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 Jsorlb (Carolina ^intc (College 
 
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 S01116125 H 
 
This book is due on the date indicated 
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 150M/01 -92-941 680 
 
FARM AND GARDEN RULE-BOOK 
 
Xlbe IRural /IDanuals 
 
 ^[anual of Gardening — Bailey 
 
 ^Fanual of Farm Animals — Harper 
 
 Farm and Garden Rule-Book — Bailey 
 
 Manual of Home-Making — In j)reparation 
 
 Manual of Cultivated Plants — In prepara- 
 tion 
 
FARM AND GARDEN 
 RULE-BOOK 
 
 A MANUAL OF EEADY EULES AND REFERENCE 
 
 WITH RECIPES, PRECEPTS, FORMULAS, AND TABULAR INFORMA- 
 TION FOR THE USE OF GENERAL FARMERS, GARDENERS, 
 FRUIT-GROWERS, STOCKMEN, DAIRYMEN, POULTRY- 
 MEN, FORESTERS, RURAL TEACHERS, AND 
 OTHERS IN THE UNITED STATES AND 
 CANADA 
 
 BY 
 
 l: h:' bailey 
 
 NINETEENTH EDITION 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 1929 
 
 All rights reserved 
 
Copyright, 1911, 
 By the MACailLLAN COMPANY. 
 
 Set up and electrotyped. Published November, iqii. Reprinted 
 August, 1912 ; June, 1914. 
 
 New edition, with corrections, November, 1915 ; July, 1917. 
 
 NortoootJ 19reB8 
 
 J. 8. CiiHhliiL' <•'.. r.tTwick &, Smith Co. 
 
 Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The first edition of this manual was published late in 1889, 
 and the second early in 1892, both by the Rural Publishing 
 Company, publisher of the "American Garden" and " Kural 
 New-Yorker." The third edition, much remodeled, was pub- 
 lished by The Macmillan Co., May, 1895. The book has 
 been reprinted, February, 1896; May, 1897; August, 1898; Au- 
 gust, 1899; June, 1901; October, November, 1902; February, 
 1904; July, 1905; January, 1907; May, June, 1908; August, 
 1909. 
 
 The old form of the book, under the title " The Horticulturist's 
 Rule-Book," is now to be discontinued, having served its place 
 and day So far as I know, it was the first compilation of its 
 kind in this countr}^, and therefore it was very imperfect and 
 incomplete. The intervening years, covering nearly a quarter 
 century, have also seen a vast enlargement of the farmer's hori- 
 zon, so that the little book that I prepared in my novice days can 
 no longer represent the situation. 
 
 I am sure that I have more misgiving in putting out this 
 larger and completer book than I had in the small first effort 
 The field is wider, and therefore more difficult to cover; and 
 knowledge has grown so uninterruptedly that one knows scarcely 
 where to begin and what to compass. The only definite point is 
 where to end, for publishers fortunately set limits to sizes of 
 books ; and when this limit was reached I discarded three or four 
 chapters and prepared the index. 
 
 For myself, I am conscious of the many good things that have 
 not been printed in the book; but I hope that my consultant 
 — I cannot expect to have a reader for a book of this sort — 
 will find some satisfaction in the things that are included. Every 
 
 45648 
 
vi PREFACE 
 
 care has been taken to choose reliable sources of information, 
 but I can scarcely hope to have escaped errors; and of course 
 I cannot hold myself responsible for the value of the many 
 diverse varieties of information and advice that are here collected. 
 Any user of tlie book will do me a kindness if he reports to me 
 any error that he may discover. If the new book should meet 
 with the favor that fell to the old, I shall need these suggestions 
 in the making of new editions ; but I can hardly hope that 
 such continued favor will come to it, for this would mean that 
 the two would span a half century, and in these rapidly enlarg- 
 ing days this is too much to expect of any fascicle of facts. 
 
 I am indebted to many good persons for the information con- 
 tained in the book, as the names in the proper places testify ; but 
 I am specially under obligation to Professor A. R. Mann for 
 
 much help. 
 
 L H. BAILEY. 
 
 Ithaca, N.Y., September 1, 1911. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 PAOBS 
 
 The Weather 1-23 
 
 How to use the Weather Map 2 
 
 The storm -tracks, 2 — The weather map, 4 — The weather indi- 
 cations, 5. 
 
 Weather Bureau Forecasts ,6 
 
 Signals of the United States Weather Bureau, 7 — Canadian 
 signals, 8. 
 
 Barometer and Wind Indications 9 
 
 Popular Weather Signs ll 
 
 Frosts, and Methods of Protection 12 
 
 How frost forms, 12 — To find the dew-point, 14 — Table for 
 determining temperature of dew-point, 15 — Methods of protec- 
 tion against frost, 16. 
 
 Phenology ^7 
 
 Climate and Crop Production ; keeping Becords .... 19 
 Climatic records compiled by the weather services, 20 — How 
 climatic data may be secured, 21 — Making local observations, 23. 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 The Elements and the Soil 24-39 
 
 Distribution of the Elements 25 
 
 The atmosphere, 25 — The elements essential to the life and 
 
 growth of plants, 25 — Ultimate composition of a wheat plant, 26 
 
 — Ultimate composition of human body, 26. 
 The Ash and Mineral Parts of Animals and Plants .... 26 
 
 Mineral elements in animal bodies. 27 — Composition of ash of 
 
 human body, 27 — Composition of the ash of leading farm crops, 
 
 28. 
 
 Chemical Compounds 28 
 
 The Soil 29 
 
 Classification of soils in respect to origin, 29 — Classification of 
 
 vii 
 
viii CCNTENTS 
 
 PAQES 
 
 soil constituents, 20 — Weight of soils, 30 — Texture of the soil, 
 32. 
 
 Soil Watrr 32 
 
 Amount of water used by various crops in producing a ton of 
 dry matter, 32 — Mean volume of water held by different soils, 33 
 — Water evaporated by growing plants for one i)art of dry mat- 
 ter produced, 33 — Water needed under arid conditions, 34. 
 
 Plant-food in the Soil 34 
 
 Plant-food in surface soil, with calculations to pounds in an acre, 
 34. 
 
 Alkali Lands 35 
 
 The normal condition of arid lands, 35 — Percentage composition 
 of alkali, 3<) — Quantity of gypsum required to neutralize sodium 
 carbonate, 37. 
 
 Tillage, and Soil Management . 37 
 
 Objects of tillage, 37 — Jordan's rules of fertility, 38. 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 Chemical Fkrtilizkks ; and Limk ...... 40-80 
 
 Some of the Sources of Chemical Fertilizers . . . . .41 
 
 Composition of materials used as sources of nitrogen, 41 — Com- 
 position of materials used as sources of phosphoric acid, 41 — 
 Marketed production of phosphate rock in United States, 41 — 
 World's production of phosphate rock, 1005-11)07, 42 — Average 
 composition of Stassfurt potash salts, 42 — Potash salts produced 
 in the United States, 1850 to 1905, 43 — Importation of potash 
 salts, 43 — Pota-ssic materials produced by the aid of electricity, 
 44 — Principal potash material used in United States, 45. 
 Fertilizer Formulas and Guarantrcs ....... 45 
 
 Methods of Computing Value of Fertilizers 47 
 
 Trade-values of plant-food elements in raw materials and chemi- 
 cals, 1010. 47 — Valuation and cost of fertilizers. 48 — Valuation, 
 and agricultural value, 48 — Rule for calculating approximate 
 commercial valuation of mixed fertilizers. 48 — Computing the 
 trade value, 40— IIow to figure the trade value, in greater detail, 
 50. 
 
 Home-Miring of Fertilizers 52 
 
 General advice, 52 — Incompatibles in fertilizer mixtures. 53 — 
 Table for calculating raw materials required per ton by mixtures 
 of given composition, 53. 
 
CONTENTS ix 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Soil Analysis and Fertilizer Tests . . o , o . . 54 
 Field tests to determine fertilizer needs, 56. 
 
 Analyses of Various Chemical Fertilizer and Belated Materials . 57 
 Dissolved bone-black, 57 — Bone charcoal, 57 — Ground bone, 
 57 — Dried blood, 58 — Dry ground fish, 58 — Sulfate of ammo- 
 nia, 58 — Sulfate of potash, 58 — Sulfate of magnesia, 58 — Nitrate 
 of Soda, 58 — Muriate of potash, 58 — German potash salts, 58 — 
 Kainit, 59 — Land-plaster or gypsum, 59 — Ashes, unleached, 59 
 — Ashes, leached, 59 — Coal ashes, bituminous, 59 — Coal ashes, 
 anthracite, 59 — Gas-lime, 59 — Seaweed, 60. 
 
 Fertilizer Formulas for Various Crops 60 
 
 Formulas suggested by Maine Experiment Station, 60 — Specific 
 mixtures for different crops, 63. 
 
 Lime for the Land .......... 77 
 
 To determine whether a soil is acid, 77 — Application of lime, 
 78 — Forms of lime, 78 — Fineness of division, 79 — Classification 
 of lime for agricultural purposes, 79 — Other tests for lime, 80. 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 Farm Manures, axd Similar Materials ..... 81-91 
 
 Composition and Characteristics of Manures 81 
 
 Cattle manure, 81 — Stable or horse manure, 81 — Sheep ma- 
 nure, 82 — Hog manure, 82. 
 
 Composition of Manure from Different Animals . . . .82 
 
 Composition of fresh excrement of farm quadrupeds, 8.3 — Com- 
 position of drainage liquors, 83 — Composition of litter, 84 — 
 Poultry manures, 81. 
 
 Utilization of Manures 85 
 
 Rate of production, 85 — Use of manures, 86 — Commercial 
 value, 86 — Losses by leaching, .87. 
 
 Further Analyses of Animal Excrements . ..... 88 
 
 Common barnyard manure, fresh, 88 — Common barnyard 
 manure, moderately rotted, 88 — Same, thoroughly rotted, 88 — 
 Cattle-feces, fresh, 88 — Cattle-urine, fresh, 88 — Horse-feces, 
 fresh, 88 — Horse-urine, fresh, 89 — Sheep-feces, fresh, 89 — 
 Sheep- urine, fresh, 89 — Swine feces, fresh, 89 — Swine-urine, 
 fresh, 89 — Peruvian guano, 89 — Human feces, fresh, 90 — Human 
 urine, fresh, 90 — Sewage, 90. 
 
 Analyses of Fruit and Garden Products^ with reference to their Fer- 
 tilizing Constituents 90 
 
X CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 PAOE8 
 
 Seed-Tahles 92-106 
 
 Quantity <\f Seed required per Acre ....... 92 
 
 liny and Pasture Seeds 94 
 
 rennaiii'iit meadows, 94 — Permanent pastures, 94 — Number 
 
 and weight of grass seed, and another estimate of quantity to sow, 
 
 94 — Examples of seed mixtures that would furnish 20,000,000 
 
 grass seeds per acre, 95 — Testing grass seed, 96. 
 Numher of Tree-Seeds in a Pound 96 
 
 Fruit trees, 96 — Forest trees, 96. 
 Weights and Sizes of Seeds 97 
 
 Seedmen's customary weights per bushel, 97 — Weight and size 
 
 of garden seeds, 98. 
 Figures of Germination and Purity ....... 100 
 
 Testing seeds, 100 — High average percentage of purity and of 
 
 germination of high-grade seeds, 101 — Average time required for 
 
 garden seeds to germinate, 102. 
 Longevity of Seeds 102 
 
 Vilmorin's tables, 102 — Haberlandt's figures, 104 — Vitality 
 
 of seeds buried in soil, 104. 
 Average Yields of Garden Seed- Crops 105 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 laxting-Tables 106-123 
 
 Dates for Sowing or Setting Kitchen-Garden Vegetables in Differ- 
 ent Latitudes 106 
 
 Lansing, Michigan, 106 — Boston, 106 — New York, 107 — Nor- 
 folk, 107 — Georgia, 108 — 'IVndor and hardy vegetables, 108. 
 
 Date-Tahles 109 
 
 Vegeta])le-gardener's planting-table, 109 — Usual planting dates 
 for field crops, 110 — Flower-planting table, 116. 
 
 Distance -Tattles .119 
 
 Usual distances apart for planting fruits, 119 — Usual distances 
 apart for planting vegetables, 119— Orange trees, 119 — Number 
 of plants reijuired to set an acre of ground at given distances, 
 120 — Quincunx planting, 12.'}. 
 
 Flan for a Home Garden . . « 123 
 
CONTENTS Xi 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Maturities, Yields, and Multiplication 124-132 
 
 Matunty- Tables 124 
 
 Time required for maturity of different garden crops, reckoned 
 from the sowing of the seeds, 124 — Time required, from setting, 
 for fruit-plants to bear (for northern and central latitudes) 124 
 — Average profitable longevity of fruit-plants under high culture, 
 125. 
 
 Yield-Tables 125 
 
 Average full yields per acre of various horticultural crops, 125 — 
 Yields of farm crops, 127. 
 
 Propagation- Tables . . 130 
 
 Tabular statement of the ways in which plants are propagated, 
 130 — Particular methods by which various fruits are multiplied, 
 130 — Stocks commonly used for various fruits, 131 — How vege- 
 table crops are propagated, 131 — How farm crops are propa- 
 gated, 132. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 Crops for Special Farm Practices. Hojie Storage and Keep- 
 ing OF Crops 133-149 
 
 Forage Crops 133 
 
 Roughage, 133 — Fodder, 133 — Soiling, 133 — Silage, 134. 
 
 Soiling Crops 134 
 
 Soiling crops adapted to northern New England, 135 — Time of 
 planting and feeding soiling crops, 135 — Soiling crops for Penn- 
 sylvania, 136 — Crops for partial soiling for Illinois during mid- 
 summer, 130 — Succession of soiling crops for dairy cows for 
 Wisconsin, 136 — Mississippi, 137 — Kansas, 137 — Dates for 
 planting and using soiling crops in western Oregon and western 
 Washington, 137 — Dairyman's rotation in middle latitudes, 137. 
 
 Cover-Crops 138 
 
 Catch-Crops 139 
 
 Nurse-Crops 140 
 
 Field Boot-Crops 140 
 
 Methods of Keeping and Storing Fruits and Vegetables . . . 141 
 Apples, 141 — Cabbage, 142 — Celery, 142 — Crystallized or 
 glac6 fruit, 143 — Figs, 144 — Gooseberries, 144 — Grapes, 144 — 
 Onions, 146— Orange, 147 — Pears, 147 — Quince, 147 — Roots, 
 147— Squash, 147 —Sweet-potato, 148 — Tomato, 149. 
 Cold Storage 14fl 
 
xii CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 PAQEB 
 
 Commercial Grauks of Cuor Products. Fruit Packages . 150-171 
 
 Cotton Grades l''>0 
 
 Orades of Ilaij and Straw 151 
 
 Hay, 151 — Alfalfa, 152 — Straw, 152. 
 Grades of Grain ........... 153 
 
 White winter wheat, 153 — Red winter wheat, 154 — Hard winter 
 wheat, 154 — Northern spring wheat, 154 — Spring wheat, 155 — 
 White spring wheat, 155 — Durum wheat, 155 — Velvet chaff 
 wheat, 150 — Pacific Coast wheat, 150 — Mixed wheat, 157 — 
 Rye, 157 — White oats, 157 — Mixed oats, 158 — Red or rust- 
 proof oats, 158 — White clipped oats, 158 — Mixed clipped oats, 
 159_l»uritied oats, 159 — Corn, 150— White corn, 100 — Yellow 
 corn, 100 — Mixed corn, 100 — Milo-maize, 100 — KalBr corn, 
 101 — Barley, 101 — Winter barley, 102 — Sample grades, 103. 
 Fruit Packages ........... 163 
 
 California deciduous fruits, 103 — Chautauqua grape figures, 104 
 — California citrus fruits, 104 — Apple boxes, 104 — Canadian 
 fruit packages, 1(57 — Proposed United States standards, 108. 
 Packages for truck crops, including strawberries , . . . 169 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 The JinoixG of Farms, Crops, and Plants. Exhibition and No- 
 menclature Rules. Emblematic Plants and Flowers 172-180 
 Farms and Farm Practices . . . . . . . .172 
 
 The agricultural virtues, 172 — Loudon's rules for gardeners, 173 
 
 — Essential i)oint.s to consider in the organization of a farm, 174 
 
 — Points of a good farm, 174 — Score-card for farms, 175. 
 
 Corn and Potators 177 
 
 Score-card for dent corn, 177 — For use in the plant selection of 
 seed corn, 177 — Card for use in judging varieties of corn at 
 husking time, 177 — Score-card for potatoes, 177. 
 
 Standards for Judging Fruits at Erhibitinns 177 
 
 Api)les and pears, 177 — Peaches, 177 — Plums, 178 — Cherries, 
 178 — Grapes, 178 — Collections, 178 — Barrel apples, 178 — Box 
 apples, 179. 
 
 Flowers and Plants 179 
 
 The American Rose Society scale of points, 179 — Standardiza- 
 tion of roses, 179 — Carnations, 179 — Gladiolus, 180 — Chrysan- 
 
CONTENTS xiii 
 
 PAQE8 
 
 themum, 180 — Sweet pea, 180 — Scale of points of florists' 
 
 plants, 180. 
 Sample BuJes to Govern Exhibitions 181 
 
 Massachusetts Horticultural Society rules, 181. 
 Nomenclature Rules 183 
 
 Rules for naming kitchen-garden vegetables, 183 — American 
 
 Pomological Society rules of nomenclature, 183. 
 Emblematic Plants and Flowers 185 
 
 State flowers, 185 — National and regional flowers, 186 — Party 
 
 flowers, 186. 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 Greenhouse and Window-Garden Work 187-201 
 
 Greenhouse Practice 187 
 
 Potting earth, 187 — Suggestions for potting plants, 188 — Wat- 
 ering greenhouse and window plants, 188 — Liquid manure for 
 greenhouses, 188. 
 
 Lists of Plants 189 
 
 Twenty-five plants adapted to window-gardens, 189 — Vegetable- 
 growing under glass, 190 — Twenty-five useful aquatic and sub- 
 aquatic plants for outdoor use, 191 — Commercial plants and 
 flowers, or "florists' plants," 191. 
 
 The Heating of Greenhouses 192 
 
 Methods of proportioning radiating surface for heating of green- 
 houses, 192 — Size of pipes connecting radiating surface and the 
 boiler or heater, 194 — Table of dimensions of standard wrought- 
 iron pipe, 194 — To design heating surface, 195. 
 
 Other Infor7nation relating to Heating 195 
 
 Diameters for chimney flues, 195 — Effects of wind in cooling 
 glass, 196 — Table of radiation for glass, 196 — Radiating surface 
 of pipes, 197 — Method of finding boiler capacity for cast-iron 
 pipe, 198 — Customary temperatures in which plants are grown 
 under glass, 198. 
 
 Various Estimates and Becipes 198 
 
 Percentage of rays of light reflected from glass roofs at various 
 angles of divergence from the perpendicular, 198 — Angle of roof 
 for different heights and widths of house, 199 — Standard flower- 
 pots, 199 — To prevent boilers from filling with sediment or scale, 
 200 — To prepare paper and cloth for hotbed sash, 200 — Paint for 
 hot-water pipes, 200 — Liquid putty for glazing, 201 — Paint for 
 shading greenhouse roofs, 201 — To keep flower-pots clean, 201. 
 
xiv CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Forestry axd Timber 202-220 
 
 Planting Xotes '^^^ 
 
 NuraiTy planting-table for forest trees, 202 — Forest planting, 
 
 1-03. 
 
 Eardness of Common Commercial Woods 204 
 
 Forest Yieldn 204 
 
 Approximate time required to produce wood crops, 204 — Yield 
 of white pine, 206. 
 
 Life of Fence- Pouts and Shingles 207 
 
 Durability of fence-posts in Minnesota, 207 — Prolonging the life 
 of fenco-post.s, 207 — Prolonging the life of shingles, 209 — Sug- 
 gestions for couiinunity action, 210. 
 Board Mf'asure .......•.•• 210 
 
 Curd Measure ........... 211 
 
 Log Measure ........••• 212 
 
 Scribner decimal log rule, 214. 
 
 U. S. Purest Service Log-Scaling Directions 214 
 
 Allowances for taper, 216. 
 Cubic Log Measure . . . . . . . • .216 
 
 Method by measurement of length and middle diameters, 217 — 
 By length and end diameters, 217 — Solid cubic contents of logs, 
 218. 
 Cubic Contents of Square Timber in Bound Logs .... 218 
 
 The two-thirds rule, 219 — The inscribed-square rule, 220. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 Weeds 221-233 
 
 General Practices 221 
 
 Annual weeds, 221 — Biennials, 222 — Perennials, 222. 
 Chemical Weed-killers or Herbicides 223 
 
 Salt, 223 — Copper sulfate (blue vitriol), 223 — Iron sulfate, 223 
 
 — Kerosene, 223 — Carbolic acid, 224 — Sulfuric acid (oil of 
 vitriol), 224 — Caustic soda, 224 — Arsenical compounds, 224. 
 
 Applicatiun of Herbicides 224 
 
 Gravel roadways, gutters, tennis courts, walks, 224 — List of 
 weeds that may be controlled by means of chemical sprays, 225 
 
 — List of weeds on which present spraying methods are not effec- 
 tive, 22.') — Rhode Island experience with iron sulfate, 226 — 
 South DakoU experience with iron sulfate, 220— Ohio experi- 
 
CONTENTS XV 
 
 PAGES 
 
 ence, 226 — Cornell experience, 227 — Various experiences, 227 
 / — When to apply weed sprays, 228. 
 Treatment for Particular Weeds 229 
 
 Poison ivy, 229 — Prickly lettuce, 229 — Bracted plantain, 229 
 
 — Horse nettle, 229 — Buffalo bur, 229— Spiny amaranth, 229 
 
 — Spiny cocklebur, 229 — Chondrilla, 230 — Wild carrot, 230 — 
 Wild oats, 230 — False flax, 230 — Mustard, 230 — King-head, 
 230 — Canada thistle, 230 — Dandelion, 231 —Sow thistle, 231 — 
 Quack-grass, 231 — White daisy, 231 — Black mustard, 232 — 
 Orange hawkweed and chickweed, 232. 
 
 Lawns 232 
 
 Weeds in lawns, 232 — Moss on lawns and walks, 233. 
 Moss or Lichen on Trees 233 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 
 Pests and Nuisances 234-251 
 
 Mice and Bats 234 
 
 To prevent mice from girdling trees in winter, 234 — Washes to 
 protect trees from mice, 235 — Carbonate of baryta for rats and 
 mice, 235 — Tartar emetic, 235 — Strychnine for mice, 235 — 
 Camphor for rats and mice, 236 — French paste, 236 — Phosphorus, 
 236 — To protect seed-corn from burrowing animals, 236. 
 
 Rabbits 236 
 
 Wash for keeping rabbits, sheep, and mice away from trees, 236 
 
 — Blood for rabbits, 236 — To drive rabbits from orchards, 237 
 
 — Another wash, 237 — California rabbit- wash, 237 — California 
 rabbit poisons, 237 — Sulfur for rabbits, 237 — Cow-manure, 237 
 
 — Asafoetida, 238 — Kansan method of protecting trees from 
 rabbits, 238 — To remedy the injury done by mice, rabbits, and 
 squirrels, 241. 
 
 Ground Squirrel or Spermophile Bemedies 241 
 
 Moles 242 
 
 Prairie-dogs 242 
 
 Woodchucks or Ground-hogs 243 
 
 Pocket-gophers 243 
 
 Wolves and Coyotes 243 
 
 Muskrats 243 
 
 Pestiferotis Birds 243 
 
 Bird poisons, 243 — Poison for English sparrows, 244 — To pro- 
 tect fruits from birds, 244 — To protect newly planted seeds, 244 
 
XVl cox TEXTS 
 
 PAGES 
 
 — To protect corn from crows, 245 — To protect young chickens, 
 
 245. 
 Mosquitoes ............ 245 
 
 Ki'ro.sfne for nufstiuitoes, 24') — Fishes available for destruction 
 
 of uios<iuit«) hirvii', 24() — lliliernating uios(iuitoes, 24(3 — Rules 
 
 for nioscpiito rxtennination anil prevention, 247. 
 The House- Fly 249 
 
 The typhoid tly, or house-tty, 241) — Control, 250. 
 Slime on runds 251 
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 
 FiNoirinKs and Germicides for Plant Diseases . . , 252-258 
 I*rartires ............ 252 
 
 Destroying affected parts, 252 — Rotation of crops, 253 — Steri- 
 lizing by steam, 253. 
 
 Substances 253 
 
 Bordeau.x mixture, 253 — Aminoniacal copper carbonate, 255 — 
 Copper carbonate. 255 — Corrosive sublimate, 255 — Formalin, 
 25C — Lime, 250 — Lime-sulfur, 256 — Potassium sulfid, 258 — 
 Resin -sal -sod a sticker, 258 — Sulfate of copper, 258 — Sulfate of 
 iron, 258 — Sulfur, 258. 
 
 chaptp:r XVI 
 
 Plant Diseases .......... 259-285 
 
 Certain General or Unclassijied Diseases 260 
 
 Dainping-<jff, 2<50 — CEdema or dropsy, 260 — Smut of cereals, 
 
 200 — Storage rots, 262. 
 Diseases of the Different Plants or Crops 262 
 
 Alfalfa, 262 — Almond, 263 — Apple, 263 — Apricot, 265 — 
 
 A.sparagus. 265— Barley, 265 — Bean, 265 — Bean, Lima, 265 
 
 — Beet, 266 — Blackberry, 266 — Brussels sprouts, 266 — Cab- 
 bage, 266 — Carnation, 267 — Caulitiower, 267 — Celery, 267 — 
 Cherry, 267 - Chestnut, 268 — Chry.santhemum, 268 — Corn, . 
 268 — Cotton, 269 — Cranberry, 260— Cucumber, 270 — Currant, 
 270 — Ginseng, 270 — Golden-seal, 271 — Gooseberry, 271 — 
 Grape, 271 — Hollyhock, 273 — Lettuce, 273 — Muskmelon, 274 
 
 — Nectarine, 274 — Nursery stock, 274 — Oats, 274 — Onion, 274 
 
 — Pea, 276 — Peach, 275 — Pear, 277 — Plum, 279 — Potato, 279 
 
 — l*umpkin, 280 — Quince, 280 — Radish, 280 — Raspberry, 281 — 
 
CONTENTS xv!i 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Rice, 281 — Rose, 281 — Spinach, 281 — Strawberry, 282 — Sweet- 
 potato, 282 — Tobacco, 282 — Tomato, 283 — Violet, 283 — 
 Wheat, 283. 
 Seed and Soil Treatments 284 
 
 CHAPTER XVII 
 
 Insecticidal Materials and Practices 286-300 
 
 General Practices . 286 
 
 Cleanliness, 286 — Hand-picking, 286 — Promoting growth, 286 
 Burning, 286 — Banding, 286 — Fumigation, 287 — Fungous dis- 
 eases as insecticides, 290. 
 
 Insecticidal Substances 290 
 
 Arsenic, 290 — Arsenicals, 291 — Bait, 293 — Bran-arsenic mash, 
 293 — Bisulfid of carbon, 293 — Carbolic acid materials, 293 — 
 Criddle mixture, 293 — Distillate emulsion, 294 — Hot water, 294 
 — Kerosene emulsion, 294 — Lime-sulfur, 294 — Miscible oils, 
 297 — Pyrethrum, 297 — Resin and fish-oil compounds, 298 — 
 Soaps, 298-299 — Soda and aloes, 299 — Sulfur, 299 — Tangle- 
 foot, 299 — Tar, 299 — Tobacco, 299 — White hellebore, 300. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 Injurious Insects, with Treatment ...... 301-336 
 
 General or Unclassified Pests 301 
 
 Angleworm, 301 — Aphides, 301 — Bag-worm, 301 — Blister- 
 beetle, 302 — Brown-tail moth, 302 — Cutworm, 302 — Flea- 
 beetle, 303 — Four-striped plant-bug, 303 — Gipsy-moth, 303 — 
 May-beetle, 303 — Mealy-bug, 303 — Nematode root-gall, 303 — 
 Red-spider or mite, 304 — San Jos^ scale, 304 — Scale-insects, 
 304 — Snails, 305 — White ants, 305 — Wire-worm, 305 
 Insects classified under the Plants they chiefly Affect . . . . 305 
 Apple, 305 — Apricot, 310 — Asparagus, 310 — Aster, 311 — Bean, 
 311 — Birch, 311 — Blackberry, 311— Cabbage, 311 —Carrot, 
 312— Cauliflow^er, 313 — Celery, 313 — Cherry, 313 — Chestnut, 
 313 — Chrysanthemum, 313 — Clover, 313 — Corn, 314 — Cotton, 
 316 — Cranberry, 317 — Cucumber, 318 — Currant, 318 — Dahlia, 
 
 319 — Egg-plant, 319 — Elm, 319 — Endive, 320 — Gooseberry, 
 
 320 — Grape, 320 — Hollyhock, 322 — House-plants, 322 — 
 Lawns, 322 — Lettuce, 322 — Melon, 322 — Mushroom, 323 — 
 Onion, 323 — Orange and lemon, 323 — Parsley, 324 — Parsnip, 
 324 — Pea, 324 — Peach, 325 — Pear, 326 — Pecan, 327 — Per- 
 
xviu CONTENTS 
 
 Simmon, 328 — Pineapple, 328 — Plum, 329 — Poplar, 321) — Po- 
 tato, 32i)— Privet or Prim, 330 — Quince, 330 — Radish, 330 — 
 Hiuspberry, 330 — Rhubarb, 331 — Rose, 331— Squash, 331 — 
 StniwlK-rry, 332 — Sugar-cane, 333 — Sumac, 334 — Sweet-potato, 
 3;S4— Tobacco, 335 — Tomato, 335— Violet, 335— Wheat, 33G 
 
 — Willow, 330. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX 
 
 Live-Stock Rules and Records ...... 337-364 
 
 Determining the Age of Farm Animals 337 
 
 Cattle, 337 — Sheep, 338— Swine, 339— Horses, 339. 
 Gestation and Incubation Figures ....... 342 
 
 Number of young at birth. 343 — Number of eggs in brood, 343. 
 Other Characteristics 344 
 
 Average temperatures of farm animals, 344 — The pulse of farm 
 
 animals, 344 — Period of heat, 344 — Quantity of blood in the 
 
 bodies of farm animals, 345. 
 Temperatures for Cold Storage of Animal Products .... 345 
 Advanced Registry 346 
 
 Schedule of charges for supervising records of cows, 348 — Hol- 
 
 stein-Friesian records, 349 — Ayrshire records, 350 — Guernsey 
 
 records, 351 — Jersey records, 354. 
 Fast Horse Records 357 
 
 Trotters, 358 — Pacers, 358 — Fastest records for one mile, 358 
 
 — Fastest records for two miles, 359 — Fastest records for three 
 miles, 359 — Fastest records for four miles, 359 — Fastest records 
 for five miles, 359 — Fastest records for six miles, 359 — For ten 
 miles, 359 — For eighteen miles, 359 — For twenty miles, 360 — 
 For thirty miles, 360 — For thirty-two miles, 360 — For fifty 
 miles, 360 — For one hundred miles, 360 — For decades, 300. 
 
 Profit-find- Loss Figures 360 
 
 Profit or loss in dairy cows, 360 — Profit or loss in fattening 
 steers, 362 — In fattening sheep, 362 — In fattening swine, 362. 
 
 Coic-testing Associations 362 
 
 Apparatus required, 364 — Value of cow-testing associations in 
 Virginia, 364. 
 
 CHAPTER XX 
 
 PoriLTRY 366-382 
 
 Standard Weights of Poultry in Poiinds 366 
 
 Descriptive Score-Card for Standard Poultry 367 
 
CONTENTS xix 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Eggs 368 
 
 Scoring and judging one dozen eggs, 368 — Students' score-card 
 for a dozen eggs, 369. 
 
 Rules for Machine Incubation 370 
 
 Feeding 372 
 
 Cornell ration for egg-production, 372 — Relation of food-con- 
 sumption to egg-production, 372. 
 
 Preparing Fo%ds for Market by Bleeding 374 
 
 Care of Feathers and Eggs 375 
 
 Feathers, 375 — General care of eggs, 375 — Preserving eggs, 376. 
 
 Parasites of Fowls 377 
 
 Hen louse, 377 — Chicken mite, 377 — Scaly leg, 378 — Deplum- 
 ing scabies, 378— Hen fleas, 378 — Chicken tick, 378. 
 Sample Rules and Regulations for the Exhibition of Poultry . . 378 
 Outline for Critical Examination of a Poultry Farm = . . 381 
 
 CHAPTER XXI 
 
 Exhibiting and Judging Live-Stock. Market Grades . . 383-408 
 General Rules and Regulations governing Exhibits of Live-Stock . 383 
 
 Score- Cards for Farm Animals 392 
 
 Draft-horse, 392 — Light-horse, 393 — Students' card for propor- 
 tions of horse, .395 — Beef -cattle (female), 395 — Beef-cattle 
 (bull), 397 — Dairy-cattle, 398 — Mutton sheep, 399 — Breeding- 
 sheep, 401 — Fat-hog, 402 — Bacon-hog, 404. 
 
 Market Classes and Grades 404 
 
 Beef, 404 — Veal, 405 — Mutton and lamb, 406 — Pork, 406 — 
 Swine, 407. 
 
 CHAPTER XXII 
 
 Computing the Ration for Farm Animals .... 409-428 
 
 Computing by Energy Values 409 
 
 Computing on Basis of Quality and Quantity of Milk . . . 410 
 Computing the Balanced Ration by the Wolff-Lehmann Standards . 413 
 
 The Feeding Standards 414 
 
 Feeding standards per day and 1000 lb. live weight, 414 — Per 
 day per head, 415 — Proteid requirements for cattle, sheep, and 
 swine, 416 — Average weights of different feeding stuffs, 417 — 
 Sample rations, 417. 
 Composition Tables . . . 419 
 
XX CONTENTS 
 
 rAGE? 
 
 Composition tables, 410 — Digestion tables, 424 — Fertilizing 
 constituents, 426. 
 
 CHAPTER XXTII 
 
 P^xTKRN'AL Parasites of Animals , 429-441 
 
 Handling the Cattle -tick or Texas-fever Tick 429 
 
 Dijxs for cattle-ticks, their preparation and use, 420 — Method of 
 spraying, 483 — Disinfectant for ticks in infested stables, 434 — 
 Eradication of ticks by rotation of fields, 435. 
 
 Other External Parasites of Farm Animals 434 
 
 Lime-and-sulfur dips, 434 — Nicotine solutions, 434 — Commer- 
 cial dips, 430 — Crude oil emulsion, 43() — Lice powder, 4'.]Ct — ■ 
 Cresol disinfecting soap, 4;}H — The kinds of parasites (cattle, 
 437 ; horse, 430 ; sheep, 440; swine, 441). 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV 
 
 Milk and Milk I^roducts ; Dairy Farms .... 442-472 
 
 Composition of Milk 442 
 
 Composition of cow's milk, 442 — Average composition of milk 
 of various kinds, 443 — Average composition of typical cow's 
 milk, 443 — The milk of different breeds, 444 — Milk solids of 
 different breeds, 444 — Ash in cow's milk and its products, 444 — 
 Mineral constituents in milk. 444 — Variation in average compo- 
 sition of 574 samples of market butter .samples, 445 — Nutrients 
 and energy in one pound of food materials as compared with 
 milk, 445 — Average composition of milk products and other 
 food materials, 44(5. 
 
 Milk, Butter, and Cheese Tests 446 
 
 Babcock test for butter-fat, 440 — Computing total solids, 447 — 
 Test for acid, 447 — Test for boiled milk, 448 — The lactometer 
 test for specific gravity, 448 — Test for boric acid or borax, 440 
 
 — Test for formaldehyde iti milk, 450 — Standardizing milk, 450 
 
 — Butter moisture-test, 451 — Salt in butter, 453 — Salt in cheese, 
 453 — Over-run in buttfM'-making, 454 — Spoon-test for oleomar- 
 parin and renovated butter, 455 — Moisture in cheese, 455 — 
 Babcock test for fat in cheese, 456 — Casein in milk, 466 — Wis- 
 consin curd-test, 457. 
 
 Propagation of Starter for Butter- Making and Cheese-Making . . 458 
 
CONTENTS XXI 
 
 PAQES 
 
 Farm Butter- Making 458 
 
 Bitter milk and cream, 459 — Why butter will not " come," 460 
 — Old cream makes poor-flavored butter, 461 — White specks in 
 the butter, 461 — Mottled butter, 461 — Effect of feed on butter- 
 fat, 461. 
 
 Butter from Whey 461 
 
 Milk^ Butter, and Dairy-farm Scores 462 
 
 Score-card for market-milk, 402 — Butter score-card, 463 — 
 Cheese score-card, 464 — University of Wisconsin score-cards, 465. 
 
 Butter Classifications and Grades 465 
 
 Definitions, 465 — Grades, 465 — Specials, 465 — Extras, 466 — 
 Seconds, 466 — Thirds, 467 — No. 1 packing stock, 467 — No. 2 
 packing stock, 467 — No. 3 packing stock, 467. 
 
 Dairy Establishment Scores and Bules 467 
 
 Score-card for production of sanitary milk, 467 — Milk inspec- 
 tion of farm dairies, 469 — Rules for the production of clean 
 milk, 471 — Sanitary inspection of city milk plants, 472. 
 
 CHAPTER XXV 
 
 Construction, Farm Engineering, Mechanics . . . 473-503 
 Silos 473 
 
 Least number of dairy cows for silos of given diameters, 473 — 
 Feeding capacity of silos, 473 (Approximate quantity of silage 
 required per day — Necessary diameter of silos for feeding given 
 numbers of cows) — Other silo figures, 476 (Weight of silage- 
 capacity of cylindrical silos) . 
 
 Barn Figures 477 
 
 Wire Fence 477 
 
 Dimensions of 1-, 2-, 3-, 4-acre lots and fence required to inclose 
 them, 478 — Gauges, sizes, and weights of plain wire, 479 — Barb- 
 wire, 479 — Galvanized coiled spring-steel wire, 479 — Rods of 
 fence required for fields of different sizes, 480. 
 Tensile Strengths of Bopes . ........ 481 
 
 Tile Draining 481 
 
 Number of feet of tile per acre, 481— Limit of size of tile to 
 grade and length, 481 — Number of acres drained by given sizes 
 of tile, 482 — Price-list of tile, 483 — Cost of laying tile, 483 — 
 Drainage points, 484 — Don'ts in land drainage, 484. 
 
 Boad-Drags 485 
 
 Use of the King road-drag, 485 — The split-log road-drag, 487. 
 
xxii CONTENTS 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Data on Water 489 
 
 Kules, 481) — Feet-head and pressure, 481) — Pressure and feet- 
 head, 41)0 — EijuivalenUs for moving water, 41)0 — Foot-loss of 
 water through i)ii)es by gravity, 491 — Friction-loss of water in 
 pipes (pounds), 492 — Friction-head (feet), 493 — Barometric 
 pressure at different altitudes as affecting pumps, 494. 
 
 WindmiU Fifjures 494 
 
 Windmills for pumping, 494 — Power of mill, 495 — Speed of 
 mill, 49G — Loadmg and speed, 497 — Sizes and cost of circular 
 reservoirs for irrigation by windmills, 497 — Cost of nulls, 498. 
 
 Machinery and Motors 498 
 
 Widths of belting, 498 — Size and speed of pulleys or gears, 498 
 — Calculated capacity of piston pumps, 499 — Power required to 
 operate triplex pumps, 500 — Horse-power required to rai.se water 
 to different heights, 501 — Horse-power of steel shafting, 501 — 
 Electric appliances on the farm, 502 — The motor power of a 
 stream, 502 — Hydraulic rams, 503 — Hot-air engines, 503. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI 
 
 Mason Work. Cements, Paints, Glues, and Waxes . . 504-615 
 
 Building or Mason'^s Cement ; Gravel and Pitch .... 504 
 Approximate estimates of mason-work, 504 — Floors, borders, 
 walks, and foundations, 505. 
 
 Mending Cements 507 
 
 Cements for iron, 507 — Boiler cements, 507 — Tar cement, 508 
 — Copper cement, 508 — Fire-proof or stone cement, 508 — ■ 
 Earthenware cement, 508 — Cement for glass, 508 — Sealing 
 cements, 508. 
 
 Paints and Protective Compounds 509 
 
 Home-made washes for fences and outbuildings, 509 — Fire-proof 
 paint, 509 — For damp walls, 609 — Water-proofing paint for 
 leather, 510 — For cloth for pits and frames, 510 — For paper, 
 610 — To prevent metals from rusting, 510 — To prevent rusting 
 of nails, hinges, etc., 510— To remove rust, 511 — Amount of 
 paint required for a given .surface, 511. 
 
 Olues 511 
 
 Liquid glue, 511 — Flower gum, 511 — Gum for labels and speci- 
 mens, 512. 
 
 Waxes for Grafting and for Covering ]Vounds 512 
 
 Common resin and beeswax waxes, 612 — Alcoholic wax, 513 — 
 
CONTENTS XXlll 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Pitch wax, 513 — Waxed string and bandages, 513 — Covers for 
 wounds, 514. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII 
 
 Computation Tables 516-542 
 
 Tables of Begular American Weights and Measures . . . 516 
 
 Avoirdupois weight, 516 — Troy or jewellers', 516 — Apothe- 
 caries', 516 — Comparative weights, 517 — Dry measure, 517 — 
 Liquid measure, 517 — Apothecaries' fluid measure, 517 — Line 
 or linear measure, 517 — Surveyors' or chain measure, 518 — 
 Square measure, 518 — Surveyors' square measure, 518 — Solid 
 or cubic measure, 518 — Paper and book denominations, 519. 
 
 Metric Weights and Measures 519 
 
 Weight, 519 — Capacity, 520 — Length, 520 — Surface, 620 — 
 Cubic, 520 — Equivalents in metric and American measures, 521. 
 
 Money Tables 521 
 
 English money, 521 — French, 522 — German, 522 — Dutch, 522 
 — Italian, 522 — Spanish, 522 — Russian, 522 — Austrian, 522 — 
 Monetary units of American countries, 522 — Other money 
 equivalents, 523 — Money table, 524 — Legal rates of interest, 
 524. 
 
 Wage-Tables 526 
 
 Day wages, 526-527 — Month wages, 526. 
 
 Thermometer Scales 527 
 
 Miscellaneous Measures^ Weights^ and Estimates ... 528 
 
 Measures and dimensions of many kinds, 528 — Weights of 
 various varieties of apples per bushel, 629 — Dried fruit and 
 cider, 529 — Various estimates, 529 — To find bushels in bins, 
 530 — To find tons of hay in mow or stack, 530 — To figure cost 
 of hay by the ton, 530. 
 
 Capacities of Pipes and Tanks 531 
 
 Quantity of water held by pipes of various sizes, 531 — Number 
 of gallons in circular tanks and wells, 531 — Approximate con- 
 tents of cylinders, 531 — Gallons in square-built tanks, 532. 
 
 Legal Weight of the Bushel 533 
 
 List of products for which legal weights have been fixed in but 
 one or two states, 533, 540 — Legal weights (in pounds) per 
 bushel in the United States, 534 — Other articles, 540 — Legal 
 weights of seeds and grains in Canada, 540. 
 
 Government Townships 641 
 
XXIV CONTENTS 
 
 CHAl'lKR XXVIII 
 
 PAGES 
 COLLECTINO AND PRESERVING SPECIMENS FOR CaRINETS OR EXHIBI- 
 TION Perftmery Labels 543-558 
 
 Collecting and SUthng Samples of Soil 543 
 
 Samples of Seeds and Grains 544 
 
 Collecting and Pn serving I'lants for Ilrrharia .... 545 
 Preserving, Printing, and Imitating Flowers and Other Parts of 
 
 Plants 546 
 
 Collecting and Preserving Insects . . . . 551 
 
 Making Perfumery at Home 551 
 
 The Presentation of Fruits for Exhibition Purposes .... 552 
 vSix Canadian recipes, 552 — A California method, 550. 
 
 Labels 556 
 
 Jars for Specimens 558 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX 
 
 Directories 559-567 
 
 Institutions and Agencies making for a better Enrol Life . . . 559 
 Agricultural and Forestry Colleges, Srhools, and Experiment Sta- 
 tions in Canada 561 
 
 Agricultural C<dleges and Experiment Stations in the United States . 561 
 
 Forestry Schools in the United States 564 
 
 North American Veterinary C<dleges and Departments . . . 565 
 
 Home Ecroiomic Institutions and Departments 566 
 
 Institutions teaching Landscape Architecture {or Landscape Garden- 
 ing) of College Grade ... 567 
 
FARM AND GARDEN RULE-BOOK 
 
FARM AND GARDEN RULE-BOOK 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 The Weather 
 
 The fanner lives with the weather. Therefore he should under- 
 stand it ; and he should be able to follow the indications of the weather 
 maps, and should be provided with good thermometers and barometers 
 of his own. 
 
 It is important that the thermometer should indicate the tempera- 
 ture correctly, and for this one must rely on the maker. Most reli- 
 able instrument-makers place the firm name on their instruments as 
 a guarantee of accuracy. When purchasing, it is therefore well to 
 see that the instrument bears the name of the maker. A reUable 
 thermometer of the ordinary pattern costs $1 to $3, depending on 
 the size and style of the case. Probably the most satisfactory instru- 
 ment for farm use is " Six's " pattern of self-registering maximum 
 and minimum thermometers. This instrument is but little larger 
 than the ordinary thermometer, and arranged with two scales, one of 
 which shows the highest and the other the lowest temperature since 
 the instrument was " set." To " set " the thermometer, the small 
 steel index in the tube is pulled down to the end of the column by a 
 magnet that accompanies the instrument. The current temperature 
 is indicated by this instrument in the same way as by the ordinary 
 thermometer. Thermometers that cost from 25 ^ to 50 ^ are usually 
 inaccurate through a part of the scale. 
 
 The same rule as to maker should be observed in the purchase of 
 an aneroid barometer, although there are probably fewer worthless 
 barometers on the market than worthless thermometers. A good 
 aneroid barometer costs S 10 to $ 15, depending on the size and make. 
 As these instruments depend for accuracy on the mechanical con- 
 struction, the cheaper grades are usually unsatisfactory. A pocket 
 
 B 1 
 
 Library 
 
2 THE WEATHER 
 
 aneroid barometer (about the size of a watcli) costs about $12. 
 These instruments are arranged to determine elevations as well as to 
 give weather indications. 
 
 Mercurial barometers are more expensive, costing S25 to S40. As 
 the mercury in the column of a mercurial barometer changes its 
 length with changes of temperature just as the column of mercury 
 does in a mercurial thermometer, it is necessary to correct the read- 
 ing at each observation. Tables, giving the amount to be added or 
 subtracted from the reading for each degree of temperature, should 
 be secured when the instrument is purchased. 
 
 Thermometers should be exposed in the shade, and where there is 
 a free circulation of air. Barometers should not be exposed to full 
 sunshine for any great length of time. Any convenient place in the 
 house will give proper exposure for barometers. 
 
 How to use the Weather Map 
 (Weather Bureau, U. S. Dept. Agric.) 
 
 The first impression of a student of the weather maps, as they pre- 
 sent their seemingly endless forms and combinations of the temperature 
 and pressure lines, is often one of confusion. This feeling is likely 
 to be attended by one of discouragement, and the impulse to abandon 
 the task of seeking an underlying plan is more powerful with many 
 persons than the incentive, which depends upon curiosity, to know 
 what it all really means. 
 
 The storm-tracks. 
 
 The storms of the United States follow, hoTvever, year after year a 
 series of tracks, not capricious, but related to each other by very well- 
 defined laws. 
 
 The i^ositions of these tracks have been determined carefully for 
 the United States by studies made in the Forecast Division of the 
 Weather Bureau, on the long series of maps that have been made during 
 the past twenty years. The track that the central point of a high area 
 or that the center of a storm follows in passing over the country from 
 west to east is laid down on individual charts, these are collected on 
 a group chart, and from this the average track i)ursued can be readily 
 described. The chart herewith (see fig. 1) shows the general result of 
 
THE WEATHER MAP 
 
4 THE WEATHER 
 
 a study of tracks of storms in the United States. It indicates that, 
 in general, there are two sets of tracks running westerly and easterly, 
 one set over the northwestern boundary, the Lake region, and the St. 
 Lawrence Valley ; the other set over the middle Rocky Mountain dis- 
 tricts and the (lulf States. Each of those is double, with one for the 
 " highs " and one for the " lows." Furthermore, there are lines cross- 
 ing from one main track to another, showing how storms pass from one 
 to the other. The transverse broken lines show the average daily 
 nio\oniont. On the chart the heavy lines all belong to the tracks of 
 tlie " highs," and the lighter lines to the " lows." Let us trace them 
 somewhat in detail. A " high " appearing on the California coast 
 may cross the mountains near Salt Lake, and then pass directly over 
 the belt of the Gulf States to the Florida coast ; or it ma\'' move farther 
 northward, cross the Rocky Mountains in the State of Washington, up 
 the Columbia River Valley, then turn east, and tinally reach the Gulf 
 of St. Lawrence. The paths are determined by the laws of the general 
 circulation of the atmosphere and the configuration of the North 
 American continent. This movement of the " highs " from the 
 middle Pacific coast to Florida or to the Gulf of St. Lawrence is con- 
 fined to the summer half of the year — April to September, inclusive. 
 In the winter months, on the other hand, the source of the " highs " 
 is different, though they reach the same terminals. In the months 
 Octolier to March, inclusive, many " highs " enter the United States 
 near the one hundred fiftieth meridian and move south along the 
 Rocky Mountain slope into the southern circuit, and thus reach the 
 South Carolina coast ; or else they turn more abruptly eastward and 
 move in the northern circuit over the Lakes to Newfoundland. The 
 chief difficulty in the art of forecasting is to decide which of these paths 
 will 1)0 pursued and the probable rate at which the movement will take 
 l)lace. 
 
 The weather map. 
 
 The daily maps of the Weather Bureau show stations in the United 
 States and Canada that make telegraphic reports of the weather each 
 day at 8 a, m. and 8 p. m., seventy-fifth meridian time. The reports 
 consist of observations of the barometer and thermometer, the veloc- 
 ity and direction of the wind, amount, kind, and direction of move- 
 ment of clouds, and amount of rain or snow, and the 8 a. m. reports 
 
WEATHER INDICATIONS 5 
 
 are furnished to nearly one hundred stations of the Weather Bureau 
 for use in the preparation of maps and bulletins. 
 
 On the weather maps solid lines, called isobars, are drawn through 
 points that have the same atmospheric pressure, a line being drawn 
 for each one-tenth of an inch in the height of the barometer. Dotted 
 lines, called isotherms, are drawn through points that have the same 
 atmospheric temperature, a line being drawn for each ten degrees of 
 temperature. Heavy dotted lines are sometimes used to inclose areas 
 where decided changes in temperature have occurred during the pre- 
 ceding twenty-four hours. The direction of the wind at each station 
 is indicated by an arrow which flies with the wind. The state of the 
 weather — clear, partly cloudy, cloudy, rain, or snow — is indicated by 
 symbols. Shaded areas are used on the maps issued at Washington, 
 and at several stations, to show areas within which precipitation in 
 the form of rain or snow has occurred during the preceding twelve 
 hours. The tabular data give details of maximum and minimum 
 temperatures, and 24-hour temperature changes, wind velocities, and 
 amount of precipitation during the preceding twenty-four hours. The 
 text printed on the maps presents forecasts for the state and the sta- 
 tion, and summarizes general and special meteorological features that 
 are shown by the Unes, symbols, and tabulated data. 
 
 The weather indications. 
 
 The centers of areas of low barometric pressure, or general storms, 
 are indicated on the map by the word " low," and the centers of 
 areas of high barometric pressure by the word " high." The gen- 
 eral movement of " lows " and " highs " in the United States is from 
 west to east, and in their progression they are similar to a series of 
 atmospheric waves, the crests of which are designated by the " highs " 
 and the troughs by the " lows." These alternating " highs " and 
 " lows " have an average easterly movement of about six hundred to 
 seven hundred miles a day. The " lows " usually move in an easterly, 
 or north of east, direction, and the " highs " in an easterly, or south 
 of east, direction. 
 
 In advance of a " low " the winds are southerly or easterly, and 
 are, therefore, usually warmer. When the " low " passes east of a 
 place, the wind shifts to westerly or northwesterly with lower tempera- 
 ture. The eastward advance of " lows " is almost invariably preceded 
 
6 THE WE A TIIER 
 
 and attended by precipitation in the form of rain or snow, and their 
 passage is usuall}' followed by clearing weather. The temperature on 
 a given parallel west of a "low" may be reasonably lookeil for on 
 the same parallel to the east when the "low" has passed, and when 
 the night is clear anil there is but little wind, frost is likely to occur 
 along and north of an isotherm of 40 . A "low" is generally 
 followed by a "high," which in turn is followed by another "low." 
 
 By bearing in mind the usual movements of "lows" and "highs" 
 and the general conditions referred to that attend them, coming 
 weather changes may be frequently foreseen. "Lows" often move 
 south of east from the Rocky Mountains to the Mississippi Val- 
 ley, and then change direction to north of east. " Lows " of tropi- 
 cal or subtropical origin often move in a westerly direction to oui 
 south Atlantic and Gulf coasts, and then recurve to the northeastward. 
 The centers of " lows " do not as a rule cross isothemis, but generally 
 follow the general trend of the isothermal lines. Cold waves are 
 always accompanied by, and forerun, " highs." 
 
 When isotherms run nearly east and west, no decided changes in 
 temj)erature are likely to occur. When isotherms directly west of a 
 l)hice incline from northwest to southeast, the temperature will rise; 
 when from northeast to southwest, the temperature will fall. 
 
 Southerly to easterly winds prevail west of a nearly north and south 
 line pa.ssing through the middle of a " high," and also east of a like 
 line passing though the middle of a " low." Northerly to westerly 
 winds occur west of a nearly north and south line i)assing through the 
 middle of a " low," and also east of a similar line passing though the 
 middle of a " high." 
 
 An ab-sence of decided and energetic " lows " and " highs " indicates 
 that existing weather conditions will continue until later maps show 
 a change, which usually appears in the west. 
 
 Weather Bureau Forecasts 
 
 Forecasts of the weather expected during the ensuing thirty-six 
 hours are i-ssued by the United States Weather Bureau daily at about 
 10 A.M. and 10 p.m. and are distributed to all parts of the country 
 by telegraph, tcli^phone, mail, and by means of flag and whistle signals. 
 
 Nearly all telephone companies cooperate or are willing to cooperate 
 
WEATHER FLAGS AND SIGNALS 7 
 
 with the Weather Bureau in making the information available to the 
 public in general. It is thus possible to obtain the official weather 
 forecast by calling the central exchange of almost any telephone one 
 may be using. 
 
 Signals of the United States Weather Bureau. 
 Flag Signals (Fig. 2) 
 
 W k k' h 
 
 Fig. 2. — United States flag signals. 
 
 No. 1, square white flag, alone, indicates fair weather, stationary tem- 
 perature. 
 
 No. 2, square blue flag, alone, indicates rain or snow, stationary tem- 
 perature. 
 
 No. 3, square, white above, blue below, alone, indicates local rain, 
 stationary temperature. 
 
 No. 4, triangular black, refers to temperature. 
 
 No. 5, square white, with black center, cold wave. 
 
 No. 1, with No. 4 above it, indicates fair weather, warmer. 
 
 No. 1, with No. 4 below it, indicates fair weather, colder. 
 
 No. 2, with No. 4 above it, indicates warmer weather, rain or snow. 
 
 No. 2, with No. 4 below it, indicates colder weather, rain or snow. 
 
 No. 3, with No. 4 above it, indicates warmer weather with local rains. 
 
 No. 3, with No. 4 below it, indicates colder weather with local rains. 
 
 No. 1, with No. 5 below it, indicates fair weather, cold wave. 
 
 No. 2, with No. 5 below it, indicates wet weather, cold wave. 
 
 \Vhistle Signals 
 
 The warning signal, to attract attention, will be a long blast of 
 from fifteen to twenty seconds' duration. After this warning signal 
 has been sounded, long blasts (of from four to six seconds' duration) 
 refer to weather, and short blasts (of from one to three seconds' dura- 
 tion) refer to temperature ; those for weather to be sounded first. 
 
8 THE WEATHER 
 
 Blasts Indicate 
 
 One long Fair weather. 
 
 Two long Rain or snow. 
 
 Three long Local rains. 
 
 One short Lower temperature. 
 
 Two short Higher temperature. 
 
 Three short Cold wave. 
 
 Interpretation of Coml^i nation Blasts 
 
 One long, alone Fair weather, stationary temperature. 
 
 Two long, alone Rain or snow, stationary temperature. 
 
 One long and short .... Fair weather, lower temperature. 
 
 Two long and two short . . . Rain or snow, higher temperature. 
 
 One long and three short . . Fair weather, cold wave. 
 
 Three long and two short . . Local rains, higher temperature. 
 
 By repeating each combination a few times, with an interval of ten 
 seconds between, possibilities of error in reading the forecasts will be 
 avoided, such as may arise from variable winds, or failure to hear the 
 warning signal. 
 
 Canadian signals (Fig. 3) 
 
 ^f * 
 
 12 3 4 
 
 Fig. 3. — Canadian storm waniiuf^s. 
 
 No. 1, gale at first from an east- No. 3, heavy gale at first from 
 
 erly direction. an easterly direction. 
 
 No. 2, gale at first from a west- No. 4, heavy gale at first from 
 
 erly direction. a westerly direction. 
 
 The night signal corresponding to Nos. 1 and 3 is a red light. 
 Night signal corresponding to Nos. 2 and 4 is a white light above a 
 red light. 
 
ATMOSPHERIC EDDIES 9 
 
 Barometer and Wind Indications 
 
 (W. M. Wilson) 
 
 The mercurial barometer is the instrument used for all observations 
 when great accuracy is required, but an aneroid barometer is more 
 convenient, less liable to injury, and will answer all practical purposes. 
 
 Attention need not be given to the legends fair, changeable, stormy, 
 etc., that usually appear on the face of the instrument, because 
 changes in pressure are much more important indications of approach- 
 ing weather than the actual pressure at a given time. 
 
 To forecast the weather accurately, the force and direction of the 
 wind should always receive equal consideration with the changes of 
 pressure as indicated by the barometer. 
 
 The following general statements may aid in showing the relation of 
 wind, pressure, and weather : — 
 
 The atmosphere may be compared to an ocean of air that rests 
 upon the earth just as the water rests upon the bed of the oceans. 
 There are great currents of air in the atmosphere, just as there are 
 great currents or rivers of water in the oceans. 
 
 Storms are eddies in the atmosphere, and float along in the currents 
 or rivers of air very much like the eddies often seen floating on the 
 surface of a river. 
 
 All of the United States and Canada, except the southern part of 
 Florida, lies at the bottom of a great river of air that flows from west 
 to east around the world with the north-pole at the center. It is 
 called the circumpolar whirl. And as the storms in this latitude 
 are eddies in the north-circumpolar whirl, they float along from west 
 to east in the current of this river of air. 
 
 The air always whirls about the center of every storm-eddy in the 
 same direction — counter-clock- wise in the northern hemisphere and 
 clock-wise in the southern hemisphere. Therefore, if a storm-eddy in 
 the latitude of the United States is approaching, the winds will first 
 be from a southerly direction, and when the center of the storm has 
 passed, the wind will come from a northerly direction. 
 
 If the center of the storm passes north of the observer, the wind wiU 
 change from S.E. to S., then to S.W., and finally to W. or N.W. as 
 the storm passes on its way eastward. 
 
 If the center of the storm passes south of the observer, the wind 
 
10 THE WEATHER 
 
 will start in from the S.E. and gradually " back " to the N.E., then 
 to the X. and finally to the X.W. 
 
 To locate the center of the storm, stand with your face squarely 
 to the wind, and extend your arms from your sides. Your right hand 
 will then point in the direction of the center of the storm. For exam- 
 ple, if one faces a wind from the south, his extended right hand will 
 point toward the west ; if one faces a west wind, his extended right hand 
 will point north. 
 
 A study of the daily weather maps, printed in many daily papers, 
 will be of much help in becoming familiar with the movements of these 
 storm-eddies. 
 
 The pressure of the atmosphere at the center of the storm-eddy 
 is always less than at a distance from the center; therefore, as the 
 storm approaches, the pressure will decrease and the barometer will 
 fall. Thus a falling barometer indicates the approach of a storm- 
 eddy, and the direction of the wind will give approximately the 
 location of the center. 
 
 If the barometer is falling and the wind square from the south, the 
 indications are that the storm is approaching from the west and will 
 probably pass near the observer. 
 
 If the barometer is falling and the wind from the southwest, the 
 center of the storm will probably pass north of the observer. 
 
 If the barometer is falling and the wind N.E., the center of 
 the storm is approaching from the southwest, and will probably 
 pass south of the observer. If the barometer is rising and the wind 
 S.W. to W., the center of the storm will pass north of the observer, and 
 clearing weather follow soon. 
 
 The following barometer and wind table is condensed from Pro- 
 fessor Garriott's more extended compilation, and is the result of many 
 years of study and experience : — 
 
 Barometer steady ; wind, S.W. to N.W. ; fair weather, with slight 
 changes in temperature for 1 or 2 days. 
 
 Barometer falling slowly; wind, S.W. to N.W. ; warmer, with rain 
 in 24 to 36 hours. 
 
 Barometer falling rapidly; wind, S.W. to N.W. ; warmer, with rain 
 in 18 to 24 hours. 
 
 Barometer falling slowly ; wind, S. to S.E. ; rain within 24 hours. 
 
BAROMETER INDICATIONS IX 
 
 Barometer falling rapidly ; wind, S. to S.E. ; wind increasing in 
 force with rain within 12 to 24 hours. 
 
 Barometer falling slowly ; wind, S.E, to N.E. ; rain in 12 to 18 hours. 
 
 Barometer falling rapidly ; wind, S.E. to N.E. ; increasing wind 
 and rain in 12 hours. 
 
 Barometer falling rapidly ; wind, E. to N.E. ; in summer rain 
 probable within 24 hours; in winter rain or snow with increasing 
 winds, probably continuing 24 to 48 hours. 
 
 Barometer rising slowly ; wind, S. to S.W. ; clearing and cooler 
 within a few hours, and probably continued fair weather for several 
 days. 
 
 Barometer rising rapidly ; wind, S. to W. ; clearing and cooler. 
 In winter cold wave probable. 
 
 Should the barometer continue low when the sky becomes clear, 
 expect more rain within 24 hours. (C. L. Prince.) 
 
 Rapid changes in the barometer indicate early and marked changes 
 in the weather. (E. B. Garriott.) 
 
 If the thermometer and barometer rise together, 
 It is a very sure sign of coming fine weather. 
 
 If the barometer falls two or three tenths of an inch in four hours, 
 expect a gale of wind. (C. L. Prince.) 
 
 In summer, when the barometer falls suddenly, expect thunder- 
 storms; if it does not rise again when the storm ceases, there will 
 be several days of unsettled weather. 
 
 The barometer falls lower for high winds than for heavy rains. 
 
 Popular "Weather Signs (Wilson) 
 
 When it is evening, ye say, It will be fair weather : for the heaven 
 is red. And in the morning, It will be foul weather to-day : for the 
 heaven is red and lowering. — Matthew, xvi, 2, 3, Rev. version. 
 
 When ye see a cloud rising in the west, straightway ye say. There 
 Cometh a shower ; and so it cometh to pass. — Luke, xii, 54, Rev. 
 version. 
 
 After fine, clear weather the first signs in the sky of coming changes 
 are usually light streaks, curls, wisps, or mottled patches of white, 
 distant clouds, which increase and are followed by an overcasting 
 
12 THE WEATHER 
 
 of murky vapor that grows into cloudiness. Usually the higher and 
 more distant the clouds seem to be, the more gradual but general 
 the coming change of weather will prove. — Filzroy. 
 
 If cirrus clouds form in fine weather with a falling barometer, it 
 is almost sure to rain. — Howard. 
 
 If cirrus clouds dissolve and appear to vanish, it is an indication of 
 fine weather. — Garriutt. 
 
 When cloud streamers point upward, the clouds are falling or de- 
 scending, and rain is indicated ; when cloud streamers point downward, 
 the cloutls are ascending, and dry weather is indicated. — Garriott. 
 
 Clouds flying against the wind indicate rain. 
 
 If in hot weather two strata of clouds appear to move in opposite 
 directions, thunderstorms are indicated. 
 
 Well-defined cumulus clouds forming a few hours after sun-rise, 
 increasing toward the middle of the day, and decreasing toward even- 
 ing are indicative of settled weather ; if instead of subsiding in the even- 
 ing, leaving the sky clear, they keep increasing, they indicate wet 
 weather. — Jenyms. 
 
 Birds fly high in fair weather and low in foul weather. The expla- 
 nation is that in fair weather the barometer is usuall}'' high, the air 
 hea\ier and denser and capable of sustaining a given weight at a 
 greater elevation than when less dense during the passage of a storm. 
 
 Frosts, and Methods of Protection 
 
 How frost forms (Wilson). 
 
 In the day, plants usually receive more heat from the sun than they 
 give off (radiate), and consequently become warmer; but at night the 
 ])roccss is reversed, and they radiate more heat than they receive and 
 thus grow colder. When the surface of a plant has lost (radiated) 
 sufficient heat to cause its temperature to fall to 32° or below, frost 
 forms. Any condition that causes increased radiation will increase the 
 liability of frost, and conversely, whatever checks radiation or supplies 
 a<lditional lioat to the air will tend to ward off frost. 
 
 A clear night is favorable for frost because radiation or loss of heat 
 from the surface of the earth proceeds most rapidly under a clear sky. 
 Clouds act as a blanket. The heat rays do not penetrate them easily, 
 })Ut are reflected back toward tlie earth, thus checking radiation by 
 confining the heut to the strata of air between the earth and the clouds. 
 
FROST 18 
 
 A quiet air is favorable for frost. Radiation proceeds more rapidly 
 from the surface than from the air above the surface. This is shown 
 by the fact that a thermometer placed in the grass on a quiet, clear 
 night will read 10° or even 15° below one suspended three or four feet 
 above the surface. If there is much wind, this difference will not occur, 
 because the wind mixes the colder air at the surface ^vith the warmer 
 air above, thus giving a more imiform temperature. 
 
 A moderately dry atmosphere is favorable for frost, because when the 
 air is humid only a slight fall of temperature will occur before the 
 temperature at which dew begins to form {dew-point) is reached, and 
 when the vapor in the air begins to change into water (dew), the heat 
 that was used originally to change the water into vapor is no longer 
 required and is said to be liberated, and tends to raise the temperature 
 of the air, or at least to retard the fall. 
 
 The effect of the liberation of heat in the process of the formation of 
 dew may be appreciated when it is said that the heat added to the air 
 in the formation of a pint of dew is sufficient to raise the temperature 
 of more than five pints of water from the freezing to the boiling point. 
 
 Under ordinary conditions, when the dew-point is 10° or more 
 above the frost-point, 32°, a frost is not likely to occur, but if the 
 dew-point approaches 32°, frost is likely to occur. 
 
 In a cranberry marsh near Mather, Wis., during the season of 1906, 
 Cox found that the minimum temperature averaged 8.2° below the 
 temperature of the dew-point as observed the previous evening, and 
 in extreme cases the difference was as much as 20° and 22°. On 
 a marsh near Berlin, Wis., on the night of September 27, 1906, at 
 11 P.M. the dew-point was found to be 43°, yet frost began to form 
 in parts of the marsh at 1 p.m. when the temperature had fallen to 
 28°; frost became general at 2 a.m., and the following morning a 
 minimum temperature of 24.4° was observed. 
 
 The dew-point of the previous evening cannot, therefore, be regarded 
 as a safe guide for the minimum temperature of the following night. 
 
 The chief value of dew-point observations of the previous evening 
 appears to be in the fact that they indicate the temperature at which 
 the heat from the condensing vapor will begin to be poured into the 
 air, and if this temperature is much above the frost-point, this addition 
 of heat may be reasonably expected to check the fall of temperature 
 and thus ward off a frost. 
 
14 THE WEATHER 
 
 To find the dew-point. 
 
 The dew-point is determined by the wet- and dry-bulb thermometer 
 (or psychromctcr). The instrument may he made as follows : For the 
 frame find a board eighteen inches long, two inches wide, and one half 
 inch thick ; bore a hole in one end so as to hang the apparatus on a 
 nail when not in use. Get two all-glass thermometers with c\'lindrical 
 bulbs, and the degrees Fahrenheit engraved on the stem. Cover the 
 bulb of one thermometer with a thin piece of cotton cloth, fastening it 
 securely by a thread. When this cloth covering is wet with water and 
 exposed to evaporation in the air, it constitutes the " wet-bulb ther- 
 mometer " ; the other thermometer has no covering on its bulb, is not 
 wet at any time, and constitutes the " dry-bulb thermometer." 
 
 The range of temperature of the open air in the following table is 
 from 36° Fahrenheit to 75° Fahrenheit, and of depressio.i of tempera- 
 ture in the wet bulb, from 1° to 13° Fahrenheit, giving a range in 
 both directions of sufficient scope for the needs of northern farmers 
 during the growing season. The temperature of the dry-bulb (or open- 
 air temperature) is found in the left-hand column of the table ; the 
 difference in degrees between the readings of the dry- and wet-bulb 
 is entered in the horizontal line at the top, from 1° to 13°. To find 
 the temperature of dew-point at any observation, find in left-hand 
 column the temperature of dry-bulb, then follow the horizontal line 
 opposite that figure till you reach the perpendicular column under the 
 difference between dry- and wet-bulb readings, and the figures at the 
 meeting of these two columns will give the temperature of dew-point. 
 For example, suppose the dry-bull) stands at 65° and wet-bulb at 55° : 
 the difference is 10°. Pass across the page in the line of 65° till you 
 intersect the vertical column under 10°, and you read 47°, which is dew- 
 point under these conditions. If the dew-point is 10° or more above 
 frost-point (32° Fahrenheit), there is little danger of killing frost; but 
 if the dew-point is less than 10° above 32°, danger may be apprehended. 
 If a line is drawn from the intersection of 43° — 1° and 67° — 13°, 
 of the table, this may be called the danger line, and all dew-point 
 temperatures below this line indicate danger of frost, and are printed 
 in itnlics. This margin of 10° is taken because the temperature on a 
 still night will often sink several degrees below the first dew-point, 
 and the temperature of the air at five feet above the ground is 
 
TO DETERMINE THE DEW-POINT 
 
 15 
 
 several degrees above that at ground level. For these reasons 
 combined, a margin of 10° may be safely assumed as the limit of 
 safety. 
 
 Table for determining the temperature of dew-point from the readings of the dry-bulb 
 and wet-bulb thermometers (Hazen) 
 
 si 
 
 C8 O 
 
 
 
 Depression of the 
 
 Wet- 
 
 BULB ThERMOMETEI 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 ii 
 
 1° 
 
 2° 
 
 3' 
 
 4= 
 
 6° 
 
 6° 
 
 7° 
 
 8° 
 
 9° 
 
 10° 
 
 11° 
 
 12° 
 
 13° 
 
 75° 
 
 74 
 
 72 
 
 71 
 
 69 
 
 68 
 
 66 
 
 64 
 
 63 
 
 61 
 
 59 
 
 57 
 
 56 
 
 54 
 
 74° 
 
 73 
 
 71 
 
 70 
 
 68 
 
 67 
 
 65 
 
 63 
 
 62 
 
 60 
 
 58 
 
 56 
 
 54 
 
 52 
 
 73° 
 
 72 
 
 70 
 
 69 
 
 67 
 
 66 
 
 64 
 
 62 
 
 61 
 
 59 
 
 57 
 
 55 
 
 53 
 
 51 
 
 72° 
 
 71 
 
 69 
 
 68 
 
 66 
 
 64 
 
 63 
 
 61 
 
 59 
 
 58 
 
 56 
 
 54 
 
 52 
 
 50 
 
 71° 
 
 70 
 
 68 
 
 67 
 
 65 
 
 63 
 
 62 
 
 60 
 
 58 
 
 56 
 
 55 
 
 53 
 
 51 
 
 48 
 
 70° 
 
 69 
 
 67 
 
 66 
 
 64 
 
 62 
 
 61 
 
 59 
 
 57 
 
 55 
 
 53 
 
 51 
 
 49 
 
 47 
 
 69° 
 
 68 
 
 66 
 
 64 
 
 63 
 
 61 
 
 59 
 
 58 
 
 56 
 
 54 
 
 52 
 
 50 
 
 48 
 
 46 
 
 68° 
 
 67 
 
 65 
 
 63 
 
 62 
 
 60 
 
 58 
 
 57 
 
 55 
 
 53 
 
 51 
 
 49 
 
 46 
 
 44 
 
 67° 
 
 66 
 
 64 
 
 62 
 
 61 
 
 59 
 
 57 
 
 55 
 
 54 
 
 52 
 
 50 
 
 47 
 
 45 
 
 43 
 
 66° 
 
 64 
 
 63 
 
 61 
 
 60 
 
 58 
 
 56 
 
 54 
 
 52 
 
 50 
 
 48 
 
 46 
 
 44 
 
 
 65° 
 
 63 
 
 62 
 
 60 
 
 59 
 
 57 
 
 55 
 
 53 
 
 51 
 
 49 
 
 47 
 
 45 
 
 42 
 
 41 
 
 64° 
 
 62 
 
 61 
 
 59 
 
 57 
 
 56 
 
 54 
 
 52 
 
 50 
 
 48 
 
 46 
 
 43 
 
 
 40 
 
 63° 
 
 61 
 
 60 
 
 58 
 
 56 
 
 55 
 
 53 
 
 51 
 
 49 
 
 47 
 
 44 
 
 42 
 
 41 
 
 38 
 
 62° 
 
 60 
 
 59 
 
 57 
 
 55 
 
 53 
 
 52 
 
 50 
 
 48 
 
 45 
 
 43 
 
 
 39 
 
 37 
 
 61° 
 
 59 
 
 58 
 
 56 
 
 54 
 
 52 
 
 50 
 
 48 
 
 46 
 
 44 
 
 42 
 
 41 
 
 38 
 
 35 
 
 60° 
 
 58 
 
 57 
 
 55 
 
 53 
 
 51 
 
 49 
 
 47 
 
 45 
 
 43 
 
 
 39 
 
 36 
 
 33 
 
 59° 
 
 57 
 
 56 
 
 54 
 
 52 
 
 50 
 
 48 
 
 46 
 
 44 
 
 
 40 
 
 38 
 
 35 
 
 32 
 
 58° 
 
 56 
 
 55 
 
 53 
 
 51 
 
 49 
 
 47 
 
 45 
 
 42 
 
 41 
 
 39 
 
 36 
 
 33 
 
 30 
 
 57° 
 
 55 
 
 54 
 
 52 
 
 50 
 
 48 
 
 46 
 
 44 
 
 
 40 
 
 37 
 
 35 
 
 31 
 
 28 
 
 56° 
 
 54 
 
 53 
 
 51 
 
 49 
 
 47 
 
 44 
 
 42 
 
 41 
 
 39 
 
 36 
 
 33 
 
 30 
 
 26 
 
 55° 
 
 53 
 
 52 
 
 50 
 
 48 
 
 46 
 
 43 
 
 
 40 
 
 37 
 
 34 
 
 31 
 
 28 
 
 25 
 
 54° 
 
 52 
 
 50 
 
 49 
 
 46 
 
 44 
 
 42 
 
 41 
 
 39 
 
 36 
 
 33 
 
 30 
 
 27 
 
 23 
 
 53° 
 
 51 
 
 49 
 
 47 
 
 45 
 
 43 
 
 
 40 
 
 37 
 
 34 
 
 31 
 
 28 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 52° 
 
 50 
 
 48 
 
 46 
 
 44 
 
 42 
 
 41 
 
 38 
 
 36 
 
 33 
 
 30 
 
 27 
 
 23 
 
 18 
 
 51° 
 
 49 
 
 47 
 
 45 
 
 43 
 
 
 40 
 
 37 
 
 34 
 
 31 
 
 28 
 
 25 
 
 21 
 
 16 
 
 50° 
 
 48 
 
 46 
 
 44 
 
 42 
 
 41 
 
 38 
 
 36 
 
 33 
 
 30 
 
 27 
 
 23 
 
 19 
 
 14 
 
 49° 
 
 47 
 
 45 
 
 43 
 
 
 40 
 
 37 
 
 34 
 
 31 
 
 28 
 
 25 
 
 21 
 
 17 
 
 11 
 
 48° 
 
 46 
 
 44 
 
 42 
 
 41 
 
 38 
 
 36 
 
 33 
 
 30 
 
 27 
 
 23 
 
 19 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 47° 
 
 45 
 
 43 
 
 
 40 
 
 37 
 
 35 
 
 32 
 
 29 
 
 25 
 
 22 
 
 17 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 46° 
 
 44 
 
 42 
 
 41 
 
 39 
 
 36 
 
 33 
 
 30 
 
 27 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 45° 
 
 43 
 
 
 40 
 
 37 
 
 35 
 
 32 
 
 29 
 
 26 
 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 -1 
 
 44° 
 
 42 
 
 4i 
 
 39 
 
 36 
 
 33 
 
 30 
 
 27 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 -5 
 
 
 / 
 
 40 
 
 37 
 
 35 
 
 32 
 
 29 
 
 26 
 
 23 
 
 19 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 -9 
 
 43° 
 
 4i 
 
 39 
 
 36 
 
 34 
 
 31 
 
 28 
 
 25 
 
 21 
 
 17 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 -2 
 
 -16 
 
 42° 
 
 40 
 
 38 
 
 35 
 
 S3 
 
 29 
 
 26 
 
 23 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 -6 
 
 -22 
 
 41° 
 
 39 
 
 36 
 
 34 
 
 31 
 
 28 
 
 25 
 
 22 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 -11 
 
 -32 
 
 40° 
 
 38 
 
 35 
 
 33 
 
 30 
 
 27 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 -4 
 
 -16 
 
 -74 
 
 39° 
 
 37 
 
 34 
 
 32 
 
 29 
 
 26 
 
 22 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 -8 
 
 -23 
 
 
 38° 
 
 36 
 
 33 
 
 31 
 
 28 
 
 24 
 
 21 
 
 17 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 -1 
 
 -12 
 
 -35 
 
 
 37° 
 
 35 
 
 32 
 
 29 
 
 26 
 
 23 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 -5 
 
 -17 
 
 
 
 36° 
 
 34 
 
 31 
 
 28 
 
 25 
 
 22 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 -8 
 
 -25 
 
 
 
16 THE WEATHER 
 
 Methods of -protection against frost (Wilson). 
 
 Protection against frost is not only possible, but practicable. The 
 method to bo employed depends on the kind of croj), the expense its 
 value will justify, and the facilities at hand. But whatever method 
 is chosen, it must be carried out systematically, intelligently, and with 
 thorouglmess if satisfactory results are to be obtained. 
 
 Progressive cranberry growers resort to three expedients to ward 
 off light frosts, aside from flooding, which is practiced in the spring and 
 autumn and also when exceptionally severe frosts are expected. These 
 methods are cultivation, drainage, and sanding. By cultivating the 
 marsh and keeping it free from weeds, moss, and other vegetation, the 
 heat from the sun more easily penetrates the soil, and there is, there- 
 fore, more heat to be given off when needed to prevent frost during 
 the night. Good drainage decreases the effect of cooling by evapora- 
 tion, and a dry soil becomes warmer under sunshine than a wet soil, 
 and therefore radiates heat more freely into the air at night when 
 needed to ward off frost. A covering of sand lowers the specific heat 
 of the soil, and thus stores up a large amount of heat during the day to 
 be given to the air at night. In the Cape Cod marshes it is the prac- 
 tice to spread about half an inch of sand over the surface of the marsh 
 each year. These methods, when systematically and carefully carried 
 out, are usually effective in warding off light frosts that are liable to 
 occur between early .spring and autumn. 
 
 Smudging has been practiced for many years in the trucking sections 
 of the Southwest, as well as in the fruit-growing districts of California 
 and Florida. The object is to cover the garden or orchard with a 
 thick blanket of smoke and va]:)or, with a view to checking radiation. 
 The success of this method dei:)ends upon the care and thoroughness 
 with which it is carried out. The cloud of vapor or smoke must cover 
 the garden or orchard, and be dense. A thin blanket will not be suffi- 
 cient. The fire should be built on the windward side of the orchard, 
 and such material used as damp straw, prunings, manure. 
 
 If the fire burns briskly, it may be sprayed with water to increase 
 the cloud of vapor. 
 
 Portable smudges have superseded the stationary smudge in many 
 places. They possess the advantage of being moved from jilace to 
 place, thus overcoming the effect of a change of wind, which often reD- 
 
FROST — PHENOLOGY 17 
 
 ders the stationary smudge ineffective. Any sort of a fire-box that 
 can be placed on a stone-boat or sled will answer the purpose. 
 
 The most effective method, and the one now practiced by the large 
 fruit-growers of Colorado and Cahfornia, is the distribution of a large 
 number of small fires, about forty to the acre, throughout the orchard. 
 In this case dependence is placed in the direct heat given off by the fires 
 as well as in the cloud formed from the smoke. Coal is the fuel most 
 generally used in California, while oil is coming into use in Colorado. 
 When coal is used, it is the practice to suspend wire baskets 
 a few feet from the ground, containing ten to twenty pounds of 
 coal, which is lighted when frost threatens. Forty such baskets 
 will raise the temperature of the orchard tliree or four degrees. 
 The cost depends upon the price of the fuel. In California a ton 
 of soft coal that costs $2.50 was considered sufficient for one acre 
 each night. 
 
 Some orchardists have replaced the coal baskets with oil burners. 
 This method is more expensive to install, as the burners are more 
 costly than the baskets, and tanks must be provided for the storage of 
 the oil ; but it is said to be much more convenient, and quite as efficient. 
 At the Hamilton fruit ranch, near Grand Junction, Col., the 
 temperature in an orchard of twenty acres was maintained at 33° 
 by the use of oil burners, while a minimum temperature of 27° 
 was registered in surrounding localities. The cost of the protec- 
 tion of this orchard for four nights when frost occurred in the vicinity 
 was approximately ten per cent of the value of the crop. Methods 
 less systematic than the above are usually disappointing. (For 
 another discussion, see Paddock and Whipple, " Fruit-Growing in Arid 
 Regions.") 
 
 Phenology 
 
 Phenology (contraction of phenomenology) is that science which con- 
 siders the relationship of local climate to the periodicity of the annual 
 phenomena of nature. It usually studies climate and the progression of 
 the seasons in terms of plant and animal life, as the dates of migrations, 
 of blooming, leafing, ripening of fruit, defoliation, and the like. If 
 observations are to have permanent value, they must be taken with a 
 definite purpose. The particular objects of phenological obser- 
 vations are the following : — 
 c 
 
18 THE WEATHER 
 
 1. To determine the general oncoming of spring. 
 
 2. To determine the fitful or varialjle features of spring. 
 
 3. To determine the epoch of the full activity of the advancing 
 season. 
 
 4. To determine the active physiological epoch of the year. 
 
 5. To determine the maturation of the season. 
 
 6. To determine the oncoming of the decline of fall. 
 
 7. To determine the approach of winter. 
 
 8. To determine the features of the winter epoch. 
 
 9. To determine the fleeting or fugitive epochs of the year. 
 
 Good phenological observations upon plants should satisfy the fol- 
 lowing tests, as given by Hoffmann : — 
 
 1. They should represent as broad a distribution as possible of the 
 given species, selected for observation. 
 
 2. Ease and certainty of identifying the definite phases which are 
 to be observed. 
 
 3. The utility of the observations as regards biological questions, 
 such as the vegetative periods, time of ripening, etc. 
 
 4. Representation of the entire vegetation period. 
 
 5. Consideration of those species which are found in almost all 
 published observations, and especially of those whose development is 
 not influenced by momentary or accidental circumstances, as is the 
 dandelion. 
 
 The epochs of vegetation that should be observed for most pheno- 
 logical purposes are these: — 
 
 1. Upper surface of the leaf first visible or spread open. 
 
 2. First blossoms open. 
 
 3. First fruit ripe. 
 
 4. All leaves, or more than half of them, colored. 
 
 Typical and average plants should always be selected for observa- 
 tion, and they should be few in number. A dozen well-selected species 
 will afford more satisfactory records year by year than observations 
 made at random upon a great variety of plants. For the sudden moods 
 of spring, the peach and dandelion are useful for observation, but such 
 plants — those which respond quickly to every fitful variation of the 
 
PHENOLOGY — RECORDS 19 
 
 3arly season — are not reliable for the staple records of the years. 
 Useful plants for study are the following: — 
 
 Apple. Cultivated Strawberry. 
 
 Pear. Lilac. 
 
 Quince. Mock Orange (Philaxklphus), 
 
 Plum. Horse Chestnut. 
 
 Sweet Cherry. Red-pith Elder 
 
 Sour Cherry. Common Elder. 
 
 Peach. Flowering Dogwood. 
 
 Choke Cherry. Native Basswood. 
 
 Wild Black Cherry. Native Chestnuts. 
 
 Japanese or Flowering Quince. Privet or Prim. 
 
 Cultivated Raspberry. Red Currant. 
 
 Cultivated Blackberry. Cultivated Grape. 
 
 Climate and Crop Production; keeping Records (Wilson) 
 
 Every farmer understands that a very intimate relation exists be- 
 tween climatic conditions — the average temperature, rainfall, and 
 sunshine — and the growth of plants ; but not all farmers appreciate 
 the full significance of the climatic factor in crop production. 
 
 An officer of a state college of agriculture recently asked five members 
 of the faculty to assign respective values to the three main factors 
 affecting the average yield of corn under the climate of the forty- 
 second parallel. The factors considered were : soil, including texture, 
 fertility, and cultivation ; climate, including temperature, rainfall, and 
 sunshine ; and seed. The average of the five estimates on the basis 
 of 100 were for soil, 46 ; climate, 36 ; and seed, 17. Three out of the 
 five gave to climate a value of 40, one 35, and one 25, and two out of 
 the five gave climate and soil equal values. 
 
 If these estimates are near the truth, it becomes apparent that 
 climate is nearly, if not quite, as important a factor in crop pro- 
 duction as soil, and much more important than seed ; yet it receives 
 but scant attention from the average agriculturist, probably because 
 climate, unlike soil and seed, is beyond the control of man. 
 
 The weather is a variable factor, because it changes from day to day, 
 from week to week, and from season to season. But climate is a per- 
 manent factor ; for climate, which is the average of all the weather, 
 
20 THE WEATHER 
 
 does not change, except possil)ly through long geological periods. 
 When the climate of a locality has been once determined, it may be 
 counted on absolutely. What the climate is for this generation it will 
 be for the next, and the next, so far as we can see. It could not be otlier- 
 wise, for climate in tlie large is the result of the sun's heat, modified 
 by the topography of the earth's surface — the mountains, the valleys, 
 the oceans; and " so long as the sun shines with his accustomed 
 vigor and the hiUs and the seas abide in their places," so long will 
 the climate of every locality remain unchanged. The fact that crops 
 now arc grown successfully in what are considered arid regions, and 
 are being pushed farther and farther into the frosty north, has been 
 cited in support of the contention that the climate is changing ; but 
 these changes in the area of successful production have not been 
 brought about by an increase of rainfall on the one hand, or of 
 temperature on the other, but bj^ new methods of cultivation and 
 seed selection, and better adaptation of human ])ractices to natural 
 conditions. 
 
 We may rely, therefore, upon the permanency of the climatic factor 
 in crop production. The weather may vary by a small margin from 
 year to year, or from one season to the next, but the average tem- 
 perature, rainfall, and sunshine for so short a period as ten years will 
 depart so little from the true normal climate that the departure may 
 be neglected in actual practice. 
 
 Climatic records compiled by the Weather Services. 
 
 As it requires about ten years of careful observation to determine 
 approximately the average or normal temperature of a locality, and 
 perhaps twenty years to determine the normal rainfall, few farmers 
 would feel that they had the time or skill to devote to so serious an 
 undertaking ; nor is it necessary that they should. This work has been 
 done already in the United States, and with great accuracy and care. 
 The Weather Bureau of the United States Department of Agriculture 
 has collected and tabulated all records of temi)erature and rainfall 
 that have been made in the United States. Some of these records 
 cover a period of more than a hundred years, many of them more than 
 fifty years, and the work still is going on. At present, observations 
 are being made at about 4000 places. With this number of records, 
 distributed more or less evenly over the entire country, it is possible 
 
WEATHER RECORDS 21 
 
 to determine very accurately the normal temperature and rainfall 
 for almost any locality in the United States. 
 
 A similar system is in operation by the Canadian Government, and 
 information as to the climate of almost any inhabited locality in the 
 Canadian provinces may be had on application to the Director of the 
 Canadian Meteorological Service, Toronto. 
 
 The data are usually compiled by months. For example, the normal 
 temperature and rainfall by months for Ithaca, N. Y., are as follows : 
 Normal or average temperature, 31 years record : January, 24° ; 
 February, 25° ; March, 32° ; April, 44° ; May, 57° ; June, 66° ; 
 July, 71° ; August, 68° ; September, 61° ; October, 50° ; November, 
 38° ; December, 28° ; Annual, 47°. Normal or average precipitation 
 in inches and hundredths of inches, including melted snow : January, 
 2.07 ; February, 1.84 ; March, 2.42 ; April, 2.30 ; May, 3.39 ; June, 
 3.73 ; July, 3.51 ; August, 3.06 ; September, 2.89 ; October, 2.96 ; 
 November, 2.50 ; December, 2.30 ; Annual, 32.97. 
 
 These values would be considered approximately correct for a radius 
 of twenty to fifty miles, depending principally on the topography, 
 whether mountainous or level, and the proximity of large bodies of 
 water and the prevailing wind direction. It is recognized that there 
 may be an appreciable difference between the climate of a valley and 
 thatof an adjacent hill, or, on account of differences of soil character, 
 between one farm and another in the same locality. Such local va- 
 riations are usually small, although important, particularly in such 
 matters as air drainage and frost, and can be determined only by 
 observations made on the spot. The averages, compiled by the 
 Weather Bureau, include observations made on hill-tops as well as in 
 valleys, and, therefore, represent strictly average conditions. They 
 have been carefully computed, and may be relied upon with confidence. 
 
 How climatic data may be secured. 
 
 The Climatological Service of the U. S. Weather Bureau is organ- 
 ized by sections, each section embracing a single state, except in the 
 case of some of the smaller states, which are included in one section. 
 The New England States make up one section ; also Delaware, Mary- 
 land, and the District of Columbia. The work of each section is under 
 the supervision of a section director, in whose office are kept all records 
 pertaining to his section. The accompanying list gives the city in 
 
22 
 
 THE WEATHER 
 
 which the office of each section director is located, and the section 
 under his charge. A request for cHmatic data should show clearly 
 (1) the locality for which the data are desired, and (2) the character 
 of the data, and should be addressed, Section Director, Local Office, 
 Weather Bureau, followed by the appropriate city and state : — 
 
 City 
 
 Section 
 
 Atlanta . . 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Atlantic Citv 
 
 New Jersev 
 
 Baltimore . . 
 
 Maryland and Delaware 
 
 Bismarck . . 
 
 North Dakota 
 
 Boise . . . 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Boston . . . 
 
 New England 
 
 Cheyenne . . 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 Chicago . . 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Columbia . . 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Columbus . . 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Denver . . 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Des Moines 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Grand Rapids 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Helena . . . 
 
 Montana 
 
 Honolulu . . 
 
 Hawaii 
 
 Houston . . 
 
 Texas 
 
 Huron . . . 
 
 South Dakota 
 
 Indianapolis . 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Ithaca . . . 
 
 New York 
 
 Jacksonville . 
 
 Florida 
 
 Lincoln . . 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 Little Rock 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 City 
 
 Section 
 
 Louisville Kentucky 
 
 Milwaukee Wisconsin 
 
 Minneapolis .... Minnesota 
 
 Montgomery Alabama 
 
 Nashville Tennessee 
 
 New Orleans Louisiana 
 
 Oklahoma Oklahoma 
 
 Parkersburg .... West Virginia 
 
 Philadelphia .... Pennsylvania 
 
 Phoenix Arizona 
 
 Portland Oregon 
 
 Raleigh North Carolina 
 
 Reno Nevada 
 
 Richmond Virginia 
 
 Salt Lake City . . . Utah 
 
 San Francisco .... California 
 
 San Juan Porto Rico, W. 
 
 Santa Fe New Mexico 
 
 Seattle Washington 
 
 Springfield Illinois 
 
 Topeka Kansas 
 
 Vicksburg Mississippi 
 
 Probably the most important information for the general farmer 
 concerning the climate of his locality is the average temperature and 
 rainfall by months, but the following data are available for practically 
 all parts of the United States, having been compiled in 1906 and 
 published in Bulletin Q, to which reference should be made when mak- 
 ing request : Temperature by months ; mean or average ; mean of 
 maxima ; absolute maximum ; mean of minima ; absolute minimum ; 
 highest monthly mean ; lowest monthly mean ; precipitation, includ- 
 ing melted snow ; mean or average ; number of days with .01 inch 
 (one hundredth of an inch) or more ; total amount for the driest year ; 
 total amount for the wettest year ; dates on which the extreme tem- 
 peratures for the locality occurred. For northern states the dates 
 are given generally when the minimum temperature fell to -10° (10° 
 below zero) or below, and the maximum rose to 90° or above ; for 
 southern states, when the minimum fell to 32° or below, and the 
 maximum rose to 95° or above. 
 
MAKING THE OBSERVATIONS 23 
 
 Making local observations. 
 
 The value of climatic information, supplied by the Weather Bureau, 
 may be enhanced greatly by observations of temperature and rainfall 
 made on the farm, particularly if made in connection with phenological 
 observations suggested on pages 17-19. Such a record is a valuable 
 asset to a farm, and its value increases as each year's record is added. 
 A suitable equipment need not be expensive, nor the work made la- 
 borious. The highest and lowest temperature may be obtained at a 
 single reading, made preferably about sunset, by use of Six's pattern 
 of maximum and minimum thermometers, mentioned on page 1. The 
 average of the two thermometer readings gives the daily mean. 
 This is the method used by the Weather Bureau, and wiU make the 
 record strictly comparable with any data obtained from that source. 
 
 A serviceable rain-gauge may be constructed by the use of any vessel 
 having straight sides. A tomato-can, placed two feet above ground, 
 and fifty feet from buildings or trees, will give good results. The 
 depth of the water caught may be measured with an ordinary rule, but 
 to make the record comparable with those made by the Weather Bureau, 
 the fractions of an inch should be reduced to decimals. Perhaps it 
 would be better to make a rule graduated in inches and tenths. 
 Ten inches of average snow will make, when melted, one inch of water. 
 
 A convenient method for recording and preserving weather obser- 
 vations is important. A book is preferable, having at least thirty-four 
 ruled lines. Use one page for each month. Rule the page into eight 
 columns, leaving ample margin on the right for phenological notes. 
 Beginning at the left, head the columns as follows : date ; highest tem- 
 perature ; lowest ; mean ; rainfall ; snowfall ; wind direction (every 
 farm should have a good weather-vane) ; weather; phenology. Enter 
 each day's record on line with appropriate date. Under phenology 
 full notes should be made, showing the condition and advancement of 
 the various crops, for here is the point of contact between current 
 weather and plant growth. All this may be combined with a diary 
 of farm work. At the end of each month the temperature columns 
 should be averaged and the total rainfall set down ; and when these 
 values are compared with the normal, the importance of the climatic 
 factor in crop production will be more fully understood. (For ther- 
 mometer scales, see Chap. XXVII.) 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 The Elements and the Soil 
 
 The mass of the earth (and the atmosphere) is at present assumed 
 to be composed of certain elementary or indivisible substances, and of 
 combinations of these substances. The number of elements now 
 recognized by chemists is eighty-three. The names of these elements, 
 with the symbols that are used for convenience and brevity in ex- 
 pressing the combinations into which they unite, are given in the 
 table: — 
 
 The elements and their symbols 
 
 Aluminum 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . Al. 
 
 Iron . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Fe. 
 
 Antimony 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . Sb. 
 
 Krypton . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Kr. 
 
 Argon . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . A. 
 
 Lanthanum 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . La. 
 
 Arsenic 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . As. 
 
 Lead . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Pb. 
 
 Barium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Ba. 
 
 Lithium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Li. 
 
 Beryllium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . Be. 
 
 Lutecium . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Lu. 
 
 Bismuth . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Bi. 
 
 Magnesium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Mg. 
 
 Boron . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . B. 
 
 Manganese . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Mn. 
 
 Bromin 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Br. 
 
 Mercury . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Hg. 
 
 Cadmium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Cd. 
 
 Molybdenum 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Mo. 
 
 Caesium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Cs. 
 
 Neodymium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Nd. 
 
 Calcium . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Ca. 
 
 Neon . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Ne. 
 
 Carbon 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . C. 
 
 Nickel . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . Ni. 
 
 Cerium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Ce. 
 
 Niobium . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Nb. 
 
 Chlorin 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . CI. 
 
 Nitrogen . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . N. 
 
 Chromium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Cr. 
 
 Osmium . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Os. 
 
 Cobalt 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Co. 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 0. 
 
 Columbium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Cb. 
 
 Palladium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Pd. 
 
 Copper 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Cu. 
 
 Phosphorus 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . P. 
 
 Dysprosium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Dy. 
 
 Phitimim . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Pt. 
 
 Erbium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Er. 
 
 Potassium . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . K. 
 
 Europium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Eu. 
 
 Praseodymiun 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Pr. 
 
 Fluoriii 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . F. 
 
 Radium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Ra. 
 
 Gadolinium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Gd. 
 
 Rhodium . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Rh. 
 
 Gallium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Ga. 
 
 Rubidium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Rb. 
 
 Germanium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Ge. 
 
 Ruthenium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Ru. 
 
 Glucinum 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Gl. 
 
 Samarium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Sm. 
 
 Gold . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Au. 
 
 Scandium . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Sc. 
 
 Helium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . He. 
 
 Selenium . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Se. 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . H. 
 
 Silicon . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Si. 
 
 Indium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . In. 
 
 Silver . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Ag. 
 
 lodin . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . I. 
 
 Sodium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . n1 
 
 Iridium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Ir. 
 
 Strontium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . Sr. 
 
 24 
 
 ^ Library 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 m 
 
 . c 
 
 ; fit«i^^ 
 
 i r^^^ ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
THE ELEMENTS IN NATURE 25 
 
 Sulfur S. 
 
 Tantalum Ta. 
 
 Tellurium Te. 
 
 Terbium Tb. 
 
 Thallium Tl. 
 
 Thorium Th. 
 
 Thulium Tm. 
 
 Tin Sn. 
 
 Titanium Ti. 
 
 Tungsten W. 
 
 Uranium U. 
 
 Vanadium V. 
 
 Xenon Xe. 
 
 Ytterbium Yb. 
 
 Yttrium Y. 
 
 Zinc Zn. 
 
 Zirconium Zr. 
 
 Distribution of the Elements 
 
 Oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and some of the rarer elements exist 
 in the atmosphere in a pure or free state as well as in combinations in 
 animal and plant and earthy substances ; but most of the elements are 
 present in nature only in combination with other elements. The 
 larger number of the eighty-three known elements are very rare. 
 Nearly 99 per cent of the earth's crust (including the water) is made 
 up of eight elements, as follows (according to Clark) : — 
 
 Oxygen 47.02 
 
 Silicon 28.06 
 
 Aluminum 8.16 
 
 Iron 4.64 
 
 Calcium 3.50 
 
 Sodium 2.63 
 
 Magnesium 2.62 
 
 Potassium 2.32 
 
 No other element is estimated to contribute as much as 1 per cent 
 to the composition of the crust of the globe. Hydrogen is estimated 
 to comprise .17 per cent, and carbon .12. 
 
 The atmosphere is a mixture (by volume) of seventy-nine parts of 
 nitrogen and twenty-one parts of oxygen, with small quantities of 
 argon, carbon dioxid, vapor of water, ammonia, and organic gases in 
 addition. 
 
 The elements essential to the life and growth of plants, so far as known, 
 are ten: calcium, magnesium, potassiimi, phosphorus, iron, sulfur, 
 from the soil; carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, from tha atmos- 
 phere. Combinations formed by the vital processes of plants and 
 animals — as starch, sugar, acetic acid — are known as organic com- 
 pounds; all others are inorganic compounds. The different elements 
 making up a compound are calculated in terms of their atomic weights. 
 
 The elements of which plants are composed, are largely oxygen, car- 
 bon, and hydrogen. The younger and more succulent the plant, the 
 
26 
 
 THE ELEMENTS AND THE SOIL 
 
 greater the proportion of oxygen and hydrogen, because the proportion 
 of water is greater. 
 
 Ultimate composition of a wheat plant at maturity, containing 10 per cent mois- 
 ture. The hydrogen and oxygen of the water are included in the statement 
 
 Carbon 42.87 
 
 Hydrog'n 6.04 
 
 Oxygen ... 45.20 
 
 Nitrogen 0.94 
 
 Pota.s.siuni 0..3G 
 
 Calcium 0.33 
 
 Phosphorus 0.11 
 
 Other ash constituents 4.09 
 
 100.00 
 
 Ultimate composition of human body. The proportion of C varies greatly with the 
 amount of fat, also the O and ash to a less extent. The statement includes the 
 oxygen and hydrogen of the water 
 
 The water is about 65 per cent, which makes the dry-matter in the 
 animal much less than in the mature plant, the moisture content of 
 which is shown to be 10 per cent in the preceding table. 
 
 The Ash and Mineral Parts of Animals and Plants 
 
 When a plant is oven-dried, the free or uncoml)iii(Ml water passes off. 
 When it is completeh'' burneel, the carl)on, hydrogen, nitrogen and most 
 of the oxygen are driven off. What remains is ash, containing the mineral 
 elements. Incomplete burning of ])lant material results in coals and 
 ash ; the coal is mostly carbon. Charcoal is carbon. 
 
COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS AND MAN 
 
 27 
 
 Mineral elements in animal bodies 
 (Calculated from Results of Lawes and Gilbert) 
 
 
 Ox 
 
 Calf 
 
 Sheep 
 
 Lamb 
 
 Pig 
 
 
 Half 
 fat 
 
 Fat 
 
 Fat 
 
 Thin 
 
 Half 
 fat 
 
 Fat 
 
 Very 
 fat 
 
 Fat 
 
 Thin 
 
 Fat 
 
 Fat 
 
 Nitrogenous matter 
 
 Minerals 
 
 Water 
 
 Contentsof stomach, etc. 
 
 % 
 19.1 
 16.6 
 
 4.66 
 51.5 
 
 8.2 
 
 % 
 30.1 
 14.5 
 
 3.92 
 45.5 
 
 6.0 
 
 % 
 
 14.8 
 
 15.2 
 
 3.8 
 63.0 
 
 3.2 
 
 % 
 18.7 
 14.8 
 
 3.16 
 57.3 
 
 6.0 
 
 % 
 23.5 
 14.0 
 
 3.17 
 50.2 
 
 9.1 
 
 % 
 35.6 
 12.2 
 
 2.81 
 43.4 
 
 6.0 
 
 % 
 45.8 
 10.9 
 
 2.9 
 35.2 
 
 5.2 
 
 % 
 28.5 
 12.3 
 
 2.94 
 
 47.8 
 8.5 
 
 % 
 23.3 
 13.7 
 
 2.67 
 55.1 
 
 5.2 
 
 & 
 
 10.9 
 1.65 
 
 41.3 
 4.0 
 
 Total 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 Minerals 
 Phosphorus .... 
 
 % 
 
 .803 
 
 % 
 .677 
 1.281 
 .037 
 .146 
 .094 
 .017 
 .013 
 
 % 
 
 .670 
 1.177 
 .048 
 .171 
 .109 
 .015 
 .016 
 
 .488 
 .944 
 .034 
 .144 
 .090 
 .026 
 .021 
 
 % 
 
 .524 
 
 .965 
 
 .031 
 
 .140 
 
 .077 
 
 .029 
 
 .014 
 
 % 
 
 .454 
 
 .846 
 
 .029 
 
 .123 
 
 .072 
 
 .024 
 
 .012 
 
 % 
 
 .484 
 
 .886 
 
 .033 
 
 .131 
 
 .096 
 
 .021 
 
 .011 
 
 % 
 .492 
 .915 
 .031 
 .138 
 .076 
 .018 
 .016 
 
 % 
 
 .465 
 .771 
 .032 
 .163 
 .082 
 .015 
 .021 
 
 % 
 .286 
 
 Calcium 
 
 1.508 
 
 .455 
 
 Magnesium .... 
 Potassium 
 
 .051 
 .170 
 
 .019 
 .115 
 
 Sodium 
 
 .108 
 
 .054 
 
 
 .028 
 
 .009 
 
 Sulfur 
 
 .015 
 
 .012 
 
 Live weight, lbs. . . 
 Age 
 
 1,232 
 4yr. 
 
 1,419 
 4yr.. 
 
 258.8 
 9.5 
 wk. 
 
 97.6 
 lyr. 
 
 105.1 
 
 3M 
 
 yr. 
 
 127.2 
 
 IM 
 yr. 
 
 239.4 
 
 m 
 
 yr. 
 
 84.4 
 
 y2yr. 
 
 93.9 
 
 185.0 
 
 Composition of ash of human body (Beaunis) 
 
 Tissue 
 
 Bone 
 
 Calf 
 Mus- 
 cles 
 
 Brain 
 
 Liver 
 
 Lungs 
 
 Blood 
 
 Milk 
 
 Lymph 
 
 Analyst 
 
 Heintz 
 
 Staffel 
 
 Breed 
 
 Oidt- 
 mann 
 
 C. 
 Schmidt 
 
 Verdeil 
 
 Wilden- 
 stein 
 
 Dahn- 
 hardt 
 
 Sodium chlorid . 
 Sodium oxid . . 
 Potassium oxid 
 Calcium oxid 
 Magnesium oxid 
 Ferric oxid . . 
 Chlorin 
 Fluorin 
 
 Phosphorus pen- 
 toxid . . . 
 Sulphur trioxid 
 Carbon dioxid 
 Silicic oxid . . 
 Potassium chlorid 
 
 37.58 
 1.22 
 1.66 
 
 53.31 
 5.47 
 
 10.59 
 2.35 
 
 34.40 
 1.99 
 1.45 
 
 48.13 
 0.81 
 
 4.74 
 
 10.69 
 
 34.42 
 
 0.72 
 
 1.23 
 
 48.17 
 0.75 
 
 0.12 
 
 14.51 
 25.23 
 3.61 
 0.20 
 2.74 
 2.58 
 
 50.18 
 0.92 
 
 0.27 
 
 13.0 
 19.5 
 1.3 
 1.9 
 1.9 
 3.2 
 
 48.5 
 1.4 
 
 58.81 
 4.15 
 
 11.97 
 1.76 
 1.12 
 8.37 
 8.37 
 
 10.23 
 
 10.23 
 1.67 
 1.19 
 
 10.73 
 
 21.44 
 
 18.78 
 0.87 
 0.10 
 
 74.48 
 
 10.35 
 3.25 
 0.97 
 0.26 
 0.05 
 1.09 
 
 8.20 
 
 
 19.00 
 2.64 
 
 
 
 26.33 
 
 
28 
 
 THE ELEMENTS AND THE SOIL 
 
 Composition of the cush of leading farm crops (Snyder) 
 
 
 
 
 Composition op 100 Parts of the Pure Ash 
 
 Seeds 
 
 Dry- 
 Mat- 
 
 PXTKE 
 
 Ash 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ter 
 
 
 K,0 
 
 NasO 
 
 CaO 
 
 MgO 
 
 Fe,0, 
 
 P.O5 
 
 SO, 
 
 SiO, 
 
 Ci 
 
 Wheat . . . 
 
 
 2.03 
 
 30.24 
 
 0.65 
 
 3.50 
 
 13.21 
 
 0.60 
 
 47.92 
 
 
 0.73 
 
 
 Oats .... 
 
 >> 
 
 3.12 
 
 17.90! 1.66 
 
 3.60 
 
 7.03 
 
 1.18 
 
 25.64 
 
 1.79 
 
 39.20 
 
 0.94 
 
 Barley . . . 
 
 ^ « 
 
 2.61 
 
 20.92 
 
 2.39 
 
 2.64 
 
 8.83 
 
 1.19 
 
 35.10 
 
 1.80 
 
 25.90 
 
 1.02 
 
 Rye .... 
 
 •i^ 
 
 2.09 
 
 32.10 
 
 1.47 
 
 2.94 
 
 11.32 
 
 1.24 
 
 47.74 
 
 1.28 
 
 1.37 
 
 0.48 
 
 Corn . . . 
 
 1.45 
 
 29.8 
 
 1.10 
 
 2.17 
 
 15.52 
 
 0.76 
 
 45.61 
 
 0.78 
 
 2.10 
 
 0.91 
 
 Flax .... 
 
 p s. 
 
 3.67 
 
 26.27 
 
 o oo 
 
 9.61 
 
 15.86 
 
 1.11 
 
 42.48 
 
 
 0.88 
 
 
 Clover . . . 
 
 as 
 
 4.50 35.35 0.95 
 
 6.40 
 
 12.90 
 
 1.70 
 
 37.93 
 
 2.40 
 
 1.30 
 
 1.23 
 
 Peas .... 
 
 < 
 
 2.73 43.10 
 
 0.98 
 
 4.81 
 
 7.99 
 
 0.83 
 
 35.90 
 
 3.41 
 
 1.91 
 0.65 
 
 1.60 
 
 Beans . . . 
 
 
 3.63 
 
 41.48 
 
 1.10 
 
 4.99 
 
 V.16 
 
 0.46 
 
 38.86 
 
 1.80 
 
 Fodders 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Clover . , . 
 
 ^ 
 
 7.02 
 
 27.25 
 
 0.80 
 
 29.26 
 
 8.32 
 
 0.57 
 
 10.66 
 
 
 6.18 
 
 
 Timothy . . 
 
 6.82 
 
 34.69 
 
 1.83 
 
 8.05 
 
 3.24 
 
 0.83 
 
 11.80 
 
 2.80 
 
 32.17 
 
 5.20 
 
 Brome grass . 
 
 08 
 
 6.55 :27.65 
 
 0.89 
 
 7.59 
 
 4.32 
 
 1.83 
 
 5.84 
 
 
 4.37 
 
 
 Corn . . . 
 
 a^ 
 
 8.72 
 
 27.18 
 
 0.85 
 
 5.70 
 
 11.42 
 
 0.85 
 
 9.14 
 
 
 40.18 
 
 
 
 Straws 
 
 2^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Flax .... 
 
 a u 
 
 2.86 
 
 34.07 
 
 4.37 
 
 24.81 
 
 15.04 
 
 3.67 
 
 6.24 
 
 
 6.70 
 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 ^a 
 
 6.15 
 
 46.60 
 
 2.20 
 
 18.40 
 
 3.60 
 
 
 
 11.19 
 
 
 5.50 
 
 
 Pea ... . 
 
 i^ 
 
 4.80 
 
 21.40 
 
 5.70 
 
 38.80 
 
 7.20 
 
 1.40 
 
 7.10 
 
 
 5.40 
 
 
 Bean . . . 
 
 6.10 
 
 32.70 
 
 8.70 
 
 25.30 
 
 7.30 
 
 1.70 
 
 7.90 
 
 
 5.50 
 
 
 Wheat . . . 
 
 
 5.37 
 
 13.65 
 
 1.38 
 
 5.76 
 
 2.46 
 
 0.61 
 
 4.81 
 
 
 67.50 
 
 
 Oat ... . 
 
 ■k 
 
 7.17 
 
 26.42 
 
 3.29 
 
 6.97 
 
 3.66 
 
 1.20 
 
 4.59 
 
 3.20 
 
 46.70 
 
 4.40 
 
 Barley . . . 
 
 5.35 
 
 23.26 
 
 3.54 
 
 7.22 
 
 2.58 
 
 1.13 
 
 4.24 
 
 3.80 
 
 51.00 
 
 3.20 
 
 Roots 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Potatoes . . 
 
 24 
 
 3.80 
 
 60.00 
 
 2.96 
 
 2.64 
 
 4.93 
 
 1.10 
 
 16.86 
 
 6.50 
 
 2.10 
 
 3.40 
 
 Sugar-beets . 
 
 15 
 
 3.80 
 
 53.10 
 
 8.92 
 
 6.10 
 
 7.86 
 
 1.14 
 
 12.20 
 
 4.20 
 
 2.28 
 
 4.80 
 
 Turnips . . 
 
 12 
 
 8.00 
 
 45.40 
 
 9.84 
 
 10.60 
 
 3.69 
 
 0.81 
 
 12.71 
 
 
 1.80 
 
 5.00 
 
 Chemical Compounds 
 
 The chemist uses initials (or other letters) to designate the elements, 
 when he makes a formula to express the composition of any compound ; 
 and he adds a figure to each symbol when more than one part or atom 
 (by atomic weight) enters into the make-up of the molecule. Thus 
 II.jO represents a compound in which the molecules are two parts 
 hydrogen and one part o.xygen ; in common language, this particular 
 compound is known as water. KoO is potash (or potassium oxid) 
 — two parts potassium and one part oxygen. Gypsum or land-plaster 
 is calcium sulfate, — CaS04, which means calcium one part, sulfur 
 one part, oxygen four parts. Quartz is SiOa- Quicklime is CaO. 
 
NATURE OF SOIL 
 
 29 
 
 Phosphoric acid is P2O5. Common table salt is NaCl (sodium 
 and chlorin). 
 Following are the formulas for various common substances : — 
 
 Acetic acid C2H4O2 
 
 Ammonia NH3 
 
 Aniline NH^CCeHs) 
 
 Arsenious oxid .... AsjOa 
 
 Carbon dioxid .... CO2 
 
 Carbonic oxid .... CO 
 
 Chloroform CHCI3 
 
 Ferric oxid (iron rust) . . FejOa 
 
 Ferrous oxid FeO 
 
 Hydrochloric acid . . . HCl 
 
 Mercuric oxid .... HgO 
 
 Nitrate of soda .... NaNOg 
 
 Nitric acid HNO, 
 
 Nitric oxid NO 
 
 Nitric peroxid .... NO2 
 
 Nitrous oxid N2O 
 
 Saltpetre KNO3 
 
 Starch CgHioOs 
 
 Strychnine C21H22N2OJ 
 
 Sugar, cane CijHjjOn 
 
 Sugar, grape or glucose . CeHijOe 
 
 Sulfate of potash . . . K2SO4 
 
 Sulfuretted hydrogen . . HjS 
 
 Sulfuric acid ..... H2SO4 
 
 Sulfuric oxid SO3 
 
 Sulfurous oxid' .... SO2 
 
 The Soil 
 
 The soil, as the farmer understands it, is the soft tillable covering or 
 epidermis of the earth. It is derived primarily from disintegrated rock, 
 but all productive soils contain organic remains, or materials derived 
 directly from these remains. Some soils, as those in swamps, are very 
 largely organic. 
 
 Classification of soils in respect to origin (Merrill) 
 
 Sedentary 
 
 IB 
 
 ^ 
 
 J [Transported 
 
 I Residual deposits 
 Cumulose deposits 
 CoUuvial deposits 
 
 Alluvial deposits, 
 including the 
 
 aqueo-glacial . 
 
 ^olian deposits . 
 
 Glacial deposits . 
 
 I Residuary gravels, sands, clays, wacke, 
 
 I laterite, terra rossa, etc. 
 
 j Feat, muck and swamp or palludal 
 
 I soils, in part. 
 
 j Talus and cliff debris, material of 
 
 I avalanches. 
 
 r Modern alluvium, marsh and swamp 
 
 J deposits, estuarian clays. Loess and 
 
 [ adobe in part. 
 
 I Wind-blown material, sand-dunes. 
 
 I Adobe and loess in part. 
 
 (Morainal material, either lateral, ter- 
 minal, or ground moraines, drum- 
 lins, etc. 
 
 Classification of soil constituents 
 
 Name 
 
 1. Gravel 
 
 2. Coarse sand 
 
 3. Medium sand 
 
 4. Fine sand 
 
 5. Very fine sand 
 
 6. Silt 
 
 7. Clay^ 
 
 (U. S. Dept. Agric.) 
 
 Size of Particles 
 (diameters in millimeters) 
 2.0 to 1.0 
 1.0 to 0.5 
 0.5 to 0.25 
 0.25 to 0.1 
 0.1 to 0.05 
 0.05 to 0.005 
 0.005 to 0.0000 
 
30 
 
 THE ELEMENTS AND THE SOIL 
 
 Weight of noils. 
 
 Soils vary widely in weight according to their composition and the 
 size of the particles. Humus soils arc the lightest, and sanrl}'' soils are 
 the heaviest. Clay soils weigh less per cu))ic foot than aral^le soils or 
 sandy soils. The larger the amount of organic matter in a cubic foot 
 of soil, the less it weighs. For this reason, surface soils are lighter, as a 
 rule, than subsoils (Stevenson). 
 
 The weight of a cubic foot of dry soil is given by Shubler as 
 follows : — 
 
 LB. 
 
 Silicious sand 110 
 
 Half sand and half clay 96 
 
 Common arable soil 80 to 90 
 
 Heavy clay 75 
 
 Garden mold rich in vegetable matter 70 
 
 Peat soil 30 to 50 
 
 Warington gives the following data regarding the weight of soil per 
 acre : — 
 
 1. Old -pasture, Rothamsted, loam with clay subsoil 
 
 
 Original 
 Wet Soil 
 
 Dry Soil 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Stones 
 
 Fine soil 
 
 Roots 
 
 First 9 inches . 
 Second 9 inches . 
 Third 9 inches . 
 Fourth 9 inches . 
 
 lb. 
 3,294,380 
 3,867.780 
 4,091,620 
 4,139,420 
 
 lb. 
 2,328,973 
 3,098,939 
 3,273,324 
 3,343,787 
 
 lb. 
 174,091 
 353,322 
 217,515 
 280,730 
 
 lb. 
 2,144,470 
 2,744,715 
 3,055,501 
 3,063,057 
 
 lb. 
 10,412 
 902 
 308 
 
 2. Arable land, Rothamsted, loam with clay subsoil 
 
 
 Original 
 Wet Soil 
 
 Dry Soil 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Stones 
 
 Fine soil 
 
 Roots 
 
 First 9 inches . . 
 Seconfl 9 inches . 
 Third 9 inches . 
 Fourth 9 inches . 
 
 lb. 
 3.288..553 
 3,688.115 
 3,882,285 
 3,995,723 
 
 lb. 
 2.919.689 
 3.044.615 
 3.215.285 
 3.313.563 
 
 lb. 
 340.656 
 141.861 
 213,190 
 197,4oO 
 
 lb. 
 2.578.634 
 2.902.682 
 3.002.095 
 3,116,163 
 
 lb. 
 399 
 
 72 
 
WEIGHT OF SOILS 
 
 31 
 
 3. Arable land, Woburn, sandy soil 
 
 
 Original 
 Wet Soil 
 
 Dry Soil 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Stones 
 
 Fine soil 
 
 Roots 
 
 First 9 inches . . 
 Second 9 inches . 
 Third 9 inches . 
 Fourth 9 inches . 
 
 lb. 
 3,835,104 
 3,947,640 
 4,046,364 
 4,014,432 
 
 lb. 
 3,157,448 
 3,381,804 
 3,462,498 
 3,501,466 
 
 lb. 
 
 93,763 
 
 201,527 
 
 170,443 
 
 274,239 
 
 lb. 
 3,063,074 
 3,180,277 
 3,292,055 
 3,227,227 
 
 lb. 
 611 
 
 These tables show: (1) That each of these classes of soil is lighter 
 at the surface ; (2) that in each case the weight increases with an in- 
 crease in depth. This increase in weight of the lower zones is due: 
 
 (1) to the increase of pressure to which the lower zones are subjected; 
 
 (2) to the fact that the surface soil is more loose and porous; (3) 
 to coarser texture of subsoil. This condition is brought about by the 
 removal of the finest soil particles from the surface into the sub-soil 
 by the action of rain ; by the accumulation of organic matter in the 
 surface soil ; and, in the case of arable soils, by tillage. 
 
 The specific gravity of a soil indicates its weight as compared with 
 the weight of an equal volume of water. An English authority has 
 published the following table, which gives the specific gravity of the 
 more common soil constituents : — 
 
 Water . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1.00 
 
 Dolomite .... 
 
 . . . 2.8-3.0 
 
 Humus 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1.2-1.5 
 
 Mica 
 
 . . . 2.8-3.2 
 
 Clay . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2.50 
 
 Hornblende 
 
 . . . 2.9-3.4 
 
 Quartz 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2.62 
 
 Augite 
 
 . . . 3.2-3.5 
 
 Feldspar 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2.5-2.8 
 
 Limonite .... 
 
 . . . 3.4-4.0 
 
 Talc . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2.6-2.7 
 
 Hematite .... 
 
 . . . 5.1-5.2 
 
 Calcite 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2.75 
 
 
 
 Schone gives the following for the specific gravity of soils : — 
 
 Clay soil 2.65 
 
 Sandy soil 2.67 
 
 Fine soil 2.71 
 
 Humus soil 2.53 
 
 The true specific gravity of an arable soil varies from about 2.5 to 
 2.7. 
 
32 
 
 THE ELEMENTS AND THE SOIL 
 
 Texture of the soil. 
 
 The size and shape of the particles of which the soil is composed 
 determine its texture. The arrangement of the particles determines 
 its structure^ as " loose," " open," " mealy," " friable," " cloddy," 
 " porous," " hard," " compact," " retentive," " leachy." 
 
 The texture determines the amount of soil-surface exposed to roots, 
 and to a great extent the quantity of moisture that the soil may hold. 
 
 The size and form of the particles determine the number in a given 
 volume of soil. It has been estimated by Whitney that a gram of soil 
 contains 2,000,000,000 to 20,000,000,000 soil particles. The number of 
 particles per gram of different soil types is approximately as follows : — 
 
 Early truck . . . . 
 Truck and small fruit 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Grass and wheat . . 
 Limestone . . . . 
 
 1,955,000,000 
 
 3,955,000,000 
 
 6,786,000,000 
 
 10,228,000,000 
 
 14,735,000,000 
 
 19,638,000,000 
 
 Owing to the fact that a soil is made up of particles, there is between 
 them a certain amount of space that is occupied by air or water ; this 
 is kno^vn as the " pore space." In ordinary soils the pore space varies 
 from a little over 50 per cent in the finest clay soils to about 25 or 30 
 per cent in coarse sands of uniform texture. 
 
 Soil Water 
 
 Water occurs in the soil in three forms : (1) Gravitational or hydro- 
 static water ; (2) capillary water ; (3) hygroscopic water. 
 
 Amount of water used by various crops in producing a ton of dry-matter (Stevenson) 
 
 
 No. OF 
 
 Trials 
 
 Water used 
 
 PER Ton of 
 
 Dry-Matter 
 
 Water Used 
 
 Dry-Matter 
 PER Acre 
 
 Acre-inch 
 
 OF Water 
 
 PER Ton of 
 
 Dry-Matter 
 
 (King) 
 
 Barley .... 
 Oats .... 
 Maize . . . . 
 Clover . . . 
 Peas .... 
 Potatoes . . . 
 Average 
 
 5 
 20 
 52 
 46 
 
 1 
 14 
 
 tons 
 464.1 
 503.9 
 270.9 
 576.6 
 477.2 
 385.1 
 446.3 
 
 in. 
 20.69 
 39.53 
 15.76 
 22.34 
 16.89 
 23.78 
 23.165 
 
 tons 
 5.05 
 8.89 
 6.59 
 4.39 
 4.009 
 6.995 
 5.987 
 
 4.096 
 
 4.447 
 
 2.391 
 
 5.0899 
 
 4.212 
 
 3.339 
 
 3.939 
 
WATER IN THE SOIL 
 
 33 
 
 Mean volume of water held by different soils, in laboratory tests in columns 45 inches 
 high, with calculations to field conditions (Lyon and Fippin) 
 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 IV 
 
 V 
 
 VI 
 
 VII 
 
 
 h 
 
 Hi 
 
 Approximate Per 
 Cent of Mois- 
 ture AT WHICH 
 Crops will Wii.t 
 
 °«'. 
 
 i^ 
 rj| 
 
 ^<^ 
 
 in U 
 
 Ok 
 «\ 
 
 O J g 
 
 
 Inches of Avail- 
 able Water to 
 Depth of Four 
 Feet 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 cu. in. CC. 
 
 
 1. Dune sand . . 
 
 52 
 
 10.7 
 
 3 
 
 7.7 
 
 80 
 
 166 2,720 
 
 4.60 
 
 2. Coarse sand . . 
 
 51 
 
 10.6 
 
 3 
 
 7.6 
 
 81 
 
 170 2,790 
 
 5.20 
 
 3. Fine sandy loam 
 
 50 
 
 18.0 
 
 5 
 
 13.0 
 
 83 
 
 300 4,900 
 
 8.50 
 
 4. Light silt loam . 
 
 50 
 
 20.9 
 
 10 
 
 10.9 
 
 83 
 
 250 4,100 
 
 6.90 
 
 5. Clay .... 
 
 59 
 
 30.4 
 
 17 
 
 13.4 
 
 68 
 
 252 4,140 
 
 7.03 
 
 6. Muck soil . 
 
 80 1 
 
 250.0 
 
 80 
 
 170.0 
 
 15 
 
 740 11,550 
 
 20.50 
 
 1 Estimated. 
 
 Water taken from the soil by evaporation is a loss additional to that 
 transpired by the crop. The following results were secured at the 
 Iowa Experiment Station in an experiment to determine the total 
 amount of water removed from the soil by evaporation and tran- 
 spiration : — 
 
 One Ton 
 
 Tons of Water 
 Lost 
 
 Acre-inch of 
 Water Lost 
 
 Clnvpr linv . . 
 
 1560 
 
 570 
 
 1200 
 
 13 7 
 
 Air-dried corn fodder 
 
 Oats and straw 
 
 5.0 
 11.0 
 
 One inch of water covering an acre of land weighs about 226,875 
 pounds, or more than 113 tons. 
 
 Water evaporated by growing plants for one part of dry matter produced, in 
 pounds (Lyon and Fippin) 
 
 Lawes and Gilbert 
 
 Hellriegel 
 
 Wollny 
 
 
 King 
 
 
 England 
 
 Germany 
 
 Germany 
 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 
 Beans . . . 
 
 214 
 
 Beans . . 
 
 262 
 
 Maize 
 
 233 
 
 Maize . . 
 
 272 
 
 Wheat . . 
 
 225 
 
 Wheat . . 
 
 359 
 
 Millet . . 
 
 416 
 
 Potatoes . 
 
 423 
 
 Peas . . . 
 
 235 
 
 Peas . . . 
 
 292 
 
 Peas . . . 
 
 479 
 
 Peas . . . 
 
 447 
 
 Red clover . 
 
 249 
 
 Red clover . 
 
 330 
 
 Rape . . 
 
 912 
 
 Red clover . 
 
 453 
 
 Barley . . 
 
 262 
 
 Barley . . 
 
 310 
 
 Barley . . 
 
 774 
 
 Barley . . 
 
 393 
 
 
 
 Oats . . 
 
 402 
 
 Oats . . . 
 
 665 
 
 Oats . . . 
 
 55V 
 
 
 
 Buckwheat . 
 
 371 
 
 Buckwheat . 
 
 664 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lupine . 
 
 373 
 
 Mustard 
 
 843 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rye . . . 
 
 377 
 
 Sunflower . 
 
 490 
 
 
 
34 
 
 THE f:LEMENTS AND THE SOIL 
 
 Water needed under arid conditions. 
 
 Under di y-farniing conditions, Widtsoe calculates that 
 
 1 acro-iiK'h of water will produce 2>^ bu. wheat 
 10 acre-iiK'hes of water will produce 25 bu. wheat 
 15 acre-inches of water will produce 37^ bu. wheat 
 20 acre-inches of water will produce 50 bu. wheat 
 
 if all the water could be saved and be fully utilized in plant growth. 
 Under average cultural conditions in arid regions, he concludes that 
 approximately 750 i)oundsof water are required for the production of one 
 pound of dry matter. 
 
 Plant-Food in the Soil 
 
 In estimating plant-food, chemists usually catalogue only the three 
 elements (or combinations of them) that are likely to be much depleted 
 by the growing of crops, — nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium. (These 
 determinations were made by the solution-in-hydrochloric-acid 
 method, sp. gr. 1 . 115. Other analytical methods in use would give 
 higher readings, particularly in phosphorus and potash, as stronger 
 acids are used to make the soil solutions.) 
 
 Plant-food in surface soils, with calculations to pounds in an acre (Roberts) 
 
 
 NiTBOGEN 
 
 Phos. Acid 
 
 Potash 
 
 Lb. N. 
 
 Lb. P,U, 
 
 Lb. KaO 
 
 No. 
 
 N..% 
 
 P2O5. % 
 
 K,0, % 
 
 IN IST 
 
 8 IN. Soir., 
 
 IN IST 
 
 8 IN. Soil 
 
 in 2d 
 8 in. Soil 
 
 1 
 
 .379 
 
 .059 
 
 .062 
 
 8.310 
 
 1,294 
 
 1,360 
 
 2 
 
 .293 
 
 .056 
 
 .034 
 
 0,250 
 
 1,194 
 
 725 
 
 3 
 
 .195 
 
 .196 
 
 .183 
 
 4,218 
 
 4,240 
 
 3,959 
 
 4 
 
 .282 
 
 .267 
 
 .866 
 
 6,430 
 
 0,094 
 
 19,766 
 
 5 
 
 .245 
 
 .05 
 
 .232 
 
 5,364 
 
 1.095 
 
 5,079 
 
 6 
 
 .26 
 
 .052 
 
 .348 
 
 5,700 
 
 1,140 
 
 7.630 
 
 7 
 
 .26 
 
 .029 
 
 .182 
 
 5,035 
 
 628 
 
 3,945 
 
 8 
 
 .26 
 
 .15 
 
 .903 
 
 5,700 
 
 3,289 
 
 19.800 
 
 9 
 
 .109 
 
 .032 
 
 .149 
 
 2,321 
 
 681 
 
 3.173 
 
 10 
 
 .334 
 
 .038 
 
 .056 
 
 7,224 
 
 822 
 
 1,211 
 
 11 
 
 .14 
 
 .051 
 
 .047 
 
 2,971 
 
 1,082 
 
 997 
 
 12 
 
 .295 
 
 .037 
 
 .130 
 
 0,312 
 
 792 
 
 2,782 
 
 13 
 
 .04 
 
 .23 
 
 .23 
 
 S72 
 
 5,016 
 
 5,016 
 
 14 
 
 .09 
 
 .019 
 
 .019 
 
 1,912 
 
 404 
 
 404 
 
 15 
 
 .12 
 
 .23 
 
 .9 
 
 2,54S 
 
 4,884 
 
 19,113 
 
 16 
 
 .07 
 
 .13 
 
 .83 
 
 1,512 
 
 2,808 
 
 17,929 
 
 17 
 
 .03 
 
 .22 
 
 .65 
 
 635 
 
 4.659 
 
 12,812 
 
 18 
 
 .09 
 
 !.r 
 
 2.1 
 
 1 ,958 
 
 6.52() 
 
 45,686 
 
 19 
 
 .07 
 
 .29 
 
 1.19 
 
 1,4<)7 
 
 6,202 
 
 25,448 
 
 20 
 
 .12 
 
 .44 
 
 1.96 
 
 2,571 
 
 9.428 
 
 42,000 
 
 
 000,000 
 
 000,000 
 
 000,000 
 
THE ALKALINE SOILS 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 Phos. Acid 
 
 Potash 
 
 Lb. N. 
 
 Lb. PjOg 
 
 Lb. K2O 
 in 2d 
 
 8 IN. Soil 
 
 No. 
 
 N.,% 
 
 1\.05. % 
 
 K2O, % 
 
 8 IN. Soil 
 
 8 in. Soil 
 
 
 
 
 
 000,000 
 
 000,000 
 
 000,000 
 
 21 
 
 .10 
 
 .33 
 
 1.8 
 
 2,153 
 
 7,105 
 
 38,752 
 
 22 
 
 .11 
 
 .15 
 
 .83 
 
 2,343 
 
 3,195 
 
 17,682 
 
 23 
 
 .11 
 
 .28 
 
 1.95 
 
 2,455 
 
 6,250 
 
 43,526 
 
 24 
 
 .04 
 
 .13 
 
 .89 
 
 850 
 
 2,759 
 
 18,890 
 
 25 
 
 .07 
 
 .21 
 
 1.1 
 
 1,484 
 
 4,451 
 
 23,314 
 
 26 
 
 .08 
 
 .18 
 
 .98 
 
 1,701 
 
 3,846 
 
 20,833 
 
 27 
 
 .08 
 
 .19 
 
 .86 
 
 1,699 
 
 4,034 
 
 18,260 
 
 28 
 
 .03 
 
 .15 
 
 .54 
 
 636 
 
 3,180 
 
 11,447 
 
 29 
 
 oo 
 
 .49 
 
 1.85 
 
 4,746 
 
 10,571 
 
 39,910 
 
 30 
 
 .16 
 
 .36 
 
 1.9 
 
 3,509 
 
 7,895 
 
 41,670 
 
 31 
 
 .04 
 
 .14 
 
 .73 
 
 848 
 
 2,967 
 
 15,480 
 
 32 
 
 .06 
 
 .14 
 
 .92 
 
 1,272 
 
 2,969 
 
 19,510 
 
 33 
 
 .17 
 
 .38 
 
 1.18 
 
 3,599 
 
 8,046 
 
 24,984 
 
 34 
 
 .1 
 
 2 
 
 1.13 
 
 2,143 
 
 4,285 
 
 24,212 
 
 Alkali Lands 
 
 In countries of heavy rainfall, the alkaline materials are leached out 
 in the drainage waters. In arid countries there is very little or no 
 leachage ; the water passes off by evaporation, and the alkaline and 
 other materials in solution are left at or near the surface of the ground. 
 
 The normal condition of arid lands is illustrated in the table below 
 (Means). The first part gives the percentage of total soluble salts 
 in two soils from central Montana, where neither soil originally con- 
 tained enough alkali within the zone of root action to be detrimental. 
 The second part shows the condition of these soils after a few years 
 of judicious irrigation, and the third part displays the condition after 
 a few years of irrigation without drainage : — 
 
 Table showing percentage of alkali in soils 
 
 
 
 
 
 Unirrigated 
 
 Irrigated 
 
 Over-irrigated 
 
 Depth 
 
 Sandy 
 Loam 
 
 Clay 
 
 Sandy 
 Loam 
 
 Clay 
 
 Sandy 
 Loam 
 
 Clay 
 
 First foot . 
 Second foot 
 Third foot 
 Fourth foot 
 Fifth foot . 
 Sixth foot . 
 Seventh foot 
 Eighth foot 
 Ninth foot 
 Tenth foot 
 Eleventh foot 
 Twelfth foot 
 
 
 
 
 .04 
 .04 
 .03 
 .03 
 .05 
 .06 
 .06 
 .17 
 .24 
 .24 
 .21 
 .12 
 
 .04 
 .04 
 .05 
 .20 
 .33 
 .34 
 .25 
 .25 
 .28 
 
 .04 
 .05 
 .04 
 .05 
 .06 
 .05 
 .06 
 .07 
 .05 
 .05 
 .07 
 .07 
 
 .10 
 .07 
 .08 
 .08 
 .08 
 .16 
 .21 
 
 .79 
 .92 
 .94 
 .79 
 .52 
 .52 
 .36 
 .36 
 .29 
 
 .76 
 .71 
 .63 
 .61 
 .59 
 .19 
 
36 
 
 THE ELEMENTS AND THE SOIL 
 
 Percentage composition of alkali in arid soils ^ (Lyon and Fippin) 
 
 
 Yakima Co.,Wa8h. 
 Meadowland 
 
 Boise Val- 
 ley, Idaho 
 
 Billings, 
 Montana 
 
 California 
 
 
 Sur- 
 face 
 
 12 in. 
 
 2d 
 12 in. 
 
 3d 
 
 12 in. 
 
 Sur- 
 face 
 12 in. 
 
 Sur- 
 face 
 Depo- 
 sit 
 
 Crust 
 0-1 
 in. 
 
 Sur- 
 face 
 10 in. 
 
 Tu- 
 lare 
 Exp. 
 Sta. 
 
 Mo- 
 jave 
 Pla- 
 teau 
 
 Im- 
 perial 
 Des- 
 ert 
 
 Potassium chloride, 
 KCl 
 
 Potassium sulfate, 
 
 K,S04 
 
 Potassium carbonate, 
 
 K,C03 .... 
 Sodium sulfate, 
 
 Na,S04 . . . 
 Sodium nitrate, 
 
 XaXOa .... 
 Sodium carbonate, 
 
 XajCOs .... 
 Sodium chloride, 
 
 XaCl 
 
 Sodium phosphate, 
 Xa^HPO* . . . 
 
 Magnesium sulfate, 
 MgSO* .... 
 
 Magnesium chloride, 
 MgCU .... 
 
 Calcium chloride, 
 CaCl, 
 
 Sodium bicarbonate, 
 NaHCOa .... 
 
 Calcium sulfate 
 CaS04 .... 
 
 Calcium bicarbonate, 
 Ca(HC03), . . . 
 
 Magnesium bicarbon- 
 ate, (Mg(HC03)2 . 
 
 Potassium bicarbon- 
 ate. KHCO3 . . 
 
 Ammonium carbon- 
 ate (XHJjCOs 
 
 8.74 
 66.94 
 
 13.30 
 1.90 
 
 9.12 
 
 5.61 
 9.73 
 
 13.86 
 
 36.72 
 
 1.87 
 
 16.48 
 
 12.57 
 
 7.82 
 8.64 
 
 6.58 
 
 45.28 
 
 6.17 
 
 13.17 
 
 12.34 
 
 8.08 
 
 16.54 
 41.55 
 
 .82 
 
 31.27 
 .64 
 
 1.10 
 
 1.84 
 
 67.70 
 
 .10 
 17.56 
 
 6.15 
 
 .72 
 5.93 
 
 1.60 
 
 85.57 
 
 trace 
 .55 
 
 8.90 
 
 .67 
 2.71 
 
 21.41 
 
 35.12 
 
 7.28 
 trace 
 
 4.06 
 
 22.06 
 10.07 
 
 3.95 
 
 25.28 
 19.78 
 32.58 
 14.75 
 2.25 
 
 1.41 
 
 .92 
 
 43.34 
 
 15.38 
 
 39.34 
 
 1.02 
 
 1.15 
 
 8.21 
 
 .58 
 
 28.83 
 
 2.81 
 58.42 
 
 ' Compiled from analyses made by the Bureau of Soils of the United States 
 Department of Agriculture and by the California Experiment Station. 
 
TILLING THE SOIL 
 
 37 
 
 The following table shows the quantity of gypsum required to neutralize 
 sodium carbonate in an acre-foot of soil : — 
 
 Per Cent Sodium 
 
 Gypsum per 
 
 Per Cent Sodium 
 
 Gypsum per 
 
 Carbonate 
 
 Acre-foot i 
 
 Carbonate 
 
 Acre-foot i 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Pounds 
 
 .01 
 
 640 
 
 .06 
 
 3840 
 
 .02 
 
 1280 
 
 .07 
 
 4480 
 
 .03 
 
 1920 
 
 .08 
 
 5120 
 
 .04 
 
 2560 
 
 .09 
 
 5760 
 
 .05 
 
 3200 
 
 .10 
 
 6400 
 
 » An acre-foot of soil weighs 4,000,000 pounds. 
 
 Very often the black alkali is accompanied by other soluble salts, 
 and the change in kind of salt brought about by the gypsum leaves 
 more white alkali than plants will stand. The economic use of gypsum 
 is therefore restricted to localities having only small amounts of total 
 soluble salts. As a general rule, drainage can be properly applied, 
 and the land freed of both black alkali and white alkali at less expense 
 than by the application of gypsum. Gypsum costs $4 to $10 per ton 
 in the regions where it is needed in black alkali reclamation, and when 
 it becomes necessary to apply sufficient to neutralize 0.1 per cent of 
 sodium carbonate in two or three acre-feet of soil per acre, the cost 
 is seen to be prohibitive. 
 
 Tillage, and Soil Management 
 
 Tillage is the preparing and stirring of the soil with the object to 
 make it more congenial to the growth of plants. On the wise manage- 
 ment of the soil depends the perpetuation of the human race. 
 
 Objects of tillage (King). 
 
 Stated in the broadest and briefest way, the purpose of tillage is 
 to develop and maintain beneath the surface of the field a commodious 
 and thoroughly sanitary home and feeding ground for the roots of 
 crops and for the soil organisms that help to transform the organic 
 matter and the less soluble forms of the mineral plant-food materials 
 of the soil into more soluble and suitable conditions adapted to the 
 immediate needs of plants. But to make the habitable part of the soil 
 
S8 THE ELEMENTS AND THE SOIL 
 
 of a field coinmoclious and sanitary, and at the same time to maintain 
 within it a sufficiently rapid develoi^ment of readily water-soluble 
 plant-food materials so conditioned as to be highly available to the crop, 
 requires careful attention to many essential details. Some of the chief 
 objects of tillage are : — 
 
 (1) To secure a thorough surface uniformity of the fiekl, so that an 
 equally vigorous growth may take place over the entire area. 
 
 (2) To develop and maintain a large effective depth of soil, so that 
 there shall be ample living room, an extensive feeding surface and large 
 storage capacity for moisture and available plant-food materials. 
 
 (3) To increase the humus of the soil through a deep and extensive 
 incorporation of organic matter, so that there may be a strong growth 
 of soil micro-organisms and the maintenance of a high content of 
 water-soluble plant-food materiab. 
 
 (4) To improve the tilth and maintain the best structural condition 
 in the soil, so that the roots of the crop and the soil organisms may 
 spread readily and widely to place themselves in the closest contact 
 with the largest amount of food materials. 
 
 (5) To control the amount, to regulate the movement, and to deter- 
 mine the availability of soil moisture, so that there shall never be an 
 excess or a deficiency of this indispensable carrier of food materials 
 to and through the plant. 
 
 (6) To determine the amount, movement, and availability of the 
 water-soluble plant-food materials present in the soil, so that growth 
 may be both rapid, normal, and continuous to the end of the 
 season. 
 
 (7) To convert the entire root zone of the soil into a commodious 
 sanitary living and feeding place, perfectly adapted to the needs of the 
 roots of the crop and to the soil organisms, — adequately drained, 
 perfectly ventilated, and sufficiently warm. 
 
 (8) To reduce the waste of plant-food materials through the de- 
 struction of weeds, and the prevention of their growth, through preven- 
 tion of surface washing and drifting by winds. 
 
 Jordan's rules of fertility. 
 
 1. Thorough tillage, with efficient machinery, to be given if possible 
 when the moisture conditions of the soil admit of satisfactory pulveri- 
 zation. 
 
RULES OF FERTILITY 39 
 
 2. Frequent surface tillage at times of scanty rainfall, in order to 
 conserve the supply of soil moisture. 
 
 3. A sufficiently rapid rotation of crops to insure good soil texture, 
 to allow the necessary frequency of applying fertilizing material, and 
 as a main result to secure a paying stand of crops. 
 
 4. The introduction into the soil at frequent intervals of an amount 
 of organic matter necessary to proper soil texture and water holding 
 power, either by application of farm manures, by plowing down soiling 
 crops, or by the rotting of the turf. 
 
 5. The scrupulous saving of all the excrement of farm animals, 
 both solid and liquid. 
 
 6. The purchase of plant-food with due reference to the needs of 
 the farm and to the system of farm management prevailing. 
 
 7. The maintenance in the soil of those conditions of drainage and 
 aeration which promote the growth of desirable soil organisms, and the 
 introduction into the soil when necessary, of such organisms as are 
 essential to the growth of particular plants. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 Chemical Fertilizers; and Lime 
 
 A fertilizer is a material added to the soil for the purpose of supply- 
 ing food for plants. 
 
 An amendment is a substance or material that modifies the physical, 
 mechanical and chemical nature of the soil. 
 
 Stable manure is both fertilizer and amendment. Lime is used 
 mostly as an amendment, since it is not often necessary to supply it for 
 the plant-food that it contains. On sandy soils it may be needed as 
 a fertilizer. 
 
 The extent of the fertilizer industry is indicated by the following 
 figures of complete fertilizers manufactured in the United States in 
 two given years : — 
 
 Quantity in tons of 
 
 2000 1b 
 
 Value 
 
 1900 
 
 1,478,826 
 S26,318,995 
 
 1905 
 
 1,603,847 
 $31,305,057 
 
 Increase 
 
 125,021 
 $4,986,062 
 
 Per Cent of 
 Increase 
 
 8.5 
 18.9 
 
 Fertilizer discussions are concerned mostly with nitrogen, phosphorus, 
 and potassium (always in combination with other elements, never used 
 in their elemental form), since these are the elements most likely to be 
 deficient in the soil. To be economically usable as a fertilizer, a 
 material must not only contain some one or more of these three 
 elements in available form, but it must be relatively low in price and 
 obtainable in large quantities. Nitrate of potash (saltpetre) is a good 
 fertilizer, but it is impossible to use it because of the cost. Many of 
 the fertilizer materials, — as bone-black, blood, ashes, — are waste 
 products or by-products. 
 
 40 
 
FERTILIZER MATERIALS 
 
 41 
 
 Some of the Sources of Chemical Fertilizers 
 
 Percentage composition of materials used as sources of nitrogen (Gorman Kali 
 Works, N.Y. City) 
 
 Nitrate of soda . . 
 Sulfate of ammonia . 
 Dried blood (high 
 
 grade) 
 
 Dried blood (low 
 
 grade) 
 
 Tankage 
 
 Dried fish scrap 
 Cottonseed meal 
 Castor pomace 
 Tobacco stems 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 15 to 16 
 193^ to 21 
 
 13 to 14 
 
 10 to 11 
 5 to 9 
 9 to 10 
 61^ to 7}4 
 5 to 6 
 2}4 to 3 
 
 Equivalent 
 
 TO 
 
 Ammonia 
 
 to 193^ 
 to 253^ 
 
 16 to 17 
 
 12 to 13 
 
 6 to 11 
 
 11 to 12 
 
 7}4 to 9 
 
 6 to 7 
 
 3 to SH 
 
 Potash 
 K2O 
 
 1}4 to 2 
 
 1 to IH 
 
 2 to 10 
 
 Phos. Acid 
 Total 
 
 2 to 3 
 
 13^ to 2 
 
 9 to 16 
 
 5}4 to 7 
 
 2 to 3 
 
 IM to 2 
 
 H to 1 
 
 Composition of materials used as sources of phosphoric acid (Kali Works) 
 
 Acid phosphate 
 Carolina phos. rock 
 Dissolved bone 
 
 black . 
 Bone meal . 
 Dissolved bone 
 Thomas slag 
 Peruvian guano 
 
 Total 
 
 16 to 19 
 26 to 27 
 
 17 to 20 
 20 to 25 
 15 to 17 
 22 to 24 
 12 to 15 
 
 Avail- 
 able 
 
 14 to 17 
 
 16 to 18 
 
 5 to 8 
 
 13 to 15 
 
 7 to 8 
 
 Insol- 
 uble 
 
 1 to 2 
 26 to 27 
 
 1 to 2 
 15 to 17 
 
 2 to 3 
 22 to 24 
 
 5 to 8 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 1 to 43^ 
 
 2 to 3 
 
 6 to 10 
 
 Equivalent 
 
 TO 
 
 Ammonia 
 
 ij4:to 5^ 
 
 2}4 to 33^ 
 7Mto 12 
 
 Potash 
 K2O 
 
 m to 4 
 
 Marketed production of phosphate rock in the United States, from the beginning oj 
 the industry in 1867 to 1909, in long tons (Van Horn, U.S. Geol. Surv.) 
 
 Year 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Value 
 
 Year 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Value 
 
 1867-1887 . 
 
 4,442,945 
 
 $23,697,019 
 
 1900 . . . 
 
 1,491,216 
 
 S5,359,248 
 
 1888 . . . 
 
 448,567 
 
 2,018,552 
 
 1901 . 
 
 
 1,483,723 
 
 5,316,403 
 
 1889 
 
 
 
 550,245 
 
 2,937,776 
 
 1902 . 
 
 
 1,490,314 
 
 4,693,444 
 
 1890 
 
 
 
 510,499 
 
 3,213,795 
 
 1903 . 
 
 
 1,581,576 
 
 5,319,294 
 
 1891 
 
 
 
 587,988 
 
 3,651,150 
 
 1904 . 
 
 
 1,874,428 
 
 6,580,875 
 
 1892 
 
 
 
 681,571 
 
 3,296,227 
 
 1905 . 
 
 
 1,947,190 
 
 6,763,403 
 
 1893 
 
 
 
 941,368 
 
 4,136,070 
 
 1906 . 
 
 
 2,080,957 
 
 8,579,437 
 
 1894 
 
 
 
 996,949 
 
 3,479.547 
 
 1907 . 
 
 
 2,265,343 
 
 10,653,558 
 
 1895 
 
 
 
 1,038,551 
 
 3,606,094 
 
 1908 . 
 
 
 2,386,138 
 
 11,399,124 
 
 1896 
 
 
 
 930,779 
 
 2,803,372 
 
 1909 . 
 
 
 2,330,152 
 
 10,772,120 
 
 1897 
 
 
 
 1,039,345 
 
 2,673,202 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1898 
 
 
 
 1,308,885 
 
 3,453.460 
 
 Total . 
 
 33,924,431 
 
 139,487,246 
 
 1899 
 
 
 
 1,515,702 
 
 5,084,076 
 
 
 
 
42 
 
 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS : AND LIME 
 
 World's production of phosphate rock, 1905-1907, by countries, in metric tons 
 
 (Van Horn) 
 
 Country 
 
 1906 
 
 1907 
 
 1908 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Value 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Value 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Value 
 
 Algeria 
 Aruba (Dutch 
 West 
 
 333,531 
 
 $965,600 
 
 373,763 
 
 $2,183,404 
 
 452,060 
 
 $2,639,940 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Indies) 
 
 26,138 
 
 I 
 
 36,036 
 
 1 
 
 29,061 
 
 1 
 
 Belgium . . 
 
 152,140 
 
 282,612 
 
 182,230 
 
 332.114 
 
 198.030 
 
 355,897 
 
 Canada . . 
 
 521 
 
 4,024 
 
 748 
 
 6.018 
 
 1,448 
 
 14,794 
 
 Christmas 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Islands 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Straits 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Settle- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ments) 
 
 92,010 
 
 1 
 
 112.147 
 
 1 
 
 110,849 
 
 1 
 
 France . . 
 
 469.408 
 
 1,872.000 
 
 431.237 
 
 1,876.736 
 
 485,607 
 
 1,896,606 
 
 Norway . . 
 
 3.482 
 
 46.524 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 Spain . . . 
 
 1.300 
 
 7,592 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 Tunis . . . 
 
 796.000 
 
 2,304,400 
 
 1.069,000 
 
 4,547,842 
 
 1,300,543 
 
 5,531,624 
 
 United King- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 dom . . 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 224 
 
 9 
 
 68 
 
 United States 
 
 2,114,252 
 
 8,579,437 
 
 2,301,588 
 
 10,653.558 
 
 2,424,453 
 
 11.399.124 
 
 Average composition of Stassfurt potash salts (German Kali Works) 
 
 
 ■f' 
 
 «^ 
 
 lb 
 
 u 5 
 
 ^ 
 
 H a 
 
 S« 
 
 K 
 1 U 
 2; H 
 
 
 Calculated 
 
 Name of Salts 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 ii 
 
 P 
 
 < s 
 1^ 
 
 n 
 
 as 
 
 TO Pure 
 
 Potash 
 
 K2O 
 
 In 100 Parts are Contained 
 
 02^ 
 
 ^§ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 5- 
 
 ^§ 
 
 ss 
 
 < 
 
 
 SO4 
 
 KCI 
 
 Mg- 
 SO4 
 
 C12 
 
 xkci 
 
 Ca- 
 SO4 
 
 li 
 
 
 Aver- 
 age 
 
 Guar- 
 anteed 
 
 A. Crude Salts 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Natural Products) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kainit 
 
 21.3 
 
 2.0 
 
 14.5 
 
 12.4 
 
 34.6 
 
 1.7 
 
 0.8 
 
 12.7 
 
 12.8 
 
 12.4 
 
 Carnallit 
 
 
 15.5 
 
 12.1 
 
 21.5 
 
 22.4 
 
 1.9 
 
 0.5 
 
 26.1 
 
 9.8 
 
 9.0 
 
 B. Coufontratcd Salts 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Manufactured Products) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sulfate of Potash (^^% 
 
 97.2 
 90.6 
 
 0.3 
 1.6 
 
 0.7 
 2.7 
 
 0.4 
 1.0 
 
 0.2 
 1.2 
 
 0.3 
 0.4 
 
 0.2 
 0.3 
 
 0.7 
 2 2 
 
 52.7 
 49.9 
 
 51.8 
 48.6 
 
 Sulfate ofpotash-magnesia 
 
 50.4 
 
 
 34.0 
 
 
 2.5 
 
 0.9 
 
 0.6 
 
 11.6 
 
 27.2 i 25.9 
 
 Muriate of (90-95% 
 Potash 80-85% 
 
 
 91.7 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.2 
 
 7.1 
 
 — 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.6 
 
 57.7 
 
 56.8 
 
 
 83.5 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.3 
 
 14.5 
 
 — 
 
 0.2 
 
 1.1 
 
 52.7 
 
 50.5 
 
 Manure salt, min. pot- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ash .... 20% 
 
 2.0 
 
 31.6 
 
 10.6 
 
 5.3 
 
 40.2 
 
 2.1 
 
 4.0 
 
 4.2 
 
 21.0 
 
 20.0 
 
 Manure salt, niin. 30% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 potash 
 
 1.2 
 
 47.6 
 
 9.4 
 
 4.8 
 
 26.2 
 
 2.2 
 
 3.5 
 
 5.1 
 
 30.6 
 
 30.0 
 
 Value not reported. 
 
 * Statistics not yet available. 
 
SOURCES OF POTASH 
 
 43 
 
 Potash salts produced in the United States, 1850 to 1905 
 
 Survey.) 
 
 (Phalen, U.S. Geol. 
 
 Census 
 
 Number of 
 Establish- 
 ments 
 
 Product 
 
 Average Price 
 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Value 
 
 per Pound 
 
 1850 
 
 1860 
 
 1870 
 
 1880 
 
 1890 
 
 1900 
 
 1905 
 
 569 
 212 
 105 
 
 68 
 
 75 
 
 67 2 
 
 39 2 
 
 lb. 
 
 4,571,671 
 5,106,939 
 3,864,766 
 1,811,037 
 
 $1,401,533 
 538,550 
 327,671 
 232,643 
 197,507 
 178,180 
 104,655 
 
 $0,051 
 0.039 
 0.046 
 0.058 
 
 1 Munroe, C. E., Bull. 92, Census of Manufactures, Bur. Census, 1905, p. 38. 
 
 2 Includes establishments engaged primarily in the manufacture of other 
 products. 
 
 There was a time when the United States produced a large part, 
 if not all, of the potash it consumed. The burning of wood and the 
 lixiviation of the resulting ash to extract the potash, though of minor 
 importance so far as the monetary value of the product is concerned, 
 is one of the oldest of the purely chemical industries in this country. 
 Cognizance was taken of it in the census reports as early as 1850, so 
 that data are available for comparing the condition of the industry for 
 each decade since that year. The above table gives the quantity and 
 value of potash produced in the United States from 1850 to 1905. 
 
 Potash salts are used extensively in the United States. They are 
 essential to numerous industries that are vitally connected with the 
 welfare of the American people — the most notable being the ferti- 
 lizer industry. They are used also in the manufacture of glass, in 
 certain kinds of soap, in some explosive powders, and in the chemical 
 industries, including the inanufacture of alum, cyanides, bleaching 
 powders, dyestuffs, and other chemicals. (Phalen.) 
 
 Importation of potash salts 
 
 The potash industry has not been revived in the United States thus 
 far, and the great bulk of the potash salts now used are imported. The 
 following table (by Phalen) shows the magnitude of the importation of 
 potash salts for the years 1900, 1905, and 1910: — 
 
44 
 
 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS : AND LIME 
 
 Imports of potash salts for the calendar years 1900, 1905, and 1910, in poundsK 
 [Figures from Bureau of Statistics] 
 
 
 1900 
 
 1905 
 
 1910 
 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Value 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Value 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Value 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 
 Chlorate .... 
 
 1.243,612 
 
 $68,772 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chloride .... 
 
 130,175.481 
 
 1.976.604214.207.064 
 
 $3,326,478 
 
 381.873.875 
 
 $5,252,373 
 
 Nitrate (crude and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 refined) . . . 
 
 10,545,392 
 
 276,664 
 
 9.911.534 
 
 304.596 
 
 11,496.904 
 
 333,854 
 
 All other, including 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c:\rbonate (crude 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and refined), bi- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 carbonate, caustic 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (crude and re- 
 fined), chromate 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and bichromate. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cyanide, hydrio- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 date, iodide, io- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 date, permanga- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 nate, prussiate 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (red and yellow). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 sulfate (crude 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and refined) . . 
 
 54,904,088 
 
 1.407,303 
 
 82,935,532 
 
 1.891.081 
 
 116.820.873 
 
 2.777.396 
 
 Total .... 
 
 196,868,573 
 
 3.729,343 
 
 307,054,130 
 
 5,522,155 
 
 510.191,652 
 
 8,363,023 
 
 Increase .... 
 
 
 110.185,573, 1.792.812 
 
 203,137,522 
 
 2,841,468 
 
 Percentage of in- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 crease .... 
 
 
 
 55.96 
 
 48.07 
 
 66.15 
 
 51.45 
 
 Kainit, "kvanite," 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and kieserite, and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 manure salts * 
 
 520.605,120 
 
 1.508,217 
 
 830.903,360 
 
 3,116.884 
 
 1,288,199,360 
 
 3,251.511 
 
 1 This table is based on total imports for the calendar year, not on imports for consump- 
 tion for the calendar year. 
 
 * These figures are for the fiscal years. 
 
 Potassic materials produced by the aid of electricity 
 
 Among the chemicals produced by the aid of electricity are potas- 
 sium chlorate and potassium hydroxid. The following table gives the 
 quantity and value of the potassium salts made electrolyticallv at the 
 censuses of 1900 and 1905, with the amount and percentage of increase 
 (Phalen) : — 
 
 
 1900 
 
 J 905 
 
 Increase 
 
 Per Cent op 
 Increase 
 
 Quantity, tons . . 
 Value 
 
 1,900 
 $80,097 
 
 3,908 
 $200,008 
 
 2,008 
 $119,911 
 
 105.7 
 149.7 
 
CONTENT OF FERTILIZERS 
 
 45 
 
 Principal potash materials used in fertilizers in the United States, 1900 and 1905 
 
 Kainit : 
 
 Quantity, tons . 
 
 Value .... 
 Other potash salts : 
 
 Quantity, tons . 
 
 Value .... 
 Nitrate of potash . 
 
 Quantity, tons . 
 
 Value .... 
 Wood ashes : 
 
 Quantity, bushels 
 
 Value .... 
 
 1900 
 
 54,700 
 $520,833 
 
 $3,098,400 
 
 884 
 $32,156 
 
 1905 
 
 190,493 
 $1,891,073 
 
 122,107 
 $3,606,701 
 
 1,160 
 $39,039 
 
 17,083 
 $2,050 
 
 Increase 
 
 135,793 
 $1,370,240 
 
 $508,301 
 
 276 
 
 $6,883 
 
 Per Cent of 
 Increase 
 
 248.3 
 263.1 
 
 16.4 
 
 31.2 
 21.4 
 
 Fertilizer Formulas and Guarantees (Voorhees) 
 
 Probably more than nine-tenths of the fertihzers used in this country 
 are purchased in the form of mixtures containing all three of the essen- 
 tial constituents, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. The various 
 brands are prepared from formulas designed to be especially suitable for 
 different crops and soils. This method of purchase saves labor and 
 thought on the part of the farmer, but the cost of the constituents is 
 greater than if the fertilizer materials are bought and home-mixed; 
 besides, in the mixtures the farmer does not always obtain such pro- 
 portions of the constituents as are best adapted to his conditions. 
 These mixed fertilizers, as a rule, are, and should always be, accom- 
 panied by a statement of guaranteed composition. This is very essen- 
 tial, because purchasers are unable to tell, by mere visual inspection, 
 what kinds and proportions of fertilizing materials have entered into 
 the mixture. In many states the laws require that the source o! the 
 materials also shall be distinctly stated, in order to insure the use of 
 good products, as the mixing permits the disguising of poor forms, 
 especially of those containing the element nitrogen. 
 
 Guarantees, however, sometimes confuse the purchaser, because the 
 method of stating the guarantee is such as to mislead, provided he does 
 not understand the meaning of the terms, or is unable to convert the 
 percentages into their equivalents. It is entirely legitimate, when there 
 are no laws forbidding, for the manufacturer to guarantee ammonia, 
 
46 
 
 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS ; AND LIME 
 
 instead of nitrogen ; bone phospliate, instead of phosphoric acid ; and 
 sulfate of potash, instead of actual potash. The statement of the 
 guarantee of the constituents in combination increases the percentage, 
 thus leading ignorant purchasers to think that they are obtaining a 
 larger percentage of the constituents than is really the case. 
 
 In the case of raw materials, a guarantee based on the purity of the 
 chemical salts is very frequently used. That is, a substance when pure 
 contains 100 per cent of the specific salt, and the guarantee which 
 accompanies this product is merely a statement that indicates its purity. 
 For example, when nitrate of soda is guaranteed to contain 95 per 
 cent nitrate, it means that it is 95 per cent pure nitrate, or that 5 per 
 cent of the total substance consists of impurities. The same is true in 
 the case of sulfate of ammonia, sulfate of potash, muriate of potash, 
 and other potash salts that may be offered. In order that the farmer 
 may have a simple method of determining the actual content of the 
 constituents, however guaranteed, the following tables are given to 
 show the terms that are used, their equivalent of actual elements, and 
 the factors to use in converting the one into the other : — 
 
 To convert the guarantee of 
 
 Ammonia 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Nitrate of soda .... 
 Bone phosphate .... 
 Phosphoric acid .... 
 Muriate of potash . . . 
 
 Actual potash 
 
 Sulfate of potash . . . 
 Actual potash 
 
 into an 
 equivalent 
 of 
 
 Ml 
 Nitrogen . . 
 Ammonia . . 
 Nitrogen 
 Phosphoric acid 
 Bone phosphate 
 Actual potash 
 Muriate of potash 
 Actual potash 
 Sulfate of potash 
 
 Itiply by 
 0.8235 
 1.214 
 0.1647 
 0.458 
 2.183 
 0.632 
 1.583 
 0.54 
 1.85 
 
 The following statements show the methods of stating guarantees 
 on the basis of purity, in the case of many raw materials^ and the equiv- 
 alent percentage on the basis of actual constituents : 
 Guarantee on basis of purity : — 
 
 Nitrate of soda, 95 per cent, or containing 95 per cent pure nitrate. 
 Muriate of potash. 80 per cent, or containing 80 per cent pure muriate. 
 Sulfate of potash, 98 per cent, or containing 98 per cent pure sulfate. 
 Kainit, 25 per cent, or containing 25 per cent pure sulfate. 
 
 Guarantee on basis of actual constituents : — 
 
 Nitrate of soda, total nitrogen 15.64 per cent. 
 
 Muriate of potash, actual pota.sh 50.50 per cent. 
 
 Sulfate of potash, actual potash 53.00 per cent- 
 
 Kainit, actual potash 13.50 per cent. 
 
TRADE VALUES OF FERTILIZERS 47 
 
 The following illustration shows a guarantee of the same mixed 
 fertilizer, on the basis of equivalents in combination, and on the basis 
 of actual constituents : 
 Guarantee on basis of equivalents in combination : — 
 
 Nitrogen (equivalent to ammonia), 2 to 3 per cent. 
 
 Available phosphoric acid (equivalent to bone phosphate of lime), 16 to 20 
 
 per cent. 
 Potash (equivalent to sulfate of potash), 6 to 8 per cent. 
 
 Guarantee on basis of actual constituents : — 
 
 Nitrogen (total) 1.65 to 2.50 per cent. 
 
 Phosphoric acid (available) 7.00 to 9.00 per cent. 
 
 Potash (actual) 3.25 to 4.25 per cent. 
 
 It will be observed that the guarantee in the one case means the same 
 as in the other. Different methods of stating guarantees should not 
 mislead those who will familiarize themselves with the terms used, and 
 with the conversion factors. 
 
 In the case of the mixed fertilizers, the percentage of the constituent 
 elements that are given on the basis of equivalents represents the 
 amounts when they exist in combination with other elements, viz., 
 nitrogen, as ammonia; phosphoric acid, as bone phosphate; and 
 potash, as sulfate. 
 
 Methods of Computing Trade Value of Fertilizers 
 Trade-values of plant-food elements in raw materials and chemicals, 1910. 
 
 The trade-values in the following schedule have been agreed 
 upon by the Experiment Stations of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, 
 Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, and Vermont, as a result of 
 study of the prices actually prevailing in the large markets of these 
 states. 
 
 These trade-values represent, as nearly as can be estimated, the 
 average prices at which, during the six months preceding March, the 
 respective ingredients, in the form of unmixed raw materials, could be 
 bought at retail for cash in our large markets. These prices also corre- 
 spond (except in case of available phosphoric acid) to the average whole- 
 sale prices for the six months preceding March, plus about 20 per cent 
 in case of goods for which there are wholesale quotations. 
 
48 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS ; AND LIME 
 
 cts. per lb. 
 
 Nitrogen in ammonia salts 16 
 
 NitroKon in nitrates 16 
 
 Organie nitrog(Mi in dry and fine-ground fish, meat and blood and 
 
 mixed fertilizers 20 
 
 Organic nitrogen in fine-ground bone and tankage 20 
 
 Organic nitrogen in coarse bone and tankage 15 
 
 Phosphoric acid, wat(>r-soluble 4,'-^ 
 
 Phosi)horic acid citrate, s()lul)le (reverted) 4 
 
 Phos|)h<)ric acid in fine-ground fish, bon(> and tankage .... 4 
 
 Phosphoric acid in cottonseed meal, castor-pomace and ashes . 3J^ 
 
 Phosphoric acid in coarse fish, bone and tankage 33^ 
 
 Phosphoric acid in mixed fertilizers, in.solul^le in ammonium citrate 
 
 or water 2 
 
 Potash as high-grade sulfate, in forms free from muriates (chlo- 
 rides), in ashes, etc 5 
 
 Potash in muriate 4|^ 
 
 Valuation and cost of fertilizers. 
 
 The total cost (to the farmer) of a ton of commercial fertilizer may 
 be regarded as consisting of the following elements: (1) Retail cash 
 cost, in the market, of unmixed trade materials ; (2) cost of mixing ; 
 (3) cost of transportation ; (4) storage, commissions to agents and 
 dealers, selling on long credit, bad debts, etc. While the total cost of a 
 fertilizer is made up of several different elements, a commercial valua- 
 tion includes only the first of the elements entering into the total cost, 
 that is, the retail cash cost in the market of unmixed raw materials. 
 
 Valuation, atul agricultural value. 
 
 The agricultural value of a fertilizer depends upon its crop-producing 
 power. A commercial valuation does not necessarily have any relation 
 to crop-producing value on a given farm. For a particular soil and 
 crop, a fertilizer of comparatively low commercial valuation may have 
 a higher agricultural value ; while, for another crop on the same soil, 
 or the same crop on another soil, the reverse might be true. 
 
 Rule for calculating appro.vimate commercial valuation of mixed ferti- 
 lizers on basis of trade-values for 1910. 
 
 Multiply the percentage of nitrogen by 4.0. 
 Multipl}'' the percentage of available phosphoric acid by 0.8. 
 Multiply the percentage of insoluble phosphoric acid (total minus 
 available) by 0.4. 
 
 Multiply the percentage of potash by 1.0. 
 
FIGURING FERTILIZERS 49 
 
 The sum of these 4 products will be the commercial valuation per 
 von on the basis taken. 
 
 Illustration. The table of analyses shows a certain fertilizer to have 
 the following composition: Nitrogen 2.52 per cent; available phos- 
 phoric acid 6.31 per cent ; insoluble phosphoric acid .89 per cent ; 
 potash 6.64 per cent. According to this method of valuation, the 
 computation would be as follows : — 
 
 Nitrogen 2.52 X 4.0 =$10.08 
 
 Available phosphoric acid 6.31 X 0.8 = 5.05 
 
 Insoluble phosphoric acid 0.89 X 0.4 = 0.36 
 
 Potash 6.64 X 1.0 = 6.64 
 
 $22,13 
 
 This rule assumes all the nitrogen to be organic and all the potash 
 
 to be in the form of sulfate. If a considerable portion of nitrogen exists 
 
 in the fertihzer as nitrate of soda or as sulfate of ammonia, and potash 
 
 is present as muriate, the results are somewhat less. 
 
 Farmers should be warned against judging fertilizers by their valua- 
 tions. A fertilizer, the cost of which comes chiefly from the phosphoric 
 acid present, would value much lower commercially than a fertilizer 
 with a high percentage of nitrogen, and yet the former might be the 
 more profitable for a given farmer to purchase. 
 
 Table for converting the fertilizer elements into their usually reported forms, 
 and vice versa (J. P. Stewart) Corrected 
 
 (a) Converting Elements into Com- (Jb) Converting Compounds into Ele- 
 
 POUNDS MENTS 
 
 K X 1.2043 = KoO. (Atomic wts. based K2O X .8303 = K. 
 
 P X 2.2903 = P2O5. on O = 16) P2O5 X .4366 = P. 
 
 NX 1.2154 =NH3. NH3X.8228=N. 
 
 Mg X 1.6568 = MgO. MgO X .6036 = Mg. 
 
 Ca X 1.3990 = CaO. CaO X .7148 = Ca. 
 
 Computing the trade value. 
 
 A simple way of figuring the value of a commercial fertilizer 1 (Cavanaugh) 
 
 Example No. 1. Guaranteed Analysis 
 
 Nitrogen 1.60 to 2.00 per cent 
 
 Phosphoric acid available 7.00 to 8.00 per cent 
 
 Potash 2.00 to 3.50 per cent 
 
 Cost per ton $29.00 
 
 ^ In these and the succeeding examples, it happens that the trade values per 
 lb. of chemicals are not those of 1910, given on pp. 47-48 ; but it is intended 
 only to explain the method. 
 
 E 
 
50 CHEMICAL yERTILlZEHS; AND LIME 
 
 Multiplying the lowest figure representing the per cent of the given 
 element by 20, and calculating tiie value from the price per pound, we 
 have in No. 1 (remembering that 1 per cent means one pound in a 
 hundred, or twenty pounds in a ton) : — 
 
 Nitrogen 1.60 X 20 = 32 lb. ^ 15^ = S4.80 
 
 Phosphoric acid 7 X 20 = 140 lb. @ 5^ = 7.00 
 
 Potash 2 X 20 = 40 lb. @ 5J? = 2.00 
 
 Commercial \alae per ton $13.80 
 
 Example No. 2. Guaranteed Analysis 
 
 Nitrogen 3.30 to 4.00 per cent 
 
 Phosphoric acid available 8.00 to 10.00 per cent 
 
 Potash 7.00 to 8.00 per cent 
 
 Cost per ton $38.00 
 
 Its value is calculated the same as No. 1 : — 
 
 Xitrogen 3.30 X 20 = GG lb. @ 15<? = $9.90 
 
 Phosphoric acid 8.00 X 20 = IGO lb. @ 50 = 8.00 
 
 Potash 7.00 X 20 = 140 lb. @ 5^ = 7.00 
 
 Commercial value $24.90 
 
 The cheapest fertilizer is the one in which one dollar purchases the 
 greatest amount of plant-food. In No. 1, $29 obtained S13.80 worth, 
 which is at the rate of forty-eight cents worth for SI. In No. 2, $38 
 buys $24.90 worth of plant-food, or at the rate of sixty-five cents worth 
 for the dollar. The difference between the commercial value, as calcu- 
 lated, and the selling price, is to cover expenses of manufacture, bag- 
 ging, shipping, commission fees, and profits. 
 
 How to figure the trade value of a fertilizer in greater detail ( Voorhees) 
 
 It is assumed that the mixed fertilizer is guaranteed to contain 
 
 Ammonia 4 per cent 
 
 Available pho.sphoric acid 8 per cent 
 
 Total phosphoric acid 9 per cent 
 
 Potash 6 per cent 
 
 and that the nitrogen exists in three forms, as nitrate, as ammonia, and 
 as organic ; the phosphoric acid in three forms, soluble, reverted, and 
 insoluble; and potash in two forms, sulfate and muriate. The 4 per 
 cent ammonia would be equivalent to 3.28 per cent nitrogen, 1 per cent 
 of which is nitrate-nitrogen, \ per cent sulfate of ammonia-nitrogen, 
 
FIGURING FERTILIZERS 
 
 61 
 
 and 1.78 per cent is derived from organic forms. Of the total phos- 
 phoric acid, 6 per cent is soluble, 2 per cent reverted, and 1 per cent is 
 insoluble ; of the total potash, 3 per cent is derived from muriate and 
 3 per cent from sulfate. 
 
 The first column in Table A shows the percentage of the constituents 
 contained, which, multiplied by 20, gives the pounds per ton in the 
 second column, which, multiplied by the schedule prices per pound, 
 gives the valuation per ton, as shown in the fourth column. 
 
 In the case of ground bone, the guarantee is 4 per cent ammonia and 
 48 per cent bone phosphate, which are equivalent to 3.28 per cent nitro- 
 gen and 22 per cent phosphoric acid. It is assumed that 60 per cent 
 of the material is finer than -^V of an inch, and is regarded as "fine," 
 and 40 per cent is coarser than -h of an inch, and is regarded as 
 " coarse." 
 
 Table A. — Complete Fertilizer 
 
 Per cent or 
 pounds per 100 
 
 2 3 4 
 
 v„i,.„ ^„^ Estimated 
 Pounds ^^^^S value per 
 per ton ^ JSs *°^ ^^ ^^'^^ 
 
 Nitrogen, as nitrates 
 Nitrogen, as ammonia salts 
 Nitrogen, as organic matter 
 
 Total nitrogen . . . 
 Phosphoric acid, soluble 
 Phosphoric acid, reverted 
 Phosphoric acid, insoluble 
 
 Total phosphoric acid 
 Potash, as muriate . . 
 Potash, as sulfate . . 
 
 Total potash . . . 
 
 1.00 X 20 
 0.50 X 20 
 1.78 X 20 
 3.28 
 
 6.00 X 20 
 2.00 X 20 
 1.00 X 20 
 9.00 
 
 3.00 X 20 
 3.00 X 20 
 6.00 
 
 20.0 X 16.5 
 
 10.0 X 17.5 
 
 35.6 X 18.5 
 
 65.6 
 120.0 X 
 
 40.0 X 
 
 20.0 X 
 180.0 
 
 60.0 X 
 
 60.0 X 
 120.0 
 
 4.5 
 4.5 
 2.0 
 
 4.25 
 5.0 
 
 constituent 
 : $3.30 
 
 : 1.75 
 
 : 6.59 
 
 $5.40 
 1.80 
 0.40 
 
 5 
 
 Total 
 
 estimated 
 
 value 
 
 per ton 
 
 $11.64 
 
 2.55 
 3.00 
 
 7.60 
 
 5.55 
 
 $24.79 
 
 Table B. — Ground Bone 
 
 Per cent 
 
 or 
 pounds 
 per 100 
 
 Per cent 
 
 of 
 fineness 
 
 Nitroeenl 3.28X00 
 JNitrogenj 328 x 40 
 
 Total . 
 Phosphoric f 22.00 X 60 
 acid 1 22.00 X 40 
 Total . 
 
 Per cent 
 
 or pounds 
 
 per 100 
 
 Pounds 
 per ton 
 
 = 1.97 in fine X 20 ^ 
 = 1.31 in coarse X 20 ■ 
 
 3.28 
 = 13.20 in fine X 20 
 
 Value 
 
 per 
 pound, 
 cents 
 
 39.40 X 18.0 = 
 26.20 X 13.0 = 
 65.60 
 264.00 X 
 
 8.80 in coarse X 20 = 176.00 X 
 22.00 440.00 
 
 4.0 = 
 3.0 = 
 
 6 7 
 
 Esti- 
 mated Total 
 
 value esti- 
 
 per ton mated 
 
 of each value 
 
 con- per ton 
 stituent 
 
 $7.09 
 3.41 
 
 $10.50 
 10.56 
 5.28 
 
 15.84 
 $26.34 
 
52 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS ; AND LIME 
 
 The first column of fij2:iires in Tabic B shows the percentage, or 
 pounds ])er hundred, of tlie constituents, which is niultii)lied by the 
 percentage of iineness, which gives the percentage or pounds per hun- 
 dred of fine or coarse in the third column. The calculation is then 
 finished, as in the case of complete fertilizers. 
 
 Home-Mixing of Fertilizers 
 General advice (Kentucky Station). 
 
 The farmer may mix his own fertilizers in a satisfactory manner. 
 He should first determine how man\^ jiounds of phosphoric acid, nitro- 
 gen, and i)otash he wishes to use per acre, then determine how much of 
 each of the materials used will be required to furnish the desired 
 amounts of the ingredients. This having been done, it is easy to figure 
 to any number of acres. It does not matter about figuring out what 
 per cent there will be of each ingredient, the important thing being to 
 know how many pounds of each ingredient are being applied. The 
 foregoing points having been determined, the next step is the mixing. 
 Prepare a tight floor of sufficient size. Put down the bulkiest material 
 first in an even layer, following with the others in order of their bulk. 
 See that all lumps are well broken up. Potash salts and nitrate of 
 soda may be lumpy. Take a shovel and begin at one end of the pile 
 and shovel the materials back, turning and mixing each shovelful as 
 much as possible. Repeat the operation until well mixed. There is 
 no doubt that fertilizers may be well mixed at home, but it is advised 
 only when it can be done more cheaply and when fertilizers of the 
 desired composition cannot be purchased. 
 
 The function of the fertilizer factory is to mix fertilizers cheaper 
 and better than the farmer can do it himself. That the factory can do 
 this there is no doubt. That they are not doing so, as a rule, is 
 evident. 
 
 In some states, the farmer decides what he wants to use on his land 
 and submits his fonnuia to the manufacturer, who mixes his goods for 
 him and charges the retail price for the singles or simples used, and a 
 reasonable profit on the actual cost of mixing. 
 
 It is gratifying that some of the largest manufacturing concerns 
 advocate the exclusive use of high-grade fertilizers and the unit o^* 
 pound basis of purchase. 
 
ANTAGONISTIC INGREDIENTS OF FERTILIZERS 
 
 53 
 
 Incompatibles in fertilizer mixtures (U. S. Dept. Agric). 
 
 The danger of indiscriminate mixing of fertilizing materials should 
 be understood, and a diagram (Fig. 4) is given to indicate what com- 
 binations may be safely made of some of the more common materials. 
 
 Soperphospliatff. 
 
 Thomas slag. 
 
 Ammonlaxn siilphate. 
 
 Lime nitrogen (e&\- 
 dum cyanamid). 
 
 Potash salts 
 
 Barnyard manare 
 and guano. 
 
 Norwegian nitrate 
 (basic calcium 
 nitrate). 
 
 E^mt. 
 
 Nitrate of soda 
 
 Bone meal. 
 
 Fig. 4. — Incompatible combinations in fertilizers. 
 
 In this diagram the heavy lines unite materials which should never be 
 mixed, the double lines those which should be applied immediately 
 after mixing, and the single lines those which may be mixed at any time. 
 
 Table for calculating raw fertilizer material required per ton by mixtures of 
 given composition 
 
 Fertilizer Material 
 
 AS CALLED FOR IN A 
 
 Formula 
 
 Per Cent op 
 
 Nitrogen (N) 
 
 in the 
 
 Formula 
 
 Equivalent 
 
 to Ammonia 
 
 (NHs) 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Factor for 
 
 calculating 
 
 Fertilizer 
 
 Material 
 
 FROM Nitrogen 
 
 Factor for 
 
 calculating 
 
 Fertilizer 
 
 Material 
 
 FROM Ammonia 
 
 Nitrate of soda 
 Dried blood 
 Sulfate of ammonia 
 Cotton-seed meal 
 
 15.0 
 
 12.4 
 
 20.0 
 
 7.0 
 
 18.2 
 15.0 
 24.3 
 
 8.5 
 
 Multiply by 
 133 
 161 
 100 
 286 
 
 Multiply by 
 
 110 
 
 133 
 
 86.4 
 
 235 
 
54 
 
 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS; AND LIME 
 
 Table for calculating raw fertilizer material required per ton by mixtures of 
 given composition. — Coutinued 
 
 Fertilizer Material 
 
 as called for in a 
 
 Formula 
 
 Phosphorus 
 Per Cent 
 
 Phosphoric 
 Acid (PjOc) 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Factor for 
 
 calculating 
 
 Fertilizer 
 
 Material KHOM 
 
 Phosphorus 
 
 Factor for 
 
 calculating 
 
 Fertilizer 
 
 Material from 
 
 Phosphoric 
 
 Acid 
 
 Acid phosphate 
 Basic slag 
 
 6.1 
 7.0 
 
 14.0 
 16.0 
 
 Multiply by 
 328 
 
 285 
 
 Multiply by 
 143 
 125 
 
 
 Potassium 
 (K) 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Potash 
 (KjO) 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Factor for 
 
 calculating 
 
 Fertilizer 
 
 Material from 
 
 Potassium 
 
 Factor for 
 
 Calculating 
 
 Fertilizer 
 
 Material from 
 
 Potash 
 
 Muriate of potash 
 
 Kainit 
 
 Sulfate of potash 
 
 41.5 
 
 10 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 12 
 48 
 
 Multiply by 
 
 48 
 
 200 
 
 50 
 
 Multiply by 
 
 40 
 
 167 
 
 42 
 
 To mix a 2-8-6 fertilizer, i.e. a fertilizer containing 2 per cent 
 nitrogen, 8 per cent phosphoric acid and 6 per cent potash, the 
 quantities of raw material may be calculated as follows : — 
 
 2 X 133 = 266 lb. nitrate of soda 
 8 X 143 = 1144 lb. acid phosphate 
 6 X 4 = 240 lb. muriate of potash 
 1650 lb. mixture 
 
 If dried blood were used instead of nitrate of soda, it would be 
 necessary to use 322 lb. of it to secure the required amount of nitro- 
 gen (2x161= 322) in the ton. If the fornuila called for ammonia 
 rather than nitrogen, the multiple would be 110 or 133 respectively. 
 
 Soil Analysis and Fertilizer Tests (Cavanaugh) 
 
 A chemical analysis of a soil consists in finding the amounts of nitrogen, 
 phosphoric acid, potash, lime, magnesia, and humus that it contains. 
 It may be carried further, and the other constituents determined. 
 These materials, except the humus and nitrogen, are extracted from 
 the soil by strong acids. The action of these acids is many times 
 stronger than is ever brought to bear on the soil in its normal con- 
 
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS 55 
 
 dition in the field. It is therefore impossible at present to draw any 
 certain conclusions from the results of such an analysis that are 
 apphcable to field conditions. 
 
 If, however, an analysis shows only a very small amount of nitrogen, 
 then one may conclude that the soil is deficient in this element and 
 will probably be benefited by its application. But this may be as 
 easily told by a simple inspection of the field while plants are growing. 
 A soil deficient in nitrogen is constantly showing its condition in the 
 plants. Short growth of straw and vine, failure to develop a full, 
 dark-green color, and the growth of sorrel and ox-eye daisy, all tell as 
 accurately as the chemist with all his skill that the soil lacks nitrogen. 
 And it is the same with the other constituents. It is only when a 
 soil is extremely deficient in certain plant-foods that an analysis shows 
 the cause of the trouble. 
 
 The great majority of all soils, good and poor agriculturally, differ only 
 in narrow limits as to their composition. Every soil that yields well 
 does not contain more plant-food than one that yields less; on the 
 other hand, many soils that give poor yields are often rich -in plant- 
 food. 
 
 Two samples of soil were recently examined in the chemical labora- 
 tory. On one of the soils alfalfa grows readily, on the other it has 
 failed. It might seem that the cause could be discovered by analyzing 
 the two samples. Following are the results : — 
 
 No. 1 , that does not grow alfalfa No. 2, that grows alfalfa 
 
 Nitrogen (N) . . . 0.07 per cent Nitrogen (N) .... 0.07 per cent 
 
 Phosphoric acid (P2O5) . 0.12 per cent Phosphoric acid (P2O5) . 0.12 per cent 
 
 Potash (K2O) . . . .0.14 per cent Potash (K2O) . . . .0.13 per cent 
 
 Lime (CaO) . . . .0.17 per cent Lime (CaO) .... 0.20 per cent 
 
 Magnesia (MgO) . . 0.24 per cent Magnesia (MgO) . . . 0.22 per cent 
 
 Organic matter (humus) 3.45 per cent Organic matter (humus) 3.15 per cent 
 
 Soils have an average weight of 2,000,000 lb. per acre for a depth 
 of eight inches, and the composition of the two soils by weight is as 
 follows : — 
 
 No. 1 No. 2 
 
 .07 N = 1,400 1b. 
 
 per acre. 
 
 0.07 N = 1,400 lb. per acre. 
 
 .12 PA = 2,400 1b. 
 
 per acre. 
 
 0.12 P2O5 = 2,400 lb. per acre. 
 
 .UKjO = 2,800 1b. 
 
 per acre. 
 
 0.13 K2O = 2,600 lb. per acre. 
 
 .17 CaO = 3,400 lb. 
 
 per acre. 
 
 0.20 CaO = 4,000 lb. per acre. 
 
 .24 MgO = 4,800 lb. 
 
 per acre. 
 
 0.22 MgO = 4,400 lb. per acre. 
 
 3.45 humus = 69,000 lb. 
 
 per acre. 
 
 3.15 humus = 63,000 lb. per acre. 
 
56 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS ; AND LIME 
 
 It will be seen that in cliemical composition these soils are practically 
 identical, and yet one ^rows good alfalfa and one does not. 
 
 This shows that the chemical composition is not always the deciding 
 factor in fertility. As a matter of fact, it is rarely the deciding factor. 
 A soil that showed higher amounts of plant-food than in the cases cited 
 above gave very low yields. A good system of tile drains was put in 
 this field, and three years later the crops were very large. The drain- 
 ing produced no differences in the chemical content, but it brought 
 success. Failure may be due in other cases to poor tilth, acidity, bad 
 rotations, and various physical causes. 
 
 Chemical anal3'ses of soils are valual^le mainly to assist in con- 
 ducting investigations of a scientific character. With the present 
 methods they are of little use as a means of deciding what fertilizer 
 should be applied. The farmer should experiment with different fer- 
 tilizers, and not depend on a chemical examination of his soil, unless 
 he has reason to think that he has a very special problem. The wide- 
 spread notion that chemical analyses of soil and of plant will tell what 
 fertilizers to add and what crops to grow is erroneous. 
 
 Field tests to determine fertilizer needs may be made as follows : — 
 
 The field should be plowed before the plats are laid out. Then 
 use substantial stakes at the corners of the plats and mark them 
 well. It would be well to leave a space of 4 feet between each two 
 plats, to be sure that the plants on one plat cannot feed on the fer- 
 tihzer each side of it. 
 
 Do not lay out the plats on land that has been manured within one 
 year. If you made fertilizer experiments last year, do not use the same 
 set of plats again this season. 
 
 The following diagram shows the arrangement of the plats, with 
 the spaces between, each plat containing 25 of an acre : — 
 
 1. PlatK. 15 1b. Muriate 
 
 r^«+„oK 100 lb. lime 
 
 P°*^«^ on this half 
 
 2. Plat N. 15 lb. nitrate 
 
 soda 
 
 100 lb. lime 
 on this half 
 
 3. Plat P. 30 lb. super 
 
 phosphate l^^^ 
 
ANALYSIS OF SUBSTANCES 
 
 57 
 
 4. Plat Blank. 
 
 No fer 
 
 tilizer 
 
 100 lb. lime 
 on this half 
 
 5. Plat KN, 
 
 15 lb. muri 
 15 lb. nitra 
 
 ate potash 
 te soda 
 
 100 lb. lime 
 on this half 
 
 H 
 
 6. Plat KP. (mixed) 
 
 15 lb. muriate 
 30 lb. superph 
 
 potash 
 osphate 
 
 100 lb. lime 
 on this half 
 
 7. Plat NP. 
 
 15 lb. nitrate 
 30 lb. superp 
 
 soda 
 hosphate 
 
 100 lb. lime 
 on this half 
 
 Plat NPK. 
 
 (mixed) 
 
 15 lb. nitra 
 15 lb. muri 
 30 lb. super 
 
 te soda 
 ate potash 
 phosphate 
 
 100 lb. lime 
 on this half 
 
 Plat S. 
 
 stable manure 
 
 100 lb. lime 
 on this half 
 
 Eight rods long. 
 
 Analyses of Various Chemical Fertilizer and Related Materials 
 
 Dissolved Bone-Black 
 
 This material is a superphosphate prepared by treating refuse bone-black from 
 sugar refineries with oil of vitriol, which renders nearly all the phosphoric acid 
 soluble in water. 
 
 Soluble phosphoric acid 14.55 
 
 Reverted phosphoric acid 2.39 
 
 Insoluble phosphoric acid 0.20 
 
 Bone Charcoal 
 
 Moisture at 100° C 18.16 Reverted phosphoric acid . . 5.18 
 
 Ash 72.24 Insoluble phosphoric acid . . 20.02 
 
 Total phosphoric acid . . . 25.58 Insoluble matter 0.69 
 
 Soluble phosphoric acid . . . 0.38 
 
 Ground Bone. (Two 
 
 samples) 
 
 
 
 
 
 Moisture at 100° C. . . 
 
 Ash 
 
 Total phosphoric acid . 
 Reverted phosphoric acid 
 Insoluble phosphoric acid 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Insoluble matter . . . 
 
 
 
 
 • • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 3.97 
 
 . 49.35 
 
 19.49 
 
 3.80 
 
 15.69 
 
 4.04 
 
 0.78 
 
 12.43 
 
 64.21 
 
 25.67 
 
 6.20 
 
 19.34 
 
 2.68 
 
 0.42 
 
58 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS ; AND LIME 
 
 Dried Blood 
 Moisture 15.02 Nitrogen 8.24 
 
 Dry Ground Fish 
 
 Moisture at 100" C 8.34 
 
 Ash 37.76 
 
 Total phosphoric acid 8.23 
 
 Sohihlo phosphoric acid 0.10 
 
 Rpvcrtcci {)h()sphoric acid 3.81 
 
 Iii.sohible phosphoric acid 4.32 
 
 XitroRon 6.81 
 
 Insoluble matter 0.82 
 
 Sulfate of Ammonia 
 
 This article, now manufactured on a large scale as a by-product of gas-works, 
 usually contains over 20 per cent of nitrogen, the equivalent of from 94 to 97 
 per cent of sulfate of ammonia. The rest is chiefly moisture. 
 Nitrogen 20.02 Equivalent ammonia .... 24.30 
 
 Sulfate of Potash. (Two samples) 
 
 The double sulfate of potash and magnesia is usually sold as "sulfate of 
 potash." 
 
 I. II, 
 
 Actual potash 27.76 51.28 
 
 Equivalent sulfate of potash 51.3 94.80 
 
 Sulfate of Magnesia 
 
 Moisture at 100* C 29.01 Sulfuric acid 30.35 
 
 Magnesium oxide 15.87 Insoluble matter 6.29 
 
 Nitrate of Soda 
 
 Nitrate of soda is mined in Chile and purified there before shipment. It 
 usually contains about 16 per cent of nitrogsn, equivalent to 97 per cent of pure 
 nitrate of soda. It contains, besides, a little salt and some moisture. 
 
 Moisture 0.35 Sulfate of soda 0.21 
 
 Salt (sodium chloride) .... 0.23 Pure nitrate of soda .... 99.21 
 
 Muriate of Potash. (Two samples) 
 
 Commercial muriate of potash consists of about 80 per cent of muriate of 
 potash (potassium chlorid^) ; 1.") per cent or more of common salt (sodium 
 chloride), and 4 per cent or more of water. 
 
