/^ 
 
 l/«* > 
 
BOSTON, September i, 1S78. 
 
 Dear Sir : 
 
 As the Author of this book is connected with our house, 
 any further information which you may wish on any subject 
 contained in the work will be cheerfully furnished upon receipt 
 of inquiry; and we respectfully solicit a share of your patron- 
 age for Dyestuffs, Chemicals, etc. 
 
 After a careful perusal of this work you will kindly favor 
 the Author by sending your WRITTEX OPTXIOX in 
 regard to it. 
 
 Very truly yours, 
 
 F. WOODMAN & CO., 
 
 So/e A gen's. 
 
 No. 44 Kii.iiv Street, 
 
 Boston. 
 
 4^ 
 
THE 
 
 AMERICAN DYER, 
 
 (EXLARGED AND RFAMSF.D) : 
 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE 
 
 COLOEING OF AVOOL, COTTON, YAEN AND CLOTH, 
 
 ALSO, CAI.ICO-PR1XTIXG, ETC. 
 
 GIVING A DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT^OF THE DYESTUFFS, THEIR ORIGIN, 
 
 WHERE PRODUCED, HOW CULTIVATED, AND HOW PREPARED 
 
 FOR USE, THEIR CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS,' GENERAL 
 
 ADAPTABILITY, HOW THEY ARE ADULTERATED, ETC. 
 
 IT EMBRACES RECIPES FOR COLORING RAW COTTON TO BE MIXED 
 
 WITH WOOL, FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF ALL KINDS OF FABRICS ; 
 
 RECIPES FOR COLORING WOOL, WOOLEN GOODS, COTTON 
 
 AND WOOL GOODS IN THE PIECE, COTTON YARN 
 
 (WITH SAMPLES), COTTON THREAD, 
 
 AND WOOLEN YARN; 
 
 CONTAINING SEVENTY SAMPLES OF TTOOL,, COTTON YARN, AND 
 
 CLOTH; SAMPLE OF BLACK ON RAW COTTON, 
 
 COLORED AT ONE OPERATION; 
 
 EMBRACING, IN ALL, OYER FOUR HUNDRED RECIPES. 
 
 By RICHARD H. GIBSON, 
 
 Pkactical Dver and Chemist. 
 
 BOSTON: 
 
 ALBERT J. WRIGHT, PRINTER, 79 MILK STREET 
 
 (Corner of Federal). 
 
 18*8. 
 
Entoifd according to the Act of Congress, in tlic year 1878, 
 
 By RICHARD H. GIBSON, 
 
 In the office of the Librai-ian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. 
 
LMEODUCTION TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 Ix publishing this book, I have no doubt but there will be 
 some dyers who will stigmatize me as an unprincipled scoun- 
 drel, for giving to the trade at large what they call the secrets 
 of the trade. I will say to such, that the time has gone by 
 when every one who was engaged in the art of dyeing, thought 
 it was his iniperative duty to keep everything connected with 
 his trade a secret. This was an idea that universally pre- 
 vailed among dyers. "Within a few years, however, those 
 connected with the pursuit of this branch of industry find that 
 it is for their interest to make themselves familiar with every 
 one engaged in the same pursuit, and to freely converse and 
 exchange opinions upon those subjects in which they are most 
 interested. 
 
 This familiarity among dyers has called forth other means 
 of suppl} ing the demand for information, so as to enable those 
 not directly located in manufacturing centres to keep pace 
 with the improvements and new methods of dyeing ; and to 
 supply this demand for information, books and papers are 
 printed, which are freely read and well supported. 
 
 But among the many volumes of books on dyeing in circu- 
 lation, there are at present none that can be called complete, 
 as they merely give a recipe for a few pounds of wool or cot- 
 ton, instead of a kettle-full, or the usual amount of wool 
 colored at a time in all dye-houses, so that a person performing 
 the operation, if not well acquainted (or a skilful dyer) with 
 the quality and amount of the coloring matter contained in 
 the drugs and dyestuSs they have to use, cannot use them 
 economically, and, in most cases, cannot produce the color or 
 shade desired. 
 
4: IITTRODUCTION. 
 
 In this work I have endeavored to give all the necessary 
 information as to the coloring principles, their derivation, 
 their adaptal)ility and proper application, and it is, strictly 
 speaking, a practical work upon the art of dyeing. If there 
 are any dyers who wish to obtain more extended information, 
 or fuller explanations upon the dyestuffs, than what is found in 
 this book, they should consult such works as those of Berze- 
 lius, Bancroft, Berthollet, Chevrueil, Thomson, Napier, and 
 others, which will repay them well for the time expended in 
 perusing them. 
 
 The reader, in perusing this book, will find some quotations 
 from the above-named eminent chemists, as well as from my 
 father's works. ^ 
 
 To these eminent men dyers are greatly indebted ; they 
 have given us a correct explanation of the chemical changes 
 that take place in the different processes of dyeing ; their skil- 
 ful and laborous investigations have been very beneficial to 
 dyers, in pointing out to them the necessity of a chemical 
 knowledge of the first principles of the art of making artificial 
 color, or dyeing; for, if there is one art more than another 
 that requires such a knowledge, it is the art of dyeing, for it 
 is of the utmost importance for a dyer to understand chemis- 
 try, at least that part of it that is connected with his trade ; 
 for without this chemical knowledge, dyeing cannot be either 
 profitably or economically followed, as it depends entirely 
 upon chemistry for its full deveio[)inent and successful prac- 
 tice. 
 
 I have not written this book with the expectation that every 
 one who will purchase it, and who understands the manual of 
 operations in a dye-house, can be made a skilful dyer by the 
 perusal of it, and every intelligent dyer will exonerate me 
 from harboring such an idea. 
 
 RICHARD H. GIBSON. 
 
PEEFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 In offering this my second work on the art of dyeing to my 
 brother dyers and others, it becomes necessary that I make a 
 few preliminary observations. In the first phice, this work 
 is, in one sense of the word, a revision and enlargement of 
 my former work. As the anthor, I claim to have no more 
 scientific knowledge than just the "quantum siifficil" for the 
 successful practice of the su])ject upon which I write, and 
 which has engaged my strict attention and earnest study for 
 over twenty years ; and the trade of a dyer has been followed, 
 under similar circumstances, by my family, in direct succession, 
 for nearly two centuries. Therefore I am a dyer simply 
 by necessity, as it were, and having received but a common 
 English education, and acquired enough chemical knowledge 
 to qualify me for the situation in life which I have thus far 
 filled, nothing more, therefore, must or should be expected 
 from my pen, by men of science, than merely to call their atten- 
 tion to the investigation of an art that will repay their trouble 
 by the pleasure they will derive from observing these beauti- 
 ful and delicate chemical changes which take place in the 
 diflferent operations of dyeing, or the producing of artificial 
 colors. 
 
 To men of science, no new and brilliant discoveries are 
 announced, to create astonishment; neither, in these pages, is 
 there any strange theory brought up, to call out the mind in 
 subtle controversy ; no, very little indeed is off*ered the reader, 
 more than the plain description of a business that has engaged 
 the attention and experience of the writer. 
 
 For the above reason, therefore, this work should not be 
 criticised as emanating from the brain of a learned philoso- 
 
G PREFACE. 
 
 pher, but should be viewed as the labor of an uneducated 
 dyer, and intended for the perusal and inspection of men of 
 the same pursuits and acquirements as himself. 
 
 All the recipes, processes, &c., described and em])odied in 
 this work, are such as the writer can with confidence recom- 
 mend, having practised successfully with them ; and should 
 recipes be given not my own, or those which I have not 
 worked by, they will be credited to those persons from whom 
 I received them. 
 
 In the description of the various coloring materials, if de- 
 rived from the animal, vegetable, or mineral kingdom, the 
 attention of the author has been directed to their natural 
 history, the place of their growth or production, the methods 
 employed in collecting and preparing them for the market 
 and use of the dj'er, their commercial history, the state in 
 which they reach us, their properties, their chemical compo- 
 sition and relations, the changes which they undergo by time 
 and exposure, their accidental or fraudulent adulterations, 
 their coloring properties and applications, their ecpnomical 
 use, &c., &c. 
 
 The colorins: substances or materials which are obtained 
 from the mineral and animal kingdoms, and those furnished 
 by ihe chemical manufacturer, are of a nature to admit of no 
 general precepts as to their proper condition, w^hich would not 
 be suggested by the common sense of the dyer and purchaser. 
 He must receive them as offered, and judge of their fitness 
 for his purposes by his knowledge of the peculiar properties 
 of each. 
 
 The author may perhaps be permitted to observe, in rela- 
 tion to himself, that he has expended much time and labor in 
 the revising of this w^jrk, and has sought diligently for facts 
 from almost every readily accessible source. He has endeav- 
 ored, by a comparison of different authorities, to ascertain 
 the correct theory or facts, whenever it was practicable. He 
 is conscious, nevertheless, that, in the multiplicity of details, 
 very many errors and deficiencies may exist, and that the 
 
PREFACE. 7 
 
 fiuilts of niulue brevity in some eases and ffreat leiif^th in 
 others may not have been entirely avoided ; but he ventures 
 to hope that the skilful and candid dyer will make all due 
 allowances. 
 
 A full and carefully prepared index is added, also a glos- 
 sary of technical terms and chemical nomenclature, too'ether 
 with the chemical. formulas of the different salts, acids, &c., 
 mentioned in the work. 
 
 The author acknowledges his great obligations and indebt- 
 edness to Professor John Peirce, William Hunter and others 
 for the valuable assistance and information rendered him in 
 regard to the subject of calico-printing ; he is also greatly 
 indebted to Dr. T. P. Shepard, who has kindly consented to 
 allow the insertion in this work of his "Recipes for Calico- 
 Printing." 
 
 The student and dyer, in perusing this work, ought to read 
 it in a regular course. By so doing he will be enabled to 
 understand the manner in which the recipes are to be manipu- 
 lated. He should peruse more particularly' the remarks upon 
 the recijjes for the different kinds of goods or fabrics for the 
 coloring of which they are written. 
 
 Citations of different authors have been but partially made 
 in this work. The writer, for the purpose of giving his sources 
 of information, and for the convenience of those who wish to 
 pursue the different subjects further, refers them to such 
 works as Bancroft's Philosophy of Permanent Colors, Edin- 
 burgh Encyclopedia, Berzelius, Chevruoil, Pcrsaz, Lectures 
 of Dr. Grace Calvert, Chemical News for 1872, O'Neil's Dic- 
 tionary of Dyeing and Printing, Muspratt's Chemistry Applied 
 to the Arts, Napier's Chemistry Applied to Dyeing, Ure-'s 
 Dictionary of Manufactures, edition of 18G0. 
 
 KICHARD H. GIBSON. 
 
 44 KiLBV St., Boston. 
 
Part First. 
 
 DYEING AND MORDANTS. 
 
10 THE AMEKICAN DYEll. 
 
 DYELNG AND MORDANTS. 
 
 The object of the dyer is to impart to wool, silk, cotton, 
 and llax, either in their loose or raw state, or in their woven 
 tissue, some color or other, and dyeing is the art of impreg- 
 natinsr these substances with colorinoj substances which are 
 more or less permanent. The colors .themselves are not 
 material ; they are merely the impression of light npon the 
 eye, and the result of the abstraction of the hues from the 
 solar beams, by the affinity which the coloring matter has for 
 those hues ; and the coloring matter coming in contact with 
 metallic oxides, the different hues or colors are fully devel- 
 oped and shown to the human eye, as they are from a prism ; 
 and all the colors, whether they are artificial or natural, or 
 on whatever seen, have once been beams of light in the 
 heavens ; therefore, dyeing is the fixing of substances npon 
 fabrics, which will act upon light in a difi'erent manner from 
 the substances themselves. As every chemical change affects 
 the character of the substance in its relation to light, the 
 dyer's object is to cause a combination with the wool or other 
 textile fabrics, that will produce certain effects upon light, and 
 thereby produce different colors or shades ; and as a color 
 consists of parts or substances only, and combining these 
 substances or materials in the best manner and fastening it 
 permanently upon different fabrics, and with a knowledge of 
 the chemical laws on which these effects are based or founded, 
 is what constitutes the skill of the dyer. Dyeing is dis- 
 tinguished from painting by the fact that the colors (or pig- 
 ments) are fixed to the animal and vegetable textile fibres 
 according to certain physico-chemical principles ; but it is not 
 so in painting, as painting is simply fixed by adhesion to the 
 
THE AMERICAN DYEE. H 
 
 surface, although paiuters and dyers occasionally use the same 
 pigments. So is printing of fabrics distinguished from dye- 
 ing, as it consists of duplicating of colored patterns, yet it is 
 a very important part of dyeing. Dyeing, strictly speaking, 
 means the coloring of absorbent substances by imprcirnatino- 
 them with solutions of coloring matters. It is thus opposed 
 to painting, which consists in laying a color upon the surface 
 to be colored. 
 
 As animal charcoal and arable soil are possessed of the 
 property to assimilate in their pores coloring matter and some 
 inorganic substances without the latter being altered, so also 
 do animal and vegetable fibres possess the property of a1)sor]j- 
 ing.from solutions and fixing in a more or less insoluble con- 
 dition dyes and some of the confitituents of mordants. This 
 combination or union is often so loose that it is easily broken 
 up by repeated washing in water, especially if washed in hot 
 water. For instance, if a textile fibre is dyed (or rather 
 tinged, for dyeing implies fixity) with sulphate of indigo, or 
 with Berlin blue in solution with oxalic acid, the color imparted 
 to the fibre will entirely disappear by repeated washing in 
 water. 
 
 A fibre can only be dyed in the strict sense of the term 
 when the dissolved coloring matter has been united in insolu- 
 ble condition with the fibre, and for this purpose the inter- 
 vention of a third substance is required; viz., a mordant. 
 The union thus formed will resist the action of solvents ; that 
 is, it will resist repeated washings in warm water and soap, 
 and the color thus produced is termed fast, and will resist the 
 action of light, air, and weak alkaline solutions, also weak 
 acids. A color which does not resist these agents is termed 
 fugitive. Dyeing is based upon chemical principles, but as 
 regards the fixing of the dye by the fibre, it would appear to 
 be only a physical attraction, as there does not exist between 
 a certain, quantity of fibre and of dye an atomistic relation. 
 Moreover, neither fibre nor dye have lost, after fixation has 
 taken phice, their characteristic properties. The insoluble 
 
12 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 condition of the union between the fibre and the dye may be 
 obtained in various ways; viz., by removal of the solvent, 
 as, for instance, oxide of copper dissolved in ammonia may 
 be fixed by simply evaporating the ammonia. Chromate of 
 zinc dissolved in annuonia can be fixed in the same manner 
 as the oxide of copper. The precipitation of carthamiue 
 (CiiHjyOn) from its alkaline solution by the aid of an 
 acid, and the precipitation of some of the tar colors from 
 their alcoholic solutions, belong to the same category. The 
 insoluble condition can be produced by oxidation (in calico- 
 printing and cotton dyeing, called the ageing process) the 
 previously soluljle color being rendered insoluble by taking 
 up oxygen. 
 
 If we should attempt to trace the origin and progress of the 
 art of dyeing from its first beginnings, whether those begin- 
 nings were in the most remote antiquity, or in those stages of 
 its reappearance in more recent ages, after this art, as well as 
 most other useful ones, had experienced a partial, if not 
 entire destruction by those civil and political convulsions 
 which have frequently swept away all traces of civilization 
 from our globe, save the ruins of some stately edifices, which, 
 from their very magnitude, bade defiance to the power of the 
 destroying generation to remove ; — we say, should we attempt 
 to trace its rise either from the ruins of overthrown arts, or 
 endeavor to show what was its beginnings and greatest state 
 of perfection in the earlier stages of the world, we should have 
 a task of no common magnitude before us, fur we should have 
 to penetrate through the gloom and obscurity of past ages ; 
 we should have to plunge for our subject into that dark epoch 
 of time when dyeing, as well as other useful arts, began, and 
 long before the age in which they originated was suflEiciently 
 enlightened to produce an historian, or the times had afforded 
 sufficient materials fur history. Therefore, we will nut attempt 
 to give the exact data when it was first practised as an art ; 
 but historians speak of it as being practised in very early 
 times in the East, and that it was as common to the most 
 
THE AMERICAX DYEE. 13 
 
 primitive life as to the most advanced stages of civilization. 
 Colored garments are mentioned in the earliest records. (See 
 37th chapter of Genesis, 23d verse.) The Orientals for 
 ages have practised the art of dj-eing. Notwithstanding the 
 length of time the art has been practised, the most wonderful 
 improvements have been made in the art within the last twenty 
 years, and these improvements have not been the result of 
 accident or chance, but are" the work of chemists, and by those 
 very chemists who are engaged in the solution of the highest 
 as well as most abstruse problems. These illustrious chemists 
 have distinguished themselves in the discovery of new dyeing 
 substances or principles, which are rapidly taking the place of 
 the old materials. There is no doubt in my mind that, in 
 the earlier ages', the art of dyeing was brought to a greater 
 degree of perfection than it is at the present time'; and, for 
 these reasons, that they were capable of carr3'ing it to a much 
 greater degree of perfection than we are, will be obvious to 
 every reflecting mind. Their extreme longevity afforded to 
 every individual engaged in it sufficient time to bring to ma- 
 turity any intricate invention which requires so much stud}' 
 and time to perfect its parts as to make it the work of succes- 
 sive generations of our short-lived race to complete. For 
 instance, such an invention as the steam-engine, which occu- 
 pied two or three hundred years in progressing to its present 
 state of perfection, would not have required the attention of 
 one of these men a fourth part of their lifetime, and some 
 antediluvian Watt would have completed this ultimatum of 
 human skill long before his faculties had acquired their full 
 streno^th ; and an ancient Dumas or BerthoUet mi<2:ht have 
 done the same in perfecting the art of dyeing. 
 
 If the numerous coloring substances that we use in 'dyeing 
 had an affinity for the wool or cotton in its natural state, dye- 
 ing would be a very simple process, and every one could be a 
 dyer, for all that would be required would be to make a solu- 
 tion of the dyestuflT, and dip the wool or cloth in it, and it is 
 colored ; but this we find is not the case. With the exce[)tiou 
 
14: THE AMERICAN DYEE. 
 
 of indigo, there is scarcely a tlyestuff that Avill impart its own 
 color to goods, that deserves the name of color. When the 
 dyer asceitains that there is no affinity between the fibre he 
 has to color, and the coloring substance he has to use to pro- 
 duce the desired color, he endeavors to find a third substance 
 that will have a mutual attraction for both the fibre and color- 
 ing matter, so that by combining this third substance with the 
 fibre, and passing it through the dyeing solution, the color 
 combines with the substance which is upon the goods, and 
 then constitutes the dye. This third substance used is called 
 a mordant. The variety of mordants is almost infinite ; 
 they being as numerous as it is possible, for all the acids to 
 form difierent combinations, in variable proportions, with all 
 the alkalies, earths, and metals. " They are either neutral, 
 sub, or super salts; that is, the acid and the base or radical, 
 . are either in proportion to mutually saturate each other, and 
 form a neutral compound, or the base is not fully saturated 
 with the acid, in which case it is a sub-salt; or the acid pre- 
 vails over the base, when it is said to be super-saturated with 
 it; it is then a super-salt. They are distinguished as the 
 alkaline, earthy, or metallic salts, according as these respec- 
 tive substances form the base or radical of the salt." "Two 
 or more of them are capable of uniting together, and also two 
 bases can unite to one acid, or two acids to one base, forming 
 compound, triple, &c., salts." All the mordants, -with but 
 one or two exceptions, are found among the metallic oxides. 
 It might be supposed from this, that as metals are the most 
 numerous class of elements, mordants should also be as 
 numerous ; but this is not so. In order that this third sub- 
 stance spoken of may act as a mordant, it is required to have 
 certain properties ; it must have an attraction for the coloring 
 matter, so as to form with it an insoluble colored compound, 
 and it must be held very easily in solution. It should also 
 have an affinity for the fibre, a tendency to unite with it ; but 
 this property is not always essentially necessary, only the first 
 two are so, and they limit the mordants almost wholly to what 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 15 
 
 are termed the insoluble bases; that is, substances which 
 are not of themselves soluble in water. The principal and 
 most essential part of coloring is a right choice and proper 
 application of the various mordants : there being a chemical 
 union I)et\veen the mordant and coloring matter, a new sub- 
 stance is formed, differing not only in properties but in color 
 from any of the originals ; therefore, a very little alteration 
 in the strength or quality of the mordant gives an alteration 
 in the shade of the color. 
 
 Thus, by carefulfy studying the conditions of the mordants, 
 and the relation they have to the coloring matter, the reactions 
 which will take place under the varied circumstances of their 
 application, and what kind of reaction will be required to 
 obtain the results we want, the dyer will then find his trade 
 not only easy but pleasant and most interesting. He will also 
 find, that if the mind guides the hand, labor will not then be 
 felt as a curse or a degradation. This right choice of the 
 mordants to be used, and the alterations that the dyer can 
 make in them, gives him a much wider field for a variety of 
 shades, and, at the same time, a less number of colorinf^ sub- 
 stances are required; as, for instance, we know that logwood 
 alone gives no color to cotton which is worthy of the name of 
 color, yet, by a judicious application of a few different kinds 
 of mordants, we can obtain all the shades from a French white 
 to a violet, from a lavender to a purple, from a blue to a lilac, 
 and- from a slate to a black. In regard to mordants. Dr. 
 Bancroft, in his work on the Philosophy of Permanent Colors, 
 arranges all colors in two classes ; viz., substantive and adjec- 
 tive. By the former is understood those which, without the 
 aid of a mordant, become fixed upon the textile fibres in an 
 insoluble condition. By adjective colors is understood such 
 as require an intermediate substance (a mordant, in fact), to 
 become fixed upon the fibre in an insoluble condition. He 
 says : "To me, coloring matters seem to fall naturally under 
 two general classes. The first including those matters which, 
 when put into a state of solution, may be fixed with all the 
 
16 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 permanency of which the}' are susceptible, and made full}' to 
 exhibit their colors in or upon the dyed substance without the 
 interposition of any earthy or metallic basis. The colors of 
 the first class I shall call substantive, as denoting a thing solid, 
 by or depending only on itself; and the colors of the second 
 class I shall call adjegtive, as implying that their lustre and 
 permanency are acquired by their being adjected upon a suita- 
 ble basis." 
 
 "Eflrthy and metallic substances, when thus interposed, 
 serve not only as a bond of union between the coloring mat- 
 ter and the dyed substance, but they also modify as well as 
 fix the color; some of them, particularly the oxide of iron, 
 and the earth of alum, exalting and giving lustre to most of 
 the coloring matters with which they are united ; whilst 
 others, and especially the oxide of iron, blacken some, and 
 darken almost all such matters, if made to combine with 
 them." — Bancroft on Dyeing, Vol. 1, p. 118. 
 
 Mordants modify the original color that a dyeing material 
 yields ; for instance, wdth alumina mordants, madder will yield 
 pink, red, and scarlet, and with the salts of iron, according 
 to the degree of concentration, madder yields lilac, purple, 
 black, and, with certain salts of copper, madder will yield a 
 brown. 
 
 The theory of the action of mordants is connected in the 
 closest manner with that of dyeing. It may, in ffict, be 
 viewed under two different aspects. Often there exists a 
 true combination between the material to be colored, and the 
 coloring matter, — a combination which is only determined 
 by a veritable affinity between the coloring matter and the 
 material colored, and which presents a condition that is anal- 
 ogous to that which occurs in all chemical combinations ; that 
 is, a state of saturation, beyond which the union of these 
 bodies becomes of a very unstable character. At other times, 
 on the contrary, we regard the coloring of wool, silk, and 
 cotton, as produced by a mechanical phenomenon, by virtue 
 of which the colorin^: matters will become fixed or confined 
 
THE A3IERICAN DYER. 17 
 
 iu the meshes of organic tihiments contained in the material 
 to be colored. "It approximates the theory of dyeing to 
 some analogous phenomena which we find manifested by 
 animal charcoal on colored solutions ; for as the animal char- 
 coal seizes upon the coloring matters contained in an aqueous 
 solution, and renders them insoluble by tixing them in a 
 purely mechanical manner within its own pores, so may the 
 wool, the silk, and the cotton appropriate the coloring mat- 
 ters held in solution, and, by fixing them in their pores, ren- 
 der them more or less insoluble to water." The experience 
 of dyers has taught them that dyeing thus produced is always 
 lacking both in permanency and intensity, — two properties 
 which we obtain if we previously mordant the material before 
 attempting to color it. It can be easily seen that the mor- 
 dants can be fixed in the tissues of the material by similar 
 causes to those which determine the fixation of the coloriuij 
 matters by animal charcoal. Mordants that are insoluble of 
 themselves have to be dissolved in some suitable menstrua 
 before their particles can combine with the coloring matter, 
 or even enter into the fibres of the goods. The dyer must 
 attend to the degree of aflinity between the mordant and its 
 solvent, in order to determine what force the solvent will 
 exert against the mordant combining with the fibres of the 
 cloth, should there exist an affinity between them. Otherwise 
 a powerful mordant can be weakened by the attraction of it^ 
 solvent : fqr instance, common alum, at its greatest concentra- 
 tion, is a very feeble mordant for cotton, owing to the great 
 attraction between the alumina and sulphuric acid. Alum is, 
 however, a powerful mordant for wool or woolen fabrics, and 
 is generally used along with tartar, and often with the tin 
 solutions. The mordants employed for calico-printing are 
 chiefly such salts as are comparatively loose combinations of 
 acid and base, so that the latter can easily unite with the 
 fibre; and among the mordants chiefly used, the acetate 
 of alumina and iron occupy the first place, while alum, as a 
 solution of aluminate of soda, is now more rarely used. 
 3 
 
18 THE AMEPilCAX DYEK. 
 
 The mordant, or, more properly speaking, the solvent of 
 the base constituting the mordant, should not be capable of 
 injuring or destroying immediately, or by prolonged actioA, 
 either the coloring matter or fabric. Acids, of themselves, 
 do not serve as mordants, as they would destroy the color- 
 ins: or the fabric; but in cases where destructive acids have 
 to I)e used, they must be immediately washed off the fabric 
 in order to neutralize the acid before it has time to act upon 
 the color or tissue. The action of bases upon colors, and 
 the composition of those best fitted or adapted to give per- 
 manency and beauty, are a very important part of dyeing, 
 and should be thoroughly studied and understood b}' all those 
 who intend to follow the art of dyeing as a profession, and 
 expect to become proficient in the trade. We will not attempt 
 to discuss whether such substances as nutgalls, sumac, tan- 
 nin, or catechu, can really be termed mordants; but Ave find 
 that these substances, in cotton dyeing, are very essential for 
 fixing within the fibre of the cotton such quantities of the 
 metallic base or mordant as are required to give depth and 
 permanence to the color ; but as these astringent substances 
 are known to produce tints Avith the bases, the}', like mor- 
 dants, affords us a wider field for variety of color. Sumac, 
 nutgalls, and catechu, or cutch, are very extensively used 
 in cotton dyeing and printing, in connection with the metallic 
 bases, to fix, modify, and to give depth of colors, for which 
 these bases are applied. The mordants generall}' used for 
 silk and wool, do not act the part of mordants for cotton. 
 
 The following theor}'^ of actions of mordants, is condensed 
 from the "Pharmaceutical Times," vol. 2, p. 63, which says 
 that "cream of tartar, or bitartrate of potash, constitutes, of 
 itself, a very feeble mordant, but which is very often used 
 for dyeing w'ool or woolen goods, Avhen the dyer wishes to 
 give a delicate and brilliant shade. It is usually used along 
 with alum, the tin solutions, and sometimes with sulphate of 
 iron (copperas). Its infiuence, under these circumstances, 
 consists in determining a double decomposition, from which 
 
THE AMEPJCAX DYEK. 19 
 
 is produced a sulphate of potash (KOSO3), "i" chloride of 
 potassium (K CI), whilst the tartaric acid (QH.^O-i) (.•omhines 
 with the alumina (Al.Oa), the peroxide of iron (Fe^.O^), or 
 the oxide of tin (Sn O.,). Now it is very probable that the 
 coloring matters remove the alumina, the oxide of tin, or 
 peroxide of iron, more readily from tartaric acid than from 
 sulphuric acid (SO3). Moreover, the presence of free sul- 
 phuric acid would certainly prove injurious, as well to the 
 wool, as to the coloring matter, whilst free tartaric acid can 
 exercise no unfavorable action over them. 
 
 "The subjecting of the wool to an alum mordant, is al\va3'3 
 done at a boil ; the mixture used in this process, is a com- 
 pound of alum and cream of tartar. One of the objects of 
 this addition is to free the bath of the carbonate of lime 
 (Ca CO3), which most all waters contain in solution, and 
 which, acting upon the alum, would partly decompose it, by 
 producing an insoluble subsulphate of alumina and potash ; 
 this, accumulating upon the wool, and, becoming unevenly 
 fixed upon the surface, would leave clouds or blotches upon 
 the wool when it was taken .out of the cheing bath or tub. 
 
 "But independent of this effect, which might be produced 
 by an acid, cream of tartar appears to be capable of effect- 
 ing a farther object, by inducing a double decomposition, 
 which transforms the alum into a tartrate of alumina. 
 
 "Wool, or woolen cloth, when dipped in a cold solution 
 of alum, appropriates a part of the alum to itself, and yet 
 there is not seen any alteration in the wool ; but if the wool 
 or cloth is boiled in an alum solution, it }ields to this liquid 
 a portion of its organic matter, which becomes dissolved ; 
 but, at the same time, the wool absorbs an equal amount of 
 the alum. 
 
 " We have only to show the action which the wool under- 
 goes, when brought in contact with alum and cream of tartar, 
 at one and the same time. It is very possible that there may 
 be, iu this case, a simultaneous fixation of alum, as well as 
 of the double tartrate of alumina and potash, and of tartaric 
 
20 TiiE a:mericax dyer. 
 
 acid. The presence of alum in the wool or cloth, when taken 
 out of the boiliug solution, is very evident; but the presence 
 of tartrate of alumina and potash, and of free tartaric acid, 
 is only presumable. 
 
 "Silk, in the like manner, unites itself with alum when 
 placed in a cold solution of alum, and afterwards parts with 
 it to boiling water*; it may be reproduced from this liquor by 
 evaporation. The action of silk on acetate of alumina 
 (2AI..O.+3QH3O3) is identical with wool. It, at first, 
 absorbs the alum in its pure form, then, by desiccation, it 
 loses some acetic acid (C4H3O3), and retains a mixture of 
 the acetate, together with alumina in its free state ; it gives 
 up a farther portion of this acetate to boiling water. 
 
 "The alum mordant is always used cold for silk; if used 
 hot, it would destroy the lustre of the silk ; neither should 
 the bath contain tartar when used for silk. There will, 
 therefore, be no difficulty in imagining that silk, wool, 
 and cotton, may, in their character as porous bodies, purely 
 and simply seize upon the alum, and that the alum, when 
 once impregnated in the pores of the silk, wool, or cotton, 
 may afterwards react upon the coloring matter according as 
 the alum, in its turn, penetrates the interior of the silk, wool, 
 or cotton. 
 
 "It is certain that silk, wool, and cotton, possess, in a high 
 degree, the faculty of seizing upon the insoluble coloring 
 matters when these are presented to them in their nascent 
 state. AVe find that cotton is dyed a rose color in a solution 
 that contains carthamic acid in suspension, arising from the 
 decomposition of carthamate of soda by an acid. In the 
 same manner, we find wool will acquire a dark slate color by 
 being immersed in a solution of copperas and tannin, by 
 attracting to itself the black precipitate which results from 
 mixture of the iron salt and tannin. Consequently, although 
 the dyer endeavors to produce the insolubLe compound, on< 
 which the coloring of the material depends, within th§ very 
 pores of the tissue, still we may affirm that, in many cases. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 21 
 
 the cloth or other material, when placed in presence of the 
 nascent precipitate, has the property of seizing upon it, and 
 thus acquiring a shade of greater or less intensity. 
 
 Dumas says : " This property is due to some undetermined 
 and yet unknown cause, and must undoubtedly be referred to 
 the reaction that takes place between the alum and the soluble 
 coloring matters, as well as to some other mysterious phe- 
 nomena which take place in dyeing. If not, how are we to 
 account for the wool so easily and readilj' assuming a scarlet 
 color, while in silk and cotton we are unable to fix the proper 
 scarlet color? Or how can we understand why certain colors 
 should become more permanently fixed on certain kinds of 
 materials than on others, unless it is by virtue of sonie special 
 action, designated by the name of affinity, but which does 
 not the less constitute a force, or rather a consequence of 
 diverse forces of which we must take full account daring the 
 difierent manipulations of dyeing." 
 
 To confound, in fact, a chemical affinity, so called, such as 
 is evidenced in ordinary chemical combinations, when pro- 
 duced in definite proportions, with the phenomena of dyeing, 
 is to mix together two very distinct ideas. For instance, we 
 find the union of wool with indigo, and silk with Prussian 
 blue, quite a difierent operation to the combination of lead 
 with sulphur. But if we should consider the material to be 
 colored as a simple filter and to be capable of retaining in its 
 pores certain precipitates, and of receiving from these pre- 
 cipitates a certain color or colors, we should go equally as 
 far in the opposite direction. Neither would this supposition 
 explain the manner in which a colored lac is formed in a 
 greater part of the operations of- dyeing, operations which 
 are efiected by an alum or an aluminous salt and a coloring 
 solution, altogether incapable of producing any lac, except 
 by adding an alkali for the purpose of setting at liberty the^ 
 alumina, or of a material which has the power of taking up 
 that lac as soon as it shall be formed. 
 
 The experiments of Chevrueil show us that the material and 
 
22 THE AjNIERICAN DYER. 
 
 the color, when they are once united, will form products that 
 are possessed of properties which differ according to the 
 nature of the material even in the same given color. There- 
 fore, the properties of the coloring matter are modified by 
 the peculiar action of the wool or fabric on the dye. There 
 are very many examples that place this assertion beyon'd all 
 cavil. It is very necessary that the mordants should have a 
 prime equivalent to the coloring matter, and that the doctrine 
 of prime equivalents be brought into practical operation in 
 the art of dyeing ; for as the dyestuffs and mordants do natu- 
 rally combine in determinate and definite quantities only, we 
 should, in forming colors, take merely that just proportion or 
 prime equivalent of each of the constituents necessary to form 
 that definite combination, as an excess of either of them is a 
 loss in the materials or an injury to the fabric or color. 
 
 What these combining proportions are in every case we 
 have yet to learn by a series of well-conducted experiments. 
 A table or tables of the prime equivalents of the different 
 chemical salts to that of the different coloring materials would 
 be of the greatest importance to the economy and successful 
 operations in dyeing. 
 
 It is onl}^ by an attentive and systematic study of the 
 specific properties of the mordants and coloring matters in 
 their relation to each other that we can hope to direct the 
 future progress of dyeing to its ultimate perfection ; for it is 
 only the nicest arrangement of chemical laws that enables 
 the dyer to turn to his advantage the different coloring mat- 
 ters he may be in possession of, and we find that the art of 
 dj^eing is wholly dependent upon chemistry for its full devel- 
 opment and successful practice ; and this being the fact, no 
 person should attempt the practice of dyeing without first 
 being conversant with chemistry, at least that particular 
 branch of chemistry that is in connection with or is applied 
 to the art of dyeing or making artificial colors, if he expects 
 to make a skilful dyer or meet with successful results for 
 himself or employer. 
 
THE AM ERIC AX DYER. 23 
 
 " Sometimes there are circumstances or powers occurring- 
 in the operations of dyeing which interfere with or direct 
 chemical affinity in the particles of bodies, so that one l)ody 
 often induces a chemical change in another body and at the 
 same time will not undergo any change itself. 
 
 "This power or affinity is termed catalysis, and a ^oo(\. 
 instance of this power or affinity we iind in fermentation. 
 For instance, if we put a little yeast in beer to induce fer- 
 mentation in all the solution, we will find that the yeast 
 remains unaltered ; or if we boil starch with weak or diluted 
 sulphuric acid, the starch will be first changed into gum and 
 afterwards int!D sugar; but, notwithstanding the above-named 
 changes, we find the sulphuric acid is unaltered, either in 
 quantity or propert3^ 
 
 " There are a large number of substances which possess 
 this property, of catalytic influence; and, if so, it is not un- 
 likely that such fibrous materials as woolen, silk, and cotton 
 should possess it towards some of the vegetable colorino- 
 substances used in dyeing. Many of the operations in the 
 dye-house show to us the presence of some such power, but 
 the nature of this power is not yet fully understood." 
 
 The force of affinity is largely influenced by the conditions 
 in which the bodies we wish to combine are placed. Solid 
 bodies generally have no chemical action one upon the other ; 
 for which reason it is necessary that they be brought into the 
 liquid state before any chemical change can take place. This 
 is necessary in all the operations of dyeing, not only to cause 
 combination, but to allow the particles to penetrate the fibre 
 of the material we wish to operate upon, and while there, to 
 be operated upon by the affinity of another body^ also in 
 solution, brought into contact with them. This is a very 
 essential condition of all dyestuflfs, and of all salts we wish 
 to use in dyeing, either as mordants or dyes, and this should 
 never be lost sight of when studying either the philosophy or 
 practical operations of dyeing ; for if there is anything that 
 interferes with the free operation of these conditions, or rather 
 
24 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 solubility, it will hinder or put back the process or else injure 
 the dyeing solution. 
 
 "We will here mention, that the introduction of the term 
 catah/sis was only considered useful as bringing into one class 
 or group a certain class of phenomena ; but the same might 
 be said of the useful term affiniti/. But when our knowledge 
 of these jjowers, which are hidden, is more advanced, perhaps 
 then all these phenomena can be accounted for, and arranged 
 under the operation of some one universal power or law." 
 
 In the first part of this article we alluded to the antiquity 
 of the art of dyeing'; yet notwithstanding its antiquity, there 
 have been made some of the most wonderful improvements in 
 the art within the last twenty years, by which the old proc- 
 esses have been completely revolutionized. And these 
 improvements are due to the patience and profound investiga- 
 tions of chemists, and not by chance or accident, but by 
 those chemists w^ho are enira^ed in solving some of the high- 
 est and most abstruse problems. 
 
 Among these illustrious chemists are such names as Hoff- 
 mann, Nicholson, Poirrier, and others, and although none of 
 the above-named eminent men are practical dyers, yet by 
 their profound and scientific investigations dyeing has been 
 elevated to its proper rank as an art ; and to them and other 
 illustrious and scientific men, are dyers, and even the world 
 at large, indebted, for by their profound and laborious inves- 
 tigations of the different processes of dyeing, and their cor- 
 rect elaborate analysis of the materials used, and by identify- 
 ing and connecting its principles with chemical science and 
 knowledge, they have brought the art into notice as con- 
 nected closely with chemistry, and given it a pre-eminence 
 as one of those arts which are dependent upon chemistry and 
 chemical knowledge for its economical and successful prac- 
 tice. They have given us useful and minute descriptions of 
 the materials we as dyers have to make use of. They have 
 given us clear and correct explanations of all those chemical 
 changes which take place in many of the different processes 
 
THE a:mericax dyer. 25 
 
 of dyeing, and have given us satisfactory accounts of some 
 of the most complicated and inexplicable combinations which 
 often occur in dyeing. They have more especially dis- 
 tinguished themselves by their discoveries of new dyeing or 
 coloring materials which are fast taking the place of the old 
 materials. 
 
 THE NATURE OF COLORS. 
 
 " Strictly speaking, colors have no existence, but are the 
 effects of light ; or, at least, colors do not exist in the objects 
 that appear to be colored, but in the light which is reflected 
 from the apparently colored object. 
 
 " To define color we will briefly state what is known upon 
 the nature and composition of light. 
 
 "A beam of light is composed of three distinct colored 
 rays : red, blue, and yellow. When a beam strikes the sur- 
 face of a body it bounds off as an elastic ball would do in 
 striking the same surface, and this bounding off is called 
 reflection; or it is absorbed by the body and disappears and 
 is altogether extinguished, or it passes through the body, 
 making it transparent." 
 
 "The bounding or reflecting rays pass into the eye, and 
 the article or substance from which it is reflected appears 
 white or some particular color. No light can proceed from 
 the object to the eye, it being absorbed and extinguished, the 
 body therefore will be invisible ; or, if the surrounding 
 objects reflect light the article or substance appears black, 
 but if the light passes through unaltered it will appear clear. 
 Thus what it is custom to call white lio:ht is the simultaneous 
 transmission of three colored rays." " For instance, if you 
 admit light into a daili room through a small hole in a win- 
 dow-shutter, and a glass prism is placed in the hole, and 
 opposite to it, on the wall of the room, place a piece of white 
 
 4 
 
26 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 paper, so that the light passing through the hole 'will strike 
 upon the paper, you will see that the light is decomposed and 
 will appear upon the paper in the following order : 
 
 Violet, 
 
 Green, 
 
 Orange, 
 
 Indigo, 
 
 Yellow,* 
 Blue.* 
 
 Red,* 
 
 " These are called the seven prismatic colors ; those that are 
 marked thus * are the simple or primary colors ; that is, they 
 require no admixture to produce them, but the others do ; 
 the orange is a mixture of red and yellow, the green requires 
 a blue and yellow, the indigo requires the admixture of the 
 blue and red ; the same with the violet. The prism through 
 ■which the light passed into the room, from its shape, effects 
 a complete disturbance of the light, which causes the ditier- 
 ent colors to be seen on the paper. Similar disturbances and 
 ejffects are produced when light is reflected from a surface. 
 The different combinations of the red, yellow, and blue 
 which produce the various shades of color, are produced 
 according to the rate of the disturbing influence upon the 
 different rays of light. And as every chemical change affects 
 the character of the substance in its relation to light, the 
 dyer's object is to cause a combination with the wool, silk, 
 cotton, and other textile fabrics that will produce certain 
 effects upon light, and thereby produce different colors or 
 shades. The following very simple experiment will illustrate 
 how great is the production of colors dependent upon their 
 relation to the substance of light. 
 
 "Take a solution of iodide of potassium (KI), which is 
 colorless and transparent, and divide it into three equal parts ; 
 into one proportion pour a little sugar of lead (Pb O, 
 C4H3O3), into the other a persalt of mercury (Hg CI2 = cor- 
 rosive sublimate), and into the third a* little starch, with a 
 few drops of nitric acid (NO^). These are all colorless sub- 
 stances (when in solution by themselves), but after mixing 
 
THE AMERICAI^^ DYER. 27 
 
 them we will have in the first a deep and beautiful yellow 
 color: in the s<?cond, a red ; and in the third, a blue." 
 
 Thus we see that the three primary colors can be produced 
 with the same substance when it is combined with other sub- 
 stances, which were, previous to the combination, colorless. 
 And although this experiment, and the remarks made preced- 
 ing it, go to prove that color has no material existence in 
 the substance which appears to be colored, the question is 
 still one of chemical action. 
 
 A chemical compound alone can be produced that will vie 
 with nature in the brilliancy and beauty of its shade ; yet, if 
 that is produced within the fibre of the wool, silk, or cotton, 
 the light will have to be transmitted through the wool, silk, 
 or cotton, as a medium, and the fibre of these sul>stances not 
 being transparent, w-e find that the original beauty of the color 
 will be greatly diminished. For which reason the same color, 
 if fixed within the fibre of those three materials, will have a 
 different appearance in each of them. These circumstances, 
 when viewed in all their relative positions, will afl"ord the dyer 
 subjects for constant study and experiments. We cannot 
 follow nature in its production of colors; for should the d3'er 
 try to produce a icJiite by mixing the red, yellow, and blue 
 in exact proportions, he would obtain a black instead of a 
 white. But the producing of white by the combining of the 
 three primary colors, is an every-day occurrence with the 
 practical bleacher. No matter what the process for bleach- 
 ing the goods has been, they will come out of the bleach 
 having alwiiys a brownish-yellow tinge to them ; and if the 
 goods are cotton, a little indigo blue is added, and the result 
 is a purer white. If the goods are silk, they will have a 
 much more yellow tinge than there is on cotton, and to get 
 rid of this yellow tinge on silk, the bleacher adds a little 
 Prussian blue and cochineal, or what is most commonly used 
 is archil, which gives a violet color. The amount of these 
 materials used will vary according to the depth of yellow on 
 the silk, the result being a very beautiful white. 
 
28 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 By the preceding observations we come to the conclusion 
 that color is the result of the abstraction of the celestial hues 
 from the solar beams by the aflBnity of the coloring matter for 
 it, and the coloring matter coming in contact with metallic 
 oxides, the different hues or colors are fully developed and 
 shown to the human eye as they. are from'a prism ; and all 
 the colors, whether they are natural or artificial, or on what- 
 ever seen, have once been beams of light in the heavens, and 
 the impregnation of the coloring matter with a ray of light, 
 and then being by it transferred to an oxide, which then 
 reflects upon the eye, constitutes the whole philosophy of 
 colors ; and the dyer, when engaged in his profession, is per- 
 forming the operation of transfusing celestial hues through 
 terrestrial substances. He is imbuing material substance with 
 the immateriality of light. 
 
 " Color consists of parts and substances only, and combining 
 these substances or materials in the best mauuer, and then 
 fastening them permanentlj' upon the different fabrics, and 
 with a knowledge of the chemicals on Avhich these effects are 
 based or founded, is what constitutes the skill of the dyer." 
 
 THE PROPERTIES OF COLORS, AND THEIR RELA- 
 TION TO THE ART OF DYEING. 
 
 From Gibson's System axd Sciexce of Colors. 
 
 "The cause of dyestuffs giving a color with metallic or 
 earthy salts, is owing to a peculiar principle which they con- 
 tain ; that is, a crystallized body, when pure, having a greater 
 affinity for metals and earths than it has for any other sub- 
 stance, precipitating them when held iu solution by either 
 acids or alkalies, and producing compounds or lakes of but 
 slight solubility, which have a natural tendency to enter into 
 
THE AMERICi^S^ DYER. 29 
 
 combination with animal fibre, the force of whose combined 
 attractions, water or other common agents are not capable of 
 separating. 
 
 "To this precipitate we give the name of color; and the 
 knowledge of making it, with the subsequent process of com- 
 bining it with wool or manufactured fabrics, we designate as 
 the art of dyeing or coloring. 
 
 ^ A color, therefore, is a chemical compound or colored salt ; 
 and coloring, or dyeing, is a chemical art. 
 
 "On mixing two clear solutions, one of coloring matter, 
 and the. other of a metallic or earthy salt, the substances that 
 are held in solution pass immediately from the liquid to the 
 solid state. In some cases this change is sudden and instan- 
 taneous, and the sqlid result falls rapidly to the bottom of the 
 vessel as an insoluble powder. In other cases the mixed 
 liquors gradually assume opaqueness ; and* soon a separation 
 takes place, and a broken, curd-like matter slowly subsides to 
 the bottom, and lies in a loose, flocky state, which the least 
 agitation causes to rise into the supernatant liquor. It is 
 slightly soluble. This passage from liquidity to solidity is the 
 first eiFect perceived on the formation of color. 
 
 "The first of these transitions being perfectly insolul)le, the 
 aggregate possesses not the slightest tendency to unite with 
 animal or vegetable fibre. Consequently, an insoluble color 
 can never be chemically combined with any animal or vegeta- 
 ble matter at a single operation in dyeing, or applied as a 
 topical color in calico-printing ; and if it were attempted, the 
 result would be a mere mechanical adhesion of the particles of 
 color to the article to be colored, which mere washing in water 
 would remove. This shows that dyeing is not a mechanical 
 fixation of color, but a chemical combination of it with the 
 substance to be colored. 
 
 "But as the component parts of this insoluble color have 
 each, when separate, a strong inclination to combine with 
 animal and vegetable tissues, and also with each other, the 
 process of dyeing is effected by first impregnating the fabric 
 
30 THE AMEEICAX DYER. 
 
 with the oxide of the salt used, and then passing it through a 
 sohition of the coloring matter. 
 
 "The perfectly insoluble colors are mostly mineral, and 
 their specific g'ravities are much greater than those that are 
 partially soluble, or whose color is obtained from the vegeta- 
 ble dyestufts. The character of insolubility gives to a color 
 the power of resisting decomposition by light, and the action 
 of the atmosphere. The mineral colors possess this quality 
 in a more eminent .degree than such colors as are derived 
 from vegetables. 
 
 " The most insoluble colors are therefore the most durable, 
 and those which are extremely soluble are the most fugitive, 
 and there is not an instance where a very soluble or liquid 
 color is a permanent one. As a proof of this assertion, we 
 will take the sulphate of indigo (chemic), which is soluble to 
 an unlimited extdnt, but is remarkably fugitive ; while the 
 indigo from which it was prepared, is the most durable color 
 afforded by the vegetable kingdom. There are other exam- 
 ples of this kind. 
 
 "We will return from this digression to the second or 
 partially soluble kind of color, which are almost all those col- 
 ors employed by woolen dyers ; the vegetable dyestuffs not 
 forming absolute insoluble compounds with the metals and 
 earths, excepting in the case of indigo, and, perhaps, one or 
 two more instances. This kind of color is that which forms 
 the topical colors (see calico-printing), or the colors of appli- 
 cation of the calico and woolen printer; or such as (all the 
 materials of the color being mixed together) are then applied 
 at once by the block, and afterwards fixed by steaming, called 
 steam colors. 
 
 " The slight degree of solubility in a color of this kind is 
 the cause of its direct union with animal or vegetable fibres ; 
 because the whole force of the respective affinities of the sub- 
 stance that compose the color, not having been required to 
 produce insolubility, there still remains in each of the con- 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 31 
 
 stitiients, a power of combining with a third substance, or 
 the article to be colored. 
 
 "Whereas, in an insoluble color, the whole force of the 
 two affinities having been expended upon each other in order 
 to produce insolubility, there exists no attraction in this com- 
 pound for the fabric to which it should be applied ; hence 
 the impossibility of combining such a color with animal or 
 vegetable tissues. 
 
 "Therefore, such colors as are the most insoluble are those 
 whose constituents are drawn together by an attraction so 
 powerful, as to neutralize the affinities which have produced 
 it, and where the metal in the compound exists in a highlv 
 oxidized state, and the coloring principle, in conjunction with 
 it, exhibits the character of an acid; and, as these properties 
 of the insoluble color have all to be transferred to the soluble 
 one, before it can possess the utmost degree of permanence 
 of which it is susceptible, the addition of a third substance, 
 capal)le of communicating these qualities to it, becomes 
 absolutely necessary in the composition of colors for wool or 
 woolen goods. 
 
 "It will be seen that the substance to be employed for this 
 purpose must have the power of combining with ])oth the 
 color and the matter that is to be colored, as well as a strono- 
 inclination to form a solid combination with them. These 
 powers and tendencies Ave find to exist in tartar, in an emi- 
 nent degree, besides having the property of minutely divid- 
 ing the particles of color, and softening the action of the 
 mordant upon the animal fibre. 
 
 "Practice and experience have long ago taught woolen-dyers 
 the advantage of employing tartar as a useful auxiliary in the 
 composition of coloring solutions, without any knowledge of 
 the theory by which these advantages could be accounted for. 
 This accounts for the great use of tartar in such colors as arc 
 applied at one operation in woolen-dyeing. Tartaric, citric, 
 oxalic, and other crystallizable acids, modify the shade and 
 render the color more insoluble, but, having great acid 
 
32 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 powers, they will quickly re-dissolve their original precipi- 
 tates, so that they are not so well adapted for this purpose as 
 their super-salts would be, which, having less solubility than 
 the uncombined acids, increase the permanency of the color 
 in proportion to their degree of insolubility and disposition 
 to preserve a solid combination. 
 
 "For this reason the salts, with excess of acid, are better 
 qualified to form ingredients in the mordant of a color than 
 their respective acids, when in a free and more soluble state ; 
 and, in the whole number of these salts now used by woolen- 
 dyers, the supertartrate of potash (or cream of tartar) is the 
 best adapted to obtain the desired end ; but, in cotton-dyeing 
 and calico-printing, no advantageous use can be made of it 
 for this purpose ; it will unite with color, but it has no affinity 
 to combine with vegetable fibre ; it prevents the fixation of 
 the color u[)on the cotton fabric, and this resistance by the 
 acid to the application of color to vegetable fibre, is the 
 reason why the proper scarlet color of the woolen-dyer can- 
 not be fixed upon cotton or linen goods in cotton-dyeing or 
 calico-printing, for the excessive acid constitution of this 
 color prevents the complete saturation of the fabric with it. 
 
 ''The brilliancy of color depends upon the purity of its 
 component substances, and its intensit}^ upon the multiplicity 
 of particles in a given volume of it ; or, when the mass of 
 precipitate is minutely subdivided into a vast number of 
 smaller portions of color ; or, upon the amount of points 
 from which the colored ray is projected upon the eye. 
 
 "In the operation of dyeing, supertartrate of potash pro- 
 motes this subdivision of the particles of color, and the vio- 
 lence of ebullition greatly accelerates their comminution, as 
 also the high temperature of steam, in the process of fixing 
 colors by steam. 
 
 "Those colors whose specific gravities are the greatest, are 
 those' whose particles are the most infinite, and^ in conse- 
 quence of this, possess the greatest intensity or vivacity ; 
 they are also the most insoluble, and, of course, they will be 
 
THE AMERICAX DYER. 83 
 
 the niosl peinument : they are those colors in whose compo- 
 sition an acid enters, cither as the coloring principle, or as a 
 modifier of the colors. They are the mineral colors, or colors 
 that have been made to approach to the- nature of mineral 
 colors, by the addition of an acid salt, which has greatly 
 multiplied their particles, and produced the insoluble state in 
 them. 
 
 "The ailinities of color, for such fabrics as it is. customary 
 to dye, are greatest for animal substances ; next for vegeto- 
 animal, and, last, for vegetable matters, or, in order, wool, 
 silk, and cotton. In consequence of these degrees of attrac- 
 tion which exist between cohn*, and the substances to be 
 colored, there is found to be a difterence in the ease with 
 which they can be imbued with color, in proportion to their 
 respective atiinitics ; and, on this inequality in the attractive 
 forces, originates the necessity of employing different methods 
 and processes for combining the same color with wool, silk, 
 or cotton, in the operation of dyeing them." 
 
 From these observations we come to the following conclu- 
 sions : — 
 
 Fir.sf. That if a metallic or earthy salt is mixed with 
 coloring matter in solution, a precipitate which is more or 
 less soluble is formed. This precipitate is called color. 
 
 Second. This precipitate is composed of the oxide of the 
 metal or earthy salt employed and the coloring matter, and 
 a great excess of acid, or of coloring matter, \\\\\ re-dis- 
 solve a part, and sometimes all of the precipitate which was 
 first formed. 
 
 Thivd. The mixed solution, after the color is precipitated, 
 contains the acid of such salts as were employed to pre- 
 cipitate the coloring matter, and, in some cases, retains a 
 small amount of the coloring matter with it ; but if the color- 
 ing matter should be in union with an alkali (prussiate (^f 
 potash for instance), in this case, the supernatant li(|U()r con- 
 tains an alkaline salt, composed of the acid of the metallic or 
 earthy salt and the alkali that was in conjunction with the 
 5 
 
34: THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 coloring matter. Here ca double decomposition has been 
 effected, and the solution is colorless. 
 
 Fourth. Color may be considered, in relation to dyeing, 
 as of three kinds : the insoluble, the partly soluble, and the 
 very soluble, or liquid. 
 
 Fifth. The insoluble will only unite to a fabric by virtue 
 of the affinities which its component parts have, when sepa- 
 rate, for the fabric and for each other. It is the most perma- 
 nent kind of color. 
 
 Sixth. The partly soluble more readily enters into com- 
 bination with the subjects of dyeing in the aggregate state ; 
 its sparing solu])ility aiding it to fix itself on the material to 
 be dyed. It is less permanent than the insoluble kind. 
 
 Seventh. The very soluble, or liquid color, may be con- 
 sidered as only a modification of the other kinds, rendered 
 more soluble by the agency of an alkaline or acid menstruum, 
 which, in acting as a medium of solubility, exercises so great 
 an action upon it, as frequently to change its nature and 
 destroy its durability. It very easily fixes itself upon a 
 fabric, and is very fugitive. 
 
 Eighth. Color has a natural tendency to combine with 
 animal and vegetable fibre, either in its aggregate state, or 
 by its component parts, separately, being capable of uniting 
 with them ; and the effect or result produced by these affini- 
 ties is termed dyeing. 
 
 Ninth. The affinities of color, or its separate constituents, 
 for animal, vegetable, or vegeto-animal substances to be col- 
 ored, are the greatest for wool ; next, for silk and furs ; then, 
 for cotton and linen. AYoolen and linen are placed at the 
 extreme of the scale, and silk, which is partly vegetable and 
 partly animal matter, occupies a medium situation between 
 the two. Therefore, by combining the methods, &c., for 
 coloring wool and linen, and taking the mean result as the 
 determinate manner of dyeing the vegeto-animal matters in 
 general, it ought to give us those processes, &c., which will 
 answer best for silk. Experiment confirms this observation. 
 
THE AMERICxSJN^ DYEE. 35 
 
 Tenth. The brillianc}', brightness, or beauty of color, 
 depends upon the purity of its component substances. 
 
 Eleventh. The intensity or vivacity of color, consists in 
 the fineness and number of the particles or points projecting 
 the color, or upon the amount of surfaces reflecting the 
 light. 
 
 Twelfth. The permanence of color is in proportion to its 
 approximation to the solid state, or its disposition to form an 
 ins(iluble compound. 
 
 "The insoluble colors are perfectly fast; the partly soluble 
 ones are moderately so ; the colors which dissolve to an un- 
 limited extent are very fugitive. But the amount of perma- 
 nency can be increased in a color possessing little solubility, 
 by the addition of a definite amount of tartar." 
 
 It has been shown in the beginning of the above extract, 
 that if ,a metallic or earthy salt were poured into a solution 
 of coloring matter, it will immediately precipitate the col- 
 oring matter, that precipitate being called color, &c. This 
 precipitate will again become soluble in the scjution from 
 which it was formed, by boiling the solution, and it will com- 
 bine with the wool or fabric while in a state of solubility, and 
 after the wool has been brought to the .particular depth of 
 color desired, should we continue the boiling, the color is seen 
 to grow poorer, or, we may say, the color boils off. The cause 
 of this phenomenon is, the coloring matter is in excess of the 
 mordant, which causes a reaction to take place ; the coloring- 
 matter has begun to re-dissolve the precipitate that was formed 
 and had fixed itself upon the wool or fabric. To remedy this 
 we have to give it more mordant by saddening wnth such 
 metallic or earthy salts as the particular color or shade 
 requires. This boiling off of the color is very noticeable in 
 coloring scarlet, but more especially in coloring black on 
 cotton, when, after the color is brought up rich and full (if 
 the coloring matter in the dyeing bath is in excess of the 
 mordant upon the cotton to take up all the coloring matter), 
 it will begin to grow paler or more slaty colored, the longer 
 
36 THE AMERICAX DYER. 
 
 you leave it in the coloring solution, and finally it will come 
 down to a slate color instead of being a black. 
 
 This proves that when the coloring matter is in excess, it 
 has the propert}'' of dissolving its own insoluble precipitate. 
 This also shows or points out the necessity of the dyer exer- 
 cising a great amount of care and judgment in proportioning 
 the mordants and dyestuffs in relative quantities, in order that 
 they may saturate each other without having either of them 
 in the bath as a useless superfluity, but if either of thqm is 
 allowed to exceed the other, let it be the mordant. But to 
 obviate this boiling off, as it is termed, whenever the wool, 
 cotton, or fabric has been brought up to the desired shade, 
 draw off the tub or kettle, or else take out the yarn or cloth 
 for fear of the color changing by too long au exposure to the 
 action of the colorins: solution. 
 
 REMARKS ON COTTON-DYEING. 
 
 Cotton is colored in the raw state, in yarn and in the 
 woven fabric, but more generall\' in the 3'arn. All dyers are 
 aware that it is more difficult to fix colors upon cotton per- 
 manently than it is either upon silk or wool, as it requires 
 stronger and different mordants for cotton than for wool. 
 
 In coloring cotton in the raw state, w^e abridge the follow- 
 ing remarks upon the subject from Gibson's System and 
 Science of Colors: "In dyeing raw cotton, we seem to be 
 performing an operation contrary to its nature, for it has au 
 obstinate aversion to imbibe the liquid color, or even the mor- 
 dant which is intended to combine with the coloring matter, 
 and when by excessive boiling the cotton has been forced to 
 absorb a certain quantity of the liquid, it will retain it with 
 such tenacity'' that no common draining will clear it from 
 watery solution of the mordant sufficiently to enable it to 
 receive the full benefit of coloring solutions. Its very feeble 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 37 
 
 affinity for coloring matters is another difficulty that the dyers 
 have to contend with, and colors in most cases seem to com- 
 bine with it only through the intervention of a third substance." 
 This third substance we will term tannin, or impregnating the 
 cotton with some astringent substance before applying the 
 mordant; this astringent substance we obtain from sumac, 
 nutgalls, or cutch ; and for yaru-dyeing, divi divi is used. 
 It api)ears that cotton has a very strong attraction for the 
 materials named above ; therefore, we see the propriety of 
 first giving the cotton the tannin operation before we apply 
 the mordant, previously to immersing it in the coloring solu- 
 tion, especially for dark colors and all other colors that will 
 bear such a foundation." 
 
 " The operation of giving the cotton the tannin preparation 
 before the mordant is applied, is not so much a dyeing opera- 
 tion as it is a preparatory step to the succeeding processes of 
 fixinji" the color in the fibre of the cotton. It is not in this 
 sense a dye or color, but only the agent or medium whereby 
 a union is more easily elfected between the cotton to be 
 colored and the coloring matter to be used. 
 
 "The process of tanning hides and the sumacing of cotton 
 are so similar or identical that the sumacing of the cotton is 
 not inaptly called the tannin process, to distinguish from 
 those operations which produce the color." 
 
 " When cotton has been subjected to an}' process prepara- 
 tory to receiving the coloring matter, whether that process, 
 consisted in sumacing or mordanting, or even to partially 
 color it, we have observed that it was very difficult to drain 
 out the superfluous liquor, and that this liquor of the first 
 process being carried in the raw cotton into that of a dillerent 
 kind in the second process, either partially destroyed the 
 latter solution or would prevent it from having its full elfect." 
 Therefore, we should use the extractor to take out all liquor 
 possible from the cotton before we immerse it in the next 
 solution. In cotton-yarn dyeing, this can be done sufficiently 
 by luringing the yaru thoroughly. 
 
38 THE AMEEICAX DYER. 
 
 "The coloring of wool and the coloring of cotton differ 
 greatly, for the result of dyeing is very different upon the 
 two materials, that of cotton being a mechanical fixation of 
 color iij)on the fibre of the cotton; but the coloring of wool is 
 a cltemical combination of the color witJtin the fibres of the 
 two?." 
 
 "The inferiority in point of permanency of colors on cot- 
 ton to those on wool is the great object of the dy^r to over- 
 come, and can only be done by first bringing the cotton into 
 such a state for receiving and retaining color, which he can 
 do by exposing it to the tannin process, or by animalizing 
 it. Secondly, then, in a fresh bath or solution, submitting 
 the cotton to the mordant process, which is a solution of 
 metallic or earthy salts. Then, finally, subjecting it to the 
 dyeing process in another solution, composed of such coloring 
 matters as that particular color will require, taking care 
 through all these processes to keep them isolated, so that no 
 portion of one solution shall be carried into the succeeding 
 one ; and this can be done by extracting the cotton between 
 each process or operation." 
 
 REMARKS ON COTTON-YARX DYEING. 
 
 Blue is colored upon cotton-yarn by first passing it through 
 a nitrate of iron solution, and afterwards worked through a 
 solution of yellow prussiate of potash, acidulated with either 
 muriatic or sulphuric acid. The yarn should be washed off 
 after it comes out of the iron solution before it is put into the 
 prussiate solution, in order to free it from the superfluous 
 acid and iron ; the yarn is then passed through the prussiate 
 solution for fifteen or twenty minutes. Considerable care 
 must be taken in adding the acid to the prussiate solution, or 
 else the color is very liable to change, becoming gray after it 
 is dried. The best method, and most proper one, is first to 
 
THE AMEIUCAX DYEK. 39 
 
 tlissolvc the pru.ssiate in hot Wiiter, then to add it to the 
 tub of cold water in which you intend to coh)r ; then add 
 sufficient i5ul[)hniic acid to the solution to have it perceptil)le 
 to the taste. 
 
 The above method is for eight shades of blue ; but for deep 
 shades the yarn is passed through a strong nitrate of iron 
 solution, then from the iron-tub through a potash lye solution 
 (which will fix the iron oxide upon the yarn), then pass it 
 through the prussiate-tui). But a still darker and better blue 
 may be obtained by adding to the nitrate of iron solution 
 some tin crystals. Pass the yarn through this solution, then 
 enter it immediately into the prussiate solution, to which has 
 been added some muriatic acid. You must pass the yarn 
 from the iron solution, without washing, into the prussiate 
 solution. This method gives a full, deep, rich blue, and is 
 the most generally used of any. The muriatic acid gives 
 a purple bloom to the color, which sulphuric acid docs not. 
 (See recipes for blue on cotton-yarn.) 
 
 Nankeen color is produced by merely passing the yarn 
 through a nitrate of iron solution. This is the easiest color 
 made upon cotton, and at the same time it is very permanent. 
 If the yarn is passed through a weak soap solution after it is 
 taken from the iron-tub, it gives a clearness to the shade ; 
 besides, it will soften the yarn ; but the yarn must be washed 
 from the iron-bath before it is put inio the soap solution. 
 
 Purples, reds, clarets, and such shades are produced by 
 tirst steeping the yarn in sumac, then passing it through the 
 spirit-tub (plumb-tub), then through logwood, with a little 
 spirits. The spirits for these shades vary, and are n)ade 
 diirerently. The manner of making them can be found in 
 another part of this work. (See Mordants. for Cotton.) 
 
 In using barwood for any of the al)ove shades, it being so 
 slightly soluble in- water, it should be thrown lo(Jse into the 
 dye-tui), and after being boiled, the yarn is put into the solu- 
 tion ; the yarn, having tirst been sumacked, and then passed 
 through the spirit-tub, will combine with and take up all the 
 
40 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 dissolved color ; the water becoming exhausted of color will 
 now dissolve more of the color from the barwood, which will 
 be again taken up by the yarn, and so on until the tin which 
 is upon the yarn becomes saturated with the color. The 
 color is then at its richest and bri<>htest hue. A fjreat deal 
 of experience and attention is required of the dyer to l)e able 
 to decide the exact time to take the yarn out of the barwood 
 solution, otherwise he may have a brownish red by leaving it 
 in too long, or have a poor color by taking it out too soon. 
 The yarn must be thoroughly washed after coming out of the 
 spirit-tub, before putting it into the barwood solution, for if 
 there were any loose tin-liquor upon the yarn, the dye wood 
 being in the tub, loose, will take up this loose mordant and 
 will become more or less colored, and thus retain a portion of 
 the coloring matter which should go upon the yarn. For 
 this reason the yarn must be washed from the spirits. Inat- 
 tention to this is the greatest cause of the colors not being of 
 the same shade ; even with the best of care and attention the 
 wood-grounds will con>e out of the bath richly colored. 
 
 Purpurine and alizarine are now largely used for coloring 
 reds upon cotton-yarn, as well as for printing red upon 
 cotton-cloth. 
 
 Yellow was formerly colored on cotton-yarn by acetate of 
 alumina and quercitron bark, or fustic, which is a fast color 
 on cotton when colored by these substances. In connection 
 with this method of coloring yellow, some very interesting 
 facts were obtained from Mr. Thom by Parnell, who gives 
 them in his Applied Chemistry, from which we abridge the 
 following: "Alumina has a stronger attraction for the color- 
 ing matter of madder than for that of logwood, and a 
 stronger attraction for that of logwood than for that of quer- 
 citron bark. When a skein of cotton-yarn impregnated with 
 acetate of alumina is immersed into a decoction of quercitron 
 it receives a fast yellow color. If this yarn is washed for 
 some time and kept in a hot decoction of logwood, the alumina 
 parts with the coloring principle of quercitron to combine 
 
THE AMERICAN DYEK. 41 
 
 \Ylth that of the logwood, aiul the color of the y.iiii is cliMngcd 
 from yellow to purple. Now, if it is next inmiersed i\)V i\ 
 few hours in a hot decoction of madder, the ahunina parts 
 with the coloring principle of the logwootl to unite with that 
 of madder, the color changing from purple to red. The 
 amount of the alumina upon the yarn does not appear to 
 diminish while these substitutions are taking place." 
 
 Th^kSame law is applicable if we use for a mordant the tin 
 solutions instead of the acetate of alumina ; the result is the 
 same in the change of the fiist named above, for if a quantity 
 of yarn Avere colored yellow by tin spirits and bark and then 
 put in a hot solution of logwood, a certain amount of the 
 yellow is displaced by the coloring principle of the logwood. 
 Cotton-yarn is colored yellow with acetate of lead and 
 chrome when permanency is not absolutely necessary. 
 
 The chrome yellows, so called, have superseded the vege- 
 table colored yellows upon cotton-yarn and cloth. The 
 chromate of lead is not only used for yellows, but also for 
 ofreens and oranijes. 
 
 To color a yellow with the chromate of lead, the yarn is 
 first passed through a solution of either the nitrate or acetate 
 of lead ; it is then wrung out well and passed through a solu- 
 tion of chrome ; the chromate of lead is thus formed within 
 the fibre of the cotton. The yarn is passed first through the 
 lead solution, and then through the chrome for a number of 
 times, if dark and deep shades are desired. There are other 
 shades of yellow obtained by adding muriatic acid to the 
 chrome solution. Yellows produced in this manner are called 
 acid yellows. 
 
 Green, on cotton-yarn or cloth, is colored In' a number of 
 methods. When quercitron bark is used, the yarn is first 
 steeped in sumac, then passed through the spirits, then 
 washed off from the spirits and worked in a decoction of quer- 
 citron bark, to which has been added a quantity of muriate 
 of tin (spirits) to raise the color. If the yarn is washed 
 from this, and then passed through a solution of logwood und 
 6 
 
42 THE AMERICAN DYEK. 
 
 Brazil-wood, we obtain a hrowii. The chrome-frrceiis are 
 produced in the same manner as the chrome-yellows are, 
 being first colored bine by the copperas-vat. In this method 
 the nitrate of lead (Pb O, NO^) should not be used, as its 
 free acid would destroy' the indigo and redden the hue ; there- 
 fore the acetate of lead (Pi) O, CJIgOg) only should be 
 used. The greatest care is requisite in coloring greens by 
 this process, so as to avoid unevenncss ; the yarn showld be 
 well wrung out from each solution, and washed as soon as 
 possible from the chrome solution;. 
 
 In coloring green with iodine-green, or what is termed the 
 Qnethyl-gveen, the yarn or cloth is first steeped in sumac for a 
 few hours, then rinsed off and wrung out; it is then colored 
 with meth^'l-green crystals, the marks of which run from B to 
 jjj E, according to the shades produced, the heat for dyeing 
 being 120° Fahr. Some dyers add a small'amount of acetic 
 acid (C^IIaOy) towards the last end of the operation, to 
 brighten np the shade. Another method is to pass the yarn 
 first through the copperas-vat to give it the blue, then jiass it 
 through a weak solution of pyrolignite of alumina (Al.jOg 
 2 C4H.O3+4 HO) ; it is next wrought in a hot decoction of 
 fustic, which gives the yarn a rich, beautiful shade of green. 
 Muslins and gauzes are occasionally colored green with fustic, 
 but the goods go through the same preparations as when col- 
 oring with quercitron bark. 
 
 The next method is by chemic, or sulphate of indigo proc- 
 ess. The yarn is first boiled, and then washed and put 
 through a diluted solution of acetate of alumina, and washed 
 from this in hot water. It is then worked through a clecoc- 
 tion of quercitron bark, or flavine, and when the yarn has 
 acquired sufficient yellow color for the shade of green wanted, 
 it is then passed through a quantity of chemic, added to cold 
 water. It is wrung out from the chemic solution, and dried. 
 The chemic for this purpose must be neutralized with soda ; 
 if not, the free sulphuric acid in the chemic would destroy the 
 3'ellow, and spoil the looks of the green color. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 43 
 
 Some livers first color the yarn a Prussian blue ; then finish 
 ofl" with fustic or quercitron bark. 
 
 Bhick : There are numerous methods for producing a black 
 upon cotton yarn. (See recipes for blacks.) 
 
 Browns are now mostly produced by catechu and chrome, 
 by first passing the yarn through a solution of catechu or 
 cutch ; then through a chrome solution. In coloring browns 
 with catechu, the threads of the yarn are apt to adhere 
 together when the yarn is dried. This is owing to the gummy 
 nature of the catechu ; but l*y adding some blue vitriol to the 
 catechu solution, this ol)jection can be avoided. The reason 
 of this chemical change in the nature of catechu, is that the 
 blue vitriol oxidizes a portion of the catechu, and although 
 the gum in the catechu is insoluble in water, it becomes solu- 
 ble in deoxidized catechu. Therefore, all of it is held in 
 solution in the bath. This, however, does not account for all 
 the })hen()mena occurring during the coloring of browns with 
 catechu ; for if we should take two portions of a solution of 
 catechu, and to one portion of it add blue vitriol (Cu OSO3 
 or Cu SO 4-|-5 H 2 O), and to the other portion add a salt of 
 zinc ; for instance, sulphate of zinc (Zn OSO3 or Zn SO 4-J-7 
 HoO), and then pass a skein of yarn through each; then 
 pass these through a solution of lime, and expose them to the 
 air, we will find that the skein Avhich was passed through the 
 zinc will be a dark brown, whilst that passed through the blue 
 vitriol will be more of a cinnamon-brown color ; but this would 
 naturally cause us to expect the opposite result, as we know 
 that copper (blue vitriol) gives up its oxygen more easily than 
 zinc does. 
 
 When yarn is first passed through a solution of catechu, 
 and then jiassed through a chrome solution, we obtain a deep 
 brown. The oxidation of the catechu takes place at the 
 expense of the chromic acid (Cr O3.) 
 
 Whether the oxide of chromium (Cr203) acts as a base on 
 any part of the dye, is not positively known ; yet, if we should 
 burn a piece of the yarn colored brown by this process, we 
 
44 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 will find ill the asli both the chrome ami copper oxides, prov- 
 ing that both the blue vitriol and chrome which are used, act 
 a part in forming the color, and also that the color obtained 
 by this method is something more than the mere oxidation of 
 the catechu. 
 
 Browns are sometimes produced by first steeping the yarn 
 in sumac, then passing it through a solution of tin crystals, or 
 through the s[)irit-tub; then again work through a decoction 
 of bark, to which has been added a certain amount of spirits. 
 The yarn is washed fiom this, and then finished in a solution 
 of hypernic and logwood. The proportions of these woods 
 vary according to the shade of brown desired. 
 
 The aniline browns are produced by first sumacing the cot- 
 ton, and then spiriting as described for the other colors, and 
 thoroughly rinsing off in cold water containing a very little 
 aqua ammonia (NHo+IIO), in order to neutralize every trace 
 of the acid contained in the spirits. The cotton is dyed at 
 120° Fahr., with the aniline brown powder. 
 
 Orange color on cotton is produced by diflerent methods, 
 the most general method now adopted being the chrome- 
 orange, and which is obtained by fixing upon the goods the 
 sub-chromate of lead, as in the coloring of chrome-yellows, 
 and then passing the yarn through a hot lime solution, which 
 will combine with the chromic acid, forming a deep orange 
 color. This passing the yarn through the hot lime solution is 
 called or teinicd the raising of the orange, and is a very try- 
 ing and difficult operation ; for if the lead solution has not 
 been properly made, or not completely fixed upon the yarn, 
 when we come to pass it through the hot lime, the yellow will 
 be stripped from the yarn ; and should the lime solution be 
 much below the boiling point, the color would be discharged. 
 Care must be taken to keep the lime solution at the sjjviiig of 
 the boil, as the higher the temperature of the solution, the less 
 lime is held in solution, thereby avoiding the risk of a failure. 
 If an orange is once uneven, it is a very difficult matter to get 
 it even aijain. 
 
THE AMERICAX DYER. 45 
 
 In preparing the lend solution, groat care is necessary to 
 have the pro[)ortions of lead and litharge so that they will 
 combine ; the tribasic acetate of lead should be used for this 
 purpose, which is a combination of three parts of lead, and 
 one part of acetic acid ; this being the best combination for 
 producing oranges and deep yellows. Some dyers use a 
 small quantity of lime, which causes a loss, as the lime com- 
 bines with the acetic acid in the lead, and forms an acetate 
 of lime (Ca O CJI3O.), which would prevent a portion of the 
 litharge from dissolving. Should the lead, litharge, and lime 
 not be boiled long enough, the lime would convert the acetate 
 of lead into the tribasic state (which is what we wish to do) ; 
 but, it will be observed, that this is at the expense of the 
 lead, which we are intending to use for the production of the 
 color. The proportions of acetate of lead and litharo^e 
 vary, some dyers using equal parts ; the proportions which 
 we believe to be correct are, six parts of crystallized acetate 
 of lead (Pb O, CJIA+3 HO), eight parts of litharge 
 (Pb O), and thirty parts of water, these to be boiled until 
 all the litharge is dissolved. In coloring with lead solutions 
 in water that contains sulphate or carbonate of lime, the lead 
 will be precipitated ; the lead is also lost, it being rendered 
 insoluble and useless as a dye, as every ounce of carbonate 
 of lime will render useless a little more than five ounces of 
 lead. When the basic acetate of lead (Pb C4ILO0, brown 
 sugar of lead) is used, the proportions are twenty-five parts 
 of lead to fifteen of litharge. The acetate and the litharge 
 are put into a boiler half full of water, it is then boiled until 
 all the litharge is dissolved, then there is one pound of lime 
 added to it and allowed to settle ; the clear liquor is put into 
 another tub; seven pounds of chrome are dissolved in a tub 
 or vessel by itself, for coloring; two other tubs, large enough 
 to hold the amount of yarn that is to be colored, are filled 
 with water ; to one is added some of the lead solution, to the 
 other some lime-water ; the yarn is then worked in the lead- 
 tub and wrung out ; then passed through the lime-water, and 
 
46 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 wrung out ; then more of the lead sohition is added to the 
 lead-tub, and the 3'arn is again passed through it ; then add 
 more lime-water to the lime-tub, and pass it through that, 
 wringing the yarn out at each immersion ; it is then passed 
 through the chrome solution, then through hot lime-water. 
 (See recipe for fast orange on cotton-yarn.) 
 
 CALICO - PRINTING. 
 
 . This very important branch of industry (we might say of 
 the dyer's art) , alms at producing colored patterns upon calico, 
 linen, and silk tissues. Calico-printing is the most important 
 part of the dyer's art, as it is based upon the same principles 
 as that of dyeing, but is, in the practical execution of it, far 
 more difficult ; partly, because the colors have to be applied 
 to certain portions only of the fabric, while others either have 
 to remain colorless or are discharged ; partly also because it 
 is frequently the case that many colors have to be applied 
 close to each other. 
 
 The colors employed in calico-printing are of two ditl'erent 
 kinds, the first being such colors as are directly applied to the 
 cloth by the aid of copper-cylinders, upon which the designs 
 or patterns to be produced on the cloth are engraved. 
 
 To the colors thus applied, belong such as the ochres, Ber- 
 lin blues, madder-lake, indigo, cochineal, and nearly all of 
 the tar colors. The second kind of colors are such as are 
 produced by immersing the cloth printed with the various 
 mordants in dye-baths, such as madder, cochineal, logwood, 
 sumac, and cutch ; the yellow-coloring dyewoods, &c., belong 
 to this kind. The various methods of printing are chiefly 
 the followinjj : — 
 
 First. From the thickened and mordanted colors. 
 
 Second. The thickened mordant only is applied, by 
 means of the engraved copper cylinders, to the cloth, which, 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 47 
 
 after the mordant has hcen thoronghl}- fixetl, is passed throijo'h 
 the d^X'-beck. 
 
 Third. The entire piece of cloth is either mordanted, or 
 a color is printed, while to such portions of the cloth as are 
 to remain white or are intended to be afterwards of another 
 color or colors, or pattern, a resist is put on, sometimes 
 printed from the cylinders, the result being that on the 
 portions of cloth thus protected with any of the various 
 resists, the color will not become iixed. 
 
 FourlJi. Colors may be, and in practice are, largely pro- 
 duced 1)}' tirst coloring the mordanted cloth with one kind of 
 color, and then removing this color in certain pcjrtions of 
 the cloth by chemicals which will destroy the color, these 
 chemicals being technicalhj caUecl discharges. 
 
 In order to tix certain colors upon cotton-cloth, they have 
 to be steamed ; such colors are termed steam-colors ; while 
 such substances as ultramarine, Guignet green, and the lakes 
 of madder, which are applied mechanically by the assistance 
 of albumen, caseine, and gluten, which require the aid of 
 steam for their lixation, are termed, technically, surface- 
 printed colors. 
 
 The mordants used in calico-printing are mostly such salts 
 as are, comparatively speaking, loose combinations of acid 
 and base, so that the base can easily unite with the tibre ; and 
 among the mordants mostly used, iron and acetate of alumina 
 (AI^,OyC4lIy03) occupy the first position, while a solution of 
 aluminate of soda or alum is more rarely used. Acetate of 
 lead (Pb C^ILC^) is the mordant for producing chromate of 
 lead (Pb Cr O^), The various combinations of tin are also 
 used as mordants. A mixture of caseine (curd of milk) and 
 lime is sometimes used as a mordant in calico-printing, and 
 is known in England by the technical name of Jactarine. 
 Caseine is prepared from the curd of milk ; it is dissolved m 
 Aveak caustic ammonia, and the solution thus ol)tained is 
 mixed with freshly prepared milk of lime (lime-water). 
 When this substance is used for a mordant, the cloth is steeped 
 
48 THE AMERICAX DYEH. 
 
 in it previous to being colored. The cloth is dried iifler 
 beino; taken out of the caseine-lime bath. The drvini; causes 
 the caseinc to remain in an insoluble state in the tibre of the 
 cloth, and will resist washing with soap and alkaline fluids. 
 "When the doth is dried from this mordant it has a peculiar 
 stitTness, so that although its atiinity for coloring substances 
 has become nearly equal to that of wool, it is far behind 
 wool, owing to its lack of lustre ; but to avoid this stillness, 
 this mordant is mixed with Gallipoli oil previous to steeping 
 the cloth in it. Tannic acid, albumen, dried white of eggs 
 re-dissolved in water, and vegetal )le gluten are used as mor- 
 dants in calico-printing. In using caseine and lime for a 
 mordant, we are not limited merely to the mineral colors ; 
 for by its use the various vegetable colors can be tixed upon 
 the cloths by tirst converting the vefjetable colorins; matter 
 into lakes by means of alumina or the salts of tin, and then 
 using these lakes in the same manner as powdered mineral 
 colors. "When cloth is mordanted with the caseine and lime 
 process, and printed with the mineral colors, very full colors 
 are obtained, w'hich in many patterns would not be desirable. 
 This objection is remedied (when we wish to bring out the 
 shades and half-colors in the full-colored impressions) by 
 placing the printed cloth upon an absorbing ground, with the 
 colored or face side of the cloth upon this absorbing ground, 
 and then pressing the forms on the back of the cloth ; this will 
 deprive the cloth of some of its color, and by this process 
 numerous patterns can be produced. 
 
 Thickenings : In order to give the colors or mordants used 
 in printing, either b}' block or cylinders, the proper consist- 
 ency, there is mixed in them what are called thickenings, 
 which consist of such substances as Senegal gum, tragacanth, 
 leicome, British gum, dextrine, salep, flour, gluten, pipe- 
 clay with gum, glue and size, sulphate of lead, sugar, molas- 
 ses, glycerine, starch, and sometimes chloride and nitrate of 
 zinc (Zm CI — Zn OXO-). The colors and mordants depend 
 for their purity upou the quality of the thickenings. British 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 49 
 
 gum made from starch is most geneniUy used. In the selec- 
 tion of thickenings we should keep in mind that those mor- 
 dants that are very acid in their nature cannot be mixed 
 with starch, because the starch will lose its consistency when 
 mixed with a substance that is very acid ; and again, such 
 metallic preparations as basic or sub-acetate of lead, the 
 solutions of tin, and nitrate of copper and of iron will coagu- 
 late gum ; for which reason it should not be used as a thicken- 
 ing for the above substances. 
 
 In calico-printing Ihere are used compositions called resists 
 or reserves, which, when printed upon the cloth, prevent any 
 of the colors from fixing themselves to that part or portion 
 of the cloth which has this resist composition printed upon 
 it ; the result being that those parts or portions will be left 
 white. Most generally the resist is used with the view of 
 preventing the fixation of indigo to certain parts of the cloth, 
 so that it shall remain white where these resists are applied. 
 The same results are obtained by discharges, which we shall 
 notice hereafter. 
 
 The resists are made up from pasty substances, such as 
 pipe-clay, fat, oil, and sulphate of lead (Pb SOy) ; to these 
 are added such substances as will readily yield oxygen ; for 
 instance, sulphate, nitrate, and acetate of copper, a mixture 
 of red prussiate of potash and caustic soda solution. 
 
 There are cases where resists are composed so that they act 
 as a mordant (alumina or iron mordants) for other colors, 
 the parts of the cloth on which the resist is printed and left 
 white being colored by passing the cloth through the dye-tub 
 or dye-beck which contains another dyestutf in solution, 
 which may be madder, quercitron bark, or some other dye- 
 wood. The so-called ivhiie resist, for cylinder printing, 
 consists of acetate or sulphate of copper, or acetate of lead, 
 thickened with gum or dextrine solution. After this compo- 
 sition has been printed on the cloth by the cylinders, the 
 pieces are run through the indigo-vat until the depth of color 
 desired is obtained. They are then passed through an acidu- 
 
 7 
 
50 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 lated bath until the parts on which the resist was printed 
 have turned white. The rationale of this process is the fol- 
 lowing : "As soon as the reduced or white indigo in the vat 
 comes in contact with the oxide of copper (Cu O) it is con- 
 verted, at the expense of the oxygen of the oxide, into blue 
 indigo, which is precipitated in an insoluble state on the 
 resist. By the treatment with dilute sulphuric acid, the 
 hydrated sub-oxide (red oxide) of copper is dissolved, and 
 with it the indiijo washed out." 
 
 Instead of the salts of copper, white resists are used, and 
 these are composed of bichloride of mercury (Hg CI5) and 
 sulphate of zinc (Zn OSOy). The mercury acts in a similar 
 manner to the salts of copper, and the copper enters into an 
 insoluble combination with the reduced (white) indigo, which 
 is precipitated wherever the resist has been applied. 
 
 Discharges : These substances are for the purpose of pro- 
 ducing, by chemical means, white designs or patterns upon 
 colored grounds; or, in other words, upon colored cloth. 
 This is done by destroying or discharging the color which had 
 been previously dyed upon the whole surface of the cloth, or 
 by dissolving a previously applied mordant. To discharge 
 the applied mordant, certain acids are made use of, such as 
 phosphoric, arsenic, oxalic, lactic, &c. These are made to 
 combine with the base contained in the mordant; but for the 
 purpose of discharging the previously applied color, such 
 substances as bleaching-powder, chromic acid, a mixture of 
 red prussiate of potash and caustic lye, permanganate of pot- 
 ash (KG, Mn^Oj), a paste composed of bromine (Br) mixed 
 with water and pipe-clay, nitric acid, &c., are used. All 
 these agents have an oxidizing effect, but tin crystals (Sn CI) 
 and copperas (sulphate of iron) which are also used for dis- 
 charges, act as a discharge by absorbing oxygen. Among the 
 acid discharges, tartaric acid (CiH^O^) is generally used for 
 this purpose, and alumina and oxide of iron employed as 
 mordants ; sometimes this acid is mixed with bisulphate of 
 soda (NallSO^). 
 
THE AMEllICAX DYEK. 51 
 
 A piece of cloth that is colored either red or blue, to 
 ■svhich is, in certain parts, applied a mixture of tartaric acid 
 and pipe-clay and gum (the latter as a thickening to give 
 consistency), will be almost instantly bleached if the cloth so 
 prepared should be passed through a solution of bleaching- 
 powders. 
 
 Reducing Agents as Discharges, 
 
 Protochloride of tin (Sn CI = tin crystals) is the most 
 important of all the reduciug agents which are applied to 
 goods colored with the oxide of iron. If tin crystals are 
 placed in contact with oxide of iron, the result would be the 
 formation of readily soluble protochloride, which is easily 
 removed by simply washing, while, at the same time, there is 
 deposited upon the fibres of the cloth proto-peroxide of tin. 
 
 Oxidizing Agents as Discharges. 
 
 The discharging of the indigo-blue from the calico is owing 
 to the formation of isatine (CielljoN^Oji) from the indigo-hlue 
 (CigHiyNoOo), the isatine being soluble and the indigo-hlue 
 being insoluble in water, so that the soluble substance can be 
 taken out by washing. 
 
 Indigo is also discharged from the cloth by chromic acid 
 (Cr Og) which is used as bichromate of potash (K, Cr2 O7), 
 the acid being reduced while giving ofi" oxygen to the chromic 
 oxide (Cr, O3). 
 
 Calico may be printed by the three following methods : — 
 
 First. Dyeing in the dye-beck (so called). 
 
 Second. By block or cylinder printing (topical color- 
 printing). 
 
 Third. By resist or discharge printing. 
 
 In the process employed in coloring in the dye-beck 
 (madder style, so called), the thickened mordant having a 
 faint coloring matter added to it for the purpose of recogni- 
 tion (we must bear in mind that the mordants are nearly 
 colorless), the pattern produced on the white cloth is im- 
 printed by the means of cither blocks or cylinders, upon 
 
52 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 which the desired pattern is engraved. Cylinders are now 
 generally used for printing calico, they being made of copper, 
 on which the pattern is engraved. These cylinders are 
 revolved by the aid of machinery. There is also a wooden 
 cylinder connected, which is covered with cloth or felt, which 
 dips into the vessel that contains the mordant, the copper 
 cylinder being fed with the mordant from this wooden roller 
 or cylinder. Connected with the copper cylinder is a kind of 
 blunt knife, technically called the doctor, which scrapes off 
 all the superfluous color from that part of the cylinder on 
 which there is no engraved portion of the design or pattern. 
 
 Before the mordanted cloth is colored it has to be kept for 
 some time, so that the iron and alumina mordants will com- 
 bine more intimately with the fibre of the cloth (technically 
 termed ageing). After this ageing process, the cloth has to 
 undergo a cleansing operation before it is entered into the 
 dye-beck ; that is to say, the mordant has become dry, by 
 theaffeinof it has had, so that the thickenins: and faint colorino: 
 matter, together with any loose mordant that may be uncom- 
 bined with the fibre, must be removed by the cleansing opera- 
 tion. For those goods which are intended to be madder-dyed, 
 the cow-dung bath is required. Usually some chalk is added, 
 to saturate the acetic acid or the mordant. All calico-print- 
 ers agree that the cow-dung bath is requisite, yet the rationale 
 of the action of the cow-dung bath has not yet been fully 
 explained. 
 
 Mercer substituted certain phosphates and arsenates for 
 the cow-dung, and obtained good results, and he proposes 
 the use of phosphate of soda (2 Na O. PO) and phosphate 
 of lime (3 Ca O. PO). In England, cow-dung is rarely 
 used now, as it has been superseded by silicate of soda. 
 After the cloths have been cleansed with cow-dung, or its sub- 
 stitutes, they are washed, and then they are colored. It is 
 clearly seen that where there are different mordants printed 
 upon the cloth, a number of colors can be brought out upon 
 the same piece and with the same dyestuff. For instance, all 
 
THE AMERICi^:N" DYEK. 53 
 
 sbados of pink and red, black, brown, violet, and lilac, can 
 be produced with madder, if alumina and iron mordants and 
 mixtures of these have been used as mordants, for the color 
 will only fix itself upon that portion of the cloth where the 
 mordant has been applied, so that by washing the cloth, after 
 it comes out of the dye-beck, with "bran and soap, the superflu- 
 ous color can be removed. This washing operation is termed 
 clearing. In some cases, the madder-colored cloths are 
 cleared with solutions of bleaching-powder. Some dyes, in 
 order to bring out their most brilliant tints, have to be cleared 
 by other means than that named above. For instance, the 
 Turkey-rede, after coming from the finishing or dyeing bath, 
 are submitted to a boiling, under pressure^ with soapsuds and 
 muriate of tin or tin crystals. 
 
 Topical or Surface Colors. 
 This consists of applying the mordants and the thickened 
 color to the cloth at the same time, or in other words, simul- 
 taneously, the colors and pigments being termed topical or 
 surface colors, and is known as topical or surface printing. 
 There are two varieties of surface colors known ; one of them 
 is in the state of a solution when it is printed upon the cloth, 
 which becomes gradually fixed and insoluble on the fibre 
 itself. The other variety is applied in the insoluble state 
 with plastic substances and the thickening, these aiding or 
 assisting the colors to adhere to the fibre, so that a simple 
 washing does not remove them ; ultramarine is applied by 
 this process. This manner of printing requires the aid of 
 steam to fix as well as to clear the colors, and they are called 
 steam colors. This method of printing is now very exten- 
 sively adopted. After the goods are printed in this manner, 
 they are dried and then hung up in a room fitted for this pur- 
 pose, and exposed to the action of steam at 100° Fahr., or 
 more. The length of time the goods are thus exposed 
 depends upon several conditions, and varies in difi*erent 
 print-works, each color-mixer or printer having his own par- 
 
54 THE AMEKICAX DYER. 
 
 ticular time, but the time is generally from twenty to fifty 
 miuutes. 
 
 Discharge Style of Printing. 
 
 The term discharge is given to any composition that has 
 the properties of bleaching or discharging the color which 
 has been put upon the cloth or fabric. As a general rule, 
 discharge is applied to goods of one color, such as indigo 
 and Turkey-red colored fabrics, upon which it is required to 
 have white patterns ; and sometimes, upon a portion of these 
 white patterns, other colors are produced. The sul)stances 
 used for the discharge vary with the color which was on the 
 cloth, as well as with the color intended to be produced after- 
 wards on the white portion ; and the discharge is made or 
 prepared in such a manner that it must not injure the fibre of 
 the cloth. 
 
 Such materials as oxalic, tartaric, citric, diluted muriatic, 
 and sulphuric acids, bisulphate of potash, nitrate of lead, 
 solutions of bleaching-powder, weak chlorine water, and the 
 bichloride of tin are used ; these being thickened with suit- 
 able materials, some of them are so manipulated as to serve 
 as mordants for some of the colors to be applied after the 
 discharge; for instance, for j^ellow, nitrate of lead, with 
 .tartaric acid, starch and water; for black, nitrate of iron, 
 added to a decoction of logwood ; for Berlin blue, tin-crystals, 
 farina, and water are used. 
 
 These discharges having been printed on the cloth, it is 
 then put into a solution of chloride of lime, and passed 
 through it, the color which was on it, when the discharge is 
 printed, is destroyed, and, in its place, the color desired is 
 produced according to the design. Chromic acid, or a solu- 
 tion of bichromate of potash acidulated, is often used as a 
 discharge ; the oxide of chromium (Cr^O^) produced will yield 
 a brown color. 
 
 Aniline Printing: As regards' the application of aniline 
 colors to printing, we think th:it they may be termed steam 
 
THE AMERICAX DYER. 55 
 
 colors. The printing and fixing of these colors is clTected by 
 the tbl lowing methods. 
 
 First. "The thickened mordant is printed on, and next 
 fixed either by drying, or by ageing and steaming after dry- 
 ing, the cloth being dyed in a solution of the aniline (red, 
 violet, blue), the color becoming fixed to the mordanted por- 
 tions only of the cloth." 
 
 /Second. " The thickened mordant is mixed with the ani- 
 line dye, and then printed on the cloth, and the fixing effected 
 by steaming." "The mordants used in this method are: 
 dried albumen, blood albumen, the latter being bleached by 
 the action of ozone obtained by means of oil of turpentine, 
 vegetable gluten in various forms." Instead of gluten, caseine 
 can be used, dissolved in caustic lye, or in acetic acid. Kuhl- 
 mann and Lightfoot recommend tannate of glue. AVhen 
 gluten is used as a mordant, it is first moistened, and then 
 allowed to remain until it becomes sour. It is then purified, 
 first treating it with carbonate of soda (Na O.CO._,), which 
 renders the gluten insoluble. It is then washed, and again 
 re-dissolved in caustic soda lye. This solution is diluted with 
 water, and then printed upon the cloth, which is then dried, 
 aged, and steamed. After this the cloth is washed in water, 
 and then colored in a solution of aniline. Sometimes gluten 
 is mixed with the aniline dye, and then printed upon the cloth, 
 after which it is steamed, then washed, and steamed again. 
 "When caSeinc (lactarine is its technical name in England) is 
 used as the mordant, it is first dissolved in caustic soda (Na 
 O.HO), and after the cloth has been printed with this mixture, 
 the aniline color is printed on. 
 
 The method of aniline-printing, which was devised by 
 Gratrix and Javal, consists in preparing an insoluble com- 
 pound of tannic acid. (C^iH^gOyi-f-S IIO), and an aniline dye, 
 which is thickened with Senegal gum, and then printed upon 
 the cloth, which has been previously mordanted with tin-crys- 
 tals, or some other suitable mordant ; or there is printed upon 
 the cotton cloth a mordant composed of albumen, caseine, or 
 
o6 THE amekica:n^ dyer. 
 
 gluten. The cloth is then dried and pa-sed through an acidu- 
 lated solution of aniline. The first method given above 
 (which is an aniline-tannin compound) is prepared by adding 
 to the aniline solution as much decoction of galls (solution of 
 tannin would be better) as is requisite to completely precipi- 
 tate the aniline color. This precipitate is collected upon a 
 filter, washed, and dissolved in acetic acid (C4H3O3), and 
 when thickened with gum, the solution is used for printing. 
 After the printing the goods are steamed, and washed either 
 with or without soap. A red color requires a soap-wash. 
 According to the second method, the cloth i& treated with a 
 stannate of soda, after which a tannin-containing material is 
 printed upon the cloth, which is then steamed, which fixes the 
 mordant. The dyeing operation is done in a dye-beck, the 
 same as is employed for madder colors. The beck is filled 
 with water acidulated with acetic acid, and heated to about 
 50*^ Fahr. The cloth is put into this liquid, and the aniline, 
 dissolved in acetic acid, is added to it gradually; and when 
 the requisite amount of color is added, the bath is heated to 
 the boiling point. Aniline black is obtained on cotton-yarn 
 and cloth by the means of chlorate of potash (KCIO3), 
 chloride of copper (Cu CI), ferricyanide of ammonium, or 
 freshly precipitated sulphuret of copper. Naphthylamine 
 violet is now obtained on cotton-cloth by very much the same 
 process. 
 
 The reader of this article, but more especially the calico- 
 printer, or color-mixer, must bear in mind that the writer is 
 not a practical caUco-2yr inter, and, theuefore, allowances must 
 be made for the errors there may be in the theory advanced ; 
 for w'e have compiled it from knowledge obtained by inter- 
 course and conversation with men who have been pVactical 
 calico-printers for most of their lives, and the author acknowl- 
 edges his obligations to these gentlemen for the practical 
 observations and theories communicated to him from time to 
 time, which had not come under his own observation ; for 
 
THE AMERICAN . DYER. 57 
 
 without their assistance in this respect, he could not have 
 given so correct or simple an explanation of calico-printing. 
 The article has not been written by a Persoz, a Gratrix, or a 
 Spirk, but by a cl3^er, and not by a calico-printer ; therefore, 
 it must not be criticised as though it emanated from the brain 
 or pen of a learned professor or practical chemist. 
 
 The following mordants, preparations, and colors for calico- 
 printing were translated and compiled by Dr. T. P. Shepard 
 of Providence, R. I., who has kindly permitted me to insert 
 them in this work. They were compiled for the use especially 
 of the large calico-printing establishments in the vicinity of 
 Providence, and they were found very useful, the recipes 
 being modern and correct ones. We abridge from the preface 
 to his work the following : — 
 
 " Much that is valuable has been necessarily omitted to 
 bring it within the compass of so small a book ; but it is 
 believed that it contains nuich which will be useful to the 
 managers of print-works. For it cannot be without interest 
 to them to compare their own processes with those current 
 abroad ; and with regard to what is familiar in any art, it is 
 of some consequence to discover that nothing better is known 
 elsewhere. In this art, however, many iniportant improve- 
 ments have been made within a few years, the knowledge of 
 which has not become widely diffused among American calico- 
 printers, owing to the fact that they have been, for the most 
 part, published in a foreign tongue." 
 
 And to supply the American printers with this information 
 was the object chiefly of Dr. Shepard in translating these 
 recipes, and publishing them in book-form. He claims 
 nothing more for it than its being a hand or text book for a 
 practical printer, and makes no pretence to fill the place of 
 8 
 
58 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 the great work of Persoz on calico-printing. We acknowledge 
 onr obligations to him for the courtesy extended by allowing 
 it to be embraced in this work. 
 
 MORDANTS. 
 
 1. PyroUgnite of Alumina, at 11^ B. 
 In \\ gallons of Boiling Water, dissolve 
 
 5 lbs. of Alum, 
 
 4 lbs. of Brown Sugar of Lead. 
 
 Gives 16 lbs. of clear Mordant, at 11° B. 
 
 2. Acetate of Alumina, at 5° B, 
 In 11 pints of Boiling Water, dissolve 
 
 4 lbs. 6 oz. of Alum, 
 
 5 lbs. 13 oz. of White Sugar of Lead. 
 Gives 15^ lbs. clear Acetate, at 8° B. 
 
 3. Acetate of Alumina, at 15° B. 
 
 4 lbs. 10 oz. White Sugar of Lead, 
 
 5 lbs. 12 oz. Alum. Dissolve in 
 11 pints Water. 
 
 Gives 15^ lbs. clear Solution, at 15° B. 
 
 4. Keutral Acetate of Alumina, at 10'° B. 
 In 13 pints of Water, dissolve 
 
 A\ lbs. Alum, 
 
 (5 oz. Soda Crystals, and 
 
 3 lbs. 6 oz. White Sugar of Lead. 
 
 Gives 17| lbs. clear Mordant, at 10° B. 
 
 5. Iron Liquor Decoction, for Blade, at 9° B. 
 7 lbs. 10 oz. of Iron Liquor, at 14° B., 
 
 14 lbs. Pyroligneous Acid, at 2° B., 
 
 6 oz. Arsenic, 
 
 are boiled together for 15 minutes. 
 
THE AMEBIC AX DYEK. 59 
 
 6. Iron Liquor Decoction, at K'P B. 
 \0\ quarts Iron Liquor, at 10^ B., 
 
 2 quarts Pyroligneous Acid, at 2^ B., 
 2| lbs. Arsenic, 
 
 23 lbs. Saltpetre, 
 
 are boiled together for half an hour. 
 
 7 . Acetate of Protoxide of Iron . or Standard for fast Purple, 
 
 at 10^ 'B. 
 In 7 quarts of Boiling Water, dissolve 
 3 lbs. 9 oz. Copperas, and 
 3 lbs. 9 oz. White Sugar of Lead. 
 Gives 15 lbs. clear Standard, at 10^ B. 
 
 8. Acetate of Protoxide of Iron, or Purple Standard, at 
 
 11° B. 
 In 11 pint's of Boiling Water, dissolve 
 
 3 lbs. 14 oz. Copperas, and 
 
 2 lbs. 11 oz. White Sugar of Lead. 
 
 When dissolved, add 
 
 3 lbs. 14 oz. Pyroligneous Acid, at 2^ B., 
 Gives 17| lbs. Standard, at 11- B. 
 
 9. Xanl:een Standard, Xo. 1, 15'^ B. 
 
 5 lbs. 6 oz. Copperas, 
 
 4 lbs. 2 oz. White Sugar of Lead, dissolved in 
 \\ gallons Boiling Water, 
 
 Gives 15| lbs. clear Mordant, at 15^ B. 
 
 10. Xanl'een Standard, Xo. 2. 
 
 Q\ lbs. Copperas, 
 
 3 lbs. 3 oz. Brown Sugar of Lead, 
 \\ gallons Boiling Water. 
 
60 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 11. JVank-een Standard, No. 3, 25° B. 
 
 In 19 ll)s. Nankeen Standard, No. 1, dissolve 
 
 2 lbs. 14 oz. Copperas. 
 
 12. Orange Standard, or Basic Acetate of Lead, 50° B. 
 
 11 pints of Water, 
 2| lbs. Litharge, and 
 
 4| lbs. White* Sugar of Lead, are boiled together 
 to complete the solution, the water that has 
 evaporated restored, and then 
 
 3 lbs. 7 oz. AVhite Sugar of Lead added and dis- 
 
 solved. 
 Gives 21 lbs. clear Orange Standard, at 50° B. 
 
 13. Orange Standard, or Basic Acetate of Lead, at 55° B. 
 
 5 quarts of Water, 
 
 5^ lbs. Sugar of Lead, ' 
 
 2 lbs. 10 oz. Litharge, are boiled together until com- 
 plete solution is etfected. Then add water until 
 the desired degree is attained. 
 
 14. Blue Standard for Steam Brown or Chocolate. 
 
 7 lbs. Yellow Prussiate of Potash, 
 
 10 oz. Chlorate Potash, dissolved in 
 
 5 quarts Water (warm) and boiled with 
 
 2 lbs. Oil Vitriol in 1 quart of water until the 
 
 liquor gives no blue precipitate with a solution 
 
 of per salt of Iron. 
 
 15. Gray Standard for Gray A. G. 
 If lbs. ground Logwood stirred into 
 
 10 quarts of Boiling Water for 5 minutes, then passed 
 
 through a fine sieve, 
 Give 15^ lbs. clear liquor. 
 
THE AMERICAX DYER. 61 
 
 10 lbs. 2 oz. of this dear liquor are boiled for five 
 
 minutes with a solution of 
 I ounce of Bichromate of Potash in 
 ^ pint of Water, and 
 
 1^ ounces of Muriatic Acid. 
 
 16. Sulphate of Chrome, at 35^ B. 
 
 Prepared with Molasses, and therefore sometimes called 
 Sugar-Mordant. 
 4 lbs. 6 oz. Bichromate Potash, dissolved in 
 
 11 pints of hot "Water; add gradually a mixture of 
 2| lbs. Oil Vitriol, and 3 pints of Water. 
 
 Stir well and immediately add, in small portions at a 
 
 time, 
 1 lb. 2 oz. of Molasses. 
 
 PREPARATIONS. 
 
 17. Acetate of Chrome, 
 
 \\ lbs. of Bichromate of Potash, dissolved in 
 
 2 lbs. Oil Vitriol, diluted with b\ quarts Water. 
 
 To this solution add, in small portions at a time, 
 
 I lb. Wheat Starch.* 
 
 When the action is over and the liquid cool, add 
 
 5 lbs. 11 oz. White Sugar of Lead. 
 Let settle, and use the clear liquid. 
 
 18. , Acetate of Indigo. 
 
 4 lbs. 11 oz. of Sulphate of Indigo, at 60° B., are 
 
 decomposed with a solution of 
 4 lbs. 11 oz. Sugar of Lead in 9^ pints of Water. 
 Stir well and mix in 
 
 6 oz. Quicklime, slacked with 1 pint of Water. 
 Gives 10| lbs. clear solution, at 13° B., or 13^ lbs. 
 
 clear solution, at 10° B. 
 
62 THE AMEEICAX DYER. 
 
 19. BB. Blue Bath for Steam Green. 
 In 2 gallons cf hot Water, dissolve 
 
 3 lbs. of yellow Prnssiate of Potash, 
 \ lb. Tartaric Acid, and 
 
 I lb. Oxalic Acid. 
 
 20. Iron Composition for Steam Gray C,Q. 
 
 8 lbs. 6 oz. Acetate of Iron (protoxide), at 10° B., 
 No. 7. 
 
 II lbs. 10 oz. Nitrate of Iron, at 50° B. Mix. 
 
 21. Muriate of Iron, at 40° B. 
 
 4| lbs. Iron Turnings dissolved, cold, in 
 15^ lbs. ^Inriatic Acid, 
 Gives 12 lbs. 6 oz. of solution, at 40° B. 
 
 22. Oxidized Loriwood Liquor, at 6° B., for Black. 
 
 6 lbs. Logwood Liquor, at 20° B., 
 
 7 quarts "Water, 
 
 3 oz. ]Muriatic Acid, 
 Boiled together for 5 minutes. 
 
 23. Ammoniacal Solution of CocJiineal. 
 On 8 lbs. of Cochineal, po<ir 
 
 12 lbs. Aqua Ammonia. 
 Cover the vessel and let stand in a moderately warm place 
 one or two days. Then extract the color from the mass M'ith 
 hot water, until the water is no longer decidedl}^ red. Boil 
 down the extract to 4° B. The above proportions give 7 lbs. 
 of solution of Cochineal, at 4° B. 
 
 24. Oxide of Tin. 
 In 4 quarts of AVatcr, dissolve 
 
 3 lbs. Tin Crystals ; to this solution add 
 
 4 lbs. Soda Crystals, dissolved in 4 quarts of 
 
 water. Collect the precipitate on a filter and 
 drain well. 
 
THE A3IEKICAX DYER. G3 
 
 25. Tartrate of Tin and Potash. 
 1 11). Tin Crystals dissolved in 
 
 5 quarts of AVatcr. To this solution add a solution of 
 
 1^- lbs. Soda Crystals in 5 quarts of Water. 
 
 Collect the precipitate on a tilter, and wash it 
 well, and then dissolve it in a solution com- 
 posed of 
 
 1 lb. of Cream of Tartar in 
 
 1 quart of Water. 
 
 26. Tin Composition, at 55^^ i?., for Scarlet S. K. 
 
 9 lbs. Tin Crystals, ; 
 4| lbs. Muriate of Tin, at 50° B., and 
 2\ lbs. White Sugar of Lead are dissolved in 
 A\ pints Water. 
 
 The clear liquor (after standing to settle) is used to 
 brighten Reds. 
 
 27. Tin Composition for Orange 8. 
 7| lbs. Muriate of Tin, at 55° B., 
 3| lbs. Tin Crystals, added to 
 
 1\ pints of Water. Then dissolve in this, 
 1 lb. 6 oz. White Sugar of Lead. 
 Let settle, and use the clear liquor. 
 
 28. SajKin Pigment. 
 In 1 quart of Water, dissolve 
 
 4 oz. Sapan Liquor, at 20° B. Add to this gradually 
 
 a solution of 
 ^ oz. Alum, 
 
 \ oz. Bichromate Potash in 
 1 quart of Water. 
 Stir well and let the precipitate settle. Pour away the 
 supernatant liquid, and wash the precipitate several times with 
 water. Then collect it on a muslin strainer, and squeeze dry. 
 
64 THE america:n" dyee. 
 
 29. Chrome Orange Pigment. 
 
 1 lb. 14 oz. White Sugar of Lead are dissolved in 
 13 gallons Water. To this add gradually a solution of 
 13 oz. of Bichromate of Potash in 
 13 gallons of Water. 
 
 After stirring well, let the yellow precipitate (Chromate of 
 Lead, Pb Cr OJ settle. This soon takes place. Then draw 
 oflf the supernatant liquor, and wash it (the precipitate) 3 or 
 4 times, with fresh water each time. 
 
