rl5 Ibs. contain 3.095 oz. of nitrogen. 
 72 oz. of oats, =4} Ibs. contain 1.34 oz. of nitrogen. 
 
 4.435 
 
 390. Prof. TVay has given the water (A,) and flesh forming constitu 
 ents (B,) of the following grasses, in 100 parts. 
 
 A. B. 
 
 Sweet-scented Vernal grass, - 80.35 - - 2.05 
 
 Orchard grass* - - 70 4.06 
 
 Meadow barley, 58.85 - - 4.59 
 
 Timothy, 57.21 - 4.86 
 
 391. The following principles may be laid down, (a,) The 
 proportion of soluble matter yielded by any species of grass, 
 when made into hay, varies not only with the age of the grasses, 
 when cut, but with the soil, the climate, the season, the rapidity 
 of growth, the variety of seed sown, and with many other cir 
 cumstances which are susceptable of constant variation. (I,) 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. l7l 
 
 Animals Lave the power of digesting a greater or less propor 
 tion of tLat part of their food which is insoluble in water. 
 Even the woody fibre of the hay is not entirely useless as an 
 article of nourishment, (cj The most valuable constituents of 
 the grass, such as the albumen, casein, starch, sugar, &c., may 
 undergo great and ruinous change by fermentation and washing 
 before and after the hay is put in stack or barn ; so that ill-made 
 hay, exposed to rain, may be inferior in nutritive quality to the 
 coarsest straw, (c?,) The riper the straw or grass, the less solu 
 ble matter does it contain ; and soil, season, and manure will 
 equally affect the quality of hay. One field will grow a hard 
 wiry grass, while another will produce a soft and flexible plant, 
 and highly nutritious hay. In England, a much higher price is 
 given for hay cut off old grass fields, than for the first crop grown ; 
 and race and hunting horses are fed on hay over a year old, 
 new hay injuring their wind and condition, (e,) Thompson 
 found that the soluble matter of hay capable of being taken up 
 by cold water, was as much as 5 per cent, or nearly a third of 
 the whole soluble matter in hay. Thence we may form some 
 notion of the injury liable to be produced by every shower of 
 rain which drenches the fields during hay harvest. But hot 
 water will extract over 16 per cent, of soluble matter; and if 
 we consider the warmth of the soil and hay, and also of the 
 rain in summer, the loss in this country is probably much greater 
 than 5 per cent. (/J The bleaching of hay is owing to the 
 loss of wax, as much as 2 per cent of which may readily dis 
 appear. But this wax is important for fattening ; and bleached 
 hay is decidedly deteriorated in feeding qualities. In Scotland 
 100 parts of hay were found to be equivalent to 387^ parts of 
 grass ; or it requires nearly eight tons of grass to yield two tons 
 of hay to the acre. By late analyses at the Royal Agricultural 
 College, Cirencester, England, Italian Rye Grass was found 
 to contain : 
 Water (in natural or green state,) - - 80.770 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 Nitrogenized, or flesh - formi ng ? natural state, 
 
 mattere > I dried at 212 op. . 
 
 Fon- n itrogenous, or heat and fat- ? natural state - 14 330 
 
 forming matters, - - J dried at 212 F. - 75.09 
 
 Inorganic matter or ash - I natural state, - - 1.980 
 
 5 dried at 212 F. 10.04 
 
 In making hay for our own use, but more especially in purchasing 
 hay, all these points must be taken into consideration. A load of hay, 
 before seeding, carefully dried, not exposed to rain or heavy dews, put 
 by in sheds with salt so that fermentation is impossible, bears a much 
 h.gher intrintic and therefore money value than hay carlessly made, on 
 which ram has fallen, and which has been stacked damp. A spirituous 
 smell is not uncommon in stacks, which shows that the sugar is lost, 
 and with it, probably, most of, or all the nitrogenous constituents. Such 
 hay as we have mentioned last, is probably infe.ior in value to well 
 saved oat straw. To be a good judge of hay, requires both much ex- 
 penence, and the consideration of many particulars ; while the differ 
 ence in nutritive qualities between good and bad samples frequently 
 resembling each other to the eye-is very great Old hay, that is, hay 
 which is over a year old, other things being equal, is always the most 
 valuable. Some chemical change takes place by which it is supposed 
 to be rendered more nutritive ; and as has been already stated, horses 
 prosper better upon it. The same peculiarity is found in grasses when 
 used for pasture. It has been noticed, in the valley of the Kennet, Eng. 
 land, that sheep might safely be fed upon, or soiled with the grass of the 
 first crop of the water-meadows, but it was dangerous to do either with 
 the second crop of the same grass, (C.W.Johnson.) Prof. Way analysed 
 the grass of such meadows taken April 30th (A,) and 26lh June (B,) 
 and found that in 10Q parts in a green state there were contained : 
 
 Water > - 87 A 58 7453 
 
 Nitrogenous matter, . . 3.33 27 g 
 
 Fatty matter, - . 0.81 0.52 
 
 Starch, gum, sugar, <fcc., - 3.93 11.17 
 
 Woody Fibre, 3 .1 3 876 
 
 Ash > 1.28 2.24 
 
 This not only shows that the very season at which grass is cut or fed 
 is a matter of importance, buL elucidates a beautiful provision of na 
 ture. In spring, growth is provided for, and heat or fat is not requisite, 
 but in order to provide for the cold of winter, the later grass abounds 
 in fat forming constituents, so that a provision may be laid up for the 
 inclement season. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 13 
 
 392. Grasses prosper, on the great majority of soils, not on 
 a ll_but those containing a fair proportion of clay and loam, 
 with moisture, are the most profitable both for meadow and 
 grazing. 
 
 393. A field laid down to grass for a length of time improves 
 the soil for grain crops, much if pastured, partially if mowed. 
 
 394. The manures requisite for grasses, necessarily vary with 
 the needs of the soil, which can only be ascertained by analysis ; 
 but these plants peculiarly require the alkalies in the form of 
 soluble silicates, the phosphates of magnesia, and lime, with 
 nitrogen. Unleached wood-ashes contain the silicate of potash 
 in the same proportion as straw, besides several other important 
 salts, and consequently are an excellent manure for this crop. 
 Barn-yard manures may also be applied with profit, but they 
 are generally preferred in the shape of composts. Guano, 
 plaster, &c., are found profitable in some localities. Salt is 
 highly beneficial in some soils, 2 to 3 bushels per acre sown 
 in spring. In England, nitrate of soda (Saltpetre,) at the cost 
 of $6.00 per acre, has been used with profit. If barn-yard 
 manure is used, it should be hauled and evenly spread on all 
 lands containing clay, soon after the hay is taken off ; on sandy 
 lands, in spring. In both instances, harrow in spring, as soon 
 the ground will bear the team without poaching, and mix the 
 manure into the soil, till the whole looks black. There can be 
 no injury done by tearing up the surface grass. If the sod is 
 thin, sow on a little more seed and roll. By such a dressing of 
 well-saved barn-yard manure every three years, a meadow may 
 be kept in high condition. Such fields should not be pastured 
 in spring, nor at any time when wet. 
 
 395. Timothy seed, in the United States, is usually sown with 
 a grain crop ; if with wheat in the fall or spring ; with oats, or 
 barley in spring. Barley is decidedly the best crop for the pur 
 pose. The first year s grass on the same field, one-half sown 
 with oats, and half with barley, will show a very decided profit 
 
174 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 in favor of the latter. In laying down a permanent meadow, 
 the field should bo well manured, plowed deeper than usual, and 
 put in good condition in every way. In clay soils, finish put 
 ting in the grain crop, and harrow fine and evenly. Then sow 
 the grass seed, and roll in, till the surface is smooth, and the clods 
 entirely broken up. In such lands Timothy seed does not re 
 quire to be deeply buried, and the same applies to clover when 
 sown with it. In sand, give the grain one harrowing, sow the 
 grass seed, harrow cross ways, and finish by rolling. In Great 
 Britain, harrows made much lighter than the usual ones, with 
 long, narrow teeth, placed rather near together, are used ex 
 pressly for putting in grasses. In some cases a " brush har 
 row" is used for the same purpose. In very heavy soils, it is 
 recommended to roll as soon as the grain-sowing is finished, sow 
 the grass on the smooth surface, and finish with light harrowing, 
 To sow evenly requires some experience. The seed is caught 
 between two fingers and the thumb, instead of the whole hand, 
 and the casts are more frequent than in grain-sowing. There 
 are machines, fastened by a strap to the sower s neck, for the 
 purpose of sowing grass and clover seeds, which do the work 
 well, and cost only a small sum. Weeds are often conveyed in 
 grass seeds, and none but the perfectly clean should be pur 
 chased. Such will cost more at first but will be cheapest in the 
 end. The Journal of Agriculture gives a table from actual 
 experiment of the proper depth at which to sow these seeds. 
 Fourteen species of grasses and clover were tried, and in all 
 cases those on the surface, and not more than a quarter of an 
 inch in depth sprouted the best ; at 3 inches none at all ap 
 peared. In certain sandy and gravelly soils, however, grasses 
 and clovers are apt to dry up in summer, if the roots are super 
 ficial. (See Patent Office Reports, 1846, p. 694.) 
 
 396. Under some circumstances, it is beneficial to steep such 
 seeds previous to sowing, to strengthen and insure the germin 
 ating powers. The best mode of doing this, is to spread the 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 seeds on tlio barn floor, and shower over them gradually, with 
 frequent turnings, as much water, at a time, as they can absorb 
 without any running off. Do this for a whole day, at separate 
 intervals, until they are thoroughly saturated. At night, make 
 them up into a heap and cover with cloths so as to raise the 
 temperature. Before sowing, spread out on a cloth to dry in 
 the sun for a short time, so that they can be easily separated. 
 Old or damaged seeds, incapable of germinating, are sometimes 
 sold. This may be discovered by placing a piece of flannel at 
 the bottom of a common saucer, saturating it with water, and 
 sowing a few seeds on it. Keep in a warm place, renewing the 
 trater as it evaporates, and in three or four days all the seeds 
 capable of germinating, will sprout. The same test may be 
 applied to any kind of seed. 
 
 In Maine, the grain intended to be sown, is wet or soaked, the 
 grass seed is mixed with the grain in this wet state, to which it 
 readily adheres, and in this manner it is sown. We only men 
 tion this mode to condemn it; as either the grain must be 
 buried too shallow, or the grass too deeply; in growing, the two 
 will be apt to interfere ; and the plants will be uneven. 
 
 397. These rules, with slight modifications which must be 
 learnt from experience, will apply to all species of grasses. The 
 small and light seeds are usually sold by the pound weight. 
 The statutes of Michigan do not determine the weight of a 
 bushel of Timothy seed, but 60 Ibs. is the usual standard. 
 
 398. A great diversity of practice occurs as to the time when 
 grass should be cut for hay. So far as can be ascertained by 
 theory, the period at which grasses contain the largest propor 
 tion of nutritive matter is just previous to flowering, and while 
 in blossom; but in practice, some species appear to be as good 
 if not better when the seed is ripe. The question can only be 
 determined by many carefully conducted experiments ; and we 
 trust that a matter of such great importance will not be allowed 
 to remain in its present uncertain condition. Timothy cut 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 while in blossom, makes dusty hay, owing to the pollen ; which 
 is unpleasant, if not injurious to stabled animals. 
 
 Late experiments, very carefully made in Scotland, show that Italian 
 and Perennial Rye grass, mixed bap, and clover, cut before flowering 
 (a,) when in flower (b,) and when ripe (c,) fatten in unlike proportion, 
 so as to be valued at (a,) 6d. per stone of 28 Ibs., (&,) at 5%d., and (c,) 
 at 5d. At the same time it was found that good oat straw was just as 
 valuable as hay for fattening beef animals, when roots, oil-cake, &c., 
 \vere given as the main food. 
 
 399. The more simple the operation of hay-making the better. 
 The following plan h;is been followed for many years with 
 complete success, the grass being pure Timothy, and Timothy, 
 Bed Clover, and June Grass mixed. If the meadows are ex 
 tensive, begin mowing when first the heads appear. Do not cut 
 till the dew is nearly or quite risen, leave till afternoon in 
 swathe, rake into windrows with horse rake, and form into light 
 cocks, each containing about one hundred pounds of dry hay ; 
 next morning, as soon as the dew is risen, throw these cocks 
 open ; and leave them so for a couple of hours, and then haul 
 into sheds. Let a man stand with a bucket of salt, and scatter 
 about half a handful on each large fork-full as it is packed 
 away ; using about an ordinary bucket-full of salt to a ton of 
 hay. This is all that is necessary. The hay will come out in 
 the winter nearly as soft and green as when put by ; and will 
 be eaten with avidity by the stock. If it is intended to be 
 stacked, it had better stand the second day in cock, and be 
 treated in the same manner as above on the third. If the 
 grass has flowered, even this labor is not necessary. It may be 
 cut in the morning, raked into windrows in the afternoon, and 
 immediately hauled into sheds. By this rapid process, nothing 
 is lost ; the wax, the nitrogen, and the salts are saved ; much 
 labor is saved ; and risk from rain and dew is not incurred ; while 
 the common salt prevents fermentation, souring, and the growth 
 of the fungus so common on badly made hay, usually known as 
 mould or mustiness, and which is so injurious to horses* 
 
 *The following passage contains much valuable practical matter, based on true 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 177 
 
 ** Bad hay \vill change a horse s appearance in two days, even with an 
 unlimited quantity of oats. The kidneys are excited by it to extraor 
 dinary activity. The urine, which in this disease is always perfectly 
 transparent, is discharged very frequently and in copious profusion. 
 The horse soon becomes hide-bound^ emaciated, and feeble. His thirst 
 is excessive. H never refuses water, and he drinks as if he would never 
 give over. The disease does not produce death, but it renders the horse 
 useless, and ruins the constitution. Musty hay is said " to be bad for 
 the wind," and it is certainly so for every part of the body." (Stephens.) 
 
 400. Grass is cut with (a,) a scythe, or (b,) a mowing ma 
 chine. It is raked with (c,) a hand-rake, or ( dj a horse rake, 
 of which there are several kinds. It is pitched with a hay 
 fork, for which purpose the two-tined is generally preferred. 
 The mowing-machine and the best horse-rake will cut and rake 
 about 12 to 15 acres a day, under favorable circumstances, with 
 four horses and two men. The same work to be done by hand 
 would require about 18 men. 
 
 401. It is laid down as a principle) which appears to be 
 strictly true, that hay can scarcely be injured by its own juices 
 alone, but if wet with rain or heavy dews it requires very care 
 ful drying before being put away, 
 
 402. In hauling, three and sometimes four men are required. 
 
 principles. " Damp hay, or even grass, may be stacked with layers of straw, or of 
 old hay, sprinkled with salt to prevent heating, and to draw out the juice from the 
 damp grass, which is then absorbed by the straw." [Rev. A. Huxtable, an eminent 
 English Agriculturist, has long practiced this mode of putting hay by; and he fine s 
 that by so doing, not only does the grass require but little drying, but it so imparts 
 its juices to the straw, as to render the latter still more valuable. The two are 
 placed in layers, and in use are cut through, and mixed.] " Mouldy hay, put together 
 with salt, from 8 Ibs. to 25 Ibs. per ton, was better relished by cattle, and did them 
 more good than sound hay stacked without salt ; of which many instances are re 
 corded. (Johnson on salt, p. 105.) In Germany they even cure fresh cut grass by 
 pitting with salt, 1 Ib. to the 112 Ibs.; it comes out quite a paste, and is said to go 
 further as food than the same quantity of grass made into hay. When hay is packed 
 with straw, the latter may vary from one-eighth to one-quarter, and the salt from 
 1 Ib.to 3 Ibs. per cwt., according to the dampness of the new hay. If old dry hay 
 is used instead of straw, it must be in larger proportion because less absorbent. 
 And where neither can b* had, chaff might do, or even bran if salted enough to pre 
 vent fermentation." farmer s Magazine, vol. iv , (1853) p. 280. 
 
 12 
 
178 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 One stands on the wagon, one or two pitch to him, and one 
 rakes the ground. It is not often, however, that the man on 
 the wagon is able to stow it away as rapidly as two can pitch to 
 him. Where hands are scarce, the raker is sometimes dis 
 pensed with, the hay-rake being run over the field wken all is 
 hauled. In changeable weather, no more should be cut in a 
 day than can be well taken care f before night. 
 
 403. If sheds are used, the stowing away is very simple; 
 one man standing on the load pitching, one inside catching and 
 spreading the hay, and one salting and treading down. If 
 stacked, the man on the stack requires experience, which can 
 scarcely be taught by writing, so as to carry it up straight, of 
 proper size and weight all round. An ill-made stack is very 
 apt to fall over, or to let the wet into crevices and cracks. How 
 ever, stacking is very deficient in economy. More or less hay 
 is inevitably spoilt ; and in winter it has either to be carried to 
 to the barn to bo consumed, exposing the remainder to 
 wet, or the cattle, while feeding, are exposed to all vicissitudes of 
 weather, waste much, and manure the ground, immediately 
 around the stack, inordinately. It is calculated that a good 
 shed, adapted for hay above, and for stock beneath, with proper 
 racks, pays its own cost in three seasons, in saving alone. 
 
 404. There is a mode of increasing the yield of grass called 
 Ourneyisrn^ from its discoverer, the Hon. G. Gurney, of Corn 
 wall, England. It consists of covering the field with l tons 
 to the acre of straw, letting this lie for some time, and then 
 raking it off. The grass is then cut or grazed, and the straw 
 a<rain returned. The principle on which this acts is unknown, 
 but every one must have observed that grass covered with 
 straw, or a bush grows more rapidly than when not covered. 
 This mode does not appear to have been much used in Eng 
 land, and probably not at all in America. (See Patent Office 
 jfo?porte,1846,p. 254 J 
 
 405. Irrigation of meadows is of high antiquity; and 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 179 
 
 jrreatly increases the yield. It requires the land to lie peculiarly 
 in connection with running water, and a complex and artistic 
 series of ditches and draining is necessary. It is too extensive 
 a subject to enter upon in this work, though there are many 
 positions in the United States where it may be favorably em 
 ployed. 
 
 406. Good old hay 18 long and large, hard and tough ; color inclining 
 to green rather than lo white, has a sweet taste ai>d fragrant smell, and 
 when infused in hot water produces a rich, dark- colored tea. In damp 
 weather good hay absorbs moisture, and becomes heavier, "A truss" 
 of good old hay weighs 56 Ibs. (Stephens.) The following rule h 
 given to find the weight of hay in bulk, but we have not tested it. It 
 necessarily varies with circumstances, old hay weighing heavier per 
 square foot than new ; and ripe hay heavier than if cut before blossom- 
 Jug. 
 
 " Multiply the length, breadth, and height into each other, and if the 
 hay is somewhat settled, ten sclid yards will make a ton. Clover will 
 require 11 to 12 such yards." 
 
 A peculiar mode of renovating worn out meadows has been employed 
 of late years in Massachusetts. At the end of August or begining of 
 September, the grass land is carefully and neatly plowed and rolled 
 down. Fifteen to twenty loads of compost are next spread to the acre, 
 and harrowed both ways. The grass seed is then sown and cove:ed 
 with a brush harrow, and is ready to cut the next summer, though per 
 haps a little later. The seed must be applied liberally, say three to 
 four pecks per acre. ( Trans, of AgricuL Societies of Mass., 1 852, p. 769.) 
 
 There are various other modes of renovating worn out meadows when 
 it is not convenient to plow them, for which see The Farmer s Compan 
 ion and Horticultural Gazette, vol. ii, (1853.) p. 20. 
 
 " In forming mixtures of grass seeds, every soil should be supplied 
 with its appropriate mixture, both as regards succession and qualities ; 
 and as the permament ones requiie time to come to maturity, some of 
 the more short lived should be introduced that there may be a crop 
 from the begining, and also that there should be as great a variety as 
 poesiMe. The grasses thrive permamently only when mixed, some 
 forming herbage in the spring and autumn, and a few throughout the 
 warmer months ; if they did not closely succeed each other, weeds would 
 soon appear. * 
 
 The following table, arranged by one of the large "English Seed 
 
 
160 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 Dealers, may prove practically valuable. This assortment of grasses, 
 &c., is recommended as forming peculiarly excellent pasture. It were 
 well if our American grains and grasses were tabulated in tbe same way. 
 The number of seeds in an ounce are found by counting the number 
 in a grain weight. The prices are given in English sterling, 5 shillings 
 being rather more than one dollar one penny to two cents. 
 
 Scientific names. 
 
 Price of seed in 
 London, 
 per bus. | per Ib. 
 
 Average 
 weight, 
 per bush 
 
 Average number 
 of seeds in one 
 ounce. 
 
 Loliumitalicam, 
 Dactylis glomerata, 
 Trifolium pretense, 
 Trifolium pratense perenne, - 
 Alopeeurus pratensis, 
 Festuca pratensis, - 
 
 s. d. 
 6.0 
 4.0 
 
 5.0 
 6.0 
 6.0 
 
 5.6 
 
 s. d. 
 0.6 
 
 0.6 
 0.7 
 0.8 
 0.6 
 0.6 
 1.6 
 6.0 
 2.9 
 0.3 
 0.6 
 
 Ibs. 
 15 
 
 H>2 
 
 64 
 64 
 5K 
 13 ~ 
 
 9% 
 
 f 
 
 29J4 
 24 
 65 
 
 27,000 
 40,000 
 16,000 
 16,000 
 76,000 
 26,000 
 39,000 
 133,000 
 28.000 
 200,000 
 14,850 
 32,000 
 
 Poa nemoralis sempervirens, - 
 Lotus corniculatus, 
 AchilleaMillefolium, 
 Lolium perenne, 
 Trifolium repens, 
 

 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 CLOVER (Trifolium,) AND OTHER 
 FORAGE PLANTS. 
 
 407. Next to the Grasses, the Clovers are the most valuable 
 as fodder plants. They belong to an entirely different botani 
 cal family, that of the Leguminosce, or Pulse Family, and are 
 known by the generic name Trifolium from tree, and foli 
 um, a leaf. Thence they are frequently called in English Tre 
 foils; the leaves mostly presenting three lobes. Eight distinct 
 species are found in the North United States ; others again in 
 the Southern States and California; and others in Europe. 
 More than 160 species in all are enumerated by botanists. 
 Nine species are cultivated in Great Britain ; usually, only two 
 in the Northern States of America, The following are the 
 the most important : 
 
 (a,) Trifolium pratense, Annual or Biennial Red Clover.* 
 " pratense perenne, Perennial Red Clover, Cow 
 
 fa) 
 
 u 
 
 repens. 
 
 Dutch or English White Clover. 
 
 w 
 
 u 
 
 repens, 
 
 American White Clover.* 
 
 ( ,) 
 
 u 
 
 hylridum, 
 
 Hybrid or Alsyke Clover. 
 
 Cfo 
 
 u 
 
 minus. 
 
 Lesser Yellow Trefoil, 
 
 (ff,) 
 
 4 
 
 procumbent. 
 
 Low Hop Trefoil. 
 
 (*,) 
 
 U 
 
 medium, 
 
 Cow or Marl Grass, Southern 
 
 Those marked * are either natives of America, or extensively naturalized. 
 
182 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 Clover, (?)* 
 
 (i,) u incarnatum, Crimson Clover. 
 (j,) " alexandrinum, Egyptian Clover. 
 (k,) u arvense, Rabbit-foot Clover.* 
 
 (I,) " reftexiim, Buffido Clover.* 
 
 (m,) u agrarium, Hop Clover.* 
 
 Of the above, 4 are " Red" Clovers; 3 are "White;" 3 arc "Yellow;" 
 and the rest varying, (6.) (//,) and (/,) are in common use with us 
 the latter chiefly in the Western States where it is indigenous. "We 
 Lave distinguished between the "Dutch" and "American" White 
 Clovers, which Botanists do not usually do, but having grown them 
 side by side, we find them essentially different in habit; the first (c,) is a 
 tall, strong growing plant, well adapted for meadows, standing frequent 
 ly, when supported, 18 inches high; while the latter (<f,) is short, ad 
 hering to the ground, and wholly unfit for meadows. If one is only a 
 variety of the other, which appears probable, they are, economically, 
 very distinct. The Dutch or English White Clover would be a valu 
 able addition to our plants of this family. Attempts have been lately 
 made to introduce into America the Alsyke Clover, (<?,) and the seed 
 has been distributed by the Patent Office. It is a native of the South 
 of Europe, but has long been cultivated in Sweden and Germany, where 
 it is very highly esteemed, and latterly in Great Britain. It is de 
 scribed as peculiarly luxuriant. The root is fibrous, and the heads 
 globular. The stems are recumbent, but they do not root in the soil ; 
 "in short it may be described as a giant white clover, with flesh colored 
 flowers." It yields two mowings annually. It will grow luxuriantly 
 on poor, bare, obdurate clays as -well as on light sands. It ripens its 
 seed much earlier, and continues in vigor much longer than the Red 
 Clovers. When once rooted it will remain for a great many years in 
 full vigor, and produce annually a great quantity of herbage of excel 
 lent quality. A heavier crop of wheat is invariably produced after this 
 than after other clover. The quantity of seed requisite is from 10 to 15 
 pounds per acre, while it will yield over two cwt. on the same area. It 
 does not suffer from the severest frosts ; it will flourish on barren land 
 where few grasses will grow at all ; and with it the soil never becomes 
 " clover sick." (Dr. Lindley.) Such is its European reputation, and 
 it is certainly worth trying extensively in this country. The seed in 
 London is worth two shillings sterling 50 cents per pound ; and at 
 that price might become with us an article of export. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 183 
 
 The Crimson Clover (t.) is a native of the Southern and Central 
 parts of Europe. It is an annual, and must be sown in autumn that it 
 may flower and arrive at maturity in the following season. It has lat 
 terly attracted much attention in Eagland. The Egyptian clover (.; ,) 
 is also an annual. The other species are small, and unfit to be sown 
 alone, but are commonly mixed by the English with grasses, for which 
 purposes they are well adapted as varying the food, and filling up blank 
 spaces. They would be profitable with us in permanent pastures.* 
 
 408. Red Clover prefers clayey soils ; it generally thrives in 
 good wheat lands ; in light and sandy ground it gets bare and 
 frosted. During its early growth it always requires the shelter of 
 some other plant. It is apt to be lifted out of the ground and 
 destroyed by frost in winter, if eaten bare, and not covered by 
 snow. White Clover grows spontaneously in most clay soils, 
 such as are known as " heavy timbered lands ;" appearing as 
 soon as the forest is removed. For sheep-pasture nothing can 
 surpass it; but it is usually rather short for larger stock. It 
 has a peculiar effect on horses in producing severe salivation 
 when in blossom, but without apparently injuring the health or 
 strength : why, does not appear to be ascertained. This, wo 
 believe, has not been observed in the European variety. 
 
 409. The Red species are extensively grown throughout the 
 Northern United States, chiefly, however, in the moderate cli 
 mates. In wheat-culture, they are greatly depended upon as a 
 sort of manure. 
 
 The difference between the annual Red Clover (a,) and Cow Grass (h,) it thus 
 given by a late English writer. (Farmer s Magazine, vol. iii., 1853, p. 424.) The 
 first has a somewhat spindle shaped root, with but few fibres, grows more upright, 
 has fewer hairs on the stem and leaves, thrives luxuriantly, stem generally hollow or 
 pipey, broad leaves, and reddish -purple flowers; the latter has a somewhat creeping 
 root, the stem grows zigzag and less globular than the other, and is solid or pithy, 
 with a narrow leaf which, with the flowers, hns a paler hue ; it comes into flower 
 from twelve to fourteen days later than the first." We do not remember ever meet 
 ing with the first in our Western States, where we are inclined to believe that our 
 ** large" species is the Buffalo Clover. It is. however, very difficult to distinguish the 
 various species of this family. The California Clovers are spoken of u far surptssirg 
 any we at present cultivate in the Eastern portion of the continent. 
 
184 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 410. Ultimate ANALYSIS of Red Clover (a?) (Bous& mgault,) one part 
 of clover hay after complete desiccation weighed 0.790 : one part of 
 dried hay left, 0.078 of ash. 
 
 I. n. 
 
 Carbon, . 47.53 47.19 
 
 Hydrogen, - - 4.69 5.33 
 
 Oxygen, . . 57.96 37.66 
 
 Nitrogen, - . - 2.06 2.06 
 
 Ash, . 7.76 7.76 
 
 100.00 100.00 
 
 A surface of 120 square yards gave 44 Ibs. roots, weighed 
 after being thoroughly dried in the sun ; when pulverized after 
 drying in the stove the weight was reduced to 37 Ibs. When 
 perfectly dry one acre would furnish 1428 Ibs. of residue. 
 Composed as follows: 
 
 Carbon, ... 43.4 per cent. 
 
 Hydrogen, - - 5.3 " 
 
 Oxygen, ... 36.9 " 
 
 Nitrogen, - - 1.8 " 
 
 Salts and earth, - - 12.6 " 
 
 100.00 
 
 The same writer shows the amount of clover hay obtained 
 from, and clover roots left in the soil of one acre with the ele 
 mentary matter of the latter, which forms manure when plowed 
 under, as follows : 
 
 Produce of hay per acre in 1839, - - 2292 Ibs. 
 
 do dried at 212 =>F., - 1810 Ibs. 
 
 Roots dried in the sun, per acre, 1833 Ibs. 
 
 do do atllOF., - 1418 Ibs. 
 
 These roots consisted of, per acre, 
 
 Carbon, - - 615 Ibs. 
 
 Hydrogen, . 75 Ibs. 
 
 Oxygen, - - 523 Ibs. 
 
 Nitrogen, - .26 Ibs. 
 
 Salts and earth, - - - 178 Ibs. 
 
 1417 Ibs. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 185 
 
 Thus returning, for the use of the next crop, only 204 Ibs. of nitro 
 gen and salts, per acre. 
 
 411. Prof. Way finds 100 pails of the following clovers in 
 their fresh state, to contain of water (A,) and flesh forming 
 principles (B.) 
 
 A. B. 
 
 Crimson clover, (* ,) - 82.14 2.96 
 
 Red clover, (a,) - - 81.06 4.27 
 
 Cow grass, (A,) - - 74.10 6.30 
 
 Sainfoin, - - 76.64 4.32 
 
 And Dr. Anderson, (Trans. Highland Agricul. Society, 1853, 
 p. 509,) gives the amount of albuminous or flesh forming mat 
 ters in the second crop of clover hay at 13.52 per cent. 
 
 Schwertz reckons that 2 cwt. (= : 224 Ibs.) of green clover yield 481ba 
 of hay. The relation of green to dry fodder varies with the age of the 
 plant, and the meteorogical circumstances under which it has grown. 
 At Bechelbronn 1 ton of clover in flower (second year,) afforded in 
 hay 7 cwt.; 1 ton of clover in flower (first year,) afforded in hay 4 cwt. 
 2 qurs. 24 Ibs. The average produce of this fodder reduced to hay was 
 41 cwt. (=112 Ibs. per cwt.) 3 qurs. per acre. (Boussingault.) 
 
 412. Approximate composition of the green stems of Red 
 Clover (A,) and White Clover (B.) (Johnston.) 
 
 A. B. 
 
 Water, - - - 76.0 80.0 
 
 Starch, - - 1.4 1.0 
 
 Woody Fibre, - - 13.9 11.5 
 
 Sugar, - - 2.1 1.5 
 
 Albumen, - - - 2.0 1.5 
 
 Extractive matter and gum, - - 3.5 3.4 
 
 Phosphate of Lime, - - 1.0 0.8 
 
 Wax and Resin, - - - 0.1 0.2 
 
 413. Inorganic analysis of Red Clover; Broad Clover (A,) 
 White Clover (B,) and Cow Grass, (T. Medium) (C.) 
 
186 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 Red Clover. 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 
 
 Carbonic ncid, 
 
 Sulphuric acid. 
 
 Phosphoric acid, 
 
 Chlorine, & 
 
 Lime, 
 
 Magnesia, 
 
 Potush, 
 
 Soda, - 
 
 Silica, 
 
 Oxide of iron, &c.. 
 
 Chloride ol 
 
 Dried ash, 
 
 
 Boussin- 
 gault. 
 
 Way. 
 
 Liebig. 
 
 
 Way. 
 
 
 , 
 
 25.0 
 
 16.9 
 
 
 23.47 
 
 18.0 
 
 26.51 
 
 m 
 
 2.5 
 
 4.2 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.85 
 
 7.2 
 
 1,08 
 
 , - 
 
 6.3 
 
 6.3 
 
 4.1 
 
 6.71 
 
 11.5 
 
 5.41 
 
 ride of sodi m 
 
 2.6 
 
 2.4 
 
 4.7 
 
 
 5.0 
 
 
 
 24.6 
 
 35.4 
 
 21.9 
 
 22.62 
 
 26.4 
 
 24.5*5 
 
 . 
 
 6.3 
 
 11.2 
 
 8.3 
 
 4.08 
 
 8.2 
 
 4.52 
 
 
 
 26.6 
 
 14.9 
 
 H.I 
 
 36.45 
 
 143 
 
 34.72 
 
 . 
 
 0.5 
 
 1.4 
 
 40.7 
 
 
 3.7 
 
 
 . 
 
 5.3 
 
 3.3 
 
 2.6 
 
 0.59 
 
 ?.7 
 
 0.63 
 
 kc.. 
 
 0.3 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.5 
 
 
 2.0 
 
 
 aasium, - 
 
 
 3.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 9.56 
 
 
 7.97 
 
 According to Sprengel, 100,000 parts of White clover in a fresh state 
 contain 1735 parts of inorganic matter. 
 
 414. The following isja late comparative analysis of White 
 clover (A,) Trefoil (B,) Red clover (a,) (C,) and Tares (D,) all 
 grown on the same land in a natural condition, on the farm of 
 the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, England. (Dr. 
 VoelcJcer.) 
 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 
 
 D. 
 
 Water, 
 
 83.65 
 
 77.570 
 
 80.640 
 
 82.16 
 
 Nitrogenized matter capable of 
 producing flesh, 
 
 4.52 
 
 4.481 
 
 3.606 
 
 3.5G 
 
 Substances free from nitrogen ca 
 pable of sustaining respiration. 
 
 10.26 
 
 15.949 
 
 13.784 
 
 12.74 
 
 Inorganic substances, 
 
 1.57 
 
 2.000 
 
 1.970 
 
 1.54 
 
 By " Tre/oir^he context kads us to suppose that Hop clover (T. procumbeua, ) (g) 
 is meant, but as the writer neglects to give the botanical name we cannot be sure. 
 
 415. The following tables, show the difference of the water 
 and inorganic constituents of Red and White Clover hay, on dif 
 ferent soils. ( Way.) 
 
 Water, 
 Ash, 
 Ash calculated on the dry, 
 
 Red Clover. j White Clover. 
 
 Silicious 
 Sand. 
 
 Clay. 
 
 Silicious 
 Sand. 
 
 Clay. 
 
 13.97 
 6.77 
 
 7.87 
 
 12.20 
 7.12 
 8.11 
 
 12.60 
 7.70 
 8.81 
 
 12.00 
 7.61 
 8.65 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 187 
 
 Composition of 100 parts of ash of Red and White Clover 
 hay. (Way.) 
 
 _ _ 
 
 Red Clover. 
 
 White Clover. 
 
 
 Silicious 
 Sand. 
 
 Clay. 
 
 Silicioua 
 Sand. 
 
 Clay. 
 
 Silica, 
 
 4.03 
 
 2.G6 
 
 4.63 
 
 2.74 
 
 Phosphoric acid, - 
 
 5.82 
 
 6.88 
 
 10.93 
 
 12.12 
 
 Sulphuric acid, 
 
 3.91 
 
 4.46 
 
 7.05 
 
 7.38 
 
 Carbonic acid, 
 
 12.92 
 
 20.94 
 
 18.64 
 
 17.41 
 
 Lime, 
 
 35.02 
 
 35.76 
 
 26.32 
 
 26.51 
 
 Magnesia, 
 
 11.91 
 
 10.53 
 
 7.46 
 
 8.83 
 
 Peroxide of iron, 
 
 0.98 
 
 0.95 
 
 1.17 
 
 2.76 
 
 Potash, 
 
 18.44 
 
 11.30 
 
 15.17 
 
 13.50 
 
 Soda, 
 
 2.79 
 
 
 3.03 
 
 4.41 
 
 Chloride of sodium, 
 
 4.13 
 
 0.58 
 
 5.56 
 
 4.32 
 
 Chloride of potassium, - 
 
 
 5.92 
 
 
 
 416. Mineral matters contained in a ton of Red (A,) and 
 White Clover (B,) hay. (In pounds and tenths.) ( Way.) 
 
 Silica, 
 
 Phosphoric acid, 
 
 Sulphuric acid, 
 
 Lime, 
 
 Magnesia, - 
 
 Peroxide of iron, - 
 
 Potash, 
 
 Soda, - 
 
 Chloride of sodium, 
 
 Chloride of potassium, 
 
 128.4, 141.1 
 
 417. As will be seen by these various analyses, the clovers 
 are all peculiarly nutritious, containing everything that can be 
 wanted for the growth and sustenance of an animal. The flesh 
 and fat-forming constituents are large, and phosphate of lime, 
 for the formation of bone predominates. The long tap-roots 
 force them away deeply into the subsoil, the fibrous roots col 
 lect nutriment from the surface, and the large fleshy leaves, as 
 
 A. B. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 5.2 
 
 6.3 
 
 10.0 
 
 19.9 
 
 6.6 
 
 12.4 
 
 55.6 
 
 45.5 
 
 17.7 
 
 14.0 
 
 1.5 
 
 3.4 
 
 23.2 
 
 24.7 
 
 2.2 
 
 6.4 
 
 3.7 
 
 8.5 
 
 4.7 
 
 
188 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 in all leguminous plants, are capable of absorbing sucli constit 
 uents as tlie air can afford. At the same time, if cut as hay, 
 and carried off the ground, the clovers remove a comparatively 
 large amount of valuable materials from the soil, and it is only 
 owing to the fact that much of the material is collected in the 
 subsoil, below the usual depth of the plow, and the roots of the 
 cereals, that it does not become a scourging crop. As it is, it 
 returns to the surface of the soil that which it has gathered from 
 the subsoil, and which, under the ordinary system of cultiva 
 tion would not have become available. Under a system of 
 thorough-draining, which allows the roots of all plants to go to 
 a great depth, many of the supposed advantages of clover as a 
 manure would be lost. 
 
 418. From these analyses, also, we learn what manures are 
 likely to be peculiarly advantageous ; viz, such as contain nitro 
 gen, guano, barn-yard dung, urine, <fec. ; and such as contain 
 the inorganic constituents lime ; phosphoric acid, in the shape 
 of ground bones ; sulphuric acid, in the shape of Plaster ; Pot 
 ash, as wood ashes ; and soda, as common salt. Unless land 
 contains a notable proportion of all these, Clover cannot prosper 
 upon it. 
 
 419. Clover is always sown with some grain crops, and usu 
 ally in the spring, as hard frosts are apt to injure the young 
 plants. If with fall wheat, the seed is frequently sown upon the 
 last snow in the spring, the covering which it receives from 
 absorption being sufficient, or it may be harrowed and rolled. 
 If sown with spring grain it should be treated as is recom 
 mended for grasses. The quantity of seed requisite, when 
 unmixed, is from 10 to 18 Ibs., according to the character, 
 condition, and richness of the soil. Some persons steep the 
 seed for twenty-four hours and roll it in plaster. 
 
 420. If intended for hay, it should be cut immediately after 
 blossoming, and before the seed begins to form. The same 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 189 
 
 rule applies to tlie second crop. Seed is saved only from the 
 second crop ; and may be cut in the usual manner and thrashed, 
 or the heads are pulled off by an implement for the purpose, and 
 the hay left as pasture. Before thrashing, the seed snould be 
 allowed to become perfectly dry. The produce varies from 
 2^ to 6 bushels per acre, when cleaned. Cleaning the seed for 
 market, requires a machine for the purpose worked by horse 
 power. In consequence, many farmers sow it mixed with the 
 chaff, in which case they must judge as well as they can of the 
 quantity. 
 
 Clover seed should be large, full, glossy, and of bright orange yellow 
 and bold purple mixed ; when handled it has an oily feel. Damaged 
 seed is said to be frequently dried and polished in England for sale, but 
 this can generally be detected by the rougher feel, and the duller ap- 
 pe:i ranee ; and still better by sprouting it as directed for the grasses. 
 The Statute weight in Michigan is 60 Ibs. to the bushel, but the best 
 seed wilt weigh as much as 64 Ibs. or over. At 64 Ibs. to the Imperial 
 Bushel, 2000 grains weigh one drachm. (Stephens.) The seed of White 
 Clover is very small, of a rich golden yellow color, weighing 65 Ibs. to 
 the bushel, and affording 4000 grains to a drachm weight. (Stephens.) 
 Nejjr seeds are the best, the germinating power failing the second year. 
 Large quantities of the seed of Red Clover are annually exported to 
 Europe. 
 
 421. In making clover hay, great care must be taken that 
 the leaf is not so scorched and dried up as to break into pow 
 der; which too often happens, to the great injury of the hay. 
 This may be avoided by the following process. While mow 
 ing, have men to follow, and put every swathe into small cocks, 
 at about a rod distance. On the second day, or if the weather 
 is damp, not till the third, turn over one of those small cocks, 
 and place two more upon it, laying the greenest part nicely on 
 the top so as to shed rain ; then let it remain several days. It 
 becomes a little heated, and the moisture all evaporates through 
 the cock. Before hauling in, open the cocks, and air them for 
 an hour previous. By loading and unloading it receives air 
 enough to be thoroughly cured, if sufficiently sweated in the cock. 
 
190 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 It remains green, with all the leaves upon the hay, just as it 
 came from the scythe. (A. Y. Moore.) The same may be 
 accomplished more rapidly, though perhaps not quite as per 
 fectly, by allowing the clover to lie in swathe just long enough 
 to wilt, and be warmed through. Then put in small cocks, and 
 leave two days, if the weather is dry and hot, longer if cloudy 
 or damp ; air before hauling, and salt as directed for grass-hay. 
 We have followed this plan for many years with great success. 
 The clover is not quite dry when put in the shed, but the salt 
 prevents any injury. We prefer it to be damp enough to melt 
 the salt, and partially heat. 
 
 422. In the United States clover appears to be free from any 
 peculiar enemies or diseases. In Europe it suffers from sev 
 eral. 
 
 In some of the Eastern States, a caterpillar has been found in large 
 numbers spinning its webs over the clover, but it does not appear to be 
 very injurious, nor is the species accurately determined. (Harris? 
 Treatise, 2nd ed. p. 354 J 
 
 But in both continents, the land sometimes fails to produce 
 clover when sown, a condition known by the name of Clover 
 Sickness. While Agricultural Chemistry was unstudied, this 
 peculiarity was the cause of much wonder and many disputes. 
 It is now well known to be owing to the deficiency of the soil 
 in one or more of the inorganic constituents requisite for clover; 
 and can be cured by special manures ; by sowing it at longer 
 intervals; or by using a different rotation of crops. To this 
 cause may also be attributed the dying out of clover after hav 
 ing partially attained its growth, which sometimes occurs in 
 over-cropped wheat lands. Seed still retaining its chaff, or out 
 ward covering, is supposed to be less subject to failure than 
 when clean, which is probably true. Where Red Clover is apt 
 to be destroyed in winter, by the frost raising the roots out of 
 the ground, it may be partially or wholly prevented either by 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 191 
 
 leaving the aftergrowth uneaten, or by spreading straw heavily 
 over the sod to be left all winter, and then raked off. 
 
 423. Besides the true Clovers or Trefoils, several other plants closely 
 resembling them are more or less used, in Great Britain, to mix with 
 grass seeds. Two of them are natives of the United States (a.) 
 Sweet Clover, or Yellow Melilot (Melllotus officinalis,} and (6,) White 
 Melilot (M. leaucantha,} but the most important of this genus is (c,) 
 the Bokhara Clover, (M. leucaniha major,) a biennial. It stands the 
 winters in Scotland, and probably would in our middle States. Two 
 species of the Bird s-foot Trefoil are also used in England. (Lotus 
 corniculatus, and L. major.) Besides these, the following might be 
 profitably introduced among us. (d,) Burnet, (Poterium Sanguisorba.*) 
 
 This is frequently grown in gardens as an herb ; and we find it quite 
 hardy in damp loam on the Detroit River, though it naturally belongs 
 to dry and calcareous soils. It is one of the first plants to become 
 green in spring. It enters largely into old English meadows and pas 
 tures, and from its peculiar bitter and aromatic flavor, would probably 
 be beneficial for sheep in miasmatic climate?. (For picture and de 
 scription, see Patent Office Report, 1847.) (e,) Yarrow or Milfoil, 
 (Achillea M dlefolium} a native of the United States. It is closely 
 eaten by pasturing animals, and has long been cultivated in Great Bri 
 tain along with other herbage plants. (/,) Ribwort, or Plantain. 
 ( Plantago lanceolata.) According to Prof. Gray, this is extensively 
 naturalized in the Eastern States. Cattle greedily eat our common 
 Plantain, (P. Major,) a well-known weed around houses. 
 
 424. LUCERN (Medicago tativa,) together with the next 
 mentioned, are extensively cultivated as fodder plants in some 
 parts of Europe, but are of little practical interest, at present, 
 in the United States. This is a perennial, grows a foot and a 
 half to two feet high, and flowers in June and July. It requires 
 a deep light soil, with an open subsoil. It is sown either broad 
 cast, or in rows, and cultivated with the hoe and cultivator, 
 which process must be continued for at least three years ; till 
 which period it does not arrive at its full growth. When sown 
 broadcast, it has also to be kept clean with the hoe, like turnips. 
 There are two species, both of which have become naturalized 
 in the Eastern States. 
 
 
192 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 425. SAINFOIN (Onobrychis sativa,) (from the French 
 sain, healthy foin hay) is, likewise, a perennial, but belongs 
 almost exclusively to the chalk and lime formations and light 
 sands. It is on dry rocky soils that the chief advantages of its 
 cultivation are observed. 
 
 It may be cultivated like clover, or grown in rows like the 
 last. It is used either as hay, for soiling, or pasture. It con 
 tains 76.64 per cent of water, and 4.32 flesh-forming princi 
 ples, being slightly more nutritious than Red Clover. ( Way.) 
 
 Boussingault (See Rural Economy, chap, vi., p. 321, New York ed.,) 
 found this crop to vary, per acre : 
 
 Dry herb, 2068 Ibs. to 5462 Ibs. 
 
 Seed, - . 66 Ibs. to 582 Ibs. 
 
 Weight of total crop, 21 34 Ibs. to 6044 Ibs. 
 
 Plaster has as remarkable an effect upon it as on clover. 
 
 426. Analyses of Lucern (Sprengel] (A,) and Sainfoin ( Way} (B): 
 
 A. B. 
 
 Organic matter, - - 89.6 - 93.7 
 
 Ash, ... . 10.3 - - 6.36 
 
 Inorganic analyses of the above, (Licbig and Way.) 
 
 Sand and Silica, - - 2.3 3.2 
 
 Potash, ... 17.3 . . 31.9 
 
 Soda, 4.9 
 
 Lime, - . - 28.5 - - 24.3 
 
 Magnesia, 6.7 5.0 
 
 Oxide of iron, 0.4 - - 0.6 
 
 Chloride of sodium, - - 2.3 0.8 
 
 Phosphoric acid, - 6.6 - - 9.4 
 
 Sulphuric acid, 1.0 3.3 
 
 Carbonic acid, - - 29.0 15.2 
 
 Chloride of potassium, 6.2 
 
 427. CHICORY ( Cickorium Litybm,) also called " Succory," 
 is a native of England, but it has become naturalized in the 
 Atlantic States. It is recommended as a fodder plant, and the 
 root is extensively used in Europe to mix with, or as a substi 
 tute for, coffee. The rich aromatic bitter of the French coffee 
 is chiefly owing to this. In Italy it is made into hay ; in 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 193 
 
 France it is cultivated extensively for forage, and enters into 
 the regular rotations of the fields. It is attracting much at 
 tention at present in England. It will withstand the severest 
 cold, and bear drought well, its large leaves covering the ground, 
 and the root striking deep into it. It comes very early in tha 
 spring, and may be cut for soiling several times in the year. Ifc 
 is a perennial with very ornamental blue blossoms. 
 
 428. Comparative analysis of the dry root (A,) and fresh root (B,) 
 of Chiccory. (Dr. Anderson.) 
 
 A. B. 
 
 Water, 18.01 - - 80.58 
 
 Ash, on dry, - 3.64 - 6.77 
 
 Nitrogen, on dry, - 1.60 - - 1.48 
 
 Ash on moist substance, - * 1.31 
 
 429. Inorganic analysis. (Ibid.) 
 
 Silica, * 3.790 - 0.99 
 
 Peroxide of iron, - - 0.657 - 0.81 
 
 Lime, - 8.644 - 6.09 
 
 Magnesia, - V 5.777 3.15 
 
 Sulphuric acid, - 13.048 - - 4.80 
 
 Phosphoric acid, 13.882 - 10.02 
 
 Potash, - 29.687 - - 42.60 
 
 Chloride of potassium, - - 1.78 
 
 Soda, - - 7.641 - 
 
 Chloride of sodium, * 2.555 - 6.83 
 
 Sand, - 3.271 -1.12 
 
 Charcoal, - - 2.567 -, 9.90 
 
 Carbonic acid, y 7.927 - - 11.40 
 It seems from the abore that the plant has great powers of appro- 
 priation or replacement of constituents. It probably is able to replace 
 the potash with soda. 
 
 430. Where this plant is grown for the sake of the root the 
 following is the English mode of cultivation. The autumn 
 previous to sowing, the land must be manured and deeply 
 plowed, and if it be dry and porous, the best for this crop 
 harrowed before winter. About the second week in May, the 
 soil is ridged up so as to deepen it, and facilitate subsequent 
 13 
 
J94 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 hoeing, and the seed sown at the rate of 3 J to 4 Ibs. per acre 
 in drills, 12 to 14 inches apart. The plants will not appear for 
 a month or six weeks, and during this period care must be taken 
 to keep down the weeds with the cultivator. The plants, if too 
 thick, should be thinned to 5 or 6 inches. The subsequent cul 
 tivation consists in careful hand-hoeing. Late in October the 
 roots are dug with a three-pronged fork. The leaves may be 
 previously removed and fed to sheep. When taken up the 
 roots are topped and tailed, then washed, and cut into slices like 
 turnips, only in lengths as equal as possible. They must be 
 dried, either by exposure to the sun, or in kilns, when they are 
 ready for market. The usual yield is from 12 to 15 tons of 
 the wet roots per acre, the latter diminishing when dried to 
 about 1-J- tons. The price in England varies from $50 to $150 
 per ton. When used, the slices are roasted and ground like 
 coffee. The principal objection to this crop is the great difficul 
 ty with which it is afterwards eradicated, the smallest fibre left 
 in the ground forming a plant. Still this may be accomplished, 
 or nearly so, by hoeing. Sheep, in common with all stock, are 
 very fond of the leaves, and prosper well upon them ; and a 
 few acres devoted to this esculent would prove valuable for early 
 and late sheep-feed, and for horses and cattle in summer. If 
 sown broadcast 12 to 14 Ibs. of seed to the acre are required. 
 