 I II 
 
 Actual potash .50.0 52.82 
 
 Equivalent muriate 79.2 83.70 
 
 German Potash Salts — Average of 11 Analyses 
 
 Moisture at 100* C 13.14 Magnesium oxide 9.25 
 
 Pota.ssium oxide 21.63 Sulfuric acid 10.85 
 
 Sodium oxide 13.76 Chlorine .... . . . 35.63 
 
 Calcium oxide 0.85 Insoluble matter 2.08 
 
ANALYSIS OF SUBSTANCES 69 
 
 KA.INIT — Average of 3 Analyses 
 
 Moisture at 100° C 9.26 Magnesium oxide 8.97 
 
 Potassium oxide 14.04 Sulfuric acid 21.05 
 
 Sodium oxide 21.38 Chlorine 32.38 
 
 Calcium oxide 1.12 Insoluble matter 0.89 
 
 Land-Plaster or Gypsum 
 
 Hydrated sulfate of lime 74.88 
 
 Matters insoluble in acid 1.23 
 
 Moisture 1.18 
 
 Other matters, chiefly carbonate of lime 22.66 
 
 Ashes (Wood), Unleached 
 
 Moisture at 100° C 15.72 
 
 Calciurn oxide 28.61 
 
 Magnesium oxide 3.00 
 
 Ferric oxide 1.03 
 
 Potassium oxide 8.72 
 
 Phosphoric acid 0.32 
 
 Insoluble matter, before calcination 18.49 
 
 Insoluble matter, after calcination 12.12 
 
 Ashes (Wood), Leached 
 
 Moisture at 100° C 13.72 
 
 Calcium oxide 26.90 
 
 Magnesium oxide 6.06 
 
 Ferric oxide 0.68 
 
 Potassium oxide 1.92 
 
 Phosphoric acid 1.79 
 
 Insoluble matter, before calcination 5.49 
 
 Insoluble matter, after calcination 2.57 
 
 Coal Ashes, bituminous 
 
 Water 5.0 Soda 0.4 
 
 Organic substance 5.0 Magnesia 3.2 
 
 Ash 95.0 Phosphoric acid 0.2 
 
 Potash 0.4 Sulfuric acid 8.5 
 
 Coal Ashes, anthracite 
 
 Water 5.0 Soda 0.1 
 
 Organic substance 5.0 Magnesia 3.0 
 
 Ash 90.0 Phosphoric acid 0.1 
 
 Potash 0.1 Sulfuric acid 5.0 
 
 Gas-Lime — Average of 4 Analyses 
 
 Moisture at 100° C 22.28 Sulfur 20.73 
 
 Calcium oxide 42.66 Insoluble matter 6.05 
 
60 
 
 CHEMICAL FKRTILIZKRS ; AND LIME 
 
 Seaweed. (Two samples) I jj 
 
 Moistun- at 100" C 12.05 14.96 
 
 XitroKi-n 1.66 1.28 
 
 I'hosphoric acid 0.44 0.17 
 
 rotassiuin oxide 3.81 0.36 
 
 Calcium oxide 2.73 3.86 
 
 Magnesium oxide 1-48 1.30 
 
 Fertilizer Formulas for Various Crops 
 
 There is no exact method of determining the fertiUzer or plant-food 
 needs of the various crops. Certain guides have been estabhshed, 
 ho\ve\'er, from analyses of the plants and other means, and some of 
 tlic.se block formulas are given here for the information of the con- 
 sultant. The careful grower will make tests of his own (see p. 56), 
 and use formulas only as guides. 
 
 Formulas suggested by the Maine Experiment Station. 
 
 It is to be borne in mind in using these formulas that they are only 
 suggestive and that different conditions of soil make such diflferent 
 treatment essential that a formula which may prove successful on one 
 farm may not be equally so on another. In no case is it to be expected 
 that fertilizers will take the place of good tillage and care of crops. 
 
 
 Weight 
 
 USED 
 
 PER Acre 
 
 Nitro- 
 gen 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 
 
 
 Crop \sv Fertilizing Materials 
 
 Avail- 
 able 
 
 Total 
 
 Potash 
 
 Corn on sod land or in conjunc- 
 tion with farm manure: 
 
 Nitrate of .soda 
 
 Acid phosphate 
 
 Muriate of potash .... 
 
 lb. 
 
 100 
 400 
 150 
 
 lb. 
 16 
 
 lb. 
 52 
 
 lb. 
 56 
 
 lb. 
 75 
 
 Total ....... 
 
 Percentage composition 
 
 650 
 
 16 
 2.5 
 
 52 
 
 8.0 
 
 56 
 
 8.6 
 
 75 
 11.5 
 
 Nitrate of soda 
 
 Screened tankage .... 
 
 Acid phosphate 
 
 Muriate of potash .... 
 
 100 
 200 
 300 
 150 
 
 16 
 11 
 
 15 
 39 
 
 32 
 
 42 
 
 75 
 
 Total 
 
 Percentage composition 
 
 750 
 
 27 
 3.6 
 
 54 
 7.2 
 
 74 
 9.9 
 
 75 
 10.0 
 
 Nitrate of .soda 
 
 Cotton.seed meal .... 
 
 Acid phosjjhate 
 
 Muriate of potash .... 
 
 100 
 200 
 400 
 150 
 
 16 
 14 
 
 52 
 
 3 
 56 
 
 4 
 75 
 
 Total 
 
 Percentage composition 
 
 850 
 
 30 
 3.5 
 
 52 
 6.1 
 
 59 
 7.0 
 
 79 
 9.3 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
FER TILIZER RE Q UIREMEN TS 
 
 61 
 
 
 Weight 
 
 USED 
 
 PER Acre 
 
 Nitro- 
 gen 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 
 
 
 Crop and Fertilizing Materials 
 
 Avail- 
 able 
 
 Total 
 
 Potash 
 
 Grass — spring seeding with 
 oats as a nurse crop in con- 
 junction with liberal appli- 
 cations of farm manure : ^ 
 
 Nitrate of soda 
 
 Acid phosphate 
 
 Muriate of potash .... 
 
 lb. 
 
 50 
 200 
 200 
 
 lb. 
 
 8 
 
 lb. 
 26 
 
 lb. 
 
 28 
 
 lb. 
 100 
 
 Total 
 
 Percentage composition 
 
 450 
 
 8 
 1.8 
 
 26 
 
 5.8 
 
 28 
 6.2 
 
 100 
 22.2 
 
 Grass — spring seeding with 
 oats without farm manure : 
 
 Nitrate of soda 
 
 Screened tankage .... 
 
 Acid phosphate 
 
 Muriate of potash .... 
 
 100 
 500 
 200 
 250 
 
 16 
 
 28 
 
 36 
 26 
 
 80 
 
 28 
 
 125 
 
 Total 
 
 Percentage composition 
 
 1050 
 
 44 
 4.2 
 
 62 
 5.9 
 
 108 
 10.3 
 
 125 
 11.9 
 
 Grass — summer or fall seeding 
 with farm manure (at seed- 
 ing) : 
 
 Acid phosphate 
 
 Muriate 
 
 100 
 75 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 38 
 
 Total ....... 
 
 Percentage composition 
 
 175 
 
 
 13 
 
 7.4 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 38 
 22 
 
 The following spring apply — 
 
 Nitrate of soda 
 
 Acid phosphate 
 
 Muriate 
 
 100 
 200 
 200 
 
 16 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 100 
 
 Total 
 
 Percentage composition 
 
 500 
 
 16 
 3.2 
 
 26 
 5.2 
 
 28 
 5.6 
 
 100 
 20.0 
 
 Gr.'ISS — summer or fall seeding 
 without farm manure (at 
 seeding) : 
 
 Nitrate of soda 
 
 Screened tankage .... 
 
 Muriate of potash .... 
 
 100 
 400 
 100 
 
 16 
 22 
 
 29 
 
 64 
 
 50 
 
 Total 
 
 Percentage composition 
 
 600 
 
 38 
 6.3 
 
 29 
 
 4.8 
 
 64 
 10.7 
 
 50 
 
 8.3 
 
 The following spring apply — 
 
 Nitrate of soda 
 
 Acid phosphate 
 
 Muriate 
 
 100 
 200 
 200 
 
 16 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 100 
 
 Total 
 
 Percentage composition 
 
 500 
 
 16 
 3.2 
 
 26 
 5.2 
 
 28 
 5.6 
 
 100 
 20.0 
 
 1 If desired to apply by machinery, it would be necessary to mix with about 
 200 pounds of some fine, dry material, as muck or loam. 
 
62 
 
 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS ; AND LIME 
 
 Crop and Fertilizing Materials 
 
 Weight 
 
 USED 
 
 PER Acre 
 
 350 
 400 
 250 
 
 52 
 
 56 
 
 1000 
 
 54 
 5.4 
 
 52 
 5.2 
 
 56 
 5.6 
 
 50 
 400 
 250 
 
 52 
 
 56 
 
 700 
 
 52 
 
 7.4 
 
 56 
 8.0 
 
 50 
 400 
 150 
 
 52 
 
 56 
 
 600 
 
 8 
 1.3 
 
 52 
 
 8.7 
 
 56 
 9.3 
 
 400 
 400 
 200 
 
 64 
 
 1000 
 
 64 
 6.4 
 
 200 
 800 
 
 200 
 200 
 400 
 200 
 2000 
 
 32 
 44 
 
 40 
 
 58 
 
 26 
 
 116 
 
 5.8 
 
 84 
 4.2 
 
 128 
 
 28 
 
 156 
 
 7.8 
 
 GR.\sa— .spring top-drossinRpjasi? 
 
 land, suKKfstrd hy the Rluxlo 
 
 Island Mxpt'rinicnt Station : ' 
 Nitrat(> of soda .... 
 Arid phosphate .... 
 Muriate of potash . . . 
 
 Total . . . . . . 
 
 Percentage composition 
 
 Clovers, or alfalfa, without 
 
 other manure and on hmd 
 
 earrying the proper root tu- 
 
 l)ercl'^ ()rKani.sms : 
 Nitrate of so(hi .... 
 Acid phosphate .... 
 Muriate of potash . 
 
 Total 
 
 Percentage composition 
 
 Bean8 or peas without other 
 manure on soil carrying the 
 proper root tubercle organ- 
 isms : 
 
 Nitrate of soda 
 
 Acid phosphate 
 
 Muriate of potash .... 
 
 Total 
 
 Percentage composition 
 
 Mangolds or other beets, 
 
 based upon experiments at 
 
 the Rothamstefi (England) 
 
 Experiment Station (to be 
 
 us(>d in conjunction with a 
 
 liberal dressing of farm ma- 
 nure) : 
 
 Nitrate of soda 
 
 Muriate of potash .... 
 Common salt ^ . ... 
 
 Total 
 
 Percentage composition 
 
 Manoolds or other beets 
 
 without farm manure: 
 
 Nitrate of soda 
 
 Screened tankage .... 
 Sulfate r)f animonia (or 300 
 
 pounds high-grad" dried 
 
 blood) 
 
 Acid phosphate 
 
 Muriate of potasli .... 
 Common salt 
 
 Total 
 
 Percentage composition 
 
 * Rhode Island Sta. Bui. 90. ' Beets are successfully grown in Maine without salt. 
 
 Nitro- 
 gen 
 
 lb. 
 54 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 
 
 Avail- 
 able 
 
 lb. 
 
 Total 
 
 lb. 
 
FERTILIZER REQUIREMENTS 63 
 
 It is of the utmost importance in purchasing materials for these home 
 mixtures to buy only on a guaranty of composition and to insist that the 
 materials shall be of standard high-grade quality. 
 
 Specific mixtures for different crops (Agric. Exp. Sta. Geneva, 
 N.Y., 14th Kept.). 
 
 In the following tables (pages 64 to 77), Van Slyke gives 
 formulas for various crops as an illustration of the kinds of mixtures 
 that are ordinarily advised. He is convinced, however, that prac- 
 tically all purposes would be satisfactorily served by the use of not 
 more than a half dozen different formulas. We should work toward 
 the more or less independent handling of nitrogen, phosphorus and 
 potassium compounds, using them separately or together as special 
 conditions and the results of observation and experience may suggest. 
 This is possible, of course, only with the student farmer. For the 
 mass of farmers, the formal recipe or the commercial mixture must 
 yet form the basis of fertilizer applications. As a broad statement 
 to guide the careful farmer, Van Slyke suggests the following : — 
 
 For leguminous crops, a formula of 1-8-10 (in the order of nitrogen, available 
 phosphoric acid and potash). 
 For cereals, 3-8-5. 
 
 For all kinds of garden crops, 4-8-10. 
 For grass and forage crops, 4-6-9. 
 For orchards, 2-5-10. 
 For root-crops, 3-8-7. 
 
 The materials that are given for use in the succeeding tables are 
 assumed to have a fairly definite composition, and the calculations are 
 based on the following conditions of composition : — 
 
 (1) Nitrate of soda, 95 to 96 per cent pure, containing 16 per cent 
 of nitrogen. 
 
 (2) Dried blood, containing 10 per cent of nitrogen. 
 
 (3) Sulfate of ammonia, containing 20 per cent of nitrogen. 
 
 (4) Stable manure, containing .5 per cent of nitrogen. 
 
 (5) Bone-meal, containing 20 per cent of total phosphoric acid, 
 one-half being calculated as available during first season on application ; 
 also containing 4 per cent of nitrogen. 
 
 Whenever bone-meal is used in a mixture, allowance should be made for 
 its nitrogen, and so much less of other forms of nitrogen-materials used. 
 
64 
 
 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS ; AND LIME 
 
 (f)) Dissolved bono, containing 15 per cent of available phosphoric 
 acid and 3 per cent of nitrogen. 
 
 (7) Dissolved bone-black, containing 15 per cent of available phos- 
 phoric acid. 
 
 (S) Dissolved rock, containing 12 per cent of available phosphoric acid. 
 
 (9) Muriate of potash, 80 per cent pure, containing 50 per cent of potash. 
 
 (10) Sulfate of potash, 90 to 95 per cent pure, containing 50 per 
 cent of potash. 
 
 (11) Kainit, containing 12 to 13 per cent of potash. 
 
 (12) Wood-ashes, containing 5 per cent of potash. 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 Nitrogen . 
 
 Available phos- 
 phoric acid 
 
 Potash 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 10 
 
 PorNDS 
 
 FOR One 
 
 Acre 
 
 5 to 10 
 
 30 to 60 
 
 40 to 80 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials for 
 One Acre 
 
 (1) 30 to 60 lb. nitrate of soda : or 
 
 (2) 25 to 50 lb. sulfate of ammonia ; or 
 
 (3) 50 to 100 lb. dried blood ; or 
 
 (4) 1000 to 2000 lb. stable manure. 
 
 (1) 300 to 600 lb. bone-meal ; or 
 
 (2) 200 to 400 lb. dissolved bone-meal or 
 
 bone-black ; or 
 
 (3) 250 to 500 lb. dissolved rock. 
 
 (1) 80 to 160 lb. muriate ; or 
 
 (2) 80 to 160 lb. sulfate ; or 
 
 (3) 325 to 650 lb. kainit ; or 
 
 (4) 800 to 1600 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
 Apples 
 
 Nitrogen . . 
 
 Available phos- 
 phoric acid 
 
 Potash 
 
 Per 
 
 Cent 
 
 PorNDS 
 
 'forOne 
 Acre 
 
 12 
 
 8 to 16 
 
 30 to 60 
 
 50 to 100 
 
 Pounds of Different 
 Materials for One Acre 
 
 (1) 50 to 100 lb. nitrate of 
 
 .soda; or 
 
 (2) 40 to 80 lb. sulphate of 
 
 ammonia; or 
 
 (3) 80 to 160 lb. dried 
 
 blood; or 
 
 (4) 1600 to 3200 lb. stable 
 
 manure, 
 fd) 300 to 600 lb. bone- 
 meal ; or 
 
 (2) 200 to 400 lb. dissolved 
 
 bono-meal or bone- 
 black; or 
 
 (3) 2.50 to .500 lb. dissolved 
 
 rock. 
 
 (1) 100 to 200 lb. muriate; 
 
 or 
 
 (2) 100 to 200 lb. sulfate; 
 
 or 
 
 (3) 400 to 800 lb. kainit; or 
 
 (4) 1000 to 2000 lb. wood- 
 
 ashes. 
 
 Pounds of Different 
 Materials for One Tree 
 
 (1) 1 to 2 lb. nitrate of soda ; 
 
 or 
 
 (2) H to VA lb. sulfate of 
 
 ammonia ; or 
 
 (3) IM to 3 lb. dried blood; 
 
 or 
 
 (4) 35 to 70 lb. stable ma- 
 
 nure. 
 
 (1) 6 to 12 lb. bone-meal; 
 
 or 
 
 (2) 4 to 8 lb. dissolved bone 
 
 or bone-black ; or 
 
 (3) 5 to 10 lb. dissolved 
 
 rock. 
 
 (1) 2 to 4 lb. muriate ; or 
 
 (2) 2 to 4 lb. sulfate ; or 
 
 (3) 8 to 161b. kainit ; or 
 
 (4) 20 to 40 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
FORMULAS FOR DIFFERENT CROPS 
 
 65 
 
 Asparagus 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Available phc 
 phoric acid 
 
 Potash 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Pounds 
 
 for One 
 
 Acre 
 
 20 to 40 
 
 30 to 60 
 
 35 to 70 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials for One Ache 
 
 (1) 120 to 240 lb. nitrate of soda ; or 
 
 (2) 200 to 400 lb. dried blood ; or 
 
 (3) 4000 to 8000 lb. stable manure. 
 
 (1) 300 to 600 lb. bone-meal ; or 
 
 (2) 200 to 400 lb. dissolved bone-meal or 
 
 bone-black ; or 
 
 (3) 250 to 500 lb. dissolved rock. 
 
 (1) 70 to 140 lb. muriate; or 
 
 (2) 70 to 140 lb. sulphate ; or 
 
 (3) 300 to 600 lb. kainit ; or 
 
 (4) 700 to 1400 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
 Barley 
 
 Nitrogen . . 
 
 Available phos- 
 phoric acid 
 
 Potash 
 
 Per 
 
 Cent 
 
 Pounds 
 
 for One 
 
 Acre 
 
 12 to 24 
 
 20 to 40 
 
 25 to 50 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials for 
 One Acre 
 
 (1) 75 to 150 lb. nitrate of soda ; or 
 
 (2) 50 to 120 lb. sulfate of ammonia ; or 
 
 (3) 125 to 250 lb. dried blood; or 
 
 (4) 2500 to 5000 lb. stable manure. 
 
 (1) 200 to 400 lb. bone-meal ; or 
 
 (2) 150 to 300 lb. dissolved bone or bone- 
 
 black ; or 
 
 (3) 175 to 350 lb. dissolved rock. 
 [(1) 50 to 100 lb. muriate ; or 
 
 (2) 50 to 100 lb. sulfate ; or 
 
 (3) 200 to 400 lb. kainit ; or 
 
 [ (4) 500 to 1000 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
 Beans 
 
 
 Per 
 
 Cent 
 
 Pounds 
 
 FOR One 
 
 Acre 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials for 
 One Acre 
 
 Nitrogen . . . 
 
 Available phos- 
 phoric acid 
 
 Potash . . . 
 
 1 
 7 
 9 
 
 5 to 10 
 30 to 60 
 35 to 70 
 
 
 (1) 30 to 60 lb. nitrate of soda ; or 
 
 (2) 25 to 50 lb. sulfate of ammonia ; or 
 
 (3) 50 to 100 lb. dried blood ; or 
 
 (4) 1000 to 2000 lb. stable manure. 
 
 (1) 300 to 600 lb. bone-meal ; or 
 
 (2) 200 to 400 lb. dissolved bone or bone 
 
 black ; or 
 
 (3) 250 to 500 lb. dissolved rock. 
 
 (1) 70 to 140 lb. muriate; or 
 
 (2) 70 to 140 lb. sulfate ; or 
 
 (3) 300 to 600 lb. kainit ; or 
 
 (4) 700 to 1400 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
66 
 
 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS ; AND LIME 
 
 Beets 
 
 Nitrogen . . 
 
 Available phos- 
 phoric acid 
 
 Potash 
 
 Per 
 Cent 
 
 Pounds 
 
 FOR One 
 
 Acre 
 
 20 to 40 
 
 25 to 50 
 
 35 to 70 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials for 
 One Acre 
 
 (1) 120 to 240 lb. nitrate of soda ; or 
 
 (2) 100 to 200 lb. sulfate of ammonia ; 
 
 (3) 200 to 400 lb. dried blood ; or 
 
 (4) 4000 to 8000 lb. stal)le manure. 
 
 (1) 250 to 500 lb. bone-meal ; or 
 
 (2) 175 to 350 lb. dissolved bone or bone- 
 
 black ; or 
 
 (3) 200 to 400 lb. dissolved rock. 
 
 (1) 70 to 140 lb. muriate; or 
 
 (2) 70 to 140 1b. sulfate; or 
 
 (3) 300 to 600 lb. kainit ; or 
 
 (4) 700 to 1400 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
 Blackberries 
 
 Nitrogen . 
 
 Available phos- 
 phoric acid 
 
 Potash 
 
 Per 
 Cent 
 
 Pounds 
 
 FOR One 
 
 Acre 
 
 15 to 30 
 
 30 to 60 
 
 40 to 80 
 
 Pounds of Different M.'^^terials for 
 One Acre 
 
 [(1) 100 to 200 lb. nitrate of soda; or 
 (2) 75 to 150 lb. sulfate of ammonia ; or 
 ' (3) 150 to 300 lb. dried blood ; or 
 74) 3000 to 6000 lb. stable manure. 
 
 (1) 300 to 600 lb. bone-meai ; or 
 
 I (2) 200 to 400 lb. dissolved bone or bone- 
 black ; or 
 I (3) 250 to 500 lb. dis.solved rock. 
 ' (1) 80 to 160 lb. muriate ; or 
 
 (2) 80 to 160 lb. sulfate ; or 
 
 (3) 300 to 600 lb. kainit ; or 
 1(4) 800 to 1600 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 
 Per 
 Cent 
 
 Pounds 
 
 FOR One 
 
 Acre 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials for 
 One Acre 
 
 Nitrogen . . . 
 
 Available phos- 
 phoric acid 
 
 4 
 8 
 
 15 to 30 
 30 to 60 
 
 
 (1) 90 to 180 11). nitrate of soda ; or 
 
 (2) 75 to 150 11). sulfate of ammonia ; or 
 
 (3) 150 to 300 11). dried blood ; or 
 
 (4) 3000 to 6000 lb. stable manure. 
 
 (1) 300 to 600 lb. bone-meal ; or 
 
 (2) 200 to 400 lb. dissolved bone or bone- 
 
 black ; or ; 
 
 (3) 250 to 500 lb. dissolved rock. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (1) 70 to 140 lb. muriate; or 
 
 Potash . . . 
 
 9 
 
 35 to 70 
 
 
 (2) 70 to 140 lb. sulfate ; or 
 
 (3) 300 to 600 lb. kainit; or 
 
 (4) 700 to 1400 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
FORMULAS FOR DIFFERENT CROPS 
 
 67 
 
 Cabbage 
 
 Nitrogen . 
 
 Available phos- 
 phoric acid 
 
 Potash 
 
 Per 
 Cent 
 
 Pounds 
 
 for One 
 
 Acre 
 
 40 to 80 
 
 70 tol40 
 
 90 to 180 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials for 
 
 One Acre 
 
 '(1) 
 (2) 
 (3) 
 ,(4) 
 1(1) 
 (2) 
 
 (3) 
 (1) 
 (2) 
 (3) 
 .(4) 
 
 250 to 500 lb. nitrate of soda ; or 
 200 to 400 lb. sulfate of ammonia ; c 
 400 to 800 lb. dried blood ; or 
 8000 to 16,000 lb. stable manure. 
 700 to 1400 lb. bone-meal ; or 
 500 to 1000 lb. dissolved bone 
 
 bone-black ; or 
 600 to 1200 lb. dissolved rock. 
 180 to 360 lb. muriate ; or 
 180 to 360 lb. sulfate ; or 
 700 to 1400 lb. kainit ; or 
 1800 to 3600 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
 Carrots 
 
 
 Per 
 
 Pounds 
 
 FOR One 
 
 Acre 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials 
 
 
 Cent 
 
 FOR One Acre 
 
 
 
 
 C(l) 90 to 1801b. nitrate of soda; or 
 
 Nitrogen . . . 
 
 3 
 
 15 to 30 
 
 1 (2) 75 to 150 lb. sulfate of ammonia ; or 
 ) (3) 150 to 300 lb. dried blood ; or 
 (4) 3000 to 6000 lb. stable manure. 
 
 Available phos- 
 phoric acid . 
 
 
 
 C(l) 350 to 700 lb. bone-meal ; or 
 
 7 
 
 35 to 70 
 
 1 (2) 250 to 500 lb. dissolved bone or bone- 
 1 black; or 
 
 
 
 
 (3) 300 to 600 lb. dissolved rock. 
 
 
 
 
 ((1) 80 to 160 lb. muriate; or 
 
 Potash . . . 
 
 8 
 
 40 to 80 
 
 J (2) 80 to 160 lb. sulfate; or 
 1 (3) 300 to 600 lb. kainit ; or 
 [ (4) 8000 to 1600 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
 Celery 
 
 
 Per 
 
 Pounds 
 
 FOR One 
 
 Acre 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials 
 
 
 Cent 
 
 FOR One Acre 
 
 
 
 
 
 r(l) 250 to 500 lb. nitrate of soda ; or 
 
 Nitrogen . . . 
 
 5 
 
 40 to 80 
 
 - 
 
 (2) 200 to 400 lb. sulfate of ammonia ; or 
 
 (3) 400 to 800 lb. dried blood ; or 
 
 (4) 8000 to 16,000 lb. stable manure. 
 
 Available phos- 
 phoric acid 
 
 
 
 
 (1) 500 to 1000 lb. bone-meal ; or 
 
 6 
 
 50 to 100 
 
 
 (2) 350 to 700 lb. dissolved bone or bone 
 black ; or 
 
 
 
 
 
 (3) 400 to 800 lb. dissolved rock. 
 
 
 
 
 
 (1) 130 to 260 lb. muriate ; or 
 
 Potash . . . 
 
 8 
 
 65 to 130 
 
 
 (2) 130 to 260 lb. sulfate; or 
 
 (3) 500 to 1000 lb. kainit ; or 
 
 (4) 1300 to 2600 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
68 
 
 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS ; AND LIME 
 
 Cauliflower 
 
 Same as for cabbage. 
 
 Cherries 
 
 « S5 
 
 u u 
 
 C3 K B3 
 
 Pounds of Different 
 Materials for One Acre 
 
 Pounds of Different 
 Materials for One Tree 
 
 Nitrogen . 
 
 Available phos- 
 phoric acid 
 
 Potash . . . 
 
 10 to 20 
 
 35 to 70 
 
 45 to 90 
 
 (1) 60 to 120 lb. nitrate of 
 
 soda ; or 
 
 (2) 50 to 100 lb. sulfate of 
 
 ammonia; or 
 
 (3) 100 to 200 lb. dried 
 
 blood ; or 
 
 (4) 2000 to 4000 lb. stable 
 
 manure. 
 f(l) 350 to 700 lb. bone- 
 meal ; or 
 
 (2) 250 to 500 lb. dissolved 
 
 bone, etc. ; or 
 
 (3) 300 to 600 lb. dissolved 
 
 rock. 
 '(1) 90 to 180 lb. muriate; or 
 
 (2) 90 to 180 lb. sulfate; 
 
 or 
 
 (3) 350 to 700 lb. kainit ; or 
 
 (4) 900 to 1800 lb. wood- 
 
 ashes. 
 
 (1) H to 1 lb. nitrate of 
 
 soda; or 
 
 (2) H to 1 lb. sulfate of 
 
 ammonia ; or 
 
 (3) 1 to 2 lb. dried blood ; or 
 
 (4) 20 to 40 lb. stable ma- 
 
 nure. 
 
 (1) 3H to 7 lb. bone-meal; 
 
 or 
 
 (2) 214 to 5 lb. dissolved 
 
 bone, etc. ; or 
 
 (3) 3 to 6 lb. dissolved rock. 
 
 (1) 1 to 2 lb. muriate; or 
 
 (2) 1 to 2 lb. sulfate ; or 
 
 (3) 3>^ to 7 lb. kainit; or 
 
 (4) 9 to 18 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
 Clover 
 
 Same as for alfalfa. 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 Per 
 
 Pounds 
 
 for One 
 
 Acre 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials 
 
 
 Cent 
 
 FOR One Acre 
 
 
 
 
 f(l) 60 to 120 lb. nitrate of soda ; or 
 
 
 
 
 (2) 50 to 100 lb. sulfate of ammonia; 
 
 Nitrogen . 
 
 2 
 
 10 to 20 
 
 or 
 (3) 100 to 200 lb. dried blood ; or 
 ^ (4) 2000 to 4000 lb. stable manure. 
 
 Available phos- 
 
 
 
 (1) 350 to 700 lb. bone-moal ; or 
 
 phoric acid . 
 
 7 
 
 35 to 70 
 
 (2) 250 to 500 lb. dis.solved bone, etc. ; or 
 I- (3) 300 to 600 lb. di.ssolved rock. 
 f(l) 60 to 120 11). muriate; or 
 
 Pota.sh 
 
 6 
 
 30 to 60 
 
 (2) 60 to 120 11). sulfate; or 
 
 (3) 2.")0 to 500 11). kainit ; or 
 
 i (4) 600 to 1200 lb. wocd-ashes. 
 
 For sweet corn, somewhat larger amounts of nitrogen may be 
 applied. 
 
FORMULAS FOR DIFFERENT CROPS 
 
 6\i 
 
 Cucumbers 
 
 
 Per 
 
 Pounds • 
 
 FOR One 
 
 Acre 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials 
 
 
 Cent 
 
 FOR One Acre 
 
 
 
 
 r (1) 180 to 360 lb. nitrate of soda ; or 
 
 Nitrogen . . . 
 
 4 
 
 30 to 60 
 
 1 (2) 150 to 300 lb. sulfate of ammonia; 
 1 or 
 
 (3) 300 to 600 lb. dried blood ; or 
 r (4) 6000 to 12,000 lb. stable manure. 
 
 Available phos- 
 phoric acid . 
 
 6 
 
 50 to 100 
 
 (1) 500 to 1000 lb. bone-meal ; or 
 
 (2) 350 to 700 lb. dissolved bone, etc. ; or 
 
 
 
 
 (3) 400 to 800 lb. dissolved rock. 
 
 
 
 
 (1) 130 to 260 lb. muriate ; or 
 
 Potash . . . 
 
 8 
 
 65 to 130 
 
 J (2) 130 to 260 lb. sulfate ; or 
 1 (3) 500 to 1000 lb. kainit ; or 
 [ (4) 1300 to 26,000 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
 Currants 
 
 
 Per 
 
 Pounds 
 
 FOR One 
 
 Acre 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials 
 
 
 Cent 
 
 FOR One Acre 
 
 
 
 
 (1) 60 to 120 lb. nitrate of soda; or 
 
 (2) 50 to 100 lb. sulfate of ammonia ; or 
 
 (3) 100 to 200 lb. dried blood ; or 
 
 Nitrogen . . . 
 
 2 
 
 10 to 20 
 
 Available phos- 
 phoric acid . 
 
 
 
 I (4) 2000 to 4000 lb. stable manure. 
 
 5 
 
 25 to 50 
 
 f (1) 250 to 500 lb. bone-meal ; or 
 
 \ (2) 175 to 350 lb. dissolved bone, etc. ; or 
 
 
 
 
 i (3) 200 to 400 lb. dissolved rock. 
 
 
 
 
 (1) 80 to 160 lb. muriate ; or 
 
 Potash. . . . 
 
 8 
 
 40 to 80 
 
 (2) 80 to 160 lb. sulfate; or 
 
 (3) 320 to 640 lb. kainit ; or 
 
 I (4) 800 to 1600 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
 Egg-Plant 
 
 Nitrogen . . 
 
 Available phos- 
 phoric acid 
 
 Potash . 
 
 Per 
 Cent 
 
 Pounds 
 
 FOR One 
 
 Acre 
 
 40 to 80 
 50 to 100 
 
 90 to 180 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials 
 FOR One Acre 
 
 f (1) 240 to 480 lb. nitrate of soda ; or 
 I (2) 200 to 400 lb. sulfate of ammonia 
 
 (3) 400 to 800 lb. dried blood ; or 
 [ (4) 8000 to 16,000 lb. stable manure. 
 f (1) 500 to 1000 lb. bone-meal ; or 
 i (2) 350 to 700 lb. dissolved bone, etc : 
 I (3) 400 to 800 lb. dissolved rock. 
 f (1) 180 to 360 lb. muriate ; or 
 I (2) 180 to 360 lb. sulfate ; or 
 
 (3) 700 to 1400 lb. kainit ; or 
 I (4) 1800 to 3600 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
70 
 
 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS : AND LIME 
 
 Flax 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Available phos- 
 phoric acid 
 
 Potash . . 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Pounds 
 
 FOR One 
 
 Acre 
 
 10 to 20 
 
 25 to 50 
 
 30 to 60 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials for One 
 Acre 
 
 (1) fiO to 120 11). nitrate of soda; or 
 
 (2) 50 to 100 II). sulfate of ammonia; or 
 
 (3) 100 to 200 II). dried blood; or 
 
 (4) 2000 to 4000 11). stable manure. 
 
 (1) 250 to 500 lb. bone-meal ; or 
 
 (2) 175 to 350 lb. dissolved bone or bone- 
 
 black ; or 
 
 (3) 200 to 400 lb. dissolved rock. 
 
 (1) 60 to 120 lb. muriate; or 
 
 (2) 60 to 1201b. sulfate; or 
 
 (3) 250 to 500 lb. kainit ; or 
 
 (4) 600 to 1200 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
 Gooseberries 
 
 Same as currants. 
 
 Grapes 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Available phos- 
 phoric acid 
 
 Potash 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 11 
 
 Pounds 
 
 FOR One 
 
 Acre 
 
 8 to 16 
 
 30 to 60 
 
 45 to 90 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials for One 
 Acre 
 
 (1) 50 to 100 lb. nitrate of soda ; or 
 
 (2) 40 to 80 lb. sulfate of ammonia ; or 
 
 (3) 80 to 100 lb. dried blood ; or 
 
 (4) 1600 to 3200 lb. stable manure. 
 
 (1) 300 to 600 lb. bone-meal ; or 
 
 (2) 200 to 400 lb. dissolved bone, et( 
 
 or 
 [ (3) 250 to 500 lb. dissolved rock. 
 
 (1) 90 to 180 lb. muriate ; or 
 
 (2) 90 to 180 lb. sulfate ; or 
 
 (3) 350 to 700 lb. kainit; or 
 
 (4) 900 to 1800 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
 Grass for Pastures 
 
 Nitrogen . 
 
 Available phos- 
 phoric acid 
 
 Potash 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Pounds 
 
 FOR One 
 
 Acre 
 
 2 
 
 15 to 30 
 
 8 
 
 30 to 60 
 
 10 
 
 40 to 80 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials for One 
 Acre 
 
 (1) 90 to 180 lb. nitrate of soda ; or 
 
 (2) 75 to 150 lb. sulfate of ammonia ; or 
 
 (3) 150 to 300 lb. dried blood ; or 
 
 (4) 3000 to 6000 II). stable manure, 
 f (1) 300t()C)00ll). bone-meal; or 
 
 •I (2) 200 to 400 II). di.ssolved bone, etc. ; or 
 
 ( (3) 250 to 500 lb. dissolved rock. 
 
 f (1) SO to 16011). muriate; or 
 
 J (2) SO to 1601b. sulfate; or 
 
 , (3) 275 to 550 lb. kainit; or 
 
 I (4) 800 to 1600 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
FORMULAS FOR DIFFERENT CROPS 
 
 71 
 
 Grass for Lawns 
 
 Nitrogen . . . 
 
 Available phos- 
 phoric acid 
 
 Potash 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Pounds 
 
 FOR One 
 
 Acre 
 
 20 to 4C 
 25 to 50 
 30 to 60 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials for One 
 Acre 
 
 (1) 120 to 240 lb. nitrate of soda; or 
 
 (2) 100 to 200 lb. sulfate of ammonia ; or 
 
 (3) 200 to 400 lb. dried blood ; or 
 
 (4) 4000 to 8000 lb. stable manure. 
 
 (1) 250 to 500 lb. bone-meal ; or 
 
 (2) 175 to 350 lb. dissolved bone, etc. ; or 
 
 (3) 200 to 400 lb. dissolved rock. 
 
 (1) 60 to 120 lb. muriate; or 
 
 (2) 60 to 120 lb. sulfate ; or 
 
 (3) 250 to 500 lb. kainit ; or 
 
 (4) 600 to 1200 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
 As a more specific mixture, we suggest the following : 100 lb. nitrate 
 of soda, 100 lb. bone-meal, 100 lb. acid phosphate (dissolved rock) 
 and 100 lb. muriate of potash an acre. 
 
 Grass for Meadows 
 
 Nitrogen . . . 
 
 Available phos- 
 phoric acid 
 
 Potash . 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Pounds 
 
 for One 
 
 Acre 
 
 15 to 30 
 30 to 60 
 35 to 70 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials for One 
 Acre 
 
 (1) 90 to 180 lb. nitrate of soda ; or 
 
 (2) 75 to 150 lb. sulfate of ammonia ; or 
 
 (3) 150 to 300 lb. dried blood ; or 
 
 [ (4) 3000 to 6000 lb. stable manure. 
 ' (1) 300 to 600 lb. bone-meal ; or 
 
 (2) 200 to 400 lb. dissolved bone, etc. ; ( 
 
 (3) 250 to 500 lb. dissolved rock. 
 
 (1) 70 to 140 lb. muriate ; or 
 
 (2) 70 to 140 lb. sulfate ; or 
 
 (3) 275 to 550 lb. kainit ; or 
 
 (4) 700 to 1400 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
 Hops 
 
 Nitrogen . 
 
 Available phos- 
 phoric acid 
 
 Potash 
 
 Per Pounds for 
 Cent One Acre 
 
 20 to 40 
 
 35 to 70 
 
 100 to 200 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials for One 
 Acre 
 
 r (1) 120 to 240 lb. nitrate of soda ; or 
 
 I (2) 100 to 200 lb. sulfate of ammonia ; or 
 
 I (3) 200 to 400 lb. dried blood ; or 
 
 [ (4) 4000 to 8000 lb. stable manure. 
 
 f (1) 350 to 700 lb. bone-meal ; or 
 
 j (2) 250 to 500 lb. dissolved bone, etc. ; or 
 
 [ (3) 275 to 550 lb. dissolved rock. 
 
 (1) 200 to 400 lb. muriate ; or 
 
 (2) 200 to 400 lb. sulfate ; or 
 
 (3) 800 to 1600 lb. kainit ; or 
 
 (4) 2000 to 4000 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
72 
 
 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS ; AND LIME 
 
 Horse Radish 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Available phos- 
 phoric acid 
 
 Potash 
 
 Per 
 
 Cent 
 
 P0CND8 
 
 FOR One 
 
 Acre 
 
 15 to 30 
 
 25 to 50 
 
 35 to 70 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials for 
 One Acre 
 
 ' (1) 90 to ISO 11). nitrate of soda ; or 
 
 (2) 75 to 150 II). sulfate of ammonia ; 
 
 (3) ir)()t()3()()ll). (Irie(ll)lood; or 
 
 [ (4) ;i(l()() to tiOOO II). stable manure. 
 
 (1) 2r)()t() ')()() 11). bone-meal; or 
 
 (2) 175 to 350 11). dissolved bone, etc. 
 t (3) 200 to 400 lb. dissolved rock. 
 
 (1) 70 to 140 11). muriate; or 
 
 (2) 70 to 1401b. sulfate; or 
 
 (3) 275 to 550 lb. kainit ; or 
 
 L (4) 700 to 1400 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
 Lettuce 
 
 Nitrogen . . . 
 
 Available phos- 
 phoric acid 
 
 Potash 
 
 Per 
 Cent 
 
 Pounds 
 
 FOR One 
 
 Acre 
 
 40 to 80 
 
 50 to 100 
 
 75 to 150 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials for 
 One Acre 
 
 (1) 250 to 500 lb. nitrate of soda ; or 
 
 (2) 200 to 400 lb. sulfate of ammonia ; or 
 
 (3) 400 to 800 lb. dried blood ; or 
 
 (4) 8000 to 16,000 lb. stable manure. 
 
 (1) 500 to 1000 lb. bone-meal ; or 
 
 (2) 350 to 700 11). dissolved bone, etc. ; or 
 
 (3) 400 to 800 lb. dissolved rock. 
 
 (1) 150 to 300 lb. muriate; or 
 
 (2) 150 to 300 lb. sulfate; or 
 
 (3) 600 to 1200 lb. kainit ; or ; 
 
 (4) 1500 to 3000 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
 Millet 
 Same as for meadow grass. 
 
 MUSKMELONS 
 
 Same as for cucumbers. 
 
 Nursery Stock 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Available phos- 
 phoric acid 
 
 Potash 
 
 Per 
 Cent 
 
 Pounds 
 
 FOR One 
 
 Acre 
 
 10 to 20 
 
 25 to 50 
 
 30 to 60 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials for 
 One Acre 
 
 (1) 60 to 120 lb. nitrate of soda ; or 
 
 (2) 50 to 100 lb. sulfate of ammonia ; or 
 
 (3) 100 to 200 lb. dried blood; or 
 
 (4) 2000 to 4000 11). stable manure. 
 
 (1) 250 to 500 lb. bone-meal ; or 
 
 (2) 175 tf) 350 lb. dissolved bone, etc. ; or 
 
 (3) 200 to 400 lb. dissolved rock. 
 
 (1) 60 to 120 11). muriate; or 
 
 (2) ()0to 120 11). sulfate; or 
 
 (3) 240 to 480 lb. kainit ; or 
 
 I (4) 600 to 1200 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
FORMULAS FOR DIFFERENT CROPS 
 
 73 
 
 Oats 
 
 
 Per 
 
 Pounds 
 
 FOR One 
 
 Acre 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials for 
 
 
 Cent 
 
 One Acre 
 
 
 
 
 f (1) 75 to 150 lb. nitrate of soda ; or 
 
 Nitrogen . . . 
 
 4 
 
 12 to 24 
 
 J (2) 60 to 120 lb. sulfate of ammonia ; or 
 1 (3) 120 to 240 lb. dried blood ; or 
 (4) 2500 to 5000 lb. stable manure. 
 
 Available phos- 
 
 
 
 f (1) 200 to 400 lb. bone-meal ; or 
 
 phoric acid 
 
 6 
 
 20 to 40 
 
 \ (2) 140 to 280 lb. dissolved bone, etc. ; or 
 [ (3) 160 to 320 lb. dissolved rock, 
 f (1) 60 to 120 lb. muriate ; or 
 
 Potash. . . . 
 
 9 
 
 30 to 60 
 
 J (2) 60 to 120 lb. sulfate ; or 
 1 (3) 250 to 500 lb. kainit ; or 
 [ (4) 600 to 1200 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
 Onions 
 
 Nitrogen . . . 
 
 Available phos- 
 phoric acid 
 
 Potash 
 
 Per 
 Cent 
 
 Pounds 
 
 FOR One 
 
 Acre 
 
 45 to 90 
 55 to 110 
 80 to 160 
 
 Pounds op Different Materials for 
 One Acre 
 
 (1) 270 to 540 lb. nitrate of soda ; or 
 
 (2) 225 to 450 lb. sulfate of ammonia ; 
 
 (3) 450 to 900 lb. dried blood ; or 
 
 (4) 9000 to 18,000 lb. stable manure. 
 
 (1) 550 to 1100 lb. bone-meal; or 
 
 (2) 385 to 770 lb. dissolved bone, etc. 
 
 (3) 450 to 900 lb. dissolved rock. 
 
 (1) 160 to 320 lb. muriate ; or 
 
 (2) 160 to 320 lb. sulfate ; or 
 
 (3) 650 to 1300 lb. kainit ; or 
 
 (4) 1600 to 3200 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
 Parsnips 
 
 Nitrogen . . . 
 
 A vailable phos- 
 phoric acid 
 
 Potash 
 
 Per 
 Cent 
 
 Pounds 
 
 FOR One 
 
 Acre 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials for 
 One Acre 
 
 20 to 40 
 
 55 to 110 
 
 50 to 100 
 
 fd) 
 
 \ (2) 
 
 (1) 120 to 240 lb. nitrate of soda ; or 
 ) 100 to 200 lb. sulfate of ammonia 
 
 ] (3) 200 to 400 lb. dried blood ; or 
 I (4) 4000 to 8000 lb. stable manure. 
 ' (1) 550 to 1100 lb. bone-meal ; or 
 
 (2) 375 to 750 lb. dissolved bone, etc. ; 
 
 (3) 450 to 900 lb. dissolved rock. 
 
 (1) 100 to 200 lb. muriate ; or 
 
 (2) 100 to 200 lb. sulfate; or 
 
 (3) 400 to 800 lb. kainit ; or 
 
 (4) 1000 to 2000 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
74 
 
 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS ; AND LIME 
 Peaches 
 
 
 Per 
 
 Pounds 
 
 FOR One 
 
 Acre 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials for 
 
 
 Cent 
 
 One Acre 
 
 
 
 
 r (1) 90 to 180 lb. nitrate of soda ; or 
 
 Nitrogen . . . 
 
 2 
 
 15 to 30 
 
 (2) 75 to 150 lb. sulfate of ammonia ; or 
 
 (3) 150 to 300 lb. dried blood; or 
 
 (4) 3000 to GOOO lb. stable manure. 
 
 Available phos- 
 
 
 
 r (1) 400 to M)() lb. bono-nioal ; or 
 
 phoric acid 
 
 5 
 
 40 to 80 
 
 \ (2) 2S()to560lb. dissolved bone, etc. ; or 
 . (3) 320 to 640 lb. dissolved rock. 
 f (1) 110 to 220 lb. muriate; or 
 
 Potash . . . 
 
 7 
 
 55 to 110 
 
 (2) 110 to 220 lb. sulfate; or 
 
 (3) 450 to 900 lb. kainit ; or 
 
 (4) 1 100 to 2200 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
 Pears 
 Same as for apples. 
 
 Peas 
 Same as for beans. 
 
 Plums 
 Same as for cherries. 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 
 Per 
 
 Pounds 
 
 FOR One 
 
 Acre 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials for 
 
 
 Cent 
 
 One Acre 
 
 
 
 
 r (1) 180 to 360 lb. nitrate of soda ; or 
 
 Nitrogen . . . 
 
 4 
 
 30 to 60 
 
 (2) 150to3001b. sulfate of ammonia; or 
 I (3) 300 to 600 lb. dried blood. 
 
 Available phos- 
 
 
 
 ■ (1) 400 to 800 lb. bone-meal ; or 
 
 phoric acid . 
 
 6 
 
 40 to 80 
 
 \ (2) 275 to 550 lb. dissolved bone, etc. ; or 
 I (3) 325 to 650 lb. di.ssolved rock, 
 f (1) 130 to 260 lb. muriate; or 
 
 Potash . . . 
 
 9 
 
 65 to 130 
 
 (2) 130 to 260 lb. sulfate ; or 
 I (3) 520 to 1040 lb. kainit. 
 
 Pumpkins 
 
 Same as for cucumbers. 
 
 Quinces 
 
 Same as for apples. 
 
FERTILIZERS FOR SPECIAL CROPS 
 
 75 
 
 Radishes 
 
 Nitrogen . . . 
 
 Available phos- 
 phoric acid 
 
 Potash 
 
 Per 
 
 Cent 
 
 Pounds 
 FOR One 
 
 Acre 
 
 15 to 30 
 35 to 70 
 45 to 90 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials for 
 One Acre 
 
 (1) 
 
 (2) 
 
 (3) 
 
 (4) 
 
 f (1) 
 
 i (2) 
 
 1(3) 
 
 fd) 
 
 (2) 
 
 (3) 
 
 I (4) 
 
 90 to 180 lb. nitrate of soda ; or 
 
 75 to 150 lb. sulfate of ammonia ; or 
 
 150 to 300 lb. dried blood; or 
 
 3000 to 6000 lb. stable manure. 
 
 350 to 700 lb. bone-meal ; or 
 
 250 to 500 lb. dissolved bone, etc. ; o 
 
 280 to 560 lb. dissolved rock. 
 
 90 to 180 lb. muriate ; or 
 
 90 to 180 lb. sulfate ; or 
 
 350 to 700 lb. kainit ; or 
 
 900 to 1800 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
 Raspberries 
 
 
 Per 
 
 Cent 
 
 Pounds 
 
 FOR One 
 
 Acre 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials for 
 One Acre 
 
 
 
 
 r (1) 75 to 150 lb. nitrate of soda ; or 
 
 Nitrogen . . . 
 
 2 
 
 12 to 24 
 
 (2) 60 to 120 lb. sulfate of ammonia ; or 
 1 (3) 120 to 240 lb. dried blood ; or 
 i (4) 2400 to 4800 lb. stable manure. 
 
 Available phos- 
 
 
 
 (1) 400 to 800 lb. bone-meal ; or 
 
 phoric acid . 
 
 7 
 
 40 to 80 
 
 \ (2) 280 to 560 lb. dissolved bone, etc. ; or 
 I (3) 320 to 640 lb. dissolved rock, 
 f (1) 120 to 240 lb. muriate ; or 
 
 Potash . . . 
 
 10 
 
 60 to 120 
 
 J (2) 120 to 240 lb. sulfate ; or 
 (3) 480 to 960 lb. kainit ; or 
 . (4) 1200 to 2400 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
 Rye 
 Same as for oats. 
 
 Sorghum 
 Same as for corn. 
 
 Spinach 
 
 Nitrogen . . . 
 
 Available phos- 
 phoric acid 
 
 Potash 
 
 Per 
 Cent 
 
 Pounds 
 
 FOR One 
 
 Acre 
 
 15 to 30 
 55 to 110 
 40 to 80 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials for 
 One Acre 
 
 (1) 
 (2) 
 (3) 
 (4) 
 
 [ (1) 
 (2) 
 
 1(3) 
 
 fd) 
 
 ! (2) 
 
 (3) 
 
 (4) 
 
 90 to 180 lb. nitrate of soda ; or 
 
 75 to 150 lb. sulfate of ammonia ; or 
 
 150 to 300 lb. dried blood ; or 
 
 3000 to 6000 lb. stable manure. 
 
 550 to 1 100 lb. bone-meal ; or 
 
 375 to 750 lb. dissolved bone, etc. ; or 
 
 450 to 900 lb. dissolved rock. 
 
 80 to 160 lb. muriate; or 
 
 80 to 1601b. sulfate; or 
 
 320 to 640 lb. kainit ; or 
 
 800 to 1600 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
76 
 
 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS ; AND LIME 
 
 Squashes 
 
 Same as for cucumbers. 
 
 Strawberries 
 
 
 Per 
 
 Pounds 
 
 FOR One 
 
 Acre 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials 
 
 
 Cent 
 
 FOR One Acre 
 
 
 
 
 r (1) 150 to 300 lb. nitrate of soda ; or 
 
 Nitrogen . 
 
 3 
 
 25 to 50 
 
 J (2) 125 to 2501b. sulfate of ammonia; or 
 1 (3) 250 to 500 lb. dried blood ; or 
 I (4) 5000 to 10.000 lb. stable manure. 
 
 Available pnos- 
 
 
 
 r (1) 550 to 11001b. I)()ne-meal ; or 
 
 phoric acid . 
 
 7 
 
 55 to 110 
 
 \ (2) 375 to 750 lb. dissolved bone, etc. ; or 
 i (3) 450 to 900 lb. dissolved rock, 
 f (1) 140 to 280 lb. muriate; or 
 
 Potash . . 
 
 9 
 
 70 to 140 
 
 (2) 140 to 280 lb. sulfate ; or 
 
 
 
 
 j (3) 550 to 1 100 lb. kainit ; or 
 [ (4) 1400 to 2800 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
 
 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 Nitrogen . . . 
 
 Available phos- 
 phoric acid 
 
 Potash . . . 
 
 Per 
 Cent 
 
 Pounds 
 
 FOR One 
 
 Acre 
 
 30 to 60 
 
 50 to 100 
 80 to 160 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials 
 FOR One Acre 
 
 (1) 180to3601b. nitrate of soda; or 
 
 (2) 150 to 300 lb. sulfate of ammonia ; or 
 
 (3) 300 to 600 lb. dried blood ; or 
 
 (4) 6000 to 12,000 lb. stable manure. 
 
 (1) 500 to 1000 lb. bone-meal ; or 
 
 (2) 350 to 700 lb. dissolved bone, etc. ; or 
 
 (3) 400 to 800 lb. dissolved rock. 
 
 (1) 160 to 320 lb. sulfate; or 
 
 (2) 1600 to 3200 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
 Tomatoes 
 
 
 Pr,K 
 
 Pounds 
 
 FOR One 
 
 Acre 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials 
 
 
 Cent 
 
 FOR One Acre 
 
 
 
 
 r (1) 150 to 300 lb. nitrate of soda; or 
 
 Nitrogen . . . 
 
 4 
 
 25 to 50 
 
 1 (2) 125to2501b. sulfate of ammonia; or 
 
 (3) 250 to 500 lb. dried blood ; or 
 I (4) 5000 to 10,000 lb. stable manure. 
 
 Available phos- 
 
 
 
 r (1) 350 to 700 lb. bone-meal ; or 
 
 phoric acid 
 
 6 
 
 35 to 70 
 
 ] (2) 250 to 500 lb. dissolved bone, etc. ; or 
 [ (3) 280 to 560 lb. dissolved rock. 
 f (1) 80 to 100 \h. muriate ; or 
 
 Potash . . . 
 
 7 
 
 40 to 80 
 
 (2) 80 to 160 11). .sulfate; or 
 
 (3) 320 to 640 lb. kainit ; or 
 
 [ (4) 800 to 1600 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
SPECIAL FERTILIZERS, -'LIME 
 
 7? 
 
 Turnips 
 Same as for beets. 
 
 Watermelons 
 Same as for cucumbers. 
 
 Wheat 
 
 
 Per 
 
 Pounds 
 
 FOR One 
 
 Acre 
 
 Pounds of Different Materials 
 
 
 Cent 
 
 FOR One Acre 
 
 
 
 
 r (1) 75 to 150 lb. nitrate of soda ; or 
 
 J (2) 60 to 120 lb. sulfate of ammonia ; or 
 
 
 
 
 Nitrogen . . . 
 
 4 
 
 12 to 24 
 
 1 (3) 120 to 240 lb. dried blood ; or 
 [ (4) 2400 to 4800 lb. stable manure. 
 
 
 
 
 Available phos- 
 
 
 
 r (1) 200 to 400 lb. bone-meal ; or 
 
 phoric acid 
 
 7 
 
 20 to 40 
 
 \ (2) 140 to 280 lb. dissolved bone, etc. ; or 
 I (3) 160 to 320 lb. dissolved rock, 
 f (1) 25 to 50 lb. muriate ; or 
 
 Potash . . . 
 
 4 
 
 12 to 24 
 
 J (2) 25 to 50 lb. sulfate ; or 
 1 (3) 100 to 200 lb. kainit ; or 
 [ (4) 250 to 500 lb. wood-ashes. 
 
 Lime for the Land 
 
 Of late years the old custom of liming the land has been revived. 
 It is now found that lime, or other alkaH, is needed to neutralize the 
 acidity of certain soils. 
 
 To determine whether a soil is acid, and therefore probably in need of 
 lime (Wheeler). 
 
 By litmus paper (to be secured at drug store). — -To half a cup of 
 soil add water until it is like thick porridge, and then insert blue litmus 
 paper without handling the end introduced into the soil. After an 
 hour or two, remove and rinse only the lower end. If this end is in- 
 tensely reddened, hming is probably desirable. The color is pinkish if 
 much acid vegetable matter is present; but if it is not present, the 
 color may be brick-red. 
 
 By ammonia ivater. — To a tablespoonful of soil in half a glass of 
 water add a teaspoonf ul or more of dilute ammonia water ; if the liquid 
 
78 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS ; AND LIME 
 
 becomes intensely brown after standing for some hours, and especially 
 if it becomes black, the probable presence of acid vegetable matter is 
 indicated. 
 
 When a soil test indicates only slight acidity, lime may not be needed 
 for most plants. 
 
 Application oj lime. 
 
 On sandy soils, 500 lb. of lime to the acre may be sufficient. On soils 
 very rich in acid organic matter, as much as 5000 to 6000 lb. may be 
 needed. Under usual conditions, about one ton to the acre is a good 
 dressing (20 to 40 bu., with 30 bu. perhaps the average). The legal 
 weight per bushel of lime is 70 lb. in some states and 80 lb. in 
 others. 
 
 Some persons apply lime after plowing and mix it into the soil 
 with the harrow ; others apply in fall and follow by spring plowing. 
 
 Forms of lime (Fippin). 
 
 In a pure form, the calcium equivalent in 100 lb. of lime is about a? 
 follows (Ca is calcium ; 0, oxygen ; H, hydrogen) : — 
 
 r*T/^TTT« TAi EQUIVALE>fT IN 
 
 inn^» Composition to 
 
 lUU LB. jQQ j^g L^j^p Ljj^^ 
 
 (a) CaO, Lump lime, freshly burned lime, 
 
 quirklime 71 100 
 
 (6) Ca(OH;j, Hydrated lime, water-slaked 
 
 lime 54 132 
 
 (c) CaCOj, Lime carbonates, air-slaked lime, 
 
 ground limestone, marl 40 180 
 
 id) CaSO^ + 2H2O, Gypsum, land plaster . . 23 310 
 
 (e) Ca3(P04)i, Lime phosphate, ground phos- 38 Pure 187 
 
 phato rork 39 25% CaCOa 181 
 
 CO CaH«(P04), + CaSO*. Acid phosphate 
 
 (15% PjOr.) 23 310 
 
 ia) (CaO)4Pj06, Basic slag, Tomas phosphate 
 
 powder 43 165 
 
 {h) Ashes (containing quicklime) 15 to 30 450 
 
 Strictly speaking, the lime manufacturers are concerned with only 
 the first three fonns, but these must compete to some extent with other 
 forms. Phosphate fertilizers may sometimes owe their benefits to 
 their lime contents. The same result might then be secured at much 
 less cost from lime. 
 
AGRICULTURAL LIME 
 
 79 
 
 Fineness of division of lime (Fippin). 
 
 The finer the Hme (the smaller the particles) the greater its availa- 
 bility. Considering the calcium content, first cost, freight, and fineness, 
 it is often better to use the lump or hydrated or ground lime than the 
 ground limestone or marl; the lump quicklime slakes into very fine 
 particles when applied to the soil. It is impossible to attain the same 
 degree of fineness by grinding that is attained by burning and slaking. 
 Seventy-five per cent, at least, of the ground material should pass a 
 100-mesh screen. The larger the percentage of coarse material, the 
 larger the amount necessary to get the same net effect. Considering 
 composition and fineness as commonly found on the market, 50 lb. of 
 lump hme is equivalent approximately to 
 
 60 lb. hydrated lime. 
 100 lb. air-slaked lime. 
 250 lb. ground limestone or marl. 
 
 Classification of lime for agricultural purposes. 
 
 (1) High Calcium 
 
 Agreement between the Directors of the New England and New Jersey Ex- 
 periment Stations and the Special Committee of the National Lime Manufac- 
 turers' Association of Boston, March 3, 1909. 
 
 (Must contain 93% 
 combined oxides 
 and hydrates and 
 all pass a standard 
 100-mesh sieve. 
 
 (1) Hydrate \ fMust contain not 
 
 less than 90% 
 combined oxides, 
 hydrates, an J car- 
 bonates, of which 
 not over 25% shall 
 be carbonates. 
 Must contain 90% 
 combined oxides 
 and carbonates, of 
 
 ^-, ^ which not more 
 
 (2) Caustic \ (2) Fines \ than 10% shall be 
 L (3) Ground carbonates, except 
 
 LIME \ ing Ground, which 
 
 may contain 20% 
 I, carbonates. 
 
 (Must contain 90% 
 combined carbon- 
 ates and pass 50- 
 mesh sieve. 
 
 (2) Land 
 
 (2) Dolomitic 
 
 or 
 High Magnesium 
 
 (3) Ground Limestone 
 
 (4) Kiln Slaked 
 
 (Not guaranteed, 
 contains core, 
 
 ashes, and refuse. 
 
80 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS ; AND LIME 
 
 All shipments except Kiln Slaked shall be accompanied by a state- 
 ment showing (1) proper class name and (2) guaranteed analj'sis, in 
 which the respective percentages of calcium and magnesium oxides are 
 given. 
 
 Package shipments to show class and analysis on each package. 
 
 Bulk shipments to have class and analysis statement attached either 
 to invoice or imier side of the car. 
 
 All lime to be sold by weight cwt. or ton. 
 
 Analyses to be those at kiln, and guaranteed. 
 
 Other tests for the need of lime (Fippin). 
 
 There is no simple method for accurately determining the need of 
 lime. The use of strips of blue litmus in the wet soil and their distinct 
 change to a pink color in a half -hour is one common test that is indica- 
 tive of such need. Strips of blue and red litmus paper may be placed 
 in the bottom of a drinking glass and covered with white filter paper or 
 blotting paper on which is placed the soil to be tested. The soil is then 
 moistened with clear rain water until the paper becomes damp. This 
 is a more exact test than the direct application of litmus paper to the 
 soil. 
 
 Another method of determining the presence of free bases is to put on 
 the soil a drop of muriatic acid diluted four or five times. If there is 
 any perceptible bubbling, or effervescence, this indicates the presence 
 of sufficient lime. Should lime be shown in the subsoil but none in the 
 soil, a moderate application of lime is likely to be beneficial. 
 
 The best indication of the need for lime is the type of plant growth 
 that the soil bears. The vigorous gro\\^h of lime-loving plants, such 
 as alfalfa, clover, and the scab of potatoes, indicates the presence of 
 sufficient lime ; while the absence or weak growth of plants of this kind, 
 and the predominance of such plants as horse sorrel, white daisy, and 
 redtop, indicate a need for lime. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 Farm Manures, and Similar Materials 
 
 Animals are among the most essential agents in the maintaining 
 of the fertihty of the land. Farm manures are of great value, not 
 only for the plant-food they contain, but for the humus that they 
 contribute and the organisms that they carry. 
 
 Composition and Characteristics of Manures (Brooks) 
 
 Cattle manure. 
 
 For practical purposes, one will be sufficiently accurate in estimating 
 well-kept barnyard (or cattle) manure to contain one-half of one per 
 cent each of nitrogen and potash, and one-third of one per cent of 
 phosphoric acid. On this basis, a ton of manure would contain 10 lb. 
 each of nitrogen and potash, and 6§ lb. of phosphoric acid. A cord 
 of well-preserved manure kept without loss of urine and without ex- 
 posure to the weather will weigh a little more than three tons. A 
 cord of such manure, therefore, should contain about thirty pounds 
 of nitrogen and potash and twenty pounds of phosphoric acid. 
 
 Stable or horse manure. 
 
 The manure from horses is generally more valuable than that from 
 the other larger domestic animals, excepting sheep, provided it has 
 been well kept. It is richer in nitrogen, and usually also in phosphoric 
 acid and potash, than the manure of either cattle or hogs. It contains 
 relatively little water, and ferments rapidly. 
 
 Experiments at the Cornell Experiment Station showed horse manure 
 to have the following composition : water, 48.69 per cent ; nitrogen, 0.49 
 per cent; phosphoric acid, 0.26 per cent; potash, 0.48 per cent. 
 Plaster was very freely used in this experiment, and this doubtless 
 reduced the percentages, so that the figures are undoubtedly below 
 the average. 
 
 G 81 
 
82 FARM MANURES, AND SIMILAR MATERIALS 
 
 Sheep manure. 
 
 Sheep manure is generally accumulated under the animals with 
 sufficient litter to keep the latter dry and clean. Under these condi- 
 tions, there is commonly no appreciable loss either of urine or of am- 
 monia because of excessive fermentation. The amount of urine voided 
 by sheep is relatively small, and the elements of value in shoej) manure 
 ordinarily suffer less loss than is common in the case of other kinds of 
 farm manure. When sheep manure is finally removed from the pens 
 and put into loose piles, as is often the case, in order that it may be 
 worked into suitable mechanical condition to spread, it very rapidly 
 undergoes decomposition, and heats quickly. It is then likely to lose 
 a part of its nitrogen in the form of ammonia. To prevent this, it is 
 well to scatter kainit or land-plaster as the pile is built up. The aver- 
 age of four analyses of sheep manure made at the Massachusetts 
 Experiment Station showed it to contain : water, .2922 per cent ; 
 nitrogen, 1.44 per cent; phosphoric acid, .92 per cent; potash, 1.17 
 per cent. Sheep manure is now sometimes collected, dried, and ground, 
 and put on the market as sheep guano. In this form it is a concentrated 
 manure, especially valuable for dressing lawns, for use in hothouses, 
 and like purposes. 
 
 Hog manure. 
 
 The manure made from swine undoubtedly varies more widely 
 than that from the other domestic animals, because of the wider varia- 
 tions in the nature of their food and the conditions under which they 
 are kept. The excrements of swine on most farms are not kept by 
 themselves but are mixed with other manures, and this in general 
 would seem to be the better system of management. Hog manure, 
 if kept by itself, is relatively watery, and is usually poor in nitrogen and 
 rich in phosphoric acid. It decomposes slowly, and must be ranked 
 as a cold manure. 
 
 Comparison of Manure from Different Animals (Brooks) 
 
 Having made separate statements on the qualities and character- 
 istics of the manure from cattle, horses, sheep, and swine, we may 
 now compare these manures in tabular form : — 
 
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MANURES 
 
 83 
 
 Composition of fresh excrement of farm quadrupeds. 
 One thousand pounds of fresh dung contain : — 
 
 
 Water 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Phosphoric 
 Acid 
 
 Alkalies 
 
 Horse 
 
 Cow 
 
 Swine 
 
 Sheep 
 
 760 
 840 
 800 
 580 
 
 5.0 
 3.0 
 6.0 
 7.5 
 
 3.5 
 2.5 
 4.5 
 6.0 
 
 3.0 
 1.0 
 5.0 
 3.0 
 
 One thousand pounds of fresh urine contain : 
 
 
 Water 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Phosphoric 
 Acid 
 
 Alkalies 
 
 Horse 
 
 890 
 
 12.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 15.0 
 
 Cow 
 
 920 
 
 8.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 14.0 
 
 Swine 
 
 975 
 
 3.0 
 
 1.25 
 
 2.0 
 
 Sheep 
 
 865 
 
 14.0 
 
 0.5 
 
 20.0 
 
 The potash of both the dung and the urine is included with Hme, 
 magnesia, and other elements, to make up the so-called " alkalies." 
 
 Composition of drainage liquors. 
 One thousand pounds contain : — 
 
 
 Water 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Phosphoric 
 Acid 
 
 Potash 
 
 Drainage from gutter 
 behind milch cows . 
 
 Drainage from manure 
 heap 
 
 932 
 
 820 
 
 9.8 
 15.0 
 
 2.4 
 1.0 
 
 8.8 
 49.0 
 
 The figures presented in this last table are based on analyses made 
 at the Hatch Experiment Station, Amherst, Mass. It will be noticed 
 that these liquors are richer both in nitrogen and in potash than the 
 average of farm manures. 
 
84 
 
 FARM MANURES, AND SIMILAR MATERIALS 
 
 Composition of litter. 
 
 One ton contains in pounds 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Phosphoric 
 Acid 
 
 Potash 
 
 Wheat straw . , 
 Rye straw . . 
 Oat straw . . , 
 Barley straw . 
 Pea straw . . 
 Soy bean straw 
 Buckwheat straw 
 Millet straw . 
 Marsh hay . . 
 Ferns ... 
 Leaves ... 
 
 9.6 
 11.2 
 14.4 
 11.4 
 20.8 
 14.0 
 13.0 
 14.0 
 17.2 
 00.0 
 15.0 
 
 4.4 
 5.1 
 3.6 
 5.0 
 7.0 
 5.0 
 7.1 
 3.6 
 10.6 
 7.4 
 3.2 
 
 16.4 
 18.1 
 23.0 
 23.5 
 19.8 
 22.0 
 24.2 
 34.0 
 54.0 
 37.2 
 6.0 
 
 Poultry manures. 
 
 Poultry manures are richer than the other farm manures when well 
 preserved. There are two principal reasons for this: First, the food 
 is richer, as a rule ; and second, the excretion corresponding to the urine 
 of the larger domestic animals is semi-solid, voided with the dung, and 
 not subject to direct loss. Poultry manures as a rule are rich in nitro- 
 gen and phosphoric acid, because the foods given the fowls are rich 
 in these elements. These manures are relatively poor in potash, al- 
 though they may contain a larger percentage of this element than 
 do the other farm manures. The composition is subject to wide 
 variation. The table shows the results of analyses : — 
 
 
 Water 
 
 Nitro- 
 gen 
 
 Phosphoric 
 Acid 
 
 Potash 
 
 Hon manure, fresh, according to Storer . . 
 Hen manure, fresh, analysis by Goessmann 
 Hen manure, dry, average two analyses, 
 Goessmann 
 
 Per cent 
 56.00 
 52.35 
 
 8.35 
 56.60 
 77.10 
 52.00 
 
 Per cent 
 1.60 
 0.99 
 
 2.13 
 1.00 
 0.55 
 1.75 
 
 Per cent 
 1.50-2.00 
 0.74 
 
 2.02 
 
 1.40 
 
 0.54 
 
 1.75-2.00 
 
 Per cent 
 
 0.80-0.90 
 
 0.25 
 
 994 
 
 Duck manure, fresh, according to Storer . 
 Goose manure, fresh, according to Storer . 
 Pigeon manure, according to Storer . . . 
 
 0.62 
 
 0.95 
 
 1.0-1.25 
 
HOW TO USE MANURES 85 
 
 Poultry manure ferments very quickly, and, as frequently handled, 
 loses much of its nitrogen in the form of compounds of ammonia, which 
 are rapidly formed and which escape into the air unless means to pre- 
 vent are taken. The mixture of poultry manures with such materials 
 as land-plaster, kainit, acid phosphate, or superphosphate plaster is 
 almost imperative for satisfactory preservation. Often dry earth or 
 powdered dry muck or dry sawdust are also excellent materials to mix 
 with it. If kainit alone is used, poultry manure remains very moist, 
 and will be found difficult of application. As a result of experiments 
 in the Massachusetts Experiment Station, it is concluded that the 
 annual excreta collected beneath the roosts per adult barnyard fowl 
 will amount to about 30 to 45 lb., according to the breed. 
 
 Utilization of Manures 
 
 Rate of production (Roberts and Brooks). 
 
 Extended investigations at the Cornell Experiment Station showed 
 that the following amounts of excrements were produced daily for each 
 1000 lb. of live weight of animal : — 
 
 Lb. 
 
 Sheep 34.1 
 
 Calves 67.8 
 
 Pigs 83.6 
 
 Cows 74.1 
 
 Horses 48.8 
 
 Fowls 39.8 
 
 Total excrements 348.2 
 
 Total manure 388.0 
 
 If straw bedding be added, which is nearly or quite equal to ex- 
 crements in potential manurial value, it will be seen how large a 
 quantity of manure is produced from 6000 lb. of mixed live-stock. 
 A dairy of twenty 1000-lb. cows comfortably fed would produce, 
 in the six winter months, 133^ tons of excrement, or 146| tons of 
 manure. Animals fed a highly nitrogenous ration, say 1:4 (as were the 
 pigs in the above mvestigation), consume large quantities of water, 
 and hence produce large quantities of excrements, especially liquid, 
 the weight of which usually exceeds the weight of food consumed ; 
 while those fed on a wide ration, say 1 : 9, consume comparatively 
 little water, and hence produce less weight of excrements. 
 
 The experienced farmer will know from the results of earlier years 
 
86 FARM MANURES, AND SIMILAR MATERIALS 
 
 about the quantity of manure that will be made from a given number oi 
 animak For a beginner, some rule whereby the amount to be made 
 can be estimated with reasonable accuracy will be useful. As the 
 result of careful experiments, German investigators give the following 
 rules to determine the quantity of manure that will be made : Multiply 
 the dry matter in the food consumed by the different classes of farm 
 animals by the following factors : for the horse, by 2.1 ; for the cow, by 
 3.S ; for the sheep, by 1.8. To the product, in any case, add the weight 
 of the bedding used. The horse of average size consumes daily about 
 24 lb. of dry matter, and makes, therefore, 2.1 times 24 lb., or 50 lb., of 
 manure daily. The cow of average size consumes daily about 25 lb. 
 of dry matter, and makes 3.8 times 25 lb., or 95 lb., of manure daily. 
 A 125-lb. sheep consumes about 3 lb. of dry matter daily, and makes 
 1.8 times 3 lb., or 5.4 lb., of manure daily. 
 
 Use of manures. 
 
 A thousand pounds of wheat, I63 bu., and 2000 lb. of straw (an 
 average crop per acre) require 27 lb. of nitrogen, 12.4 lb. of phosphoric 
 acid, 17.9 lb. of potash. Ten tons of fresh unrotted manure from 
 horses and cattle fed a moderate grain ration contain 136 lb. of nitrogen, 
 44 lb. of phosphoric acid, 120 lb. of potash. In farm practice it is esti- 
 mated that the first crop grown after manuring may utilize, under 
 favorable conditions, one-half of the plant-food contained in the manure 
 applied. The plant-food available in ten tons of good fresh manure is : 
 nitrogen 68 lb., phosphoric acid, 22 lb., potash, 60 lb. Thirty bushels 
 of wheat and 2600 lb. of straw require, approximately, 46 lb. of nitrO' 
 gen, 21 lb. of phosphoric acid, and 27 lb. of potash {Roberts). 
 
 Manures are frequently wasted by being applied too liberally. It 
 is not economical, except for special crops or special conditions, to 
 apply as much as thirty to forty two-horse loads or tons per acre at one 
 time. For usual farm purposes, ten to twenty tons, or ten to twenty 
 two-horse loads, is a liberal application per acre. It is best to apply it 
 as it is made, if the land is not in a growing crop. The manure 
 should be spread directly from the wagon, or a manure-spreader be used. 
 
 Commercial value (Roberts). 
 
 The value of manure in the fallowing tables is determined by in- 
 vestigation during the winter months, and the nitrogen, phosphoric 
 
VALUE OF MANURES 
 
 87 
 
 acid, and potash are computed at 15, 6, and 4i cents per pound, re- 
 spectively (see prices, p. 47). The indirect benefits of manures may 
 be considered an equal offset for the slightly less availability of their 
 plant-food constituents as compared with fertilizers : — • 
 
 Kind of Manure Value per Ton 
 
 Sheep $2.30 
 
 Calves 2.17 
 
 Pigs 2.29 
 
 Cows 2.02 
 
 Horses 2.21 
 
 Limited amounts of bedding were used in the tests "rom which the above 
 figures were made. The plant-food in straw is not so quickly available 
 as it is in the excrement of animals. 
 
 The following table exhibits the value of manure from different 
 animals of average or aggregate weight of 1000 pounds : — 
 
 Kind of Animals Value per Year 
 
 Fowls S51.10 
 
 Sheep 26.09 
 
 Calves 24.45 
 
 Pigs 60.88 
 
 Cows 29.27 
 
 Horses 27.74 
 
 Manurial value of a ton of the usual bedding material computed as 
 above : — 
 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Phosphoric 
 
 Acid 
 
 Potash 
 
 Total 
 
 Barley straw 
 
 Oats 
 
 Rye 
 
 Wheat 
 
 $1.65 
 1.38 
 1.47 
 1.44 
 
 $0.34 
 0.33 
 0.30 
 0.26 
 
 $1.74 
 1.59 
 0.77 
 0.57 
 
 $3.73 
 3.30 
 2.54 
 2.27 
 
 Losses by leaching (Roberts). 
 
 Manures exposed at Ithaca in loose heaps of two to ten tons for six 
 months showed loss of values as follows : — p^^ ^^^^ 
 
 1889 horse manure 42 
 
 1890 horse manure 62 
 
 1890 cow manure 30 
 
 1889 mixed manure (compacted) 9 
 
 In other cases, when small quantities of gypsum were mixed with the 
 manure, the losses were notably diminished. 
 
88 
 
 FARM MANURES, AND SIMILAR MATERIALS 
 
 Further Analyses of Animal Excrements 
 Common barnyard manure, fresh 
 
 Water 710.0 
 
 Organic substance 
 
 Ash 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Potash 
 
 Soda 
 
 no.o 
 
 Lime 
 
 . . 5.7 
 
 »40.0 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 . . 1.4 
 
 44.1 
 
 Phosphoric acid . . . . 
 
 . . 2.1 
 
 4.5 
 
 Sulfuric acid 
 
 . . 1.2 
 
 5.2 
 
 Silica and sand . . . . 
 
 . . 12.5 
 
 1.5 
 
 Chlorine and fluorine . 
 
 . . 1.5 
 
 Common barnyard manure, moderately rotted 
 
 Water 750.0 
 
 Organic substance 192.0 
 
 Ash 58.0 
 
 Nitrogen 5.0 
 
 Potash 6.3 
 
 Soda 1.9 
 
 Lime 7.0 
 
 Magnesia 1.8 
 
 Phosphoric acid 2.6 
 
 Sulfuric acid 1.6 
 
 Silica and sand 16.8 
 
 Chlorine and fluorine .... 1.9 
 
 Common barnyard manure, thoroughly rotted 
 
 Water . . . 
 Organic substance 
 Ash .... 
 Nitrogen . . . 
 Potash . . . 
 Soda .... 
 
 790.0 Lime 8.8 
 
 145.0 Magnesia 1.8 
 
 65.0 Phosphoric acid 3.0 
 
 5.8 Sulfuric acid 1.3 
 
 5.0 Silica and sand 17.0 
 
 1,3 Chlorine and fluorine .... 1.6 
 
 Cattle-feces, fresh 
 
 Water . . . 
 Organic substance 
 Ash .... 
 Nitrogen . . . 
 Potash ... 
 Soda .... 
 
 838.0 Lime . . . 
 
 145.0 Magnesia . . 
 
 17.3 Phosphoric acid 
 
 2.9 Sulfuric acid . 
 
 1.0 Silica and sand 
 
 0.2 Chlorine and fluorine 
 
 3.4 
 1.3 
 
 1.7 
 0.3 
 7.2 
 0.2 
 
 Cattle-urine, fresh 
 
 Water 938.0 
 
 Organic substance 
 Ash .... 
 Nitrogen . . . 
 Potash. . . . 
 Soda .... 
 
 35.0 
 
 27.4 
 
 5.8 
 
 4.9 
 
 6.4 
 
 Lime. 0.1 
 
 Magnesia 0.4 
 
 Sulfuric acid 1.3 
 
 Silica and sand 0.3 
 
 Chlorine and fluorine .... 3.8 
 
 Water . . . 
 Organic substance 
 Ash .... 
 Nitrogen . . . 
 Potash . . . 
 Soda .... 
 
 Horse-feces, fresh 
 
 757.0 Lime 1.5 
 
 211.0 Magnesia 1.2 
 
 31.6 Phosphoric acid 3.5 
 
 4.4 Sulfuric acid 0.6 
 
 3.5 Silica and sand 19.6 
 
 0.6 Chlorine and fluorine .... 0.2 
 
ANALYSES OF MANURES 
 
 89 
 
 Horse-urine, fresh 
 
 Water 901.0 
 
 Organic substance . . . . 71.0 
 
 Ash 28.0 
 
 Nitrogen 15.5 
 
 Potash 15.0 
 
 Soda 2.5 
 
 Lime 
 
 . . 4.5 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 . . 2.4 
 
 Sulfuric acid 
 
 . . 0.6 
 
 Silica and sand .... 
 
 . . 0.8 
 
 Chlorine and fluorine . . 
 
 . . 1.5 
 
 Water . . . 
 Organic substance 
 Ash .... 
 Nitrogen . 
 Potash . . . 
 Soda .... 
 
 Sheep-feces, fresh 
 
 655.0 Lime 4.6 
 
 314.0 Magnesia 1.5 
 
 31.1 Phosphoric acid , 3.1 
 
 5.5 Sulfuric acid 1.4 
 
 1.5 Silica and sand 17.5 
 
 1.0 Chlorine and fluorine .... 0.3 
 
 Sheep-urine, fresh 
 
 Water 872.0 
 
 Organic substance 
 
 Ash 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Potash 
 
 Soda 
 
 ?72.0 
 
 Lime 
 
 . . 1.6 
 
 83.0 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 . . 3.4 
 
 45.2 
 
 Phosphoric acid . . . . 
 
 . . 0.1 
 
 19.5 
 
 Sulfuric acid 
 
 . . 3.0 
 
 22.6 
 
 Silica and sand . . . . 
 
 . . 0.1 
 
 5.4 
 
 Chlorine and fluorine . . 
 
 . . 5.5 
 
 Swine-feces, fresh 
 
 Water 820.0 
 
 Organic substance . . . 
 
 Ash 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Potash 
 
 Soda 
 
 820.0 
 
 Lime 
 
 . . 0.9 
 
 150.0 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 . . 1.0 
 
 30.0 
 
 Phosphoric acid .... 
 
 . . 4.1 
 
 6.0 
 
 Sulfuric acid 
 
 . . 0.4 
 
 2.6 
 
 Silica and sand .... 
 
 . . 15.0 
 
 2.5 
 
 Chlorine and fluorine . . 
 
 . . 0.3 
 
 Swine-urine, fresh 
 
 Water 
 
 . 967.0 
 
 . 28.0 
 15 
 
 Soda 
 
 . . 2.1 
 
 Organic substance . . . 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 Phosphoric acid .... 
 
 Siilfiin'o nniH 
 
 . . 0.8 
 . . 0.7 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Potash 
 
 4.3 
 8.3 
 
 . . 0.8 
 
 Chlorine and fluorine . . 
 
 . - 2.3 
 
 
 Peruvian guano 
 
 
 Moisture at 100° C. . . , 
 Total phosphoric acid 
 Soluble phosphoric acid 
 Reverted phosphoric acid . 
 Insoluble phosphoric acid . 
 "Potassium oxide .... 
 
 . 12.17 
 . 18.45 
 1.54 
 . 5.92 
 . 10.99 
 . 3.46 
 
 Total nitrogen .... 
 Actual ammonia . . . 
 Organic nitrogen . . . 
 Nitrogen as nitric acid . 
 Insoluble matter . . . 
 
 . . 5.13 
 . . 3.94 
 . . 0.86 
 . . 0.33 
 . . 13.64 
 
90 
 
 FJR.\f yfANURES, AND SUflLAR MATERIALS 
 
 Water . . . 
 Organic substance 
 Ash .... 
 Nitrogen . 
 Potash . . . 
 Soda .... 
 
 Human feces, fresh 
 
 772.0 Lime 
 
 198.0 Magnesia .... 
 
 29.9 Phosphoric acid . . 
 
 10.0 Sulfuric acid . 
 
 2.5 Silica and sand . 
 
 1.6 Chlorine and riuorine 
 
 6.2 
 3.6 
 10.9 
 0.8 
 1.9 
 0.4 
 
 Human urine, fresh 
 
 Water 
 
 . . 963.0 
 
 Organic substance 
 
 . . 24.0 
 
 Ash 
 
 . . 13.5 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 . . 6.0 
 
 Potash 
 
 . . 2.0 
 
 Soda 
 
 . . 4.6 
 
 Lime 
 
 ^L^gnosia .... 
 Phosphoric acid . . 
 Sulfuric acid . 
 Chlorine and fluorine 
 
 0.2 
 0.2 
 1.7 
 0.4 
 5.0 
 
 Sewage (Samuel Rideal) 
 
 1000 tons of London crude sewage 
 
 Lb. 
 
 Ammonia 219 
 
 Phosphoric acid (soluble) 28 
 
 Phosphoric acid (in.soluble) 24 
 
 Potash 51 
 
 Analyses of Fruit and Garden Products, with Reference to their Ferti- 
 lizing Constituents (Wolff and Goessmaiin) 
 
 One thousand parts of the plants contain in pounds: — 
 
 Name 
 
 Corn, kernels . . . 
 
 stalk and leaves . 
 Potato, tubers . . . 
 
 vines . . . . 
 Peas, seed . . . . 
 
 vines . . . . 
 Beans, seed . , . . 
 
 vines . . . . 
 Carrots, roots . . . 
 
 leaves . . . . 
 Sugar beet, roots . . 
 
 leaves . . . . 
 White turnip, roots . 
 
 leaves . . . . 
 Swedish turnip, roots 
 
 leaves . . . . 
 White cabbage, head 
 
 roots . . . . 
 
 Water 
 
 144 
 150 
 750 
 770 
 143 
 160 
 150 
 160 
 850 
 822 
 815 
 897 
 920 
 898 
 870 
 884 
 900 
 890 
 
 Nitro- 
 gen 
 
 16.0 
 
 4.8 
 
 3.4 
 
 4.9 
 
 35.8 
 
 10.4 
 
 39.0 
 
 2.2 
 5.1 
 1.6 
 3.0 
 1.8 
 3.0 
 2.1 
 3.4 
 3.0 
 2.4 
 
 Ash 
 
 12.4 
 45.3 
 
 9.5 
 19.7 
 23.4 
 43.1 
 27.4 
 40.2 
 
 8.2 
 23.9 
 
 7.1 
 15.3 
 
 6.4 
 11.9 
 
 7.5 
 19.5 
 
 9.6 
 15.6 
 
 Potash 
 
 3.7 
 
 16.4 
 
 5.8 
 
 4.3 
 
 10.1 
 
 9.9 
 
 12.0 
 
 12.8 
 
 3.0 
 
 2.9 
 
 3.8 
 
 4.0 
 
 2.9 
 
 2.8 
 
 3.5 
 
 2.8 
 
 4.3 
 
 5.8 
 
 Lime 
 
 0.3 
 4.9 
 0.3 
 6.4 
 1.1 
 
 15.9 
 1.5 
 
 11.1 
 0.9 
 7.9 
 0.4 
 3.1 
 0.7 
 3.9 
 0.9 
 6.5 
 1.2 
 2.8 
 
 Phos- 
 phoric 
 Acid 
 
 5.7 
 3.8 
 1.6 
 1.6 
 8.4 
 3.5 
 9.7 
 3.9 
 1.1 
 1.0 
 0.9 
 0.7 
 0.8 
 0.9 
 1.1 
 2.0 
 1.1 
 1.4 
 
FERTILITY CONTENT OF VEGETABLES 91 
 
 Analyses of Fnxit and Garden Products — Continued 
 
 Name 
 
 Savoy cabbage, head 
 Cauliflower . . . 
 Horseradish, roots 
 Spanish radish, roots 
 Parsnip, roots . . 
 Artichoke, roots . 
 Asparagus, sprouts 
 Common onion, bulb 
 Celery .... 
 Spinach .... 
 Common lettuce . 
 Head lettuce . . 
 Roman lettuce . . 
 Cucumber . 
 Pumpkin . . . 
 Rhubarb, roots 
 
 stem and leaves 
 Apples .... 
 
 Pears 
 
 Cherries .... 
 Plums . . . . , 
 Gooseberries . . . 
 Strawberries . . . 
 Grapes 
 
 seeds . . . . 
 
 Water 
 
 Nitro- 
 gen 
 
 Ash 
 
 Potash 
 
 Lime 
 
 871 
 
 5.3 
 
 14.0 
 
 3.9 
 
 3.0 
 
 904 
 
 4.0 
 
 8.0 
 
 3.6 
 
 0.5 
 
 767 
 
 4.3 
 
 19.7 
 
 7.7 
 
 2.0 
 
 933 
 
 1.9 
 
 4.9 
 
 1.6 
 
 0.7 
 
 793 
 
 5.4 
 
 10.0 
 
 5.4 
 
 1.1 
 
 811 
 
 
 10.1 
 
 2.4 
 
 1.0 
 
 933 
 
 3.2 
 
 5.0 
 
 1.2 
 
 0.6 
 
 860 
 
 2.7 
 
 7.4 
 
 2.5 
 
 1.6 
 
 841 
 
 2.4 
 
 17.6 
 
 7.6 
 
 2.3 
 
 923 
 
 4.9 
 
 16.0 
 
 2.5 
 
 1.9 
 
 940 
 943 
 
 
 8.1 
 10.1 
 
 3.7 
 3.9 
 
 0.5 
 1.5 
 
 2.2 
 
 925 
 
 2.0 
 
 9.8 
 
 2.5 
 
 1.2 
 
 956 
 
 1.6 
 
 5.8 
 
 2.4 
 
 0.4 
 
 900 
 
 1.1 
 
 4.4 
 
 0.9 
 
 0.3 
 
 743.5 
 
 5.5 
 
 28.8 
 
 5.3 
 
 5.0 
 
 916.7 
 
 1.3 
 
 17.2 
 
 3.6 
 
 3.4 
 
 831 
 
 0.6 
 
 2.2 
 
 0.8 
 
 0.1 
 
 831 
 
 0.6 
 
 3.3 
 
 1.8 
 
 0.3 
 
 825 
 
 
 3.9 
 
 2.0 
 
 0.3 
 
 
 838 
 
 
 2.9 
 
 1.7 
 
 0.3 
 
 
 903 
 
 
 3.3 
 
 1.3 
 
 0.4 
 
 
 902 
 
 
 3.3 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.5 
 
 830 
 
 1.7 
 
 8.8 
 
 5.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 110 
 
 19.0 
 
 22.7 
 
 6.9 
 
 5.6 
 
 PHORIC 
 
 Acid 
 
 2.1 
 1.6 
 2.0 
 0.5 
 1.9 
 1.1 
 0.9 
 1.3 
 2.2 
 1.6 
 0.7 
 1.0 
 1.1 
 1.2 
 1.6 
 0.6 
 0.2 
 0.3 
 0.5 
 0.6 
 0.4 
 0.7 
 0.5 
 1.4 
 7.0 
 
 For analyses of fertilizer ingredients in forage crops and feeding- 
 stuffs, see Chap. XXII. Consult, also. Cover-crops and Catch-crops, 
 Chap. VIII. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 Seed-Tables 
 
 The farm practice of the particular person greatly modifies the quan- 
 tity of seed to be used to the acre, as also the purpose for which the 
 given crop is to be grown ; but the average quantities are to be found 
 about midway between the extremes given in these tables. 
 
 Quantity of Seed Required per Acre 
 
 Alfalfa (broadcast) 
 Alfalfa (drilled) . . 
 Artichoke, Jerusalem . 
 Asparagus .... 
 
 Barley .... 
 
 Barley and peas 
 
 Bean, dwarf (in drills) 
 
 Bean, pole (in drills) 
 
 Bean, field (small va 
 rieties) . . . 
 
 Bean, field (large va- 
 rieties) . . . 
 
 Beet 
 
 Beggarweed (for forage) 
 
 Beggarweed (for hay) 
 
 Bent-grass . . . 
 
 Berseem .... 
 
 Blue-grass 
 
 Brome-grass (alone 
 for hay) 
 
 Bronie-grass (alone 
 for pasture) . . 
 
 Brome-grass (in mix- 
 ture) .... 
 
 Broom-corn ... 
 
 Broom-corn (for seed) 
 
 Buckwheat . 
 
 Bur-clover . 
 
 Cabbage .... 
 
 Carrots (for stock) 
 
 Cassava .... 
 
 Cauliflower . 
 
 Celery 
 
 20-25 lb. 
 
 15-20 lb. 
 
 6-8 bu. 
 
 4 or 5 lb., or 
 
 1 oz. for 50 ft. 
 
 of drill 
 
 8-10 pk. 
 
 1-2 bu. each 
 
 IH bu. 
 
 10-12 qt. 
 
 2-3 pk. 
 
 5-6 pk. 
 4-6 lb. 
 5-6 lb. 
 8-10 lb. 
 1-2 bu. 
 1^-1 bu. 
 25 lb. (pure) 
 
 12-15 lb. 
 
 15-20 lb. 
 
 2-5 lb. 
 
 3 pk. 
 
 Ipk. 
 
 3-5 pk. 
 
 12 1b. 
 
 3^-1 lb. 
 
 4-6 lb. 
 
 By cuttings 
 
 1 oz. for 1000 
 
 plants 
 
 1 oz. for 2000 
 
 plants 
 
 Chick-pea .... 30-50 lb. 
 Chicory (and by cut- 
 tings) ..... 1-11^ lb. 
 Clover, alsike (alone, 
 
 for forage) . . . 8-15 lb. 
 
 Clover, alsike (on 
 
 wheat or rye in 
 
 spring) .... 4-6 lb. 
 
 Clover, Egyptian or 
 
 berseem .... 3^-1 bu. 
 
 Clover, Japan (lespe- 
 
 deza) 12 lb. 
 
 Clover, mammoth . 12-15 lb. 
 Clover, red (alone, for 
 
 forage) .... 16 lb. 
 
 Clover, red (on small 
 
 grain in spring) . . 8-14 lb. 
 
 Clover, sweet (melilo- 
 
 tus) 2 pk. 
 
 Clover, white . . . 10-12 lb. 
 
 Clover, yellow (for 
 
 seed) 3-5 lb. 
 
 Clover, yellow (in 
 
 mixture) .... 1 lb. 
 
 Corn qt.-l bu. 
 
 Corn (for silage) . . 9-11 qt. 
 
 Cotton 1-3 bu. 
 
 Cowpea 1-132 bu. 
 
 Cowpea (in drill, with 
 
 corn) 3^-1 bu. 
 
 Cowpea (for seed) . 3 pk. 
 
 Cress, upland (in drills) 2-3 lb. 
 Cress, water ( in drills) 2-3 lb. 
 
 Crimson clover . . 12-15 lb. 
 
 Cucumber (in hills) . 2 lb. 
 
 Durra. See Kafir 
 
 and Milo 
 
 92 
 
SEEDS TO THE ACRE 
 
 93 
 
 Eggplant .... 
 
 1 oz. for 1000 
 
 
 plants 
 
 Field-pea (small va- 
 
 
 rieties) .... 
 
 2K bu. 
 
 Field-pea (large varie- 
 
 
 ties) 
 
 3-31^ bu. 
 
 Flax (for fiber) » . 
 
 13^-2 bu. 
 
 Flax (for seed) 
 
 2-3 pk. 
 
 Grass, for lawns . 
 
 3-5 bu. 
 
 Guinea-grass 
 
 Root cuttings 
 
 Hemp (broadcast) 
 
 33^-4 pk. 
 
 Hungarian-grass (hay) 
 
 2 pk. 
 
 Hungarian-grass (seed) 
 
 Ipk. 
 
 Johnson-grass . 
 
 1-1 H bu. 
 
 Kafir (drills) . . . 
 
 3-6 lb. 
 
 Kafir (for fodder) . . 
 
 10-12 lb. 
 
 Kale 
 
 2-4 lb. 
 
 Kohlrabi 
 
 4-5 lb. 
 
 Lespedeza .... 
 
 12 1b. 
 
 Lettuce 
 
 1 oz. for 1000 
 
 
 plants 
 
 Lupine 
 
 1^-2 bu. 
 
 Mangels 
 
 5-8 lb. 
 
 Meadow fescue . . 
 
 12-15 lb. 
 
 Melon, musk (in hills) 
 
 2-3 lb. 
 
 Melon, water (in hills) 
 
 4-5 lb. 
 
 Millet, barnyard (drills) 
 
 1-2 pk. 
 
 Millet, foxtail (drills) 
 
 2-3 pk. 
 
 Millet, German (seed) 
 
 1 pk. 
 
 Millet, Aino (drills) . 
 
 2-3 pk. 
 
 Millet, pearl (for soiling) 
 
 4 1b. 
 
 Millet, pearl (for hay) 
 
 8-10 lb. 
 
 Millet, proso or pan- 
 
 
 icle (drills) . . . 
 
 2-3 pk. 
 
 Milo 
 
 5 1b. 
 
 Mustard, broadcast . 
 
 y2 bu. 
 
 Oat-grass, tall . . . 
 
 30 1b. 
 
 Oats 
 
 2-3 bu. 
 
 Oats and peas . . . 
 
 oats 2 bu., 
 peas % bu. 
 
 Onion (in drills) . . 
 
 5-6 lb. 
 
 Onion seed for sets (in 
 
 
 drills) 
 
 30 1b. 
 
 Onion sets (in drills) . 
 
 6-12 bu. 
 
 Orchard-grass . . . 
 
 12-15 lb. 
 
 
 (pure) 
 
 Para-grass .... 
 
 Cuttings 
 
 Parsnips ..... 
 
 4-8 lb. 
 
 Peas, garden (in drill) 
 
 1-2 bu. 
 
 Popcorn 
 
 3 1b. 
 
 Potato (Irish) average 
 
 10-14 bu. 
 
 Potato, cut to 1 or 2 eyes 
 
 6-9 bu. 
 
 Potato, recommended 
 
 
 by many for best 
 
 
 fields 
 
 15-20 bu. 
 
 Pumpkin .... 
 
 4 1b. 
 
 Radish (in drills) . . 
 
 8-10 lb. 
 
 Rape (in drills) . . . 
 
 2-4 lb. 
 
 Rape (broadcast) . . 
 
 4-8 lb. 
 
 Red-top (recleaned) . 12-15 lb. 
 
 Rescue-grass . . . 30-40 bu. 
 
 Rice 1-3 bu. 
 
 Rutabaga .... 3-5 lb. 
 
 Rye (early) .... 3-4 pk. 
 
 Rye (late) .... 6-8 pk. 
 
 Rye (forage) . . . 3-4 bu. 
 
 Rye-grass .... 2-3 bu. 
 
 Sage (in drills) . . . 8-10 lb. 
 
 Sainfoin (shelled seed) 40 lb. 
 
 Salsify (in drills) . . 8-10 lb. 
 
 Sand lucerne (broad- 
 cast) 15 lb. 
 
 Serradella (alone, in 
 
 drills) 40-50 lb. 
 
 Sheep's fescue . . . 2^^-3 bu. 
 
 Sorghum (forage, broad- 
 cast) iy2-2 bu. 
 
 Sorghum (for seed or 
 
 syrup) 2-5 lb. 
 
 Sorghum, saccharine 
 (for silage or soiling, 
 
 drills) eib.-Hbu. 
 
 Sorghum and peas . 3-4 pk. each 
 
 Soybean (drills) . . 2-3 pk. 
 
 Soybean (broadcast) . 1-1% bu. 
 
 Spinach (in drills) . . 10-12 lb. 
 
 Spurry 6-8 qt. 
 
 Spurry (for seed) . . 4 qt. 
 
 Squash, bush (in hills) 4-6 lb. 
 
 Squash, running (in 
 
 hills) 3-4 lb. 
 
 Sugar-beets .... 15-20 lb. 
 
 Sugar-cane .... 4 tons of cane 
 
 Sunflower .... 10-15 lb. 
 
 Sweet clover . . . 2-4 pk. 
 
 Sweet-potato . . . 1%^ bu. 
 
 Teasel l-iy2 pk. 
 
 Teosinte 1-3 lb. 
 
 Timothy 15-25 lb. 
 
 Timothy and clover jti-o^hvW lb. 
 
 ( 1 tablespoonful 
 
 Tobacco . . . . < to 100 sq. yd. to 
 
 ( set out 6 acres 
 
 Tomato (to transplant) V* lb. 
 
 Turnip (broadcast) . 2-4 lb. 
 
 Turnip (drills) ... 1-2 lb. 
 
 Turnip (hybrid) . . 3-5 lb. 
 
 Velvet bean .... 1-4 pk. 
 
 Vetch, hairy (drilled) I ^^Vgraln 
 
 Vetch, hairy (broad- | iy2 bu. -|- 1 bu. 
 
 cast) ) small grain 
 
 Vetch, kidney . . . 18-22 lb. 
 
 Vetch, spring . . | 't^uVain- 
 
 Wheat 6-9 pk. 
 
94 
 
 SEED-TABLES 
 
 Hay and Pasture Seeds 
 
 Permanent meadoirn 
 
 Timothy 
 
 Red nlover . . . . 
 
 Alsike 
 
 Timothy 
 
 Red-top 
 
 Red clover . , . . 
 
 Red-top 
 
 Orchard-Rrass . . . 
 Meadow fescue , . 
 Red clover . . . . 
 Tall oat-grass . 
 Red clover .... 
 
 Timothy 
 
 Red clover .... 
 
 Alsike 
 
 Kentucky blue-grass . 
 
 Red-top 
 
 Orchard-grass , . . 
 Red-top (recleaned) . 
 Red-top (in chaff) 
 Tall meadow oat-grass 
 Red clover .... 
 Alsike clover 
 
 121b.) 
 41b. 
 
 21b. 
 
 161b. 1 
 
 Ifi lb. > 
 
 4 lb. ) 
 
 13 lb. 
 
 IS lb. 
 
 91b. 
 
 4 lb. . 
 
 281b. 
 8 lb. 
 
 81b. 
 
 41b. 
 
 21b. ■ 
 
 21b. 
 
 21b.. 
 
 101b. 1 
 
 51b. 
 
 121b. 
 
 121b. 
 
 81b. 
 
 4 lb. J 
 
 20-24 lb. 
 per acre 
 
 Permanent pastures: 
 
 Timothy 31b. 
 
 (^rchani-gra.ss . . .21b. 
 
 Red-top 2 1b. 
 
 2 lb. 
 lib. 
 2 1b. 
 4 1b. 
 2 lb. 
 Slb.l 
 41b. I 
 9 1b. \ 
 31b. I 
 
 K(>ntucky blue-grass 
 Italian rye-grass . 
 Meadow fescue 
 Red clover ... 
 White clover . . 
 Kentucky blue-gra.ss . 
 White clover . . , 
 Perennial rye-grass 
 Red fescue .... 
 
 Red-top 81b. J 
 
 Red-top 14 lb. ] 
 
 Alsike 8 lb. ! Wet pas- 
 Creeping bent . . . 6 lb. I" ture 
 Perennial rye-grass . 12 lb. J 
 Red fescue .... 20 lb. ] j • , . 
 
 Red-top 101b. t'^lil 
 
 Kentucky blue-grass . 8 lb. ( ^^^r^ 
 White clover . . . 2 lb. j ^°" 
 
 Timothy, red-top, Kentucky blue- 
 grass and red clover, equal parts, 8 to 
 20 lb. pounds per acre of the mixture. 
 
 For quantity of seed for cover-crops, see Chap. VIII. 
 
 Number and weight of grass seeds, and another estimate of quantity to 
 sow (Fraser). 
 
 The following table has been adapted from "The Best Forage 
 Plants," by Stebler and Schroeter, and from it calculations may be made. 
 The actual number of grains in a pound will frequently vary 20 per cent 
 either way ; for example, in recleaned fancy seed there are fewer grains 
 to the pound, while in an uncleaned sample free from chaff, but con- 
 taining many small seeds, the number will l)e greater. The recleaned 
 seed weighs heavier ])er bushel. The uncleaned seed may contain a 
 large proportion of chafT, and in such case the luimber of seeds per 
 pound of material may be very low. The numbers given are per pound 
 of pure seed. The percentage of germination of average snmj)les of 
 seed is frequently but half, and even less than half, of that given in the 
 table. The germination of the rye grasses given in the table is a little 
 higher than ordinarily found in the United States, even witli imported 
 seed. Low germinating power may be due to lack of uniformity in 
 ripening the seed ; to part of the seed on a plant being mature before 
 
GRASS-SEED TABLES 
 
 95 
 
 the remainder, frequently seen in meadow foxtail 
 of harvesting, as in Kentucky blue-grass : — 
 
 or to poor methods 
 
 
 2 fe 
 
 hi 
 
 u 
 
 ,, 
 
 
 
 h 
 
 fc. o o 
 
 < a 
 
 i 
 
 O N 
 
 8^1 
 
 Name 
 
 T TO 
 
 CRE, IF i 
 
 . Stan 
 
 TY 
 
 
 
 §26 
 
 
 « HO! 
 
 ^» 
 
 E^ >n 
 
 H « « 
 
 
 
 Amoun 
 
 PER A 
 ALONE 
 QUALI 
 
 1° 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 
 
 Pounds 
 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Awnless brome grass 
 
 137,000 
 
 30-50 
 
 75-90 
 
 13-14 
 
 72.99 
 
 Kentucky blue-grass 
 
 2,400,000 
 
 15-20 
 
 80-90 
 
 14-32 
 
 4.17 
 
 Orchard-grass .... 
 
 579,000 
 
 20-35 
 
 80-95 
 
 12-23 
 
 17.25 
 
 Perennial rye-grass 
 
 
 336,800 
 
 25-40 
 
 95-98 
 
 18-30 
 
 29.7 
 
 Italian rye-grass . 
 
 
 285,300 
 
 30-45 
 
 95-98 
 
 12-24 
 
 35.1 
 
 Meadow fescue 
 
 
 
 318,200 
 
 30-35 
 
 75-95 
 
 12-30 
 
 31.42 
 
 Sheep's fescue . 
 
 
 
 680,000 
 
 25-30 
 
 60-75 
 
 10-25 
 
 14.85 
 
 Tall oat-grass . 
 
 
 
 159,000 
 
 20-30 
 
 80-90 
 
 10-16 
 
 62.89 
 
 Meadow foxtail 
 
 
 
 907,000 
 
 20-25 
 
 60-90 
 
 6-14 
 
 11.02 
 
 Red-top . . . 
 
 
 
 6,030,000 
 
 8-16 
 
 90-95 
 
 12-40 
 
 1.65 
 
 Timothy . . . 
 
 
 
 1,170,500 
 
 10-16 
 
 95-98 
 
 45-48 
 
 8.54 
 
 Alsike clover . 
 
 
 
 707,000 
 
 10-13 
 
 95-98 
 
 60-64 
 
 14.14 
 
 Red clover . . 
 
 , 
 
 279,000 
 
 10-16 
 
 95-98 
 
 60-64 
 
 35.8 
 
 White clover . 
 
 , 
 
 740,000 
 
 10-12 
 
 95-98 
 
 60-64 
 
 13.51 
 
 Alfalfa. . . . 
 
 • • 
 
 209,500 
 
 15-30 
 
 95-98 
 
 60-64 
 
 48.56 
 
 Examples of seed mixtures that would furnish 20,000,000 
 acre, and the weight of same (Fraser) 
 
 No. of 
 Seeds 
 For hay and fall pasture. Heavy land. Brief duration. 
 
 Timothy 13,400,000 
 
 Alsike 3,300,000 
 
 White clover 3,300,000 
 
 For hay and pasture. 
 Timothy .... 
 Kentucky blue-grass 
 Orchard-grass . . . 
 
 Alsike 
 
 White clover . . . 
 
 seeds -per 
 
 Weight of Pure, 
 
 Viable Seed. 
 
 Lb. 
 
 11.44 
 4.66 
 4.46 
 
 For hay and pasture. 
 Timothy .... 
 Kentucky blue-grass 
 Orchard-grass . . 
 Meadow foxtail . . 
 
 Alsike 
 
 White clover . . . 
 
 20,000,000 
 
 10,000,000 
 2,000,000 
 1,400,000 
 3,300,000 
 3,300,000 
 
 20.56 
 
 8.54 
 0.82 
 2.42 
 4.66 
 4.46 
 
 20,000,000 
 
 8,000,000 
 2,400,000 
 2,000,000 
 1,000,000 
 3,300,000 
 3,300,000 
 
 20.90 
 
 6.84 
 1.00 
 3.46 
 1.10 
 4.66 
 4.46 
 
 20,000,000 
 
 21.52 
 
96 
 
 SEED^TABLES 
 
 Examples of seed mixtures — Continued 
 
 Heavy loam. 
 
 For hay. 
 Red clover 
 Alsike 
 Timothy 
 
 Red-top ^A^^^^OOO^ 
 
 20,0007000 
 
 No.d 
 Seeds 
 
 2,790,000 
 2,121,000 
 7,089,000 
 
 Weight of Pure, 
 
 Viable Seed 
 
 Lb. 
 
 10.00 
 3.00 
 6.06 
 1.32 
 
 20.38 
 
 Testing grass seed (Fraser). 
 
 In testing the seed for germination power and purity it is more satis- 
 factory to weigh out a sample of the seed, separate the chaff and inert 
 matter, weigh it, and then proceed to make a germination test of the 
 remainder. For example, if a sample of awnless brome grass contain 
 10 per cent of dirt and chaff, and 75 per cent of the pure seeds are viable, 
 the actual germination power of the sample is 67.5 per cent, or 
 
 75X90 
 
 100 
 
 = 67.5. 
 
 Number of Tree-Seeds in a Potind 
 
 FRUIT TREES 
 
 Apple . . 
 Cherry pita 
 
 Peach . . 
 
 Pear . . 
 
 Plum . . 
 
 Quince . . 
 
 Mulberry . 
 
 About 
 
 12,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 200 
 
 15,000 
 
 600 
 
 15,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 FOREST TREES 
 
 Butternut Juglans cinerea 
 
 Black walnut Juglans nigra 
 
 American horse-che-stnut 
 Hickory (shollbark) 
 American sweet chestnut 
 iSilver-leaved maple 
 Honey-locust 
 lilark cherry 
 Black ash .... 
 American basswood 
 
 Norway maple Acer platanoidos 
 
 Sugar maple Acer saccharinum 
 
 Barberry Berberis vulgaris 
 
 Red cedar Juniperus Virginiant 
 
 Rook elm Ulmus racemosa . 
 
 American white ash .... Fraxinus Americana 
 Osage orange Madura aurantiaca 
 
 ^sculus glabra 
 Carya alba 
 Castanca vesca, var. 
 Acer dascycarpum . 
 Gleditschia triacanthos 
 Prunus serotina 
 Fraxinus sambucifolia 
 Tilia Americana . 
 
 By count 
 
 15 
 
 25 
 
 36 
 
 78 
 
 90 
 
 .?,421 
 
 2,496 
 
 4,311 
 
 5,629 
 
 6,337 
 
 7,231 
 
 7,488 
 
 8,183 
 
 8,321 
 
 8,352 
 
 9,858 
 
 10.656 
 
FOREST AND FARM SEEDS 
 
 97 
 
 FOREST TREES — Continued 
 
 By count 
 
 . . Abies pectinata 12,000 
 
 Negundo aceroides 14,784 
 
 " ' ... 19,776 
 
 . . . 20,161 
 
 . . . 20,540 
 
 . . . 22,464 
 
 . . . 22,656 
 
 . . . 28,992 
 
 . . . 54,359 
 
 . . . 92,352 
 
 Silver fir 
 
 Box elder 
 
 Hardy catalpa Catalpa speciosa 
 
 Ailanthus Ailanthus glandulosus 
 
 White pine Pinus Strobus . . 
 
 Scarlet maple Acer rubrum . . . 
 
 Green ash Fraxinus viridis . . 
 
 Black locust Robinia Pseudacacia 
 
 Red elm Ulmus fulva ... 
 
 American white elm .... Ulmus Americana 
 
 American mountain ash . . Pyrus Americana 108,327 
 
 White birch Betula alba 500,000 
 
 Figures vary greatly in different counts, the variation probably 
 
 amounting to as much as 20 per cent. It is usually estimated that 
 white pine seeds run about 30,000 to the pound, and red cedar 20,000. 
 
 Weights and Sizes of Seeds 
 Seedsmen' s customary weights per bushel of seeds (Edgar Brown) 
 
 Kind of Shed 
 
 Pounds 
 per bushel 
 
 Kind of Seed 
 
 Pounds 
 per bushel 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 Amber cane 
 
 Bent-grass : 
 
 Creeping 
 
 Rhode Island .... 
 Bermuda-grass . . . . . 
 Bird'sfoot clover .... 
 
 Bitter vetch 
 
 Blue-grass : 
 
 Canada 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Texas 
 
 Broad bean 
 
 Brome, awnless 
 
 Broom corn 
 
 Bur clover : 
 
 Hulled 
 
 Unhulled 
 
 Spotted 
 
 Castor bean 
 
 Clover : 
 
 Alsike 
 
 Crimson 
 
 Egyptian 
 
 Mammoth 
 
 Red 
 
 White 
 
 60 
 45-60 
 
 10-20 
 
 10-15 
 
 24-36 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 14-20 
 14-30 
 
 14 
 50-60 
 10-14 
 45-60 
 
 60 
 
 8-10 
 
 60 
 
 46-60 
 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 
 Cowpea 
 
 Crested dog's-tail . . . 
 Fescue : 
 
 Hard 
 
 Meadow 
 
 Red 
 
 Sheep's 
 
 Tall 
 
 Various leaved .... 
 
 Flat pea 
 
 Flax 
 
 Hemp 
 
 Japan clover : 
 
 Hulled 
 
 Unhulled 
 
 Johnson-grass .... 
 
 Kafir 
 
 Lentil 
 
 Lupine, white .... 
 Meadow foxtail .... 
 Meadow-grass 
 
 Fowl 
 
 Rough-stalked . . . 
 
 Wood 
 
 Millet : 
 
 Barnyard 
 
 Broom corn .... 
 
 56-60 
 14-30 
 
 12-16 
 14-24 
 12-15 
 12-16 
 14-24 
 14-18 
 50-60 
 48-56 
 40-60 
 
 60 
 18-25 
 14-28 
 50-60 
 
 60 
 50-60 
 
 7-14 
 
 11-14 
 14-20 
 14-24 
 
 30-60 
 45-60 
 
98 
 
 SEED-TABLES 
 
 Weights and Sizes of Seeds — Continued 
 
 Kind op Seed 
 
 Pounda 
 per bushel 
 
 Kind of Seed 
 
 Pound3 
 per bushel 
 
 Millet — contiiiUeH 
 Common .... 
 German 
 
 Golden Wonder 
 
 48-50 
 48-50 
 48-50 
 48-50 
 48-56 
 50-60 
 
 10-14 
 
 7-14 
 
 45-60 
 
 10-18 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 56 
 20-30 
 50-60 
 
 10-14 
 25-40 
 12-28 
 43^5 
 
 Rye-grass : 
 
 English 
 
 Italian 
 
 Sainfoin 
 
 10-30 
 14-25 
 14-3? 
 
 Hungarian . .... 
 
 Pearl 
 
 Milo 
 
 Oat-grass : 
 
 Tall 
 
 Yellow 
 
 Orange cane 
 
 Orchard-grass 
 
 Pea: 
 
 Field 
 
 Garden, smooth .... 
 
 Garden, wrinkled . . . 
 
 Peanut 
 
 Rape, winter 
 
 Red-top : 
 
 Chaff 
 
 Fancy 
 
 Rescue-grass 
 
 Rice 
 
 Serradeila 
 
 Soybean 
 
 SpBlt 
 
 Sunflower 
 
 28-3 c 
 58-60 
 40-60 
 24-50 
 
 Sweet clover : 
 
 Hulled 
 
 Unhulled 
 
 Sweet corn (according to 
 
 variety) 
 
 Sweet vernal, perennial . 
 
 Teosinte 
 
 Timothy 
 
 Velvet bean 
 
 Vetch : 
 
 Hairy 
 
 Spring 
 
 Water-grass, large . 
 
 Wild rice 
 
 Yellow trefoil .... 
 
 60 
 33 
 
 36-56 
 6-15 
 
 40-60 
 45 
 60 
 
 50-60 
 
 60 
 
 14 
 15-28 
 
 60 
 
 For legal weights of seeds, grains, fruits, and other products, see 
 Chap. XXVII. 
 
 Weight and size of garden seeds (adapted from Vilmorin's tables) 
 
 Weight of a qt. 
 of seeds in oz. 
 
 Number of seeds in 1 grain 
 
 Angelica 
 
 Anise 
 
 Asparagus bean (Dolichos sesquipedalis) 
 
 Balm 
 
 Basil 
 
 Bean 
 
 Beet 
 
 Borage 
 
 Borecole 
 
 Broccoli 
 
 Cabbage 
 
 Caper 
 
 Caraway ... 
 
 Cardoon 
 
 Carrot with the spines .... 
 Carrot without the spines .... 
 
 5.827 
 11.65 
 29.91 
 21.36 
 20.59 
 24.27 to 33.02 
 
 9.71 
 18.65 
 27.19 
 27.19 
 27.19 
 17.87 
 16.31 
 24.47 
 
 9.32 
 13.98 
 
 11.02 
 
 12.96 
 
 32.40 to 42.12 in 100 gr. 
 
 129.60 
 
 51.84 
 
 4.86 to 51.84 in 100 gr. 
 
 3.24 
 
 4.21 
 
 19.44 
 
 24.30 
 
 19.44 
 
 10.37 
 
 22.68 
 
 1.62 
 
 45.36 
 
 61.56 
 
GARDEN SEEDS 
 
 99 
 
 Weight and size of garden seeds — Continued 
 
 Catmint 
 
 Cauliflower 
 
 Celery 
 
 Chervil 
 
 Chervil sweet-scented 
 
 Chervil turnip-rooted 
 
 Chicory 
 
 Chick-pea 
 
 Coriander 
 
 Corn salad 
 
 Cress, American 
 
 Dress, common garden 
 
 Cress, meadow (cuckoo-flower) 
 
 Cress, Para 
 
 Cress, water 
 
 Cucumber, common ....;. 
 
 Cucumber, globe 
 
 Cucumber, prickly-fruited gherkin . 
 Cucumber, snake (Cucumis flexuosus) 
 
 Dandelion 
 
 iJill 
 
 Egg-plant 
 
 Endive 
 
 Fennel, common or wild 
 
 Fennel, sweet 
 
 Gumbo, see Okra. 
 
 Good King Henry 
 
 Gourds, fancy 
 
 Hop 
 
 Horehound 
 
 Hyssop 
 
 Kohlrabi 
 
 Leek 
 
 Lettuce 
 
 Lovage 
 
 Maize, or Indian corn 
 
 Marjoram, sweet 
 
 Marjoram, winter 
 
 Martynia 
 
 Muskmelon 
 
 Mustard, black or brown . . . . 
 Mustard, Chinese cabbage-leaved . 
 Mustard, white, or salad . , . . 
 
 Nasturtium, tall 
 
 Nasturtium, dwarf 
 
 Okra 
 
 Onion 
 
 Orach 
 
 Parsnip 
 
 Parsley 
 
 Pea 
 
 Pea, gray or field 
 
 Weight of a qt. 
 of seeds in oz. 
 
 26.42 
 27.19 
 18.65 
 14.76 
 
 9.71 
 20.98 
 15.54 
 30.30 
 12.43 
 10.88 
 20.98 
 28.36 
 22.53 
 
 7.78 
 22.53 
 19.42 
 19.42 
 21.36 
 17.48 
 10.49 
 11.65 
 19.42 
 13.20 
 17.48 
 
 9.13 
 
 24.28 
 17.48 
 
 9.71 
 26.42 
 22.34 
 27.19 
 21.37 
 16.70 
 
 7.78 
 24.86 
 21.37 
 26.22 
 11.26 
 13.98 
 26.22 
 25.64 
 29.13 
 13.20 
 23.30 
 24.08 
 19.42 
 
 5.44 
 
 7.78 
 
 19.42 
 
 27.19 to 31.08 
 
 26.41 to 31.08 
 
 Number of seeds in 1 grain 
 
 77.76 
 
 24.30 
 
 162.00 
 
 29.16 
 
 2.59 
 
 29.16 
 
 45.36 
 
 1.94 in 10 gr. 
 
 5.83 
 64.80 
 61.56 
 29.16 
 97.20 
 220.32 
 259.20 
 
 2.27 
 
 6.48 
 
 8.42 
 
 2.59 
 77.76 to 97.20 
 58.32 
 16.20 
 38.88 
 20.09 
 
 8.10 
 
 27.86 
 
 1.29 
 
 12.96 
 
 64.80 
 
 55.08 
 
 19.44 
 
 25.92 
 
 51.84 
 
 19.44 
 
 2.59 to 3.24 in 10 gr. 
 
 259.20 
 
 777.60 
 
 1.29 
 
 2.27 
 
 45.36 
 
 42.12 
 
 12.96 
 
 4.54 to 5.18 in 10 gr. 
 
 9.7 in 10 gr. 
 
 9.7 to 11.66 in 10 gr. 
 
 16.20 
 
 16.20 
 
 14.25 
 
 22.67 
 
 1.29 to 3.56 in 10 gr. 
 
 3.24 to 5.18 in 10 gr. 
 
100 
 
 SEED-TABLES 
 
 Weight and size of garden seeds — Continued 
 
 Peanut 
 
 Pepper 
 
 Pumpkin 
 
 Purslane 
 
 Radish 
 
 Rampion 
 
 Rhubarb 
 
 Rocket Salad 
 
 Rosemary 
 
 Rue 
 
 Sage 
 
 Salsify 
 
 Savory, summer .... 
 
 Savory, winter 
 
 Scorzonera 
 
 Scurvy-grass 
 
 Sea-kale 
 
 Spinach, prickly-seeded . . 
 Spinach, round-seeded . . 
 Spinach, New Zealand 
 
 Strawberry 
 
 Strawberry blite (Blitum) . 
 Strawberry tomato (Physalis) 
 
 Sweet Cicely 
 
 Tansy 
 
 Thyme 
 
 Tomato 
 
 Turnip 
 
 Valerian, African .... 
 
 Watermelon 
 
 Wax gourd 
 
 Welsh onion, common . . 
 Welsh onion, early white . 
 Wormwood 
 
 Weight of a qt. 
 of seed in oz. 
 
 Number of seeds in 1 grain 
 
 15.54 
 
 1.29 to 1.94 in 10 gr. 
 
 17.48 
 
 9.72 
 
 9.71 
 
 1.94 in 10 gr. 
 
 23.70 
 
 162.00 
 
 27.19 
 
 7.77 
 
 31.08 
 
 1620.00 
 
 3.10 to 4.66 
 
 3.24 
 
 29.13 
 
 35.64 
 
 15.54 
 
 58.32 
 
 22.53 
 
 32.40 
 
 21.37 
 
 16.20 
 
 8.93 
 
 6.48 
 
 19.42 
 
 97.20 
 
 16.70 
 
 162.00 
 
 10.09 
 
 5.83 
 
 23.30 
 
 97.20 to 116.64 
 
 8.16 
 
 9.72 to 11.66 in 10 gr. 
 
 14.57 
 
 5.83 
 
 19.81 
 
 7.13 
 
 8.74 
 
 6.48 to 7.77 in 10 gr. 
 
 23.30 
 
 51.84 to 162.00 
 
 31.08 
 
 324.00 
 
 25.25 
 
 64.80 
 
 9.71 
 
 2.59 
 
 11.65 
 
 453.60 
 
 26.41 
 
 388.80 
 
 11.65 
 
 19.44 to 25.92 
 
 26.03 
 
 29.16 
 
 4.27 
 
 16.20 
 
 17.87 
 
 3.24 to 3.88 in 10 gr. 
 
 11.65 
 
 1.36 
 
 18.65 
 
 19.44 
 
 22.92 
 
 32.40 
 
 25.25 
 
 745.20 
 
 Figures of Germination and Purity 
 
 Seed testing. 
 
 The testing of seeds is of two purposes, — to determine whether 
 the sample is adulterated, and to determine the viability or germi- 
 nating power. 
 
 Adulteration or impurity is discovered by examining the sample 
 under a lens. 
 
 Viability is determined by sprouting the seeds under favorable 
 conditions. Mix the sample well, and choose 100 seeds as they come, 
 eliminating only the foreign seeds. Place them between folds of 
 moist Canton flannel, and keep moist (not soaking wet) by covering 
 
GERMINATION TABLES 
 
 101 
 
 with a plate. Keep at living-room temperature. As rapidly as the 
 seeds sprout, remove them. See that the seeds do not touch each 
 other, or mold may spread. 
 
 High average 'percentage of purity and of germination of high-grade seed 
 
 (Duvel) 
 
 Seed 
 
 Purity 
 Per Cent 
 
 Germina- 
 tion 
 Per Cent 
 
 Seed 
 
 Purity 
 Per Cent 
 
 Germina- 
 tion 
 Per Cent 
 
 Alfalfa . . . 
 
 99 
 
 95 
 
 Millet, hog 
 
 . . 99 
 
 90 
 
 Asparagus . . 
 
 99 
 
 85 
 
 Millet, pearl 
 
 99 
 
 90 
 
 Barley . . . 
 
 99 
 
 98 
 
 Mustard 
 
 . . 99 
 
 95 
 
 Beans .... 
 
 99 
 
 98 
 
 Oats . . 
 
 . . 99 
 
 96 
 
 Beet, garden 
 
 99 
 
 150 1 
 
 Okra . . 
 
 . . 99 
 
 80 
 
 Beggar weed . 
 
 99 
 
 90 
 
 Onion 
 
 . . 99 
 
 96 
 
 Bermuda-grass . 
 
 98 
 
 90 
 
 Orchard-gra 
 
 3S . 95 
 
 90 
 
 Blue-grass, Can- 
 
 
 
 Parsley . 
 
 . . 99 
 
 80 
 
 ada .... 
 
 95 
 
 85 
 
 Parsnip . 
 
 . . 98 
 
 85 
 
 Blue-grass, Ken- 
 
 
 
 Peas . . 
 
 . . 99 
 
 98 
 
 tucky . . . 
 
 95 
 
 85 
 
 Pumpkin 
 
 . . 99 
 
 96 
 
 Brome, awnless . 
 
 90 
 
 90 
 
 Radish . 
 
 . . 99 
 
 97 
 
 Buckwheat . . 
 
 99 
 
 96 
 
 Rape . . 
 
 . . 99 
 
 96 
 
 Cabbage . . . 
 
 99 
 
 95 
 
 Red-top . 
 
 . . 96 
 
 90 
 
 Caraway . . . 
 
 98 
 
 90 
 
 Rice . . 
 
 . . 99 
 
 95 
 
 Carrot .... 
 
 98 
 
 85 
 
 Rye . . 
 
 . . 99 
 
 96 
 
 Cauliflower . . 
 
 99 
 
 85 
 
 Rye-grass, I 
 
 tal- 
 
 
 Celery .... 
 
 98 
 
 85 
 
 ian . . 
 
 . . 98 
 
 90 
 
 Clover, alsike . 
 
 98 
 
 95 
 
 Rye-grass, E 
 
 ng- 
 
 
 Clover, crimson . 
 
 98 
 
 97 
 
 Ush 
 
 . . 98 
 
 90 
 
 Clover, red . 
 
 98 
 
 95 
 
 Salsify . 
 
 . . 98 
 
 85 
 
 Clover, sweet 
 
 98 
 
 90 
 
 Sainfoin . 
 
 . . 99 
 
 95 
 
 Clover, white 
 
 96 
 
 90 
 
 Sorghum . 
 
 . . 98 
 
 95 
 
 CoUard . . . 
 
 99 
 
 95 
 
 Soybean . 
 
 . . 99 
 
 95 
 
 Corn, field 
 
 99 
 
 99 
 
 Spinach . 
 
 . . 99 
 
 90 
 
 Corn, sweet . . 
 
 99 
 
 94 
 
 Spurry . 
 
 . . 99 
 
 90 
 
 Cotton . . . 
 
 99 
 
 90 
 
 Squash . 
 
 . . 99 
 
 96 
 
 Cowpea . . . 
 
 99 
 
 95 
 
 Sugar-beet 
 
 
 
 Cress .... 
 
 99 
 
 90 
 
 (large ball 
 
 s) . 99 
 
 175 1 
 
 Cucumber . . 
 
 99 
 
 96 
 
 Sugar-beet 
 
 
 
 Eggplant . . . 
 
 99 
 
 90 
 
 (small bal 
 
 s) . 99 
 
 1501 
 
 Endive . . . 
 
 99 
 
 85 
 
 Sunflower 
 
 99 
 
 90 
 
 Fescue, meadow 
 
 98 
 
 90 
 
 Sweet-pea 
 
 99 
 
 90 
 
 Fescue, sheep's . 
 
 96 
 
 85 
 
 Teosinte . 
 
 99 
 
 90 
 
 Flax .... 
 
 99 
 
 95 
 
 Timothy 
 
 99 
 
 96 
 
 Hemp .... 
 
 99 
 
 90 
 
 Tomato . 
 
 99 
 
 94 
 
 Kafir corn 
 
 99 
 
 97 
 
 Tobacco . 
 
 99 
 
 90 
 
 Kale .... 
 
 99 
 
 95 
 
 Turnip . 
 
 99 
 
 98 
 
 Lettuce . . . 
 
 99 
 
 98 
 
 Velvet bean 
 
 99 
 
 90 
 
 Melon, musk 
 
 99 
 
 96 
 
 Velvet gr 
 
 ass 
 
 
 Melon, water . 
 
 99 
 
 96 
 
 (hulled) 
 
 97 
 
 85 
 
 Millet, common 
 
 99 
 
 90 
 
 Vetch . 
 
 99 
 
 93 
 
 
 
 
 Wheat . 
 
 99 
 
 98 
 
 1 Each beet fruit, or "ball," is likely to contain two to seven seeds. The 
 numbers given in the table represent the number of sprouts from one hundred balls. 
 
102 
 
 SEED-TABLES 
 
 Average time required for garden seeds to germinate 
 
 D\Y8 
 
 Bean 5-10 
 
 Beet 7-10 
 
 Cabbage 5-10 
 
 Carrot 12-18 
 
 Cauliflower 5-10 
 
 Celery 10-20 
 
 Corn 5 -S 
 
 Cucumber 6-10 
 
 Endive 5-10 
 
 Days 
 
 Lettuce 6-8 
 
 Onion 7-10 
 
 Pea 6-10 
 
 Parsnip 10-20 
 
 Pepper 9-14 
 
 Radish 3-6 
 
 Salsify 7-12 
 
 Tomato 6-12 
 
 Turnip 4-8 
 
 Longevity of Seeds 
 Vilmorins tables 
 
 Angelica 
 
 Anise 
 
 Asparagus bean {Dolichos sesquipedalis) 
 
 Balm 
 
 Barley 
 
 Basil 
 
 Bean 
 
 Beet 
 
 Borage 
 
 Borecole 
 
 Broccoli 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 Cabbage 
 
 Caraway 
 
 Cardoon 
 
 Carrot, with the spines 
 
 Carrot, without the spines 
 
 Catmint 
 
 Cauliflower 
 
 Celery 
 
 Chervil 
 
 Chervil, sweet-scented 
 
 Chervil, turnip-rooted 
 
 Chicory 
 
 Chick-pea 
 
 Clover 
 
 Coriander 
 
 Corn-salad, common 
 
 Cress, American 
 
 Cress, common garden 
 
 Cress, meadow (cuckoo-flower) . . . 
 
 Cress, Para 
 
 Cress, water 
 
 Cucumber, common 
 
 Cucumber, globe 
 
 Average 
 
 Extreme 
 
 Years 
 
 Years 
 
 1 or 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 — 
 
 8 
 
 10 + 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 10 + 
 
 8 
 
 10 + 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 — 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 4 or 5 
 
 10 + 
 
 4 or 5 
 
 10 + 
 
 5 
 
 6 + 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 10 + 
 
 2 or 3. 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 10 + 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 — 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 (?) 
 
 5 
 
 7 + 
 
 5 
 
 9 + 
 
 10 
 
 10 + 
 
 6 
 
 (?) 
 
LIFE OF SEEDS 
 Longevity of Seeds — Continued 
 
 103 
 
 Cucumber, prickly-fruited gherkin . 
 Cucumber, snake (Cucumis flexuosus) 
 
 Dandelion 
 
 Dill 
 
 Egg-plant 
 
 Endive 
 
 Fennel, common or wild .... 
 
 Fennel, sweet 
 
 Flax 
 
 Gumbo, see Okra. 
 
 Good King Henry 
 
 Gourds, fancy 
 
 Hop 
 
 Horehound 
 
 Hyssop 
 
 Kohlrabi 
 
 Leek 
 
 Lentil 
 
 Lettuce, common 
 
 Lovage 
 
 Maize, or Indian corn 
 
 Marjoram, sweet 
 
 Marjoram, winter 
 
 Martynia 
 
 Millet 
 
 Muskmelon 
 
 Mustard, black or brown .... 
 Mustard, Chinese cabbage-leaved 
 
 Mustard, white or salad 
 
 Nasturtium, tall 
 
 Nasturtium, dwarf 
 
 Oats 
 
 Okra 
 
 Onion 
 
 Orach 
 
 Orchard-grass 
 
 Parsnip 
 
 Parsley 
 
 Pea, garden 
 
 Pea, gray or field 
 
 Peanut 
 
 Pepper 
 
 Pumpkin 
 
 Purslane 
 
 Radish 
 
 Rampion 
 
 Rape 
 
 Rhubarb 
 
 Rocket salad 
 
 Rosemary 
 
 Rue 
 
 Average 
 
 Extreme 
 
 Years 
 
 Years 
 
 6 
 
 7 + 
 
 7 or 8 
 
 10 + 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 + 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 10 + 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 1 or 2 
 
 (?) 
 
 2 
 
 — 
 
 5 
 
 10 + 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 10 + 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 — 
 
 5 
 
 10 + 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 4 or 5 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 10 + 
 
 5 
 
 10 + 
 
 5 
 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 (?) 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
104 
 
 SEED-TABLES 
 
 Longevity of Seeds — Continued 
 
 Rye 
 
 Sage 
 
 Salsify 
 
 Savory, summer .... 
 
 Savory, winter 
 
 Scorzonera 
 
 Scurvy-grass 
 
 Sea-kale 
 
 Soybean 
 
 Spinach, prickly-seeded . . 
 Spinach, round-seeded 
 Spinach, New Zealand . . 
 Squash, bush-scallop . 
 
 Strawberry 
 
 Strawberry, tomato (Physalis) 
 
 Sweet Cicely 
 
 Tansv 
 
 Thyme 
 
 Timothy 
 
 Tomato 
 
 Turnip 
 
 Valerian, African .... 
 
 Watermelon 
 
 Wax gourd 
 
 Welsh onion, common . . 
 Welsh onion, early white 
 
 Wheat 
 
 W'ormwood 
 
 Haberlandt's figures of longevity (Quoted in Johnson's " How Crops 
 
 Grow ") 
 
 
 Percentage of Seeds that germinated in 
 
 1861 FROM THE 
 
 Years 
 
 
 1850 
 
 1851 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 1857 
 
 1858 
 
 1859 
 
 1860 
 
 Barley . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 33 
 
 92 
 
 97 
 
 Maize . 
 
 
 
 not tried 
 
 76 
 
 56 
 
 not tried 
 
 77 
 
 100 
 
 96 
 
 Oats .... 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 56 
 
 48 
 
 72 
 
 32 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 Rve .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 96 
 
 Wheat . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 73 
 
 60 
 
 84 
 
 89 
 
 Vitality of seeds buried in soil (W. J. Beal). 
 
 In the fall of 1879, fifty fresh seeds of each of twenty-one kinds of 
 plants (mostly weeds) were mixed with moderately moist sand and placed 
 in uncorked bottles that were buried twenty inches below the surface, 
 with the mouths slanting downward. Acorns were buried near the 
 bottles. Six tests have been made of these seeds. The crosses (-h) 
 indicate germinations : — 
 
LIFE OF SEEDS 
 
 105 
 
 Names of Seeds tested as 
 
 5th 
 
 10th 
 
 15th 
 
 20th 
 
 25th 
 
 30th 
 
 KNOWN IN 1879 
 
 Year 
 
 Yeak 
 
 Year 
 
 Year 
 
 Year 
 
 Year 
 
 Amarantus retroflexus . . . 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 Ambrosia artemisiaefolia 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Brassica nigra 
 
 
 
 ? 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 Bromus secalinus 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Capsella Bursa-pastoris 
 
 
 
 + 
 
 ? 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 Erechtites hieracifolia. 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Euphorbia maculata . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lepidium Virginicum . 
 
 
 
 4- 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 Lychnis Githago. . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Maruta Cotula . . . 
 
 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 
 
 + 
 
 
 
 Malva rotundifolia 
 
 
 
 + 
 
 
 
 
 
 + 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Enothera biennis . . 
 
 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 Plantago major . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 + 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Polygonum Hydropiper 
 
 
 
 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 possibly 
 
 Portulaca oleracea . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 
 
 Quercus rubra . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rumex cripsus . . . 
 
 
 
 + 
 
 ? 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 Setaria glauca . . . 
 
 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 Stellaria media . . . 
 
 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 Thuja occidentalis . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Trifolium repens 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Verbascum Thapsus 
 
 
 
 + 
 
 ? 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 
 
 
 
 In all of the six tests, eight species out of twenty-two failed to germi- 
 nate; and of the remaining fourteen species, seeds of eight, possibly 
 nine, germinated often when they had been buried thirty years. The 
 acorns (Qiwrciis rubra) buried near the bottles of seeds were all dead 
 at the end of two years. 
 
 Average Yields of Garden Seed-Crops 
 
 When Crop is as good 
 AS 20 Bu. OF Wheat 
 PER Acre would be 
 
 When Crop is very 
 heavy 
 
 Bean 
 
 Pea ... . 
 Squash, summer 
 Squash, winter 
 Sweet corn 
 
 Cucumber . . 
 
 Muskmelon . 
 
 Watermelon . 
 
 Tomato . . 
 
 Cabbage . . 
 
 lbs. of seed per acre 
 600 
 900 
 100 
 100 
 1000 to 2500 
 (according to variety) 
 150 
 125 
 150 
 100 
 250 
 
 lbs. of seed per acre 
 
 1500 
 
 2500 
 
 700 
 
 400 
 
 2500 to 4000 
 
 700 
 600 
 1000 
 400 
 800 
 
 The average crop is probably 10 to 20 per cent less than the figures 
 given in the first column. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 Planting-Tables 
 
 The novice always wants exact advice as to dates, depths, and dis- 
 tances. It is impossible to give such advice that is reliable in all times 
 and places ; it must be given only for suggestion and guidance, not for 
 exact and absolute application. Accepted in this spirit, planting-tables 
 may be very useful, even for the experienced planter. 
 
 Dates for Sowing or Setting Kitchen-Garden Vegetables in Different 
 
 Latitudes 
 
 Lansing, Michigan 
 
 (Average of 4 and 5 years.) 
 
 Bean, bush May 16. 
 
 Bean, pole May 30. 
 
 Beet April 20. 
 
 Broccoli May 10. 
 
 Brussels sprouts May 10. 
 
 Cabbage, early, under glass March 15. 
 
 Cabbage, late May 20. 
 
 Carrot May 7. 
 
 Cauliflower, under glass March 15. 
 
 Celery, under glass March 18. 
 
 Celery, in open ground May 20. 
 
 Corn May 10. 
 
 Cucumber May 23. 
 
 Egg-plant, under glass March 15. 
 
 Kale May 9. 
 
 Kohlrabi May 9. 
 
 Lettuce Maj' 5. 
 
 Melon May 30. 
 
 Okra May 15. 
 
 Onion April 17. 
 
 Parsnips May 7. 
 
 Peas April 15. 
 
 Pepper under glass Maroh 13. 
 
 Potato May 3. 
 
 Pumpkin May 31. 
 
 Radish April 26. 
 
 Salsify May 7. 
 
 Spinach April 10. 
 
 Squash May 28. 
 
 Tomato, under glass March 13. 
 
 Turnip April 15. 
 
 Boston (Rawson) 
 
 Asparagus About the end of April. 
 
 Bean, bush About the first week in May. 
 
 106 
 
DATES TO PLANT GARDEN SEEDS 
 
 107 
 
 Bean, pole From about the middle of May to the 1st of June. 
 
 Bean, lima About the 1st of June. 
 
 Beet About the middle of April. 
 
 Borecole, or Kale . . . About the middle of April ; plant out in June. 
 
 Brussels sprouts .... In March or April in hotbed. 
 
 Cabbage Transplant the last week in April or the 1st in May. 
 
 Carrots Last of May or 1st of June. 
 
 Cauliflower From the 1st of May until the 1st of July. 
 
 Celery The 1st week in April to the 2d in July. 
 
 Corn, sweet About the 1st of May. 
 
 Cucumber For 1st crop, about the middle of March. 
 
 Egg-plant About March 15 in hotbed. 
 
 Endive June or July. 
 
 Kohlrabi May or June. 
 
 Okra About the 10th of May. 
 
 Peas During the last of April up to the 1st of May. 
 
 Pepper Put out of doors about the 1st of April. 
 
 Radish From the 1st of April to the middle of June. 
 
 Spinach About the 1st of September. 
 
 Tomato About the 25th of May set plants outdoors. 
 
 Turnips, for fall use . . Any time from July 1 to August 20. 
 
 Watermelon About the middle of May. 
 
 New York (Henderson) 
 
 Plants to sow from the middle of March to the end of April, 
 shade averaging 45 degrees. 
 
 Beet 
 
 Carrot 
 
 Cress 
 
 Celery 
 
 Cabbage 
 
 Cauliflower 
 
 Endive 
 
 Kale 
 
 Lettuce 
 
 Onions 
 
 Parsnip 
 
 From the middle of May to the middle of June. 
 
 averaging 60°. 
 
 Thermometer in 
 
 Parsley 
 
 Peas 
 
 Radish 
 
 Spinach 
 
 Turnip 
 
 Thermometer in the shade 
 
 Baan, bush 
 Baan, cranberry 
 Bean, lima 
 Bean, pole 
 Bean, scarlet 
 
 Bean, runner 
 Corn, sweet 
 Cucumber 
 Melon, musk 
 Melon, water 
 
 Nasturtium 
 
 Okra 
 
 Pumpkin 
 
 Squash 
 
 Tomato 
 
 Norfolk, Virginia 
 Months in which different crops are planted or sown, or set out in the open air. 
 
 Kale and Spinach 
 Cabbage . . . 
 
 Onions 
 Leeks . 
 Lettuce 
 Radish 
 Peas 
 
 Beans . 
 
 Egg-plant 
 
 Tomatoes 
 
 sown during August, September, and October. 
 
 The seeds are sown in August and September, and the plants 
 are transplanted in the open air in November and De- 
 cember. 
 
 Sown in August, September, January, and February. 
 
 The same as onions. 
 
 Sown in September and January. 
 
 Sown in every month in the year. 
 
 December, January, February, March, April, August, and 
 September. 
 
 March and April. 
 
 April and May. 
 
 April and May. 
 
108 
 
 PLANTING-TABLES 
 
 Squash . . 
 
 Cauliflower . 
 
 Potatoes . . 
 Sweet-potatoes 
 
 Beets . . . 
 
 Corn . . . 
 
 Oats . . . 
 
 Millet . . . 
 Grass-seed 
 Carrots . . 
 Celery . . . 
 Cucumbers . 
 Watermelons 
 Canteloupes . 
 Peanuts . . 
 
 December, February, and 
 
 February, and March. 
 
 April. 
 
 March and April. 
 
 February, March, and July. 
 
 May. 
 
 February and March. 
 
 April, May, June, and July. 
 
 September, October, November, 
 
 March. 
 June and July ; after potatoes. 
 September, October, November, 
 February and March. 
 April and May. 
 April. 
 April. 
 April. 
 May. 
 
 Georgia (Oemler) 
 
 From December 1 to the middle of March. 
 
 From the 1st to the middle of March. 
 
 Through November and December. 
 
 From the 1st of October to the 15th. Transplant about 
 
 November 1 and later. 
 From Mav to September. 
 About March 1 to the 15th. 
 To prick out, about the middle of January, otherwise ten or 
 
 fifteen daj's later. 
 About the middle of September. 
 About January 1. 
 About December 1. 
 The 1st of February. 
 
 From Christmas to the last of February. 
 From September 10 until October 15. 
 About the last of February up to the middle of March. 
 In cold frames, about the 1st of January. 
 About January 1. 
 About the 15th of March. 
 
 Tender and hardy vegetables 
 
 Vegetables injured by a slight frost, and which should therefore be planted only 
 after the weather has settled. 
 
 Asparagus 
 Bean, bush 
 Beet . . 
 Cabbage . 
 
 Cauliflower 
 
 Cucumber 
 
 Egg-plant 
 
 Lettuce 
 Onion . 
 Pea 
 
 Potato 
 
 Radish 
 
 Spinach 
 
 Squash 
 
 Sweet-potato 
 
 Tomato 
 
 Watermelon 
 
 All Kidney, Lima, and Common Beans Egg-plant 
 
 Pumpkin 
 
 Corn All melons 
 
 Squash 
 
 Cucumber Okra 
 
 Sweet Potato 
 
 Pepper 
 
 Tomato 
 
 Vegetables which, when properly handled, will end 
 
 ure a frost. 
 
 Asparagus Corn-salad 
 
 Parsley 
 
 Bean, Windsor, Broad or Horae Cress 
 
 Parsnip 
 
 Hcct Endive 
 
 Pea 
 
 Borecole Horseradish 
 
 Radish 
 
 liroc-coli Kohlrabi 
 
 Rhubarb 
 
 Brussels sprouts Kale 
 
 Salsify 
 
 Cabbage Leek 
 
 Sea-kale 
 
 Carrot Lettuce 
 
 Spinach 
 
 Cauliflower All Onions 
 
 Turnip 
 
 Celery 
 
 
WHEN TO PLANT GARDEN SEEDS 
 
 109 
 
 Date-tables 
 
 Vegetable-gardeners planting-table (U. S. Dept. Agric.) 
 
 See also separate table of distances on p. 119. 
 
 
 Seeds or 
 
 Plants 
 
 required for 
 
 100 Feet of 
 
 Row 
 
 Distance 
 
 FOR Plants 
 
 TO Stand 
 
 
 
 Rows apart 
 
 Plants apart 
 in rows 
 
 Depth of 
 Planting 
 
 
 Horse culti- 
 
 Hand culti- 
 
 
 vation 
 
 vation 
 
 
 
 Artichoke, globe . . 
 
 3^ ounce 
 
 3 to 4 ft. 
 
 2 to 3 ft. 
 
 2 to 3 ft. 
 
 1 to 2 in. 
 
 Artichoke, Jerusalem . 
 
 2 qt. tubers 
 
 3 to 4 ft. 
 
 1 to 2 ft. 
 
 1 to 2 ft. 
 
 2 to 3 in. 
 
 Asparagus, seed . . 
 
 1 ounce 
 
 30 to 36 in. 
 
 1 to 2 ft. 
 
 3 to 5 in. 
 
 1 to 2 in. 
 
 Asparagus, plants 
 
 
 60 to 80 plants 
 
 3 to 5 ft. 
 
 12 to 24 in. 
 
 15 to 20 in. 
 
 3 to 5 in. 
 
 Beans, bush . . 
 
 
 1 pint 
 
 30 to 36 in. 
 
 18 to 24 in. 
 
 5 or 8 to ft. 
 
 H to 2 in. 
 
 Beans, pole . 
 
 
 
 3^ pint 
 
 3 to 4 ft. 
 
 3 to 4 ft. 
 
 3 to 4 ft. 
 
 1 to 2 in. 
 
 Beets . . . 
 
 
 
 2 ounces 
 
 24 to 36 in. 
 
 12 to 18 in. 
 
 5 or 6 to ft. 
 
 1 to 2 in. 
 
 Brussels sprouts 
 
 
 
 }4 ounce 
 
 30 to 36 in. 
 
 24 to 30 in. 
 
 16 to 24 in. 
 
 M in. 
 
 Cabbage, early 
 
 
 
 }4 ounce 
 
 30 to 36 in. 
 
 24 to 30 in. 
 
 12 to 18 in. 
 
 M in. 
 
 Cabbage, late 
 
 
 
 H ounce 
 
 30 to 40 in. 
 
 24 to 36 in. 
 
 16 to 24 in. 
 
 }/2 in. 
 
 Cardoon . . 
 
 
 
 }/2 ounce 
 
 3 ft. 
 
 2 ft. 
 
 12 to 18 in. 
 
 1 to 2 in. 
 
 Carrot . . . 
 
 
 
 1 ounce 
 
 30 to 36 in. 
 
 18 to 24 in. 
 
 6 or 7 to ft. 
 
 M in. 
 
 Cauliflower . 
 
 
 
 }4 ounce 
 
 30 to 36 in. 
 
 24 to 30 in. 
 
 14 to 18 in. 
 
 M in. 
 
 Celeriac . . 
 
 
 
 Ji ounce 
 
 30 to 36 in. 
 
 18 to 24 in. 
 
 4 or 5 to ft. 
 
 Vs in. 
 
 Celery . . . 
 
 
 
 % ounce 
 
 3 to 6 ft. 
 
 18 to 36 in. 
 
 4 to 8 in. 
 
 Vs in. 
 
 Chervil . . 
 
 
 
 1 ounce 
 
 30 to 36 in. 
 
 18 to 24 in. 
 
 3 or 4 to ft. 
 
 1 in. 
 
 Chicory . . 
 
 
 
 H ounce 
 
 30 to 36 in. 
 
 18 to 24 in. 
 
 4 or 5 to ft. 
 
 M in. 
 
 Citron . . . 
 
 
 
 1 ounce 
 
 8 to 10 ft. 
 
 8 to 10 ft. 
 
 8 to 10 ft. 
 
 1 to 2 in. 
 
 CoUards . . 
 
 
 
 J^ ounce 
 
 30 to 36 in. 
 
 24 to 30 in. 
 
 14 to 18 in. 
 
 }/2 in. 
 
 Corn salad 
 
 
 
 2 ounces 
 
 30 in. 
 
 12 to 18 in. 
 
 5 or 6 to ft. 
 
 H to 1 in. 
 
 Corn, sweet . 
 
 
 
 H pint 
 
 36 to 42 in. 
 
 30 to 36 in. 
 
 30 to 36 in. 
 
 1 to 2 in. 
 
 Cress, upland 
 
 
 
 }4 ounce 
 
 30 in. 
 
 12 to 18 in. 
 
 4 or 5 to ft. 
 
 J^ to 1 in. 
 
 Cress, water . 
 
 
 
 }4 ounce 
 
 Broadcast 
 
 
 
 On surface 
 
 Cucumber 
 
 
 
 J^ ounce 
 
 4 to 6 ft. 
 
 4 to 6 ft. 
 
 4 to 6 ft. 
 
 1 to 2 in. 
 
 Dandelion 
 
 
 
 14 ounce 
 
 30 in. 
 
 18 to 24 in. 
 
 8 to 12 in. 
 
 J^in. 
 
 Eggplant . . 
 
 
 
 Vs ounce 
 
 30 to 36 in. 
 
 24 to 30 in. 
 
 18 to 24 in. 
 
 H to 1 m. 
 
 Endive . . 
 
 
 
 1 ounce 
 
 30 in. 
 
 18 in. 
 
 8 to 12 in. 
 
 >2 to 1 in. 
 
 Horseradish . 
 
 
 
 70 roots 
 
 30 to 40 in. 
 
 24 to 30 in. 
 
 14 to 20 in. 
 
 3 to 4 in. 
 
 Kale, or borecole 
 
 
 
 }4 ounce 
 
 30 to 36 in. 
 
 18 to 24 in. 
 
 18 to 24 in. 
 
 J^in. 
 
 Kohlrabi . . 
 
 
 
 14 ounce 
 
 30 to 36 in. 
 
 18 to 24 in. 
 
 4 to 8 in. 
 
 H in. 
 
 Leek . . . 
 
 
 
 }i ounce 
 
 30 to 36 in. 
 
 14 to 20 in. 
 
 4 to 8 in. 
 
 lin. 
 
 Lettuce . . 
 
 
 
 }/2 ounce 
 
 30 in. 
 
 12 to 18 in. 
 
 4 to 6 in. 
 
 H in. 
 
 Melon, muskmelon 
 
 14 ounce 
 
 6 to 8 ft. 
 
 6 to 8 ft. 
 
 Hills 6 ft. 
 
 1 to 2 in. 
 
 Melon, watermelon 
 
 1 ounce 
 
 8 to 12 ft. 
 
 8 to 12 ft. 
 
 Hills 10 ft. 
 
 1 to 2 in. 
 
 Mustard 
 
 J^ ounce 
 
 30 to 36 in. 
 
 12 to 18 in. 
 
 4 or 5 to ft. 
 
 }4 in. 
 
 New Zealand spinach 
 
 1 ounce 
 
 36 in. 
 
 24 to 36 in. 
 
 12 to 18 in. 
 
 1 to 2 in. 
 
 Okra, or gumbo . . 
 
 2 ounces 
 
 4 to 5 ft. 
 
 3 to 4 ft. 
 
 24 to 30 in. 
 
 1 to 2 in. 
 
 Onion, seed . . 
 
 
 1 ounce 
 
 24 to 36 in. 
 
 12 to 18 in. 
 
 4 or 5 to ft. 
 
 3^ to 1 in. 
 
 Onion, sets . 
 
 
 
 1 quart of sets 
 
 24 to 36 in. 
 
 12 to 18 in. 
 
 4 or 5 to ft. 
 
 1 to 2 in. 
 
 Parsley . . 
 
 
 
 }4 ounce 
 
 24 to 36 in. 
 
 12 to 18 in. 
 
 3 to 6 in. 
 
 % in. 
 
 Parsnip . . 
 
 
 
 14 ounce 
 
 30 to 36 in. 
 
 18 to 24 in. 
 
 5 or 6 to ft. 
 
 H to 1 in. 
 
 Peas . . . 
 
 
 
 1 to 2 pints 
 
 3 to 4 ft. 
 
 30 to 36 in. 
 
 15 to ft. 
 
 2 to 3 in. 
 
 Pepper . . 
 
 
 
 Vg ounce 
 % ounce 
 
 30 to 36 in. 
 
 18 to 24 in. 
 
 15 to 18 in. 
 
 H in. 
 
 Physalis . . 
 
 
 
 30 to 36 in. 
 
 18 to 24 in. 
 
 18 to 24 in. 
 
 ,H in. 
 
 Potato, Irish 
 
 
 
 5 lb. (or 9 bu. 
 
 per acre) 
 3 lb. (or 75 slips) 
 
 30 to 36 in. 
 
 24 to 36 in. 
 
 14 to 18 in. 
 
 4 in. 
 
 Potato, sweet 
 
 
 
 3 to 5 ft. 
 
 3 to 5 ft. 
 
 14 in. 
 
 3 in. 
 
 Pumpkin . . 
 
 
 
 }/2 ounce 
 
 8 to 12 ft. 
 
 8 to 12 ft. 
 
 Hills 8 to 
 
 12 ft. 
 8 to 12 to ft. 
 
 1 to 2 in. 
 
 Radish . . 
 
 
 
 1 ounce 
 
 24 to 36 in. 
 
 12 to 18 in. 
 
 1^ to 1 in. 
 
 Rhubarb, seed 
 
 
 
 14 ounce 
 
 36 in. 
 
 30 to 36 in. 
 
 6 to 8 in. 
 
 H to 1 in. 
 
 Rhubarb, plants 
 
 
 
 33 plants 
 
 3 to 5 ft. 
 
 3 to 5 ft. 
 
 3 ft. 
 
 2 to 3 in. 
 
 Rutabaga . . 
 
 
 
 }4 ounce 
 
 30 to 36 in. 
 
 18 to 24 in. 
 
 6 to 8 in. 
 
 M to 1 in. 
 
 Salsify . . . 
 
 
 
 1 ounce 
 
 30 to 36 in. 
 
 18 to 24 in. 
 
 2 to 4 in. 
 
 1^ to 1 in. 
 
 Spinach . . 
 
 
 
 1 ounce 
 
 30 to 36 in. 
 
 12 to 18 in. 
 
 7 or 8 to ft. 
 
 1 to 2 in. 
 
 Squash, bush 
 
 
 
 14 ounce 
 
 3 to 4 ft. 
 
 3 to 4 ft. 
 
 Hills3to4ft. 
 
 1 to 2 in. 
 
 Squash, late . 
 
 
 
 }4 ounce 
 
 7 to 10 ft. 
 
 7 to 10 ft. 
 
 Hills 7to 9ft. 
 
 1 to 2 in. 
 
 Tomato . . 
 
 
 
 Vs ounce 
 
 3 to 5 ft. 
 
 3 to 4 ft. 
 
 3 ft. 
 
 3^ to 1 in. 
 
 Turnip . . 
 
 
 
 }4 ounce 
 
 24 to 36 in. 
 
 18 to 24 in. 
 
 6 or 7 to ft. 
 
 }^ to H in. 
 
 Vegetable marrow 
 
 
 M ounce 
 
 8 to 12 ft. 
 
 8 to 12 ft. 
 
 Hills8to9ft. 
 
 1 to 2 in. 
 
110 
 
 PLANTING-TABLES 
 
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116 
 
 PLANTING-TABLES 
 
 Flower-planting table (Suburban Life) 
 
 It is a wise plan to grow enough extra plants in a reserve bed or in pots during the sum- 
 mer, so that any gaps in the bed may be filled as the occasion requires. This table includes 
 some perennials and biennials, as well as annuals. It is made for about the latitude of 
 New York. 
 
 
 When to sow Seed 
 
 Thin 
 
 OR 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TR.\N8- 
 PLANT 
 
 Height 
 (Inches) 
 
 Season of 
 Bloom 
 
 Color op 
 
 Variety 
 
 
 
 Flowers 
 
 
 Indoors 
 
 Outdoors 
 
 TO 
 
 (Inches) 
 
 
 
 
 Abronia .... 
 
 March 
 
 May 
 
 12 
 
 'A to \y2 
 
 July to frost 
 
 Yellow, pink, 
 
 Achillea (Sneezewort) 
 
 
 June- 
 Sept. 1 
 April 
 
 12 
 
 1 to VA 
 
 July- 
 October 
 June- 
 August 
 June to frost 
 
 rose 
 White 
 
 Adonis 
 
 March 
 
 
 1 
 
 Crimson 
 
 Ageratum .... 
 
 March 
 
 May 
 
 6 
 
 ^toM 
 
 Blue, white 
 
 Agrostemma (Rose- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of-Heaven) . . . 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 6 
 
 1 to VA 
 
 July to frost 
 
 Rose, white 
 
 Alonsoa .... 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 6 to 12 
 
 1 to 3 
 
 July to frost 
 
 Scarlet, white 
 
 Amaranthus . . . 
 
 April 
 
 
 18 
 
 5 to 6 
 
 August 
 
 Red, purple, 
 yellow, white 
 
 Aquilegia (Colum- 
 
 
 July-Sept. 1 
 
 8 
 
 2^ 
 
 June-Sept. 1 
 
 Yellow, white. 
 
 bine) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 red, blue 
 
 Argemone (Mexican 
 
 April in 
 
 May 
 
 12 
 
 VA to 2 
 
 July, 
 
 Yellow, white 
 
 Poppy) .... 
 
 pots 
 
 
 
 
 August 
 
 
 Asperula .... 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 Aug., Sept. 
 
 Blue 
 
 Aster (China) . . 
 
 March, 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 9 
 
 1 to 3 
 
 July- 
 October 
 
 Yellow, white 
 red, blue 
 
 Aster (Perennial) 
 
 
 July- 
 Sept. 1 
 
 12 
 
 1 to3 
 
 Sept., Oct. 
 
 White, pink, 
 blue 
 
 Balloon Vine . . . 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 Aug., Sept. 
 
 White 
 
 Balsam 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 24 
 
 2to2H 
 
 July to frost 
 
 Yellow, white, 
 
 pink, red 
 
 Yellow 
 
 Bartonia .... 
 
 
 May 
 
 
 1 to 3 
 
 July-Sept. 
 
 Beets 
 
 April 
 
 
 6 
 
 1 to 2 
 
 
 Ornamental 
 
 foliage 
 
 Dark red 
 
 Black Dahlia . . . 
 
 March 
 
 May 
 
 12 
 
 1 to P/a 
 
 July. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 August 
 
 
 Brachycome (Swan 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 River Daisy) . . 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 6 
 
 i^tol 
 
 
 Blue, white 
 
 Cacalia (Emilia) . . 
 
 
 May 
 
 6 
 
 1 to 2 
 
 July to frost 
 
 Scarlet, yel- 
 low 
 Rose, purple 
 
 Calandrina . . . 
 
 
 May 
 
 6 
 
 Ji tol 
 
 
 Calendula (Pot Mari- 
 
 March 
 
 Late April 
 
 6 
 
 % 
 
 June-Oct. 
 
 Orange, yel- 
 
 gold) .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 low 
 
 Calliopsis (Coreopsis) 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 10 
 
 13^ 
 
 June to frost 
 
 Yellow 
 
 r'aMirhoe (Poppy 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 9 
 
 1 to 3 
 
 July to frost 
 
 Purple, lilac, 
 red, cherry 
 
 Mallow) .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 T;-impanula (Canter- 
 
 
 July- 
 
 12 
 
 2 to 3 
 
 June- 
 
 Blue, white, 
 
 bury Bell) . . . 
 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 
 
 August 
 
 pink 
 
 Candytuft . . . 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 4 to 12 
 
 'A to I A 
 
 Juno-Oct. 
 
 White 
 
 Cannabis (Giant 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 Inconspicu- 
 
 Hemp) .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ous 
 
 Cardinal Flower 
 
 March 
 
 
 9 
 
 1 to2H 
 
 Aug., Sept. 
 
 Scarlet 
 
 Castor bean (Ricinus) 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 3 
 
 4 to 8 
 
 
 Grown for 
 
 foliage 
 Blue, white 
 
 Catananche . . . 
 
 March 
 
 
 6 
 
 2 to 3 
 
 June- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 August 
 
 
 Celosia (Cockscomb) 
 
 March, 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 6 
 
 >^to^ 
 
 June 
 to frost 
 
 Red 
 
FLOWER PLANTING 
 
 117 
 
 Flower-planting table — Continued 
 
 Vabiety 
 
 Carnation (Marguer- 
 ite) . . . 
 
 Centaurea (Blue 
 
 Bottle) . . 
 
 Centranthua . 
 
 Chrysanthemum, An 
 nual . 
 
 Cleome(Spider Plant) 
 
 Cobcea . 
 CoIIinsia 
 
 Convolvulus . 
 Cosmos, Early- 
 
 Cosmos, Late 
 Dahlia . . 
 
 Dianthus (China 
 
 Pink) . . 
 Digitalis (Foxglove) 
 
 Eschscholzia (Cal 
 
 fornia Poppy) 
 Evening Primrose 
 
 Flax 
 
 Four O'clock . . 
 
 Gaillardia . . . 
 Gilia .... 
 
 Globe amaranth 
 
 (Gomphrena) . 
 
 Golden-tuft (Alys 
 sum) .... 
 
 Gourds .... 
 
 GjT)sophila 
 Hawkweed 
 Helianthus 
 
 flower) 
 Hibiscus 
 
 (Sun 
 
 Hollyhock . . . 
 Honesty (Lunaria) 
 Hop 
 
 IpomcBa (Morning- 
 
 Glory) . . 
 Kochia . . . 
 
 When to sow Seed 
 
 Indoors Outdoors 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 March, 
 April 
 April 
 
 March, 
 April 
 April 
 
 April 
 
 April, 
 
 May 
 March, 
 
 April 
 March, 
 
 April 
 
 April 
 April 
 
 April 
 
 March, 
 April 
 April 
 
 April, 
 
 May 
 March, 
 
 April 
 March, 
 
 April 
 March, 
 
 April 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 May 
 
 May 
 
 May 
 
 April 
 May 
 
 May 
 
 May 5 
 
 July- 
 Sept. 1 
 May 
 
 May 
 May 
 
 May 
 May 
 
 May 
 
 July- 
 Sept. 1 
 May 
 
 May 
 
 April, May 
 
 May 
 
 July- 
 Sept. 1 
 
 July- 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Maj 
 
 April, May 
 April 
 April 
 
 Thin 
 
 OR 
 
 Trans- 
 plant 
 
 TO 
 
 (Inches) 
 
 3 to 12 
 
 12 
 
 8 to 12 
 
 6 
 12 to 36 
 
 15 to 24 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 9 to 12 
 
 Height 
 (Inches) 
 
 1 to VA 
 
 2 to 3 
 
 1 to 2 
 1 to IM 
 
 2 
 
 10 to 20 
 
 1 to 1}4 
 
 J^tol 
 4 
 
 6 to 8 
 
 4 
 
 1 to IJi 
 
 3 to 4 
 
 1 to VA 
 
 2 to 2A 
 IH to 2 
 
 3/4 to 1 
 
 M to 2y2 
 
 15 
 
 1 to 2 
 H tol 
 3 to 6 
 
 5 to 7 
 
 5 to 7 
 
 13^ to 23^ 
 
 20 to 30 
 
 10 to 15 
 
 2 to2H 
 
 Season of 
 Bloom 
 
 June 
 to frost 
 
 June 
 
 to frost 
 
 July to frost 
 
 June-Oct. 
 
 July, 
 
 August 
 
 Aug., Sept. 
 
 July, 
 
 August 
 
 July to frost 
 
 July, 
 
 August 
 
 Sept. 
 
 to frost 
 
 Aug. to frost 
 
 July to frost 
 
 July, 
 
 August 
 
 July-Sept. 
 
 July-Sept. 
 July-Sept. 
 July to frost 
 
 July to frost 
 July-Sept. 
 
 July to frost 
 
 July- 
 October 
 September 
 
 July-Sept. 
 Aug., Sept. 
 July to frost 
 
 August 
 
 August 
 
 June, July 
 
 June 
 to frost 
 
 Color of 
 Flowers 
 
 White, pink, 
 
 red 
 Blue, white, 
 
 pink 
 
 Red, white 
 
 White, red, 
 
 yellow 
 
 Purple 
 
 Violet, green- 
 ish purple 
 White, lilac, 
 violet 
 Blue 
 White, pink 
 
 White, pink, 
 
 red 
 White, red, 
 
 yellow 
 White, pink, 
 red 
 Pink, white 
 
 Orange, yel- 
 low, white 
 
 Yellow 
 Red, blue 
 White, yel- 
 low, red 
 Yellow, red 
 Blue, red, 
 white 
 Red, white, 
 blue 
 Yellow 
 
 White 
 
 Rosy 
 
 Yellow, red 
 
 Yellow 
 
 White to red 
 
 White to red 
 
 Pink, purple 
 
 Ornamental 
 
 foliage 
 
 Blue, red, 
 
 white 
 
 Grown for 
 
 foliage 
 
118 
 
 PLANTING-TABLES 
 
 Flower-planting table — Continued 
 
 Varibty 
 
 Larkspur (Annual) 
 
 Lobelia .... 
 
 Lupinua . . . 
 
 Madia (Tarweed) 
 
 Marigold 
 
 Martynia (Unicorn 
 
 plant) . . . 
 Matthiola bicornis 
 Mignonette . . 
 
 Myosotis (Forget-me 
 
 not) . . . 
 Nasturtium 
 
 Nicotiana (Tobacco) 
 
 Pansy ... 
 
 Petunia . . 
 
 Phlox (Annual) 
 
 Poppy (Annual) 
 
 Poppy, Iceland 
 
 Pyrethrum 
 
 Portulaca . . 
 Salpiglossis 
 
 Salvia ... 
 
 Scabiosa (Mourning 
 
 Bride) . . 
 Silene (Catchfly) 
 Snapdragon 
 
 Stocks (Ten Weeks) 
 
 Sweet Alyssum . . 
 Sweet Pea .... 
 Sweet William 
 
 Venus' Looking-glass 
 
 (Speccularia) . . 
 
 Verbena .... 
 
 Zinnia 
 
 When to sow Seed 
 
 Indoors Outdoors 
 
 March, 
 April 
 Fcb.- 
 April 
 
 April 
 April 
 
 March, 
 .\pril 
 April 
 
 April 
 
 April 
 
 March 
 
 Feb., 
 March 
 March, 
 
 April 
 
 April 
 
 Feb., 
 March 
 April 
 
 March 
 March 
 
 March, 
 April 
 
 March 
 
 Feb.- 
 April 
 March, 
 April 
 
 May 5 
 
 May 
 
 May 
 
 May 
 May 
 May 
 
 April 
 May 10 
 
 May 
 
 May 1 
 
 May 10 
 
 April, July, 
 
 August 
 
 May 
 
 May 
 
 April, Sept., 
 
 October 
 April-Sept. 
 
 July-Sept. 
 
 May 
 May 
 
 May 
 
 May 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 April, May 
 Mar., April 
 July- 
 Sept. 1 
 
 April 
 May 
 
 May 
 
 Thin 
 
 OR 
 TRANS- 
 PLANT 
 TO 
 
 (Inches) 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 to 12 
 12 
 
 Height 
 (Inches) 
 
 1 to V4. 
 
 1 to 2 
 
 H to 3 
 
 1 
 
 M to 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 to 10 
 3 
 Vs 
 
 1 
 
 1 to 2 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 to 214 
 
 2 to 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 to Wi 
 M to3 
 
 1 to IH 
 
 6 
 2 
 
 1)4 to 2 
 
 Season of 
 Bloom 
 
 June-Sept. 
 
 June 
 
 to frost 
 
 July, 
 
 August 
 
 July-Oct. 
 
 July to frost 
 
 July 
 
 Aug. to frost 
 July to frost 
 
 June- 
 August 
 
 June 
 
 to frost 
 
 July to frost 
 
 April 
 to frost 
 
 June 
 
 to frost 
 
 July to frost 
 
 June- 
 August 
 June- 
 August 
 July, 
 August 
 July to frost 
 Aug. to frost 
 
 Aug. to frost 
 
 July to frost 
 
 July-Sept 
 July to frost 
 
 July-Sept. 
 
 June-Oct. 
 July-Sept. 
 June, July 
 
 Aug., Sept. 
 
 June 
 
 to frost 
 
 June-Oct. 
 
 Color ok 
 Flowers 
 
 Blue, white, 
 
 red, pink 
 
 Blue, white 
 
 Pink, blue, 
 white 
 Yellow 
 Yellow 
 Yellow, pur- 
 ple, white 
 
 White 
 Greenish 
 
 yellow 
 Blue, pink, 
 
 white 
 Yellow, red, 
 
 orange 
 
 White, pink, 
 
 red, yellow 
 
 Various 
 
 Red, white, 
 
 pink 
 Red, white, 
 pink, yellow 
 Pink, red, yel- 
 low, white 
 Red, yellow, 
 
 white 
 White, pink, 
 
 red 
 
 Red, white 
 
 Yellow, white 
 
 red, brown 
 
 Scarlet 
 
 White, pur- 
 ple, yellow 
 Red, white. 
 Yellow, white, 
 
 pink, red 
 
 Pink, scarlet 
 
 white, yellow 
 
 White 
 
 .\ll colors 
 
 Red, white 
 
 pink 
 
 White, blue 
 White, pink, 
 
 red, blue 
 
 Red, yellow, 
 
 pink, white 
 
HOW FAR APART TO PLANT 
 
 119 
 
 Distance-Tables 
 
 Usual distances apart for planting fruits 
 
 Apples 30 to 40 feet each way. 
 
 Apples, dwarf (Paradise stocks) 8 to 10 feet each way. 
 
 Apples, dwarf (Doucin stocks) 12 to 25 feet each way. 
 
 Pears 20 to 30 feet each way. 
 
 Pears, dwarf 10 to 15 feet each way. 
 
 Plums 16 to 20 feet each way. 
 
 Peaches 16 to 20 feet each way. 
 
 Cherries 16 to 25 feet each way. 
 
 Apricots 16 to 20 feet each way. 
 
 Nectarines 16 to 20 feet each way. 
 
 Quinces 8 to 14 feet each way. 
 
 Figs 20 to 25 feet each way. 
 
 Mulberries 25 to 30 feet each way. 
 
 Japanese Persimmons 20 to 25 feet each way. 
 
 Loquats 15 to 25 feet each way. 
 
 Pecans 35 to 40 feet each way. 
 
 Grapes 8 to 12 feet each way. 
 
 Currants 
 Gooseberries 
 
 4X5 feet. 
 4X5 feet. 
 
 Raspberries, black 3X6 feet. 
 
 Raspberries, red 3X5 feet. 
 
 Blackberries 4X7 to 6X8 feet. 
 
 Cranberries 1 or 2 ft. apart each way. 
 
 Strawberries 1 X 3 or 4 feet. 
 
 Oranges and Lemons 25 to 30 feet each way. 
 
 Distances recommended for orange trees in California 
 
 Dwarfs, as Tangerines 10 to 12 feet. 
 
 Half-dwarfs, as Washington Navel 24 to 30 feet. 
 
 Mediterranean Sweet, Maltese Blood, Valencia . . 24 to 30 feet. 
 
 St. Michael , 18 to 24 feet. 
 
 Seedlings 30 to 40 feet. 
 
 Usual distances apart for planting vegetables (see also table, p. 109) 
 
 Artichoke . 
 Asparagus 
 Beans, bush 
 Beans, pole 
 Beet, early 
 Beet, late . 
 Broccoli 
 Cabbage, early 
 Cabbage, late 
 Carrot . 
 Cauliflower 
 Celery . . 
 
 Corn-salad 
 
 Corn, Sweet 
 
 Cress 
 
 Cucumber 
 
 Egg-plant . 
 
 Endive 
 
 Horseradish 
 
 Rows 3 or 4 ft. apart, 2 to 3 ft. apart in the row. 
 Rows 3 to 4 ft. apart, 1 to 2 ft. apart in the row. 
 
 1 ft. apart in rows 2 to 3 ft. apart. 
 3 to 4 ft. each way. 
 
 In drills 12 to 18 in. apart. 
 In drills 2 to 3 ft. apart. 
 IH X 214 ft. to 2 X 3 ft. 
 16 X 28 in. to 18 X 30 in. 
 
 2 X 3 ft. to 2}4 X SH ft. 
 In drills 1 to 2 ft. apart. 
 
 2 X 2 ft. to 2 X 3 ft. 
 
 Rows 3 to 4 ft. apart, 6 to 9 in. in the row; "new celery 
 
 culture," 7 X 7 in., each way. 
 In drills 12 to 18 in. apart. 
 
 ,^ ft. apart, 9 in. 
 
 In drills 10 to 12 in. apart. 
 4 to 5 ft. each way. 
 3 X 3 ft 
 
 1 X 1 ft! to 1 X 1)^ ft. 
 
 1 X 2 or 3 ft. 
 
 to 2 ft. in the row. 
 
120 
 
 PLANTING-TABLES 
 
 Kohlrabi 
 Leek 
 Lettuce 
 Melons, musk 
 Melons, wate 
 Mushroom 
 Okra . . 
 Onion . . 
 Parsley 
 Parsnip 
 Peas . . 
 
 Pepper 
 Potato . . 
 Pumpkin . 
 Radish . . 
 Rhubarb . 
 Salsify . . 
 Sea-kale 
 Spinach 
 Squash, bush 
 Squash, late 
 Sweet Potato 
 Tomato 
 Turnip 
 
 10 X 1<S in. to 1 X 2 ft. 
 
 6 in. X 1 or 11^ ft. 
 
 1 X 1 » 2 or 2 ft. 
 
 5 to ft. each way. 
 
 7 to 8 ft. each way. 
 G to S in. each way. 
 1 1^ X 2 or 3 ft. 
 
 In drills from 14 to 20 in. apart. 
 
 In drills 1 to 2 ft. apart. 
 
 In drills, 18 in. to 3 ft. apart. 
 
 In drills ; early kinds, usually in double rows, 6 to 9 in. apart ; 
 
 late kinds, in single rows, 2 to 3 ft. apart. 
 15 to 18 in. X 2 to 2^ ft. 
 10 to 18 in. X 21^ to 3 ft. 
 
 8 to 10 ft. each way. 
 
 In drills, 10 to 18 in. apart. 
 
 2 to 4 ft. X 4 ft. 
 
 In drills, 1 V^ to 2 ft. apart. 
 
 2 X 2 to 3 ft. 
 
 In drills, 12 to 18 in. apart. 
 
 3 to 4 ft. X 4 ft. 
 
 6 to 8 ft. each way. 
 2 ft. X 3 to 4 ft. 
 
 4 ft. X 4 to 5 ft. 
 
 In drills, li^ to 2)^ ft. apart. 
 
 Number of plants required to set an acre of ground at given distances 
 
 This table is computed by dividing 43,560 (the number of square feet in an 
 acre) by the product of the two distances, in feet: 43,560 -r 6 (2 ft. X 3 ft.) = 
 7260. This assumes that the acre is full to the margin. A square acre is a 
 little less than 209 ft. on all sides. 
 
 
 n. 
 
 X 
 
 1 i 
 
 
 n. 
 
 X 
 
 2 i 
 
 
 n. 
 
 X 
 
 3i 
 
 
 n. 
 
 X 
 
 4 i 
 
 
 n. 
 
 X 
 
 5 i 
 
 
 n. 
 
 X 
 
 6 i 
 
 
 n. 
 
 X 
 
 7 i 
 
 
 n. 
 
 X 
 
 8i 
 
 
 n. 
 
 X 
 
 9 i 
 
 
 in. 
 
 X 
 
 10 i 
 
 
 in. 
 
 X 
 
 11 i 
 
 
 in. 
 
 X 
 
 12 i 
 
 2 
 
 n. 
 
 X 
 
 2 i 
 
 2 
 
 n. 
 
 X 
 
 3i 
 
 2 
 
 n. 
 
 X 
 
 4 i 
 
 2 
 
 n. 
 
 X 
 
 5 i 
 
 2 
 
 n. 
 
 X 
 
 6 i 
 
 2 
 
 in. 
 
 X 
 
 7 i 
 
 2 
 
 n. 
 
 X 
 
 8 i 
 
 2 
 
 in. 
 
 X 
 
 9 i 
 
 2 
 
 in. 
 
 X 
 
 10 i 
 
 2 
 
 in. 
 
 X 
 
 11 i 
 
 2 
 
 in. 
 
 X 
 
 12 i 
 
 3 
 
 n. 
 
 X 
 
 3 i 
 
 3 
 
 n. 
 
 X 
 
 4 i 
 
 3 
 
 in. 
 
 X 
 
 5 i 
 
 Plants 
 
 n 6,272,640 
 
 n 3,136,320 
 
 n 2,090,880 
 
 n 1,568,160 
 
 n 1,254,528 
 
 n 1,045,440 
 
 n 896,091 
 
 n 784,080 
 
 n 696,960 
 
 n 627,264 
 
 n 570,240 
 
 n. . . . 
 n. . , . 
 n. , . , 
 n. . . . 
 n. . . . 
 n. . . . 
 n. . . . 
 n. . , . 
 n. . . . 
 n. . . . 
 n. . . . 
 n. . . . 
 n. . . . 
 n. . 
 
 . . . 522.720 
 
 . . . 1,568,160 
 
 . . . 1,045,440 
 
 . . . 784.080 
 
 . . . 627.264 
 
 . . . 522.720 
 
 . . . 448.045 
 
 . . . 392.040 
 
 . . . 348.480 
 
 . . . 313.632 
 
 . . . 285,120 
 
 . . . 261,360 
 
 . . . 696,960 
 
 . . . 522,720 
 
 u 418,170 
 
 X 6 in. . 
 
 
 
 
 X 7 in. . 
 
 
 
 
 X 8 in. . 
 
 
 
 
 X 9 in. . 
 
 
 
 
 X 10 in. . 
 
 
 
 
 X 11 in. . 
 
 
 
 
 X 12 in. . 
 
 
 
 
 X 4 in. . 
 
 
 
 
 X 5 in. . 
 
 
 
 
 X 6 in. . 
 
 
 
 
 X 7 in. . 
 
 
 
 
 X 8 m.. 
 
 
 
 
 X 9 in. . 
 
 
 
 
 X 10 in. . 
 
 
 
 
 X 11 in. . 
 
 
 
 
 X 12 in. . 
 
 
 
 
 X 5 in. . 
 
 
 
 
 X 6 in. . 
 
 
 
 
 X 7 in. . 
 
 
 
 
 X 8 in. . 
 
 
 
 
 X 9 in. . 
 
 
 
 
 X 10 in. . 
 
 
 
 
 X 11 in. . 
 
 
 
 
 X 12 in. . 
 
 
 
 
 X 6 in. . 
 
 
 
 
 X 7 in. . 
 
 
 
 
 Plants 
 348.480 
 298.697 
 261.360 
 232.320 
 209.088 
 190,080 
 174,240 
 392.040 
 313.632 
 261.360 
 224,022 
 196.020 
 174.240 
 156.816 
 142,560 
 130.680 
 250,905 
 209,088 
 179,218 
 156,816 
 139,392 
 125.452 
 114.048 
 104,544 
 174.240 
 149,348 
 
NUMBER OF PLANTS TO THE ACRE 
 
 121 
 
 Plants 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 X 12 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 15 
 18 
 20 
 24 
 X 30 
 X 36 
 X 42 
 X 48 
 X 54 
 X 60 
 X 15 
 X 18 
 X 20 
 X 30 
 X 42 
 X 54 
 X 15 
 X 18 
 X 20 
 X 24 
 X 30 
 X 36 
 X 42 
 X 48 
 X 54 
 
 X 20 
 X 24 
 X 30 
 X 38 
 X 42 
 X 48 
 X 54 
 X 60 
 X 20 
 X 24 
 X 30 
 
 n. or 2 ft. 
 
 n. or 3 ft. 
 
 or 4 ft. 
 
 n. 
 n. 
 
 n. . . . 
 n. or 5 ft. 
 n. . . . 
 n. . . . 
 n. . . . 
 n. . . . 
 n. . . . 
 n. . . . 
 n. . . . 
 n. . . . 
 n. . . . 
 n. or 2 ft. 
 n. . . . 
 n. or 3 ft. 
 n. . . . 
 n. or 4 ft. 
 n. . . . 
 n. or 5 ft. 
 n. . . . 
 n. . . . 
 n. or 2 ft. 
 n. . 
 
 n. or 3 ft. 
 n. . . . 
 n. or 4 ft. 
 n. . . . 
 n. or 5 ft. 
 n. . . . 
 n. or 2 ft. 
 n. . . . 
 
 30,680 
 
 20 in. 
 
 16,160 
 
 20 in. 
 
 04,544 
 
 20 in. 
 
 95,040 
 
 20 in. 
 
 87,120 
 
 20 in. 
 
 28,013 
 
 1 ft. 
 
 12,011 
 
 1 ft. 
 
 99,562 
 
 1ft. 
 
 89,609 
 
 1ft. 
 
 81,462 
 
 1 ft. 
 
 74,674 
 
 1ft. 
 
 98,010 
 
 1 ft. 
 
 87,120 
 
 1 ft. 
 
 78,408 
 
 1 ft. 
 
 71,280 
 
 1 ft. 
 
 65,340 
 
 1 ft. 
 
 77,440 
 
 1 ft. 
 
 69,696 
 
 2 ft. 
 
 63,360 
 
 2 ft. 
 
 58,080 
 
 2 ft. 
 
 62,726 
 
 2 ft. 
 
 52,272 
 
 2 ft. 
 
 41,817 
 
 2 ft. 
 
 34,848 
 
 2 ft. 
 
 31,363 
 
 2 ft. 
 
 26,136 
 
 2 ft. 
 
 20,908 
 
 2 ft. 
 
 17,424 
 
 2 ft. 
 
 14,935 
 
 3 ft. 
 
 13,068 
 
 3 ft. 
 
 11,616 
 
 3 ft. 
 
 10,454 
 
 3 ft. 
 
 34,848 
 
 3 ft. 
 
 29,040 
 
 3 ft. 
 
 26,136 
 
 3 ft. 
 
 17,424 
 
 3 ft. 
 
 12,446 
 
 3 ft. 
 
 9,680 
 
 3 ft. 
 
 27,878 
 
 4 ft. 
 
 23,232 
 
 4 ft. 
 
 20,908 
 
 4 ft. 
 
 17,424 
 
 4 ft. 
 
 13,939 
 
 4 ft. 
 
 11,616 
 
 4 ft. 
 
 9,953 
 
 4 ft. 
 
 8,712 
 
 4 ft. 
 
 7,744 
 
 4 ft. 
 
 6,969 
 
 5 ft. 
 
 19,360 
 
 5 ft. 
 
 17,424 
 
 5 ft. 
 
 14,520 
 
 5 ft. 
 
 11,616 
 
 5 ft. 
 
 9,680 
 
 5 ft. 
 
 8,297 
 
 5 ft. 
 
 7,260 
 
 5 ft. 
 
 6,453 
 
 6 ft. 
 
 5,808 
 
 6 ft. 
 
 15,681 
 
 6 ft. 
 
 13,068 
 
 6 ft. 
 
 10,454 
 
 6 ft. 
 
 Plants 
 
 X 36 in. or 3 ft. . . . 8,712 
 
 X 42 in 7,467 
 
 X 48 in. or 4 ft. . . . 6,534 
 
 X 54 in 5,808 
 
 X 60 in. or 5 ft. . . . 5,227 
 
 X 1 ft 43,560 
 
 X 2 ft 21,780 
 
 X 3 ft 14,520 
 
 X 4 ft 10,890 
 
 X 5 ft 8,712 
 
 X 6 ft 7,260 
 
 X 7 ft 6,223 
 
 X 8 ft 5,445 
 
 X 9 ft 4,840 
 
 X 10 ft 4,356 
 
 X 11 ft 3,960 
 
 X 12 ft 3,630 
 
 X 2 ft 10,890 
 
 X 3 ft 7,260 
 
 X 4 ft 5,445 
 
 X 5 ft 4,356 
 
 X 6 ft 3,630 
 
 X 7 ft 3,111 
 
 X 8 ft 2,722 
 
 X 9 ft 2,420 
 
 X 10 ft 2,178 
 
 X 11 ft 1,980 
 
 X 12 ft 1,815 
 
 X 3 ft 4,840 
 
 X 4 ft 3,630 
 
 X 5 ft 2,904 
 
 X 6 ft 2,420 
 
 X 7 ft 2,074 
 
 X 8 ft 1,815 
 
 X 9 ft 1,613 
 
 X 10 ft 1,452 
 
 X 11 ft 1,320 
 
 X 12 ft 1,210 
 
 X 4 ft 2,722 
 
 X 5 ft 2,178 
 
 X 6 ft 1,815 
 
 X 7 ft 1,556 
 
 X 8 ft 1,361 
 
 X 9 ft 1,210 
 
 X 10 ft 1,089 
 
 X 11 ft 990 
 
 X 12 ft 907 
 
 X 5 ft 1,742 
 
 X 6 ft 1,452 
 
 X 7 ft 1,244 
 
 X 8 ft 1,089 
 
 X 9 ft 968 
 
 X 10 ft 871 
 
 X 11 ft 792 
 
 X 12 ft 726 
 
 X 6 ft 1,210 
 
 X 7 ft 1,037 
 
 X 8 ft C07 
 
 X 9 ft 806 
 
 X 10 ft 726 
 
122 
 
 PLANTING-TABLES 
 
 Plants 
 
 Plants 
 
 6 ft. X 11 ft. . . . 
 
 ... 660 
 
 18 ft. X 
 
 42 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 57 
 
 6 ft. X 12 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 605 
 
 18 ft. X 
 
 48 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 50 
 
 7 ft. X 7 ft. . . . 
 
 ... 889 
 
 18 ft. X 
 
 54 ft 
 
 . . 44 
 
 7 ft. X 8 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 777 
 
 18 ft. X 
 
 60 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 40 
 
 7 ft. X 9 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 691 
 
 20 ft. X 
 
 20 ft. . . . 
 
 108 
 
 7 ft. X 10 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 622 
 
 20 ft. X 
 
 24 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 90 
 
 7 ft. X 11 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 565 
 
 20 ft. X 
 
 30 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 72 
 
 7 ft. X 12 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 518 
 
 20 ft. X 
 
 36 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 60 
 
 8 ft. X 8 ft. . . . 
 
 ... 680 
 
 20 ft. X 
 
 42 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 51 
 
 8 ft. X 9 ft. . . . 
 
 ... 605 
 
 20 ft. X 
 
 48 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 45 
 
 8 ft. X 10 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 544 
 
 20 ft. X 
 
 54 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 40 
 
 8 ft. X 11 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 495 
 
 20 ft. X 
 
 60 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 36 
 
 8 ft. X 12 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 453 
 
 24 ft. X 
 
 24 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 75 
 
 9 ft. X 9 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 537 
 
 24 ft. X 
 
 30 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 60 
 
 9 ft. X 10 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 484 
 
 24 ft. X 
 
 36 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 50 
 
 9 ft. X 11 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 440 
 
 24 ft. X 
 
 42 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 43 
 
 9 ft. X 12 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 403 
 
 24 ft. X 
 
 48 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 37 
 
 9 ft. X 14 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 345 
 
 24 ft. X 
 
 54 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 33 
 
 9 ft. X 15 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 322 
 
 24 ft. X 
 
 60 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 30 
 
 9 ft. X 18 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 268 
 
 30 ft. X 
 
 30 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 48 
 
 9 ft. X 20 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 242 
 
 30 ft. X 
 
 36 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 40 
 
 10 ft. X 10 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 435 
 
 30 ft. X 
 
 42 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 34 
 
 10 ft. X 12 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 363 
 
 30 ft. X 
 
 48 ft. ... 
 
 . . 30 
 
 10 ft. X 15 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 290 
 
 30 ft. X 
 
 54 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 26 
 
 10 ft. X 18 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 242 
 
 30 ft. X 
 
 00 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 24 
 
 10 ft. X 20 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 217 
 
 36 ft. X 
 
 36 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 33 
 
 10 ft. X 24 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 181 
 
 36 ft. X 
 
 42 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 28 
 
 10 ft. X 30 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 145 
 
 36 ft. X 
 
 48 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 25 
 
 10 ft. X 36 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 121 
 
 36 ft. X 
 
 54 ft. ... 
 
 . . 22 
 
 10 ft. X 42 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 103 
 
 36 ft. X 
 
 60 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 20 
 
 10 ft. X 45 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 96 
 
 38 ft. X 
 
 38 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 30 
 
 10 ft. X 48 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 90 
 
 38 ft. X 
 
 40 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 28 
 
 10 ft. X 54 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 80 
 
 38 ft. X 
 
 42 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 27 
 
 10 ft. X 60 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 72 
 
 38 ft. X 
 
 48 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 23 
 
 12 ft. X 12 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 302 
 
 38 ft. X 
 
 50 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 22 
 
 12 ft. X 15 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 242 
 
 38 ft. X 
 
 54 ft. ... 
 
 . . 21 
 
 12 ft. X 18 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 201 
 
 38 ft. X 
 
 60 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 19 
 
 12 ft. X 20 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 181 
 
 40 ft. X 
 
 40 ft. ... 
 
 . . 27 
 
 12 ft. X 24 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 151 
 
 40 ft. X 
 
 42 ft. ... 
 
 . . 25 
 
 12 ft. X 30 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 121 
 
 40 ft. X 
 
 48 ft. ... 
 
 . . 22 
 
 12 ft. X 36 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 100 
 
 40 ft. X 
 
 50 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 21 
 
 12 ft. X 42 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 86 
 
 40 ft. X 
 
 54 ft. ... 
 
 . . 20 
 
 12 ft. X 48 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 75 
 
 40 ft. X 
 
 60 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 18 
 
 12 ft. X 54 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 67 
 
 42 ft. X 
 
 42 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 24 
 
 12 ft. X 60 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 60 
 
 42 ft. X 
 
 48 ft. ... 
 
 . . 21 
 
 15 ft. X 15 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 193 
 
 42 ft. X 
 
 54 ft. ... 
 
 . . 19 
 
 15 ft. X 18 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 161 
 
 42 ft. X 
 
 60 ft. ... 
 
 . . 17 
 
 15 ft. X 20 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 145 
 
 48 ft. X 
 
 48 ft. ... 
 
 . . 18 
 
 15 ft. X 24 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 121 
 
 48 ft. X 
 
 54 ft. ... 
 
 . . 16 
 
 15 ft. X 30 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 96 
 
 48 ft. X 
 
 60 ft. ... 
 
 . . 15 
 
 15 ft. X 36 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 80 
 
 50 ft. X 
 
 50 ft 
 
 . . 17 
 
 15 ft. X 42 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 69 
 
 50 ft. X 
 
 54 ft. ... 
 
 . . 16 
 
 15 ft. X 48 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 60 
 
 50 ft. X 
 
 60 ft. . . . 
 
 . . 14 
 
 15 ft. X 54 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 53 
 
 54 ft. X 
 
 54 ft. ... 
 
 . . 14 
 
 15 ft. X 60 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 48 
 
 54 ft. X 
 
 60 ft. ... 
 
 . . 13 
 
 18 ft. X 18 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 134 
 
 60 ft. X 
 
 60 ft. ... 
 
 . . 12 
 
 18 ft. X 20 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 121 
 
 70 ft. X 
 
 70 ft. ... 
 
 . . 8 
 
 18 ft. X 24 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 100 
 
 80 ft. X 
 
 80 ft. ... 
 
 . . 7 
 
 18 ft. X 30 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 80 
 
 90 ft. X 
 
 90 ft. ... 
 
 . . 5 
 
 18 ft. X 36 ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 67 
 
 100 ft. X 100 ft. ... 
 
 . . 4 
 
FAMILY GARDEN 
 
 123 
 
 Quincunx plant- 
 ing. 
 
 To find the num- 
 ber of plants re- 
 quired to set an 
 acre by the quin- 
 cunx method, ascer- 
 tain from the above 
 tables the number 
 required at the 
 given rectangular 
 distances, and then 
 increase the number 
 by one-half. 
 
 The real quincunx 
 planting places a 
 tree in the center of 
 the square. The § 
 trees cannot all be 
 equal distance apart. 
 The so-called quin- 
 cunx that places all 
 trees at equal dis- 
 tances is only the 
 square method run- 
 ning diagonally 
 across the field. 
 
 Plan for a Home 
 Garden (Fig. 4) 
 
 Many plans may 
 be found in books 
 and periodicals for 
 home gardens. 
 They are not to be 
 accepted literally, *" 
 but as suggestions 
 of the problems in- 
 volved. 
 
 ■vsi 
 
 79'— 
 
 >a ^LA/rra PmuBAitt 
 
 4smAltA%V9 
 
 I « V • 
 
 KMviea. d^. 
 
 — .... 44rc4d/_^jiwf/i/cf_uw.£e'MCi 
 
 L«jc£t« 
 
 BnfiA£inxJ'iv^v/sfpmiisMrJ!£f*v, _. 
 
 iirsvtpievJit^-iHivutQ'LVte£tvurim>a^ 
 
 C'a«.fl«i«.ji«tot<!«'.f»>ei»j<iav*< 
 
 .Suv^iiMtniifx Ifa.'iav ,|, ft^i xiet Ji^j/t 
 
 Xtfiwt. Sa.^a. a«!*t (PABMiujr'mL l.fZ'jitil av«. uuwM 
 
 ^tt'sia 
 
 .Q/A^J 
 
 — C-atPj-i .J, af-Tasfti-!* 
 
 .^MMV .. 
 
 C'JWJ^UEK 
 
 £vLr.C.AftttL-C'!i.f£Uiiws^e£L'^vXJ&»i>:.Q'iSiurjifiJiu ___», 
 
 . J2. J'ifAZOj^.VIItJSf'Ji'tejnALiSV- 
 
 -0 
 
 D 
 -O 
 
 •••••• 
 
 
 O I 
 
 LAMTS. 3«\ 
 
 fAA>ic3xLi£<is% 
 
 (m<x StitfL Cwi. 
 