 In order to change this pigment from yellow to orange, it 
 must be boiled in lime-water containing 1 ounce of lime in 50 
 gallons of water. The easiest way to make this is to take 20 
 gallons of water which has stood several days over a few 
 pounds of lime, and thereby has become saturated with it ; 
 and add these 20 gallons of saturated lime-water to 30 gallons 
 of water. 
 
 After boiling 5 to 8 minutes, the yellow color of the pre- 
 cipitate changes to orange. It is then left to settle, and 
 washed as before with fresh water, until the wash-water ceases 
 to be tinged yellow by it. It is then drained well on a muslin 
 strainer, and sqeezed out. The orange pigment is a variable 
 mixture of basic chromate of lead (2 Pb O, Cr O3) and neu- 
 tral chromate of lead (Pb O, Cr O3). 
 
 30. Nitrate of Iron, 50^ B. 
 23r lbs. clean Iron Turnings in 
 
 20"lbs. Nitric Acid, 36° B. 
 
 t 
 
 31. Nitrate of Protoxide of Iron, 
 In 7 pints of Boiling Water, dissolve 
 
 ^\ lbs. Nitrate of Lead, and ^\ lbs. green Copperas. 
 Gives, after straining, 9 lbs. liquor, at 32° B. 
 
THE a:mericax DTEK. f)5 
 
 32. Strafe of Zinc, at 50'^ B. 
 In 20 lbs. Nitric Acid, at 36<^ B., dissolve 
 
 3|^ lbs. best Lehigh Spelter. 
 
 When dissolved, bring to the desired degree with 
 water. 
 
 33. Mtrate of Alumina, at 77° B. 
 In 5 quarts of hot Water, dissolve 
 
 5 lbs. Alum, 
 
 2 oz. Soda Crystals, 
 
 5 lbs. Nitrate of Lead. 
 
 Gives 12 lbs, clear liquor, at 17° B. 
 
 34. J^itrate of Alumina ^ at 18^ B. 
 5 lbs. Nitrate of Lead, 
 
 5 lbs. Alum, dissolved in 
 
 5 quarts of Water. 
 
 35. Prussiate of Tin for Steam Blue. 
 11 lbs. Tin Crystals, dissolved in 
 
 20 quarts of Water. To this add a solution of 
 8| lbs. Yellow Prussiate in 20 quarts of Water. 
 The precipitate (Prussiate of Tin, SuoCfy) is to be washed 
 several times by decantation, then collected on a muslin 
 strainer, and well drained. 
 
 36. Iron Standard for 3fode Colors. 
 14 lbs. Iron Liquor, at 14° B., 
 
 4i lbs. lio;ht-colored British Gum. 
 
 37. , Sulphate of Indigo, at 61° B. 
 
 4 lbs. fine-ground Indigo, stirred into a mixture of 
 8 lbs. Nordhausen, or fuming Oil Vitriol, and 
 8 lbs. Oil Vitriol, at ^^"^ . 
 Let stand for several days in a warm place. 
 
 9 
 
t 
 
 66» THE AMElilCAX DYER. 
 
 38. Sulphate of Chrome, at 50° B. 
 
 3 .lbs. Bichromate of Potash, 
 
 11^ pints of Water are boiled to a paste with 
 1^ lbs. Wheat Starch, and to this is added, in small 
 portions at a time, a mixture of 
 
 3 lbs. Oil Vitriol, Qio'^, and 1^ pints of Water. The 
 whole is then to be cooked in an enamelled ves- 
 sel so long as any escape of gas takes place. 
 
 39. Tin Solution, for Brightening Reds and Pinhs. 
 Into 10 lbs. Nitric Acid, at 36° B., introduce 
 
 10 lbs. Tin Crystals in very small portions at a time, 
 steadily stirring. 
 
 40. Chloride of Soda, 5° B. 
 
 To 5 gallons of a solution of Bleaching Powder, at 7° 
 B., add 
 7 lbs. Soda Crystals, dissolved in 5 quarts of water. 
 
 Stir well and let settle. 
 Gives 24 quarts clear Chloride of Soda. 
 
 41. Acetate of Alumina A., for Aniline Carmine. 
 
 3| lbs. Sulphate Alumina, 
 3^ quarts Water and 
 
 4 lbs. White Suirar of Lead. 
 
 42. Alumina Precipitate for Aniline Colors. 
 
 In 4 quarts of Water, dissolve 
 4 lbs of Alum, then add 
 3 lbs. Aqua Ammonia and 
 
 2 quarts of Water. 
 Collect the precipitate, wash and strain. 
 
THE AMEKICAJ^ DYEK. G7 
 
 43. Pijrolignite of Cojij^er, at 15'^ B. 
 
 1 gallon of Water, 
 
 4 lbs. Blue Vitriol (Sulphate of Copper), 
 
 3 lbs. Browu Sugar of Lead. Let settle, and 
 use the clear liquid. If too strong, add water 
 to bring to desired degree. 
 
 44. Acetate of Coj^per, at 20'^ B.^for Steam PurjAe. 
 
 3 lbs. Blue Vitriol dissolved in 
 
 3 quarts "Water, 
 
 2 lbs. White Sugar of Lead, dissolved in 
 
 1 quart of AVater. 
 
 Mix the two solutions and let settle. 
 
 • 
 
 45. Acetate of Chrome, at 16^ B. 
 In 1 gallon of Water, and 
 
 12 lbs. Acetic Acid, dissolve 
 
 5 lbs. White Sugar of Lead ; then add 
 7 lbs. Sulphate of Chrome, at 42° B. 
 Let settle, and use the clear liquid. 
 
 46. Chrome Alum. 
 
 2 lbs. Bichromate Potash, dissolved with heat in 
 5 quarts Water. 
 
 When the solution is cooled down to 104° F.,add 
 
 3 lbs. Oil Vitriol ; stir welH and let cool down to 
 
 77° F., then stir in 1 pint Alcohol, and set 
 away for the Chrome Alum to crystallize out. 
 
 47. Acetate of Protoxide of Iron, at 20^ B. 
 5 quarts of AVater, 
 
 5 lbs. Green Copperas, 
 
 71 lbs. Susjar of Lead. 
 
68 THE A3IERICAX DYER. 
 
 48. Tin Solution for Fast Green. 
 
 4 lbs. Tin Crystals, dissolved in 
 2 lbs. Muriatic Acid, at 22° B. 
 
 49. Tin Solution for Fast Blue. 
 
 10 lbs. Tin Crystals, dissolved in 10 lbs. Muriatic 
 Acid, 22° B. 
 
 50. Oxidized Sapan Liquor, for Steam Orange. 
 3| lbs. Sapau Liquor, at 20° B., 
 
 5 pints Water, 
 
 1 ounce Chlorate Potash, 
 i ounce Muriatic Acid. 
 
 51. Orimson Lake for Wool. 
 
 8 lbs. Cochineal, cooked with 5 or 6 pints of Water. 
 To the decoction, stir gradually and constantly in, 
 a solution made of 
 
 2 quarts of Water, 
 
 2 lbs Tin Crystals, 
 
 2^ lbs. Muriate of Tin. 
 
 Let settle, draw oif the supernatant liquor, wash the pre- 
 cipitate well with water ; collect on a strainer, and let drain 
 well. 
 
 52. Indigo Precipitate for Fast Blue and Green. 
 10 lbs. Quicklime, slacked with 
 
 Q\ galious AVater ; then 
 
 2 lbs. ground Indigo, finely rubbed in Water, are 
 
 well stirred in ; then add 
 6 lbs. Copperas, dissolved in 5 gallons of Water; 
 
 then add 
 5 gallons hot Water and 
 15 gallons cold Water. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 09 
 
 Stir well from time to time until the liquid has 
 assumed a yellow color,' and deep ])lue veins or 
 streaks appear upon its • surface. "\Micu this 
 moment arrives, draw off the clear liquor and 
 precipitate every 10 quarts of it with 
 ^ lb. Tin Crystals dissolved in ^ lb. Muriatic Acid. 
 To the remainder of the mixture of Lime and Indigo, 15 
 gallons of water may be added, and the whole stirred, and 
 when settled the Indigo may be precipitated from the clear 
 liquor as before. This operation may be repeated a second 
 time before all the Indigo is exhausted. 
 
 The Indigo precipitate is to be collected on a muslin 
 filter, and well squeezed out. 
 
 53. Chloride of Potash, at 20"^ B. 
 
 In Q)\ lbs. of solution of Bleaching Powder, at 8° B., 
 1^ lbs. of Pearlash is to be dissolved. 
 Let settle, and use the clear liquor. 
 
 54. Chloride of Soda, at 9^ B. 
 
 In 6^ lbs. solution Bleaching Powder, at 8^ B., dissolve 
 1| lbs. Soda Crystals. 
 
 55. Thickening, or British Gum Water. 
 
 2 lbs. light colored British Gum, dissolved in 
 
 1 quart of boiling Water. 
 
 56. Gum Water. 
 
 2 lbs. Gum Arabic, dissolved in 
 
 1 quart boiling Water. 
 
 57. Dextrine Water. 
 
 2 lbs. Dextrine, dissolved in 
 1 quart boiling Water. 
 
70 THE AMEllICAX DYeIi. 
 
 58. Leicome Water. 
 2 lbs. Leicorae, dissolved in 
 
 1 quart boiling Water. 
 
 59. Gum Tragacanth Mucilage. 
 
 Ill 10 quarts of Water, soak 
 
 1 lb. of Gum Tragacanth, and then cook it well. 
 
 BLACKS. 
 
 Black for Block Printing. 
 
 13 lbs. Iron Liquor, at 10° B., 
 
 b\ lbs. Pyrolignite Alumina, at 8° B., 
 
 1\ oz. Logwood Liquor, at 20° B., to be cooked with 
 
 If lbs. Wheat Starch. 
 
 When the paste is made, add 
 
 3 oz. Olive Oil. 
 
 Black thickened with Gum. 
 2 quarts of Water, 
 b\ lbs. Iron Liquor, at 14° B., 
 
 12^ oz. Acetic Acid at 8° B., 
 
 14 oz. Logwood Liquor at 20° B., 
 4^ lbs. Gum Arabic. 
 
 Black thickened with Starch and Flour. 
 37 quarts Iron Liquor, at 15° B., 
 43 quarts Water, 
 
 2 quarts Logwood Liquor, at 2° B., 
 
 91 lbs. Wheat Starch, 
 
 ^ lbs. Wheat Flour, 
 
 1^ pints Olive Oil. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 71 
 
 Black thickened with Starch. 
 12| lbs. Prepared Iron Liquor, ■ 
 2^ pints Wuter, 
 
 18 oz. Logwood Liquor, at 20° B., 
 2 1 lbs. Wheat Starch, 
 2| lbs. British Gum. 
 
 Topical Black well suited for raising in Alizarine. 
 11 oz. of Starch, 
 11 oz. of British Gum, 
 
 4 lbs. 6 oz. Logwood Liquor, at 20° B., 
 
 1 lb. Decoction of Galls, 20° B., 
 3| lbs. Iron Liquor, 14° B., 
 
 2 lbs. Acetic Acid, 8° B., 
 
 1| oz. Yellow Prussiate of Potash, 
 
 1 oz. Chlorate of Potash, 
 
 are well cooked together. After cooling, and immedi- 
 ately before using, add 14 oz. Nitrate of Iron, at 
 36° B. 
 
 Toincal Black suitable for raising either in Alizarine or 
 
 Garancine. 
 
 5 lbs. Logwood Liquor, at 20° B., 
 5| lbs. Acetic Acid, at 8° B., 
 
 1| lbs. Starch, 
 
 7| lbs. Iron Liquor, at 10° B., 
 
 1 lb. 3 oz. Oil. 
 
 Ihpical Black. 
 1 lb. 3 oz. Logwood Liquor, at 20° B., 
 3^ lbs. Wheat Starch, 
 15 pints Water, 
 
 I lb. Acetate of Iron, 10° B., 
 
 7 oz. Acetate Alumina, 15° B., 
 
 5 oz. Lard. 
 
72 THE AMEKICAX DYEK. 
 
 
 Sleam Black. 
 
 ISl lbs. 
 
 Oxidized Logwood Liquor, 6° B., 
 
 2"lbs. 
 
 Wheat Starch, 
 
 2| lbs. 
 
 British Gum, 
 
 2 lbs. 
 
 Red Prussiate, 
 
 10 oz. 
 
 Prussiate of Tin, 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 Tartaric Acid, 
 
 1 oz. 
 
 Nitrate of Iron, at 50" B. 
 
 Steam Blade. 
 10 lbs. Logwood Liquor, at 20° B. , 
 
 2\ lbs. Acetate Alumina, 10° B., 
 
 21 lbs. Acetic Acid, 8° B., 
 
 2 lbs. 6 oz. Iron Liquor, 14° B., 
 9 oz. Oil, thickened with b\ lbs. Gum Arabic. 
 
 Steam Black tJiickened with Starch. 
 91 lbs. Logwood Liquor, at 20° B., 
 
 i\ lbs. Acetate Alumina, 10° B., 
 
 21 lbs. Acetic Acid, 8° B., 
 
 2 lbs. 6 oz. Iron Liquor, 14° B., 
 9 oz. Oil, cooked with 
 
 2| lbs. Wheat Starch. 
 
 Topical Black. 
 
 3^ lbs. Flour, 
 
 13^ lbs. Logwood Liquor, 6° B., 
 
 7 lbs. 6 oz. Iron Liquor, 14° B., 
 2\ lbs. Acetic Acid, 8° B. 
 
 Steam Black. 
 
 3 lbs. 2 oz. Wheat Starch, 
 
 6^ lbs. Acetio Acid, at 8° B.,. 
 
 5 lbs. Logwood Liquor, 20° B., 
 
 1 lb. Yeiiow Wood (Fustic) Liquor, 20° B. 
 
THE america:n^ dyer. 73 
 
 Cook, and when the paste is made, add, in small por- 
 tions at a time, a solution made of 
 i lb. Bichromate Potash, 
 
 2'lbs. 10 oz. Acetic Acid, 8^ B., and 
 11 lbs. Muriatic Acid. 
 
 Stir well, and thicken the color with an addition of 
 2 lbs. 2 oz. British Gum. 
 
 8team Blade, which must be passed, after steaming, tJirougli a 
 hath of Chrome, to develop its full intensity. 
 
 5 lbs. 
 
 Logwood Liquor, at 20° B., 
 
 5^ lbs. 
 
 Acetic Acid, 8° B., 
 
 2 lbs. 3 oz. 
 
 Wheat Starch, 
 
 fib. 
 
 Leicome, 
 
 1 quart 
 
 Water, 
 
 2 lbs. 9 oz. 
 
 Aco-tate Alumina, 11° B., 
 
 2 lbs. 9 oz. 
 
 . Iron Liquor, 14° B., 
 
 5| oz. 
 
 Lard, 
 
 b\ oz. 
 
 Oil of Turpentine. 
 
 Steam Black ichich stands Soaj^-bath. 
 6 lbs. British Gum, 
 8 lbs. Logwood Liquor, at 10° B.,' 
 2^ pints Water, 
 
 1\ lbs. Acetic Acid, at 8° B. Cook, then add 
 8 lbs. Acetate of Chrome, 17° B., 
 10| oz. Chlorate Potash, dissolved in 
 3 gills Water. 
 
 Aniline Black, with Chloride of Aniline, 
 In 3 lbs. Starch paste (5 ounces of Starch to the quart 
 water), 
 3 lbs. Tragacanth Mucilage (3 oz. Tragacanth to 1 quart 
 
 water) , 
 3 lbs. British Gum Water (13 oz. gum to 1 quart water), 
 3 oz. Chlorate Potash are dissolved. 
 
 10 
 
74 THE AMERICiVN DYER. 
 
 When the mixture is cold, dissolvte in it 
 I lb. Chloride of Aniline, and, just before using, add 
 the necessary 
 2| oz. Sulphuret of Copper. 
 
 Aniline Black, loHh Oxalate of Aniline, 
 3 lbs. Starch paste, as in preceding, 
 3 lbs. Tragacanth Mucilage, do. 
 
 3 oz. British Gum Water, do. 
 2 oz. Chlorate Potash, 
 
 4 oz. Chloride Calcium (Muriate Lime), well cooked. 
 
 After cooling, add 
 C oz. Oxalate of Aniline, 
 
 I oz. Sal-Ammoniac, 
 2 oz. Sulphuret of Copper. 
 
 Aniline Black, icith Tartrate of Aniline. 
 18 lbs. Wheat Starch, 
 18 lbs. British Gum, 
 12 gallons Water, 
 16 lbs. Aniline Oil, 
 
 Chlorate Potash, 
 
 Sal-Ammoniac, all well cooked together, and 
 just before using, add, for every quart of the 
 above mixture, 
 Sulphuret Copper, in paste, and 
 Tartaric Acid, dissolved in 
 ^ Water. 
 
 [The cloths must not be dried with great heat. It is better 
 to take them from the place of drying a little damp than go 
 to the other extreme. Their oxidation is complete in 24 
 hours, if aerated at about 86° F. in a moist atmosphere. 
 They may be cleansed by a passage in hot water, rendered 
 slightly alkaline with Soda Crystals, and the cleansing is 
 completed in a boiling soap-bath. s. b.] 
 
 10 
 
 oz. 
 
 10 
 
 oz. 
 
 2 
 
 oz. 
 
 5 
 
 oz. 
 
 2 
 
 o-ills 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 75 
 
 Aniline Black, with Tungstate of Chrome. 
 2 quarts Water, 
 9 oz. "Wheat Starch, 
 13 oz. Tungstate of Chrome, in fortn of paste. This 
 is made by precipitating Chloride of Chrome 
 with Tungstate of Ammonia. 
 To the above mixture, while still lukewarm, add 
 
 2 oz. Chlorate Potash, 
 1 oz. Sal-Ammoniac, 
 
 \ lb. Chloride of Aniline. 
 
 Aniline Black, with Tungstate of Chrome. 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 4 kilos. Wheat Starch, 
 22 litres Water, 
 
 5 kilos. Tungstate of Chrome. 
 Cook half an hour, and add 
 
 4 kilos. 500 gr. British Gum, 
 1 kilo. 100 gr. Chlorate Potash, 
 550 gr. Sal-Ammoniac. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 1 kilo. 500 gr. Wheat Starch, 
 8 litres Water, 
 
 3 kilos. Chloride of Aniline. 
 
 At time of application, stir No. 2 into No. 1, while cold. 
 (French Receipts.) s. b. 
 
 N. B. The usual proportions are 2 parts No. 1, to 1 part 
 No. 2. Oxidize the printed cloth at 86° Fahr., with 
 very little humidity. Afterwards steam \ hour. 
 
 8ulphuret of Copper in Paste, for Aniline Black. 
 In 12 lbs. Solution of Caustic Soda, at 38° B., 
 
 2 lbs. 3 oz. Flour of Sulphur are dissolved by means of 
 
76 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 heat. When the sohitiou is complete, add to the 
 
 liquor 
 lOi lbs. Blii^ Vitriol, dissolved in 
 20 gallons Water. Stir well, and filter. 
 The precipitate is well washed on the tilter, and employed 
 
 in the form of a paste. 
 
 Steam Black for Half- Wool. 
 14 oz. Wheat Starch and 
 
 4 lbs. 6 oz. Leicome are well cooked in 
 1 lb. Indigo paste, 
 
 7| lbs. Logwood Liquor, 20° B., 
 
 7| lbs. Pyrolignite of Iron. 
 
 Steam Black for Half- Wool. 
 
 5 lbs. Leicome, 
 
 5^ lbs. Logwood Liquor, 20° B., 
 
 4 lbs. 10 oz. Iron Liquor, 14° B., 
 1 lb. Pyroligneous Acid, 
 
 14 oz. Indigo paste, and 
 
 3 lbs. 5 oz. Quercitron Liquor, 20 B., 
 
 are cooked together, and to the mixture, wheu cold, is 
 
 added 
 U lbs. Nitrate Iron, at 20° B., and 
 
 5 oz. Chlorate of Potash. 
 
 Steam Black for Wool. 
 
 4 lbs. Leicome, 
 
 7 lbs. Logwood Liquor, at 20° B., 
 1^ lbs. Indigo paste, 
 2^ lbs. Copperas, 
 5^ lbs. Acetic Acid. 
 
 Steam Black for Wool, 
 I lbs. Wheat Starch, 
 
 8 1 lbs. Iron Liquor, 14° B., 
 
THE AMERICAN DYEK. 77 
 
 3 lbs. 3 oz. Archil Extract, 10° B., 
 
 I lbs. Quercitron Liquor, 20° B., 
 
 I lbs. Indigo paste, x 
 
 4 lbs. 6 oz. Logwood Liquor, 20° B., 
 3^ lbs. Leicome. 
 
 CHOCOLATES. 
 
 The Brown Colors derived from Madder, which are gener- 
 ally called Chocolates in the Print-Works, depend for their 
 depth of tone, which is developed in the raising, on a variable 
 mixture of Acetate of Alumina and Pyrolignite of Iron ; on 
 the thickening and dyeing. 
 
 The mixtures are designated by numbers, as 1, 6, 30, and 
 so on ; and these numbers si^iify how many parts of Acetate 
 of Alumina are to be used with one part of Iron Liquor, to 
 produce the shade desired ; thus, 8° Chocolate 1, signifies that 
 one part of Acetate of Alumina at 8° is to be used with one 
 part of Iron Liquor at 8° ; 8° Chocolate 6, signifies that six 
 parts of Acetate Alumina at 8° is to be used with one part of 
 Iron Liquor at the same degree ; and so on. 
 
 A convenient formula for all shades of Chocolate is as 
 follows : -In this formula^n signifies, as in the preceding para- 
 graph, how many parts of Acetate of Alumina are to be used 
 with one part of Iron Liquor. 
 
 ^ lbs. Acetate of Alumina, at X° B., 
 
 -j^ lbs. Iron Liquor, at X° B., 
 
 2\ lbs. British Gum, 
 
 2^^ lbs. AVheat Starch, 
 
 11 oz. Logwood Extract, at 20° B., 
 
 2\ oz. Oil of Turpentine. 
 
 8° CJiocolate 1. 
 1\ lbs. Acetate of Alumina, at 8° B., 
 1\ lbs. Iron Liquor, at 8° B., 
 
78 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 2^ lbs. British Gum, 
 
 2\ lbs. Wheat 8laich, 
 
 1^ oz. Logwood Liquor, 20° B., 
 
 2| oz. Oil of Turpentine. 
 
 This gives rather a dark Chocolate. 
 
 5° Chocolate 6. 
 12 lbs. Acetate Alumina, at 8° B., 
 2 lbs. Iron Liquor, at 8° B., 
 2| lbs. British Gum, 
 2\ lbs. Wheat Starch, 
 \\ oz. Logwood Liquor, 20° B., 
 2^ oz. Oil of Turpentine. 
 This is a lighter Chocolate. 
 
 ,5° ChocoMe 30. 
 15 lbs. Acetate Alumina, at 8° B;, 
 \ lb. Iron Liquor, at 8° B., 
 2^ lbs. British Gum, 
 2^ lbs. Wheat Starch, 
 1^ oz. Logwood Liquor, at 20° B., 
 2^ oz. Oil of Turpentine. 
 This gives a very light Chocolate. 
 
 Steam Chocolate on unprepared Cotton. 
 1\ lbs. • Steam Chocolate Preparation, No. 1, 
 1\ lbs. Persian Berries, 
 
 1\ lbs. Logwood Liquor, at 7° B., 
 
 A:\ oz. Sulphate of Copper, 
 
 2 lbs. 3 oz. Gum Senegal. 
 
 Steam Chocolate Preparation^ JSFo. 1. 
 23 lbs. Brazil-wood Liquor (Sapau or Lima), * 
 
 2f lbs. Alum, 
 
 2 lbs. 3 oz. Sugar of Lead. Let settle, and use the 
 clear liquor. 
 
i>2 
 
 oz. Mu 
 
 
 aS/6< 
 
 15f 
 
 lbs. 
 
 3| 
 
 lbs. 
 
 1? 
 
 fiillon 
 
 ^\ 
 
 lbs. 
 
 H 
 
 lbs. 
 
 4 lbs. 6 oz 
 
 THE AMEKIC-^S^' DYEK. < U 
 
 Steam Chocolate on wnprepared Cotton. 
 25 lbs. Steam Chocolate Preparation, No. 2, 
 3\ lbs. Starch, 
 5^ oz. Chlorate Potash, 
 Muriatic Acid. 
 
 Steam Chocolate Preparation, J^o. 2. 
 Sapan Liquor, at 9° B., 
 Quercitron Liquor, 8^ B., 
 Water, 
 
 Logwood Liquor, 4^ B., 
 Sulphate Alumina, 
 Brown Sugar of Lead. 
 
 Steam Chocolate on Goods p>^€pared icith Stannate of Soda. 
 4J lbs. Wheat Starch, 
 5 pints AVater, 
 10 lbs. Logwood Liquor, 10^ B., 
 5^ lbs. Caustic Soda Lye, at 10° B., 
 are well cooked together. When cooled, add 
 3 oz. Red Prussiate Potash. 
 
 Steam Chocolate on prepared Goods. 
 4| lbs. Oxidized Logwood Liquor, 
 
 7 lbs. Oxidized Brazil-wood Liquor, 
 
 2 lbs. 9 oz. Quercitron Liquor, 20° B., 
 21 lbs. Nitrate Alumina, 17° B., 
 
 1^- lbs. Steam Chocolate Preparation, No. 3, 
 
 1| lbs. Wheat Starch, 
 
 ^ lb. Leicome, and 
 
 2^ oz. Alum, are well cooked together. 
 
 * Oxidhed Logicood Liquor. 
 
 4| lbs. Logwood Liquor, at 10° B., 
 1^ oz. Chlorate Potash, 
 \ oz. Muriatic Acid. Cook 5 minutes. 
 
80 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Oxidized Brazil-wood Liquor. 
 7 lbs. Sapan or Lima-wood Liquor, at 8° B., 
 2\ oz. Chlorate Potash, 
 \ oz. Muriatic Acid. Cook 5 minutes. 
 
 Steam Chocolate Preparation, JSfo, 3. 
 In 6| lbs. Sapan Liquor, at 3° B., 
 
 1 lb. 10 oz. Quercitron Liquor, 5° B., dissolve 
 3^ oz. Alum, 
 
 3^ oz. Sugar of Lead, 
 
 1 oz. ' Sal-Ammoniac. Use the clear liquor after 
 settling. 
 
 Steam Chocolate on x>repared Goods. 
 
 3| pints Water, 
 
 4 lbs. Acetate Alumina, 15° B., 
 
 4.\ lbs. Logwood Liquor, 20° B., 
 
 1 lb. Sta'rch, 
 
 4^ lbs. British Gum are cooked together. Then 
 
 dissolve in it 
 6 oz. Sal-Ammoniac, 
 
 2 oz. Oxalic Acid. When quite cold, add 
 
 3 lbs. 14 oz. Steam Bhie Preparation for Chocolates. 
 
 See No. 14, Mordants. 
 
 Steam Chocolate for Goods prepared or unprepared. 
 2 lbs. Logwood Liquor, at 10° B., 
 1| lbs. Sapan Liquor, 10° B., 
 fib. Quercitron Liquor, 1-0° B., 
 1| lbs. Acetate Alumina, 11° B., 
 
 1 lb. Wheat Starch, 
 
 2 lbs. Tragacanth Mucilage (2 oz. Tragacanth to 1 
 
 quart water). Cook together, and, when cold, 
 add 
 4^- oz. Acetate Copper, 18° B. 
 
THE AMEKIC^i>s^ DYER. 81 
 
 Steam Chocolate. 
 
 4 lbs. Brazil-wood Liquor, 20° B., 
 
 11- lbs. Yellow AVood (Cub:i) Liquor, 20<^ B. (Fustic 
 Liquor), 
 
 6 lbs. Acetate Chrome, 16° B., 
 
 7 pints Water, cooked Avith 
 1 lb. Starch, 
 
 \ lb. British Gum. 
 
 Chocolate to be passed through a Chrome Bath. 
 
 8 lbs. Sapan Liquor, 20° B., 
 
 2>\ lbs. Yellow Wood Liquor, 20° B. (Fustic Liquor) , 
 3i lbs. Acetate Alumina, 11° B., and 
 
 5 lbs. Gum Arabic. 
 
 Steam Chocolate on Wool. 
 2\ lbs. Wheat Starch, 
 5 pints Water, 
 12 lbs. Archil Extract, 10° B., 
 6\ oz. Indigo Paste, 
 \ lb. Alum. 
 
 Steam Chocolate on Wool. 
 121 lbs. Archil Extract, 10° B., 
 
 \ lb. Wheat Starch, 
 
 \^ lbs. British Gum, 
 
 I lb. 14 oz. Indigo Paste, 
 
 II oz. Alum, 
 
 1^ lbs. Logwood Liquor, at 20° B., 
 
 1| lbs. Yellow Wood Liquor, 20° B. (Fustic 
 
 Liquor) . 
 
 Steatn Chocolate on Wool, 
 15 lbs. Archil Extract, 12° B., 
 4 lbs. Leicome, 
 11 oz. Indigo Paste, 
 \ lb. Alum. 
 11 
 
82 TilE AMERICAN DYEll. 
 
 REDS. 
 
 The following Reds may be raised iu the same beck with 
 Roses, or by themselves alone, either with Madder or Flow- 
 ers, soaped and brightened. 
 
 Dee}} Red for Cotton Goods. 
 
 2 lbs. Wheat Starch, 
 
 25 lbs. Red Preparation (see next below), 
 3|- ounces Logwood. Liquor, 20° B., 
 3|- ounces Olive Oil, cooked well together. 
 
 Red Pre;paration. 
 
 21 pints Water, 
 
 6 lbs. 5 oz. Sugar of Lead, 
 
 6 lbs. 5 oz. Alum, 
 
 l|'lbs. Pyroligneous Acid, 2° B., 
 
 3 lbs. 5 oz. Nitrate Zinc, 40° B. 
 
 Deep Red. 
 
 7 lbs. Acetate Alumina, at 11° B., 
 1^ lbs. Starch, 
 
 4 ounces Sapan Liquor, 20° B., 
 2 lbs. 6 oz. Nitrate Zinc, 15° B., 
 
 1 ounce Olive Oil, cooked well together. 
 
 Standard JSfo. l^for Resist Red. 
 
 2 lbs. Wheat Starch, 
 
 25 lbs. Red Preparation (see above), 
 14 ounces Quercitron Liquor, 20° B., 
 3| ounces Olive Oil. 
 
THE .OIEIUCAX DYEE. 83 
 
 Jlesist lied, ^*. 
 1 quart of Standarcl No. 1, sharpuned with 
 h ounce Tin Crystals, 
 ^ ounce Acetic Acid, 8^ B. 
 
 Resist lied, 2. 
 
 1 quart of Standard Xo. 1, 
 
 2 ounces Tin Crystals, 
 
 2 ounces Acetic Acid, 8° B. 
 
 liesist Bed, 4. 
 1 quart of Standard No. 1, 
 4 ounces Tin Crystals, 
 4 ounces Acetic Acid, 8^ B. 
 
 Standard Xo. 2, for liesist Beds thickened with British Gum. 
 4f Ihs. Pyrolignite Alumina, 11^ B., 
 
 31^ ounces Nitrate Zinc, 20° B., 
 3f ounces Brazil wood Liquor, 20==^ B., 
 
 1 ounce Oil Turpentine, 
 
 2 lbs. 3 oz. British Gum. 
 
 Bed without uVitrafe of Zinc. 
 18^ lbs. Pyrolignite Alumiua, 11^ B., 
 
 3 lbs. 2 oz. AVhcat Starch, 
 
 10 oz. Brazil-wood Liquor, 20^^ B. 
 
 Steayn Bed JVb. 1, on prepared Cotton. 
 9 lbs. 10 oz. Sa^wn Liquor, 20^ B., 
 \\ lbs. Quercitron Liquor, 20^ B., 
 
 10 oz. Red Trussiate Potash, 
 
 1 gallon Gum Water, 1 lb. to the quart, 
 
 \ lb. Acetate Alumina, at 15° B. 
 
 * The figures following the words "Resist Kc.l," signify the nuniher of 
 ounces of Tin Crystals and Acetic Acid to be added to one quart of the 
 Standard. 
 
84 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Steam- Scarlet Red on prepared Goods. 
 
 16\ lbs. Cochineal Extract, 14P B., 
 
 ]5 oz. Quercitron Extract, 20° B., 
 
 2 lbs. 6 oz. Wheat Starch. Cook. 
 
 When cold, add 
 13 oz. Salts Sorrel (Binoxalate Potash), 
 
 1 lb. 9 oz. Tin Composition for Scarlet, No. 26 Prepa- 
 ration. 
 
 Steam Red JSfo. 2, on prepared Goods. 
 
 \\ pints Water, 
 
 5 lbs. 10 oz. Acetate Alumina, 15° B., 
 
 5 lbs. Sapan Liquor, 20° B., 
 
 5^ lbs. British Gum, 
 
 5| oz. Sal-Ammoniac, 
 
 2^ oz. Oxalic Acid, 
 
 4 lbs. Blue Standard, No. 14 Mordant. 
 
 Steam Red on prepared Cotton. 
 
 11 lbs. Sapan Extract, 14° B., 
 
 1 lb. 2 oz. Persian Berry decoction, 7° B., 
 
 1 lb. 10 oz. Sulphate Alumina, 
 
 2 oz. Chlorate Potash, 
 ^\ lbs. Gum Arabic. 
 
 Steam Scarlet on Wool. 
 
 11 lbs. Cochineal Lake, 
 2 quarts Water, 
 5^ lbs. Gum Arabic, 
 
 9 oz. Salts Sorrel. Cook, and, when cold, add 
 9 oz. Oxalic Acid. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 85 
 
 PINKS. 
 
 These colors are raised in Madder or Flowers, and are 
 made with a solution of Pyrolignite or Acetate of .Vhnniiia, 
 thickened with British Gum. 
 
 Pink 4. 
 1 lb. P^'rolignitc Ahimina, at 11° B., 
 4 lbs. British Gum SoUition for Roses. 
 
 Pijik 20. 
 
 1 lb. Pyrolignite Alumina, 11° B., 
 20 lbs. British Gum Solution for Roses. 
 
 British Gum Solution for Poses. 
 9 lbs. 3 oz. British Gum, 
 11 pints "Water, 
 
 11 lbs. Nitrate of Zinc, 50° B. 
 
 Steam Pose on Prepared Cotton. 
 11 lbs. 13 oz. Cochineal Decoction, 5° B., 
 3 lbs. 3 oz. Acetate Alumina, 15° B., 
 . 1^ lbs. Solution Tartaric Acid, 20° B., 
 
 3^ lbs. Powdered Gum Arabic. 
 
 The same may be thickened with H lbs. Wheat Starch 
 in place of the Gum Arabic. 
 
 Steam Pinks. 
 Steam Reds No. .1 and No. 2 may be diluted with Gum 
 Water; 1 part of Red to 4 parts Gum Water to produce 
 Pinks. 
 
 Topical Pose on Cotton. 
 3 lbs. Tragacanth Mucilage (1^ oz. to the quart), 
 
 2 quarts Water, 
 
 4]^- lbs. Sapan Liquor, 10° B.,. 
 
86 THE AMERICA:^ DYEK. 
 
 1 lb. 5 oz. Acetic Acid, 8^ B., 
 17^ oz. Pink Salts, 
 
 2 oz. Chloride of Copper, 40° B. 
 
 Topical Rose on Cotton. 
 4 quarts "Water, 
 9^ lbs. Sapaii Liquor, 10° B., 
 
 11 lbs. Tragacanth Mucilage, 
 
 3 lbs. 6 oz. Sal-Ammoniac, 
 
 3^ lbs. Muriate Tin, 55° B., 
 
 11 oz. Nitrate Copper, 55° B. 
 
 Steam Rose on prepared Cotton. 
 '4 lbs. 2 oz. Cochineal Decoction, 8° B., 
 2i- pints Water, 
 
 4 oz. Alum, 
 
 2 oz. Cream Tartar, 
 
 1 oz. Oxalic Acid. 
 
 2 lbs. 10 oz. Gum Arabic. 
 
 Steam Aniline Rose on Cotton. 
 ^\ oz. Fuchsine in Crystals. Dissolve in 
 
 1 pint Alcohol. Stir in 
 
 17 oz. Tragacanth Mucilage, and add finally 
 12^ lbs. Solution Blood Albumen (21 ounces to the 
 quart) . 
 
 Dark Aniline Rose on unprepared Cotton. 
 
 2 lbs. Fuchsine Carmine, 
 14^ lbs. Acetate Alumina, 
 17^ lbs. Gum Water. 
 
 Aniline Rose on imjjrepared Cotton. 
 
 3 lbs. Wheat Starch, 
 
 4 quarts Water, 
 
 7^ lbs. Acetate Alumina, well cooked together. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 87 
 
 Then add a mixture of 
 4 lbs. 6 oz. Fuchsiiie Carmiue, 
 4 lbs. 6 oz. Acetate Alumina. 
 
 Aniline Rose. 
 
 4 oz. Fuchsine in Crystals, 
 1 quart Water, 
 
 1 quart Glycerine. Cook 15 minutes. 
 Thicken with \\ lbs. Gum Arabic. 
 "When completely cold, add 
 
 14 lbs. Albumen Solution (2 lbs. Egg Albumen to 1 quart 
 Water). 
 
 Aniline Rose. 
 
 5 lbs. Solution Fuchsine in Alcohol, No. 1, 
 
 8 lbs. Gum Water. 
 
 Heat, until 3 lbs. are steamed away. When completely 
 
 cold, add 
 5 lbs. Albumen Solution (2 lbs. Egg Albumen to 1 quart 
 
 Water) . 
 
 Fuchsine Rose, 
 
 2 lbs. Solution of Caseine, 
 
 \ lb. Fuchsine Solution in Alcohol, No. 1. 
 
 Caseine Solution. 
 
 2 lbs. Caseine, 
 
 3 quarts Water, 
 
 6^ oz. Liquid Ammonia. 
 
 Coralline Rose. 
 )f lb. Coralline. Dissolve in 
 '2.\ pints Alcohol, and thicken with 
 
 9 lbs. Caseine Solution. 
 
 Rose on Wool. 
 9^ lbs. Scarlet Lake, 
 9^ lbs. Gum Water, 
 1 lb. Oxalic Acid. 
 
88 THE AMEPJCAX DYEK. 
 
 Aniline Hose on Wool. 
 6 lbs. Fuchsine Solution, No. 2, thickened with 
 10 lbs. Gum Water. 
 
 Fuchsine Solution, No. 1. 
 Z\ oz. Fuchsine dissolved with heat in 
 4 quarts Alcohol. 
 
 Fuchsine Solution, No. 2. 
 
 1 lb. Fuchsine in Crystals, dissolved in 
 8 lbs. Acetic Acid, 8° B. 
 
 Caseine Solution. 
 
 2 lbs. Caseine powdered, 
 2\ oz. Calcined Magnesia, 
 1 gallon Water. 
 
 Stir the Caseine and Magnesia, each by itself, in a little of 
 the Water. Then mix both with the rest of the Water. 
 Stir till it thickens, and let rest over night. 
 
 Then add a solution of 10 ounces crystallized Baryta 
 hydrate in 3 quarts of warm Water at not over 95^ Fahr. 
 
 This will form a gum-like- solution, having the properties of 
 Egg Albumen, at a moderate price. The cost for materials 
 in France is about 50 cents per gallon. 
 
 PURPLES. 
 
 Purples are formed by mixtures of Acetate of Iron and solu- 
 tion of British Gum, cooked together. The shades are darker 
 when Wheat Starch is used in place of British Gum. The 
 figure which follows the word Purple, signifies hew many 
 pounds of British Gum Solution are to be used for one pound 
 of Acetate of Iron. Thus 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 89 
 
 Purple 8. 
 Consists of 1 lb. Acetate of Iron, at 11"^ B., 
 8 lbs. Solution British Gum. 
 
 Puiyle 40. 
 
 1 lb. Acetate of Iron, at 11° B., 
 40 lbs. British Gum Solution. 
 
 Purple for Hair Lines. 
 
 2 lbs. 7 oz. Acetate of Iron, 10° B., 
 5f lbs. Gum Arabic, 
 
 2\ lbs. Pyroligneous Acid, 2° B., 
 
 11 pints Water, 
 
 2 oz. Logwood Liquor, 20° B. 
 
 Steam Purple on Cotton prepared with Stannate of Soda. 
 
 9 lbs. 6 oz. Logwood Liquor, 2^° B., 
 
 4^ oz. Sal-Ammoniac, 
 
 1 lb. 2 oz. Lemon Juice, 27° B., 
 
 16 lbs. Gum Water, 
 
 101 oz. Oxide of Tin {vide No. 24), 
 
 5^ oz. Nitrate Copper, 55° B. 
 
 Steam Purple on prep)ared Cotton. 
 5| lbs. Logwood Liquor, 4° B., 
 \\ oz. Lemon Juice, 27° B., 
 
 4^ oz. Red Prussiate Potash, 
 
 1 lb. 5 oz. Gum Arabic. 
 
 Steam Puiple on unprejjared Cotton. 
 3^ ros. Standard R. (see next page), 
 
 2 lbs. 14 oz. Gum Water, 
 
 1 lb. 3 oz. Acetate Alumina, 12° B. 
 
 12 
 
90 THE a:\iehicax dter. 
 
 S(a7idard R. 
 
 5 lbs. Steam Purple Preparation (see below), 
 2 lbs. Gum Arabic, 
 
 1\ oz. Acetate Copper, 20" B. 
 
 Steam Purple Prejmration. 
 4| lbs. Acetate Alumina, 12^ B., 
 17V t)Z. Ground Logwood, 
 ^\ oz. Logwood Liquor, 20^ B., 
 Heat to 190- F. L"se the clear liquor. 
 
 Topical PuipJe on Cotton. 
 2 lbs. Logwood Liquor, 6^ B., 
 
 2 quarts Water, 
 
 6 lbs. Gum Water (1^ lbs. to the quart), 
 9 oz. Sal-Ammouiac, 
 
 3 oz. Alum, 
 
 \\ oz. Oxalic Acid, 
 
 \\ oz. Nitrate Copper, 8^ B., 
 
 f lb. Muriate Tin, 60" B. 
 
 
 Topical Purple. 
 
 10 lbs. 
 
 Logwood Liquor, 5^ B., 
 
 13 oz. 
 
 Sal-Ammoniac, 
 
 5| oz. 
 
 Sulphate Copper, 
 
 3^ oz. 
 
 Oxalic Acid, 
 
 2"lbs. 6 oz, 
 
 . Pink Salts, 
 
 6^ lbs. 
 
 Gum Water. 
 
 Steam Aniline Purple on Cotton. 
 
 11 oz. Aniline Purple (Paris Purple, Dahlia)^are dis- 
 solved in 
 2 pints Alcohol, and then Gum Water added. The mix- 
 
THE AMEKICAN DYEIl. 91 
 
 ture is now heated until 1 pint is steamed off. 
 Let cool. When fully cold, add 10 lbs. Albu- 
 men Solution (2 lbs. Egg Albumen or 1 lb. 
 Blood Albumen to the quart of Water). 
 
 Steam Aniline Purple on prepared CoUon. 
 1| lbs. Aniline Purple in paste, 
 11 lbs. Acetic Acid, 8° B., 
 3^ oz. Tannin, 
 1^ lbs. Wheat Starch, 
 3 quarts Water. 
 
 Steam. Purple on unprepared Cotton. 
 
 2 lbs. Purple Carmine (of R. Knosp in Stutgard), 
 6 lbs. Acetate Alumina, at 8° B., 
 
 8 lbs. Gum Water (2 lbs. to the quart). 
 
 Steam Aniline Purple. 
 2| lbs. Wheat Starch, 
 4|^ quarts Water, 
 6 lbs. Acetate Alumina, A., 
 
 3 lbs. Aniline Purple Carmine, 
 2 lbs. Acetic Acid. 
 
 Aniline Purple on Wool. 
 
 1 lb. 13 oz. Aniline Purple in paste, 
 
 2 pints Alcohol, 
 
 14 lbs. Gum Water, 
 
 1 quart Water. 
 
 Aniline Purple on Wool. 
 2| oz. Aniline Purple (Paris Purple, Dahlia), 
 8 lbs. Acetic Acid, 8° B. Dissolve with warming, and 
 thicken with 10 lbs. Gum Water. 
 
92 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 BLUES. 
 
 Fast Blue on Cotton. 
 10\ oz. fine-ground Indigo, rubbed up with 
 
 1 lb. 3 oz. Caustic Soda Sohition, 20^ B., and added to 
 4 lbs. 13 oz. Caustic Soda Solution, 20° B., and 
 
 11 oz. Red Sulphuret Arsenic (Realgar). 
 
 Cook the whole V hour, and thicken with 
 
 2 lbs. Gum Arabic. 
 
 Fast Blue on Cotton. 
 9 lbs. 2 oz. Indigo Precipitate, No. 52, 
 1\ lbs. Nitrate Protoxide of Iron, 32° B., 
 
 11^ lbs. Gum Water (2 lbs. Gum Arabic to 1 quart 
 
 Water). 
 
 Fast Blue on Cotton. 
 4 lbs. Indigo Precipitate, No. 52. 
 
 6 lbs. British Gum Water (2 lbs. B. Gum to 1 quart 
 
 Water) , 
 41 lbs. Nitrate Protoxide Iron, 14° B. 
 The Nitrate of Iron may be replaced by 4| lbs. Chloride 
 of Iron, at 28° B. 
 
 Fast Blue on Cotton. 
 24 lbs. Indigo Precipitate, 
 
 8 lbs. Nitrate Protoxide Iron, 32° B., 
 24 lbs. Gum Water. 
 
 Steam Blue on prepared Cotton Goods. 
 4 quarts Water, 
 
 2 lbs. Starch. Cook to a paste, and add 
 
 2\ lbs. Yellow Prussiate, 
 
 13| oz. Tartaric Acid, 
 
 7 oz. Sal-Ammoniac, 
 4 lbs. 3 oz, Prussiate Tin. 
 
THE AMERICAi?^ I>YETl. 93 
 
 Steam Blue on prepared Goods. 
 9 pints boiling "Water, 
 1 lb. Sal-Aramoniac, 
 
 1 lb. 6. oz. Yellow Prussiate Potash, 
 10| oz. Red Prnssiate Potash, 
 
 4 lbs. 2 oz. Prussiate Tin, 
 
 5 lbs. Gum Arabic. 
 
 Steam Blue on prepared Goods. 
 1| lbs. Starch, cooked with 9 pints water ; add 
 1| lbs. Yellow Prussiate. In another vessel dissolve 
 1| lbs. Tartaric Acid and 3 oz. Oxalic Acid in 
 11 pints Water, and mix the two. Finally, add to the 
 
 mixture 
 4 lbs. Prussiate Tin, 
 
 11 oz. Brazil-wood Liquor, 6° B., 
 \ oz. Oil Vitriol. 
 
 Steam Blue on prepared Goods, ivithout Tartaric Acid. 
 
 2 quarts Water, cooked with 1 lb. 6 oz. Starch, 
 4| oz. Alum, 
 
 2^ oz. Oxalic Acid, 
 
 17^^ oz. Prussiate Tin, 
 
 2 lbs. 3 oz. Yellow Prussiate, 
 
 17| oz. Glauber Salts. When completely cold add 
 
 13 oz. Oil Vitriol, 66°, in 
 
 1^ pints Water. 
 
 Steam Blue on prepared Cotton. 
 6 gallons Water, cooked with 7^^ lbs. Starch. 
 Into the hot paste stir 
 49 lbs. Prussiate Tin, 
 
 1 lb. 3 oz. Sal-Ammoniac, 
 
 12 lbs. 5 oz. Yellow Prussiate, 
 
9i THE AMERICAX DYER. 
 
 7 lbs. 6 oz. Red Piussiate. When solution is complete, 
 add tiually 
 19 lbs. 11 oz. Tartaric Acid, 
 
 1 lb. 13 oz. Oxalic Acid. Stir well in. 
 
 Steam Blue on pi-ejmred Goods. 
 15 quarts "Water, cooked with 9 lbs. Starch; add 
 10 oz. Sal-Ammoniac, 
 24 lbs. Tartaric Acid, 
 lUbs. Oxalic Acid, 
 
 2 quarts Water, 
 
 18 lbs. Yellow Prussiate, 
 
 6 lbs. Red Prussiate, 
 32 lbs. Prussiate Tin. 
 
 Sleam Blue on prepared Goods. 
 2 lbs. Starch, and 1 lb. 3 oz. Tragacauth Mucilage, 
 
 7 pints "Water, cooked together. To the hot paste, 
 
 add 
 2\ lbs. Yellow Prussiate, 
 2 lbs. Red Prussiate, 
 1\ lbs. Prussiate Tin. 
 After the solution has taken place, add 
 2 quarts Water, 
 4 lbs. Tartaric Acid, 
 10 oz. Oxalic Acid, 
 4?T oz. Oil Vitriol, mixed with 
 41^ oz. Water. 
 
 Ultramarine Blue on Cotton. 
 3^ lbs. Ultramarine, 3 F., 
 IH lbs. Blood Albumen Solution, 
 4 lbs. Tragacauth Mucilage (| oz. to the quart), 
 1^ lbs. Common Salt. 
 
THE AMERICAX DYER. 9,") 
 
 Ultramarine Blue (darh), 
 5| lbs. Ultramarine, 3 F., 
 
 23 pints Water, 
 
 7 lbs. 5 oz. Egg Albumen Solution (1 lb. to the quart), 
 5| lbs. Gum Water. 
 
 Ultramarine Blue. 
 
 5 lbs. 7 oz. Ultramarine (superfine), 
 2\ pints Water, 
 
 6 lbs. 14 oz. Egg Albumen Solution (1 lb. to the quart), 
 5^ lbs. Gum Water, 
 
 1\ lbs. Glycerine. 
 
 Aniline Blue on unprepared Cotton. 
 ?)\ lbs. Aniline Blue Carmine (Knosp's), 
 6 lbs. 9 oz. Acetate Alumina A., and 
 16^ lbs. Starch paste (5^ oz. to the quart water). 
 
 Aniline Blue thickened with Gum. 
 5 oz. Aniline Blue Carmine, 
 9^^ oz. Acetate Alumina, 
 
 2 lbs. Gum Water. 
 
 The pieces printed with Aniline Blue Carmine are steamed 
 like other steam colors and washed, and then, in order to 
 remove a reddish tinge which sticks to the blue, are passed 
 for half an hour through a soap-bath, heated to 140° F. 
 
 Steam Blue on ^Vool. 
 1 lb. Starch, cooked in 11 pints Water. 
 
 To the hot paste add 
 1| lbs. Tartaric Acid, 
 
 5 oz. Alum, 
 
 3 oz. Oxalic Acid. When dissolved, add 
 \\ lbs. Eed Prussiate, 
 
 4 lbs. 10 oz. Prussiate of Tin. 
 
96 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 
 
 Sky-Blue on Wool. 
 
 lib. 2 
 
 oz. 
 
 fijie Indigo paste, 
 
 7 oz. 
 
 
 Alum, 
 
 2^oz. 
 
 
 Oxalic Acid, 
 
 13 pints 
 
 
 Water, 
 
 5f lbs. 
 
 
 Gum Arabic. 
 
 Aniline Blue on Wool. 
 
 \\ oz. Aniline Bine (in powder) dissolved in 
 2 pints Alcohol, with heat. Add then 
 1 pint Water, tilter, and thicken with 
 12 pints Gum Water. 
 
 
 GREENS. 
 
 
 Fast Green on Cotton (dark 
 
 4 quarts 
 
 Water, 
 
 26 lbs. 
 
 Indigo Precipitate, No. 52, 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 Sugar of Lead, 
 
 4 lbs. 
 
 Nitrate of Lead, 
 
 3 lbs. 
 
 Starch, ' 
 
 5 lbs. 3 
 
 oz. British Gum, 
 
 9^oz. 
 
 Oil Turpentine. 
 
 * Fast Green on Cotton (light). 
 
 38 lbs. Gum Water, 
 4 lbs. Nitrate Lead, 
 2 lbs. Sugar of Lead, 
 
 7 pints boiling Water, 
 
 8 lbs. Indigo Precipitate, 
 
 2 lbs. Tin Solution for Fast Green, No. 48, 
 
TKE AMEKICAX DYEK. 07 
 
 Dark Sleam Green, on jirepared Cotton. 
 7| lbs. Persian Berry Decoction, 10^ B., 
 
 3 gills Water, 
 
 1 lb. 7 oz. Starch. Then add 
 
 2 lbs. 7 oz. Yellow Prussiate, 
 13 oz. Red Prussiate, 
 
 4 lbs. Prussiate of Tin, 
 6| oz. Sal-Ammoniac, 
 
 3 lbs. 2 oz. Tartaric Acid, 
 2^ oz. Oxalic Acid, 
 
 13 oz. Alum. 
 
 Steam Green on prejmi'ed Goods. 
 
 6 lbs. Tragacanth Mucilage, {% oz. to the quart), 
 
 7 lbs. 5 oz. Pjrolignite Alumina, 11° B., 
 
 4 lbs. Persian Berries Extract, 7° B., 
 
 5 oz. Tartaric Acid, 
 6i- oz. Oxalic Acid, 
 
 2 lbs. li^ oz. Yellow Prussiate Potash. 
 
 Guignet Green on Cotton. 
 9 lbs. 3 oz. Guiguet Green in paste, 
 11 oz. Glycerine, 
 
 11 oz. Oil Turpentine, 
 
 11 lbs. 6 oz. Blood Albumen Solution (1 lb. 11 oz. to the 
 quart). 
 
 Steam Green on Cotton. 
 2 lbs. 3 oz. Persitm Berry Decoction, 4° B., 
 4^ oz. Starch, 
 
 2 oz. Alum, 
 
 1 oz. Oxalic Acid, 
 
 5-i oz. Prussiate Tin, 
 
 3 oz. Yellow Prussiate, 
 1 oz. Acetic Acid, 8° B. 
 
 13 
 
98 THE A^IEKICAN DYER. 
 
 Steam Green on Cotton. 
 13| lbs. Persian Berry Decoction, 4° B., 
 3^ lbs. . Gum Aralnc, 
 2\ lbs. Yellow Prussiate, 
 
 1 lb. 6 oz. Sulphate Alumina, 
 9 oz. Oxalic Acid, 
 
 2 oz. Salts of Tin. 
 
 Steam Green on Cotton (Haicranek Green). 
 1^ lbs. Starch, cooked with ^ 
 
 5 quarts Water. To the hot paste add 
 2 lbs. 6 oz. Yellow Prussiate, 
 9| oz. Red Prussiate, 
 
 5 lbs. 6 oz. Prussiate Tin, 
 11^ lbs. Chrome Alum, dissolved in 
 
 1 pint AVater, 
 
 4 oz. Acetic Acid, 8° B. 
 
 This Green is frequently printed with Guignet Green, 
 
 with which it forms a pretty contrast, being much 
 
 darker. 
 [It is much improved and darkened by passing through 
 
 Bichromate, after printing and steaming. s. b.] 
 
 /Sea- Green (^Chrome Green). 
 In 9 quarts Water, dissolve 
 13 oz. White Arsenic ; add gradually 
 
 12 oz. Bichromate Potash. 
 
 Boil and filter, drain the precipitate well and dissolve it in 
 
 13 oz. Muriatic Acid at 22° B. Boil the solution in an 
 
 enamelled vessel to 50° B., and then add 
 1 oz. Sal-Ammoniac. 
 Before using for printing, warm the mixture and thicken 
 
 with 
 3i oz. Dextrine. 
 
TIip AMEIMCAX DYEPt. 99 
 
 Green on Cotton. 
 2| lbs. Soap. Dissolve in 
 
 8 quarts Soap wort Decoction, two ounces Saponaria 
 officinalis (Soapwort) to the quart water. AVhen 
 cool, dissolve in it 
 2\ lbs. Sulphate Copper (Blue Vitriol), and thicken 
 
 with 
 I lb. Pulverized Gum Tragacanth. 
 
 Aniline Green on Cotton. 
 1 lb. Aniline Green in paste, 
 f lb. Tragacanth Mucilage, 
 13 oz. Blood Albumen Solution. 
 
 Steam Green on Wool. 
 
 8 lbs. Yellow Lake, 
 
 9 oz. Oxitlic Acid, 
 
 15 oz. Sulphate Alumina, 
 ^ lbs. Solution Indigo Paste. Cook, and thicken with 
 3 lbs. Gum Arabic. 
 
 Steam Green on Wool. 
 8 lbs. Cuba Lake, 
 \ lb. Oxalic Acid, 
 13 oz. Sulphate Alumina, 
 
 8 lbs. Indigo Paste Solution. Cook, and thicken with 
 2| lbs. Gum. 
 
 Indigo Paste Solution. 
 2 lbs. Indigo Paste dissolved in 
 
 9 quarts Boiling Water. Filter. 
 
 Steam Green on Wool. 
 8 lbs. 9 oz. Quercitron Liquor, 20^ B., 
 ^ oz. Logwood Liquor, 20^ B., 
 
100 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 1 lb. 10 oz. Indigo Paste, 
 6 lbs. Gum, 
 
 2 quarts Water. Cook, and add to the mixture j when 
 
 cold, 
 
 11 oz. Alum, 
 
 11 oz. Oxalic Acid, 
 
 1 oz. Muriate of Tin, at 55° B. 
 
 ORANGES. 
 
 Darh Chrome Orange on Cotton. 
 
 5 lbs. Nitrate of Lead, 
 5 lbs. Pyrolignite of Lead, 
 ^ lb. Starch, 
 \ lb. British Gum, 
 
 9 pints Water. Raise in Chrome for all the Chrome 
 Oranges. 
 
 'O" 
 
 Dark Chrome Orange on Cotton. 
 
 10 oz. Starch, cooked to a paste with 
 
 5 gills Water ; add 
 7 oz. Acetic Acid, 
 
 I oz. Nitric Acid. When the paste has become thin 
 and flowing, add gradually 
 24 lbs. Chrome Orange Standard, 50° B., No. 12. 
 
 Darh Chrome Orange for Cotton. 
 
 6 lbs. Chrome Orange Standard, 50° B., No. 12, cooked 
 
 with 
 1 lb. British Gum, 
 \ lb. Indigo Paste Solution (page 99), 
 ^Ib. Olive Oil. 
 
THE AMEKICAN DYER. 101 
 
 Dark Chrome Orange for Cotton. 
 17 lbs. Chrome Orange Standard, 50° B., No. 12, thick- 
 ened with 
 3 lbs. Leicome. 
 
 Chrome Orange on Cotton (middling light) . 
 15 lbs. Sugar of Lead. Dissolve in 
 
 2 quarts Water. Add 
 29 quarts Dextrine Water (1^ lbs. to the quart). 
 
 Chrome Orange (light). 
 8 lbs. Sugar of Lead. 
 
 2 quarts Water, 
 
 29 quarts Dextrine Water. 
 To produce with regularity any shade of Chrome Orange, 
 it is absolutely necessary that the goods should, before print- 
 ing, be passed through a solution of Glauber Salts. Four 
 and a half ounces of Sulphate of Soda to the quart of water, 
 give a sufficient strength. The goods are passed in the vat 
 with rollers. 
 
 Orange on Cotton. 
 
 3 lbs. Starch, 
 
 4 lbs. PjToligneous Acid, 2° B., 
 
 2 lbs. Persian Berry Decoction, 10° B., 
 
 1 lb. 6 oz. Acetate Lime. Cook, and, when cold, add 
 
 2 lbs. 7 oz. Salts of Tin. Dissolve. 
 
 With this Orange, Black, Red or Chocolate Mordants 
 may be printed, and the whole raised in Garancine. 
 
 Garancine Orange with Flavine. 
 2 lbs. Starch; 
 
 2 lbs. 3 oz. Flavine, 
 7 ounces White Arsenic, 
 
102 THE AMEEICAX DTEK. 
 
 9 quarts of Water. "When cold, and just before using, 
 
 add 
 2 lbs. 5 oz. Salts of Tin, 
 18^^ ounces Acetate of Soda. 
 This color also gives, after steaming, a better Steam 
 
 Orange than can be produced with Persian Berries. 
 
 Steam Orange. 
 4^ lbs. Persian Berry Liquor, 4° B., 
 
 6 ounces Wheat Starch, 
 4i^ ounces Acetic Acid, 8° B., 
 
 1 ounce Sugar of Lead, 
 
 b\ ounces Sapan Wood Liquor, 10^ B. 
 Cook together well, and wheu cold, add 
 2| ounces Salts of Tin. 
 
 Steam Orange on Cotton. 
 13i lbs. Persian Berry Liquor, 8° B. 
 ?)\ lbs. Oxidized Sapan Liquor for Orange, No. 50. 
 A\ lbs. Acetate Alumina, 15° B., 
 \ lb. Sulphate Alumina, 15° B., 
 7^^ lbs. Gum Arabic. 
 This color may be printed with Steam Blue. 
 
 Steam Orange on prejmred Cotton. 
 8 lbs. Persian Berry Liquor, 7° B., 
 4|- lbs. Cochineal Solution, 7° B., 
 3^ pints Water, are cooked with 
 
 2 lbs. Starch. When the mixture is lukewarm, add 
 \ lb. Oxalic Acid, and 
 
 I lb. Salts of Tin, and, when fully cold, add 
 4 ounces Tin Composition for Orange 8, No. 27. 
 
 Steam Chrome Orange. 
 3^ lbs. Chrome Orange Pigment, 
 8 lbs. Egg or Blood Albumen Solution. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 103 
 
 Steam Chrome Orange {light) . 
 13 ounces Chrome Orange Pigment, 
 
 3 lbs. Chrome Yellow Pigment, 
 12 lbs. Egg or Blood Albumen Solution and 
 
 8 quarts Gum Water or Tragacanth Mucilage. 
 
 YELLOWS. 
 
 Steam Yelloio on prepared Goods. 
 12^ lbs. Standard for Yellow, 
 1 lb. Sugar of Lead, 
 1 lb. Salts of Till. 
 
 Steam Yelloio I. on jyrepared Goods. 
 171 lbs. Standard for Yellow, 
 \\ lbs. Salts of Tin, 
 1 lb. Sugar of Lead. 
 
 Standard for Yellow. 
 15 lbs. Persian Berry Decoction, 7° B., 
 
 6 lbs. Gum Arabic. 
 
 Steam Orange I. on jyrepared Goods. 
 3 lbs. Steam Yellow I. (above). 
 1 lb. Steam Red, I. 
 
 Steam Yellow on prej^ared Goods. 
 
 7 lbs. Quercitron Liquor, 20° B., 
 21- lbs. Nitrate Alumina, 17° B., 
 2V lbs. Acetate Alumina, 15° B., 
 
 ^ lb. Sal-Ammoniac, and 
 6 ounces Oxalic Acid, are dissolved in 
 1\ pints of Water, and thickened with 
 6 lbs. Gum Arabic. 
 
104 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Steam Orange 0. on Cotton. 
 
 1 lb. 3 oz. Anatto, 
 
 2 lbs 3 oz. Caustic Soda Solution, 10° B., 
 6 ounces Sulphate Alumina, 
 
 1\ ounces Tartaric Acid, and 
 ^ lbs. Gum Water. 
 
 British Gum Water or Tragacanth Mucilage, may be 
 used in place of the Gum Water. 
 
 Steam Yellow on Wool. 
 
 3 ounces Scarlet Red I. for Wool, 
 6 ounces Salts of Sorrel, 
 
 16 lbs. 6 oz. Persian Berry Liquor, 7° B., 
 
 4 lbs. Gum Arabic and 
 
 13 ounces Muriate of Tin, 55<^ B. 
 
 Steam Yellow on Wool. 
 
 14 lbs. Persian Berry Liquor, 7° B. , 
 4 lbs. Gum Arabic, 
 
 11 ounces Muriate Tin, 55° B., and 
 1 lb. 6 oz. Steam Scarlet Red I. for Wool. 
 
 BUFF 
 
 , NANKEEN 
 
 , AND STRAW 
 
 COLORS. 
 
 
 Dark Buff. 
 
 
 3| lbs. 
 
 Iron Liquor, 
 
 14° B., 
 
 
 5 quarts 
 
 Water, 
 
 
 
 lib. 
 
 Flour, 
 
 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 Starch, 
 
 
 
 2| lbs. 
 
 Copperas, 
 
 
 
 2| lbs. 
 
 Brown Sugar 
 
 of Lead. 
 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 105 
 
 Nanlx.een I. 
 \\\ lbs. Nunkeen Standard I., 15^ B., 
 5^ lbs. Pyrolignite Alumiua, 8° B., are cooked with 
 4 lbs. British Gum, 
 1 lb. Spirits Turpentine. 
 
 JSfanl'een 1-10. 
 1 lb. Nankeen I., 
 10 lbs. Thin British Gum Water. 
 
 Nankeen 1-20. 
 
 1 lb. Nankeen I., 
 
 20 lbs. Thin British Gum Water. 
 
 Dark Buff. 
 4| lbs. Nankeen Standard I., 
 \Q^ oz. Copperas, 
 
 2 lbs. Gum Arabic. 
 
 Nankeen III. 
 
 14 lbs. Nankeen Standard III., 25° B., 
 7 lbs. British Gum, 
 
 7 oz. Spirits of Turpentine. 
 
 Nankeen 3-6. 
 1 lb. Nankeen III., 
 6 lbs. British Gum Water. 
 
 Nankeen 3-15. 
 1 lb. Nankeen III., 
 
 15 lbs. British Gum Water. 
 
 Nankeen II. 
 4 lbs. Nankeen Standard II., 
 6 lbs. Tragacanth Mucilage {\ oz. to the quart). 
 
 14 
 
106 THE AMERICAN DTEIi. 
 
 ff 
 
 Steam Nankeen D., on j)rejpared Goods. 
 4 lbs. Steam Orange I., 
 1 lb. Steam Rose I., 
 10 lbs. Gum AVater. 
 
 Steam Xankeen 0., on Cotton. 
 1 lb. Steam Orange O., 
 10 lbs. Gum Water. 
 
 CATECHUS. 
 » 
 
 Standard A. for Catechu Colors raised in Madder or 
 
 Garancine. 
 
 2 quarts AVater, 
 
 3 lbs. 10 oz. Pyroligneous Acid, 2° B., 
 
 2 lb. 7 oz. Catechu, 
 
 f lb. Acetate Lime, 15° B., 
 
 1 lb. 9 oz. Sal-Ammouiac, 
 
 3 lbs. Gum Arabic. 
 
 It is an advantage to wash the Catechu with cold water 
 before using it. This dissolves out the tannin which is some- 
 times injurious, but does not dissolve the catechine. 
 
 Catechu I. 
 6^ lbs. Standard A., 
 1 lb. Acetate Alumina, 12° B., and 
 2| oz. Nitrate Copper, 55° B. 
 
 Catechu II., redder than I. 
 6\ lbs. Catechu Standard A., 
 
 1 lb. 10 oz. Acetate Alumina, 12° B., and 
 2| oz. Nitrate Copper, 55° B. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 107 
 
 Dark Calechu, to he raised in Garancine. 
 8 lbs. Acetic Acid, 8° B., 
 8 quarts Water, 
 121 lbs. Catechu, 
 8 quarts Gum ^yate^ or Tragacauth Mucilage, 
 
 14 oz. Olive Oil, 
 
 6^ lbs. Sal-Araraoniac, 
 
 6 lbs. Acetate Copper, 19^ B., 
 
 \ lb. Nitrate Copper, 55° B. 
 
 Catechu Reserve for Purple or Chocolate Over- Printing. 
 4 lbs. Lemon Juice, 27° B., 
 
 15 oz. Acetic Acid, 8° B., 
 1 lb. 14 oz. Catechu, 
 
 17 oz. Sal-Ammoniac, 
 
 1 lb. 5 oz. Gum. Cook, and when cold, add 
 \ lb. Nitrate Copi)er. 
 
 In dunsinir this reserve, some Bichromate must be added 
 to the dung-bath. To 1,000 quarts, liquid, 4 lbs. Bichro- 
 mate are sufficient. 
 
 
 Catechu Reserve. 
 
 2\ pints Water, 
 
 7 oz. 
 
 Acetic Acid, 8° B., 
 
 17 oz. 
 
 Catechu, 
 
 17 oz. 
 
 Sal-Ammoniac, 
 
 \oz. 
 
 Crystallized Verdigris, 
 
 2f oz. 
 
 Crystallized Nitrate Copper, 
 
 2oz. 
 
 Crystallized Citric Acid, 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 Gum Arabic. 
 
 Dark Calechu Standard. 
 
 2i pints Water, 
 
 2 lbs. 6 oz. Pyroligneous Acid, 2° B., 
 
 1 lb. 9 oz. Catechu, 
 
108 THE A^IEIIICAN DYER. 
 
 6 ounces Acetate Lime, 15° B., 
 
 1 lb. Sal-Ammoniac. 
 
 Dark Catechu. 
 
 2 quarts Dark Catechu Standard, 
 6 ounces Starch, 
 
 1^ ounces Acetate Ahimina, 15*^ B., 
 2| ounces Nitrate Copper, 55° B. 
 
 Catechu Standard for Gray raised in Garancine. 
 
 14 ounces 
 
 Catechu, 
 
 \ lb. 
 
 Sal-Ammoniac, 
 
 2 lbs. 3 oz. 
 
 Pyroligneous Acid, 2° B., 
 
 1 quart 
 
 "Water, 
 
 11 lbs. 
 
 British Gum. Cook, and when cold add 
 
 lOi^ ounces 
 
 Pyrolignite Copper, 19° B., 
 
 1 ounce 
 
 Nitrate Copper, 50° B. 
 
 Dark Catechu, 45. 
 1 quart Catechu Standard for Gray, 
 1\ ounces Iron Liquor, 15° B. 
 
 Dark Catechu, 90. 
 1 quart Catechu Standard for Gray, 
 3 ounces Iron Liquor, 15° B. 
 
 Dark Catechu, 150. 
 1 quart Catechu Standard for Gray, 
 5 ounces Iron Liquor, 15° B., 
 
 These Grays may be rendered lighter by diluting with 
 British Gum Water. 
 
 Catechu Gray, a. 
 
 I quart Standard A. for Catechu (page 106), 
 \\ ounces Pyrolignite Alumina, 10° B., 
 
 \ lb. Iron Liquor, 10° B., 
 
 II ounces Nitrate Copper, 50° B. 
 
THE AMERICAX DYER. 109 
 
 Catechu Gray, h. 
 
 1 quart Standard A. for Catechu, 
 
 2 ounces Pyrol ignite Alumina, 
 
 1 lb. Pyrolignite Iron, 10° B., 
 ]| ounces Nitrate Copper, 50° B. 
 
 Catechu Gray, c. 
 1 quart Standard A. for Catechu, 
 1^ lbs. Gum Water, 
 
 1 ounce Pj'rolignite Alumina, 10° B., 
 1\ ounces Nitrate Copper, 50° B., 
 
 8 ounces Pyrolignite Iron, 10° B. 
 
 Catechu Standard O. 
 b\ pints "Water, 
 
 4| lbs. Pyroligneous Acid, 2° B., 
 
 3 lbs. Catechu, 
 
 2 lbs. 3 oz. Sal-Ammoniac, 
 
 14 ounces Acetate Lime, 15° B. Let stand 12 hours, 
 arid thicken the decanted liquor with 
 5 lbs. 2 oz. Dextrine. 
 
 Catechu O., to be raised in Garancine. 
 18| lbs. Catechu Standard O., 
 
 1 lb. Acetate Alumina, 11° B., 
 
 9 oz. Nitrate Copper, 50° B. 
 
 Catechu to he raised in Madder or Floivers. 
 
 2| lbs. Catechu, 
 
 8 lbs. Pyroligneous Acid, 2° B., 
 
 I lb. Gum Arabic, 
 
 f lb. Verdigris in Crystals, 
 
 2 lbs. Sal-Ammoniac, 
 61 lbs. Gum Water. 
 
110 THE AMEKICAX DYER. 
 
 Cateclm Standard M, for Garancine Gray. 
 
 10 quarts Water, 
 8 lbs. Catechu, 
 5 lbs. Sal-Ammoniac, 
 
 4 lbs. Pyroligueous Acid, 2° B., 
 
 3 lbs. Pyrolignite Copper, 15° B., 
 14 lbs. Gum Arabic. 
 
 Garancine Gray. 
 10 quarts Catechu Standard M., 
 2 quarts Gum Water, 
 
 5 oz. Muriate Iron, 40° B. 
 
 This same recipe will answer for other Catechu Grays by 
 increasing the amount of Muriate of Iron, at 40°. As high 
 as 20 ounces of Iron may be used. 
 
 STEAM CATECHUS. 
 
 Dark Steam Catechu on Cotton. 
 ?)\ lbs. Sapan Liquor, 2° B., 
 
 i lb. Acetic Acid, 8° B., 
 
 \ lb. Catechu, 
 2 oz. Sal-Ammoniac, 
 1^ oz. Verdigris in crystals, 
 
 2 lbs. Gum Arabic. 
 
 Light Steam Catechu on Cotton. 
 In 15 pints Water, dissolve * 
 
 3 lbs. Catechu and let settle. 
 
 To 5 quarts of the clear liquor, add 
 
 4 oz. Sal-Ammoniac, 
 
 4 oz. Nitrate Copper, 55° B., 
 6 lbs. Gum Arabic. 
 
THE ^UIEEIC^VN DYER. Ill 
 
 Steam Catechu Standard P, 
 
 5 quarts Water, 
 
 18 oz. Acetic Acid, 8° B., 
 3 lbs. Catechu, 
 7 lbs. Gum Arabic. ' 
 
 Steam Catechu P., on Cotton. 
 \^\ lbs. Steam Catechu Standard P., 
 
 6 oz. Chlorate Potash, 
 
 2^ lbs. Nitrate Ahimina, 17° B., 
 
 7 oz. Nitrate Copper, 55° B. 
 
 Steam Catechu on Wool. 
 
 2 lbs. 10 oz. Catechu, 
 
 f lb. Quercitron Liquor, 20° B., 
 
 6 oz. Sapan Liquor, 20° B., 
 
 3 quarts "Water, 
 
 3^ oz. Sal-Amraoniac, 
 
 3| oz. Chlorate Potash, 
 
 13 oz. Sulphate Alumina, 
 
 3 quarts Gum Water. 
 
 Dark Steam Catechu on prejKired Cotton. 
 2 lbs. 6 oz. Starch, 
 3| oz. British Gum, 
 
 4 lbs. 10 oz. Quercitron Liquor, 20° B., 
 1 lb. Sapan Liquor, 20° B., 
 
 5 oz. Logwood Liquor, 20° B., 
 11 pints Water, 
 
 1 lb. Alum, 
 
 1^ oz. Chlorate Potash. 
 
 Cook, and after it is cold add 
 
 2i- oz. Red Prussiate Potash. 
 
112 THE AMERICAX DYER. 
 
 GRAYS. 
 
 Mineral Gray on Cotton. 
 1 lb. Lampblack, 
 
 3 lbs. Oil Vitriol, QQ"". 
 
 Stir well together, and let stand 12 hours. Then wash 
 well with water, and filter. To the paste on the filter, add 2 
 quarts of water, and rub it well together. Then add 11^ lbs. 
 of a solution of Bh)od Albumen (1 lb. 10 oz. of the Albumen 
 to the quart of water) . 
 
 Bluish Mineral Gray. 
 
 4 lbs. of the above Mineral Gray, 
 6 lbs. Ultramarine O. 
 
 Ultramarine O. 
 1 lb. Ultramarine, 3 F., 
 3 lbs. Blood Albumen Solution. 
 
 Steam Gray C. C. on Cotton. 
 Logwood Liquor, 20° B., 
 Quercitron Liquor, 20° B., 
 Water, 
 
 Sal-Ammoniac, 
 British Gum, 
 Iron Liquor, 10° B., 
 Blue Vitriol, 
 
 Iron Composition for Steam Gray C. C. 
 Prep. No. 20. 
 1 lb. 14 oz. Sulphate Chrome, 55° B., 
 15 oz. Spirits Turpentine, 
 
 To render this color lighter, it may be diluted by adding 
 to it more or less of the following composition : 
 17 pints British Gum AVater (1^ lbs. to the quart), 
 
 \\ lbs. Iron Composition for Gray C* C, 
 
 4 lbs. 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 1 quart 
 
 fib. 
 5 lbs. 
 
 3^ lbs. 
 l^lb. 
 
 18 oz. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYEIl. 113 
 
 1^ lbs. Sulphate Chrome, 35^ B., 
 ^ lb. Spirits Turpentine, 
 ^ lb. ^.'itrate Ammonia. 
 
 Steam Gray A. G. on Cotton. 
 9 quarts Gray Standard, A. G. (Mor. No. 15), 
 If lbs. Starch, 
 1^ lbs. British Gum. 
 This color may be diluted with the ordinary British Gum 
 
 Water. It need not necessarily be steamed to fix it. 
 
 Hanging in a warm damp room and then passing 
 
 through a chalk-bath is sufficient. 
 
 Steam Gray on Cotton. 
 
 8 ll)s. Trngacanth Mucilage, 
 
 9 pints Water, 
 
 3 lbs. Gray Standard, A. G. No. 15. 
 
 Steam Gray on Cotton. 
 
 1 lb. 14 oz. Logwood Liquor, 10° B., 
 7 oz. Sapan Liquor, 20° B., 
 
 3| oz. Cuba YeHow Wood Liquor, 20° B., 
 
 5^ lbs. British Gum, 
 
 11 pints Water, 
 
 2 lbs. 3 oz. Acetate Chrome, 15° B. 
 
 Steam Gray C. on Cotton. 
 To 3| lbs. Logwood Liquor, at 10° B., add gradually a so- 
 lution of 
 5^ oz. Bichromate of Potash in 
 9 pints Water, and 
 15 oz. Muriatic Acid. 
 
 Cook the mixture, and, while hot, thicken with 
 5| lbs. British Gum ; then add 
 ^\ oz. Acetate Protoxide of Iron, 10° B., 
 13 oz. Sulphate of Chrome, at 50° B. 
 
 15 
 
114 THE AMERTCAX DYEK. 
 
 This Gray may be lightened with the following Gum 
 Water :— 
 
 Gum Water for Gray C 
 10 lbs. Dextrine Gum Water (2 lbs. to the quart), 
 10 pints Water, 
 b\ oz. Sulphate Chrome, 50° B. 
 
 Steam Gray on Cotton. 
 2\ lbs. Oxidized Logwood Liquor, 10° B., 
 2 lbs. Tragacanth Mucilage (2 oz. to the quart), 
 \ lb. Starch, 
 2 oz. Leicome, 
 \ oz. Bichromate Potash, 
 1 oz. Muriatic Acid, 
 
 1 lb. Acetate of Chrome, 15° B. 
 
 Oxidized Logwood Liquor. 
 8^ lbs. Logwood Liquor, 10° B., 
 
 2 oz. Bichromate Potash, 
 1| oz. Muriatic Acid. 
 
 Steam Gray on Cotton. 
 1\ lbs. Logwood Liquor, 20° B., 
 
 1 lb. 14 oz. Pyrolignite Alumina, 10° B., 
 5 pints Water, - 
 
 1| lbs. British Gum, 
 
 1 lb. Acetate Chrome, 15° B. 
 
 Steam Gray on Cotton. 
 5 quarts Gum Water, 
 2\ lbs. Decoction Nutgalls, 10° B., 
 5^ oz. Muriate Iron, 40° B. 
 
 Steam Gray on Cotton. 
 4 lbs. Logwood Liquor, 8° B., 
 
 2 lbs. L-on Liquor, 7° B. , 
 8 lbs. Leicome Water. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. Ho 
 
 OLIVES. 
 
 Olive on Cotton. 
 
 13 pints Water, 
 
 3 lbs. Quercitron Liquor, 20° B., 
 
 14 oz. Starch, 
 
 2 lbs. 3 oz. Leicome, 
 2 lbs. Copperas. 
 
 Darlc Steam Olive on Cotton. 
 
 2 lbs. 13 oz. Persian Berry Liquor, 7° B., 
 71 pints Water, 
 
 1 lb. 7 oz. Acetic Acid, 8° B., 
 
 1^ oz. Logwood Liquor, 20° B., 
 
 2 lbs. Alum, 
 
 2 lbs. Sugar of Lead, 
 
 2| lbs. Starch, 
 
 are well cooked together. After it is cold, add 
 
 2 lbs. 6 oz. Muriate Iron, 40° B. 
 
 Steai7i Olive on Cotton. 
 
 4 lbs. Quercitron Liquor, 4° B., 
 1 lb. Iron Liquor, 5° B., 
 6 lbs. Gum Water. 
 
 MODE COLORS. 
 
 Mode Standard. 
 
 13 lbs. Solution Catechu in Water, 8° B., 
 1^ lbs. Pyroligneous Acid, 2° B., 
 71 lbs. British Gum. 
 
116 THE AMEKICAX BYEK. 
 
 Mode 2-1. 
 
 2 lbs. Mode Standard, 
 
 1 lb. Iron Preparation for Modes, No. 36. 
 
 Mode 5-3. 
 
 5 lbs. Mode Standard, 
 
 3 lbs. Iron Preparation, No. 36. 
 
 Mode 1-3. . 
 1 lb. Mode Standard, 
 3 lbs. Iron Preparation, No. 36. 
 
 Mode 1-8. 
 1 lb. Mode Standard, 
 
 8 lbs. Iron Preparation, No. 36. 
 
 Mode 1-13. 
 
 1 lb. Mode Standard, 
 
 13 lbs. Iron Preparation, No. 36. 
 
 These mode colors may be fixed by steaming, or by pass- 
 ing through a chalk or chrome bath after ageing 12 
 hours. 
 
 Steam Mode Gray on Cotton. 
 
 6 lbs. Iron Liquor, 10° B., 
 ^Ib. Acetic Acid, 8° B., 
 
 i oz. Logwood Liquor, 20° B., 
 i gill Water, 
 3 oz. Alum, 
 
 9 oz. Sal-Ammoniac, 
 12 lbs. Gum Arabic. 
 
 8team Mode Gray on Cotton. 
 11 lbs. Pyroligneous Acid, 2° B., 
 
 2 lbs. Iron Liquor, 14° B., 
 
 2 lbs. Decoction of Galls, 4° B., 
 
THE A3IEKICAX DYER. 117 
 
 |lb. 
 
 Sulphate Chrome, 50^ B., 
 
 1 oz. 
 
 Logwood Liquor, 20^ B., 
 
 1 quart 
 
 Water, 
 
 1 lb. 14 oz. Sal-Ammoniac. 
 
 RESERVES AND DISCHARGES. 
 
 For Reds, Pinks, and PurjjJes Over-Printing. 
 
 3 lbs. Tartaric Acid, dissolved iu 2 quarts Water, 
 1^ lbs. Bichromate Potash, *« " " 
 
 Tib. Calciued Soda, " 1 
 
 8 lbs. British Gum. Cook. 
 
 For Same. 
 
 Lemon-Juice, 30^ B., 
 
 British Gum, 
 
 Flour, 
 
 Oil. Cook, and when cold, add 
 
 Bichromate Potash, and 
 3 lbs. Tartaric Acid, dissolved iu 
 3 quarts "Water. 
 
 For Catechus, Chocolates, or above Colors. 
 
 12 lbs. Citric Acid iu Crystals, 
 3 gallons Water, 
 8 lbs. British Gum. Cook. 
 
 For PitrjjJes and Pinks. 
 
 G}r lbs. Caustic Soda Solution, 15^ B., 
 6^ lbs. Lemon-Juice, 30^ B., 
 2"lbs. British Gum. 
 
 12 lbs. 
 
 8 lbs. 
 
 lib. 
 
 l^rOZ. 
 
 3| lbs. 
 
118 THE a:meiiicax dyer. 
 
 Discharge for Goods padded in Acetate of Alumina or Ace- 
 tate of Iron, 
 71 lbs. British Gum, 
 15 lbs. Lime-Juioe, 30° B., 
 2 quarts Water, 
 
 2 lbs. Bisulphate of Soda, 
 
 3 lbs. Calciued Soda, 
 6 lbs. Oil Vitriol. 
 
 Reserve for Machine Printing. 
 
 12 lbs. Arseniate of Potash (or Soda), 
 
 25 lbs. Water, 
 
 10 lbs. British Gum. 
 
 Another. 
 
 4 lbs. British Gum, 
 
 5^ lbs. Arseniate Potash (or Soda), 
 3 lbs. Soda Crystals, 
 
 1 gallon Water. 
 
 Resist for Catechus and Chocolates. 
 
 68 lbs. Lime-Juice, 30° B., 
 30 lbs. Soda Lye, 30° B., 
 
 2 lbs. Citric Acid in Crystals, 
 I lb» Sulphate of Indigo, 
 
 5 lbs. Wheat Starch. 
 
 Yellow Reserve for Indigo -Vat. 
 
 S\ jDiuts Water, 
 31 lbs. Sulphate Copper, 
 5 lbs. Nitrate of Lead, 
 2f lbs. Sulphate of Lead, 
 31 lbs. British Gum. 
 
THE AMEKICAX DYER. 119 
 
 Resist for Chrome Orange or Aniline Blade. 
 \\ gallons Water, 
 
 7^ lbs. Arseniate Potash (or Soda), 
 Tib. Hog's Fat, 
 10 lbs. British Gum, 
 4 lbs. Acetic Acid, 7^ B. 
 
 Resist for Steam Colors. 
 fib. Glue, 
 
 7 pints "Water, 
 
 4| lbs. Pipe-Clay, 
 4| lbs. Gum Water. 
 
 Reserve for Ultramarine. 
 6 lbs. China Clay, 
 1 cpiart AVater, 
 3 lbs. Gum Water, 
 1\ lbs. Citric Acid in Crystals, 
 1 quart Water. 
 
 Reserve for Indigo- Vat. 
 1 lb. Verdigris, soaked in 
 1^ pints Water. After 24 hours, add 
 I lb. Cream of Tartar, and thicken with 
 f lb. British Gum. Then add 
 1 quart Gum Water, and 
 U lbs. Nitrate Copper, 50^ B. 
 
 Reserve for Indigo. 
 15 lbs. Verdigris, 
 24 lbs. Pyroligneous Acid. Soak, and add ■ 
 
 G lbs. Cream of Tartar, 
 
 G lbs. Brown Sugar of Lead, 
 
 8 lbs. Blue Vitriol, 
 12 lbs. Brftish Gum. 
 
120 THE AMERICAN DTEE. 
 
 Discharge for Chrome Orange. 
 In 4^ lbs. Tragaciinth Solution (li^ oz. to quart Water) dis- 
 solve with heat, 
 \\ lbs. Tartaric Acid, 
 f "lb. Oxalic Acid ; then add 
 1 lb. Pipe-Clay, 
 
 i lb. Tin Solution (2 lbs. of Tin Crystals in 1 lb. 
 Muriatic Acid). 
 
 Discharge for Prussian Blue. 
 
 3 lbs. Caustic Soda Lye, 
 
 1 lb. British Gum. 
 
 1 hour after printing, AVash. The parts printed will ap- 
 pear of a 3'ellow rust color, and to remove" this, the 
 pieces must be taken through acid. 
 
 MADDER EXTRACT. 
 
 Formerly, the madder root, simpl}^ dried and ground, was 
 exclusively employed in printing. But it is evident that so 
 complex a substance as a root, contains, besides the coloring 
 substance or useful principle, other bodies capable of counter- 
 acting this principle and injuring the beauty of the tints 
 derived from it. 
 
 For the purpose, therefore, of eliminating these useless 
 substances, there is now produced on a manufacturing scale, 
 and can be found in market, 
 
 1. Flowers of 3Ia elder (fleur do garance), or the ground 
 root deprived of its soluble portions, by washing it with water. 
 The madder loses by this washing about 50 per cent, of its 
 weight. The flower, therefore, possesses a coloring power 
 double that of madder, and works with more regularity in 
 dyeing. 
 
THR AME]aCAX DYER. 121 
 
 2. Garancine, or tlie ground maddor treiitcd with sulphuric 
 ftcid, washed and dried. In the preparation of garantino, the 
 foreign substances are more completely eliminated than by 
 water alone, so that a more concentrated article is produced ; 
 and not only this, but a part of the coloring substance is 
 liberated from its combination with the pectatcs of lime and 
 glucosides contained in the madder root, which, unless so 
 liberated, would be lost in working. The proportion of color- 
 ing matter so liberated amounts to not less than half of the 
 total quantity contained in the root, and repays well the 
 expense of making it into garancine. 
 
 3. Commercial Ali::arine ; or superheated garancine. This 
 preparation has met with groat success, on account of the 
 beauty of the purples it furnishes with the mordants of iron. 
 The heat (392° F.) destroys a yellow or tawny principle 
 which injures the brilliancy of the colors, particularly the 
 purples. 
 
 In these three products-, a portion of the wo/)dy fibre of the 
 root still remains, so that they can be used only in the old 
 form of raisi'jg, in the usual madder-beck, the goods on which 
 the mordants have been previously printed. 
 
 If the color could be separated from the woody fibre so 
 that it could be printed directly on the cloth, the immense 
 advantage of this process would cause it to be adopted event- 
 ually by all calico-printers. But it is to be remembered that 
 so great a change in a manufacture which has existed for cen- 
 turies, cannot take place suddenl}'. \\\ the present state of 
 things, however, it is easy to foresee that the old process will 
 gradually but certainly be replaced by the new% which is by 
 the employment of 
 
 4. Extract of Madder. An extract from madder suflSciently 
 pure to be employed in printing directly upon the cloth has 
 been long sought for, but it is only within a few years past 
 that this result has been attained, at a price which would per- 
 mit it to be employed. The processes now in use for manu- 
 facturing it, may be reduced to three in number. 
 
 16 
 
122 THE A3IEKICAN DYER. 
 
 The first consists in boiling garancine with a weak solution 
 of alum. By this nie:wis, nearly all the coloring matter may 
 be extracted in a condition of great purity, and the color pre- 
 cipitates from the alum solution on cooling, with the addition 
 of a little sulphuric acid. It is then collected on a filter, 
 carefully washed, and, in the condition of a paste, is ready for 
 use in printing. The defect of this princess consists in the 
 loss of the alum and the acid, which are washed away; and 
 also in the fact, that the paste obstinately retains a little 
 alumina, even after the most careful washing, and therefore 
 the purjjles made by it are not quite satisfactory. 
 
 The second was published by Emil Kopp, in 18G7, and is 
 very ingenious. It consists in extracting the color from the 
 fresh madder by means of water acidulated with sulphurous 
 acid, and in purifj'ing the color so extracted by boiling it 
 with one of the cheap hydro-carbon oils — coal-oil or petro- 
 leum — in which it dissolves. The petroleum solution is 
 then treated with a weak solution of caustic soda, which 
 deprives the petroleum of the color, and leaves it (the oil) in 
 a state to be used over again. The soda solution is then 
 treated with a weak sulphuric or muriatic acid, which pre- 
 cipitates the color in the form of a paste, which, after wash- 
 ins:, is readv for use. The madder residue is then converted 
 into garancine, and from this, an additional quantity of color 
 is extracted by similar means. 
 
 The Ihird process is due to Schutzenberger, and consists 
 in the extraction of the color from garancine by means of 
 water heated to a very high temperature, say at a pressure of 
 125 to 150 pounds of steam. The color falls from the water 
 on drawing; otf and coolino:. The extract so made is excel- 
 lent. 
 
 The objection to this process is the difficulty of operating 
 at so great a pressure, and from the necessity of the vessel's 
 being of small capacity, to resist the pressuie. A modifica- 
 tion of it is therefore also in use, which consists in passing 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 1215 
 
 superheated steam through moist garaiicinc, and condensing- 
 the water}' extract so made. 
 
 The al)ove are the only processes that appear to Ifave suc- 
 ceeded oil a practical scale for obtaining an extract of madder 
 sufficiently pure and sufficiently cheap to be employed ia 
 printing. The extraction of the color by means of alkalies, 
 potash, soda, or ammonia, which is by far the easiest and 
 cheapest mode, — as any one may convince himself of by 
 shaking up a little garancine in a test-tube with ammonia 
 water, — has failed, in consequence of the alkali dissolving 
 the resin, fat, and pectic acid, as well as the color. This 
 renders it wholly unfit for printing, but does not prevent its 
 employment in the dye beck. There would in this case, 
 however, be no advantage in using the alkaline extract 
 instead of the madder from which it was* made. But this 
 subject needs further investigation, and would probably well 
 repay the researches of any competeut chemist. The fact 
 stated by Persoz, of the great advantage to be derived from 
 the addition of soap to the dye-beck is, perhaps, owing to 
 the alkali of the soap rendering the solution of the color, by 
 the hot water, more complete, without being present in suffi- 
 cient quantity to dissolve the injurious components of the 
 madder. 
 
 The principal conditions necessary to success in printing 
 either of the above extracts are, — 
 
 1. That the extract be pure and concentrated. 
 
 2. The substitution of pure acetate of alumina for the old 
 red liquor mordant, which contains acetate of potash or 
 ammonia, in addition to the acetate of alumina. 
 
 3. The employment of a solvent for the color, which is 
 acetic acid. 
 
 4. The addition of certain substances to orive a certain 
 degree of hygrometric property to the color, such as salts of 
 lime, oils, or fatty acids. 
 
 The color thus prepared, and properly thickened, is to be 
 
124 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 printed in accordance witii the following recipes. The 
 '' doctor" must be of composition, and not of steel. 
 
 Reds on unprepared Cotton. 
 
 2 quarts Madder Extract, 
 
 3 pints Acetic Acid, at 8° B., 
 
 1 lb. Olive Oil, are cooked together. Then as much 
 acetic acid as has been steamed off must be re- 
 stored by fresh acid, and the mixture thickened 
 with 
 
 3 lbs. of powdered Gum Arabic. 
 Immediately before using, 
 
 1 pint of Acetate of Alumina, at 15° B., is added, as 
 the mordant. 
 It is essential 'not to add the mordant until just before 
 using, for the color does not maintain its combination with 
 the mordant very long. 
 
 The acetate of alumina is made either by dissolving 2 
 quarts of alumina in paste, in 1 quart of acetic acid, at 8° 
 B., or by the following recipe : — 
 
 In 3 quarts of Water, dissolve 
 
 4 lbs. Sulphate Alumina, and then 
 
 6 lbs. Sugar of Lead. Let settle, and use the clear 
 
 liquor. 
 
 Pinks on unprepared Cotton 
 are produced by the same process as the reds, diluting the 
 color with Gum Water, acidified with a little Acetic Acid. 
 
 ■Purples on unprepared Cotton. 
 
 1 quart Madder Extract, 
 
 I quart Acetic Acid, 8° B., 
 
 \ lb. Olive Oil, are cooked together for some time. 
 The Acetic Acid which has evaporated must be 
 restored by fresh acid, and the whole thickened 
 
THE AMERICAX DYER. 125 
 
 with 1^ lbs. Gum Arabic in powder. Immediately 
 
 before using, add 
 ^Ib. Iron Liquor, 11° B., 
 |- lb. Arseniate Soda, at 6° B. 
 
 Lighter shades of purple are produced by diluting the 
 color with sour Gum Water. 
 
 Chocolate on unprepared Cotton. 
 2 quarts Madder Extract, 
 
 2 quarts Acetic Acid, 
 
 Cook. Replace what Acetic Acid has evaporated, and 
 thicken with Gum Arabic, and when coid, add 
 
 3 quarts of Acetate Chrome, 17° B. 
 
 Chocolate on unprepared Cotton. 
 1 lb. Madder Extract, 
 
 1 lb. Acetic Acid, 
 
 2 ounces Olive Oil, 
 
 2^ ounces Wheat Starch. 
 
 Cook. Replace the evaporated Acetic Acid, and when 
 
 cold, add 
 2)\ ounces Acetate Chrome, made as follows : — 
 
 Acetate of Chrome. 
 
 4 ounces Chrome Alum, 
 4 ounces Sugar of Lead, 
 \ pint Water. 
 
 Catechus may be printed at the same time with ^Madder 
 Extract, by any of the processes for Steam Catechus ; also 
 the following pigment colors : — 
 
 Blues. — Ultramarine, with Albumen solution. 
 Greens. — Guignet Green, with Albumen solution. 
 Oran(/e.— Orange pigment, No. 29, with Albumen solution. 
 
126 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Blacks. — Logwood Black, by this recipe. 
 b\ lbs. British Gum, 
 
 3 quarts Water, 
 
 4 lbs. Logwood Liquor, 20° B., 
 18 ounces Acetic Acid, 6° B., 
 
 7f lbs. Acetate Chrome, 17° B., 
 
 10 ounces Chlorate Potash, dissolved in 
 3 gills of Water. 
 
 Or this. 
 1| lbs. Logwood Extract (solid), 
 1 pint Acetic Acid, 8° B., 
 1 pint Olive Oil, 
 \ lb. British Gum, 
 Cook well ; restore the acid that steams off. Just before 
 
 printing, stir in well 1 pint of a mixture of 
 I pint Acetate Chrome, 16° B., 
 1 pint Acetate Iron, No. 8. • (S. B.) 
 
 After printing, the goods are steamed 1^ or 2 hours at a 
 low pressure, say 15 lbs. ; then washed, and soaped in a soap- 
 bath at 125° to 165° F. Again washed and soaped a second 
 time if necessary. If the whites are not satisfactory, the 
 goods may be passed through a weak chemic. 
 
 As the employment of Madder Extract is of very recent 
 introduction, but little is known as yet of the capabilities of 
 this process, and an interesting field is opened for intelligent 
 experimentation. It will be observed that in all the recipes, 
 the color is held in solution by Acetic Acid, but it is equally 
 soluble in Potash or Soda, and particularly so in Ammonia 
 Water. In this case, of course. Acetate of Alumina coujd 
 not be used as the mordant in the color, but the goods might 
 be padded with it previous to printing. It is also soluble in 
 Gallipoli oil, 3 lbs. Extract to 1 quart of Oil and 1 lb. of 
 British Gum. With this, the Acetate of Alumina, could of 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 127 
 
 course be used as the mordant. Red Prussiate of Potash 
 with the Extract produces a purple and Acetate of Uranium 
 a gray. A little Pyrolignite of Iron, deepens the Choco- 
 lates. 
 
 Since the above was written, I have been favored with the 
 communication of the experience of a very accomplished 
 chemist, Mr. Spencer Borden, of Fall River, with regard to 
 the use of Madder Extract. He gives the following recipes 
 as those he has found the best : — 
 
 Dark Red on unprepared Cloth. 
 
 8 lbs. Extract of Madder, 
 
 4 pints Acetic Acid, 8°, 
 
 2 pints Water, 
 
 1 pint Acetate of Lime, 5° T., 
 
 If lbs. Starch. 
 
 Cook, and when cold, replace the loss by evaporation 
 
 with Acetic Acid at AP. Then, just before printing, 
 
 add \\ pints Acetate Alumina, 15°. 
 
 Medium Red on unprepared Cloth. 
 
 8 lbs. Extract of Madder, 
 
 4 pints Acetic Acid, 8°, 
 
 5 pints Gum "Water (6 lbs. to the gallon). 
 Manipulate as the preceding, and add the same amount 
 
 of mordant. 
 
 Rale Red on unprepared Cloth. 
 
 The same as for Medium Red reduced to the shade required 
 with Gum Water. 
 
 In all cases the Alumina is to be added when the color is 
 quite cold, and just before printing. The color itself will 
 keep good for weeks. 
 
128 TUE AMERICAX DYEK. 
 
 Purples on unprepared Cloth. 
 
 8 lbs. Madder Extract, 
 4 pints Acetic Acid, 8^, 
 • 6 quarts Giini Water, 
 1 pint Acetate Protoxide Iron, 20° T. 
 Liirhter shades may be produced by diluting with Gura 
 AVater. Darker shades may be thickened with 
 Starch instead of Gum. 
 The goods, after printing, are to be cooled. Steam for 
 two hours, with moist steam the first hour and a half; the 
 last half hour at a higher pressure. The time of steaming 
 however is of more importance than the pressure. 
 
 After steaming, wash well, soap first at 120° F., and a 
 second time at 170° F. Gently clear aud finish. 
 
 The Madcler Extract may also be used in an alkaline solu- 
 tion, if the cloth is first prepared with the mordant. This is 
 done as follows : Pad the goods in a mixture of 
 3 parts of Eed Liquor, 5° T., 
 1 part of Acetate Lime, 5° T., 
 
 Dry well and pass through the ageing room ; then print 
 with the following color: — 
 
 Reds and Pinks on prepared Cotton. 
 
 U lbs. Madder Extract, 
 
 I lb. Saccharate of Soda Solution, 
 
 1 gallon Water, 
 
 1 lb. White Starch. Cook. 
 
 Or tJiis. 
 U lbs. Madder Extract, 
 6?r lbs. Soap Solution. 
 I'lb. Starch. Cook. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 129 
 
 Saccharate of Soda Solution. 
 
 Boil together 1 pint Caustic Soda, 58° T., 
 1 quart "Water, 
 \\ lbs. Browu Sugar, 
 uutil all the susjar be dissolved. 
 
 Soap Solution. 
 
 Dissolve 1 lb. ordinary Soap, 
 iu 1 gallon Water. 
 
 ARTIFICIAL ALIZARIXE. 
 
 It is scarcely more than four years ago that the chemical 
 world was surprised by the announcement that two chemists 
 of Berlin, Mfessrs. Grrebe and Liebermann, had succeeded in 
 forming alizarine out of some of the products of coal-tar. 
 The announcement was received at first with incredulity, but 
 it soon became recognized as an established fact, that this 
 substance, hitherto found only in madder and some of its 
 cognate plants, could really be produced iu the laboratory of 
 the chemist. It was not supposed at first that this discovery 
 would have any practical value, but that the artificial aliza- 
 rine would remain for a long time a mere chemical curiosity. 
 Such, however, has not proved to be the fact. It is now 
 manufactured on a commercial scale by some half-dozen 
 houses, and is offered in the market at such prices as to com- 
 pete, it is daitnedy successfully, with the natural extracts of 
 madder. 
 
 , Dr. Grothe, in the " Muster Zeitung," recommends the fol- 
 lowing recipes for printing with it. It will be observed that 
 they differ from the recipes for madder extract, chiefly in the 
 fact that the alizarine paste is not cooked with the thickening, 
 but is added afterwards, and at the same time with the alum- 
 inous mordant; and also, that no directions are given for 
 17 
 
130 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 restoring the acetic acid that evaporates in the cooking. It 
 is not probable that this will prove to be any improvement ; 
 but each printer must determine, by his own experience, 
 which mode of mixing is the best. 
 
 Reds. 
 5 lbs. Alizarine paste, 
 16 lbs. Thickening, 
 1 lb. Acetate of Alumina, 10- B., 
 \ lb. Acetate of Lime, 16^ B. 
 
 Pinks. 
 
 The same, diluted with 2 or 3 parts Thickening. 
 
 For double printing, when deep red is printed on first, the 
 o"oods must be steamed one hour, before the second printing 
 takes place. After the second printing, the goods must be 
 again steamed one hour, and hung up to air. After hanging 
 24 hours, they are to be passed through either of the follow- 
 ing baths : 
 
 250 gallons Water, 
 60 lbs. Chalk, 
 3 lbs. Salts of Tin. 
 
 Or this. 
 250 gallons Water, 
 40 lbs. Chalk, 
 10 lbs. Arseniate Soda. 
 The bath must be at a temperature of 120^ to 140^ F., and 
 the goods stay in the bath 1 to li^ minutes. They are then 
 washed, and afterwards brightened as follows : 
 
 Par 10 j[)ieces^ fifty yards each. 
 1st Soaping, 3 lbs. Soap, \ lb. Salts Tin, 122^ F., \ hour, 
 2d " 3 lbs. Soap, no Salts Tin, 167° F., \ hour, 
 3d " 31bs. Soap, no Salts Tin, 170° to 177 -"F.,i hour. 
 Wash between each soaping. 
 
THE AMEiaCAX DYER. 131 
 
 Thickening fcr Reds. 
 12 lbs. Wheat Starch, 
 20 quarts Water, 
 
 4 quarts Acetic Acid, G^ B., 
 10 quarts Tragacanth Mucilage (2 ouuces to quart), 
 
 3 lbs. Olive Oil. Cook.'' 
 
 Acetate of Alumina. 
 30 lbs. Hydrate of Alumina, are stirred into 
 6 c[uarts Acetic Acid, warmed and filtered, and reduced 
 to the required degree. 
 ■ It will generally be found necessary to employ an amount 
 of Acetate of Alumina, at 12*^ B., equal to 20 per cent, of 
 the weight of the Alizarine paste. 
 
 Hydrate of Alumina. 
 72 lbs. Alum, in 100 gallons Water, 
 are precipitated with 
 
 62 lbs. Soda, in 100 gallons Water. 
 The precipitate is washed 8 times by decautatiou, collected 
 on a filter, and squeezed out. 
 
 Acetate of Lime Solution. 
 A solution of Acetate of Lime, at 16^ B., contains 25 per 
 cent, of Acetate of Lime. Generally an amount of the solu- 
 tion equal to 10 per cent, of the Alizarine paste is required in 
 the color. But it is well, with every new lot of Alizarine, to 
 try, on a small scale, how much Acetate of Lime it requires, 
 before using it for printing. 
 
 Red for Mosiacs {Mille-fleurs) . 
 8 lbs. Alizarine paste, 
 10 quarts Thickening, 
 ^\ oz. Kitrate Alumina, 15^ B., 
 ' 19 oz. Acetate Alumina, 10° B., 
 13 oz. Acetate Lime, 16° B. 
 
132 THE AMEKICAK DYER. 
 
 Veiy Deep lied, 
 10 lbs. Alizarine paste, 
 10 quarts Thickening, 
 13 oz. Nitrate Alumina, 15° B., 
 19 oz. Acetate Alumina, 10° B., 
 16 oz. Acetate Lime, 16° B. 
 
 J^itrate of Alumina. 
 
 2 lbs. Nitrate Lead, 
 
 2 lbs. Alum, 
 
 2 quarts Water. 
 
 With Nitrate of Alumina the Red is more yellow than 
 with the Acetate ; and when Nitrate is employed, an 
 increased quantity of Acetate of Lime must be used. 
 
 Another Red ivithout Oil. 
 8i^ lbs. Alizarine paste, 
 ^ lbs. Acetic Acid, 8° B., 
 31 lbs. Flour, 
 
 5 pints Water. 
 
 Cook well ; stir till cold, and then add 
 
 1 lb. Acetate Lime, 16° B., 
 
 2 lbs. Nitrate Alumina, 15° B., 
 
 3 lbs. Hyposulphite Lime, 9° B. 
 
 Purples, 
 3 lbs. Alizarine paste, 
 10 quarts Purple Thickening, 
 
 6 oz. Pyrolignite Iron, 12° B., 
 12 oz. Acetate Lime, 16° B. 
 
 • 
 
 Purple Thickening. 
 10 lbs. Starch, 
 18 quarts Water, 
 9 quarts Tragacanth Mucilage (2 oz. to quart), 
 
THE AMERICAIN^ DYER. 133 
 
 3 quarts Acetic Acid, 6*^ B., 
 
 2 lbs. Olive Oil. 
 
 Cook well, and stir till cold. 
 The goods are steamed 1 to 2 hours at 8 lbs., and then 
 hung to air 24 to 26 hours. They are then passed in a pad- 
 ding machine through the chalk and arseniate bath, the same 
 as for Reds; washed and soaped, once only, without any tin 
 in the soap-bath. If necessary, they may be lightly chemicked 
 after soaping. 
 
 WOOL-SCOURING. 
 The first operation in dyeing is the scouring of the wool, 
 and this is an operation that requires as much attention, if not 
 more, than any subsequent one in .the art of woolen-dyeing ; 
 yet it is the most neglected. If the wool is properly cleansed, 
 we can produce better and more brilliant colors than we can 
 if it is but half scoured. This, any intelligent and skilful dyer 
 will admit ; but we must say that a greater number of the dyers 
 will assert, that there is not so much need of having the wool 
 perfectly clean for dark colors as it is for the light shades, or for 
 the blue-vat. This is a very erroneous idea, and there is no rea- 
 son whatever for such a distinction. The wool cannot be got 
 too clean for any of the colors ; and we wish to impress it 
 forcibly upon the attention of not only the dyer, but also the 
 manufacturer, to see that the wool is perfectly clean for all 
 shades and colors. How often do we hear complaints from 
 the carder that his cards gum up; that he has to have them 
 cleaned twice a day ; that he has to clean his burr-picker four 
 to six times in picking a thousand pounds, when all the cause 
 of this trouble and work is the uncleanliness of the wool ; and 
 when the cloth which is manufactured from such wool is fulled 
 and scoured, the dyer finds that his colors have riui, which he 
 lays to the finisher, and says that he uses too strong soap, 
 &c., &c., when all the fault lies at his own door, on account 
 
184 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 of his iiecrlisrence in not havMng the wool scoured clean. When- 
 ever dyers will be more particular in regard to cleaning their 
 wool before coloring it, and use the proper coloring materials 
 (those kinds that give the most permanent colors), we shall 
 not hear so much about the finisher allowing the use of soaps 
 too strongly alkaline for fulling, and so much about his de- 
 stroying the colors, &c. If the wool is perfectly clean, the 
 coloring-matter of such dyestuffas is used to produce the color, 
 will have a chance to penetrate the fibre of the wool, thereby 
 causing it to be more permanentl}' fixed ; but if the wool is 
 unclean, the color is only fixed superfluousl}' upon the outside 
 of the fibre, and not within it. We will admit that a color 
 can be made to look very well upon wool that is not perfectly 
 clean ; but let us follow this unclean wool through the process 
 of manufacturing it into cloth. In the first place, it will cord 
 and spin bad. It will require more oil than clean wool, to 
 overcome the adhesivness of the greasy, paste-like substance 
 left upon it before it was colored, which, by the boiling it gets 
 in the operation of coloring, causes this pasty matter to 
 adhere more firmly to the wool. There is also a greater loss 
 by waste than there M'ould be if the wool was clean. In spin- 
 ning it will break oftener ; it will not draw out, or make so 
 fine, even, or strong yarn. 
 
 But the worst of all the bad efi'ects unclean wool has is, 
 that when the cloth made from it comes to the finishing-room 
 to be fulled and scoured, it can hardly be scoured clean ; and 
 if it is got perfectly clean, it is done by using a scour-liquor 
 of such an alkaline strength as not only to injure the texture 
 of the cloth, but to nearly destroy the color; and what is left 
 of the color, after the cloth has been cleansed, is lifeless and 
 poor ; but for all this the dyer will curse the finisher, because 
 the colors do not stand, and look as they were expected to. 
 
 The above enumerated evils, in not having the wool clean 
 to commence with, are enough, without naming others, to 
 show how essential it is to have the w oo\ jyerfectltj dean before 
 it leaves the dye-house, or the dyer attempts to color it. It 
 
THE AMERICAX DYER. 135 
 
 is for the interest of tlie dyer to attend particularly to the 
 cleansing of the wool, so that he may have a perfectly clean 
 ground on which to fa.sten his colors, for upon unclean wool 
 it is impossible to produce a clear, bright and permanent 
 color. If the wool is clean, his colors will be bright, and all 
 the operations of manufacturing it into cloth will have a ten- 
 dency to improve the beauty and lustre of the colors and 
 fabric. 
 