 431. WIIITK MUSTARD, (Sinapis alba,) has of late years 
 been cultivated in England as a forage plant, but from experi 
 ments we have made with it, it does not appear to be suitable to 
 this climate. The heat dwarfs it, and it is seriously injured by 
 a minute black beetle, which attacks it early in spring. In 
 light soils, however, it might succeed better. 
 
 These constitute all the forage plants that ean bo of interest 
 in the Northern States; except Rape which will bo described 
 in the next chapter. 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR ROOTS, 
 
 AND LEAVES. TURNIPS. (Brassica.) 
 
 KOHL RABI. CABBAGE. RAPE. 
 
 432. In Great Britain and Germany roots are grown to a 
 very great extent to feed stock, and to act, indirectly, as a reno 
 vator of the soil, in rotations. It is not yet a century, since the 
 present system of root culture was introduced, but it has entire 
 ly revolutionized Agriculture, and the Ail could not now be 
 profitably exercised without it. This class of plants is not nu 
 merous, and they owe their beneficial effect on the soil chiefly 
 to the fact that they are not allowed to seed. If they bear 
 seed, they cease to be "fallow crops," and in their effects be 
 come similar to the cereals. They may be comprised in the 
 genera, (a,) Turnips, (including Cabbages;) (b t ) Potatoes; 
 (cj Carrots; (d,) Parsneps; (e^) Beets; (f,) Jerusalem Arti 
 chokes; (g,) Onions; (h,) Sweet Potatoes. Still more are culti 
 vated as garden plants. The climate of a great portion of the 
 United States is but illy adapted for the winter-preservation of 
 several of these roots; and this fact, together with our less 
 scientific and more careless mode of farming, has tended to 
 discourarge their cultivation. In the older States, however, 
 more attention is now being paid to this subject, and there ar 
 none of the above which may not be successfully and profita 
 bly cultivated in Michigan. The profit of a root crop is two 
 fold direct and indirect : direct, when we sell or so consume 
 the produce in feeding animals as to realize more money than 
 the production has cost us ; indirect, when our only profit is in 
 
196 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 the manure and the improvement of the soil for succeeding 
 crops. English farmers are content to grow large fields of 
 turnips, &c., and fatten many head of stock, merely for the ben 
 efit which the succeeding grain crops will receive. 
 
 433. Turnips belong to the botanical family of CABBAGE, 
 (Brassica,) of which the following species are cultivated in the 
 United States. 
 
 (Q",) Brassica Rapa, Common Turnip. 
 
 (b t ) " Napm, Rape, or Cole. 
 
 (c t ) " Oleracea, Cabbage, 
 
 The true Turnips again are thus divided: 
 Brassica Rapa-, Common Turnip. 
 
 " Campestris Na- 
 
 po-brassicdj Swedish Turnip. 
 (c,) " Napus esculenta, Turnip-rooted Cole. 
 (dj " Oleracea Caulo- 
 
 rapa. Turnip-stemmed Cabbage or 
 
 Kohl-rabi. 
 
 Of the turnips, there are very many sub-varieties originated 
 by cultivation, such as round, depressed, fusiform, white, green, 
 and red, each of which is supposed to possess some peculiar 
 good qualities. We shall, probably, originate in the United 
 States varieties better adapted to our climate than those of Eu 
 rope. The three great divisions at present are, (a,) The Com 
 mon Turnip; (bj) The Hybrid Turnip; and (c,) the Swede, 
 (or Ruta-Baga, a name, but rarely used by English writers.) 
 
 434. The Common Turnip is too well known to need de 
 scription. The Hybrid (b,) has the leaves of the Common 
 Turnip, and the character of Rape and of the Swede, and is 
 supposed to be formed by a cross of these three. It is hardy, 
 nutritious, and less apt to be injured by frost. The Swede (cj IB 
 hard, yellow, containing less moisture, and keeps longer into 
 spring, so that it is the last consumed. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 197 
 
 435. The soil best adapted to this crop contains a small 
 amount of clayey matters, and is characterized by its light, 
 loamy texture. Barley arid Turnips usually prosper well on 
 the same soil. The following are analyses made in Scotland, of 
 two different specimens of good " Turnip soils," on which such 
 crops had just been grown. (Dr. Anderson.) 
 
 Insoluble silicates, 8789 - 90.695 
 
 Soluble silica, - - - 0.07 - - 0.073 
 
 Peroxide of iron, - 2.94 - 1.333 
 
 Alumina, - 1.59 - - 0.893 
 
 Lime, - 0.38 - 0.319 
 
 Magnesia, - - - 0.13 - - 0.279 
 
 Potash, - 0.14 0.056 
 
 Chloride of sodium, - 0.10 Soda 0.043 
 
 Sulphuric acid, - 0.05 - - 0.039 
 
 Phosphoric acid, - - - 0.04 - 0.018 
 
 Organic matter, - > 4.66 4.996 
 
 Water, - 1.75 1.444 
 
 Chlorine, - \~" trace. 
 
 Nitrogen, - - 0.164 
 
 These analyses, are valuable not only in this peculiar aspect, 
 but as a standard whereby to compare our own soils. They had 
 long been cultivated and highly manured. 
 
 436. The meteorological conditions of the country seriously 
 influence the yield of turnips. Thus Scotland and the West of 
 England, with their greater amount and frequency of rain, pro 
 duce larger crops than the Eastern shores of the same country, 
 (C. W. Johnson;) while in most parts of the United States, 
 we are obliged to sow late to escape the heat, and the roots are 
 very much smaller. 
 
 437. Ultimate ANALYSIS of the Turnip. (Boussingault.) 
 A slice weighing 2 oz. 17 dwts. dried in the stove was reduced 
 to 4 dwte. After thorough desiccation, one part of turnip weighed 
 0.075, consequently the root contains 92.5 per cent of water. 
 One part of dried turnip left 0.0758 of ash : 
 
198 
 
 1.GRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 42.80 
 5.54 
 
 42.40 
 1.68 
 
 7.58 
 
 n. 
 
 49.93 
 5.61 
 
 42.20 
 1.68 
 7.58 
 
 Carbon, 
 
 Hydrogen, 
 
 Oxygen, 
 
 Nitrogen, 
 
 Ash, 
 
 438. Water (A;) solid matter (B) and ash(C ;) 100 parta 
 in moist state in turnips, grown in four different localities in 
 Scotland. (Dr. Anderson.) 
 
 White Globe Turnips (a,) - 9318 
 
 do do (6.) . . 92.85 
 
 do do (c,) 94.03 
 
 Swedes, do (</,) - 90.07 
 
 439. Inorganic analysis of the same turnips. (Dr. Ander 
 son.) 
 
 B. 
 
 6.82 
 7.15 
 5.97 
 9.91 
 
 C. 
 
 0.67 
 
 078 
 
 0.69 
 
 0.57 
 
 A. B. C. D. 
 
 Silica, 
 
 
 0.60 
 
 0.18 
 
 0.28 
 
 Potash, 
 
 47.460 
 
 44.11 
 
 4283 
 
 48.02 
 
 Soda. 
 
 2.655 
 
 5.48 
 
 13.66 
 
 393 
 
 Chloride of sodium, - 
 
 13.990 
 
 21.99 
 
 5.45 
 
 7.04 
 
 Lirne, 
 
 8.689 
 
 7.91 
 
 9.23 
 
 10.67 
 
 Magnesia, 
 
 4.555 
 
 3.88 
 
 4.97 
 
 4.45 
 
 Sulphuric acid, - 
 
 12.603 
 
 9.03 
 
 1223 
 
 12.16 
 
 Phosphoric acid, 
 Peroxide of iro^, - 
 
 8.613 
 1.435 
 
 6.81 
 0.19 
 
 11.14 
 0.31 
 
 13.07 
 0.38 
 
 The proportion of nitrogen in healthy turnips varies within 
 extremely wide limits, and that -without any assignable cause. 
 In two of the above specimens the nitrogen was respectively 
 3.81 and 2.54. By comparing the analyses of other chemists 
 the nitrogen may be averaged from 1.65 to 4.31, equivalent to 
 2.00 and 5.22 of Ammonia. From these facts we learn that 
 this plant varies not only in its agricultural requirements but 
 also greatly in its nutritive powers ; and that one ton of turnips 
 may be capable of forming as much flesh, as two and a half 
 tons grown on a different soil. Dr. Anderson places the aver 
 age of the flesh-forming matter in turnips as low as 1.27 in 100 
 parts of the fresh substance. The phosphates vary in a like 
 manner. In 12 analyses of turnips of two varieties, grown on 
 different soils, and with different manures, these varied from 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 199 
 
 6.8 on clay to 17.6 on "black land;" while the nitrogen in tho 
 fibre, and the nitrogen in the juice, equally uncertain, appear to 
 bear no relative proportion to each other. 
 
 440. Organic analysis of Swedes. (Johnston.) 
 Albumen, ..... 3.5 
 
 Fat and oil, .... 2.0 
 
 Gum, Dextrine and pectiue, 14.9 
 
 Sugar. ..... 58.9 
 
 Fibre and husk, ..... 20.3 
 
 " The potato is characterised by containing a large propor 
 tion of starch in connection with a small quantity of albumen 
 the turnip and carrot by containing in place of the starch a 
 variable proportion of sugar, and of a gelatinous gummy-liko 
 substance, to which the name of pectin has been given. In 
 the Swedish Turnip and in the carrot the pectin is usually pre 
 sent in the larger quantity." (Johnston.) The same writer 
 gives the following comparative table; remarking, however, 
 that " these analyses are very defective, and apply with any de 
 gree of correctness only to the specimens actually operated on. w 
 They will answer, at the same time, to give a general view of 
 these plants. 
 
 Variety of Turnips. 
 
 Water, 
 
 Starch and fibre, 
 Gum (pectin,) 
 Su^ar, 
 Albumen, 
 Salt, 
 Loss, 
 
 Wliite. 
 
 79.0 
 7.2 
 2.5 
 8.0 
 2.5 
 0.5 
 0.5 
 
 Swedes. 
 
 800 
 5.3 
 3.0 
 9.0 
 2.0 
 0.5 
 0.2 
 
 Cabbage. 
 
 78.0 
 6.0 
 3.5 
 9.0 
 25 
 0.5 
 0.5 
 
 Common 
 carrot. 
 
 80.0 
 9.0 
 1.75 
 7.8 
 1.1 
 
 oil 0.35 
 
 Sugar 
 beet. 
 85.0 
 
 3.0 
 20 
 
 10.0 
 
 ? 
 ? 
 
 Parsnip. 
 
 79.4 
 6.9 
 6.1 
 5.5 
 2.1 
 ? 
 ? 
 
 441 . Average of water (A.) and ash (B.) in turnips grown in 
 England, ( Way and Ogsden.) 
 
 
 WATER. 
 
 ASH. 
 
 ASH DRY. 
 
 
 bC 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 % 
 
 I 
 
 B 
 
 Lowest. 
 
 5 
 
 i 
 
 | 
 
 | 
 
 Bulb, 
 Top, 
 
 92.7 
 90.0 
 
 86.0 
 79.0 
 
 90.0 
 85.5 
 
 1.13 
 2.64 
 
 0.48 
 1.19 
 
 073 
 1.84 
 
 1090 
 18.00 
 
 4.00 
 8.00 
 
 7.30 
 1298 
 
200 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 The nitrogen in the tops appears to average much higher than in the 
 bulb. 
 
 442. A crop of 20 tons of bulbs or roots, and 4 tons of leave* 
 of turnips, mangel wurtzel, and carrots will respectively with 
 draw from the soil of an acre as follows : ( Way.) 
 
 Turnips. M. Wurtzel. Carrot*. 
 
 Phosphoric acid, - 45 Ibs. 21 Ibs. 39 Ibs. 
 
 Sulphuric acid, 50 " 22 " 57 " 
 
 Lime, 90 " 21 " 197 " 
 
 Magnesia, 14 " 22 " 29 " 
 
 Potash, 140 " 133 " 134 " 
 
 Soda, 33 " 70 " 103 " 
 
 Chloride of sodium, 57" 160" 85 
 
 429 " 449 " 664 " 
 
 443. Pectin, or Pectic acid (C II 0) (Solly} is a substance analo- 
 
 1-2 8 10 
 
 gous to gum, which exists in many plants, and especially in fruit. Itia 
 a tasteless solid, which swells up, and gelatinizes with water. It pos 
 sesses feeble acid powers, combining with bases to form pectatcs. Con 
 taining no nitrogen, it belongs to the heat or fat forming constituents cf 
 food and in this respect appears to act as an equivalent, in food, to 
 Starch. Pectic acid has been found in every plant for which it has been 
 sought for ; but in some it usurps the chief place, as in turnips, carrots, 
 beets, Jerusalem artichokes, onions, and in all kinds of fruits. It is 
 also found in the stalks and leaves of herbaceous plants, in the wood and 
 bark of all the trees examined, etc. Sec BouivingaultRuralEcon.p. 129. 
 fcreira on Food and Diet. Ch. ii. $ 6. 
 
 444. The characteristics desirable in the turnip are hardiness 
 against insects and disease ; rapid growth 5 moderate size of 
 bulb ; and capability of keeping sound and fresh. Not only are 
 very large bulbs apt to be hollow, or cellular, but late examina 
 tions have shown that they contain, proportionally, less nutritive 
 matter than smaller ones : in some instances the difference was 
 as high as 50 per cent. In England some varieties are found 
 much more liable to disease than others ; and some retain their 
 flavor and solidity longer than others. In all these respects, the 
 Swedes appear to stand preeminent. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 201 
 
 445. In Great Britain, the average good crop varies from 15 
 to 40 tons of bulbs " topped, tailed, and well cleaned" per acre, 
 according to soil, and meteorological locality ; while the tops of 
 Swedes reach as high as 1 7 tons on the same area. 
 
 " If planted 28 inches frora row to row, and 10 inches from turnip to 
 turnip, each turnip taking up 280 square inches, there would be 22,402 
 turnips, which at 3 Ibs. each is 30 tons, 6 Ibs. per acre ; at 4 Ibs. each 
 turnip, 40 tons, 8 Ibs. per acre." 
 
 In New York and Pennsylvania 600 bushels per acre of the 
 common turnip are generally considered a good crop. The 
 farmers 1 Cabinet, in. 17, mentions an instance where 850 
 bushels were raised to the acre. The Swedes yield one-third 
 more than the common variety; of these 1200 to 1600 bushels 
 have been raised to the acre. ( Wiggins.) In Rensselaer Co., 
 N. Y. a premium was given in 1848, for a crop of the last of 
 1,238^ bushels per acre. 
 
 446. The cost of cultivating the last named crop was as follows, the 
 quantity of land being 1 2-10 acres. 
 
 Plowing the fall previous, ... $2.25 
 
 do and harrowing in spring, ... 6 50 
 
 Light harrowing, previous to sowing, 50 
 
 Seed, ..... 75 
 
 Drilling in seed at $1 per day, - 31 
 
 Thinning, weeding and after culture, 11 dajs, - - 8.25 
 
 Man and horse with cultivator 3 times, - 2.50 
 
 14 days harvesting and securing, ... 10.50 
 
 20 loads of manure, .... 13.00 
 
 Interest on land at $150 per acre, ... 12.60 
 
 $57.16 
 1,486 bushels at 12J cents per bushel, - - $185.75 
 
 Net proceeds, .... 
 
 (Trans, of JV. Y. State Agricultural Socidy, Vol. viii : p. 328.) 
 
 447. The culture of this crop in Great Britain is very com 
 plex, and has, perhaps, l>een more thoroughly studied than any 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 other. \Ve must refer our readers to works especially upon the 
 ubject, merely laying down the following principles. 
 
 ( aj The soil for this crop should be light, rich, thoroughly 
 plowed, and pulverized. Fair crops may be raised on some 
 clay soils, but they require more labor to put them in a proper 
 condition. No crop demands more thorough tillage previous 
 to the sowing. 
 
 (b,) Drilling the seed, at 20 to 24 inches, the distance of the 
 rows, instead of broadcasting, saves much after labor. 
 
 (c t ) The land must be kept perfectly clean, and often stirred 
 with the hoe. 
 
 (d,) The manures requisite are those which will supply nitro 
 gen, and the peculiar inorganic constituents. Supposing the soil 
 to be in a fair average condition, the following may be applied : 
 1. Super phosphate of lime ; 2. Ground bones, in various states 
 of preparation; 3. Guano; 4. Barnyard manure, or compost; 
 5. Common salt; 6. Wood ashes; 7. Lime; 8. Plaster. In 
 rich English soils, guano, bones, and ashes, are usually consider 
 ed sufficient. 
 
 (e^) It is exceedingly important that the young plant should 
 be rapidly forced into the " rough leaf." Previous to this, it is 
 ubject to the attacks of several insects ; and its future prosperity 
 appears to depend on the early rapidity of growth. 
 
 448. In the United States, turnips are usually grown as a 
 second crop in the fall, being sown in New York and Michigan 
 from the end of July to the 1 2th of August. The Swedes re 
 quire the longest period of growth. If sown broadcast, a quart 
 of seed, if by drill, a pint is sufficient. The harvesting must be 
 performed before hard frosts set in. The roots are pulled by 
 hand, laid on the ground, the tops of the two rows facing each 
 other. A man follows with a bill hook, and separates the tops 
 from the roots. Three men will harvest 300 bushels a day. 
 The tops are taken to the barn yard for the cattle. The best 
 mode of storing is in root-cellars, with straw ; but hills or pits 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 203 
 
 auch as arc used for potatoes may be made in the field. On 
 feeding, the bulbs should be cut up. This may bo done with 
 a common shovel, but there are various machines for the pur 
 pose, which save much labor. 
 
 449. Fattening cattle, averaging 900 Ibs. live weight, will 
 eat 150 Ibs. of common turnips daily, with 7 Ibs. of oat straw. 
 
 450. In Europe, mnny diseases, such as Fingers and toes, Black crackt, 
 Ac. seriously injure this crop. In the United States it appears to be free 
 from any geneial malady. 
 
 451. There are several insects which are more or less injurious in this 
 country. The worst is the Black Flea-beetle ( Haltica pubcscens. Ill ?) 
 if we do not have the true Turnip fly of Europe (H. nemorum); but 
 little is yet known of this family. On a small scale, it may be driven 
 of? by scattering over the plants finely powdered plaster, or boiled plas 
 ter mixed with spirits of turpentine, and dried ; but the best preventa- 
 live is rapidly forcing the plant into the rough leaf. This insect is pecu 
 liarly fond of White Mustard, which may be sown in the neighborhood. 
 In Massachusetts, the caterpillar of a white butterfly (Pontia oleracea) 
 devours turnip leaves. The lulus also bores into the roots, and even the 
 common Earth-worm appears, in some way, to penetrate them. 
 
 452. If seed is required, the best roots should be selected in 
 spring, set out about 2 feet apart, in good land, and hoed while 
 growing. If any particular variety is required it must be kept 
 far apart from any other. 
 
 453. The seeds of turnips contain much oil. The following 
 production of seed and oil is given by Boussingault. 
 
 Swedish Turnip. Rape. Kohl Rabi. 
 
 I5cwt.lqr.251bs. IGcwt. 2qrs. 181bs. 13cwt.3qrs.l91U. 
 
 595 - 81bs 64l - 61b8 565.4 Ibs. 
 
 Oil obtained 
 
 per cent. 
 Cake pr. cent. 62 62 61 
 
 454. KOHL RABI, Turnip stemmed Cabbage, is chiefly culti 
 vated in Germany, where it is eaten both by man and animals. 
 It is perfectly hardy on the Detroit river, is subject to few casu- 
 alities, and is little affected by frost. It may be grown in thd 
 
204 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 eed-bed and then transplanted, like a cabbage, or drilled, and 
 thinned out, and cultivated as turnips are. It should be sown 
 as early in spring as the temperature will permit. It is much 
 harder than any of the turnips, and in rich lands, apt to become 
 Stringy. We consider it worthy of more extended cultivation. 
 There are two varieties, the green and purple. Hertford 
 gives the nitrogen as 2.17 per cent. 
 
 455. CABBAGE (Brassica oleracea.) Of this there is a great 
 number of varieties, most of them adapted to garden cultivation. 
 In some parts of Great Britain, the larger varieties are cultivat 
 ed in fields for the purpose of feeding cows and other stock ; 
 but in the United States, the price of labor, and the climate will 
 probably long preclude cabbages from being a field crop. They 
 require very rich clayey soils, as well as high cultivation. The 
 leaves average 92 per cent, and the stalks 84 per cent, of water. 
 The nitrogen is believed to be proportionally greater than in 
 any other plant consumed by man except perhaps mushrooms. 
 The flower of one species (cauliflower) in the dry state has been 
 found to contain as much as 64 per cent, of the flesh-forming 
 constituents (Johnston.) The inorganic constituents resemble 
 those required by the rest of the family, viz : the alkalies, sul 
 phuric, and phosphoric acids, and chlorine. 
 
 456. RAPE. Two species of this are usually cultivated, Rape 
 or Cole (Brassica Napus) and Colza (B. campcstris.) The 
 use is twofold (a) as a forage plant; (b) to afford oil from 
 the seed, the cake of which is largely consumed as a ma 
 nure and as top dressing for wheat and other cereals. Rape is 
 a native of England ; is a hardy plant ; and has a wider range of 
 soils than the turnip. It requires also, less culture and manure ; 
 and can be produced under circumstances in which the turnip 
 cannot be profitably cultivated. The root is of no value. As a 
 pasture plant it is admirably adapted for sheep. Where the 
 climate will permit, it may be sown in spring, for fall feed. It 
 is usually drilled 24 inches apart, in the rows, and kept clean by 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 205 
 
 a cultivator, but, if the land is free from weeds, large crops may 
 be raised by broad-casting. If drilled, 2 Ibs. of seed to the 
 acre will suffice. It weighs about 53 Ibs. to the imperial bushel. 
 The cake in London, sells for about $25 a ton, being one half 
 the value of Linseed cake. In 1846, the Patent Office distri 
 buted the seed, and recommended its culture as an oil plant; 
 but we are not aware that it has yet been generally introduced, 
 As sheep-feed, in our large prairie country, south of Michigan, 
 it is deserving of much attention, to take the place of grass in 
 the fall. (See Patent Office Report, 1846, pp. 314, 400.; 
 
 In the same work for 1850, p. 190. J. E. Dodge, of Erie, Penn., thui 
 writes : " I have cultivated Rape for several years, and find it rery pro 
 fitable. The soil for growing Rape on should be rich and clean. A 
 thorough old-fashioned summer fallow is probably the best for the Rape 
 crop. It should be sown the last of August, 3 pints of seed to tb 
 acre. It will be ready to cut in the last of June or first of July. We 
 cut it with large reaping hooks, and lay it in small bunches to dry, for 
 e ght or ten days. Then, with a large cloth spread over the hay-ladder, 
 we proceed to haul in, and thrash with a flail immediately. The greater 
 portion of the chaff is to be raked off. and the remainder left, with the 
 seed, one or two weeks on the barn-floor to dry. It will produce from 
 30 to 50 bushels per acre. It i worth $1.00 per bushel in Erie." 
 
 It is understood, however, that the crop is occasionally injured 
 by frosts, if uncovered by snow, in this latitude. As a green 
 manure, to be eaten by sheep, and the roots plowed under, it is 
 considered essentially valuable, and may profitably take the 
 place of an occasional clover crop in wheat culture. 
 
 457. We have been unable to meet with trustworthy analyses 
 of this plant; but in its general character it resembles the rest 
 of its family. 
 
 458. Inorganic analysis of Rape (Rammehburg) 100 parts 
 of seed gave of ash 4.54, of straw, 5.21. 
 
 Seed. Straw. 
 
 Potash, .... 25.18 8.13 
 
 Soda, - - 19.82 
 
 Lime, . . - 13.91 gO.05 
 
206 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 Magnesia, ... . 11.39 ) ,- 
 
 Peroxide of Iron, - * - . O.G2 $ 
 
 Phosphoric acid, 45.95 4.76 
 
 Sulphuric acid, - . 0.53 7.60 
 
 Carbonic acid, - - - 2.20 16.31 
 
 Muriatic acid, - 0.11 19.93 
 
 Silicic acid, - 1.11 0.89 
 
 Dr Madden gives the constituents of the cake as 
 Water, ... - 10.5 
 
 Organic matter, 85.5 
 
 Earthy phosphates, - -3.0 
 
 Siliciate of potash, .... 1 
 
 Frequently as much as 9 per cent, of soil remains in the cake, 
 which affords nearly double the fattening matter of Indian corn, 
 if it should prove equally available in digestion. Cattle $*c said 
 to dislike the flavor of Rape cake, so that it is rarely used for 
 feeding. 
 
 It may bo stated in this connection, that Boussingault and Dumas 
 Consider that the oil of seeds is intended for the production of heat by 
 undergoing combustion at the period of germination. Generally, oily 
 seeds retain their gerrninative powers for a long period, but this docs 
 not appear to be the case with the cabbage family. Such seeds should 
 always be fresh ; and certainly not more than two years old. 
 
 Mr. Low concludes his essay on this family in the following words, 
 which are worthy of the serious consideration of American farmers : - 
 * The extended culture of the turnip has enabled us to carry the prac* 
 tice of breeding and feeding our domestic animals to a state of perfec 
 tion, in which no other country has yet been able to rival Great Britain. 
 The cultivation of the plant in rows, instead of the former method of 
 broadcast, may well be regarded as an improvement of the highest im 
 portance. It has enabled the farmer to secuie abundant returns, which 
 the former methods of cultivation did not admit of, and eo to increase 
 the number of useful animals that may be maintained upon the farm, 
 nd to subject the lighter soils to a species of culture more beneficial 
 than any other that had been befo e devised for them." 
 
 To this it may be added, that while, in the northern United State*, 
 turnip culture may never be as profitable as in Europe, yet it may be 
 rery greatly increased, and by the production of new and hardy varie 
 ties adapted to our climate, and by improved processes of culture it may 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 207 
 
 be rendered as beneficial to tbe soil here as elsewhere. Not only will 
 the improvement of our stock depend on the introduction of green or 
 root-feeding during winter, but also the retaining the good qualities of 
 the animals we import, must necessarily do so. They have been ren- 
 deied what they are are by such feeding, and without it they must 
 inevitably deteriorate. 
 
 In $444, it is stated that largo bulbs "contain less nutritive matter 
 than small ones." This subject has just been examined with great care 
 and accuracy by Messrs. Sullivan and Gages, Chemists to the Museum of 
 Irish Industry ; and as some very important practical facts are now for 
 the first time brought to light, we add them here : " On the continent 
 where beet-roots are grown for the purpose of manufacturing sugar, it 
 was long since remarked, that large sized roots yielded less sugar than 
 moderate sized ones, between one and three pounds in weight. With a 
 few exceptions it is now found, that as a general rule, small roots con 
 tain a larger per-centage of solid matter than larger roots. Thus 100 
 tons of the small roots of sugar beet would be equal to 167.43 tons of 
 the large; 100 tons of small Mangel-wurzels contain as much solid mat 
 ter as 142.18 tons of large ; 100 tons of small Swedish turnips would 
 be equal to 118.37 tons of the large, in specimens of all these roots actu 
 ally examined. 
 
 The following table contains a summary of the mean results of tht 
 examinations of 450 roots. 
 
 
 I i 
 
 5| 
 
 
 8 
 
 e- 
 "S 
 
 -x 
 
 
 Sire of Roots. 
 
 M 
 i 
 
 & * 
 
 !"P 
 
 Orange Gl 
 Mangel 
 
 || 
 I* 
 
 Swede Tur 
 
 Red Carr 
 
 White 
 Belgian 
 CrrU 
 
 Average of rooti above 7 Ibi. - 
 " 5 Ibi. - 
 
 10.2"4 
 11.653 
 
 10.17 ] 10.785 
 11.476 hi 028 
 
 8.704 
 10.115 
 
 10 755 
 11.257 
 
 
 
 From 3 to 5 Ibi. 
 
 15.708 
 
 14934 
 
 13974 
 
 12.059 
 
 12.810 
 
 
 
 Average of all rooti, - - 
 
 14.532 
 
 13.635 
 
 12.645 
 
 11 1& 
 
 12.031 
 
 13.370 
 
 12999 
 
 This table shows some unexpected results. Thus the sugar-beet con 
 tains the largest amount of solid matter of any of the root crops noir 
 cultivated ; and red and white carrots, though usually sold at a much 
 higher price per ton, are very little superior to ordinary Swedes, and 
 much inferior to the varieties of beet. Of course, it is not pretended 
 that the value of roots can be determined by the per-centag of solid 
 matter alone, as its composition must be taken into account. But in 
 the same variety of plant, it will give an approximation to the truth 
 indeed practically speaking a very close one; in different species, ordif- 
 
208 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 ferent families of plants, it is absolutely necessary to take the composi 
 tion is well as the quantity of solid matter into consideration. In the 
 case of carrots, however, an examination of the solid matter does not 
 fihow that they are superior to that of the beet. As a general rule we 
 have found that those roots of a particular variety of the beet which 
 had white flesh were superior to those exhibiting a colored flesh. An 
 other cause of exception was that the roots which grew out of the soil, 
 and whose upper segment was colored more or less green, contained 
 less solid matter than those which had fully grown under the soil ; 
 hence if a large part of the root grows out of the soil, the portion thut 
 exposed will partake of the character of the segment immediately be 
 low the crown. This would seem to recommend a change in the usual 
 practice of culture." 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 POTATO (Solanum tuberosum.) JERUSA 
 LEM ATICHOKE (Helianthus tuberosus.) 
 
 458*. POTATO. This well known, and till lately, most use 
 ful esculent, belongs to the botanical family of Solanece, or the 
 Night-shade Tribe, of which many of the species are poison 
 ous. The potato itself, in an uncooked state, is, to a certain ex 
 tent, injurious to human beings ; and if kept till spring, in a 
 dark place, a new chemical alkaline principle called Solanine is 
 formed in the shoots, which is a powerful poison. (For analy- 
 sis^see Liebig s Animal Chemistry, note 38.) 
 
 439. As the potato has much diminished in value as a field ciop, 
 and there is no prospect at present of the Hot being lemedied, we shall 
 say but little abort it, considering it rather as interesting to the 
 gardener than the farmer. 
 
 460. It is a native of South America, and is still found wild 
 in Chili. 
 
 In 1545, a Slave merchant, John Hawkins, introduced the potato from 
 New Grenada into Ireland. Fro.Ti Ireland the plant passed to Belgium 
 in 1590. It was neglected in England till introduced by Sir Walter 
 Raleigh in the beginning of the 17th century ; and was not in general 
 cultivation in Scotland till near the end of the eighteenth century. 
 When the potato came from Virginia into England, for the second time, 
 it was alrendy disseminated over Spain and Italy. It has b^en ascer- 
 taineu that this root has been cultivated on the great scale in Lancashire, 
 England, since 1684; in Saxony, since 1717; in Prussia in 1738. In 
 1710, it brgan to spread in Germany, but the famines of 1771 and 1772 
 seemed necessary to lead the Germans to cultivate it upon the great 
 scale. In less than two centuries it has literally overspread the eartb ; 
 14 
 
210 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 and at the present day is found growing from the Cape of Good Hope 
 to Iceland and Lapland. (Bouaningault and Sir J. Sinclair.) 
 
 The Egg Plant (Solatium Melon gena ;) the Tomato ( Lycopcrsicnm 
 esculent urn,) and the Red Pepper (Capsicum annuum,) ns esculents ; and 
 Deadly Night-shade, (Atropa Belladonna,) a well known medicine, be 
 long to the same family. The Bittersweet of our own woods and fen 
 ces (S. Dulcamara,) may be mentioned as the Type in the Northern 
 United States. 
 
 461. The plant may be propagated by seed, in which case a 
 vast number of new varieties is originated; or by the tubers, 
 which contain buds or germs from each of which a stem will 
 arise ; and the variety continue constant. The germ will grow 
 equally well if severed from the tuber, retaining merely a small 
 fragment of the skin and substance ; and it submits to desicca 
 tion by a hot stove without losing vitality. 
 
 It has long been a disputed point whether it were better 10 plant the 
 entire tuber, or to cut it up into fragment*, but no accurate decision 
 seems to have beeu arrived at. In consequence, we may conclude that 
 the practical difference is very small. General custom leans toward* 
 the latter plan. " It has been observed that "eyes" or germs taken from 
 tuber that have not been full) ripened are more vigorous than those that 
 have been taken from such as have been very fully ripened. Thirf leads to a 
 rule in practice, that the trbor to be planted shall be those which were 
 taken up before the stems had begun to decay in autumn." (Low.) 
 
 The number of varieties is very great, and always increasing. 
 The chief distinction is that of early and late kinds. 
 
 462. The peculiar characteristic of this root is the quantity 
 of starch that it contains in combination with much water, and 
 potash in its ash. The quantity of dry solid matter depends 
 much upon the state of ripeness to which it has attained. The 
 ripest leave 30 to 32 per cent of dry matter, the least ripe only 
 24 per cent. The quantity of starch varies according to variety 
 from lOf to 32 per cent; and, accordieg to Liebig, in the wild 
 state, this root is almost destitute of nourishing constituents. 
 Since the rot has prevailed, potatoes appear to have lost much 
 of the starch they previously possessed. The crop, also, other 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 211 
 
 things being equal, varies in the weight per acre, according to 
 variety, more than perhaps any other cultivated plant. The 
 quantity of starch is at its maximum in the winter. In the 
 spring, vegetation becomes active, and the buds begin to grow at 
 the expense of the starch contained in the tuber. Hence, at this 
 season, potatoes are less mealy, and, in consequence, less es 
 teemed for eating. The tissue of the potato consists of a mass 
 of cells, and in these the starch is stored up in the form of grains, 
 of the ordinary shape, and these congregate principally in a zone 
 near the skin, and are less abundant toward the center; the re 
 maining space, in and between the cells, is occupied by a thin 
 albuminous liquor, constituting three-fourths of the total weight 
 of the tubers. All the nitrogenous matter is dissolved in the 
 juice, and consists almost entirely of albumen, with a very small 
 quantity of aspcuragin and free acids. The substance of which 
 the cells consist is essentially different from that found in other 
 plants. It possesses the property of swelling in water into a 
 translucent jelly, and of being transformed into sugar and gurn 
 by the action of acids, and consequently occupies a position in 
 termediate between starch and woody fibre. Potatoes are rea 
 dily frozen at a few degrees below freezing point, and when 
 again thawed are soft and sodden, and allow the greater part of 
 the juice to flow out in fact, the cells are burst by the ice formed 
 within them, the organic structure is destroyed and vitality lost ; 
 while decay speedily succeeds. A chemical change, when the 
 freezing has been gradual, is often perceptible ; the tubers ]>?- 
 coiae remarkably sweet, and contain an appreciable quantity of 
 uncrystallizable sugar. 
 
 4fr&. Ultimate ANALYSIS of the Potato: ( Bowsing ault.) 
 Cnrboa, - - 440 \\ W ate r, - - 759 
 
 Hydrogen, - - 5.8 jj S <lid irnttei dried at 230 
 
 Oxygen, - - 44.7 jj Aar. in tacno, - 24.1 
 
 Nitrogen, - 1.5 jj . 
 
 Ashes, - 4.0 (I 100.0 
 
 From ihU we RP that the proportion of Nitrogen is very small ; but 
 it is still smaller in potatoes that have been kept for aotno time. 
 
212 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 
 
 Nitrogen in 
 
 Nitrogen in 
 
 ) 00 parts of 
 
 Moisture. 
 
 dried sub- 
 
 uudried sub* 
 
 
 
 sram-e. 
 
 stnnce. 
 
 Potato, fresh, 79 4 
 
 1 .80 0.37 
 
 Potato, kept ten months, 
 
 768 
 
 1.18 
 
 0.28 
 
 464. Proximate analysis of the Potato: 
 
 MICHAELIS. 
 
 JOHXSTOX. 
 
 Red Potato. 
 
 Natural state. Dry. 
 
 M uter, 
 
 60.875 
 
 Wafer, - 
 
 75 52 
 
 
 March nnd amylaceous fibre, 
 Albumen, 
 
 30.460 
 0.503 
 
 Starch, 
 Dextrine, 
 
 15.72 
 055 
 
 64.20 
 2.25 
 
 Cluten, 
 
 0.055 
 
 Sujrar, - 
 
 3.30 
 
 13.47 
 
 lat. 
 
 056 
 
 Albumen, cnscin / 
 
 1.41 
 
 5.77 
 
 (ium, - 
 
 0.020 
 
 Gluten, - S 
 
 
 
 Asparajrin, 
 K.xtractive, - 
 
 0.063 
 9.921 
 
 |Kat, 
 Fibre, 
 
 0.24 
 3.26 
 
 1 00 
 13.31 
 
 Chloride of potassium, - 
 
 176 
 
 
 
 
 Silicate, aiumina, and salts, - 
 
 o 8 1 r- 
 
 
 
 
 Free citric sicid, (?) 
 
 0.047 
 
 
 
 
 According to Illisch, what was formerly believed to be citric acid is 
 phosphoric, muriatic, and malic acids. 
 
 465. Inorganic analysis of the Potato. (Boussingault; 
 Fromberg; and Daubeny.) 
 
 
 i 
 
 ll 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 of iron ! ] 
 
 sodium 
 
 "5 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 a fr 
 
 . 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 | 
 
 a 
 
 
 $ 
 
 "o 
 
 ? 
 
 
 
 .5 .4- 
 
 *i 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 J3 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 j- 
 
 
 i 
 
 4? 
 
 tc 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 f 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 * 
 
 < " 
 
 (2 
 
 * 
 
 5? 
 
 3 
 
 E 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 ] uiacu tubeis, 
 
 
 4.0 
 
 >9 9o 
 
 
 62h 
 
 3.i-9j 13. Id 
 
 h - ^7j6.52 
 
 l.f)! 
 
 
 .1 
 
 
 i 01 
 
 57 5S 
 
 3 (jf; 
 
 4.53 
 
 
 998 
 
 
 3.6- 
 
 i.4: 
 
 -.6 1} 1 
 
 do | 
 
 
 3.75 
 
 49.73 1.93 
 
 5.03 
 
 3.31 
 
 11.58 
 
 18.04 
 
 249 
 
 >.5>fi 
 
 75 
 
 ) % 
 
 do 
 
 1.27 
 
 
 46.60| 1 870 
 
 4.54 13.301 4.66; 1.95 
 
 5.30 
 
 3.43 
 
 13.30 
 
 do 
 
 1.08 
 
 
 50.00 
 
 O.M1 
 
 6 85: 2. 70 
 
 16.20 2.37 
 
 7 15 
 
 , ] .1 
 
 1.95 ill. 90 
 
 do 
 
 0.76 
 
 
 4380 
 
 
 12.65 ,3.10 
 
 11.15 
 
 6.0 
 
 6.67 
 
 ;.H;. 
 
 2.30 
 
 6.70 
 
 JWcan of six analyses, > 
 < -nrb acid dednoted, f 
 
 1 
 
 3.92 
 
 55 75 
 
 l.SG 
 
 52 
 
 2.07 
 
 12.57 
 
 1364 
 
 423J052 
 
 7.01 
 
 
 466. According to Boussingault and Liebig, the nutritive 
 ] >ower of the potato is very low. "A horse may be kept alive" 
 says the latter "by feeding it with potatoes, but life thus sup 
 ported is gradual starvation ; the animal increases neither in size 
 or strength, and sinks under every exertion." The true value 
 of this tuber, as food, is evidently to supply carbon, in the shape 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 213 
 
 of starch, for tho purpose of sustaining breath and heat, not for 
 building up the body. Pcreira estimates that 1 Ib. of butcher s 
 meat is equal to 10J- Ibs. of potatoes. In consequence, those 
 who live sololy upon them are obliged to consume inordinate 
 quantities; and the stomach, habitually distended with the great 
 bulk, becomes unnaturally enlarged, and incapable of digesting 
 concentrated food. This was shown during the Irish famine, 
 when more than an equivalent of corn meal, or other nitrogen 
 ous food, being much smaller in quantity, entirely failed to sus 
 pend that craving which the stomach feels when empty. 
 
 At the same time, in consequence of the great yield per aero, 
 much more nourishment can be produced from a given area of 
 8oil by this crop, than by any other except perhaps corn. The 
 following example will prove this (Knapp) : 
 
 From one hectare of land (= 2.471 acres) there were pro 
 duced under similar circumstances, 
 
 3,400 Ibs. wheat, 2,800 Ibs. rye, 2.200 Ibs. peas, 38,000 Ibs. potatoes, ot 
 3.036 do 2,538 do " 2,980 do 9,500 do 
 
 after deducting the amount of moisture. In this quantity of 
 dry produce there is contained : 
 
 In wheat. In rje. In peas. In potatoes. 
 
 Nitrogenous matters, 570 Ibs. 440 Ibs. 560 Ibs. 950 Ibs. 
 Starch, 1,590 " 1,196 " 780 " 6,840 " 
 
 Mineral ingredients, 90 " 62 " 60 " 323 " 
 
 And in consequence, when the Irish learnt to depend on this food 
 alone, cultivating chiefly with the spade, population very rapidly in 
 creased ; the land was subdivided into portions too small to be profita 
 bly applied to grain for where one acre of potatoes would sustain a 
 family, it would require many acres of grain to do the same, together 
 with the necessary cattle and when this crop failed, there was nothing 
 to fall back upon, starvation ensuing in consequence. In India, the 
 same results follow the dependence on rice, in many respects a very 
 similar food. It may be laid down as a general principle, that the more 
 highly civilized, intelligent, and prosperous nations are, the greater 
 amount of nitrogenous vegetable and animal aliment do ihey con 
 sume ; and in wearing out the soil of a single farm, or of a State, 
 the decline is gradually from muscle-forming to heat -producing pro- 
 
214 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 ducts, and finally to grass, for cattle raising, for the use of distant 
 communities. But as the grass-product becomes genera] the population 
 gradually dccrekses in numbers. 
 
 467. We shall not attempt to explain the cause of the Rot, 
 nor yet repeat the various theories which have been originated. 
 The ablest scientific men while each has his own private opin 
 ion acknowledge their inability, satisfactorily to account for it, 
 any further than for the cholera and similar human epidemics. 
 It is probably owing to some undetected atmospheric influence, 
 and may be connected with electrical phenomena. One fact, 
 however, appears to be generally acknowledged, viz, that rich, 
 ammoniacal fermenting manures^tend to increase tho disease, and 
 that new soils, of a porous character, or old soils supplied with 
 inorganic manures, are apt to produce the healthiest tubers. It 
 is a peculiarity in this case, that remedies which are successful 
 in one instance or locality, entirely fail in others; and thus, all 
 specific curative means are now looked upon with suspicion. In 
 Russia, drying the potato soon after digging, by artificial heat, 
 has been found successful, yet failed in England; while, in 
 Michigan, Mr. Mott and others have remedied the evil by leav 
 ing the tubers intended for seed in the ground where they grew 
 until required for planting, taking the precaution to plant deep 
 and cover with straw to prevent freezing. It is certain that in 
 some soils this is a perfect preventive, and some unexplained 
 change goes on in the potato ; for, in the second season, the old 
 potato which has acted as seed will be found perfectly sound, 
 hut altered in flavor. The same gentleman recommends leav 
 ing the tubers, intended for eating in the spring, in the ground 
 all winter, when they will bo found as fresh and unaltered as 
 they were in the preceding autumn. (See Farmer s Compan 
 ion and Horticultural Gazette, Vol. i, p. 77. ii, p. 14 .) The fol 
 lowing receipt has been lately published by an English farmer, 
 not only as a manure, for which purpose it is undoubtedly excel 
 lent, but also as a preventive : (Agricultural Gazette.) 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 215 
 
 30 Ibs. wood ashes, 20 Ibs. common salt, 
 
 15 Ibs. burnt bones, in fine powder, 30 Ibs. air-slacked lime, 
 
 10 Ibs. plaster, (sn^pkale of lime,) 7 Ibs. nitrate of soda, (taltpetrc ) 
 
 The whole to be intimately mixed. When planting, put into 
 every hole an ounce of the above, cover it with some earth, and 
 plant the tuber, or cutting above it. Habitually damp, undrain- 
 ed, adhesive clays SAOiild be avoided for this crop, while sands, 
 gravels, and loams, lying on a porous subsoil, may often be suc 
 cessfully tried, oven now. 
 
 408. In Great Britain, the potato was considered as & fallow- 
 crop, and improved the land still more in consequence of being 
 liberally supplied with fresh animal manures; and the surface, 
 between the plants, being frequently plowed and hoed. Great 
 pains were taken in preparing the field, and it was left in fine 
 condition for wheat or other grains, which will not bear the di 
 rect application of dung. In our rotations, corn may take this 
 tubers place, especially if planted at distant intervals. In that 
 country it was and is usually grown in rows, the earth being 
 heaped up around the potato plant as it grew. In the United 
 States much less pains have generally been taken, and the hill 
 system is commonly followed ; 4 potatoes, or sets, being plant 
 ed close together in each hill. These hills are from three to 
 four feet apart,, and the interval is worked and kept clean with 
 the plow and hoe. Undoubtedly the largest crops per acre can 
 be raised on the English plan. When healthy, the time for 
 digging, is when the stalks and leaves have partially withered ; 
 or when the skin of a tuber, recently unearthed, cannot be rea 
 dily rubbed off with the hand. In Michigan, there is usually a 
 period in October of the two or three weeks, when the weather 
 is steadily fine, dry, and warm ; but is succeeded by rains and 
 frosts. This time, then, should be seized for the harvesting of 
 this crop. The Irish dig with a spade or shovel; the New En- 
 glanders with a fork ; or potato-hoe. The first, our experience 
 teaches us to bo the most rapid, and cleanest ; but the shovel, 
 
216 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 when lifted, requires a peculiar twist of the wrist, by which the 
 earth arid tubers are separated, and deposited in different places, 
 which twist requires practice to accomplish successfully. In 
 harvesting, it is important that the potatoes be not left exposed 
 to the air and sun longer than can possibly be avoided. When 
 first dug they are peculiarly sensitive to light, and if kept cover 
 ed in the wagon with a thick cloth, or straw, till laid by in a 
 dark place, they will retain their mealy qualities much longer 
 than otherwise. A potato, exposed partially to the air in grow 
 ing, turns green, moist, and unpleasantly waxy. This mistake 
 is often made ; the tubers being left on the ground in small 
 heaps, for at least a whole day, or even several days. Whilo 
 this was an important crop with us, we always threw them into 
 a corn-basket ; and this, as soon as it was full, was emptied into 
 a covered wagon ; the consequence was, that the potatoes were 
 remarkable for their fine flavor, and good qualities. 
 
 469. Besides being used in the ordinary shape, many preparations of 
 starch were prepaie I from the potato. The larger quantity of the starch 
 used by the laundress, and articles sold under the name of Arrowroot 
 Farina, <tc., were derived from this plant. British grin, (Dextiine,) ex 
 tensively used in stiffening calicos, and applied to the back of postage 
 stamps, is formed from wheat starch by roasting, or by nitric or sulphu 
 ric acid, potato starch failing to produce it. The water, in which pota 
 toes have been boiled, is destructive to lice upon hogs, cattle, <fcc. The 
 potato possesses a peculiar curative power over the Scurvy which attacks 
 Bailors confined to salt meat. In France, an extensive manufacture of 
 Sugar from Potato Fecula or Starch is carried on, " Thus by the aid of 
 Chemistry we obtain sugar from potato-starch, sulphuric acid, chalk, 
 and water. The sugar is used for giving "body" to Burgundy wine, 
 and for confectionary." (Annual of Scien. Disc. Vol. 1, p. 113.) 
 
 470. JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE (derived from the It.ilian word 
 for Sunflower, girasole ; i. e. girare, to turn, and sole sun, 
 bearing no reference to the City of Jerusalem,) belongs to the 
 family of Sunflowers, and is a native of America, It was intro 
 duced into Europe probably from Mexico in 1497; and was 
 much esteemed before potatoes were generally used ; and in case 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 217 
 
 of the total loss of the latter esculent, may be so again. In France 
 and Germany it is extensively grown as food for stock ; we re 
 member seeing, a few years since, large fields of it near Mnssilon 
 in Ohio, and it has been successfully tried in New York, Ala 
 bama, &c. In the United States, however, it is not usually cul 
 tivated, except in gardens. Both the tubers and stalks are val 
 uable. The first are occasionally eaten, either boiled or roasted, 
 by men, but are not in the present day much esteemed as a veg 
 etable, being apt to produce flatulency. The tubers grow in 
 clusters attached to the true root, somewhat in the manner of 
 potatoes, and the stems are from 5 to 10 feet in height, with a 
 considerable quantity of large leaves. In Michigan it flowers, 
 but does not bear seed. The crop is large, giving from 10 tons, 
 to 1,200 bushels of tubers, and 1 1 cwts. of dried stems per acre. 
 ( Boussingault, and N. Y. Cultivator.) The tubers, when 
 once planted, are very apt to spread, and are difficult to eradi 
 cate ; but in Europe this inconvenience appears to be obviated by 
 turning swine into the field. " Taking into account the hardy 
 qualities of this plant, its productiveness, and easy culture, it may 
 be doubted whether it merits the neglect into which it has 
 fallen. Granting its inferiority as an article of food for cattle 
 to turnips, &c, it must be of some importance, especially since 
 the potato has failed, to have a plant that can be so easily raised, 
 and on soils so low in the scale of fertility." (Low.) 
 
 471. Ultimate ANALYSIS of the Tuber (A) and dried Stem 
 (B) of the Jerusalem Artichoke. ( Boussingault.) 
 
 A tuber fresh from the ground weighed 1 oz. 15 6-10 dwts : after dry 
 ing in the stove 7-10thsd\vls : after complete desiccation, one part was 
 reduced to 0.208. 
 
 A B 
 
 Carbon, - - 4302 43.62 45.66 
 
 Hydrogen, - - 5.91 580 543 
 
 Oiygen, - - 43.56 4307 4572 
 
 NHrran, - - 1.57 1.57 0.43 
 
 Ash - - 5.94 5.94 2.76 
 
218 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 
 
 In this analysis of the stalks, the carbon and nitrogen are piobablj 
 rated too low. It will be observed that these tubers are almost identical 
 in composition with the potato, the only essential difference being a lit 
 tle more ash in the first. According to the same writer, 30.8 Ibs. of Je 
 rusalem Artichokes are equal to 11 Ibs. hay, as food for horses. " These 
 roots are excellent food for the borse ; they are eaten greedily, and he 
 thrives upon them." 
 