 .'i'-Oitr Ss'jcQ'S'i. 
 
 Cf±>-LC»tA_^wjrrSS*£ 
 
 >fii1.C«'_SK£«r &*._ 
 
 . a»_»£."a evfifV- 
 
 70- 
 
 E 
 
 Fig. 4. — A garden for a family of six 
 persons (Suburban Life). 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 Maturities, Yields, and Multiplication 
 
 Any figures of dates of maturity of the various plants or crops and 
 of yields must necessarily be only approximately or averagely correct ; 
 but methods of multiplication allow of more definite statement. 
 
 Maturity-Tables 
 
 Time required for maturity of different garden crops, reckoned from the 
 sowing of the seeds 
 
 Days from Seed 
 
 Beans, string 45-65 
 
 Beans, shell 65-70 
 
 Beets, turnip 65 
 
 Beets, long blood 150 
 
 Cabbage, early 105 
 
 Cabbage, late 150 
 
 Cauliflower 110 
 
 Corn 75 
 
 Egg-plant 150-160 
 
 Lettuce 65 
 
 Melon, water 120-140 
 
 Melon, musk 120-140 
 
 Onion 135-150 
 
 Pepper 140-150 
 
 Pumpkin 100-125 
 
 Radish 30-45 
 
 Squash, summer 60-65 
 
 Squash, winter 125 
 
 Tomatoes 150 
 
 Turnips 60-70 
 
 Time required, from setting, for fr nit-plants to hear. (For northern and 
 central latitudes) 
 
 Apple — 3 to 5 years. Good croji in about 10 to 18 years. 
 Apple, on paradise stocks, good crops in 4 to 5 years. 
 Blackberry — 1 year. Good crops in 2 and 3 years. 
 
 124 
 
MATURITY AND YIELD TABLES 125 
 
 Citrous fruits (oranges, lemons, etc.) — 2 to 3 years. Good crop 
 2 or 3 years later. 
 
 Cranberry — 3 years gives a fair crop. 
 
 Currant — 1 year. Good crops in 2 and 3 years. 
 
 Gooseberry — 1 year. Good crops in 2 and 3 years. 
 
 Grape — ■ Fair crop in 4 years. 
 
 Peach — 2 j^ears. Good crop in 4 and 5 years. 
 
 Pear — 3 or 4 years. Fair crop in 6 to 12 years ; dwarfs in 5 to 7 
 years. 
 
 Persimmon, or Kaki — 1 to 3 years. 
 
 Quince — 2 years. Good crop in 4 years. 
 
 Raspberry — 1 year. Good crop in 2 and 3 years. 
 
 Plum — 3 years. Good crop in 5 or 6 years. 
 
 Strawberry — 1 year. Heaviest crop usually in 2 years. 
 
 Average profitable longevity of fruit-plants under high culture 
 
 Apple 35-50 years 
 
 (Less in parts of the prairie states 
 and more in northeastern states.) 
 
 Blackberry 6-10 years 
 
 Currant 20 years 
 
 Gooseberry 20 years 
 
 Orange and Lemon . . 50 or more 
 
 Peach 8-12 years 
 
 Pear 50-75 years 
 
 Persimmon, or Kaki, as long as an 
 apple-tree. 
 
 Plum 20-25 years 
 
 Raspberry 6-10 years 
 
 Strawberry 1-3 years 
 
 When serious trouble from diseases is to be apprehended, the plan- 
 tation may be brought into early fruiting and then destroyed before the 
 disease makes great headway. This is particularly applicable to black- 
 berries, raspberries, and strawberries. 
 
 Yield- Tables 
 
 Average full yields per acre of various horticultural crops 
 
 The yields of those crops in which the salable products are equal in 
 number to the number of plants per acre, and in which the product is 
 sold by the piece, are to be calculated from the planting-tables in 
 Chap. VI — such as cabbage, celery, and the like. Usually the profits 
 are secured from yields above the average. The statements here 
 given are growers' estimates rather than census figures. 
 
 Apples — A tree 20 to 30 years old may be expected to yield from 
 25 to 40 bushels every alternate year. 
 
126 MATURITIES, YIELDS, AND MULTIPLICATION 
 
 Artichoke — 200 to 300 bushels. 
 
 Beans, Green or Snap — 75 to 120 bushels. 
 
 Beans, Lima — 75 to 100 bushels of dry beans. 
 
 Beets — 400 to 700 bushels. 
 
 Carrots — 400 to 700 bushels. 
 
 Corn — 50 to 75 bushels, shelled. 
 
 Cranberry — 100 to 300 bushels. 900 bushels have been reported. 
 
 Cucumber — About 150,000 fruits per acre. 
 
 Currant — 100 bushels. 
 
 Egg-plant — 1 or 2 large fruits to the plant for the large sorts like 
 New York Purple, and from 3 to 8 fruits for the smaller varieties. 
 
 Gooseberry — 100 bushels. 
 
 Grape — 3 to 5 tons. Good raisin vineyards in California, 15 years 
 old, \s\\\ produce from 10 to 12 tons. 
 
 Horseradish — 3 to 5 tons. 
 
 Kohlrabi — 500 to 1000 bushels. 
 
 Onion, from seed — 300 to 800 bushels. 600 bushels is a large 
 average yield. 
 
 Parsnips — 500 to 800 bushels. 
 
 Pea, green in pod — 100 to 150 bushels. 
 
 Peach — In full bearing, a peach tree should produce from 5 to 10 
 bushels. 
 
 Pear — A tree 20 to 25 years old should give from 25 to 45 
 bushels. 
 
 Pepper — 30,000 to 50,000 fruits. 
 
 Plum — 5 to 8 bushels may be considered an average crop for an 
 average tree. 
 
 Potato — 100 to 300 bushels. 
 
 Quince — 100 to 300 bushels. 
 
 Raspberry and blackberry — 50 to 100 bushels. 
 
 Salsify — 200 to 300 bushels. 
 
 Spinach — 200 barrels. 
 
 Strawberry — 75 to 250 or even 300 bushels. 
 
 Tomato — 8 to 16 tons. 
 
 Turnip — 600 to 1000 bushels. 
 
 For yields of seeds in various garden crops (by seed-growers), see 
 p. 105. 
 
YIELD-TABLES 
 
 127 
 
 Yields of field crops (Cyclo. Am. Agric.) 
 
 As reported by observers in several parts of the continent 
 
 Quebec 
 
 Average 
 
 New York 
 
 Average Best 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Average 
 
 Best 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Average 
 
 Best 
 
 Alfalfa . . 
 Barley . . 
 Beans, field 
 Broom-corn 
 Buckwheat 
 Cabbage 
 Carrots 
 Clover . 
 Cotton . 
 
 Cowpeas 
 
 Field-pea 
 
 Flax . 
 
 Kohlrabi 
 
 Lespedeza 
 
 Maize . 
 
 Mangels 
 
 Melilotus 
 
 Millet . 
 
 Oats . 
 
 Parsnips 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Pumpkin 
 
 Rape . 
 
 Rice 
 
 Rutabaga 
 
 Rye . 
 
 Sorghum 
 
 Soybean . 
 
 Sugar-beets 
 
 Sugar-cane 
 
 Sweet-potatoes 
 
 Timothy 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 Turnips 
 
 Vetch . 
 
 Wheat . 
 
 3 tons 
 25 bu. 
 20 bu. 
 
 25 bu. 
 12 tons 
 12 tons 
 2 tons 
 
 25 bu. 
 15 bu. 
 
 25 bu. 
 20 tons 
 
 35 bu. 
 150 bu. 
 20 tons 
 
 10 tons 
 15 bu. 
 
 15 tons 
 
 2 tons 
 1000 lb. 
 10 tons 
 2 tons 
 15 bu. 
 
 2.3 tons 
 23.9 bu. 
 10.5 bu. 
 565 lb. 
 16.9 bu. 
 10 tons 
 10 tons 
 1.1 tons 
 
 45 bu. 
 15 bu. 
 
 1.7 tons 
 10 bu. 
 10 bu. 
 455 lb. 
 10 bu. 
 100 crates 
 
 1-2 tons 
 l^ bale 
 10 bu. 
 1.5 tons 
 1-2 tons 
 
 5 tons 
 25 bu. 
 
 30 bu. 
 200 crates 
 
 3 tons 
 2 bales 
 30 bu. 
 5 tons 
 
 10 bu. 
 
 100 bu. 
 
 40 tons 
 
 5 tons 
 80 bu. 
 1000 bu. 
 500 bu. 
 
 1.25 tons 
 13 bu. 
 
 2 tons 
 1.5 tons 
 10 bu. 
 
 70 bu. 
 
 2 tons 
 100 bu. 
 
 4 tons 
 50 bu. 
 
 14 bu. 
 
 60 bu. 
 
 14 tons 
 16 bu. 
 
 7.8 tons 
 
 18.9 bu. 
 
 30 tons 
 35 bu. 
 
 30 tons 
 
 200 bu. 
 4 tons 
 
 28 tons 
 60 bu. 
 
 360 lb. 
 100 bu. 
 5.5 bu. 
 5-6 tons 
 12 bu. 
 1.7 tons 
 
 7-8 tons 
 85 bu. 
 1-2 tons 
 650 lb. 
 100 bu. 
 1-2 tons 
 7-8 bu. 
 
 3 tons 
 30 bu. 
 
 12 bu. 
 
 7bu. 
 2.5 tons 
 15 bu. 
 1.7 tons 
 
 200 3 
 80 bu. 
 
 500 lb. 
 
 1.5 tons 
 8bu. 
 
 7 tons 
 45 bu. 
 
 600 lb. 
 10 tons 
 
 3 tons 
 1000 lb. 
 
 30 bu. 
 
 2 tons 
 75 bu. 
 
 3.5 ton; 
 
 3 tons 
 70 bu. 
 
 300 bu 
 
 30 bu. 
 
 20 bu. 
 7 tons 
 25 bu, 
 4 tons 
 
 600' 
 400 bu. 
 
 1000 lb. 
 
 3 tons 
 30 bu. 
 
 Including varieties grown for stock-feeding. 
 
 2 Lint. 
 
 3 Gallons of syrup. 
 
128 MATURITIES, YIELDS, AND MULTIPLICATION 
 
 Yields of field crops — Continued 
 
 As reported for this volume by observers in several parts of the continent 
 
 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Manitoba 
 
 Eastern Texas 
 
 
 Average 
 
 Best 
 
 Average 
 
 Best 
 
 Average 
 
 Best 
 
 Average 
 
 Best 
 
 Alfalfa . 
 Barley . 
 Beans, field 
 Broom-corn 
 Buckwheat 
 Cabbage 
 Carrots . 
 Clover . 
 
 Cotton . 
 
 Cowpeas 
 
 Field-pea 
 
 Flax . . 
 
 Kohlrabi 
 
 Lespedeza 
 
 Maize . 
 
 Mangels 
 
 Melilotus 
 
 Millet . 
 
 Oats . . 
 
 Parsnips 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Pumpkin 
 
 Rape . 
 
 Rice 
 
 Rutabaga 
 
 Rye . . 
 
 Sorghum 
 
 Soybean 
 
 Sugar-beets 
 
 Sugar-cane 
 
 Swoct-potat 
 
 Timothy 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 Turnips 
 
 \'ftrh . 
 
 Wheat . 
 
 oes 
 
 3-4 tons 
 25 bu. 
 
 1.5 tons 
 18 bu. 
 
 40 bu. 
 18 tons 
 
 1.7 tons 
 
 30 bu. 
 
 100 bu. 
 
 14 bu. 
 
 9 tons 
 
 20 bu. 
 14 tons 
 
 1.5 tons 
 14 bu. 
 
 6 tons 
 40 bu. 
 
 2.5 tons 
 30 bu. 
 
 100 bu. 
 25 tons 
 
 4 tons 
 
 SObu. 
 
 200 bu. 
 
 50bu.» 
 15 tons 
 
 35 bu. 
 20 tons 
 
 2 tons 
 45 bu. 
 
 3 tons 
 30 bu. 
 18 bu. 
 
 15 bu. 
 
 10 tons 
 3 bu. seed 
 1.5 tons 
 
 8bu. 
 10 bu. 
 13 bu. 
 
 41 bu. 
 25 tons 
 2.5 tons 
 30bu.seed 
 2 tons 
 36 bu. 
 8 tons 
 92 bu. 
 
 15 tons 
 
 12 tons 
 
 16 bu. 
 
 15 bu. seed 
 8 tons 
 15 bu. 
 12 tons 
 
 1.5 tons 
 1280 lb. 
 10 tons 
 8 tons 2 
 12 bu. 
 
 6 tons 
 65 bu. 
 30 bu. 
 
 35 bu. 
 
 18 tons 
 5 bu. seed 
 4 tons 
 
 15 bu. 
 25 bu. 
 25 bu. 
 
 100 bu. 
 60 tons 
 4 tons 
 65bu.seed 
 4 tons 
 97 bu. 
 15 tons 
 400 bu. 
 
 35 tons 
 
 40 tons 
 40 bu. 
 25bu.seed 
 15 tons 
 35 bu. 
 30 tons 
 
 3.5 tons 
 1800 lb. 
 35 tons 
 12 tons 2 
 35 bu. 
 
 3 tons 
 30 bu. 
 
 300 bu. 
 2 tons 
 
 40 bu. 
 18 bu. 
 
 800 bu. 
 
 2 tons 
 
 40 bu. 
 300 bu. 
 300 bu. 
 
 10 tons 
 
 500 bu. 
 20 bu. 
 
 300 bu. 
 
 1.5 tons 
 
 600 bu. 
 2 tons 
 27 bu. 
 
 4 tons 
 75 bu. 
 
 800 bu. 
 4 tons 
 
 65 bu. 
 
 1200 bu. 
 
 4 tons 
 
 110 bu. 
 600 bu. 
 800 bu. 
 
 1000 bu. 
 40 bu. 
 
 800 bu. 
 
 4 tons 
 
 1100 bu. 
 3 tons 
 56 bu. 
 
 3 tons 
 150 bu. 
 
 4000 lb. 
 9000 lb. 
 
 Va bale 
 1.5 tons 
 40 bu. 
 
 1200 lb. 
 
 SObu. 
 
 5 tons 
 
 1 ton 
 
 35 bu. 
 9000 lb 
 60 bu. 
 
 6 tons 
 
 50 bu. 
 6 tons 
 
 2.5 tons 
 
 4 tons 
 25 tons 
 100 bu. 
 
 800 lb. 
 6 tons 
 
 12 bu. 
 
 7 tons 
 200 bu. 
 
 6000 lb. 
 12.000 lb. 
 
 2 bales 
 
 3 tons 
 60 bu. 
 
 2000 lb. 
 
 90 bu. 
 6 tons 
 
 2 tons 
 
 85 bu. 
 12.000 lb. 
 150 bu. 
 
 8 tons 
 
 100 bu. 
 8 tons 
 
 6 tons 
 
 6 tons 
 40 tons 
 400 bu. 
 
 12001b. 
 8 tons 
 
 48 bu. 
 
 1 Winter rye. 
 
 * Green feed. 
 
YIELD-TABLES 
 
 129 
 
 Yields of field crops — Continued 
 
 As reported for this volume by observers in several parts of the continent 
 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 Washington 
 
 British Co- 
 
 L.VMBIA. 
 
 
 Average 
 
 Best 
 
 Average 
 
 Be.st 
 
 Average 
 
 Best 
 
 Range 
 
 Alfalfa . . 
 Barley . . 
 Beans, field . 
 Broom-corn . 
 Buckwheat . 
 Cabbage . . 
 Carrots . . 
 Clover . . 
 Cotton , , 
 Cowpeas 
 Field-pea . 
 Flax . . . 
 Kohlrabi . 
 Lespedeza . 
 Maize . . 
 Mangels . . 
 Meliiotus . 
 Millet . . 
 Oats . . . 
 Parsnips . . 
 Potatoes 
 Pumpkin 
 
 Rape . . . 
 Rice . . . 
 Rutabaga . 
 Rye . . . 
 Sorghum 
 Soybean . . 
 Sugar-beets . 
 Sugar-cane . 
 Sweet-potato 
 Timothy . . 
 
 Tobacco . . 
 Turnip . . 
 Vetch . . . 
 
 Wheat . . 
 
 3 tons 
 40 bu. 
 600 lb. 
 
 22 bu. 
 35 bu. 
 
 11.5 tons 
 10,000 lb. 
 
 30 bu. 
 
 7 tons 
 70 bu. 
 1000 lb. 
 
 60 bu. 
 85 bu. 
 
 19.5 tons 
 18,000 lb. 
 
 63 bu. 
 
 3 tons 
 35 bu. 
 
 12,0001b. 
 18 bu. 
 
 40 bu. 
 75 bu. 
 
 15 tons 
 18 bu. 
 
 10 tons 
 
 1.5 tons 
 
 25.5 bu. 
 
 8.5 tons 
 
 16,150 1b. 
 21,1071b. 
 
 34.7 bu. 
 16 bu. 
 15,4751b. 
 
 137 bu. 
 8200 lb. 
 972 bu. 
 
 34 bu. 
 28.7 tons 
 
 40 tons 
 
 50 bu.3 
 78 bu." 
 
 6 tons 1 
 29.7 bu. 
 13 bu. 
 3000 lb. 
 19.4 bu. 
 ?855heads 
 476 bu. 
 
 2.2 tons 
 
 26 bu. 
 5.7 bu. 
 
 21 bu. 
 600 bu. 
 
 1.5 tons 
 42 bu. 
 377 bu. 
 142 bu. 
 1384 
 pumpkins 
 
 14.6 bu. 
 
 3.3 tons 
 2.9 tons 
 90 bu. 
 
 3.7 tons 
 1.5 tons 
 236 lb. 
 
 3 tons 
 25 bu. 
 
 lOtonsi 
 80 bu. 
 
 5 tons 
 
 40 bu. 
 
 150 bu. 
 500 bu. 
 
 18 tons 2 
 
 irrigated 
 dry land 
 
 100 bu. 
 
 35bu.tol05bu. 
 15bu. to25bu. 
 
 13bu.to41bu. 
 
 3 tons to 25 tons 
 
 4 tons to 85 tons 
 1.5 tons to 4.5 t. 
 
 25 bu.to 106 bu. 
 
 10 t. to 16 tons 
 
 10t.to45t.5 
 13 t. to50t. 
 
 1 ton to 6 tons 
 35 bu. to 125 bu. 
 
 8 t. to 28.5 1. 
 
 20 t. to 63 t. 
 15 bu.to 32 bu. 
 
 4.5 tons 
 6 tons to 23 tons 
 
 2 t. to 5.5 tons 
 
 11 bu.to 43 bu. 
 
 1 Under irrigation. On dry land, 2.5 tons and 4 tons, respectively. 
 2 Under irrigation, s Field culture. * Garden culture. * For silage. 
 
130 
 
 MATURITIES, YIELDS, AND MULTIPLICATION 
 
 Propagation-Tables 
 
 Tabular statement of the ways in which ylants are 'propagated'^ 
 
 A. By Seeds — Seedage 
 
 I. On their 
 own roots 
 
 B. By Buds 
 
 By unde- 
 tached 
 parts — 
 Layerage 
 
 II. By de- 
 detached 
 parts 
 
 II. On roots 
 of other 
 plants — 
 Graftage 
 
 By de- 
 tached 
 scions 
 
 1. Root-tips. 
 
 Stolons and runners. 
 Layers proper. 
 
 Simple. 
 
 Serpentine. 
 
 Mound or Stools. 
 
 Pot or Chinese. 
 
 By undivided parts. — Separa- 
 tion. (Bulbs, corms, bulblets, bulb 
 scales, tubers, etc.) 
 
 ' Division. 
 Cuttings 
 proper. 
 Of stems. 
 Growing 
 wood. 
 Ripened 
 wood. 
 Of tubers. 
 Of roots. 
 Of leaves, 
 flute, veneer, 
 
 By divided parts 
 — Cuttage 
 
 Budding : Shield 
 
 ring, annular, whistle or tubular. 
 Grafting : Whip, saddle, splice, 
 veneer, cleft, bark, herbaceous, 
 seed, double, cutting. 
 By undetached scions. — Inarching. 
 
 Particular methods by which various fruits are multiplied 
 
 Barberry Cuttings of mature wood ; seeds. 
 
 Orange Seeds ; seedlings budded or grafted. 
 
 Figs Cuttings, either of soft or mature wood. 
 
 Mulberry Cuttings of mature wood. Some varieties are 
 
 root-grafted, and some are budded. 
 Olive Cuttings of mature or even old wood. Chips 
 
 from the trunks of old trees are sometimes used. 
 
 Pomegranate Cuttings, layers, and seeds. 
 
 Apple and Pear .... Seeds ; seedlings budded or grafted. 
 
 Peach and other stone-fruits Seeds ; seedlings budded. Peach-trees are sold at 
 
 one year from the l>ud, but other stone-fruit 
 
 trees are planted when two or three years old. 
 
 Quince Cuttings, usually ; the cuttings often grafted. 
 
 Grape Cuttings of from one to three buds ; layers. 
 
 Currant and Gooseberry . . Cuttings ; gooseberry oftener by mound-layers. 
 Raspberries, red .... Suckers from the root ; root-cuttings. 
 Raspberries, black and purple Layers from tips of canes ; root-cuttings. 
 
 Blackberry Root-cuttings ; suckers from the root. 
 
 Dewberry Layers of tips of the canes ; root-cuttings. 
 
 Dwarf Juneberry .... Sprouts or suckers from the root. 
 Cranberry Layers or divisions. 
 
 » Modified from a synopsis prepared by B. M. Watson, Jr., Bussey Institution. 
 
PROPAGATION-TABLES 131 
 
 Strawberry Runners ; tip-cuttings. 
 
 Banana Suckers from the crown. 
 
 Stocks commonly used for various fruits 
 
 Almond Peach, hard-shell almond, plum. 
 
 Apple Common apple seedlings. Paradise and Doucin 
 
 stocks, crab-apple and wild crab. " French 
 crab " stocks are common apple seedlings reared 
 in France and imported. 
 
 Apricot Apricot and peach in mild climates, and plum in 
 
 severe ones ; Marianna. 
 
 Cherry Mazzard stocks are preferred for standards ; 
 
 Mahaleb stocks are used for dwarfing. The 
 wild pin-cherry {Prunus Pennsylvanica) is 
 sometimes used as stock in the Northwest, on 
 account of its hardiness. Seedlings of Morelio 
 cherries are also used there. 
 
 Medlar Hawthorn, medlar, quince. 
 
 Mulberry Seedlings of white and Russian mulberry; cut- 
 tings of Downing. 
 
 Orange Seedlings ; Otaheite orange, shaddock ; Citrus 
 
 trifoliata, particularly for dwarfs. 
 
 Peach and Nectarine . . . Peach. Plum is often used when dwarfs are 
 
 wanted, or when the peach must be grown in a 
 too severe climate or upon heavy soil. 
 
 Pear Pear (seedlings of common pear and the Chinese 
 
 type). Quince (rarely mountain ash, or 
 thorn) for dwarfs. Apple temporarily. 
 
 Persimmon, Japanese . . Native persimmon. 
 
 Plum Plum, myrobalan plum, peach ; Marianna. 
 
 Quince The finer varieties are sometimes grafted upon 
 
 strong-growing kinds like the Angers. When 
 cuttings are difficult to root, they are some- 
 times grafted upon apple roots, the foster-root 
 being removed upon transplanting, if it does 
 not fall away of itself. 
 
 How vegetable crops are propagated 
 By seeds 
 Artichoke, globe also by oflfsets (see p. 132) Kohlrabi 
 
 Asparagus Leek 
 
 Beans of all kinds Lettuce 
 
 Beet Martynla 
 
 Borecole or kale Muskmelon 
 
 Brussels sprout Mustard 
 
 Cabbage Onion (see also p. 132) 
 
 Carrot Parsley 
 
 Cauliflower and broccoli Parsnip 
 
 Celeriac Pea 
 
 Celery Pepper 
 
 Chicory Pumpkin 
 
 Corn Salsify 
 
 Corn-salad Spinach 
 
 Cress Squash 
 
 Cucumber Tomato 
 
 Dandelion Turnip 
 
 Egg-plant Watermelon 
 Endive 
 
132 MATURITIES, YIELDS, AND MVLTITLICATION 
 
 By other means than seeds 
 
 Artichoke, globe ; by seeds, but many worthless plants may be secured ; by 
 suckers about the crown of the old plant, if particular strains are to be per- 
 petuated. 
 
 Artichoke, Jerusalem ; by tubers, or divisions of the tubers. 
 
 Horseradish, cuttings of side roots. 
 
 Mushroom, by spawn (or dried and prepared mycelium) ; latterly also by 
 spores. 
 
 Onion, the "black seed" or usual onions, by seed ; potato or Egyptian onions, 
 by " tops" or bulblets borne in the place of flowers ; multipliers, by the natu- 
 ral di\'isions of the bulbs. Onion "sets" are small dry onions that renew 
 their growth when planted. 
 
 Potato, cuttings of the tubers. 
 
 Rhubarb, or pie-plant ; by seeds, but these give variable progeny ; preferably 
 by division of the roots into strong eyes. 
 
 Sea-kale ; by seeds, but better by root-cuttings from the best plants. 
 
 Yam, Chinese. Bulblets from the axils of the leaves ; division of the root. 
 
 How farm crops are propagated 
 
 By seeds 
 
 Alfalfa Peanut 
 
 Barley Pumpkin and Squash 
 
 Bean Rape 
 
 Broom-corn Rice 
 
 Buckwheat Root-crops 
 
 Cabbage Rubber, Para (Hevea), seeds in 
 
 Clover nursery beds. 
 
 Coffee, seeds started in beds, and trans- Rubber, Panama (Castilloa), 
 
 planted. seeds in nursery beds. 
 
 Corn Rubber, Ceara (Manihot), seeds 
 Cotton and cuttings. 
 
 Cowpea Rye 
 
 Flax Sorghum 
 
 Ginseng Sugar-beet 
 
 Grasses Tea, in nursery beds 
 
 Hemp Teasel 
 
 Kafir Tobacco 
 Millet • Vetch 
 
 Oats Wheat 
 
 By other parts than seeds 
 
 Arrow-root, division of underground parts. 
 
 Cassava, mostly by cuttings of the seed-canes, as for sugar-cane ; early va- 
 rieties sometimes by seed.s. 
 
 Hop, cuttings of the underground stems or "roots." 
 
 Potato, cuttings of the underground stems or tubers. 
 
 Sugar-cane, cuttings of the canes ; rarely by seeds for production of new va- 
 rieties. 
 
 Sweet-potato, sprouts from the potatoes, in seed-beds. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 Crops for Special Farm Practices. Home Storage and 
 Keeping of Crops 
 
 Different systems or plans of farming are expressed in the char- 
 acter of the cropping scheme ; and some of these schemes are so special 
 that they may be thrown together in a reference advice-book. 
 
 Forage Crops 
 
 Forage is herbage food, whether green or cured. The forage crops 
 are grasses (whether utilized in meadows, pastures, or otherwise), all 
 coarse natural grazing crops such as animals are likely to find provided 
 in nature, and miscellaneous roots and vegetative parts grown specifi- 
 cally for feeding purposes. They are distinguished from the threshed 
 grains and all manufactured products. It will be seen at once that 
 there are two cultural groups comprised in the class of forage crops, — 
 the group occupying the land for a series of years (meadows and pas- 
 tures), and the group comprising the annual-grown or biennial-grown 
 plants (as maize, cowpea, pea, millet, roots). These groups overlap, 
 however, so that no hard and fast line can be drawn between them. 
 
 The word roughage is applied to the coarser forage products, as 
 maize, cowpeas, kafir; sometimes it is used as equivalent to forage. 
 
 Fodder is practically equivalent to the word " forage," but is less 
 specific ; it is by some restricted to dried or cured forage. The word is 
 commonly used for the coarser kinds, in distinction from hay. 
 
 Some of the leading forage crops are alfalfa, cabbage, the various 
 cereals, clovers, cowpea, kafir, maize or Indian corn, mangels, millet, 
 rape, soybean, sorghum, vetches. 
 
 Soiling is the feeding of green harvested forage direct from the field to 
 the animals. The feed is carried to them. This system is distinguished 
 from pasturing. The animals are kept in small inclosures or in stalls, 
 and thereby their feed is regulated and the standing crop is not injured 
 by them. The term is probably derived from that use or origin of 
 the verb " to soil " that indicates to satisfy or to fill. 
 
 133 
 
134 CROPS FOR SPECIAL FARM PRACTICES 
 
 A species of pasturing is sometimes known as soiling. By means 
 of movable fences, the animals are allowed to graze a part of the crop 
 clean antl then to move on at the next feeding to fresh foraging. This 
 use of the term is allowable, since the object is the same, — to sui)i)ly 
 the animal with a given amount of succulent food ; the animal does the 
 harvesting. This practice may be known as pasture soiling. 
 
 It would not do to allow animals to roam at will and to gorge themselves 
 in such crops as maize, growing grain, heavy alfalfa, clover, or cowpeas ; 
 consequently the animals are soiled on these crops in one way or another. 
 
 Silage is green or uncured forage that is preserved, or ensiled, in a 
 tight receptacle or silo (see Chap. XXV). The following croj)s have at 
 various times been recommended for ensiling : corn, clovers, alfalfa, 
 meadow-grasses, cowpeas, soybeans, Canada field peas, sorghum, sun- 
 flower, millet, apple pomace, beet pulp, canning house refuse. 
 
 Soiling Crops 
 
 The more important soiling corps are : winter grains (cut before 
 blooming), peas and oats, alfalfa, clover, vetch, soybeans, millet, cow- 
 peas, corn, sorghum, and rape. 
 
 If it is desired to feed green crops throughout the entire season, the 
 following rotation is suggested (Woll) : — 
 
 (1) Winter wheat or rye, ready to cut and feed during May; 
 
 (2) Green clover, for feeding during the early part of June ; 
 
 (3) Oats and peas, sown as early as possible in the spring, and later 
 two or three times at weekly intervals; available for feeding during 
 the remainder of June and July; 
 
 (4) Corn, or corn and sorghum, planted at the usual time, for feeding 
 in August and September; 
 
 (5) The land occupied by oats and peas when cleared may be sown to 
 millet or barley, for feeding during the fall months. 
 
 The following crops for partial soiling are reconmicnded by Jordan : 
 Three sowings of peas and oats in May and early June, and two 
 plantings of corn, one at the usual time, the other two weeks later. 
 These crops will furnish a supply of green feed when this is most likely 
 to be needed. Quincy included four crops in his system, viz. early 
 clover (for feeding during May and June), oats (for July), corn (for 
 August), second growth of clover or grass (September to October 15), 
 tops of carrots and turnips, cabbages (October 15 to November). 
 
SOILING CROP TABLES 
 
 135 
 
 Special rotations for soiling crops have been reconiniended by various 
 authorities, and the farmer has the choice of a variety of crops that 
 may be grown for this purpose. The rotations suitable for soiling in- 
 cluded below are given as guides for farmers living in the states men- 
 tioned, or under similar agricultural conditions (collected by Well) : — 
 
 Soiling crops adapted to northern New England (Lindsey) 
 (For 10 cows' entire soiling) 
 
 Kind 
 
 Seed per Acre 
 
 Time of Seed- 
 ing 
 
 Area 
 
 Time of Cutting 
 
 Rye 
 
 Wheat .... 
 Red clover . . . 
 
 Grass and clover . 
 
 Vetch and oats 
 Vetch and oats . . 
 
 Peas and oats . . 
 
 Peas and oats . . 
 
 Barnyard millet . 
 Barnyard millet . 
 Soybeans (medium 
 green) .... 
 Corn 
 
 2bu. 
 
 2 bu. 
 20 1b. 
 
 [ ^ bu. red-top, 1 pk. 
 \ timothy, 10 lb. red[ 
 [ clover J 
 
 3 bu. oats, 50 lb. vetch 
 3 bu. oats, 50 lb. vetch 
 
 1 1^ bu. Canada peas.l 
 
 1. 13^ bu. oats j 
 
 1^ bu. Canada peas,l 
 
 1 13^ bu oats J 
 
 Ipk. 
 
 Ipk. 
 
 18 qt. 
 
 Sept. 10-15 
 Sept. 10-15 
 July 15-Aug. 1 
 
 September 
 
 April 20 
 April 30 
 
 April 20 
 
 April 30 
 
 May 10 
 May 25 
 May 20 
 
 May 20 
 May 30 
 July 15 
 
 August 5 
 
 ^ acre 
 ^ acre 
 ^ acre 
 
 § acre 
 
 ^ acre 
 ^ acre 
 
 ^acre 
 
 ^ acre 
 
 § acre 
 : acre 
 ; acre 
 
 § acre 
 i acre 
 ^ acre 
 
 1 acre 
 
 May 20-May 30 
 June 1-June 15 
 June 15-June 25 
 
 June 15-Juno30 
 
 June 25-JuIy 10 
 July 10-July 20 
 June 25- July 10 
 
 July 10-July 20 
 
 July25-Aug. 10 
 Aug. 10-Aug. 20 
 Aug. 25-Sept. 15 
 
 Aug 25-Sept. 10 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 Sept. 10-Sept. 20 
 
 Hungarian . . . 
 Barley and peas . 
 
 1 bu. 
 flHbu.peas, 1^ bu.\ 
 
 Sept. 20-Sept. 30 
 Oct. 1-Oct. 20 
 
 Time of planting and feeding soiling crops (Phelps) 
 
 The dates given in the table apply to central Connecticut and regions under 
 approximately similar conditions 
 
 Kind of Fodder 
 
 Rye fodder 
 
 Wheat fodder .... 
 
 Clover 
 
 Grass (from grass-lands) 
 
 Oats and peas 
 
 Oats and peas 
 
 Oats and peas 
 
 Hungarian 
 
 Clover rowen (from 3) . . 
 
 Soybeans 
 
 Cowpeas 
 
 Rowen grass (from grass- 
 lands) 
 
 Barley and peas . . . , 
 
 Amount of 
 
 Seed 
 
 PER Acre 
 
 2H to 3 bu. 
 2}4 to 3 bu. 
 20 1b. 
 
 2 bu. each 
 2 bu. each 
 2 bu. each 
 IH bu. 
 
 1 bu. 
 1 bu. 
 
 2 bu. each 
 
 Approximate 
 
 Time 
 OF Seeding 
 
 September 1 
 Sept. 5-10 
 July 20-30 
 
 April 10 
 April 20 
 April 30 
 June 1 
 
 May 25 
 June 5-10 
 
 Aug. 5-10 
 
 Approximate 
 Time of 
 Feeding 
 
 May 10-20 
 May 20, June 5 
 June 5-15 
 June 15-25 
 June 25, July 10 
 July 10-20 
 July 20, Aug. 1 
 Aug. 1-10 
 Aug. 10-20 
 Aug. 20, Sept. 5 
 Sept. 5-20 
 
 Sept. 20-30 
 Oct. 1-30 
 
136 
 
 CROPS FOR SPECIAL FARM PRACTICES 
 
 Soiling crops for Pennsylvania (Watson and Mairs) 
 
 Chop 
 
 Rye 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 Clover and timothy 
 
 Peas and oats 
 
 Alfalfa (second crop) .... 
 Sorghum and cowpeas (after rj^e) 
 Cowpeas (after peas and oats) 
 
 Area for 
 10 Cows 
 
 }4 acre 
 2 acres 
 ^ acre 
 
 1 acre 
 
 2 acres 
 }/2 acre 
 1 acre 
 
 When to be Fed 
 
 May 15-June 1 
 June 1-June 12 
 June 12-June 24 
 June 24-July 15 
 July 15- Aug. 11 
 Aug. 11-Aug. 28 
 Aug. 28-Sept. 30 
 
 Crops for partial soiling for Illinois during midsummsr (Fraser) 
 
 Kind of Fodder 
 
 Corn, early, sweet, or dent 
 Corn, medium, dent . 
 
 Cowpeas 
 
 Soybeans 
 
 Oats and Canada peas 
 
 Oats and Canada peas 
 
 I. Rape (Dwarf Essex) . 
 
 8. Rape, second sowing . 
 
 9. Rape, third sowing . . 
 
 Amount of 
 
 Seed 
 PER Acre 
 
 6qt. 
 5 qt. 
 1 bu. 
 1 bu. 
 
 1 bu. each 
 1 bu. each 
 4 1b. 
 4 1b. 
 4 1b. 
 
 Approximate 
 
 Time 
 
 of Seeding 
 
 May 1 
 
 May 15 
 
 May 15 
 
 May 15 
 
 April 15 
 
 May 1 
 
 May 1 
 
 June 1 
 
 July 1 
 
 Approximate Time op 
 Feeding 
 
 July 1-Aug. 1 
 Aug. 1-Sept. 30 
 Aug. 1-Sept. 15 
 Aug. 1-Sept. 15 
 July 1-July 15 
 July 15-Aug. 1 
 July 1-Aug. 1 
 Aug. 1-Sept. 1 
 Sept. 1-Oct. 1 
 
 Succession of soiling crops for dairy cows for Wisconsin (Carlyle) 
 
 
 Pounds 
 
 OF 
 
 Seed 
 per 
 
 Time 
 
 FOR 
 
 Sow- 
 
 Approximate 
 
 Degrees of 
 Maturity 
 
 
 Crop 
 
 Time of Cutting 
 
 11 
 11 
 
 i 
 
 h 
 
 c 
 
 Palata- 
 
 BILITY 
 
 
 Acre 
 
 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 Fall rye 
 
 168 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 May 15-June 1 
 
 24S 
 
 38 
 
 }^ 
 
 Before blooming 
 
 Poor 
 
 Alfalfa . . 
 
 20 
 
 Mar. 20 
 
 June 1-15 
 
 72 
 
 36 
 
 J 
 
 Before blooming 
 
 Fair 
 
 Red clover 
 
 15 
 
 
 June 15-25 
 
 
 36 
 
 J 
 
 In bloom 
 
 Fair 
 
 Peas and 
 
 fP 60 
 
 io 48 
 fP 60 
 \0 48 
 
 April 16 
 
 June 25-July 5 
 
 70 
 
 32 
 
 J 
 
 In milk 
 
 Average 
 
 Peas and 
 
 April 26 
 
 July 5-15 
 
 70 
 
 32 
 
 h 
 
 In milk 
 
 Average 
 
 Oats , . 
 
 80 
 
 May 5 
 
 July 15-25 
 
 70 
 
 32 
 
 s 
 
 In milk 
 
 .\verage 
 
 Alfalfa (sec- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ond crop.) 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Julvl5-30 
 
 — 
 
 36 
 
 — 
 
 Before blooming 
 
 .Vverage 
 
 Rape . . 
 
 2.5 
 
 May 26 
 
 A UK. 1-15 
 
 67 
 
 42 
 
 i 
 
 Mature 
 
 Good 
 
 Flint corn . 
 
 — 
 
 May 20 
 
 Aug. 15-25 
 
 86 
 
 40 
 
 i 
 
 In silk 
 
 Very good 
 
 Sorghum . 
 
 50 
 
 June 1 
 
 Aug. 25-Sept. 10 
 
 86 
 
 39 
 
 A 
 
 When well headed 
 
 Very good 
 
 EverRreen 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 sweet corn 
 
 — 
 
 May 31 
 
 Sept. 10-25 
 
 102 
 
 30 
 
 A 
 
 In silk 
 
 \'erv good 
 
 Rnne . . 
 
 2.5 
 
 July 20 
 
 Sept. 2.5-Oct. 10 
 
 67 
 
 42 
 
 4 
 
 Mature 
 
 Good 
 
 Remarks. — Feed in stable during day and turn cowa on pasture at night, or feed carefully 
 in the pasture, spreading the forage. After cutting rye, use same ground for the rape, flint 
 corn, and sorghum, and after rutting pea.san<l oats, use same ground for evergreen sweet corn 
 anrl rape. .After oats, sow peas an<l barley. In this way a single acre only is required 
 (except alfalfa, which is permanent), and the forage produced is ample succulent feed for 
 ten cows for nearly half the year. 
 
SOILING CROPS 
 
 1ST 
 
 Mississippi. — " One of the best, surest and safest crops for soiling 
 is sorghum, planted thick, and with the rows not over two feet apart. 
 The sorghum may follow a crop of oats or some other early crop, and 
 will withstand dry weather better than most other plants. Cow- 
 peas are good, and corn may be used satisfactorily on land that will 
 produce fair to large yields." (Moore.) 
 
 Kansas. — Dates when soiling crops are available : Alfalfa, May 
 20 to September 30; wheat, June 1 to June 15; oats, June 15 to June 
 30 ; sweet corn, July 15 to July 31 ; field corn, August 1 to September 
 15; sorghum, August 1 to September 30; kafir, August 1 to Sep- 
 tember 30; wheat and rye pasture, until the ground freezes. (Otis.) 
 
 Dates for planting and using soiling crops in western Oregon and western 
 Washington (Hunter) 
 
 Crops 
 
 When Planted 
 
 When Used 
 
 Rve and vetch . . . 
 
 September 1-15 
 
 April 1-May 15 
 
 Winter oats and vetch 
 
 September and October 
 
 May 15-July 1 
 
 Winter wheat and vetch 
 
 September and October 
 
 May 15-July 1 
 
 
 
 May 15-July 1 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 
 During June 
 
 Oats and peas 
 
 February- 
 
 During June 
 
 Oats and vetch . . . 
 
 February 
 
 June 15-July 15 
 
 Oats and peas 
 
 April 
 
 During July 
 
 Rape 
 
 May 1 
 
 During July 
 
 Oats and peas 
 
 May 
 
 During August 
 
 Rape 
 
 June 
 
 During August 
 
 Corn 
 
 May 10-20 
 
 During August, Septem- 
 ber, and October. 
 
 Turnips 
 
 July 1 
 
 Late fall and early winter 
 
 Thousand-headed kale . 
 
 March 15 and trans. June 1 
 
 October 15- April 1 
 
 Mangels, carrots and 
 
 April 
 
 Oct. 15- April 1 (fed from 
 
 rutabagas .... 
 
 
 bins, pits, or root-houses). 
 
 Rotation used successfully by practical dairymen in the middle latitudes 
 
 (40° N.) 
 
 Crop 
 
 Rye and vetches . 
 Wheat and vetches . 
 Red and alsike clover 
 Oats and Canada peas 
 Very early sweet corn 
 Late sweet corn . . 
 Sorghum and cowpeas 
 
 Seeding Time 
 
 September 
 
 September 
 
 April or August 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 May and June 
 
 June 
 
 Seed per Acre 
 
 2 bu. rye, 2 bu. vetch 
 2 bu. rye, 5 bu. vetch 
 25 to 30 lb. 
 2 bu. oats, 2 bu. peas 
 8 qt. 
 6 qt. 
 
 10 qt. sorghum, 50 qt. 
 peas 
 
 In Prime Feeding 
 Condition 
 
 April 25 to May 10 
 May 10 to June 1 
 June 1 to June 25 
 June 25 to Julv 10 
 July 10 to July 25 
 July 25 to Aug. 25 
 Aug. 25 to frost 
 
138 CROPS FOR SPECIAL FARM PRACTICES 
 
 Cover-Crops 
 
 A cover-crop is one that is grown for its effect as green-manure or 
 protection, or otherwise, rather than for its value as a product of itself. 
 Cover-crops are used 
 
 1. To prevent the loss of soluble plant-food, which occurs when the 
 lands are left uncovered during the late fall and winter ; 
 
 2. To prevent the galling or surface erosion of hillsides or slopes 
 by winter rains; 
 
 3. To prevent root injury by excessive freezing of orchard lands; 
 
 4. To supply humus; 
 
 5. To improve the physical condition of the land. 
 
 Legumes used as cover-crops: red clover and Canada field-peas, 
 widely useful in the northern tier of states ; alfalfa in the western states 
 and California; soybeans, cowpeas, and crimson clover in the central 
 and southern states ; velvet bean and beggarweed, especially useful only 
 in the South ; hairy vetch and spring vetch, most successfully used in 
 the South, though rather generally grown in the northern states ; sweet 
 clover and, for peculiar conditions, serradella. 
 
 Xon-legumes used as cover-crops : rye, wheat, oats, and barley, of 
 the cereals, are more commonly used ; rape and turnips, which are not 
 hardy in the northern sections ; buckwheat, white mustard, and spurry 
 under special conditions. 
 
 Some of the leading cover-crops mentioned or recommended for 
 fruit plantations (the leguminous or nitrogen -gathering species being 
 starred) : — 
 
 Living over winter: — 
 
 * Clovers. 
 
 * Hairy or winter vetch (Vicia villosa). 
 
 * Sweet clover (little used). 
 Winter rye. 
 
 Winter wheat. 
 
 Killed by freezing : — 
 
 * Cowpea. 
 
 * Soybean. 
 
 * Velvet bean. 
 *Pea. 
 
COVER-CROPS 139 
 
 * Bean. 
 
 * Beggarweed. [1 qt. of spring or winter 
 
 * Spring vetch (Vicia sativa). | vetch (seed) weighs 
 Rape. I If lb. 
 
 Turnip. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Barley (little used). 
 
 Buckwheat. 
 
 Maize. 
 
 Millet (little used). 
 
 Average quantities of seed per acre for heavy cover-crops in fruit plantations 
 
 Barley 2-23^ bu. 
 
 Beans 13^-2 bu. 
 
 Beggarweed 5-8 lb. 
 
 Buckwheat IH bu. 
 
 Clover, red 10-15 lb. 
 
 Clover, mammoth 15-20 lb. 
 
 Clover, crimson 15-20 lb. 
 
 Cowpea lH-2 bu. 
 
 Maize 2-3 bu. 
 
 Millet 1^ bu. 
 
 Oats 2-3 bu. 
 
 Pea 2-3 bu. 
 
 Rape 2-5 lb. 
 
 Rye lM-2bu. 
 
 Soybean 2-4 pk. 
 
 Sweet clover 10-12 lb. 
 
 Turnip 4 lb. 
 
 Velvet bean 1-4 pk. 
 
 Vetch 20 1b. tolHbu. 
 
 Wheat 2-2H bu. 
 
 Alfalfa (20 to 24 lb. to the acre) is sometimes used as a cover-crop 
 in orchards, being plowed a year from sowing or allowed to remain for 
 a longer period. Various combinations or mixtures are also used : as 
 mammoth clover, 6 lb., alfalfa, 10 lb., turnip, 2 to 3 oz. ; alfalfa, 6 lb., 
 crimson clover, 6 lb., alsike clover, 3 lb., strap-leaf turnip, 2 to 3 oz., 
 all sown in midsummer. Cowpeas in drills and cultivated, and rye, 
 rape, or turnips added at the last cultivation. Winter vetch, 1 bu., 
 rye, | bu. Cowpea, 1| bu. ; red clover, 6 lb. Oats, 2 bu. ; peas, 2 bu. 
 
 Catch-Crops 
 
 Catch-crops are those crops that occupy the ground for short inter- 
 vals between the growing of other crops, in order to secure more prod- 
 ucts within a given time. 
 
140 
 
 CROPS FOR SPECIAL FARM PRACTICES 
 
 Nitrogen-consuming catch-crops : rye, wheat, buckwheat, turnips, 
 dwarf Essex rape. 
 
 Nitrogen-gathering catch-crops: red clover, 15 lb. per acre; mam- 
 moth clover, 15 lb. ; alsike clover, 5 lb. with 5 lb. red clover ; crimson 
 clover, 12-15 lb.; alfalfa, 25-35 lb. broadcast or 15-25 lb. drilled; 
 Canada field-pea, ^-2 bu. ; cowpea, l-H bu., broadcast; soybean, 1-1^ 
 bu. broadcast, or 2-3 pk. drilled ; velvet bean, 1 bu. ; sand or winter 
 vetch, H-2bu. 
 
 The amount of nitrogen contained in various crops : — 
 
 Cowpeas 
 Soybeans 
 Crimson clover . 
 Alsike clover . 
 Red clover . . . 
 Canada field-peas 
 
 Tons peh 
 
 ACRK 
 
 Gkeen 
 
 Nitrogen 
 Lb. 
 
 48 
 GO 
 60 
 GO 
 GO 
 50 
 
 Organic 
 
 Matter 
 
 Lb. 
 
 1920 
 2G40 
 21 GO 
 2G40 
 2400 
 2200 
 
 Nurse-Crops 
 
 Plants used to aid, shield, or shade other plants, until the other plants 
 become established, are nurse-plants. Grain is a nurse-crop when it 
 is used as an aid to seeding to grass. Nurse-cropping is practiced in 
 forestry, also. 
 
 Field Root-Crops (Minns) 
 
 Seeds of the mangel may be sown in central New York from May 
 1 to June 1, with expectation of a good crop. Late frosts do not en- 
 danger the young plants; and if the ground is in gao:l condition the 
 earlier they are sown in the month of May, the longer the growing 
 season will be. They are not seriously affected by dry weather if 
 given good tillage. They are mature enough to harvest by October 1, 
 and may be allowed to remain in the ground until November 1 with 
 safety. Hard freezing weather damages the part of the root that 
 stands above ground, and therefore it is safe to have them harvested 
 before November. 
 
 Seeds of carrots are slow to germinate, and must be planted near the 
 surface of the ground. It is essential to have the best of soil and weather 
 
ROOT-CROPS 141 
 
 conditions for them. From May 20 to June 20 inclusive would be 
 the proper time for sowing carrots in this latitude. They do not make 
 much growth until the heat of summer is past. The seedlings are 
 very feeble, and require much hand tillage; but after harvest time 
 is over, and especially after August and September rains, carrots make 
 vigorous growth until late in the autumn. As the root grows mainly 
 below the surface of the ground, they need not be harvested as early 
 as mangels. They may remain out of doors, and will continue to in- 
 crease somewhat in size until the ground begins to freeze. It is better to 
 harvest them before bad weather sets in. 
 
 Rutabagas do not require as long a season in which to mature as do 
 carrots or mangels. They are also sensitive to drought during mid- 
 summer. In order to have them mature at a time in the autumn when 
 they are wanted for feed or to store away for winter use, it is best to 
 plant the seed from June 1 to 20 inclusive. The seed germinates 
 readily, and the plants soon become large enough to till easily. From 
 seed sown in June, the crop will usually mature by October 1, 
 which is early enough for stock-feeding purposes. They may be left out 
 of doors until cold weather comes, in November. 
 
 White turnips of different sorts will mature in a comparatively short 
 time. They also are sensitive to summer drought, and therefore it is 
 best to sow the seed fom July 20 to 30 inclusive. Even then their suc- 
 cess is dependent very largely on the amount of moisture in the soil 
 at the time of sowing and during the month that follows. If conditions 
 are favorable, they will mature by November 1, and as they are not 
 easily damaged by frost, they can be allowed to remain out of doors until 
 freezing weather sets in. 
 
 White turnips are frequently sown as a catch-crop after a crop of 
 early potatoes has been removed, or at the last cultivation of a field of 
 corn which has been planted early. Sown in this way, the cost of grow- 
 ing them is low and consistent with their value for feeding purposes. 
 
 Of the four types of root-crops named, the mangels are the most 
 reliable in this locality, and the carrots the most expensive to grow. 
 
 Methods of Keeping and Storing Fruits and Vegetables 
 
 Apples. 
 
 1. Keep the fruit as cool as possible without freezing. Choose 
 only normal fruit, and place it upon trays in a moist but well-ventilated 
 
142 CROPS FOR SPECIAL FARM PRACTICES 
 
 cellar. If it is desired to keep the fruit particularly nice, allow no 
 fruits to touch each other upon the trays, and the individual fruits may 
 be wrapped in tissue paper. For market purposes, pack tightly in barrels 
 after the apples have shrunk, and store the barrels in a very cool place. 
 
 2. Some solid apples, as Spitzenburgh and Newtown, are not 
 injured by hard freezing, if they are allowed to remain frozen until 
 wanted and are then thawed out very gradually. 
 
 3. Many apples, particularly russets and other firm varieties, 
 keep well when buried after the manner of pitting potatoes. Some- 
 times, however, they taste of the earth. This may be prevented by 
 setting a ridge-pole over the pile of apples in forked sticks, and 
 making a roof of boards in such a way that there will be an air 
 space over the fruit. Then cover the boards with straw and earth. 
 Apples seldom keep well after removal from a pit in spring. 
 
 4. Apples may be kept by burying in chaff. Spread chaff — buck- 
 wheat-chaff is good — on the barn floor, pile on the apples and cover 
 them with chaff and fine broken or chopped straw 2 feet thick, exercising 
 care to fill the interstices. They may be covered in leaves or moss. 
 
 Cabbage. 
 
 The most satisfactory method of keeping cabbages is to bury them 
 in the field. Choose a dry place, pull the cabbages, and stand them 
 head down on the earth. Cover them with soil to the depth of 6 or 
 10 inches, covering very lightly at first to prevent heating — unless the 
 weather should quickly become severe — and as winter sets in, cover 
 with a good dressing of straw or coarse manure. The cabbages should 
 be allowed to stand where they grew until cold weather approaches. 
 The storing beds are usually made about 6 or 8 feet wide, so that the 
 middle of the bed can be reached from either side, and to prevent heat- 
 ing if the weather should remain open. Cabbages quickly decay in the 
 warm weather of spring. 
 
 Cabbage for family use is most conveniently kept in a barrel or box 
 half buried in the garden. Cabbages and turnips should never be 
 kept in the house cellar, as when decaying they become very offensive. 
 
 Celery. 
 
 For market purposes, celery is stored in temporary board pits, in 
 sheds, in cellars, and in various kinds of earth pits and trenches. The 
 
STORING CELERY— GLACE FRUIT 143 
 
 points to be considered are, to provide the plants with moisture to 
 prevent wilting, to prevent hard freezing, and to give some ventilation. 
 The plants are set loosely in the soil. There are several methods of 
 keeping celery in an ordinary cellar for home use. The following 
 methods are good : — 
 
 Secure a shoe or similar box. Bore one-inch holes in the sides, 
 four inches from bottom. Put a layer of sand or soil in the box, and 
 stand the plants, trimmed carefully, upon it, closely together, working 
 more sand or soil about the root part, and continuing until the box 
 is full. The soil should be watered as often as needed, but always 
 through the holes in the side of the box. Keep the foliage dry. 
 
 Celery may also be stored and well blanched at the same time, in 
 a similar way, by standing it in a barrel upon a layer of soil. Some 
 roots and soil may be left adhering to the plants. Crowd closely, 
 water through holes near the bottom, as in case of box storage, and keep 
 the plants in the dark. 
 
 Blanched celery can also be preserved for a long time by trimming 
 closely and packing upright in moss inside of a box. A large quantity 
 of the vegetable maj^ thus be stored in a small space. 
 
 Crystallized or glace fruit. 
 
 The principle is to extract the juice from the fruit and replace it 
 with sugar syrup, which hardens and preserves the fruit in its natural 
 shape. The fruit should be all of one size and of a uniform degree 
 of ripeness, such as is best for canning. Peaches, pears, and similar 
 fruits are pared and cut in halves; plums, cherries, etc., are pitted. 
 After being properly prepared, the fruit is put in a basket or bucket 
 with a perforated bottom and immersed in boiling water to dilute and 
 extract the juice. This is the most important part of the process, and 
 requires great skill. If the fruit be left too long, it is over-cooked 
 and becomes soft ; if not long enough, the juice is not sufficiently 
 extracted, and this prevents perfect absorption of the sugar. After 
 the fruit cools, it may again be assorted as to softness. The syrup 
 is made of white sugar and water. The softer the fruit, the heavier 
 the syrup required. The fruit is placed in earthen pans, covered with 
 syrup, and left about a week. This is a critical stage, as fermentation 
 will soon take place ; and when this has reached a certain stage, the fruit 
 and syrup are heated to the boiling-point, which checks the fermenta- 
 
144 CROPS FOR SPECIAL FARM PRACTICES 
 
 tion. This is ropoatod, as often as may l)e necessary, for about six 
 weeks. The fruit is taken out of the s^Tup, washed in clean water, and 
 either glaced or crystalHzed, as desired. It is dipped in thick syrup, 
 and hardened quickly in the open air for glaceing, or left to be hardened 
 slowly if to be crystallized. The fruit is now ready for packing, and 
 will keep in any climate. 
 
 After the figs are gathered and dried in the same way as peaches or 
 apricots, wash to remove all grit, and spread in shallow pans, and set 
 them in the oven to become thoroughly heated, taking care to prevent 
 scorching. Then roll in powdered sugar, which has been rolled to 
 remove all lumps. When cold, pack away, preferably in paper bags. 
 They make a delicious lunch with a bowl of milk. They are also ex- 
 cellent for the dessert. 
 
 Gooseberries keep well if kept tight in common bottles filled with pure 
 water. Be sure that none but perfect berries are admitted, and keep 
 in a cool place. The berries should be picked before the\^ are ripe, 
 or edible from the hand, — in the stage at which they are used for 
 culinary purposes. 
 
 Grapes. 
 
 1. The firm grapes usually keep best — as Catawba, Vergennes, 
 Niagara, Diana, Jefferson, etc. Thickness of skin does not appear 
 to be correlated with good keeping qualities. Always cut the bunches 
 which are to be stored on a dry day, when the berries are ripe, and care- 
 fully remove all soft, bruised, and imperfect fruits and all leav^es. Keep 
 the fruit dry, cool, and away from currents of air. Many varieties 
 keep well if simply placed in shallow boxes or baskets and kept undis- 
 turbed in a cool, rather moist place. 
 
 2. Pack the bunches in layers of dry, clean sand. 
 
 3. Pack in layers of some small grain, as wheat, or oats, or barley. 
 
 4. Cork-dust is also excellent for use in packing grapes. This cork 
 can be had from grocers who handle the white Malagas, which are 
 packed in this material. 
 
 5. Pack the bunches in finely cut, soft, and dry hay, placing the 
 grapes and hay in consecutive layers. 
 
 6. Dry hardwood sawdust is also good for packing. 
 
KEEPING GRAPES 145 
 
 7. Place on shelves in a cool, airy room. After a few days wrap 
 the bunches separately in soft paper, and pack in shallow pasteboard 
 boxes, not more than two or three layers deep. Keep in a cool, dry 
 room that is free from frost. 
 
 8. Cut the bunches with sharp scissors, place in shallow baskets, 
 but few in a basket, and after reaching the house dip the cut end of 
 stems in melted wax. Now take tissue paper or very thin manila 
 paper cut just to the right size, and carefully wrap each cluster of 
 grapes. Secure shallow tin boxes; place a layer of cotton-batting 
 at the bottom, then a layer of grapes, then batting; three layers of 
 grapes are enough for one box, alternating with cotton-batting, and 
 topping with batting ; then gently secure the lid to each box, and when 
 done place in cold storage for use in April, or even later. If cold storage 
 cannot be had, put in a dry, cool room, and when cold weather ap- 
 proaches, cover in an interior closet with just sufficient covering to 
 prevent freezing; warmth will cause over-ripening and deterioration. 
 
 9. Roe's method. — In a stone jar place alternate layers of grapes 
 and straw paper, the paper being in double thickness. Over the jar 
 place a cloth, and bury below frost in a dry soil. The grapes will keep 
 until New Year's. 
 
 Keeping grapes for market (W. M. Pattison, Quebec). 
 
 It is the generally received opinion that the thick-skinned native 
 seedlings are the only keepers. This is correct as regards preserving 
 flavor, but several hybrids of foreign blood are the best keepers known. 
 Before giving results of this and former trials, instructions in packing 
 may be of service. The varieties intended to be laid up for winter use 
 should be those alone which adhere well to the stem and are not inclined 
 to shrivel. These should be allowed to remain on the vines as long as 
 they are safe from frost. A clear, dry day is necessary for picking, 
 and careful handling and shallow baskets are important. The room 
 selected for the drying process should be well ventilated, and the fruit 
 laid out in single layers on tables or in baskets where the air circulates 
 freely, the windows being closed at night and in damp weather. In 
 about ten days the stems will be dried out sufficiently to prevent mold- 
 ing when laid away. When danger from this is over, and the stems 
 resemble those of raisins, the time for packing has arrived. In this, 
 the point to be observed is to exclude air proportionately with their 
 
146 
 
 CROPS FOR SPECIAL FAR}f PRACTICES 
 
 tomlency to mold. I have ustnl ))iu5kcts for permanent packing, but 
 much prefer sliullow trays or boxes of uniform size to ))e packed on 
 each other, so that each box fonns a cover for the lower, the upper- 
 most only ntHxlinj? one. Until very cold weather, the boxes can be 
 piled 8o as to allow the remaining moisture to escape through a crevice 
 about the width of a knif('-l)lado. Before packing, each bunch should 
 be exajnined, aiui all injuriHl, cracked, and rotten berries removed with 
 suitable scissors. If two layers are packed in a box, a sheet of paper 
 aliould intervene. The boxes must be kept in a cool, dry room or pas- 
 sage, at an even temiH'rature. If the thermometer goes much below 
 freezing-jK)int, a blanket or newspaper can be thrown over them, to 
 be removetl in mild weather. Looking over them once in the winter 
 and removing defective berries will suffice, the poorest keepers being 
 placetl accessibly. Under this treatment the best keepers will be in 
 gootl cxlible onier as late as Fel)ruary, after which they deteriorate. 
 
 The following is a list of grapes worth noticing, that have been tested 
 for keeping : — 
 
 DsacmiPTiON 
 
 Mi 
 
 ■3 
 
 r Nov. 1 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Jan. 1 
 
 Feb. 1 
 
 Jan. 15 
 
 List of Grapes to be Recommended 
 
 Lady, Antoinette, Carlotta, Belinda. 
 
 Lady Washincton, Peter Wylie, Mason, Worden, Senasqua, 
 Ronicll, Kicketts Xo. 546, Concord, Delaware. 
 
 Duchess, Essex, Barry, Rockland, Favorite, Aniinia, Garber, 
 Massaaoit, Dempsey, Burnet, Undine, Allen Hybrid, 
 Agawam, Gen. Pope, Francis Scott. 
 
 Salem, Vergennes, Eldorado. 
 
 Wilder, Herbert, Peabody, Rogers No. 30, Gaertner, Mary, 
 and Owosso. 
 
 Onions demand a dry cellar, and the bulbs should be thoroughly 
 dried in the sun before they are stored. All tops should be cut away 
 when the onions are harvested. If a cellar cannot be had, the bulbs 
 may \h' all()we<l to freeze, but great care must be exercised or the whole 
 crop will Ih> l(wt. The; onions mu.st not be subjected to extremes 
 of lein|x'niture, and they should not thaw out during the winter. 
 They can be »tor»J on the north side of a loft, being covered with two 
 
KEEPING FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 147 
 
 or three feet of straw, hay, or chaff to preserve an equable temperature. 
 They must not be handled while frozen, and they must thaw out very 
 gradually in the spring. This method of keeping onions is reliable 
 only when the weather is cold and tolerably uniform, and it is little 
 employed. 
 
 Orange. 
 
 Aside from the customary wrapping of oranges in tissue paper and 
 packing them in boxes, burying in dry sand is sometimes practiced. 
 The fruit is first wrapped in tissue paper, and it should be buried in 
 such manner that the fruit shall not be more than three tiers deep. 
 
 Pears. 
 
 Pears should be picked several days or even two weeks before they 
 are ripe, and then placed in a dry and well-ventilated room, as a 
 chamber. Make very shallow piles, or, better, place on trays. They 
 will then ripen up well. The fruits are picked when full grown but 
 not ripe, and when the stem separates readily from the fruit-spur if 
 the pear is lifted up. All pears are better for being prematurely picked 
 in this way. Winter pears are stored in the same manner as winter 
 apples. 
 
 Quinces are kept in the same way as winter apples and winter pears. 
 Some varieties, particularly the Champion, may be kept until after 
 New Year's in a good cellar. 
 
 Roots of all sorts, as beets, carrots, salsify, parsnips, can be kept from 
 wilting by packing them in damp sphagnum moss, like that used by 
 nurserymen. They may also be packed in sand. It is an erroneous 
 notion that parsnips and salsify are not good until after they are frozen. 
 
 Squashes should be stored in a dry room in which the temperature 
 is uniform and about 50°. Growers for market usually build squash 
 houses or rooms and heat them. Great care should be taken not to 
 bruise any squashes which are to be stored. Squashes procured from 
 the market have usually been too roughly handled to be reliable for 
 storing. 
 
148 CROPS FOR SPECIAL FARM PRACTICES 
 
 Sweet-potato. 
 
 In I ho North. — Dig the potatoes on a sunny day, and allow them to 
 dry th()r(»u«hly in the field. Sort out the poor ones, and handle the 
 reinaindiT fart'fully. Never allow them to become chilled. Then 
 pack them in barrels in layers, in dry sand, and store in a warm cellar. 
 They are sometimes stored in finely broken charcoal and wheat-chaff. 
 
 Sometimes they are kept in small and open crates, without packing- 
 material, the crates being stacked so as to allow thorough ventilation. 
 The I layman or Southern Queen keep well in this way. 
 
 A wann attic is often a good place in which to store sweet-potatoes. 
 A tight, warm room over a kitchen is particularly good. 
 
 In the South (Berckmans). — Digging the tubers should be delayed 
 until the vines have been sufficiently touched by frost to check vegeta- 
 tion. Allow the potatoes to dry off in the field, which will take but a 
 few hours. Then sort all those of eating size to be banked separately 
 from the smaller ones. The banks are prepared as follows : Make a 
 circular bed six feet in diameter, in a sheltered corner of the garden, 
 throwing up the earth about a foot high. Cover this with straw and 
 bank up the tubers in shape of a cone, using from 10 to 20 bushels to each 
 i>ank. A triangular pipe made of narrow planks to act as a ventilator 
 8h(»uld be placed in the middle of the cone. Cover the tubers with 
 straw 6 to 10 inches thick, and bank the latter with earth, first using 
 only a small quantity, but increasing the thickness a week or ten days 
 afterwards. A board should be placed upon the top of the ventilating 
 I)ipe to prevent water from reaching the tubers. Several banks are 
 u.sually made in a row, and a rough shelter of boards built over the 
 whole. The main j)oint to be considered in putting up sweet potatoes 
 for winter is entire freedom from moisture and sufficient covering to 
 prevent heating. It is therefore advisable to allow the tubers tp under- 
 go sweating (which invariably occurs after being put in heaps) before 
 covering them too nmch ; and if the temporary covering is removed for 
 a few hours, a week after being heaped, the moisture generated will be 
 romovofi and very little difficulty will follow from thal^ cause. If 
 rovoretl too thickly at once, the sweating often endangers rapid fer- 
 mentation, and loss is then certain to follow. Sand is never used here 
 in banking potatoes. Some varieties of potatoes keep much better 
 than others. The Yellow Sugar yam and the Pumpkin yam are the 
 
TOMATOES — COLD STORAGE 
 
 149 
 
 most difficult to carry through; while the Trinidad potato keeps as 
 readily as Irish potatoes, only requiring to be kept free from frost and 
 light by a slight covering of straw, if the tubers are placed in a house. 
 Next in keeping quality come Hayti yam, Red-skinned, Brimstone, 
 Nigger Killer; and last of the potato section is the Nansemond. 
 
 Tomato. 
 
 Pick the firmest fruits just as they are beginning to turn, leaving the 
 stems on, exercising care not to bruise them, and pack in a barrel or 
 box in clean and thoroughly dry sand, placing the fruits so that they 
 will not touch each other. Place the barrel in a dry place. 
 
 In the autumn when frosts appear, tomatoes, if carefully picked and 
 laid on straw under the glass of cold frames, will continue to ripen until 
 near Christmas. Green but full-grown tomatoes may be gradually 
 ripened by placing them in cupboards or bureau drawers. 
 
 The ripening of tomatoes may be hastened ten days by bagging them 
 as grapes are bagged. 
 
 Cold Storage 
 
 Storing under refrigeration is mostly a business by itself, and is 
 therefore out of reach of a general book of rules. However, a few 
 figures drawn from experience may be useful to the farmer : — 
 
 Temperature for fruits and vegetables in cold storage (Rochester Cold 
 Storage Co.). P. 345 
 
 Goods 
 
 
 
 
 
 Apples^ . . 
 Berries . . . 
 Canned goods 
 Celery . . . 
 Cherries . . 
 Cranberries . 
 Dried berries 
 Dried apples 
 Dried corn . 
 Dates . . . 
 Evaporated app 
 Figs .... 
 Grapes . . . 
 
 les 
 
 
 
 
 Temperature 
 
 30-33° 
 
 36° 
 
 35° 
 
 32° with care 
 
 36° 
 
 33° 
 
 30-32° 
 
 30° 
 
 30° 
 
 35° 
 
 30° 
 
 36° 
 
 Goods 
 
 Lemons . . . 
 Maple Syrup 
 Nuts .... 
 Oranges . . . 
 Pears .... 
 Peaches or plums 
 Prunes .... 
 Quinces . . . 
 Raisins .... 
 Vegetables . . 
 Wine .... 
 Watermelons 
 
 Temperature 
 
 36° 
 
 35° 
 
 35° 
 
 36° 
 
 32° with care 
 
 35° 
 
 35° 
 
 30° 
 
 35° 
 
 35° 
 
 40° 
 
 35° 
 
 1 Apples are often carried as low as 30°, in a dry-air circulating room ; the heavier- 
 skinned apples may be carried as low as 29°. With pears and celery, which contain mucn 
 water, care should be taken that they do not go below freezing. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 Commercial Grades of Crop Products. Fruit Packages 
 
 The market grades or classes of some products have been very care- 
 fully standardized. This is particularly true of grains, hay, and straw, 
 and to a less extent of fruit. In prepared animal products there has 
 been very little standardizing by societies or committees. 
 
 Cotton Grades 
 
 No printed rules have been formulated for the official grading of 
 cotton, as this work proceeds upon the basis of a set of types of actual 
 cotton, adopted as standard on the recommendation of a committee 
 representing the entire cotton industry. These sets of cottons are 
 made up by the United States Department of Agriculture and furnished 
 to all applicants at the cost of their preparation. The samples are put 
 up in specially prepared boxes. 
 
 In the Cotton Grades, as now being issued by the Department of 
 Agriculture, several new ideas have been embodied, conspicuous among 
 which is the protection of the grades by photographs. Each of the nine 
 grade boxes contains twelve samples of cotton, separately packed, 
 representing as nearly as possible the range of diversity in the grade 
 represented. The boxes are twenty inches square; inside the lid of 
 each is a full-size photograph showing the appearance of the cotton 
 when certified by the Secretary of Agriculture. As each particle of 
 tra.sh and each material unevenness in the surface of the cotton is shown 
 in the photograph, it is evident that any material change in the appear- 
 ance of the cotton itself can easily be detected by comparison with the 
 photograph. Of course these photographs make no pretension to show 
 the grade of the cotton, — only the position of the trash and fiber. 
 The .sc«al of the Department of Agriculture and the signature of the 
 Secretary, together with a seal-impress certifying the grade of the 
 cotton, appear on the photograph. Experts of the highest class have 
 
 150 
 
HAY AND STRAW 151 
 
 been employed in the preparation of the Official Cotton Grades, and 
 each set is a correct copy of the original types promulgated by the 
 Secretary of Agriculture on the recommendation of Committee. 
 
 Grades of Hay and Straw (Established by the National Hay Associa- 
 tion, Inc.) 
 Haij. 
 
 Choice Timothy Hay — Shall be timothy not mixed with over one- 
 twentieth other grasses, properly cured, bright, natural color, sound, 
 and well baled. 
 
 No. 1 Timothy Hay — Shall be timothy with not more than one- 
 eighth mixed with clover or other tame grasses, properly cured, good 
 color, sound, and well baled. 
 
 No. 2 Timothy Hay — Shall be timothy not good enough for No. 1, 
 not over one-fourth mixed with clover or other tame grasses, fair color, 
 sound, and well baled. 
 
 No. 3 Timothy Hay — Shall include all hay not good enough for 
 other grades, sound, and well baled. 
 
 Light Clover Mixed Hay — Shall be timothy mixed with clover. 
 The clover mixture not over one-fourth, properly cured, sound, good 
 color, and well baled. 
 
 No. 1 Clover Mixed Hay — Shall be timothy and clover mixed, with 
 at least one-half timothy, good color, sound, and well baled. 
 
 No. 2 Clover Mixed Hay — Shall be timothy and clover mixed with 
 at least one-third timothy. Reasonably sound and well baled. 
 
 No. 1 Clover Hay — Shall be medium clover not over one-twentieth 
 other grasses, properly cured, sound, and well baled. 
 
 No. 2 Clover Hay — Shall be clover, sound, well baled, not good 
 enough for No. 1. 
 
 No Grade Hay — Shall include all hay badly cured, stained, threshed, 
 or in any way unsound. 
 
 Choice Prairie Hay — Shall be upland hay of bright, natural color, 
 well cured, sweet, sound, and may contain 3 per cent weeds. 
 
 No. 1 Prairie Hay — Shall be upland and may contain one-quarter 
 midland, both of good color, well cured, sweet, sound, and may contain 
 8 per cent weeds. 
 
 No. 2 Prairie Hay — Shall be upland, of fair color, and may contain 
 one-half midland, both of good color, well cured, sweet, sound, and 
 may contain 12J per cent weeds. 
 
162 COMMERCIAL GRADES OF CROP PRODUCTS 
 
 No. 3 Pniirie Hay — Shall include hay not good enough for other 
 grades and not caked. 
 
 No 1. Midland — Shall be midland hay of good color, well cured, 
 sweet, sound, and may contain 3 per cent weeds. 
 
 No. 2 Midland — Shall be fair color, or slough hay of good color, 
 and may contain 12J i)er cent weeds. 
 
 Packing Hay — Siiall include all wild hay not good enough for other 
 grades and not caked. 
 
 No Grade Prairie Hay — Shall include all hay not good enough for 
 other grades. 
 
 Alfalfa. 
 
 Choice Alfalfa — Shall be reasonably fine, leafy alfalfa of bright 
 green color, properly cured, sound, sweet, and well baled. 
 
 No. 1 Alfalfa — Shall be coarse alfalfa of natural color, or reasonably 
 fine, leafy alfalfa of good color, and may contain 5 per cent of foreign 
 grasses ; must be well baled, sound, and sweet. 
 
 No. 2 Alfalfa — Shall include alfalfa somewhat bleached, but of fair 
 color, reasonably leafy, not more than one-eighth foreign grasses, sound, 
 and well baled. 
 
 No. 3 Alfalfa — Shall include bleached alfalfa, or alfalfa mixed with 
 not to exceed one-fourth foreign grasses, but when mixed must be of 
 fair color, sound, and well baled. 
 
 No Grade Alfalfa — Shall include all alfalfa not good enough for 
 other grades, caked, musty, greasy, or threshed. 
 
 Straw. 
 
 No. 1 Straight Rye Straw — Shall be in large bales, clean, bright, 
 long rye straw, pressed in bundles, sound, and well baled. 
 
 No. 2 Straight Rye Straw — Shall be in large bales, long rye straw, 
 pressed in bundles, sound, and well baled, not good enough for No. 1. 
 
 No. 1 Tangled Rye Straw — Shall be reasonably clean rye straw, 
 good color, sound, and well baled. 
 
 No. 2 Tangled Rye Straw — Shall be reasonably clean ; may be 
 some staineil, but not good enough for No. 1. 
 
 No. 1 Wheat Straw — Shall be reasonably clean wheat straw, sound 
 and well baled. 
 
HAY AND STRAW— GRA^N 
 
 153 
 
 No. 2 Wheat Straw — Shall be reasonably clean; may be some 
 stained, but not good enough for No. 1. 
 
 No. 1 Oat Straw — Shall be reasonably clean oat straw, sound and 
 well baled. 
 
 No. 2 Oat Straw — Shall be reasonably clean ; may be some stained, 
 but not good enough for No. 1. 
 
 The above grades of hay and straw have been adopted by Exchanges 
 in the following markets : — 
 
 Minneapolis, Minn. 
 Jacksonville, Fla. 
 Washington, D.C 
 Philadelphia, Pa. 
 New Orleans, La. 
 Indianapolis, Ind. 
 Kansas City, Mo. 
 Norfolk, Va. 
 Duluth, Minn. 
 Toledo, O. 
 
 Richmond, Va. 
 Buffalo, N.Y. 
 Saginaw, Mich. 
 Atlanta, Ga. 
 Savannah, Ga. 
 Columbus, O. 
 Baltimore, Md.^ 
 Cleveland, O. 
 Birmingham, Ala. 
 Cincinnati, O.i 
 ^ Using grades in part only. 
 
 St. Paul, Minn. 
 Nashville, Tenn. 
 St. Louis, Mo. 
 Chicago, 111. 
 Pittsburg, Pa. 
 Louisville, Ky. 
 State of Minnesota 
 New York City 
 
 Grades of Grain (Adopted by the Grain Dealers' National Associa- 
 tion, 1909) 
 White winter wheat. 
 
 No. 1 White Winter Wheat — Shall include all varieties of pure soft 
 white winter wheat, sound, plump, dry, sweet, and clean, and weigh not 
 less than 58 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 No. 2 White Winter Wheat — Shall include all varieties of soft white 
 winter wheat, dry, sound, and clean, and shall not contain more than 
 8 per cent of soft red winter wheat, and weigh not less than 56 lb. to 
 the measured bushel. 
 
 No. 3 White Winter Wheat — Shall include all varieties of soft 
 white winter wheat. It may contain 5 per cent o^ damaged 
 grains other than skin-burnt wheat, and may contain 10 per cent of 
 soft red winter wheat, and weigh not less than 53 lb. to the measured 
 bushel. 
 
 No. 4 White Winter Wheat — Shall include all the varieties of soft 
 white winter wheat, not fit for a higher grade, in consequence of being 
 of poor quality, damp, musty, or dirty, and shall not contain more 
 than 10 per cent of soft red winter wheat, and weigh not less than 50 lb. 
 to the measured bushel. 
 
1.54 COMMERCIAL GRADES OF CROP PRODUCTS 
 
 Red mnter wheat. 
 
 No. 1 R«'<1 WiiitiT Wheat — Shall be pure soft red winter wheat of 
 both li^ht and dark colors, sound, sweet, plump, and well cleaned, and 
 weigh not less than 00 lb. to the measured l)ushel. 
 
 No. 2 RihI Winter Wheat — Shall be soft red winter wheat of both 
 llRht and dark colors, sound, sweet, and clean, shall not contain more 
 than 5 per cent of white winter wheat, and weigh not less than .58 lb. 
 to the measure<l bushel. 
 
 No. 3 H(m1 Winter Wheat — Shall be sound, soft red winter wheat, not 
 clean or plump enough for No. 2, shall not contain more than 8 per cent 
 of white winter wheat, and weigh not less than 55 lb. to the measured 
 bushel. 
 
 No. 4 R(m1 Winter Wheat — Shall be soft red winter wheat, shall con- 
 tain not more than <S per cent of white winter wheat. It may be damp, 
 musty, or dirty, but must be cool, and weigh not less than 50 lb. to 
 the mea.sured bushel. 
 
 Hard winter wheat. 
 
 No. 1 Hard Winter Wheat — Shall include all varieties of pure, hard 
 winter wheat, sound, plump, dry, sweet, and well cleaned, and weigh 
 not less than 61 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 No. 2 Hard Winter Wheat — Shall include all varieties of hard winter 
 wheat of lx)th light and dark colors, dry, sound, sweet, and clean, and 
 weigh not less than 50 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 No. 3 Hard Winter Wheat — Shall include all varieties of hard winter 
 wheat of l>oth light and dark colors, not clean or plump enough for No. 
 2, and weigh not less than 50 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 No. 4 Hard Winter Wheat — Shall include all varieties of hard winter 
 wheat of both light and dark colors. It may be damp, musty, or dirty, 
 and weigh not less than 50 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 \orthern spring wheat. 
 
 No. 1 Hard Spring Wheat — Shall be sound, bright, sweet, clean, and 
 consist of over 50 per cent of the hard Scotch Fife, and weigh not less 
 than 58 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 No 1 Northern Spring Wheat — Must be northern-grown spring wheat, 
 
GRADES OF GRAIN 155 
 
 3ound, clean, and of good milling quality, and must contain not less than 
 50 per cent of the hard varieties of spring wheat, and weigh not less than 
 57 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 No. 2 Northern Spring Wheat — ■ Shall be northern-grown spring 
 wheat, not clean enough or sound enough for No. 1, and must contain 
 not less than 50 per cent of the hard varieties of spring wheat, and must 
 weigh not less than 56 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 No. 3 Northern Spring Wheat — Shall be composed of inferior shrunken 
 northern-grown spring wheat, and weigh not less than 54 lb. to the 
 measured bushel, and must contain not less than 50 per cent of the 
 hard varieties of spring wheat. 
 
 No. 4 Northern Spring Wheat — Shall include all inferior northern- 
 grown spring wheat that is badly shrunken or damaged, and must con- 
 tain not less than 50 per cent of the hard varieties of spring wheat, 
 and shall weigh not less than 49 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 Spring wheat. 
 
 No. 1 Spring Wheat — Shall be sound, plump, and well cleaned, and 
 weigh not less than 59 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 No. 2 Spring Wheat — Shall be sound, clean, of a good milling 
 quality, and weigh not less than 57 J lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 No. 3 Spring Wheat — Shall include all inferior, shrunken, or dirty 
 spring wheat, and weigh not less than 53 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 No. 4 Spring Wheat — Shall include all spring wheat damp, musty, 
 grown, badly bleached, or for any cause unfit for No. 3, and weigh not 
 less than 49 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 White spring wheat. 
 
 White Spring Wheat — The grades of Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 White Spring 
 Wheat shall correspond with the grades of Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 Spring 
 Wheat, except that they shall be of the white variety. 
 
 Durum (Macaroni) wheat. 
 
 No. 1 Durum Wheat — Shall be bright, sound, dry, well cleaned, and 
 be composed of durum, commonly known as macaroni wheat, and weigh 
 not less than 60 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 No. 2 Durum Wheat — Shall be drv, clean, and of good milling 
 
156 COMMERCIAL GRADES OF CROP PRODUCTS 
 
 quality. It shall include all durum wheat that for any reason is not 
 suitable for Xo. 1 Durum, and weigh not less than 58 lb. to the measured 
 buijhel. 
 
 Xo. 3 Durum Wheat — Shall include all durum wheat bleached, 
 shrunken, or for any cause unfit for Xo. 2, and weigh not less than 55 
 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 Xo. 4 Durum Wheat — Shall include all durum wheat that is badly 
 bleached or for any cause unfit for No. 3, and weigh not less than 50 lb. 
 to the mea.sured bushel. 
 
 Velvet chaff wheat. 
 
 X'o. 1 Velvet Chaff Wheat — Shall be bright, sound, and well cleaned, 
 and weigh not less than 58 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 Xo. 2 Velvet Chaff Wheat — Shall be sound, dry, clean, maybe slightly 
 bleach<'d, or shrunken, but not good enough for No. 1, and weigh not 
 less than 57 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 No. 3 Velvet Chaff Wheat — Shall include all wheat that is bleached, 
 smutty or for any other cause unfit for No. 2, and weigh not less than 55 
 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 Xo. 4 Velvet Chaff Wheat — Shall include all wheat that is very 
 smutty, badly bleached and grown, or for any other cause unfit for 
 Xo. 3. 
 
 Pacific Coast wfieat. 
 
 Xo. 1 Pacific Coast Red Wheat — Shall be dry, sound, clean, and free 
 from .smut, and weigh not less than 59 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 Xo. 2 Pacific Coast Red Wheat — Shall be dry, sound, clean, and only 
 slightly tainted with smut and alkali, and weigh not less than 58 lb. 
 to the measured bushel. 
 
 Xo. 3 Pacific Coast Red Wheat — Shall include all other Pacific Coast 
 red wheat. It may be smutty or musty, or from any other reason unfit 
 for flouring purpo.scs, and weigh not less than 54 lb. to the measured 
 bu.shel. 
 
 Pacific Coa.st white wheat shall be graded according to the rules for 
 Pacific Coast re<l wheat. In case of a mixture of Pacific Coast 
 wheat with our home-grown wheat, red or white, such mixture shall 
 be graded " Pacific Coast Mixed Wheat." 
 
GRADES OF GRAIN 157 
 
 The grades of Pacific white and Pacific red wheat are to include 
 all such wheats as are grown in the extreme Northwest and on the 
 Pacific slope from either spring or winter seeding. 
 
 Mixed wheat. 
 
 Mixed Wheat — In case of an appreciable mixture of hard and soft 
 wheat, red and white wheat (except as provided in the rule of red 
 winter, white winter, and northern spring wheat), durum, and spring 
 wheat, any of them with each other, it shall be graded according to 
 the quality thereof, and the kind of wheat predominating, shall be 
 classed as No. 1, 2, 3, and 4 Mixed Wheat, and the inspector shall make 
 notation describing its character. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 No. 1 Rye — Shall be dry, sound, plump, sweet, and well cleaned, and 
 shall weigh not less than 57 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 No. 2 Rye — Shall be dry, sound, and contain not more than 1 per 
 cent of other grain or foreign matter, and weigh not less than 55 lb. 
 to the measured bushel. 
 
 No. 3 Rye — Shall include inferior rye not unsound, but from any 
 other cause not good enough for No. 2, and weigh not less than 53 lb. 
 to the measured bushel. 
 
 No. 4 Rye — May be damp, musty, or dirty, and weigh not less than 
 50 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 White oats. 
 
 No. 1 White Oats — Shall be white, dry, sweet, sound, bright, clean, 
 free from other grain, and weigh not less than 32 lb. to the measured 
 bushel. 
 
 No. 2 White Oats — Shall be 95 per cent white, dry, sweet, shall 
 contain not more than 1 per cent of dirt and 1 per cent of other grain, 
 and weigh not less than 29 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 Standard White Oats — Shall be 92 per cent white, dry, sweet, shall 
 not contain more than 2 per cent of dirt and 2 per cent of other grain, 
 and weigh not less than 28 lb, to the measured bushel. 
 
 No. 3 White Oats — Shall be sweet, 90 per cent white, shall not con- 
 tain more than 3 per cent of dirt and 5 per cent of other grain, and weigh 
 Tiot less than 24 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
158 COMMERCIAL GRADES OF CROP PRODUCTS 
 
 No. 4 \Vhit« Oats — Shall hv 90 per cent white, may be damp, 
 damaK(»fl, imisty, or very dirty. 
 
 Notiee. — Yellow oaU shall not be graded better than No. 3 White 
 Oats. 
 
 Mixed Oats. 
 
 No. 1 Mixed Oats — Shall be oats of various colors, dry, sweet, 
 sound, bright, elean. free from other grain, and weigh not less than 
 32 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 No. 2 Mixed Oats — Shall be oats of various colors, dry, sweet, shall 
 not contain more than 2 per cent of dirt and 2 per cent of other grain, 
 and weigh not less than 28 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 No. 3 Mixed Oats — Shall be sweet oats of various colors, shall not 
 contain more than 3 per cent of dirt and 5 per cent of other grain, and 
 weigh not le.ss than 24 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 No. 4 Mixed Oats — Shall be oats of various colors, damp, damaged, 
 musty, or very dirty. 
 
 Red or rust-proof oats. 
 
 No. 1 Red Oats or Rust-Proof — Shall be pure red, sound, bright, 
 sweet, clean, and free from other grain, and weigh not less than 32 lb. 
 to the measured bushel. 
 
 No. 2 Red Oats or Rust-Proof — Shall be seven-eighths red, sweet, 
 dry, and shall not contain more than 2 per cent dirt or foreign matter, 
 and weigh 30 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 No. 3 Red Oats or Rust-Proof — Shall be sweet, seven-eighths red, 
 shall not contain more than 5 per cent dirt or foreign matter, and weigh 
 not less than 24 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 No. 4 Red Oats or Rust-Proof — Shall be seven-eighths red, may be 
 damp, musty, or very dirty. 
 
 White clipped oats. 
 
 No 1 White Cli|)ped Oats — Shall be white, clean, dry, sweet, sound, 
 bright, free from other grain, and weigh not less than 35 lb. to the 
 moa.su rod bushel. 
 
 No. 2 White Clipped Oats. — Shall be <).") p(>r cent white, dry, sweet, 
 shall not contain more than 2 per cent of dirt or foreign matter, and 
 weigh not less than 32 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
GRADES OF GRAIN 159 
 
 No. 3 White Clipped Oats — Shall be sweet, 90 per cent white, shall 
 not contain more than 5 per cent of dirt or foreign matter, and weigh 
 not less than 30 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 No. 4 White Clipped Oats — Shall be 90 per cent white, damp, 
 damaged, musty, or dirty, and weigh not less than 30 lb. to the measured 
 bushel. 
 
 Mixed clipped oats. 
 
 No. 1 Mixed Clipped Oats — Shall be oats of various colors, dry, 
 sweet, sound, bright, clean, free from other grain, and weigh not less 
 than 35 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 No. 2 Mixed Clipped Oats — Shall be oats of various colors, dry, 
 sweet, shall not contain more than 2 per cent of dirt or foreign matter, 
 and weigh not less than 32 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 No. 3 Mixed Clipped Oats. — Shall be sweet oats of various colors, 
 shall not contain more than 5 per cent of dirt or foreign matter, and 
 weigh not less than 30 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 No. 4 Mixed Clipped Oats — Shall be oats of various colors, damp, 
 damaged, musty, or dirty, and weigh not less than 30 lb. to the 
 measured bushel. 
 
 Note — Inspectors are authorized, when requested by shippers, to 
 give weight per bushel instead of grade on Clipped White Oats and 
 Clipped Mixed Oats from private elevators. 
 
 Purified oats. 
 
 Purified Oats — All oats that have been chemically treated or 
 purified shall be classed as Purified Oats, and inspectors shall give the 
 test weight on each car or parcel that may be so inspected. 
 
 Corn. 
 
 The following maximum limits shall govern all inspection and grad- 
 ing of corn : — 
 
 Percentage Percentage cob rotten. Percentage 
 
 Grade of Exclusive of bin burnt dirt and 
 
 Moisture or mahogany corn broken grains 
 
 1 15 1 1 
 
 2 16 5 2 
 
 3 19 10 4 
 
 4 22 See No. 4 Corn rule, all colors. 
 
IGO COMMERCIAL GRADES OF CROP PRODUCTS 
 
 Whik corn. 
 
 Xo. 1 White Corn — Shall be 99 per cent white, sweet, and well 
 matured. 
 
 No. 2 White Corn — Shall be 98 per cent white, and sweet. 
 
 No. 3 White Corn — Shall be 98 per cent white, and sweet. 
 
 No. 4 White Corn — Shall be 98 per cent white ; but shall include 
 damp, damaged, or musty corn. 
 
 Yellow corn. 
 
 No. 1 Yellow Corn — Shall be 99 per cent yellow, sweet, and well 
 matured. 
 
 No. 2 Yellow Corn — Shall be 95 per cent yellow, and sweet. 
 
 No. 3 Yellow Corn — Shall be 95 per cent yellow, and sweet. 
 
 No. 4 Yellow Corn — Shall be 95 per cent yellow ; but shall include 
 damp, damaged, or musty corn. 
 
 Mixed com. 
 
 No. 1 Mixed Corn — Shall be corn of various colors, sweet and well 
 matured. 
 
 No. 2 Mixed Corn — Shall be corn of various colors, and sweet. 
 
 No. 3 Mixed Corn — Shall be corn of various colors, and sweet. 
 
 No. 4 Mixed Corn — Shall be corn of various colors; but shall in- 
 clude damp, damaged, or musty corn. 
 
 Milo-maize. 
 
 No. 1 Milo-Maize — Shall be mixed milo-maize of choice quality, 
 Bound, dry, and well cleaned. 
 
 No. 2 Milo-Maize — Shall be mixed milo-maize, sound, dry, and 
 • N'an. 
 
 No. 3 Milo-Maize — Shall be mixed milo-maize, not dry, clean, or 
 sound enough for No. 2. 
 
 No. 4 Milo-Maize — Shall include all mixed milo-maize that is 
 Sadly damaged, damp, musty or very dirty. 
 
 Milo-maize that is wet or in heating condition shall not be 
 a?-aded. 
 
GRADES OF GRAIN 161 
 
 Kaffir corn} 
 
 No. 1 White Kaffir Corn — Shall be pure white of choice quality, 
 sound, dry, and well cleaned. 
 
 No. 2 White Kaffir Corn — Shall be seven-eighths white, sound, dry, 
 and clean. 
 
 No. 3 White Kaffir Corn — Shall be seven-eighths white, not dry, 
 clean or sound enough for No. 2. 
 
 No. 4 White Kaffir Corn — Shall be seven-eighths white tliat is badly 
 damaged, damp, musty, or very dirty. 
 
 No. 1 Red Kaffir Corn — Shall be pure red corn, of choice quality, 
 sound, dry, and well cleaned. 
 
 No. 2 Red Kaffir Corn — Shall be seven-eighths red, sound, dry, 
 and clean. 
 
 No. 3 Red Kaffir Corn — Shall be seven-eighths red, not dry, clean, 
 or sound enough for No. 2. 
 
 No. 4 Red Kaffir Corn — Shall be seven-eighths red that is badly 
 damaged, damp, musty, or very dirty. 
 
 No. 1 Kaffir Corn — Shall be mixed kaffir corn of choice quality, 
 sound, dry, and well cleaned. 
 
 No. 2 Kaffir Corn — Shall be mixed kaffir corn, sound, dry, and clean. 
 
 No. 3 Kaffir Corn — Shall be mixed kaffir corn, not dry, clean, or 
 sound enough for No. 2, 
 
 No. 4 Kaffir Corn — Shall include all mixed kaffir corn that is badly 
 damaged, damp, musty, or very dirty. 
 
 Kaffir corn that is wet or in heating condition shall not be graded. 
 
 Barley (Barley Association of the United States). 
 
 No. 1 Barley — Shall be sound, plump, bright, clean, and free from 
 other grain, and not scoured nor clipped, shall weigh not less than 
 48 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 No. 2 Barley — Shall be sound, of healthy color (bright or straw 
 color), reasonably clean and reasonably free from other grains and 
 seeds, and not scoured nor clipped, shall weigh not less than 46 lb. to 
 the measured bushel. 
 
 ' By some writers now spelled kafir, and written without the word "corn." 
 See Cyclo. Amer. Agr. ii. 384, where the word "maize" is also dropped from 
 milo. " Kafir " is used in this book by preference. 
 
162 COMMf:RCIAL GRADES OF CROP PRODUCTS 
 
 Xo. 3 Barley — Shall include slightly shrunken or otherwise slightly 
 damaged barley, not gootl enough for No. 2, and not scoured nor 
 clipped, shall weigh not less than 44 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 Xo. 4 Barley — Shall include barley fit for malting purposes, not 
 good enough for Xo. 3. 
 
 Xo. 1 Feed Barley — Shall test not less than 40 lb. to the measured 
 bushel, shall be cool and reasonably free from other grain and seeds, 
 and not good enough for Xo. 4, and may include barley with a strong 
 ground smell, or a slightly musty or bin smell. 
 
 Rejected Barley — Shall include all barley testing under 40 lb. to the 
 mea.suretl bushel, or barley which is badly musty or badly damaged, 
 and not good enough to grade " feed " barley, except that barley which 
 has been chemically treated shall not be graded at all. 
 
 Bay Brewing Barley — The grades of Nos. 1, 2, and 3 Bay Brewing 
 Barley shall conform in all respects to the grades of Nos. 1, 2, and 3 
 Barley, excei)t that they shall be of the Bay Brewing variety, grown in 
 the far West and on the Pacific Coast. 
 
 Chevalier Barley — The grades of Nos. 1, 2, and 3 Chevalier Barley 
 shall conform in all respects to the grades of Nos. 1, 2, and 3 Barley, 
 except that they shall be of the Chevalier variety, grown in the far 
 West and on the Pacific Coast. 
 
 Bay Brewing Mixed Barley — In case of admixture of Bay Brewing 
 barley with barley of other varieties, it shall be graded according to the 
 quality thereof, and classed as 1-2-3 Bay Brewing Mixed Barley. 
 
 Chevalier Mixed Barley — In case of admixture of Chevalier barley 
 with barley of other varieties, it shall be graded according to the quality 
 thereof, and classed as 1-2-3 Chevalier Mixed Barley. 
 
 Winter Barky. 
 
 Xo 1 Winter Barley — Shall be plump, bright, sound, and clean, free 
 from other grain, and weigh not less than 48 lb. to the measured 
 bu.shel. 
 
 Xo. 2 Winter Barley — Shall be sound, plump, may be stained, shall 
 contain not more than 3 per c:':it of foreign matter, and weigh not less 
 than 46 lb, to the measured bushel. 
 
 Xo. 3 Winter Barley — Shall include all shrunken, stained, and 
 dirty barley, shall contain not more than 5 per cent of foreign matter, 
 and weigh not less than 44 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
SIZES OF FRUIT PACKAGES 
 
 163 
 
 No. 4 Winter Barley — Shall include all barley not fit for a higher 
 grade in consequence of being poor quality, damp, musty, or dirty ; shall 
 contain not more than 10 per cent of foreign matter, and weigh not less 
 than 40 lb. to the measured bushel. 
 
 Sample grades — General rule. 
 
 All wheat, barley, oats, rye and corn that is in a heated condition, 
 souring, or too damp to be safe for warehousing, or that is badly 
 bin-burnt, fire-burnt, fire-smoked, or badly damaged, mixed with 
 garlic, onions, or containing live weevil, exceedingly dirty, or where 
 different kinds of grain are badly mixed with one another, shall be 
 classed as Sample Grade, and the inspector shall make notations as 
 to quality and condition. 
 
 Fruit Packages 
 
 Sizes and weights of packages for deciduous fruits (California Fruit 
 
 Distributors) 
 
 Weights in first table, sizes in second 
 
 Cherries 11 pounds per box 
 
 Peaches 21 1/^ pounds per box 
 
 Pears 50 pounds per box 
 
 Pears for export to Europe 24 pounds per box 
 
 Prunes 26 pounds per single crate 
 
 Apricots 26 pounds per single crate 
 
 Nectarines 25 pounds per single crate 
 
 Plums 26 pounds per single crate 
 
 Grapes 26 pounds per single crate 
 
 Grapes 56 pounds per double crate 
 
 Cherries, box 
 
 Peaches, box 
 
 Pears, box 
 
 Pears, for export to Europe, box 
 Apricots, single crate .... 
 Nectarines, single crate 
 Prunes, single crate .... 
 
 Plums, single crate 
 
 Grapes, single crate .... 
 Grapes, double crate .... 
 
 
 In Inches 
 
 
 Depth 
 
 Width 
 
 Length 
 
 2% 
 
 9 
 
 19H 
 
 5 
 
 UH 
 
 19H 
 
 9 
 
 UH 
 
 19M 
 
 4K 
 
 im 
 
 19^ 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 17^ 
 
 o 
 
 16 
 
 17M 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 17^ 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 171^ 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 17H 
 
 UH 
 
 16 
 
 17M 
 
\CA COMMERCIAL GRADES OF CROP PRODUCTS 
 
 Chautauqua, N.Y., grape figures. 
 
 The grapes are shipped in 8-pound Climax baskets, which weigh, 
 when not filled, 20 ounces. A carload is 2800 to 3000 baskets. A 
 girl will pack from 100 to 150 baskets per day. One and one-fourth 
 cents i)er l)a.^ket is paid for picking and packing. An average acre of 
 Concord grapes yields about 500 baskets. The average annual cost 
 of cultivating the vineyard up to picking time is $8. The expense of 
 picking, packing, packages, and carting is about $28 for the 500 bas- 
 kets. In hulk, the grapes are shipped in crates of 38 lb. capacity ; 
 cost of picking in crates is about 2 cents for quantity representing 2\ 
 baskets. The bunches are cut from the vines with shears made for 
 the purpose. In the packing house the bunches are trimmed. 
 
 Citrus fruits. 
 
 The specifications of the boxes used in the packing of California 
 oranges are shown in the railroad tariffs with an estimated weight, and 
 the box so shown is the only one used. The inside dimensions are 
 Hi in.XlU in.X24 in., the slats are 26 in. long, but the thickness of 
 the ends and center-pieces is 2 in., making the inside length 24 in. 
 No. 2 Jumbo orange-box, lU in. X 12^ in. X 24 in. 
 
 The California box for lemons shown in the tarifT is IO2 in. X 14 in. 
 X 25 in. Recently, the lemon shippers adopted a new-sized box 
 which packs lemons to better advantage, and this new box will be 
 used as soon as the accumulation of old stock is exhausted, and 
 the tariffs will be changed to show its dimensions, which are, lOf in. 
 X 13i in. X 25 in. inside. Old box, 3675 cu. in. ; new box, 3501^ 
 cu. in. 
 
 Florida orange-box, 12 X 12 X 24| in. inside. Half-box, 5t X 12 
 X 24^ in. 
 
 Apple boxes (W. A. Taylor). 
 
 The memoranda following (p. 165) show legal weights to the bushel 
 of apples and legal sizes of apple-boxes and barrels ; also the usual 
 standard (not legal) sizes of apple-boxes and the heaped-bushel ex- 
 pressed in cubic inches in such states as have expressed the capacity 
 of the heaped-bushel in that form. 
 
 All these boxes when actually used are subject to considerable 
 variation in capacity, resulting from the use or non-use of cleats 
 under the covers. 
 
SIZES OF FRUIT PACKAGES 
 
 165 
 
 State 
 Arkansas 
 
 Apple legislation (Box and barrel sizes and weights per bushel) 
 
 Barrel Size 
 
 Pounds per Bu. Box Size 
 
 " Green apples " 50 20" X 12" x 9" 
 
 " lawful bu. 
 
 measure" 
 
 Connecticut 
 Florida . . 
 Iowa . . . 
 Kansas . . 
 Maine . . 
 
 Maryland . . 
 
 Massachusetts 
 Michigan . . 
 
 Minnesota 
 Missouri . 
 
 Nebraska . 
 New Jersey- 
 New York . 
 
 North Carolina 
 North Dakota 
 Ohio .... 
 
 Oregon "stand- 
 ard box " . . 
 
 Oregon "special 
 box" . 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas . . 
 
 Vermont . 
 
 Virginia . 
 
 Washington 
 Wisconsin . 
 
 Apples" . . 48 
 Apples, green" 48 
 Apples" . . 48 
 Green apples" 48 
 Apples" . . 44 
 
 Apples ' 
 Apples ' 
 
 20" X 11" X 10" 
 2250 cu. in (i) 
 " stand, bu. box ' 
 
 2212 cu. in. . . 
 
 48 
 48 
 
 2160 cu. in. 
 
 Head 17|" 
 Stave 28V 
 Bulge 64" 
 6253i cu. in. 
 
 3bu 
 
 Apples, green" 50 
 Apples" . . 48 
 
 Green apples " 48 
 Apples" . . 50 
 Apples" . . 48 
 
 " Green apples" 48 
 " Apples" . . 50 
 "Apples" . . 50 
 
 "Apples' 
 
 20" X 11" X 10" 
 
 "Apples, green" 50 
 "Apples " . . 50 
 "Apples" . . 46 
 "Apples" . . 45 
 
 "Green apples" 45 18"Xlirxl0r 
 "Apples" . . 48 
 
 Heads 16|" 
 Stave 27" or 
 flour bbl. size 
 
 Heads n\" 
 Stave 28^' 
 Diam. center 
 inside 20g" 
 
 Head 17|" 
 
 Stave 28|" 
 
 Bulge 64" 
 
 100 qt. 
 
 Head 17|" 
 
 Stave 28|" 
 Bulge 66" 
 
 . 45 18" X U\" X \Q\" 2173^ cu. in. 
 
 2200 cu. in. 
 2|bu. 
 
 Head 171" 
 Stave 27\" 
 Bulge 64 
 
 100 quarts 
 
 Other apple-box sizes 
 
 California (40 lb.) 20|" X lOf" X 9|" 1965 
 
 California (50 lb.) 201" X lU" X lOf" : . . .2393 
 
 Canadian (legal) 20" X 11" X 10" 2200 
 
 Colorado 18"Xll"xl2" 2376 
 
 Washington "special" . . . . 20"xll"xl0" 2200 
 
 Norwestern special 20" X 12" X 10" 2400 
 
 1 Printed 2250 cu. in. in the law, but the dimensions figure 2200 cu. i] 
 
^66 COMMERCIAL GRADES OF CROP PRODUCTS 
 
 Legal heaped-bushel capacities (Apples) 
 
 Connectirut (hrapttl bu.) ^-^ ^!^- '.? 
 
 Kansas (hi-apetl bu.) o'iaA •» •• 
 
 Washington (heaped bu.) 25b4 
 
 Box packing of apples in Washington and Oregon (C. S. Wilson). 
 
 Boies. — (a) Standard, lOJ in. X Hi in. X 18 in. inside measurement. 
 (6) Special, 10 in. X 11 in. X 20 in. inside measurement. 
 
 Makrial. — Knds, ^ in. ; sides, I in ; tops and bottoms, two pieces each, 
 \ in. thick. There should be two cleats for each top and bottom. The 
 sides of the box should be nailed with four nails at each end of each 
 side. The cleats should be put neatly on the box, and four nails driven 
 through them and through the top or bottom into the ends. Five- 
 penny cement-coated nails are preferable. 
 
 Wrapping paper. — Any of the following grades may be used : 
 Light Manila, heavy-weight tissue, or " white news." The size of 
 the wrapper will vary somewhat, according to the size of the apple. 
 Two sizes should be ordered, 8 in. X 10 in. and 10 in. X 10 in. The 
 approximate cost of this wrapping paper would be, light Manila and 
 heavy-weight tissue, 4i or 5 cents per pound, or about 35 cents per thou- 
 sand sheets; "white news," 3^ cents per pound, or about 30 cents 
 per thousand sheets. 
 
 Lining paper. — The lining paper is made from " white news," size 
 18 in. X 24 in. The approximate cost of this paper would be 31 cents 
 per pound, or about SI. 15 per thousand sheets. 
 
 Layer paper. — In some cases it is necessary to use layer paper to 
 raise the pack in order to come out right at the top. For this purpose 
 u.se colored tag-board, size 17i in. X 11 in., or 19^ in. X 10^ in., ac- 
 cording to the box. The approximate cost of this paper would be 
 alx)ut S7.50 per thou.sand sheets. 
 
 Packing. — Before placing the apples on the packing table they 
 are u.sually graded into different sizes. This facilitates very much the 
 work of the packers. A sizer may be used at the beginning, but one 
 soon trains the eye to recognize the different grades. The diagonal 
 pack is preferable, although one is forced to use the straight pack for 
 a few sizes. 
 
 The following table was u.sed at Hood River, Oregon, in the fall of 
 1910 (C. I. Lewis, in "Better Fruits"): — 
 
SIZES OF FRUIT PACKAGES 
 Table of commercial box packs 
 
 167 
 
 Size — Ex- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 pressed IN 
 No. Apples 
 
 Tier 
 
 Pack 
 
 No. Apples 
 IN Row 
 
 No. Layers 
 IN Depth 
 
 Box Used 
 
 PER Box 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 3 
 
 3 St. 
 
 5-5 
 
 3 
 
 Standard 
 
 54 
 
 3 
 
 3 St. 
 
 6-6 
 
 3 
 
 Special 
 
 63 
 
 3 
 
 3 St. 
 
 7-7 
 
 3 
 
 Special 
 
 64 
 
 sy2 
 
 2-2 Diag. 
 
 4-4 
 
 4 
 
 Standard 
 
 72 
 
 sy2 
 
 2-2 Diag. 
 
 4-5 
 
 4 
 
 Standard 
 
 80 
 
 3^ 
 
 2-2 Diag. 
 
 5-5 
 
 4 
 
 Standard 
 
 88 
 
 3H 
 
 2-2 Diag. 
 
 5-6 
 
 4 
 
 Standard 
 
 96 
 
 3^ 
 
 2-2 Diag. 
 
 6-6 
 
 4 
 
 Special 
 
 104 
 
 SH 
 
 2-2 Diag. 
 
 6-7 
 
 4 
 
 Special 
 
 112 
 
 3y2 
 
 2-2 Diag. 
 
 7-7 
 
 4 
 
 Special 
 
 120 
 
 3y2 
 
 2-2 Diag. 
 
 7-8 
 
 4 
 
 Special 
 
 128 
 
 4 
 
 4 St. 
 
 8-8 
 
 4 
 
 Special 
 
 144 
 
 4 
 
 4 St. 
 
 9-9 
 
 4 
 
 Special 
 
 150 
 
 4K 
 
 3-2 Diag. 
 
 6-6 
 
 5 
 
 Standard 
 
 163 
 
 4H 
 
 3-2 Diag. 
 
 6-7 
 
 5 
 
 Standard 
 
 175 
 
 4^ 
 
 3-2 Diag. 
 
 7-7 
 
 5 
 
 Standard 
 
 188 
 
 43^ 
 
 3-2 Diag. 
 
 7-8 
 
 5 
 
 Special 
 
 200 
 
 43^ 
 
 3-2 Diag. 
 
 8-8 
 
 5 
 
 Special 
 
 Fruit packages in Canada (Fruit Marks Act). 
 
 The minimum legal limit of apple barrel is a barrel having a dimen- 
 sion of not less than 26| inches between the heads, inside measure, 
 and a head diameter of 17 inches, and a middle diameter of 18| inches, 
 representing as nearly as possible 96 quarts. 
 
 When apples are packed in Canada for export, for sale by the 
 box, they shall be packed in good strong boxes, of seasoned wood, the 
 inside dimensions of which shall not be less than 10 inches in depth, 
 11 inches in width, and 20 inches in length, representing as nearly 
 as possible 2200 cubic inches. 
 
 The Inspection and Sale Act, dealing with fruit baskets (May, 1907), 
 reads as follows : — 
 
 " 2. Every basket of fruit offered for sale in Canada, unless stamped 
 on the side plainly in black letters at least three-quarters of an inch 
 deep and wide, with the word ' Quart ' in full, preceded with the mini- 
 mum number of quarts, omitting fractions, which the basket will hold 
 when level-full, shall contain, when level-full, one or other of the fol- 
 lowing quantities : — 
 
 *' (a) Fifteen quarts or more. 
 
168 COMMERCIAL GRADES OF CROP PRODUCTS 
 
 " (6) Eleven quarts, and be 5 J inches deep perpendicularly, 18* 
 inches in Icnplh, and 8 inches in width at the top of the basket, 16 J 
 inches in Icnpth, and dl inches in width at the bottom of the basket, as 
 nearly exactly as practicable, all measurements to be inside of the 
 veneer proper, and not to include the top band. 
 
 •* (c) Six quarts, and be 4^ inches deep perpendicularly, 15i inches 
 in length, and 7 inches in width at the top of the basket, 13^ inches 
 in length, and ol inches in width at the bottom of the basket, as nearly 
 exactly as practicable, all measurements to be inside of the veneer 
 proper, and not to include the top band : Provided that the Governor 
 in Council may by proclamation exempt any province from the opera- 
 tion of this section. 
 
 " id) Two and two-fifths quarts, as nearly exactly as practicable." 
 
 Proposed United States standards (Provisions in the Lafean Bill, 
 now before Congress, 1911). 
 
 First. The standard box package for apples is a box having a ca- 
 pacity of not less than 2342 cubic inches when measured without dis- 
 tention of its parts. 
 
 Second. The standard basket package for apples is a basket having 
 a capacity of not less than 2342 cubic inches, when measured level- 
 full, without distention of its parts. 
 
 Third. The standard barrel package for apples is a barrel of the 
 following dimensions, when measured without distention of its parts : 
 Length of stave, 28^ inches; diameter of head, 17i inches, distance 
 between heads, 26 inches; circumference of bulge, 64 inches, outside 
 measurement. 
 
 Section 3. That the standard grade for apples which shall be shipped 
 or delivered for shipment in interstate or foreign commerce, or which 
 shall be sold or offered for sale within the District of Columbia or the 
 Territories of the United States, are as follows : — 
 
 Apples of one variety, which arc well-grown specimens, hand-picked, 
 of go(Kl color for the variety, normal shape, practically free from in- 
 sect and fungus injury, bruises, and other defects, except such as are 
 necessarily caused in the operation of packing, or apples of one variety, 
 which are not more than 10 per centum below the foregoing specifica- 
 tions, are .standard grade " U. S. Size A," if the minimum size of the 
 apples is two and one-half inches in transverse diameter : or are stand- 
 
SIZES OF TRUCK PACKAGES 169 
 
 ard grade " U. S. Size B," if the minimum size of the apples is two and 
 one-fourth inches in transverse diameter; or are standard grade 
 " U. S. Size C./' if the minimum size of the apples is two inches ia 
 transverse diameter. 
 
 Packages for truck crops, including strawberries (L. C. Corbett). 
 
 Potatoes. — Truck crop potatoes are shipped from the Atlantic sea- 
 board points in ventilated barrels holding 2\ bushels ; from the Mis- 
 sissippi Valley and Gulf States in sacks holding 190 pounds ; from 
 Maine in sacks holding 165 pounds; and from the California and 
 Colorado sections in sacks holding 100 pounds (everything in this 
 region being sold by net weight rather than by bushel) . In northern 
 sections of Vermont, New York, Michigan, Wisconsin, potatoes are 
 largely sold in bulk by weight at so much per bushel. 
 
 Cabbages from the Atlantic seaboard states south of Baltimore are 
 shipped either in crates or ventilated barrels holding 2j bushels. 
 These crates are usually flat, about 3 feet long. At the North, crates 
 3 feet square are often used for shipment of cabbage, but the general 
 crop grown for storage and for the manufacture of kraut is sold in 
 bulk by the ton (heads trimmed) . 
 
 Cauliflower from the Southern fields is almost universally shipped 
 in ventilated barrels, packed in excelsior, barrels being standard truck- 
 crop-barrel of 2\ bushels. California package is a flat carrier holding 
 
 I dozen or 1| dozen heads. 
 
 Brussels sprouts are packed in quart cups, in crates holding 32 cups. 
 
 Tomatoes from Eastern States in crates holding about 1 bushel, 
 similar to those used for the shipment of muskmelons, dimensions 
 about 12 in. X 12 in. X 22 in. Some fruits arrive from Florida in this 
 type of package, but most tomatoes come in 6-basket carriers similar 
 to those used for peaches. In Texas a flat, 4-basket carrier, which is 
 only one tier deep, is almost universally used. 
 
 Onions of the winter sorts are shipped either in ventilated barrels or 
 standard sacks holding about 2f bushels. The Texas Bermuda crop 
 is universally shipped in slatted bushel crates, 20 inches long, 12 inches 
 wide, and 12 inches deep. 
 
 Celery from the Florida section is packed in flat crates usually 
 
 II in. X 20 in. X 24 in. The California package is a cubical crate, 
 
170 COMMERCIAL GRADES OF CROP PRODUCTS 
 
 24 in. X 24 in. X 20 in. Most Eastern sections use the California type 
 of packuRo. 
 
 Muskmelons from incst sections arrive in a veneer crate very similar 
 in shape to the orange-box but somewhat smaller, the dimensions be- 
 ing approximately 12 in. X 12 in. X 22 in. Some sections ship melons 
 in ()(^(iuart and 32-(iuart berry crates, while a small percentage of the 
 crop arrives in flat carriers arranged to hold a single layer of melons. 
 These carriers usually contain IS to 24 melons. 
 
 Eggplants are usually wrapped in paper and forwarded in 60-quart 
 berry crates. 
 
 Peas are shipped largely in I standard Delaware baskets with ven- 
 tilate<l wood covers, or in barrel-high Delaware baskets with ventilated 
 wood covers. 
 
 Sweet-potatoes are shipped in ventilated barrels holding 2j bushels, 
 covered with burlap. 
 
 Asparagus is shipped in carriers made to accommodate 8 to 12 
 bunches. 
 
 String beans (snap) are shipped either in 2-bushel or barrel-high 
 Delaware baskets. 
 
 Beets are usually pulled when 2 or 2^ inches in diameter and tied 
 in bunches of 3 to beets and packed in 60-quart berry crates, venti- 
 lated barrels, or barrel-high Delaware baskets, depending on the market 
 to which they are consigned. 
 
 Water-cress is either marketed in })unchcs or in bulk in iced barrels, 
 or in iced barrel-high Delaware baskets. 
 
 Cucumbers are marketed from the trucking region either in venti- 
 lated barrels, barrel-high, or ^-bushel Delaware baskets; and in the 
 pickle-growing districts they are marketed in bulk by the hundred- 
 weight. 
 
 Lettuce from the truck-farming districts is marketed in either 
 i-bushel or l)arrel-high, Delaware baskets or in ventilated barrels. The 
 barrel package is not, however, generally used. 
 
 Spinach is almost universally marketed from the truck-farming 
 sections in ventilated barrels. A small (piantity is received in barrel- 
 hiiih Delaware ba-skets. 
 
 Okra is marketed either in ()-l)asket carriers or in a special flat 
 carrier without baskets, in which the pods are carefully arranged one 
 layer wide. These packages are usually about 2 feet long. 
 
SIZES OF TRUCK PACKAGES 171 
 
 Green 'peppers are almost universally marketed in 6-basket carriers. 
 
 Radishes are tied in bunches and packed in 1-bushel or barrel-high 
 Delaware baskets, as a rule. A few are marketed in ventilated barrels. 
 
 Strawberries are offered in quart cups, either in 60-quart crates from 
 the Carolina and Norfolk region, or in 24- or 32-quart crates from 
 other regions, the 32-quart being more universally used than any other. 
 
 Dimensions. 
 
 The truck barrel is 28 inches high and has 16-inch heads. 
 
 The eggplant and squash crate has a head 11 in. X 14 in., and is 24 
 inches long. 
 
 The half-barrel basket commonly used in the Norfolk region is 20 
 inches high, 9| inches at the bottom and 17 inches at the top. 
 
 The asparagus-box has heads 10 in. high, 15 inches at the top and 
 17 inches at the bottom, and slats 26 inches long, outside measure, 
 making it 10 in. X 15 in. X 17 in. X 24 in. inside. 
 
 The one-half barrel lettuce basket, called the " Delaware barrel-high 
 basket," is 16 inches inside diameter at the top, 9 inches inside diam- 
 eter at the bottom, and 27 inches high. 
 
 The cabbage crate which comes from Norfolk is IH in- X18 in. on 
 the heads, and is 36 inches long with a partition in the middle. 
 
 The three-peck basket which is used early in the season for shipping 
 peas, beans, cucumbers, and crookneck squashes is 20 inches high, 14 
 inches inside measure at the top, and 8^ inches inside measure at the 
 bottom. 
 
 The fiat onion crate with partition in the center has 16 in. X 7 in. 
 heads, and is 24 inches long. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 The Judging of Farms, Crops, and Plants. Exhibition and 
 Nomenclature Rules. Emblematic Plants and Flowers 
 
 In recent years there has been great development of the desire to 
 standardize knowledge in agriculture ; and to this end many formal 
 plans have been devised to enable one to set numerical measures to the 
 various attributes of an object or an establishment or an operation. 
 One is thereby able " to judge," and to score the object by com- 
 parison with an ideal scale of j)oints rather than with other objects like 
 itself, (lood scoring eliminates the old method at fairs, for example, 
 of giving a first prize to the best of several competitors : it gives it only 
 to those that score sufficiently high in a scale of grades of perfection. 
 
 The making of score-cards has now come to be a popular practice in the 
 colleges of agriculture, in fairs, and in societies, and the number of pub- 
 lished cards is very large. In this chapter only a few representative 
 scores can be given ; score-cards for animals are given in Chap. XXI. 
 If the reader wants score-cards of the different breeds of animals, he 
 may find them in Vol. Ill of the Cyclopedia of American Agriculture. 
 
 Farms and Farm Practices 
 
 The " agricultural virtues " (Pearson). 
 
 Better prices, more than anything else, have put new life into our 
 agriculture, and have brought about a disposition on the part of some 
 farmers to adopt better methods, and have emphasized the greater 
 opportunity open to all farmers and the need of the general adoption of 
 the best methods, such as are well known to the few. These best 
 methods include the following : — 
 1 Conservation of fertility. 
 2. Thorough cultivation. 
 
 172 
 
PRECEPTS FOR FARMERS AND GARDENERS 173 
 
 3. Drainage. 
 
 4. Growth of leguminous crops. 
 
 5. The use of cover-crops. 
 
 6. The proper use of lime and commercial fertilizers. 
 
 7. Crop rotation. 
 
 8. Selection of seed. 
 
 9. Spraying for fungous and insect pests. 
 
 10. Disposal of poor cows. 
 
 11. Use of pure-bred sires. 
 
 12. Feeding economical rations. 
 
 13. Protection against bovine tuberculosis. 
 
 14. Production of clean milk. 
 
 15. Keeping of farm business accounts. 
 
 16. Use of mechanical power and machinery. 
 
 17. Employment of labor throughout the year. 
 
 18. Maintaining a reputation for honesty. 
 
 19. The providing of home comforts. 
 
 20. Reading reliable agricultural publications. 
 
 21. Membership in active agricultural organizations. 
 
 London's rules for gardeners. 
 
 1. Perform every operation in the proper season and in the best 
 manner. 
 
 2. Complete every operation consecutively. 
 
 3. Never, if possible, perform one operation in such a manner as to 
 render another necessary. 
 
 4. When called off from any operation, leave your work and tools in 
 an orderly manner. 
 
 5. In leaving off work, make a temporary finish, and clean your tools 
 and carry them to the tool-house. 
 
 6. Never do that in the garden or hothouses which can be equally 
 well done in the reserve ground or in the back sheds. 
 
 7. Never pass a weed or insect without pulling it up or taking it off, 
 unless time forbid. 
 
 8. In gathering a crop, take away the useless as well as the useful 
 parts. 
 
 9. Let no plant ripen seeds, unless they are wanted for some purpose, 
 useful or ornamental, and remove all parts which are in a state of decay. 
 
174 TlIK JUDGING OF FARMS, CROPS, AND PLANTS 
 
 Essential things to consiikr in the organization of a farm. 
 
 It is difficult to state principles underlyiiiK the proper layout and 
 organization of a farm, since the plan must conform to the person and 
 to local conditions. The leading points to consider are perhaps the 
 fdllowing : 
 
 The adaptation of the plan to the kind of farming that is to be pur- 
 sued. 
 
 The best utilization of the different soils and exposures and natural 
 features on the place. 
 
 The economizing of time and lalwr in reaching all parts of the 
 fann. 
 
 The best location of buildings with reference to efficiency of admin- 
 i.stration. 
 
 Such layout as will best provide for rotation and the maintenance of 
 fertility. 
 
 A projK'r j)roportion between the different parts, as between tilled 
 and untilknl land, forest and open, meadow and pasture, forage crops 
 and grazing, orchards and annual crops. 
 
 Provision for the necessary live-stock. 
 
 Such shape and size of fields as will best lend them to economical 
 working. 
 
 Provision for the more personal parts of the place, as gardens, yards, 
 and ornamental features. 
 
 Development of the artistic or attractive appearance of the entire 
 estate. 
 
 Points of a good farm. 
 
 In looking for a farm, the inquirer should consider the question pri- 
 marily from a business point of view. He should know what are the 
 •* points " of a good farm. It is well to make a list of the points, to 
 study the place with reference to them, and to score it under each, as 
 one would score a horse or a cow. The points or attributes are 
 of two clas.ses: those that are internal, or part of the farm itself; 
 and thast; that are external, or have to do with geographical loca- 
 tion, neighborhocxl, and the like. Some of the points may be 
 mentioned : — 
 
FEATURES OF GOOD FARMS 175 
 
 Internal External 
 
 Lay of the land, or topography Climate 
 
 Size of the farm Healthfulness 
 
 Shape of the farm Neighborhood 
 
 Kind of soil Distance from town or railway station 
 Condition of soil as regards fertility and Shipping facilities 
 
 physical properties Means of communication 
 
 Drainage Labor supply 
 
 Water-supply Markets in which to buy and sell 
 
 State of cultivation School and church privileges 
 Crops now standing, and their condi- Character of the farming in the com- 
 
 tion munity 
 
 Woodland Rural organizations 
 
 Character of fields and of fences Likelihood of increase or decrease in 
 
 Buildings and other improvements value 
 
 Kind of farming to which place is 
 
 adapted 
 
 Score-card for farms (Warren) 
 Size Standard 
 
 1. Adapted to kind of farming 20 
 
 Fields 
 
 2. Shape and size 30 
 
 3. Nearness to farmstead 30 
 
 Topography 
 
 4. As affecting ease of cultivation 30 
 
 5. As affecting production 10 
 
 6. As affecting erosion and loss of fertility 15 
 
 7. As affecting air drainage 5 
 
 Fertility 
 
 8. Natural 80 
 
 9. Condition 40 
 
 Physical Properties of the Soil 
 
 10. As affecting economy of cultivation "I gQ 
 
 11. As affecting number of days of labor J 
 
 12. As affecting loss of soil fertility 10 
 
 13. As affecting kinds of possible crops 20 
 
 Drainage 
 
 14. Natural 
 
 15. Artificial J 
 
 Condition 
 
 16. Freedom from stumps, stones, weeds, waste land, etc. ... 50 
 Climate 
 
 17. As affecting animal and crop production 
 
 18. As affecting number of days of labor 
 
 Healthfulness 
 
 19. As an economic factor 40 
 
 Location 
 
 20. Distance to market 40 
 
 21. Roadways 50 
 
 22. Local markets 30 
 
 23. Shipping facilities 20 
 
 24. Neighbors as an economic factor 40 
 
 25. Labor supply of neighborhood 10 
 
 26. R. F. D., telephone, trolleys, etc. 30 
 
 27. Churches, school, grange, etc., as economic factors .... 30 
 Taxes 
 
 28. Per cent on cash value 10 
 
17r, Tilt: Jl'DGIXG OF FARMS, CROPS, AND PLANTS 
 
 Score-card for farms — Continued 
 gjjj Standard 
 
 WATER-srPPLT 
 
 21>. KunninK water. woUs 4U 
 
 ImP»')VEMEN'TS 
 
 'M). Site of farmstoad 10 
 
 31. Huusr a.s adapted to needs of farm 60 
 
 32. Other buildings 60 
 
 33. Fences, kind, condition, arrangement 30 
 
 34. Timber, orchards, vineyards, etc 20 
 
 ToT.\L 
 
 Deductions for 
 
 Score 
 
 .\rea in acres 
 
 Price asked 
 
 Price per acre 
 
 Price per acre (excluding waste land) 
 
 K.>5tinKited value 
 
 Which farm would you prefer to buy ? 
 
 The number of points assigned in the foregoing score-card is not the 
 limit, but is suggestive. For example, if the water-supply is exception- 
 ally good, give it more than forty points. Any other exceptional 
 values may be scored more than the points assigned. In some cases, 
 a (leiluction of all the points assigned is not sufficient. Distance to 
 market may absolutely disqualify a farm for the sale of milk. If the 
 score-card is followed exactly, this farm may score higher than a fairly 
 po(xi farm near market. In all such cases, deduct additional points 
 from the total score. It is only by this flexibility that scores can be 
 made that are truly comparable. The best farm for the purpose 
 should have the highest final score. The chief purposes of a score-card 
 are to make the examination systematic and to prevent the forgetting 
 of important items. 
 
 If the points are not properly distributed for the kind of farming to 
 bf followed, a new distribution of points should be made before com- 
 I)aring farms. For example, for truck farms, all points that have to do 
 with ease of tillage should be given a higher rating, while fertility is of 
 less importance. In irrigated sections, water right, alkali, and ease of 
 application of water must be included. 
 
 No points are a.ssigned for climate. This should be considered when 
 judging farms in different regions or at different altitudes, or when 
 topography or proximity to water makes a difference in the climate of 
 the farms that are being compared. This would be specially impor- 
 tant near sea-coasts and in little understood climatic situations. 
 
SCORE-CARDS 177 
 
 Corn and Potatoes 
 
 Score-card for dent corn (Ohio Improvement Association) 
 
 For use in the final selection of seed ears 
 
 1. Adaptability 25 
 
 2. Seed condition ' 15 
 
 3. Shape of kernel ] I5 
 
 4. Uniformity and trueness to type ] 15 
 
 5. Weight of ear 10 
 
 6. Length and proportion 10 
 
 7. Color of grain and cob 5 
 
 8. Butts and tips 5 
 
 loo 
 
 For use in the plant selection of seed corn 
 
 1. Adaptability 35 
 
 2. Vigor 25 
 
 3. Height of plant, and height and angle of ear 15 
 
 4. Uniformity and trueness to type 10 
 
 5. Weight of ear (estimated) 15 
 
 100 
 Card for use in judging varieties of corn at husking time 
 
 1. Bushels per acre (uniform moisture test) 50 
 
 2. Maturity 25 
 
 3. Uniformity and trueness to type 15 
 
 4. Color 10 
 
 100 
 Score-card for potatoes 
 
 Uniformity 20 points 
 
 Symmetry 15 points 
 
 Trueness to type 20 points 
 
 Freedom from disease and insects 15 points 
 
 Commercial value 30 points 
 
 100 points 
 
 Standards for Judging Fruits at Exhibitions (Ontario, Canada, 
 Fruit-Growers' Association, 1911) 
 
 Apples and Pears. — Single Plates 
 
 Form ]^ 
 
 Size if 
 
 Color 25 
 
 Uniformity 25 
 
 Freedom from blemish _20 
 
 100 
 Peaches. — Single Plates 
 
 Form 15 
 
 Size 20 
 
 Color 25 
 
 Uniformity ~JJ 
 
 Freedom from blemish _^ 
 
 100 
 
17S TiiK jrixnyr. or FAii}fs, crops, and plants 
 
 Plums. — Single Plates 
 
 ^;•>"" i? 
 
 Color 15 
 
 lUiformity -5 
 
 l-rt't'doiu frum blfiiiish ^5 
 
 100 
 Clu'rries. — Single Platea 
 
 Form 10 
 
 Size 20 
 
 Color 20 
 
 I'niformity 25 
 
 I'reetloin from blemish 25 
 
 100 
 Grapes. — Single Plates 
 
 Form of bunch 10 
 
 Sixe of bunch 15 
 
 Size of iK-rrv 10 
 
 Color . ' 10 
 
 Hloorn 5 
 
 Fri'«'<ioni from blcnii-sh 20 
 
 Flavor 25 
 
 Firmness 5 
 
 100 
 Collections of Apples, Pears, Plums, Peaches, Cherries, and Grapes on Plates 
 
 Freedom from blemish 20 
 
 Color 15 
 
 rnifornutv 10 
 
 Siz- 10 
 
 Form 10 
 
 Commercial value 10 
 
 (^lality 10 
 
 Nomenclature 5 
 
 Arrangement 5 
 
 Season 5 
 
 loo 
 
 Barrels. — Apples 
 Friiil: — 
 
 Siz<' 10 
 
 Color 20 
 
 Fniformity 15 
 
 Freedom from l)lemish 15 
 
 Texture and flavor 15 
 
 75 75 
 
 Package : — 
 
 Material 4 
 
 Finishing q 
 
 Packing : — 
 
 Facing q 
 
 Tiiiling !!!!!.*.'! 2 
 
 Hiicking 3 
 
 Pressing 4 
 
 T5 _15 
 
 100 
 
SCORE-CARDS 
 
 179 
 
 Fruit: Boxes. — Apples, Pears, Peaches 
 
 Size 10 
 
 Color 20 
 
 Uniformity . . . _ 15 
 
 Freedom from blemish ! 15 
 
 Texture and flavor 15 
 
 Package and packing: — 
 
 Material 3 
 
 Finishing 4 
 
 Fullness or bulge 4 
 
 Solidity or compactness 5 
 
 Attractiveness and style of pack 5 
 
 Alignment 4 
 
 "25 _25 
 
 Flowers and Plants 100 
 
 The American Rose Society scale of points 
 
 All exhibits will be judged by points in accordance with the following official 
 scales : — 
 
 
 Com- 
 
 Novelties 
 FOR Cer- 
 
 
 Com- 
 
 Novelties 
 
 Points of Value 
 
 petitive 
 
 Points of Value 
 
 petitive 
 
 for Cer- 
 
 
 Classes 
 
 ETC. 
 
 
 Classes 
 
 etc. 
 
 Size .... 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 Foliage . 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 Color .... 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 Fragrance (for 
 
 
 
 Stem .... 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 novelties only) 
 
 — 
 
 5 
 
 Form .... 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 Distinctiveness 
 
 — 
 
 10 
 
 Substance . , 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 Standardization of the grading of roses (American Rose Society, 1911). 
 
 Nine-inch, twelve-inch, fifteen-inch, eighteen-inch, and twenty-four- 
 inch, and higher as necessary. Such a grading should be appreciated 
 by both the commission men and retailers. 
 
 Scale of points for judging carnations (American Carnation Society) 
 
 This scale shall be employed in judging all seedlings for Certificate of Merit, 
 or for any special prize, and in all classes where competition is close, it shall be 
 used to arrive at a decision : — 
 
 Color 25 
 
 Size 20 
 
 Calyx 5 
 
 Stem 20 
 
 Substance 10 
 
 Form 15 
 
 Fragrance 5 
 
 Total . 100 
 
180 THE Jl'DGING OF FARMS, CROPS, AND PLANTS 
 
 Scale for gladioli (American Gladiolus Society) 
 
 Resistance to disease 5 
 
 Texture of flower JO 
 
 Duration of bloom 10 
 
 Size of bloom JO 
 
 Color of bloom J^ 
 
 Form of flower JO 
 
 Form of spike JO 
 
 Stem (lenRth and stiffness) JO 
 
 Number of flowers on spike 15 
 
 Vigor (aside from disease resistance) 5 
 
 Chrysanthemum (Official Scale of Chrysanthemum Society) 
 
 Commercial Exhibition 
 
 Color 20 Color 10 
 
 Form 15 Stem 5 
 
 Fullness 10 Foliage 5 
 
 Stem 15 Fullness 15 
 
 Foliage 15 Form 15 
 
 Substance 16 Depth 15 
 
 Size JJ Size _35 
 
 100 100 
 
 Single varieties Pompon varieties 
 
 Color 40 Color 40 
 
 Form 20 Form 20 
 
 Substance 20 Stem and foliage 20 
 
 Stem and foliage _20 Fullness _20 
 
 100 100 
 
 Single varieties to be divided into two classes, large-flowered and small- 
 flowered. 
 
 Scaie of points to govern judges of sweet peas (National Sweet Pea 
 Society of America) 
 
 Length of stem 25 Substance 15 
 
 Color 20 Number of flowers on a stem . J^ 
 
 Sizf 25 Total 100 
 
 The sweet pea or other foliage can be used with the flowers unattached, and 
 flower stems must be free of wood, unless otherwise specified. Wiring of flowers 
 or stems will disqualify. 
 
 Scale of points of florists' plants adopted by National Flower Show 
 of the Society of American Florists 
 
 No. 1. Single Specimen Foliage Plants 
 
 Size of plant 25 Rarity 15 
 
 Cultural perfection 35 Form 10 
 
 Distinctiveness 15 
 
SCORE-CARDS 181 
 
 No. 2. Single Specimen Flowering Plants 
 
 Size of plant 20 Floriferousness 15 
 
 Cultural perfection 35 Color 10 
 
 Rarity 10 Foliage 10 
 
 No. 3. Collections or Number of Flowering Plants 
 
 Size of group or collection ... 15 Arrangement or staging .... 10 
 
 Distinctiveness 15 Color harmony 10 
 
 Cultural perfection 20 Rarity 10 
 
 Number of varieties 20 
 
 No. 4. Collections or Number of Foliage Plants 
 
 Size of group or collection ... 15 Number of varieties 20 
 
 Rarity 15 Arrangement or staging .... 20 
 
 Cultural perfection 30 
 
 No. 5. Group of Foliage Plants 
 
 Size 10 Rarity 10 
 
 Distinctiveness 20 Arrangement or staging .... 30 
 
 Cultural perfection 20 Color effect 10 
 
 No. 6. Group of Flowering Plants 
 
 Size of group 10 Arrangement ....... 35 
 
 Rarity 10 Quality of flowers 20 
 
 Cultural perfection 15 Foliage 10 
 
 Sample Rtiles to Govern Exhibitions 
 
 Massachusetts Horticultural Society rules (1911). 
 
 Special rules of the plant and flower committee. — 1. All named 
 varieties of Plants or Flowers exhibited for premiums or other awards 
 must have the name legibly and correctly written on stiff card, wood, 
 or some other permanent substance ; and each separate plant or flower 
 must have its name attached. 
 
 2. All exhibits shall be marked by a card on which shall appear the 
 name and address of the exhibitor and inclosed in an envelope on which 
 shall appear only the number of Prize as listed in the Schedule. 
 
 3. Plants in Pots, to be entitled to Prizes, must evince skillful culture 
 in the profusion of bloom or decorative foliage, and in the beauty, 
 sjmametry, and vigor of the specimens. 
 
 4. No awards will be made on other than regular prize days, except 
 for objects of special merit. 
 
I SI' 77/ A- Jl'DGIXG OF FARMS, CROPS, AND PLANTS 
 
 Special rultti of the fruit commitlee. — All fruits offered for pre- 
 miums must l)e correctly named. Indefinite ai)pellations, such as " ri;> 
 pin," ** Sweeting," *' Clreenins," I'tc, will not be considered as names. 
 
 2. All Fruits offered for premiums must be composed of exactly the 
 number of specimens or quantity named in the Schedule. A " dish " of 
 Apples, Pears, Peaches, Plums, Nectarines, Quinces, Figs, Apricots, 
 etc., is understt)()d to contain twelve s|)ecimens, and this number will 
 be rtHjuircd of all Fruits when not otherwise specified. 
 
 3. The whole quantity required of any one variety of Fruit must be 
 8ho\ni in a single dish or basket except in collections. 
 
 4. Contributors of Fruits for Exhibition or Prizes must present the 
 same in the Society's dishes. All Small Fruits must be shown in 
 baskets of uniform size, which will be furnished to exhibitors by the 
 Superintendent at cost. 
 
 5. No person can compete for more than one Prize with the same 
 variety or varieties of Fruit; except that a single dish of the same 
 variety, but not the same specimens of fruit, may be used by an ex- 
 hibitor for both Special and Regular Prizes. 
 
 6. The Fruit Committee, in making its awards, will consider the 
 flavor, beauty, and size of the specimens, comparing each of these 
 j)roperties with a fair standard of the variety. The adaptation of the 
 variety to general cultivation will also be taken into account. Other 
 things being equal, specimens most nearly in perfection as regards 
 ripeness will have the preference. Score-cards may be used at the 
 discretion of the Committee. 
 
 Special rules of the vegetable committee. — 1. The specimens offered 
 nmst be well grown and i)laced on the tables clean and correctly 
 labeled. 
 
 2. All exhibits of Vegetables offered for premium must be composed 
 of exactly the number of specimens or quantity named in the Schedule. 
 
 3. At all exhil)itions of Fungi distinctively colored cards, having the 
 word "Poisonous" plainly printed thereon, shall be provided, and all 
 persons exhibiting Fungi not known to be edible shall be required to use 
 these cards in labeling all such exhibits. 
 
 4. All collections of vegetables will be judged on merit, giving con- 
 sideration, first, to cjuality; second, to arrangement; and third, to 
 variety. Not more than two varieties of one kind of vegetable admis- 
 sible in collections. 
 
RULES FOR NAMING VEGETABLES 183 
 
 Nomenclature Rules 
 
 Rules for naming kitchen-garden vegetables, adopted by the Committee on 
 Nomenclature of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges 
 and Experiment Stations (1889, and still in force). 
 
 1. The name of a variet}^ shall consist of a single word, or at most of 
 two words. A phrase, descriptive or otherwise, is never allowable; 
 as, Pride of Italy, King of Mammoths, Earliest of All. 
 
 2. The name should not be superlative or bombastic. In particular, 
 such epithets as Neiv, Large, Giant, Fine, Selected, Improved, and the 
 like, should be omitted. If the grower or dealer has a superior stock of a 
 variety, the fact should be stated in the description immediately after 
 the name, rather than as a part of the name itself; as, '^ Trophy, 
 selected stock." 
 
 3. If a grower or dealer has secured a new select strain of a well- 
 known variety, it shall be legitimate for him to use his own name in 
 connection with the established name of the variety; as, Smith's 
 Winnigstadt, Jones's Cardinal. 
 
 4. When personal names are given to varieties, titles should be 
 omitted; as Major, General, etc. 
 
 5. The term " hybrid " should not be used except in those rare in- 
 stances in which the variety is known to be of hybrid origin. 
 
 6. The originator has the prior right to name the variety, but the 
 oldest name which conforms to these rules should be adopted. 
 
 7. This Committee reserves the right, in its own publications, to 
 revise objectionable names in conformity with these rules. 
 
 Code of 7iomenclature of the American Pomological Society. 
 
 Priority. — Rule 1. No two varieties of the same kind of fruit 
 shall bear the same name. The name first published for a variety 
 shall be the accepted and recognized name, except in cases where 
 it has been applied in violation of this code. 
 
 A. The term " kind " as herein used shall be understood to apply to 
 those general classes of fruits which are grouped together in common 
 usage without regard to their exact botanical relationship, as apple, 
 cherry, grape, peach, plum, raspberry, etc. 
 
 B. The paramount right of the originator, discoverer, or introducer 
 
184 Tin: jriK;iSU OF FARMS, CROPS, AND PLANTS 
 
 of a new variety to name it, witliin the limitations of this code, is recog- 
 nized and emphasized. 
 
 C. Where a variety name through long usage has become thoroughly 
 established in American pomological literature for two or more varieties, 
 it should not be displaced nor radically modified for either sort, except 
 in cases where a well-known synonym can be advanced to the position 
 of leading name. The several varieties bearing identical names should 
 be distingui.shed l)y adding the name of the author who first described 
 each sort, or by adding some other suitable distinguishing term which 
 will insure their identity in catalogues or discussions. 
 
 D. Existing American names of varieties which conflict with earlier 
 published foreign names of the same or other varieties, but which have 
 become thoroughly established through long usage, shall not be dis- 
 placed. 
 
 Form of Names. — Rule 2. The name of a variety of fruit shall con- 
 sist of a single word. 
 
 A. No variety shall be named unless distinctly superior to existing 
 varieties in some important characteristic, nor until it has been deter- 
 mined to perpetuate it by bud propagation. 
 
 B. In selecting names for varieties the following points should be 
 emphasized : Distinctiveness, simplicity, ease of pronunciation and 
 8i)elhng, indication of origin or parentage. 
 
 C. The spelling and pronunciation of a varietal name derived from 
 a personal or geographical name should be governed by the rules which 
 control the spelling and pronunciation of the name from which it was 
 derived. 
 
 D. A variety imported from a foreign country should retain its 
 foreign name, subject only to such modification as is necessary to con- 
 form it to this code or to render it intelligible in English. 
 
 E. The name of a [)erson should not be ai)i)li(Hl to a variety during 
 his life without his express consent. The name of a deceased horticul- 
 turist should not be so applied, except through formal action by some 
 competent horticultural body, preferably that with which he was most 
 closely connected. 
 
 F. The use of such general terms as seedhng, hybrid, pippin, pear- 
 main, beurre, rare-ripe, damson, etc., is not admissible. 
 
 (i. The use of a possessive noun as a name is not admissible. 
 
 H. The use of a number, either singly or attached to a word, should 
 
RULES FOR NAMING FRUITS 185 
 
 be considered only as a temporary expedient while the variety is under- 
 going preliminary test. 
 
 I. In applying the various provisions of this rule to an existing 
 varietal name which has through long usage become firmly embedded 
 in American pomological literature, no change shall be made which 
 will involve loss of identity. 
 
 Rule 3. In the full and formal citation of a variety name, the name 
 of the author who first published it shall be given. 
 
 Publication. — Rule 4. Publication consists (1) in the distribution 
 of a printed description of the variety named, giving the distinguish- 
 ing characters of fruit, tree, etc., or (2) in the publication of a new 
 name for a variety which is properly described elsewhere ; such pubH- 
 cations to be made in any book, bulletin, report, trade catalogue, or 
 periodical, providing the issue bears the date of its publication and is 
 generally distributed among nurserymen, fruit-growers, and horticul- 
 turists ; or (3) in certain cases the general recognition of a name for 
 a propagated variety in a community for a number of years shall 
 constitute publication of that name. 
 
 A. In determining the name of a variety to which two or more names 
 have been given in the same publication that which stands first shall 
 have precedence. 
 
 Revision. — Rule 5. No properly published variety name shall be 
 changed for any reason except conflict with this code, nor shall 
 another variety be substituted for that originally described thereunder. 
 
 Emblematic Plants and Flowers 
 
 State floviers adopted by the vote of the public schools, sometimes by the 
 legislatures (*), sometimes by choice of the people. 
 
 Alabama Goldenrod 
 
 Alaska Forget-me-not 
 
 Arkansas Apple blossom 
 
 California California poppy (Eschscholzia) 
 
 Colorado Columbine 
 
 Connecticut Mountain laurel 
 
 * Delaware Peach blossom 
 
 Florida Orange blossom 
 
 Idaho Syringa 
 
 Illinois Violet 
 
 Indiana Corn 
 
 * Iowa Rose 
 
 Kansas , . . . Sunflower 
 
 Kentucky .' . . . Trumpet-flower 
 
 Louisiana Magnolia 
 
186 TiiF. jrnoixn of FAR}fs, crops, and plants 
 
 ♦ Maine 
 
 Maryland . 
 
 • MirhiKun 
 Minru\s«>tii 
 Mississippi 
 Mis.H<)uri 
 
 • Montana 
 
 • Nebraska 
 Nevada 
 New Y(»rk 
 North Dakota 
 Ohio . . 
 Okhihoma . 
 
 * Oregon 
 Rh«Mle Island 
 
 State tree 
 iSouth Dakota 
 Tennessee . 
 Texas 
 Utah . . 
 
 ♦ Vermont 
 WashinRton 
 W4\st Virginia 
 Wiseonsin (State tree) 
 
 Pine cone and tassel 
 Goldenrod 
 Apple blossom 
 Moccasin-flower 
 Magnolia 
 Golclenrod 
 
 Bitter-root (Lewiaio) 
 (k)ldenrod 
 Sage-brush 
 Rose 
 
 Wild rose 
 Scarlet carnation 
 Mistletoe 
 
 Oregon grape {Berheria) 
 Violet 
 Maple 
 
 Pasque {Anemone) 
 Daisy 
 
 Blue bonnet 
 Sego lily {Calochortus) 
 Red clover 
 Rhododendron (R. Calif ornicum) 
 Rhododendron 
 Maple 
 
 Nalinnal and regional flowers 
 
 Canada ?^y\iiar maple 
 
 China Narcissus 
 
 Egypt Lotus {Aymplijca Lotus) 
 
 England '. '. Rose 
 
 France Fleur-de-lis (Ins) 
 
 dermany Corn-flower {Ccntaurca Cyanus) 
 
 Greece (Athena) Violet _ ., ,. 
 
 Ireland Shamrock (Tnfohum, usually 
 
 T. repens) 
 
 Italv Lily 
 
 Japan Chrysanthemum 
 
 Nova Scotia Mayflower {Epigaa) 
 
 Prussia Linden 
 
 Saxonv Mignonette 
 
 Scotland Thistle 
 
 Spain Pomegranate 
 
 Wales Leek 
 
 Party flowers 
 
 Beaconsfield's follnwcra Primrose 
 
 Bonapartists Violet 
 
 Orleanists White daisy 
 
 C;hibellines White lily 
 
 Cuelph.H Red lily 
 
 Prince of Orange The f)range 
 
 I*arnellite- Ivy 
 
 Jacobites White rose 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 Greenhouse and Window-Garden Work 
 
 Greenhouse production has now passed beyond the stage of exclusive 
 amateurism, and has become a recognized form of agriculture. It is 
 farming under glass. The area is small, but the investment is high and 
 the skill is great. 
 
 Greenhouse Practice 
 
 Potting earth. 
 
 Loam (decomposed sod), leaf-mold, rotted farm-yard manure, peat, 
 and sand afford the main requirement of the plants most commonlj'' 
 cultivated. Seedlings, and young stock generally, are best suited by a 
 light mixture, such as one part each of loam, leaf-mold, and sand in 
 equal parts. The older plants of vigorous growth like a rich, heavy 
 compost, formed of equal parts of loam and manure ; and a sandy, 
 lasting soil, made up of two parts each of peat and loam to one part of 
 sand, is the most desirable for slow-growing sorts. A little lumpy 
 charcoal should be added to the compost for plants that are to remain 
 any great length of time, say a year, in the same pot. The best condi- 
 tion of soil for potting is that intermediate state between wet and dry. 
 Sphagnum (moss), or fibrous peat and sphagnum in mixture and 
 chopped, should be used for orchids and other plants of similar epiphytal 
 character. 
 
 Cow-dung is highly prized by many gardeners for use in potting soil. 
 It is stored under cover and allowed to remain until dry, being turned 
 several times in the meantime to pulverize it. Manure water is made 
 either from this dried excrement or from the fresh material. When 
 made from the fresh material, the manure- water should be made weaker 
 than in the other case. 
 
 187 
 
188 GREENHOUSE AXD WINDOW-GARDEN WORK 
 
 Suggestions for potting plants. 
 
 The pots should be jierfcctly dry and clean, and well drained. How- 
 ever one-sided a plant may be, it is advantageous to have the main 
 stem as near the center of the pot as possible, and the potted plant is 
 usually in the best position when perfectly erect. Soft-wooded plants 
 of rapid growth, such as coleus, geraniums, fuchsias, and begonias, 
 thrive most satisfactorily when the soil is loose rather than hard about 
 the roots. Ferns should have it moderately firm, and hard- wooded 
 stock, azaleas, ericas, acacias, and the like, should be potted firmly. 
 In repotting plants, more especially those of slow growth, the ball of 
 soil and roots should never be sunk to any great extent below the 
 original level, and it is always preferable to pot a plant twice, or even 
 three times, rather than place it in a pot too large. 
 
 Watering greenhouse and window plants. 
 
 Plants cannot be satisfactorily watered just so many times a day, 
 week, or month. All plants should be watered when necessary — 
 when they are dry. This is indicated by a tendency to flag or wilt, or 
 by the hollow sound of the pots when tapped. The latter is the safest 
 sign, as, after a prolonged period of dull weather, many plants wilt on 
 exposure to bright sunshine, although still wet at the roots. But a 
 growing plant should not be allowed to become so dry as to wilt, nor 
 should the soil ever reach a condition as dry as powder. This is a condi- 
 tion, however, which is essential to some plants, more particularl}'- the 
 bulbous and tuberous kinds, during their resting period. Incessant 
 dribbling should be avoided; water thoroughly, and be done with it 
 until the plants are again dry. Plants under glass should not be 
 sprayed overhead while the sun is shining hot and full upon them. The 
 evening is the best time of the day for watering in summer, and morn- 
 ing in winter. In watering with liquid manure, the material should 
 not come in contact with the foliage. Plants recently potted should 
 not be watered heavily at the roots for a week or ten days ; spray them 
 fr('(iiu'ntly overhead. 
 
 Li(piid manure for greenhouses. 
 
 Most of the artificial fertilizers may be used in the preparation of 
 TKiuid manure, but a lack of knowledge as to their strength and char- 
 
WINDOW-GARDEN PLANTS 189 
 
 acter lessens their value in the minds of gardeners. Clean cow manure, 
 which varies little in stimulating property, is considered by gardeners 
 to be the safest and most reliable material to use for a liquid fertilizer. 
 A bushel measure of the solid manure to 100 gallons of water makes a 
 mixture which can be used with beneficial results on the tenderest 
 plants ; and for plants of rank growth the compound may be gradually 
 increased to thrice that strength with safety. Soot may be added with 
 advantage, using it at the rate of 1 part to 10 parts of the manure. The 
 mixture should stand for a few days, being stirred occasionally, before 
 application. 
 
 Lists of Plants 
 
 Twenty-jive plants adapted to window-gardens 
 
 Adiantum cuneatum, particularly the Fuchsia, varieties, 
 
 form known as A. gracillimum. Mahernia odorata. 
 
 Aloysia citriodora. Myrtus communis. 
 Begonia metallica, and many others. Pelargoniums, in variety. 
 
 Cocos Weddelliana. Primrose, Chinese. 
 
 Ficus elastica. Pteris serrulata. 
 
 Freesia refracta. Vallota purpurea. 
 
 BASKETS 
 
 Epiphyllum truncatum. Saxifraga sarmentosa, beefsteak gera- 
 
 Fragaria Indica. nium. 
 
 Fuchsia procumbens. Sedum Sieboldii. 
 
 Othonna crassifolia (O. Capensis). Tradescantia zebrina, wandering Jew 
 
 Oxalis violacea. {Zebrina pendula). 
 
 Pelargonium peltatum. 
 
 WATER 
 
 Eichhornia crassipes (E. speciosa). Narcissus Tazetta, var. orientalis. 
 
 Hyacinths. Chinese sacred lily. 
 
 In selecting plants for a window-garden or house conservatory, those 
 plants should be omitted that are much subject to the attacks of 
 aphis and mealy-bug. Amongst the common plants which are much 
 infested are coleus, German ivy (Senecio scandens), calla, Vinca 
 variegata, Cyperus alternifolius, fuchsia, cineraria, and carnation. 
 Those that are nearly exempt are most kinds of geraniums, begonias, 
 wandering Jew, and most ferns. Palms are very liable to scale in- 
 festation. (For insects, see p. 301.) 
 
190 
 
 GREENHOUSE AND WIXDOV-GARDEN WORK 
 
 Vegetable-growing under glass 
 
 Asparafjus 
 Moans . . 
 Cauliflower 
 
 f'ucumbcr . 
 
 lyottupe . . 
 Mushrooms 
 
 Muskmolon 
 
 Parsley . 
 
 P.-.is . . 
 
 Ratiishos 
 Rhubarb 
 
 Spiniifh 
 Tomato 
 
 NtOHT 
 
 Tem. 
 
 ep 
 
 45-55 
 60-65 
 50-55 
 
 60-65 
 
 45-50 
 50-60 
 
 65-70 
 
 45-50 
 45-50 
 
 45 50 
 45 50 
 
 45-50 
 60-65 
 
 DAT 
 
 Tem. 
 
 60-70 
 70-80 
 60-65 
 
 70-75 
 
 55-65 
 50-60 
 
 70-85 
 
 55-65 
 55-65 
 
 55-65 
 55-60 
 
 55-65 
 75 
 
 MATDRrrr 
 rKOM Seed 
 OR Roots 
 
 3-4 wk. 
 6-8 wk. 
 4-5 mo. 
 
 10-14 wk 
 
 7-12 wk. 
 6-8 wk. 
 
 10-14 wk. 
 
 8 wk. 
 70-80 d. 
 
 5-6 wk. 
 3-5 wk. 
 
 8-10 wk. 
 4-5 mo. 
 
 Advice 
 
 Roots are taken from field, 3-5 years 
 old ; use only strong roots. 
 
 Little grown commercially and then 
 as incidental crop. 
 
 Transplant once ; give abundance of 
 air ; requires nmch water, yet good 
 drainage. Avoid checking growth 
 of plants. Commonly matured un- 
 der glass, as a late spring crop. 
 
 Often follows winter tomatoes, in 
 ground beds, making a spring and 
 early summer crop. Sometimes 
 grown on benches. There are two 
 types of forcing cucumbers, the 
 common, or White Spine, type and 
 the English or frame varieties. 
 
 Grown mostly on the ground. 
 
 Crow under benches, or in cellars ; 
 an uncertain crop. 
 
 Not conmionly forced. When grown, 
 usually as a late fall or late spring 
 crop. 
 
 Transplant in the fall from the field, 
 and cut back. 
 
 Little grown under glass, as the yield 
 is light. Must be off before hot 
 weather of spring. 
 
 Rapid growth should be secured ; 
 use no old maruire. 
 
 Roots dug in fall. froz(Mi and planted 
 under benches or in frames. After 
 cropping, replant in field. 
 
 Grown as an incidental or secondary 
 crop ; does well in solid beds. 
 
 Transplant into pots, hand i)ollinate 
 in winter and dark weather, but 
 most growers depend on shaking 
 the plants. Now widely grown in 
 ground beds. 
 
 Beets, cress, sweet herbs (particularly spearmint), are also grown under glass. 
 
GREENHOUSE PLANTS 
 
 191 
 
 Twenty-five useful aquatic and sub-aquatic plants for outdoor lise 
 
 t denotes those that do not endure the winter (tender). 
 
 Acorus gramineus, variegated. 
 
 Aponogeton distachyum. 
 
 Azolla Caroliniana. 
 
 Caltha palustris. 
 
 Cyperus alternifolius ; t. 
 
 Eichhornia crassipes or azurea (prop- 
 erly E. speciosa) ; t. 
 
 Limnanthemum Indicum ; t. 
 
 Limnanthemum nymphoides. 
 
 Limnocharis Humboldtii (Hydrocleys 
 Commersonii). 
 
 Myriophyllum proserpinacoides ; t. 
 
 Nelumbium (Nelumbo). Many species 
 and varieties. Some t. 
 
 Nuphar advena. 
 
 Nymphisa. Many species and vari- 
 eties. Some t. 
 
 Ouvirandra fenestralis (Aponogeton 
 
 fenestrale) ; t. 
 Papyrus (Cyperus Papyrus) ; t. 
 Pistia Stratiotes ; t. 
 Pontederia cordata. 
 Sagittaria Montevidensis ; i. 
 Salvinia natans. 
 Sarracenia purpurea. 
 Scirpus Tabernaemontanus zebrina 
 
 (J uncus effusus, variegated). 
 Trapa natans. 
 Typha latifolia. 
 Victoria regia ; t. 
 Zizania aquatica. 
 
 Commercial plants and flowers, or "florists^ plants 
 The following are chiefly grown by florists in this country ; — 
 
 Adiantum. 
 
 Alyssum. 
 
 Anemone. 
 
 Antirrhinum 
 
 Asparagus plumosus. 
 
 Aster, China. 
 
 Azalea. 
 
 Begonia. 
 
 Bougainvillea. 
 
 Bouvardia. 
 
 Calla. 
 
 Carnation. 
 
 Cattleya. 
 
 Chrysanthemum. 
 
 Cineraria. 
 
 Coreopsis. 
 
 Cyclamen. 
 
 Cypripedium. 
 
 Dahlia. 
 
 Daisy (Bellis perennis). 
 
 Deutzia. 
 
 Dracena. 
 
 Freesia. 
 
 Gaillardia. 
 
 Gardenia. 
 
 Genista (Cytisus). 
 
 Gladiolus. 
 
 Gypsophila. 
 
 Helianthus. 
 
 Heliotrope. 
 
 Hyacinth. 
 
 Hydrangea. 
 
 Iris. 
 
 Lilac. 
 
 Lilium Harrisii (L. longiflorum, var. 
 eximium). 
 
 Lily of the Valley. 
 
 Marguerite, or Paris Daisy (Chrysan- 
 themum frutescens, and C. fcenicu- 
 laceum). 
 
 Mignonette. 
 
 Narcissus. 
 
 Nephrolepis (fern). 
 
 Nymphaea. 
 
 Pansy. 
 
 Peony. 
 
 Phlox. 
 
 Poinsettia. 
 
 Rhododendron. 
 
 Rose. 
 
 Smilax (Asparagus medeoloides) . 
 
 Spirea (Astilbe). 
 
 Stevia (Piqueria trinervia). 
 
 Swainsona. 
 
 Sweet pea. 
 
 Tuberose. 
 
 Tulip. 
 
 Violet. 
 
192 GRKKsnorsK and window-garden work 
 
 The Heating of Greenhouses (R. C. Carpenter) 
 Methyls oj proportioning radiating surface for heating of greenhouses. 
 
 RadiatiiiR surface, whether from steam or hot-water pipes, is esti- 
 mato<l in square feet of exterior surface. All projections, ornaments, 
 etc., on the exterior of i)ipes or radiators are counted as efficient surface. 
 Formerly, cast-iron |)ipe of al:)out 4 inches in diameter was used almost 
 altogether for greenhouse work ; it is still used to some extent for hot- 
 water heating, but the great majority of houses are now piped with 
 wrought iron or steel pipe, which is made of standard size and 
 thickness, and is a regular article of trade. 
 
 The heating surfaec in a boiler or hot water heater is that portion of 
 the boiler, or heater, which is exposed to the direct heat of the fire or of 
 the heated gases. 
 
 Grate surface is the number of square feet of grate in the boiler or 
 heater. 
 
 In estimating the heat required for greenhouses, the area expressed in 
 square feet of glass in the roof and walls is taken as the basis from which 
 computations are made. Certain rules of practice have been adopted, 
 and appear to give fairly good results in proportioning radiating sur- 
 face, grate surface, and heating surface. The ratio of heating surface 
 to grate surface in heaters will depend upon the kind of coal to be 
 burned and the economy desired. The more heating surface provided 
 per unit of grate surface, the higher the economy, but the greater the 
 first cost of the heater. The usual practice in large boilers is 
 to employ 40 square feet of heating surface to 1 of grate surface 
 for hard coal, and SO feet of heating surface to 1 of grate surface for 
 soft coal. 
 
 In small cast-iron heaters the proportion of heating surface to 
 gratr is frccjuently one-third to one-fourth that given above. 
 
 If the gre(«nhous(' is maintained at 70° when the outside tempera- 
 ture is zero, one square foot of radiation will supply 5 square feet of 
 gla.ss surface, if steam is used at 5 pounds pressure, or 4 square feet 
 of gla-ss surface if water at a temperature of 180° F. is used. The 
 following table gives the ratio of radiation to glass surface for various 
 temperatures : — 
 
GREENHOUSE HEATING 
 
 193 
 
 (A) Table showing relation of glass surface, radiating surface, and heating 
 
 surface ^ 
 
 
 HOT-TVATER HeATING 
 
 Steam Heating 
 
 Temperature of radiating surface . . . 
 
 160° 
 
 180° 
 
 200° 
 
 (5 lbs. (1011)8. 
 
 Prissurc) Pressure) 
 
 220° 240° 
 
 
 Square feet of glass for 1 square 
 foot radiating surface. 
 
 Temp. 100° F. above surrounding air . 
 Temp. 90° F. above surrounding air . 
 Temp. 80° F. above surrounding air . 
 Temp. 70° F. above surrounding air . 
 Temp. 60° F. above surrounding air . 
 Temp. 50° F. above surrounding air . 
 Temp. 40° F. above surrounding air . 
 Temp. 30° F. above surrounding air . . 
 
 Radiation per pound of coal 
 
 Heat units given off 1 square foot radiating 
 surface B.T.U.2 for 70° Temp. diff. . . 
 
 2.3 
 2.55 
 2.75 
 3.2 
 3.8 
 4.5 
 5.7 
 7.7 
 56.2 
 
 100 
 
 2.7 
 3.0 
 3.38 
 4.0 
 4.5 
 5.4 
 6.7 
 9.0 
 47.7 
 
 190 
 
 3.2 
 
 3.55 
 
 4.0 
 
 4.5 
 
 5.25 
 
 6.4 
 
 8.0 
 
 10.6 
 
 40.9 
 
 220 
 
 3.5 
 3.9 
 4.37 
 5.0 
 
 5.85 
 7.0 
 8.7 
 11.6 
 40 
 
 225 
 
 4.2 
 4.66 
 5.25 
 6.0 
 7.0 
 8.4 
 10.5 
 14.0 
 36 
 
 250 
 
 For instance, to maintain the temperature of a greenhouse 70° 
 at zero weather, there should be 1 square foot of radiating sur- 
 face for 4.0 square feet of glass for hot-water heating, in which the 
 maximum temperature of the water is maintained at 180°; or 
 there should be 1 square foot of radiating surface for 5 square feet of 
 glass for low-pressure (under 5 pounds) steam. These numbers are 
 given somewhat greater by some authorities, and there is no doubt 
 that if the house is not much exposed, higher proportions will give 
 satisfactory results. 
 
 The preceding table gives more exact values for these quantities, 
 and will be found to accord with the best practice in heating of green- 
 houses, either by steam or hot water. Each pound of coal burned on the 
 grate will transfer to the water or steam in the heater about 9000 
 B.T.U As the amount of coal consumed can be varied with the 
 draft or firing conditions, it is evident that no fixed rule can be given 
 for the proportion of grate to radiation. 
 
 1 From Carpenter's work on "Heating and Ventilating Buildings." 
 
 2 British Thermal Unit, — heat required to raise 1 lb. of water 1 degree. 
 
 o 
 
194 
 
 QREENHOUSE AND WINDOW-GARDEN WORK 
 
 Size of pipes connecting radiating surface and the boiler or heater. 
 
 Various ciiipirical rules hiivo bcoii giv(;n for i^roixjrtioning main- 
 supply ami rolurn pipes, which have i)rov(ul ([uito satisfactory in 
 practice. Cleorgc A. l^abcock gives the following rule, which will be 
 found very satisfactory for greenhouse heating, whether with low- 
 pressure steam or with water: — 
 
 The .liameter of main jiipe leading to the radiating surface should 
 be equal in inches to 0.1 the square root of radiating surface in 
 8(iuare feet. The main pipes should not be less than 1.} inches in 
 diameter, rctv.rn pipes for water heating the same size as mains, and, 
 for steam heating, one size less than mains, but never loss than f inch 
 in diameter. The following table shows the radiating surface sup- 
 plied by various sizes of main pipe. 
 
 (,B) Size or Pipu^ Radiating Surface Supplied 
 
 1 '4 inches 155 square feet 
 
 ly-i inchea 225 square feet 
 
 2 inches 400 square feet 
 
 2^ inches 620 square feet 
 
 3 inches 900 square feet 
 
 '.V -2 inches 1220 s(iuare feet 
 
 4 inches IGOO square feet 
 
 (O Table of dimensions of standard wrought-iron pipe — For steam 
 and water 
 
 1 inch and below, hutt-welded ; proved to 300 pounds per square inch, hydraulic 
 pressure. 
 
 1*4 inch and al)<)vc, lap-welded; proved to 500 pounds per square inch, hy- 
 draulic pressure. 
 
 Table of Standard Sizes 
 
 
 Internal 
 Area in One 
 Lineal Lnch 
 
 u 
 
 m 
 
 0S2 
 
 Length of 
 Pipe per 
 Square Foot 
 OF Radiating 
 Surface-Feet 
 
 Number 
 Square Feet 
 IN One 
 Lineal Foot 
 OF Pipe 
 
 
 No. OF 
 
 Threads per 
 Inch of 
 Screw 
 
 H 
 
 0.3048 
 
 2.652 
 
 4.502 
 
 0.221 
 
 0.0102 
 
 14 
 
 .^ 
 
 0.5333 
 
 3.299 
 
 3.637 
 
 0.274 
 
 0.0230 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 0.8627 
 
 4.134 
 
 2.903 
 
 0.344 
 
 0.0408 
 
 UH 
 
 \\i 
 
 1.496 
 
 5.215 
 
 2.301 
 
 0.434 
 
 0.0638 
 
 nil 
 
 i^ 
 
 2.038 
 
 5.069 
 
 2.010 
 
 0.497 
 
 0.0918 
 
 iiH 
 
 2 
 
 3.355 
 
 7.461 
 
 1.611 
 
 0.621 
 
 0.1632 
 
 iiH 
 
 ?^ 
 
 4.7H3 
 
 9.032 
 
 1.328 
 
 0.752 
 
 0.2550 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 7.368 
 
 10.99 
 
 1.091 
 
 0.916 
 
 0.3673 
 
 8 
 
 34 
 
 9.H.37 
 
 12.56 
 
 0.955 
 
 1.044 
 
 0.4998 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 12.730 
 
 14.13 
 
 0.849 
 
 1.178 
 
 0.6528 
 
 8 
 
 i^ 
 
 15.939 
 
 15.70 
 
 0.765 
 
 1.309 
 
 0.8263 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 19.990 
 
 17.47 
 
 0.629 
 
 1.656 
 
 1 .0200 
 
 8 
 
GREENHOUSE HEATING 
 
 195 
 
 The preceding table gives the standard sizes and principal dimensions 
 3f wrought-iron pipe. From this table the amount required for a 
 given amount of radiating surface can be readily computed. This pipe 
 can be purchased of any dealer. 
 
 To design heating plant. 
 
 1. Find radiating surface by dividing area of glass in square feet 
 by results in table A. Hot water pipes can be kept at a temperature 
 of 180° F. if desired. 
 
 2. Find the size of grate by multiplying amount of radiating surface 
 by number of pounds of coal per square foot of grate per hour divided 
 by " radiation per pound " in table A. 
 
 3. Find size of main pipes by table B, using size next larger when 
 radiating surface comes between numbers given. It is usually better 
 to have several main and return pipes, and divide the radiating surface 
 in sections. 
 
 Other Information relating to Heating 
 
 Diameters for cylindrical chimney-flues, for given heights and boiler 
 capacities (R. C. Carpenter) 
 
 Four-cornered chimneys are considered to be equivalent to cylindrical chim- 
 neys when the sides equal the diameter. 
 
 Height of Chimney in 
 Feet 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 = r Sq. Ft. 
 
 § j Rated 
 S j Boiler 
 «2 [Capacity 
 
 u r Sq. Ft. 
 S J Rated 
 1 1 Boiler 
 ^ L Capacity 
 
 Diameter 
 
 in 
 
 Inches 
 
 Diameter 
 
 in 
 
 Inches 
 
 Diameter 
 
 in 
 
 Inches 
 
 Diameter 
 
 in 
 
 Inches 
 
 Diameter 
 
 in 
 
 Inches 
 
 Diameter 
 
 in 
 
 Inches 
 
 250 
 
 375 
 
 7.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 750 
 
 9.2 
 
 8.8 
 
 8.2 
 
 8.0 
 
 
 
 750 
 
 1,125 
 
 10.8 
 
 10.2 
 
 9.6 
 
 9.3 
 
 8.8 
 
 8.5 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,500 
 
 12.0 
 
 11.4 
 
 10.8 
 
 10.5 
 
 10.0 
 
 9.5 
 
 1,500 
 
 2,250 
 
 14.4 
 
 13.4 
 
 12.8 
 
 12.4 
 
 11.5 
 
 11.2 
 
 2,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 16.3 
 
 15.2 
 
 14.5 
 
 14.0 
 
 13.2 
 
 12.6 
 
 3,000 
 
 4,500 
 
 18.5 
 
 18.2 
 
 17.2 
 
 16.6 
 
 15.8 
 
 15.0 
 
 4,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 22.2 
 
 20.8 
 
 19.6 
 
 19.0 
 
 17.8 
 
 17.0 
 
 5,000 
 
 7,500 
 
 24.6 
 
 23.0 
 
 21.6 
 
 21.0 
 
 19.4 
 
 18.6 
 
 6,000 
 
 9,000 
 
 26.8 
 
 25.0 
 
 23.4 
 
 22.8 
 
 21.2 
 
 20.2 
 
 7,000 
 
 10,500 
 
 28.8 
 
 27.0 
 
 25.5 
 
 24.4 
 
 23.0 
 
 21.6 
 
 8,000 
 
 12,000 
 
 30.6 
 
 28.6 
 
 26.8 
 
 26.0 
 
 24.2 
 
 23.4 
 
 9,000 
 
 13,500 
 
 32.4 
 
 30.4 
 
 28.4 
 
 27.4 
 
 25.6 
 
 24.4 
 
 10,000 
 
 15,000 
 
 34.0 
 
 32.0 
 
 30.0 
 
 28.6 
 
 27.0 
 
 25.4 
 
196 
 
 (jREKyilOL SE Ayn \\ ISDOW-GARDEy WORK 
 
 Effects of wind in cooling glass (Leuchars) 
 
 Velocity of Wind 
 per hour 
 
 li.JG miles 
 
 5. IS miles 
 
 6.54 miles 
 
 8.86 miles 
 
 10.90 miles 
 
 13.36 miles 
 
 17.»7 miles 
 
 20.45 miles 
 
 24.54 miles 
 
 27.27 miles 
 
 Time Required to lower Temperature 
 from 120° to 100° F. 
 
 2 : 58 minutes 
 2 : 16 minutes 
 1:91 minutes 
 1 : 06 minutes 
 1 : 50 minutes 
 1 : 25 minutes 
 1 : 08 minutes 
 1 : 00 minutes 
 
 : 91 minutes 
 
 : 81 minutes 
 
 Table of radiation for glass (Dean 
 
 Steam 
 
 Hot Water 
 
 Table of 
 
 amount of steam radiating 8ur- 
 
 Table of amount of hot-water radiating surface 
 
 face necessary to heat a given amount 
 
 necessary to 
 
 heat a 
 
 given amount 
 
 of glass 
 
 of r\slss 
 
 exposure to various tempera- 
 
 exposure to 
 
 various 
 
 temijeratures 
 
 m zero 
 
 tures in zero weather. 
 
 weather. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Number of square feet of 
 
 
 Number of 
 
 square feet of radiation 
 
 Square 
 
 radiation required at 
 
 Square 
 
 
 
 required at 
 
 
 t^ioi 
 
 
 feet of 
 exposure 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 exposure 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40" 
 
 45» 
 
 50» 
 
 60» 
 
 70» 
 
 
 40» 
 
 45° 
 
 50° 
 
 60° 
 
 70° 
 
 25 
 
 l\ 
 
 
 3f 
 
 4i 
 
 5 
 
 25 
 
 4S 
 
 5 
 
 6] 
 
 7i 
 
 8J 
 
 50 
 
 7* 
 
 8, 
 
 10 
 
 50 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 75 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 75 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 19 
 
 21 
 
 25 
 
 100 
 
 11 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 17 
 
 20 
 
 100 
 
 17 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 29 
 
 33 
 
 200 
 
 23 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 33 
 
 40 
 
 200 
 
 33 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 57 
 
 67 
 
 300 
 
 34 
 
 38 
 
 43 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 300 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 86 
 
 100 
 
 400 
 
 45 
 
 .50 
 
 57 
 
 67 
 
 80 
 
 400 
 
 67 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 114 
 
 133 
 
 .WO 
 
 aa 
 
 63 
 
 72 
 
 83 
 
 100 
 
 500 
 
 83 
 
 100 
 
 125 
 
 113 
 
 167 
 
 1.000 
 
 112 
 
 12.-, 
 
 143 
 
 167 
 
 200 
 
 1.000 
 
 167 
 
 200 
 
 2.50 
 
 286 
 
 333 
 
 2.000 
 
 223 
 
 2.50 
 
 286 
 
 333 
 
 400 
 
 2,000 
 
 333 
 
 400 
 
 500 
 
 572 
 
 667 
 
 3.000 
 
 .334 
 
 .375 
 
 429 
 
 .500 
 
 600 
 
 ?..noo 
 
 .500 
 
 600 
 
 7.50 
 
 857 
 
 1.000 
 
 4.000 
 
 44.') 
 
 500 
 
 .571 
 
 667 
 
 8(X) 
 
 4.000 
 
 667 
 
 SOO 
 
 1 .000 
 
 1.143 
 
 1.333 
 
 5.000 
 
 h:A\ 
 
 625 
 
 714 
 
 833 
 
 1.000 
 
 5,000 
 
 833 
 
 1,000 
 
 1.2,50 
 
 1.429 
 
 1.667 
 
 10.000 
 
 1112 
 
 12.50 
 
 1429 
 
 1667 
 
 2.000 
 
 10.000 
 
 1667 
 
 2,000 
 
 2.500 
 
 2.857 
 
 3.333 
 
 20.000 
 
 222.3 
 
 2.500 
 
 2857 
 
 3333 
 
 4.000 
 
 20.000 
 
 3333 
 
 4.000 
 
 5,000 
 
 5.714 
 
 6.667 
 
 .30.000 
 
 .3334 
 
 37.50 
 
 42S6 
 
 .5(X)0 
 
 6.000 
 
 30.000 
 
 5000 
 
 (),()()() 
 
 7,. 500 
 
 8.573 
 
 10.000 
 
 40.000 
 
 4445 
 
 .50(K) 
 
 .5714 
 
 6667 
 
 8.000 
 
 40.000 
 
 6667 
 
 S, ()()() 
 
 10, (too 
 
 11.429 
 
 13.333 
 
 50.000 
 
 .W.'ie 
 
 6250 
 
 7143 
 
 8333 
 
 10,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 8333 
 
 10, ()()() 
 
 1 2,. 500 
 
 14.286 
 
 16.667 
 
 From Dean's " Greenhouse Heating." by permission of " Domestic Engineering.' 
 
GREENHOUSE HEATING 
 
 1% 
 
 Radiating surface of pipes of different lengths and diameters 
 
 ih 
 
 % In. 
 
 1 In. 
 
 IV4 In. 
 
 IV2IN. 
 
 2 In. 
 
 2V2 In. 
 
 3 In. 
 
 31^ In. 
 
 4 In. 
 
 5s- 
 
 Pipe 
 
 Pipe 
 
 Pipe 
 
 Pipe 
 
 Pipe 
 
 Pipe 
 
 Pipe 
 
 Pipe 
 
 Pipe 
 
 10 
 
 2.7 
 
 3.5 
 
 4.3 
 
 4.9 
 
 6.2 
 
 7.5 
 
 9.1 
 
 10.5 
 
 11.8 
 
 11 
 
 3.0 
 
 3.8 
 
 4.8 
 
 5.4 
 
 6.8 
 
 8.3 
 
 10.0 
 
 11.6 
 
 13.0 
 
 12 
 
 3.3 
 
 4.1 
 
 5.2 
 
 5.9 
 
 7.5 
 
 9.0 
 
 11.0 
 
 12.6 
 
 14.1 
 
 13 
 
 3.6 
 
 4.5 
 
 5.6 
 
 6.4 
 
 8.1 
 
 9.8 
 
 11.9 
 
 13.7 
 
 15.3 
 
 14 
 
 3.8 
 
 4.8 
 
 6.1 
 
 6.9 
 
 8.7 
 
 10.5 
 
 12.8 
 
 14.7 
 
 16.5 
 
 15 
 
 4.1 
 
 5.2 
 
 6.5 
 
 7.4 
 
 9.3 
 
 11.3 
 
 13.7 
 
 15.8 
 
 17.6 
 
 16 
 
 4.4 
 
 5.5 
 
 6.9 
 
 7.9 
 
 10.0 
 
 12.0 
 
 14.6 
 
 16.9 
 
 18.8 
 
 17 
 
 4.7 
 
 5.9 
 
 7.4 
 
 8.4 
 
 10.6 
 
 12.8 
 
 15.5 
 
 17.9 
 
 20.0 
 
 18 
 
 5.0 
 
 6.2 
 
 7.8 
 
 8.9 
 
 11.2 
 
 13.5 
 
 16.5 
 
 19.0 
 
 21.2 
 
 19 
 
 5.2 
 
 6.6 
 
 8.3 
 
 9.4 
 
 11.8 
 
 14.3 
 
 17.4 
 
 20.0 
 
 22.3 
 
 20 
 
 5.5 
 
 6.9 
 
 8.7 
 
 9.9 
 
 12.5 
 
 15.0 
 
 18.3 
 
 21.1 
 
 23.5 
 
 21 
 
 5.8 
 
 7.3 
 
 9.1 
 
 10.4 
 
 13.0 
 
 15.8 
 
 19.2 
 
 22.1 
 
 24.7 
 
 22 
 
 6.0 
 
 7.6 
 
 9.6 
 
 10.9 
 
 13.7 
 
 16.5 
 
 20.2 
 
 23.2 
 
 25.9 
 
 23 
 
 6.3 
 
 8.0 
 
 10.0 
 
 11.3 
 
 14.3 
 
 17.3 
 
 21.1 
 
 24.3 
 
 27.0 
 
 24 
 
 6.6 
 
 8.3 
 
 10.4 
 
 11.9 
 
 14.9 
 
 18.0 
 
 22.0 
 
 25.3 
 
 28.2 
 
 25 
 
 6.9 
 
 8.6 
 
 10.9 
 
 12.3 
 
 15.6 
 
 18.8 
 
 22.9 
 
 26.3 
 
 29.3 
 
 26 
 
 7.2 
 
 9.0 
 
 11.3 
 
 12.8 
 
 16.2 
 
 19.5 
 
 23.8 
 
 27.4 
 
 30.5 
 
 27 
 
 7.4 
 
 9.4 
 
 11.7 
 
 13.3 
 
 16.8 
 
 20.3 
 
 24.7 
 
 28.5 
 
 31.7 
 
 28 
 
 7.7 
 
 9.7 
 
 12 2 
 
 13.8 
 
 17.4 
 
 21.0 
 
 25.6 
 
 29.6 
 
 32.9 
 
 29 
 
 8.0 
 
 10.0 
 
 12.'6 
 
 14.3 
 
 18.0 
 
 21.8 
 
 26.6 
 
 30.6 
 
 34.1 
 
 30 
 
 8.3 
 
 10.4 
 
 13.0 
 
 14.8 
 
 18.7 
 
 22.5 
 
 27.5 
 
 31.6 
 
 35.3 
 
 31 
 
 8.5 
 
 10.7 
 
 13.5 
 
 15.3 
 
 19.3 
 
 23.3 
 
 28.4 
 
 32.7 
 
 36.4 
 
 32 
 
 8.8 
 
 11.1 
 
 13.9 
 
 15.8 
 
 19.9 
 
 24.1 
 
 29.3 
 
 33.7 
 
 37.6 
 
 33 
 
 9.1 
 
 11.4 
 
 14.3 
 
 16.3 
 
 20.5 
 
 24.8 
 
 30.2 
 
 34.8 
 
 38.8 
 
 34 
 
 9.4 
 
 11.7 
 
 14.7 
 
 16.8 
 
 21.2 
 
 25.6 
 
 31.1 
 
 35.8 
 
 40.0 
 
 35 
 
 9.6 
 
 12.1 
 
 15.2 
 
 17.3 
 
 21.8 
 
 26.3 
 
 32.0 
 
 36.9 
 
 41.1 
 
 36 
 
 9.9 
 
 12.5 
 
 15.6 
 
 17.8 
 
 22.4 
 
 27.0 
 
 33.0 
 
 38.0 
 
 42.3 
 
 37 
 
 10.2 
 
 12.8 
 
 16.1 
 
 18.3 
 
 23.0 
 
 27.8 
 
 33.9 
 
 39.0 
 
 43.5 
 
 38 
 
 10.5 
 
 13.2 
 
 16.5 
 
 18.8 
 
 23.7 
 
 28.5 
 
 34.8 
 
 40.1 
 
 44.6 
 
 39 
 
 10.7 
 
 13.5 
 
 16.9 
 
 19.3 
 
 24.3 
 
 29.3 
 
 35.7 
 
 41.1 
 
 45.8 
 
 40 
 
 11.0 
 
 13.8 
 
 17.4 
 
 19.8 
 
 24.9 
 
 30.1 
 
 36.6 
 
 42.2 
 
 47.0 
 
 411 
 
 11.3 
 
 14.2 
 
 17.8 
 
 20.5 
 
 25.5 
 
 30.8 
 
 37.6 
 
 43.2 
 
 48.2 
 
 42 
 
 11.6 
 
 14.5 
 
 18.2 
 
 20.8 
 
 26.1 
 
 31.6 
 
 38.5 
 
 44.3 
 
 49.4 
 
 43 
 
 11.8 
 
 14.9 
 
 18.7 
 
 21.3 
 
 26.8 
 
 32.3 
 
 39.4 
 
 45.3 
 
 50.6 
 
 44 
 
 12.1 
 
 15.2 
 
 19.1 
 
 21.8 
 
 27.4 
 
 33.1 
 
 40.3 
 
 46.4 
 
 51.7 
 
 45 
 
 12.4 
 
 15.6 
 
 19.5 
 
 22.4 
 
 28.0 
 
 33.8 
 
 41.2 
 
 47.4 
 
 52.9 
 
 46 
 
 12.7 
 
 15.9 
 
 20.0 
 
 22.8 
 
 28.6 
 
 34.6 
 
 42.2 
 
 48.5 
 
 54.0 
 
 47 
 
 12.9 
 
 16.3 
 
 20.4 
 
 23.2 
 
 29.2 
 
 35.3 
 
 43.0 
 
 49.6 
 
 55.2 
 
 48 
 
 13.2 
 
 16.6 
 
 20.8 
 
 23.7 
 
 29.9 
 
 36.1 
 
 43.9 
 
 50.6 
 
 56.4 
 
 49 
 
 13.5 
 
 17.0 
 
 21.3 
 
 24.2 
 
 30.5 
 
 36.8 
 
 44.8 
 
 51.7 
 
 57.6 
 
 50 
 
 13.8 
 
 17.3 
 
 21.7 
 
 24.7 
 
 31.1 
 
 37.6 
 
 45.8 
 
 52.8 
 
 58.7 
 
198 
 
 GREENHOUSE AND WINDOW-GARDEN WORK 
 
 Method for finding boiler capacity j or cast-iron pipe 
 
 Table showmn how to Rct at the amount of 33i2-inch cast-iron pipe necessary to 
 heat KH'tniiouse to temperature wanted, when outside temperature is at zero, 
 Fahrenheit (Lord & Hurnham Co.) 
 
 For lU"* Im'Iow zero, add 10 per cent. ; for 20° add 20 per cent., and so on. 
 For 70° to 7o° diviih' stjuare feet of jihiss and ecjuivalent by 1.8. 
 For (jii° to 70° divide .stiuare feet of jila.s.s and etiuivaient hy 2.28. 
 For 00° to 05° divide square feet of gla.ss and equivaU-nt l)y 2.62, 
 For 55° to 00° divide square feet of glass and equivalent by 3. 
 For 50° to 55° divide square feet of glass and equivalent by 3.46. 
 For 45° to 50° divide s(|uare feet of glass and equivalent by 4. 
 For 40° to 45° diviile .S(iuare feet of glass and equivalent by 4.67. 
 For 35° to 40° divide square feet of glass and equivalent by 5.5. 
 
 For 2-inch work, use same table and same example and multiply the amount 
 of 3J»i-inch pipe obtained by 1.08. 
 
 In proportioning gla.ss surface, all wall surface must be figured in ; about 5 
 feet of waJl equals 1 foot of glass. 
 
 Customary temperatures in which plants are grown under glass 
 
 Asparagus plumosus 
 Azalea, Indian .... 
 Bulbs (hyacinth, tulip, etc.) 
 
 Carnation 
 
 Calla 
 
 Chrysanthemum .... 
 
 Cineraria 
 
 Cyclamen 
 
 Ferns, as maiden hair 
 
 Lily (Ea.ster) 
 
 Lily of the valley (forcing) 
 
 Palni.s. house 
 
 Primulas 
 
 Rose 
 
 Smilax 
 
 Stocks 
 
 Sweet pea 
 
 Violet 
 
 Day 
 
 Night 
 
 70° 
 
 60° 
 
 65° 
 
 50° 
 
 60° 
 
 45° 
 
 60° 
 
 50° 
 
 70° 
 
 60° 
 
 55° 
 
 45° 
 
 65° 
 
 50° 
 
 65° 
 
 50° 
 
 75° 
 
 60° 
 
 65° 
 
 55° 
 
 90° 
 
 90° 
 
 75° 
 
 60° 
 
 65° 
 
 50° 
 
 65° 
 
 55° 
 
 60° 
 
 50° 
 
 65° 
 
 50° 
 
 60° 
 
 50° 
 
 50° 
 
 40° 
 
 Various Estimates and Recipes 
 
 Percentage of rays of light reflected from glass roofs at various angles of 
 divergence from the perpendicular (Bouguer) 
 
 1** 2.5 per cent 
 
 10° 2.5 per cent 
 
 20° 2.5 per cent 
 
 30° 2.7 per cent 
 
 40° 3.4 per cent 
 
 5^ 5.7 per cent 
 
 ^^ 11.2 per cent 
 
 7<>^ 22.2 per cent 
 
 IJ^ 41.2 per cent 
 
 °^ 54.3 per cent 
 
GREENHOUSE FIGURES 199 
 
 Angle of roof for different heights and widths of house (Taft) 
 
 Height 
 
 Feet 
 
 4 Ft. 
 
 5 Ft. 
 
 6 Ft. 
 
 7 Ft. 
 
 8 Ft. 
 
 9 Ft. 
 
 Width 
 
 o / 
 
 o / 
 
 
 
 
 
 Feet 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 33 21 
 
 39 48 
 
 45 
 
 49 24 
 
 53 8 
 
 56 18 
 
 7 
 
 29 44 
 
 35 32 
 
 40 36 
 
 45 
 
 48 49 
 
 52 07 
 
 8 
 
 26 33 
 
 32 
 
 36 52 
 
 41 11 
 
 45 
 
 48 22 
 
 9 
 
 23 57 
 
 29 3 
 
 33 5 
 
 37 52 
 
 41 38 
 
 45 
 
 10 
 
 21 48 
 
 26 33 
 
 30 58 
 
 35 
 
 38 39 
 
 41 59 
 
 11 
 
 
 24 26 
 
 28 36 
 
 32 28 
 
 36 2 
 
 39 17 
 
 12 
 
 
 22 57 
 
 26 33 
 
 30 15 
 
 33 41 
 
 36 52 
 
 13 
 
 
 21 2 
 
 24 47 
 
 28 18 
 
 31 36 
 
 34 42 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 23 12 
 
 26 34 
 
 29 44 
 
 32 44 
 
 Among greenhouse builders, 32° is the pitch of roof that has 
 practically been established for all houses up to 25 feet in width ; 
 beyond that width, 26° is commonly used for the slope or pitch 
 of the roof. 
 
 Standard flower-pots. 
 
 American 
 
 The Society of American Florists has adopted a standard pot, ia 
 which all measurements are made inside, and which bears a rim or 
 shoulder at the top. The breadth and depth of these pots are the same, 
 so that they " nest " well. 
 
 English. — Chiswick Standards 
 
 
 DiAM. AT 
 
 Top 
 
 Depth 
 
 Thimbles 
 
 2 
 
 23^ 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4^ 
 
 6 
 
 8H 
 
 9H 
 llM 
 12 
 13 
 15 
 18 
 
 In. 
 2 
 
 Thumbs 
 
 2H 
 
 60's 
 
 3M 
 
 54's 
 
 4 
 
 48's 
 
 5 
 
 32's ... 
 
 6 
 
 24's 
 
 8 
 
 16's . . 
 
 9 
 
 12's . 
 
 10 
 
 8's 
 
 11 
 
 6's . 
 
 12 
 
 4's . 
 
 13 
 
 2's 
 
 14 
 
 
 
200 GREENHOUSE AND WINDOW-GARDEN WORK 
 
 To prerent boilers from filling with sediment or scale. 
 
 (1) Exercise care t(3 get clean water ami that wliich contains little 
 lime. (2) Hlow it out often. It can be blown out a little every day, 
 and occasionally it should be blown off entirely. (3) Put slippery- 
 elni bark in the boiler tank. Or, if slippery-elm is not handy, use 
 |K)tato-i)eelinKs, flax-seed, oak-bark, spent tan, or coarse sawdust. (4) 
 Put in, with the feed-water or otherwise, a small quantity of good mo- 
 la^wes (not a chemical sirup), say one-half to one pint in a week, de- 
 pending upon the size of boiler. This will remove and prevent 
 incrustation without damage to the boiler. These vegetable sub- 
 stances prevent, in a measure, by mechanical means, the union of the 
 particles of lime into incrustations. 
 
 To prepare paper and cloth for hotbed sash. 
 
 1. Use a sash without bars, and stretch wires or strings 
 across it to serve as a rest for the paper. Procure stout but 
 thin manila wrapping-paper, and paste it firmly on the sash with 
 fresh flour paste. Dry in a w^arm place, and then wipe the paper 
 with a damp sponge to cause it to stretch evenly. Dry again, and 
 then apply boiled linseed oil to both sides of the paper, and dry 
 again in a wami place, 
 
 2. Saturate cloth or tough, thin manila paper with pure, raw lin- 
 seed oil. 
 
 3. Dissolve IJ pounds white soap in one quart water; in another 
 quart dissolve 1 1 ounces gum arable and 5 ounces glue. Mix the two 
 li(iuids, warm, and soak the paper, hanging it up to dr3\ Used mostly 
 for paiH'r. 
 
 4. 3 |)ints i)ale linseed oil ; 1 ounce sugar of lead ; 4 ounces white 
 rosin. ( iriiid and mix the sugar of lead in a little oil, then add the other 
 materials and heat in an iron kettle. Apply hot with a brush. Used 
 U)T nmslin. 
 
 Paint for hot-water pipes. 
 
 Mix lampblack with boiled oil and turpentine. It is harmless to 
 plants. 
 
GREENHOUSE RECIPES 201 
 
 Liquid putty for glazing. 
 
 Take equal parts, by measure, of boiled oil, putty, and white lead. 
 Mix the putty and oil, then add the white lead. If th? mixture be- 
 comes too thick, add turpentine. Apply with a putty-bulb. 
 
 Paint for shading greenhouse roofs. 
 
 Make a paint of ordinary consistency of white lead and naphtha. It 
 is removed from the glass by the use of a scrubbing-brush. Make it thin, 
 or it is hard to remove. 
 
 Ordinary lime whitewash is good for temporary use. If salt is added, 
 it adheres better. It may be applied with a spray pump. 
 
 To keep flower-pots clean. 
 
 When the pots are cleaned, soak them a few hours in ammoniacal 
 carbonate of copper (recipe, page 255). Soak them about once a year. 
 This fungicide kills the green alga upon the pots, and prevents a new 
 growth from appearing. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 Forestry and Timber 
 
 Forestry is the raising of timber crops. It is not the planting of 
 shade trees or ornamental trees, or even of groves, but the planting 
 and rearing of forests. The primary product of the forest is timber; 
 usually the timber is sawed into boards, known collectively in North 
 America as lumber (lumber is properly and differently used in Eng- 
 land) ; some timber is used for fire-wood, some for wood-pulp, and 
 some for other uses. In the trades, timber usually means the 
 squared or heavy sawed product used in framework. 
 