 Every dyer, as a general thing, has his own particular 
 method of scouring the wool, some using soda-ash and salt, 
 others, sal-ammoniac and the different patent wool-cleansin<y 
 detergents or compounds ; but no matter how or by what proc- 
 ess you scour the wool, only get it perfectly dean, and not 
 use so strong an alkali as to cause the wool to feel harsh and 
 sticky to the hand, but have it feel soft and buoyant, and when 
 it is shaken up it will fall apart loose and feathery, having no 
 smell of the sheep about it. Therefore we will not dictate to 
 the dyer in this matter, but will merely give one or two recipes 
 for making scouring liquor, Avhich we have used, and know 
 them to be better than all the patent cleansing compounds 
 extant. 
 
 Uriate Scouring Liquor. 
 25 lbs. Soda-ash, 
 
 2 lbs. Borax, 
 15 lbs. Coarse Salt, 
 2 gallons Aqua Ammonia. 
 
 Put the three first substances into a barrel holding 42 gal- 
 Ions, fill half full of water, boil until all is dissolved, then fill 
 the barrel up with cold water, and add the ammonia, and keep 
 it covered up, in order that the ammonia may not evaporate. 
 Use one quart of this for every 50 lbs. of wool. 
 
 In setting a new scour, use 4 gallons of the solution. 
 
 Another. 
 Dissolve 20 lbs. of o;nano in a 42-<T:allon barrel of boiling 
 water, then add 15 lbs. soda-ash, stir until it is dissolved. 
 
136 THE AMERICAN DYEE. 
 
 To start a fresh Scour. 
 For every 100 gallons of water that the scour-tub will hold, 
 add 5 lbs. soda-ash, and 2 quarts of soap, and 1 quart of the 
 guano liquor. Then for every 50 lbs. of wool after the first, 
 use 1 quart of the guano liquor. 
 
 SCOURING THE CLOTH FOR PIECE-DYEING. 
 
 The pieces should be thoroughly scoured, after fulling, be- 
 fore they are sent to the dyer, otherwise, after they are colored, 
 the}' will be cloudy. Yet we have known cases where the 
 colors were, more or less cloudy, when the}' were perfectly 
 clean; in this case the fault was in the manipulation of the 
 pieces in the dyeing operations, for which the dyer is to 
 blame. We were once called to a mill in Worcester, Mass., 
 to ascertain the cause of all their pieces being cloudy. Upon 
 invcstigiiiion, we found that the dyer was so far behind the 
 fuller, that the pieces were piled up after they had been 
 scoured, some of them having been scoured some two weeks 
 previous (this was in the hot season), and had become rail- 
 dewed and sour. The cloudiness was laid to the fuller, he not 
 having scoured them properly, &c., but the fault was in the 
 dyer not coloring them sooner. We will here give our views 
 in regard to fulling and scouring pieces to be dyed any or all 
 colors. After the cloths have been fulled to their proper width, 
 scour them with soap for thirty minutes, then turn on warm 
 water for about twenty minutes, which will in?ure the start- 
 ing up of the fulling soap, and creating a good lather. After 
 which, turn on the cold water, and let it run until it is clear 
 as the cloth runs through the rolls. In regard to the kind 
 and amount of soap to be used, every fuller and finisher has 
 his own particular views, and no doubt thinks that the soap 
 he uses, and the amount, is the very best, for which reason we 
 
THE AMERICAN DYEE. 137 
 
 will not attempt to state our own particular views in relation 
 to the soap or amount of it to be used, but will merely say 
 that no matter whose make you use, be sure that it is all 
 washed out from the cloth before it is sent to the dye-house. 
 
 After the pieces are thoroughly scoured, they should be 
 well gigged on a dry gig, then they should be croj)ped on the 
 shears, and if they are not required to have a lustre on them, 
 they are ready for the dyer. But otherwise, they should be 
 rolled up on rollers and steamed, by being laid horizontal in 
 the steam-box, then cold water run into it and the steam 
 turned on. Boil them from four to six hours, draw off the 
 water, and take out the rolls, stand them on the end, and leave 
 them until the cloth is cold ; then take them off the rolls, run 
 them once over the gig, and again roll them up, with the out- 
 side end of piece (previously) next to the roller, then steam 
 as before. Perform this operation four or six times, revers- 
 ing the end of the piece each time. 
 
 After the pieces are colored, they should be washed thor- 
 oughly with fuller's earth and water, in order to prevent their 
 crocking. If the cloth is not cropped previous to being 
 colored, the najo will act as a filter to the color, and prevent 
 the color from penetrating the cloth ; consequently, when the 
 nap is afterwards cut off, the color is much lighter than ex- 
 pected or required, the best part of the color being taken off 
 with the nap. 
 
 The earnest attention of the dyer is called to the al)ove 
 observations, and we would recommend him to study them 
 thoroughly. The essential point to be observed in piece- 
 dyeing is of as much consequence to the manufacturer as it is 
 to the dyer, and it is his peculiar perogative, or that of the 
 superintendent, to see that the pieces are delivered to the 
 dyer in the very best possible condition for taking the color, 
 of which condition the dyer is the only competent or legitimate 
 judge. It is a duty that the dyer owes to himself, to his char- 
 acter and reputation as a skilful dyer, to insist upon those 
 conditions being complied Avith and fulfilled at all times, 
 
 18 
 
138 THE AMERICAX DYER. 
 
 which he considers so indispensable to the ease and certainty 
 of producing permanent and brilliant colors upon the goods ; 
 and it is for the interest of the manufactnrer to sustain him at 
 all times in these just and reasonable demands, b}' seeing that 
 the pieces are given to the dyer in the condition he requires. 
 
 When all these conditions which the dyer requires are com- 
 plied with, all other persons will be exonerated from blame 
 for any mismanagement that might happen in the coloring of 
 the pieces. 
 
 "We reiterate the conditions the dyer should insist on being 
 complied with : 1st, that the pieces are effectually fulled and 
 scoured, and completely free from grease and soap ; then 
 entirely raised and gigged ; well cropped down. These condi- 
 tions are essentially the best in which the cloth can be placed 
 in order to imbibe the color, and the dyer should not allow 
 any of them to be neglected or dispensed with. 
 
 TREATMENT OF THE COLORS AFTER DYEING, 
 
 OR 
 
 THE FULLING AND SCOURING PROCESS. 
 
 The fulling and scouring of cloth containing fancy colors, 
 does not have the attention given to it in comparison to its 
 importance. 
 
 It is of little use for the dyer to exert his skill, and exhaust 
 his care and patience to produce the best and most permanent 
 colors, if they are afterwards to be spoiled, or nearly de- 
 stroyed, through the ignorance or carelessness of those who 
 may have the charge of the fulling and scouring. We are all 
 aware that colors are not unchangeable ; but most, and we 
 might say all of them are very susceptible of change or altera- 
 tion by the action of different operations and substances, as 
 well as by heat and light, and we are not always to look at 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 139 
 
 wliat the color is when it leaves the d^'e-honse, hut whut it 
 will be when the cloth is finished and ready for the market. 
 
 There is no part of the manufactnring of the fabric that is 
 so injurious as the operation of fulling and scouring the woven 
 fabric, and it is upon this particular process that we wish to 
 comment; for the most injury to colors can be always traced 
 to the fulling and scouring. We do not mean to say that the 
 operation of gigging will not impair the colors; hard gigging 
 will often strip the color. We know that the operation of 
 fulling will impair the color by the heat and friction caused by 
 this operation, independent of anything else, and from the 
 eiSects of this the finisher should be exonerated from all blame. 
 Too hard or too heavy steaming will injure colors, especially 
 such colors as chemic greens, and a number of the aniline col- 
 ors. But it is the injudicious use of alkalies and strong 
 alkaline soaps that are often used for fulling and scouring, 
 that have the most destructive effects upon colors, and for this 
 the person who has the charge of the finishing is in the great- 
 est measure responsible. Soap that contains an excess of 
 alkali will not only change the hue, but, by the heat and 
 caustic nature of those articles, will dissolve a portion of any 
 color we may place upon wool or cotton (but more par- 
 ticularly colors upon cotton), and, in most cases, will entirely 
 destroy them. These destructive effects can be obviated, and 
 it is an imperative duty of the overseer of finishing, as well as 
 the superintendents, to see that these effects are avoided. We 
 have known such an excess of soda-ash being used in the 
 scouring-soap, that not only were fancy colors completely 
 destroyed, but chrome-blacks were changed to a deep plum- 
 color. The great fault of fullers is in making sti'ong alkaline 
 solutions for scouring out the goods after they have been 
 fulled ; but the idea is an erroneous one, and no intelligent 
 fuller would do it, as a weak soap will scour out all the grease 
 or oil there is in them just as well, and better, than a strong 
 alkaline soap ; besides, the weaker soap will leave the goods 
 in a softer and more pliable state, and the colors will be 
 
140 THE AMERICAN DYEK. 
 
 brio'hter and clearer. The alkali used in scourino^ should be 
 of just strength enough to combine with the soap that was 
 used to full the cloth and start the oil used for the previous 
 operation of carding, and anything more than that is a waste 
 of alkali, and an injury to the fabric and color. 
 
 An alkaline soap of uniform strength should at all times be 
 maintained, and is at all times required ; also, one kind of 
 soap should be purchased, and then the fulling and scouring 
 will be done with ease, certainty, and economy, and the 
 preservation of the colors will always be insured. 
 
 In making scouring solutions, the overseer of the finishing 
 should always see that each making is of the same strength 
 as the previous one (which is easily ascertained by using a 
 thermometer), and when using it, he should be sure that it 
 is always of the same temperature as regards heat, for the 
 higher the temperature is, the more will the colors be injured, 
 besides causino; the cloth to feel more harsh. 
 
 As regards the fulling soaps, there are two things very 
 essentially necessary in their combinations. 
 
 I^irsf. A perfect freedom from all uucombined alkali. 
 
 Second. A uniformity of composition in the given quanti- 
 ties of its constituent parts, in each and every separate mak- 
 ing. 
 
 There is not only a difference in soaps made by different 
 soap manufacturers, but in soaps made at different times by 
 the same manufacturer, which is the cause of some of the difii- 
 cultles the fuller has to contend with. The cause of these 
 differences in soaps originates from the fact that there are but 
 few soap-makers that know what kind of soap is wanted for 
 fulling and scouring purposes, or how to combine the alkali 
 with the fatty matters they employ, in a just and chemical 
 proportion. Neither are they aware that uniformity of the 
 soap is indispensably requisite in order to produce the same 
 effects and results at different and distant times. 
 
 There is but one soap manufactory that we know of, that 
 steadily and systematically adheres to the above-mentioned 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 141 
 
 requisites in making soaps for fulling and scouring cloth, 
 either in the white, for piece-dyeing, or for cloth of ditlerent 
 colors, and that is the Holbrook Manufacturing Company of 
 New York, 62 Church Street, they being qualified, both by 
 information and large experience, to make an article of soap 
 that will answer all the requirements of this branch of manu- 
 facturing cloth, their soaps being always uniform; and the 
 alkalies employed are so blended, neutralized, and combined 
 with the oily or fatty substances used in making their differ- 
 ent kinds of soap, that it is almost an impossibility for 
 them to injure the most delicate color. Their soaps are 
 exceedingly well adapted for fulling and scouring colors 
 made from the different aniline dyes ; and we have often 
 heard finishers assert that . they never used so good a 
 soap for fulling and scouring purposes, and thiit they 
 would use no other if it were possible to get theirs, for it 
 always came to them of the same quality and uniformity, 
 and that it left the goods in a softer and more pliable condi- 
 tion than it was possible for a greater part of the fulling soaps 
 uow offered in the markets. Their increased sales prove their 
 popularity and the high esteem in which they are held by our 
 best manufacturers. 
 
 MANUAL OF OPERATIONS IN THE DYE-HOUSE. 
 
 Every dyer having his own particular method or way of 
 doing work in the dye-house, what we may say in regard to 
 the operations will perhaps be of no account ; yet we should 
 not feel as if this work were complete unless there was some- 
 thing said upon the manipulations of the dye-house. In the 
 first place, have the wool scoured clean (see article on wool- 
 scouring) the day before it is to be colored, so that it may 
 drain well and evenly ; then shake it up loosely in front of the 
 tub in which it is to be dyed, pulling apart all the hard and 
 twisted lumps, so that it may take the color evenly when it is 
 
142 THE AMERICAX DYEE. 
 
 thrown into the tub or vat ; leave the tub low enough in 
 water, so that after the dyestufls have boiletl the proper length 
 of time you can run in water enough to cool it down to 170° 
 or 150"^ Fahr., at which heat we think it best to commence 
 coloring any color; and, if on cloth, at a lower temperature 
 than that ; then throw in the wool loosely, expeditiously 
 get in the poles and pole it well for ten or fifteen minutes, 
 turn on the steam and bring it to a boil as soon as possible, 
 which continue for one hour or one hour and a half, or as the 
 recipes specify. Do not boil the wool too hard, but give it 
 steam enough to keep it on the sjyring of the boil only. After 
 it has boiled three-fourths of an hour, put the poles in again 
 and pole it enough to change the position of the wool a little, 
 which will prevent it from stringing or twisting. If the color 
 is one that requires saddening, put such chemical salts as you 
 intend to sadden with into a barrel or some convenient ves- 
 sel, pour some of the liquor from the dye-tub into it to dis- 
 solve the salts ; after they are all dissolved, throw it on slowly, 
 a little at a time, while the men are poling it up. We think 
 this is a better plan than to throw it on in the solid state, as 
 you can get the saddening on more evenly by having the salts 
 in solution. 
 
 In making colors that are prepared, or when the mordant 
 is put on before the coloring-matter, they should be prepared 
 in the afternoon, so that it may have time to lie a few hours 
 in the prei)aration-liquor before it is drawn off. It is more 
 important that the wool should lie in the preparation-liquor 
 a longer time than in the coloring-matter. It was formerly 
 the universal practice to wash the wool after was prepared, 
 before entering it into the dyeing-bath, but we do not think 
 it absolutely necessary, provided the wool has had a chance 
 to drain well before it is thrown into the djeing-liquor ; yet 
 it would be an excellent plan to extract the wet portions of 
 the wool before coloring it. After it is prepared it should be 
 again shaken up before putting it into the coloring-liquor, the 
 same as for the first process. After the wool is colored it 
 
THE AMERICAN DYEE. 143 
 
 should be washed off in the rinse-box, if it is possible to do 
 so ; but do not let it roll around iu the box much, as it 
 strings or felts the wool, which causes it to card badly. 
 
 There are no rules without some exceptions ; therefore any 
 variations from the plans generally adopted in dye-houses 
 you will tind specified in the recipes requiring such deviations. 
 
 ON THE TREATMENT OF THE DYESTUFFS IN THE 
 
 DYE-TUBS. 
 
 The dyestuflfs come to the dyer either in a chipped or 
 ground condition, and the economy of dyeing depends upon 
 the treatment they receive to extract all the coloring-matter' 
 from them ; and to do that we should, in the first place, after 
 the tubs or kettles are emptied, see that they are cleaned out 
 and washed, in order that no remains of the former dye are left 
 in it, as any portion of the metallic salts, alum, &c., have a 
 tendency to prevent the coloring-matter of the dyestulTs 
 being extracted, and especially from the hard, resinous woods, 
 such as camwood, barwood, sanders, &c., which refuse to 
 give out all their color if ever so little of these salts are in 
 solution in the liquor. Next, use the coarsest bagging you 
 can get for boiling out the chipped dyewoods ; do not put too 
 much into them, nor have them tied too far from the end, but 
 leave all the space in the bags that you can, so that the 
 inclosed chips can change their position by the boil ; suspend 
 the bags on a stick laid across the dye-tub. If you have a 
 color that should require nothing but ground dyestufis, boil 
 them out in a separate vessel — a barrel, for instance — and 
 take the clear solution and put it into the dye-tub ; half an 
 hour's boil is suflacient for the ground woods ; should you not 
 have the convenience for boiling them out, then throw them 
 into the dye-tub loose, but do not put them into bags, because 
 they will be so solid and compact in the bags that it will be 
 
144 THE A3IERIUAX DYER. 
 
 almost an impossibility to extract the coloring matter from 
 them. 
 
 If you are making a dye that requires both chipped and 
 ground dyestuffs, you can then mix them together and boil 
 them in bags, but in this case it will take more of the ground 
 dyestuff than it would if they were thrown loose into the tub ; 
 by mixing the ground with the chipped, or |)oiling out, as 
 above, you have the advantage of your wool being clean and 
 free from dust. 
 
 We* have often sprinkled the ground woods upon the wool 
 before entering it into the dye-tub, that is, such as camwood, 
 barwood, and sanders ; you can adopt either of the above 
 plans. The right plan, however, is to have no loose dyestuffs 
 in the tub if it is possible to avoid it, as it gets among the 
 wool, it fills up the cards, and it will not card or spin as well 
 as it would if we kept the ground dyewoods out, for which 
 reason we prefer the boiling out of these woods in a separate 
 vessel and using the clear solution ; but this plan is not always 
 practicable ; but in all cases, if it is possible, have the coloring 
 solutions a clear aqueous tincture of the coloring matter only. 
 
 If you should have a color that is done by one operation, 
 that is, a color that requires the coloring matter and the mor- 
 dant to be all in one bath, you must boil out the dyestuffs 
 first, then dissolve such chemical salts as you intend to use, 
 in a pail, and pour it into the tub, then throw in the wool 
 and pole up as soon as possible, putting on the steam and 
 bringing to a boil as quickly as can be. 
 
 Lastly, in preparation-colors, when the chemical salts are 
 employed as the mordant, all that is required is to dissolve 
 them in a pail, or throw them into the tub and boil until you 
 think they are dissolved. Any variation from the above 
 plans you will find stated in the recipes requiring it. 
 
 One hour and a half boiling is all that is required for the 
 chipped dyestuffs ; but if you have ground and chipped mixed 
 in the bags, then boil them two hours. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 145 
 
 THE DIFFERENT PROCESSES OF DYEING. 
 
 " There are but three general methods or processes of dye- 
 ing wool or woolen goods (in cotton-yarn dyeing the same 
 methods are also employed), or, in other words, distinct plans 
 of combining colors in a chemical manner with the animal fibres 
 (or vegetable). We shall attempt to give an account of 
 •them, with an explanation of the theory upon which these 
 combinations take place." * 
 
 " The first is described as that process wherein all the 
 materials that enter into the composition of color are mingled 
 together in one common solution or bath, and applied to the 
 wool or cotton at once, by one or one and a half hours' boil " 
 on wool (but on cotton, either in a cold or lukewarm bath). 
 
 First Process. 
 
 " If, in a clear solution of logwood, fustic, or other kind of 
 dj'estuflf, you pour another solution of any metallic or earthy 
 salt, such as copperas, alum, &c.,you will observe, when this 
 mixture takes place, the solution becomes broken, and a flocky 
 or curd-like matter is formed, which gradually settles to the 
 bottom of the vessel in which the mixture was made. This 
 precipitate is the color, which in this first method of dyeing 
 you apply directly to the wool by about one or one and a half 
 hours' immersion and boil." 
 
 "This experiment exhibits in the clearest manner, the for- 
 mation of any color we wish ta combine with the wool ;• 
 actually impressing on the visual organs the mysterious oper- 
 ations of the invisible mechanism of dyeing ; for we really 
 and positively see the union take place between the coloring 
 principle and the earthy and metallic salt ; the combination 
 of which two substances forms or makes the color we intend 
 to place upon either the wool, silk, or cotton." 
 
 " It also explains the true theory of the formation and con- 
 stitution of colors, showing them to be a chemical compound, 
 the elements of whose composition are an undefined coloring 
 
 19 
 
146 THE AMERICAX DYER. 
 
 principle, distributed nbuiidantly through the vegetable and 
 mineral kingdoms, and an earthy substance, or metallic 
 oxide." 
 
 "Although this flocky substance (which is new-formed 
 color) gradually subsides to the bottom, and leaves the liquor 
 but slightly tinged, yet it is not an insoluble precipitate, but 
 is partially soluble in water, and more particularly at a boil- 
 ing heat; and on this slight degree of solubility rests the, 
 property it possesses of forming a chemical union with the 
 material to be colored. If it formed an insoluble precipitate, 
 no chemical combination could take place by this method of 
 dyeing; because the wool, cotton, or silk being boiled in a 
 liquor containing nothing but an insoluble powder, no chem- 
 ical action could take place between them, and the wool, 
 cotton, or silk would be merely stained, and this insoluble 
 precipitate only adhering to it, and that with but a slight 
 mechanical force, the simple operation of washing in water 
 would be sufficient to remove it." 
 
 "As said before, this partial solubility of the color is the 
 cause of its union with the wool, cotton, and silk,, for upon 
 immersing these substances in the liquor, it immediately 
 seizes the part held in solution (the affinity between the color 
 and the material to be colored being greater than between the. 
 water and the color) ; the water thus exhausted of the color 
 which it held in solution, will now dissolve another portion 
 of the color, which is again taken up by the wool, silk, or 
 cotton; and so on, portion after portion, until the whole col- 
 oring: matter becomes combined with the material which is 
 being colored, having all been dissolved successively by the 
 water, before it could enter into a close combination with the 
 fibre of the substance to be colored." 
 
 "This method of dyeing requires a rapid ebullition during 
 the time of coloring, as the greater the heat and agitation 
 given to the water, the more finely are the broad, flocky par- 
 ticles broken and cut up ; and in proportion to the minute- 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 147 
 
 ness of the- coloring molecules, so will be the intensity of the 
 shade." 
 
 "Although this method of dyeing is more expeditious thtUi 
 either of the other two, yet we do not consider it equal to 
 them, either in brilliancy or permanency of color." 
 
 "This plan is more generally used for yarn, flannels, and 
 cloth, especially the finer colors ; yet you will find it resorted 
 to in several recipes for wool and cotton dyeing." 
 
 The Second Process. 
 
 "The second method of applying the color is known among 
 dyers by the ai)propriate terms of stuffing and saddening, and 
 its operations are performed in this manner : 
 
 "After the dyestuffs have been boiled sufficiently to extract 
 their coloring matters, the wool is entered, and two hours' 
 boiling given to it. This is the stuffing part of the process ; 
 and the wool acquires only a slight tinge of the color peculiar 
 to an extract of the dyestuffs used in making the solution." 
 
 "Longer boiling than the above time is unnecessary, as all 
 the color requisite to produce the best effects is, in that time, 
 combined in the wool." 
 
 "The next step is the saddening, or giving to it the mor- 
 dant, which consists of some chemical salt, such as copperas, 
 blue vitriol, alum, &c. ; the manner of doing which is laid 
 down in the article 'On the Operations of Dyeing' " (which 
 see). 
 
 "In the first part of this process, a combination is effected 
 between the wool and the coloring matter, analogous to that 
 which takes place between the astringent, or tanning princi- 
 ple, and the raw hide, in the process of tanning. Let us 
 illustrate this : 
 
 "Make a decoction of logwood, or fustic, for instance, then 
 pour into the decoction a w^eak solution of gelatine, and you 
 will perceive that a precipitate falls, of the color of the solu- 
 tion of the dyestuff employed, and a large amount of color 
 has been abstracted from the decoction. This precipitate is 
 
148 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 the glue and the coloring matter, which, by their mutual affin- 
 ities, have formed a compound that is insoluble in water. Of 
 a similar nature is the union resulting from the bailing of 
 wool in the solution of most of the dyestufFs." 
 
 "In the saddening part of the process, both the coloring- 
 matter and the wool having a strong affinity for the metallic 
 or earthy salts ; these are drawn by them with an increased 
 attraction, and a triple compound, of animal matter, the col- 
 oring-principle, and the mineral base of the color, is formed, 
 which, being held together by virtue of the three separate 
 forces, offers such a resistance that boiling water cannot dis- 
 unite them." 
 
 " Precisely similar are all unions of coloring-matter with 
 wool, no matter what process may have been employed to 
 effect it." 
 
 Third Process, or Preparation and Finishing. 
 
 "This is exactly the reverse of the second method, and 
 consists of two distinct stages ; in the first of which the wool 
 is boiled for one and a half or two hours (see article, Opera- 
 tions of Dyeing) , in a solution of the metallic or earthy salts 
 that form the mordant, or base of the color you wish to pro- 
 duce. These have a strong tendency to unite with the wool, 
 inasmuch that on coming out of the preparation it is generally 
 tinged with the shade peculiar to the oxide of the metal used ; 
 and so tenacious is its power of adhesion, that, after the col- 
 oring-matter originally used shall have faded off, or under- 
 gone a material change, the property of the mordant remains 
 unaltered, for it will absorb fresh coloring-matter as readily 
 as before." 
 
 "In the second part of this method, or process, a bath of 
 clean water is prepared, in which the dyestuffs are boiled 
 until all the color is extracted ; in this, the prepared or mor- 
 danted wool is dyed up, occupying one and a half or two 
 hours' time in boiling. In this case, the wool and the mor- 
 dant both having an affinity for the coloring-matter, their joint 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 149 
 
 forces attract it from the water with such violence that it is 
 immediately and rapidly' united with them, and the color is 
 soon brought out. For this reason, the finishing part of the 
 process requires expert workmanship, in order to have the 
 wool evenly dyed." 
 
 "The same colors, produced by this process, are more bril- 
 liant and permanent than by either of the other processes, 
 but this process requires more time and labor, and is also 
 more expensive than either of the other methods." 
 
 "From these observations, it will appear that there can be 
 but three plans of combining color with wool." 
 
 " I^irst. By applying the color at one operation. 
 
 " Second. By combining the coloring-matter with the wool, 
 and then giving it the mordant. 
 
 " Third. In fixing the mordant upon the wool first, and 
 then applying the coloring-matter afterwards." — Gibsons 
 /Si/stem and /Science of Colors. 
 
 ■ COTTON-YARN DYEING. 
 In dyeing cotton-yarns, the first operation is to boil out the 
 yarn in a soda-ash solution. This is sometimes done under 
 pressure ; that is, the yarn is put into an iron vessel. The soda- 
 ash solution is then poured in, and the aperture of the caul- 
 dron is closed and screwed down perfectly steam-tight, the 
 steam-valve is opened to allow it to enter the cauldron, to 
 which is attached a safety-valve, with a weight attached to the 
 lever. This weight can be adjusted according to the amount of 
 pressure required ; but in a greater part of the dye-houses 
 where cotton yarn or thread is colored, the yarn is placed in 
 one of the tubs and slats laid across upon the yarn, with 
 weights laid upon them, to keep the yarn under the liquor; 
 steam is then let on, and the yarn boils from two to five hours 
 the day before it is to be colored. For light and delicate 
 
150 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 colors the yarn is often bloached before it is dyed, in order 
 to obtain a more clear and brilliant color ; the bleaching is 
 effected by first boiling ont the yarn as above described, then 
 passing it throngh a chloride of lime solution, then washing 
 it from this in cold water ; it is wrung out and passed through 
 a bath of cold water to which has been added a very small 
 quantity of chemic and oil of vitriol (some dyers use a little 
 soap in this bath) ; it is then washed again, and is now ready 
 for the coloring processes or to be dried for white. 
 
 A great deal depends upon the handling of the yarn in the 
 operation of coloring it, in order to obtain even colors, and 
 most especially in coloring greens ; the yarn should be wrung 
 three times, and well lorung, awA shaken out, and those colors 
 that have to be spirited before they receive the coloring- 
 matter, should be washed out in w^arm water instead of cold 
 before they are immersed in the dyeing-bath, and in each 
 bath they should have an odd turn ; that is, they should have 
 either three, five, seven, or nine turns. This is essential in 
 order that they be colored even. By giving these odd turns 
 each end of the skein is subjected to the same length of time 
 in the different solutions. 
 
 Care should be taken that the drying-room is not kept at 
 too high a temperature of heat, and that the yarn is wrung out 
 as dry as possible before it is hung up in the drying-room, for 
 this reason : the yarn being wet when it is hung up, the heat 
 in the dry-room will sul)ject the colors to a hot vapor-bath^ 
 and the colors will be partially destroyed by the joint 
 action of the heat and steg^m arising from the wet yarn, for 
 heat acts upon colors on cotton differently, when the heat in 
 the drying-room is dry, and when it is moist, which shows 
 the necessity of giving close attention to the drying of the 
 yarn, b}'^ hanging far enough apart to allow the free outlet of 
 the moisture. Even the same dyestuffs fixed upon the cotton 
 yarn, but by different mordants, are affected differently by 
 heat, whether moisture be present or not. Greens and Prus- 
 sian blues are affected the most if hung up wet, and then raising 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 151 
 
 the temperature of the room to ji high heat ; the Prussian blue 
 would, under these circum^ances, entirely fade away if the 
 temperature should be raised to 212 degrees, Fahr. The 
 same colors fixed upon silk and cotton, placed in the dryino^- 
 room, being equally moist are affected oppositely, the color 
 upon the silk not being affected, whilst that upon the cotton 
 is completely destroyed. This is particularly the case if the 
 color fixed upon them be a safflower-pink. 
 
 In working the following recipes for coloring cotton-yarn, 
 the explanation of the technical terms used will be found in 
 the glossary at the latter part of this book, as will all the 
 terms used throughout the work. 
 
 In coloring the safflower-pinks, the yarn must be first 
 bleached, but not blued ; that is, in bleaching the yarn, there 
 must not be any chemic used. 
 
 After they are colored, the yarn must be dried in a cold 
 room^ or in a shed where the sun's rays will not reach the 
 yarn. And in coloring these kinds of pinks, everything about 
 the boxes must be clean ; yet there is no damage done them if 
 colored in the boxes where reds, or the scarlet shades, have been 
 colored : provided you wash the boxes out well with clean water. 
 If you were to color 100 lbs. yarn safflower-pink, and use three 
 pints of extract safflower, and dry it in a room that is heated, 
 and then color 100 lbs. yarn with two pints of extract of 
 safflower, and dry the yarn in a cold room, you would find 
 that the latter was the best color. So we see the propriety of 
 attending to the manner of drying this kind of a pink on 
 cotton -yarn. 
 
 RECIPES FOR COTTON-THREAD. 
 
 The following recipes are colors that have been produced 
 
 upon thread within the last two years, and are the colors 
 
 mostly in demand at the present time, and a great many of 
 
 them are colors employed for warp that were for goods that 
 
152 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 require the fulling and scouring process in their manufacture ; 
 therefore they are termed permafLenl or fast. 
 
 Purple. 
 25 lbs. cotton-yarn. Steep the yarn overnight in 
 8 lbs. Sumac. Wring it out. Then 
 In a bath of clear water, add enough nitro-muriate of tin to 
 indicate 2 degrees by Twaddle hydrometer. Work the yarn 
 in this solution twenty minutes ; wring out ; wash, and wring 
 three times (that is, wring three times). Then in another 
 fresh-water bath, dissolve 4 lbs. extract of logwood. Work 
 the yarn in this for three- fourths of an hour, at a boil-heat. 
 Then raise the yarn, and add one lb. sal-soda. Enter the 
 yarn again, and turn seven times, or more if the shade is not 
 dark enough. The sumac-bath should be about 100 degrees 
 F. ; but the spirit-tub is worked cold. The spirit-solution 
 can be kept for other colors which require the spirit, by adding 
 to it enough nitro-muriate of tin to bring it up to the desired 
 standard, — 2° Twaddle. 
 
 Fast Purple. 
 25 lbs. cotton-yarn. 
 
 Boil out five lbs. sumac for a half hour. Cool down to 
 170° F. Enter the yarn ; give five turns ; then lay it down 
 under the liquor overnight, or at least for four hours. Take 
 out and wring the yarn. 
 
 Second. Dissolve two and a half lbs. stannate of soda in a 
 box or tub of boiling water. Enter the yarn, and give seven 
 turns. Wring the yarn ; wash it off, and wring again. 
 
 This bath can be kept for further use by adding two lbs. of 
 stannate of soda for every twenty-five lbs. of yarn. 
 
 Third. Dissolve in a bath at 140° F., three and a half 
 ounces of Hoflfmann's B Bs. Enter the yarn, and give five 
 turns. Bring the bath to a boil as soon as possible. 
 
 If a redder shade is wanted, use the same amount of Hoft- 
 mann's RRR instead of the BBs. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. ' 153 
 
 Before entering the yarn into the dye or third bath, add two 
 quarts of a mordant made thns : 
 
 Two lbs. alum ; one lb. brown sugar of lead. Dissolve 
 these in three gallons of water. "When dissolved, add water 
 until it shows 12° Twaddle. 
 
 Silver Drab. 
 
 20 lbs. cotton-yarn : 
 4 ounces Ground Logwood, 
 
 1 quart of Lime-water (clear). 
 
 Boil out the logwood for fifteen minutes in a convenient 
 vessel. Then pour it into the dj^e-tub, and add the lime- 
 water. Give the yarn nine turns. Take out and wash it off. 
 This is a cold bath. 
 
 Another Silver Drab. 
 
 20 lbs. cotton-yarn : 
 Boil out one-quarter lb. nutgalls. Add the clear solution 
 to the dye-tub of cold water. Give the yarn seven turns in 
 this. Then raise it out, and add one-half gill of nitrate of 
 iron (iron liquor). Enter the yarn again, and give it five 
 turns. Take out and wash the yarn off. 
 
 Light Drab. 
 
 50 lbs. cotton-yarn : 
 
 2 lbs. Cutch. 
 
 1 lb. Extract Fustic, 
 
 1 lb. Nutgalls. 
 Boil out the nutgalls, and dissolve the cutch and fustic. 
 Then enter the yarn, and turn it for half an hour at a boiling 
 heat. Raise out the yarn, and add to the solution one-quarter 
 lb. of copperas. Cool down the bath to 165° F. Enter the 
 yarn, and turn for ten minutes. Take it out and wash off. 
 
 20 
 
154 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Another Light Drab. 
 50 lbs. cottou-yaru : 
 
 1 lb. Cutch, 
 1^ lb. Sumac, 
 
 2 oz. Extract Fustic. 
 
 Proceed as for the other light drab. Give the yarn five 
 turns, smartly, at a boiling heat ; then take it up and add to 
 the solution, one lb. copperas ; re-enter the yarn, and give 
 five turns at boiling heat ; take out and dry. 
 
 Linen Color. 
 
 50 lbs. cotton-yarn : 
 Boil out twenty lbs. sumac ; when it is settled, add the clear 
 liquor to the dye-tub ; heat it up to 130° F. Enter the yarn, 
 and give it five turns ; then lay it down in the bath until next 
 morning ; take it out and wash and wring out. 
 
 Tan Color. 
 50 lbs. cotton-yarn : 
 Boil out six lbs. cutch; enter the yarn at a boiling heat, 
 and turn it for twenty minutes ; take it out and wring it. 
 Keep this bath for further use. In a tub of water dissolve 
 1 lb. Blue Vitriol, 
 6 oz. Chrome. 
 Enter the yarn at 150° F., give it five turns, take it out, 
 now add to the first or cutch bath six ounces of chrome ; after 
 it is dissolved enter the yarn at 160° F., and give it three 
 turns ; take out and wash it off, and dry. 
 
 Another Tan Color. 
 50 lbs. cotton-yarn : 
 1^ lbs. Sumac, 
 \ lb. Extract Logwood, 
 6 lbs. Cutch. 
 Boil these until all are dissolved. Enter the yarn and turn 
 it for one-half an hour, at a boiling heat, take it out. Then 
 
THE ameiiic^s:n^ dyer. 155 
 
 in a fresh bath use one lb. blue vitriol, one-half lb. chrome, 
 one-quarter lb. copperas. AVhen dissolved, enter the yarn 
 at 150° F., and turn it for fifteen minutes ; take it up ; now 
 add to the first bath two ounces of chrome, and turn the yarn 
 in this for tifteen minutes, at 130° F. Take out, wash off, 
 and dry. 
 
 Dark Blue. 
 50 ll)s. cotton-thread ; 
 Add to a cup of cold water, 
 6 pints Nitrate of Iron, 
 2 lbs. Tin Crystals. 
 Stir or rake up the tub, enter the thread or yarn, and turn 
 for twenty minutes. Take out the yarn and wash it off well. 
 Then in a second bath of fresh water, add 
 10 lbs. Yellow Prussiate of Potash, 
 
 1 quart Muriatic Acid. 
 
 When the prussiate is dissolved, enter the yarn, and turn 
 for twenty minutes. Take it out, and pass the yarn into the 
 first bath (nitrate of iron bath), giving seven turns. Take 
 it out and pass it through the prussiate tub, giving seven 
 turns. Take out and wash off. 
 
 If you desire a venj dark blue, make a fresh bath with four 
 lbs. extract logwood, one lb. chemic, three-fourths lb. alum. 
 Run the yarn in this, after the above operations, for twenty 
 minutes. Take it out and wash off again. N. B. These are 
 all cold baths. 
 
 Medium Blue. 
 50 lbs. cotton-thread : 
 
 2 quarts Nitrate of Iron, 
 2 lbs. Tin Crystals. 
 
 Turn the yarn for twenty minutes, then take it up. 
 In a fresh bath dissolve 
 
 2| lbs. Yellow Prussiate of Potash, 
 
 1 pint Muriatic Acid. 
 
156 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Enter the yarn and turn for twenty minutes. Take it out 
 and pass it into the nitrate of iron bath, then back to the 
 prussiate tub, turning it for twenty minutes in each bath, 
 washing it off after the last time through the prussiate bath. 
 
 These baths, like those for dark blue, are worked cold. 
 These blues should be dried in a very dry atmosphere. They 
 should be wrung out as dry as possible, before being hung up 
 to dry. 
 
 Light Blue. 
 50 lbs. cotton-yarn : 
 First bath. 1 quart Nitrate of Iron, 
 
 1 lb. Tin Crystals. 
 Second bath. 1^ lbs. Yellow Prussiate of Potash, 
 
 l| gills Oil of Vitriol. 
 Proceed as in the operations of the above blue. Lighter 
 shades can be obtained by diminishing the proportions in the 
 proper ratio. 
 
 Prussian Blue. 
 30 lbs. cotton-yarn : 
 First bath. Add two quarts of nitrate of iron to the tub 
 of hot water. Enter the yarn, and give nine turns, at a boil- 
 ing heat. Take out and wring. 
 
 Second bath. To the tub of cold water, add 
 1|- lbs. Yellow Prussiate of Potash, 
 4 oz. Tin Crystals, 
 4 oz. Oil of Vitriol. 
 Enter the yarn and give nine turns. Take out and wash 
 off, and wring out the yarn. 
 
 If the shade is not dark enough, give it five turns more in 
 the first or iron bath. Then wring out, enter into the second 
 or prussiate tub, and give five turns. Take out, wash off, 
 and wring the yarn out. 
 
 German Blue. 
 50 lbs. cotton-yarn : 
 To four gallons of water, add 
 
THE america:n^ dyer. 157 
 
 4| lbs. Wheat Starch, 
 
 1| lbs. Chlorate of Potash, 
 
 1| lbs. Chloride of Copper, 
 
 2^ lbs. Chloride of Aniline. 
 For every two lbs. of yarn, add nine quarts of the above 
 mixture to a tub of cold water. Enter the yarn in this, and. 
 give six turns. Take out and hang up to dry and age for two 
 days. Then wash off the yarn, and pass it through a bath 
 containing sufficient yeast or any other ferment to remove the 
 starch. Wring out the yarn from this bath, and enter it into 
 a tub of cold water, with enough oil of vitriol added to it so 
 that it is just perceptible to the taste. Give five or six turns. 
 Take out, wash off. Then give five turns in tub of cold water, 
 to which has been added enough soda to mark 2^° Twaddle. 
 Take out, wash off, and dry. 
 
 Dark Prussian Blue. 
 50 lbs. cotton-yarn : 
 First bath, li pints Nitrate of Iron, 
 
 f\h. Tin Crystals. 
 Enter the yarn, and turn for twenty minutes. Take out 
 and wring the yarn. 
 
 Second bath. Add to the clear water, one lb. yellow prus- 
 siate of potash (previously dissolved), and one gill muriatic 
 acid. Enter the yarn, and turn for twenty minutes. Take 
 out, re-enter into first bath, proceed as for the first time, then 
 re-enter the second bath, and proceed the same. Take out 
 and wash off the yarn well, and wring it out. 
 Third bath. Dissolve 
 4 lbs. Extract Logwood, 
 I lb. Alum, • 
 
 lb. Sulphate of Indigo (Chemic), 
 
 and add them to a tub of cold water. 
 
 Enter the yarn, and turn for twenty minutes. Take out 
 and wash off. 
 
 All these baths are cold-water ones. 
 
158 THE AMEKICAN DYER. 
 
 'Chrome Yellow. 
 25 lbs. cotton-thread : 
 First bath. Ten ounces chrome. Enter yarn and give 
 seven turns at 100° F. 
 
 Second bath. Ten ounces white sugar of lead. This is to 
 be cold. Give seven turns ; that is, give seven turns first in 
 the second bath, then seven turns in the first bath, then seven 
 turns in the second bath, then wash oflf the yarn and dry. 
 
 Dark Slate. 
 25 lbs. cotton-yarn : 
 1^ lbs. Nutgalls, 
 7 oz. Extract Logwood. 
 Boil these for fifteen minutes, then cool down the bath to. 
 160° F. Enter the yarn and turn for half an hour, take out 
 the yarn and add to the solution half a pound copperas, re- 
 enter the yarn and turn for fifteen minutes at 160°, take out 
 and wash off, or not. 
 
 Medium Slate. 
 50 lbs. cotton-yarn : 
 6 oz. Extract Logwood, 
 ^ lb. Sumac. 
 Boil these articles for twenty minutes, then cool down the 
 bath to 160°. Enter the yarn and turn for twenty minutes, 
 take it out and add six ounces copperas, re-enter the yarn 
 and turn for twenty minutes at 100° F., take out the yarn and 
 wash oflf, wring out and dry. After washing oflf for the dry- 
 ing, wring out or extract the yarn in all cases. 
 
 • 
 Light Slate. 
 50 lbs. cotton-yarn : 
 2| oz. Extract Logwood, 
 3 oz. Sumac. 
 Boil these for fifteen minutes, then cool down to 160° F., 
 enter the yarn and turn for twenty minutes, take out the yarn 
 
THE AMERIC^VN DYER. 159 
 
 and run off the liquor enough so that by filling up again with 
 colli water the temperature will be reduced to 100° F., then 
 add two ounces copperas ; re-enter the yarn and turn for 
 twenty minutes ; take out, wash and wring. 
 
 Green. 
 50 lbs. cotton-yarn : 
 Give the yarn a blue bottom, by dyeing it a medium Prus- 
 sian blue (see recipe for medium blue). Then, in a fresh 
 bath, dissolve two and a half pounds extract fustic ; turn the 
 yarn for fifteen minutes at a boil ; thentake out the yarn and 
 add to the solution 
 2 lbs. Alum, 
 2 lbs. Tumeric. 
 Boil these for ten minutes, then re-enter the yarn and turn 
 for half an hour ; take out and M'ash off. 
 
 Unless the yarn for greens is handled well, they will gen- 
 erally be uneven, so great care and attention must be given 
 to the manipulations in order to avoid this difficulty. 
 
 Green. 
 20 lbs. cotton-3'arn : 
 
 First. Give the yarn a good blue in the copperas-vat, by 
 coloring it a Prussian blue (see Prussian blue recipes) : wash 
 off the yarn. 
 
 Second. To a tub of cold water, add acetate of alumina 
 enough to indicate 6° Twaddle; enter the yarn and turn for 
 fifteen minutes ; take.out and wash off in warm water. 
 
 Third. Boil in a bag eight pounds quercitron bark for three- 
 quarters of an hour; cool down the solution to 190° F. Enter 
 the yarn and turn for fifteen minutes; take out the yarn and 
 add to the liquor one pint of red liquor, or one pound of 
 alum ; re-enter the yarn and give five turns ; take out, wash off 
 and wring the yarn and dry (see remarks on drying greens). 
 A little chemic in the bark liquor will make a little brighter 
 color. 
 
160 THE AMEKICAJS^ DYER. 
 
 Methyl-Green, 
 10 lbs. cotton-yarn : 
 
 First bath. Steep the yarn overnight in one pound sumac ; 
 next morning wring out and shake open the yarn well. 
 
 Second bath. Dissolve one and a half ounces methyl-green 
 crystals, and add to a box of water heated to 130° F. ; stir it 
 up well ; enter the yarn and give seven turns, or until it will 
 not take on any more color. 
 
 This bath can be worked hotter, but the color does not 
 seem to go on so perfectly as it does at the above temperature. 
 The sumac bath is worked cold. 
 
 Fast Geeen. 
 25 lbs. cotton-yarn ; 
 
 First bath. Steep the yarn in five pounds sumac at 160° 
 F. overnight ; next morning wring out the yarn. 
 
 Second bath. Dissolve two and a half pounds stannate of 
 soda in a box or tub of boiling water, enter the yarn and give 
 seven turns, take out, wring, wash out the yarn and wring it 
 again. 
 
 This bath, like the one for fast purple, can be kept for 
 further use, by adding two pounds stannate for every twenty- 
 five pounds of yarn. 
 
 Third bath. Boil in a convenient vessel four pounds quer- 
 citron bark, take the clear liquor and add to the bath. Dis- 
 solve three and a half ounces of iodine-green crystals and add 
 to the bath. Enter the yarn at 140° F.', and give five turns, 
 bringing the bath to a boil as soon as possible, which should 
 be done in half an hour ; then take out the yarn and put it 
 through the oil-bath at lukewarm heat (see oil-bath which is 
 given with the recipes for black). This oil-bath softens the 
 yarn. Before entering the yarn in the third bath, add two 
 quarts of mordant (for making the same, see mordant under 
 the recipe for fast purple). 
 
THE AMEllICAN DYER. 161 
 
 Dark Green. 
 50 lbs. cotton-yarn : 
 First bath. 3 pints Nitrate of Iron, 
 
 2 lbs. Tin Crystals. 
 Second bath. 1^ lbs. Yellow Prussiate of Potash. 
 Proceed as for blues. (See recipes for blue on cotton- 
 yarn.) Then finish in a fresh bath of 
 21 lbs. Fustic, 
 2^ lbs. Alum. 
 Boil the extract until it is all dissolved, then add the alum. 
 Enter the yarn and turn for three-fourths of an hour at a boil ; 
 take out, wash off, wring, &c. 
 
 Reds. 
 In coloring reds with barwood, it should be thrown into the 
 bath loose, as the barwood must be in contact with the yarn. 
 The coloring-matter of barwood, when at a boiling heat, will 
 easily combine with the spirits or compounds of tin which is 
 upon the yarn, resulting in *or forming an insoluble rich red 
 color. For barwood reds, the yarn is first steeped in sumac, 
 then impregnated with protochloride of tin ("spirited"), 
 then, being put into a solution of barwood, what coloring- 
 matter is held in solution the yarn will take up, and the 
 water thus exhausted will then dissolve more of the color- 
 ing-matter in the barwood, and this will be again taken up 
 by the tin, and so on until the tin upon the yarn is completely 
 saturated with the coloring-matter ; and when this is the case, 
 the color is then at its highest and richest point, and it 
 requires a large amount of skill and experience to know the 
 exact moment when to take the yarn out of the bath. Hav- 
 ing to throw the barwood into the bath loose, in order to 
 obtain the best results, the yarn becomes filled with the 
 particles of barwood, which causes the yarn to reel oli' very 
 badly, frequently breaking, &c. To obviate this, there 
 should be a frame made to fit the dye-tub, and on this frame 
 there should be a piece of coarse cloth ftistened ; there should 
 
 21 
 
162 THE AMEKICAl^^ DYER. 
 
 be cleats in the inside to hold this frame a certain distance 
 from the bottom of the tub ; then, when ready to color, throw 
 in the required amount of barwood, put in the covered frame 
 and button, or fasten it down ; then pour in or fill up the tub 
 with water, put on the steam and boil for half an hour, or as 
 the recipe may direct ; then enter the yarn, handling it at 
 boiling. By doing this the yarn is free from dirt and chips. 
 
 Barwood Red. 
 50 lbs. cotton-yarn. 
 
 First bath. Twenty lbs. sumac. Boil it out, and, when set- 
 tled, take the clear solution and add it to the dye-tub ; heat it to 
 100° Fahr., enter the yarn and give five turns, then lay it 
 down under the liquor and leave there all night ; next morn- 
 ing take out and wring. 
 
 Second bath. Add to this enough nitro-muriate of tin to 
 indicate 2^° Twaddle (see article, tin solutions), enter the 
 yarn and give it nine turns, take it out and wash off. This 
 bath is to be cold, and can be kept for further use by adding 
 enough more spirits to indicate the strength required. 
 
 Third or finishing bath. 45 lbs. Barwood, 
 
 8 lbs. Hypernic-wood. 
 
 Follow the plan laid down in the preceding page in regard 
 to the barwood. Turn the yarn for three-fourths of a hour 
 at a boil. 
 
 We will give a few processes for coloring Turkey-red upon 
 cotton-yarns, although we doubt whether these recipes will be 
 of any benefit to the majority of cotton-dyers, as they are 
 too costly and require too many operations and manipulations 
 for most of purposes for which cotton-thread is now wanted. 
 
 Turkey-Red. 
 25 lbs. cotton-yarn. 
 First bath. Boil out the yarn in soda-ash (see directions 
 for cotton-yarn dyeing). Steep in ten lbs. sumac overnight, 
 at 100° Fahr. ; next morning wring out the yarn. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 163 
 
 Second bath. Add to clear water enough acetate of alumina 
 (red liquor) to show 3° on Twaddle's hydrometer, enter yarn 
 and give nine turns, take out the yarn and wash off. This 
 second bath is a cold one. 
 
 Third bath. Dissolve one peck of sheep's dung, add it to 
 the hath, and enter the yarn at a boil and turn the yarn for 
 three-fourths of an hour. 
 
 Fourth bath. Add four lbs. of alizarine to the water heated 
 to 150° Fahr., turn the yarn in this for two hours, take it 
 out and wring, age it for five days ; that is, lay it away for 
 five days before finishing it off. Then in the ' 
 
 Fifth bath. Put in two lbs. soda-soap ; after it is all dis- 
 solved, cool down the bath to 190° Fahr., enter the yarn and 
 turn for one hour, take it out and wash off in warm water, 
 wring it out and dry. 
 
 This is the only method that we know which is used in this 
 country. The most simple method, and of the least expense 
 and trouble, which is used in Europe, is the following one, 
 which is a French recipe : — 
 
 Red. 
 10 lbs. cotton-yarn. 
 
 " Steep in a bath, overnight, of two and a half lbs. sumac ; 
 next morning take out the yarn and wring it, add two oz. of 
 tin crystals to the sumac liquor, enter the yarn and turn for 
 half an hour, take out the yarn and wash off and wring. 
 
 "Second bath. To water heated to 70° Fahr., add ten oz. 
 white soap, and when it is all dissolved, enter the yarn and 
 turn for twenty minutes, take it out and dry the yarn. 
 
 "Third bath. Add alum enough to indicate 6° on 
 Baume's hydrometer, turn the yarn in this for half an hour 
 at 70° Fahr., take out the yarn and wring well. 
 
 "Fourth bath. Two and one-half pounds garancine ; enter 
 the yarn in this and turn for one hour at a boil ; take it out 
 and wring. 
 
 "Fifth bath. Add bleaching powders enough to show 1° 
 
164 THE a:^ierican dyer. 
 
 Baume, turn in this for fifteen minutes, take out the yarn and 
 wash oflf well, then dry." 
 
 Red. 
 100 lbs. cotton-yarn. 
 
 First bath. Boil out for half an hour, 30 lbs. sumac ; let 
 it settle, draw off the clear liquor, and add to it a bath of 
 water at 70° F., enter the yarn and give five turns, then 
 sink it under the liquor and let it remain there all night ; 
 next morning take it out and wring it. 
 
 Second bath. Add enough nitro-muriateof tinto show 2|° 
 Twaddle (see recipe for making nitro-muriate of tin) ; give 
 the yarn five turns in this, then sink it under the liquor ; let 
 it remain one hour, take it up, wash it well, and wring as dry 
 as possible. 
 
 Third bath. Boil in bags for one and a half hours, forty lbs. 
 Brazil-wood ; take out the bags, enter the yarn and give seven 
 turns, take it out, and add to the bath three gills of muriate 
 of tin (see recipe for making it), re-enter the yarn and give 
 five turns, take it out and wash oflf in cold water. 
 
 If you have not the Brazil-wood, use 50 lbs. of Hypernic- 
 wood instead, but the hj'peruic does not give so clear and 
 bright a red as the Brazil-wood does. 
 
 We will here remark, that in coloring reds on cotton-yarn, 
 if you will, after washing off and wringing out the yarn from 
 the spirit-tub, or bath, pack it down upon a scrai/y and cover 
 it over with a damp sheet or cloth until the next day, you 
 will obtain a more intense and brilliant red than you would 
 otherwise. 
 
 Also, in coloring these reds, if you should want them more 
 towards the scarlet shade, use four or five pounds of fustic 
 along with the sumac. 
 
 Red. 
 This is the nearest approach to a Turkey-red of any, con- 
 sidering the few operations it requires to produce the color, 
 
THE AMERICAlf DYER. 165 
 
 and it is the brightest and clearest red made, except the real 
 Turkey-red of Europe. 
 20 lbs. cotton-yarn. 
 
 First bath. Steep in twelve lbs. sumac overnight; next 
 day wring out. This bath must be cold. 
 
 Second bath. Add to cold water, 
 
 3 lbs. Acetate of Alumina, at 3° Baume, 
 1 lb. Acetate of lime, at 3° Baume. 
 
 Give the yarn seven turns in this, take out, wash it off, 
 wring out and shake the yarn well out, then enter in the 
 Third bath ; 
 
 1 lb. Purpurine, 
 1 lb. White Soap. 
 
 Boil these for half an hour, then cool down with cold water 
 to 130° F., turn the yarn iu this for half an hour, raising the 
 temperature to 190° F. ; take out, wring the yarn. 
 
 Fourth bath. Two lbs. tin crystals in water, at 160° F. ; 
 enter the yarn, and turn fifteen or twenty minutes ; take out 
 and wash off. This bath brightens the red, yet by omitting 
 it the color is very beautiful. 
 
 The Turkey-red process is such a complicated one, that 
 there is no dyer in this country would be at the trouble of 
 performing the various operations through which the yarn has 
 to pass ; neither do our manufacturers want to be at such an 
 expense as it would necessarily be to color their yarns and 
 threads this particular shade of red. However, there may be 
 some one who will purchase this book, that would like to know 
 the process by which such a beautiful red is obtained ; there- 
 fore, for their information, we will insert a recipe used by 
 Schrader, one of the best of German dyers. 
 25 lbs. cotton-yarn. 
 
 Fill a tub with soda liquor, of 1° Baume strength, boil the 
 yarn in this an hour, and leave it in the soluti(.n for four 
 hours. This is called the first bath. 
 
 Second bath, or cow-dung bath. Cow-dung, five lbs. ; 
 soda-ash liquor, 20 lbs., at bO° Baume. Mix the two together, 
 
166 THE america:n^ dtek. 
 
 and leave for ten or twelve hours ; then add eighty lbs. of 
 water, eighty lbs. soda-ash liquor, at 4° Baume ; then filter it 
 through a fine sieve, and add to the clear solution four and a 
 half lbs. olive oil. Stir until it is completely united, then 
 enter the yarn and turn for half an hour ; take it out and 
 wring, then leave the yarn for twelve hours to age. 
 
 Third, or white bath. Soda-ash liquor, 9° Baume ; add two 
 lbs. olive oil. (By the soda-ash liquor is meant, add enough 
 soda-ash to the water you have in the tub, so that it will indi- 
 cate S° by Baume's hydrometer). When these are incorpo- 
 rated, add to it seventy lbs. soda lye, at 2° Baume. Now 
 enter the yarn in this, and give half an hour's turniug ; take 
 out the yarn, wring and dry it. 
 
 Fourth bath. Add enough sal-soda to this bath to stand at 
 1° Baume, turn the yarn in this solution for fifteen minutes, 
 take out, wring, and leave it for six hours. 
 
 All the above baths are to be worked cold. 
 
 Fifth, or galling bath. Boil for three-quarters of an hour, 
 in 80 lbs. of water, 
 2 lbs. Nutgalls, 
 8 lbs. Sumac. 
 
 Strain it through a fine sieve, turn it into the tub, enter the 
 yarn, and give five turns ; then sink it beneath the liquor for 
 ten hours. (This bath is to be at boiling heat when the yarn 
 is entered.) After the ten hours have expired, take out the 
 yarn, wring, and dry it. 
 
 Sixth, or alum bath. To sixty lbs. water, add six lbs. 
 alum, half lb. soda-ash (pure), and half lb. chalk. Boil 
 these until dissolved, then let it settle, and take the clear 
 liquor and add it to the tub ; enter the yarn, and turn until it 
 is completely wet or saturated ; wring out and dry. 
 
 This bath is to be lukewarm. 
 
 Seventh bath, purification from the alum. Dissolve one lb. 
 chalk in the tub of cold water, turn the yarn in this for half 
 an hour, take it out and wash off. 
 
THE AMERICAi^ DYER. 167 
 
 Eighth, or Madder bath : 
 1 pail of Blood, 
 40 lbs. Madder. 
 Enter yarn in this at 175° F., raise the heat to a boil in one 
 and a half hours, and boil half an hour, turning the yarn all 
 the time; then take it out and wash off, preparatory to the 
 raising process. 
 
 Ninth bath. Raising : 
 
 1 lb. Olive Oil, 
 
 2 lbs. White Soap, 
 
 160 lbs. Soda lye, at 2° Baume. 
 
 Work the yarn in this bath for twenty minutes, at 170° F. ; 
 take it out, and wring out. 
 
 Tenth, or Finishing Bath : To sufficient water, add 
 
 4 lbs. White Soap, 
 6 ounces Tin Crystals, 
 1^ ounces Nitric Acid. 
 
 Enter yarn and give seven turns, at a gentle heat ; take out 
 the yarn, wash off and dry. 
 
 Scarlet Red. 
 50 lbs. cotton-yarn. 
 Steep the yarn overnight in twelve lbs. sumac. Next 
 morning, wring out, and give it five turns in the spirit-tub, at 
 2^^° (Twaddle's) strength. Wash off the yarn, and wring out, 
 and finish off with 
 45 lbs. Barwood, 
 
 5 lbs. Turmeric. 
 
 Proceed as for the Barwood Red. 
 
 Another Red. 
 50 lbs. cotton-yarn. 
 Steep the yarn, and spirit as for the above Scarlet Red. 
 Wash and wring out. Then finish with 
 10 lbs. Barwood, 
 20 lbs. Ground Brazil-wood. 
 
168 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Proceed as for Bar wood Red. 
 
 We omitted to state that the sumac and spirit tubs were 
 used cold. 
 
 Salmon. 
 50 lbs. cotton-yarn. 
 
 First bath. 1 gallon Nitrate of Iron. 
 
 Second bath. 2 lbs Sal-soda. 
 
 Give the yarn seven turns first in the iron-bath ; then seven 
 turns in the soda-bath. Wring out the yarn from each bath. 
 Pass the yarn through each bath three times, and, the last 
 time, wash it off before hanging it up to dry. 
 
 These baths are to be cold. 
 
 Aniline, OR Fuchsine Red (Fast). 
 30 lbs. cotton-yarn. 
 
 First bath. Give the yarn five turns in Avarm water, in 
 which has been dissolved three lbs. of common soap. Take 
 out the yarn, and wring twice. 
 
 Second bath. Boil out ten lbs. sumac in the box or tub. 
 Enter the yarn, and give six turns. 'Take out. Enter into 
 the 
 
 Third bath. To tub of cold water add one and three-fourths 
 lbs. tin crystals. Give the yarn six turns. Take out, and 
 wring and wash. 
 
 Fourth bath. Add to bath of water, at 120° F., three 
 ounces magenta crystals. Enter the yarn, and give seven or 
 nine turns. Take out and wash off. 
 
 We can obtain a bluer shade if we wish, by bringing the 
 fourth, or finishing bath, to a boil. 
 
 We get a good red on cotton-yarn by the following method, 
 but it is not so permanent as the above : — 
 50 lbs. cotton-yarn. 
 
 First bath. To tub of water, at 120° F., add three lbs. tin 
 crystals. Enter the yarn, and give seven turns. Lay the 
 yarn down under the liquor for two hours. Then take out, 
 and wash it off' well. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 109 
 
 Second bath. To a tub of cold water add three and a half 
 ounces of magenta crystals (use one-half at a time ; that is, 
 add half of it to the tub). Then entep the yarn, and f^ive it 
 seven turns. Then take it out, and add the remainder of the 
 magenta crystals. Re-enter the yarn, and give seven turns 
 more. Take out and wash off. 
 
 Salmon Drab. 
 20 lbs. cotton-yarn. 
 
 Boil out four ounces sumac, and eight ounces annotto. Add 
 the clear liquor to the dye-tub. Enter the yarn, and o-ive 
 seven turns. Eaise it out, and add to the liquor one lb. alum. 
 Re-enter the yarn, and give five turns. Take out and wash. 
 The same shade can be obtained thus : 
 100 lbs. cotton-yarn. 
 
 Boil, until dissolved, two lbs. cntch. Add it to the dye- 
 tub. Enter the yarn, and give five turns. Take out and 
 wash off. 
 
 These are to be cold baths ; but we have obtained a better 
 and more permanent shade, by having the baths at a tempera- 
 ture of about 100° F. Either cold or warm, the shades are 
 good. 
 
 Nankeen. 
 20 lbs. cotton-yarn. 
 First bath. Dissolve 8 ounces of copperas in a tub of cold 
 water. Enter the yarn, and give ten turns. Take out ; wring, 
 and shake the yarn out well. 
 
 Second bath. Dissolve 8 ounces of lime. Let it settle. 
 Use the clear liquor in cold water. Enter the yarn, and <rive 
 five turns. Take out, wash off, wring and dry. This color 
 will stand the bleaching process. 
 
 Linen Dkab. 
 20 lbs. cottou-yarn. 
 Boil out five lbs. chip fustic. Cool down with cold water 
 to 100° F. Enter the yarn, and give five turns. Raise up the 
 
 22 
 
170 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 yarn, and add to the bath two ounces of copperas. Re-enter 
 the yarn, and give live turns. Wash off, and wring out. 
 
 Orange. 
 12|^ lbs. cottou-yarn. 
 
 First, or Lead and Litharge bath. Four lbs. brown acetate 
 of lead ; two lbs. litharge. Boil these until all dissolved. 
 Add it to a tub of cold water. 
 
 Second, or Lime bath. Dissolve one pail of lime in a bar- 
 rel of water. Let it settle. Take the clear solution, and add 
 one-half of it to a tub of cold water. Now enter the yarn in 
 the lime-bath, and turn it for fifteen minutes. Take it out, 
 and enter it in the lead-bath. Turn for the same time. Take 
 it out, and re-enter it into the lime-bath again. . Turn it for 
 the same length of time. Take out, and re-enter into the 
 lead-bath again for the same time. Wring the yarn out well 
 after coming from the lead- bath the second or last time. 
 
 Third, or Chrome bath. Dissolve in a tub of water, at 100° 
 F., one and a half lbs. chrome. Enter the yarn in this, and 
 give five turns. Take it out, and enter it into the lead-bath. 
 Give it five turns. Re-enter it into the chrome-bath, and give 
 five turns. Take out, and wring well. 
 
 Fourth, or Finishing bath. Take the remaining half-barrel 
 of lime-water (which was not put into the second or lime- 
 bath), and add it to a tub of clean water, and raise the tem- 
 perature to 208° F. Now enter the yarn from the chrome- 
 bath into this, and turn for fifteen minutes. Take out, and 
 wash off. 
 
 Remai'ks on this Orange. 
 
 The lead and litharge are to be dissolved in ten quarts of 
 water. Add five quarts of the solution to what is termed the 
 lead-tub. Then add two and a half quarts when you enter the 
 yarn for the second time in the lead-tub. The other two and 
 a half quarts you must add to the lead-tub when you enter the 
 yarn from the chrome-bath to the lead-bath, as described in 
 manipulating the third or chrome bath. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 171 
 
 You will notice that the yarn is passed twice through the 
 chrome-bath. The first time it is passed through, you must 
 use but three-fourths lb. of chrome. Then add three-fourths 
 lb. more the second time it is passed through. 
 
 For a light orange, proceed as for orange, only do not pass 
 it through the hot lime, or fourth bath. 
 
 Tan Brown. 
 
 50 lbs. cotton-yarn : 
 
 First bath. 7 lbs. Cutch, 
 
 14 ounces Blue Vitriol. 
 
 Boil until the cutch is dissolved, then cool down the solu- 
 tion to 160° Fahr., enter the yarn and give seven turns, then 
 sink it under the liquor and leave it there overnight ; next 
 day take it out and wring it. 
 
 Second bath. Dissolve 1^ lbs. chrome in water at 160° 
 Fahr., enter the yarn and give seven turns ; take out, wash off 
 and dry. 
 
 Light Tan. 
 50 lbs. cotton-yarn : 
 First bath. 3^ lbs. Cutch, 
 
 7 ounces Blue Vitriol. 
 Enter yarn and turn for three-quarters of an hour at 160° 
 Fahr. 
 
 Seconji bath. 1 lb. Chrome. 
 
 Enter yarn and give seven turns at a temperature of 130 
 Fahr. ; take out, wash off and dry. 
 
 Tan. 
 
 50 lbs. cotton-yarn : 
 First bath. Boil for half an hour, 
 
 1^ lbs. Sumac, 
 
 ^ lb. Extract Logwood, 
 
 6 lbs. Cutch. 
 Enter the yarn and turn for twenty minutes at a boil. 
 
 o 
 
172 THE A3IEKICAN DYER. 
 
 Second bath. 1 lb. Blue Vitriol, 
 6 ounces Chrome. 
 
 Give five turns in this at 150° Fahr. Now add to the first 
 bath six ounces chrome, enter the yarn and give throe turns 
 at 160° Fahr. ; take out, and wash the yarn oS and dry. 
 
 Another Tan. 
 50 lbs. cotton-yarn : 
 First bath. Boil up for half an hour, 
 1\ lbs. Sumac, 
 ^ lb. Extract of Logwood, 
 6 lbs. Cutch. 
 Enter the yarn and turn for half an hour at a boil. Take 
 out the yarn. 
 
 Second bath. 1 lb. Blue Vitriol, 
 ^ lb. Chrome, 
 1 lb. Copperas. 
 Enter yarn at 150° Fahr., and turn for fifteen minutes. 
 Take out the yarn. Now add to the first bath two ounces 
 chrome ; enter the yarn at 130° Fahr., and turn the yarn for 
 ten minutes ; take it out, wash oflf and dry. 
 
 Pink. 
 50 lbs. cotton-yarn. 
 Boil out twelve lbs. hypernic wood, add the clear solution 
 to a tub of cold water, then add two lbs. tin crystals. Enter 
 the yarn and turn for three-quarters of an hour ; take out, and 
 wash oflf in cold water. 
 
 Black. 
 50 lbs. cotton-yarn. 
 First bath. Boil until dissolved forty lbs. of cutch, cool 
 down the solution to 190° Fahr. Enter the yarn and give 
 ten turns. 
 
 Second bath. Add three lbs. nitrate of iron to a tub of 
 cold water. Enter the yarn and give ten turns. 
 
 Third bath. Strip the yarn in lime-water ; that is, pass the 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 173 
 
 yarn into a tub of cold water, in which has been poured the 
 clear liquor from two lbs. of lime, and give five turns. 
 
 Fourth bath. Boil until dissolved twelve lbs. extract of 
 logwood, cool down the solution to 160° Fahr. Enter the 
 yarn and give nine turns in half an hour ; take out the yarn 
 and add to the liquor one-quarter lb. chrome, two lbs. cop- 
 peras ; re-enter the yarn and give seven turns. 
 
 Fifth bath. Wash off in soda-ash and oil, one pail to a 
 tub of warm water. 
 
 To MAKE THE OiL WaSH. 
 
 To one barrel of water add 
 
 25 lbs. Soda-ash, 
 
 10 gallons Palm Oil. 
 Boil until they are incorporated ; then use one pail of this 
 in a tub-box of warm water for every fifty lbs. of yarn. 
 
 Black. 
 
 100 lbs. cotton yarn : 
 First bath. Boil for half an hour, or until dissolved, 
 16 lbs. Extract Logwood, 
 
 2 lbs. Extract Fustic, 
 
 3 lbs. Soda-ash. 
 
 Cool down the solution to 160° F. 
 
 Enter the yarn, and give five turns. Lay it down under 
 the liquor, and let it remain there until next morning. Take 
 it up and wring out. 
 
 Second bath. Two lbs. blue vitriol. Turn the yarn for half 
 an hour, at 160° F. Take out. 
 
 Third bath. One and one-half lbs. chrome. Enter the 
 yarn and turn for half an hour at 160° F. Take out the yarn 
 and wring it well. Now enter it again in the first bath, and 
 give it seven turns. Take up and enter into the 
 
 Fourth bath. One lb. copperas. Enter the yarn at 160° 
 F., and give seven turns. Take out and wash off. 
 
174 THE AMERICAls^ DYER. 
 
 Black. 
 50 lbs. cotton yarn : 
 
 Add to the box or tub, 
 12 lbs. Extract of Tamarack, 
 8 lbs. Copperas. 
 
 Enter the yarn at a boiling heat, and turn for fifty minutes 
 at a boil. Take it out and wring out. To a box of cold 
 water, add three-quarters lb. of chrome. Enter the yarn, 
 and turn for half an hour. Take out and wring. Strip the 
 yarn in a bath of lukewarm water, to which has been added 
 three lbs. of whiting (carbonate of lime). After giving the 
 yarn seven turns in this bath, take it out and wring it, and 
 then finish off in a fresh bath of twenty lbs. logwood, and 
 three lbs. of fustic. Boil these woods for one and one-half 
 hours, then cool down the bath to 150° F. Enter the yarn, 
 then turn for three-quarters of an hour. Then raise the yarn 
 and add to the solution one-half lb. copperas ; re-enter and 
 turn for fifteen minutes ; wash off the yarn, wring out and dry. 
 
 After the yarn has been taken out of the finishing bath, if 
 it is washed in cold water, to which has been added a little 
 chrome ; it will improve the color, and will fix the logwood 
 more permanently upon the yarn. 
 
 For the next fifty lbs. of yarn, add to the liquor of the first 
 bath, eight lbs. of extract of tamarack, and six lbs. copperas ; 
 and for all subsequent lots use but five lbs. extract tamarack, 
 and four lbs. copperas. By keeping the first liquor, you will 
 thus save some expense. If you wish for a bluish black, 
 put a little lime into the first or tamarack bath. 
 
 Aniline Black (a French recipe). 
 For every two lbs. of cotton-yarn, make up a bath with 
 one-half lb. of blue vitriol ; add one-half gill of muriatic 
 acid. Give the yarn seven turns in this bath. Now make 
 up a bath with two oz. of sulphide of copper, to every quart 
 of water used in the bath. Enter the yarn in this, and give 
 
THE AMERICAlSr DYEK. 175 
 
 it five turns. Take out the yarn and wash well. Next, dis- 
 solve in warm water, one lb. chlorate of aniline, and add it 
 to a bath made up of 
 10 quarts Water, 
 
 7 oz. Chlorate of Potash, 
 
 6 oz. Sal-Ammoniac. 
 Enter the yarn and give seven turns. Take it out and 
 wring the yarn, then age it for forty-eight hours in a temper- 
 ature of 77° F. Next, give the yarn five turns in a bath 
 composed of fifteen grains of chl'ome to every pound of water 
 used in the bath. Give the yarn five turns in this bath, then 
 take it out, wash ofl:*, and dry it. 
 
 Fast Black. 
 25 lbs. cotton yarn : 
 
 First bath. Color the yarn a dark blue in the copperas-vat. 
 
 Second bath. In a tub of cold water, add one gill oil of 
 vitriol ; give the yarn five turns in this, then take it out, and 
 wash ofi" the yarn. 
 
 Third bath. Make up two tubs of cold water ; to one add 
 the clear liquor from six lbs. of lime, to the other add ten lbs. 
 copperas ; now enter the yarn into the lime-bath, and give it 
 five turns ; take out, and wring it out. Now give it five 
 turns in the copperas-bath, then wring it out, re-enter it into 
 the lime-bath, again giving it five turns, and wring out; re- 
 enter in the copperas-bath again, giving five turns, and wring 
 out. 
 
 Fourth bath. Boil out fifteen lbs. logwood, then cool down 
 to 140° ; enter the yarn and give seven turns, or turn until 
 dark enough; take out, and wash ofi". If you wish, you can 
 wash off the yarn in the oil-bath. (See recipe for it, page 
 172.) 
 
17(3 THE AMERIC^VX DYER. 
 
 REMARKS ON SILK-DYEING. 
 
 Silk is more generally dyed in the skein, than in the woven 
 fabric. It is first boiled in soap to deprvie it of the gummy 
 matter which forms the outer coverinjr of the cocoon silk. It 
 is then scoured, bleached, and sulphured. It is not sulphured 
 unless it is to be colored with very bright colors and delicate 
 light hues. It is dyed black by any of the following proc- 
 esses ; 
 
 First. With logwood and' an iron mordant. 
 
 Second. AVith logwood and bichromate of potash. 
 
 Third. Nutgalls, and other substances that contain tannic 
 acid, and nitrate of iron as a mordant. 
 
 Fourth. With aniline black, by the recipes of Persoz, 
 Jr., and others, by the use of chromate of copper, and oxal- 
 ate of aniline. 
 
 The first and second processes are known as the common 
 or ordinary blacks, the third process being known as fast 
 black. The first and second is done by simply giving the 
 silk a mordant of nitrate of iron, then finishing it off with a 
 solution of logwood. This cheap way of coloring it is gen- 
 erallj' applied to light silken fabrics, but the color will turn 
 red when in contact with even weak acids, such as the juices 
 of lemons, oranges, and other fruit juices. The fast blacks 
 are more expensive, but are not afl'ected by weak acids. The 
 third process mentioned above has the advantage over the 
 other processes, by increasing the weight of the silk (silk 
 being bought and sold by weight). Silk absorbs from sixty 
 to eighty times its own weight, and the silk used for shoe- 
 laces even two hundred per cent, of the dyeing materials. 
 
 In Germany there is an indigenous gall, named or locally 
 known as Knoppern, which contains from thirty to fifty per 
 cent, of tannic acid, which is used in the extract to color silk 
 black. In England they use nutgalls, imported from the 
 Levant, for coloring silk black. 
 
 Although the increase in weight of the silk by black dyeing 
 
 I 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 177 
 
 may be advantageous to the dealers, so much foreign matter 
 in it is not only injurious to it in regard to the wearing quali- 
 ties of it, but it also gives rise to the disagreeablcness of its 
 crocking or smutting while the material is being worn, and 
 microscopic researches have proved that the color adheres 
 very loosely to the silk. 
 
 The process for dyeing silk black is a very simple one. It 
 is first steeped in a solution of nutgalls, the technical phrase 
 of this part of the process being "galling." After this, the 
 silk is next woVked through a solution of nitrate of iron. 
 Silk is colored black sometimes by first being colored a Prus- 
 sian blue, then finished ofi" as above ; but more frequently a 
 bluish tinge is given to it by first coloring it with logwood, 
 copperas, and some blue vitriol. The weighting of silk is due 
 to the fact that silk, being an animal product, it has the prop- 
 erty of combining with tannic acid, and thereby will become 
 heavier." The greater the amount of tannic acid there is in 
 the coloring solution, or the oftener it is immersed in the nut- 
 gall solution, the heavier the fibre will become to a certain 
 extent. It is not particularly essential whether copperas or 
 nitrate of iron is used, but the nitrate is preferable. The 
 silk, after being steeped in the solution of nutgalls, and then 
 passed through the nitrate of iron solution, is at once colored 
 black, but if it were passed through a solution of copperas, it 
 would at first be colored only a black-violet, and would grad- 
 ually become a black by exposure to the atmosphere, although 
 in both cases the result is the same in the end. The use of 
 the nitrate of iron is advantageous, and becomes more neces- 
 sary where the galls contain a small amount of tannic acid, 
 but for heavy weighting of the silk the copperas can only be 
 used. 
 
 The coloring of silk black with aniline, chromate of copper, 
 and oxalate of aniline, produces excellent results as far as we 
 have learned. 
 
 Silk is colored blue either with indigo, prussiate of potash, 
 or aniline. The indigo-vat has not been used much for color- 
 
 23 
 
178 THE A3IERICAN DYEK. 
 
 ing silk since the discovery of coloring it with the prussiate ol 
 potash. If indigo is used at all on silk, it is as carmine or 
 purified sulphate of indigo {sulpJdndigotic acid). In color- 
 ing silk Prussian blue, it is first worked through a solution of 
 nitrate of iron, then immersed in a solution of yellow prus- 
 siate of potash. In France, the iron mordant is made by dis- 
 solving copperas in nitric acid, and is known as Raymond's 
 solution^ and the blue produced by it and the prussiate, is 
 called the Raymond blue. The Napoleon blue, so called, is 
 made similar to the Raymond blue, the only difference being 
 in using tin crystals in the iron mordant and sulphuric acid 
 along with the. prussiate of potash. This blue is more bril- 
 liant than the Raymond blue. In England, a tin salt is always 
 used with the iron mordant, and after the silk has been 
 worked a certain length of time in the mordant, it is then 
 passed through a boiling soap-solution, then washed off, and 
 next steeped in a solution of red prussiate of potash, acidu- 
 lated with muriatic acid ; from this solution it is passed, or 
 washed oflT, in water containing ammonia, which adds greatly 
 to its brilliancy. 
 
 Coloring silk with aniline, or naphthaline blue, is a very 
 simple process. It only requires the passing of the silk 
 through a solution of the dyes, the solvent of the dyes being 
 alcohol or wood-spirit, or, in the case of the soluble blues, 
 water, the silk being left in the aniline solution until it has 
 assumed the desired shape. ' 
 
 Silk was always colored red and pink with cochineal, 
 safflower, and archil, until the discovery of fuschine, by 
 which, and with coralline, Magdala red, the reds on silk are 
 colored, and the process for producing reds on silk with these 
 substances is as simple as the process just described for ani- 
 line blue. The aniline red is the brightest, purest, and deep- 
 est of all red dyes for silk, yet it is not so fast as Magdala 
 red. 
 
 Silk is dyed yellow, at the present time, mostly by picric 
 acid, and some dyers adhere to the old method of first giving 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 179 
 
 it a mordiuit of alum, then finishing off with a sohition of 
 weld. Tlie ordinary greens are produced on silk by first 
 coloring yellow with either weld, fustic, or picric acid, and 
 then finishing with indigo, carmine, or aniline blue; but the 
 fast greens are produced by first coloring it blue with the 
 prussiate of potash, and then finishing oil' with either quer- 
 citron or fustic. Greens are also colored on silk with iodine 
 (aniline green). Bed is printed upon silk by purpurine. In 
 the first place, the silk pieces are mordanted with acetate of 
 alumina (AI2O3, 2 C4H3O3 + 4 HO), with a little chalk added 
 to the solution of alumina, then passing the silk through a 
 weak solution of gum tragacanth. The printing-paste is made 
 with one and a half ounces of purpurine, and half a pound of 
 starch ; heat the whole together, and print with it when cold. 
 After the printing, the silk is steamed, then passed through 
 soap, &c. 
 
 At the present time, most of the colors on silk are produced 
 by the different aniline dyes. The methods or processes of 
 fixing the aniline colors on silk are confined to the silk-d3''er, 
 and woolen-dyers do not try to infcjrm themselves on the art 
 of silk-dyeing, and we being unacquainted with that branch of 
 dyeing, have only given a general outline of the methods 
 employed, and leave the subject for those who are prac- 
 tically acquainted with the various processes for coloring this 
 vegeto-animal substance to explain. 
 
 Water = U,0. 
 The true cQmposition of water was discovered in 1781 by 
 Cavendish. The discovery made by him was, that upon burn- 
 ing certain and known amounts of hydrogen and oxygen in a 
 dry vessel, he observed that water was formed or deposited 
 on the sides of the glass vessel in which he tried the experi- 
 ment, and that water was formed in quantity exactly equal to 
 
180 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 the gases, in weight, which had disappeared. He also ob- 
 served that these gases, would unite exactly in proportion of 
 two volumes of hydrogen, with one of oxygen, and unite by 
 weight, one to eight. Water, therefore, consists of one equiv- 
 alent of hydrogen — 1, and one equivalent of oxygen, 8 = 9, 
 or of one volume of hydrogen and half a volume of oxygen 
 condensed into one volume of steam. On these data, it is 
 easy to calculate the specific gravity of steam, for its density 
 will be 0.0689 (specific gravity of hydrogen) + 0.5512 (lialf 
 the specific gravity of oxygen) = 0.6201, this being the spe- 
 cific gravity of steam. 
 
 Water, in a pure state, is a transparent liquid, without 
 color, taste, or smell. Its specific gravity is assumed to be 
 unity, and forms the term of comparison for that of solids and 
 liquids. " A cubic inch of water, at the temperature of 60 F., 
 weisfhs 252.5 grains." 
 
 Water is compressible, to a small extent, which was proved 
 first by Canton, and afterwards, in an incontestable manner, 
 by Perkins. " When the temperature of water is reduced to 
 32° F. (freezing point), it becomes a solid, or ice, and has the 
 specific gravity of 0.9175 " (Dufour) . AVater being possessed 
 of such extensive solvent powers, cannot avoid being contam- 
 inated more or less with foreign matters, and will become 
 .variously impregnated according to the nature of the soil or 
 strata through which it passes. When the foreign substances 
 present are in so small an amount as not to materially alter 
 its taste, and other sensible qualities, it constitutes the difier- 
 ent varieties of common icater. Prof. I. H. Appleton arranges 
 the different kinds of water under the following heads : — 
 
 (a) Rain-water. 
 
 (h) Brook, or river water. 
 
 (c) Sea-water, or water of salt lakes. 
 
 (d) Well-water. 
 
 (e) Mineral spring-water. 
 
THE AMERICA?^ DYER. 181 
 
 The professor says the above are varieties of natural water. 
 "And natural waters difter simply in the character and amount 
 of the impurities they contain ; these differences are due 
 mainly to iJie part of the natural circulation of the ivater at 
 which we withdraw the sample for examination." 
 
 " The evaporation taking place at the surface of the sea, 
 and of all bodies of water, is the principal source of the 
 moisture of the atmosphere ; after this moisture has con- 
 densed as rain, the most of it returns to the sea by brooks 
 and rivers." 
 
 " But some of the water, owing to peculiar surface configu- 
 ration, or to greater or less permeability of surface strata, is 
 either arrested^ forming salt lakes, or diverted, as when it 
 sinks below the surface and takes a subterranean course. In 
 this latter case it often re-appears at the surface by natural 
 fissures, as in the case of mineral springs, or by artificial 
 ones, as in case of wells." 
 
 In regard to rain-water, he states that "the only impurities 
 of carefully collected rain-water, are those it absorbs in pass- 
 ing through the atmosphere. They are oxygen, nitrogen, 
 carbonic-anhydride, traces of ammonia gas, and (especially 
 after thunder-storms) ammonic-nitrate. In the vicinity of 
 large cities (especially where are many manufacturing estab- 
 lishments) rain-water also collects organic matters, dust of 
 various kinds, and even sulphuric acid." 
 
 "Of course, rain-water collected upon roofs acquires im- 
 purities of greater quantity and of other kinds, from the 
 materials of the roofs, and from dust which may have been 
 collected there." 
 
 "So much as 1.2 grains of solid residue to the gallon of 
 water (American wine-gallon), has been obtained from the 
 evaporation of rain-water carefully collected in the city of 
 Paris." 
 
 "Rivers derive their water from direct surface-drainage, 
 and from springs whose water has taken a short subterranean 
 course." 
 
182 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 " The cl<a7'acfer of the impurities depends upon the chanicter 
 of the water-shed. Thus, water from a sandy soil, contains 
 little irapurit}', not only because of the very slight solubility 
 of the sand, but also because it possesses, to some extent, the 
 remarkable power of removing both mineral and organic 
 impurities from water filtered through it." 
 
 "The amounts of impurities likewise vary. The waters of 
 rivers, draining thinly-settled territory, contain to the gal- 
 lon about five grains of impurities, of which about two and a 
 half grains are organic matter. Sometimes, indeed, river- 
 water is scarcely less pure than rain-water. The amounts of 
 impurities are, of course, much larger when the river receives 
 the drainage of farms and human habitations and factories. 
 Thus, the Thames, at London Bridge, contains 23.8 grains 
 per American gallon." 
 
 'Hiere is a great difierence in the impurities of water, as 
 found in different localities and different sources, but all the 
 varieties of water may be conveniently arranged under two 
 heads; viz., soft and hard. A soft water is one which con- 
 tains but few impurities, and which, when used with soap, 
 very easily forms a lather. 
 
 By hard water is understood that kind of water which con- 
 tains calcareous or magnesian salts, or other impurities, that 
 cause the soap to curdle when washing with it. Tincture of 
 soap is the easiest and most convenient test for ascertaining 
 whether the water is Jtard or soft. In distilled water the 
 tincture will produce no effect, in soft water it will change to 
 a slight opal colour, but in hard water, has a milky appearance. 
 This milky appearance is due to the formation of an insoluble 
 compound, between the oily acids of the soap and the lime or 
 magnesia of the foreign salt. 
 
 The usual foreign substances contained in common water, 
 besides oxygen and nitrogen, and matters held in a state of 
 mechanfcai suspension, are carbonic acid, sulphate and car- 
 bonate of lime, and common salt. Carbonic acid is detected 
 with lime, provided the lime-water is added before the water 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 183 
 
 to be tested has been boiled. The boiling of the water would 
 drive off the acid, so that there would be no precipitate 
 given by the addition of lime-water. The presence of lime 
 in water is shown by there being a precipitate thrown down, 
 when nitrate of baryta is added. After boiling the water add 
 •oxalate of ammonia, which will throw down precipitates if 
 lime is present in the water. The nitrate of baryta test 
 shows the presence of sulphuric acid, and after boiling the 
 water, the ammonia indicates lime not held in solution by 
 carbonic acid. Carbonate of lime, when held in solution by 
 an excess of carbonic acid, may be detected by boiling the 
 water, which causes the carbonate of lime to precipitate ; but 
 even after the boiling, there is still enough carbonate of lime 
 left in the water to give a precipitate with acetate of lead, car- 
 bonate of lime being itself, to a minute extent, soluble in 
 water. Distilled water, and pure, are useful for all purposes 
 of the arts ; yet a water may be soft and useful for bleaching 
 and washing, and still deleterious in dyeing ; and it may be 
 hardy and still be good water for dyeing most colors. The 
 terms hard and soft do not denote impurities of any particu- 
 lar kind. The impurities in water are often so minute that 
 ordinary tests do not, for some time, detect them. The best 
 method of proceeding will be to apply the tincture of soap 
 test (dissolve white soap in alcohol, this is tincture of soap), 
 as a sort of guide. Next, to try the water with delicate test- 
 paper; then to observe if it has an alkaline or acid re-action. 
 Now, take a gallon of the water to be tested and boil it down 
 to one pint ; pour this into a narrow jar and let it remain 
 until it has settled, pour off the clear liquid into another ves- 
 sel, and preserve the turbid part for examination. This 
 turbid precipitate will, no doubt, be carbonate and sulphate 
 of lime, with a trace of iron. If these substances are in the 
 precipitate, by adding to it some muriatic acid, the carbonate 
 of lime and iron will dissolve with eflfervescence, while the 
 sulphate of lime will remain undissolved. A few drops 
 of tannic or 'gallic acid added to a portion of the pint of 
 
184 ■ THE AMERICAX DYER. 
 
 water will turn it a bluish color, if iron is present in it. 
 Divide the water which was boiled down to a pint into five 
 portions, and put them into five small glasses ; to one, add 
 gallic acid ; it will give a bbiish color if iron is present. To 
 the second portion add a few drops of oxalate of ammonia ; 
 if lime is present there will be a white precipitate thrown 
 down. To fhe third portion add some phosphate of soda, 
 and stir it up well ; if the water contains magnesia there will 
 be a white precipitate left. To the fourth portion add chlo- 
 ride of barium, and if a white precipitate is obtained that 
 does not re-dissolve by adding a little nitric acid to it, then 
 the water contains sulphuric acid. To the fifth portion add 
 nitrate of silver ; if a white precipitate is formed and does 
 not re-dissolve by the addition of nitric acid, then the water 
 contains muriatic acid. These tests and the nitric acid must 
 be perfectly pure, or no dependence can be placed upon the 
 results. 
 
 Parkes gives the following tests for water in his chemical 
 essays : — 
 
 TESTS USED AND WHAT THEY "WILL DETECT. 
 
 The oxalates, or oxalic acid, . Lime. 
 
 Litmus, .... Uncombined acids. 
 
 Tumeric paper, . . . Alkalies and alkaline earths. 
 
 Chloride of platinum in alcohol. Potash. 
 
 Polished iron or steel, . . Copper (with precipitates). 
 
 Phosphate of soda, . . Magnesia. 
 
 Lime-water, .... Cabonic acid. 
 
 Chloride of lime, . . . Carbonated alkalies. 
 
 Salts of barytes, . . . Sulphuric acid or sulphates. 
 
 The above substances are sometimes so minute that the 
 common trests do not always detect them. 
 
 " The solvent powers of water are of a very wide range ; 
 there are but few solid, liquid, or gaseous substances which 
 
THE AMEltlCAN DYER. 185 
 
 are not dissolved to some extent by it. In case of rain-water, 
 the solvent powers are somewhat further increased by car- 
 bonic-anhydride, which it acquires from the atmosphere, 
 and which, after fiilling, it acquires in still greater quantity 
 from the decaying organic matters with which it comes in 
 contact in tiltering through the suface strata. Many carbon- 
 ates, as calcic carbonate, which are only very slightly soluble 
 in pure water, are much more so in water containing carbonic- 
 anhydride, with which they are supposed to form bicarbon- 
 ates. 
 
 " Well-water almost invariably contains the following sub- 
 stances : — 
 
 " Ca SO4, .... Gypsum. 
 
 Ca CO3, .... Chalk. 
 
 Mg CO3, .... Magnesia. 
 
 NaCl, . . . . Common Salt. 
 
 K CI. 
 
 Si Oo, .... Sand. 
 Fe CO3. 
 
 ,Al2(C03)3. 
 
 Organic Matter. 
 Occasionally it contains 
 
 Ca (NOs),, . . . Calcic Nitrate. 
 
 (NH4)2 CO3 . . . Amnionic Carbonate. 
 
 "A well-water containing, per gallon, twenty grains of 
 mineral matters of the character of those first enumerated, 
 and from three to five grains of vegetable matters, and which 
 is free from ammonium compounds is considered suitable for 
 drinking purposes. Drinking waters containing larger quan- 
 tities of mineral matters are thought to produce the gravel 
 and similar diseases. 
 
 " When wells are situated in thickly peopled districts their 
 
 24 
 
186 THE A3IERICAN DYER. 
 
 waters often become impregnated with animal matters, which 
 have come from cesspools, &c. These animal matters, by 
 their partial decomposition, give rise to ammonia, nitrates, 
 and niti'ites which thus serve as indicators to the nitrogeneous 
 matters in which they originated. If such waters are used 
 for drinking waters, they become highly injurious to health." 
 
 "For domestic purposes, as washing and cooldng, it is very 
 desirable to use a water containinof less mineral matter than 
 the amounts above specified. Much calcic and magnesic salts 
 impart to the water the peculiarity termed hai'dness." 
 
 "By use of hard water with soap, the calcium and magne- 
 sium combine with the fatty acid-radical of the soap, and thus 
 form insoluble, hard, granular, and inactive calcium and mag- 
 nesium soaps, which do not froth, and do not possess the 
 detergent properties of sodium and potassium soaps." — 
 Appleton^s Quantitative Analysis, 
 
 Water is used in the dye-house as a solvent, yet its solvent 
 property depends greatly upon certain laws, the action being 
 the mutual attraction between the fluid and solid, and will 
 become weaker as these attractions are satisfied. For exam- 
 ple : we will tal^e a piece of alum, and suspend one part of it 
 in water ; the water will be immediately drawn or sucked up 
 into the pores of the alum, and will adhere to the particles of 
 the alum ; but if more water than what is sufficient to wet the 
 particles is allowed to enter the solid parts of the alum, the 
 alum will break, dissolve, and disappear in the water. Yet 
 the action of the water upon the salt is limited, it being very 
 powerful at first ; but the alum becoming difi'used through the 
 water, the action of the w-ater upon the solid parts of the 
 alum will gradually decrease as the water becomes more and 
 more saturated with the alum, until it will dissolve no more. 
 We then say that the water has become entirely saturated 
 with the salt. 
 
 When any of the crystallized salts are put into a pail or 
 other vessel, and water poured upon it, and allowed to stand 
 for a length of time, we find that it is a long time in dissolv- 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 187 
 
 ing, because the water which surrounds the crystallized salt 
 becomes saturated, and is therefore incapable of dissolvino^ 
 any more of the salt, as the salt, from its weight, remains at 
 the bottom of the pail or vessel. To illustrate this, we will 
 take three glasses, each being tilled with water ; we now add 
 to each an equal quantity of blue vitriol. In one we will let 
 the crystals remain at the bottom of the glass ; the second one 
 we will stir constantly ; we will suspend the blue vitriol upon 
 the surface of the water in the third glass. We now can 
 observe the action of the water in each case, and observe the 
 difference in time which it requires to entirely dissolve all the 
 blue vitriol, the result being, that which was suspended upon 
 the water's surface is the soonest dissolved. 
 
 Hot water, every dyer knows, will dissolve more of a crys- 
 tallized salt than cold water will. The relation of the differ- 
 ent dissolving powers of water, at different degrees of tem- 
 perature, is very remarkable. Some of the salts will dis- 
 solve as well at one degree of temperature as at another, and 
 equally as readily : common salt, for instance. Some dis- 
 solve the least in cold water, and will increase gradually as 
 the water becomes heated. Some salts increase in their solu- 
 bility rapidly, until the temperature of the water arrives at a 
 certain heat, after which the salt will become less soluble, 
 while such substances as lime will dissolve more readily in 
 cold than in hot water. One pound of lime will dissolve in 
 sixty-six gallons of water, at 32° F., but it requires seventy- 
 five gallons, at 60° F., to dissolve the same amount. Boiling 
 water will not contain but one-half of the lime that water at 
 32° can. This fact is well known to cotton-yarn dyers, as 
 they often experience these effects in the liaising of chrome- 
 oranges. 
 
 "Water, besides having the property of dissolving solid 
 bodies, has also the same property for dissolving gases and 
 holding them in solution. In the latter case, cold water is a 
 more powerful solvent for the gases than hot water is. There 
 are gases, if held in solution by water which is used in col- 
 
188 THE AMERICAJS^ DYER. 
 
 oring, that would be very injurious (especially in cotton dye- 
 ing), and as many of these gases are floating about in the 
 dye-house, they may be, in small quantities, absorbed by 
 the water contained in the dye-tubs, and the cause of the 
 imperfect color which is obtained may not be known or 
 thought of. 
 
 The following are a few of the gases present in the dye- 
 house : — 
 
 Nitrous oxide. Chlorine. Carbonic acid. 
 
 Sulphurous acid. Sulphuretted hydrogen. 
 
 Any one of these gases, in water, will aflfect colors, and 
 they are all, to a more or less extent, gases which are given 
 off in a dye-house. 
 
 It has been stated by some chemists, that water was entirely 
 neutral, and as having no action upon matters put into it. 
 This will appear doubtful to the practical dyer, as his experi- 
 ence has taught him that the water in different localities has 
 a different effect upon the same dj'estuff. He also finds thai 
 certain kinds of water are better for his colors than other 
 kinds, which, manifests a difference either in the constitution or 
 condition of the water. This difference in water depends 
 upon foreign matters which are dissolved in it. Therefore, it 
 would be a great object for the dyer to always have pure 
 water. But this is almost impossible for him to have, although 
 there a number of rivers in the New England States that are 
 as pure as it is possible to have (unless we employ distilled 
 water), and there are not any foreign matters in them, that 
 would injure the most delicate color we would wish to place 
 upon any fabric. As we stated above, it would be an object 
 for the dyer to have pure water. It would also be a great 
 object to him to know what are the matters or ingredients 
 which are in the water he was using, so that he could either 
 counteract their effects, and obviate their consequences, or 
 else render them subservient to his purposes. The great and 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 189 
 
 most practical importance of water to the dj^er, is not only its 
 solvent powers, but also its neutrality. The best water we 
 have used for coloring black, and other sadden colors, were 
 the western waters, and especially that at Lawrenccburgh, 
 Ind., which, by analysis, wus found to contain sulphuric, 
 muriatic, and carbonic acids, large quantities of lime, and, a 
 trace of iron, the solid contents of which were 135 grains per 
 American gallon. No doubt, these ingredients existed in the 
 water as carbonate, muriate, and sulphate of lime, and the 
 carbonate of iron. In coloring with the above-named water, 
 we found that it required a much less quantity of logwood to 
 produce a jet black than it did in the Eastern States. This is 
 accounted for thus : lime aids or assists the water in dissolv- 
 ing the coloring-matter contained in the logwood, and, as 
 dyers say, springs the wood more. Lime, as well as soda-ash 
 in water, greatly assists the water in extracting the color from 
 camwood, as well as from logwood. 
 
 ACIDS. 
 
 Acids are compounds which are capable of uniting, in defi- 
 nite proportions, with alkalies, earths, and ordinary metal- 
 lic oxides, with the eflect of producing a compound in which 
 the properties of its constituents are mutually destroyed. 
 Most acids have a sour taste, and possess the power of chang- 
 ing vegetable blues to. red ; and, though these properties are 
 by no means constant, yet they afford a convenient means of 
 detecting acids applicable to most cases. 
 
 The above explanation of the nature of an acid is that which is 
 usually given ; but, according to strict definition, acids are com- 
 pounds having a strong electro-negative energy, and, therefore, 
 possessing a powerful affinity for electro-positive compounds, 
 such as alkalies, earths, and ordinary oxides. It is this antag- 
 ouism in the electrical conditions of these two orreat classes of 
 
190 THE A3IERICAN DYER. 
 
 chemical compounds that gives rise to their mutual afBnit}', 
 which is so much tjie stronger as the contrast in this respect is 
 greater. In the majority of cases, the elective-negative com- 
 pound, or acid, is an oxidized body, but by no means necessarily 
 so. When an acid does not contain oxygen, hydrogen is usually 
 present. These peculiarities in composition have given rise 
 to the division of acids, b}^ some writers, into oxacids and 
 hydracids. Vegetable acids, for the most part, contain both 
 hydrogen and oxygen. Strictly speaking, there are but three 
 kinds of acids; viz., sulphuric, muriatic, and nitric acids. 
 There are a large number of substances termed acids, such as 
 oxalic, acetic, tartaric, citric, benzoic, gallic, tannic acid, &c., 
 &c. 
 
 "Acids are the antagonistic principles to alkalies. They 
 neutralize alkalinity, and form salts by their union with alka- 
 lies. They combine with earths also, and, in general, these 
 compounds are soluble ; but there some that are not soluble. 
 They act upon metals, oxidizing, combining with, and dissolv- 
 ing them, thus bringing the base of colors into a tangible form, 
 so that the coloring principle will operate upon them.. They 
 will modifx' the shade of color, changing the purples to red or 
 orange, and the reds to orange or yellow, making the yellows 
 brighter, lighter, and more lemon-colored in their shade. 
 
 "Thus we see the primary importance of these substances 
 in the art of dyeing, and the necessity of their presence in 
 colors." 
 
 Acids enter into the composition of all the cry stall izable 
 salts, or chemical compounds, or mordants which have been 
 noticed in this work, and are the medium or cause of solu- 
 bility of almost all of their radicals. Acids, in an uncombined 
 or free state, attack vegetable fibre, and injure its strength, 
 even when somewhat diluted with water. Alkalies operate 
 upon animal matter in the same respects as acids do upon 
 vegetable matter. Acids arc not very injurious to wool, 
 unless used to excess, and of considerable strength, or aided 
 by heat. AVooIen fabrics will bear a greater amount of acids, 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 191 
 
 without injury, than they can hear the use of an alkali. The 
 acids seem to comhine somewhat with the wool, causinor the 
 goods to full and .scow?' with more difficulty. When either of 
 the three proper acids are combined with other elements, they 
 are called salts. Thus, sulphuric acid and iron, fur sulphate 
 of iron- (salt of iron) . 
 
 We have below condensed, from Napier's Chemistry, the 
 nature and nomenclature of salts. 
 
 "The acids combine with metals, and form compounds, 
 which are termed salts. The names of these also denote their 
 composition : the salt formed between the acid terminating in 
 ic and a base, ends with ate; that formed by the acid ter- 
 minating in ous^ ends with ite, the name of the element with 
 which the acid combines, being added. Thus, suli)hnric acid 
 (SO3) and iron (Fe) form sulphate of iron; sulphurous (SO2) 
 and iron (Fe) form sulphite of iron. 
 
 "When these acids unite elements or bases in different pro- 
 portions, the same prefixes are used as with oxides. If one 
 proportion of acid unites with one of another element, the 
 compound is termed j9ro/o, — as protosulphate of iron ; if two 
 of acid and one of metal, the compound has hi, — as bisulphate 
 of iron, &c. Per is also used, as denoting the highest pro- 
 portions, as when three equivalents of acid, unite with two 
 equivalents of iron, the salt is termed persulphate of iron. 
 
 "Sometimes we have the metal uniting with acids, forming 
 basic salts." For instance, if one proportion of oxygen com- 
 bines with three of metal, the prefix trisub, or tridi, is occa- 
 sionally used ; but this is not at all times convenient. The 
 best plan is to denote such compounds as basic, and then 
 apply the ordinary prefixes, such as bibasic, tribasic, &c., as 
 
 CuoO, bibasic oxide of copper. 
 CugO, tribasic oxide of copper. 
 
 Where we have two proportions of metal to one of acid, or 
 the equivalents or proportions of metal to one of acid, the 
 
192 THE america:n^ dyek. 
 
 same prefixes are used as above stated ; the two proportions 
 of metal to one of acid, is termed bibasiC'Sulphate of copper, 
 and the other named preparations are termed tribasic-s\i\phate 
 of copper. Where water is combined with salts or oxides, 
 they are termed hydrates, or hydraus, to distinguish them 
 from substances that contain no water, which are called anhy- 
 draus ; thus, hydrate of potash, or h^'drous potash, KO HO ; 
 anhydrous potash, KO. 
 
 Double salts are two salts united together to form a definite 
 compound, such as alum, that being a double salt of sulphate 
 of alumina, and sulphate of potash. 
 
 " In the name of a compound ending in ide, the base or ele- 
 ment in which oxygen is combined, is named last, as 
 
 Oxide of iron (Fe O) , composed of oxygen and iron. 
 Chloride of iron (FeCl), " of chlorine and iron. 
 Iodide of iron (Fel), " of iodine and iron. 
 
 Oxide of sulphur (OS), ** of oxygen and sulphur. 
 
 Oxide of nitrogen (ON) , " of oxygen and nitrogen." 
 
 " But in those compounds that contain acid properties, the 
 base is placed at the beginning, thus : 
 
 Sulphuric acid, .... sulphur and oxygen. 
 Nitric acid, ..... nitrogen and oxygen. 
 Hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid), hydrogen and chlorine." 
 
 Rules for Naming Compounds. 
 
 " When two elements combine together, and the compound 
 formed has not acid properties, the name ends in ide, such as 
 oxide, chloride, bromide, rodide, &c. 
 
 " Sometimes uret is used instead of ide, such as in sulj>huret, 
 carburet, phosphuret, &c. But ide is now generally adopted 
 even for these, giving sulphides, carbonides, and phosphides.^' 
 
 "When the compound formed by the union of the elements 
 has acid properties, the name ends in ic, or oics; thus we have 
 
THE AJVIERICA^ DYER. 193 
 
 sulphuric, sulphurous, nitric, nitrous, chloric, chlorous acids. 
 Thus, these elements, uniting together in different multiples, 
 have prefixes added to express the number of proportions. 
 Thus, proto denotes one proportion ; dento, or hi, two propor- 
 • tions; trito, three proportions; per denotes uo particular 
 number, only the highest proportion. 
 
 " For examples, take the compounds nitrogen and oxygen : 
 
 NO, protoxide of nitrogen. 
 NO2, binoxide of nitrogen. 
 NO3, nitrous acid. 
 NO4, peroxide of nitrogen. 
 NO5, nitric acid. 
 
 "Thus we see, the full name of the substance not having 
 acid properties, denotes its composition . In the case of acids, 
 it does not tell the number of elements combined, as with 
 oxides, ous, simply signifying that it has less oxygen than 
 another acid composed of the same elements, and which ends 
 in ic." \_For instance, nitrous acid contains hut two proportions 
 of oxygen {JSfO.i)^ ivhile nitric acid (-ZVO5) contains Jive pro- 
 portions of oxygen. 1 
 
 " There are sometimes more than two acids formed by the 
 combining of the same elements. In this case, if the oxygen 
 is less than in the acid whose name terminates with ous, the 
 prefix Jiypo is put to the name of the ous acid. If there be 
 more oxygen than in the ous acid, and less than the ic acid, 
 the same prefix is made to the last-named acid. 
 
 " Finally, when there is more oxygen present than in the 
 acid whose name terminates with ic, the prefix per is used as 
 in oxides. Thus, for examples, to illustrate these terms : 
 
 S2O2, hypo-sulphurous acid. 
 
 502, sulphurous acid. 
 82O5, hypo-sulphuric acid. 
 
 503, sulphuric acid." 
 
 25 
 
J 94 THE a:merica2^^ dyer. 
 
 "Any acid having more oxygen, in relation to the sulphur, 
 than the last-named in the above list, would be called per- 
 sulphuric acid. It will thus be seen, that the names of the 
 compounds denote their composition, and gives an idea of 
 their leading properties." 
 
 "The term sesqui, — as sesquioxide, — is often used, and 
 means one and a half of an equivalent, which, as may be 
 inferred from what has been said, cannot take place. Never- 
 theless, the name is conveniently retained to denote such com- 
 pounds as have two of one element, and three of another, such 
 as sesquioxide of iron (FcoOg), also termed peroxide, which is 
 composed of two of iron (Fcj), and three of oxygen (03= 
 
 FeA). 
 
 "Sometimes one proportion of oxygen, chlorine, &c., 
 
 combines with two proportions of a base as a metal ; such 
 
 compounds have the prefix sy6 or di thus, — 
 
 FcjO, sub-oxide of iron, or dinoxide of iron. 
 CugCl, sub-chloride, or dichloride of copper." 
 
 As regards the constitution of salts, it is not our intention 
 to define the merits of the difterent views taken by chemists 
 in regard to the constitution of chemical salts, but merely and 
 briefly to give a general idea to the student in dyeing. For 
 an example we will take sulphuric acid. The composition of 
 this acid is given by Berzelius thus, SO3. Now we find that 
 SO3 is a solid crystalline compound, which has no acid prop- 
 erties until it is combined with one proportion of water, and 
 its formula would be SO3 + HO (hydrous sulphuric acid). 
 
 Sir H. Davy thought that as sulphuric acid, SO3, had no acid 
 properties, and was not capable of combining with any body 
 as such, unless in union with water, it was the more probable 
 that what is termed hydrated sulphuric acid (SOg-j-llO), 
 might be the correct composition of sulphuric acid, rather 
 than the formula SO3, and should be represented thus, SO4 + 
 H, the hydrogen being the base or metal, and that the 
 
THE AMEEICAN DYER. 195 
 
 presence of hydrogen is an essential qnalification to the acid, 
 so that a piece of iron being pnt into sulphuric acid the re- 
 action would be expressed thus, SO^II + Fe = S04Fe + H, 
 or thus, — 
 
 0,1 • -J ^ H — hydrogen gas. 
 Sulphuric acid < j o o 
 
 ^ *> sulphate of iron. 
 Iron = Fe > 
 
 A greater number of our modern chemists express sulphuric 
 acid thus, H^SOi- 
 
 Names have been proposed in accordance with Sir H. Davy's 
 views; as, for instance, the SO4 is to be termed suJphion; 
 therefore the formula SO4 -|- H being termed sulphuric acid, 
 will be sulphionide of hydrogen, instead of sulphuric acid. It 
 will, however, be a dithcult task to introduce such names into 
 science ; even if they were approved of, their use will haye to 
 be a slow but ofiadual growth. 
 
 The views that are given above of the true formula of sul- 
 phuric acid, can be applied to all hydrated acids. The for- 
 mula of nitric acid, NO5, for instance, has never to our knowl- 
 edge been isolated, but its existence is merely supposed from 
 analogy. For hydrated nitric acid we have the formula, 
 NO5 -|- HO ; but why this formula, rather than this, NOg -f- H, 
 or this, HNO5? Any metals dissolving in nitric acid replace 
 the hydrogen only. The same may be said of muriatic acid, 
 HCl (more properly termed hydrochloric acid) , which we know 
 to be a compound of hydrogen and chlorine. If we dissolve 
 a metal in muriatic acid, we tind that the acid, and not the 
 water is decomposed. Or turn muriatic acid upon soda, we 
 find that the action is not that of the acid combining with the 
 oxide, but that there is a double decomposition, which, accord- 
 ing to Davy, is represented thus : HCl HO + NaCl -\- jHO. 
 Proving that these bodies which are termed muriates should 
 be more properly named chlorides. 
 
 "VVe have only stated the fundamental principles of these 
 views as a general guide to the young dyer in his inquiries into 
 
196 THE AMEKICAX DTEE. 
 
 chemical science, and if he wishes to obtain more extended 
 information, he should study such works as Dumas's Lectures 
 upon Dyeing, Thomson, Graham, Wagner and others, who 
 have given this subject a great deal of attention and investi- 
 gation. It will ample repay any time and labor he may expend 
 upon it, as upon the proper understanding of the primary and 
 fundamental laws of affinity, in a great measure depends the 
 right application of chemical science to practical purposes, and 
 most especially in the various operations of dyeing. 
 
 Sulphuric Acid = H2SO4. 
 
 The sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol of commerce, is com- 
 posed of 81.5 parts of anhydrous sulphuric acid and 18 5 
 parts of water. There are in the market two distinct kinds 
 of this acid, — the fuming or Nordhausen sulphuric acid, and 
 the ordinary or common oil of vitriol. The Nordhausen de- 
 rives its name from the place where it is manufactured in 
 German}'. The method of preparing this kind of acid is very 
 old, and is still practised in Nordhausen. It is a very strong acid, 
 and has a dark color, and gives off a large amount of white 
 fumes, for which reason it is called fuming oil of vitriol. This 
 is the best acid of the two kinds for making sulphate of indigo, 
 or chemic. 
 