 472. Proximate analysis of tho tubers of the Jerusalem Ar 
 tichoke. (Braconnot.) 
 
 Uncrystallizable Sugar, ... 14.80 
 
 Inuline, - - 3.00 
 
 Gum, ... 1.22 
 
 Albumen, - - - 1.00 
 
 Fatty Matter, - - 0.09 
 
 Citrates of patash and lime, - - 1.15 
 
 Phosphates of potash and lime, ... 0.20 
 
 Sulphate of potash. - - -012 
 
 Chloride of potassium, - 0.08 
 
 Malatcs and tartrates of potash and lime, - - 0.05 
 
 Woody fibre, - 1.22 
 
 Silica, .... 0.03 
 
 Wate., - - 77.05 
 
 M. Pnyen found a larger proportion of Sugar in this tuber than that 
 stated above, and he ascertained that the fatty matter consists of stear- 
 inc and elaine. 
 
 Boussingault found : 
 Of dry matter, 20.8 | Water, 79.2. 
 
 473. Inorganic analysis of the tuber of the Jerusalem Arti 
 choke. (Boussingault,) Per cent-age of ash in dry state 6.00. 
 Potash, 54.67 
 
 Soda, ... - traces 
 
 Lime, - - 282 
 
 Magnesia, - - - - 2.21 
 
 Oxide of iron, alumina, <fcc., - 6.39 
 
 Phosphoric acid, - - - 13.27 
 
 Sulphuric acid, .... 2.70 
 
 Chlorine, - - l- 9 7 
 
 Silica. - - 15.97 
 
 It will be observed ho\v rich in phosphoric acid this plant is, 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 219 
 
 and consequently how beneficial for growing animals; but in 
 order to derive all the benefit possible from this fact, either wa 
 ter rich in lime, or some food containing an abundance of calcium 
 should be supplied .it the same time. 
 
 Inuline (C 2 4, H;i, 0-;:,) is a variety of starch found in the dahlia, and 
 many other plants; specific gravity, 1.356, fuses at 212; rendered 
 jellow by iodine. Its aqueous solution doi-s not gelatinize in cooliug. 
 (Solly.) 
 
 The following is the result of the analyses of two varieties of Jerusalem 
 Artichoke the white and red made by Dr. Salisbury of Albany, N. Y., 
 in 1850: 
 
 White Tubers, Red Tubers, Tops of red variety. 
 Water, - 83.608 6835 40.08 
 
 Dry matter, 16332 31.65 59.92 
 
 Ash, 0774 1.352 3.85 
 
 Ash Calc. or dry matter, 4 72S 4.27 6.425 
 
 Inorganic analy-e* of the tubers of White f A.] and Red [B,] Jerusa 
 lem Artichokes, and the tops of the Red variety, [C,] grown near Alba 
 ny, N. Y.: 
 
 ABC 
 
 Carbonic acid, ... 21.75 23.10 trace 
 
 Silicic acid, - 1.60 1.40 26.55 
 
 Phosphoiic ncid, - - - 9.75 12.05 11.10 
 
 Phosphate of iron, - 1 .20 1 .25 3.25 
 
 Lime, - - 1.95 3.35 18.30 
 
 Magnesia, - - 0.55 0.30 8.85 
 
 Potash. - - - 42.20 43.65 11.40 
 
 Soda, - - 1525 6.60 15.85 
 
 Chloiino, - - 2.55 265 0.85 
 
 Sulphuiicacid, - - - 1.95 4.45 4.05 
 
 98.75 98.80 99.60 
 
 Proximate analysis of the fiesh tubers of the White [A,] and Red [B,] 
 Jerusalem Artichoke; and of the fresh tubers of the Potato, [C.] 
 
 ABC 
 
 Water, - - 83.608 68.330 74.713 
 
 Fibre, - - - 2232 3.676 6.839 
 
 Sugar and extract, - - 3.952 7.688 2.367 
 
 Dextrine, - 26.52 5436 0.923 
 
 Casein, - - - 2.052 4.4CO 2.054 
 
220 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 ABC 
 
 Albumen, - . . 2.080 4.066 0.165 
 
 Starch, - - - 2.850 5.884 12.399 
 
 Re sin, - . 0.168 6.184 naco. 
 
 Glutinous matter, . 0096 0.122 0.009 
 
 Fat. - - 0.024 0.018 0.008 
 
 Ultimate organic analysis of the dry tubers of the White [A.] and 
 Red [B,j Jerusalem Artichokes: 
 
 A B 
 
 Carbon, . 45.817 45.918 
 
 Oxygen, - - - 40.926 40.5C6 
 
 Hydrogen. - 5768 4.829 
 
 Nitrogen, 3378 3.597 
 
 Ash, . 4728 4.270 
 
 474. The tubers are an excellent food for milch cows, horses, 
 and sheep, but should be used in connection with dry food and 
 salt. Hogs likewise prosper upon them ; and when the ground 
 is not frozen, they can help themselves and save the cost of har 
 vesting. The nourishing quality of the root is very little, if any 
 lower than that of the potato, while its inorganic constituents 
 are more useful. The stalks are nearly as valuable as the tu 
 bers; and in this respect it has an advantage over the potato. 
 Although cutting the stalk in the beginning of September may 
 diminish the growth of the tubers which is questionable the 
 fodder that is obtained at that season will fully compensate for 
 the loss. 
 
 According to Schwertz, 100 kilogrammes (220.548 Ibs. av 
 oirdupois) of green stalks, equal as regards nutritious qualities 
 31.250 kilogrammes of hay; but the value is increased if they 
 are mixed with other vegetable matters. If for winter fodder, 
 the stalks should be left as late as possible, cut, and dried as hay ; 
 and in this condition all domeetic animals eat them. In some 
 parts of Europe, the stalks are also used as fuel; and Boussin- 
 gault found them profitable as absorbers of liquid manure, ow 
 ing to the amount of pith when thrown into.hog-pens. 
 
 475. The soil and climate appear to matter little. The tu- 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 221 
 
 bers, cither above or below ground, bear a degree of cold that 
 no other cultivated root will do. They are thus of essential util 
 ity in northern climates, and may be left in the ground all win 
 ter, if wanted for early spring use. T lis plant can bear the 
 effects of great heat equally well. With the exception of 
 marshes, all places and all soils suit; and even the shade of 
 trees, in moderation, is not injurious. The following results 
 have been arrived at by experiments in France : 
 
 Alluvial land gave, 20.863 Kilog. of tubers. 
 
 Turfy land, very dry, 26 70S " " 
 
 S truly clay, 22563 
 
 Calcareous earth, lb.9D8 " " 
 
 From which it would appear that dry and light soils agree best 
 with this plant. 
 
 476. In Europe, where Artichokes enter regularly into rota 
 tions, the ground is prepared and manured as if for potatoes, in 
 the spring: and planting should be accomplished, as early as 
 possible. They may, however, be planted, equally well, late in 
 the fall, in dry soils. Whole tubers are used, and placed in rows, 
 at about 1 inch below the surface, leaving sufficient space be 
 tween the rows to use the cultivator, and the plants about nine 
 inches apart. When they appear above ground, the soil is kept 
 clean with the plow or cultivator, and hand hoe. If not har 
 vested the first year, they will cover the whole surface of the 
 ground the second season. 
 
 477. The stalks, if intended for dry fodder, must be left as late 
 as the climate will allow of their being entirely dried. They 
 may be cut with a strong sickle, or a corn-knife, from 2 to 3 feet 
 above the ground, if tall ; or in proportion, if short. They are 
 lightly bound in bundles, and seven of these bundles are placed 
 in shocks. After a week, and when the outside leaves are well 
 dried, the shocks are separated, and replaced, so that 14 stand 
 together, and 7 are placed on the top, like a roof, with the cut 
 ends upward, and strongly fastened toward that end. In thia 
 way they stand till perfectly dry. 
 
222 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 478. The tubers may be dug when convenient, in the same 
 manner that potatoes are ; but, if another crop is intended to 
 succeed, great care must be taken to gather up every portion. 
 As they grow in clumps, a little experience will render this easy. 
 If it is intended to continue artichokes on the same ground 
 enough small tubers may be left to serve for seed next season. 
 
 479. If they are to be used during the winter, they may be 
 piled in heaps in a dry place, and covered with straw and earth. 
 Wet injures them more than frost. (Girardin and JDebreul; 
 See also Patent Office Report 1844, p. 145; 1845, p. 321; 
 1846, p. 186; 1848, p. 159, 578.) 
 
 480. In the above references, much interesting information w 11 be 
 found. We would hardly, in our present state of Agriculture, recom 
 mend this crop to be introduced into our rotations or upon rich so Is, 
 but we are confident that erery farmer would find it profitable to set 
 npart a field for this plant, and use the stalks in place of hay, and the 
 tubers for his horses, sheep, milch c.>ws, and hogs in winter and spring. 
 There are certainly few plants which can be raised so readily, nor one 
 vhich will yield more food at li-ss cost. After a few years the artichoke 
 will die out, in many localities ; having exhausted the soil of the peculiar 
 food it requires* 
 
CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 PARSNIP (Pastinaca saliva.) CARROT 
 (DaucusCarota.) REET(Beta Vulgar is.) 
 
 481. The Parsnip is a native of England, of the Continent 
 of Europe, and of Asia, but in its wild state is useless, if not 
 poisonous. It has become naturalized as a wild plant in the 
 United States, (Gray;) and when once established as a weed, 
 is very difficult to exterminate) while the root diminishes in 
 size. Formerly, it was in more general use than at present, and 
 it is now more cultivated in Catholic countries than in Protest 
 ant. Shakespear refers to it in the old proverb that " smooth 
 words butter no parsnips." It is cultivated both as a field and 
 garden crop ; and in the Channel Islands, (Jersey, Guernsey, 
 and Alderney,) and in parts of France, it is greatly depended 
 on for fattening hogs and cattle, and as food for milch cows, for 
 all which purposes it is perhaps superior to any other root. 
 
 482. There is probably only one species, but several vane* 
 ties, of which, in Great Britain and America, the Large Jcr* 
 sey is considered the best for field culture. Of this there aro 
 two sub- varieties, (a,) the fusiform, which strikes deeply into 
 the earth, and (7>J the napiform y which becomes thick, and 
 grows near the surface. French writers mention three varie* 
 ties as worthy of attention; fcjthe Coquaine,vfit\\ a long root, 
 and tall leaves; (d,) the Lisbonnaise, with a shorter ?.nd thicker 
 root ; and (c t ) the Siam, small, and of a yellowish tinge, tender, 
 and richer in flavor than the others. Any of these, however, 
 will degenerate in poor soil, or by careless culture. 
 
224 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 483. Late examinations have proved this root to be more 
 nutritive than the Carrot, while it greatly excels the latter in 
 hardiness; freedom from disease and insects; in its adaptation 
 to soils; in its yield; and facility of culture. We believe that 
 it is far too much neglected, and were the fashion to change in 
 our Northern States it would be greatly for the benefit of 
 farmers. 
 
 All animals are fond of the Parsnip. To milch cows it is eminently 
 favorable, giving a flavor ai>d richness to their milk which no other win 
 ter vegetable but the Carrot can givp. The cows of Jersey and Guern 
 sey fed with Parsnips and hay, yield butter during the winter of as fine 
 a tinge, and nearly as good flavor, as if they were fed in pastures. To 
 horses it is equally suited as the Carrot. Hogs are extremely fond of it, 
 and, when boiled, poultry may be fed upon it. (Low.) To this may 
 be added, that next to the Artichoke, it bears frost the best of any of 
 our cultivated roots, and it may be left in the ground through winter, 
 not only without injury, but even with an apparent increase of saccha 
 rine matter. 
 
 484. No ultimate analysis of this root appears to have been 
 made. (E* T. Hemming, 1852.) 
 
 485. Proximate analysis of the Parsnip root ( VoelcTcer, 
 1852;^) grown on stony, shallow soil, on the farm of the Royal 
 Agricultural College, Cirencester, England. 
 
 I. II. Avernjje. 
 
 Water, - - 81.780 82.320 82.050 
 
 Inorganic matter, (ash,) 0.941 0.924 0.932 
 
 Nitro^enized organic substances, - - 1.310 1.250 1.280 
 
 Carbonaceous matters, - - 15.9G9 15.506 15.738 
 
 100.00 100.00 100.00 
 
 or the same dried at 212 F. 
 
 Nitrogen ized substances, 
 Carbonaceous matter, 
 
 Inorganic matter*, (ash,) - 
 
 100.00 100.00 100.00 
 
 Parsnips contain 6 to 8 per cent less water than turnips, and 5 to 6 
 per cent less than mangolds, The quantity of fleshforming substances 
 
 I. 
 
 7.43 
 87.41 
 5.16 
 
 II. Average, 
 
 7.12 7.27 
 
 87.65 87.54 
 
 5 23 5.19 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 225 
 
 in fresh Parsnips is about the same as that contained in turnips. In a 
 dried state, however, turnips are richer in protein compounds than pars 
 nips. 
 
 486. Detailed proximate composition of Parsnips. ( Voel- 
 cker.) 
 
 In natural state. Calculated dry. 
 
 Water, - - - 82.050 
 
 Cellular fibre, 8.022 44.691 
 
 Ash united with the fibre, - 0.208 1.159 
 
 Insoluble protein compounds, - 0.550 3.0G4 
 
 Soluble casein, - 0.665 3.704 
 
 Gum and Pectin, - 0.748 4.166 
 
 Salts insoluble in alcohol, - 0.455 2.535 
 
 Sugar, - . 2.882 16.055 
 
 Salts soluble in alcohol, - 0.339 1.888 
 
 Ammonia in the state of ammonical salts, 0.033 0.184 
 
 Starch, - - 3.507 19.537 
 
 Oil, 0.546 3041 
 
 487. Inorganic analysis of the Parsnip. (Richardson.) 
 Potash, - - 3612 
 Soda, - 3.11 
 Magnesia, - - - 9.94 
 Lime, 11.43 
 Phosphoric acid, ... 18.66 
 Sulphuric acid, - - 6.50 
 Silica, - 4.10 
 Phosphate of iron, ... 3.71 
 Chloride of sodium, - - 5.54 
 
 By this it will be perceived that it belongs to the class of 
 potash plants, but that it is also rich in the phosphates. The 
 etarch is all deposited in the external layers of the roots ; the 
 second layers contain much more protein compounds than either 
 the heart or the outer layers. It will thus be noticed that the 
 albuminous or protein compounds are not uniformly distributed 
 throughout the whole mass of the root. 
 
 Layers between 
 
 In outer lavcrs. Heart. the heart and the 
 
 outer layers. 
 
 Per centage of nitrogen, 1.039 1.069 1.500 
 
 Equal to 
 Protein compounds, 6.493 6.668 9.375 
 
 15 
 
226 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 488. Parsnips succeed best in a deep, well pulverized, loamy 
 soil, but will prosper in much heavier clays than carrots, espe 
 cially if the soil is formed of granitic rocks. They require depth, 
 and consequently the ground should be plowed deeply, or sub- 
 soiled, which is better still ; but they will force their roots in 
 spite of obstructions. Fresh barn-yard manure is not injurious 
 to them. 
 
 489. The land being manured, (if requisite,) and plowed, is 
 harrowed and rolled, and the seed sown broad-cast, by hand in 
 rows, or by drill.* If by either of the first modes, it must be 
 lightly harrowed, care being taken not to bury it above 1 or l 
 inches deep. It is important that the seed be fresh : if two 
 years old it will not vegetate. In Jersey 3 or 4 Ibs. (Le 
 Couteur) in Scotland 10 Ibs. (Stephens) per acre of seed are 
 required. It generally vegetates slowly. Some soak it and 
 mix it with damp sand to hasten germination, but in this case 
 it should not be sown in dry land. If in drills, they should bo 
 just wide enough to admit a one horse plow or cultivator, 
 about 20 inches and by degrees the plants must be thinned to 
 6 or 9 inches apart, according to the size of the variety, and the 
 richness of the soil ; but it is better to sow rather heavily to 
 prevent misses. When the plants are one inch high they are 
 to be weeded with a hoe, and the land must be kept clean in 
 this manner till they are large enough to admit a cultivator. 
 After this they grow very rapidly, and soon cover the ground 
 with their leaves, and prevent the further growth of weeds. 
 
 The following plan is recommended, where a good drill cannot be 
 procured. When the land is well harrowed and leveled, sow the seed 
 broad-cast, harrow, and roll it ; then when the plants appear, hoe 
 into drills, either with a hoe-plow or hand-hoe. 
 
 The chief labor requisite, is keeping down the weeds till the 
 parsnips gain sufficient size to do it themselves. 
 
 The Drills manufactured by Emery & Co., of Albany, N. Y., BOW this seed regu 
 larly and at a proper deptn. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 227 
 
 490. Harvesting is most readily performed with a plow, with 
 a blunt or worn out share, drawn by a pair of horses, along or 
 across the rows. The pressure of the plow and earth forces the 
 roots out of the ground, when they are gathered into baskets by 
 hand. They may be left in the ground, if intended for winter 
 use, as long as the frost will permit ; and, if for spring use, 
 through the whole winter. They may be kept in cellars, or as 
 is recommended for artichokes, 
 
 491. In Jersey, the crop averages from 9 to 11 tons per acre, 
 but has been known to be as great as 27 tons 8 cwt. 
 
 492. When the leaves begin to fade, they should be cut oft 
 and given to cows; but if they are moist from rain or dew they 
 are apt to inflame the udder. A good armful a day to each 
 cow will impart nearly as much richness to the milk as the pars 
 nip itself, 
 
 493. Domestic animals will eat the roots raw, but hogs are 
 believed to prosper better upon them if they are cooked. PorlT"" 
 made of turnips is said to be quite equal to that made of com. 
 
 ( See Trans, of 3 r . Y. State Agricultural Society, Vol. xi, p. 
 360.) 
 
 494. Wine has been mn( of this root, ad a pure spirit may be ob- 
 Uincd from it by distillatiou. 
 
 495. For seed, the plants should be allowed to stand till the 
 second season, or the best roots may be set out two feet apart 
 each way, the crowns being under the surface of the ground. 
 In the latter mode from 1^- to 4 Ibs. of seed may be expected 
 from a square rod of W% feet. (Stephens.) The seeds ripen 
 irregularly, and should be gathered by hand when ready, being 
 spread under cover till quite dry. 
 
 The seeds are apt to produce blisters and watery vesicles on the bands 
 and arms of those gathering them, which may be prevented by rubbing 
 well with grease previous to eoinmenc ng. 
 
 496. Neither insects nor disease of any kind appear to injure 
 this plant in the United States, 
 
228 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 497. The best manures, are rich dung, guano, bones in some 
 form, wood ashes, plaster, and common salt. The inorganic 
 compound should be drilled in with the seed. 
 
 498. THE CARROT like the parsnip belongs to tbe botan 
 ical order of Umbellifercc, the Hemlock or Parsley family, some 
 of the species of which are mutritive, and many of them poison 
 ous. The wild carrot is a common weed in Europe, and i 
 wholly useless, having a hard, slender, fusiform root. Mr. Low 
 is inclined to think that our exlible variety has been derived 
 from warmer countries, and not from the wild plant of northern 
 Europe, which no modern cultivation has been able to change. 
 It was known to the Romans, and is described by Pliny. It 
 was introduced into England, as a field crop, by Flemish refu 
 gees, towards the end of the 16th century. The varieties are 
 very numerous, being divided into (a,) field, (b,) garden, (c,) 
 red, (dj) white, &c., while the root varies in shape from fusiform 
 to napiform. The most esteemed for field culture are the (e^) 
 White Belgian, (f,) Altringham, (g,) orange, and (kj) long red 
 carrot 
 
 499. The culture of this root for the feeding of stock ha 
 rapidly increased both in America and Europe, during late 
 years: still, with us, it is rare> and grown in small quantities. 
 It requires a peculiar soil, and careful cultivation, and in its early 
 stages is difficult to attend to. At the same time, it is nutritive, 
 and when every thing is suited to it, very heavy crops may be 
 grown. 
 
 Analysis apyears to indicate that 350 to 400 parts of carrots are re 
 quired to replace 100 parts of good meadow h ay in feeding horses ; and 
 this root is much inferior to the equivalent of potatoes, in practice. 
 (Boussinaanlt.) Thaer says that a working horse may be kept in con 
 dition on 70 or 80 Ibs. of carrots, and 8 Ibs. of hay daily. 
 
 500. No ultimate analysis appears to have been made. The 
 organic matter, ash, and nitrogen have been found to vary a 
 follows, calculated dry. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 229 
 
 
 Boussin- 
 
 Voelcker. 
 
 Way. 
 
 Frombcrg. 
 
 
 gault. 
 
 
 
 
 
 and 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Horsferd. 
 
 Root. 
 
 Root. 
 
 Top. 
 
 Hoot. 
 
 Top. 
 
 Organic matter, 
 Asu, 
 
 
 93.710 
 6.290 
 
 935 
 6.50 
 
 813 
 18.7 
 
 9(15 
 9.49 
 
 84.6 
 15.4 
 
 ( 
 
 134 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nitrogen, < 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 3.61 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Water, 
 
 
 88.260 
 
 
 
 
 
 501. Proximate analysis of fresh white Belgian carrot (A,) 
 compared with the fresh parsnip, (B,) grown on same soils : 
 (Voelcker, 1852.) 
 
 A. 
 
 83.260 
 0.59 G 
 
 B. 
 
 82 050 
 1.28Q 
 
 15.738 
 0932 
 
 Water, 
 
 Organic matter, containing nitrogen, 
 
 Organic rcatter, fitted for the support of 
 
 respiration aad formation of fat, 1C.399 
 
 Inorganic substances, - - 0.745 
 
 In round numbers, carrots may be assumed to contain about 
 88 per cent, of water, and 12 per cent, of solid matter. 
 
 502. Proximate analyses of the fresh (A) and dried (B) white 
 Belgian carrots, ( Voelcker,) at 1 12 F. 
 
 Water, 
 
 Cellular fibre, 
 
 Inorganic matters attached to fibre, - 
 
 Sugar, - L - 
 
 Salts soluble in alcohol, 
 
 Gum and pectin, 
 
 Inorganic salts insoluble in alcohol, - 
 
 Soluble casein. 
 
 Insoluble protein compounds, 
 
 Oil, 
 
 Nitrogen, in state of ammoriiacal salts, 
 
 503. Inorganic analysis of the white Belgian carrot (A,) 
 jf Way,) and of the parsnip, (B,) (Richardson.) 
 
 A 
 
 B. 
 
 87.338 
 
 
 
 3471 
 
 27.412 
 
 0.145 
 
 1.145 
 
 6.544 
 
 51.682 
 
 0.409 
 
 3.230 
 
 0.885 
 
 6.989 
 
 0.293 
 
 2.314 
 
 0.498 
 
 3.934 
 
 0.169 
 
 1334 
 
 0.203 
 
 1.604 
 
 0.008 
 
 0.063 
 
230 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 A. R. 
 
 Silica, ... . 1.19 4.10 
 
 Phosphoric acid - 8.55 18.66 
 
 Sulphuric acid, - - 6.55 6.50 
 
 Carbonic acid, - 17.30 
 
 Lime, - 8.83 11.43 
 
 Magnesia, 3.96 9.94 
 
 Peroxide of iron, - - 1.10 
 
 Potash, - - 32.44 36.12 
 
 Soda, - -13.52 3.11 
 
 Chloride of sodium, - 6.50 5.54 
 
 Phosphate of iron, - - - 3.71 
 
 504. Dr. Voelcker {Jour. Royal Agricultural Society of England, Vol. 
 xiii, p. 395,) thus compares the white carrots and parsnips toy ether : 
 1. There is a general resemblance in the composition of both roots. 2. 
 Parsnips contain less sugar than carrots, the deficiency of which is re 
 placed by starch, not occurring m carrots. 3 1 . Carrots con tain an average 
 of 12 per cent, of solid substances, parsnips 18 per cent. Thus parsnips 
 will be found much more nutritious than carrots. 4. The flesh-forming 
 constituent of parsnips is greater than that of carrots. Parsnips are 
 about as rich in albuminous compounds as mangolds. Thus fresh 
 parsnips contain 1.30 per cent, and dry, 7.25 per cent of flesh forming 
 constituents ; the above carrots, fresh, 0612 per c nt, and dry, 5.46 
 per cent, of the same. Parsnips also contain more nitrogen in the form 
 of ammoniacal salts. 5. Parsnips contain a double proportion ot fatty 
 matters. 6. The difference in the relative proportions ot cellular fibre in 
 both roots is very great. The cellular fibre, occurring in carrots, par 
 snips, turnips, mangolds, <fcc., must not be regarded as useless in the 
 animal economy ; for there can be little doubt that the soft and young 
 fibres of these roots are readily converted in the stomach of animals into 
 gum and sugar,, arid applied in the system to feed the respiration, or for 
 the formation of fat. 7. Parsnips possess greater value than white Bel 
 gian carrots as a feeding or fattening material. Parsnips are, indeed 
 very valuable as an article of food ; they are liked by cattle, and highly 
 esteemed by Continental farmers for fattening stock. Moreover they 
 stand the frost better than any other root-crop cultivated in England. 
 
 505. Carrots require greater care in cultivation, than any 
 other plant of the sort. The soil must be light, sandy, rich, and 
 fertile to the depth of at least a foot, to produce good crops. 
 Freedom from weeds is also very essential, as- the young plant 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 231 
 
 is delicate, and at first grows slowly. The ground should be 
 plowed and prepared, as far as possible, in the fall, and the seed 
 sown in spring, as early as the climate will permit : Thaer says, 
 " even before the winter is over, and while the snow remains on 
 the ground," in Prussia. Manure adds much to the yield, but 
 if dung be used, it ought to be well rotted or composted ; or 
 raw manure may be plowed in, in the fall, and compost dragged 
 in, in the spring previous to sowing. In Scotland, it is applied 
 at the rate of 25 tons to the acre, and placed in the drills imme 
 diately below the seed, (Stephens.) 
 
 50G. The seed should be fresh, for if two years old it fre 
 quently fails. From 3 to 6 Ibs. to the acre are required. As 
 it germinates slowly, at the ordinary spring temperature, the fol 
 lowing process is recommended. Enclose the quantity wanted 
 in a bag, and soak in water for 48 hours and this 8 or 9 days 
 before sowing. After soaking, spread the seed about a foot in 
 thickness on the barn floor, and germination will take place in 
 6 or 7 days. When the seed is observed to be " chipped," it 
 should be sown, being previously mixed with fine dry sand, to 
 about 4 pecks to the acre, seed and sand together. By drill is 
 the best mode of sowing, the ground being previously rolled, 
 and rendered very smooth; but it may be sown by hand, rows 
 being previously marked out, and the seed covered with a hoe. 
 Broad-casting would require so much expense in weeding, as to 
 be entirely inapplicable. Seed dealers now prepare carrot seed 
 by rubbing oif the hairs or points ; but where this is not done 
 the seed may be separated by mixing intimately with sand or 
 ashes ; or rubbing forcibly between the hands. The seed should 
 be slightly covered. In wet weather, it will penetrate the 
 ground spontaneously. The rows or drills should be about 20 
 inches, and the plante 6 to 8 inches apart, according to the size 
 of the variety. In such roots, nothing is gained by crowding, 
 as much being lost in size, as is gained in number. 
 
 507. When the carrots show themselves, they should be raked, 
 
232 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 hoed, and thinned ; the hoeing must be repeated at least twice. 
 When sufficiently large, so as not to be injured, the cultivator 
 may be run between them, and the weeds kept down till the 
 leaves cover the ground. 
 
 508. The leaves are of little value for feeding stock, cattle not 
 liking them. Carrots may be dug with an iron fork, or by a 
 blunt plow, as is recommended for parsnips, the tops being cut 
 off. They are not injured by moderate frost, but when severely 
 frozen they are apt to rot as they thaw. On the other hand, 
 when put in large heaps, and kept very warm, they soon fer 
 ment and rot. The safest mode is to place them in layers alter 
 nately with straw, in cellars or heaps, ventillation being allowed 
 till the approach of severe cold, w^hen the heaps must be covered 
 with straw or earth. 
 
 509. The following is the cost of raising a crop of one acre of carrots, 
 at Fredonia, Chantauque county, New York, in 1848, on green sward 
 turned under, rolled down, and harrowed with a fine harrow, and sowed 
 on top of the sod, May 4th. ( Trans, of N. Y. Agricul. Soc y. vol. viii. 
 p. 327.) 
 
 Plowing and harrowin.er 1^ drays, tenm $1.25 
 
 Raking and sowing 10 days @62> cents, ...................................... 6.25 
 
 Hoeing and weeding 16 " " ......... . .......................... 10.0 
 
 do second time 10" " " .................................... .6.25 
 
 Harvesting 33" " " .................................... 20.63 
 
 4 tbs Seed 40 " ..................................... 1.60 
 
 Interest on land, ......................................... 3.50 
 
 S50.ll 
 996 bushels carrcts at 12^ cents, 120.75 
 
 Profit, $70.64 
 
 703^ days of man s labor, and \}<% days of horse labor upon one acie 
 of land. Twelve and a half cents per bushel is apparently a very high 
 price, when the true nutritive value, and the quantity of water con 
 tained are compared with the price of oats, buckwheat, or some other 
 roots.* 
 
 *If Oats are worth 37 > cents per bushel, Carrots are evidently too dear at 12> 
 cents, if the following mode of estimating the value of food is correct. We take equal 
 weights of the two vegetables to be compared and find the equivalent proportions of 
 putriment in each. Thus: 
 
 Oatg 100 ft - - - Carrots 100 lb 
 
 Deduct water, 16 " - - - - 88 " 
 
 Solid* Je# UT" - - - - 22 " 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 233 
 
 510. The Carrot contains in place of starch, as also tho turnip, a varia 
 ble proportion of a gelatinous gummy like substance, to which the name 
 of Pedin has been given. It is a tasteless solid, which swells up and 
 gelatinizes with water. It possesses feeble acul powers, combining with 
 bases to form pcdates. It is represented by the symbol C^; H* ; do. 
 (Solly.) 
 
 511. The average crop in the the United States, with good 
 cultivation, is from six to eight hundred bushels per acre. 
 ( Wiggins.) 
 
 The following crops of Carrots have ben raised by L. Risley, of Frodonia, Chan- 
 tauque Co., New York, allowing 55 Ibs of the fresh roots to the bushel. ( Pal Office 
 Reports 1850, p. 383.) Mr. R. took the Premium of the State Agricultural Society, 
 annually, for 10 years ; so these may be consi.lered above the average : 
 1 acre gave 1590*4 bushels, at a cost of $104.75, or 119>a days labor at 62 >i cent*. 
 
 K " 499 " , 2^.76, 
 
 H " 826Ji " 42.69, 
 
 1 " 966 " " 60.11 or 70}~ " " " 
 
 1 " 231 8 % 51.37 
 
 1 " 951 H " " 46.63 " 
 
 With the exception of the first and fourth, the particulars are not given. The Car 
 rots were sown in drills from 12 to 14 inches apart, and hoed as soon as the young 
 plant could be seen. The plants were left from 2 to 4 indies in the row. In the cost 
 of the first crop, SI 5.00 is charged for manure, and $10,50 for "Improvement of land"; 
 the rest is the actual outlay for labor, and seed without interest. The charge for wa 
 ges is unusually low. 
 
 Ofthis 
 
 Nitrogeneous matter forms 16 per cent, - 13.4 lib I 5 per cent - 1-1 Olb 
 
 Carbonaceous matter " 77 " - 64.68 " 88 " - 19.36 " 
 
 Ash " 3 " - 2.52 " | ) R 
 
 Husk 3 " - 2.52 " 1 < b 
 
 - 1.32 
 
 Now, allowing that a bashel of Carrots weighs twice as much as a bushel of Oats, 
 though 56 Ibs per bushel is the usual estimate, 37>i cents worth of Oats contain over 
 6 times as much nitrogenous matter as 12/2 cents worth of Carrots. 
 I?i " " carbonaceous " " " 
 
 2 " " ash and residue " " " 
 
 but as the nitrogenous matter is by far the most valuable for common food, the Oafs 
 greatly overbalance the Carrots in value in this respect. In another point of view, 
 i. e. the fattening qualities of the two, the dry Oat contains from 5 to 7, 1 s per cent of 
 oil, while the dry Carrot contains only about \Y 2 per cent.; so that in every aspect, 
 except the supplying fresh food, in winter, to the animal, the Carrots appear to be 
 very much overcharged at that price. As has been already mentioned, Boussingault, 
 experimenting on a horne, places the value of Carrots compared with hay as 400 to 
 100; and hny being worth to the farmer for feeding or wool growing (not for sale 
 into cities, in which case other elements of cost enter,) not more than 55 a ton, 
 100 Ibs. of Carrots would be worth about 6 cents or 3 J 4 cents per bushel. Still, in 
 proportion to Oais, this IB too high. We offer this view of the subject for further 
 consideration. 
 
234 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 512. THE BEET belongs to the botanical order of Chenopo- 
 diacece, the Goose-foot family. 
 
 Spinach. (Spinacia olcracea,) and Lainb s-quartcn?, (Chcrwpodiwn 
 album,) belong to the same family. 
 
 The original type of the garden and field-beet, is the Beta 
 maritime^ or sea-beet, a plant indigenous to the sea shore of 
 many pails of Great Britain, especially where an argillaceous 
 formation borders the sea-line ; the root is somewhat fleshy, and 
 the leaves are gathered and eaten. The cultivated varieties are 
 the Beta hortensis or cycla, the Chard Beet, which is cultivated 
 for its leaves alone ; and the Beta vulgaris, which comprises all 
 the red, white, and variegated beets, the root^of which is of chief 
 value, whether used for garden or field culture. Of both these, 
 there are very many varieties in size, color, shape of the root, and 
 mode of growth. The field-beet is generally known by the 
 name Mangel- Wurzel, (German for " Root of Scarcity;") or 
 Mangold- Wurzel, (which literally means, the "Root of the 
 White Beet;") or it is simply, and more usually termed Man 
 gold. Field-beets may be again subdivided into those which 
 are cultivated for the feeding of cattle, and those from which 
 sugar is made, which latter contain more saccharine matter, and 
 are generally white. 
 
 Such sugar is now manufactured on the Continent of Europe, includ 
 ing Russia, to a very great extent; and the quantity is annually in 
 creasing, as Chemistry simplifies and renders cheaper the process. This 
 manufacturing is said to have been lately introduced into Utah. The 
 best varieties of sugar-beets are (a,) the Dlsette, with a white root, skin 
 and leaves, each root weighing from 25 to 34 lbs.;(A,) the Silcsian beet, 
 the sweelest, but smaller; (c,) the Yellow beet, (</,) the Siberian beet. 
 (For a very minute and accurate account of the Beet-sugar manufacto 
 ries of Europe, see Knap p* 8 Chemical Technology. London Ed., 1851, 
 vol. iii., pp. 339416.) 
 
 In 1841, the production of Beet-sugar in Europe was estimated at 
 55,000 tons ; in 1847 at 100,000 tons; in 1850 at 190,000 tons. In 1842 
 Franco produced 40 millions of kilogrammes, (--45,000 tons;) in 1853, 
 80 millions kilogrammes, (=99,000 Ions.) TLis progress has been ow 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 235 
 
 ing to improvements, chiefly domical, each year in the manufacture. 
 (Ann. of Scien. Disc., vol. iv., p. 95.; Silliman s Journal, vol.xvi., N.S., 
 p. 275.) 
 
 513. The Mangold can bo grown successfully for sugar-ex 
 traction at all places between 45 and 56 N. Lat. in Europe. 
 At Tobolsk, in Siberia, this crop is cultivated for food, but the 
 root is supposed to contain a smaller proportion of sugar than 
 than that raised farther south ; judging from the effect of a 
 warm climate on wheat, the nitrogenous matter should like 
 wise be smaller. The Sugar or Silesian Beet is more particu 
 lar as to climate, and consequently does not succeed so well in 
 general cultivation. (Prof. Wilson.) 
 
 514. The root of this plant is not strictly a true root, but 
 a thick fleshy protuberance of the stem, to which the actual 
 roots are attached. The bulbous portion of some kinds of beet 
 is formed below the surface of the earth ; in others, it is above, 
 exposed to "the air; and again, in some it is placed midway be 
 tween earth and air. Most varieties are spindle shaped ; some, 
 long and narrow, like the radish ; others thicker, and more round ; 
 some nearly square, with deep indentations ; and seldom flat 
 tened. The varieties are also distinguished by the leaves, curled 
 or smooth ; light or dark green ; fringed with red ; or entirely 
 red. 
 
 515. If a root is cut across, it will be seen to be composed of 
 concentric zones or layers of fibrous vessels and cellular tissue 
 differing in color more or less according to variety. It will be 
 remarked, that tho leaf-stalks take their origin pretty deeply in 
 the body of the bulb, and there form an extensive region called 
 the heart, characterized by its greenish color and abundance of 
 fibrous vessels ; and, chemically, more analogous to the leafstalk 
 than to the rest of the bulb. The actual bulbous matter is dis 
 tributed in a zone about this heart, extending below it to the 
 point. The exterior, or skin, is composed of a peculiar compact 
 cellular substance, containing mineral and nitrogenous matter; 
 
236 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 immediately beneath which lies the herbaceous tissue, contain 
 ing the coloring matter, an essential oil, and several other pecu 
 liar organic compounds ; then succeed the concentric zones of 
 vascular and cellular tissue. In the cellular tissue is deposited the 
 saccharine matter, the proportion seeming to be greatest in those 
 cells immediately in contact "with the vascular tissue. The 
 germ (where the leaves enter the bulb) contains a large propor 
 tion of the saline matters, but no sugar. The cells contain 
 neither starch, nor crystalline salts, but only a liquid, consisting 
 chiefly of dissolved sugar. The fibrous vessels, on the other 
 hand, contain no sugar, at least those do not which are situated 
 in the heart, but they contain salts in a crystalline form. Some 
 25 or 30 distinct substances are found in this root. 
 
 516. In Great Britain the root is held in high estimation as a 
 fallow-crop, and as food for fattening stock ; and the culture is 
 understood to be increasing. No statistics regarding it in the 
 United States appear to exist. We are inclined to believe that 
 this crop is annually becoming more common in the Atlantic 
 States. 
 
 517. Ultimate analysis of the root, (A;) and leaves, (B;) of 
 the Mangold (Boussmyault.) 
 
 A. B. 
 
 I II. 
 
 Carbon, - - 42.75 42.93 38.1 
 
 Hydrogen, - 5.77 5.94 5.1 
 
 Oxygen, 43.58 43.23 30.8 
 
 Nitrogen, - - - 1.66 1.66 4.5 
 
 Asb, 6.24 6.24 21.5 
 
 The leaves appear to possess a far higher value, both as a feeding, and 
 as a manuring substance, than is usually assigned t them. The pro 
 portions of water were about the same in each ; and the analysis shows 
 that, in a chemical point of view, the leaves were three times ;is valua 
 ble as the same weight of roots would be. (Prof. Wilson.) 
 
 518. Proximate average of several analyses of Mangold. 
 (Knapp.) 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOT. 
 
 237 
 
 Sugar, - - - - 10 
 
 Soluble salts, pectin, certain azotized compounds, ttc., 
 Water, - - - - 83 
 
 Woodv fibre, insoluble salts, albumen, and other azotized com- ? 
 
 J)l )l!l Ills, 5 
 
 100 
 
 519. Proximate analysis of Mangold "Sugar Beet." - 
 (Horsford and KrocTcer.) Boot grown at Giessen : 
 
 Fresh. Try. 
 
 Albuminous matter, 2.04 11.5 
 
 Sugar, - - - 12.26 68.8 
 
 Cellulose and other nitragenous substances, 2.56 14 6 
 
 Mineral substances, - 0.89 5.0 
 Water, - - 82.25 
 
 520. Inorganic analysis of Mangold. ( Way.) 
 
 Top?. Roots. 
 
 Silicn. - - - 1-99 2-57 
 
 Phosphoric acid, - - - 5.15 
 
 Sulphuric acid, - 5.8 3.37 
 
 Caibonic acid, - 6.49 18.32 
 
 Lime, - - 8.65 1.95 
 
 Mngnesin, - - 8- CG 2.11 
 
 Peroxide of iron, - 0-96 0.6 
 
 Potash, - - - 21.26 24.79 
 
 Soda, - - - 7.01 13.75 
 
 Chloride of sodium, - - - 33.96 29.41 
 
 Per centage of ash, - 1.7 0.886 
 
 Payen found 1.11 percent of nitrogen in dry beet, of which one-third 
 teas due to the albumen. Horsford, obtained from beet-root, which 
 lost in drying 82 1 4 per cent of water, 1.8 per cent of nitrogen. Under 
 the very probable supposition that all these nitrogenous substances are 
 of an alhurninous nature, these nnmbers would correspond with 11.54 
 per cent of albuminous matters, or 6.16 per cent of the amount of sugar. 
 ( Knapp~) 
 
 As will be noticed above, Chloride of Sodium (common salt) enters 
 largely into the composition of the Mangold. Prof. Way gives the fol 
 lowing comparative table of the quantity of salt yielded by one ton of 
 each of these plants : 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 Roots. Tops. 
 
 Mangold WurtzcLs, - - 5.29 - - 12.82 per cent. 
 
 Carrots, - 1.40 . 11.25 " 
 
 Turnips, . - 1.49 . . 6.15 
 
 521. The average quantity of nutritious matter afforded by 
 a crop of Mangolds of 20 tons, or 45,000 Ibs. per acre, consists 
 of 900 Ibs. of busk or woody fibre ; 4,950 Ibs. of starch, sugar, <fec ; 
 900 Ibs. of gluten, &c; and 450 Ibs. of saline matter, or ash. 
 No oil or fatty matter has yet been detected in an appreciable 
 quantity. (Johnston.) 
 
 522. This crop prospers on much heavier soils than either 
 turnips or carrots ; but a light clay soil, containing a fair pro 
 portion of humus, and rendered rich by manures, is the best. 
 Moisture, especially in the beginning of the season, is very ne 
 cessary, in order to develop its full size and good qualities. An 
 excess of moisture is very rapidly absorbed by beet roots. 
 
 523. In France, it is a common practice to sow the seed in a 
 feeed-bed, and afterwards transplant. In England, the soil is 
 plowed twice in the fall, laid up dry in the winter, manured 
 and plowed again in the spring. With us one plowing is 
 generally considered all that is required. Depth and friability 
 are necessary in order to procure large crops, and the sub-soil 
 plow may be used to great advantage. The land must be thor 
 oughly harrowed, and the seed drilled at the rate of 3 or 4 Ibs. 
 per acre, not more than one inch in depth, and from 12-14 to 
 24 inches apart. Sowing may take place as early as frosts will 
 permit. The seed should be steeped from 12 to 24 hours 
 in water, to cause rapid germination ; though if the soil and 
 season are very dry, this may prove injurious. The subsequent 
 cultivation consists of hoeing, and usinjr the cultivator, keeping 
 the earth fresh and perfectly clean. When well up, the plants 
 must be thinned. Many leave the plants too close to each oth 
 er, which interferes with growth, hoeing, and cleaning. If plant 
 ed 2 feet apart, there will be a produce on the acre of 10,890 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 239 
 
 plants; that is both two feet apart, lengthways and breadth 
 ways. 
 
 According to Boussingault, the culture of a hectare (2.471 acres,) of 
 sugar-beet, requires, in France, the labor of a man for 113 days, and of a 
 horse for 35 days ; but much of this labor might probably be saved by a 
 better svstera of management and improved implements. 
 
 524. The peculiar organization of this root requires great care 
 to be exercised in harvesting the crop, as the slightest injury to 
 it is sure to be followed by a tendency to decay when it is stored. 
 At the same time, it keeps well to a late period of summer if 
 carefully stored without injury by frost, or rain, or mechanical 
 causes. The beets which grow above the ground are best gath 
 ered with the hand ; kinds that grow underground require to be 
 loosened by running a plow along the drill. The tops are then 
 carefully cut off, without injuring the heart. In Alsace, it is the 
 custom to take away the leaves, and trim the roots upon the 
 ground, the refuse, which is a valuable manure, being plowed in 
 immediately. Or the leaves may be fed to cattle, though they 
 are said not to be very fond of them. Fine weather should 
 be selected for the operation, and especial care must be taken to 
 preserve the roots from wet and frost. It is desirable that they 
 should be exposed on the ground, for three or four days before 
 they are stored away, in order that they may lose as much of 
 their moisture as possible. 
 
 525. Various modes of preserving them are used, such as (a) 
 storing in pits dug in the ground, 4 to 5 feet deep, and covering 
 with straw, and a thick layer of earth. To insure ventillation, 
 narrow ditches or gutters are made in the soil under the heap, 
 and chimnies are formed by inserting stakes to be afterwards 
 withdrawn. Or (b) the roots are piled between two rows of hur 
 dles, set up at 6 or 8 feet apart, and then built up from the top 
 of the hurdles in a long pyramidal form. A second row of hur 
 dles is then set all round, at a distance of 9 inches from the oth 
 er, and the space between the two filled with loose straw well 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 pressed down. A good thatch is laid over the centre. In our 
 Northern States, the most economical plan, when this crop is to 
 bo regularly cultivated, would probably be the preparation of 
 root houses, or cellars under barns on hill sides. 
 
 526. The crop varies very much according to soil, manure, 
 and cultivation. In France, the average maximum is about 278 
 cwts. per acre; the minimum 67 cwte. per acre. Boussingault 
 gives, for the same country : 
 
 Tons. Cwts. Qrs. Ibs. 
 
 Pas cle Calais, - 12 9 1 19 
 
 Department of the North, - 12 1U 2 25 
 Department of Cher, - 15 1 39 
 
 or an average for the whole country of 10 tons, 9 cwt, 1 qur. 
 13 Ibs. per acre. In England as high as 39 tons, 13 cwts. per 
 acre have been procured, by not applying manure directly to the 
 crop ; but 20 tons are considered a good average on soils yield 
 ing 5 quarters (46 American bushels,) of wheat to the acre. 
 Wiggins gives the yield, in Delaware, of the Silician Sugar 
 Beet at 800 bushels per acre, but a premium crop was grown 
 in Monroe County, New York, of 1,489 bushels per acre, of 50 
 Ibs. per bushel (~37J American or 33 English Tons,) at a to 
 tal cost, including manure, of about $22,00. (Trans, of N. Y. 
 Agricul. Soc y. vol viii. p. 328. 
 
 527. Cattle are readily fattened on this root. Late experi 
 ments in Scotland have proved Mangolds to be as profitable for 
 this purpose as any other food that can be given. Steers weigh 
 ing 935 Ibs. live weight, consumed 120 Ibs. of Mangolds per 
 day, divided into three feeds, and 7 Ibs. of straw besides. In 
 100 days each animal gained 161 Ibs. (Trans, of High, and 
 Agricul. Socy. of Scotland 1&53.) 
 
 528. Manures act very variably upon this root. Ammoniacal 
 manures increase the size and yield, but injure the sugar, while 
 organic manures add to the sugar, but the crop is smaller. Gu- 
 ario is beneficial if the roots are intended for feed. Common 
 salt is specifically beneficial, and should be applied in moderate 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 241 
 
 quantities under nearly all circumstances. It appears to be best 
 to apply barn-yard manures to the previous crop. 
 
 An instance is given where an application of 3 c\vt. of salt to 
 the acre increased the crop from 26 to 40 tons. 
 
 The Beet at all stages of its growth, including the period of its flow- 
 ering, exhibits the same relative proportions of water and solid ingredi 
 ents ; consequently half grown and full grown bulbs, flowering and not 
 flowering plants, leave very nearly the same amount of dry residue. 
 With the period of bearing seed, this residue rapidly diminishes in quan 
 tity. But the separate constituents vary in proportion. Thus, the Su 
 gar gradually increases with the growth, attains a maximum at a certain 
 period before ripening, when it again diminishes, and disappears with 
 the formation of seed. 
 
 529. In England this root is frequently sold at l (=:$4.88) 
 per ton, but the real value to the farmer for feeding, is estima 
 ted at about one half, or $2.00. In this country, where meat 
 brings a lower price, the value is of course less. The improve 
 ment of the land, when properly cultivated, ought, however, to 
 be estimated as a profit 
 
 530: c No peculiar diseases or insects appear to injure this crop 
 in the United States. In Europe, there are several of both, 
 and of late in France it has suffered from a Rot similar to that 
 of the Potato. 
 
 531. A. sort of beer is sometimes made of it, at a low cost. 
 
 A good vinegar may also be procured by grating the root, 
 expressing the juice into a barrel, and allowing it to undergo fer 
 mentation in a warm place. Six gallons have been made from 
 a bushel of the root of the Sugar-beet A cider-mill might be 
 used for the purpose. 
 
 As this root is the raw material of an extensive manufacture, which demands great 
 scientific skill, its culture and peculiarities have leen thorougly studied ; and more, 
 probably, has been written upon it than almost any other vegetable product whatever 
 except wheat. In these pages, we have only been able to give a compressed abstract, 
 and therefore refer the reader to the following works among many others. Thaer 
 Principles of Agriculture ; Johnston s Agricul. Chemist.; Journ. of Royal Agricul. 
 Socy. of England, vol. xiii.; Pat. Off. Reports 1849 ; British Farmers Magazine vols. 
 xxii, xxiii.: Knapp s Technology vol. iii; Journal d Agriculture pratique, Tomevii. 
 Low s practical Agriculture , Stephen s Farmer s Guide ; Wiggiu s American Far 
 mer, &c , &c. 
 
 16 
 
CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 SWEET POTATOES., (Convolvulus Batatas.) MUS 
 TARD, (Sinapis nigra and alba.) HOPS, 
 (H umulus L up u I u s . ) 
 
 532. The Sweet Potato, belongs to the order Convolvulacece, 
 the Convolvulus or Bindweed family, of which the common 
 Morning Glory of the gardens ( C. purpureus,) may be men 
 tioned as a type. The Yams of South America, and the medi 
 cine Jalap are also of the same genus. The Sweet Potato is 
 biennial, growing with a large, long shaped bulb at the root. 
 
 533. As an agricultural plant, it may be considered as pro 
 perly belonging to warm climates, but can be cultivated pro 
 fitably, on suitable soils, as far north as Michigan. In JS ew 
 Jersey, large quantities are annually grown ; but in all the nor 
 thern States, the plant rapidly degenerates, and must be replac 
 ed by fresh bulbs from the South. In the southern States, this 
 plant takes the place of the common potato, and is used not 
 only for man s food, but for cattle, hogs, &c. It is there raised 
 with great ease, and returns from 200 or 300 to 1500 bushels 
 per acre, according to soil and climate. (Patent Office Reports, 
 1845, pp. 452, 4:53.) In this present article we shall confine 
 ourselves to its culture in the North. 
 