 Planting Notes 
 Nursery planting-table for forest trees (Farmer's Bulletin) 
 
 Species 
 
 When to 
 
 COLLECT 
 
 Seeds 
 
 How TO STORE 
 
 Seeds 
 
 o 
 
 Eli 
 
 When to 
 
 PLANT 
 
 Seeds 
 
 0. 
 
 Spacing of 
 
 Seeds in 
 
 Rows 
 
 §2g 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 In. 
 
 
 In. 
 
 Aah. green . . 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Bury in sand 
 
 35-50 
 
 Spring 
 
 3^ 
 
 Scatter thickly 
 
 6-9 
 
 Ash. white . . 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 35-50 
 
 *' 
 
 1^ 
 
 " 
 
 6-10 
 
 Ba.sswood . . 
 
 Sept. or Oct. 
 
 Sow at once 
 
 5-50 
 
 Fall 
 
 /4 
 
 " 
 
 6-12 
 
 Beech . . . 
 
 Fall 
 
 Bury in sand 
 
 70-80 
 
 Early spring 
 
 H 
 
 2 in. apart 
 
 3-6 
 
 Butternut • 
 
 Sept. or Oct. 
 
 " 
 
 75-80 
 
 " 
 
 1 
 
 3 to 6 in. apart 
 
 10-18 
 
 Box elder . . 
 
 
 " 
 
 40-60 
 
 Spring 
 
 H 
 
 Touching in 
 rows 
 
 10-14 
 
 Catalpa, hardy 
 
 Oct. or Nov. 
 
 Cool, dry place 
 
 40-75 
 
 " 
 
 1 
 
 Yi in. apart 
 
 14-30 
 
 Cherry, black . 
 
 AuR. orSept. 
 
 Bury in sand 
 
 75-80 
 
 " 
 
 1 
 
 2 to 3 in. apart 
 
 4-6 
 
 Coffee tree. 
 
 Sept. or Oct. Cool, dry place. 
 
 70-75 
 
 " 
 
 1 
 
 " 
 
 3-6 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 
 or bury in sand 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cottonwood » . 
 
 June or July 
 
 Sow at once 
 
 75-95 
 
 Summer 
 
 H 
 
 1 in. apart 
 
 20-30 
 
 Elm. Hiippery . 
 
 May or June 
 
 " 
 
 50-75 
 
 Late spring 
 
 h 
 
 Scatter thickly 
 
 15-18 
 
 Elm. white . . 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 50-75 
 
 " 
 
 h 
 
 " 
 
 5-10 
 
 Harkberry . . 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Bury in sand 
 
 70-80 
 
 Spring 
 
 1 to 2 in. apart 
 
 6-12 
 
 Hickory. pignut* 
 
 Sept. or Oct. ! 
 
 50-75 
 
 
 1-2 
 
 3 to 6 in. apart 
 
 2-6 
 
 Hickon,'. shafc- 
 
 hark ' . . . 
 
 Hickory, shell- 
 
 
 " 
 
 50-75 
 
 " 
 
 1-2 
 
 
 2-6 
 
 .. 
 
 .. 
 
 60-75 
 
 .. 
 
 1-2 
 
 .. 
 
 2-6 
 
 bark . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > Difficult to transplant on account of tap root. Advisable to sow seeds in permanent 
 sites in field whenever possible. 
 
 * Easily grown from cuttings. Not necessary or advisable to attempt growing from seed. 
 
 202 
 
FOREST NURSERY 
 
 203 
 
 Nursery planting-table for forest trees — Continued 
 
 Species 
 
 When to 
 
 COLLECT 
 
 How TO STORE 
 
 Seeds 
 
 Q 
 
 h 1^ a 
 
 m 
 
 When to 
 
 PLANT 
 
 4 
 11 
 
 Spacing of 
 Seeds in 
 
 B « J 
 
 
 Seeds 
 
 M-S 
 
 Seeds 
 
 Rows 
 
 r;^" w 
 
 
 
 
 ^po 
 
 
 
 
 bS^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 In. 
 
 
 In. 
 
 Locust, black . 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Cool, dry place, 
 or bury in sand 
 
 50-57 
 
 Spring 
 
 1 
 
 2 to 3 in. apart 
 
 18-20 
 
 Locust, honey . 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 50-75 
 
 Fall or spring 
 
 ^ 
 
 " 
 
 6-14 
 
 Maple, red . . 
 Maple, silver . 
 
 May or June 
 
 Sow at once 
 
 25-60 
 25-50 
 
 Late spring 
 
 1 
 
 ]/i in. apart 
 
 6-10 
 12-20 
 
 Maple, sugar . 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Sow at once, or 
 bury in sand 
 
 30-50 
 
 Fall or spring 
 
 1 
 
 " 
 
 6-12 
 
 Mulberry, Rus- 
 sian . . . 
 Oak, bur 1 . . 
 
 July or Aug. 
 
 Cool, dry place 
 
 75-95 
 
 Spring 
 
 'A 
 
 Scatter thickly 
 
 8-10 
 
 Sept. or Oct. 
 
 Sow at once, or 
 
 75-95 
 
 Fall or spring 
 
 IH 
 
 3 to 6 in. apart 
 
 5-9 
 
 
 
 bury m sand 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oak, red 1 . . 
 
 " 
 
 *' 
 
 75-95 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 6-20 
 
 Oak, white i . 
 
 " 
 
 
 75-95 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 ]/2 1 in- apart 
 
 .5-9 
 
 Osage orange . 
 
 " 
 
 Cool, dry place 
 
 60-95 
 
 Spring 
 
 10-15 
 
 Poplar, yellow 
 
 " 
 
 Sow at once 
 
 5-10 
 
 Fall 
 
 % Scatter thickly 
 
 4-6 
 
 Walnut, black i 
 
 " 
 
 Bury in sand 
 
 75-80;Spring 
 
 lHj3 to6in. apart 
 
 10-18 
 
 For number of tree seeds in a pound, see Chapter V. 
 
 1 Difficult to transplant on account of tap root. Advisable to sow seeds in permanent 
 sites in field whenever possible. 
 
 Note on the conifers (MulforcD. — Whhepme, Scotch pine, and Norway spruce seed should 
 be collected as soon a < it is ripe, m September. The cone^ should be dried, allowing the 
 seed to fall out. The seed should be stored for the winter in bags hung in a dry, cool 
 place, and should be sown thickly in the spring, covering with about one-eighth inch of soil. 
 From 60 to 90 per cent of the seed should germinate. One-year-old seedlings are from one 
 and one-halt to three inches high. 
 
 Forest planting (Mulford). 
 
 Forest planting is usually done with the mattock (grub hoe). A 
 space about twelve to sixteen inches square should be cleared of all 
 growth, and a hole dug in the middle of this large enough to receive 
 the roots comfortably. Another method is to plow and harrow the 
 ground, mark out with a corn marker, and simply set the tree in a 
 slit pried open with a common spade, the slit being closed by a second 
 thrust of the spade. By the former method, from 250 to 600 trees 
 per day per man can be planted ; by the latter method, from 800 to 
 2000 trees. Forest trees are ordinarily planted 4X4,5X5, or6X6 
 feet (i.e. about 2700, 1750, and 1200 trees per acre, respectively), the 
 closer spacing being more necessary with slow-growing trees and on 
 poor soils. 
 
204 
 
 FORESTRY AND TIMBER 
 
 Hardness of Common Commercial Woods 
 
 Shellhark hickory 
 
 . 100 
 
 Hhick walnut . . . 
 
 Go 
 
 Yellow pine . 
 
 . 54 
 
 Pignut hickory 
 
 . 96 
 
 Black l)irch . . . 
 
 02 
 
 Chestnut . 
 
 . 52 
 
 Wliitc oiik . 
 
 . H4 
 
 Yellow oak .... 
 
 60 
 
 Yellow poplar . 
 
 . 51 
 
 White ash . 
 
 . 77 
 
 White elm . . . . 
 
 58 
 
 White birch . 
 
 . 43 
 
 S<Tul) oak 
 
 . 73 
 
 Hard maple . . . 
 
 56 
 
 Butternut . . 
 
 . 43 
 
 R»m1 oak 
 
 . 69 
 
 Red cedar .... 
 
 56 
 
 White pine 
 
 . 30 
 
 White beech . 
 
 . 65 
 
 Wild cherry . . . 
 Forest Yields 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 Approximate time required to produce different wood crops ([]. S. Forest 
 
 Service) 
 
 Species 
 
 Northern forests 
 
 Aspen 
 
 Beech ' 
 
 Birch, paper 
 
 Hemlock ' 
 
 Maple, sugar ' 
 
 Pine, reil 
 
 Pine, white 
 
 Central hardwood forests 
 
 Chestnut * 
 
 Oak. red 
 
 Oak, white 
 
 Poplar, yellow 
 
 Farm timber plantations 
 
 Catalpa * 
 
 Larch, European * . . . . 
 
 Mapl.'. silver* 
 
 Wab.ut. black* 
 
 Cottonwood * 
 
 Southern forests 
 
 Ash. white 
 
 Cottonwood 
 
 Cypress , 
 
 (iuni, red , 
 
 Pine, loblolly 
 
 Pine, lonRleaf 
 
 Pacific coast forests 
 
 Fir, Douglas 
 
 Hemlock, western 
 
 I'ine, sugar 
 
 Pine, western yellow . . . 
 Redwood 
 
 Me. 
 
 Mich. 
 
 Me. 
 
 Mich. 
 
 Mich. 
 
 Wis. 
 
 N.Y. 
 
 Md. 
 Ky. 
 Ky. 
 Tenn. 
 
 III. 
 111. 
 111. 
 111. 
 Nebr. 
 
 Ark. 
 
 Miss. 
 
 Md. 
 
 S.C. 
 
 S.C. 
 
 S.C. 
 
 Wash 
 
 Wash 
 
 Cal. 
 
 Cal. 
 
 Cal. 
 
 
 OOQ,fc, K 
 
 -1 ^ O O 
 
 Years 
 30 
 
 32 
 32 
 
 20 
 25 
 35 
 
 20 
 23 
 
 25 
 
 40 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 40 
 25 
 20 
 
 Years 
 40 
 80 
 50 
 
 100 
 90 
 40 
 40 
 
 25 
 30 
 45 
 45 
 
 25 
 35 
 
 18 
 
 30 
 15 
 
 25 
 
 35 
 50 
 50 
 35 
 25 
 
 S u 
 
 St 
 
 Years 
 
 60 
 100 
 
 130 
 
 55 
 55 
 
 40 
 45 
 
 80 
 
 45 
 
 65 
 30 
 40 
 75 
 
 45 
 70 
 65 
 45 
 35 
 
 rf < 
 
 Years 
 
 lb 
 
 55 
 
 75 
 
 55 
 100 
 
 50 
 
 55 
 50 
 
 2S 
 . s 
 
 Years 
 200 
 
 200 
 
 100 
 
 90 
 
 85 
 100 
 160 
 110 
 
 85 
 30 
 90 
 65 
 70 
 130 
 
 75 
 
 125 
 
 100 
 
 80 
 
 70 
 
 • Species tolerant of shade which should show better results in second growth. 
 
 * Speciea grow lug under favorable conditions when measured. 
 
FOREST YIELDS 
 
 205 
 
 Yield of white -pine per acre in southern New Hampshire (Margolin) 
 Quality I 
 
 Age 
 
 Number 
 OF Trees 
 
 Basal 
 
 Area 
 
 Mean 
 Height 
 
 Volume 
 
 Current 
 Annual In- 
 crement 
 
 Mean An- 
 nual In- 
 crement 
 
 Years 
 
 
 Square ft. 
 
 Feet 
 
 Cubic ft. 
 
 Cubic ft. 
 
 Cubic ft. 
 
 25 
 
 2,430 
 
 190 
 
 33 
 
 3,100 
 
 124 
 
 124 
 
 30 
 
 1,840 
 
 215 
 
 41 
 
 4,367 
 
 253 
 
 145 
 
 35 
 
 1,250 
 
 230 
 
 48 
 
 5.850 
 
 296 
 
 167 
 
 40 
 
 870 
 
 238 
 
 56 
 
 7,033 
 
 236 
 
 176 
 
 45 
 
 640 
 
 243 
 
 64 
 
 8.000 
 
 193 
 
 177 
 
 50 
 
 510 
 
 246 
 
 70 
 
 8,767 
 
 153 
 
 175 
 
 55 
 
 430 
 
 249 
 
 75 
 
 9,475 
 
 141 
 
 172 
 
 60 
 
 380 
 
 252 
 
 80 
 
 10,100 
 
 125 
 
 168 
 
 65 
 
 340 
 
 255 
 
 84 
 
 10,633 
 
 106 
 
 164 
 
 70 
 
 310 
 
 258 
 
 87 
 
 11,100 
 
 93 
 
 158 
 
 75 
 
 280 
 
 261 
 
 90 
 
 11,567 
 
 93 
 
 154 
 
 80 
 
 260 
 
 263 
 
 93 
 
 12,000 
 
 86 
 
 150 
 
 85 
 
 240 
 
 266 
 
 95 
 
 12,383 
 
 76 
 
 146 
 
 90 
 
 220 
 
 268 
 
 97 
 
 12,767 
 
 76 
 
 142 
 
 Quality II 
 
 25 
 
 2,430 
 
 163 
 
 31 
 
 2,700 
 
 108 
 
 108 
 
 30 
 
 1.840 
 
 183 
 
 38 
 
 3.700 
 
 200 
 
 123 
 
 35 
 
 1,250 
 
 195 
 
 45 
 
 4.850 
 
 230 
 
 139 
 
 40 
 
 870 
 
 212 
 
 52 
 
 5,800 
 
 190 
 
 145 
 
 45 
 
 640 
 
 221 
 
 59 
 
 6,600 
 
 160 
 
 147 
 
 50 
 
 510 
 
 228 
 
 65 
 
 7,300 
 
 140 
 
 146 
 
 55 
 
 430 
 
 233 
 
 71 
 
 7,925 
 
 125 
 
 144 
 
 60 
 
 380 
 
 236 
 
 76 
 
 8,500 
 
 115 
 
 142 
 
 65 
 
 340 
 
 238 
 
 80 
 
 9,000 
 
 100 
 
 138 
 
 70 
 
 310 
 
 241 
 
 84 
 
 9,450 
 
 90 
 
 135 
 
 75 
 
 280 
 
 244 
 
 87 
 
 9,900 
 
 90 
 
 132 
 
 80 
 
 260 
 
 247 
 
 89 
 
 10,300 
 
 80 
 
 129 
 
 85 
 
 240 
 
 250 
 
 91 
 
 10,650 
 
 70 
 
 125 
 
 90 
 
 220 
 
 253 
 
 93 
 
 11,000 
 
 70 
 
 122 
 
 Quality III 
 
 25 
 
 2.430 
 
 150 
 
 28 
 
 2.300 
 
 
 92 
 
 30 
 
 1,840 
 
 165 
 
 35 
 
 3,033 
 
 146 
 
 101 
 
 35 
 
 1,250 
 
 176 
 
 42 
 
 3,850 
 
 163 
 
 110 
 
 40 
 
 870 
 
 185 
 
 48 
 
 4.567 
 
 143 
 
 114 
 
 45 
 
 640 
 
 191 
 
 54 
 
 5.200 
 
 126 
 
 116 
 
 50 
 
 510 
 
 197 
 
 60 
 
 5.833 
 
 126 
 
 116 
 
 55 
 
 430 
 
 201 
 
 66 
 
 6,375 
 
 108 
 
 116 
 
 60 
 
 380 
 
 205 
 
 71 
 
 6,900 
 
 105 
 
 115 
 
 65 
 
 340 
 
 208 
 
 75 
 
 7,367 
 
 93 
 
 113 
 
 70 
 
 310 
 
 211 
 
 79 
 
 7,817 
 
 90 
 
 112 
 
 75 
 
 280 
 
 213 
 
 83 
 
 8,233 
 
 83 
 
 110 
 
 80 
 
 260 
 
 216 
 
 85 
 
 8,600 
 
 73 
 
 107 
 
 85 
 
 240 
 
 218 
 
 88 
 
 8,917 
 
 63 
 
 105 
 
 90 
 
 220 
 
 221 
 
 89 
 
 9.233 
 
 63 
 
 103 
 
'206 
 
 FORESTRY AND TIMBER 
 
 Second growth 
 
 AOB 
 
 Volume 
 
 
 Quality I 
 
 Quality II 
 
 Quality III 
 
 Years 
 20 
 
 Board feet 
 
 4,600 
 8,400 
 15,100 
 24,950 
 33,550 
 40,750 
 47,450 
 52,350 
 57,300 
 61,850 
 65,900 
 69,750 
 73,300 
 76,700 
 80,050 
 
 Board feet 
 3,150 
 5,900 
 10,800 
 18,050 
 25,000 
 31,450 
 37,800 
 42,550 
 47,400 
 51,850 
 55,800 
 59,500 
 62,850 
 66,000 
 69,000 
 
 Board feet 
 1,700 
 
 25 
 
 3,450 
 
 30 
 
 6,550 
 
 35 
 
 11,200 
 
 40 
 
 16.450 
 
 4.5 
 
 22,150 
 
 50 
 
 27,650 
 
 55 
 
 32.750 
 
 60 
 
 37,500 
 
 65 
 
 41,850 
 
 70 
 
 45,700 
 
 75 
 
 49,250 
 
 80 ... 
 
 52,400 
 
 85 
 
 55,300 
 
 90 
 
 57,950 
 
 
 
 Volume in board feet is round-edged box board material. 
 White pine thinnings 
 
 
 Quality I 
 
 •.Quality II 
 
 Quality III 
 
 AoB 
 
 Total Thinning 
 per Acre 
 
 Trees 
 under 
 5 Inches 
 in Di- 
 ameter 
 Breast- 
 high 
 
 Total Thinning 
 per Acre 
 
 Trees 
 under 
 5 Inches 
 in Di- 
 ameter 
 Breast- 
 high 
 
 Total Thinning 
 per Acre 
 
 Trees 
 under 
 5 Inches 
 in Di- 
 ameter 
 Breast- 
 high 
 
 Yeart 
 
 25 
 30 
 35 
 40 
 45 
 50 
 55 
 60 
 65 
 70 
 75 
 80 
 85 
 00 
 
 Cubic 
 feet 
 
 1,350 
 1,730 
 1,9H0 
 2,120 
 2,240 
 2,280 
 2,280 
 2,260 
 2,200 
 2.100 
 1.950 
 1,700 
 
 Board 
 feet 
 
 2,000 
 
 4.500 
 
 e.hOO 
 
 8.700 
 
 10.100 
 
 11.200 
 
 12.000 
 
 12.300 
 
 12.300 
 
 11.900 
 
 11.100 
 
 9.500 
 
 Cubic 
 feet 
 
 830 
 660 
 480 
 270 
 60 
 
 Cubic 
 feet 
 
 900 
 1.380 
 1,680 
 1,900 
 2,040 
 2,100 
 2,100 
 2,000 
 1.850 
 1,630 
 1.300 
 860 
 200 
 
 Board 
 feet 
 
 750 
 
 3.300 
 
 5.000 
 
 7,500 
 
 8,900 
 
 9,900 
 
 10.400 
 
 10.600 
 
 10.300 
 
 9..500 
 
 8.000 
 
 5.000 
 
 1,200 
 
 Cubic 
 feet 
 
 750 
 600 
 450 
 300 
 150 
 
 Cubic 
 feet 
 
 600 
 
 1,090 
 
 1,440 
 
 1,640 
 
 1,750 
 
 1,800 
 
 1,780 
 
 1,700 
 
 1,590 
 
 1,420 
 
 1,200 
 
 920 
 
 650 
 
 370 
 
 Board 
 feet 
 
 2,200 
 4,300 
 5,800 
 6,900 
 7,600 
 8,100 
 8,300 
 8,200 
 7,800 
 6,900 
 5,600 
 4,000 
 2,300 
 
 Cubic 
 feet 
 
 600 
 500 
 400 
 300 
 200 
 80 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
TREATING POSTS 207 
 
 Life of Fence-Posts and Shingles 
 
 Durability offence posts in Minnesota (Green). 
 
 Years 
 
 Red cedar 30 
 
 White cedar (quartered 6 in. face) 10-15 
 
 White oak (6 in. round) 8 
 
 Red and black oak 4 
 
 Tamarack (red wood) 9 
 
 Elm 6-7 
 
 Ash, beech, maple 4 
 
 Black walnut 7-10 
 
 Prolonging the life of fence-posts (Willis). 
 
 Measures for posts named in ascending order of efficiency : — 
 
 Peeling and seasoning. 
 
 Charring. 
 
 Painting. 
 
 At best, surface brush paintings are not very durable. Some of the 
 substances which may be applied with a brush are whitewash, petro- 
 leum-tar creosote, coal-tar creosote, and various patented products 
 of coal tar and petroleum tar. Paint and whitewash are inferior to 
 antiseptic preservatives; products of coal tar (creosote, etc.) are the 
 best. These are best applied hot, in two or more coats. A barrel (50 
 gallons) of creosote should be sufficient to paint at least 300 posts with 
 three coats for the butts and two for the tops. 
 
 Dipping. 
 
 One defect of brush treatment is that the preservative does not 
 enter readily the cracks and checks. This defect may be overcome 
 by dipping the posts in the preservative. Another advantage of dip- 
 ping, as compared with painting, is a saving in labor. On the other 
 hand, dipping requires a larger quantity of preservative, and, in ad- 
 dition to the amount consumed, there must be enough surplus to keep 
 the barrel or tank filled to the proper depth. This usually forbids 
 the use of any expensive preservative for dipping. Petroleum tar, 
 coal tar, and the creosotes, however, may often be advantageously 
 employed. 
 
 Posts have been treated by dipping the butt in cement This is 
 
208 FORESTRY AND TIMBER 
 
 hardly satisfactory. owiiiK to the case with which the protective 
 coverinR may he l)rok(Mi ; moisture is absorbed after treatment ; and 
 causes the wood to expand and crack the cement. 
 
 Cold-bath treatment. 
 
 This differs from dipping because penetration of the wood is se- 
 cured l\v leaving the post in the bath for ten hours or more. As a rule, 
 only the cheaper i)reservatives can profitably be used in the cold-bath 
 treatment. Coal tar is so ropy and sticky that it will scarcely pene- 
 trate even the most easily treated woods. Crude petroleum enters the 
 wood rather readily, but lacks strong antiseptic qualities. A long bath 
 in crude petroleum may, however, prove a feasible method of treatment 
 where petroleum is very cheap and the woods used are readily impreg- 
 nated. Creosote is usually the best preservative to employ. Coal- 
 tar creosote requires a slight heating to liquefy it. Water in the wood 
 cells resists the penetration of the oil. Thorough seasoning before 
 treatment, therefore, is necessary to allow the oil to penetrate readily 
 and to prevent checking after treatment. The cold-bath method of 
 treatment has not yet been thoroughly investigated. It is probable, 
 however, that it will impregnate but few woods. The woods which 
 are likely to prove most suitable are beech, cottonwood, the gums, pin 
 and red oaks, the pines, sycamore, and tulip tree. 
 
 Impregnation with creosote. 
 
 The impregnation of fence posts with creosote is best accomplished 
 by the so-called " open-tank " process, so designated to distinguish 
 it from the "closed " or " pressure " cylinder process which is often 
 employed in creosoting ties and piling. This consists of heating wood 
 for a certain period and then cooling it in the preservative. The 
 principle is simple : during the heating the high temperature causes 
 the air and water contained in the wood cells to expand, so that a por- 
 tion of this air and water is forced out. The rest contracts as the sub- 
 sequent cooling i)rogres.ses, and a j)artial vacuum is formed, into which 
 atmospheric pressure forces the cool preservative. 
 
 The open-tank principle may be variously applied in the treatment 
 of posts. The best way to heat the posts is to immerse the-r butts in 
 creosote maintaned at a temperature of 220° F. If a single tank is 
 
TREATING POSTS AND SHINGLES 209 
 
 used, the cooling bath may be given by permitting the temperature to 
 fall, and in this case the preservative must, of course, be used for the 
 hot bath. It is better, however, to employ an additional tank containing 
 the cold preservative. If two tanks are used and a thorough impreg- 
 nation of the top of the post is desired, the cold-bath tank should be large 
 enough to permit the soaking of the entire post. The top of the post 
 will not be too heavily impregnated, because it has not been im- 
 mersed in the hot oil. With two tanks, crude petroleum or any heavy 
 (high-boiling) oil may be used in the hot-bath tank. Creosote is 
 usually the most satisfactory preservative. 
 
 Other wood. 
 
 Wood used on the farm in various forms other than post material 
 may often be advantageously preserved from decay by chemical 
 treatment, as all timbers used in foundations, sills, beams, and plank- 
 ing, as well as the lower parts of board fences, and the lumber used 
 near the ground in sheds and barns. The treatment of these is very 
 similar to that given posts. 
 
 Prolonging the life of shingles (Willis). 
 
 Water absorbed during a storm subsequently evaporates rapidly 
 from the upper surface of shingles and rather slowly from the lower 
 surface. Consequently, the upper part of the shingle shrinks more 
 than does the under, and curling or warping results. The impor- 
 tance of excluding moisture is obvious. In addition to this, it is 
 advisable to employ an antiseptic to retard decay. The best pre- 
 servative, it follows, must possess such qualities as will operate in 
 both these ways to prolong the life of the shingles. Apply preserv- 
 atives only when the wood is thoroughly dry. 
 
 Non-antiseptic preservatives. — The application of paint is the pre- 
 servative measure most commonly used with shingles. The method 
 of applying it is of paramount importance. Dipping the shingles 
 individually is the only satisfactory procedure. When a roof is 
 painted ridges of paint are formed at the base of the shingles, owing 
 to the irregularities of the surface over which the brush passes. 
 These cause the water to permeate the crevices between the shingles 
 and frequently hasten decay. 
 
210 FORESTRY AND TIMBER 
 
 Antiseptic preservatives. — Tlie best antiseptics for shingle treat- 
 ment are creosote and other derivatives of coal tar. Painting the 
 roof with these oils is a rather satisfactory method of treatment, 
 since the coal-tar derivatives penetrate the shingles better than 
 ordinary i)aint and do not leave ridg(;s below the base of the shingles. 
 At least two coats should be applied. Dipping the individual 
 shingles gives good results. The best results, however, are obtained 
 by heating and cooling the wood in the preservative, as described 
 for the treatment of fence posts. 
 
 Suggestions for community action (Willis). 
 
 It is often difficult for a farmer efficiently to treat his own material 
 with preservatives. This, however, does not indicate that the work 
 should be neglected. Rather it points to some different means of 
 securing the desired result. 
 
 There are two practical methods of doing this. One is for some 
 individual to undertake the work for the neighborhood. A small 
 wood-preserving plant could be profitably operated in connection 
 with a threshing outfit, a feed mill, or sawmill. The other plan is 
 for several farmers to cooperate in establishing and operating the 
 plant. As an indication of the success which should attend such an 
 undertaking, the cooperative creameries of various sections of the 
 country may be cited. 
 
 Board Measure 
 
 Board measure is designed primarily for the measurement of sawed 
 lumber. The unit is the board foot, which is a board one inch thick 
 and one foot square, so that with inch boards the content in board 
 measure is the same as the number of square feet of surface ; with 
 lumber of other thicknesses the content is expressed in terms of inch 
 boards. 
 
 Lumber is always .sold on a basis of 1000 feet board measure, the 
 abbreviation for wliich is B.M., and for thousand is M. Thus, 500 
 feet B.M., costing $18 per thousand, would be S9; 100 feet B.M., 
 $1.80; 10 feet B.M., 18 cents. 
 
 At $10 per M., B.M., lumber costs l^ per square foot ; at $12, 1.2<^ 
 square foot ; at $14, 1.4^ ; at $15, 11^- ; at $17, 1.7^ ; at $20, 2^ square 
 
BOARD AND CORD MEASURE 211 
 
 foot. At $9 M., 1 sq. ft. is ^%^ ; at $8, j\^. Multiply the number 
 
 of square feet B.M. by the price per square foot. 
 
 To find the B.M. , multiply the length in feet by the thickness and 
 
 width in inches, and divide the product by 12. Thus, a plank 18 ft. 
 
 18 X 2 X 8 
 
 long, 2 in. thick, and 8 in. wide contains — = 24 ft. B. M. 
 
 1^ 
 
 Or, the length of the plank in inches may be multiplied by the end 
 
 area in square inches, and the result divided by 144. For example, 
 
 the number of feet B. M. in a piece 18 ft. long, 2 in. thick, and 8 in. 
 
 wide, will be 216 in. (18 ft. X 12) multiplied by 16 sq. in. (2 X 8, the 
 
 end area), or 3456 sq. in., 1 in. thick; dividing by 144, the result is 
 
 24 ft. B.M. 
 
 Cord Measure (The Woodsman's Handbook, U. S. Forest Service) 
 
 Firewood, small pulp-wood, and material cut into short sticks for 
 excelsior, etc., is usually measured by the cord. A cord is 128 cubic 
 feet of stacked wood. The wood is usually cut into 4-foot lengths, in 
 which case a cord is a stack 4 feet high and wide, and 8 feet long. Some- 
 times, however, pulp-wood is cut 5 feet long, and a stack of it 4 feet high, 
 5 feet wide, and 8 feet long is considered 1 cord. In this case the cord 
 contains 160 cubic feet of stacked wood. Where firewood is cut in 
 5-foot lengths, a cord is a stack 4 feet high and 6^ feet long, and contains 
 130 cubic feet of stacked wood. Where it is desirable to use shorter 
 lengths for special purposes, the sticks are often cut U, 2, or 3 feet 
 long. A stack of such wood, 4 feet high and 8 feet long, is considered 
 1 cord, but the price is always made to conform to the shortness of the 
 measure, 
 
 A cord foot is one-eighth of a cord, and is equivalent to a stack of 4- 
 foot wood 4 feet high and 1 foot wide. Farmers frequently speak of 
 a foot of cord wood, meaning a cord foot. By the expression "surface 
 foot " is meant the number of square feet measured on the side of a stack. 
 
 In some localities, particularly in New England, cord-wood is meas- 
 ured by means of calipers. Instead of stacking the wood and computing 
 the cords in the ordinary way, the average diameter of each log is de- 
 termined with calipers and the number of cords obtained by consulting 
 a table which gives the amount of wood in logs of different diameters 
 and lengths. 
 
212 FORESTRY AND TIMBER 
 
 Log Measure (The Woodsman's Handbook) 
 
 In tlie United States and Canada logs are most commonly measured 
 in board feet. In small transactions standing timber is often sold by 
 the lot or for a specified amount per acre. Standing trees which are to 
 be u.sed for luml)er are occasionally sold by the piece. Hoop poles 
 and other small wood are sold by the hundred or thousand. Ties and 
 poles are sold by the piece ; piles and mine props by the piece or by 
 linear feet, the price varying in piece sales according to specifications 
 as to diameter, length, and grade. 
 
 Firewood and wood cut into short bolts, as for small pulp-wood, ex- 
 celsior-wood, spool-wood, novelty-wood, and heading, is ordinarily 
 measured in cords. 
 
 In certain sections of the East it has been the custom to use a stand- 
 ard log as a unit of measure. In the Adirondacks a common unit of 
 measure is the 19-inch standard, or, as it is often called, the " market." 
 In this case the standard log is 19 inches in diameter at the small end 
 inside the bark and 13 feet long. In New Hampshire the Blodgett 
 standard is in common use. This unit is a cylinder 16 inches in diam- 
 eter and 1 foot long. There were formerly other standards in use, 
 such as the 24-inch standard once used in New England, and the 
 22-inch standard in use in certain parts of Canada and northern New 
 York. The standard measure is decreasing in use. 
 
 The cubic foot is the best unit for measuring the volume of logs. 
 It has gained a foothold in this country, and will unquestionably be 
 the unit of the future. Even now, red-cedar pencil-wood, wagon 
 stock, and other valuable hardwood material is occasionally sold by 
 the cubic foot in certain sections of the East. The unit is used by a few 
 companies in Maine for measuring pulp-wood. A special commission 
 on the measurement of logs has recently recommended to the legisla- 
 ture of Maine that the cubic foot be adopted as a statute unit of 
 measurement. 
 
 The cubic foot has for a long time been used for the measurement 
 of .scjuare timl)er. Round logs are often measured in terms of cubic 
 feet, i)ut the plan is to determine the contents of the square which can 
 l)e cut from the log, rather than the full contents, including slabs. The 
 cubic foot is in common use in the measurement of precious woods 
 which are imported from the tropics. 
 
LOG MEASURE 213 
 
 In continental Europe and the Philippine Islands, the cubic meter 
 has been established as the standard unit for the measuring of logs and 
 timber. 
 
 In recent years, board measure has also been used as a unit of volume 
 for logs. When so applied, the measure does not show the entire con- 
 tent of the log, but the quantity of lumber which, it is estimated, may be 
 manufactured from it. The number of board feet in any given log is 
 determined from a table that shows the estimated number which can 
 be taken out from logs of different diameters and lengths. Such a 
 table is called a log scale or log rule, and is compiled by reducing the 
 dimensions of perfect logs of different sizes, to allow for waste in manu- 
 facture, and then calculating the number of inch boards which remain 
 in the log. 
 
 The amount of lumber that can be cut from logs of a given size is 
 not uniform, because the factors which determine the amount of waste 
 vary under different circumstances, such as the thickness of the saw, 
 the thickness of the boards, the width of the smallest board which may 
 be utilized, the skill of the sa^vyer, the efficiency of the machinery, the 
 defects in the log, the amount of taper, and the shrinkage. This lack 
 of uniformity has led to wide differences of opinion as to how log rules 
 should be constructed. There have been many attempts to devise 
 a log rule which can be used as a standard, but none of them will meet 
 all conditions. The rules in existence have been so unsatisfactory that 
 constant attempts have been made to improve upon them. As a result 
 there are now actually in use in the United States 40 or 50 different log 
 rules, whose results differ in some cases as much as 120 per cent for 
 20-inch to 30-inch logs and 600 per cent for 6-inch logs. Some of these 
 are constructed from mathematical formulae ; some by preparing dia- 
 grams that represent the top of a log and then determining the amount 
 of waste in sawdust and slabs ; some are based on actual averages of 
 logs cut at the mill ; while still others are the result of making correc- 
 tions in an existing rule to meet special local conditions. 
 
 The large number of log rules, the differences in their values, and the 
 variation in the methods of their application have led to much confusion 
 and inconvenience. Efforts to reach an agreement among lumbermen 
 on a single standard log rule have failed so far. A number of states 
 have given official sanction to specific rules ; but this has only added to 
 the confusion, because the states have not chosen the same rule, so 
 
214 
 
 FORESTRY AND TIMBER 
 
 there are six difTerent state log rules, and, in addition, three different 
 official log rules in Canaiia. It is probable that a standard method of 
 meaauring logs will not be worked out satisfactorily until a single 
 unit of volume, like the cubic foot, is adopted for the measurement 
 of logs. 
 
 The Forest Service of the United States Department of Agriculture 
 ha^ adopte<l the Scribner Decimal Rule for timljer sales on the National 
 Forests. It has been in use for about four years, and, in the main, has 
 proved satisfactory, since competitive bids enable the buyer to bid 
 higher if the character of the logs indicates a mill overrun. 
 
 Scribner decimal log rule 
 
 The total scale is obtained by multiplying the figures in this table by 10. Thus 
 the contents of a 6-inch 8-foot log are given as 0.5, so the total scale is .5 board 
 feet. A 30-inch 16-foot log is given as 66, or a total scale of 660 board feet. 
 
 s 
 
 i 
 
 Length (Feet) 
 
 i 
 
 s 
 Q 
 
 Length (Feet) 
 
 
 • 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 IS 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 In. 
 
 Bd./t. 
 
 Bd./t. 
 
 Bd.ft. 
 
 Bd./t. 
 
 Bd./t 
 
 Bd./t. 
 
 In. 
 
 Bd./t. 
 
 Bd./t. 
 
 Bd./t. 
 
 Bd./t. 
 
 Bd./t. 
 
 Bd./t. 
 
 6 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 42 
 
 50 
 
 67 
 
 84 
 
 101 
 
 117 
 
 134 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 44 
 
 56 
 
 74 
 
 93 
 
 111 
 
 129 
 
 148 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 48 
 
 65 
 
 86 
 
 108 
 
 130 
 
 151 
 
 173 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 50 
 
 70 
 
 94 
 
 117 
 
 140 
 
 164 
 
 187 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 54 
 
 82 
 
 109 
 
 137 
 
 164 
 
 191 
 
 218 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 13 
 
 16 
 
 19 
 
 21 
 
 56 
 
 88 
 
 118 
 
 147 
 
 176 
 
 206 
 
 235 
 
 20 
 
 11 
 
 14 
 
 17 
 
 21 
 
 24 
 
 28 
 
 60 
 
 101 
 
 135 
 
 169 
 
 203 
 
 237 
 
 270 
 
 22 
 
 13 
 
 17 
 
 21 
 
 25 
 
 29 
 
 33 
 
 65 
 
 119 
 
 159 
 
 199 
 
 239 
 
 279 
 
 319 
 
 24 
 
 15 
 
 21 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 70 
 
 139 
 
 186 
 
 232 
 
 279 
 
 325 
 
 372 
 
 26 
 
 19 
 
 25 
 
 31 
 
 37 
 
 44 
 
 50 
 
 75 
 
 161 
 
 215 
 
 269 
 
 323 
 
 377 
 
 430 
 
 28 
 
 22 
 
 29 
 
 36 
 
 44 
 
 51 
 
 58 
 
 80 
 
 185 
 
 247 
 
 309 
 
 371 
 
 432 
 
 494 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 33 
 
 41 
 
 49 
 
 57 
 
 66 
 
 85 
 
 210 
 
 281 
 
 351 
 
 421 
 
 491 
 
 561 
 
 33 
 
 29 
 
 39 
 
 49 
 
 59 
 
 69 
 
 78 
 
 90 
 
 236 
 
 315 
 
 393 
 
 472 
 
 551 
 
 629 
 
 36 
 
 35 
 
 46 
 
 58 
 
 69 
 
 81 
 
 92 
 
 95 
 
 262 
 
 350 
 
 437 
 
 525 
 
 612 
 
 700 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 90 
 
 105 
 
 120 
 
 100 
 
 289 
 
 386 
 
 482 
 
 579 
 
 675 
 
 772 
 
 U. S. Forest Service Log-Scaling Directions 
 
 Unless timber is sold on the basis of an estimate, it must be scaled, 
 counted, or measured before it is removed from the cutting area, or 
 from the place agreed upon for the scaling, the counting, or the 
 measuring. 
 
LOG-SCALING RULES 215 
 
 All saw timber will be scaled by the Scribner Decimal log rule. This 
 rule drops the units and gives the contents of a log to the nearest ten. 
 When the total scale of a log is desired, all that is necessary is to add 
 one cipher to the sum of the numbers read from the scale stick, except- 
 ing the contents of 6 and 8 foot logs, 6 and 7 inches in diameter. These 
 are given as 0.5, which, multiplied by 10, gives 5 feet as the actual con- 
 tents. 
 
 In the absence of a scale stick, or where the position of logs in the 
 pile makes its use difficult, the diameters and lengths may be tallied 
 and the contents figured from a scale table later. 
 
 Purchasers should be required to skid logs for scaling, if the cost of 
 scaling will be materially decreased by these requirements and if the 
 cost of logging will not be greatly increased. 
 
 The forest officer should always insist on having one end of piles or 
 skid ways even, so that ends of logs may be easily reached. 
 
 When necessary and possible, the purchaser will be required to mark 
 top ends of logs to avoid question when they are scaled in the pile. 
 
 Each log scaled must be numbered with crayon. The number will 
 be the same as that opposite which the scale of the log is recorded in 
 the scale book. 
 
 The logs in all skid ways must be counted, and the number in each 
 checked with the entries in the scale book. 
 
 Each merchantable log after scaling will be stamped " U.S." on at 
 least one end. Logs so defective as to be unmerchantable will not be 
 stamped, but will be marked " cull." 
 
 On all national forests except those in Alaska and on the west slope 
 of the Cascade Mountains in Washington and Oregon, logs over 16 feet 
 long will be scaled as two or more logs, if possible in lengths not less 
 than 12 feet. 
 
 The following table shows how the lengths will be divided when 
 scaling logs 18 to 60 feet long. The number of inches to be added to 
 the diameter at the small end of each log, to cover taper, is placed under 
 each length. 
 
 For example, a 42-foot log 16 inches in diameter at the top would be 
 scaled as — 
 
 One 12-foot log with a diameter of 16 inches. 
 
 One 14-foot log with a diameter of 17 inches. 
 
 One 16-foot log with a diameter of 19 inches. 
 
216 
 
 FORESTRY AND TIMBER 
 
 Allowances for taper in logs 
 
 This table is intended to be used simply as a guide. The allowances for taper 
 should be varied to conform to the actual taper 
 
 Total Lenoth 
 
 Loo Lbnqth 
 
 Total Length 
 
 Loo Length 
 
 Feet 
 
 Butt 
 Log 
 
 Sec- 
 
 ODd 
 
 Log 
 
 Third 
 Log 
 
 Top 
 Log 
 
 Feet 
 
 Butt 
 Log 
 
 Sec- 
 ond 
 Log 
 
 Third 
 Ixjg 
 
 Top 
 Log 
 
 18 
 
 Increase 
 20 
 
 Increase 
 22 
 
 Increase 
 24 
 
 Increase 
 26 
 
 Increase 
 28 
 
 Increase 
 30 
 
 Increase 
 32 
 
 Increase 
 34 
 
 Increase 
 36 
 
 Increase 
 38 
 
 Increase 
 
 10' 
 
 1" 
 10' 
 
 1" 
 12' 
 
 1" 
 14' 
 
 1" 
 14' 
 
 1" 
 14' 
 
 2" 
 16' 
 
 2" 
 16' 
 
 2" 
 12' 
 
 3" 
 
 % 
 
 14' 
 3" 
 
 12' 
 1" 
 
 12' 
 1" 
 
 
 
 8' 
 
 0" 
 10' 
 
 0" 
 10' 
 
 0" 
 10' 
 
 0" 
 12' 
 
 0" 
 14' 
 
 0" 
 14' 
 
 0" 
 16' 
 
 0" 
 10' 
 
 0" 
 12' 
 
 0" 
 12' 
 
 0" 
 
 40 ... . 
 
 Increase . 
 42 ... . 
 
 Increase . 
 44 ... . 
 
 Increase . 
 46 ... . 
 
 Increase . 
 48 ... . 
 
 Increase . 
 50 ... . 
 
 Increase . 
 52 ... . 
 
 Increase . 
 54 ... . 
 
 Increase . 
 56 ... . 
 
 Increase . 
 58 ... . 
 
 Increase . 
 60 ... . 
 
 Increase . 
 
 16' 
 
 3" 
 16' 
 
 3" 
 16' 
 
 3" 
 16' 
 
 4" 
 16' 
 4" 
 14' 
 
 4" 
 16' 
 
 4" 
 16' 
 
 5" 
 16' 
 
 5" 
 16' 
 
 5" 
 16' 
 
 5" 
 
 12' 
 14^^ 
 
 16' 
 
 1" 
 16' 
 
 2" 
 16' 
 
 2" 
 12' 
 
 3" 
 12' 
 
 3" 
 14' 
 
 3" 
 16' 
 
 3" 
 16' 
 
 3" 
 16' 
 
 3" 
 
 12' 
 
 1" 
 12' 
 
 1" 
 12' 
 
 1" 
 12' 
 
 1" 
 14' 
 
 2" 
 14' 
 
 2" 
 
 12' 
 
 0" 
 12' 
 
 0" 
 12' 
 
 0" 
 14' 
 
 0" 
 16' 
 
 0" 
 12' 
 
 0" 
 12' 
 
 0" 
 12' 
 
 0" 
 12' 
 
 0" 
 12' 
 
 0" 
 14' 
 
 0" 
 
 Cubic Log Measure (The Woodsman's Handbook) 
 
 A cubic unit, either the cubic foot or cubic meter, ultimately will be 
 in common use for the commercial measurement of timber. This will 
 come about with the increase of the value of timber. When the whole 
 log, including slabs, can be used, the owner cannot afford to sell his 
 logs purely on a basis of an estimated product in manufactured boards. 
 If logs are bought according to their solid contents, though they may 
 not cost more, yet the buyer will feel that he pays for the material he 
 wastes, and therefore will be more eager to utilize it. 
 
 There are a number of methods of determining the solid contents of 
 logs in cubic feet. The two methods in most common use for commer- 
 cial work are given in this book. Other methods, designed for scientific 
 work, are discussed at length in treatises on forest mensuration. 
 
CUBIC LOG MEASURE 217 
 
 Method oj cubing logs by the measurement of the length and of the middle 
 diameters. 
 
 To cube logs, one method requires the measurement of the average 
 diameter of the log at its middle point and the length. The volume 
 of the log is obtained by multiplying the area of the circle correspond- 
 ing to the middle diameter of the log by the length : — 
 
 in which V is the volume of the log in cubic feet, B^ the area of the 
 middle cross section in square feet, and L the length in feet. 
 
 Example : Suppose a log to have a middle diameter of 15 inches and 
 a length of 30 feet. One finds in a table of areas of circles (giving the 
 diameter in inches and the area in square feet) the area corresponding 
 to 15 inches, namely, 1.227 ; then V = 1.227 X 30 = 36.8 cubic feet. 
 
 This method is very simple, because it requires only two measure- 
 ments of the log — the diameter at the middle and the length. Tables 
 showing the areas of circles in these units are readily accessible, and 
 also tables showing the cubic contents of logs of different middle diam- 
 eters and lengths, so that there is no computation necessary. 
 
 Method of cubing logs by measurement of the length and end diameters. 
 
 By this method the diameters of the two ends of the log and its length 
 are measured. The volume is obtained by multiplying the average of 
 the areas of circles that correspond to end diameters by the length : — 
 
 2 
 
 in which V is the volume of the log in cubic feet, B and b are the areas 
 in square feet that correspond to the diameters of the two ends, and L 
 is the length in feet. 
 
 Example : A log is 12 feet long, and the diameters at the ends are 
 16 and 18 inches. The areas that correspond to the end diameters are 
 found in a table of circular areas, and used in the formula, as follows : — 
 
 V =1396+1767 ^ j2 = 18.97 cu. ft. 
 
218 
 
 FORESTRY AND TIMBER 
 
 This method requires one more measurement than the previous, and 
 is therefore not as rapid for ordinary work in commercial scaling. It 
 is, however, a very convenient formula for determining the contents of 
 logs where it is not possible to take the measurement at the middle, as on 
 logs piled on a skid way. 
 
 Solid cubic contents of logs (in cubic feet) 
 
 11 
 
 Average Diametek in Inches 
 
 
 • 
 1.96 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 1? 
 
 15 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 33 
 
 36 
 
 40 
 
 44 
 
 48 
 
 10 . 
 
 3.49 
 
 5.45 
 
 7.85 
 
 12.27 
 
 17.67 
 
 21.82 
 
 31.42 
 
 49.09 
 
 59.40 
 
 70.69 
 
 87.3 
 
 105.6 
 
 125.7 
 
 11 . 
 
 2.16 
 
 3.84 
 
 6.00 
 
 8.64 
 
 13.50 
 
 19.44 
 
 24.00 
 
 34.56 
 
 54.00 
 
 65.34 
 
 77.75 
 
 96.0 
 
 116.2 
 
 138.2 
 
 \2 . 
 
 2.36 
 
 4.19 
 
 6.55 
 
 9.42 
 
 14.73 
 
 21.21 
 
 26.18 
 
 37.70 
 
 58.90 
 
 71.27 
 
 84.82 
 
 104.7 
 
 126.7 
 
 150.8 
 
 13 . 
 
 2.5.5 
 
 4.54 
 
 7.09 
 
 10.21 
 
 15.95 
 
 22.97 
 
 2S.36 
 
 40.84 
 
 63.81 
 
 77.21 
 
 91.,S9 113.4 
 
 137.3 
 
 163.4 
 
 14 . 
 
 2.75 
 
 4.89 
 
 7.6} 
 
 11.00 
 
 17.1S 
 
 21.74 
 
 30.54 
 
 43.98 
 
 68.72 
 
 83.15 
 
 9S.«)C) 122.2 
 
 147.8 
 
 175.9 
 
 15 . 
 
 2.95 
 
 5.24 
 
 S.IS 
 
 11. 7S 
 
 IS. 41 
 
 26.51 
 
 32.72 
 
 47.12 
 
 73.63 
 
 89.09 
 
 106.03 l.iO.9 
 
 1.58.4 
 
 188.5 
 
 16 . 
 
 3.14 
 
 5..59 
 
 8.73 
 
 12.. 57 
 
 19.6:< 
 
 2S.L>7 
 
 34.91 
 
 .50.27 
 
 78..54 95.03 
 
 113.10 1.-^9.6 
 
 16S.9 
 
 201.1 
 
 17 . 
 
 3.34 
 
 5.93 
 
 9.27 
 
 13.:i5 
 
 20.Sti 
 
 30.01 
 
 37.09 
 
 .53.41 
 
 83.45 100.97 
 
 120.17 148.4 
 
 179.5 
 
 213.6 
 
 18 . 
 
 3.53 
 
 6.2S 
 
 9.S2 
 
 14.14 
 
 22.09 
 
 31. SI 
 
 39.27 
 
 .56.. 55 
 
 88.36 106.91 
 
 127.32 157.1 
 
 190.1 
 
 226.2 
 
 19 . 
 
 3.73 
 
 6.6.i 
 
 10. S6 
 
 14.92 
 
 2.J.32 
 
 33. 5S 
 
 41.45 
 
 59.69 
 
 93.27 112.85 
 
 134.30 165.8 
 
 200.6 
 
 238.8 
 
 20 . 
 
 -3.93 
 
 6.9S 
 
 10.91 
 
 15.71 
 
 24.. 54 
 
 35.34 
 
 43.63 
 
 62.83 
 
 98.171118.79 
 
 141.37 
 
 174.5 
 
 211.2 
 
 251.3 
 
 21 . 
 
 4.12 
 
 7.V.i 
 
 11.4.") 
 
 16.49 
 
 25.77 
 
 37.11 
 
 45.82 
 
 65.97 
 
 103.08 124.73 
 
 148.44 
 
 188.3 
 
 221.7 
 
 263.9 
 
 22 . 
 
 4.32 
 
 7.6S 
 
 12.00 
 
 I7.2S 
 
 27.00 
 
 3S.SS 
 
 4S.00 
 
 69.11 
 
 107.99 1,30.67 
 
 1.55.51 
 
 192.0 
 
 232.3 
 
 276.5 
 
 23 . 
 
 4.52 
 
 S.0.{ 
 
 12.5 J 
 
 IS. 06 
 
 2S.2:i 
 
 40.64 
 
 .50.18 
 
 72.26 
 
 112.90 136.61 
 
 162.58 200.7 
 
 242.9 
 
 289.0 
 
 24 . 
 
 4.71 
 
 H.SS 
 
 l.i.09 
 
 IS. So 
 
 29.45 
 
 42.41 
 
 .52.36 
 
 75.40 
 
 117.81 142..55 
 
 169.65 209.4 
 
 2.53.4 
 
 .301.6 
 
 2.i . 
 
 4.91 
 
 S.7.< 
 
 l.i.C} 
 
 19.61 
 
 .iO.OS 
 
 44. IS 
 
 .54., 54 
 
 7S.54 
 
 122.72 148.49 176.71 21S.2 
 
 2(i4.0 
 
 314.2 
 
 26 . 
 
 5.11 
 
 9. OS 
 
 1 4 . 1 S 
 
 20.42 
 
 31.91 
 
 45.95 
 
 .56.72 
 
 S1.6S 
 
 127.63 1.54.43 183.78 22(5.9 
 
 274.5 
 
 326.7 
 
 27 . 
 
 5.30 
 
 9.42 
 
 14.7.i 
 
 21.21 
 
 33.13 
 
 47.71 
 
 .5S.90 
 
 S4.S2 
 
 132. .54 160.37 190.85 235.6 
 
 2S5.1 
 
 339.3 
 
 28 . 
 
 5..50 
 
 9.77 
 
 15.27 
 
 21.99 
 
 34 36 
 
 49. 4S 
 
 ()1.0!» 
 
 S7.96 
 
 137.44 166.31 
 
 197.92 244.3 
 
 295.7 
 
 351.9 
 
 29 . 
 
 5.69 
 
 10.12 
 
 15..S2 
 
 22.7s 
 
 35. .59 
 
 51.25 
 
 63.27 
 
 91.11 
 
 142.35 172.25 
 
 204.99 2.53.1 
 
 306.2 
 
 .364.4 
 
 30 . 
 
 5.89 
 
 10.47 
 
 16..i6 
 
 2.S.56 
 
 36. S2 
 
 .53.01 
 
 65.45 
 
 94.25 
 
 147.26 178.19 
 
 212.06 261.S 
 
 316.S 
 
 377.0 
 
 :u . 
 
 6.0«» H).S2 
 
 16.<U 
 
 24.35 
 
 3S.04 
 
 54. 7S 
 
 67.63 
 
 97.39 
 
 152.17 184.13 
 
 219.13 270.5 
 
 327.3 
 
 .389.6 
 
 s> . 
 
 6.2S 
 
 11.17 
 
 17.4.-) 
 
 25. 1 3 
 
 39.27 
 
 .56.55 
 
 69. SI 
 
 100.. 53 
 
 1.57.0S 190.07 
 
 226.19 279.3 
 
 337.9 
 
 402.1 
 
 Xi . 
 
 t).4s 
 
 1 1 ..-)2 
 
 IS. 00 
 
 25.92 
 
 40.. 50 
 
 .5S.32 
 
 71.99 
 
 103.67 
 
 161.99,196.01 2.«. 26 2SS.0 
 
 34S.5 
 
 414.7 
 
 .u . 
 
 (l.tls 
 
 11. S7 
 
 ls.-,i 
 
 2ti.70 
 
 41.72 60.0^ 
 
 71. IS 
 
 10(i SI 
 
 16().90 201.95 240.33 296.7 
 
 3.59.0 
 
 427.3 
 
 '.i'> . 
 
 li.s; 
 
 12.22 
 
 19.09 
 
 27.49 
 
 42.95 6 1.S-, 
 
 76 :;(; 
 
 109.96 
 
 171. SI 207. SS 247.10 305.4 
 
 ;}69.6 
 
 439.8 
 
 .<»> . 
 
 7.07 
 
 12..-)7 
 
 19.64 
 
 2S.27 
 
 44. IS (VA.(\2 
 
 7s. 51 
 
 113.10 
 
 176.71 213. S2 2,-)4.47 314.2 
 
 .-•iso.i 
 
 4.52.4 
 
 .{7 . 
 
 7.2f, 
 
 12.92 
 
 20. IN 
 
 29. Of, 
 
 45.41 65.3 S 
 
 SO 72 
 
 116.24 
 
 1S1.62 21<t.76 2()1.54 .322.9 
 
 390.7 
 
 465.0 
 
 ;is . 
 
 7.46 
 
 1.1.26 
 
 20.73 
 
 29 S5 
 
 46.63 67.15 
 
 S2.90 
 
 119.3S 
 
 1S6..53 225.70 26S.61 ;«1.6 
 
 401.2 
 
 477.5 
 
 .!!> . 
 
 7.6«i 
 
 13.61 
 
 21.27 
 
 .30.63 
 
 47.S6 6S.<t_> 
 
 S5.0S 
 
 122.52 
 
 191.44 231.64 275.67 340.3 
 
 411.8 
 
 490.1 
 
 40 . 
 
 7.85 
 
 13.96 
 
 21.82 
 
 31.42 
 
 49.09j70.63 
 
 87.27 
 
 123.66 
 
 196.35 237.58 282.74 349.1 
 
 422.4 
 
 502.7 
 
 Cubic Contents of Square Timber in Round Logs (Woodsman's 
 Handbook) 
 
 The nioHt coninion nictliods of determining the cubic contents of 
 s(iuare timber that may be cut from round logs is the so-called Two- 
 thirds Rule, and the Inscribed Square Rule. 
 
CUBIC CONTENTS OF SQUARE TIMBER 
 
 219 
 
 The two-thirds rule. 
 
 In the Two-thirds Rule the diameter of the log is taken at its middle 
 point, or the diameters of the two ends of the log are averaged. The 
 diameter of the log is reduced one-third to allow for slab, and the re- 
 maining two-thirds is taken as the width of the square piece which may 
 be hewed or sawed out of the log. The cubic contents of the squared 
 log are then obtained by squaring this width and multiplying by the 
 length of the log. 
 
 Square timber cut from round logs (in cubic feet) 
 (Inscribed-Square Rule) 
 
 
 
 
 
 Average Diameter in 
 
 Inches 
 
 
 
 ^2 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 33 
 
 36 
 
 10 
 
 1.3 
 
 2.2 
 
 3.5 
 
 5 
 
 11.3 
 
 13.9 
 
 20 
 
 31.8 
 
 37.8 
 
 45 
 
 12 
 
 1.5 
 
 2.7 
 
 4.2 
 
 6 
 
 13.5 
 
 16.7 
 
 24 
 
 38.1 
 
 45.4 
 
 54 
 
 14 
 
 1.8 
 
 3.1 
 
 4.9 
 
 7 
 
 15.8 
 
 19.4 
 
 28 
 
 44.5 
 
 52.9 
 
 63 
 
 16 
 
 2.0 
 
 3.6 
 
 5.6 
 
 8 
 
 18.0 
 
 22.2 
 
 32 
 
 50.8 
 
 60.5 
 
 72 
 
 18 
 
 2.3 
 
 4.0 
 
 6.2 
 
 9 
 
 20.3 
 
 25.0 
 
 36 
 
 57.2 
 
 68.1 
 
 81 
 
 20 
 
 2.5 
 
 4.4 
 
 7.0 
 
 10 
 
 22.5 
 
 27.8 
 
 40 
 
 63.5 
 
 75.6 
 
 90 
 
 22 
 
 2.8 
 
 4.9 
 
 7.6 
 
 11 
 
 24.8 
 
 30.1 
 
 44 
 
 69.9 
 
 83.2 
 
 99 
 
 24 
 
 3.0 
 
 5.3 
 
 8.3 
 
 12 
 
 27.0 
 
 33.3 
 
 48 
 
 76.2 
 
 90.8 
 
 108 
 
 26 
 
 3.3 
 
 5.8 
 
 9.0 
 
 13 
 
 29.3 
 
 36.1 
 
 52 
 
 82.6 
 
 98.3 
 
 117 
 
 28 
 
 3.5 
 
 6.2 
 
 9.7 
 
 14 
 
 31.5 
 
 38.9 
 
 56 
 
 88.9 
 
 105.9 
 
 126 
 
 30 
 
 3.8 
 
 6.7 
 
 10.4 
 
 15 
 
 33.8 
 
 41.7 
 
 60 
 
 95.3 
 
 113.5 
 
 135 
 
 32 
 
 4.0 
 
 7.1 
 
 11.1 
 
 16 
 
 36.0 
 
 44.4 
 
 64 
 
 101.6 
 
 121.0 
 
 144 
 
 34 
 
 4.3 
 
 7.5 
 
 11.8 
 
 17 
 
 38.3 
 
 47.2 
 
 68 
 
 108 
 
 128.6 
 
 153 
 
 36 
 
 4.5 
 
 8.0 
 
 12.5 
 
 18 
 
 40.2 
 
 50.0 
 
 72 
 
 114.3 
 
 136.2 
 
 162 
 
 38 
 
 4.8 
 
 8.4 
 
 13.2 
 
 19 
 
 42.8 
 
 52.8 
 
 76 
 
 120.7 
 
 143.7 
 
 171 
 
 40 
 
 5.0 
 
 8.9 
 
 13.9 
 
 20 
 
 45.0 
 
 55.6 
 
 80 
 
 127.0 
 
 151.3 
 
 180 
 
 42 
 
 5.3 
 
 9.3 
 
 14.6 
 
 21 
 
 47.3 
 
 58.3 
 
 84 
 
 133.4 
 
 158.8 
 
 189 
 
 44 
 
 5.5 
 
 9.8 
 
 15.3 
 
 22 
 
 49.5 
 
 61.1 
 
 88 
 
 139.7 
 
 166.4 
 
 198 
 
 46 
 
 5.8 
 
 10.2 
 
 16.0 
 
 23 
 
 51.8 
 
 63.9 
 
 92 
 
 146.1 
 
 174.0 
 
 207 
 
 48 
 
 6.0 
 
 10.7 
 
 16.6 
 
 24 
 
 54.0 
 
 66.7 
 
 96 
 
 152.4 
 
 181.5 
 
 216 
 
 50 
 
 6.3 
 
 11.1 
 
 17.4 
 
 25 
 
 56.3 
 
 69.5 
 
 100 
 
 158.8 
 
 189.1 
 
 225 
 
 52 
 
 6.5 
 
 11.5 
 
 18.0 
 
 26 
 
 58.5 
 
 72.2 
 
 104 
 
 165.1 
 
 196.7 
 
 234 
 
 54 
 
 6.8 
 
 12.0 
 
 18.7 
 
 27 
 
 60.8 
 
 75.0 
 
 108 
 
 171.2 
 
 204.2 
 
 243 
 
 56 
 
 7.0 
 
 12.4 
 
 19.4 
 
 28 
 
 63.0 
 
 77.8 
 
 112 
 
 177.8 
 
 211.8 
 
 252 
 
 58 
 
 7.3 
 
 12.9 
 
 20.1 
 
 29 
 
 65.3 
 
 80.6 
 
 116 
 
 184.2 
 
 219.4 
 
 261 
 
 60 
 
 7.5 
 
 13.3 
 
 20.8 
 
 30 
 
 67.5 
 
 83.3 
 
 120 
 
 190.5 
 
 226.9 
 
 270 
 
 62 
 
 7.8 
 
 13.8 
 
 21.5 
 
 31 
 
 69.8 
 
 86.1 
 
 124 
 
 196.9 
 
 234.5 
 
 279 
 
 64 
 
 8.0 
 
 14.2 
 
 22.2 
 
 32 
 
 72.0 
 
 89.9 
 
 128 
 
 203.2 
 
 242.0 
 
 288 
 
 66 
 
 8.3 
 
 14.7 
 
 22.9 
 
 33 
 
 74.3 
 
 91.7 
 
 132 
 
 209.6 
 
 249.6 
 
 297 
 
 68 
 
 • 8.5 
 
 15.1 
 
 23.6 
 
 34 
 
 76.5 
 
 94.5 
 
 136 
 
 215.9 
 
 257.2 
 
 306 
 
 70 
 
 8.8 
 
 15.5 
 
 24.3 
 
 35 
 
 78.8 
 
 97.2 
 
 140 
 
 222.3 
 
 264.7 
 
 315 
 
 72 
 
 9.0 
 
 16.0 
 
 25.0 
 
 36 
 
 81.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 144 
 
 228.6 
 
 272.3 
 
 324 
 
 74 
 
 9.3 
 
 16.4 
 
 25.7 
 
 37 
 
 83.3 
 
 102.8 
 
 148 
 
 235.0 
 
 279.9 
 
 333 
 
 76 
 
 9.5 
 
 16.9 
 
 26.4 
 
 38 
 
 85.5 
 
 105.6 
 
 152 
 
 241.3 
 
 287.4 
 
 342 
 
220 FORESTRY AND TIMBER 
 
 The inscribed-square rule. 
 
 The Inscribed-Square Rule gives the cubic contents of square pieces 
 which can be exactly inscribed in cylinders of different sizes. The 
 \Ni(lth of this square piece is usually obtained by multiplying the diam- 
 eter of the cylinder by 17 and dividing the result by 24, or by multi- 
 jiiying the diameter by 0.7071. This rule of thumb for calculating 
 the width of the inscribed square piece is based on the fact that one side 
 of the square inscribed in a circle 24 inches in diameter is 17 inches long. 
 
 The exact mathematical rule for determining the side of a square 
 inscribed in a circle is to square the diameter, divide by 2, and extract 
 the scjuare root. The table on the preceding page was computed by 
 this method. 
 
 Practically the same results are obtained by the Seventeen-inch 
 Rule, which is based on the fact that a 17-inch log will square 12 inches. 
 According to the Seventeen-inch Rule, the cubic contents of a log are 
 obtained as follows: Multiply the square of the diameter of the log 
 by its length, and divide by the square of 17. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 Weeds 
 
 A Weed is a plant that is not wanted. The methods of weed- 
 control depend largely on the character of soil, system of farming 
 practiced in the neighborhood, and, particularly, on the type of weed 
 concerned, whether annual, biennial, or perennial. The better the 
 crop-scheme, the less will be the difficulty from bad weeds. The prime 
 remedy, therefore, is to improve the general farm plan and practice, 
 and to use only clean seed. Special means and methods may be dis- 
 cussed, however; and these discussions are drawn from Farmers' 
 Bulletins of the United States Department of Agriculture, from bul- 
 letins of the Rhode Island, Ohio, and North Dakota Stations, 
 Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, and other sources. 
 
 General Practices 
 
 For annual weeds, which reproduce from seed only, the root and 
 branch dying each year, the essentials for eradication are the use of 
 clean seed, the killing of plants before they ripen seeds, and the preven- 
 tion of new infestation by such means as manure from stables where 
 weed forage has been used. For permanent pastures, lawns, and 
 roadsides the prevention of seed production is often the most practi- 
 cable method, and it is sufficient if persistently followed. In culti- 
 vated fields the land thus seeded may first be burned over to destroy 
 as many as possible of the seeds on the surface. It may then be plowed 
 shallow, so as not to bury the remaining seeds too deeply. The succeed- 
 ing cultivation, not deeper than the plowing, will induce the germina- 
 tion of seeds in this layer of soil and kill the seedlings as they appear. 
 The land may then be plowed deeper, and the tillage repeated until 
 the weed seeds are cleared out to as great a depth as the plow ever 
 reaches. Below that depth, eight to ten inches, very few weed seeds 
 can germinate and push a shoot to the surface. Barren summer- 
 
 221 
 
222 WEEDS 
 
 fallowing is often practiced to clear out weedy land by the method just 
 described ; but usually a cultivated crop may better be grown. 
 
 For bicnniali^, which also reproduce from seed, mowing them when 
 coming into flower or cutting the roots below the crown is usually 
 effect ive. Autumn is the best time for such grubbing. Biennial 
 weeds are readily killed by such tillage as is given to hoed crops. 
 
 For perennials which reproduce both from seed and from surface 
 runners or perennial underground roots or stems, seed production must 
 be prevented and the underground part must be killed. Seed production 
 may be prevented by mowing when the first flower-buds appear. The 
 best methods for killing the roots or rootstocks vary considerably 
 according to the soil, climate, character of the different weeds, and the 
 size of the patch or the quantity to be killed. In general, however, the 
 following principles apply : — 
 
 1. The roots, rootstocks, bulbs, and the like, may be dug up and 
 removed, a remedy that can be practically applied only in small areas. 
 
 2. Salt, coal oil, or strong acid applied so as to come in contact with 
 the freshly cut roots or rootstocks destroys them for some distance from 
 the point of contact. Crude sulfuric acid is probably the most effec- 
 tive of comparatively inexpensive materials that can be used for this 
 purpose, but its strong corrosive properties render it dangerous to 
 handle. Carbolic acid is less corrosive, and nearly as effective. Arse- 
 nite of soda and arsenate of soda, dangerous poisons, are effective, 
 particularly the former, applied as a spray on the growing weeds. 
 Fuel-distillate, a petroleum product, is very promising. 
 
 3. Roots may be starved to death by preventing any development 
 of green leaves or other parts above ground. This may be effected 
 by building straw stacks over small patches, by persistent, thorough 
 cultivation in fields, by the use of the hoe or spud in waste places, and 
 by salting the plants and turning on sheep in permanent pastures. 
 
 4. The plants may usually be smothered by dense sod-forming grasses 
 or by a crop like hemp, buckwheat, clover, cowpeas, or millet that will 
 exclude the light. 
 
 5. Most roots are readily destroyed by exposing them to the direct 
 action of the sun during the summer drought, or to the direct action of 
 the frost in winter. In this way plowing, for example, becomes effec- 
 tive. 
 
 6. Proper crop rotation is one of the best means of eradication. 
 
WEED POISONS 223 
 
 Chemical Weed-Killers or Herbicides 
 
 The usefulness of chemicals as weed-killers is largely limited to the 
 following cases (Jones) : — 
 
 1. When an especially obnoxious weed, as poison ivy, occurs in a 
 limited locality and is to be destroyed regardless of consequences to 
 soil or neighboring plants. 
 
 2. When the aim is to render the soil permanently sterile, as in 
 roadways, tennis courts, and the like. 
 
 3. When the weed plant, as orange hawkweed and mustard, is 
 much more sensitive than the associated useful plants to the action of 
 some herbicide. 
 
 Kinds of herbicides (L. R. Jones). 
 
 The chemicals used as herbicides, the worth of which has been 
 established, are the following : — 
 
 Salt (sodium chlorid), is more commonly used than any other com- 
 pound, chiefly because of cheapness and handiness. It should be 
 applied dry or in strong solution ; and it is most effective in hot, dry 
 weather. Salt can be used in any weed-killing operation, but it is most 
 valuable on roadways and like surfaces and for certain lawn weeds. 
 Hot brine (one pound salt to one gallon water) is useful on walks and 
 roadways. 
 
 Blue vitriol (copper sulfate). — This is more powerful in herbicidal 
 action than salt, but its cost prohibits its general use. For most pur- 
 poses it is best used in solution, 2 to 10 per cent being effective. It is 
 often used on gravel walks and similar surfaces, but salt will generally 
 be found cheaper and arsenical poisons more effective. Its chief value 
 is against charlock or mustard. 
 
 Copper sulfate solution, containing 8 to 10 pounds of blue vitriol to 
 50 gallons of water, and applied at the rate of 40 to 50 gallons per acre, 
 is a good formula. 
 
 Iron sulfate (copperas) solution, containing If to 2 pounds of iron 
 sulfate to the gallon of water (100 pounds iron sulfate to 52 gallons of 
 water), is a good herbicide. Use at the rate of 50 to 75 gallons per 
 acre. 
 
 Kerosene. — This and other coal-oil products will kill plants. It is 
 weak in efficiency, and relatively more costly than any other chemical 
 
1.>1.>4 WEEDS 
 
 licrc listed. A pint of crude carbolic acid will do better service than 
 two gallons of kerosene, and costs much less. 
 
 Carbolic acid. — This is one of the quickest and most valuable herbi- 
 cides. The crude acid is relatively cheap. It is not quite equal to the 
 arsenical poisons for penetrating the soil, or in lasting effects, but it is 
 often preferable because of cost or convenience. It does not corrode 
 metals, and therefore may be applied with any spray-can or pump. 
 An effective method is to squirt the strong acid from an ordinary oil 
 can on the roots or crown of individual weeds. If it is to be sprayed or 
 sprinkled broadcast on the foliage or ground, it should be diluted with 
 15 to 30 parts of water, and this mixture agitated frequently during use. 
 
 Sulfuric acid (oil of vitriol). — This is destructive to everything it 
 touches. It can be applied in the crown or about the roots of coarse or 
 especially hardy plants, provided the user is willing to kill the adjacent 
 vegetation also. In general, carbolic acid will be preferred, partly 
 because sulfuric acid can be handled only in glass vessels. 
 
 Caustic soda. — A strong solution of this material makes a cheap 
 and effective herbicide, commended especially for pouring on soil 
 where it is desired to destroy poison ivy or other deep-rooted or woody 
 plants. Soil so treated will be rendered sterile for some time, but the 
 so<la will gradually leach away. Like salt, this is most effective if 
 applied in hot, dry weather. 
 
 Arsctncal compounds. — One or another of the soluble arsenical com- 
 l)ounds form the most effective herbicides kno^vn, to use on roadways 
 and other plain surfaces. These form the basis of all, or nearly all, of 
 the various proprietary " herbicides " or " weed-killers." The sim- 
 I)lest to employ is arsenite of soda. This needs only to be dissolved in 
 water for use, the rate of 1 pound in 3 to 9 gallons of water. White 
 arsenic is still cheaper, but according to Schutt's formula it must be 
 combined with sal soda, which is somewhat bothersome. (White 
 arsenic, 1 pound ; washing soda, 2 pounds ; water, 3 to 9 gallons.) An 
 important characteristic of these arsenical poisons is that they endure 
 for a long time and do not readily wash or leach away. 
 
 Application of Herbicides 
 
 Gravel roadways, gutters, tennis courts, walks, and like surfaces can be 
 kept free from weedy growths by the application of any of the above. 
 
WEED POISONS 
 
 226 
 
 If salt is used, it should be scattered freely in the dry form. Caution is 
 necessary where it is hable to be washed on to lawns, lest it damage 
 the grass borders. Carbolic acid or arsenical poisons are preferable 
 being both less liable to wash and more enduring in their action. One 
 quart of crude carbolic acid in eight gallons of water, or one pound of 
 either arsenical compound mentioned above in a like amount of water, 
 will suffice to cover a square rod or more of surface; and one or at 
 most two applications per year will be sufficient. 
 
 Walks should be so made that weeds cannot grow in them. This 
 can be done by making a deep stone foundation and filling between the 
 stones with cinders, coal ashes, or other similar material. 
 
 List of weeds that may be controlled by means of chemical sprays. 
 
 The following named weeds may be eradicated or largely subdued in 
 cereal grain fields through the use of chemical sprays: False-flax, 
 worm-seed mustard, tumbling mustard, common wikl mustard, 
 Shepherd's purse, pepper-grass, ball-mustard, corn cockle, chickweed, 
 dandelion, Canada thistle, bindweed, plantain, rough pigweed, king- 
 head, Red River weed, ragweed, cocklebur. 
 
 Weeds on which field spraying methods as now in use are not effective. 
 
 The following weeds are not effectively controlled by chemical sprays 
 as now used : Hare's ear mustard, French weed, pink cockle, perennial 
 sow-thistle, lamb's-quarters, pigeon-grass, wild oats, chess, quack- 
 grass, sweet-grass, or holy-grass, and wild barley. 
 
 Results of spraying with iron sulfate for the control of weeds (Rhode IslandSta.) 
 
 Plant 
 
 
 Common Name 
 
 Botanical Name 
 
 
 Yellow dosk . , , , 
 
 Sheep sorrel , . . , 
 
 Common chickweed 
 Mouse-ear chickweed , 
 
 Purslane 
 
 Rumex crispus 
 
 Rumex Acetosella 
 
 Stellaria media 
 Cerastium vulgatum 
 
 Portulaca oleracea 
 
 Plants checked for about 
 
 three weeks. 
 All blossoms killed and 90 
 
 per cent of all leaf growth. 
 Killed. Can be controlled. 
 Practically killed, but not so 
 
 easily as the common 
 
 chickweed. 
 Young leaves and tips of 
 
 stems killed. Old growth 
 
 not injured. 
 
WEEDS 
 
 Resvdta of spraying with iron sulfate — Continued 
 
 Plant 
 
 
 Common Name 
 
 Botanical Name 
 
 
 Buttercup 
 
 Shepherd's purse . . 
 Five-finger .... 
 
 Poison ivy .... 
 
 Wild carrot .... 
 Common plantain . 
 
 Rib grass. narrow- 
 leaved plantain 
 
 Robins plantain . 
 
 Yarrow 
 
 Ranunculus bulbosus 
 Capsella Bursa-pastoris 
 Potentilla Canadensis 
 
 Rhus Toxicodendron 
 
 Daucus Carota 
 Plantago major 
 
 Plantago lanceolata 
 
 Erigeron pulchellus 
 Achillea Millefolium 
 
 KUIed. 
 
 Completely controlled. 
 
 Young plants killed, old 
 
 plants seriously injured. 
 Not injured when sprayed 
 
 with concentrated solution. 
 Only slightly injured. 
 Leaves badly spotted, plant 
 
 not killed. 
 Young plants killed, old ones 
 
 prevented from maturing 
 
 seeds. 
 Blossom buds killed, no seed 
 
 formed. 
 Practically no injury. 
 
 With the exception of the application to the poison ivy, the iron 
 sulfate was ai^pUed as a 20 per cent solution, using it at the rate of 
 100 to 150 pounds per acre. 
 
 At the South Dakota Station the following weeds were entirely killed 
 Ijy the u.se of iron sulfate: — 
 
 Wild mustard (Brassica arvensis) ; ragweed (Ambrosia artemiscefolia) ; 
 king-head or greater ragweed {Ambrosia trifida) ; bindweed {Convol- 
 vulus Sepium) ; marsh elder (Iva xanthifolia) ; milkweed (Asckpias 
 sp.) ; pepper-grass (Lepidi urn Virginicum) ; pigweed { Am,arantus sp.) ; 
 sweet clover (Mclilotus alba and M. officinalis). Those that were 
 more or less badly injured : Russian thistle (Salsola Kali) ; sunflower 
 {lidianthus sp.) ; dandelion; dock (Rumex crispiis) ; thistle (Carduus) 
 sp.); white clover {Trifolium repetis) ; red clover (Trifolium pratense) ; 
 alfalfa (Mrdicago saliva). The following were but slightly injured: 
 plantain {Plantago major) ; sheep sorrel {Oxalis violacea) ; prairie 
 rose; lamb's quarters {Chenopodium album). Grasses in general, 
 including the grains (wheat, oats, corn, barley, and speltz were sprayed 
 in our experiments) were none of them seriously injured. 
 
 According to the Ohio Station, salt has thus far proved the best spray 
 tested for Canada thistle, poison iv}'', yarrow, and horse-nettle. In the 
 
WEED POISONS 227 
 
 Northwest, sodium arsenite (U pounds sodium arsenite in 50 gallons 
 water) is given first rank. Salt is probably the most efifective to destroy 
 dandelion and some other weeds. Iron sulfate is very satisfactory to 
 kill mustard weeds, ragweed, white-top, yarrow, and we believe a great 
 many other broad-leaved weeds. Neither the salt nor the iron sulfate 
 is regarded as offering any risk of application to pastures in which stock 
 is running. Sodium arsenite is a very active poison, and rather dan- 
 gerous for that reason. Calcium chlorid (of same strength as common 
 salt solution) has done very well where tested, but appears to be slightly 
 inferior to salt. Copper sulfate solutions may be used in grain fields 
 for mustards, especially, but owing to the poisonous nature of the 
 copper sulfate, it has a very narrow range of application. 
 
 Experiments by the Cornell Station gave the following general con- 
 clusions : Wild mustard growing with cereals or peas can be destroyed 
 with a solution of copper sidfate, without injury to the crop. A 3 per 
 cent solution (about 10 pounds to the barrel, or 40 gallons of water), at 
 the rate of 40 to 50 gallons per acre, gives very satisfactory results. 
 
 The following notes on the effect of the copper sulfate solution on 
 different plants are from observations and reports from various sources: 
 
 " Plants reported killed by copper sulfate solutions : wild mustard, 
 wild radish, wild barley, penny-grass (if young), shepherd's purse, wild 
 buckwheat, lamb's quarters, ragweed, sow-thistle, hemp-nettle, bind- 
 weed, dock, dodder. 
 
 "Plants reported severely injured; curly dock, black bindweed, 
 dandelion, sow-thistle, and senecio. 
 
 " Plants reported as not injured : wild rose, poppies, pigweed, 
 spurge, corn-flower, field-thistles, chamomile, couch-grass, bent-grass, 
 and horsetails. 
 
 " Crops that may safely be sprayed : all cereals, as wheat, rye, bar- 
 ley, and corn ; the grasses ; peas ; sugar beets. 
 
 " Crops that are killed or severely injured by the copper sulfate 
 solution: beans, potatoes, turnips, rape." 
 
 Charlock, known also as kale or wild mustard (Brassica Sinapistrutn), 
 is easily destroj^ed in oat-, wheat-, or other grain-fields by spraying with 
 a solution of 1 pound of copper sulfate in 4 to 6 gallons of water (2 to 3 
 per cent solution). A force pump should be used, supplied with fine 
 
:>28 WEEDS 
 
 nozzles. Tli(» treat incut is most ofToctivoly made when the Rrain is 
 A to () inches tall, since at this stage tlie larRC charlock leaves spreading 
 alx)ve the grain are easily covered by the spray. About one i)arrel of 
 the solution (30 to 50 gallons) suffices to cover an acre and destroy the 
 charlock, and this amount causes little or no damage to the grain. 
 This simie treatment is reported to be more or less effective against a 
 variety of other common grain-field weeds. The wild turnip {Brassica 
 rnmpcatris) and some allied cruciferous weeds are less easily killed 
 because the spray does not adhere to their smooth leaves. 
 
 When to apply icccd sprays (Ohio Station). 
 
 In practice, the time of applying sprays needs to be adjusted to the 
 condition of the growing crop, and the relative development of the weeds 
 to l)e killed. It seems probable that very early spraying will be less 
 effective than sjiraying after the weeds have developed a fair supply of 
 leaves. The first sjiraying should be made not later than the beginning 
 of bloom. Repeated applications need to be made as often as a new 
 supply of leaves is developed, provided the condition of the host crop 
 j)erinits this. In grain-fields, the best results will be obtained on prac- 
 tically all weeds, when only a single spraying is to be made, to apply 
 the s[)ray ju.st as the crop is ready to occupy the land. With mustards, 
 this will find some already in bloom. With ragweed, it is best to spray 
 before the stems of the plants become hardened. With other weeds, of 
 which the.se two are the type, as well as with these, it is often profitable 
 to make an extra earlier spi-aying than that designated. For perennial 
 sow-thistle, wild lettuce, and orange hawkweed, the spraying in grain- 
 fields should precede the blooming of the plants, and in cases of bad 
 infestation with perennial sow-thistle or the golden hawkweed, two 
 sprayings .'^hould be made before the grain occupies the land. It is 
 not clear just what can be done in the handling of bindweeds in grain- 
 fields, but similar principles will apply. For spraying in timoth}' or 
 other grass meadows to kill white-top, yarrow, self-heal, ox-ej'e daisy, 
 and a number of meadow weeds, the principle is similar to that stated 
 for grain-fields, namely, to spray thoroughly just before the grass begins 
 heading out. This will })e during late May and early June for Ohio. 
 
 In spraying pastures to check weeds, the maximum returns will 
 usually come from a beginning application in late June or early July 
 before many weeds are coming to bloom. After the initial application, 
 
THE KINDS OF WEEDS 229 
 
 the spraying should be repeated as often as there is development of 
 new foliage to a marked degree. 
 
 In general, better results are secured from applications made in 
 cloudy weather, although any weather, except that followed by rain, 
 is satisfactory. 
 
 Treatment for Particular Weeds 
 
 Poison %and similar woody-rooted pests can be eradicated by cutting 
 off the tops in hot, dry weather in midsummer and pouring a saturated 
 solution of caustic soda about the roots. The arsenical solutions men- 
 tioned above can be used, but are generally objectionable because they 
 render the soil sterile for so long a period thereafter. 
 
 Prickly lettuce (Lactuca Scariola), called also milk-thistle, English 
 thistle, and compass plant. Biennial or annual. Mow the plants 
 repeatedly as they first begin to blossom. Thorough cultivation with 
 a hoed crop is most effective. Mow and bum mature plants. Most 
 frequently introduced as an impurity in clover, millet, and the heavier 
 grass seeds. 
 
 Bracted plantain (Plantago aristata). Annual. Employ hand 
 pulling and burning. If well established, a series of hoed crops may be 
 necessary to eradicate. In permanent pasture, mow the plants as the 
 seed stalks first appear. 
 
 Horse nettle (Solanum Carolinense). Perennial. Keep the plants 
 mown to prevent seed production. To destroy the roots, practice 
 clean cultivation and grubbing or spudding to prevent any develop- 
 ment above ground. A thick growth of grain will weaken the roots. 
 After the grain is cut, the land should be immediately plowed and 
 harrowed repeatedly, and then sown to a winter crop. Then follow 
 with a hoed crop. 
 
 Buffalo bur (Solanum rostratum). Annual; subdued by preventing 
 seed production by mowing as often as the yellow blossoms appear. 
 
 Spiny amaranth (Amarantus spinosus). An annual, subdued by 
 preventing seed production by thorough cultivation, mowing, or grub- 
 bing out the plant before the flower spikes develop. An intertilled 
 crop followed by a winter crop will keep down the weed. 
 
 Spiny cocklebur (Xanthium spinosum). Annual; maybe choked 
 down by any quick-growing crop that will crowd and shade it. In 
 permanent pastures and waste places mow the plants twice a year, in 
 
230 WEEDS 
 
 August and September, or cut them out with hoe or spud in May and 
 June. 
 
 Chomlrilla (Chondrilla juncea). Biennial. Destroyed by cultiva- 
 tion and fertilizers to encourage the growth of desirable grasses. 
 
 Wild carrot (Daucus Carota). Biennial. In permanent pastures, 
 mow persistently as the flowers appear. Cutting the roots well below 
 the surface and hand })ulling are effective. Thorough cultivation 
 subdues it. 
 
 Wild oats (Avena fatua). Annual. Stir the land when it is warm and 
 moist to cause the seeds to germinate, then cultivate to kill. Keep the 
 ground occupied or stirred. Omit oats from the rotation. Plow 
 shallow in late fall. In the spring, plow deep and summer fallow, 
 keeping the ground clean. Plant to grain the next season without 
 replowing. Then plow deep early the next fall. Then repeat the 
 fallow, followed by grain two years later, again without replowing. 
 
 False flax (Camelina sativa). Annual. Omit winter wheat and 
 rye from the rotation, and raise crops that will permit full cultiva- 
 tion. Hoed crops are best, as they induce the seeds to germinate. If 
 well established in permanent pastures, plow and cultivate the land. 
 
 Mustard, Charlock (Brassica Sinapistrum). An annual, destroyed 
 by early cultivation. Destroyed by spraying, when the plants are 
 just beginning to bloom, with iron sulfate, copper sulfate, common 
 salt, and sodium arsenite. Use 75-100 pounds of iron sulfate in 52 
 gallons of solution per acre; of copper sulfate, 12-15 pounds to each 
 52 gallons of water ; common salt, ^ barrel to each 52 gallons of water ; 
 sodium arsenite, ll pounds to each 52 gallons of water. Spray after a 
 rain, or in a wet season on a bright, still day. 
 
 King-head, Greater ragweed (Ambrosia trifida). Annual. Culti- 
 vate to cause seed germination a sufficient time before cropping to allow 
 the killing of the weeds by a subsequent cultivation. If the weeds are 
 large on sunmier fallow, plow them completely under or collect and 
 burn. Spray, when the plants are tender, with common salt, copper 
 sulfate, iron sulfate, or sodium arsenite at the same rate and strengths 
 as for mustard, except that at least 100 pounds of iron sulfate should 
 be used for each 52 gallons. Throw the spray forcibly. 
 
 Canada thistle (Carduus arvensis). Perennial. The plant should 
 never be allowed to produce seeds, and the underground stems, which 
 ire usually 3 to 12 inches under ground, must be removed or starved 
 
THE KINDS OF WEEDS 231 
 
 by covering with straw. Cutting the plants just before the budding 
 period is destructive. To eradicate by cutting or cultivation no plant 
 should be allowed to show green leaves for a period exceeding a few 
 days. The most effective spray is sodium arsenite, H to 2 pounds per 
 52 gallons water ; or common salt, J to i barrels to 52 gallons water ; 
 or copper sulfate, 15 pounds to 52 gallons water; or iron sulfate, 
 75 pounds to 52 gallons of water, sprayed on twice, one week apart. 
 Spray just before the budding period. Spray again after the crop is 
 harvested. Repeat the second year. Sodium arsenite is a very active 
 poison, and must be used with care. 
 
 Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale). Perennial. Dig up with spud 
 or strong knife. Keep lawn heavily seeded to crowd out the 
 dandelion. Spray with iron sulfate, li to 2 pounds for each gallon of 
 water. Spray two or three days after mowing lawn, and do not again 
 mow until two or three days after spraying. Spray on bright, sunshiny 
 days. Heavy wetting within i^wo days after spraying destroys the 
 weed-killing power. Spray at intervals of four to six weeks. 
 
 New York State Station (Geneva) reports, 1911, that spraying 
 dandelions with iron sulfate was not successful. The second season 
 of treatment the grass was considerably injured. 
 
 Sow-thistle (Sonchus arvensis). Perennial. Spraying is not effective. 
 Practice bare cultivation for two seasons, allowing no green leaves to 
 appear. On small patches, smother by covering with straw or manure. 
 There are annual species of Sonchus. 
 
 Quack-grass (Agropyron repens). Perennial. In small patches, 
 uproot in dry, hot weather and remove all underground stems. Cut 
 off closely in July, and smother with straw or manure. In large areas, 
 mow when in blossom, and break the sod shallow in mid-July. Back- 
 set in mid-August slightly deeper than before. Disc and harrow 
 throughout the fall, allowing no green leaves to show. Then plow 
 deeply in late fall. Plant cultivated crop next season, and dig out 
 every blade of grass. Or sow a heavy seeding of millet or other dense- 
 growing annual forage late in May on a well-prepared seed bed. The 
 drier the ground and the hotter the weather, the better the killing 
 effect of cultivation. 
 
 White daisy, White-weed (Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum). Peren- 
 nial. Plow up old infested meadows. Spray with iron sulfate 
 at rate of 150 to 200 pounds per acre. Spray when blossom stalks 
 
232 WEEDS 
 
 arc just fonniiif^. Two or more years are required for eradication. 
 (K. i. Sta.). 
 
 lilack mustard (Brassica nigra) and unlet mustard (B. arvensis). 
 Annual. Si)ray with iron sulfate, 50 gallons to acre, using 75 to 100 
 pouniis of iron sulfate, depending on whether the plants are tender and 
 succulent or more mature and hardy. 
 
 Orange hawkweed (Hieracium aurantiacum), chickweed (Stellaria 
 nicHlia), and some other of the shallow-rooted succulent weeds of lawns 
 and gra.ss lands can he combated effectively by the use of salt, more so 
 than by any other chemical. Fine, dry salt should be applied on a bright, 
 hot sunnner day (late June or early July best), broadcasting it so as to 
 cover all plants uniformly, since it kills chiefly by drawing water from 
 the leaves. One to four quarts of salt can be used per square rod, with 
 little or no permanent injury to the grass if on a strong soil in the north- 
 cikstern states. Since the effect varies with local conditions, advance 
 trials should be made on small scale. Following the application, 
 the dead weeds should be raked out and a liberal application of grass- 
 seed made. 
 
 Weeds in lawns. 
 
 Weeds usually come up thickly in newly sown lawns. They are to 
 be prevented by the use of commercial fertilizers or very clean manure 
 and clean grass-seed. Clean June-grass, or blue-grass, seed is usually 
 best. Grass-seed should be sown very thick — 3 to 5 bushels to 
 the acre — and annual weeds cannot persist long. Frequent mowings 
 will keep those weeds dow^n (except low growers like chickweed), and 
 most spc'cics will not survive the winter. In old lawns most peren- 
 nial weeds can be kept down by frequent mowings. Grass can 
 stand more cutting than weeds. If mowing cannot be practiced often 
 enough for this purpose, the weeds may be cut off below the surface 
 with a long knife or spud, and the crowns are then readily pulled out- 
 Or a little sulfuric acid or other herljicide may be poured on the crown 
 of each plant. 
 
 It will usually be found that weedy lawns are those in which the sod is 
 poor and thin. The fundamental remedy, therefore, is to secure a strong 
 sod. This is done by raking or harrowing over the lawn in late spring, 
 when it is somewhat soft, and sowing a liberal dressing of chemical 
 
LAWNS AND LICHEN 233 
 
 fertilizer and grass-seed. Roll the land down level. All poor spots in 
 lawns should be repaired in this manner every year. The use of fresh 
 and coarse stable manure on lawns should be discouraged, both be- 
 cause it is offensive and because it generally abounds in weeds. 
 
 Moss on lawns and walks. 
 
 In damp and shady places, and also in sterile places, moss may ap- 
 pear on walks and lawns. If the conditions cannot be improved, the 
 following treatments may be tried : — 
 
 One pound oil of vitriol (sulfuric acid) to ten quarts of water. Wet 
 the surface thoroughly, being careful not to sprinkle edgings or good 
 sod. 
 
 In early spring when the ground is soft, work it backwards and for- 
 wards with a long-toothed rake, in order to bring the moss to the 
 surface. Clear away the moss, and leave the ground untouched for a 
 fortnight. Early in March repeat the operation, and about the middle 
 of that month apply a dressing of rich compost, which may consist of 
 any old rubbish well decomposed, adding one-sixth of fresh lime. Mix 
 with compost a few days before using. Cover the ground with the 
 compost at the rate of 200 barrow-loads per acre, passing it through 
 a 1-inch sieve, to save the trouble of rolling. Rake it evenly 
 over the surface, and when dry seed down. An English method. 
 
 Endeavor to improve the sod, as recommended on page 232, and 
 thereby drive out the moss. In shady places, where grass will not grow, 
 plant some shade-loving plant, as periwinkle (Vi7ica minor), lily-of- 
 the- valley, violets, moneywort {Ltjsimachia nummularia), or species 
 of carex. Note the ground-cover plants that grow in shady places in 
 the region. 
 
 Moss or Lichen on Trees 
 
 Moss on fruit-trees is usually an indication of lack of vigor. Culti- 
 vate and prune. Wash the trees with soap or lye washes. Scrape 
 off the bark, exercising care not to expose the " quick," or the tender 
 inner bark. A good scraper is made of a small and much-worn hoe 
 with the handle cut to about two feet long. 
 
 The moss is readily destroyed by bordeaux mixture and other good 
 fungicides. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 Pests and Nuisances 
 
 Various kinds of mammals and birds become plagues and nuisances 
 at times, sometimes destroying plants, sometimes annoying human 
 brings ; and with these may be included mosquitoes and flies. 
 
 Hoaniiiig cats are often nuisances that demand control. A tres- 
 pas.sing cat should be considered as much a transgressor as a trespass- 
 ing dog or chicken or goat, — and perhaps even more so if the neighbor- 
 hood is choice of its music. Owners of cats are under just as much 
 responsibility to keep their cats at home as to keep their horses or 
 pigs at home ; if they cannot keep them at home, they should not be 
 allowed to have them. 
 
 A clean and tidy place harbors few pests. In general, if the plan- 
 tation is free of litter, and the adjacent fields contain no harbors of 
 brush, mice and rabbits are rarely annoying to orchards. In hard 
 winters, with deep snow, these animals are more destructive than 
 in open winters. Rabbits browse young growth of nursery stock 
 and small trees. Sheep and hogs rarelj^ girdle trees if they are 
 given sufficient food and water, the latter being especially important. 
 
 Mice and Rats 
 
 To prevent mice from girdling trees in winter. 
 
 In hecling-in young trees in the fall, do not use straw or litter, in 
 which mice can make their nests. In orchards, see that tall grass, corn- 
 husks, or other dry materials do not gather about the trees in fall. If 
 danger from mice is apprehended, tramp the first snow firmly about 
 the trees, in order to compact the grass and litter so that mice cannot 
 find shelter. 
 
 Where the paper-birch grows, it is a good plan to place sections of 
 birch-bark from limbs or small trunks about the base of the tree,, 
 
 234 
 
TO KEEP MICE AND RATS AWAY 235 
 
 These sections roll tightlj^ about the tree, and yet expand so readily 
 with the growth of the tree that they may be allowed to remain, al- 
 though it is advisable to remove them each spring, so that they will 
 not become a harboring-place for insects. Tie thin strips of wood, as 
 laths or shingles, about the tree. Common window-screen placed 
 about the tree is effective and safe. Remove in spring, as it is likely 
 to attract borers. Tarred paper is sometimes advised to keep away 
 mice and borers, but it is very likely to kill the bark, especially on 
 3''0ung trees, if tied on, or if left on in warm weather. 
 
 Washes to protect trees from mice. 
 
 Wash the trees wdth some persistent substance in which is placed 
 paris green, Maynard finds the following substances useful for holding 
 the poison : portland cement of the consistenc}' of common paint ; 
 Portland cement 10 parts and gas- tar 1 part ; portland cement 10 
 parts and asphaltum 1 part ; portland cement 10 parts and Morrill's 
 tree-ink 1 part. 
 
 Lime-wash, to which is added a little sulfur, tobacco-decoction, and 
 soapsuds. 
 
 Carbonate of baryta for rats and mice. 
 
 Sugar and oatmeal or wheat flour, of each 6 ounces ; carbonate of 
 baryta, \ pound ; oil of anise-seed, enough to give the mixture a pretty 
 strong odor. 
 
 This remedy is frequently made simply of oatmeal and barium- 
 carbonate, 1 part poison to 8 of oatmeal, the combined materials 
 being made into a stiff dough by the use of water. This has the ad- 
 vantage of w^orking so slowly that the victims generally leave the 
 premises in search of water. 
 
 Tartar emetic for rats and mice. 
 
 Tartar emetic, 1 part ; oatmeal or flour, 4 parts ; beef or mut- 
 ton suet enough to make all into a paste. 
 
 Strychnine solution for mice. 
 
 Mice have been successfully poisoned by the use of wheat soaked in 
 strychnine solution. (See ground squirrel remedies, p. 241.) 
 
236 PESTS AND NUISANCES 
 
 Camphor for rats and mice. 
 
 Mix a fi'W pieces of camphor with vegetable seeds, to repel vermin. 
 
 French paste for rats and mice. 
 
 Oatmeal or wheat flour, 3 j)ounds ; powdered indigo, \ ounce ; finely 
 powdered white arsenic, 4 ounces ; oil of anise-seed, 2 dram. Mix, and 
 add of mehed beef suet or mutton tallow 2i pounds, and work the 
 whole uj) into a paste. 
 
 Conunercial forms of phosphorus are popular as exterminators of 
 vermin. 
 
 To protect seed-corn from burrowing animals {chiefly field mice). 
 
 Drop poisoned bait into small holes made into runways, then cover 
 the holes. Corn or wheat treated as for ground-squirrels is effective. 
 Or the grain may be moistened with water containing a little gum 
 aral)ic, and then dusted with ordinary white arsenic. The grain may 
 be allowed to dry before using. To prepare a bait that will work in a 
 planter, it is recommended to dissolve one-eighth of an ounce of strych- 
 nia sulfate in two quarts of hot water, preferably rain water. Soak 
 the corn in this for forty-eight hours, and then spread it out and dry 
 thoroughly. A teaspoonful of coal-tar to a peck of dampened grain 
 seems to be effectual protection. 
 
 Rabbits 
 
 Wash for keeping rabbits, sheep, and mice away from trees. 
 
 Some writers recommend fresh lime, slaked with soft water (old 
 soa|)-suds are best) ; make the wash the thickness of fence or house 
 wash. When 1 peck of lime is used, add, when hot, \ gallon crude 
 carbolic acid, \ gallon gas-tar, and 4 pounds of sulfur. Stir well. For 
 MHnmer wash leave gas-tar out, and add in place of it 1 gallon of soft 
 scjap. To keep rabbits and sheep from girdling, wash late in fall, or 
 alx)ut the time of frost, as high as one can reach. 
 
 Blood for rabbits. 
 
 Hlood smeared upon trees, as high up as rabbits can reach, will 
 generally keep them away. 
 
TO KEEP RABBITS AWAY 237 
 
 To drive rabbits from orchards. 
 
 Dip rags in melted sulfur, and then secure them to sticks which are 
 stuck promiscuously through the orchard. 
 
 Another wash to protect trees from rabbits. 
 
 Fresh cow dung, 1 peck; quick-lime, i peck; flowers of sulfur, 
 ^ pound ; lampblack, i pound. Mix the whole into a thick paint with 
 urine and soapsuds. 
 
 California rahbit-wash. 
 
 Commercial aloes, 1 pound to 4 gallons of water, both sprinkled on 
 leaves and painted on the bark, gives a bitter taste, which repels rabbits. 
 
 California rabbit poisons. 
 
 1. Pieces of watermelon, canteloupe, or other vegetables of which 
 they are fond, may be poisoned with strychnine and then scattered 
 around the orchard. 
 
 2. To 100 pounds of wheat take 9 gallons of water and 1 pound of 
 phosphorus, 1 pound of sugar, and 1 ounce oil of rhodium. Heat the 
 water to boiling-point, and let it stand all night. Next morning stir 
 in flour sufficient to make a sort of paste. Scatter it about the 
 place. 
 
 3. Another preparation is \ teaspoonful of powdered strychnine, 
 2 teaspoonfuls of fine salt, and 4 of granulated sugar. Put all in a tin 
 box and shake well. Pour in small heaps on a board. It hardens into 
 a solid mass. Rabbits lick it for the salt, and the sugar disguises the 
 poison. 
 
 Sulfur for rabbits. 
 
 Equal proportions of sulfur, soot, and lime, made into a thick paint 
 with cow-manure. Smear upon the trees. 
 
 Cow-manure for rabbits. 
 
 A mixture of lime, water, and cow-manure, made strong, is said to 
 be an excellent anti-rabbit composition. 
 
238 
 
 PESTS AND NUISANCES 
 
 Asafcttida for rabbits. 
 
 A toaspoonful of tincture of asafcetida in I pailful of liquid clay, 
 mud, or muck of any kind. Apply with a brush to the stem and 
 branches of young trees. Two or three applications during winter. 
 
 Kansdti methods of protecting trees from rabbits (Kansas Station). 
 
 1. Trtippiuq. — Traps of various sorts may be constructed. A 
 simplo and successful method is to sink a barrel in the ground level 
 with its surface. Fit the head slightly smaller than the top, and allow 
 it to swing freely on a rod or old broomstick. Pieces of apple or grains 
 of corn may be placed on the outer edge of the cover, and when the 
 rabbit attempts to get these, the lid tips up, and he slides into the 
 barrel, while the lid, which is slightly heavier on one side than the 
 other, assumes its original position. The heavier side should strike 
 against a heavy nail or bolt so that only the lighter side of the lid will 
 drop. It should be covered over with brush or light, flat stones. 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 V • * 
 
 
 \ 
 
 / 
 
 c: 
 
 ^ 
 
 \y. ■ 
 
 \ 
 
 ::-. 
 
 c d 
 
 Fig. 5 — Wellhouse rabbit-trap. 
 
 An ingenious trap for catching rabbits has been designed by Walter 
 Wellhoase, and u.sed with remarkable success by him in his orchards 
 (Fig. 5). The trap consists of a box made of fence boards (old ones 
 proferr(Ml). six inches w'uXv and one inch thick. The boards are cut 
 twenty-two inches long, and the top and bottom boards are nailed on to 
 
RABBIT TRAP 239 
 
 the side boards, thus making the opening four inches wide and six inches 
 high. The door, D, is made of wire, shaped as shown in fig. d, and liung 
 with two staples, cc, to the under side of the top board. To prevent 
 the rabbit from pushing the door open, a strip three-fourths of an inch 
 square is inserted in the opening and nailed to the bottom board, as 
 shown in fig. a, and in part in fig. d. The door must be made long 
 enough to reach well below this catch, as shown in fig. d. The trigger 
 is made of wire, bent as shown in figs, h and c, and hung loosely with 
 two staples to the center of the top board. These staples must be 
 carefully placed, to allow the trigger to be pulled forward far enough 
 so that the door will rest upon it when the trap is set, and also to allow 
 the loop in the trigger. A, fig. c, to be pushed against the back of the 
 trap by the rabbit when it is sprung, thus preventing its being bent. 
 To operate the trap, push the door, D, inward, and with the forefinger 
 catch the hooked end of the trigger, B, fig. c, and pull it forward until 
 the door rests upon the wire above the hook. The rabbit enters the 
 trap, prompted by curiosity or otherwise, just as he enters a hollow 
 log, and thinks no more of the wire trigger than he would of a small 
 piece of brush which he must push out of his way. As soon as he 
 touches the trigger, the door drops and the rabbit is caught. No bait 
 is used, and the trap cannot easily be sprung by birds or wind. Care 
 must be taken to see that all staples are loosely set, so that the trigger 
 slides easily and the door will drop of its own weight. If new boards 
 are used, it would be well to stain with some dark coloring material 
 which is not offensive to the rabbit's delicate sense of smell. 
 
 2. Wrapping. — When one has only a few trees, such as fruit or 
 shade trees, the most satisfactory method is to wrap them. An ordinary 
 tree veneer which is made of very thin wood may be purchased from 
 any seed store or nursery company. This fits closely about the body 
 of the tree, and will enlarge as the tree grows. However, during the 
 summer it may offer a harbor for injurious insects, and should remain 
 on the tree only during the winter. Trees may be wrapped with bur- 
 lap, corn-stalks, or ordinary lath. The only caution with any of these 
 is to remove them when the tree resumes growth in the spring. Ordi- 
 nary wire screen answers very well as a protection for the tree. 
 
 3. Repellents. — The tree may be covered as far as the rabbit can 
 reach with blood. The entrails and blood of the rabbit itself rubbed 
 over the tree is quite effective, but is very apt to be washed off by rain. 
 
240 PESTS AND NUISANCES 
 
 A concoction of tallow and tobacco smeared on to the trees acts as a 
 repellent. However, where there arc a great many trees, and especially 
 small trees, such as honey locust, elm, and others, used as windbreaks, 
 it is out of the question to treat each individual tree by hand. In this 
 case, a spray applied by a hand pump will be found effective. The 
 common lime and sulfur spray used to destroy the San Jos^ scale has 
 IxMMi recommended, and can be applied with an ordinary spray pump. 
 Mix together dry, fresh hydrated or ground lime, 4 pounds; powdered 
 sulfur, 3 pounds. Add water to form a thin paste, and boil from one-half 
 to one hour, or until the mixture becomes a reddish amber color. Dilute 
 to 10 gallons, spra\^ on to the trees w-hile the liquid is still warm. This 
 spray is excellent for the trees as well, but must not be applied to the 
 trees while they are in leaf. 
 
 Commercial aloes at the rate of one pound to four gallons of water 
 sprayed on to the trees gives the bark and leaves a bitter taste which 
 repels rabl)its. 
 
 A spray made of buttermilk and common stove soot has proven 
 quite satisfactory here. Buttermilk, 1 gallon ; common stove soot, 
 i pound. Boil for twenty minutes. Keep well stirred to prevent 
 clogging the pump. 
 
 4. Poisoning. — Much may be done in eradicating this pest with 
 poison. The " Wellhouse " poison is made as follows : Sulfate of 
 .strychnine, 1 part; borax, ^ part ; white syrup, 1 part; water, 
 10 parts. Put the mixture into a jug or large bottle, and shake well. 
 Cut fresh twigs — apple w\ater sprouts are best — and with a small 
 brush paint tliem, especially over the terminal bud, with the above 
 [)reparati()n. Scatter the twigs in the runways and about the trees 
 where the rabbits feed. Stock or fowls will not molest this poison, and 
 it is siiid that dogs may eat the dead rabbits and suffer no ill effects. 
 
 The Western Australia Department of Agriculture recommends a 
 similar poison. Di.ssolve U ounces strychnine in 1 quart of vinegar; 
 <lilute with 5 gallons of water; add 2 pounds of flour and 1 pound of 
 sugar ; stir well and apply to twigs as recommended above. 
 
 A jam made of fruit and sugar is readily eaten by the rabbits. Chop 
 apples or melons into small cubes. Add sugar equal to one-half the 
 weiglit of the fruit. Boil until the mass forms a thick jam. Add 
 strychnine, either powdered or di.s.solved, at the rate of 1 ounce to 
 25 pounds of the jam, and mix thoroughly. 
 
RABBITS AND GROUND SQUIRRELS 241 
 
 To remedy the injury done by mice, rabbits, and squirrels. 
 
 1. Pare and clean the wound, and cover it thickly with fresh cow- 
 dung, or soft clay, and bind it up thoroughly with a cloth. Grafting- 
 wax bound on is also good. Complete girdling, when done late in 
 spring — when settled weather is approaching — can be remedied in 
 this way. 
 
 2. Insert long scions over the wound, by paring them thin on both 
 ends, and placing one end under the bark on the upper edge of the 
 wound and the other under the bark on the lower edge. Wax thor- 
 oughly the points of union, and tie a cloth band tightly about the trees 
 over both extremities of the scions. 
 
 Ground Squirrel or Spermophile Remedies 
 
 1. Secure 5 quarts of clean wheat ; scald with water; drain. Take 
 I cup of white sugar, dissolve with sufficient water to make a syrup ; add 
 1 ounce powdered strychnine, stir thoroughly until a thin paste is formed. 
 Pour this on the damp wheat. Stir thoroughly for at least 15 
 minutes. Add 1 pint powdered sugar, stir ; add 5 to 10 drops of rho- 
 dium and 5 to 10 drops of oil of anise-seed. Place a few grains in each 
 squirrel-hole, putting it as far in as possible. 
 
 2. Dissolve U ounces of strychnia sulfate in a quart of hot water. 
 Add a quart of molasses, — molasses, sorghum, or thick sugar and 
 water, — and a teaspoonful of oil of anise. Thoroughly heat and 
 mix the liquid. While hot pour it over a bushel of clean wheat 
 and mix completely. Then stir in two or more pounds of fine corn- 
 meal. The quantity of corn-meal will depend on the quantity of extra 
 moisture present. There should be enough to wet ev^ery grain of the 
 wheat, and no more. Let the poisoned grain stand over night, and dis- 
 tribute it in the early morning of a bright day. A tablespoonful is 
 placed near the mouth of the burrow, scattered in two or three little 
 piles. The best time to use this or other poisons is in early spring, 
 when the ground-squirrels are hungry from their winter fast, and when 
 the destruction of the old ones before the young are born will greatly 
 lessen the numbers of the pests. 
 
 3. Bisulfid of carbon is also largely used. A small quantity is 
 poured into the burrow, and the hole is immediately closed securely 
 with dirt. 
 
1>42 PESTS AND NUISANCES 
 
 4. Tyiiij^ lu'wspapcrs al)out trees in sucli manner as to allow the 
 upper part of the pai)er to project loosely a few inches frightens the 
 squirrels away. 
 
 Moles 
 
 Moles are rather easily poisoned by inserting in the runways corn 
 in the milk stage, freshly cut from the ear, and poisoned with strychnine 
 solution. 
 
 Moles li\'e in loose and sandy land. If the place is watched, they 
 may be tlestroyed when they are heaving their burrows. Mole-traps 
 are on the market. (See gophers, p. 243.) 
 
 Prairie-dogs 
 
 Prairie-dogs may be destroyed by much the same means as are 
 ground squirrels. (See ground squirrel remedies, p. 241 ; and wood- 
 chuck or ground-hogs, p. 243.) 
 
 Poisoning b}^ grain soaked in strychnine solution has proved most 
 successful. The following method has been devised and used by the 
 Kansas Experiment Station : The mixture is in the form of a syrup, 
 composed of the following ingredients (for 1 quart) : 1 ounce strychnia 
 sulfate (powdered), 1 ounce potassium C3^anide, li ounces alcohol, 1 pint 
 syrup. One ounce of green cofTee-berries is mixed with the white of one 
 egg, and allowed to stand at least fourteen hours. The strychnia is 
 di.s,solved in a half-pint of boiling water. The potassium cyanide is dis- 
 solved in a (juarter-pint of hot water and allowed to cool. Add a little 
 warm water to the mixture of coffee and eggs, and mix it with the po- 
 tassium cyanide. Then strain this mixture through a coarse sieve into 
 the mixing vessel, and add the syrup. Mix the alcohol with the hot 
 solution ')f strychnine, and add it to the other mixture. Stir all 
 thoroughly. (Jne quart of the mixture is sufficient to poison a half- 
 bushel of wheat or kafir. The mixture must be thoroughly stirred 
 before it is poured over the grain. Two or three pounds of fine corn-meal 
 are stirred in with the grain to take up the extra moisture. On a 
 bright, warm morning in .January, February, or March, place half a 
 traspoonful or less of the bait in two or three little piles at the outside 
 of each burrow occupied by prairie-dogs. A half-bushel of grain should 
 I)oison 5(X) to GfX) holes. 
 
VARIOUS PESTS 243 
 
 Woodchucks or Ground-hogs 
 
 These animals are readily trapped at the mouths of their burrows. 
 They are also easily killed by the vapor of bisulfid of carbon, the liquid 
 being poured on a handful of moss, cotton, or other absorbent material, 
 and pushed down the burrow, all openings being at once closed. The 
 vapor is heavier than air, and will settle to the bottom, where it will 
 kill any animal present. 
 
 Pocket-gophers 
 
 These pests are readily destroyed by poisoned grain, corn being espe- 
 cially recommended for the purpose, although various other materials 
 may be employed. A dibble, made by adding a metal point to a spade 
 handle, is used to make holes in the runways, into which the poisoned 
 bait is dropped. " A skillful operator," writes D. E. Lantz, " can go 
 over twenty to forty acres of badly infested land in a day, and, if the 
 work is done carefully, at a time when the pocket-gophers are active, 
 all the animals should be destroyed by the first application of poison." 
 The pests may also be destroyed by trapping and by fumigation with 
 carbon bisulfid. 
 
 Wolves and Coyotes 
 
 These animals are most easily destroyed by hunting out the breed- 
 ing-places in early spring and killing the litters of pups. They may 
 also be poisoned and trapped. 
 
 Muskrats 
 
 Powdered strychnia sulfate sweetened with powdered sugar or 
 commercial saccharin and sprinkled over freshly cut pieces of apple, 
 carrot, or ripe squash has proved effective. Crystals of the same poison 
 may be inserted in the bait with a knife. 
 
 „. , . Pestiferous Birds 
 
 Bird poisons. 
 
 1. Place a shallow box on the end of a pole, and put it four or five 
 feet from the ground to keep the poison out of the way of domestic 
 fowls. In the box sprinkle corn-meal and a very little strychnine, 
 which mixture the birds eat. It will not hurt dogs or cats to eat the 
 
244 PESTS AND NUISANCES 
 
 (load bird, for the reason that there is not enough poison absorbed by 
 the bird. (California.) 
 
 2. Put the .strychnine in pieces of apples, and stick them on the 
 ends of limbs of the trees. (California.) 
 
 3. Poison for English sparrows. 
 
 Di.ssolve arsenate of soda in warm water at the rate of one ounce to 
 one j)int ; pour this upon as much wheat as it will cover (in a vessel which 
 can be closed so as to prevent evaporation), and allow it to soak for at 
 l(>ast twenty-four hours. Dry the wheat so prepared, and it is ready 
 for u.se. It should be distributed in winter in places where the sparrows 
 congregate. Wheat maj^ be similarly ]ireparcd with strychnine. 
 
 4. Put i ounce of strychnia sulfate into f of a gill of hot water, 
 and l)oil until dissolved. Moisten Ih teaspoonfuls of starch with a few 
 drops of cold water, add it to the poison solution, and heat till the starch 
 thickens. Pour the hot poisoned starch over a quart of wheat, and stir 
 until every kernel is coated. 
 
 To protect fruits from birds. 
 
 One of the best devices is mosquito-bar spread over the bushes or 
 trees. For ))ush-fruits and small trees the expense is not great. There 
 is a commercial netting made for the purpose. 
 
 Have a taxidermist mount several hawks, and place them in natural 
 j)()sitions in the trees or vines. 
 
 In large plantations of cherries or other fruits subject to the depre- 
 dations of l)irds, the injury is generally proportionately less than in 
 small areas. Some cherry-growers plant early sweet varieties to feed 
 tlio liirds, which, getting their fill, give less attention to the main crop. 
 P>irds prefer the Russian mulberry to cherries, and an occasional tree in 
 the cherry orchard may protect the crop. 
 
 Plantings of mulberry, buckthorn, elder, and chokeberry may serve 
 to protect raspberries and blackberries. For strawberries, sweet early 
 varieties which are left to ripen on the vines have been recommended. 
 
 To protect newly planted seeds from birds. 
 
 Coat the seeds with red lead by moistening the seeds slightly and 
 stirring in red lead until all the seeds are thoroughly coated. Let the 
 seeds dry for two or three hours before sowing. 
 
BIRDS, MOSQUITOES 1J4,-, 
 
 Several ways to protect corn from crows. 
 
 Dip the kernels in coal-tar, and then dust them with plaster ; tar the 
 seed; plant it deeply; scatter soaked corn over the field to attract 
 attention from the young plants ; hang streamers of cloth from twine 
 strung about the field on poles; or use scare-crows. 
 
 To protect young chickens. 
 
 Young chickens may be protected from hawks by covering their 
 runways with fine wire netting. Chickens are comparatively safe 
 when king-birds or purple martins breed about the farm-yard, as these 
 birds drive hawks away. They should be encouraged. Some hawks 
 are frightened away by guinea-hens. A pair of ospreys or fish-hawks 
 nesting near a farmhouse will keep other hawks away. 
 
 Mosquitoes 
 
 The discovery that certain mosquitoes carry the organisms of malaria 
 and other diseases has started a crusade against these pests. We 
 now feel that mosquitoes must be controlled, both as a sanitary meas- 
 ure and as a relief against the insects themselves. 
 
 The chief mode of attack is to destroy their breeding-places. They 
 breed only in standing water. Draining the breeding-places, or filling 
 them up and emptying all receptacles in which water stands, is the 
 first thing to be considered. The big gray mosquitoes that breed in 
 tide marshes are specially pestiferous. They propagate in the brackish 
 pools. These pools should be filled or drained, or else the tide dyked 
 out so that the pools may dry. 
 
 The second thing to consider, if the above cannot be carried out, is 
 to cover the breeding-pools with oil so that mosquito larvae may be 
 deprived of air (they rise to the surface to breathe). 
 
 In fountain tanks, lily ponds, and other water areas that are to be 
 retained, the mosquitoes may be kept down by stocking with fish that 
 eat the larvse or wrigglers. 
 
 Kerosene for mosquitoes (Needham). 
 
 An ounce of kerosene to every 15 square feet of surface is about the 
 right proportion, according: to Howard. The fihn of oil will be retained 
 
246 PESTS AXD XUISANCES 
 
 for about two weeks. The grade of kerosene known as " light fuel oil ^ 
 is best. 
 
 Any kerosene will kill aquatic plants, if sprayed on them. It 
 should be poured on surface of water in cultivated ponds and spread 
 with a broom or mop. It should be applied oftener than once in two 
 weeks in such c:ises, and in much less quantity. One-fourth as much 
 twice as ofton will probably be equally effective. 
 
 It is best not to use kerosene at all on ornamental jwnds ; it is un- 
 sightly ; it smells badly ; it kills all larvce that require air derived from 
 the surface, including those of many of the higher diptera which as adults 
 are useful flower pollinators ; it endangers the plants even when most 
 carefully applied, to say nothing of smearing them. 
 
 Fishes available for deMruction of mosquito larva; (Xeedham). 
 
 1. Goldfish eat eggs by preference, also the larva^. They thrive 
 in any wann pool, or even in cisterns with scant light ; eat prepared 
 foods, so can be readily supplied with supplemental food if necessary. 
 They are easily obtained in the market, and are ornamental. Must 
 be taken indoors for winter. 
 
 2. Top minnows are natural enemies of mosquitoes in native water. 
 They are hardy and long-lived ; but they are not on the market, and 
 have to be sought with a seine. Not especiallj^ ornamental. 
 
 3. Sunfish are fond of mosquito larva^. They do well only in 
 midst of aquatic growth; require much food, and insect food is pre- 
 ferred. Ornamental. 
 
 4. Sticklebacks are most voracious mosquito enemies, and are also 
 worthy of cultivation for their remarkable nest-building habits. Rather 
 particular as to conditions, but in proper pools they are hardy. 
 
 All these fishes require room in which pasturage may grow. A pair 
 of the smallest of them would probably find scant natural food in a 
 square rod of water area. 
 
 Hihernating mosquitoes. 
 
 Some mosquitoes hibernate in cellars, and from them the breeding 
 starts in spring. Cellars may be fumigated with powdered Datura Stra- 
 monium (.limpson weed), or with culicide (culex is the generic name of 
 the greater number of mosquitoes). In either case, according to J. B. 
 Smith, the cellar to be fmnigated should be as tightly closed as possible, 
 
MOSQUITOES 247 
 
 to hold the fumes and make them most effective. The powdered 
 stramonium is used at the rate of eight ounces for each 1000 cubic feet 
 of space, mixed with one-third its weight of saltpeter to facilitate com- 
 bustion. Spread the mass out on a tin plate or stone flag and light at 
 several points to hasten the burning. The vapor is not dangerous to 
 human life, so even if some escapes into the rooms above, no harm will 
 be done. If the cellar is leaky, use two or three times as much as ad- 
 vised, and in all cases keep it as tightly closed as possible for two hours at 
 least. 
 
 Culicide is made of equal parts by weight of carbolic acid crystals 
 and gum camphor. Melt the acid crystals over a gentle heat, and pour 
 slowly over the gum. The acid dissolves the camphor, and makes a 
 clear, somewhat volatile liquid, with rather an agreeable odor. This 
 solution is permanent, and may be kept indefinitely in tight jars. Use 
 three ounces of this culicide for every 1000 cubic feet of space, and 
 volatilize over a lamp of some kind. A simple and inexpensive appa- 
 ratus for this purpose (J. B. Smith) consists of an 8-inch section of 
 galvanized-iron stove-pipe, cut so as to leave three legs, and with a 
 series of J-inch holes near the top to make an outlet for the draft. 
 Upon this place a shallow, flat-bottomed basin to hold the culi- 
 cide, and beneath this use an ordinary glass or other alcohol lamp. 
 Two ounces of culicide may be evaporated with I an ounce of alcohol 
 in twenty-five minutes, and a larger quantity would probably re- 
 quire proportionately less time if given a larger evaporating surface in 
 a dish of larger diameter than the pipe. This combination is inflam- 
 mable, but not explosive, and should be used on a cement, earth, or stone 
 floor, or on bricks in a tub of water, to avoid danger of fire. The fumes 
 are not dangerous to human life until they become very dense, and such 
 as might penetrate into upper rooms through leaky floors or doors 
 would do no harm to anything. This also should be allowed to act at 
 least two hours before the doors are opened again. Flies and other 
 insects succumb as readily as mosquitoes. 
 
 Rules for extermination and prevention of mosquitoes. (Anti-Mosquito 
 Convention, N. Y.) 
 
 Pools of rain water, duck ponds, ice ponds, and temporary accumu- 
 lations due to building ; marshes, both of salt and fresh water, and road- 
 
248 PESTS AXD NUISANCES 
 
 siilc drains; i)ots, kettles, tubs, springs, barrels of water, and 
 other back-yaril eolleetions should be drained, filled with earth, or 
 emptiiHi. 
 
 Running streams should have their margins carefully cleaned 
 and coveretl with gravel to prevent weeds and grass at the water's 
 eilge. 
 
 Lily ponds and fountain pools should, if possible, be abolished; 
 if not, the margins should be cemented or careful!}' graveled, a good 
 stock of minnows put in the water, and green slime (algie) regularly 
 cleaned out, as it collects. 
 
 Where tanks, cisterns, wells, or springs must be had to supply water, 
 tlie openings to them should be closely covered with wire gauze (gal- 
 vanized to prevent rusting), not the smallest aperture being left. 
 
 When neither drainage nor covering is practicable, the surface of 
 the standing water should be covered with a film of light fuel oil (or 
 kerosene) which chokes and kills the larva?. The oil may be poured on 
 with a can or from a sprinkler. It will spread itself. One ounce of 
 oil is sufficient to cover fifteen square feet of water. The oil sliouki 
 be renewed once a week during warm weather. 
 
 Particular attention should be paid to cesspools. These pools, when 
 uncovered, breed mosquitoes in vast numbers; if not tightly closed 
 by a cemented top, or by wire gauze, they should be treated once a 
 week with an excess of kerosene or light fuel oil. 
 
 Certain simple precautions suffice to protect persons living in mala- 
 rial districts from infection : — 
 
 First : Proper screening of the house to prevent the entrance 
 of the mosquitoes (after careful search for and destruction of all 
 those already present in the house), and screening of the bed at 
 night. The chief danger of infection is at night (the anopheles 
 bite mostly at this time). 
 
 Second : The screening of persons in malarial districts who 
 are suffering from malarial fever, so that mosquitoes may not bite 
 them and thus become infected. 
 
 Third : The administration of quinine in full doses to malarial 
 patients to destroy the malarial organisms in the blood. 
 
 Fourth : The destruction of mosquitoes by one or more of the 
 methods already described. 
 These measures, if properly carried out, will greatly restrict the 
 
MOSQUITOES. HOUSE-FLIES 240 
 
 prevalence of the disease, and will prevent the occurrence of new 
 malarial infections. 
 
 It must be remembered that when a person is once infected, the 
 organisms may remain in the body for many years, producing from 
 time to time relapses of the fever. 
 
 A case of malarial infection in a house (whether the person is 
 actively ill or the infection is latent) in a locality where anopheles 
 mosquitoes are present, is a constant source of danger, not only to 
 the inmates of the house, but to the immediate neighborhood, if 
 proper precautions are not taken. It should be noted in this 
 connection that the mosquitoes may remain in a house through an 
 entire winter, and probably infect the inmates in the spring upon 
 the return of the warm weather. 
 
 The House-Fly (C. R. Crosby) 
 The typhoid fly, or house-fly (Musca domestica). 
 
 For ages this ubiquitous pest has been looked upon as a harmless 
 though annoying and unpleasant nuisance, and its presence has been 
 tolerated as a necessary evil. It has now been scientifically demon- 
 strated that it plays an important role in the transmission of certain 
 intestinal diseases, such as typhoid, cholera, infantile diarrhoea, etc., 
 by carrying infected matter from the excreta of patients to the food of 
 healthy persons. It is now thought that next after polluted water and 
 contaminated milk, flies are the most important factor in the sprearl of 
 typhoid. Both in city and in country the presence of these pests is a 
 constant menace to the health of the community. 
 
 House-flies breed chiefly in horse manure, and to a less extent in 
 garbage, human excrement, and other filth. Each female lays about 
 120 eggs, which hatch in a few hours. The maggots become 
 full grown in about five days, and an equal period is spent in the 
 pupal stage. The whole life cycle thus requires only ten to fourteen 
 days in midsummer. In the climate of Washington, D.C., there are 
 twelve or thirteen generations annually. Dr. L. 0. Howard reports 
 finding 1200 larvae and pupae in a single pound of horse manure. 
 The winter is passed either as adults hidden away in houses or as 
 pupsB beneath manure piles. 
 
l>r,0 PESTS AND NUISANCES 
 
 ( 'ontrol. 
 
 The house-fly imisiuice can be abated most easily by the elimination 
 of possible breeding-places. The great majority of the flies found in 
 houses breed in piles of horse manure about near-by stables. Breeding 
 in such places may be easily prevented by storing the manure, pending 
 its removal, in a dark, fly-proof bin. This receptacle may be built as a 
 lean-to attached to the stable with which it is connected by a small 
 screen door. .V larger door outside provides for the removal of the 
 contents. The manure should be carted away at least once a week, 
 and spread out on the land, where by drying it soon becomes unfit for 
 breeding purposes. Whenever it is necessary to store such material 
 in piles in the open, they should be located as far as possible from the 
 nearest dwelling or milk-house. Flies do not usually travel more than 
 one-fourth mile from the place in which they breed. 
 
 When only two or three horses are kept in a town, the manure can 
 be handled in regular garbage-cans, in the same way as the kitchen 
 refuse or ashes. 
 
 Breeding in manure jVih s can be prevented by borax. Sift borax on 
 manure, particularly around edges of pile, immediately after removal 
 from barn, thci spritikle with water. Use fib. borax to 8 bu. of manure. 
 
 Kitchen refuse and similar garbage should be kept in tight cans and 
 removed at frequent intervals. Flies should be rigidly excluded from 
 all places where food is exposed to contamination, including kitchens, 
 dining-rooms, stores, etc. Especial care should be taken to protect 
 milk and milk utensils, since milk furnishes an excellent medium for 
 the growth of typhoid bacteria and is a common source of infection. 
 
 Flies may be driven from rooms by leaving one door open and darken- 
 ing all the rest. Then evaporate a spoonful of carbolic acid over a 
 lamp, or burn some pyrethrum insect-powder. They may be caught 
 on sticky .sheets, or poisoned with a sweetened 5 per cent solution of 
 commerical formaldehyde. 
 
 On isolated farms each owner has it in his power by proper measures 
 in the dis[)()sal of manure to reduce the fly nuisance to a minimum. In 
 towns the case is different; there cooperation is necessary. 
 
 In attempting to reduce the numbers of house-flies in the District of 
 Columbia, the health department has formulated a series of rules which 
 L. O. Howard has summarized as follows : — 
 
HOUSE-FLIES. PONDS 251 
 
 " All stalls in which animals are kept shall have the surface of the 
 ground covered with a water-tight floor. Every person occupying a 
 building where domestic animals are kept shall maintain, in connection 
 therewith, a bin or pit for the reception of manure, and, pending the 
 removal from the premises of the manure from the animal or animals, 
 shall place such manure in said bin or pit. This bin shall be so con- 
 structed as to exclude rain water, and shall in all other respects be water- 
 tight, except as it may be connected with the public sewer. It shall 
 be provided with a suitable cover, and constructed so as to pre\eat the 
 ingress and egress of flies. No person owning a stable shall keep any 
 manure or permit any manure to be kept in or upon any portion of the 
 premises other than the bin or pit described, nor shall he allow any such 
 bin or pit to be overfilled or needlessly uncovered. Horse manure 
 may be kept tightly rammed into well-covered barrels for the purpose 
 of removal in such barrels. Every person keeping manure in any of the 
 more densely populated parts of the District shall cause all such manure 
 to be removed from the premises at least twice every week between 
 June 1 and October 31, and at least once every week between Novem- 
 ber 1 and May 31 of the following year. No person shall remove or 
 transport any manure over any public highway in any of the more 
 densely populated parts of the District, except in a tight vehicle which, 
 if not inclosed, must be effectually covered with canvas, so as to prevent 
 the manure from being dropped. No person shall deposit maimre 
 removed from the bins or pits within any of the more densely populated 
 parts of the District without a permit from the health officer. Any 
 person violating any of the provisions shall, upon conviction thereof, 
 be punished by a fine not more than $40 for each offense." 
 
 Slime on Ponds 
 
 The slime, or algae, on ponds may be destroyed by copper sulfate. 
 The common spirogyra is dispatched by 1 part of the sulfate to 
 25,000,000 parts of water, and other forms by a stronger solution. 
 These weak solutions are little injurious to the higher plants and not 
 much so to any animals. A better way is to keep the toads and to 
 let their tadpoles eat the algae. Red-bellied minnows would also 
 help. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 
 Fungicides and Germicides for Plant Diseases 
 By Donald Reddick 
 
 Plant diseases are caused by parasitic fungi or by bacteria, or 
 otlier vegetable parasites; or by forms of physiological disturbance, 
 l-^ac'li tlisease calls for special treatment. Most plant diseases must 
 be preventetl, not cured. 
 
 It should be understood that spraying is only one of the control 
 measures effective against plant diseases. Many diseases are not 
 iitTectetl by spraying, though perhaps more are susceptible to this 
 treatment than to any other. 
 
 A satisfactory fungicide must be one that does not injure the plants 
 and at the same time is effective against the parasite. For spraying, ad- 
 ditional recjuirements are imposed; it should not dissolve readily in rain 
 water; it should adhere to foliage and fruit; in some cases it should 
 !)(• colorless in order not to make ornamentals more unsightly than 
 when diseased. The fungicide which has been used most for general 
 purposes is bordeaux mixture. Lately some other preparations, par- 
 ticularly lime-sulfur combinations, have come into use, and in many 
 ca.ses are supi)lanting bordeaux. There are in addition a large number 
 of other substances which have fungicidal value and are in more limited 
 use for specific cases. 
 
 Practices 
 
 Didwijing ajfeded parts. — It is important that all affected parts 
 should be removed and burned, if possible. In the fall all leaves 
 and fruit that have been attacked by fungi should be raked up 
 and burned. Diseased branches should be severed at some dis- 
 tance below the lowest visible point of attack. Fungous dis- 
 eases often spread rapidly, and prompt action is usually necessary. 
 Practice clean and tidy culture. 
 
 252 
 
STERILIZING 263 
 
 Rotation of crops. — One of the most effective and practical means of 
 heading off fungous diseases. Especially applicable to diseases oi 
 roots or root-crops, but also to many other diseases of annual 
 plants. 
 
 Sterilizing by steam. — An effective fungicidal practice for several soil-in- 
 habiting organisms which attack roots and stems. This includes 
 nematode worms. It is especially applicable in the greenhouse, 
 where it may be applied (a) through sub-irrigation tile or through 
 specially laid perforated steam pipes in the bottom of the 
 bed. Cover the beds with blankets, introduce steam under pres- 
 sure of 40 to 80 pounds for two hours. Insert thermometers at 
 various places to see that the soil is being uniformly heated. (6) 
 A large galvanized iron tight box may be constructed with finely 
 perforated trays 4 to 6 inches in depth. Soil placed in these 
 trays and steamed for two hours as above will be freed from par- 
 asitic organisms. In this case the frames should be sprayed with 
 a solution of formalin, 1 pint in 10 gallons of water. 
 
 Steam sterilization of soil may be used on intensively cultivated 
 areas or extensive seed-beds, A portable boiler is necessary. 
 The beds are sterilized after they have been prepared for seed, 
 and just before the seed is sown. A galvanized pan 10 bj' 6 feet 
 and 6 inches deep is inverted, and the edges are pushed down 
 into the soil one or two inches. The pan is connected with the 
 steam boiler by means of a steam hose and live steam is run into 
 the pan for about forty minutes under a pressure of 100 pounds 
 and up. The higher the pressure the more thoroughly the soil 
 will be sterilized. 
 
 The cost of sterilizing is approximately three-fourths of a cent 
 the square foot. It should be noted that soil sterilization has an 
 invigorating effect on the plants, and it will be necessary to run 
 greenhouses at a lower temperature (5°-10°) both night and day. 
 Field sterilization also kills weed seeds, and with the reduction of 
 the cost of weeding makes the process practicable. 
 
 Substances 
 
 Bordeaux mixture. — A bluish-green copper compound that settles 
 out when freshly slaked lime and a solution of copper sulfate (blue- 
 
254 Fi\\rrH'ii)f:s and germicides for plant diseases 
 
 stone) art' mixed. Many formulas have been recommended and 
 used. Tlie 5-5-50 formula may be regarded as standard. In such 
 a fonnula the first figure refers to the number of pounds of copper 
 sulfate, the second to the stone or hydrated lime, and the third 
 to the number of gallons of water. Bordeaux must often be used 
 as weak as 2-2-50, on account of injury to some plants. 
 
 To make 50 gallons of bordeaux mixture, proceed as follows: (1) 
 Pulverize 5 pounds of copper sulfate (blue vitriol), place in a glass, 
 wooden, or brass vessel, and add two or three gallons of hot water. 
 In another vessel slake 5 pounds of quicklime in a small amount 
 of water. When the copper sulfate is all dissolved, pour into a 
 barrel and add water to make 40 or 45 gallons. Now strain the 
 lime into this, using a sieve 50 meshes to the inch or a piece of 
 cheese-cloth sui)ported by ordinary screening. Stir thoroughly, 
 and add water to the 50-gallon mark. The fiocculent substance 
 which settles is the effective fungicide. Always stir vigorously before 
 filling the sprayer. Never add the strong lime to strong vitriol. 
 Always add a large amount of water to one or the other first. 
 Blue vitriol used alone would not only wash off quickly in a rain, 
 but cause a severe burning of fruit and foliage. Lime is added to 
 neutralize this burning effect of the copper. If the lime were 
 absolutely pure only slightly more than one pound would be re- 
 quired to neutralize this burning effect. For many purposes an 
 excess of lime is not objectionable and may be desirable. P'or 
 nearly ripe fruit and ornamentals an excess of lime augments 
 spotting. In such cases the least amount of lime possible should 
 be used. Determine this by applying the cyanide test (2). 
 
 (2) Secure from the druggist 10 cents' worth of potassium 
 ferrocyanide (yellow prussiate of potash) and dissolve it in water 
 in an S-ounce bottle. Cut a V-shaped slit in one side of the 
 cork, so that a few drops of the liquid can be obtained. Now 
 proceed as before. Add lime with constant stirring until a drop 
 of the ferrocyanide ccvises to give a reddish-brown color. 
 
 (3) When bonh^aux mixture is desired in large quantities, stock 
 solutions should be made. Place 100 pounds of copper sulfate in 
 a bag of coffee-sacking, and suspend in the top of a 50-gallon 
 barrel, and a<ld water to the 50-gallon mark. In twelve to fifteen 
 hours the vitriol will be dissolved and each gallon of solution will 
 
FUNGICIDES 255 
 
 contain 2 pounds of copper sulfate. Slake a barrel of lime, and 
 store in a tight barrel, keeping it covered with water. Lime so 
 treated will keep all summer. It is really hydrated lime. This is 
 often dried, pulverized, and offered on the market in paper bags 
 of 40 pounds, each, under such names as ground lime, prepared 
 lime, hydrated lime, etc. If the paper is not broken, the lime does 
 not air-slake for a long time. One and one third pounds of hydrated 
 lime equals in value one pound of quicklime. Air slaked lime 
 cannot be used in preparing bordeaux mixture. 
 
 Arsenical poisons can be combined with bordeaux mixture. 
 See Chapter XVII, page 290. 
 
 Ammoniacal copper carbonate. — For use on nearly mature fruit and on 
 ornamentals. Does not discolor. Weigh out 3 ounces of 
 copper carbonate, and make a thick paste with water in a wooden 
 pail. Measure 5 pints of strong ammonia (26° Beaum6) and 
 dilute with three or four parts of water. Add ammonia to the 
 paste, and stir. This makes a deep blue solution. Add water 
 to make 50 gallons. 
 
 Copper carbonate. — For use in the above formula, it may be obtained 
 as a green powder, or maybe prepared as follows: Dissolve 12 
 pounds of copper sulfate in 12 gallons of water in a barrel. 
 Dissolve 15 pounds of sal soda in 15 gallons of water (pref- 
 erably hot). Allow the solution to cool; then add the sal soda 
 solution to the copper sulfate solution, pouring slowly in order to 
 prevent the mixture from working up and running over. A fine 
 precipitate is formed which will settle to the bottom if allowed 
 to stand over night. Siphon off the clear liquid. Wash the pre- 
 cipitate by adding clear water, stirring, and allowing to settle. 
 Siphon off the clear water, strain the precipitate through muslin, 
 and allow it to dry. This is copper carbonate. The above 
 amounts will make about 6 pounds. 
 
 Copper sulfate. — See Sulfate of Copper, p. 258. 
 
 Corrosive sublimate (mercuric bichloride) . — Used for disinfecting 
 pruned stubs and cleaned-out cankers, at the rate of one part in 
 1000 parts of water. Can be secured from the druggist in tablet 
 form in vials of 25 each, and costing 25 cents. One tablet 
 makes a pint of solution. Make and store solution in glass and 
 label poison. 
 
2r)r» FUNGICIDES AND GERMICIDES FOR PLANT DISEASES 
 
 Formalin (forty per rent solution of formaldehyde gcOs in water). — 
 A pungent, clear liquid, very irritating to eyes and nose. Ob- 
 tained at any drug store at about 40 cents per pint. Used for 
 potato-scab, oat smut, bunt in wheat, soil disinfection, etc. 
 
 Lime. — OfTerod for sale in the following forms, (n) Ground rock 
 or ground limestone ; air-slaked lime is of the same comj)osition, 
 i.e. a carbonate of calcium, (b) Lump, barrel, stone, or quick lime ; 
 this is burned limestone, and should preferably test 90 per cent 
 oxide of calcium, (c) Prepared, ground, or hydrated lime ; this is 
 water or steam-slaked quicklime, dried and pulverized. Used as 
 an applicant to the soil to correct acidity (p. 77), for club-root of 
 cabbage, etc., and for preparing spray mixtures. 
 
 Lime-sulfur (see page 294). — In the many possible combinations, 
 lime-sulfur is coming to be equally as important as bordeaux mix- 
 ture, in the control of many plant diseases. 
 
 (a) A mixture of equal parts of dry lime and powdered sulfur 
 is often dusted on plants for surface mildews. 
 
 (h) A paste of equal parts of lime, sulfur, and water. This is 
 painted on the heating pipes in the greenhouse, and is valuable 
 for keeping off surface mildews. 
 
 (1) Home-boiled dilute lime-sulfur. This solution has been 
 widely used in the past as a dormant spray, particularly for San 
 Jos^ scale and peach leaf-curl. It is likely to be supplanted by 
 (2) or (3). For preparation see page 295. 
 
 (2) Home-boiled concentrated lime-sulfur. — When a great 
 deal of spraying is to be done, a concentrated lime-sulfur solution 
 may be boiled at home and stored in barrels to be used as needed. 
 For method of preparation see page 295. 
 
 Test with a Boaume hydrometer, which has a scale reading from 
 25° to 35°. Dilutions are reckoned from a standard solution 
 testing 32°. If the solution tests only 28°, it is not as strong 
 as standard, and cannot be diluted as much as a solution testing 
 32°. The table on opposite jiagc shows the pro{)er dilution for 
 solutions testing 25° to 35° Beaum6. 
 
 Decimals are given in all cases, but for practical purposes the 
 nearest even gallon or half gallon can be used, unless appliances for 
 more accurate measurement are at hand. It is understood in 
 making all dilutions that water is added to one gallon of the con- 
 
LIME-SULFUR 
 
 257 
 
 centrate to make the stated amount. Do not measm-e out the 
 stated amount of water and add the concentrated solution to it. 
 
 
 1-10 
 
 1-15 
 
 1-20 
 
 1-25 
 
 1-30 
 
 1-40 
 
 1-50 
 
 1-60 
 
 1-75 
 
 1-100 
 
 25"^ 
 
 7.4 
 
 11 
 
 14.7 
 
 18.4 
 
 22.1 
 
 29.5 
 
 36.8 
 
 44.2 
 
 55 
 
 73 
 
 26" 
 
 7.7 
 
 11.6 
 
 15.4 
 
 19.3 
 
 23.2 
 
 30.9 
 
 38.6 
 
 46.3 
 
 58 
 
 77.2 
 
 27" 
 
 8.1 
 
 12.1 
 
 16.1 
 
 20.2 
 
 24.3 
 
 32.4 
 
 40.5 
 
 48.5 
 
 60.6 
 
 80.7 
 
 28" 
 
 8.4 
 
 12.7 
 
 16.9 
 
 21.1 
 
 25.4 
 
 33.8 
 
 42.3 
 
 50.7 
 
 63.5 
 
 84.5 
 
 29° 
 
 8.8 
 
 13.2 
 
 17.6 
 
 22.1 
 
 26.5 
 
 35.3 
 
 44.2 
 
 53 
 
 66.3 
 
 88.2 
 
 80" 
 
 9.2 
 
 13.9 
 
 18.4 
 
 23 
 
 27.6 
 
 36.9 
 
 46.1 
 
 55.3 
 
 69 
 
 92 
 
 31" 
 
 9.6 
 
 14.4 
 
 19.3 
 
 24 
 
 28.8 
 
 38.4 
 
 48 
 
 58 
 
 72 
 
 96 
 
 32" 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 100 
 
 33" 
 
 10.4 
 
 15.6 
 
 20.8 
 
 26 
 
 31.2 
 
 41.5 
 
 52 
 
 62.4 
 
 78 
 
 104 
 
 34-^ 
 
 10.8 
 
 16.2 
 
 21.6 
 
 26.8 
 
 32.4 
 
 43.2 
 
 54 
 
 64.7 
 
 80.8 
 
 108 
 
 35" 
 
 11.2 
 
 16.8 
 
 22.4 
 
 28 
 
 33.4 
 
 44.9 
 
 56 
 
 67.4 
 
 84.2 
 
 112 
 
 (3) Commercial concentrated hme-sulfur. — As manufactured 
 and placed on the market is a clear amber liquid, and should test 
 32° to 35° Beaume. It costs about 20 cents per gallon retail, 
 and comes ready to pour into the spray tank. For ap{)le and 
 pear diseases. Arsenate of lead can be used with this .solution, and 
 increases its fungicidal value. 
 
 (4) Self-boiled lime-sulfur. This is a mechanical mixture of the 
 two substances, and is really not boiled, the heat being supplied by 
 the slaking lime. In a small barrel or keg place 8 pounds of 
 good quicklime. Add water from time to time in just sufficient 
 amounts to prevent burning. As soon as the lime begins to slake 
 well, add slowly (preferably through a sieve) 8 pounds of 
 sulfur flour. Stir constantly, and add water as needed. As soon 
 as all bubbling has ceased, check further action by adding a 
 quantity of cold water, or pour into a barrel or tank and make 
 up to 50 gallons. Keep well agitated. Very effective against 
 peach scab and brown rot. Several other formulas have been 
 used : 10-10-50 and 5-5-50. Arsenate of lead can be used with 
 this mixture. 
 
 By using boiUng water and allowing the hot mixture to stand for 
 half an hour, a stronger spray mixture of the above can be secured. 
 It cannot be used safely on peaches, but has been used success- 
 fully on grapes for surface mildew. The addition of sulfate of 
 
258 FUNGICIDES AND GERMICIDES FOR PLANT DISEASES 
 
 iron or sulfate of copper, one or two pounds to 50 gallons, has 
 been used for apple rust. 
 
 Potassium suljid (liver of sulfur). — Simple solution 3 ounces in 10 
 gallons of water. For mildew in greenhouses, on rose-bushes and 
 other ornamentals. 
 
 Htsin-sal-suila sticker. — Resin, 2 pounds ; sal soda (crystals), 1 pound, 
 water, 1 gallon. Boil until of a clear brown color, i.e. from one to 
 one and a half hours. Cook in an iron kettle in the open. Add 
 this amount to 50 gallons of bordeaux. Useful for onions, cab- 
 bage, and other plants to which spray does not adhere well. 
 
 Sulfate of copper (blue vitriol). — Dissolve 1 pound of pure sulfate of 
 copi)er ill 25 gallons of water. A specific for peach leaf-curl. 
 Apply once before buds swell in the spring. Cover every bud. 
 For use in preparing bordeaux mixture. Costs from 5 to 7 
 cents per pound, in quantity. 
 
 Sulfate of iron (copperas). — A greenish granular crystalline substance. 
 Dissolve 100 pounds in 50 gallons of water. For mustard in 
 oats, wheat, etc., apply at the rate of 50 gallons per acre. Also 
 for anthracnose of grapes as a dormant spray. 
 
 Sulfur (ground l)rimstone, sulfur flour, flowers of sulfur). — Should be 
 99 i)er cent pure. Valuable for surface mildews. Dust on dry 
 or ill the greenhouse used in fumes. Evaporate it over a steady 
 heat, as an oil stove, until the house is filled with vapor. Do not 
 heat to the burning point, as burning sulfur destroys most plants. 
 To prevent burning, place the sulfur and pan in a larger pan of 
 sand and set the whole upon the oil stove. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 Plant Diseases 
 By Donald Reddick 
 
 Some knowledge of the habits of the organism causing a disease is 
 asually necessary in order successfully to combat it and prevent its 
 ravages. Those diseases caused by powdery mildew fungi (which are 
 surface infestations) can be cured. Practically all others must be 
 prevented. 
 
 Fungi attacking parts of plants above ground are usually dissemi- 
 nated by means of spores. Water is often necessary to liberate the 
 spores from the fungus proper, and is nearly always necessary to permit 
 spore germination and infection of other plants. Heavy dew sometimes 
 furnishes sufficient moisture, but prolonged drizzling rains are more 
 favorable. For this reason a fungicide, in order to be effective against 
 such parasites, must be applied before the rain. If it is going to rain 
 to-morrow, spray to-day. But how know whether it is going to rain? 
 This can best be told from a study of the United States weather maps, 
 which are printed and distributed from the many weather stations, or 
 else appear in the daily papers. Storm periods, indicated by a " low " 
 barometer, travel quite regularly from west to east, and are usually 
 accompanied or followed by rain. This can be determined by noting 
 the amount of precipitation, if any, in the wake of the storm. Local 
 conditions are often a factor to be considered. A few minutes' study of 
 the weather map each day will soon make one reasonably efficient in 
 predicting the weather. See Chap. I. 
 
 It is unfortunate that a definite system of naming plant diseases has 
 not been formulated. Diseases of plants of a similar nature should 
 bear the same common name. The term "blight" is commonly used 
 for many kinds or forms of diseases. It might well be restricted to 
 bacterial diseases like fire-blight of pear or bean blight. When some 
 definite system of naming diseases is adopted, it is likely that a tabula- 
 
 259 
 
2C)0 PL A XT DfSKASES 
 
 tion of methods of control will 1)0 somewhat simplified, for if the 
 term "blight" is restricted to bacterial diseases of the nature of pear 
 blight, it will be understood that certain control measures, such as 
 spraying, will not be effective. At present, each case must be con- 
 sidered separately, and in the following pages the popular names are 
 used. These names are followed by the technical botanical name 
 of the organism causing the disease, in italics, and this by a brief 
 description of the disease, the most prominent symptom being men- 
 tioned first. 
 
 Certain General or Unclassified Diseases 
 
 Damping-off. — A term applied to the decay of young seedlings or cut- 
 tings at or near the surface of the ground. The trouble is due to 
 the action of various organisms, especially Pythium deBaryanum, 
 Phylopht flora cadorum, Rhizodonia sp., etc. Wet soil, confined 
 atmosphere, and crow'ded plants are conducive to damping-off. 
 
 Control. — Steam-sterilize seed or cutting beds. Sterilize nursery 
 see<l beds with formalin, using 1 gallon of 1 per cent solution to 
 the square foot, i.e. 1 pint of formalin in 12-15 gallons of water. 
 
 (Edema or Dropsy. — A disorder of various plants under glass, as 
 tomatoes, violets, geraniums, which have insufficient sunlight, 
 stimulating temperature and soil, and too much moisture. It has 
 also been observed on twigs of the apple. It is usually indicated 
 by elevated corky or spongy points or masses, much resembling 
 fungous injury. The leaves curl. The only remed}' is to improve 
 conditions under which the plants are grown. 
 
 Smuts of cereals. — Practically every cereal is attacked by a specific 
 smut fungus, and most of them by two perfectly distinct species. 
 These smuts are confined to a single species of cereal, and never 
 cross from one to another. Some of the smuts produce a loose 
 black spore-mass (loose smuts), while in others (covered smuts) 
 the seed coat of the grain is not affected, so that the smut is not 
 detected until the grain is broken open. The most important 
 difference to be noted, however, is the method of wintering. In 
 some the spores adhere to the surface of the seed and infect the 
 young seedling plant at the time of germination, while in the other 
 case the spores fall upon the blossoms and grow down into the seed 
 directly, there lying dormant until the seed is planted. 
 
THE SMUTS 2G1 
 
 Control. — The treatment is very different in the two cases. If 
 the spore is on the surface of the seed, it may be killed with forma- 
 lin; but if the seed is infected internally, a different treatment is 
 necessary. The formalin treatment is very simple and inex- 
 pensive. Select a clean place on the barn floor, and heap the 
 seed grain upon it. Make a solution of formalin at the rate of 1 
 pint of formalin to 50 gallons of water. Use as many gallons of 
 this solution as there are bushels of grain to treat. Shovel the 
 grain over, and at the same time spray the formalin over with a 
 sprinkling pot. Shovel over twice, and then cover two hours 
 or over night with blankets or canvas. Spread out the grain to 
 dry. Make allowance for swelling of the seed at the rate of one 
 peck per acre. When the infection is internal, the hot water process 
 of treatment must be resorted to. Obtain a reliable thermometer, 
 and make arrangements to keep a quantity of water at perfectly 
 uniform temperature. Soak the seed in water at ordinary tem- 
 perature for five to seven hours. Then place it in small loose 
 sacks or wire baskets containing not more than a half peck each, 
 and allow to drain. Provide two tubs or vats, of 30 or 40 gallons 
 capacity, which can be heated, or provide in addition an iron 
 kettle for heating a quantity of water. Heat the water in the 
 two vats to the temperature indicated below. Immerse the 
 drained sacks of seed in tub 1 to remove the chill, then 
 suspend in tub 2 for the indicated length of time. Keep the 
 temperature of tub 2 constant by applying heat or adding 
 small amounts of boiling water. Treat for the indicated time, 
 remove, and dry. 
 Barley. Covered Smut (Ustilago hordei). — The covering is thin 
 and easily broken, and when old may resemble loose smut. Seed- 
 ling infection. 
 
 Control. — Formalin, as indicated above. 
 liOOSE Smut ( Ustilago nuda). — The smutted heads are loose and 
 black from the first. Flower infection. 
 
 Control. — Hot water, as indicated above. The temperature of 
 tub 2 should be 127° F., and the seed should be left in fifteen 
 minutes. If the temperature of tub 2 varies slightly from 127°, 
 the length of treatment should be lengthened or shortened ac- 
 cordingly as the temperature is below or above that desired. 
 
262 PLANT DISEASES 
 
 In no case should the temperature go above 129° or below 124° F. 
 This treatment will also be effective for covered smut. 
 Oats. Loose Smuts ( Ustilago avencB and Ustilago levis). — Both 
 characteristic loose smuts, and both seedling infection. 
 
 Control. — Formalin treatment, as indicated above. 
 Whe.\t. Stinking Smut or Bunt {Tilletia foetens). — Can be de- 
 tected in the field by the flaring of the beards, in the bin by the 
 peculiar fetid odor and by breaking open the kernels. The 
 seed coat remains intact. Seedling infection. 
 
 Control. — Formalin treatment, as above. 
 Loose Smut {Ustilago tritici). — Characteristic loose smut of the 
 head appearing at blossoming time. Flower infection. 
 
 Control. — Hot water, as indicated above. The temperature 
 of tub 2 should be 129° F., and the seed should be left in ten 
 minutes. If the temperature of tub 2 should go above 129° or 
 fall below 126° the length of treatment should be diminished or 
 increased accordingly. In no case should the temperature go 
 above 131° or l)elow 124° F. 
 Storage rots (Penicillium e.xpansum and P. italicum). — These two 
 organisms are responsible for much of the rot appearing in storage 
 or transportation. The former is the common one on apples, the 
 latter on oranges and lemons. These organisms are not able to 
 enter through an unbroken surface, but are dependent upon 
 cracks, bruises, scab spots, etc. 
 
 Control. — Avoid puncturing the skins with shears or finger- 
 nails, handle and pack with care to prevent bruises, and spray to 
 prevent scab spots. Store at a temperature of 32°. In making 
 long distance shipments, pre-cool the car and ship under ice. 
 
 Diseases of different Plants or Crops 
 
 Alfalfa. Leaf Spot (Pseiidopeziza medicagiais). — Small black spots 
 on the leaves. Causes the leaves to turn yellow and fall. 
 
 Control. — Frequent close mowing usually holds the disease 
 
 in check. 
 
 Dodder (Cuscuta epithjmum). — A tangled mat of yellow threads 
 
 entwining the alfalfa stems. Usually appears in spots in the 
 
 field and spreads from these points. Is easily spread by the rake, 
 
APPLE DISEASES 263 
 
 and especially in seed. Dodder is not a fungus, but a specialized 
 parasitic plant of the morning-glory family. 
 
 Control. — As soon as discovered, cover the infested spot with 
 straw and oil and burn. Screen the alfalfa seed to remove seed of 
 dodder. Make a screen 12 inches square by 3 inches deep with 
 a 20 X 20 mesh wire-cloth made of No. 34 steel wire. Sift each 
 half pound of seed vigorously for one half minute. 
 Almond. Blight {Conjneum beijennkii).—^eQ Peach Blight, p. 275. 
 
 Yellows. See under Peach. 
 Apple. Blight. — The same disease as Pear Blight, which see. 
 
 Bitter-rot or Ripe-rot {Glomerella rufomacidans). — Produces a 
 browning and drying of the fruit. Progressing in concentric rings 
 from a central point. Attacks nearly mature fruit. Also occurs 
 on limbs, where it produces a canker scarcely distinguishable 
 from New York apple-tree canker (p. 264). 
 
 Control. — Trim out all cankers early in the spring, and remove 
 all mummied apples from the trees. In addition to the spray- 
 ings for apple scab, make three, four, or five sprayings with bor- 
 deaux mixture, 3-3-50, according to the severity of the disease 
 and the character of the summer as regards rainfall. 
 
 Black-rot of fruit. — Fruit stage of the New York apple-tree canker 
 disease, which see. 
 
 Blotch (Phyllosticta solitaria). — Attacks fruit, twigs, and leaves. 
 Blotches a quarter of an inch or more in diameter appear on the 
 fruit. These often coalesce, and the fruit often cracks deeply. 
 Scurfy cankers are formed on the twigs while very small ; circular 
 spots a quarter of an inch in diameter are formed on the leaves. 
 Ben Davis is especially susceptible. 
 
 Control. — Careful pruning to remove cankered twigs. Spray 
 as for apple scab and bitter rot. 
 
 Brown-rot. — See under Cherry (p. 267). 
 
 Canker. — Smooth cankers in bark of trunk and limbs usually in- 
 dicate blight, rough ones New York apple-tree canker. 
 
 Collar-rot. — A dead area in the bark near the ground ; often 
 girdles the tree. Cause not known. May be started in some 
 cases by the fire-blight organism, in others by winter injury. Com- 
 mon on King, Baldwin, and Ben Davis. 
 
 Remedy. — As soon as noticed, cut away dead bark and wood 
 
;G4 plant diseases 
 
 to the livin<^ hcaltliy tissue. Swab the wound with a solution of 
 corrosive suhliniate, 1 :1()()0, and paint over with a lead paint which 
 is free from turpentine. Slit the callus on the ed^e from year to 
 year to make it spread faster, and keep dead wood well protected 
 with paint. 
 
 Crow.\-(;.\ll (Bacterium lumejaciens) . — See under Peach, p. 276. 
 
 New York Appij:-tree Canker {Spharopsis malorum). — The 
 fungus causing the tlisease attacks limbs, causing roughened 
 cankers and often gii'dling the limb ; attacks leaves, causing a 
 reddish brown leaf-spot, and on the fruit produces a black rot. 
 Alnmdant on Twenty Ounce. 
 
 Control. — Remove and burn old cankers. Clean out and dis- 
 infect small cankers as for collar-rot. Soak old limbs well with 
 spray mixture when spraying for scab. Spraying as for apple scab 
 usually controls black rot of fruit, though in the Ozark region 
 a late spraying may be advisable for leaf-spot. Cultivate 
 thoroughly. 
 
 Powdery Mildew (Sphcerothecn leucotricha) . — Attacks nursery 
 stock, covering the leaves with a grayish white, powdery mildew. 
 Also on leaves and twigs of new growth in the orchard, often 
 causing the leaves to fall. 
 
 Remedy. — Lime-sulfur, 1-40, as applied for scab is a specific. 
 
 Rust {Gijmnosporangium jnacropus). — A bright yellow rust appear- 
 ing on the young leaves and fruit. Enfeebles the whole tree and 
 produces one-sided fruits. It is known that one stage in the cycle 
 of the fungus is the cedar apple, which occurs on the red cedar. 
 Apples are always infected from the cedar, never from apple 
 to apple. 
 
 Control. — Destroy red cedars in the neighborhood, also wild 
 apples and hawthorns. Spray thoroughly in the spring as for scab. 
 
 Scab ( Venturia imequalis). Olive green, brownish or blackish 
 scab-like spots on leaves and fruit. Arrests growth, and often 
 cau.ses distortion. In severe cases may make the leaves and 
 young fruit fall. Makes leaves susceptible to spray injury. The 
 fungus is known to be dependent upon weather conditions, as out- 
 lined in the Ix'ginning of this chapter. The fungus winters reg- 
 ularly on the dead fallen leaves. In the milder climate of Vir- 
 ginia, the fungus may winter on the twigs. 
 
APRICOT — BEAN 265 
 
 Control. — Rake and burn leaves, or plow under very early 
 (before blossom buds open). Spray with lime-sulfur 32° Beaum^, 
 1-40, or bordeaux, 3-3-50: {a) when blossom buds show pink, 
 but before they open ; (6) when the majority of petals have fallen ; 
 (c) three weeks after h depending upon the weather ; {d) if a late 
 attack is feared, spray thoroughly before the fall rains begin. 
 
 Apricot. Leaf-rust. — See under Plum, p. 279. 
 Yellows. — See under Peach, p. 276. 
 Black-spot or Scab. — See under Peach. 
 
 Asparagus. Rust. — {Puccinia asparagi). A rust of the tops, which 
 is often so severe as to kill them, thus interfering with root de- 
 velopment. 
 
 Control. — Three weeks after cutting stops dust the young tops 
 with dry sulfur at the rate of ll sacks of sulfur per acre. This 
 should be done very early in the morning while the dew is 
 still on, and only on a dewy morning. In a month or less make 
 another application, using 2 sacks of sulfur per acre. The 
 sulfur must go on in a dusty, smoky cloud and form a covering 
 over all the growth. Flowers of sulfur is more satisfactory for 
 this work, and is less expensive in the long run. Dusting machines 
 may be obtained on the market. 
 
 Barley. Smut. — See under Smut of Cereals, p. 260. 
 
 Bean. Anthracnose or Pod-spot {Colletotrichum lindemuthianum). — 
 Reddish-brown scab-like spots appearing on stems, pods, and veins 
 of leaves, particularly on yellow-podded snap beans. The fungus 
 grows through the pod and into the young bean seed. It lies dor- 
 mant in the seed, and becomes active when the bean is planted. 
 Control. — Select pods which are free from the spots and save 
 the seed for planting. Such seed will grow a clean crop. If dis- 
 ease appears in the garden, it can be controlled by thoroughly 
 hand spraying the vines from beneath as well as above, repeating 
 the operation every ten days as long as necessary. 
 Blight {Bacterium phaseoli). —A bacterial disease. Causes large, 
 papery spots on leaves and watery spots on pods. 
 Control. — As for Anthracnose. 
 
 Bean, Lima. — Blight (Phytophthora phaseoli). — Attacks the pods 
 in August and September, covering them with a white, felted coat- 
 ing. It also attacks shoots and leaves. 
 
266 PLANT DISEASES 
 
 Control. — Spray with bordeaux, 4-4-50, beginning about 
 August first, and making applications at intervals of ten days or 
 two weeks. 
 Beet. Heart-rot {Phomn betcc). — Leaves appear spotted late in 
 July, then wilt, and finally a dry heart rot appears. 
 
 Control. — Destroy infected plants. Practice long rotation. 
 Treat seed with formalin, 1 pint in 30 gallons of water. 
 Leaf-spot (Cercospora beticola). — Ashen gray spots with reddish 
 borders occurring on leaves. In advanced stages, leaf becomes 
 much cracked and torn. 
 
 Control. — Spray with bordeaux mixture, 4-4-50, at frequent 
 intervals. 
 Scab (Oospora scabies). — Fungus produces a scabby patch on the 
 root. The same disease as potato scab. 
 
 Control. — Avoid planting beets after potatoes for several years. 
 Blackberry. Anthracnose. — See under Raspberry, p. 280. 
 Crown-gall or Root-gall (Bacterium tumefaciens) . — A bacterial 
 disease which soon ruins the bushes. 
 
 Treatment. — Plow up and burn all bushes in a diseased patch. 
 Plant clean roots in a new place. 
 Red or Orange Rust. — See under Raspberry. 
 Brussels sprouts. Club-root. — See under Cabbage. 
 Cabbage. Club-root or Club-foot {Plasmodiophora brassicce). — 
 A contorted swelling of the roots of cabbage in the seed bed or 
 field, preventing the plant from heading and causing it to assume 
 a sickly color. Occurs on many allied plants — turnips, cauli- 
 flower, Brussels sprouts, chard, radish, wild mustard, etc. 
 
 Control. — Destroy affected seedlings. Rotate crops, and do 
 not follow with other susceptible crops. Keep down weeds on 
 which disease occurs. Lime the soil at least eighteen months 
 before planting to cabbage, using at the rate of two tons of quick- 
 lime to the acre. 
 Black-rot (Bacillus campestre). — The bacteria causing this disease 
 get into the sap tubes, turn them black, and cause the leaves to 
 drop, thus preventing heading. 
 
 Control. — Practice crop rotation. Soak the seed for fifteen 
 minutes in a solution of mercuric chloride, one tablet in a pint of 
 water. 
 
CA RNA TION — CHERR Y 267 
 
 Carnation. Rust ( Uromyces caryophyllinus) . — Produces brown, pow- 
 dery pustules on stems and leaves. 
 
 Control. — Take cuttings only from healthy plants. Pick off 
 diseased leaves. Spray once in two weeks with a solution of 
 copper sulfate, 1 pound to 20 gallons. Keep water from leaves, 
 and grow the plants at as low temperature as is compatible with 
 best development. 
 Stem-rot {Rhizodonia and Fusarium). — The former produces a 
 sudden wilting of the plant, and the stems are soon dead and dry. 
 The latter produces a slow rot of the heart, one branch dying at 
 a time. The treatment is the same. 
 
 Control. — In the field change the location every year. In the 
 greenhouse sterilize the soil with steam. 
 Cauliflower. See under Cabbage. 
 
 Celery. Early Leaf-blight {Cercospora apii). — A spotting and 
 eventual blighting of the leaves early in the summer. Begins in 
 the seed-bed. It is favored by hot weather, either wet or 
 dry. 
 
 Control. — Spray with ammoniacal copper carbonate, 5-3-50, 
 beginning in the seed bed and keeping the new growth covered 
 throughout the season. 
 Late Blight (Septoria petroselini var. apii). — A fungous disease, 
 appearing late in the season, causing a blight of the foliage, and 
 often destructive after the celery is stored. 
 
 Control. — As above, except that spraying should be continued 
 up to harvesting time. In either case, the disease is practically 
 controlled by growing the plants under half shade. 
 Cherry. Brown-rot {Sclerotinia fructigena) . — Attacks flowers, leaves, 
 and fruit. The flowers die and decay, the leaves become discolored 
 with irregular brown spots, and the fruit rots on the tree. Attacks 
 also peaches, plums, and apples. 
 
 Control. — Spray with bordeaux mixture, 4-4-50, or lime-sulfur, 
 1-40, (a) just before the blossom buds open; (6) just after the 
 blossoms fall; (c) make one or two more applications at intervals 
 of ten days. 
 Leaf-rust. See under Plum, p. 279. 
 
 Powdery Mildew (Podosphoera oxycanthce). — Attacks leaves and 
 twigs, often causing defoliation. Serious on nursery stock. Spray- 
 
268 PLANT DISEASES 
 
 ing as for brown rot usually controls this trouble. If it appears, 
 
 spray with lime sulfur, 1-40, or dust heavily with powdered sulfur. 
 
 I^AF-si'OT {("i/lindrosporiuni padi). — A fungous disease in which 
 
 the leaves become thickly spotted with reddish or brown spots and 
 
 fall prematurely. The spots often droi) out, leaving shot holes. 
 
 Control. — Spray with lime sulfur, 1-40, or with bordeaux 
 
 mixture, 4-4-50, as for brown rot. 
 
 WiNTEU Injliiy. — Trees so injured make a scant growth; many 
 
 leaves turn yellow and fall about picking time; gum exudes at the 
 
 crotches and about the trunk; sometimes the bark on the stock is 
 
 entirely killed, in which case the tree languishes and finally dies. 
 
 Conlrol. — It is thought that heavy applications of highly nitrog- 
 enous fertilizers in late summer favor winter injury. Do not 
 stimulate the tree to too active wood development. Cut out the 
 gum pockets and cankers, and paint them with a heavy lead paint. 
 Chestnut. B.\rk Disease {D iapor the parasitica) . — A fungous disease, 
 attacking the bark of the American chestnut. Limbs and trunk 
 are ginlled, and the tree dies. The disease is present in many of 
 the nurseries. 
 
 Control. — Inspect nursery stock very carefully, especially 
 about pruned stubs. Discard diseased trees. Make a careful 
 examination of old trees, especially about old wounds and pruned 
 stubs. If the disease is present, clean out the diseased wood with 
 a gouge, and coat heavily with gas-tar. If the disease has pro- 
 gressed far, cut off diseased limbs or the whole tree and burn at 
 once. Keep all wounds and pruned stubs covered with gas-tar. 
 Chrysanthemum. Leaf-spot {Septoria chnjsanthemi). — First ap- 
 pears as dark brown spots, which increase in size until the leaf dies. 
 Control. — Pick and burn diseased leaves. Spray the plants 
 with bordeaux mixture, 4-4-50. 
 Rust (Puccinia chrysanthemi). — Reddish brown rust pustules on 
 the leaves. 
 
 Control. — Avoid wetting the foliage when watering. Spray 
 JUS for Leaf Spot. 
 Corn. Iv\u-R()T (Diplodia zecc). — Several other organisms may cause 
 an ear rot, but this is the more connnon one. The ear is imper- 
 fectly developed, soft, and overrun with a whitish mold. In 
 many cases the husks and silk are also involved. 
 
CORN — CRANBERRY 269 
 
 Control. — Destroy old infected ears and stalks. Practice a 
 rotation which will exclude corn for two years from or near the 
 given plat of ground. 
 Rust {Puccinia maydis). — Reddish pustules on the blades. Com- 
 mon on some varieties of sweet corn. 
 
 Control. — No satisfactory method of control is known. 
 Smut ( Ustilago zece). — Attacks stalks, ears, and tassels, produc- 
 ing abnormal boils or outgrowths. Will infect at actively growing 
 points at any time. 
 
 Control. — Rotate crops. Do not manure corn ground. Cut 
 out smut and burn it. Soaking seed is of no avail. 
 Cotton. Anthracxose {Colletotrichum c^oss^/pu). — Forms black or 
 purplish colored spots on bolls. Disease also occurs on seed leaves 
 and on the leaves and stems. Select seed from fields free from the 
 disease. Rotate crops. Use disease-resistant varieties. 
 Root-rot (Ozonium omnivorum). — Easily recognized by the sudden 
 wilting and dying of the plants in the field. 
 
 Control. — A combination of rotation of crops and deep fah 
 plowing is effective. 
 Wilt (Fusarium vasinfeda) . — Csmses a gradual wilt and eventual 
 
 death of leaves and stems. . . 
 
 Control. - Rotate crops. Secure seed of wilt-resistant varieties 
 
 of cotton. .. rp. f 
 
 Cranberry. Blast or Scald (Guignardia vaccinn). -The tungus 
 causes a blast of the flowers and very young fruits, and attacks 
 older fruits, causing them to appear scalded or watery. 
 
 Control. -Spv2.y five or six times with bordeaux mixture. 
 5-5-50, to whichhas been added 4 pounds of resin fish oil soap, mak- 
 ing the first appUcation just before the blossoms open. Long 
 lines of hose are most satisfactory for this work, and the spraying 
 must be done thoroughly. 
 
 Rot. (Acanthorhynchus vaccinii). - A disease which cannot be di.- 
 tinguished from scald with the naked eye. 
 Control. — As for Scald. 
 
 Hypertrophy {E.vobasidium oxy cocci). - \ppeavson the young 
 leaves soon after the water has been let off in the spring. Th 
 axiUarv leaf buds are attacked and produce short shoots nmIU 
 rair Use, enlarged, swollen, and distorted leaves which are 
 
270 PLANT DISEASES 
 
 pink or li^ht rose color. The production of fruit is prevented 
 or reduced. 
 
 Control. — Early spraying with bordeaux mixture has been 
 advised. 
 Cucumber. Anthr.\c\ose. — See under Muskmelon, p. 274. 
 JiLi(;HT or Mildew {Pseudoperonospora cuhensis). — A blighting and 
 premature yellowing of the foliage. 
 
 Control. — Spray with bordeaux mixture, 5-5-50. Commence 
 to spray when the plants begin to run, and repeat every ten to 
 fourteen days throughout the season. 
 Wilt {Bacillui^ trachciphilus). — This is a disease caused by bacteria 
 that get into the sap tubes of the leaf and stem, clog and destroy 
 them, causing the plant to wilt. The bacteria are distributed 
 chiefly by the striped cucumber beetle. 
 
 Control: — Control the striped beetle. See p. 318. Gather 
 and destroy all wilted leaves and plants. 
 Wilt (caused by malnutrition). — Excessive fertilizing with highly 
 nitrogenous fertilizers will sometimes produce a peculiar curling 
 and wilting of the leaves. 
 Currant. Anthracxose (Gla^osporium ribis). — Small dark brown 
 spots, chiefly on the upper surface of the leaf. The leaves finally 
 turn yellow, and fall in July or August. 
 
 Control. — Thorough applications of bordeaux mixture, 5-5-50. 
 Leaf-spot (Septoria ribis, Cercospora angulata etc.). — Whitish 
 spots with black centers. Appears in midsummer, and causes 
 defoliation. 
 
 Control. — As for Anthracnose. 
 Wilt or Caxe-blight. — A destructive fungous disease which 
 causes the canes to die suddenly. Character of the wilting much 
 like that produced by the cane-borer. 
 
 Control. — Xo satisfactory method known. The most that 
 can be done is to go over the patch three or four times during the 
 summer, cut out and burn the blighted canes. 
 Ginseng. Rli(;ht (Alternaria panaci.^^). — Pajiery brown spots on the 
 leaves, which spread until the whole leaf is involved. Also at- 
 tacks the seed heads, producing a blast. 
 
 Control. — In the spring before the plants come through the 
 ground spray the soil thoroughly with copper sulfate, 1 pound to 
 
GINSENG — GRAPE 271 
 
 10 gallons of water. As the plants are breaking through the soil, 
 spray with bordeaux, 3-3-50. Spray repeatedly while the plants 
 are coming through the ground, making a special effort to cover 
 the stems. Keep all growth covered with spray throughout 
 the summer. Spray the seed heads thoroughly just after the blos- 
 soms fall, and again when they are two-thirds grown. Destroy 
 all diseased tops. 
 Fiber Rot (Thielavia basicola). — Commonly called rust or rusty 
 root, from the characteristic appearance. The plants eventually 
 wilt and die. 
 
 Control. — Treat the soil with acid phosphate at the rate of 
 1000 pounds to the acre. Dip the roots in bordeaux mixture, 
 3-3-50, before planting. 
 Mildew (Phytophthora cadorum). — Attacks tops shortly after 
 they come up. 
 
 Control. — Thorough spraying early, as for blight, will control 
 this disease. 
 Wilt {Acrostalagmus sp.). — A sudden wilting of the whole plant, 
 caused by the action of the fungus in the sap tubes of the 
 root. 
 
 Control. — Remove the wilted plants as soon as discovered in 
 order to prevent further spread. 
 Root-rot. — Caused by various soil organisms. Favored by wet, 
 soggy soil. 
 
 Control. — Underdrain the soil thoroughly. 
 Golden-seal. — Consult treatments under Ginseng. 
 Gooseberry. — Mildew {Sphaerotheca mors-uvcc). — A powdery mil- 
 dew attacking the fruit and young growth of English varieties of 
 gooseberry. 
 
 Control. — As soon as the leaves begin to unfold, spray with 
 potassium sulfid, 1 ounce to 2 gallons of water. 
 Rust {Mcidium ^rosswZan^). — Orange-colored rust pustules on 
 the fruit and under side of the leaves. 
 
 Control. — Early spraying as for Mildew. Keep down sedges 
 
 and grasses. 
 
 Grape. Anthracnose (Sphaceloma ampelinum) . — Occurs on the 
 
 fruit as a definite dark brown spot with a lighter auriole ; on 
 
 canes as deep pits with an elevated red margin, and on veins of 
 
'2 PLANT DISEASES 
 
 the loaves, causing the leaves to crimp. Occurs on all varieties, 
 especially Roger's hybrids. Not so abundant as formerly. 
 
 Control. — It is said that an early spraying before the buds 
 open with sulfate of iron, 100 pounds to 50 gallons of water, is 
 very important. Later sprayings for black rot will also be 
 effective in preventing spread. 
 
 BL.\rK-HnT {(iui(jnnrdia hidwclUi). — The most serious disease of 
 grapes east of the Rocky Mountains, especially southward. At- 
 tacks all green parts. Produces a brown circular spot on leaves, 
 a black, elongated, sunken pit on petioles, canes, etc., and on the 
 berry a brown rot with shriveling and wrinkling ; finally the 
 berry becomes black and hard. 
 
 Control. — This disease may be controlled by timely applica- 
 tions of bordeaux mixture, 4-4-50. It is of great importance that 
 spraying be done before rain storms, as the berry enlarges so 
 rapidly. Spray {a) when the third or fourth leaf has unfolded ; 
 (6) as soon as the blossoms have fallen; (c) when the berries are 
 the size of a pea ; {d) in about two weeks. In a wet season make 
 two more applications. After July 20 make the bordeaux 4-2-50, 
 or use ammoniacal copper carbonate. In case of dense foliage 
 all applications except the first two should be made by hand. 
 Attach trailers to the sprayer, and have two men following to 
 apply the spray directly to the clusters. About ten acres can be 
 sprayed in a day, and the total cost of labor and material should 
 not exceed 75 cents per acre for each application. 
 
 California Vine-disease. — An obscure disease, which destroj'^ed 
 thousands of acres of vines in California. Cause not known, 
 and at present practically unknown and of no importance eco- 
 nomically. 
 
 Crown-gall or Black Knot {Bacterium tumefaciens) . — A tu- 
 morous, gnarled outgrowth on roots and stems, especially on Euro- 
 pean varieties. Frost injury often forms an infection court for 
 the bacteria. See p. 276. 
 
 Control. — Grub out and I)urn infected vines. 
 
 Downy Mildew or I.eaf-blkjht {Phismopdra viiicola). — Appears 
 in white frost like patches on under side of leaf, the upper side of the 
 leaf showing a yellowish discoloration ; gradually spreads to all 
 parts of the leaf causing it to dry up. Attacks the berry, which 
 
GRAPE — LETTUCE 273 
 
 remains hard and white or gray. Worst on hybrids with vinifcra 
 blood ; especially common on Delaware and Roger's hybrids. 
 Widespread in North America. 
 
 Control. — Spray as for Black-rot. 
 Necrosis or Dead- arm Disease (FusicoccummYico/wm). —Attacks 
 shoots, and progresses from there to the old wood, causing a dry 
 rot and eventual death of the vine. 
 
 Control. — Inspect canes at trimming time, and use care not to 
 leave those on which the brownish black spots are present. Train 
 up renewals from the root, and cut off the old stem below the dis- 
 eased area. 
 Ripe-rot {Glomerella rufomaculans) . — See under Apple, p. 263. 
 
 Treatment as for black-rot is efficacious. 
 Shelling or Rattles. — Cause unknown. The berry breaks 
 squarely off at its juncture with the pedicle. The leaves on such 
 vines usually turn reddish brown about the margin. Powdery 
 mildew is sometimes responsible for shelling. 
 Control. — No method is known. 
 Hollyhock. Anthracxose {Colletotrichum malvarum). — Angular 
 brown spots on leaves and stems which spread, killing the entire 
 leaf. 
 
 Control. — As for Rust. 
 Rust (Puccinia malvacearum) . — Attacks all parts of the plant, 
 causing reddish brown pustules on affected parts ; later leaving 
 deep pits ; may entirely destroy the leaves. It is abundant on 
 the common mallow or " cheeses." 
 
 Control. — Eradicate the mallow ; pick off diseased leaves in 
 the fall, and burn all litter. Repeat in the spring, and spray new 
 growth thoroughly with bordeaux mixture, 4-3-50. Spray every 
 week until the flower-stalks are well developed. 
 Lettuce. Leaf Perforation (Marssonia perforans). — Dead areas 
 in the leaves which finally drop out. Also on veins of the leaves. 
 Control. — As for Rosette (p. 274). 
 Downy IVIildew {Bremia lactucce). — Y qWow spots on the upper 
 surface of the leaf, accompanied by a frosty growth on the opposite 
 side. 
 
 Control. — Destroy infected plants. Keep water from the 
 leaves ; furnish water by means of subirrigation. 
 
1>74 PLANT DISEASES 
 
 Drop or Rot {Sderotinia libertiana). — Base of the leaves or stem 
 rots off, allowing leaves to drop. 
 
 Control . — Sterilize the soil with steam before planting. See 
 under Ste<im in Cliapter XV, p. 253. 
 RosEiTE {lihizodonia sp.). — A rotting or daniping-off of the stem. 
 Late affected plants have a rosetted appearance. 
 
 Control. — Start seed in steam-sterilized soil, and transfer to 
 beds that have l)een sterilized with steam, as for Drop. 
 Muskraelon. Anthracn'Ose ( Colletotrichum lagenarium) . — Dead spots 
 on the leaves and stems and sunken pits on the fruit. Thorough 
 and frequent spraying with bordeaux mixture will hold this dis- 
 ea.se in check. 
 Do w.\ Y Mildew. — The .same disease as on cucumbers (p. 270) . Often 
 very destructive. 
 
 Control. — A satisfactory method is not known. Spraying as 
 for cucumber mildew has not proved effective. 
 Wilt. — See Cucumber. 
 Nectarine. Yellows, etc. See under Peach, p. 276. 
 Nursery Stock. — Foliage on young trees is apt to be attacked by 
 various leaf-spot fungi. The damage comes in reducing growth, 
 thus often making seconds. Several applications of bordeaux 
 mixture to keep the new growth protected are beneficial. 
 Oats. Rust {Puccinia coronata). — A red rust of the blades. 
 Control. — There is no known method of control. 
 Smut. — See under Smut of Cereals, p. 260. 
 Onion. Mildew (Peroriospora schleideniana) . — Causes a wilt or 
 blight of the leaves. 
 
 Control. — Spray with bordeaux mixture, 5-5-50, to which has 
 been added one gallon of resin-sal-soda sticker. The first applica- 
 tion should be made when the third leaf has developed, and the 
 application should be repeated every ten days until the crop is har- 
 vested. 
 Smut ( Urocydis cepulw). — Forms black pustules on the leaves and 
 bulbs. Seedlings may be killed outright. 
 
 Control. — Onions from sets or from seed started m soil free 
 from the di.sea.se S(>ld()m have the smut. Practice crop rotation. 
 Drill into the soil with the seed 100 pounds of sulfur and 50 
 pounds of air-slaked lime to the acre. 
 
ONION — PEA CH 275 
 
 Pea. Mildew (Erysiphe polygoni). — A powdery mildew on pods and 
 
 leaves. 
 
 Control. — Dust dry sulfur over the plants, repeating the opera- 
 tion if necessary. 
 Pod Spot and Leaf-spot (Ascochyta pisi). — Black circular spots on 
 stems, leaves, and buds. The fungus grows through the pod into 
 the seed, and is thus carried through the winter. 
 
 Control. — Select pods free from spots, and save the seed from 
 these for the next year's planting. On a large scale have a clean 
 seed garden in which to grow clean seed for the following year. 
 Peach. Blight {Coryneum beyerinkii). — A spotting, gumming 
 and death of the buds and twigs, particularly in the lower 
 part of the tree. The fruit drops. Especially serious in Cali- 
 fornia. 
 
 Control. — For California conditions two applications of spray 
 are made : (a) in November or December, and (6) in February or 
 March. This also controls leaf-curl. Bordeaux mixture, 5-5-50, 
 or lime-sulfur, 1-10, may be used. 
 Brown-rot {Scerotinia frudigena). — Causes a rot of the fruit, and 
 often runs down the spur, forming a canker in the limb. Also 
 produces brownish irregular spots on the leaves. 
 
 Control. — Spray with self-boiled lime-sulfur, 8-8-50, adding 
 2 pounds of arsenate of lead. Spray first about time shucks are 
 shedding from young fruit; second, two to three weeks later, and 
 third, about one month before the fruit ripens. Omit the arsenate 
 of lead from the third spraying. On early maturing varieties two 
 applications may be sufficient. Spraying within a month of 
 picking time is apt to leave the fruit spotted. It is especially im- 
 portant that sprayings be made before a continued storm period. 
 Destroy rotten peaches. The rotten ones on the ground are as 
 great a menace (especially if plowed under) as those on the tree, 
 as the fungus winters readily on the fallen mummies. Brown-rot 
 also occurs on cherries, plums, apricots, and sometimes on apples 
 and pears. 
 Leaf-curl {Exoascus deformans). — Causes the leaves to crimp and 
 curl and often to turn bright red. Also causes shoots to swell 
 and become distorted. 
 
 Control — In an infected orchard more than 90 per cent ot 
 
>76 PLANT DISEASES 
 
 the curl can be controlled the first year. The second year control 
 should be complete. The secret of control of leaf-curl lies largely 
 in the thoroughness with which the work is done. A number of 
 spray substances may be used. A single thorough application 
 before the buds swell in the spring is sufficient. Every bud 
 must be covered and from all sides. Lime-sulfur as applied for 
 San J()s<5 scale will control curl. Commercial lime-sulfur, 1-20; 
 bordeaux mixture, 4-4-50; or a simple solution of blue vitriol 
 in water, 2-50, are all specifics. 
 
 Le.\f-hlst. — See under Plum (p. 279). 
 
 LiTTLE-PE.\cH. — A disease that in its early stages resembles 
 yellows. It differs from yellows in producing small fruit 
 that matures later than normally. Fruit docs not have the small 
 red spots characteristic of yellows, nor are there slender sickly 
 branches. The cause of this disease is unknown. Apparently 
 spreads more rapidly than yellows and commonly destroys the 
 affected tree sooner. Occurs in the northern states. 
 Preventive. — As for Yellows (sec ne.xt page). 
 
 Powdery mildew (SpfuBrotheca pannosa). — A w^hitish powdery 
 growth on the young shoots and leaves, and whitish spots on the 
 fruit. 
 
 Control. — Self-boiled lime-sulfur as for Rot. 
 
 Root-gall, Root-Knot, Crown-gall, Hairy-root {Bacterium 
 tumefacicns). — Hairy roots or tumerous outgrow^ths on the roots 
 and root crowns ; sometimes occurs on trunks and limbs. Pri- 
 marily a nursery disease. Does not seem to be a serious disease 
 on peaches in the North, but is reported as very serious in the 
 South. Attacks a wide range of orchard plants, including apple, 
 pear, brambles, grape, etc. 
 
 Control. — Reject all stock showing symptoms. 
 
 Rosette. — An obscure southern disease of peach trees and some 
 kinds of plums, characterized by bunchy growths containing very 
 many rolled and yellowish leaves which fall prematurely. The 
 tree dies the first or second year. There is no premature fruit as 
 in yellows. It is often accompanied by gummosis of the roots. 
 The disease is communicable by budding, and it may enter through 
 the roots. All affected trees should be exterminated. Known 
 in South Carolina, Georgia, Kansas, and Arkansas. 
 
PEACH AND PEAR DISEASES 277 
 
 Scab or Black-spot (Cladosporiiim cnrpophilum). ~ Black scab- 
 like spots on the fruit, often causing it to crack deeply. 
 
 Control. — Self-boiled lime-sulfur, as applied for Browx-hot. 
 Yellows. — A fatal disease of peaches ; also attacks nectarine, 
 almond, apricot, and Japanese plum. Cause unknown. The 
 first symptom in bearing trees is usually the premature ripening 
 of the fruit. This fruit contains definite small red spots, which 
 extend towards the pit. The second stage is usually the appear- 
 ance of " tips," or short, late, second growths upon the ends of 
 healthy twigs, and which are marked by small, horizontal, usually 
 yellowish leaves. The next stage is indicated by very slender 
 shoots, which branch the first year and which start in tufts from the 
 old limbs, bearing narrow and small yellowish leaves. Later the 
 entire foliage becomes smaller and yellow. In three to six years the 
 tree dies. The disease spreads from tree to tree. It attacks 
 trees of any age. Known at present only in regions east of the 
 Mississippi. Peculiar to America, so far as known. 
 
 Preventive. — Pull up and burn all trees as soon as the disease 
 appears. Trees may be reset in the places from which the 
 " yellows " trees were taken. Laws aiming to suppress the disease 
 have been enacted in most peach-growing states, and the enforce- 
 ment of them will keep the disease well under control. 
 Pear. Blight {Bacillus amylovorus). — A very serious bacterial 
 disease. Bacteria winter just at the edge of the dead wood in 
 trees blighted the previous year. With the advent of warm spring 
 days they ooze through the bark in sticky drops and are carried by 
 bees and flies to blossoms. The blossoms blight, and the spur may 
 also blight. Plant-lice carry bacteria from blighted blossoms to 
 spurs and shoots. If a spur becomes blighted, the bacteria may 
 spread in the bark of the limb, causing a depression or canker. 
 This may girdle the limb and cause its death. The leaves turn 
 black and stick tenaciously, even through the winter. Succulent 
 water sprouts are very apt to blight and cause large cankers. 
 Generally distributed in North America, and known only in 
 America. Attacks apple, quince, mountain ash, hawthorn ; the 
 Spitzenburgh is specially liable to attack. 
 
 Control. — Clean up hedgerows of hawthorn, old blighted 
 pear trees and apple trees. In early spring cut out the blight 
 
278 PLANT DISEASES 
 
 of the i)n'vi()as year and disinfect the stubs with corrosive sub- 
 linialc, 1-1 (K)(). Clean out cankers with a sharp knife, and dis- 
 infect. Paint over with lead paint. At blossoming time make 
 a systematic daily inspection for blossom blight, and break it out. 
 Watch for blight in the shoots. When it appears get a long- 
 handled pruning-liook, fasten a sponge near the knife, and saturate 
 it with corrosive sublimate solution, 1-1000. Clip out the blighted 
 twigs, cutting five or six inches below the blight, and sop the 
 pruned stub with the sponge. During a blight epidemic, drop all 
 other work. The work must be done systematically and per- 
 sistently, or not at all. One week's work may save the pear crop 
 and the pear trees. 
 
 Leaf-bligiit and Cracking of fruit {Fabrea inacxdata). — Attacks 
 nursery stock of pears and quinces, beginning as small circular 
 brown spots on the leaves. These spread, and if numerous cause 
 the leaf to fall. The same disease produces a black spot or pit on 
 the fruit. 
 
 Control. — In nurseries spray with bordeaux mixture, 4-4-50. 
 In the orchard spray as for pear scab, with perhaps one additional 
 application. 
 
 Leaf-spot {Mycosphwrella sentina). — Small lecticular spots with white 
 centers on leaves. Spots become so numerous as to cause defoli- 
 ation. The fungus is known only on leaves, and it winters on them. 
 Control. — Burn fallen leaves. Spray as for Scab. 
 
 Scab ( Venturia pyrina). — Greenish brown or black spots on leaves 
 and fruit, arresting growth and often causing fruit to crack. 
 Severe on Flemish Beauty. Often attacks pedicles of fruits and 
 causes them to drop, and may even cause defoliation. Is different 
 from apple scab, but behaves much like it. Differs especially in 
 the fact that the fungus winters on the twigs as well as on fallen 
 leaves. 
 
 Control. — Owing to the nearness of the fungus (on the twigs) 
 and the slowness with which the pear-leaf unfolds, two applications 
 of spray l)efore the blossoms open are sometimes necessary, and one 
 immediately after they fall. Use lime-sulfur, 1-50, or bordeaux, 
 3-3-50. 
 
 Remarks in regard to apple scab (on page 264) are equally 
 important her*. 
 
PLUM AND POTATO DISEASES 279 
 
 Rust (Gymnosporangium globosum). — Having the same habits and 
 appearance as apple rust. 
 Control. — As for Scab. 
 Plum. Black-knot {Plowrightia morbosa). —A black tumorous swell- 
 ing from one to several inches in length, appearing on the limbs 
 and twigs of American plums and sour cherries. Point of attack 
 is usually under a bud or in crotches. Confined to America. 
 A very serious disease. In some regions it has destroyed the 
 plum industry. It was once supposed to be caused by an 
 insect. 
 
 Control. — Burn all affected parts in the fall. Cut several 
 inches below the swelling. A badly infected tree should be cut 
 down at once, as there is no hope of saving it. Many states have 
 a law requiring the destruction of affected trees. 
 
 Brown-rot. — See under Peach (p. 275). 
 
 Shot-hole fungus. — See Leaf-spot of Cherry (p. 268). 
 
 Leaf-rust {Puccinia priini-spinosoB) . — Small circular powdery 
 spots of yellowish brown on the under surface of the leaves, and 
 reddish spots on the upper surface directly above them. 
 
 Control. — Early spraying with bordeaux, 3-3-50, or self-boiled 
 lime-sulfur, 8-8-50. 
 
 Powdery mildew. — See under Peach (p. 276). 
 Potato. Early blight (Alternaria solani). — A blight of foliage begin- 
 ning as an even circular spot and coming early in the season, 
 usually in July. Progresses slowly. This disease does not attack 
 the tubers. 
 
 Control. — Bordeaux mixture at intervals of ten days, beginning 
 when plants are 6-8 in. high. 
 
 Late blight and Potato-rot {Phytophthorainfestans) . — The fungus 
 winters in the tuber, which shows a faint pinkish tinge and a dry 
 rot. Diseased tubers are planted, the fungus fruits on the cut 
 surface and its swarm spores pass through the soil-water to the 
 leaves which touch or are buried in the soil. An extensive ir- 
 regular blighted area covers the leaf, the under surface of which 
 may have a mildewy appearance. The disease spreads very 
 rapidly. Later spores are washed down to the tubers and infect 
 them. Appears late in the season, usually not much before 
 August L 
 
280 PLANT DISEASES 
 
 Control. — Can be controlled successfully by the use of bor- 
 deaux mixture, 5-5-50. It is always i)r()fitable to spray at least 
 three times, and in a wet season six or more applications should 
 be made. As the vines increase in size, greater quantities of spray 
 and more nozzles must be used. Use from 40 to 100 gallons of 
 sjiniy mixture per acre. 
 