 At a red heat, all sulphates, except those of the alkaline 
 earths, are decomposed, for which reason they can be em- 
 ployed for manufacturing fuming sulphuric acid, but the 
 sulphate of iron (2Fe SO4) being cheaper than the other sul- 
 phates, it is mostly used in preparing fuming oil of vitriol. 
 By exposing this salt to a red heat, it will be decomposed into 
 anhydrous sulphuric acid and sulphurous acid (SOo). Anhy- 
 drous sulphuric acid (HO SO3) could be obtained from sul- 
 phate of iron, if the sulphate could be possibly procured 
 perfectly anhydrous, but as this is not possible to do without 
 decomposition, some water is always retained, the result being 
 the compound known as fuming sulphuric acid ; that is, a 
 mixture of anhydrous and common oil of vitriol (HO SO3). 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. ]97 
 
 The method of preparing fuming sulphuric acid is as fol- 
 lows : "The solution of sulphate of iron (2Fe SOJ is first 
 evaporated to dryness, and then dried in open vessels as 
 much as possible. The dry saline mass (vitriol stone it is 
 called in Germany) is next transferred to fire-clay fiasUs, 
 placed in a galley furnace, the necks of the flasks passing 
 through the wall of the furnace, and are properly fastened to 
 the necks of the receivers. Into each of these flasks two and 
 a half pounds of the vitriol stone are put; at the first applica- 
 tion only sulphurous acid and weak hydrated sulphuric acid 
 comes over, and is usually allowed to escape, the receivers 
 not being securely luted until white vapours of anhydrous 
 sulphuric acid are seen." "Into each of the receiving flasks 
 thirty grammes of water are poured, and the distillation con- 
 tinued for twenty-four or thirty-six hours. The retort-flasks 
 are then filled again with raw material, and the operation 
 repeated four times before the oil of vitriol is deemed suflB- 
 ciently strong. The residue in the retorts is red oxide 
 (peroxide of iron, Fcj O3) of iron, still retaining some sul- 
 phuric acid. The quantity of fuming acid obtained amounts 
 to forty-five or fifty per cent, of the weight of the deh3alrated 
 sulphate of iron employed. At Davidsthal, in Bohemia, 
 fourteen hundred weight of this vitriol stone will yield in 
 thirty-six hours five and a half hundred weight of fuming 
 sulphuric acid." 
 
 It is preferable to use sulphate of the peroxide of iron 
 instead of the protosulphate ; the sulphate of the peroxide can 
 be easily made by using the peroxide and the ordinary or 
 common oil of vitriol. Frequently the fuming acid is made 
 by passing anhydrous sulphuric acid obtained by calcining 
 perfectly deh3'drated protosulphate of iron, or, still l)etter, 
 the persulphate of iron, into common oil of vitriol. It is also 
 now and then made from the bisulphate of soda left after 
 making nitric acid from saltpetre. 
 
 The concentrated oil of vitriol is prepared, on a large scale, 
 in leaden chambers, and dates as far back as 1746. "Dr. 
 
198 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Roebuck of Birmingham, Eng., erected the first leaden cham- 
 ber in Edinburgh. Although the use of leaden chambers is 
 due to an Englishman, the present mode of manufacturing 
 sulphuric acid was invented by a calico-printer at Rouen, in 
 1774, and improved by the celebrated Chaptal." Many 
 methods have been suggested for manufacturing sulphuric 
 acid, but none have anywhere superseded the process gener- 
 ally adopted. We will mention a few only of the re-actions 
 upon which these methods are based. Persoz's method is 
 based upon the following re-actions : " First. Oxidation of 
 sulijhurous acid by means of nitric acid, the latter being 
 heated to 100° Fahr., and diluted with four to six times its 
 bulk of water. Second. The vapors of hyponitric acid are 
 again converted to nitric acid by the oxygen of the air and 
 steam. In this process, the leaden chambers are replaced by 
 a series of large earthenware bottles, called a Woulfe's appara- 
 tus." " Hahner's method is based on the oxidizing of sulphur- 
 ous acid with chlorine, care being taken that steam is present 
 at the time, and is thus expressed : — 
 
 Sulphurous acid SO j> , s„n„rie „eid. HOSO3. 
 
 Aqueous vapor, 2H O, ^ y.eld | jj d,.„^y„^i„ „^,ij pjc... 
 Chlonne, ^C\, J 
 
 Although enormous quantities of gypsum are found 
 native, all attempts to prepare sulphuric acid from this 
 mineral have failed, in an industrial point of view. The 
 composition of gypsum, or sulphate of lime, is as follows, in 
 one hundred parts : — 
 
 Sulphuric acid, SO3, (anhydrous,) 43 
 Lime, Ca, 33 
 
 Water, HO, 24 = 100 
 
 Sulphuric acid is one of the most important compounds of 
 sulphur. This acid is a corrosive substance, converting ani- 
 mal and vegetable matter into charcoal, the hydrogen and 
 nitrogen of these substances forming water, which combines 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 199 
 
 with the acid and leaves the carbon as charcoal. It is .the 
 only liquid that will combine with and dissolve indigo without 
 deoxidizing it, but to effect this it must be concentrated. 
 
 Sulphuric acid has great attraction for moisture. It will 
 combine intimately with water in any proportion, yet there 
 seems to be certain definite qualities that will combine with it 
 chemically. When water is added heat is evolved (this heat 
 is a definite quantity), and is accompanied by great condensa- 
 tion of bulk, as the dyer can convince himself by taking equal 
 quantities of strong oil of vitriol and water and mixing them, 
 when, after the mixture becomes cold, he will find a much 
 less quantity. The heat of this mixture, when first put 
 together, will reach the boiling-point, or 212°. 
 
 This acid will combine with alkalies, earths, and metals, 
 and the salts thus found are called sulphates of the particular 
 base to which it is united, — such as alum, copper, iron, and 
 lime. They are then called sulphate of alumina, sulphate of 
 copper, sulphate of iron, sulphate of lime, &c. Carboys con- 
 taining oil of vitriol, muriatic, and nitric acids should be kept 
 well corked, or stopped up, as they all absorb moisture very 
 readily when exposed to the atmosphere. 
 
 We will here insert a few of Fesquet's experiments upon 
 the amount of condensation and heat given out, which were 
 performed with a common thermometer and alkaliineter. 
 These experiments were on sulphuric acid ; — 
 
 Measures of 
 
 Measures of 
 
 Heat when 
 
 Increase of 
 
 Loss by 
 
 water. 
 
 acid. 
 
 mi-xed. 
 
 heat. 
 
 condensation. 
 
 90 
 
 10 
 
 86° 
 
 40° 
 
 5 
 
 80 
 
 20 
 
 116 
 
 70 
 
 7 
 
 70 
 
 30 
 
 154 
 
 108 
 
 8 
 
 60 
 
 30 
 
 188 
 
 142 
 
 H 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 210 
 
 164 
 
 11 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 212 
 
 166 
 
 11 
 
 30 
 
 70 
 
 164 
 
 154 
 
 9 
 
 20 
 
 80 
 
 136 
 
 118 
 
 H 
 
 10 
 
 90 
 
 — 
 
 90 
 
 7 
 
• 200 THE A]MERICA]Sr DYER. 
 
 ".The above was the mean of three trials ; the proportions 
 of acid and water were taken to make 100 graduations. The 
 heat was observed immediately after mixing, and the mixture 
 was kept in a stopped bottle until cold, when it was measured 
 by the alkalimeter, and the loss by condensation noted. 
 
 " The heat of the water and acid separately was 46° Fahr. 
 The acid used had a specific gravity of 1.795, taken by 
 Twaddle. 
 
 " Another proof that water and sulphuric acid form a defi- 
 nite compound is, that when the acid has the specific gravity 
 of 1.78, the composition is SOJI + HO. This, at a tempera- 
 ture of 32° will crystallize in large and regular crystals, 
 while stronger or weaker acid, at the same temperature, will 
 not crystallize." 
 
 Dyers often complain of their acids being weak, and charge 
 the manufacturer of them with making poor acids, when in 
 fact it is their own fault ; by their carelessness in leaving the 
 carboys unstopped, they allow the acid to absorb moisture 
 from the atmosphere, causing it become diluted. Let any 
 one place a cup half full of oil of vitriol exposed to the atmos- 
 phere, and he will be astonished at the short time it takes for 
 the cup to become full. 
 
 "The impurities of sulphuric acid are lead, nitric acid, 
 arsenic, and sulphate of potash ; the potash is used to give 
 the acid density. Sulphate of potash or soda can be detected 
 in oil of vitriol by putting a few drops of the acid into a 
 small earthen basin and saturating it with ammonia ; then 
 evaporate it to dryness and apply a strong heat to it until all 
 the white fumes of sulphate of ammonia cease rising, and if 
 the acid is pure there will be nothing left. 
 
 " Lead can be detected in the acid by adding a little dis- 
 tilled water to it, and if lead is present it is converted into a 
 sulphate of lead, and is not soluble in diluted acid ; so by 
 adding water to sulphuric acid that contains lead there will 
 be produced a milkiness in the solution, which shows the 
 presence t)f lead. If nitric acid is present it can be detected 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 201 
 
 by taking a good bright crystal of copperas and suspend it in 
 the acid and apply heat. A black ring will form around the 
 crystal of copperas, or you will perceive the smell of per- 
 oxide of nitrogen, if nitric acid is present in the oil of 
 vitriol." 
 
 The most highly concentrated sulphuric acid contains 
 18.46 per cent, of water; its formula, HOSO3 ; specific 
 gravity, 1.848. In a perfectly pure state it is a colorless 
 liquid, but it is generally more or less yellow or brown 
 colored, owing to the presence of organic matter. The 
 boiling point of highly concentrated oil of vitriol is 338° 
 Fahr. 
 
 The uses of sulphuric acid are so numerous that it would 
 be impossible to name all of them, sulphuric acid being 
 to chemical industry what iron is to the mechanical. Sul- 
 phuric acid is employed in preparing a great many other 
 acids, such as nitric, muriatic, sulphurous, carbonic, phos- 
 phoric, tartaric, and citric acid. It is also used in making 
 soda, superphosphates, sulphate of ammonia, alum, sulphates 
 of copper and iron ; in refining paraffine, petroleum, and 
 silver; for the manufacturing of garancine, garanceux, and 
 other madder preparations. It is used by the dyer in making 
 sulphate of indigo (chemic) with muriatic acid as a solvent 
 for tin in making the solution of murio-sulphate of tin. 
 
 " The following table gives the quantity of anhydrous sul- 
 phuric acid contained in sulphuric acid at 15.5 C. : — 
 
 Hydratcil 
 
 Specific gravity. 
 
 Anhydrous 
 
 Hydrated 
 
 Specific gravity. 
 
 Anhydrous 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 
 
 
 Acid. 
 
 Sulphuric Acid. 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 1.8485 
 
 81. .54 
 
 93 
 
 1.8290 
 
 75.83 
 
 99 
 
 1.8475 
 
 80.72 
 
 92 
 
 1.8233 
 
 75.02 
 
 98 
 
 1.8460 
 
 79.yo 
 
 91 
 
 1.8179 
 
 74.20 
 
 97 
 
 1.8439 
 
 79.09 
 
 90 
 
 1.8115 
 
 73.39 
 
 96 
 
 1.8410 
 
 78.28 
 
 89 
 
 1.8043 
 
 72.57 
 
 95 
 
 1.8376 
 
 77.40 
 
 88 
 
 1.7962 
 
 71.75 
 
 94 
 
 1.8336 
 
 76.G5 
 
 87 
 
 1.7870 
 
 70.94 
 
 26 
 
202 
 
 THE A3IERICAN DYER. 
 
 Hydrated 
 
 
 Anhydrous 
 
 Hydrated 
 
 
 Anhydrous 
 
 Snlpharic Acid. 
 
 Specific gravity. 
 
 Acid. 
 
 Sulphuric Acid. 
 
 Specific gravity. 
 
 Acid. 
 
 86 
 
 1.7774 
 
 70.12 
 
 69 
 
 1..5868 
 
 57.26 
 
 85 
 
 1.7673 
 
 69.31 
 
 68 
 
 1.5760 
 
 55.45 
 
 84 
 
 1.7570 
 
 68.49 1 
 
 67 
 
 1.5648 
 
 54.63 
 
 83 
 
 1.7465 
 
 67.68 
 
 66 
 
 1.. 5.503 
 
 53.82 
 
 82 
 
 1.7360 
 
 66.86 
 
 1 65 
 
 1.5390 
 
 53.00 
 
 81 
 
 1.7245 
 
 66.05 
 
 64 
 
 1.5280 
 
 52.18 
 
 80 
 
 1.7120 
 
 65.23 
 
 63 
 
 1.5170 
 
 51.37 
 
 79 
 
 1.6993 
 
 64.42 
 
 62 
 
 1..5066 
 
 50.55 
 
 78 
 
 1.6870 
 
 63.60 
 
 61 
 
 1.4960 
 
 49.74 
 
 77 
 
 1.6750 
 
 62.78 
 
 60 
 
 1.4860 
 
 48.92 
 
 76 
 
 1.6630 
 
 61.97 1 
 
 i 59 
 
 1.4760 
 
 48.11 
 
 75 
 
 1.6520 
 
 61.15 
 
 1 58 
 
 1.4660 
 
 47.29 
 
 74 
 
 1.6415 
 
 60.34 
 
 ; 57 
 
 1.4.560 
 
 46..58 
 
 73 
 
 1.6321 
 
 59.-55 ! 
 
 56 
 
 1.4460 
 
 45.68 
 
 72 
 
 1.6204 
 
 58.71 1 
 
 55 
 
 1.4360 
 
 44.85 
 
 71 
 
 1.6090 
 
 57.89 J 
 
 54 
 
 1.426.5- 
 
 45.03 
 
 70 
 
 1.5975 
 
 67.08 ! 
 
 1 
 
 53 
 
 1.4170 
 
 43.22 
 
 The composition of hj'drated sulphuric acid of the specific 
 gravity of 1.845 (1.8485, Ure) consists of 1 equivalent of 
 dry acid, 40, and 1 equivalent of water, 9 = 49. As the water 
 acts the part of a base, the proper name of it would be sul- 
 phate of water, its formula being HOSOg. The dry acid 
 consists of 1 equivalent of sulphur, 16, and 3 equivalents of 
 oxygen, 24 =: 40, as above stated. The ordinary com- 
 mercial acid (specific gravity, 1.8433) consists, according to 
 Phillips, of 1 equivalent of dry acid, and 1^ equivalents of 
 water. The hydrated Nordhausen acid has a density as high 
 1.89, and consists of 2 equivalents of dry acid, and 1 equiva- 
 lent of water (HO, 2 SO3). 
 
 Sulphuric acid, commonly called oil of vitriol, is a dense, 
 colorless, inodorous liquid, and strongly corrosive, and upon 
 living tissues it acts as a powerful caustic. It contains water, 
 which is essential to its existence. It unites with water in all 
 proportions, and great heat is evolved on mixture of the two 
 fluids. If its density exceeds 1.8485 it contains lead or other 
 impurities ; at the above density it contains 18 per cent, of 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 203 
 
 water; at a density of 1.8433 it contains 22 per cent, of 
 water; it boils at 620°, and freezes at 15° below zero. The 
 usual impurities in this acid are the sulphates of potash and 
 lead. The former impurity is" derived from the residue of 
 the process ; the latter, from the leaden boilers in which it is 
 concentrated. Occasionally nitre is added, to give it density, 
 and to render dark-colored acid colorless. These impurities 
 often amount to three or four per cent. The commercial acid 
 cannot be expected to be absolutely pure, but when it is 
 properly manufactured it should not contain more than one- 
 fourth of one per cent, of impurity. If sulphate of lead is 
 present, the acid will become turbid, if it is diluted with an 
 equal weight of water. 
 
 Hydrochloric AciDmHCl, or Muriatic Apm. 
 
 This acid has been known from an early period in history 
 by the name of marine acid, spirits of salt, &c. It is a 
 gaseous substance, and very soluble in water, in w^iich con- 
 dition it is employed. This gas is produced by the decompo- 
 sition of common salt and sulphuric acid, and in order to 
 effect its condensation, the gas is conveyed to coke columns ; 
 but in most instances the gas is prepared and condensed by 
 the aid of several cast-iron furnaces, fitted up similar to gas- 
 retorts, with lids luted with clay. One of these lids is pro- 
 vided with an opening, so as to fit in the stone-ware or lead 
 pipe that leads to the condensing jars ; the gas passes through 
 this pipe into the jars ; these jars contain water for the absorp- 
 tion of the gas, and are called a Woulfe's apparatus. There 
 is another lid to these retorts, at the end, with an opening in 
 it ; in this opening is a lead funnel attached, so that after the 
 retort is filled with the proper amount of salt, sulphuric acid 
 may then be poured in. 
 
 There are generally two retorts, and they are so constructed 
 that the fire can play around them before reaching the flue or 
 chimne}^: The first operation is to fill these retorts with the 
 quantity of salt required. The lids or covers are then luted 
 
204 
 
 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 on and the fire kindled. The required amount of strong sul- 
 phuric acid is now poured into the retort through the funnel, 
 then the funnel is taken out and the hole is closed with clay. 
 As soon as the re-action is over the sulphate of soda produced 
 by the acid and salt is taken from the retorts and the opera- 
 tion is again repeated. The condensation apparatus consists 
 of rows of Woulfe's bottles or jars, partly filled with water; 
 care is taken that the first pair of jars is placed in a tank of 
 cold water. The condensation of the last portion of the 
 hydrochloric acid gas is effected by the aid of coke columns 
 or in leaden chambers, into which fine jets of cold water are 
 injected on all sides of the column or leaden chambers. Com- 
 mercial muriatic acid has a yellow color, the color being due 
 to chloride of iron : the taste of this acid is a caustic sour, 
 and it furpes by being exposed to the atmosphere ; when pure 
 it is colorless, and strong sunshine will decompose it. For 
 the above reasons it should be kept in a dark place and well 
 stopped up; all substances that it comes in contact with 
 rapidly corrode, and its fumes will destroy colors. When this 
 acid is exposed to the atmosphere it emits white fumes, which 
 is muriatic-acid gas with a little watery vapor ; therefore 
 exposure will weaken the acid, and ought to be avoided as 
 much as possible. Water is capable of absorbing 475 times 
 its own bulk of hydrochloric-acid gas, and a saturated solution 
 contains 42.85 per cent, of gas, the specific gravity being 
 1.21. The table below will show the specific gravity of this 
 acid at its various degrees of concentration, and the amount 
 of pure acid (real gas) contained at 70°. 
 
 Specific 
 
 DeKrees 
 
 Degrees 
 
 Percentage 
 
 Specific 
 
 Degrees 
 
 Degrees 
 
 Percentage 
 
 gravity. 
 
 Baume. 
 
 Twaddle. 
 
 of Acid. 
 
 gravity. 
 
 Baume, 
 
 Twaddle. 
 
 of Acid. 
 
 1.21 
 
 26 
 
 42 
 
 42.85 
 
 1.17 
 
 22 
 
 34 
 
 34.34 
 
 1.20 
 
 25 
 
 .40 
 
 40.80 
 
 1.16 
 
 21 
 
 32 
 
 32.32 
 
 1.19 
 
 24 
 
 38 
 
 38.88 
 
 1.15 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 30.30 
 
 1.18 
 
 23 
 
 36 
 
 36.36 
 
 1.14 
 
 19 
 
 28 * 
 
 28.28 
 
THE AMERICAX DYER. 
 
 205 
 
 Specific 
 
 Degrees 
 
 Degrees 
 
 Percentage 
 
 Specific 
 
 Degrees 
 
 Degrees 
 
 Percentage 
 
 gravity. 
 
 Baume. 
 
 Twaddle. 
 
 of Acid. 
 
 gravity. 
 
 Baume. 
 
 Twaddle. 
 
 of Acid. 
 
 1.13 
 
 18 
 
 2G 
 
 26.26 
 
 1.06 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 12.12 
 
 1.12 
 
 17 
 
 24 
 
 24.24 
 
 1.05 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 10.10 
 
 1.11 
 
 15.5 
 
 22 
 
 22.22 
 
 1.04 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 8.08 
 
 1.10 
 
 14.5 
 
 20 
 
 20.20 
 
 1.03 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 6.06 
 
 1.09 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 18.18 
 
 1.02 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4.04 
 
 1.08 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 16.16 
 
 1.01 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2.02 
 
 1.07 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 14.14 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 - 
 
 This acid is very largely employed for the manufacturing 
 of sal-ammoniac, phosphorus, chloride of antimony, glue, 
 and chlorine, for the preparation of carbonic acid, for the 
 manufacture of artificial mineral waters ; it is also employed 
 in bleach-works, hydro-metallurgy, in beet-root sugar works, 
 and, mixed with nitric acid, to form aqua regia, for dissolving 
 various metals. The principal use made of this acid by the 
 woolen-dyer is to prepare the tin solutions, such as the muri- 
 ate of tin, nitro-muriate, and sulpho-muriate of tin. This 
 acid in its purity is colorless, exposure to light changes it to 
 a yellow color, and strong sunshine decomposes it. Some- 
 times salt, also sulphuric acid, is added to this acid, to give it 
 weight and density. The salt may be detected by evaporat- 
 ing some of the acid in a saucer ; if salt is present there will 
 be a white residue left; if iron is present in the acid, by 
 evaporating as above there will be a brown residue left. 
 
 jMuriatic-acid gas is a colorless elastic fluid, possessing a 
 pungent odor, and the property of irritating the organs of 
 respiration. It destroys life and extinguishes flame. It red- 
 dens litmus very powerfully, and has the other properties of a 
 strong acid. 
 
 Its specific gravity is 1.2*^9. When this acid is subjected 
 to a pressure of forty atmospheres, at a temperature of 50°, 
 it is condensed into a transparent liquid, to which alone the 
 
20G 
 
 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 name of liquid muriatic acid belongs. Water, at a tempera- 
 ture of 611°, takes up 464 times its bulk of this gas, increasing 
 its bulk one-third and about three-fourths in weight. 
 
 Muriatic gas consist of 1 equivalent of chlorine, 35.5, and 
 1 equivalent of hydrogen, 1:=:30.5, or of one volume of 
 chlorine and one of hydrogen united together without con- 
 densation. 
 
 Table of the Quantity of Aqueous Muriatic Acid of Specific Gravity 
 1.2 of Muriatic Acid Gas, and of Chlorine in 100 parts of 
 Aqueous Acid of different densities. 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity. 
 
 Aqueous 
 
 Acid of 
 
 .Sp.Gr. 1.2. 
 
 Acid Gas. 
 
 Clilorine. 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity. 
 
 Aqueous 
 
 Acid of 
 
 Sp.Gr. 1.2. 
 
 Acid Gas. 
 
 Chlurine. 
 
 1.2000 
 
 100 
 
 40.777 
 
 89. 
 
 1.1102 
 
 55 
 
 21.822 
 
 22.426 
 
 1.1910 
 
 95 
 
 38.788 
 
 87. 
 
 1.1000 
 
 50 
 
 20.888 
 
 19.887 
 
 1.1822 
 
 90 
 
 36.700 
 
 35. 
 
 1.0899 
 
 45 
 
 18.848 
 
 17.854 
 
 1.1721 
 
 85 
 
 34.660 
 
 33. 
 
 1.0798 
 
 40 
 
 16.310 
 
 15.870 
 
 1.1701 
 
 84 
 
 34.252 
 
 33. 
 
 1.0697 
 
 35 
 
 14.271 
 
 13.887 
 
 1.1620 
 
 80 
 
 32.621 
 
 31. 
 
 1 .0597 
 
 30 
 
 12.283 
 
 1 1 .903 
 
 • 1.1599 
 
 79 
 
 32.213 
 
 31. 
 
 1.0497 
 
 25 
 
 10.194 
 
 9.919 
 
 1.1615 
 
 75 
 
 30.582 
 
 29. 
 
 1.0897 
 
 20 
 
 8.155 
 
 7.985 
 
 1.1419 
 
 70 
 
 28.544 
 
 27. 
 
 1.0298 
 
 15 
 
 6.116 
 
 5.951 
 
 1.1308 
 
 65 
 
 26.504 
 
 25. 
 
 1.0200 
 
 10 
 
 4.078 
 
 3.968 
 
 1.1206 
 
 60 
 
 24.466 
 
 23. 
 
 1.0100 
 
 5 
 
 2.039 
 
 1.984 
 
 Nitric AciD^rHNOg. 
 
 This is an acid that abundantly exists in nature in combina- 
 tion with other substances forming nitrates. Nitric acid is 
 manufactured from either nitrate of potash or nitrate of soda, 
 but at the present time it is prepared from the nitrate of soda 
 mostly, as it is cheaper and gives more density to the acid ; 
 consequently it will be of a higher specific gravity. To prove 
 this, it has been found that one hundred pounds of nitrate of 
 soda will produce eighty-two pounds of nitric acid, while one 
 hundred pounds of nitrate of potash produces but sixty- 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 207 
 
 eight pounds, and it takes less sulphuric acid with soda than 
 with potash. With potash it takes two equivalents of sul- 
 phuric acid, whereas less suffices with nitrate of soda. 
 
 The nitrate of potash or soda is placed in an iron retort, 
 and heat is applied, and sulphuric acid is added to it by means 
 of a tunnel connected with the retort, and the acid vapors are 
 allowed to distil over through earthen pipes into glazed 
 earthen flasks or jars, which are called receivers ; it is then 
 re-distilled in glass retorts and placed in a sand-bath, with heat 
 applied under the sand-bath. The next process is the 
 bleaching of the acid. The acid is usually of a yellaw color, 
 which is due to the presence of hyponitric acid, and if a 
 colorless acid is wanted it must go through the bleaching 
 process ; but a description of the operation is too lengthy 
 to insert here, and if given would be of no advantage to the 
 dyer. This bleaching is only done when a pure acid is wanted, 
 and then it has to go through a condensation process after the 
 bleaching. There have been improvements made in the man- 
 ufacture of nitric acid, especially bearing on a possibility of 
 doing away with the process of bleaching and a better method 
 of condensing the acid vapors, but these improvements have 
 not been adopted. Ail practical chemists are well aware that 
 the red vapors will appear only at the beginning and towards 
 the end of the distillation of the nitric acid, and it is there- 
 fore only requisite to distil the acid fractionally to obtain on 
 the one hand a red-colored acid (the acidiwn nitroso-nitricum 
 of the pharmaceutists), and on the other hand to obtain a 
 colorlet^s acid which can be readily delivered to the market. 
 
 The nitric acid of commerce is generally of a very light- 
 brown color, which is owing to a little peroxide of nitrogen 
 that it contains. 
 
 The following table was made out by Sir H. Davy, giving 
 the proportions of nitrous gas contained in nitric acid accord- 
 ing to the shade of color. Thus, in one hundred parts : — 
 
208 
 
 THE A:^rEKICAN DYER. 
 
 COLOR. 
 
 Real Acid. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Peroxide 
 of Nitrogen. 
 
 A pale yellow has 
 
 90.5 
 
 8.3 
 
 1.2 
 
 A Ijritrht vellow has 
 
 88.9 
 
 8.1 
 
 2.9 
 
 A dark orange has . . . • . 
 
 86.8 
 
 7.6 
 
 5.5 
 
 A light olive has 
 
 86.0 
 
 7.5 
 
 6.1 
 
 A dark olive has 
 
 85.4 
 
 7.5 
 
 7.4 
 
 A bright green has . . 
 
 84.8 
 
 7.4 
 
 7.7 
 
 A blue green has 
 
 84.6 
 
 7.4 
 
 8.0 
 
 This table must have been the result of experiments upon 
 strong acid only, for the color will be changed by dilution. 
 If we should add w^'iter to an acid of a dark orange color, it 
 would soon change to a yellowish green. The sun also 
 changes the color of this acid, which is due to the decomposi- 
 tion of the acid, and the liberating of peroxide of nitrogen. 
 "NYe can try the effects of light upon this acid, by taking some of 
 the colorless nitric acid, and placing it in the raj's of the sun. 
 After a short time we can observe the change. This experi- 
 ment will show the necessity of keeping it in a dark place. 
 The carboys should also be kept stopped up, so that it will 
 not be exposed to the atmosphere, as, when so exposed, it 
 loses its strength very rapidly. 
 
 Nitric acid, of 1.52 specific gravity, boils at 86° F. 
 
 of 1.50 
 of 1.42 
 of 1.42 
 of 1.40 
 of 1.35 
 of 1.30 
 of 1.20 
 of 1.15 
 
 at 99° " 
 at 115° " 
 at 123° «« 
 at 119° " 
 at 117° " 
 at 113° " 
 at 108° " 
 at 104° ".' 
 
 There is a fuming nitric acid, prepared by using one part 
 of nitrate of potash, KNO3 (saltpetre) , and one part of oil of 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 209 
 
 vitriol. From this mixture there is obtained a redtlish-yellow 
 fluid, which consists of a mixture of nitric and hyponitric 
 acids, and is known hy the name of fuming nitric acid. 
 When equal parts of nitrate of potash and sulphuric acid arc 
 taken, there is but one-half the nitric acid expelled, while the 
 other half is decomposed into hyponitric acid and oxygen. 
 The hyponitric combines with the nitric acid, thus forming the 
 fumine: acid. But when manufacturing nitric acid from nitrate 
 of soda, by decomposition, there are two parts of sulphuric acid 
 used to one part of the soda. By this method, all the nitric 
 acid contained in these salts is obtained, and what remains in 
 the retorts is bisulphate of soda. When soda is used, it is on 
 account of its easy decomposition by sulphuric acid ; but it is 
 not necessary to use two parts of sulphuric acid to one of soda, 
 for one and one-fourth to one and one-half parts of sulphuric acid 
 have been found to be practically enough. This fuming acid 
 is,' at the present time, .prepared by adding to common nitric 
 acid such substances as will easily etfect the decomposition of 
 the acid. Sulphur has frequently been made use of for this pur- 
 pose. Starch, however, is generally used. The following 
 recipe for manufacturing fuming nitric acid was made use of 
 by M. C. Brunner, and called Brunner's recipe : To one hun- 
 dred parts of saltpetre, three and a half parts of starch are 
 added. These are put into a large retort, into which is poured 
 one hundred parts of strong sulphuric acid, sp. gr. =1,850. 
 The distillation usually sets in without the assistance of heat ; 
 but towards the close of the operation, heat has to be gently 
 applied. In this manner one hundred parts of saltpetre are 
 made to produce about sixty parts of fuming nitric acid. The 
 impurities in nitric acid are generally iron, sulphuric and 
 muriatic acids, and nitre is used to give it density, and cause 
 its specific gravity to be greater than it really is. 
 
 The general test for nitric acid in the dye-house is the 
 
 hydrometer, but density is given by adding to the acid nitre, 
 
 sulphuric and muriatic acids ; and in order to find out these 
 
 impurities, we must test them by some other way than by the 
 
 27 
 
210 THE AMEEICAX DYEK. 
 
 hydrometer. Nitre may be detected very easily, by taking a 
 little of the acid and evaporating it to dryness, and if the acid 
 is pure, there will be no residuum left. If it contains oil of 
 vitriol, it may be discovered by taking some of the acid, and 
 adding four times the amount of distilled water to it ; then to 
 this add a few drops from a solution of l)arytes, and if it con- 
 tains any sulphuric acid, the barytes will cause a wiiite pre- 
 cipitation to take place. 
 
 Muriatic acid and chlorine can be detected by diluting some 
 of the acid ; then add a trifle of nitrate of silver. The result 
 will be a white precipitation if muriatic acid is present in the 
 nitric acid. Iron is detected by evaporating a little of the 
 acid. There will be a brown-colored substance left if there is 
 iron in the acid ; or, by adding some gall-water to the acid, a 
 blfiish-black color will then show in the acid and gall-water, if 
 iron is present in the acid. 
 
 The specific gravity of nitric acid . ranges from 1.422 to 
 .1.550, and it contains from seventy-six to one hundred parts of 
 acid in one huudred parts. The technical application of nitric 
 acid is based on its property of oxidation when in contact with 
 certain substances, the acid splitting up into dentoxide of 
 nitrogen, hyponitric acid, and azone, the latter forming with 
 the body which causes the decomposition of the acid, either 
 an oxide or a peculiar compound ; while the hyponitric acid, 
 when organic substances are present capable of combining 
 with it, forms the nitro compounds, such as nitro-benzole, 
 nitro-uaphthaline, nitro-glycerine, and nitro-cellulose, or gun- 
 cotton. Silk, wool, feathers, horn, and the skin of the hands 
 will be stained yellow by nitric acid, for which reason it is 
 used to color silk yellow. If the acid is in contact with the 
 above substances for any length of time, they will be com- 
 pletely decomposed, and partially converted into picric acid. 
 Starch and sugar are converted into oxalic acid by the action 
 of nitric acid ; but a very dilute nitric acid will convert starch 
 into dextrine, or British gum. 
 
 This acid acts violently upon indigo. It discharges its 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 211 
 
 color, for which reason it is employed in calico-printing to 
 produce a yellow pattern on an indigo ground. It is used in 
 woolen-dyeing, for making nitro-muriate of tin, and, in a 
 diluted state, it is used for a discharge in woolen-printing, all 
 the vegetable colors being changed by its action to a yellow. 
 
 Nitric acid is used in hat-making, to prepare a mercurial 
 solution for dressing felt hats. It is used for the preparation 
 of nitrate of iron, a mordant for dyeing silk black; also for 
 cotton-yarn dyeing. It is employed to prepare picric acid 
 from carbolic acid, and naphthaline-yellow from naphthaline. 
 It is used in manufacturing nitro-benzole, nitro-toluol, and 
 phthalic acid, and for the preparation of nitrate of silver, 
 arsenic acid, fulminate of mercury, nitro-glycerine, &c. 
 
 Nitric acid is one of the five compounds formed be- 
 tween nitrogen and oxygeu. These five compounds are : 
 Nitrous oxide (or laughing gas), NO; nitric oxide, NO2 ; 
 nitrous acid (formerly hyponitrous acid), NO^ ; hyponitric acid 
 (formerly nitrous acid), NO* ; and nitric acid, NO5; or thus : 
 
 NO, nitrous oxide. 
 NO2, nitric oxide. 
 NO3, nitrous acid. 
 NO4, hyponitric acid. 
 NO5, nitric acid. 
 
 The formulas, according to Berzelius, for the differeiit nitric 
 acids, are as follows : — 
 
 Nitric acid, NO'. 
 
 Monohydrated (or nitrate of water), HO, NO5. 
 
 Quadrihydrated (sp. gr. 1.42), HO, NOj+SHO. 
 
 The monohydrated nitric acid is the strongest that can be 
 procured. Nitric acid was discovered by Raymond L\illy, 
 about the middle of the thirteenth century, and its constituents 
 by Cavendish, in 1784. Nitric acid is said to be present 
 
212 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 always in the air of summer. The quadrihydrated nitric acid 
 is what is used by physicians and apothecaries, 
 
 NiTito-MuRiATic Acid or Aqua Regia— NO2 Cl^, or NO2 CI. 
 
 This acid is the aqua regia of the earlier chemists, and was 
 so called from its property pf dissolving gold. When nitric 
 and muriatic acids are mixed together, they will mutually 
 decompose each other, and according to the researches of Gay 
 Lussac, the re-action of the two acids gives rise to two com- 
 pounds, in variable proportions of nitric oxide and chlorine 
 (NO2 CI2, and NO2 CI), mixed with free chlorine, the nitric 
 oxide and chlorine being analogous in constitution to hyponi- 
 tric acid (NO4), and the free chlorine mixed with the nitrous 
 acid is analogous to nitrous acid (NO3). 
 
 The power of nitro- muriatic acid to dissolve gold and simi- 
 lar metals that have a weak affinity for oxygen, is owing en- 
 tirely to the free chlorine which is present in the mixture, 
 and is in no way dependent upon the two compounds above 
 referred to, as they remain entirely passive during the dis- 
 solving of the gold. The proportions of the acids mixed to 
 produce aqua regia, according to the above chemical theory, 
 would be two equivalents of nitric to six equivalents of muri- 
 atic acid, in order to have them entirely and mutually decom- 
 pose each other, and the products would be the two compounds 
 named above (nitric oxide and chlorine, free chlorine and 
 water) . • Most dyers, when preparing their nitro-muriatic acid 
 for dissolving tin, use one equivalent of nitric to three equiv- 
 alents of muriatic acid, and one equivalent of nitric to six 
 equivalents of muriatic acid ; then add from one and one-half 
 to two ounces of granulated tin to the pound of the mixed 
 acid. 
 
 The United States standard formula for making aqua regia, 
 is three equivalents of nitric to six equivalents of muriatic 
 acid. If we assume that the proportions given by Lussac are 
 correct, it follows that there is an excess of nitric acid era- 
 ployed in the United States formula. And according to the 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 218 
 
 same views, the proportion of free chlorine must be variable, 
 dependent upon the relative proportion of the nitric oxide 
 compounds to each other. 
 
 For every equivalent of NO.j CI., formed, one equivalent of 
 chlorine will be set free ; and for every equivalent of NO., CI, 
 two equivalents of chlorine will be evolved. Gay Lussac has 
 not given us the precise circumstances that determine the 
 simultaneous formation of the two nitric-oxide compounds 
 alluded to above, neither has he pointed out to us their con- 
 stant varying proportion to each other. 
 
 Nitro-muriatic acid is of a golden-yellow color, and has the 
 smell of chlorine. In preparing this compound, the operator 
 must not hold his head over the vessel containing it any length 
 of time, as the fumes from it are very injurious. The solu- 
 tion, when first put together, emits a great amount of nitrous 
 gas. 
 
 The solution of nitro-muriate of tin, should have a fine 
 amber-yellow color, when to be used for coloring scarlets, 
 but for yellows and crimson shades, it will do to have it a 
 browner-yellow color, which color is brought about by having 
 more tin added to the acids. (See article, nitro-muriate of tin.) 
 
 Oxalic Acid =0203. 
 This acid was formerly known as salts of sorrel, and was 
 obtained from a plant, but now it is prepared from sugar and 
 starch, by the actions of nitric acid on these two articles. To 
 obtain this acid, one part of sugAr, two parts of starch, four 
 parts of nitric acid, and two parts of water, are put into a 
 retort, when a violent action takes place; the nitric acid de- 
 composes and oxidates the sugar and starch, red fumes are 
 ernitted, which show the presence of nitrous acid (NO3) ; 
 the solution in the retort is then evaporated to about two-thirds 
 of the original amount ; the crystals form as the solution cools ; 
 they are white-colored. These crystals are again dissolved, 
 and evaporated the second time. Oxalic acid is also manu- 
 factured from caustic soda and sawdust. 
 
214 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Oxalic acid combines with different bases, and forms salts 
 of various kinds, that are of great importance. In the labora- 
 tory, it is easily known from the alkaline or earthy salts. 
 Oxalic acid often contains peroxide of nitrogen (NO^), and 
 Epsom salts. To detect the presence of the nitrogen in this 
 acid, dissolve a small amount of the suspected acid, and add 
 to the solution the smallest possible quantity of sulphate of 
 indigo. If nitrogen is present, the indigo will be discolored. 
 If it contains Epsom salts, you can detect it by heating some 
 of the acids to redness upon a piece of platinum, and if it 
 contains no Epsom salts, it all evaporates ; otherwise it will 
 leave a residue of a yellowish-looking substance upon the 
 platinum. Epsom salts can also be detected by chjoride of 
 barium. There is often from three to seven per cent, of 
 Epsom salt, and sometimes more, in the oxalic acid now in 
 the market. 
 
 "Commercial oxalic acid is frequently rendered impure by 
 the presence of oxalate of lime and oxalate of potash. When 
 it is desirable to remove these impurities, and prepare a per- 
 fectly pure article, it can be done in the following manner: 
 Crude oxalic acid is dissolved in the least possible quantity of 
 hot absolute alcohol, in which salts of lime and potash are 
 insoluble, and then filtered. In a few hours the oxalic acid 
 crystallizes out nearly pure, and the mother-liquor may be 
 employed for making oxalate of ammonia, or for dissolving a 
 fresh portion of the crude acid. The crystals thus formed 
 are allowed to drain, and are then dissolved in boiling dis- 
 tilled water, which removes any adhering oxalic ether, and 
 leaves the acid perfectly pure." 
 
 "To prepare pure oxalate of ammonia, the alcoholic mother- 
 liquor is diluted, either with fresh water or with the aqueous 
 mother-liquor, from the oxalic acid crystals. It is heated to 
 boiling and neutralized with ammonia. In this operation, 
 much oxaraid and oxamethan are formed, but they can be 
 easily decomposed by acidifying the salt solution and boiling 
 for a considerable time; after which it is filtered, and the fil- 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 21.') 
 
 tnite rendered slightly ammoiiiacal, and allowed to crystal- 
 lize. By cr\^stallization, the oxalate is obtained pure and 
 white." — Chemical llevieio. 
 
 Oxalate of potash (KO, C2O3). This salt is prepared by 
 saturating the carbonate of potash (pearlash) with oxalic 
 acid, and evaporated to crystallization. It contains one pro- 
 portion of water. 
 
 Oxalate of copper (CujCjOg). This salt is prepared by 
 digesting oxide of copper (Cii, O) in a- solution of oxalic acid. 
 This salt is of a light-green color. 
 
 Oxalic acid is used more than formerly, and can be used 
 on more than one-half the colors now dyed upon wool, as it 
 will combine with all the dyestuffs, and will add intensity to 
 the color, besides giving it a more brilliant hue. It is used 
 largely in coloring logwood blue on wool and woolen fabrics. 
 It has been lately introduced in the coloring of scarlets and 
 oranges ; its particular use or benefit in these colors is, that 
 it will prevent the wool from turning brown by the action of 
 its sulphur on the tin contained in the spirits, as the tin can- 
 not precipitate as a sulphide where oxalic acid is present. 
 Oxalic acid is composed of carbon and oxygen, having a pro- 
 portion of the second element between those contained in 
 carbonic oxide and carbonic acid. It therefore contains 12 
 parts of carbon and 24 of oxygen, or 2 parts of carbon and 3 
 parts of oxygen, making its prime equivalent = 36. 
 
 There are some manufjicturers of oxalic acid who, it is said, 
 obtain oxalic acid on a large scale by heating a mixture of 112 
 lbs. of sugar, .560 lbs. of saltpetre, and 280 lbs. of sulphuric 
 acid, thus producing 135 lbs. of oxalic acid, and 490 lbs. of 
 sal-enixum. 
 
 There are many substances besides sugar that yield oxalic 
 acid, by the action of nitric acid ; for instance, rice, gum, 
 wool, hair, silk, starch, potatoes, molasses, and numerous 
 vegetable acids. Certain organic substances will yield this 
 acid when heated with potash. Wood shavings and sawdust, 
 if mixed with a solution of caustic potash, and exposed to a 
 
216 THE A3IEPJCAX DYEK. 
 
 heat above 212° Fahr., will be partially decomposed and con- 
 verted into oxalic acid ; and, at the present time, a large 
 amount of the commercial oxalic acid is produced by heating 
 caustic potash and soda Avith sawdust. As soda alone will* 
 not generate the acid, and potash being too costly to use alone 
 for the purpose of generating the acid, Mr. Dale ascertained 
 that by mixing 2 equivalents of soda to 1 of potash, the same 
 result was obtained as would be if potash alone was used with 
 the sawdust. 
 
 Oxalic acid is a colorless crystal, and has a strong sour 
 taste. The crystals are slender, flattened, five-sided prisms ; 
 they will sublime at 180° Fahr., and do not melt until heated 
 to 280° Fahr. They will dissolve in nine times their weight 
 of cold, and in an equal weight of boiling water. Oxalic 
 acid combines with salifiable bases, and forms salts called 
 oxalates. The most interesting of these salts are the three 
 oxalates of j^olassa, called oxalate of potassa (K 0,0003), 
 hinoxalate of jpotassa (K O, 2C2O3), commonly called salts of 
 sorrel, and the quadroxalate of potassa- {essential salts of 
 lemon). The two last-named are useful in removing iron 
 moulds from linen, and so is oxalic acid. This acid has a 
 strong affinity for lime, and will form with it an insoluble 
 precipitate called oxalate of lime (CaO,C203), whenever the 
 acid and lime are brought in contact in a solution of the two 
 substances, for which reason oxalic acid is the best test for 
 lime, and vice versa, that is, their solutions are, but when 
 lime is sought for, oxalate of ammonia forms the most con- 
 venient test. The mutual attraction of the oxalate of ammo- 
 nia and lime is so strong, that the former will even take the 
 latter from sulphuric acid. By this we see how the addition 
 of a soluble oxalate will disturb the transparency of a solu- 
 tion of sulphate of lime (Ca, O, SO3). Oxalic acid is distin- 
 guished from all other crystallized acids, by the form of its 
 crystals, and by its solution yielding a precipitate with lime- 
 water, insoluble in an access of acid. 
 
 As we have said before, oxalic acid consists of 2 equiv- 
 
THE AMERICAN DYEK. 217 
 
 alents of carbon and 3 of oxygen, njaking its prime eqniv- 
 alent 30 ; but when crystiiUized we must add 3 equiva- 
 lents of water, HO =^ 27, thus making the equivalent of the 
 cr^'stals, G3. In accordance with those chemists who consider 
 it a bibasic acid, we shall have to double these numbers^. 
 Anhydrous oxalic acid is not known to exist, for two equiva- 
 lents of the w^ater can be driven off by a regulated heat, by 
 which the acid is made to effloresce ; but the third cannot be 
 expelled without destroying the acid itself. 
 
 It was first discovered that this acid was a poison by Mr. 
 Rayston, in 1814, since which time it has been investigated 
 in relation to its poisonous properties by the late Dr. A. T. 
 Thomson of London, and Dr. Christison of Edinburgh ; and 
 since it has been found to be a certain anc? rapid poison, and 
 is generally known as such, its use has become more frequent 
 for committing suicide. 
 
 It is from the generic appellation, oxdlis, that it takes its 
 name, but in pharmacy it it called acidum oxalicu7n. 
 
 Gallic Acid = Ci^HgOjo ; dried, C7H3O5. 
 
 The process of converting nutgalls into gallic acid, is 
 founded upon the fiict that, when the galls, in the state of 
 moistened powder, are exposed to the atmosphere, the tannic 
 acid contained in them is gradually converted into gallic acid, 
 with the absorption (as is generally believed) of oxygen, and 
 the escape of an equivalent quantity of carbonic acid (CO2). 
 The gallic acid being freely soluble in boiling water, but 
 sparingly in cold water, is extracted from the altered galls by 
 decoction, and is deposited as the water cools, and by repeat- 
 ing the process of dissolving it after each deposition renders 
 the acid more pure, but it cannot be obtained entirely color- 
 less unless it is filtered through animal charcoal. 
 
 "Dr. C. Wetherill believed that gallic acid differed from 
 tannic acid, simply by its containing water, and he conceived 
 the idea of preparing gallic acid from tannic acid by the fixa- 
 tion of water in the gallic acid. This he brought about 
 28 
 
218 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 through the aid of sulphuric acid : he mixed thirteen drachras 
 of tannic acid with twentj'-two fluid ounces of sulphuric acid, 
 and four times as much of water; then heated the mixture to 
 the boiling point ; then allowed it to stand ; after a few days 
 an abundant precipitation of white gallic acid took place, the 
 result of which, amounted to 87.4 per cent, of the tannic 
 acid." — American Journal of Pliarmacij . 
 
 Gallic acid crystallizes in delicate, silky crystals, which are 
 of a slight brownish color, but when pure are colorless; they 
 have no smell, and have a sourish astringent taste. They 
 are, according to Bracannet, soluble in one hundred parts of 
 cold and three parts of boiling water ; they are very soluble in 
 alcohol ; they are soluble in glycerine in the proportion of 
 fort}^ grains of crystals to the ounce of glycerine, and this 
 solution can be diluted with water to any extent without alFect- 
 ing the transparency of the solution. 
 
 When gallic acid is heated to 420^ it gives out carbonic 
 acid (COo), and is changed to pyrogallic acid (CiiHgOs). 
 According to Pelouze, gallic acid when heated to 410^ or 420°, 
 is resolved completely into carbonic acid and pyrogallic acid, 
 and the proportion of the latter acid produced ought to be 
 nearly seventy-five per cent. 
 
 Gallic acid, like tannic acid, reddens litmus, and will pro- 
 duce a bluish-black color, with a solution of carbonate of soda 
 and copperas (sulphate of iron), but the color will disappear 
 if the solution is heated to 120° or above. This result was 
 shown by Dr. Mahler to depend on the conversion of the gallic 
 acid into metagallic acid, by the loss of the constituents of 
 carbonic acid and water. 
 
 Gallic acid at one time was supposed to be the active prin- 
 ciple of all vegetable astringents, but it lost this reputation 
 when the properties of tannic acid became known. " Gallic 
 acid has recently again come into notice, and is now thought 
 by many physicians to be a more valuable astringent than 
 tannic acid for arresting hemorrhages when taken internally, 
 especially hermorrhage of the urinary passages." 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 219 
 
 Citric Acid = Q.^HjOn. 
 "The formula of this acid in a dry state is C,JI-Oii, but 
 when crystallized from its solution by merely coolinir, it con- 
 tains four equivalents of water, three of those e(juivalents arcJ 
 basic. The " British Pharmacopoeia" gives the formula of the 
 crystallized acid thus — 3HO,Ci2HjOii4-2HO, thus giving it 
 two equivalents of water of crystallization. 
 
 Citric acid is a white solid crystal, sometimes rather 
 larger than that of tartaric acid, which it resembles; it 
 remains hard and solid in a dry atmosphere, but becomes 
 soft and moist in a damp atmosphere; its sp. gr. is 1.6. 
 Its taste is strongly acid and almost caustic. When heated, 
 it will dissolve in its own water of crystallization, and, at a 
 higher temperature, it undergoes decomposition, becoming 
 yellow or brown colored, and forms a very sour, syrupy liquid, 
 which cannot be crystallized. 
 
 "By destructive distillation it gives rise to water, acetic and 
 carbonic acids, carburetted hydrogen, and a voluminous coal 
 is left." 
 
 Citric acid is soluble in about three-fourths its weight of 
 cold water, and in half its weight of boiling water ; it is soluble 
 in alcohol, but insoluble in pure ether. A weak solution of 
 it has an agreeable taste, but when so diluted it will not keep, 
 as it undergoes spontaneous decomposition. Tartaric and 
 citric acids are frequently adulterated by mixing one with -the 
 other, and grinding them into powder ; this can be detected 
 by dissolving a little carbonate of potash (pearlash) in one of 
 the suspected acids, and if there is tartaric acid in the citric 
 acid, the pearlash will cause a precipitate of cream of tartar 
 (bitartrate of potash) to fall to the bottom of the test-glass. 
 
 Citric acid is that peculiar acid contained in lemons and 
 limes, to which these fruits are indebted for their sourness. 
 We also find this acid in the juice of the cranberry, red goose- 
 berry, the currant, the strawberry, the raspberry, the tama- 
 rind, and the red elderberry. This acid abounds so much in 
 
220 THE AMERICAX DYEK. 
 
 the latter berry, that M. Thibierge of Versailles, France, pro- 
 poses it as a source for producing this acid instead of obtaining 
 it from limes and lemons. 
 
 We are indebted to Scheele for a very simple process of 
 extracting the acid from limes and lemons. This process con- 
 sists, first, in saturating the boiling juice with chalk or whiting 
 in fine powder, and the citrate of lime is allowed to settle. 
 This citrate of lime is repeatedly washed with water, and then 
 decomposed by diluted sulphuric acid ; there is immediately 
 formed an insoluble sulphate of lime (CaOjSOg), and the dis- 
 engaged citric acid remains in the supernatant liquor. This 
 is carefully concentrated in leaden boilers, until a pellicle 
 begins to form, when it is drawn ofi* into other vessels where 
 it cools and crystallizes. 
 
 The method of manufacturing citric acid, as a general rule, 
 is the same as that for tartaric acid (see tartaric acid), with' 
 these exceptions : the citric acid is not subjected to so great a 
 degree of heat, citric acid being liable to decomposition if 
 subjected to too high a temperature ; and in the process, the 
 citrate of lime should be decomposed without delay, for if 
 kept, for any length of time, it will undergo fermoitation, 
 which would destrojthe citric acid. The products of this fer- 
 mentation would be acetic and butyric acids, and carbonic 
 acid and hydrogen would be evolved. 
 
 It is necessary to add occasionally a small proportion of 
 sulphuric acid to the citric acid liquor, during the progress of 
 its concentration. With the al)ove exceptions, citric acid is 
 manufiictured by the same processes that tartaric acid is. 
 
 According to Mr. Parkes, a gallon of either lime or lemon 
 juice, if the process is well conducted, will yield eight ounces 
 of white crystals. But to obtain this amount, it depends on 
 the proportion of citric acid contained in the juice, which is 
 very variable. The more recently the juice has been extracted 
 from the fruit, the better will be the quality of the acid. The 
 juice, after it becomes stale, is quite sour, and does not con- 
 
THE AMERICAX DYER. 221 
 
 tain any citric acid, because of its having undergone the acetic 
 fermentation. 
 
 There were some suggestions made in the " Chemical News," 
 by Mr. Frederick Row, in which he stated that the lime or 
 lemon juice imported, from which most of the acid is pre- 
 pared, contains so much coloring matter, mucilage, and other 
 impurities, as very much to impede the process, so that it' 
 became necessary to make repeated crystallizations and satu- 
 rations, in order to render the crystals tit for the market. It 
 seems that the acid imported has undergone concentration, 
 for the obvious purposes of enabling it to keep better, and to 
 reduce the expense of freighting. 
 
 Mr. Row states, however, that he has found that much of 
 the difficulty may be obviated, by diluting the concentrated 
 liquor, so that it shall have the strength of the fresh juice, by 
 which operation much of the mucilage aud other impurities, 
 will be made to separate in a flocculent form, and the citrate 
 of lime, and consequently the citric acid, will be obtained in 
 a state of comparative purity. 
 
 " One hundred grains of citric acid saturate one hundred 
 and fifty grains of bicarbonate of potash." 
 
 Citric acid, as well as tartaric and acetic acids, are seldom 
 used in woolen dyeing. 
 
 Citric acid is used in calico-printing, both as a resist and 
 discharge. 
 
 Acetic AciD^rCiHgOg. 
 
 Acetic acid is of the specific gravity of 1.047, and contains 
 thirty-six per cent, of monoJiydrated acetic acid (HO,PO.j). 
 This is an acid liquor produced from wood, by destructive 
 distillation and subsequent purification ; and one hundred 
 parts by weight contain thirty-three parts of the acetic acid 
 (HO,C4H303), which corresponds to about twenty-eight parts 
 of the anhydrous acetic acid (C4H3O3) ; but the concentrated 
 acetic acid corresponds to at least eight3'-four per cent, of an- 
 hydrous or the commercial acetic acid. 
 
222 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 We shall consider but three grades of acetic acid, the gla- 
 cial acetic acid, acidum aceticum gJaciale, and the acidum ace- 
 ticmn, or pyroligneous acid, and the acetic acid of commerce. 
 
 The acidum aceticum glackde acid, sometimes called radical 
 vinegar, \s a colorless, volatile, inflammable liquid, having a 
 corrosive taste, and a acetous, pungent, and at the same time 
 ■a refreshing odor. It crystallizes when exposed to a temper- 
 ature of 34° Fahr., and will remain in a crystalline state until 
 heated to 50° Fahr. "Its specific gravity is l.0(J3," but cau 
 be increased by adding ten per cent, of its weight of water, 
 when its density will rise to the specific gravity of 1.066. 
 This acid has the property of dissolving a number of sub- 
 stances, among which we will name camphor, resins, gums, 
 albumen, and the volatile oils. 
 
 "Its combinations with salifiable bases are called acetates." 
 
 "A drachm of this acid, mixed with a fluid ounce of distilled 
 water, requires for neutralization, at least nine hundred and 
 ninety grain measures of volumetric solution of soda.'" 
 
 "If a fluid drachm is mixed with half a fluid ounce of dis- 
 tilled water, and half a drachm of pure muriatic acid, and put 
 into a small flask with a few pieces of granulated zinc, and 
 while the effervescence continues, a slip of bil)ulous paper 
 wetted with a solution of subacetate of lead be suspended in 
 the upper part of the flask, above the liquor, for five minutes, 
 the paper will not become discolored." 
 
 This shows clearl}' the absence of sulphurous acid in this 
 kind of acetic acid. It consists of one equivalent of dry acid 
 =51, and one equivalent of water=9, making its prime 
 equivalent=60. 
 
 The dry acid has been isolated by C. Gerhardt, who finds 
 it to be a limpid liquid, heavier than water, and having the 
 constant boiling point of 279°. 
 
 The process generally adopted by the British manufacturers 
 of this acid, is as follows : — 
 
 "One hundred weight of purified acetate of soda, which 
 had been previously deprived of water by fusion, and broken 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 223 
 
 up after cooling, was digested with sixty pounds of siilpluiric 
 acid, specific gravity 1.848, and then heated in a still till 
 all the acetic acid was driven over." "This was re-distilled, 
 in a chloride of calcium (CaCI), or else an oil-bath, with 
 peroxide of manganese, and afterwards again distilled from 
 charcoal and peroxide of lead, the acid thus procured being 
 placed in ice, and in a great measure solidified ; and the liquid 
 portion being decanted, the solid residue, when melted, had 
 the specific gravity of 1.0G7, and contained ninety-eight per 
 cent, of the monohydrated acid." 
 
 This grade of acetic acid is not used in the dye-house, but 
 is used by physicians, who apply it externally as a substitute 
 for cantharides (blister paste), when a speedy blister is 
 desired, in such cases as croup, sore throat, and other cases 
 of internal inflammation. It is an excellent substance to eat 
 out corns and warts. , 
 
 Taktaijic AciDz^CgH^Oio. 
 
 This acid is extracted from the tartar which collects upon 
 the inside of wine-casks during the fermentation of the wine. 
 This tartar, when purified and reduced to powder, is the cream 
 of tartar of the a^Jothecaries, antl consists of two equivalents 
 of tartaric acid united to one equivalent of potash (potassa). 
 
 Tartaric acid was first obtained, in a separate state, by 
 Scheele, in 1770. His process consisted in saturating the 
 excess of acid in the (bitartrate of potassa) cream of tartar 
 with carbonate of lime (CaOCOj), and decomposing the 
 resulting insoluble tartrate of lime (CaO,C4H205) by sulphuric 
 acid (H2SO3), which precipitates in combination with the 
 lime, and liberates the tartaric acid ; the equivalent quanti- 
 ties being one of bitartrate of potash, and one of carbonate 
 of lime (chalk). 
 
 The process, when thus conducted, furnishes the second 
 equivalent, or excess of acid only of the bitartrate. This 
 second equivalent may be obtained by decomposing the neu- 
 tral tartrate of potassa (potash), which remains in the solu- 
 
224 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 tion after the tartrate of lime (CaO,C4H20-;) is precipitated 
 \?ith chloride of calcium (CaCl) in excess. By double decom- 
 position, chloride of potassium (KCl) will be formed in 
 solution, and a second portion of tartrate of lime will pre- 
 cipitate, which may be decomposed by sulphuric acid together 
 with the first portion. If the process is conducted in this 
 manner, it will, of course, furnish twice as much tartaric acid 
 as when the excess of acid only is saturated and set free. 
 
 The method adopted for manufacturing tartaric acid on the 
 large scale, differs greatly from the above method. The de- 
 compositions spoken of above are effected in a wooden vessel, 
 closed at the toj) (called a generator), which will hold about 
 2,000 gallons. This vessel is furnished with an exit-pipe for 
 carbonic acid (CO^), and with pipes entering the sides of the 
 generator, for the admission of steam and cold water respect- 
 ivel}'. This vessel is tilkd one-fourth with water. Then 
 1,500 pounds of washed chalk (carbonate of lime) is added, 
 and then the whole is heated by a jet of steam through the 
 pipes in the side. It is then thoroughly mixed until a uni- 
 form mass is obtained. About two tons of tartar are now 
 added by degrees, and thoroughly mixed. The carbonate of 
 lime is decomposed ; the carbonic acid escapes through the 
 exit-pipe, and the lime unites with the excess of tartaric acid, 
 to form tartrate of lime, which precipitates ; while the neutral 
 tartrate of potash remains in solution. The next operation is 
 to decompose the tartrate of potash, so as to convert its tar- 
 taric acid into tartrate of lime. This is accomplished b}' the 
 addition of sulphate of lime (CaO,SO;j), made into paste, 
 and, by double decomposition, will form a fresh portion of 
 tartrate of lime, while sulphate of potash remains in solution. 
 This solution; when it becomes clear, is drawn off into suita- 
 ble vessels, and the precipitate (which is tartrate of lime) is 
 washed several times in cold water. ' These washings are pre- 
 served, to use again for the same purpose. The tartrate of 
 lime, mixed with sufficient water, is now defomposed by the 
 proper amount of sulphuric acid, which forms sulphate of 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 225 
 
 lime, and liberates the tarturic acid, which remains in the 
 solution. It is all now drawn oflf into a wooden tank, lined 
 with lead, with a perforated false bottom. This is covered 
 with stout twilled flannel, and serves for a filter. The solu- 
 tion filters through, and is carried by a pipe going from 
 beneath the false bottom to suitable reservoirs. The whole 
 liquor is evaporated in order to crystallize. Then this liquor 
 is evaporated to the specific gravity of 1.5 (1^ degrees). 
 It is drawn off into sheet-lead cylindrical crystallizing vessels, 
 that hold five hundred pounds of the solution each. These 
 cr^^stallizing vessels are placed in a warm situation, and, in 
 the course of three or four days, a crop of crj'stals is produced 
 in each, averaging two hundred pounds. These crystals are 
 somewhat colored, so they have to be purified by re-dissolving 
 in hot water. The solution is then run through animal char- 
 coal, filtered, again concentrated and crystallized. The crys- 
 tals are now washed and drained, and finally dried on wooden 
 trays lined with sheet-lead, placed in a room heated by steam. 
 
 Dr. Price of England made some great improvements in the 
 above process, which are described in detail in the "London 
 Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions" (January, 1854, 
 page 315). 
 
 Liebig prepared tartaric acid artificially by the oxidation of 
 sugar of milk and other substances, by nitric acid. The 
 resulting product was found to be identical in all respects 
 with the tartaric acid obtained from grapes. 
 
 Tartaric acid is a white crystallized substance. It is not 
 affected by the titmosphere. It has a strong acid taste; but 
 when diluted with water, it has a very agreeable and cooling 
 taste, not unlike lemonade. It is soluble in an equal amount 
 of cold water, and in half its weight of boiling water. It is 
 also soluble in alcohol. It combines with several of the vege- 
 table organic alkalies, so as to form salts. Its usual impurity 
 is sulphuric acid, which can be detected with acetate of lead 
 (PbCCiHsOg). By adding a small quantity to a solution 
 
 29 
 
226 THE AIMEKICAN DYER. 
 
 of tartaric acid, a precipitate will be formed that is only par- 
 tially soluble in nitric acid. 
 
 Tartaric acid, when dry, consists of four equivalents of car- 
 bon, two of hydrogen, and five of oxygen, making its equiva- 
 lent sixty-six, thus ; 
 
 4 C=24, 
 
 2H=r:02, 
 
 5 0=40=66, 
 
 and, when crystallized, of one equivalent of dry acid, 66, 
 and one of water, 9 = 75. But if we should agree with 
 some chemists, who regard it as bibasic, these numbers 
 must be doubled, and the formula of the dry acid would 
 be CgHgOio, and, in its crystallized state, 2HO,C8H20io. 
 Taking this view, its ordinary salts, whether with one or two 
 bases, consis|, of one equivalent of acid, and tjvo of base; 
 and, in the bitartrates of potash (potassa), one equivalent of 
 base is replaced by one of water, as in the cream of tartar 
 (bitartrate of potassa), the constitution of which would be 
 expressed by the formula, KCHO+CsHj^Oio. 
 
 Tartaric acid is not used to a very great extent in woolen- 
 dyeing, but it is employed largely in calico-printing, both as 
 an auxiliary in the solution for printing, and as a discharge for 
 alumina and oxide of iron, employed as mordants. Some- 
 times this acid is mixed with bisulphate of soda (NaHSO^), 
 to form a discharge in calico-printing. A piece of cloth dyed 
 red or blue, to which, in certain parts, there is applied a 
 mixture of tartaric acid, pipe-clay, and gum* (the latter as 
 thickening to give consistency) , becomes immediately bleached 
 when the cloth so prepared is immersed in a solution ot 
 bleaching powder, — chloride of lime (CaCl), or chloride of 
 calcium. 
 
 Tannic Acid {Acidum Tannicurnj^Q^^ll-Jdc^-l-?) HO. 
 Pure tannic acid is a solid, uncrystallizable, slightly yellow 
 colored substance. It is inodorous, very astringent to the 
 
THE AMERICAX DYER. 227 
 
 taste, but having no bitterness. It is very sohiblc in water. 
 Much loss soluble in alcohol and ether. It is insoluble in the 
 volatile and fixed oils. The commercial tannic acid often has 
 a decided odor. This is chiefly owing to the presence of the 
 odorous principle of the nutgalls from which it is obtained. 
 Pure tannic acid can be kept unchanged in the solid state ; 
 but its watery solution, when exposed to the atmosphere, 
 gradually becomes turbid, and deposits a crystalline matter, 
 which consists chiefly of gallic acid (C7II3O5). During the 
 change, oxygen is absorbed, and an eijual volume of carbonic 
 acid disengaged. But according to the researches of M. E. 
 Robiquet, this change does not always take place, and, when 
 it does happen, it is owing to the presence o( pectase in the 
 tannin. But if the solution of tannic acid were boiled for a 
 long time, the 2>^^^<^^^ w'ould lose its property of a ferment, 
 and the solution could then be kept for an indefinite time 
 without sulferino; a chano;e. 
 
 Tannic acic, when exposed to a certain degree of heat, will 
 partially melt, swell up, become black, take fire, and will 
 burn with a very brilliant flame. By being thrown upon red- 
 hot iron, it is entirely dissipated. 
 
 A solution of tannin will redden litmus, and it will com- 
 bine with most of the salifiable bases. It forms with potash 
 a compound which is but slightly soluble, and the tannin can 
 be precipitated from its solutio)i by potash, or its carbonates, 
 if the solution is not too weak, although a certain amount of 
 potash will cause the precipitate to re-dissolve. 
 
 Tannic acid, in combination with soda, is much more solu- 
 ble than with potash, and this alkali does not precipitate the 
 acid, unless the solution is highly concentrated with tannic 
 acid. Ammonia has a re-action upon this acid, very similar 
 to potash. 
 
 Very many of the metallic salts are precipitated by tannic 
 acid, even in their uncombined states, especially such as cop- 
 per, lead, silver, mercury, chromium, protoxide of tin, &c. 
 With scsquioxide of iron (Fe.jO^) it will form a black pre- 
 
228 THE AMERICAX DYER. 
 
 cipitate, this being a compound of tannic acid and the sesqui- 
 oxide, this compound being the basis of ink. 
 
 Tannic acid will unite with all the vesfetable orfjanic alka- 
 lies, and form compounds which, as a general rule, have a 
 whitish color, and are very slightly soluble in water, but are 
 soluble in acetic acid (QHgO-) and alcohol. In this latter 
 respect it differs from most of the compounds which tannic 
 acid forms with other vegetable principles. 
 
 "The ultimate constituents of tannic acid are, carbon, 
 hj'drogen, and oxygen, and its formula, according to Liebig, 
 is, CisHyOj2, or CjgH^Oy+SHO; to Berzelius, when made 
 from galls, Q^HigOgi+S HO. MuUer, however, from recent 
 investigations, considers that it is isomeric with gallic acid*, 
 and gives its formula thus : CogHyOiy+HO. Strecker looks 
 upon it as a compound of gallic acid and sugar, and has for 
 its formula, C54Hiy03i, for the anhydrous acid, which by the 
 addition of three equivalents of water, becomes the hx^drated 
 acid, C54H22O34, differing from Liebig's by two equivalents of 
 water." — Chemical Gazette, No. 287, p. 370. 
 
 From thirty to thirty-five per cent, of tannic acid is ob- 
 tained from nutgalls by Pelouze's method, while Leconnot's 
 method is said to yield sixty per cent. Mr. H. R. Bcnvman, 
 of Philadelphia, obtained 80.07 per cent, of tannic acid from 
 selected nutgalls. 
 
 All kinds of tannic acids are, when in contact with alkaline 
 solutions, such as lime-water, caustic potash, ammonia, and 
 with the simultaneous presence of air, decomposed and con- 
 verted into brown-colored substances. 
 
 There is a drug similar to cutch, that contains from thirty 
 to forty per cent, of tannic acid. This substance is extracted 
 from the following plants, and called kino : 
 
 African kino, from Pterocarjtus erinaceus. 
 
 East India kino, from Pterocarpus Marsupium. 
 West India kino, from Coceolaha uvifera. 
 Australian kino, from Eucalyptus resinifera. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 229 
 
 This substance is met with in the market in angular, brittle 
 masses, of a brown-red color, sometimes of a blackish color. 
 AVhen it is ground into powder it is always of a l)r()wn-red 
 color. It is quite soluble in hot water, also in alcohol, and 
 yields a blood-red solution, having a very astringent and 
 sweet taste. It is as valuable for coloring cotton as cutch, 
 but is not so common or plentiful in the market ; in fact, it is 
 scarcely found in commerce, except at the druggist's. 
 
 In the investigations of Pelouze upon tannin, he found that 
 if it were kept from exposure to the atmosphere, there would 
 be no change eflfectedin its properties ; but if it was exposed 
 to the atmosphere, it would imbibe oxygen, and the tannia 
 would be changed to gallic acid ; for which reason he con- 
 cluded that gallic acid did not exist in very minute quantities 
 in vegetables, and the supposition that tannic and gallic acids 
 existed together in vegetables, arose from the process which 
 was adopt d to procure gallic acid, this process being to allow 
 the macerated vegetable matter to l)e exposed to the atmos- 
 phere until the gallic acid should crystallize from the solution, 
 this being nothing more than converting tannin into gallic 
 acid by the absorption of oxygen. 
 
 More recent investigations have shown us that tannin is 
 convertible into gallic acid, by much more rapid means than 
 the above process. These means are by the processes of fer- 
 mentation. "The action which is considered to take place 
 during the fermentation of the tannin by exposure to the air, 
 is that it absorbs or combines with eight proportions of oxy- 
 gen from the afmosphere." — Pelouze. 
 
 It requires considerable time for a solution of nutgalls, 
 exposed to the air, before its tannin will be converted into 
 gallic acid ; but by adding tartaric or malic acids to the solu- 
 tion, it will cause the formation of gallic acid to proceed 
 
 more rapidly. ^ • 
 
 "It has long been known that gallic acid does not precipi- 
 tate copperas, when it is kept from exposure to the atmos- 
 phere. Persoz, Chevreul, and Berzelius observed that gallic 
 
230 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 acid, when it was mixed with a salt of the peroxide of iron 
 (Fe^O;j), is always reduced to the state of a proto-salt." 
 
 "This is easily proved, by adding to the blue solution 
 caused by the admixture of gallic acid and iron, an excess of 
 acetate of lead (CaO,C4H303), or of carbonate of lime (CaO 
 CO^,), which precipitates the blue combination, and at the 
 same time the sulphuric acid contained in the persulphate of 
 iron, a colorless liquid, is separated by filtration, in which 
 the presence of iron may be demonstrated in the state of a ' 
 protoxide (FeO)." 
 
 "These experiments are insufficient to explain this curious 
 re-action. It is not improbable to admit that the oxygen, 
 combining with the gallic acid, converts it into a new acid of 
 a blue color, yet positive experiments are wanting to decide 
 the point." 
 
 "When a solution of gallic acid is poured by drops into a 
 solution of persulphate of iron (FegOySSO^) in excess, no 
 blue coloring is obtained ; if there is one produced it is but 
 momentary. Nor is there one formed with the same salt in 
 minimum in presence of chlorine, nor with a proto-salt of 
 iron (copperas) and gallic acid oxidized in various degrees by 
 chlorine, or by a salt of silver (AgO,N05 = nitrate of silver), or 
 lastly, by the atmosphere in an alkaline solution of gallic acid. 
 When a solution of gallic acid is poured into a solution of the 
 persulphate of iron, and the liquid is thrown down by the ace- 
 tate of lead (PbO,C4Ho03 = sugar of lead), there will be a 
 blue paste precipitated, and if this precipitate is treated with 
 oxalic acid (C2O3+3HO) it forms the soluble oxalate of 
 iron (FeO,G,03+4HO), the blue color entirely disappears, 
 but can be brought back to blue again by adding a little 
 acetate of soda (NaO,QH303)." 
 
 To prove in the most positive manner that the blue coloring 
 is not to be ascribed to a blue acid, M. Barreswil endeavored 
 to obtain other blue salts from gallic acid, by the use of sul- 
 phuric acid. He prepared some mixtures of the protosul- 
 phate of iron and the persulphate of iron, in variable propor- 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 231 
 
 tions, and to avoid the separation of the two above-iiained 
 salts of iron, from their different degrees of solubility, he 
 removed, as soon as possible, the water, by adding to the 
 solution concentrated sulphuric acid, largely in excess, avoid- 
 ing raising the heat as much as possible. In this manner he 
 obtained a thick paste of a deej^ blue, the hue of which was 
 more or less pure according to the pr()[)()rtion of the two 
 salts of iron. He also produced a blue sulphate by evaporat- 
 ing rapidly a mixture of the two salts of iron ; the blue tint 
 appeared at the moment when the mass was nearly dry. His 
 next experiment was to use phosphate of soda (2NaOP50) 
 in place of the sulphuric acid. The result was a deep blue 
 phosphate of iron (SFeOPOr,), and some sulphate of soda 
 (NaSOy), which removed the water immediately. In all 
 his experiments the hyposulphite of soda (NaOjS^O.j+THO) 
 alone afforded an intense blue coloring. This is not surprising ; 
 there are numerous instances in chemistry of bases which will 
 combine with certain acids, but will not unite with others, 
 among which is the protoxide of copper (CuO). 
 
 ACETIC ACID OF COMMERCE. 
 
 This acid is very similar to the glacial acetic ficid in its 
 properties, but milder in degree. It is a colorless, volatile 
 liquid, and has a sharp taste and pungent smell. It will 
 unite in all proportions with water, and, to a certain extent, 
 with alcohol. It is entirely volatilized by heat, and yields no 
 precipitate with either nitrate of silver (AgNO^) or chloride 
 of barium (BaCl). Sulphohydrate of ammonia (NllyllS) will 
 not discolor it. 
 
 This acid is sometimes contaminated with empyreumatic 
 oils, which is due to the method of manufacturing If there 
 is much of this impurity in the acid, it will betray itself by 
 the taste and smell ; but if it is too minute to be detected by 
 
2152 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 smell or taste, the test for its detection, according to Mr. 
 John Lightfoot, is to neutralize the acid with carbonate of 
 potash (KO,CO,) and adding a solution of perni:inganate of 
 potash (KO,Mu^,0;) ; and if the acid is pure it will retain its 
 color, but if it is not pure the permanganate of potassa will 
 be decolorized, and after standing a while there will be a 
 brown precipitate fall to the bottom of the solution. If 
 sulphuretted hydrogen (HS) is added to a solution of acetic 
 acid it will produce a milkiness, if sulphurous acid' (SO.,) is 
 present. When saturated with ammonia (Nlly) the acetic 
 acid will not precipitate with either the iodide (KI) or the 
 ferrocyanide of potassium (K^FeCyo), showing the absence 
 of lead and copper in the acid. 
 
 Of the United States acetic acid (specific gravity 1.047) " 100 
 grains will saturate 60 grains of crystallized bicarbonate of 
 potassa (potash, K02C0^,-|~H0), and contains 36 grains of 
 monohydrate acetic acid" (HOPO.3). This, we see, corre- 
 sponds exactly with the percentage given in the table of specific 
 gravities for acetic acid. Of the British acetic acid of com- 
 merce (specific gravity, 1.044) the strength in the anhydrous 
 acetic acid is 2S per cent. ; in strength of monohydrated 
 acetic acid it is, according to the table, 33 per cent. 
 
 It is very difficult to ascertain the strength of acetic acid 
 b}' saturating it with the carbonated alkalies, if the operator 
 depends upon test-paper for ascertaining the point of neutral- 
 ization. The difficulty is caused by the acetates of potash 
 and soda being alkaline to test-paper; although they are neu- 
 tral in composition, the liquid begins to be alkaline to test- 
 paper, while some free acid remains, but insufficient to over- 
 come the alkaline re-action of the salt formed by the combi- 
 nation ; therefore, by the use of test-paper, the strength of 
 the acid is always underrated. The degree of inaccuracy, 
 where test-paper is used, would be much diminished if the 
 acid was saturated with a solution of saccharate of lime 
 (sugar and slacked lime, dissolved in distilled water) of a 
 known strength, as is proposed by Mr. C. G. Williams. A 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 233 
 
 still better way, according to Prof. Redwood, is to add to the 
 acid a weighed excess of carbonate of l)aryta (BaO,CO.,), 
 and to calculate its strength by the amount of carbonate 
 which is decomposed, ascertaining by deducting the undis- 
 solved carbonate from the total amount used. E. C. Nichol- 
 son and D. S. Price say ("Chemical Gazette") that equally 
 accurate results may be obtained by using carbonate of lime 
 (chalk) in a similar manner. The acetic acid of commerce is 
 the kind etnployed by color-mixers for reds, pinks, purples, 
 &c., in combination with other substances; it is also used 
 sometimes as a discharge, but not so general as tartaric acid. 
 
 Ckude Acetic Acid, or Pyroligneous Acid. 
 
 The specific gravity of this acid ranges from 1.044 to 1.047, 
 and is obtained by the destructive distillation of wood, and is 
 called v,nide j>7/roU(/neoiis acid. 
 
 Wood, when charred, yields a number of volatile sub- 
 stances, among which are an acid liquor, creosote, tar, and a 
 variety of other substances, some of which have very singular 
 properties, which properties some eminent chemists suppose 
 might be made serviceable in dyeing; but as yet, crystallized 
 acetic acid (C^H^Os + IIO) and pyroligneous acid (C^HgO^) 
 are the only grades of acetic acid used, and these are not 
 made use of in woolen-dyeing ; but in calico-printing and cot- 
 ton-dyeing these two substances are extensively employed. 
 
 The carbonization of wood in closed vessels for the purpose 
 of manufacturing crude acetic acid (pyroligneoiis acid) was 
 first put into extensive practice by Mollerat of France, and is 
 thus descril:)ed by Thenard : The method consists of, tirst, 
 a furnace with a movable top; second, a strong sheet-iron 
 cylinder, standing upright, large enough to hold a cord 
 of wood, and furnished with a sheet-iron cover; third, a 
 sheet-iron tube proceeding horizontally from the upper and 
 lateral part of the cylinder to the distance of about one foot ; 
 fourth, a copper tube connected with the sheet-iron tu))e, 
 which is bent in such a manner as to plunge successively to 
 30 
 
234 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 the bottom of two casks filled with water, and, after rising 
 out of the second, is bent back, and made to terminate in the 
 furnace. At the bottom of each cask the tube dilates into a 
 ball, from the upper part of which another tube proceeds, 
 which, passing water-tight through the cask, terminates above 
 a vessel intended to receive the condensable products. The 
 sheet-iron cylinder being filled with wood (some manufactur- 
 ers in this country use sawdust instead of wood), the cover is 
 then put on and luted with fire-cla}', and let do\tn into the 
 furnace by the means of a crane. The fire is then applied to the 
 furnace, and when the process is completed the cylinder is 
 hoisted out, and another lowered into the furnace, filled as 
 before. During the carbonization, the volatile products are 
 received by the tube, and those which are condensable, being 
 an acid liquor and tar, are condensed by the water in the 
 casks, and collected in the lower bends of the tubes, from 
 which they run into the several receivers, or reservoirs, while 
 the incondensable products, being inflammable gases, are dis- 
 charged into the furnace, where, by their combustion, they 
 assist in keeping up the heat in the furnace. Eight hundred 
 pounds of wood afi'ord, on an average, thirt^^-five gallons of 
 acid liquor, which weighs about three hundred pounds. This 
 is the crude pyroligneous acid, sometimes called j^yrolig- 
 neous vinegar, although it was long since known that it is 
 simply acetic acid (or vinegar). It is a dark-brown liquid, 
 having a strong, smoky smell, and consists of acetic acid 
 diluted with water, and holding in solution tar and pyroxylic 
 spirit (C2H3O4-HO = methylic alcohol), and a small pro- 
 portion of creosote (C^HgOj). 
 
 It is from this crude acid that the acetic acid of the United 
 States and Great Britain is prepared by purification, which is 
 effected as follows : The crude acid is saturated with what is 
 termed a cream of lime, which forms acetate of lime (CaO, 
 C4H30y) in solution, and a large amount of tarry matter is 
 precipitated. This solution of acetate of lime is then mixed 
 with a concentrated solution of sulphate of soda (NaS04), 
 
THE a:mericax dyer. . 235 
 
 and, by double decomposition, acetate of soda is formed in 
 solution, and sulphate of lime (CaO,SOa) is precipitated. 
 The solution of acetate of soda is next sul)jected to evapora- 
 tion. During this evaporation the impurities that separate 
 on the surface are skimmed off. The solution, lacing prop- 
 erly concentrated, is set aside to crj'stallize, and the impure 
 salt thus obtained, after being partially purified by solution 
 and re-crystallization, is fused in an iron vessel, stirred until 
 it dries and, the heat is carefully raised and subjected to 
 incipient carl)onization, whereby the remaining empyreumatic 
 matters are carbonized with little if any damage to the crys- 
 tals. The mass is then all dissolved in water, and the solu- 
 tion, being strained and re-crystallized, is pure acetate of 
 soda ; this is distilled with thirty-five per cent, of its weight 
 of sulphuric acid, thus yielding the acetic acid of commerce, 
 the residue being sulphate of soda, its final process being 
 filtration through animal charcoal. 
 
 Sometimes, in the above process, the acetate of lime is 
 directly distilled with sulphuric acid without being first con- 
 verted into acetate of soda, thus saving one operation in the 
 process, but by this operation the acetic acid is apt to contain 
 sulphuric acid ; besides, it is attended with very many incon- 
 veniences. The same operation is saved, and it is without 
 the risk of having sulphuric acid in the acetic by distilling the 
 acetate of lime with hydrochoric acid (HCI, muriatic acid), as 
 is recommended by Christl, and if the hydrochloric acid is not 
 in excess, the acetic acid obtained scarcely contains a trace of 
 chlorine (CI). 
 
 M. Richter prefers the acetate of baryta (BaO,C4HaOy) to 
 the acetate of soda, because the fusibility of the soda will 
 interfere with the operation, but adds to the baryta salt two 
 per cent, of the acetate of soda, in order, to some extent, to 
 obviate its tendency to become pulverulent. 
 
 The specific gravity of the different acetic acids increases 
 with their strength up to the density of 1.0735 (maximum), 
 
236 
 
 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 after which it* decreases until it reaches 1-.063, which is the 
 density of the strongest acetic acid (being the glacial acid). 
 
 The following table, which is condensed from one given by 
 Pereira, on the authority of Mohr, shows the specitic gravity 
 of acetic acid of different strengths. This table includes the 
 United States officinal Acidum aceticinn dilutum. The 
 column on the left gives the percentage of monohydrated acid 
 in each : — 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 
 j Per cent. 
 
 
 of Acid. 
 
 Specific gravity. 
 
 of Acid. 
 
 Specific gravity. 
 
 100 
 
 1.063 Acetic acid (glacial).* 
 
 33 
 
 1.044 British acetic acid of 
 
 99 
 
 1.065 Glacial acetic acid.f 
 
 
 commerce. 
 
 97 
 
 1.068 
 
 32 
 
 1.042 Scotch acid of com- 
 
 90 
 
 1.073 
 
 
 merce (strongest.) 
 
 .80 
 
 1.0735 Maximum density. 
 
 31 
 
 1.041 Acetic acid, United 
 
 '70 
 
 1.070' 
 
 1 
 
 States, 1850. 
 
 60 
 
 1.017 
 
 30 
 
 1.040 
 
 69 
 
 1.066 Strong acetic acid. 
 
 25 
 
 1.034 Pjroligneous acid 
 
 64 
 
 1.063 Acid corresponding in 
 
 
 (Edinburgh). 
 
 
 sp. gr. to the strong- 
 
 20 
 
 1.027 
 
 
 est. 
 
 ! 10 
 
 1.015 
 
 52 
 
 1.062 
 
 6 
 
 1.008 Diluted acetic acid 
 
 50 
 
 1.060 
 
 
 (British). 
 
 40 
 
 1.051 
 
 5 
 
 1.006 Diluted acetic acid 
 
 39 
 
 1.050 English acid of com- 
 
 
 (United States). 
 
 
 merce. 
 
 4 
 
 1 .0055 
 
 36 
 
 1.047 Acetic acid of United 
 
 3 
 
 1X)04 Diluted acetic acid, 
 
 
 States. 
 
 
 United States, 1850. 
 
 Up to the specific gravity of 1.062 the density of acetic acid 
 is a very accurate index of its strength, but above that speci- 
 fic gravity two acids of different strengths may coincide in 
 density. "We see by the table that an acid of 1.063 may be 
 either the strongest possible liquid acid, or an acid that con- 
 tains only fifty-four per cent, of such acid. This ambiguity 
 can be removed by diluting the acid with a portion of wiiter, 
 and, if the density is increased, that acid which increases in 
 density is the strongest of the two having the same density 
 
 This varies to 1.065. 
 
 t British. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYEK. 237 
 
 before the water was adtlecl. This is the test in the British 
 Pharmacopoeia, of adding; ten per cent, of water to their 
 glacial acetic acid. 
 
 The density of the Scotch and English acetic acids of com 
 merce is given upon the authority of Dr. Christison. 
 
A. T. TURNER, Jr., 
 
 SE.02CEE, 13^ 
 
 iiiia c 
 
 [rr 
 
 xvii^ 
 
 fflfeiii, mwi 
 
 MADDERS, BICHROMATE OF POTASH, TARTARS, 
 ANNATTE, AND GENERAL DYESTUFFS, 
 
 No. 104 MILK STREET, BOSTON. 
 
 ADDRESS LETTERS TO P. 0. BOX 3373. 
 
 An experience of several years with manufacturers, as Purchasing Broker in this or tlie 
 New York market when freight and prices favor, warrants offering my services to all buyers, 
 in the belief that as a Broker, thoroughly posted, 1 may at times aid them to advantageous 
 purchases. 
 
 INDIGO and CUTCH, leading specialties. 
 
 No orders filfed by me are delivered without my examination of the goods. 
 
 SEND FOR QUOTATIONS AND SAMPLES BEFORE ORDERING. 
 
 A. COCHRANE & CO., 
 
 MANUFACTURERS AND IMPORTERS OF 
 
 CHEMICALS, 
 
 No. 55 KILBY STREET, BOSTON, 
 
 (Proprietors of Maiden Chemical Worl<s, Maiden, Mass., and Everett Chemical Works, Everett, Mass.) 
 Manufacture, and have constantlj' on hand in quantities to suit, their standard 
 
 OIL VITRIOL, MURIATIC ACID, NITRIC ACID, TIN CRYSTALS, MURIATES, 
 
 TIN, IRON LIQUOR, EXTRACT INDIGO, and Dyers' and 
 
 Printers' Chemicals. 
 
Part Second. 
 
 A DESCRIPTIVE ACC0U:N^T 
 
 OF 
 
 THE PROPERTIES AND COMPOSITION OF THE YARIOUS 
 
 DYEWOODS AND SUBSTANCES WHICH ENTER 
 
 INTO THE COMPOSITION OF COLORS. 
 
240 THE AMEKICAX DYEE. 
 
 DESCEIPTION OF DYEWOODS, ETC. 
 
 ORCHIL, OR ARCHIL. . 
 
 This article comes to the dyer in casks containing a crim- 
 son-colored liquor and a large amount of weed. This weed 
 is called by botanists Lichen roccella and lioccella iincioria, 
 a species of moss or seaweed, and is found in Sweden, Ire- 
 land, Wales, and the Cape de Verde Islands ; the best is from 
 the latter place. It is found in commerce in two forms : 
 1st, as a red pasty matter, having an alkaline taste, and called 
 archil; 2d, as a red-violet powder, called cudbear. Some 
 twelve years ago there was two preparations of archil brought 
 into market under the names of orchil carmine and orchil 
 purple ; these preparations contained the archil in a very pure 
 state. Archil is chiefly prepared in England and France ; the 
 method of preparing it has been kept a secret, and at the 
 present time is imperfectly known ; but what is known of 
 the mode of preparation is that the lichen or weed is first 
 ground to a pulp (after having been well dried) ; the pulp is 
 then placed in wooden troughs with close-fitting covers to 
 them; this pulp is then sprinkled with ammonia (NH^), lime 
 (Ca) and urine, which causes fermentation ; it is stirred up at 
 intervals and more ammonia added. It requires from six to 
 eight days to develop the color ; it is then put up in casks 
 and sent to market, and is thus received by the dyer. 
 
 When it is two years old its coloring principle or proper- 
 ties are fully developed ; after that time it begins to deterio- 
 rate. Archil gives very blooming but at the same time very 
 fugitive colors. It is not now used in woolen-dyeing, as form- 
 erly, being superseded by cudbear, but is still used in silk- 
 
THE AMEIUCAN DYEIl. 241 
 
 dyeing for such colors as lilac, lavender, and other shades 
 ranging between pink and purple ; it is used to give a ground 
 or bott°om to silk that is to be colored safflower-pink. The 
 silk is passed through a weak solution of archil, so as to form 
 a flesh or light lavender color ; the depth is regulated aeccn-d- 
 ing to the shade of pink wanted. The silk is then passed 
 through the safflower solution, to which has been added 
 enougli sulphuric acid (H,SO,) to make it slightly acid. 
 When the color of the solution has become exhausted, the silk 
 is worked in cold water, and then finished by passing it through 
 water made acid with either citric acid (CAHo) "^ tartar 
 (CH.A). Acetic acid (CA^^s) or sulphuric acid should not 
 be used in the last process. The coloring principle of archil 
 has been very extensively investigated in this country and 
 Europe by some of the best chemists, and the results of their 
 investigations have been that the coloring principle of archil 
 depend" upon the oxidation of a colorless base, or a certain 
 compound which exists in the plant. This compound they 
 termed orcme (QHsO,), and the oxidized color was called 
 orce/ne (QHjNOa), which constituted the essential colormg 
 of the archil.' Since the discovery of the tar colors, archil has 
 become almost obsolete or done away with, for even silk-dye- 
 ing. Could the color given by archil be tixed permanently 
 upon wool or cotton, its value would be inestimable, the 
 colors being very beautiful but very fugitive. In 1857 Mr. 
 Marnas of Lyons discovered a process to make a color from 
 archil that was both beautiful and permaaeut, and called it 
 the French purple. 
 
 It was produced as follows : "Powdered lichens are macer- 
 ated in lime-water in order to render soluble the coloring 
 matter which combines with the lime. After filtration, 
 hydrochloric acid (HCl) is added, which saturates the lime 
 and causes the coloring substance to separate in a gelatinous 
 state, which is washed and dissolved in hot ammonia (NII4). 
 The solution is very slow, as it requires from twenty to 
 twenty-five days and a temperature of 153= Fahr. The am- 
 
 31 
 
242 THE AMERICAi^^ DYEK. 
 
 raoiiiacal liquid, which has become vitjlet, is then precipitated 
 b^f chloride of calcium (CaCl), a purple-lake is then produced 
 which is the French purple." 
 
 The acids will change this purple to a bright red. 
 
 The alkalies will change this purple to a blue. 
 
 Rock salt will change this purple to a crimson tint. 
 
 Sal-ammoniac will change this*purple to a ruby-red tint. 
 
 Crystals of tin will change this purple to a red tint. 
 
 Blue vitriol will change this purple to a cherry-red brown. 
 
 Copperas will change this purple to a red-brown pre- 
 cipitate. 
 
 Alum gives a brownish-red precipitate. 
 
 These reactions are nearly the same on archil in the crude 
 state. 
 
 CUDBEAR. 
 
 This is archil in a dry, powdered state, and is' of a lilac 
 color. The color given by it is not so bloomy, yet it has a 
 more jjerraaneut nature than archil. Although the colors given 
 by it are fugitive, still it is used considerably in woolen- 
 dyeing for giving the logwood blues the indigo shade, to 
 bloom up the dahlias. and all those shades that require a pur- 
 ple hue or tint to them, such as mulberries, peach-blows, 
 puces, &c. It is used with camwood to bottom up for indigo- 
 blues, so as to economize the indigo ; it is also used for indigo- 
 purples in topping off along with hypernic wood. The fol- 
 lowing recipe is used by many dyers to bottom for indigo- 
 blue : For two hundred pounds of clean wool boil up thirty 
 pounds camwood and fifteen pounds cudbear for one hour, 
 then enter the wool and boil one hour, draw off the tub, take 
 out the wool and extract it, then it is ready for the blue-vat. 
 Cudbear has all the characteristics of archil, and re-agents have 
 the same result on the one as on the other. Tartar (CII2O2) 
 is the only mordant that is of any use with cudbear ; it 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 243 
 
 brightens up the color mirI eiiahlos it to resist the fulling and 
 scouring much l)otter than it would if not used. Aichil and 
 cudbear colors fade rapidly by the action (jf the sun's rays, 
 and by light and heat, turning it from its natural color to a 
 dull fawn ; and colors, when cudbear or archil enter into their 
 composition, should be dried in the shade and preserved from 
 the ra^'s of the sun. Cudbear should be mixed with water 
 into a paste before putting it into the dye-bath, otherwise it 
 would tioat on the surface ; it requires no boiling before the 
 wool is entered into the solution. 
 
 Litmus is obtained from the same weed that archil and cud- 
 bear are made from ; the oidy ditlerence in the prepaiation of 
 the three articles consists in the fermentation and oxidation 
 being carried to further development, the result of which is 
 that the red pigment (orcin) contained in the sea- weed is 
 converted into a l)lue-colored material called azolitmine, hav- 
 ing the followinjr formula : — 
 
 Orcin, CJIsOa ^ r Azolitmine, C7H7NO4 
 
 Ammonia, KH^ > yield \ '^'^^-l 
 
 I 
 
 Oxygen, 40^ C Water, 2H2O. 
 
 After the weed has fermented sufficiently, it is mixed with 
 chalk and gy[^sum, then made into small, flat cakes resem- 
 blinoj lozeuijes ; is then dried and sent to market. Litmus is 
 prepared the most extensively in the southern part of France, 
 from the juice- of the Croton tinctorium; this shrub being sub- 
 mitted to the action of the ammonia contained in the urine 
 and stable-dung used to excite fermentation in the process of 
 manufacturing litmus, causes it to assume the purple-red 
 color. This purple-red color is changed to a yellow-red by 
 weak acids, and will not return to its former color (purple- 
 red color) by alkalies. Litmus could be used, and is some- 
 times used, as a coloring material, but it is too fugitive to be 
 applied in coloring wqolen fabrics ; it is employed mostly for 
 coloring test-paper, and giving a bluish tinge to whitewash ; 
 
244: THE AMERTCAX DYER. 
 
 also for coloring the red champagnes, &c. In Holland it is 
 termed or called (oiirnesol en dra2)eaux, and is used there for 
 colorinij the crust of certain kinds of cheese, as this colorins: 
 of the crust has an effect to keep off the cheese-mitos and the 
 cheese is less liable to decay. Litmus is also used for color- 
 ing a peculiar kind of paper used for covering sugar-loafs. 
 
 The lichens employed for obtaining archil, cudbear and 
 litmus are different species oi' Itoccella, Lecanora, Variolaria, 
 and others. These lichens grow on maritime rocks in various 
 parts of the world, but for commercial purposes are chiefly 
 collected upon the European and African coasts. They are 
 also obtained from the islands of Canaries, Azores, Madeira, 
 and Cape de Verde. 
 
 The particular species employed are probably Lecanora 
 tariavea, or Tartarean moss, growing in the north of Europe, 
 and lioccella tinctoria or orchilla iveed, which abounds upon 
 the African and insular coasts, and is called commercially, in 
 common with other species of the same genus, Angola weed, 
 Canari/ weed, &c., according to the name of the place from 
 which it may be brought. All of the three coloring sub- 
 stances named above can, however, be obtained from either 
 one of the species of the plant. The litmus-paper of com- 
 merce is prepared from one of the coloring substances of these 
 plants (litmus), by tirst forming a strong, clear solution of 
 one part of litmus to four parts of water, then dipping slips 
 of white, unsized paper into it, or by applying it with a brush 
 to one surface of the paper only ; then the paper is carefully 
 dried and kept in well-stopped jars, from which the light is 
 excluded. Litmus-paper should have a uniform purplish 
 color, bearing upon the blue shade, neither very light nor 
 very dark. 
 
 Another method of preparing litmus-paper is to " digest 
 for some time 20 grammes of litmus in 100 cubic centimetres 
 of water, shake some time, and then filter. To the filtered 
 liquid add a slight excess of nitric acid, and boil, and tben 
 exactly neutralize with potassa. Now make a weak solution 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 245 
 
 of gelatine by boiling one part of ichthyocolla in six parts of 
 water, immerse in this solution some white, unsized paper, 
 and afterwards hang it up to dry, then color one side of it 
 with the solution of litmus." Hy gaslight it is said that the 
 change of color cannot be determined by the eye exactly, as 
 the blue of the litmus becomes a mauve color, but this can be 
 obviated by watching the process through a green glass, by 
 which means the faintest trace of blue will become dis- 
 cernible. 
 
 ANNOTTO. 
 
 Annotto is a shrub which was originally a native plant 
 of South America, but is now cultivated in the East Indies 
 and St. Domingo, and called by botanists Bix orreUana. It 
 grows to the height of eight or ten feet, but never above 
 twelve feet. The leaves are divided by fibres of a brownish- 
 red hue, about four inches long, having a broad base, termi- 
 nating in a sharp point. The stems are used by the natives' 
 to make ropes of. The shrub bears an oblong pod, resembling 
 a chesnut-burr. At their first formation, they are a beautiful 
 rose-color, and as they ripen, they become a dark brown, and 
 then burst open, showing a crimson pulp, which contains 
 three or four seeds similar to raisin-stones. The pod is then 
 taken and stripped of its husks ; the seeds are rubbed together 
 in water, which deprives them of ail impure matters contained 
 in the seed ; the coloring-matter is then allowed to settle, and 
 the su[)ernatant liquor is drawn ofi", and the coloring-princi- 
 ple, or annotto, left to dry, when it will change to a dark- 
 brown color, having no taste, but a disagreeable odor when 
 brought into market. The smell is not natural to the annotto, 
 but is owing to the addition of stale urine, which is used to 
 retain its moisture and color. Annotto is used by the Indians 
 on the coast of the Carribbean Sea, to paint their bodies before 
 going into battle, in order to terrify their enemies. They do 
 
246 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 it by rubbing the seeds in oil, or some fatty matter, and 
 making it into some sort of paste ; then drj'^ it in the sun for 
 future use. 
 
 Annotto, when boiled, will give a syrupy solution of a 
 yellow crjlor, with the following re-actions : — 
 
 Alkalies will give a white precipitate of a clear orange 
 color ; an acid will change this to a redder shade. Muriatic 
 acid (HCl) has no action upon it. Nitric acid (HNO^) will 
 decompose it, and form several compounds, which have not 
 yet been fully examined. Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and the 
 solid annotto, will give a deep blue precipitate, but it changes 
 to a dirty green, then to a dark purple color. Chromic acid 
 (H.jCvOi) gives a deep orange color. Soda-ash (Na^COg) 
 gives the best results in producing an orange with tjiis aitlcle 
 upon cotton ; but all colors produced with annotto are fugitive, 
 and although the acids or alkalies cannot destroy the color 
 given by it, they will be constantly changing by exposure to 
 light and air, for which reason it is not so much used as for- 
 merly, and at the present time it is not used in woolen-dyeing, 
 'but by some dyers it is used in coloring mixed goods, such as 
 silk and cotton, silk and wool. 
 
 Annotto is dissolved readily in alkalies. The alkalies most 
 in use for this purpose are potash, or soda-ash, and for light 
 shades some dyers use soft-soap, instead of pot or soda ash. 
 By mixing ammonia (NH^) with annotto, and exposing it to 
 the air previous to coloring with it, we obtain a much richer 
 color. When it is thus mixed, a new substance is formed, 
 which is termed bixeine, and will not crystallize, but bocoiues 
 a sort of pasty matter, and is greatly improved by the admix- 
 ture, fiflvinor a more full and rich oran^fe shade. I do not 
 assert that annotto cannot be crystallized, but that the sub- 
 stance termed bixeine is not crystallizable. 
 
 It was considered that annotto contained two distinct color- 
 ing-matters, but it has been shown by Preisser, that the one 
 was the oxide of the other, and they are obtained by adding 
 sulphate of lead (PbSO^) to a solution of annotto ; the lead 
 
THE AMERICAN DYEll. 247 
 
 will precipitate the coloring-matter; then separate the lead 
 from the precipitate by the use of sniphnretted hydrogen, and 
 the substance being tiltered and evaporated, the coloring-mat- 
 ter is de[)osited in small crystals of a yellow-white color. 
 These crystals are hixine; they will become a deep yellow by 
 exposure to the atmosphere, but by dissolving them in water 
 you will prevent this change. These crystals {hixine) have 
 the following re-actions : — 
 
 Sulphuric acid gives a yellow that does uot turn blue as it 
 does with annotto. 
 
 Nitric acid gives a yellow shade. 
 
 Chromic acid gives a deep orange tint. 
 
 If ammonia is added to bixine, with free contact of air, it 
 will change the color from the yellowish-white to a fine deep 
 red, like the annotto from whicli, it was obtained, and it is 
 then another substance, and is termed bixeine, Avhich is not 
 crystallizable, but it may be obtained as a red powder. Sul- 
 phuric acid turns this powder to a blue, and combines with 
 alkalies, and is hixine with the addition of oxygen. Annotto 
 is adulterated mostly with ochre and oxide of lead (Pb.^0).. 
 These adulterations may be detected by burning a given 
 quantity in a porcelain crucible; if the annotto is free from 
 the above minerals, there will be no residuum left, but if there 
 is lead in it, if you keep the crucible at a red heat, there will 
 be a small ball of lead at the bottom ; and if ochre is the 
 adulteration, there will be a red powder left. 
 
 Some dj'ers, when using annotto, make what is termed a 
 stock liquor ; that is, the}'^ dissolve a quantity of it in a barrel 
 or some other vessel, and keep it for future use ; but this is 
 a bad i)ractice, as the solution will soon become stale, and, 
 consequently, loses a large amount of its coloring principle, 
 for which reason it is better when freshly made up. A \cvy 
 good method for preparing it is as follows : To a barrel of 
 water (forty-two gallons), add fifteen pounds of annotto, four 
 pounds soda-ash, three pounds soft-soap, and boil until all is 
 dissolved; but for nice light shades white bar-soap should be 
 
24:8 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 used. Cotton cloth or yarn put into this solution is colored 
 n dark orange color, but we can vary the shade from an orange 
 to a cream color, by just varying the amount of the solution. 
 The cloth or yarn requires no preparation or mordant, before 
 coloring with the above solution. This method is for cotton- 
 cloth, cotton-3'arn, or warp. By passing the cloth or yarn 
 through a weak solution of oil of vitriol, or, more properly 
 speaking, a sour bath, the orange color will assume a scarlet 
 or salmon color, according to the amount or depth of orange 
 color on the cloth or yarn, previous to passing it through 
 the acidulated bath. 
 
 BRAZIL-WOOD, OR HYPERNIC. 
 
 There are several varieties of this wood, and the}' are distin- 
 guished from each other by the name of the place from which 
 they are obtained, such as Pernambuco, Japan, Nicaragua, &c. 
 The last named wood is sometimes called Santa ^Martha wood. 
 They all give a good red, and, in relation to dyeing, are con- 
 sidered as onl\- different names for dyestuffs that produce 
 similar coloring effect, the hypernic-wood giving a more blue 
 tint to the red than the other kinds. The Pernaml)Uco con- 
 tains more coloring-matter than the others, although the hy- 
 pernic is the same in quality, giving a rich crimson color to 
 the solution, which the acidulous salts will change to an 
 orange, and the alkalies to a purple. The salts of potash, 
 soda, and ammonia will change the solution to a rose-color, 
 which will soon pass away by standing. The salts of tin (or 
 crystals of tin, SXCl,) will throw down very slowly a bright, 
 red-colored lake; and alum (SO4AI0) will have the same 
 effect, onl}' of a more decided and clearer red. 
 
 All these kinds of wood contain a coloring-matter called 
 hrasiline, or hrezilin (formula, €44114^^014 -j- 3 HOo), a color- 
 less sul)stance which will form crystals, the watery solution of 
 which turns gradualh' to carmine-red by exposure to air, the 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 249 
 
 same change being almost instantaneous, either hy boiling the 
 solution, or by the action of alkalies. The world at large, as 
 well as dyers, are greatly indebted to the French chenrists for 
 their valuable researches into the coloring-matters of these 
 as well as other dyewoods. Chevreul long since obtained 
 the coloring-matter from Brazil-wood by the following proc- 
 ess : Digesting the ground wood in water until all the color- 
 ing-matter is held in solution, and then evaporating it to 
 dryness, in order to get rid of a little acetic acid (C4O3H3) 
 that it contains. This residue is again dissolved in water. 
 The solution is then agitated with (PbO) litharge, so as to 
 deprive it of any fixed acid that it might contain. This solu- 
 tion is again evaporated to dryness. The residue is then 
 digested in alcohol (CoHi-O), pure. Afterwards the residual 
 matter is diluted with (HO) water. Then there is added to 
 this solution dissolved glue, until all the tannin which it con- 
 tains is thrown down (or precipitated). Filter it again, and 
 evaporate to dryness, and digest the residue in alcohol again, 
 which will leave undissolved any excess of glue which might 
 have been added. This last alcoholic solution being evapor- 
 ated to dryness, leaves hrezilin^ the coloring-matter of the 
 wood in a state of purity. 
 
 The re-agents act upon brezilin as follows : — 
 
 Copperas (SO^Fe) gives a dark purple, not changed by 
 standing. 
 
 Nitrate of iron (3NOu2Fe) changes it to a crimson. 
 
 Chloride of tin (SNCl.,) changes it to a very deep crimson. 
 
 A hot solution of (SNCl^) to a deep red precipitate. 
 
 Acetate of copper (IC4O3H32CU) will give a dark purple. 
 
 The action of chromic acid (Il2Cr04) is very remarkable on 
 the l)rezilin. We find that they will decompose each other, 
 and produce a beautiful yellowish brown. 
 
 The action of bichromate of potash (H^CroOj), with a decoc- 
 tion of Brazil-wood, has long been taken advantage of in 
 calico-printing, and I think, by a proper modification, it might 
 be advantageously applied in the woolen dye-house. 
 32 
 
250 THE AMEKICAX DYER. 
 
 These remarks upon the pure coloring-principle of Brazil- 
 wood (breziliu) are applicable to the wood in its rough state. 
 My opinion is, that the pure coloring-matter of these, as well 
 as other dye-woods, are oxides of a colorless base. Thus, 
 brezilin is the oxide of a base which is without color, and its 
 composition is: carbon, 36; hydrogen, 14: oxygen, 14. 
 Preisser terms, or calls, the pure coloring-principle of Brazil- 
 wood brezilin, and that its composition is : carl)ou, 30 ; hydro- 
 gen, 14; oxygen, 12. B}' comparing the two, we find that 
 one is converted into the other by absorbing two proportions 
 of oxygen, and that the re-actions are allied to those of indigo 
 and logwood. (See articles on indigo and logwood.) 
 
 Brezilin is very soluble in alcohol or water, but, from the 
 hardness of the wood from which it is obtained, the brezilin 
 cannot be extracted except b}' hard boiling, and not then com- 
 pletely. Alcohol is the onl}' element that will extract all the 
 coloring-matter from this wood, as well as from bar wood and 
 Sanders. A decoction of Brazil-wood will have a deep red 
 color, but changes into a rich yellow-red by standing. Acids 
 will give it a yellowish color, and render it unfit for dj^eing 
 purposes. Alkalies give it a violet color, which is very fugi- 
 tive. 
 
 The Brazil-wood tree, called by botanists Ccesalpinia crista, 
 is a native tree of South America, and some authors give it 
 the name of the country in which it is most abundantly found, 
 — Brazil (see Southey's History of Brazil, vol. I.). It grows 
 mostly in dry places, and amongst rocks. Its trunk is large, 
 crooked, and full of knots. The following description of this 
 d3"e-wood will be found in "Bell's Geography": — 
 
 "The Brazil-wood, known in Pernambuco by the name of 
 j)ao da rainha (Queen's-wood), is now rarely to be seen 
 within many miles of the coast, owing to the improvident 
 manner in which it has been cut down b}'^ the government 
 agents, without any regard being paid to the size of the tree, 
 or its cultivation. It is not a loft\' tree. At a short distance 
 from the ground, numerous branches shoot out, and extend in 
 
THE AMEltlCAX DYER. 251 
 
 every diroction in a stragpfling, irregular, and impleasiiig man- 
 ner. Tlie leaves are small, and not luxuriant. The wood is 
 very hard and heavy. It takes a high polish (the same as 
 camwood), and sinks in water. The only part of it that is 
 valuable as a dye is the heart of the tree (the bark having no 
 coloring-principle in it). The name of this wood is derived 
 from brasas, a glowing fire of coal. The leaves are pointed. It 
 has blossoms of a whitish color, growing in a pyramidal spike 
 (resembling the sumac-blossom). One species of the Brazil- 
 wood has flowers, which are variegated with red, the branches 
 being slender, and fidl of prickle-thorns. The wood known 
 b}' the name of Pernambuco contains the greatest amount of 
 coloring-matter. It is of a yellowish color when freshl}' cut, 
 but turns red by exposure to the atmosphere. That kind 
 called Lima-wood is the same in quality." 
 
 The action of the metallic salts has the same result on all 
 these different-named woods, they being the same in nature as 
 regards their coloring matters or principles. For cotton- 
 thread dyein.g with these woods (for reds) the proper mor- 
 dant seems to be alum and muriate of tin (or tin spirits). 
 But all the colors obtained from these woods are more or less 
 fugitive, losing their brilliancy upon a short exposure to the 
 atmosphere. The sun's rays have a powerful influence upon 
 these woods ; for this reason, all colors produced by them 
 should be dried in the shade or on a drying-machine. When 
 colors dyQ(\ with these woods are exposed to the sun's rays, 
 they will in a short time have a blackish tint, and will pass to 
 a brown, and after awhile fade away to a light dun color. 
 These changes are thought to be caused by the coloring-mat- 
 ter being decomposed into water and some other volatile 
 substance, leaving a part of the carbon free, which will pro- 
 duce the black tint. Notwithstanding all this, there is a large 
 consumption of these woods, more especially for dyeing fancy 
 reds on cotton-threads. 
 
 The hypernic wood is the best for coloring garnets, rubies, 
 
252 THE AMEBIC AX DYER. 
 
 and maroons on wool, on account of its not being such a 
 decided red as the other woods. 
 
 BARWOOD. 
 
 This wood is brought principally from Sierra Leone and the 
 equatorial regions of Western Africa. It is a hard, resinous 
 wood, and is considered by some chemists to be the same as 
 Sanders or saunders-ivood . 
 