 534. The only analysis of this root with which we are ac 
 quainted is one made in the West Indies, ( 0. Henry.) 
 Starch, - 133 
 Albumen, . 9 
 Sugar, - - 
 
 Cellular matter, - - - - 68 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 243 
 
 Fixed oil, - 11 
 
 Malic acid and salts, 1 4 
 
 Water, - 732 
 
 1,000 
 
 535. This plant requires a sandy, rather light, deep, and well 
 stirred soil, which must be located on a dry subsoil ; and the 
 whole either naturally rich in organic matter, or rendered so by 
 manuring. Stiff clay does not suit it Slips or sprouts, from 
 the previous year s tubers, are used for planting, and these are 
 prepared in either of the following manners, (a.) In a bed of 
 earth, make a box with planks set edgewise, and fill in about a 
 foot in depth of good warm horse-stable manure, over which 
 spread two inches of fine rich earth ; on this lay the potatoes 
 so near as to almost touch each other, and cover them from 2 to 
 2^ inches deep with the same earth. If the nights are cold, this 
 bed must be carefully covered with straw, or some other warm 
 covering, which is to be removed during the day. There is a 
 danger in making the bed too warm, and so spoiling the roots. 
 They must be kept tolerably wet after the sprouts appear: when 
 these are 3 inches long, they are fit to set out. (b,) Dig a hole 
 a foot deep, the size of the space required, and fill in with ma 
 nure from the horse-stable, sufficient to make a good hot-bed. 
 It should be raised 10 or 12 inches above the surface of the 
 ground, and the top of the bed should be sand and loam. Place 
 the potatoes in rows, about 6 inches apart, and cover them to 
 the depth of 2-.J- or 3 inches. Afterwards proceed as above. 
 
 536. The ground should be plowed very deep, and thrown 
 up in ridges or hills ; if the latter, such as common potato hills, 
 after they have been hoed. This should be done immediately 
 before planting, so that the soil may be moist and fresh. Set 
 two plants in a hill, 2 or 3 inches apart, and make the top of 
 tha hill sufficiently hollow to hold a pint of water. If there is 
 
244 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 no rain, watering in the evening is requisite for a few days. If 
 in ridges plant the slips 8 or 10 inches apart. When the weed 1 * 
 begin to appear dig or plow between the rows, clean round the 
 plants with a hoe, and draw a little dirt round thorn. When 
 plowed the last time about the last of July hill them up. 
 If the vines have grown across the furrows, turn them carefully 
 back, and afterwards replace them. No earth should be allow 
 ed to fall upon the vines ; and if they root, they should be pulled 
 up, otherwise small and worthless potatoes will be produced at 
 each root, and the main ones will be inferior in size. They 
 should be dug as soon as the frosts kill the vines. 
 
 537. There is great difficulty in the north, in preserving 
 these tubers from decay during winter. The best mode appears 
 to be placing them in moderately sized boxes, and keeping them, 
 iu a room sufficiently heated to prevent frost, at an equal tem 
 perature; allowing them, however, to "sweat" before packing 
 them away. (See Patent Office Report, 1846, pp. 450-457, 
 Trans, of N. Y. Agricultural Society, Vol. viii, p. 426.) 
 
 538. MUSTARD. (Sinapit nigra, and alia.) This plant is 
 very rarely cultivated in the United States, except on a small 
 scale; mcst of the mustard consumed in this country being im 
 ported from England, where the manufacture is confined to a 
 very few localities. There are or were mustard manufactories in 
 Philadelphia and New York, but the seed was chiefly imported 
 from Holland and Germany. The Black mustard is preferred 
 for this purpose, but becomes a very troublesome weed when 
 cultivated. Of late years, the White mustard has been sown 
 in rich soils in England for sheep feed during summer, for which 
 purpose it is found to be profitable, but in the United State** 
 both the climate and the Turnip Flea are injurious to it. This* 
 species cannot become a weed, as it is killed by a very slight 
 frost. It is occasionally used medicinally; and in Europe oil 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 245 
 
 is extracted from it at the rate of 36 Ibs. of the white, and 18 Ibs. 
 of the black species from 100 Ibs. of seed. (For a very complete 
 account of this plant see Patent Office Report, 1845, pp. 312, 
 397, 959-966 ; compared with Ib. 1848, p. 160.) 
 
 539. THE HOP is a native of the United States ( Gray,) ; but 
 the cultivated varieties, of which there are many, are believed to 
 have been introduced from England, in which country it is like 
 wise indigenous. 
 
 540. The only uses to which it is usually put are in medicine 
 and the imparting a bitter principle to malt liquors ; and in the 
 United States the chief field of cultivation has been New York. 
 It was introduced into England from Flanders in the reign of 
 Henry VIII, A. D. 1509-1547; and in that country it is grown 
 chiefly in the counties of Kent and Sussex. The quantity pro 
 duced in New York in 1840, was less than half a million pounds ; 
 in 1850, 2,500,000 Ibs, which exceeds five-sevenths of the whole 
 crop of the United States. 
 
 New York also stands foremost in the production of alp, beer, and 
 porter. The breweries of the State produced in 1850, 645,000 barrels 
 of ale, <fec., being more than a third of the quantity returned for the 
 whole Union. (Census Repon Dec. 1, 1852, p. 75.) 
 
 541. The hop is a perennial, the stems dying each winter, 
 and being reproduced. The male and female flowers are on 
 different plants, the latter only being of use; but a few male 
 plants are generally grown among the others. The flower is 
 the part used ; the active principle, a waxy yellow powder, call 
 ed Lupulin, being produced under the scales of the strobiles. 
 
 542 The following analysis of the Lupulinic grains, and of 
 the scales, are copied from Pereiras Elements of Materia 
 Medica. 
 
246 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 Lupulimc grains. 
 
 Scales. 
 
 PAYKN, CIIEVALLIKR, and PELLKTAN. 
 
 IVKS. 
 
 TAYEN, &c. 
 
 Volatile oil, - . 2.0<> 
 
 Tannin, 
 
 - 4.1 
 
 Astringent matter. 
 
 Bitter principle, (Lupulite,) - 10.30 
 Resin, - - - 50 to 55.01 
 
 Extractive, - 8.33 
 Hitter principle9.1( ; 
 
 Inert coloring do 
 Chlorophylle. 
 
 Lilian, - - - 32.X) 
 
 Wjix, - 
 
 - 10.01 
 
 Gum. 
 
 Fatty, astringent, pummv matters, ) 
 
 Resin, - - 
 
 30.01 
 
 Ugnfe. 
 
 o/mazome, malic and carl>onu; | 
 
 Lignin, - 
 
 - 38.33 
 
 Potash, lime, and 
 
 acid, ninlnte of lime, acetate of S traces. 
 
 
 
 ammonia \v i t h 
 
 ammonia, chloride ot potath, ] 
 
 
 
 acetic, hydroch 
 
 sulphate of potash, c., - J 
 
 
 
 loric, sulphuric, 
 
 
 
 
 nitric, &c. Acids. 
 
 
 
 
 Lupuliuic matter. 
 
 99.30 
 
 
 lOt .OO 
 
 
 543. Inorganic analysis of the Hop (A;) and Leaves (B;) 
 and Bind or Stem (C ;) of the Hop Plant. (Nesbit.) 
 
 The 21bs. of Hops, dried at a steam heat, lost 3 z. of moisture, leav 
 ing 1 Ib. 13 oz. of dry hops. These furnished 1282 grains of ashes, or 
 nine-tenth per cent. 9% oz. of leaves, dried, lost 1}^ of moisture, 
 leaving 8}.^ oz. of leaves. These left 572 grains of ashes, or 16} -3 per 
 cent. 1 Ib. 2j^o oz. of the Bind, dried, lost 1% oz. of moisture, and left 
 1 Ib. 0^ oz.of dry Bind. These gave 353 grains of ashes, nearly 5 per 
 cent. 
 
 
 A | B | G 
 
 Silica, ... 
 
 2150 
 
 12.14 
 
 6.07 
 
 Cloride of Sodium, 
 
 7.24 
 
 9.49 6.47 
 
 Chloride of Potassium, - 
 
 1.67 
 
 
 
 9.64 
 
 Soda. 
 
 
 
 0.39 
 
 
 
 Potash, .... 
 
 2518 
 
 14.95 
 
 2435 
 
 Lime, ... 
 
 1598 
 
 4967 
 
 38.73 
 
 ^Magnesia, 
 
 5.77 
 
 2.39 
 
 4.10 
 
 Sulphuric acid, - 
 Phosphoric acid, ... 
 
 5.41 i 5.<M 
 9.801 2.42 
 
 3.44 
 6.80 
 
 Phosphate of iron, 
 Percentage of ash, (dried) 
 
 7451 3.51 
 9.87! 13.06 
 
 0.40 
 3.74 
 
 544. Amount of inorganic matter removed from the soil by 
 an acre of Farnham Hops. (Nesbit.) 
 
 The number of hills to an acre varies in different localities. In some 
 places 1000, in others 1260, in other 1440 hills to the acre. The following 
 is estimated from actual analysis of 4 hills, at the rate of 1000 per acre. 
 (NitbU) 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 247 
 
 1500 Ibs. Hops] I46>i Ibs. Leave*|239 Ibs. BindlTotal Plant 
 
 ft) OZ. Ib OZ. Ib OZ. Ib OZ. 
 
 Silica, - 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 9V6 
 
 12 4V 
 
 Chloride of Sodicum, 
 
 3 
 
 3# 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 5 7>5 
 
 f^l 1 "1 f t> t- <i t 
 
 o 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 1 11 
 
 SnAm 
 
 
 
 
 fll 
 
 
 n i 
 
 Potash, 
 
 11 
 
 3^ 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 2 6 il6 3K 
 
 Lime, 
 
 7 
 
 1H 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 3 13 
 
 19 8M 
 
 Magnesia, 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 6)4 
 
 3 5>< 
 
 Sulphuric acid, 
 
 2 
 
 6% 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 o 514 
 
 3 10 
 
 Phosphoric acid, 
 Phosphate of iron, 
 
 4 
 3 
 
 6 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 10 
 
 9i 
 
 0% 
 
 5 6>^ 
 3 15%- 
 
 Total. 
 
 44 
 
 8 
 
 17 
 
 6 | 9 11^(71 9> 
 
 545. There are several varieties, of which the Farnham, the 
 Golding, the Yellow Grape, are considered the best. 
 
 These are found to differ much in the proportion of their in 
 organic constituents, and consequently the above analyses must 
 only be considered as an approximation as regards the species, 
 while it is accurate as regards one variety. (See Stephen s Far 
 mer s Guide, vol. , p. 45, 320J 
 
 546. Tho soil peculiarly adapted to this plant is a rich, deep, 
 rather adhesive clay, with abundance of organic matter, or veg 
 etable mould ; and a porous rocky subsoil. A dry subsoil is 
 considered essential. The variety grown, and the quality of the 
 produce depend entirely upon the character of the soil ; and the 
 peculiarities from these causes are almost as numerous as they 
 are in wine-culture. In England, large quantities of valuable 
 manure are expended on hops ; such as bones, woollen rags, &c. 
 The following, for the inorganic portion, may be given as a sam 
 ple : (Journal of Royal Agricul. Society, 1846, part I.) 
 
 Guano, 
 
 Common Salt, 
 Saltpetre, (or 
 Silicate of Potash,) 
 Plaster, (gypsum,) 
 Superphosphate of lime, 
 Pearlash, 
 
 I. 
 3 cwt. 
 
 II. 
 
 : 
 
 > per acre. 
 
248 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 It may be laid down as a principle, that the more richly hope 
 are manured, the better will be the quality and yield. 
 
 547. The culture of this plant, the picking, drying, packing, <tc., de 
 mand a great outlay of labor, much skill, and more experience; and it 
 would be useless to attempt to teach the practical mampulatior.s in our 
 limited space. We must therefore refer the reader anxious to know 
 more of the subject to other works, and recommend those who wish to 
 to cultivate the hop to visit a plantation, and thus acquire on the spot 
 the necessary knowledge. 
 
 548. Hops are planted in hills; and long poles are driven 
 in for the bind to climb on. They do not come to full bearing 
 till the third season after planting, and will yield profitably from 
 12 to 20 years. In the United States in a good season, each 
 hill will average 2 Ibs. of hops ready for market ; but more fre 
 quently the produce is below that. Appropriate buildings and 
 kilns are necessary for drying, as well as peculiar baskets, cloths, 
 bags, &c. The price is subject to very great and sudden varia 
 tions; and the grower must have a large number of workmen 
 at his command, as the crop, when ready for picking will not 
 permit delay without serious injury. (For a very complete ac 
 count of hop culture in the United States, see Wiggins Amer 
 ican Farmer, and Trans, of N. Y. Agricultural Society, Vol. 
 iv, p. 447, &c.) 
 
 549. Cost of cultivating 2 acres of hop<< at Morrisville, ^ T . Y. ( Tram, 
 of N. Y. Agricultural Society, 1845, p. 497.) The soil was a mixture of 
 dark loam and gravel, well adapted for grass. Jt was well plowed 
 and manured with 40 loads of barn yard manure per acre, and planted 
 with hops and corn. The next season the account strod as follows : 
 
 41 loads of manure put in hills, - $30.00 
 
 Rise of poles, - - - 45.00 
 
 Labor of cultivating, ... 40.00 
 
 Interest on land, - - 14 00 
 
 Harvesting and bagging, ... 87,50 
 
 $216.50 
 Produce of 2 acres, 2500 Ibs. at 12> cents, 312.50 
 
 Net profits, - * $96.00 
 
CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 ONIONS, PUMPKINS, TOBACCO, CASTOR-OIL BEAN, 
 LIQUORICE, UNCOMMON PLANTS. 
 
 550. THE ONION (Allium Cepa,) though usually ranked 
 among roots (bulbous roots) is in reality a bud, formed at or 
 underneath the ground, and whose scales are thick and fleshy. 
 It is a biennial. 
 
 There are several species known in garden culture as Garlic, (AUivm 
 Sativum); Rucambo .e,(A.Scorodoprasum); Chive, (A.Schoenoprasum );* 
 Leek, (A. Porrum); Shallot, (A. Ascaloniwn); and several varieties of 
 the first (A. Cepa}, as the Top onion (A. Viviparum,} bearing perfect 
 bulbs or buds in place of seed ; the Potato onion, producing by the for 
 mation of young bulbs on the parent root, an ample crop below the 
 ground ; red, white, yellow onions, &c., &c. There are five species 
 indigenous to the northern United States, (Gray,) which sometimes 
 become very troublesome weeds in pastures, in consequence of being 
 eaten by cows, and flavoring the milk. The medical plant Squills be 
 longs to the same family. 
 
 551. The native country of this esculent is unknown, but it 
 has been cultivated from a very remote antiquity ; as we find 
 it in its different species the common food of the Egyptians 
 in the time of the Pharaohs, before the Exodus of the Israelites. 
 It is now cultivated in all parts of the world. In Hindoostan it 
 is considered sacred, and not eaten. In Europe, the Portugal 
 onions are the finest. In the United States, the field culture of 
 the onion is chiefly confined to limited districts of Connecticut, 
 Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and New York, certain towns 
 
 Found growing wild on Lake Superior, by Prof. Agassiz. Also a native of th 
 Alps, to the height of 7000 feet. (Agamii L. Superior, p. 166.) 
 
250 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 being celebrated for the quantity of good onions which they 
 produce and export. What are not required for home con 
 sumption are sent chiefly to the West Indies and South Amer 
 ica. The census takes no notice of this plant. From 1835 to 
 1845, 30,000 to 40,000 bushels and from 1850 to 1853 from 
 125,000 to 150,000 bushels a year were raised in the town 
 of Dauvers, Massachusetts, alone ; and though, to the farmer it 
 is rather an insignificant product, yet it employs many men and 
 women in its culture, and adds largely to the comfort of the 
 small cultivators of New England. Its moral effect is beneficial, 
 as it teaches the value of manure, of clean, neat cultivation, and 
 steady industry ; and it is said that onion-growing districts are 
 always remarkable for their prosperity, economy, and intelli 
 gence. 
 
 552. Onions do not appear to have been accurately analysed. 
 They owe their peculiar odor and flavor, as well as their pun 
 gent and stimulating qualities, to an acrid volatile oil which 
 contains sulphur. When eaten, the oil becomes absorbed, 
 quickens the circulation and occasions thirst. According to 
 Fourcroy, Vauquelin and Le Grange, the following is the com 
 position : 
 
 Acid volatile oil, 
 
 Unorystaliizable sugar, 
 
 Gum, 
 
 Vegetable albumen, 
 
 Starch, 
 
 Woody fibre, 
 
 Acetic and phosphoric acids, 
 
 Phosphate and carbonate of lime, 
 
 Sulphur, Water. 
 
 The nourishing quality probably depends on some unknown 
 property of the oil, or an alkaline base, resembling creatine in 
 meat ; and may be classed with such sustaining substances as 
 chocolate, opium, &c., of the principle of which we are yet to 
 tally ignorant. The ashes contain alkaline and earthy salts. 
 This plant is used medicinally as a local irritant both internally 
 and externally; as an expectorant, diuretic, and anthelmintic. 
 Garlic is the most active of the family in its properties. 
 
 553. The soil should be mellow, dry and rich : it need not, 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 251 
 
 necessarily be deep. A rich sand, sandy loam, or gravelly loam, 
 when well manured will answer. Onions do not appear to ex 
 haust the soil, and may be grown for many years in succession 
 without deteriorating. The following is the mode of culture 
 pursued in Danvers, Mass, (D. Buxton, Jun., in Farmer s Com 
 panion and Horticultural Gazette, Vol. ii, p. 86 ; iii, No. 3.) 
 
 Such land is selected as would give a good crop of corn ; wet 
 land will answer if the seed can be got in by the first of May. 
 It must have been plowed from the sod at least three years, un 
 less a crop of carrots was raised the second year. Land may 
 be rich and well manured, and yet not bear onions the first year 
 of planting; afterwards the crops will be good as long as the 
 land is kept well manured. Six or seven cords of good barn 
 yard manure per acre are sufficient. Salt mud and " mussel- 
 bed " are valuable for a change. Ashes, particularly on new 
 land, are beneficial. The land is plowed shallow, rendered fine, 
 and rolled as early in spring as the climate will permit, and the 
 seed is sown in drills 10 or 12 inches apart by a machine made 
 for the purpose. With it, a man can sow two acres a day, and 
 drop the seed thick or thin. New land requires 3 Ibs., old land 
 2 Ibs. of seed per acre ; the young plants being more likely to 
 live on old than on new land. Weeding is performed with a 
 wh eel-hoe (which costs about $1,) two or three times before the 
 plants are large. A man can weed 1|- acres per day. The rest 
 of the weeding is chiefly done by boys, and the expence de 
 pends on the management of the land the first year or two ; it 
 being of the utmost importance not to allow any weed to go to 
 seed. The crop must be kept perfectly clean. When the stalks 
 shrivel, and fall spontaneously, the bulbs have ceased to grow, 
 and should then be pulled up and laid on the ground for some 
 days to dry. If the weather is moist they must be turned. 
 After this they must be spread in the barn till thoroughly dried, 
 and then wove into ropes, or the stalks cut off before putting in 
 barn, and the onions, when dry, packed in barrels. 
 
252 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 554. In selecting onions for seed, take the largest and those 
 which ripen the earliest, as by so doing the crops will ripen in 
 warm weather. If no care is taken, onions will soon run out, 
 ripening late, and growing with large stiff necks in October. In 
 Massachusetts they should be harvested and dried by the first 
 of August, 
 
 555. The average crop at Danvcrs is about 450 bushels per 
 acre, though GOO or 7 00 are not uncommon, and occasionally 
 1000 ; the wholesale price from 40 to 50 cents per bushel. An 
 instance is given in the Albany Cultivator, where 1209^ bush 
 els of carrots, and 630 bushels of onions were raised off the same 
 acre. 
 
 556. In Russia, the Potato Onion is cut into 4 parts, leaving 
 the quarters hanging together at the root, the onions having 
 first been hung up and dried in the smoke. Smoking, however, 
 is not necessary. The quarters thus united are planted, and 
 produce 4 fine onions. This course has been successfully pur 
 sued for thirty years, resulting in abundant crops. (Pat. Office 
 Report, 1847, p. 188.) 
 
 557. In Vermont, New Hampshire, and north Massachusetts, 
 a maggot has, of late years, proved very destructive to this plant. 
 It is the young of the Onion Fly, (Anthomyia Ceparum,) 
 which lives in the roots and causes them to perish. It appears 
 to be the same insect that destroys the onion in Europe, and 
 has probably been imported. It lays its eggs on the leaves of 
 the onion, close to the earth, so that the maggots, when hatched, 
 readily make their way to the heart of the onion. They come 
 to their growth in about two weeks, turn to pupse within the 
 onions, and come out as flies a fortnight afterwards. It is said 
 that the onion crop may be preserved from the attacks of this 
 fly by sowing the seed on ground upon which a quantity of 
 straw has been previously burned. (Harris 1 Treatise on In 
 sects, p. 494.) In Scotland, the evil is remedied by dusting 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 253 
 
 the soil with dry coal soot once a fortnight. (London Garden* 
 er s Chronicle, May 26, 1853.) 
 
 553. Besides this, onions appear to be free from tire attacks of insecta 
 and disease. It sometimes happens that many of the plants grow with 
 thick stems and small bulba. Those may be left in the ground during 
 the winter. Many of them will stand the frost, and in the spring they 
 may be taken up and set in a bed where they will grow to be good 
 onions. 
 
 559. THE PUMPKIN", (Cucurlita Pepo,) is the only plant of 
 this family usually cultivated iis afield crop; though in many 
 parts of the United States, the other genera might be grown in 
 the same manner with facility. 
 
 The Cucumber, (Cucumis sativns) ; the Musk Melon, (O. Melo) ; thtf 
 Watr Melon, (G. Citrullu*} , the Round Squash, (Cucurbiia Melopepo)} 
 the Long Squash, (G 7 . verrucosa); the Orange Gourd, (G. aurantia); 
 and the Vegetable Marrow, (C. ovifcra); the Bottle Gourd, (Lagenaria 
 wtlyarinYt the Balsam Apple, (Momordica Bafsamir>a). belong to the 
 game family. Thero are two species indigenous to the northern United 
 States. The One-seeded Star Cucumber. (Sicyot angnlatus) ; and the 
 Wild Balsam Apple, (Echinocystislobuta,) (Gray) The varieties of this 
 family are exceedingly numerous, and they hybridize with great facility, 
 even among different genera, as the cucumber and pumpkin, <te. The 
 Pumpkins and Squashes aie natives of America, and were unknown in 
 Europe previous to the time of Columbus. The early voyagers found 
 thorn in common use among the Indians through the whole extent of 
 country from Florida to Canada, and probably far to the west. Melons 
 arid Gourds are derived from Southern Asia. Persia has long been 
 famous for the former. (Dr. Harris in the Trans, of the Amer.Asso. 
 of Science.) In medicine, Colocynth, (CttCMKU Colocyntlius), and 
 Squirting Cucumber, (Momordico elatcriiim,) belong to this family. 
 
 560. Although this plant is so so generally cultivated, and 
 enters so largely into the winter food of animals and men 
 throughout the Western States, and notwithstanding that it haa 
 acquired a national importance in New England, ve:y little in 
 formation has been collected regarding it, and we are unable to 
 meet with an analysis of it. Cucumbers and melons have been 
 more fortunate, and we skill quote these as presenting a family 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 resemblance. The pumpkin probably owes its chief value to tho 
 sugar and starch which the flesh contains, and the oil in which 
 the seeds are rich. For fattening, the latter appear to be chiefly 
 of value. This plant probably contains a less per centage of 
 water, than any of the rest of the family; but that per centage 
 must still be large. There is a sweet variety, cultivated in gar 
 dens, which promises to be more profitable as food than the 
 common sorts, though it does not usually grow to as great a 
 size, and we recommend its adoption in the field. 
 
 561. The per centage of water, dry malter and ash, in the 
 Musk Melon, (A,) and Water Melon, (B,) (Salisbury.) 
 
 Per centage of -water, - . 90.987 94898 
 
 do dry matter, . - 9013 5.103 
 
 do ash, - - . 0.271 0248 
 
 do ash in dry matter, - - 3.007 4.861 
 
 36,900 Ibs of Musk Melon?, and 40,322 Ibs. of Water Melons contain 
 each 100 Ibs of inorganic matter or ash, as follows : 
 
 100 Ibs. ash of 100 llis. nsh of 
 
 Musk Melon. Water Melon. 
 
 Carbonic acid, - 1155 11.42 
 
 Silicic acid, ... 2.20 1.21 
 
 Phosphoric acid, ;>5.40 1493 
 
 Sulphuric acid, - -3.90 1.G3 
 
 Phosphate of iron, 230 4.52 
 
 Lime, .... 5 ^5 7 33 
 
 Magnesia, - 0.60 1.31 
 
 Potash, - - -835 23.95 
 
 Soda, - - - 34.35 30.63 
 
 Chlorine, - - - 5.20 1.81 
 
 (See Trans, of Amer.Assoc. 1851, pp. 195, 221.) 
 
 562. Composition of the Green Cucumber, (John.) The 
 peeled fruit (A,) the fresh peel, (B.) 
 
 A. B. 
 
 Sanr and extractive, 166 Solid matter, similar to 
 
 Chlorophylle, 0.04 that of the pealed fruit , 
 
 Liguin with phosphate of lime, 0.53 but containing much [ 
 Mucas, with phosphoric acid^ 
 
 ammonical salt, rnalate, phos- | 
 
 phate, sulphate, and muriate } 0.50 
 
 of potash, phosphate of lime | 
 
 and iron, J 
 
 Water, 97.14 
 
 J 
 Water, 85 
 
** 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 255 
 
 563. The pumpkin is generally grown in connection with 
 corn, occasionally with potatoes; and rarely or never alone. 
 Two or three seeds are planted with the corn in the hill or row, 
 and thinned out to one afterwards, the plants being left from 6 
 to 8 feet apart. No further care is requisite except to gather 
 and store before frosts occur. 
 
 564. The usual yield is probably from 3 to 4 tons per acre; 
 but there are instances on record of 7 tons per acre among corn, 
 and 15 tons per acre among potatoes. (Patent Office Reports, 
 1844, p. 144; 1847, p. 188.) 
 
 565. There is great difficulty in preserving this fruit during 
 winter ; as, in consequence of the quantity of water it contains, 
 frost readily destroys it; and even without frost, rot will occur 
 wherever the skin is bruised. The best mode is to pack upon 
 a tier of rails laid on the ground, under a warm shed, with straw 
 between each tier of pumpkins ; and before severe frost occurs, 
 cover thoroughly in all directions with a heavy covering of straw. 
 This latter must be deferred as long as possible, in order to al 
 low the superfluous moisture to escape. 
 
 566. It has been recommended to grow the Vegetable Mar 
 row in the same manner, to feed hogs and other animals. This 
 is a very hardy and productive species, but whether it has any 
 advantages above the pumpkin, in an agricultural point of view, 
 has not been tested. An instance is mentioned where 20 tons 
 had been produced on an acre. 
 
 567. For fattening hogs, these fruits are supposed to be more 
 nutritive if boiled. For ruminant animals, living on dry food, 
 they are probably preferable in their natural state. Pumpkins 
 increase the yield and richness, and improve the color of milk. 
 
 568. The young plants are apt to be destroyed by the Cut 
 worms, and Cucumber Beetle, ( Galeruca vittata;) and there 
 fore more seed should be planted than is required. Many rem 
 edies have been proposed for the injury caused by this Beetle. 
 
260 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 The cheapest and most effective is the dusting the leaves with 
 common plaster ; or with boiled plaster (such as is used by ma 
 sons) mixed with spirits of turpentine, and dried. This appli 
 cation must be repeated after rain until the rough leaf is well 
 grown. Occavsionally, this insect, and another much larger spe 
 cies injure the fruit when ripe by burrowing into it to a conoider- 
 nble depth. The only remedy is harvesting as rapidly as possi 
 ble. In some localities the Cucumber Flea Beetle (flaltica 
 pubescens.) is also injurious to the young plants. 
 
 569. TOBACCO, (Nicotiana Tabacum) belongs to the Sola- 
 naceoe, or Nightshade family, and is nearly connected with the 
 Jamestown Weed (Datura Stramonium) and Henbane (Hyos- 
 c.yamus niger,) well known weeds and medical poisons. One 
 species, Wild Tobacco, ( N. rwtica) is found indigenous to the 
 Northern States. There are several other species, (N. repanda, 
 Persica, Glutinosa, Macrophilla, Ac.) the first of which forms 
 the best Havanna cigars ; and the second, " the delicate and fra 
 grant tobacco of Shiraz ;" besides many varieties. It is a native 
 of America; and was found by Columbus to be in common use 
 among the Indians in 1492. It was introduced into France in 
 1559, and into England in 1586. It is now cultivated in moat 
 parts of the world, except Great Britain where its culture is pro 
 hibited by law; but the tobacco of Cuba, Virginia, Maryland, 
 Kentucky, and Connecticut is the most celebrated. No plant, 
 perhaps, more readily adapts itself to greater differences in 
 climate, or none, except the grape, changes more in its composi 
 tion and economical value. At the same time it is remarkable 
 for the injurious and impoverishing effect that it produces upon 
 the soil. The tobacco of Michigan is said, so far, to have proved 
 inferior in flavor and strength; while a valuable article is 
 brought to market from Western Canada. 
 
 In three or four years, the tobacco grown in Germany from American 
 seed, acquires an aroma perfectly distinct from that of fine tobacco, and 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 257 
 
 this it retains pertinaciously. Too rapid and luxuriant growth spoils 
 the flavor of the leaf, which on the contrary is heightened by pruning. 
 
 570. The Virginians began to cultivate this plant very early, 
 following the Indian mode. In 1611, it was first grown by the 
 use of the spade, and shortly increased to so great an extent as 
 almost to preclude the sowing of grain. Before the Revolution 
 merchantable tobacco was a legal tender in which taxes and 
 ministers salaries were paid, and it almost became the currency 
 of the colony. At present the culture in the United States ap 
 pears to be on the decline. In 1840, the total produce of this 
 country was 219,163,319 Ibs; in 1850, 199,752,646 Ibs, show 
 ing a decrease of 19,410,673 Ibs. 
 
 The chief tobacco producing States in 1850 were: 
 
 Virginia, 56,803,218 Ibs. 
 
 Kentucky, 55,501,196 " 
 
 sky, 
 ind, 
 
 Maryland, 21,407,497 
 
 Tennessee, 20,148,932 
 
 North Carolina, 11,984,786 Ibs. 
 
 Ohio, 10,454,449 " 
 Connecticut, 1.267,624 " 
 
 Indiana. 1,044,620 
 
 Missouri, 17,113,784 
 
 No other State gives one million of pounds ; Michigan re 
 turns only 1,245 Ibs.; while Maine, Vermont, Rhode Island, 
 Delaware, and Minnesota produce none.* The principal va 
 rieties cultivated in the United States, are the Virginian ; Large- 
 leaved; Dwarf; Cuba; Common Green; Summerville; Light 
 Burley, &c. 
 
 571. Proximate analysis of the fresh leaves of Tobacco. 
 (Posselt and Reinmann. 1827.) 
 
 Nicoiina, 0.06 
 
 Nicotiapin, 0.01 
 
 Bitter extractive, 2.87 
 
 Gum with malate of lime, 1.74 
 
 Chlorophylle, 0.267 
 
 Albumen and gluten, 1,308 
 
 Malic acid, 0.51 
 
 Lignin and a trace of starch 4 969 
 Salts, 0.734 
 
 Silica, 0088 
 
 Water, 88 280 
 
 *From 1800 to Ib39 the whole quantity of tobacco exported from the United States, 
 annually, was about 82,000 hogshead?. The Western States, during this period, never 
 exported, on an average, over 35,000 hogsheads. In 1840, the West exported 40,000 , 
 in 1841, 54,600; in 1842, 68,000; in 1843, 89,800; and in 1844, 81,200 hogsheads . 
 This last was nearly as much as the consumption of Europe then demanded. From 
 18 000 to 20,000 hogsheads of Virginia tobacco wr consumed at home. Above 
 75,000 hogshiads were supposed to be raised in other countries than the United 
 States. 
 
 17 
 
258 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 572. Inorganic analyses of eight specimens of Hungarian 
 tobacco-leaf. ( Will and Fresenius.) 
 
 Mean of 4 analyses. Mean of 4 analyses. 
 
 Potash, - 26.46 - - 12.14 
 
 Soda, - 0.56 - 0.07 
 
 Lime, - 27.87 - - 4590 
 
 Magnesia, - 9.72 13.09 
 
 Chloride of sodium, - 6.91 - 3.49 
 
 Chloride of potassium, - 2.21 3.98 
 
 Phosphate of iron, 7.09 5.48 
 
 Phosphate of lime, - 1.49 
 
 Sulphate of lime, 7.14 - 635 
 
 Silica, - - 12.13 8.01 
 
 Percentage of ash, - 21.28 - - 23.68 
 (See, for particulars, Knapp s Chemical Technology, Vol. iii, p. 149, 
 and Johnston s Agricultural Chem. last Ed.} 
 
 Among the constituents of the tobacco leaf, Nicotine is the most char 
 acteristic. This is a volatile vegetable alkaloid (Cio H 16 N 2 ) belonging to 
 a class of nitrogenous organic substances which are, for the most part, 
 gifted with a very energetic and remarkable action on the animal sys 
 tem. Pure nicotine is a colorless oily liquid with a slight smell of 
 tobacco, which, when the liquid is heated, or mixed with ammonia, be 
 comes very intense and biting ; it has also a sharp irritating taste, a few 
 drops acting as a poison on small animals. This substance, which gives 
 value to tobacco, does not exist in a state of nature, but is a product of 
 fermentation. The/res/t leaves possess very little or no smell. When 
 thev are distilled with water, a weak ammoniacal liquid is obtained, 
 upon which a fatty crystallizable substance swims, which does not con 
 tain nitrogen and is quite destitute of smell. But when the same plant, 
 after being dried, is moistened with water, tied together in small bun 
 dles, and placed in heaps, a peculiar process of decomposition takes 
 place. Fermentation commences, and is accompanied by the absorp 
 tion of oxygon, the leaves become warm, and emit the characteristic 
 s nell of prepared tobacco. When the fermentation is carefully promoted* 
 this smell increases; and after the fermentation is completed an oily 
 azotised volatile matter, called nicotine, is found in the leaves. This 
 substance was not present before the fermentation. The different kinds 
 of tobacco are distinguished by having very different odorifereus sub 
 stances, which are generated along with nicotine. (Liebig Ag. Chem.} 
 This fermentation begins during the harvesting, or even before, but is 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 259 
 
 stopped by the process of drying. The quantity of ircotine in the fresh. 
 leaves has been estimated at r ; in commercial leaves at to " 
 
 lOt OO IOWA) 
 
 It varies according to the locality m which the plant is grown, rendering 
 it stronger or weaker, as follows ; (Schlosing .} 
 
 Per eentopre in the dry leave?. 
 Department Elsas, (France,) 3.12 
 
 Virginia, 6^7 
 
 Kentucky, G.iig 
 
 Per centaye in the dry leaves 
 
 Department Lo r , (France,) 
 
 Lot-Garoime, " 7.34 
 
 Nord. 6.5K. 
 
 Ille Vilaine, " 6.29| vtai-yland, 2 "9 
 
 Channel of Calais, " 4.91 JHavanna, less than . 
 
 Besides Nicotine, tobacco contains albumen, and a gluten-like substance, 
 gum, resin, malic, and citric acid. 
 
 It has been discovered by the "Tobacco Administration" in Pans, 
 that the valim of tobacco btands in a certain relation to the quantity of 
 potash contained in tlwj ashes. Another striking fact wasalso disclosed. 
 Certain celebrated kinds of American tobacco were found gradually to 
 yield a smaller quantity of ashes, and their value diminished in thesame 
 proportion. ( Liebig Agricui. CJicm.) The large quantity of ammonia, 
 of lime, and the alkalujs required by this plant is the cause of its so rap 
 idly impoverishing the soil, while it supplies no material for the produc 
 tion of manure. The mode of cultivation, also, exposing the soil to the 
 evaporating effect of the hot sun undoubtedly adds to the evil. In rich 
 loams, where the solution of the minerals of the soil is rapid, and whera 
 10 to 20 per cent of vegetable matter is incorporated in the earth, to 
 bacco rmy be obtained for many years, but it is always an exhausting 
 crop. It has been stated, that a crop of tob icco removes, in less than 
 three months 470 Ibs. of mineral matter from one acre of land, without 
 estim.iting the silica. The important mineral ul*:ances presented in 
 H iva ma tobacao, were in 100 parts ashes: (#<?rf*0, in Licbitfs Anna- 
 len, April 1843.) 
 
 S ilts of Po ash, - 31 J.^attsof Lime, - =, ?q 
 
 Magnesia, - 4.09 Phosphates, . 904 
 
 "The total quantity of tobacco retained for English consumption in 
 1843, was nearly 17,000,000 Ibs. North America alone produces up 
 wards of 200,000,000. The combustion of this mass of vegetable mat 
 ter would yield abo it 340 000,000 Ibs. of carbonic acid gas ; so that the 
 yearly increase of carbonic acid gas from tobacco smoke alone cannot 
 be less than 1,000,000 Ibs ; a large contribution to the annual demand 
 for this gas made upon the atmosphere for the vegetation of the world." 
 
 573. The manure for this crop should be such as can rapidly 
 and readily supply ammonia; for instance, guano, n 
 
260 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 hog s dung, well rotted sheep and cow stable manure, <fec. In 
 Europe, malt-dust, and rape-cake, either powdered or dissolved 
 in urine are highly prized. The manure and urine of horses 
 are objectionable as giving a bad taste to the tobacco. ( Gol- 
 marfs Europ. Agricul. ii. 548.J 
 
 All the ingredients necessary to replace the ash of 100 Ibs. of 
 tobacco leaves, are present in the following mixture : (John 
 ston.) 
 
 Bone dust, 15 Ibs. j Carbonate oi Soda, (dry) 5 Ibs. 
 
 Sulphuric acid, - 8 " Carbonate of Magnesia, 25 
 
 Carbonate of Potash, (dry) 31 " | Caibonate of lime, (chalk) 60 
 
 The leaf appears to have the power of replacing a deficiency 
 of potash in the soil with lime ; while, as was before shown, the 
 soil and climate produce a great difference in the proportion of 
 the inorganic constituents, 
 
 574. The best soil for this plant is a light sandy loam ; or a 
 light soil rich in organic matter, having a portion of sand mixed 
 with it. Clay soils are not adapted for it. New or fresh land 
 is better than old ; and pretty steep hill-sides, if light and rich, 
 are better for the production of fine tobacco, than level land. 
 
 575. The following is the mode of culture pursued in Con 
 necticut and New York ; and in the West, north of the Ohio 
 river, (a,) A " seed-bed" is prepared as early in April as pos 
 sible, for which the richest and best land, moist but not wet, is 
 chosen. It is manured, dug deeply, pulverized, and rendered 
 fine and smooth ; and the seed sown broad-cast, at the rate of 
 one table-spoonful to the square rod, before the earth becomes 
 dry. After this it is raked, but thfe seed is not buried ; it is 
 rolled, or a man treads it in, rendering the surface of the bed as 
 haru as possible. Weeds must be carefully extirpated. When 
 the plants have leaves two or three inches long they are fit for 
 transplanting about the beginning of June, (b,) The field 
 intended to be planted should be well manured, and plowed at 
 least twice ; harrowed, and rolled, and left as smooth as possible. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 261 
 
 The rows are marked out, 3 feet> or 3 feet 4 inches, according 
 to the variety grown ; arid on these rows small hills are formed 
 fjr the reception of the plant, at 2 feet, or 2^- feet apart. To 
 make fine tobacco it is important to plant early, so that the leaves 
 may be cured when the weather is warm and dry. If it rains 
 at the time of setting out, advantage is taken to plant as many 
 a-s possible. If not, about half a pint of water is poured into each 
 hill, and the plants immediately set.* After this, the field is 
 examined several times, and where plants are dead, or injured by 
 the worm, others are set in. (c,) As soon as they stand well, 
 they are either carefully hoed and the vacant places filled with 
 new plants, or the cultivator is merely passed between the rows. 
 After this the plants are kept clean with cultivator and hoe, be 
 ing hoed three or four times without hilling. The plants are 
 frequently and thoroughly examined for the tobacco worms ; and 
 they must be destroyed, or the crop will be greatly injured. 
 (dj) When in blossom, and before the formation of the seed, the 
 plants are topped about 32 inches from the ground, leaving from 
 16 to 20 leaves on each stalk. If there are late plants, in con 
 sequence of re-setting, break them low, and they will grow faster 
 and ripen sooner. All suckers must be broken off. (e,) When 
 ripe, the time of cutting the leaf is spotted, thick, and will 
 crack when pressed between thumb and finger. It may be cut 
 any time in the day after the dew is off; left in the row till wil 
 ted ; then turned ; and if there is a hot sun, it is turned often 
 to prevent burning. After being wilted, it is put into small 
 heaps of 6 or 8 plants, and carted to the sheds for hanging. 
 Here it is hung with cotton twine on poles 12 feet long, and 
 about 20 plants on each side. It must hang until the stem of 
 
 *It may be useful to mention that all young plants, either in garden or field, may 
 be transplanted with great certainty of success by forming a deep hole with a round 
 stick an inch in diameter; insert the root in the centre of this hole, holding the plant 
 with the left hand ; pour in water till it overflows ; and immediately fill it up with 
 fine earth dribbled in with the right hand. Even cucumbers and melons may be safe 
 ly transplanted by this method. 
 
262 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 the leaf is thoroughly cured to tlie stalk from 6 to 10 weeks. 
 It is then taken down, in a damp day (to prevent the leaves from 
 crumbling,) and placed in large piles by letting the tops of the 
 plants lap each other, leaving the butts of the plants out. It re 
 mains in these heaps from 3 to 10 days, before it is stripped, 
 depending on the state of the weather, bat must not be allowed 
 to heat. When stripped, it is made into, or tied in 3 small 
 " hands," the small and broken leaves being kept by themselves. 
 When fit for market, it is collected in large quantities,andslightly 
 pressed in boxes containing about 400 Ibs. each. 
 
 1 O 
 
 576. In some places in the South, it is the custom to dry the 
 leaf by fires, a process which requires much care and experience ; 
 and a peculiar class of buildings or sheds. The seed-bed is also,, 
 at times, burned or charred before the seed is sown ; a process 
 which, in certain soils only, enriches the soil by setting free the 
 inorganic nourishment ; adds ashes, from the fuel consumed ; and 
 destroys the seeds of weeds, but also much of the organic mat 
 ter of the soil. 
 
 577. In Kentucky and Indiana, and some other districts, hogsheads 
 are used for packing. The hogshead should be 4% feet long, and 3} 
 broad in the head, with a bulge only sufficient ;ohold the hoops. Such 
 a cask should hold, without too hard pressing, which is injurious, 1300 
 or 1400 Ibs. of net tobacco. The cask should weigh 150 or 160 Ibs. 
 Ash timber is the best for the purpose. 
 
 578. The crop varies from 1000 to 2000 Ibs. of dry leaf to- 
 the acre, according to the variety, closeness of planting, and soil. 
 An average crop of 2700 Ibs. has been grown on several acres. 
 In France the crop is stated to be 4000 Ibs. ( Col-man.) 
 
 579. The following was the cost of cultivating one acre in Massachu 
 setts in 1845 : 
 
 Interst on land, $15.00 
 
 10 carts of manure. @ $2.50 25.00 J , fi w 
 
 Carting and spreading, 5.00 j u " 
 
 Plowing twice, - 3.PO 
 
 Harrowing nnd marking, - - - 1-00 
 
 Si"Ven thousand tobacco plants, - . 3.50 
 
 Holding and setting, - 3-0* 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 263 
 
 Hoeing 4 times, - - 5.00 
 
 Securing and killing worms, 
 
 Topping and securing, 
 
 Cutting and hanging to dry, 
 
 Shipping and packing, 5.00 
 
 Rent of drjf ing shed, 4 .00 
 
 Freight, - 300 
 
 $67.50 
 Produce 2000 Ibs. @ 8 cents, 160.00 
 
 Net profit, $92.50 
 
 580. The chief disease which affects the tobacco leaf is the 
 " spot" or " firing," believed to be owing to rot. It appears when 
 there is too much rain ; and is more liable to occur on sandy 
 soils, than on those that are " stiff, red and thirsty." We sus 
 pect that it is owing to too rapid an absorption of some material 
 from the soil, during wet weather; and that it resembles the 
 " curl" of the Peach-tree leaf under similar circumstances. The 
 practical cure is said to be deep plowing between the rows as 
 soon as it appears. A careful analysis of the leaf would proba 
 bly show a change in the proportion of some inorganic constitu 
 ents. 
 
 581. The only insects usually liable to injure this plant, are a 
 Cut- worm, and the Tobacco- worm ; the latter follows this crop 
 wherever it is cultivated. Dr. Harris does appear to mention it. 
 The worms attack the plant twice in a season, first when the 
 latter are one third or one half grown, and again when the to 
 bacco is ready for cutting. The most effectual remedy is gath 
 ering them by hand and killing them ; but Turkeys are found 
 of givat assistance in destroying these insects : they eat, and kill 
 thousands which they do not eat. The first brood may be rea 
 dily destroyed by Turkeis, but when the second one appears 
 the tobacco is generally so large that Turkies do but little good. 
 (See Farmer s Library for 1848, for a full account of this 
 Insect.) 
 
 582. To save the seed, allow a few of the strongest plants to 
 produce their flowers. Each plant will ripen, in September, as 
 
264 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 much seed as may be necessary for stocking half a dozen 
 acres. 
 
 (For further information on this extensive subject the reader is referred 
 to the various works on practical agriculture ; the Patent Office Reports, 
 especially the vols. for 1846, pp. 740-754, and 1849, pp. 318-326, con 
 taining a Prize Essay, by W. W. W. Borne of Maryland, and for the 
 manufacture, to Knapp s Technology, vol. iii.) 
 
 583. THE CASTOR OIL PLANT, PALMA CHRISTI, (Ritinus 
 communis,) belongs to the JEuphorbiacea, or Spurge family ; 
 a family which contains the Croton Bean, and many other med 
 ical plants. 
 
 It is a native of India, but has been known from the earliest antiqui 
 ty, seeds of it having been found in some Egyptian Sarcophagi, and it 
 was used by the Gieeks. It is naturally a perennial, attaining the height 
 of 15 or 20 feet, with a thick stem ; but in cold climates it becomes an 
 annual, not more than 3 to 6 feet high. There are many instances of 
 perennial plants becoming annuals by change of climate, as is the case 
 with the common English daisey when transplanted to, or grown from 
 seed in India. There are 5 distinct varieties or species, differing chiefly 
 in the color and pruinous condition of the stem, and the quantity of oil 
 yielded by the seed. 
 
 584. This plant is cultivated to some extent in Indiana, Illi 
 nois, Georgia, and other States enjoying a like temperature. 
 The only useful part is the seed, or " bean, from which an oil 
 is expressed, to be used in medicine ; for the manufacture of 
 hair-oil by barbers ; for machinery ; and for burning. In its com 
 mon state, the odor and taste are exceedingly disagreeable, but 
 these can be eradicated by refining. The American oil is of 
 very fine quality, and has a less unpleasant flavor than the East 
 Indian ; but it is often objected to by Druggists in consequence 
 of its depositing a solid fat in cold weather. (Pereira.) 
 
 585. No analysis of any value to the Farmer has been pub 
 lished. 
 
 586. A good crop will yield 35 bushels of beans per acre, and 
 the oil will be from 25 to 60 per cent according to the goodness 
 of the seed and manufacture. The cultivation is similar to that 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 265 
 
 of corn. The beans from which the oil has been expressed are 
 said to form a valuable manure. They appear to contain a large 
 amount of nitrogenous matter ; and the stems, roots. &c. can be 
 plowed in again. 
 
 587. LIQUORICE, ( Glycyrrhiza glabra.) This, also, is a med 
 ical plant, with a local agricultural importance, and it might be 
 still further profitably introduced into the United States as one 
 of the minor products of the soil. It is a native of, and cultiva 
 ted in the South of Europe, but prospers in England. Our an 
 nual import of it is said to exceed $250,000, and the demand 
 is constantly increasing. The root, (the only useful part,) has 
 recently been employed in France for the manufacture of paper. 
 It was introduced into Georgia arid the Carolinas at an early 
 day, but the great attention now paid to Cotton has caused it 
 to be neglected. It is a perennial, with long tap-roots extend 
 ing very deep into the ground, and creeping to a considerable 
 distance. 
 
 588. The soil should be a moist, loose, sandy loam; or dilu 
 vial of river-bottoms. If not rich, it must be manured with well 
 rotted dung, ashes &c. It should be subsoiled or trenched 3 
 or 4 feet deep ; and if sufficiently rich, thrown into three and a 
 half foot beds, including the alleys, in the centres of which the 
 sets are planted early in March, 1 8 inches apart. If the ground 
 is not sufficiently rich, trenches must be dug throughout the 
 field, 3^ feet apart, from centre to centre, and 3 or 4 feet deep. 
 When one trench is dug, it must be filled with earth from the 
 next, well incorporated with compost, and alleys made 7 or 8 
 inches wide, mid-way between the trenches, the earth being 
 spread over them, so as to form raised beds throughout the 
 plantation. 
 
 589. The "sets" being procured, and cut into five or six inch 
 pieces, dibble holes along the centres of the beds, 1 8 inches apart, 
 and 8 inches deep, into which thrust a piece of root, and cover 
 
266 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 it up. The after culture, for that season, consists in keeping the 
 beds perfectly free from weeds, by the hoe. In the tall, when 
 the stems are decaying, they are cut down, and a light dressing 
 of rotten manure is spread on the surface. Early the following 
 Spring, dig lightly between the rows, taking care not to injure 
 the roots. During the second and third summers, the only la 
 bor is hoeing to kill the weeds. 
 
 590. At the end of three years the roots are fit for harvesting ; 
 which is done when the stalks are fully decayed. Begin by 
 digging at one end of the rows, and so take up all the roots. 
 When they are collected, the small side shoots are trimmed off, 
 and preserved in dry sand in a cellar for fresh "sets"; and the 
 large roots are prepared for sale. They are offered in three 
 shapes the entire root the same dried and ground to powder 
 and the inspissated juice. The sooner liquorice is sold the 
 heavier it weighs ; and the greener it is the more virtue it con 
 tains. An acre has sometimes produced 4000 to 5000 Ibs. of 
 roots, valued at $400 to $500. (Jour, of the U. S. Ayricul, 
 Socy. July 1853, p. 53.) 
 