 Dry- Rot and Wilt {Fusarium oxysporum). — A dry rot of the tuber 
 in storage and wilt of plants in the field. Can be detected in the 
 seed tuber before there is any external appearance by examin- 
 ing a section near the stem end. A black ring or chain of dots 
 near the surface is indicative of the rot. Infection frequently 
 takes place through wounds. 
 
 Control. — Reject all diseased tubers for seed. Practice a 
 rotation in which potatoes are not grown on the soil for at least 
 two years. 
 
 Scab {Oospora scabies). — A scabby and pitted roughness of potato 
 tubers. Lime, ashes or manure added to the soil increases the 
 amount of scab by favoring the growth of the fungus. It has 
 become one of the serious diseases of the potato. 
 
 Control. — Do not plant on land which has grown scabby 
 potatoes. Plant clean seed. If only scabby seed is at hand, soak 
 the uncut tubers in a solution of formalin, 1 pint in 30 gallons 
 of water, for two hours. Drain, cut, and plant in clean soil. Use 
 the formalin solution over and over. The same fungus also 
 attacks beets. 
 Pumpkin. — See under Muskmelon (p. 274). 
 
 Quince. Bl.\ck-rot {Sphceropsis malorum). — A trouble which usually 
 appears at the blossom end of young quince fruits, causing them 
 to become black and hard, with a dry rot of the tissue. The same 
 di.sejuse occurs on apples, which see. 
 
 Blight. — See under Pear Blight (p. 277). 
 
 \j£..KF- AND Fruit-spot. — See Pear-Leaf Blight, which is the same 
 di.sease. 
 
 Hu.sT. — The organism causing this disease is of the same habit and 
 nature as that causing apple rust. 
 
 Control. — As for Apple Rust (p. 264). 
 Radish. White ru.st or Mildew (Albugo candidiis). — A whitish 
 powdery growth on the leaves and petioles, often causing distortion. 
 
ROSE — SPINA CH 28 1 
 
 Control — Steam-sterilize the soil before planting. 
 Club-root. — See under Cabbage (p. 266). 
 Raspberry. Anthracnose {Glceosporium ye/ie^wm). — Circular or 
 elliptical, gray scab-like spots on the canes. 
 
 Control. — Avoid taking young plants from diseased plantations. 
 Remove all diseased canes as soon as the fruit is picked. Practice 
 frequent rotation. 
 Crown-gall or Root-gall {Bacterium tumefaciens) . — Tumorous 
 outgrowths on the roots, especially on red varieties. It is con- 
 tagious and destructive. 
 
 Control. — Never set plants which have galls on the roots. 
 Avoid setting on infested land. See under Peach (p. 276). 
 Red or Orange rust {Gymnoconia inter stilialis) . — k dense red 
 powdery growth on the under side of the leaves of bhick varieties 
 and of blackberries. The fungus hibernates in the roots. 
 Control. — Dig up and destroy infected plants. 
 Rice. Blast, Blight or Rotten-neck (Piricularia oryza;). — An ex- 
 tensive paling and drying of leaf and stem, and a partial failure 
 of the heads to fill. 
 
 Control. — The selection of early maturing varieties is advis- 
 able. Burn stubble and trash left in the fields. 
 Rose. Black leaf-spot {Actinonema rosce). — Attacks the full-grown 
 leaves, first appearing as small black spots, but later covering 
 nearly or quite the whole surface with blotches. The spots have 
 frayed edges. 
 
 Control. — Spray with ammoniacal copper carbonate, beginning 
 with the first appearance of the spots and continuing at intervals 
 of one week until under subjection. 
 Mildew {Sphcerotheca pannosa). — A white powdery mildew on the 
 new growth. 
 
 Control. — For greenhouse roses keep the steam pipes painted 
 with a paste made of equal parts lime and sulfur mixed with 
 water. Out-of-door roses should be dusted with sulfur flour 
 or sprayed with potassium sulfid, 1 ounce to 3 gallons of 
 water. 
 Spinach. — There are numerous fungous diseases of this crop, but a 
 practical method of control has not been developed. The best 
 that can be done is to rotate crops. 
 
282 PLANT DISEASES 
 
 Strawberry. Leaf-spot or leaf-blight (Mycosphcerella fragarioe). — 
 Small purple or red spots ajipearing on the leaves. They increase 
 in size and make the leaf appear blotched. The fungus passes 
 the winter in the old diseased leaves that fall to the ground. 
 
 Control. — In setting new plantations remove all diseased 
 leaves from the plants before they are taken to the field. Soon 
 after growth begins, spray the plants with bordeaux mixture, 
 4_4-50. Make three or four additional sprayings during the 
 season. The following spring spray just before blossoming, and 
 again in ten to fourteen days. If the bed is to be fruited again, 
 mow the plants and bum over the bed as soon as the crop is off. 
 Mildew (SphcFrothcca cuMagnei). — A whitish cobweb-like mildew 
 on fruit and leaves, causing the latter to curl. 
 
 Control. — Spraying as for leaf -spot ; dusting with sulfur flour. 
 Sweet-potato. Black-rot {Ceratocystis fimbriata) . — Causing black 
 shank of the plant and a black rot of the tuber. The spots on 
 the tuber are greenish black, from a quarter of an inch to four 
 inches in diameter and extending for some distance into the 
 tissue. 
 
 Control. — Never use affected potatoes from which to grow 
 sprouts. Steam-sterilize the soil in the hotbed. Practice rotation. 
 Rots. — The sweet-potato is susceptible to a large number of rots, 
 soft, dry, hard, white, etc. In practically^ all cases the organism 
 producing the disease is an inhabitant of the soil. The best 
 method of preventing these diseases is to use perfectly sound 
 potatoes for sprouts and plant on soil which has not grown sweet- 
 potatoes for several years. 
 Tobacco. Root-rot {Thielavia hasicola). — A rot of the main root 
 and dwarfs the plants. Occurs both in seed-bed and field. 
 
 Control. — Steam-sterilize the seed-bed by the inverted pan 
 method. (Soe discussion on p. 253.) Rotate crops. Avoid lim- 
 ing, and add acid fertilizers. 
 Wilt {Bacterium solanacearum). — A wilt of the plants caused by 
 bacteria. 
 
 Control. — Very difTicult to control, as the organism lives in the 
 soil for years. Never jilant on land known to be diseased. Do 
 not cultivate related plants, as potato, tomato, egg plant, or pepper, 
 on the same soil. Transplant early, and avoid breaking the 
 
TOM A TO — VIOLET 283 
 
 roots. Where tobacco is grown under shade (as is now a common 
 practice) the soil should be steam-steriHzed. 
 Tomato. Bacterial blight. — See Tobacco Wilt. 
 Blight or Scab {Cladosporium fulvum). — Soft brown irregular 
 spots on the under surface of the leaves. The upper surface be- 
 comes spotted with yellow. The leaves finally wither and die. 
 Most serious in the greenhouse. 
 
 Control. — In mild cases the disease can be prevented by pick- 
 ing off the affected leaves. In severe cases spray with bordeaux 
 mixture, 4-4-50, at intervals of ten days. 
 Downy mildew^ (Phytophthora infedans). — The same fungus that 
 
 causes Potato-blight, which see (p. 279). 
 End-rot. — Not well understood, and no method of control is known. 
 Leaf-spot (Septoria lycopersica) . — A serious disease attacking leaves 
 and stems. At first small spots appear, which spread until the whole 
 leaf is consumed. In severe cases the fruit may also be attacked. 
 Control. — Spray with bordeaux mixture, 4-4-50, making the 
 first application two weeks after the plants are set out, and repeating 
 every two weeks throughout the growing season. 
 (Edema. — A diseased condition of forced tomatoes characterized 
 by rolled or curled leaves, distended veins, and by swollen 
 areas having a frosty appearance on leaf veins, petioles and stem. 
 This condition may be brought about by insufficient light, too 
 much water in soil, excessive fertilization, high soil temperature. 
 Prevention. — Avoid conditions favorable for the disease. Pro- 
 vide good ventilation in forcing-house; in field, cultivate deep 
 and avoid topping plants. (See p. 260.) 
 Violet. Leaf-spots and leaf-blights. — A number of different or- 
 ganisms are responsible. Usually not very destructive. 
 
 Control. — Destroy affected plants; use fresh soil for new 
 plantings; spray the fohage in the summer and fall with bor- 
 deaux mixture, 4-4-50. 
 Root-rot {Thielavia hasicola). — The same as the root-rot of 
 tobacco. The plants make poor growth, owing to the fungus on 
 the roots. 
 
 Con^roZ. — Start in steam-sterilized soil, and transfer to sterilized 
 beds. 
 Wheat-Smut. — See under Smut of cereals (p. 260). 
 
284 
 
 PLANT DISEASES 
 
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CHAPTER XVII 
 
 Insecticidal Materials and Practices 
 
 By C. R. Crosby 
 
 The results secured from the use of an insecticide or fungicide depend 
 upon the operator. Timeliness, thoroughness, and persistence are the 
 watchwords of success. It is easier to keep an enemy away than to 
 drive him away. The worst foes are often the smallest ones ; and the 
 injury is often done before they are detected. Be ready; begin early. 
 
 General Practices 
 
 Cleanliness. — Much can be done to check the ravages of insects by de- 
 stroying their breeding-places and hiding-places. Weeds, rub- 
 bish, and refuse should be eliminated. 
 
 Hand-picking is often still the best means of destroying insects, despite 
 all the perfection of machinery and of materials. This is partic- 
 ularly true about the home grounds and in the garden. The cul- 
 tivator should not scorn this method. 
 
 Promoting growth. — Any course that tends to promote vigor will 
 be helpful in enabling plants to withstand the attacks of plant- 
 lice and other insects. 
 
 Burning. — Larva? which live or feed in webs, like the tent-caterpillar 
 and fall web- worm, may be burned with a torch. The lamp or 
 torch u.sed in campaign parades finds its most efficient use here. 
 
 Banding. — To prevent the ascent of canker-worm moths and gypsy- 
 moth ratcrpillars, various forms of sticky bands are in use. For 
 this purpose there is no better substance than Tree Tanglefoot. 
 It may be applied directly to the tree-trunk, but when so used 
 leaves an unsightly mark and requires more material than when 
 the following method is used : — 
 First place a strip of cotton batting three inches wide around 
 286 
 
FUMIGATION 287 
 
 the trunk ; cover this with a strip of tarred paper five inches wide ; 
 draw the paper tight and fasten at the lap only with three or four 
 tacks. Spread the tanglefoot on the upper two-thirds of the paper, 
 and comb it from time to time to keep the surface sticky. 
 
 Burlap bands are made by tying or tacking a strip of burlap 
 around the trunk and letting the edges hang down. The larvas 
 will hide under the loose edge, where they may be killed. 
 
 Banding is now little used for the codlin-moth, since spraying 
 with poison has been found so much more effective. 
 Fumigation. — Fumigating or " smoking " or " smudging " in green- 
 houses is performed by the slow burning of tobacco-stems. Best 
 results are obtained when a sheet iron vessel made for the purpose 
 is used, having holes in the bottom to supply draft. A quart 
 of Uve coals is placed in the bottom of the vessel, and about a pailful 
 of tobacco-stems is laid on them. The stems should not blaze, 
 but burn with a slow smudge. If they are slightly damp, better 
 results are obtained. Some plants are injured by a very heavy 
 smoke, and in order to avoid this injury, and also to more effec- 
 tually destroy the insects, it is better to smoke rather lightly and 
 often. It is always well to smoke on two consecutive days, for the 
 insects which persist through the first treatment, being weak, will 
 be killed by the second. If the plants are wet, the smoke is more 
 hkely to scorch them. The smudge often injures flowers, as those 
 of roses and chrysanthemums. In order to avoid this injury, the 
 flowers should be covered with paper bags. Tobacco fumes can 
 be conveniently generated by burning strips of prepared nico- 
 tine paper, or by vaporizing a concentrated aqueous solution of 
 nicotine in pans over alcohol or special kerosene lamps. 
 
 Fumigation with hydrocyanic acid gas. — Hydrocyanic acid gas 
 is a deadly poison, and the greatest care is required in its use. Al- 
 ways use 98 to 100 per cent pure potassium cyanide and a good 
 grade of commercial sulfuric acid. The chemicals are always com- 
 bined in the following proportion : Potassium cyanide, 1 ounce ; 
 sulfuric acid, 1 fluid ounce ; water, 3 fluid ounces. Always use an 
 earthen dish, pour in the water first, and add the sulfuric acid to 
 it. Put the required amount of cyanide in a thin paper bag, and 
 when all is ready, drop it into the liquid and leave the room 
 immediately. For mills and dwellings, use one ounce of cyanide 
 
f88 INSECTICIDAL MATERIALS AND PRACTICES 
 
 for every 100 cubic feet of space. Make the doors and windows 
 as tight as possible by placing strips of paper over the cracks. 
 Remove the silverware and food, and if brass and nickel work 
 cannot be removed, cover with vaseline. Place the proper 
 amount of the acid and water for every room in two-gallon jars. 
 Use two or more in large rooms or halls. Weigh out the potas- 
 sium cyanide in paper bags, and place them near the jars. 
 When all is ready, drop the cyanide into the jars, beginning on 
 the top floors, since the fumes are lighter than air. In large build- 
 ings, it is frequently necessary to suspend the bags of cyanide over 
 the jars by cords running through screw-eyes and all leading to a 
 place near the door. By cutting all the cords at once, the 
 cyanide will be lowered into the jars and the operator may escape 
 without injury. Let the fumigation continue all night, locking 
 all outside doors, and place danger signs on the house. 
 
 Fumigation of greenhouses. — No general formula can be given 
 for fumigating the different kinds of plants grown in greenhouses, 
 as the species and varieties differ greatly in their ability to with- 
 stand the effects of the gas. Ferns and roses are very susceptible 
 to injury, and fumigation, if attempted at all, should be per- 
 formed with great caution. Fumigation will not kill insect eggs, 
 and thus must be repeated when the new brood appears. Fumi- 
 gate only on dark nights when there is no wind. Have the 
 house as dry as possible, and the temperature as near 60° as prac- 
 ticable. 
 
 Fumigation of dormant nursery stock. — Dormant nursery stock 
 may be fumigated in a tight box or fumigating house made espe- 
 cially for the purpose. Fumigating houses are built of two thick- 
 nesses of matched boards with building paper between, and are 
 provided with a tight-fitting door and ventilators. The stock 
 should be rea.sonal)ly dry to avoid injury, and should be piled 
 loosely in the hou.se to permit a free circulation of the gas. Use 
 one ounce of potassium cyanide for each 100 cubic feet of space, 
 and let the fumigation continue forty minutes to one hour. 
 
 Fumigation of citrus trees. — In this case the tree is covered 
 with an octagonal sheet tent made of 6i ounce special drill or 8 
 ounce special army duck, and the gas is generated in the ordinary 
 way beneath it. The tent is so marked that when in position it is 
 
FUMIGATIOir 
 
 289 
 
 an easy matter to determine the distance over the tent and the cir- 
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 Dosage chart for fumigating citrus trees (Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agric.) 
 
 proper dosage may be obtained from the above chart, which 
 has been prepared for a strength of one ounce of cyanide for 
 each 100 cubic feet of space. 
 
L'90 JNSECTICIDAL MATERIALS AND PRACTICES 
 
 The top line of numbers, beginning at 10 and continuing to 7S, 
 represents the distance in feet around the bottom of the tent. The 
 outer vertical columns of larger numbers running from 10 to 59 rep- 
 resent the distance in feet over the top of the tent. The number of 
 ounces of cyanide to use for a tree of known dimensions is found 
 in that sciuare where the vertical column headed by the distance 
 around the tree intersects the horizontal line of figures correspond- 
 ing to the distance over. 
 Using Jungmni diseases as insecticides. — Fungous diseases have been 
 successfully emi)loyed against the citrus white-fly in Florida. 
 There are seven species of fungus which attack the white-fly, and 
 nearly all are more or less valuable. The object is to introduce 
 some form of the fungus into orchards and on trees where it is 
 absent. Thi.s may be accomplished by spraying the under side 
 of the leaves with a mixture of fungus spores in water. The 
 mixture may be made by placing two or three fungus-bearing 
 leaves in a quart of water, and stirring occasionally for fifteen 
 minutes. Strain through cheesecloth, and apply to those parts of 
 the tree most badly infested with the white-fly larvie. 
 
 The fungus may be introduced by pinning a dozen or so fungus- 
 bearing leaves to the under side of the leaves of the tree infested 
 with white-fly. The fungus-covered surface should face downward. 
 
 Insecticidal Substances 
 
 Arsenic. — Known to chemists as arsenious acid, or white oxide of 
 arsenic. It is considered an unsafe insecticide, as its color allows 
 it to be mistaken for other substances ; but in its various com- 
 pounds it forms our best insecticides. From one to two grains, 
 or less, usually prove fatal to an adult; 30 grains will usually 
 kill a horse, 10 grains a cow ; and 1 grain, or less, is usually 
 fatal to a dog. In ca.se of poisoning, while awaiting the arrival 
 of a physician, give emetics, and, after free vomiting, give milk 
 and eggs. Sugar and magnesia in milk is useful. 
 
 A cheap and effective in.secticide may be prepared from white 
 arsenic by the following methods : — 
 
 For use with bordeaux mixture only. Sal soda, 2 pounds; water, 
 1 gallon; arsenic, 1 pound. Mix the white arsenic into a paste, and 
 
ARSENICALS 291 
 
 then add the sal soda and water, and boil until dissolved. Add 
 water to replace any that has boiled away, so that one gallon of 
 stock solution is the result. Use one quart of this stock solution 
 to 50 gallons of bordeaux mixture for fruit-trees. Make sure 
 there is enough hme in the bordeaux mixture to prevent the caus- 
 tic action of the arsenic. 
 
 For use without bordeaux mixture. Sal soda, 1 pound ; water, 1 
 gallon; white arsenic, 1 pound; quicklime, 2 pounds. Dissolve 
 the white arsenic with the water and sal soda as above, and use 
 this solution while hot to slake the 2 pounds of lime. Add 
 enough water to make 2 gallons. Use 2 quarts of this stock 
 solution in 50 gallons of water. 
 Arsenicals. — A term popularly used for compounds of arsenic. The 
 leading arsenicals used in destroying insects are arsenate of 
 lead, paris green, and london purple. 
 
 Arsenate of Lead. — This can be applied in a stronger mixture than 
 other arsenical poisons, without injuring the foliage. It is, there- 
 fore, much used against beetles and other insects that are hard to 
 poison. It comes in the form of a paste or powder, and sliould be 
 mixed thoroughly with a small amount of water before placing in 
 the sprayer, else the nozzles will clog. Arsenate of lead may be 
 used with either bordeaux mixture or lime-sulfur without lessen- 
 ing the value of either. It is used in strengths varying from 4 to 10 
 pounds per 100 gallons, depending on the kind of insect to be killed. 
 
 London Purple. — An arsenite of lime, obtained as a by-product 
 in the manufacture of aniline dyes. The composition is variable. 
 The amount of arsenic varies from 30 to 50 per cent. The two 
 following anah^ses show its composition : (1) Arsenic, 43.65 per 
 cent; rose anihne, 12.46; lime, 12.82; insoluble residue, 14.57; 
 iron oxide, 1.16; and water, 2.27. (2) Arsenic, 55.35 per cent; 
 lime, 26.23; sulfuric acid, 0.22; carbonic acid, 0.27; moisture, 
 5.29. It is a finer powder than paris green, and therefore remains 
 longer in suspension in water. It is used in the same manner a-s 
 paris green, but is sometimes found to be more caustic on foliage. 
 This injury is due to the presence of much soluble arsenic; but it 
 can be averted by the use of lime, as advised under paris green. 
 
 Paris Green. — An aceto-arsenite of copper. When pure it contains 
 9,bout 58 per cent of arsenic. By the provisions of the federal 
 
202 I.\SKCTICII)AL MATERIALS AXD PRACTICES 
 
 insecticide act of 1010, jiaris srocn must contain at least 50 per 
 cent of arsenious oxitlo, and must not contain arsenic in water- 
 soluble form ecjuivalent to more than 31 per cent of arsenious 
 oxide. It is applied in either a wet or dry condition ; but in any 
 case, it must be nmch diluted. For making a dry mixture, plaster, 
 flour, air-slaked lime, road dust, or sifted wood ashes may be 
 used. The strength of the mixture depends upon the plants and 
 insects to which it is to be applied. The strongest dry mixture 
 now recommended is one part of poison to fifty of the diluent ; 
 but if the mixing is very thoroughly done, 1 part to 100, or even 
 200, is sufficient. 
 
 Paris green is practically insoluble in water. When mixed with 
 water, the mixture must be kept in a constant state of agitation, 
 else the poison will settle, and the liquid from the bottom of the 
 cask will be so strong as to do serious damage, while that from 
 the top will be useless. For potatoes, apple-trees, and most 
 species of shade trees, 1 pound of poison to 200 or 250 gallons of 
 water is a good mixture. Paris green is very likely to burn the 
 foliage of stone fruits, especially peaches and Japanese plums, 
 and has been generally replaced by arsenate of lead for such 
 purposes. In all cases, the liquid should be applied with force, in 
 a very fine spray. At some seasons of the j^ar foliage is more 
 liable to injury than at others. The addition of a little lime (twice 
 the bulk of lime as of paris green) to the mixture will tend to 
 prevent any caustic injury upon the foliage. 
 
 Spraying with paris green or london purple does not endanger 
 stock pastured in the orchard. 
 CoMBLNWTiONS OF Arsemcals AND FuNGiciDES. — Arscuicals may 
 be used in connection with some fungicides, and both insects and 
 plant disea.ses in this manner may be coml:)ated at the same time. 
 The arsenicals may be added to bordeaux mixture in the same 
 proportion as if the bordeaux were plain water. Arsenate of lead 
 may be added to the lime-sulfur wash, but the addition of paris 
 green or arsenite of lime is liable to cause burning. 
 
 The addition of lime to paris green and london purple mixtures 
 greatly lessens injury to foliage, and, as a conseciuence, th(\v can 
 be applied several times stronger than ordinarily used, if tliey 
 are combined with the bordeaux mixture. The free lime in the 
 
VARIOUS INSECTICIDES 293 
 
 mixture combines with the soluble arsenic, which is the material 
 that injures the foliage, and the combination is thus made quite 
 harmless. 
 
 Bait. Vegetable bait. — Spray a patch of clover or some other plant 
 that the insects will eat with paris green or some other arsenical; 
 mow it close to the ground, and while fresh place it in small piles 
 around the infested plants. To avoid wilting of the bait, cover 
 the heaps with a shingle or piece of board. 
 
 Bran-arsenic mash. White arsenic, 1 pound, or paris green, 1 pound; 
 bran, 50 pounds. Mix thoroughly and then add enough water to 
 make a wet mash. 
 
 Sugar or molasses may be added, but is unnecessary. Poison- 1 
 baits are used against cutworms and grasshoppers. See Criddle 
 Mixture, below. 
 
 Bisulfid of carbon. — A thin liquid which volatilizes at a very low 
 temperature, the vapor being very destructive to animal life. It is 
 exceedingly inflammable, and should never be used near a lamp or 
 fire. It is used for many root-insects. It is poured into a hole, 
 which is immediately closed up, causing the fumes to permeate the 
 soil in all directions. In loose soils it is very destructive to insect;.. 
 Against weevils infesting stored grain and corn, carbon bisulfi 1 
 is effective at the rate of 5 pounds for each 1000 cubic feet, pro- 
 vided the application is made while the temperature is not below 
 65° F. Make the bins as tight as possible, and after sprinkliii ^ 
 the liquid over the grain, cover tightly with gas-proof tarpaulin. 
 Let the fumigation continue for at least twent^'-four hours. 
 
 Carbolic acid and soap mixtures. — One ounce crude carbolic aci^l ; 
 1 pound fish-oil soap; 1 gallon hot water. Mix thoroughly. This 
 wash is used for borers. Apply with a cloth or soft broom. Usv, 
 only on dormant wood. 
 
 Carbolic acid emidsion. — Soap, 1 pound; water, 1 gallon; crude car- 
 bolic acid (90 per cent strength), 1 pint. Dissolve the soap in 
 hot water ; add the carbolic acid, and agitate into an emulsion. 
 For use against root-maggots, dilute with 30 parts of water. 
 
 Carbon bisulfid. — See Bisulfid of Carbon, above. 
 
 Criddle mixture. — Mix 1 pound of paris green with I barrel of horsa 
 droppings, and add 1 pound of salt if the material is not fresh. 
 For use against grasshoppers. 
 
294 INSECTICIDAL MATERIALS AND PRACTICES 
 
 Distillate emuhion. — 5 gallons of 28° grax'ity untreated distillate ; 
 5 gallons boiling water, \\ pounds whale-oil soap. Dissolve the 
 soap in hot water, add the distillate, and thoroughly emulsify by 
 means of a power pump until a yellowish, creamy emulsion is 
 produced. For use on lemon dilute with 12 parts of water; 
 on orange, with 15 parts. 
 
 Formerly much used on citrus trees, but now generall}' replaced 
 by fumigation. 
 
 Hellebore. — See White Hellebore, p. 300. 
 
 Hot water. — Submerge affected plants or branches in water at a 
 temperature of about 125°. For aphis. It will also kill rose-bugs 
 at a temperature of 125°-135°. 
 
 Kerosene emulsion. — Hard, soft, or whale-oil soap, i pound ; water, 
 1 gallon ; kerosene, 2 gallons. Dissolve the soap in hot water ; 
 remove from the fire and while still hot add the kerosene. Pump 
 the liquid back into itself for five or ten minutes, or until it 
 becomes a creamy mass. If properly made, the oil will not sep- 
 arate out on cooling. 
 
 For use on dormant trees, dilute with from 5 to 7 parts of water. 
 For killing plant-lice on foliage dilute with from 10 to 15 parts of 
 water. Crude oil emulsion is made in the same way by substitut- 
 ing crude oil in place of kerosene. The strength of oil emulsions is 
 frequently indicated by the percentage of oil in the diluted liquid: — 
 For a 10 per cent emulsion add 17 gallons of water to 3 gallons 
 stock emulsion. 
 
 For a 15 per cent emulsion add lOj gallons of water to 3 gallons 
 stock emulsion. 
 
 For a 20 per cent emulsion add 7 gallons of water to 3 gallons 
 stock emulsion. 
 
 For a 25 per cent emulsion add 5 gallons of water to 3 gallons 
 stock emulsion. 
 
 Lead, arsenate of. — See under Arsenical.s, ]). 291. 
 
 Lime-suljur. — A compound of lime and sulfur makes both a good insec- 
 ticide and a good fungicide (for an account from the fungicide point 
 of view, see page 256). There are several forms of it, as (1) the 
 ordinary dilute home-made ; (2) the concentrated home-made ; 
 (3) the commercial concentrated brands ; (4) the so-called self- 
 boiled preparation. The three first are solutions, and are modi- 
 
LIME-SULFUR l".).-) 
 
 fications of one preparation ; the self-boiled is mostly a mechanical 
 mixture of the lime and sulfur. 
 
 1. Home-made dilute solution of lime-sulfur. — (^uick lime, 'JO 
 pounds; sulfur (flour or flowers), 15 pounds; water, 50 gallon>\ 
 The lime and sulfur must be thoroughly boiled. An iron kettle 
 is often convenient for the work. Proceed as follows: Place the 
 lime in the kettle. Add hot water gradually in sufficient quan- 
 tity to produce the most rapid slaking of the lime. When the 
 lime begins to slake, add the sulfur and stir together. If con- 
 venient, keep the mixture covered with burlap to save the heat. 
 After slaking has ceased, add more water, and boil the mixture 
 one hour. As the sulfur goes into solution, a rich orange-red or 
 dark green color will appear. After boiling sufficiently, add water 
 to the required amount and strain into the spray tank. The wash 
 is most effective when applied warm, but may be applied cold. If 
 one has access to a steam boiler, boiling with steam is more con- 
 venient and satisfactory. Barrels may be used for holding the 
 mixture, and the steam applied by running a pipe or rubber hose 
 into the mixture. Proceed in the same manner as for boiUng in 
 the kettle until the lime is slaked, when the steam may be turned 
 on. Continue boiling for forty-five minutes to an hour, or more 
 if necessary to get the sulfur well dissolved. 
 
 This mixture can be applied safely only when the trees are dor- 
 mant, — late in the autumn after the leaves have fallen, or early 
 in the spring before the buds swell. It is mainly an insecticide 
 for San Jose scale, although it has considerable value as a fungi- 
 cide for certain diseases, like the peach leaf-curl. As the San 
 Jose scale is not killed unless the solution comes in contact with 
 it, great care should be exercised to completely cover the branches. 
 
 2. Home-made concentrated lime-sulfur wash. 
 
 For making the concentrated mixture, the steps are the same 
 as in making the usual boiled wash, but the following formula 
 should be used : — 
 
 iPure calcium oxide 36 lb. 
 95 per ct. calcium oxide 38 lb. 
 90 per ct. calcium oxide wn Ik' 
 
296 
 
 INSEVTICIDAL MATERIALS AND PRACTICES 
 
 Slakt' tlu' linu', make a thin i)asto, and add the sulfur. Flowers 
 of sulfur or li^ht or heavy sulfur flour may be used. The lime 
 should be fresh lump lime, free from dirt and grit, containing 90 
 per cent or more of calcium oxide and less than 5 per cent of 
 magnesium oxide. Stir thoroughly during the hour of cooking, 
 to break up the lumps of sulfur. Enough water should be added 
 at the start so that the evaporation will not leave the quantity 
 less than 50 gallons when the cooking is ended. If kettles are 
 used, 10 to 15 gallons additional will be needed, while with 
 steam none may be recjuired. The kettles should be considerably 
 larger than the amount of wash to be made, to prevent loss of 
 material by boiling over. The clear liquid should be drawn off 
 into tight containers if to be kept any considerable time ; and 
 stored where there is no danger of temperatures much below 
 freezing. For use, test the clear solution with the hydrometer, 
 and dilute as indicated in the table : — 
 
 Dilutions of Concentrated Lime-Sulfur Solutions for Spraying 
 (N. Y. Exp. Sta.) 
 
 S r. 
 
 
 With Each Gallon of 
 
 '^^r-. 
 
 
 With Each 
 
 Gallon op 
 
 kS 
 
 it 
 
 CONCENTR. 
 
 ^TE, Use — 
 
 U S 
 
 it 
 
 Concentrate, Use — 
 
 n 
 
 a < 
 
 For San 
 
 For Blister 
 
 %t 
 
 £^ 
 
 For San 
 
 For Blister 
 
 Qffl 
 
 MU 
 
 Jo86 scale 
 
 Mite 
 
 QM 
 
 mO 
 
 Jos6 scale 
 
 Mite 
 
 
 
 Gala, water 
 
 Gals, water 
 
 
 
 Gals, water 
 
 Gals, water 
 
 35 
 
 1.3181 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 25 
 
 1.2083 
 
 bh 
 
 7i 
 
 34 
 
 1.3063 
 
 8J 
 
 lU 
 
 24 
 
 1.1983 
 
 b\ 
 
 7 
 
 33 
 
 1.2946 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 23 
 
 1.1885 
 
 Al 
 
 6i 
 
 32 
 
 1.2831 
 
 7i 
 
 10} 
 
 22 
 
 1.1788 
 
 4i 
 
 6i 
 
 31 
 
 1.2719 
 
 7i 
 
 10 
 
 21 
 
 1.1693 
 
 41 
 
 5J 
 
 30 
 
 1.2608 
 
 7 
 
 9i 
 
 20 
 
 1.1600 
 
 4 
 
 5i 
 
 29 
 
 1.2500 
 
 6J 
 
 9 
 
 19 
 
 1.1507 
 
 33 
 
 5 
 
 28 
 
 1.2393 
 
 6i 
 
 81 
 
 18 
 
 1.1417 
 
 3i 
 
 4J 
 
 27 
 
 1.2288 
 
 6 
 
 8i 
 
 17 
 
 1.1328 
 
 3 
 
 4i 
 
 26 
 
 1.2184 
 
 5i 
 
 7i 
 
 16 
 
 1.1240 
 
 2i 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 1.1153 
 
 2i 
 
 3J 
 
 3. Commercial concentrated mixtures. 
 
 The lime-sulfur may be purchased in the concentrated form and 
 the trouble of making it avoided. The strength of the commercial 
 product varies considerably, and in order to compute the proper 
 dilution correctly the strength should be determined by means of 
 a hydrometer. Having determined the strength of the concen- 
 
VARIOUS INSECTICIDES 207 
 
 trated mixture, the proper dilution for use against the San Jos^ 
 scale and blister mite may be obtained from the table on 
 opposite page. 
 4. Self -boiled. See page 257. 
 
 London purple. — See under Arsenicals, p. 291. 
 
 Miscible oils. — There are now on the market a number of prepara- 
 tions of petroleum and other oils intended primarily for use 
 against the San Jose scale. They mix readily with cold water, 
 and are immediately ready for use. While quickly prepared, 
 easily applied, and generally effective, they cost considerably 
 more than lime-sulfur wash. They are, however, less corrosive 
 to the pumps, and more agreeable to use. They are especially 
 valuable to the man with only a few trees or shrubs who would not 
 care to go to the trouble and expense to make up the lime-sulfur 
 wash. For use they should be diluted with 15 parts of water. 
 Use only on dormant trees, and when the temperature is above 
 freezing and the trees are not wet. 
 
 Paraffine oil. — Essentially the same as Kerosene, which see (p. 294). 
 
 Paris green. — See under Arsenicals, p. 291. 
 
 Persian insect powder. — See Pyrethrum. 
 
 Pyrethrum. — A very fine and light brown powder, made from the 
 flower-heads of species of pyrethrum. It is scarcely injurious to 
 man. Three brands are on the market : — 
 Persian Insect-powder, made from the heads of Pyrethrum roseum, 
 a species also cultivated as an ornamental plant. The plant is 
 native to the Caucasus region. 
 Delmation Insect-powder, made from Pyrethrum cimrariwJoUum. 
 BuHACH, made in California from cultivated plants of Pyrethrum 
 cineraricefolium. 
 
 When fresh and pure, all these brands appear to be equally val- 
 uable, but the home-grown product is usually considered most 
 reliable. Pyrethrum soon loses its value when exposed to the 
 air. It is used in various ways : — 
 
 1. In solution in water, 1 ounce to 3 gallons. Should be 
 mixed up twenty-four hours before using. 
 
 2. Dry, without dilution. In this form it is excellent for thrips 
 and lice on roses and other bushes. Apply when the bush is wet. 
 Useful for aphis on house plants. 
 
298 INSKCTICIDAL MATERIALS AND PRACTICES 
 
 3. Dry, diluted witli flour or any light and fine powder. The 
 poison may be used in the proportion of 1 part to from 6 to 30 of 
 the diluent. 
 
 4. In fumigation. It may be scattered directly upon coals, or 
 made into small balls by wetting and molding with the hands and 
 then set upon coals. This is a desirable way of dealing with 
 mosquitoes and flies. 
 
 5. In alcohol. (1) Put a part of pyrethrum (buhach) and 4 
 parts alcohol, by weight, in any tight vessel. Shake occasionally, 
 and after eight days filter. Apply with an atomizer. Excellent 
 for greenhouse pests. For some plants it needs to be diluted a 
 little. (2) Dissolve about 4 ounces of powder in 1 gill of alcohol, 
 and add 12 gallons of water. 
 
 6. Decoction. Whole flower-heads are treated to boiling 
 water, and the liquid is covered to prevent evaporation. Boiling 
 the li(iuid destroys its value. 
 
 Good insect-powder can be made from Pyrethrum roseum, and 
 probably also from P. cinerariwfoliuni, grown in the home 
 garden. 
 Resin and fish-oil corn-pound. — Ten pounds of resin ; 1| pounds of 
 fish-oil, 3 pounds of caustic soda, and enough water to make 50 
 gallons. 
 
 Break the resin into small lumps, and place it together with the 
 caustic soda in the boiler, with three or four inches of water. 
 Stir till the resin is dissolved ; then add about one-fourth of the 
 required water and boil one-half hour. Place in the spray tank 
 and add the rest of the water. 
 
 Used in California against the cottony cushion scale and the 
 brown apricot scale. 
 Soaps, whale-oil, or fish-oil soap. — Soaps are effective insecticides for 
 plant-lice. Dissolve in hot water and dilute so as to obtain 1 
 pound of soap for every 5 or 7 gallons of water. Commercial 
 whale-oil or fish-oil soaps frequently injure tender foliage be- 
 cau.se of the free alkali which they contain. 
 
 An excellent fish-oil soap free from uncombined alkali may be 
 easily prepared at home, as follows : 
 
 Six pounds of caustic soda ; U gallons of water ; 22 pounds 
 of fish oil. 
 
VARIOUS INSECTICIDES l>yy 
 
 Completely dissolve the caustic soda in the water, and then add 
 the fish-oil very gradually, under constant and vigorous stirring. 
 The combination occurs readily at ordinary summer temperatures 
 and boiling is unnecessary. Stir briskly for about twenty minutes 
 after the last of the oil has been added. (New York Experiment 
 Station.) 
 
 Soap and tobacco. — Dissolve 8 pounds of the best soft soap in 12 
 gallons of rain-water, and when cold add 1 gallon of strong 
 tobacco liquor. For plant-lice. 
 
 Soda and aloes. — Dissolve 2 pounds of washing-soda and 1 ounce of 
 bitter Barbadoes aloes, and when cold add one gallon of water. 
 Dip the plants into the solution, and lay them on their sides 
 for a short time, and the insects will drop off. Syringe the plants 
 with clean, tepid water, and return to the house. For plant-lice. 
 
 Sulfur. — Fumes of sulfur are destructive to insects, but should be 
 carefully used, or plants will be injured. The sulfur should be 
 evaporated over an oil stove, until the room is filled with the 
 vapor. The sulfur should never be burned, as burning sulfur 
 kills plants. For greenhouse use. See p. 258. 
 
 Sulfur and water. — To 3 gallons of weak soap suds add 1 pound of 
 flowers of sulfur and stir thoroughly. Apply as a spray. For 
 red spider and mites. 
 
 Tanglefoot is a sticky commercial substance much used for banding 
 trees. See under Banding, p. 286. 
 
 Tar is sometimes used to prevent the female and wingless canker- 
 worm from ascending trees. The tar should be placed on cotton, 
 or some material which will prevent it from coming in contact 
 with the bark, and a band of the preparation is then placed 
 around the trunk. Care must be taken to see that the tar does 
 not injure the tree. 
 
 Tarred paper may be rolled loosely about trees to keep away 
 mice, but it should be removed before warm weather. It is 
 sometimes recommended as a preventive of the attacks of borers, 
 but it very often injures trees, and should be used, if at all, 
 with great caution. 
 
 Tobacco. — 1. Stems, placed on the walks and under the benches of 
 greenhouses, for plant-lice. Renew it every month. 
 2. Tobacco- water, used with whale-oil soap. 
 
300 INSECTICIDAL MATERIALS AND PRACTICES 
 
 3. Dust iiiul snuff. Snuff may be blown lightly on plants, as 
 house-plants, for lice. 
 
 4. Fumes. Burn dampened tobacco-stems. See Fumigation, 
 p. 287. 
 
 5. Xicotyl. Steep tobacco-stems in water, and evaporate the 
 water. 
 
 6. Tea, or common decoction. Boil the stems or dust thoroughly, 
 and strain. Then adtl cold w^ater until the decoction contains 
 2 gallons of liquid to 1 pound of tobacco. 
 
 There are various concentrated commercial preparations of 
 tobacco which have recently been giving good results against plant- 
 lice. 
 
 White arsenic. — See Arsenicals, p. 291. 
 
 White hellebore. — A light brown powder made from the roots of the 
 white hellebore plant ( Veratrum album), one of the lily family. 
 It is applied both dry and in water. In the dry state, it is usually 
 applied without dilution, although the addition of a little flour 
 will render it more adhesive. In water, 4 ounces of the poison is 
 mixed with 2 or 3 gallons ; and an ounce of glue, or thin flour 
 paste, is sometimes added to make it adhere. A decoction is 
 made by using boiling water in the same proportions. Hellebore 
 soon loses its strength, and a fresh article should always be de- 
 manded. It is much less poisonous than the arsenicals, and 
 should be used in place of them upon ripening fruit. Used for 
 various leaf-eating insects, particularly for the currant-worm and 
 rose-slug. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 Injurious Insects, with Treatment 
 
 By C. R. Crosby 
 
 Insects are of two kinds as respects their manner of taking food, — 
 the mandibulate insects, or those that chew or bite their food, as larvaB 
 {" worms ") and most beetles ; and those that suck their food, as tlie 
 plant-lice and true bugs. The former class is dispatched by poisons, 
 the latter by caustic applications, as kerosene or soap preparations. 
 
 General or Unclassified Pests 
 
 Angleworm or Earthworm. — The common angleworm often destroys 
 greenhouse plants by its burrowing. It is sometimes annoying 
 in gardens also. 
 
 Treatment. — Lime-water applied to the soil. 
 
 Ants. — See Lawns, p. 322. 
 
 Aphides, Plant-lice or Green-fly, and Bark-lice. — Minute insects of 
 various kinds, feeding upon the tender parts of many plants, both 
 indoors and out. 
 
 Treatment. — Kerosene emulsion. Hot water (about 125°). 
 Pyrethrum. Fish-oil soap. Tobacco-water or extracts. Alco- 
 holic and water extracts of pyrethrum. Hughes' fir-tree oil. In 
 the greenhouse, fumigation with tobacco or hydrocyanic arid gas. 
 Knock them off with the hose. In window gardens, dry pyre- 
 thrum or snuff. 
 
 Bag-worm or Basket-worm (Thyridopteryx ephernercEformis). —Liirvix 
 working in singular dependent bags, and feeding upon many 
 kinds of trees, both evergreen and deciduous. In winter the bags, 
 empty or containing eggs, are conspicuous, hanging from the 
 branches. 
 
 Treatment. — Hand-picking. Arsenicals. 
 301 
 
302 IXJf'RIOrS INSECTS, WITH TREATyfENT 
 
 Blister-beetle {Lytln, two or three species). — Soft-shelled, long-necked 
 and slim l)lack or gray spry beetles, feeding on the leaves of 
 many trees and garden plants. 
 Tirnttnrnt. — Arsenirals. Jarring. 
 
 Brown-tail moth {Eiiprortis chrij^orrhaoa) . — This highly destruc- 
 tive ICuropean insect was introduced near Boston a number of 
 years ago, and i.now rapidly spreading over New England. The 
 snow-white moths, with a large tuft of brown hairs at the tip of 
 the abdomen, appear in July and deposit eggs on the leaves in 
 elongate masses covered with brown hairs from the body of the 
 female. The caterpillars become only partly grown the first season, 
 and hibernate in conspicuous nests, three or four inches long, at 
 the tips of the branches. The black-bodied caterpillars, clothed 
 with rather long, brownish, stinging hairs, complete their growth 
 the next spring, feeding ravenously on the tender foliage and 
 causing great damage in orchards, parks, and forests. 
 
 Treatment. — Cut out and burn all winter nests before the buds 
 start. In the spring spray with arsenate of lead, as reconnncnded 
 for the gipsy-moth. Prevent the ascent of caterpillars from 
 other trees by banding the trunks with tanglefoot. Keep the 
 bands fresh by combing the surface every few days. 
 
 Cutworm. — Various species of Agrotis and related genera. Soft 
 brown or gray worms, of various kinds, feeding on the roots, 
 crown, or even the tops of plants. 
 
 TreattnerU. — Encircle the stem of the plant with heavy paper 
 or tin, coating the top with tanglefoot. Arsenicals sprinkled 
 upon small bunches of fresh grass or clover, which are scattered 
 at short intervals about the garden towards evening. They will 
 often collect under boards or blocks. Arsenicals mixed with 
 shorts and placed about the plants. Make two or three deep holes 
 by the side of the plant with a pointed stick ; the worms will 
 fall in and cannot escape. Dig them out. Plow infested land in 
 the fall to give birds a chance to find the worms. 
 
 Cutworm, Climbing. — Several species. The worms climb grape vines 
 and small trees of various kinds at night and eat out the buds. 
 
 Preventive. — Band of cotton batting tied about the tree by lower 
 edge, and the top rolled down like a boot-leg. Baits (see p. 293). 
 Treatment. — Arsenicals. Hellebore. 
 
VARIOUS INSECTS 303 
 
 Flea-beetle (Phyllotreta vittata; Haltica striolata, etc.) — Minnie, dark- 
 colored beetles, feeding upon many plants, as turnip, cabbaRo, 
 radish, mustard, potato, strawberry, and stocks. They jump 
 upon being disturbed. Closely related species attack various 
 plants. Very destructive to plants which are just appearing 
 above the surface. 
 
 Treatment. — Bordeaux mixture applied liberally is the best 
 remedy, — it drives them away. 
 
 Four-striped Plant-bug {Pwcilocapsus lineatus). — A bright yellow, 
 black-striped bug about one-third of an inch long, puncturing 
 the young leaves and shoots of many plants. 
 
 Treatment. — Jarring at any time of day into a dish of dilute 
 kerosene. Kerosene emulsion (diluted five times) when the bugs 
 are young, in their nymphal stage. Cut off and burn the tips 
 of the growing shoots in early spring to destroy the eggs. 
 
 Galls. — See Nematode Root-gall, below. 
 
 Gipsy-moth {Porthetria dispar). — Larva, between two and three inches 
 long when mature, dark brown or sooty in color, with two rows of 
 red spots and two rows of blue spots along the back, and with a 
 dim yellowish stripe between them. Devjurs many kinds of foli- 
 age. Confined to New England. It has become a serious pest. 
 Treatment. — Spray with arsenate of lead as soon as the cater- 
 pillars hatch in the spring. Band trees with tanglefoot. 
 
 May-beetle or May-bug (Laclmosterna fusca). — A large and familiar 
 
 brown beetle, feeding upon the leaves of many kinds of trees. 
 
 The common white grub is the larval state. It often does great 
 
 damage to sod and to strawberries. Sometimes called June-bug. 
 
 Remedies. — See under Corn, p 314. 
 
 Mealy-bug (Pseudococcus citri and P. longijilis). — A white, scale-like 
 insect, attacking greenhouse plants. 
 
 Treatment. — Whale-oil soap. Carbolic acid and soap. Re- 
 moving insects with brush on tender plants. House-plants may 
 be washed in soapsuds. The best procedure in greenhouses is to 
 knock them off with the hose. A small, hard stream of water 
 upsets their domestic affairs. 
 
 Nematode Root-gall {Heterodera radicicola). — A disease characterized 
 by the knotting and contortion of the roots of the peach, orange, 
 and many other plants. The knots are mostly rather soft swell- 
 
304 ixjriiiocs ixsects, with treatment 
 
 iiiRS, and on tlic smaller roots. It is usually most destructive on 
 the peach. It is caused by a nematode, or true worm (not an 
 insect). (Uilf States. Attacks greenhouse plants in the North. 
 Preventive. — Plant non-infested plants in fresh soil ; bud 
 into healthy stocks. Fertilize highly, particularly with potassic 
 fertilizers. Set the trees 8 or 10 inches deep in high and dry 
 soils. Infested small trees may be remedied, in part at least, by 
 transplanting them into highly manured holes which have been 
 prepared contiguous to them. Does not live in regions where 
 the ground freezes deeply. If it is feared in greenhouses, see that 
 the soil has been thoroughly frozen before it is used. White- 
 wash the IxMU'hos. 
 
 Red-spider or mite {Tc(r(uiychus bimaculatus). — A small mite infest- 
 ing many plants, both in the greenhouse and out of doors. 
 It flourishes in dry atmospheres, and on the under sides of the 
 leaves. In some forms it is reddish, but usually light-colored and 
 two-spotted. Common. 
 
 Remedies. — Persistent syringing with water will generally 
 destroy them, if the spray is applied to the under surface. Use 
 much force and little water to avoid drenching the beds. Sulfur 
 antl water. Dry sulfur. On orchard trees flour paste may be used. 
 
 San Jose Scale (Aspidiotus peniiciosus) . — This scale is nearly cir- 
 cular in outline and about the size of a pin-head. When abun- 
 dant it forms a crust on the branches, and causes small red spots 
 on the fruit. It multiplies with marvelous rapidity, there being 
 three or four broods annually, and each mother scale may give 
 birth to several hundred young. The young are born alive, and 
 breeding continues until late autumn, when all stages are killed 
 by the cold weather, except the tiny, half-grown, black scales, many 
 of which hibernate safely. 
 Spray thoroughly in the fall after the leaves drop, or early in the 
 spring Ix'forc growth begins, with lime-sulfur wash, or miscible oil, 
 1 gallon in 10 gallons of watcT. When badly infested, make two 
 applications, one in the fall and another in the spring. In case 
 of large, old trees, 25 per cent crude oil emulsion sIkhiUI be ap- 
 plied just a.s the buds are swelling. 
 
 Scale-insects. — Various species of small in.sects inhabiting the young 
 growth of trees, and sometimes the fruit, in one stage character- 
 
VARIOUS INSECTS 305 
 
 ized by a stationary scale-like appearance. Lime-sulfur and 
 miscible oils are the best remedies. Species which migrate on to 
 the young growth in spring can be readily dispatched at that 
 time by kerosene emulsion. 
 
 Snails. — These animals are often very troublesome in greenhouses, 
 eating many plants voraciously. 
 
 Preventives. — Trap them by placing pieces of turnip, cab- 
 bage, or potatoes about the house. Scatter bits of camphor-gum 
 about the plants. Strew a line of salt along the edges of the bed. 
 Lime dusted about the plants will keep them away. 
 
 White ants or termites. — These insects often infest orchard trees 
 in the southern states, particularly in orchards which contain 
 old stumps or rubbish. 
 
 Remedy. — The soap-and-arsenites wash brushed over the trunk 
 and branches of the tree. 
 
 Wire-worm (various species). — Slim and brown larvae, feeding upon 
 the roots of various plants. They are the larva) of the click- 
 beetle, or snapping-beetle. 
 
 Remedy. — Arsenicals sprinkled upon baits of fresh clover or 
 other material which is placed about the field under blocks or 
 boards. Sweetened corn-meal dough also makes a good bait. 
 The best treatment is to plow infested land early in the fall. A 
 system of short rotations of crops will lessen injury from wire- 
 worms. 
 
 Insects classified under the Plants they chiefly Affect 
 
 Apple. Apple-bucculatrix (Bucculatrix pomifoliella) . — A minute 
 yellow or green larva feeding upon the upper surface of the leaves, 
 causing the lower surface to turn brown. The cocoons are white 
 and slender, and are laid side by side upon the under side of twigs, 
 where they are conspicuous in winter. 
 
 Treatment. — Lime-sulfur while tree is dormant. Arsenicals 
 for the larvae in summer. 
 Apple-curculio (Anthonomus quadrigibbus) . — A soft, white grub, 
 about half an inch long, living in the fruit. 
 
 Treatment. —Clean cultivation. Rake the small apples that 
 drop early out into the sun where they will dry up. See Plum- 
 cuRCULio, p. 329. 
 
 X 
 
3()0 ixjfiiiors ixsECTs, WITH treatment 
 
 Apple Fij-ia-hketij-: {(iraptudcni foliacca). — Brassy, green beetle, 
 one-fiftli iiK'li or less loii;;, feeding upon leaves. 
 
 TrealnwuL — Arseiiieals. Linu'-sulfur or bordeaux mixture 
 as a repellent. 
 Apple-.m.\(Jc;ot or Railuoad-wohm {Rhiujoletis pumojiella). — Mag- 
 got ; infests harvest and fall apples mostly, oceasionally attacks 
 winter fruit. It tunnels apples through and through, causing the 
 fruit to fall to the earth. 
 
 Treatment. — Pick up all windfalls every two or three days, 
 and either feed them out or bury them deeply, thus killing the 
 maggots. Pasture to hogs. 
 Bud-moth {Tmetocera ocellana). — The small brown caterpillars 
 with black heads devour the tender leaves and flowers of the 
 opening buds in early spring. 
 
 Treatment. — Make two applications of either 1 pound paris 
 green or 4 pounds arsenate of lead in 100 gallons of water ; the 
 first when the leaf-tips appear, and the second just before the 
 blossoms open. If necessary, spray again after the blossoms fall. 
 In ca.ses wiiere lime-sulfur is used just before the buds open for 
 scale or blister mite, arsenate of lead, 4 pounds to 100 gallons, may 
 be added and will help to control the bud-moth. 
 Ca.se-beaiiers. The pistol-case-bearer {Coleophora malivorella) 
 and the cigar-case-bearer (C. fletcherella) . — The small cater- 
 pillars live in pistol or cigar-shaped cases, about a quarter of an 
 inch long, that they carry around with them. The}' appear in 
 sj)riiig on the opening buds at the same time as the bud-moth, 
 and may be controlled by the same means. 
 Canker-worm. Spring and fall {Paleacrita vcrnata and Alsophila 
 pometaria). — Larva ; a " measuring worm," an inch long, dark, 
 and variously striped, feeding upon the leaves. 
 
 Preventive. — Band the trees with tanglefoot to prevent 
 the wingless females from climbing. 
 
 Treatment. — Arsenicals, thoroughly applied in spray, are 
 very effective. See Banding, p. 286. 
 CoDLiN-MoTH (Carpocapsa pomonella). — This is the pinkish 
 caterpill.ir which causes a large proportion of wormy apples. 
 The eggs are laid by a small moth on the leaves and the skin of the 
 fruit. Most of the caterpillars enter the apple at the blossom end. 
 
APPLE INSECTS 307 
 
 When the petals fall, the calyx is open, and this is the time to 
 spray. The calyx soon closes, and keeps the poison inside ready 
 for the young caterpillars' first meal. After the calyx lias closed, 
 it is too late to spray effectively. The caterpillars become full 
 grown in July and August, leave the fruit, crawl down on the 
 trunk, and there most of them spin cocoons under the loose bark. 
 In most parts of the countrj^ there are two broods annually. 
 
 Treatment. — When the majority of the petals have fallen, spray 
 with 4 pounds arsenate of lead in 100 gallons of water, using a 
 stiff spray to force it into the blossom end of the apple. Repeat 
 the application three weeks later. For use of the poison with 
 bordeaux or lime-sulfur, see Apple Scab, p. 264. Paris green was 
 formerly used. 
 Fall Web-worm {Hyphantria cunea). — Hairy larva, about an 
 inch long, varying from gray to pale yellow or bluish black, feed- 
 ing upon the leaves of many trees, in tents or webs. 
 
 Treatment. — Destroy by burning the webs, or removing them 
 and crushing the larvae. Spray with arsenicals. 
 Leaf Blister IMite (Eriophijes pyri). — The presence of this minute 
 mite is indicated by small irregular brownish blisters on the leaves. 
 
 Treatment. — Spray in late fall or early spring with lime-sulfur, 
 or miscible oil. For dilution of commercial lime-sulfur, see p. 296. 
 Flat-headed Borer {Chrysobothris femorata). — Larva about an 
 inch long, flesh-colored, the second segment (" head ") greatly 
 enlarged ; boring under the bark and sometimes into the wood. 
 They are readily located in late summer or fall by the dead and 
 sunken patches of bark. 
 
 Preventive. — Soap and carbolic acid washes applied from 
 May to July. Keep trees vigorous. 
 
 Treatmeyit. —Dig out the borers in early summer and fall. En- 
 courage woodpeckers. 
 Pear Twig-beetle. — See under Pear, p. 326. 
 Plum-curculio {Conotrachelns nemiphar) . — Beetle ; deforms the 
 fruit by its characteristic feeding and egg-laying punctures. The 
 grubs develop in the fruit and cause it to fall. 
 
 Treatment. — Sprsiying with arsenate of lead, as for codlin- 
 moth, whenever it can be applied with a fungicide so as not to 
 increase expense, will help to control the trouble. Thorough su- 
 
308 ixjcRiors insects, wirii treatment 
 
 perficial tillage of the surface soil during July and August will kill 
 many of the pupir, and is recommended. For treatment on 
 l)luni, see under Plum, p. 329. 
 
 Railroad-worm. — See Apple-maggot, p. 306. 
 
 Root-louse, "American Blight." — See under Woolly Aphis, 
 page 310. 
 
 Rose-chafer. — See under Grape, p. 322. At the first appearance 
 of the l)eetles spray plants with arsenate of lead at the rate of 8 or 
 10 pounds to 100 gallons of water, to which should be added 1 gal- 
 lon of molasses (New York Experiment Station). 
 
 Round-headed Borer (Saperda Candida). — A yellowish white 
 larva, about one inch long when mature. It is said to remain in 
 the larval state three years. 
 
 Preventive. — Keep the beetles from laying eggs by spraying 
 the trunks several times during the spring and summer with 
 kerosene emulsion or by coating them with an alkaline wash 
 made from soap, caustic potash, and carbolic acid. Tarred paper 
 tree-protectors well tied at the top, or wire mosquito netting 
 protectors closed at the top and encircling the trunk so loosely 
 that the beetles cannot reach the bark, are effective in preventing 
 egg-laying. Practice clean cultivation, and do not let water 
 sprouts or other rank vegetation encircle the base of the tree. 
 
 Remedial. — Dig out the borers whenever they can be located 
 by discolored bark or by the sawdust thrown out of the burrow. 
 
 San Jose Scale {Aspidiotns perniciosus). — Seep. 304. 
 
 Leaf-crumpler {Mineola indigenella) . — Reddish brown caterpillars 
 that live in slender, horn-shaped cases and feed on the tender 
 leaves. They hibernate as partly grown larvae and attack the 
 opening buds the following spring. They usually live in a nest 
 of several leaves fastened together with silk. 
 
 Treatment. — Gather the nests and burn them. Arsenicals 
 when the buds open. 
 
 Oyster-shell Scale (Lepidosaphes idmi). — This is an elongate scale 
 (sometimes called bark-louse) , one-eighth inch in length, resembling 
 an oyster-shell in shape and often incrusting the bark. It hiber- 
 nates as miiuite white eggs under the old scales. The eggs hatch 
 during the latter part of May or in June, the date depending on the 
 season. After they hatch, the young may be seen as tiny whitish 
 
APPLE INSECTS 309 
 
 lice crawling about on the bark. When these young appear, 
 spray with kerosene emulsion, diluted with 6 parts of water, 
 or whale-oil, or any good soap, 1 pound in 4 or 5 gallons of 
 water. Where trees are regularly sprayed with lime-sulfur as 
 for the San Jose scale or blister mite, the oyster-shell scale is 
 usually controlled. 
 
 Scurfy Scale {Chionaspis f urfurus) . — This whitish, pear-shaped 
 scale, about one-eighth inch in length, often incrusts the bark, 
 giving it a scurfy appearance. It hibernates as purplish eggs 
 under the old scales. 
 
 Treatment. — Spray as recommended for Oyster-shell Scale 
 (p. 308). 
 
 Tent-caterpillars {Malacosoma americana and M. disstria). — 
 Larva, nearly two inches long, spotted and striped with yellow, 
 white, and black ; feeding upon the leaves. They congregate in 
 tents or in clusters on the bark at night and in cool weather, and 
 forage out upon the branches during the day. 
 
 Treatment. — Arsenicals, as for Codlin-moth (p. 306). Bum 
 out nests with torch, or cut them out and crush the larvae. Pick 
 off egg masses from twigs during winter and spring. 
 
 Tussock-moth {Hemerocampa lencostigma) . — A handsome, red- 
 headed, yellow and black tufted caterpillar, about an inch long, 
 which devours the leaves and sometimes eats into the fruit. 
 
 Remedial. — Collect the frothy egg-masses in fall and winter 
 and band the trees to prevent a reinfestation by migrating cater- 
 pillars. Spray with arsenicals as for codlin-moth, taking care to 
 cover the under side of the leaves. 
 
 Twig-borer (Schistoceros hamatus). — Beetle, three-eighths inch 
 long, cylindrical and dark brown, boring into twigs of apple, pear, 
 and other trees. The beetle enters just above a bud. 
 
 Treatment. — Burn the twigs. The early stages are passed in 
 dying wood such as prunings, diseased canes, and in upturned 
 roots. Burn such rubbish, and thus destroy their breeding- 
 places. This is also a grape pest. 
 
 TwiG-PRUNER (Elaphidion villosum) .— Yellowish white larvae, 
 about a half inch long, boring into young twigs, causing them to 
 die and break off. 
 
 Treatment. — Burn the twigs. 
 
310 ixjrRiors ixsects, with treatment 
 
 Woolly Aphis {Schizoneura lanigera). — Hmii\\ reddish-brown plant- 
 lice covered with a conspicuous mass of white, waxy fibers, found 
 on the branches, sprouts, trunks, and roots. 
 Preventive. — Do not set infested trees. 
 
 Treatment. — For the form above ground drench the infested 
 parts with 15 per cent kerosene emulsion ; for the underground 
 form remove tlie eartli beneath the tree to a depth of 3 inches, 
 and apply 10 per cent kerosene emulsion liberally, and replace 
 the earth. In tlie case of nursery stock the emulsion may be applied 
 in a sliallow furrow close to the row. 
 Apricot. Pkau Twig-beetle. — See under Pe.\r, p. 326. 
 Pin-hole Borer. — See Bark-beetle under Peach, p. 325. 
 Plum-curculio. — See under Plum, p. 329. 
 
 Brown Apricot-scale {Eulecanium armeniacum). — A soft brown 
 scale infesting the under side of the smaller branches. 
 
 Treatment. — Spray with resin and fish-oil compound, taking 
 care to hit the underside of the twigs. In California the applica- 
 tion should be made in January and February. 
 Asparagus. Common Asparagus-beetle (Crioceris asparagi). — 
 Beetle, less than one-fourtli inch in length, j'ellow, red, and shin- 
 ing black, with conspicuous ornamentation, feeding upon the 
 tender shoots. Larva feeds upon the leaves and tender bark. 
 
 Treatment. — Freshly slaked lime dusted on before the dew 
 has disappeared in the morning. Poultry. Cut down all plants 
 in early spring to force the beetles to deposit their eggs upon the 
 new shoots, which are then cut every few days before the eggs 
 hatch ; or leave a row or so around the field as a lure for the 
 beetles where they may be killed with arsenicals. 
 The T\velve-spotted Asparagus-beetle (Crioceris 12-punctata). 
 — Similar to the last, but with twelve spots on the wing- 
 covers. 
 
 Treatment. — Similar to that used above, except that the grubs 
 cannot be destroyed by lime, since they live within the berry. 
 Asparagus Miner {Agromyza simplex). — A maggot mining under 
 the skin near the base of the plant. 
 
 Treatment. — Leave a few volunteer plants as a trap in which 
 the fly will deposit her eggs. Pull and burn these plants in late 
 June and early July. 
 
ASTER — CABBAGE 311 
 
 Aster. Aster- WORM {Papaipema nitela). — A small larva boring in 
 the stem of garden asters about the time they begin to flower, 
 causing the heads to droop. 
 
 All infested stocks should be burned. Destroy by burning all 
 rank weeds, such as ragweed and cocklebur, before September. 
 Bean. Bean- weevil or Bean-bug {Bruchus obtedus). — Closely 
 resembles the pea-weevil, which see for description and remedies. 
 Holding over the seed will be of no value with this insect. 
 Seed-corn Maggot. {Pegomya fusciceps). — A maggot attacking 
 germinating seeds and roots of young plants. 
 
 Treatment. — Avoid stable manure ; practice crop rotation. In 
 the garden use sand moistened with kerosene around the plants 
 to keep the flies from laying the eggs. 
 Birch. Bronze Bircil-boreb. {Agrilus anxius) . — A slender, creamy 
 white grub, three-fourths inch in length when full grown, that 
 burrows under the bark of the white birch, ultimately killing the 
 tree. The eggs are laid during May and June by a slender, olive- 
 bronze beetle about one-half inch in length. 
 
 Treatment. — After a tree has become thoroughly infested, 
 nothing can be done to save it. As the first indication of the 
 presence of the borer is usually a dying of the topmost branches, 
 such trees should be carefully examined, and if infested should 
 be cut down and burned before May 1, to prevent a spread of the 
 trouble to other trees. 
 Blackberry. Cane-borer. — See under Raspberry, p. 330. 
 Root Gall-fly. — See under Raspberry. 
 Snowy Cricket. — See under Raspberry. 
 Cabbage. Cabbage-worm or Cabbage-butterfly (Pontia rapiE).-- 
 The green caterpillars hatch from eggs laid by the common white 
 butterfly. There are several broods every season. 
 
 Treatment. — If plants are not heading, spray with kerosene 
 emulsion or with paris green to which the sticker has been added. 
 If heading, apply hellebore. 
 Flea-beetle, — See Flea-beetle, p. 303. 
 
 Common Cabbage-looper {Autographa brassic(E) . — A pale green 
 caterpillar, striped with lighter lines. Feeds on the leaves. 
 Treatment. — Arsenicals applied to lower surface of leaves. 
 Cabbage Aphis (Aphis brassicce). -These smaU. mealv plant-lice 
 
312 ix.nHKjrs lysKCTS, with treatment 
 
 are especitilly troul^lesoinc chirint; cool, dry seasons, when their 
 natural enemies are less active. 
 
 Treatment. — Before the plants begin to head, spray with kero- 
 sene emulsion diluted with 6 parts of water or whale-oil soap, 
 1 pound in gallons of water, or use one of the concentrated 
 tobacco extracts. Destroy all cabbage stalks and other crucif- 
 erous plants in the fall. Dip infested plants in soap solution 
 before planting. 
 Harlequin C.\bbage-bug {Murgantia histrionica) . — Bug about 
 a half-inch long, gaudily colored with orange dots and stripes over 
 a blue-black ground, feeding upon cabbage ; two to six broods. 
 
 Treatment. — Hand-picking. Place blocks about the patch, and 
 the bugs will collect under them. In the fall make small piles of 
 the rubbish in the patch, and burn them at the approach of winter. 
 Practice clean culture. Destroy all cabbage stalks and other 
 cruciferous plants in fall. Early in the spring plant a trap crop of 
 mustard, radish, rape, or kale. When the overwintering bugs 
 congregate on these plants, destroy them with pure kerosene or 
 by hand. 
 Maggot (Pegomya hrassiccB). — A minute white maggot, the larva 
 of a small fly, eating into the crown and roots of young cabbage, 
 cauliflower, radish, and turnip plants. 
 
 Treattnent. — Carbolic acid emulsion diluted with 30 parts 
 of water applied the day following the transplanting of the 
 cabbage plants, and repeated once a week for several appli- 
 cations. Remove a little earth from about the plants, and 
 spray on the emulsion forcibly. It has also been found practi- 
 cable to protect the plants by the use of tightly fitting cards cut 
 from tarred paper. 
 
 In seed beds protect the plants by surrounding the bed with 
 boards one foot wide placed on edge, across which a tight cover 
 of cheese-cloth is stretched. 
 Carrot. Pausley-worm. — See under Parsley, p. 324. 
 
 Carrot-beetle {Ligyrus gibhosus). — A reddish brown beetle 
 one-half inch or more long, which attacks the young plants. The 
 larva lives in the ground, where it feeds on humus. 
 
 Preventive. — Crop rotation and other remedies for white grub, 
 which see under Corn, p. 314. 
 
CARROT — CHRYSANTHEMUM 313 
 
 Cauliflower. Cauliflower or Cabbage-worm. — See under Cabbage. 
 
 Maggot. — See under Cabbage, p. 311. 
 Celery. Carrot Rust-fly {Psila roses). Minute whitish yellow 
 maggots infesting the roots and stunting the plants. 
 
 Preventive. — Late sowing and rotation of crops. Celery or 
 carrots should not follow each other. 
 Celery Caterpillar {Papilio polyxenes). — A large green caterpillar, 
 ringed with black and spotted with yellow, which feeds on 
 the leaves. 
 
 Treatment. — Hand-picking as soon as observed. 
 Celery Leaf-tyer {Phlyccenia ferrugalis). — A greenish cater- 
 pillar, feeding on the under side of the leaves. 
 
 Treatment. — Spray with arsenicals while the larva? are still young. 
 Little Negro-bug (Corimeloena pulicaria). — Glossy black bugs 
 one-eighth inch in length, which collect in clusters in the axils of 
 the leaflets and cause the plants to wilt. 
 
 Treatment. — Kerosene emulsion or tobacco extract. 
 Cherry. Canker-worm. See under Apple, p. 306. 
 Plum-curculio. See under Plum, p. 329. 
 Rose Beetle. See under Apple and Grape, pp. 308, 322. 
 Slug {Eriocampoides limacina). — Larva, one-half inch long, black- 
 ish and slimy, feeding upon the leaves ; two broods. 
 Treatment. Arsenicals, hellebore, tobacco extract. 
 Aphis (Myzus cerasi). Blackish plant lice infesting the leaves 
 and tips of new growth. 
 
 Treatment. Spray as soon as the first lice appear with whale- 
 oil soap or tobacco extract. 
 Chestnut. Weevil (Balaninus proboscideus and B. rectus). — A grub 
 working in chestnuts, making them wormy. 
 The weevil is a curculio-like insect. 
 
 Preventives. — Destroy wild trees where the insects breed. 
 Plant the most immune varieties. Gather and destroy the in- 
 fested nuts immediately after they fall. 
 Chrysanthemum. Cabbage-looper. — See under I^ttuce, p. 322. 
 Chrysanthemum Leaf-miner (Phytomyza chrysanthemi).— 
 
 Remedy. — Q^ray leaves with ''Nicofume Liquid," or "Black 
 
 Leaf 40," 1 part in 450 parts water, at intervals of week or 10 days. 
 
 Clover. Flower-midge (Dasyneura leguminicola,) . — An orange-red 
 
314 lyji'Riors insects, with treatment 
 
 maggot infesting the flower-buds, where they consume the contents 
 of the ovary. 
 
 Preventives. — Cut the first crop for hay as early as possible, 
 thus destroying the undeveloped larvae of the first brood. In the 
 latitude of Illinois this should be done before June 25. 
 Seed-ch.\lcis {Bruchophagus funebris). — A white grub found in- 
 side the seed. 
 
 Preventive. — Same as for Flower-midge, above. Destroy all 
 volunteer clover plants. 
 Seed-c.\terpillar {Enarmonia inter stidana) . — A small whitish 
 or orange caterpillar infesting the heads. 
 
 Preventive. — Early cutting of first crop, as for Flower-midge. 
 Root-borer (Hylastinus obscuriLs). — Small white grub burrow- 
 ing in the roots. 
 
 Preventive. — Plow under badly infested fields as soon as pos- 
 sible after cutting. 
 Hay- WORM (Hypsopygia costalis). — A brownish caterpillar three- 
 fourths inch long, infesting stacked or stored clover. 
 
 Preventive. — Remove old clover hay before putting in the new. 
 Place stacks on log or rail foundation, and salt the lower layers. 
 (Illinois Experiment Station.) 
 Corn. CoRX-ROOT Aphis( Aphis maidiradicis) . — A bluish green aphis 
 infesting the roots. 
 
 Preventives. — A short rotation period in corn, especially in dry 
 years. Deep and thorough and repeated stirring of old corn 
 ground in fall and spring as a preparation for corn-planting. 
 Maintenance and increase of the fertility of the soil. 
 White Grubs (Lachnosterna spp.). — The large white curved larvae 
 of the common June beetle. 
 
 Preventives. — Rotation of crops ; do not let corn follow sod, 
 but let a crop of clover or clover and oats intervene. To help 
 clear sod land of grubs, pasture to hogs any time between April 
 and October. To prevent laying of eggs in corn-field, keep the 
 ground free from weeds during May and June. Thorough cul- 
 tivation and heavy fertilization. 
 Northern Cor.v Root- worm (Diabrotica longicornis) . — A whitish 
 grub two-fifths inch long, which burrows in the roots. 
 
 Preventive. — Crop rotation ; corn should not follow corn. 
 
CL VER — CORN 315 
 
 Wire-worms {Elateridoe) . — YLd^vd, yellowish, or reddish, cylin- 
 drical larvae feeding on the roots. 
 
 Preventives. — Crop rotation ; let clover intervene between sod 
 and corn, planting the corn late the second or third year. Early 
 fall plowing. 
 
 Cut-worms {Agrotis, Hadena, etc.). — Soft-bodied caterpillars eat- 
 ing and cutting off the young plants. See p. 302. 
 
 Preventives. — Early fail plowing of grass lands intended for 
 corn ; pasturing by pigs of grass or clover land intended for corn ; 
 distributing a line of poisoned bran by means of a seed-drill. To 
 prevent the caterpillars entering from a neighboring grass field, 
 destroy them with a line of poisoned vegetable bait. 
 
 Sod Web-worms (Crambus spp.). — Gray or brownish caterpillars 
 about one-half inch long, living in a silk-lined burrow in the soil at 
 base of the plant. They thrive in grass land. 
 
 Preventive. — Early fall plowing of grass land intended for 
 corn, or else plow as late as possible the next spring. 
 
 Army- WORM. (Leucania unipuncta). — A cut- worm-like caterpillar, 
 which normally feed on grass. When this food supply is exhausted, 
 they migrate in numbers to other fields and attack corn, wheat, 
 etc. 
 
 Preventive. — To stop the advance of the " army," plow deep 
 furrows so the dirt is thrown towards the colony ; in the bottom of 
 the furrow dig post holes into which the caterpillars will fall and 
 where they may be killed with kerosene. 
 
 Chinch-bug {Blissus leucopterus) . — A red or white and black suck- 
 ing bug, three-twentieths of an inch long. Attacks wheat and 
 corn in great numbers. 
 
 Preventives. — Clean farming to destroy suitable hibernating 
 shelter. Stop the migration of the bugs from the wheat-fields into 
 corn by maintaining along the field a dust strip ten feet wide in 
 which a furrow and post-hole barrier has been constructed. This 
 may be supplemented by a coal-tar barrier. 
 
 Grasshoppers ( A end icte). — Kill them with poison bran mash fla- 
 vored with lemons or oranges. 
 
 Corn Ear-worm {Heliothis armiger) . — A green or brownish striped 
 caterpillar feeding on the corn beneath the husk. Three to six 
 generations yearly. 
 
316 jxjcniors ixsects, with treatment 
 
 Preventives. — Plant as early as possible, and still avoid a " set 
 back " to the crop. 
 
 For insects infesting stored corn, see under Fumigation, p. 287. 
 
 Cotton. — lioLLWoHM (Ifcliothis ob.soleta). — This insect is also known 
 
 ji^ the corn earworni and tomato fruit-worm. The caterpillars 
 
 are over an incii in length, antl vary in color from greenish to 
 
 dark bro\Mi. 
 
 Preventives. — Produce an early crop of cotton by planting 
 early varieties, heavy fertilizing, early and frequent cultivation. 
 Practice fall plowing, to destroy as many hibernating pupa? as 
 possible. Use corn as a trap crop. Plant it in strips across the 
 fiekl and time it so that the crop will be in silk and tassel about 
 August 1. In areas infested by the boll weevil follow the recom- 
 mendations given below. (Piureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. 
 Agric.) 
 Mexican Boll- weevil {Anthonomus grandis). — A snout beetle 
 about one-fourth inch in length, which lays its eggs in the squares 
 and bolls, producing a grub which eats out the contents. 
 
 Treatment (U. S. Dept. Agric.) : — 
 
 1. Destroy the vast majority of weevils in the fall by up- 
 rooting and burning the plants. This is the all-important step. 
 It results in the death of millions of weevils. It insures a crop 
 for the following season. 
 
 2. Destroy also many weevils that have survived the pre- 
 ceding operation and are found in the cotton-fields and along the 
 hedgerows, fences, and buildings. This is done by clearing the 
 places referred to thoroughly. 
 
 3. As far as possible, locate the fields in situations where 
 damage will be avoided. This cannot be done in all cases, but 
 can frequently be done to good adv^antage. 
 
 4. Prepare the land early and thoroughly in order to obtain an 
 early crop. This means fall plowing and winter working of the 
 land. 
 
 5. Provide wide rows, and plenty of space between the rows 
 and the plants in the drill, for the assistance of the natural enemies 
 of the weevil, which do more against the pest than the farmer can 
 do himself l)y any known means. Check-rowing, wherever prac- 
 ticable, is an excellent i)ractice. 
 
COTTON — CRANBERRY 317 
 
 6. Insure an early crop by early planting of early-maturing 
 i^arieties, and by fertilizing where necessary. 
 
 7. Continue the procuring of an early crop by early chopping 
 to a stand and early and frequent cultivation. Do not lose the fruit 
 the plants have set by cultivation too deep or too close to the rows. 
 
 8. Where the labor is sufficient, pick the first appearing weevils 
 and the first infested squares. Do not destroy the squares, but 
 place them in screened cages. By this means the escape of the 
 weevils will be prevented, while the parasites will be able to escape 
 to continue their assistance on the side of the farmer. 
 
 9. Use a crossbar of iron or wood, or some similar device, to 
 cause the infested squares to fall early to the ground, so that they 
 will be exposed to the important effects of heat and parasites. 
 
 10. Do not poison for the leaf-worm unless its work begins 
 at an abnormally early date in the summer. 
 Cranberry. Fruit-worm {Mineola z^accmu). —Small caterpillar work- 
 ing in the fruits, eating out the insides. 
 
 Preventive. — For bogs with abundant water, reflow for 
 ten days immediately after picking. Let the foliage ripen, and 
 then turn on water for winter. Draw off water early in April, 
 and every third or fourth year hold it on until the middle of May. 
 For dry bogs spray three times with arsenate of lead during 
 July. Bury all screenings. 
 Fire-worm, Cranberry-worm, or Black-headed Cranberry- 
 worm (Eudemis vacciniana). — Small larva, green, black-headed, 
 feeding upon the shoots and young leaves, drawing them together 
 by silken threads ; two broods. 
 
 Treatment. — Flooding for two or three days when the worms 
 come down to pupate. Arsenicals. 
 Yellow-headed Cranberry- worm {Acleris minuta). — Stout, yel- 
 lowish-green, small caterpillar, with a yellow head, webbing up 
 the leaves as it works. 
 
 Treatment. — Hold the water late on the bog in spring to pre- 
 vent egg-laying. Arsenicals from the middle of May till July 1. 
 Cranberry-gird LER {Crambns hortuellus). — Small caterpillars feed- 
 ing on the stems just beneath the surface of the sand. 
 
 Preventive. — Reflow just after picking, for a week or ten days, 
 or reflow for a day or two about June 10. 
 
318 IXJT'RIOrS INSECTS, WITH TREATMENT 
 
 False Army-worm {Calocampa nupera). — Green to blackish 
 caterpillars devouring the leaves and buds. 
 
 Treatment. — Reflow for from twenty-four to thirty-six hours 
 soon after the middle of May. It may be necessary to reflow 
 a second time. Destroy all caterpillars washed ashore while the 
 water is on. 
 
 In dry bogs, spray early in May with arsenate of lead. 
 Cucumber. Pickle-worm (Diaphania nitidalis). — Larva, about an 
 inch long, yellowish white, tinged with green, boring into cucum- 
 bers; two broods. 
 
 Preventives. — Clean farming, fall plowing, and rotation of crops. 
 
 Remedies. — Kill the caterpillars before they enter the fruit 
 by spraying with arsenate of lead about the time the buds begin 
 to form, and repeat in two weeks. 
 Stem-borer. — See under Squash (p. 331), where it is described as 
 
 root-borer. 
 Melon-worm. — See under Melon, p. 322. 
 
 Spotted Cucumber-beetle {Diabrotica 12-punctata). — Beetle, 
 yellowish and black spotted, about one-fourth inch long, feeding 
 upon the leaves and fruit. Sometimes attacks fruit-trees, and the 
 larva may injure roots of corn. 
 
 Treatment. — Same as for Striped Cucumber-beetle, below. 
 Striped Cucumber-beetle (Diabrotica vittata) . — Beetle, one-fourth 
 inch long, yellow with black stripes, feeding on leaves. Larva one- 
 eighth inch long and size of a pin, feeding on roots; two broods. 
 
 Preventive. — Cheap boxes covered with thin muslin or screens 
 of mosquito-netting, placed over young plants. 
 
 Remedies. — Arsenicals in flour. Arsenate of lead. Ashes, 
 lime, plaster, or fine road dust sprinkled on the plants every two 
 or three days when they are wet. Air-slaked lime. Plaster and 
 kerosene. Tobacco powder, applied liberally. Apply remedies 
 when dew is on, and see that it strikes the under side of the leaves. 
 Currant. Borer {Scsia tipidiformis). — A whitish larva, boring in 
 the canes of currants, and sometimes of gooseberries. The larva 
 remains in the cane over winter. 
 
 Treatment. — In fall and early spring cut and burn all affected 
 canes. These canes are distinguished before cutting by lack 
 of vigor and by limberness. 
 
CURRANT — ELM 319 
 
 Currant-worm, or Currant and Gooseberry Sawfly (A^ema/j<s 
 ventricosus) . — Larva, about three-fourths inch long, yellow- 
 green, feeding on leaves of red and white varieties; two to four 
 broods. 
 
 Treatment. — White hellebore, applied early. Arsenicals for 
 the early brood. Treatment should begin while the larvir arc 
 on the lowermost leaves of the bushes. Before the leaves arc 
 fully grown, the holes made by the worms may be seen. The 
 second brood is best destroyed by killing the first brood. 
 Currant Measuring or Span-worm {Cr/matophora ribearia). — 
 Larva somewhat over an inch long, with stripes and dotted with 
 yellow or black, feeding upon the leaves. 
 
 Treatment. — Hellebore, applied stronger than for currant- 
 worm. Arsenicals. Hand-picking. 
 Four-striped Plant-bug. — See p. 303. 
 
 Green Leaf-hopper (Empoa albopicta). — Small insect working 
 upon the under surface of currant and gooseberry leaves. Also 
 upon the apple. 
 
 Remedies. — Pyrethrum. Kerosene emulsion. Tobacco-dust. 
 Tobacco extracts. 
 Dahlia. Four-striped Plant-bug. — See p. 303. 
 
 Cabbage Looper. — See under Cabbage, p. 311. 
 Egg-plant. Potato-beetle. — See under Potato, p. 329. 
 Elm. Canker-worm. — See under Apple, p. 306. 
 Elm Leaf-beetle (Galerucellaluteola). — A small beetle, imported 
 from Europe, which causes great devastation in some of the eastern 
 states by eating the green matter from elm leaves, causing the 
 tree to appear as if scorched. 
 
 Remedy. — Arsenate of lead (li pounds to 25 gallons). 
 Elm Sawfly Leaf-miner {Kaliosysphinga ulmi). — k greenish white 
 larva feeding between the two layers of the leaf, causing large 
 blotches ; when abundant, the leaf dies and falls. They some- 
 times kill the trees in two or three years. 
 
 Treatment — ^Yi^n the blotches are about one-third to one- 
 half inch in diameter, spray with "Black-leaf 40," tobacco extract, 
 1 gallon in 800 gallons of water, adding 4 pounds of w^hale-oil 
 soap to each 100 gallons. 
 Willow- WORM. — See under Willow. 
 
320 ixjrnioi's ixsects, with treatment 
 
 Endive. ('ABHAfjK-LooPEii. See under Cabbage, p. 311. 
 Gooseberry. Currant-borer. — See under Currant, p. 318. 
 
 ( ruKANT Measuring or Span-worm. — See under Currant. 
 
 Four Striped Plant-bug. — See p. 303. 
 
 Gooseberrv or Currant-worm. — See under Currant. 
 
 Gooseberry Fruit-worm {Dakruma convolutella) . — Larva, about 
 tliroe-fourths inch long, greenish or yellowish, feeding in the berrj^ 
 causing it to ripen prematurely. 
 
 Treatment. — Destroy affected berries. Clean cultivation. 
 Poultry. 
 
 Green Leaf-hopper. — See under Currant. 
 Grape. Grapeberry-worm (Polychrosis viteana). — Larva, about one- 
 fourth inch long, feeding in the berry, often securing three or four 
 together by a web ; two broods. 
 
 Remedy. — Spray with arsenate of lead before blossoms open. 
 Repeat after blooming and again in early July. Destroy wormy 
 berries in August. 
 
 Grape-curculio {Craponius incequalis). — Larva, small, white, 
 with a brownish head. Infests the grape in June and July, 
 causing a little black hole in the skin and a discoloration of 
 the berry immediately around it. The adult is a grayish brown 
 snout-beetle, about one-tenth inch long. 
 
 Treatment. — Spray with arsenate of lead while the beetles 
 are feeding on the leaves. The beetle may be jarred dowTi on 
 sheets, as with the plum-curculio. Bagging the clusters. 
 
 Grape-slug or Saw-fly {Selandria vitis). — Larva about one-half 
 inch long, yellowish green with black points, feeding upon the 
 leaves ; two broods. 
 
 Remedies. — Arsenicals. Hellebore. 
 
 Grape Root-worm {Fidia viticida). — The small white grubs 
 feed upon the roots, often killing the vines in a few years. The 
 adults are small grayish-brown l)eetles that eat peculiar chain-like 
 holes in the leaves during July and August. Cultivate thoroughly 
 in June, especially close around the vines to kill the pupae in the 
 soil. At the first appearance of the beetles spray the plants with 
 arsenate of lead at the rate of 8 or 10 pounds to 100 gallons of 
 water, to which shoukl be added 1 gallon of molasses (Geneva 
 Experiment Station). 
 
GRAPE INSECTS ^-^ 
 
 Grape-vine Flea-beetle {Graptodera chalybea). — Beetle, of a 
 blue metallic color, about one-fourth inch long, feeding upon the 
 buds and tender shoots in early spring. 
 
 Treatment. — Arsenicals to kill the grubs on leaves during May 
 and June. The beetle can be caught by jarring on bright days. 
 Grape-vine Rcot-borer {Memythrus polistiformis). — Larva, one 
 and one-half inch or less long, working in the roots. 
 
 Preventive. — Thorough cultivation during June and July. 
 
 Treatment. — Dig out the borers. 
 
 Grape-vine Sphinx {Ampelophaga myron). — A large larva, two 
 
 inches long when mature, green with yellow spots and stripes, 
 
 bearing a horn at the posterior extremity, feeding upon the 
 
 leaves, and nipping off the young clusters of grapes ; two broods. 
 
 Treatment. — Hand-picking. Arsenicals early in the season. 
 
 There are other large sphinx caterpillars which feed upon the 
 foliage of the vine and which are readily kept in check by hand- 
 picking and spraying. 
 Phylloxera {Phylloxera vastatrix). — A minute insect preying 
 upon the roots, and in one form causing galls upon the leaves. 
 
 Preventive. — As a rule this insect is not destructive to American 
 species of vines. Grafting upon resistant stocks is the most re- 
 liable method of dealing with the insect yet known. This pre- 
 caution is taken to a large extent in European countries, as the 
 European vine is particularly subject to attack. 
 
 Remedies. — There is no reliable and widely practicable remedy 
 known. Burn afTected leaves. Bisulphide of carbon poured 
 in holes in the ground, which are quickly filled, is very effective. 
 Carbolic acid and water used in the same way is also recommended. 
 Flood the vineyard. 
 Snowy Cricket. — See under Raspberry, p. 331. 
 Leaf-hopper {Typhlocijha comes) . — These small yellowish leaf- 
 hoppers, erroneously called " thrips," suck the sap from the under- 
 side of the leaves, causing them to turn brown and dry up. 
 
 Treatment. — Spray the under side of the leaves very thoroughly 
 with whale-oil soap, 1 pound in 10 gallons of water, or with 
 " Black-leaf" tobacco extract, 1 gallon to 100 gallons of water ; or 
 1 gallon " Black-leaf 40 " in 1000 gallons of water about July 1, 
 to kill the young leaf-hoppers. When using tobacco extract add 
 
322 ixjrRiors insects, with treatment 
 
 al)out 2 poimds whale-oil soap to each 50 gallons to make it spread 
 and stick Ix'tter. Repeat the application in a week or ten days. 
 In iiouses, tolnicco-snioke, pyrethruni i)oured upon coals held 
 under the vines, syringing with tobacco-water or soap suds. 
 Grasshoppers. — See under Corn, p. 314. 
 
 RosE-cn.\FER {Macrodadylus subspinosus) . — The ungainly, long- 
 legged, grayish beetles occur in sandy regions, and often swarm 
 into vineyards and destroy the blossoms and foliage. 
 
 Treatment. — At the first appearance of the beetles spray with 
 arsenate of lead at the rate of 8 or 10 pounds to 100 gallons of 
 water, to which should be added 1 gallon of molasses. 
 Hollyhock. Hug (Orthotylus delicalus). — A small green bug, attacking 
 the hollyhock with great damage. 
 
 Treatment. — Kerosene emulsion. Tobacco extracts. 
 House-plants. See Aphides, Mealy-bug, Mites, and Red-spider, 
 
 PI). 301-304. 
 Lawns. Ants {Formica sp.). — Insects burrowing in the ground, 
 forming '' ant hills." 
 
 Remedy. — A tablespoonful of bisulfid of carbon poured into 
 holes six inches deep and a foot apart, the holes being immediately 
 filled up. 
 Lettuce. Aphis or Green-fly. — A plant-louse on forced lettuce. 
 Preventive. — Tobacco-dust applied on the soil and plants as 
 soon as the aphis makes its appearance, or even before. Renew 
 every two or three weeks if necessary. Fumigating with tobacco 
 is the surest remedy. See Fumigation, p. 288. 
 Cabbage-looper (Autographa brassiae). — Larva, somewhat over 
 an inch long, pale green, with stripes of a lighter color, feeding 
 on leaves of many plants, as cabbage, celery, and endive. 
 
 Remedies. — Pyrethrum diluted with not more than three times 
 its bulk of flour; Kerosene emulsion. Hot water. 
 Melon. Melon-worm {Diaphania hyalinata) . — Larva, some over an 
 inch long, yellowish green and slightly hairy, feeding on melon- 
 leaves, and eating holes into melons, cucumbers, and squashes ; 
 two or more broods. 
 
 Remedies. — Hellebore. Arsenicals early in the season. 
 Spotted Cucumber-beetle. — See under Cucumber, p. 318. 
 Squash-vine Root-borer. — See under Squash, p. 331. 
 
MUSHROOM — ORANGE 323 
 
 Mushroom. Mushroom-fly. — The maggot bores through the 
 stems of the mushrooms before they are full grown. 
 
 Preventive. — Keep the beds cool so that the fly cannot develop. 
 When the fly is present, growing mushrooms in warm weather is 
 usuallj^ abandonded. 
 Onion. Maggot {Pegomya cepetorum). — Much hke the Cabb.\ge 
 Maggot, which see (p. 312). 
 
 Remedies. — Carbolic acid emulsion. Bisulfid of carbon. 
 Thrips (Thrips tabaci). — Minute elongate yellowish insects that 
 cause a wilting and dying of the tops. 
 
 Treatment. — Clean culture, kerosene emulsion, tobacco extracts. 
 
 Orange and Lemon. Purple Scale (Lepidosaphes beckii). — An 
 
 elongate brownish purple scale resembling an oyster-shell in shape. 
 
 Treatment. — Fumigation, using heavy dosage. 
 
 Red-scai£ {Aspidiotus aurantii). — A nearly circular reddish or 
 
 yellowish scale. 
 
 Treatment. — Fumigation. Distillate. 
 Black-scale {Saissetia olece). — A large soft-bodied dark brown 
 or nearly black scale. 
 
 Treatment. — Fumigation. Distillate. 
 Mealy-bug (Pseudococcus citri). — A mealy white soft-bodied 
 insect nearly one-fourth inch long, occurring in masses in the 
 angles of the branches, axils of the leaves, and around the stem 
 of the fruit. 
 
 Treatment. — Fumigation. Destruction of all rubbish under 
 the trees. 
 Red-spider (Tetranychus sexmaculatus) . — Minute greenish yellow 
 mites found on the leaves. See p. 304. 
 
 Treatment. — Dry sulfur, or sulfur and water used as a spray. 
 White-fly {Aleyrodes citri and A. nubifera). — The immature stages 
 are found on the underside of the leaves and are scale-like in form. 
 The adults are minute white-winged flies. 
 
 Trea^men^. — Fumigation. Fungous diseases (p. 290). 
 Rust-mite (Phytoptus oleivorns). — A minute mite, causing the rust 
 on oranges and lemons. 
 
 Treatment. — Sulfur, dry or as a spray. 
 Thrips {Eidhrips citri). — A minute, active, yellow insect that 
 scars the fruit and curls and distorts the leaves. 
 
324 IXJf'RIOf'S INSECTS, WITH TREATMENT 
 
 TreatnietU. — Make four applications of lime-sulfur (SS"^ Beau 
 m6), 1 gallon in 75 gallons of water, adding " Black-leaf 40 " 
 tobacco extract at the rate of 1 part in 1800 parts of the di- 
 lute lime-sulfur, as follows : — 
 First. — Just after most of the petals have fallen from the 
 
 blossoms. 
 Second. — Ten or fourteen days after the first. 
 Third. — From three to four weeks after the second. 
 Fourth. — In August or September, to protect later growths of 
 foliage. (U. S. Bureau of Entomology.) 
 Parsley. Parsley- worm {Papilio asterias). — Larva, inch and a 
 half long, light yellow or greenish yellow with lines and spots ; 
 feeding upon leaves of parsley, celery, carrot, etc. When the 
 worm is disturl^cd it ejects two yellow horns, with an offensive odor, 
 from the anterior end. 
 
 Remedies. — Hand-picking. Poultry are said to eat them some- 
 times. Upon parsnip, arsenicals. 
 Parsnip. Parsley-worm. — See under Parsley, above. 
 
 Par.snip Web- worm {Depressaria heradiana). — Larva, about a half 
 inch long, feeding in the flower cluster and causing it to become 
 contorted. 
 
 Treatment. — Arsenicals, applied as soon as the j'oung worms 
 appear, and before the cluster becomes distorted. Burn the dis- 
 torted umbels. Destroy all wild carrots. 
 Pea. Pe.\-\\t:evil or Pe.\-bug {Bruchus pisi). — A small brown-black 
 beetle, living in peas over winter. The beetle escapes in fall and 
 spring, and lays its eggs in young pea-pods, and the grubs live in 
 the gnjwing peas. 
 
 Treatment — Hold over infested seed for one year before plant- 
 ing. Late planting in some localities. Fumigation with carbon 
 bisulfid. 
 Pea Aphls (Macrosiphum pisi). — A rather large green plant-louse, 
 often attacking peas in great numbers and causing enormous 
 losses. 
 
 Treatment. — Rotation of crops. Early planting. When peas 
 are grown in rows, the brush-and-cultivator uK^thod may be used. 
 The plant-lice are brushed from the plants with pine boughs, and 
 a cultivator follows stirring the soil. This operation should be 
 
PEACH INSECTS 325 
 
 performed while the sun is hot and the ground dry. Most of the 
 hce will be killed before they can crawl back to the plants. 
 Repeat every three to seven days. 
 Peach. Black Aphis {Aphis persicoB-niger) . ~ A small black or 
 brown plant-louse which attacks the tops and roots of peach-trees. 
 When upon the roots it is a very serious enemy, stunting the 
 tree and perhaps killing it. Thrives in sandy lands. 
 
 Treatme7it. — Kerosene emulsion. Tobacco decoction and ex- 
 tracts. 
 Round-headed Apple-tree Borer. — See under Apple, p. 308. 
 Flat-headed Borer. — See under Apple. 
 
 Katydid. — This insect is often troublesome to the peach in the 
 southern states in the early spring, eating the leaves and girdling 
 young stems. 
 
 Remedy. — Poisoned baits placed about the tree. 
 Green Peach-louse or Aphis (Mtjzus persicoB). — A small insect 
 feeding upon the young leaves, causing them to curl and die. 
 
 Treatment. — Lime-sulfur, kerosene emulsion, or tobacco de- 
 coction. After the buds open, either of the last two. 
 Peach-tree Borer {Sanninoidea exitiosa) . — A whitish larva, about 
 three-fourths inch long when mature, boring into the crown and 
 upper roots of the peach, causing gum to exude. 
 
 Remedies. — Dig out the borers in June and mound up the 
 trees. At the same time apply gas-tar or coal-tar to the trunk 
 from the roots up to a foot or more above the surface of the 
 ground. 
 Peach Twig-moth (Anarsia lineatella). — The larva of a moth, a 
 fourth inch long, boring in the ends of the shoots, and later in 
 the season attacking the fruit. Several broods. 
 
 Remedy. — Spray with lime-sulfur just after the buds swell. 
 Spray trunks and larger branches with kerosene or distillate emul- 
 sion in late spring to kill first brood pupae in the curls of bark. 
 Peach-tree Bark-beetle {Phlceotrihus liminaris). — A dark 
 brown beetle one-tenth inch in length burrowing under the bark. 
 Treatment. — Burn all brush and worthless trees as soon as 
 the infestation is observed. Keep the trees in healthy condition 
 by thorough cultivation and the use of fertilizers. 
 
 Apply a thick whitewash to the trunk and branches three times 
 
326 INJURIOUS INSECTS, WITH TREATMENT 
 
 a season ; first, the last week of March ; second, second week 
 in July ; third, first week in October. 
 
 Fruit-tree Black-beetle {Scolytus rugulosus). — A small beetle 
 similar to the last. 
 
 Treatment. — Same as preceding. 
 
 Flvm-cvrculio {Conotrachelus Tie7iuphar). — In Missouri and Geor- 
 gia this insect has been successfully controlled on peach by spray- 
 ing with arsenate of lead, 4 pounds to 100 gallons of self-boiled 
 lime-sulfur. Spray, first when the "husks" drop from the fruit; 
 second, ten days or two weeks later. It is unsafe to spray 
 peaches more than twice with arsenate of lead (p. 329) . 
 
 Rose-beetle. — See under Grape and Apple, pp. 308, 322. 
 
 Red-legged Flea-beetle ( Haltica rufipes) . — A flea-beetle feeding 
 on the leaves of peach trees, often in great numbers. 
 
 Remedies. — The insects fall at once upon being jarred, and 
 sheets saturated with kerosene may be used upon which to catch 
 them. Spray with arsenate of lead in self-boiled lime-sulfur. 
 Pear. Apple-tree Borer. — See under Apple, p. 306. 
 
 Bud-moth. — See under Apple. 
 
 CoDLiN-MOTH. — See under Apple. 
 
 Fl.\t-headed Borer. — See under Apple. 
 
 Midge {Diplosis pyrivora). — A minute mosquito-like fly; lays 
 eggs in flower-buds when they begin to show white. These hatch 
 into minute grubs which distort and discolor the fruit. New York 
 and eastward. Prefers the Lawrence. Introduced in 1877 from 
 France. 
 
 Remedies. — Destroy the infested pears. Cultivate and plow 
 in late summer and fall to destroy the pupse then in the ground. 
 
 Pear-leaf Blister {Eriophyes pyri). — A minute mite which causes 
 black blisters to appear upon the leaves. The mites collect under 
 the bud-scales in winter. 
 
 Remedy. — Lime-sulfur or miscible oil as a dormant spray. 
 
 Pear-tree Borer (Sesia pyri). — A small whitish larva, feeding 
 under the bark of the pear tree. 
 
 Remedy. — Same as for round-headed apple-tree borer. 
 
 Pear-twig Beetle {Xylehorus pyri). — Brownish or black beetle, 
 one-tenth inch long, boring in twigs, producing effect much like 
 pear-blight, and hence often known as " pear-blight beetle." It 
 
PEAR INSECTS 327 
 
 escapes from a minute perforation at base of bud ; probably two 
 <)roods. 
 
 Treatment. — Burn twigs before the beetle escapes. 
 
 Pear Psylla {Psylla pyricola) . — These minute, yellowish, flat- 
 bodied, sucking insects are often found working in the axils of 
 the leaves and fruit early in the season. They develop into mi- 
 nute, cicada-like jumping-lice. The young psyllas secrete a large 
 quantity of honey-dew, in which a peculiar black fungus grows, 
 giving the bark a characteristic sooty appearance. There may 
 be four broods annually, and the trees are often seriously 
 injured. 
 
 Treatment. — Clean culture ; remove rough bark from trunks 
 and larger limbs to discourage adults from hibernating on the 
 trees, and spray with miscible oils while trees are dormant. Spray 
 with lime-sulfur wash at strengths used to combat scale, 
 just before leaves appear, to destroy eggs. After blossoms have 
 dropped, spray with whale-oil soap, 1 pound to 5 or 7 gallons 
 of water ; kerosene emulsion diluted with 8 to 12 parts of water ; 
 or standardized tobacco decoctions at strengths recommended on 
 containers. If psyllas are abundant, trees should be frequently 
 sprayed. (New York Experiment Station.) 
 
 Pear Thrips (Euthrips pyri). — Minute insects, sV "ich in length, dark 
 brown when adult, white with red eyes when young, that attack 
 the opening bud and young fruits in early spring. They suck 
 the sap from the tender growth, and the females lay eggs in the 
 fruit stems, causing a loss of the crop. The nymphs hibernate 
 in the ground a few inches from the surface. A serious pest in 
 California and recently introduced into New York. 
 
 Treatment. — Thorough cultivation during October, November, 
 and December (in California). Make two applications of 
 " Black-leaf " tobacco extract, 1 gallon in 60 gallons of 2 per 
 cent distillate oil emulsion, the first just as the fruit buds begin 
 to open, the second just after the petals fall. In the East it 
 may be controlled by timely applications of tobacco extract and 
 whale-oil soap. 
 Pecan. Bud-moth (Proteopteryx deludana). — A brownish caterpillar 
 about one-half inch in length, feeding on the opening buds in early 
 spring and on the underside of the leaves in summer. 
 
328 lyjrRiors insects, with treatment 
 
 Treatment. — Arseiititc of lead in summer to kill larvae of second 
 brood. Lime-sulfur and arsenate of lead in dormant season just 
 before buds open, to destroy hibernating larvic. 
 Case-bearer (Acrobasis nehulella). — A small caterpillar living in- 
 side a case which it carries with it. It attacks the opening buds. 
 Treatment. — Arsenate of lead as soon as the buds begin to 
 open. Repeat if necessary. 
 Borer (.St.sm sciiula). — A wood-boring caterpillar working in the 
 sap wood. 
 
 Treatment, — Digging out. 
 Twig-girdlers. — See under Persimmon below. 
 Rose-beetle. — See under Grape and Apple, pp. 308, 322. 
 Round-headed Borer. — See under Apple. 
 Slug. — See under Cherry, p. 313. 
 
 Twig-gird LER {Oncideres cingulatus). — A brownish-gray beetle, 
 about one-half inch long, which girdles twigs in August and Sep- 
 tember. The female lays eggs above the girdle. The twigs soon 
 fall. 
 
 Remedy. — Burn the twigs, either cutting them ofif or gather- 
 ing them when they fall. 
 TwiG-PRUNER. — See under AppLE, p. 309. 
 Persimmon. White Peach-scale {Diaspis pentagona). 
 
 Remedy. — Lime-sulfur when the trees are thoroughly dormant. 
 TwiG-GiRDLERS {Oncideres cingulat US nud 0. texana). — Dark gray 
 long-horned beetles that girdle the twigs, causing them to drop. 
 Remedy. — Pick up and burn fallen twigs in fall and winter. 
 Pineapple. Katydid {Acanlhacara similis). — A large katydid which 
 attacks, among other plants, the leaves of the pineapple. 
 Remedy. — Arsenicals, before the plants are mature. 
 Mealy-bugs (several species). — These mealy white insects attack 
 the ])lant at the base of the leaves, usually underground. 
 
 Treatment. — Set only clean plants, or tlij) them in resin wash 
 or kerosene emulsion. Li the field ai)i)ly tobacco dust freely in 
 the bud before the ])loom begins to api)ear, or spray with kerosene 
 emulsion. 
 Red-Spider (Stigrticeiis floridanus). — Minute mites occurring in 
 great number at tiie base of the leaf, where they induce rot. 
 Treatment. — Tobacco dust applied to bud. 
 
PLUM — POTATO 329 
 
 Plum. Canker-worm. — See under Apple, p. 306. 
 CuRCULio {Conoirachelus nenuphar). — Larva, a whitish grub, feed- 
 ing in the fruit. 
 
 Remedies. — Arsenate of lead, 6 pounds to 100 gallons of water; 
 apply as soon as the calyx falls, and repeat two or three times at 
 intervals of about ten days. Jarring the beetles on sheets very 
 early in the morning, beginning when trees are in flower, and con- 
 tinuing from four to six weeks, is probably the most sure proce- 
 dure. There are various styles of sheets or receptacles for catch- 
 ing the insects as they fall from the tree. Clean culture. 
 Flat-headed Borer. — See under Apple. 
 Pear-twig Beetle. — See under Pear, p. 326. 
 Plum-gouger {Coccotorus prunicida). — A small larva, feed- 
 ing upon the kernel of the plum. The beetle bores a round hole 
 in the plum instead of making a crescent mark, like the cur- 
 culio. 
 Remedy. — Catch the beetles over a curculio-catcher. 
 Scale (Lecanium corni). — A large circular scale occurring on 
 plum (and perhaps other) trees in New York. 
 
 Remedy. — Thorough spraying with kerosene emulsion, one part 
 to five of water, in the winter. More dilute emulsion or tobacco 
 extracts in midsummer, when the young insects are on the leaves 
 and young shoots. 
 Slug. — See under Cherry, p. 313. 
 TwiG-PRUNER. — See under Apple, p. 309. 
 Poplar. Cottonwood Leaf-beetle {Lina scripta). — A striped beetle 
 feeding on the leaves and shoots of poplars and willows. 
 Remedy. — Arsenicals. 
 Willow-worm. — See under Willow, p. 336. 
 Poplar Borer {Cryptorhynchus lapathi). — A whitish grub bur- 
 rowing in the wood. 
 
 Treatment. — In nurseries spray thoroughly about the middle 
 of July with arsenate of lead to kill the parent beetles. 
 Potato. Colorado Potato-beetle {Leptinotarsa decemlineata) . — 
 Beetle and larva feed upon the leaves. 
 
 Remedies. — Arsenicals, either dry or in spray, about a third 
 stronger than for fruits. Hand-picking the beetle. 
 Stalk-weevil (Trichobaris trinotata). — A grub boring in the stalk 
 
330 jxji'Jiious ly SECTS, with treatment 
 
 of the potato near or just below the ground. Serious at the West 
 and in some phices eastward. 
 
 Remedy. — Pull all infested vines as soon as they wilt, and spread 
 
 them in the sun where the insects will be killed. Burn the vines 
 
 as soon as the crop is harvested. Destroy all solanaceous weeds. 
 
 FLE.\-nEETij:s (Ilalticini). — Small, dark-colored jumping beetles 
 
 that riildle the leaves with holes. See p. 303. 
 
 Preventive. — Bordeaux mixture as applied for potato blight 
 acts as a repellent. 
 Potato Tuber-worm {Phthorimcea operculella) . — A small caterpillar 
 burrowing in the stems and tubers both in the field and in storage. 
 Preventives. — Clean cultivation, sheep and hogs to destroy the 
 small potatoes left in the field after digging. Crop rotation over 
 a considerable area. On digging remove the potatoes at once to an 
 uninfcsted storeroom. Do not leave them on the field over-night. 
 WiHE-woims. — See p. 305. 
 Privet or Prim. Prhtit Web-worm (Diaphania quadristigmalis) . — 
 Small larva feeding in webs on the young shoots of the privet, 
 appearing early in the season ; two to four broods. 
 
 Remedies. — Trim the hedge as soon as the worms appear, and 
 burn the trimmings. Probably the arsenicals will prove useful. 
 Quince. Round-headed Borers. — See under Apple, p. 308. 
 Slug. — See under Cherry, p. 313. 
 
 Quince-curculio {Conotrachelus cratcegi). — This curculio is some- 
 what larger than that infesting the plum, and differs in its life- 
 history. The grubs leave the fruits in the fall, and enter the ground, 
 where thoy hibernate and transform to adults the next May, 
 June, or July, depending on the season. When the adults appear, 
 jar them from the tree on to sheets or curculio-catchers and de- 
 stroy them. To determine when they appear, jar a few trees daily, 
 beginning the latter part of May. Arsenicals. 
 Radish. Maggot {Pegomija brassicce). — Treated the same as the 
 
 Cabbage-maggot, which see (p. 312). 
 Raspberry. Caxe-borer (Oberea bimaculata) . — Beetle, black, small, 
 and slim ; making two girdles about an inch apart near the tip 
 of the cane, in June, and laying an egg just above the lower 
 girdle ; the larva, attaining the length of nearly an inch, bores 
 down the cane. Also in blackberry. 
 
RASPBERRY— SQUASH 331 
 
 Remedy. — As soon as the tip of the cane wilts, cut it off at the 
 lower girdle and burn it. 
 Raspberry Root-borer {Bembecia marginata). — Larva about one 
 inch long, boring in the roots and the lower parts of the cane, 
 remaining in the root over winter. 
 Remedy. — Dig out the borers. 
 Raspberry Saw-fly {Monophadnm ruhi). — Larva about three- 
 fourths inch long, green, feeding upon the leaves. 
 Remedies. — Hellebore. Arsenicals, after fruiting. 
 Root Gall-fly {Rhodites radicum). — A small larva which pro- 
 duces galls on the roots of the raspberry, blackberry, and rose, 
 causing the bush to appear sickly, and eventually killing it. The 
 swellings are probably often confounded with the nematode root- 
 galls, for which see p. 303. 
 
 Remedy. — There is no remedy except to destroy the galls ; 
 if plants are badly affected, they must be dug up and burned. 
 Snowy or Tree-cricket {(Ecanthus niveus) . — Small and whitish 
 cricket-like insect, puncturing canes for two or three inches, and 
 depositing eggs in the punctures. 
 
 Remedy. — Burn infested canes in winter or very early spring. 
 Rhubarb. Rhubarb-curculio {Lixiis concavus). — A grub three- 
 fourths inch long, boring into the crown and roots. It also attacks 
 wild docks. 
 
 Remedy. — Burn all infested plants, and keep down the docks. 
 
 Hand-picking. 
 Rose. Root Gall-fly. — See under Raspberry, above. 
 
 Mealy-bug. — Tobacco extracts. Syringe the plants in the morn- 
 ing, and two hours later syringe again with clean water. See also 
 
 p. 303. 
 Rose-chafer, Rose-beetle, or " Rose-bug." See Grape, p. 3L-. 
 Rose Leaf-hopper {Typhlocyba rosce). — A very small hopper, 
 
 white, often mistaken for thrips, living on the leaves of roses. 
 Remedies. — Whsi\e-oi\ soap. Kerosene. Kerosene emulsion. 
 
 Dry pyrethrum blown on bushes when leaves are wet. Tobacco 
 
 Squash Borer or Root-borer (Melittia satyriniformis). — Soh, 
 white, grub-like larva which bores inside the stem and causes rot 
 to develop, killing the vine. 
 
332 IXJURIOUS INSECTS, WITH TREATMENT 
 
 Preventives. — Plant early squashes as traps. As soon as the 
 early crop is gathered, burn the vines to destroy eggs and larvae 
 of the borer. Fall harrowing of infested fields will help to 
 expose the pupae to the elements. Cut out borers whenever 
 found. After the vines have grown to some length, cover some 
 of the joints with earth, so that a new root system will develop 
 to sustain the plant in case the main root is injured. 
 Strawberry. Crowx-borer {Tyloderma fragarice). — White grub, 
 one-fifth inch long, boring into the crown of the plant in mid- 
 summer. The mature insect is a curculio or weevil. 
 
 Preventives. — Rotation of crops. Isolation of new beds from 
 infested beds. Plant uninfested plants. 
 Leaf-roller {Ancylis comptana). — Larva, less than one-half inch 
 long, feeding on the leaves, and rolling them up in threads of 
 silk ; two broods. 
 
 Treatment. — Turn under in the fall all old beds that have 
 become worthless. Spray with arsenate of lead, 4 pounds in 
 100 gallons of water, after the eggs are laid but before the 
 leaves are folded — the first half of May in the latitude of New 
 Jersey. 
 Root-borer {Anarsia sp.). — Larva, about one-half inch long, 
 whitish, boring into the crown of the plant late in the season, and 
 remaining in it over winter. 
 Remedy. — Burn the plant. 
 Root-louse (Aphis forbesii). — From July to the close of the season 
 the lice appear in great numbers on the crowns and on the roots 
 of the plants. 
 
 Remedies. — Rotation in planting. Disinfect plants coming 
 from infested patches by dipping the crowns and roots in kerosene 
 emulsion, or tobacco extract. Fumigation. 
 Saw-fly (Emphytus maculatus). — Larva, nearly three-fourths inch 
 long, greenish, feeding upon the leaves ; two broods. 
 Remedies. — Hellebore. Arsenicals for second brood. 
 Weevil (Anthonomus signatus). — Beetle, one-eighth inch long, 
 reddish black, feeding on flower-buds, particularly those of the 
 polleniferous varieties. 
 
 Preventives. — Plant principally pistillate varieties. Every 
 fifth row should be of some profusely flowering staminate variety 
 
SUGAR-CANE INSECTS 333 
 
 to insure pollinization. Clean culture. Destroy all wild black- 
 berry and raspberry vines in the vicinity. 
 
 Root-borer {Typophorus canellus). — k whitish grub one-eighth 
 inch in length, feeding on the roots. The parent beetle is brown- 
 ish, and appears in great numbers in May. 
 
 Treatment. — Arsenicals to kill the beetles. Plant new beds at 
 a distance from old ones. 
 
 White Grubs. See under Corn, p. 314. 
 Sugar-cane (D. L. Van Dine). Stalk-borer {Diatrcea saccharalis) . — 
 This is the " cane-borer " of the South, and is a species of long 
 standing in the southern United States. The insects attack 
 corn and sugar-cane. The insect occurs as far south in the United 
 States as the Rio Grande valley in Texas, and as far north as 
 Maryland on the Atlantic coast. In corn-growing areas in the 
 South, it is known as " the larger corn stalk-borer." The eggs of 
 the insect are laid on the cane-leaves, and the caterpillar of the 
 moth develops within the cane-stalk. Between the months of May 
 and December, the complete development of the insect occupies 
 a period of a little over thirty daj^s, that is, a brood may be ex- 
 pected about every month. 
 
 Treatment. — The control measures consist of the burning of the 
 trash after harvest, fall planting where possible, not to intercrop 
 cane with corn, not to plant corn or cane on windrowed areas, that 
 is, areas on which cane has been windrowed for the spring plant, 
 and to cover all seed cane well to prevent the emergence of moths 
 which may have developed from '' borers " planted in the seed cane. 
 
 Mealy-bug (Pseudococcus calceolarice) . — Common on sugar-cane 
 in the southern parishes of Louisiana, and recorded further in the 
 United States from Florida and California. Known in Louisiana as 
 " pou-d-pouche." The insects occur in a mass about the roots 
 and beneath the lower leaf-sheaths of the cane plant, and the mass 
 is covered by a white mealy secretion. The mealy-bug hiber- 
 nates on the roots of the stubble beneath the surface of the ground 
 or on the stalks put down in windrow as seed for the spring 
 plant. Brood follows brood throughout the summer months. 
 Treatment. — Burning of trash after harvest, fall planting, and 
 the selection of seed cane from non-infested areas are the main 
 methods that may be employed in the control of this species. 
 
334 INJURIOUS INSECTS, WITH TREATMENT 
 
 Root- BEETLE {Ligyrus rugiceps). — This insect occurs tliroughout 
 the lower Mississippi valley and the southern states generally as far 
 north as North Carolina. As the name implies, the beetle 
 infests the roots of the cane plant. The insect hibernates 
 in the advanced larval or the pupal stages, and the adult 
 appears in the spring. The injury to the cane is accomplished 
 by the adult eating into the young shoots just below the surface 
 of the ground. From this point the insect works downwards 
 to the roots, where the eggs are laid. The larva develops about 
 the roots. In the case of young shoots the injury is sufficient to 
 practically sever the shoot from the mother cane or stubble. This 
 kills out the heart of the young plant, and unless the cane suckers 
 well, the stand is seriously affected. 
 
 Treatment. — If the stubble cane is off-barred in the spring 
 and the soil kept away from the young cane as late as the conditions 
 will allow, much injury from the root beetle will be avoided. Fre- 
 quent cultivation of the plant cane will disturb the beetles in the 
 soil and lessen their chance of attacking the cane. No great 
 amount of vegetable matter should be plowed under on those 
 areas where the root beetle is abundant, since this favors the de- 
 velopment of the larvae or " white grubs." The headlands 
 and ditch banks should be kept clear of grass, since the beetle de- 
 velops in the.se situations bordering the cane-fields. In districts 
 where freezing temperatures occur, late fall plowing will turn out 
 many of the grubs, and they will perish from exposure. During 
 an attack, it is often profitable to have children follow and collect 
 the beetles behind the hoe gangs. 
 
 Sumac. Apple-tree Borer. — See under Apple, p. 308. 
 Jumping Sumac-beetle (Blepharida rhois). — Larva, half-inch long, 
 dull greenish yellow, feeding on leaves ; two broods. 
 Remedy. — Arsenicals. 
 
 Sweet-potato. Saw-fly (Schizocerus ebnus and S. privates). — Small 
 larva about one-fourth inch long, working upon the leaves. The 
 fly is about the size of a house-fly. 
 
 Remedies. — Hellebore and arsenicals. 
 RooT-BORER (Cylas formicarius) . — A whitish grub one-fourth inch 
 in length, burrowing through the tubers. 
 
 Preventive. — Burn infested tubers and the vines. 
 
SWEET POTATO — TOMATO 335 
 
 Tortoise BEETLES (Cassidini). — Beetles of brilliant colors and 
 their slug-like larvae which eat holes in the leaves of newly 
 reset plants. 
 
 Treatment. — Same as for next. 
 Flea-beetle. ( Choetocnema confinis) . — Small, dark-colored beetles, 
 which attack the plants soon after they are reset. 
 
 Treatment. — Dip the plants in a strong solution of arsenate of 
 lead before resetting. Spray once or twice later with the same. 
 Rotation of crops. Destroy all bindweed and wild morning-glory 
 plants. 
 Cutworms. — Poisoned bait. Late planting. Keep the land free 
 from weeds the previous fall. See p. 302. 
 Tobacco. Flea-beetle (Epitrix parvula). — Small beetles eating 
 holes in the leaves in the seed beds. 
 
 Treatment. — Cover the beds tightly with canvas, or spray 
 thoroughly with arsenate of lead, one pound in 12 gallons of 
 water. 
 Cutworms. — Use poisoned bait. Sod land should be plowed in 
 
 fall. 
 Horn- WORMS. — See under Tomato, below. 
 
 Flea-beetles, Grasshoppers, and Tree-crickets. — Attacking the 
 crop in the field, may be controlled by spraying with arsenate of 
 lead, 1 pound in 16 gallons of water. 
 Tomato. Fruit-worm ( Heliothis obsoleta) . — Larva, one inch in 
 length, pale green or dark brown, faintly striped, feeding upon 
 the fruit. Also on corn and cotton. 
 
 Treatment. — Hand-picking. Avoid planting close to corn or 
 cotton, or after either of these crops or after peas or beans. Prac- 
 tice fall or winter plowing. 
 ToMATO-woRM (Phlegethoutius sexta and P. quinquemaculata) . — 
 A very large green worm feeding upon the stems and leaves of 
 the tomato and husk tomato. Seldom abundant enough to be 
 very serious ; kept in check by parasites. 
 
 Remedies. — Hand-picking. Rotation of crops. Clean culture. 
 Turkeys. 
 Flea-beetles. — Dip the young plants in a strong solution of arse- 
 nate of lead. Bordeaux mixture acts as a repellent. See p. 303. 
 Violet. Aphis. — Fumigation when grown under glass. 
 
336 INJURIOUS INSECTS, WITH TREATMENT 
 
 Gall-fly {Contarinia violicola). — The adult is a minute mos- 
 quito-like fly. The whitish or yellowish maggot feeds in folds 
 of the opening leaves, which become deformed, turn brown, and 
 die. 
 
 Treatment. — Fumigation is practically of no value. Thorough 
 hand-picking as soon as any sign of injury is noticed. Do not 
 let the pest become established in a house. 
 Red-spider (Tetranychus bimaculatus) . — Minute mites which 
 cause the leaves to turn paler and become yellowish. 
 
 Treatment. — On greenhouse violets there is nothing better than 
 a stiff spray of clear water so applied as not to drench the beds. 
 Repeat the spraying once or twice a week. See p. 304. 
 Wheat. Hessian-fly {Mayetiola destructor). — A small maggot in- 
 festing the plant between the leaf sheath and the stem. When 
 full grown they transform to the puparium or " flaxseed " stage. 
 Preventives. — Crop rotation, destruction of all volunteer wheat. 
 Burning stubble where practicable. Late sowing as follows : — 
 After September 1 in northern Michigan ; September 20 in south- 
 ern Michigan and northern Ohio ; October 1 in southern Ohio ; 
 October 10 to 20 in Kentucky and Tennessee ; October 25 to 
 November 15 in Georgia and South Carolina. (Bureau of Ento- 
 mology.) 
 Joint- WORMS {Isosoma spp.). — Small yellowish larvae found in 
 the straw, causing hard knots or galls. 
 
 Preventives. — Crop rotation. Heavy use of fertilizer to give 
 a rapid growth. Burning of stubble wherever practicable. 
 Chinch-bug. — See under Corn, p. 314. 
 Willow. Willow- worm (Euvanessa antiopa). — Larva, nearly two 
 inches long, black, feeding upon leaves of willow, elm, and 
 poplar ; two broods. 
 Remedy. — Arsenicals. 
 
CHAPTER XIX 
 
 Live-stock Rules and Records 
 
 Farm live-stock, as the term is usually understood, includes the 
 mammals that produce edible products or perform agricultural labor, 
 as the cow, the horse, the sheep, the goat, the swine. Strictly speak- 
 ing, it should also comprise poultry (Chapter XX), but this large group 
 usually is treated by itself. Many kinds of pets and of fancy stock — 
 cats, dogs, cavies, canaries — form another group. 
 
 Determining the Age of Farm Animals (Wing) 
 Cattle. 
 
 The teeth of the ox serve to help in the determination of its age, 
 although not so accurately nor to so great an extent as in the horse. 
 Under ordinary circumstances, the incisors are the only teeth that are 
 used in the determination of age. Of these, the ox has eight, or four 
 pairs, and on the lower jaw only. There are two sets, the temporary 
 or milk teeth, and the permanent teeth, the latter differing from the 
 former mainly in their greater size and width. 
 
 The calf is born with the two central pairs of milk teeth fully up, 
 and the remaining pairs appear within the first month after birth. 
 When the animal reaches the age of about eighteen months, the middle 
 pair of milk teeth are replaced by permanent ones that are fully twice 
 as broad as the milk teeth. The interval between the appearance of 
 the succeeding pairs is rather variable, depending on the precocity'' or 
 early maturity of the individual and also on the breed and the way 
 in which the animal has been kept. Young cattle that have been ill- 
 kept, and whose general development has been delayed, will have 
 their dentition delayed, and will show a young mouth for their age. 
 The interval between the appearance of each two pairs of teeth is 
 seldom less than nine months, so that the age of the animal at the 
 time each pair is up and in full wear may be reckoned as follows : 
 z 337 
 
338 LIVE-STOCK RULES AND RECORDS 
 
 Month! 
 
 First, or middle pair 1^ 
 
 Second, or first intermediate pair 27 
 
 Third, or second intermediate pair 36 
 
 Fourth, or outer pair 45 
 
 If there is any variation from the foregoing, the animal is Hkely 
 to be older rather than younger than the teeth indicate. After the 
 teeth are up and in full wear, there is comparatively little change 
 in their appearance for several years. The teeth are broad, flat, and 
 white in color, and their edges should almost or quite meet. They 
 are never firmly fixed in the jaw, as in the case of the horse, but 
 rather loosely imbedded in a thick, cartilaginous pad or gums. The 
 looseness of the teeth should not therefore be taken by the novice 
 as an indication of unsoundness or of advancing age. 
 
 After the animal has reached an age of eight or nine years, the 
 teeth become narrower through wear. They shrink away from 
 each other and often become more or less discolored and finally 
 drop out one by one. A vigorous old cow will often do very well, 
 especially if fed liberally on grain and succulent food, after the last 
 incisor tooth has disappeared. And so long as the teeth are all 
 present and reasonably close together, the animal is said to have a 
 good mouth. This condition may remain up to ten or twelve years 
 of age, and occasionally even longer. 
 
 The horns also afford a means for estimating the age of cattle, 
 especially of cows. During the first two years, the horns grow 
 rapidly and the greater part of the total growth is made in this 
 time. Afterward, the growth is slow from year to year, and each 
 year's growth is marked by a more or less distinct ring. The first 
 ring appears when the animal is about three years old, and the age 
 may be reckoned by adding two to the number of rings present. 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 Sheep have two sets of incisor teeth, on the lower jaw only. The 
 first or middle pair of temporary teeth is replaced b}^ permanent ones 
 when the lamb is thirteen to fifteen months old, and thereafter the 
 succeeding pairs of permanent teeth appear at intervals of a little less 
 than a year. Most shepherds reckon a year for each pair, so that 
 when the last pair is fully up and in wear, the sheep is four years old. 
 
AOES OF SHEEP, PIGS, AND HORSES 
 
 339 
 
 As age advances, the teeth grow narrower and slimmer until advanced 
 age, eight or nine years, when they often shorten rapidly from wear, 
 and finally disappear. So long as the teeth remain strong and fairly 
 firm, the sheep may be said to be in good working condition. 
 
 Swine. 
 
 While swine have two sets of teeth, temporary and permanent, 
 as in the other domestic animals, the dentition is so irregular as to be 
 of little service in determining the age of the animal. Moreover, the dif- 
 ficulty of catching, holding, and examining the animal is so great that 
 the teeth are seldom, if ever, used to determine the age of swine. In 
 market stock, the age does not play an important part, as the value 
 depends entirely on the weight and condition of the animal, except in 
 the case of old sows and stags (castrated mature males). The former 
 are easily distinguished by evidence of having suckled pigs, and the 
 latter by the tusks and the development of the ''shield " — a coarse 
 heavy fold of muscle under the skin on the shoulder. In breeding 
 animals, the age is always indicated on the certificate of registry of 
 pure-bred stock. 
 
 Horse's teeth at different ages (Roberts). 
 
 The lower nippers at two 
 years old. 
 
 Lower nippers at three 
 years of age. 
 
 / 
 
 Side view of the 
 teeth of a four- 
 year-old. 
 
340 
 
 LIVE-STOCK RULES AND RECORDS 
 
 Lower nippers at four years of 
 
 Lower nippers of a five-year-old. 
 
 Side view of the teeth of a 
 five-year-old. 
 
 Side view of the teeth of a 
 six-year-old horse. 
 
 Lower nippers of a six-year-old. 
 
 Lower nippers of a seven-year-old 
 
AGES OF HORSES 
 
 341 
 
 Side view of the nippers of 
 seven-year-old. 
 
 The lower incisor, or nipper, teeth 
 of an eight-year-old. 
 
 Side view of the teeth 
 of an eight-year-old. 
 
 Cross section to 
 show shape of in- 
 cisor tooth at 4, 9, 
 14, and 20 years. 
 
 The lower incisor teeth of 
 an old horse. 
 
 A side view of the nippers Oi 
 an old horse. 
 
 Showing, at the upper end, the wear- 
 ing away of the cusps at 3,4,5,6,9, 
 and 20 years. 
 
342 LIVE-STOCK RULES AND RECORDS 
 
 Gestation and Incubation Figures 
 
 The period of gestation is the time between the impregnation of 
 the ovum and the birth of the young. In egg-laying animals it is the 
 period of incubation. The length of this period is subject to con- 
 siderable variation, determined by various causes not well understood. 
 In general its length is in relation to the size of the animal. The 
 following list, and remarks, represents only a few animals and the 
 period of gestation of each (F. B. Mumford) : — 
 
 Elephant 20 to 30 months 
 
 Giraffe 14 months 
 
 Buffalo 10 to 12 months 
 
 .\s3 12 months 
 
 Mare 11 to 12 months 
 
 Cow 9 to 9H months (285 days) 
 
 Bear 6 months 
 
 Sheep and goat 5 months (21 weeks) 
 
 Sow 4 months 
 
 Beaver 4 months 
 
 Lion 3J/^ months 
 
 Dog, fox, or wolf 2 months 
 
 Cat 50 days 
 
 Rabbit 30 days 
 
 Squirrel and rat 28 days 
 
 The period of incubation extends as follows for domestic fowls: — 
 
 Turkey 26 to 30 days 
 
 Guinea 25 to 26 days 
 
 Pea hen 28 to 30 days 
 
 Ducks 25 to 32 days 
 
 Geese 27 to 33 days 
 
 Hens 19 to 24 days (average 21) 
 
 Pigeons 16 to 20 days 
 
 Canary birds 13 to 14 days 
 
 Small breeds hatch earlier. Hamburgs hatch at the end of the twen- 
 tieth day ; game bantams at the end of the nineteenth day. Duck 
 eggs hatch earlier under hens than under ducks, probably because of 
 the higher temperature of the hens' body. 
 
 Small breeds of animals require rather less time than larger breeds, 
 although early maturity shortens the time. Cold weather retards the 
 process of incubation especially. According to Youatt, all animals vary 
 greatly without any known cause. The period of gestation in a horse 
 has been known to vary from ten to over twelve months. Tessier re- 
 ports 582 cases among mares, with a range of 287 to 419 days ; 1131 
 
NUMBERS OF YOUNG AND OF EGGS 343 
 
 30WS ranged from 240 to 321 days. Earl of Spencer reported 764 cows 
 with a range of 220 to 313 days. L. F. Allen reports results for one 
 year among a herd of 50 Shorthorns, Herefords, and Devons, as rang- 
 ing from 268 to 294 days, or an average of 284 days. Tessier observed 
 912 ewes with a range of 146 to 161 days. Darwin found that 
 Merinos run about 150 days, while Shropshires and Southdowns re- 
 quire only about 144 days. Swine vary from 109 to 123 days, but 
 usually run 116 days. 
 
 In practice there are some causes which hasten birth. A sudden 
 cold spell will hasten the birth of a litter of pigs. Nervous excitement 
 will hasten birth, especially in cows. Parturition of a neighboring 
 cow often hastens birth. It is a popular opinion that male offspring 
 require a longer period of gestation. There is not sufficient evidence 
 to warrant this, but in one case of observation on cattle, the average 
 period for five years was males 288 days, females 283 days. Heredity 
 may influence the period somewhat. 
 
 Number of young at birth (Harper) 
 
 Elephant 
 
 Giraffe 
 
 Buffalo 
 
 Ass 
 
 Mare 
 
 Cow 
 
 Bear 2 
 
 Sheep 1-2-3 
 
 Sow 2-14 
 
 Beaver 4 
 
 Lion 2 
 
 Dog 3-8 
 
 Cat 3-6 
 
 Rabbit 4-8 
 
 Squirrel 3-6 
 
 Single-birthed animals occasionally bear twins. All multiple-birthed animals 
 are exceedingly variable in the number at a birth. 
 
 [Number of eggs in brood (Harper) 
 
 Turkey 12-15 
 
 Guinea-hen 15-18 
 
 Pea-hen 10 
 
 Ducks 9-12 
 
 Geese 15-18 
 
 Hen 12-15 
 
 Pigeon 2 
 
 Canary 3-4 
 
344 LIVE-STOCK RULES AND RECORDS 
 
 Other Characteristics 
 Average temperature of farm animals. 
 
 Horse, 100° F. ; ox, 101° to 102.5° ; sheep and swine, 103° ; dog, 
 102.5° and very changeable. It is lowest about 4 a.m., and highest 
 at 6 P.M. The liver, of all the organs, has the highest temperature, 
 106.2° F. Poultry 105° to 106°. 
 
 The pulse of farm animals (Harger). 
 
 The pulse is a dilatation of the elastic wall of an artery at the moment 
 of the heart-beat. Its character is some indication of the state of health. 
 It is felt in the horse on the lower jaw-bone ; in the ox on the jaw, the 
 inside of the elbow and cannon, and the base of the tail ; in the dog 
 on the inside of the thigh. 
 
 Number of pulse-beats per minute : Horse, 36 to 40 ; ox, 45 to 50 ; 
 sheep and pig, 70 to 80 ; dog, 90 to 100 ; camel, 28 to 32 ; elephant, 
 25 to 28. It is slower in the male than in the female. It is more rapid 
 in the young than in the old, as for example, in the foal, 100 to 120 ; 
 in the calf, 90 to 130. The daily work of the heart is estimated at 
 1,539,000 foot-pounds, or one- third of a horse-power. 
 
 Period of heat in farm animals (Mumford). 
 
 The beginning of puberty in the female is characterized by the 
 ripening of a mature egg, and external symptoms which together are 
 called the period of heat, or, in some wild animals, the rutting season. 
 This period is accompanied by various manifestations. The external 
 genitals become swollen and red, and this is accompanied by the dis- 
 charge of a reddish mucus. There is frequent urination, and some- 
 times a swelling of the mammary glands. The female is often restless 
 and utters loud cries. 
 
 The duration of heat varies, but normally continues in the mare two 
 to three days, in the cow twelve to twenty-four hours, in the sow one 
 to three days, and in the ewe two to three days. The frequency 
 with which the heat recurs in different animals varies within rather 
 narrow limits. The period of heat in the mare recurs rather irregu- 
 larly, but most stallioners agree tliat the mare will come in heat nine 
 
COLD STORAGE OF ANIMAL MATERIALS 34j 
 
 days after delivery and each two or three weeks thereafter. The cow 
 comes in heat forty to sixty days after dehvery, if suckHng the calf, 
 and twenty to thirty days if the calf is taken away at birth. After the 
 first appearance of heat in the cow, the period recurs with con- 
 siderable regularity each three weeks thereafter. The sow invariably 
 shows signs of heat three days after weaning the pigs, and recurs 
 every nine to twelve days. The mare and ewe come in heat regularly 
 during the spring and autunm months. At other seasons, the period 
 is irregular and often entirely absent. 
 
 (All dates and periods of this kind are exceedingly variable.) 
 
 Quantity of blood in the bodies of farm animals (Harger) . 
 
 In the horse, h (6.6 per cent) ; ox, ts (7.7 per cent); sheep, A (8.01 
 per cent) ; pig, 2^3 (4.6 per cent) ; dog, is to 12 (5.5-9.1 per cent) 
 (Sussdorf). An average horse has about 66 pounds, or nearly 50 pints, 
 of blood. In bleeding horses, about one pint of blood for every hundred 
 pounds of body weight is removed. 
 
 Temperatures for Cold Storage of Animal Products (Hygcia 
 Refrigerating Co., Elmira, N. Y.) 
 
 Hams, pork loins, poultry, and all meats that are to be held for a 
 long carry, should be put into the freezer at a temperature of 10° 
 above zero or lower, and after they are thoroughly frozen they 
 may be transferred to a temperature from 15° to 18°. Meats to be 
 held for a short time only maj^ be carried at 30° to 32°. Eggs 30°. 
 Condensed milk is carried at 32°; fresh milk at a point just above 
 freezing, where it can be carried, of course, only a short time. Con- 
 densed milk can be successfully carried several months; cheese at 
 31° to 32°; dried fruit, nuts, groceries, etc., at 35°; butter from zero 
 to 10° below zero. 
 
 The success of storage depends not alone on the control and 
 accuracy of temperature maintained, but on control of humidity, and 
 in some cases on pronounced circulation of air. For temperatures for 
 fruits, see page 149. 
 
 Advanced Registry 
 
 The herd-book conserves the purity of a breed, being based upon 
 purity of blood, any animal being eligible to registry whose sire and 
 dam have been recorded. An Advanced Register is a herd-book within 
 
346 LIVE-STOCK RULES AND RECORDS 
 
 a herd-book based upon individual merit, and designed as an aid to 
 improvement within the breed. Advanced registry is especially 
 adapted to the improvement of the dairy breeds of cattle. The registry 
 is made on the report of an official test as to milk yield and butter-fat, 
 conducted by an Experiment Station. 
 
 The Advanced Registry system has had marked effect in discovering 
 and publishing the good animals, eliminating the poor animals, and 
 standardizing the performance. The four leading dairy breeds in 
 America — Holstein, Jersey, Guernsey, and Ayrshire — now have well- 
 authenticated records as a result of this system. 
 
 As illustrating the nature of the test to warrant Advancr^d Registry, 
 the following set of general rules of the Holstein-Friesian Association 
 of America is inserted : — 
 
 1. The Station representative shall be present at the last regular 
 milking preceding the beginning of the test and shall satisfy himself 
 that the cow is milked dry at that time. He shall note the hour at 
 which this milking is made ; and the final milking of the test, whatever 
 its length, must be at exactly the same hour. 
 
 2. He must be present at each and every milking during the test, 
 and satisfy himself that at the close of each milking the pail contains 
 nothing but the milk drawn from the cow under test. 
 
 3. Under no circumstances can more cows than one undergoing test 
 be milked at the same time. The Station representative must in every 
 case be in position to observe the milker during the whole milking. 
 
 4. Immediately after the milk is drawn at each milking, he will 
 take charge of the pail and contents, will weigh the same to pounds 
 and tenths on scales provided by his State Experiment Station, and 
 enter the exact weight of milk at once in his note-book. He will then 
 take a correct sample of the milk, sufficient for his own tests and for 
 the composite sample to be s.^nt to the Station, in accordance with the 
 following directions : 
 
 5. As soon as the milk has been weighed it is to be thoroughly 
 mixed by pouring it from one pail to the other, or by means of a dipper ; 
 and a pint fruit jar is to be immediately filled about two-thirds full of 
 milk for the test samples. The Station representative takes charge of 
 and is personally responsible for this sample. It should be kept under 
 lock and key until tested. The test is proceeded with as soon as con- 
 venient, after the milk has cooled to ordinary room temperature. 
 
ADVANCED REGISTRY RULES 347 
 
 6. Fat determinations are alwaj^s made in duplicate, and the average 
 3f the two determinations recorded on the record sheet. The sample 
 taken of any one milking is not to be thrown away until a perfectly 
 satisfactory test of the milking has been obtained. On completion of 
 each test, the Station representative will at once indeUbly enter in his 
 note-book the results obtained. In making entries of fat, the super- 
 visor shall use three decimal places. If the figure in the fourth place 
 be a 5, or greater than 5, he shall count it as one of the next higher 
 order; but if it be less than a 5, he shall drop it. 
 
 7. If any of the milk or the test sample from a milking be acciden- 
 tally lost, the missing weight of the milk or fat credited to this milking 
 is to be obtained by taking the average of all corresponding milkings 
 during the whole test; that is, if e.g., the evening milk is lost, or the 
 test sample therefrom, the average of the weights of milk and of fat 
 of all evening milkings during the test is taken as the yield of milk 
 and fat for the milking lost. It must be stated on the report that 
 data so obtained are estimated and not actual. 
 
 8. Composite-Test Sample. At the time the test of the milk is 
 made, a sample, comprising as many cubic centimeters of milk as the 
 number of pounds in the milking, is placed in a pint fruit jar, con- 
 taining a small quantity of preservative, for the composite-test sample 
 to be sent to the Station when the test is completed. A 25 c.c. glass 
 pipette for taking this sample is furnished in each outfit. 
 
 Each and every milking must contribute to the composite-test 
 sample in proportion to the amount of milk yielded each time, which 
 will be accomplished by strictly following the directions. The Station 
 representative will be responsible for the proper care of the composite 
 sample, and will send it to the Station by express immediately on the 
 completion of the test. 
 
 9. In selecting official test periods of not less than seven consecu- 
 tive days for report, the test periods so selected may begin with any 
 milking made at the regular hour for that milking ; provided the pre- 
 vious milking, as well as the last milking of the test period selected, 
 are also made at the regular hour. When any official test period forms 
 a portion of any semi-official test, a detailed report of the whole official 
 test period must be made ; but the Superintendent of Advanced Regis- 
 try will only report as A. R. 0. record, or records, such consecutive 
 portion, or portions, of the test as the owner may select. 
 
348 LIVE-STOCK RULES AND RECORDS 
 
 The Station representative shall fill out all blanks furnished by his 
 Station, or by the Holstein-Fricsian Association, and shall make oath 
 before a notary public to such reports as, in conjunction with the 
 authorities of the Holstein-Friesian Association, are required by the 
 Station. 
 
 10. The Station representative is not at liberty to decide as to 
 which stipulations contained in the rules are essential and which are 
 not, but is required to observe directions in all details. He shall re- 
 port to the officer of his Station in charge of tests of dairy cows any 
 irregularity or unusual occurrence in connection with the test which 
 he may observe, and shall, in general, take all possible means to 
 conduct a fair and equitable test of the cows placed under his 
 supervision. 
 
 Schedule of charges for supervising records of cows 
 
 As an illustration of the costs involved in the testing of cows, a 
 statement is here given of the charges made by one of the colleges 
 of agriculture for such work. Something like one-half of all Hol- 
 stein cows in the United States with advanced registry are tested 
 according to this schedule. Of course the schedule applies to any 
 breed. 
 
 A uniform flat rate is charged for supervising records of cows. 
 This flat rate covers the entire cost of supervision to the breeders so 
 far as the college of agriculture is concerned, and includes per diem 
 of supervisor's traveling and hotel expenses, expressage, postage, etc. 
 The owners and breeders supply the sulfuric acid, pay notary fees, 
 arrange for conveyance to and from the nearest railway station, and 
 provide for living expenses at the farm during the test. No super- 
 visor will be allowed to remain more than 30 days at one place. 
 The schedule is as follows : — 
 
 1 day record $6.00 
 
 21 day record S9.00 
 
 7 or more days S2.25 per day 
 
 For each 7-day or 30-day record reported $1.00 
 
 A single supervisor will not be required to test more than 6 cows 
 milked 4 times a day; 8 cows milked 3 times a day; or 15 cows 
 milked twice a day. 
 
HOLSTEIN RULES AND REC0RD,3 
 
 349 
 
 Supervisors will be sent to suit the convenience of owners as far 
 as possible, but we cannot promise a supervisor for any definite date. 
 Between October and June, application for supervisors should be 
 made at least three weeks in advance, in order to be reasonably sure 
 of a supervisor at the time desired. An application for a supervisor 
 may be canceled or a date deferred at any time up to three days 
 before the man is due. Supervisors will be sent to waiting owners 
 in order of date of application. 
 
 Holstein-Friesian records. 
 
 The Holstein-Friesian Association has four prize divisions, with 
 seven classes in each division. Following are the leading records for 
 each class in three of the divisions, — the 7-day, 30-day, and the semi- 
 official or yearly division. Breeders are not usually satisfied to have 
 their cows merely qualify, but strive to see how much they can exceed 
 the minimum requirements, which are as follows : — 
 
 If the cow calves at two years of age or under, 7.2 lb. fat in seven 
 consecutive days. 
 
 If the cow calves at three years of age, 8.8 lb. fat in seven con- 
 secutive days. 
 
 If the cow calves at four years of age, 10.4 lb. fat in seven con- 
 secutive days. 
 
 If the cow calves at five years of age or older, 12.0 lb. fat in seven 
 consecutive days. 
 
 If the cow calves between two and three years, or between three 
 and four years, or between four and five years old, every day of in- 
 creased age adds to the requirement of the year .00439 of a pound 
 
 of fat. 
 
 Leading Cows in the 7-day Division 
 
 Name of Cow 
 
 K. P. Pontiac Lass . . 
 Valdessa Scott 2d . . . 
 Johanna De Kol Van Beers 
 Pontiac Lady Korndyke . 
 
 Pontiac Pet 
 
 Tweede White Lady . . 
 Pontiac Clothilde De Kol 2d 
 Agatha Pontiac .... 
 Lady Oak Fobes De Kol 
 
 H. B. 
 
 Number 
 
 106812 
 72311 
 75131 
 92700 
 69710 
 83186 
 69991 
 99818 
 
 104269 
 
 Age at 
 Time of 
 Calving 
 
 10 24 
 9 15 
 11 
 
 Pounds 
 
 OF 
 
 Milk 
 
 585.9 
 694.6 
 663.4 
 601.4 
 590.7 
 504.7 
 646.1 
 575.8 
 623.0 
 
 Av. 
 Per 
 Cent 
 
 6.03 
 4.82 
 4.83 
 5.06 
 5.10 
 5.94 
 4.60 
 5.13 
 4.68 
 
 Pounds 
 
 OF 
 
 Butter- 
 fat 
 
 35.343 
 33.500 
 32.059 
 30.422 
 30.142 
 29.963 
 29.766 
 29.520 
 29.155 
 
350 
 
 LIVE-STOCK RULES AND RECORDS 
 
 Leading Cows in the 7-day Division — Continued 
 
 Name of Cow 
 
 H. B. 
 
 Number 
 
 Age at 
 Time of 
 Calving 
 
 Pounds 
 
 OF 
 
 Milk 
 
 Av. 
 Per 
 Cent 
 
 Pounds 
 
 OF 
 
 Butter- 
 fat 
 
 Gerben Queen 
 
 Aaggic Paulino Sarcastic 
 
 Sadie Vale Koruflyko 
 
 Fairmont Zerma Sogis Pietje . . . 
 Pietertje Maid Ormsby 
 
 68164 
 86737 
 95127 
 107672 
 78051 
 
 8 2 12 
 5 11 24 
 
 5 7 16 
 4 1 11 
 
 6 4 14 
 
 654.6 
 619.9 
 655.7 
 608.4 
 535.4 
 
 4.45 
 
 4.69 
 4.42 
 4.68 
 5.31 
 
 29.111 
 29.079 
 28.961 
 28.484 
 28.450 
 
 Semi-official Division (Yearly) 
 
 Finderne Pride Johanna Rue . . . 
 Finderne Holingen Fayne . . . . 
 
 Banostino Belle De Kol 
 
 Pontiac Clothilde De Kol 2d . . . 
 High-lawn Hartog De Kol . . . . 
 
 Colantha 4th'.s Joliaiina 
 
 Lothian Maggie De Kol 
 
 Maple Crest Pontiac Flora Hartog . 
 
 Crown Pontiac Josey 
 
 Maple Crest Pontiac Spotted Annie 
 
 Caroline Paul Parthenea 
 
 Daisy Grace De Kol 
 
 Tilly Alcartra 
 
 Lindenwood Hope 
 
 Buckeye De Kol Pauline 2d . . . 
 
 121083 
 
 5 
 
 4 4 
 
 28403.7 
 
 4.11 
 
 144551 
 
 3 
 
 4 14 
 
 24612.8 
 
 4.53 
 
 90441 
 
 5 
 
 2 22 
 
 27404.4 
 
 3.86 
 
 69991 
 
 6 
 
 10 24 
 
 25318.0 
 
 4.02 
 
 84319 
 
 5 
 
 11 12 
 
 25592.5 
 
 3.90 
 
 48577 
 
 8 
 
 1 19 
 
 27432.5 
 
 3.64 
 
 90209 
 
 6 
 
 10 14 
 
 27967.6 
 
 3.54 
 
 143950 
 
 5 
 
 2 1 
 
 25106.3 
 
 3.93 
 
 101812 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 28752.3 
 
 3.42 
 
 141104 
 
 5 
 
 1 1 
 
 21393.0 
 
 4.59 
 
 77784 
 
 9 
 
 4 23 
 
 25072.6 
 
 3.86 
 
 98228 
 
 4 
 
 3 13 
 
 21718.3 
 
 4.43 
 
 123459 
 
 5 
 
 1 6 
 
 30451.4 
 
 3.12 
 
 115655 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 20404.7 
 
 4.56 
 
 94346 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 20784.3 
 
 4.46 
 
 1176.47 
 
 1116.05 
 
 1058.34 
 
 1017.28 
 
 998.34 
 
 998.26 
 
 990.80 
 
 986.11 
 
 982.23 
 
 981.02 
 
 966.55 
 
 962.80 
 
 951.23 
 
 931.45 
 
 927.61 
 
 Ayrshire records. 
 
 A cow is eligible for Advanced Registry in the Ayrshire Breeders' 
 Association as follows : — 
 
 No cow shall be admitted to Advanced Registry unless she shall 
 have been previously recorded in the Ayrshire Record. 
 
 Two-year-old form. — Year's record. If her record begins the day 
 she is two years old, or before that time, she shall, to entitle her to 
 record, give not less than 6000 pounds of milk in 365 consecutive 
 days from the beginning of the test and 214.3 pounds of butter fat, 
 and for each day she is over two years old at time of beginning the 
 test there shall be added 1.37 pounds of milk to the 6000 pounds 
 and .06 pound of butter fat to the 214.3 pounds. 
 
 Three-year-old form. — If her record begins the day she is three 
 years old, she shall, to entitle her to record, give not less than 6500 
 pounds of milk in 365 consecutive days from the beginning of the 
 test and 236 pounds of butter fat, and for each day she is over three 
 years old at the time of beginning the test there shall be added 2.74 
 pounds of milk to the 6500 pounds and .12 pound of butter fat to 
 
AYRSHIRE RECORDS 
 
 351 
 
 the 236 pounds, which addition shall be made in each succeeding 
 form to maturity. 
 
 Four-year-old form. — Year's record — 7500 pounds of milk and 
 279 pounds of butter-fat. 
 
 Mature form. — Year's record — 8500 pounds of milk and 322 
 pounds of butter-fat. 
 
 Leading Records in each Class to June 1, 1915 
 
 Class 
 
 Over 5 years 
 4 1 to 5 years 
 4 to 4 1 years 
 3 2 to 4 years 
 3 1 to 4 years 
 3 to 3§ years 
 2 2 to 3 years 
 2 to 2 1 years 
 
 Name op Cow 
 
 Auchenbrain Brown Kate 4th . 
 
 Miss Nox 3d 
 
 Agnes Wallace of Maple Grove 
 Elizabeth of Juneau . . . . 
 The Abbess of Torr . . . . 
 Ethel of South Farm . . . 
 Henderson's Dairy Gem . . 
 Jean Armour 3d 
 
 Lb. Milk 
 
 23,022 
 15,015 
 17,657 
 15,122 
 14,582 
 15,056 
 17,974 
 14,987 
 
 % Fat 
 
 3.99 
 3.84 
 4.65 
 3.55 
 4.39 
 3.91 
 4.11 
 4. 
 
 Lb. Fat 
 
 917.60 
 576.94 
 821.45 
 536.15 
 640.72 
 589.20 
 738.32 
 599.91 
 
 Ten Leading Records in the Mature Class 
 
 Name op Cow 
 
 27943 Auchenbrain Brown Kate 4th, 547 . . 
 Owned by Percival Roberts, Jr., Nar- 
 berth, Pa. 
 
 27950 Garclaugh Spottie, 772 
 
 Owned by John R. Valentine, Bryn 
 Mawr, Pa. 
 
 22269 Lily of Willowmoor, 299 
 
 Owned by J. W. Clise, Redmond, Wash. 
 36910 Auchenbrain Yellow Kate 3d, 1356 . . . 
 Owned by Percival Roberts, Jr., Nar- 
 berth. Pa. 
 
 23853 Gerranton Dora 2d, 663 
 
 Owned by J. W. Clise, Redmond, Wash. 
 
 25487 Jean Armour, 635 
 
 Owned by W. P. Schanck, Avon, N.Y. 
 
 25295 Rena Ross 2d, 438 
 
 Owned by John R. Valentine, Bryn 
 Mawr, Pa. 
 
 23985 Netherhall Brownie 9th, 371 
 
 Owned by J. W. Clise, Redmond, Wash. 
 
 26013 Keepsake 2d, 330 
 
 Owned by John R. Valentine, Bryn 
 Mawr, Pa. 
 24673 Nether Craig Spicy Queen, 240 . . 
 
 Owned by Geo. H. McFadden, Rose- 
 mo nt, Pa. 
 
 Lb. 
 
 Milk 
 
 23,022 
 
 22,589 
 
 22,106 
 21,123 
 
 21,023 
 20,174 
 18,849 
 
 18,110 
 17,410 
 
 17,074 
 
 Lb. 
 
 Fat 
 
 917.60 
 
 816.25 
 
 888.70 
 888.33 
 
 804.79 
 774.73 
 713.56 
 
 820.91 
 711.27 
 
 692.69 
 
 Lb. 
 
 Butter 
 
 1080 
 
 960 
 
 1046 
 1045 
 
 947 
 912 
 
 840 
 
 966 
 837 
 
 803 
 
 % 
 Fat 
 
 3.99 
 
 3.61 
 
 4.02 
 4.21 
 
 3.83 
 3.84 
 3.79 
 
 4.53 
 4.09 
 
 4.06 
 
352 
 
 LIVE-STOCK RULES AND RECORDS 
 
 Guernsey records. 
 
 All animals admitted to the Advanced Register must previously be 
 entered in the Herd Register of The American Guernsey Cattle Club. 
 Any such will be admitted into the Advanced Register under any of 
 the following conditions : — 
 
 Bulls having two daughters in the Advanced Register. 
 
 Cows having equalled or exceeded the following requirements: — 
 
 If record is commenced the day the animal is two years old, or pre- 
 vious to that day, she must produce within one year from the date 
 250.5 lb. butter-fat. For each day the animal is over two years old 
 at the beginning of her year's period the amount of butter-fat she will 
 be required to produce in the year will be established by adding .1 
 (one tenth) of a pound for each such day, to the 250.5 lb. required 
 when two years old. This ratio is applicable until the animal is five 
 years old, when the required amount will have reached 360 lb., which 
 will be the amount of butter-fat required of all cows five years old or 
 over. These yearly standards are based upon one complete year's 
 record from time of beginning, regardless of the time lost by being dry 
 or calving during that period, should such be the case. 
 
 Butter-fat. — The per cent of butter-fat shall be determined by the 
 Babcock test for two full and consecutive days in each month in the 
 yearly records. 
 
 Re-entry. — An animal having been admitted to the Advanced Regis- 
 ter may be re-tested for purpose of giving a better record, and if suc- 
 cessful so admitted and record published as "Entry of Additional 
 Record," using the original number assigned the animal and giving 
 reference to previous record. 
 
 Five Leading Cows in the Several Classes of the A. R. as they appeared 
 
 Sept. 15, 1915 
 
 Class A. — 5 years and over 
 
 Murne Cowan 19597, A. R. 1906, 
 Ro-entrv 
 
 May Rilnia 22761, A. R. 1726, Re- 
 entry 
 
 Spotswood Dai.sy Pearl 17696, A. R. 
 790, Re-entry 
 
 Julie of the Ch^ne .30460, A. R. 2752, 
 Re-en trv 
 
 Imp. Daisy Moon III. 28471, A. R. 
 1909, Re-entry 
 
 Age 
 
 Lb. Milk 
 
 Lb. 
 
 Butter- 
 fat 
 
 Per Cent 
 Butter- 
 fat 
 
 Yr. Mo. 
 
 8 9 
 
 24008.00 
 
 1098.18 
 
 4.57 
 
 6 4 
 
 19673.00 
 
 1073.41 
 
 5.46 
 
 7 5 
 
 18602.80 
 
 957.38 
 
 5.15 
 
 6 1 
 
 17661.00 
 
 953.53 
 
 5.40 
 
 6 4 
 
 18019.40 
 
 928.39 
 
 5.15 
 
GUERNSEY RECORDS 
 
 353 
 
 Class B. — 4 1 to 5 years 
 
 Name op Cow 
 
 Age 
 
 Lb. Milk 
 
 Lb. 
 
 Butter- 
 fat 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Yr. Mo. 
 
 PAT 
 
 Dairymaid of Pinehurst 24656, 
 A. R. 843, Re-entry 
 
 Julie of the Chene 30460, A. R. 2752 
 
 Lady Lesbia 25142, A. R. 1348, Re- 
 entry 
 
 Pandora's Valentine of Rich Neck 
 27622, A. R. 1742, Re-entry . . 
 
 Glenanaar of the Glen 23619, A. R. 
 1907 
 
 4 8 
 4 10 
 
 4 10 
 
 4 9 
 
 4 7 
 
 17285.30 
 15174.20 
 
 13582.75 
 
 14341.60 
 
 16813.10 
 
 910.67 
 
 827.26 
 
 787.03 
 784.22 
 780.66 
 
 5.27 
 5.45 
 
 5.79 
 
 5.47 
 
 4.64 
 
 Class C. — 4 to 4 1 years 
 
 Azucena's Pride 2d 24957, A. R. 1469, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Re-entry 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 16203.90 
 
 855.70 
 
 5.28 
 
 Governor's Pauline 30472, A. R. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2441, Re-entry 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 14930.00 
 
 844.47 
 
 5.66 
 
 Imp. Dora II. of Les Marais 37737, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A. R. 1999, Re-entry .... 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 15434.90 
 
 770.38 
 
 4.99 
 
 Imp. Beauty II. of the Coutanchez 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 28465, A. R. 2081 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 13513.90 
 
 748.81 
 
 5.54 
 
 Stella's Favorite 2d 29167, A. R. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2283, Re-entry 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 14529.60 
 
 719.23 
 
 4.95 
 
 Class D. — 3 1 to 4 years 
 
 Dolly Dimple 19144, A. R. 628, Re- 
 entry 
 
 Langwater Dorothy 27944, A. R. 
 1822, Re-entry 
 
 Imp. Princess of the Blicqs 28485, 
 A. R. 1908 
 
 Rose of Langwater 24204, A. R. 1445, 
 Re-entry 
 
 Imp. Ma Charmante 6th 31925, A. R. 
 1995 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 18458.80 
 16099.70 
 12608.80 
 15008.20 
 15149.80 
 
 906.89 
 781.65 
 774.16 
 751.62 
 740.20 
 
 Class E. — 3 to 3 1 years 
 
 Jehanna Ch^ne 30889, A. R. 2588 
 Dairymaid of Pinehurst 24656, A. R. 
 
 843, Re-entry 
 
 Masher's Elsie 24986, A. R. 1967 . 
 Miranda of Edgewater 30970, A. R. 
 
 23Q3 
 
 Sweet Maria 25151, A. R. 1803 '. '. 
 2I 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 16186.70 
 
 14562.40 
 
 14458.70 
 
 14617.30 
 12542.50 
 
 863.36 
 
 860.26 
 745.75 
 
 730.49 
 
 682.86 
 
354 
 
 LIVE-STOCK RULES AND RECORDS 
 Class F. — 2i to 3 years 
 
 
 Age 
 
 
 Lb. 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Name of Cow 
 
 
 
 Lb. Milk 
 
 BUTTER- 
 
 Butter- 
 
 
 
 
 Yr. 
 
 Mo. 
 
 
 F.\T 
 
 fat 
 
 Langwater Hope 27946. A. R. 1978 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 15078.80 
 
 773.59 
 
 5.13 
 
 Azueena's Pride 2d 24957, A. R. 1469 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 12633.30 
 
 706.46 
 
 5.59 
 
 Rose of LaiiRwater 24204, A. R. 1445 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 12966.50 
 
 669.89 
 
 5.17 
 
 Imp. Buttercup II. of Beauregard 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 35799. A. It. 2638 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 10623.30 
 
 659.71 
 
 6.21 
 
 May Belle of Linda Vista 29679, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A. R. 2134 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 11981.76 
 
 653.02 
 
 5.43 
 
 Class G. — 2 to 2 1 years 
 
 Cherry of Edgewater 384 13, A. R. 3361 
 Nella Jay 4th 38233, A. R. 3194 . . 
 Dollv Dimple 19144. A. R. 628 . . 
 Golden Elsie 2d 33422, A. R. 2274 
 Princess Deasie 36703, A. R. 2275 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 13454.20 
 
 732.97 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 14772.70 
 
 726.32 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 14009.13 
 
 703.36 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 13409.00 
 
 672.94 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 11943.10 
 
 666.22 
 
 5.45 
 4.92 
 5.02 
 5.02 
 5.58 
 
 The average of theso 35 leading Guernsey Cows is 15152.52 lb. milk; 795.46 
 lb. butter-fat. Average per cent of butter-fat, 5.25 
 
 Jersey records. 
 
 The regulations of the American Jersey Cattle Club governing 
 "authenticated fat tests " are as follows: — 
 
 Seven, fourteen and thirty days' tests. — (l) In the case of tests for 
 seven, fourteen or thirty days, the Babcock method must be applied 
 to a sample of the milk of every milking during the test, and the 
 milk of every milking must be weighed. 
 
 No record will be accepted of a test of less than twelve pounds of 
 butter-fat in seven consecutive days. 
 
 No record will be accepted of a test for a period of ninety con- 
 secutive days or any sh'>rter period down to seven days unless the 
 butter-fat amounts, on the average, to one and seven-tenths pounds 
 per day. 
 
 Year's tests. — (2) Year's tests must be authenticated by applying 
 the Babcock test to a sample of the milk of every milking during 
 two consecutive days in each month. 
 
 If a test for the period of one year is cojnmenced the day the 
 cow is two years old, or previous to that day, she must produce, 
 within one year from the date the test begins, 250.5 pounds butter- 
 
JERSEY RECORDS 355 
 
 fat. For each day the cow is over two years old at the beginning 
 of her year's test, the amount of butter-fat she must produce in the 
 year is fixed by adding 0.1 (one-tenth) of a pound for each such day 
 to the 250.5 pounds required when two years old. This ratio of 
 increase applies until the cow is five years old at the beginning of 
 her test, when the required amount will have reached 360 pounds, 
 which will be the amount of butter-fat required of all cows five 
 years old or over. These standards are based upon one complete 
 year's record from the time of beginning, regardless of any time which 
 may be lost by being dry or calving during that period. 
 
 The production of butter-fat for each month is to be estimated from 
 the results obtained by the official application of the Babcock test. 
 The milk of every milking during the continuance of a test must be 
 weighed, and, in reporting the test to the Club, must be set forth in 
 detail and certified to on a form provided for the purpose. 
 
 "Authenticated milk tests" of the American Jersey Cattle Club 
 are as follows, (authentication consists of a check by the tester 
 for two successive days per month, on which days he shall weigh the 
 milk of every milking and report the same to the Club. Such milk 
 yields as meet any of the following requirements may be received 
 and published as authenticated milk jdelds) : — 
 
 If a test for the period of one year is commenced the day the cow 
 is two years old, or previous to that day, she must produce within 
 one year from the date the test begins 6,000 pounds of milk. For 
 each day the cow is over two years old at the beginning of her year's 
 test, the amount of milk she mast produce in the year is fixed by 
 adding 3.65 pounds for each such day to the 6,000 pounds required 
 when two years old. This ratio of increase applies until the cow is 
 five years old at the beginning of her test, when the required amount 
 will have reached 10,000 pounds, which will be the amount of milk 
 required of all cows five years old or over. These standards are 
 based upon one complete year's record from the time of beginning, 
 regardless of any time which may be lost by being dry or calving 
 during that period. 
 
 A cow meeting the requirements as to year's milk yield as stated 
 above is eligible to the Register of Merit. 
 
356 
 
 LIVE-STOCK RULES AND RECORDS 
 
 HIGHEST YIELDS OF JERSEYS 
 
 Best Five Records in Year's Tests at Various Ages. 
 
 No. of Cows) 
 
 Sept. 1, 1915 (with H. R. 
 
 Class 1. — Cows under 2 Years 
 
 Milk 
 
 Lb. 
 
 14260 
 
 9830 
 
 9749 
 
 5. 
 6.4 
 
 10214 11.2 
 1. 
 
 12345 8. 
 
 14513 2. 
 
 11115 11. 
 
 14160 5. 
 
 11730 10. 
 
 Luckv Faroe 20S177 . . . 
 Lass 64th of Hood Farm 266735 
 King's {;o1(1lmi Diploma 252638 
 Northern Beauty 2d 296337 
 Ruby's Bonnie Lass 264498 
 
 Class 2. — Cows 
 Pearly Exile of St. Lambert 
 
 205101 
 
 Lass 66th of Hood Farm 271896 
 Corinne of Roycroft 247303 
 Lass 54th of Hood Farm 257375 
 Majesty's EminentLady 265699 
 
 Class 3. — Cows 
 
 Lass 73d of Hood Farm 277540 10953 6.4 
 
 Salem's Golden Lucy 271911 11891 1.6 
 
 Sayda's Tina of Meridale 274725 9178 
 
 Agatha's Elista 252719 . . 10147 
 
 Mary Golden Letta 240917 9295 5. 
 
 Class 4. — Cows 
 Lass 74th of Hood Farm 281203 
 Tonona Pogis' Azalia 261480 
 Lass 63d of Hood Farm 266734 
 Successful Queen 278743 . . 
 Landseer's Pacific Pearl 205097 
 
 Class 5. — Cows 
 Lass 66th of Hood Farm 271896 
 Figgis 97th of Hood Farm 
 
 273502 
 
 Lass 40th of Hood Farm 223642 
 Lass 47th of Hood Farm 240327 
 Lass 30th of Hood Farm 214511 
 
 Class 6. — Cows 
 Lass 64th of Hcjod Farm 266735 
 Flying Fox's Maid 265318 . . 
 Golden Massoy Polo 3d 234393 
 St. Mawes Zoo 253435 . . . 
 Mabel's Raleigh's Snowdrop 
 
 243890 
 
 Edith Marigold 247304 . . . 
 
 Class 7. — Cows 
 Olympia's Fern 252060 . . 
 Sophie 19th of Hood Farm 
 
 189748 14373 3. 
 
 Rosaire's Olga 4th's Pride 
 
 179509 14104 13.6 
 
 Lou 2d of Hood Farm 250505 12458 3.2 
 
 Lass;30thof Hood Farm 214511 11413 13. 
 
 Butter-pat 
 Lb. oz. 
 635 11.8 
 606 10.1 
 559 0.13 
 
 543 
 539 
 
 8.9 
 2. 
 
 8823 
 2 Years and under 2\ Years 
 
 816 1.27 
 
 720 8. 
 
 640 15.3 
 628 1.5 
 
 626 14. 
 
 2\ Years and under 3 Years 
 
 659 
 609 
 591 
 588 
 557 
 
 3 Years and under 3| 
 13713 12.8 747 
 
 13339 11.2 702 
 
 12694 15. 690 
 
 13088 6.4 682 
 
 9045 15. 659 
 
 3 J Years and under 4 
 17793 11.2 910 
 
 14796 14.4 
 
 15362 1. 
 
 11410 9. 
 
 11990 5. 
 
 750 
 747 
 685 
 684 
 
 4 Years and under A\ 
 13444 10 817 
 14315 9.6 785 
 12426 11.2 747 
 11299 8 685 
 
 12936 1.6 653 
 11842 695 
 
 IJ Years and under 5 
 16147 13.6 937 
 
 6.5 
 
 9.0 
 
 2.3 
 
 14.1 
 
 7.8 
 
 Years 
 10. 
 
 3.1 
 
 6.9 
 
 7.5 
 
 6.6 
 
 Years 
 9.6 
 
 9.1 
 
 5.2 
 12.6 
 13.9 
 
 Years 
 
 13 
 
 14.7 
 
 15.6 
 
 5.1 
 
 13.8 
 .8 
 Years 
 13.3 
 
 854 13.7 
 
 836 
 708 
 664 
 
 15.8 
 8.6 
 
 Butter, 
 
 85% Fat 
 Lb. oz. 
 747 14 
 713 10 
 
 657 
 639 
 634 
 
 960 
 847 
 754 
 738 
 737 
 
 879 
 826 
 812 
 
 1 
 10 
 
 1 
 15 
 
 775 12 
 
 717 2 
 
 695 6 
 
 692 12 
 
 655 14 
 
 802 14 
 775 12 
 
 1071 4 
 
 883 
 
 879 3 
 
 806 13 
 
 805 12 
 
 962 
 
 924 9 
 
 879 15 
 
 806 4 
 
 769 4 
 
 819 10 
 
 1103 5 
 
 1005 11 
 
 984 11 
 
 833 9 
 
 781 2 
 
FAST HORSES 357 
 
 Class 8. — Cows 5 Years and over Butter 
 
 Milk Butter-fat 85 % Fat 
 
 Lb. oz. Lb. oz. Lb. oz. 
 
 Sophie 19th of Hood Farm 189748 17557 12. 999 2.2 1175 7 
 
 Spermfield Owl's Eva 193934 . . 16457 6.4 993 4.06 1168 8 
 
 Eminent's Bess 209719 .... 18782 15.6 962 13.2 1132 12 
 
 Jacoba Irene 146443 17253 3.2 952 15.4 1121 2 
 
 Sophie 19th of Hood Farm 189748 15099 6. 931 15.5 1096 7 
 
 Best Records in Year's Tests at Various Ages. October 1, 1914 
 
 Class 1. — Cows under 2 Years 
 
 Milk Butter-fat 87 % Butter 
 
 Lb. oz. Lb. oz. Lb. oz. 
 
 Lucky Farce 298177 . . . 14260 635 11.8 747 14 
 
 Class 2. — Cows 2 Years and under 2| Years 
 Pearly Exile of St. Lambert 
 
 205101 12345 8. 816 1.27 960 1 
 
 Class 3. — Cows 2| Years and under 3 Years 
 Sayda's Tina of Meridale 274725 
 
 9178 591 2.3 695 6 
 
 Class 4. — Cows 3 Years and under 3| Years 
 Tonona Pogis' Azalia 261480 . 13339 11.2 702 3.1 826 1 
 
 Class 5. — Cows 3^ Years and under 4 Years 
 Lass 40th of Hood Farm 223642 15362 1. 747 5.2 879 3 
 
 Class 6. — Cows 4 Years and under 4| Years 
 St. Mawes Zoe 253435 . . . 11299 8. . 685 5.1 806 4 
 
 Class 7. — Cows 4| Years and under 5 Years 
 Olympia's Fern 252060 . . 16147 13.6 937 13.3 1103 5 
 
 Class 8. — Cows 5 Years and over 
 Sophie 19th of Hood Farm 
 
 189748 17557 12. 999 2.2 1175 7 
 
 Fast Horse Records^ 
 
 Trotters 
 Arranged according to record to close of 1910 
 Uhlan, bl. g., by Bingen, 29567 . . . 1 : 58 The Abbott, b. g., by Chimes, 5348 . 2 : 03J 
 
 ~ ~' ~""" Alix, b. m., by Patronage, 4143 . . 2 : 03| 
 
 Highball, b. g., by Dr. Hooker, 24518 2: 03| 
 Nancj^ Hanks, br. m., by Happy Me- 
 dium, 400 2:04 
 
 Jack Leyburn, ch. g., by Alto Ley- 
 burn, 38399 2 : 045 
 
 Penisa Maid, b. m., by Pennant, 
 
 1968 2 : 04J 
 
 Sonoma Girl, b. m., by Lj'nwood W., 
 
 32835 2:04J 
 
 Bob Douglas, gr. h., by Todd, 33822 2: 04^ 
 
 Lou Dillon, ch. m., bv Sidnev Dillon, 
 
 23157 l:58i 
 
 Major Delmar,b.g.,bvDelmar, 13313 1: 59| 
 The Harvester, br. h., by Walnut Hall, 
 
 31641 2:01 
 
 Hamburg Belle, b. m., by Axworthy, 
 
 24845 2:0U 
 
 Sweet Marie, b. m., by McKinnev, 
 
 8818 ".2:02 
 
 Cresceus, ch. h., by Robert McGregor, 
 
 647 2 : 02i 
 
 1 Abbreviations are as follows : — 
 
 ch., chestnut in color br., brown. g., gelding, 
 
 bl., black. gr., gray. m., mare, 
 
 b., bay. p., pacer. h., horse. 
 
55S 
 
 LIVE-STOCK RULES AND RECORDS 
 
 Pacers 
 Arranged according to record to close of 1910 
 Dan Patch, hr. h., hv Joe Patchen. 30239 . . 
 Minor Heir, b. h., hv Heir-at-Law, 14035 . . 
 Audubon Hov, ch. h., by J. J. Audubon, 16995 
 Star Pointer, b. h., by Brown Hal, 16935 . . 
 Prince Alert, b. g., by Crown Prince .... 
 
 Dariel, b. ni., by Alcander, 6617 
 
 John R. Gentry, b. h., by Ashland Wilkes, 2291 
 Ladv Maud C, ch. m., bv ("hitwood, 5212 
 Bolivar, b. g., by Wayland W., 22516 . . . 
 The Broncho, b. m., by Stornicliffe, 11674 . . 
 ("opa de Oro, b. h., by Nutwood Wilkes, 22116 
 Hedgewood Bov, ch. h., by Chitwood, 5215 
 Joe Patchen, bl. h., by Patchen Wilkes, 3550 . 
 Little Boy, b. g., by Kenton, 6779 .... 
 Robert J., b. g., by Hartford, 3574 .... 
 
 Fastest records for one mile 
 
 To Sulky — Race 
 
 Evelyn W., b. m., by The Spy 
 
 Minor Heir, p., br. h., by Heir-at-Law 
 
 To Sulky — Against Time 
 
 Dan Patch, p., br. h., by Joe Patchen 
 
 To Wagon — Race 
 
 Angus Pointer, p., b. g., by Sidney Pointer 
 
 To Wagon — Against Time 
 
 Dan Patch, p., br. h., by Joe Patchen 
 
 Under Saddle 
 
 Country Jay, ch. g., by Jay hawker 
 
 Team Record — In a Race 
 Charles B., p., bl. g., by Octoroon ) 
 Bobby Hal, p., b. g., by Octoroon J 
 
 Team Record — Against Time 
 Minor Heir, p., b. h., by Heir-at-Law 1 . . . . 
 
 George Gano, p., b. h., by Gambetta Wilkes | • • • * 
 
 Team, Three Abreast — Against Time 
 Belle Hamlin, b. m., by Almont Jr. 
 Globe, b. g., by Almont Jr. 
 Justina, b. m., by Almont Jr. 
 
 Team, Four-in-Hand — Against Time 
 Damania, ch. m., by Nutmeg 
 Belnut, ch. g., by Nutmeg 
 Maud V, ch. m., by Nutmeg 
 Nutspra, ch. m., by Nutmeg 
 
 With Running Mate — Races 
 
 Frank, b. g., by Abraham 
 
 With Running Mate — Against Time 
 
 Uhlan, bl. g., by Bingen 
 
 Flying Jib, p., b. g.. bv Aleona 
 
 1912 
 
 1891 
 
 
 
 
 55} 
 
 58 i 
 
 59 i 
 59} 
 
 
 
 2 
 o 
 
 59 i 
 00} 
 001 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 00 1 
 00 f 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 00 i 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 01 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 01 
 
 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 01^ 
 
 01 
 
 01 
 
 1912 
 
 2:00^ 
 2:00J 
 
 1901 
 
 1905 
 
 l:55i 
 
 1904 
 
 2: 04| 
 
 1903 
 
 1: 57i 
 
 1909 
 
 2: 08i 
 
 1900 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 2:02 
 
 2: 14 
 
 1896 2 : 30 
 
 1883 2:08^ 
 
 1913 
 1894 
 
 1 : 54^ 
 1 : 58} 
 
FAST HORSES 359 
 
 Fastest records for two miles 
 
 In Harness — Race 
 Monette, bl. m,, by Monon 1894 4:45 
 
 In Harness — Against Time , 
 The Harvester, br. h., by Walnut Hall 1910 4 : 15^ 
 
 To Wagon — Race 
 Dexter, br. g., by Hambletonian 10 1865 4 : 56| 
 
 To Wagon — Against Time 
 Ed Byran, b. g., by Little Corporal 1907 4 : 43 
 
 To Road Wagon — Against Time 
 Temple Hope, b. h., by Nerval 1905 5 : 14| 
 
 Under Saddle 
 George M. Patchen, b. h., by C. M. Clay 1863 4:56 
 
 Fastest records for three miles 
 
 In Harness — Race 
 
 Fairywood, b. g., by Melbourne 1895 7:16^ 
 
 In Harness — Against Time 
 Nightingale, ch. m., by Mambrino King 1893 6 : 55| 
 
 Fastest records for four miles 
 
 In Harness — Race 
 Longfellow, p., ch. g., by Red Bill 1869 10 : 34| 
 
 In Harness — Against Time 
 Joe Jefferson, p., br. h., by Thomas Jefferson 1891 10 : 10 
 
 Fastest records for five miles 
 
 In Harness — Race 
 
 Zambra. b, g., by McKinney 1902 12 : 24 
 
 In Harness — Against Time 
 Pascal, bl. g., by Pascarel 1893 12:45 
 
 Fastest records for six miles 
 
 In Harness — Against Time 
 
 Long Time, b. g., by Jack Rowett 1893 16:08 
 
 For ten miles 
 
 In Harness — Race 
 
 Controller, b. g., by May Boy 1878 27 : 23i 
 
 In Harness — Against Time 
 John Stewart, b. g., by Tom Wonder 1867 28 : 02^ 
 
 For eighteen miles 
 In Harness — Race 
 Bill, ch. g., pedigree unknown 1885 58 : 10 
 
360 
 
 LIVE-STOCK RULES AND RECORDS 
 
 For twenty miles 
 Capt. McGowaa, roaa h., pedigree unknown . 
 
 For thirty miles 
 Gen. Taylor, gr. h., by Morse Horse 
 
 For thirty-two miles 
 Chancellor, gr. h., by Chancellor 
 
 For fifty miles 
 Black Joke, bl. g., pedigree not traced 
 
 1865 58 : 25 
 
 1857 1:47:59 
 
 1831 1 : 58 : 00 
 
 1835 3 : 57 : 00 
 
 Fo:- one hundred miles 
 Conqueror, b. g., by Bellfounder 
 
 1853 8:55:53 
 
 Fastest records at different decades since 1800 
 
 Yankee 
 
 Boston Horse, ch. g 
 
 Bowery Boy, p., pedigree unknown . 
 Drover, p., b. g., pedigree unknown . 
 Unknown, p., ch. g., breeding unknown 
 Pocahontas, p., ch. m., by Cadmus . 
 Billy Bovco, p., b. g., by Corbeau 
 Sleepy Tom, p., ch. g., by Tom Rolfe 
 Johnston, p., b. g., by Joe Bassett 
 Star Pointer, p., b. h., by Brown Hal 
 Dan Patch, p., br. h., by Joe Patchen 
 
 1800-1810 
 
 1810-1820 
 
 1820-1830 (2 miles) 
 
 1830-1840 
 
 1840-1850 
 
 1850-1860 
 
 1860-1870 
 
 1870-1880 
 
 1880-1890 
 
 1890-1900 
 
 1900-1910 
 
 :59 
 
 :48^ 
 
 :04^ 
 
 : 28 
 
 :23 
 
 :17l 
 
 :141 
 
 • j2- 
 
 :0q\ 
 
 : 59\ 
 
 :55i 
 
 Profit-and-loss Figures 
 Profit or loss in dairy cows (Conn. Agric. Coll.) 
 
 The cow is charged with the cost of food eaten at regular market 
 rates, in the locality where the herds were tested. The prices for 
 the year averaged as follows : Hay $16 per ton, silage $3.50 per ton, 
 and grain S30 per ton. Besides the cost of food, each cow was sub- 
 ject to a fixed charge of $45 for conducting the business, obtained as 
 follows : — 
 
 Bedding for one year $2.00 
 
 Scrvifo of bull 1.00 
 
 Labor 27.00 
 
 Interest on investment 6.00 
 
 Taxes 60 
 
 Insurance .40 
 
 Depreciation 8.00 
 
 $45.00 
 
 It was estimated that one good man would do the work for 20 
 cows, including milking, feeding, handling of the milk, and delivering 
 it to the depot, washing all utensils used about the barn, etc. Sucli 
 
PROFIT AND LOSS WITH ANIMALS 
 
 361 
 
 a man would be kept busy caring for twenty cows. If his wages were 
 $45 per month, it would therefore make a labor bill of $27 per cow 
 per year. 
 
 The next item is one of interest on investment. Allowing $60 
 as the value of the cow, and $60 as each cow's share of the investment 
 in barn, tools, etc., the total investment per cow is $120. Interest 
 at 5 per cent equals $6 per cow. Taxes at ten mills on one-half 
 valuation calls for 60 cents, and insurance for at least 40 cents. These 
 interest charges must not be overlooked in any careful reckoning. 
 
 The last item in the general bill of expense is one of $8 per year 
 for depreciation in the value of the cow. Unfortunately money put 
 into cows is not a permanent investment. The period of usefulness 
 of dairy cows will not average over four or five years. A large num- 
 ber turn out to be poor milkers not worth keeping, and must be sold 
 at a loss. Others are ruined by accident and by sickness, so that prob- 
 ably five years covers the average milking period of dairy cows. 
 
 Summary for one herd of 16 cows for the year, February to February 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total Cost 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 FOR the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 Year, 
 
 
 
 Lb. of 
 
 
 Value of 
 
 Income for 
 
 
 charging 
 
 Net Profit 
 
 Age of 
 Cow 
 
 Milk 
 
 Average 
 
 Milk for 
 
 the Year, 
 
 Cost of 
 
 $45 per 
 
 OR Loss 
 
 GIVEN 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 THE Year 
 
 counting 
 
 Food for 
 
 Cow FOR 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 Fat 
 
 AT 4 Cents 
 
 Manure 
 
 THE Year 
 
 Labor, De- 
 
 Year per 
 
 
 Year 
 
 
 PER Quart 
 
 and Calf 
 worth $12 
 
 
 preciation, 
 
 Taxes, 
 
 Insurance, 
 
 Etc. 
 
 Cow 
 
 3 
 
 3289 
 
 5.0 
 
 $61.18 
 
 $68.18 
 
 $34.68 
 
 $57.18 
 
 $11.00 
 
 10 
 
 4312 
 
 3.6 
 
 80.23 
 
 86.39 
 
 35.69 
 
 54.44 
 
 31.95 
 
 3 
 
 3209 
 
 4.2 
 
 59.69 
 
 65.85 
 
 32.93 
 
 51.68 
 
 14.17 
 
 3 
 
 2634 
 
 4.0 
 
 49.00 
 
 54.33 
 
 31.56 
 
 46.56 
 
 7.77 
 
 9 
 
 4507 
 
 3.1 
 
 83.84 
 
 95.84 
 
 62.94 
 
 107.94 
 
 -12.10 
 
 8 
 
 7685 
 
 3.1 
 
 142.98 
 
 154.98 
 
 71.67 
 
 116.67 
 
 38.31 
 
 9 
 
 6735 
 
 3.0 
 
 125.40 
 
 137.40 
 
 69.70 
 
 114.70 
 
 22.70 
 
 9 
 
 7493 
 
 3.6 
 
 139.40 
 
 151.40 
 
 75.85 
 
 120.85 
 
 30.55 
 
 9 
 
 7853 
 
 2.9 
 
 146.10 
 
 158.10 
 
 71.00 
 
 116.00 
 
 42.10 
 
 — 
 
 6454 
 
 3.2 
 
 120.07 
 
 132.07 
 
 70.15 
 
 115.15 
 
 16.92 
 
 10 
 
 5678 
 
 4.3 
 
 105.64 
 
 117.64 
 
 63.40 
 
 108.40 
 
 9.24 
 
 8 
 
 5439 
 
 3.6 
 
 101.20 
 
 113.20 
 
 58.13 
 
 103.13 
 
 10.07 
 
 9 
 
 1804 
 
 4.3 
 
 33.57 
 
 39.73 
 
 25.66 
 
 44.41 
 
 -4.68 
 
 6 
 
 6214 
 
 3.7 
 
 115.52 
 
 127.52 
 
 68.29 
 
 113.29 
 
 14.23 
 
 10 
 
 5738 
 
 5.1 
 
 106.76 
 
 118.76 
 
 61.98 
 
 106.98 
 
 11.78 
 
 8 
 
 7023 
 
 2.9 
 
 130.6 
 
 14.96 
 
 59.14 
 
 96.64 
 
 44.32 
 
362 LIVE-STOCK RULES AND RECORDS 
 
 Profit or loss in fattening steers (Nebraska Bulletin 116) 
 84 days' feeding 
 
 Initial cost of 1043-pound steer @S5.00 per cwt. $52.15 
 
 Cost of 1680-pounds corn @ 52c per bu. 15.60 
 
 Cost of 640-corn-stover @ 4.00 per T. 1.28 
 
 Cost of 570-alfalfa hay @ 7.00 per T. 2.00 
 
 Risk, labor, and shelter 5.00 
 
 Total cost .... 76.03 
 
 Selling price, 1274-pound steer 6.02 per cwt. 76.70 
 
 Value of manure 5.00 
 
 Income 81.70 
 
 Total cost of steer . . 76.03 
 
 Total profit .... 5.67 
 
 Profit per SI. 00 invested .08 
 
 Profit or loss in fattening sheep (Ohio Bulletin 187) 
 96 days' feeding 
 
 Initial cost of 50-pound lamb @ $ 6.00 per cwt. S3.00 
 
 Cost of 134 pounds corn @ 40c per bu. .96 
 
 Cost of 125 pounds clover hay @ 12.00 per T. .75 
 
 Risk, labor and shelter .50 
 
 Total cost .... 5.21 
 
 Selling price. 74-pound lamb @ 7.00 per cwt. 5.18 
 
 Value of manure .60 
 
 Income 5.78 
 
 Total cost .... 5.21 
 
 Profit .57 
 
 Profit per 8 1.00 invested .11 
 
 Profit or loss in fattening swine (Indiana Bulletin 137) 
 
 60 days' feeding 
 
 Initial cost of 115-pound hog @S5.25 per cwt. S6.04 
 
 Cost of 214 pounds corn-meal @ 18.00 per T. 1.93 
 
 Cost of 214 pounds middlings @ 25.00 per T. 2.67 
 
 Risk, labor, and shelter .75 
 
 Total cost .... 11.39 
 
 Selling price. 234-pound hog @ 5.25 12.29 
 
 Value of manure .50 
 
 Total income .... 12.79 
 
 Total cost .... 11.39 
 
 Profit 1.40 
 
 ProfitperS 1.00 invested .12 
 
 Cow-testing Associations (Cornell Station) 
 
 All evidence goes to show that the dairy business maintains a fairly 
 profitable status only because good individual cows make up for the 
 deficiencies of the poor ones. The elimination of poor producing 
 
COW-TESTING ASSOCIATIONS 363 
 
 animals is undoubtedly the first step toward improvement, and this 
 elimination cannot be successfully brought about unless records of in- 
 dividual production of each cow are systematically kept, and along 
 with such records of production, it is also, if not absolutely essential, at 
 least highly desirable, that a record of food consumed as well be kept. 
 
 There is no reason why any dairyman should not himself keep the 
 records that are necessary for this selection, but the fact that most 
 dairymen do not keep such records has led to the formation of cow- 
 testing associations, so that the ordinary dairyman by cooperative 
 effort may secure information at small cost that in most cases he 
 would not take the trouble to secure for himself. 
 
 Cow-testing Associations may be organized in various ways and 
 under various plans, and each association should be organized with 
 due regard to its own local conditions. The essential feature in any 
 organization is to secure a good, reliable, trustworthy, and painstaking 
 man to do the work. Such organizations have now been in successful 
 operation in other states for several years, and it would seem that 
 the time is ripe for the dairymen of New York State to avail them- 
 selves of these organizations in order to make their business more 
 satisfactory and more profitable. 
 
 The most feasible method of organizing such associations seems 
 to be for twenty-five or twenty-six dairies to associate themselves into 
 a cow-testing association, each owner agreeing to weigh the milk of each 
 cow every day, and the tester to test the milk of each cow at least 
 for one day each month. This may be done by the tester himself 
 visiting the individual farms in turn and taking the samples and making 
 the test ; or it may be done by the owners themselves taking the 
 samples and carrying them to a central point to be tested. In either 
 case the tester makes the tests, calculates the production of fat for 
 the cow for the month, and makes record of the same and of the food 
 consumed, and reports regularly to the owner on blanks furnished for 
 the purpose. 
 
 The details of carrying out this work may be varied to suit con- 
 ditions. In any case it would require the services of a reliable man 
 for his whole time, and this man will have to be paid a fair salary. 
 Experience has shown that an assessment of one dollar for each cow 
 represented in the association will cover the expense of the work for 
 a year, and in some cases it has been done for somewhat less than this. 
 
364 
 
 LIVE-STOCK RULES AND RECORDS 
 
 Apparatus required. 
 
 Babcock tester, not less than 10-bottle size, and if to be used in a 
 creamery where steam is available, at least 24-bottle size. Babcock 
 glassware (state brand). At least twice as many test bottles as the 
 capacity of the machine, with acid measure, pipettes, thermometer, etc. 
 
 Sulfuric acid,- - about a pint or two pounds per cow per year. 
 
 Sixty-pound spring balance scales, graded to tenths. 
 
 As many wide-mouth sample bottles as there are cows in the largest 
 herd to be tested. Each bottle should be supplied with a numbered 
 metal band, or otherwise plainly and durably labeled. 
 
 A supply of record blanks, ruled so that the whole record for a cow 
 for a year can be entered upon it. 
 
 The cost of the above should be approximately as follows : — 
 
 Wages of man one year at S50 per month $600.00 
 
 10-bottle Babcock tester, SIO, % original cost each year 2.50 
 
 Extra gla.ssware and breakage 10.00 
 
 125 gal. sulfuric acid at 55 cents gal 67.75 
 
 1 set spring balances 5.00 
 
 4 dozen sample bottles 10.00 
 
 Record blanks 20.00 
 
 S715.25 
 
 Value of cow-testing associations in Virginia (Virginia Bulletin 190) 
 
 6 
 
 
 is 
 
 ■< 
 
 
 O - ^ D 
 
 i 
 
 
 b. 
 O 
 
 S 
 
 o 
 
 > H 
 
 O 
 
 < ^ z w 
 
 O fc. 
 
 O Z S fe. 
 
 
 o 
 
 u 
 
 HO, 
 
 <CL, 
 
 Oh 
 
 ><<^ 
 
 >cc?^2 
 
 Ho 
 
 O •< J o 
 
 
 >-) 
 
 1 
 
 8109 
 
 4.33 
 
 351.12 
 
 $102.09 
 
 $16.22 
 
 $118.31 
 
 $44.54 
 
 $73.77 
 
 
 2 
 
 5023 
 
 5.20 
 
 261.20 
 
 76.12 
 
 10.04 
 
 86.16 
 
 " 
 
 41.62 
 
 
 3 
 
 4897 
 
 5.13 
 
 251.22 
 
 72.87 
 
 9.79 
 
 82.66 
 
 " 
 
 38.12 
 
 
 4 
 
 4573 
 
 5.30 
 
 242.38 
 
 ' 69.70 
 
 9.14 
 
 78.84 
 
 " 
 
 34.30 
 
 
 5 
 
 4423 
 
 5.33 
 
 235.75 
 
 68.36 
 
 8.85 
 
 77.21 
 
 " 
 
 32.67 
 
 
 6 
 
 4805 
 
 4.63 
 
 222.47 
 
 63.99 
 
 9.61 
 
 73.60 
 
 " 
 
 29.06 
 
 
 7 
 
 4100 
 
 5.20 
 
 213.20 
 
 59.73 
 
 8.20 
 
 67.93 
 
 ♦' 
 
 23.39 
 
 
 8 
 
 3808 
 
 5.33 
 
 202.97 
 
 58.05 
 
 7.61 
 
 65.66 
 
 " 
 
 21.12 
 
 
 9 
 
 3128 
 
 5.83 
 
 192.36 
 
 55.70 
 
 6.25 
 
 61.95 
 
 " 
 
 17.41 
 
 
 10 
 
 3164 
 
 5.27 
 
 166.74 
 
 47.85 
 
 6.33 
 
 54.18 
 
 " 
 
 9.64 
 
 
 11 
 
 2850 
 
 5.75 
 
 163.88 
 
 47.13 
 
 5.70 
 
 52.83 
 
 " 
 
 8.29 
 
 
 12 
 
 3215 
 
 4.80 
 
 154.32 
 
 44.08 
 
 6.43 
 
 50.51 
 
 " 
 
 5.97 
 
 
 13 
 
 2755 
 
 5.13 
 
 141. .33 
 
 40.56 
 
 5.51 
 
 46.07 
 
 " 
 
 1.53 
 
 
 14 
 
 2835 
 
 4.60 
 
 1.30.41 
 
 37.56 
 
 5.67 
 
 43.23 
 
 " 
 
 
 1.31 
 
 15 
 
 2345 
 
 5.13 
 
 120.30 
 
 34.15 
 
 4.69 
 
 38.84 
 
 " 
 
 
 6.VU 
 
 
 4002 
 
 5.13 
 
 203.31 
 
 
 
 $66.66 
 
 $44.54 
 
 $21.99 
 
 
CHAPTER XX 
 
 Poultry 
 
 The term poultry is used to designate all birds that are in the 
 nature of farm animals or farm live-stock, as chickens, geese, ducks, 
 turkeys. Birds grown merely as pets or fancy animals, or to stock 
 
 f2/e 
 ' /yo3e 
 Beak 
 Head 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 7<Des 
 
 Parts of a fowl. 
 
 game preserves, are not classed as poultry ; but when any of these 
 birds come to be grown as food animals (as pigeons), they are practi- 
 cally included with other domestic fowls under the general denomi- 
 nation of poultry. 
 
 365 
 
366 
 
 POULTRY 
 
 Standard Weights of Poultry in Pounds (Am. Poultry Assoc, 1910) 
 
 Plymouth Rocks, all varieties . . 
 Wyandottes, all varieties . . . . 
 
 Javas, all varieties 
 
 Rhode Island Red 
 
 Buckeye 
 
 Brahma, Light 
 
 Dark 
 
 Cochins, all varieties 
 
 Langshans, all varieties . . . . 
 Minorca, Single-comb Black . 
 Minorca, Single-comb White and 
 
 Rose-comb Black 
 
 White-Faced Black Spanish . . . 
 
 Blue Andalusians 
 
 Dorking, White 
 
 Silver-Gray 
 
 Colored 
 
 Redcap 
 
 Orpingtons, all varieties .... 
 
 Houdan 
 
 Crevecoeur 
 
 La Fleche 
 
 Cornish 
 
 White-laced Red 
 
 Black-breasted Red Malay . . . 
 Black-breasted Red Malay Bantam 
 
 Sebright Bantam 
 
 Rose-comb Bantam 
 
 Booted White Bantam .... 
 