 This dyewood is always received by the dyer in a ground 
 state, as it would be almost impossible to extract its coloring 
 matters by boiling in water if it was used in the chip. The 
 wood is a bright red color, devoid of savor or smell, and 
 imparts l)ut a very slight color to the saliva; its coloring-prin- 
 ciples are similar to camwood and sauders, but the color 
 given by it is of a bluer cast than either of the last-named 
 Avoods, and of a poorer and more feeble intensity, on account 
 of the coloring-matters being more widely separated from 
 each other on the colored fabric than those colored by cam- 
 wood or Sanders ; yet it yields a coloring-matter th.it is per- 
 manent with or without a mordant (the same is applicable to 
 the last-named woods), but the wool or cloth colored with 
 barwood is not so harsh to the touch as if colored with either 
 camwood or sanders. Barwood requires longer boiling than 
 other woods to bring into solution all its coloring-principles, 
 with the exception of camwood and sanders, the latter being 
 harder and more resinous than barwood. Alkalies, astrin- 
 gents and alcohol, cause it to dissolve easily in water. Some 
 botanists make a distinction bet^ween barwood and camwood, 
 but the two woods are found in their chemical ctjmpcjsition to 
 be the same. To extract the whole of the color from tifteen 
 grains of barwood, Preisser found that it was necessarv to 
 treat it several times with alcohol at a boiling heat. The 
 alcoholic liquid contained 0.23 of liquid coloring-principle and 
 0.004 of salt. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 2.13 
 
 Biirwootl contains 0.23 per cent, of red colorinij^-mattor, 
 whilst sunders contains 1(5.75 per cent, according to Pel- 
 letier. The alcoholic solution of barwood has the folloning 
 re-actions : — 
 
 The ti.xed alkalies will turn it to a dark crimson or dark 
 violet. Liuie-water has the same action as the fixed alkalies. 
 
 Sulphuric acid (H^SO^) darkens the color to a cochineal 
 red. 
 
 Muriate of tin gives a brick-red precipitate. 
 
 Tin crystals (SNCl.^) give a blood-red precipitate. 
 
 Protoxide of iron (FeO) gives a very abundant violet pre- 
 cipitate. 
 
 Cupric sulphate (CuSO^), a violet-brown gelatinous pre- 
 cipitate. • 
 
 Acetate of lead (PbA^O^), a dark violet gelatinous precipi- 
 tate. 
 
 Pyroxylic acid (C.^H^Oo) and alcohol act alike on barwood, 
 and the strong colored solution behaves the same with the 
 same re-agents. 
 
 Hydrated ether will dissolve 19.47 per cent, of the coloring- 
 principle of barwood. Ammonia, potash, or soda added to a 
 stroui; solution of barwood, will turn it to a dark violet color. 
 In coloring wool with barwood, it must come in contact with 
 the wool in order that all the color can be extracted from the 
 wbod, for which reason the wood is either thrown loose into 
 the tub or kettle, or sprinkled upon the wool before it is 
 thrown into the dye-tub. I think the best method for the use 
 of barwood, in order to obtain the best results from the given 
 amount of wood used is, to sprinkle the wood upon the avooI 
 before entering it, or, in other words, you must mix the wood 
 with the wool, which can be done by spreading a layer of 
 wool upon the floor of the dye-house, in front of the tul) in 
 which you intend to make the color; then sprinkle on a cer- 
 tain amount of the barwood ; then a layer of wool, and so on 
 alteruMtoly until you have given or used the amount of wood 
 required for the color you are making. It will not do to put 
 
254 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 the harwood in bags to boil out, as it will become solid or 
 compact, and it will be impossible to extract all the coloring- 
 matter from the wood, as the boiling water has no chance to 
 saturate it and dissolve the colorinjj-matter. The coloriuff- 
 matter of barwood, while at the boiling point, combines easily 
 with wool or cotton that has previously been mog^lanted, the 
 mordant taking up the coloring-matter of the barwood that is 
 at that time in solution, and the water, thus exhausted of its 
 color, will dissolve'another proportion of the cohjiing-matter 
 of the wood, which is again taken up by the wool or cotton, 
 and so on until the mordant upon the material has l)ecome 
 completely saturated with the color, and it is now at its bright- 
 est and richest color. 
 
 The above remarks are equally appli(fable to camwood and 
 Sanders. Barwood is not used for compound colors on cot- 
 ton with the other red woods, but in woolen-dyeing it is. 
 The coloring-matter of barwood has not been obtained in a 
 crystallized state, but I am inclined to think that crystals can 
 be obtained from it by a careful management of experiments 
 made with that object in view, and I feel warranted to assert 
 that the pure coloring-principle, or, in other words, the matter 
 which creates a color, when united to a metallic or earthy 
 salt, is an undefined crystalline body, and that it is this crys- 
 talline substance only that we require, in dyeing, to produce 
 the most brilliant hues (the aniline dyes corrol)orate this 
 assertion) ; and whenever that period in futurity arrives when 
 the dyer can obtain, in a crystalline torm, the coloring-mat- 
 ters of the rough dyestufis which yield the pure reds, yellows, 
 and blues, then all will be accomplished that the art of dye- 
 ing requires in this respect, because from these three coloring- 
 matters every other shade or color in dvein": can be obtained 
 by proper treatment and manipulation. Alcohol, alkalies, 
 and matters or substances that contain tannin or the astrin- 
 gent principle, such as sumac, nutgalls, c'cc, all aid or facili- 
 tate the extraction of the coloring-matter from barwood, 
 camwood, and sauders. I will here caution the dyer in 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 255 
 
 regard to the too careless practice of not washing out the tuba 
 or kettles after coloring in them such colors as reciuire sacl- 
 clening, for if the tub is not thoroughly w^ished out from this 
 previous coloring, and you are going to use barwood, cam- 
 wood, or Sanders for your next color in the same tub, there 
 "will be more or less of the metallic salt left in the tub, which 
 will prevent the woods from giving out or yielding up their 
 coloring properties to water. Barwood is used with fustic, 
 camwood, and madder, in woolen-dyeing for browns, brown 
 olives, <fcc. 
 
 , CAMWOOD. 
 This is another species of the red woods, and grows in 
 Sierra Leone and those countries adjacent to the Bight of 
 Benin, and has chemical pr()i)erties and nature very similar to 
 barwood and sanders, and is called b}^ botanists hois roiujey 
 santal rouge. It contains more coloring-matter or principle 
 than sanders or barwood, and is a more permanent color. It 
 comes to the dyer in a groimd state, the same as barwood 
 and sanders. The precipitates from a solution of this wood 
 are of a more yellow cast, which explains why the colors 
 dyed with it are so much more intense and rich than colors 
 produced by the other red woods, on account of its color 
 being more of a decided red. It is more extensively used in 
 woolen-dyeing than either of the other red woods, for the 
 reasons given above, and is similar to barwood. It will give 
 a permanent color with or without a mordant. Camwood 
 gives out its color with great reluctance, but by taking one- 
 half ounce of soda-ash (Na.^CO;;) for every twelve pounds of 
 camwood used, and adding it to the Uoiling solution just before 
 the wool is thrown into the tub, it will make a great ditferencp 
 in the quantity of color obtained, and the wool will n(»t feel 
 so harsh (the same may be said in regard to barwood), and 
 will card more open than if the soda-ash had not been used. 
 
256 THE A3IERICAX DYER. 
 
 Camwood naturally gives a harsh feeling to wool, but not so 
 much as sauders. Re-agents give the following results : — 
 
 Copperas (SOiFe) gives a plum color. 
 
 Muriate of tin gives a bright crimson-red color. 
 
 Blue vitriol (CUSO4) gives a handsome-looking claret. 
 
 Alum (SO4AI.2) gives the solution a beautiful red color. 
 
 Acetate of copper (verdigris) gives a light reddish-bro\vii. 
 
 Nitrate of iron (3NO^;2Fe) gives a reddish-brown. 
 
 None of the salts of lime seem to produce desirable results 
 upon it as a mordant. Blue vitriol gives the best results or 
 effects upon the color of this wood, and appears to be the 
 most effectual mordant for it, especially if using it for browns. 
 
 CATECHU — SOMETIMES CALLED CUTCH. 
 
 This is a dry extract, prepared from a sensitive plant called 
 Terra Jcqwiiica, and contains a large amount of tannin or 
 astringent principle. It grows in the mountainous districts 
 of .Hindostan. It grows to about twelve feet in height. 
 The trunk is about one foot in diameter, and covered with a 
 thick, dark-brown bark. The extract is obtained in the fol- 
 lowing manner : The plant is cut down and all the exterior 
 white wood cut into chips ; these chips are put into unglazed 
 pots, and enough water added to cover them ; heat is then 
 applied, and when half the water is evaporated the decoction 
 is poured into a shallow earthen vessel and reduced two-thirds 
 by boiling ; it is then set away to cool for one or two days, 
 then afterwards evaporated by the heat of the sun, it being 
 stirred occasionall}' during that process. After it is reduced 
 to a certain thickness it is*spread upon mats that are sprinkled 
 with the ashes of cow-duns:. Strin^js are laid so as to divide 
 this mass into quadrangular pieces ; it is then completely 
 dried in the sun, aftur which it is ready for the market. 
 There is a catechu brought to this country from India, which 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 257 
 
 is in small, cubical-shaped masses, about one inch in size, but 
 it is of inferior quality, and is easily known from the genuine. 
 Sometimes means are employed to alter this inferior article, 
 and cause it to be more difficult to detect. It contains a 
 larsfe amount of roasted starch, or dextrine. Good catechu 
 is of a dark-brown color, or what is called a chocolate color, 
 and has an astringent taste, with no odor or smell, and will 
 all dissolve in water, and the solution is a yellowish-brown in 
 color. Good catechu will contain about 
 
 50 per cent, of Tannin, 
 
 8 ♦' of Gum, 
 35 '* of Extractive matter, 
 
 7 '* of Impurities in 100 parts. 
 
 There are different qualities of catechu in the market. We 
 will mention but three of them — the Bombay, Bengal, and 
 Malabar. The Bombay is found, or comes to the dyer, in 
 square masses, of a reddish-brown color, and if broken will 
 exhibit an unbroken texture. Its composition will be found 
 as the above, nearly. This catechu (the Bombay) is said to 
 be the best kind. The term extractive is an indefinite ex- 
 pression, and is designated as a brown matter that can be 
 extracted from all vegetables by boiling, but its true nature is 
 as yet comparatively unknown ; yet the part it may have iu 
 the re-actions of catechu is perhaps important, and is not to 
 be lost sight of iu the use of this drug. Bengal catechu is 
 found to be in flattish, round lumps, and its outside appear- 
 ance is of a light-brown color ; the inside is a very dark- 
 brown color. Its composition is : ^ 
 
 48.9 per cent, of Tannin, 
 
 37.0 " of Extractive matter, 
 
 7.5 " of Gum, 
 
 Q.6 " of Impurities in 100 parts. 
 
 33 
 
258 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 This catechu is extracted from the nuts of the Areca cate- 
 chu plant. The Mahibar catechu we will find in large masses ; 
 that is, it comes into the market in a solid mass, with a cov- 
 erins: of leaves, and often there are leaves intermixed, or in 
 layers throughout the whole sack, and comes in about one 
 hundred pounds to the sack. The color of this catechu is a 
 light brown upon the outside, but very dark inside. 
 
 These diflerent catechus contain from thirty to fifty per 
 cent, of tanning principle, or, we might say, tannic acid, or 
 catechu tannic acid (formula, C^jHi^Oy) ; also a peculiar acid 
 called catechutic acid (CijjHi^Oe), but the last-named acid is 
 of but little use, either in dyeing or for tanning purposes. 
 
 Sometimes dealers will place or put into the market an 
 inferior article of Malabar catechu (called kino) as the real 
 Malabar, but it can be known by its being greatly broken up, 
 and a large amount of fine-powdered adulterations of a brown- 
 red color. It is soluble in hot water, the same as other cate- 
 chus ; but the solution will be of a more blood-red color, and 
 will have more of an astringent and sweet taste than any other 
 varieties of catechu. It contains but thirty per cent, of tan- 
 nic acid (CijHiiOe). 
 
 Kino is used mostly for what is termed quick tanning, in 
 the process of manufacturing leather from the raw hides. 
 This kino, or variety of catechu, is extracted from various 
 plants, such as Butea frondosa, cocolaba uviferai Pteroccuyus 
 marsupium, and other plants. 
 
 Its composition is : 
 
 Tannin, ..... 45.3 
 
 Extractive matter, . . . 39.5 
 
 Gum, 8.5 
 
 Impurities, .... 6.7 =. 100. 
 
 Catechu is adulterated by numerous vegetable extracts, and 
 
 •with sand, clay, and ochre. The last-named adulterations 
 
 can be easily detected by dissolving some of the catechu in 
 
THE AMERICAN DYEIl. 259 
 
 water, and these impurities will settle, as good catechu is all 
 soluble in water, and gives a clear solution of a yellowish- 
 brown color, which the acids will brighten and alkalies 
 darken, and the shade will deepen by standing. Some cate- 
 chus have been found to contain from eight to ten per cent, 
 of clay and sand mixed with them. 
 
 The tannin in catechu is not so easily converted by expos- 
 ure to the atmosphere into gallic acid, as nutgalls are, but it 
 is subject to oxidation. 
 
 In coloring cotton-yarn .vith catechu, the threuds will ad- 
 here to each other when dry ; but by giving the solution a 
 small quantity of sulphate of copper, this gummy su])stance 
 is precipitated, because the copper salt will oxidize a portion 
 of the catechu. Although this gummy substance is insoluble 
 in water, yet it is soluble in the deoxidized catechu ; therefore 
 the whole must be held in solution in the bath. 
 
 The yarn now being passed through this solution, will come 
 out of a yellowish-brown color, and does not stick together, 
 which is not the case if the copper salt had not been used. 
 Now pass the yarn through a solution of chrome, and we 
 obtain a deep, rich brown. Whether the bichromate of pot- 
 ash (ICCr.P;) acts as a base on any part of the catechu, or 
 the yarn, we are not prepared to say ; but on burning cotton- 
 yarn dyed brown by this process, you will obtain in the 
 ashes of the cotton the oxides of both the copper and chrome, 
 proving that both the chrome and copper used must have 
 an active part in the formation of the color ; and it also 
 proves that the dye is something more than the mere oxida- 
 tion of catechu. When catechu is oxidized, there is a forma- 
 tion of an acid nearly like that of gallic acid ; but this acid is 
 only formed when a solution of catechu is treated with an 
 alkaline substance. This drug is now used in almost all the 
 compound colors on raw cotton and cotton-yarn, such as 
 blacks, browns, drabs, fowns, and greens, and its permanency 
 is the reason why it is esteemed so highly in the coloring of 
 raw cotton at the present time. iMr. Cooper made an analysis 
 
260 
 
 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 of a sample of catechu, giving a wider range of the matters 
 contained in it, and which will serve to give a better idea of 
 the various kinds of this substance, for, from the different 
 methods of preparation, probably there are no two samples 
 that will give the same proportions. The following is the 
 result of his analysis : 
 
 Tannin, .... 
 
 Extractive or coloring matter, 
 
 Kesinous matter, 
 
 Gummy matter. 
 
 Insoluble matter, 
 
 Water, .... 
 
 62.8 
 8.2 
 2.0 
 8.5 
 4.4 
 
 12.3 
 
 98.2 
 
 COCHINEAL. 
 
 This coloring material is a small insect, called Coccus cacti, 
 found on small species of the cactus plant, but more especially 
 upon the napal plant and Cactus opuntia. This insect, as well 
 as the plant on which it feeds, is cultivated in Mexico, Java, 
 Algeria, Central America, &c. It is a native of Cuba, St. 
 Domingo, and other "West India islands. 
 
 At one time the German chemists stated that the plant 
 upon which the insects feed was the source from which the 
 coloring-matter was obtained : but experiments made with 
 that object in view, go to show that the animal economy plays 
 a very prominent part in the formation of the coloring- 
 matter. 
 
 The male insect is of no value as a coloring material, 
 and he is winged, while the female is wingless. The 
 female insects are collected twice a year, immediately after 
 they have been fecundated and have laid eggs for the repro- 
 duction of young. They are then collected by shaking them 
 
THE AMERICAK DYER. 261 
 
 from the plant on cotton sheets, and arc |<illcd cither by 
 steam or by the heat of an oven, but usually by the lust 
 method. Two varieties are known in the trade, the black 
 and the silver-colored cochineal. Another kind is called the 
 wild cochineal, on account of their being collected from plants 
 o-rowing wild or in a state of nature, but this kind is inferior 
 to the other varieties. Cochineal appears as small, deep 
 brown-red grains, on the flattened side of which the structure 
 of the insect is somewhat discernible. Sometimes the dried 
 insect is covered with a white dust (called powdered talc), 
 which is caused by the dealers dusting the cochineal with 
 either talc or chalk, in order to deceive the purchaser ; this is 
 only done with the poorer kinds of cochineal. There have 
 been many investigations upon cochineal, but the results have 
 not been very satisfactory. These are some of the instances. 
 Cochineal contains : — 
 
 1. Carmine, which may be termed the coloring- matter. 
 
 2. A peculiar animal matter. 
 
 3. A fatty matter, composed of stearine, bleine, and 
 volatile fatty acids. 
 
 4. Saline matters, as phosphate of lime, carbonate of lime, 
 chloride of potassium, phosphate of potash, a combination of 
 potash with organic acids. 
 
 Dr. John gives as his analysis the following results : — 
 
 Red coloring-matter, . • • 50.0 
 
 Gelatine, ^'^'^ 
 
 Wax, 10-0 
 
 Debris of skin, &c., . • • ^^-^ 
 
 Gummy matter, .... 13.0 
 Phosphate of lime, of potash, and iron, 
 
 chloride of potassium, . • 2.5 
 
 Its constituents are, according to Dr. Ure's "Table of 
 organic analysis" : — 
 
262 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Ciirbon, . . . . 50.75 
 
 Hydrogen, . . . . 5.81 
 
 Oxygen, .... 36.53 • 
 
 Azote, . . . . 6.91=100 
 
 Cochineal contains a peculiar kind of acid, called carminic 
 acid (Ci7H,80io+3 HgO). Diluted sulphuric acid will split up 
 this acid into carmine-red (carmine), and into dextrose, and 
 as this acid contains carmine and dextrose, which is present 
 in the insect, the re-action is thus expressed : — 
 
 CnH,30io+3 H,0 = QAA+CeHjA 
 
 Carniiiiic Caiuiine- Dextrose, 
 
 acid. red. 
 
 There is another adulteration of cochineal besides the dust- 
 ing of it with talc and chalk, which consists in extracting 
 some of the coloring-matter from it by boiling in water and 
 then soaking it again in a concentrated solution of Brazil-wood 
 or logwood ; then it is dried and dusted again with talc, as 
 before. This can be detected by boiling a small quantity of 
 the suspected cochineal, then adding a little lime-water to the 
 solution, which will precipitate all the coloring-matter of 
 cochineal and will leave the solution clear, but if Brazil-wood 
 or logwood is present in it the solution will be a purplish red 
 after the lime-water is added. 
 
 *' In making choice of'cochineal, see that each grain exhibits 
 a bright, free, clear, bold, large appearance ; that the whole 
 mass is free from dust or small abraded parts of the insect 
 or other matters foreign to its nature, and that a quantity of 
 it, when poised in the hand, has a certain weight, feel, or 
 specific gravity, which any person that is much accustomed 
 to, can distinguish with the greatest nicety." 
 
 "Cochineal contains 50 per cent, of a pure crytallizable 
 coloring-principle, which is easily given out to boiling water, 
 forming a well saturated solution of a deep crimson or claret 
 
THE AMERICAX DYER. 263 
 
 color." A strong solution of it exhibits the following results 
 with re-agents : — 
 
 Copperas throws down a plum-colored precipitate. 
 
 Blue vitriol — a red precipitate; a portion of the colors 
 remain in the solution. 
 
 Nitrate of copper — a brighter color of the same charac- 
 ter, the solution not so much colored. 
 
 Nitrate of mercury — a brown chocolate sediment, and solu- 
 tion lilac-colored. 
 
 Nitrate of lead — a heavy purple precipitate, and solution 
 nearly colorless. 
 
 Nitrate and sulphate of zinc — results very similar to the 
 lead. 
 
 Nitrate of silver — a dull, bluish-black precipitate. 
 
 Nitrate of lime — a scanty precipitate, the solution blued up 
 to a violet or deep lilac. 
 
 Sulphate of magnesia — no precipitate, the color of the 
 solution unaflected. 
 
 Oxalic acid turns the solution to an orange color and a 
 scanty precipitate of an aurora color. 
 
 Citric acid — similar effects, only of a redder hue. 
 
 Tartar brightens up the solution, causing it to assume a 
 fine scarlet color, and after some time a light-red precipitate 
 falls. 
 
 Super-oxalate of potash produces more decided effects of 
 the same character as tartar. « 
 
 " Alum gives the solution a fine crimson appearance, and a 
 moderate precipitate of the same color takes place, the solu- 
 tion still retaining considerable coloring-matter, which a solu- 
 tion of nitro-muriate of tin will precipitate to a more decided 
 scarlet, leaving the residuary solution of a pale fawn color." 
 
 "All the alkalies cause the claret-colored solution of cochi- 
 neal to pass to a deep violet, with scarcely any, or very small 
 precipitation, and even several ueutral alkaline salts, such as 
 
264 THE AMERICA2«^ DYER. 
 
 muriate of soda, &c. (common salt), have similar but feebler 
 effects. Other acids, not named above, act in a similar man- 
 ner, with some variations, differing but little in their mean 
 results from oxalic and citric acids." 
 
 From these results and observations, we may infer — 
 
 "First. That tartar is useful, by causing cochineal to give 
 out its coloring-principle more completely to water, and that 
 it turns its natural color more towards scarlet, and the larger 
 the amount of tartar, the more this color tends towards 
 aurora." 
 
 "Second. Therefore a definite quantity of this acidulous 
 salt is necessary in dyeing scarlet and its diiferent shades, not 
 only to give the peculiar tone of scarlet to the color, but also 
 to create a greater quantity of it, by aiding the cochineal to 
 produce a more abundant precipitate of color than it other- 
 wise would ; but, again, the quantity of tartar must not exceed 
 a certain proportion, because, as the roseate hue of the scar- 
 let is more and more changed towards aurora, the greater the 
 excess of tartar over the just proportion." 
 
 " Third. As our scarlet color may be considered a compound 
 of a pure red or carmine, and a small proportion of yellow, 
 and although we could communicate the necessary yellow 
 shade to it by working the cochineal towards the aurora, by 
 using an excess of tartar, yet we economize the consumption 
 of that expensive article, and obtain a more desirable color, 
 by producing the yellow part from a less expensive dyestuff, 
 such as flavine, fustic, &c." 
 
 "Fourth. Tartar is also necessary in dyeing any of the 
 shades of crimson, from a pink upwards ; but in a much less 
 proportion than for the scarlet shades, because all we want of 
 it in this case is merely to spring the cochineal, and still pre- 
 serve, as much as possible, the bright crimson tint natural to 
 it. The proportional quantity of tartar to the cochineal, in 
 these two cases, is about, for the scarlet, five of tartar to five 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 265 
 
 of cochineal; and for the crimson, three of tartar to live of 
 cochineal (these parts by weight)." 
 
 "Fifth. That solutions of tin are the only proper mordants 
 or base for the scarlet shades, of which solutions, the nitro- 
 muriate is the best; and that alum, with an eqjial weight of a 
 well saturated solution of nitro-muriate of tin, is the best 
 mordant for crimson shades." 
 
 "Sixth. That none of the metallic salts used as mordants 
 with cochineal, produce any better colors than can be obtained 
 from less expensive materials ; so they are of no advantage in 
 the application of cochineal as a dye." 
 
 "Seventh. And that all alkalies, alkaline earths, and even 
 some neutral alkaline salts, blue up the cochineal colors, mak- 
 ing the scarlet approach the crimson, and the crimson pass to 
 the purple shade. The brilliant colors given by this sub- 
 stance are remarkably sensitive to alkaline proximity, for they 
 will indicate by their change of shade, so small a quantity of 
 alkaline presence, as almost to warrant their employment as 
 tests of alkalinity. These alterants are, therefore, employed 
 for the heightening, rosing, or bluing of pinks, roses, crim- 
 sons, &c., for which purpose ammonia is generally used, as 
 producing the brightest and most desirable effects." 
 
 " Eighth. That all acids, and even acidulous salts, cause the 
 colors from cochineal to pass from the crimson to the aurora 
 or orange shade, in proportion to the quantity of real acid 
 strength acting upon them ; or in proportion to the power of 
 the particular acid to communicate to, or abstract oxygen 
 from, the cochineal color." 
 
 "The oxalic, nitric, and muriatic acids in excess, change the 
 color of scarlet to a deep yellow, which can never be restored 
 to scarlet again, by any known means; notwithstanding this, 
 the cochineal color bears a great acid power before it is much 
 injured." 
 
 Cochineal yields rose-colored crystals, by treating it with 
 alcohol and nitric ether. The crystallization of cochineal was 
 34 
 
266 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 discovered l)y Pelletier and Caventon, and named by them 
 carminmm, and au account of it was first published by Dr. 
 Ure in his notes to Berthollett's Elements of Dyeing, some 
 fifty years ago. The true scarlet color cannot be produced by 
 any other known means, than by cochineal and solution of tin. 
 
 CARMINE. 
 
 Carmine is made by boiling out the color from the cochi- 
 neal, then filtering the solution ; to this filtered solution alum 
 is added, after which it is left to settle. Another method is 
 to boil the ground cochineal in a solution of carbonate of soda 
 (XaCOg) ; the white of eggs is then added to the solution in 
 order to clarify it, and after this the solution is precipitated 
 with an acid ; then washed. The washed precipitate is then 
 dried at 30°. 
 
 When carmine is prepared in this manner, it is finer and 
 better than when otherwise prepared, but the common carmine 
 — carmine lac and round lac — is made by treating an aluminous 
 solution of cochineal with soda-ash, and the greater amount 
 of alum contained in carmine thus made, the coarser will be 
 the quality. 
 
 Carmine is extensively prepared in France, and is made and 
 largely used for coloring artificial flowers, for making red inks 
 and paints, and it is the substance that lines the pink saucers 
 for beautifying the cheeks of ladies. In making carmine, it 
 is found that a larger amount can be produced from the same 
 quantity of cochineal when a wood fire is employed to boil the 
 solutions, than when coal is used, and why this is so is not yet 
 fully understood. There are many other points which go to 
 show how delicate an operation it is to make good carmine. 
 Light has a great efiect in producing, good carmine. In mak- 
 ing carmine, the residue which is left from the cochineal, is 
 boiled in water for some time ; then to this solution they add 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 267 
 
 a solution of muriate of tin and alum, which precipitates a 
 colored lake. This beautiful lake is termed carmine-lake. 
 Carmine is aftected by the following re-agents thus : — 
 
 Tannin will give no precipitate. 
 
 Ammonia, soda, and potash change it to a crimson violet. 
 
 Strontia and baryta produce the same effect. 
 
 Lime gives a crimson-violet precipitate. 
 
 Most of the acids change its color from a bright to a yellow- 
 ish red. 
 
 Boracic acid does not change the color, but rather red- 
 dens it. 
 
 Chlorine turns the color yellow. 
 
 The salts of copper change it to* a violet, but leave no 
 precipitate. 
 
 The salts of iron turn it brown, but leave no precipitate. 
 
 The salts of lead change it to a violet, but leave no pre- 
 cipitate. 
 
 Peroxide of tin changes it to a crimson violet. 
 
 Protoxide of tin changes it to a yellowish red. 
 
 Alumina combines with it, and precipitates it as a beautiful 
 red ; but if boiled, it passes to a violet red. 
 
 FUSTIC. 
 
 This dyestuflf is manufactured from the dyer's mulberry- 
 tree, botanically termed Moms iinctoria, or Madura auran- 
 tiaca. It is imported from Cuba, St. Domingo, and Ilayti, 
 that from Cuba being the best. It is found growing "spon- 
 taneously in the Brazils. It is uncertain when it was first 
 introduced as a dye-drug, l)ut mention is made of it as early 
 as 1692. This wood is the color of sulphur, with orange- 
 colored veins, andj in some parts, yellow-red color. This is 
 due to a colorless and crystallized body termed morine 
 (CioHgOj) i)resent, in combination Avith lime, and also to a 
 very peculiar kind of tannic acid, termed maclurine (having 
 
268 THE AMERICAN DTEE. 
 
 for its formula, CiaHioOg), which we find deposited in the 
 wood in large quantities, which becomes yellow by being 
 exposed to the air, and in contact with alkalies. This wood 
 has been long employed for coloring yellows and greens ; 
 but, for these colors, it is almost superseded by flavine and 
 quercitron-bark, especially on cotton-yarus, light cotton 
 fabrics, such as muslins, &c. 
 
 A solution of fustic should be used imraedi^tel}^ after being 
 boiled from the wood, as, after it begins to cool, the coloring- 
 matter begins to precipitate ; and if allowed to stand for 
 twelve hours, it is unfit for use, as the morine, or coloring- 
 principle, will crystallize, and settle at the bottom of the d3'e- 
 tub, and will not completely dissolve again in its own solu- 
 tion, and loses its coloring properties, which ever}' practical 
 dyer must have observed. Fustic requires more boiling than 
 logwood or hypernic, but not so much as camwood, barwood, 
 or Sanders. Fustic is almost an indispensable material in 
 woolen-dyeing, as it is used in almost all those colors where a 
 yellow enters into their composition ; and it being cheap, and 
 giving durable colors either with or without mordants, we 
 cannot verv well find a substitute for it. Its greatest con- 
 sumption is in making the compound colors, such as browns, 
 olives, drabs, greens, &c. 
 
 A decoction of fustic will give, with the following re-agents, 
 these results : — 
 
 Alkalies give an orange color, with a green tint. 
 
 Muriate of tin gives a rich j'cllow. 
 
 Nitro-muriate of tin (yellow spirits) gives a reddish yellow. 
 
 Potash sulphate of alumina (alum) gives a canar\^-yellow. 
 
 The proto and per salts of iron (copperas and iron liquor) 
 give a greenish-olive tint, which darkens by standing. 
 
 Cupric sulphate (blue vitriol) gives a green olive. 
 
 Nitric acid gives a red precipitate. 
 
 Sulphuric acid gives a red precipitate after standing for a 
 short time. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYEK. 269 
 
 Recipe for Yellow with Fustic. 
 375 lbs. wool (coarse) in the grease, or 187 lbs. clean : 
 15 lbs. Alum, 
 7 lbs. Red Tartar, 
 5 lbs. Muriate of Tin, 
 70 lbs. Chip Fustic. 
 Boil out the fustic for one and a half hours. Then take out 
 the bags containing the fustic, and add to the solution the alum, 
 tartar,'' and tin-liquor. Stir up the whole. Then enter the 
 wool ; pole up well, and boil for one hour. It is immaterial 
 whether you wash off the wool from the color or not. ^ This 
 recipe gives a very permanent color, and is used for listings 
 and mixtures. A deeper color is produced as follows : — 
 
 200 lbs. coarse wool in the grease, or 125 lbs. clean : 
 60 lbs. Chip Fustic, 
 6 lbs. Red Tartar, 
 12 lbs. Alum, 
 2 quarts Muriate of Tin. 
 Proceed as above in all particulars. 
 
 YOUNG FUSTIC, OR FRENCH FUSTET. 
 This is a green-yellow wood, exhibiting brown-colored 
 stripes through it, and is obtained from a European shrub. Its 
 botanical name is Rhus cotinus, a plant growing in the south- 
 ern parts of Europe, principally in Italy and Southern France, 
 and was long used in France, and called fustet, for giving a 
 yellow dye. The prefix "young" was given to it on account 
 of the smallness of its branches in comparison to the yellow 
 wood, designated as old fustic. The fustet contains a peculiar 
 coloring-matter, termed fustine, and, by some chemists, /««- 
 teric, and a large quantity of tanhic acid. It also appears 
 that it contains a coloring-matter not unlike quercitron-bark. 
 
270 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 This wood gives the following results with re-agents : — 
 
 Acetate of lead gives a yellowish-white. 
 Iron salts (copperas) give an olive-green color. 
 Nitro-nuiriate, and muriate of tin, give an orange-yellow 
 precipitate. 
 
 Alkaline solutions change the color of the solution to red. 
 
 The coloring-matter of young fustic has a very strong 
 attraction for ox3gen, which affects its use as a dye when 
 durability is required. I have not seen any of it in this 
 country for the last twenty-five years, and do not think it is 
 in the market. It was used at that time as an assistant to strike 
 some particular shade or tint. It was used, along with quer- 
 citron-bark, to give the sulphur, or greenish tint, to sulphur 
 yellows. I never knew it to be used in cotton-dyeing. 
 
 FLA VINE. 
 
 This is a colorinsr-matter that has not been used in the 
 ■woolen dye-house until within the last twenty years. It is 
 made from quercitron-bark, which is the inner bark of the 
 black oak, called Quercus nigra, and, by some botanists, Quer- 
 cus tincloria. The manner of manufacturing flavine is first 
 to grind the quercitron-bark into a very fine powder ; it is 
 then called quercitrine (C33H3oOJ^7) ; the color of it is a bright- 
 yellow, and it contains tannic acid, with the addition of a yel- 
 low pigment. This powdered bark then goes through a 
 process of exhaustion Avith soda, and afterwards is precipitated 
 by diluted acids, or is made a garancine by precipitating it 
 with oil of vitriol ; it is then dried and is ready for the 
 market or the dyer's use.* Flavine is the chief yellow dye, 
 used along with picric acid, for yellows at the present time; 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 271 
 
 that is, where fastness is not requiretl. Picric acid has for its 
 formuhi — 
 
 Fiavine is now used in dye-houses in place of quercitron- 
 bark, it being far superior to the bark both in the iimount of 
 the cok)ring-matter it contains and the clearness of the 3'ellow 
 it imparts to the wool, —one pound of flavine being equal to 
 ten pounds of the bark and to thirty pounds of fustic. In 
 using flavine it has to be made into a paste before adding it 
 to the dye-tub, and after it is thus prepared it should be i>sed 
 soon, as, if allowed to stand overnight, it will precipitate 
 and deposit a brownish-yellow mass in consequence of its not 
 being all completely soluble in water ; even if boiled in dis- 
 tilled water and allowed to stand for tAventy-four hours it will 
 form the same deposits. The proper mordants for this drug 
 are alum, tartar, and nitro-muriate of tin. The acids lighten 
 the color of a solution of flavine and the alkalies deepen it, 
 causing it to assume more of a red color. 
 
 Potash sulphate of alumina (alum) gives a very rich yellow. 
 
 Nitro-muriate of tin gives a yellow-orange. 
 
 Muriate of tin gives a sulphur-colored yellow. 
 
 Proto-sulphate of iron (copperas) gives a deep greenish- 
 black. 
 
 These are the re-actions given on a solution of flavine. 
 
 TURMEllIC. 
 This coloring substance is manufactured from the root of 
 the Curcuma langa, a plant that grows in the Indies and on 
 the Island of Java. The root is found in egg-shaped tubers 
 and in flattened lumps, and is of a dirty yellow color. Its 
 pure coloring matter is called curcumine (CgllioO.)- !<- »« 
 
272 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 ground into a powder and resembles ginger, the solutions of it 
 have a peculiar smell, and it has a bitter taste. The color given 
 by it is very fugitive, there being no proper mordant for it 
 that will make it a permanent color. It is used mostly for 
 giving a peculiar tint to greens and browns on cotton and 
 silk, also on wool, but not on wool when colors are to be per- 
 manent. It is used for test-paper to detect alkalies and 
 boracic acid, by which the paper will be turned to a red- 
 brown. 
 
 MADDER. 
 
 This plant or shrub is termed Buhia tinctorium and is culti- 
 vated in France, Holland, and the Levant, besides in the 
 southern, western, and central parts of EurQpe ; the East 
 Indies also furnish a large amount of it. The coloring-mat- 
 ter obtained from this shrub rivals indigo as a vegetable-dye, 
 both in beauty and brilliancy of the colors given by it, as 
 well as by the numerous shades that can be dyed from it. 
 
 Madder is a perennial plant, and there are quite a variety 
 o( liubia tinctorium plants, such as i?. peregrina, — that 
 cultivated in Smyrna and Cyprus, being the best kind ; the 
 R. mungista of Japan is found in a wild state. 
 
 According to researches or experiments and analyses made, 
 the dye imported from India under the name of munjeet is 
 not the root of the Ruhia tinctorium, but the reedy stem of a 
 species of the ruhia plant, and, for dyeing purposes, is very, 
 inferior to the root of the plant. This plant is a native of 
 Caucasus ; the root generally is knotty or gnarled and a little 
 thicker than a quill ; externally its bark is of a brownish color ; 
 internally it is of a yellow-red color; it is first dried, after 
 being dug, and then ground and put into strong oaken casks, 
 in which form it is received by the dyer. ]Madder should be 
 kept in a dry place, as it easily absorbs moisture, which is an 
 injury to it ; when kept dry it will improve by age ; its age 
 
THE AMERICAK^ DYER. 273 
 
 is ascertained by the appearance of the head of the cask ; if it 
 is two or more years old the head will bo swelled out by the 
 swelling, or, as it is termed, the madder has grown ? but 
 dealers have learned this criterion by which dyers judge of 
 the ai'e of madder ; so to make new madder appear older than 
 it really is, they will moisten it at the bottom and top of the 
 cask, which causes it to swell and so cause the heads of the 
 cash to bulge up. The quality of the madder is ascertained 
 by its taste and smell ; the good will have a heav}', sweet 
 smell, with an earthy flavor ; its taste is a bitter-sweet ; when 
 exposed to moisture, its color will pass from the orange-yellow 
 tint to a deep red. What is Ivuown as mull-madder is the 
 refuse and dust from the floor of the grinding-room ; there- 
 fore it is of an inferior quality, and we mighf say, of the 
 worst quality. Mull-madder is not used in this country at 
 the present time ; the principal use made of it now is in the 
 production of garaiiceux, which we will speak of hereafter. 
 
 Madder is sometimes adulterated with brick-dust, red or 
 yellow ochres, sand, clay, sawdust from mahogany, logwood, 
 and sandal-wood. The mineral impurities, such as brick-dust, 
 ochres, sand and clay, may be detected by putting some of the 
 madder in a glass jar and pouring boiling water upon it ; the 
 madder will float and the above impurities will sink to the 
 bottom. To detect the vegetable adulterations, Mr. Pernod, 
 of Avignon, proposes the following tests : "A sheet of white 
 paper is immersed in a weak solution of bichloride of tin 
 (nitro-rauriate' of tin — formula, SnCla -f NHiCl) for a few 
 minutes, then place the paper upon glass or porcelain, and 
 sift the madder upon the paper ; in half an hour afterwards 
 the paper will show crimson-red spots if the madder contains 
 any of the red woods, purple spots if it contains logwood, 
 and a yellow coloration if it contains any fustic. If the mad- 
 der is free from the above adulterations the paper will be 
 colored a light yellow." 
 
 The first investigations made upon the chemical properties 
 of madder, led to the discovery of two distinct culoriiig-mat- 
 
 35 
 
274 THE AMEBIC AX DYER. 
 
 ters, one yellow, the other Fed ; the yellow was then called 
 xanthine (now called ruherythrinic acid), and the red,^9?oyjw- 
 rine. Recent discoveries have been made which disclose five 
 distinct coloring-matters in madder, yet there iire but two dis- 
 tinct pigments in the fresh roots, being the two above-named. 
 In addition to these two coloring pigments, it was discovered 
 that madder contained about eight per cent, of sugar. 
 
 According to Dr. Rochlerder, the former of these (^xanthiii) 
 is converted, under the influence of a peculiar nitrogenous 
 substance, present in the madder-root, into alizarine, — the 
 essential coloring-matter of madder, — and into sugar. The 
 formula is, — 
 
 C.2pH,,0n = C,,H,0, + CeH,A + H,0. 
 
 Eubeiythriiiic Alizariue. Sugar, 
 
 acid. 
 
 Other investigations have proved that there are five difier- 
 ent coloring-matters in madder, which are thus named : madder- 
 purple, madder-red, madder-brown, madder-orange, and 
 madder-yellow. Besides these five coloring-matters in 
 madder, it has been found by the German chemists that mad- 
 der contains not only these five coloring properties, but two 
 acid substances, which they name the madderic and rubiacic 
 acids. These acids, however, contain no known coloring 
 properties, and I have only mentioned them to show the 
 knowledge that chemists are in possession of, and what sub- 
 stances are contained in madder, as obtained by their laborious 
 investigations. These investigations of madder were so im- 
 portant, that the Societe Industritlle de JIuUiouse for a num- 
 ber of years offered two thousand francs for the best analytical 
 investigation of the substances contained in madder. The 
 above-named coloring-principles of madder, taken separately 
 or by themselves, do not form a good dyeing material, but 
 they do constitute the elements which will together produce 
 the richest and the most permanent red d^es that the dyer 
 now possesses. Practically, it is only necessary to consider 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 275 
 
 macltlcr as containing but two coloring substances or prop- 
 erties, as in former days supposed, one-ot" which was tliedun or 
 yellow, and was considered the impure or earthy part of the 
 madder; this impurity is what the dyer endeavors to get rid 
 of. The other coloring substance was called the red colorin"-- 
 matter. Madder can be made to produce a variety of shades 
 by the skilful dyer, by the different proportions and changes of 
 the mordants he may use ; and the colors obtained are more 
 permanent than those produced by any other vegetable sub- 
 stance known as a dye, not excepting colors obtained from 
 indigo or cochineal. 
 
 The varieties of madder in the market are known and called 
 by the name of the country in which they are raised or grown ; 
 also by the looks or appearance caused by the different proc- 
 esses of their manufacture, previous to their being received 
 by the dyer. The Dutch madder, sa called, is very coarsely 
 ground, which enables the purchaser to judge of the nature 
 and quality of the root from which it was made. This mad- 
 der, you will tind, has a sort of a greasy feeling, and a very 
 strong and rather disagreeable smell or odor, and its color 
 will vary from a brown to an orange-red, the brown being 
 inferior to the orange-red. It will become more damp 
 when exposed to the air than any of the other varieties of 
 madder, this being taken advantage of in judging of its 
 quality ; for if good, its color will pass from the brownish- 
 orange tint to a deep red color. This madder is said to be 
 uncrqpped or cropped madder, the only difference being in it, 
 that one is separated from the bark of the root, while the 
 other is composed of both bark and body of the root. This 
 madder is in its best state or condition when it is two or three 
 years old, but it can be older without its coloring properties 
 being impaired. Yet I think, at the above age, it is as good 
 as it ever will be for ^jroducing brilliant colors. 
 
 The Alsace madder is very similar to the Dutch, and 
 although the cropping is generally performed upon it, it is not 
 designated by being cropiied and iincro2)p>ed. It will readily 
 
276 THE AMEKICAN DYER. 
 
 absorb moisture from the air, and become of a reddish-brown 
 color. This madder is inferior to the Dutch madder, its odor 
 is more penetrating and its taste less sweet; yet it has an equal 
 amount of bitter, and its color is more yellow and will pas9 
 into brown, having a lesser orange tint. 
 
 A little experience will soon enable the dyer to distinguish 
 or judge the one sort from the other, by comparison. The 
 Avignon madder, at one time, was considered the best. 
 There are a number of varieties of this madder, but all the 
 difference that I could ever ascertain in them was in their 
 different modes of prejiaration, and also the soil in which the 
 plant grew. This madder will feel drier to the touch, and 
 will not absorb moisture so readily as other madders ; but if 
 exposed to a humid atmosphere it will undergo a great 
 change. Its smell is very agreeable ; its taste is a mixture 
 of the bitter and sweet ; and its color will vary from the 
 pink to a deep red ; or we might say, a reddish brown. The 
 commercial marks upon the casks, to designate the quality, 
 are, — 
 
 S. F. , for superfine. 
 
 S. F. F., for fine superfine. 
 
 E. S. F. F., for extra fine, fine ; 
 but I have found these marks placed upon casks of an inferior 
 madder, so it does not do to judge entirely by the marks. I 
 have given, in the description of the different madders, crite- 
 rions whereby a dyer may judge of the quality of the madders 
 which he may have to use, Avithout having to rely upon the 
 marks placed upon the casks. The above varieties will of 
 themselves vary greatly, according to the nature of the plant, 
 and also in the manner in which the roots are dried or otherwise 
 prepared. This kind of madder can be used when freshly 
 ground, but is better to be kept a year or more before using 
 it. It does not cake or become hard like the other madders, 
 but if it is too old it becomes loose or powdery, and under- 
 goes a kind of decomposition. 
 
 As I have remarked in this article, the Levant, or those 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 277 
 
 madders brought from Smyrna and Cyprus, were the best 
 kinds. I consider them so for this reason : the roots are 
 not taken out of the ground until they are four or five years 
 old, while the other madder-roots are taken up in every two 
 or three years, and do not become matured in that space of 
 time, neither do they contain so large an amount of coloring- 
 matter as those roots of a longer growth. Madder can 
 become so old that it will not produce good reds upon cotton- 
 yarn or cloth, and yet not be unfit for coloring wool or woolen 
 fabrics; yet I think that madder, after it is three years 
 old, will not produce so good a result, either used alone or in 
 combination with coloring-matters, as when it is but twelve 
 months since it was ground. 
 
 The Different Products of Madder. 
 There are two coloring substances obtained from madder 
 that are largely employed in calico-printing at the present 
 time ; viz., garancine and colorine. Garancine is a chocolate- 
 colored powder, having neither taste or smell, but from the 
 different modes of extracting it from the madder, and also 
 from the different qualities of madder used in its preparation, 
 it varies greatly in quality, for which reasons it has been 
 repeatedly used and as often abandoned as a dye on woolen 
 fabrics ; but latterly, means have been devised by which the 
 quality of garancine can be tested, these tests having been very 
 lavoral)le to its more constant use as a dyeing material for 
 cotton and calico-printing. Garancine was first discovered and 
 the process of obtaining it described, by Robiquet and Colin, 
 so long ago as 1826 ; but this was long before it was generally 
 introduced to the trade. Their method of preparing it was, 
 to take one part of madder to six parts of cold water, and 
 allow the mixture to soak for twenty-four hours ; then it was 
 placed upon a filter ; after draining thoroughly it was pressed ; 
 then it was again steeped in cold water, again pressed, and 
 so on for the third time. After these processes are com- 
 plete4 there is half as much oil of vitriol (by weight) as 
 
278 THE AMERICAX DYER. 
 
 there was of madder used ; the vitriol is diluted with double 
 the amount of water, the temperature being raised to 100° 
 Fahr. ; this is then added to the pressed madder as soon as 
 possible, then stirred up rapidly; heat is then employed and 
 the temperature raised to 212° Fahr., and kept at that heat 
 for one hour ; it is then washed thoroughly with water and 
 the whole thrown upon a filter; water is then poured over the 
 residue left upon the filter until there is no taste of the acid 
 left; it is then taken and submitted to hydraulic pressure, for 
 the purpose of getting rid of all the water possible, after 
 which it is dried and ground to a ver}^ fine powder ; in this 
 condition it is received by the dyer, and is called garancine. 
 During- the last eight or ten years the consumption of this 
 article has greatly increased. Garancine is also obtained from 
 the waste madder of the dye-house, that is, from madder 
 that has been once used ; ai>d the process was patented in 
 1842 or 1843. The method, or operation of producing it, 
 is so complicated and lengthy that few dyers would attempt 
 tbe manufiicturing of it, for which reason I will not give a 
 description of the process, but will state the action of garan- 
 cine with re-agents and water, so far as I have tried them : — 
 
 Water, with ammonia, gives a beautiful red color. 
 
 Water, with carbonate of soda, gives a bright reddish color. 
 
 Water and alum give a chrome-red color. 
 
 Water (boiling) and alum give a dark red color. 
 
 Ammonia gives a red ; in a few hours it is so deep that it 
 is not transparent. 
 
 Water, with muriatic acid, gives a greenish-yellow tint. 
 
 Water, with sulphuric acid, gives the same after a few hours. 
 
 Water, with nitric acid, gives a still darker tint, but passes 
 to a brownish blue. 
 
 The value of garancine (as a dye) to madder, is one to four ; 
 that is, one pound of garancine will produce as good a red as 
 four pounds of madder. 
 
 Floicers of Madder. This preparation is obtained on a 
 large scale, from madder, by soaking it in water, jvhich 
 
THE AMERICAX DYER. 279 
 
 causes the sugar coutaiuod in it to ferment. After it has 
 soaked or fermented for forty-eight hours, the residue is then 
 thoroughly washed, first, in lukewarm water, then in cold ; 
 it is subjected to hydraulic pressure to remove the water ; it 
 is then dried at a gentle heat, then ground up again, then it 
 is used in the same way as the ground madder for coloring 
 purposes. 
 
 The flowers of madder, when dyeing with them, do not 
 require so hot a bath as madder itself does. When the 
 flowers of madder are boijed in wood spirits (methylic 
 alcohol) a very copious yellow precipitate is formed, from 
 which, after being washed in cold water and dried, you obtain a 
 substance called azale, which has been tried as a dyeing material 
 in France, but no good results have yet been obtained from it. 
 Probably this substance is the crude alizarine met with in the 
 market, under the name of pincoffine, it being first discovered 
 and prepared by Mr, Pincoffs," of Manchester, England. 
 
 Colorine. The substance met with in the market under 
 the name of colorine is the alcoholic extract of garancine dried, 
 and is composed of alizarine, purpurine, fatty matters, and 
 other substances soluble in alcohol present in garancine. E. 
 Kapp, some years since, exhausted madder with an aqueous 
 solution of sulphurous acid, and so obtained the pigments of 
 madder in a pure state (which he used for technical purposes). 
 These preparations are now extensively used, and are dis- 
 tinguished by the names of green alizarine, and that obtained 
 from the Alsace madder amounts to about four percent., con- 
 taining, with the alizarine, a green resinous material called 
 yellow alizarine ; the former substance (green alizarine) is 
 without the resinous material, this having been eliminated by 
 suitable solvents, as purpurine and flowers of madder. Mad- 
 der of a good quality yields, on a large scale, — 
 
 Purpurine, . . . '1.15 per cent. 
 Green alizarine, . . 2.50 " " 
 Yellow " . . 0.32 " " 
 
 Flowers of madder . 39.00 " " 
 
280 THE AMEKICAIf DYER. 
 
 Alizarine. The researches and experiments of Graebe and 
 Liebermann prove that alizarine is a derivative from anthracen 
 (C14H10), the formula of alizarine being (Cj^HgO^). Aliza- 
 rine is yellow but will become red under the action of alkalies 
 and alkaline earths. 
 
 Anthracen, from which artificial alizarine is obtained, is 
 present in coal-tar to the amount of .75 or 1.0 per cent., and 
 was discovered in 1830 by J. Dumas. In 1869, Graebe and 
 Liebermann first commenced employing it for the production of 
 anthracen red, or artificial alizarjne. According to the origi- 
 nal method of preparing alizarine the anthrachinan (Ci4Hg02) 
 obtained from anthracen by the action of oxidizing agents, 
 such as nitric acid, was first converted into bibromide of 
 anthrachinan (Ci4HcBr202) by treating anthrachinan with bro- 
 mide, and this bromated compound was further treated either 
 with caustic potash or caustic soda at a temperature of 180°, 
 or 200° Fahr., the bibromide of anthrachinan being converted 
 into alizarine potash (or alizarine sodium, if caustic soda had 
 been used) from which the alizarine is set free by the addition 
 of muriatic acid. Alizarine is now made or prepared from 
 anthrachinan by heating it to a temperature of 2(15° Fahr. 
 with fuming or concentrated sulphuric acid ; the anthrachinan 
 is by this operation converted into a sulpho-acid ; this acid 
 they then neutralize with carbonate of lime (CaCOs) ; the 
 fluid is decanted from the precipitated gypsum, then carbon- 
 ate of potash (KCO3) is added to it in order to precipitate 
 all the lime ; this solution is then evaporated to dryness, the 
 resulting saline mass is converted into alizarine potassium 
 (Ci^HyK^Oi) by heating it with caustic potash (KOH) . From 
 the alizarine potassium thus obtained the alizarine is set free 
 by the aid of h^'drochloric acid (muriatic acid). By another 
 method anthracen is employed directly for obtaining aliza- 
 rine, by first converting it, with oil of vitriol and heat, into 
 anthracen sulpho-acid (QsHigSH^Og). After being diluted 
 with water,, the solution of this acid is next treated with such 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 281 
 
 oxidizing ngents as nitric acid, chromic acid, and lead, and 
 the fluid is next neutralized with carbonate of lime. There 
 is no doubt but anthracen may be converted into alizarine by 
 other means, and it is very likely that from other hydro- 
 carbons, such as benzol, toluol, nai)hthaline) jjresent in coal- 
 tar, anthracen red may be obtained. Alizarine with alkalies 
 gives a violet solution, and is nearly insoluble in a solution of 
 boiling alum ; it is soluble in turpentine, naphtha, and fat 
 oils ; chk)rine turns it to a yellow brown ; sulphuric acid dis- 
 solves it but at the same time brightens up the color; muri- 
 atic and nitric acids will dissolve it and change the color from 
 red to yellow. 
 
 Green alizarine is considered as good as the commercial 
 alizarine, and better than the flowers of madder, and it 
 requires from ten to twelve per cent, less mordant ; it should 
 be made into a paste with water before adding it to the bath. 
 The coloring power of alizarine is ninety-five times greater 
 than madder. 
 
 Pi(rpuri)ie. This is also a product of madder, and is equal 
 to sixty times its weight of the madder from which it .was 
 extracted. It is soluble in ammonia, acetic acid, and water; 
 also in the alkaline carbonates. The alkalies give a red, but 
 will fade by exposure to air ; alum gives a pink color. Purpurine 
 is not afl'ected by lime, but alizarine may be precipitated by 
 it. [You will find recipes for coloring with purpurine in 
 another part of this work.] Purpurine does not give good 
 purples on cotton, with iron mordants. In coloring cotton- 
 yarns with madder, or the different products of madder, the 
 mordants used are the acetate of alumina, or red liquor, so 
 called, acetate of iron (iron liquor), acetate of lead, acetate 
 of copper, and the chlorides of tin. 
 
 As above stated, purpurine is not aflfected by lime, but 
 alizarine may be precipitated by it. These two assertions 
 are correct ; that is, when we come to take into consideration 
 the nature of the various kinds of madder that these products 
 
 36 
 
282 THE AlVIERICAN DYER. 
 
 might be extracted from ; for instance, the madders from 
 Alsace and Holland are grown in argillaceous soils, and have 
 an acid re-action, and will require a certain amount of lime 
 or soda in order to be neutralized. But the Avignon madder, 
 on the other hand, is grown in calcareous soils, and is per- 
 fectly neutral, and an excess of lime would be injurious in its 
 results. The same reasons are also applicable to garancine, as 
 it often contains an excess of acid. In this case calcareous 
 water (lime-water) would be beneficial. 
 
 Under the head of garancine, I should have mentioned that 
 it requires the same mordant that madder does, and that it 
 will yield up its coloring properties only at a boiling heat, 
 and that the water is but slightl}'- colored before the wool or 
 fabric is entered. A small amount of sumac is very benefi- 
 cial when coloring reds on cotton-yarn with garancine. The 
 color obtained from garancine is more lively and brilliant 
 than that from madder, and in printing on cotton the color 
 is not so liable to run into the white, for which reason the 
 cloth is more easily cleared than it would be if madder was 
 used. 
 
 Purpurine is very soluble in a solution of alum, and the 
 solution will turn to a pink color. Alkalies give a solution 
 of purpurine a red color, but the color will not stand expos- 
 ure to the air. 
 
 In using purpurine for coloring silk, it should be neutral- 
 ized with either chalk or soda-ash; and for cotton, the yarn 
 must be mordanted in the usual manner for reds, with the 
 addition of a little tannin ; and for calico-printing, use three- 
 quarters of an ounce to one quart of water, and twenty-two 
 per cent, of soda-ash. These are boiled up together, then 
 filtered, and thickened with the usual thickening. Wool is 
 mordanted with alum, tartar, and nitro-muriate of tin, or tin 
 crystals. AVith tin and tartar for a mordant, we get a scarlet 
 nearly as good as a cochineal scarlet. Alum and tartar, with 
 purpurine, give a crimson-red. 
 
THE AMERICAX DYER. 283 
 
 A good tin solution for piiipuriue is made as follows : 
 30 lbs. Nitric Acid, 
 10 lbs. Water, 
 5 lbs. Sal-Animoiiiac, 
 5 lbs. Feathered Tin. 
 After the acid has become cold, add the tin gradually. Not 
 to be used until it is four or five days old. 
 
 LOGWOOD. 
 
 This dyeing material was first discovered by the Spaniards, 
 in 1662 (in Honduras), and was brought to Europe shortly 
 afterwards. They called it Camjyeclda, but it is known to 
 botanists by the name of Ikauialoxijlon CampeacJiianum. Its 
 nature, and the art of using it as a coloring agent, seem to 
 have been but little understood in Queen Elizabeth's time, as 
 we find an act of parliament prohibiting and abolishing its use 
 in her domain, imposing a penalty of imprisonment and the 
 pillory upon any dyer who should use it. Upwards of a hun- 
 dred years elapsed before the virtues of this dye-wood were 
 known and acknowledged, and at the present time there is no 
 other wood so universally used, or useful, as logwood ; but, 
 like mau}^ other valuable dyestuft's, it was used for a long time 
 before the true nature of its coloring-principle Avas known. 
 Some time near the year 1810, Chcvreul made a chemical 
 examination of logwood, and by careful investigations found 
 that it contained a distinct and pure coloring-principle, which 
 be called liematine (not liemateine) , a name which has since 
 been changed to htematoxyline (Ci,jH,40e), so as to avoid 
 any confusion Avith the name of a similar substance contained 
 in blood. It is commonl}' called extract of logwood, and is 
 a transparent crystalline substance. By itself it is not a 
 pigment, l)ut is a colorable material, which becomes colored 
 when brought in contact with stron^j: alkalies, and more so 
 
284 THE AMEEICAX DYER. 
 
 when in contact with ammonia (Nllg) and the oxygon of the 
 air; and a sohition of it is nearly colorless (especially in cold 
 water), but will turn at once to a purple-red by the addition 
 of the smallest quantity of ammonia. Chevreul's process for 
 obtaining the extract (hivmatoxyline, or coloring-principle) 
 of logwood is to digest the ground or chipped wood in water, 
 at 120^ or 130° Fahr,, afterwards filtering the licjuor and 
 evaporating to dryness, and that which remains is put into 
 alcohol ; this is again filtered, and the clear liquor is evapo- 
 rated until it becomes thick ; to th'rs is added a little water, 
 and evaporated again ; it is then left to iteelf, and the color- 
 ing-matter crystallizes. The extract possesses the same prop- 
 erties as the decoction of the wood, and is in comparative 
 strength to good logwood as one is to five ; that is, one pound 
 of extract is equal to five pounds of the chips. The action 
 of metallic oxides upon the hsematoxyline, or hematine, is 
 somewhat similar to their action upon logwood itself, varying 
 considerably with the dissolving menstrua of the oxide, and 
 the particular state of oxidation. 
 
 Proto-salts of iron give blue-black precipitates — perma- 
 nent. 
 
 Per-salts of tin give deep wine-colored precipitates, which 
 become brown. 
 
 Chloride of tin gives a rich wine-color. 
 
 Acetate of copper gives a greenish-black, passing to brown. 
 
 Acetate of lead gives a brownish-black precipitate, passing 
 to gray. 
 
 Salts of alumina give wine-colored precipitates — perma- 
 nent. 
 
 These are the principal metallic salts used with logwood, 
 and their effects upon it ; but the acids in which the oxides 
 are dissolved have a material effect upon the results obtained, 
 the iron being used in a state of sulphate or acetate, and the 
 tin as chloride with free acid, and the copper and lead as 
 acetates. 
 
 Erdmauu made an improvement upon Chevreul's method of 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 28o 
 
 obt:iiningh{\?niiitoxyline from the rough wood. After convert- 
 ing a decoction of it into extract, -he evaporated the extract 
 to dryness; then pulverized and mixed it with a quantity of 
 pure silicious sand, to prevent the agglutination of the extract. 
 It is then left to stand a few days in five or six times its 
 quantity of ether. This mixture is often shaken or stirred up. 
 The clear solution is then poured off and distilled, until there 
 is but a small, syrupy residue left, and, by this means, most 
 of the ether is saved. This residue is then mixed with a cer- 
 tain amount of water, and allowed to stand a few days, when 
 the hivmatoxyline crystallizes, and may then be dried between 
 tissue or blotting paper. These crystals dissolve easily in 
 hot water, but very slowly in cold water. They are also solu- 
 ble in alcohok Dissolve these crystals in distilled water, and 
 the solution will be a beautiful wine-color; but if there is the 
 least trace of lime or iron in the water, the color of the solu- 
 tion will be materially changed. Re-agents have a powerful 
 action upon them. Potash will change the color of the solu- 
 tion to a violet, but it will quickly turn to a purple, and, in a 
 short time, will be almost colorless, on account of the oxygen 
 being absoibed, and the ha^matoxyline is thereby discharged, 
 and the potash is converted into a carbonate from the decom- 
 position of the coloring-matter. 
 
 There is an extract of logwood manufactured in France in a 
 crystalline form, the crystals being of a very dark-red color. 
 This is htematoxyline with a number of impurities ; yet it 
 yields a considerable amount of color. 
 
 It must be borne in mind, that Erdmann obtained the crys- 
 tals by his experiments, and not the extract, as we dyers 
 receive it. 
 
 Logwood contains resin and oil, sulphate of lime and 
 alumina, besides the coloring matter. These ingredients vary 
 in the wood from the West Indies, and in that from Cam- 
 peachy. 
 
 A solution of the wood is changed from its natural color, by 
 alkalies, to a purple, and, by acids, to an orange shade. 
 
286 THE AMEUTCAX DYETt. 
 
 Almost all ihe metallic and earthy salts cause abmulant pre- 
 cipitates, or lakes, with its solutions, the colors varying from 
 violet to black, but, in all cases, will retain a tinge of the vio- 
 let hue ; and a solution of logwood always throws down a 
 compound color, whose proportions of red and blue vary with 
 the diflereiit metals used, and each gives deeper shades, 
 according as it is more or less oxidized. Solutions of tin 
 alone, of all the metallic salts, give it the property of resist- 
 ing acids, and by a proper course taken with a mordant of 
 tin, a purple can be obtained as dural)le as indigo-blue. Alum 
 always gives violet-colored shades. Logwood enters into the 
 composition of drabs, slates, violets, plums, dahlias, purples, 
 and all colors that have a tinge of the violet shade in them ; 
 also in some very dark browns, &c. ; but its principal con- 
 sumption is in logwood blues and blacks, to which it com- 
 municates a softness and glossy lustre, unequalled by any 
 other material. 
 
 The mordant which gives it the gi-eatest degree of perma- 
 nence, is sulphate of iron ; that is, in all the colors named 
 above, with the exception of violet, when the solution of tin 
 is the proper mordant. 
 
 In Parkes's Chemical Essays, he makes this observation in 
 regard to logwood : " Considerable advantage is derived by 
 woolen-dyers from the use of water in the preparation of their 
 logwood, by spreading it out and sprinkling it with Avater, 
 and, in that moistened condition, it is thrown into heaps or 
 bins, and allowed to remain as long as possible before using it, 
 and, by thtit treatment, the wood becomes heated or sprung, 
 and thus undergoes a very remarkable change." But the dyer 
 is now saved that trouhle^ as the dealers have become aware of 
 this practice or custom of the dyer, and now icet it down 
 themselves with lime and water (thereby making a greater 
 profit, by selling water in place of logwood), and, by this 
 method, they can make the poorest wood, thus doctored, ap- 
 pear equally as good as the best. The lime in the water gives 
 the wood a rich red color, a property possessed by all alkalies 
 
THE A3IERICAX DYER. 287 
 
 and ulkaline earths. But this adulteration can be detected 
 by steeping a small quantity of the logwood in a dipper or 
 tumbler, in some distilled water, and then trying the decoction 
 ■with delicate test-paper. The practice of using lime-water on 
 logwood, by dealers, is why dyers have suih poor ground 1o<t- 
 wood, as all alkaline matters, when in connection with lo"-- 
 wood, although at first they give a rich color, will soon pass 
 into a brown, and then to a dark-looking mass, or like dirty 
 sawdust. 
 
 I do not know of any simple and accurate n)ethod of testing 
 logwood that could be introduced into the dye-house, or, at 
 least, none but what would take too much time and trouble 
 for most dyers. 
 
 QUERCITRON-BARK. 
 
 This drug is the inside bark of the black oak. It is a 
 native tree of North America, and termed Quercus nhjra and 
 Quercus tindoria by botanists. It was formerly used for yel- 
 lows, oranges, and other colors wherein the yellow is pre- 
 dominant ; but it is now superseded by flavine. It is very 
 rich in coloring-matter, and water just below the boiling point 
 will extract the color more abundantly than if boiled, and by 
 boiling it you extract the tannin and gallic acid, of which it 
 contains a large amount ; these two substances are very injuri- 
 ous to the color, if you wish to have a clear and brilliant 
 shade. A strong solution of this bark, when it is evjiporated, 
 will leave a resinous substance of a cinnamon color, which is 
 called quercitrine (CajjITa^O;). This substance was first ex- 
 tracted from bark by Chevreul and BoUey, and like all other 
 extractive coloring-matters, is considered to be the oxide of a 
 colorless base.. The composition of quercitrine is — 
 
 Carbon, 16; hydrogen, 8; oxygen, 9; water, 1. 
 
 Dr. Bancroft was the first to discover the coloring-proper- 
 ties of this bark, and made it known to the public in 1763. 
 
288 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Some three years afterwards, there was an act of parliament, 
 giving him. the exclusive use and application of it for a term 
 of years. One pound of this bark is equal to three pounds 
 of fustic in coloring-principle. 
 
 The proper mordant for quercitron is alum, tartar, and 
 murio-sulphate of tin, the whole mordant combined to be about 
 one-half the weight of the bark used, and the bark to be two 
 pounds for every ten pounds of clean wool, for the fullest 
 yellows. The proportions of the two acids that compose the 
 solution of tin, must be made to vary if we wish to obtain 
 yellows of a lemon shade, or yellows of an orange shade ; for 
 the orange hue, we must have the greatest proportion of mu- 
 riatic acid, and for the lemon shade we must have an equal 
 amount of sulphuric and muriatic acids ; or, in other words, 
 it must be a sulpho-muriate of tin. (See article on making 
 tin solutions.) • 
 
 The o-eneral rule for determinins^ the inclination of this 
 coloring-matter, either to the lemon or orange cast of shade, 
 is, supposing we are using the murio-sulphate of tin, and we 
 wish to vary from a common yellow, we will have to decrease 
 the amount of alum and tartar (more particular the tartar), 
 and make up the deficiency with muriate of tin, and boil the 
 goods well, if we want the orange cast ; and for the lemon 
 cast it will be, to increase the amount of alum and tartar, 
 especiall}' the tartar, and diminish the amount of the tin 
 solution, and make up the deficiency when a. decided lemon 
 shade is wanted, by the addition of sulphuric acid, equal in 
 volume to half the solution of tin left out; that is, supposing 
 we are leaving out two pounds of the tin solution, you must 
 add one pound of sulphuric acid to the remaining tin solu- 
 tion. 
 
 We can, however, give the lemon shade without so much 
 trouble, by just tinging the dyeing-bath with thf least amount 
 of sulphate of indigo (chemic), and the orange cast by cochi- 
 neal or a little carbonate of soda, but it will be best to give 
 the particular hues by a variation in the mordant. 
 
THE AMERIC^iN DYER. 289 
 
 A solution of this bark will give the following results with 
 these re-agents ; — 
 
 Alkalies, a deep orange color. 
 
 Alum, a canary yellow. 
 
 Muriate of tin, a reddish-yellow. 
 
 Nitro-muriate of tin, a rich yellow. 
 
 Copperas, a greenish-oliv^e tint. 
 
 Nitric acid, a red precipitate. 
 
 Sulphuric acid, a red precipitate after standing awhile. 
 
 Lime, a precipitate of a yellowish-red color. 
 
 Muriatic acid, a reddish-yellow precipitate. 
 
 By letting a solution of bark stand for twentj^-four hours, 
 it will become sour, and will lose a greater part of its coloring- 
 principle, and is therefore unfit for use, as the yellow coloring- 
 matter is deposited, and what remains in solution will give a 
 dull color. For the above reasons, the wool or fabric should 
 be entered as soon as possible after the bag containing the 
 bark is taken out of the dyeing-bath. 
 
 LAC-DYE. 
 This dyeing material we receive from the East Indies, and it 
 is the production of an insect called Coccus lacca and Coccus Jicus. 
 It deposits upon the branches of the tree the cellular substance 
 called stick, from which the lac-dye of the dyer is extracted. 
 This is done by boiling the stick-lac in alkaline water, which 
 dissolves the coloring-matter, along with some of the resinous 
 matters. To this solution is added some alum, which precip- 
 itates the whole as an aluminous pr(Jduct or cake ; these cakes 
 are then ground to a fine powder, in which condition it is 
 received by the dyer. This dye was first introduced as a dye 
 some sixty years ago, in the state of a lac-lake, which is the 
 coloring matter of the stick-lac, but this lac containing a 
 large amount of resin, as well as other matters of an earthy 
 
 37 
 
290 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 or glutinous nature, it was not only very difficult to obtain 
 even a decent-looking color, but the cloth had a harsh, sticky, 
 disagreeable feeling, and dirty appearance, and it was almost 
 impossible to wash the sticky and insoluble matters from the 
 cloth. 
 
 At the time of its introduction as a dyeing material, it was 
 a very difficult operation to color with it to what it is at 
 the present day, for the dyers have been gradually making 
 improvements upon their methods of using it, by freeing the 
 coloring-matter from its earthy and resinous matters. Good 
 ground lac should be an impalpable powder, having a smooth 
 and tine feeling like tiour, without any gritty or sandy feeling, 
 with few, if any, shining particles intermixed with it. When 
 incorporated with an equal amount of nitro-muriate of tin, it 
 will form a bright, red-colored, stiff and smooth paste. 
 When coloring with lac, the wool or cloth will require more 
 boiling than if you were using cochineal. Lac does not give 
 so clear and beautiful a color as cochineal, but it will with- 
 stand the action of acid and alkaline tests much better, and it 
 will retain its peculiar beauty, or resist the light and atmos- 
 phere for a greater length of time, than the color given by 
 cochineal. Lac contains about two-thirds as much pure color- 
 ing-matter as cochineal, and as the other matters are injurious 
 to, or of no use as a coloring substance, this will in a measure 
 account for the difference there is in the beauty of the reds 
 produced by lac and cochineal. 
 
 Dr. Bancroft found that acids would destroy the gummy 
 matter contained in lac, and cause the coloring-principle of it 
 to be made more soluble. There are different methods of 
 using the raw acids with lac; some dyers take thirty-two 
 parts of lac and digest it with ten parts of muriatic acid 
 diluted with the same amount of water (ten parts), and stir 
 it up from time to time, and set it aside for twenty-four 
 hours. Other dyers use three pounds of sulphuric acid 
 (H0SO4) to four pounds of lac. After mixing the tlvo 
 together, they then add two quarts of boiling water to it, and 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 291 
 
 stir it lip well, then le:ive it for twenty-four hours. I think 
 the best way to free lac from the gummy and resinous sul)- 
 stance it contains is to digest it in about ten times its weisht 
 of water with about one-fourth the weight (of the lac) of 
 sulphuric acid. Or, to be more explicit, we will suppose that 
 it requires sixteen pounds of lac for our purpose ; then take 
 one hundred and sixty pounds of water, with four pounds of 
 sulphuric acid added to it ; after mixing it well, let it stand 
 for two days ; it is then ready for use. In dyeing, you will 
 make no account of the oil of vitriol, but put in just the same 
 amount of tin solution, and other materials that you would 
 use with the lac. The mordants are the same for lac and 
 cochineal, with the exception of the tin solution, which should 
 be the nitro-muriate of tin, called by many yellow spirits. 
 Lac and cochineal are not so much used as formerly, being 
 superseded by the tar, or aniline colors. Most of the scarlets 
 and oranges are now made with purpurine and artificial 
 alizarine. 
 
 RED SANDERS, OR SAUNDERS. 
 This is the wood of the Pterocarpus santalinus, and is a 
 native of India, and attains its greatest perfection in the 
 mountainous districts, especially in the moimtains of Ceylon 
 and Coromandel. It is a very large tree, with alternate 
 branches, and has petiolate, ternate leaves, each simple leaf 
 being ovate, l)lunt, somewhat notched at the apex ; they are 
 entire, veined, smooth on the upper surface, and hoary under- 
 neath. The flowers are yellow-colored. They stand erect, 
 and are somewhat reflexed at the sides, being toothed and 
 waved, spreading with their edges apparently toothed, and 
 •the carina is oblong, short, and somewhat inflated. The 
 wood comes in roundish, or angular billets. Internally, it 
 has a blood-red color; externally, it is brown, caused by 
 exposure to the weather and atmosphere. It is very compact, 
 
292 THE AMERICAX DYER. 
 
 heavy, and fibrous. For the dyer's use it is ground up into 
 a coarse powder. It has little or no smell or taste. It gives 
 a red color to alcohol, ether, and alkaline solutions, but not 
 to water. It is a hard, resinous wood, more so than either 
 camwood or barwood. According to the investigations of 
 some chemists, it is a variety of barwood ; at least they 
 assert that its coloring-principles are the same, and that the 
 composition of both are alike ; yet they term the pure color- 
 ing-matter of Sanders, santalin, and that of barwood, hrezilin. 
 These being entirely different substances one from the other, 
 we do not see how their coloring-principles can be alike, and 
 dyers find that there is a great difference between sanders 
 and barwood in the color given by them. Barwood gives a 
 bluer red than sanders. The re-action of alum with sanders 
 gives a violet or purple precipitate, but with barwood, alum 
 gives a very blue-violet precipitate. Neither do the different 
 chromates have the same re-actions upon barwood that they 
 do on sanders, and for these reasons I cannot see how their 
 coloring-principles can be the same. If a solution of red 
 sanders is made with alcohol, the sulphate of iron will pro- 
 duce a deep violet precipitate, and a scarlet precipitate with 
 bichloride of mercury (HgCl,). The pure coloring-principle 
 was discovered by Pelletier, and named b}'^ him Santalin. 
 This sul)stance is of a resinous character, scarcely soluble in 
 cold water, but more soluble in boiling water. It is very 
 soluble in alcohol, ether, acetic acid, and alkaline solutions. 
 Weyermann and Hafferh' have found it to possess acid prop- 
 erties. Astringents — such as sumac, galls, &c. — aid the 
 water in extracting the coloring-matter from red sanders. It 
 requires more boiling than any of the other red woods to 
 extract its coloring matter. 
 
 "Without a mordant, sanders gives a dull, orange-red color 
 to wool, which is quite permanent. Sanders contains more 
 tannin than either barwood or camwood, for which rea- 
 son it imparts a more harsh feeling to the wool or cloth ; 
 but for some particular shades of browns, it is prefer- 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 293 
 
 able to either cannvood or harwood. The re-actions of the 
 metallic salts are the same on saiiders as on barwood, witli tlie 
 above-named exceptions. 
 
 The composition of sanders is — 
 
 Carbon, . . . • . . .10 
 
 Oxygen, 32 
 
 Hydrogen, ...... 8 
 
 Consequentl}'^ its formula is thus expressed, — Ci,;0;j,Hs. 
 
 Ked sanders is also known by the name of sand:d-wood, 
 sapan-wood. There are two varieties of this wood, the red 
 and yeUow. Some chemists describe it as a variety of bar- 
 wood, and call the pure coloriiig-matter santaline. 
 
 According to the researches of H. Weidel in 1809, he 
 found that sanders contained a colorless body which he named 
 sandal, and which by oxidation can be converted into santa- 
 line, and gave its formula (C8H,-,0;j). Pelletier gave its formula 
 (CieHgOy.,). Alcohol only will extract all its coloring-matter 
 from the wood. In colorii>g with this wood, it is preferal)le 
 to use as large a quantity of sumac as is compatible with the 
 shade or color desired. 
 
 In saddening with the different metallic salts and alum, the 
 colors will be similar to camwood colors, only that the color 
 will be duller and not so intense, which is owing to its color- 
 ing-matter inclining more towards the orange cast than that 
 of barwood or camwood. The principal use of sanders is for 
 coloring browns ; it is used for the preparation of colored 
 lakes, for staining furniture polish, for coloring sheepskins 
 red, and as a pigment in tooth-powders. 
 
 SUMAC. 
 
 This shrub is a native of Syria, called b}' botanists B/n's 
 coriaria ; it is cultivated in Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Sicily ; 
 
294: THE AMERICAN DTEK. 
 
 it is known in the market as the Sicily, Malaga, and Verona 
 sumac ; the first-named is considered the best kind. The 
 shrub irrows to the height of from six to ei^ht feet. The 
 trunk or stem is divided at the bottom into many irregular 
 brauchcs ; the bark has a brownish color ; the leaves branch 
 out from the stem into six or seven pairs, with an odd one at 
 the terminus. These leaves are placed alternately on the 
 branches, and are surmounted with a blossom of a greenish- 
 white when they are ripe, but of a red-blood color before 
 ripening. This shrub grows wild in North America and 
 Southern Europe. When this shrub is used for dyeing pur- 
 poses, it is cut down every year ; but if for tanning purposes, 
 it is three years old before it will be cut, for which purpose 
 it is nearly as good as oak bark, as it contains from twelve to 
 fifteen per cent, of tannic acid, while oak bark contains from 
 fourteen to sixteen per cent, according to the age of the tree. 
 
 The sumac, as I have said, is cut dowA every year (if for 
 the use of the dyer), then dried and ground into powder. 
 This powder is of a yellow or bluish-green color, when re- 
 ceived by the dyer. A boiling solution of sumac has a 
 fragrant and a ver}' agreeable odor, somewhat resembling the 
 smell of boiling tea. Sumac has superseded nutgalls in cot- 
 ton-dyeing, as the cotton-dyers at the present time use it for 
 bottoming their reds, browns, blacks, purples, and a number 
 of other shades. If used for barwood reds the Verona is the 
 best, as the Sicily sumac does not contain as much tannic acid 
 as the Verona, and these reds being a heavy color, it requires 
 a strong bottom ; therefore dyers have to use one-third more 
 of the Sicily than of the Verona sumac for barwood reds. 
 
 Sumac solutions, like those of nutgalls, should be used as 
 soon as possible after being boiled, as they ver}' soon com- 
 mence to ferment, which decomposes the coloring-matters, 
 the tannic acid contained in the galls and sumac being con- 
 verted into secondar}' products, owing to a spontaneous 
 fermentation. We will easily ascertain this, by a simple 
 experiment : boil up a given quantity of sumac and let it 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 29o 
 
 stand a few dnys ; then boil up the same amount for the same 
 length of time ; now heat up the solution that has laid hy 
 these few days, to the same heat of the last boiled sumac ; 
 take for each solution the same weight of cotton-yarn, and 
 immerse them in the different solutions for the same leno'th 
 of time ; take them out, and you will find that the effects pro- 
 duced will be verj' different, the one being a clear, light fawn- 
 drab, the other a dirty, grayi-sh yellow, which will prove, more 
 than any written description can, how important it is to attend 
 to such small matters in themselves, but of the utmost import- 
 ance if we wish to obtain c:ood and correct results. 
 
 A strong solution of sumac gives very nearly the same 
 results as a solution of nutgalls, the greatest difference 
 between the two being the quantity of tannic and gallic acid 
 that they contain. This difference in the two varies the effects, 
 so we may, in most cases, substitute a certain quantity of 
 sumac for a part of the nutgalls ; yet, in no case, can it be 
 supposed that sumac, in any quantity, produces the same 
 results as nutgalls when applied to wool or woolen fabrics, 
 but for cotton-dyeing the sumac is by far superior to nutgalls. 
 The metallic salts have nearly the same re-actions with sumac 
 as with nutgalls. 
 
 NAMES OF SALTS USED. COLOR OF PRECIPITATES. 
 
 Alum gives . . . .a fawn or brownish-yellow 
 
 precipitate. 
 
 Nitro-muriate of tin gives . . a fawn or brownish-yellow 
 
 precipitate. 
 
 Blue vitriol gives . . .a yellow-drab precipitate. 
 
 Copperas gives . . . .a lead-colored precipitate, 
 
 verffinsf on black. 
 
 Nitrate of iron gives . . . a decided blue-black. 
 
 Nitrate of copper gives . . a grass green. 
 
 Sumac is largely used in Southern Europe, where it grows 
 wild, for tanning purposes, being more particularly used for 
 preparing sheep and goatskins. 
 
296 THE A^IERICAN DYER. 
 
 NUTGALLS. 
 
 Nutgalls are the excrescences that grow upon certain species 
 of the oak, Quercus infedoria, caused by the puncture of the 
 cynip or gall-icasp for the purpose of depositing its eggs. 
 After the wasp punctures the twigs and leaves, it deposits the 
 eggs and the juice collects around the Q^^; this juice hardens 
 and forms the nutgall. The galls are best when they are 
 picked before the }'oung insect has become fully grown, as 
 then the gall contains the largest amount of tannic acid. 
 
 AVc have in the market four kinds of nutgalls ; the first 
 three are known as the black, green, and white galls. The 
 black and green varieties are those that have been gathered 
 l)efore the insect had become fully developed in the nut, and 
 therefore do not show the outward cavity or opening ; but if 
 you break the nut, you will find in the centre a small cavity 
 which is surrounded by a light-brown substance, which con- 
 tains the larvfe of the insect. The white galls, so called, are 
 gathered after the insect has perforated the nut and escaped. 
 This variety is more spongy, its color is a red-brown, or 
 sometimes a yellow-brown. The above varieties are known 
 as the Aleppo galls, Smyrna galls, and the East Indian galls. 
 Aleppo galls are the best, T3ut we must reckon under the same 
 name those that come from Mosul in Natalia. The Mosul 
 galls are better than the white and green galls, on account of 
 being heavier and larger ; the distinguishing character between 
 the Smyrna and Mosul galls is that the darker kind of the 
 Mosul galls have a bluish-brown color, while those from 
 Smyrna are of a blue-gray color. The fourth kind of galls 
 are brought from Trieste and Naples, and are generally of a 
 whitish-red and green color. Sometimes we find inferior galls 
 in the market which are brought from Asia Minor and Dal- 
 matia ; they are hollow and very light, having a reddish color, 
 but, as the dyer obtains his nutgalls in the ground state, it is 
 ver}' difiicult for him to judge the quality or puritv of the 
 galls. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 297 
 
 Fehling found that Aleppo galls contained from 00 to OG 
 per cent, of tannic acid, while Fleck found 58.71 per cent, 
 of tannic acid and 5.9 per cent, of gallic acid. 
 
 M. Guibourt's analysis gives, in one hundred parts : woody 
 fibre, 10.5; water, 11.5; tannin, G5 ; gallic acid, 4; ex- 
 tractive matter, 2.5; starch, 2; sugar, 2; gum, 2.5. Other 
 chemists give, in one hundred parts : tannin, 2G ; gallic acid, 
 6.20; gum, 4.80; and the insoluble parts, 63. Sir H. 
 Dav}^ asserts that the best galls do not contain but 26 per 
 cent, of tannin and 6.2 per cent, of gallic acid ; tannin and 
 gallic acid being generally found together in the same vegeta- 
 ble substance, it has been conceded by many chemists that 
 the one did produce the other. M. Pelouze to a great extent 
 verifies this supposition, more particularly as regards the 
 tannin contained in nutgalls ; he says that if a solution of 
 tannin be kept from exposure to the atmosphere no change 
 will take place ; but if left exposed it comes in contact with 
 oxygen, the tannin undergoes a change, and gallic acid is then 
 formed in the solution of tannin. 
 
 Nutgalls contain gallic acid as well as tannin, and they will 
 compare, one to the other, as follows : — 
 
 ^' Gallic acid : 7 oxygen. Tannin: 13 ozygen. 
 
 3 hydrogen. 8 hydrogen. 
 
 5 carbon. 17 carbon." 
 
 These are the re-actions of some of the metallic salts upon 
 nutgalls : — 
 
 NAJIE OF SALTS VSED. COLOR OF THE mECIPITATES. 
 
 "Copperas gives. . . . black precipitates. 
 
 Nitro-muriate of tin gives . . fawn-colored precipitates. 
 
 INluriate of tin gives . . . straw-colored precipitates. 
 
 Blue vitriol gives . . . yellow-brown precipitates. 
 
 Nitrate of copper gives . . grass-green precipitates." 
 
 38 
 
298 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 The com1)ining proportions of nutgalls and copperas are 
 as 4 to 1 ; that is, one pound of copperas will precipitate all 
 the coloring matter from four pounds of nutgalls. 
 
 INDIGO. 
 
 Indigo is a substance we find widely dispersed in the vege- 
 table kingdom. The indigo-plant is found in India, Africa, 
 Southern and Central America, Egypt and other parts of the 
 globe ; the botanical name of the plant is indigqfero. The 
 Hindostan indigo is prepared from the plant JV^erium tincto- 
 rium. The following five varieties of the indigo-plant are 
 more particularly employed for making indigo : Indigofera 
 tinciora, I. anil, I. disperma, an'd /. argenta. Indigo is 
 found in the woad plant, Isatis iinctoria, which plant is a 
 native of Germany, Great Britain and other parts of Europe. 
 Indigo (or the coloring principle of the plant) is not found in 
 the plant ready formed, but in the leaves, as a secretion or 
 juice, and is generated when the green leaves are pressed and 
 the juice of the leaves is exposed to the action of the atmos- 
 phere. Dr. Sehunck states that the indigo-plant contains a 
 coloring matter, which he has termed indican (C52Hg2N2034), 
 which, b}' fermentation or by the action of strong acids, is 
 converted into indigo-blue and a peculiar kind of sugar, 
 indigo glycine, and has this formula : — 
 
 Q2H02N2O2, + 4HO2 X Ci^H.oN^Os X 6 CoH.oOe 
 
 IiiiUcan. ludigo-blue. ludigo glycine. 
 
 The plant requires a hot climate and a soil so situated that 
 it will not be liable to inundations. To give a description of 
 the method of extracting the indigo-blue from the plant would 
 require too lengthy an article, besides not being of any 
 material advantage for the dyer's purpose. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 299 
 
 TliG plant from which the Bengal indigo is made is w stnrill, 
 straight one, with thin bninches spreading out, and I'onnino' 
 a sort of turf, and averages about four feet in height. The 
 leaves are soft, and resemble those of the common clover, 
 having a blossom of a bluish-purple color, and yield the 
 largest amount of indigo when the plant is in full bloom, and 
 the indigo obtained from this plant is considered the best, as 
 there are less impurities in it. 
 
 It is not positively known when indigo was first introduced 
 as a dyeing material, but it wa^ known to the Romans and 
 Greeks, Avho used it as a paint, under the appellation of indi- 
 cum. It was not used as a coloring substance in Europe until 
 about 1640, when it was imported from the Indies by the 
 Dutch, at. which time its use was prohibited in England, 
 under very severe penalties, and these penalties continued in 
 force until King Charles the Second ascended the throne ; and 
 the reason given for its prohibition was that it had a corrosive 
 nature, an(,l was destructive to the fibre of the wool, for 
 which cause it was an injury to the reputation of the dyers. 
 Probably the above opinion arose from the strong and 
 interested opposition to its use by those who cultivated the 
 woad plant, which at that time was an important branch of 
 national industry, as well as of great profit to farmers and 
 merchants, "and in consequence of the woad depreciating in 
 value, an edict was issued against indigo beinjr used in 
 Saxony, in the year 1650, and in 1652 Duke Ernest the Pious 
 caused a proposal to be made to the diet, by his envoy, that 
 indigo should be entirely banished from the empire, and that 
 an exclusive privilege should be granted to those who 
 colored with woad." 
 
 "This edict was followed by an imperial prohibition of 
 indigo, on the 21st of April, 1654, which was enforced with 
 the greatest severity in his domains. The same was done in 
 France ; but in the well-known edict of 1669, in which 
 Colbert separated the fine from the common d^ers, it was 
 stated that indigo should be used with woad, and in 1737 
 
300 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 dyci'S were left at liberty to use indigo alone, or to employ a 
 mixture of indigo and woad." {Baiioiu's Manufacturing and 
 Machinery of Great Britain). The varieties of indigo iu 
 the market are, the Bengal, Guatemala, Madras and Manilla, 
 and are valued as they are named ; there are various 
 varieties of these indigoes. The varieties of Bengal indigo 
 are numerous. The superfine or light blue is in a cubical 
 form, light and friable, soft to the touch, gives a clean, smooth 
 fracture when broken, and a beautiful copper color when 
 scraped with a knife. The second kind is termed superfine 
 violet, shows a violet-red color when scraped, and has a 
 smooth cleavage; the third is a superfine purple color; the 
 fourth is a fine violet, in color less brilliant than the second, 
 and somewhat heavier in weight; fifth, fine purple-violet 
 color ; sixth, a good violet color and heavier than the fourth ; 
 seventh, violet-red in color, breaks with an uneven fracture, 
 and shows mouldy places inside ; eighth, a common violet 
 color ; ninth a fine and good red color, heavier than the 
 eighth, and a more decided red ; the other four varieties 
 grow poorer till they get to the thirteenth variety. The 
 Guatemala indigoes are of five varieties ; the best are of a 
 bright blue color, and are very remarkably light and fine, and 
 by some are considered as good as the Bengal indigo, but 
 this is an error ; the inferior varieties have a violet color, but 
 there is more of a mixed Variety in them than in the Bengal 
 indigoes. 
 
 In selecting indigoes every dyer should be on his guard 
 against the defects of greater importance than those named, 
 and these are some of the defects to be instilled in the mind, 
 and to be avoided in purchasing indigo: — do not buy those 
 that have large or small fractures or cracks ; those broken 
 into lumps of unequal size, fragments or irregular pieces^ and 
 fine enough to pass through a coarse sieve ; squares that are 
 easily broken and show a whitish or mouldy substance inside ; 
 gritty feeling lumps, having the appearance of granite in the 
 cleavage ; those indigoes that have streaks or layers of differ- 
 
THE america:n^ dyer. 301 
 
 ent shades of blue in them, one !il)()ve the other in the same 
 piece ; those that have the appearance of being burned, which, 
 when rubbed in the hand will break into small pieces, almost 
 black in color. Reject the indigo in which the eye can detect 
 shining specks, which are nothing more nor less than sand. 
 The impurities of indigo are iron, clay, magnesia, and silica 
 of a substance resembling gluten. Sometimes you will tind 
 in a chest of indigo a quantity of dust that will weigh eight 
 or ten pounds. This dust is an adulteration composed of 
 starch, or of white lead mixed with the powdered indigo, and 
 is put into the chest to ^ive it more weight. Pait of the 
 above im[)urities can be dissolved in alcohol, in diluted acids, 
 alkaline lyes, and even water. By digesting indigo in weak 
 sulphuric acid we obtain a brown-colored matler, which is 
 termed indigo-brown. Indigo also contains other colorins: 
 matters, termed indigo-red, indigo-blue, or indigotine 
 (Cif,HniNoOa), the particular coloring-matter of the plant for 
 which it is valued. 
 
 The quantity of indigo-blue contained in the several 
 varieties of indigo varies from 20 to 80 per cent, of pure 
 coloring-matter. 
 
 The quality of indigo is, by most dyers, ascertained by its 
 deep blue color, and lightness in weight. From the great 
 difference in the various kinds of indigo, it is of the greatest 
 importance that the dyer should have an easy and simple 
 method of ascertaining the true or real value of the indigo he 
 has to use ; but, as far as I can learn, there has been no such 
 method found out. All the known methods require formal 
 analyses, which, however important they may be to dyers, 
 are too tedious and delicate to be practised in most of the dye- 
 houses in America. The usual method for judging the quality 
 of indigo is by comparison, — placing several pieces together, 
 and breaking and comparing their clean surfaces one with 
 another. The best indigo will be of a deep violet-blue color, 
 and a fine clear grain, and, when scraped with the nail, show 
 a good copper hue. Yet it requires long practice and great 
 
302 THE AMERICAN DYEK. 
 
 care to be a good judge of indigo by its appearances. In 
 selecting indigo, it requires the closest discrimination, and 
 cannot be made except l)y a person who, from h)ng acquaint- 
 ance with the use of indigo, has acquired an experimental 
 knowledge of the value of the different varieties, and that per- 
 son of all others is the practical and scientific dyer. G. Leuchs 
 found, that in forty-nine samples of indigo, the best kind con- 
 tained sixty and a half per cent, of pure indigo, and in the 
 poorest kind, but twenty-four per cent. We see by this how 
 difficult it must be to select the right kind of indigo for such 
 and such purposes, and a practical eye and mind only can 
 determine what variety is best for their nses. 
 
 Pure indigo, whether it is obtained by sublimation or other 
 chemical processes, will be of a deep blue, verging on the 
 violet shade. Indigo crystallizes only by sublimation at a 
 heat of 550° F. At this heat it emits a crimson-colored, 
 vapor, having a peculiar odor. This gas, being caught in a 
 cooled receiver, will condense into needle-shaped crystals of 
 great richness and intensity of color. These crystals will be 
 one-tenth the weight of the indigo emploj^ed, and will produce 
 a brighter, clearer, and better color than the crude indigo 
 from which they were obtained. The analysis of some chem- 
 ists give the pure, or absolute coloring-matter of indigo, as 
 follows : Crum, eighteen per cent ; Chevrcul, twelve per cent. ; 
 Bergman, fifteen per cent, in one hundred parts. 
 
 Chevreul gives as the result of his analysis of indigo, first 
 treated with water, second with alcohol, and afterwards with 
 muriatic acid, as follows : — 
 
 Treated with Water: 
 Green matter united with ammonia, . . "] 
 
 A little deoxidized indigo, . . . .1 
 
 Extractive matter, !" ^^ \^i^n&. 
 
 Gum, . 
 
THE AMERICAN DYEK. 
 
 303 
 
 Treated with Alcohol: 
 Green matter, ..... 
 
 Red resin, ...... 
 
 A little indigo, ..... 
 
 Treated with Muriatic Acid , 
 Red resin, ...... 
 
 Carl)onate of lime, . 
 
 Red oxide of iron, . . . . 
 
 Alumina, ...... 
 
 There remained. 
 
 Silica, . 
 Pure indigo, 
 
 Bergman gives in 100 parts 
 Resinous matter, „ . 
 Earthy matter. 
 Oxide of iron, 
 Mucilaginous matter, 
 Indigo remaining, . 
 
 30 parts. 
 
 3 
 45 
 
 103 
 
 (( 
 
 6 
 
 parts 
 
 22 
 
 ( t 
 
 13 
 
 ( ( 
 
 12 
 
 t ( 
 
 47 
 
 (( 
 
 100 
 
 Both of these eminent chemists give nearly one-half the 
 weight of pure indigo as the coloring-matter of the indigo of 
 commerce; but it must be borne in mind, that they obtained 
 a blue powder, and not the crystallizable color ; and should 
 this forty-tive or forty-seven per cent, of blue powder be sub- 
 jected to a subliming temperature, they would not have 
 obtained more than from fifteen to eighteen per cent, of crys- 
 tals of indigo, and these crystals would have given better 
 results as to color than the one hundred pounds of crude 
 indigo used, from which the crystals were separated. 
 
 The constitution of indigo, and the proportion of its con- 
 stituent principles, according to Dr. Ure, are as follows : — 
 
304: THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Carbon, 71.37 
 
 Hydrogen, .... 4.38 
 
 Nitrogen, 10.00 
 
 Oxygen, 14.25 = 100 
 
 Water, 16.00 
 
 Excess of hydrogen, . . . 2.52 
 
 Or thus : one atom of nitrogen, two of oxygen, four of hydro- 
 gen, and sixteen of carbon. 
 
 Indigo is an insoluble color (that is, in its natural state, 
 and under common circumstances), and is the most perma- 
 nent of the vegetable colors, it being entirely unchangeable 
 by the atmosphere, and the common agents, such as alkalies, 
 and the rays of light. It will not combine (in its natural 
 state) with any substance, except concentrated sulphuric acid, 
 which acts with such force upon it, that it is converted into 
 another substance ; for it is no longer indigo, which is proved 
 by its not exhibiting the same phenomena in any of the known 
 blue-vats, neither by any other method employed for its de- 
 oxidation and solution in an alkaline menstruum. Sulphuric 
 acid changes the naturalcharacter of indigo completely, as will 
 be seen by coloring with the sulphate of indigo (chemic, ex- 
 tract of indigo), which is one of the most fugitive of dyes, 
 when fixed upon wool or woolen fabrics, although the indigo 
 from which it was prepared is the most unchangeable of dyeing 
 materials or substances. Sulphuric acid changes indigo, and 
 dissolves it without deoxidizing it, and it cannot be brought 
 back to its original state again, forming as it does with the 
 acid, a chemical sulphindigotic acid (sulphate of indigo). 
 When sulphate of indigo is treated with carbonate of potash 
 (KCOy), there will be formed carmine of indigo, a deep blue 
 precipitate, which is soluble in one hundred and forty parts 
 of cold water. Carmine of indigo has been lately made with 
 refined indigo, treated with strong muriatic acid (IlCl), which 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 305 
 
 dissolves the lime, iron, and other foreign siil)stances in the 
 indigo, and afterwards with a diluted solution of caustic soda 
 (NaHO), which will dissolve all other organic impurities 
 remaining, and the result is a greater brilliancy of the colors 
 obtained. If indigo should be put into fused hydrate of pot- 
 ash (KOHO), its blue color would entirely disappear, and it 
 would become partly decomposed, along with the. water of the 
 alkaline hydrate. Hydrogen and ammoniacal gases are gene- 
 rated, while carbonic acid (H2CO3) and another acid, having 
 properties very much like acetic acid (C4O3H3) are formed, 
 and they combine with the potash (K). Now digest this 
 mixture with a small quantity of sulphuric acid (H,S04),and 
 the alkali will combine with it, and this will crystallize; then 
 this solution will combine with alkalies and other bases, form- 
 ing very interesting salts ; or, if powdered indigo is added to 
 one part of nitric acid (HNO3), and eight parts of water 
 (HO), and a gentle heat applied, it will dissolve and form a 
 yellow solution, and by decanting and evaporation, there will 
 be deposited a quantity of yellow crystals, of a sour or bitter- 
 ish taste. These crystals will dissolve again in cold water, 
 requiring nearly one hundred parts of water to do it. This 
 is now called anilic acid, derived from the name of one of the 
 plants that produce indigo. It will combine with all the, 
 known bases, forming salts that have a yellow color, and 
 will give a blood-red color to solutions of nitrate of iron 
 (3NOc2Fe). Add indigo to strong nitric acid (HNO3), a»cl 
 then apply heat, it will readily dissolve, emitting a great 
 amount of nitrous gas (NO3) ; allow this to cool down, and a 
 large amount of semi-transparent yellow crj'stal will precipi- 
 tate, having a strong bitter taste, which was formerly termed 
 carbozotic acid, but is now called picric acid, of which we will 
 give a detailed account under the head of picric acid. 
 Chromic acid (H,Cr04) has nearly the same action upon indigo 
 as nitric acid. If powdered indigo be mixed with a solution 
 of caustic soda (NaHO) of a specific gravity of 70° Twaddle, 
 and then boiled, we find that an orange-yellow salt is precipi- 
 
 ■69 
 
306 THE AMEEICAN DYEK. 
 
 tated, and that the supernatant liquid becomes blue by the 
 absorption of oxygen from the atmosphere, the same as a 
 solution of white indigo or reduced indigo (CicHiaN^Oa), this 
 beins the same result as coloring in the blue-vat. 
 
 If indigo is mixed in water with any metallic salt or sul- 
 phuret, possessing more affinity for oxygen than indigo does, 
 a change takes place in their respective substances. The 
 indifo will pass from a blue to a dull olive color ; this result 
 having been produced by the abstraction of that portion of 
 oxygen that constituted the indigo a blue color, and the salt 
 or sulphuret has become oxidized. Now if an alkali (lime) 
 is added to the mixture, we will perceive a different appear- 
 ance. The indigo having become dissolved in this alkaline 
 solution, the whole now exhibits the well-known characteris- 
 tics of the blue-vat. The substances named are such as are 
 used in vats for coloring cotton fabrics, and the operation, is 
 as a gcneial rule, performed in cold solutions; and what- 
 ever means we may employ for deoxidizing the indigo, in 
 order to apply it as a permanent dye, the substances used 
 must all be based upon the abstraction of more or less of the 
 oxygen contained in the indigo, and its solubility, while in that 
 state, in an alkaline solution. When we dip an article of 
 either wool or cotton in the blue-vat, it comes out of the vat 
 of the same color as the solution ; but as the tendency of 
 indigo is to retain that particular amount of oxygen which 
 constitutes it a blue, it will immediately absorb that gas from 
 the surrounding atmosphere, on which re-absorption of oxygen 
 it will return to its mitural state (blue) unaltered in any of 
 its properties, as an insoluble and unchangeable color. 
 
 If indigo is placed in contact with any substance or sub- 
 stances that have a strong attraction for oxygen in the presence 
 of an alkali, it will be reduced to the white state, and become 
 soluble in the alkali ; this is the result and principle of the 
 blue-vat. There are numerous substances that will reduce 
 indigo to the white state, such as — 
 
THE AMEllICAN DYER. 307 
 
 Protoxide of tin, Turpentine, 
 
 Protoxide of iron. Boiling paraffin, 
 
 Sulphuret of arsenic. Spermaceti, 
 
 Phospiiorus, Stearic acid, 
 
 Tiie phosphites, Chloroform, 
 
 Sulphites, Hydro-sulphite of soda. 
 
 Sodium, Metallic zinc and soda-ash. 
 
 Sugar, Soda-ash lye, with oil of vitriol 
 
 Starch, and tin crystals. 
 
 Calcium, 
 
 Or add sulphurous acid to caustic soda, then kill the solu- 
 tion with zinc. This is hydro-sulphite of soda. Add this to 
 the ground indigo, and wool or cotton can be colored in it. 
 
 Take two parts of carbonate of soda, and one part of sul- 
 phur, mix them together, digest it in water, filter, and add 
 flowers of sulphur, boil and filter. If indigo is ground in 
 this, it is reduced, and can be printed upon cotton, and in a 
 short time will oxidize and become fixed upon the cloth. 
 Take one part of ground indigo, and three parts of hydro- 
 sulphite of soda (NaOS.jO..,) ; use carbonate of soda enough 
 to keep the indigo in solution. All these materials will 
 reduce indigo to the white state, and then woolen or cotton 
 fabrics can be colored blue in their solutions. 
 
 MUNJEET. 
 This dyeing substance is a species of the plant Ruhia tinc- 
 toria, and is cultivated in the East Indies. It is imported in 
 bundles, and ground into a fine powder for the use of the 
 dyer. These bundles consist of thick and thin stems, or 
 stalks. The thin stalks are said to contain less coloring-mat- 
 ter than the thick stalks, and the bark is left on, while the 
 thick stalks are stripped of the bark. They are very dry, 
 
308 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 light and porous, and when broken exhibit a re(J-orange 
 color. The powdered munjeet is composed of the thick and 
 thin stalks mixed. The color given by it is equally as perma- 
 nent, and far handsomer, than that given by madder. 
 
 This dyestuff is not used as much as formerly for reds 
 (for which it was chiefly used), it being superseded l)y the 
 aniline reds and purpurine reds. It has been tried as a sub- 
 stitute for madder in the woad-vat, on which point dyers are 
 not agreed, but never having used it in the bhie-vat, we are 
 not willing to pass our verdict for or against its use in the 
 woad-vat. In coloring red with munjeet, the manipulations 
 are the same as when using madder for the same color. It 
 bears the solutions of tin much better than madder, as it 
 requires a certain amount of tin solution to give the color 
 obtained by it the greatest brilliancy and perfection. Mun- 
 jeet does not appear to contain the different and distinct col- 
 oring-matters that madder does. It has not the same taste, 
 but the color that is given by it is a more desirable red, with 
 less of the orange-yellow tint to it, than that produced by 
 madder. The proper mordants for munjeet appear to be 
 alum, tartar, and oxalic acid ; then in the solution of mun- 
 jeet (or in the finishing bath) add some nitro-muriate of tin 
 liquor. The quantity of color obtained in this manner is 
 equal to that obtained from the same weight of madder. 
 
 Munjeet is described by Roxburgh, in his treatise on the 
 Plants of the Coast of Coromandel, as the Rottlera tinctoria^ 
 a small tree from twelve to fifteen feet in height, frrowins: 
 throughout Hindostan, in several of the East India islands, 
 in China, and in Australia. The fruit it bears is a roundish, 
 three-valved, three-celled capsule, of the size of a small 
 cherry, having three furrows on the outside, and thickly cov- 
 ered with a red powder. This fruit is used as a medicine by 
 the natives. The fruit of this plant is now largely used as a 
 medicine in Great Britain, in cases of tape- worm, its proper- 
 ties as a vermifuge being first investigated by Dr. C. Mackin- 
 non, a British army-surgeon in India, who published the re- 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 309 
 
 suits of his observations in the "Indian Annals of McmIIcuI 
 Science," in 1854. He says : "I have used this fruit in fifty 
 cases for tape-worm, and failed in bringing away the worm 
 only in two instances." The testimony of other practitioners 
 in India and Great Britain goes to confirm the statements of 
 Dr. Mackinnon, so there can be but little doubt of the powers 
 of this fruit as a vermifuire. 
 
 But we will return to the description of it as a dyein«^- 
 material. Munjeet, as we have remarked, is received by the 
 dyer in a powdered state ; its color is a brownish-red, having 
 very little odor or taste, but it produces, when chewed, a 
 slight sense of acrimony in the mouth, and has a gritty feel- 
 ing to the teeth. It will flash like gunpowder when dropped 
 into the tlame of a candle. It is insoluble in cold water, but 
 slightly soluble in hot water. It requires considerable boil- 
 ing to extract all its coloring-matter. It is readily dissolved 
 in alkaline solutions, which give a resinous precipitate, on 
 the addition of an acid to the alkaline solution. Under the 
 microscope, Mr. Hanbury found it to consist of "garnet-red, 
 serai-transparent, roundish granules from ^^q to ^l-^ of an 
 inch in diameter, more or less mixed with minute stellate 
 hairs, and the remains of stalks, which were easily removed 
 by careful sifting." Munjeet was chemically examined by Dr. 
 Anderson of Glasgow, who gave its constituents: 78.19 of 
 resinous coloring-matter, 7.34 of al])umen, 7.14 of cellulose, 
 &c., a trace of volatile oil and volatile colorincf-matter, 3.84 
 of ashes, and 3.49 of water, in 100 parts. He also obtained 
 a coloring substance in a pure state, by allowing a concen- 
 trated ethereal solution to stand for two days, then draining 
 it, and pressing in bibulous paper the resulting mass of gran- 
 ular crystals, and purifying them from adhering resin by re- 
 peated solution in ether, and crystallization. To this sub- 
 stance he gave the name of rottlerin. "Rottlerin melts when 
 heated moderately, and at a higher heat it will decompose, 
 and emit pungent vapors." "The formula of rottlerin, ac- 
 
310 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 cording to Dr. Anderson, is C-^-jHiyOg," making its prime 
 equivalent = 190. 
 
 MUREXIDE. 
 
 Tliis is a fine purple dyestuff, and was first obtained by the 
 action of nitric acid upon uric acid ; it was, however, sup- 
 posed by Mr. Prouty to consist of purpuric acid and ammo- 
 nia, and hence he named it purpurate of ammonia, but 
 chemists are not agreed as to its precise composition. It was 
 first prepared from uric acid, transformed into alloxane, by 
 gradually throwing the uric acid into nitric acid, care being 
 taken that too great an elevation of temperature is not 
 allowed. This mixture is then allowed to cool, after thirty- 
 six hours the alloxane commences to crystallize, and after its 
 separation from the excess of acid, it is then re-dissolved in 
 water and allowed to crystallize a second time. Anhydrous 
 alloxane has the following formula : — C3H4N20io' 
 
 Alloxane in solution will color copperas an indigo-blue 
 color, colors litmus red, and gives to wool a purple-red color, 
 which will change to a violet by soap or alkalies. The allox- 
 ane obtained as above is dissolved, and there is then added to 
 the solution carbonate of ammonia ^NH^CCOg, drop by drop 
 (the solution of alloxane being boiling all the time), until the 
 solution has a slight smell of ammonia. By this operation 
 carbonic acid — CO2 is evolved, and then there is a deposit of 
 crystallized raurexide = CigHgNjOg. 
 
 Murcxide is now generally made from guano, which is first 
 treated with muriatic acid =: HCl, in order to remove the 
 foreign substances that the guano contains ; it is then treated 
 with soda =: Na, to dissolve the uric acid, which is separated 
 by neutralizing the soda with muriatic acid ; the uric acid thus 
 obtained is dissolved in nitric acid =i NO5 ; the solution is 
 heated, and after it cools, ammonia rrzNHg is added, which 
 develops the purple color. Murexide crystals have a square 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 311 
 
 form, and are of a rich irreen color when viewed by reflected 
 light, and show a purple-red color by transmitted light. 
 Murexide is slightly soluble in cold water, but more soluble 
 in boiling water ; it is insoluble in alcohol and ether. With 
 potash it forms a rich purple solution, and, if heated, the 
 murexide will be decomposed. With zinc mordants orange 
 and yellow shades are obtained ; with the sub-acetate or 
 acetate of lead, it gives a purple-red color. All the colors 
 given by this substance are very beautiful, but are as fugitive 
 as they are beautiful. The colors obtained by murexide had 
 a ijreat success, until the aniline colors were discovered. See 
 for an article on the subject of murexide the " Pharmaceutical 
 Journal," vol. xviii, p. 328. 
 
 SAFFLOWER. 
 
 This is an annual plant, and was formerly called dj/er^s 
 saffron; it is the flowers of the Carthanpus tinctorius, a thistle- 
 like plant, and belongs to the family of the syjnantJierve, a 
 native of India ; it is cultivated in Egypt, the southern parts 
 of Europe, and also to some extent in parts of Germany. It 
 has a smooth, erect stem, somewhat branched at the top, and 
 grows to the height of two feet ; the leaves are alternate, and 
 furnished with spiny teeth, similar to the common nettle. 
 The flower only of this plant i^ used for dyeing purposes. 
 "When the flowers arc gathered, they are first pressed to 
 extract the juice ; then they are washed in spring water ; then 
 they are pressed between the hands in small- quantities, and 
 laid upon mats to dry. These cakes are covered up during 
 the daytime to prevent the sun from shining upon them, 
 "which would not only destroy the color, l)ut dry the cakes too 
 much, and thereby cause further deterioration. They are 
 kept exposed to the dews of night, and turned over occasicju- 
 ally, until dried to the proper point, and are then packed for 
 
312 THE AIMEEICAN DYEE. 
 
 the market, and in this state are usually received by the 
 dyer." 
 
 The dj'er, at the present time, obtains this drug in the form 
 of an extract of safflower, or more correctly termed, safflower- 
 carmine. 
 
 The quality of this substance is better, according to its 
 greater purity from mechanical admixtures, such as the seeds 
 of the plant, and leaves of the plant. 
 
 The flowers of the safflower are first exhausted iu a weak 
 solution of carbonate of soda, and in this solution strips of 
 cotton are dipped ; then immersed either in vinegar or diluted 
 sulphuric acid, for the purpose of neutralizing the alkali 
 (soda). The cotton when taken out of this solution is colored 
 red, and is now washed in a very weak solution of carbon- 
 ate of soda, and the solution thus obtained is precipitated with 
 acid ; it is then called carthamine. The carthamine thrown 
 down by this operation, is first carefully washed, and then 
 placed on porcelain plates to dry. 
 
 Carthamine, or rouge vegetal {Cy^^^O-)^ after it has been 
 rejDeatedly dissolved and precipitated, is then called safflower- 
 carmine. Carthamine when seen in thin films, has a gold- 
 green hue, but when viewed against the light, it exhibits a 
 red color. 
 