 591 . There are various other plants which have been recommended 
 for cultivation in the United States, which have not yet been introduced 
 to any extent, such as (a,) Madia Saliva, grown in Germany for its oil ; 
 (b,}3fyagrum Sativa, Gold of Pleasure, also cultivated in Europe for oil ; 
 and in England for Sheep-feed and oil, as it may be pastured early and 
 yield a good crop of seed afterwards. It is perfectly hardy in the neigh 
 borhood of Detroit, beaiing the coldest weather, and being among the 
 first flowers in Spring to blossom. In the South of Europe it gives two 
 crops in a season. (See Patent Office Report 1846, page 314 ; Thaw s 
 Princ.ofAgricul.ii.5%8. (<,) The Bene Plant, (Sesamum Orientale,) 
 cultivated in South Carolina and Georgia for its oil, which is as good 
 as that of the Olive for table use; andthe leaf is employed as a cure for sum 
 mer diarrhoaain children. (d,~) Madder, (RubiaTinctorum,} and (e,) Indi 
 go, used in dyeing, the former remaining 2 or 3 years in the ground be 
 fore harvesting : both of these require a warm climate. (/,) Dyer s 
 Weld (Reseda Luteola,} grown in Germany as a dye ; the cultivation is 
 represented as both easy and profitable, (g,} Dyer s Woad, (Isatistinc- 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 26? 
 
 ioria.) the seed of \vbich,with that of Weld, has lately been distributed 
 by ^he Patent Office. The leaves are the part used. There are others of a 
 similar character ; but in general they require too much time and labor 
 to perfect, or the demand is too limited to attract general attention. 
 
 (For a full account of the culture of Afadder, Woarfand Weld, in Fian- 
 ders, see Colrnan s European Agr iadtu re, vol. ii. pp. 550-552.) 
 
CHAPTER XX. 
 
 TEASEL. FLAX. HEMP. BROOM CORN. 
 OZIER WILLOW. 
 
 592. TEASEL (Dipsacus Fullonum,) is a native of Europe, 
 and is used by the manufacturers of woollen cloth to raise a nap 
 on the surface, by means of the fine and elastic hooks with 
 which the seed pod is armed. There is a native American 
 species (D. sylvestris,) devoid of these hooks, and therefore 
 useless. 
 
 593. It was not till about 1820 tbat this plant was introduced int^ 
 field culture in the United States. It is now grown in parts of New- 
 York and New England, in sufficient quantities to supply the demand. 
 The first raised in this country sold for $10 per thousand ; as late as 
 1835, they were imported at a cost of $4 or $5 per thousand; from 1845 
 to 1850, they were afforded as low as 75 cents to $1 per thousand. The 
 demand for them necessarily increases with the number of woollen man- 
 ufacturies , and as these are met with in most of our Western States, 
 this plant could probably be grown with sufficient facility and profit, 
 on a limited scale, to make it worth the attention of Western farmers, 
 for home use. 
 
 594. Having a tap-root, the teasel requires a deep rich soil. 
 A strong, gravelly loam produces the best and most serviceable 
 heads ; and sward-land plowed deep, and well turned under in 
 April is preferred. After plowing, the soil is pulverized and 
 made smooth and even. The land is marked out in rows 3 or 
 3^- feet apart, or a drill is used, and the seed sown at the rate of 
 6 quarts to the acre, and lightly covered. This should be done 
 early in May. In about a month, the field is thoroughly weed 
 ed with the hoe and fingers, and the plants thinned out to a dis 
 tance of from 4 to 6 inches. After this, a cultivator is used 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 260 
 
 between the rows, and the earth drawn lightly around the plants 
 with a hoe, thinning them to a distance of 6 to 8 inches. Dur 
 ing the rest of the season, the weeds must be kept down, and 
 the earth preserved mellow by the cultivator and hoe. Early 
 the next spring the cultivator is again used, and earth drawn 
 around the roots with the hoe. In July, the blossoms will ap 
 pear; and about the first of August the earliest are sufficiently 
 ripe for cutting. This is done as soon as the blossom is entirely 
 off the "bur," and before the seed is fully matured. It is necessary 
 to go through the field two or three times to collect them all at 
 the proper age, to prevent any being injured by remaining on 
 the stem while others are being matured. Cutting is performed 
 with a large knife, held by the workman in one hand, while he 
 seizes the teasel with the other, leaving from 3 to 6 inches of 
 stalk, and throwing it into a basket. An experienced work 
 man will cut from 20,000 to 25,000 in a day, if the crop is a 
 good one. When taken from the field, they are carefully spread, 
 6 inches deep, on open floors, in an airy place, under cover. If 
 the weather is damp, they must be frequently turned. When 
 sufficiently dry, which is known by the seed seperating freely 
 in moving, they are stored away, or packed in boxes for market. 
 The yield is from 50,000 to 200,000 per acre, worth from 75 
 cents to$2 per thousand. In Europe, they are sorted according to 
 quality, each quality being known by a peculiar name, and they 
 are bound up in a curious manner. 
 
 595. The only insect injurious to this plant is "the common 
 white grub" which feeds on the young roots ; in some instances 
 to such an extent as to destroy a whole crop. The winter, also, 
 occasionally makes great destruction ; the plants being partially or 
 entirely killed [in Oneida county, N. Y.,] by an open winter, 
 accompanied by severe frost. Late frosts in Spring are like 
 wise injurious. A sort of "rust" is also destructive, caused by 
 a long continuance of warm, wet weather, after the flower bud 
 is fully formed. (Patent Office Report, 1850, p. S15.) 
 
270 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 596. The use of teasels has been, to a considerable extent, 
 superseded in the United States, within a few years, by the in 
 troduction of machinery to produce the same effect. (Allen.) 
 
 597. To procure seed, it is only necessary to leave a few of 
 the strongest plants, till they are quite ripe, dry them well, aucl 
 thrash with a flail. 
 
 598. FLAX (Linumusitatlssimwn) is a native of Europe but 
 has long been cultivated in this country. There aietwo indigen 
 ous species in the Northern United States, (L. Virginianum, 
 and rigidum,) of no economical value. Two species or varie 
 ties are cultivated, the common, and one with a yellowish seed, 
 lately introduced into Ohio, which is said to yield a larger crop, 
 and to be in many respects superior. We have seen the seed, 
 but not the plant. 
 
 599. The census returns of flax are stated to be incorrect, and not to 
 be depended on ; but there is reason to believe that its cultivation is 
 rather decreasing tban otherwise, in consequence of the difficulty of 
 preparing the fibre for market ; and the seed alone not proving suffi 
 ciently remunerative. 
 
 600. Inorganic analysis of the entire plant of the flax grown 
 in Ireland* (Sir R. Kane.) 
 
 Potash, 11.78 
 
 Sorta, 1182 
 
 Lime, - - 14.85 
 
 Magnesia, 9.38 
 
 Alumina and oxide of iron, - 7.3Q 
 
 Phosphoric icid, - - - 1305 
 
 Sulphuric acid, 3.19 
 
 Chlorine, 2 90 
 
 Silica, - 2571 
 
 Percentage of ash, dry, 500 
 
 601. Inorganic analysis of Linseed. (Johnston.) 
 
 Risrn. Dutch. 
 
 Potash, - - 25.85 17.59 30.01 
 
 Soda, 0.71 6.92 1.88 
 
 Lime, - 25.27 6.46 8.12 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 271 
 
 Riga. Dutch. 
 
 Magnesia, - 0.22 14.83 14.52 
 
 Oxide of iron, - 3.67 125 068 
 
 Phosphoric acid, 40.11 36.42 37.64 
 
 Sulphuric acid, - 2.47 216 
 
 Sulphate of lime, 1.70 
 
 Chlorine, 0.17 0.29 
 
 Chloride of sodium, - 1.55 
 
 Silica, 0.92 10.58 560 
 
 Percentage of ash, 4,63 
 
 602. Inorganic analysis of English (A;) and American (B,) 
 Linseed cake. (Johnston.) 
 
 A. B. 
 
 Alkaline salts, - - 32.72 38.28 
 
 Phosphates of lime and magnesia, - 49.44 56.40 
 
 Lime, - - 5.06 1.25 
 
 Magnesia, 1.57 trace. 
 
 Silica and sand, 11.21 4.07 
 
 Percentage of ash, - - 7.3 6.04 
 
 The alkaline phosphates are included among the alkaline salts. 
 
 603. When the Flax plant is steeped in the ordinary way of 
 preparing it for the flax-mill, much of the saline matter it con 
 tains is extracted by the water. This water, when evaporated 
 (in Ireland) left a dry solid extract, which being burned gave 
 42 per cent of ash, of which the composition was: (Sir R* 
 Kane.) 
 
 Chloiide of Potassiam, - 9.05 
 
 Sulphate of potash, - - -10.48 
 
 Carbonate of potash, - - 9,05 
 
 Carbonate of sodn, - - 31 43 
 
 Phosphate of iron and alumina, 7.62 
 
 Phosphate of lime, - 5.00 
 
 Carbonate of magnesia, 4.76 
 
 Carbonate of lime, ... 9 5^ 
 
 Silica, - 13.09 
 
 The saline matter is not by any means all removed by steeping 
 Both the outside portion taken off at the flax-mill, and the pure fibre 
 leave when burned a considerable proportion of ash. 
 
272 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 604. Ultimate analysis of Linseed. (Thompson.) 
 
 Fresh. Dried at 212 5 F. 
 
 Carbon, 42.51 49.55 
 
 Hydrogen, 6.22 7 26 
 
 Nitrogen, 3.78 4.41 
 
 Oxygen, 05.35 306 8 
 
 Ash, 6.94 8.10 
 
 Water, . 1 i.20 
 
 605. We are unable to meet with a perfect organic analysis 
 of either the plant or seed, but the following results of 44 
 analyses by Way, Nesbit, and Lawes, of English, American 
 and Dutch Linseed, will give an idea of the composition : 
 Water, 7.6 to 12.4 percent, 
 Organic matter, 81.0 to 84.1 " 
 Ash, 5.44 to 11.40 
 Nitrogen, - - 4.57 to 5.28 " 
 Albumen, gluten, and casein, 22.2 " 
 Fat or oil, - 9.1 to 13.5 " 
 Gum, dextrine, &c., - 36.3 to 39.1 " 
 Fibre and Husk, 9.5 to 12.7 " 
 
 606. The following recipes are given as special manures to 
 return to the soil what is carried of by the seed (A ;) and stem 
 (B,) of Flax. (Johnston.) 
 
 A. B. 
 
 Bone dust, . 144 Ibs, 50 Ibs. 
 
 Sulphuric acid, 72 " 25 " 
 
 Carbonate of potash (dry,) - 36 " 17 " 
 
 Carbonate of soda, (dry,) 6 " 20 " 
 
 Carbonate of magnesia, - 22 " 21 " 
 
 280 Ibs. 133 Ibs. 
 
 Linseed leaves (on an average) 6 1-2 per cent of ash, so that for every 
 100 Ibs. of linseed harvested, 13 Ibs. of the above mixture require to be 
 added to the land. The dry stem leaves 5 per cent of ash ; every ton 
 therefore carries off the land 112 Ibs. of inorganic matter, to replace 
 which 150 Ibs., of the above mixture must be added. If this be care 
 fully done, and if the fermented scutchings be returned to the land, the 
 culture of flax will cease to be exhausting. The flax-fibre is almost 
 pure Liguin. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 273 
 
 Flax is cultivated in the United States for two purposes, for 
 the fibre for weaving, and for the oil. The States which chiefly 
 grow it are Kentucky, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Virginia, 
 Indiana, Missouri, &c. Nearly every State returns, in the cen 
 sus, more or less. Were an easy and cheap mode of prepar 
 ing the fibre introduced, as there is every probability of there 
 being, this crop would become both profitable and popular ; as 
 the supply, both here and in Europe, is inferior to the demand. 
 The oil, the cake, and the seed are exported to Great Britain to 
 some extent The fibre is believed to be principally consumed 
 at home. This is one of the farm products which demand the 
 assistance of the manufacturer along side of the farmer to render 
 it truly valuable ; or the farmer has to relinquish his legitimate 
 business, as a producer of raw material, and prepare the article 
 for market, in its first stages of utility. Machines have lately 
 been invented in Europe which entirely relieve the grower of 
 the plant of the unpleasant labor of steeping, scutching, <fcc. ; 
 and by one of these new processes, the liquor, in which the flax 
 is prepared, is employed, with success, for fattening hogs, and 
 cittle.* (Journal of Highl. and Agricul. Soc y of Scotland, 
 No. 42, 1853. 
 
 In this place, we shall omit any mention of the European mode of 
 cultivating this crop, as being much too laborious and expensive for the 
 United States, and merely give an outline of the usual way of growing 
 it here ; nor shall we describe the steeping, &c., as these after- processes 
 demand a practical skill and experince which cannot be taught by -writ 
 ing. 
 
 607. (a,) The character of fche soil depends upon the pur 
 pose for which the flax is required : if for seed it can scarcely be 
 too rich ; if for fibre, it must not be such as will cause rank 
 growth. The general principles are, to employ clean land, free 
 
 In the Weekly N. Y. Tribune of January 14, 1854, appears an advertisement of 
 " Flax and Hemp Machinery" for pulling flax, and breaking and dressing flax and 
 hemp. It is said to require but few hands and little power to operate it, leaving the 
 Flax and Hemp line in better condition than has been attained by machinery hereto 
 fore in any counti y. 
 
 18 
 
274 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 from weeds, as the flax-plant is delicate and easily smothered ; 
 land containing much organic matter, as rich prairie ; and either 
 naturally, or artificially abounding in lime. Lime, ashes, and 
 well rotten manure may always be used to advantage, (b,) 
 Plow deep, as soon as the crop is off the field in the fall. Where 
 frosts are severe, it is advantageous to throw the land up in 
 ridges, so as to allow entire disintegration. In the spring, plow 
 again, four or five inches deep ; or if the soil is tenacious and 
 weedy, plow twice in the spring. The object is to render the 
 land really friable, and exterminate the weeds as thoroughly as 
 possible ; and this may be done in any manner that the farmer 
 finds the most expedient. Harrow lightly, (c,) Sow broad 
 cast, 2^- to 3 bushels per acre of seed, and harrow thoroughly 
 both ways. With thick sowing the fibre is of greater length 
 and fineness than in thin sowing ; in the first case, the stem 
 grows tall and straight producing little seed ; in the latter the 
 plant grows coarse, producing much seed, and a very inferior 
 quality of fibre. As thin and thick sowing are merely com 
 parative terms, experiments should be tried by each farmer in 
 order to ascertain the best quantity on his own land. The seed 
 should be deposited about an inch deep. Finish by rolling, 
 which is considered essential, (d,) The field is kept clean of 
 weeds by the close thick growth of the plant> or by hand-weeding. 
 (e,) If intended for the fibre, much experience is required in 
 harvesting; as the marketable value of the straw depends alto 
 gether on the manner in which it is saved. The degree of ripe 
 ness is of peculiar importance. In Ireland, the best time is de 
 cided to be when the seeds are begining to change from a green 
 to a pale brown, the stalks for two-thirds of their height being 
 yellow. In Europe, it is pulled by hand. In America the 
 crop is often cradled, the scythe being from 18 to 22 inches 
 long. In this case it is recommended to out as soon as the 
 blossoms begin to fall. If intended only for seed, leave till the 
 bolls are generally turned yellow ; and treat like wheat. The 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 275 
 
 after-process, when fibre is wanted, must be learnt by expe 
 rience. 
 
 608. The crop of fibre in the United States is said to aver 
 age 200 Ibs. per acre, if the plant is allowed to seed ; but 400 
 Ibs. if it is harvested when in blossom. The quantity of seed 
 is from 8 to 1 5 bushels per acre ; and about 2 gallons of oil are 
 expressed from one bushel. But we find premium crops in 
 New York of 28J-, and 20 bushels of clean seed, and 567 Ibs. 
 of dressed flax per acre. 
 
 609. Cost of cultivating 1.54100 acres of Flax in Rensselaer coun 
 ty, ft . Y., in 1851. The soil was a heavy loam, on upland , the crop 
 next preceding was oats ; and the crop preceding that was corn ; on 
 land many years in pasture. No manure was used. 
 
 1? days plowing, ... 3 00 
 
 Y* " harrowing and sowing, - - i .00 
 
 pulling Flax at one dollar per day, - . 600 
 
 " thrashing and cleaning seed at one dollar per day, 2.00 
 
 1 day spreading and taking up, . - 1.00 
 
 1 " drawing in, and drawing to milL - - 2 00 
 
 1 K bushels seed at *1. 50, - . - . 2.25 
 
 Paid for dressing and marking flax, - 15.90 
 
 Interest on laud, - . . . 10 50 
 
 43.J1 
 OROT-* 
 
 By 23 bushels clean seed at Sl.fcO, - - $?5.50 
 
 By 798 Ibs. dressed fiax at 10 cents, - - 79 80 115.30 
 
 Net profit, . . 71.59 
 
 (See, also, another account in New York Transactions of Agricultural Society, 
 vol. v, p. 338.) 
 
 610. An interesting account is given, in 1846, of the grow 
 ing of Barley and Flax together, in the town of Earlville, N. Y. 
 An acre of land was prepared for barley ; after sowing two bush 
 els of this, one bushel of flax-seed was also sown, and the whole 
 harvested together. They were harvested in the usual manner, 
 threshed with a rcachine, and cleaned ; it is supposed that tho 
 seeds were separated by the different sized screens in the fan 
 ning mill. The sale of the crop was : 
 
 30 bushels of barley at 50 cents, - $15 00 
 
 15 " flax-seed at $1, - 15 00 
 
 $30 00 
 
276 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 It was believed that the barley crop was as good as if no flax 
 had been sown ; neighboring fields of barley alone giving the 
 same yield of 30 bushels. (Patent Office Reports 1846, p, 
 
 611. Linseed oil, being essential for painting, is in constantly 
 increasing demand. The Cake is greatly depended on in Great 
 Li. tain for fattening stock, and adding to the richness of manure 
 heaps. It is quoted at wholesale prices in New York at $28 to 
 $35, and in London at $45 to 50 per ton. The best quality of 
 the fibre in Ireland is worth from $250 to $300 per ton. 
 
 Thompson, in his experiments on cows, found that Linseed- 
 meal produced less milk and butter than Bean-meal. In feed 
 ing, too large quantities of linseed must not be given. About 2 
 Ibs. of meal, boiled for 3 hours in 3 J gallons of water, is a suf 
 ficient daily allowance, with other food, for an animal weighing 
 800 Ibs. The refuse of the pods is valuable as feed. 
 
 612. In large sections of the "West, it were of much importance to Ag 
 riculturists to influei\ce the establishment of Mills for the preparation of 
 fibre, and for oil-makihg. The two should always go together. 
 
 Two patents for the preparation of the fibre are now used in 
 Europe, and are represented as working economically, and requiring on 
 ly a small capital. They are SCHEBK S and WATT S Patents, an account 
 of which will be found in the Journal and Trans, of the Highland and 
 Agricul. Socy. of Scotland No. 42, p. 11 6. The Royal Flax Society have 
 published much of importance on this sabjcct. Not only is the farmer 
 interested in the direct profit of the crop, "but also in the fattening and 
 manure-forming refuse ; and as the business of preparing cattle in tbe 
 West, for the Eastern market increases, flax willbecome essentially more 
 important to us. But above all, it brings the manufacturer in direct 
 contact with the farmer ; and forms a market for^is produce at his 
 very door. It is not usually very advisable for the farmer to connect 
 himself with manufacturing processes, but this is an exception ; and 
 there are thousands of acres devoted to corn and povk-makir^, in conse 
 quence of the difficulty of reaching a market for coarse grams, where 
 flax culture, with appropriate mills controlled by a company of former*, 
 would be found exceedingly profitable. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 277 
 
 Imports of Linseed into the United States for the past five years: 
 
 1849 - - bags 85,970; 1852 - - bags 191.979 
 
 1850 - - " 108.401 1853 - - " 22b,737 
 1852 - - " 192,090j 
 
 Imports and exports of Linseed oil : 
 
 IMPORTS. EXPORTS. 
 
 1852 - - bbls. 11,364111852 - - bbls. 12,427 
 
 1853 - - " 17,05C||1853 - " 20,536 
 
 (M Y. Weekly Tribune, Jan. 14, 1854.) 
 Oil meal is quoted in Xew York at $1.44 to $1.50 per 100 Ibs. 
 
 613. HEMP, ( Cannalis Sativa,) is a well known plant cul 
 tivated, like the last, for the sake of its fibre, employed in the 
 making of ropes, and coarse fabrics. It is probably a native of 
 India, .but it is now extensively cultivated in Russia, as well as 
 in the United States, in Germany, and in other parts of Europe, 
 in Arabia, Africa, (fee. It is of the same family as the Hop and 
 Nettle, the fibres of both of which genera have been used for 
 the same purpose. According to Prof. Gray, Hemp has become 
 naturalized as a wild plant in this country. 
 
 The Indian Hemp (C. Indica,) (which is the same species (Pereira,) 
 as the above,) is well known as affording a resinous exudation, which 
 is used in various forms, to produce a species of intoxication, among a 
 large portion of the human race. In hot climates, the fibre degenerates 
 in quality, while the narcotic ingredients increase in quantity and in ap 
 parent strength. " This is another of the many interesting facts now- 
 known, which show the influence of climate in modifying the chemical 
 changes that take place in the interior of plants, and the nature and pro 
 portions of the several substances which are produced by these changes." 
 (Johnston in Blackwood s Magazine, Vol. xxxvii. No. 5, p. 617.) This 
 plant is employed to produce a naicotic effect by probably not less than 
 two or three hundred millions of the human race in Asia, Africa, and 
 South America. 
 
 614. In the United States, the growing of Hemp is chiefly 
 confined to Kentucky and Missouri ; ten other States producing 
 trifling quantities only. In 1850 this plant was not cultivated 
 in Michigan. It is supposed to be decreasing in the annual 
 product. 
 
278 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 615. Proximate analysis of Hempsced. (Bucholz.) 
 
 Oil - 19.1 
 
 Husk <fcc. - 38.3 
 
 "Woody fibre and Starch, 5.0 
 
 Sugar (fee 1 .6 
 
 [Mucilage - - 9.0 
 
 Soluble albumen (casein?) 24.7 
 
 Fatty matter, - 1.6 
 
 Loss * - - 0.7 
 
 616. Inorganic analysis of Hemp-seed (A,) (Johnston.) and 
 the Straw (B,) (Kane.) 
 
 A B 
 
 Potash, 21.67 10.99 
 
 Soda, - 0.66 1.06 
 
 Lime, 26.63 61.75 
 
 Magnesia, - 1.00 7.16 
 
 Oxide of iron, - 0.77 0.54 
 
 Phosphoric acid, - 34 96 4.73 
 
 Sulphate of lime, 0.18 
 
 Sulphuric acid, - - - 1.61 
 
 Chlorine, 5.54 
 
 Chloride of sodium, - - 0.09 
 
 Silica, 14.04 9.92 
 
 Percentage of ash, - 2.50 4.54 
 
 617. Analysis of the Scutchings of American Hemp. (John 
 ston.) 
 
 Alkaline salts, chiefly common salt and sulphate of soda, 3.32 
 
 Phosphates of lime and magnesia, and a little phosphate of lime, 19.15 
 Sulphate of lime, (plaster,) - - 3.26 
 
 Carbonate of lime, - - 26.45 
 
 Carbonate of magnesia, ... 2.80 
 
 Insoluble siliceous matter, 45.02 
 
 Per centage of ash in dry fibre, - - 14.43. 
 
 618. In Commerce, Russian Hemp bears the highest value, being 
 quoted in the New York Price currents at $265 to $300 per ton, while- 
 the best American only brinsrs $180 to $220 per ton. The difference 
 appears to be in the caode of preparation, Russian Hemp not being 
 carried to the fermenting point in rotting ; while in the American, in- 
 eipient decay has already set in. In the latter country, two processes 
 are employed, "water-rotting," and dew-rotting." In the American 
 federal and mercantile navies Russian hemp is cheifly employed for 
 cordage. "Russian hemp, when kept moist and warm, will lose its. 
 strength in about three weeks ; the American water-rotted in twa 
 weeks; and the dew-rotted iu from five to ten days." (CrooJc & Co.* 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 279 
 
 May si: ill e t Ky. 1848.) The value of American hemp, however, is said to 
 be rapidly increasing, owing to greater care and experience in preparing 
 it for market. In 1845, the Navy Department decided that "American 
 water-rotted hemp when made into cordage without the application of 
 tar proved lo be greater in strenth than Russian ; a-nd the application of 
 tar proved to depreciate its strength to that of Russian." Large quan 
 tities of Western hemp are annually manufactured into cotton-bagging 
 and bale rope. In 1845 the quantity so consumed was estimated at 
 40,000,000 Ibs., sufficient to cover, 2,600,000 bales of cotton. 
 
 619. The best land for hemp is that which has been tim 
 bered with black walnut, buckeye, hackberry, and white oak ; 
 or rich bottom lands. If sward land, plow in the fall, and again 
 in the spring ; if fallow, one deep plowing, well harrowed, in the 
 spring is sufficient. In Missouri, 1^- bushels of seed are sown 
 broadcast per acre, from the 1st of April to the 10th of May. 
 When the blossoms begin to fall, (from the middle of July to 
 the 1st of August,) the hemp is cut. If left later, the quality 
 is injured. An impliment similar to the point of an ordinary 
 scythe, is used for harvesting. The plant is cut as close to the 
 ground as possible, and the tops are lopped off as far as the seed 
 ends, and the stalks are either thrown into the shade, or kiln- 
 dried. While cutting, the stalks are assorted according to size ; 
 and bound up into bundles, 6 or 8 inches in diameter at the 
 the butts, with two bands. A stick an inch in thickness, is placed 
 in the center of each bundle, to facilitate handling. The bun 
 dles are then placed in properly prepared pools, or cisterns for 
 rotting. Hemp, less than five feet in length, is reserved for 
 dew-rotting. After a proper period, the bundles are withdrawn 
 from the water, dried and stacked. After this, the mechanical 
 operations of breaking, <fec, succeed. (For a full account of this 
 subject in all its aspects, see Pat. Of. Rep. 1845 and 1846, 
 and the other volumes.) 
 
 620. A species of wild hemp, resembling the Manilla, is said to be 
 found in St. Louis county, Missouri ; but it does not appear to be de 
 scribed by the Botanists. (Pat. Off. Rep. 1846, p. 261 .) A " Centen- 
 
280 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 nial Hemp" cultivated in China is recommended as adapted to this 
 country. 
 
 621. Cost of cultivating 1 acre of Hemp, in Missouri, 1849. (Patent 
 Office Report, 1849, p. 328.) 
 
 Rent of land, - .. $2.00 
 
 }>a bushel of Seed, - 0.94 
 
 Seeding, - - - 3.00 
 
 Cutting, 3.00 
 
 Shocking, 0.50 
 
 Spreading, 0.50 
 
 Taking up after rotting, - 0.50 
 
 Breaking 800 Ibs. . 8.00 
 
 Hauling to river, 2.00 
 
 $20.41 
 
 800 Ibs. @ 5 per cwt. - - -40 
 
 Net profit, - - $19.56 
 After this profit to the farmer, it falls into the hands of the merchant 
 
 or buyer, who, after paying expenses to the St. Louis market realizes 
 as follows : 
 
 Cost of 1 ton on bank of river, - - $100.00 
 
 Baling for shipment - 3.00 
 
 Storage, 2.00 
 
 Freight to St. Louis, - 8.00 
 
 Insurance, - -180 
 
 Commission for selling, - 3.00 
 
 Weighing, - 0.40 
 
 Drayage and storage 1 month, 1 .00 
 
 $119.20 
 Market value, . 125.00 
 
 Net profit to merchant. - $5.80 
 
 622. BROOM CORN (Sorghum saccharatum,) is cultivated 
 solely for the purpose that its name indicates. It is said to be a 
 native of India ; and that its introduction into the United States 
 was owing to Franklin, who, finding a seed upon an imported 
 whisk, planted it, and thus disseminated the plant. 
 
 623. It is grown on a large scale on rich bottom lands in 
 New York and Ohio, and to a moro limited extent in nearly all 
 the States. It prospers best on soil abounding in organic mat 
 ter, damp but not wet. Heavy clays are improper for it. The 
 ground is plowed in the fall, and again in the spring ; well-har- 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 281 
 
 rowed ; and the seed sown by a drill, in rows 3^ feet apart, as 
 early as the climate will permit. As soon as it is above ground 
 it is hoed, and soon after thinned, leaving the stalks 2 or 3 inch 
 es apart. It is only hoed in the rows to remove the weeds near 
 the plants ; the harrow and cultivator are then run through to 
 keep down the weeds, and a small double mould-board plow is 
 likewise used between the rows. It is not left to ripen but cut 
 green. Some persons lop the tops early, and let them hang 
 down to straighten : others leave it till nearly ready to cut. In 
 this case, one set of hands goes forward, and lops or bends the 
 tops on one side, and another follows and cuts them off when 
 bent ; a third gathers them into carts or wagons. At the Factoi y, 
 they are sorted over, and put in bunches, each bunch of brush 
 of equal length. The seed is then taken off by appropriate ma 
 chinery, worked either by hand or horse-power. The brush is 
 then spread thin to dry on racks, in buildings. In about a week 
 it can be packed away. The brooms are made in winter, at 
 about the rate of 75 dozen per acre. The stalks are left on the 
 ground to be plowed in for manure. The seed is used for feed 
 ing stock. (Albany Cultivator.) The average yield in New 
 York is 600 Ibs. per acre, at a cost of cultivating and securing 
 the crop of $10 or $12. (N. Y. Trans. 1849, p. 54.) 
 
 624. Cost of a raising a crop of Broom-corn in Oswego County N. Y., 
 1846. ( Trans. N. Y. Agricul Socy. Vol. v, p. 340.) The soil was a rich 
 black loam ; the previous crop Indian Corn. The field low and wet with 
 blind ditches. The area is not mentioned. 
 
 25 loads of manure, - - $3.13 
 
 Hauling and spreading same, - 3.13 
 
 Plowing 1 day, (with horses) 1.00 
 
 Dragging >i day, 0.50 
 
 Marking put ground for planting, 3 X Us feet, 0.50 
 
 8 quarts of seed - 0.13 
 
 Planting 5 days, at 50 cents, 2.50 
 
 Dragging between rows % day, 0.50 
 
 Hoeing and thinning, 8 to 10 stalks in a hill, 6 days, 3.00 
 
 Dragging, 0.25 
 
 Hoeing 4 days, - 2.00 
 
 Tabling the corn, 5>, days, 2.75 
 
282 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 Binding and hauling in, - $0.75 
 
 Scraping of the seed by machinery, 3.00 
 
 Cleaning up seed, 0.50 
 
 Interest on land, ... 3 50 
 
 $29.86 
 
 Crop .-1155 Ibs. brush a$4.50, $:>! 97 
 
 81 " Seed at 18 cents 15.19 
 
 Manure for next crop, ... 3.14 
 
 $70.29 
 
 Net profit, . 40.40 
 
 It will be observed that the wages and cost of horse labor are charged 
 much lower than the present raters. 
 
 G25. When cultivated on a large scale, with appropriate buildings and 
 machinery for the manufacture of the brooms, the profit is said to be 
 much greater, than when the operations are performed on a small scale. 
 At present, much of the expense incurred in the above account would 
 be saved by the use of improved implements, and with better manage 
 ment. The goodness and elasticity of the brush appear to depend 
 partly on harvesting at the right moment, and partly on the soil and cli 
 mate. It is said that some soils invariably produce brush of a brittle 
 character. The seeds, for feeding purposes, are estimated as equal to 
 oats, but we are unable to find an organic analysis of them. (See Pat. 
 Office Report 1849, p. 462.) 
 
 626. Inorganic analysis of the ripe Broom-corn brush with the seeds 
 (A,); and the quantity of such matter removed from the soil in a ton of 
 Brush and Seeds, (B). (Salisbury.) 
 
 A B 
 
 Silex 32.50 11. 960 Ibs. 
 
 Earthy phosphates, - - 36.15 13.303 " 
 
 Lime, 0.40 0.147 
 
 Magnesia, . 0.10 0.036 " 
 
 Potash, 27.32 10.053 " 
 
 Soda, - - 2 37 0.870 " 
 
 Chlorine, - 2.50 0.846 " 
 
 Sulphuric acid, - undetermined 
 
 Composition of the asli of Broom-corn seed. (Salisbury.) 
 
 Carbonic acid, - - not determined. 
 
 Silicic acid, 41.975 
 
 Sulphuric acid, - - not determined. 
 
 Phosphoric acid, - 28.760 
 
 Phosphate of peroxide of iron, - 0.525 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 283 
 
 Lime, - - 0.845 
 
 Magnesia, - 3.010 
 
 Potash, - - 3.920 
 
 Soda, - - - 7.247 
 
 Chlorine, 0.245 
 
 Organic acids, 4500 
 (See Pat. Of. Rep. 1849, p. 473.) 
 
 627. OZIER WILLOW (Salix.) This plant is used for the 
 manufacture of baskets, and other willow-ware. The cultivation 
 of it is only commencing among us. Hitherto, some of the 
 wild species, of which there are 22 in the Northern States, have 
 been used for coarse work; and the imports from Europe are 
 stated at $5,000,000 annually; each ton costing from $100 to 
 $250. If attention were turned to this crop, there is no reason 
 in either the mode of cultivation, in the climate, or appropriate 
 soils, why willows might not become a very profitable product 
 among us. At present, they are grown for market by a few 
 individuals only, in New York, Mississippi, &c. John Heed, of 
 Staten Island, N. Y. is said to have been the first person in 
 America who systematically cultivated the ozier. 
 
 628. The species and varieties, useful for this purpose, are 
 very numerous. Dr. C. W. Grant, of Newburgh, N. Y., has in 
 his possession (1854) nearly 100 varieties, more than 70 of which 
 are from England. Several, which are esteemed in that coun 
 try, have failed with us, probably from their leaves being too 
 delicate to withstand the scorching of the summer sun. 
 
 The following species are thus characterized by Dr. Grant, (a) Black 
 ozier, (Salix nigricans.) brittle, worthless, and not a vigorous grower. 
 (6) Round leaved Willow, (8. Caprea,} Color dark, quality indifferent, 
 tolerates more water than any tolerably good ozier. (c) S. Vimindis, 
 in England, the most vigorous growing and generally cultivated; (d) and 
 a sub-variety called Long- skin, both utterly unsuited to the climate of 
 Ifew York, (e) Yellow Willow, (S. vitellina,) and (/) Huntingdon or 
 White Willow (S. alba,) both, moderately good ; the first as oziers, the 
 second for hoops ; and greatly admired as ornamental trees. The follow 
 ing have been found the most valuable, as oziers, in New York. (#) 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 Long-leaved Triandrous Willow, (S. Tnandra.) very vigorous and pro 
 ductive, excellent for basket work, and especially for "split work." 
 (h) 8. Forbyana, emphatically excellent in all respects, (i) Purple 
 Willow (S. purpurca,) "If there were but one ozier in existence, this 
 would supply more of the wants of willow-workers than any other one." 
 It is so intensely bitter that neither animals nor insects will touch it. 
 In the West, a decoction of the bark would be valuable in place of Qui 
 nine. It is also well adapted for bands and withes for nurserymen. 
 O ) A new species from the county of Suffolk, England; it grows with 
 astonishing vigor and is in every respect valuable. (For particulars, see 
 Farmer s Companion and Horticultural Gazette, Vol. iii, p. 13.) 
 
 629. Willows will grow in a great variety of soils, especially 
 if moist, but not profitably in any greatly unsuited to their 
 habits. Drained swamps, when brought into tillage, afford fine 
 sites for willow plantations, or "halts." Deep, rich intervale, if 
 with a little inclination the better, having a retentive subsoil, 
 with a warm exposure, and some protection from wind, would 
 leave nothing to be desired. A deep rich bottom of sandy 
 loam, that is occasionally overflowed, such as would yield ex 
 cellent potatoes, but subject to June freshets, not so much ele 
 vated above the summer level of the stream, that by penetra 
 ting to the depth of 3 feet, the roots would find moisture, 
 would have no superior. Any amount of overflowing, not in 
 the growing season, would do no damage, but increase the fer 
 tility. Richness of soil is important, great depth indispensable, 
 and easy culture desirable and profitable. 
 
 630. Having sufficiently drained, plow deeply, or dig and 
 trench thoroughly, and prepare the field as if for corn. Then 
 insert the cuttings, (which should be two feet long,) perpendic 
 ularly and firmly in the soil, leaving only 2 inches above the 
 surface. Plant in rows 3 or 4 feet apart, and one foot between 
 the plants. Keep clean from weeds, at least for the two first 
 years, with the hoe or cultivator. At the end of the second 
 year, the oziers will be ready to harvest. There is a difference 
 of opinion as to the proper season, some recommending the 
 fall, or winter after the stopping of the circulation of the sap ; 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 285 
 
 others, the spring, when the sap starts freely and the buds be 
 gin to swell. If cut iu winter, the oziers are tied in bundles, 
 and stood up in cold water till spring. Every shoot must be 
 cleared from the stool ; leaving, however, about two inches in 
 length for the young shoots to spring from. The oziers are 
 then pealed by a very simple implement. (See figure.) It i 
 merely a round stick of hard wood, about 
 an inch thick and a foot long, quartered 
 about half the length of the stick, and 
 the two opposite quarters cut off, so that 
 it will leave a sharp edge on both the re 
 maining two. This tool is taken in the 
 right hand, and the willow inserted in the 
 slit with the left one, and pulled through, 
 the bark coming off. Sometimes, a piece 
 of split iron with half rounded edges on 
 the inside, set in a bench, is used for the purpose. With this a 
 man and three or four children ought to peel 400 Ibs. a day, 
 As fast as a little bundle is stripped they are cured by laying 
 them in the sun till they are perfectly dried ; and then tied 
 in bundles three feet round the butt ; being stowed away in a 
 dry place free from dust. They are sold by weight. 
 
 631. In Mississippi the "Italian ozier" is cultivated ; it grows 
 on the uplands when well manured, to the height of 8 or 10 
 feet in a season, clear shoots. Peeled shoots sell in Natchez 
 and New Orleans, for 8 and 10 cents per pound; and cut green, 
 with the leaves stripped, only, in September, for 2 cents per 
 pound. The demand in New Orleans is greater than the sup 
 ply. (T. Affleck in N. Y. Agricultor, Jan., 1 853.) 
 
 632. We have no data from which we can ascertain the yield 
 per acre, or the profits, but the latter are said to be very large 
 when once the " halt" is fully established. It is to be hoped 
 that our swamp lands in the west will soon be turned to this 
 use ; as not only will the country become more healthy, but 
 
286 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 thousands of acres can be rendered profitable to the community 
 while at present they are valueless. It is rather a reflection 
 upon us that we are obliged to import such an article as willow 
 sticks; and so rapidly does the demand increase that it must be 
 long before the market can be overstocked. 
 
 In John Reed s case we are told that he received more pro 
 fit from a few acres of willow than from the whole upland 
 portion of his farm. Medicinally, Salitin, used, and perhaps, 
 frequently sold as Quinine, is prepared from willow bark. This, 
 also, affords much Tannin, the cause of its ^stringency. 
 
CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 FRUIT TREES AND VEGETABLES. 
 
 633. To enter fully into a detail of orchard and garden 
 plants would too greatly enlarge this volume ; but the following 
 notes and analyses are given, the latter not being easily met 
 with, and as being both of interest and practical value to the 
 cultivator. The teacher will experience no difficulty in pro 
 curing such practical works in this department as will suffice 
 for his purpose ; and more persons appear to be familiar with 
 fruits and esculent vegetables than with agricultural. 
 
 634. THE APPLE (Pyrus Mains,) (a,) a native of Europe, greatly 
 changed by cultivation (b,) varieties very numerous, as sour, sweet, 
 summer, autumn, winter, (c,) propogated by seeds grafts budding 
 (cuttings) (d,) American varieties superior : quality, and value de- 
 psnd on soil and climate (e,) cultivation, pruning, gathering, packing, 
 and preserving during winter (f,) dried, a considerable article of com 
 merce; machines for the purpose, various, (g,) profitable as food for 
 stock, especially the sweet varieties ; for hogs better cooked ; sour ap 
 ples said to dry up milch cows, (h,) cider making ; peculiar varieties 
 for the purpose ; process and implements ; fermentation, spiritous, ace 
 tic ; mustard seed delays the latter ; when bottled, contains free car 
 bonic acid gas ; the use of a raisin in each bottle in assisting to form 
 this gas, (i.) manures, bones, sulphuric acid ashes plaster salt 
 lime ammonia wheat bran, (j,) Insects and diseases, (k,) the ash 
 of fruit small, in quantity. 
 
 635. Analysis of the Pulp (A;) and Skin (B,) of the Swaar 
 
 apple. (Salisbury.) A 
 
 Percentage of water, - 84.75 61.20 
 
 " " dry matter, - 15.25 38.80 
 
 " ash. - - 0.26 0.72 
 
 Ash, calculated on dry matter, - 1.705 1.856 
 

 288 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 
 
 636. Percentage of water and dry matter in the Tolman 
 Sweeting (B;) Roxbury Russet (C;) Kilham Hill (D ;) Eng 
 lish Russet (E ;) Rhode Island Greening (F.) 
 
 B. C. D. E. F. 
 
 Percentage of wnter, - - 81.52 81.35 86.31 79.21 82.85 
 
 " of dry matter, 18.48 18.65 13.69 20.79 17.15 
 
 Mean of the six analyses, per ceutage of wacer, - - 82.664 
 
 637. Inorganic analysis of the above, excepting the Tolman s 
 Sweeting; and including the Swaar (A;) without carbonic 
 acid: 
 
 Silica, 
 
 Phosphate of iron, 
 
 Phosphoric acid, 
 
 Lime, 
 
 Magnesia, 
 
 Potash, 
 
 Soda, 
 
 Chlorine, 
 
 Sulphuric acid, - 
 
 Organic matter, 
 
 1000 Ibs. of fresh apples contain about 827 Ibs. water ; 170.4 Ibs. or 
 ganic matter ; and 2.6 Ibs. of ash. 1000 Ibs. of dry apples contain 17 
 t> 18 Ibs. of ash. 
 
 638. Proximate organic analysis of 1000 parts of fresh 
 Tolman s Sweeting; (B) Rhode Island Greening; (F,) and 
 Mean of the analyses of the six foregoing varieties (G.) 
 
 Cellular fibre, 
 
 Glutenous matter with a little wax and fat, 
 
 Dextrine, - . . 
 
 Sugar and extract, * 
 
 Malic acid, 
 
 Albumen, 
 
 Casein, 
 
 Dry matter, - 
 
 Water, 
 
 Loss, 
 
 A. 
 
 C. 
 
 D. 
 
 E. 
 
 F. 
 
 1.750 
 
 2.278 
 
 1.693 
 
 1.051 
 
 1.412 
 
 2.227 
 
 1.564 
 
 1.838 
 
 1.062 
 
 1.277 
 
 14.083 
 
 15.057 
 
 13.922 
 
 11.119 
 
 11.664 
 
 4.956 
 
 4.857 
 
 2.999 
 
 3.263 
 
 4.421 
 
 1.786 
 
 1.903 
 
 1.379 
 
 1.068 
 
 2.211 
 
 42.016 
 
 34958 
 
 35.821 
 
 38.323 
 
 38.440 
 
 19296 
 
 25.173 
 
 25.S26 
 
 30.408 
 
 22.781 
 
 2.092 
 
 2.300 
 
 2334 
 
 1.848 
 
 2.272 
 
 6656 
 
 6.889 
 
 7.898 
 
 6.684 
 
 8.019 
 
 5.139 
 
 5.021 
 
 6.290 
 
 5.187 
 
 7.503 
 
 B. 
 
 F. 
 
 G. 
 
 33.90 
 
 33.58 
 
 32.03 
 
 3.52 
 
 1.32 
 
 1.94 
 
 28.96 
 
 32.07 
 
 31.44 
 
 99.C5 
 
 76.37 
 
 83.25 
 
 2.50 
 
 3.04 
 
 3.17 
 
 8.97 
 
 16.37 
 
 13.79 
 
 0.89 
 
 1.89 
 
 1.64 
 
 177.79 
 
 164.64 
 
 167.26 
 
 815.20 
 
 828.46 
 
 826.64 
 
 7.01 
 
 6.90 
 
 6.10 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 289 
 
 Besides the above, apples contain a little tannic and gallic acids, es 
 pecially the Russets. The Tolman Sweeting showed a trace of starch. 
 A small quantity of white wax, and a respectable percentage of gluten 
 also exist. These analyses were made in the month of March. 
 
 639. Comparison of the apple (A) with the ripe peach (B,) 
 pear (C,) cherry (D,) and potato (E.J 
 
 Chlorophyl, etc., 
 Sugar, 
 
 Dextrine, 
 Fibre, 
 Albumen, 
 Malic acid, 
 Citric acid, 
 Lime, 
 Water, 
 
 Gluten, fat, etc., 
 Casein, 
 Starch, 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 
 
 D. 
 
 
 1.10 
 
 0.08 
 
 
 8.3 
 
 16.48 
 
 6.45 
 
 18.12 
 
 3.1 
 
 5.12 
 
 3.17 
 
 3.23 
 
 32 
 
 1.86 
 
 3.80 
 
 1.12 
 
 1.4 
 
 0.17 
 
 0.08 
 
 0.57 
 
 0.3 
 
 1.80 
 
 0.11 
 
 2.01 
 
 4.19 
 
 82.66 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.16 
 
 trace 
 
 74.87 
 
 0.03 
 
 86.28 
 
 0.01 
 
 74.85 
 
 E. 
 
 0.25 
 
 5.8 
 
 trace. 
 
 79.7 
 0.3 
 
 9.7 
 
 The apple, if of good quality, may be regarded equally, if not more 
 rich in fat-producing products than the potato. The apple is also 
 richer in nitrogenous, or flesh-forming, products; and its inorganic con 
 stituents are peculiarly valuable. (Salisbury, in Trans, of N. Y. Soc y, 
 vol. he. pp. 737743.) 
 
 640. Inorganic analysis of a Sweet Apple Tree ; 19 years 
 old. (Emmons.) 
 
 
 Bark. 
 
 Outside 
 wood. 
 
 Heart 
 wood. 
 
 Bark of 
 root. 
 
 Wood 
 of root. 
 
 Potash, 
 Soda, 
 Chloride of sodium, 
 Sulphuric acid, 
 Carbonic acid, 
 Lime, 
 Magnesia, 
 Phosphate of iron, ) 
 Phosphate of lime, 
 Phosphate of magnesia, ) 
 
 0.44 
 1.53 
 0.30 
 38.39 
 49.56 
 1.86 
 2.56 
 
 3.60 
 
 3.288 
 3.33 
 0.33 
 12.21 
 15.79 
 15.56 
 3.52 
 
 37.50 
 
 275 
 
 1.62 
 051 
 22.17 
 38.98 
 266 
 2.93 
 
 24.40 1 
 
 0.66 
 11.38 
 0.10 
 30.83 
 
 1.00 
 
 8.72 
 072 
 6.39 
 
 15.07 
 21.99 
 0.11 
 1.84 
 
 11.64 
 016 
 091 
 13.96 
 31 35 
 
 Organic matter, 
 Insoluble silica, 
 Coal, 
 
 3.35 
 
 126 
 126 
 
 3.20 
 0.45 
 0.35 
 
 3.60 
 0.20 
 0.01 
 
 1.80 
 2.86 
 0.72 
 
 1.20 
 1.46 
 
 19 
 
290 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 641. Inorganic analysis of the leaves of the Early Harvest 
 Apple, collected September 30 : bearing fruit. (Emmons.) 
 
 Silica, - - 5.775 
 
 Phosphate of iron, - 4,875 
 
 Phosphate of lime, - - 1.416 
 
 Phosphate of magnesia, trace 
 
 Silica, ... - 5.125 
 
 Phosphoric acid, - 5.359 1C 775 
 
 Lime, - 36.398 
 
 Magnesia, - 0.075 
 
 Potash, - - 13.179 
 
 Soda, 11-616 
 
 Chloride of sodium, - 0.060 
 
 Sulpliaric acid, N-137 
 
 Carbonic acid, - 15.200 
 
 Organic matter, 2.850 
 
 PROPORTIONS. 
 
 Water, ... - 54.341 
 
 Dry, . - 45.659 
 
 Ash, - 4.194 
 
 Ash, calculated dry, - 9 - l6 3 
 
 642. THE PEAR (Pyrus communis,) (a,) a native of Eu 
 rope, cultivated from remote antiquity; (b,) at present, Belgium 
 is celebrated for this fruit; (c,) several fine American* varieties; 
 W propagated by seeds, (for stocks,) by grafting budding- 
 dwarf pears on Quince roots; (e,) requires a soil rich in the phos 
 phates, much more difficult to cultivate than the last ; (f,) subject 
 to several diseases, from the seed to maturity, as Insect-blight, 
 Frozen-sap-Uight, &c ; (gj ripened artificially in the house, to 
 acquire perfection of flavor; (h,) brings high prices in market; 
 (i,) Perry manufacture (i,) manures, unleached ashes, bones, 
 lime, plaster, salt. 
 
 643. Comparative analysis of the Sap-wood (A,) Heart-wood 
 (B,) Bark of Trunk (C,) of the Pear Tree, and the Wood (D,) 
 and Bark (E,) of the Root of the same. (Emmons.) 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 291 
 
 ABODE 
 
 Water, 48.80 22.05 6370 22.33 58.80 
 
 Dry matter, 37.20 77.95 30.30 79.67 4620 
 
 Ash 0.20 010 1.99 0.40 326 
 
 644. Analysis of the leaves of the Bergamot Pear tree, (col 
 lected Septemb3r 30, bearing fruit;) .(A,) and of a Pear tree, 
 (picked May 23, flowers just fallen,) (B.) (Emmons.) 
 
 A B 
 
 Silicic acid, 1.750 
 
 25.050 
 
 39.853 4.715 
 
 5.920 4500 
 
 8-793 18950 
 
 15.190 
 not determined 
 
 Silica, - 4.250 
 
 Phosphates, (with 5 bases,) 16.550 
 
 Lime, 
 
 Magnesia, 
 
 Potash, 
 
 Soda, 
 
 Chloride of Sodium, 
 
 Sulphuric acid, 
 
 Carbonic acid, 
 
 Organic matter, 
 
 Proportions of (A,) 
 Water, 
 Dry matter, 
 Ash, 
 Do. calculated dry, 
 
 0.554 
 
 - 4.464 
 
 17.125 
 
 3.000 
 
 do 
 
 11.560 
 
 not determined 
 
 56.1,38 
 - 43.862 
 3.260 
 7.514 
 For the organic analyis of the fruit, see (S ) 
 
 645. QUINCE (Pyrus Cydonia,) (a,) native of the South of 
 Europe ; (b,) varieties few, cannot be eaten uncooked, seeds me 
 dicinal; (a,) propagated by seed cuttings grafts layers. 
 (d,) cultivation simple ; (c,) injured by the Borer, and a worm 
 that girdles the twigs ; (f,) manures, barn-yard salt wool- 
 on rags. 
 