 Brahma Bantam 
 
 Japanese Bantam 
 
 Polish Bantam 
 
 Game Bantam 
 
 Cock 
 
 9.5 
 
 8.5 
 
 9.5 
 
 8.5 
 
 9.0 
 
 12.0 
 
 11.0 
 
 11.0 
 
 9.5 
 
 9.0 
 
 8.0 
 8.0 
 6.0 
 7.5 
 8.0 
 9.0 
 7.5 
 
 10.0 
 7.5 
 8.0 
 8.5 
 9.0 
 8.0 
 9.0 
 
 26 oz. 
 
 26 oz. 
 
 26 oz. 
 
 26 oz. 
 
 30 oz. 
 
 26 oz. 
 
 26 oz. 
 
 22 oz. 
 
 Cockerel 
 
 8.0 
 7.5 
 8.0 
 7.5 
 8.0 
 10.0 
 9.0 
 9.0 
 8.0 
 7.5 
 
 6.5 
 6.5 
 5.0 
 6.5 
 7.0 
 8.0 
 6.0 
 8.5 
 6.5 
 7.0 
 7.5 
 8.0 
 7.0 
 7.0 
 
 24 oz. 
 
 22 oz. 
 
 22 oz. 
 
 22 oz. 
 
 26 oz. 
 
 22 oz. 
 
 22 oz. 
 
 20 oz. 
 
 Hen 
 
 Turkey, Bronze . 
 
 Narragansett . 
 White Holland 
 
 Black . . . 
 
 Buf! . . . . 
 
 Slate . . . . 
 
 Bourbon Red , 
 
 Duck, Pekin . 
 Aylesbury . 
 Rouen . . 
 Cayuga . . 
 Crested White 
 Muscovy 
 Blue Swedish 
 
 36 
 30 
 28 
 27 
 27 
 27 
 30 
 
 Adult 
 Drake 
 
 9 
 9 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 33 
 20 
 20 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 22 
 
 Young 
 Drake 
 
 8 
 8 
 8 
 7 
 6 
 8 
 6.5 
 
 7.5 
 6.5 
 7.5 
 6.5 
 6.0 
 9.5 
 8.5 
 9.5 
 7.5 
 7.5 
 
 6.5 
 6.5 
 5.0 
 6.0 
 6.5 
 7.0 
 6.0 
 8.0 
 6.5 
 7.0 
 7.5 
 7.0 
 6.0 
 7.0 
 
 24 oz. 
 
 22 oz. 
 
 22 oz. 
 
 22 oz. 
 
 26 oz. 
 
 22 oz. 
 
 22 oz. 
 
 20 oz. 
 
 Leghorns, Ancona, Polish, Hamburgs, Games, Sumatra, Sultan, 
 
 standard weights 
 
 25 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 
 Adult 
 Duck 
 
 Pullet 
 
 6.0 
 5.5 
 6.5 
 5.0 
 5.0 
 8.0 
 7.0 
 7.0 
 6.5 
 6.5 
 
 5.5 
 5.5 
 4.0 
 5.0 
 5.5 
 6.0 
 5.0 
 7.0 
 5.5 
 6.0 
 6.5 
 6.0 
 5.0 
 5.0 
 
 22 oz. 
 
 20 oz. 
 
 20 oz. 
 
 20 oz. 
 
 24 oz. 
 
 20 oz. 
 
 20 oz. 
 
 18 oz. 
 Frizzle, r 
 
 20 
 12 
 14 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 14 
 
 Young 
 Duck 
 
 7 
 7 
 7 
 6 
 5 
 6 
 5.5 
 
SCORE-CARD 
 
 367 
 
 standard Weights of Poultry — Continued 
 
 
 Cock 
 
 Cockerel 
 
 Hen 
 
 Pullet 
 
 Goose, Toulouse 
 
 Embden 
 
 African 
 
 Chinese 
 
 Candian or Wild 
 
 Egyptian 
 
 Adult 
 Gander 
 
 25 
 20 
 20 
 12 
 12 
 10 
 
 Young 
 Gander 
 
 20 
 18 
 16 
 10 
 10 
 8 
 
 Adult 
 Goose 
 
 20 
 18 
 18 
 10 
 10 
 8 
 
 Young 
 Gooae 
 
 16 
 16 
 14 
 
 8 
 8 
 6 
 
 Descriptive Score-Card for Standard Poultry 
 
 American class (Cornell) 
 
 
 Perfect Score | 
 
 
 Section 
 
 
 
 Defects in Shape 
 
 Shape 
 
 Color 
 
 Symmetry .... 
 
 8 
 
 
 Rangy, blocky, unbalanced. 
 
 Weight or size . . . 
 
 
 
 
 Over, under, undeveloped. 
 
 Condition .... 
 
 4 
 
 
 Not alert, low vitality, dirty, poor, fat. 
 
 Head and beak . . 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 friat, long, short, narrow, coarse. 
 [Sunken, dull, droopy. 
 
 Eyes 
 
 
 
 
 Single and Pea 
 
 
 
 
 Extra points, few points, uneven, 
 
 
 
 
 wrinkled, twisted, thumbmark, back 
 
 Comb 
 
 8 
 
 
 slope, coarse texture. 
 Rose 
 
 Low front, hollow center, spike high, 
 spike low, spike small. 
 
 Wattles and ear lobes . 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 . Long, irregular, unequal, torn, wrinkled, 
 I coarse. 
 
 Nppk- 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 Long, short, not arched, hackle undevel- 
 oped, scant at sides, scant at shoulders. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Outside : High, low, large, small. 
 
 Wings 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 \ Inside : Feather out, broken, improperly 
 folded. 
 
 Back 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 Roach back, narrow, drooping, deficient 
 
 Tail 
 
 4 
 
 e; 
 
 High, low, pinched, sickles short, coverts 
 scant, feathers out, broken. 
 
 
 
 
 Breast 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 Narrow, flat, shallow. 
 
 Body and fluff . . . 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 Narrow, too low, tucked up, crooked keel. 
 Unfeathered Varieties 
 
 Legs and toes . 
 
 Q 
 
 rt 
 
 Long, short, feathered stubs or down, 
 . knock-kneed, thin, crooked, injured. 
 
 
 
 Perfect Score . . . 
 
 100 
 
 
368 
 
 POULTRY 
 
 For Asiatic fowls, the Cornell score runs : Symmetry, 8 ; weight 
 or size, 6 ; condition, 5 ; head, beak and eyes, 3 for shape and 3 for 
 color ; comb, 8 ; wattles and ear-lobes, 5 ; neck, 4 for shape and 6 
 for color ; wings, 4 and 4, back, 4 and 5 ; tail, 
 4 and 5 ; breast, 5 and 5 ; body and fluff, 5 
 and 3 ; legs and toes, 8. (The reader may 
 wish to compare these categories with scores 
 for other live-stock in Chap. XXI.) 
 
 Eggs 
 
 Scoring and judging one dozen eggs (Cornell). 
 
 Disqualifications. — Extremes in size and 
 shape ; very rough, freckled eggs in extras 
 and firsts, dirty, or cracked shells ; badly 
 spotted interior, or eggs having a noticeably 
 loose content. 
 
 The entire dozen is discarded when more 
 than two eggs are disqualified. 
 
 Eggs weighing one-half ounce more or less 
 than the average for that dozen shall be 
 disqualified for extras and firsts. 
 
 When two or less eggs are disqualified, de- 
 duct from the final score or the dozen, 8 
 points for each egg disqualified. A disquali- 
 fied egg is not scored with the remainder of 
 the dozen. 
 
 (7m^?es. — " Extras " (XXXX). Large 
 and uniform in size and color, weighing 26-30 
 ounces per dozen, and scoring 90 points. 
 
 " Firsts" (XXX). Good size and uniform 
 in size and color, weighing 24-26 ounces per 
 dozen, and scoring 90 points. 
 Weighing 20-24 ounces per dozen, and scoring 
 
 7. — Skeleton of cock. 
 
 1, cranium; 2, septum inter- 
 orbitale; 3, beak; 4, man- 
 dible; .5, cervical vertebrae; 
 6, scapula; 7, humerus; 
 8, radius ; 9, ulna ; 10. met- 
 acarpal bone; 11, thumb 
 bone; 12, middle finger; 
 13, third finger; 14, furoula 
 or wish-bone; 15, coracoid 
 bone; 16, sternum; 17, crest 
 or keel of sternum ; 18, ribs ; 
 i;», pelvis; 20, caudal ver- 
 tebra;; 21, femur; 22, pa- 
 tella; 23, tibia; 24, fibula; 
 25, metatarsus; 20, spur; 
 27, hind toe ; 28, inner toe ; 
 29, middle toe; 30, outer 
 toe. — Cyrln. Amer. Ayric, 
 after Ellenberger. 
 
 " Seconds 
 80 per cent. 
 
 " Thirds ' 
 per dozen. 
 
 Each grade allows the possibility of a 100 per cent score 
 
 '(XX) 
 
 (X). No weight clause required 
 
 Standard 24 ounces 
 
SCORE-CARDS FOR EGGS 
 
 36ft 
 
 " Seconds " include mixed eggs both of size and color, but they must 
 be necessarily fresh. This grade would take ordinary farmers' fresh 
 eggs. 
 
 All preserved and cold storage eggs are debarred by the score of 
 80 per cent from every class except " thirds." 
 
 The standard weight for each grade shall be the highest weight 
 mentioned for that grade. 
 
 Students' score-card for a dozen eggs 
 
 Grade 
 
 Shape 
 
 Color 
 
 Condition of shell . . . 
 Appearance at candling . 
 Yolk, quality of ... . 
 White, quality of . . . 
 Cut for disqualified eggs . 
 Cut for under-standard 
 weight 
 
 Total cuts .... 
 
 Final score .... 
 
 Value 
 Section 
 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 14 
 25 
 25 
 
 1st 
 Doz. 
 
 2d 
 Doz. 
 
 3d 
 Doz. 
 
 4th 
 Doz. 
 
 5th 
 Doz. 
 
 6th 
 Doz. 
 
 Explanation of score-card : 
 
 Shape. — The shape should be uniformly oval throughout the dozen. 
 
 Color. — The color should be uniform over the entire shell and 
 throughout the dozen. The standard should be a clear, pure white 
 for white eggs and a rich, dark brown for brown eggs. 
 
 Condition of shell. — The shell should be spotlessly clean and un- 
 smeared or glossy by washing. It should be of uniformly firm condition 
 throughout, not twisted or folded. 
 
 Appearance at candling. — The contents should be clear and trans- 
 parent, the yolk being scarcely perceptible. The air space should be 
 very small. A large air space indicates greater age of the egg, except 
 in water glass eggs. 
 
 An egg must necessarily be broken for scoring the yolk and white. 
 
 Yolk. — The yolk should be a rich golden in color, and should keep 
 its shape when opened into a saucer. It should show no spots other 
 than the germinal disc, and should be of a sweet, agreeable odor. 
 2b 
 
370 POULTRY 
 
 White. — The white or albumen of the egg should be fresh, sweet, 
 clear, and viscous. The two layers of albumen should be of a distinctly 
 different consistency, — the one very viscous, the other rather watery. 
 
 Scale of cuts : 
 
 Shape (one point for each egg) . — Cut to the limit in proportion 
 to the defect and then disqualify. 
 
 Color (one point for each egg). — Cut to the limit in proportion to 
 the defect and then disqualify. 
 
 Condition of shell (one point for each egg). — One-half point when 
 wrinkled severely ; one-half to two points when three or four or more 
 are glossy ; one-half point for each weak shell ; one-half to one point 
 for each soiled egg. 
 
 Candling. — Cut one-half point for each egg showing distinctly 
 cloudy appearance. 
 
 Cut one point for each egg having unmistakable blood spots. 
 
 Cut one-quarter to one-half point for each egg showing large air 
 space. 
 
 Quality of yolk. — Five points for each spot on yolk other than the 
 germ discs. Cut as high as ten points when odor is disagreeable. Cut 
 as high as ten points when yolk flattens and breaks. Cut as high as 
 five points on a pale color. 
 
 Quality of white. — Cut as high as fifteen points when the two al- 
 bumens approach the same consistency. Cut as high as five points 
 when albumen will not hold up the yolk. 
 
 Cut one-half point for each one-half ounce in weight under the 
 standard weight of the grade for the dozen. Cut eight points for each 
 disqualified egg. 
 
 Rules for Machine Incubation (Finch) 
 
 Never put the eggs in the machine until the temperature is properly 
 regulated. 
 
 Temperature. — After the eggs have been put in the machine, the 
 temperature will drop and remain low for some time, gradually in- 
 creasing, often taking from twelve to fourteen hours to reach the desired 
 degree. Do not try to run the heat up too quickly. It is better that 
 the temperature should be increased gradually. 
 
INCUBATION 371 
 
 After the correct temperature is reached, the incubator should run 
 with only slight variations. Although it is best to maintain an even 
 temperature, it is not always possible to do so, and a variation of one- 
 half degree, or more, from time to time, will not result seriously if the 
 average temperature is correct. A high temperature should be avoided, 
 especially at the beginning of incubation. 
 
 The temperature should be read through the glass door. The door 
 should be opened as little as possible. 
 
 Temperature, first week. — The position of the thermometer should 
 always be considered in determining the proper temperature to main- 
 tain. If the thermometer hangs above the trays, as it does in some 
 machines, thereby registering the air temperature and not the tempera- 
 ture of the eggs, the actual temperature of the eggs would be from 
 one to one and a half degrees lower the first week than the registered 
 temperature. To give the eggs the proper amount of heat the first 
 week, where hanging thermometers are used, it is necessary to keep the 
 temperature at 1021° or 103°; whereas with contact thermometers, the 
 temperature should be 102°. Contact thermometers should always 
 be placed between two fertile eggs. 
 
 Temperature, second week. — The outside temperature has less 
 influence over the machine temperature after the first week, owing 
 to the increasing amount of animal heat given off by the growing em- 
 bryos. Machines using a hanging thermometer should be held at 103° 
 F., while in those using contact thermometers, the heat should be 
 increased to 103° F. 
 
 Temperature, third week. — Hold the temperature as near 103° 
 as possible up to about the eighteenth day, when it may be allowed to 
 run up to 104°. 
 
 The eggs. — The eggs should not be put in the machine until 
 it has been run for several days properly regulated and all 
 directions have been followed out in regard to setting up, paying 
 special attention to the manufacturer's directions about ventilators, 
 felts, trays, etc. 
 
 Incubate eggs of uniform size, shape, and color as far as possible, and 
 eliminate those with very porous or otherwise defective shells. 
 
 Eggs from the heavy type of fowls usually take a few hours longer 
 to hatch than Leghorn eggs ; therefore it is not advisable to set the two 
 kinds of eggs together in an incubator. 
 
Ground feed in hopper, afternoon. 
 
 372 POULTRY 
 
 Feeding 
 
 Cornell ration for egg-production 
 
 200 lb. wheat ) 
 
 200 lb. rrackod corn \ Grain fed in deep litter sparinply in morning and freely 
 
 100 11). oats j at night 
 
 »)0 Ih. wheat middlings 
 
 00 lb. corn meal 
 
 .jO lb. berf scraps 
 
 M) lb. wheat bran 
 
 10 lb. alfalfa meal 
 
 1 lb. lin.seed oil meal 
 
 7 lb. salt J 
 
 Proportion about 2 lb. grain to 1 lb. ground feed. 
 
 Cabbage, beets, sprouted oats or grass ; oyster shells ; grit ; water. 
 
 Results (1909-1910) 
 
 Best pullet laid 258 eggs. 
 
 Next pullet laid 253 eggs. 
 
 Fifteen selected pullets, averaged 236 ( „„_, p-_i- 
 
 Best flock pullets averaged 182 ) ^^^^ ^^''°' 
 
 Relation of food-consumption to egg-production (Cornell). 
 
 That the number of eggs produced bears a close relationship to the 
 amount of food consumed is shown in the chart (Fig. 8) A and B 
 where it will be seen that the hens which laid the largest number of eggs 
 in a .stated period consumed the most food. Periods of large egg- 
 production always appear to be periods of increased food consump- 
 tion, and vice versa. 
 
 It will be noticed that the increase in food consumed precedes, by 
 a few weeks, the increase in production, showing that the fowl fortifies 
 her body by storing up the nourishment from which to produce eggs 
 (A, B, and C). 
 
 A glance at the plotted curves, comparing (B), the weight of the 
 fowls during each period, and (C), the percentage egg-production for 
 each period, will show how uniformly the curve expressing increase 
 and decrease in production follows the curve of increase and decrease 
 in weight. The weight of hen is greatest preceding heaviest egg- 
 jiroduction. 
 
 A comparison of the amount of food consumed, the eggs laid, and the 
 weight of flocks of different ages shows that the youngest fowls ate 
 the most food and produced the largest number of eggs. 
 
 The percentage egg-production varies each month, according to 
 the seasons, with remarkable regularity. This is strikingly 
 

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 Fig. 8. — A comparison of one-, two-, and three-year-olds per period of 28 days, of 
 both starved and fed fowls. A = Consumption of food. B = Weight of fowls. 
 C = Percentage egg-production. Note that an increase or decrease in weight 
 is usually preceded by corresponding increase or decrease in the amount of food 
 consumed by each flock, and that an increase or decrease in per cent egg-pro- 
 duction is preceded by a corresponding increase or decrease in weight of each 
 flock. It will also be observed that there is great uniformity between the 
 various flocks each period as to increase or decrease in food consumption, 
 weight, and per cent egg-production. The transverse chart-lines show upper- 
 most set starting at 1 year, 2 years, 3 years ; middle set, 3 years, 1 year, 2 
 years ; lowest set, 1 year, 2 years, 3 years. 
 
 373 
 
374 POULTRY 
 
 illustrated in the plotted curves of production during the sixteen 
 periods of twenty-ciglit days each, for the six flocks of fowls of 
 different ages (C). From August 11, the beginning of the ex- 
 periment, there was a gradual decline in production with all the 
 flocks until the latter part of December. From this time production 
 increased rapidly until the latter part of Aj^ril, when it remained 
 practically stationary until the middle of May ; then it declined grad- 
 ually until the close of the experiment, November 8. 
 
 Preparing Fowls for Market by Bleeding (Graham) 
 
 Hold the head of the bird with the left hand, back of the head up, 
 keeping the hand on the back of the neck to avoid cutting yourself 
 should the knife slip and pass through the top of the head. Take the 
 knife in the right hand, the back of the blade toward your body. 
 Insert the blade in the mouth, keeping the point to the right side of 
 the bird's neck and as near the outer skin as possible until it is well past 
 the neck bone. Then press the edge toward the bone and slowly draw 
 the knife from the mouth, the hand moving from your body, so that the 
 knife appears to pass across the neck. Repeat the process on the left 
 side of the neck. This should cause the bird to bleed freely, but by 
 holding the beak up the blood will remain in the neck, giving you plenty 
 of time to pierce the brain. The latter is located just above the eye 
 and can be easily reached through the upper part of the mouth by 
 using a stiff steel blade, inserted in the mouth with blade edge up and 
 pointing slightly over the eye. With young birds little trouble is ex- 
 l)erienced in piercing the brain, but with older birds a very stiff blade is 
 required, as the bones are much harder. When the point of the blade 
 enters the brain, give the knife a quick twist to right or left to widen 
 the aperture. If the brain has been reached, the bird will attempt to 
 squawk or will give a nervous jerk as the blade touches the spot, and 
 this touching the brain or nerves not only loosens the feathers of the 
 bird for dry plucking, but will greatly improve the appearance of scalded 
 stock. 
 
 A weight, which may consist of an old tomato can half filled with 
 stones and cement, is immediately attached by means of a wire hook 
 to the lower mandible of the bird. Then by grasping the wings close 
 to the back, the bird will not be able to flutter, and can be easily and 
 
TO KEEP EGGS 375 
 
 rapidly plucked. This, of course, should always be done while the 
 bird is bleeding. The can catches the blood, and by hanging the bird 
 over a barrel the feathers may easily be saved. 
 
 Care of Feathers and Eggs (Lambert) 
 Feathers. 
 
 When dry picked and sorted so as to keep the stiff from the soft, 
 and the white from the colored, feathers have a market value worth 
 considering. Mixed colors of soft chicken feathers bring 4| to 10 cents 
 per pound, and pure white bring 20 cents per pound. Duck feathers 
 bring 33 to 42 cents per pound, goose feathers 42 to 60 cents per 
 pound, goose quills 15 cents per pound. Long, bright-colored 
 chicken feathers are sold for millinery purposes at about $1 per pound. 
 The stiff turkey feathers are in great demand for feather dusters 
 and the like. Feathers are cured in sacks of thin material exposed to 
 the sun and air for several days. They can be sold and shipped in 
 these original sacks. 
 
 General care of eggs. 
 
 Eggs for market will keep better from spoiling if not fertilized. Those 
 from mated pens should be kept from heat over 60° Fahr. The 
 nests should be kept supplied liberally with dry sawdust or some clean 
 absorbent. The eggs that become soiled should be wiped with a damp 
 cloth and never submerged in water if they are to be kept more than 
 one week. The natural color of the shell is not indicative of the 
 quality of the contents, although the preferences of the market 
 should be catered to, if one wishes to secure best prices. Brown-shelled 
 eggs are usually larger than white shelled ones, because all the 
 larger breeds except one lay brown eggs, or those from a delicate pink 
 to a light chocolate. The color of the yolk is controlled by feeding 
 green foods and certain grains. Eggs are porous and susceptible 
 to taint from bad odors. Care must be taken to keep them in clean, 
 cool places. Marking the shells in any way is not desirable. Cartons 
 holding one dozen eggs can be purchased from paper dealers. These 
 have specially printed covers, " One Dozen Fresh Eggs," etc., 
 and can be used several times if desired. Cases holding fifteen 
 or thirty dozen each, for shipping to the trade, are popular sizes. 
 
376 POULTRY 
 
 Deliveries and shipments should be made each week ; if a private trade, 
 on the same day of each week. There are wire fillers for the cartons 
 that display the eggs very attractively, but require more time in plac- 
 ing the eggs and removing them from the trays. With the straw- 
 board fillers, each egg is in a separate compartment, and there is little 
 danger of breakage. If one becomes cracked, the leakage is usually 
 confined to the one compartment. 
 
 Eggs intended for cold storage must be absolutely fresh, free from 
 dirt, and i)acked in standard-size thirty-dozen cases ; and the fillers 
 must be free from mold, dirt, or odors of any kind. Cold-storage plants 
 begin operations as soon as the lower prices are reached, about April 
 1, and continue until the latter part of May. During warm weather 
 the quality of eggs deteriorates, and they do not keep so well as when 
 cooler. The market for these cold-storage goods opens in the fall and 
 continues until Christmas. 
 
 Eggs should be gathered every day, and all broody hens removed 
 from the house. If a nest is found in an unusual place, the eggs should 
 be tested before a bright light, and the unclear ones discarded. 
 
 Preserving eggs. 
 
 There are several methods of preserving eggs during spring and 
 summer and keeping them wholesome until they will bring higher 
 prices, but none by which they can be kept any length of time and sold 
 as fresh-laid ones. The shells may be covered with melted paraffin or 
 vaseline to prevent evaporation, and they will not spoil so long as they 
 are kept cool and turned every few days. Packing in common salt and 
 turning occasionally is another method. The contents remain sweet 
 and wholesome, but the all)umen will not beat up as it will in fresh- 
 laid ones. The shell will lose its freshness, and the eggs will not remain 
 good long after being taken out of the preservatives, and they should 
 be designated as preserved eggs when oiTered for sale. 
 
 The best method of preservation is as follows : One part of 
 water-glass (sodium silicate) mixed with nine parts of boiled spring 
 water. Put the eggs in a .stoneware crock when gathered from the nests, 
 if cool and clean, until the crock is nearly full ; then pour in the water- 
 glass solution until there is at least two inches of licjuid over the top 
 layer of eggs. Keep in a cool place. If carefully done, this method 
 is reliable. 
 
PRESERVING EGGS — HEN LICE 377 
 
 Another successful method is to slake two pounds of good lump lime, 
 and while hot add one pound of common salt. After cooling, add ten 
 quarts of boiled spring water and stir thoroughly several times the 
 first day. Then let it settle, using only the clear liquid, which may be 
 poured over the eggs after they have been placed in a stoneware crock; 
 or the liquid can first be put in the crock and the eggs put in that, day 
 by day, when gathered. The eggs must always be two inches below 
 surface. More of the solution can be put in when necessary. Stone- 
 ware vessels are the most desirable ones for keeping these mixtures in. 
 
 Eggs are sometimes removed from the shells, canned, and kept in 
 cold storage or frozen, and sold to large consumers. The most whole- 
 some method is evaporation. The egg is then reduced to powder 
 that will keep any length of time, in any climate, and can be carried 
 to places where poultry-keeping is out of the question and where all eat- 
 ables carried must be reduced to a minimum weight. 
 
 Parasites of Fowls (Crosby) 
 
 Hen Louse (Menopon pallidum). — There are several species of 
 lice infesting poultry, of which this is the commonest. When full 
 grown, it is over one twenty-fifth inch in length, slender, and of a 
 pale straw-yellow color. The eggs are laid on the feathers near the 
 base. The lice do not suck blood, but run actively over the body 
 and feed on the dried skin and feathers, but in so doing irritate the 
 skin with their sharp claws. 
 
 Treatment. — Keep poultry in clean, airy, well-lighted houses, and 
 use perches and nest boxes that can be removed easily. Spray 
 perches, nest boxes, and the whole interior of the house either with 
 a 2 per cent solution of cresol disinfecting soap (formula page 436) 
 or with a mixture of one part of crude carbolic acid and three parts 
 kerosene. The application should be repeated in about a week to 
 kill any lice that may have escaped before. To free the fowls of lice, 
 brush the powder (see formula, p. 436) in among the feathers about 
 vent, fluff, and under wings. Repeat in two weeks in extreme cases. 
 
 Chicken Mite (Dermamjssus gallinoe). — Minute grayish or red- 
 dish mites which attack poultry, mostly at night, and suck their 
 blood. During the day they hide in cracks and crevices about the 
 perches and nests. 
 
378 POULTRY 
 
 Treatment. — Keep the houses clean as directed above. Supply the 
 fowls with a dust bath and separate sitting hens, which are especially 
 liable to infestation, from the rest of the flock. 
 
 Scaly Leg {Sarcoptes jmitans). — A disease caused by minute mites 
 working beneath the scales on the feet and legs. The irritation causes 
 the secretion of a fluid which on drying turns to a whitish powder 
 beneath the scales and raises them from their natural position. Crusts 
 or scabs are formed, and the fowls become lame. 
 
 Treatment. — Isolate infested birds to prevent the spread of the 
 disease. Carefully remove the crusts by soaking in warm water and 
 soap and apply carbolic ointment or a mixture of creosote and lard 
 (1 to 20). Disinfect the house as directed on preceding page. 
 
 Depluming Scabies {Sarcoptes Icevis). — Minute mites working 
 at the base of the feathers, causing them to break at the surface of the 
 body. The mites also set up an irritation which causes the birds to 
 pull out their own feathers. 
 
 Treatment. — The disease is contagious, and infested birds should 
 be isolated. Apply creosote and lard (1 to 20), or dust fresh Buhach 
 into the feathers. 
 
 Hen Fleas {Argopsylla gallinacea). — In the South these fleas are 
 very annoying to fowls, especially to sitting hens. They attach them- 
 selves in great numbers to the face, comb, etc., where they remain until 
 ready to lay eggs. 
 
 Treaimeni. — The same measures are advised as for lice and mites. 
 
 Chicken Tick (Argas miniatus). — A reddish brown tick, some- 
 what larger than the common bedbug, infesting poultry in the South. 
 
 Treatment. — Keep the houses thoroughly clean, and disinfect at 
 frequent intervals. 
 
 Sample Rules and Regulations for the Exhibition of Poultry 
 
 Ontario (N. Y.) Poultry Association, 1911. 
 
 1. All entries must be made on blanks furnished by the Secretary, 
 and all remittances should be made payable to the Secretary, and should 
 be made by P.O. money order, express money order, or registered 
 letter. 
 
 2. Labels will be sent to each exhibitor ; the reverse side must have 
 the sender's name and address legibly written thereon, and the name of 
 
EXHIBITION RULES 379 
 
 the express company for their return delivery. If from accident the 
 Association labels do not arrive in time, send exhibits without them, 
 and the Secretary will make duplicates. Unhealthy specimens will not 
 be exhibited, but will be returned to the owners at their expense. When 
 more than one specimen is sent in the coop, each entry must be properly, 
 divided and separately labeled. 
 
 3. Entries will positively close Monday, January 9, 1911, but should 
 be sent as long before that date as possible. This rule will be strictly 
 adhered to. The building will be open for the reception of specimens 
 at 8 A.M., Monday, January 16, and those not received by 8 a.m., Tues- 
 day, Januar}^ 17, will be debarred from competition. 
 
 4. All specimens shall be exhibited in their natural condition, with 
 the exception of Games and Game Bantams. Any violation of this 
 rule shall exclude the specimen from competing and cause the with- 
 holding of all premiums awarded the owner of such birds. 
 
 5. The reports of judges shall be made in writing to the Secretary, 
 and will be final after having been approved by the Executive Com- 
 mittee. As soon as possible after the awards of the judges have been 
 supervised and approved, a card or badge stating the premium will be 
 placed on each winning coop, where it must remain until the close of 
 the show, and each winning exhibitor will be notified by postal card 
 at once. 
 
 6. The judges are strictly prohibited from making known their 
 awards, except through the Secretary or Superintendent. Any person 
 attempting to interfere with the judges in their decisions, by letter 
 or otherwise, will be excluded from competition and exhibition. 
 
 7. No protests against awards will be received unless accompanied 
 by a deposit of $2, and if after the matter has been thoroughly in- 
 vestigated by the Show Committee, the protest should prove to be 
 without foundation, the deposit will be forfeited to the Association. 
 Protests must be made before 6 p.m., Wednesday, January 18, 1911, 
 and must be made in writing. 
 
 8. All display premiums in the open classes, unless otherwise stated, 
 will be decided thus : First Prize to count 6 points ; Second Prize, 4 
 points ; Third Prize, 3 points ; Fourth Prize, 2 points ; Fifth Prize, 
 1 point. 
 
 9. Season tickets will be issued free of charge to all exhibitors whose 
 entry fee amounts to $2 ; single admission tickets, 25 cents ; tickets for 
 
380 POULTRY 
 
 children above eight years and under fifteen years of age, 15 
 cents. Exhibitors' tickets are not transferable, and will be forfeited 
 if presentetl by any one but the owner. Season tickets will be sold 
 for SI. 
 
 10. Xo specimens will be allowed in the hall except those which 
 have been duly entered in the books of the Association and the entry 
 fee and express charges paid. 
 
 11. The Association will be pleased to undertake the sale of birds for 
 the exhibitor, free of charge, selling price to be stated on entry blank. 
 All sales must be reported at the office at once. 
 
 12. During the exhibition no specimens can be removed except by 
 order of the Secretary. Any fowl showing disease will be removed 
 and cared for. 
 
 13. No one will be allowed in the aisle while judging is in progress, 
 except by permit from the Superintendent. 
 
 14. The term " Cock " means hatched prior to 1910 ; the term 
 '' Hen " means hatched prior to 1910 ; the term " Cockerel " means 
 hatched during 1910, and the term '' Pullet " means hatched during 
 1910. 
 
 15. Prizes in cash, special prizes, ribbons, etc., for all exhibits will 
 be awarded. Blue Ribbon for First Prize, Red for Second, Yellow for 
 Third, and Green for Fourth. Lost prize ribbons will be duplicated 
 at 15 cents each. 
 
 16. The entry fee for poultry, ducks, geese, turkeys, etc., in competi- 
 tion is 50 cents, exhibition pens, $1.25, pigeons and pet stock, 25 
 cents each. This includes coop, feed, and attendance. All specimens 
 entered for competition must be shown in coops provided by the 
 .^Association. 
 
 17. The Association reserves the right to place more than one bird 
 of the same variety and belonging to the same exhibitor in one coop. 
 
 IS. There must in all cases, whether competing as pens or single 
 birds, be four entries, or first prize will be awarded and second 
 money paid, or if the birds are not worthy of first prize and gain 
 second prize, they will be awarded third, etc. In no case will 
 more than the entry fee be paid on any variety containing only 
 one entry. 
 
 Four entries means four birds of the same kind and variety, as four 
 cocks, four hens, etc., whether shown by one person or several. 
 
SCORING A POULTRY FARM 38} 
 
 Outline for Critical Examination of a Poultry Farm (Rice) 
 
 Visit the farm and make careful observations to secure answers to the follow- 
 ing questions : — 
 
 Part I — The location 
 
 1. Where is the farm located ? 
 
 (a) State (6) County (c) Town 
 
 2. What are the climatic conditions ? 
 
 (a) Temperature : Max Min Mean 
 
 (6) Season of frost : Early Late 
 
 (c) Rainfall : Max Min Mean 
 
 (d) Sunshine : Max Min Mean 
 
 (e) Prevailing winds : 
 
 (/) Amount of snow (season of bare ground) : 
 {g) As influencing egg production. 
 
 As influencing crop production. 
 
 As influencing number of labor days. 
 
 As influencing cost of buildings. 
 
 3. What are the market conditions ? 
 
 (a) Name principal market or markets. 
 
 (6) Population. 
 
 (c) Distance from local station. 
 
 id) Express rate on eggs (30 doz.) ; dressed poultry (100 lb.) ; live poultry 
 
 (100 lb.), 
 (e) Freight rate (per ton feed). 
 if) Passenger rate ; frequency of train service. 
 (g) Commercial importance as regards kind and type of customers. 
 
 4. What is the condition of the roads ? 
 (a) Dirt, stone, etc. 
 
 (&) Grades. 
 
 (c) Distance from farm (a) R.R. Station. 
 
 (6) Express, 
 (c) Post office. 
 {d) Church. 
 
 (d) Free or toll. 
 
 (e) How kept in repair. 
 
 5. What is the size of the farm ? 
 
 6. What is the shape of the farm ? (Make sketch.) 
 
 7. What are the topographical conditions regarding : 
 (a) General direction of slope of the land ? 
 
 (6) Air drainage ? 
 
 (c) Contour as affecting location of buildings? 
 
 (d) Shelter from prevailing winds ? 
 
 (e) Altitude. 
 
 8. What is the nature of the soil as regards : 
 (a) Fertility. 
 
 (6) Drainage — natural artificial 
 
 9. What is the condition of the farm as regards weeds, stone, stumps, old 
 
 fences, etc. ? 
 
 10. What is the condition of the farm as regards healthfulness ? 
 
 11. What is the nature of the water supply? 
 (a) Quantity. 
 
 {h) Quality. 
 
 (c) How secured. 
 
 12. What are the existing crops ? 
 
 (a) Timber — kind, size, and condition. 
 (h) Orchards — kind, size, and condition, 
 (c) Field crops — kind, siae, and condition. 
 
382 POULTRY 
 
 13. What are the educational advantages? 
 (a) Distance from school ? 
 
 (6) Size and kind ? 
 
 14. What are the reliRious and social advantages? 
 (a) Denomination ? 
 
 (6) Distance from church ? 
 
 (c) Character and progressiveness of people ? 
 
 (d) Organizations — Granges, farm clubs, poultry associations, coopera- 
 
 tive associations, etc. 
 {e) Kind of neighbors and distance from residence. 
 
 15. What are the neigborhood conveniences — Telephone, R.F.D. of mail. 
 
 Part II — Arrangement and nature of buildings 
 
 16. Make a sketch of the farm showing the approximate location of all build- 
 
 ings, fences, fields, and crops. 
 
 17. Give dimensions of main building, and make sketch showing (a) front and 
 
 (6) end elevation ; (c) floor plan, (d) state kind of materials used in con- 
 struction, (e) square feet floor space, (/) cubic feet air space. 
 
 18. What kind or kinds of la^nng houses are used ? Take measurements, and 
 
 make front and end elevation and floor plan sketches. 
 
 19. Estimate square feet floor space and cubic feet air space. 
 
 20. State kind of material used in construction of sides, roof, floor, p,nd founda- 
 
 tion. 
 
 21. Give dimensions of incubator cellar and nature of construction, and esti- 
 
 mate square feet floor space and cubic feet air space. 
 
 22. Give number and dimensions of brooder houses, and make sketches 
 
 showing end and front elevations and floor plan, and estimate square feet 
 floor space and cubic feet air space. 
 
 23. Give number and dimensions of fattening houses, and make sketches show- 
 
 ing end and front elevations and floor plan, and estimate square feet 
 floor space and cubic feet air space. 
 
 24. Give number and dimensions of barn or other auxiliary buildings, and make 
 
 sketches showing end and front elevations and floor plan, and estimate 
 square feet floor space and cubic feet air space. 
 
 25. Make sketch and brief description of residence, giving principal dimensions, 
 
 number of rooms, etc. 
 
 Part III — Equipments 
 
 26. Name all the more important machinery and equipment used on the farm. 
 
 27. State kind and capacity of incubators. 
 
 28. State kind and capacity of outdoor brooders. 
 
 Part IV — Live-stock 
 
 29. State kind and quantity of live stock : 
 
 
 Mature fowls 
 
 
 Mature males 
 
 (a) Fowls 
 
 Pullets 
 
 
 Cockerels 
 
 
 Young Chicks 
 
 (b) Ducks. 
 
 
 (c) Geese. 
 
 
 (d) Turkeys. 
 
 
 (e) Guineas. 
 
 
 (/) Horses. 
 
 
 (g) Cows. 
 
 
 (h) Swine. 
 
 
 (i) Sheep. 
 
 
CHAPTER XXI 
 Exhibiting and Judging Live-stock. Market Grades 
 
 It is intended in this chapter to give a sample plan for the adminis- 
 tering of a live-stocli exhibition, standards to aid in the making of 
 j udgments of the qualities of animals, and a view of a few regulations 
 governing the grading of animals and animal products in the markets. 
 This is comparable, in a way, with Chapter IX for plants and plant 
 products. 
 
 General Rules and Regulations Governing Exhibits of Live-stock 
 
 (Ohio State Board of Agriculture, slightly modified.) 
 
 Competition open to the world, except where otherwise specified. 
 
 Receiving exhibits. 
 
 1. All animals for competition and exhibition, except speed horses, 
 having first been properly entered within the time specified in the rules, 
 must be placed in proper position by the first day of fair at 9 o'clock 
 A.M. Exhibits not in position by the time required will be positively 
 excluded from competition. 
 
 2. Entries in the several departments must be received by the Secre- 
 tary fifteen days before the opening of the Fair. 
 
 Entries of animals. 
 
 3. All entries of animals must specify the owners' names, and the name, 
 age, sex, record number (if any), and description of every animal offered ; 
 ages of horses to date from the first of January of the year foaled ; 
 ages of other animals, except cattle, to be considered in months and days 
 at date of fair, basing dates of dairy cattle to be February 1 and 
 August 1, while in the beef breeds the basing date shall be September 1. 
 A breeder is held to be the owner of the female at the time of service. 
 
 383 
 
384 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING LIVE-STOCK 
 
 All entries of live-stock must positively be made on the regulation 
 entry blanks, which will be furnished upon application to the Secretary. 
 
 4. Entries must be made in the names of bona fide owners. Should 
 any be found to be otherwise entered, they will forfeit any premiums 
 awarded by the judges. 
 
 5. An animal entered for exhibition in one class cannot compete 
 for a premium in any other, except where specified. 
 
 6. A single animal may be exhibited as one of a pair or herd. 
 
 7. All animals shall be exhibited to the satisfaction of the award- 
 ing judges. 
 
 Recording entries. 
 
 8. On receipt of entries of live-stock, cards will be made out indicat- 
 ing the books, entry numbers, and classes, and will be ready for delivery 
 by the superintendents of the appropriate departments when exhibitors 
 arrive on the grounds, or will be sent by mail when specially requested. 
 
 Delivery of animals. 
 
 9. Exhibitors must see to the delivery of their animals to the super- 
 intendent of the appropriate department, and to placing them in 
 position under his direction. The buildings and grounds will be in com- 
 plete readiness for the reception of exhibits during the entire week 
 previous to the opening of the Fair, and it will greatly facilitate arrange- 
 ments if exhibitors will early take in hand the preparation for the dis- 
 play of their exhibits. 
 
 A place is provided for storing boxes, crates, and the like, all of which 
 must be promptly removed from the buildings to this place of storing. 
 
 Removal of animals. 
 
 10. Live-stock, other than speed horses, may be removed the last 
 day of the Fair, at 4 o'clock p.m. Speed horses may be removed any 
 time after their racing engagements. 
 
 Protection of animals. 
 
 11. The Fair Board will take every precaution in its power for the 
 safe preservation of stock on exhibition, after its arrival and arrangement 
 on the grounds, but will not be responsible for any loss or damage that 
 may occur. 
 
RULES FOR LIVE-STOCK EXHIBITS 385 
 
 Register number of animals. 
 
 12. Persons exhibiting pure-bred animals, one year of age and over, 
 will be required to furnish register number of animals to be exhibited, 
 or, in case of younger animals not registered, the names and register 
 number of sires and dams. 
 
 Animals exhibited as breeders. 
 
 13. Evidence satisfactory to the members in charge, or the Award- 
 ing Judges, will be required that the animals exhibited as breeders are 
 not barren, and no awards of premiums shall be made where there is 
 unsoundness in breeding animals, which is transmissible. 
 
 Interference with judges. 
 
 14. No person other than the judges, except the officers of the Fair 
 Board, the superintendent, and the grooms in charge, will be permitted 
 to go into the rings where the stock is being passed upon by the Award- 
 ing Judges, and no exhibitor or other person will be allowed to inter- 
 fere or communicate with the judges of live-stock during the adjudica- 
 tions. If j udges desire information from exhibitors or others concerning 
 animals on exhibit, they will make the fact known and call for such ex- 
 planation or information as may be necessary in the case. A violation 
 of this rule will disqualify exhibitors from competing, or subject them 
 to a forfeiture of any premium that may have been awarded. 
 
 Disrespect to awards or judges. 
 
 15. If any disrespect is shown to an award or to the Awarding Judges, 
 by the exhibitor or his agent, he shall forfeit all awards made to him, and 
 the member in charge shall report the same promptly to the Secretary. 
 
 False evidence. 
 
 16. Should a premium be found to have been obtained by false 
 evidence or misrepresentation, or a violation of any of the rules of the 
 Board, it will be withheld. 
 
 Animals entering the ring. 
 
 17. Horses and cattle can enter the arenas only under halter unless 
 otherwise specified, and in charge of grooms, and sheep and swine only 
 in charge of attendants. 
 
 2c 
 
386 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING LIVE-STOCK 
 
 Premiums indicated. 
 
 18. Horses, cattle, swine, and sheep will be exhibited in the arenas 
 of ample capacity, and the premium ribbons attached or delivered by 
 the judges before the animals leave the arenas. First premium, blue ; 
 second premium, red ; third premium, white ; fourth premium, yellow; 
 fifth premium, green; Championship, purple ; Reserve Championship, 
 pink ; Grand Championship, royal purple rosette. 
 
 Protests. 
 
 19. Protests against awards in any of the departments of the Fair 
 must be made in writing, clearly setting forth the grounds for protest, 
 and must be filed with the Secretary not later than one day after the 
 awards are made. All protests will be considered by the Board at its 
 first meeting succeeding the Fair, unless otherwise ordered. Parties 
 interested will be duly notified, and opportunity given them to sub- 
 mit evidence. Premiums on protested animals will be withheld until 
 the protests are decided. 
 
 Animals not entered. 
 
 20. A charge of double the regular fee will be made for each stall or 
 pen occupied by animals not entered for premium competition. 
 
 Advertising. 
 
 21. Exhibitors will not be permitted to attract attention to their ex- 
 hibits by means of perambulating advertisers, or any method tending 
 to objectionable noise and confusion. The promiscuous distribution of 
 hand-bills or other advertising matter is strictly prohibited, and no 
 tacking or posting of advertising bills or cards will be permitted on or 
 in any of the buildings. Exhibitors may advertise at and distribute 
 from their places of exhibit only. 
 
 Judges. 
 
 22. Expert judges, appointed by the Board, will report to the Sec- 
 retary, and he will direct them to the members in charge of the depart- 
 ments in which they are to serve. 
 
 23. No person who is an exhibitor can act as judge, or in any other 
 capacity, in the department in which he exhibits, or upon stock in 
 which he has an interest. 
 
RULES FOR LIVE-STOCK EXHIBITS 387 
 
 24. When animals are not deemed worthy, judges will refuse to 
 award premiums, whether or not there be competition in the classes. 
 
 25. Animals for which no premiums are offered, but which in the 
 opinion of the judges deserve special commendation, will be so re- 
 ported, but premium cards or ribbons must not be attached. 
 
 26. If there be any question as to the regularity of an entry or the 
 right of an animal to compete in a given class, the judge shall report 
 the same to the member in charge for adjustment. 
 
 27. Judges in the several departments, when requested, may give the 
 reasons for their decisions, embracing the valuable and desirable qual- 
 ities of the animals to which the premiums are awarded. As the 
 one great object of the Board is to collect valuable information upon 
 subjects connected with agriculture and the industrial arts, the 
 several judges and superintendents are requested to gather all the in- 
 formation possible from exhibitors in their respective departments, and 
 make their report as complete as circumstances will permit. Reports 
 of awards are to be made to the members in charge as clearly' as pos- 
 sible after the adjudications. 
 
 Payment of premiums. 
 
 28. Premiums are payable in cash (check) except when cups, medals, 
 or diplomas are specified or desired in lieu of cash. Medals and di- 
 plomas will be forwarded as directed, to the proper person, by the Sec- 
 retary. Speed premiums will be paid on the last day of the Fair, and 
 all other premiums will be paid within fifteen days after the close of the 
 Fair, or at the time stated. 
 
 All premiums awarded, and not called for during the calendar year 
 in which awards are made, will be forfeited. 
 
 Exhibition and examination. 
 
 29. Examination by the judges for premium awards will begin in 
 each of the live-stock departments at 9 o'clock a.m. of the day named 
 for showing, except special classes as noted, and the judges will pro- 
 ceed in the order directed by the members in charge of the departments. 
 
 Forfeiture of space. 
 
 30. When space has been assigned to any exhibitor, the member 
 in charge shall have the right, in case the exhibitor shall fail to make 
 
388 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING LIVE-STOCK 
 
 or maintain a creditable display, to declare the space assigned, or any 
 portion thereof, forfeited. Exhibitors must arrange their exhibits in 
 as neat and attractive a manner as possible, in default of which the 
 member in charge will report the entries to the Secretar}" for cancel- 
 lation, and require the removal of the stock at the expense of the ex- 
 hibitor. 
 
 Signs and arrangements of exhibits. 
 
 31. The members in charge of the several departments shall have 
 the right to prescribe the dimensions and to regulate the positions of 
 all signs, and generally to direct the arrangement of exhibits, so far as 
 the same may be necessary to secure harmony and to be attractive in 
 appearance. 
 
 Straw and feed. 
 
 32. Arrangements will be made with a responsible party to furnish 
 straw, hay, corn, oats, and chopped feed on the grounds at market 
 prices, in quantities to suit the purchasers. 
 
 Regulation for helpers. 
 
 33. The members in charge of the several departments will issue free 
 daily admission tickets to such helpers as are necessary and actually 
 under pay in caring for or operating exhibits. A list of such helpers 
 must be furnished to the superintendents of the departments, on arrival 
 of exhibits at the buildings or grounds. 
 
 Special rules governing horses. 
 
 34. Entries must be made fifteen days before the fair opens, and be 
 accompanied by proper fees to cover charges for exhibitor's ticket and 
 stall rent. Exhibitors are requested to specify the number of stalls 
 required, upon receipt of which information stalls will be assigned and 
 their numbers sent to the person or firm making entries. 
 
 35. Charges for stalls. 
 
 Box stall $4.00 
 
 Open stall 2.00 
 
 Pony stall 1(^0 
 
 Exhibitor's ticket 2.00 
 
 36. The published order of exhibition will be conformed to as nearly 
 as possible ; provided, however, the right is reserved to make such 
 
RULES FOR LIVE-STOCK EXHIBITS 389 
 
 changes in the order of exhibition, as in the discretion of the mem- 
 ber in charge will facilitate the work. 
 
 37. The superintendent of each department must check the entries 
 shown in the entry books in each ring, with the exhibits present, and 
 so mark the entry books that they will show what animals were passed 
 on by the judges. 
 
 38. The member in charge may exclude from competition exhib-. 
 itors who occasion unnecessary or embarrassing delay in bringing ani- 
 mals into the show ring. 
 
 39. The judges shall not make any award where there is unsound- 
 ness in breeding animals which is transmissible. 
 
 40. All breeding animals must be recorded in Standard Stud Books, 
 and exhibitors must be prepared to submit certificates or registry. 
 
 ^ ,. . Speed classes — trotting and racing 
 
 Conditions. 
 
 41. Entries will close the tenth day before the Fair opens at 11 
 o'clock P.M. Records made within fifteen days no bar. Entrance 
 fee five per cent of purse, with five per cent additional from winners. 
 The same horse entered in more than one class will only be required 
 to pay entrance for the starts made, except if no starts are made the 
 fee in each class entered may be required. 
 
 42. Five entries and three starters required. Horses will be called 
 at 1 o'clock P.M. daily. 
 
 43. Races will be mile heats, three in five, to harness, and will be 
 conducted under the rules of the National Trotting Association (or 
 American Trotting Association). 
 
 44. Heats in each day's races may be trotted or paced alternately. 
 The published order of program will be followed as nearly as possible, 
 but the State Board of Agriculture reserves the right to make modi- 
 fications, in the discretion of the member in charge of the speed depart- 
 ment, to meet conditions as they arise. Usual weather clause rights 
 reserved. 
 
 45. A horse distancing the field, or any part thereof, will receive but 
 one premium. 
 
 46. All premiums for speed classes will be paid on the last day of the 
 Fair, by bank check payable to the order of the owner or the party 
 in whose name the entry is made. 
 
390 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING LIVE-STOCK 
 
 47. The race track will be placed in the best possible condition for 
 each of the interesting events. The track is a most excellent one, 
 the back stretches being wide and easy, with a great home stretch 
 one hundred feet in width. 
 
 48. The speed barns, located conveniently near the track, are in good 
 condition and well equipped for the care of race horses. The races are in 
 circuits that will give horsemen the advantage of several weeks' con- 
 tinuous work. 
 
 Special rules governing cattle. 
 
 49. Entries must be made fifteen days before the Fair opens, and 
 be accompanied by proper fees to cover charges for exhibitor's ticket 
 and stall rents. Exhibitors are requested to specify the number of stalls 
 required, on receipt of which information stalls will be assigned and 
 their numbers sent to the person or firm making entries. 
 
 50. Charges. 
 
 Each animal over one year old, $2; each animal under one year old, 
 $1; exhibitor's ticket, $2. 
 
 51. Purity of blood as established by pedigree, symmetry, size, 
 early maturity and general characteristics of the several breeds of 
 animals to be considered; the judges will make proper allowance 
 for age, feeding and other conditions. 
 
 52. Persons exhibiting pure bred animals will be required to furnish 
 to the Secretary, at the time of making the entry, the name and 
 register number of each animal entered. 
 
 53. Basing dates of dairy cattle to be February 1 and August 1, while 
 in the beef breeds the basing date shall be September 1. 
 
 54. All cows over thirty-six months old must have given birth to 
 calf at full maturity within past year, or show unmistakable evidence 
 of being in calf at time of exhibition. 
 
 55. }A\ cows in the dairy breeds, to be judged in the morning 
 shall be milked at six o'clock p.m., the day previous to being 
 judged, and all dairy cows, to be judged in the afternoon, to be 
 milked at six o'clock a.m., of the same day. The judge may, at 
 his option, require any cow to be milked while in the ring or before the 
 awards are made. 
 
 56. Exhibitors will be required to have blankets removed from cattle 
 between the hours of nine a.m., and four p.m, each day of the Fair. 
 
RULES FOR LIVE-STOCK EXHIBITS 391 
 
 57. Cattle will be assigned to the exposition building, the judging 
 to take place in the arena of same. 
 
 58. The superintendent of each department must check the entries 
 shown in the entry books in each ring, with the exhibits present, and 
 so mark the entry books that they will show what animals were passed 
 on by the judges. 
 
 Special rules governing swine. 
 
 59. Entries must be made fifteen days before the Fair opens and be 
 accompanied by proper fees to cover exhibitor's ticket and pen rent. 
 Price of pens, $1 each ; exhibitor's ticket, $2. 
 
 60. Swine must be owned by the individual or firm making the ex- 
 hibit and must be registered in the accredited records of their, respective 
 breeds. 
 
 61. The superintendent of each department must check the entries 
 shown in the entry books in each ring, with the exhibits present, and 
 so mark the entry books that they will show what animals were 
 passed on by the judges. 
 
 Special rules governing sheep. 
 
 62. Entries must be made fifteen days before the Fair opens, and be 
 accompanied by proper fees to cover cost of exhibitor's ticket and pen 
 rent. Price of pens, $1 each ; exhibitor's ticket, $2. 
 
 63. Sheep must be owned by the individual or firm making the exhibit 
 and must be registered in the accredited records of their respective 
 breeds. 
 
 64. Each exhibitor restricted to two entries in one class. 
 
 65. Sheep competing in the Merino classes must be recorded 
 in the American and Delaine-Merino Record Association, or the 
 Merino Record Association of Ohio, Vermont, or New York, 
 and certificates of registration, properly signed by the secretary'' of 
 one of the above-named associations, must accompany each animal 
 in the ring. 
 
 66. The superintendent of each department must check the entries 
 shown in the entry books in each ring, with the exhibits present, and 
 so mark the entry books that they will show what animals were passed 
 on by the judges. 
 
392 
 
 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING LIVE-STOCK 
 
 Score-cards for Farm Animals 
 
 Herewith are given sanii)le score-cards for different species and classes 
 
 of animals. For score-cards of the breeds see \'ol. Ill, Cych. Amer. 
 
 Agr. (from which most of the following cards, by F. B. Mumford, are 
 
 taken) : — 
 
 Draft-horse score-card 
 
 Class, Gelding 
 
 General characters 
 
 Form. — Broad, massive, blocky, low-down, compact and symmetrical. Scale 
 large for the age. 
 
 Fig. 9. — Parts of the horse. 1, muzzle ; 2, nostrils ; '.i, face ; 4, eye ; 5, forehead ; 
 G, ear ; 7, neck ; 8, crest ; 9. withers ; 10, back, II, loin ; 12, hip ; 13, croup ; 
 14, tail ; 15, thigh ; IG, quarter ; 17, gaskin or lower thigh ; IS, hock ; 19, 
 stifle ; 20, flank ; 21, ribs ; 22. tendons ; 23, fetlocks ; 24, pastt^rn ; 25, foot ; 
 26, heel of foot ; 27, canon ; 28, knee ; 29. forearm ; 30, chest ; 31, arm ; 32, 
 shoulder ; 33, throatlatch ; A, thoroughi)in ; B. curb ; C, bog and blood 
 spavin ; D, bone spavin ; E, splint ; F, windgall ; G, cappel elbow ; H, poll- 
 evil. (Cyclo. Amer. Agric.) 
 
POINTS OF A DRAFT-HORSE 393 
 
 Quality. — General refinement of clean-cut and symmetrical features ; bone 
 clean, large, and strong ; skin and hair fine ; tendons clean, sharply defined, and 
 prominent. 
 
 Constitution. — Generous and symmetrical development ; lively carriage ; 
 ample heart-girth, capacity of barrel and depth of flanks ; eyes, full, bright and 
 clear ; nostrils large and flexible ; absence of grossness or undue refinement. 
 
 Scale of points 
 
 Perfect Score 
 
 1 . Height, estimated hands ; corrected hands. 
 
 2. Weight, estimated lb. ; corrected lb. ; score according to 
 
 age and condition 10 
 
 3. Action, walk : rapid, springy, regular, straight ; trot : free, balanced, 
 
 straight 15 
 
 4. Temperament, energetic, tractable 3 
 
 5. Head, proper proportionate size ; well carried ; profile straight . . 1 
 
 6. Muzzle neat ; nostrils large, flexible ; lips thin, even, firm .... 1 
 
 7. Eyes, bright, clear, full, both same color 1 
 
 8. Forehead, broad, full 1 
 
 9. Ears, medium size, well carried 1 
 
 10. Lower jaw, angles wide, well muscled 1 
 
 11. Neck, well-muscled, arched ; throat-latch fine ; wind-pipe large . . 2 
 
 12. Shoulder, moderately sloping, smooth, snug, extending into back . . 3 
 
 13. Arm, short, strongly muscled, thrown back 1 
 
 14. Forearm, long, wide, clean, heavily muscled 2 
 
 15. Knees, straight, wide, deep, strong, clean 2 
 
 16. Fore cannons, short, wide, clean ; tendons clean, well defined, prominent 2 
 
 17. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean 1 
 
 18. Pasterns, moderatelj sloping ; strong, clean 3 
 
 19. Fore feet, large, even size ; sound ; horn dense, waxy ; soles concave ; 
 
 bars strong, full ; frogs large, elastic ; heels wide, one-half length of 
 
 toe, vertical to ground 8 
 
 20. Chest, deep, wide ; breast bone low ; girth large 2 
 
 21. Ribs, deep, well sprung ; closely ribbed to hip 2 
 
 22. Back, broad, short, strong, muscular 2 
 
 23. Loins, short, wide, thickly muscled 2 
 
 24. Barrel, deep, flanks full 2 
 
 25. Hios. broad, smooth, level, well muscled 2 
 
 26. Croup, wide, heavily muscled, not too drooping 2 
 
 27. Thighs, deep, broad, muscular 3 
 
 28. Quarters, plump with muscle, deep 2 
 
 29. Stifles, large, strong, muscular, clean 2 
 
 30. Gaskins, lone wide, clean, heavily muscled 2 
 
 31. Hocks, large, strong, wide, deep, clean, w-ell set 8 
 
 32. Hind cannons, ^hort, wide, clean ; tendons clean, well defined ... 2 
 
 33. Fetlocks, wade, straight, strong, clean 1 
 
 34. Pasterns, moderately sloping, strong, clean 2 
 
 35. Hind feet, large, even size ; sound ; horn dense, waxy ; soles concave ; 
 
 bars strong, full ; frogs large, elastic ; heels wide, one-half length of 
 
 toe, vertical to ground .... 6 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Light-horse score-card 
 
 Class, Gelding 
 
 General characters 
 
 Form. — Light, lean, lithe and muscular ; long-legged, short in back ; having 
 general appearance indicative of extreme activity. 
 
394 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING LIVE STOCK 
 
 Quality. — Extreme rofinomont of symmotrical and clean-cut feature .s, showing 
 every requirement of strength, endurance, style, and grace ; skin thin and 
 pliable, showing veins plainly ; hair fine ; mane and tail fine and long ; bone 
 possessing plenty of substance but great refinement ; tendons clean, strong, and 
 sharply defined. 
 
 Constitution. — Generous and symmetrical development ; an expression of 
 great nervous energy ; action spirited ; heart-girth large ; floor of chest full ; 
 barrel well rounded and moderately deep ; hind flanks properly developed ; 
 eyes full, bright, and clear ; nostrils large ; bone possessing abundant substance 
 as well as refinement. 
 
 Scale of points 
 
 Perfect Score 
 
 1. Weight, lb. ; corrected lb. 
 
 2. Height, hands; corrected hands 2 
 
 3. Action, walk : long, fast, elastic, straight and regular ; trot : rapid, 
 
 regular, straight 15 
 
 4. Temperament, spirited, energetic, and tractable 5 
 
 5. Skin, thin, pliable, showing veins plainly ; coat fine, soft, bright . . 3 
 
 6. Head, correct proportionate size, well carried ; features clean cut ; pro- 
 
 file straight 2 
 
 7. Muzzle, neat, nostrils large, flexible ; lips, thin, firm, and even . . 1 
 
 8. Eyes, full, bright, clear, same color 2 
 
 9. Forehead, broad and full 2 
 
 10. Ears, medium size, pointed, well carried, alert 1 
 
 11. Lower jaw, angles wide, space clean, well muscled 1 
 
 12. Neck, well muscled, arched, throatlatch fine; windpipe large ... 2 
 
 13. Shoulder, long, sloping, smooth, extending into back 3 
 
 14. Arm, short, strong, well muscled, thrown back 1 
 
 15. Forearm, long, wide, clean, well muscled 2 
 
 16. Knees, straight, wide, deep, strong, clean, strongly supported ... 4 
 
 17. Cannons, short, clean, wide ; tendons large, clean, and prominent . 2 
 
 18. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean 1 
 
 19. Pasterns, long, sloping, strong, clean 3 
 
 20. Fore feet, medium size, even and sound ; horn dense and waxj' ; soles 
 
 concave ; bars strong and full ; frogs large and elastic ; heels wide, 
 
 one-half length of toe ; vertical to ground 6 
 
 21. Withers, high, extending well into back 1 
 
 22. Chest, deep, low, girth large 3 
 
 23. Ribs, deep, well sprung, closely coupled 2 
 
 24. Back, short, broad, strong, muscular 2 
 
 25. Loins, short, broad, thickly muscled 2 
 
 26. Barrel, long in under line ; flanks well let down 1 
 
 27. Hips, smooth, wide and level 2 
 
 28. Croup, long. wide, muscular, not drooping 2 
 
 29. Tail, attached high, w^ell haired, well carried 1 
 
 30. Thighs, deep, broad, strong, muscular 3 
 
 31. Quarters deep, plump with muscle 1 
 
 32. Stifles, strong, clean, muscular 2 
 
 33. Gaskins, long, wide, muscular 3 
 
 34. Hocks, large, strong, wide, deep, clean, well set 7 
 
 35. Cannons, short, clean, wide ; tendons large, clean, and prominent . 2 
 
 36. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, and clean 1 
 
 37. Pasterns, strong, slojjing. springy, clean 3 
 
 38. Hind feet, medium size, even, sound ; horn dense, waxy ; soles con- 
 
 cave ; bars strong, full ; frogs large, elastic ; heels wide .... 4 
 
 Total 100 
 
HORSE SCORE-CARD 395 
 
 Student's card for the proportions of the horse (Cornell) 
 
 Name of Animal Breed or service 
 
 Sex Age 
 
 Color and Markings Blemishes 
 
 Defects 
 
 Estimated Weight Actual Weight 
 
 Owner P. O. 
 
 Inches 
 
 Height at withers 
 
 Height to highest point of croup 
 
 Length from point of shoulder to quarter 
 
 From lowest point of chest to the ground 
 
 From the point of elbow to the ground 
 
 From the point of elbow to trapezium 
 
 From trapezium to ground 
 
 Circumference of the arm 
 
 Circumference of cannon in center 
 
 Circumference of foot at coronet 
 
 Length of head 
 
 Width of forehead 
 
 Circumference of muzzle at angle of mouth 
 
 Width of chest from outside of shoulder points 
 
 Width across hips 
 
 From center of dock to anterior point of patella 
 
 From point of hock to point of hip 
 
 From point of hock to ground 
 
 Circumference of thigh 
 
 Circumference of shank in the center 
 
 Circumference of body at the girth 
 
 Length of croup 
 
 Height of crest of occiput from ground 
 
 Dorsal angle of scapula to hip 
 
 From angle of lower jaw to forehead above eye 
 
 From throat to superior border of neck 
 
 Beef-cattle score-card 
 
 Class, Breeding Females 
 
 General characters 
 
 Form. — Compact, thick-set and short-legged in appearance ; body deep, 
 thick, and of medium length ; top line straight, under line low in flanks ; scale 
 medium to large, not greatly above average for the breed. 
 
 Quality. — General refinement of symmetrical and clean-cut features; breed 
 characters pronounced ; bone fine and clean ; hair fine and soft ; skin of not 
 more than medium thickness ; head, neck, and legs short and fine, but strong. 
 
 Condition. — Great wealth of natural flesh, as from abundant supplj' of best 
 grass or other roughage, but not excessively' fat ; flesh firm, mellow and springy, 
 without ties, lumps, patches, or rolls, especially in the back and loin ; skin loose 
 and soft ; depth and evenness of flesh consistent with degree of fatness. 
 
 Constitution. — Generous and symmetrical development ; lively carriage ; 
 ample heart-girth, capacity of barrel and depth of flanks ; eyes full, bright, and 
 clear ; nostrils wide apart, large and open ; absence of refinement to point of 
 delicacy ; skin of at least medium thickness and free from scurf ; coat soft and 
 bright. 
 
 Early maturity. — General refinement and compactness; body large, extrem- 
 ities small ; shortness of head, neck, and legs ; amplitude of girth in chest, belly, 
 and flanks. 
 
396 
 
 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING LIVE-STOCK 
 
 Sexuality. — Strongly marked ; a general appearance of sensibility and 
 feminine refinement of features ; moderate length and great capacity in coupling ; 
 width in loin, hip-bones, and pin-bones ; well-developed udder and prominent 
 milk veins ; horn and coat fine ; eyes expressive of mild and gentle sensitiveness. 
 
 Fig. 10. — Parts of the cow. 1, muzzle ; 2, face ; 3, forehead ; 4, throat ; 5, neck ; 
 6, dewlap ; 7, shoulder ; 8, wethers ; 9, back ; 9i, crops ; 10, chine ; 11, ribs ; 
 12, fore ribs ; 12i, fore flank ; 12, 12i, chest ; 13, belly ; 14, flank ; 15, loin ; 
 16, hips ; 17, rump ; 18, setting of tail ; 19, thurl or pin-bone ; 20, quarter ; 
 21, thigh; 22, hock; 23, switch; 24, leg; 25, stifle; 26, udder; 27, teat; 
 28, forearm ; 29, knee ; 30, shank ; 31, hoof. (Cyclo. Amer. Agric.) 
 
 Scale of points Perfect 
 
 Score 
 
 1. Age, estimated ; corrected 
 
 2. Weight, estimated lb.; corrected lb.; score according to 
 
 age and condition 5 
 
 3. Skin, of medium thickness, loose, soft, elastic, free from scurf ... 3 
 
 4. Hair, fine, soft, thick ; color and markings according to breed ... 3 
 
 5. Temperament, quiet, mild, and contented 3 
 
 6. Muzzle, mouth large, lips thin, nostrils large, open, and wide apart . 2 
 
 7. Face, fine, moderately short and broad 2 
 
 8. Forehead, full, broad, and square 2 
 
 9. Eyes, full, bright, clear, and placid 1 
 
 10. Jaws, wide, deep, and strong 1 
 
 11. Horns, medium to small, fine texture, shape and color according to 
 
 breed 1 
 
 12. Ears, medium size, fine texture 1 
 
 13. Neck, thick, short, curving smoothly into shoulders and brisket; 
 
 throat clean ; dewlap slight 3 
 
 14. Shoulders, compact, snug, smooth, well fleshed 5 
 
CATTLE SCORE-CARDS 397 
 
 Perfect 
 Score 
 
 15. Fore legs, short, straight, strong ; arm full ; bone fine and clean ; feet 
 
 small, strong, even ; hoofs dense 3 
 
 16. Brisket, moderately projecting, neat and broad 1 
 
 17. Chest, full, deep, wide ; heart-girth large ; fore flanks deep and full . 10 
 
 18. Barrel, capacious, medium length 5 
 
 19. Crops, moderately full, flesh thick and even 5 
 
 20. Ribs, long, closely set, well sprung, extending fairly well back ; back 
 
 broad and straight ; flesh thick and even 10 
 
 21. Loin, broad, straight ; flesh thick and even 6 
 
 22. Hips, wide but not prominent, capable of being smoothly covered . 3 
 
 23. Rump, long, level, wide ; tail-head smooth ; flesh thick and even . 5 
 
 24. Pin-bones, far apart, not prominent 2 
 
 25. Tail, tapering, bone fine 1 
 
 26. Thighs and twist, full, muscled well down to hocks 6 
 
 27. Hind legs, short, straight, strong ; bone fine and clean ; feet small, 
 
 strong, even ; hoofs dense 3 
 
 28. Hind flank, low, full, thick 3 
 
 29. Udder, large, shapely, evenly quartered, not fleshy ; teats uniform, 
 
 . medium-sized, squarely placed, milk veins prominent 5 
 
 Total loo 
 
 Beef-cattle score-card 
 
 Class, Breeding Bulls 
 
 General characters 
 
 Form. — Compact, thick-set, and short-legged in appearance ; body deep, 
 thick, and of medium length ; top line straight, under line low in flanks ; fore 
 quarters heavier than in a cow ; scale medium to large, not greatly above aver- 
 age for the breed. 
 
 Quality. — Features clean cut and symmetrical ; showing great strength with- 
 out grossness ; breed characters pronounced ; bone strong and clean ; hair 
 moderately fine and soft ; skin of medium thickness ; head, neck, and legs short, 
 strong, and massive. 
 
 Condition. — Great wealth of natural flesh as from abundant supply of best 
 grass or other roughage, but not excessively fat ; flesh firm, mellow, and springy, 
 without ties, lumps, patches, or rolls, especially in the back and loin ; depth and 
 evenness of flesh consistent with degree of fatness. 
 
 Constitution. — Generous and symmetrical development ; lively carriage ; 
 ample heart -girth, capacity of barrel and depth of flanks ; eye full, bright, and 
 clear ; nostrils wide apart, large, and open ; absence of grossness or of undue 
 refinement. 
 
 Early maturity. — Compactness and strength, with as much refinement as is 
 consistent with masculinity ; body large, extremities small ; shortness of head, 
 neck, and legs ; amplitude of girth in chest, belly, and flanks. 
 
 Sexuality. — Strongly marked ; a majestic carriage and general appearance 
 of masculine power and aggressiveness ; great strength without grossness in 
 head, neck, and legs ; chest well developed ; shoulders very strong ; well-devel- 
 oped sexual organs. 
 
 Scale of points Perfect 
 
 Score 
 
 1. Age, estimated ; corrected 
 
 2. Weight, estimated lb. ; corrected lb. ; according to age 
 
 and condition 5 
 
 3. Skin, moderately thick, loose, soft, elastic, free from scurf .... 3 
 
398 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING LIVE-STOCK 
 
 Perfect 
 Score 
 
 4. Hair, thick ; moderately fine and soft, color and markings according to 
 
 breed 3 
 
 5. Temperament, alert but quiet and good-natured 3 
 
 6. Muzzle, mouth large, lips round and firm ; nostrils large, open, and wide 
 
 apart 2 
 
 7. Face, short, straight, strong, full 2 
 
 8. Forehead, full, very broad, heavy between eyes 2 
 
 9. Eyes, full, bright, clear, mild 1 
 
 10. Jaws, wide, deep, and strong 1 
 
 11. Horns, fine texture, strong ; shape and color according to breed . . 1 
 
 12. Ears, medium size, well haired, not coarse 1 
 
 13. Neck, short, massive, curving strongly into shoulders and brisket; 
 
 crest strong ; throat clean ; dewlap slight 3 
 
 14. Shoulders, strongly developed, compact, snug, well fleshed .... 5 
 
 15. Fore legs, short, straight, arm full, bone strong and clean ; hoofs large, 
 
 strong, even, and dense 3 
 
 16. Brisket, deep, broad, rounded, neat, moderately projecting .... 1 
 
 17. Chest, full, deep, wide ; heart-girth large ; fore flanks deep ... 10 
 
 18. Barrel, deep, broad, medium length 4 
 
 19. Crops, full and thick, straight in top line 5 
 
 20. Ribs, long, closely set, well sprung, extending well back ; back broad 
 
 and straight ; flesh thick and even 10 
 
 21. Loin, broad, straight; flesh thick and even 6 
 
 22. Hips, wide, but not prominent, capable of being smoothly covered . 3 
 
 23. Rump, long, level, wide ; tail-head smooth ; flesh thick and even . 5 
 
 24. Pin-bones, far apart, not prominent 2 
 
 25. Tail, tapering, bone moderately fine 1 
 
 26. Thighs, full, wide and deep ; muscled well down to hocks .... 4 
 
 27. Twist, deep and full 4 
 
 28. Hind legs, short, straight, bone strong and clean ; hoofs large, strong, 
 
 and even 3 
 
 29. Hind flank, full, low 4 
 
 30. Testicles, well developed, both present and normally placed . . . 3 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Dairy-cattle score-card 
 
 Class, Breeding Females 
 
 General characters 
 
 Form. — Spare, angular, moderately short-legged ; barrel, capacious ; hind 
 quarters, wide and deep ; scale, medium to large, not greatly above average for 
 the breed. 
 
 Quality. — General refinement of symmetrical and clean-cut features ; bone 
 fine and clean ; hair fine and soft ; skin of not more than medium thickness ; 
 head, neck, and legs fine and of moderate length. 
 
 Condition. — Spare, no fat apparent ; skin loose and mellow. 
 
 Conslitxdion. — Generous and symmetrical development ; lively carriage ; 
 ample heart-girth ; capacity of barrel and depth of flanks ; eyes full, bright, and 
 clear ; nostrils, wide apart, large, and open ; absence of refinement and spareness 
 to point of delicacy or emaciation ; skin of medium thickness, free from scurf ; 
 coat soft and bright. 
 
 Nervous energy. — Spinal column prominent, vertebra? wide apart ; forehead 
 high and wide ; ears active ; temperament alert ; also the indications of con- 
 stitution and quality. 
 
 Sexuality. — A general appearance of sensibility and feminine refinement 
 of features ; moderate length and great capacity in barrel, width in loin, hip- 
 
DAIRY-CATTLE POINTS 399 
 
 bonea and pin-bones ; well-developed udder ; horn and coat fine ; eyes expres- 
 sive of mild and gentle sensitiveness. 
 
 Milk-giving capacity. — Udder large, shapely, evenly quartered, free from 
 fleshiness, extending well up behind and far forward, strongly attached ; milk- 
 veins large and tortuous ; milk-wells large ; secretions of skin abundant and 
 yellow ; also the above indications of all the other general characters. 
 
 Scale of points Perfect 
 
 Score 
 
 1. Age, estimated 
 
 2. Weight, estimated lb. ; corrected lb. ; score according to 
 
 age and condition 2 
 
 3. Skin, medium fine, loose, mellow, elastic, free from scurf; secretions 
 
 yellow and abundant 5 
 
 4. Hair, fine, soft, thick ; color and markings according to breed ... 2 
 
 5. Temperament, alert, but mild and tractable 5 
 
 6. Muzzle, clean-cut, mouth large, lips thin, nostrils large 1 
 
 7. Face, lean, fine, slightly dished 1 
 
 8. Forehead, broad, high, slightly dished 1 
 
 9. Eyes, full, bright, clear, mild 3 
 
 10. Horns, medium to small, fine texture, shape, and color according to breed 1 
 
 11. Ears, medium size, fine texture 1 
 
 12. Neck, fine, spare, medium length, throat clean ; dewlap light ; neatly 
 
 attached to head and shoulders 2 
 
 13. Shoulders, lean, sloping ; narrow at withers, moderately wide at points 2 
 
 14. Fore legs, straight, short, bone clean and fine ; feet strong, hoofs dense 
 
 and even 2 
 
 15. Brisket, light, thin 1 
 
 16. Chest, deep, capacious 8 
 
 17. Barrel, capacious, medium length 10 
 
 18. Back, lean, straight, medium length ; vertebrae wide spaced and promi- 
 
 nent ; ribs long, broad, wide spaced, moderately well sprung . . 8 
 
 19. Loin, broad, lean, coupling, roomy 3 
 
 20. Hips, far apart, level with back 2 
 
 21. Rump, lean, long, broad ; pelvic arch prominent ; pin-bones high, far 
 
 apart 4 
 
 22. Tail, tapering, bone fine, length according to breed 1 
 
 23. Thighs, thin, incurving, twist roomy 3 
 
 24. Hind legs, straight, short, bone clean and fine ; feet strong ; hoofs 
 
 dense and even 2 
 
 25. Udder, large, shapely, evenly quartered, mellow, free from fleshiness, 
 
 extending well up behind and far forward, strongly attached ; teats 
 
 uniform, well placed, of size and shape convenient for milking . . 20 
 
 26. Milk veins, large, tortuous ; milk wells large 10 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Mutton-sheep score-card 
 Class, Fat Wethers 
 General characters 
 
 Form. — Compact, thick-set and short-legged ; body deep, thick, and of 
 medium length ; top line straight ; under line low in flanks ; scale large for age. 
 
 Quality. — General refinement and symmetry of clean-cut features ; mutton 
 breed character pronounced ; head, neck, and legs short ; bone fine and smooth ; 
 fleece pure and fine. 
 
 Condition. — Prime ; a deep, even covering of firm, mellow, and springy flesh, 
 without lumps, patches, rolls, or undue accumulations of fat, especially in back 
 
400 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING LIVE-STOCK 
 
 loin, rump, or fore flanks ; nock thick ; shoulder-vein full ; top and points of 
 shoulder, back-bone, and loin smoothly covered, and leg of mutton deep and full. 
 
 Constitution. — Should be thoroughly healthy. 
 
 Early maturity. — General refinement and comj^actncss ; body large ; ex- 
 tremities small ; shortness of head, neck, and legs ; amplitude of girth in chest, 
 belly, and flanks. 
 
 Fig. 11. — Parts of the sheep. 1, head ; 2, neck ; 3, shoulder vein ; 4, shoulder ; 
 5, brisket ; 6, fore leg ; 7, chest ; 8, ribs ; 9, top of shoulder ; 10, back ; 11, loin ; 
 12, hip ; 13, rump ; 14, tail ; 15, giggot or leg of mutton ; 16, hind leg ; 
 17, flank ; 18, belly 19, fore flank ; 20, twist. {.Cycle. Amer. Agric.) 
 
 Scale of points Perfect 
 
 1. Age, Score 
 
 2. Scale, estimated weight — lb. ; corrected — lb. ; score according to age 12 
 
 3. Skin, bright, clean, and free from scurf ; color according to breed . 1 
 
 4. Fleece, pure, uniformly long and dense ; crimp, even and fine ; quality 
 
 fine ; condition bright, clean, and lustrous ; yolk evenly distributed 
 
 and moderately abundant ; general character according to breed . 12 
 
 5. Muzzle, fine, nostrils open 1 
 
 6. Face, short ; color and covering according to breed 2 
 
 7. Eyes, bright and clear 2 
 
 8. Forehead, broad ; wooled according to breed 2 
 
 9. Ears, fine ; length, color, covering and carriage according to breed . 2 
 
 10. Neck, short and thick, blending smoothly with shoulder 3 
 
 11. Shoulder, broad, compact and snug ; thickly and evenly fleshed . , 5 
 
 12. Fore legs, straight, short, arm full ; bone fine and smooth ; feet strong; 
 
 color and covering according to breed 3 
 
 13. Chest, deep, broad, and full ; brisket wide, heart-girth large ; fore 
 
 flanks deep and full 5 
 
 14. Back, broad, straight, and of medium length ; ribs well sprung ; thickly 
 
 and evenly fleshed 10 
 
 15. Loin, broad and straight ; thickly and evenly flashed 10 
 
 16. Rump, long, level and wide; hips smooth; thickly and evenly fleshed 10 
 
 17. Thighs, full, floslied low down, twist deep and full 15 
 
 18. Belly. nf)t unduly large 2 
 
 19. Hind legs, straight and short, bone fine and smooth ; feet strong ; 
 
 color and covering according to breed 3 
 
 Total 100 
 
POINTS OF SHEEP 
 
 401 
 
 Breeding-sheep score-card 
 General characters 
 
 Form. — Compact, thick-set, and short-legged ; body deep, thick, and of me- 
 dium length ; top line straight ; under line low in flanks ; scale large for age. 
 
 Quality. — General refinement and symmetry of clean-cut features ; breed 
 character pronounced ; head, neck, and legs short ; bone smooth, moderately 
 fine in ewe, somewhat stronger in ram ; fleece pure, fine in ewe, somewhat coarser 
 in ram. 
 
 Condition. — Great wealth of natural flesh, but not excessively fat ; flesh firm, 
 mellow and springy, without lumps, patches, rolls or undue accumulations of 
 fat, especially in back, loin, rump, and foreflanks ; depth and evenness of flesh 
 consistent with degree of f'^tness. 
 
 Constitution. — Generous and symmetrical development ; ample heart-girth, 
 capacity of barrel and depth of flanks ; eyes full, bright, and clear ; nostrils large 
 and open ; throat free from lumps ; absence of refinement to point of delicacy ; 
 skin bright ; fleece bright, soft, and long, crimp even, yolk moderately abundant. 
 
 Early maturity. — General refinement and compactness ; body large, extrem- 
 ities small ; shortness of head, neck, and legs ; amplitude of girth in chest, belly, 
 and flanks. 
 
 Sexuality. — In males : A bold, active, and aggressive carriage ; great strength 
 without grossness in head, neck, legs, and shoulders ; well-developed sexual 
 organs. 
 
 In females : General refinement ; good development of barrel ; head, neck, 
 and legs lighter and finer than in ram. 
 
 Scale of Points 
 
 Mutton 
 Sheep 
 
 FlNE- 
 WOOLED 
 
 Sheep 
 
 
 Perfect 
 Score 
 
 Perfect 
 Score 
 
 1. Age, 
 
 2. Scale, estimated weight lb. ; corrected lb. ; 
 
 score according to age 
 
 3. Skin, bright, clean, and free from scurf; color ac- 
 
 cording to breed . ... 
 
 10 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 5 
 
 4. Fleece, pure, uniformly long and dense ; crimp even 
 and fine ; quality fine ; condition bright, clean, 
 and lustrous ; yolk evenly distributed and moder- 
 ately abundant ; general character according to 
 breed 
 
 30 
 
 5. Muzzle, fine in ewe, broad in ram ; nostrils open . 
 
 6. Face, short ; fine in ewe, strong in ram ; color and 
 
 covering according to breed 
 
 7. Eyes, large, bright, and clear 
 
 8. Forehead, broad in ewe, still broader in ram ; wooled 
 
 according to breed 
 
 9. Ears, fine ; length, color, covering, and carriage ac- 
 
 cording to breed ... 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 3 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 10. Neck, short, blending smoothly with shoulders ; es- 
 pecially thick in ram 
 
 2 
 
 11. Shoulder, broad, compact, snug, and well fleshed 
 
 12. Fore legs, straight, short, arm full, feet strong ; bone 
 
 smooth, fine in ewe, stronger in ram ; color and 
 covering according to breed 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 2d 
 
402 
 
 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING LIVE-STOCK 
 
 Scale of Points 
 
 Mutton 
 Sheep 
 
 FlNE- 
 WOOLED 
 
 Sheep 
 
 
 Perfect 
 Score 
 
 Perfect 
 Score 
 
 13. Chest, deep, broad, and full ; brisket wide ; heart- 
 
 girth large ; fore flanks deep and full .... 
 
 14. Back, well fleshed, broad, straight, and of medium 
 
 length ; ribs well sprung 
 
 15. Loin, well fleshed, broad, and straight 
 
 16. Rump, long, level, wide, and well fleshed .... 
 
 17. Thighs, full ; fleshed low down ; twist deep and full 
 
 18. Body, deep and capacious in belly and hind flanks . 
 
 19. Hind legs, straight and short ; feet strong ; bone 
 
 smooth, moderately fine in ewe, strong in ram ; 
 color and covering according to breed .... 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 6 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 Total 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 FiQ. 12. — Parts of the hog. a, snout ; h, ear ; c, neck ; d, jowl ; e, shoulder ; /, back ; 
 g, loin ; h, rump ; j, ham ; k, side or ribs ; I, flank ; m, belly ; n, fore flank ; 
 o, fore leg ; p, hind leg {Cyclo. Amer. Agric.) 
 
 Fat-hog score-card 
 
 Class, Breeding Hogs 
 
 General characters 
 
 Form. — Low-set, broad and deep ; standing squarely on short and strong legs 
 and feet ; back slightly arched ; body compact in male, of good length in female ; 
 under line approximately straight ; scale medium to large, not greatly above 
 average for the breed. 
 
 Quality. — General refinement of symmetrical and clean-cut features ; bone 
 clean and strong, moderately coarse in male, moderately fine in female ; skin 
 smooth ; hair fine ; head, neck, and legs short ; shields in male notj unduly coarse ; 
 breed characters pronounced. 
 
 Condition. — Strongly muscled and thickly fleshed, but not excessively fat ; 
 flesh firm, mellow, even, and smooth. 
 
POINTS OF SWINE 403 
 
 Constitution. — Generous and sj'mmetrical development ; lively carriage ; ample 
 heart-girth, capacity of barrel and depth of flanks ; eyes full, bright, and clear : 
 coat thick, smooth, and bright ; absence of refinement to point of delicacy. 
 
 Sexuality. — Strongly marked. In males : Active carriage, aggressive dis- 
 position ; strength without grossness in head and legs ; neck arched and heavy ; 
 snout broad ; shoulders strong ; shields present in mature animals ; well de- 
 veloped sexual organs. In female : General refinement of features ; good length 
 and depth in barrel ; full number of well-placed and well-developed teats present ; 
 head lighter than in boar, neck narrower behind ears ; good breadth in loin, 
 hips, and rump. 
 
 Early maturity. — General refinement and compactness ; body large, extrem- 
 ities small ; shortness of head, neck, and legs ; amplitude of girth in chest, belly, 
 and flanks. 
 
 Scale of points Perfect 
 
 Score 
 
 1. Age, estimated ; corrected 
 
 2. Scale, estimated weight lb. ; corrected lb. ; score accord- 
 
 ing to age 6 
 
 3. Skin, smooth, mellow, and free from scurf 2 
 
 4. Hair, thick, bright, smooth, fine, and uniformly distributed ; color and 
 
 markings according to breed 2 
 
 5. Temperament, aggressive in male ; gentle and quiet in female • • , • 2 
 
 6. Snout, short and smooth, tapering from face to tip of nose ; broad in 
 
 male, finer in female 1 
 
 7. Face, short, smooth, broad between eyes, dished according to breed ; 
 
 cheeks full ; forehead high and wide 2 
 
 8. Eyes, full, bright, clear and not obscured by wrinkles 1 
 
 9. Ears, medium or small, fine in texture, neatly attached, carriage ac- 
 
 cording to breed 1 
 
 10. Jowl, full, smooth, firm, and neat 2 
 
 11. Neck, wide, deep, short, and nicely arched, blending smoothly with 
 
 shoulder ; in male, heavy ; in female, finer behind the ears . . • • 3 
 
 12. Shoulder, broad, deep, full, and compact ; heavier in male than in fe- 
 
 male, but shields not unduly coarse 8 
 
 13. Fore legs, short, straight, strong, squarely set, wide apart ; pasterns 
 
 short ; feet strong ; bone moderately coarse in male, moderately fine 
 
 in female 6 
 
 14. Chest, deep, wide, and full ; breast-bone advanced 8 
 
 15. Back and loin, broad, strong, and slightly arched ; moderately short in 
 
 male, moderately long in female ; thickly and evenly fleshed ; ribs 
 well sprung 12 
 
 16. Sides, deep, full, and smooth 8 
 
 17. Belly, wide ; under line approximately straight 3 
 
 18. Udder (female), full number of well-developed and well-placed teats . 
 Testicles (male), well-developed, both present and normally placed . 8 
 
 19. Hind flank, low 2 
 
 20. Rump, long, broad, gradually rounding from loin to root of tail ; thickly 
 
 and evenly fleshed ; hips wide and smooth 6 
 
 21. Hams, full, deep, and broad ; fleshed well down to hocks .... 10 
 
 22. Hind legs, short, straight, strong, squarely set, wide apart ; pasterns 
 
 short ; feet strong ; bone moderately coarse in male, moderately fine 
 
 in female 6 
 
 23. Tail, tapering, medium-sized, or small 1 
 
 Total 100 
 
 The fat-hog is peculiarly an American product. It is universal throughout the 
 corn-belt. It is marked by extreme compactness and by very small development 
 of bone and of waste parts. The hams and sides bring the highest prices, and 
 these have been much developed. The tendency to lay on fat is very marked. 
 
404 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING LIVE-STOCK 
 
 Bacon-hog score-card 
 General characters 
 
 Form. — Long, deep, smooth, and of medium width ; sides straight ; legs short 
 for the breed ; head light ; back slightly arched, under line straight ; scale large 
 for age ; standard weight 170-200 pounds. 
 
 Quality. — General refinement of symmetrical and clean-cut features ; bone 
 smooth, fine, and strong ; skin and hair fine and smooth ; head, neck, and legs 
 short for the breed ; bacon hog breed character pronounced. 
 
 Condition. — Heavily muscled, moderately fat ; covering firm, smooth, and 
 of uniform thickness, especially in sides and belly. 
 
 Constitution. — Should be thoroughly healthy. 
 
 Early maturity. — General refinement, especially of head, neck, and legs ; 
 body large ; extremities small ; amplitude of girth in chest, belly, and flanks. 
 
 Scale of points Perfect 
 
 Score 
 
 1. Scale, large for age 6 
 
 2. Skin, smooth and fine ; color according to breed 2 
 
 3. Hair, abundant, fine, bright, smooth ; color according to breed . . 
 
 4. Snout, shaped according to breed 
 
 5. Face, smooth and slightly dished 
 
 6. Eyes, full and bright ; not obscured by wrinkles 
 
 7. Ears, fine in texture ; shape and position according to breed . . . 
 
 8. Jowl, light, smooth, and neat 3 
 
 9. Neck, light, medium length 3 
 
 10. Shoulders, smooth, compact, free from any coarseness ; moderately fat 8 
 
 11. Fore legs, straight, short for the breed ; bone fine, strong, and smooth ; 
 
 pasterns upright, feet strong 3 
 
 12. Chest, deep ; full in heart-girth 5 
 
 13. Back and loin, long, smooth, strong, medium and uniform in width ; 
 
 moderatelj^ fat 15 
 
 14. Rump, long, smooth, medium in width ; rounding from loin to tail ; 
 
 moderately fat 5 
 
 15. Hams, firm, smoothly covered, fleshed deep and low toward hocks . 10 
 
 16. Sides, long, smooth, deep, straight, moderately fat 20 
 
 17. Belly, long, smooth, straight, and firm 12 
 
 18. Hind legs, straight, short for the breed ; bone fine, strong, and smooth, 
 
 pasterns upright ; feet strong 3 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Market Classes and Grades 
 
 Beef, veal, mutton, and pork recognized in Chicago wholesale markets. 
 (Hall, Illinois Station.) 
 
 Beef 
 
 The general divisions of the beef trade are (1) Carcass Beef, (2) Beef 
 Cuts, and (3) Cured Beef Products. 
 
 Carcass Beef. — The classes are Steers, Heifers, Cows, and Bulls 
 and Stags. They differ not only in sex, but also in the uses to which 
 they are adapted. 
 
GRADES OF BEEF AND VEAL 405 
 
 The grades within these classes are prime, choice, good, medium, 
 common, and canners. The grades are based on differences in form, 
 thickness, finish, quaUty, soundness, and weight. 
 
 The terms " Native," " Western," and " Texas " beef each include 
 various classes and grades of carcasses, and refer to general differences 
 in form, finish, and quality. 
 
 The terms " Yearlings," '' Distillers," " Butcher," and " Kosher " 
 also include various classes and grades of beef, and merely indicate 
 characteristic features of carcass beef used by certain branches of the 
 trade. 
 
 "Shipping beef" refers to that sent to eastern cities and consists 
 principally of steers, heifers and cows of medium to prime grades. 
 Export beef consists largely of medium to prime steers. 
 
 Beef Cuts. — The " straight cuts " of beef are Loins, Ribs, Rounds, 
 Chucks, Plates, Flanks, and Shanks. 
 
 The grades of beef cuts are No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, and Strippers. The 
 grade of a beef cut depends upon its thickness, covering, quality, and 
 weight. 
 
 Cured Beef Products. — These are classified as (1) Barreled, (2) 
 Smoked, and (3) Canned Beef. 
 
 Barreled Beef is graded as Extra India Mess, Extra Plate, Regular 
 Plate, Packet, Common Plate, Rolled Boneless, Prime Mess, Extra Mess, 
 Rump Butt and Mess Chuck Beef, Beef Hams and Scotch Buttocks. 
 
 Smoked Beef consists of Dried Beef Hams, Dried Beef Clods, and 
 Smoked Brisket Beef. 
 
 Canned Beef consists principally of Chipped Beef, Beef Loaf, Corned 
 and Roast Beef. 
 
 Veal 
 
 The divisions of the veal trade are (1) Carcass Veal and (2) Veal Cuts. 
 
 Carcass Veal. — The grades are choice, good, medium, light, and 
 heavy. The grade of a veal carcass depends upon its form, quality, 
 finish, and weight. 
 
 The terms " Native " and " Western " veal each include several grades 
 of calves, and refer to general differences in form, quality, and finish. 
 
 Veal Cuts. — The regular veal cuts are Saddles and Racks. They 
 are graded as choice, good, medium, and common, according to the same 
 factors as carcass veal. 
 
406 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING LIVE STOCK 
 
 Subdivisions of the regular cuts are made in some markets and sim- 
 ilarly graded. 
 
 Mutton and Lamb 
 
 The divisions of the trade are (1) Carcass Mutton and Lamb and (2) 
 Mutton and Lamb Cuts. 
 
 Carcass Mutton and Lamb. — The classes are Wethers, Ewes, 
 Bucks, Yearlings, and Lambs. 
 
 The grades within these classes are choice, good, medium, common and 
 culls. The grades are based on differences in form, quality, covering, 
 and weight. 
 
 The shipping trade goes principally to cities in the eastern seaboard 
 states, and consists largely of medium to choice lambs. 
 
 Mutton and Lamb Cuts. — The leading cuts are Saddles and Racks, 
 together with Legs, Loins, Short Racks, Stews, and Backs. They are 
 graded in the same manner as carcass mutton and lamb. 
 
 Pork 
 
 Hog products are described under three heads : (1) Dressed Hogs, 
 (2) Pork Cuts, and (3) Lard. 
 
 Dressed Hogs. — The classes are Smooth, Heavy, Butcher, Packing 
 and Bacon Hogs, Shippers, and Pigs. The classification is based on 
 the uses to which the hogs are adapted. 
 
 Distinct grades are recognized only in the Packing and Bacon classes, 
 the former being based on weight and the latter chieflj'' on quality and 
 finish. 
 
 Pork Cuts. — The classes are Hams, Sides, Bellies, Backs, Loins, 
 Shoulders, Butts and Plates, and Miscellaneous. 
 
 Pork cuts are quoted as fresh pork, dry-salt and bacon meats, bar- 
 reled or plain-pickled pork, sweet-pickled meats, smoked meats, " Eng- 
 lish " meats, and boiled meats, respectively. 
 
 The grading of pork cuts is much more complex than that of other 
 meats. It involves not only their quality, shape, finish, and weight, 
 but also the styles of cutting and methods of packing used. 
 
 Lard. — The grades are Kettle-Rendered Leaf, Kettle-Rendered, 
 Neutral, Prime Steam, Refined, and Compound Lard. The grading 
 is based on the kinds of fat, included, method of rendering, color, flavor 
 and grain. 
 
GRADES OF PORK AND SWINE 
 
 407 
 
 Grades 
 
 Prime heavy hogs, 
 350 to 500 lb. , 
 
 Butcher hogs, 
 180 to 350 lb. 
 
 Packing hogs, 
 200 to 500 lb. 
 
 Light hogs, 
 125 to 220 lb. 
 
 Pigs, 60 to 125 lb. 
 
 Swine 
 
 Subclasses 
 
 Grades 
 
 Prime 
 
 Heavy butchers. 
 
 280 to 350 lb [Wo^A 
 
 Bacon 
 
 Medium butchers, 220 to 280 lb | E"™,^ 
 
 Light butchers. 180 to 220 lb [Common 
 
 Heavy packing. 300 to 500 lb Good 
 
 Medium packing. 250 to 300 lb ] Common 
 
 Mixed packing, 200 to 280 lb [ Inferior 
 
 [ Choice 
 English, 160 to 220 lb Light 
 
 LFat 
 
 I Choice 
 Good 
 Common 
 I Good 
 
 Light mixed, 150 to 220 lb Common 
 
 [ Inferior 
 Good 
 
 Light light, 125 to 150 lb ] Common 
 
 [ Inferior 
 Choice 
 Good 
 Common 
 
 Roughs. 
 Stags. 
 Boars. 
 Miscellaneous : — 
 
 Roasting pigs, 15 to 30 lb. 
 
 Feeders. 
 
 Governments. 
 
 Pen-holders. 
 
 Dead hogs. 
 
 Roughs are hogs of all sizes that are coarse, rough, and lacking in 
 condition — too inferior to be classed as packing hogs or as light 
 mixed hogs. The pork from these hogs is used for the cheaper 
 class of trade for both packing and fresh meat purposes. 
 
 Stags are hogs that at one time were boars beyond the pig stage and 
 have been subsequently castrated. They sell with a dockage of eighty 
 pounds. If they are of good quality and condition and do not show 
 too much stagginess, they go in with the various grades of packing 
 hogs. When they are coarse and staggy in appearance, they are sold 
 in the same class with boars. The intermediar}^ grades sell for prices 
 ranging between these extremes, dependent on their freedom from 
 stagginess and their quality and condition. 
 
408 EXHIBITING AND JUDGING LIVE-STOCK 
 
 Boars are always sold in a class by themselves, aud bring from $2 
 to $3 per hundredweight less than the best hogs on the market 
 at the same time. They always sell straight, with no dockage. There 
 is no distinction as to grades ; they simply sell as boars. The pork 
 from these animals is used to supply the cheaper class of trade, and also 
 for making sausage. 
 
 Roasting pigs are not generally quoted in market reports. They come 
 to market in small numbers and only during holiday seasons, and their 
 price varies greatly. 
 
 Feeders are hogs bought on the market and taken back to the country 
 to be further fed, a practice which is followed only to a very limited 
 extent. 
 
 Governments are hogs rejected by the government inspector as not 
 sound in every respect. They are usually bought up by a local dealer 
 and taken to one of the smaller packing houses, where they are slaugh- 
 tered under the supervision of an inspector. If found to be affected 
 so as to make their flesh unfit for human food, they are condemned, 
 slaughtered, and tanked. The tank is a large, steam-tight receptacle, 
 like a steam boiler, in which the lard is rendered under steam pressure. 
 This high degree of heat destroys all disease germs with which the 
 diseased carcass may have been affected. The product of the tank is 
 converted into grease and fertilizer. 
 
 The commission men who sell the stock as it comes to the yards, 
 and the speculators who handle part of it, pay nothing for their privi- 
 lege of doing business in the yards. They hold their respective positions 
 by common consent and their respective pens by keeping hogs in them. 
 These hogs are called pen-holders, and have no influence on the market. 
 
 Dead hogs are those killed in the cars in transit. They are used for 
 the manufacture of grease, soap, and fertilizer. 
 
CHAPTER XXII 
 
 Computing the Ration for Farm Animals 
 
 Modern experiments (principally German) have resulted in formu- 
 lating standard rations for different animals at different ages and under 
 different conditions. These feeding standards are only approximate 
 guides, but they are sufficient for practical purposes. 
 
 Computing by Energy Values 
 
 A method is proposed of calculating feeding requirements, reckoned 
 on the protein and the energy values or therms of chemical energy. 
 A therm is the heat required to raise the temperature of 1,000 kilo- 
 grams of water 1° C. The chemical energy contained in anthracite 
 is 3.583 therms per pound. (A pound of anthracite produces heat 
 enough to raise the temperature of 3.583 kilograms of water 1° C.) 
 In the same way the amount of chemical energy contained in many 
 feeding stuffs has been measured. Following are determinations of 
 chemical energy in 100 pounds (with 15 per cent moisture) : — 
 
 Therms Therms 
 
 Timothy hay 175.1 Corn-meal 170.9 
 
 Clover hay 173.2 Oats 180.6 
 
 Oat straw 171.0 Wheat bran 175.5 
 
 Wheat straw 171.4 Linseed-meal 196.7 
 
 Maintenance requirements of cattle and horses, per day and head (Armsby) 
 
 (Production requirements are also determined, and must be used in calculat- 
 ing rations.) 
 
 
 Cattle 
 
 Horses 
 
 Live Weight 
 
 Digestible 
 
 Energy 
 
 Digestible 
 
 Energy 
 
 
 protein 
 
 value 
 
 protein 
 
 value 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Therms 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Therms 
 
 150 
 
 0.15 
 
 1.70 
 
 0.30 
 
 2.00 
 
 250 
 
 0.20 
 
 2.40 
 
 0.40 
 
 2.80 
 
 500 
 
 0.30 
 
 3.80 
 
 0.60 
 
 4.40 
 
 750 
 
 0.40 
 
 4.95 
 
 0.80 
 
 5.80 
 
 1000 
 
 0.50 
 
 6.00 
 
 1.00 
 
 7.00 
 
 1250 
 
 0.60 
 
 7.00 
 
 1.20 
 
 8.15 
 
 1500 
 
 0.65 
 
 7.90 
 
 1.30 
 
 9.20 
 
 409 
 
410 COMPUTING THE RATION FOR FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Computing on Basis of Quality and Quantity of Milk 
 
 " The quality of milk is quite as important a factor in formulat- 
 ing a feeding standard or guide to feeding practice, as quantity of 
 milk yielded," according to Haecker (Minn. Bull. 79). " It would 
 seem quite as consistent to feed an animal food regardless of its 
 composition as to feed an assumed ration regardless of the composi- 
 tion of the product which is to be elaborated from the nutrients of 
 the food." 
 
 It is probably not possible to "feed fat into milk," provided the 
 animal is otherwise well nourished, but the Haecker standards are 
 not founded on that idea, but on the assumption that the greater 
 the yield of butter-fat the greater should be the feed of maintenance. 
 This method is sometimes used instead of the German method 
 (p. 413), in figuring rations for dairy cows. 
 
 Net nutrients used by mature cows for the production of one pound of milk 
 testing a given per cent butter-fat (Haecker) 
 
 
 Protein 
 
 Carbohy- 
 drates 
 
 Ether 
 Extract 
 
 Milk testing 2.5 
 
 .0362 
 
 .164 
 
 .0124 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . 2.6 
 
 .0369 
 
 .167 
 
 .0126 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 2.7 
 
 .0376 
 
 .171 
 
 .0128 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 2.8 
 
 .0383 
 
 .174 
 
 .0131 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . 2.9 
 
 .0390 
 
 .177 
 
 .0133 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 3.0 
 
 .0397 
 
 .181 
 
 .0136 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 3.1 
 
 .0404 
 
 .184 
 
 .0138 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 3.2 
 
 .0411 
 
 .187 
 
 .0140 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 3.3 
 
 .0418 
 
 .190 
 
 .0142 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 3.4 
 
 .0425 
 
 .194 
 
 .0145 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 3.5 
 
 .0432 
 
 .197 
 
 .0147 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 3.6 
 
 .0439 
 
 .200 
 
 .0149 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 3.7 
 
 .0446 
 
 .204 
 
 .0152 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 3.8 
 
 .0453 
 
 .207 
 
 .0154 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 3.9 
 
 .0460 
 
 .210 
 
 .0156 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 4.0 
 
 .0467 
 
 .214 
 
 ,0159 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 4.1 
 
 .0474 
 
 .217 
 
 .0161 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 4.2 
 
 .0481 
 
 .220 
 
 .0163 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 4.3 
 
 .0488 
 
 .223 
 
 .0165 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 4.4 
 
 .0495 
 
 .227 
 
 .0168 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 4.5 
 
 .0502 
 
 .230 
 
 .0170 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 4.6 
 
 .0509 
 
 .233 
 
 .0172 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 4.7 
 . 4.8 
 . 4.9 
 
 .0516 
 .0523 
 .0530 
 
 .237 
 .240 
 .243 
 
 .0175 
 .0177 
 .0179 
 
THE HAECKER STANDARDS 
 
 411 
 
 Net nutrients used by mature cows — Continued 
 
 
 Protein 
 
 Carbohy- 
 drates 
 
 Ether 
 Extract 
 
 Milk testing 
 
 . . . 5.0 
 
 .0537 
 
 .247 
 
 .0182 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . . 5.1 
 
 .0544 
 
 .250 
 
 .0185 
 
 << 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . . 5.2 
 
 .0551 
 
 .253 
 
 .0187 
 
 <i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . 5.3 
 
 .0558 
 
 .256 
 
 .0189 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . . 5.4 
 
 .0565 
 
 .260 
 
 .0192 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . 5.5 
 
 .0572 
 
 .263 
 
 .0194 
 
 «4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . 5.6 
 
 .0579 
 
 .266 
 
 .0196 
 
 <( 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . 5.7 
 
 .0586 
 
 .270 
 
 .0199 
 
 (( 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . 5.8 
 
 .0593 
 
 .273 
 
 .0201 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . 5.9 
 
 .0600 
 
 .276 
 
 .0203 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . 6.0 
 
 .0607 
 
 .280 
 
 .0206 
 
 «( 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . 6.1 
 
 .0614 
 
 .283 
 
 .0208 
 
 «< 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . 6.2 
 
 .0621 
 
 .286 
 
 .021C 
 
 i< 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . 6.3 
 
 .0628 
 
 .289 
 
 .0212 
 
 4( 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . 6.4 
 
 .0635 
 
 .293 
 
 .0215 
 
 «< 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . 6.5 
 
 .0642 
 
 .296 
 
 .0217 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . 6.6 
 
 .0649 
 
 .300 
 
 .0219 
 
 <( 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . 6.7 
 
 .0656 
 
 .303 
 
 .0222 
 
 It 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . 6.8 
 
 .0663 
 
 .306 
 
 .0224 
 
 '* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . 6.9 
 
 .0670 
 
 .309 
 
 .0226 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . 7.0 
 
 .0677 
 
 .313 
 
 .0229 
 
 Coefficients for food of maintenanc 
 
 3 ^ per cwt . 
 
 .07 
 
 7.7 
 
 .01 
 
 " Given the daily yield of milk in pounds, its percentage of butter- 
 fat, and the weight of the cow expressed decimally, it is an easy 
 matter to determine the required ration. As an illustration, suppose 
 a mature cow weighs 825 pounds, gives 20 pounds of milk daily 
 testing 4 per cent butter-fat. One pound of 4 per cent milk re- 
 quires of protein .0467, carbohydrates .214, and of ether extract 
 .0159; multiplying these factors by 20 it is found that for the 
 production of milk the cow needs .934 of protein, 4.28 of carbohy- 
 drates, and .318 of ether extract. For food of maintenance, mul- 
 tiply .07 protein, .7 carbohydrates and .01 of ether extract (main- 
 tenance formula) by 8.25, which gives protein .578, carbohydrates 
 5.78, and ether extract .082 ; adding to this the nutrients required for 
 milk production, we have 1.51 of protein, 10.06 carbohydrates, and 
 .40 ether extract, the nutrients required in the ration. They should 
 be supplied in such manner with reference to bulk that the ration 
 will satisfy the appetite. A ration like this should be largely made 
 up of roughage." (Haecker.) 
 
 For a cow weighing 850 pounds and yielding 40 pounds of 4 per 
 1 Maintenance standards not detailed here. 
 
412 COMPUTING THE RATION FOR FARM ANIMALS 
 
 cent milk daily, the required ration would be (P = protein; C. H. 
 
 = carbohydrates) : — 
 
 P. C.H. Fat P. C.H. Fat 
 
 (.0467 .214 .0159) X 40=1.868 8.56 .636 
 
 (.07 .7 .01 )x8.50 = .595 5.r5 .085 
 
 Ration required, 2.463 14.51 .721 
 
 A ration like this should be largely composed of grain so that it 
 will not contain so much bulk that the cow will go off her feed, and 
 yet furnish the nutrients required. Cows do not require a uniform 
 nutritive ratio, but the ratio varies according to the quantity of milk 
 and weight of cow. To illustrate, let us suppose a cow weighing 1200 
 pounds and yielding 20 pounds of milk daily, and one weighing 850 
 pounds yielding 40 pounds of milk, both testing 4 per cent fat : 
 
 P. C. H. Fat 
 
 Nutrients for 1 lb. of 4 per cent milk, .0467 .214 .0159 
 Nutrients for 1 cwt., maintenance, .07 .7 .01 
 
 For cow weighing 1200 lbs. and yielding 20 lbs. of 4 per cent milk : 
 
 P. C. H. Fat 
 
 Nutrients for 20 lbs. milk, .93 4.28 .32 
 
 Nutrients for 12 cwt. maintenance, .84 8.40 .12 
 
 Ration required, 1.77 12.68 .44 
 
 Nutritive ratio, 1 : 7.7 
 
 For COW weighing 850 lbs. and yielding 40 lbs. of 4 per cent 
 
 milk : 
 
 P. C. H. Fat 
 
 Nutrients for 40 lbs. of milk, 1.87 8.56 .64 
 
 Nutrients for 8.5 cwt. maintenance, .59 5.95 .08 
 
 Ration required, 2.46 14.51 .72 
 Nutritive ratio, 1 : 6.5 
 
 But if the cow weighing 12 cwt. yields 40 lb. of milk per day and 
 the cow weighing 8.5 cwt. yields 20 pounds, the nutrient require- 
 ments for their respective rations according to table will be as 
 follows : 
 
 Nutrients for 40 lbs. of 4 per cent milk. 
 Nutrients for 12 cwt. maintenance, 
 
 P. 
 
 1.87 
 
 .84 
 
 C.H 
 
 8.56 
 8.40 
 
 Fat 
 .64 
 .12 
 
 
 Required ration. 
 Nutritive ratio, 
 
 2.71 
 
 16.96 
 
 .76 
 
 1:6.8 
 
 Nutrients for 20 lbs. of 4 per cent milk, 
 Nutrients for 8.5 cwt. maintenance, 
 
 P 
 
 .93 
 .59 
 
 C.H. 
 
 4.28 
 5.95 
 
 Fat 
 
 .32 
 
 .08 
 
 
 Required ration. 
 Nutritive ratio, 
 
 1.52 
 
 10.23 
 
 .40 
 
 1:7.3 
 
THE GERMAN STANDARDS 
 
 413 
 
 Computing the Balanced Ration by the Wolff-Lehmann Standards 
 
 The usual method of computing rations, however, is by the use of 
 the German standards (Table I) as a basis, and then determining 
 from the composition tables (Table II) how the various feeds may be 
 compounded so that they will produce approximately the ratio of the 
 feeding standards. Feeding standards have not been sufficiently 
 worked out for poultry. 
 
 In the following dairy ration, the nutritive ratio is much too wide 
 as compared with the standard: — 
 
 
 Dry 
 Matter 
 
 Protein 
 
 C. H. AND 
 
 Fat 
 
 Total 
 
 Nutritive 
 Ratio 
 
 20 lb. hay 
 
 4 lb. oats 
 
 4 lb. corn 
 
 17.40 
 3.56 
 3.56 
 
 0.560 
 0.368 
 0.316 
 
 9.300 
 
 2.772 
 3.056 
 
 9.860 
 2.640 
 3.372 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Feeding standard 
 
 24.52 
 24.00 
 
 1.244 
 2.5 
 
 14.628 
 13.4 
 
 15.872 
 15.9 
 
 1:11.7 
 1:5.4 
 
 The following table shows the ration more nearly balanced by the 
 substitution of buckwheat middlings for the corn : — 
 
 
 Dry 
 Matter 
 
 Protein 
 
 C. H. AND 
 
 Fat 
 
 Total 
 
 20 lb. timothy hay 
 
 4 lb. oats 
 
 4 lb. buckwheat middlings . . . 
 
 17.40 
 3.56 
 3.48 
 
 0.560 
 0.368 
 0.880 
 
 9.300 
 2.272 
 1.824 
 
 9.860 
 2.640 
 2.704 
 
 Total . 
 
 24.44 
 
 1.808 
 
 13.396 
 
 15 204 
 
 
 
 Nutritive ratio 1 : 7.4 
 
 By adding cottonseed meal, and reducing the hay, the ration con- 
 forms practically to the standard : — 
 
 
 Dry 
 
 Matter 
 
 Protein 
 
 C. H. AND 
 
 Fat 
 
 Total 
 
 18 lb. timothy hay 
 
 4 lb. oats 
 
 4 lb. buckwheat middlings . . . 
 2 lb. cottonseed meal 
 
 15.66 
 3.56 
 3.48 
 1.84 
 
 0.504 
 0.368 
 0.880 
 0.744 
 
 8.370 
 2.272 
 1.824 
 
 0.888 
 
 8.874 
 2.640 
 2.704 
 1.632 
 
 Total .... 
 
 24.54 
 
 2.496 
 
 13.354 
 
 15 850 
 
 
 
 Nutritive ratio 1 : 5.3 
 
414 COMPUTING THE RATION FOR FARM ANIMALS 
 
 In computing the ration, proper consideration must be given to the 
 digestibiHty (Table III), and also, as determined by experience, to 
 bulk and palatableness. The fertilizing value of the manure differs 
 with the different feeds, as is indicated in Table IV.' 
 
 An exact mathematical method of equating rations is worked out 
 by Willard in Bull. 115 of the Kansas Exp. Sta., and condensed in 
 Cyclo. Amer, Agric. Ill, pp. 103-105. It rests on finding the pro- 
 tein-equating factor. 
 
 The Feeding-Standards 
 
 The relation between the protein, on the one hand, and the carbo- 
 hydrates and fat on the other, is known as the nutritive ratio : thus 
 1 : 11.9 means protein 1 part to carbohydrates and fat nearly 12 (11.9) 
 parts. A ratio less than 1 : 5 is usually said to be narrow ; one more 
 than 1 : 7 is said to be wide. 
 
 Table I. Feeding-Standards 
 A. — Per day and 1000 lb. live weights 
 
 Oxen at rest in the stall .... 
 Wool sheep, coarser breeds . 
 Wool sheep, finer breeds .... 
 Oxen moderately worked . . . 
 
 Oxen heavily worked 
 
 Horses lightly worked .... 
 Horses moderately worked . 
 Horses heavily worked .... 
 Milch cows, Wolff's standard . . 
 Milch cows, when yielding daily — 
 
 11 lb. milk 
 
 16.6 lb. milk 
 
 22.0 lb. milk 
 
 27.5 lb. milk . ..... • ... 
 
 Fattening oxen, preliminary period 
 Fattening oxen, main period 
 
 Dry 
 
 Digestible 
 
 
 
 
 Matter 
 
 
 Carbo- 
 
 
 
 Protein 
 
 hydrates 
 and Fat 
 
 Total 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Pounds 
 
 17.5 
 
 0.7 
 
 8.3 
 
 9.0 
 
 20.0 
 
 1.2 
 
 10.8 
 
 12.0 
 
 22.5 
 
 1.5 
 
 12.0 
 
 13.5 
 
 24.0 
 
 1.6 
 
 12.0 
 
 13.0 
 
 26.0 
 
 2.4 
 
 14.3 
 
 16.7 
 
 20.0 
 
 1.5 
 
 10.4 
 
 11.9 
 
 21.0 
 
 1.7 
 
 11.8 
 
 13.5 
 
 23.0 
 
 2.3 
 
 14.3 
 
 16.6 
 
 24.0 
 
 2.5 
 
 13.4 
 
 15.9 
 
 25 
 
 1.6 
 2.0 
 
 10.7 
 11.9 
 
 12.3 
 13.9 
 
 27.0 
 
 29.0 
 
 2.5 
 
 14.1 
 
 16.6 
 
 32.0 
 
 3.3 
 
 14.8 
 
 18.1 
 
 27.0 
 
 2.5 
 
 16.1 
 
 18.6 
 
 26.0 
 
 3.0 
 
 16.4 
 
 19.4 
 
 Nutri- 
 tive 
 Ratio 
 
 11.9 
 9.0 
 8.0 
 7.5 
 6.0 
 6.9 
 6.9 
 6.2 
 5.4 
 
 6.7 
 6.0 
 5.7 
 4.5 
 6.4 
 5.5 
 
 1 The tables are abbreviated from Cyclo. Amer. Agric. ; and nos. II, III, 
 and V there adapted from Henry. 
 
 2 The fattening rations are calculated for 1000 lb., live weight, at the begin- 
 ning of the fattening. 
 
ACCEPTED FEEDING-STANDARDS 
 
 415 
 
 Table I. Feeding-Standards — Continued 
 
 
 
 Digestible 
 
 Nutri- 
 
 
 Dry 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Carbo- 
 
 
 tive 
 
 
 
 Protein 
 
 hydrates 
 and Fat 
 
 Total 
 
 Ratio 
 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Pounds 
 
 
 Fattening oxen, finishing period . . . 
 
 25.0 
 
 2.7 
 
 16.2 
 
 18.9 
 
 1:6.0 
 
 Fattening sheeo. Dreliminary period . . 
 
 26.0 
 
 3.0 
 
 16.3 
 
 19.3 
 
 1:5.4 
 
 Fattening sheep, main period .... 
 
 25.0 
 
 3.5 
 
 15.8 
 
 19.3 
 
 1:4.5 
 
 Fattening swine, preliminary period . . 
 
 36.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 27.5 
 
 32.5 
 
 1:5.5 
 
 Fattening swine, main period .... 
 
 31.0 
 
 4.0 
 
 24.0 
 
 28.0 
 
 1:6.0 
 
 Fattening swine, finishing period . . . 
 
 23.5 
 
 2.7 
 
 17.5 
 
 20.2 
 
 1:6.5 
 
 Growing cattle : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Average live weight 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Age (months) per head 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2-3 150 lb 
 
 22.0 
 
 4.0 
 
 18.3 
 
 22.3 
 
 1:4.6 
 
 3-6 300 lb 
 
 23.4 
 
 3.2 
 
 15.8 
 
 19.0 
 
 1:4.9 
 
 6-12 500 lb 
 
 24.0 
 
 2.5 
 
 14.9 
 
 17.4 
 
 1:6.0 
 
 12-18 700 lb 
 
 24.0 
 
 2.0 
 
 13.9 
 
 15.9 
 
 1:7.0 
 
 18-24 850 lb 
 
 24.0 
 
 1.6 
 
 12.7 
 
 14.3 
 
 1:8.0 
 
 Growing sheep : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5-6 56 lb 
 
 28.0 
 
 3.2 
 
 17.4 
 
 20.6 
 
 1:5.4 
 
 6-8 67 lb 
 
 25.0 
 
 2.7 
 
 14.7 
 
 17.4 
 
 1:5.4 
 
 8-11 75 1b 
 
 23.0 
 
 2.1 
 
 12.5 
 
 14.6 
 
 1:6.0 
 
 11-15 82 1b 
 
 22.5 
 
 1.7 
 
 11.8 
 
 13.5 
 
 1:7.0 
 
 15-50 85 lb 
 
 22.0 
 
 1.4 
 
 11.1 
 
 12.5 
 
 1:8.0 
 
 Growing fat pigs : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2-3 50 lb 
 
 42.0 
 
 7.5 
 
 30.0 
 
 37.5 
 
 1:4.0 
 
 3-5 100 lb 
 
 34.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 25.0 
 
 30.0 
 
 1:5.0 
 
 5-6 125 lb 
 
 31.5 
 
 4.3 
 
 23.7 
 
 28.0 
 
 1:5.5 
 
 6-8 170 lb 
 
 27.0 
 
 3.4 
 
 20.4 
 
 23.8 
 
 1:6.0 
 
 8-12 250 lb 
 
 21.0 
 
 2.5 
 
 16.2 
 
 18.7 
 
 1:6.5 
 
 B. — Per day and per head 
 
 Growing cattle : 
 
 2-3 
 
 3-6 
 
 6-12 
 12-18 
 18-24 
 Growing sheep : 
 
 5-6 
 
 6-8 
 
 8-11 
 
 11-15 
 
 15-20 
 
 Growing fat swine ; 
 
 2-3 
 
 3-5 
 
 5-6 
 
 6-8 
 
 8-12 
 
 150 lb. 
 300 lb. 
 500 lb. 
 700 lb. 
 850 lb. 
 
 56 1b. 
 67 1b. 
 75 1b. 
 82 1b. 
 85 1b. 
 
 50 1b. 
 100 lb. 
 125 lb. 
 170 lb. 
 250 lb. 
 
 3.3 
 
 0.6 
 
 2.8 
 
 3.4 
 
 7.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 4.9 
 
 5.9 
 
 12.0 
 
 1.3 
 
 7.5 
 
 8.8 
 
 16.8 
 
 1.4 
 
 9.7 
 
 11.1 
 
 20.4 
 
 1.4 
 
 11.1 
 
 12.5 
 
 1.6 
 
 0.18 
 
 0.974 
 
 1.154 
 
 1.7 
 
 0.18 
 
 0.981 
 
 1.161 
 
 1.7 
 
 0.16 
 
 0.953 
 
 1.113 
 
 1.8 
 
 0.14 
 
 0.975 
 
 1.115 
 
 1.9 
 
 0.12 
 
 0.955 
 
 1.075 
 
 2.1 
 
 0.38 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.88 
 
 3.4 
 
 0.50 
 
 2.50 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.9 
 
 0.54 
 
 2.96 
 
 3.50 
 
 4.6 
 
 0.58 
 
 3.47 
 
 4.05 
 
 5.2 
 
 0.62 
 
 4.05 
 
 4.67 
 
416 COMPUTING THE RATION FOR FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Proteid requirements 
 
 From the results of a considerable number of fattening experi- 
 ments with cattle, Armsby has formulated the approximate proteid 
 requirements, comparing them with those for growth formulated by 
 Kellner ; and these are here followed by proteid requirements of sheep 
 and swine : — 
 
 Approximate proteid requirements, in pounds, of cattle, per 1000 pounds live 
 
 weight 
 
 American Results 
 
 Age 1 month 4.80 
 
 Age 2 months 4.00 
 
 Age 3 months 3.50 
 
 Age 1-1 H years 2.00 
 
 Age 2 years 1-75 
 
 Age 214 years 1.50 
 
 German Results (Kellner) 
 
 Age 2-3 months . 
 Age 3-6 months . 
 Age 6-12 months. 
 Age 1-1 J^ years . 
 Age 1-13^-2 years 
 
 Lb. 
 4.50 
 3.50 
 2.80 
 2.20 
 1.50 
 
 Mature, fattening 1.60 
 
 Proteid requirements for sheep, per 1000 pounds live weight (Kellner) 
 
 Age 5- 6 months 
 Age 6- 8 months 
 Age 8-11 months 
 Age 11-15 months 
 Age 15-20 months 
 
 Mutton Breeds 
 
 Lb. 
 
 4.5 
 3.5 
 2.5 
 2.0 
 1.5 
 
 Proteid requirements of swine, per 1000 pounds live weight (Kellner) 
 
 
 Brbbdino Animals 
 
 Fattening 
 
 Animals 
 
 Age 2- 3 months 
 
 Lb. 
 
 6.2 
 4.0 
 3.0 
 2.3 
 1.7 
 
 Lb. 
 6.2 
 
 Age 3- 5 months 
 
 4.5 
 
 Age 5- 6 months 
 
 Age 6- 8 months 
 
 3.5 
 3.0 
 
 Age 9-12 months 
 
 2.4 
 
 
 
FEEDINGS TUFFS 
 
 417 
 
 Average weights of different 
 
 ■stuffs (Mass. Sta.) 
 
 Feeding Stuff 
 
 Barley meal 
 
 Barley, whole 
 
 Brewers' dried grains 
 
 Corn-and-cob meal 
 
 Corn-and-oat feed 
 
 Corn bran 
 
 Corn meal 
 
 Corn, whole 
 
 Cottonseed meal 
 
 Distillers' dried grains 
 
 Germ I oimeal 
 
 Gluten feed 
 
 Gluten meal 
 
 Hominy meal 
 
 Linseed meal, new process 
 
 Linseed meal, old process 
 
 Malt sprouts 
 
 Mixed feed (bran and middlings) 
 
 Oat feed (a variable mixture) 
 
 Oat middlings 
 
 Oats, ground 
 
 Oats, whole 
 
 Rye feed (a mixture of rye bran and rye middlings) 
 
 Rye meal 
 
 Rye bran (Conn. Sta.) 
 
 Rye, whole 
 
 Wheat bran 
 
 Wheat, ground 
 
 Wheat middlings (flour) 
 
 Wheat middlings (standard) 
 
 Wheat, whole 
 
 Mixed wheat feed (Conn. Sta.) 
 
 One Quart 
 
 One Pound 
 
 Weighs — 
 
 Measures — • 
 
 Lb. 
 
 Qt. 
 
 1.1 
 
 0.9 
 
 1.5 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.6 
 
 1.7 
 
 1.4 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.7 
 
 1.4 
 
 0.5 
 
 2.0 
 
 1.5 
 
 0.7 
 
 1.7 
 
 0.6 
 
 1.5 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.5-0.7 
 
 1.0-1.4 
 
 1.4 
 
 0.7 
 
 1.3 
 
 0.8 
 
 1.7 
 
 0.6 
 
 1.1 
 
 0.9 
 
 0.9 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.1 
 
 0.9 
 
 0.6 
 
 1.7 
 
 0.6 
 
 1.7 
 
 0.8 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.5 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.7 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.3 
 
 0.8 
 
 1.5 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.6 
 
 
 1.7 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.5 
 
 2.0 
 
 1.7 
 
 0.6 
 
 1.2 
 
 0.8 
 
 0.8 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.9 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.6 
 
 — • 
 
 Sample rations. 
 
 The following twelve rations for milch cows are given as samples of 
 the systems of feeding to be recommended in different parts of the 
 country. 
 
 (1) Hay, 20 lb. ; oats, 3 lb. ; corn-and-cob meal, 3 lb ; oil-meal, 2 
 lb. 
 
 (2) Hay, 10 lb. ; corn-stalks, ad lib. ; wheat bran, 3 lb. ; corn meal, 
 2 lb. ; cottonseed meal, 2 lb. 
 
 (3) Roots, 60 lb. ; stover, ad lib. ; oats, 3 lb. ; bran, 3 lb. ; gluten 
 feed, 3 lb. 
 
 2£ 
 
418 COMPUTING THE RATION FOR FARM ANIMALS 
 
 (4) Corn fodder, ad lib. ; corn silage, 40 lb. ; shorts, 2 lb. ; dry 
 brewers' grains, 2 lb. ; oil-meal, 2 lb. 
 
 (5) Silage, 40 lb. ; hay, ad lib. ; bran, 4 lb. ; oats, 2 lb. ; gluten 
 meal, 2 lb. 
 
 (6) Corn silage, 45 lbs. ; hay, ad hb. ; oats, 4 lb. ; oil-meal, 2 lb. ; 
 cottonseed meal, 1 lb. 
 
 (7) Corn silage, 35 lb. ; clover hay, ad lib. ; bran, oats, and corn 
 meal, 2 lb. each. 
 
 (8) Cover silage, 25 lb. ; hay, 5 lb. ; corn-stalks, ad lib. ; oats, 3 
 3 lb. ; corn meal and oil-meal, 2 lb. each. 
 
 (9) Clover or alfalfa silage, 30 lb. ; hay, ad lib. ; bran, 4 lb. ; mid- 
 dlings, 3 lb. ; oil-meal, 1 lb. 
 
 (10) Alfalfa hay, 20 lb. ; oats, 4 lb. ; corn meal, 2 lb. 
 
 (11) Hay, 20 lb. ; cottonseed hulls, 10 lb. ; cottonseed meal, 4 lb. ; 
 wheat bran, 2 lb. 
 
 (12) Corn silage, 30 lb. ; cottonseed hulls, 12 lb. ; bran, 6 lb. ; 
 cottonseed meal, 3 lb. 
 
 Henry, in his '' Feeds and Feeding," gives the following rations, 
 from various sources, as a guide in determining the amount of feed 
 that should be allowed the horse under various conditions : — 
 
 
 
 Ration 
 
 Character op Animal 
 
 
 
 
 AND Work required 
 
 
 
 
 
 Conceatrates 
 
 
 Roughage 
 
 Trotting horse. — (Wood- 
 
 
 
 
 ruff.) 
 
 
 
 
 Colt, weaning time . 
 
 2 lb. oats 
 
 
 Hay unlimited allowance 
 
 Colt, one year old . 
 
 4 lb. oats 
 
 
 Hay unlimited allowance 
 
 Colt, two years old . 
 
 6 lb. oats 
 
 
 Hay unlimited allowance 
 
 Colt, two years old. in 
 
 
 
 
 training .... 
 
 8 lb. oats 
 
 
 Hay, allowance limited 
 
 Colt, three years old. in 
 
 
 
 
 training 
 
 8-12 lb. oats 
 
 
 Hay, allowance limited 
 
 Trotting horse. — (Splan.) 
 
 
 
 
 Horse on circuit . . . 
 
 10 lb. oats 
 
 
 Hay, fair amount 
 
 
 [ 15 lb. oats, in excep-1 
 
 
 Horse on circuit . 
 
 \ tional cases (as 
 I Rarus) 
 
 with 
 
 Hay, fair amount 
 
 Horse variously used. — 
 
 
 
 
 (Stonehenge.) 
 
 
 
 
 Race horse .... 
 
 15 lb. oats 
 
 
 6-8 lb. hay 
 
 Hack 
 
 8 lb. oats 
 
 
 12 lb. hay 
 
COMPOSITION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 
 
 419 
 
 
 Ration 
 
 Character of Animal 
 
 
 
 AND Work Required 
 
 
 
 
 Concentrates 
 
 Roughage 
 
 Horse variously used. — 
 
 
 
 (Fleming.) 
 
 
 
 Pony 
 
 4 lb. oats 
 
 jHay, moderate allow- 
 1 ance 
 
 Hunter, small . . . 
 
 12 lb. oats 
 
 12 lb. hay 
 
 Hunter, large . . . 
 
 16 lb. oats 
 
 10 lb. hay 
 
 Carriage, light work . 
 
 10 lb. oats 
 
 12 lb. hay 
 
 The draft /lorse.— (Sidney.) 
 
 
 
 
 [ 13 lb. oats 
 
 r 15 lb. chaffed clover hay 
 
 Heavy, hard work . . 
 
 6 lb. beans 
 I 3 lb. corn 
 
 
 J 
 
 Farm horse. — (Settegast.) 
 
 
 
 Light work .... 
 
 6-10 lb. oats 
 
 f 6-9 lb. hay 
 ^ 3 lb. straw 
 
 Medium work . . . 
 
 10 lb. oats 
 
 1 10 lb. hay 
 1 3 lb. straw 
 
 Heavy work .... 
 
 13 lb. oats 
 
 . 12 lb. hay 
 1 3 lb. straw 
 
 Composition Tables 
 Table II. Average Composition of American Feeding-stuffs (Henry) 
 
 
 
 Percentage Composition 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 Feeding-stuffs 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nitro- 
 gen-free 
 extract 
 
 
 analy- 
 
 
 Water 
 
 Ash 
 
 Protein 
 
 Crude 
 fiber 
 
 Ether 
 extract 
 
 ses 
 
 Concentrates 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Corn, dent 
 
 10.6 
 
 1.5 
 
 10.3 
 
 2.2 
 
 70.4 
 
 5.0 
 
 86 
 
 Corn, flint 
 
 11.3 
 
 1.4 
 
 10.5 
 
 1.7 
 
 70.1 
 
 5.0 
 
 68 
 
 Corn, sweet 
 
 8.8 
 
 1.9 
 
 11.6 
 
 2.8 
 
 66.8 
 
 8.1 
 
 26 
 
 Corn meal 
 
 15.0 
 
 1.4 
 
 9.2 
 
 1.9 
 
 68.7 
 
 3.8 
 
 77 
 
 Corn cob 
 
 10.7 
 
 1.4 
 
 2.4 
 
 30.1 
 
 54.9 
 
 0.5 
 
 18 
 
 Corn-and-cob meal . . . 
 
 15.1 
 
 1.5 
 
 8.5 
 
 6.6 
 
 64.8 
 
 3.5 
 
 7 
 
 Corn bran 
 
 9.4 
 
 1.2 
 
 11.2 
 
 11.9 
 
 60.1 
 
 6.2 
 
 6 
 
 Corn germ 
 
 10.7 
 
 4.0 
 
 9.8 
 
 4.1 
 
 64.0 
 
 7.4 
 
 3 
 
 Hominy chops .... 
 
 9.6 
 
 2.7 
 
 10.5 
 
 4.9 
 
 64.3 
 
 8.0 
 
 106 
 
 Germ meal 
 
 8.6 
 
 2.4 
 
 21.7 
 
 3.8 
 
 47.3 
 
 4.2 
 
 23 
 
 Dried starch and sugar feed 
 
 10.9 
 
 0.9 
 
 19.7 
 
 4.7 
 
 54.8 
 
 9.0 
 
 4 
 
 Starch feed, wet .... 
 
 65.4 
 
 0.3 
 
 6.1 
 
 3.1 
 
 22.0 
 
 3.1 
 
 12 
 
 Gluten meal 
 
 9.5 
 
 1.5 
 
 33.8 
 
 2.0 
 
 46.6 
 
 6.6 
 
 12 
 
 Gluten feed 
 
 9.2 
 
 2.0 
 
 25.0 
 
 6.8 
 
 53.5 
 
 3.5 
 
 102 
 
 Wheat, all analyses . . . 
 
 10.5 
 
 1.8 
 
 11.9 
 
 1.8 
 
 71.9 
 
 2.1 
 
 310 
 
 Flour, high grade 
 
 12.2 
 
 0.6 
 
 14.9 
 
 0.3 
 
 70.0 
 
 2.0 
 
 1 
 
 Flour, low grade .... 
 
 12.0 
 
 2.0 
 
 18.0 
 
 0.9 
 
 63.3 
 
 3.9 
 
 1 
 
420 
 
 COMPUTING THE RATION FOR FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Table II — Continued 
 
 
 
 Pbbcentaob Composition 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 Feedino-stuffs 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nitro- 
 gen-free 
 extract 
 
 
 analy* 
 
 
 Water 
 
 Ash 
 
 Protein 
 
 Crude 
 fiber 
 
 Ether 
 extract 
 
 868 
 
 Flour, dark feeding . . 
 
 9.7 
 
 4.3 
 
 19.9 
 
 3.8 
 
 56.2 
 
 6.2 
 
 1 
 
 liran. all analyses . 
 
 . 
 
 11.9 
 
 5.8 
 
 15.4 
 
 9.0 
 
 53.9 
 
 4.0 
 
 88 
 
 Middlings .... 
 
 . 
 
 10.0 
 
 3.2 
 
 19.2 
 
 3.2 
 
 59.6 
 
 4.8 
 
 106 
 
 Shorts 
 
 . 
 
 11.2 
 
 4.4 
 
 16.9 
 
 6.2 
 
 56.2 
 
 5.1 
 
 94 
 
 Wheat screenings 
 
 
 11.6 
 
 2.9 
 
 12.5 
 
 4.9 
 
 65.1 
 
 3.0 
 
 10 
 
 Rye 
 
 
 8.7 
 
 2.1 
 
 11.3 
 
 1.5 
 
 74.5 
 
 1.9 
 
 57 
 
 Rye flour .... 
 
 
 13.1 
 
 0.7 
 
 6.7 
 
 0.4 
 
 78.3 
 
 0.8 
 
 4 
 
 Ryo bran .... 
 
 
 11.6 
 
 3.4 
 
 14.6 
 
 3.5 
 
 63.9 
 
 2.8 
 
 29 
 
 Ryo shorts and bran 
 
 
 124 
 
 3.2 
 
 15.7 
 
 4.1 
 
 61.5 
 
 3.1 
 
 21 
 
 Barley 
 
 
 10.8 
 
 2.5 
 
 12.0 
 
 4.2 
 
 67.8 
 
 1.8 
 
 22 
 
 Barley meal . . . 
 
 
 11.9 
 
 2.6 
 
 10.5 
 
 6.5 
 
 66.3 
 
 2.2 
 
 3 
 
 Barley screenings 
 
 
 12.2 
 
 3.6 
 
 12.3 
 
 7.3 
 
 61.8 
 
 2.8 
 
 2 
 
 Brewers' grains, wet 
 
 
 75.7 
 
 1.0 
 
 5.4 
 
 3.8 
 
 12.5 
 
 1.6 
 
 15 
 
 Brewers' grains, dried 
 
 
 8.7 
 
 3.7 
 
 25.0 
 
 13.6 
 
 42.3 
 
 6.7 
 
 53 
 
 Malt-sprouts . . . 
 
 
 9.5 
 
 6.1 
 
 26.3 
 
 11.6 
 
 44.9 
 
 1.6 
 
 47 
 
 Oats .... 
 
 
 
 11.4 
 
 3.2 
 
 11.4 
 
 10.8 
 
 59.4 
 
 4.8 
 
 126 
 
 Oatmeal 
 
 
 
 
 7.9 
 
 2.0 
 
 14.7 
 
 0.9 
 
 67.4 
 
 7.1 
 
 6 
 
 Oat feed 
 
 
 
 
 7.0 
 
 5.3 
 
 8.0 
 
 21.5 
 
 55.3 
 
 2.9 
 
 110 
 
 Oat dust 
 
 
 
 
 6.5 
 
 6.9 
 
 13.5 
 
 18.2 
 
 50.2 
 
 4.8 
 
 2 
 
 Oat hulls 
 
 
 
 
 7.4 
 
 6.7 
 
 3.4 
 
 30.7 
 
 50.5 
 
 1.3 
 
 11 
 
 Rice . . 
 
 
 
 
 12.4 
 
 0.4 
 
 7.4 
 
 0.2 
 
 79.2 
 
 0.4 
 
 10 
 
 Rico meal 
 
 
 
 
 10.2 
 
 8.1 
 
 12.0 
 
 5.4 
 
 51.2 
 
 13.1 
 
 2 
 
 Rice hulls 
 
 
 
 
 8.8 
 
 15.6 
 
 3.2 
 
 36.2 
 
 35.2 
 
 1.0 
 
 17 
 
 Rice bran 
 
 
 
 
 9.7 
 
 9.7 
 
 11.9 
 
 12.0 
 
 46.6 
 
 10.1 
 
 24 
 
 Rico polish 
 
 
 
 10.8 
 
 4.8 
 
 11.9 
 
 3.3 
 
 62.3 
 
 7.2 
 
 21 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 . 
 
 
 13.4 
 
 2.0 
 
 10.8 
 
 11.7 
 
 59.7 
 
 2.4 
 
 33 
 
 Buckwheat flour 
 
 
 14.6 
 
 1.0 
 
 6.9 
 
 0.3 
 
 75.8 
 
 1.4 
 
 4 
 
 Buckwheat hulls 
 
 
 13.2 
 
 2 2 
 
 4.6 
 
 43.5 
 
 35.3 
 
 1.1 
 
 2 
 
 Buckwheat l>ran . . 
 
 
 8.2 
 
 4!9 
 
 12.6 
 
 32.9 
 
 37.9 
 
 3.5 
 
 4 
 
 Buckwheat shorts . 
 
 
 11.1 
 
 5.1 
 
 27.1 
 
 8.3 
 
 40.8 
 
 7.6 
 
 2 
 
 Buckwheat middlings 
 
 
 12.8 
 
 5.0 
 
 26.7 
 
 4.4 
 
 44.3 
 
 6.8 
 
 40 
 
 Sorghum seed 
 
 
 12.8 
 
 2.1 
 
 9.1 
 
 2.6 
 
 69.8 
 
 3.6 
 
 10 
 
 Broom-corn seed 
 
 
 12.8 
 
 2.8 
 
 9.9 
 
 7.0 
 
 64.3 
 
 3.2 
 
 4 
 
 Kafir seed .... 
 
 
 9.9 
 
 1.6 
 
 11.2 
 
 2.7 
 
 71.5 
 
 3.1 
 
 19 
 
 Millet seed . . . 
 
 
 12.1 
 
 2.8 
 
 10.9 
 
 8.1 
 
 62.6 
 
 3.5 
 
 6 
 
 Hungarian-grass seed 
 
 
 9.5 
 
 5.0 
 
 9.9 
 
 7.7 
 
 63.2 
 
 4.7 
 
 1 
 
 Flax seed .... 
 
 
 9.2 
 
 4.3 
 
 22.6 
 
 7.1 
 
 23.2 
 
 33.7 
 
 50 
 
 Linseed meal (old process) 
 
 9.8 
 
 5.5 
 
 33.9 
 
 7.3 
 
 35.7 
 
 7.8 
 
 191 
 
 Linseed meal (now process) 
 
 9.0 
 
 5.5 
 
 37.5 
 
 8.9 
 
 36.4 
 
 2.0 
 
 52 
 
 Cottonseed 
 
 10.3 
 
 3.5 
 
 18.4 
 
 23.2 
 
 24.7 
 
 19.9 
 
 5 
 
 Cottonseed roasted 
 
 6.1 
 
 5.5 
 
 16.8 
 
 20!4 
 
 23.5 
 
 27.7 
 
 2 
 
 Cottonseed meal 
 
 7.0 
 
 6.6 
 
 45.3 
 
 6.3 
 
 24.6 
 
 10.2 
 
 319 
 
 Cottonseed hulls 
 
 11.1 
 
 2.8 
 
 4.2 
 
 46.3 
 
 33.4 
 
 2.2 
 
 20 
 
 Cottonseed kernels (with- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 out hulls) 
 
 6.2 
 
 4.7 
 
 31.2 
 
 3.7 
 
 17.6 
 
 36.6 
 
 2 
 
 Coooanut cake . . . . 
 
 10.3 
 
 5.9 
 
 19.7 
 
 14.4 
 
 38.7 
 
 11.0 
 
 — 
 
 Palm-nut meal . . . . 
 
 10.4 
 
 4.3 
 
 16.8 
 
 24.0 
 
 35.0 
 
 9.5 
 
 600 
 
 Sunflower seed . . . . 
 
 8.6 
 
 2.6 
 
 16.3 
 
 29.9 
 
 21.4 
 
 21.2 
 
 2 
 
COMPOSITION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 
 Table II — Continued 
 
 421 
 
 
 
 Percentage 
 
 Composition 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 Feeding-stuffs 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nitro- 
 gen-free 
 extract 
 
 
 analy- 
 
 
 Water 
 
 Ash 
 
 Protein 
 
 Crude 
 fiber 
 
 Ether 
 extract 
 
 ses 
 
 Sunflower-seed cake 
 
 10.8 
 
 6.7 
 
 32.8 
 
 13.5 
 
 27.1 
 
 9.1 
 
 
 Peanut kernel (without 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 hulls) 
 
 7.5 
 
 2.4 
 
 27.9 
 
 7.0 
 
 15.6 
 
 39.6 
 
 7 
 
 Peanut cake 
 
 10.7 
 
 4.9 
 
 47.6 
 
 5.1 
 
 23.7 
 
 8.0 
 
 2480 
 
 Rape-seed cake .... 
 
 10.0 
 
 7.9 
 
 31.2 
 
 11.3 
 
 30.0 
 
 9.6 
 
 500 
 
 Pea meal 
 
 10.5 
 
 2.6 
 
 20.2 
 
 14.4 
 
 51.1 
 
 1.2 
 
 2 
 
 Soybean 
 
 11.7 
 
 4.8 
 
 33.5 
 
 4.5 
 
 28.3 
 
 17.2 
 
 16 
 
 Cowpea 
 
 14.6 
 
 3.2 
 
 20.5 
 
 3.9 
 
 56.3 
 
 1.5 
 
 2 
 
 Horse bean 
 
 11.3 
 
 3.8 
 
 26.6 
 
 7.2 
 
 50.1 
 
 1.0 
 
 1 
 
 Roughage 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Corn forage, field-cured — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fodder corn 
 
 42.2 
 
 2.7 
 
 4.5 
 
 14.3 
 
 34.7 
 
 1.6 
 
 35 
 
 Corn stover (ears removed) 
 
 40.5 
 
 3.4 
 
 3.8 
 
 19.7 
 
 31.5 
 
 1.1 
 
 60 
 
 Corn forage, green — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fodder corn, all varieties . 
 
 79.3 
 
 1.2 
 
 1.8 
 
 5.0 
 
 12.2 
 
 0.5 
 
 126 
 
 Dent, kernels glazed 
 
 73.4 
 
 1.5 
 
 2.0 
 
 6.7 
 
 15.5 
 
 0.9 
 
 7 
 
 Flint, kernels glazed 
 
 77.1 
 
 1.1 
 
 2.7 
 
 4.3 
 
 14.6 
 
 0.8 
 
 10 
 
 Sweet varieties .... 
 
 79.1 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.9 
 
 4.4 
 
 12.8 
 
 0.5 
 
 21 
 
 Leaves and husks 
 
 66.2 
 
 2.9 
 
 2.1 
 
 8.7 
 
 19.0 
 
 1.1 
 
 4 
 
 Stripped stalks .... 
 
 76.1 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.5 
 
 7.3 
 
 14.9 
 
 0.5 
 
 4 
 
 Hay from grasses — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hay from mixed grasses . 
 
 15.3 
 
 5.5 
 
 7.4 
 
 27.2 
 
 42.1 
 
 2.5 
 
 126 
 
 Timothy, all analyses . . 
 
 13.2 
 
 4.4 
 
 5.9 
 
 29.0 
 
 45.0 
 
 2.5 
 
 68 
 
 Timothy, cut in full bloom 
 
 15.0 
 
 4.5 
 
 6.0 
 
 29.6 
 
 41.9 
 
 3.0 
 
 12 
 
 Timothy, cut soon after 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 bloom 
 
 14.2 
 
 4.4 
 
 5.7 
 
 28.1 
 
 44.6 
 
 3.0 
 
 11 
 
 Timothy, cut when nearly 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ripe 
 
 14.1 
 
 3.9 
 
 5.0 
 
 31.1 
 
 43.7 
 
 2.2 
 
 12 
 
 Orchard-grass .... 
 
 9.9 
 
 6.0 
 
 8.1 
 
 32.4 
 
 41.0 
 
 2.6 
 
 10 
 
 Red-top, cut at different 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 stages 
 
 8.9 
 
 5.2 
 
 7.9 
 
 28.6 
 
 47.5 
 
 1.9 
 
 9 
 
 Red-top, cut in bloom . . 
 
 8.7 
 
 4.9 
 
 8.0 
 
 29.9 
 
 46.4 
 
 2.1 
 
 3 
 
 Kentucky blue-grass . . 
 
 21.2 
 
 6.3 
 
 7.8 
 
 23.0 
 
 37.8 
 
 3.9 
 
 10 
 
 Kentucky blue-grass, cut 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 when seed is in milk . . 
 
 24.4 
 
 7.0 
 
 6.3 
 
 24.5 
 
 34.2 
 
 3.6 
 
 4 
 
 Kentucky blue-grass, cut 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 when seed is ripe . . . 
 
 27.8 
 
 6.4 
 
 5.8 
 
 23.8 
 
 33.2 
 
 3.0 
 
 4 
 
 Hungarian-grass .... 
 
 7.7 
 
 6.0 
 
 7.5 
 
 27.7 
 
 49.0 
 
 2.1 
 
 13 
 
 Meadow fescue .... 
 
 20.0 
 
 6.8 
 
 7.0 
 
 25.9 
 
 38.4 
 
 2.7 
 
 9 
 
 Italian rye-grass .... 
 
 8.5 
 
 6.9 
 
 7.5 
 
 30.5 
 
 45.0 
 
 1.7 
 
 4 
 
 Perennial rye-grass . . . 
 
 14.0 
 
 7.9 
 
 10.1 
 
 25.4 
 
 40.5 
 
 2.1 
 
 4 
 
 Rowen (mixed) .... 
 
 16.6 
 
 6.8 
 
 11.6 
 
 22.5 
 
 39.4 
 
 3.1 
 
 23 
 
 Mixed grasses and clovers . 
 
 12.9 
 
 5.5 
 
 10.1 
 
 27.6 
 
 41.3 
 
 2.6 
 
 17 
 
 Barley hay, cut in milk . 
 
 15.0 
 
 4.2 
 
 8.8 
 
 24.7 
 
 44.9 
 
 2.4 
 
 1 
 
422 COMPUTING THE RATION FOR FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Table II — Continued 
 
 
 
 Percentage Composition 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 iiEEDINQ-STUFFS 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nitro- 
 gen-free 
 extract 
 
 
 analy- 
 
 
 Water 
 
 Ash 
 
 Protein 
 
 Crude 
 fiber 
 
 Ether 
 extract 
 
 ses 
 
 Oat hay, cut in milk . . 
 
 14.0 
 
 5.7 
 
 8.9 
 
 27.4 
 
 41.2 
 
 2.S 
 
 4 
 
 Swamp hay 
 
 11.6 
 
 6.7 
 
 7.2 
 
 26.6 
 
 45.9 
 
 2.0 
 
 8 
 
 Salt-marsh hay .... 
 
 10.4 
 
 7.7 
 
 5.5 
 
 30.0 
 
 44.1 
 
 2.4 
 
 10 
 
 ^Vild-oat grass .... 
 
 14.3 
 
 3.8 
 
 5.0 
 
 25.0 
 
 48.8 
 
 3.3 
 
 1 
 
 Buttercups 
 
 9.3 
 
 5.6 
 
 9.9 
 
 30.6 
 
 41.1 
 
 3.5 
 
 2 
 
 White daisy 
 
 10.3 
 
 6.6 
 
 7.7 
 
 30.0 
 
 42.0 
 
 3.4 
 
 2 
 
 Johnson-grass .... 
 
 10.2 
 
 6.1 
 
 7.2 
 
 2S.5 
 
 45.9 
 
 2.1 
 
 2 
 
 Fresh grass — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pasture grass 
 
 80.0 
 
 2.0 
 
 3.5 
 
 4.0 
 
 9.7 
 
 0.8 
 
 — 
 
 Kentucky blue-grass . . 
 
 65.1 
 
 2.8 
 
 4.1 
 
 9.1 
 
 17.6 
 
 1.3 
 
 18 
 
 Timothy, different stages . 
 
 61.6 
 
 2.1 
 
 3.1 
 
 11.8 
 
 20.2 
 
 1.2 
 
 56 
 
 Orchard-grass, in bloom . 
 
 73.0 
 
 2.0 
 
 2.6 
 
 8.2 
 
 13.3 
 
 0.9 
 
 4 
 
 Red-top, in bloom . 
 
 65.3 
 
 2.3 
 
 2.8 
 
 11.0 
 
 17.7 
 
 0.9 
 
 5 
 
 Oat fodder 
 
 62.2 
 
 2.5 
 
 3.4 
 
 11.2 
 
 19.3 
 
 1.4 
 
 6 
 
 Rye fodder 
 
 76.6 
 
 1.8 
 
 2.6 
 
 11.6 
 
 6.8 
 
 0.6 
 
 / 
 
 Sorghum fodder .... 
 
 79.4 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.3 
 
 6.1 
 
 11.6 
 
 0.5 
 
 11 
 
 Barley fodder .... 
 
 79.0 
 
 1.8 
 
 2.7 
 
 7.9 
 
 8.0 
 
 0.6 
 
 1 
 
 Hungarian-grass .... 
 
 71.1 
 
 1.7 
 
 3.1 
 
 9.2 
 
 14.2 
 
 0.7 
 
 14 
 
 Meadow fescue, in bloom . 
 
 69.9 
 
 1.8 
 
 2.4 
 
 10.8 
 
 14.3 
 
 0.8 
 
 4 
 
 Italian rye-grass, coming 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 into bloom 
 
 73.2 
 
 2.5 
 
 3.1 
 
 6.8 
 
 13.3 
 
 1.3 
 
 24 
 
 Tall oat-grass, in bloom . 
 
 69.5 
 
 2.0 
 
 2.4 
 
 9.4 
 
 15.8 
 
 0.9 
 
 3 
 
 Japanese millet .... 
 
 75.0 
 
 1.5 
 
 2.1 
 
 7.8 
 
 13.1 
 
 0.5 
 
 12 
 
 Barnyard millet .... 
 
 75.0 
 
 1.9 
 
 2.4 
 
 7.0 
 
 13.1 
 
 0.6 
 
 2 
 
 Hay from legumes — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Red clover 
 
 15.3 
 
 6.2 
 
 12.3 
 
 24.8 
 
 38.1 
 
 3.3 
 
 38 
 
 Red clover in bloom . . . 
 
 20.8 
 
 6.6 
 
 12.4 
 
 21.9 
 
 33.8 
 
 4.5 
 
 6 
 
 Red clover, mammoth . . 
 
 21.2 
 
 6.1 
 
 10.7 
 
 24.5 
 
 33.6 
 
 3.9 
 
 10 
 
 Alsike clover 
 
 9.7 
 
 8.3 
 
 12.8 
 
 25.6 
 
 40.7 
 
 2.9 
 
 9 
 
 White clover 
 
 9.7 
 
 8.3 
 
 15.7 
 
 24.1 
 
 39.3 
 
 2.9 
 
 7 
 
 Crimson clover .... 
 
 9.6 
 
 8.6 
 
 15.2 
 
 27.2 
 
 36.6 
 
 2.8 
 
 7 
 
 Japan clover 
 
 11.0 
 
 8.5 
 
 13.8 
 
 24.0 
 
 39.0 
 
 3.7 
 
 2 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 8.4 
 
 7.4 
 
 14.3 
 
 25.0 
 
 42.7 
 
 2.2 
 
 21 
 
 Cowpea 
 
 10.5 
 
 14.2 
 
 8.9 
 
 21.2 
 
 42.6 
 
 2.6 
 
 17 
 
 Soybean 
 
 11.8 
 
 7.0 
 
 14.9 
 
 24.2 
 
 37.8 
 
 4.3 
 
 12 
 
 Pea vine 
 
 15.0 
 
 6.7 
 
 13.7 
 
 24.7 
 
 37.6 
 
 2.3 
 
 1 
 
 Vetch 
 
 11.3 
 
 7.9 
 
 17.0 
 
 25.4 
 
 36.1 
 
 2.3 
 
 5 
 
 Flat pea 
 
 8.4 
 
 7.9 
 
 22.9 
 
 2G.2 
 
 31.4 
 
 3.2 
 
 5 
 
 Peanut vines (without nuts) 
 
 7.0 
 
 10.8 
 
 10.7 
 
 23.6 
 
 42.7 
 
 4.6 
 
 6 
 
 Fresh legumes — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Red clover, different stages 
 
 70.8 
 
 2.1 
 
 4.4 
 
 8.1 
 
 13.5 
 
 1.1 
 
 43 
 
 Alsike clover 
 
 74.8 
 
 2.0 
 
 3.9 
 
 7.4 
 
 11.0 
 
 0.9 
 
 4 
 
 Crimson clover .... 
 
 80.9 
 
 1.7 
 
 3.1 
 
 5.2 
 
 8.4 
 
 0.7 
 
 3 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 71.8 
 
 2.7 
 
 4.8 
 
 7.4 
 
 12.3 
 
 1.0 
 
 23 
 
 Cowpea 
 
 83.6 
 
 1.7 
 
 2.4 
 
 4.8 
 
 7.1 
 
 0.4 
 
 10 
 
COMPOSITION OF FEEDING-STUFFS 
 
 423 
 
 Table II — Continued 
 
 
 
 Percentage Composition 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 Feeding-stuffs 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nitro- 
 gen-free 
 extract 
 
 
 analy- 
 
 
 Water 
 
 Ash 
 
 Protein 
 
 Crude 
 fiber 
 
 Ether 
 extract 
 
 ses 
 
 Soybean 
 
 75.1 
 
 2.6 
 
 4.0 
 
 6.7 
 
 10.6 
 
 1.0 
 
 27 
 
 Horse bean 
 
 84.2 
 
 1.2 
 
 2.8 
 
 4.9 
 
 6.5 
 
 0.4 
 
 2 
 
 Straw — 
 
 Wheat 
 
 9.6 
 
 4.2 
 
 3.4 
 
 38.1 
 
 43.4 
 
 1.3 
 
 7 
 
 Rye 
 
 7.1 
 
 3.2 
 
 3.0 
 
 38.9 
 
 46.6 
 
 1.2 
 
 7 
 
 Oat 
 
 9.2 
 
 5.1 
 
 4.0 
 
 37.0 
 
 42.4 
 
 2.3 
 
 12 
 
 Barley 
 
 14.2 
 
 5.7 
 
 3.5 
 
 36.0 
 
 39.0 
 
 1.5 
 
 97 
 
 Wheat chaff 
 
 14.3 
 
 9.2 
 
 4.5 
 
 36.0 
 
 34.6 
 
 1.4 
 
 — 
 
 Oat chaff 
 
 14.3 
 
 10.0 
 
 4.0 
 
 34.0 
 
 36.2 
 
 1.5 
 
 — 
 
 Buckwheat-straw . . . 
 
 9.9 
 
 5.5 
 
 5.2 
 
 43.0 
 
 35.1 
 
 1.3 
 
 3 
 
 Soybean 
 
 10.1 
 
 5.8 
 
 4.6 
 
 40.4 
 
 37.4 
 
 1.7 
 
 4 
 
 Horse bean 
 
 9.2 
 
 8.7 
 
 8.8 
 
 37.6 
 
 34.3 
 
 1.4 
 
 1 
 
 Silage — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Corn (immature) .... 
 
 79.1 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.7 
 
 6.0 
 
 11.0 
 
 0.8 
 
 99 
 
 Sorghum 
 
 76.1 
 
 1.1 
 
 0.8 
 
 6.4 
 
 15.3 
 
 0.3 
 
 6 
 
 Red clover 
 
 72.0 
 
 2.6 
 
 4.2 
 
 8.4 
 
 11.6 
 
 1.2 
 
 5 
 
 Soybean 
 
 74.2 
 
 2.8 
 
 4.1 
 
 9.7 
 
 6.9 
 
 2.2 
 
 1 
 
 Cowpea vine 
 
 79.3 
 
 2.9 
 
 2.7 
 
 6.0 
 
 7.6 
 
 1.5 
 
 2 
 
 Barnyard millet and soy- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 bean 
 
 79.0 
 
 2.8 
 
 2.8 
 
 7.2 
 
 7.2 
 
 1.0 
 
 9 
 
 Corn and soybean . . . 
 
 76.0 
 
 2.4 
 
 2.5 
 
 7.2 
 
 11.1 
 
 0.8 
 
 4 
 
 Rye 
 
 80.8 
 
 1.6 
 
 2.4 
 
 5.8 
 
 9.2 
 
 0.3 
 
 1 
 
 Roots and tubers — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Potato 
 
 79.1 
 
 0.9 
 
 2.1 
 
 0.4 
 
 17.4 
 
 0.1 
 
 41 
 
 Beets, common 
 
 
 
 
 88.5 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.5 
 
 0.9 
 
 8.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 9 
 
 Beets, sugar . 
 
 
 
 
 86.5 
 
 0.9 
 
 1.8 
 
 0.9 
 
 9.8 
 
 0.1 
 
 19 
 
 Beet, mangel 
 
 
 
 
 
 90.9 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.4 
 
 0.9 
 
 5.5 
 
 0.2 
 
 9 
 
 Turnip . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 90.1 
 
 0.9 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.2 
 
 6.3 
 
 0.2 
 
 8 
 
 Rutabaga . 
 
 
 
 
 
 88.6 
 
 1.2 
 
 1.2 
 
 1.3 
 
 7.5 
 
 0.2 
 
 4 
 
 Carrot . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 88.6 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.3 
 
 7.6 
 
 0.4 
 
 8 
 
 Parsnip . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 88.3 
 
 0.7 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.0 
 
 10.2 
 
 0.2 
 
 — 
 
 Artichoke . 
 
 
 
 
 
 79.5 
 
 1.0 
 
 2.6 
 
 0.8 
 
 15.9 
 
 0.2 
 
 2 
 
 Sweet-potato 
 
 
 
 
 
 68.3 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.9 
 
 1.1 
 
 26.8 
 
 0.7 
 
 48 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cabbage 
 
 90.0 
 
 0.8 
 
 2.6 
 
 0.9 
 
 5.5 
 
 0.2 
 
 1 
 
 Sugar-beet leaves 
 
 
 
 88.0 
 
 2.4 
 
 2.6 
 
 2.2 
 
 4.4 
 
 0.4 
 
 — 
 
 Pumpkin (field) . 
 
 
 
 90.9 
 
 0.5 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.7 
 
 5.2 
 
 0.4 
 
 — 
 
 Prickly comfrey 
 
 
 
 
 88.4 
 
 2.2 
 
 2.4 
 
 1.6 
 
 5.1 
 
 0.3 
 
 41 
 
 Rape . . . 
 
 
 
 
 84.5 
 
 2.0 
 
 2.3 
 
 2.6 
 
 8.4 
 
 0.5 
 
 2 
 
 Apples . . . 
 
 
 
 
 80.8 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.7 
 
 1.2 
 
 16.6 
 
 0.4 
 
 3 
 
 Cow's milk 
 
 
 
 
 87.2 
 
 0.7 
 
 3.6 
 
 — 
 
 4.9 
 
 3.7 
 
 793 
 
 Cow's milk, colostrum 
 
 
 74.6 
 
 1.6 
 
 17.6 
 
 — 
 
 2.7 
 
 3.6 
 
 42 
 
 Skim-milk, gravity . 
 
 
 90.4 
 
 0.7 
 
 3.3 
 
 — 
 
 4.7 
 
 0.9 
 
 96 
 
 Skim-milk, centrifugal 
 
 
 90.6 
 
 0.7 
 
 3.1 
 
 — 
 
 5.3 
 
 0.3 
 
 97 
 
424 
 
 COMPUTING THE RATION FOR FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Table II — Continued 
 
 
 
 Percentage Composition 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. of 
 analy- 
 
 Feedinq-stuffs 
 
 
 
 
 Crude 
 fiber 
 
 Nitro- 
 
 Ether 
 extract 
 
 
 Water 
 
 Ash 
 
 Protein 
 
 gen-free 
 extract 
 
 ses 
 
 Buttermilk 
 
 90.1 
 
 0.7 
 
 4.0 
 
 
 
 4.0 
 
 1.1 
 
 85 
 
 Whcv 
 
 
 93.8 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.6 
 
 — 
 
 5.1 
 
 0.1 
 
 46 
 
 Dried blood 
 
 
 8.5 
 
 4.7 
 
 84.4 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 2.5 
 
 3 
 
 Meat scrap 
 
 
 10.7 
 
 4.1 
 
 71.2 
 
 — 
 
 0.3 
 
 13.7 
 
 144 
 
 Dried fish ... . 
 
 . 
 
 10.8 
 
 29.2 
 
 48.4 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 11.6 
 
 6 
 
 Beet pulp (wet) . 
 
 . 
 
 89.8 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.9 
 
 2.4 
 
 6.3 
 
 — 
 
 116 
 
 Beet molasses 
 
 . 
 
 20.8 
 
 10.6 
 
 9.1 
 
 — 
 
 59.5 
 
 — 
 
 35 
 
 Apple pomace 
 
 , 
 
 83.0 
 
 0.6 
 
 1.0 
 
 2.9 
 
 11.6 
 
 0.9 
 
 6 
 
 SorKhum bagasse 
 
 , 
 
 83.9 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.6 
 
 3.2 
 
 11.71 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 Distillery slops . 
 
 
 93.7 
 
 0.2 
 
 1.9 
 
 0.6 
 
 2.8 
 
 0.9 
 
 1 
 
 Dried sediment from dis- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tillery slops .... 
 
 5.0 
 
 11.3 
 
 27.4 
 
 8.0 
 
 36.1 
 
 12.3 
 
 1 
 
 1 Includes fat (sorghum bagasse). 
 
 T.\BLE III. — Digestible Nutrients in 1 lb. of the More Common 
 Feeding-stuffs (Calculations by J. L. Stone) 
 
 Kind and Amount of Feed 
 
 Total 
 Dry 
 
 Mat- 
 ter 
 
 Pounds of Digestible 
 
 Nutrients 
 
 Protein 
 
 Carbo- 
 hydrates 
 + (fat X 
 2.25) 
 
 Total 
 
 Nutri- 
 tive 
 Ratio 
 
 Soiling fodder — 
 
 Fodder corn 
 
 Peas-and-oats 
 
 Peas-and-barley 
 
 (Practically the same as peas-and-oats) 
 
 Red clover 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 Hungarian-grass 
 
 Corn silage 
 
 Roots and tubers — 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Beet, mangel 
 
 Beet, sugar 
 
 Carrot 
 
 Flat turnip 
 
 Hay and straw — 
 
 Timothy 
 
 Mixed grasses and clover .... 
 
 Hungarian hay 
 
 Red clover hay 
 
 .20 
 .16 
 .16 
 
 .29 
 .28 
 .29 
 .21 
 
 .21 
 .09 
 .13 
 .11 
 .10 
 
 .87 
 .87 
 .92 
 .85 
 
 .010 
 .018 
 .017 
 
 .029 
 .039 
 .020 
 .009 
 
 .009 
 .011 
 .011 
 .008 
 .010 
 
 .028 
 .062 
 .045 
 .068 
 
 .125 
 .076 
 .077 
 
 .164 
 .138 
 .169 
 .129 
 
 .165 
 .056 
 .104 
 .082 
 .077 
 
 .465 
 .460 
 .546 
 .396 
 
 .135 
 .094 
 .094 
 
 .193 
 .177 
 .189 
 .138 
 
 .174 
 .067 
 .115 
 .090 
 .087 
 
 .493 
 .522 
 .591 
 .464 
 
 12.5 
 
 4.2 
 
 4.5 
 
 5.6 
 3.5 
 8.4 
 14.3 
 
 1: 18.3 
 1:5.1 
 1: 9.4 
 1 : 10.3 
 1:7.7 
 
 16.6 
 
 7.4 
 
 12.1 
 
 5.8 
 
DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDING-STUFFS 
 
 425 
 
 Table III — Continued 
 
 Kind and Amount of Feed 
 
 Total 
 Dry 
 Mat- 
 
 Pounds OF Digestible 
 Nutrients 
 
 Protein 
 
 Carbo- 
 hydrates 
 + (fat X 
 2.25) 
 
 Total 
 
 Nutri- 
 tive 
 Ratio 
 
 Alfalfa hay 
 Corn fodder . 
 Corn stover . 
 Pea-vine straw 
 Bean-straw 
 Wheat-straw . 
 Oat-straw . 
 
 Grain — 
 Corn (average) 
 Wheat . . . 
 Rye . . . . 
 Barley . . . 
 Oats . . . 
 Buckwheat 
 Peas 
 
 Mill products — 
 
 Corn-and-cob meal 
 
 Wheat bran 
 
 Wheat middlings 
 
 Dark feeding flour 
 
 Low-grade flour 
 
 Rye bran 
 
 Buckwheat bran 
 
 Buckwheat middlings 
 
 By-products — 
 
 Malt-sprouts 
 
 Brewers' grains, wet 
 
 Brewers' grains, dry 
 
 Buffalo gluten feed 
 
 Chicago gluten meal 
 
 Distillers' dried grains, Bile's xxxx 
 
 Hominy chops 
 
 Linseed meal (old process) . . . 
 Linseed meal (new process) . . . 
 Cottonseed meal 
 
 Miscellaneous — 
 
 Cabbage 
 
 Sugar-beet leaves 
 
 Pea-vine silage 
 
 Sugar-beet pulp 
 
 Beet molasses 
 
 Apple pomace 
 
 Apples 
 
 Skim-milk, centrifugal . . . . 
 Buttermilk 
 
 .92 
 .58 
 .60 
 .86 
 .95 
 .90 
 .91 
 
 .89 
 .90 
 
 .88 
 .89 
 .89 
 .87 
 .90 
 
 .85 
 .88 
 .88 
 .90 
 
 .90 
 
 .87 
 
 .90 
 .24 
 .92 
 .90 
 .88 
 .92 
 .89 
 .91 
 .90 
 .92 
 
 .15 
 
 .12 
 
 .27 
 
 .10 
 
 .79 
 
 .233 
 
 .19 
 
 .094 
 
 .10 
 
 .110 
 .025 
 .017 
 .043 
 .036 
 .004 
 .012 
 
 .079 
 .102 
 .099 
 .087 
 .092 
 .077 
 .168 
 
 .044 
 .122 
 .128 
 .135 
 .082 
 .115 
 .074 
 .220 
 
 .186 
 .039 
 .157 
 .232 
 .322 
 .248 
 .075 
 .293 
 .282 
 .372 
 
 .018 
 .017 
 .025 
 .006 
 .091 
 .011 
 .007 
 .029 
 .039 
 
 .423 
 .373 
 .340 
 .341 
 .397 
 .372 
 .404 
 
 .764 
 .730 
 .700 
 .692 
 .568 
 .533 
 .534 
 
 .665 
 .453 
 .607 
 .658 
 .647 
 .548 
 .347 
 .456 
 
 .409 
 .125 
 
 .478 
 .699 
 .468 
 .552 
 .705 
 .485 
 .464 
 .444 
 
 .091 
 .051 
 .141 
 .073 
 .595 
 .164 
 .188 
 .059 
 .065 
 
 .533 
 .398 
 .357 
 .384 
 .433 
 .376 
 .416 
 
 .843 
 .832 
 .799 
 .779 
 .660 
 .610 
 .702 
 
 .709 
 .575 
 .735 
 .793 
 .729 
 .663 
 .421 
 .676 
 
 .595 
 .164 
 .635 
 .931 
 .790 
 .800 
 .780 
 .778 
 .746 
 .816 
 
 .109 
 .068 
 .166 
 .079 
 .686 
 .175 
 .195 
 .088 
 .104 
 
 1:3.8 
 1: 14.C 
 1: 19.C 
 1:7.9 
 1: ll.C 
 1:93 
 1 : 33.e 
 
 1:9.7 
 1:7.2 
 1:7.1 
 1:7.9 
 1:6.2 
 1:6.9 
 1:3.2 
 
 1: 15.1 
 
 1:3.7 
 
 1:4.7 
 
 1:4.9 
 
 1:7.9 
 
 1:4.8 
 
 1:4.7 
 
 1:2.1 
 
 1:2.2 
 1 :3.2 
 1:3 
 1:3 
 1: 1.5 
 1: 2.2 
 1:9.4 
 1: 1.7 
 1: 1.6 
 1: 1.2 
 
 1:5.1 
 1:3 
 1:5.6 
 1: 12 
 1: 6.5 
 1 : 14.9 
 1 : 26.8 
 1: 2 
 1: 1.7 
 
426 COMPUTING THE RATION FOR FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Table IV. Average Fertilizing Constituents in American Feeding-stuffs 
 
 Name of Feed 
 
 Concentrates 
 
 Corn, all analyses . . . 
 
 Corn cob 
 
 Corn-and-cob meal . . . 
 
 Corn bran 
 
 Gluten meal 
 
 Germ meal 
 
 Starch refuse 
 
 Grano-gluten 
 
 Hominy chops 
 
 Glucose meal 
 
 Sugar meal 
 
 Gluten feed 
 
 Wheat 
 
 High-grade flour .... 
 Low-grade flour .... 
 Dark feeding flour . . . 
 
 "Wheat bran 
 
 Wheat shorts 
 
 Wheat middlings .... 
 Wheat screenings .... 
 
 Rye 
 
 Rye bran 
 
 Rye shorts 
 
 Barley 
 
 Malt-sprouts 
 
 Brewers' grains, wet . 
 Brewers' grains, dried 
 
 Oats 
 
 Oat feed or shorts . . . 
 
 Oat hulls 
 
 Rice 
 
 Rice hulls 
 
 Rice bran 
 
 Rice polish 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 Buckwheat hulls .... 
 Buckwheat bran .... 
 Buckwheat middlings . . 
 
 Sorghum seed 
 
 Broom-corn seed .... 
 
 Millet 
 
 Flax seed 
 
 Linseed meal (old process) . 
 Linseed meal (new process) 
 
 Cottonseed 
 
 Cottonseed meal .... 
 
 Fertilizing Constituents in 
 1000 Lbs. 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Phosphoric 
 Acid 
 
 Potash 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 18.2 
 
 7.0 
 
 4.0 
 
 3.9 
 
 0.6 
 
 6.0 
 
 13.6 
 
 5.7 
 
 4.7 
 
 17.9 
 
 10.1 
 
 6.2 
 
 54.8 
 
 3.3 
 
 0.5 
 
 34.7 
 
 3.9 
 
 2.1 
 
 7.6 
 
 2.9 
 
 1.5 
 
 49.8 
 
 5.1 
 
 1.5 
 
 16.8 
 
 9.8 
 
 4.9 
 
 57.7 
 
 
 
 36.3 
 
 4.1 
 
 0.3 
 
 40.0 
 
 3.7 
 
 0.4 
 
 19.0 
 
 5.5 
 
 8.7 
 
 19.2 
 
 5.7 
 
 5.4 
 
 28.9 
 
 5.6 
 
 3.5 
 
 29.4 
 
 21.4 
 
 10.9 
 
 24.6 
 
 26.9 
 
 15.2 
 
 28.2 
 
 13.5 
 
 5.9 
 
 26.3 
 
 9.5 
 
 6.3 
 
 20.0 
 
 11.7 
 
 8.4 
 
 18.1 
 
 8.6 
 
 5.8 
 
 23.3 
 
 22.8 
 
 14.0 
 
 18.4 
 
 12.6 
 
 8.1 
 
 19.2 
 
 7.9 
 
 4.8 
 
 42.1 
 
 17.4 
 
 19.9 
 
 10.7. 
 
 4.2 
 
 0.5 
 
 40.0 
 
 16.1 
 
 2.0 
 
 18.2 
 
 7.8 
 
 4.8 
 
 12.8 
 
 6.1 
 
 7.2 
 
 5.3 
 
 1.6 
 
 4.9 
 
 11.8 
 
 1.8 
 
 0.9 
 
 5.1 
 
 1.7 
 
 1.4 
 
 19.0 
 
 2.9 
 
 2.4 
 
 19.0 
 
 26.7 
 
 7.1 
 
 17.3 
 
 6.9 
 
 3.0 
 
 7.3 
 
 4.3 
 
 14.7 
 
 20.2 
 
 4.2 
 
 12.7 
 
 42.7 
 
 12.3 
 
 11.4 
 
 14.6 
 
 8.4 
 
 3.4 
 
 15.8 
 
 7.2 
 
 5.2 
 
 17.4 
 
 6.5 
 
 3.3 
 
 36.2 
 
 13.9 
 
 10.3 
 
 54.2 
 
 16.6 
 
 13.7 
 
 60.0 
 
 17.4 
 
 13.4 
 
 29.4 
 
 10.5 
 
 10.9 
 
 72.5 
 
 30.4 
 
 15.8 
 
FERTILIZING VALUES IN FEEDING-STUFFS 
 
 427 
 
 Table IV — Continued 
 
 Name of Food 
 
 Concentrates 
 
 Cottonseed hulls .... 
 
 Cocoanut cake 
 
 Palm-nut cake 
 
 Sunflower seed 
 
 Sunflower-seed cakes . . . 
 
 Peanut cake 
 
 Rape-seed cake .... 
 
 Peas 
 
 Soybean 
 
 Horse bean 
 
 Roughage 
 Fodder corn — 
 
 Fodder corn, green 
 Fodder corn, field-cured 
 
 Fresh grass — 
 
 Pasture grasses 
 
 Kentucky blue-grass . . . 
 Timothy, different stages . 
 Orchard-grass, in bloom . 
 Red-top, in bloom . . . 
 Oat forage in mUk .... 
 
 Rye forage 
 
 Sorghum fodder .... 
 Meadow fescue, in bloom . 
 Hungarian-grass .... 
 
 Hay — 
 
 Timothy (all analyses) . . 
 
 Orchard-grass 
 
 Red-top 
 
 Kentucky blue-grass . . . 
 Hungarian-grass .... 
 
 Mixed grasses 
 
 Rowen (mixed) .... 
 Meadow fescue .... 
 Mixed grasses and clover . 
 Soybean hay 
 
 Straw — 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Rve 
 
 Oat 
 
 Barley 
 
 Wheat chaff 
 
 Fertilizing Constituents in 
 1000 Lbs. 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 6.7 
 31.5 
 26.9 
 26.1 
 52.5 
 76.2 
 49.9 
 37.9 
 53.6 
 42.6 
 
 2.9 
 
 7.2 
 
 5.6 
 6.6 
 5.0 
 4.2 
 4.5 
 5.4 
 4.2 
 2.1 
 3.8 
 5.0 
 
 9.4 
 12.9 
 12.6 
 12.5 
 12.1 
 11.9 
 18.6 
 11.2 
 16.2 
 23.8 
 
 5.0 
 5.0 
 
 5.8 
 7.0 
 7.2 
 
 Phosphoric 
 Acid 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 4.3 
 16.0 
 11.0 
 12.2 
 21.5 
 20.0 
 20.0 
 
 8.4 
 10.4 
 12.0 
 
 1.1 
 5.4 
 
 2.6 
 
 2.6 
 1.6 
 
 1.3 
 2.5 
 0.7 
 
 1.2 
 
 3.3 
 3.7 
 3.6 
 4.0 
 4.3 
 2.7 
 4.3 
 4.0 
 
 6.7 
 
 2.2 
 2.5 
 3.0 
 2.0 
 
 3.8 
 
428 COMPUTING THE RATION FOR FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Table IV — Continued 
 
 Name of Food 
 
 Fresh legumes— Roughage 
 Red clover, dififerent stages 
 
 Alsike, bloom 
 
 Crimson clover 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 Cowpea 
 
 Soybean 
 
 Legume hay and straw — 
 
 Red clover, medium .... 
 
 Red clover, mammoth . . . 
 
 Alsike clover 
 
 White clover 
 
 Crimson clover 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 Cowpea 
 
 Soybean straw 
 
 Pea-vine straw 
 
 Silage — 
 
 Corn 
 
 Roots and tubers — 
 
 Potato 
 
 Beet, common 
 
 Beet, sugar 
 
 Beet, mangel 
 
 Flat turnip 
 
 Rutabaga 
 
 Carrot 
 
 Parsnip 
 
 Artichoke 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 Cabbage 
 
 Spurry 
 
 Sugar-beet leaves 
 
 Pumpkin, garden 
 
 Prickly comfrey 
 
 Rape 
 
 Dried blood 
 
 Meat scrap 
 
 Dried fish 
 
 Beet pulp, wet 
 
 Beet molasses 
 
 Cow's milk 
 
 Cow's milk, colostrum . 
 Skim-milk, gravity .... 
 Skim-milk, centrifugal . 
 
 Buttermilk 
 
 Whey 
 
 Fertilizing Constituents in 
 1000 Lbs. 
 
 •vt:* Phosphoric 
 
 Nitrogen ^^j^ 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 7.0 
 6.2 
 5.0 
 7.7 
 3.8 
 6.4 
 
 19.7 
 17.1 
 20.5 
 25.1 
 24.3 
 21.9 
 14.3 
 17.5 
 14.3 
 
 4.3 
 
 3.4 
 
 1.6 
 
 2.4 
 
 0.8 
 
 2.9 
 
 0.8 
 
 2.2 
 
 0.9 
 
 2.1 
 
 0.9 
 
 1.9 
 
 1.2 
 
 1.8 
 
 0.9 
 
 2.6 
 
 2.0 
 
 4.2 
 
 1.4 
 
 4.2 
 
 1.1 
 
 3.8 
 
 2.5 
 
 4.2 
 
 1.5 
 
 2.9 
 
 1.6 
 
 3.7 
 
 1.2 
 
 3.5 
 
 1.2 
 
 135.0 
 
 13.5 
 
 114.0 
 
 81.1 
 
 77.4 
 
 140.0 
 
 1.4 
 
 0.3 
 
 14.5 
 
 0.5 
 
 5.8 
 
 1.9 
 
 28.2 
 
 6.6 
 
 5.6 
 
 2.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 2.1 
 
 6.4 
 
 1.7 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.1 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1.5 
 1.1 
 1.2 
 1.3 
 1.3 
 1.4 
 
 5.5 
 5.2 
 5.0 
 
 7.8 
 4.0 
 5.1 
 5.2 
 4.0 
 3.5 
 
 1.1 
 
CHAPTER XXIII 
 
 External Parasites of Animals 
 
 The many diseases of farm live-stock cannot be treated in a book 
 of this kind, and very brief advice might be more dangerous than useful ; 
 but the ticks, lice, fleas, and similar things that infest animals may be 
 included. The spraying of live-stock is as important, in many cases, as 
 the spraying of plants. 
 
 Handling the cattle-tick, or Texas-fever tick (Margaropus annulatus) 
 (H. W. Graybill, Bur. Animal Ind., U. S. Dept. Agric.) 
 
 On the pasture there are three stages of the tick — the engorged 
 female, the egg, and the larva ; and on the host are four stages — the 
 larva, the nymph, the sexually mature adult of both sexes, and the 
 engorged condition of the female. 
 
 Animals may be freed of ticks in two ways. They may be treated 
 with an agent that will destroy all the ticks present, or they may be 
 rotated at proper intervals on tick-free fields until all the ticks have 
 dropped. 
 
 Dips for cattle-ticks, their preparation and use 
 
 Crude petroleum. — Various kinds of crude petroleum have been 
 used with more or less success in destroying ticks. The heavier 
 varieties of oil are very injurious to cattle. On the other hand, the 
 very light oils are so volatile that their effect lasts but a short time 
 thus rendering them less efficient. The petroleum known as Beau- 
 mont oil, obtained from Texas wells, has given the best results. The 
 best grade of this oil to use is one that has a specific gravity ranging 
 from 22j° to 24^° Beaume, containing \\ to I2 per cent of sulfur, 
 and 40 per cent of the bulk of which boils between 200° and 300° C. 
 The oil may be applied by employing a spray pump or a dipping vat. 
 
 Animals that have been dipped in crude oil, especially during warm 
 
 429 
 
430 EXTERNAL PARASITES OF ANIMALS 
 
 weather, should not be driven any great distance immediately after- 
 wards, and should be provided with shade and an abundance of water. 
 Unless these precautions are observed serious injur}^ and losses may 
 result. 
 
 Emulsions of crude petroleum. — In the majority of cases the best 
 agent to use is an emulsion of crude petroleum, preferably Beaumont 
 crude petroleum. The use of the emulsion makes the treatment less 
 expensive than when the oil alone is used. The emulsion is not so 
 injurious to the cattle and is almost if not quite as effective as the oil 
 alone. The formula for preparing an emulsion of crude petroleum is 
 as follows : — 
 
 Hard soap 1 lb. 
 
 Soft or freestone water 1 gal. 
 
 Beaumont crude petroleum 4 gal. 
 
 Making five gallons of 80 per cent stock emulsion. 
 
 When a greater quantity of stock emulsion is desired, each of the 
 quantities in the above formula should be multiplied by such a number 
 as to furnish the required amount. For example, if it should be con- 
 venient to mix 10 gallons at one time, the quantities would have to 
 be multiplied by 2 and if 15 gallons were desired, they would have 
 to be multiplied by 3, and so on. 
 
 In preparing the emulsion the soap should be shaved up and placed in 
 a kettle or caldron containing the required amount of water. The 
 water should be brought to a boil and stirred until the soap is entirely 
 dissolved. Enough water should be added to make up for the loss by 
 evaporation during this process. The soap solution and the required 
 amount of oil are then placed in a barrel or some other convenient re- 
 ceptacle, and mixed. The mixing maybe effected by the use of a spray 
 pump, pumping the mixture through and through the pump until the 
 emulsion is formed. A convenient and time-saving method is to do 
 the mixing in a barrel by first pouring in one part of hot soap solution 
 and then four parts of crude petroleum, and repeating this until the 
 barrel is filled. The oil should be poured in with as much force as pos- 
 sible, and the mixture stirred constantly with a long paddle until the oil 
 is completely emulsified. The mixing is facilitated also by dipping 
 up the mixture and pouring it back with a pail. If made properly, this 
 stock emulsion is permanent, and will keep indefinitely. 
 
TEXAS TICKS 431 
 
 To prepare the stock emulsion for use, it is diluted with water to a 
 20 or 25 per cent emulsion. In order to obtain a 20 per cent emulsion 
 of oil, it is necessary to use one part of the stock emulsion to three parts 
 of water, and for a 25 per cent emulsion, one part of stock emulsion 
 to 2\ parts of water. The stock emulsion is permanent, but the diluted 
 emulsion does not remain uniformly mixed, so that if allowed to stand 
 it should be thoroughly mixed by stirring before using. Only rain 
 or freestone water should be used for diluting, and if this is not available, 
 the water should be " softened " by adding a sufficient amount of con- 
 centrated lye, sal soda, or washing powder. Care should be observed in 
 this process not to use an excess of these preparations. 
 
 An 80 per cent stock emulsion is on the market, and much time and 
 labor can be saved by obtaining this instead of making the emulsion. 
 To prepare it for use, it should be diluted in the same manner as in- 
 dicated above for the home-made stock emulsion. 
 
 The arsenical dip. — This dip is used considerably, on account of its 
 cheapness and the ease with which it is prepared. In general, it has 
 proved very effective in destroying ticks, and is less likely than crude 
 petroleum or emulsions of the same to injure cattle when dipping has 
 to be done in hot weather. Some injury to the skin is, however, 
 likely to occur when the arsenical mixture is used, and this injury, 
 which will be so slight as to be scarcely noticeable if the cattle are prop- 
 erly handled, is hable to be serious if the cattle are driven any distance, 
 especially if allowed to run while being driven within a week after 
 treatment. The formula given below for making an arsenical dip is 
 the one most commonly used in this country : — 
 
 Sodium carbonate (sal soda) 24 lb. 
 
 Arsenic trioxid (white arsenic) 8 lb. 
 
 Pine tar 1 gal. 
 
 Sufficient water to make 500 gallons. 
 
 If a stronger arsenical dip is desired, ten pounds of arsenic may be 
 used in place of eight pounds, but in general the stronger solution 
 should not be used. In warm weather particularly it is not advisable 
 to use a solution stronger than that given in the above formula, if the 
 animals are to be treated every two weeks. 
 
 In preparing the dip, a large caldron or galvanized tank is required 
 for heating the water in which to dissolve the chemicals. Thirty or 
 forty gallons of water should be placed in the caldron or tank and 
 
432 EXTERNAL PARASITES OF ANIMALS 
 
 brought to a boil. The sodium carbonate is then added and dissolved 
 by stirring. When this is accomplished, the arsenic is added and 
 dissolved in a similar manner. The fire is then drawn and the pine tar 
 added slowly in a thin stream and thoroughly mixed with the dip by 
 constant stirring. This strong stock solution is diluted to 500 gallons 
 before using. 
 
 The diluted arsenical solution may be left in the vat and used re- 
 peatedly, replenishing with the proper quantities of water and stock 
 solution when necessary. When not in use, the vat should be tightly 
 covered with a waterproof cover to prevent evaporation on the one 
 hand and further dilution by rain on the other hand. Securely cov- 
 ering the vat when not in use also lessens the risk of accidental poison- 
 ing of stock and human beings. 
 
 On account of the fact that arsenic is a dangerous poison, great care 
 must be observed in making and using the arsenical dip. From the 
 time the arsenic is procured from the druggist until the last particle 
 of unused residue is properly disposed of, the most scrupulous care 
 should be taken in handling this poison. Guessing at weights or 
 measures or carelessness in any particular is liable to result in great 
 damage, and not only may valuable live-stock be destroyed, but human 
 beings may lose their lives as well. 
 
 In the use of arsenical dips care should be taken not only to avoid 
 swallowing any of the dip, but persons using the dip should also bear 
 in mind the possibility of absorbing arsenic through cuts, scratches, or 
 abrasions of the skin, and the possibility of absorbing arsenic by in- 
 halation of vapors from the boiler in which the dip is prepared or by 
 the inhalation of the finely divided spray when the spray pump is used. 
 It should be remembered that the absorption of even very small quan- 
 tities of arsenic, if repeated from day to day, is liable ultimately to re- 
 sult in arsenical poisoning. 
 
 Cattle should always be watered a short time before they are dipped. 
 After they emerge from the vat they should be kept on a draining-floor 
 until the dip ceases to run from their bodies ; then they should be placed 
 in a yard free of vegetation until they are entirely dry. If cattle are 
 allowed to drain in places where pools of dip collect, from which they 
 may drink, or are turned at once on the pasture, where the dip will 
 run from their bodies on the grass and other vegetation, serious losses 
 are liable to result. Crowding the animals before they are dry should 
 
TEXAS TICKS 433 
 
 also be avoided, and they should not be driven any considerable dis- 
 tance within a week after dipping, especially in hot weather. If many 
 repeated treatments are given, the cattle should not be treated oftener 
 than every two weeks. 
 
 In addition to protecting vats properly containing arsenical dip when 
 not in use, another precaution must be observed when vats are to be 
 emptied for cleaning. The dip should not be poured or allowed to flow 
 on land and vegetation to which cattle or other animals have access. 
 The best plan is to run the dip in a pit properly protected by fences. 
 The dip should not be deposited where it may be carried by seepage 
 into wells or springs which supply water used on the farm. The same 
 precautions should be observed when animals are sprayed as when 
 they are dipped. 
 
 Method of spraying. 
 
 Spraying is probably the most practicable and convenient way 
 of treating cattle on the majority of farms. A good tj^e of pail 
 spray pump, costing from $5 to $7, will be found to be satisfactory 
 for treating small herds. About fifteen feet of three-eighths-inch 
 high-pressure hose is required, and a type of nozzle furnishing a 
 cone-shaped spray of not too wide an angle will be found satis- 
 factory. A nozzle with a very small aperture should not be used, 
 because the spray produced is too fine to saturate properly the hair 
 and skin of the animals without consuming an unnecessary amount 
 of time. 
 
 The animal to be sprayed should be securely tied to one of the posts 
 of a board or rail "fence, or better still, when convenient, to the 
 corner post in an angle of the fence. This will facilitate the spray- 
 ing by preventing the animal from circling about to avoid the treat- 
 ment, and will reduce the amount of help necessary. Every position 
 of the body should be thoroughly treated, special attention being 
 given to the head, dewlap, brisket, inside of elbows, inside of thighs 
 and flanks, the tail, and the depressions at the base of the tail. 
 Crude oil alone may be used, but in general a 20 to 25 per cent 
 emulsion will be found more satisfactory. All the cattle on the 
 place should be sprayed every two weeks with this emulsion. The 
 horses and mules should be kept free of ticks by picking or other 
 means. 
 
 2p 
 
434 KXTKRNAL PARASITES OF ANIMALS 
 
 Disinjtdant fur ticks in infested stables. 
 
 Eradication will be inucli facilitated if at the beginning of the work 
 all litter and manure are removed from stables, sheds, and yards that 
 have been occupietl by the cattle, and deposited on land where cattle are 
 not permitted to run. After this is done, the buildings should be 
 thoroughly disinfected to tlestroy any eggs or ticks that may be there. 
 For thi.s purpose the following substances may be used : 
 
 1. A mi.xture made with not more than U pounds of lime and 
 i j)()und of pure carbolic acid to each gallon of water. 
 
 2. Any coal-tar creosote dip permitted by the United States Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture in the official dipping of sheep for scabies, 
 diluted to one-fifth of the maximum dilution specified for dipping 
 sheep. 
 
 A spray pump should be used to apply the disinfectant, and the 
 walls, floors, and various fixtures of the buildings should be thoroughly 
 sprayed. 
 
 Other External Parasites of Farm Animals (Crosby) 
 
 The iiiseclicides. 
 
 Following are the leading insecticidal substances used against fleas, 
 lice, ticks, and other pests of farm live-stock : — 
 
 Lime-and-sulfur dip. 
 
 Unslaked linic 8 lb. 
 
 Flowers of .sulfur 24 lb. 
 
 Water 100 gal. 
 
 Slake the lime in a little water and add the sulfur, stirring constantly. 
 Transfer the mass to 25 gallons of hot water, and boil for two 
 hours, adding water to replace that boiled away. Let the solution 
 stand until all .sediment has settled and then draw off the clear liquid 
 and dilute to 100 gallons. (U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry.) 
 
 Nicotine 8ohUio7is. — There are now on the market nicotine solutions 
 with a guaranteed strength of from 5 to 40 per cent of nicotine. 
 For uav. they should be so diluted as to give a solution containing 
 lEo of 1 per cent of nicotine, and I62 pounds of flowers of sulfur 
 should be added to each 100 gallons of the liquid. 
 
 I 
 
Eradication of ticks by rotation of fields (Graybill.) 
 
 nao A/0 2 a 
 
 OCZIZ.MOVCTHeHEnD. 
 TO niLO N0.3. 
 
 OATJ rewowco by 
 roR»G£. 
 
 nCLD NO.ZA. 
 SePT.Z2M0V€ THE 
 Hf«0 TO FIELD 
 N0 2B. 
 
 nn.0 N0.3, 
 CORN. 
 COItTCM. 
 
 neto NO. ♦. 
 
 COTTON. „ 
 
 nr£on crimson 
 Ctoven 
 
 P/?5TUflC: eCRMOO/J, \/rrCH,/?NO BUR CLOvea. 
 
 nao NO./ a . 
 srpT2 Movf rHfHffloTO nao 
 
 N02A. HiCP OUT ALLnNmALS 
 UNTIL JUlv/,k/HfN THI5FI£IL0 
 Mil 8t ffltf or TICKS /tNO ThC 
 TmPOmHY DOUBU fENU MAY BE 
 PEMOVEO. 
 
 I flELD NO. I R. 
 
 ! JUHi 15. MOVE THEHEHO TOnELP 
 
 [no.ib. KEfP our /lit animals „. 
 
 FROM THIS D/nC UNTIL NOV. I.UHCN 
 I THIS HELD WILL BE FREE OF TICK5. 
 
 OATS. 
 
 COWPlAi UNO 
 
 evncioveit. 
 
 HOVE HERD TO FIELD 
 
 C/tmEUILLBEFREE 
 OrTlCKSBY DEC. 20 
 BETWEEN THIS DATE 
 ANDFIBR.IS MOVE THE 
 
 HCRO TO new wa* 
 
 COTTON. 
 
 FIYi ANO 
 WINTlr, 
 
 riELO NO.IB. 
 OCT. IS- MOVE THr HEFtO TO FIELD 
 N0.2. 
 