 Safflower contains two coloring principles, or matters ; the 
 one red, and the other yellow ; the red has been termed 
 carthamine, and is insoluble in water ; the yellow is soluble in 
 water ; there has as yet been no term or name given to the 
 yellow coloring-matter in safflower. 
 
 Carthamine, mixed with French chalk {silicate of magnesia) ^ 
 forms the cosmetic powder called rouge. 
 
 Safflower is very often fraudulently mixed with safi'ron, 
 which it resembles in color, but saffron can be distinguished 
 from safflower by its tubular form, and the yellowish style 
 and filament which they inclose. 
 
 There is a tree, a native of China, called Gardenia grandi- 
 flora, the fruit of which contains the same yellow coloring- 
 
THE AMERICA^T DYER. 313 
 
 matter that the safflower does, which is employed to dye the 
 yellow robe of the Mandarins. In a chemical examination of 
 this frnit, in the laboratory of Rochleder, the result was the 
 discovery of a coloring substance which proved to be identical 
 with that of safilower, and to which the name of o'ocin was 
 given ; this crocin, in powder, is of a bright-red color, and is 
 soluble in water and alcohol. By treating this powder with 
 muriatic acid, it yields another coloring-matter called cvoce^m, 
 "which is the true coloring-principle of the fruit. 
 
 There is a substance in the market called saflfraninc, used as 
 a substitute for safflower, but we have as yet had no experience 
 in its use, and therefore cannot speak of it with confidence ; but 
 those dyers who have used it say that it is equal to safflower 
 iu brightness, and is more permanent. In coloring cotton, 
 the liquor of the safflower is used as extracted from the plant. 
 The yarn is to be well bleached first. One pound of the 
 safflower is used to one pound of yarn, and this proportion 
 makes a dark rose. It must be borne in mind that the water 
 must be as pure as possible for coloring with safflower, and 
 used cold. A very little heat will destroy the color, and the 
 yarn must be dried iu the shade, but not with artificial heat. 
 The colors produced by this material are the most l)eautiful 
 that can be made upon cotton, although very fugitive. Beau- 
 tiful lavenders and lilacs can be colored on cotton with 
 safflower and prussiate of potash, by first coloring the yarn a 
 Prussian blue, then topping ofi" with the safflower ; but there is 
 great ditBculty in obtaining equal colors. In this process, 
 the blue must be put on with prussiate and copperas, and not 
 with prussiate and nitrate of iron, as the nitrate of iron acts 
 upon the safflower by oxidizing and destroying its beauty and 
 depth. The copperas is not so corrosive as the nitrate, and 
 will preserve the peculiar tint of the safflower much better. 
 In dyeing silk with safflower a pink shade, the silk must first 
 receiv9 a bottom; that is, it must first be passed through a 
 weak solution of either archil or cudbear, so as to give it a 
 light lavender or flesh color, the depth to be governed by the 
 
 40 
 
314 THE AI^fERICAX DYER. 
 
 shade of pink wanted. It is then passed through the safflovver 
 solution, to which has been added a very little citric, acetic, 
 or sulphuric acid. After the silk has taken up the color 
 from the solution, it is washed in cold water, then washed 
 again in another clear water made slightly acid either with 
 citric acid or cream of tartar. Sulphuric or acetic acid should 
 not be used in the last washing. 
 
 The safliower solution for dyeing silk is prepared l)y pass- 
 ing some cotton-yarn through the safflower extract. The 
 cotton-yarn takes up nothing except the red. This cotton- 
 yarn is then thoroughly washed in cold water till the water 
 coming from it is perfectly clear. The yarn is then steeped 
 for a sliort time in water made slightly alkaline with carbonate 
 of potash, which extracts the red from the cotton-yarn. This 
 solution is the dye for the silk. 
 
 Like cotton colored by safflower, silk must be dried in the 
 shade, care being taken that the sun's rays cannot strike it. 
 If all necessary precautions are not taken, the dyer will have 
 the trouble of putting the cotton or silk through the last acid- 
 water, if not have to re-dye it altogether. Many chemists 
 object to the theory that carthamine, or the red coloring-sub- 
 stance of safflower, is the oxide of a colorless base, as we have 
 observed in regard to woods, and some of their investigations 
 and reasoning bear evidence of care and judgment, thus 
 adding an interest and inciting practical dyers to a more skil- 
 ful investigation upon the subject of vegetable coloring- 
 matters. 
 
 YALONIA, OR VALONEY-XUTS. 
 These are the cups of the acorn from the Yalonia oak, 
 which grows wild in the Dardanelles and the islands of the 
 Archipelago, and in Asia Minor. They are imported from 
 Smyrna and its vicinity in great quantities. The}' contain a 
 large amount of tannin and gallic acid. Yalonia-nuts are 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 315 
 
 inferior to nutgalls and suinuc for coloring cotton, bnt for 
 wool-dyeing they are as good as sumac or nutgalls. For silk- 
 dyeing they possess some peculiarities which are exceedingly 
 valuable, especiallj^ for blacks, giving a black on silk more 
 permanent than that obtained with nutgalls, and, moreover, 
 the producing of the proper black with this substance upon 
 silk requires a peculiar and certain method, which a very few 
 dyers have attained. 
 
 The Valonia-nut is used now only for coloring hats black, for 
 which purpose it is superior to sumac or nutgalls, as it with- 
 stands the different operations which felt-hats are sul)jected 
 to much better than the galls or sumac. 
 
 WELD, OR WOLD. 
 
 This is an annual plant, extensively cultivated in France, 
 and other parts of Europe, for the purpose of coloring yellow. 
 Its botanical name is Reseda luteola. It is an inodorous 
 plant, having a bitter taste, which is very adhesive. Chev- 
 reul obtained from it, by sublimation, a peculiar yellow color- 
 ing-matter, which he called luteoUn. It is still largely 
 employed in France for coloring yellow, but since the intro- 
 duction of quercitron-bark, and flavine into England, it has 
 not been used there, neither is it now used in America. It is 
 found in the market in small, dried bundles. The more 
 slender the stems are, the better it is considered for dyeing- 
 purposes. The plant grows to the height of three feet, in 
 straight stalks or stems. Both the stems and seeds are used, 
 as they both contain the coloring-matter, but the seeds are 
 said to contain it in a greater quantity. The coloring-matter 
 approaches very nearly to that of quercitron in chemical prop- 
 erties, and of all the vegetable dyes it is the least acted upon 
 by acids and alkalies, which gives to the color produced by it, 
 as far as these substances are concerned, great permanence. 
 
316 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 But it has this counteracting disadvantage, that the color fades 
 rapidly, or will pass away when exposed to the action of the 
 atmosphere and light. Under these influences it becomes 
 oxidized, for which reason it has been abandoned as a dye. 
 . A solution made from this coloring-substance is of a yellow 
 color, with a reddish tint to it, and has a very bitter taste, 
 with a peculiar smell. It has the following re-actions : — 
 
 Sulphate of iron gives a yellowish-olive precipitate. 
 Muriate of tin gives a yellow precipitate. 
 Alum gives the same result. 
 Acids darken the yellow ; and 
 Alkalies change it to a bright yellow. 
 
 The mordant that produces the best results (or the most 
 proper preparation) is alum and tartar, in the proportion of 
 three of alum and one of tartar to every fifteen pounds of 
 clean w^ool, and boiling the wool two hours. The color given 
 by using the above mordant always inclines to the lemon- 
 shade, but the color is of such softness and purity that no 
 other dyeing material equals it (aniline dyes excepted). 
 
 The different solutions of tin can be used, along with alum 
 and tartar, when coloring yellows on yarn or flannels, but 
 \vould be objectionable for goods that have to be fulled, be- 
 cause the solution of tin will give a precipitate or color with 
 weld, that will not penetrate the body of the cloth sufficiently 
 for such faln'ics as have to be fulled. 
 
 "Weld had been used for coloring woolen and silk long 
 before it was used on cotton fabrics. We quote from Dr. 
 Bancroft this clever fraud in regard to the use of weld in 
 coloring yellow and green on cotton goods : — 
 
 "In 1773 the sura of £2,000 sterling was granted by par- 
 liament to a Dr. Williams, as a reward for his discovery of a 
 fast 3'ellow and green d3'e upon cotton yarn and thread. 
 
 "This supposed fast dye was given by the combination of 
 weld with a certain mordant, the composition of which the 
 
THE . A^IERICAISr DYER. 317 
 
 patentee was pei'mitted to conceal, that foreigners might not 
 enjoy the benefit of his discovery ; while he, on his part, en- 
 gaged to supply the cotton and thread dyers with his dye at a 
 certain fixed price. The mordant used was supposed by 
 chemists to be a solution of tin alone, or of tin and l)ismuth, 
 which gives to ^Veld-yellow the power of resisting the action 
 of acid and boiling soapsuds, although it is not proof against 
 the continued action of the sun and air. 
 
 "This defect, however, was not easily discernible, in con- 
 sequence of the ingenious method which- the inventor cra- 
 j)loyed to obtain a favorable testimony of the dyers upon the 
 subject. Pie caused his specimens of dyed yarn to be woven 
 into pocket-handkerchiefs, and gave them to be worn in the 
 pockets of those who were afterwards to attest to the good- 
 ness of his dye ; and, as handkerchiefs worn in pockets 
 were not exposed to the action of sun and air, this want 
 of permanency was not discovered until some time after the 
 reward was paid for an invention which proved of little or no 
 value." 
 
 Weld should be stored in a dry place and kept free from 
 dirt or the admixture of other dyestuffs. 
 
 PASTEL. 
 
 The pastel is a plant cultivated in France, Germany, Eng- 
 land, and Saxony, but is cultivated in France more exten- 
 sively than in either of the other countries named, and, not 
 unlike woad, it is distinguished in the dilierent varieties 
 according to the localities from which we receive it. Pastel, 
 like woad, contains a blue coloring-matter, also a fawn- 
 colored yellow substance ; these matters can be separated 
 from the pastel and woad by treating them with hot water be- 
 fore the fermentation takes place in the operation of couching. 
 
318 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 We are indebted to M. Chevreul for the analysis of the 
 pastel, which gives us some light upon its use. He says : — 
 
 " When the leaves are subjected to the action of the press 
 there is obtained, on the one hand, a residue of a ligneous 
 nature, and, on the other hand, a juice, which holds in sus- 
 pension sundry matters which give it a cldudy appearance. 
 Throwni upon a filter, it leaves a greenish matter, or fecula, 
 which is formed of wax, indigo-blue, and a nitrogenous sub- 
 stance. The clear liquid, after passing through the filter, 
 contains this nitrogenous substance coagulable by heat ; a 
 nitrogenous substance non-coagulable by heat ; a rod matter, 
 resulting from the union of the blue coloring-principle with 
 an acid ; a yellow principle ; gummy matter ; some liquid 
 sugar ; a fixed organic acid ; free acetic acid and acetate of 
 ammonia ; a volatile principle, having the odor of osmazome ; 
 citrate of lime ; sulphates of lime and potash ; phosphates of 
 lime ; magnesia ; iron and manganese ; nitre, and chloride of 
 potassium." 
 
 It appears that Chevreul did not find in the above products 
 any substance which possessed the power of seizing upon 
 oxygen with energetic force, and which explains the action that 
 pastel has in the blue-vat. Yet there is no doubt but Avhat 
 the principles furnished by the pastel intervene, that is to a 
 certain extent, as combustibles, and we must refer at least a 
 part of their effect to this manner of action. For the pastel- 
 vat the indigo should be of the very best quality, — the Ben- 
 gal indigo having been proved ^y dyers most conversant with 
 working pastel to be the cheapest and best; and, in fiict, a 
 dyer will use no other in a pastel- vat, if it is possible to 
 obtain it. 
 
 Before indigo was introduced or knovvu in Europe, pastel 
 and woad were the blue-dyeing materials, and were known 
 as such by the Greeks and Romans. 
 
 Pastel is a bie'nnial plant, and is a species of the Isatis 
 tinctoria; its leaves have a fugitive, pungent odor and a very 
 acrid taste. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 319 
 
 The leaves of the pastel have been used by physicians in 
 jaundice, scorbutic aliVctions and like diseases. 
 
 The distinction between pastel and woad is not very clear. 
 Schutzonberger says: "Pastel, woad, and Isaiiti lindoria is a 
 plant of the family of the Crucifera. It would seem, how- 
 ever, that the ievxn pastel^ as used by the old French dyers, is 
 applied to the leaves of the woad which have been fermented, 
 formed into paste, and afterwards into balls, and which con- 
 tain much bhie coloring-matter. And the term icoacl, as dis- 
 tinguished from j^as^e?, is applied to the unfermented plant." 
 We cannot see the propriety of this distinction, and for this 
 reason, that the woad plant has to go through a fermentation 
 process, to a certain extent, before it is put into casks and sent 
 to the market, &c. (See article, Woad, in this work.) 
 
 WOAD. 
 
 Woad is a biennial plant (the same as pastel), called by 
 botanists Isatis iinctoria. The leaves of this plant have a 
 pungent odor, and an acrid taste, and were long employed for 
 coloring blue, before the introduction of indigo ; and when 
 indigo was first introduced in England and Germany, about 
 the year 1G45, only a very small amount of it was n)ixed with 
 the woad. Afterwards a greater quantity was added, and by 
 the use of indigo, the farmers, merchants, and others in Eng- 
 land and Germany lost a i)roduction by which they had be- 
 come rich, as, after the introduction of indigo, woad was not 
 in so great a demand, and the result was, a prohibition was 
 first issued in Saxony against the use of indigo (April, 1650), 
 and in 1(552, Duke Ernest sent a proposal to the Diet, that 
 indigo should be totally excluded from his empire, and that 
 the exclusive privilege should be given to those dyers who 
 used the woad, without indigo, for coloring blue. 
 
 "This was followed by an imperial prohibition of indigo, on 
 
320 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 the 21st of April, 1654, which was enforced with the greatest 
 severit}' in his domains." 
 
 " The same was done in France ; but in the well-known edict 
 of 1660, in which Colbert separated the ^?ie from tha comiiion 
 dyers, it was stated that indigo should be used without woad, 
 and in 1737 dyers were left at liberty to use indigo alone, or 
 to employ a mixture of indigo and woad." — Barlow. 
 
 "We will abridge from " Gibson's System and Science of 
 Colors," his remarks upon woad : " This plant, which when 
 made into a fermented paste is called woad, has been used 
 as a coloring material (either to stain the bodies of the savage 
 Britons, or to color the garments of their more civilized 
 descendants), for two thousand years, and the accumulated 
 experience of ages, transmitted from fiither to son, hath given 
 to the artisans of that country ji mass of practical information 
 regarding its manufacture and mode'of operation, that those of 
 no other nation possess." 
 
 "The woad plant is cultivated in England, France, Ger- 
 many, and other European States, and when the cultivator 
 thinks the plant is sufficiently matured, it is cut, then ground 
 into a pasty mass, which is piled into a heap, when, after a 
 time, heat is generated, and fermentation commences, with 
 the disengagement of ammoniacal gas. During the progress 
 of this process, the heap is turned or worked over, sprinkled 
 with water or lime, as the operator thinks best, in order to 
 regulate the temperature of generating heat, and to retard or 
 accelerate the fermentation, as the case may be.", 
 
 "This operation is continued at intervals for two or three 
 weeks, according to the state of the weather, and other cir- 
 cumstances. This process is termed couching." 
 
 "Couched woad, differs from pastel or ball woad, inasmuch 
 as the pastel is merely the ground plant made up into balls, 
 and then dried in an open shed, Avithout being fermented or 
 couched, as above described." (See article, Pastel.) "The 
 process of couching is the act whereby the separate and dis- 
 similar parts of the plant are converted into a coherent and 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 321 
 
 homogeneous substance, possessing very active powers, and as 
 the operation of this material (now called woad) is the cause 
 to which we must look for all the phenomena i)resented by the 
 woad-vat, we should inquire into the nature of the change 
 that has taken place, or ascertain in what state the article 
 exists." 
 
 " AVhen the recently ground plant is piled in a heap, and the 
 process of couching has commenced, the operation that is 
 going on is precisely the same as that which takes place in a 
 dung-hill when that is allowed to ferment." 
 
 Chemists divide fermentation into three classes or species : 
 first, the vinous; second, the acetic; and third, the putrefac- 
 tive fermentation. The vinous fermentation is that which will 
 convert all saccharine substances into carbonic acid and alco- 
 hol. The acetic fermentation is that which will convert sugar 
 or alcohol into vinegar ; and the putrefactive, is that which 
 converts organic substances into earthy matters, which remain, 
 and into inflammable gases, which are absorbed by the atmos- 
 phere. 
 
 " It is for us to determine whether the process of couching 
 the plant belongs to any of the species mentioned above, or 
 whether it does not constitute a fourth species or state of 
 chemical action, which has not been examined or explained by 
 any of our chemical writers, in describing the phenomena of 
 fermentation." 
 
 " It is certain that it is not the vinous action, for there is no 
 carbonic acid given off, neither is there any alcohol formed. 
 It is positive that it is not the acetic, there being no produc- 
 tion of vinegar ; and it is not the putrefactive process, for it 
 neither evolves fetid or inflammable gas, nor does it leave 
 an inert, earthy residuum, but, on the contrary, it exhales a 
 fragrant, exhilarating uninflammable ammoniacal vapor, and 
 the remaining substance is remarkable for its energy." 
 
 "These facts are positive evidence that it differs entirely 
 from and does not belong to any of the above species of fer- 
 mentation ; that its products are not similar, nor the substance 
 
 41 
 
322 THE AMERICAX DYER. 
 
 like an}' of the three ; and seeing that it is fermentation, it 
 must, of necessity, constitutes fourth species, whose charac- 
 ters are as well defined, and whose features are as distinctly 
 marked, as any of the others, and it devolves upon us to show 
 what these characters are, in order to assign it a location and 
 jrive it a name, in the scale of fermentation." 
 
 " When the couching process of the woad is proceeding in 
 a regular manner, a great quantity of amraoniacal gas is evolved 
 from the fermenting mass, and all the tendencies of the process 
 are to the production of alkaline properties, and this continues 
 until the process ceases, when the remaining substance (now 
 woad, still exhaling ammonia), retains very energetic quali- 
 ties, which continually produce fresh alkali. Therefore, we 
 define these energies, from the nature of their products, the 
 alkaline state of fermentation." 
 
 "Such, then, is the nature of the process of couching (and 
 also of the proper fermentation of dung), for the products 
 and energies at work are identical, in both cases. As we shall 
 show in the sequel, the alcoholic and acetic kinds of fer- 
 mentation, both pass into the alkaline species, before running 
 to putrefaction. This circumstance marks out the position 
 which the alkaline process occupies, as the one immediately 
 preceding the putrefactive state, or that particular act which 
 completes the entire destruction of the matter subjected to 
 fermentation." 
 
 "And as the alkaline process approaches so near to the 
 putrefactive (there being but a step between it and destruc- 
 tion), this shows the great skill and care that are required in 
 the workman to prevent such a catastrophe. Hence the diffi- 
 culty experienced in the working of woad-vats is not to be 
 wondered at." 
 
 "We will now describe the marketable qualities of woad, 
 so as to enable the dyer to make a judicious choice of such 
 specimens as are good and safe to work. There are three 
 general appearances of cask woad, only, that we shall notice : 
 the brown or fox}', the dark-colored and muddy-formed 
 
THE AMERICAX DYER. ;]23 
 
 woad, and the fine olive-green colored and fragrant-smelling 
 woad." 
 
 "The best woad is of a green-olive color, interspersed with 
 parts of a browner appearance. It is rather tough and adhe- 
 rent, than otherwise. When a piece of it is broken open, it 
 shows fine silky filaments of considerable tenacity. It has an 
 agreeable and sweetish ammoniacal odor, and when mixed with 
 water, it does not very easily dissolve or fall apart, but has a 
 doughv touirhness, and requires considerable slirrinir to con- 
 vert it into a light, pulpy substance. When so dissolved, its 
 soluble portion imparts to water a deep brown color, iucliniug 
 to olive, and the liquor has considerable substance or body." 
 
 "These are the distinguishing characteristics of good woad, 
 and show that the couching has been properly conducted." 
 
 " The brown or foxy woad diifers in appearance from the 
 preceding description, chiefly in color, which is redder, or 
 more of a decided brown. It has a stron<i;er and less ajj^reea- 
 ble odor ; in other respects it answers the description of the 
 greener, or more olive kind, if the article is good." 
 
 "A first-rate foxy or brown woad is much stronger than the 
 one described as the best kind, but it is a very difficult woad to 
 work, as it comes on or springs in so rapid a manner, that it 
 requires more watchfulness and skill to I)ring it into good 
 working order, than it requires for the other kind of woad ; 
 and, moreover, it requires a larger amount of ware, and as 
 its fermenting powers are so strong, it will take sudden 
 plunges of violent fermentation, requiring considerable skill 
 to overcome ; therefore, this kind of woad is very unsafe in 
 the hands of an inexperienced dyer : but when it is once 
 fairly brought under subjection, it will execute better work 
 than the other kind, and on this account, for our own use, it 
 is preferable." 
 
 ''The great cause of the impetuosity of this woad is owing 
 to its not having been fermented enough in the process of 
 couching, and its red color may possil)ly arise from the plant 
 being too ripe when it was gathered." 
 
324 THE AMEllICAX DYER. 
 
 " We must now caution purchasers against the worst and 
 most worthless kind of woad, which we find sometimes in the 
 market. It is a heavy, lifeless, dark mud-like article, and is 
 in the state of paste, very mobile, having little or no adher- 
 ence in its parts, or possessing any tenacity, and does not 
 hold together, but breaks off without any filamentary or 
 fibrous appearance. It is short and earthy, and its odor is 
 similar to that of dock-mud." 
 
 "On being thrown into the hot water in the vat, it easily 
 falls apart, and requires little if any raking. The appearance 
 of the liquor formed l)y it is gray-colored, wavy, glistening 
 or shining as though it was greasy, looking like strong, dirty 
 soap-water." 
 
 " The odor of this liquor is vapid ; it operates fitfully, some- 
 times it springs itself quickly, at other times it comes reluc- 
 tantly to work; but what distinguishes it most is, that after 
 working feebly for a certain, but short time, it suddenly, and 
 without any assignable cause, ceases to operate ; the indigo 
 precipitates, the liquor becomes thin, odorless and flat, and 
 no common means have the least eflect by way of imparting 
 energy to the materials of the vat." 
 
 "The cause of the bad efiects of this kind of woad is, that 
 in the process of couching it has suffered too great a degree 
 of heat, and the greater part of it had passed into the putre- 
 factive state, and very little fermenting power remained in 
 that which was uncontaminated by it." 
 
 "The good or bad qualities of woad do not depend so much 
 upon the country that produces it, as upon the care and skill 
 exercised in manufacturing it. And the difference, both in 
 the mode of operating and in the price of English and Amer- 
 ican woad, is entirely owing to the latter circumstance, for 
 w'e can speak from long acquaintance with the two, that the 
 quality of strength is decidedly in favor of the American 
 woad." 
 
 " We will now take into consideration that operation of 
 woad which makes it such an important article in the compo- 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 325 
 
 sition of the woad-vat ; viz., the fermentiition of wo.-ul in the 
 bUie-vat." 
 
 "But before proceeding it will be necessary to give a slight 
 outline of fermentation in general, of which genus the opera- 
 tion of working a woad-vat is a species. This descri^jtion 
 appears to be requisite, to enable the operator to understand 
 the nature of the intestine action going o,n among the materi- 
 als of the vat." 
 
 "Fermentation is a spontaneous effcn't of the ultimate con- 
 stituents of matter to change their state, and enter into dif- 
 ferent combinations or forms; and this action is independent 
 of, and distinct from, those simple affinities that dispose acids 
 and alkalies to unite so as to form salts, and does not depend 
 upon antagonistic principles mutually exerting their forces upon 
 each other, giving birth to inert compounds, possessing no 
 particular properties ; but it is, in the abstract, a true com- 
 bustion. Though silently and invisibly performed, it is na- 
 ture's method of analysis, whereby compound and heteroge- 
 neous bodies are decomposed and resolved into simpler forms 
 of matter, a process that attenuates and disperses substances, 
 causing the solid to become fluid, or the fluid to assume the 
 gaseous form. It is that operation which performs, in the 
 same order, but in a slower manner, all the agencies of tire ; 
 first driving off" the most volatile parts, next attacking the 
 liquids, and converting them into gases, it disperses these in 
 like manner ; and tinally, the more solid parts imdergo a sim- 
 ilar change, and are ultimately dissipated, until nothing remains 
 but the incombustible and intractable earths, or metallic 
 oxides. Therefore, all the tendencies of the process of fer- 
 mentation, from its commencement in the alcoholic stage, to 
 its final cessation in the putrefactive, are to what we call de- 
 struction, or, more correctly speaking, to the entire separation 
 and dispersion of the combustible constituents of the matters 
 subject to its action ; and so progressive and effectual is this 
 dissolution, that no calorific influence, however powerful, 
 could have accomplished it more certainly ; for it does, when 
 
326 THE AMEKICAX DYER. 
 
 suffered to pass through its diffcreut stages, produce exactly 
 the same results as destructive distillation." 
 
 "Wherefore, reasoning from a similarity of results in the 
 two cases, we have to concede that the passage of what we 
 designate as caloric, or heat, into the body of the materials 
 subjected to fermentation, is the cause of the effects we per- 
 ceive, arising from that process ; and although the sensible 
 heat of the fermenting body may not, in many instances, 
 exceed the temperature of the human frame, yet this is no 
 proof that as great an amount or degree of heat has not 
 passed through the fermenting mass, to effect its complete 
 decomposition, as it would have done had it been exposed to 
 the direct action of fire, in a retort, by the process of de- 
 structive distillation, because the fermenting mass obtains its 
 caloric only by its own intestine motion, and from an internal 
 source, and this being carried off as fast as it is generated, by 
 the amount of vapors or gases to which it has given elasticity, 
 is kept comparatively cool, while the matter subjected to de- 
 structive distillation, being supplied with its caloric from an 
 external source, and as it continually receives fresh increments 
 of heat, in greater quantity than can be carried off by the 
 ejected gases, it possesses, in consequence, an elevated 
 temperature." 
 
 "We assert, that no more heat or caloric has been taken 
 up by the matter exposed to destructive distillation, in order 
 to dissipate its constituents, than there has been required to 
 disperse, in like manner, the gaseous products of common 
 fermentation ; for it requires only a certain quantity of heat 
 to maintain matter in a certain state (whether solid, liquid, or 
 aeriform), and when that specific quantity has passed into it, 
 it admits of no further addition ; in other words, the capacity 
 of bodies for heat is limited by the nature of their constitu- 
 tion." 
 
 "If, then, so great an amount of caloric has been required 
 to change the form of the fermenting matter, and if it has 
 received none from any external source, the question wnll 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 327 
 
 naturally suggest itself, wheuce came this heat, or, h(nv did 
 it originate?" 
 
 "In answering it, we will proceed on the data, that the 
 universal presence of electricity, or the galvanoid fluid, is 
 the all-pervading, all-surrounding force, quality or power, 
 that penetrates and envelopes every partible of matter, how- 
 ever or wherever situated ; it is an atmosphere or medium 
 extending through and beyond all systems and worlds, pos- 
 sessing an all-present existence, in which all material nature is 
 immersed ; it is that principle by which the several elements 
 of matter, having different capacities, assume, by the force of 
 its powers, different volumes, and by it retain their separate 
 existences ; it is that imponderable cause which shines in 
 the light, warms in the heat, and lives as the life of all things." 
 
 "To this inexhaustible source of effects, we are to look for 
 the cause of fermentation, by understanding that the action 
 of this principle upon the several elements of nature, in 
 causing them to assume different forms, shapes or combina- 
 tions, is sufficient to account for all the phenomena by that 
 process." 
 
 "The presence of electricity everywhere; the various 
 capacities or attractions of bodies for it, and its continual ten- 
 dency to an equal distribution of its power, or an inclination 
 to find a level or equilibrium, make it the ever-active and 
 all-controlling agent in the operations of nature." 
 
 "That this imponderable element exists in all bodies, and 
 that its greater or less amount in any particular body, deter- 
 mines the existence of that body, as a solid, a liquid, or a 
 gas, and that the sensation which we call heat, and to which 
 it is customary to attribute these effects,. is nothing more than 
 a result, or mere sensation, whereby we perceive or expe- 
 rience the passage of this element from one substance to 
 another, as it resumes that equilibrium, which had been dis- 
 turbed by the unequal affinity of the different species of mat- 
 ter for it ; and as this passage is more or less rapid, or in 
 greater or smaller quantity, so is the degree of heat or sensa- 
 
328 THE A3IERICA^ DYER. 
 
 tion excited, more or less acute or intense ; until, finally, 
 when this change is eflected in large quantities, and with 
 great velocity, light is evolved, or the property of shining is 
 coimnunicated to bodies through which this energy is passing." 
 
 " Therefore, heat and light have no existence, independent 
 of electrical (or galvanic) changes, and they are not matter 
 in any of its species or forms, but simply sensible perceptions, 
 or visible manifestations to us of changes taking place in mat- 
 ter, by the operation of an energetic power ; they are only 
 effects of a prior and greater cause — simple results flowing 
 from velocity of motion — mere sensations of vibrations among 
 ultimate particles." 
 
 "And although both light and heat can and do exist, sepa- 
 rately, distinctlv, and independently of each other, and one 
 is perceived when the other is not present ; yet can this 
 seeming irregularily of the violent passage of the electrical 
 power, producing simultaneously both light and heat, be re- 
 conciled, on the idea of the peculiar nature that some bodies 
 or substances inherit to throw ofi" both light and heat, and 
 other bodies only inherit but one of these sensations." 
 
 "All the effects which are attributed to light and heat could 
 be accounted for on tlie above theory, were we giving a 
 dissertation upon the phenomena of light and heat, instead of 
 an inquiry into the cause of fermentation ; yet the nature of 
 the inquiry, has unavoidabh' led to observations respecting 
 them, and although irreleveut to the subject, they were 
 necessary to illustrate it more clearly, and to enable us to 
 draw the line of distinction between cause and effect." 
 
 "Seeing, then, that an atmosphere of electricity surrounds 
 the heterogeneous mass when first placed together for fer- 
 mentation, and that its equilibrium is constantly disturbed by 
 the changes going on through all nature, it is evident that a 
 discordant mixture (of diflerent principles) cannot long re- 
 main without changing, but that a spontaneous change will 
 take place in consequence of the dissimilar capacities of the 
 several substances (contained in the mixture) for electricity. 
 
THE AMEIUCAN DYEK. 329 
 
 "This change or motion gives rise to the sensation, heat; 
 the temperature of the mass rises, and the electric power 
 or fluid (or whatever other phrase we might use) combining 
 to saturation with its most susceptible parts, carries them oflf 
 in volatile products ; and as the fermenting substance is con- 
 tinually drawing oli' the electricity from external nature, with 
 which it is in contact, and as every moment renders ijt more and 
 more dissimilar in its composition or capacity for this power, 
 the rapidity of the motion becomes more and more energetic, 
 until, as it passes with increasing velocity through its different 
 stages, the action becomes (in some cases) so violent and 
 intense as to set tire to the mass." 
 
 " Hence the great difficult of stopping or retaining the 
 fermentation, at any desired point, increases with the progress 
 of the fermentation. 
 
 "If we agree with the observations herein expressed, we 
 must admit that electricity is the exciting cause of all the 
 changes that take place in fermentation, as are all the differ- 
 ent changes in nature due to electricity." 
 
 We. will now proceed to describe fermentation in its several 
 or different species and stages of its progress. 
 
 " It has been shown that the exciting cause of fermentation 
 is due to electricity, and we have also seen that the whole 
 tendency of fermentation, from its commencement to its 
 close, was to decompose and dissipate the constituents of the 
 substance exposed to the operation of fermentation ; and that 
 in this process towards destruction it gives rise to different 
 products, which, by the distinctness of their characters, serve 
 as criteria of the several stages of the process, and point out 
 to us just how far the operation has advanced towards its final 
 accomplishment. 
 
 " These different stages are termed species of fermentation ; 
 but none of them can occur in an uncombustible body. As 
 fermentation is an actual, though invisible combustion, its 
 phenomena can only be exhibited among combustible materials, 
 
 42 
 
330 THE AMERICAX DYER. 
 
 or in such bodies as have the power of taking the gaseous 
 state." 
 
 "We have termed the different species or kinds of fer- 
 mentation spoken of in this article, from their different 
 characteristics, the alcoholic, th(? acetic, the alkaline, and the 
 putrefactive states of fermentation ; and as vegetable matters 
 are composed chiefly of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, with 
 occasionally nitrogen, interspersed sometimes (as in woad, 
 &c.) with foreign substances, this knowledge of the consti- 
 tution of matters undergoing fermentation, and the chemical 
 properties of their products, will enable us to comprehend 
 what particular principles remain in the fermenting mass, at 
 each and every stage of its progress, and what kind have 
 been separated from it ; it also explains the reason why, iu 
 some cases, the fermentation should commence with the first 
 stage, or why it should, iu other cases, commence at the 
 second, third, or even the last stage, without having passed 
 through the preceding ones." 
 
 "As the changes produced by fermentation can only be 
 fresh arrangements of the above-named few principles, the 
 proportions in which these exist in the mass will determine 
 what state of fermentation shall first commence (though this 
 is liable to some modification from the state of the atmos- 
 phere and other circumstances) : — 
 
 "First. For instance, when the constituents are fn the pro- 
 portions of 4 carbon, 3 ox3'gen, 2 hydrogen, and 1 nitrogen, 
 the fermentation will commence in the alcoholic state." 
 
 " Second. When the oxygen is iu excess over the carbon, 
 or when the proportions are 4 oxygen, 3 carbon, 2 hydrogen, 
 and 1 nitrogen, then alcohol cannot be formed, because the 
 excess of oxygen acidifies the product and gives rise to the 
 acetic fermentation." 
 
 "Third. AVhen the fermenting body contains little carbon 
 or oxygen, compared with its hydrogen or nitrogen, — or 
 reverse the proportions, and we have 4 hydrogen, 3 nitrogen, 
 2 carbon, and 2 oxygen, — iu this case the greater proportion 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 331 
 
 of the constituents arc such as compose ammonia and the 
 alkaline fermentation must, of necessity, commence lirst." 
 
 "Fourth. And when the proportions are 4 nitrogen, 3 
 hydrogen, 2 oxygen, and 1 carbon, it is plain that the pre- 
 ponderating principles are all of an elastic character, and the 
 least amount of electricity (or heat) goes to dissipate them in 
 noxious vapors characteristic of putrefaction." 
 
 "When the constituents (or substances) are put together in 
 the first-named proportions, the effect of the fermentation Avill 
 be to carry off a portion of the carbon and oxygen, as car- 
 bonic acid, which will leave the remainder in the proportions 
 that form alcohol : but as alcohol does not contain as much 
 oxygen as acetic acid, it is evident that a re-action is neces- 
 sary or an absorption of oxygen must take place by the alco- 
 hol before that can be converted into acid or exhibit acetic 
 fermentation." 
 
 (Here we see the necessity of taking out the bungs from 
 cider and wine barrels when we wish to make vinegar.) 
 
 " Acetic acid is nothing more or less than oxidized 
 alcohol." 
 
 "In the third case, the effect of the alkaline fermentation is 
 to carry off another portion of the carbon and oxygen (wdiich 
 are constituents in both alcohol and acetic acid), and leave 
 the hydrogen iind nitrogen to enter into combination as am- 
 monia." 
 
 "And, lastly, on the evaporation of the ammonia, the re- 
 maining nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon (being a 
 surplus of the constituents more than was necessary to form 
 all the products of the other three species of fermentation), 
 now form compounds with the phosphorus and sulphur (if 
 there is any present in the fermenting article) and give rise to 
 phosphoretted, sulphuretted, and carburetted hydrogen, and 
 other nauseous and inflammable gases, that characterize the 
 putrefactive process, which completes the separation of all 
 combustible materials from the substance undergoing fer- 
 
332 THE AMERICAX DYER. 
 
 mentation ; the operation is at an end and the disorganization 
 of the substances completed." 
 
 "We have seen that the alcoholic, acetic, alkaline, and 
 putrefactive kinds of fermentation, under certain circum- 
 stances, run, in succession, from the first to the last stage; 
 every stage being distinctly separated and known from the 
 other by the phenomena peculiar to it." 
 
 "And although all fermentation tends towards, and ulti- 
 mately ends in the putrefactive process (unless it is checked), 
 yet any of the stages of fermentation, by proper manipula- 
 tions, can be caused to remain in that particular stage, and 
 be preserved in that state as a separate species, and its further 
 progress stopped." 
 
 "But it does not follow that, in order to produce any par- 
 ticular species of fermentation, we should go through the 
 other stages that precede it ; for although they are in some 
 measure connected together, still they are each independent of 
 the other ; as the proportions of simple principles in the mass 
 must be various to give rise to the different kinds of fermen- 
 tation, and the putrefactive state can commence at once,' 
 without necessarily passing through any of the others ; the 
 alkaline can also begin without the least indication of there 
 ever having been either acetic or alcoholic fermentation, — 
 and the acid or acetic process can commence without any 
 previous formation of alcohol. If we should commence with 
 the alcoholic fermentation, we can carry the process through 
 to its end, through the acetic, alkaline, and putrefactive 
 stages ; if we commence with the acetic, we can pass through 
 the akaline and the putreftictive processes ; and by beginning 
 with the alkaline, we can continue it through the putrefiic- 
 tive. But if the putrid fermentation should commence first, 
 none of the other stages can be elicited, because destruction 
 has commenced at once, and all the combustible materials of 
 the mass are separated, one from the other, and the whole is 
 entirely dissipated." 
 
 "When fermentation has arrived at a certain stage, it may 
 
THE AMERICANS" DYER. 333 
 
 progress towards its final consummation, but cannot retro- 
 grade in its action ; therefore the alkaline state may pa.ss into 
 the putrefactive, but not back into the acetic or alcoholic 
 stages, and the acetic may go through the alkaline and putre- 
 factive processes, but cannot be brought back again to the 
 alcoholic species of fermentation ; the tendencies of every 
 species of fermentation will aid it on until all the substances 
 that compose the mass are driven off, and there is nothing left 
 except such matters as are incapable of taking the aeriform 
 state." 
 
 "This general description of fermentation, its different 
 species or stages, and the mode of its operation, has been 
 given for the purpose of enabling us to understand more 
 clearly respecting the alkaline species of fermentation, or the 
 operation of woad when in a blue-vat." 
 
 "It has been shown, in the description of couching or the- 
 curing of the woad, that it was brought by that process into 
 such a state as to have a continual tendency to the production 
 of ammonia, or into a substance whose fermentation com- 
 mences in the alkaline stage." 
 
 "The soluble substances that are contained in woad, are mostly 
 mucilaginous and extractive matter, albumen and a little sac- 
 charine matter; the albumen furnishes (independent of 
 absorption from the atmosphere) the nitrogen which is neces- 
 sary for the formation of ammonia, which it creates and 
 evolves during its fermentation. The water in the vat beins 
 heated to 170° Fahr., and woad, madder, bran, lime and 
 indigo now added, in the course of ten or fifteen hours 
 afterwards, we perceive that a chemical change is taking place, 
 by the appearance of the solution, which indicates that the 
 operation of the materials has commenced." 
 
 "It is to ascertain what part each of the above materials 
 performs, and what is the nature of the operation, which we 
 must now consider. In the first place, the object in view is 
 the solution of the indigo after the vat is put together; there- 
 fore, the indigo is the one to be operated upon by the other 
 
334 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 ingredients of the vat. "We have shown, in describing the set- 
 ting and working of the woad-vat, that in order to effect the 
 sohition of the indigo, it was necessary first to bring it into a 
 lower state of oxidation, and then an alkali must be present 
 before the indigo would dissolve in water." 
 
 "The most important functions of the vat are to absorb 
 oxygen and produce alkali; and as the proportions of the 
 ultimate constituents of woad will be as four hydrogen, three 
 nitrogen, two carbon, one oxygen (as in the alkaline stage), 
 all in a free or uncombined state, and carbon having a strong- 
 er affinity for oxygen than for any other substance, hydrogen 
 and nitrogen being also inclined to unite, the etfoct of these 
 compound affinities will be to produce, simultaneously, car- 
 bonic acid and ammonia ; but as the proportion of carbon 
 exceeds the oxygen (in the woad), and the indigo, hold- 
 ing oxygen b}- a weaker affinity, gives it up to the carbon 
 (creating carbonic acid), the indigo is deoxidized and 
 will now dissolve in alkali ; but as the ammonia and carbonic 
 acid thus formed must, from their natures, reciprocally 
 neutralize each other, and create a carbonate of ammonia, 
 and as deoxidized indigo will not dissolve in the solution of a 
 neutral salt, we must then in some manner destroy the car- 
 bonic acid before we can avail ourselves of the alkaline prop- 
 erties of the ammonia as a solvent of the indigo. To effect 
 this object we add slack lime (ware) which will immediately 
 unite with the carbonic acid, and then both are precipitated 
 as an insoluble carbonate of lime, the ammonia is liberated, 
 and the indigo will now dissolve in it." 
 
 "If we were to put nothing into the vat, except indigo and 
 woad, it would, in time, assume its functions of deoxidizing 
 and dissolving indigo ; but in order to facilitate and give 
 greater force or energy to the fermentation, bran and madder 
 are added ; as these substances furnish it with considerable sac- 
 charine and farinaceous matter, they may be considered as given 
 for the same reason as yeast is added to a solution of sugar, 
 in order to bring on the fermentation of the materials in all 
 
THE AMERICAN^ DYER. 335 
 
 their parts at once. Therefore when a woad-vat is first put 
 together in the usual manner, the process commences with 
 the alcoholic fermentation of the sweet matters in the madder, 
 bran and woad, which deoxidizes the indigo, and forms car- 
 bonic acid ; when, at the same time, the woad yields ammo- 
 nia ; but as this acid and alkali rapidly unite, and form a salt 
 that will not dissolve indigo, and as at the commencement, the 
 amount of carbonic acid formed is greater than the ammonia, a 
 portion of lime is necessary to saturate the carbonic acid, then 
 the ammonia becoming free, will now dissolve a portion of the 
 deoxidized indigo. The process now proceeds as before ; 
 then, after a while, the carbonic acid will again obtain the 
 ascendancy over the alkali ; then another portion of lime is 
 required to form ammonia, and some more indigo is then dis- 
 solved, so this alternate waiting for the formation of carbonic 
 acid and serving with lime, is persevered in until the produc- 
 tion of acid and alkali are balanced, and the whole indio'o is 
 brought into solution." 
 
 " If at any of these servings of lime we should give too 
 large an amount of lime, or before the formation of any car- 
 bonic acid, we would then throw the vat back, and arrest the 
 further progress of fermentation ; in this case, we must give 
 the vat madder and bran, in order to excite the fermentation, 
 or else we must wait until the natural vigor of the woad will 
 again promote fermentation ; and, on the other hand, should 
 we neglect to give the vat lime at the right time, then the 
 carbonic acid will overpower the volitile alkali, and if allowed 
 to proceed in this state, the ammoniacal odor will cease, the 
 indigo precipitates, and the vat is in danger. But when the 
 process of setting the vat has been properly conducted, and 
 is fairly balanced, and all the indigo is brought into solution, 
 then the operation of dyeing can be commenced." 
 
 "Yet, furthermore, as by dyeing in the vat, the liquor be- 
 comes exposed to the atmosphere, and in consequence, a quan- 
 tity of ox3'gen is absorbed by the indigo, which imparts it to 
 the carbon of the woad, giving rise to a quantity of carbonic 
 
336 . THE AMERICAN DYEE. 
 
 acid, that requires a portion of lime for its saturation; it is, 
 therefore, necessary to serve with lime after every day's 
 coloring." 
 
 "But should, we in serving daily with lime, overcharge it, 
 the deoxidation of the indigo will cease, as the surcharge of 
 ware prevents the formation of carbonic acid ; the ammoniacal 
 odor becomes more caustic; the liquor is darker colored ; the 
 bottom (that is, the woad) is blackened with the precipitated 
 indigo, and feels heavier and tougher to rake up, and the 
 color given by the vat is a gray, feeble-looking shade ; the vat 
 is now what dyers term full up with her ware, or is hard. If 
 by repeated surcharges the vat has become so hard that it 
 will not color, (and if it is carried to the greatest extent), all 
 the indigo is precipitated ; the ammonia has evaporated ; the 
 odor is that of recently slacked lime ; the alkaline fermenta- 
 tion, and the production of carbonic acid, have ceased; and 
 the bottom is black, solid, and tough. When a vat has got 
 into such a condition, it requires a large amount of madder 
 and bran to neutralize the excess of lime, in order to raise up 
 the fermentation again. And, on the other hand, if by negli- 
 gence in our daily serving the vat, we should leave it short 
 of the necessary amount of lime required to saturate the daily 
 production of carbonic acid in the vat, then the ammonia will 
 be gradually overpowered ; it will color wool a pale greenish- 
 yellow, which will not become a distinct blue by exposure to 
 the atmosphere. The odor of the liquor is at first soft and 
 sweetish, then vapid and flat ; the liquor and the sediment are 
 greenish, or light colored, and are buoyant and loose. The vat 
 in this condition, is in a critical situation, and must be served 
 with ware as soon as possible, to prevent its passing suddenly 
 into the putrefactive state of fermentation." 
 
 " Such are the explanations in regard to the phenomena of a 
 woad-vat, and can be briefly summed up as follows : — 
 
 "First. That the intention in using woad, madder, bran, 
 and lime, in a vat, is to efl'ect the solution of the indigo in 
 water." 
 
THE AMEltlCAN DYER. 337 
 
 • 
 
 " Second. That the madder and bran act as a ferment, and 
 excite fermentation." 
 
 "Third. That the fermentation of woad is a double opera- 
 tion, producing carbonic acid and ammonia, which, uniting, 
 form carbonate of ammonia; while, as carbonic acid forms, 
 the indigo is deoxidized." 
 
 "Fourth. That the lime decomposes the carbonate of am- 
 monia, precipitating the carbonic acid, and leaving the 
 ammonia free, when the deoxidized indigo is dissolved in it." 
 
 "As the formation of carbonic acid is necessary to the de- 
 oxidation of the indigo, and the presence of ammonia is 
 required for its solution, it is indispensable to precipitate the 
 former, in order to give freedom to the latter ; hence, the 
 important part that lime performs in effecting this object, 
 constitutes it the nice balancer of the vat, and the great regu- 
 lator of the fermentation. And the exactness required in 
 proportioning the lime to the amount of carbonic acid formed, 
 is what makes it the most delicate and difficult operation in 
 the whole art of dyeing ; for the principal derangement of a 
 woad-vat, proceeds from either an overcharge or undercharge 
 of lime." 
 
 "The amount of lime given, must be in such a proportion 
 to the amount of carbonic acid formed, that the two substances 
 will mutually saturate each other, and thus form a neutral 
 insoluble precipitate of carbonate of lime, leaving the ammo- 
 nia and indigo in solution. This situation of the vat consti- 
 tutes its true or correct working; condition." 
 
 TANNIN. 
 The word or term tannin, was originally applied to a prin- 
 ciple contained or existing in many vegetables. This princi- 
 ple has a very astringent taste, and has the property of 
 producing a white flocculent precipitate, with a solution of 
 
 43 
 
338 THE AMERICANS" DYER. 
 
 gelatine, and a black precipitate with the salts of sesquioxide 
 of iron (Fe^,©^). As obtained from different plants, it was 
 found to have some difference in properties, frn- which reason 
 chemists recognize two kinds of tannin, one existing in oak 
 bark, galls, &c., this kind being distinguished from the other 
 kind, b}^ its producing a bluish-black precipitate with the ses- 
 quioxide of iron. The other kind of tannin existing in 
 Peruvian bark, catechu, &c., is distinguished by producing a 
 greenish-black, or a dark olive precipitate, with the above 
 salt. The former kind has received the most attention from 
 chemists, and from their examinations the characters of tan- 
 nin have generally been given. The tannin derived from 
 galls, has the peculiarity of being converted into gallic acid 
 (Ci4Hi60io)» which property is wanting in the tannin obtained 
 from catechu or Peruvian bark. 
 
 Since the experiments of M. Pelouze in relation to tannin, 
 it has been universally admitted to rank with the acids, and 
 is now, therefore, termed tannic acid (CisHgOg+SHO). The 
 tannic acid obtained from galls, has been termed, for the sake 
 of distinction, by some chemists, gallotannic acid, and by 
 others, quercitanmc acid. (See article. Tannic Acid). 
 
 Tannin has a strong affinity for, and intimately combines 
 with, vegetable fibre, and also with color and its constitu- 
 ents, and therefore it serves as the medium of combination; 
 and as the greater part of nutgalls is made up of tannin, we 
 see the important part that galls play in the operation of dye- 
 ing those substances that have only a wery feeble affinity for 
 colors. But as nutgalls contain gallic acid in large quantities 
 (which would be useless as an inlennedia in coloring opera- 
 tions), we would very naturally suppose that a sul)stance 
 which contains more tannin and less gallic acid than galls 
 appear to, would answer the purpose of an intermedia much 
 better than galls ; and there is not the least doubt in my 
 mind, but that catechu (which is one-half tannin) would do 
 better for that purpose, on some colors, than nutgalls. 
 
 Tannin does not crystallize, but forms by precipitation or 
 
THE AMEBICAN DYER. 339 
 
 evaporation, a brown, resinous-looking substance, which will 
 readily tlissolve in water. This vitreous form serves to dis- 
 tinguish tannin, or the astringent principle, from the true or 
 real coloring-principle of dyestuffs, the latter principle being 
 a crystallizable body. Although tannin exists more or less in 
 nearly all the common dyestuffs, for all that, it is a dis- 
 tinct principle from that which is the immediate cause of color 
 iu dyeing operations. Yet it is our opinion, that the tannin 
 contained in dyestuffs is the radical of the coloring-principle; 
 or, at least, we think that the former (tannin), either l)y 
 absorbing more oxygen, or from a change in the amount of 
 its carbon, or by a combination of both, becomes the coloring- 
 principle in a measure. However, as there is no positive 
 proof of such a connection, we shall view them as two dis- 
 tinct substances, and endeavor to point out the peculiar feat- 
 ures that distinguish one from the other. 
 
 Tannin, when separated from every other substance, and 
 when pure and dry, appears as a brown-colored, brittle, and 
 resinous substance, and it is uncrystallizable. The coloring- 
 principle, when it is separated from every other body, is 
 generally in a mass of crystals, and possesses the power of 
 precipitating all the metallic oxides from their solutions (of 
 producing well-defined colors), which tannin does not. The 
 two principles can be separated one from the other by adding 
 gelatine, which will precipitate the tannin and leave the col- 
 oring-principle in solution. 
 
 Tannin will aid in filling up, or giving body to some dark 
 colors, by the amount of dun or tawny matter which it com- 
 municates ; but for light or very bright colors, it should be 
 separated from the coloring-principle by means of gelatine, 
 as the most brilliant hues are obtained only by the true color- 
 ing-principle of the dyestuffs which we have to use. 
 
 Many of the dyestuffs we use contain tannin. Catechu 
 contains nearly fifty per cent., nutgalls thirty to forty-five per 
 cent., sumac seventeen per cent., quercitron-bark six per 
 cent., or very nearly the above proportions. The action of 
 
340 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 tannin upon the mordants is very often injurious to the tint 
 or hue we wish to obtain. The dyewood being boiled to 
 extract the coloring-matter, the tannin contained in the wood 
 is dissolved, and it is sure to act upon the mordant, which is 
 combined with the fabric to be dyed, when we come to 
 immerse it in the coloring-solution, producing an effect upon 
 the fabric very similar to that of adding a little sumac to the 
 coloring-matter. In many cases this would be beneficial, but 
 in other cases it would be injurious. 
 
 In silk, but more especially in cotton dj^eing, tannin or 
 astringent matters are more necessary, and are more exten- 
 sively used than they are in woolen-dyeing, because the silk 
 and cotton, not having so powerful an aifinity for colors as 
 wool has, it is necessary to impregnate these substances with 
 some substance that will have a tendency to unite the color 
 with the silk or cotton, and this substance is called tannin, or 
 the astringent principle ; therefore, the silk and cotton dyer 
 endeavors to use those substances that contain more or less of 
 this principle in their operations, as it serves as the bond of 
 union, or the medium of combination, that could scared}' 
 have been effected without it ; therefore, those dyestuffs that 
 contain astringent or tannin matter, in the case of silk and 
 cotton dyeing, act a very important part in dyeing those 
 substances. 
 
 Vegetable Substances used in Dyeing that Contain 
 
 Tannin. 
 The following vegetable substances — quercitron-bark, 
 sumac, divi divi, nutgalls, valonia-nuts, and catechu, or cutch 
 — contain essentially an astringent principle, termed tannin, 
 or tannic acid, which, although it differs in some of its prop- 
 erties as derived from different plants, yet agrees in all 
 cases as being of an astringent taste, and giving acid re-action 
 to test-paper, and of yielding, with the salts of iron, a deep 
 blue-black or green-black color, and it will precipitate a 
 solution of glue and cinchanine. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 341 
 
 Quercitron-bark contains, according to E. Wolff, from 
 10. 8G to 15.83 per cent, of tannin, or tannic acid. This 
 variation he explains by giving the ago of the tree, and the 
 part of the bark taken for analysis, thus : — 
 
 Age of the trees. 
 
 In the crude bark covered with the rind 
 inside hxyer of the old bark, . 
 inside ot the bark, . 
 crude bark, and inside of bark, 
 inside layer, and inside of bark, 
 inside of bark, 
 inside of bark, ... 
 
 41 to 53 
 41 to 53 
 41 to 53 
 41 to 53 
 41 to 53 
 14 to 15 
 2 to 7 
 
 The above is at variance with the researches of Buchner 
 (1867), who asserts that the very best of black-oak l)ark 
 (quercitron-bark), does not exceed, in amount of tannin, over 
 7 per cent. Dr. Wagner found only 7.3 per cent. 
 
 Sumac takes its place next to quercitron-bark as reo-ards 
 the small amount of tannin contained in it ; but the quantity 
 varies (according to the country in which it was grown) from 
 12 to 17 per cent. 
 
 Divi divi, or Libi Davi. This coloring-substance contains, 
 according to Muller, 49 per cent. ; by Fleck, 32.4 per cent., 
 while Dr. Wagner found from 19 to 26.7 per cent. 
 
 Nutgalls. Those from Aleppo contain from 60 to Q>Q, 
 according toFehling; while Fleck found 58.71 per cent, of 
 tannin in the same galls, besides 5.9 per cent, of gallic acid. 
 
 Valonin-nuts contain from 40 to 45 per cent, of tannin ; but 
 when these nuts are ground to a powder, they seem to leave 
 nearly one-half of their tannin-property, as they, in this state, 
 contain only from 19 to 27 per cent, of tannin, according to 
 Rothe's analysis. 
 
 Catechu, or cutch, contains more tannin than any of the 
 above-named substances, having from 45 to 62 per cent, of 
 
342 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 it. No two samples of catechu will give the same quan- 
 tity. This coloring material is used to the same extent in 
 cotton-dyeing as are uutgalls ; but it is seldom used in wooleu- 
 dj-eiug. 
 
 There are other coloring substances that contain tannin, 
 but the quantity is so small that we will omit any remarks 
 upon them. 
 
 AURANTINE. 
 
 This is another of the yellow coloring-substances which is 
 DOW becoming extensively used in the ct)loring of wool and 
 cotton. The process for its manufacture is, we believe, kept 
 a secret ; the same can be said of flavine. It was first intro- 
 duced in 1871, and although of so recent introduction, for 
 cotton and wool coloring, it is being very largely used by cot- 
 ton and woolen jdyers, also by calico-printers, and has almost 
 entirely superseded the use of Persian-berries, flavine, and 
 quercitron-bark in calico-printing. 
 
 On cotton or wool it will produce a color from the most 
 delicate lemon-shade to a rich, full, and deep yellow. It is 
 well adapted for coloring scarlets, used along with cochineal, 
 on wool or woolen fabrics; also for scarlets on cotton, when 
 used along with saffranine, — superseding the so-called aniline 
 scarlet dyes. It has double the coloring-powers of flavine. 
 
 The mordants used are mostly the same as for flavine. It 
 produces beautiful shades of yellow on raw cotton, when 
 colored in the lap, by the use of alum alone as a mordant. 
 
 A solution of aurantine gives the following precipitates with 
 the following metallic salts : — 
 
 Oxy-muriate of antimony gives a very bright canary-color. 
 Oxalic acid gives a very bright but light yellow. 
 Sulphate of iron gives a dark sage-drab color. 
 Sulphate of copper gives a bright, light sage color. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. .'343 
 
 Tin crystals give an orange-yellow color, rather dull-hjok- 
 ing. 
 
 Tartaric acid gives a very light sage color. 
 
 Sulphate of alumina gives a rich-looking yellow, not so 
 bright as oxalic acid, but deeper. 
 
 We see by the different re-actions of the above salts, that 
 they give a better result with aurantine than w^ith flavine, 
 which cannot be accounted for in any other manner than l)y 
 the greater amount of coloring-principle contained in the 
 aurantine than there is in flavine. 
 
 Aurantine is very rich in coloring-matter. Boiling-water 
 extracts some tannin from it, and when it is evaporated, it 
 leaves a resinous, light, cinnamon-colored substance, weight- 
 ing less than one-tenth the weight used for the experiment. 
 
 This tannin, however, is principally extractive matter, and 
 the coloring-principle of the aurantine ; and if we would pre- 
 cipitate the small amount of tannin there is in it, by using one 
 pound of glue to every pound of aurantine used, we will 
 obtain a much brighter yellow. 
 
 For the brightest shades of canary-color, the oxy-muriate 
 of antimony seems to be the best and proper mordant for 
 wool colored yellow with aurantine. If we wish to obtain a 
 yellow of a lemon shade, we must use for the mordant sulpho- 
 nmnate of tin (see Solutions of Tin) ; and for a yellow of an 
 orange shade, use murio- sulphate of tin; and for a yellow 
 called brimstone-color, use sulphate of tin, with the same 
 weight of tartar that there is of sulphate of tin, with a very 
 little alum. 
 
 The orange-colored yellow can also be obtained by using a 
 ver}' small qui^itity of cochineal with the aurantine ; that is, 
 when using oxy-muriate of antimony as a mordant ; but should 
 you use muriate of tin as a mordant, instead of the oxy- 
 muriate of antimony, the color will not be as bright and 
 lively. 
 
 The lemon shade can also be obtained by using a veiy small 
 
344 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 quantity of sulphate of indigo along with the sulpho-muriate 
 of tin and aurantine ; yet it is better to give the particular 
 shade by a variation of the mordants. 
 
 How aurantine would work for giving the yellow part of 
 color to browns, olives, and greens, I am not able to state 
 definitely at present, but think it would do vastly better than 
 either quercitron-bark, flavine, or even fustic, on account of 
 its concentrated strength of color and brio-htness. 
 
 Henry D. Dupee is sole manufacturer of aurantine and oxy- 
 muriate of antimony, 79 Kilby Street, Boston, Mass. (See 
 articles Flavine, Fustic, and Quercitron-Bark.) 
 
 BLUE-VATS. 
 Woolen and cotton fabrics, or tissues, are dyed indigo-blue 
 by means of reducing indigo in an alkaline fluid, the material 
 being blued by exposure to the atmosphere ; or, in other words, 
 they become blue by the oxidation of the indigo taken up by 
 the fibre, the dye becoming simultaneously fixed. The princi- 
 ple of this method of coloring with indigo is known as blue- 
 vat dyeing. The same kind of blue-vat is not adapted for 
 both cotton and wool, as will be seen by the following details 
 of the difierent blue-vats now in use both in America and 
 Europe. The lime and copperas vat is not adapted for dyeing 
 wool ; neither is the woad-vat adapted for coloring cotton. 
 Therefore, it will be seen that there must be a wide difierence 
 in the composition of the two vats. The copperas-vat for 
 cotton-yarn and cloth is set (a technical term for preparing a 
 vat to color in) with lime, copperas, ground indigo, and 
 water, the proportions difieringwith diflferent d3'ers, but the 
 most common proportions used being as follows ; Nine hun- 
 dred gallons of water ; sixty pounds of green copperas ; thirty- 
 six pounds of ground indigo ; eighty-five to ninety' pounds of 
 slacked lime ; or the same proportions according to size of 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 345 
 
 vat. These materials are stirred or raked up every half-hour 
 for three or four hours ; then left for twelve hours, and then 
 raked again; and after it has settled, the vat is ready to 
 color in. 
 
 The chemical action, in the first instance, consists in the for- 
 mation of sulphate of lime (S04Ca — gypsum), and protoxide 
 of iron (FeO). This latter substance having a great affinity 
 for ox^'gen, removes an atom of it from the blue indigo, which 
 converts the blue indigo into white indigo, which dissolves in 
 the excess of lime, and is now ready to color in. 
 
 When the ground indigo is put into a vat, the composition 
 of which is lime and copperas, the first action which takes 
 place Avill be the decomposition of the copperas ; the sulphuric 
 acid, which is in combination with the iron, combines with a 
 portion of the lime, forming sulphate of lime and oxide of 
 iron. "The detached oxide of iron extracts more oxygen 
 from the indigo, converting it into indigogen (or white indigo) ; 
 and the peroxide of, iron, and sulphate of lime thus formed, 
 arc precii)itated, forming what is technically known as sludge. 
 The remaining portion of lime dissolves the indigogen, and 
 forms with it the solution required." 
 
 The following is a representation of the action and result, 
 and gives a clear view of the blue-vat : — 
 
 „T -,. , /.C Indigogen, dyeing-solution. 
 
 Indigo, composed or < ^ ^ -^ i ,. 
 
 C Oxygen, peroxide of iron. 
 
 rOxide of iron, peroxide of iron. 
 
 J Oxide of iron, peroxide of iron. 
 
 '^^ ' '* j Sulphuric acid, sulphate of lime. 
 
 L Sulphuric acid, sulphate of lime. 
 
 ♦ C Lime, dyeing-solution. 
 
 Three lime, . . \ Lime, sulphate of lime. 
 
 ^ Lime, sulphate of lime." 
 
 It will be seen by the above diagram, that this theory of the 
 
 44 
 
346 THE AMEKICAN DYER. 
 
 copperas- vat is founded on the blue indigo (CieHjoNg) being 
 an oxide. 
 
 The view which Dumas takes of the constitution of indigo, 
 and the action which is said to take phice in the vat, will be 
 somewhat difierent from the theory given above. " When the 
 lime combines with the acid of the copperas, the iron decom- 
 poses a portion of the water, combining with the oxygQU, and 
 the hydrogen combines with the indigo, forming indigogen" 
 (CicHjoNoOg), which Dumas represents as follows : — 
 
 "Indigo, . Indigo, indigogen forming the dyeing-solu- 
 tion. 
 
 r Hydrogen, indigogen forming the dyeing- 
 Water, . . } solution. 
 
 C Oxygen. 
 
 ^ Lime, peroxide of iron. 
 Three lime, . } Lime, sul[)hate of lime. 
 
 C Lime, sulphate of lime. . 
 
 f Oxide of iron, peroxide of iron, 
 
 J Oxide of iron, peroxide of iron. 
 ^ ^ ' ] Sulphuric acid, sulphate of lime. 
 
 I Sulphuric acid, sulphate of lime." 
 
 This theory is equally if not more correct than the former 
 one, but in many cases it is hardly reconcilable with our ex- 
 perience, chemically speaking. 
 
 According to the former theory, the indigogen combines 
 with the oxygen, for which we know it has a very strong 
 affinity, forming blue-indigo, which will remain combined 
 with the fabric ; but, in accordance with the latter theory, the 
 blue-indigo will be left in combination with the fabric or yarn 
 by the hydrogen combining with the oxygen of the air, and 
 thus forming water. 
 
 If a quantity of lime and copperas is put into a bottle of 
 
 distilled water, we find that the water will not become decom- 
 
 , posed, because the lime will combine with the acid in the cop- 
 
THE AMEKICAN DYER. 347 
 
 .peras, and will, along with the iron, precipitate ; should you 
 exclude the air conipletely from the mixture, by corking the 
 bottle tightly, the iron will remain in the l)ottle as a pro- 
 toxide, for many days ; the change from a protoxide to a per- 
 oxide is so very slow that some time will elapse before it is 
 perceptible ; but should you add indigo to it after this mixture 
 has stood for some days, the action of the common vat will 
 occur. This, in accordance with Dumas's theory, gives a 
 good illustration of relative affinities. 
 
 Before the indigo was added, the attraction of the copperas 
 for oxygen would be nearly equal to that of the hydrogen, 
 which holds the ox3'gen in combination as water ; l)ut when 
 the indigo is added, although the indigo has a very weak 
 attraction for hydrogen, because it requires the nicest man- 
 agement to get the hydrogen isolated, yet it is sufficient to dis- 
 turb the equilibrium with which the oxygen is held by the 
 iron and hydrogen, giving the oxygen the mastery. 
 
 Whether an alkaline substance has any effect in producing 
 the formation of indigogen, we do not pretend to say, but it 
 is never formed in the vat without the presence of an alkaline 
 substance to dissolve it the moment it is formed. There is 
 one serious trouble in working the copperas-vat, which con- 
 sists in what is called swimming ; that is, the vat does not 
 settle. This is caused by a number of circumstances, — one 
 cause is that the copperas contains too much acid, which forms 
 a sulphate of lime, causing it not to settle so quickly, the 
 copperas not being decomposed; but the principal cause of a 
 floating-vat is that there is too much lime and copperas in 
 proportion to the indigo ; to remedy this there must be more 
 indigo added to the vat, so as to peroxidize the copperas. 
 Another cause for its floating is that the lime has been too 
 long slacked, and, being exposed to the atmosphere, it be- 
 comes converted into chalk ; and when such lime is used it is 
 very injurious in other respects, besides causing swinuning or 
 floating. The lime used should be freshly slacked to produce 
 the best effects in a copperas-vat. 
 
348 THE AMERICAN DYEK. 
 
 The following are the proportions of materials used in the 
 vats for skein-dyeing (the vats being usually wine-casks), 
 assuming that the materials are of the best kind : eight pounds 
 of indigo, fourteen pounds of copperas, eighteen pounds of 
 lime; these materials being put in, the whole is raked every 
 two hours through the day ; on the following morning it is 
 ready for use. 
 
 The proportion, or equivalent, of lime can be calculated 
 from the table of elements (which see), and also the rate of 
 combination. The technical term for slacked lime being hy- 
 drated oxide of calcium (formula, CaO,HO), and the equiv- 
 alent of lime being 20; oxygen, 8; hydrogen, 1; and oxy- 
 gen, 8 ; or thus : — 
 
 Cai=20 
 8 
 
 Lime, io — 
 
 37 
 
 The copperas being thus expressed : — 
 
 n 5Fe r= 
 
 Copperas, .... | 
 
 Fe =28 
 48 
 Water of crystallization . . 7H20=:63 
 
 139 
 
 By this we find that the slacked, or hydrated lime has 
 thirty-seven equivalents, and should neutralize one hundred 
 and thirty-nine equivalents of copperas ; or we will say that 
 thirty-seven pounds of lime should neutralize one hundred 
 and thirty-nine pounds of copperas ; but as we find that 
 seventy-seven gallons of water, at 60° Fahr., will dissolve 
 but one pound of lime, it is easy to see what a few pounds is 
 required above the equivalent for copperas to form the lime- 
 solution of the copperas-vat. These vats are always worked 
 cold. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 3J9 
 
 Messrs. R. Schloesser & Co., of Manchester, Eng., have 
 made a very marked improvement, within the hist three or 
 four years, in the method of setting the copperas-vat, which 
 has removed the bulky sediment of lime which was such an 
 objection to the vat ; besides, this improvement saves a <^reat 
 loss of indigo by its combination with the oxide of iron ; the 
 solution is much clearer, the cotton pieces are not apt to be 
 so spotted (as when colored in the usual way of setting a cop- 
 peras-vat), and a better class of work is obtained. 
 
 "To carry out their process, they add to the ordinary two 
 thousand-gallon vat twenty pounds of ground indigo, thirty 
 pounds of iron-turnings, thirty pounds of powdered zinc, and 
 thirty-five pounds of quicklime; the whole is raked up from 
 time to time, for twenty-four hours, when it is ready for 
 use." If the vat is not considered strong enough, they add 
 more lime and zinc. The chemical theory of the process is, 
 that the zinc, under the influence of the lime, decomposes the 
 water, combining with its oxygen; and the hydrogen, thus 
 liberated, removes oxygen from the indigo, which will then 
 dissolve in the lime. 
 
 WOAD-VAT. 
 
 The vats for coloring wool indigo-blue, are known by the 
 name of woad-vat, pastel-vat, potash or ash vat, and the 
 German-vat; besides others inserted in this work. The 
 woad-vat gives the best results of any kind of a blue-vat yet 
 known, although it is the most difficult to manage of any. It 
 requires an experienced dyer to work one economically and 
 for the profit of his employer, and no dyer but an experienced 
 one should attempt to, or be allowed to manage a woad-vat ; 
 for without considerable practical experience, very close ob- 
 servation, and a thorough knowledge of the effects produced 
 upon the vat, by each of the different materials used in the 
 
350 THE AMEKICAlSr DYER. 
 
 process of working one, no dyer can work one without a great 
 risk of losing it. 
 
 The manner of setting and conducting a woad-vat we have 
 abridged from " Gibson's System and Science of Colors," which 
 we consider the best method adopted among the very many 
 methods now in practice. " This slight description of a woad- 
 vat, is not to stimulate the inexperienced to attempt the man- 
 agement of so difficult and inexplicable a part of dyeing, but 
 only to give a general outline of the common or usual manner 
 of setting and conducting a woad-vat, so that those who have 
 had no opportunity of observing the process, can form some 
 idea respecting the manner of working one." 
 
 Dimensions of vat, seven feet deep and six feet diameter. 
 "Fill this up to within about two feet; then throw in live 
 hundred pounds of woad well chopped up into small pieces j 
 let this soak overnight, the water being heated to about 180° 
 or 190° Fahr. ; rake up well the next morning; fill up the 
 rat to within six inches of the top, and heat it to 175° ; then 
 put in ten pounds best madder, twenty quarts of wheat bran, 
 forty pounds Bengal indigo, ten pounds of slacked lime (tech- 
 nically called ware) ; rake these up for half an hour ; then 
 put on the covers to the vat ; then in the afternoon rake up 
 agiiin and leave for the night." " Be at the vat early next 
 morning ; uncover the vat and see if there are not some bub- 
 bles standing upon the surface ; take some of them up with 
 your fingers and you will find that they have more consistency 
 and are tougher than bubbles formed by clear water. Next 
 look the surface over, and see if there is not a thin film of 
 indigo, of a purplish shade upon it, which can be taken up on 
 the finger-nail ; then agitate the liquor with a small stick a 
 little ; take out the stick and incline it, and plunge two or 
 three inches beneath the surface, agitating briskly, so as to 
 raise a number of bubl)les ; take some of them up between 
 your fingers, part the fingers, and then see if they stand full 
 and do not break quite so quick as bubbles formed by water." 
 " Now take the dish and dip up some of the liquor, and let it 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 351 
 
 run gently over the side of the dish into the vat, and while it 
 is so doing look through it towards the light, and it should 
 appear of a deep green or olive color." "Having gone 
 through with this examination, and found that the vat exhibits 
 these features, it shows that the vat has sprung its indigo, or 
 that some of the indigo is in solution, or, in other words, a 
 portion of the indigo has become deoxidized by the fermenta- 
 tion of the woad, madder and bran, and is now in want of 
 some alkaline matter, — give it live pounds of lime {ware) and 
 rake it up gently, but well, avoiding plunging or too much 
 agitation ; cover it up and let it stand for two hours ; then 
 look at it again, and suspend a lock of wool in it for ten or 
 tifteen minutes. This should come out a yellowish-green, and 
 will take five minutes before it will become entirely blue (or 
 ungreen, as dyers say)." "Lay this lock aside so as to com- 
 pare with the sample that you 'may try the next time you 
 examine the vat." " In about one hour examine the vat aofain, 
 and there should be a greater quantity of bubbles formed, and 
 ajlurree has formed, which lies well to the back part of the 
 vat. The liquor looks richer in color, the scum or pellicle of 
 indigo has become thicker and more copper-colored, and on 
 moving the liquor with your hand, or with the dish, green 
 waves or rather veins, can l)e seen." 
 
 "The vat is now opening. Examine it with the dish as before, 
 and the liquor you will sec has become a still more yellow- 
 green or olive color, showing a further deoxidation of the 
 indigo, and now it wants more ware. Give it five pounds of 
 ware; rake up as before." "Let it stand for three hours ; 
 then suspend a second lock of wool in it for ten or fifteen 
 minutes ; when it is taken out it should be of a deeper shade, 
 and more like a grass-green than the first lock was ; it will 
 take a longer time for it to ungreen, and will be almost a 
 middle-l)lue, with a slight green tinge, after being exposed to 
 the atmosphere for half an hour." "Now compare this with 
 the first lock, and it should be a deeper and clearer blue than 
 
352 THE AINIERICAN DYER. 
 
 the first. This shows that the vat is progressing well, but is 
 short of ware." 
 
 " A slight observation of the smooth part of the vat con- 
 vinces you of its improved condition, the scum or pellicle 
 looks richer and more glossy, and on blowing upon it with 
 your mouth, you will see the scum of indigo open in a circle, 
 showing the liquor beneath it of a yellowish-green, and the 
 circle will close again on withdrawing your breath." " Wav- 
 ing the surface about with the dish, the veins or wavy shades 
 of color are of a livelier and yellower green than in the former 
 examination ; they spread wider and seem to roll about much 
 longer, and the color strikes the hand quicker and deeper." 
 
 "The fiurree is now much more in quantity, and looms up 
 well on the back part of the vat, covering more space than 
 before, the bubbles are larger, and are of a fine indigo-blue. 
 If the vat has these characteristics, give it five pounds more 
 of ware, rake it up, and let it stand four hours. After it has 
 rested for this letigth of time, dip in another lock of wool 
 for twenty or thirty minutes, and when it is taken out it 
 should be a deep, rich green, and in about five minutes, change 
 to a lively, even, middle blue, having a slight tinge of pur- 
 ple to it." 
 
 "If this green should pass to a pale grayish-looking blue, 
 the vat has got too much ware, or is hard; but if it retains 
 the greenish shade after being out and exposed to the air for 
 twenty minutes, it is a certain criterion that the vat has not 
 ivare enough, or the vat is soft, and needs a little more icare." 
 "Blow strongly upon the surface of the vat, and a circle of 
 one or two inches in diameter will appear, showing the inter- 
 nal liquor of a fine gold color, or in some cases a rich yellow^- 
 ish-green." "The bubbles and jiurree are more numerous, 
 and of various sizes, some of them being as large as hen's- 
 eggs, and are a beautiful indigo color; they stand well, and 
 do not easily break or fall down, even when strongly agitated." 
 
 "On waving the clear surface from side to side, with the 
 dish, the scum or pellicle of indigo runs off towards the 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 353 
 
 jlurree, and shows all the indigo shades, from the lightest blue 
 to the richest pnrplo ; the wavy veins arc now larger, wider, 
 and roll about more than before, the body of the liquor bcino- 
 of a rich yellow, intermixed with the various shades of green. 
 On examining the liquor with the dish, you will see that it 
 looks well, and has a good strong body, and on turning the 
 dish, with the edge towards you in a perpendicular manner, 
 the liquor hangs from the edge like a fine syrup, and gives a 
 fragrant and agreeable sn\ell, not unlike weak ammonia." 
 
 "Take it as a whole, and the vat presents a splendid- 
 appearance, and everything about it shows that it has got its 
 full complement of loare, and is now ready to color in." 
 
 "There are cases where a vat sometimes requires more and 
 sometimes less lime than has been mentioned ; this is owing 
 to the variation in the strength of the woad and the quality 
 of the lime ; but, as a general rule, five hundred pounds of 
 woad will require from twenty-five to thirty pounds of luare.'" 
 The vat should be kept up to 135° of heat during all this time. 
 
 "By taking the above plan, and assuming that the materials 
 are of the best quality, all these changes and appearances 
 will take place, and the progress of the vat will be as certain 
 as the above short description has represented it to be, so 
 much so that in nineteen cases out of twenty it Avill be 
 brought to work on the day after it is set, and can be colored 
 in on the following day." 
 
 The Manner of Working a Woad- Vat from Day to Day. 
 
 Gibson^ s System of Dyeing. 
 
 "A vat of the size specified in the preceding pages will 
 color from fifty to seventy-five pounds of clean wool at a time. 
 Shake this amount of wool into small locks in front of the 
 vat, taking care to have it opened well, so that the whole pile 
 may l)e loose ; this is done in order that the color will strike 
 the wool evenly and all alike. Now uncover the vat, and 
 skim off i\\QJiurree into a pail, and after coloring, when ready 
 
 45 
 
354 THE AMERICAN DYEK. 
 
 to rake up, turn this flurree back into the vat again. Put in 
 the trammel and net, then throw in the wool lightly and ex- 
 peditiously, getting it under the liquor as soon as possible. 
 Handle the wool with the sticks until the whole is even, and 
 continue the stirring lor about half an hour. Now take it 
 out, having it well wrung out, throw it upon the floor, and 
 shake it over, so that it may ungreen as speedily as possible." 
 
 "If you have an old or a weak vat, you can dip the wool 
 in that to finish it ; but if not, thei^take the sample you have 
 to color by, and compare .it with that which you have just 
 dipped, and see if you can bring up the shade required, l)y 
 o-iving it another dip, without having to rake the vat. If you 
 find you cannot, then have it well raked up, and after it has 
 become settled, enter the wool again, and proceed as before; 
 but do not allow it to stay in any longer than it requires to 
 bring up the color to the desired shade." 
 
 "When it is taken out proceed as before, and when it is 
 unffreened have the wool well washed off." 
 
 "Now give the vat five pounds of ware, rake up well, and 
 if the heat is low put on steam until it rises to 135°, then 
 cover up the vat," 135° being the best temperature to work 
 the vat. 
 
 "Let all these operations be concluded by three or four 
 o'clock in the afternoon, so as to give the vat time to rest and 
 clear itself before the last raking time,* and by this means it 
 will o'ive you an opportunity of judging of the precise state of 
 the vat — whether it is in want of icare, or has got too much 
 of it." 
 
 " After raking, heat up to 135°. About seven o'clock, p. 3i., 
 o-o to the vat and examine the liquor ; see if it looks clear and 
 
 * This used to be at eight o'clock, p.m., but now dyers do not go to their 
 vats alter they have doue'their day's work until the next morning ; so if 
 their vats are not in good conditioti, they have cither to rake thciu ))efore 
 they can cplor in them, or color in tliem and get a poor color; ^Yhcn, iftliey 
 looked at the vat in the evening, and it wanted raking or serving, they 
 could then do it, thus saving time the next day, besides having a vat in 
 coudition to color in, and not be obliged to color in it when out of order. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 355 
 
 han^s well to the dish ; notice whether it has a good jlurreey 
 and the smooth surface looks glossy, and on blowing into it, 
 it opens and closes up again, showing a copper-colored- pel- 
 licle, as was described in regard to bringing the vat to work." 
 
 " Smell at the edge of the dish ; if the vat has too much 
 icare, it will smell of the lime ; if it has not enough lime it 
 • will smell vapid and soft ; in the latter case give the vat three 
 pounds o( ware; but if it smells of the lime, give four or live 
 pounds of madder and six or eight quarts of bran, and rake 
 up well." 
 
 " The next day proceed to color with the same weight of 
 wool in the same manner, and give, after coloring, from three 
 to five pounds ivare, which will be about the amount re(|iiired 
 for each day's coloring afterwards, with few exceptions. After 
 three or four days' work you will have to renew the vat with 
 indigo ; this should be done after coloring in the afternoon ; 
 give it as much indigo as your judgment directs; that is, as 
 much as you think the wool has taken out, and at the same 
 time give five pounds of madder, two quarts of bran, and four 
 pounds o^ iccD'e, as the case may be ; then rake up well." 
 
 "Perhaps a good raking may answer, without giving it 
 either lime or madder ; but your judgment must determine this 
 according to the appearance of the vat." 
 
 "In giving or serving the vat with indigo, there is no par- 
 ticular stated period for doing this, as some dyers give the 
 vat indigo every day ; others, every two days, and some but 
 once a week, each having his own particular opinions or 
 ideas in regard to serving with indigo ; but we think that a 
 vat should receive a renewal of indigo twice a week; that is, 
 every '\^'ednesday and Saturday afternoon." The vats should 
 be raked and looked to, at least once on the Sunday, if you 
 intend to work them on the following Monday. A vat does 
 not pay to work over four months before re-setting, tliat is, 
 if you work it every day, as after that length of time it 
 requires a larger amount of indigo to produce the same shade 
 thin it would if it had beeu worked but two or three mouths'. 
 
35G THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 "In the above description the reader has only been con- 
 ducted through the process of setting and working a vat upon 
 the most scientific principles, and where everything has gone 
 on in a straightforward manner and with the most perfect 
 success, because we have had the best materials to work with 
 (which ought always to be the case), and have been treating 
 it in a workmanlike manner, knowing beforehand the nature 
 and proper application of the materials we were using, -and 
 the certain effects of everything we employed." 
 
 " The reader will be satisfied, that a short description of this 
 kind upon the most important and complicated department of 
 dj'eing, is of more real value than a volume of observations 
 on the methods of getting a vat right after suffering it, by an 
 injudicious mode of treatment, to get wrong." 
 
 "It is easy to perceive that there could be more written 
 respecting the woad-vat ; for there are numberless appear- 
 ances of the vat and wool, which, if closely observed by the 
 dyer, will give him a certain knowledge of the precise 
 state of the vat, and will point out to him the materials it is 
 most in want off; these have not been noticed." 
 
 The want of success in working a woad-vat is often caused 
 by using poor woad and poor indigo. (See articles, Woad and 
 Indigo.) Indigo is a substance which contains from thirty- 
 five to seventy-five per cent, of true indigo. So with such a 
 wide range, to say nothing in regard to the difference in quality 
 that there is in indigo, it is not surprising that some of our 
 best dyers sometimes err in their judgment in regard to the 
 state of their vats, and are often troubled to ascertain the 
 cause of the vat working so imperfectly or irregularly. Limes 
 that are used should be considered also. Most of the American 
 limes contain a large amount of magnesia, or at least they are 
 always mixed more or less with magnesia, and when lime con- 
 tains magnesia and is used for blue-vats, it forms into sulphate 
 of magnesia (MgO,S04), which is very soluble, and by succes- 
 sive additions of such lime, causes the specific gravity of the 
 liquid of the vat to increase to a point when the woad and 
 
THE AMEllICAN DYER. JJoT 
 
 madder will with great difficulty settle, so that it will he fit 
 to color in. It is better to employ these limes that are free 
 from magnesia, which are those burned in Thomaston and 
 Rockland, Me. 
 
 PASTEL-VAT. 
 
 In setting all blue-vats, with the exception of the copperas- 
 vat, the first thought and care of the dyer should be to em- 
 ploy those substances that are capable of combining with 
 oxygen, directly or indirectly, and are also capable of impart- 
 ing hydrogen to the indigo. These substances are, pab'tel, 
 woad, madder, and weld. Madder, when brought into con- 
 tact with an alkali, gives a violet tint, and by the addition of 
 indigo, it gives a still deeper shade. The weld is richer in 
 oxidizable principles than either pastel or woad ; it turns sour 
 and very soon passes into putrefactive fermentation. A great 
 number of dyers in Europe use weld very freely, l)iit the 
 others who use it at all in these vats, employ the same amount 
 of it that they do of bran, and others do not use it at all. 
 
 The size of a pastel-vat, as a general rule, is the same as a 
 woad-vat ; that is, seven feet deep and six feet in diameter. 
 This is filled with water to within one foot of the top, and 
 heated to 180° Fahr., the materials being 300 lbs. pastel, 20 
 lbs. madder, 12 lbs. bran, 9 lbs. lime (ware), and* 40 lbs. 
 indigo. 
 
 The pastel being very dry and hard, is first pounded to. 
 pieces (some dyers maintain that the pounding of the pastel is 
 injurious, and this opinion deserves attention) , and then thrown 
 into the vat along with the madder and bran, then raked up 
 for half an hour ; in the course of two or three hours it is 
 again raked, and the nine pounds of ware added, so as to 
 form a sort of alkaline lye, which will hold the indigo in 
 solution. After the above raking, and the adding of the lime, 
 it is allowed to rest four or five hours. After this leni^th of 
 
358 THE AMERIC^VN DYER. 
 
 time hns elapsed, it is raked again, and you will find that it 
 has the peculiar odor of the pastel, and its color is a yellow- 
 ish-brown. In twenty-four hours from this raking, the fer- 
 mentive process will be observable ; the liquid will have an 
 ammoniacal odor, yet at the same time you will distinguish the 
 odor of the pastel, and the color will be a yellowish-red ; the 
 flurree has .commenced to collect at the farther side of the vat ; 
 a brilliant pellicle covers the smooth surface of the vat, hav- 
 ing a greasy appearance. Underneath this, you will also see 
 blue or almost black veins, which are owing to some particles 
 of indigo contained in the pastel naturally. If you should 
 now take some of the liquid and turn it upon a piece of glass, 
 you Avould see the yellow color disappear, and the blue of the 
 indigo take its place. This, we all know% is caused by the 
 absorption of oxygen from the atmosphere, by the little indi- 
 gogen in the pastel. If all these appearance occur, they are 
 a sure criterion that the fermentation is properl}' established, 
 and that the vat is now ready for its indigo, and that there is 
 enough hydrogen formed to dissolve the indigo. We now 
 add the forty pounds of indigo (sixt}' pounds if for very full 
 blues) : it is now thoroughly raked up, and if the temperature 
 is below 130^, turn on the steam until it reaches that tempera- 
 ture, at which heat keep it during all the time that you may 
 work it. Add with the indigo, seven pounds of ware, and after 
 raking and heating up, if needed, as above, cover it up and 
 let it re^ for three or four hours. After this time has elapsed, 
 look at the vat and see if there is not a large amount of tlurree 
 and a copper-colored pellicle covering the smooth surface of 
 the liquid (the same as with the woad-vat). The dark veins 
 are larger than they were previously, and the liquid is 
 of a deep yellow-red color, and will have an emerald-green 
 color, as j'ou turn some of it from the dish back into the 
 vat. The odor of the vat will perhaps have a vapid smell ; 
 if so, give five pounds of ware, and rake up : but if it has an 
 ammoniacal odor, it is to he raked onl\'. After the vat is 
 settled, it should be ready to work. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 350 
 
 For further instructions in regard to the manner of working- 
 it from clay to day, see article, Woad-vat, as there is but lit- 
 tle, if any difference in the phenomena of a pastel-vat from 
 that of a woad-vat. There is, however, a great difference in 
 the color of the wool from the two vats, in this particular 
 point — the temperature of the pastel-vat requires a very 
 uniform heat, for if it is too hot, the wool will have a red 
 tinge (but not so with the woad-vat), and it will cause the 
 pastel to ferment very rapidly. 
 
 Woad and pastel vats are very prone to run to the putre- 
 factive state of fermentation, which is owing mostly to the 
 nitrogenous matters contained in the woad and pastel, they 
 of themselves being vegetable, for which reason they require 
 greater care and skill in their management. 
 
 Indigo, if exposed to putrid fermentation, is decomposed, 
 and loses its blue color ; if rendered soluble, it will obey the 
 impulse communicated to the nitrogenous matters with which 
 it is brought into contact, although indigo, if macerated in 
 water at its common temperature, is with great difficulty de- 
 composed. If fermentation is allowed to continue unchecked, 
 the solution will turn to a yellow color, the flurree becomes 
 white, it will smell stale and lose all its ammoniacal odor, and 
 in a very few days the color is whitish, and the smell is at 
 first like putrefied flesh, then not unlike the odor of rotten 
 eggs, and free sulphuretted hydrogen. The use of lime in 
 the woad and pastel vats, is to prevent such an occurrence, 
 as well as for neutralizing the carbonic acid created by fer- 
 mentation. 
 
 There are some dyers who set a pastel-vat as follows : — 
 
 The vat is filled with water, and then heated to the boiling- 
 point. There is then thrown in 400 lbs. pastel (previously 
 pounded up), 22 lbs. madder, 17 lbs. weld, 13 lbs. bran, and 
 it is then boiled for half an hour, after which there is adiled 
 sufficient cold water to reduce the temperature to 130- ; it is 
 then raked up for an hour, the vat is then covered up and 
 
360 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 allowed to rest for six hours ; after this time has elapsed, it is 
 again raked for half an hour ; this raking is repeated every 
 three hours until the surfiice of the vat shows blue veius ; 
 there is then added eight pounds of slacked lime (ware). 
 
 The color of the vat now assumes a blackish-blue, and then 
 the indigo is added to it ; the amount of which is in propor- 
 tion to the depth of shade required, as follows : — 
 
 11 to 13 lbs. for 100 lbs. of fine wool for a medium blue. 
 30 to 40 lbs. for 100 lbs. fine wool for a full blue. 
 
 The dyer who communicated to me the above method, says 
 that the following are the characteristics of the vat : The color 
 of the vat is a fine golden-yellow, its surface having a blue 
 flurree and a copper-colored pellicle ; on agitating it, there 
 will be bubbles of air escape, which should burst very slowly ; 
 if quickly, it wants more ware. The sediment at the bottom 
 will be green when first drawn up, and should turn a brown 
 color in the air; if it should remain green, it shows the want 
 of more ware ; and lastly, it should have the odor of indigo 
 instead of the odor of fhe pastel. 
 
 In America, pastel is known by the name of ball or Ger- 
 man woad. (See article. Pastel.) 
 
 POTASH-YAT, SOMETIMES CALLED ASH-VAT. 
 
 This vat is usually of the same size as the woad-vat^ but 
 we have seen them nearly one-third larger. The vat is filled 
 with water, and heated to 180° or 190°. The materials used are, 
 fifteen lbs. of madder, thirt}^ quarts of bran, twenty-five lbs. pot- 
 ash or pearlash, and twenty lbs. of indigo. In the first place 
 throw in the bran and madder, rake it up, and in three or four 
 hours add the indigo and potash ; rake it up well, until all the 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 3G1 
 
 materials are well mixed. Let this be all completed by the mid- 
 dle of the afternoon. By eight o'clock the next morning it 
 should show signs of having sprung its indigo. Now rake it 
 up again ; then rake it again about four o'clock in the after- 
 Doon, and cover it up for the night. Do not allow the heat 
 to fall below 130° Fahr. 
 
 Ou the following morning dip in a lock of wool, for fifteen 
 or twenty minutes, and if it comes out a thin-looking green 
 color, and in the course of three or four minutes it turns to a 
 grayish-looking blue, and the liquid has a dark bluish-green 
 color, it is in need of greater fermenting force. In this case 
 take out of the vat half a barrel of the liquor, and put into it six 
 quarts of bran, three lbs. of hops, and three quarts of molasses, 
 and boil it for half an hour, being careful that it does not boil 
 over. After boiling, add three lbs. of madder, and when it 
 has settled turn the clear liquor into the vat, and then rake 
 up well ; in the afternoon rake again. Next day it should be 
 ready to color in. 
 
 Should the lock of wool which you have tried in the vat 
 come out a fair-looking green, and turn to a blue in four or 
 five minutes, and yet not be so good a blue as you would de- 
 sire, it is evident that the materials are correctly propor- 
 tioned, and that it only requires a little more time to produce 
 the correct eflfect ; and all that it requires is a good raking 
 up, which do, and then rake again in the afternoon ; and the 
 next morning you may commence coloring in it. 
 
 We can obtain the deep blues in this vat with greater celer- 
 ity than in any of the others, which fact, no doubt, depends 
 upon the great power potash has of dissolving indigo, over 
 that possessed by lime. Experience has demonstrated that 
 the ash-vat has the advantage as regards celerity of nearly 
 one-third, but this advantage is balanced by the inconvenience 
 it places us under when we want to get light shades. 
 
 We can color a larger quantity of wool at a time in an ash- 
 vat, than we can in the woad-vat, as the ash-vat has no sedi- 
 ment to speak of, or none in comparison to a woad-vat, and 
 
 46 
 
362 , THE AMERICAX DYER. 
 
 the trammel and net can be suspended lower in the vat with- 
 out touching the sediment. The manipulations are the same 
 in working an ash-vat as for a woad-vat. Care should be 
 taken in regard to coloring too much in one day, as it will 
 tire the vat. Should you overwork it by this extra coloring, 
 you will lose more time in getting the vat in good condition 
 again than you have gained in doing so much in it, besides 
 the extra expense of materials to restore it to its former con- 
 dition. After doing a day's work in the vat, it should be 
 examined three or four hours after it is raked in the after- 
 noon, in order that you may know whether it requires more 
 potash, or bran and madder. If it is too ojien, and the indigo 
 does not seem to be in solution, you must serve it with ware; 
 but should the liquor have a deep blue-green color, give mad- 
 der and bran, or a ferment made as above described. In 
 either case, your judgment and experience must dictate the 
 kind as well as quantit}'^ of materials that the vat requires. 
 
 After working the vat a couple of days, you must give it 
 more indigo, in order to keep it up to its proper strength; 
 give as much indigo as, in your judgment, the wool that has 
 been colored has taken out of the vat ; and, at the same time, 
 give as much potash (in weight) as you do of indigo, and 
 half as much madder and bran. You can proceed so from 
 day to day, making these additions, alivays after you have 
 finished coloring for the da}', or you may serve every other 
 day. Some dyers prefer to renew the vat every day, w'hile 
 others every three or four daj^s ; but in either case, keep the 
 vat up to its regular standard, and in good working order, 
 until such time as you think it should be worked out and 
 reset ; then you will proceed as above, only leaving off serv- 
 ing with indisro. 
 
 We can easily discern the inferiority of the wool colored 
 in an ash-vat, from that colored in either the woad or pastel 
 vat, in beauty, durability, or solidity of color. It is more 
 expensive (for the reason given in regard to the German or 
 soda vat), and does not possess any of those kindly qualities 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 3G3 
 
 which arc conimunioatod to the wool when colored in the 
 above-nanuHl vats. A great paucity of color \s also percep- 
 tible ; and the wool, M'hen you look down upon it, is darker 
 than wool colored in a woad-vat ; but if held up, and viewed 
 by a transmitted liirht, it looks gray and devoid of intensity, 
 and has no vivacity of shade. 
 
 The reason of this is, that the particles of indigo being 
 coarser, and being farther apart than they are with a ivoaded 
 vat, and lying more loosely upon the fibre of the wool, there 
 is no under-color such as the woad will give to wool. 
 
 These objections to an ash-colored wool are thus accounted 
 for : In the ash-vat the solvent of the indigo is a fixed 
 alkali (it being pfttash), while the solvent in the woad-vat 
 is a volatile alkali (ammonia) ; the potash forms a coarser 
 or thicker solution, causing the particles of indigo not to be 
 so finely attenuated, the solution of potash being so coarse 
 that it prevents the particles of indigo from penetrating into 
 the fibre of the wool, and lays them on the outside of the 
 wool in a loose and scattered condition. In the case of woaCl- 
 colored wool it is entirely different, for as the ammonia 
 (in the woad-vat), being the solvent of the indigo, is 
 finer and a stronger alkali, it naturally divides the coloring 
 molecules in a more minute and multifarious manner; and it 
 also being of a subtle nature, it will penetrate the fibre of the 
 wool much better, and these finely divided particles combine 
 more intimately with the wool ; the indigo being divided into 
 a greater number of surfaces is more deeply coml)ined with 
 the wool, which accounts for its superior brilliancy and per- 
 manency, as the greater the quantity of reflected surfaces there 
 is to vie\y, and the more minute is the division in any color, 
 the higher will be the intensity of the shade. 
 
 Wool colored in an ash-vat always works harsh in carding 
 and spinning, no matter in how good a condition the vat may 
 be, whether you use for the alkali potash or carbonate of soda, 
 although the soda is a milder and softer alkali (it containing 
 more carbonic acid is why it is milder) ; but for all that, wool 
 
364 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 colored in an ash-vat will always be harsh and tender, and 
 the goods, after being finished, will never look so well, or feel 
 so soft, as when the wool is colored in a woad-vat. 
 
 The ash-vat is now seldom used, except in small mills, for 
 coloring wool ; but it is used to a large extent for coloring 
 cotfon-yarns, for bedtickings and denims. 
 
 GERMAN OR SODA VAT. 
 
 This vat is of the same dimensions as the woad-vat. It is 
 filled with water and heated up to 200° Fahr. ; there is then 
 thrown into it twenty-five pounds of carbonate of soda, fifteen 
 pounds of indigo, seven pounds of ware, and one and a half 
 to two bushels of wheat-bran ; it is then raked up well, and 
 left for two or three hours ; it has to be watched carefully 
 during the progress of fermentation, regulating it by giving it 
 either ware or soda; and, if correctly managed, it will be 
 ready to color in after fifteen or eighteen hours from the time 
 it was set. 
 
 The smell is the only criterion to be governed by (which is a 
 strong ammoniacal odor), as sometimes the solution will be of 
 a grass-green color, at other times a deep olive color, and 
 still the vat will be in good working order; so it would not 
 always do judge by the looks of the liquid in regard to 
 the condition of the vat. This vat requires greater care, and 
 is more difficult to manage, than the potash-vat; it differs 
 from the potash-vat, as the potash is replaced by the crystal- 
 lized carbonate of soda and caustic lime, the lime giving to 
 the carbonate of soda a caustic nature. 
 
 The German, or soda vat, will do more work, in a given 
 time, than any other vat that I ev-er worked ; but it is not so 
 economical as other vats, so far as the amount of indigo used 
 is concerned, as you have to color the wool so much darker 
 than the pattern you have to match, as the indigo lies more 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 3G5 
 
 loosely upon the wool, and does not penetrate into the fabric 
 of the wool like the woad or pastel vat, losing more indigo in 
 the operation of fulling and scouring than the wool does that 
 has been colored in either of the above-named blue-vats. The 
 manipulations in working a soda-vat are the same as in work- 
 ing the other vats. When indigo is added, bran, lime, and 
 soda are added also, so as to constantly maintain the fer- 
 mentation at a suitable point. (See Fermentation of the 
 Woad-vat.) 
 
 BRAN AND MADDER VAT. 
 
 This vat we have used to a great extent, and, for a dyer 
 who has but little experience in working a blue-vat, it is the 
 best one for him to set and use, it being both simple and easy 
 to work, which any dyer will be convinced of after perus- 
 ing the method of setting and working it from day to day. 
 
 The dimensions of the vat are as follows : six and a half 
 feet deep and five and a half feet diameter ; this is filled with 
 water and heated to 170° Fahr. In the forenoon you com- 
 mence to set it by throwing in six bushels of bran, twenty- 
 five pounds of madder, two pails of molasses (the poorer the 
 molasses the better) ; rake these materials up for half an hour, 
 then cover up the vat. In the afternoon, at three o'clock, 
 rake up again. 
 
 The next morning, at eight o'clock, add two quarts of 
 ware and two pails of indigo (previously ground in the mill 
 with water), — which is about twenty pounds in the dry 
 state; rake up well. At 3 p. m., add two quarts of icare 
 and one pail of molasses ; rake up well. 
 
 The next morning add three quarts of ware ; rake up. At 
 4 r. M., add six quarts of tvare and rake up. 
 
 Keep the heat up all the time to 135<^. 
 
 The next morning (or fourth day), at eight o'clock, add 
 six quarts of tcare and a half pail of indigo ; rake up ; then 
 
366 THE AMEEICAN DYEl?. 
 
 rake up again at eleven o'clock, then at two (/clock, then at 
 four o'clock ; at each raking add two quarts of ivare. The 
 next morning it should be ready to color in ; the liquor will 
 be of a yellowish-green color, the flurree will be copper- 
 colored and will lie well to the backside of the vat ; on dip- 
 ping the dish into the liquid, with the edge downwards, and 
 taking it out, the liquid will hang, like thin syrup, from 
 the edge of the dish, as it does from a woad-vat, and will 
 have the same ammoniacal odor ; its characteristics are the 
 same as a woad-vat, with the exception of the color of the 
 liquid, which is more yellow. 
 
 After the first day's coloring, and you are raking up for 
 the last time, add two pails of indigo, one quart of molasses, 
 and one pail of ferment, and rake up well. 
 
 . To INIake the Ferment. 
 
 In a barrel of water put six quarts of madder and six 
 quarts of bran, boil these for one hour (but care must be 
 taken that it dbes not boil over), let it settle, and use the 
 clear solution ; or you can stir it up and use it that way ; this 
 is optional with your own views. 
 
 After the first day's coloring, when working the vat, give, 
 one day, three pails of the ferment; the next day, one quart 
 of molasses, and so on each alternate day. 
 
 Give indigo according to the amount taken up by the wool, 
 in which your judgment must dictate (for full blues, about 
 five pounds for every hundred pounds of clean wool). 
 
 Give five quarts of lime {ware) for every hundred pounds 
 of clean wool, or five pounds each day ; the vat must be 
 ■worked very open, or, as dyers say, soft. There is very 
 little danger of losing such a vat, as the fermenting powers of 
 the bran and madder are weak and are soon exhausted. A 
 large amount of wool can be dyed in a day in this vat, as it is 
 ready to dip again in one hour after raking; yet it is not 
 economy to dip over three times a day in it. Fifty pounds of 
 
THE AMEIUCAN DYER. SG7 
 
 clean wool. is sufficient to tlij) at one time. ThemanipnlsitiouB 
 are the same as in a woad-vut. 
 
 SAL-SODA BLUE-VAT. 
 
 Dimensions : seven feet deep, six feet diameter. 
 
 Heat the vat to 130° Fahr., then add two and a half pound^i 
 of indigo, thirty-three pounds of sul-soda, and thirty-six 
 pounds of bran ; rake tliose materials up well, cover up the 
 vat and let it remain twelve hours ; then add two and a half 
 pounds of slacked lime (ware) ; rake up again ; if the heat 
 is not up to 130°, heat it up to that temperature, and leave it 
 covered up for twenty-four hours. By this time the solution 
 should be of a yellowish-green color, the flurree of a blue, cop- 
 pery shade, and the li(juid should have a sharp, pleasant odor. 
 Now immerse a lock of wool in the liquid for ten or fifteen 
 minutes ; it should coine out a clear, deep green, and change 
 to a blue very quickly by the air. After the green has passed 
 off, dip the lock into the liquid again for the same length of 
 time, and when taken out, if it has not gained in depth of 
 color, add icare to the vat, or it will become putrid ; which 
 you will soon observe, as the flurree will become colorless, the 
 liquid will have a fetid smell, and the deposit of the vat will 
 contain no particles of indigo ; but in giving the ware be 
 careful and not give too great a quantity, as by so doing 
 you will stop the fermentation too soon. If you should over- 
 charge the vat with ware, you must add bran to start the fer- 
 mentation again ; and after giving bran in this instance, do 
 not give any ware under twenty-four or thirty hours after giv- 
 ing the bran. In adding the ware in sufficient quantities the 
 vat grows better and the liquid more 3'ellow, the flurree more 
 blue and persistent ; the amount of ware necessary to bring 
 the vat to a state of perfection should be from sixteen to 
 twenty pounds. When adding indigo, after the setting of the 
 
368 THE a:mericax dyer. 
 
 vat, you should add one pound of molasses, one pound of 
 sal-soda, and seven pounds of ware, to every two and a half 
 pounds of indigo added. 
 
 If the vat is used every day, the above materials should be 
 added each day after coloring, in the afternoon, and on the 
 following morning, if the vat is in a good state ; if the liquid 
 is yellow and the bran does not rise to the surface, if there is 
 no sign of fermentation, do not give any ware for twelve 
 hours. This kind of a vat is used for four or five months, 
 and when it is to be re-set they take up the sediment from 
 the bottom and preserve the liquid for a new vat, and it needs 
 but one-half the materials to start another vat. 
 
 The temperature for working is from 110° to 119°, but the 
 higher the temperature the darker and more violet will be the 
 color. This vat is from a French dyer named Grison, who 
 was a pupil of Chevreul, and has been a practical dyer for 
 forty years ; he is also a good chemist. 
 
 TIN=(Sn). 
 
 * Tin, in its color and lustre, is the nearest to silver of any 
 of the metals, only differing in lustre by having a somewhat 
 bluer hue. It exhibits a high metallic lustre, similar to silver. 
 Tin is one of the few metals known to man in the antediluvian 
 period of his existence, and was extensively used in all coun- 
 tries having any pretensions to civilization. 
 
 Tin does not occur naturally in a metallic state. It is 
 found as oxide in tinstone or tin ore (SnO^), containing 79 
 per cent, of metal, and as sulphuret of tin in combination with 
 other metallic sulphurets in tin pyrites. Tin ore is found either 
 interspersed in veins, or in secondary formations deposited 
 by water, and in the alluvial deposits formed by the washing 
 away of fragments of the primary rocks. These ores are not, 
 as a rule, simply composed of pure oxide of tin, but contain 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 869 
 
 various other metallic compounds, — such as sulphur, arsenic, 
 zinc, iron, and copper. In some instances, tin ore is found 
 in Cornwall, Malacca, and Banca, in the beds of the rivers, 
 and the tin thus found is very pure, because the mechanical 
 separation of the ore from its impurities has been performed 
 by nature itself, and, as a consequence, these ores yield a 
 purer metal than the ore obtained from veins, which has to 
 undergo the process of dressing, washing, and roasting pre- 
 viously to being smelted, to get rid of the arsenic, sulphur, 
 and antimony. 
 
 The tin ore found in Cornwall County, England, has, for 
 over two thousand years, yielded tin. This tin has to be 
 smelted in accordance with an ancient stannary law. The 
 stronger and purer the tin is, the more it crackles, or creaks, 
 when it is bent. When rubbed with the hands, it imparts to 
 them a very peculiar odor. A cubic foot of tin weighs — 
 according to its purity — from three hundred and seventy-five 
 to four hundred pounds. The specific gravity of pure tin is 
 1.280, and, by hammering, can be increased to 1.290. It 
 fuses at 228°, and boils at 442° Fahr. It is then at a white 
 heat, and if kept at this heat in contact with the air, it will 
 become covered with a grayish coating, which is a finely 
 divided metal, called tin-ash, and protoxide of tin. This sub- 
 stance will be converted into stannic oxide — known as putty- 
 powder — if the heating of the tin is continued for a short 
 time after this substance has formed upon it. 
 
 We might give a description of the difierent combinations 
 and applications of tin, but we will omit them, as they are 
 not applicable to our particular branch of science, or to the 
 art of dyeing. 
 
 Tin is known by the names of common tin, block tin, and 
 grain tin. The latter is the only kind fit for the purpose of 
 making tin-solutions. It is brought from England in large 
 ingots ; then melted and moulded into small, slender bars, 
 and in this form it is received by the dyer. 
 
 47 
 
370 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Tin-Solutions, or Stannous Chlorides ^(SnCli). 
 Observations on Making Tin- Solutions. 
 
 In preparing these solutions, you must, in the first place, 
 have the tin well granulated, or feathered, and it should be of 
 the best kind (see article, Tin). The tin must be added to 
 the acid at intervals, and a small quantity at a time, so that it 
 may be dissolved with as little disengagement of the acid-gas 
 as possible, and the solution should be kept at as low a tem- 
 perature as is compatible Avith the combination of the acids 
 and tin. These observations apply with the greatest force in 
 making nitro-muriate of tin. 
 
 In dissolving tin in muriatic acid, you will sometimes 
 notice that when the tin is in solution, some parts of the tin 
 are dissolved, while some of it seems to be covered with a 
 crystalline substance which you have a great deal of ditficulty to 
 dissolve, and it occasions both loss and annoyance. This can 
 be avoided by stirring the solutions at intervals. This coat- 
 ing of the tin is caused by one part of the solution becoming 
 denser than some other portions, — an action of a galvanic 
 nature being induced between those parts of the tin in the 
 stronger portion and the parts in the weaker portion of the 
 Solution, causing a deposit of oxide of tin upon the metal in 
 the weaker portion of the solution. 
 
 The preparation of these solutions is a matter of much pride 
 among dyers, and every dyer will have some little peculiarity 
 in making them that he keeps to hin^self, as a great secret, 
 and on the strength of which he thinks his success depends. 
 These little j^ec?<?2'ar«7?'es are nothing more than the propor- 
 tioning of the acid and the tin, and the way of mixing them. 
 
 The first process of preparing the solutions of tin is to 
 feather the tin, which is done by melting the bar in an iron 
 ladle, or some other convenient utensil. After it is melted, 
 pour it into a vessel filled with cold water, holding the melted 
 tin as high as possible, so that it may pour in drops into the 
 water. In this state, a very extended surface of the metal is 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 371 
 
 exposed to the action of the acid. In giving the tin, I do not 
 always go by the weight, hut give enough to saturate all the 
 acid. Crystals of tin — or tin-salts as they are termed in the 
 trade, and understood to be chloride of tin — are muriate of tin 
 crystallized by evaporation, and their formula is SnCl2+2PI^O, 
 while the formula for chloride of tin is SnCl.,. To prepare 
 cr^'stals of tin correctly, nuiriatic acid-gas should be caused to 
 act on granulated tin placed in earthenware receivers, and the 
 concentrated tin-salt solution thus obtained evaporated in 
 block-tin vessels. 
 
 These crystals are colorless and transparent, and very de- 
 liquescent, and of course very soluble in water. When they 
 are dissolved in water, and left to stand awhile, there will be 
 a deposit of basic salt, but l)y adding some muriatic or tartaric 
 acid to the solution, the basic salt will dissolve again. 
 
 The introduction of tin as a mordant for the scarlet shades, 
 is considered as forming an era in the art of dyeing. Ber- 
 thollett, in his "Elements of Dyeing," speaks of it as follows : 
 "A short time after cochineal became known in England, the 
 scarlet process, by means of^tin solution, was discovered. 
 About the year 1G30, Cornelius Drebbel observed, by an acci- 
 dental mixture, the brilliancy which the solution of tin gave 
 to a solution of cochineal. He communicated this discovery 
 to his son-in-law, Kuffeler, a dyer in Leyden. He improved 
 upon the process, kept it a secret from his fellow-workmen, 
 and brou<2:ht into vogue the color which bore his name." "A 
 few years afterwards a German chemist found out the process, 
 and l)rought his secret to London about the year 1643." "It 
 was soon known and diffused over Europe, and afterwards 
 whenever a new dye-drug was introduced, the solution of tin 
 was always applied to it, and it became a standard mordant 
 for the red dyewoods, and even for logwood, on cottons." 
 
 I cannot impress too strongly upon the mind of the dyer, 
 the necessity of the care and judgment requisite in prepaiing 
 his tin solutions ; not to add the tin to the acid in large quan- 
 tities, but to add it a little at a time, and when that is dis- 
 
372 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 solved, to add a little more, and so on until he has given all 
 the tin to the acid, and let the solutions be at least twenty- 
 four hours old before using (unless otherwise recommended 
 in recipe for making the ditferent solutions). As a general 
 thing, dyers are in too great haste in making their tin solu- 
 tions, and will throw in one handful of tin after the other, 
 before the first is dissolved. When the tin is added in this 
 manner, the action of the acids upon the tin will become vio- 
 lent, and too much heat is generated, causing a great loss in 
 the strength of the solution. This is more particularly the 
 case in making nitro-muriate of tin, for if too much heat is 
 generated, it decomposes the nitric acid, ammonia is then 
 formed in the solution, and when it becomes cold, a large 
 quantity of peroxidized tin precipitates in a stick}^ silver- 
 colored and gelatinous mass, at the bottom of the vessel, and 
 such a solution will never give a good clear hue to the color. 
 The slower the tin is dissolved, the more permanent the solu- 
 tion, and brighter the colors. 
 