 646. The tree and fruit do not appear to have been analyzed. 
 Souchay gives the following inorganic constituents of the seeds: 
 
 Potash, 
 
 Soda, 
 
 Lime 
 
 2709 
 - 3.01 
 
 761) 
 
 Oxide of iron, 
 lliosphiirij*. ncid. 
 Sulphuric acid. 
 
 - 13.0 1 Jhloride of Sodium, 
 Silica, - - 0.75 
 
 1.19 
 
 42.02 
 
 267 
 
 2.57 
 
292 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 647. PEACH (Persica vulgaris,) (a,) native of Persia; said 
 to have been found cultivated abundantly by the Indians by 
 Hendrick Hudson, on his first voyage, but never discovered wild 
 on this continent; supposed to be a cultivated variety of the al 
 mond (amygdalus communis,) ; (I,) in Great Britain requires 
 artificial heat; (c,) varieties exceedingly numerous; (d,) propo- 
 gated by seed budding (grafting, and in New Zealand by cut 
 tings) ; (e,) cultivation simple, pruning chiefly confined to short- 
 niny z; (f,) dried; (g,) fattening for hogs o\ving to the Cy 
 anogen of the kernel? (h 7 ) distilled into brandy; (i,) manure** 
 leached ashes; (j,) injured by the Borer, the Aphis, the 
 Curculio; and diseases the Yellows, Curl, &c. causes and 
 remedies. 
 
 648. Inorganic analysis of the leaves of the Peach tree r 
 (pulled July 22), (A,) and of the leaves of a tree affected by 
 tlSe Yellows, (B,) (Emmons.) 
 
 A B 
 
 Carbonic acid, - 13.300 13.200 
 
 Silicic acid, - 0.600 0.800 
 
 Phosphates-, - 9,600 11.600 
 
 Lime, - - 16.220 14300 
 
 Magnesia, - 5.900 5.300 
 
 Potash, - - 14.280 14.440 
 
 Soda, 21220 22.280 
 
 Chlorine, - - - 5.120 4.740 
 
 Sulphuric acid, 4.420 4.430 
 
 Organic acids, - 7.900 4.300 
 
 These analyses are peculiarly interesting, as showing that the 
 disease called the " yellows" does not arise from a deficiency of 
 inorganic matter. Should further examinations sustain this 
 view of the case we may be enabled to find a remedy for this 
 scourge of the peach tree. We throw ont the suggestion, that, 
 owing to the constant generations of plants on the same soil, a 
 change takes place similar to that observed when animals are 
 bred in-and in ; or in other words a scrofulous constitution Z>e- 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 tJ*Ml| 
 i 
 
 r 
 
 comes inherent, which causes the absorption of too great propor 
 tions of inorganic salts, and thence disease, and early mortality. 
 We cannot in this place do more than hint at this subject, but 
 many facts and analogies may be adduced in support of this the 
 ory, and we submit it to the consideration of those who live in 
 a part of the country where this disease prevails. In some soils;, 
 if long continued wet Aveather occurs in the early part of the 
 summer, the leaves of this tree, even when perfectly healthy, be 
 come diseased, curl up, and fall off; an affection which we are 
 inclined to attribute to an inordinate absorption of salts, but are, 
 as yet, unable satisfactorily to prove it 
 
 649. Inorganic analysis of a small seedling Peach troe, aged 
 23 years; mean diameter Scinches; thickness of bark 1-7 inch; 
 growth rather slow. (JZmmons.) 
 
 
 
 Bark of 
 Trunk. 
 
 Wood ol 
 Trunk. 
 
 Bark of 
 Root. 
 
 Wood of 
 Root. 
 
 
 } 1.20 
 0.04 
 
 4.19 
 
 42.17 
 2.16 
 0.45 
 18.79 
 0.01 
 3.30 
 4.15 
 
 Leaves. 
 
 7.11 
 11.15 
 0.16 
 
 TIi 
 
 23.26 
 6.40 
 0.3-2 
 29.19 
 1 34 
 5.20 
 1.35 
 
 Pits. 
 
 3.162 
 192 
 0.33 
 
 3.44 
 
 3848 
 2.91 
 
 j 10.40 
 
 3.60 
 940 
 1.40 
 
 Bark of 
 Limb*. 
 
 80S 
 1592 
 5.60 
 
 0.58 
 
 o.n 
 
 O.oi 
 1.02 
 18.10 
 3000 
 2.55 
 6.46 
 
 Wood of 
 Limbs. 
 
 
 Cluonde of o 
 
 
 
 
 JL. me, .... 
 
 
 
 Phosphate of magnesia, 
 
 
 
 
 
 12.41 
 
 0.36 
 12.12 
 
 14.77 
 8.00 
 2.47 
 10.44 
 3-15 
 0.86 
 6.42 
 4.48 
 
 lb.47 
 521 
 2.70 
 
 lITiJ 
 
 1680 
 133 
 1.33 
 17.98 
 0.02 
 6.61 
 10.0J 
 
 8.65 
 
 
 
 0.28 
 6 18 
 
 31.98 
 600 
 160 
 850 
 0.20 
 5.00 
 4.30 
 1.00 
 
 li<.;a 
 8.11 
 024 
 
 8.07 
 
 24.64 
 9.76 
 O.GQ 
 13.20 
 0.20 
 8.40 
 1.00 
 l. JO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coal, 
 
 For organic analysis see 
 
294 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 650. Tho kernels, blossoms, leaves, and bark, possess poison 
 ous qualities, apparently independent of the hydrocyanic 
 (Prussic) acid, contained especially in the first. (Pereira.) 
 
 651. THE NECTARINE (Persicalccvis,) is distinguished from 
 the Peach by its smooth fruit; but it is believed to be merely 
 a variety of the latter. In the United States it is rarely culti 
 vated in consequence of the great injury done to it by the Cur- 
 culio. 
 
 652. CHERRY ( Cerasus vidyaris y ) (a,) native of Asia, (b,) 
 varieties numerous as Heart, Biyarreau, Duke, Morello, each 
 of which has many sub-varieties. Best in France ; many good 
 American varieties, especially those produced by hybridizing 
 by Dr. Kirtland, of Cleveland, 0. ; (c,) propagated by seeds 
 (for stocks and new sorts) by budding (grafts ;) dwarfed by 
 budding on the Perfumed Cherry (C. Mahaleh;) (^cultiva 
 tion; pruning simple, branches should be trained near the 
 ground, with a short stem, (e,) Manures, bones, ashes, salt, 
 plaster. 
 
 653. Analysis of the leaves of theOxheart Cherry, (picked, 
 May 23rd,) (A;) and of the leaves of the Large Yellow Span 
 ish Cherry, (picked, September 30J (B.) (Emmons.) 
 
 A. B. 
 
 Carbonic acid, - - - 11.450 
 
 Silicic acid, - - 1.850 
 
 Phosphates, - - - 26.650 37.175 
 
 Lime, - - 3.941 21.975 
 
 Magnesia, - - - 3.465 3.195 
 
 Potash, - - 23.757 13948 
 
 Soda, - - - 12.367 1.657 
 Sulphuric acid, not determined. 10.260 
 
 Organic acids, ... do 7.650 
 
 Silica, - - do 4.225 
 
 Chloride of sodium, - do 410 
 
 PROrOKTIOXS OF THE LAST, (B.) 
 
 Water, 58.698 
 
 Dry matter, - - 41.372 
 
 Ash, - - 3.434 
 
 Ash, calculated dry, - - 8.304) 
 For o ganic analysis, see 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 295 
 
 654. THE PLUM (Prunus domestic^) is a native of Eu 
 rope, with four indigenous species in the Northern United 
 States. Owing to the destruction of the fruit by the Curculio, 
 the culture of this tree has become insignificant. The principle 
 inorganic constituents are Potash, Soda, Lime, and Phosphoric 
 acid. (See Patent Office Report, 49, p. 480.) Many modes of 
 preventing the attacks of the Curculio have been proposed, but 
 none have proved entirely effectual. Dusting the tree with 
 slaked lime is, at present, looked upon with most favor. 
 
 655. GRAPES ( Vitis ,) (a;) European grapes originally from 
 Persia. Quite distinct species from native American Grapes, 
 of which there are many species and varieties, (b,) European 
 grapes difficult to cultivate in America. Large vineyards on 
 the Ohio River, and other States south of that, (c,) Propa 
 gated by layers, cuttings, eyes, grafts, (d,) Cultivation 
 and pruning demand much skill and knowledge. Subject to a 
 mould on the fruit, curable by sulphur. 
 
 656. Inorganic analysis of the leaves of the Catawba Grape, 
 picked, June 2d, nearly full grown (A,) and the same picked, 
 September 30, fruit abundant (B.) (Emmons.) 
 
 A. B. 
 
 Carbonie acid, - - 3050 8.900 
 Silicic acid, - - 29.650 Silica 23.150 
 
 Sulphuric acid, - - 2062 1.426 
 
 Phosphates, - 32950 28.750 
 
 Lime, - 4.391 26258 
 
 Magnesia, 1.740 5.330 
 
 Potash, - 13.394 1.710 
 
 Soda, - 9-698 2.983 
 Chlorine, 0.741 
 
 Organic acids, - 2.250 3.450 
 
 Chloride of sodium, - - 0.305 
 
 From Grapes are made : 1. Grape Sugar. 2. Bitartrate of Potash, 
 (Crude tartar or Argol.) 3. Raisins, and small black "currants" im 
 ported from the Mediterranean. 4. Wine. 5. Brandy. 
 
 657. GOOSEBERRY (Ribes Grossularia,) (a,) native of Great 
 
296 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 Britain many cultivated sub-varieties 4 wild species in the 
 northern United States prefers a damp climate and soil ; ( b ,) 
 colors vary, red, yellow, green, differs also much in size, and in 
 the prickles on the fruit; fcj, propogated by cuttings layers, 
 suckers, (cj cultivation simple, best in the U. S. in a damp, 
 shaded place, or well mulched especially with salt-grass pru 
 ning, annual shortening in, keeping the centre open to admit air; 
 ( d,) manure, ashes, salt, well-rotted organic matter ; (cj a mould 
 similar to that on grapes, often destroys the fruit. 
 
 658. Organic analysis of tie unripe (A,) and the ripe Goose 
 berry (B.) (Gerard.) 
 
 A B 
 
 Chlorophyl and coloring matter - - 0,03 
 
 Su gar, - 0.52 G.24 
 
 Dextrine, - - - 1.36 0.78 
 
 Fibre, - . . 8.45 8.01 
 
 Albumen, . . - 1.07 87 
 
 Malic acid, . . . 1.80 2.41 
 
 Citric acid. ... 0.12 0.31 
 
 I^rae, . . 0.24 0.29 
 
 Water, - . 8 G.4l 81.10 
 
 The leaves of the CURRANT are rich in Soda and the Phosphates ; the 
 blossom, iu Potash. (Emmons.) 
 
 659. RHUBARB; (Rheum rhaponticum,) (a,) many species 
 cultivated, from Asia, China, Turkey, and Tartary; many 
 sub-varieties produced by cultivation; (b t ) the petioles, or 
 leaf-stalks, used for pies, preserves, making wine ; the root as 
 
 medicine the best from Russian Tartary, on the confines of 
 China the root grown in Europe and America very inferior as 
 a drug; (cj cultivation requires deep rich soil, highly manured 
 and the plants covered during the winter with rough barn-yard 
 manure is sometimes blanched, by which the flavor is improved 
 (d,) the leaf, flower, stalks <fec., poisonous, chiefly in consequence 
 of the Oxalate of lime contained in them, which is decomposed 
 in digestion ; (e,) specific manures, bones plaster salt ashes 
 organic substances. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 297 
 
 660. Percentage of Water, Dry matter, and Ash, in various 
 parts of the Giant Rhubarb, cut June 1, Plant in flower. (Salis 
 bury.) 
 
 Root, Stalk, Petioles, Leaf-blades, Flowers & Pedicles. 
 Percentage of water, 82.0006950 93.46 88.00 86.90 
 
 Dry matter, 18.&00 10.50 6.53 12.00 13.10 
 
 " Ash, 0.925 1.13 0.94 1.53 132 
 
 " ash calc.on dry mat.5.194 10.76 14.384 12.75 10.C7 
 
 661. Inorganic analysis of various parts of the same plant viz 
 Boot (A,) Leafstalk (B,) Leaf blades (C.) Stalk (D.) 
 
 A. B. C. D. 
 
 Silicic acid, - - 3.95 1.40 7.60 0.450 
 
 Phosphates, 30.05 2220 19.40 17.20 
 
 Lime, - 4.78 2.47 5.74 3.57 
 
 Magnesia, 2.92 0.20 1.16 0.20 
 
 Potash, - 7.21 5.28 7.87 8.09 
 
 Soda, - 24.73 33.26 27.36 33.26 
 
 Sodium, - 0.14 1.65 2.11 0.97 
 
 Chlorine, 0.22 2.50 321 1.48 
 
 Sulphuric acid, - - 5.15 5.27 4.27 10.72 
 
 Organic matter, 7.35 15.60 6.40 12.15 
 
 Carbonic acid, - - 12.05 9.43 14.90 9.40 
 
 662. Proximate organic analysis of the Leafstalks (gathered Sep 
 tember 1st) of a very large and succulent Rhubarb. 
 
 Percentage of water, - - 87.77 
 
 of dry matter, 12.23 
 
 ash - - 2.27 
 
 ash calc. on dry matter, - 18.56 
 
 With the Water. Without the Water. 
 
 Fibre with a little starch and chlorophyl, 1 .26 9.89 
 Malic acid and extract, with a little 
 
 tartaric and oxalic acids, 5.70 4462 
 
 Dextrine, - 0.55 4.30 
 
 Fibre, - - . 3.23 25.30 
 
 Matter separated from fibre, albuminous, 1.60 12 55 
 
 Albumen, - 0.27 2.11 
 
 Casein, - - 0.15 1.17 
 
 Water, - - 87.77 
 
 (See Trans. N. Y. Agricul. Society, vol. ix, p. 744.) 
 
 663. Comparative analyses of the large red Tomato, (Sola- 
 
298 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 num lycospersicum,) (A,) and of Egg Plant, (Solanum me- 
 longena,) (B.) (Salisbury.) 
 
 I. Percentage of water, dry matter and ash : 
 
 A B 
 
 Water, - . . 94.75 91.35 
 
 Dry matter, 5.24 8.64 
 
 Ash. - . . 0.33 0.60 
 
 Ash, calculated on dry matter, - - 6.37 6.98 
 
 II. Composition of the ash of the above : A B 
 Cajbonic acid, - - 11.05 4.72 
 Silicic acid, - - 1.77 1.70 
 Sulphuric acid, - - 1.79 4.74 
 Phosphoric acid and peroxide of iron, 24.07 28.77 
 Lime, 0.07 0.07 
 Magnesia, 1.61 1.37 
 Potash, - 20.80 20.51 
 Soda, . - 25.53 31.97 
 Sodium, - 2.79 1.13 
 Chlorine, 4.24 1.73 
 Oiganic acids, 4.55 2.20 
 
 III. Proximate organic composition of the Tomato : 
 
 Sugar and extract, with tartaric, citric and malic acids, 3.32 
 
 Albumen, - - 0.21 
 
 Casein, - - 0.20 
 
 Dextrine or gum, ... 0.54 
 
 Fibre wilh coloring matter, - - 1.01 
 
 Matter separated from the fibre - 0.32 
 
 Water, .... 94.75 
 With a small quantity of volatile oil. 
 
 Proximate organic composition of the Egg Plant: 
 
 Sweet water and extract, with a peculiar bitter principle, 3.04 
 
 Starch, 0.36 
 
 Albumen, - 0,25 
 
 Casein, .... 0.20 
 
 Dextrine or gum, - - 0.37 
 
 Fibre, - - - 0.76 
 
 Matter separated from the fibre, - 0.97 
 
 Water, - 91.35 
 
 With a small quantity of volatile oil and wax. 
 (See Trans. N. Y. Agricul Socy. Vol. viii,p. 370.) 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 299 
 
 664. ASPARAGUS (A officinalis,) owes its flavor and proper 
 ties to a peculiar, easily cry stall izable neutral substance (C 8 N 4 
 H,6 0,5 which occurs in several plants, as the Marsh-mallow, 
 Cumfrcy, Potato &c, called Asparagine. 
 
 665. LETTUCE (Lactuca sativa,) owes its value to a narcotic 
 principle called Lactucin. It acts upon the brain after the man 
 ner of Opium, and induces sleep ; eaten during the day, it calms, 
 soothes, and allays the tendency to nervous irritability. It is 
 probable that it might be fed with a good effect to fattening an 
 imals ; in a favorable soil, it is cultivated with great facility. 
 (SeeBlackwoods Magazine, Dec. 1853,^. 679.J 
 
 666. Analysis of the Musk melon ( Cucumis meloj (A;) 
 Watermelon ( Cucitrbita citrullusj (B ;) and Cucumber ( Cu 
 cumis sativus,) (C.) (Salisbury.) 
 
 Percentage of water 1 , dry matter, and ash : 
 
 Percentage of water, 
 
 " of dry matter, 
 
 " of Ash, 
 
 " of Ash in dry matter, 
 
 Ultimate analysis of the above : 
 Nitrogen, 
 Oxygen, 
 Carbon, 
 Hydrogen, 
 Inorganic matter, 
 
 Inorganic analysis of the above : 
 Carbonic acid, 
 Silicic acid, 
 Phosphoric acid, 
 Sulphuric acid, 
 Phosphate of iron, 
 Lime, 
 Magnesia, 
 Potash, 
 Soda, 
 
 Chlorine, - 
 Organic matter, 
 
 A. 
 90.987 
 9013 
 2.771 
 3.007 
 
 B. 
 
 94.898 
 5.102 
 0248 
 4.861 
 
 C. 
 96364 
 3.636 
 362 
 9.955 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 
 
 2.231 
 
 1.739 
 
 1.236 
 
 43.905 
 
 43.187 
 
 41806 
 
 44.820 
 
 43.764 
 
 40.984 
 
 6.832 
 
 6.872 
 
 6.879 
 
 3.007 
 
 4.861 
 
 9.955 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 
 
 11.55 
 
 11.42 
 
 13.25 
 
 2.20 
 
 1.21 
 
 0.70 
 
 25.40 
 
 14.93 
 
 18.90 
 
 3.90 
 
 1.63 
 
 0.90 
 
 2.30 
 
 4.52 
 
 3.10 
 
 5.85 
 
 7.32 
 
 4.30 
 
 0.60 
 
 1.31 
 
 0.20 
 
 8.35 
 
 2395 
 
 23.20 
 
 34.35 
 
 30.63 
 
 33.75 
 
 5.20 
 
 1.81 
 
 1.10 
 
 trace, 
 
 trace, 
 
 trace. 
 
300 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 
 
 0.918 
 
 0572 
 
 0.356 
 
 0.442 
 
 0.004 
 
 0040 
 
 1.142 
 
 0.318 
 
 0.354 
 
 t. ace, 
 
 none, 
 
 0.002 
 
 5.250 
 
 3020 
 
 2.826 
 
 0.004 
 
 0.006 
 
 0.006 
 
 0.038 
 
 0.022 
 
 0.031 
 
 trace, 
 
 0.007 
 
 
 0.007 
 
 0.009 
 
 
 0.0(5 
 
 trace. 
 
 
 1.123 
 
 1.058 
 
 9.61 
 
 90.987 
 
 94.898 
 
 95.354 
 
 Proximate organic analysis of the above (fresh,) : 
 
 Albumen, 
 
 Casein, 
 
 Dextrine, 
 
 Starch, 
 
 Sugar and extract, 
 
 Chlorophy], - 
 
 Fat, wax, and resin, 
 
 Citric acid, - 
 
 Malic acid, 
 
 Tartaric acid, 
 
 Fibre, 
 
 Water, 
 
 The varieties above examined were the Nutmeg Muskmelon ; the 
 Long Red Watermelon; and the Early Long Prickly Cucumber. (See 
 further, Trans, of the N. Y. Agrieul. Socy., vol. xii., (1852,) pp. 335 
 337.) 
 
 667. Analysis of the Vegetable Oyster-root Trayopogon 
 porrifolius,) (A;) of the Endive or Succory-leaf Cichorium 
 Endivia,) (B;) and of Celery, (Apium Graveolens,) (C.) 
 (Salisbury in Trans, of N. Y. Agricul. Socy., voL xii.) 
 Percentage of water, dry matter, and ash : 
 
 A. B. 
 
 Percentage of water, - 81.22 91.925 
 
 of dry matter. 18.78 8.075 
 
 " of ash, 1.465 L010 
 
 " of ash in dry matter, - 8 333 12.507 
 
 Ultimate analysis of the above: 
 
 Nitrogen, 
 Carbon, 
 Oxygen, 
 Hydrogen, 
 Inorganic matter, 
 
 Inorganic analysis of the above : 
 
 Carbonic acid, 
 Silicia acid, 
 
 C. 
 
 88.225 
 11.775 
 
 1.375 
 11.931 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 0.995 
 
 2.170 
 
 2.121 
 
 42.044 
 
 41.171 
 
 40.626 
 
 44.017 
 
 40.257 
 
 40352 
 
 5.058 
 
 5.617 
 
 5.371 
 
 8.860 
 
 12507 
 
 11.931 
 
 A 
 
 24.60 
 0.60 
 
 B 
 
 13.80 
 20.80 
 
 C 
 
 20.80 
 5.60 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 301 
 
 Phosphoric acid, 
 
 Phosphate of iron. 
 
 Lime, 
 
 Magnesia, 
 
 Potash, 
 
 Soda, 
 
 Chlorine, 
 
 Sulphuric acid, 
 
 Organic matter, 
 
 Proximate organic analysis of the above : 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 15.60 
 
 9.90 
 
 5.40 
 
 1.85 
 
 2.95 
 
 4.95 
 
 4.95 
 
 8.05 
 
 13.55 
 
 0.75 
 
 3.65 
 
 0.90 
 
 5.80 
 
 8.90 
 
 7.25 
 
 39.20 
 
 27.80 
 
 28.80 
 
 2.45 
 
 1.40 
 
 1.40 
 
 3.90 
 
 2.10 
 
 10.30 
 
 trace. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Water, 
 
 Fibre, 
 
 Sugar and extract, 
 
 Dextrine, 
 
 Casein, 
 
 Albumen, 
 
 Slarch, 
 
 Re.sin, 
 
 Gluten, - 
 
 Chlorophyl, 
 
 Wax, 
 
 A 
 
 80.610 
 2.764 
 3.665 
 1.435 
 0.172 
 1.066 
 0.035 
 0.180 
 0.014 
 
 B 
 
 91.925 
 
 1.348 
 4.300 
 0.735 
 0.100 
 1.320 
 none. 
 0260 
 0.055 
 0.052 
 
 C 
 
 88.225 
 3.168 
 5.685 
 0.905 
 0.115 
 1.532 
 none. 
 0.185 
 0.095 
 0.055 
 
 0.055 and oil 0.120 
 
CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 MANURES. 
 
 66S In order to understand the principles of manuring M C 
 must consider : 
 
 (a,) A plant consists of two parts, an organic and a mineral part, 
 The mineral part is drawn from the soil alone, by the roots ; while of 
 the organic part one portion comes from the soil through the roots, and 
 another portion from the air through the leaves. 
 
 (&,) The organic part of plants consists of four simple bodies, or 
 gases; carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen* In all the parts of 
 plants these four are associated also, with minute quantities of sulphur 
 and phosphorus. 
 
 (C,) Of these four substances nitrogen appears to be drawn by the 
 plant almost exclusively from the soil ; the hydrogen and oxygen are 
 drawn partly from the soil and partly from the air chiefly in the form 
 of water. The carbon is derived only in small proportion from the 
 soil, being for the most part sucked in from the air by the leaves, in the 
 form of carbonic acid gas. Sulphur and phosphorus come from the soil 
 only. 
 
 (</,) The mineral part of the plant, which forms from half of one per 
 cent, to 15 to 20 per cent, of the whole weight of the dried plant, con* 
 sists of about 12 different substances. (See 93, p. 27.) Of these silica 
 exists cbicfly in the stems of grasses, grains, &c , and in smaller propor 
 tion only in the softer parts and juices of plants. Potash, soda, chlorine 
 and sulphuric acid are, for the must part, found in the sap ; litLC, mag 
 nesia, and oxide of iron in the solid parts of plantSi Phosphoric acid ia 
 necessary to, and is found in every part of a plant, but it collects in 
 larger proportion in thg grain or seeds as the season of ripening ap 
 proaches. {Sf.e Johnston s Experimental Agriculture, p. 7.) 
 
 (c ) No plant therefore can flourish an\l come to maturity unless it is 
 able to procure in a proper form, awd absorb the abore substances, 
 
 (569, We must consider also: 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 303 
 
 (a,) That a fertile soil consists of three portions, 1. Of one which is 
 dormant, as the sand and clay which form by far the larger mass of it ; 
 2. Of the above minerals and organic matter in a state in which they 
 are insoluble in water, and therefore cannot become part of a plant ; 
 and 3. Of the same in a soluble form capable of dissolving in water, and 
 of entering into the pores of the roots. (Sec 113, p. 34.) 
 
 (&,) That every crop which is taken off the ground carries away a 
 notable portion of the soluble materials ; and, supposing that there ex 
 isted no means of adding to them, all soil would rapidly become 
 exhausted by cultivation. 
 
 (c.) But nature is continually rendering soluble that which she finds 
 insoluble in the soil, by the action of the air, of carbonic acid gas, by 
 heat, electricity, moisture, and complex chemical changes which are 
 always in progress. Again, a porous soil into which air and water can 
 find their way, is constantly receiving additions from the atmosphere, 
 and from spring water laden with soluble salts, raised by evaporation 
 and capillary attraction. (See $ 29, p. 9, $ 55, p. 17.) 
 
 ((/,) If, therefore, we were content to commence cultivating a virgin 
 soil, abounding in all that is requisite to form a plant ; to take off one 
 grain crop; and then leave the field uncultivated for a certain number 
 of years, we might in this manner retain the fertility of the so 1 1*1* ncl 
 at each period reap an equally large crop, for any length of time. 
 
 (,) But this mode of cultivating the soil is unprofitable; and, there 
 fore, the ingenuity of man has discovered various modes of hastening or 
 dispensing with the action of nature. These modes are 1. A 6 re fallow, 
 where two grain crops were taken in succession, and then the laud was 
 left unfruitful for a year, but frequently plowed and stirred so as to ex 
 pose every part of it to the dissolving action of the elements. 2. Rota 
 tions, so arranged that each succeeding crop abstracted only such mate 
 rials aa were not required by the other crops ; so that when grain was 
 again sown it found an accumulation of those peculiar elements which 
 were requisite for its prosperity. 3. Draining, whereby the soil was 
 rendered porous to a considerable depth, and enabled to receive and 
 retain such elements as the air and water were capable of stipplyino-j 
 and 4. Manuring, which is procuring from some other source, and ap 
 plying directly to the soil the cle?nents necessary for the crop ; or, in 
 other words placing in the ground the raw material which nature is to 
 work up into grain ; as the paper. maker collects old rags, out of which 
 white paper is to ba nride. (See Farmer s Companion and Horticultu 
 ral Gazette, Vol. ii, p. 89.) 
 
 (/) MANURING, therefore, may be defined to be the directly supplying 
 
304 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 to the soil those constituents \vhich are necessary for the formation of 
 the plant we wish to grow, and which, in a soluble shape, are eitlijr 
 naturally deficient in the soil, or have become so by our carrying them 
 off in the form of grain, meat, <tc., we not being able to wait until nature 
 performs this work for us,* 
 
 670. Manuring is probably the most costly mode of restor 
 ing the fertility of the soil that can be practiced. 
 
 671. But while many persons are content merely to retain, by 
 manuring, their land at its natural point of fertility, others ren 
 der it much more fertile than it ever was; on the principle that 
 if a certain quantity of applied manure can be worked up into 
 ,1 grain crop, a still greater quantity will supply a larger propor 
 tion of grain. 
 
 672. From this it must be apparent that in order that a 
 farmer may economically and skilfully manure his land, he must 
 understand the composition of plants, the relative materials 
 which constitute his soil, the constituents of the manures ap 
 plied, and their chemical action. For were he to put on his 
 field a salt in a soluble form which would immediately become 
 insoluble in consequence of chemical changes, the manure 
 would be lost to him. 
 
 In the following pages we shall chiefly confine ourselves to an ac 
 count of the manures which are generally available in the Northern 
 States, and the principles on which they act. For further information 
 on this extended and intricate subject we must refer the reader to works 
 especially bearing upon it. 
 
 673. The following diagram from Dumas & BonssingauW s Chemical 
 and Physiological Balance of Organic Nature, may be useful in this 
 connection. 
 
 A species of manurnig may be practiced, the principle of which differs from th 
 above; as where a salt is applied, wot for the purpose of directly entering info the 
 plant, but to net, chemically, as a solvent, upon the insoluble constituents of the soil; 
 o as a fixer of gases, or other to"" readily soluble materials, as charcoal nnd proba 
 bly plaster. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 305 
 
 AN ANIMAL A VEGETABLE 
 
 is is 
 
 AN APPARATUS OF COMBUSTION J AX APPARATUS OF REDUCTIOX ; 
 
 Possesses the faculty of Locomotion ; Is fixed ; 
 
 Burus Carbon, Reduces Carbon, 
 
 Hydrogen, Hydrogen, 
 
 Ammonium, Ammonium, 
 
 Exhales Carbonic acid, Fixes Carbonic acid, 
 
 Water, Water, 
 
 Oxide of Ammonium, Oxide of Ammonium, 
 
 Nitrogen ; Nitrogen ; 
 
 Consumes Oxygen, Produces Orgen, 
 
 Neutral nitrogeuized matters, Neutral nitrogenizei matters, 
 
 Fatty matters, Fatty matters, 
 
 Amylaceous matters, Amylaceous matters, 
 
 sugars, gums; sugars, gums; 
 
 Produces Heat, Absorbs Heat, 
 
 Electricity ; Abstracts Electricity ; 
 
 Restores its elements to the air, Derives its element s from the air, 
 
 or to the earth ; or from the earth ; 
 
 Transforms organized matters Transforms mineral matters into 
 
 into mineral matters. organized matters. 
 
 673. Manures are generally classed under three heads : (a,) vegeta 
 ble ; (6,) animal ; (c,) mineral. Those that are of vegetable origin be- 
 ing formed of decaying vegetable matter, consist, like the plant, of an 
 organic and mineral part ; of which the former is usually much the 
 lajger in quantity But a new branch of study is connected with the 
 decay 01 decomposition of this vegetable matter, and especially of its 
 organic part, in the farm-yard, in the compost heap, or in the soil. This 
 decay gives rise to new chemical combinations, which have much influ 
 ence on the efficacy of the decomposed matter as a manure. The nature 
 and products of this new series of chemical changes ought to be famil 
 iar to the farmer. 
 
 674. Those manures which are of animal origin resemble, in com 
 position, the parts of the animal body from which they are derivedthe 
 
 loocl, flesh, bone, <fc c . Or, if they consist of urine and dung of ani 
 male, they have a.certain relation, especially the solid excrements to 
 n which the animals have lived. Here, however, a new kind 
 of information is demanded. These animal substances, like theve-eta- 
 ble, putrifj before they become directly useful to plants. In the bodies 
 20 
 
306 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 of animals, also, changes take place, by -which the food consumed ia 
 decomposed, and now compounds of much importance are, in conse 
 quence, introduced into the urine and dung. All these changes ave, in 
 some degree, connected with the richness and fertilizing quality of ani 
 mal manures, or with the special action of the variety which may be 
 used. To know on what the general efficacy or peculiar effect of such 
 manures depends, their changes and the substances produced by them, 
 should be understood. How different samples of the same kind of ma 
 nures differ in virtue ; how this virtue is modified, lost, preserved, or 
 augmented these questions are of much consequence in ordinary farm 
 ing, if the best, or most profitable results are to be obtained by the 
 practical man. 
 
 G75. Mineral, or saline manures are combinations, or mixtures of diff 
 erent combinations of one or more of those mineral substances which 
 exist and are found in living plants. Thes-e saline substances are fixed 
 and definite in their composition. But to use them right to apply 
 them iu the proper place, at the proper time, and in the proper quantity 
 to understand their action, how they ought to be mixed, and why 
 their effects vary in different circumstances and localities all this re 
 quires that they should be thoroughly known, and their mode of action, 
 as single substances and as mixtures understood. (See Johnston s Ex- 
 pcrim. 
 
 676. In order to show the very complex action of plants and manures on the soil, 
 we extract the following curious and instructive account of an experiment by a prac 
 tical English farmer, from the Journal of the Royal Agricul. Socy. of England, v I. 
 xiii p- 417. 1852. It is worthy of careful study, and shows more clearly than any 
 other document we are acquainted wilh, the difficulties which beset the farmer in the 
 management of his cropland manures : 
 
 " In the autumn of 1816, a field of three acres was manured at the rate of 20 tons 
 of farm yard manure per acre, and sown with rye for soiling in the following spring. 
 It produced a very heavy crop, hut on account of the stalks becoming too hard for 
 the horses, half the rye was allowed to remain for seed. The part of the field which 
 had been cut for soiling was immediately plowed and sown with glole turnips, with 
 a dressing of three cwt of Peruvian guano per acre. The turnips were very fine. 
 After the seed rye was harvested and the turnips cleared, the whole three acres were 
 plowed and set with beans the following February ; and now comes the curious part 
 of the affair. The beans came up well all over the field ; but a difference was soon 
 perceived between those on the seed-rye and turnip ground, the former looking much 
 more luxuriant than the latter, hut we were not prepared for what afterwards took 
 place. The beans that followed the turnips actually stopped all growth when six 
 inches high, and, of course, did not seed, whereas, after the seed-rye they grew BO 
 luxuriantly as to injure the produce, and this difference extended to the line where 
 we had discontinued cutting the green-rje the more conspicuous as we had atopped 
 in the middle of a land. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 307 
 
 The result certainly astonished me, for it was in direct antagonism to all precon 
 ceived notions of farmers ; as it is usually thought by them that crops do not impov 
 erish the ground, nearly to the same extent, when cut green, as when allowed to ri 
 pen their seed. Turnips, too, are generally supposed to extract the greater portion of 
 their nourishment from the atmosphere. But here we find that beans actually re 
 fused to grow after the green-rye and turnips, notwithstanding the application of 
 three cwt of guano, and the land being in much better tilth ; where the rye was al 
 lowed to ripen its seed, and no extra manure applied they grew luxuriantly. 
 
 I determined to inquire whether the researches of chemists would throw any 1 ght 
 upon the question ; and the difficulty I had in compiling the following small tables, 
 fully accounts to my mind for the fact that chemistry has hitherto received so little 
 assistance from practical farmers. 
 Probable Amount of Ingredients abstracted from or restored to One acre of Land by 
 
 the several Crops and Manures of Rotation I, (Seeded Kye and Beans.)* 
 
 For one acre of land in Ibs. 
 
 I! 
 
 I a 
 
 So" 
 
 |,tc 
 
 1 
 & 
 
 S 
 "io 
 O 
 
 z 
 
 Potash 
 
 c; 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 *.| 
 ?-~ 
 
 Amount added to soil by ) 
 barn-yard manure, 3 
 Ditto by seed Rye, 
 T^al added for rye crop, 
 AUVJUIIC abstracted byditto 
 
 3320 
 5<> 
 ~337tT 
 
 216.9 
 
 400 
 6 
 ~li6~ 
 245 
 
 2380 
 53 
 2433 
 
 1868 
 
 180 
 2 
 18-2 
 31 
 
 140 
 0.7 
 
 ~ 141 
 
 25 
 
 * 
 ft 
 
 230 
 
 ~2sir 
 
 10 
 
 140 
 1 
 141 
 14 
 
 B dance afrer rye crop, 
 Ain t added by seed beans 
 
 1207 
 101 
 
 161 
 
 15 
 
 5(J5 
 86 
 
 148 
 
 13 
 
 116 
 3 
 
 .". 
 
 270 
 1 
 
 127 
 
 9 
 
 B dance left for Bean crop, 
 Amount required by ditto 
 
 I3<i3 
 
 ? 
 
 176 
 p 
 
 651 
 161? 
 
 161 
 
 ? 
 
 119 
 55 
 
 40 
 
 8 
 
 271 
 
 37 
 
 12!) 
 29 
 
 Bilanee, 
 
 ? 
 
 p 
 
 p 
 
 3 
 
 + 64 
 
 +32 
 
 + 234 
 
 + 100 
 
 Rotation 2, (Green Rye, Turnips, and Beans.) 
 
 For one acre in Ibs. 
 
 Carbon 
 
 6 . 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 ! 
 
 jjjj 
 
 1 
 
 GQ 
 
 a 
 
 fi 
 
 Amount adde^i to soil by ? 
 barn-yard manure, 3 
 Ditto by saed rye, 
 
 3320 
 56 
 
 400 
 6 
 
 2380 
 53 
 
 180 
 2 
 
 140 
 
 7 
 
 40 
 
 280 
 
 140 
 
 Tot l add for green rye crop 
 Amount abstracted by ditto 
 
 3376 
 
 406 
 168 
 
 2433 
 1233 
 
 12 
 
 141 
 
 17 
 
 40 
 
 9 
 
 ~14I 
 4 
 
 Balance after ditto 
 Am t added by 3 cwts guano 
 
 1877 
 
 238 
 
 1200 
 
 p 
 
 170 
 
 48 
 
 m 
 
 10 
 
 40 
 
 A 
 
 271 
 38 
 
 137 
 49 
 
 Balance left for turnip crop, 
 Am t abstracted by ditto 
 
 ? 
 
 
 ; 
 
 218 
 159 
 
 134 
 166 
 
 41 
 5 
 
 309 
 102 
 
 186 
 33 
 
 Balance left after the 2 crops 
 Am t added by seed leaves, 
 
 101 
 
 15 
 
 86 
 
 59 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 39 
 
 207 
 
 1 
 
 153 
 
 2 
 
 Bnlsnce left for bean crop, 
 Am t required by ditto 
 
 } 
 
 ! 
 
 p 
 
 72 
 164? 
 
 29 
 55 
 
 39 
 
 8 
 
 208 
 37 
 
 155 
 
 29 
 
 Balance 
 
 . 
 
 ? 
 
 : 
 
 92 
 
 94 
 
 +31 
 
 + 171 
 
 + 1?6 
 
 Mr. Hemming calculated in the same manner every constituent of the plant, but 
 the size of our pa^e obliges us to give those only which are most essential to growrh. 
 
 Cf The mark ( ) means minus, or that the turnips abstracted 32 Ibs. more Potasb 
 than had been supplied to the soil by the manure and other sources, hi the last line 
 
SOS AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 When we come to compare the balance left in the soil .after these two rotations, sup 
 posing the bean crop to have succeeded in both, we find that with the green rye and 
 turnips there is a large deficiency both of nitrogen and potash, that of the latter 
 amounting to 84 Ibs. per acre, or in other words the soil would have had to supply 
 84 Ibs. of potash, in addition to that supplied by the manure in order to grow a crop 
 cf beans, whereas in the rotation where the rye was allowed to stand for seed, there 
 was a large excess of potash, and a sufficiency of nitrogen." 
 
 The above also elucidates a principle which the practical farmer should never lose 
 sight of; viz, that a field may prove barren for a given crop, such as wheat, from the 
 deficiency of only one or two constituents ; andjthat, in order to supply this deficiency, 
 our cheapest course generally is to give to the soil that peculiar material. Suppose I 
 have a field which refused to grow wheat, in consequence of impoverishment. Am 
 I to supply barn-yard manure, which contains every thing the wheat crop can require, 
 but which is costly owing to the quantity which I must haul from a distance and 
 pread? or shall I apply 3 cwt of guano, and 100 pounds of super-phosphate of lime, 
 on the supposition that nitrogen and phosphoric acid alone are wanting? In the 
 Michigan Oak openings we have reason to believe that it is a deficiency of these two 
 materials only which renders the soil less fertile than it used to be ; but a chemical 
 analysis can alone positively decide the matter. In practice the question would be 
 one of cost, supposing the barn-yard manure to be good : but the amount of common 
 dung requisice to supply the nitrogen, phosphates and potash of the above named 
 guano and bones, would have to be very much larger than we are in the habit of using 
 to the acre. The above also teaches, that while a field may refuse to grow one crop 
 profitably, it may be quite capable of growing another and different class of plants. 
 
 677. Before manures can produce their full and profitable 
 effect upon the soil, the land must be laid dry by drainage or 
 other means. It must also be cleaned and kept clean from 
 weeds. 
 
 678. The value of the various constituents of manure may 
 be thus classified ; and the money cost, in the Western States r 
 of any given manure can easily be estimated by the quantity of 
 the following ingredients which it contains, in a soluble form. 
 
 1. Nitrogen. 
 
 2. Ammonia. 
 
 3. Phosphoric Acid. 
 
 4. Sulphuric Acid. 
 
 5. Soda. 
 
 6. Chlorine. 
 
 7. Potash. 
 
 8. Magnesia. 
 
 9. Iron and Manganese. 
 
 10. Lime. 
 
 11. Carbon. 
 
 12. Soluble Silica. 
 
 679. It is impossible to ascertain by theory alone and with 
 out actual experiment, the exact effect which a given manure 
 will produce upon a given soil or crop. The mechanical con- 
 it shows that there were 92 Ibs. less nitrogen and 84 Ibs. less potash than the bean 
 Crop required, and it appears to be taken for granted that the soil contained none of 
 these constituents except where they had been artificially supplied.) 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 309 
 
 struction of the soil, the climate, the season, the mode of cul 
 tivation, the salts already contained in the earth, but especially 
 the period, mode, and form in vv hich a manure is applied, all 
 combine in influencing the final result. Theoretically, the val 
 ue of a manure depends upon the amount of nitrogen which 
 it contains, but-, practically, this does not always prove to be the 
 case ; and in some instances, a salt, such as gypsum, wholly de 
 void of nitrogen, may return a larger crop than any nitrogenous 
 manure we can apply. The rule, however, is general in its ap 
 plication, the exceptions comparatively few. The form of a 
 manure, and the way in which we apply it are, in practice, of 
 chief importance. Thus, in most instances, barn-yard manure 
 well prepared and well rotted, is very superior in action to " long 
 dung," unfermented, and with the vegetable matter undecayed. 
 Yet there are soils and crops for which the latter is preferable. 
 Again, bones owe much of their efficacy to the manner in which 
 they are prepared. Whole bones, boiled bones, crushed or 
 ground bones, bones dissolved in sulphuric acid, and applied in 
 a powder, or in a solution with water, all differ in their effects 
 and profitable results. Thus, in an English experiment, it was 
 found that 
 
 16 bushels of crushed bones gave 10 tons 3 cwt. turnips per acre. 
 2 " bones dissolved in acid and applied dry gave 11 tons 15 cwt. 
 4 . 14 t , n 
 
 8 16 i 
 
 But when applied in a liquid form at the time of sowing, the 
 effect was still more remarkable, thus : 
 
 Tons per acre, 
 
 16 bushels of bone dust (dry) produced 11 of turnips. 
 
 8 " dissolved in 83 Ibs of acid dried up and ^ ,, (( 
 
 sown with the hand produced 5 
 
 While 2 bushels, with 83 Ibs. of acid, and 400 gal- ? T9l / 
 
 Ions water produced /& 
 
 And, again, in a third locality in Scotland, 76 Ibs. 
 of bones, 46 Ibs. of acid, and 400 gallons of 
 water produced 
 
 Wiiile 410 Ibs. of bones, with 28 Ibs. of acid ap- ? ,- 
 plied dry, produced only $ 
 
310 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 The same rule appears to hold good as regards barn-yard 
 manures. In Flanders and Switzerland they have long been 
 dissolved in water previous to application, and, of late years, in 
 Great Britain, the steam engine has been employed for this pur 
 pose, and the liquid carried over the farm in iron pipes, similar 
 to those used for Hydraulic works in our cities ; the extra pow 
 er of the manure being supposed to cover the greatly increased 
 cost of preparation and application. (See Prof. J. W. F. 
 Johnston s Essay on Manures, written for the Farmer s Com 
 panion and Horticultural Gazette, vol. 1, p. 98.) So in the 
 same manner, Plaster has been found to act more efficiently 
 when plowed in, instead of being scattered over the surface, and 
 newly and finely ground gypsum is understood to act more ef 
 ficiently than that which is coarse, and long kept, even in tight 
 barrels. And again, common salt has been applied with bene 
 ficial results, in large quantities, to fruit trees in one locality, 
 while a smaller application has killed trees in another. 
 
 There is no one subject in agriculture which demands, at the present 
 day, more careful, continued, and widely extended experiments than the 
 practice of manuring. Of the positive and relative constituents of 
 common manures, the best quantities to apply, the condition in which, 
 and the time when they should be used, the average effect which they 
 produce, and the money profit derived from their application, we regret 
 to believe that the great proportion of practical farmers are quite igno 
 rant; and there can be no doubt but that this ignorance causes great 
 individual and national losses. 
 
 680. I. AXIMAL MANURES. 
 
 FLESH, is a rich manure in itself, and the rapidity with which 
 it decays, enables it to bring other organic substances into a state 
 of active fermentation. It is a very compound substance, in 
 the shape in which we generally meet with it that of dead 
 animals consisting of the lean muscle, or Fibrin; of fat or 
 oil; and of blood, which again consists of Fibrin, Albumen, 
 (white of egg}) coloring matter, several salts and water ; while 
 connected with the flesh are hair, horns, hoof, tendons, bones, 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 311 
 
 again differing from the first in tlieir relative composition. The 
 only flesh, usually, at the farmer s disposal is that of animals ac 
 cidentally dying, or, near cities, the refuse of the slaughter 
 houses. A dead animal, if large, should be cut to pieces, and 
 mixed with six or eight? times its weight of peat, muck, earth, 
 or even barn-yard manure ; with plaster and salt ; being shel 
 tered from the rain ; the whole of which will be converted into 
 a very rich compost. A horse will supply sufficient ammonia 
 to grow an acre of wheat. 
 
 681. An ox, on the average, yields of 
 
 Saleable meat - 53 per cent jj Tallow, - - 8 per cent 
 Skiu, - 51 , per cent. 
 
 The marketable meat contains, 
 
 Drv bone, 10 per cent Muscle, with blood, lyraph c 16 p. ct. 
 
 Cellular tissue & fat 5 " Water, - - 71 " 
 
 The chemical composition of flesh and blood is almost identi 
 cal, so that blood may be called liquid flesh, and vice versa; the 
 solid or liquid state being more dependent upon structure than 
 upon the amount of water blood only containing 3 per cent 
 more water than flesh. 
 
 G82. Ultimate analysis of Dry Beef (A,) and Dry Ox Blood, 
 (B.) (Playfair and Beekman.) A B 
 
 Carbon, - - 51.83 51.96 
 
 Hydrogen, - - - 7.57 7.25 
 
 Nitrogen, 15.01 15.07 
 
 Oxygen, - 21.37 21.30 
 
 Ashes - 4.22 4.42 
 
 683. Inorganic analysis of the Blood of the Ox (A,) Calf (B,) 
 
 and Sheep (C.) (EnderUn.) ABC 
 
 Phosphate of Soda - 1G.77 30.18 13.30 
 
 Chloride of Sodium, - 59.34? EOC - cnc - 
 
 Chloride of Potassium, - 6.12 ] 5 ^ 65 bfa 57 
 
 Sulphate of Soda, 3.85 2.94 5.38 
 
 Phosphates of lime and magnesia, - 419 3.49? 10 QO 
 
 Oxide and phosphate of iron, - 8.28 9.23 
 
 Gypsum and loss, - - 1.45 1.46 0.83 
 
312 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 The reader will notice the large quantity of common Salt (Chloride of 
 sodium J found in the blood of our domestic animals, and as our com 
 mon forage plants contain but a small quantity of it, he will see the ne 
 cessity of regularly supplying it with the food. In countries near the 
 Sea, as in Great Britain, sufficient salt is deposited on the grass by the 
 winds and spray, and there, salt is not given to cattle ; but in the West, it 
 becomes an essential necessary of life, and were it not for the " Salt 
 Licks", the Deer and other wild, ruminating animals would perish. 
 
 (For the effect of blood as a manure upon wheat, in its yield and 
 composition see ante $ 177 p 68 ; upon rye $ 211, p 87 ; upon barley 
 $ 237, p 91 ; and upon oats $ 262, 103. 
 
 684. HAIR, HORN, AND WOOL, arc distinguished from the 
 muscular parts of the animal body, by the large proportion- 
 about 5 per cent of sulphur which they contain. They consist 
 of a substance, which, in other respects, closely resembles gluten 
 and gelatine in its chemical composition. When burned they 
 leave from one to 2 per cent of ash. The inorganic matter, 
 therefore, is generally the same as is found in the muscular fibre 
 and the bone. 
 
 685. BONES are, in reality, that portion of animals, to which, 
 as a manure, the former is the most indebted. It has been ob 
 served that all useful plants contain phosphorus, which is one 
 of the rarest minerals in the soil; which, when in a soluble form, 
 is most rapidly withdrawn; and yet, without which, plants be 
 come useless, for the sustenance of animal bodies. It has oc 
 curred, that the old pasture lands of Cheshire, England, became 
 impoverished of this element ; and although grass continued to 
 grow, it was inferior in quality, and animals fed upon it be 
 came diseased, especially as to their bony structure. Till lately 
 bones and brains have been the only available source whence 
 Phosphorus could be procured. The following is the composi 
 tion of the Ileum of a sheep (A,) of an ox (B.) and the verte 
 brae of a haddock (C.) (Thompson.) 
 
 ABC 
 
 Organic matter, 433 48.5 39.5 
 
 Phosphate of lime, - - 50.6 45.2 56.1 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 313 
 
 ABC 
 
 Carbonate of lime - - 4.5 6.1 3.6 
 
 Magnesia, - - 0.9 0.2 0.8 
 
 Soda, - - 0.3 0.2 0.8 
 
 Potash, - 0.2 0.1 
 
 The proportion of water in the bones of quadrupeds varies 
 from 7 to 20 per cent according to the age of the animal, and 
 the fat, or oily matter from 13 to 25 per cent. Those of the 
 ox contain 64.5 per cent of earthy matter, and 35.5 per cent of 
 cartilage ; each family differing in this regard. 
 