 ! P/1STUFIE. 
 
 FIELD r;,i I n ^ — 
 
 \>«HYI.HINtHiROTQ P'KTURE NO.I B. 
 IHEEP ALL ANIMAi-a OVT OFTHIS 
 iFIELO UNTIL MAR.I,IMiN IT.UILLBC 
 IFREE orricKS. 
 
 Fig. 13. — Rotation plan for freeing planta- 
 tion in South from ticks in 4j mos. 
 
 Fig. 15. — Plan requiring 8 mos. 
 
 FIELD NO.Z. 
 
 CORN. 
 
 COWFCAS 
 
 niLD N0.3. 
 
 COTTON fOUOWCO 
 
 BY aiiMsoNaovai.vcToi. 
 euACLOvat or Arc. 
 
 HELD N0.4: 
 
 evA coavER 
 
 mVE THE HERD FROM 
 
 This FIELD TO FIELD 
 
 N0.3 
 
 FEBR. IS.HOIfETNCHCRO 
 TO FIELD NO * 
 
 BECOMES THE NEh' 
 P^STURC 
 
 E 
 
 FIELD NO 1 
 PASTURE. 
 OCT is: MOVE HCRO TO FIELD NO.Z. 
 PLANT IN O/fT.5 AND FOLLOM kJITH CQWPUH 
 
 miD N0.4t 
 COffN. 
 
 COI^EAi. 
 
 FIELD ND^/i. I 
 
 OATS. I 
 
 SORCHUM ANO COWPCAS. I 
 
 OR 1 
 
 MILL IT AND COWPUS. 
 
 .HOyi.RETURN HERO TO PASTURE. 
 
 LOTMOi 
 
 AiK.mMon 
 
 HIAO TO 
 
 L0TN0.2. 
 
 Miyisnm 
 
 MIHD TO lOT 
 N0.3. 
 
 iTNO.I. _, 
 
 JULrSHOtt 
 
 HOOTOim 
 
 HO. 2. 
 
 riELD NO.Z. 
 COTTON. 
 COUPtAS. 
 
 milium 
 
 [H0J3C 
 
 BE FREE OF TICKS. 
 
 Fig. 14. — Plan 
 
 requiring 4 mos., with 
 pasture. 
 
 new 
 
 435 
 
 Fig. 16. — Feed-lot or soiling method of elimi- 
 nating ticks. 
 
436 EXTERNAL PARASITES OF ANIMALS 
 
 Commercial dips. — There are a large number of these proprietary- 
 dips on the market, many of which contain as the active agent coal- 
 tar derivatives. Use only those that have the approval of the 
 United States Department of Agriculture, and follow closely the 
 directions given on the container. 
 
 Crude oil emulsion (for spraying stock). 
 
 Soap lib. 
 
 Crude oil 4 gal. 
 
 Water 1 gal. 
 
 Dissolve the soap in hot water, and while still hot add the oil slowly 
 and agitate into an emulsion by pumping the mixture back into itself. 
 For use, dilute with water so as to secure a 20 or 30 per cent 
 emulsion (see p. 430). 
 
 Lice powder. 
 
 Gasoline 3 parts 
 
 Crude carbolic acid (90-95 per cent strength) 1 part 
 
 Mix these together, and then stir in enough plaster of Paris to take 
 up all the moisture. If properly made, a dry pinkish powder will be 
 the result. If good crude carbolic acid of the proper strength cannot 
 be obtained, cresol may be substituted, but will not give quite as good 
 results. Store in a closed can or jar. 
 
 Cresol disinfecting soap. — Measure out 3| quarts of raw linseed 
 oil in a four or five-gallon stone crock ; then weigh out in a dish 1 
 pound 6 ounces of commercial lye or " Babbit's potash." Dis- 
 solve this lye in as little water as will completcl}'' dissolve it. Start 
 with 2 pint of water, and if this will not dissolve all the lye, add 
 more water slowly. Let this stand for at least three hours until the 
 lye is completely dissolved and the solution is cold ; then add the cold 
 lye solution very slowly to the linseed oil, stirring constantly. Not 
 less than five minutes should be taken for the adding of this solution of 
 lye to the oil. After the lye is added, continue the stirring until the 
 mixture is in the condition and has the texture of a smooth, homoge- 
 neous liquid soap. This ought not to take more than a half hour. 
 Then, while the soap is in this liquid state, and before it has a chance 
 to harden, add with constant stirring, 8§ quarts of commercial 
 cresol. The cresol will blend perfectly with the soap solution and 
 
INSECTICIDES FOR ANIMALS 437 
 
 make a clear, dark brown fluid. The resulting solution of cresol 
 soap is then ready to use. This cresol soap will mix in any pro- 
 portion with water and yield a clear solution. Use a 20 per cent 
 solution for disinfecting chicken houses, incubators, etc. 
 
 The kinds of parasites (Crosby) . 
 
 Following are the leading external parasites of cattle, horses, sheep 
 and swine (for parasites of poultry, see page 377). 
 
 Cattle. Ox BOT-FLY OR WARBLE-FLY {Hypoderma bovis and H. 
 lineata). — Large lumps or warbles along the animal's back filled with 
 pus, within which a large, thick-bodied maggot develops. When full 
 grown these maggots, about an inch in length, work their way out 
 through the skin, fall to the earth, and there after a time transform to 
 a large blackish fly with yellow markings. The flies glue their eggs 
 to the hair of the host, usually around the heels and flanks. The 
 eggs are licked off by the animal, hatch in the mouth or oesophagus, 
 and the larva bores its way through the tissues until it comes to lie 
 under the skin along the back. The cattle have an instinctive dread 
 of the flies, and are thrown into a panic by their presence. Badly 
 infested animals lose flesh, and the flow of milk is greatly reduced ; 
 the holes made in the skin also decrease the value of the hide. 
 
 Treatment. — Squeeze out and crush the grubs and disinfect the 
 sore. The practice of killing the grub under the skin by the application 
 of grease or kerosene is more liable to cause an infection from the de- 
 caying maggot and produce a serious sore. 
 
 Horn-fly {Hcematohia serrata). — Flies considerably smaller than 
 the house-fly, which they closely resemble in shape and color. They at- 
 tack cattle in great numbers, clustering on any part of the body and 
 sucking blood. They have the peculiar habit of resting in dense 
 clusters on the horns. The eggs are laid and the maggots develop in 
 fresh droppings, and the transformation to the fly takes place in the 
 ground. 
 
 Treatment. — Spread out or mix with lime the manure as soon as de- 
 posited, to prevent the development of the maggots. Let hogs run 
 with the cattle ; scatter the manure. Spray the animals with crude 
 oil emulsion often enough to prevent attack, or apply train oil or 
 a mixture of two parts of crude cottonseed oil and one pint of pine 
 tar. The last two may be applied with a large brush, and remain 
 
438 EXTERNAL PARASITES OF ANIMALS 
 
 effective fcr four or five days. Where the flies have produced sores, 
 treat them with a weak solution of carbolic acid. On the range 
 where large numbers of animals are to be treated, dip them in a 
 dipping vat provided with a splash-board which will throw the 
 spray down on the animal and kill most of the flies. Use any of 
 the oily dips recommended for the Texas-fever tick. 
 
 Cattle lice {Ihrmatopinus spp. and Trichodedes scalaris). — 
 Cattle are especially liable to become infested with lice during the 
 winter and early spring. They acquire a generally unthrifty look, and 
 the flow of milk is greatly lessened. On young stock the injurious 
 effects are more noticeable ; lousy calves are thin and do not make 
 the proper growth. 
 
 Treatment. — When the weather will permit, spray or wash infested 
 animals with a 10 per cent kerosene emulsion or the nicotine-and-sulfur 
 sheep dip as used for sheep scab. 
 
 Southern buffalo-gnat (Simulium peciianan). — A small black 
 gnat or punkie occurring in the lower Mississippi Valley, where it causes 
 immense loss to the live-stock interests. The larva? are aquatic, and 
 are able to develop only in swiftly running waters. The gnats appear 
 in great swarms in early spring and attack cattle, mules, horses, sheep, 
 and other animals in countless numbers. They feed by sucking the 
 blood and at the same time inject a poison into the wound, causing 
 great distress and producing an acute inflammation. Animals in poor 
 condition from exposure or lack of food are frequently killed. 
 
 Treatment. — Protect the animals by smudges producing a dense 
 smoke, or keep them in dark stables until the swarms of gnats have 
 disappeared. Working teams can be protected by using train-oil or 
 the cotton-seed oil and tar mixture advised, under Horn-fly. To 
 reduce the irritation caused by the bites, rub the animal thoroughly 
 with water of ammonia and give internally a mixture of 40 to 50 
 grains of carbonate of ammonia in a pint of whiskey, and repeat 
 the treatment every three or four hours until relieved. 
 
 ScREW-woRM fly ( Chrysomyia macellaria) . — Whitish maggots, 
 three-fourths inch in length when full grown, infesting sores and wounds 
 of animals in the Southern States. The eggs are laid on the wounds 
 in masses of 100 or more by a bright, metallic green fly a little larger 
 than the house-fly. The maggots enter the wound, feed on the putrid 
 matter within, and as they increase in size burrow into the flesh, fre- 
 
CATTLE AND HORSE PARASITES 439 
 
 quently excavating a large cavity. The purulent discharge from 
 such sores attracts other flies to lay their eggs, more maggots enter 
 the wound, and unless aid is rendered the animal dies. A slight scratch 
 or merely a mass of blood from a crushed tick may serve as a starting- 
 point for the trouble. The flies also breed in decaying carcasses. 
 
 Treatment. — Prevent the deposition of eggs by washing all wounds 
 as soon as noticed with a disinfectant, and then apply a dressing of 
 pine tar or tar and grease. When wounds are found infested, dislodge 
 the maggots by injections of carbolic acid diluted with 30 parts of 
 water, or one of the coal-tar sheep dips may be used. After the maggots 
 have been removed and the sore thoroughly disinfected, dress the 
 wound with a coating of pine tar. Deep sores should be packed with 
 sterilized absorbent cotton. 
 
 By careful attention to the destruction of garbage, carcasses, and other 
 filth in which the maggots breed in enormous numbers, much loss may 
 be avoided. Carcasses left to decay exposed to the air about pastures 
 are constant sources of danger. 
 
 Horse. Horse bot-fly {Gastrophilus equi). — The light yellow 
 eggs are glued to the hairs on the shoulders, forelegs, and under side 
 of the body by a brownish fly about three-fourths inch in length. 
 By licking these parts the egg-cap is removed and young maggots taken 
 into the mouth. On reaching the stomach they attach themselves 
 to the walls and remain there until the following spring. When abun- 
 dant they may nearly cover the whole inner surface of the stomach, 
 interfere with the secretion of the digestive juices, and by collecting 
 near the pyloric opening prevent the natural passage of the food from 
 the stomach. When mature they loosen their hold and are voided 
 with the excrement in late spring. These full-grown bots are 
 about three-fourths inch in length ; they burrow into the ground 
 where the pupal stage is passed. The flies emerge thuiy or forty 
 days later. 
 
 Treatment. — Remove the eggs within a week after they have been 
 deposited by clipping the hair, or destroy them by washing with a solu- 
 tion of carbolic acid in 30 parts of warm water. When only a few 
 bots are present in the stomach, they do not seem to cause the animal 
 inconvenience ; when very abundant, they may cause fretting and 
 colic, and the horse may loose flesh. In such cases consult a veteri- 
 narian. 
 
440 EXTERNAL PARASITES OF ANIMALS 
 
 Sheep. Sheep bot-fly or head-maggot {CEstris ovif^). — The 
 dark brownish parent flics, somewhat larger tlian tlie house-fly, emerge 
 during June and July, and deposit living maggots in the nostrils of sheep. 
 The animals have an instinctive fear of the flies, and are thrown into 
 a panic by their attack. The maggots work their way up the nostril, 
 and find lodgment in the frontal sinuses, where they feed on the 
 mucus. Their presence causes great irritation and the discharge of 
 purulent matter. Sometimes the maggots penetrate into the brain 
 cavity, and death may result. 
 
 Treatment. — It is almost impossible to dislodge the maggots by the 
 injection of any substance, and such treatment is not advised. Never 
 try to extract them with a wire. To prevent the flies from depositing 
 their young, smear the sheep's nose with tar and grease. This is most 
 easily done by placing in the pasture logs in which holes have been 
 bored. Salt is placed in the holes, and the edges smeared with 
 grease and tar. In trying to get the salt the sheep will keep their noses 
 covered with the tar. 
 
 Sheep scab {Psoroptes communis). — The cause of this disease 
 is a minute mite which lives on the skin under a scab or crust and causes 
 the wool to fall out in large irregular patches. The irritation causes 
 intense itching, the sheep become restless, lose in weight and vitality, 
 and in severe cases die. The disease is contagious and may be trans- 
 mitted either directly from animal to animal or by means of infested 
 quarters, cars or pasture fields. 
 
 Treatment. — Dip the infested or suspected animals in some reliable 
 sheep dip at the temperature of about 100° Fahrenheit ; hold the 
 sheep in the liquid two or three minutes, and immerse the head once 
 or twice just before the sheep is released. Soften thick scabs before 
 dipping by wetting with some of the dip and by rubbing with a smooth 
 stick, taking care not to draw blood. Repeat the dipping in ten days 
 or two weeks to kill any mites which may have hatched from eggs since 
 the last treatment. After dipping do not return the sheep to the same 
 field in less than thirty days, to avoid reinfestation. When it is necessary 
 to return the sheep to the same barn or pen, these quarters should be 
 thoroughly cleaned and disinfected with cresol or some other coal-tar 
 dip, used at the rate of one part to 50 parts of water. The addition 
 of whitewash to the disinfectant will serve as a marker and show when 
 the work has been thoroughly done. Avoid introducing the disease 
 
SHEEP AND SWINE PARASITES 441 
 
 by having all sheep brought from infested regions dipped before 
 delivery. 
 
 Sheep tick {Melophagns ovinus). — Reddish or gray brown, flat- 
 tened, wingless flies that infest sheep of all ages, but are most in- 
 jurious to lambs. They remain on the sheep throughout their 
 whole life cycle. The young are nourished within the mother until 
 full grown, and are ready to pupate when born. 
 
 Treatment. — The nicotine-and-sulfur dip has given the best results 
 in the control of this pest ; many of the commercial cresol and coal-tar 
 creosote dips are also effective. The lime-and-sulfur dip will not kill 
 the ticks. When only a few are to be treated, kerosene emulsion may 
 be used as a spray and rubbed into the wool. 
 
 Swine. Hog louse (Hcematopinus suis). — Lousy hogs are likely 
 to be in a stunted, unthrifty condition, and when badly infested the 
 skin becomes covered with scales and sores. 
 
 Treatment. — Clean and whitewash the pens and sleeping quarters, 
 adding 1 pint of crude carbolic acid to each 4 gallons of the wl ite- 
 wash. Spray or dip infested animals with 10 per cent kerosene 
 emulsion, or use the tobacco-and-sulfur sheep dip. Repeat the ap- 
 plication in two weeks to kill any lice that may have escaped. A 
 wallowing trough containing five to eight inches of water on which is 
 floated a thin layer of crude oil is frequently used with success. 
 
CHAPTER XXIV 
 
 Milk and Milk Products; D.\iry Farms 
 
 Dairying comprises two occupations, — dairy husbandry, or 
 the producing of milk ; and dairy industry, or the marketing and 
 manufacturing of milk and milk products. This chapter is designed 
 to compass chiefly some phases of the latter subject. 
 
 Composition of Milk 
 Composition of cow's milk 
 
 Constituents 
 
 Quantity in 
 Average Milk 
 
 Extent of Varia- 
 tion in Normal 
 Milk 
 
 Fat 
 
 Per Cent 
 4.0 
 2.6 
 0.7 
 5.0 
 0.7 
 87.0 
 
 2.5-8.0 
 
 
 2.0-3.5 
 
 Albumen 
 
 'Sugar 
 
 Ash 
 
 0.6-0.9 
 4.0-6.0 
 0.6-0.8 
 
 Water 
 
 84.0-88.0 
 
 
 
 Fat in milk is in the form of minute globules having a diameter of 
 1-55(5 to W66 of an inch. These float in the milk, forming an emulsion. 
 When highly magnified, these fat globules may be easily seen. In any 
 milk, many different sizes of globules are found, but the average size of 
 globules in Jersey and Guernsey milk is much larger than the average 
 size of globules in the milk given by other breeds. As the specific 
 gravity of the fat is .93 and the specific gravity of the remainder of the 
 milk is about 1.04, the fat globules always tend to rise. They are more 
 or less entangled by other constituents of the milk, and great numbers 
 of the smallest sized globules fail to reach the top, or the cream layer 
 (Pearson). 
 
 Milk-fat is a mixture of several different fats which are combinations 
 
 442 
 
COMPOSITION OF MILK 
 
 443 
 
 of glycerine and fatty acids. The principal fats and their proportion 
 in milk-fat are as follows: — 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Palmitin 40 
 
 Olein , 34 
 
 Myristin 10 
 
 Butyrin 6 
 
 A few others vary from 1 to 3 per cent each. 
 
 Butyrin is the characteristic butter-fat, and is absent from butter 
 substitutes, such as oleomargarine. The melting-point of milk-fat is 
 about 92° F. (Pearson). 
 
 Average composition of milk of various kinds (U. S. Dept. Agric.) 
 
 Kind of 
 
 Water 
 
 Total 
 
 
 Protein 
 
 Fat 
 
 Carbo 
 hydrates 
 
 Mineral 
 
 Fuel 
 Value 
 
 Milk 
 
 Solids 
 
 
 
 (Milk 
 Sugar) 
 
 Matters 
 
 
 
 Casein 
 
 Albumin 
 
 Total 
 
 
 Pound 
 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 ^dories 
 
 Woman 
 
 87.58 
 
 12.6 
 
 0.80 
 
 1.21 
 
 2.01 
 
 3.74 
 
 6.37 
 
 0.30 
 
 310 
 
 Cow . . 
 
 87.27 
 
 12.8 
 
 2.88 
 
 0.51 
 
 3.39 
 
 3.68 
 
 4.94 
 
 0.72 
 
 310 
 
 Goat 
 
 86.88 
 
 13.1 
 
 2.87 
 
 0.89 
 
 3.76 
 
 4.07 
 
 4.64 
 
 0.85 
 
 315 
 
 Sheep . 
 
 83.57 
 
 16.4 
 
 4.17 
 
 0.98 
 
 5.15 
 
 6.18 
 
 4.73 
 
 0.96 
 
 410 
 
 Buffalo 
 
 82.16 
 
 
 4.26 
 
 0.46 
 
 
 7.51 
 
 4.77 
 
 0.84 
 
 
 (Indian) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Zebu . . 
 
 86.13 
 
 
 
 
 3.03 
 
 4.80 
 
 5.34 
 
 0.70 
 
 
 Camel . 
 
 87.13 
 
 
 3.49 
 
 0.38 
 
 
 2.87 
 
 5.39 
 
 0.74 
 
 
 Llama . 
 
 86.55 
 
 
 3.00 
 
 0.90 
 
 
 3.15 
 
 5.60 
 
 0.80 
 
 
 
 Reindeer 
 
 67.20 
 
 
 8.38 
 
 1.51 
 
 
 17.09 
 
 2.82 
 
 1.49 
 
 
 Mare 
 
 90.58 
 
 9.9 
 
 1.30 
 
 0.75 
 
 
 1.14 
 
 5.87 
 
 0.36 
 
 
 
 Ass . . 
 
 90.12 
 
 10.4 
 
 0.79 
 
 1.06 
 
 
 1.37 
 
 6.19 
 
 0.47 
 
 215 
 
 Average composition of typical cow's milk (Conn. Sta.) 
 
 Authority 
 
 English (Richmond, 1906) . . . 
 (Richmond, 1907) . . . 
 (Richmond, 1908) . . . 
 
 (Vieth) 
 
 Canadian (McGill) 
 
 German (Koenig) 
 
 German (Fleischmann) 
 
 Dutch (Fleischmann) 
 
 American (Van Slyke) 
 
 (Van Slyke, cheese factory) 
 
 (Voorhees, Ayrshire) . . 
 
 (Voorhees, Guernsey) . . 
 
 (Voorhees, Holstein) . 
 
 (Voorhees, Jersey) . 
 
 (Voorhees, Shorthorn) 
 
 Total 
 
 Fat 
 
 Solids 
 
 Solids 
 
 NOT Fat 
 
 12.70 
 
 3.73 
 
 8.97 
 
 12.64 
 
 3.71 
 
 8.93 
 
 12.69 
 
 3.75 
 
 8.94 
 
 12.90 
 
 4.10 
 
 8.80 
 
 12.62 
 
 3.80 
 
 8.82 
 
 12.83 
 
 3.69 
 
 9.14 
 
 12.25 
 
 3.40 
 
 8.85 
 
 12.00 
 
 3.25 
 
 8.75 
 
 12.90 
 
 3.90 
 
 9.00 
 
 12.60 
 
 3.75 
 
 8.85 
 
 12.70 
 
 3.68 
 
 9.02 
 
 14.48 
 
 5.02 
 
 9.46 
 
 12.12 
 
 3.51 
 
 8.61 
 
 14.34 
 
 4.78 
 
 9.56 
 
 12.45 
 
 3.65 
 
 8.80 
 
 Per Cent 
 OF Fat 
 IN Solids 
 
 29.37 
 29.35 
 29.56 
 31.78 
 30.11 
 28.76 
 27.25 
 27.08 
 30.23 
 29.76 
 29.05 
 34.66 
 28.96 
 33.33 
 29.32 
 
444 
 
 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS; DAIRY FARMS 
 
 The milk of different breeds. 
 
 The analyses of large numbers of samples of milk given by different 
 breeds have been made by the New York Agricultural Experiment 
 Station, and the averages of fat for the different breeds are : — 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Holstein-Friesian 3.4 
 
 Ayrshire 3.6 
 
 Shorthorn 4.4 
 
 Devon 4.6 
 
 Guernsey 5.3 
 
 Jersey 5.6 
 
 Composition of milk solids from six breeds of cows (Van Slyke) 
 
 Breed of Cow 
 
 Holstein 
 
 American Holderness 
 
 Devon 
 
 Ayrshire 
 
 Guernsey . . . . 
 Jersey 
 
 Fat 
 
 Casein 
 
 Sugar 
 
 28.0 
 
 27.4 
 
 39.1 
 
 28.1 
 
 26.8 
 
 39.7 
 
 30.1 
 
 27.3 
 
 36.8 
 
 27.3 
 
 26.3 
 
 40.8 
 
 35.1 
 
 24.7 
 
 35.0 
 
 36.4 
 
 25.4 
 
 33.4 
 
 Ash 
 
 5.93 
 5.53 
 5.52 
 5.34 
 5.16 
 4.82 
 
 Ash in cow's milk and its products (Simon) 
 
 Whole milk 0074 
 
 Skim milk 0074 
 
 Cream 0061 
 
 Buttermilk 0067 
 
 Whey 0065 
 
 Mineral constituents in milk (Abderhalden) 
 
 Specieh 
 
 Human 
 DoK . 
 Swine 
 Sheep 
 Goat . 
 Cow . 
 Horse 
 Rabbit 
 
 Potas- 
 sium 
 
 Sodium 
 
 Chlo- 
 rine 
 
 Iron 
 
 Cal- 
 cium 
 
 Mag- 
 nesium 
 
 Phos- 
 phor- 
 us 
 
 Parts per hundred 
 
 066 
 
 .190 
 
 .047 
 
 .0006 
 
 .035 
 
 .004 
 
 .025 
 
 .115 
 
 .058 
 
 .166 
 
 .0014 
 
 .325 
 
 .012 
 
 .222 
 
 .078 
 
 .058 
 
 .076 
 
 .0028 
 
 .178 
 
 .010 
 
 .135 
 
 .810 
 
 .064 
 
 .130 
 
 .0029 
 
 .175 
 
 .090 
 
 .128 
 
 .108 
 
 .046 
 
 .102 
 
 .0025 
 
 .141 
 
 .090 
 
 .124 
 
 .148 
 
 .072 
 
 .137 
 
 .0015 
 
 .119 
 
 .014 
 
 .083 
 
 .087 
 
 .010 
 
 .031 
 
 .0014 
 
 .089 
 
 .008 
 
 .057 
 
 .209 
 
 .147 
 
 .135 
 
 .0014 
 
 .637 
 
 .033 
 
 .435 
 
 0.20 
 1.33 
 0.80 
 0.84 
 0.78 
 0.70 
 0.40 
 2.50 
 
COMPOSITION OF MILK 
 
 445 
 
 Variation in average composition of 574 samples of market butter samples 
 collected each month for a period of one year (Illinois Experiment 
 Station) . 
 
 Month Collected 
 
 March }, 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July . 
 
 August . 
 
 September 
 
 October 
 
 November 
 
 December 
 
 January 
 
 February 
 
 Average 
 
 Number 
 
 Samples 
 
 each 
 
 Month 
 
 47 
 49 
 49 
 49 
 40 
 37 
 54 
 49 
 50 
 41 
 53 
 56 
 
 Water 
 
 13.59 
 12.94 
 13.48 
 13.23 
 13.92 
 13.64 
 13.31 
 14.05 
 13.31 
 13.35 
 14.16 
 13.54 
 13.54 
 
 Percent 
 
 Fat 
 
 82.73 
 83.34 
 
 82.97 
 83.58 
 82.83 
 83.57 
 83.64 
 82.73 
 83.53 
 83.56 
 82.59 
 83.29 
 83.20 
 
 Salt 
 
 Casein and 
 Ash 
 
 0.74 
 0.85 
 0.82 
 0.94 
 0.99 
 1.04 
 0.90 
 
 Nutrients and energy in 1 pound of the water-free edible portion of 
 several food materials in comparison with milk (United States Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture) . 
 
 Fooo Materialb 
 
 Protein 
 
 Fat 
 
 Carbohy- 
 drates 
 
 Mineral 
 Matter 
 
 Fuel 
 
 Value 
 
 Whole milk 
 
 Skim milk (0.3 per cent fat) 
 
 Buttermilk 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Pound 
 
 0.25 
 .36 
 .33 
 .39 
 
 Pound 
 
 0.31 
 .03 
 .06 
 .52 
 .40 
 .66 
 .01 
 .02 
 .01 
 .03 
 
 Pound 
 
 0.39 
 .55 
 .53 
 .03 
 
 .85 
 .82 
 .85 
 .92 
 
 Pound 
 0.05 
 .06 
 .08 
 .06 
 .03 
 .08 
 .01 
 .01 
 .04 
 .02 
 
 Calories 
 
 2,475 
 1,835 
 1,845 
 2,990 
 
 Beef, round 
 
 Smoked ham 
 
 Wheat flour 
 
 Wheat bread 
 
 Potatoes ... 
 
 Apples 
 
 .57 
 .26 
 .13 
 .15 
 .10 
 .03 
 
 2,750 
 3.275 
 1,865 
 1,865 
 1,790 
 1,885 
 
 
 
 
446 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS ; DAIRY FARMS 
 
 Average composition of milk products and other food (U. S. Dept. Agric.) 
 
 Material 
 
 Whole milk 
 
 Skim milk 
 
 Cream 
 
 Buttermilk 
 
 Whey 
 
 Condensed milk, unsweetened 
 
 Condensed milk, sweetened . . 
 
 Butter 
 
 Cheese, American Cheddar . . 
 
 Cheese, cottage 
 
 Cheese, Swiss 
 
 Milk powder (from skimmed milk) 
 
 Kephir 
 
 Koumiss 
 
 Infant and invalid foods, farina- 
 ceous 
 
 Infant and invalid foods contain- 
 ing milk and starches 
 
 Infant and invalid foods, malted 
 preparations 
 
 Beef, sirloin steak 
 
 Eggs as purchased 
 
 Wheat flour, patent roller process 
 
 Wheat bread, white 
 
 Beans, baked 
 
 Potatoes, as purchased .... 
 
 Apples, as purchased .... 
 
 Refuse 
 
 Per cent 
 
 12.8 
 11.2 
 
 Water 
 
 Per cent 
 87.0 
 90.5 
 74.0 
 91.0 
 93.0 
 71.3 
 26.0 
 13.0 
 33.5 
 53.0 
 31.4 
 3.0 
 89.6 
 90.7 
 
 9.4 
 
 4.3 
 
 4.2 
 54.0 
 65.5 
 12.0 
 35.3 
 68.9 
 62.6 
 63.3 
 
 Pro- 
 tein 
 
 Per cent 
 
 3.3 
 
 3.4 
 
 2.5 
 
 3.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 7.4 
 
 8.2 
 
 1.0 
 
 26.0 
 
 19.6 
 
 27.6 
 
 34.0 
 
 3.1 
 
 2.2 
 
 9.4 
 
 9.6 
 
 12.0 
 
 16.5 
 
 11.9 
 
 11.4 
 
 9.2 
 
 6.9 
 
 1.8 
 
 3 
 
 Fat 
 
 Per cent 
 
 4.0 
 
 .3 
 
 18.5 
 
 .5 
 
 .3 
 
 8.5 
 
 9.6 
 
 83.0 
 
 35.5 
 
 23.2 
 
 34.9 
 
 3.1 
 
 2.0 
 
 2.1 
 
 0.4 
 
 3.8 
 
 1.0 
 16.1 
 9.3 
 1.0 
 1.3 
 2.5 
 0.1 
 0.3 
 
 Carbo- 
 hy- 
 drates 
 
 Per cent 
 5.0 
 5.1 
 4.5 
 4.8 
 5.0 
 11.1 
 54.3 
 
 1.5 
 2.1 
 1.3 
 51.9 
 4.5 » 
 4.12 
 
 79.93 
 
 80.2^ 
 
 79.8^ 
 
 7.51 
 53.1 
 19.6 
 14.7 
 10.8 
 
 Ash 
 
 cent 
 
 .7 
 
 .7 
 
 .5 
 
 ,7 
 
 ,7 
 
 ,7 
 
 .9 
 
 ,0 
 
 5 
 
 ,1 
 
 ,8 
 
 
 
 ,8 
 
 ,9 
 
 3.9 
 
 2.1 
 
 3.0 
 0.9 
 0.9 
 0.5 
 1.1 
 2.1 
 0.8 
 0.3 
 
 ' Including 2.1 per cent alcohol and 0.8 per cent lactic acid. 
 2 Including 1.7 per cent alcohol and 0.9 per cent lactic acid. 
 ' Including 6.62 per cent soluble carbohydrates (sugars). 
 
 * Including 49.05 per cent soluble carbohydrates (sugars). 
 
 * Including 48.39 per cent soluble carbohydrates (sugars). 
 
 Milk, Butter, and Cheese Tests 
 
 Babcock test for hutter-fnt (Pearson). 
 
 A measured sample of milk is mixed with strong sulfuric acid, which 
 dissolves all of the milk constituents except the fat. The mixture of 
 milk and acid is then subjected to centrifugal force in a specially con- 
 structed machine, by whicli the fat is separated from the heavy liquid, 
 and, after the addition of water, the fat is brought into a part of the 
 bottle where it can be (juickly measured. The entire test can be made 
 in fifteen to twenty minutes. 
 
MILK TESTS 447 
 
 In detail the test is made as follows : The milk to be sampled is 
 thoroughly mixed by pouring it several times from one vessel to another. 
 By means of a milk pipette, or measure, graduated to hold 17.6 cc, 
 this quantity of milk is transferred to a special form of bottle, which 
 has a capacity of a little more than one ounce and a long neck with 
 graduations or per cent marks from to 10. The cubic capacity of 
 the neck, from to 10, is exactly 2 cc. This is the volume of 1.8 grams 
 of melted fat, which is the substance to be measured on the scale. As 
 the bottle is so graduated that 1.8 grams represents 10 per cent, it 
 is necessary to use a sample weighing ten times as much, or 18 grams, 
 and it is found that the 17.6 cc. pipette will deliver approximately 
 this weight of milk. There is then added 17.5 cc. of concentrated 
 commercial sulfuric acid, having a specific gravity of 1.82 to 1.83. 
 The acid and milk are mixed by a rotary motion. The action of 
 the acid on the water and solids of the milk generates considerable 
 heat. The sample is promptly placed in a centrifugal machine and 
 whirled for five minutes. Hot water is then added to bring the fat 
 to the base of the neck. It is then whirled two minutes, and more 
 hot water is carefully added until the fat rises in the neck so that it is 
 opposite the graduations. The sample is then whirled one minute, 
 to insure collecting as much fat as possible in the neck. While the fat 
 is still warm, its percentage is ascertained by reading the marks at its 
 upper and lower levels and taking the difference between them. 
 
 The cost of a small complete outfit for testing milk is $6 to SIO. 
 
 Computing total sol'ds of milk. 
 
 Babcock and Richmond have proposed formulae for computing the 
 total solids of milk. One of the best is : — 
 
 - + 1.2 F + .14 = total solids. 
 4 
 
 L represents the second and third decimal figures of the specific gravity, 
 or the Quevenne reading, and F represents the percentage of fat. This 
 formula is used largely, and for practical purposes agrees closely enough 
 with results of gravimetric analysis. 
 
 Test for acid in milk (Pearson). 
 
 It is not practicable to isolate lactic acid from milk and measure it as 
 milk-fat is measured. But its quantity can be easily determined by 
 
448 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS; DAIRY FARMS 
 
 slowly lukling to a known weight of milk an alkali of known strength 
 until all the acid is neutralized. The neutralization is indicated by 
 phenolphthalein, which wa^ previously added to the milk and which 
 causes the milk to turn pink as soon as it begins to show an alkaline 
 reaction. It is customary (Mann's test) to use deci-normal alkali 
 solution, 1 cc. of which will neutralize .009 gram of lactic acid. The 
 equipment includes, besides the neutralizer and phenolphthalein, a 
 burette for measuring the neutralizer, cup and glass rod. If twenty 
 grams of milk is used and it requires 6 cc. of alkali to neutralize the 
 acid, it is known that the milk contains 6X.009 or .054 gram of lactic 
 acid, or .27 per cent. Alkali tablets (Farrington's), each capable of 
 neutralizing .034 gram of acid, are on the market. They may be 
 used in solution instead of the deci-normal solution. 
 
 Test for boiled milk. 
 
 It is sometimes desirable to determine whether milk has been sub- 
 jected to 176° F. or higher heat. A successful test has been devised 
 by Storch. To 5 cc. of the suspected milk add a few drops of potassium 
 iodid and a similar quantity of starch solution, also a few drops of 
 hydrogen peroxid. If the milk has not been cooked, an enzyme which 
 is present will decompose the hydrogen peroxid, setting free oxygen. 
 This combines with the potassium salt, and thus iodine is in turn set 
 free and with the starch it forms a purple color. If the milk has been 
 heated so that the enzyme is killed, no color will result. 
 
 Another test for cooked milk is given by Arnold, as follows : Tincture 
 of guaiac is added, drop by drop, to a little milk in a test-tube. If the 
 milk has not been heated to 176° F., a blue zone is formed between 
 the two fluids. If it has been heated, there is no reaction. The guaiac- 
 wood tincture is said to be more reliable than other tinctures, and it 
 should not be used when fresh, but when at least a few days old and its 
 potency has been determined. 
 
 The lactotneter test for specific gravity in milk (Pearson). 
 
 As the specific gravity of milk is markedly changed when it is adul- 
 terated by the addition of water or the removal of cream, the lactometer 
 is an important instrument to indicate such adulteration. It is of 
 little use if both kinds of adulteration have been practiced on the 
 same sample of milk, as the increase in weight due to removal of 
 cream can be offset by the addition of water, which is lighter than 
 
MILK TESTS 449 
 
 skimmed milk. In connection with the Babcock test, the lactometer 
 is most valuable, and several formulae are in use by which the solids 
 not fat or the total solids of milk may be closely computed from the 
 specific gravity and the fat test. 
 
 The lactometer is a form of hydrometer adapted especially for use 
 in milk. Several styles are in use, the Quevenne being the most con- 
 venient because its readings indicate the specific gravity without the 
 necessity of more than a simple mental calculation. The readings 
 on the stem of the Quevenne lactometer are from 15 to 40, and they 
 represent the second and third decimal figures of the specific gravity, 
 the preceding figures always being 1.0 ; thus, a reading of 29 represents 
 a specific gravity of 1.029. This instrument should be used in milk 
 at a temperature of 60° F. If the temperature varies therefrom, a cor- 
 rection of the reading must be made, .1 of a lactometer degree being 
 added to the reading for each degree of temperature of the milk above 
 60° F. or if the temperature is below 60° F, .1 of a lactometer degree 
 is subtracted from the reading for each degree of temperature of 
 the milk below 60° F. Thus, if the lactometer reads 31 at a tem- 
 perature of 65° F., the corrected reading for 60° F. would be 31.5, and 
 the specific gravity of this milk at 60° F. would be 1.0315. Special 
 tables for making corrections for different temperatures are published 
 in books treating on the subject. Bj^ the rule given, it is not advis- 
 able to attempt to correct for a variation of more than 10° from 60° F. 
 
 Another style of lactometer in common use is know^n as the New 
 York Board of Health lactometer. Its graduations are from 10 to 120. 
 The instrument stands at 100 in milk having a specific gravity of 1.029, 
 and it would stand at 0, if graduated to that point, in a fluid having a 
 specific gravity of 1. Thus, 100° in the B of H lactometer equals 29° 
 on the Quevenne lactometer, and it is a simple matter to compute the 
 equivalent reading of one lactometer for any given reading on the other 
 by the formula : — 
 
 Q = .29BofH, orBof H = -^. 
 
 .29 
 
 Test for boric acid or borax used as preservatives (Van Slyke). 
 
 Add lime-water to 25 cc. of milk until the mixture is alkaline to phe- 
 nalphthalein ; evaporate to drj'ness and burn to an ash in a small por- 
 celain or platinum dish. Add a few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid 
 2a 
 
450 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS; DAIRY FARMS 
 
 to the ash, care being taken not to use too much acid, then add a few 
 drops of water, and place a strip of turmeric paper in this water solution. 
 Dry the paper, and if either borax or boric acid is present, a cherry- 
 red color will api)ear. This test is confirmed by moistening the red- 
 dened paper with a drop of an alkali solution, w^hen the paper will turn 
 to a dark olive color, if borax or boric acid is present. 
 
 Test for formaldehyde in milk. 
 
 This test can be performed in connection with the Babcock test. 
 Measure into the Babcock test bottle 17.6 cc. of milk. Add five 
 or six drops of ferric chloride solution and shake thoroughly. Add 
 17.5 cc. of sulfuric acid, but do not mix the acid and milk. If 
 formaldehyde is present, a lavender-colored ring will appear at 
 the point of contact of the acid and milk. If the contents of the 
 bottle are mixed slowly, the entire mass of curd will turn a lavender 
 color. This test will not work if the sample is too old. 
 
 Standardizing milk (Pearson). 
 
 Standardized milk is that which has been changed in its composition 
 to cause it to contain a required amount of fat. This is usually ac- 
 complished by adding cream or skimmed milk. A convenient rule for 
 determining the amount of ingredients to make a mixture testing a cer- 
 tain per cent of fat, is as follows, supposing cream and milk are to be 
 used (in most States it is unlawful to add skimmed milk) : — 
 
 Draw a rectangle, placing the per cent of fat in the cream at the upper 
 left-hand corner, and the per cent of fat of the milk at the lower left- 
 hand corner. Place the desired per cent of fat in the center. The dif- 
 ference between the numbers in the center and at the lower left-hand 
 corner should be written at the upper right-hand corner, and the dif- 
 ference between the numbers in the center and at the upper left-hand 
 corner should be written at the lower right-hand corner. These right- 
 hand numbers represent the proportions of the substances represented 
 at the corresponding left-hand corners, which must be mixed to produce 
 a milk testing the desired amount of fat. 
 
 Thus : To raise the fat test of a 3.8 per cent milk to 4 per cent by the 
 use of cream testing 25 per cent, by completing the figure as explained, 
 it will be seen that for every 21 pounds of 3.8 per cent milk there 
 should be used .2 of 1 pound of 25 per cent cream. 
 
MILK TESTS 451 
 
 BvUer moisture-test (Cornell test). 
 
 The apparatus used in the Cornell moisture-test is an alcohol lamp, 
 stand, asbestos sheet, hot-pan lifter, aluminum cup for holding the 
 sample, and a special moisture scale. The scale is especially adapted 
 for moisture work, but may be used as a cream scale in operating the 
 Babcock test. 
 
 The scale has a tare weight for balancing the cup and a large and 
 small weight for weighing the sample and obtaining the percentage of 
 moisture. The beam has two rows of figures, which give readings 
 with the larger weight. The lower row gives readings in grams and 
 the upper row in percentages. The smaller weight gives readings in 
 grams when the weight is moved from 1 forward. Each notch repre- 
 sents .02 gram, the total value of the small scale being .2 gram. When 
 the small weight is moved from backward, each notch represents a 
 loss of .1 per cent of moisture when 20.2 grams of butter are used. The 
 small weight is intended to be used only in moisture work. In using 
 the scale for Babcock work, the small weight is not used, but is left at 
 rest on the figure 1. Then when the scales are balanced, the small 
 weight is negligible. Care must be taken not to let any draft of air, 
 as from an open window, strike the scales when in use, as they are so 
 sensitive that a very slight current of air would throw them out 
 of balance. The scales will give readings in percentages only when 
 20.2 grams of butter have been weighed, or, in other words, when 
 the large weight is on 20 (of the gram scale) and the small weight 
 is on zero. 
 
 The cup used is of cast aluminum, and is durable and perfectly smooth. 
 The absence of creases or crevices allows it to be cleaned and dried 
 thoroughly. 
 
 Taking the sample. — It is necessary that a representative sample be 
 taken for a moisture-test. If the butter is sold in tubs, the sample 
 should be taken from the tub with a butter-trier, after the butter has 
 been packed. It is best to take three drawings — one from near the 
 edge, one from the middle, and one half-way between the edge and 
 the middle. Some butter-makers test the butter as soon as it is 
 worked. This is a mistake, since considerable moisture is lost in 
 the process of printing and Dacking. 
 
452 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS; DAIRY FARMS 
 
 Operation of the test. — After the cup is thoroughly cleaned and dried, 
 it is placed on the scales and balanced by means of the tare weight on 
 the round bar attached to the beam of the scales. The large weight 
 should rest on the zero mark (of the gram scale) and the small weight 
 on 1 while the cup is being balanced. The cup should not be balanced 
 until it is about the same temperature as that of the room. After the 
 cup is balanced, the larger weight is moved to the 20 mark (of the gram 
 scale) and the small weight to the zero mark. Butter from the prepared 
 sample is then added to the cup until the scales are accurately balanced. 
 The alcohol lamp is then placed under the iron stand and the asbestos 
 sheet placed on the stand. The lamp is lighted and the cup placed on 
 the asbestos sheet. It is well to light the lamp at least two or three 
 minutes before placing the cup on the asbestos in order to heat 
 the asbestos and save time. The heat of the flame may be in- 
 creased or diminished by raising or lowering the wick. The cup 
 should always be handled with the hot pan lifter, as by so doing 
 it will be kept clean and errors in weight due to dirt on the cup 
 will be avoided. 
 
 While the sample is heating it should be shaken from time to time, 
 aj3 this breaks up the blanket of casein on the surface and hastens the 
 escape of moisture. As soon as the casein has lost its snow-white color, 
 the cup should be removed from the flame. When the moisture has all 
 been driven from the sample, a slightly pungent odor may be noticed. 
 This may also be used as a guide to tell when the sample has been heated 
 enough. The foam begins to subside at this point. Often one or 
 two small pieces of casein are slow to give up their moisture. This is 
 indicated by the snow-white color of the pieces. Evaporation can be 
 hastened by shaking the sample with a rotary motion and thoroughly 
 mixing these pieces with the hot liquid. If this is not done, one might 
 have to heat the sample so long that some of the fat which had already 
 given up its moisture would volatilize. 
 
 After all the moisture is driven off, the sample is allowed to cool to 
 room temperature. While cooling, the cup should be covered with 
 something (a sheet of paper will do) to prevent the sample taking up 
 moisture from the atmosphere. After cooling, the cup is placed on 
 the scales. The sample is lighter than before heating, because it has 
 lost its moisture. The bar of the scales will therefore remain down. 
 The weights are then reversed until the scales just balance. 
 
MILK TESTS 453 
 
 Each notch that the larger weight is reversed has a value of 1 per 
 cent (reading on the upper scale), and each notch that the smaller 
 weight is reversed has a value of .1 per cent. If, for example, after 
 heating, the scales just balance when the larger weight rests on 15 
 (upper scale) and the smaller weight rests on .2, it would mean that the 
 sample contained 15.2 per cent moisture. 
 
 Test Jor salt in butter (Ross). 
 
 Weigh out accurately, from a well-mixed sample, 10 grams of butter. 
 Add to the 10 grams of butter 100 cc. of hot water, and thoroughly mix 
 the butter with the water. Then cool to harden the fat, and pour off into 
 a clean dish the 100 cc. of water. Repeat this operation until 300 cc. 
 of water has been used. Thoroughly mix the 300 cc. of water, and meas- 
 ure out 17.5 cc. into a glass beaker or white cup, and add five or six 
 drops of potassium chromate. This will turn the solution a lemon- 
 yellow color. Run in from a burette an — normal solution of silver 
 
 10 
 
 nitrate. Thoroughly mix the solution as the silver nitrate is added. 
 When the solution turns to an orange-yellow color, enough silver ni- 
 trate has been added to neutralize all of the salt. The number of cc. 
 of silver nitrate solution added equals the per cent of salt in the butter. 
 For example, if it requires 2 cc. of silver nitrate, there is 2 per cent 
 of salt in the butter. If more or less than 10 grams of butter are 
 used and more or less than 17.5 cc. of the solution are used for the 
 test, the burette will not give readings directly in terms of per cent. 
 Care should be taken not to run in too much silver nitrate. If too 
 much silver nitrate is used, the color will be a dull brick-red, and incor- 
 rect results will be obtained. An — normal solution of silver nitrate, 
 
 10 
 
 which is accurate enough for the purpose, may be made by dissolv- 
 ing 17.5 grams of silver nitrate in 200 cc. of water and then making 
 the solution to 1000 cc. or 1 liter. 
 
 Test for salt in cheese (Ross). 
 
 Burn to a gray ash in a porcelain dish 5 grams of the cheese. 
 Care should be taken to keep the contents in the center of the dish. 
 Xf this is done, it will make it easier to reduce the cheese to an ash. 
 
454 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS; DAIRY FARMS 
 
 Cool and dissolve the ash in 20 cc. of pure, clean water. Transfer 
 the 20 cc. of the ash solution to a glass beaker or a white cup. Add 
 five or six drops of a water solution of potassium chromate. This will 
 
 turn the solution a lemon-yellow color. Run in from a burette an — 
 
 10 
 normal solution of silver nitrate. Thoroughly mi.x the solution as 
 the silver nitrate is added. When the color of the solution turns to 
 an orange-yellow, enough silver nitrate has been added to neutralize 
 all the salt. Then multiply the number of cc. of silver nitrate used by 
 .00585. Divide this result by 5, the number of grams of cheese 
 taken, and multiply the quotient by 100. This is the per cent of salt 
 in the cheese. 
 
 Care should be taken not to run in too much silver nitrate. If too 
 much silver nitrate is used, the color will be a dull brick-red, and in- 
 correct results will be obtained. An — normal solution of silver 
 
 10 
 
 nitrate, which is accurate enough for the purpose, may be made by 
 dissolving \7\ grams of silver nitrate in 200 cc. of water and then 
 making the solution up to 1000 cc. or one liter. 
 
 Over-run in butter-making (Pa. Sta. and U. S. Dept. Agric). 
 
 Over-run in butter is the amount of water, casein, and salt incor- 
 porated in the butter-fat in making butter. Creamery over-run, how- 
 ever, should always be computed from the number of pounds of butter- 
 fat received and the pounds of butter sold. 
 
 The formula for calculating over-run in percentage is as follows : 
 
 Pounds of butter made — pounds of butter-fat received ^ . ^^ 
 pounds of butter-fat received 
 
 = per cent over-run. 
 
 In a whole-milk creamery it is possible to obtain from 18 to 20 
 per cent over-run and have only 14 to 14^ per cent moisture in the 
 butter, while in a creamery where hand separator cream is received, 
 20 to 22 per cent over-run can be obtained. This is shown by the 
 following two examples : — 
 
MILK TESTS 455 
 
 Example : 
 
 10,000 pounds 4 per cent milk contains 400 pounds butter-fat. 
 
 10,000 pounds 4 per cent milk gives 1600 pounds 24+ per cent cream 
 and 8400 pounds skim milk. 
 
 1,600 pounds of cream testing 24+ per cent contains 391.6 pounds 
 butter-fat. 
 
 8400 pounds skim milk, loss (maximum) .1 per cent, is 8.4 pounds 
 butter-fat. 
 
 1600 pounds cream less 391.6 pounds butter-fat, leaves 1208.4 
 pounds buttermilk. 
 
 1208.4 pounds buttermilk at .2 per cent loss is 2.4 pounds butter-fat, 
 the loss in churning. 
 
 8.4 pounds butter-fat, loss in skim milk, and 2.4 pounds butter- 
 fat, loss in buttermilk, gives 10.8 pounds butter-fat loss in both. 
 
 10.8 pounds butter-fat from 400 pounds butter-fat leaves 389.2 
 pounds of butter-fat to be churned into butter. 
 
 If 389.2 pounds butter-fat is churned into butter containing 14 per 
 cent water and 4 per cent salt and casein, it will make 474.6 pounds of 
 butter. 
 
 474.6 pounds less 400 pounds gives 74.6 pounds of butter, which is 
 the over-run. 
 
 74.6 pounds of butter times 100 makes 7460, divided by 400 gives 18.6 
 per cent over-run. 
 
 Spoon-test for oleomargarin and renovated butter. 
 
 Place in a tablespoon a piece of the sample, about the size of a 
 hickory-nijt. Hold the spoon over the flame until the sample is 
 melted, and stir frequently while melting. Then lower the spoon 
 into the flame. Oleo and renovated butter will boil with a loud 
 crackling noise, and there will be almost no foam on the surface of 
 the sample. Genuine butter will boil quietly and the surface will be 
 covered with foam. 
 
 The test for moisture in cheese (Ross). 
 
 Obtain a representative sample of cheese as directed in the test for fat 
 in cheese. Then in a flat-bottom dish at least three inches in diameter 
 weigh out 3 grams of cheese. If no glass dish is at hand, a tea saucer 
 
456 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS; DAIRY FARMS 
 
 will answer the purpose. Heat the sample in a water oven at the tem- 
 jierature of l^oiliuf]; water for eight hours. Cool the dish, weigh and 
 divide tiie loss in weight by the three grams of clieese taken. Multiply 
 the quotient by 100. This quotient is the percentage of moisture in the 
 cheese. Care should be taken to place the cheese in the dish in as thin a 
 layer as possible. This will make it easier for the moisture of the 
 clieese to escape. 
 
 The Babcock lest for fat in cheese (Ross). 
 
 Secure a representative sample of the cheese. This is best done by 
 means of a cheese trier, taking a plug from the center of the cheese one- 
 half way between the center and the outside of the cheese and one 
 very near the outside of the cheese. Using a knife, mince these three 
 plugs as fine as possible and mix them thoroughly. After the sample 
 is minced very fine and thoroughly mixed, weigh out on a set of cream 
 balances in a cream bottle 4 grams of the cheese. Add 5 cc. of 
 warm water and shake thoroughly for one or two minutes. Then 
 make the sample up to approximately 18 grams by the addition of 
 water, and add 17.5 cc. sulfuric acid. After the acid is added, shake 
 the sample thoroughly for from two to three minutes. The purpose 
 of this shaking is to dissolve all of the cheese curd. If this is not done, 
 the fat column will be cloudy. Then place the bottles in the machine 
 and proceed with the test in the ordinary way. 
 
 Test for determining casein in milk (Van Slyke and Bosworth). 
 
 A given amount of milk, diluted with water, is made neutral to phe- 
 nolphthalein solution by addition of a solution of sodium hydroxid. 
 The casein is then completely precipitated by addition of standardized 
 acetic acid ; the volume of the mixture is made up to 200 cc. by ad- 
 dition of water, thoroughly shaken, and then filtered. Into 100 cc. of 
 the filtrate a standardized solution of sodium hj-droxid is run until 
 neutral to phenolphthalein. The solutions are so standardized that 1 cc. 
 is equivalent to 1 per cent of casein when a definite amount of milk 
 is used. The number of cubic centimeters of standard acid used, divided 
 by 2, less the amount of standard alkali used in the last titration, 
 gives the percentage of casein in the milk examined. When one uses 
 17.5 cc. (18 grams) of milk, the amount used in the Babcock milk- 
 
MILK TESTS 457 
 
 fat test, the standard acid and alkali solutions are made by dilut- 
 ing 795 cc. of tenth-normal solutions to one liter. By using 22 cc. 
 of milk, tenth-normal solutions can be used directly ; or by using 
 20 cc. of milk and tenth-normal solutions, adjustment is made by 
 multiplying the final result by 1.0964. 
 
 Wisconsin curd-test. 
 
 This curd-test may be of use to creamerymen in detecting milk 
 which is giving trouble on account of odors, taints, gas, and so forth. 
 Sometimes the milk from a certain cow contaminates the milk of the 
 entire herd. In such a case, the dairyman may find this test useful. 
 
 Sterilize as near as possible by immersing in boiling water for 30 
 minutes as many pint glass fruit-jars as there are samples to be tested. 
 Cool the jars at the same time, keeping them covered to prevent 
 contamination. Then fill the jars two-thirds full of the milk to be 
 examined. Set the jars in a tank of water, the temperature of which 
 is about 100° F., and allow the milk to come as near as possible to 
 the temperature of the water in the tank. The temperature of the 
 milk may be taken with a thermometer that has been held for at 
 least one minute in boiling water; the thermometer should be thus 
 treated after taking the temperature of each sample to prevent car- 
 rying contamination from one sample to another. 
 
 When the temperature of the milk has reached about 95° F. to 98° 
 F., add to each jar of milk about 10 drops of rennet and shake thor- 
 oughly. The rennet will coagulate the milk in about 20 minutes, and 
 the whey should then be poured off. The whey will separate more 
 readily from the curd if the latter is broken up with a knife or other 
 instrument which has been dipped for at least one minute in boiling 
 water. As much of the whey as possible should be drawn off. The 
 jars should then be set in the tank and kept at a temperature of 
 about 100° F. for 6 to 8 hours. Examination of odor and condition 
 of the curd may be made every 30 minutes. The condition of the 
 curd may best be told by cutting it with a sharp knife and examin- 
 ing the freshly cut surface for gas pockets. 
 
 Great care should be exercised in the entire process to have every - 
 thing which comes in contact with the milk as near sterile as pos- 
 sible. 
 
458 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS; DAIRY FARMS 
 
 Propagation of Starter for Butter-making and Cheese-making 
 
 (Guthrie) 
 
 1. Take three one-quart milk bottles or fruit jars. 
 
 2. Use fresh, clean milk (either whole milk or skimmed milk) which 
 must have a nice flavor. 
 
 3. Fill the containers one-half to two-thirds full of milk. 
 
 4. Protect the containers with regular covers (caps or tops). 
 
 5. Pasteurize by heating to 180°-200° F. for thirty minutes or longer, 
 and then cool to ripening temperature of 60°-75° F. 
 
 6. After pasteurization the milk is ready for inoculation. Inoculate 
 in a quiet place where the wind cannot blow dirt and bacteria into 
 this clean seed bed. 
 
 7. Incubate at about 60°-75° F. The first inoculation from the 
 commercial culture should be incubated at about 70°- 85° F. 
 
 8. The starter is ripe when a curd forms. This curd should be soft 
 and like custard in appearance. 
 
 9. After the starter is ripe, hold it at 50° F. or a few degrees lower 
 until time to use. For best results a starter should not be held longer 
 than a few hours. 
 
 10. Upon examination the curd should be smooth and compact, 
 without gas pockets. Gas shows the presence of undesirable bacteria. 
 
 Farm Butter-making (Tnieman, Conn. Exp. Sta.) 
 
 The farmer will not ask, is it more scientific to make butter than to 
 sell milk, or is it less trouble, or does it take less time and work, but, 
 does it pay ? That question can best be answered by a comparison of 
 the amount received for 1000 pounds of milk by each method. 
 
 One thousand pounds of milk equals 465 quarts. At 3^ cents per 
 quart, its value is SI 6.27. The value of the same amount of milk made 
 into butter will depend upon the richness of the milk. If it will test 
 4 per cent of fat, then the 1000 pounds will contain 40 pounds of fat. 
 Under ordinary conditions this will make about 44.5 pounds of butter. 
 This at 35 cents per pound is worth $15.57. Add to this the value of 
 800 pounds of skim milk and 150 pounds of buttermilk, a total of 950 
 pounds at 25 cents per hundredweight, equal to $2.37, a total of $17.94 
 for the 1000 pounds of milk when made into butter. This gives a 
 balance of $1.67, in favor of making butter, to say nothing of the value 
 
FARM BUTTER-MAKING 459 
 
 of the fertilizer material in the skim milk and the profit in having 
 healthy, rapid-growing calves. 
 
 It will readily be seen that the side on which the profit will appear 
 will depend wholly on the prices received for milk and butter. If the 
 milk is sold at the farm at four cents per quart and the butter must be 
 sold at 30 cents per pound, then the margin of profit would amount 
 to $2.88 per 1000 pounds of milk, in favor of selling by the quart, 
 provided the milk tests 4 per cent as in the first case. 
 
 If, however, the herd in question consisted of well-bred Jerseys, 
 giving milk testing 5 per cent on the average, the result would be some- 
 what different : 
 
 1000 lb. milk 465 quarts 
 
 465 quarts ©4^- $18.60 
 
 1000 lb. milk testing 5% 50 lb. fat 
 
 50 lb. fat 57 lbs. butter 
 
 57 lb. butter @ 30j? $17.10 
 
 950 lb. skim milk and buttermilk @ 25^- per ewt 2.37 
 
 Total $19.47 
 
 This leaves a balance of 87 cents per 1000 pounds of milk, in favor of 
 making butter. 
 
 Bitter milk and cream. 
 
 Milk may have an acrid, bitter taste, caused by the cows eating 
 ragweed, an herb which is common in pastures late in the summer. 
 Flavors produced by what the cows eat are most noticeable when the 
 milk is first drawn from the udder, while flavors produced by the growth 
 of bacteria get worse as the milk gets older. The only remedy for rag- 
 weed flavor is to remove the cows from the pasture containing the weed. 
 
 Bitter milk is sometimes given by cows that are advanced in their 
 period of lactation and giving a small quantity of milk. Such cows 
 should be dried up at once. 
 
 Certain bacteria that develop at low temperatures may produce 
 bitter flavors in the ripening cream. In this case the cream is all right 
 when fresh but gradually develops the bitter flavor. This can be 
 stopped by using plenty of steam or boiling water to sterilize thor- 
 oughly all utensils, and by using a good active starter to hasten the 
 development of lactic acid. The cream should not be allowed to get 
 old and the temperature should be kept up to 70° F. or 75° F. during 
 ripening. 
 
460 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS', DAIRY FARMS 
 
 Why butter will not " come." 
 
 One of the most common complaints is that the butter will not come. 
 This j^cnerally hapjKMis in the fall in herds where the cows freshen in the 
 spring or early winter. When fall comes, these cows have been milk- 
 ing a long time and are not giving much milk. The character of the 
 milk changes as the lactation period advances. The per cent of fat 
 and of solids-not-fat, increases. This makes the cream more viscous, 
 and more inclined to ''whip," or to froth ui) and fill the churn. When 
 this happens, and the churn is full of frothy cream, about the only 
 thing to do is to add liot water to warm up the fat and to destroy the 
 viscosity of the cream. Such treatment will not make the best of but- 
 ter, but is better than cliurning all day and finally becoming so dis- 
 couraged that the whole churning is thrown out. 
 
 This trouble may be avoided by using more starter, ripening at a 
 higher temperature, say 75° F. to 80° F., and churning at a higher tem- 
 perature, say 65° F. This again will not make the best of butter, but 
 will enable one to handle successfully that kind of cream. 
 
 Sometimes the butter will not come because the cream is too thin. 
 The fat globules are not crowded closely enough together in the milk 
 serum to cause them to stick together when the cream is agitated. 
 Cream should contain over 20 per cent of fat in order to make it churn 
 easily, and 30 per cent is better. 
 
 Sweet cream does not churn as easily as sour cream. Souring tends 
 to reduce viscosity and prevent whipping. 
 
 Frequently the butter will not come because the cream is too cold. 
 The thermometer should be used, and if below 60° F. warm up by add- 
 ing hot water, or by taking out some of the cream and warming it antl 
 then returning it to the main lot in the churn. Unless the cream is 
 already too thin, hot water, added carefully, will generally be found 
 satisfactory. Cream may become too cold from churning in a cold 
 room, especially if a metal or crockery churn is used. 
 
 Too thick cream will sometimes stick to the sides of the churn and the 
 butter will not come from lack of concussion. Water or skim milk of the 
 proper temperature may be added to reduce the thickness of the cream. 
 
 If the churn is too full, the proper amount of concussion is not pro- 
 duced and the butter fails to come. Take out part of the cream and 
 make two churnings. 
 
FARM BUTTER-MAKING 461 
 
 Old cream makes poor-flavored butler. 
 
 Probably the most common cause of poor-flavored butter is cream that 
 has grown stale before being churned. Fine, fresh-tasting butter, with 
 dehcate flavors and aroma, cannot be made from old cream. Three 
 days should be the limit of age, if the best quality is to be produced. 
 
 White specks in the butter. 
 
 These are caused by dried cream, and by lumps of coagulated casein. 
 The cream should be stirred frequently while ripening and always 
 strained through a fine-mesh wire strainer, when put in the churn. 
 
 Mottled butter. 
 
 "Mottles" are caused by an uneven distribution of the salt. The 
 action of the salt on the casein causes light streaks and spots to show 
 all through the butter. The remedy is to wash weU until the water is 
 clear, and to work a little longer until the salt is evenly mixed with the 
 butter. The proper point at which to stop working can be learned only 
 by experience. 
 
 Effect of feed on butter-fat. 
 
 We have not much definite knowledge about the effect of feeds upon 
 texture and flavor of butter. Strong-flavored feeds, such as turnips, 
 garlic, cabbage, silage, etc., may be fed immediately after milking and 
 they will then have little or no effect upon the flavor of the milk. 
 
 Gluten feed, oil meal and soy beans are known to produce softer 
 butter than corn meal and cotton-seed-meal, the latter being especially 
 noted for the production of a hard, tallowy fat. 
 
 Butter from Whey 
 
 The quantity of butter that can be made from the whey from 100 
 pounds of milk is somewhat variable, depending on the amount of fat 
 that is lost in the whey during the process of cheese-making. This 
 loss depends on a great many conditions, but on the average about 
 5 ounces of butter can be made from the whey from 100 pounds of 
 milk. 
 
462 
 
 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS; DAIRY FARMS 
 
 Milk, Butter, and Dairy-farm Scores 
 
 Score-card for market milk (U. S. Dept. of Agric, Dairy Division) 
 
 NUMERICAL SCORE 
 
 Flavor, 40 
 
 Composition, 25 
 
 Bacteria, 20 
 
 Acidity, 5 
 
 Appearance of 
 package and 
 contents, 10 
 
 Perfect 
 score, 100 
 
 Judge's 
 score. 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE SCORE 
 
 Flavor 
 
 Excellent 
 Good . 
 Fair . 
 Bad . 
 Flat . 
 Bitter . 
 Weedy 
 Garlic . 
 Silage . 
 Manure 
 Smothered 
 Other Taints 
 
 Composition 
 
 Perfect 
 
 Fat, — per cent 
 
 Solids not fat, — 
 per cent 
 
 Bacteria 
 
 Perfect 
 
 Total. 
 
 Liquefiers 
 
 Acidity 
 
 Perfect 
 — per cent 
 
 Package and 
 contents 
 
 Perfect 
 
 Foreign matter 
 Metal parts 
 Unattractive 
 
 Remarks : 
 Date : - 
 
 Flavor. 
 
 Directions for scoring 
 
 If rich, sweet, clean, and pleasant flavor and odor, score perfect (40). 
 Deduct for objectionable flavors and odors according to conditions 
 found. 
 
 Composition. 
 
 If 3.25 per cent fat or above and 8.5 per cent solids not fat or above, 
 score perfect (25). Deduct one point for each one-fourth per cent fat 
 below 3.25, and one point for each one-fourth per cent solids not fat 
 below 8.5. 
 
SCORE-CARDS 463 
 
 Bacteria. 
 
 Less than 10,000 per cubic centimeter (perfect) . 20 
 
 Over 10,000 and less than 25,000 per cubic centimeter 19 
 
 Over 25,000 and less than 50,000 per cubic centimeter 18 
 
 Over 50,000 and less than 75,000 per cubic centimeter 17 
 
 Over 75,000 and less than 100,000 per cubic centimeter 16 
 
 Deduct 1 point for each 25,000 above 100,000. 
 
 ^\^len an unusually large number of liquef3'ing bacteria are present, 
 further deduction should be made according to conditions found. 
 
 Acid. 
 
 If 0.2 per cent or below, score perfect (5). Deduct one point for 
 each 0.01 per cent above 0.2 per cent. (If Mann's test is used, dis- 
 continue adding indicator on first appearance of a pink color.) 
 
 Appearance of package and contents. 
 
 If package is clean, free from metal parts, and no foreign matter 
 can be detected in the contents, score perfect (10). Make deduc- 
 tions according to conditions found. 
 
 Butter score-card (Cornell) 
 
 Flavor 45 
 
 Body 25 
 
 Color 15 
 
 Salt 10 
 
 Package 5 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Name of Judge 
 
 Flavor 
 Desirable Due to farm conditions 
 
 Clean, creamery — pleasant bouquet, Dirty {name cause if possible) 
 aroma. Pails, cans, barn, milkhouse, etc. 
 
 Weedy (name weed if possible) 
 Undesirable Barny 
 
 _ ^ ,. . Cowy 
 
 Due to creamery conditions Feedy (name feed if possible) 
 
 Dirty (name cause if possible) ^^^^^e, hay, grain 
 
 Churn vat. refrigerator, separator, ^^^ ^^ ^.^^^^ creamery or farm con- 
 Woody' Rancid ditions or both 
 Poor starter Too high ripening Flat Cheesy 
 Oily temperature Smothered Bitter 
 
 Fishy Metallic 
 
 Turpentiny Dirty strainer 
 
464 
 
 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS; DAIRY FARMS 
 
 
 Body 
 
 
 Salt 
 
 
 Desirable 
 
 
 Desirable 
 
 Waxy, medium grain (in length) 
 
 Well dissolved, medium in amount 
 
 
 Undesirable 
 
 
 Undesirable 
 
 Weak 
 
 Too much water 
 
 
 
 Tallowy 
 Milky brine 
 
 Not enough water 
 Water not well incor- 
 
 Too high 
 Too light 
 
 Gritty 
 
 Not well distributed 
 
 Greasy 
 
 porated 
 
 
 
 Short grain 
 
 Leaky 
 Color 
 
 
 Package 
 
 
 Desirable 
 
 
 Desirable 
 
 Uniform, medium shade (June or 
 
 Neat 
 
 clean, attractive 
 
 
 straw) 
 
 
 Undesirable 
 
 
 Undesirable 
 
 Not suited to market Not finished 
 
 Mottled 
 
 Too high 
 
 Poorly packed Moldy 
 
 Streaked 
 
 Too light 
 
 Cheap 
 
 Not full 
 
 Wavy 
 
 Not clear 
 
 Dirty 
 
 Damaged 
 
 Flavor . . 60 
 
 Body and 
 
 Texture . 25 
 
 Color ... 15 
 
 Finish. . . 10 
 
 Total . .100 
 
 Cheese score-card (Cornell) 
 
 Perfect, clean, too much acid, too little acid, sour, 
 
 sweet, tainted. 
 Weedy, cowy, old milk, bitter, fishy, yeasty, fruity, 
 
 rancid, feedy. 
 
 Perfect, smooth, silky, waxy, pasty, stiff, curdy, 
 
 mealy. 
 Greasy, close, loose, gassy, yeasty, acidy, sweet, 
 
 watery, too dry. 
 
 Perfect, white specks, streaked, seamy, mottled, 
 
 wavy. 
 Rust spots, acid cut, too high, too light, uncolored. 
 
 Perfect, undesirable size, uneven, edges, cracked 
 rinds, unclean surfaces, wrinkled bandage, 
 greasy, no end caps. 
 
 Flavor 
 
 Texture 
 
 Color 
 
 University of Wisconsin score-cards 
 Cheese 
 
 45 
 
 30 
 
 15 
 
 General make-up and package 10 
 
 Total 100 
 
SCORE-CARDS ' 465 
 
 Butter 
 
 Flavor 45 
 
 Body 25 
 
 Color 15 
 
 Salt 10 
 
 Package . 5 
 
 Total . , 100 
 
 Butter Classifications and Grades (N.Y. Mercantile Exchange) 
 
 1. Butter shall be classified as Creamery, Process, Factory, Pack- 
 ing Stock, and Grease Butter. 
 
 Definitions. 
 
 2. Creamery. — Butter offered under this classification shall have 
 been made in a creamery from cream separated at the creamery or 
 gathered from farmers. 
 
 3. Process. — Butter offered under this classification shall be such 
 as is made by melting butter, clarifying the fat therefrom, and rechurn- 
 ing the same with fresh milk, cream, or skim milk, or other similar 
 process. 
 
 4. Factory. — Butter offered under this classification shall be such 
 as is collected in rolls, lumps, or in whole packages and reworked by 
 the dealer or shipper. 
 
 5. Packing Stock. — Butter offered under this classification shall 
 be original farm-made butter in rolls, lumps, or otherwise, without 
 additional moisture or salt. 
 
 6. Grease Butter shall comprise all classes of butter grading below 
 thirds, or of packing stock grading below No. 3 as hereinafter specified, 
 free from adulteration. 
 
 Grades. 
 
 7. Creamery, Process, and Factory shall be graded as Specials, 
 Extras, Firsts, Seconds, and Thirds ; and Packing Stock shall be 
 graded as No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3. 
 
 8. Grades of butter must conform to the following requirements : 
 
 Specials. 
 
 9. Shall comprise the highest grades of butter obtainable in the 
 season when offered, under the various classifications. Ninety per 
 
 2h 
 
466 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS; DAIRY FARMS 
 
 cent shall conform to the following standard ; the balance shall not 
 grade below Extras. 
 
 Flavor. — Must be fine, sweet, clean, and fresh, if of current make, 
 and fine, sweet, and clean, if held. 
 
 Body. — Must be firm and uniform. 
 
 Color. — A light straw shade, even and uniform. 
 
 Salt. — Medium salted. 
 
 Package. — Sound, good, uniform, and clean. 
 
 Extras. 
 
 10. Shall be a grade just below Specials, and must be fine butter 
 for the season when made and offered, under the various classifications. 
 Ninety per cent shall conform to the following standard ; the balance 
 shall not grade below Firsts. 
 
 Flavor. — Must be sweet, clean, and fresh if of current make, and 
 sweet and clean if held. 
 
 Body. — Must be good and uniform. 
 
 Color. — A light straw shade, even and uniform. 
 
 Salt. — Medium salted. 
 
 Package. — Sound, good, uniform, and clean. 
 
 Firsts. 
 
 11. Shall be a grade just below Extras, and must be good butter 
 for the season when made and offered, under the various classifica- 
 tions. Ninety per cent shall conform to the following standard; 
 the balance shall not grade below Seconds. 
 
 Flavor. — Must be good, sweet and fresh if of current make, and 
 good and sweet if held. 
 
 Body. — Must be firm and fairly uniform. 
 Color. — Reasonably uniform, neither very high nor very light. 
 Salt. — May be reasonably high, light, or medium. 
 Package. — Sound, good, uniform, and clean. 
 
 Seconds. 
 
 12. Shall be a grade just below Firsts. 
 Flavor. — Must be reasonably good. 
 
 Body. — If creamery, must be solid boring. If factory or process, 
 must be 90 per cent solid boring. 
 Color. — Fairly uniform, but may be mottled. 
 
BUTTER GRADES 467 
 
 Salt. — May be high, medium, or light. 
 Package. — Good and uniform. 
 
 Thirds. 
 
 13. Shall be a grade below Seconds, and may consist of promis- 
 cuous lots. 
 
 Flavor. — May be off-flavored and strong on top and sides. 
 
 Body. — Not required to draw a full trier. 
 
 Color. — May be irregular or mottled. 
 
 Salt. — High, light or irregular. 
 
 Package. — Any kind of package mentioned at time of sale. 
 
 No. 1 'packing stock. 
 
 14. Shall be sweet and sound, packed in large, new, or good uniform 
 second-hand barrels, having a wooden head in each end, or in new 
 tubs, either to be parchment paper lined. Barrels and tubs to be 
 packed full. 
 
 No. 2 packing stock. 
 
 15. Shall be reasonably sweet and sound, and may be packed in 
 promiscuous or different kinds of barrels, tubs, or tierces, without being 
 parchment-paper lined, and may be packed in either two-headed or 
 cloth-covered barrels. 
 
 No. 3 packing stock. 
 
 16. Shall be a grade below No. 2, and may be off-flavored, or strong ; 
 may be packed in any kind or kinds of packages. 
 
 17. Charges for inspection of packing stock shall be the same as the 
 rules call for on other grades. 
 
 18. Mold. — There shall be no grade for butter that shows mold. 
 
468 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS; DAIRY FARMS 
 
 Score-card for Production of Sanitary Milk (Cornell) 
 
 
 Score 
 
 
 SCORE 
 
 Equipment 
 
 
 Methods 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Perfect 
 
 Allowed 
 
 
 Perfect 
 
 Allowed 
 
 COWS 
 
 
 
 cows 
 
 
 
 Health 
 
 6 
 
 . 
 
 Cleanliness of cows . 
 
 8 
 
 
 Apparently in good 
 
 
 
 (Free from dust, 7 ; 
 
 
 
 health .... 1 
 
 
 
 free from coarse dirt, 6) 
 
 
 
 If tested with tuber- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 culin within a year 
 
 
 
 STABLE 
 
 
 
 and no tuberculo- 
 
 
 
 Cleanliness of stable . 
 
 6 
 
 
 sis is found, or if 
 
 
 
 Floor 2 
 
 
 
 tested within six 
 
 
 
 Walls 1 
 
 
 
 months and all re- 
 
 
 
 Ceiling and ledges 1 
 
 
 
 acting animals re- 
 
 
 
 Mangers and parti- 
 
 
 
 moved .... 5 
 
 
 
 tions .... 1 
 
 
 
 (If tested within a 
 
 
 
 Windows. . . . 1 
 
 
 
 year and reacting 
 
 
 
 Stable air at milking 
 
 
 
 animals are found 
 
 
 
 time 
 
 6 
 
 . 
 
 and removed, 2.) 
 
 
 
 Freedom from dust 3 
 
 
 
 Food (clean and whole- 
 
 
 
 Freedom from odors 2 
 
 
 
 some) 
 
 2 
 
 
 Cleanliness of bed- 
 
 
 
 Water 
 
 2 
 
 
 ding 1 
 
 
 
 Clean and fresh . 1 
 
 
 
 Barnyard clean . . 1 
 
 2 
 
 • • • 
 
 Convenient and 
 
 
 
 Well drained . . 1 
 
 
 
 abundant . . 1 
 
 
 
 Removal of manure 
 
 
 
 STABLES 
 
 
 
 daily to field or 
 
 
 
 Location of stable . . 
 
 2 
 
 . . . 
 
 proper pit .... 
 
 2 
 
 • • • 
 
 Well drained . . 1 
 
 
 
 (To 50 feet from sta- 
 
 
 
 Free from contami- 
 
 
 
 ble, 1.) 
 
 
 
 nating surroundings 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Construction of stable 
 
 4 
 
 
 MILK ROOM 
 
 
 
 Tight, sound floor and 
 
 
 
 Cleanliness of milk 
 
 
 
 proper gutter . 2 
 
 
 
 room 
 
 3 
 
 . • • 
 
 Smooth, tight walls 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and ceiling . . 1 
 
 
 
 UTENSILS AND MILKING 
 
 
 
 Proper stall, tie, and 
 
 
 
 Care and cleanliness 
 
 
 
 manger ... 1 
 
 
 
 of utensils .... 
 
 8 
 
 . . . 
 
 Provision for light : 
 
 
 
 Thoroughly washed 2 
 
 
 
 Four sq. ft. of glass 
 
 
 
 Sterilized in live steam 
 
 
 
 per cow 
 
 4 
 
 . 
 
 for 30 minutes . 3 
 
 
 
 (Three sq. ft.. 3 ; 2 
 
 
 
 (Placed over steam 
 
 
 
 sq.ft., 2; lsq.ft.,1. 
 
 
 
 jet or scalded with 
 
 
 
 Deduct for uneven dis- 
 
 
 
 boiling water, 2.) 
 
 
 
 tribution.) 
 
 
 
 Inverted in pure air 3 
 
 
 
 Bedding 
 
 1 
 
 . 
 
 Cleanliness of milking 
 
 9 
 
 . . . 
 
 Ventilation .... 
 
 7 
 
 . 
 
 Clean, dry hands . 3 
 
 
 
 Provision for fresh 
 
 
 
 Udders washed and 
 
 
 
 air, controllable 
 
 
 
 dried .... 6 
 
 
 
 flue system . . 3 
 
 
 
 (Udders cleaned with 
 
 
 
 (Windows hinged at 
 
 
 
 moist cloth, 4 ; cleaned 
 
 
 
 bottom, 1.50; slid- 
 
 
 
 with dry cloth or brush 
 
 
 
 ing windows, 1 ; 
 
 
 
 at least 15 minutes be- 
 
 
 
 other openings, .50) 
 
 
 1 fore milking, 1.) 
 
 
 
INSPECTION SCORES 
 
 469 
 
 
 Score 
 
 
 Score 
 
 Equipment 
 
 
 Methods 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Perfect 
 
 Allowed 
 
 
 Perfect 
 
 Allowed 
 
 Cubic feet of space 
 
 
 
 HANDLING THE MILK 
 
 
 
 per cow, 500 feet 3 
 
 
 
 Cleanliness of attend- 
 
 
 
 (Less than 500 ft., 2: 
 
 
 
 ants in milk room 
 
 2 
 
 
 less than 400 ft., 1 ; 
 
 
 
 Milk removed imme- 
 
 
 
 less than 300 ft., 0) 
 
 
 
 diately from stable 
 
 
 
 Provision for con- 
 
 
 
 without pouring from 
 
 
 
 trolling tempera- 
 
 
 
 pail 
 
 2 
 
 
 ture 1 
 
 
 
 Cooled immediately 
 
 
 
 UTENSILS 
 
 
 
 after milking each 
 
 
 
 Construction and con- 
 
 
 
 cow 
 
 2 
 
 . . . 
 
 dition of utensils . . 
 
 1 
 
 
 Cooled below 50° F. . 
 
 5 
 
 . . . 
 
 Water for cleaning . . 
 
 1 
 
 . 
 
 (51°to55°, 4; 50° to 
 
 60°, 2.) 
 Stored below 50° F . . 
 (51° to 55°, 2 ; 56° to 
 
 60°, 1.) 
 
 
 
 (Clean, convenient 
 and abundant.) 
 Small-top milking pail 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
 • • • 
 
 Facilities for steam 
 
 
 
 
 
 (hot water, .5) . . 
 
 1 
 
 
 (If delivered twice a 
 
 
 
 (Should be in milk 
 
 
 
 day allow perfect 
 
 
 
 house, not in kitchen.) 
 
 
 
 score) 
 
 
 
 Milk cooler .... 
 
 1 
 
 
 Transportation below 
 
 2 
 
 . . . 
 
 Clean milking suits . 
 
 1 
 
 . . . 
 
 50° F 
 
 (51° to 55°, 1.50; 56° 
 
 
 
 MILK ROOM, OR MILK 
 
 
 
 to 60°, 1.) 
 
 
 
 HOUSE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Location free from 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 contaminating sur- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 roundings .... 
 
 1 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 Construction of milk 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 room 
 
 3 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 Floor, walls, and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ceiling .... 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Light, ventilation, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 screens ... 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Separate rooms for 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 washing utensils 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and handling milk 1 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 40 
 
 . . . 
 
 60 
 
 
 Equipment + Methods 
 
 Final Score 
 
 Note 1. — If any exceptionally filthy condition is found, particularly dirty utensils, the 
 total score may be further limited. 
 
 Note 2. — If the water is exposed to dangerous contamination, or if there is evidence of 
 the presence of a dangerous disease in animals or attendants, the score shall be 0. 
 
 Milk inspection of farm dairies (Cornell) 
 
 Dairj^man Date . 
 
 P. O Location 
 
 Cans or Bottles 
 
 No. cows milking . . . In herd . . Qts. Milk . 
 
 Name of family physician 
 
 Milk sold to License No. 
 
 Report by At milking time ? . . . . Hour 
 
 M. 
 
470 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS; DAIRY FARMS 
 
 Equipment 
 
 I. Cows. 
 
 Do all cows appear healthy ? 
 
 What signs are there of disease ? 
 
 Are udders sound ? 
 
 Are cows tuberculin tested ? 
 
 Date of last test By whom tested ? 
 
 Number of cows added to herd since last test 
 
 Number and kind of other animals in cow stable 
 
 Kinds of feeds used . . . Roughage .... Concentrated . . . 
 
 Are they of good quality ? 
 
 Method of watering . . . Cleanliness of trough and surroundings . . . 
 
 Is water supply abundant ? . 
 
 Where are cows kept when sick or at calving time? 
 
 II. Stables. 
 
 Is stable well located ? 
 
 Construction of ceiling Walls . . . Are ceiling and walla 
 
 smooth and tight ? . . . . 
 
 Size of stable, length Width Height 
 
 Size of stall, length Width 
 
 Kind of stanchion Kind of mangers 
 
 Kind of floor State of repair 
 
 Kind of bedding used 
 
 Cubic feet of air space per cow 
 
 Number and size of windows 
 
 Distribution of light Sq. ft. of light per cow 
 
 How is stable ventilated ? 
 
 Any special provision for controlling temperature? 
 
 Kinds and number of other animals, if any, in same room with cows . . 
 
 III. Utensils. 
 
 Are all utensils well constructed and comparatively easy to clean ? . . . 
 
 Are milk pails covered or small topped ? 
 
 Is any cooler used ? . . . . Kind ? 
 
 Are there any facilities for sterilizing utensils ? 
 
 What are they ? 
 
 IV. Milk room or milk house. 
 
 Location 
 
 Is milk house near any source of contamination, such as pig sty, privy? 
 
 Is milk house well drained ? 
 
 Construction, Floor Walls Ceiling 
 
 State of repair ? 
 
 Is house well lighted? Ventilated? 
 
 Are windows prov-^ided with screens ? 
 
 Are there separate rooms for handling milk and washing utensils ? . . . 
 
 _ ^ Method 
 
 I. Cou^s. 
 
 Are cows free from dirt ? Dust ? 
 
 How often are cows cleaned ? 
 
 How are cows cleaned ? 
 
 Are udders and flank clipped ? . . . . How often ? 
 
 II. Stable. 
 
 Is stable clean ? 
 
 Is there dust or cobwebs on ceiling ? Ledges ? 
 
 Isthere old dried manure on floor? . . . Walls? . . . Mangers or 
 partitions? .... 
 
 Is stable whitewashed ? . . . . How often ? 
 
 Is stable air free from dust and dirt ? 
 
 Is feeding done before or after milking? 
 
 Has the stable any bad odors? 
 
CLEAN MILK 471 
 
 Is bedding clean ? 
 
 Is barnyard clean ? Well drained ? . . . . 
 
 How often is manure removed from stable ? 
 
 How far is manure removed from stable ? 
 
 Is pasture free from mud-holes or stagnant water ? 
 
 III. Milk room. 
 
 Is milk room clean ? Has it any bad odors ? . . . . 
 
 IV. Utensils and milking. 
 
 Are utensils clean ? . . . Sterilized ? . . . How ? 
 
 How soon after milking are utensils cleaned ? 
 
 How are utensils cared for after milking ? 
 
 Are milkers healthy ? . . . Do they milk with clean, dry hands ? . 
 
 Do they wear special over-all suits ? 
 
 How often are suits washed ? 
 
 Where are suits kept when not in use ? 
 
 How long before milking are cows cleaned ? 
 
 Are udders wiped with damp cloth before milking ? 
 
 Is stable floor dampened before milking ? . . Where is milk strained 
 
 V. Handling the milk. 
 
 Are attendants in milk room clean ? 
 
 What kind of a strainer is used ? 
 
 How soon after milking is milk cooled ? 
 
 What kind of a cooler is used ? 
 
 To how low a temperature is milk cooled ? . . . . Is ice used ? . 
 How is milk protected during transportation to market ? 
 
 Rules for the production of clean milk (Ross) 
 
 The presence of bacteria in milk is what causes the milk to become unfit for 
 human food. If there were no germs in milk, it would keep sweet and whol3- 
 some indefinitely. The problem of producing clean milk is therefore one of keep- 
 ing bacteria out of the milk. 
 
 The following rules are comparatively simple and inexpensive to follow, and 
 at the same time they will do much to help the dairymen produce clean milk : — 
 
 1. Keep the cow clean. 
 
 2. Clip the hair about the flank and udder at least twice each year. 
 
 3. Wipe the udder with a damp cloth just before milking. 
 
 4. Do not brush or feed the cow just before milking. 
 
 5. Do not sweep the floor within three-quarters of an hour before milking. 
 
 6. Use a small-top or covered milk-pail. 
 
 7. Milk with clean hands and clean suits. 
 
 8. Rinse all of the milk utensils with cold water, and then wash them 
 thoroughly with a brush and hot water in which washing powder has been dis- 
 solved. Then scald everything in boiling water. 
 
 9. Have the barns well lighted and ventilated. Bacteria do not thrive in 
 sunlight. Have not less than four square feet of glass per cow. 
 
 10. Keep the milk utensils in a place free from dust. 
 
 11. In purchasing dairy apparatus, insist that all seams be filled with solder. 
 Cracks and seams make an ideal place in which germs grow. 
 
 12. Keep the milk cold (at least 50° F.) after milking. 
 
 Rules for care of milk by consumer 
 
 1. Do not leave milk sitting on the door step or other place exposed to dust 
 and rays of the sun. 
 
 2. Do not keep milk in the same compartment with other food. 
 
 3. Keep the milk on ice from time of delivery until it is used. 
 
472 
 
 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS; DAIRY FARMS 
 
 Sanitary inspection of city milk plants (U. S. Dept. of Agric, Bureau 
 of Animal Industry, Dairy Division) 
 
 Owner or manager Trade name 
 
 City Street and No. State 
 
 f Milk 
 
 Gallons sold daily Cream 
 
 [ Buttermilk 
 - Date of inspection , 19 . 
 
 Number of wagons — 
 Permit or license No 
 
 Equipment 
 
 il 
 
 Methods 
 
 o 5 
 
 02 Cl, 
 
 Plant : 
 
 Location 
 
 Convenience 6 
 
 Surroundings . . . .12 
 
 Arrangement 
 
 Proper rooms 3 
 
 Convenience 4 
 
 Construction 
 
 Floor 5 
 
 Walls 3 
 
 Ceiling 1 
 
 Light 
 
 18 
 7 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 20 
 
 28 
 
 4 
 11 
 
 Plant : 
 
 Cleanliness 
 
 Floor 6 
 
 Walls 4 
 
 Ceilings 1 
 
 Doors 1 
 
 Windows 1 
 
 Good order 1 
 
 Free from odors ... 1 
 Machinery and utensils : 
 
 Cleanliness 
 
 Milk : 
 
 Handling 
 
 (Clarifying, pasteurizing, 
 cooling, bottling) 
 
 Storage 
 
 45° F. or below ... 20 
 
 45° to 50° F 15 
 
 50° to 55° F 10 
 
 Wagons 
 
 Cleanliness 3 
 
 Protection of product . . 3 
 
 Salesroom : 
 
 Cleanliness 
 
 ADDITIONAL DEDUCTIONS 
 
 For exceptionally bad conditions 
 
 15 
 25 
 
 Ventilation 
 
 Screens 
 
 Machinery and utensils . . . 
 Kind and quality ... 7 
 (Steam or hot water, bottle 
 and can washer, bottling 
 machine, drying racks, 
 crates, sinks, pasteurizer, 
 cold storage.) 
 
 Condition 7 
 
 Arrangement 6 
 
 Water for cleaning 
 
 Wagons : 
 
 Construction, condition . 
 
 Salesroom 
 
 Location 4 
 
 Construction 4 
 
 Equipment 3 
 
 25 
 20 
 
 6 
 9 
 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 ADDITIONAL DEDUCTIONS 
 
 For exceptionally bad conditions : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total deductions . . . 
 Net total 
 
 
 Total deductions .... 
 Net total 
 
 
 
CHAPTER XXV 
 
 Construction, Farm Engineering, Mechanics 
 
 Farm engineering is concerned with layouts, and the projection of 
 physical enterprises on the land, — as surveying, laying out drains, 
 irrigation works, roads, bridges, and the like. Farm mechanics has to 
 do with construction, and the principles of physics underlying it. 
 Farm machinery as a department of knowledge has to do with the 
 application of mechanics to those devices known as machines. 
 Farm architecture is concerned with the building of barns, residences, 
 and other housing structures. 
 
 Silos 
 
 Least number of dairy cows that should be fed from silos of given diameters 
 (Rawl and Conover) 
 
 Diameter of Silo (in feet) 
 
 Number of Cows 
 TO BE Fed 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 14 
 
 23 
 
 16 
 
 30 
 
 18 
 
 38 
 
 
 
 Feeding capacity of silos (Wis. Sta.). 
 
 When the cows are getting 40 pounds of silage daily, each cow 
 should be allowed 4 to 5 square feet of feeding surface in the silo. 
 Ten cows would require a feeding surface of 50 feet. A silo 8 feet in 
 diameter would have a cross section, or feeding surface, of 50 square 
 feet. For 10 cows, therefore, a silo should be 8 feet in diameter. Fif- 
 teen cows should have a silo 10 feet in diameter ; 20 cows should have 
 a silo 12 feet in diameter. The diameter of silos required for different 
 numbers of cows is shown in the following table. It is assumed that 
 each cow eats 40 pounds of silage daily. 
 
 473 
 
474 CONSTRUCTION, FARM ENGINEERING, MECHANICS 
 
 Feed for 180 days 
 
 
 Silo 30 Ft. Deep, 
 24 Ft. of Silage 
 
 Silo 36 Ft. Deep, 
 30 Ft. of Silage 
 
 Number of Cows 
 IN Herd 
 
 Fed down at rate 1 ^ in. daily 
 
 Fed down at rate of 2 in. daily 
 
 
 Tons Silage 
 
 Inside 
 Diameter 
 
 Tons Silage 
 
 Inside 
 Diameter 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 52 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 90 
 
 100 
 
 36 
 
 54 
 
 72 
 
 90 
 
 108 
 
 126 
 
 144 
 
 162 
 
 180 
 
 216 
 
 252 
 
 288 
 
 324 
 
 360 
 
 10 
 13 
 15 
 16 
 18 
 19 
 21 
 22 
 23 
 25 
 27 
 29 
 31 
 33 
 
 36 
 
 54 
 
 72 
 
 90 
 
 108 
 
 126 
 
 144 
 
 162 
 
 180 
 
 216 
 
 252 
 
 288 
 
 324 
 
 360 
 
 9 
 11 
 12 
 14 
 15 
 16 
 18 
 19 
 20 
 21 
 23 
 25 
 26 
 28 
 
 Approximate quantity of silage required per day (111. Sta.) 
 
 Kind of Stock 
 
 Daily Ration 
 
 Beef Cattle — 
 
 Wintering calves, 8 months old . . . 
 
 Wintering breeding cows 
 
 Fattening beef cattle 18-22 months old 
 
 First stage of fattening 
 
 Latter stage of fattening .... 
 
 Dairy cattle 
 
 Sheep — 
 
 Wintering breeding sheep 
 
 Fattening lambs 
 
 Fattening sheep 
 
 Pounds 
 
 15 to 25 
 30 to 50 
 
 20 to 30 
 12 to 20 
 30 to 50 
 
 3 to 5 
 
 2 to 3 
 
 3 to 4 
 
 This table, in connection with the following, may be used to de- 
 termine the size of silo needed to fulfill various conditions. For ex- 
 ample, if the silage is to be fed to a herd of 40 dairy cattle at the 
 rate of 40 pounds per head per day, a silo 16 or 18 feet in diameter 
 will be satisfactory. 
 
SILO FIGURES 
 
 475 
 
 Capacity of silo (King) 
 
 Inside 
 Diameter 
 
 Height 
 
 Capacity 
 Tons 
 
 Acreage to 
 FILL, 15 Tons 
 TO THE Acre 
 
 Amount that 
 should be 
 FED Daily 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pounds 
 
 10 
 
 r28 
 
 42 
 
 2.8 
 
 525 
 
 10 
 
 30 
 
 47 
 
 3.0 
 
 525 
 
 10 
 
 32 
 
 51 
 
 3.4 
 
 515 
 
 10 
 
 34 
 
 56 
 
 3.7 
 
 525 
 
 10 
 
 38 
 
 65 
 
 4.3 
 
 525 
 
 10 
 
 40 
 
 70 
 
 4.6 
 
 525 
 
 12 
 
 28 
 
 61 
 
 4.1 
 
 755 
 
 12 
 
 30 
 
 67 
 
 4.5 
 
 755 
 
 12 
 
 32 
 
 74 
 
 5.0 
 
 755 
 
 12 
 
 34 
 
 80 
 
 5.3 
 
 755 
 
 12 
 
 36 
 
 87 
 
 5.8 
 
 755 
 
 12 
 
 38 
 
 94 
 
 6.4 
 
 755 
 
 12 
 
 40 
 
 101 
 
 7.3 
 
 755 
 
 14 
 
 28 
 
 83 
 
 5.5 
 
 1030 
 
 14 
 
 30 
 
 91 
 
 6.1 
 
 1030 
 
 14 
 
 32 
 
 100 
 
 6.7 
 
 1030 
 
 14 
 
 34 
 
 109 
 
 7.2 
 
 1030 
 
 14 
 
 36 
 
 118 
 
 7.9 
 
 1030 
 
 14 
 
 38 
 
 128 
 
 8.5 
 
 1030 
 
 14 
 
 40 
 
 138 
 
 9.2 
 
 1030 
 
 16 
 
 28 
 
 108 
 
 7.2 
 
 1340 
 
 16 
 
 32 
 
 131 
 
 8.7 
 
 1340 
 
 16 
 
 34 
 
 143 
 
 9.5 
 
 1340 
 
 16 
 
 36 
 
 ]55 
 
 10.3 
 
 1340 
 
 16 
 
 38 
 
 167 
 
 11.1 
 
 1340 
 
 16 
 
 40 
 
 180 
 
 12.0 
 
 1340 
 
 18 
 
 30 
 
 151 
 
 10.0 
 
 1700 
 
 18 
 
 32 
 
 166 
 
 11.0 
 
 1700 
 
 18 
 
 34 
 
 181 
 
 12.0 
 
 1700 
 
 18 
 
 36 
 
 196 
 
 13.2 
 
 1700 
 
 18 
 
 38 
 
 212 
 
 14.1 
 
 1700 
 
 18 
 
 40 
 
 229 
 
 15.26 
 
 1700 
 
 18 
 
 42 
 
 246 
 
 16.4 
 
 1700 
 
 18 
 
 44 
 
 264 
 
 17.6 
 
 1700 
 
 18 
 
 46 
 
 282 
 
 18.8 
 
 1700 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 187 
 
 12.5 
 
 2100 
 
 20 
 
 32 
 
 205 
 
 13.6 
 
 2100 
 
 20 
 
 34 
 
 224 
 
 15.0 
 
 2100 
 
 20 
 
 36 
 
 243 
 
 16.2 
 
 2100 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 281 
 
 18.8 
 
 2100 
 
 20 
 
 42 
 
 300 
 
 20.0 
 
 2100 
 
 20 
 
 44 
 
 320 
 
 21.3 
 
 2100 
 
 20 
 
 46 
 
 340 
 
 22.6 
 
 2100 
 
 20 
 
 48 
 
 361 
 
 24.0 
 
 2100 
 
 20 
 
 50 
 
 382 
 
 25.5 
 
 2100 
 
476 CONSTRUCTION, FARM ENGINEERING, MECHANICJ 
 
 Necessary diameter of silos for feeding different numbers of cows while re- 
 moving from 2 to 3,2 inches of silage daily (King) 
 
 Each cow is allowed 40 pounds of silage daily ; silos to be of sufficient capac- 
 ity to hold silage for ISO days. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Silo 30 Ft. deep, no Partition 
 Mean Depth fed Daily, 2 In. 
 
 Silo 24 Ft. deep with Partition 
 Mean Depth fed Daily, 3.2 In. 
 
 No. OF Cows 
 
 Contents 
 
 Round 
 diam- 
 eter 
 in ft. 
 
 Square 
 
 sides in 
 
 ft. 
 
 Contents 
 
 Round 
 diam- 
 eter 
 in ft. 
 
 Sauare 
 
 sides in 
 
 ft. 
 
 
 Tons 
 
 Cu. Ft. 
 
 Tons 
 
 Ct. Ft. 
 
 30 
 40 
 50 
 60 
 70 
 90 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 108 
 144 
 180 
 216 
 252 
 324 
 360 
 
 4,091 
 6,545 
 
 8,182 
 
 9,818 
 
 11,454 
 
 14,727 
 
 16,364 
 
 15.0 
 
 16.75 
 
 18.75 
 
 20.50 
 
 22.00 
 
 25.00 
 
 26.50 
 
 12 X 14 
 14 X 16 
 16 X 18 
 18 X 18 
 20 X 20 
 22 X 24 
 24 X 24 
 
 108 
 144 
 180 
 216 
 252 
 324 
 360 
 
 5,510 
 7,347 
 9,184 
 11,020 
 12,857 
 16,531 
 18,367 
 
 17.00 
 20.00 
 22.00 
 24.00 
 26.00 
 29.75 
 31.25 
 
 16 X 16 
 18 X 18 
 20 X 20 
 22 X 22 
 22 X 26 
 26 X28 
 28 X28 
 
 Other silo figures. 
 
 Silos are now preferably cylindrical, for the silage packs and settles 
 more evenly than in square or cornered constructions. Most silos 
 now are wooden tank-like structures built of upright wooden staves. 
 In the northernmost dairy regions, the silo may be inside the barn ; 
 but usually it is outside the main barn structure. 
 
 Weight of silage in silos of different depths two days after filling the silo 
 
 (King) 
 
 Depth of Silage 
 
 Weight at Different 
 
 Mean Weight of Silage for 
 
 Depths 
 
 Whole Depth of Silo 
 
 Feet 
 
 Lb. per cu. ft. 
 
 Lb. per cu. fl. 
 
 1 
 
 18.7 
 
 18.7 
 
 5 
 
 25.4 
 
 22.1 
 
 10 
 
 33.1 
 
 26.1 
 
 15 
 
 40.0 
 
 29.8 
 
 20 
 
 46.2 
 
 33.3 
 
 25 
 
 51.7 
 
 36.5 
 
 30 
 
 56.4 
 
 39.6 
 
 35 
 
 61.0 
 
 42.8 
 
SILO AND BARN FIGURES 
 
 477 
 
 Approximate capacity of cylindrical silos for well-matured corn silage, in 
 
 tons (King) 
 
 r^ 
 
 Inside Diameter in Feet 
 
 5- 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 
 Tons Tons 
 
 Tons 
 
 Tons 
 
 Tons 
 
 Tons 
 
 Tons 
 
 Tons 
 
 Tons 
 
 Tons 
 
 Tons 
 
 Tons 
 
 20 . 
 
 58.8 
 
 67.0 
 
 75.6 
 
 84.7 
 
 94.4 
 
 104.6 
 
 115.3 
 
 126.6 
 
 138.3 
 
 150.6 
 
 163.4 
 
 176.8 
 
 21 . 
 
 62.9 
 
 71.6 
 
 80.8 
 
 90.6 
 
 100.9 
 
 111.8 
 
 123.3! 135.3 
 
 147.9 
 
 161.0 
 
 174.7 
 
 189.0 
 
 22 . 
 
 67.4 
 
 76.5 
 
 86.4 
 
 96.8 
 
 107.9 
 
 119.6 
 
 131.8 144.7 
 
 158.1 
 
 172.2 
 
 186.8 
 
 202.1 
 
 23 . 
 
 71.7 
 
 81.6 
 
 92.1 
 
 103.3 
 
 115.1 
 
 127.5 
 
 140.6! 154.3 
 
 168.7 
 
 183.6 
 
 199.3 
 
 215.5 
 
 24 . 
 
 76.1 
 
 86.6 
 
 97.81 109.6 
 
 122.1 
 
 135.3 
 
 149.2 163.7 
 
 179.0 
 
 194.9 
 
 211.5 
 
 228.7 
 
 25 . 
 
 80.6 
 
 89.6 
 
 103.6 116.1 
 
 129.3 143.3 
 
 158.0 
 
 173.4 
 
 189.5 
 
 206.4 
 
 223.9 
 
 242.2 
 
 26 . 
 
 85.5 
 
 97.2; 109.8 123.0 
 
 137.1 151.9 
 
 167.5 
 
 183.8 
 
 200.9 218.8 
 
 237.4 
 
 256.7 
 
 27 . 
 
 90.2 
 
 102.6 115.8 129.8 
 
 144.7 160.3 
 
 176.7 
 
 194.0 
 
 212.0 230.8 
 
 250.5 
 
 270.9 
 
 28 . 
 
 95.0 
 
 108.1 
 
 122.0 136.8 
 
 152.4 168.9 
 
 186.2 
 
 204.3 
 
 223.3 243.2 
 
 263.9 
 
 285.4 
 
 29 . 
 
 99.9 
 
 113.7 
 
 128.3 143.9 
 
 160.3 177.6 
 
 195.8 
 
 214.9 
 
 234.9 255.8 
 
 277.6 
 
 300.2 
 
 30 . 
 
 105.0 
 
 119.4 
 
 134.8, 151.1 
 
 168.4! 186.6 
 
 205.7 
 
 225.8 
 
 246.8' 268.7 
 
 291.6 
 
 315.3 
 
 31 . 
 
 109.8 
 
 124.9 
 
 141.1 158.2 
 
 176.2 195.2 
 
 215.3 
 
 236.3 
 
 258.21281.8 
 
 305.1 
 
 330.0 
 
 32 . 
 
 115.1 
 
 135.9 
 
 147.8 165.7 
 
 184.6 204.6 
 
 225.5 
 
 247.5 
 
 270.5 294.6 
 
 319.6 
 
 345.7 
 
 Bam Figures 
 
 A comparison of the cost of material in round and rectangular barns, in- 
 cluding foundation and silos (111. Sta.) 
 
 Lumber in barn . . . . 
 Material in foundation . 
 Material in silo .... 
 Total cost of material in barn 
 Actual money saved . 
 Proportional cost .... 
 
 RODND 
 
 Barn, 60 
 
 Feet In 
 
 Diameter 
 
 $799.76 
 
 86.89 
 
 159.01 
 
 $1045.66 
 100% 
 
 Rectangular Barn, 
 36 X 78V2 Feet 
 
 Plank frame 
 
 $1023.27 
 105.90 
 295.26 
 
 $1424.43 
 
 378.77 
 136% 
 
 Mortise 
 frame 
 
 $1233.41 
 105.90 
 295.26 
 
 $1634.57 
 588.91 
 156% 
 
 Wire Fence 
 
 On the model form of woven-wire fence, the tensile strain figures to 
 a very small degree. What the manufacturer aims to accomplish is 
 to produce a hard wire without having this of spring-steel grade, so that 
 it will stand more or less abuse and still not be so hard but that it can 
 be spliced. Some types of fence are of rather weak construction, and 
 for top and bottom wire high carbon steel is used to hold up the fabric. 
 
478 CONSTRUCTION, FARM ENGINEERING, MECHANICS 
 
 1 Acre 
 
 
 1 Acre 
 
 
 1 Acre 
 
 Requires 
 
 7. 
 
 Requires 
 
 s 
 
 Requires 
 
 56 Rods 
 
 ! 1 
 
 52 
 
 2 
 
 50 Rods 
 
 of 
 
 Rod!«of 
 
 o 
 
 10 ft. of 
 
 Fence 
 
 1. " 
 
 a 
 
 Fence 
 
 w 
 
 fence 
 
 12 rods 10 It 9 In. 
 
 10 rods 
 
 
 8 rods 
 
 
 16 rods 
 
 
 22 rods 
 
 2 Acres 
 
 3 Acres 
 
 Requires 
 
 ^ K 
 
 Requires 88 Rods 
 
 72 rods of 
 
 O J 
 
 of Fence 
 
 Fence 
 
 I 1 
 
 
 20 rods 
 
 
 
 4 Acres 
 Requires 1 04 
 
 
 
 
 25 rods 5 ft. 
 
 
 
 
 Rods of 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fence 
 
 
 
 
 4 Acres 
 
 
 
 
 
 Requires lOl Rod* | 
 
 
 
 
 3^ feet ol 
 
 
 
 
 Fence 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 c< 
 
 
 
 Fig. 17. — Dimensions of 1, 2, 3, and 4 aero lots, and fonco roquired to enclose 
 them. Dimensions given are exact, so that in buying fence, sufficient allow- 
 ance should be made to cover fence taken up in wrapping around end and 
 corner posts. 
 
WIRE FENCING 
 Gauges, sizes, and weights of plain wire 
 
 479 
 
 Gauge 
 
 Diameter of Gauge, 
 Inches 
 
 Weight One Mile, 
 Pounds 
 
 Feet to Pound 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 ..... . 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 .2830 
 .2625 
 .2437 
 .2253 
 .2070 
 .1920 
 .1770 
 .1620 
 .1483 
 .1350 
 .1205 
 .1055 
 .0915 
 .0800 
 .0720 
 .0625 
 .0540 
 .0475 
 .0410 
 .0348 
 
 1128.0 
 970.4 
 836.4 
 714.8 
 603.4 
 519.2 
 441.2 
 369.6 
 309.7 
 256.7 
 204.5 
 156.7 
 117.9 
 90.13 
 73.01 
 55.01 
 41.07 
 31.77 
 23.67 
 17.05 
 
 4.681 
 5.441 
 6.313 
 7.386 
 8.750 
 10.17 
 11.97 
 14.29 
 17.05 
 20.57 
 25.82 
 33.69 
 44.78 
 58.58 
 72.32 
 95.98 
 128.6 
 166.2 
 223.0 
 309.6 
 
 Barb-wire. 
 
 In barb-wire fencing, it is reasonably safe to estimate that four- 
 point cattle barb-wire (which means barbs approximately five inches 
 apart) weighs about one pound to the rod ; and that four-point hog 
 barb-wire (barbs about three inches apart), measures about thirteen 
 feet to the pound. 
 
 Galvanized coiled spring-steel wire. 
 
 Coiled or wavy wire is employed in making fences in various 
 forms, although it is not used to any great extent. It is so coiled 
 that it will retain its springiness against all expansion and contrac- 
 tion due to weather conditions. 
 
 Gauge 
 
 Feet per Pound 
 
 Gauge 
 
 Feet per Pound 
 
 No. 7 
 
 No. 8 
 
 No. 9 
 
 11.00 
 13.33 
 16.70 
 
 No. 10 
 No. 11 
 No. 12 
 
 20.00 
 24.61 
 32.00 
 
480 CONSTRUCTION^ FARM ENGINEERING, MECHANICS 
 
 
 ■4 mile or SO rods 
 
 40 rods ^ 
 
 NrwU 
 
 <0 
 
 111 
 
 
 i 1 
 
 1 1 
 
 e 80 Acres ^ 
 
 i Requires 1^ miles jB 
 g o/- 480 rods of fence^ 
 >^ <o enclose ^ 
 
 i s 1 
 
 § s s 
 
 40 rods 
 
 SOrodj 
 
 4i 
 
 
 aoroda 
 
 25i 
 
 Acres 
 
 so red* 
 
 
 40 rods 
 
 2 10 2 
 
 ^ Acres J 
 40rods 
 
 
 14 mile or 80 rod» | 
 
 i 1 
 
 « 40 Acres 8 
 
 
 i 
 
 O 
 
 
 e Requires 1 mile 
 
 
 i or 320 rods of ± 
 i fence to enclose *§ 
 
 
 
 2^ at 
 
 CO 
 
 '4 mUe or 80 rods 
 
 1/4 mile or 80 rods 
 
 s 
 
 $^ mile or 160 rods 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 i 
 
 
 s s 
 
 t 160 Acres - 
 
 
 * Requires 2 miles or 640 rods * 
 
 
 4 of lence (o enclose £ 
 
 
 
 ^mlle or 100 rods 
 
 Fio. 18. — Number of rods of fence required to enclose fields of different siaea 
 
ROPES. TILE-DRAINING 
 Tensile Strengths of Ropes 
 
 481 
 
 Manila Rope 
 
 Manila Rope 
 
 Cast-steel Wire 
 
 Rope 
 
 3 STRANDS 
 
 , 3G IN. LONG 
 
 4 STRANDS, 
 
 36 IN. LONG 
 
 e 
 
 ) strands 
 
 
 Circum- 
 
 Breaking 
 
 Circum- 
 
 Breaking 
 
 Circum- 
 
 No. of 
 
 Breaking 
 
 ference 
 
 load 
 
 ference 
 
 load 
 
 ference 
 
 strand 
 
 load 
 
 in. 
 
 lb. 
 
 in. 
 
 lb. 
 
 in. 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 1.625 
 
 1,750 
 
 2.825 
 
 4,250 
 
 1.062 
 
 6 
 
 6,285 
 
 2.25 
 
 3,680 
 
 3.375 
 
 6,050 
 
 1.375 
 
 19 
 
 11,850 
 
 2.375 
 
 4,750 
 
 3.75 
 
 7,700 
 
 1.563 
 
 19 
 
 12,590 
 
 2.812 
 
 5,400 
 
 4.25 
 
 11,140 
 
 1.595 
 
 19 
 
 19,500 
 
 3.188 
 
 6,800 
 
 4.825 
 
 14,020 
 
 1.780 
 
 19 
 
 19,150 
 
 3.625 
 
 7,635 
 
 5.375 
 
 16,550 
 
 1.938 
 
 19 
 
 21,510 
 
 4.375 
 
 8,980 
 
 3.188 
 
 7,700 
 
 
 
 
 4.75 
 
 11,870 
 
 3.125 
 
 7,630 
 
 
 
 
 5.125 
 
 15,100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2.562 
 
 2,850 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3.033 
 
 4,930 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4.188 
 
 11,650 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tile-draining 
 
 Number of feet of drain tile required per acre when placed the specified 
 
 distances apart (Fippin) 
 
 20 feet apart 2180 feet 
 
 25 feet apart 1743 feet 
 
 30 feet apart 1452 feet 
 
 40 feet apart 1090 feet 
 
 50 feet apart 872 feet 
 
 100 feet apart 436 feet 
 
 150 feet apart 290 feet 
 
 200 feet apart 218 feet 
 
 Limit of size of drain tile to grade and length (Elliott) 
 
 Size of Tile in Inches 
 
 Minimum 
 Grade per 
 100 Ft. in 
 
 Feet 
 
 Limit of 
 Length 
 in Feet 
 
 2 
 
 .10 
 .09 
 .05 
 .05 
 .05 
 .05 
 .05 
 .05 
 .04 
 .04 
 .04 
 
 600 
 800 
 1600 
 2000 
 2500 
 2800 
 3000 
 3500 
 4000 
 4500 
 5300 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 
 2i 
 
482 CONSTRUCTION, FARM ENGINEERING, MECHANICS 
 
 These limits are based on perfectly laid tile, which is seldom 
 achieved. The lay of the land, the nature of the earth, the occur- 
 rence of rocks and trees and other obstructions, the necessity of 
 making detours, and other conditions, all influence the theoretical 
 limits of efficiency. 
 
 Conditions that determine the size of the drains, particularly the 
 mains (Elliott) : — 
 
 1. The depth of water to be removed in twenty-four hours over the 
 area of the drainage system. 
 
 2. Rapidity with which the water is brought to the main, that is, 
 the number, size, and fall of the laterals. 
 
 3. The existence of emergency surface drainage. 
 
 4. The texture and physical condition of the soil, that is, whether 
 it is open and porous or dense and retentive. 
 
 5. The grade of the ditch. 
 
 Number of acres from which % inch of water will he removed in 24 hours 
 by outlet tile-drains of different diameters and different lengths with dif- 
 ferent grades (adapted from Elliott) 
 
 
 Grade in Inches per 100 Feet 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 DiABi 
 
 I- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ETEI 
 
 ' f 
 
 
 
 OF 
 TiLI 
 
 , Length op Drain in Feet 
 
 
 
 Inchi 
 
 1000 
 
 2000 
 
 1000 
 
 2000 
 
 1000 
 
 2000 
 
 1000 
 
 2000 
 
 1000 
 
 2000 
 
 
 Acres of Land drained by Different Sizes of 
 
 Tile 
 
 
 5 
 
 19.1 
 
 15.7 
 
 22.1 
 
 19.4 
 
 25.1 
 
 22.7 
 
 32.0 
 
 30.3 
 
 37.7 
 
 36.3 
 
 6 
 
 29.9 
 
 24.8 
 
 34.8 
 
 30.5 
 
 39.6 
 
 35.9 
 
 50.5 
 
 47.8 
 
 59.4 
 
 57.3 
 
 7 
 
 44.1 
 
 36.4 
 
 31.1 
 
 44.8 
 
 58.0 
 
 52.8 
 
 74.0 
 
 70.1 
 
 87.1 
 
 84.1 
 
 8 
 
 61.4 
 
 50.7 
 
 71.2 
 
 62.6 
 
 80.9 
 
 73.6 
 
 103.3 
 
 98.0 
 
 121.4 
 
 117.3 
 
 9 
 
 82.2 
 
 68.1 
 
 95.3 
 
 83.8 
 
 108.4 
 
 89.6 
 
 138.1 
 
 131.3 
 
 162.6 
 
 157.1 
 
 10 
 
 106.7 
 
 88.5 
 
 123.9 
 
 108.9 
 
 140.6 
 
 128.1 
 
 179.2 
 
 170.5 
 
 211.1 
 
 204.4 
 
 12 
 
 167.7 
 
 139.3 
 
 194.6 
 
 171.6 
 
 221.1 
 
 201.8 
 
 281.8 
 
 268.6 
 
 331.8 
 
 321.7 
 
 14 
 
 245.3 
 
 204.3 
 
 284.9 
 
 251.7 
 
 3 •-'3. 5 
 
 296.1 
 
 412.9 
 
 393.9 
 
 485.8 
 
 472.1 
 
 16 
 
 341.4 
 
 284.6 
 
 369.3 
 
 350.4 
 
 449.9 
 
 412.2 
 
 573.7 
 
 548.8 
 
 675.2 
 
 657.3 
 
 18 
 
 456.4 
 
 381.3 
 
 529.1 
 
 470.1 
 
 601.8 
 
 552.5 
 
 767.4 
 
 733.1 
 
 902.3 
 
 880.5 
 
 20 
 
 591.5 
 
 245.9 
 
 686.3 
 
 610.5 
 
 780.0 
 
 718.2 
 
 994.5 
 
 954.6 
 
 1170.0 
 
 1144.0 
 
TILE-DRAINING 
 
 483 
 
 Average list price per one thousand (1000) feet of drain tile quoted by 
 dealers in New York (Fippin) . Subject to large discounts 
 
 Diameter of Tile 
 
 Price per 
 1000 Feet 
 
 Diameter of Tile 
 
 Price per 
 1000 Feet 
 
 2 inches 
 
 2}4 inches 
 
 3 inches 
 
 4 inches 
 
 5 inches 
 
 $13.50 
 16.50 
 21.00 
 34.00 
 44.00 
 
 6 inches .... 
 
 8 inches .... 
 10 inches .... 
 12 inches .... 
 
 $62.00 
 
 95.00 
 
 165.00 
 
 230.00 
 
 Prices, weights, and average carload of tile (Wis. Sta.) 
 
 
 Price per 1000 
 
 
 
 
 Feet, including 
 
 
 
 Diameter 
 
 Freight at 
 Rates prevail- 
 ing IN THE 
 Southern Half 
 OF Wisconsin 
 
 Pounds 
 PER Foot 
 
 Average Car Load 
 
 Inches 
 
 
 
 Feet 
 
 Rods 
 
 4 
 
 $18.00 
 
 6 
 
 6500 
 
 390 
 
 5 
 
 26.00 
 
 8 
 
 5000 
 
 300 
 
 6 
 
 35.00 
 
 11 
 
 4000 
 
 240 
 
 7 
 
 45.00 
 
 14 
 
 3000 
 
 180 
 
 8 
 
 60.00 
 
 18 
 
 2400 
 
 144 
 
 10 
 
 80.00 
 
 25 
 
 1600 
 
 96 
 
 12 
 
 120.00 
 
 33 
 
 1000 
 
 60 
 
 14 
 
 185.00 
 
 43 
 
 800 
 
 48 
 
 15 
 
 200.00 
 
 50 
 
 600 
 
 36 
 
 16 
 
 225.00 
 
 53 
 
 500 
 
 30 
 
 18 
 
 310.00 
 
 70 
 
 400 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 400.00 
 
 83 
 
 330 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 500.00 
 
 100 
 
 320 
 
 19 
 
 24 
 
 550.00 
 
 112 
 
 300 
 
 18 
 
 27 
 
 800.00 
 
 150 
 
 240 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 1000.00 
 
 192 
 
 160 
 
 10 
 
 Cost per rod of digging the trench, laying the tile, and blinding with four 
 inches of earth (Wis. Sta.) 
 
 
 
 
 Feet in 
 
 Depth 
 
 
 
 Size of Tile 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 
 Inches 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 . 
 
 
 $ 0.30 
 
 $0.50 
 
 $0.80 
 
 $1.25 
 
 5 . 
 
 
 .35 
 
 .55 
 
 0.85 
 
 1.30 
 
 6 . 
 
 
 .40 
 
 .60 
 
 0.90 
 
 1.35 
 
 8 . 
 
 
 .45 
 
 .65 
 
 0.95 
 
 1.40 
 
 10 . 
 
 
 .50 
 
 .70 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.45 
 
 12 . 
 
 
 .55 
 
 .75 
 
 1.05 
 
 1.50 
 
 
 
 
484 CONSTRUCTION, FARM ENGINEERING, MECHANICS 
 
 Drainage points (Fippin). 
 
 1. Surface or open ditches are: 
 
 Of low efficiency, 
 
 Wasteful of land, 
 
 Expensive to maintain, 
 
 Harbor weeds, 
 
 Interfere with cultural operations. 
 
 2. Stone drains are: 
 
 Not permanent, 
 
 They have a small capacity, 
 
 Therefore, are expensive. 
 
 Ten good rules 
 
 1. Use dense, hard-burned tile. 
 
 2. Water enters through the joints. 
 
 3. Round or hexagonal shapes are best. 
 
 4. An even grade is essential. 
 
 5. Avoid tile smaller than three inches on low grades. 
 
 6. Hill land may need drainage. 
 
 7. Ditching plows are very useful. 
 
 8. Carefully construct and protect the outlet. 
 
 9. Depth in heavy clay, two to three feet. 
 
 10. Depth in loam and sandy loam, three to four feet. 
 
 Donets in land drainage (Jones, Wis. Sta.). 
 
 1. Don't dodge the wet spots in cultivated fields. A few dol- 
 lars spent in drainage will make these spots yield valuable crops 
 and will make the cultivation of the whole field more convenient. 
 
 2. Don't be content with raising marsh grass on muck and peat 
 marshes. Drainage is the step that begins their adaptation to tame 
 grasses and other farm crops. 
 
 3. Don't condemn the muck and peat marshes on which timothy 
 has died out once. Drain thoroughly and then apply barnyard ma- 
 nure or commercial fertilizers, as is done on uplands. In other 
 words, give the marshes a square deal. 
 
 4. Don't wait for nature to drain the wet lands without assist- 
 
TILE-DRAINING 485 
 
 ance. Nature alone did not remove the stumps and stones from 
 the wooded, stony lands. Neither does she irrigate the arid lands 
 of the West without the aid of man. 
 
 5. Don't let damaging water get on to land, if it can be pre- 
 vented. An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure in 
 drainage. 
 
 6. Don't think it takes a wizard to lay tile properly. Have a 
 survey made sufficient in detail to show that there is sufficient fall. 
 An intelligent use of this fall will then insure success. 
 
 7. Don't install a part of a drainage system to which the re- 
 mainder of the system cannot later be joined with advantage. 
 
 8. Don't let the waste banks of ditches grow up to weeds. Get 
 them sodded, and make them both valuable and attractive. 
 
 9. Don't let outlet ditches remain idle when they should be 
 working. Have surface ditches and tile to keep them busy. 
 
 10. Don't spend a dollar for small ditches or tile on a marsh until 
 an outlet is assured. 
 
 11. Don't fail to give land drainage the attention and thought it 
 
 deserves. 
 
 " Our marshes and pot-holes are evils that tell : 
 Where corn shocks are thickest the land is drained well, 
 But justice to drainage demands first of all, 
 That we should drain wisely, or not drain at all." 
 
 Road-drags 
 
 Use of the King road-drag (Chase). 
 
 The use of the drag is more satisfactory if the road has first been 
 crowned with a blade grader, but whenever this is not convenient and 
 the traffic is not too heavy, the road maybe gradually brought to a crown 
 by means of the drag (Fig. 19). 
 
 The surface of the average country road should be covered in one 
 round with the drag. One horse should be driven on the inside of the 
 wheel track and the other on the outside, the drag being set, by means 
 of the chain, so that it is running at an angle of about forty-five degrees 
 with the wheel track and working the earth toward the center of the 
 road. In the spring, when the roads are more likely to be rutty and 
 soft it is generally better to go over the road twice and in some places 
 more times. 
 
486 CONSTRUCTION, FARM ENGINEERING, MECHANICS 
 
 The drag should be floored with boards which are separated by open 
 spaces of sufficient width so that the dirt which falls over will rattle 
 through, and yet they should be close enough so that the driver can 
 move about upon the drag quite freely. 
 
 To insure the successful operation of the drag, it is necessary for 
 the driver to use careful judgment. Sometimes it is essential that the 
 blade be held down so that the drag will cut roots and weeds, while at 
 other times the front edge should not bear too heavily upon the surface, 
 as it will dig out a soft place which would be better if left undisturbed. 
 This regulation of the cutting edge can be accomplished by the driver 
 moving back and forth or to the right and left on the drag. 
 
 -6'X 6"-rr^:yl"^"^ 
 
 12" \\ ___— -ANy»' 
 
 %^ 
 
 ■^,i^ -^^^ 7,Q«2»^^ \ <^. 
 
 Fig. 19. — Road drag. It is faced part of the length on the front with a steel plate. 
 
 If the road is to be crowned with the drag, it is often well to plow 
 a light furrow along the sides and work this loosened dirt to the center. 
 
 On roads with heavy traffic the drag should be used much oftener 
 and with more care than on roads with light traffic. 
 
 The distance from the drag at which the team is hitched affects the 
 cutting. A long hitch permits the blade to cut deeper than a short 
 hitch, likewise a heavy doubletree will cause the cutting edge to settle 
 deeper than a light one. 
 
 Strange as it may seem, the heavier the traffic over a properly dragged 
 road the better the road becomes. 
 
 When to use (he drag. — There are very few periods of the year when 
 the use of the drag does not benefit the road, but it does the best work 
 when the soil is moist and yet not too sticky. This is frequently 
 within a half-day's time after a rain. When the earth is in this state 
 
ROAD-DRAGS 487 
 
 it works the best, and the effects of working it are fully as beneficial 
 as at any other time. The Nebraska soils, when mixed with water 
 and thoroughly worked become remarkably tough and impervious to 
 rain, and if compacted in this condition they become extremely hard. 
 
 This action of the soil in becoming so hard and smooth not only 
 helps to shed the water during a rain, but also greatly retards the for- 
 mation of dust. 
 
 Whal may he expected from the use of the drag. — It often takes a 
 whole season for the road to become properly puddled and baked to 
 withstand the rains and traffic. After a road has been worked with 
 a drag only a short time, it is not well to expect it to stand up to 
 heavy traffic during a continued damp spell without being affected. 
 However, it will take far heavier traffic than most earth roads receive 
 to more than scuff up the surface. 
 
 It is not well to consider the benefits from a good road as solely con- 
 fined to heavy traffic, for there is no doubt but that the time saved to 
 light vehicles and the greater pleasure derived from their use over good 
 roads far surpasses the economy in heavy hauling. 
 
 While driving over a well-crowned-smooth road, the team does not 
 have to follow the usual rut, no slacking has to be made for irregular- 
 ities in the surface, and it matters not whether one or two horses are 
 being driven. 
 
 The split-log road-drag (D. W. King). 
 
 Two mistakes are commonly made in constructing a split-log drag. 
 The first lies in making it too heavy. It should be so light that one 
 man can easily lift it (Fig. 20). 
 
 The other mistake is in the use of squared timbers, instead of those 
 with sharp edges, whereby the cutting effect of sharp edges is lost and 
 the drag is permitted to glide over instead of to equalize the irregular- 
 ities in the surface of the road. These mistakes are due partly to 
 badly drawn illustrations and plans of drags which have occasionally 
 appeared in newspapers, and partly to the erroneous idea that it is 
 necessary that a large amount of earth shall be moved at one time. 
 
 A dry red cedar log is the best material for a drag. Red elm and 
 walnut when thoroughly dried are excellent, and box elder, soft maple, 
 or even willow are preferable to oak, hickory, or ash. 
 
 The log should be seven or eight feet long and from ten to twelve 
 
488 CONSTIH ("noN, farm KNUINKKHINU, MKCllANWS 
 
 inches in diamotcr, :iimI ciircfully split down tlic middle. The hciivioHt 
 and b(\st slal) should be .sclcc^tccl for the; front. At a point on this front 
 sUib 4 in(;h(!S from tlu; (!nd that is to Ik; at the niiddh; of the; road 
 locate the center of the? hole to reccnvc; a cross stake, and 22 inches 
 from the other end of the front slab locate the center for another 
 cross stake. The liolc for the niiddh; stake will lie on a line connectinj; 
 and halfway Ix'twccn the other two. The ba(rk slab should now b(; 
 placed in position beliind the other. From the end which is to be 
 
 Fio. 20. — The Hplit-log romJ-diiiK. 
 
 at the middle of tlie road measure 20 inches for the center of the 
 cross stake, and 6 inches from the other end locate the center of the 
 outside; stake. Find th(; cent(;r of th(; middle; hole as b(;fore. When 
 these; holes an; brought opposite; e'jie;h e>the;r, e)ne; e;nel of the l)ae;k slul) 
 will lie If) ine;he;s nearer the center of the roadway than the front 
 one, giving what is known as "se;t bae-k." The; holes she)ulel be; 2 ine;iie'S 
 in diameter. Care must be taken te) hold the auger pluml) in be)rinf^ 
 th(;se; he)le;s in oreleT that tlie' stake;s shall fit pr()|)e'rly. The- lie)le te> re- 
 ceive the; fe>rwarei e;nel e>f the chain she)uld be* be)re;el at the; same' time. 
 
 The two slabs should be held 30 inche;s apart by the stakes. 
 Straight-graine;el timber shoulel be se;le;cte;d for the stakes, so that each 
 stake shall fit snuf^ly inte) the twe)-inch hole when the; two slabs are in 
 the prope;r i)e)sitiem. The' stake-s she)uld taper graehially te)warel the 
 ends. There; she)ulel be no she)ulele'r at the' point where the; stake;s e;nter 
 the slab. The stakes should be fastened in place by wedges only. 
 
 When the stakes have been placed in position and tightly wedged, 
 
ROAD-DRAGS. WATER FIGURES 
 
 489 
 
 a brace two inches thick and four inches wide should be placed diagon- 
 ally to thorn at the ditch end. The brace should be dropped on the 
 front slab, so that its lower edge shall lie within an inch of the ground, 
 while the other end should rest in the angle Vjetween the slab and the 
 end stake. 
 
 A strip of iron about 3^ feet long, 3 or 4 inches wide, and \ of 
 an inch thick nriay be used for the blade. This should be attached to 
 the front slab, so that it will be \ inch below the lower edge of the 
 slab at the ditcli end, while the end of the iron toward the middle of 
 the road should be flush with the edge of the slab. The bolts holding 
 the blade in place should have flat heads, and the holes to receive them 
 iihould be countersunk. 
 
 If the face of the log stands plumb, it is well to wedge out the lower 
 edge of the blade with a three-cornered strip of wood to give it a set 
 like the bit of a plane. 
 
 A platform of inch boards held together by three cleats should be 
 plac(;d on the stakes betwe(.'n the slabs. These boards should be 
 spaced at least an inch aparf. to allow any earth that may heap up and 
 fall over the front slab to sift through upon the road again. 
 
 Data on Water 
 
 1 U.S. j?allon 
 1 U.S. gallon 
 
 1 cu. ft. wator 
 1 cu. ft. water 
 
 2.31 cu, in. 
 8i lb. 
 
 62.5 lb. 
 7.48 j?al. 
 
 Feet-head of water, and equivalent pressure 
 
 Feet- 
 Head 
 
 Pound* 
 PEH Sq. In. 
 
 Feet-Head 
 
 Pounds 
 PEB Sq. In. 
 
 Feet-Head 
 
 Pounds 
 PER Sci. In. 
 
 1 
 
 .43 
 
 60 
 
 25.99 
 
 200 
 
 86.62 
 
 2 
 
 .87 
 
 70 
 
 30.32 
 
 225 
 
 97.45 
 
 3 
 
 1.30 
 
 80 
 
 34.65 
 
 250 
 
 108.27 
 
 4 
 
 1.73 
 
 90 
 
 38.98 
 
 275 
 
 110.10 
 
 5 
 
 2.17 
 
 100 
 
 43.31 
 
 300 
 
 120.03 
 
 6 
 
 2.60 
 
 110 
 
 47.64 
 
 325 
 
 140.75 
 
 7 
 
 3.03 
 
 120 
 
 51.07 
 
 350 
 
 151.58 
 
 8 
 
 3.40 
 
 1.30 
 
 56.30 
 
 400 
 
 173.24 
 
 9 
 
 3.90 
 
 140 
 
 60.63 
 
 500 
 
 216.55 
 
 10 
 
 4.33 
 
 150 
 
 64.96 
 
 600 
 
 259.85 
 
 20 
 
 8.66 
 
 160 
 
 69.29 
 
 700 
 
 303.16 
 
 .30 
 
 12.00 
 
 170 
 
 73.63 
 
 800 
 
 346.47 
 
 40 
 
 17.32 
 
 180 
 
 77.96 
 
 900 
 
 389.78 
 
 50 
 
 21.65 
 
 190 
 
 82.29 
 
 1000 
 
 433.09 
 
490 CONSTRUCTlONy FARM ENGINEERING, MECHANICS 
 
 Pressure arid equivalent feet-head of water 
 
 Pounds 
 perSq.In. 
 
 Feet-Head 
 
 Pounds 
 PER Sq. In. 
 
 Feet-Head 
 
 Pounds 
 PEK Sq. In. 
 
 Feet-Head 
 
 1 
 
 2.31 
 
 40 
 
 92.36 
 
 170 
 
 392.52 
 
 2 
 
 4.62 
 
 50 
 
 115.45 
 
 180 
 
 415.61 
 
 3 
 
 6.93 
 
 60 
 
 138.54 
 
 190 
 
 438.90 
 
 4 
 
 9.24 
 
 70 
 
 161.63 
 
 200 
 
 461.78 
 
 6 
 
 11.54 
 
 80 
 
 184.72 
 
 225 
 
 519.51 
 
 6 
 
 13.85 
 
 90 
 
 207.81 
 
 250 
 
 577.24 
 
 7 
 
 16.16 
 
 100 
 
 230.90 
 
 275 
 
 643.03 
 
 8 
 
 18.47 
 
 110 
 
 253.98 
 
 300 
 
 692.69 
 
 9 
 
 20.78 
 
 120 
 
 277.07 
 
 325 
 
 750.41 
 
 10 
 
 23.09 
 
 125 
 
 288.62 
 
 350 
 
 808.13 
 
 15 
 
 34.63 
 
 130 
 
 300.16 
 
 375 
 
 865.89 
 
 20 
 
 46.18 
 
 140 
 
 323.25 
 
 400 
 
 922.58 
 
 25 
 
 57.72 
 
 150 
 
 346.34 
 
 500 
 
 1154.48 
 
 30 
 
 69.27 
 
 160 
 
 369.43 
 
 1000 
 
 2308.00 
 
 Table of equivalents for moving water 
 
 
 
 
 
 42-Gallon Barrel 
 
 Gallons 
 
 Inches of 
 9 Gal. per 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 PER 
 
 PER Minute 
 
 PER Hour 
 
 
 
 
 Minute 
 
 Minute 
 
 
 
 Bbls. per 
 Minute 
 
 Bbls. per 
 Hour 
 
 Bbls. 24 
 Hours 
 
 10 
 
 1.11 
 
 1.3368 
 
 600 
 
 .24 
 
 14.28 
 
 342.8 
 
 20 
 
 2.22 
 
 2.6733 
 
 1,200 
 
 .48 
 
 28.57 
 
 685.7 
 
 25 
 
 2.66 
 
 3.342 
 
 1,500 
 
 .59 
 
 35.71 
 
 857.0 
 
 27 
 
 3.0 
 
 3.609 
 
 1.620 
 
 .64 
 
 38.57 
 
 925.0 
 
 35 
 
 3.88 
 
 4.678 
 
 2.100 
 
 .83 
 
 50.0 
 
 1,200.0 
 
 36 
 
 4.0 
 
 4.812 
 
 2,100 
 
 .86 
 
 51.43 
 
 1,234.0 
 
 40 
 
 4.4 
 
 5.348 
 
 2,400 
 
 .95 
 
 57.14 
 
 1,371.0 
 
 45 
 
 5.0 
 
 6.015 
 
 2,700 
 
 1.07 
 
 64.28 
 
 1,543.0 
 
 75 
 
 8.33 
 
 10.026 
 
 4,.500 
 
 1.78 
 
 107.14 
 
 2,581.0 
 
 80 
 
 8.88 
 
 10.694 
 
 4,800 
 
 1.90 
 
 114.28 
 
 2,742.0 
 
 90 
 
 10.0 
 
 12.031 
 
 5,400 
 
 2.14 
 
 128.5 
 
 3,0S5.0 
 
 100 
 
 11.1 
 
 13.368 
 
 6,000 
 
 2.39 
 
 142.8 
 
 3,428.0 
 
 125 
 
 13.8 
 
 16.710 
 
 7,500 
 
 2.98 
 
 178.6 
 
 4,286.0 
 
 150 
 
 16.6 
 
 20.052 
 
 9,000 
 
 3.57 
 
 214.3 
 
 5,14:^.0 
 
 175 
 
 19.4 
 
 23.394 
 
 10.. 500 
 
 4.16 
 
 250.0 
 
 6,0( )().() 
 
 180 
 
 20.0 
 
 24.062 
 
 10,800 
 
 4.28 
 
 257.0 
 
 6,171.0 
 
 225 
 
 25.0 
 
 30.079 
 
 18,. 500 
 
 5.35 
 
 321.4 
 
 7,714.0 
 
 250 
 
 26.7 
 
 33.421 
 
 15,000 
 
 5.95 
 
 357.1 
 
 8,570.0 
 
 270 
 
 30.0 
 
 36.093 
 
 16.200 
 
 6.33 
 
 385.7 
 
 9,257.0 
 
 360 
 
 40.0 
 
 48.125 
 
 21.600 
 
 8.57 
 
 514.3 
 
 12,342.0 
 
 400 
 
 44.4 
 
 53.472 
 
 24,000 
 
 9.52 
 
 571.8 
 
 13.723.0 
 
 450 
 
 50.0 
 
 60.158 
 
 27.000 
 
 10.7 
 
 642.8 
 
 15,428.0 
 
WATER FIGURES 
 
 491 
 
 Table of equivalents for moving water — Continued 
 
 Gallons 
 
 Miner's 
 Inches of 
 9 Gal. per 
 
 Cubic Feet 
 per Minute 
 
 
 42-Gallon Barrel 
 
 PER 
 
 PER Hour 
 
 
 
 
 Minute 
 
 Minute 
 
 
 
 BbLS. PER 
 
 Minute 
 
 Bbls. per 
 Hour 
 
 Bbls. 24 
 Hours 
 
 500 
 
 55.5 
 
 66.842 
 
 30,000 
 
 11.9 
 
 714.3 
 
 17,143.0 
 
 540 
 
 GO.O 
 
 72.186 
 
 32,400 
 
 12.8 
 
 771.3 
 
 18,512.0 
 
 600 
 
 66.0 
 
 80.208 
 
 36,000 
 
 14.3 
 
 857.1 
 
 20,570.0 
 
 630 
 
 70.0 
 
 84.218 
 
 37,800 
 
 15.0 
 
 900.0 
 
 21,600.0 
 
 675 
 
 75.0 
 
 90.234 
 
 40,500 
 
 16.0 
 
 964.0 
 
 23,143.0 
 
 720 
 
 80.0 
 
 96.25 
 
 43,200 
 
 17.0 
 
 1028.0 
 
 24,685.0 
 
 800 
 
 88.8 
 
 106.94 
 
 48,000 
 
 19.05 
 
 1142.0 
 
 27,387.0 
 
 900 
 
 100.0 
 
 120.31 
 
 54,000 
 
 21.43 
 
 1285.0 
 
 30,857.0 
 
 1000 
 
 111.1 
 
 133.68 
 
 60,000 
 
 23.95 
 
 1428.0 
 
 34,284.0 
 
 1350 
 
 150.0 
 
 180.46 
 
 81,000 
 
 32.14 
 
 1928.0 
 
 46,085.0 
 
 1500 
 
 166.0 
 
 200.52 
 
 90,000 
 
 35.71 
 
 2142.0 
 
 51,427.0 
 
 1800 
 
 200.0 
 
 240.62 
 
 108,000 
 
 42.85 
 
 2571.0 
 
 57,713.0 
 
 2000 
 
 222.0 
 
 267.36 
 
 120,000 
 
 47.64 
 
 2857.0 
 
 68,568.0 
 
 2500 
 
 266.0 
 
 334.21 
 
 150,000 
 
 59.52 
 
 3571.0 
 
 85,704.0 
 
 2700 
 
 300.0 
 
 360.93 
 
 162,000 
 
 63.33 
 
 3857.0 
 
 92,572.0 
 
 3000 
 
 333.0 
 
 401.04 
 
 180,000 
 
 71.43 
 
 4285.0 
 
 102,840.0 
 
 Foot-loss by friction of water through pipes, by gravity (Ogden) 
 
 The spring or other source used for a water-supply would have to be 
 as much higher than the highest fixture is as shown in the table, in 
 order to provide the pressure required to overcome the friction in the 
 pipe. The table shows the force required to keep the water moving 
 through a small pipe, expressed in number of feet of head, when the 
 water flows by its own weight and is not forced by a pump : — 
 
 
 Head in Feet lost by Friction in Each 100 F»et 
 
 Flow in Gallons per 
 
 OF Length 
 
 Minute 
 
 
 
 y2-inch pipe 
 
 1-inch pipe 
 
 0.5 
 
 4 
 
 
 1.0 
 
 7 
 
 0.3 
 
 2.0 
 
 17 
 
 0.7 
 
 4.0 
 
 54 
 
 1.6 
 
 7.0 
 
 140 
 
 5.3 
 
 10.0 
 
 224 
 
 9.3 
 
492 CONSTRUCTION, FARM ENaiNEERING, MECHANICS 
 
 Friction-loss in pounds of water in pipes 
 
 Pounds pressure per square inch for each 100 feet of length in different 
 size clean iron pipe, discharging given quantities water per minute. 
 
 Gal- 
 
 
 
 Sizes 
 
 OF Pipe 
 
 — Inside Diameter 
 
 
 
 lons 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 PER 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Min- 
 ute 
 
 |in. 
 
 1 in. 
 
 liin. 
 
 IJin. 
 
 2 in. 
 
 3 in. 
 
 4 in. 
 
 6 in. 
 
 Sin. 
 
 10 in. 
 
 12 in. 
 
 5 
 
 3.3 
 
 0.84 
 
 0.31 
 
 0.12 
 
 0.03 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 13.0 
 
 3.16 
 
 1.05 
 
 0.47 
 
 0.12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 28.7 
 
 6.98 
 
 2.38 
 
 0.97 
 
 0.27 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 50.4 
 
 12.3 
 
 4.07 
 
 1.66 
 
 0.42 
 
 0.03 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 78.0 
 
 19.0 
 
 6.40 
 
 2.62 
 
 0.67 
 
 0.10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 27.5 
 
 9.15 
 
 3.75 
 
 0.91 
 
 0.12 
 
 0.03 
 
 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 37.0 
 
 12.4 
 
 5.05 
 
 1.26 
 
 0.14 
 
 0.05 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 48.0 
 
 16.1 
 
 6.52 
 
 1.60 
 
 0.17 
 
 0.06 
 
 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 
 
 
 20.2 
 
 8.15 
 
 2.01 
 
 0.27 
 
 0.07 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 24.9 
 
 10.0 
 
 2.44 
 
 0.35 
 
 0.09 
 
 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 56.1 
 
 22.4 
 
 5.32 
 
 0.74 
 
 0.21 
 
 0.03 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 39.0 
 
 9.46 
 
 1.31 
 
 0.33 
 
 0.05 
 
 
 
 
 125 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14.9 
 
 1.99 
 
 0.51 
 
 0.07 
 
 
 
 
 150 
 
 
 
 
 
 21.2 
 
 2.85 
 
 0.69 
 
 0.10 
 
 0.02 
 
 
 
 175 
 
 
 
 
 
 28.1 
 
 3.85 
 
 0.95 
 
 0.14 
 
 0.03 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 
 
 
 
 37.5 
 
 5.02 
 
 1.22 
 
 0.17 
 
 0.05 
 
 0.01 
 
 
 250 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7.76 
 
 1.89 
 
 0.26 
 
 0.07 
 
 0.03 
 
 0.01 
 
 300 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11.2 
 
 2.66 
 
 0.37 
 
 0.09 
 
 0.04 
 
 
 Gal- 
 lons 
 
 3 in. 
 
 4 in. 
 
 Sin. 
 
 6 in. 
 
 7 in. 
 
 10 in. 
 
 12 in. 
 
 16 in. 
 
 20 in. 
 
 24 in. 
 
 30 in. 
 
 350 
 
 400 
 
 450 
 
 500 
 
 600 
 
 750 
 
 1000 
 
 1250 
 
 1500 
 
 1750 
 
 2000 
 
 2500 
 
 3000 
 
 3500 
 
 4000 
 
 4500 
 
 5000 
 
 15.2 
 19.5 
 25.0 
 30.8 
 
 3.65 
 4.73 
 6.01 
 7.43 
 10.6 
 
 1.28 
 1.68 
 2.10 
 2.70 
 3.45 
 5.40 
 9.60 
 
 0.50 
 0.65 
 0.81 
 0.96 
 1.72 
 2.21 
 3.88 
 
 0.25 
 0.32 
 0.42 
 0.49 
 0.86 
 1.11 
 1.91 
 
 0.05 
 0.06 
 0.07 
 0.09 
 0.13 
 0.18 
 0.32 
 0.49 
 0.70 
 0.95 
 1.23 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.03 
 0.04 
 0.05 
 0.08 
 0.13 
 0.20 
 0.29 
 0.38 
 0.49 
 0.77 
 1.11 
 
 0.009 
 
 0.036 
 
 0.71 
 
 0.123 
 
 0.188 
 
 0.267 
 
 0.365 
 
 0.47 
 
 0.593 
 
 0.73 
 
 0.09 
 
 0.124 
 
 0.158 
 
 0.20 
 
 0.244 
 
 0.067 
 
 0.08 
 
 0.102 
 
 0.022 
 0.027 
 0.035 
 
WATER FIGURES 
 
 493 
 
 Friction-head in feet in clean wrought-iron pipe for each 100 feet of length 
 when discharging various quantities of water from a windynill (Fuller) 
 
 If the water is to be carried some distance fom the pump to a res- 
 ervoir in the use of windmills in irrigation, then the pipe-line convey- 
 ing the water to the reservoir will offer friction to the flow, and this 
 friction expressed in feet should be added in determining the total 
 head against which the pump must operate. 
 
 
 Friction-head in Pipe, with Diameter of — 
 
 Size 
 of 
 
 Gal- 
 lons 
 
 PER 
 
 Min- 
 ute 
 
 fin. 
 
 lin. 
 
 IJin. 
 
 Uin. 
 
 2 in. 
 
 2^ in. 
 
 3 in. 
 
 4 in. 
 
 5 in. 
 
 6 in. 
 
 7 in. 
 
 Sin. 
 
 10 
 in. 
 
 12 
 in. 
 
 Pipe 
 to use 
 for 
 Eco- 
 nomi- 
 cal 
 Dis- 
 tribu- 
 tion 
 
 5 
 10 
 15 
 20 
 25 
 30 
 35 
 40 
 45 
 50 
 75 
 100 
 125 
 150 
 175 
 200 
 250 
 300 
 
 Feel 
 
 7.60 
 
 29.95 
 
 66.12 
 
 116.12 
 
 179.71 
 
 Feet 
 
 1.93 
 7.28 
 16.08 
 28.33 
 43.77 
 63.36 
 85.24 
 110.59 
 
 Feet 
 
 0.71 
 
 2.42 
 
 5.48 
 
 9.37 
 
 14.74 
 
 21.08 
 
 28.56 
 
 37.09 
 
 46.54 
 
 57.37 
 
 129.25 
 
 Feet 
 
 0.27 
 
 1.08 
 
 2.23 
 
 3.82 
 
 6.03 
 
 8.64 
 
 11.63 
 
 15.02 
 
 18.77 
 
 23.04 
 
 51.61 
 
 89.85 
 
 Feet 
 
 0.07 
 
 0.28 
 
 0.62 
 
 0.97 
 
 1.53 
 
 2.09 
 
 2.90 
 
 3.68 
 
 4.63 
 
 5.62 
 
 12.25 
 
 21.79 
 
 34.33 
 
 48.84 
 
 64.74 
 
 86.40 
 
 Feet 
 
 0.07 
 
 0.14 
 
 0.30 
 
 0.48 
 
 0.69 
 
 0.96 
 
 1.17 
 
 1.42 
 
 1.86 
 
 4.14 
 
 7.37 
 
 11.26 
 
 19.12 
 
 21.76 
 
 28.73 
 
 i5.29 
 
 64.65 
 
 Feu 
 
 0.07 
 0.23 
 0.28 
 0.32 
 0.39 
 0.62 
 0.80 
 1.70 
 3.01 
 4.58 
 6.56 
 8.87 
 11.56 
 17.87 
 25.80 
 
 Feet 
 
 0.07 
 0.11 
 0.13 
 0.16 
 0.20 
 0.48 
 0.76 
 1.17 
 1.58 
 2.18 
 2.80 
 4. .34 
 6.12 
 
 Feet 
 
 0.07 
 0.13 
 0.27 
 0.39 
 0.57 
 0.78 
 0.97 
 1.49 
 2.13 
 
 Feet 
 
 0.07 
 0.11 
 0.16 
 0.23 
 0.32 
 0.39 
 0.60 
 0.85 
 
 Feet 
 
 0.07 
 0.18 
 0.30 
 0.41 
 
 Feet 
 
 0.05 
 0.07 
 0.11 
 0.16 
 0.20 
 
 Feet 
 
 0.02 
 0.07 
 0.09 
 
 Feet 
 
 z 
 
 0.02 
 
 Inches 
 
 1.5 
 2.0 
 2.0 
 2.0 
 2.5 
 2.5 
 2.5 
 3.0 
 3.0 
 3.0 
 4.0 
 5.0 
 5.0 
 6.0 
 6.0 
 6.0 
 7.0 
 8.0 
 
 Suppose, it is desired to deliver 60 gallons of water per minute 
 through a pipe-line 100 feet long. The table shows that a 3-inch 
 line delivers 50 gallons per minute at a loss of 0.8 foot head, and a 
 4-inch line 75 gallons per minute mth 0.48-foot loss. The size 
 desired is therefore between 3 and 4 inches, and as no intermediate 
 size is made in wrought-iron pipe, the 4-inch pipe is best, and the 
 total head to pump against would be 25 + 3 + 0.48, or a total o' 
 28.48 feet. 
 
494 CONSTRUCTION, FARM ENGINEERING, MECHANICS 
 
 Barometric pressure at different altitudes, as affecting pumps 
 With equivalent head of water and the vertical suction lift of pumps 
 
 Altitude 
 
 Sea level . . 
 imile, 1,320 ft. 
 imile, 2,640 ft. 
 fmile, 3,960 ft. 
 
 1 mile, 5,280 ft. 
 li mile, 6.600 ft. 
 l^mile, 7,920 ft. 
 
 2 miles, 10,560 ft, 
 
 Barometric 
 Pressure 
 
 14.70 
 14.02 
 13.33 
 12.66 
 12.02 
 11.42 
 10.88 
 9.88 
 
 Equivalent 
 Head of 
 Water 
 
 33.95 
 32.38 
 30.79 
 29.24 
 27.76 
 26.38 
 25.13 
 22.82 
 
 Practical 
 
 Suction Lift 
 
 OF Pumps 
 
 25 
 24 
 22 
 21 
 20 
 19 
 18 
 16 
 
 Windmill Figures 
 
 Windmills for pumping (Rayner). 
 
 Windmills vary in type and efficiency from a four-arm direct-con- 
 nected paddle wheel, erected on a single post, to the modern curved 
 blade, back-geared, steel windmill, erected on a scientifically con- 
 structed steel tower. 
 
 To select a proper-sized windmill for the purpose required, the speed 
 of the wind in the particular locality should be considered. In the 
 United States, this information can be readily secured from the nearest 
 weather bureau station. When the average speed is above eight 
 miles per hour, throughout the year, the following table may be fol- 
 lowed safely : — 
 
 Lift (ft.) 
 
 8-ft. diameter windmill 3 -inch diameter pump, 40 
 
 8-ft. diameter windmill 2i^-inch diameter pump, 70 
 
 10-ft. diameter windmill 3 -inch diameter pump, 70 
 
 10-ft. diameter windmill 2J^-inch diameter pump, 120 
 
 12-ft. diameter windmill 3 -inch diameter pump, 100 
 
 12-ft. fiiameter windmill 2J/^-inch diameter pump, 180 
 
 12-ft. diameter windmill 2*^ -inch diameter pump, 200 
 
 12-ft. diameter windmill 2 -inch diameter pump, 300 
 
 When the average speed of the wind is less than given above, a pro- 
 portionally larger diameter windmill should be chosen. 
 
 In the lift that is required of the pump, the elevation above the 
 ground to the top of the elevated tank or cistern should be added to 
 the depth of the well. 
 
^ o 
 
 496 
 
WINDMILLS 
 
 497 
 
 Loading and speed of 14-foot power windmill when developing its maximum 
 
 power (Fuller) 
 
 Wind Velocity — 
 Miles per Hour 
 
 Horse-power 
 
 Speed of Wheel — 
 
 Revolutions per 
 
 Minute 
 
 Load in Pounds 
 PER Stroke 
 
 0-5 
 
 6-10 
 
 11-15 
 
 16-20 
 
 21-25 
 
 26-30 
 
 31-35 
 
 0.01 
 0.27 
 0.85 
 1.80 
 3.45 
 4.82 
 5.60 
 
 2.0 
 20.0 
 29.5 
 38.0 
 45.0 
 51.0 
 55.0 
 
 4.35 
 10.35 
 14.20 
 26.35 
 29.20 
 31.00 
 
 Sizes of circular reservoirs and estimated cost for various areas of land to be 
 irrigated from windmills (Fuller) 
 
 The following table gives the dimensions of circular reservoirs of 
 different capacities ; the quantities of earth in the embankments, if 
 these have inside slopes of three to one and outside slopes of one to 
 one ; the areas which can be irrigated, provided the reservoir full of 
 water is used once in ten days throughout five months and the land 
 receives water to a depth of one foot ; the sizes of mills recommended, 
 and the costs of reservoirs and mills. The lift assumed in choosing the 
 mills is 14 feet : — 
 
 >> 
 
 I'L 
 
 lol 
 
 fa 
 
 o'o 
 
 
 Ml 
 III 
 
 III 
 
 if 
 
 a 
 
 
 111 
 
 u 
 
 III 
 
 Estimated 
 Cost of Plant 
 Erected and 
 Completed i 
 
 1 
 
 « 
 
 0.07 
 
 4 
 
 21.30 
 
 45.30 
 
 19 
 
 3 
 
 212.00 
 
 1 8-foot 
 
 $21.20 
 
 $81 
 
 1 
 
 0.16 
 
 4 
 
 34.96 
 
 58.96 
 
 19 
 
 3 
 
 281.52 
 
 1 8-foot 
 
 28.15 
 
 88 
 
 2 
 
 0.24 
 
 4 
 
 45.62 
 
 69.62 
 
 19 
 
 3 
 
 336.25 
 
 1 10-foot 
 
 33.62 
 
 113 
 
 3 
 
 0.32 
 
 4 
 
 54.61 
 
 78.61 
 
 19 
 
 3 
 
 381.88 
 
 1 10-foot 
 
 38.18 
 
 119 
 
 4 
 
 0.40 
 
 4 
 
 62.27 
 
 86.27 
 
 19 
 
 3 
 
 422.46 
 
 1 12-foot 
 
 42.24 
 
 202 
 
 5 
 
 0.49 
 
 5 
 
 58.58 
 
 88.58 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 684.71 
 
 2 10-foot 
 
 68.47 
 
 228 
 
 6 
 
 0.56 
 
 5 
 
 63.64 
 
 93.64 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 725.80 
 
 2 12-foot 
 
 72.58 
 
 392 
 
 7 
 
 0.63 
 
 5 
 
 69.00 
 
 99.00 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 747.75 
 
 3 12-foot 
 
 74.77 
 
 550 
 
 8 
 
 0.72 
 
 5 
 
 74.37 
 
 104.37 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 813.51 
 
 3 12-foot 
 
 81.35 
 
 561 
 
 9 
 
 0.80 
 
 5 
 
 79.36 
 
 109.36 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 854.16 
 
 3 12-foot 
 
 85.41 
 
 565 
 
 10 
 
 1 Not including well. 
 
 2k 
 
498 CONSTRUCTION, FARM ENGINEERING, MECHANICS 
 
 Average cost of windmills of different sizes, and areas irrigated by them in 
 Colorado (Fuller) 
 
 Number of 
 
 Mills 
 
 Size 
 
 OF Mills 
 
 Average Cost 
 
 Average Area 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 10 
 12 
 14 
 16 
 
 $102 
 198 
 195 
 265 
 
 188 
 
 0.7 
 
 12 
 
 1.8 
 
 9 
 
 2.4 
 
 8 
 
 3.8 
 
 2 ... 
 
 3.6 
 
 
 
 Machinery and Motors 
 
 Rules for widths of belting 
 
 d = diameter of either driving or driven pulley in inches. 
 n = number of revolutions per minute of pulley considered. 
 Wi = width in inches of single leather belting or of 4-ply canvas or 4-ply 
 
 rubber belting. 
 tf>s = width in inches of 5-ply canvas or of 5-ply rubber belting. 
 Wq = width in inches of double leather belting or 6-ply canvas or 6-ply rubber 
 belting. 
 H.P. = Horse-power to be transmitted by belt. 
 
 Rule:— u'4 = 3000^^ 
 an 
 
 Rules for determining size and speed of pulleys or gears 
 
 The driving pulley is called the Driver, and the driven pulley the Driven. 
 To determine the diameter of Driver, the diameter of the Driven and its 
 revolutions, and also revolutions of Driver, being given. 
 Diam. of Driven X revolutions of Driven 
 
 Revolutions of Driver 
 
 Diam. of Driver. 
 
 To determine the diameter of Driven, the revolutions of the Driven and diam- 
 eter and revolutions of the Driver being given. 
 
 Diam. of Driver X revolutions of Driver 
 
 Revolutions of Driven 
 
 Diam. of Driven. 
 
 To determine the revolutions of the Driver, the diameter and revolutions of 
 the Driven and diameter of the Driver being given. 
 
 Diam. of Driven X revolutions of Driven t^ e t^ • 
 
 r ^ ,-^- = Rev. of Driver. 
 
 Diameter of Driver 
 
 To determine the revolutions of the Driven, the diameter and revolutions of 
 the Driver, and diameter of the Driven being given. 
 Diam. of Driver X revolutions of Driver 
 Diameter of Driven 
 
 = Rev. of Driven. 
 
 If the number of teeth in gears is used instead of diameter, in these calcula- 
 tions, number of teeth must be substituted wherever diameter occurs. 
 
PUMP FIGURES 
 
 499 
 
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 w 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 N 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 8 
 
 
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 H 
 
 
 
 
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 a 
 
 
 
 w 
 
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 fc< 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 in 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 C5 
 
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 2 
 
 
 OJ 
 
 
 u, 
 
 QO 
 
 t 
 
 
 >> 
 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 
 Q, 
 
 O 
 
 6 
 
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500 CONSTRUCTION, FARM ENGINEERING, MECHANICS 
 
 Table of power required to operate high-grade triplex pumps 
 
 The estimates given in the table are made with a liberal allowance of power. 
 The power for other capacities and heights is. approximately, in proportion to 
 that tabulated. By " head " is meant the vertical distance from surface of water 
 supply to point of delivery. One foot head is equivalent to .43 pound pressure. 
 The head is increased by the friction of the water in pipes and elbows. 
 
 General service pumps 
 
 
 Diameter AND 
 Stroke of 
 
 Usual 
 Capacity 
 
 PER Minute 
 
 50 Feet 
 Head or 
 
 100 Feet 
 Head or 
 
 150 Feet 
 Head or 
 
 2.50 Feet 
 Head or 
 
 350 Feet 
 or Head 
 
 
 21 Pounds 
 
 43 Pounds 
 
 65 Pounds 
 
 108 Pounds 
 
 150 Pounds 
 
 
 Pdmp 
 
 Pressure 
 
 Pressure 
 
 Pressure 
 
 Pressure 
 
 Pressure 
 
 
 in. 
 
 gal. 
 
 h. p. 
 
 h.p. 
 
 h.p. 
 
 h.p. 
 
 h.p. 
 
 
 1J4 X 2 
 
 1.8 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.50 
 
 
 m X 2H 
 
 4.2 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.65 
 
 0.85 
 
 1.12 
 
 
 2X3 
 
 6.0 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.70 
 
 1.05 
 
 1.33 
 
 
 2H X 4 
 
 12.0 
 
 0.60 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.36 
 
 1.85 
 
 2.33 
 
 
 3X4 
 
 18.0 
 
 0.75 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.6 
 
 2.5 
 
 3.15 
 
 
 3H X 4 
 
 25.0 
 
 0.83 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.8 
 
 2.7 
 
 3.25 
 
 
 4X4 
 
 32.0 
 
 1.2 
 
 1.5 
 
 2.0 
 
 3.0 
 
 4.0 
 
 
 4X6 
 
 ^.0 
 
 1.9 
 
 2.5 
 
 3.1 
 
 4.8 
 
 6.25 
 
 
 5 V'' 
 
 75.0 
 
 2.0 
 
 3.5 
 
 4.0 
 
 6.25 
 
 8.75 
 
 a 
 
 5X8 
 
 90.0 
 
 2.5 
 
 4.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 7.5 
 
 10.5 
 
 o 
 
 5^ X 8 
 
 110.0 
 
 3.0 
 
 4.5 
 
 6.0 
 
 9.7 
 
 12.5 
 
 < . 
 
 6X8 
 
 132.0 
 
 3.6 
 
 4.5 
 
 7.0 
 
 11.0 
 
 15.5 
 
 
 6 X 10 
 
 154.0 
 
 4.05 
 
 6.0 
 
 8.0 
 
 12.75 
 
 17.8 
 
 a 
 
 6H X 8 
 
 153.0 
 
 4.25 
 
 6.0 
 
 8.0 
 
 12.75 
 
 17.8 
 
 tc 
 
 7X8 
 
 180.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 7.0 
 
 9.5 
 
 15.0 
 
 21.0 
 
 
 7 X 10 
 
 209.0 
 
 5.25 
 
 7.8 
 
 10.75 
 
 17.25 
 
 23.33 
 
 
 8X8 
 
 234.0 
 
 5.85 
 
 9.0 
 
 12.0 
 
 19.5 
 
 25.5 
 
 
 8 X 10 
 
 273.0 
 
 7.0 
 
 10.5 
 
 15.0 
 
 22.75 
 
 30.0 
 
 
 8 X 12 
 
 312.0 
 
 8.25 
 
 12.0 
 
 17.0 
 
 26.0 
 
 34.0 
 
 
 9 X 10 
 
 344.0 
 
 8.50 
 
 13.0 
 
 18.0 
 
 28.0 
 
 37.5 
 
 
 10 X 10 
 
 428.0 
 
 10.6 
 
 16.2 
 
 22.5 
 
 35.0 
 
 46.8 
 
 
 11 X 10 
 
 516.0 
 
 12.7 
 
 19.5 
 
 27.0 
 
 42.0 
 
 56.2 
 
 
 12 X 10 
 
 617.0 
 
 15.3 
 
 23.4 
 
 32.4 
 
 50.4 
 
 67.5 
 
 
 8H X 12 
 
 352.0 
 
 8.5 
 
 14.0 
 
 19.0 
 
 28.0 
 
 38.0 
 
 
 ^9 X 12 
 
 396.0 
 
 9.5 
 
 15.6 
 
 21.3 
 
 31.3 
 
 42.5 
 
 
 f 4 X 6 
 
 94.0 
 
 2.4 
 
 3.9 
 
 5.2 
 
 7.5 
 
 10.1 
 
 
 4H X 8 
 
 140.0 
 
 3.5 
 
 5.9 
 
 7.8 
 
 11.2 
 
 15.2 
 
 
 5X8 
 
 175.0 
 
 4.4 
 
 7.3 
 
 9.75 
 
 14.0 
 
 19.0 
 
 
 5H X 8 
 
 211.0 
 
 5.3 
 
 8.8 
 
 11.7 
 
 17.0 
 
 22.8 
 
 .S 
 
 6X8 
 
 252.0 
 
 5.75 
 
 10.2 
 
 13.5 
 
 20.0 
 
 27.0 
 
 < 
 
 6H X 8 
 
 297.0 
 
 6.75 
 
 12.0 
 
 16.0 
 
 23.5 
 
 31.7 
 
 ^ 
 
 7X8 
 
 346.0 
 
 8.5 
 
 13.0 
 
 18.0 
 
 28.0 
 
 37.0 
 
 3 
 
 7 X 10 
 
 411.0 
 
 9.35 
 
 15.7 
 
 21.5 
 
 32.5 
 
 44.0 
 
 1 
 
 8 X 10 
 
 533.0 
 
 12.0 
 
 20.0 
 
 28.5 
 
 42.0 
 
 58.0 
 
 8 X 12 
 
 612.0 
 
 14.0 
 
 24.0 
 
 33.0 
 
 50.0 
 
 68.0 
 
 
 8H X 12 
 
 684.0 
 
 15.7 
 
 26.5 
 
 36.7 
 
 55.0 
 
 75.0 
 
 
 9 X 12 
 
 776.0 
 
 18.0 
 
 29.8 
 
 40.0 
 
 62.0 
 
 84.0 
 
 
 10 X 12 
 
 952.0 
 
 21.6 
 
 36.6 
 
 50.0 
 
 76.0 
 
 103.0 
 
PUMP AND SHAFTING FIGURES 
 
 501 
 
 Table of theoretical horse-power required to raise water to different heights 
 
 Allowance should be made for friction; for ordinary pumps, allow twice the power given 
 in table. 
 
 Feet 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 30 
 
 45 
 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 100 
 
 135 
 
 150 
 
 175 
 
 350 
 
 40fl 
 
 Gals 
 per 
 mm. 
 
 5 
 
 006 
 
 0.012 
 
 025 
 
 0,031 
 
 0.037 
 
 0.06 
 
 0.07 
 
 0.09 
 
 0.12 
 
 0.16 
 
 0.19 
 
 0.22 
 
 0.44 
 
 0.50 
 
 in 
 
 012 
 
 0.025 
 
 0.050 
 
 0.062 
 
 0.075 
 
 0.11 
 
 0.15 
 
 0.19 
 
 0.25 
 
 0.31 
 
 0.37 
 
 0.44 
 
 0.87 
 
 l.OU 
 
 15 
 
 ,019 
 
 0,037 
 
 0.075 
 
 0.094 
 
 0.112 
 
 0.17 
 
 0.22 
 
 0.28 
 
 0.37 
 
 0.47 
 
 0.56 
 
 0.66 
 
 1.31 
 
 1.50 
 
 20 
 
 025 
 
 0.050 
 
 0.100 
 
 0,125 
 
 0,150 
 
 0.22 
 
 0.30 
 
 0.37 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.62 
 
 0.75 
 
 0.87 
 
 1.75 
 
 2.00 
 
 25 
 
 .031 
 
 0.062 
 
 0.125 
 
 0.156 
 
 0.187 
 
 0.28 
 
 0.37 
 
 0.47 
 
 0.62 
 
 0.78 
 
 0.94 
 
 1.09 
 
 2.19 
 
 2.50 
 
 30 
 
 .037 
 
 0.075 
 
 0.150 
 
 0.187 
 
 0.225 
 
 0.34 
 
 0.45 
 
 0.56 
 
 0.75 
 
 0.94 
 
 1.12 
 
 1.31 
 
 2.62 
 
 3.00 
 
 35 
 
 ,043 
 
 0.087 
 
 0.175 
 
 0.219 
 
 0.262 
 
 0.39 
 
 0.52 
 
 0.66 
 
 0.87 
 
 1.08 
 
 1.31 
 
 1.53 
 
 3.06 
 
 3.50 
 
 40 
 
 .050 
 
 0.100 
 
 0.200 
 
 0.250 
 
 0.300 
 
 0.45 
 
 0.60 
 
 0.75 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.25 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.75 
 
 3.50 
 
 4.00 
 
 45 
 
 .056 
 
 0.112 
 
 0.225 
 
 0.281 
 
 0.337 
 
 0.51 
 
 0.67 
 
 0.84 
 
 1.12 
 
 1.41 
 
 1.69 
 
 1.97 
 
 3.94 
 
 4.50 
 
 50 
 
 .062 
 
 0.125 
 
 0.250 
 
 0.312 
 
 0.375 
 
 0.56 
 
 0.75 
 
 0.94 
 
 1.25 
 
 1.56 
 
 1.87 
 
 2.19 
 
 4.37 
 
 6.00 
 
 60 
 
 .075 
 
 0.150 
 
 0.300 
 
 0.375 
 
 0.450 
 
 0.67 
 
 0.90 
 
 1.12 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.87 
 
 2.25 
 
 2.62 
 
 5.25 
 
 6.00 
 
 75 
 
 093 
 
 0.187 
 
 0.375 
 
 0.469 
 
 0.562 
 
 0,84 
 
 1.12 
 
 1.40 
 
 1.87 
 
 2.34 
 
 2.81 
 
 3.28 
 
 6.56 
 
 7.50 
 
 90 
 
 112 
 
 0.225 
 
 0.450 
 
 0,562 
 
 0,675 
 
 1.01 
 
 1 .35 
 
 1.68 
 
 2.25 
 
 2.81 
 
 3.37 
 
 3.94 
 
 7.87 
 
 9.00 
 
 100 
 
 .125 
 
 0.250 
 
 0.500 
 
 0.625 
 
 0.750 
 
 1.12 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.87 
 
 2.50 
 
 3.12 
 
 3.75 
 
 4.37 
 
 8.75 
 
 10.00 
 
 125 
 
 .156 
 
 0.312 
 
 0.625 
 
 0.781 
 
 0.937 
 
 1.41 
 
 1.87 
 
 2.34 
 
 3.12 
 
 3.91 
 
 4.69 
 
 5.47 
 
 10.94 
 
 12.50 
 
 150 
 
 .187 
 
 0.375 
 
 0.750 
 
 0.937 
 
 1.125 
 
 1.69 
 
 2.25 
 
 2.81 
 
 3.75 
 
 4.69 
 
 5.62 
 
 6.56 
 
 13.12 
 
 15.00 
 
 175 
 
 .219 
 
 0,4.37 
 
 0.875 
 
 1 .093 
 
 1.312 
 
 1.97 
 
 2.62 
 
 3.28 
 
 4.37 
 
 5.47 
 
 6.56 
 
 7.66 
 
 15.31 
 
 17.50 
 
 200 
 
 .250 
 
 0.500 
 
 1.000 
 
 1.250 
 
 1.500 
 
 2.25 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.75 
 
 5.00 
 
 6.25 
 
 7.50 
 
 8.75 
 
 17.50 
 
 20.00 
 
 250 
 
 .312 
 
 0.625 
 
 1.250 
 
 1.562 
 
 1.875 
 
 2.81 
 
 3.75 
 
 4.69 
 
 6.25 
 
 7.81 
 
 9.37 
 
 10.94 
 
 21.87 
 
 25.00 
 
 300 
 
 .375 
 
 0.750 
 
 1.500 
 
 1.875 
 
 2.250 
 
 3.37 
 
 4.50 
 
 5.62 
 
 7.50 
 
 9.37 
 
 11.25 
 
 13.12 
 
 26.25 
 
 30.00 
 
 350 
 
 .437 
 
 0.875 
 
 1.750 
 
 2.187 
 
 2.625 
 
 3,94 
 
 5.25 
 
 6.56 
 
 8.75 
 
 10.94 
 
 13.12 
 
 15.31 
 
 30.62 
 
 35.00 
 
 400 
 
 .500 
 
 1.000 
 
 2.000 
 
 2.500 
 
 3.000 
 
 4.50 
 
 6.00 
 
 7.50 
 
 10.00 
 
 12.50 
 
 15.00 
 
 17.50 
 
 35.00 
 
 40.00 
 
 500 
 
 .625 
 
 1.250 
 
 2.500 
 
 3.125 
 
 3.750 
 
 5.62 
 
 7.50 
 
 9.37 
 
 12.50 
 
 15.62 
 
 18.75 121.87 
 
 43.75 
 
 50.00 
 
 Horse-power of steel shafting 
 For line-shaft service 
 
 Shaft 
 
 
 
 
 Revolutions 
 
 PER Minute 
 
 
 
 Sizes 
 In. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 135 
 
 150 
 
 175 
 
 300 
 
 335 
 
 350 
 
 300 
 
 350 
 
 400 
 
 Un 
 
 2.4 
 
 3.1 
 
 3.7 
 
 4.3 
 
 4.9 
 
 5.5 
 
 6.1 
 
 7.3 
 
 8.5 
 
 9.7 
 
 1/r 
 
 4.3 
 
 5.3 
 
 6.4 
 
 7.4 
 
 8.5 
 
 9.5 
 
 10.5 
 
 12.7 
 
 14.8 
 
 16.9 
 
 Uh 
 
 6.7 
 
 8.4 
 
 10.1 
 
 11.7 
 
 13.4 
 
 15.1 
 
 16.7 
 
 20.1 
 
 23.4 
 
 26.8 
 
 m 
 
 10.0 
 
 12.5 
 
 15.0 
 
 17.5 
 
 20.0 
 
 22.5 
 
 25.0 
 
 30.0 
 
 35.0 
 
 40.0 
 
 2y% 
 
 14.3 
 
 17.8 
 
 21.4 
 
 24.9 
 
 28.5 
 
 32.1 
 
 35.6 
 
 42.7 
 
 49.8 
 
 57.0 
 
 2/b 
 
 19.5 
 
 24.4 
 
 29.3 
 
 34.1 
 
 39.0 
 
 44.1 
 
 48.7 
 
 58.5 
 
 68.2 
 
 78.0 
 
 21^ 
 
 26.0 
 
 32.5 
 
 39.0 
 
 43.5 
 
 52.0 
 
 58.5 
 
 65.0 
 
 78.0 
 
 87.0 
 
 104.0 
 
 2il 
 
 33.8 
 
 42.2 
 
 50.6 
 
 59.1 
 
 67.5 
 
 75.9 
 
 84.4 
 
 101.3 
 
 118.2 
 
 135.0 
 
 3^ 
 
 43.0 
 
 53.6 
 
 64.4 
 
 75.1 
 
 85.8 
 
 96.6 
 
 107.3 
 
 128.7 
 
 150.3 
 
 171.6 
 
 3/r. 
 
 53.6 
 
 67.0 
 
 79.4 
 
 93.8 
 
 107.2 
 
 120.1 
 
 134.0 
 
 158.8 
 
 187.6 
 
 214.4 
 
 3^^ 
 
 65.9 
 
 82.4 
 
 97.9 
 
 115.4 
 
 121.8 
 
 148.3 
 
 164.8 
 
 195.7 
 
 230.7 
 
 243.6 
 
 SH 
 
 80.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 120.0 
 
 140.0 
 
 160.0 
 
 160.0 
 
 200.0 
 
 240.0 
 
 280.0 
 
 320.0 
 
 4/b 
 
 113.9 
 
 142.4 
 
 170.8 
 
 199.3 
 
 227.8 
 
 256.2 
 
 284.7 
 
 341.7 
 
 398.6 
 
 455.6 
 
 4il 
 
 156.3 
 
 195.3 
 
 234.4 
 
 273.4 
 
 312.5 
 
 351.5 
 
 390.6 
 
 468.7 
 
 546.8 
 
 625.0 
 
 5^ 
 
 207.9 
 
 260.0 
 
 311.9 
 
 363.9 
 
 415.9 
 
 459.9 
 
 520.0 
 
 623.9 
 
 727.9 
 
 830.0 
 
 6 
 
 270.0 
 
 337.5 
 
 405.0 
 
 472.5 
 
 540.0 
 
 607.5 
 
 675.0 
 
 810.0 
 
 945.0 
 
 1080.0 
 
 6^ 
 
 343.3 
 
 429.0 
 
 514.9 
 
 600.7 
 
 686.5 
 
 772.4 
 
 858.0 
 
 1029.0 
 
 1201.0 
 
 1372.0 
 
 7 
 
 428.8 
 
 535.9 
 
 643.1 
 
 750.3 
 
 847.5 
 
 964.7 
 
 1071.9 
 
 1286.0 
 
 1500.0 
 
 1695.0 
 
 8 
 
 640.0 
 
 800.0 
 
 960.0 
 
 1126.0 
 
 1280.0: 
 
 1440.0 
 
 1600.0 
 
 1920.0 
 
 2240.0 
 
 2560.0 
 
602 CONSTRUCTION, FARM ENGINEERING, MECHANICS 
 
 Electric appliances on the farm. 
 
 Many electrically-operated machines and devices are now on the 
 market. The list is being added to rapidly. The following tabulation 
 will give some idea of the development along these lines, aside from 
 electric lighting and house wiring : — I 
 
 Device Horse-power 
 
 Required 
 
 Cream separator K to 4 
 
 Milking machine . 3 to 5 
 
 Grindstone H 
 
 Bottle-washer K 
 
 Water-pump 1 to 10 
 
 Shredder 10 to 15 
 
 Silage-grinder 10 to 20 
 
 Feed-grinder 5 to 10 
 
 Threshing 10 to 20 
 
 Wood-saw 3 to 5 
 
 Corn-sheller 1 to 4 
 
 Hay-press 4 to 25 
 
 Refrigerating H to 25 
 
 The motor power of a stream (Rose). 
 
 The power of a stream may be calculated by the following formula : 
 
 P = Awh, in which A is the number of cubic feet of water falling in one 
 
 second of time, w is the weight of a cubic foot of water, and h is the head 
 
 or height through which the water falls. To reduce this to horse- 
 
 Awhe 
 power the formula should read : H.P. = , in which e represents 
 
 550 
 the efficiency, in percentage, of the type of wheel to be used. The effi- 
 ciencies of the various types of water-motors run about as follows : — 
 
 Per 
 Cent 
 
 Undershot water-wheels 35 
 
 Poucelet wheels 60 
 
 Breast wheels 55 
 
 High breast wheels 60 
 
 Overshot wheels 68 
 
 Pelton wheels 75 
 
 Turbines . . . 60-80 
 
 Water-pressure engines 80 
 
 Rams 60 
 
 These values are only approximate, and may vary either way sev- 
 eral per cent. 
 
RAMS AND ENGINES 
 
 503 
 
 Hydraulic rams (Ogden). 
 
 The following table gives data as to size, capacity, and cost of hy- 
 draulic rams : — 
 
 Size 
 
 No. 2 . 
 
 No. 4 . 
 
 No. 6 . 
 
 No. 10 . 
 
 Flow of 
 
 
 
 Water 
 
 Spring 
 
 Drive 
 
 Discharge 
 
 Pumped 
 
 PER MiN. 
 
 
 
 PER MiN. 
 
 gal. 
 
 
 
 gal. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 h 
 
 ^ 
 
 5 
 
 n 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 2b 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 50 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 Cost of 
 Ram 
 
 $6.00 
 
 8.00 
 
 15.00 
 
 35.00 
 
 This table is based on the assumption that the length of discharge 
 pipe is not over 100 feet, and that the head against which the ram 
 works is not over five times as great as the fall of the stream. The 
 drive pipe should always be made as short as the conditions will permit. 
 In winter the ram may be kept from freezing by housing it and pro- 
 viding a small coal fire for the coldest weather. 
 
 Hot-air engines (Ogden). 
 
 The following table gives data of sizes, capacities, fuel cost, of the 
 hot-air engines commonly used : — 
 
 Diameter 
 op Cylinder 
 
 Size of 
 Pipe 
 
 Fuel Consumption per Hour 
 
 Capacity 
 in Gal. 
 
 Cost 
 
 Gas cu. ft. 
 
 Keros'e qt. 
 
 Coal lb. 
 
 
 inch 
 
 5 . . . . 
 
 6 . . . . 
 
 8 . . . . 
 10 ... . 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 13 
 16 
 20 
 50 
 
 1* 
 2 
 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 
 150 
 
 300 
 
 500 
 
 1000 
 
 $100 
 140 
 175 
 250 
 
CHAPTER XXVI 
 Mason Work. Cements, Paints, Glues and Waxes 
 
 Any material that sets or hardens when dry is a cement ; and under 
 this general name may therefore be included glues and materials used for 
 mending or sticking together broken articles. As commonly used, 
 however, the word cement now refers to building or construction 
 material, used by masons. 
 
 The formulas here given are largely for home-made compounds, 
 and many of them are old-fashioned. 
 
 Building or Mason's Cement ; Gravel, and Pitch 
 
 Two kinds of building cement comprise the common construction 
 grades in this country, — natural-rock cement (Rosendale), and port- 
 land cement. The former is made from limestone containing much 
 clay; the material is burned at a low heat, and is then ground. It 
 is a quick-setting cement. The portland cement (named from Port- 
 land Island on the south of England) is an artificial mixture of some 
 form of carbonate of lime, with some clay, burnt at white heat and then 
 ground. The natural-rock cements are light-colored, and weigh 
 from fifty to sixty pounds to the cubic foot. The portland cement is 
 dark-colored, and weighs from ninety to one hundred pounds to the 
 cubic foot ; it is one-half to twice stronger than natural-rock cements. 
 
 Approximate estimates of mason-work. 
 
 Three and one-half barrels of lime are required to cover 100 square 
 yards plastering, two coats. 
 
 Two barrels of lime will cover 100 square yards plastering, one coat. 
 
 One and one-half bushels of hair are needed for 100 square yards 
 plastering. 
 
 One and one-fourth yards good sand are required for 100 square yards 
 plastering. 
 
 604 
 
CEMENT FOR BUILDING 505 
 
 One-third barrel of plaster (stucco) will hard-finish 100 square yards 
 plastering. 
 
 One barrel of best lime will lay 1000 bricks. 
 
 Two barrels of lime will lay one cord rubble-stone. 
 
 One-half barrel of lime will lay one perch rubble-stone (| cord to perch) . 
 
 To every barrel of lime estimate about f cubic yard of good 
 sand for plastering and brick work. 
 
 A barrel of portland cement contains approximately 3| cubic feet, 
 and weighs 380 pounds ; a bag contains about | cubic feet, and 
 weighs 95 pounds. A barrel of natural cement contains approxi- 
 mately 3^ cubic feet, and weighs 300 pounds ; a bag contains about 
 I cubic feet, and weighs about 75 pounds. 
 
 Use 1 part cement, 2 parts sand, 4 parts aggregate (gravel or 
 crushed stone), for very strong and impervious work. 
 
 Use 1 cement, 2| sand, 5 aggregate, for ordinary work requiring 
 moderate strength 
 
 Use 1 cement, 3 sand, 6 aggregate, for work where strength is of 
 minor importance. 
 
 Floors, borders, walks, and foundations. 
 Grout floor. 
 
 1. To secure a good grout floor, make a good foundation of small 
 stones or brickbats, and cover three or four inches thick with a thin 
 mortar, made of two parts sharp sand and one part common cement. 
 
 2. Fresh powdered lime, 2 parts ; portland cement, 1 part ; 
 gravel, broken stone, or brick, 6 parts. Mix with water to a liquid 
 consistency, and let it be thrown forcibly, or dropped, into its position. 
 It should be well beaten or rammed to render it solid. A " skim " of 
 thin, rich mortar may be placed on top as a finish. 
 
 3. Equal parts of gravel, well screened, and clean river or pit sand. 
 With 5 parts of sand and gravel mix 1 part of portland cement. 
 Mix with water and apply 1 inch thick. 
 
 For garden borders. 
 
 4. Nine parts gravel and 1 part unslaked lime ; slake the lime and cover 
 it with gravel, then add water sufficient to make a very thin mortar. 
 Apply three inches deep, allow it to stiffen a little, then roll. Finish an 
 inch thick of 1 part lime and 3 parts gravel. Apply soft. See No. 11. 
 
506 MASOX WORK. CEMENTS, PAINTS, GLUES, WAXES 
 
 For walks. 
 
 5. Walks should always have a well-made foundation of stones or 
 brickbats to give hardness and insure drainage. The top of the walk 
 may be made of gravel, sifted coal ashes, cinders from foundries, fur- 
 naces, etc. If gravel is used, care should be exercised to avoid the round 
 or washed gravel, particularly that lying in the beds of streams, for it 
 will not pack. One part of clean clay to four or five of gravel makes 
 a good walk. Or the following old English recipes may be used (6-10) : 
 
 6. One part mineral pitch, 1 part resin, 7 parts chalk, and 2 
 parts coarse sand. Boil together, and lay it while in a hot state, adding 
 a little gravel. 
 
 7. Boil for a short time 18 parts of mineral pitch and 18 parts 
 of resin in an iron kettle ; then add 60 parts of coarse sand, mix 
 well and lay on the path to the thickness of one inch ; then sift a 
 little fine gravel over it and beat it down before the cement sets. 
 
 8. Put down a coat of tar, and sift some road sand or coal ashes over 
 it very thickly. When this is dry, repeat the operation until you have 
 four coats of tar and as many of coal ashes or road sand. 
 
 9. Two parts of thoroughly dried sand, one part cinders, thoroughly 
 dried. Mix together ; then spread the sand and cinders on the ground 
 and make a hole in the center, into which pour boiling-hot tar and 
 mix into a stiff paste ; then spread on the walk, beat and roll. 
 
 10. Two parts lime rubbish and one part coal ashes, both very dry 
 and finely sifted ; in the middle of the heap make a hole; into this 
 pour boiling-hot coal-tar ; mix to a stiff mortar and spread on the 
 ground two or three inches thick. The ground should be dry and 
 beaten well. Cover with coarse sand ; when cold, roll well. 
 
 11. Cement walks. A good method of making concrete walks is 
 to lay four to six inches on well-drained compact ground in propor- 
 tion of 1 part cement to 6 of binder, as: 40 shovels fine cinders, 15 
 shovels sharp sand, 1 sack portland cement. Put on a finish, while 
 the under part is not hard set, made of 30 shovels screened sharp 
 sand and 1 sack portland. Also used for borders and gutters. 
 
 For foundations 
 
 12. Concrete foundations for buildings and heavy work may be 
 made of portland cement, 2 parts; sand, 7 parts; grav^el, 1 part. 
 
CEMENTS FOR MENDING 507 
 
 Coloring cement work. 
 
 For gray or black, lampblack may be employed. 
 For yellow or buff, yellow ocher. 
 For red, Venetian red. 
 For blue, ultramarine. 
 For brown, umber. 
 
 Mending Cements 
 Cements for iron. 
 
 1. (Slow setting.) Sal ammoniac, 2 ounces ; sulfur, 1 ounce ; clean 
 iron borings or filings reduced to powder, 12 pounds ; water enough 
 to form a thin paste. Excellent for making a rust joint. If a quick- 
 setting joint is desired, use half as much sal ammoniac as sulfur, and 
 half as much iron borings as above ; not so good as above 
 
 2. Sal ammoniac, 2 ounces ; iron-filings, 8 pounds ; sufficient water. 
 
 3. One or two parts of sal ammoniac to 100 of iron-filings. When the 
 work is required to set quickly, increase the sal ammoniac slightly and 
 add a small amount of sulfur. 
 
 4. Iron-filings, 4 pounds ; pipe-clay, 2 pounds ; powdered pot- 
 sherds, 11 pounds ; make into a paste with moderately strong brine. 
 
 5. Equal parts of red and white lead, mixed into a paste with boiled 
 linseed oil. Used for making metallic joints of all kinds. 
 
 6. To four or five parts of clay, thoroughly dried and pulverized, 
 add 2 parts of iron-filings, free from oxide, 1 part of peroxide of man- 
 ganese, I of sea salt, and h of borax ; mix well, and reduce to a thick 
 paste with water. Use immediately. Expose to warmth, gradually 
 increasing almost to white heat. 
 
 7. Sifted coal ashes, 2 parts, and common salt, 1 part. Add water 
 enough to make a paste, and apply at once. This is also good for 
 stoves and boilers, as it stands heat. 
 
 Boiler cements. 
 
 8. Chalk, 60 parts; lime and salt, of each, 20 parts ; sharp sand, 
 10 parts ; blue or red clay and clean iron-filings, of each, 5 parts. 
 Grind together and calcine or heat. 
 
 9. Powdered clay, 6 pounds ; iron-filings, 1 pound. Make into 
 a paste with linseed oil. 
 
508 MASON WORK. CEMENTS, PAINTS, GLUES, WAXES 
 
 10. Powdered litharge, 2 parts ; silver sand and slaked lime, of 
 each, 1 part ; boiled oil enough to form a paste. 
 
 These cements are used for stopping leaks and cracks in boilers, 
 iron pipes, stoves, etc. They should be applied as soon as made. 
 
 Tar cement. 
 
 11. Coal-tar, one part ; powdered slate (slate flour), three or four 
 parts ; mix by stirring until thoroughly incorporated. Very useful 
 for mending watering-pots, barrels, leaky sash, etc. It remains some- 
 what elastic. It does not adhere to greasy surfaces. It will keep for 
 a long time before using. 
 
 Copper cement. 
 
 12. Beef blood thickened with sufficient finely powdered quicklime 
 to make it into a paste is sometimes used to secure the edges and rivets 
 of copper boilers, kettles, etc. Use immediately. 
 
 Fireproof or stone cement. 
 
 13. Fine river sand, 20 parts ; litharge, 2 parts ; quicklime, 1 
 part ; linseed oil enough to form a thick paste. Used for walls and 
 broken stonework. 
 
 Earthenware cement. 
 
 14. Grated cheese, 2 parts ; powdered quicklime, one part; fresh 
 white of egg enough to form a paste. Use as soon as possible. 
 
 For fine earthenware, liquid glue may be used. 
 
 Cement for glass. 
 
 15. Wood alcohol to render liquid a half dozen pieces of gum-mastic 
 the size of a large pea ; in another bottle dissolve the same quantity 
 of isinglass, which has been soaked in water and allowed to get surface 
 dry, in 2 ounces of methylated spirit ; when the first is dissolved 
 add two pieces of gum-galbanum or gum-ammoniac ; apply gentle 
 heat and stir ; add the solution of isinglass, heat again and stir. Keep 
 in a tightly stoppered bottle, and when used in boiling water. 
 
 Sealing cements. 
 
 16. Beeswax, 1 pound; resin, 5 pounds. Stir in sufficient red ocher 
 and Brunswick green, or lampblack, to give the desired color. 
 
HOME-MADE PAINTS 509 
 
 17. Black pitch, 6 pounds ; ivory-black and whiting, of each, 1 
 pound. Less attractive than the former. 
 These are used for sealing up bottles, barrels, etc. 
 
 Paints and Protective Compounds 
 
 Home-made washes for fences and out-buildings may be made 
 by various combinations of lime and grease. The following are good 
 formulas : — • 
 
 1. Slake fresh quicklime in water, and thin it to a paste or paint with 
 skim-milk. The addition of two or three handfuls of salt to a pail 
 of the wash is beneficial. 
 
 2. Two quarts skim-milk, 8 ounces of fresh slaked lime, 6 ounces 
 of boiled linseed oil, and 2 ounces of white pitch, dissolved in the 
 oil by a gentle heat. The lime must be slaked in cold water and 
 dried in the air until it falls into a fine powder ; then mix with i 
 part of the milk, adding the mixed oil and pitch by degrees; add 
 the remainder of the milk. Lastly, add 3 pounds of the best whit- 
 ing and mix the whole thoroughly. 
 
 3. Slake ^ bushel of lime in boiling water, keeping it covered; 
 strain and add brine made by dissolving 1 peck of salt in warm 
 water, and 3 pounds rice flour, then boil to a paste ; add ^ pound 
 whiting and 1 pound of glue dissolved in warm water. Mix and 
 let stand for a few days before using. 
 
 Fire-proof paint. 
 
 4. In a covered vessel slake the best quicklime, then add a mixture of 
 skim-milk and water, and mix to the consistency of cream ; then 
 add 20 pounds of alum, 15 pounds of potash and 1 bushel of salt to 
 every 100 gallons of the liquid. If white paint is desired, add to the 
 above 6 pounds of plaster of paris. 
 
 For damp walls. 
 
 5. Three-fourths pound of hard soap to 1 gallon of water. Lay 
 over the bricks steadily and carefully with a flat brush, so as not to 
 form a froth or lather on the surface. After 24 hours mix ^ pound 
 of alum with 4 gallons of water ; let it stand twenty-four hours, and 
 then apply it in the same maimer over the coating of soap. Apply 
 in dry weather. 
 
510 CEMENTS, PAINTS, GLUES, WAXES 
 
 6. One and one-half pounds resin, 1 pound tallow, 1 quart linseed 
 oil. Melt together and apply hot, two coats. 
 
 Water-proofing paint for leather. 
 
 7. One-half pound of shellac, broken into small pieces in a quart 
 bottle ; cover with methylated spirit (wood alcohol), cork it tight, 
 put it in a warm place, and shake well several times a day ; then add 
 a piece of camphor as large as a hen's egg ; shake again and add an 
 ounce of lampblack. Apply with a small paint brush. 
 
 8. Put into an earthen jar | pound of beeswax, ^ pint of neat's 
 foot oil, three or four tablespoonfuls of lampblack, and a piece of 
 camphor as large as a hen's egg. Melt over a slow fire. Have both 
 grease and leather warm, and apply with a brush. 
 
 9. One pint of linseed oil, h pound mutton suet, 6 ounces of clean 
 beeswax, and 4 ounces of resin; melt and mix well. Use while warm 
 with a brush on new boots or shoes. 
 
 For cloth for pits and frames. (See page 200.) 
 
 10. Old pale linseed oil, 3 pints ; sugar of lead (acetate of lead) 1 
 ounce ; white resin, 4 ounces. Grind the acetate with a little of the 
 oil, then add the rest and the resin. Use an iron kettle over a gentle 
 fire. Apply with a brush, hot. 
 
 For paper. 
 
 11. Dissolve if pounds of white soap in 1 quart of water; in another 
 quart of water dissolve 1| ounces of gum arabic and 5 ounces of 
 glue. Mix the two liquids, warm them, and soak the paper in it and 
 pass through rollers, or simply hang it up to dry. 
 
 To PREVENT METALS FROM RUSTING. 
 
 12. Melt together 3 parts of lard and 1 part of powdered resin. 
 A very thin coating applied with a brush will keep stoves and grates 
 from rusting during summer, even in damp situations. A little black 
 lead can be mixed with the lard. Does well on nearly all metals. 
 
 To PREVENT RUSTING OF NAILS, HINGES, ETC. 
 
 13. One pint of linseed oil, 2 ounces black lead ; mix together. 
 Heat nails red-hot and dip them in. 
 
OLUE AND GUM hl\ 
 
 To REMOVE RUST. 
 
 14. Heavily rusted iron may be cleaned by immersing it in a bath 
 (not too acid) of chlorid of tin, for twelve to twenty-four hours. After 
 removing, rinse in water and then in ammonia. 
 
 15. Rusted steel may be brushed with a paste of ^ ounce cyanide 
 potassium (poisonous), | ounce castile soap, 1 ounce of whiting, and 
 water. Then wash in 2 ounces water containing \ ounce cyanide. 
 
 Amount of paint required for a given surface. 
 