 "Tin combines with oxygen in three different proportions." 
 
 "Protoxide (SnO), 
 
 " Sesquioxide (Sn203=:SnO,Sn02), 
 
 " Peroxide (SnOo) ." 
 
 Muriate of TiN=:(SnCl + 2H0.) 
 To make this solution, take two parts by weight of muriatic 
 acid, and one part of tin (see directions for making tin solu- 
 tions, page 370). Some dyers give as much tin as the acid 
 will eat, let it be more or less. After the tin is all dissolved, 
 and has a few days' age, it will have an agreeable and fragrant 
 smell, and a sparkling, glistening appearance. This is caused 
 by a portion of the solution having crystallized, and the crys- 
 tals are floating in the solution. If this solution is evaporated 
 by gentle heat, the water in the solution is driven off, and by 
 cooling, the whole would crystallize. It is then called 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 873 
 
 Crystals of TiN=:(SnCl2+2H,0). 
 
 These crystals contain three proportions of water, or about 
 twenty per cent., but according to the investigations made 
 by Dr. Penny, they contain only two proportions, or fourteen 
 per cent, of water. The composition of muriate of tin is — 
 
 Tin (Sn), 52.04 
 
 Chlorine (CI), ... . . 31.81 
 
 Water (HO), .... 1«.15=100 
 
 Prime equivalent, . . . . 14.46 
 Specific gravity, . . . .22.93 
 
 MURIO-SULPHATE OF TiN. 
 
 Take two parts by weight of muriatic acid, one part of sul- 
 phuric acid, add to this last acid as much water as the weight 
 of the acid, and when it has cooled from the heat caused by 
 the mixture of the water and acid, then mix this with the 
 muriatic acid, and add one part of tin. 
 
 This solution is sometimes called lac spirits, and yellow 
 spirits. Some dyers use sal-ammoniac in place of the muria- 
 tic acid in preparing this solution. This solution is seldom, 
 if ever, used on cotton yarn or cloth. For yellows on wool, 
 I do not think so good and bright colors can be produced by 
 using the sal-ammoniac, as those yellows that have for their 
 mordant spirits made of sulphuric and muriatic acids. For 
 crimsons, I think the spirits made with sal-ammoniac and 
 sulphuric acid are preferable to the muriate or murio-sulphate 
 of tin. This solution crystallizes like the muriate of tin. 
 
 MURIO-SULPHATE OF TiN FOR LaC-DyE. 
 
 Take 5 parts of hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid, HCl), 1 
 part of sulphuric acid, and 1 part of tin (all by weight), and 
 proceed as with the preceding solution. 
 
374 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 NiTRO-MURIATE OF TiN. 
 
 A mixture of nitric acid and muriatic acid will dissolve 
 about one-half its whole weio:ht of tin. To make this solu- 
 tion, take 4 parts of nitric acid and 3 parts of muriatic acid ; 
 mix these together, then add 1^ ounces of tin to the pound 
 of acids used. 
 
 This solution ouijht to show a fine amber-yellow color to be 
 in the greatest perfection for coloring scarlet shades ; but for 
 yellows, or for crimson shades, it may be of a browner yel- 
 low color, and be more highly charged with tin. 
 
 Some dyers make this solution thus : 1 lb. of nitric acid, 
 3 lbs. muriatic acid, and add tin until it ceases to dissolve it. 
 
 This solution does well for a deep, heavy red, when hyper- 
 nic or camwood is used for the coloring-matter, but it is not 
 suitable for reds when cochineal or lac is used. If 3'^ou want 
 a more crimson hue to the red, make the solution of 1 lb. 
 nitric acid and 5 lbs. of muriatic acid ; mix these acids to- 
 gether, then add 2^ ounces of tin to the pound of mixed 
 acids. 
 
 Instead of using muriatic acid for preparing this solution, 
 some dyers make it thus : 6 lbs. nitric acid, 1 lb. of water, 1 
 lb. sal-ammoniac ; then add 10 ounces of tin. Note that the 
 sal-ammoniac is dissolved in the water before it is added to 
 the acid. 
 
 These solutions of nitro-muriate of tin cannot be crystal- 
 lized. The different solutions of tin are now seldom pre- 
 pared by the dyer, but are purchased already prepared. I 
 would advise every dyer to prepare his own tin solutions, as 
 he will then be certain as to the amount of tin he has in the 
 solution ; while, in the other case, he is not certain as to the 
 amount of tin there is to the acid of the solution he is usinff. 
 
 Scarlet Spirits. 
 This is the best tin solution I ever use'd for scarlets, and is 
 made thus : 4 quarts of nitric acid, 1 quart of water, and 1 
 
THE AMERICAIN^ DYER. 675 
 
 quart of muriatic acid ; mix these three articles together, 
 then add 1% ounces of tin. 
 
 In dyeing use as much of this solution as you do of muri- 
 ate of tin ; that is, supposhig you wish to use 4 lbs. of muri- 
 ate of tin for the mordant, then use 2 lbs. of muriate of tin 
 and 2 lbs. of these spirits. 
 
 Another Scarlet Spirit Solution. 
 Break up 2 lbs. sal-ammoniac, mix it up well with 16 lbs. 
 feathered tin, then put it in a carboy, add 80 lbs. of muriatic 
 acid, and when the agitation caused by the mixture has ceased, 
 place a distilling tunnel in the carboy, stopping the neck of 
 the carboy around the tunnel tight; then add, through the 
 tunnel, 20 lbs. sulphuric acid. 
 
 Nitrate of Tin. 
 
 Take 2 lbs. of water, add to it 1 lb. nitric acid, use of tin 
 3 ounces, to the pound of acid. In making larger quantities 
 use the same proportions. 
 
 This solution is not used now as much as formerly. A 
 concentrated solution of this salt is not decomposed by being 
 boiled, but when it is diluted with water, the oxide of tin is 
 precipitated. This tin solution is largely used in France for 
 dyeing iodine-green. 
 
 COTTON MORDANTS. 
 Nitrate of Iron. 
 Twenty lbs. nitric acid, 36°, 2| lbs. clean iron turnings ; 
 add the iron gradually. 
 
 Some dyers use nitric acid, and give it all the copperas 
 (SO^Fe) it will dissolve, without any regard to the amount. 
 Nitrate of iron should be kept in a dark place. Nitric 
 acid containing much sulphuric or muriatic acid, docs not 
 
376 THE A3IERICAX DYER. 
 
 answer for this solution, as the salts of these acids are crys- 
 tallizable. Therefore, if these acids are present in nitric acid 
 they will cause a crystalline mass to form at the bottom of 
 the vessel in which the iron is dissolved. All the commer- 
 cial nitric acid contains a small amount of these acids, but the 
 amount is so small that it is of no material importance. 
 
 Acetate of Alltmina. 
 To 3 gallons of boiling water, add 4^ lbs. alum, 5| lbs. 
 white sugar of lead. Boil this until the alum and lead are 
 dissolved ; let it stand twelve hours ; use the clear solution. 
 This solution should indicate 8° Baume, and weigh about 
 fifteen pounds. 
 
 Neutral Acetate of Alumina. 
 Thirteen lbs. water, ^ lb. sal-soda. 4^ lbs. alum, 3| lbs. 
 white sugar of lead. Boil until all is dissolved ; use the clear 
 solution. 
 
 Keutral Acetate of Alumina. 
 In 3^^ gallons of boiling water, dissolve 4^^ lbs. alum, ^ lb. 
 soda crystals, 3^ lbs. white sugar of lead. This should make 
 16| lbs. clear mordant, and will stand at 10° Baume. 
 
 Acetate of Lead. 
 Four lbs. brown sugar of lead, 2 lbs. litharge, 3 gallons of 
 water. Boil until all is dissolved. This gives 18 lbs., at 
 45° Baume, and is the best for oranges. 
 
 Another Acetate of Lead. 
 Six quarts of water, 5| lbs. brown sugar of lead, 2| lbs. 
 litharge, are boiled together until all is completely dissolved, 
 and the solution will indicate 55° Baume. 
 
 Acetate of Copper. 
 Dissolve in 3 quarts of water 3\ lbs. blue vitriol. Dis- 
 solve in 1 quart of water 2\ lbs. white sugar of lead. After 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 377 
 
 these are completely dissolved, turn them or mix them 
 together, and use the clear solution only. 
 
 Another. 
 One gallon of water, 4 lbs. blue vitriol (dissolve). One 
 gallon of water, 3 lbs. white sugar of lead (dissolve). Mix 
 them as above, and use clear solution. 
 
 Red Spirits. 
 
 These spirits are for coloring reds with camwood, Brazil- 
 wood, and other red woods, and are sometimes called nitro- 
 muriate of tin, but more commonly called red spirits. Mix 
 together 2 lbs. nitric acid, and 6 lbs. muriatic acid. Then 
 add feathered tin in small quantities at a time (see Directions 
 for Tin Solutions), until the acid will dissolve no more. Then 
 pour oil' the clear solution, and keep it in a dark, cool place. 
 This spirit is for a deep and heavy red ; but in coloring reds, 
 if a red is not wanted to be so deep or decided a red, but of 
 a bluer or crimson hue, it requires a solution made thus : 
 
 Two lbs. nitric acid, 10 lbs. muriatic acid, giving tin 
 as above described. 
 
 Bar WOOD Spirits, 
 so called on account of their being used as the mordant for 
 barwood. They are prepared thus : 
 
 Two lbs. nitric acid, 12 lbs. muriatic acid, and 1^ ounces 
 of tin to the pound of the mixed acids ; or thus : 
 
 Two lbs. nitric acid, 8 lbs. muriatic acid, and 2 ounces of 
 tin to the pound of mixed acids. There are other slight 
 variations in making this tin solution. They consist in vary- 
 ing the muriatic acid from 4 to 7, but an excess of tin must 
 be avoided. I will here state, that the working strength of 
 the spirit-tub for cotton-yarn is from 2° to 3° Twaddle. 
 Coloring barwood-reds requires a great deal of experience and 
 attention, in order to produce good colors. 
 
 48 
 
378 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Plum Spirits. 
 This solution derives its name from being used with log- 
 wood. Its color is a deep plum. By some d3'ers it is termed 
 a French tub. It is prepared as follows : 2 Ihs. nitric acid, 
 14 lbs. muriatic acid. Mix these acids. Then add by de- 
 uces 2 ounces of tin to the pound of mi!xed acids ; or 2 lbs. 
 nitric acid, 10 lbs. muriatic acid, and H ounces of tin to the 
 pound of acid. For each 2 lbs. of logwood used, add 1 lb. 
 of the above spirits. 
 
 Spirits for Aniline Colors on Cotton- Yarn. 
 One lb. muriatic acid, \ lb. nitric acid, 1 pint sulphuric 
 acid. Mix these acids. Then add 2 lbs. of feathered tin, a 
 little at a time. When the tin is all dissolved, the solution is 
 ready for use. To use the spirits, steep the yarn for three or 
 four hours in a cold sumac solution. Wring out the yarn. 
 Then give the yarn seven turns in the spirit-tub, using one 
 pint of spirit for ten pounds of yarn (this must be a cold bath) . 
 Wash oft' the yarn from the spirits, and wring it out. Then, 
 in a clear bath of water, add any of the aniline dyes, and color 
 at 190° F. Wash ofi'the yarn before it is hung up to dry. 
 
 AMM0NIA = (NH3). 
 
 Ammonia occurs in the atmosphere. Ammoniacal salts are 
 met with in a few minerals, and in volcanic districts. But 
 the greater amount of ammonia and ammoniacal salts used 
 industrially, is obtained from the diy distillation of coals, 
 bones, and animal substances ; also by the distillation of stale 
 urine (lant), and from water-gas, or, more properly speaking, 
 water through which coal-gas has passed. Ammonia is com- 
 posed of one part nitrogen, and three parts hydrogen (for- 
 mula, NH3), condensed to two volumes of ammonia gas, 
 
THE AMr':RICA:N^ DYER. 
 
 379 
 
 is colorless, and has a peculiar and well-known odor, with a 
 sharp, biting taste. 
 
 "Water at 59° F., will absorb 727 times its bulk of this gas. 
 Water at 40° F., will absorb 1,050 times its bulk of this gas. 
 The solution is then called liquid, or aqua ammonia, and, by 
 some chemists, called or termed spirits of sal-ammoniac. 
 The specific gravity is 0.824 (=31.3 per cent, of NHg). 
 
 The following table shows the specific gravity of liquid 
 ammonia, and the percentage of ammonia that it contains : — 
 
 Specific Gravity. 
 
 NHg Ten Cent. 
 
 Specific Gravity. 
 
 NII„ Per Cent. 
 
 
 0.875 
 
 32.50 
 
 0.959 
 
 10.0 
 
 
 0.824 
 
 81.30 
 
 0.961 
 
 9.5 
 
 
 0.900 
 
 2r).oo 
 
 0.963 
 
 9.0 
 
 
 0.905 
 
 25.39 
 
 0.965 
 
 8.5 
 
 
 0.925 
 
 19.54 
 
 0.968 
 
 8.0 
 
 
 0.932 
 
 17.52 
 
 0.970 
 
 7.5 
 
 
 0.947 
 
 13.46 
 
 0.972 
 
 7.0 
 
 
 0.951 
 
 12.00 
 
 0.974 
 
 6.5 
 
 
 0.953 
 
 11.50 
 
 0.976 
 
 6.0 
 
 
 0.955 
 
 11.00 
 
 0.978 
 
 6.5 
 
 
 0.957 
 
 10.50 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 The specific gravity of aqua ammonia ranges from 0.875 to 
 0.995, and the per cent, of ammonia contained ranges from 
 321 to li per cent. 
 
 There are various methods employed to prepare aqua am- 
 monia, one of which is to mix equal weights of lime and mu- 
 riate of ammonia (sal-ammoniac, NH^Cl), well powdered, and 
 then expose them to a gentle heat in a retort ; then the lime 
 combines with the muriatic acid (HCl) contained in the sal- 
 ammoniac and liberates the ammoniacal gas, which is received 
 into a jar over mercury for experiments ; but for mechanical 
 and manufiicturing purposes, it is conveyed by a tube into 
 water. In this state it rs known as aqueous ammonia, or 
 spirits of hartshorn. 
 
 Another method of preparing or manufacturing aqua ammo- 
 
380 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 nia, is by decomposing caustic lime (CaHoOo) either with 
 chloride of ammonium (sal-ammoniac, NH^Cl) or sulphate of 
 ammonia (NH^, S2O4) ; ammoniacal gas is set free, and then is 
 absorbed by water, care being taken that the lime is in 
 excess. 
 
 We might give a detailed account of the preparation of 
 liquid ammonia, but we defer doing so, as it would take up 
 space, and would not be of any material advantage or benefit 
 to the practical dyer. Therefore we will only speak of its dif- 
 ferent forms and combinations in which it will be of use to us 
 as dyers. 
 
 Sal-ammoniac (NH^Cl). This substance is sometimes 
 found as a natural formation ; it is met with on Mounts Vesu- 
 vius and Etna. It was found at one time in such large quan- 
 tities on Mount Etna, that it became temporarily an article of 
 commerce at Catania and Messina. This substance is manu- 
 factured from gas-water, or by the distillation of animal 
 matters, and then saturating them with muriatic acid (HCl) 
 which will crystallize in a very impure state. These are then 
 collected, and placed in iron pots ; these pots are set into 
 furnaces that are lined with fire-brick, and have large covers, 
 made of lead, fitted to them. Fire is then applied, the sal- 
 ammoniac sublimes and will collect as a crust upon these 
 leaden covers, from which it is removed from time to time as 
 it collects. 
 
 From the thirteenth to the middle of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, this salt was imported into Egypt, where it was prepared 
 by the combustion of camel's-dung. The camel feeds almost 
 exclusively upon plants containing salts, and it is said that 
 sal-ammoniac is often found ready formed in their stomachs. 
 The sal-ammoniac after havins: sublimed with the soot 
 caused by the burning of the dung, is collected and refined 
 by a second sublimation. 
 
 In localities where this dung is used as fuel, it has been 
 tried to obtain sal-ammoniac by burning it with common salt. 
 The first sal-ammoniac manufactory in Germany was estab- 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 381 
 
 lishcd by Gravenhorst Brothers at Brunswick, in 1750. This 
 salt, from whatever source is is obtained, has to be purified 
 by sublimation in cast-iron cauldrons lined with fire-clay. 
 The crude sal-ammoniac is put into these cauldrons and then 
 tightly rammed ; heat is applied, gently at first, so as to drive 
 ofl' the moisture ; after this is accomplished the heat is in- 
 creased, but the temperature has to be regulated, during this 
 heating process, to a nicety, for if too low a heat is main- 
 tained, it will yield a very loose salt, and if the heat is too 
 high, the organic matter contained in the sal-ammoniac is liable 
 to give off matter that would spoil the appearance of the sub- 
 limated salt, and would interfere with its good quality. 
 Experience has proved that it is very necessary to have very 
 large sublimation vessels. When the sal-ammoniac cake has 
 become of sufficient thickness (four or five inches), the heat 
 is withdrawn and the cake removed ; it is^ then dried in an 
 oven and afterwards packed for the market. 
 
 At the present day sal-ammoniac is often sublimed in 
 earthenware vessels, or in large glass flasks, the crude salt 
 being first mixed with twenty-five to thirty per cent, of its 
 weight of powdered animal charcoal, then dried over a good 
 fire. 
 
 The sal-ammoniac of commerce, we find either in a crystal- 
 line state, or as a compact, fibrous, sublimed material, ex- 
 hibiting the appearance of having been formed in layers. 
 Crystalline sal-ammoniac is made by adding to the re-crystal- 
 14zed sal-ammoniac a strong boiling-hot solution of the same 
 salt, so as to produce a thickish magma, which is next placed 
 in moulds similar in shape to those used for making loaf-sugar, 
 then, after draining, the loaf of sal-ammoniac is taken out of 
 the moulds, dried, packed in paper, and is now ready for 
 sale, This is the kind of sal-ammoniac that is used in chem- 
 ical laboratories by pharmaceutists and by veterinary sur- 
 geons ; it is used in calico-printing and for the preparation of 
 platinum, snufF, and for making mastic or iron cement. The 
 cement is made as follows : one part sal-ammoniac, two 
 
382 THE AM ERIC AX DYER. 
 
 parts of sulphur and fifty parts of irou-filiiigs ; this is used for 
 cementiug iron pipes for water, steam or gas. 
 
 Sul-amuioniac(NH4Cl) consists, in 100 parts : — Of ammonia, 
 31.83; muriatic acid, 68.22; or, ammonium (NH^), 33.75; 
 chlorine (CI), 66.25 = 100. Sal-ammoniac is used in the 
 woolen dye-house for scouring wool, and with logwood in 
 coloring some particular shade of purples, violets, and 
 dahlias. 
 
 Sulphate of ammonia (NH4SO4). This substance is met 
 w^th in small quantities in the mineral known as mascagnin, 
 but in larger quantities in the boracic acid (B.^O^) of Tuscany. 
 This salt is prepared from the ammoniacal water of gas-works, 
 from urine (lant), and by the dry distillation of bones, by 
 the aid of sulphuric acid, or else by double decomposition by 
 means of gypsum (CaSOj, or by sulphate of iron (S04Fe). 
 This solulii>n is evaporated to crystallization ; if it is obtained 
 from gas- water that contains some of the tarry matters, the 
 crystals are usually of a deep brown color, and consequently 
 have to be purified by being dissolved in hot water, then fil- 
 tered through animal charcoal, and then re-crystallized by 
 rapidly evaporating the solution and removing the crystals as 
 fast as they form, by the use of perforated ladles. The crys- 
 tals are then drained by being placed in baskets constructed 
 for the purpose; after draining a few hours, they are then 
 quickly dried on hot fire-clay slaljs, by which operation any 
 particles of tar left in the crystals are decomposed. 
 
 Sulphite of ammonia, obtained l)y saturating carbonate of 
 ammonia solution with sulphurous acid gas, is, when exposed 
 to the atmosphere, gradually converted into sulphate of am- 
 monia. The sulphate of ammonia, industrially speaking, is 
 far the most important of all the ammonia salts, because of its 
 being very largely used in preparing artificial-manure mix- 
 tures, and l)y itself, for the same purpose; it is extensively 
 employed in alum-making, and it is the starting-point of the 
 preparation of chloride of ammonia (NH4CI), carbonate of am- 
 monia, aqua ammonia, and other similar products. Sulphate 
 
THE AMERICAN DYEK. 383 
 
 of ammonia is used as a mordant along with alum and salt for 
 deep logwood blues. The proportions are as follows : two 
 of sulphate ; nine of salt ; eight of alum. 
 
 ARGOL, OR CRUDE TARTAR. 
 
 "Crude or red tartar is deposited upon the sides of casks 
 containing wines, carrying into its crystallization some of the 
 coloring matter of the peculiar kind of wine from which it 
 was deposited ; this is the cause of the difterence in the color 
 of the argol. This crude tartar is employed by dyers in all 
 common and dark colors, where a supertartrate of potash is 
 required as an auxiliary to the mordant, it being cheaper than 
 the white, or cream of tartar so called, the cream of tartar 
 being obtained from argol, hy precipitating or retaining its 
 coloring matter with charcoal, bone-black, clay, &c." 
 
 In dyeing any and all colors where tartar is required as a 
 part of the mordant, I prefer the red to the white or cream of 
 tartar, as it contains more tartaric acid than the cream of 
 tartar, unless the red tartar is too much adulterated with red 
 sandstone, which is quite often the case. This adulteration, 
 however, can be very easily detected by dissolving some of 
 the suspected tartar in boiling water; the tartar will all 
 dissolve, and the sandstone will deposit at the bottom of the 
 utensil in which you have dissolved the tartar. 
 
 SUPER-TxVRTRATE OR BiTARTRATE OF POTARSA (Potash), 
 COMMONLY CALLED CrEAM OF TaRTAR, {KO,2CiU^Or,) . 
 
 This salt is of general application in woolen dyeing, as an 
 auxiliary to the mordants, but is more especially used along 
 with the tin solutions and with alum. 
 
 Tartar of itself is a feeble mordant, but when used with 
 chloride of tin or alum, it is then a strong mordant, which is 
 due to the decomposition ; the sulphuric acid of the alum, and 
 
384 THE AMERICANS" DYER. 
 
 the chlorine with the tin, take from the tartar the potash it 
 contains, and the ahimina is converted into a tartrate ; the 
 tin is also converted into a tartrate of tin. It is very 
 •probable that the coloring matter of the tartar removes the 
 alumina or the oxide of tin more readily from tartaric than 
 from sulphuric acid, as it converts the sulphuric acid of the 
 alum into tartaric acid ; otherwise the alum is converted into 
 a tartrate of alumina. In this state there will be no free 
 sulphuric acid, which would certainly be of injury to the wool 
 as well as to the coloring matter, while free tartaric acid will 
 have no bad effect upon either, especially the wool, as the 
 wool dissolves, and an equivalent' of the mordant takes its 
 place, as spoken of in regard to alum. 
 
 "Cream of tartar, or supertartrate of potash is but slightly 
 soluble in water, as it takes sixty times its weight of cold 
 water, and fifteen times its weiofht of boilingf water to dissolve 
 it ; but one-fifth of its weight of borate of soda (borax) 
 causes it to be very soluble." 
 
 It is composed, in 100 parts : 
 
 Tartaric acid, . . . 70.45 
 
 Potash, 24.08 
 
 Water, ' 4.75=99.28 
 
 We have said that the crude tartar was a deposit from wine 
 during fermentation. The tartar that is deposited from red 
 wines hasti red color, and is called red tartar, while that de- 
 rived from white wine is a dirty-white color, and called ichite 
 argol. Both kinds consist of potash united with an excess 
 of tartaric acid (CgH^Oxo), forming bitartrate of potassa 
 (potash, KO,2S03-i-2HO) rendered impure by tartrate of 
 lime (CaOjCiH.^Os), with more or less coloring matters, and 
 other matters which are deposited during the clarifaction of 
 the wine. The deposition of the tartar is thus explained : 
 "The bitartrate exists naturall}' in the juice of the grape, 
 held in solution by saccharine matter. When the juice is 
 
THE AMEKICAX DYER. 385 
 
 submitted to fermentation in the process of converting it into 
 wine, the sugar disappears, and is rephiced by alcohol, which, 
 not being competent to dissolve the tartaric acid, allows it to 
 precipitate as a crystalline crust." It is from this substance 
 that the bitartrate of potassa (cream of tartar) is obtained, 
 by a process of puritication. 
 
 The process of purifying the crude tartar Is founded upon 
 the greater solubility of bitartrate of potassa in hot water 
 than in cold. The crude tartar is first ground fine, and then 
 boiled with water in copper boilers. The solution is trans- 
 ferred to earthen pans. After cooling, there is a crystalline 
 layer deposited, which is free from the natural color of the 
 crude tartar. This is re-dissolved in boiling water, and the 
 solution is then mixed with four or five per cent, of pipe-clay ; 
 it is then evaporated to a pellicle. The pipe-clay precipitates 
 along with the coloring matter, and the clear solution, as it 
 cools, deposits white crystals in crusts, which, upon being 
 exposed to the atmosphere on linen cloth for several days, 
 acquire an increased whiteness. This is the crystal of tartar 
 of pharmacy, met with in the apothecary's shop as a powder, 
 for greater convenience, and to which the name of cream of 
 tartar properly belongs. 
 
 The cream of tartar of commerce is not a pure bitartrate of 
 potash, as it very often contains from ten to thirteen per cent, 
 of tartrate of lime (CaO,C4H20 ), according to the analysis of 
 Mr. J. M. Maisch. It is adulterated with such substances as 
 sand, clay, gypsum, flour, chalk, alum, and sulphate of 
 potash (KOSO3). Sand, clay, and gypsum in tartar is de- 
 tected by their not dissolving in hot water; iodine (I) will 
 turn a solution of tartar a blue color if it contains flour ; if 
 chalk is present the solution will foam, by adding diluted 
 acids to it ; alum is detected by its astringent taste, and if it 
 contains any sulphate of potash, it will precipitate by adding 
 chloride of barium (BaCl) to a solution of the suspected tar- 
 tar, and the precipitate will not be entirely soluble in nitric 
 acid (NO5). 
 
 49 
 
386 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 The action of the last-named test is explained thus : the 
 chloride of barium is not soluble in nitric acid, but the tar- 
 trate is. The best security against these frauds is to purchase 
 the crystals, and grind them yourself. Cream of tartar is a 
 permanent salt, and has a sour but not a disagreeable taste. 
 It is soluble in one hundred and eighty-four parts of cold and 
 eighteen parts of boiling water; it is insolul)le in alcohol. 
 It consists of two equivalents of tartaric acid, one equivalent 
 of potassa, and one equivalent of water, thus : 
 
 2 equivalents of tartaric acid, . CsH.20io=132 
 1 '* potassa, . . KO= 47.2 
 
 1 «' water, . . H0= 9 
 
 18b. 2 
 According to the above, its prime equivalent is 188.2. 
 
 TARTARINE. 
 A Substitute for Tartar. 
 
 There are numerous substitutes now in the market to take 
 the place of tartar, such as "Tartarette," "Colorine," ""Silver 
 Tartar," " Tartar Mordant" (oxalic acid in combination with 
 terra alba), and "Tartariue." We have tried them all, and 
 after a fair and impartial trial, have come to a positive conclu- 
 sion that there cannot be a substitute manufactured to come 
 so near the real article itself as the tartariue. We have used 
 it for over two j'ears, with the very best results, on all colors 
 where a tartar is required. As a substitute for tartaric acid, 
 it is invaluable, having the same effects in all respects as the 
 tartaric acid of commerce, and we have used it often in place 
 of tartaric acid. 
 
 Tartariue contains one-third more tartaric acid in its com- 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. ^87 
 
 position than either cream of tartar or half- refined tartar ; 
 therefore we prefer it to either of the two last-named sub- 
 stances, and especially for coloring scarlets, as by its use there 
 is a saving of cochineal ; we have to use less of it to produce 
 the same shade on the same amount of goods, than we would 
 have to use provided cream of tartar or half-refined tartar 
 was employed ; it also requires less tartarine. In using tar- 
 tarine, its proportions are one-third stronger than cream of 
 tartar, or half-refined tartar ; that is, it requires one-third less 
 than the other named tartars. Tartarine springs the color 
 from cochineal, logwood, and other red woods, to such an ex- 
 tent, that it requires less of them to produce the desired amouiit 
 of color than it does when using argols in any of its prescribed 
 forms, thereby making a saving of dyestufFs, and a clearer 
 color. We knew of a number of dyers that, when they first 
 used it, got "stuck" (as the saying is in the dye-house), 
 for the very reason that they used as much of it as they used 
 of cream of tartar, but after using it awhile, they have 
 informed me that there was no substitute, not even tartar itself, 
 that produced such good results as tartarine, and that they 
 would not be without it as long as it can be obtained. 
 
 The above will be the verdict of every dyer who will give 
 it an impartial trial. In the recipes on cloth and wool, con- 
 tained in this work, the reader will find that wherever a 
 tartar is required in the composition of the color, tartarine is 
 used invariably, and by looking at the samples of cloth and 
 wool, you will see that the colors are clear and intense — not 
 thin and dead looking. 
 
 I would advise all dj^ors who have not used the tartarine to 
 give it a fair trial, and my word for it, they will always there- 
 after use it. 
 
 Send for a circular of recommendations to Rollins & Ash- 
 ley, No. 79 Bedford Street, Boston, Mass. They are the 
 sole agents for it. 
 
388 THE AMERICAX DYEK. 
 
 ALUM. 
 
 This is an earthy salt, and is extensively used in dyeing and 
 calico-printing, in combination with other substances. In cal- 
 ico-printing and cotton-yarn dyeing, it is generally used in 
 the form of an acetate of alumina, or the so-called red liquor. 
 In woolen dyeing, it is used as a base or mordant for nearly 
 all the different colors, along with tartar. 
 
 In the process of combining alum with wool, it has been 
 shown by "Messrs. Berthollett,Thenerd, and Roard,that alum 
 unites entirely with wool, without any decomposition of the 
 salt, but that the tartar is deprived of its excess of acid, which 
 unites with the alum and wool, leaving the neutral tartrate of 
 potash in solution in the preparation liquor ; so that a prepara- 
 tion of alum and tartar impregnates the wool with a salt 
 composed of sulphuric and tartaric acids, potash and alum- 
 ina." 
 
 The latest investigations on this subject were made by 
 Havrez, who ascertained by his researches, that there should 
 never be a larger amount of alum used than thirty per cent, 
 of the weight of wool. Although this statement is given by 
 so eminent a chemist, I must differ from it, and so will every 
 practical dyer ; for where is there a dyer that would ever 
 attempt or think of employing thirty pounds of alum to one 
 hundred pounds of clean wool to produce a green with fustic 
 and sulphate of indigo, or a red with madder or camwood, or 
 any of the red woods? 
 
 But independent of the effects of alum and tartar upon wool, 
 as spoken of by Berthollett, which might be produced by any 
 other acid, tartar appears to be capable of effecting a further 
 object, by inducing a double decomposition, which transforms 
 the alum into a tartrate of alumina. These results are brought 
 about only at the boiling point ; for if we should dip wool in 
 a cold solution of alum and tartar, then dip it into boiling 
 water, it would part with all the alum which it received in the 
 cold bath : but when the wool is boiled in the alum and tartar 
 
THE AMEKICAN DYER. 389 
 
 solution, it yields to this liquor a portion of its organic mat- 
 ter, which becomes tlissolvecl ; but, at the same time, the wool 
 will absorb an equal amount of the alum. The presence of 
 alum upon the wool, when we take it out of the preparation- 
 liquor, is very evident, from the peculiar stain given to the 
 wool ; but the presence of sulphuric and tartaric acids, and 
 potash, is only presumable. 
 
 The kinds of alum mostly met with How in the market, are 
 the potash, ammonia, and natrona porous alum. Potash alum 
 contains in 100 parts of — 
 
 Potash, . ' 9.90 
 
 Alumina, ..... 10.83 
 
 Sulphuric acid, .... 33.76 
 
 Water, 45.51=100 
 
 This alum is denominated a double salt, it being composed 
 of two sulphates — the sulphate of alumina and sulphate of 
 potash. 
 
 Potash alum crystallizes very easily ; it will fuse at 92° in 
 its own water of crystallization, leaving a colorless fluid, which 
 remains a fluid for some time after cooling, before it solidifies 
 into a crystalline mass. At a temperature a trifle below red 
 heat, it will lose all its water, and become converted into burnt 
 alum, a white porous and friable substance. 
 
 100 parts of water at 40° will dissolve 32 parts potash alum. 
 a '« 100° " 360 " " 
 
 The solution of this alum in water has an astringent, sweet 
 taste ; a strong concentrated solution of it will destroy the 
 blue color of many — if not of all — artificial ultramarines. 
 
 Ammonia alum contains in 100 parts — 
 
 "Ammonia, 4.90 ^ 
 
 Sulphuric acid, .... 35.09 
 
 Alumina, 11.90 
 
 Water, 48.11=^100." 
 
390 THE AMEEICAX DYER. 
 
 Ammoniii alum is at the present time fur more extensively 
 manufactured than the potash alum. When this alum is strong- 
 ly heated, the water, sulphuric acid, and sulphate of ammonia, 
 are expelled, and alumina alone remains. 
 
 100 parts of water at 40° will dissolve 27.30 parts of this alum. 
 ♦' " 100° " 42.10 " '* 
 
 Natrona Porous Ai^um. 
 
 This alum contains more alumina than any other alum in 
 the market, and, for that reason, it is so well adapted for a 
 mordant on prints or ph\in-colored cotton fabrics. 
 
 All practical dyers are well aware that alum, of itself, is a 
 feeble mordant for cotton, on account of the iron in combina- 
 tion with the acid and alumina ; but the natrona being free 
 from iron and ammonia, makes it a powerful mordant, when 
 compared with any other of the alums. 
 
 This alum contains, in 100 parts, — 
 
 "Alumina, 18.90 
 
 Sulphuric acid, . . . 36.50 
 
 Potash, 2.00 
 
 Water, 42.60=100" 
 
 The active principle of this alum is evidently the sulphate 
 of alumina, and ntjt the sulphates of potassa and amiionia, as 
 is the case with all other alums. The preparation of alum is 
 simply the obtaining of a definite compound, and, while it 
 readily crystallizes, it can be obtained in a pure state, and 
 especially free from iron, — a very injurious substance in 
 alum, when used for calico-printing. The natrona alum, at 
 the present time, is the only alum used for paper-making, in 
 most, if not all the paper-mills in this country, on account of 
 its being perfectly free from iron. The color of this alum is 
 white. It is easily cut with a knife. It readily dissojves in 
 water, and always contains free acid ; also, to some extent, 
 
THE AMERICAN DYEK. 301 
 
 potash. But, in a perfectly pure state, it contains no potash, 
 and consists, in 100 parts, — 
 
 "Alumina, 18.78 
 
 Sul[)huric acid, .... 38.27 
 Water, 42. 95 z= 100" 
 
 This is its composition in its purity. The formula of this 
 alum, when pure, is Al2(S04) + 18H20. 
 
 The specjtic gravity of a concentrated solution of this alum 
 is 1.530; of the alum itself, 1.7G0'; while that of the English 
 is 1.485, and of the alum itself, 1.695, showing quite a differ- 
 ence in favor of the natrona porous alum. The natrona alum 
 is what I term a concentrated alum, and it requires one- 
 third less of it than of any other to ^jroduce the same 
 results ; but, in using, I have found dyers that will use as 
 much of it as they would of the lump alum ; and then they say, 
 "I do not like it, because it makes my reds too much upon 
 the scarlet shade," &c. Now, if these dyers would use less 
 of it than they would of other alums, they would not have any 
 trouble in getting a good clear, bright, and full red. All dyers 
 know, or, at least, should know, that an excess of alum causes 
 the wool to feel harsh, and that it kills the soap when using 
 it in the fuljing and scouring of the cloth ; therefore, when 
 the fuller finds that he cannot get the goods clean by using a 
 soap of two degrees of alkaline strength, he will add more 
 and more alkali to the soap until it is strong enough to cleanse 
 the cloth ; then the dyer finds fault because they full or scour 
 out his colors, and blames the fuller for it, when, if he would 
 look at it in the right light, he would find that there was no 
 one to blame but himself. I knew a dyer who used thirty- 
 five pounds of alum on two hundred pounds of clean wool in 
 saddening down, besides twenty-five pounds that he used in 
 the preparation ; and when asked why he used so much alum, 
 "Oh," said he, "the alum will kill the soap, so that the fuller 
 cannot strip the color down." 
 
392 THE AMEEICAX DYEK. 
 
 There is no alum so good for coloring yellows, oranges, 
 crimsons, or reds on wool, as the natrona alum. It gives a 
 brighter and more intense hue than any other alum in the 
 market, besides the advantage of not having to use so much 
 of it ; therefore, it takes less strength of soap to cleanse the 
 goods, and the goods feel softer, and the color is not injured 
 by the use of strong soap. 
 
 For coloring-purposes, the most detrimental substance in 
 alum is iron, and, to detect it, "dissolve some of the alum in 
 distilled water ; then add to it a few drops of dissolved red 
 prussiate of potash ; or boil some alum with a few drops of 
 nitric acid ; then add a few drops of dissolved yellow prussiate. 
 In either case, if there is iron in the alum, the solution will 
 turn to a blue color. Or dissolve some alum, as above, in 
 distilled water ; theai add a few drops of gallic acid. This will 
 turn the solution black, if there is iron in the alum. Or you 
 can make a solution of a piece of alum ; then add caustic 
 potash to it until the sohition is very alkaline ; then boil this 
 solution, and, if the alum contains iron, it will form at the 
 bottom in a brownish, glutinous mass." Pure alum is all 
 soluble in water. 
 
 We might give a detailed account of the different methods 
 for the preparation of alum, but thinking that it would not be 
 of any particular benefit to dyers, it will be omitted. 
 
 There is a chrome alum that is now obtained in large quan- 
 tities, as a by-product in the manufacture of aniline-violet, 
 aniline-green, and anthracene-red. It is a crystallized sub- 
 stance, of a deep violet color, and is now being, to some 
 extent, used as a mordant. It is also used for waterproofing, 
 repellants, or cloaking. 
 
 Aluminate of Soda. 
 This (what we may call a mordant) is now prepared on a 
 large scale, as it has been found to be a useful form of soluble 
 alumina, more particularly for cotton-dyeing and calico- 
 printing. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. ' 393 
 
 The preparation of this substance is based upon the hydrate 
 of ahunina being so soluble in caustic potash, and also by the 
 solution being so easily decomposed by acetic and carbonic 
 acids, sal-ammoniac, and acetate of soda. It is also prepared 
 from cryolite, which is deprived of its flourine by the addition 
 of lime, and from an aluminate of iron. The iron is calcined 
 with carbonate of soda ; it is then washed, and evaporated to 
 dryness. 
 
 By a certain amount of hydrochlorine acid (muriatic acid), 
 the soda will be separated from the iron, and the hydratod 
 alumina that is left is soluble in acetic acid, and contains, in 
 one hundred parts, — 
 
 Soda, 44 
 
 Alumina, . . . . . . 48 
 
 Chloride of sodium and glauber salts, . 8 = 100 
 
 Aluminate of soda was first introduced to the notice of 
 dyers in or about the year 1819, by Marquer and Haussmann, 
 but their preparation being so very expensive it did not come 
 into general use until within the last fifteen years, and now 
 the Washington Chemicals Works in England prepare it at 
 such a low price that cotton printers and dyers are finding it 
 profitable to use it as a mordant. We find it in the market 
 as a powder of a green-yellow hue, and dry to the touch. It 
 is soluble either in hot or cold water. When exposed to the 
 atmosphere, it absorbs moisture and carbonic acid, this salt 
 being thus changed by the atmosphere ; if it is then dis- 
 solved in water the solution becomes turbid, which is owing 
 to the alumina being in suspension. A solution of aluminate 
 of soda cannot be made stronger than 12° or 15° Baume, and 
 from 1.7 to 1.09 specific gravity. 
 
 This salt is used for numerous purposes besides dyeing and 
 calico-printing. Large quantities of aluminate of soda are 
 manufiictured at Natrona, Penn., and are used for making 
 soap, and called N'atrona refined saponifier. 
 
 50 
 
394 THE AMEKICAX DYEE. 
 
 Among the different salts of alumina that are industrially 
 employed are h3'posulphite ol" alumina, which was recom- 
 mended by E. Kopp as a mordant for cotton ; sulphite of 
 alumina, for purifying beet-root juice; oxalate of alumina, 
 suggested by Dent for the preservation of marble, stone, &c. ; 
 the hypochlorite of alumina, known as Wilson's bleaching 
 liquor. 
 
 Alum, besides being used for dj'cing purposes, is employed 
 for the preparation of the lake-colors, there being active 
 coloring principles in combination with alumina. Alum is 
 used for hardening gypsum, in sizing for hand-made paper ; 
 the alum in this case forms with the glue or size an insoluble 
 compound. Alum is used in clarifying turbid fluids, especially 
 water ; in this instance the alumina that is suspended in the 
 water is taken up by the alum, the alum forming an insoluble 
 (basic) alum, which carries down or precipitates the organic 
 matters and other impurities which are in solution in the 
 water. 
 
 A boiling solution of common salt, alum, and nitrate of 
 potash is employed by jewellers for coloring gold, or, in other 
 words, to produce a film of pure gold on the alloy ; the copper 
 alloy is dissolved by the boiling s'olution. 
 
 Alum is but a weak mordant for cotton, yarn, or cloth 
 (unless it is converted into an acetate of alumina), owing to 
 the sulphuric acid contained in the alum having so strong an 
 attraction for the alumina, and in alum the sulphuric acid has 
 three proportions to everj'^ two of alumina. But if a portion 
 of the acid is neutralized there will remain only enough acid 
 to hold the alumina in solution, which is not over one-third of 
 the acid contained in the alum ; by so doing the properties of 
 the alum become greatly improved as a mordant. The 
 amount of acid which will admit of being reduced can be 
 found by taking a given quantity of carbonate of soda (suffi- 
 cient to neutralize the whole of the acid in the amount of 
 alum taken). Now divide this soda solution into three pro- 
 portions and add two of these portions gradually to the alum 
 
THE AMEKICAN DYER. 305 
 
 solution (stin-lng it all the time), and although the alumina 
 will be precii)itatecl, if the stirring or agitation is con- 
 tinued for a short time the precipitate will again dissolve. 
 This forms an alum that contains not over one-third the acid 
 that there is in the common alum, and in this state it is a 
 more powerful mordant for cotton than it is in the origiind 
 state, for the reason that the base is held more feebly by the 
 sulphuric acid and is then more readily detached by the affin- 
 ity of the yarn or fabric to form a mordant. Alum thus pre- 
 pared is nearly, if not quite pure, the iron formerly present 
 being precipitated by the process named above. Alum in 
 this state is called cubical or basic alum, and is sometimes 
 called neutral alum. The same salt can be produced by boil- 
 ing twelve parts of alum and one part of slacked lime in 
 Avater. This alum is often [)referred to any other, as it does 
 not affect certain colors. 
 
 Sulphate of Alumina. 
 
 There have been many attempts to introduce this substance 
 in the practice of dyers, but they have not been successful until 
 within a few-years, as it contained so great an amount of sul- 
 phate of iron, and an excess of sulphuric acid in combination 
 with the iron. This substance would not have an atiinity for 
 cotton unless these defects were overcome. However, at the 
 present day, with improved methods of manufacturing it, 
 sulphate of alumina is largely prepared, and it is of excel- 
 lent quality. It is sold sometimes under the name of con- 
 centrated alum (which is erroneous), and is found in the 
 market in square cakes of a white color and nearly trans- 
 parent. 
 
 Acetate of Alumina. 
 
 The best and most conmion preparation of alum, as a mor- 
 dant for cotton, is the acetate of alumina. The method of 
 preparing it is given under the head of Mordants for Cotton, 
 found in another part of this work. 
 
396 THE A^IEEICA^ DYER. 
 
 SULPHATE OF INDIGO. 
 
 This substance is a combination of sulphuric acid and 
 indigo, known by the different names of Saxon blue, extract 
 of indigo, indigo paste, and chemic. 
 
 Dyers do not make their chemic now as much as in former 
 years, it being found in the market, manuftictured for them, 
 and sold under the names of extract of indijjo and indigo 
 paste. "When dyers made their sulphate themselves, each one 
 had a rule or particular method of his own, some using four 
 pounds of oil of vitriol to one j^ound of indigo, others three 
 to one; but the best proportion, in my opinion, is to use 
 seven pounds of acid to one pound of the indigo, especially 
 for greens on wool ; but for chemic to work with aniline blue 
 and violet dyes, I prefer using more acid to the indigo, say 
 eight pounds to one pound of indigo. It would be better for 
 every dyer to make his own sulphate of indigo (besides cost- 
 ing his employer less for it) ; he would then know the correct 
 amount of acid he was usinof, as well as the amount of indigo. 
 Indigo when made into the sulphate of indigo, becomes radi- 
 cally changed, and there is nothing that can bring it back to 
 its primitive state again, forming, as it does, a chemical com- 
 pound, sulph-indigotic acid, called by dyers, extract of indigo. 
 Concentrated oil of vitriol is the only substance that will dis- 
 solve indigo without destroying its color and composition ; 
 or, in other words, oil of vitriol is the only substance that 
 will dissolve indigo without deoxidizing it, and it requires 
 highly concentrated or fuming oil of vitriol for that purpose, 
 as when other acid than the concentrated is used it requires 
 a larger quantity of it to produce the desired combination ; 
 and where so much acid is used, the solution will have to be 
 neutralized before it can be used with good results. 
 
 The action of sulphuric acid upon indigo was found by 
 Mr. Crum to be more than a mere solution ; it was a chemical 
 combination, in definite proportions (and not a solution in the 
 ordinary sense of the word), forming two very distinct sub- 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 397 
 
 stances, and greatly differing from each other in their prop- 
 erties. He named these two compounds, from their colors, 
 re7'if/m and ^;/<m«an, the latter purple and the former blue. 
 Since this discovery they have been named sulpho-purpuric 
 and sul[)h-indylic acids. The latter constitutes the blue prin- 
 ciple of Saxon-blue, and is more abundantly formed if the 
 sulphuric acid is sufficiently strong and abundant, and all 
 proper care given to it while in progress of combining. 
 Its composition is one atom of indigo in combination with two 
 atoms of sulphuric acid. The former (sulpho-purpuric) is of 
 a purple color, and if water is added to it, precipitation takes 
 place. Its composition is equal ; that is, it has one atom of 
 indigo and one atom of acid. 
 
 By rigid examination and experiments, it was found that it 
 required eight pounds of concentrated or fuming sulphuric 
 acid to convert one pound of indigo into the blue sulph-indy- 
 lic acid, this compound being the best of the two ; and in 
 making the sulphate of indigo, every care should be taken to 
 convert the indigo into this compound, and so avoid the 
 formation of the sulpho-purpuric acid. This latter substance 
 is formed, in the first place, by using too small a quantity of 
 sulphuric acid in proportion to the indigo employed ; and in 
 the second place, dyers are in too great haste in making it, 
 thereby not allowing time for it to digest. 
 
 When the indigo is first added to the acid, there appears, to 
 the eye, a solution of the indigo, almost instantaneous ; but 
 such is not the case ; which is shown by spreading a few drops 
 upon a piece of glass, when we perceive a dirty greenish 
 color; and after remaining upon the glass for a short time, 
 there will be a yellow-colored liquid running out from it. 
 This yellow-colored liquid is no doubt caused by the acid 
 absorbing moisture from the surrounding atmosphere, this 
 moisture causing it to separate from the indigo, thus showing 
 to us very clearly that there is not an immediate solution of 
 the indigo, when it is added to the sulphuric acid. If the 
 indigo used in this case is of a poor quality, the darker and 
 
898 THE AMEKICAX DYER. 
 
 greener it will appear upon the glass ; and after it has been 
 mixed for a few hours, and then a few drops of it put upon a 
 piece of glass, the same as l)efore, we find that it has a pur- 
 plish-red appearance ; the greater part of the compound is 
 sulpho-purpuric acid. Mr. Cruni says that after the color of 
 the solution has assumed a bottle-green, and it is then diluted 
 with water, the action of the acid is stopped, and there is 
 then formed the sulpho-purpuric acid. But there are other 
 means besides diluting the acid with water, that will stop the 
 action of sulphuric acid upon the indigo. 
 
 It has been already stated, that it requires a highly concen- 
 trated oil of vitriol to convert the indigo into sulph-indylic 
 acid. We find dyers very often who change the strength of 
 their chemic by the method of preparing or mixing it. They 
 will mix it in the jar and leave it uncovered, thus allowing 
 the acid to absorb moisture from the atmosphere ; or, in some 
 cases, they will put the jar into a tub of hot water, or place 
 it on the top of the steam-boiler. By thus doing they cause 
 the acid to absorb water very rapidly, thus diluting it below 
 the required strength for dissolving the indigo, and causing 
 the formation of the sulpho-purpuric acid, instead of the 
 sulph-indylic acid, the latter being the real compound that is 
 wanted. 
 
 As already stated, the sulpho-purpuric acid is formed, in 
 one instance, by the dyer putting the jar or vessel, in which 
 he has mixed his acid and indigo, into a tub containing boil- 
 ing water. Sometimes, in making chemic, the heat of the 
 mixture becomes so low that it does not promote the chemical 
 action whereby the combination of the acid and indigo can be 
 effected ; in this case putting the vessel into hot water would 
 not form sulpho-purpuric acid ; that is, if care is taken not to 
 allow the hot water to heat the solution above the boiling 
 point. 
 
 In speaking of the causes of stopping the action of the 
 acid upon the indigo, there is another cause for it, and that is 
 the indigo itself. We know that ground indigo will absorb a 
 
THE AMERICAl^^ DYER. 399 
 
 quantity of moisture, and this moisture will necessarily di- 
 lute the acid when the indigo is added to the acid ; therefore, 
 it should be thoroughly dried by some means or other, before 
 addiuij it to the acid, or the acid will be too much weakened 
 to produce or form sulph-indylic acid, the substance we want. 
 
 Sometimes the indigo is added ail at once to the acid, which 
 causes a great evolution of heat, thereby decomposing the 
 impurities contained in the indigo, and a part of the acid is 
 also decomposed, giving otf a large amount of sulphurous 
 gas. Indigo that is treated in this manner very seldom makes 
 good chemic, and when a few drops are placed upon a piece 
 of glass, it has a blackish-green appearance, sometimes a 
 dirty purple color, but seldom the blue violet, and very rarely 
 the fijie beautitul blue. 
 
 The sulpho-purpuric acid contained in the sulphate of indigo 
 is precipitated when the suli)hate of indigo is diluted with 
 water, the sulpho-purpuric acid dissolves in alkalies, and 
 gives a blue color, of a greater or less purity, according to 
 the alkali employed as the solvent. 
 
 The dyer now very seldom prepares his own chemic, it 
 being manufactured for him, and sold by the name of ex- 
 tract of indigo. The following is the process of its prepara- 
 tion : — 
 
 The indigo is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid 
 (different manufacturers using different proportions). It is 
 then diluted with hot water. The whole is put upon a tilter 
 of woolen cloth, which separates the insoluble impurities of 
 the indigo. The solution which has passed through the cloth, 
 is put into a leaden vessel, and there evaporated to about 
 three gallons for every pound of indigo used. There is then 
 added to it from three to four pounds of salt to the pound of 
 indigo, and then well stirred up (by this means all the sulpho- 
 indylic acid is precipitated). The whole is then thrown upon 
 another filter of woolen cloth. There it remains until it has 
 drained sufficiently. It is then put into earthen jars, ready 
 for sale, and is called extract of indigo. 
 
400 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Some makers put soda and a little ammonia into the extract, 
 which gives it that bloomy appearance we sometimes see. 
 A pound of good indigo will make about fourteen pounds of 
 extract, if proper care and management are taken in the prep- 
 aration of the extract. There are various adulterations to 
 sulphate of indigo, Sometimes insoluble matter is added, but 
 not often, as it injures the appearance of the extract, and 
 those makers who do it, are the losers by the operation ; for 
 although the dyer may not have the facilities to test the ex- 
 tract, he will very soon ascertain by experience the working 
 value of it. Some makers add lime and barytes to their 
 extract, which gives an insoluble precipitate, and adds weight 
 to the extract ; but this practice generally re-acts upon the 
 maker, and he is the loser rather than the gainer by the opera- 
 tion. 
 
 The method that I adopt for making this article is as fol- 
 lows : — 
 
 In the first place, I endeavor to obtain the very best 
 ground indigo. Then dry it as much as possible by placing 
 it either on the top of the boiler, or in the dry-house. Then, 
 for every pound of indigo that I intend to use, I take seven 
 pounds of concentrated oil of vitriol, using a glazed earthen 
 jar, adding the indigo gradually (say about one-half at a time), 
 stirring it all the time, until the indigo is all thoroughly 
 moistened by the acid. Then, in the course of fifteen or 
 twenty minutes, add the remainder of the indigo, stirring it 
 as before, and stir it during the day at intervals. Do not use 
 it until it is two or three days' old. When making the 
 sulphate, do not set the jar in the dye-house, where it will 
 absorb moisture from the steam and vapors arising from the 
 various dye-tubs. The jar should be kept covered, and placed 
 where the heat (caused by the combination of the acid and 
 indigo) can be kept at 160° F. As the combination takes 
 place, the compound will assume a frothy appearance ; will 
 increase iu volume, and a great deal of heat is generated, with 
 the disengagement of sulj)hur()us acid gas. These are the 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 401 
 
 certain results of the combination ; and when they have 
 ceased, the chemical union is completed. Sulphate of indigo 
 does not give a permanent color ; yet it can be made to resist 
 the alkalies and the fulling process very well, by mordanting 
 the wool or cloth with bichromate of potash, alum, and tin 
 crystals (see Recipes for Greens, in another part of this work). 
 
 ^Crystallized Acetate of Lead (ix Crystals, PbO,C4H;jQ3 
 +3H0), OR, Sugar of Lead (PbCC^HaO,). 
 This salt is composed of — 
 
 Oxide of lead, . . . 58.71, 
 Acetic acid, . . . 27.08, 
 Water, .... 14.21, in 100 parts. 
 
 Sugar of lead is manufactured by exposing the metallic lead 
 to the action of rectified or wood vinegar (acetic acid), and to 
 the atmosphere. The lead decomposes the acetic acid, form- 
 ing carbonate of lead. This carbonate is then easily decom- 
 posed by adding more acid to it, which combines with the 
 carbonate of lead, forming acetate of lead, and the carbonic 
 acid is all evolved. This is not the only method adopted to 
 prepare sugar of lead. Some makers immerse sheets of lead 
 in a wooden tub containing vinegar, so constructed that the 
 upper sheets will be exposed to the action of the atmosphere. 
 Tho action of the air causes a crust of carbonate to form on 
 the sheets of lead thus exposed. Then these sheets are put 
 to the bottom of the tub, and those at the bottom to the top, 
 where they will be exposed to the same course of action. 
 This shifting the sheets from the top to the bottom is for the 
 purpose of allowing the acid to decompose the carl)onate 
 formed upon the lead. This decomposition forms the acetate 
 of lead. Another process is to allow vapors of vinegar to 
 pass over sheets of lead, and the carbonate that is formed by 
 the vapors is collected or scraped from the sheets, and then 
 put into a tub containing strong vinegar ; and in Ijoth of these 
 51 
 
402 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 processes, when the vinegar ceases to decompose any more of 
 the carbonate, it is then drawn ofi" into tinned copper pans, or 
 wooden tubs, and allowed to crystallize. Acetate of lead is 
 also prepared by boiling litharge in wood vinegar in a leaden 
 boiler, constantl}' being stirred, in order to prevent the litharge 
 adhering to the sides and bottom of the boiler. When a 
 proper amount of litharge is dissolved, there is then enough 
 cold water added to the solution to cool it down just below 
 the boiling point. After the solution has settled, the clear 
 liquid is drawn off into proper vessels, where it is left to 
 crystallize. 
 
 All the dift'erence in making the white and l)rown sugar of 
 lead, is that, for the white, the solution is filtered through 
 bone-black before it is set away to crystallize. The best ace- 
 tate for coloring oranges, amber-color, and deep 3'ellows on 
 cotton-cloth or yarn, is that which is composed of three parts 
 of lead to one part of acid in its combination. It is prepared 
 in the dve-house by boiling sugar of lead and litharire together, 
 and adding a very small quantity of lime, different dyers using 
 different proportions. One hundred parts of litharge will 
 yield one hundred and fifty parts of acetate of lead. Acetate 
 of lead is not used in woolon-dyei)ig, but is largely used in 
 cotton-dyeing and calico-printing, in making acetate of 
 alumina, chrome-yellow, and chrome-orange. It is also used 
 to make varnishes. 
 
 Acetate of lead, when submitted to drv distillation, yields 
 neutral carbonate of lead and acetone, which will volatilize. 
 When heated with sulphuric acid, it yields acetic acid, sulphate 
 of lead remaining in the retort. 
 
 Acetate of lead is extensively manufactured in Germany, 
 Holland, France, England, and in the United States. It is 
 principally consumed in the art of dyeing and calico-printing, 
 in which it is employed to form with alum the acetate of 
 alumina. Its taste is at first sweet, and afterwards astrinn-ent. 
 When exposed to the atmosphere, it efHoresces slowly. It 
 dissolves in four times its weight of cold water, and in a 
 
THE A3IERICAX DYER. 403 
 
 much smaller quantity of boiling water; it is also soluble in 
 alcohol. Its solution in water is turbid, in conso(iiience of 
 the formation of carbonate of lead with the carl)()nic acid 
 always found in river-water ; but this turbidness can be 
 removed i)y adding a small proportion of vinegar or diluted 
 acetic acid to the water. In pure distilled water it ought to 
 entirely dissolve, and leave a clear solution. 
 
 As il is found in commerce, it contains as impurities, sul- 
 phate and carbonate of lead. "Mr. John Mackay of London, 
 analyzed a sample of acetate of lead obtained in the London 
 market, which contained nearly thirty per cent, of sulphate 
 of lead" (PbSOy). Sulphuric acid, when added to a solu- 
 tion of acetate of lead, will produce instantly a precipitate of 
 sulphate of lead, and the fumes emitted have the odor of vin- 
 egar, which is owing to the disengaged acetic acid. 
 
 An important property of sugar of lead is its power of dis- 
 solving a large quantity of litharge. 
 
 Acetate of lead consists of one equivalent of acetic acid, 
 51.0; one equivalent of protoxide of lead, 111.5; and three 
 of Avater, 27.0; making its prime equivalent==18i).5, and its 
 formula (PbCQHsOa+SHO). 
 
 PROTOXIDE OF LEAD (=PbO), OR LITHARGE. 
 
 This substance is composed of equal proportions of lead 
 and oxygen, and is obtained as a bi-product of the separation 
 of silver from lead ; it is also obtained by exposing metallic 
 lead, when at a red heat, to a current of air; the oxygen of 
 air combining with the lead, converts the lead into a semi- 
 fluid mass ; when this mass cools, it forms crystals of a green- 
 ish-yellow color.* When this oxide of lead is kept a few 
 months, it falls into a scaly crystalline powder, and has a 
 brick-red color. This is the principal oxide from which 
 acetate and other salts of lead are prepared for use in the 
 
404 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 dye-house. Litharge always .contains more or less oxide 
 of copper (CuO), oxide of antimony (SK.Oa), and traces of 
 oxide of silver (Ag.^Oy) ; it also contains metallic lead, vary- 
 ing in amount from one and one-fourth per cent, to three per 
 cent. The oxide of copper can be removed from it by digest- 
 in": the litharuje with a solution of carbonate of ammonia 
 (NH ,.2^.2^3) > ^^^6 solution to be cold. Litharge, when good 
 and not adulterated, will have a crystalline lustre, and will 
 become completely soluble in nitric acid. The adulterations 
 of litharge are, generally speaking, brick-dust, iron, and 
 copper. These can be detected by digesting the litharge in 
 nitric acid ; and if brick-dust is present, it remains insoluble 
 and will be apparent, and by adding ammonia to the solution, 
 the litharge is precipitated, and the precipitate will be of a 
 brown color; and if it contains copper, the solution will be 
 blue-colored. But these adulterations are not injurious to it, 
 for the purposes for which it is used in the dye-house. 
 
 Litharge is not employed in woolen dyeing. It is employed 
 in cotton-dyeing and calico-printing for making acetate of lead. 
 (See Recipes for making Lead Solutions.) 
 
 The fine-powdered litharge sometimes met with in the trade, 
 is very often adulterated with sulphate of barium (BaSO^), 
 which can be detected by dissolving some of the litharge in 
 diluted nitric acid, but the small scale litharge cannot be very 
 easily adulterated. The English litharge is considered the 
 best, that from Germany being generally contaminated with 
 iron and copper. Li choosing litharge, samples should be 
 selected that are free from copper, and fragments of vegetable 
 matters. There are two varieties of litharge, called the gold 
 or red litharge, and the silver or yellow litharge. The former 
 kind is said to owe its color to a portion of red lead l^eing in 
 the litharge, but M. Leblanc has shown that the two varieties 
 differ only in color, structure, and density, and not in their 
 chemical composition. "Red lead can be detected in litharge 
 by heating it in a test-tube, with chloride of sodium (salt) 
 and bisulphate of potassa, and then putting in a piece of paper 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 40."> 
 
 colored blue by indigo; if red lead is present in t!ie lilluirfe, 
 the paper will be bleached by the chlorine evolved." 
 
 SULPHATE OF COPPER, CUPRIC SULPHATE 
 (CuSO,), OR BLUE VITRIOL (CuOSO,+5HO). 
 
 There are numerous methods of preparing this salt : — 
 
 First. One method is to heat sheets of copper (Cu) in a 
 reverberatory furnace to the boiling point of sulphur (420° 
 Fahr.) ; there is then a quantity of sulphur thrown into the 
 furnace, the openings and flues of the furnace being closed ; 
 the result is the formation of sulphide of copper (CuoS). 
 This sulphide is converted, by a low heat and the action of 
 the oxygen of the air, into the sulphate of copper. The 
 mass is then placed in stone troughs and oil of vitriol is added 
 in sufficient quantity to saturate the oxide of copper (CuO) ; 
 the clear solution is taken out and set aside for crystalliza- 
 tion. 
 
 Second. The crude copper obtained from smelting the ore, 
 which contains about sixty per cent, of the metal, is treated 
 with sulphuric acid. This solution is evaporated in leaden 
 vessels and the clear liquid is put into copper pans to crystal- 
 lize. From the mother-liquor left from the crystals, metallic 
 copper is precipitated with iron, there being large quantities 
 of iron in this mother-liquor; it is then unfit for using again 
 to make sulphate of copper. This last method of preparing 
 blue vitriol is the least expensive, but it is not quite pure, 
 and, according to M. Herter's analysis, it contains about three 
 per cent, of sulphate of iron and 0.083 per cent, of metallic 
 nickel. 
 
 This salt is also prepared or manufactured in the same 
 manner as copperas (protosulphate of iron, SO^Fe) ; that is, 
 from the sulphurets of the metal. 
 
 A chemically pure sulphate of copper is made by heating the 
 
40G THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 metallic copper with highly concentrated oil of vitriol, the 
 copper becomes oxidized by a portion of the oxygen of the 
 acid and sulphurous acid escaping (SO^). Charcoal would 
 produce sulphurous acid if heated with sulphuric acid. 
 
 If the metallic copper was converted into the oxide of cop- 
 per (CuO), by being brought to a red heat lirst, it would 
 then require but half the quantity of sulphuric acid. In pre- 
 paring the base for the different pigments obtained from cop- 
 per, the sulphate of copper is very often used ; but it should 
 be nearly pure, or should not contain either the sulphate of 
 zinc or iron. 
 
 Sulphate of copper yields blue crystals (hence the name 
 blue vitriol) ; these crystals contain five parts of water; four 
 of them will be given off if they are heated to 212° Fahr., 
 and at this temperature they become white. Blue vitriol is 
 soluble in twice its weight of boiling water and four times its 
 weight of cold water. It is composed of — 
 
 Sulphuric acid, .... 32.14 
 Oxide of copper, .... 31.79 
 Water, 36.07 = 100 
 
 The crystals effloresce in a dry atmosphere and become a 
 white powder. Blue vitriol is insoluble in alcohol. Blue 
 vitriol in crystals, as received by dyers, has a rich, deep, clear 
 blue color and a strong metallic taste. It reddens blues 
 produced by vegetable dyes. It is soluble in four parts of 
 cold and in two parts of boiling water. When heated it first 
 melts in its water of crystallization and then dries and be- 
 comes white. If the heat is increased, it next undergoes the 
 igneous fusion, and finally, at a high temperature, loses its 
 acid, protoxide of copper (CuO) being left. 
 
 Sulphate of copper is decomposed by the alkaline carbon- 
 ates, and by borax, acetate, and subacetate of lead, acetate of 
 iron and chloride of lime ; it is also precipitated by all astrin- 
 gent vegetable decoctions. If it becomes very green upon 
 
THE AMERICAX DYER. ^ 407 
 
 the siiface, by beiii*^ exposed to the air, it contains sosqui- 
 oxide of iron (Fo.,()..). This oxide may likewise l)e detected 
 by ammonia, which will throw it down along with the oxide 
 of copper without taking it up when added in excess. 
 Sulphate of copper consists of — 
 
 One proportion of sulphuric acid, . . =40.00 
 One proportion of protoxide of copper, . =:39.75 
 Five proportions of water, . . . :=45.00=:124.75 
 
 Making its prime equivalent 124.75; but, according to 
 Berzelius, it is 124.7. 
 
 Chloride of copper (CuCl) is prepared by killing muriatic 
 acid with copper, this causing a double decomposition to take 
 place, the solution being of a green color ; this solution can 
 be crystallized, and the crystals are blue colored. 
 
 Nitrate of copper (oHNOa3Cu) is prepared in the same 
 manner as nitrate of iron ; that is, nitric acid is killed with 
 copper; the action wjll be the same with each of the metals. 
 Nitrate of copper, by evaporation, produces deep blue-colored 
 crystals ; the}'^ are deliquescent in the atmosphere and are 
 very soluble in water. 
 
 Acetate of CorPER, Verdigris (QHaOaCu). 
 
 This was formerly prepared by exposing sheets of copper 
 to the action of vinegar (acetic acid, C4O4H.,). This salt we 
 find in dark-green crystals, containing one part acid to two of 
 copper. The manner of preparing it at the present day, for 
 calico-printing and dyeing, is as follows : — 
 
 Take four pounds of blue vitriol, dissolve it in four quarts 
 of water ; then dissolve three pounds of white sugar of lead 
 in one quart of water ; mix these two solutions together ; let 
 it settle, and use the clear solution only. This should indi- 
 cate 18° Baume. The mixing of the lead and copper solu- 
 tions causes a double decomposition to take place, the result 
 being crystals, or crystallized verdigris ; the verdigris paste 
 
408 THE A3IERICAX DYER. 
 
 I 
 
 having a blue color, being a basic salt called French verdigris, 
 and is but up in leather bags and pressed into cakes. 
 
 YELLOW PKUSSIATE OF POTASH.— (Ferroctanide 
 
 OF Potassium, K^FeCye+SHgO). 
 This salt, in a technical point of view, is a very important 
 substance. It crystallizes in large lemon-colored prismatic- 
 shaped crystals. These crystals are not affected by exposure 
 to the atmosphere, neither are they poisonous ; they have a 
 sweetish-bitter taste ; they dissolve in four times their weight 
 of cold water, and twice their weight of boiling water ; but 
 they are insoluble in alcohol. They contain in 100 parts, — 
 
 Potassium, ...... 37.03 
 
 ^ ( Carbon, .... 17.04 
 
 Cyanogen < ^^ ' 
 
 -^ ^ ^Nitrogen, .... 19.89 
 
 Iron, : . 13.25 
 
 Water, 12.75 
 
 At.lOO° Fahr., the water is driven off. 
 
 This salt is prepared on a large scale by burning hoofs, 
 horns, hides, old woolen rags, and all such substances as 
 contain nitrogen, with carbonate of potash (KgCOg). The 
 quantity of the materials may be varied ; the relative propor- 
 tions are given by some manufacturers as one hundred 
 parts of carbonate of potassa (potash) to seventy-five parts of 
 the nitrogenous carbon. Runge gives as his method, on'e 
 hundred parts of carbonate of potassa, four hundred of cal- 
 cined (burnt) horn, and ten of iron-filings. As a general 
 practice these substances are burnt in a cast-iron cylinder or 
 a reverberatory furnace, before b6ing mixed with the carbonate 
 of potash ; but if these substances are used before being cal- 
 cined, they are mixed in the ratio of nine of the charcoal to 
 
THE AMEKICAN DYER. 409 
 
 one of the potash ; but if the substances are burned as above- 
 mentioned, one and a half parts of the charcoal are mixed with 
 one part of potash. 
 
 When the nitrogenous carbon (animal matters) is used 
 without the process of being previously charred, the furnace 
 is left open, so'that the materials can be occasionally stirred, 
 which allows the obnoxious gases to escape, after which the 
 furnace is closed and the heat is increased. The heat is con- 
 tinued for some fourteen hours, and at intervals of one hour 
 the furnace is opened and the materials are stirred. They 
 continue this stirring until no flame rises to the surface, and 
 the whole is reduced to a red, semi-fluid mass. 
 
 The whole mass is then scraped out of the furnace and 
 allowed to cool ; after cooling it is dissolved in water and the 
 solution filtered through cloth, and then evaporated to a proper 
 consistency ; coarse strings are now suspended throughout the 
 liquid ; upon these strings the crystals form, of a lemon-yellow 
 color. 
 
 The theory of the formation of yellow prussiate of potash is 
 as follows : " The carbonate and sulphate of potash, the nitrog- 
 enous coal and the iron re-acting upon each other, give rise 
 to the formation of sulphuret of potassium, which in its turn 
 converts the iron into sulphuret, while the nitrogen contained 
 in the charcoal unites, under the influence of potassium, with 
 the cyanogen of the carbon, which again in its turn combines 
 with the potassium, giving rise to the formation of cyauide of 
 potassium (KCN)." 
 
 "When the fused mass is treated with water, cyanide of 
 potassium (KCN) and sulphuret of iron (SFe) decompose 
 each other, the result being the formation of ferrocyanide 
 and sulphide of potassium, the sulphide remaining in the 
 mother-liquor." 
 
 Yellow prussiate of potash is employed for the preparation 
 of red cyanide or prussiate for making Berlin blue, and of 
 cyanide of potassium. It is used in calico-printing and cotton- 
 dyeing (seldom in woolen-dyeing) for producing blues (see 
 
 52 
 
410 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 recipes for cotton-yarn), and some brown-red colors, and for 
 the purpose of hardening iron, and as an ingredient in white 
 gunpowder, and for use in chemical laboratories. 
 
 Yellow prussiate crystallizes with three proportions of 
 water, but loses all its water of crystallization at 212° Fahr., 
 and becomes white. 
 
 Ferricyanide of Potassium, or Red Prussiate of Pot- 
 ash (KgFeCy). 
 This salt is prepared on a large scale, and is very exten- 
 ■ sively used in dyeing cottons and in calico-printing ; it is also 
 used to a great extent in the woolen dye-house. This salt 
 cr^'stallizes in prismatically-shaped ruby-red colored anhy- 
 drous crystals, and consists in 100 parts of — 
 
 Potassium, ..... 35.58 
 
 ^ C Carbon, . . . 21.63 
 
 Cyanogen < ^^. r.^ . . 
 
 ^ ^ ^Nitrogen, . . . 25.54 
 
 Iron, ■ 17.29 
 
 There are two methods for preparing this salt. One is : The 
 yellow prussiate is dissolved in water ; then the solution is 
 submitted to the action of chlorine gas, until a sample of the 
 solution will, when heated, show no precipitate if a per-salt 
 of iron is added to the solution ; after which it is evaporated 
 and then crystallized. Another method is to pulverize the 
 yellow prussiate and place it in casks, closed, so as to leave 
 only a small outlet, while the cask can by means of machinery 
 be slowly turned on its axis, so as to bring all the particles of 
 the prussiate in contact with the chlorine as it passes through 
 the cask. Sometimes the powdered yellow prussiate is placed 
 on shelves in a chamber, and into this chamber at the top chlo- 
 rine gas is admitted ; after the powdered prussiate has become 
 saturated with the gas (it is then still in a dry powder), it is 
 taken and dissolved in the smallest possible amount of water, 
 then this solution is allowed to crystallize ; the liquid left after 
 
THE AMEKICAN DYER. 411 
 
 crystallization contains chloride of potassium (KCl). The 
 powdered red prnssiate of potash is an orange-yellow color, 
 and if sulphuric acid is mixed with this powder it will deprive 
 it of its color, but by absorption of moisture it will turn back 
 to its color asfain. According to M. E. Reichart's investisa- 
 tions, bromine can be successfuUly used instead of chlorine for 
 the preparation of this salt. 
 
 Red prnssiate is soluble in the same amount of water that 
 the yellow prnssiate is. 
 
 BlCHR03IATE OF POTASSA — AciD ChROMATE, OR ChROME 
 
 (K,CrA). 
 
 This salt is prepared from yellow chromate, which is pro- 
 duced by the following method : — 
 
 "Chrome iron ore, after being ground and sifted, is mixed 
 with dried nitrate and carbonate of potash. This mixture is 
 put into a reverberating furnace, and a powerful heat applied. 
 It is stirred occasionally, and when perfectly calcined, the 
 mass is raked out and dissolved in water. It is then boiled 
 for some hours. After it has done boiling, it is allowed to 
 settle, and the solution is decanted; this is evaporated, and 
 leaves the yellow chromate of potash crystallized." The 
 chemical changes which take place are these: "First, the 
 decomposition of the nitre giving off oxygen, which combines 
 with the oxide of chromium, and forms chromic acid. This 
 acid then unites with the potash of the nitrate and of the car- 
 bonate, and this forms the yellow salt, which is soluble in 
 water. It contains soluble impurities, such as caustic potash, 
 silicate, and aluminate of potash ; these impurities are separ- 
 ated by the operation of boiling and crystallization." 
 
 "Bichromate is obtained from the yellow salt, described 
 above, by the addition of acetic and sulphuric acid to a con- 
 centrated solution of yellow chromate. This last named acid 
 is not well adapted for the purpose, as the sulphate of potash 
 formed by the snlphuric acid is very difficult to separate from 
 the chromate, and is a serious adulteration ; for which reason 
 
412 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 sulphuric acid is not now used as much as formerly. Acetic 
 acid is the best, and is now, as a general rule, employed." 
 
 "When acetic acid is used, there is just a sufficient quantity 
 of it added to combine with one-half of the potash contained 
 in the yellow chromate, which leaves two proportions of 
 chromic acid (H2Cr04), in union with the otlier half of the 
 potash, and may be thus expressed : — 
 
 2K2Cr04 
 
 Yellow cbrouiate. 
 
 K 
 
 Potash. 
 IQO3H3 
 
 Acetic acid. 
 
 K 
 
 Potash. 
 
 Bichromate of potash. 
 
 J 
 
 > Acetate of potash. 
 
 If sulphuric acid was used, and no acetic acid, it would be 
 expressed thus : — 
 
 2K2Cr04 
 
 + 
 
 H.SO, 
 
 Yellow chromate. 
 
 
 Sulphuric acid. 
 
 K^SO^ + 
 
 HoO 
 
 + KgCr^O; 
 
 Sul]>liate of ijotash. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Bichromate of potash, 
 
 When bichromate of potash has been prepared with sul- 
 phuric acid, it contains sulphate of potash to a great extent, 
 which is detrimental in its application as a mordant for colors 
 on wool or woolen fabrics. The sulphate of potassa can be 
 detected, b}^ dissolving a small quantity of bichromate in some 
 distilled water ; then add to the solution a very little of con- 
 centrated nitric acid, and then a few drops of either nitrate 
 or chloride of barium, which will throw down a white precip- 
 itate, if there is any sulphate of potash in the chrome. The 
 chloride of potassium can be detected by the above operation, 
 only substituting nitrate of silver in the place of the barium ; 
 the result will be a white precipitate. " When acetic acid 
 alone is used in a concentrated solution of yellow chromate. 
 
THE AMEKICAX DYER. 413 
 
 the bichromate that is formed does not have as much water as 
 will hold it in solution, therefore it is precipitated as an 
 orange-colored powder. This powder is collected carefully, 
 and dissolved and crystallized by slow evaporation." " Bi- 
 chromate is soluble in three times its weight of cold water, 
 and an equal weight of boiling water." A solution of chrome 
 is very caustic and poisonous. "When heated to redness, this 
 salt gives off oxygen, leaving the oxide of chromium and 
 neutral chromate of potash in the retort. 
 
 In the year 1820, M. Koechlin discovered the applicability 
 of bichromate of potash as a " discharge " for Turkey-red, 
 produced from madder (the coloring-matter of that color), a 
 discovery soon followed by others, the useful application of 
 bichromate for preparing the chrome-yellow and chrome- 
 orange in calico-printing, the chrome-black in dyeiuij wool, 
 the dischiirge for indigo-blue and the oxidation of catechu, 
 the bleaching of palm-oil and other fatty matters, the prepara- 
 tion of chromic oxid for green pigments for painting glass 
 and china, and for the preparation of vert Guigiiel, a peculiar 
 bydratcd oxide of chromium, obtained by heating one paj't of 
 bichromate of potash, and three parts of crystallized boric 
 acid, which is nsed as a pigment in calico-printing." 
 
 As might be expected, these discoveries gave an impulse to 
 the preparation of the different chromates of potassa which 
 have of late years found useful applications in extracting 
 colors from coal-tar, and also in the manufacturing of chlorine 
 gas. 
 
 According to Mr. J. Persoz, there is, America excepted, 
 but five manufactories of the chromates of potassa; viz., two 
 in Scotland, one in France, one in Norway, and one in Russia ; 
 and the total production of these works in 18G9 amounted to 
 60,000 cwt. 
 
 In order to test for the strength and quality of bichromate 
 of potash : "Take one hundred and sixty-five grains of pure 
 nitrate of lead, and dissolve it in two hundred measures of 
 water. This should precipitate seventy-four grains of bichro- 
 
414 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 mate (if it is pure), so that all that is required, is to dissolve 
 the chrome, then add the nitrate of lead as long as any pre- 
 cipitation takes place. If all the lead is required, the chrome 
 is good ; but every three graduations of the lead solution left, 
 after precipitating the chrome, will represent about one per 
 cent, of impurity of the bichromate." 
 
 The adulterations in chrome for the last few years, have 
 been muriate of soda (salt). 
 
 . PROTOSULPHATE OF IRON, OR COPPERAS 
 
 ( = FeOS03+7HO). 
 This salt is met with in the trade in the form of green- 
 colored crystals, having an inky, astringent taste, and by 
 exposure to a dry atmosphere, the crystals will elttoresce, 
 and be converted into a white powder. Dissolve this pow- 
 der in water again, and we find it to contain both the per- 
 sulphate and protosulphate of iron, or the basic sulphate of 
 peroxide of iron. One hundred parts of the chemically-pure 
 copperas consists of — 
 
 Sulphuric acid, .... 28.77 
 Protoxide of iron, .... 25.89 
 Water, 45.34=100 
 
 This substance is manufactured in various ways, and from 
 various substances. The original method was by lixiviation 
 of iron pjrites, or iron containing minerals. These minerals 
 are collected and placed in layers on inclined platforms ; then 
 water is sprinkled upon these layers from time to time. As 
 this water drains through the pyrites, they become soluble, 
 and part of their substance is carried off, and is slowly oxid- 
 ized by atmospheric agency. The water, after draining 
 through, is received into stone cisterns, and taken from the 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 415 
 
 cisterns to the evapoviiting-pans, Avhere it crystallizes. Cop- 
 peras is also obtained as a by-product of alum-nianufacture, 
 by evaporating the mother-liquor containing iron. The bron'ii 
 sulphuric acid, or chamber-acid, as it is called, also such 
 waste sulphuric-acid li(]nids as are obtained in the oil and 
 petroleum refining, ai-e sometimes used as solvents for scrap- 
 iron to prepare copperas. It can be made by boiling the tine 
 pulverized puddling, and iron-refining slags with sulphuric 
 acid. 
 
 The English copperas is made from iron pyrites, as already 
 described. These iron pyrites are a bisulphuret of iron 
 (FeS.j), and contain, in one hundred parts, forty-eight parts* 
 of iron, and fifty-two parts of sulphur. These pyrites, when 
 obtained from the older geological formations, are subject to 
 spontaneous decomposition when exposed to moisture and the 
 atmosphere, and the sulphur which they contain combines 
 with the oxygen of the atmosphere, and thus forms sulphur- 
 ous acid (SOo), and will again, in the presence of oxide of 
 iron and water, take up more oxygen, and then it is sulphuric 
 acid, which, in turn, coml)ines with the iron, forming, by 
 crystallizing it, copperas. 
 
 The pyrites are collected and made into large heaps, and 
 set on tire, in the same manner as they do with the alum- 
 shale in the process of preparing it for the manufacture of 
 alum. This roasting-process creates a quick oxidation of the 
 sulphur, and the result is the formation of the sulphate of 
 iron. This sulphate is then dissolved, by allowing water to 
 pass through these heaps, and collected into tanks. In this 
 solution there is always an excess of sulphur over the iron. 
 There is also in it a per-salt of iron, with an excess of acid, 
 and, very often, small quantities of copper, which would be 
 very deleterious to the copperas. In order to get rid of the 
 copper, a quantity of old rusty iron is thrown into the solu- 
 tion, wliich will precipitate tlie copper, and, at the same time, 
 take up the excess of acid from the solution. It also reduces 
 all the persulphate that it contains into the state of protosul- 
 
416 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 phate. After this reaction has taken place, the solution is 
 then evaporated and crystallized. But this adding old iron 
 to obtain the changes above described not being adapted in 
 all cases, is the reason we have the different varieties of cop- 
 peras in the trade. The quality of the copperas is judged of, 
 by most dyers, by its color, and the poorest is sometimes 
 made to appear better than it really is by sprinkling upon it 
 some lime, or a solution of salt, in order to give it a dark 
 tint, which deceives the eye, but does not improve its quality 
 in the least. 
 
 There is in the market a number of brands of copperas, — 
 such as the English, Vermont, Keystone, and the Pillar cop- 
 peras. The English is superior to the Vermont or Keystone, 
 but I do not think it superior to the Pillar, as the Pillar is the 
 very best that I have used, and, according to analysis, it is 
 nearer to the chemically pure, in regard to the amount of sul- 
 phate of iron it contains, than either of the others. 
 
 M. Bansdorff states that there are three kinds, or varieties, 
 of copperas, and classes them as the greenish-blue, dirty- 
 green, and emerald-green, — the first being formed from an 
 acid solution, free from the peroxide of iron; the second, 
 from a neutral solution ; and the last, from a solution largely 
 impregnated with the peroxide. 
 
 M. Dumas states that these variations are the formation of 
 a double salt of the proto and per sulphate during the decom- 
 position of the pyrites. Copperas that is crystallized from a 
 neutral solution, when kept for any length of time, will have 
 a rusty appearance, which is caused by the absorption of 
 oxygen. In the trade, there are two varieties mostly met 
 with. They are the dark colored, and the very light green. 
 The dark colored is better adapted for saddening purposes 
 than the light green, but the latter is the best to use in the 
 copperas-vat ; the Keystone copperas being a light green, and 
 containing a large amount of water of crystallization, would 
 be the best for the copperas-vat. 
 
 The difference between the keystone, or light-green, watery- 
 
THE AMEllICAN DYER. 417 
 
 colored copperas, and the dark-green colored, hns been found 
 to be .abont fourteen per cent, in favor of the dark-cohjred ; 
 or one hundred pounds of the dark-colored is equal to one 
 hundred and fourteen pounds of the light green. As this 
 light-green watery copperas, according to Bransdorff, is crys- 
 tallized from an acid solution, we may infer that the combin- 
 ing of the extra proportion which it contains with the crystals, 
 is owing to a portion of the mother-liquor being mechanically 
 combined with the crystals, but it does not form an essential 
 ino-redient in the compositi(m of the copperas ; and should the 
 copperas be crystallized from the sulphate of alumina con- 
 tained in the solution, we find that the excess of acid will be 
 more abundant. The presence of alumina in copperas can be 
 detected by dissolving some of the copperas in water, and 
 then boiling it. Then add a few drops of nitric acid to it, so as 
 to deoxidize the iron contained in the solution ; and if it con- 
 tains alumina, the soluti(m will be of a clear amber-color. 
 Then to the solution add caustic potash to excess, or until the 
 solution becomes very alkaline. Now boil it for thirty min- 
 utes, and filter it, and all the peroxide of iron will be found 
 upon the filter, and the solution will contain all the alumina. 
 Now add a little ammonia to the filtered solution. The result 
 will be a flocculent white precipitation, if the copperas contains 
 any alumina. If you should add aqua ammonia to the per- 
 oxide of iron which was left upon the filter, the ammonia, 
 after passing through the filter, will be a blue color if the iron 
 on the filter contained any copper. But if you wish to make 
 a test for copper, it is best to do it separately, which is done 
 thus : Dissolve the copperas as described above ; then add a 
 little nitric acid to peroxidize it. Add ammonia instead of 
 caustic potash. Then filter, and the solution will be blue if 
 there is the slightest trace of copper in the copperas. Cop- 
 peras can be made' by any dyer very easily, by diluting sul- 
 phuric acid with four parts of water, and adding iron scraps to , 
 it. The iron will soon dissolve, causing a rapid evolution of 
 hydrogen gas. After the acid has eaten up all the iron it 
 53 
 
418 
 
 THE AJIERICAX DTEK. 
 
 can, then the solution must be evaporated by heat until you 
 perceive a thin skin upon the solution. Then set it away in 
 some cool place, and in a short time there will be formed a 
 quantit}' of green-colored crystals of sulphate of iron, and they 
 contain about seven proportions of water ; or, in other words, 
 these crystals contain, in 100 parts, — 
 
 Sulphate of iron. 
 Water, 
 
 FeS04 54.05, 
 H2O 45.05 = 100. 
 
 When the crystals are heated to 242° F., they will part 
 with all this water, with the exception of about ten per cent., 
 and will lose their green color, and become white, as stated 
 previously. 
 
 Copperas is very soluble in water. Cold water dissolves 
 one-half its own weight ; and one gallon of boiling water will 
 dissolve thirty pounds of it. 
 
 The following is the composition of copperas in 100 parts : — 
 
 
 Engllsb. 
 
 ^ Chemical ' „.„ 
 Vermont. Pure. Pillar. 
 
 Sulphuric acid, . 
 Protoxide of iron, 
 Peroxide of iron, 
 Water, .... 
 Oxide of copper, 
 
 23.29 
 
 21.83 
 
 1.18 
 
 53.04 
 
 30.54 
 23.49 
 
 1.28 
 43.18 
 
 1.51 
 
 28.77 
 25.89 
 
 45.34 
 
 29.14 
 
 25.74 
 
 1.07 
 
 44.05 
 
 A trace. 
 
 
 100. 
 
 100. 
 
 100. 
 
 100. 
 
 Copperas is employed for other purposes besides use as a 
 mordant for dyeing and calico-printing. It is used as a disin- 
 fectant, for making ink, for the deoxidation of indigo (in the 
 copperas-vat), in gas-purifying, in the precipitation of gold 
 from its solutions, in the preparation of Prussian blue, in the 
 manufacture of fuming (Nordhausen) sulphuric acid ; also for 
 a host of other purposes. 
 
 Copperas consists of one equivalent of sulphuric acid = 40, 
 
THE AMEEICAX DYER. 419 
 
 one of protoxide = 36, and seven of water = 63, makino- its 
 prime equivalent 139, and its formula is FeCSOg-j-THO, but 
 often written thus, SOgFe, or FeSOg. 
 
 SODA, OR SODIUM CARBONATE (Na^COg). 
 
 Its composition in 100 parts is 58| parts soda, 41^ parts of 
 carbonic acid; otherwise, 58.5 soda, 41.5 carbonic acid. 
 
 Soda was not distinguished from potash until near the mid- 
 dle of the eighteenth century, when their different characters 
 were recognized. 
 
 Before that period the potash was called the vegetable and 
 the soda the mineral alkali. 
 
 In 1807, Sir H. Davy demonstrated that soda, as well as 
 potash, was the oxide of a metal which he named sodium. 
 The soda commonly used is derived from the three followinf^ 
 named sources ; 
 
 First. Natural or native soda. 
 
 Second. From plants. 
 
 Third. Chemical productions. 
 
 We will notice only the second and third sources from 
 which we obtain soda. 
 
 Soda from Plants. 
 
 It has been found that the ash from plants, especially 
 such as are grown at a considerable distance from the ocean, 
 contains a large amount of carbonate of potash ; also, that 
 plants which grow near the seashore, and in the localities 
 known as salt steppes, yield an ash that contains more or 
 less soda, in the living plant combined with sulphuric and 
 organic acids, and which, under the influence of the carbonate 
 of lime (CaCog), is, during the ignition or burning of the 
 plant, converted into carbonate of soda. 
 
 The plants from which soda is prepared are called salsola, 
 
420 THE AMERICAN DYEE. 
 
 ati'tjylex, salicornia and keJj). The process of obtaining soda 
 from these phints consists simply in burning them in holes or 
 pits made in the sand near the seashore. The heat of the burn- 
 ing plant becomes so intense that it causes the ashes to flux, 
 so that after it becomes cold the substance will form into a 
 hard, slag-like mass, which is termed crude soda or soda-ash, 
 and the amount of carbonate of soda that it contains will vary 
 from live to twenty-five per cent. 
 
 From these ditierent plants, and the methods adopted to 
 obtain the soda, we find the followinij kinds: 
 
 First. The barilla from Alicante, Malaga, the Canary 
 Islands, and the barilla soda from the Spanish coast, con- 
 tains, on the average, from twenty to thirty per cent, of 
 carbonate of soda. 
 
 Second. Salicor, or soda from Narbonne, which is obtained 
 by burning the plant saJicornia, this plant being cultivated 
 purposely, and gathered when the seed has become rii)e. 
 The soda from this plant contains about fourteen per cent, of 
 carbonate of soda. 
 
 Soda Prepared by Chemical Processes. 
 
 One method of obtaining soda by chemical means is as 
 follows : A furnace or mutfle is well heated, then eight or 
 ten hundred pounds of salt is thrown in, to which is added 
 oil of vitriol : the quantity of acid is regulated so as to leave 
 from one to three per cent, undecomposed, in order to obtain 
 a perfectly neutral sulphate. One hundred parts of salt re- 
 quire for their complete decomposition ninety-five parts of 
 acid, at 60° Baume=rl.7 specific gravity, or ope hundred and 
 four parts of an acid, at 55° Baume=:l.G2 specific gravity. 
 
 This mixture of salt and acid is occasionally well stirred, 
 and after the lapse of two or three hours it will have become 
 suificicMitly dry to rake over into an oven made of brick-work, 
 attached to the furnace ; this oven is kept at a bright heat, in 
 order to expel the muriatic acid gas ; it is then called sulphate 
 of soda (NaO,SO3-hl011O). The sulphate of soda is then 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 421 
 
 recluced to powder, and then mixed with air equal weight of 
 chalk, and half its weight of coal, which is well ground and 
 sifted. This mixture is again put into a hot reverheratory 
 furnace, and frequently stirred, until it is uniformly heated ; 
 in an hour it will fuse; it is. then well stirred for a few 
 minutes, and then drawn out into a cast-iron trough, where 
 it cools and solidifies ; this is called ball soda, and contains 
 about thirty per cent of alkali. This ball soda is usually ex- 
 posed to the action of the air for at least five days, so that it 
 may become more porous, and hence be more readily acted 
 upon by the water used to separate it from the insoluble mat- 
 ters, which is accomplished by breaking up the cake, and 
 putting it into vats, and covering it with tepid water. 
 
 In about four hours the liquor is drawn oflf at the bottom, 
 then more Avarm water is added and drawn off again, and so 
 on for five or six times, which extracts all the soluble matters 
 from the cake. These wash liquors are all put together, and 
 boiled down to a dryness that forms a salt of carbonate of soda 
 (NaOjCOg), which contains a little caustic soda and sulphuret 
 of sodium. To get rid of the sulphuret, they mix the salt 
 with about one-third of its bulk of sawdust, then expose it 
 to a low heat in another furnace for a few hours, which con- 
 verts the caustic soda into a carbonate that carries off the 
 sulphur. The product of this contains nearly fifty per cent, 
 of alkali, and produces the best 
 
 Soda Ash. 
 A plan for the direct conversion of common salt into 
 soda, and then again into soda-ash, has lou": been sought 
 for, but never carried into practice successfully. It was 
 found that if a concentrated solution of bicarbonate of ammo- 
 nia is mixed with strong brine, or if we pulverize the bicar- 
 bonate of ammonia and stir it through a concentrated solu- 
 tion of common salt, and leave this mixture to stand, the 
 result will be, after some hours, the bicarbonate of soda will 
 
422 THE A^IERICAlSr DYER. 
 
 be deposited in a crystalline state, and the supernatant liquor 
 will be a solution of sal-ammoniac (NH3HCI). 
 
 The first operation consists in the action of ammonia and 
 carbonic acid upon the concentrated salt solution (or brine). 
 To one hundred parts of water, ihirty-two parts of common 
 salt, nine parts of ammonia, and carbonic acid in excess are 
 added. The next step is the separation of the bicarbonate of 
 soda, which is brought about by a centrifugal machine. The 
 third stage is the calcination of the bicarbonate of soda, in 
 cylindrical iron vessels, and the carbonic acid gas which is 
 given is collected. 
 
 The fourth and fifth operations are for the recovery of the 
 carbonic acid and ammonia from the liquid that drained from 
 the bicarbonate of soda while it was in the centrifugal ma- 
 chine. These drainings are heated in a boiler. The efi^ect 
 will be the escape of the ammonia and carbonic gas, which is 
 conducted to a cylinder filled with coke, through which a cold 
 aqueous solution of carbonate of ammonia trickles, which 
 causes the condensation of the ammonia, the carbonic acid 
 escaping into a gas-holder. 
 
 The above plan has, however, not been successfully carried 
 into practice. 
 
 Owing to the various circumstances and methods of manu- 
 facturing soda-ash, its percentage we find very uncertain ; it 
 will vary from forty to fifty per cent. It is generally priced 
 according to the percentage of alkali that it contains. We 
 might give a method for ascertaining the percentage, but as 
 it requires a great deal of time and trouble, and it not being 
 very essential to woolen-dyers, for the purposes for which 
 they use it, it is of no consequence what per cent, of alkali 
 it contains. 
 
 The methods for testing soda-ash might be of some benefit 
 to dealers in it, but it is doubtful, to my mind, if they had the 
 plan of testing it, whether they would ever take the trouble 
 to perform the operation. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 423 
 
 Soda-ash is soluble in twice its weight of cold water, and 
 an equal weight of boiling water. 
 Its composition is — 
 
 Carbonic acid, ..... 15.3 
 
 Soda, 22.0 
 
 Water, 62.7 = 100 
 
 In a dry atmosphere its water of crystallization evaporates, 
 and the salt falls into a powder ; one pound of this powder is 
 equal in strength to two pounds of the crystals. If it is 
 boiled with quicklime it will be deprived of its carbonic acid ; 
 then evaporate it to dryness, and it wHl be a pure soda ; and 
 its combining proportion with an acid is four. 
 
 A solution of soda-ash, brought to the boiling point, will 
 attain 266° Fahr. 
 
 Carbonate of Soda (NajCOg). 
 This salt is prepared by first dissolving soda-ash in water ; 
 the clear solution is then boiled until a pellicle appears upon 
 the surface. The liquor is then run into shallow cast-iron 
 troughs and allowed to cool, and as it cools it crystallizes. 
 It is allowed to stand for five or six days ; the mother-liquor 
 is then drawn off, the crystals are drained, and then it is 
 broken up and sent to the market. The mother-liquor is 
 utilized by evaporating it to dryness, which makes a very 
 impure soda-ash, containing not over thirty per cent, of 
 alkali. This soda-ash is sold to soap-manufacturers. 
 
 Crystallized Carbonate of Soda (NajCOg+lOHO). 
 
 This salt is carbonate of soda, with about six per cent, of 
 water, but it is a very pure salt. When these crystals are 
 exposed to a dry atmosphere, they lose a portion of their 
 water, and they will have a chalky-white appearance ; and if 
 exposed to heat, they will melt in their water of crystalliza- 
 tion. 
 
424 THE AMERICAN DYEK. 
 
 The composition of this soda is us follows, in one huudred 
 parts by weight : 
 
 Water, . ... . . .62.76 
 
 Carbonic acid, . . . . . 15.43 
 
 Caustic soda, 21.81 = 100 
 
 "We see by the above that more than three-fifths of their 
 ■weight is water. 
 
 The carbonate of soda sold for domestic uses is crystallized 
 soda, deprived of its water of crystallization. 
 
 Caustic Soda, or Sodium Hydroxide (XaO,HO). 
 This substance is met with in the market as a highly con- 
 centrated solution, or, more frequently, as a solid mass, being 
 fused hydrate of soda, consisting, in one hundred parts, 
 seventy-seven and one-half parts of soda and twenty-two and 
 one-half parts of water. For a number of years a moder- 
 ately strong solution of caustic soda was made by using caus- 
 tic lime, with a solution of carbonate of soda. Dale was the 
 first one to use this solution, instead of water, in hi.s boilers, 
 and l)y this plan concentrated the lye to a specific gravity of 
 1.24 to 1.25 ; after which he evaporated the ]ye to a specific 
 gravity of 1.9. At this point it solidities on cooling. At 
 the present time caustic soda is not prepared with lime, but 
 is prepared by simply increasing the quantity of small coal 
 to the mixture of sulphate and chalk, the crude soda being at 
 once lixiviated with water at 50^ Fahr. After the liquor has 
 cleared, it is rapidly concentrated to 1.5 specific gravity, at 
 ■which point the carbonate, sulphate, and chloride of sodium 
 are deposited ; the liquor now assumes a brick-red color, due 
 to the peculiar compound of double sulphuret of sodium and 
 sulphuret of iron. The lye is next strongl}' heated in large 
 cast-iron cauldrons ; there is then added twenty-five pounds 
 of Chili saltpetre for every hundred pounds of caustic soda 
 required. By this operation the nitrate of soda reacts upon 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 425 
 
 the sulpluiret of sodium and the cyanide of sodium present, 
 which causes an evohition of ammouia and nitfo'»-en. In 
 England caustic soda of a very pure character is prepared 
 from sodium, by carefully oxidizing the metal (sodium) with 
 pure water in bright iron or silver vessels. 
 
 According to Dr. Dalton's researches, a caustic soda of the 
 following specific gravities contains percentages of caustic- 
 soda (NaHO) : — 
 
 Speciflc Gravity. 
 
 Caustic Soda (NaHO). 
 
 Specific Gravity. 
 
 Caustio Soda (NaHO). 
 
 2.00 
 
 77.8 
 
 1.40 
 
 29.0 
 
 1.85 
 
 63.G 
 
 1.36 
 
 26.0 
 
 1.72 
 
 53.0 
 
 1.32 
 
 23.0 
 
 1.63 
 
 46.6 
 
 1.29 
 
 19.0 
 
 1.56 
 
 41.2 
 
 1.23 
 
 16.0 
 
 1.50 
 
 86.8 
 
 1.18 
 
 13.0 
 
 1.47 
 
 3-J.O 
 
 1.12 
 
 9.0 
 
 1.44 
 
 31.0 
 
 1.06 
 
 4.7 
 
 Caustic soda is used for soap-making, paraffine, and petro- 
 leum refining, and for the preparation of silicate of soda ; also 
 for cotton-dyeing and calico-printing. 
 
 Sulphate of Soda (NaOSOg-f-lOHO) Crystallized. 
 
 Sulphate of soda, or Glauber's salt, consists, in one hun- 
 dred parts, of 19.3 of soda, 24.7 of sulphuric acid, and 56 of 
 water. The formula 4s, NaOSO34-10HO. The formula for 
 the anhydrous sulphate of soda is, NaaSO^, and consists, in 
 one hundred parts: soda, 43.6; sulphuric acid, 56.4. It is 
 prepared by decomposing common salt (XaCl) with sulphuric 
 acid (H2SO4) ; if prepared thus it contains about one-third 
 its weight of salt. 
 
 There are a number of methods used to prepare this sub- 
 stance. 
 
 First. The double decomposition of common salt and sul- 
 phate of magnesia from the mother-liquor of sea-water, or of 
 
 54 
 
426 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 salines, when exposed to a low temperature, either natural in 
 water or artificially by the assistance of Carre's ice-making 
 machine. 
 
 Second. Langmaid's process of roasting sulphuret of iron 
 or copper with common salt. 
 
 Third. Calcination of kieserite or magnesian sulphate with 
 common salt. 
 
 Fourth. . As a by-product of paraffine and petroleum refin- 
 ing. 
 
 The sulphate of soda of the alkali works contains, on an 
 average, ninety to ninety-five per cent, of the pure salt, the 
 remainder being chiefly salt. 
 
 Soda saturated with sulphuric acid makes the best sulphate 
 of soda, and crystallizes very rapidly and easily. This salt is 
 used more extensively in the woolen dye-house than formerly. 
 
 Sulphate of soda is a colorless salt, possessing a cooling, 
 nauseous, bitter taste, and crystallizes easily and rapidly in 
 six-sided prisms. When it has been made but a short time 
 it is very transparent, but by exposure to the atmosphere it 
 eflloresces, and the crystals become covered with an opaque 
 white powder ; by long exposure it undergoes a complete 
 efflorescence and falls into powder, with the loss of more than 
 half its weight. Sulphate of soda is soluble in three times its 
 weight of cold water, and in an equal weight of boiling water, 
 but it is insoluble in alcohol. A supersaturated solution of 
 it will remain without crystallizing at ordinary temperatures, 
 althouorh containing several times the 'weight of the salt that 
 would be dissolved at the same degree of heat {Gay Lussac). 
 But we find that the solution will instantly form into a crys- 
 talline mass if we add to it a small piece of the crystals of 
 the same salt, or other substance that have been exposed to 
 the air, or upon abruptly placing it in contact with the air. 
 M. D. Gernez appears to have proved that in each instance 
 the cause of crystallization is the same ; namely, sulphate of 
 soda containing ten equivalents of water, and, where the crystal 
 itself is not added, the result is owing to sulphate of soda ex- 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 427 
 
 isting in the air. When sulphate of soda is subjected to heat 
 it dissolves in its water of crystallization, then dries, and 
 afterwards, by the application of a red heat, it melts and 
 loses fifty-Hve and a half per cent, of its weight. Occasion- 
 ally it contains an excess of acid or alkali, which may be 
 detected by litmus or tumeric paper. 
 
 Sulphate of soda consists of one equivalent of sulphuric 
 acid, one of soda, and ten of water; its prime equivalent 
 is 161.3. Thus — 
 
 One equivalent of sulphuric acid is . =40.0 
 One equivalent of soda is . . i=31.3 
 
 Ten equivalents of water is . . =90.0:=161.3 
 
 With respect to the solubility of soda, — 
 
 100 parts of water at 176° F., dissolve 78 parts of caustic soda. 
 
 " " 158° " 72 " " 
 
 ♦♦ " 131° " 64 
 
 " " 90° . " 46 " " 
 
 *t " 62° *' 41 '♦ " 
 
 The composition of crude soda, or ball soda is, — 
 
 Carbonate of soda (NAoCOg), . . . 45 
 
 Sulphuret of calcium (2CaCl2), . . 30 
 
 Caustic lime, ...... 10 
 
 Carbonate of lime (CaCOg), ... 5 
 
 Foreign substances, . . . . 10 = 100 
 
 Composition of soda containing caustic soda : 
 
 Moisture, 
 Insoluble matter, 
 Chloride of sodium (NaCl), 
 Sulphate of soda (NajSO^), 
 Carbonate of soda (NajCog) 
 Caustic soda (NaHO) 
 
 2.10 
 0.12 
 4.32 
 8.80 
 82.47 
 2.11 = 100.00 
 
428 THE AMEKICAX DYER. 
 
 Composition of refined soda : 
 
 Moisture, 1.00 
 
 Insoluble matters, .... - 
 
 Chloride of sodium (NaCl), . . 2.11 
 
 Sulphate of soda (NaoSO^), . . 1.50 
 
 Carbonate of soda (Xa^COa), . . 95.39 = 100.00 
 
 One hundred parts of water at 175^ Fahr., will dissolve 
 seventy-five parts of soda. 
 
 St ANN ATE OF SODA. 
 
 This salt is now used to a large extent in cotton-dyeing and 
 calico-printing, but not often used in wool-dyeing except in 
 some cases as a mordant or preparation for some of the ani- 
 line dyes, when they are required to resist the fulling or 
 scouring process. 
 
 Stannate of soda is prepared in various ways — sometimes 
 by fusing tin-ores with caustic soda, and then lixiviating this 
 melted mass with water, or by boiling soda-lye with litharge 
 and metallic tin, the result being the formation of stannate of 
 soda and metallic lead. 
 
 Dr. Hoficly modifies the above process by digesting litharge 
 with soda-lye, at about twenty-two per cent., in a metallic ves- 
 sel ; he thus obtains a solution of plumbate of soda, into which 
 he puts granulated or feathered tin, and applies heat. 
 
 There has been presented a salt for calico-printing, under 
 the name of stanno-arsenite of soda. It consists of a combina- 
 tion of arsenic, soda, and protoxide of tin. 
 
 Sometimes a stannite of soda is prepared by dissolving 
 crj'stals of tin in water containing an excess of caustic soda, 
 but this is a very unstable preparation, and is neither fit for 
 dyeing or calico-printing. 
 
ROLLINS & ASHLEY, 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OK 
 
 AND 
 
 BRADFORD WOOL OIL, 
 
 79 BEDFORD ST., .... BOSTON. 
 
 As a substitute for Tartar, Ashley's Tartarene has no eqnal in the market. 
 It has been thoroughly tested, and is now in successful use in many of the 
 most iJrominent mills in the country. It is fully fifty per cent, cheaper than 
 Tartar, one pound to one pound and a quarter being equal to two pounds 
 of the best Half Eef'd or Gray Tartar, and from four to eight pounds Red 
 Tartar. 
 
 C^ Order a Barrel. If it does not prove to be cheaper than Tartar, 
 it can be returned, and we will make no charge for what you use in giving 
 it a trial. 
 
 R. Pv. STREET & CO., 
 
 .A. C3- E IT T S, 
 
 We guarantee our Wool Oil equal to any and superior to many of the 
 Wool Oils in the market. Will saponify as well as the best Lard Oil ; wash 
 out of the goods easier, and leave no bad odor. 
 
 No danger of spontaneous combustion where this 
 Oil is used. 
 
ffalple Color anJ Cleiiiical Works, 
 
 HENRY D. DUPEE, Proprietor, 
 
 UANDFACTDRER AND IMPORTER OF 
 
 DYESTUFFS & CHEMICALS, 
 
 JOHN SHAW, Jr. DAVID TURPIE. 
 
 OFFICE AND STORE, 79 KILBY ST., BOSTON. 
 
 MEmTEM 
 
 WALPOLB EXCELSIOR TANNIN. 
 
 An article superior to Sumac for Aniline Mordant on Cotton. 
 
 WALPOLE BLACK. 
 
 WALPOLE BLUE MORDANT. 
 
 WALPOLE OXYDIZING LIQUOR. 
 
 A aubstitute for Bichromate Potash for Cutch Browns, &c. 
 BLACK BURLING INKS. 
 
 WALPOLE INK. 
 
 For Correspondence, Copying, and Book-keeping. 
 
 VANADIUM. 
 
 CHLORIDE, OXIDE, AND , SULPHIDE, 
 
 For Aniline Black. 
 
 VANADITE OP AMMONIA, 
 For Catechu Brown. 
 
 ANILINES, ALL COLORS, 
 
 At Manufacturers' prices. 
 49~ Samples and full information on application. 
 
 WALPOLE TARTAR SUBSTITUTE. 
 
 No. 1 for Scarlet ; No. 2 for Cassimeres. 
 
 WALPOLB BARK LIQUORS AND EXTRACTS. 
 WALPOLE AURANTINE AND FLA VINE. 
 
 WALPOLE OXY-MURIATE OF ANTIMONY. 
 WALPOLE NITRATE IRON. 
 
 An especially pure article. 
 
 WALPOLE EXTRACT SUMAC. 
 
 JACQUARD BOARDS, ALL SIZES, 15c. lb. 
 PRESS BOARDS, ALL SIZES. 
 
 nr We are the pioneer makers of Extract of Sumac. 
 
Part Third. 
 
 ALPHABETICAL TABLE OF ELEMENTS, 
 THEIE SYMBOLS, ETC. ; 
 
 COAL-TAR COLORS; 
 
 HISTORY OF COAL-TAR COLORS; RESULT 
 OF IMPROVEMENTS, ETC. 
 
432 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 TABLE OF ELExMENTS, ETC. 
 
 HYDROMETERS. 
 
 Baiime's and Twnddle's hydrometers are universally used 
 in print-works, but Twaddle's is the standard in dye-houses, 
 which is an arbitrary scale. Baume's hydrometer is com- 
 monly used l)y apothecaries ; it is made like other hydrometers 
 as regards the form. The one used for alcohol is graduated 
 by loading it, until it sinks to the bottom of the stem or 
 straight part (which is marked 0, zero), in a solution com- 
 posed of one part of common salt and nine parts of water ; it 
 is then put into^ water, and the place to which it sinks is 
 marked 10° of the scale, and from this the rest of the scale is 
 marked. For hydrometers to use for liquids which are 
 heavier than water, it is loaded until it will sink in distilled 
 water to the top of the stem; it is then put into a solution 
 made of fifteen parts of salt and eighty-five parts of water, 
 and the place to which it sinks in this solution is marked 15°, 
 and the scale is divided off from that each wa}'. ' 
 
 There are hydrometers made especially for acids, saline 
 solutions, and for syrups. The hydrometers which are im- 
 ported are so carelessly made that it is very difficult to find 
 two that will agree, and little dependence is to be placed on 
 their accuracy. The hydrometers used by physicians and 
 apothecaries are manufactured by W. H. Pile, Philadelphia, 
 and can be relied upon for their accuracy. 
 
 The following table will show the corresponding degrees of 
 Baume's and Twaddle's hydrometers sufficiently accurate for 
 all practical purposes. The degrees on Baume's scale are 
 very empirical, but Twaddle's hydrometers, we find, are based 
 upon the liquid's specific gravity. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 433 
 
 In order to find the specific gravity of a fluid by Twaddle's 
 hydrometer, we multiply the degrees given on the scale by 
 five and add one thousand, then point off three figures as 
 decimals ; thus, suppose nitric acid to indicate 64°, which is the 
 average strength, we multiply by five times 64 = 320 ; now 
 add the 1,000 = 1,320,, being the specific gravity of nitric 
 acid at 64° strength ; and to find the degree of Twaddle cor- 
 responding to any specific gravity, we divide the decimal part 
 of the specific gravity ; thus the decimal part of the above 
 specific gravity is three hundred and twenty, and five in three 
 hundred and twenty goes sixty-four times, the degrees of 
 Twaddle's hydrometer. 
 