 680. Bones do not benefit plants under all circumstances, and, 
 as has been stated, the form and mode in which they are ap 
 plied, is of much importance. In Great Britain where they are 
 in especial demand for the turnip crop, it has been the fashion, 
 till of late, merely to grind them in mills built for the purpose ; 
 the bones being of different lengths, from fragments 1 inch long to 
 dust; and sometimes boiled, sometimes unboiled bones were 
 preferred. It is now becoming general there, and in the Uni 
 ted States, to employ them as Superphosphate or Biphosphate 
 of lime, that is, dissolved in Sulphuric acid. This may be done 
 by the Farmer himself procuring the ground bones, and in lead 
 en vessels, boiling in Sulphuric acid diluted with water ; but ac 
 cording to Johnston, the following is the true superphosphate. 
 " When burned bones are reduced to powder, and digested in 
 Sulphuric acid, diluted with once or twice its weight of water, 
 the acid combines with a portion of the lime, and forms sulphate 
 of lime (plaster) while the remainder of the lime and the whole 
 of the phosphoric acid are dissolved. The solution, therefore, 
 contains an add phosphate of lime, or one in which the phos 
 phoric acid exists in much larger quantity than in the earth of 
 bones. The true bi-phosphate when free from water consists of 
 71 J phosphoric acid, and 2S|- of lime." In a manufactured 
 state, however, it is probably never found thus pure ; and great 
 complaints have, at times, been made that the manufacturers mix 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 plaster, earth, salt, and other cheap ingredients with it. When 
 purchasing, the fanner should procure an analysis of the sam 
 ples and afterwards compare them with the bulk. In Great Bri 
 tain the manufacture of fictitious and worthless manures is said 
 to have become an extensive trade, the farmers thus losing large 
 ly from their ignorance of chemistry. On a small scale, bones 
 may be rendered partially soluble by breaking or grinding, and 
 mixing with fresh wood ashes, to be kept moist for a month or 
 two. 
 
 687. In the United States, Mineral Phosphate of lime or 
 Apatite has been found and dug in considerable quantities at 
 Crown Point, ~N T . Y., and in New Jersey; some of which has 
 been exported to England. So far, the purity appears to differ 
 much, and the expense of mining and dissolving, has discouraged 
 the progress of the works. The following are Dr. Jackson s an 
 alyses of pure specimens of the minerals, compared with Prof. 
 Johnston s analysis of bones. 
 
 New York. New Jersey. Bones. 
 
 Lime, 47 230 ? 
 
 Phosphoric Acid, 45.710 < 92 - 405 55 - 50 
 
 Car bouic Acid, 1.218 
 
 Lime, 1.554 
 
 Chlorine, 0.130 
 
 Calcium, 0,204 
 
 Fluoriae, 0.590 ., n 
 
 Calcium, 0.855 7 12 
 
 Protoxide of Iron, 2.000 040 
 
 Water, 0.500 20.00 
 
 Oxide of Manganese, 0.003 
 
 Phosphate of Magnesia, 2.00 
 
 Soda and common Salt, 250 
 
 Gelatine (animal matter,) 33 00 
 
 (See Jour, of Boston Socy. of Nat. Hist.} 
 
 Many Marls, especially those formed of recent shell, and some lime 
 rocks, contain notable proportions of the phosphates. 
 
 688. FISH are also a valuable manure, where they can be had 
 in quantities. On parts of the New York and New England 
 coasts they are annually caught in vast shoals for this purpose, 
 and the time will come when the streams and lakes of the West 
 
 .00 
 
 0.540 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 315 
 
 will supply their portion to the soil. The bones and flesh of fish 
 very nearly resemble those of quadrupeds in their phosphates and 
 nitrogen; fiyh, however, generally affording more free oil. 
 They should always be composted with muck, peat, &c. 
 
 689. Shell fish are rarely found sufficiently numerous to bo 
 used as a manure, except in a mineral state. In New England, 
 muscles and oyster shells are collected. In Alabama there are 
 vast deposits of this kind ; and according to Dr. Houghton (M. 
 S.,) much of the marl of Michigan is formed of recent shells. 
 They chiefly consist of lime, a little phosphoric acid, animal 
 matter, and in salt water, iodine, and soda. 
 
 690. BARN YARD MANURES are composed of the dung and 
 urine of animals, with hay, straw, &c., more or less decayed, and 
 they necessarily differ much according to (a,) the species ; (b,) 
 the age of the animal ; (c,) the food it eats ; (d,) the mode in 
 which the dung is preserved, whether exposed to rain, sun, &c. ; 
 (e,) the quantity of urine contained; (f,) the decomposition 
 which has taken place; (g,) whether alkalies or lime are 
 in connection with it during decay, and how long. 
 
 691. Table exhibiting the amount in pounds of carbon, &c., 
 in the food and dung of two cows during fourteen days. 
 (Thompson.) 
 
 BROWN Cow. 
 
 WHITE Cow. 
 
 
 Grass. 
 
 Dung. 
 
 Consump 
 tion. 
 
 Grass. 
 
 Dung. 
 
 Consump 
 tion. 
 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Carbon, 
 
 161% 
 
 67 
 
 91% 
 
 161% 
 
 64 
 
 973% 
 
 Hydrogen, 
 Nitrogen, 
 
 21 
 6% 
 
 8 
 27-10 
 
 1 *\ 
 
 3 8-10 
 
 21 
 
 6K 
 
 7% 
 2l| 
 
 13^ 
 4 
 
 Oxypeii, 
 Ash, 
 
 148 
 13fcf 
 
 54> 
 14^ 
 
 93 J< 
 4 4-10 
 
 148 
 
 18% 
 
 52 
 
 13% 
 
 96 
 5 
 
 Water, 
 
 1070% 
 
 902,i 
 
 167K 
 
 1070% 
 
 860 
 
 210% 
 
 
 1426% 
 
 1049 
 
 377 
 
 1426% 
 
 1000 
 
 426% 
 
 (See also, Licbig s Animal Chemistry. Note 4.) 
 
316 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 Or according to another estimate, a cow consuming 26.41 ibs. 
 of grass daily, emits in shape of dung 11.13 Ibs.; and con 
 sumes, in the support of its body, 15.28 Ibs. 100 parts of 
 fresh fallen cow-dung will afford 0.614 or five-eighths of a 
 pound of pure ammonia, or about 2 Ibs. 2 oz. of carbonate of 
 ammonia (sal volatile) of the shops. (S. L. Dana.) 
 
 Analysis of 100 parts of cow-dung. (Penot.) 
 
 Water, 
 
 Bitter matter, 
 Sweet substance, 
 Chlorophyl, 
 Albumen, 
 Muriate of soda, 
 Sulphate of potash, 
 Sulphate of lime, 
 Carbonate of lime. 
 Phosphate of lime, 
 Carbonate of iron, 
 Woody fibre, 
 Silica, 
 Loss, 
 
 G9.58 
 0.74 
 0.93 
 0.28 
 0.63 
 0.08 
 0.05 
 0.25 
 0.24 
 0.46 
 0.09 
 
 26.39 
 014 
 0.14 
 
 The amount of water, however, mentioned above, is too small. 
 Boussingault gives the following comparative analysis : 
 
 Fresh dung. 
 
 Water, 
 Nitrogen, 
 Saline matter, 
 
 Cow. 
 
 90.60 
 0.22 
 1.13 
 
 Horse. 
 
 75.31 
 0.54 
 
 4.02 
 
 Dry dung. 
 Cow. Horse. 
 
 2.3 
 
 12.0 
 
 22 
 16.3 
 
 of 
 
 So that in every 100 Ibs, of fresh cow-dung, we have 
 a pound of nitrogen, and a little over one pound of salts. 
 CO 2. Table exhibiting the food and water of a horse, con- 
 
 O 
 
 sumedj and dung and urine, voided in 24 hours. (Boussin 
 gault.) (See LieUg s Animal Chemistry. Note 4.) 
 
 Carbon, ... 
 Hydrogen, 
 Ox\gen, ... 
 
 Nitrogen, 
 Salts and earthy matters, - 
 
 Food. 
 
 Dung. 
 
 Consumed. 
 
 3938.0 
 446.5 
 3209.2 
 139.4 
 672.2 
 
 1472 9 
 191.3 
 1363.0 
 115.4 
 684.5 
 
 2465.1 
 2552 
 1846.2 
 24. 
 +12.3 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 31 7 
 
 Analysis of horse-dung*, in Rhode Island, (Jackson.) 500 
 grains, dried at a heat a little above that of boiling water, lost 
 357 grains of water. The dry mass weighing 143 grains was 
 burned, and left 8.5 grains of ashes, of which 4.80 grains were 
 soluble in dilute nitric acid, and 3.20 insoluble. 
 
 Water, - 357 
 
 Vegetable fibre and animal matter, - - 135 
 
 Silica, 3.2 
 
 Phosphate of lime, - 0.4 
 
 Carbonate of lime, - 1.5 
 
 Phosphate of magnesia and soda, - - 2.9 
 
 500.0 
 
 Horse-dung, in consequence of the smaller proportion of 
 water, and more ammonia, ferments, or " heats," more rapidly 
 than the solid excrement of the cow; the ammonia being 
 evolved and lost ; and in this mode it may be rapidly deterio 
 rated. 
 
 693. The dung of sheep and of fattening hogs is richer in 
 nitrogen than either of the above, and consequently ferments 
 and acts more rapidly. 
 
 Boussingault found the following proportions : 
 
 Sheep. Hogs. 
 
 Recent 
 
 "Water, - 63.0 
 
 Kitrogen, - - 1.1] 
 
 Dry Rpcenf 
 
 81 
 
 2.99 0.63 
 
 Dry 
 3.37 
 
 Ash - - 12.7 
 
 694. Dung of birds (Fowls, Pigeons, &c,) being mixed with 
 urine, is still richer. In Belgium the dung yearly produced by 
 100 pigeons is valued at 85.00. Its immediate effect depends 
 upon the quantity of soluble matter it contains, and this varies 
 much according to its age, the mode in which it is preserved, &c. 
 Thus Davy and Sprengel obtained respectively, of 
 
 Recent, Six months old. After fermentation. 
 
 23 per cent 16 per cent 8 per ce.t. 
 The soluble matter consists of uric acid, urate, sulphate and 
 
SI 8 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 carbonate of ammonia, common salt and sulphate of potash; 
 the insoluble part of phosphate of lime, with a little phos 
 phate of magnesia, &c. By fermentation it loses a portion of 
 its ammonia. Every farmer should carefully clean his fowl- 
 houses, at least once a week, and pack the dung in barrels with 
 plaster, dry peat, earth, and a little salt &c ; and in the spring 
 eow it on his wheat at the rate of 300 cwt to the acre. If 
 properly kept it differs but little from guano, for which $50 per 
 ton is now paid at our shipping ports. In Michigan, 10 bush 
 els more of wheat to the acre, might in many instances be thus 
 obtained. 
 
 695. We give the following analyses of Guano, chiefly to show 
 the composition of what has proved to be the most valuable ma 
 nure in existence ; and the nearer we can cause other manures 
 to approach to it, the more perfect will our art become. It is 
 merely the dung of salt-water birds preserved in the dry regions 
 of the globe, chiefly on the coast of Peru. It has lately been 
 stated, from actual measurement, that unless other deposites are 
 discovered, and if the demand continues at the present height, 
 the whole will be exhausted within 9 years. A patent hr.s 
 lately been granted in Great Britain for the preparation of an 
 equivalent compound, at a lower price, from fish, fish offal, &c., 
 and salts. 
 
 Analysis of 2 specimens of Peruvian Guano. ( Way.) 
 
 Water, - - 1257 13.67 
 
 Organic matter and Salts of ammonia, 33 (i7 52.97 
 
 Sand and Silica, - -1.79 1.42 
 
 Phosphoric acid, 20.21 14,56 
 
 Sulphuric acid, - 4.00 S.52 
 
 Lime, - 16.49 10.38 
 
 Magnesia, - - 0.80 0.31 
 
 Oxide of iron, 0.22 0.73 
 
 Potash, 360 1.42 
 
 Soda, - - 4.15 none 
 
 Chloride of Potassium, - none 2.02 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 319 
 
 Chloride of Sodium, - 2.57 nona 
 
 Or the average of per cen t 
 
 Ammonia at - . 17.41 
 
 Phosphate of lime at - - 24.12 
 
 Potash at - - . 3^9 
 
 These three "being the elements chiefly demanded by plants, 
 
 and in which the soil is apt to be deficient : in Guano, they are 
 
 in the proper state of solubility and combination. 
 
 690. NIGHT SOIL, or human excrements, are extensively used 
 in Belgium, Germany, China, and other countries ; but the Eng 
 lish and Americans appear to have an insuperable objection to 
 manuring with these substances. A few years ago they were 
 prepared in Great Britain and in the Ciy of New York, in a dry 
 form devoid of smell, and called Poudrette and Urate ; but 
 they seem to have gone greatly out of use, probably on account 
 of the means taken to render them less obnoxious dispelling the 
 gases, so as to reduce the value of the manure below the cost of 
 production. The excrement of men living on animal food is 
 richer in nitrogen and phosphates than of those living on veg 
 etables. (See Lielujs Aanimal Chemistry, Note I.) 
 
 697. URINE. It is to the urine, that barn yard manure chiefly 
 owes its value, both as regards nitrogen and salts ; and yet in 
 our Western States how few take any pains to save the liquids ; 
 or prevent their being afterwards washed out of the dung. Liebig 
 denies that there is any available nitrogen in horse dung; and 
 practically, it probably is so ; so that with from 3600 to 4000 Ibs. 
 of fresh horse dung, corresponding to 100 Ibs of dry dung, we 
 place on the land from 2484 to 3000 Ibs of water, of 730 to 900 Ibs 
 of vegetable matter and altered gall, and also from 100 to 270 of 
 salt,, and other inorganic substances, a portion of which only are 
 soluble ; while in urine, rotted with water, we apply a large 
 quantity of nitrogen, as well as of the most valuable salts, and 
 these in a dissolved state ready at once to feed the plant, and 
 therefore requiring a very small quantity, as we have already 
 shown respecting bones. The urine of all animals bears a very 
 
320 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 strong chemical resemblance. We give the following table from 
 Sprenyel showing the composition of Cow s urine wj^en fresh 
 (A,) ; putrified alone (B,) ; and when putrified with water (C.) 
 
 Urea, 
 
 Albumen, - .. 
 
 Mucus, 
 
 Benzoin acid, 
 
 Lactic acid, 
 
 Carbonic acid, 
 
 Ammonia, 
 
 Potash, - 
 
 Soda, 
 
 Silica, 
 
 Alumina, 
 
 Oxide of iron, 
 
 Oxide of manganese, 
 
 Lime, 
 
 Magnesia, 
 
 Chlorine, - 
 
 Sulphuric acid, - 
 
 Phosphoric acid, 
 
 Acetic acid, (vinegar) 
 
 Sulphuretted hydrogen,- 
 
 Insoluble earthy 
 
 Phosphates and carbonates, 
 
 Water, 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 c 
 
 -4000 
 
 1000 
 
 600 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 190 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 90 
 
 250 
 
 120 
 
 - 51G 
 
 500 
 
 500 
 
 5256 
 
 16 
 
 1533 
 
 205 
 
 487 
 
 1622 
 
 664 
 
 661 
 
 664 
 
 - 554 
 
 551 
 
 554 
 
 36 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 - 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 65 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 36 
 
 22 
 
 30 
 
 272 
 
 272 
 
 272 
 
 405 
 
 388 
 
 332 
 
 70 
 
 26 
 
 46 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 30 
 
 180 150 
 92,624 95,443 93,481 
 
 100,000 100..000 10.0000 
 
 It will thus be understood how fresh urine may destroy vegetation, 
 and yet prove beneficial when decomposed. 
 
 Urine of 
 
 Water 
 in 
 1000 parts 
 
 Solid matter in 1000 parts. 
 
 Avernpo 
 quantity 
 voided 
 in 
 24 hours 
 
 Organic. 
 
 Inorganic. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Mim, 
 Horse, 
 Cow, 
 Sheep, 
 PJKj 
 
 430 to 970 
 86 to 940 
 880 to 93JI 
 930 to QUO 
 926 to 983 
 
 22 to 52 
 27 to 79 
 50 to 70 
 28 to 50 
 9 to 56 
 
 8 to 18 
 33 to 45 
 20 to 47 
 12 to 20 
 9 to 18 
 
 30 to 70 
 60 to 124 
 70 to 120 
 40 to 70 
 18 to 74 
 
 Slbs. 
 3 ? 
 40 
 p 
 p 
 
 It is to the UREA which exists in urine in very much larger 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 321 
 
 quantity than in any other substance, that its beneficial effects 
 are chiefly due. 
 
 Urea is a white salt-like substance, very soluble in water, consisting 
 of 
 
 ~ , Per cent. 
 
 Carbon, ----. 200 
 
 Hydrogen, - . . _ - 6 6 
 
 Nitrogen, - - . . 46 " 7 
 
 Oxygen, .... 2 6.7 
 
 Besides which, when the urine begins to ferment, this substance 
 changes entirely into carbonate of ammonia. As this rapidly escapes 
 into the air, the urine must be kept in covered vessels, and plaster, peat, 
 sulphuric acid, <fcc., may be mixed with it ; but burnt lime must not be 
 brought into contact with it. 
 
 There are various modes of preserving the liquid manures of the barn 
 yard, such as tanks, sawdust, <fcc.; but probably, in all respects, the best 
 is the simple plan invented by Mr. Mechi, of England. This consists 
 of a shallow, water-tight cellar under the stable, with a floor made of 
 scantlings laid an inch and a half apart from each other, so that the dung 
 ado urine fall below, and are preserved till carried to the field. It is of the 
 utmost importance to the farmer to preserve this liquid ; and if one 
 must be lost, it ought to be the solid. 
 
 699. GOOD BARN YARD MANURE, then, is a mixture of 
 dung, urine, and straw, kept from the rain and sun, decomposed 
 to a certain extent ; and its value, per ton, must depend equally 
 on the various proportions of these matters which it contains * 
 the food of the animals ; and the state of the decomposition, 
 &c. 
 
 Analysis of barn yard manure, just previous to being ap 
 plied, at New Castle-upon-Tyne, England. (Richardson :) 
 
 nr L Fresh. 
 
 Water, . - . 6496 
 
 Organic matter, - - . _ 2471 
 
 Inorganic salts, ..... 1032 
 
 f, , Dried at 212. 
 
 Carbon, . 3? 4Q 
 
 jiydrogen, - - . . 5 27 
 
 Oxygen, - .... 25 52 
 
 Nitrogen, j 76 
 
 Ash, - ... 
 
 21 
 
322 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 Inorganic matter, 1. Portion soluble in \vater. 
 
 Potash, 
 
 3.22 
 
 Sulphuric Acid, - 
 
 - 3.27 
 
 Soda, - 
 
 2.73 
 
 Chlorine, 
 
 3.15 
 
 Lime, 
 
 0.34 
 
 Silica, 
 
 O.l 4 
 
 Magnesia, 
 
 0.26 
 
 
 
 2. Portions soluble in 
 
 muriatic acid only. 
 
 
 Silica, - 
 
 27.01 
 
 Carbonate of Magnesia, 
 
 - 1.63 
 
 Phosphate of Lime, - 
 
 7.11 
 
 Sand, - 
 
 30.99 
 
 Phosphate of Magnesia, - 
 
 2.26: Carbon, 
 
 - 0.83 
 
 Phosphate of Iron, 
 
 4.68 
 
 Alkali and los?, 
 
 3.14 
 
 Carbonate of Lime, 
 
 9.34 
 
 
 
 Thus, of 100 Ibs. of barn yard manure, well made, well taken 
 care of, and hauled on the field, 65 Ibs. are pure water; of the 
 remaining 35 Ibs., 25 are inert carbonaceous matter, only ser 
 viceable as a source of carbonic acid, leaving only 1 per cent, 
 of inorganic substances, and 0.6 of nitrogen, as true fertilizing 
 matters. Of this 10 per cent, only 3 are of much value either 
 as regards their commercial price or relative value. But the 
 above manure is of extraordinary richness when compared with 
 what we are in the habit of applying in the Western States. 
 Ours is generally thrown out of the stables, every shower pene 
 trating through it, and carrying into the next ditch whatever 
 there may be soluble in water ; then, through spring and sum 
 mer, the heat of the sun and fermentation drives off all gases 
 as formed ; and when, at much toil and expense, we apply it, 
 we find nothing which can feed a plant or assist it to grow. 
 The "black water" found round manure heaps, where there hap 
 pens to be a hole in the ground, is sufficient proof of this. The 
 peat and marl of our marshes are much more valuable than 
 such dung. 
 
 As this a point of great practical and economical importance, the 
 teacher ought to imprsss it especially on the minds of his pupils, and 
 may exhibit the effect of water and heat on fresh manure before them. 
 
 We strongly recommend all farmers who take the troub e to haul their manure 
 on to their soil, to save it either on Mr. Mechi s plan, or to have a cheap shed near the 
 door of the staMe into which it can be pitched, raking care to use sufficient straw, 
 sawdust, peat, &c., to absorb all the liquids One load of such dung is proved to b 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 323 
 
 equal to at least eightjthat have been exposed. The best mode of saving sheep manure 
 is to keep the sheep under sheds, giving sufficient straw to keep them clean. Not 
 only is much manure thus saved, but less food is consumed, and the sheep are much 
 more profitable. (Sec Farmer 3 Companion and Horticulural Gazette, VOL. l,p. 6, 
 64.) 
 
 700. In America, the European mode of making composts of barji 
 yard manures and other substances is not much employed. It is not 
 only a greater expense of manual labor, and lower value of produce 
 which forbid it, but there are serious reasons for believing that with our 
 very hoi summer climate, and comparative want of showers, composts 
 will not act as effectively with us as they do in the Eastern Hemisphere. 
 The subject, however, docs not appear to have been yet tested by ex 
 periment, and we can only speak theoretically. 
 
 There are many other sources of animal manures enjoyed in various 
 parts of the world, but which at present are of no practical interest to 
 Western farmers. 
 
 701. MINERAL MANURES. 
 
 By this term we mean all substances of an inorganic nature, 
 all of which are derived, either directly or indirectly, from the 
 soil, such as wood and coal ashes, plaster, (fee. 
 
 WOOD ASHES. These are the remains of trees, after the or 
 ganic or vegetable matter has been consumed (driven off in the 
 shape of gas,) by fire ; and consequently, while they all bear a 
 general resemblance, they differ much in the relative proportion 
 of the constituents, according to the trees and soils from which 
 they are derived. As manures they have a two fold action ; 
 (a,) they supply to the plant the inorganic constituents which 
 it requires; (b,) they act chemically as solvents upon other in 
 soluble salts already in the soil ; or they neutralize acids, <fcc. 
 
 702. When we have burnt a tree and collected the ashes 
 we find that they consist of two portions, those that are soluble 
 in water and those that are insoluble. The average quantity of 
 ashes from 100 parts of dry oak, beech, birch, &c., is 2.87. 100 
 parts of such ashes afford 13.57 parts soluble; 86.43 parts in 
 soluble, the latter being left behind at our ash works, while the 
 soluble have been boiled down and exported as potash. Pine 
 
324 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 wood (dry,) affords only 0.83 in 100 parts of ashes; of which 
 50 are soluble, 50 insoluble. Wheat straw yields 4.40 in 100 
 parts, 19 per cent, being soluble, 81 insoluble. 
 
 Composition of the ashes of hard wood, (oak, beech, birch, 
 &c., (A) ; of Pine, (Pinus abies,) (B) ; and of wheat straw, 
 (C). (Dana.) 
 
 100 parts of soluble contain A, B. C. 
 
 Carbonic Acid, 22.70 13.50 
 
 Sulphuric Acid, 6.43 6.90 02 
 
 Muriatic Acid, 1.82 13.0 
 
 Silex, 95 2.00 35.6 
 
 Potash and Soda, 67.96 69.70 50.0 
 
 Water, 7.90 
 
 100 parts of the insoluble contain, A. B- C. 
 
 Carbonic Acid, 35.80 21.50 
 
 Phosphoric Acid, 3.40 1.80 1.20 
 
 Silex, 4.25 13.00 75.00 
 
 Oxide of Iron, 0.52 22.30 2.50 
 
 Oxide of Manganese, 2 15 5.50 
 
 Magnesia, 3.55 8.70 
 
 Lime, 35.80 2720 5.80 
 
 Charcoal, 15.50 
 
 The following gives a comparative view of the entire ashes 
 of the oak (A,) ; elm (Jj,) ; Beech ( CJ ; and fir tree (pinus 
 sylvestris,) ; (2) ,) ; analysed in Europe. (Johnston.) 
 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 
 
 D. 
 
 Potash, 
 
 8.43 
 
 21.92 
 
 15.83 
 
 
 
 Soda, 
 
 5.65 
 
 13.72 
 
 2.88 
 
 997 
 
 Lime, 
 
 75.45 
 
 47.80 
 
 G333 
 
 46.15 
 
 Magnesia, 
 Oxide of Iron, 
 
 4.49 
 0.57 
 
 7.71 
 0.38 
 
 11.29 
 0.79 
 
 13.46 
 3-26 
 
 Phosphoric Acid, 
 Sulphuric Acid, 
 Chlorine, 
 
 3.46 
 1.16 
 
 0.01 
 
 3.62 
 
 1.28 
 
 3.07 
 1.35 
 0.14 
 
 4.49 
 3.03 
 0.71 
 
 Silicn, 
 
 0.78 
 
 307 
 
 1.32 
 
 8.38 
 
 Percentage of ash in the dry 
 hard wood, 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 0.143 
 
 It is thus obvious that, by leaching, little else is removed than 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 325 
 
 potash, soda, and sulphuric acid, (the carbonic acid being a pro 
 duct of combustion, and of no intrinsic value) ; and when ashes 
 are thus separated on a large scale, a notable quantity of the 
 alkalies remains behind. Though the refuse is not immediately 
 soluble, it will become available to plants in the soil by chemical 
 action, and the power which roots appear to possess of decom 
 posing mineral matter; while such alkalies as remain will act on 
 the silica, and form soluble silicates for grass and the stalks of 
 grain. 
 
 In leaching, more or less lime is always added for the pur 
 pose of depriving the potash of its carbon, and rendering it 
 caustic, so that the common leached ashes are richer in lime than 
 before the process commences. According to Dana, a bushel of 
 good ashes contains about 5^- pounds of real potash. In leach 
 ing ashes, generally about one peck of lime is added to each 
 bushel of ashes, and as it loses no bulk during the operation, a 
 cord of leached ashes contains about the following proportions 
 allowing an average of 4 Ibs. per bushel to be leached 
 
 out: 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Phosphoric acid, - - 117 
 
 Silex, - 146 
 
 Oxide of iron, 17 
 
 Oxide of manganese, - - 51 
 
 Magnesia, - - - - 119 
 
 Carbonate of lime, including that added in leaching, - 3072 
 
 Potash combined with silica, - - 50 
 
 Spent ashes therefore belong to the class of carbonates ; and 
 to the farmer are worth very nearly as much as the unleached. 
 
 In nearly the whole range of soils, ashes are beneficial to 
 cultivated plants; but much more so on sandy and gravelly 
 lands than on clay, which being chiefly formed of granite 
 rocks naturally contain potash. We have also seen, in the 
 analyses of plants, that certain genera, such as turnips, carrots, 
 potatoes, beets, <kc., contain a very large amount of the alka- 
 
320 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 lies; to sucli therefore ashes are found to be an essential ma 
 nure. But the immediate benefit of such an application is 
 most perceptible upon leguminous plants, such as clover, peas, 
 beans, &c. Applied to grass land, as a top dressing, it roots 
 out the moss, and promotes the growth of white clover, where 
 it is indigenous to the soil. On Red clover, it will act more 
 certainly in connection with plaster. If applied in large doses 
 to poor thin soils it is believed to act injuriously by causing a 
 rapid disappearance of the organic matter, but this may be pre 
 vented by the use of peat> barn-yard manures, &c., at the same 
 time. 
 
 In connection with all wood-ashes is a large quantity of 
 charcoal, and imperfectly burned carbonaceous matter, which 
 also add to the value of the manure. 
 
 Unleached ashes act at once, most rapidly and powerfully ; 
 leached ashes act more slowly, but continue to act for many 
 years after being applied. In the large heaps of such ashes, 
 as everywhere accumulate in the west around the asheries, we 
 neglect a most useful source of fertility ; and where they have 
 thus lain for a length of time, they are probably, to a consider 
 able extent, again rendered soluble. Their effect on the me 
 chanical condition of the soil is also worthy of notice. They 
 render sands more compact and retentive of water, while they 
 separate and render friable, heavy clays. 
 
 In practice, they should always be placed in the soil, where 
 the roots can come in contact with them. 
 
 It is a general custom to apply ashes to com, on the surface 
 of the ground, but in this way the plant can receive no benefit 
 except from the little that is soluble and is carried down by 
 rain ; but placed in the ground previous to planting, the roots 
 and chemical action will afford many elements not available in 
 the other way. The only advantage of placing ashes on the 
 surface is the protecting of the plant against grubs. The seed, 
 however, should not come in immediate contact with the ashes. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 327 
 
 Prof. Way has lately ascertained that all clay soils contain a double 
 silicate of alumina and one of the alkalies or alkaline earths, as : 
 
 Soda, 
 
 Potabh, Magnesia, 
 
 Ammonia. 
 
 which is slowly soluble, but sufficiently so to supply what plants re 
 quire ; and that these silicates, without exception, are capable of ab 
 sorbing and retaining ammonia; and, what is still more important, 
 some of them have the faculty of abstracting ammonia from the air. 
 " Whenever a salt of ammonia or potash reaches the soil, and gets dis 
 tributed through it, a change occurs a double silicate of alumina and 
 ammonia is formed, and the salt which was added no longer exists 
 there. The ammonia or potash henceforth exists in the soil only in 
 the form of silicate, and is presented to the roots of a plant only in 
 that form, or in the form of carbonate derived from it by the action of 
 carbonic acid in the soil. And inasmuch as all average soils possess 
 this property of conversion in more than the degree necessary for the 
 quantity of manure which reaches them, the inference is obvious and 
 incontestable, that nature has given to the soil this power for the spe 
 cific purpose of preparing the food of plants, and we then have the soil 
 occupying a place intermediate between that of mere dead matter, and 
 the living organism of plants." We can only thus slightly mention 
 this most important and beautiful discovery ; and refer the reader to 
 Prof. Way s own writings in the Jour, of Royal Agricul. Socy. oj Eng 
 land, vol. xiii, itc. 
 
 703. LIME is everywhere an essential of* a fertile soil, and in 
 Great Britain is more extensively used than any other mineral 
 substance. It is applied in a variety of forms, as (a,) carbon 
 ate of lime lime rock (44 Ibs. of carbonic acid and 51 Ibs. 
 of lime ;) (b,) the same lime rock burned, and the carbonic 
 acid driven oft , when it becomes caustic, but again absorbs car 
 bonic acid and moisture rapidly from the air when it again re 
 turns to a carbonate, or is " slaked ;" (&,) Gypsum, Plaster, 
 Sulphate of lime, (d,) Phosphate of lime, as in bones, &c., of 
 which we have already spoken, (e,) Silicate of lime, existing 
 in many rocks and earths ; (f,) Marls ; (ffj Chalk, which is 
 another form of carbonate of lime, chiefly found in England; 
 (k,) Magnesian limestone, the base of which is lime, with a 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 varying proportion of magnesia. Of these, only common 
 hme, plaster and marl, are of present interest to us in this part 
 of the country. 
 
 Lime rocks are rarely pure, and they vary much in their ex 
 act composition. It is believed that those of Michigan have not 
 yet been analyzed. The following are specimens from Seneca 
 county, N. Y., examined by Mr. Delafield. 
 
 Insoluble sand and clay, . . *& f ^4.0 "Vo 
 
 Alumina and peroxide of iron, . 1.4 230 260 90 
 
 Carbonate of lime, . 90 . 53.5 600 no 
 
 JfT*/ I* 2.8 5.5 2.0 
 
 Oxide of manganese, . nonef none< 1Q 
 
 Soluble saline matter, 14 12 24 
 
 Phosphoric acid, . tracCf trace> Ql 
 
 (Trans, of tf. y . Agricul. Socy., vol. x, p. 61 1 .) 
 
 The following are analyses of English lime rocks made by 
 Prof. Johnston, in their imburned and burned states : 
 
 BURNED H0.1. K0.2. 
 
 Carbonate of lime, . 94 gG 
 
 Sulphate of lime. . 23 032 
 
 Carbonate of magnesia, - . : 26 () ^ 
 
 Alumina and oxide of iron, . . 073 j 20 
 
 Phosphate of lime, . ? ? 
 
 Silica - 2.92 2.05 
 
 BURNED - NO. 1. NO. 2 . 
 
 ^> . 89.93 88.85 
 
 Magnesia, . l ^ (W3 
 
 Sulphuric acid, - . 22 03Q 
 
 Phosphoric acid, . .90 
 
 Alumina and oxide of iron, - . j 533 j go 
 
 Silicate in the state of silicate, - - 4 92 3 39 
 
 Carbonic acid and moisture, - - 2.68 5 05 
 (Johnston on the use of lime in Agriculture ,p. 243.) 
 
 ^ We shall shortly mention the effect of burned and slaked 
 Hme upon the land. 
 
 1. Mechanical ; it opens and renders free, stiff clays, and con- 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 329 
 
 solidates sands. 2. Chemical, (a,) increases the fertility of all 
 soils in which it does not already abound ; and especially of te 
 nacious, moist soils and those containing much inert vegetable 
 matter ; (b,) it improves the quality of the crop ; (c,) it increa 
 ses the effects of manure, calls into action that which is dormant, 
 and less manures needs afterwards be applied ; (dj alters the na 
 tural produce of the land by killing some plants and favoring the 
 growth of others it kills moss and sour grasses and brings up 
 sweet and tender herbage with clovers wheat has a thinner 
 skin, and yields more flour runs less to straw peas and beans 
 are of better quality, and so with most plants ; (ej it hastens 
 the maturity of the crop ; (fj it renders the whole country more 
 healthy, and plants less subject to diseases. 
 
 Lime, indeed, can scarcely be applied judiciously to any soil 
 without benefit ; but it requires care and experience acting as it 
 does with a varying effect under different circumstances. 
 
 The quantity of lime which ought to be added to a soil is of 
 course a question of experiment and practice. Theoretically 3 
 per cent of lime (finely disintegrated) at least, ought to be 
 present in a soil which contains an ordinary proportion of veg 
 etable matter and of the other food of plants. In order to add 
 1 per cent of lime to the land, the quantity to be laid on will 
 depend upon the depth. The following table shows the num 
 ber of tons of burned lime as it comes from the kiln, which will 
 give one per cent of lime to soils, respectively 3, 6, 9, and 1 2 
 inches in depth. 
 
 If the depth of the soil be 12 ins. 9 ins. 6 ins. 3 ins. 
 
 Tons of burned lime, per cent per cent per cent per cent 
 
 16 tons give - 11424 
 
 12 " " H 1 !>.> 3 
 
 % % 1 2 
 
 H % X i 
 
 Quantity of quicklime applied per Imperial acre in different 
 localities : 
 
330 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 Roxburgh, 
 
 200 every 19 or 
 
 10 
 
 Ayr, 
 
 40 " 5 or 
 
 8 
 
 Carse of Stirling 
 
 54 " G or 
 
 9 
 
 South Durham, 
 
 90 " ]2 or 
 
 8 1 
 
 Worcester, 
 
 70 " G or 8 or 
 
 10 
 
 Flanders, 
 
 (50 " 1-2 ) or 
 
 4 
 
 Whennpplied. 
 to the fallow 
 do., or lea 
 do 
 do 
 before grasses tt tares. 
 
 Or at the average of 8 or 10 bushels a year per acre. 
 
 Lime is found, in some of its shapes, over a large poition of the Uni 
 ted States ; but so far, its application as burnt lime has been much neg 
 lected. For further information we refer the reader to Prof. Johnston s 
 Essay on the use of lime in agriculture, 12 mo, pp. 259, Edinburgh, 1849. 
 
 704. GYPSUM or PLASTER is a Sulphate of lime. lOOlbsof 
 common gypsum consist of 46 Ibs of sulphuric acid, 33 Ibs of 
 lime, and 21 Ibs of water. When it is heated to redness this 
 water is driven off, and the gypsum is very easily reduced to an 
 exceedingly fine powder. In this form it is used by masons. 
 It dissolves in 500 times its weight of pure water, or 50 gallons 
 will dissolve one pound. Thus it is often found in spring wa 
 ter, and in streams which pass through a soil in which gypsum 
 exists. In solution with water it is decomposed when mixed 
 with fermenting animal or vegetable matter. 
 
 Gypsum acts very differently on different soils and in different 
 localities ; at times producing no visible effect whatever ; and at 
 others, becoming almost a necessary of profitable cultivation. 
 
 The theory of its beneficial action has long been a subject of 
 dispute. The most probable solution is, that to a small extent 
 it supplies lime and sulphuric acid to the plant, but is chiefly 
 useful by the power it possesses of solidifying and retaining 
 the ammonical gases of air and earth. 
 
 Benjamin Franklin first introduced it from France into the 
 United States. It was afterwards imported from Nova Scotia ; 
 and as New York, and the other Western States were settled, it 
 was discovered in abundance. Ohio and Michigan possess large 
 beds of it in various localities. It is quarried, and ground in 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 331 
 
 mills ; but is supposed to differ in quality, some mines having 
 a higher reputation than others, probably in consequence of 
 greater purity. That used by masons is said to be ground from 
 selected specimens. 
 
 It were interesting to try qtick lime along side of plaster, so as to as 
 certain the relative effect and profit of eacb. At present, plaster in 
 Michigan is expensive, costing $7.00 loose or $9.00 in barrels per ton 
 at the mill ; and most that is used is carried by land either from De 
 troit or Grand Rapids ; while there are few farms in the interior of 
 the St;ite which cannot procure excellent marl at little more expense 
 than digging. The late Dr. Houghton expressed the opinion that upon 
 our s;mdy lands, the shell marls, even without burning, would prove 
 quite as effective. Of the quantity consumed in this State we have no 
 correct statistics. We find that during the year ending June 1853, the 
 Central Railroad carried 2,613 tons ; and allowing as much more for the 
 Southern Railroad, and for private conveyance, we have a total of 5226 
 tons averaging $10 per ton delivered on the farm, which makes a total 
 of $52,260 per annum for this one manure. It is very important that our 
 ranrls and peats should be more fully investigated and their effects care 
 fully tried. 
 
 Prof. Johnston states that when mixed with common salt, the 
 action of gypsum upon clovers, beans, peas, <fec., appears to be 
 greatly increased. 
 
 W. Alexander, of Ballochmyle, Scotland, dressed an apparently worth 
 iest crop of young beans with a mixture of 2 cwt. of gypsum, and one of 
 common salt per acre. The effect was almost marvelous, and instead 
 of a bad crop, his beans were the admiration of the country. He found 
 a sensible effect produced by this mixture even after the beans were in 
 flower. 
 
 Plaster acts as a stimulant, and its tendency is to impoverish 
 the soil unless organic and other manures are liberally added. 
 
 705. MARL properly means an earthy mixture containing not 
 less than 20 per cent of carbonate of lime. If the proportion of 
 lime be less than this, the mixture is rather a marly clay, con 
 taining potash or silica in place of lime, as in the Green-sand 
 marls of New Jersey, and Silicious marls of Massachusetts. (See 
 
332 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 117, 118, 119, 120, p. 37 J Of the true marls, there are 
 many varieties, differing both in composition and external char 
 acter ; and consequently in value. 
 
 The following are analyses of marls in Seneca Co., N. Y. 
 
 No. 1, No. 2, No. 3. 
 
 Moisture, - - 4.50 1.0 3.48 
 
 Organic matter, - 8.50 4.20 1.65 
 
 Insoluble sand, - 6.60 6.0 5.0 
 
 Carbonate of lime, - 77.10 83.33 83.35 
 
 Magnesia, - - 2.10 2.16 40 
 
 Phosphoric acid.) , on 086 
 
 Alumina, \ 21)0 
 
 Common Salt, 0.20 
 
 Sulphate of lime, 50 
 
 Sulphuric acid, - 0.46 
 
 The lime marls appear to be formed in two modes ; (a,) by 
 the deposite of lime brought to the surface by springs ; (b t ) by 
 the accumulation of shells, and minute forms of animal life, or 
 Infusoria, often microscopic, with calcareous coverings. " Some 
 of these are so minute, that a cubic inch of stone has been cal 
 culated to contain the remains of 41 thousand millions of them 
 and yet deposites composed almost entirely of such remains 
 have been met with of 20 and 30 feet in thickness. How very 
 striking is it to find the united labors of these invisible creatures 
 capable of producing such extraordinary effects ! How very lit 
 tle we really know of what is going on around us !" (Johnston.) 
 
 The marls of Michigan are believed to consist of both these 
 kinds, but especially of the latter. We believe they have nev 
 er yet been analyzed, but will probably be found rich in phos 
 phoric acid and ammonia. Mr. Del afield states of the New 
 York marls above mentioned, that the poorest will afford 25 Ibs 
 of phosphoric acid to every ton of dry and weathered marl. 
 This is equal to 45 Ibs of phosphate of lime, a quantity found in 
 80 Ibs of bone dust> and equal also to what a grazing cow annu- 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 333 
 
 ally takes from the land. The best Michigan marls will proba 
 bly be found much richer than the above and here is the very 
 substance in which our oldest wheat lands are beginning to be 
 deficient, (See Genesee Farmer, August, 1853J and yet it is 
 allowed to lie neglected and despised in almost every marsh and 
 lake. Marls may be applied in two modes, (a,) burned as lime, 
 in which respect they do not much differ in effect from the best 
 agricultural lime rocks ; (b,) in the natural state, but dried so as 
 to powder. Like lime they produce a mechanical and chemi 
 cal effect; the first differing with the soils and the character of 
 the marl. The chemical effect consists in actually rendering 
 the soil productive of larger crops. The exact mode of acting 
 does not appear to be well understood. The observed effects of 
 marl and shell sand, in so far as they are chemical, are chiefly 
 the following : They alter the nature and quality of the grasses 
 when applied to pasture ; they cover even the undrained bog r 
 with a short rich grass they extirpate coarse grasses and moss, 
 and the weeds which infest unlimed wheat fields ; they increase the 
 quality and enable the land to grow a better quantity of wheat; 
 they manifest a continued action for many years after they have 
 been applied ; like the purer limes, they act more energetically if 
 aided by the occasional addition of other manure; and like 
 them they finally exhaust a soil from which successive crops are 
 reaped, without the requisite return of decaying animal or veg 
 etable matter. (Johnston.) 
 
 In practice it is probably best to dig the marl, and leave it to dry and 
 disintegrate for some months before applying. One ton and upwards 
 may be applied to the acre, and plowed in shallow at the last plowing, 
 or worked in with the cultivator. To act effectually, lime must be kept 
 near the surface, and its constant effort is to sink below the reach of 
 roots. 
 
 706. SALT is chemically composed of the metal sodium, and 
 the gas chlorine, chloride of sodium, or called by the older 
 chemists muriate of soda. It is procured by evaporating the 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 water of the sea or salt springs, and is rarely found in com 
 merce perfectly pure ; salts of lime and magnesia being mixed 
 with it. 
 
 Salt is found in nearly all soils ; in the ashes of all plants ; 
 and is necessary for animal life. It has been used in all ages 
 and countries as a manure, and acts not only as a feeder of 
 plants, but chemically -as a solvent, and in this latter regard ap 
 pears to be most efficient. In some soils it strengthens the straw, 
 but it acts variously in different localities. Theoretically, it 
 ought to prove very efficient in our Western States. Mixed 
 with plaster it is said greatly to improve the latter. It must be 
 used with care, and not applied directly to the plants. In dry 
 climates, where seasonable rains seldom fall, salt will rarely do 
 anything but injury. Root crops, and of those, beets, appear to 
 be the most benefitted by salt. From one to ten bushels may 
 be applied to the acre, sown broadcast and harrowed in, a few 
 days before the seed is sown. In New York, three bushels to 
 the acre have been found effective in destroying grubs, cut 
 worms, <fec. 
 
 7 07. MUD, MUCK. This substance is found in great abun 
 dance in many ponds, marshes, &c., and in some localities it 
 has been applied with great success as a manure. It necessarily 
 varies much in its composition. Mr. Dana analyzed two speci 
 mens in Massachusetts, and he found them to consist of: 
 
 No. 1. No. 2. 
 
 Soluble Geine, ) n 5.10 810 
 
 Insoluble Geine, [ Ur S anic - 8 . 90 6 . 50 
 
 Salts and Silicates, 86. 84.40 
 
 A cord of No. 1 weighed when dug 61 17 Ibs., and contained 
 solid matter, 3495 Ibs.; composed of geine, 405 Ibs.; of sili 
 cates and salts, 3005 Ibs. The salts of lime were 2 per cent. ; 
 from which we judge that it would prove a vaulable manure. 
 
 Prof. Johnston examined a black mud from Leith Docks, 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 335 
 
 which was carted away by tlie farmers. He found a considera 
 ble quantity of animal matter, with much finely divided silica, 
 which were found under the microscope to be infusoria. 
 
 Many mucks will probably be found to contain phosphoric 
 acid, ammonia, vegetable matter, sulphur, and salts of lime and 
 potash, and if so they are important to the farmer ; but in our 
 present state of ignorance regarding them, we can only recom 
 mend careful trials. We believe that, in practice, they are usu 
 ally left exposed to the air, after digging, till dry and disinteg 
 rated ; and if dug in the fall, so as to be frozen, they are found 
 to be inproved. 
 
 708. III. VEGETABLE MANURES. 
 
 These are practically of two classes ; (a.) such as are grown 
 for the purpose of being plowed in ; (b,) and those which are 
 collected from other sources, and applied as are ordinary ma 
 nures, e. g. peat, leaves, &c. In the West, the first are employ 
 ed in the shape of buckwheat, clover, and sometimes rye ; and 
 in other countries several plants are used for the same purpose ; 
 being turned under immediately before flowering. Such plants 
 as collect their food chiefly from the air by the leaves, and contain 
 much carbon, or those whose roots pierce deep into the subsoil, 
 are preferred. Their value is owing to the elements which they 
 supply directly to the next crop ; and they are estimated accord 
 ing to the amount of nitrogen, carbon, and inorganic matter 
 which they contain. In soils deficient in organic matter, such 
 manuring is often very profitable when properly applied. The 
 mechanical tendency of such applications is, also, to render stiff 
 soils more friable. 
 
 In the second division a great variety of substances have been 
 used, as straw, chaff, bran, rape cake, sawdust, malt-dust, &c. ; 
 but, in this country, PEAT promises to prove the most impor 
 tant. Peat is a partially decayed moss or sphagnum, and is a 
 real coal in an imperfect state. It is found in marshes and wet 
 
336 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 places, and is sufficiently abundant throughout Michigan and 
 the other Western States. Like all other similar substances, it 
 is subject to many variations in its composition. Some speci 
 mens contain a large proportion of ammonia, and they all ap 
 pear to be rich in salts and carbon. 
 
 Analysis of peat from Paisley Moss, Scotland, viz : an upper 
 peat, (A ;) an under peat of the same bed, (B ;) and of the 
 Dutch ashes, formed of peat, (B.) (Johnston.) 
 
 A. B. C. 
 
 Organic matter, (charred peat,) - 54.12 3.02 25.77 
 Sulphates and carbonates of potash.) 
 
 soda, and magnesia, soluble in> 6.57 5.1 2.78 
 
 water, ) 
 
 Alumina, soluble in acids, - - 2.99 2.48) 
 
 Oxide of iron, - 4.61 18 6G$ 
 
 Gypsum, - 10.49 21.23 16.35 
 
 rhosphate of lime, - - 0.90 0.40 1.24 
 
 Carbonate of lime, - - 8.54 3.50 1.21 
 Carbonate of magnesia, 3.39 
 
 Insoluble siliceous matter, - - 10.88 43.91 37.24 
 
 99.10 98.36 99.17 
 Analysis of 10 varieties of Peat from Massachusetts. 
 
 (Dana.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 Locality. | Saluble Geiiw. | 
 
 Insoluble Geine. | Total Geine. | Salts & Silicates. 
 
 1. Dracut, 
 
 14.0 
 
 72.0 
 
 86.0 
 
 14.00 
 
 2. Sunderland, 
 
 26.0 
 
 5660 
 
 8560 
 
 1440 
 
 3. Westborough, 
 
 48.80 
 
 4360 
 
 92.40 
 
 7.60 
 
 4. Hadley, 
 
 34.0 
 
 60.0 
 
 94.0 
 
 6.0 
 
 5. Northampton, 
 
 38.30 
 
 44.15 
 
 8245 
 
 1755 
 
 6. 
 
 32.0 
 
 54.90 
 
 8690 
 
 13.10 
 
 7. 
 
 12.0 
 
 60.85 
 
 72.85 
 
 27.15 
 
 8. 
 
 10.0 
 
 49.45 
 
 59.45 
 
 40.55 
 
 9. 
 
 33.0 
 
 59.0 
 
 92.0 
 
 8.00 
 
 10. 
 
 46.0 
 
 46.80 
 
 92.80 
 
 7.20 
 
 Average, 29.41 55.03 84.44 15.55 
 
 By the word " Geine" this writer means the vegetable matter of soils, 
 also called Humus, Ulmin, tfcc., and represented by the symbol C 40, 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 337 
 
 H 16, 1-1, with, occasionally, an addition of ammonia. The term is 
 now rarely used in agriculture. 
 
 All Peat shrinks by drying, and when perfectly dried at 
 240 F. loses from 73 to 97 per cent of water. When allowed 
 to dry in the air, it still contains about two-thirds of its weight 
 of water, and rapidly re-absorbs moisture. It shrinks from 
 tyro-thirds to three-fourths of its bulk. Taking these data, 
 100 parts of fresh dug peat, of average quality, contain : 
 (Dana.) 
 
 Water, - - - 85.0 
 
 Salts of lime, - - 0.50 
 
 Silicates, - 0.50 
 
 Geine, - - - 14.0 
 
 Owing to the difficulty of rendering Peat soluble, it has not 
 been used in agriculture to the extent it deserves, in its natural 
 state. It is frequently burned (or rather charred,) and the 
 ashes are applied with good effect at the rate of from 50 bush- 
 els to two tons per acre. 
 
 Prof. Norton, says : " They usually contain from 5 to 6 per 
 cent of potash and soda, considerable quantities of lime, mag-- 
 nesia, iron, &c., being therefore worth about as much as the 
 poorer kinds of wood-ashes. In wet land, where varieties of 
 peat abound, which are only decomposed with great difficulty,, 
 it is sometimes advisable to burn them on a large scale for the 
 purpose of obtaining the ash as manure. Heaps are made 
 at convenient distances directly upon the surface of the bo^, 
 and the fire started by means of a little dry peat in the 
 centre of each heap ; as it burns through to the outside, fresh 
 peat is dug up and thrown on, and so the process may be kept 
 up as long as desirable. It is to be observed as to all varieties 
 of ashes, that their value is greatly impaired by exposure to the 
 weather." But the best mode of using peat is to lay it in cat 
 tle stables, and to mix it with decomposing animal manures* 
 when it will, if sufficiently dried, not only absorb the liquids, 
 but itself undergo,, fermentation. According to Mr. Phinney, 
 22 
 
338 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 of Lexington, Mass., : a cord of fresh dung converts twice 1 kc 
 Imlk of peat into a manure of equal value to itself that is, a 
 cord of clear stable dung, composted with two of peat, forms a? 
 manure of equal value to tliree .cords of green dung. 
 