 It is impossible to give a rule that will apply in all cases, as the 
 amount varies with the kind and thickness of the paint, the kind of wood 
 or other material to which it is applied, the age of the surface, etc. The 
 following is an approximate rule : Divide the number of square feet of 
 surface by 200. The result will be the number of gallons of liquid 
 paint required to give two coats ; or divide by 18, and the result will 
 be the number of pounds of pure ground white lead required to give 
 three coats. 
 
 Glues 
 Liquid glue. 
 
 1. Dissolve 2 pounds of best pale glue in a quart of water in a cov- 
 ered vessel, placed in a hot-water bath; when cold, add to it 7 ounces 
 of commercial nitric acid. When cold put in bottles. 
 
 2. Finest pale orange shellac, broken small, 4 ounces ; methylated 
 spirit, 3 ounces ; put in a warm place in a closely corked bottle until 
 dissolved. Should have the consistency of molasses. Or, borax, 1 
 ounce ; water, f pint ; shellac as before ; boil in a closely covered 
 kettle until dissolved ; then evaporate until nearly as thick as 
 molasses. 
 
 Flower gum. 
 
 3. Very fine white shellac mixed with methylated spirit in a stone 
 jar ; shake well for half an hour and place by a fire, and shake it 
 frequently the first day. Keep in a cool place. Leave the camel's- 
 hair brush in the gum. Never fill the brush too full and gum the petals 
 close to the tube. 
 
512 CEMENTS J PAINTS, GLUES, WAXES 
 
 Gum for labels and specimens. 
 
 4. Two parts of gum-arabic, one part of brown sugar ; dissolve in 
 water to the consistency of cream. 
 
 5. Five parts of best glue soaked in 18 to 20 parts of water for a 
 day, and to the liquid add 9 parts of rock candy and 3 parts of gum- 
 arabic. 
 
 6. Good flour and glue, to which add hnseed oil, varnish, and tur- 
 pentine, \ ounce each to the pound. Good when labels are liable to 
 get damp. 
 
 Waxes for Grafting and for Covering Wounds 
 
 Common resin and beeswax waxes. 
 
 1. A standard and reliable wax is as follows : — 
 
 Resin, 4 parts by weight. 
 
 Beeswax, 2 parts by weight. 
 
 Tallow (rendered), 1 part by weight. 
 Melt all the ingredients together, exercising care to avoid boiling. 
 Pour the hot liquid quickly into a pail of cold water. With greased 
 hands flatten the spongy mass beneath the water so that it cools uni- 
 formly. Permit it to get cold and tough, but not brittle. Remove 
 from the water and pull until ductile and fine in grain. Lumps in 
 wax are common, and are due to improper handling. If too lumpy, 
 remelt and pull again. Make into balls or small skeins and put away 
 in a cool place. When wanted soften with heat of hand or in hot 
 water. It can be kept for years. One of the best waxes, either for 
 indoor or outdoor use. 
 
 For general purposes the above formula gives a wax of the proper 
 consistency. The ingredients may be varied, however, for special pur- 
 poses. If a softer wax is desired, more tallow in proportion should 
 be added. The addition of more beeswax makes the wax tougher. 
 By thus changing the amount of the different ingredients a wax for 
 almost any purpose can be secured. 
 
 2. The following wax, which is slightly softer, may be applied more 
 conveniently in cold weather : — 
 
 Resin, 4 parts by weight. 
 Beeswax, 2 parts by weight. 
 Linseed oil, 1 pint. 
 
GRAFTING-WAXES 513 
 
 Melt all together gradually, turn into cold water and work as above. 
 On account of the impurities contained in linseed oil, its use is not 
 recommended for grafting wax. In general the tallow is to be preferred. 
 
 Alcoholic wax. 
 
 The alcoholic or liquid wax is a thick paste. It is useful for work 
 in winter when the resin wax can not be applied ; and also for cover- 
 ing the wounds where bark has been injured or removed, and for bridge 
 grafts. 
 Lefort's hquid wax : 
 
 White resin, 1 pound. 
 
 Beef tallow, 1 ounce. 
 
 Turpentine, 1 tablespoonful. 
 
 Alcohol, 5 ounces. 
 Melt the resin slowly. When hot, add the beef tallow. Remove 
 from the fire and add slowly, stirring constantly, the turpentine and 
 alcohol. Keep in closed bottles or cans. Use a brush or swab to apply. 
 
 Pitch wax. 
 
 Some of the French authors recommend the following : — 
 Two pounds 12 ounces of resin and 1 pound 11 ounces of Burgundy 
 pitch. At the same time melt 9 ounces of tallow ; pour the latter 
 into the former, while both are hot, and stir the mixture thoroughly. 
 Then add 18 ounces of red ocher, dropping it in gradually and stir- 
 ring the mixture at the same time. 
 
 Waxed string and bandages. 
 
 1. Waxed bandage. Waxed bandages are very useful for covering 
 wounds where the bark has been broken or injured. They are prepared 
 as follows. 
 
 Old cloth is torn into strips of the desired width and the strips 
 wound into balls, or bandage cloth (not gauze) may be used. These 
 balls are placed in the kettle of melted resin wax. In a few min- 
 utes they will be thoroughly saturated, when they should be re- 
 moved and allowed to drain and dry. 
 
 2. Waxed string for root-grafting. Into a kettle of melted resin 
 wax place balls of No. 18 knitting cotton. Turn the balls frequently, 
 and in a few minutes they will be thoroughly saturated. Remove from 
 
 2l 
 
614 CEMENTS, PAINTS, GLUES, WAXES 
 
 the kettle and allow to drain and dry, after which they may be put 
 away for future use. 
 
 This material is strong enough and at the same time breaks so easily 
 that it does not injure the hands. When the string is used, it sticks 
 without tying. 
 
 Covers for wounds. 
 
 Before applying any dressing, the wounds should be thoroughly 
 cleaned. Cut out or remove the broken bark and the decayed wood. 
 It is also advisable to disinfect with Bordeaux mixture or a solution 
 of corrosive sublimate, 1 ounce in 7 gallons. 
 
 It should be remembered that dressings do not hasten the healing 
 of wounds, but they allow the healing process to progress unchecked, 
 because they prevent the wounds from drying out and protect them 
 from disease. 
 
 1. Any of the above grafting-waxes are excellent for dressing wounds, 
 although most of them cleave off after the first year, in which case it 
 is necessary to apply another dressing. 
 
 2. HosKiNs' WAX. — Boil pine-tar slowly for three or four hours ; 
 add ^ pound of beeswax to a quart of the tar. Have ready 
 some dry and finely sifted clay, and when the mixture of tar and wax 
 is partly cold, stir into the above-named quantity about 12 ounces 
 of the clay ; continue the stirring until the mixture is so stiff and so 
 nearly cool that the clay will not settle. This is soft enough in mild 
 weather to be easily applied with a knife or spatula. — Used by the 
 late Dr. Hoskins, of Vermont. 
 
 3. Sch.\efell's healing-paint. — Boil linseed oil (free from cotton- 
 seed oil) one hour, with an ounce of litharge to each pint of oil ; then 
 stir in sifted wood ashes until the paint is of the proper consistency. 
 Pare the bark until smooth, as the fuzzy edge left by the saw will cause 
 it to die back. Paint the wound over in dry weather, and if the wound 
 is very large, cover with a gunny-sack. 
 
 4. Paint. — One of the most convenient and useful dressings for 
 wounds is paint. Use white lead, but mix thicker than usually ap- 
 plied. A little lampblack should be added to this until the paint 
 is nearly the color of the bark. Apply with a brush or swab, working 
 the paint into the grain of the wood. Be careful that it does not run 
 down from the wound. 
 
WOUNDS ON TREES 515 
 
 5. Coal-tar. — Coal-tar is sometimes useful as a dressing, especially 
 for shade or ornamental trees. Apply a thin coating to the wound. 
 
 6. Tar for bleeding in vines. Add to tar about three or four times 
 its weight of powdered slate or some similar substance. 
 
 7. Collodion for bleeding in vines. In some extreme cases two or 
 three coats will be needed, in which case allow the collodion to form a 
 film before applying another coat. Pharmaceutical collodion is better 
 than photographic. 
 
 8. Cement for cavities. Rotten spots and cavities in trees should 
 be cleaned out to hard wood, the place filled solid with good cement. 
 (See Manual of Gardening, 145-151.) 
 
 The grafting-waxes are applied to the cut surfaces of graft-unions 
 for the purpose of preventing evaporation of the plant juices, and 
 protecting from weather and the germs of decay. Buds covered by 
 wax will push through as they grow. The softer the wax when it 
 is applied, the closer will be its adhesion to the wood. Wax is often 
 applied to ordinary wounds ; but if the wounds are large they should 
 first be treated with antiseptics (as bordeaux mixture or similar 
 compounds). 
 
CHAPTER XXVII 
 
 Computation Tables 
 
 Most of the tables and estimates that the farmer needs in his "figur- 
 ing " will be found in this chapter ; but greenhouse computations will 
 be found in Chapter XI, silos and other construction in Chapter XXV, 
 and board measure and log measure in Chapter XII. 
 
 Tabhs of Regular American Weights and Measures 
 
 Avoirdupois or commercial weight 
 
 27Ji grains =1 dram. 
 
 16 drams =1 ounce. 
 
 16 ounces =1 pound. 
 
 25 pounds =1 quarter. 
 
 4 quarters, or 100 pounds =1 hundredweight. 
 
 20 hundredweight, or 2000 lb =1 ton. 
 
 480 pounds =1 imperial quarter. 
 
 100 pounds is also called 1 cental. 
 
 2240 pounds =1 long ton. 
 
 t. cwt. lb. oz. dr. gr. 
 
 1 = 20 = 2000 = 32,000 = 512,000 
 1 = 100 = 1.600 = 25,600 
 
 1 = 16 = 256 = 7000 
 
 1 = 16 = 4375 
 
 Troy or jewelers' weight 
 
 24 grains =1 pennyweight. 
 
 20 pennyweights =1 ounce. 
 
 12 ounces =1 pound. 
 
 lb. oz. pwt. gr. 
 1 = 12 = 240 = 5760 
 1 = 20 = 480 
 1 = 24 
 
 Apothecaries' weight 
 
 20 grains =1 scruple. 
 
 3 scruples =1 dram. 
 
 8 drams =1 ounce. 
 
 12 oiinces =1 pound. 
 
 lb. oz. dr. 8cr. gr. 
 
 1 =- 12 = 96 = 288 = 5760 
 
 1 = 8 = 24 = 480 
 
 1 = 3 = 60 
 
 1 = 20 
 
 516 
 
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 
 
 617 
 
 Table of comparative weights 
 
 Avoirdupois Troy Apothecaries 
 
 7000 gr. = 1 lb. 5760 gr. = 1 lb. 5760 gr. = 1 lb. 
 
 1 lb. = l?i\ lb. = 1^ lb. 
 
 or 144 lb. = 175 lb. = 175 lb. 
 
 1 oz. = i5§ oz. = iSt oz. 
 
 or 192 oz. = 175 oz. = 175 oz. 
 
 Dry measure 
 
 2 pints =1 quart. 
 
 8 quarts =1 peck, 
 
 4 pecks =1 bushel. 
 
 8 bushels (480 pounds) =1 quarter. 
 
 36 bu =1 chaldron. 
 
 bu. pk. qt. pt. 
 
 1 = 4 = 32 = 64 
 
 1 = 8 = 16 
 
 1=2 
 
 Liquid measure 
 
 4 gills =1 pint. 
 
 2 pints =1 quart. 
 
 4 quarts =1 gallon. 
 
 313^ gallons =1 barrel. 
 
 2 barrels, or 63 gallons =1 hogshead. 
 
 gal. qt. pt. gi. 
 
 1 = 4 = 8 = 32 
 
 1=2=8 
 
 1 = 4 
 
 Apothecaries* fluid measure 
 
 60 minims =1 fluid dram. 
 
 8 fluid drams =1 fluid ounce. 
 
 16 fluid ounces =1 pint. 
 
 8 pints =1 gallon. 
 
 cong. o. f. 3. f. 3. m. 
 
 1 = 8 = 128 = 1024 = 61,440 
 
 1 = 16 = 128 = 7,680 
 
 1 = 8 = 480 
 
 1 = 60 
 
 1 minim equals 1 drop of water. 
 
 Line or linear measure 
 12 inches =1 foot. 
 
 3 feet =1 yard. 
 
 53^ yards, or 163^2 feet =1 rod or pole. 
 
 40 rods = 1 furlong. 
 
 8 furlongs (320 rods) = 1 mile (statute mile). 
 
 3 miles =1 league. 
 
 1. m. fur. rd. yd. ft. in. 
 
 1 = 3 = 24 = 960 = 5280 = 15,840 = 190,080 
 
 1 = 8 = 320 = 1760 = 5,280 = 63,360 
 
 1 = 40 = 220 = 660 = 7,920 
 
 1 = 5}4 = 16^ = 198 
 
 1 = 3 = 36 
 
 1 = 12 
 
518 
 
 COMPUTATION TABLES 
 
 Surveyors' or chain measure 
 
 7.92 inches =1 link. 
 
 25 links =1 rod or pole. 
 
 4 rods, or 66 feet =1 chain. 
 
 80 chains =1 mile. 
 
 mi. ch. rd. 1. in. 
 
 1 = 80 = 320 = 8000 = 63,360 
 1 = 4 = 100 = 792 
 1 = 25 = 198 
 
 1 = 7.92 
 
 Square or surface measure 
 
 144 square inches =1 square foot. 
 
 9 square feet =1 square yard. 
 
 30^^ square yards = 1 sq. rod or perch. 
 
 160 square rods =1 acre. 
 
 640 acres = 1 sq. mile or section 
 
 sq 
 
 . m. 
 
 a. 
 
 sq. rd. 
 
 
 sq. yd. 
 
 
 sq. ft. 
 
 
 sq. in. 
 
 
 1 = 
 
 640 
 
 = 102,400 
 
 = 
 
 3,097,600 
 
 = 
 
 27,878,400 
 
 = 
 
 4,014.489.600 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 160 
 
 = 
 
 4,840 
 
 = 
 
 43,560 
 
 = 
 
 6,272,640 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 = 
 
 30M 
 
 = 
 
 272 K 
 
 = 
 
 39,204 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 = 
 
 9 
 1 
 
 =, 
 
 1,296 
 144 
 
 Surveyors* square measure 
 
 625 square links =1 square rod or pole. 
 
 16 poles =1 square chain. 
 
 10 square chains =1 acre. 
 
 640 acres = 1 sq. mile or section. 
 
 36 square miles (6 miles square) =1 township. 
 
 tp. 
 
 sq. mi. 
 
 a. 
 
 
 sq. ch. 
 
 
 sq. rd. 
 
 
 sq.l. 
 
 1 
 
 = 36 = 
 
 23,040 
 
 = 
 
 230.400 
 
 = 
 
 3.686,400 
 
 = 
 
 2,304.000.000 
 
 
 1 = 
 
 640 
 
 = 
 
 6,400 
 
 = 
 
 102,400 
 
 = 
 
 64,000,000 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 B 
 
 10 
 
 = 
 
 160 
 
 = 
 
 100.000 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 = 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 _ 
 
 10,000 
 625 
 
 Solid or cubic measure 
 
 1728 cubic inches =1 cubic foot. 
 
 27 cubic feet =1 cubic yard. 
 
 16 cubic feet =1 cord foot. 
 
 8 cord feet, or 128 cubic feet =1 cord of wood. 
 
 24^ cubic feet =1 perch. 
 
 cu. yd.cu. ft. cu. in. 
 
 cd. cd. ft. cu. ft. cu. in. 
 
 1 = 27 = 46,656 
 
 = 1 = 8 = 128 = 221,184 
 
METRIC TABLES 
 
 51v) 
 
 Paper and book denominations 
 
 24 sheets =1 quire. 
 
 20 quires =1 ream, 
 
 2 reams =1 bundle. 
 
 5 bundles =1 bale. 
 
 bale bdl. rm. qr. sheets 
 
 1 = 5 = 10 = 200 = 4800 
 
 1 = 2 = 40 = 960 
 
 1 = 20 = 480 
 
 1 = 24 
 
 500 sheets is often called a ream in commerce. 
 
 Folio in a book or folded periodical = 2 leaves, or 4 pages. 
 
 Quarto = 4 leaves, or 8 pages. 
 
 Octavo = 8 leaves, or 16 pages. 
 
 Duodecimo =12 leaves, or 24 pages. 
 
 16mo =16 leaves, or 32 pages. 
 
 18mo =18 leaves, or 36 pages. 
 
 24mo =24 leaves, or 48 pages. 
 
 32mo. =32 leaves, or 64 pages. 
 
 Metric Weights and Measures 
 
 Metric weight 
 
 Names 
 
 Millier or Tonneau 
 Quintal .... 
 Myriagram 
 Kilogram or Kilo 
 Hectogram 
 Dekagram . . 
 Gram .... 
 Decigram . . 
 Centigram . . 
 Milligram . . . 
 
 Number op 
 Grams 
 
 1,000.000 
 
 100,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 100 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 tV 
 
 TOiJ 
 
 tasa 
 
 Equivalents in 
 
 Denominations of 
 
 Avoirdupois Weight 
 
 2204.6 lb. 
 
 220.46 lb. 
 
 22.046 lb. 
 
 2.2046 lb. 
 
 3.5274 oz. 
 
 0.3527 oz. 
 
 15.432 gr. 
 
 1.5432 gr. 
 
 0.1543 gr. 
 
 0.0154 gr. 
 
 One gram is the weight of one cubic centimeter of distilled water 
 at its maximum density (39.1° F.) in a vacuum. As a matter of 
 fact, however, the gram now in use is the one-thousandth part of the 
 weight of a kilogram of platinum, which was deposited in the Palace 
 of the Archives in Paris, in 1799, by the international commission 
 which was appointed to fix the standards of what is now known as the 
 metric system. 
 
520 
 
 COMPUTATION TABLES 
 
 Metric capacity 
 
 Names 
 
 NUMBEB 
 OF 
 
 Liters 
 
 Equivalents in Dry 
 Measure 
 
 Equivalents in 
 
 Liquid or 
 Wine Measure 
 
 Kiloliter or Stere 
 
 Hectoliter 
 
 Dekaliter 
 
 Liter 
 
 Deciliter 
 
 Centiliter 
 
 Milliliter 
 
 1000 
 
 100 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 h 
 
 1000 
 
 28.372 bu. 
 2 bu. and 3.35 pk. 
 9.08 qt. 
 0.908 qt. 
 6.1022 cu. in. 
 0.6102 cu. in. 
 0.061 cu. in. 
 
 264.17 gal. 
 26.417 gal. 
 2.6417 gai. 
 1.0567 qt. 
 0.845 gill. 
 0.338 fluid oz. 
 0.27 fluid dr. 
 
 1 liter 18 equivalent to 1 cubic decimeter. 
 Metric length 
 
 Myriameter 10,000 meters. 
 
 Kilometer 1,000 meters. 
 
 Hectometer 100 meters. 
 
 Dekameter 10 meters. 
 
 Meter 1 meter. 
 
 Decimeter T*oofameter. 
 
 Centimeter too of a meter. 
 
 Millimeter looo of a meter. 
 
 Equivalents in Denominations 
 IN Use 
 
 6.2137 
 
 miles. 
 
 
 0.62137 
 
 mile, or 
 
 3.280 ft.lO in. 
 
 328 
 
 ft. 1 in 
 
 
 393.7 
 
 inches. 
 
 
 39.37 
 
 inches. 
 
 
 3.937 
 
 inches. 
 
 
 0..3937 
 
 inch. 
 
 
 0.0397 
 
 inch. 
 
 
 Metric surface 
 
 Hectare 10,000 square meters. 
 
 Are 100 square meters. 
 
 Centare 1 square meter. 
 
 2.471 acres. 
 119.6 square yards. 
 1550 square inches. 
 
 Metric cubic measure 
 
 Myriaster 10,000 cu. meters. 
 
 Kiloster 1,000 cu. meters. 
 
 Hectoster 100 cu. meters. 
 
 Decaster 10 cu. meters. 
 
 Ster 1 cu. meter. 
 
 Decister 1*0 cu. meter. 
 
 Centister iSo cu. meter. 
 
 Minister ra'ao cu. meter. 
 
 The word ster is soldom used. The names of solid measures are commonly 
 made by adding cubic to the denominations of linear measure ; as cubic meter, 
 cubic decimeter, and the like. 
 
METRIC TABLES 
 
 521 
 
 Equivalents of American measures in metric terms 
 
 Approximately 
 1 inch is 2J^ centimeters 
 1 foot is 0.3 of meter . . 
 1 yard is 0.9 of meter . . 
 1 rod is 5 meters .... 
 1 chain is 20 meters . 
 1 furlong is 200 meters . . 
 1 mile is 1600 meters . . 
 1 nautical mile is 1850 meters 
 
 Exactly 
 
 (2.54) 
 
 (.3048) 
 
 (.9144) 
 
 (5.029) 
 
 (20.117) 
 
 (201.17) 
 
 (1609.3) 
 
 (1853.2) 
 
 1 sq. inch is 6\ sq. centimeters 
 1 sq. foot is 0.09 of sq. meter . 
 1 sq. yard is 0.83 of sq. meter 
 1 sq. rod is 25 sq. meters . . 
 1 rood is 1000 sq. meters . . 
 1 acre is 0.4 of hectare . . . 
 1 sq. mile is 258 hectares . . 
 
 (6.451) 
 (.0929) 
 (.8361) 
 (25.29) 
 
 (1011.7) 
 (.4047) 
 
 (258.99) 
 
 1 cubic inch is 161 cubic centimeters 
 1 cubic foot is 0.028 of cubic meter 
 1 cubic yard is 0.76 of cubic meter 
 100 cubic feet is 2.8 cubic meters 
 1 M board meas. is 23^ cubic meters 
 1 cord is 3.6 cubic meters . 
 1 U. S. liquid pint is 0.47 of liter 
 1 U. S. liquid quart is 0.9 of liter 
 1 U. S. liquid gallon is 3.7 liters . 
 
 1 peck is 9 liters 
 
 1 bushel is 36 liters 
 
 8.81 
 35.24 
 
 (16.387) 
 
 (.028316) 
 
 (.7645) 
 
 (2.8316) 
 
 (2.36) 
 
 (3.624) 
 
 (.473) 
 
 (.946) 
 
 (3.785) 
 
 Eng. 9.08) 
 
 Eng. 36.35) 
 
 1 grain is 0.06}^ of gram 
 1 troy oz. is 31 grams . . 
 1 avoir, oz. is 28 grams . . 
 1 avoir, lb. is 0.45 of kilo . 
 60 lb. (wheat bu.) is 27 kilos 
 80 lb. (coal bu.) is 36 kilos 
 1 cental is 45 kilos . . . 
 112 lb. (cwt.) is 50 kilos . 
 1 net ton is 0.9 metric ton . 
 1 gross ton is 1 metric ton . 
 
 (.0648) 
 
 (31.103) 
 
 (28.35) 
 
 (.4536) 
 
 (27.216) 
 
 (36.287) 
 
 (45.36) 
 
 (50.8) 
 
 (.9072) 
 
 (1.016) 
 
 Money Tables 
 
 English money 
 
 4 farthings (qr.) = 1 penny (d.). 
 
 12 pence =1 shilling (s.). 
 
 20 shillings = 1 pound or 80vereign(£). 
 
 21 shillings =1 guinea (g.). 
 
 £. 8. d. qr. 
 
 1 = 20 = 240 = 960 
 
 1 = 12 = 48 
 
 1 pound is about $4.86. 1=4 
 
622 
 
 COMPUTATION TABLES 
 
 French money 
 
 10 millimes (m.) =1 centime (c). 
 
 10 centimes =1 decime (d.). 
 
 10 decimes =1 franc (Jr.). 
 
 fr. d. c. m. 
 
 1 = 10 = 100 = 1000 
 1 = 10 = 100 
 1 franc is nearly 20 (19.3) cents. 1 = 10 
 
 German money 
 
 100 pfennige (p/.) =1 mark. 
 
 A mark is about 24 cents. 
 
 Dutch money 
 
 100 cents =1 florin or guilder. 
 
 A florin is 40 cents. 
 
 Italian money 
 
 100 centesimi =1 lira. 
 
 A lira is nearly 20 (19.3 ) cents. 
 
 Spanish money 
 
 100 centimos =1 peseta. 
 
 1 peseta is nearly 20 (19.3) cents. 
 
 Russian money 
 
 100 copecks =1 ruble. 
 
 A ruble is about 51 cents. 
 
 Austrian money 
 
 100 heller =1 crown. 
 
 A crown is about 20 cents. 
 
 Monetary units of American countries, and value of coins in U. S. money (1911) 
 
 Argentina 
 
 Bolivia 
 
 Brazil 
 
 British possessions, N. A. (except Newfoundland) 
 
 Chile 
 
 Colombia 
 
 Costa Rica 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 Guatemala 
 
 Haiti 
 
 Honduras 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Newfoundland 
 
 Nicaragua 
 
 Panama 
 
 Peru 
 
 Salvador 
 
 Santo Domingo 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Monetary 
 Unit 
 
 VALUE IN 
 
 Terms of U. S. 
 
 Gold Dollar 
 
 Peso 
 
 $0,965 
 
 Boliviano 
 
 0.389 
 
 Milreis 
 
 0.546 
 
 Dollar 
 
 1.000 
 
 Peso 
 
 0.365 
 
 Dollar 
 
 1.000 
 
 Colon 
 
 0.465 
 
 Peso 
 
 0.439 
 
 Sucre 
 
 0.487 
 
 Peso 
 
 0.389 
 
 Gourde 
 
 0.965 
 
 Peso 
 
 0.389 
 
 Dollar 
 
 0.498 
 
 Dollar 
 
 1.014 
 
 Peso 
 
 0.389 
 
 Balboa 
 
 1.000 
 
 Libra 
 
 4.866 
 
 Peso 
 
 0.389 
 
 Dollar 
 
 1.000 
 
 Peso 
 
 1.030 
 
 Bolivar 
 
 0.187 
 
MONEY TABLES 623, 
 
 In Argentine Republic, paper money is in circulation, convertible in U. S. gold 
 at 44 per cent of face value. In Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Haiti, most Central 
 American countries, the paper currency is inconvertible ; the exchange rate is 
 now (1911) approximately $0,324 in Brazil, SO. 215 in Chile, SlOO paper to SI gold 
 in Colombia, SO. 238 in Haiti, much depreciated and subject to wide fluctuations 
 in Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Salvador. In British Honduras the mone- 
 tary unit is the dollar, being worth par in U. S. gold. 
 
 Paraguay. — The Argentine paper peso, which has a value of 42.46 cents U. S. 
 gold, circulates currently in Paraguay, as do the silver coins of Argentina. A 
 large amount of paper money of the Republic of Paraguay is also in circulation. 
 This money fluctuates in value, but usually a Paraguayan paper peso is worth 
 about eight cents U. S. gold. 
 
 Other foreign coins in equivalents of U. S. money (1911) 
 
 Austria-Hungary Crown = $0,203 U. S. Money 
 
 Belgium Franc = 0.193 
 
 British India Rupee = 0.324 
 
 China Tael = 0.420-0.649 
 
 (according to the province) 
 
 Denmark Crown = 0.268 " " 
 
 Egypt Pound = 4.943 
 
 (100 piasters) " •' 
 
 Finland Mark = 0.193 
 
 France Franc = 0.193 
 
 Germany Mark = 0.238 
 
 Great Britain Pound = 4.866 
 
 Greece Drachma = 0.193 " " 
 
 Italy Lira = 0.193 
 
 Japan Yen = 0.498 
 
 Liberia Dollar = 1.000 
 
 Netherlands Florin = 0.402 
 
 Norway Crown = 0.268 
 
 Persia Kran = 0.170 
 
 Philippines Peso = 0.50 " " 
 
 Portugal Milreis = 1.08 " " 
 
 Roumania Leu = 0.193 " " 
 
 Russia Ruble =^ 0.515 " " 
 
 Servia Dinar -= 0.193 
 
 Siam Tical = 0.370 
 
 Spain Peseta = 0.193 
 
 Straits Settlements Dollar = 0.421 
 
 Sweden Crown = 0.268 
 
 Switzerland Franc = 0.193 
 
 Turkey Piaster = 0.044 
 
 The shekel of the Hebrews (silver) was probably between 70 and 75 cents in 
 value. 
 
 The talent (silver) of the Hebrews was upwards of $2100. 
 
 The penny (value in pennies is pence, as two-pence, six-pence) is an English 
 denomination, equivalent to about 2 cts. in U. S. money ; used also colloquially 
 for the U. S. cent. 
 
 The shilling is typically an English denomination, practically equivalent to the 
 " quarter ' ' in the U. S. and Canada. In the U. S. it has different value in different 
 regions (but now little used), due to the extent of depreciation of the pound when 
 the decimal system was adopted. The usual values are 16§ cts. in New England, 
 and 12j cts. in New York and westward. In parts of the country farther south 
 it was 135 cts. and 21^ cts. A shilling is sometimes called a bit. 
 
524 
 
 COMPUTATION TABLES 
 
 Approximate money-table. (Baedeker) 
 
 English 
 
 Dutch 
 
 French and 
 Belgian 
 
 German 
 
 American 
 
 £ 
 
 B. 
 
 d. 
 
 florin 
 
 cent 
 
 franc 
 
 cent 
 
 mark 
 
 Pfg. 
 
 dollar 
 
 cent 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 4 
 
 86 
 
 
 19 
 
 
 11 
 
 40 
 
 23 
 
 75 
 
 19 
 
 
 4 
 
 53 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 10 
 
 80 
 
 22 
 
 50 
 
 18 
 
 
 4 
 
 29 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 25 
 
 17 
 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 9 
 
 60 
 
 20 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 3 
 
 81 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 18 
 
 75 
 
 15 
 
 
 3 
 
 57 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 8 
 
 40 
 
 17 
 
 50 
 
 14 
 
 
 3 
 
 34 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 7 
 
 80 
 
 16 
 
 25 
 
 13 
 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 2 
 
 86 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 6 
 
 60 
 
 13 
 
 75 
 
 11 
 
 
 2 
 
 62 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 12 
 
 50 
 
 10 
 
 
 2 
 
 38 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 5 
 
 40 
 
 11 
 
 25 
 
 9 
 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 4 
 
 80 
 
 10 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 1 
 
 91 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 75 
 
 7 
 
 
 1 
 
 67 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 3 
 
 60 
 
 7 
 
 50 
 
 6 
 
 
 1 
 
 43 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 6 
 
 25 
 
 5 
 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 2 
 
 40 
 
 5 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 95 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 80 
 
 3 
 
 75 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 71 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 50 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 
 1 
 
 8}-^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 70 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 
 96 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 60 
 
 
 38 
 
 
 1 
 
 9li 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 60 
 48 
 45 
 40 
 35 
 30 
 25 
 20 
 15 
 10 
 5 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 25 
 
 94 
 83 
 73 
 62 
 52 
 42 
 31 
 21 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 80 
 75 
 66 
 58 
 50 
 41 
 33 
 25 
 16 
 8 
 
 
 24 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 Legal rates of interest 
 
 
 Legal Rate 
 Per Cent 
 
 Rate allowed bt 
 Contract. Per Cent 
 
 Alabama 
 
 8 
 6 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 Arizona 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 As agreed 
 
 10 
 As agreed 
 
 
 As agreed 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 District of Columbia 
 
 Florida 
 
 10 
 10 
 
INTEREST TABLE 
 Legal rates of interest — Continued 
 
 525 
 
 Georgia .... 
 
 Idaho .... 
 
 Illinois .... 
 
 Indiana .... 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas .... 
 
 Kentucky . . . 
 
 Louisiana . . . 
 
 Maine .... 
 
 Maryland . . . 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Michigan . . . 
 
 Minnesota . . . 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri . . 
 
 Montana . 
 
 Nebraska . . . 
 
 Nevada .... 
 
 New Hampshire . 
 
 New Jersey . . 
 
 New Mexico . . 
 
 New York . . . 
 
 North Carolina . 
 
 North Dakota 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oklahoma . 
 
 Oregon .... 
 
 Pennsylvania . 
 
 Rhode Island . . 
 
 South Carolina . 
 
 South Dakota 
 
 Tennessee . . . 
 
 Texas .... 
 
 Utah .... 
 
 Vermont . . . 
 
 Virginia . . . 
 
 Washington . . 
 
 West Virginia . . 
 
 Wisconsin . . . 
 
 Wyoming . 
 
 Canada 
 
 British Columbia 
 Manitoba . . 
 New Brunswick 
 Nova Scotia . 
 Ontario . 
 Quebec . . . 
 
 Scotland . . . 
 
 England 
 
 Legal Rate 
 
 Rate Allowed by 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Contract. Per Cent 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 As agreed * 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 As agreed 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 As agreed 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 As agreed 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 6« 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 As agreed 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 As agreed 
 
 6 
 
 As agreed 
 
 5 
 
 As agreed 
 
 6 
 
 7 or 10 
 
 5 
 
 As agreed 
 
 6 
 
 As agreed 
 
 5 
 
 As agreed 
 
 4 
 
 As agreed 
 
 1 Maine, 15 per cent by contract unless stipulated. 
 
 * New York, on collateral loans of $5000 and upward, any rate agreed. 
 
526 
 
 COMPUTATION TABLES 
 
 Wage-Tables 
 
 Day wages (10-hr. day) — Continued on opposite page 
 Fractions of a Day at — 
 
 Time 
 
 75 J? 
 
 $1.00 
 
 $1.25 
 
 $1.50 
 
 $1.75 
 
 $2.00 
 
 $2.50 
 
 $3.00 
 
 A DAT 
 
 A DAY 
 
 A DAY 
 
 A DAY 
 
 A DAY 
 
 A DAY 
 
 A DAY 
 
 A DAY 
 
 i hour 
 
 .031 
 
 .05 
 
 .06} 
 
 .07i 
 
 .08f 
 
 .10 
 
 ..2J 
 
 .15 
 
 1 " 
 
 .07i 
 
 .10 
 
 .12n 
 
 .15 
 
 .17:: 
 
 .20 
 
 .25 
 
 .30 
 
 2 hours 
 
 .15 
 
 .20 
 
 .25 
 
 .30 
 
 .35 
 
 .40 
 
 .50 
 
 .60 
 
 3 " 
 
 .22i 
 
 .30 
 
 .37^ 
 
 .45 
 
 .52J 
 
 .60 
 
 .75 
 
 .90 
 
 4 " 
 
 .30 
 
 .40 
 
 .50 
 
 .60 
 
 .70 
 
 .80 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.20 
 
 5 •* 
 
 .37i 
 
 .50 
 
 .62^ 
 
 .75 
 
 .871 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.25 
 
 1.50 
 
 6 " 
 
 .45 
 
 .60 
 
 .75 
 
 .90 
 
 1.05 
 
 1.20 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.80 
 
 7 " 
 
 .52J 
 
 .70 
 
 .871 
 
 1.05 
 
 1.221 
 
 1.40 
 
 1.75 
 
 2.10 
 
 8 " 
 
 .60 
 
 .80 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.20 
 
 1.40 
 
 1.60 
 
 2.00 
 
 2.40 
 
 9 " 
 
 .67i 
 
 .90 
 
 1.12i 
 
 1.35 
 
 1.57^ 
 
 1.80 
 
 2.25 
 
 2.70 
 
 Month wages (26 days) 
 
 When men are employed by the year at a monthly wage, it is customary to 
 calculate by calendar months, whether they contain 25 or 27 working days. 
 
 TniE 
 
 $15 
 
 $18 
 
 $20 
 
 $22 
 
 $24 
 
 $25 
 
 $27 
 
 $30 
 
 $35 
 
 $40 
 
 
 MO. 
 
 MO. 
 
 MO. 
 
 MO. 
 
 MO. 
 
 MO. 
 
 MO. 
 
 MO. 
 
 MO. 
 
 MO. 
 
 Iday 
 
 .58 
 
 .69 
 
 .77 
 
 .85 
 
 .92 
 
 .96 
 
 1.04 
 
 1.15 
 
 1.35 
 
 1.54 
 
 2 days 
 
 1.15 
 
 1.38 
 
 1.54 
 
 1.69 
 
 1.85 
 
 1.92 
 
 2.08 
 
 2.31 
 
 2.69 
 
 3.08 
 
 3 • 
 
 1.73 
 
 2.08 
 
 2.31 
 
 2.54 
 
 2.70 
 
 2.88 
 
 3.12 
 
 3.46 
 
 4.04 
 
 4.62 
 
 4 " 
 
 2.31 
 
 2.77 
 
 3.08 
 
 3.38 
 
 3.69 
 
 3.85 
 
 4.15 
 
 4.62 
 
 5.38 
 
 6.16 
 
 5 " 
 
 2.89 
 
 3.46 
 
 3.85 
 
 4.23 
 
 4.62 
 
 4.81 
 
 5.19 
 
 5.78 
 
 6.73 
 
 7.70 
 
 6 " 
 
 3.46 
 
 4.15 
 
 4.62 
 
 5.08 
 
 5.54 
 
 5.77 
 
 6.23 
 
 6.92 
 
 8.08 
 
 9.24 
 
 7 " 
 
 4.04 
 
 4.85 
 
 5.38 
 
 5.92 
 
 6.46 
 
 6.73 
 
 7.27 
 
 8.08 
 
 9.42 
 
 10.76 
 
 8 " 
 
 4.62 
 
 5.54 
 
 6.15 
 
 6.77 
 
 7.38 
 
 7.69 
 
 8.31 
 
 9.24 
 
 10.77 
 
 12.30 
 
 9 " 
 
 5.19 
 
 6.23 
 
 6.92 
 
 7.61 
 
 8.31 
 
 8.65 
 
 9.35 
 
 10.38 
 
 12.11 
 
 13.84 
 
 10 " 
 
 5.77 
 
 6.92 
 
 7.69 
 
 8.46 
 
 9.23 
 
 9.62 
 
 10.38 
 
 11.54 
 
 13.46 
 
 15.38 
 
 11 " 
 
 6.35 
 
 7.62 
 
 8.46 
 
 9.31 
 
 10.15 
 
 10.58 
 
 11.42 
 
 12.70 
 
 14.81 
 
 16.92 
 
 12 " 
 
 6.92 
 
 8.31 
 
 9.23 
 
 10.15 
 
 11.08 
 
 11.54 
 
 12.46 
 
 13.84 
 
 16.15 
 
 18.46 
 
 13 " 
 
 7.50 
 
 9.00 
 
 10.00 
 
 11.00 
 
 13.00 
 
 12.50 
 
 13.50 
 
 15.00 
 
 17.50 
 
 20.00 
 
 14 " 
 
 8.08 
 
 9.69 
 
 10.77 
 
 11.85 
 
 13.92 
 
 13.46 
 
 14.54 
 
 16.16 
 
 18.85 
 
 21.54 
 
 15 " 
 
 8.65 
 
 10.38 
 
 11.54 
 
 12.69 
 
 14.85 
 
 14.42 
 
 15.58 
 
 17.30 
 
 20.19 
 
 23.08 
 
 16 " 
 
 9.23 
 
 11.08 
 
 12.31 
 
 13.54 
 
 14.77 
 
 15.38 
 
 16.62 
 
 18.46 
 
 21.54 
 
 24.62 
 
 17 " 
 
 9.81 
 
 11.77 
 
 13.08 
 
 14.38 
 
 15.69 
 
 16.35 
 
 17.65 
 
 19.62 
 
 22.88 
 
 26.16 
 
 18 " 
 
 10.38 
 
 12.46 
 
 13.85 
 
 15.23 
 
 16.62 
 
 17.31 
 
 18.69 
 
 20.76 
 
 24.23 
 
 27.70 
 
 19 " 
 
 10.96 
 
 13.15 
 
 14.62 
 
 16.08 
 
 17.54 
 
 18.27 
 
 19.73 
 
 21.92 
 
 25.58 
 
 29.24 
 
 20 •• 
 
 11.54 
 
 13.85 
 
 15.38 
 
 16.92 
 
 18.46 
 
 19.23 
 
 20.77 
 
 23.08 
 
 26.92 
 
 30.76 
 
 21 " 
 
 12.11 
 
 14.54 
 
 16.15 
 
 17.77 
 
 19.38 
 
 20.19 
 
 21.81 
 
 24.22 
 
 28.27 
 
 32.30 
 
 22 " 
 
 12.69 
 
 15.23 
 
 16.92 
 
 18.61 
 
 20.31 
 
 21.15 
 
 22.85 
 
 25.38 
 
 29.61 
 
 33.84 
 
 23 " 
 
 13.27 
 
 15.92 
 
 17.69 
 
 19.46 
 
 21.23 
 
 22.12 
 
 23.88 
 
 26.54 
 
 30.96 
 
 35.38 
 
 24 " 
 
 13.85 
 
 16.62 
 
 18.46 
 
 20.31 
 
 22.15 
 
 23.08 
 
 21 02 
 
 27.70 32.31 
 
 36.92 
 
 25 " 
 
 14.42 
 
 17.31 
 
 19.23 
 
 21.15 
 
 23.08 
 
 24.04 
 
 '_'."). '.Hi 
 
 ■JS,S.") 
 
 ;^3.65 
 
 38.46 
 
THERMOMETERS 
 
 527 
 
 Whole Days at — 
 
 TUO! 
 
 7b ^ 
 
 $1.25 
 
 $1.50 
 
 $1.7.5 
 
 $2.00 
 
 $2..50 
 
 $.3.00 
 
 A DAT 
 
 A DAT 
 
 A DAY 
 
 A DAT 
 
 A DAT 
 
 A DAT 
 
 A DAY 
 
 2 days 
 
 1.50 
 
 2.50 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.50 
 
 4.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 6.00 
 
 3 " 
 
 2.25 
 
 3.75 
 
 4.50 
 
 5.25 
 
 6.00 
 
 7.50 
 
 9.00 
 
 4 " 
 
 3.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 6.00 
 
 7.00 
 
 8.00 
 
 10.00 
 
 12.00 
 
 5 " 
 
 3.75 
 
 6.25 
 
 7.50 
 
 8.75 
 
 10.00 
 
 12.50 
 
 15.00 
 
 6 " 
 
 4.50 
 
 7.50 
 
 9.00 
 
 10.50 
 
 12.00 
 
 15.00 
 
 18.00 
 
 7 " 
 
 5.25 
 
 8.75 
 
 10.50 
 
 12.25 
 
 14.00 
 
 17.50 
 
 21.00 
 
 8 " 
 
 6.00 
 
 10.00 
 
 12.00 
 
 14.00 
 
 16.00 
 
 20.00 
 
 24.00 
 
 " 
 
 0.7.5 
 
 11.2.5 
 
 13.50 
 
 15.75 
 
 18.00 
 
 22.50 
 
 27.00 
 
 11 " 
 
 8.2.5 
 
 13.7.5 
 
 16.50 
 
 19.25 
 
 22.09 
 
 27.50 
 
 33.00 
 
 12 " 
 
 9.00 
 
 15.00 
 
 18.00 
 
 21.00 
 
 24.00 
 
 30.00 
 
 36.00 
 
 13 " 
 
 9.75 
 
 16.25 
 
 19.50 
 
 22.75 
 
 26.00 
 
 32.50 
 
 39.00 
 
 14 " 
 
 10.50 
 
 17.50 
 
 21.00 
 
 24.50 
 
 28.00 
 
 35.00 
 
 42.00 
 
 Thermometer Scales 
 
 Fahrenheit. — The fref3zing-point is taken as the thirty-second degree 
 of the scale, and 180 degrees are made between that and the boiling- 
 point, which therefore becomes 212^. The zero of Fahrenheit was sup- 
 posed to represent the absolute zero, or lowest po.ssible temperature. 
 
 Centigrade or Celsius. — The freezing-point of water Is taken as zero, 
 and boiling-point as 100^. 
 
 Reaumur. — The freezing-point of water is taken as zero, the boiling- 
 point as 80°. A degree Centigrade Is therefore greater than a degree of 
 Fahrenheit as 9 Ls greater than 5; and a degree of Reaumur Is greater, 
 as 9 Is greater than 4. 
 
 To reduce Fahrenheit degrees to Centigrade, subtract 32 from the 
 given degree of Fahrenheit, and multiply the remainder by 5 and 
 divide it by 9 ; CF. degrees — 32) f- To reduce Centigrade to Fahr- 
 enheit, multiply the given degree of Centigrade by 9 and divide the 
 product by 5, then to the quotient add 32: (f C.° + 32). 
 
 To reduce Fahrenheit to Reaumur, subtract 32 from the given 
 degree of Fahrenheit and multiply the remainder by 4 and divide 
 by 9 : fF.°-32)i 
 
 To reduce Reaumur to Fahrenheit, multiply the given degree of Reau- 
 mur by 9 and divide by 4, then add 32 : (I R° + 32). 
 
 To reduce Reaumur to Centigrade, multiply by f . 
 
628 COMPUTATION TABLES 
 
 Miscellaneous Measures, Weights, and Estimates 
 
 Measures and dimensions of many kinds 
 
 ^ of an inch = a line (American). 
 
 !>(, of an inch = a line (French). 
 
 3 inches = a palm. 
 
 4 inches = a hand. 
 
 9 inches = a span. 
 
 18 inches = a cubit. 
 
 2^ feet = a military pace. 
 
 3 (or 3.3) feet = a pace. 
 
 6 feet =1 fathom. 
 
 240 yards =1 cable's length. 
 
 12 of any article =1 dozen. 
 
 12 dozen =1 gross. 
 
 20 of any article =1 score. 
 
 A wine gallon (U. S. standard) = 231 cubic inches, 
 
 A dry gallon = 268.8 cubic inches. 
 
 An imperial gallon (British standard) = 277.274 cubic inches. 
 
 An imperial or English bushel = 2218.192 cubic inches. 
 
 A U. S. bushel = 2150.42 cubic inches. 
 
 A U. S. bushel heaped (heaped to a cone 6 inches high) = 2747.7 cubic inches. 
 
 1 pint of water weighs 1.0431 pounds. 
 
 1 gallon of water weighs 8.3448 pounds. 
 
 1 cubic foot of water weighs 62.425 pounds at 39.2° F. 
 
 1 atone is 14 pounds. 
 
 An English (statute) mile is 1760 yards. 
 
 A Scotch mile is 1984 yards. 
 
 An Irish mile is 2249 yards. 
 
 A Dutch mile is 8101 yards. 
 
 A Roman mile is 1628 yards. 
 
 A German mile is 6859 yards. 
 
 A Russian mile is 1100 yards. 
 
 An Arabian mile is 2148 j'ards. 
 
 A sea (nautical) mile is 2026 yards (IJ mi.). 
 
 A knot is the traveling speed of a ship, reckoned by making 
 1 sea-mile in 1 hour. 
 
 1 tael (Chinese) is li oz. avoir. 
 
 1 Dani.sh pound is 1.102 lb. avoir. 
 
 1 Russian pound is 9 lb. avoir. 
 
 1 libra (Spanish) is 1.014 lb. avoir. 
 
 1(X) pounds nails =1 keg. 
 
 196 pounds flour =1 barrel. 
 
 150 pounds potatoes =1 barrel of freight. 
 
 280 pounds salt =1 barrel. 
 
 200 pounds beef, fish, or pork =1 barrel. 
 
 45 drops of water is a tea.spoonful. 
 1 tea.spoonful equals 1 fluid dram. 
 1 dos.sert.spoonful equals 2 tea.spoonfuls, or 2 drams. 
 
 1 tableapoonful equals 2 do.s.sertspoonfuls, or 4 teaspoonfuls. 
 
 2 tablespoonfuls equal 8 tea.spoonfuls, or 1 fluid ounce. 
 1 common-size wineglassful e<iuals 2 ounces, or 3^ gill. 
 1 common-size tumbler hold.s '^ pint. 
 
 A small tea-cup is estimated to hold 4 fluid ounces, or 1 gill. 
 
 1 pound of wheat is equal to about 1 pint. 
 
 1 pound and 2 ounces of Indian meal is equal to 1 quart. 
 
 1 pound of soft butter is cfiuul to about 1 pint. 
 
 1 pound of sugar is equal to about 1 pint. 
 
 A pint of pure water is about a pound. 
 
 A barleycorn is J inch. 
 
 An ell is usually 45 inches. 
 
 A point (in type) is y'j inch. 
 
 A circle is 3.1415 times the length of its diameter (the ratio being known as pi). 
 
FRUIT FIGURES 529 
 
 Weights of various varieties oj apples per bushel 
 
 The following varieties, just from the trees in October, gave the 
 following weights for a heaped bushel (Michigan) : — 
 
 Baldwin 50 1 Fallawater 48 
 
 Belmont 50 Golden Ruaset 53 
 
 Ben Davi3 47 
 
 Bunker Hill 49 
 
 Cabashae 57 
 
 Esopus Spitzenburgh 44 
 
 Rambo 50 
 
 Rhode Island Greening 52 
 
 Roxbury Russet 50 
 
 Rubicon 46 
 
 Stark 56 
 
 Lawyer 47 
 
 Nickajack 51 
 
 Northern Spy 46 
 
 Pennock 47 
 
 Swaar 51 
 
 Sweet Bough 39 
 
 Talman Sweet 48 
 
 Tompkins King 44 
 
 Yellow Bellefleur 46 
 
 Dried fruit and cider 
 
 A bushel of average apples gives from 6 to 7| pounds of evap- 
 orated product. Seven pounds to the bushel is a good average. 
 
 PRODUCT OF DRIED RASPBERRIES {W. J. Green) 
 
 Ohio 9 lb. to the bu. 1 Ada 8 1^ lb. to the bu. 
 
 Gregg 8H lb. to the bu. Tyler 8H lb. to the bu. 
 
 Hillborn 8^ lb. to the bu. | Shaffer 8 lb. to the bu. 
 
 In general, three and one-fourth quarts (about four pounds) of fresh 
 black-cap raspberries are required for a pound of marketable dried 
 berries. 
 
 A pound of dried peaches may be made from four or five pounds of 
 fresh fruit, if the variety has a dry flesh ; but six or seven pounds is 
 often required. 
 
 In California, twenty pounds of grapes produce six or seven pounds 
 of raisins. 
 
 From seven to twelve bushels of apples are required for a barrel of 
 cider. 
 
 Various estimates. 
 
 Raspberries contain from one and one-half to three pounds of seeds 
 to the bushel. 
 
 A pint of garden blackberries weighs about one pound. 
 
 Good clusters of American grapes weigh on an average from one-half 
 to three-fourths pound, while extra-good clusters will reach a pound 
 and a half. Clusters have been reported which weighed two pounds. 
 
 A bushel of sweet corn ears, " in the milk," with the husks which 
 come from it, weighs from fifty to seventy pounds. 
 2 M 
 
530 COMPUTATION TABLES 
 
 There are about 5000 honey-bees in a pound. 
 
 Watermelons are usually sorted into three grades. Of the largest 
 size, about six melons are placed in a barrel. Of medium size, about 
 eight (four melons in each of two layers), and of the smallest size, ten 
 to twelve. A truck-load of melons comprises about 200 fair-sized 
 fruits. A car-load numbers 1000 to 1500. 
 
 Coconuts are packed for shipment in bags which hold 100. 
 
 " Ekimis " branded upon boxes of Smyrna figs means A. No. 1, 
 or Superior Selected. '' Eleme " means Selected, the second grade. 
 
 A box 12^1 in. long, wide, and deep holds 1 bu. 
 A box 191 in. long, wide, and deep holds 1 bbl, 
 A box 8| in. long, wide, and deep holds 1 pk. 
 A box 6/^ in. long, wide, and deep holds \ pk. 
 A box 4iV in. long, wide, and deep holds 1 qt. 
 
 To find the bushels of apples, potatoes, shelled corn, etc., in bins, 
 divide the cubic contents in inches by 2747.7 (the cubic inches in a 
 heaped bushel). If the corn is in the ear, deduct one-third from the 
 result. 
 
 The cubic contents is found by multiplying together length, 
 breadth, and height in feet, and reducing the product to inches by 
 dividing by 1728 (the number of cubic inches in a cubic foot) ; or 
 make the original multiplication in inches rather than in feet. 
 
 A struck bushel (not heaped) contains 2150.4 cubic inches. See 
 p. 528. 
 
 If the sides of a corn-crib are flaring, it is customary to reckon 
 the width as half the sum of the top and bottom widths. Of course, 
 much will depend on how much it flares. A similar method may be 
 applied to apples, potatoes, and roots in heaps. 
 
 To find the tons of hay in a mow or stack, divide the cubic contents 
 by about 500, if the hay is not well settled ; or by about 450 to 460, 
 if the hay is well packed. 
 
 To figure the cost of hay by the ton, multiply the number of pounds 
 by the price (in dollars) per ton, point off three figures at the right, 
 and divide by 2 (point off more figures if there are fractions of a 
 dollar in the price) : — 
 
 96lb. X Sll ton = 1.056 - 
 
 - 2 = .528 (52/(, cents) 
 
 96 " X S 11.30 " = 1.0S48 - 
 
 - 2 = .54. 
 
 1700 " X S13 " =22.100 - 
 
 -2 = S11.05. 
 
 2100 " X 8 18 " = 37.800 - 
 
 - 2 = $ 18.90. 
 
 3350 " X $10.80 " =36.180 - 
 
 - 2 = $ 18.09. 
 
PIPES, TANKS, AND WELLS 
 
 531 
 
 At $ 5 per ton, divide the number of pounds by 4 : — 
 
 96 1b. at $5: 96^4= .24 cents. 
 1350" " $5: 1350^4 = $3.37. 
 
 At $ 10 per ton, divide the number of pounds by 2. 
 
 Capacities of Pipes and Tanks 
 
 Quantity of water held by pipes of various sizes 
 
 Diameter of Contents of 100 feet 
 
 Bore in Length 
 
 1^ gal. 
 
 ,>2 1.02 
 
 ]iy 4.08 
 
 i>2 9.18 
 
 2 16.32 
 
 2J4 25.50 
 
 3 36.72 
 
 t 65.28 
 
 f 102.00 
 
 6 146.90 
 
 Number of gallons in circular tanks and wells 
 
 To find the contents in gallons of circular tanks, square the diameter 
 in feet, multiply by the depth, and then multiply by 5.875. 
 
 GALLONS WHEN THE DEPTH IS 
 
 jjia 
 
 ete 
 
 m- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 ft. 4 ft. 5 ft. 6 ft. 7 ft. 8 ft. 9 ft. 10 ft. lift. 12 ft. 
 
 ft. 
 4 
 
 282.00 
 
 376.00 
 
 470.00 
 
 564.00 
 
 658.00 
 
 752.00 
 
 846.00 
 
 940.00 
 
 10.34.00 
 
 1128.00 
 
 5 
 
 440.63 
 
 587.50 
 
 734.38 
 
 881.25 
 
 1028.13 
 
 1175.00 
 
 1321.89 
 
 1468.76 
 
 1615.63 
 
 1762.50 
 
 6 
 
 634.50 
 
 846.04 
 
 1057.50 
 
 1269.00 
 
 1480.50 
 
 1692.00 
 
 1903.50 
 
 2115.00 
 
 2326.50 
 
 2538.00 
 
 V 
 
 863.63 
 
 1151.50 
 
 1439.38 
 
 1727.25 
 
 2015.13 
 
 2303.00 
 
 2590.89 
 
 2878.76 
 
 3166.63 
 
 3454.50 
 
 8 
 
 1128.00 
 
 1504.00 
 
 1880.00 
 
 2256.00 
 
 2632.00 
 
 3008.00 
 
 3384.00 
 
 3760.00 
 
 4136.00 
 
 4512.00 
 
 y 
 
 1427.63 
 
 1903.50 
 
 2379.38 
 
 2855.26 
 
 3331.13 
 
 3807.04 
 
 4282.89 
 
 4758.76 
 
 5234.63 
 
 5710.52 
 
 10 
 
 1762.52 
 
 2350.00 
 
 2937.52 
 
 3525.00 
 
 4112.52 
 
 4700.00 
 
 5287.56 
 
 5875.04 
 
 6461.52 
 
 7050.00 
 
 11 
 
 2132.63 
 
 2843.50 
 
 3554.38 
 
 4265.26 
 
 4976.12 
 
 5687.00 
 
 6397.89 
 
 7108.76 
 
 7819.63 
 
 8530.52 
 
 12 
 
 2538.00 
 
 3384.00 
 
 4230.00 
 
 5076.00 
 
 5922.00 
 
 6768.00 
 
 7614.00 
 
 8460.00 
 
 9306.00 
 
 10152.00 
 
 Approximate contents of cylinders 
 
 Depth Quantity 
 
 X 3 in. contains 1 gill. 
 X 3 in. contains 1 pint. 
 X 6 in. contains 1 quart. 
 X 6 in. contains 1 gallon. 
 X 12 in. contains 8 gallons. 
 X 15 in. contains 10 gallons. 
 
 DiAM. 
 
 IH 
 
 in. 
 
 3H 
 
 in. 
 
 ^2 
 
 in. 
 
 7 
 
 in. 
 
 14 
 
 in. 
 
 14 
 
 in. 
 
532 
 
 COMPUTATION TABLES 
 
 Number of gallons in squore-huilt tanks 
 
 To find the number of gallons in any square or oblong vessel, multiply 
 the number of cubic feet contained in it, by 7.4805 ; or, to find the 
 contents of a depth not given in this table, multiply the contents of 
 tank one foot deep by the required depth in feet. 
 
 For other comparable figures, see page 531 ; for capacities of silos, 
 pages 473 to 477 ; for capacities of reservoirs, page 497. Various pipe 
 figures may be found in Chapters XI and XXV. 
 
 Size of Tank 
 
 4 by 
 
 5 by 
 
 6 by 
 6 by 
 6 by 
 
 6 by 
 
 7 by 
 7 by 
 7 by 
 
 7 by 
 
 8 by 
 8 by 
 8 by 
 8 by 
 
 8 by 
 
 9 by 
 9 by 
 9 by 
 9 by 
 9 by 
 
 10 by 
 10 by 
 10 by 
 10 by 
 10 by 
 
 10 by 
 
 11 by 
 11 by 
 11 by 
 11 by 
 11 by 
 
 11 by 
 
 12 by 
 12 by 
 12 by 
 12 by 
 12 by 
 12 by 
 12 by 
 
 4 feet . 
 
 5 feet . 
 
 3 feet . 
 
 4 feet . 
 
 5 feet . 
 
 6 feet . 
 
 4 feet . 
 
 5 feet . 
 
 6 feet . 
 
 7 feet . 
 
 4 feet . 
 
 5 feet . 
 
 6 feet . 
 
 7 feet . 
 
 8 feet . 
 
 5 feet . 
 
 6 feet . 
 
 7 feet . 
 
 8 feet . 
 
 9 feet . 
 
 5 feet . 
 
 6 feet . 
 
 7 feet . 
 
 8 feet , 
 
 9 feet , 
 10 feet . 
 
 6 feet , 
 
 7 feet , 
 
 8 feet , 
 
 9 feet , 
 
 10 feet 
 
 11 feet 
 
 6 feet 
 
 7 feet 
 
 8 feet 
 
 9 feet 
 
 10 feet 
 
 11 feet 
 
 1 Ft. Deep 
 
 12 feet 1077.19 
 
 119.68 
 187.01 
 134.64 
 179.53 
 224.41 
 269.29 
 209.45 
 261.81 
 314.18 
 366.54 
 239.37 
 299.22 
 359.06 
 418.90 
 478.75 
 336.62 
 403.94 
 471.26 
 538.59 
 605.92 
 374.02 
 448.83 
 523.63 
 598.44 
 673.24 
 748.05 
 493.71 
 575.99 
 658.28 
 740.56 
 822.85 
 905.14 
 538.59 
 628.36 
 718.12 
 807.89 
 897.66 
 987.42 
 
 3 Ft. Deep 
 
 359.06 
 
 561.03 
 
 403.9 
 
 538.5 
 
 673.2 
 
 807.8 
 
 628.3 
 
 785.4 
 
 942.5 
 
 1099.6 
 
 718.1 
 
 897.6 
 
 1077.1 
 
 1256.7 
 
 1436.2 
 
 1009.8 
 
 1211.8 
 
 1413.8 
 
 1615.7 
 
 1817.7 
 
 1122.0 
 
 1346.4 
 
 1570.9 
 
 1795.3 
 
 2019.7 
 
 2244.1 
 
 1481.1 
 
 1727.9 
 
 1974.8 
 
 2221.7 
 
 2468.5 
 
 2715.4 
 
 1615.7 
 
 1885.0 
 
 2154.3 
 
 2423.6 
 
 2692.9 
 
 2962.2 
 
 3231.5 
 
 4 Ft. Deep 
 
 478.75 
 748.05 
 538.5 
 718.1 
 897.6 
 1077.1 
 837.8 
 1047.2 
 1256.6 
 1466.2 
 957.4 
 1196.8 
 1436.2 
 1675.6 
 1915.0 
 1346.4 
 1615.7 
 1885.0 
 2154.3 
 2423.6 
 1496.1 
 1795.3 
 2094.5 
 2393.7 
 2692.9 
 2992.2 
 1974.8 
 2303.9 
 2633.1 
 2962.2 
 3291.4 
 3620.5 
 2154.3 
 2513.4 
 2872.5 
 3231.5 
 3590.6 
 3949.6 
 4308.7 
 
 5 Ft. Deep 
 
 598.44 
 935.06 
 673.2 
 897.6 
 1122.0 
 1346.4 
 1047.2 
 1309.0 
 1570.8 
 1832.7 
 1196.8 
 1496.1 
 1795.3 
 2094.5 
 2393.7 
 1683.1 
 2019.7 
 2356.3 
 2692.9 
 3029.6 
 1870.1 
 2244.1 
 2618.1 
 2992.2 
 3366.2 
 3740.2 
 2468.5 
 2879.9 
 3291.4 
 3702.8 
 4114.2 
 4525.7 
 2692.9 
 3141.8 
 3590.6 
 4039.4 
 4488.3 
 4937.1 
 5385.9 
 
LEGAL WEIGHTS OF THE BUSHEL 633 
 
 Legal Weights of the Bushel 
 
 List of products for which legal weights have been fixed in but one or 
 
 two states 
 
 Apple seeds, forty pounds (Rhode Island and Tennessee). 
 
 Beggarweed seed, sixty-two pounds (Florida). 
 
 Blackberries, thirty-two pounds (Iowa) ; forty-eight pounds (Ten- 
 nessee) ; dried, twenty-eight pounds (Tennessee). 
 
 Blueberries, forty-two pounds (Minnesota). 
 
 Bromus inermis, fourteen pounds (North Dakota). 
 
 Cabbage, fifty pounds (Tennessee). 
 
 Canary seed, sixty pounds (Tennessee). 
 
 Cantaloupe melon, fifty pounds (Tennessee). 
 
 Cherries, forty pounds (Iowa) ; with stems, fifty-six pounds (Ten- 
 nessee) ; without stems, sixty-four pounds (Tennessee). 
 
 Chestnuts, fifty pounds (Tennessee) ; fifty-seven pounds (Virginia). 
 
 Chufa, fifty-four pounds (Florida). 
 
 Cottonseed, staple, forty-two pounds (South Carolina). 
 
 Cucumbers, forty-eight pounds (Missouri and Tennessee) ; fifty 
 pounds (Wisconsin). 
 
 Currants, forty pounds (Iowa and Minnesota). 
 
 Feed, fifty pounds (Massachusetts). 
 
 Grapes, forty pounds (Iowa) ; with stems, forty-eight pounds (Ten- 
 nessee) ; without stems, sixty pounds (Tennessee). 
 
 Guavas, fifty-four pounds (Florida). 
 
 Hickory nuts, fifty pounds (Tennessee). 
 
 Hominy, sixty pounds (Ohio) ; sixty-two pounds (Tennessee). 
 
 Horseradish, fifty pounds (Tennessee). 
 
 Italian rye-grass seed, twenty pounds (Tennessee). 
 
 Johnson-grass, twenty-eight pounds (Arkansas). 
 
 Kafir, fifty-six pounds (Kansas). 
 
 Kale, thirty pounds (Tennessee). 
 
 Land-plaster, 100 pounds (Tennessee). See page 540. 
 
 Meal, forty-six pounds (Alabama) ; unbolted, forty-eight pounds 
 (Alabama) . 
 
 Middlings, fine, forty pounds (Indiana) ; coarse middhngs, thirty 
 pounds (Indiana). 
 
 [Continued on page 540] 
 
534 
 
 COMPr TA TI ON TABLES 
 
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 H 
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 go 
 
 o 
 
 p338aO))03 
 pOBldQ 
 
 lllll ISM 
 
 \ 1 1 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
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 III II II 
 
 
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 •lE'ciToo 1 II II 1 II ^ II II II 1 1 
 
 III II II 
 
 
 •iBiS'Ko Mill 1 U II 1 II II 1 
 
 III II 1 1 
 
 
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 SSI IISS 
 
 
 6 
 
 uiOopa„aqs 1 |g|§| jj || S S II !g 1 SS 1 § 1 II |§g 
 
 •aParSToo l{2l^l MM? Mill Mill Mill 
 
 •aXal^oo 1 1 g 1 g 1 g 1 1 1 1 g II g 1 £^| M II 1 ^? 
 
 t«^oo gisll 1 II 1 1 II II 1 ! M Is §11 II 
 
 aaas aaAoiQ | | | | o | go | | | o | oo | oooo | | | ooo 
 
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 5IIS5 S5II 1 Sigsl SSSSI 5I55S 
 
 aaaS NHOO-KOOHa |||X| Mill IIMI |0||| Mill;; 
 
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 aaag BflVHO-aaag 
 
 1112:1 2:1111 2112:1 2:2:12:1 II 12:2: 
 
 s^^^'a 1 Mill IIMI Mill Mill gills 
 
 00 
 
 Z 
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 PQ 
 
 (paiiaqs) 
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 Sll 1 1 II 11^ 1 ll^l ^^^%\ II 1^1 
 
 .«a«9a IsSII §8 111 lllll §§§|l §l|§§ 
 
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 eu 
 
 BaiddBpaiiQ I^l^l ISllSSilg^l S^SSl IISSS 
 
 i««i^<iv 1 Mil 15 1 II Mill |»a|| ^|«*| 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 il 
 
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 California 
 
 Colorado 
 
 •1 
 
 • a 
 
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 551 
 
 "c 
 
 a c 
 
 aj 
 1 1 
 
 8! 
 
 T 
 
 s 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 .1 
 
 c 
 c 
 
 
LEGAL WEIGHTS OF THE BUSHEL 
 
 535 
 
 I I 
 
 Mil 
 
 <NCO I I 
 
 I I 
 
 I I 
 
 1^1 I 
 
 I I 
 
 IggI 
 
 I I I I 
 
 ISl 
 
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 111^ 
 
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 l?Sl 
 
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 1^ I 
 
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 en o ^ 
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 13 'S 
 
 X^%>^' 
 
 m^^^^ >^&&t: r.s^g^s "o^-sg g-^g" 
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 ss 2 s a 
 
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 «.- al;;^ «t>. o3 
 
636 
 
 COMPUTATION TABLES 
 
 1 sava J 
 
 I I 
 
 nils 1151 
 
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 SiQNVaj 
 
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 112:1 I I I 
 
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 SXVQ 
 
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 MM 
 
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 saiaaaaasooo 
 
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LEGAL WEIGHTS OF THE BUSHEL 
 
 637 
 
 l$^l I I I I I I 
 
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 li:si I I I 1 I I 
 
 l^l^l I I I I I 
 
 l^ll I I I I I I 
 
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640 COMPUTATION TABLES 
 
 [Continued from page 533] 
 
 Millet, Japanese barnyard, thirty-five pounds (Massachusetts). 
 
 Mustard, thirty pounds (Tennessee). 
 
 Plums, forty pounds (Florida) ; sixty-four pounds (Tennessee). 
 
 Plums, dried, twenty-eight pounds (Michigan). 
 
 Popcorn, seventy pounds (Indiana and Tennessee) ; in the ear, 
 forty-two pounds (Ohio). 
 
 Prunes, dried, twenty-eight pounds (Idaho) ; green, forty-five 
 pounds (Idaho). 
 
 Quinces, forty-eight pounds (Florida, Iowa, and Tennessee). 
 
 Rape seed, fifty pounds (Wisconsin). 
 
 Raspberries, thirty-two pounds (Kansas) ; forty-eight pounds (Ten- 
 nessee). 
 
 Rhubarb, fifty pounds (Tennessee). 
 
 Sage, four pounds (Tennessee). 
 
 Salads, thirty pounds (Tennessee). 
 
 Sand, 130 pounds (Iowa). 
 
 Spelt or Spiltz, forty pounds (North Dakota) ; forty-five pounds 
 (South Dakota). 
 
 Spinach, thirty pounds (Tennessee). 
 
 Strawberries, thirty-two pounds (Iowa) ; forty-eight pounds (Ten- 
 nessee). 
 
 Sugar-cane seed, fifty-seven pounds (New Jersey). 
 
 Velvet-grass seed, seven pounds (Tennessee). 
 
 Walnuts, fifty pounds (Tennessee). 
 
 Other articles. 
 
 One bushel of house ashes (wood) is calculated to weigh forty-eight 
 pounds; ground gypsum, seventy pounds (see p. 533, under land- 
 plaster) ; sand, 1222 pounds. 
 
 For lime, see pp. 78, 536 ; cement, pp. 504, 505. 
 
 Legal weights of seeds and grains in Canada. 
 
 Section 90 of the Inspection and Sale Act of the Department of 
 Agriculture for the Dominion of Canada, dealing with the legal weights 
 of farm products, reads as follows : — 
 
 In contracts for the sale and delivery of any of the undermentioned 
 articles a bushel shall be determined by weighing, unless a bushel by 
 
CANADIAN WEIGHTS 541 
 
 measure is specially agreed upon, and the weight equivalent to a bushel 
 shall, except as hereinafter provided, be as follows : — 
 
 lb. 
 
 Barley 48 
 
 Buckwheat 48 
 
 Flaxseed 56 
 
 Indian corn 56 
 
 Oats 34 
 
 Pease 60 
 
 Rye 56 
 
 Wheat 60 
 
 Section 337 reads as follows : — 
 
 In contracts for the sale and delivery of any of the undermentioned 
 
 articles, the bushel shall be determined by weighing, unless a bushel 
 
 by measure is specially agreed upon and the weight equivalent to a 
 
 bushel shall be as follows : — 
 
 lb. 
 
 Beans 60 
 
 Beets 60 
 
 Blue-grass seed 14 
 
 Carrots 60 
 
 Castor-beans 40 
 
 Clover seed 60 
 
 Hemp seed 44 
 
 Malt 36 
 
 Onions 50 
 
 Parsnips 60 
 
 Potatoes 60 
 
 Timothy seed 48 
 
 Turnips 60 
 
 In the province of Quebec, when potatoes are sold or offered for 
 sale by the bag, the bag shall contain at least eighty pounds. 
 
 Government Townships 
 
 The word " town " has a variety of meanings. It is commonly 
 loosely used to designate merely a settlement or a community. In 
 New England, however, it is the primary administrative division 
 It is there very irregular in shape and size, following the lines of 
 contour and of early settlement. In New England, outside of 
 Rhode Island, a township unit was essentially an ecclesiastical unit. 
 In Rhode Island, the township government was separated from 
 church control. In the South, the county came to be the primary 
 
542 
 
 COMPUTATION TABLES 
 
 political unit in most cases, and there is no highly developed town- 
 ship system. 
 
 The New England type of town spread westward to New York, al- 
 though the full town-meeting form of go\'ornment did not follow ; the 
 townships remained irregular and followed no system of territorial 
 division. When the new pubUc domains began to be surveyed by 
 the federal government, a regular system of townships, or terri- 
 torial divisions, was laid out. These townships are right-angled, 
 being six miles on a side and containing 36 square miles. They are 
 determined and also divided by the intersection of meridians or 
 range-lines running north and south, and by parallels or town-lines 
 running east and west. The township is subdivided into 36 square 
 miles, each of these square miles being known as a " section " and 
 
 containing 640 acres. The sections 
 
 are numbered consecutively from 
 1 to 36, beginning at the northeast 
 corner of the township and running 
 directly across to the northwest 
 corner, then back again to the east 
 and back to the west, and so on 
 back and forth until the 36th sec- 
 tion stands at the southeast corner 
 of the township, as showTi in the 
 diagram. In each township, section 
 16 is set aside for school purposes. 
 The sections are themselves divided 
 into quarter-sections, each containing 160 acres. These quarter-sec- 
 tions are again divided into fours, of 40 acres each; and these 40 
 acres are the smallest divisions recognized in government surveys. 
 
 The location of any piece of land is determined by the section 
 number and by the half-section or quarter-section in which it is lo- 
 cated. The township itself is located by its town-line and its range. 
 That is to say, a township in any state might be number 10 south 
 of the base-line that was established by the goverment, and range 
 9 west of some one of the principal meridians fixed by the govern- 
 ment. A particular quarter-section in this township might be the 
 southwest quarter of section number 27 in township 10 south and 
 range 9 west of the sixth principal meridian. 
 
 6 
 
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 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
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 17 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 
CHAPTER XXVIII 
 
 Collecting and Preserving Specimens for Cabinets or Exhi- 
 bition. Perfumery. Labels 
 
 Every good farm establishment should have a room or a cabinet 
 in which the museum materials of the particular farm are collected, 
 — soils, minerals, plants, insects, curiosities, and the like. 
 
 Collecting and Storing Samples of Soil (Fippin) 
 
 The farmer should know his soil. The collecting of soils and 
 their preservation and study has been a source of much interest to 
 some persons, — quite as much as the collecting of seeds, plants, or 
 souvenirs. To secure samples that fairly represent a particular soil- 
 formation or soil-region requires much care in selection. Soils usually 
 vary greatly from point to point. They also vary at different depths. 
 Usually the top soil is more rich in organic matter than the subsoil. 
 It is therefore best to take small samples from a number of points 
 in an area of a few square rods and mix them together, and preserve 
 the desired sample from this composite lot. 
 
 Some arbitrary depth must be chosen, and one foot is best on the 
 average. Since the subsoil is also of great importance, it is desirable 
 to have a sample taken from one to two feet in the same holes as the 
 top soil. A common wood auger one and one-half inches in diameter 
 with a handle sufficient to make a total length of thirty-six, with an 
 eight-inch pipe cross bar at the top, is most convenient for collecting 
 samples in soils that are not excessively stony. The stem may be 
 made in sections, connecting by means of milled threads. 
 
 Before being finally stored, the soil samples should b3 thoroughly 
 dried on a piece of paper in the air. Collection should not be made 
 when the soil is so wet as to puddle, and the sample would preferably 
 not be pulverized after drying. 
 
 543 
 
544 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING SPECIMENS 
 
 The amount of the sample must depend on the object of the work. 
 For general stud}' and analysis, one quart is usually abundant, and 
 one pint is often adequate for chemical and physical analysis. For 
 private collections, even smaller samples put up in four- or six-ounce 
 vials of five or six inches in length, straight sides, and metal screw-top, 
 are very convenient. Regular specimen-jars holding about one-third 
 of a pint or more and with cork in the bottom are excellent for small 
 samples. For larger samples, screw-top glass fruit-jars are usually 
 the most convenient form of storage vessel. 
 
 For shipping samples, a stout canvas bag closely woven and simply 
 labeled on a tag is most convenient, and several such samples may be 
 inclosed in a large bag of the same material. 
 
 Samples of Seeds and Grains 
 
 Every farmer should have samples in his study or elsewhere of the 
 common commercial grades of wheat, oats, and other grains, and speci- 
 mens of the seeds of the leading grasses and the most frequent weeds. 
 
 He can secure the weed seeds from the plants themselves ; or in some 
 cases the Experiment Station will aid him to secure them. Whenever 
 a pernicious weed appears on the plantation, seeds should be saved of 
 it. The farmer should determine how it was introduced, whether 
 with grain or with grass seed ; he will then be on the guard for future 
 invasion. He should have a good hand lens with which to examine 
 all grass seed and clover seed that he purchases. 
 
 He should have samples of pure grass seed, the dififerent kinds of 
 clover, alfalfa, and similar crops. 
 
 Samples of the different grades of wheat and other grains, of the 
 leading varieties, and of shrunken or injured grains, would be very 
 useful to persons who are engaged in the growing of grain or in the 
 handling of it. They will serve as standards. In some of the states, 
 the experiment stations supply such seeds ; if they do not supply them, 
 they can put the farmer in touch with the ways of securing them. 
 
 All seeds should be placed in tight bottles and be thoroughly dried 
 before being put away. In bottles they are easy of examination, and 
 they are also free from weevils and other insects. If they should become 
 affected with insects, the pests may be destroyed by pouring a little 
 bisulfid of carbon into the bottle and quickly corking it up tight. 
 
HERBARIUM 545 
 
 For samples of corn, buckwheat, rye, rice, and other commercial 
 grains, it is well to use one of the small fruit-jars. The weed seeds 
 may be put up in vials with wide necks. 
 
 Collecting and Preserving Plants for Herbaria 
 
 Collect samples of all parts of the plant, — lower and upper leaves, 
 stem, flowers, fruit, and in most cases roots. In small species, those 
 two feet high or less, the whole plant should be taken. Of larger 
 plants, take parts about a foot long. Press the plants between 
 papers or '^ driers." These driers may be any thick porous paper, 
 as blotting-paper or carpet-paper, or, for plants that are not succu- 
 lent or very juicy, newspapers in several thicknesses may be used. 
 It is best to place the specimens in sheets of thin paper — grocer's 
 tea paper is good — and place these sheets between the driers. 
 Many specimens can be placed in a pile. On top of the pile place 
 a short board and a weight of thirty or forty pounds, or a lighter 
 weight if the pile is small and the plants are soft. Change the driers 
 every day. The plants are dry when they become brittle, and when 
 no moisture can be felt by the fingers. Some plants will dry in two 
 or three days, while others require as many weeks. If the pressing is 
 properly done, the specimens will come out smooth and flat and the 
 leaves will usually be green, although some plants always turn black 
 in drying. 
 
 Specimens are usually mounted on single sheets of white paper of the 
 stiffness of very heavy writing paper or thin bristol-board. The 
 standard size of sheet is 11^ by 16| inches. The plants may be 
 pasted down permanently and entirely to the sheet, or they may be 
 held on by strips of gummed paper. In the former case, Denison's 
 fish-glue is a good gum to use. Only one species or variety should 
 be placed on a sheet. Specimens that are taller than the length of 
 a sheet should be doubled over when they are pressed. The species 
 of a genus are collected into a genus cover. This cover is a folded sheet 
 of heavy manila or other firm paper, and the standard size, when folded, 
 is 12 by 16j inches. On the lower left-hand corner of this cover 
 the name of the genus is written. A label should accompany each 
 specimen upon the separate sheets, recording the name, date of col- 
 lecting, name of the collector, and any notes that may be of interest, 
 2n 
 
546 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING SPECIMENS 
 
 The specimens are now ready to be filed away on shelves in a horizon- 
 tal position. If insects attack the specimens, they may be destroyed 
 by fumes of bisulfid of carbon (see page 293) or chloroform. The 
 bisLilfid treatment is probably the best yet devised, particularly for 
 large herbaria. In this case it is necessary to place the specimens in 
 a tight box and then insert the liquid. Lumps of naphthalin placed 
 in the cabinet are useful in keeping away insects. 
 
 Various poisons have been used on herbarium plants. At one time, 
 the Gray Herbarium used an arsenic solution, but this proved to be 
 injurious to curators. Three corrosive sublimate (bichloride of mer- 
 cury) recipes are as follows : — 
 
 1. Place as much corrosive sublimate in alcohol as the liquid will 
 dissolve. Apply with a brush, or dip the plants before they are 
 mounted and dry them between sheets. A common method. 
 
 2. Dissolve If ounces of corrosive sublimate in one pint of alcohol ; 
 add 2^ fluid drams of carbolic acid, and apply with a paint brush. 
 
 3. One pound of corrosive sublimate, one pound of carbolic acid, to 
 4 gallons of wood alcohol. 
 
 Preserving, Printing, and Imitating Flowers and Other Parts of Plants 
 
 To Preserve the Color of Dried Flowers. — 1. Immerse the 
 stem of the fresh specimen in a solution of 32 parts by weight of alum, 
 4 of niter, and 186 of water for two or three days until the liquid is 
 thoroughly absorbed, and then press in the ordinary way, except that 
 dry sand is sifted over the specimen and the packet submitted to the 
 action of gentle heat for twenty-four hours. 
 
 2. Make a varnish composed of 20 parts of powdered copal and 500 
 parts of ether, powdered glass or sand being used to make the copal 
 dissolve more readily. Into this solution the plants are carefully 
 dipped ; then they are allowed to dry for ten minutes, and the same 
 process is repeated four or five times in succession. 
 
 3. Plants may also be plunged in a boiling solution of 1 part of 
 salicylic acid and 600 of alcohol, and then dried in bibulous paper. But 
 this should be done very rapidly, violet flowers especially being decolor- 
 ized by more than an instantaneous immersion. 
 
 4. Red flowers which have changed to a purplish tint in drying may 
 have their color restored by laying them on a piece of moistened paper 
 
PRESERVING FLOWERS 547 
 
 with dilute nitric acid (one part to ten or twelve parts of water), and 
 then submitting them to moderate pressure for a few seconds ; but the 
 solution must not touch the green leaves, as they are decolorized by it. 
 5. With sulfur (Quin). — Procure a chest about three or four feet 
 square with a small opening in the under part of one side, to be 
 closed by a bar, through which the basin containing brimstone must 
 be put into the chest ; this opening must be covered inside with per- 
 forated tin, in order to prevent those flowers which hang immediately 
 over the basin from being spoiled. Paper the inside to render it air- 
 tight. When the chest is ready for use, nail small laths on two opposite 
 sides of the interior, at a distance of about six inches apart, and on 
 these lay thin round sticks upon which to arrange the flowers ; these 
 should not be close together, or the vapor will not circulate freely 
 through the vacant spaces around the flowers. When the chest is suffi- 
 ciently full of flowers, close it carefully, place a damp cloth on the sides 
 of the lid, and some heavy stones upon the top of it ; then take small 
 pieces of brimstone, put them in a small, flat basin, kindle, and put 
 through the opening in the bottom of the chest and shut the bar. 
 Leave the chest undisturbed for twenty-four hours, after which time 
 it must be opened, and if the flowers be sufficiently smoked, they will 
 appear white, if not, they must be smoked again. When sufficiently 
 smoked, take the flowers out carefully and hang them up in a dry, airy 
 place in the shade, and in a few days or even hours they will recover 
 their natural color, except being only a shade paler. 
 
 To give them a very bright and shining color, plunge them into a 
 mixture of ten parts of cold water and one of good nitric acid ; drain off 
 the liquid, and hang them up again the same as before. The best 
 flowers for this process are asters, roses, fuchsias (single ones), spireas 
 (red-flowered kinds, such as Japonica, Douglasi, etc.), ranunculus, del- 
 phiniums, cytisus, etc. The roses should be quite open, but not too 
 fully blown. 
 
 6. In sand (Quin). — Dry the plants in clean silver sand, free from 
 organic matter (made so by repeated washing, until the sand ceases 
 to discolor the water). Heat the sand rather hot, and mix with it by 
 constant stirring a small piece of wax candle, which prevents the 
 sand from adhering to the flowers. Have a box not higher than three 
 inches, but as broad as possible ; this box should have instead of a 
 bottom a narrow-meshed iron-wire net at a distance of three-fourths 
 
548 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING SPECIMENS 
 
 inch from where the bottom should be. Place the box on a board and 
 fill with sand till the net is just covered with a thin layer of sand ; upon 
 this layer of sand, place a layer of flowers, on that a layer of sand, 
 then flowers, and so on ; the layers of sand should vary in thickness 
 according to the kind of flowers, from one-eighth to one-fourth inch. 
 
 When the box contains about three layers of flowers, it must be 
 removed to a v^ery sunny dry place, the best being close under the glass 
 in an empty greenhouse, exposed to the full influence of the sun. After 
 a week, if the weather is sunny and dry, the flowers will be perfectly 
 dried ; then the box is lifted a little, the sand falls gently through the 
 iron net, and the flowers remain in their position over the net without 
 pny disturbance whatever. 
 
 They should then be taken out carefully and kept in a dry and, if 
 possible, dark place, where no sun can reach them, and afterwards 
 chey will keep very well for many years. 
 
 Care should be taken that the flowers are cut in dry weather, and 
 that while lying in the sand no part of a flower shall touch another part, 
 as this always spoils the color and causes decay. Sand should be 
 filled in between all the parts of the flower ; therefore it is necessary 
 to insert the double flowers in an erect position, in order to fill the sand 
 between the petals, while most of the single flowers must be put in 
 with the stalks upwards. 
 
 Printing Plants. — 1. First, lightly oil one side of paper, then 
 fold in four, so that the oil may filter through the pores, and the plant 
 may not come into direct contact with the liquid. The plant is placed 
 between the leaves of the second folding, and in this position pressed 
 (through other paper) all over with the hand, so as to make a small 
 quantity of oil to adhere to its surface. Then it is taken out and 
 placed between two sheets of white paper for two impressions, and 
 the plant is pressed as before. Sprinkle over the invisible image 
 remaining on the paper a quantity of black lead or charcoal, and dis- 
 tribute it in all directions ; the image then appears in all its parts. 
 With an assortment of colors the natural colors of plants may be 
 reproduced. To obtain fixity, rosin is previously added to the black 
 lead in equal parts. Expose to heat sufficient to melt the rosin. 
 
 2. The best paper to use is ordinary wove paper, without water- 
 marks; if it can l)e afforded, use thin drawing-paper. First select the 
 leaves, then carefully press and dry them. If they be placed in a plant 
 
LEAF-PRINTS AND THE LIKE 549 
 
 press, care must be taken not to put too great pressure on the specimens 
 at first, or they will be spoiled for printing. An old book is the best for 
 drying the samples to be used. Secure printers' or proof ink, and a 
 small leather dabber ; work a bit of ink about the size of a pea on a 
 small piece of slate or glass, with the dabber, until it is perfectly smooth. 
 A drop or two of linseed oil will assist the operation. Then give the 
 leaf a thin coating, being careful to spread it equally ; now lay the 
 leaf ink downwards on a sheet of paper and place it between the leaves 
 of an old book, which must then be subjected to a moderate pressure 
 in a copying-press, or passed between the rollers of a wringing-machine. 
 Impressions can be taken with greater rapidity by laying the book on 
 the floor and standing upon it for a few seconds. Soft book-paper is 
 the best. Previous to using it, place a few sheets between damp blot- 
 ting-paper, which causes it to take the ink still more readily. At first 
 you will find that you lay on too much ink. If the impression is too 
 black, use the leaf again. If the midrib of the leaf is too thick, it 
 must be shaved down with a sharp knife. 
 
 3. Leaf-prints (Engle). — 1. A small ink-roller, such as printers use 
 for inking type. 2. A quantity of printers' green ink. 3. A pane of 
 stout window-glass (the larger the better) fastened securely to an evenly 
 planed board twice the size of the glass. A small quantity of the ink 
 is put on the glass and spread with a knife, after which it is distributed 
 evenly by going over in all directions with the ink-roller. When this 
 has been carefully done, the leaf to be copied is laid on a piece of waste 
 paper and inked by applying the roller once or twice with moderate 
 pressure. This leaves a film of ink on the veins and network of the 
 leaf, and by placing it on a piece of blank paper and applying con- 
 siderable pressure for a few moments the work is done, and when the 
 leaf is lifted from the paper, the impress remains with all its delicate 
 tracerv, faithful in color and outline to the original. 
 
 To make the ink of proper consistency, add several drops of 
 balsam copaiba to a salt-spoonful of ink. If the leaf sticks, the ink is 
 too thick. 
 
 Skeletonizing Plants. — 1. By maceration. Place the leaves in 
 water, and allow them to remain in the same water for from three 
 to four months, until the soft matter decays, and the stem may be taken 
 in the hand and the refuse shaken away. There remains behind a 
 network or skeleton of the original object, which can be bleached with 
 
550 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING SPECIMENS 
 
 a little lime. Leaves and pods may both be treated satisfactorily in this 
 manner. The pod of the " Jimson weed " or Datura Stramonium is a 
 favorite for this purpose. 
 
 2. By chemicals. — Chloride of lime, I pound ; washing soda, 
 ^ pound. Put the soda into H pints boiling water (rain-water is 
 best) and let it thorouglily dissolve. Put the chloride of lime in a 
 large pitcher, and add same quantity of cold water. Stir well and 
 cover closely to prevent the escape of the chlorine. When the soda- 
 water is cool, pour it on the chloride of lime, stir well together and 
 cover tightly, leaving it for an hour or more. Then pour off very 
 gently the clear liquid, which must be bottled tightly. 
 
 This solution will remove fruit-stains from white goods, and will 
 bleach any vegetable substances. When used for cotton or linen, it 
 must be considerably diluted, and the goods well rinsed afterwards. 
 
 Waterproof Paper for Artificial Flowers. — Waterproof 
 paper, transparent and impervious to grease, is obtained by soaking 
 good paper in an aqueous solution of shellac and borax. It resembles 
 parchment paper in some respects. If the aqueous solution be colored 
 with aniline colors, very handsome paper, of use for artificial flowers, 
 is prepared. Prepared paraffin paper is now much used. 
 
 To keep Flowers Fresh. — If cut flowers are not needed im- 
 mediately, wet them and then wrap them in paper and place in a tight 
 box in a cool place. Keep as cool as possible without freezing. 
 
 The disagreeable odor which comes from flowers in vases is due to 
 the decay of the leaves and stems in the water. Therefore remove all 
 the lower leaves before putting flowers in vases. 
 
 Flowers that have stood in a vase for a day or so can be greatly 
 refreshed if taken from the vase at night, thoroughly sprinkled and 
 wrapped, stems, blossoms, and all, as closely as possible in a soaked 
 cloth and laid aside until the morning. They will be much fresher than 
 if they had been left in their vases, yet will not have bloomed out so 
 much. Before thus laying them aside, and again in the morning, a bit 
 of each stem should be cut off, as the end soon hardens. This ought also 
 to be done once or twice a day, even if the flowers are kept constantly 
 in their vases. Roses that have drooped before their time — as, 
 for example, when worn on the dress — may be revived if the stems, 
 after being thus cut, are placed for ten minutes in almost boiling 
 water and then removed to cold water. 
 
INSECTS — PERFUMERY 551 
 
 Collecting and Preserving Insects 
 
 Flying insects are caught in a net made of mosquito-bar, or cheese- 
 cloth after the fashion of the minnow-net. The material is made into 
 a bag about a yard deep, and about a foot in width at the top. The 
 opening is fastened upon a wire hoop, which is secured to a pole — 
 as a broomstick. Insects are killed by placing them in a " cyanide- 
 bottle." This is prepared by placing two or three lumps of cyanide 
 of potassium the size of a quail's eg-^ in a wide-mouthed glass bottle, 
 covering the lumps with a layer of fine sawdust held in place by snugly 
 fitted pieces of pasteboard. The insects are quickly killed by the fumes 
 of the poison. Keep the bottle corked. The cyanide is very poisonous, 
 and the fumes should not be inhaled. Bugs and beetles, etc., may be 
 pinned and mounted as soon as they are dead. It is customary to pin 
 beetles through the right wing-cover, and bugs — as squash-bugs — 
 through the triangular space between the wings. Butterflies and 
 moths should have the wings carefully spread. This is done by placing 
 on a " setting-board." This apparatus is a little trough with a crack 
 at the bottom. The sides of the trough are made of thin bits of 
 board, three or four inches wide and a foot or more long. These sides 
 have very little slant. The crack in the bottom of the trough is left 
 about a half-inch wide, and it is covered beneath with a strip of cork. 
 The body of the insect is now placed lengthwise the crack, a pin is 
 thrust through the thorax or middle division of the insect, into the 
 cork, and the wings are laid out on the sides of the trough. The 
 wings are held in place by strips of cardboard or mica pinned over 
 them. Take care not to stick the pins through the wings. In about 
 two weeks the insects will be dry and stiff. 
 
 Insects must be kept in tight boxes to keep other insects from de- 
 vouring them. Cigar-boxes are good. Tight boxes with glass covers 
 are generally used by collectors. Place sheets of cork in the bottom 
 of the box to receive the pins. If insects attack the specimens, expose 
 them in a tight box to vapors of bisulfid of carbon or benzine. 
 
 Larvae, and some other soft bodies, may be preserved in 95 per 
 
 cent alcohol. 
 
 Making Perfumery at Home 
 
 Permanent Attar or Otto of Roses (Ellwanger) . — The roses 
 employed should be just blown, of the sweetest-smelling kinds, 
 
652 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING SPECIMENS 
 
 gathered in as dry a state as possible. After each gathering, spread 
 out the petals on a sheet of paper and leave until free from mois- 
 ture ; then place a layer of petals in a jar, sprinkling with coarse 
 salt ; then another layer of coarse salt, alternating until the jar is 
 full. Leave for a few days, or until a broth is formed ; then in- 
 corporate thoroughly and add more petals and salt, mixing thor- 
 oughly daily for a week, when fragrant gums and spices should be 
 added, such as benzoin, storax, cassia-buds, cinnamon, cloves, car- 
 damon, and vanilla-bean. Mix again and leave for a few days, 
 when add essential oil of jasmine, violet tuberose, and attar of 
 roses, together with a hint of ambergris or musk, in mixture with the 
 flower ottos, to fix the odor. Spices, such as cloves, should be spar- 
 ingly used. 
 
 Perfume-jar. — 1. One pound of dried rose-petals bought at a 
 drug-store, 4 ounces of salt, and 2 ounces of saltpeter, on which put 
 8 drops of essence of ambergris, 6 drops of essence of lemon, 4 drops 
 of oil of cloves, 4 drops of oil of lavender, and 2 drops of essence of 
 bergamot. 
 
 2. One-half pound of common salt, \ pound saltpeter, \ ounce 
 storax, one-half dozen cloves, a handful of dried bay-leaves, and an- 
 other handful of dried lavender-flowers. This basis will last for years, 
 and petals of roses and other fragrant flowers gathered on dry days 
 may be added annually, or powered benzoin, chips of sandalwood, 
 cinnamon, orris-root, or musk may be added. 
 
 Lavender-b.a-G. — One-half pound lavender-flowers, one-half ounce 
 dried thyme and mint, one-fourth ounce ground cloves and caraway, 
 one ounce common salt. Tie up in a linen bag, which is hung in a 
 wardrobe. 
 
 Orris-root is a good medium in which to place delicate perfumes for 
 perfumery bags. 
 
 The Preservation of Fruits for Exhibition Purposes 
 
 Six Canadian recipes (Frank T. Shutt, Experimental Farm, Ottawa, 
 1911). Specimens of course not edible. 
 
 In the preparation of these fluids, it is desirable to employ distilled 
 water, usually obtainable from druggists at a small cost. The alcohol 
 used in these formulae may be the ordinary spirits of wine. 
 
PRESERVATIVE FLUIDS 653 
 
 Fluid No. 1. — Formaldehyde 
 
 Formaldehyde (formalin) 1 part 
 
 Alcohol 5 parts 
 
 Water, to make 50 parts 
 
 To prepare one gallon of the fluid 3§ ounces of formaldehyde and 
 16 ounces of alcohol will be required, the remainder of the gallon 
 to be made up with water. 
 
 The addition of a volume of hydrogen peroxide equal to that of the 
 
 formaldehyde has been found to somewhat enhance the value of this 
 
 fluid for red fruits. 
 
 Fluid No. 2. — Boric Acid 
 
 Boric (boracic) acid 1 part 
 
 Alcohol 5 parts 
 
 Water, to make 50 parts 
 
 For one gallon, 3^ ounces of boric acid and 16 ounces of alcohol 
 will be required. 
 
 The powdered form of boric acid is the most convenient to use. 
 There is no necessity to employ hot water, but stirring should be con- 
 tinued until complete solution is effected. 
 
 Fluid No. 3. — Zinc Chloride 
 
 Zinc chloride 3 parts 
 
 Alcohol 10 parts 
 
 Water, to make 100 parts 
 
 For one gallon of fluid, 5 ounces of zinc chloride and 16 ounces of 
 alcohol will be required. 
 
 Zinc chloride, of good quality, passes readily into solution ; any 
 white, flocculent precipitate that may appear is allowed to settle out, 
 and the clear fluid decanted. 
 
 Fluid No. 4. — Sulfurous Acid 
 
 Sulfurous acid 1 Part 
 
 Alcohol 1 part 
 
 W^ater, to make 10 Parts 
 
 For one gallon, 16 ounces each of sulfurous acid and of alcohol 
 
 will be required. 
 
 Fluid No. 5. — Copper Sulfate 
 
 Copper sulfate 2 parts 
 
 Alcohol 10 parts 
 
 Water, to make 100 parts 
 
554 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING SPECIMENS 
 
 For one gallon, 3l ounces of copper sulfate and 16 ounces of al- 
 cohol will be required. 
 
 To facilitate solution, powder the copper sulfate (bluestone) and 
 dissolve it in a small quantity of hot water ; when cold, add the alcohol 
 and the remainder of the water to the required volume. 
 
 Fluid No. 6. — Alum 
 
 Alum 5 parts 
 
 Alcohol 10 parts 
 
 Water, to make 100 parts 
 
 For one gallon, 8 ounces of alum and 16 ounces of alcohol will be 
 required. 
 
 If powdered alum is not obtainable, crush the crystals and dissolve 
 as directed in No. 5. 
 
 For the most successful treatment, it is desirable to have the fruit 
 sound, unbruised, and not over-ripe when placed in the fluid. When 
 practicable, the fruit should be left on the stalk or branch, the whole 
 being so supported or suspended in the bottle that the fruit is not 
 subjected to any undue pressure. Sufficient fluid should be used to 
 completely cover the fruit. It is well to hermetically seal the stopper 
 with melted paraffin and to keep the bottles of preserv^ed fruit in a cool, 
 darkened room. 
 
 Recommendation on the six Canadian recipes. 
 
 In the following paragraphs, the fluids are indicated that have 
 proved to be the best preservatives with the various fruits under trial. 
 
 Apples and Crabs. 
 
 Red: No. 2 ; the best fluid in the larger number of tests. 
 No. 1 has also proved effective for many varieties. 
 No. 2. A fairly satisfactory fluid. 
 Green and russet: No. 3. 
 
 White and yellow : No. 4. This solution, while in most respects 
 quite satisfactory, is apt to give the fruit an unnatural paleness. 
 
 Beans in Pod. 
 
 Green: No. 5 ; this is undoubtedly the best fluid. 
 
 No. 1 may be used for short periods of preservation. 
 
PRESERVATIVE FLUIDS 655 
 
 Yellow or wax: No. 3 has given the best results. 
 
 No. 4 can be used, but bleaches rather excessively. 
 Currants. 
 
 Black: No. 1 and No. 2. Both are fairly satisfactory, the prefer- 
 ence being with No. 1. Owing to the large amount of coloring matter 
 extracted at the outset from this fruit, the fluid should be changed, 
 say at the expiration of two or three weeks. 
 
 Red: No. 3, closely followed by No. 2, are successful preservatives 
 for the fruit. 
 
 White : Nos. 2 and 3 are almost equally satisfactory. 
 
 Gooseberries. 
 
 No. 5 ; this fluid has given very good results — incomparably better 
 than any of the other solutions under investigation. 
 
 Grapes. 
 
 Black : No. 1 is satisfactory and excellent. 
 
 Red : No. 3 is probably the best. 
 
 No. 1 (with peroxide of hydrogen) and No. 2 have been 
 used successfully. 
 
 White : (green) No. 2 and No. 3. Neither of these has proven 
 satisfactory, but No. 2 seems to be the better. 
 
 Peas in Pod. 
 
 No. 5 ; by far the best fluid. 
 
 No. 3 has been used with some success for short periods. 
 
 Plums. 
 
 Our experience in preserving this fruit has been very limited, but 
 fluid No. 2 has been used with fair success. 
 
 Raspberries. 
 
 Red and purple : A very difficult fruit to preserve in its natural 
 form and color. 
 
 No. 6. This is the best of the many fluids tried ; by an occasional 
 change of solution, this preservative gives fairly good results. 
 
 White : No. 2. 
 
556 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING SPECIMENS 
 
 Strawberries. 
 
 No. 1 ; this fluid, both with and without peroxide, will preserve the 
 fruit with much of its natural color. No other fluid among those 
 under experiment has proven at all satisfactory for this fruit. 
 
 Tomatoes. 
 No. 2 has given fairly satisfactory results. 
 
 Preserving fruits and vegetables for exhibition (A California method). 
 
 Glycerine 2 to 24 oz. 
 
 Sulfurous acid 1 to 3 oz. 
 
 Rock salt 1 oz. 
 
 Saltpeter 1 oz. 
 
 The above amounts are for one gallon of water. The amount of 
 glycerine is governed by the specific gravity of the juice of the subject, 
 it being requisite to have the density of the fluid the same as that 
 of the juice. The amount of sulfurous acid is governed by the nature 
 of the subject, fruits of delicate tint being given the minimum amount, 
 while most vegetables will take the maximum. 
 
 It is absolutely essential for success to have pure sulfurous acid, 
 and this is best obtained by treating charcoal with sulfuric acid and 
 running the gas directly into the water in the preserving jar. The 
 sulfurous acid must be generated in a strong vessel, as the chemical 
 action is violent. 
 
 No particular pains are taken to have the fruit clean at the time it 
 is placed in the jars. After the solution is on it, it must be set away 
 in a dark, cool place, and carefully examined at intervals of a few days. 
 
 If any cloudiness or discoloration appears, the liquid must be promptly 
 removed and replaced by fresh. This is best done by running in 
 clear water from a hose until all the preserving fluid is displaced, and 
 then recharging the water in accordance with the formula. This 
 clearing will also remove all dirt and sediment. After the fruit has 
 remained in a dark place for several months without change, the fluid 
 should be removed and substituted by fresh, in which there is only one 
 ounce of sulfurous acid to the gallon. This latter strength is known 
 as the " show liquid." 
 
LABELS FOR PLANTS 657 
 
 Labels 
 
 Tree Labels may be made of various kinds of material. The 
 commonest and cheapest label is made of clean white pine, primed 
 with thin white lead. These can be purchased of dealers in nursery- 
 men's supphes. The ordinary nursery tree label is 3| inches long. 
 
 The Cornell tree label is made from the " package label " used by 
 nurserymen. It is a pine notched tally 6 inches long and U inches 
 wide. (Cost, painted, about $1.30 to $1.50 per thousand.) These are 
 wired with heavy stiff wire, not less than eighteen inches long, so that 
 the loop is five or six inches across. The labels are hung on one of 
 the lower limbs of the tree, where they are very conspicuous. The 
 ends of the wire are hooked together around the limb by means 
 of pincers, and, being stiff, it is not readily removed by careless or mis- 
 chievous persons. The name is written firmly with a very soft black 
 lead-pencil, and when the label is hung upon the tree, it is dipped in 
 thin white lead, which fixes the writings and preserves it almost indefi- 
 nitely ; or the name may be written firmly into a fresh white lead. 
 
 Labels made of small strips of common zinc are often used, the 
 name being written on the metal with a lead-pencil. The label is 
 wound about a limb, and it expands as the part grows. The label 
 is so inconspicuous and so easily removed that it is unsatisfactory. 
 
 Thick tallies of lead, with the name stamped in with dies, are good. 
 
 Thin metal labels that hang on a wire are often broken or torn 
 out at the eyelet by the wind. 
 
 Stake Labels, made of pine or other soft clear wood, are most sat- 
 isfactory for garden use, unless, perhaps, in botanic gardens, or other 
 permanent exhibition grounds where a more conspicuous and orna- 
 mental label is wanted. The label should be primed with white lead, 
 after which it takes a permanent mark from a medium soft lead-pencil. 
 
 A good label for grounds which are cultivated by horses, and which 
 are therefore likely to be broken by the whiffietrees, is a pine stake 2 
 feet long, 3^ inches wide, and 1^ inches thick, sawed to a taper at the 
 lower end. Give them two coats of thin white lead, taking care not 
 to pile them on their faces whilst drying. Make the record with a soft 
 large lead-pencil. When the writing wears off, or the label is wanted 
 for other uses, plane a shaving off the face, paint again, and it is as 
 good as new. 
 
558 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING SPECIMENS 
 
 To PRESERVE Wooden Labels. — Thoroughly soak the pieces of 
 wood in a strong solution of copperas (sulfate of iron) ; then lay 
 them, after they are dry, in lime-water. This causes the formation of 
 sulfate of lime, a very insoluble salt, in the wood. 
 
 Black Ink for Zinc Labels. — Verdigris, 1 ounce ; sal am- 
 moniac, 1 ounce ; lampblack, ^ ounce ; rain-water, 1^ pint. Mix 
 in an earthenware mortar or jar and put up in small bottles. To be 
 shaken before use and used with a clean quill pen on bright zinc. 
 
 Jars for Specimens 
 
 The jars, bottles, or boxes in which specimens are kept shc«uld be 
 tight, to prevent evaporation, to keep out dust and mold, and to 
 protect from insects. There are specially made museum jars of manj' 
 attractive patterns. Four-sided fruit-jars with covers held by lever 
 fastenings are also excellent. If one cannot secure such receptacles 
 as these, he may prepare old bottles, and then fasten covers over 
 them. Following are old methods of cutting bottles in two : — 
 
 1. Pass five or six strands of coarse packing-twine round the bottle 
 on each side of the line where you want it divided, so as to form a groove 
 i inch wide; in this groove pass one turn of a piece of hard-laid 
 white cord, extend the two ends, and fasten to some support. Saw 
 the bottle backwards and forwards for a short time ; after a minute's 
 friction, by a side motion of the bottle throw it out of the cord into a 
 tub of water, and then tap on the side of the tub and the bottom 
 \vill fall off. 
 
 2. Fill the bottle the exact height you wish it to be cut, with oil of 
 any kind; dip, very gradually, a red-hot iron into the oil. The glass 
 suddenly chips and cracks all round, then the upper surface may be 
 lifted off at the surface of the oil. 
 
 3. For cutting off bottoms of bottles, make a slight nick with a 
 file, and then mark round with a streak of ink where you want it to 
 come off. Make an iron red-hot and lay it on the nick. This will 
 cause it to expand and crack ; then, by moving the rod round, the 
 crack ^vill follow. 
 
CHAPTER XXIX 
 
 DiRECTOEIES 
 
 The farmer now secures his technical information from the colleges 
 and schools of agriculture and experiment stations in the different 
 states, territories, and provinces (directories given on the succeeding 
 pages) ; from the United States Department of Agriculture, at Wash- 
 ington ; from departments of agriculture at the capitals of the states, 
 territories, and provinces ; and from other pubhc institutions. 
 
 The number of agricultural and country-life societies is now very- 
 great. A general directory of them is printed in Vol. IV of the 
 Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, and by the United States Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture ; and local lists may sometimes be secured 
 from the state departments of agriculture, and in the rural press. 
 
 Some of the Institutions and Agencies making for a Better Rural Life 
 
 1. Departments of Agriculture, national and state. 
 
 2. Colleges of agriculture, one for each state, territory, or province. 
 
 3. Agricultural experiment stations, in nearly all cases connected 
 with the colleges of agriculture. 
 
 4. The pubhc school system, into which agriculture is now being 
 incorporated. Normal schools, into many of which agriculture is 
 being introduced. 
 
 5. Special separate schools of agriculture and household subjects. 
 
 6. Special colleges, as veterinary and forestry institutions. 
 
 7. Departments or courses of agriculture in general or old-line col- 
 leges and universities. 
 
 8. Farmers' institutes, usually conducted by colleges of agriculture 
 or by boards or departments of agriculture. 
 
 (The above institutions may engage in various forms of extension 
 work.) 
 
 9. The agricultural press. 
 
 559 
 
560 DIRECTORIES 
 
 10. The general rural newspapers. 
 
 11. Agricultural and horticultural societies of all kinds. 
 
 12. The Patrons of Husbandry, Farmers' Educational and Cooper- 
 ative Union, and other national organizations. 
 
 13. Business societies and agencies, many of them cooperative. 
 
 14. Business men's associations and chambers of commerce in 
 cities and towns. 
 
 15. Local political organizations (much in need of re-direction). 
 
 16. Civic societies. 
 
 17. The church. 
 
 18. The Young Men's Christian Association, and other religious 
 organizations. 
 
 19. Women's clubs and organizations, of many kinds. 
 
 20. Fairs and expositions. 
 
 21. Rural libraries. 
 
 22. Village improvement societies. 
 
 23. Historical societies. 
 
 24. Public health regulation. 
 
 25. Fraternal societies. 
 
 26. Musical organizations. 
 
 27. Organizations aiming to develop recreation, and games and play. 
 
 28. Rural free delivery of mail (a general parcels post is a necessity). 
 
 29. Postal savings banks. 
 
 30. Rural banks (often in need of redirection in their relations to 
 the development of the open country). 
 
 31. Labor-distributing bureaus. 
 
 32. Good thoroughfares. 
 
 33. Railroads, and trolley extensions (the latter needed to pierce 
 the remoter districts rather than merely to parallel railroads and to 
 connect large towns). 
 
 34. Telephones. 
 
 35. Auto-vehicles. 
 
 36. Country stores and trading-places (in some cases). 
 
 37. Insurance organizations. 
 
 38. Many government agencies to safeguard the people, as public 
 service commissions. 
 
 39. Books on agriculture and country life. 
 
 40. Good farmers, living on the land. 
 
COLLEGES AND EXPERIMENT STATIONS 561 
 
 Agricultural and Forestry Colleges, Schools, and Stations in Canada 
 
 Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph, opened 1874. 
 
 Nova Scotia Agricultural College, Truro, present farm purchased 
 and building begun 1885. 
 
 Prince Edward Island ; a professorship of agriculture in Prince 
 of Wales College, Charlottetown. 
 
 Macdonald Institute, Guelph, Ontario, founded 1903, for home 
 economics, nature study, and manual-training. 
 
 Macdonald College (incorporated with McGill University), Sainte 
 Anne de Bellevue, Province Quebec, opened 1907. 
 
 Oka Agricultural School, Oka, Province of Quebec, recognized by 
 province government in 1893. 
 
 Provincial Dairy School, St. Hyacinthe, Province of Quebec, present 
 building erected 1906. 
 
 Eastern Dairy School, Kingston, Ontario, established 1894. 
 
 School of Forestry, Toronto University (1907). 
 
 Laval University Forestry School, Quebec (1910). 
 
 University of New Brunswick, chair of forestry. 
 
 Agricultural School of Sainte Anne de la Pocatiere, Pr. Quebec, 1858. 
 
 Manitoba Agricultural College, Winnepeg, opened 1906. 
 
 Saskatchewan Agricultural College, Saskatoon (in course of erection). 
 
 Central Experimental Farms, Ottawa (for the Dominion, 1886) ; 
 branches at Nappan, Nova Scotia, for the maritime provinces ; Bran- 
 don, Manitoba ; Indian Head, Saskatchewan ; Lacombe and Leth- 
 bridge, Alberta ; Agassiz, British Columbia. 
 
 Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations in the United States 
 
 The following table shows the number of acres of land received by 
 each state from the Land-Grant Act of 1862, the date of establish- 
 ment of the institution that cares for the agricultural work, and the 
 date at which instruction in agriculture was begun : — 
 
 The experiment station is connected with the college, except in: 
 Ohio, at Wooster; Georgia, at Experiment (dept. of the 
 college at Athens) ; Conn. Experiment Station at New Haven, 
 and Storrs Station at the college ; New York, the State Station 
 at Geneva, but the federal station at the college. 
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564 DIRECTORIES 
 
 Forestry Schools in the United States, 1911-12 
 
 Many institutions give courses in forestry. Following are those that 
 have separate schools, faculties, or comparable organizations, or that 
 have four-year courses ; there are many other American institutions 
 giving more or less instruction in forestry. 
 
 Graduate schools 
 
 Yale University, New Haven, Conn., Yale Forest School (founded 
 in 1900). 
 
 University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich., Course of Forestry 
 (founded in 1901). 
 
 Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., Division of Forestry, School 
 of Applied Science. 
 
 Undergraduate schools and departments 
 
 University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, College of Forestry. 
 University of Washington, Seattle, School of Forestry (estab. 1907). 
 
 Colorado College, Colorado Springe, School of Forestry (established 
 1905). 
 
 Colorado Agricultural College, Fort Collins. 
 
 University of Georgia, Athens, School of Forestry. 
 
 University of Idaho, Moscow. 
 
 Iowa State College, Ames. 
 
 University of Maine, Orono. 
 
 Michigan Agricultural College, East Lansing. Forestry course 
 (established 1902). 
 
 University of Montana, Missoula. 
 
 University of Nebraska, College of Agriculture. 
 
 Oregon Agricultural College, Corvallis. 
 
 Pennsylvania State College, State College. 
 
 State College of Washington, Pullman. 
 
 University of Missouri, Columbia. 
 
 New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University, 
 Ithaca. 
 
 Biltmore Forest School. This school holds a winter session in 
 
VETERINARY INSTITUTIONS 565 
 
 Germany, a spring session in the Adirondacks and Southern Appa- 
 lachians, and during the autumn months in the Lake States. 
 
 Pennsylvania State Forest Academy, Mont Alto. 
 
 State College of Forestry, Syracuse University, N.Y. (legislation 
 passed 1911). 
 
 North American Veterinary Colleges and Departments, 1910-11 
 
 Colleges, schools, and divisions, giving full courses or leading to 
 veterinary degrees 
 
 Alabama Polytechnic Institute, College of Veterinary Medicine, 
 Auburn. 
 
 Chicago Veterinary College (1883). 
 
 Cincinnati Veterinary College. 
 
 George Washington University, College of Veterinary Medicine, 
 Washington, D.C. 
 
 United States College of Veterinary Surgeons, Washington, D.C. 
 
 Grand Rapids Veterinary College, Grand Rapids, Mich. (1897). 
 
 Indiana Veterinary College, Indianapolis (1892). 
 
 Iowa State College, Division of Veterinary Medicine, Ames (1884). 
 
 Kansas City Veterinary College (1891). 
 
 University Veterinary College, Kansas City. 
 
 Western Veterinary College, Kansas City (1897). 
 
 McKillip Veterinary College, Chicago (1894). 
 
 New York American Veterinary College, New York City (1899). 
 
 New York State Veterinary College, Cornell University, Ithaca (1896). 
 
 Ohio State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Columbus 
 (1883). 
 
 San Francisco Veterinary College. 
 
 Collins Veterinary Medical College, Nashville, Tenn. 
 
 University of Pennsylvania, School of Veterinary Medicine, Phila- 
 delphia (1884). 
 
 Washington State College, School of Veterinary Science, Pullman 
 (1899). 
 
 University of Toronto, Ontario Veterinary College. 
 
 School of Comparative Medicine and Veterinary Science, Montreal 
 (Laval University). 
 
566 DIRECTORIES 
 
 Departments and chairs 
 
 A regular professor or teacher in veterinar}^ science is also provided 
 in the institution carrying the college of agriculture in Arkansas, 
 California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, 
 Indiana, Kansas, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, 
 Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, 
 Nevada, North Carolina, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, South 
 Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, 
 West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming. 
 
 Teachers of animal husbandry give more or less instruction in the 
 veterinary subjects. 
 
 Home Economics Institutions and Departments, 1910-11 
 
 Instruction of advanced or of college grade in the homemaking 
 subjects is now provided in many of the colleges of agriculture, with 
 particular bearing on rural conditions ; and several other institutions 
 also have departments for these subjects, and a few are devoted 
 exclusively to such work. The work passes under different names, 
 as domestic science, household science, domestic art, domestic economy, 
 home economics. 
 
 In the colleges of agriculture, departments or teachers are provided 
 for these subjects in Arizona, Colorado, Connecticut, Hawaii, Idaho, 
 Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Massachusetts, 
 Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New 
 Mexico, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Penn- 
 sylvania, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Tennessee, Utah, Vermont, 
 Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming. 
 
 Among other institutions that provide instruction in the home and 
 household subjects are Teachers College of Columbia University, 
 New York City ; University of Chicago ; Northwestern University ; 
 Lewis Institute, Chicago ; Simmons College, Boston ; Pratt Institute, 
 Brooklyn ; Drexel Institute, Philadelphia ; Worcester Domestic Science 
 School, Worcester, Mass. ; Mechanics Institute, Rochester, N.Y. ; 
 School of Domestic Science and Arts, Chicago; Domestic Science 
 Training School, Chicago ; University of Kansas (Lawrence) ; Boston 
 Y. W. C. A. School of Domestic Science ; Berea College (Ken.) ; 
 Rockford College (III.) ; Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria; 
 
HOME ECONOMICS AND LANDSCAPE GARDENING 567 
 
 James Milliken University, Decatur, 111. ; Southern University, New 
 Orleans; Northfield Seminary (Mass.); Louisiana Industrial In- 
 stitute, Ruston; Stout Institute, Menomonie, Wis.; Milwaukee- 
 Downer College; Lake Erie, College, Painesville, 0.; American 
 University, of Harriman, Tenn. ; College of Domestic Arts, 
 Denton, Tex.; Industrial Institute and College, Columbus, Miss.; 
 Macdonald Institute, Guelph, Ont. ; Macdonald College, Ste. Anne 
 de Bellevue, P. Q. ; Mt. Allison University, Sackville, New Bruns- 
 wick; Manitoba Agricultural College, Winnipeg; and instruction is 
 also supplied in normal schools, high-schools, seminaries, and in many 
 other institutions, and in cooking schools. 
 
 Institutions teaching Landscape Architecture (or Landscape Gardening) 
 of College Grade, 1910-11 
 
 Full or extended college courses in landscape architecture are given 
 at Harvard, Cornell, and Massachusetts Agricultural College. More 
 or less instruction is given in the subject in departments of horticul- 
 ture in some institutions; and it is separately represented in the 
 colleges of agriculture of Illinois, Missouri, and Oregon. Colleges and 
 departments of architecture give attention to these subjects. 
 
 Library 
 K. C, State College 
 
INDEX 
 
 Abderhalden, on milk, 444. 
 
 Acanthacara similis, 328. 
 
 Acanthorhynchus vaccinii, 269. 
 
 Acetic acid, 29. 
 
 Acleris minuta, 317. 
 
 Acorus, 191. 
 
 Acre, plants to the, 120. 
 
 Acrobasis nebulella, 328. 
 
 Acrostalagmus sp., 271. 
 
 Actinomena rosse, 281. 
 
 Adiantum, 189. 
 
 Advanced registry, 345. 
 
 .^cidium grossularise, 271. 
 
 Age of animals, 337. 
 
 Agencies of better rural life, 559. 
 
 Agricultural colleges, 561, 562. 
 
 Agricultural virtues, 172. 
 
 Agrilus anxius, 311. 
 
 Agromyza simplex, 310. 
 
 Agrotis, sp., 302, 315. 
 
 Albugo candidus, 280. 
 
 Alcoholic wax, 513. 
 
 Aleyrodes spp., 323. 
 
 Alfalfa, diseases, 262 ; fertilizer for, 
 
 62, 64; grading, 152. 
 Algae in ponds, 251. 
 Alkali, 35. 
 
 Allen, on gestation, 343. 
 Almond, diseases, 263. 
 Aloysia, 189. 
 
 Alsophila pometaria, 306. 
 Alternaria panacis, 270 ; solani, 279. 
 Alum to preserve fruits, 554. 
 Aluminum, 24, 25. 
 Amendment, 40. 
 Ammonia, 29. 
 Ammoniacal carbonate of copper, 
 
 255. 
 Ampelophaga myron, 321. 
 Analyses of fertilizers, 57 ; of feces, 
 
 88; of fruits, etc., 90; of soils, 54. 
 Anarsia sp., 325, 332. 
 
 Ancylis comptana, 332. 
 
 Angleworm, 301. 
 
 Aniline, 29. 
 
 Animal bodies, composition of, 27. 
 
 Animals, exhibiting, 383 ; feeding of, 
 
 409; judging, 383, 386, 392; 
 
 parasites of, 429. 
 Anthonomus grandis, 316; quadrigib- 
 
 bus, 305 ; signatus, 332. 
 Antidote for arsenic poisoning, 290. 
 Antimony, 24. 
 
 Ants in lawns, 322 ; white, 305. 
 Aphides, 301. 
 Aphis brassicae, 311; forbesii, 332; 
 
 maidiradicis, 314 ; on house plants, 
 
 189 ; persicae-niger, 325. 
 Aponogeton, 191. 
 Apothecaries' measure, 517; weight, 
 
 516. 
 Apple, boxes, 164, 165 ; diseases, 263 ; 
 
 fertilizer for, 64 ; insects, 305 ; seed, 
 
 weight, 533. 
 Apples, for cider, 529; packing, 166; 
 
 scoring, 177, 178 ; storing, 141 ; 
 
 to preserve for exhibition, 554 ; 
 
 weight, 529, 534. 
 Appliances, electric, 502. 
 Apricot, diseases, 265; insects, 310. 
 Aquatic window plants, 191. 
 Architecture, farm, 473. 
 Argas miniatus, 378. 
 Argentina, money, 522, 523. 
 Argon, 24. 
 
 Argopsylla gallinacea, 378. 
 Armsby, on feeding, 409, 416. 
 Army-worm, 315. 
 Arsenate of lead, 291. 
 Arsenic, 24 ; antidote for, 290 ; as 
 
 insecticide, 290; for dips, 431; 
 
 for weeds, 222, 224. 
 Arsenious oxid, 29. 
 Asafoetida for rabbits, 238. 
 
 569 
 
570 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Ascochyta pisi, 275. 
 
 Ash. 26. 
 
 Ashes, analysis, 59 ; weight, 540. 
 
 Asparagus, diseases. 205 ; fertilizer 
 
 for, 65 ; insects, 310; packages, 170. 
 
 171; pluniosus, 198; under glass. 
 
 190. 
 Aspidiotus aurantii, 323 ; perniciosus, 
 
 304. 
 Ass, gestation, 342, 343; milk of, 
 
 443. 
 Aster, insect, 311. 
 Atmosphere, composition, 25. 
 Attar of roses, 551. 
 Auger, soil, 543. 
 Austrian money, 522, 523. 
 Autographa brassicae, 311, 322. 
 Avoirdupois weight, 516. 
 Ayrshire records, 350. 
 Azalea, 198. 
 Azolla, 191. 
 
 Babcock, greenhouse heating, 194. 
 
 Babcock test, 446, 456. 
 
 Bacillus amylovorus, 277 ; campestre, 
 
 266 ; tracheiphilus, 270. 
 Bacon, grades of, 406. 
 Bacon-hog, scoring, 404. 
 Bacterium phaseoli, 265 ; solanacea- 
 
 rum, 282, 283; tumefaciens, 266, 
 
 272, 276, 281. 
 Baedeker, money, 524. 
 Bag- worm, 301. 
 Bait for insects, 293. 
 Balanced rations, 409, 410, 413. 
 Balaninus sp., 313. 
 Ball-weevil, 316. 
 Bandages, waxed, 513. 
 Banding for insects, 286. 
 Barb-wire, 479. 
 Barium, 24. 
 Bark-lice, 301. 
 Barleycorn, 528. 
 Barley, diseases, 261 ; fertilizer for, 
 
 65; grading. 161; weight, 534, 541. 
 Barn figures, 477. 
 Barnyard manure, 88. 
 Buroriictcr indications, 1. 9. 
 Barrels, apple. 105; various, 528. 
 Baryta for mice, 235. 
 Basket-worm. 301. 
 Beal. W. J., on seeds, 104. 
 
 Bean, diseases, 265 ; fertilizer for, 
 
 62, 65; insects, 311. 
 Beans, packages, 170, 171 ; to preserve 
 
 for exhibition, 555 ; under glass, 190 ; 
 
 weight, 534, 541. 
 Bear, gestation, 342, 343. 
 Beaunis, quoted, 27. 
 Beaver, gestation, 342, 343. 
 Beef-cattle, scoring, 395. 
 Beef, market classes, 404. 
 Bees, in pound, 530. 
 Beeswax, 512. 
 
 Beet, diseases, 266 ; fertilizer for, 62, 66. 
 Beets, packages, 170; utider glass, 190; 
 
 weight, 534, 541. 
 Beggarweed, 139 ; weight, 533. 
 Begonias, 189. 
 Belgium money, 523. 
 Belting, 498. 
 
 Bembecia marginata, 331. 
 Berckmans, on storing sweet-potatoes, 
 
 148. 
 Beryllium, 24. 
 Bichloride of mercury for fungicide, 
 
 255 ; for herbarium, 546. 
 Bins, contents of, 530. 
 Birch, insects, 311. 
 Birds, pestiferous, 243. 
 Bismuth, 24. 
 Bisulfid of carbon, 293 ; also 241, 243, 
 
 544, 546. 
 Bit or shilling, 523. 
 Bitter milk, 459. 
 Blackberries, weight, 529. 
 Blackberry, diseases, 266 ; fertilizer for, 
 
 66; insects, 311; seed, 533. 
 Black-knot, 279. 
 Black-rot of grape, 272. 
 Blepharida rhois, 334. 
 Blight, pear. 277. 
 Blissus leucopterus, 315. 
 Blister-beetle, 302. 
 
 Blood, analysis, 58 ; quantity in ani- 
 mals, 345. 
 Blue-grass seed, weight, 534, 541. 
 Blue-stone for bordeaux, 253. 
 Blue vitriol as fungicide, 258 ; for 
 
 bordeaux, 254 ; for weeds, 223. 
 Board measure, 210. 
 Boars, grades of, 408. 
 Boiled milk. 448. 
 Boiler cements, 507. 
 
INDEX 
 
 671 
 
 Boilers, to prevent rust, 200. 
 
 Bolivaa, money, 522. 
 
 Bollworm, 316. 
 
 Bone, analysis, 57. 
 
 Bone-black, analysis, 57. 
 
 Bone charcoal, analysis, 57. 
 
 Book measure, 519. 
 
 Boracic acid to preserve fruits, 553. 
 
 Borax in milk, 449. 
 
 Bordeaux mixture, formula, 253. 
 
 Borders, cement, 505. 
 
 Borers, 307, 308, 325, 328. 
 
 Boric acid test, 449. 
 
 Boron, 24. 
 
 Boston, dates in, 106. 
 
 Bosworth, on casein test, 456. 
 
 Bot-fly, 437, 439, 440. 
 
 Bottles, to cut in two, 558. 
 
 Bouguer, reflection of light, 198. 
 
 Boxes for fruits, 163. 
 
 Box packing of apples, 166. 
 
 Bran, weight, 534. 
 
 Brazil, money, 522, 523. 
 
 Bremia lactucae, 273. 
 
 Brimstone as fungicide, 258. 
 
 British India, money, 523. 
 
 Bromin, 24. 
 
 Bromus inermis, weight, 533. 
 
 Brooks, on manures, 81, 82, 85. 
 
 Broom-corn seed, weight, 534. 
 
 Brown, Edgar, on seeds, 97. 
 
 Brown-tail moth, 302. 
 
 Bruchophagus funebris, 314. 
 
 Bruchus obtectus, 311 ; pisi, 324. 
 
 Brussels sprouts, diseases, 266 ; pack- 
 ages, 169. 
 
 Bucculatrix pomifoliella, 305. 
 
 Buckwheat, fertilizer for, 66 ; weight, 
 534, 541. 
 
 Bud-moth, 306. 
 
 Buffalo bur, 229. 
 
 Buffalo, gestation, 342, 343; milk of, 
 443. 
 
 Buffalo-gnat, 438. 
 
 Buhach, 297. 
 
 Bulbs, 198. 
 
 Burning insects, 286. 
 
 Bushel, legal weight, 533. 534, 540. 
 
 Bushels, capacities, 528, 530. 
 
 Butter classifications, 465 ; making, 
 458; scores, 463 ; tests, 451-455. 
 
 Butyrin, 443. 
 
 Cabbage, diseases, 266; fertilizer for, 67; 
 insects, 311; storing, 142; weight, 533. 
 Cabbages, packages, 169, 171. 
 Cabinets or museums, 543. 
 Cable, measure, 528. 
 Cadmium, 24. 
 Cae-sium, 24. 
 Calcium, 24, 25. 
 
 California fruit packages, 161, 164. 
 Calla, 189, 198. 
 Calocampa nupera, 318. 
 Calories in milk, 443. 
 Caltha, 191. 
 Camel, milk of, 443. 
 Camphor for mice, 236. 
 Canada, packages in, 167 ; weights in, 
 
 540. 
 Canada thistle, 225, 230. 
 Canadian weather signals, 8. 
 Canary, incubation, 342, 343. 
 Canary seed, weight, 533. 
 Canker of apple, 263, 264. 
 Canker-worm, 306. 
 Canteloupe, weight, 533. 
 Capacity measures, 517, 520. 
 Carbolic acid as insecticide, 293 ; for 
 
 weeds, 222, 223. 
 Carbon, 24, 25. 
 Carbonate of copper, 255. 
 Carbon bisulfid, 293; also 241, 243, 
 
 544, 546. 
 Carbon dioxid, 29. 
 Carbonic oxid, 29. 
 Carlyle, on soiling, 136. 
 Carnation, 198 ; diseases, 267. 
 Carnations, scoring, 179. 
 Carpenter, greenhouse heating, 191, 
 
 195. 
 Carpocapsa pomonella, 306. 
 Carrot, as field crop, 140 ; fertilizer 
 
 for, 67; insects, 312. 
 Carrots, weight, 534, 541. 
 Case-bearers, 306, 328. 
 Casein in milk, 442. 
 Casein-test, 456. 
 Cast-iron pipe, 198. 
 Castor-beans, weight, 534, 541. 
 Cat, controlling, 234; gestation, 342,343. 
 Catch-crops, 139. 
 Cattle, determining age, 337 ; manure, 
 
 81, 83, 87, 88; parasites, 437 ; scor- 
 ing, 395 ; ticks, 429. 
 
572 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Cauliflower, fertilizer for, 68 ; insects, 
 312 ; packages, 169 ; under glass, 190. 
 
 Caustic soda for woods, 224. 
 
 Cavanaugh, quoted, 49, 54. 
 
 Celery, diseases, 267 ; fertilizer for, 
 67; insects, 312; packages, 169; 
 storing, 142. 
 
 Celsius scale, 527. 
 
 Cement, 504. 
 
 Centigrade scale, 527. 
 
 Centimes, etc., 522. 
 
 Ceratocystis fimbriata, 282. 
 
 Cercospora angulata, 270 ; apii, 267 ; 
 beticola, 266. 
 
 Cereals, smut, 260. 
 
 Cerium, 24. 
 
 Chaetocnema confinis, 335. 
 
 Chafer, rose, 308, 322. 
 
 Chain measure, 518. 
 
 Charcoal, 26. 
 
 Charlock, 227, 230. 
 
 Chase, on road-drags, 485. 
 
 Chautauqua grape figures, 164. 
 
 Cheese score-cards, 464 ; tests, 453, 
 455, 456-457. 
 
 Cherries, scoring, 178. 
 
 Cherry, diseases, 267 ; fertilizer for, 
 68; insects, 313. 
 
 Chestnut, diseases, 268; insects, 313. 
 
 Chestnuts, weight, 533. 
 
 Chicken mite, 377 ; tick, 378. 
 
 Chickens, to protect from hawks, 245. 
 
 Chickweed, 232. 
 
 Chile, money, 522, 523. 
 
 Chimney sizes, 195, 
 
 China, money, 523. 
 
 Chinch-bug, 315. 
 
 Chionaspis furfurus, 309. 
 
 Chiswick pots, 199. 
 
 Chlorin, 24. 
 
 Chloroform, 29. 
 
 Chromium, 24. 
 
 Chrysanthemum, 198; diseases, 268; 
 insects, 313; scoring, 180. 
 
 Chrysobothris fomorata, 307. 
 
 Chrysoniyia macollaria, 438. 
 
 Chufa, weight, 533. 
 
 Cider, 529. 
 
 Cineraria, 198. 
 
 Citrus measures, 164; trees, fumigat- 
 ing, 289. 
 
 City milk plants, 472. 
 
 Cladosporium carpophilum, 277; ful« 
 
 vum, 283. 
 Clark, on the elements, 25. 
 Classification of butter, 465. 
 Clean milk, 471. 
 Climate and crops, 19. 
 Cloth for pits and frames, 200, 510. 
 Clover, fertilizer for, 62, 68 ; insects, 
 
 313; seed, weight, 534, 541. 
 Club-root, 266. 
 Coal ashes, analysis, 59. 
 Coal-tar cement, 508 ; for wounds, 
 
 515. 
 Cobalt, 24. 
 
 Coccotorus prunicida, 329. 
 Cocklebur, 229. 
 Coconuts, packing, 530. 
 Cocos, 189. 
 Codlin-moth, 306. 
 Cold storage, 149 ; of animal products, 
 
 345. 
 Coleophora sp., 306. 
 Coleus, 189. 
 
 Collecting specimens, 543. 
 Colleges, lists of, 561, 562, 564, 565. 
 Colletotrichum gossypii, 269 ; lagen- 
 
 arium, 274 ; lindemuthianum, 265 ; 
 
 malvarum, 273. 
 Colombia, money, 522, 523. 
 Color of flowers, 546. 
 Columbium, 24. 
 Combinations in chemistry, 25. 
 Commercial grades of crops, 150. 
 Composition tables, 419. 
 Compounds, 25, 28. 
 Computations, 516. 
 Computing fertilizer values, 49. 
 Computing rations, 409, 410, 413. 
 Conotracholus crata^gi, 330 ; nenuphar, 
 
 307, 326, 329. 
 Conover, on silos, 473. 
 Construction, chapter on, 473. 
 Contarinia violicola, 336. . 
 Contents of pipes and tanks, 531, 532. 
 Copeck, 522. 
 Copper, 24. 
 
 Copperas for woods, 223, 227 ; as fun- 
 gicide, 258. 
 C()I)por carbonate, 255. 
 Copper cement, 508. 
 Coi>per sulfate as fungicide, 258 ; for 
 
 bordeaux, 253 ; for ponds, 251 ; for 
 
INDEX 
 
 673 
 
 weeds, 223, 227 ; to preserve fruits, 
 
 553. 
 Corbett, on packages, 169. 
 Cord measure, 211. 
 Corimelsena pulicaria, 313. 
 Corn, diseases, 268, 269 ; fertilizer for, 
 
 60, 68; grading, 159; insects, 314; 
 
 meal, weight, 534 ; scoring, 177 ; 
 
 weight, 529, 533, 534, 536, 538, 540, 
 
 541. 
 Corrosive sublimate as fungicide, 255. 
 Coryneum beyerinkii, 263, 275. 
 Costa Rica, money, 522. 
 Cotton, diseases, 269 ; grades, 150 ; 
 
 insects, 316. 
 Cottonseed, weight, 533, 534. 
 Cover-crops, 138. 
 Cow-dung for potting, 187. 
 Cow, gestation, 342, 343 ; parts of, 
 
 396. 
 Cows, profit-and-loss, 360. 
 Cow-testing, 362, 364. 
 Cox, on frost, 13. 
 Coyotes, 243. 
 
 Crab-apples, for exhibition, 554. 
 Crambus spp., 315, 317. 
 Cranberry, diseases, 269 ; weight, 536 ; 
 
 insects, 317. 
 Craponius inaequalis, 320. 
 Crates, for fruits, 163. 
 Cream, bitter, 459. 
 Creamery, bitter, 465. 
 Creosote for posts, 208. 
 Cresol, 436. 
 Cress under glass, 190. 
 Cribs, contents of, 530. 
 Criddle mixture, 293. 
 Crioceris sp., 310. 
 Crops for special purposes, 133. 
 Crosby, on house-fly, 249 ; on insecti- 
 cides, 286 ; on insects, 301 ; on 
 
 poultry insects, 377 ; on animal 
 
 parasites, 434. 
 Crown-gall, 264, 272, 276, 281. 
 Crown (of money), 522, 523. 
 Crows, 245. 
 
 Crude oil for stock, 436. 
 Cryptorhynchus lapathi, 329. 
 Crystallized fruit, 143. 
 Cuba, money, 522. 
 Cubic measure, 518, 520. 
 Cubing logs, 217, 218. 
 
 Cubit, measure, 528. 
 
 Cucumber, diseases, 270 ; fertilizer for, 
 69; insects, 318; packages, 170, 
 171; under glass, 190; weight, 
 533. 
 
 Curculio, 307, 326, 329, 330. 
 
 Curd-test, 457. 
 
 Currant, diseases, 270 ; fertilizer for, 
 69; insects, 318; to preserve for 
 exhibition, 555 ; weight, 533. 
 
 Cuscuta epithymum, 262. 
 
 Cutworms, 302, 315, 355. 
 
 Cyanide of potassium, 287. 
 
 Cylamen, 198. 
 
 Cylas formicarius, 334. 
 
 Cylinders, capacities, 531. 
 
 Cyhndrosporium padi, 268. 
 
 Cymatophora ribearia, 319. 
 
 Cyperus, 189, 191. 
 
 Dahlia, insects, 319. 
 
 Dairy-cattle, scoring, 398. 
 
 Dairy-cows, profit-and-loss, 360. 
 
 Dairy farm scores, 467. 
 
 Dairying, chapter on, 442. 
 
 Dairy score-cards, 462-472. 
 
 Daisy, white, 231. 
 
 Dakruma covolutella, 320. 
 
 Dalmatian insect powder, 297. 
 
 Damping-off, 260. 
 
 Damp walls, paint for, 509. 
 
 Dandelion, eradicating, 231. 
 
 Darwin, on gestation, 343. 
 
 Dasyneura Icguminicola, 313. 
 
 Data on water, 489. 
 
 Dates for planting, 106, 109, 110. 
 
 Date-tables, 109, 110. 
 
 Dean, radiation for glass, 196. 
 
 Denmark, money, 523. 
 
 Depluming scabies, 378. 
 
 Depressaria heracliana, 324. 
 
 Dermanyssus gallinae, 377. 
 
 Dew-point, 13, 15. 
 
 Diabrotica longicornis, 314 ; sp., 318. 
 
 Diaphania hyalinata, 322 ; nitidalis, 
 
 318; quadristigmalis, 330. 
 Diaporthe parasitica, 268. 
 Diaspis pentagona, 328. 
 Diatroea saccharalis, 333. 
 Digestable nutrients, 424. 
 Dinar, 523. 
 Diplodia zese, 268. 
 
574 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Diplnsis pyrivora, 326. 
 
 Dips for cattlo. 431, 434. 
 
 Directories, 559. 
 
 Disinfectant for stables, 434, 436. 
 
 Distances to plant. 109, 119, 120. 
 
 Distillate emulsion, 294 ; fuel, 222. 
 
 Dock. 225. 226. 
 
 Dodder on alfalfa. 262. 
 
 Dog. gestation. 342. 343 ; milk of. 444. 
 
 Dollar. 522, 523. 
 
 Domestic science schools, 566. 
 
 Drachma, 523. 
 
 Draft-hor.se, scoring. 392. 
 
 Drags, road. 485. 487. 
 
 Draining, tile. 481. 
 
 Dried fruit, 529, 534. 
 
 Dropsy of plants, 260. 
 
 Dry measure, 517. 
 
 Duck, incubation, 342, 343. 
 
 Durum wheat, 155. 
 
 Dutch money, 522. 
 
 Duvel, seed table, 101. 
 
 Dysprosium, 24. 
 
 Earthenware cement, 508. 
 
 Earth for potting, 187. 
 
 Earthworm, 301. 
 
 Ecuador, money, 522. 
 
 Egg-plant, fertilizer for, 69 ; insect, 
 
 319; packages, 170, 171. 
 Egg-production, 372. 
 Eggs, care of, 375.; scoring, 368. 
 Egypt, money, 523. 
 Eichhornia, 189, 191. 
 Elaphidion villosum, 309. 
 Electric appliances, 502. 
 Electricity in producing potash salts, 
 
 44. 
 Elements, the, 24. 
 Elephant, gestation, 342, 343. 
 Ell, 528. 
 
 Elliott, draining, 481, 482. 
 Ellwanger, on perfumery, 551. 
 Elm, in.sects, 319. 
 Emblematic flowers, 185. 
 Emphytus macuhitus. 332. 
 Empoa albopicta, 319. 
 Enmlsions as insecticides, 294. 
 Enarmonia interstictana, 314. 
 Endive, insect. 320. 
 Energy values. 409, 445. 
 Engineering, chapter on, 473. 
 
 Engines, hot-air, 503. 
 
 Engle on leaf-prints, 549. 
 
 English money, 521, 523. 
 
 English sparrows, 244. 
 
 Epiphyllum, 189. 
 
 Epitrix parvula, 335. 
 
 Erbium, 24. 
 
 Eriocampoides limacina, 313. 
 
 Eriophyses pyri, 307, 326. 
 
 Erysiphe polygoni, 275. 
 
 Eudemis vacciniana, 317. 
 
 Eulecanium armeniacum, 310. 
 
 Euproctis chrysorrhsea, 302. 
 
 Europium, 24. 
 
 Euthrips citri, 323 ; pyri, 327. 
 
 Euvanessa antiopa, 336. 
 
 Evaporated fruit, 529, 534. 
 
 Excrement, animal, 88. 
 
 Exhibiting live-stock, 383 ; poultry, 
 
 378. 
 Exhibitions, rules for plants, 181. 
 Exoascus deformans, 275. 
 Exobasidium oxycocci, 269. 
 Experiment stations, list of, 561. 
 
 Fabrea maculata, 278. 
 
 Fahrenheit scale, 527. 
 
 Fairs, live-stock in, 383. 
 
 False flax, 230. 
 
 Farm architecture, 473 ; butter-mak- 
 ing, 458 ; crops, composition of, 
 27 ; crops, propagation of, 132 
 engmeering, 473 ; mechanics, 473 
 machinery, 473 ; points of, 174 
 practices. 172 ; scoring. 175. 
 
 Fast horses, 357. 
 
 Fat-hogs, scoring, 402. 
 
 Fathom, measure, 528. 
 
 Fat in milk, 442. 
 
 Feathers, care of, 375. 
 
 Feeding of animals, 409 ; poultry, 
 372; standards, 414; stuffs, com- 
 position, 419, 424 ; weights, 533. 
 
 Fence-posts, 207. 
 
 Fence, wire, 477. 
 
 Ferns, temperature for, 198. 
 
 Ferrocyanide of potassium, 254. 
 
 Fertilizer analyses, 57; definition. 40; 
 formulas, 45. 
 
 Fertilizers, chapter on, 40; for va- 
 rious crops, 60, 03 ; trade values, 
 47, 50. 
 
INDEX 
 
 575 
 
 Ficus, 189. 
 
 Fidia viticida, 320. 
 
 Field crops, dates to plant, 110 ; yields 
 
 of, 127. 
 Figs, grades, 530 ; storing, 144. 
 Figuring fertilizer values, 49. 
 Finch, on incubation, 370. 
 Finland, money, 523. 
 Fippin, on drains, 481, 483, 484; on 
 
 soils, 33, 36, 78, 79, 543. 
 Fireproof cement, 508, 509. 
 Fish, analysis, 58 ; for mosquitoes, 
 
 246 ; for algae, 251. 
 Fish-oil as insecticide, 298. 
 Fitzroy, on weather, 12. 
 Flax, fertilizer for, 70. 
 Flaxseed, weight, 536, 541. 
 Flea-beetle, 303, 306, 330, 335. 
 Fleischmann, on milk, 443. 
 Floors, material for, 505. 
 Florida fruit packages, 164. 
 Florin, 522, 523. 
 
 Florists' plants, Hst, 191 ; scoring, 180. 
 Flower gum, 511 ; flower-planting 
 
 tables, 116; flower-pots, sizes, 199; 
 
 to keep clean, 201. 
 Flowers, preserving, 546 ; scoring, 179 ; 
 
 state, 185 ; to keep fresh, 550. 
 Fluorin, 24. 
 
 Fodder, 133 ; composition, 28. 
 Forage crops, 133. 
 Forcing of vegetables, 190. 
 Forecasts of weather, 6. 
 Forestry, chapter on, 202. 
 Forestry schools, 564. 
 Forest-tree seeds, 96. 
 Forest yields, 204. 
 Formaldehyde for preserving fruits, 
 
 553 ; in milk, 450. 
 Formalin, 256. 
 Formulas for fertilizers, 45. 
 Foundations, cement, 506. 
 Four-striped plant-bug, 303. 
 Fowl, parts of, 365 ; chapter on, 365 ; 
 
 parasites of, 377 ; preparing for 
 
 market, 374. 
 Fox, gestation, 342. 
 Fragaria for baskets, 189. 
 Franc. 522, 523. 
 Fraser, on grass seed, 94, 95, 96 ; on 
 
 soiling, 136. 
 Freesia, 189. 
 
 French money, 522, 523. 
 
 Friction of water in pipes, 491. 
 
 Frost, 12 ; smudging, 16. 
 
 Fruit crops, yields, 125; packages, 163; 
 packages in Canada, 167; preserv- 
 ing for exhibition, 552, 556 ; protect- 
 ing from birds, 244 ; scoring, 177. 
 
 Fruit Marks Act, 167 ; fruit-tree 
 seeds, 96; distances, 119. 
 
 Fuchsia, 189. 
 
 Fuel-distillate, 222. 
 
 Fuller, windmills, 493, 495, 496, 497. 
 
 Fumigation for insects, 287. 
 
 Fungicides, 252. 
 
 Fungous diseases as insecticides, 290. 
 
 Fusarium oxysporum, 280 ; sp., 267 ; 
 vasinfecta, 269. 
 
 Fusicoccum viticolum, 273. 
 
 Gadolinium, 24. 
 
 Galerucella luteola, 319. 
 
 Gall-fly, raspberry, 331. 
 
 Gallium, 24. 
 
 Gallons, capacities, 528. 
 
 Galls, 303. (See Crown-gall.) 
 
 Gardeners, rules for, 173. 
 
 Gardens, dates to plant, 106. 
 
 Garriott, on weather, 10, 11, 12. 
 
 Gas-lime, analysis, 59. 
 
 Gastrophilus equi, 439. 
 
 Gears, 498. 
 
 Geese, incubation, 342, 343. 
 
 Geldings, judging, 393. 
 
 Georgia, dates in, 108. 
 
 German feeding standards, 413. 
 
 Germanium, 24. 
 
 German ivy, 189. 
 
 German money, 522, 523. 
 
 German potash salts, analysis, 42, 58. 
 
 Germicides, 252. 
 
 Germination, 100, 102. 
 
 Gestation, period of, 342. 
 
 Ginseng, diseases, 270. 
 
 Gipsy-moth, 303. 
 
 Giraffe, gestation, 342, 343. 
 
 Girdling by rats and mice, 234. 
 
 Glace fruit, 143. 
 
 Gladioli, scoring, 180. 
 
 Glass, cement for, 508; radiation for, 
 
 191. 697. 
 Glazing, putty for, 201. 
 Gloeosporium ribis, 270 ; venetum, 281. 
 
576 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Glomerella rufomaculans, 263, 272. 
 
 Glvifinuni, 24. 
 
 Glues, 511. 
 
 Goat, gestation, 342, 343; milk of, 
 
 443, 444. 
 GcEssmann, analyses, 90. 
 Gold, 24. 
 
 Golden-seal, diseases, 271. 
 Gooseberries, storing, 144 ; to pre- 
 serve for exhibition, 555 ; weight, 
 
 536. 
 Gooseberry, diseases, 271 ; fertilizer 
 
 for, 70 ; insects, 320. 
 Gophers, 243. 
 Grades of cotton, 150 ; of live-stock, 
 
 404. 
 Grading butter, 465 ; of crops, 150. 
 Grafting-wax, 512. 
 Graham, on poultry, 374. 
 Grain, grading, 153. 
 Grape boxes, 163, 164; diseases, 271; 
 
 fertilizer for, 70 ; insects, 320. 
 Grapes and raisins, 529. 
 Grapes, scoring, 178; storing, 144; 
 
 to preserve for exhibition, 555 ; 
 
 weight, 529. 
 Graptodera chalybca, 321 ; foliacea, 
 
 306. 
 Grass, fertilizer for, 61, 70, 71 ; seeds, 
 
 94, 95. 
 Grasshoppers, 315. 
 Graybill, on ticks, 429, 435. 
 Great Britain, money, 523. 
 Greece, money, 523. 
 Green-fly, 301. 
 Greenhouse heating, 191 ; work, 187 ; 
 
 fumigating, 288. 
 Green, on fence-posts, 207. 
 Gross, 528. 
 
 Ground bone, analysis, 57. 
 Ground hogs, 243. 
 Ground stjuirrels, 241. 
 Grout floors, etc., 505. 
 Grub, wliite, 303, 314. 
 Guano, composition, SO. 
 Guatemala, money, 522. 523. 
 Guaves, weight, 533. 
 Guernsey records, 351. 
 Guignardia bidwellii, 272 ; vaccinii, 
 
 2()9. 
 Guilder. 522. 
 Guinea-hen, incubation, 342, 343. 
 
 Gums, 511. 
 
 Guthrie, (juoted, 458. 
 
 Gymnoconia interstitialis, 281. 
 
 Gymnosporangium globosum, 279 ; 
 
 macropus, 264. 
 Gypsum, 28, 37 ; analysis, 59 ; weight 
 
 (land-plaster), 533, 540. 
 
 Haberlandt, on seeds, 104. 
 
 Hadena sp., 315. 
 
 Haecker, on feeding, 410. 
 
 Haematobia scrrata, 437. 
 
 Hsematopinus sp., 438, 441. 
 
 Hair, plastering, weight, 536. 
 
 Hairy-root, 276. 
 
 Haiti, money, 522, 523. 
 
 Hall, on grades of live-stock, 404. 
 
 Haltica rufipes, 326 ; striolata, 303. 
 
 Hams, grades of, 406. 
 
 Hand, measure, 528. 
 
 Hand-picking insects, 286. 
 
 Hardness of woods, 204. 
 
 Hardy vegetables, 108. 
 
 Harger, on pulse of animals, 344 ; on 
 
 quantity of blood, 345. 
 Harper, on young at birth, 343. 
 Hawks, 245. 
 Hawkweed, 232. 
 Hay and pasture seeds, 94. 
 Hay, grading, 151 ; to figure on, 530. 
 Hazen, on frost, 15. 
 Head-maggot, 440. 
 Heat in animals. 344. 
 Heating of greenhouses, 191. 
 Heliothis armiger, 315; obsoleta, 316, 
 
 335. 
 Helium, 24. 
 
 Hellebore insecticide, 300. 
 Heller, 522. 
 
 Hemerocampa leucostigma, 309. 
 Hemp seed, weight, 536, 541. 
 Hen, fleas. 378 ; incubation, 342, 343 ; 
 
 louse, 377. 
 Henderson, quoted, 107. 
 Henry, on feeding, 414, 418, 419. 
 Herbarium, making, 545. 
 Herbicides, 223, 228. 
 Herd-book, 345. 
 Herd's-grass, weight, 536. 
 Hessian-fly. 336. 
 Ileterodera radicicola, 303. 
 Hickory nuts, weight, 533. 
 
INDEX 
 
 577 
 
 Hinges, to prevent rusting, 510. 
 
 Hog manure, 82, 83, 87, 89 ; parasites 
 
 of, 441 ; parts of, 402. 
 Hollyhock, diseases, 273 ; insect, 322. 
 Holstein-Friesian registry, 346 ; records, 
 
 349. 
 Home economics schools, 566. 
 Home garden plan, 123. 
 Home-mixing of fertilizers, 52. 
 Hominy, weight, 533. 
 Honduras, money, 522, 523. 
 Hops, fertilizer for, 71. 
 Horn-fly, 437. 
 Horse, age of, 339; manure, 81, 83, 
 
 87, 88 ; milk of, 443, 444 ; parasites, 
 
 439; parts of, 392; rations, 418. 
 Horse-nettle, 229. 
 Horse-power to raise water, 501 ; of 
 
 shafting, 501. 
 Horse radish, fertilizer, 72 ; weight, 533. 
 Horses, fast, 357 ; judging, 392. 
 Hoskin's wax, 514. 
 Hot-air engines, 503. 
 Hot water as insecticide, 294. 
 House-fly, 249. 
 Household measures, 528. 
 Household science schools, 566. 
 House-plant insects, 322. 
 Howard, on flies, 249, 250. 
 Howard, on weather, 12. 
 Human body, composition of, 26, 27. 
 Human feces, 90 ; milk of, 443, 444. 
 Hungarian-grass, weight, 536. 
 Hunter, on soiling, 137. 
 Hyacinths, 189, 198. 
 Hydraulic rams, 503. 
 Hydrochloric acid, 29. 
 Hj'drocyanic acid gas, 287. 
 Hydrogen, 24, 25. 
 Hygroscopic water, 32. 
 Hylastinus obscurus, 314. 
 Hyphantria cunea, 307. 
 Hypoderma sp., 437. 
 Hypsopygia costalis, 314. 
 
 Incompatibles in fertilizers, 53. 
 Incubation, machine, 370 ; periods, 342. 
 India, money, 523. 
 Indium, 24. 
 
 Inorganic compounds, 25. 
 Insecticides, chapter on, 286 ; for 
 animal parasites, 434. 
 2p 
 
 Insects, collecting, 551 ; injurious, 
 
 301. 
 Inspection of dairies, 469, 472. 
 Institutions for agriculture, 599. 
 Interest, rates of, 524. 
 lodin, 24. 
 Iridium, 24. 
 
 Iron, 24, 25 ; cements, 507 ; rust, 29. 
 Iron sulfate as fungicide, 258 ; for 
 
 weeds, 223, 227. 
 Isobars. 5. 
 Isosoma sp., 336. 
 Isotherms, 5. 
 ItaHan money, 522, 523. 
 Italian rye-grass, weight, 533. 
 
 Japan, money, 523. 
 Jars for specimens, 558. 
 Jenyms, on weather, 12. 
 Jersey records, 354. 
 Jewelers' weight, 516. 
 Johnson-grass, weight, 533. 
 Jones, on drains, 484. 
 Jones, L. R., on weeds, 223. 
 Jordan, on fertility, 38. 
 Judging animals, 383, 386, 392. 
 
 Kafir, grading, 161 ; weight, 533. 
 
 Kainit, analysis, 42, 59. 
 
 Kale, weight, 533. 
 
 Kaliosysphinga ulmi, 319. 
 
 Kali, works, quoted, 41, 42. 
 
 Katydid, on peach trees, 325 ; on 
 pineapple, 328. 
 
 Keeping fruits and vegetables, 141, 
 149. 
 
 Kellner, on feeding standards, 416. 
 
 Kerosene for emulsion, 294 ; for mos- 
 quitoes, 245 ; for weeds, 223. 
 
 King, on silos, 475, 476, 477; on til- 
 lage, 37. 
 
 King, D. W., on road-drags, 487. 
 
 King-head, 230. 
 
 Knot, measure, 528. 
 
 Koenig, on milk, 443. 
 
 Kosher, 405. 
 
 Kran, 523. 
 
 Krypton, 24. 
 
 Labels, 557; gum for. 512; to pre- 
 serve, 558. 
 Lachnosterna fusca, 303, 314, 328. 
 
578 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Lactometer tost, 448. 
 
 Lafean bill, 168. 
 
 Lamb, grades of, 406. 
 
 Lambert, on feathers and eggs, 375. 
 
 Land-plaster, 28, 37 ; analysis, 59 ; 
 
 weight, 533. 540. 
 Lanthanum, 24. 
 Lavender-bag, 552. 
 Lawes and Gilbert, quoted, 27. 
 Lawn, fertilizer for, 71 ; insects, 322 ; 
 
 weeds in, 232. 
 Lead, 24; arsenate of, 291. 
 Leaf-curl, 275. 
 Leaf-prints, 549. 
 Lecanium corni, 329. 
 Legal weights of bushel, 533, 534, 540. 
 Leguminous cover-crops, 138. 
 Lehmann feeding standards, 413. 
 Lemon boxes, 164 ; insects, 323. 
 Length, measures of, 517, 520. 
 Lepidosaphes beckii, 323 ; ulmi, 308. 
 Leptinotarsa decemlineata, 329. 
 Lettuce, diseases, 273 ; fertilizer, 72 ; 
 
 under glass, 190 ; insects, 322 ; for 
 
 packages, 170, 171. 
 Leu, 523. 
 
 Leucania unipuncta, 315. 
 Leuchars, on wind, 196. 
 Lewis, C. L, quoted, 166. 
 Liberia, money, 523. 
 Lice, on cattle, 438 ; powder, 436. 
 Lichen on trees, 233. 
 Light-horse, scoring, 393. 
 Light, reflection from glass, 198. 
 Ligyrus gibbosus, 312; rugiceps, 334. 
 Lily of the valley, 198. 
 Lily, under glass, 198. 
 Lima bean, diseases, 265. 
 Lime a.s fungicide, 256 ; classification 
 
 of, 79; for the land, 77; weight 
 
 per bii.shel. 78, 536. 
 Lirne-sulfur flip, 434. 
 LiiMc-sulfur. formula, 256, 294. 
 Litiiiiarithemum, 191. 
 I^imnochari.s, 191. 
 Lina scripta, 329. 
 Lindsey, on .soiling, 135. 
 Line or linear mea.sure, 517, 520, 528. 
 Lin.seed, weight, 536. 
 Lion, gestation, 342, 343. 
 Lifjuid manure, 83; for greenhouses, 
 
 188. 
 
 Liquid measure, 517. 
 
 Lira. 522, 523. 
 
 Lists for window-gardens, 189. 
 
 Litharge in cement, 508. 
 
 Lithium, 24. 
 
 Litmus test, 77. 
 
 Litter (manure), 84. 
 
 Little-peach, 276. 
 
 Liver of sulfur, 258. 
 
 Live-stock, exhibiting, 383 ; judging, 
 
 383, 386, 392 ; rules, 337. 
 Lixus concavus, 331. 
 Llama, milk of, 443. 
 Loess, 29. 
 Log measure, 212, 216, 218 ; rules, 214, 
 
 217, 219, 220; scaling, 214. 
 London purple, 291. 
 Longevity of fruit plants, 125 ; of 
 
 seeds, 102, 104. 
 Loudon's rules for gardeners, 173. 
 Louse, hog, 441. 
 Luke, on weather, 11. 
 Lumber, defined, 202, 
 Lutecium, 24. 
 
 Lyon and Fippin, quoted, 33, 36. 
 Lytta sp., 302. 
 
 Macaroni wheat, 155. 
 
 Maceration, skeletonizing plants, 549. 
 
 Machine incubation, 370. 
 
 Machinery, chapter on, 473. . 
 
 Macrodactylus subspinosus, 322. 
 
 Macrosyphum pisi, 324. 
 
 Magnesium, 24, 25. 
 
 Mahernia, 189. 
 
 Mairs, on soiling. 136. 
 
 Maize, weight, 534. 536, 541. 
 
 Malacosoma, sp., 309. 
 
 Malaria, 249. 
 
 Malt, weight, 536, 541. 
 
 Manganese, 24. 
 
 Mangels as field crop, 140 ; fertilizer 
 
 for, 62. 
 Manure and house-flies, 249 ; chaptei 
 
 on, 81. 
 Mare, gestation, 342, 343; milk of, 
 
 443, 444. 
 Margaropus annulatus, 429. 
 Margolin, on forest yields, 205. 
 Mark, 522, 523. 
 
 Market classes of live-stock, 404. 
 Marketing poultry, 374. 
 
INDEX 
 
 679 
 
 Market milk, scores, 462. 
 
 Marssonia perforans, 273. 
 
 Mason work, 504. 
 
 Massachusetts Hort. Soc. rules, 181. 
 
 Matthew, on weather, 11. 
 
 Maturities, 124. 
 
 May-bug or beetle, 303, 314, 328. 
 
 Mayetiola destructor, 336. 
 
 McGill, on milk, 443. 
 
 Meal, weight, 533, 534. 
 
 Mealy-bug, 189, 303, 323, 333. 
 
 Means, on alkali, 35. 
 
 Measures and weights, 516. 
 
 Mechanics, chapter on, 473. 
 
 Melittia satyriniformis, 331. 
 
 Melon, insects, 322. 
 
 Melophagus ovinus, 441. 
 
 Memythrus polistiformis, 321. 
 
 Mending cements, 507. 
 
 Menopon pallidum, 377. 
 
 Mercuric bichloride as fungicide, 255. 
 
 Mercuric oxid, 29. 
 
 Mercury, 24. 
 
 Merrill, on soil, 29. 
 
 Methylated spirit, 508. 
 
 Metric equivalents, 521 ; weights and 
 
 measures, 519. 
 Mexican boll-wee\dl, 316. 
 Mexico, money, 522. 
 Mice, 234. 
 
 Michigan, dates in, 106. 
 Middlings, weight, 533. 
 Midge, pear, 326. 
 Miles, different, 528. 
 Milk, chapter on, 442 ; composition of, 
 
 442 ; inspection, 469 ; tests, 446. 
 Millet, fertilizer for, 72; weight, 536, 
 
 540. 
 Milo, grading, 160. 
 Milreis, 522, 523. 
 Mineola indigenella, 308 ; vaccinii, 
 
 317. 
 Minnows for mosquitoes, 246 ; for 
 
 slime, 251. 
 Minns, on root-crops, 140. 
 Miscible oils, 297. 
 Mite, 304, 323. 
 Moisture-test for milk, 45 1 ; for cheese, 
 
 455. 
 Moles, 242. 
 Molybdenum, 24. 
 Monetary values, 522, 523. 
 
 Money tables, 521, 524. 
 
 Monophadnus rubi, 331. 
 
 Moore, on soiling, 137. 
 
 Mosquitoes, 245. 
 
 Moss on trees, 233. 
 
 Motors, 498. 
 
 Mottled butter, 461. 
 
 Mows, contents of, 530. 
 
 Mulford, forestry, 203. 
 
 Multiplication of plants, 130. 
 
 Mumford, F. B., on gestation, 342; on 
 
 heat, 344. 
 Murgantia histrionica, 312. 
 Muriate of potash, analysis, 58. (See 
 
 Kainit.) 
 Musca domestica, 249. 
 Museums, 543. 
 Mushroom, insects, 190, 323. 
 Muskmelon, diseases, 274 ; fertilizer for, 
 
 72 ; packages, 170 ; under glass, 190. 
 Muskrats, 243. 
 Mustard, weight, 540; wild, 225, 
 
 226, 230, 232. 
 Mutton, grades of, 406. 
 Mycosphaerella sentina, 278 ; fragariae, 
 
 282. 
 Myriophyllum, 191. 
 Myristin, 443. 
 Myrtus, 189. 
 Myzus cerasi, 313 ; persicse, 325. 
 
 Narcissus, 189. 
 
 National flowers, 186. 
 
 Nectarine, diseases, 274. 
 
 Needham, on mosquitoes, 245, 246. 
 
 Nelumbium, 191. 
 
 Nematode galls, 303. 
 
 Nematus ventricosus, 319. 
 
 Neodymium, 24. 
 
 Neon, 24. 
 
 Netherlands, money, 523. 
 
 Newfoundland, money, 523. 
 
 New York, dates in, 107. 
 
 Nicaragua, money, 522, 523. 
 
 Nickel, 24. 
 
 Nicotine dips, 434. 
 
 Niobium, 24. 
 
 Nitrate of potash, 40 ; of soda^ 29 ; 
 
 of soda, analysis, 58. 
 Nitric acid, 29 ; oxid, 29. 
 Nitrogen, 24, 25 ; source of, 41. 
 Nomenclature rules, 183. 
 
580 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Norfolk, datos in, 107. 
 
 Norway, money, 523. 
 
 Nuphar. 191. 
 
 Nurse-crops, 140. 
 
 Nursery, for forest trees, 202. 
 
 Nursery stock, diseases, 274; fertilizer 
 
 for, 72 ; fuiuiKating, 2ScS. 
 Nutrients, digestible, 424. 
 Nutritive ratio, 413, 414. 
 Nymphavi, 191. 
 
 Oats, disease's, 262, 274 ; fertilizer for, 
 
 73; grading, 157; weight, 53G, 541. 
 Oberea bimaculata, 330. 
 CEcanthus niveus, 331. 
 CEdenia, 2G0 ; of tomato, 283. 
 Oemler, quoted, 108. 
 (Estris ovis, 440. 
 Ogden, on water-flow in pipes, 491 ; 
 
 on hydraulic rams, 503 ; on hot-air 
 
 engines, 503. 
 Oils, miscible, 297. 
 Okra, packages, 170. 
 Olein, 443. 
 
 Oleomargarin, test for, 455. 
 Oncideres sp., 328. 
 Onion, diseases, 274 ; fertilizer for, 
 
 73 ; insects, 323 ; packages, 169, 
 
 171 ; weight, 536, 541. 
 Oospora scabies, 266, 280. 
 Orange boxes, 164 ; insects, 323 ; trees, 
 
 distances, 119. 
 Oranges, storing, 147. 
 Orchard-grass, weight, 536. 
 Organic compounds, 25. 
 Organization of a farm, 174, 
 Orris-root, 552. 
 Orthotylus delicatus, 322. 
 Osage orange .seed, weight, 536. 
 Oscinis sp., 313. (Sec Phytomyza.) 
 Osmium, 24. 
 Othonna, 189. 
 Otis, on .soiling. 137. 
 Otto of ro.ses, 551. 
 Ouvirandra, 191. 
 Over-run in butter-making, 454. 
 Oxalis, 189. 
 Oxygen, 24, 25. 
 Oyster-shell scale. 308. 
 Ozonium omnivorum, 269. 
 
 Pa 
 
 ce, u measure, 528. 
 
 Pacers, 358. 
 
 Packages, for fruits, 163 ; for vege- 
 tables, Ki*. 171. 
 Packing ai)ples, 166. 
 Paint, for greenhouse roofs, 201 ; for 
 
 hot water pipes, 200 ; required for 
 
 giv(Mi surface, 511. 
 Paints, 509. 
 
 Paleacrita vernata, 306. 
 Palladium, 24. 
 Palmatin, 443. 
 Palm, measure, 528. 
 Palms, house, 189, 198. 
 Panama, money, 522. 
 Papaipema nitela, 311. 
 Paper for hotlieds, 200. 
 Paper measure, 519. 
 Paper, paints, 510. 
 
 Papilio astcrias, 324 ; polyxenes, 313. 
 Papyrus, 191. 
 Paraffinc oil, 297. 
 Paraguay, money, 523. 
 Parasites of animals, 429, 434 ; of fowls, 
 
 377. 
 Paris green, 291. 
 
 Parsley, insects, 324 ; under glass, 190. 
 Parsnip, fertilizer for, 73 ; insects, 
 
 324; weight, 536, 541. 
 Parturition, 343. 
 Party flowers, 186. 
 Pasture seeds, 94 ; soiling, 134. 
 Pattison, on storing grapes, 145. 
 Peach, diseases, 275 ; dried, 529 ; scor- 
 ing, 177; weight, 536; fertilizer for, 
 
 74 ; insects, 325. 
 Pea, diseases, 275 ; fertilizer for, 62, 
 
 74. (See Peas.) 
 Pea-hen, incubation. 342, 343. 
 Peanuts, weight, 536. 
 Pear, disea.ses, 277 ; fertilizer for, 74 ; 
 
 insects, 326. 
 Pearson, quoted, 172, 442, 443, 446, 
 
 447, 44S, 450, 467, 469. 
 Pears, storing, 147 ; weight, 536. 
 Peas, packages, 170, 171 ; to preserve 
 
 for exhibition, 555 ; under glass, 
 
 190; weight, 538, 541. 
 Pecan, insects, 327. 
 Pegomya brassicie, 312, 330; cepe- 
 
 torum, 323; fusciceps, 311. 
 Pelargoniums, 189. 
 Penicilliura sp., 262. 
 
INDEX 
 
 58i 
 
 Penny, 521, 523. 
 
 Peppers, packages, 171. 
 
 Perfume-jar, 552. 
 
 Perfumery, 551. 
 
 Peronospora schleideniana, 274. 
 
 Persia, money, 523. 
 
 Persian insect powder, 297. 
 
 Persimmon, insects, 328. 
 
 Peru, money, 522. 
 
 Peseta, 522, 523. 
 
 Peso, 522, 523. 
 
 Petroleum for ticks, 429, 436. 
 
 Pfennig, 522. 
 
 Phalen, quoted, 43, 44. 
 
 Phelps, on soiling, 135. 
 
 Phenology, 17. 
 
 Phenolphthalein, 448, 449. 
 
 Philippines, money, 523. 
 
 Phlffiotribus liminaris, 325. 
 
 Phlegethontius sp., 335. 
 
 Phlycaenia ferrugalis, 313. 
 
 Phoma betae, 266. 
 
 Phosphate rock, production of, 41. 
 
 Phosphoric acid, source of, 41. 
 
 Phosphorus, 24, 25. 
 
 Phosphorus for mice, 236. 
 
 Phthorimsea operculclla, 330. 
 
 Phyllosticta solitaria, 263. 
 
 Phyllotreta vittata, 303. 
 
 Phylloxera, 321. Phytomyza, 313. 
 
 Phytophthora cactorum, 260, 271 
 
 infestans, 279, 283 ; phaseoli, 265. 
 Phytoptus oleivorus, 323. 
 Pi, 528. 
 Piaster, 523. 
 Pickle-worm, 318. 
 Pigeon, incubation, 342, 343. 
 Pineapple, insects, 328. 
 Pipes, contents, 531 ; paint for, 200. 
 Piricularia oryzae, 281. 
 Pistia, 191. 
 Piston pumps, 499. 
 Pitch wax, 513. 
 Plan for home garden, 123. 
 Plantain, 226, 229. 
 Plant-bug, 303. 
 
 Plant diseases, chapter on, 259. 
 Plant-food, in soils, 34. 
 Planting-tables, 106, 109, 110, 116, 
 
 119; for forest trees, 202. 
 Plant-lice, 301. 
 Plants, collecting, 545. 
 
 PlcvSmodiophora brassicae, 266. 
 
 Plasmopara viticola, 272. 
 
 Plastering hair, weight, 536. 
 
 Plaster of paris paint, 509. 
 
 Platinum, 24. 
 
 Plowrightia morbosa, 279. 
 
 Plum, diseases, 279 ; fertilizer for, 74 ; 
 insects, 329 ; scoring, 178 ; to pre- 
 serve for exhibition, 555 ; weight, 540. 
 
 Podosphaera oxycanthae, 267. 
 
 Pcecilocapsus lineatus, 303. 
 
 Point (in type), 528. 
 
 Points of a farm, 174. 
 
 Poison ivy, 229. 
 
 Poisons for herbaria, 546. 
 
 Polychrosis viteana, 320. 
 
 Pomological nomenclature, 183. 
 
 Ponds, slime on, 251. 
 
 Pontederia, 191. 
 
 Pontia rapse, 311. 
 
 Popcorn, weight, 540. 
 
 Poplar, insects, 329. 
 
 Pork, grades of, 406. 
 
 Porthetria dispar, 303. 
 
 Portland cement, 504. 
 
 Portugal, money, 523. 
 
 Potash, 28; salts, analysis, 42, 58; 
 source of, 42, 43, 44, 45. 
 
 Potassium, 24, 25. 
 
 Potassium cyanide, 287. 
 
 Potassium ferrocyanide, 254. 
 
 Potassium sulfid, 258. 
 
 Potato, diseases, 279 ; packages, 169 ; 
 weight, 538, 541; fertilizer for, 74; 
 insects, 329 ; scoring, 177. 
 
 Potting earth, 187. 
 
 Poultry, chapter on, 365 ; farm, judg- 
 ing, 381 ; manure, 84 ; rules, 378. 
 
 Pound (of money), 521, 523. 
 
 Prairie-dogs, 242. 
 
 Praseodymium, 24. 
 
 Preservatives in milk, 449, 450. 
 
 Preserving flowers, 546 ; fruits for 
 exhibition, 552, 556; labels, 558: 
 fence-posts, 207. 
 
 Prickly lettuce, 229. 
 
 Prim, insects, 330. 
 
 Primrose, 189, 198. 
 
 Primulas, 198. 
 
 Prince, on weather, 11. 
 j Printing plants, 548. 
 I Privet, insects, 330. 
 
582 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Profit-aiul-loss in dairying, 300. 
 PropaKation of crops. 130. 131, 13l>. 
 Protcoptcryx tleiudana. 327. 
 Prunes, wi-ight. 540. 
 Prussiatr of potiush, 254. 
 Psi'udoroccus calceolariaj, 333 ; citri, 
 
 323 ; sp., 303. 
 Psoudoporonospora cubensis, 270. 
 Pseudopt'ziza niodicaginis, 262. 
 Psila rosaj, 302. 
 Psoroptos comniunis, 440. 
 Psylla, 327. 
 Pteris, 189. 
 Puccinia asparagi, 265 ; chrysanthemi, 
 
 268 ; coronata, 274 ; malvacearum, 
 
 273 ; maydis, 269 ; pruni-spinosae, 
 
 279. 
 Pulleys, 498. 
 Pulse of animals, 344. 
 Pumping by windmills, 494. 
 Pumpkin, diseases, 280 ; fertilizer for, 
 
 74. 
 Pumps, capacity of, 499, 500. 
 Purity of seed, 100. 
 Putty for glazing, 201. 
 Pyrethrum powder, 297. 
 Pythium deBaryanum, 260. 
 
 Quack-grass, 225, 231. 
 
 Quantity of seed per acre, 92. 
 
 Quevenne readings, 447, 449. 
 
 Quicklime, 28. 
 
 Quin, on preserving flowers, 547. 
 
 Quince, diseases, 280 ; fertilizer for, 
 
 74; insects, 330; storing, 147; 
 
 weight, 540. 
 Quincunx planting, 123. 
 Quincy, on soiling, 134. 
 
 Rabbit, milk of, 236, 238, 444. 
 
 Racing horses. 357. 
 
 Radiation for glass, 196. 
 
 Radish, diseases, 280 ; fertilizer for, 
 
 75 ; insects, 330 ; packages, 171 ; 
 
 under glass, 190. 
 Radium, 24. 
 Railroad worm, 306. 
 Raisins, 529. 
 Rams, hydraulic, 503. 
 Rape seed, weight, 540. 
 Raspberries, dried, 529 ; to preserve 
 
 for exhibition, 555 ; weight, 540 ; 
 
 diseases, 281; fertilizer for, 75, 
 
 insects, 330. 
 Rat, 234; gestation, 342, 343. 
 Rations for animals, 409, 410, 413; 
 
 for poultry. 372. 
 Rawl and ( 'onover, silos, 473. 
 Raw materials of fertilizers, 46. 
 Rawson, quoted, 106. 
 Rayner, on windmills, 494. 
 Reaumur scale, 527. 
 Reddick on fungicides, 252 ; on plant 
 
 diseases, 259. 
 Red-spider, 304, 323, 328, 336. 
 Red-top, weight, 538. 
 Registry, advanced, 345. 
 Regolith, 29. 
 Reindeer, milk of, 443. 
 Renovated butter, 455. 
 Resin and fish-oil, 298. 
 Resin-sol-soda-sticker, 258. 
 Resin waxes, 512. 
 Rhagolctis pomonella, 306. 
 Rhizoctonia. sp., 200. 267, 274. 
 Rhodites radicum, 331. 
 Rhodium, 24. 
 Rhubarb, insects, 331 ; under glass, 
 
 190 ; weight, 540. 
 Rice, diseases, 281 ; weight, 538. 
 Rice, on poultry farms, 381. 
 Richmond, on milk, 443, 447. 
 Rideal, on sewage, 90. 
 Road-drags, 485, 487. 
 Roberts, on horse's teeth, 339 ; on 
 
 manures, 85, 86, 87 ; on soil, 34. 
 Roofs for greenhouses, 199. 
 Root-crops, 140. 
 Root-gall, 303. See Crown-gall. 
 Roots, composition, 28 ; storing, 147. 
 Root-worm of grape, 320. 
 Ropes, str(>ngth of, 481, 
 Rose, 198 ; diseases, 281 ; insects, 
 
 331 ; scoring, 179. 
 Rose blooms, to keep fresh, 550. 
 Rose-chafer on bug, 308, 322. 
 Rose, on motor power of stream, 
 
 502. 
 Rosette of peach, 276. 
 Ross, on dairying, 453, 455, 456, 471. 
 Rotation for plant diseases, 253 ; for 
 
 ticks, 435. 
 Rothamsted, quoted, 30. 
 Rot of potatoes, 279. 
 
INDEX 
 
 583 
 
 Roughage, 133. 
 
 Roughs, grades of, 407. 
 
 Roumania, money, 523. 
 
 Rubidium, 24. 
 
 Ruble, 522, 523. 
 
 Rules for gardeners, 173 ; for plant 
 
 exhibitions, 181, 
 Rupee, 523. 
 
 Russian money, 522, 523. 
 Rusting of boilers, 200 ; of nails and 
 
 pipes, 510, 511. 
 Rutabaga as field crop, 141, 538. 
 Ruthenium, 24. 
 Rye, fertilizer for, 75 ; grading, 157 ; 
 
 weight, 538, 541. 
 Rye-grass, weight, 533. 
 
 Sage, weight, 540. 
 
 Sagittaria, 191. 
 
 Saissetia oleae, 323. 
 
 Salads, weight, 540. 
 
 Sal ammoniac, 507. 
 
 Salt, 29 ; for weeds, 222, 223 ; test for 
 
 butter, 453 ; for cheese, 453 ; weight, 
 
 538. 
 Saltpeter, 29, 40. 
 Salvador, money, 522, 523. 
 Salvinia, 191. 
 Samarium, 24. 
 Sample rations, 417. 
 Sanitary milk, scoring, 467, 471. 
 San Jose scale, 304. 
 Sanninoidea exitiosa, 325. 
 Santo Domingo, money, 522, 
 Saperda Candida, 308. 
 Sarcoptes sp., 378. 
 Sawfly, currant, 319. 
 Saxifraga, 189. 
 Scab of apple, 264 ; of potatoes, 280 ; 
 
 of sheep, 440. 
 Scabies of fowls, 378. 
 Scale in boilers, 200. 
 Scale-insects, 304, 308, 323, 329. 
 Scale, San Jose, 304. 
 Scaly-leg of fowls, 378. 
 Scandium, 24. 
 Schaefell's wax, 514. 
 Schistoceros hamatus, 309. 
 Schizocerus sp., 334. 
 Schizoneura lanigera, 310. 
 Schone, on soil, 31. 
 Schools of agriculture, 561, 564. 
 
 Schroeter, on seeds, 94. 
 
 Scirpus, 191. 
 
 Sclerotinia fructigena, 267, 275 ; lib- 
 ertiana, 274. 
 
 Scolytus rugulosus, 326. 
 
 Score, 528. 
 
 Score-card for apples, 177 ; for carna- 
 tions, 179 ; for cherries, 178 ; for 
 chrysanthemum, 180 ; for corn, 177 
 for farms, 175 ; for gladioli, 180 
 for grapes, 178; for peaches, 177 
 for plums, 178 ; for potatoes, 177 
 for poultry, 367 ; for roses, 179 
 for sweet pea, 180 ; for animals, 
 392 ; for florists' plants, 180 ; cards 
 in dairying, 462-472. 
 
 Screw-worm fly, 438. 
 
 Sealing cements, 508. 
 
 Seaweed, analysis, 60. 
 
 Sections of land, 542. 
 
 Sediment in boilers, 200. 
 
 Sedum, 189. 
 
 Seed diseases, 284 ; per acre, 92 ; test- 
 ing, 96, 100. 
 
 Seeds, chapter on, 92 ; collecting, 544 ; 
 composition, 28 ; vitality of, 102, 
 104. 
 
 Seedsmen's weights of seeds, 97. 
 
 Selandria vitis, 320. 
 
 Selenium, 24. 
 
 Senecio, 189. 
 
 Septoria chrysanthemi, 268 ; lyco- 
 persica, 283; petroselina, 267; 
 ribis, 270. 
 
 Serradella, 138. 
 
 Servia, money, 523. 
 
 Sesia pyri, 326; scitula, 328; tip- 
 uliformis, 318. 
 
 Sewage, analysis, 90. 
 
 Shafting, 501. 
 
 Sheep, determining age, 338 ; gesta- 
 tion, 342, 343; judging, 399, 401; 
 manure, 82, 83, 87, 89; milk of, 
 443, 444; parasites, 440; parts of, 
 400 ; profit or loss, 362. 
 
 Shekel, 523. 
 
 ShiUing, 521, 523. 
 
 Shutt, on preservatives, 552, 
 
 Siam, money, 523. 
 
 SUage, 134, 474. 
 
 Silicon, 24, 25. 
 
 Silos, 473. 
 
584 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Silver, 24. 
 
 Simon, on milk, 444. 
 
 Simulium pecuarum, 438. 
 
 Six's thermometers, 1. 
 
 Size, measure, 528. 
 
 Sizes of seeds, 98. 
 
 Skeleton of cock, 368. 
 
 Skeletonizing plants, 549. 
 
 Slime on ponds, 251. 
 
 Smilax, 198. 
 
 Smith, J. B., on mosquitoes, 247. 
 
 Smoking for insects, 287. 
 
 Smudging for frosts, 16; for insects, 
 
 287. 
 Smut of cereals, 260, 261, 262; of 
 
 corn, 269 ; of onions, 274. 
 Snails. 305. 
 Snyder, quoted, 28. 
 Soap insecticide, 293, 298, 299. 
 Societies, rural, 560. 
 Soda-and-aloes insecticide, 299. 
 Sodium, 24, 25. 
 Soil analysis, 54 ; chapter on, 24 ; 
 
 diseases, 284 ; taking samples, 543. 
 Soiling, 133, 134. 
 Solid measure, 518. 
 Sorghum, fertilizer for, 75 ; seed, 
 
 weight, 538. 
 Sow, gestation, 342, 343. 
 Sow-thistle, 231. 
 Spain, money, 523. 
 Span, a measure, 528. 
 Spanish money, 522, 523. 
 Sparrows, 244. 
 Spearmint under gla.ss, 190. 
 Specific gravity of soils, 31. 
 Specimen jars, 558. 
 Specks in butter, 461. 
 Speltz, weight, 540. 
 Spermojjhile.s, 241. 
 Sphaceloma ampelinum, 271. 
 Sphajropsis malorum, 264, 280. 
 Spha;rotheca castagnei, 282 ; leuco- 
 
 tricha, 264 ; mors-uvse, 271 ; pan- 
 
 nosa, 276, 281. 
 Spinach, diseases, 281 ; fertilizer for, 
 
 75 ; packages, 170 ; under glass, 
 
 190; weight, 540. 
 Spiny amaranth, 229. 
 Spirogyra in p(jnd.s, 251. 
 Split-log drag, 487. 
 Spoonful, measure, 528. 
 
 Spoon-test for oleomargarin, 455. 
 Spraying cattle, 433 ; plants, 252, 286. 
 Square measure, 518. 
 Squashes, package, 171; storing, 147; 
 
 fertilizer for, 76; insects, 331. 
 Squirrel, gestation, 342, 343. 
 Stable manure, 81. 
 Stables, to disinfect, 434. 
 Stacks, contents of, 530. 
 Stags, grades of, 404, 407. 
 Stake labels, 557. 
 Standardizing milk, 450. 
 Starch, 29. 
 Stassfurt salts, 42. 
 State flowers, 185. 
 Steam, sterilizing by, 253. 
 Stebler and Schroeter, 94. 
 Steers, grades of, 404 ; profit or loss, 
 
 362. 
 Sterilizing by steam, 253. 
 Stevenson, on soil, 30, 32. 
 Stewart, J. P., quoted, 49. 
 Stigmaeus fioridanus, 328. 
 Stocks, 198. 
 
 Stocks for various plants, 131. 
 Stone, J. L., on feeding, 424. 
 Stone, a measure, 528. 
 Storing fruits and vegetables, 141, 149; 
 
 animal products, 345. 
 Storms, 2. 
 
 Straits Settlements, money, 523. 
 Straw, grading, 151, 152; composi- 
 tion, 28. 
 Strawberries, packages, 171 ; to pre- 
 serve for exhibition, 556 ; weight, 
 540 ; diseases, 282 ; fertilizer for, 
 76; insects, 332. 
 Stream, power of, 502. 
 String beans, packages, 170. 
 String, waxed, 513. 
 Strontium, 24. 
 
 Strychnine, composition, 29 ; for mice, 
 235 ; for sparrows, 244 ; for ground 
 .squirrels, 241, 242. 
 Sugar, composition, 29. 
 Sugar-cane, insects, 333 ; seed, weight, 
 
 540. 
 Sulfate of ammonia, analysis, 58. 
 Sulfate of copper as fungicide, 258: 
 
 for bordeaux, 253; for ponds, 251. 
 Sulfate of iron as fungicide, 258. 
 Sulfate of magnesia, analysis, 58. 
 
INDEX 
 
 585 
 
 Sulfate of potash, 29 ; analysis, 58. 
 
 Sulfid of potassium, 258. 
 
 Sulfur, 25 ; as fungicide, 258 ; as 
 
 insecticide, 299 ; for rabbits, 237. 
 Sulfuric acid, 29 ; for weeds, 222, 223. 
 Sulfurous acid to preserve fruits, 553. 
 Sumac, insects, 334. 
 Surface measure, 518, 520. 
 Surveyors' measure, 518. 
 Surveys, government, 541. 
 Sweden, money, 523. 
 Sweet clover, 138. 
 Sweet herbs under glass, 190. 
 Sweet pea, 198 ; scoring, 180. 
 Sweet-potato, diseases, 282 ; packages, 
 
 170; weight, 538; insects, 334; 
 
 storing, 148. 
 Swine, determining age, 339 ; grades 
 
 of, 407 ; judging, 402, 404 ; milk of, 
 
 444 ; parasites, 441 ; profit or loss, 
 
 362. 
 Switzerland, money, 523. 
 
 Tablespoonful, 528. 
 
 Tael, 523. 
 
 Taft, on greenhouses, 199. 
 
 Talent (of money), 523. 
 
 Tanglefoot, 299. 
 
 Tanks, circular, 531 ; square, 532. 
 
 Tantalum, 25. 
 
 Taper in logs, 216. 
 
 Tar as insecticide, 299. 
 
 Tar cement, 508. 
 
 Tartar emetic for mice, 235. 
 
 Taylor, on fruit packages, 164. 
 
 Teaspoonful, 528. 
 
 Teeth of animals, 337, 339. 
 
 Tellurium, 25. 
 
 Temperature for incubation, 370 ; 
 of animals, 344 ; for animal prod- 
 ucts, 345 ; for plants under glass, 
 198. 
 
 Tender vegetables, 108. 
 
 Tent-caterpillar, 309. 
 
 Terbium, 25. 
 
 Termites, 305. 
 
 Test-plots for soils, 56. 
 
 Tetranychus bimaculatus, 304, 336 ; 
 sexmaculatus, 323. 
 
 Texas-fever ticks, 429. 
 
 Texture of soil, 32. 
 
 Thallium, 25. 
 
 Therm, 409. 
 
 Thermometer scales, 527. 
 
 Thermometers, 1. 
 
 Thielavia basicola, 271, 282, 283. 
 
 Thorium, 25. 
 
 Thrips. See rose, grape, pear, etc. 
 
 Thrips tabaci, 323. 
 
 Thulium, 25. 
 
 Thyridopterix ephemerseformis, 301. 
 
 Tical, 523. 
 
 Tick of fowls, 378 ; of sheep, 441 ; 
 cattle, 429. 
 
 Tile-draining, 481. 
 
 Tillage, 37. 
 
 Tilletia foetens, 262. 
 
 Timber, defined, 202. 
 
 Time for germination, 102,- for fruit- 
 bearing, 124. 
 
 Timothy seed, weight, 538, 541. 
 
 Tin, 25. 
 
 Titanium, 25. 
 
 Tmetocera ocellana, 306. 
 
 Tobacco, diseases, 282 ; fertilizer for, 
 76 ; insecticide, 299 ; insects, 335 . 
 
 Tomato, diseases, 283 ; packages, 169 ; 
 weight, 538 ; fertilizer for, 76 ; in- 
 sects, 335 ; storing, 149 ; under 
 glass, 190. 
 
 Ton, 516 ; to figure by, 530. 
 
 Townships, measurement of, 541. 
 
 Trade value of fertilizers, 47, 50. 
 
 Tradescantia, 189. 
 
 Trapa, 191. 
 
 Tree seeds in pound, 96. 
 
 Trichobaris trinotata, 29. 
 
 Trichodectes scalaris, 438. 
 
 Trotters, 357.' 
 
 Troy weight, 516. 
 
 Truck packages, 169, 171. 
 
 Trueman, on butter-making, 458. 
 
 Tulip, 198. 
 
 Tungsten, 25. 
 
 Turbines, 502. 
 
 Turkey, incubation, 342, 343. 
 
 Turkey, money, 523. 
 
 Turnip as field crop, 141 ; fertilizer for, 
 77; weight, 538, 541. 
 
 Tussock-moth, 309. 
 
 Twig-borer, 309. 
 
 Twig-pruner, 309. 
 
 Tyloderma fragariae, 332. 
 
 Typha, 191. 
 
5SG 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Tvphlocyba comes, 321 ; roste, 331. 
 Typhoid fly. 249. 
 Typophorus rancllus, 333. 
 
 Uranium, 25. 
 Urine, 83, 88, 89, 90. 
 Urocystis cepula?, 274. 
 Uromyces caryophyllinus, 267. 
 Uruguay, money, 522. 
 Ustilago sp., 261, 262, 269. 
 
 Vallota, 189. 
 
 Vanadium, 25. 
 
 Van Dine, sugar-cane insects, 333. 
 
 Van Horn, quoted, 41, 42. 
 
 Van Slyke on fertilizers, 63 ; on milk, 
 
 443, 444, 449, 456. 
 Veal, grades of, 405. 
 Vegetable packages, 169, 171. 
 Vegetables, dates for, 106 ; distances 
 
 for, 109, 119; nomenclature, 183; 
 
 propagation of, 131 ; under glass, 
 
 190. 
 Velvet-grass seed, weight, 540. 
 Venezuela, money, 522. 
 Venturia intcqualis, 264 ; pyrina, 278. 
 Veratrum album, 300. 
 Vetch, as cover-crop, 138, 139 ; weight 
 
 of, 139. 
 Veterinary schools, 565. 
 Victoria, 191. 
 Vieth, on mUk, 443. 
 Vilmorin, on seeds, 98, 102. 
 Vinca, 189. 
 Violet, 198 ; diseases, 283 ; insects, 
 
 335. 
 Voorhees, on milk, 443 ; quoted, 45, 
 
 50. 
 
 Wage-tables, 526. 
 
 Walks, material for, 505, 506 ; weeds 
 
 on, 233. 
 Walnuts, weight, 540. 
 Wandering Jew, 189. 
 Warble-fly. 437. 
 Warren, scoring farms, 175. 
 Warrington, (luoted, 30. 
 Washes for fences, 509. 
 Water, data on, 489. 
 Water in soil, 32. 
 Water-cress, packages, 170. 
 Watering plants, 188. 
 
 Watermelon, fertilizer for, 77 ; grades, 
 530. 
 
 Waterproofing. 510 ; paper, 550. 
 
 Water-wheels. 502. 
 
 Watson, on .soiling, 136. 
 
 Wax, grafting, 512. 
 
 Weather, 1 ; map, 2, 4 ; records, 19 ; 
 signs, 11 ; vane, 23. 
 
 Web-worm, 307. 
 
 Weed-killers, 223, 228. 
 
 Weeds, chapter on, 221 ; lawns, 232. 
 
 Weight of soils. 30 ; weights and meas- 
 ures, 516, 520; poultry, 366; seeds, 
 97, 98. 
 
 Wellhouse, rabbit-trap, 238. 
 
 Wells, capacities, 531. 
 
 Wethers, scoring, 399. 
 
 Whale-oil soap, 298. 
 
 Wheat, fertilizer for, 77 ; grading, 153 ; 
 insects, 336; weight, 538, 541. 
 
 Wheeler, on lime, 77. 
 
 Whey, butter from, 461. 
 
 White ants, 305. 
 
 White daisy, 231. 
 
 White grub, 303, 314. 
 
 White hellebore, 300. 
 
 White-wash, 509. 
 
 White-weed, 231. 
 
 Whitney, on soil, 32. 
 
 Widtsoe, on soils, 34. 
 
 Wild carrot, 230. 
 
 Wild oats, 230. 
 
 Willis, on fence-posts, 207 ; on shingles, 
 209. 
 
 Willow, insects, 336. 
 
 Wilson, C. S., box packing, 166. 
 
 Wilson, on weather, 11, 12, 16, 19. 
 
 Wind, in cooling glass, 196 ; indica- 
 tions, 9. 
 
 Windmills, 493, 494. 
 
 Wing, age of animals, 337. 
 
 Winter injury, 268. 
 
 Wire, fence, 477. 
 
 Wire-worm, 305, 315. 
 
 Woburn, quoted, 31. 
 
 Wolf, gestation, 342. 
 
 Wolff, analyses, 90. 
 
 Wolff-Lehmann Standards, 413. 
 
 Woll, on soiling crops, 134, 135. 
 
 Wolves, 243. 
 
 Wood, hardness of, 204. 
 
 Wood crops, 204. 
 
INDEX 
 
 587 
 
 Woodchucks, 243. 
 Woolly aphis, 310. 
 Wounds, waxes for, 514. 
 
 Xenon, 25. 
 Xyleborus pyri, 326. 
 
 Yellows, 277. 
 Yen, 523. 
 
 Yields of forests, 204; 
 tables, 125, 127. 
 
 of seeds, 105 
 
 Youatt, on gestation, 342. 
 Ytterbium, 25. 
 Yttrium, 25. 
 
 Zebrina, 189. 
 
 Zebu, milk of, 443. 
 
 Zinc, 25. 
 
 Zinc chloride to preserve fruits, 653. 
 
 Zirconium, 25. 
 
 Zizania, 191. 
 
 Printed in the United States of America. 
 
m' 
 
 
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