 Mr. S. L. Dana, of Lowell,, Mass., wrote a book, a few years since, 
 for the purpose of showing that ,peat mixed with an alkali, in all re 
 spects resembles, and, as a manure, is equivalent in effect to cow dung. 
 The cost per cord, at that time, he estimates as ; 
 
 1 Cord peat and digging, - - - $1 .50 
 
 92 I!)?, potash at 6 cents, $5.52 *) 
 
 Or 61 Ibs. soda ash at 4 cents, 2.44 | 
 
 Or 24 bush eornmon wood-ashes } average <of alkalies, 3.65 
 
 at 12},< cents, - - - 3.00 | 
 
 3)10.96 
 
 $3.65 Per cord $5.15 
 
 "Were they really good hard- wood-ashes, about 16 bushels would be 
 sufficient, but an excess is allowed to compensate for variation. At 
 that period, clear cow dung was purchased by the Print works at an 
 average cost of 174-5 cents per bushel, or $17.45 cents per cord, at 
 times even higher. 
 
 We must he e complete our very imperfect remarks on manures, as 
 the subject is sufficiently extensive to fill a much larger volume than 
 this. The teacher will find all that he can require in the American 
 M tcJc Book, by D. J. Browne, 12 mo. pp. 429, published by C. M. Sax- 
 .ton, New York, 1852. 
 
 For the sake of convenience, however, we add a list of the articles 
 used in various countries as manures, designating with an asterisk (*) 
 sue& as can probably be of service in the United States. 
 
 I. ANIMAL MANURES. 
 Blood.* 
 Flash* 
 
 (Dried flesh, from South America.) 
 
 Bones.* 
 
 Skin. 
 
 Wool. 
 
 Hair* 
 
 Feathers. 
 
 Woollen rags, 41 (England.) 
 
 Mill refuse,* (England.) 
 
 \Fish, (New England, (fee.) 
 cSlubber, and other fish refuse.* 
 
 Refuse of Lard-Boilers,* (Cincin 
 nati, Ac.) The whole hog is 
 boiled by a heavy pressure of 
 steam, and all, but the oil. left as 
 a dry power.) 
 
 Other refuse of Pork Packers.* 
 Bone Black, or animal charcoal, 
 from Sugar Refineries. 
 
 Refuse of Bone and Ivory Turners, 
 
 <fcc. 
 Duntr of Horses.* 
 
 Cows/ 
 Sheep. 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 339 
 
 Dung of Hogs.* 
 Men.* 
 
 (Pudrette.)* 
 Droppings of Birds.* 
 Guano.* 
 
 Urine of all kinds.* 
 (Urate.)* 
 
 Shells, (marine and fresh.*) 
 Infusoria in muck.* 
 Coral sand*? 
 
 Scutch, (Glue maker s refuse.)* 
 Kef use from Tanneries.* 
 
 II. MINERAL. 
 Carbonate of Ammonia. 
 
 Nitrate of Ammonia. 
 Muriate of Ammonia. 
 Sulphate of Ammonia. 
 Water from Gas works.* 
 Lime from Gas works.* 
 Coal Tar. 
 "Wood ashes, (unleached.)* 
 
 do (leached.)* 
 
 Coal ashes, (Anthracite,)* llrt|JC i , uot . 
 
 do (Bituminous.)* Cake of Linseed. 
 
 Ashes of Sea-weed, (Kelp, or Baril- do- Poppy s< 
 
 la.) 
 
 Sonp maker s waste, (Soda.)* 
 Bitterns, (Refuse of Salt works.) 
 Burnt clay.* 
 Rubbish of old buildings.* 
 
 Silica, (Sand.)* 
 
 Sulphuric acid. 
 
 Clay, or sand, of Granite, Green 
 stone, Serpentine, aud Basalt 
 Rocks* 
 
 III. VEGETABLE MANURES. 
 
 Straw.* 
 
 Chaff.* 
 
 Leaves of plants and trees.* 
 
 Spoiled hav.* 
 
 Saw-dost,* 
 iharooal * 
 
 Vegetable matter, chnrred.* 
 
 Spent Tan. (;ipp ars to net specifi 
 cally on strawberries.)* 
 
 Apple Pomace.* 
 
 Weeds * 
 
 Cotton Refuse.* 
 do Seeds.* 
 
 S;ems of Flax.* 
 
 Refuse of water of flax mills.* 
 
 Bran. 
 
 Rape Cake, 
 Durst. 
 
 >ppy seed, 
 do Cocoa nut. 
 Refuse of other oil-seeds. 
 Peat* 
 Sea -weed,* 
 Tops cfc leaves of cultivated plants/ 
 
 Coprolites, (a mineral phosphate.) 
 
 Apatite, (a mineral phosphate.)* 
 
 Lime, (carbonate of.)* 
 
 Burnt lime.* 
 
 Sulphate of lime, (plaster,)* 
 
 Phosphate of lime. 
 
 Silicate of lime. 
 
 Nitrate of lime. 
 
 Marls, (Calcareous.)* 
 
 Potash. 
 
 Nitrate of Potash, (Saltpetre.) 
 
 Potash Marls, (Greensand.)* 
 
 Soda. 
 
 Chloride of sodium, (common sail -)*|iM.aic-aust. 
 
 Nitrate of soda, (Peruvian Salt- Refuse of Starch manufactories.* 
 
 petre) There are a fw other expensive 
 
 Sulphate of soda, (Glauber salts.) salts occasionally used in very high 
 Magnesia. farming, but they are scarcely worth 
 
 jalphate of mngnesia, ( Epsom mentioning. (See Jolinslon s Ex- 
 
 \pcritnentrd Ayr culture, 1849.) 
 
 Soot. 
 
 To PLOW ix GREEN MANURES. 
 Red Clover,* 
 Buckwheat.* 
 Rye.* 
 
 ./orn, (Maize.)* 
 Turnips. 
 White Lupine*. 
 Vetch or Tares. 
 Rap.?. 
 
 White Mustard. 
 Vine twigs, (for Vineyards.)* 
 
CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 PLOWING. 
 
 709. Plowing is merely a means resorted to for stirring up 
 the soil, and rendering it friable in order that it may receive the 
 seed. Digging was probably the original mode of performing 
 this operation, but as this is very laborious, although very effect 
 ive, some sort of plow appears to have been invented as soon as 
 oxen or horses were employed in agriculture. The history of 
 the plow is the history of the art ; for so intimately are good 
 crops dependent upon good plowing, that just in proportion as 
 this implement has been improved so has the product of the earth 
 increased in quantity. But it is only of late years that this all 
 important implement has been formed on true mechanical prin 
 ciples; and, with the exception of Great Britain and America, 
 nearly all the world still cling to the use of antiquated and in 
 efficient form*; nor can it yet be said that either the plow or 
 the mode of using it are fully understood. The English and 
 Americans form and use the plow on different principles, the 
 first endeavoring to lay an unbroken furrow, the latter trying to 
 break or pulverize the soil in the operation ; while the proper 
 depth of plowing in different classes of soils is very little under 
 stood by practical men. Notwithstanding the great skill with 
 which the best American plows are made, there is still a wide 
 field of improvement open in both these respects. Within a 
 very few years, many efforts have been made to plow by steam, 
 or by horso power, indirectly applied ; and a Canadian is at this 
 moment perfecting a machine in England ; while there is one 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 341 
 
 in successful operation in that country which may be worked 
 either by steam or horse power. This is not strictly plowing, 
 in the usual sense of the word, but turning up the soil by rotary 
 cutters. Should such machines become generally available they 
 will probably revolutionize agriculture, as the introduction of the 
 Spinning Jenny &c. revolutionized the manufacture of Cotton 
 and Woolen cloths ; since it will be impossible for small farmers, 
 working on the old plan, to compete with large capitalists, with 
 extensive, farms, doing all their work by steam and other ma 
 chinery. As however, the improvements introduced into man 
 ufactories have not only benefited the world in general, but 
 supplied work for a very much larger number of laborers, so 
 may we expect this revolution in art to produce the same effect 
 in agriculture. 
 
 710. Till within a century, all plows were made of wood with 
 wrought iron plates &c, nailed on, for the land-side, mould-board, 
 and point. In Great Britain, they were generally prepared with 
 one or two wheels at the end of the plow-beam, as they still are 
 in France and Germany, and were drawn by 4 to 8 horses ; or 
 by a pair of horses with the addition of four, and sometimes of 
 six oxen, with one man to hold, and two to drive. About 1763, 
 James Small, of the county of Berwick, Scotland, a manufactu 
 rer of Agricultural implements, turned his attention to the im 
 provement of plow r s. In experimenting, he made the mould- 
 board of soft-wood, by means of which it soon appeared where 
 the pressure was the most severe, and where there w r as the 
 greatest friction. He likewise applied true mechanical principles 
 to the subject ; introduced cast iron in place of wood ; and so 
 lightened the draft that two horses were quite as efficient as the 
 heavy teams previously employed. This appears to have been the 
 first invention of the light and elegant cast-iron swing plows which 
 are now every where in use in this country. (Sir John Sinclair, i n 
 his Account of the systems of husbandry adopted in Scotland, 
 1812, gives the full history of this invention.) This introduc- 
 
342 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 tion of an improved plow has not only liad a most favorable 
 bearing upon agriculture in every respect, by reducing the cost 
 of working the soil, and doing the work in a much better man 
 ner, but it is very doubtful, whether a very large portion of 
 America could yet have been settled, if so many animals and 
 men had been requisite to perform the operation. Plows are 
 made so as to be adapted to every sort of soil and work, and 
 are arranged upon well known and accurately ascertained prin 
 ciples. These principles every farmer should understand ; but 
 as this knowledge presupposes an acquaintance with mathemat 
 ics and mechanics we cannot enter upon it here. 
 
 711. The object of the plowman is so to turn over the soil as 
 to render it the best adapted for the growth of plants with the 
 least expenditure of labor and time. If the soil is so turned as 
 merely to be reversed, lying, as it were, in long ribbons, friabil 
 ity is not attained, but must be produced by subsequent opera 
 tions, with the harrow, cultivator, &c. If the soil is so broken, 
 that part is reversed, and part is not, weeds are tempted to grow 
 and the crop will be uneven. If there are inequalities, and deep 
 holes, fcoine seeds will be buried too deeply, others will be too 
 shallow. The best plowmen, therefore, endeavor, while they 
 separate the soil, entirely to reverse it, to lay the furrows per 
 fectly even on the surface, and to plow as deeply, and as great a 
 width at the same time as possible. In narrow furrows, the soil 
 will be rendered friable most effectually, but time will be lost. 
 
 Depth is of great importance in successful agriculture, under 
 nearly all circumstances. There may be subsoils of such a char 
 acter that it would be injudicious at once to turn up much of 
 them; but by annually plowing an inch or so deeper, by de 
 grees great depth is attained without injury. Deep plowing 
 acts in the same manner as thorough draining, but to a less ex 
 tent. It gives the roots of plants a larger field from which to 
 gather their food ; it allows surface water to escape ; atmospher 
 ic manures to be collected instead of running off; and it affords 
 
AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 343 
 
 a mora equal and probably a higher temperature and greater 
 command of moisture. A field plowed three or four inches 
 deep is easily exhausted; while such manures as are applied, 
 soon escape beneath the reach of the roots ; and, in many soils, 
 in process of time, the plow passing at one equal and shallow 
 depth forms an artificial and impervious /tard-pan. According 
 to Mr. Delafield in 1850, in Seneca county New York, "The 
 evidence of every successive year, has clearly manifested the 
 economy and profit of deep tillage ; the mechanical operations 
 on the soil require less force and labor ; less seed is necessary ; 
 and all manures produce their full effect. Many of the best in 
 formed farmers are firm in the opinion that deep plowing and 
 subsoil plowing are more effective on wheat soils when a judi 
 cious system of drainage has been adopted ; for though deep 
 tillage by the plow allows the roots of plants to seek their food 
 at a greater depth from the surface, yet they will extend them 
 selves (in some soils,) to the cold influences of retained waters, 
 where drains do not exist, and be deprived of that full measure of 
 health and vigor which the principle of deep tillage is intended 
 to afford." 
 
 The Jointer Plo>v, invented in Michigan, is forcing its way into very 
 general use. It is a miniature or small plow, which can be attached and 
 detached from the beam of any other plow at pleasure, and is placed a 
 short distance in advance of the main plow. It turns over 2 to 4 inch 
 es of the soil which is buried deeply and neatly under the furrow 
 formed bj the succeeding plow ; and with four oxen or horses, 10 to 12 
 inches can easily be reached (See Transactions of Michigan State A(j- 
 ricuttural Society, Vol,iv,p 147.) 
 
 7 1 2. Horses cannot draw a plow for any very great distance 
 without stopping. A length of 250 yards is believed to be the 
 best for the size of a field, allowing the horses to rest at the 
 turning. The following table shows the quantities of land 
 plowed at different speeds, at given breadths of the furrow-slices. 
 (Stephen*,) 
 
344 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 
 
 fepeed; rate! .Distance walked 
 per hour. | in H 1 ^ hours. 
 
 Breiidcli ot 
 furrow plowed 
 
 Quantity or lunU plowed, 
 in 8^ hours at that speed. 
 
 Miles 
 
 Miles, 
 
 Yards, 
 
 Inches. 
 
 A 
 
 K 
 
 P 
 
 i 
 
 8 
 
 1248 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 JL 
 
 8 
 
 440 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 
 12 
 
 G42 
 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 *X3 
 
 12 
 
 220 
 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 
 17 
 
 808 
 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 16 
 
 880 
 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 
 26 
 
 332 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 24 
 
 1320 
 
 I 10 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 42 
 
 Table showing the comparative amount of time lost in turnings while 
 plowing long and short ridges. (Stephens.} 
 
 Length 1 Breadth (,f 
 of ridpe. | furrow slice. 
 
 Time loot 
 in turning. 
 
 Time devoted 
 to plowing. 
 
 Hours of 
 work. 
 
 Yards 
 78 
 
 149 
 200 
 212 
 274 
 
 Inches 
 10 
 
 (( 
 
 H M 
 5 11 
 
 2 44 
 2 1 
 1 56)^ 
 1 22 ~ 
 
 H M 
 
 4 49 
 
 7 16 
 7 59 
 8 3K 
 8 32 ~ 
 
 H 
 
 10 
 
 u 
 
 n 
 
 713. There are a variety of modes of plowing to suit the nature 
 of the soil and season of the year ; though this diversity is more 
 practised in Europe than in America. (For illustrations see 
 Stephen s Farmer s Guide, vol. 1 p. lVl-186.) 
 
 FINIS. 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 [TAe figures at the end of each line refer to the Sections.] 
 
 Acclimafing of plants 131. 
 Acetic acid in air 32. 
 Agriculture, meaning of 1. 
 
 " divisions of 2, 3. 
 
 " art and science of 4. 
 
 " art of 24, 25. 
 
 Agricultural Schools, 10. 
 
 " education, 13. 
 
 Air, 26. 
 
 " chemical composition of 26. 
 Atmosphere, 26. 
 
 " weight of 26. 
 
 Ammonia in air 28, 30, 31. 
 
 " in rain 29. 
 
 " absorption of by plants 42. 
 Arsenic in springs 70. 
 Alumina, 80. 
 Ash of plants 99, 702. 
 Animal plants limits of 129, 130. 
 Analysis ofseawnter 56. 
 
 " Schnylkill 57. 
 
 " Dead Sea 58. 
 
 " Salt Lake 59, 60. 
 
 * Grenalle 61. 
 
 " Hartford 62. 
 
 " Horse chestnut 66. 
 
 " Barn -yard manure 91. 
 
 " Clay soils 112. 
 
 " Cotton lands 113. 
 
 " Fertile and barren soils 1 14. 
 
 " Michigan suil 115. 
 
 " New Jersey" 116. 
 
 Marl 117, 119,120. 
 
 " Green sand 48. 
 
 " Wheat 159, 162, 166, 167. 
 
 Bran 165. 
 
 M Flour 170. 
 
 " wheat soils 173. 
 
 rye 208, ?U9, 210. 
 
 " rye straw 2 12. 
 
 *< ergot 225. 
 
 barley 233, 234, 235. 
 
 " barley straw 239 
 
 " Indian corn 231, 233, 284. 
 
 " rich corn soils 291. 
 
 " rice 322, 323, 324. 
 
 buckwheat 233, 337. 
 
 " millet 348. 
 
 leguminous plants 355. 
 
 Analysis of clover, 410, 411,412, 413, 414, 
 
 415,416. 
 
 <k t)ea and pea straw 356, 357, 358. 
 graces 391, 385, 387, 388, 389. 
 sanfoin 425. 
 ohickory, 428, 429. 
 turnip soils 435. 
 turnip 437, 412. 
 rape 458. 
 potato 463, 465. 
 Jerusalem artichoke 471,473. 
 parsnip 485, 487. 
 carrot 5f to 503. 
 beet 517-520. 
 sweet potato 53 1. 
 hops 542, 543. 
 musk-melon 561, 666. 
 cucumber 562, 666. 
 tobacco 571, 572. 
 flax 600, 605. 
 hemp-seed 615, 616. 
 
 " scutchings 617. 
 broom corn 62 6. 
 apple 635. 638. 
 
 pear-wood and leaves 643, 64i. 
 peach leaves 648. 
 
 " tree 649. 
 cherry leaves 653. 
 grape leaves 656. 
 gooseberry 658. 
 rhubarb 660, 662. 
 tomato 663. 
 egg plant fi63. 
 water-melon 666. 
 vegetable oyster 667. 
 endive 667. 
 celery 667. 
 
 beef and blood 682, 683. 
 mineral phosphates 687. 
 cow dung 691. 
 horse dung 691, 692. 
 sheep and hog dung 693. 
 pigeon dung 694. 
 guano 695. 
 cow s urine 697. 
 barn-yard manure 699. 
 wood-ashes 702. 
 lime rock 703. 
 marls 705. 
 peat 708. 
 
cccxlvi.] 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Animal, an apparatus of combustion 672. 
 
 " meat, tallow, skin of 681. 
 Apple, varieties of, general lemarks 634. 
 " analysis of pulp and skin of Swaar 
 
 635/636, 638, 629. 
 " comparison of wth peach, pear,cher- 
 
 ry and potato 639. 
 " fattening qualifies 639. 
 " analysis of sweet apple tree 640. 
 " tree, leaves of Early Harvest 641 
 Ashes, wood 394, 702. 
 " effects of on soils 702. 
 " for Indian corn 702, 
 Asparagus, properties of f 64. 
 
 Barn-yard manure 91. 
 
 Bread, the effects of yeast in 172. 
 
 " of rye 214. 
 Barley, soils 173, 240. 
 
 " where cultivated 229. 
 
 " amount raised 231. 
 
 " species cultivated 232. 
 
 " ana lysis of 233. 
 
 " nature of the gr.iin 236. 
 
 " effects of manures ou 237. 
 
 " starch in 238. 
 
 " straw, analysis of 239. 
 
 " value of 240. 
 
 " malt of 241. 
 
 " culinary uses of 242 
 
 " mineral matter it takes from an 
 acre 243 
 
 " preparation for sowing 244 
 
 " when known to be ripe 245 
 
 * Harvesting of 246 
 
 " straw for feeding 247 
 
 " to sow grass seed with 248 3S5 
 
 " weeds in 2J9 
 
 " fungus on 250 
 
 " insects injurious to 251 
 
 " grown with flax 610 
 Beans, varieties 3f>2, 358 
 
 " what they require in soil 676 
 
 " varieties grown 370 
 
 soil for 371 
 
 " culture 372 
 
 " expense of raising 373 
 
 " yield per acre 374 
 
 " straw of 375 
 Beef, dry, analysis of 682, 683 
 Beets, varieties of &c 512 
 
 " what a crop draws from soil 442 
 
 " sugar from 512 
 
 " mangold the 513 
 
 " qualities of the root 514 
 
 " peculiar formation of and proper 
 ties 515 
 
 " its value and uses in England 516 
 
 " analysis of 517 to 520 
 
 " nutritions matter in 521 
 
 " soil for 522 
 
 " seeding and culture 523 
 
 " gathering, care in 524 
 
 preserving 52>j 
 
 yield of crop 526 
 
 Beets uses and value of 527 
 manures for 523 
 value of 529 
 diseases and insects 530 
 beer and vinegar from 531 
 Beck Prof. 143 
 
 Blood, dry, analysis of 682, 683 
 Bread of corn meal 286 
 Bones, action of 679 
 
 composition of 6S5 
 " action of as manures 686 
 Birds must be cherished 313 
 Buckwheat, species, &c 332 
 
 blue 332 
 
 " where grown, produce &c S32 
 
 " analysis of 333, 334, 337, ?38 
 
 " grain md straw 335 
 " straw 336 
 " its uses 339 
 
 " effects of on swine 340 
 
 qualities of the straw of 341 
 " for plowing in green 342 
 
 Roils for 343 
 " harvesting 344 
 
 " produce per acre 345 
 
 " legal weight of 346 
 
 Burnet 423 
 Broom corn, how introduced 622 
 
 " soil for, management of, and 
 
 yield 623 
 
 " cost of crop 624 
 " profit, (jualities of the brush 
 
 625 
 " analysis of brush and seed 626 
 
 Cabbage, qualities &c 455 
 Canary grass 351 
 
 " soil for and culture of 351 
 " harvesting and yield 351 
 Dapillary power 111. 
 Carrots, what a crop draws from soil 442, 
 
 4:>8 
 
 " order and families of the 498 
 " culture of, increasing 499 
 " compared with hay to feed 499 
 " analysis of 500 to 5(13 
 compared with parsnips 504 
 " culture and manure 505, 507 
 " seed per acre, mode of sowing 506 
 " digging and preserving 508 
 " cost of crop 509 
 " pectin in 510 
 " yield per acre 511 
 Carbonic acid in the air 26, 34. 
 
 " leaves absorb 46, 47- 
 " favornb!e to plants 69, 
 " action of on soil 113. 
 Castor oil plant, remarks on the 583 
 
 qualities of 584 
 " no analysis of 585 
 
 " yield of beans and oil 586 
 
 Cattle, fattening on turnips 449 
 Centigrade thermometer 129. 
 Celery, analysis ot 667 
 Chemical rays of light 134. 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 [cccxlvii, 
 
 Cherry, comparison of with apple 639 
 
 " varieties 652 
 
 " analysis of leaves of 653 
 Chess 196 
 Cluckory, its qualities 427 
 
 analysis of the root of 428, 429 
 " cultivation of 430 
 Clay 80, S3. 
 Ciimate 121. 
 
 " elements of 124. 
 
 " local and general 12"). 
 " change ol 1 2. 
 " change of hv cultivation 127. 
 " effects of on sheep 139. 
 Clover, species fee 407 
 alsyke 407 
 
 " red 408, 409 
 
 " analysis of 4 10 to 41 6 
 
 " of root> 4 10 
 
 " hay, yield per acre 41 1 
 
 " white, analysis of 414, 415,416 
 
 " nutritive value of 417 
 
 " manures for 418 
 
 " bow sown, amount of seed &c 419 
 
 " when to be cut for hay 420 
 
 " saving seed 420 
 
 " hay, mode of curing 421 
 
 " diseases of 422 
 
 " o her plants resemble 423 
 Cockle 196 
 Color of ; oils 104. 
 
 " experiment on 105. 
 
 " affects the temperature 106. 
 Composition of dry air 27. 
 Couch grass (Michigan) 384 
 Cows, parsnip leaves for 492 
 
 " composition of dung of 691 
 Cretinism 69. 
 
 Cropping, effect of 96, 11.3. 
 Cucumber, composition of 562 
 
 " analysis of 666 
 Cultivation, effect on climate 127. 
 Cut-worm 312 
 
 D 
 
 Daguerreotypes 134. 
 Uetroit, raiii at 138. 
 Dew, cause of 16, 54. 
 
 Enrths 97. 
 
 Egg plant, analysis of 663 
 Endive analysis of 6t>7 
 Ergot composition of 225 
 Evaporation 111. 
 
 Fall wheat, varieties of 156. 
 Far.mer, po-ition of 7. 
 
 " object of 8. 
 Fahrenheit s thermometer 129. 
 Fields, advantages of the right size 712 
 Fish as manure 638, 6b9 
 Flax, species 598 
 
 " cultivation decreasing 599 
 
 " analysis of 600, 605 
 
 " effects of steeping 603 
 
 " analysis of seed 604 
 
 lax special manures for 006 
 " what cultivated for 606 
 " soil, sowing and culture 607 
 " manure for, gathering 607 
 <k yield of hbrc and seed of 608 
 " cost of crop 609 
 growing wi h barley 610 
 " oil and cake from seed 611 
 " preparation of fibre of 012 
 " imports of .- eed of 6 1 2 
 
 Flesh as a manure (ISO 
 
 "lour analysis of 170. 
 " manufacture of 203 
 " export in 1*50, 203 
 
 "ormation of plants 146. 
 
 owl meadow grass 384 
 
 <"ungi 132. 197 
 
 arrows length of for profit 712 
 
 Germination of seeds 133, 314 
 Gluten of wheat in moist climates 143. 
 
 its properties 171 
 Goitre 69. 
 
 seberry, varieties of, culture 657 
 " analysis of 658 
 
 Grains, will they germinate beiore fully 
 
 ripe 314 
 wheat 143 
 rye 204, 227 
 barley 22S, 251 
 oats 252, 272 
 Indian corn 273, 314 
 rice 31 5, 331 
 buckwheat 332, 346 
 millet 347, 3LO 
 canary grass 351 
 trapes, general remarks on 655 
 analysis of leaves of 656 
 uses of 656 
 Grasses, millet 347, 331 
 canary 3M 
 importance of 381 
 different species 382 
 mixing 382 
 crop in U. S. 382 
 what species most valuable 3S3 
 peculiarities of each 384 
 analysis of 385 
 solid matter of rye 385 
 important facts about 385 
 inorganic analysis of rye 3S7 
 constituents of vary 387 
 
 " of good hay 388 
 
 dry analysis of ob9 
 sweet-scented vernal 390 
 orchard 390 
 meadow barley 390 
 timothy 390 
 principles and facts in relation to 
 
 391 
 
 soils for 392 
 
 effects of upon soils 393 
 manures for 31>4 
 how to apply manures for 394 
 
cccxlviii.] 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Grasses seeding with timothy 395 
 " steeps for seed of 396 
 " weight of timothy seed 397 
 cutting for hny 398 
 " mode of curing tt)9, 401 
 44 how cut and gathered 400 
 " cured in its own juices 401 
 " mode of increasing growth 404 
 44 irrigating 405 
 " assortment of seeds for pasture 
 406 
 
 Green sand marl, analysis 118. 
 
 Guano, analysis of 695 
 
 Hair, its composition 684 
 Harmon, Genl. 156. 
 Hard water 68. 
 
 effects on horses 68. 
 Hay, analysis of 3S9 
 
 " value of 39 1 
 
 " old 391, 406 
 
 " when to be cut 393 
 
 " curing 399, 401 
 
 " e ects of bad on horses 399 
 
 44 hauling 402 
 
 44 storing and preserving 403 
 
 " weight of in bulk 406 
 
 " clover, analysis of 410 
 
 " " produce of one acre 410 
 
 " making clovar 421 
 
 44 carrots compared with 499 
 Hemp, species, remarks 613 
 
 " Avhere grown in U. S. 614 
 
 " analysis ofs.Mrdof 61 f, 616 
 
 " " scufchings of 517 
 
 41 superior value of Russian 618 
 
 44 value of American 618 
 
 11 soil, culture and harvesting 619 
 
 " wild species of 620 
 
 " cost of crop 621 
 
 Herd s Grass, yield of, seed &c 384, 390 
 44 seed per acre, sown 384 
 
 " faults of 384 
 
 " seed, when sown 395 
 
 Hitchcock, Dr. quoted 3, 11. 
 Hippuric acid in air 11, 32. 
 Hogs, experiments in feeding 285 
 
 " effects of buckwheat on 340 
 
 " Parsnips for 493 
 
 dung of 693 
 Hop, its uses and the produce of 539, 540 
 
 44 character of the 541 
 
 " analysis of 542, 543 
 
 <4 inorganic matter removed from an 
 acre by 544 
 
 varieties of 545 
 
 44 soil for and manures 546 
 
 44 culture, gathering and price 547, 548 
 
 44 cost of crop 549 
 Horn, its composition 684 
 Horse, food and water consumed and dung 
 and urine voided 692 
 
 44 dung of analyzed 692 
 
 44 qualities of dung of G92 
 
 " for plowing 712 
 
 Horsford, Prof. 9, 28. 
 Horse chestnut, analysis 66. 
 
 Introduction 1. 
 
 Insects, 110, 351, 202, 312, 313, 367, 451, 
 568, 5S 1,595. 
 
 [ndian corn, necessary heat for 133 
 
 its native place and species 273 
 where cultivated 274 
 when first cultivated in U. 8. 
 275 
 
 quantity produced 275 
 varieties of and charactcrics 
 276 
 
 varieties how distinguished 277 
 desirable qualities of "218 
 weight of i!79 
 yield per acre 280 
 analysis of 281 
 
 " 5 varieties 284 
 " of the leaves of 283 
 44 of the chit 282 
 its feeding qualities 285 
 economical use of 285 
 its culinary uses 2HG 
 s alks &c for fodder 287 
 cob of 1:88 
 
 sugar from stalks of 289 
 sown broadcast 29 .>, 300 
 soil for 1:91 
 manures for 29?, 702 
 pi eparation of ground for 293 
 how planted 294 
 No. of hills and stalks on an 
 
 acre 1.94 
 
 depth to plant 295 
 proper temperature for seed 
 
 of 295 
 
 experiment in planting 295 
 quantity of seed required 296 
 cultivation of 297 
 sowing wheat among 298 
 steeps for 29U 
 time to harvest 301 
 topping 302 
 taking up the leaves for fodder 
 
 303 
 
 experiment in harvesting 303 
 how harvested 31 4 
 husking of 304 
 management of stalks when. 
 
 sown for fodder 305 
 amount per ai-re in Mass. 305 
 how separated from cob 306 
 measuring in crib 306 
 saving seed, its importance 307 
 feeding in the south 308 
 cobs of, how managed 309 
 weeds, none peculiar to 3lO 
 fungus on smut its effects 
 
 311 
 
 diseases of in Maryland 311 
 insects injurious to 312 
 remedies for insects in 313 
 
 Iodine 91. 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 [cccxlix. 
 
 Inorganic matter 86, 92. 
 
 " elements 93. 
 Irrigation 77. 
 Iso-thermal lines 125. 
 Iso theral " 125. 
 Iso-chemical " 125. 
 
 J 
 
 Jerusalem artichoke 470 
 
 analysis of 47 1,473 
 ues and value of 474 
 soil and climate for 475 
 culture 476 
 cutting & curing stalk 
 
 477 
 
 gathering the tubers 478 
 pre.-erving " 479 
 advantages of growing 
 
 480 
 
 Kohl Rabi 434 
 Kentucky Blue Grass 884 
 
 Leaves, action of 46, 47. 
 Leguminous plants M52 
 
 u their culture in the U. S. 354 
 
 L ntils 352, 355, 37G 
 
 " >il for 377 
 LettiiceGGi 
 Liebig 28. 
 Light 134. 
 Lime 80, 83. 
 " in leached ashes 702 
 " value of, how applied 703 
 " specimens and analysis of 703 
 " effects of burned on soils 703 
 44 quantify to be applied 703 
 Linseed analysis of 605 
 
 oil of and rake 611,612 
 " imports of 612 
 Liquorice, general remarks F87 
 " soil for culture f-8s 
 i4 planting and culture 5P9 
 * harvesting and yield 590 
 Luce-ne 424 
 Lupines 280 
 
 M 
 Marl, varieties of 705 
 
 " analysis of 117, 119, 120, 705 
 * formation of, Michigan, 705 
 44 effects of on soils 705 
 Manures, nitrogenous 176 
 4i effects on wheat 177 
 
 how to use judiciously 178 
 44 clove; , plaster and sheep dung 
 the philosophy of their actioi 
 179 
 4< for Indian corn 292 
 
 for rice 326 
 44 buckwheat plowed under G42 
 
 for the grasses 39 J, 106 
 44 for clovers 41 ** 
 44 lor parsnips 497 
 
 Manures for beets 528 
 
 for hops 546 
 
 for the onion 553 
 
 for tobacco 573 
 
 from oil beans 586 
 
 for flax 606-7 
 
 for apple 634 
 
 for pear 642 
 
 for quince 645 
 
 for peach 647 
 
 for cherry 652 
 
 for gooseherry 657 
 
 rhubarb 6 9 
 
 general remarks on 663 
 
 classification of 673 
 
 ofanimal origin 674 
 
 mineral 675 
 
 interesting experiment with 670 
 
 677 
 
 classical value of 678, 679 
 
 effects of 679 
 
 animal, flesh 680 
 
 44 hair, horn, wool, bones, 
 64. 685. 686 
 
 fish as 688 
 
 mineral phosphates 6S7 
 
 barn-yard, composition 690, 691 
 
 cow dung 691 
 
 horse dung 692 
 
 dung of sheep and hogs 693 
 
 dung of bi-ds694 
 
 night soil 696 
 
 urine 697 
 
 cons ituents of good barn-yard 
 699 
 
 analysis of barn-yard 699 
 
 composts 7- 
 
 mineral . wood ashes 701, 702 
 
 vegetable, classes of. 7t8 
 
 value of 718 
 
 peat 70S 
 
 list of articles uced for 708 
 Manuring the soil 669, 670. 671, 572 
 Mtchauu-al texture of soil 102. 
 Meteorology 121, 122. 
 
 44 benefit of 145. 
 
 Mean temperature 129. 
 Meadows, laying down permanent 395 
 " irrigating -105 
 4 renovating old 406 
 Mildew on wheat 200 
 Milk affected by water 68 
 Mineral phosphates, analysis of 687 
 Mineral waters 64. 
 Mississippi river 71. 
 Millet, genera and character &c 347 
 Indian 347 
 
 its qualities and constituents 348 
 soil for 349 
 quantity of seed 349 
 time of sowing 349 
 harvesting and yield per acre 49 
 its uses 3; 
 Moistnre, effect on wheat 144. 
 Moon s no.; ion on plants 1 15. 
 Muck, composition of 707 
 
cccl.] 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Muriatic acid in air 12, 37. 
 Mustard, wild 271 
 
 " white 431 
 
 " manufacture of 538 
 Musk melon analysis of 61, 6CG 
 
 Nectarine 651 
 New Orleans, rain at 138. 
 Nitrogen in hay 388, 389 
 / " in oats 3*9 
 
 " in clover roots 410 
 " in dry beet 520 
 " in dung of sheep and hogs 603 
 Nicotine in tobacco 572 
 Night soil 6^6 
 
 O 
 
 Oats, soils for 173, 264 
 " native place 252 
 " where cultivated 253 
 " produce in U. 8. S&4 
 " species cultivated 255 
 " quantity i-iised per acre 256 
 " analysis of grain 257, , 58 
 " " of straw 259 
 " " of 4 varieties 260 
 " nitrogen and protein compounds i 
 
 2tl 
 
 " effects of manures on the 36:2 
 " uses of 263 
 " effects of on soils 264 
 " what 5 crop takes from an acre of 
 
 soil 5:65 
 
 " how much sown and when 263 
 " when to harvest 267 
 " straw of for fodder 268 
 insects in 269 
 " smut in 270 
 " weeds in 27 1 
 " salt for 272 
 " peas with 369 
 " compared \ath carrots 509 
 Oil of seed?, its use 458 
 plants yielding 591 
 Organic matter in wheat 174 
 
 " in corn 2*2 
 
 Orchard grass 390 
 Organic matter 86, 87, 88 to 91. 
 Onion, different species 550 
 " its native country 551 
 " Hold culture-und produce 551 
 " composition of 552 
 " soil for and culture 553 
 " manui es for 553 
 " selecting for seed 554 
 " yield peravre 555 
 " culture of in Kussia 556 
 " maggot in, remedies 557 
 " free from insects 558 
 Oxygen in soils 109. 
 Ozier willow, species, imports &c 627 
 
 " species and varieties useful 628 
 
 " soils for 629 
 
 " cultivation and preparation for 
 
 use 630 
 " culture of in Mississippi 631 
 
 Ozier willow, yield, swamp lands for 632 
 Ozone 11, 33. 
 
 P 
 Parsnip 581 
 
 species and varieties 482 
 nutritive qualities in id uses of 483 
 analysis of 485 to 4^7 
 isai.otash plant 487 
 soil and manure for 488 
 " culture &c 489 
 u yield per acre 491 
 harvesting -190 
 " feeding leaves of to cows 492 
 how fed to animals 493 
 wine from 491 
 " obtaining seed of 495 
 insects and disease 496 
 manures for -<97 
 " compared \vithcarrots 504 
 Pasture, assortment of seeds for 4U6 
 Peas, varieties of 352, 353 
 " analysis of and straw 356, 357, 358 
 " value of btrawa&8 
 " nutritive matter cf an acre 359 
 " sugar in 360 
 " varieties grown 361 
 " soil for 362 
 " cultivation 363 
 harvesting 3r4 
 " grown among corn 365 
 " how grown in Southern States 3C6 
 " pea-hug in 367 
 " how to es< ape the insect 367 
 " yield per aero 363 
 41 their uses 369 
 " oars w ith. efteets on land "69 
 Peach, comparison of with apple 610 
 varieties * c manures for 647 
 analysis of leaves <f 64S 
 yellows in, other diseases 648 
 analysis of tree 649 
 qualities of kernel &c 650 
 Pear, comp,v i on of with apple 639 
 sp cies and varieties 642 
 analysis of wood and leaves of 643,644 
 Peat, 703 
 " analysis of 703 
 " properties of 708 
 " charring and 11 ixi ig with dung 708 
 " mixing with ashes 708 
 ?ectin 413,510 
 
 iV rfMinial plants, limits of ) 29. 
 Phosphoric acid in water 65. 
 
 igeon weed 193 
 Pine apple 21. 
 
 Plants, formation of 14, 15, 16, 146 663 
 , an app-irarus of reduction 672 
 growth of 17, 18. 
 cultivation of 20. 22. 
 composition of lOo 668 
 perennial, and annual 129. 
 physiology of 147. 
 stems of 148. 
 Plaster, composition and qualities 704 
 its action on soils 7C4 
 mixed with common salt 704 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 [cccli* 
 
 Pluviometer 135. 
 Plows improvements in 710 
 Plowing objects of 7"9, 711 
 " horses tor plow iiiu 712 
 " length and breadth of furrow 712 
 " advantages of proper shaped fields 
 
 for 712 
 
 u time lost in 712 
 " variety of modes of ?!3 
 Plum, varieties, eurculio 654 
 Pop illation of the U. S. 1 52. 
 PotJito 458 
 
 " present value as a field crop 4." 9 
 " when introduced 460 
 " propagation 461 
 " qualities of the root 462 
 " analysis of ;>(?3 to 465 
 " nutritive quali ies of 4(J6 
 " yield per acre 466 
 " rot in 467 
 
 " cultivation and harvesting 468 
 " starch, arrow-root, British -urn and 
 other constituents contained in 4(i9 
 " comparison of With apple 639 
 Pumpkin the, its relatives 559 
 
 little Unown regarding it 560 
 
 " its value 500 
 
 " grown with corn 563 
 
 " .yield 564 
 
 " preserving in winter 565 
 
 " its uses 567 
 
 " insects on young plants,remedie! 
 
 568 
 Pyrrhin 36 and note. 
 
 Quince varieties 645 
 " seeds of 616 
 " manures 645 
 
 Q 
 
 B 
 
 Rain, ammonia in 29, note. 
 
 " composition of 29. 
 
 " effc ccs of 53. 
 
 " purity of 54. 
 
 " necessity of 135. 
 Rain-gu.-ige 1H5. 
 Rain, mode of measuring 135. 
 
 " period of 136. 
 
 " annual amount of 136. 
 
 " in England and the U States 130. 
 
 " weight of 137. 
 
 " season of 1 38. 
 
 " mode of falling 139. 
 
 " descent in soil 1 iO. 
 
 ". absorption of 141. 
 
 " evaporation of 142. 
 Rape, seed of* 453 
 
 " species of 45<> 
 
 " oil from, cul ure, manure for, weight 
 of, value of cake &c 4.~>6 
 
 " culture in Pa., time of sowing 456 
 
 " analj is <>f 457, 453 
 
 " oil in cake 458 
 Rays, different of light 134. 
 Reaumur s thermometer 129. 
 
 Rhubarb, species and varieties 659 
 
 "Upeuing Of gniina 131. 
 
 liver water 71. 
 
 {ice, general remarks 315 
 
 varieties 
 
 where it grows and is cultivated 317, 
 
 318,319 
 
 wild, a different family 320 
 
 unhusked 321 
 
 analysis <,f 322, 323, 324 
 
 fatty matter of 323 
 
 best soils for, and culture 325 
 
 cleaning &c 326 
 
 time aiid mode of sowing the upland 
 327 
 
 yield of per acre 328 
 
 how measured 329 
 
 its uses 330 
 
 soil in which it grows 331 
 Rtr.-ks 76. 
 Roots, genera 432 
 
 profit, of growing 432 
 Rust on wheat 199 
 
 culture and soil 659 
 analysis of 660, 662 
 Rye grass, (Italian) 384, 391 
 Rye, soils for 173 
 
 its importance and native place 204 
 
 where cultivated 205 
 
 produce of in U. S. 20(5 
 
 species and varieties 207 
 
 analysis of 20.?, 209, 210 
 
 varies in composition 211 
 
 straw analysis of 212 
 
 flour of 213 
 
 bread 01 214 
 
 soils for 215 
 
 inorganic constituents 216 
 
 sowing and time of 217, 218 
 
 culture and harvesting 219 
 
 sown with wheat 221 
 
 sown for fodder 222 
 
 to plow under 223 
 
 ergot in 225 
 
 straw of 227 
 
 depth to be covered 227 
 
 what it takes from the soil 676 
 
 Salt in beets 520 
 in blood 682 
 " incompositior 
 " its value 706 
 Sciences in Agriculture 5,6. 
 Schools in Europe 10, 11. 
 Sheep, health of 139. 
 
 dune of 693 
 Silit-a 80, 83. 
 Smut on wheat 198 
 Soil, nature of 72, 73. 
 formation of 74. 
 position of 75. 
 composition of 79, 80, 82. 
 classification of 84. 
 use of h5. 
 inorganic elements of 93. 
 
ccclii.] 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Sntl fertile 97. 
 
 " rich and poor disintegrated 98. 
 " mechanical texture of 102. 
 " depth of 103.* 
 " color of 104. 
 " moisture in 107. 
 44 absorbing power of 107. 
 " retention of wet in 108. 
 " oxygen in 109. 
 14 capillary power of 111, 
 44 power to absorb wet 141. 
 Soils clasificrtion of 173 
 
 44 what wheat takes fron 174 
 " best for rice 325 
 
 " buckwheat 343 
 " " millet 349 
 " the pea 362 
 
 " beans 37 1 
 44 " lentils 377 
 " " grasses 392 
 44 " turnips 435 
 44 " artichoke 475 
 " " parsnips 488 
 " " beets 522 
 " " hops 546 
 " " onions 553 
 " tobacco 574 
 44 liquorice 588 
 44 flax 607 
 " broom corn 623 
 " hemp 61 9 
 analysis of turnip 435 
 constituents of 369 
 what crops take away from 6f?9 
 action of the elements upon 6G9 
 " proper management of 669 
 " manuring the 669-, 670, 671, 672 
 Statistics of wheat 152. 
 Spindle worm 312 
 Spring wheat 155. 
 Sporules in air 35. 
 Spring water 61. 
 Subsoil, nature of 103. 
 Sulphuric acid in springs 7*0. 
 Sugar beets, large roots contain less sugar 
 
 458 
 
 44 sugar from 512 
 Super phosphate of lime 686 
 Sweet potato, order, family 532 
 
 " where may be grown 533 
 
 " analysis of 534 
 
 " soil and culture 535, 536 
 
 41 preserving thro winter 537 
 
 T 
 
 Tare the (or Vetch) 378 
 44 when sown, soils for &c 379 
 Teasel, species 592 
 
 44 when introduced in U. S., price, 
 &c. 593 
 
 " culture, &c. 594 
 
 " insects injurious to 595 
 
 44 use of superseded 5!)6 
 
 44 to procure seed of 597 
 Thermometer -129, 1 14. 
 
 Temperature of plants, 130. 
 
 " effects of on vegetation 131. 
 
 " etfocts of on seeds 133. 
 
 " of soil 132. 
 
 Tobacco, species, remarks 569 
 
 " cultivation and produce 570 
 
 " analysis of 571, 572 
 
 " nicotine in 572 
 
 composition and qualities 572 
 
 " manure for 573 
 
 44 ingredients taken away by 100 
 Ibs. 573 
 
 " soil for 574 
 
 " mode of culture and curing 575 
 " practiced south 576 
 
 " hogsheads for packing in 577 
 
 44 yield ner acre 573 
 
 " cost of crop 579 
 
 44 disease of 580 
 
 44 insects troublesome 581 
 
 44 saving seed 582 
 Tomato analysis of 663 
 Tree, analysis of sweet apple 640 
 
 " leaves of Early Harvest 641 
 Tun ip, species 433 
 
 44 common 434 
 
 44 soil for, analysis of 434 
 
 44 effects of climate on 436 
 
 44 analysis of 437 to 442 
 
 44 white globe, analysis of 438, 439 
 
 44 constituents vary 439 
 
 44 Swedes, organic analysis of 440 
 458 
 
 44 comparative analysis of varieties 
 440 
 
 44 what a crop draws from soil 442 
 
 " pectin in 443 
 
 44 desirable qualities of 444, 458 
 
 44 yield in Great Britain 445 
 
 " " in N. Y. and Pa. 445 
 
 44 cost of crop 446 
 
 44 culture, soil, seed, manures, &c, 
 447 
 
 44 time of sowing, and harvesting 
 448 
 
 44 fattening cattle on 419 
 
 44 diseases 450 
 
 11 insects injurious to 541 
 
 44 how to raise seed from 452 
 
 quality of the seeds of 453 
 
 44 advantages of their culture 468 
 
 44 what they take from so : l 676 
 
 U 
 
 Urine, its value 697 
 
 44 composition 697 
 Jrea composition 6 ( Jf 
 44 fermentation of 697 
 
 Vegetable oyster, analysis of 66? 
 Vetch 196 
 
 Veterinary schools 4, 12 
 Vinegar from beets 531 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 [,*. 
 
 Watermelon analysis of 666 
 Water in air 38. 67. 
 
 44 composition of 44. 
 
 " chemical action of 45. 
 
 " effect of 46. 
 
 " use of 47, 48. 
 
 " iources of 50. 
 
 " weight of 51. 
 
 44 Inorganic matter in 53. 
 
 44 sea, ann lysis of 56. 
 
 " Schuylkill " 57. 
 
 " Dead sea " 58. 
 
 " Salt Lake " 59,60. 
 
 Grenable " 61. 
 
 " Hartford 62. 
 
 " salts in 63. 
 
 4 phosphoric acid in 65. 
 
 44 in animals and plants 66, 
 
 " in Horse chestnut 66. 
 
 44 injurious to plants 63. 
 
 " River 71. 
 
 " in soils 107, 108. 
 Weeds, 110. 
 Weight of rain 137 
 Wheat affected by moisture 143, 168. 
 
 44 value of 143. 
 
 " damaged by wet 144. 
 
 44 botanical position of 152. 
 
 * polar limits of 152. 
 
 " introduction in the U- S. 152. 
 
 44 statistic* of 152. 
 
 " different species of 153. 
 
 " Spring and winter 154. 
 
 * qualities desirable in 157, 
 
 " weight of 158 
 
 " analysis of 159, 162, 166, 167. 
 
 " time of cutting 161. 
 
 Wheat flour 170. 
 
 44 bran 165. 
 
 " the best oils for 173 
 
 41 analysis of soils for 1 73 
 
 " what it requires and takes from th 
 soil 174 
 
 organic matter in 174 
 
 " why it runs to straw 1?5 
 
 44 manures for 176 
 
 " effects of manures on 177 
 
 44 clover turned under for 179 
 
 modes of preparing land for 180 
 
 14 modes of covering 18 1 
 
 44 how sown 182 
 
 " how harvested 183 
 
 44 how preserved 184 
 
 44 how thrashed 185 
 
 44 storing 186 
 
 " when to cut 188 
 
 44 for seed 189 
 
 44 quantity of seed per acre 190 
 
 44 waste of seed 191 
 
 4t depth to be covered 192 
 
 44 old for seed 193 
 
 44 steeps for 194 
 
 44 how to judge of good seed 195 
 
 14 weeds that inj ure 196 
 
 44 parasitic fungi on 197 
 
 44 smut on 198 
 
 44 rust on 199 
 
 44 mildew on 200 
 
 44 insects injurious to 201 
 
 " " " to seed 202 
 
 44 made into flour 203 
 
 44 cost of producing 203 
 
 44 sown among corn 298 
 Weevil in wheat 202, 312 
 Wire worm 312 
 Wool, its composition 681 
 
ERRATA. 
 
 PAGE 62 Reverse the headings of the Table* Water in the Flour per 
 cent," and "Flour in the Grain per cent." 
 
 " 161, line 10 from top, for " Guined" read Guinea. 
 
 91 166, " 5 from bottom after " Randal Grass" ("Festuca Praten- 
 sis and Elalior,") 
 
 " 181 " 4 from top for " tree" read ires. 
 
 " 187 " 2 from bottom for "them" read their. 
 
 206 " 13 from top for" soil" read oil, 
 
 " 250. While the last sheet was going through the Press, the third 
 number of Prof. Johnston s Chemistry of Common Life was received, in 
 which it is stated " that the onion is remarkably nutritious. According 
 to my Analyses, the dried onion root contains from 25 to 30 per cent, 
 of gluten. It ranks in this respect with the nutritious%ea, and tho 
 Gram (or Chick Pea) of the East," See 353, p. 148. 
 

WILL INCREASE TO So CE^To THE PE "ALTY 
 DAY AND TO Stnn N E FOURTH 
 
 OVERDUE. $! - N T HE SEVENTH D 
 
 LD 21-ioo TO -8, 34 
 
VC 67827