 Degrees 
 
 Degrees 
 
 Specific 
 
 Degrees 
 
 Degrees 
 
 Specific 
 
 Twaddle. 
 
 Baume. 
 
 Gravity 
 
 Twaddle. 
 
 Baume. 
 
 Gravity. 
 
 1, . 
 
 1 
 
 1.007 
 
 50, . 
 
 ' 29 
 
 1.252 
 
 3, . 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 1.014 
 
 52, 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 1.256 
 
 4, . 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 1.022 
 
 55,- 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 1.260 
 
 6, . 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 1.029 
 
 67, 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 1.264 
 
 7, . 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 1.036 
 
 59, 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 1.268 
 
 9, . 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 1.044 
 
 62, 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 1.309 
 
 10, . 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 1.052 
 
 64, 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 1.321 
 
 12, . 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 1.060 
 
 67, 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 1.334 
 
 13, . 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 1.067 
 
 69, 
 
 
 
 37 
 
 1.346 
 
 15, . 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 1.075 
 
 72, 
 
 
 
 38 
 
 1.359 
 
 17, . 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 1.083 • 
 
 74, 
 
 
 
 39 
 
 1.372 
 
 18, . 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 1.091 
 
 77, 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 1.384 
 
 20, . 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 1.100 
 
 80, 
 
 
 
 41 
 
 1.398 
 
 22, . 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 1.108 
 
 82, 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 1.412 
 
 23, . 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 1.116 
 
 85, 
 
 
 
 43 
 
 1.426 
 
 25, . 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 1.125 
 
 88, 
 
 
 
 44 
 
 1.440 
 
 27, . 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 1.134 
 
 91, 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 1.454 
 
 29, . 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 1.143 
 
 94, 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 1.470 
 
 30, . 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 1.152 
 
 97, 
 
 
 
 47 
 
 1.485 
 
 32, . 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 1.161 
 
 100, 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 1.501 
 
 34, . 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 1.171 
 
 103, 
 
 
 
 49 
 
 1.515 
 
 36, . 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 1.180 
 
 106, 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 1.532 
 
 38, . 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 1.190 
 
 110, 
 
 
 
 51 
 
 1.549 
 
 40, . 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 1.199 
 
 113, 
 
 
 
 52 
 
 1.566 
 
 42, . 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 1.210 
 
 117, 
 
 
 
 63 
 
 1.583 
 
 44, . 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 1.221 
 
 120, 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 1.601 
 
 46, . 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 1.231 
 
 124, 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 1.618 
 
 48, . 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 1.242 
 
 127, 
 
 
 
 66 
 
 1.637 
 
 55 
 
434 
 
 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Degrees 
 
 Degrees 
 
 Specific 
 
 Degrees 
 
 Degrees 
 
 Specific 
 
 Twaddle. 
 
 Banme. 
 
 Gravity. 
 
 Twaddle. 
 
 Baume. 
 
 Gravity. 
 
 131, 
 
 57 
 
 1.656 
 
 : 152, 
 
 62 
 
 1.758 
 
 135, 
 
 58 
 
 1.676 
 
 1 156, 
 
 63 
 
 1.779 
 
 139, 
 
 59 
 
 1.695 
 
 ' 160, 
 
 64 
 
 1.801 
 
 143, 
 
 60 
 
 1.714 
 
 164, . 
 
 65 
 
 1.820 
 
 147, 
 
 61 
 
 1.736 
 
 ' 168, 
 
 66 
 
 1.840 
 
 THERMOMETERS. 
 
 Thermometers are plentiful and cheap, but we will not give 
 a detailed account of their manufacture. Suffice it to say, 
 that a good thermometer is an essential instrument in the dye- 
 house, as very often in cotton-dyeing, and frequently in 
 woolen-dyeing, it is required to have the solutions a certain 
 heat. The thermometers used in this country are generally 
 those of Fahrenheit ; in Europe tha Centigrade, and some- 
 times Reaumur's thermometer, are used to a great extent. 
 Thermometers are generally indicated by abbreviations, as : 
 F. or Fahr., for Fahrenheit's scale; R. or Reau., for Reau- 
 mur's ; and C. or Cent., for Centigrade. Fahrenheit divided 
 the two points, from the boiling of water to its freezing, into 
 180^ ; he called the freezing-point the thirty-second degree, 
 for some particular reason of his own ; he, however, gave no 
 reason for this to the world at large ; so by the taking 32°, 
 the point where water freezes, and adding the 180° interven- 
 ing between that and his boiling-point, we have the 212°, 
 which is marked upon his scale as the boiling-point of water. 
 Reaumur has divided his into 80° between the two points, 
 from freezing to the boiling of water. The centigrade is 
 divided into 100° between the two points, from the freezing 
 to the boiling point, the freezing-point being marked 0, the 
 boiling-point 100°. In studying or reading works upon dye- 
 ing, where temperature is referred to in the processes or 
 recipes, attention should be paid to what scale of thermometer 
 
THE AI^IERICAl^^ DYER. 
 
 435 
 
 is referred to. The degrees of one can be converted into the 
 other, by a very simple rule. For instance, we wish to con- 
 vert the centigrade scale to the Fahrenheit. Suppose a liquid 
 indicates 80° centigrade, we multiply 80 by 9=720, this 
 divided by 5=124; now we add 32, making it 156 degrees 
 Fahrenheit. To convert Reaumur to Fahrenheit, multiply the 
 degree given by 9, divide by 4, and add 32, as in the above 
 example. 
 
 Any degree of the centigrade scale, multiplied by 4, and 
 divided by 5, will give the corresponding degree of Reau- 
 mur, and conversely ; and the degree of Reaumur, multiplied 
 by 5, and divided by 4, will give the corresponding degree of 
 centigrade. 
 
 The following table will show the corresponding degree of 
 Fahrenheit to degrees on the centigrade scale, so that the 
 comparative value of the two scales, will be easy for the dyer 
 to ascertain and guide him in the use of either one of them : — 
 
 Cent 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 0, . . 
 
 32 
 
 21, . . 
 
 69.8 
 
 42, 
 
 107.6 
 
 1, 
 
 
 33.8 
 
 22, 
 
 
 71.6 
 
 43, 
 
 
 109.4 
 
 2, 
 
 
 35.6 
 
 23, 
 
 
 73.4 
 
 44, 
 
 
 111.2 
 
 3, 
 
 
 37.4 
 
 24, 
 
 
 75.2 
 
 45, 
 
 
 113 
 
 4, 
 
 
 39.2 
 
 25, 
 
 
 77 
 
 46, 
 
 
 114.8 
 
 6, 
 
 
 41 
 
 26, 
 
 
 78.8 
 
 47, 
 
 
 116.6 
 
 6, 
 
 
 42.8 
 
 27, 
 
 
 80.6 
 
 48, 
 
 
 118.4 
 
 7, 
 
 
 44.6 
 
 28, 
 
 
 82.4 
 
 49, 
 
 
 120.2 
 
 8, 
 
 
 46.4 
 
 29, 
 
 
 84.2 
 
 50, 
 
 
 122 
 
 9, 
 
 
 48.2 
 
 30, 
 
 
 86 
 
 51, 
 
 
 123.8 
 
 10, 
 
 
 50 
 
 31, 
 
 
 87.8 
 
 52, 
 
 
 125.6 
 
 11, 
 
 
 51.8 
 
 32, 
 
 
 89.6 
 
 53, 
 
 
 127.4 
 
 12, 
 
 
 53.6 
 
 33, 
 
 
 91.4 
 
 54, 
 
 
 129.2 
 
 13, 
 
 
 55.4 
 
 34, 
 
 
 93.2 
 
 55, 
 
 
 131 
 
 14, 
 
 
 57.2 
 
 35, 
 
 
 95 
 
 56, 
 
 
 132.8 
 
 15, 
 
 
 59 
 
 36, 
 
 
 96.8 
 
 57, 
 
 
 131.6 
 
 16, 
 
 
 60.8 
 
 37, 
 
 
 98.6 
 
 58, 
 
 
 136.4 
 
 1", 
 
 
 62.6 
 
 38, 
 
 
 100.4 
 
 59, 
 
 
 138.2 
 
 18, 
 
 
 64.4 
 
 39, 
 
 
 102.2 
 
 60, . 
 
 
 140 
 
 19, 
 
 
 66.2 
 
 40, 
 
 
 104 
 
 61, . 
 
 
 141.8 
 
 20, 
 
 
 68 
 
 41, 
 
 A. 
 
 
 105.8 
 
 62, . 
 
 
 143.6 
 
436 
 
 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 Cent 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 63, 
 
 U5.4 
 
 76, . 
 
 168.8 
 
 89, . . 
 
 192.2 
 
 64, 
 
 
 
 147.2 
 
 77, . 
 
 170.6 
 
 90, . 
 
 194 
 
 Co, 
 
 
 
 149 
 
 78, . . 
 
 172.4 
 
 91, . . 
 
 195.8 
 
 66, 
 
 
 
 150.8 
 
 79, 
 
 174.2 
 
 92, . 
 
 197.6 
 
 67, 
 
 
 
 152.6 1 
 
 80, 
 
 176 
 
 93, . 
 
 199.4 
 
 68, 
 
 
 
 154.4 j 
 
 81, 
 
 177.8 
 
 94, . . 
 
 201.2 
 
 69, 
 
 
 
 156.2 
 
 82, 
 
 179.6 
 
 95, . 
 
 203 
 
 70, 
 
 
 
 158 1 
 
 83, 
 
 181.4 
 
 96, 
 
 204.8 
 
 71, 
 
 
 
 159.8 
 
 84, . 
 
 183.2 
 
 97, . 
 
 206.6 
 
 72, 
 
 
 
 161.6 
 
 85, 
 
 185 
 
 98, 
 
 208.4 
 
 73, 
 
 
 
 163.4 
 
 86, . 
 
 186.8 
 
 99, . 
 
 210.2 
 
 74, 
 
 
 
 165.2 
 
 87, . . 
 
 188.6 
 
 100, . 
 
 212 
 
 75, 
 
 
 
 167 
 
 88, 
 
 19U.4 
 
 
 
 ALPHABETICAL TABLE OF ELEMENTS — THEIR 
 SYMBOLS AND PRIME EQUIVALENTS. 
 
 This table includes all of the elements, although many of 
 them are not used in the art of dyeing; excluding aridium 
 and donarium, which have not yet maintained their claim as 
 being distinct metals. 
 
 By modern chemists the elements are designated by letters, 
 which are called symhols. The initial letter of the name is 
 the symbol, whenever it is distinctive ; but when several 
 elements have names beginning with the same letter, the plan 
 adopted is to represent one of them by the initial letter, and 
 the rest by the initial letter with some other associated with 
 it. Thus C stands for carbon, Cu for copper, CI for chlorine, 
 Ca for calcium, Cr for chromium, Cd for cadmium, Co for 
 cobalt, &c. The use of these syml)ols saves time and space 
 in designating the composition of compounds. Where a sin- 
 gle equivalent is intended to be given, the symbol of the 
 element is only given ; but when two or more equivalents are 
 to be represented, the symbol has the number of the equiva- 
 lents placed before the symbol. Thus O means one equiva- 
 lent of oxygen, 30 means three equivalents of oxygen, and 
 
THE AMERTCA?^" DYER. ^37 
 
 SO on. The number of equivalents is now generally denoted 
 by a depressed figure following the symbol ; thus, N2O means 
 two equivalents of nitrogen and one of ox3'gen. Sometimes 
 there are two or more proportions of a compound com])iued 
 with another compound ; in that case, it is represented by 
 placing the figure before the compound to be multiplied, and 
 a comma or a -j- at the end. Thus, SSO^jFe. The figure 3 
 applies to all,between it and the comma, meaning three equiv- 
 alents of sulphuric acid and one equivalent of iron. The sign 
 + is now generally used, instead of the comma. Thus, 
 SSOg+Fe. The symbols given are those of Berzelius, and 
 should not be varied from, for fear of destroying their useful- 
 ness, by creating confusion. 
 
 As it is of great importance that these symbols should be 
 understood by the young dyer, as well as by the older ones, 
 we will give a few of the combinations, with their explanations, 
 thus : 
 
 NO5 = concentrated nitric acid. 
 
 H0,N05 = monohydrated nitric acid (nitrate of water), or 
 the commercial or common nitric acid. 
 
 SO3 = sulphuric acid. 
 
 HOjSOo = monohydrate (sulphate of water, the common oil 
 of vitriol). 
 
 HO,2S03 =z Nordhausen, or the concentrated oil of vitriol. 
 Or thus : 
 
 SO3 =1 one equivalent of sulphur, and three equivalents of 
 oxygen, is sulphuric acid. 
 
 HOjNOj = one equivalent of water, one of nitrogen, and 
 five of oxygen, is common nitric acid. 
 
 HO,2S03 = one equivalent of water, and two of sulphuric 
 acid, is concentrated oil of vitriol. 
 
 S03FeO + 5H0 = sulphuric acid, oxide of iron, and water, 
 — copperas. 
 
 Some chemists write it thus : FeO,S03 + 5H0 ; but 
 according to Berzelius, it is FeO,S03 + THO. 
 
438 
 
 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 " To make up the equivalent weight of any compound from 
 symbols, we have simpl}' to multiply the elements given 
 according to the table. Thus, suppose we take the sulphuric 
 acid, and two parts of water (SO32HO), which is strong vitriol, 
 we have — 
 
 Eqairalent weight. 
 
 One of sulphur, ...... ^16 
 
 Three of oxygen, 8 X 3 = 24 
 
 Two of water, 1 of hydrogen, and 8 of oxygen,' 9 X 2 = 18 
 
 58 
 
 which is the proportion or weight of sulphuric acid of the 
 strength which would be required to combine with any other 
 element, suppose iron, which is twenty-eight; therefore, it 
 would require fully twice the weight of sulphuric acid of this 
 strength to that of a piece of iron, to dissolve it." 
 
 The formula of common alum will serve us as an illustra- 
 tion of the symbols and equivalunts — 
 
 AIA.3SO3 -I- KCSOs + 24HO. 
 
 This is in accordance with Berzelius, but it has become gen- 
 eral to write alum thus : 
 SOsjAla = sulphate of alumina, or alumina sulphate =Al,S03. 
 
 Table of Elements. 
 
 Xame of Element. 
 
 Symbol. 
 
 Prime 
 Equivalent. 
 
 Najie of Element. 
 
 Symbol. 
 
 Prime 
 Equivalent. 
 
 Aluminum, 
 
 Al 
 
 13.7 
 
 i Beryllium, 
 
 Be 
 
 4.7 
 
 Antimony (stibi- 
 um), 
 
 Sb 
 
 122. 
 
 ^ Cadmium, 
 ■ Calcium, 
 
 
 Cd 
 Ca 
 
 55.8 
 20. 
 
 Arsenic, 
 
 As 
 
 75. 
 
 ! Carbon, 
 
 
 C 
 
 6. 
 
 Barium, 
 
 Ba 
 
 68.7 
 
 1 Cerium, 
 
 
 Ce 
 
 46. 
 
 Bismuth, . 
 
 Bi 
 
 210. 
 
 ' Chlorine, 
 
 
 CI 
 
 35.7 
 
 Bromine, . 
 
 Br 
 
 78.4 i 
 
 Chromium 
 
 
 Cr 
 
 26.3 
 
 Boron, 
 
 B 
 
 10.9 
 
 Cobalt, 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 ^° ' 
 
 29.5 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 439 
 
 Table of Elemknts. — Continued. 
 
 
 
 Prime 
 
 * 
 
 
 Prime 
 
 Nauii: of Element. 
 
 Symbol. 
 
 EijuivnU'iit. 
 
 Name of Element. 
 
 Symbol. 
 
 K(|Uivulcnt. 
 
 Cojipor, 
 
 Cu 
 
 31.7 
 
 Pelopium, . 
 
 Pe 
 
 ? 
 
 Coiunihimn 
 
 
 
 Phosphorus, 
 
 P 
 
 32. 
 
 (Taiit:ilum*), . 
 
 Ta 
 
 185. 
 
 Platinum, . 
 
 Pt 
 
 98.9 
 
 Didvniiiiiu, 
 
 Di 
 
 47.5 
 
 Potassium (Ka- 
 
 
 
 Erbium, 
 
 E 
 
 56.3 
 
 lium), . 
 
 K 
 
 39.2 
 
 Flouriue, . 
 
 Fl 
 
 18.7 
 
 Rhodium, . 
 
 R 
 
 62.2 
 
 Glucinium, 
 
 G 
 
 7. 
 
 Ruthenium, 
 
 Ru 
 
 52.2 
 
 Gold (aurum), . 
 
 Au 
 
 199. 
 
 Ruljidium,. 
 
 Rb 
 
 85.4 
 
 Hydrogen, . 
 
 II 
 
 1. 
 
 Selenium, . 
 
 Se 
 
 40. 
 
 Ilmenium, . 
 
 11 
 
 60.2 
 
 Silicon (silicium). 
 
 Si 
 
 21.3 
 
 Indium, 
 
 In 
 
 74. 
 
 Silver (argent- 
 
 
 
 Iodine, 
 
 I 
 
 126.3 
 
 um). 
 
 Ag 
 
 108. 
 
 Iridium, 
 
 Ir 
 
 98.8 
 
 Sodium (natri- 
 
 
 
 Iron (t'orrum), . 
 
 Fe 
 
 28. 
 
 um). 
 
 Na 
 
 23.3 
 
 Lanthaiiium, 
 
 La 
 
 44.3 
 
 Strontium, 
 
 Sr 
 
 43.8 
 
 Ledd (plum- 
 
 
 
 Sulphur, . 
 
 S 
 
 16. 
 
 bum). 
 
 Pb 
 
 103.6 
 
 Tantalum (Ca- 
 
 
 
 Lithium, 
 
 L 
 
 7. 
 
 luml)ium). 
 
 Ta 
 
 185. 
 
 Magnesium, 
 
 Mg 
 
 12. 
 
 Tellurium, 
 
 Te 
 
 64. 
 
 Manganese, 
 
 Mn 
 
 27.7 
 
 Terbium, . 
 
 Tb 
 
 ? 
 
 Mercury (hydrar- 
 
 
 
 Thallium, . 
 
 Tl 
 
 204. 
 
 gyum), . 
 
 Hg 
 
 200. . 
 
 Thorium, . 
 
 Th 
 
 69.6 
 
 Molybdenum, . 
 
 Mo 
 
 48. 
 
 Tin (stannum), 
 
 Sn 
 
 59. 
 
 Nickel, 
 
 Ni 
 
 29.5 
 
 Titanium, . 
 
 Ti 
 
 25. 
 
 Niobium,! . 
 
 Nb 
 
 94. 
 
 Tungsten (Wol- 
 
 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 
 
 framium). 
 
 W 
 
 92. 
 
 (azote), . 
 
 N 
 
 14. 
 
 Uranium, . 
 
 U 
 
 60. 
 
 Norium, 
 
 No 
 
 ? 
 
 Vanadium, 
 
 V 
 
 51.2 
 
 Osmium, . 
 
 Os 
 
 99.7 
 
 Yttrium, . 
 
 Y 
 
 38.85 
 
 Oxygen, 
 
 
 
 8. 
 
 Zinc, . 
 
 Zn 
 
 30.85 
 
 Palladium, . 
 
 Pd 
 
 53.3 
 
 Zirconium, 
 
 Zr 
 
 33.6 
 
 '* According to II. M. Rose, the coluuibinm of Hatchett, and tlie tautaluiii 
 of Ekelter^, are distinct metals. 
 
 t Niobuiu and j)elopinni were alleged to exist in the Bavarian and North 
 American eolnnibites. Bnt H. M. Rose has announced that thej' are tlie same, 
 and iir()i>()se8 to retain the name niobium. It is not contended that the pecu- 
 liar metal of the cobunbites is different from that discovered in I'SOl by 
 Hatchett ; therefore, as justly remarked bj-^ Prof. A. Connell of St. Andrews, 
 it shonhl be called columbiitm, the name given it by its discoverer, and the 
 name niobium should be abandoned. 
 
440 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 These are all the elements known to chemists at the present 
 time, and alf the varieties in which we find matter presenting 
 itself to ns, whether in the animal, the vegetable, or the min- 
 eral kingdom, are made up of one, or an admixture of two 
 or more of these elements. 
 
 "We find that when two or more of these elements com- 
 bine, the union alwa3's takes place in definite proportions, 
 and that these proportions are expressed by figures placed 
 opposite to the names in the table. "For example, if we 
 should mix together one ounce of hydrogen, and one ounce of 
 oxygen, and bring them under circumstances to cause com- 
 bination, it is found that the one ounce of oxygen has com- 
 bined with an eighth part of the hydrogen, and that other 
 seven ounces of oxygen are required to combine with the 
 whole of the hydrogen. Their combining properties are there- 
 fore set down as one to eight. This holds good for all of the 
 elements, so that the union is alwa^^s definite and distinct." 
 
 " One element, however, is often found to combine with 
 another in a greater number of proportions than one to one. 
 Thus, suppose nitrogen — which, according to the table of 
 elements, has a combining weight of fourteen — combines 
 with oxygen in proportions as follows : 
 
 One nitrogen==14 to one oxygeu=8. 
 One nitrogen=14 to two oxygen=16, two times 8. 
 One nitrogen=14 to three oxygen^24, three times 8. 
 One nitrogeu^l4 to four oxygen=32, four times 8. 
 One uitrogen==14 to five oxygen=40, five times 8." 
 
 "Thus, we observe, that the proportion of oxygen is always 
 eight, or a multiple of eight; so it is with nitrogen, always 
 fourteen, or twice fourteen, and so on to any number of mul- 
 tiples of fourteen. The same rule holds good with every 
 element in the table ; they combine only according to the 
 number followina: the name." 
 
 "But when they thus combine in different and distinct quan- 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 441 
 
 titles, the compounds formcrl are also distinct and definite. 
 Thus, one proportion of nitrogen and one of oxygen is luun^h- 
 ing-gas ; and it is so at ail times and under all circumstances, 
 and can be nothing else. But when two of oxygen combine 
 to one of nitrogeni, a different substance is formed from lauarh- 
 ing-gas, also distinct and definite from every other proportion 
 in which the elements unite. The first and last of the above 
 list is an apt illustration — the former being laughing-gas, the 
 latter aquafortis, or nitric acid." 
 
 "The letters placed immediately after the names of the ele- 
 ments are the symbols commonly used to represent the respec- 
 tive elements, and to facilitate the expression of the com- 
 pounds into which they enter. Thus, to represent laughing- 
 gas, we write NO, which means one of nitrogen and one of 
 oxygen. The symbol always represents the weight of the 
 jJroportwn, as given in the table, and the figures which are 
 attached show how often that proportion is repeated." 
 
 The formula for sulphuric acid is SO3, which means one of 
 sulphur and three of oxygen, the figure being placed after the 
 symbol which is multiplied. To find the equivalent of any 
 formula, we will take nitric acid as an example : NO5, which 
 means one of nitrogen=fourteen, and five of oxygen=forty ; 
 ox3'gen l)eing eight, and there being five proportions of it, we 
 say five times eight are forty, to which we add the one pro- 
 portion of nitrogen, that being fourteen; so fourteen and 
 forty make fifty-four, that being the prime equivalent of nitric 
 acid. 
 
 It will be seen, by looking over the table of elements, that 
 there arc a number of substances there named which a great 
 many of us have never heard of; that. is, that have never 
 been defined. There are in the table a number of elements 
 of which little is known, except the fact of their existence in 
 certain compounds, they having been seen only by the discov- 
 erers and a few friends, and are as yet so rare, and found in 
 such small quantities, that, at the present time, their applica- 
 56 
 
442 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 tion to any of the common branches of manufactures is not 
 thought of.' 
 
 COAL-TAR COLORS. 
 
 Coal-tar is a substance obtained as a ])y-procluct of the dry 
 distillation of coal for the purpose of manufocturing illumi- 
 nating gas, and is a complex mixture of a large number of 
 substances, such as fluid and solid hydrocarbon, called ben- 
 zole, toluol, cumol, cymol, anthracene, and naphthaline. The 
 acids contained in coal-tar are, the carbolic or phenylic, cres- 
 ylic, phlorylic, and rosolic. The bases are aniline, chinoline, 
 odorin, picoline, toluidine, coridine, &c. If we leave the 
 small amount of basic substances that the tar contains, we find 
 that it consists of the following substances in one hundred 
 parts of the coal-tar ; • 
 
 Benzole, 
 Naphtha, 
 Napthaline, . 
 Anthraciue, . 
 Carbolic acid, 
 Pitch, 
 
 1.5 
 35.0 
 22.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 9.0 
 31.5 = 100. 
 
 By the distillation of coal-tar, there is obtained two kinds 
 of oil — the light, and the heavy or dead oil ; one is lighter, 
 and the other heavier, than water. The light oil is separated 
 into crude naphtha, which contains the benzole or benzine, 
 toluol, &c. The heavy oil is used for making carbolic acid. 
 This heavy or dead oil, is rich with naphthaline. This crude 
 naphthaline can be purified by pressing out the fluid hydro- 
 carbons, which contaminate it, and then subliming it with the 
 addition of sand and lime, which will retain the impurities. 
 The purified naphthaline is in the form of white and pearl- 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 443 
 
 colored scales, and has to be submitted to u number of opera- 
 tions to transform it into several dyes. 
 
 The acid substances contained in the coal-tar are removed 
 by the caustic solutions of soda and potash, the basic sub- 
 stances by weak sulphuric or muriatic acid ; the benzoic, 
 toluol, naphthaline, &c., are separated by fractional distilla- 
 tion. 
 
 The most useful of the substances contained in coal-tar for 
 the manufacturing of coal-tar colors, or aniline, are the ben- 
 zole, toluol, naphthaline, and carbolic acid ; the other sub- 
 stances are found mixed with the above, but their action is 
 little known, comparatively speaking. Benzole, chemically 
 speaking, is a fluid hydrocarbon, and was discovered by Fara- 
 day (in 1825) among the products of the dry distillation of 
 oil, in the liquid resulting from the strongly compressed oil- 
 gas. 
 
 Mitscherlich, in 1833, obtained it by the distillation of 
 benzoate of lime. Leigh, at Manchester, Eng., in 1842, first 
 discovered benzole in coal-tar ; and to Mansfield are we in- 
 debted for the method of separating benzole from tar by a 
 process which is available on a large scale. 
 
 Benzole is sold to the aniline manufacturers at a certain 
 specified percentage of benzole (CgHe) ; for instance, benzole at 
 thirty or forty per cent, contains, by bulk or weight, as may be 
 agreed upon, the above percentage of benzole, the rest being 
 sixty or seventy per cent, toluol and oxylol, forming a fluid 
 which is suitable for manufacturing aniline red ; but fur mak- 
 ing aniline blue or black, it requires a fluid containing nearly 
 ninety per cent, of benzole. The boiling-point of benzole used 
 for making the different aniline-dyes varies from 90° to 125° 
 Fahr., and the specific gravity varies from 85 to 89. H. 
 Caro, A. and K. Clemm, and F. Englehorn have suggested 
 that, instead of manufacturing benzole from coal-tar, it should 
 be extracted from coal-gas by causing this to be passed slowly 
 through tar-oils, which have a higher boiling-point than ben- 
 zole or toluol, &c., and to extract, by distillation, the benzole, 
 
444 THE AMERICAX DYER. 
 
 &c., from these heavy oils after they have become saturated. 
 The heavy oils can serve the same purpose again. And as 
 regards the depreciation of the ilhiniinating power of the gas, 
 caused hy the extraction of the hydrocarbons, benzole, &c., 
 which were present in the gas as vapors, these gentlemen sug- 
 gest the saturation of the gas with benzaline (petroleum 
 oil). 
 
 The first operation in the manufacture of aniline-dyes is the 
 transforming of the mixture of benzole and toluol into nitro- 
 benzole and nitro-toluol, by the action of nitric and sulphuric 
 acids ; the mixture of the acids being two parts of nitric acid 
 at 40° Baume, — specific gravity, 1.384; and one part of 
 concentrated sulphuric acid, — specific gravity, 1.848; the 
 operation being carried on in closed vessels similar to those 
 used for making aniline. The upper part of the apparatus is 
 fitted with a tube, for the purpose of conveying the nitrous- 
 acid fumes to a chimney, and there is an S-shaped tube con- 
 necting the apparatus to the tank that contains the acid mix- 
 ture. The amount of benzole which is intended to be nitrated 
 is put into the apparatus at one time ; the mixed acids are 
 poured gradually into the benzole, and the re-action aided by 
 ai stirring-machine. Any benzole which is volatilized by the 
 heat caused by the re-action, is condensed by an apparatus 
 connected to the re-action vessel, and is thus saved. When 
 the re-action has ceased, it is known by the liquid becoming 
 colorless and its being separated into two distinct strata by 
 the addition of water. The nitro-benzole and nitro-toluol thus 
 produced are separated from the acid by washing in water, to 
 which has been added carbonate of soda ; this forms the com- 
 mercial nitro-benzole or nitro-benzine. 
 
 On E. Kopp's suggestion, nitro-benzole is now manufactured 
 by the aid of a mixture of nitrate of soda and sulphuric acid. 
 
 " One hundred kilos of benzole yield one hundred antl thirty- 
 five to one hundred and forty kilos of nitro-benzole." 
 
 There are three different kinds of nitro-benzole, viz. : — 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 445 
 
 " The light nitro-benzole, boiling at 210°. This kiiul is used 
 in perfumery and soap-making in very large (quantities, and is 
 called essence de mirhane and oil of bitter ahiionds, and has a 
 speciHc gravity of 1.20 (=24° B.)" 
 
 "Second. Heavy nitro-benzole, boiling between 210° and 
 220°, possessing a peculiar fatty smell. It is not used in per- 
 fumery, but chiefly for the preparation of aniline-red ; speci- 
 fic gravity, 1.19 ( = 28° B.)" 
 
 "Third. Very heavy nitro-benzole, boiling between 222° 
 and 235° ; specific gravity, 1.1()7 (=58° B.) ; this kind has a 
 disagreeable odor, and is chiefly used for the preparation of 
 aniline, intended for making aniline-blue." 
 
 After converting the coal-tar into nitro-benzole and nitro- 
 toluol, the next operation consists in deoxidizing these sub- 
 stances by replacing their oxygen, with a certain amount of 
 hydrogen. This reduction is etfected by various processes, — 
 by sulphide of ammonium and by nascent hydrogen. Although 
 sulphuretted hydrogen will completely reduce nitro-benzole to 
 aniline, those manufiicturing aniline upon a large scale prefer 
 to use Becharap's method, it being found the most advanta- 
 geous in practice ; that method being the mixture of one part 
 of nitro-benzole with one part of acetic acid, to which is added 
 one and one-half parts of iron-turnings. The apparatus used 
 for this operation was devised by Nicholson, being a cast-iron 
 cylinder furnished with a stirring apparatus and a condenser. 
 Afterthe iron, acid and nitro-benzole are placed in the cylinder, 
 heat is applied and the whole is distilled, except the ])eroxide 
 of iron, which remains in the cylinder or retort. The sub- 
 stance that boils over through a tube into a vessel for that 
 purpose is the crude aniline. This is mixed with lime or 
 soda and re-distilled, care being taken to collect only that 
 which comes over at 180° ; but there is a product that comes 
 over at between 210° and 220°, that is very suitable for mak- 
 ing aniline-blue. The aniline oil thus obtained is a brown- 
 colored liquid, heavier than water, and pure enough for mak- 
 
446 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 ing the aniline-colors. The pure aniline has a specific gravity 
 of 1.020, and boils at 360° Fahr. ; it emits vapors at the com- 
 mon temperature of the atmosphere, and when burning gives 
 oft' a large, smoky flame. It is slightly soluble in water, its 
 solvents being ether and alcohol ; it will form salts with acids. 
 According to the researches of Brimmeyer, the acetic acid is 
 not necessary, and a very good result may be obtained by 
 mixing sixty parts of iron with two to two and a half per 
 cent, of muriatic acid, and then pouring it upon the nitro- 
 benzole, leaving it in the retort for three or four days before 
 distilling off" the aniline-oil. In the aniline works of Paris 
 nitro-benzole is reduced to aniline by the aid of iron-filings, 
 which have been coated with copper by being immersed a 
 solution of sulphate of copper. 
 
 The composition of aniline oil, essentially a mixture of 
 aniline and toluidine, depends upon the benzole and nitro-ben- 
 zole used in making the oil. The aniline oil that boils between 
 180° and 190° (and has a specific gravity of 1.014 or 1.021, 
 and 2° to 3° B.) is prepared from nitro-benzole, which boils 
 between 210° and 220°, and the aniline it yields is chiefly 
 used for making aniline-red or fuchsine, while for making ani- 
 line-blue a very heavy nitro-benzole is used, and for aniline- 
 violet, a nitro-benzole which boils at 210° or 225°. The table 
 below shows the boiling-point of the substances which have 
 been mentioned : 
 
 " Benzole, 
 
 80°, 
 
 Nitro-toluol, 
 
 225° 
 
 Toluol, 
 
 108°, 
 
 Aniline, 
 
 182° 
 
 Nitro-benzole, 
 
 213°, 
 
 Toluidine, 
 
 198° " 
 
 The aniline oil is used for making what is called the aniline 
 colors, such as aniline-red, aniline-blue, aniline-violet, aniline- 
 green, aniline-yellow, aniline-orange, aniline-brown, aniline- 
 black, &c. 
 
 The aniline-red, known as fuchsine, azaleine, mauve, sol- 
 ferino, roseine, tyraline, &c., is the combination of a base 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 447 
 
 which Dr. A. W. Hoffraunii has named rosaniline, with an 
 acid, which is usually either muriatic or acetic acid. 
 
 The base rosaniline is a colorless substance, but its readily 
 crystallizing salts are colored. The composition of this base 
 may be expressed by the formula, C2oHi,jNyH,0, and is formed 
 by the combination of two atoms of toluidine with one atom 
 of aniline. One hundred parts of aniline oil will yield 
 twenty-five to thirty-three parts of crystalline fuchsine. 
 
 Although there is great danger in using arsenic acid, and 
 great difficulty in disposing of the poisonous residues left by 
 this method of preparing fuchsine, yet a large majority of 
 fuchsine manufacturers use the arsenic method in preference to 
 the other methods of obtaining it from the oil. 
 
 According to Girard and De Laire's method, one hundred 
 weight of aniline oil and two hundred of hydrate of arsenic 
 acid, at 60^ B. (^specific gravit}' 1.71), are heated after being 
 mixed, for five or six hours, at a temperature which should not 
 be above 190° or 200°. The red fumed mass which is formed 
 by this operation is broken up into small lumps, and then 
 boiled with water. When the mass is all dissolved, it is 
 filtered through felt bags, and then poured into tanks, for the 
 purpose of obtaining the crystals. After remaining in these 
 tanks three or four days, the mother-liquor (a very poisonous 
 liquid) which covers the crystals, is run off into water-tight 
 tanks made of stone and coated with asphalt, and to precipi- 
 tate from this mother-liquor the arsenic and arsenious acids, 
 there is a mixture of chalk and lime added ; the precipitate 
 formed is employed for making the various arsenical prepara- 
 tions. (The fuchsine made as above is known as rubine.) 
 The crystalline mass is purified by the operation of re-crystal- 
 lization. 
 
 In France the fused mass is dissolved in muriatic acid and 
 water, and then neutralized with soda. The fuchsine by this 
 process is obtained in a crystalline cake, and is again dissolved 
 by being boiled in water, and the solution is allowed to 
 
448 * TIIE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 crystallize. Fuchsine obtained l)y this method always contains 
 arsenic. 
 
 The salts of rosaniline, such as hydrochlorate of rosanillne, 
 acetate of rosaniline, and the nitrate of rosaniline, l)y reflected 
 light, have a green golden color, and by a remitted light, a 
 red color. These salts, when dissolved in alcohol or water, 
 exhibit a very beautiful carmine-red color, and their coloring 
 powers are exceedingly high. Fuchsine is the basis of a 
 greater part of the other aniline colors. 
 
 The researches of Dr. Hofi'mann, Girard, and De Laire, have 
 given us much light upon the composition of aniline colors ; 
 yet there is not at the present day a correct theory of these 
 colors ; that is, a theory that will answer all cases, or explain 
 satisfactorily all of the transformations. These are the opin- 
 ions now held by some of our most eminent chemists : firsts 
 that aniline or toluidine alone does not produce colors, while 
 their admixture will; second, aniline or toluidine will both of 
 them give colors ; third, toluidine alone is the true source of 
 the colors, but it requires the aid of aniline oil to produce 
 them. 
 
 Aniline Violet. 
 
 This is known as aniline purple, violine, raauveine, and was 
 discovered by Dr. "VV. H. Perkins, in 1856, and is manufact- 
 ured by the action of bichromate of potash and sulphuric 
 acid. It is also prepared by other re-actions, such as a salt 
 of aniline with hydrochlorite of lime, with peroxide of man- 
 ganese, and with peroxide of lead. These two last-named 
 substances are used along with sulphuric acid, by treating 
 aniline oil with chlorine ; also, with chloride of copper ; but 
 Dr. Perkins's method with bichromate and sulphuric acid, is 
 now generally used. 
 
 The base of the violet obtained by his method is called 
 mauveiue ; formula (C2jH.^4N). 
 
 The violet imperial, which was obtained by Girard and De 
 Laire, by the action of chromate of potash upon a mixture of 
 hydro-chlorate of rosaniline and aniline oil, heated to 180°, 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 449 
 
 diffors essentially from the product mauveine, named jihove, and 
 another violet is ohtained, according to Nicholson's pi-ocess of 
 heating fiichsine to 200° or 215°, at which temperature the 
 fuchsine melts, evolves ammonia, and the violet is i)roduced. 
 When a salt of rosaniline is heated with an excess of aniline 
 oil, there are formed violet i)igment8, such as red violet, blue 
 violet. Hoffmann classities them thus : — 
 
 "The rod violet is monophenyl-rosaniline. 
 The blue violet is diphenyl-rosaniline." 
 
 The latter substance yields, on being further hented, tri- 
 phenyl-rosaniline or aniline blue. The formulas of these sub- 
 stances, according to Hoffmann, are — 
 
 "Rosaniline red (CgoH^iNaO). 
 
 Monophrenyl-rosaniline (red violet — C2oH2o,CgH5,X30). 
 Diphenyl-rosaniline (blue violet — CgoHigjCgHg.jNgO). 
 Triphenyl-rosaniline (blue — C2oHig,C6H5,3N30)." 
 
 The violet de Paris, which was introduced by Poirrier and 
 Chappat, is produced by the action of chloride of tin (muri- 
 ate of tin), and similar compounds upon the ethyl or methyl 
 aniline. 
 
 Blues can be produced from these violets by washing them 
 in muriatic acid a number of times, which dissolves what ani- 
 line oil and fuchsine remain undecompbsed. Aniline violets 
 generally contain some red, and the blues some violet shades 
 in them. 
 
 Aniline Blue. 
 
 This color, which is also known by the name of azuline and 
 azurine, was first discovered by De Laire and Girard, in 1861, 
 by heating a mixture of fuchsine and aniline oil together for a 
 few hours, and then treating the product of this re-action with 
 muriatic acid, and the result is the blue dye known as bleu de 
 Paris, or bleu de Lyons, and is a copper-colored, shining sub- 
 57 
 
450 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 stance, niul does not give a green or yellow appearance when 
 viewed by a reflected light, as the fuchsine and aniline violet 
 do. In order to pnrify the aniline blue, it is Hrst di!?solved 
 in concentrated sulphuric acid, and the mixture heated to 150° 
 for two hours; water is then added to the solution, which 
 causes the blue to precipitate in a modified and soluble form, 
 which is then called soluble blue, or hhu soluble. The conver- 
 sion of fuchsine, by heating with aniline oil, into the aniline 
 blue (as stated above), is elucidated by the following formula, 
 according to Dr. Hoifmann — 
 
 "C2oH,,N3ClH + 3CeH,N = QoH,«,CeH„3N3HCl + 3NH3. 
 
 Rosauiliiie salt. Aniliue. Auiliiio blue. Ammonia." 
 
 "The aniline blue thiis prepared is rosaniline (C6H42C7HgH3 
 + N3), in which three atoms of basic hydrogen have been 
 substituted for three atoms of phenyl (CgH^) ; or, in other 
 words, this aniline blue is triphenyl-rosauiliue, the hydrochlo- 
 i-ate of which is CggHgaNgCl." 
 
 Aniline Green. 
 
 We are acquainted with but two kinds of this oolor, the 
 aldehyde green, and the iodine. The first, also called cmer- 
 aldine, was discovered by Cherpin, chemist at the aniline 
 works in Saint Ouen, in 1863, and is made by treating a sul- 
 phuric-acid solution of the sulphate of rosaniline with alde- 
 hyde. By heating this mixture with great care, there will be 
 a deep green pigment obtained, which .contains sulphur. 
 When it is used for coloring, hyposulphite of soda is added to 
 it, then boiled until all is dissolved, before immersingthe wool 
 or fabric. This is used more for silk-dyeing than for wool or 
 cotton. Sulphuret of ammonium, or sulphuretted hydrogen, 
 can be used in place of the hydrosulphite of soda. This aniline 
 green is very beautiful when viewed by artificial light. 
 
 The iodine green is manufactured by the following process : 
 One part of acetate of rosaniline, two parts of iodine of 
 methyl, and two parts of methylic alcohol are mixed together, 
 
THE AMEKICAX DYER. 451 
 
 and heat applied for several hours, under a high pressure. 
 When the operation is completed, the result is a mixture of 
 green and violet substances, dissolved in the alcohol. The 
 volatile substances having been driven off by the operation of 
 distilling, the mixture of pigments is next put- into l)oiling 
 water, in which the green is completely dissolved, but the 
 violet pigment will remain insoluble. The green is now pre- 
 cipitated by a saturated solution of picric acid in cold water. 
 This precipitate (called picrate of iodine green) is collected 
 upon a filter, and then quickly washed with water, and, when 
 partly dried, is brought into the market as a paste. 
 
 A crystalline iodine, w^hich is free from picric acid, has this 
 formula-C,,H33N30l2. 
 
 To })rint cotton goods with this aniline, the first process is 
 to prepare or mordant the cloth with chlorate of potash, then 
 mix nine pounds of starch and one and a half pounds chlorate 
 of potash together, and when perfectly cold add four and a 
 half pounds of the aniline. After the goods are printed, they 
 are placed in the ageing-rof)m, where after a few hours, a 
 bright green will appear ; the cloth is then washed oft". Should 
 the printed goods be run through a solution of bichromate of 
 potash, the green color would be transformed into a dark 
 indigo blue, caused by a further oxidation of the green color. 
 Soap or alkalies will turn this green into a blue, but by im- 
 mersing the goods in an acidulated bath, the green color is 
 restored to its primitive shade again. 
 
 Aniline Yellow. 
 
 This color is known also as phospine, victoria orange, and 
 chrysaniline yellow. The last named is the secondary product, 
 from the manufacture of aniline red or fuchsine, and is used 
 for dyeing, combined with acetic and muriatic acid. Chrysan- 
 iline colors wool and silk a most brilliant yellow. Chrysani- 
 line was extracted by Nicholson, from a resynous substance 
 found in aniline oil, as a brilliant yellow-colored pigment, and 
 he called it one of the bases of rosaniline. 
 
452 THE AMERICAN DYEK. 
 
 Schiff obtained aniline yellow, by the action of hydrated 
 oxide of tin upon aniline. M. Vogel obtained a yellow pig- 
 ment, by the action of nitrous acid upon an alcoholic solution 
 of rosaniline. 
 
 The formula of aniline 3'ellow is CjoHigNaOg. 
 
 Aniline Black. 
 
 A deep aniline green, which was formed by the oxidizing 
 agent's use upon aniline oil, was first observed by Dr. J. Von 
 Fritzshce, as early as 1842. It was formerly prepared from 
 residues left after the preparation of aniline violet with bi- 
 chromate of potash ; but now aniline black is obtained by the 
 action of chlorate of copper and chlorate of potash upon 
 hydrochlorate of aniline (fuchsine), as is recommended by 
 Lightfoot, who discovered the process. The advantage of his 
 process is, that the dye or the paste for printing will not cor- 
 rode the steel parts of the printing-machine, and that it will 
 absorb enough oxygen to transform it into a sulphate of ani- 
 line. 
 
 It has been proved, however, by Cordillot, that the chlo- 
 rate of potash and copper can be replaced by ferrieyanide of 
 ammonium. The black made by this process has to be 
 printed upon the fabric. 
 
 Recently, the so-called Peterson's black has been obtained, 
 its most valuable principle or property being that it is a 
 ready-made l)lack ; and to fully develop it, it requires a slight 
 oxidation. This aniline black is a black fluid mass of hydro- 
 chlorate gf aniline and acetate of copper. It is mixed with 
 thickening composed of either starch, dextrine, or gum ara- 
 ble, and then printed upon the yarn or cloth. After printing 
 it has to be oxidized by exposing the fabric to the atmos- 
 phere ; the oxidation can be rendered more quickly by plac- 
 ing the fabric in a room, with a temperature of about 45°. 
 The color will appear at its true shade after washing. Care 
 Avill have to be taken that the fabric is dried directly after 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 453 
 
 printing, as, if the cloth is left and folded up, there is danger 
 of spontaneous combustion. 
 
 Aniline black, as yet, has not been prepared so as to be a 
 permanent color on wool or woolen fabrics, but the time is 
 not distant when some method will be discovered, so as to 
 make it as permanent a color on wool as any of the other 
 aniline dyes. 
 
 Aniline brown, or Habana brown, is made, according to 
 De Laire, by heating aniline blue or aniline violet with fuch- 
 sine at 140°, until the mixture is of a brown color. The brown 
 obtained in this manner is very soluble in water. 
 
 The Bismarck brown, so called, is obtained by fusing fuch- 
 siue wnth dry aniline oil at a temperature of 450°. The oper- 
 ation is complete when vapors of a yellow color make their 
 appearance, as the mass is suddenly transformed into brown 
 when these vapors appear. This brown is also soluble in 
 "water. 
 
 Until within the last ten years, anilines were not soluble in 
 water ; and at the present time we receive them as soluble in 
 water and soluble in alcohol. 
 
 CARBOLIC ACID COLORS. 
 
 In distilling coal-tar for the purpose of obtaining aniline, 
 we have mentioned that there were two. kinds of oil obtained, 
 designated by the names of light and heavy oils, and that from 
 the light oils benzole was obtained. Carbolic acid is prepared 
 from the heavy oil, which boils over at 170° to 200°, during 
 the manufacturing of benzole, toluol, &c., from tar. It is 
 called phylicacid, phenol by some chemists, and others call it 
 phenic acid, which appears to be the most correct term, for 
 this reason : If aniline is an amide of the radical phenyl, 
 and is often called phenylamine, phenic acid must be closely 
 related to it, being an oxide of phenyl, and aniline being 
 
454 THE AMERICAX DYER. 
 
 already found formed in coal-tar, proceeds from the re-action 
 of phenic acid upon ammonia, which is always produced by 
 the decomposition of bituminous coal, and this re-action takes 
 place by pressure, or by an elevation of temperature, or by 
 both of these ; and if so, the formula is — 
 
 NH,0 + Ci^H^O = Q.H.N + 2H0 
 
 Ammouia. Plieuic Acid. Aniliuc. Water. 
 
 For these reasons we prefer the name of phenic acid to 
 carbolic, although in the trade carbolic acid is the only name 
 used for this substance. 
 
 Carbolic acid, as manufactured by Calvert & Co., C. Lowe 
 & Co., as well as by other eminent firms, is a crystalline mass, 
 which will become slightly red-colored by being exposed to 
 the air. It fuses at about 35°, and boils at 188°. Carbolic 
 acid is made by treating the heavy oils of tar with alkalies. 
 Carbolic acid is soluble in thirty-three parts of water. Cal- 
 vert's carbolic acid, such as is used for manufacturing the so- 
 called carbolic acid colors, is prepared by cooling a mixture of 
 the Laurent acid in water. At 4° a hydrate of carbolic acid is 
 separated, and by elimination of water it will become pure 
 carbolic acid, and will fuse at 41°. Carbolic acid is largely 
 used, in its several degrees of purity, for such purposes as an 
 antiseptic, disinfectant, <&;c. ; yet more than one-half of all 
 that is manufactured is used for obtaining such pigments and 
 dyeing-materials as the following: 1. Picric acid. 2. Phe- 
 nyl brown. 3. Grenat soluble. 4. Corraline. 5. Azuline. 
 
 Picric Acid. 
 This substance is also known as carbazotic acid or trinitro- 
 phenylic acid, and its formula is C6H3,N0.2,30 ; Berzelius 
 Ci.;,H._,3No^,0-}-nO. Picric acid is obtained l)y the oxidation 
 of carbolic acid by nitric acid. It is a yellow, crystallized 
 substance, which is readily dissolved in hot water, but difficult 
 in cold water ; it is also soluble in alcohol. It is used for dye- 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 455 
 
 ing silk and wool yellow ; also for green with iodine-green 
 crystals, and for green with suli)hate of iiuligo. (See recipes 
 for greens.) In France there are over one hnndred tons man- 
 ufactnred annually, but the greater part of it is used for 
 making picrate gunpowder, or the powder used for the needle- 
 gun. For dyeing purposes it has been the practice to use the 
 soda-salt of this acid, under the name of picric acid or aniline 
 yellow, instead of using the pure (or non-explosive) picric 
 acid, and by so doing it has given rise to some very serious 
 accidents in some of the d3e-h()uses in England. 
 
 When picric acid was first prepared, it was obtained by mix- 
 ing fine i)ulverized indigo with nitric acid (the acid first being 
 diluted with seven or eight times its weight of water) ; a gen- 
 tle heat was then applied to the mixture, which dissolved the 
 indigo with effervescence, forming a yellow-colored liquid. 
 This was allowed to stand for a short time ; it was then de- 
 canted from any resinous matter formed during the operation ; 
 then it was concentrated by evaporation, depositing a quantity 
 of yellowish-white crystals of a sourish-bitter taste, and re- 
 quiring nearly one hundred parts of cold water to dissolve them. 
 This at the time was called indigotic acid, but now called 
 anilic acid, from the name of a plant that yields indigo anil. 
 This acid will combine with all known bases, forming gener- 
 ally yellow-colored salts, and gives a blood-red color to any 
 solution of the per-salts of iron. 
 
 If indigo is added to concentrated nitric acid, and heat 
 applied to it, the indigo is quickly dissolved, and at the same 
 time a large amount of nitrous fjas evolved. When the 
 liquid has become cold, a great amount of semi-transparent 
 yellow crystals are formed, which have a bitter taste. 
 
 These crystals were formerly called carbazotic acid, but 
 now called picric acid. To procure picric acid in a pure 
 state, the crystals that are obtained by the above acid are 
 washed in cold water; then boiled in enough water to dissolve 
 them ; the liquid is then filtered and allowed to cool, when it 
 will again crystallize in brilliant yellow prisms. This acid 
 
4:5G THE AMERICAX DYER. 
 
 can also be obtained by the action of nitric acitl upon anilic 
 acid. At the present time picric acid is not obtained by any 
 of the above methods, being now obtained from carbolic acid 
 only. This picric acid, made from carbolic acid, readily crys- 
 tallizes, and will explode when heated. It is poisonous when 
 taken in large doses, ten grains having been known to kill a 
 dosr in less than two hours. It was first used as a medicine 
 for intermittent fever by Dr. Bell of Manchester, Eng., and 
 he thought that it could be emplo3''ed as a sul)stitute for 
 quinia. The salts which picric acid forms with soda or pot- 
 ash, are yellow-colored and very bitter, and are called picrate 
 of potash, and are capable of violent explosion from a severe 
 blow or from an elevated temperature, and in 181)9, a very 
 fatal consequence occurred from an explosion of a large amount 
 of it, in one of the magazines in Paris, where it was stored. 
 
 Picric acid in its constitution is very permanent ; it is not 
 decomposed by being fused with either iodine or chlorine, 
 neither will a solution of chlorine affect it. Sulphuric acid 
 ■when hot will dissolve it, but when cold it has no action upon 
 it. Nitro-muriatic acid (aqua I'egia) dissolves it with diffi- 
 culty ; boiling muriatic acid does not act upon it. 
 
 Picric acid is a test for potash in any fluid ; a solution of it 
 made in alcohol produces a bright yellow crystalline precipi- 
 tate. Its formula according to Berzelius is, Ci2,H.,3N04, 
 O+HO, being phenylic acid, with three equivalents of hydro- 
 gen replaced l)y three of hyponitric acid. 
 
 Phenyl brown, Phenidenne or RotJdne, so called from its 
 discoverer, Koth, was first made by him in 1865, by 
 causing nitric acid and sulphuric acid to act upon carbolic 
 acid, the substance obtained being phenicienne or phenyl 
 brown, which is an amorphous powder, a mixture of 
 two pigments ; viz., a yellow and a black-brown substance, 
 which is similar to the humus compounds. It is brown- 
 colored, soluble in alcohol, alkalies, and acetic acid, but of 
 little solubility in water, either hot or cold. It produces per- 
 manent colors, and the shades obtained vary according to the 
 
THE AMERIC^VIS" DYER. 457 
 
 mordiints used, but like the grenat brown will not stand the 
 steaming process. 
 
 Gienat brown, grenat soluble. This has recently been in- 
 troduced l)y J. Casthelaz in Paris, as a substitute for ovseille, 
 but is nothing more than the well-known isopurpuratc of i)ot- 
 ash (^CgHJvN^Oe), which was iirst discovered by Hlasiwetz, 
 and is formed by gradually' adding a solution of picric acid to 
 a solution of cyanide of potassium. By this operation prussic 
 acid and ammonia arc evolved, and the purpuric acid will 
 crystallize when the soluticju becomes cold. This substance 
 is sold under the name of grenat broivn and soluble ruby. As 
 this substance when perfectly dry, is explosive with the least 
 friction, it is kept in paste, to which is added a quantity of 
 glycerine sufficient to keep it moist. With a zinc mordant it 
 colors wool a beautiful yellow, and with corrosive sublimate 
 a magnificent purple. 
 
 Coralline, sometimes called Peonine, is a scarlet-dye mate- 
 rial, and was discovered by J. Persoz, and is formed, according 
 to Kalbe and Schmidt, by mixing together carbolic, (jxalic, 
 and sulphuric acids, and heating the mixture in a closed vessel, 
 at a temperature of 300° until the color has been sufficiently 
 developed. When the re-action is finished, the mass is then 
 washed in boiling water ; this is done fur the purpose of elimi- 
 nating the excess of acid. They next dry the residue, pulverize 
 it, and submit it at 150° to the action of ammonia. Coralline 
 is solul)le in alkaline solutions, acetic acid, and alcohol. It 
 does not produce a very permanent color. 
 
 The existing relation between rosalicacid (CooHjeOg), which 
 Avas discovereil in tar by Runge, aud coralline, is not yet fully 
 established. Rosalie acid is formed by heating together 
 twenty parts of phenic acid, fifteen parts of oxalic acid, and 
 twelve parts of sulphuric acid. This acid is insoluble in 
 ■water, but soluble in ether and alcohol. It can be formed 
 from carbolic acid and creyslic acid (CyHgO), as rosaniline is 
 formed from aniline and toluidine. 
 
 58 
 
458 THE AMERICAN DYEK. 
 
 AzuLixE (Phenyl Blue). 
 
 This substance is formetl by heating commercial aniline and 
 coralline together, taking five parts of coralline and seven 
 parts of aniline, and was first obtained by J. Persoz and 
 Guinon-Marnas. It is a blue pigment, and is termed azuliue 
 or azurine. 
 
 It has been attempted to prepare pigments directly from 
 nitro-benzole. Laurent and Casthelaz state that a red pigment 
 is obtained by keeping a mixture of twelve parts of nitro- 
 benzole, twenty-four parts of iron-filings, and six parts of 
 muriatic acid, for thirty-six hours at the common temperature 
 of the atmosphere. In this method there is formed a solid 
 resinous mass, which is first exhausted with water, and the 
 solution precipitated with common salt. The pigment which 
 is thus obtained is said to be a good substitute for fuchsine, 
 and is capable of being used as a dye, and for calico-printing. 
 
 Naphthaline (CjoHg). 
 
 This material was discovered, in coal-tar, by Garden, in the 
 year 1820, and was afterwards the subject of investigation by 
 Faraday and Hoffmann, Ballo, and others, and has been the 
 profound study of Laurent. 
 
 Naphthaline is a white, shining, crystalline substance, and 
 is fusible at IK^P, and boils at 423°. Its specific gravity, 
 according to Kopp, in the liquid state, is, 0.9774; accord- 
 ing to Alluard, at 210° it is 0.9628. It is soluble in ether, 
 alcohol, naphtha, and is insoluble in water. Its odor is pecu- 
 liar, and somewhat similar to storax, and it has a burning taste. 
 "When cool, after having been fused, it appears as a white, 
 crystalline mass, and then has a specific gravity of 1.151. 
 When treated with nitric acid, naphthaline yields phthalic 
 acid (C8Hg04), which, according to circumstances, and by 
 elimination of carbonic acid (H0CO3), may be either converted 
 into benzole (CgHg), or into benzoic acid (CHH^Oa-f-HO)- 
 
 "There exists between the derivatives of benzole and naph- 
 
THE AMEEICAIS' DYER. 459 
 
 tbaline a great analogy, which not only extends to the com- 
 position and re-action, but even to chemical and physical 
 properlies. The analogy of composition is exhibited by the 
 following tabulated foi'in : — 
 
 "Benzal (hj'^dride of phenyl), CgHg. 
 Nitro-benzole, C6H5(NOa). 
 Aniline, C6II7N. 
 Ilosaniline, C20H19N3. 
 
 Naphthaline (hydride of naphthyl), CjoHg. 
 Nitro-naphthaline, CioH7(NO,2) . 
 Naphthylaraine, CjoHgN. 
 Base of naphthaline red, C30H21N3." 
 
 Naphthylamine (C10H9O3) is a base which corresponds to 
 aniline, and it is prepared from naphthaline in exactly the 
 same way as aniline is from benzole, by converting naphtha- 
 line into nitro-naphthaline by the aid of nitric and sulphuric 
 acids, or nitro-sulphuric acid. It is then converted into 
 naphthylamine. This crystallizes in white, acicular crystals. 
 It fuses at 50°, and boils at about 320°. Its taste is a sharp 
 bitter, and is almost insoluble in water, when heated with 
 arsenic acid (A3O5), or with nitrate of mercury. It produces 
 a fine purple dye, which, however, is not fast. Naphthy- 
 lamine, also, serves to prepare such dyes as the Martins yel- 
 low, naphthaline violet, magdala red, and naphthaline blue. 
 
 The Martius yellow is better known in England as Man- 
 chester yellow, or naphthaline yellow. Its formula is CioHg 
 (N02)20. This dye is obtained by heating hydrochlorate of 
 naphthylamine with nitrate of soda, and afterwards with 
 nitric acid. This dye imparts to wool or silk, without the 
 aid of any mordant, yellow hues, which may be made to dif- 
 fer, in depth of color, from a lemon-yellow to a deep golden- 
 yellow. The discoverer of this d3'e (Dr. C. A. Martius) con- 
 siders it to be an acid analagous to picric acid, and calls it 
 hinitro-naphthylic acid. Picric acid yellow will not admit of 
 
460 THE AMEKICAX DYER. 
 
 the steaming process, while the Manchester yellow will admit 
 of the steaming operation. The dye is used in America for 
 the purpose of modifying the hue of magenta. 
 
 Magdala red. This pigment, which is naphthaline red, 
 was discovered by Von Schiendl of Vienna in 1867. This 
 substance has been subject to the researches of such eminent 
 chemists Durant, Kestner, Hoffmann and others. It is gene- 
 rated naphthylamine by the elimination of three molecules of 
 hydrogen from three molecules of the base ; thus — 
 
 3QoH9N-3H,0=C^Hi,N3. 
 
 Naplithyla- Water. Magdala red. 
 miue. 
 
 "On the large scale the manufacture of magdala red is 
 produced in two stages. In the first instance the naphthyla- 
 mine is converted into azodinaphthyl-diamine by the action of 
 nitric acid, thus — 
 
 " First stage : — 
 
 2C,oH,N + HNO3 = 2H,0 + C^oHi^Ng. 
 
 Naphthylamine. Water. Azodiiiaphtliyl- 
 
 diamiue." 
 
 "In the second stage the azodinaphthyl-diamine is treated 
 with naphthylamine, the result being the formation of the 
 magdala red." 
 
 The re-action may be represented by the following formula : 
 
 QoH.aNa + C10H3N = C^oH^iXg + NH3 
 Azodi- Napbtbyl- Magdala Am- 
 
 naphthyl- amine. red. mouia. 
 
 diamine. 
 
 The magdala red we find in the trade is of a black-brown 
 color and is a crystalline powder ; it is the chloride of a base 
 in the composition above described. In regard to its coloring 
 power, it is no less valuable than fuchsine or magenta, and it 
 surpasses fuchsine in its permanency. When magdala red is 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 461 
 
 treated with iodide of methyl and iodide of ethyl, naphthaline 
 red yields violet and blue colors. 
 
 Naphthaline Blue and Naphthaline Violet. 
 
 "Bhic and violet naphthaline pigments can be prepared by 
 various methods ; for instance, by treating naphthylamine 
 with nitrate of mercury (HgO,2N65+lCIIO)." * 
 
 Wilder obtains these dyes by substituting the radical 
 naphthyl for the hydrogen of the aniline and toluidine. J. 
 Wolft*, in 1867, obtained a very brilliant naphthyl blue in this 
 manner. M. Ballo did the same from rosaniline and niono- 
 bromnaphthaline, also from rosaniline and naphthylamine. 
 
 Very recently Blumer-Zweifel, and Kielmeyer have colored 
 naphthaline violet on cotton and linen cloth by treating 
 naphthylamine (which was previously painted upon the 
 cloth) by immersing the fabric in a solution of chlorine of 
 copper and chloride of potash, and by such other re-agents as 
 may be employed for producing an aniline black. 
 
 The coloring of aniline-black upon wool has not yet been 
 successfully produced, the nearest result being the chlorine 
 process of Mr. Lightfoot. Recent experiments that have been 
 made lead us to hope that aniline black will be employed on 
 wool as well as on cotton, with the same results as to its per- 
 manency. Aniline black, prepared either with bichromate of 
 potash or chlorate, will color wool a fast gray. There are 
 two processes now employed to fix this color upon cotton. 
 Messrs. Paraf and Javal pass the cotton fal)ric through a bath 
 which contains a mixture of sulphate of aniline and bichromate 
 of potash ; by this process the color will appear upon the 
 fabric as soon as it is taken out of the bath ; but the tem- 
 perature of the bath will have to be kept at about 30° Fahr., 
 and not above the freezing-point. 
 
 The other method consists in first passing the cotton through 
 
 * This salt is a nitrate of peroxide of uiercury, and sliould be rcpreseuted 
 by this formula, HgO,N05, iudepeudeut of water of crystallization. — G. 
 
462 THE AMElilCAX DYER. 
 
 a bath containing chroraate of lead, and then through an 
 aciduhited hath of oxahite of aniline. In this process the re- 
 action, taking place only upon the cloth, the temperature has 
 not to be so low as by the other method. (See article. Im- 
 provement in Aniline.) 
 
 For the improvements and new discoveries in colors derived 
 from coal and its products, see the translation from the report 
 of the Universal Exposition at Vienna in 1873. (See article, 
 Improvement in Aniline.) 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 463 
 
 A BRIEF IIISTOKY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 DISCOVERY OF COtORS DERIVED FROM COAL. 
 
 The manufucture of coloriiig-materiuls derived from coal is 
 of recent date (1856). It is to Perkins, the young English 
 chemist, that the honor of this discovery and industry belongs. 
 Perkins, while trying to obtain artificial quinine from coal, l)y 
 the re-action of an oxidizing agent upon the sulphate of ani- 
 line, obtained some violet, which he separated from a black 
 mass that did not appear to ofler much of interest. This color 
 immediately produced a great sensation in industry, because 
 of its in omparable brilliancy, its solidity, and the source 
 from which it was derived. A magnificent and brilliant color 
 extracted from black and dull pit-coal. There was an opposi- 
 tion which aided powerfully in spreading the news of this 
 great discovery. The price of this coloring-material was so 
 high that few dyers and manufacturers believed in its future 
 employment ($445 per pound, avoirdupois). 
 
 The discoverer himself hesitated much about inaugurating 
 the manufacture of this color, and he was anticipated in the 
 production of this coloring-material in large quantities by 
 several French manufacturers, among whom were Mons. 
 Poii'rier and Chappat, Jr., who brought some modifications to 
 Perkins's process. To make this new violet, the difficulties 
 were very great indeed. The patent obtained by Perkins 
 indicated very plainly the process for obtaining this color 
 (re-action of the bichromate of potash upon the sulphtite of 
 aniline). But although aniline was known to the savants. 
 
464 THE AIMERICAN DYER. 
 
 who possessed some grains of it in their laboratories, it was 
 but little known to manufacturers. There were no makers of 
 aniline. 
 
 The scientific works were consulted, and it was then 
 ascertained that the most advantajjeous method of obtaininjr 
 aniline, was that of preparing it by means of nitro-benzine. 
 This last product was not made much more than aniline, 
 although Collas and Laroque were making some few pounds 
 of it, which they sold for perfumery, under the name of 
 essence of mirbane. All, then, was to be created: manufact- 
 ure of aniline, manufacture of nitro-benzine. It was not 
 quite necessary for them to organize for the manufacture of 
 benzine. Benzine had, up to that time, only very restricted 
 uses. It served for the cleansing of goods, and was sold 
 under the name of "Collas benzine." Inquiry was made at 
 the gas-factories for benzine ; and the manufacturers of colors 
 finding at those places an almost inexhaustible repository of raw 
 material, brought to these factories a source of profits, and, 
 at the same time, disembarrassing them of an encumberins: 
 product (coal-tar). It was the English manufacturers who 
 first began to distil their oils. All that part of the business 
 was rapidly created. In less than three years this multiple 
 industry of coloring-materials derived from coal-tar was on its 
 feet. It was soon in operation upon the largest scale in 
 France, in England, then in Germany. 
 
 The manufacture of nitro-benzine, notwithstanding the 
 difficulties and dangers of explosion and conflagrations which 
 it presented in the beginning, did not prevent the manufact- 
 urers in France or in England from making it. The manu- 
 facture of aniline was established after a process discovered 
 by Bechamp, a French chemist, which was the only one 
 practicable among the various processes then indicated, and 
 which is to this day followed for its manufacture by all the 
 manufacturers of aniline. Industry made a large application 
 of the processes which were furnished to it by science. 
 
 Aniline, which was hardly known, and which was pro- 
 
THE AMERICAX DYER. 465 
 
 diiced at first at the price of 150 francs the kilogramme, fell 
 rapidly to 25 francs per kilogramme.* 
 
 " From the day that aniline was produced at twenty-five 
 francs it became certain that the aniline colors would receive 
 the greatest development. 
 
 The investigators, stimulated by the profits which was 
 judged would accrue to those who first engaged in its manu- 
 facture, set themselves to the work; and in 1859, Verguin, 
 industrial chemist at Lyons, created the manufacture of ani- 
 line red. This red had been seen some months before by 
 Hoffmann in his scientific investigations of aniline. To Ver- 
 guin belongs the credit of the industrial creation of the manu- 
 facture of aniline red. lie carried his product and his process 
 to Messrs. Reuard Bros, (at Lyons), dyers, who had the 
 product and process patented. 
 
 " The appearance of the red produced a sensation not less 
 than that occasioned by the discovery of the violet by Perkins. 
 The price was likewise high, 1,200 francs the kilogramme 
 ($223.20 per 2^ lbs. avoirdupois), for a product less pure than 
 that which is sold to day for $7. 50 (2|- lbs.) This red had more 
 brilliancy than the violet. There was no red that could com- 
 pare with it. Messrs. Renard Bros, gave to it the name of 
 Fuchsine, and it was seen most in the color called magenta, 
 made with this new red. 
 
 "Verguin had not, in his first experiment, used the best 
 agent for the transformation of aniline into red ; and many 
 other agents, which, as a general thing, gave more advanta- 
 geous results, were soon discarded ; but all originated from the 
 same chemical re-actions ; viz., elimination of the hydrogen 
 in the aniline and final formation of a salt with the same base, 
 the composition of which Hoffmann determined some time 
 afterwards, to which he gave the name of rosaniline^ and gave 
 it this formula — CjoHigAzaH.^O. 
 
 " There were numerous processes, and all the tribunals 
 
 * It is now selling for two frunca per kilogramme (two and one-lifth pounds 
 avoirdupois.) 
 
 59 
 
466 THE AMERICAN DYEE. 
 
 judged in the same way. They saw no novelty in substitut- 
 ing one agent for another, re-acting upon aniline, to arrive at 
 the same product ; so they granted to Renard Bros, the pro- 
 prietorship of the aniline red, which they had first manufact- 
 ured and used industrially. 
 
 "Unfortunately the patentees did not understand sufficient- 
 ly that every right imposes a duty. They allowed too great 
 a difierence to be established between the prices of their prod- 
 ucts and those of foreign manufacturers, and they soon saw 
 foreign competition, in defiance of their patents, invade the 
 French market. From France, where the red was discovered 
 and first manufactured, it at once spread into England and into 
 Germany ; and instead of the history of the violet discovered 
 being of English origin, it soon became entirely French; the 
 red, discovered in France, seems, rather, born in Germany 
 from the great number of factories Avhich immediately sprang 
 into existence in that country for the manufacture of this red, 
 
 "The red soon gave way to a very important manufacture. 
 It soon served no longer only for coloring in that beautiful 
 shade, magenta, which every one knew, but it became the 
 raw material for all other aniline colors, — blues, violets, 
 green, garnet, &c. 
 
 "The red had been scarcely discovered two years before 
 those two young French chemists, Girard and De Laire, dis- 
 covered that it could be transformed into a violet more beau- 
 tiful even than the Perkins violet, and into a magnificent blue, 
 by heating it with aniline. These chemists brought their 
 process to Renard Bros., and their blue replaced, in most of 
 their applications, the French blue and the indigo carmine. 
 
 "About the same time, Guinon, Marnas, and Bonnett man- 
 ufactured a blue called azuline, but it could not sustain the 
 competition of the aniline blue. 
 
 "There could not, after this, be any halting in the path of 
 discoveries. After the blue came the green, obtained, like the 
 blue, from the red, by way of an unstable blue discovered by 
 
THE AMERICAX DYER. 467 
 
 Charles Lauth, who obtained it by causing aldehyde to re-act 
 upon the red. 
 
 "This green was found by Cherpin, employed at Usebe. 
 Cherpin wished to Hx the aniline blue ot Charles Lauth, which, 
 up to that time, had no application on account of its instal)il- 
 ity. Acting upon the advice of a photographer (who was a 
 friend of Cherpin), who deemed the hj'posulphite of soda the 
 universal fixei\ he employed the hyposulphite of soda to fix 
 the aldehyde of Charles Lauth, as a photographic proof is 
 fixed. 
 
 "What must his astonishment have been to observe the 
 blue transformed into a green, — a green that was perfectly 
 fast. 
 
 "This shade of green was immediately employed by the 
 silk-dyers, to the exclusion of all other shades of green. 
 This green-dye gives very good results in calico-printing, but 
 it does not ajiswer so well for wool-dyeing. VYe have now 
 seen the red transformed into violet, into blue, and into green. 
 Hoflniann followed these discoveries, and, by a new process, he 
 made this red underfjo another chancre. He submitted it to 
 the action of an alcoholic radical, and he obtained the violet, 
 which now bears his name. 
 
 " \\\ the same manner that Girard and De Laire obtained 
 the imperial violet and the blue, by substituting one or more 
 molecules of the phenyl radical (CgHs) contained in aniline, 
 for one or more molecules of hydrogen of the rosaniline, so 
 Hoffmann substituted the radicals of the alcohols (ethyl, CoH^, 
 methyl, CiHg, &c.), in this s:ime rosaniline. 
 
 "At this time we had several violets, the Perkins violets, 
 and those of Girard and De Laire. The Hoffmann violet, 
 however, was none the less welcomed with the greatest favor, 
 it being much more brilliant than its predecessors. 
 
 " The manufacturers of the violets ascertained that in pre- 
 paring the Hoffmann violet, green was formed. This green 
 was isolated from the violet, and the dyers of silk and cotton 
 abandoned the use of the aldehyde green, and used only this 
 
468 THE AMERICAN DYEK. 
 
 new green, called iodine green. This green is more beautiful 
 than the aldehyde greeu, but not so permanent as the last 
 named. The Hoffmann green remained for a long time at a 
 high price, two hundred francs per kilogramme ($37.20 per 
 two and one-fifth pounds avoirdupois), for which reason it did 
 not come into general use. Next came the Paris violet, and 
 through this violet, we obtain colors which are no longer 
 obtained by means of the red, but are derived more directly 
 from aniline. 
 
 " There were great exertions made to obtain similar colors, 
 which should be different in composition from those obtained 
 •with rosaniline, and at the same time compete Avith them in 
 brilliancy .and cheapness. This is the problem Avhich Poirrier 
 and Chappat, Jr., have solved, by introducing the Paris 
 violet: The methylaniline- violet, called the Paris violet, had 
 been indicated as long ago as 1861, by Lauth. For various 
 causes, this chemist did not follow out his discoveries. It was 
 in 1865 that Poirrier and Chappat, Jr., with the co-operation 
 of their chemist, Charles Bardy, undertook to make violet 
 derived from aniline, into which they should have introduced 
 previously an alcoholic radical. The greatest difficulty was 
 to manufacture industrially these alkaloids from alcoholic rad- 
 icals, by a practical process, and at a price which should ena- 
 ble them to obtain a violet not costing more than the Hoff- 
 mann violet. The process indicated and followed in the 
 laboratories, to obtain methylaniline or eth3laniliue by the 
 re-action of the alcoholic iodides, became exclusively dear, 
 and the process was not practicable industrially. 
 
 "Here, again, industry came to borrow from science. The 
 process indicated by Bcrthollett, for the substitution of an 
 alcpholic radical in ammonia, by heating the radical, under 
 pressure, with chlorhydrate of ammonia, was applied to 
 aniline. 
 
 " The operation was delicate and dangerous ; it required an 
 apparatus strong enough to resist a great pressure, and so 
 constructed that no gas could escape. Up to this time the 
 
THE A3IERICAN DYER. -109 
 
 use of dose vessels had not been atloptetl in industry. All 
 precautions were taken ; there was no accident to deplore, 
 and after great perseverance and expense, the result was 
 accomplished." 
 
 " To-day, even industr}- begins to employ this method of closed 
 vessels. It appropriates to itself the processes of science, modif)'- 
 ing them for its own use. It is by this process that it has been 
 proposed to saponifj' fat substances by pure water, at a temperature 
 near 200°. Although the immense pressure produced under these 
 circumstances, has made it necessary" to relinquish the action of 
 water upon fatty bodies, used in all its simplicity, nevertheless this 
 re-action has been made to co-operate successful!}- in the saponifica- 
 tion of neutral fatty substances, by employing at the same time as 
 the water, a small quantit}' of lime, which enables the operation to 
 proceed at a lower temperature, but alvva3S with the assistance of 
 the close vessels. 
 
 " Messrs. Poirrier and Chappat were more daring, when they ap- 
 plied the method of close vessels to the preparation of methylani- 
 line, b}' the re-action of methylic alcohol upon the chlorhydrate of 
 aniline, and conformablv to a scientific process noted by Mons. 
 Berthollett, for the production of organic alkalies. The metliylani- 
 line prepared by their process, and the beautiful violet coloring- 
 material which is obtained from it, appeared at the Exposition. 
 These first attempts may be regarded as the prelude of discoveries 
 which await industry in a new and fruitful path." — Extract from the 
 Report of Mons. Berthollett, Universal Exposition of 1867 : The 
 methods of dose vessels and its ajyplications. 
 
 " As we see, the process of Messrs. Poirrier and Chappat, is 
 double. It comprises in one part, the manufacture of ethylic and 
 methylic derivatives of aniline ; and, in the other, the transforma- 
 tion of these secondarj' monamines into violet coloring-materials. 
 The method which they have adopted for producing methylaniline 
 and eth> laniline, is that which Mons. Berthollett had indicated for 
 producing, in a general manner, the monamines from alcoholic 
 radicals. • 
 
 " This is a new example of the passage of scientific methods into- 
 industrial art ; and a remarkable circumstance, of all those methods 
 which had been employed fou the preparation of methylic and ethy- 
 
470 THE AMEKICAX DYER. 
 
 lie alkalies, this, which seemed the least practical in the laboratory, 
 is the onlj' one which has become industrial." — Extract from the Re- 
 port of A. W. Ilofmann, De Laire, and Charles Girard: Coloring 
 materials derived from coal. Universal Exposition of 1867. 
 
 Methylaniline being obtained, it remained to choose the 
 most suitable agent for transforming it into violet : these 
 agents are numerous, but they do not all give good results. 
 Poirrier and Chappat, Jr., were transforming this base into 
 violet by a process original but costly, when Charles Lauth 
 succeeded in replacing it advantageously. From that time 
 the JParis violet could be furnished at a price quite low. 
 
 The following is abridged from the report of Mons. Balard, 
 in relation to the discovery of new colors by A. Poirrier and 
 his chemists : 
 
 ''In 1861 Mons. Lauth, by oxidizing methylaniline, ob- 
 tained a new violet, the manufacturing of which he relin- 
 quished, an account of the great diflSculty there was in pre- 
 paring the raw material. But this study was taken up by 
 Messrs. Poirrier and Chappat, with the assistance of their 
 chemist, Mons. Bardy. These chemists and manufacturers of 
 these new dyes have not only succeeded in making methy- 
 laniline under conditions of extremely low' cost, by imitating 
 a process which had served Mons. Berthollett for obtaining the 
 alcoholic ammoniacs of Mons. Hoffmann, but they have found 
 out how, by a suitable oxidizing action, to transform this 
 substance into a violet wholly new, into a methylaniline vio- 
 let. This violet, which differs from the violet (in some of 
 its properties) obtained from rosaniline, necessarily differs 
 from it in its constitution, it being produced from the purest 
 aniline that industrial art can furnish. 
 
 "In 1861, to the manufacture, in large amounts, of the 
 product which he had discovered, Mons. Lauth succeeded in 
 bringing, in his turn, a most useful means of assistance. By 
 causing the introduction of heat to aid the oxidizing action 
 of the air, and of other more energetic agents of oxidization, 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 471 
 
 he has been able to produce, with one hundred parts of meth- 
 ylaniline, more than forty parts of a violet, obtained under 
 the most economical conditions, and whose use begins ah'eady 
 to spread in Europe and America." [This report was made 
 in 1867.] 
 
 NoTK. — Metliylaniline had never been made, except in the laboratories, 
 and then only by means of the re-action of iodide of methyl npon aniline, 
 as indicated by Iloifmann, nntil the present process was discovered at 
 Poirrier's cstablislinient. Even dimethyhmiline had never been indicated. 
 
 To-day, in most fai-tories for making these dyes, in all conntries, metliy- 
 laniline violets and {greens are produced by the processes of Poirrier and his 
 chemists. Their competitors welcomed the connnnnicati(ms which unfaith- 
 ful chemists and overseers, attached to their (Poirrier's) house, made known 
 to them. — G. 
 
 "This last violet dye (the Paris violet) gave shades which 
 were identical with the Hoffmann violet, and the product was 
 sold at one hundred francs ($18. GO), while at the same time 
 the Hoffmann violet was valued at two hundred francs ($37.20) 
 per kilo. (2i lbs. avoirdupois). The Hoffmann violet was an 
 iodhydratc, insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol, which in- 
 creased the price still higher ; whereas the Paris violet was 
 soluble in water. The Paris violet, at its first appearance, was 
 not equal to the Hoffmann in brilliancy, but it is now used by 
 woolen-dyers in preference to the Hoffmann, as it gives more 
 pure and clear shades, besides being more permanent. 
 
 "A. Poirrier is manufacturing large quantities of this violet, 
 and there are no other firms who are regularly carrying on 
 the manufacture of this particular violet." 
 
 "There is another color obtained directly from aniline, but 
 it is not what is termed a product which is prepared in the 
 factories of chemical products and delivered to the dyers and 
 printers, but a color that is applied, colorless, upon the fabric, 
 and, by exposure to the atmosphere and certain agents, it 
 develops itself upon the fabric; this is the aniliue black. 
 
 "This aniline black has been, up to the present time, ex- 
 clusively employed in printing upon cotton. This color, con- 
 
472 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 trary to all the others derived from aniline, resists completely 
 the action of the light. 
 
 "There was at first no process for applying it to dyeing, 
 Charles Lauth, however, discovered a process whereby he 
 could render Lightfoot's process of application, by printing, 
 practical. Before this improvement, brought by Lauth to 
 Lightfoot's process, it had not been possible to make use of 
 the black, as the agents that Lightfoot employed attacked the 
 vegetable fibre. (See page 461.) 
 
 "We obtain with aniline, either directly or by passing 
 through the red, red at first, then blue, violet, green, and 
 black. We obtain, also, other colors, but these are of less 
 importance than the above colors ; for instance, the grays, the 
 browns, the oranges (which are produced at the same time as 
 the red, which they tarnish and from which we separate them). 
 Some deep l»lues are obtained, which for some uses replace, in 
 a measure, indigo. 
 
 Note. — All the colors thus far are derived from aniline, but in distilling 
 the coal-oil we obtain, besides the benzine, many other snbstanccs, and 
 among them are some which also serve to generate colors, — such as pheuic 
 acid, naphthaline, and anthracene. — G. 
 
 " Phenic acid is a source of several coloring-materials ; one 
 of them, picric acid, has been known for a long time. It 
 was manufactured long before the appearance of aniline 
 colors. (See article on Picric Acid in another part of this 
 work.) Messrs. Guinon, Marnas, and Bonnett first made it 
 and applied it to the coloring of silk. It gave a clear yellow, 
 ver}' brilliant." 
 
 "The manufacture of coloring materials derived from coal, 
 though in its infancy yet, has already taken one of the fore- 
 most places, through the importance of the transactions to 
 which it has given rise. 
 
 Note. — A business estimated at not less than $11,160,000 per annum. — G. 
 
 "More than every other industry, it keeps the manufacturer 
 of colors derived from coal constantly employed, either to 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 473 
 
 perfect his processes or to discover new ones. This business 
 proofresses and transforms itself with astonishiufr rajjidity. 
 
 "We can judge of this by what has occurred (hiring its 
 brief existence ; a product such as seemed at one time to defy 
 all competition, was afterwards completely sujiersedcd by a 
 product quite superior to it. Thus the Perkins violet was 
 only brought into use in 1859, and in 1861 there appeared 
 the imperial violet of Girard and De Laire. 
 
 "Three years scarcely elapsed before the Hoffmann violet 
 took the place of the imperial violet ; this was succeeded by 
 the Paris violet two years afterwards, whose introduction 
 diminished the demand for Hoffmann's violets to a great 
 extent. 
 
 " What has come to pass as to the violet, has happened in 
 like manner to the other colors, — the green and bine. The 
 iodine green has replaced the aldehyde green, the soluble blues 
 have replaced, in part, the alcoholic blues, and the consump- 
 tion of the soluble blues is continually increasing. 
 
 "The transformations are so rapid, that the manufacturer 
 of these colors has, we might say, no certainty of the morrow 
 for the product which he mahufiictured yesterday. Apart 
 from the discoveries which are born, and which overturn 
 anterior discoveries, he is not up to the simple improvements 
 which may overthrow his last-manufactured color. And then, 
 in the same color, there must be varieties as numerous as the 
 consumptions for which they are prepared. Thus, a kind 
 such as is applied by the calico-printers, will not be valued 
 by the dyers. In the same manner, silk-dyeing employs 
 another kind from that of wool-dyeing; and their demands 
 are so much tl^e more exacting, because success depends 
 upon the good quality of the coloring-materials emi)loyed in 
 them." 
 
 NoTK. — Unless the rtyer has materials suflSciently pure, lie cannot, with 
 all lii.s skill and exi»eiience in applying them, produce shades that will have 
 the intensity and hrilliaucy which is wanted. — u. 
 60 
 
474 
 
 THE AMEEICAN DYER. 
 
 Aniline colors, besides being easily applied, have a great 
 affinit}' for textile fibre, and are generally applied to wool 
 without the use of a mordatit, it being only necessary to ina- 
 merse the wool or yarn in a solution of the aniline dye. By 
 giving the wool or yarn a preparation either of bichromate of 
 potash, alum, glauber salts, or silicate of soda, we will obtain 
 a very permanent color with these dyes (see Recipes for Ani- 
 line Colors). 
 
 "The prices for these dyes were formerly very high, but 
 to-day are very low. Formerly, fuchsine cost twelve hun- 
 dred francs a kilogramme (21 lbs.) ; it is now sold at fifty 
 francs for the same amount, and the quality at the present day is 
 far superior to what it was then. The bichromate violet, which 
 was sold at one hundred and fifty francs in the form of paste, 
 is now sold at twenty francs a kilogramme (2^ lbs.). The 
 aniline itself from which these dyes are made, and which was 
 then valued at twenty francs, costs but five francs now a kilo- 
 gramme." 
 
 " The following table gives very nearly the relation which 
 exists between the figures that represent a given weight of 
 mineral coal (say one ton), arid that of the aniline red which 
 can be produced from it., as well as the relative quantities of 
 all the intermediary products : — 
 
 Coal, 2,200 lbs : 
 
 
 Coal-tar, . . . . 
 
 . 220 lbs. 
 
 Benzine, . . . . 
 
 2 " 32 
 
 Nitro-benzine, 
 
 2 '' 12 
 
 Aniline, . . . . 
 
 1 ♦« 14 
 
 Aniline red, 
 
 " 8 
 
 • 
 
 1 - ? J 1 
 
 sr. 
 
 (See a description of these articles in another part of this 
 work). 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 475 
 
 PREPARATION OF RAW MATERIALS DERIVED 
 
 FROM COAL, WHICH ARE EMPLOYED IN THE 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF COLORS. 
 
 " The coal is first siibniilted to distillation in uiKlorground 
 retorts, which are heated to redness by a vertical flue placed 
 upon the upper part of the retort. The gas is set free at the 
 same flue as the oleaginous product, which is deposited by 
 cooling, and drains into large vats. The gas pursues its way 
 in the flues, and after purification, enters the reservoirs, from 
 which it is distributed for illuminating purposes. 
 
 "The oleaginous product is the tar, which is produced in 
 large quantities, and still, to-day, encumbers certain manu- 
 factories that do not distil it. Coal-tar contains a number of 
 chemical products, which are separated by distillation, and 
 by appropriate treatment. 
 
 "Amono- them we shall cite only those which interest us, 
 and which are utilized for the production of colors, which are 
 the following : — 
 
 Benzine (C.U,). ' Toluene (C^H^). 
 
 Xylene (CgHio). Anthracene (C14H10). 
 
 Naphthaline Aniline (CgHjAg). 
 
 Phenic, or carbolic acid (CgHgO). 
 
 Benzine — Toluene — Xylene. 
 
 "The product sold in commerce under the name of benzine, 
 is nearly always a mixture of benzine, toluene, and xylene, 
 and it is this mixture, in variable proportions, or at least a 
 mixture of benzine and toluene, which is generally employed 
 in the manufacture of colors. 
 
 "Benzine, in the state of purity, is a colorless volatile oil, 
 boiling at the temperature of 80°. It is less dense than 
 water (its density being 0.850), and very inflammable, and 
 when on fire, cannot be extinguished with water, as it will 
 swim on the surface. It becomes solid at zero. It was dis- 
 
476 THE AMERICAX DYEK. 
 
 covered in 1825, by Faraday. Dr. Hoffmann noted its ex- 
 istence in coal-tar in 1845. To separate the ijenzine from 
 the varions products with which it is mingled in the coal-tar, 
 they proceed, as we have said, by distillation, separating the 
 light products ; that is to say, those which are less dense than 
 water, from the heavy products. 
 
 "They re-distil several times these light products, after 
 having treated them with sulphuric acid, and they have then 
 a limpid, colorless oil, which contains a mixture of benzine, 
 toluene, xylene, &c. By fractional and repeated distillations, 
 or by a single distillation in an apparatus suitably arranged, 
 they separate these various substances. That which ])asses 
 over at the lowest temperature, is the benzine, which boils at 
 80°, then the toluene at 110°, the xylene at 130°." (It was 
 Mansfield that pointed out the existence of toluene in coal- 
 tar, in 1847 ; its density is about 0.840.) " Although toluene 
 resembles benzine, it differs from it in several of its proper- 
 ties. Toluene is found in balsam of tolu. If the balsam is 
 distilled to dryness, the distillation give a mixture of benzoic 
 ether and of toluene. 
 
 "Xylene was found by Cahours, in 1850, in the oil which 
 is separated from raw wood spirit, by the addition of water. 
 It plays a much less important part than benzine and toluene 
 in the formations of colors ; we will, therefore, no longer dwell 
 upon it. 
 
 " Nitio-benzine : The product sold under this name is almost 
 always a mixture of nitro-benzine and nitro-toluene. It was 
 discovered in 1833, by Mitscherlich. It is an oily liquid, of 
 a light amber color ; its odor is that of the essence of bitter 
 almonds. It solidifies at 3° below zero. It boils at 213°. 
 Its density is 1.209. It is inflammable. 
 
 "Nitro-toluene has many of the physical properties of nitro- 
 benzine. It boils at 225°, and its density is 1.180. 
 
 "Nitro-benzine and nitro-toluene are obtained by causing 
 fuming nitric' acid to re-act upon the two hydrocarbonatcs. 
 
 "This operation is not always without danger; and at the 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 477 
 
 commencement of using these substances to attain dyes, there 
 were numerous accidents and explosions, accompanied with 
 contlairrations occasionally. 
 
 "When these substances were first manufactured, it was 
 done in glass vessels, next in stone, but now in iron ves- 
 sels. In an iron apparatus of a cylindrical form, with a 
 capacity of two hundred and twenty to three hundred and 
 thirty gallons, ihey introduce first the whole quantity of ben- 
 zine that they wish to transform ; then they set in motion an 
 agitator with which the apparatus is provided, and cause a , 
 mixture of sulphuric and nitric acids to enter by a tube 
 arranged for that purpose. The agitator is kept constantly 
 in motion, so that the mixture of acid may come in contact 
 with the whole mass, until it is all liquefied. 
 
 "They moderate the re-action, or render it active, either 
 by applying cold water upon the walls of the apparatus, or by 
 sendins steam into a covering which surrounds it. When the 
 operation is ended, they liquefy the product, which separates 
 into two strata ; the one oily, which is the nitro-benzine ; 
 the other is an acid mixture, weakened. 
 
 "The nitro-benzine has to be washed thoroughly with water, 
 then with a small quantity of soda in the water, in order to 
 neutralize the acid." 
 
 Aniline — Toluidine. 
 
 " These are the last products secured preparatory to ol)tain- 
 ing most of the so-called aniline dyes or colors. The product 
 sold by the name of aniline, is, generally speaking, a mixture 
 of aniline and toluidine." 
 
 Aniline was discovered in 1820, by Unverdorben.* In 
 1833, Runge discovered that aniline yielded, when brought 
 into contact with a solution of bleaching powder (hypochlorate 
 of lime), a very beautiful violet color, hence the name kyanol 
 {blue coloring oil). 
 
 * Unverdorben first discovered it among the products of the tlry distilla- 
 tion of iudij^o. — G. 
 
478 THE AMERICAX DYER. 
 
 "Range also discovered, in 1834, the existence of aniline 
 already formed in coal-tar. Later, Hoffmann indicated proc- 
 esses for effecting its separation from coal-tar ; but, unfortu- 
 nately, it was obtained in this way in small quantities. It was 
 Zinin who first discovered that nitro-benzine* could be trans- 
 formed into aniline ; and, later, Bechamp, perfecting Zinin's 
 process of transforming, endowed industry with a practical 
 process, just at the moment of the birth of the aniline colors, 
 in 1859 ; a process which has contributed not a little to the 
 great development which that industry at once received. 
 
 "Aniline is an oily product, slightly colored, and boils at 
 182^. It has a very strong aromatic odor, and is also a very 
 energetic poison. It combines with acids, forming salts, 
 which generally are soluble in water. Its density is 1.028. 
 
 "Toluidine is obtained like aniline, but by the reduction of 
 nitro-tolucne. It boils at 198°. Its density is about 1.012. 
 It is solid at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere, but 
 it is nearly always mixed with pseudo-toluidine ; and, in this 
 case, it crystallizes only at a temperature below zero, sepa- 
 rating itself from the pseudo-toluidine. Pseudo-toluidine (a 
 body isomeric with toluidine) was discovered by Rosenstiehl. 
 It is always formed at the same time as toluidine. Its boil- 
 ing-point is the same as toluidine ; many of their properties 
 are common to both ; but Rosenstiehl very skilfully succeeded 
 in finding the re-actions which serve to characterize them ; 
 also the method of separating them. He has likewise indi- 
 cated the part which each of these alkaloids plays in the man- 
 ufacture of aniline red. 
 
 "Aniline, which was formerly prepared in a small appara- 
 tus, is to-day made in a large cast-iron cylinder, very nearly 
 of the same shape and capacity as that used for the manu- 
 
 * In the year 1842, Zinin found that when nitro-benzine was treated Avith 
 sulphuretted hydrogen, there was formed a base, which he termed benzi- 
 dam. The further researches of Erdmann, brought the fact to light, that 
 Uuderdorben's kyanol, beuzidom, and aniline, were the same substance, to 
 which the name of aniline was then liually given. — G. 
 
THE AMERICAIT DYER. 479 
 
 fjictiire of nitro-benzine, and likewise provided witii an agi- 
 tator (mixer). They pour in at first some very wrak aeetic 
 acid ; they set tlie agitator in motion, then they add a. certain 
 quantity of pulverized cast-iron, and all the nitro-benzine that 
 they wish to transform. 
 
 "A lively re-action sets in; the vapors condense into a 
 re-distiller, placed above the apparatus and in communication 
 Avith it, and fall back into it continually ; they add, little by 
 little, new quantities of iron. 
 
 " When the nitro-benzine is transformed into aniline, as 
 soon as they discover this, they draw out some of the 
 liquid product, and if it entirely dissolves in muriatic acid, 
 they then inject steam into the mass ; and, in this manner, 
 they cany away the aniline from it. They then submit this 
 to a new distillation, and in this state it is employed for the 
 manufacture of colors." 
 
 Methylaniline — Ethylaniline. 
 
 " These bases are compound anilines, that is to say, ani- 
 lines in which a molecule of ethyl or of methyl has been sub- 
 stituted for a molecule of the aniline.* They are oily liquids, 
 with a slight yellow color, and boil at a higher temperature 
 than that of aniline. These bases are ob ained in the factory 
 of A. Poirrier, by a process original with him. Into an appa- 
 ratus capable of sustaining a high pressure, they introduce a 
 salt of aniline, the chlorhydrate, and the alcohol whose radi- 
 cal they wish to obtain ; they close the apparatus hermeti- 
 cally, and then apply heat for some hours at difierent temper- 
 atures, according to the nature of the alcohol and its boiling- 
 point, perhaps from 225° to 250°, and even 300°. 
 
 " When the operation is ended, they let the apparatus cool, 
 then draw ofl' the liquid ; they have the chlorhydrate of the 
 base, which they decompose by the addition of certain quan- 
 tities of lime ; they distil the whole over an open fire ; they 
 
 * Hofliuiinu was the first to make these substitutions. — CJ. 
 
480 THE AMEKICAX DYER. 
 
 separate tlie oily layer, and re-distil it again, separating the 
 parts which flow over at a temperature between 11)0° and 
 210°, if it is methyl aniline which they are ol)taining, and* it 
 is these parts which are used for transformation into colors. 
 By the addition of bichloride of anhydrous tin, the methylan- 
 iline becomes -at once a beautiful blue-violet color. 
 
 PiiExic Acid — NAPn-niALixE — Anthracene. 
 
 "Calvert was one of the first chemists who olitained phenic 
 acid, industrially, in a state of remarkable purity. Phenic 
 acid is a solid, crystallized substance, and is colorless.* It 
 has the odor of smoke. It has a caustic and burning taste. 
 Its density is about 1.065. It is much employed at the pres- 
 ent day in pharmacy. 
 
 "To obtain it, it is necessary to collect the parts which boil 
 over between 160° and 190°, when coal-tar is distilled. 
 They then treat these with a lye of soda, quite weak. They 
 thus obtain })henate of soda, which they decompose by sul- 
 phuric acid. They then submit it again to distillation, and 
 the oily product, after having separated the heavier products 
 from the lighter ones, is the pure phenic acid, which easily 
 crystallizes. 
 
 " Naphthaline f is a solid, colorless, and crystallized product, 
 having a strong odor of coalrtar. It boils at 220°." 
 
 "It is found in large quantities in the light oils of the dis- 
 tillation of the tar, after they have separated from the phenic 
 acid. They have them in a solid mass, which they submit to 
 the action of a press ; the product thus pressed out, is sub- 
 mitted to sublimation, and the naphthaline thus obtained is 
 quite pure ; although its boiling point is very high, it sub- 
 limes easily." 
 
 * It becomes slightly reddened by exposure to the atmosphere. It fuses 
 at 34^^, ami boils at about 180'^. — G. 
 
 t This Jiiateriiil wan •discovered iu 1820 by Garden, in coal-tar, and was 
 afterwards the subject of close research by Fara<lay, Hoffmann, Ballo, and 
 others. According to Berthollett, it may be prepared by substituting for two 
 atoms of hydrogen of the benzole, two atoms of acetylene. — G. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 481 
 
 " NaphtliJiline, when treated with nitric acid, is transformed 
 into nitro-naphthnlinc (CiulI^NO.j), which, when rechiccd like 
 nitro-bciizine, is transformed into naphtylamine, a base analo- 
 gons with aniline." 
 
 "Anthracene* is obtained by the process of Broenner, by 
 submitting in a retort, either the resin of coal-tar or asphalt, 
 to the action of superheated steam. When they distil the 
 light oil of coal-tar, there remains at the end of the distilla- 
 tion a glutinous product, of an orange color, which contains 
 nmch anthracene." 
 
 " In the foregoing remarks we have shown how they obtain 
 tar from coal, the various products which they extract from 
 this tar, the transformations which they caused certain of 
 these products to undergo, — the benzine into nitr()-benzine,and 
 this last into aniline, this into methyaniline and into diphenyl- 
 amine, &c. It only remains further for us to describe the 
 method of obtaining the aniline colors from these products." 
 
 * This material was discovered in 1831 by J. Dumas, and was first em- 
 ployed by Graebe and Liebermanu in 18()9, for the purpose of obtaining 
 anthracene red or artiticial alizarine. — G. 
 
 61 
 
482 THE AMEKICAX DYER. 
 
 PREPAEATIO:Nr 
 
 VARIOUS COLORS DERIVED FROM ANILINE. 
 
 Aniline Violet, Mauveine, Rosolane, Ljdisine. 
 
 " The Perkins violet, to which the inventor gave the name of 
 mauveine, in the form of a base, is also known by the name 
 of Rosalane, Indisine, &c., names which have been given by 
 different manufacturers. 
 
 "Mauveine or violet is, as we have said, the first color ob- 
 tained industrially, and derived from aniline. This is a red- 
 violet, less brilliant than the other violets which have been 
 discovered since, but which has the advantage of being more 
 solid in appearance. This dye can be obtained in the form of 
 crystals of a fine brilliant green color, but it is generally 
 found in the market in the form of paste. 
 
 "This violet is obtained by mixing cold, or nearly cold 
 solutions of sulphate or chlorhydrate of aniline, and of bichro- 
 mate of potash, equivalent for equivalent. As the process of 
 mixing the two liquids goes on, a black precipitate forms, 
 and the temperature rises. They leave the solutions in con- 
 tact for some time, perhaps twenty-four hours ; then they 
 wash the precipitate thoroughly in cold water, to take away 
 the salts which might impede solution. The black product 
 being washed, they treat it with thirty or forty times its 
 weight of boiling water ; they stop the ebullition at the end of 
 a certain time, perhaps one hour; then the black mass de- 
 
THE AMERICAX DYER. 483 
 
 posits, and the liquor is strongly colored violet ; they then 
 tilter so as to separate the impurities which nii^iht reinaiii in 
 sus('ension, and they add to the tiltered liquid a certain quan- 
 tity of marine salt (common salt) ; this causes the violet dye 
 to precipitate in a flaky form; they filter again ; a water en- 
 tirely colorless passes through, and the coloring material 
 remains npon the filter. 
 
 " Perkins, in his patent, recommended the purification of the 
 black mass by benzine, then drainage with warm ak-ohol. This 
 mode of treatment, which is yet partia-lly followed by certain 
 manufacturers, requires the use of very costly apparatus, and 
 has likewise, the inconvenience of giving less pure products, 
 and they are obliged to re-dissolve them in water to get the 
 purity they desire. 
 
 "On the nature of the aniline, and on the temperature at 
 which the operation is carried on, depends the success of 
 producing violet dyes, and it demands the greatest care to 
 produce them, for the amount of product varies very quickly, 
 to the extent of over or double itself." 
 
 NoTK. — The so-oallod violet imperijil obtained by Girard and De Laire,bvthe 
 action ofliiclnoniate of potash upon a mixture of aniline oil and liydrochloi- 
 ate of rosaniliue, dilieis from the above product. — G. 
 
 Aniline Eed, Rosaniline (C20H19AZ3H2O), Fuchsine, 
 RosEiNE, Magenta. 
 
 "Aniline red, like the Perkins violet, Is sold under various 
 names. It was Renard Brothers who gave it the name of 
 fuchsine, from the German name fuchs, which means Renard 
 (English, fox). Aniline red, which is a colorless l)ase, desig- 
 nated l)y Hoffmann under the name of Romniline, is generally 
 delivered to the consumer in crystals of a fine brilliant green 
 color, which gives a magnificent red solution in alcohol, or 
 warm water. The coloring-power of this material, li4ve all 
 Other aniline dyes, is immense. 
 
 "With two and one-fifth pounds of aniline red, we can 
 
4 8 J: THE AMEKICAX DYER. 
 
 color from twelve to fifteen pieces of merino (according to 
 shade desired), or from 1,094 to 1,307 yards." 
 
 XoTE. — Veif^nin obtained aniline red by cansing the bichloride of anhydrous 
 tin to re-act upon aniline. The red was very handsome, but he made very 
 little of it. After awhile he employed other agents, which gave better results 
 in respect to the amount of dye obtained ; yet he did not obtain it in such a 
 state of purity, or at so low a cost, as it is by Poirrier's process. — G. 
 
 " Arsenic acid was and is still employed almost exclusively ; 
 yet it leaves much to desire in respect even to amount of 
 product obtained, for by the use of this acid there is more of 
 the violet, the yellow, and the brown coloring-materials 
 obtained, than there is of the reds. It is, moreover, a poison- 
 ous agent, whose use requires the greatest precautions, iu 
 order to avoid all accidents. Several attempts have been 
 made to replace it with other agents, and, to a certain extent, 
 with some success. No doubt, the time is not far distant 
 when we shall arrive at results which will be entirely success- 
 ful and satisfactory. 
 
 "At the commencement of the manufacture of aniline reds, 
 small quantities at a time were operated upon (from eleven to 
 twenty-two pounds of aniline). To-day, large quantities are 
 treated in a single apparatus. Into a cast-iron retort of a 
 capacity of about four hundred and forty gallons, they put — 
 
 1,100 lbs. of aniline, 
 
 1,650 lbs. of arsenic acid (75 per cent.). 
 
 " They apply heat, and constantly agitate the mass by means 
 of paddles fixed in an iron shaft, wTiich traverses the retort 
 from axle to axle. Water and aniline are distilled and con- 
 densed in a worm, which is in communication with the retort. 
 At the end of some hours the operation is finished. Comple- 
 tion is recognized when, on drawing out a portion or sample 
 of the* mass, they have a product, which, upon cooling, be- 
 comes hard, and whose fracture is brilliant. They then draw 
 the fire, and cause a jet of boiling water to enter the retort. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 485 
 
 The aniline attached is drawn off. The liquid mass is then 
 conducted, by means of pipes, into an apparatus of great 
 capacity, also provided with a number of agitators or mixers. 
 
 "The product, which is kept boiling for some hours in a 
 large amount of water, becomes dissolved in it. They then 
 add carbonate of lime, which takes up the arsenic acid, form- 
 ing an ijisoluble salt. Then they let the contents of the ves- 
 sels remain awhile undisturbed. The solid or resinous 
 matters are deposited, and they tilter the liquid into large vats. 
 By cooling, the aniline red is deposited upon the walls of the 
 vessel in the form of brilliant green crystals. There is noth- 
 ing more to be done except to collect these crystals and dry 
 them. 
 
 " The quantity of red thus obtained varies with the compo- 
 sition of the anliline set to work ; that is to say, accordino- as 
 the aniline contains more or less aniline, toluidine, or pseudo- 
 toluidine. 
 
 " We have said that aniline red was the salt of a colorless 
 base, which is called rosaniline. For the transformations into 
 blue, violet, green, &c., rosaniline is often used instead of the 
 salts. We ought then to tell how it is prepared. To a boil- 
 ing dilute solution of quite pure aniline red, it is only neces- 
 sary to add the quantity of soda requisite to decompose the 
 salt. Ebullition is maintained for some time, and, by cool- 
 ing, is deposited a beautiful white crystalline powder, which 
 is the rosaniline." 
 
 ANILINE BLUE (TRIPHEXYLIC ROSANILINE, C^,U,, 
 AZ3H2O) — IMPERIAL VIOLET — SOLUBLE ANI- 
 LINE BLUE. 
 
 "Aniline blue, discovered by Girard and De Laire, is a 
 product in the form of a powder, of a bronze ai)pearance, but 
 sometimes of a deep blue color; it dissolves in alcohol, in 
 wood spirits, and gives upon tissues very striking blues. 
 
486 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 They color with this aniline, by using an acid, or else a mor- 
 dant* ; hut without the use of these agents, a dull gray is 
 obtained, or at the best a violet instead of a blue." 
 
 "Imperial violet, which is a product of the same nature as 
 the blue, only less phenylated, acts as a dye in the same 
 manner." 
 
 Note. — Nicholson found that tlio aniline blue would combine with sulphuric 
 acid, the same as indigo would, an<l in consequence it became soluble in 
 water ; thus originated the soluble blue, so called. — G. 
 
 "The soluble blue is employed with success, especially by 
 following a particular method of application, which gives 
 good results, dyeing in a neutral bath, and raising or height- 
 ening the color in an acid hath." (See Recipes for Blues.) 
 
 To obtain this blue, into an enamelled cast-iron retort, 
 furnished with agitators, they put — 
 
 11 lbs, salt of rosaniliue (or the acetate), 
 3o lbs. light aniline. 
 
 They heat the mass ,to 180°. It at first passes into violet, 
 then into blue. They stop the operation, when, in drawing 
 off a sample of the mass, they obtain in alcohol a solution of 
 pure blue. The product is then turned into a vessel contain- 
 ing pure or diluted muriatic acid, which takes up the aniline 
 that may be in excess ; the blue precipitates. They then 
 separate it by filtering, and washing it in boiling water: then 
 they pulverize and dry it. If they wish blues of a very pure 
 shade, they add to the ordinary handsome blue, some parts 
 of alcohol. The reddish blue, being the most soluble, dis- 
 solves, while the green-blue remains, which they collect by 
 filtration. 
 
 "Imperial violet is obtained exactly as the imperial blue is, 
 only they stop the operation much sooner. They ascertain 
 
 * The best mordant we ever used (for fastness), was chrome, alum, aud 
 sulphate of soda, for wool, but fur cottou-yarn, silicate of soda. — G. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 487 
 
 the point where it is necessary to stop, by drawing ofl' a 
 sample from time to time, and dissolving it in alcohol. ° 
 
 "To render the blue solnble, they take one part of blue, 
 and fonr to six parts of concentrated sulphuric acid. They 
 heat the whole to a temi)oratine which ought not to exceed 
 150°. They know that the blue is soluble, when, on drawing 
 off a small sample, it dissolves in pure or slightly alkaline 
 water. They then free it from excess of acid, by repeated 
 washings in small quantities of water, and by the final addi- 
 tion of an alkali to neutralize it." 
 
 HOFFMANN VIOLETS. 
 
 MONOETHYLIC RoSANILINE (C.,,H,,Az^U,0) , Red SiIADE. 
 DiETHYLIC ROSANILINE {C,,U,,Az,U,0) , MeDIUM ShaDE. 
 
 Triethylic Rosaniline (C,,U,,Az,U,0), Blue Shade. 
 
 Iodine Green (C^sHgiAzgL.H^O).* 
 " Hoffmann violet, which was discovered by the learned pro- 
 fessor whose name it bears, differs from the imperial violet, 
 in that the latter is a phenylic rosaniline, while the Hoffmann 
 is a methylic or ethylic rosaniline ; only, in substituting ethy- 
 lic or methylic they never obtain blue, but a very blue"violet, 
 and some green. Hoffmann violet, in its pure state, presents' 
 a brilliant green mass, which, excepting the iodhydrate con- 
 tained in it, and soluble only in alcohol, dissolves in water 
 into a brilliant green mass. 
 
 "They prepare it in a closed apparatus, or an arrangement 
 for re-distillation. If they operate in a close vessel, they 
 have an enamelled digester with a double bottom, which they 
 heat by steam, or in an oil-bath. 
 
 * Hoffmann's and Charles Girard's.— g. 
 
488 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 They put in«— 
 
 5 kilofframmes rosaniline=:ll lbs. av. 
 26 " alcohol or wood spirits =55 lbs. av. 
 
 12 to 15 " iodide of ethyl or of methyl=24 or 
 
 30 lbs. av. 
 
 "They heat this mixture for three hours, to about 100°. If 
 they have used iodide of methyl, green is formed at the same 
 time as violet. They separate them by taking the mass pre- 
 viously freed from excess of iodides, and boiling it in a cer- 
 tain amount of water. 
 
 "When the liquor is cooled they filter it; the green is in 
 solution, and the violet, which is in the form of iodhydrate, 
 is precipitated ; they separate by the addition of a small quan- 
 tity of alkali ; the little violet which might yet be in solution 
 they filter again, and they precipitate the green by the addi- 
 tion of a solution of picric acid ; the green is now in a flakey 
 form. They collect this green upon a filter. The Hoft'mann 
 violet, freed thus from green, is treated by a lye of soda in a 
 state of ebullition. The soda takes up the iodine, and forms 
 iodide of sodium (which they afterwards decompose in order 
 to recover the iodine), and they have the violet in the form 
 of a colorless base. This base is treated with a quantity of 
 muriatic acid necessary to form a neutral salt, and they have 
 a product entirely soluble in water. 
 
 "If in place of the iodide of methyl, they use the iodide 
 of ethyl, but little green is formed, and the whole mass is 
 then treated according to the process already described for 
 the Hoffmann violet, when it has been freed from the green 
 formed by the use of the iodide of methyl." 
 
 Aldehyde Green. 
 "This green, as well as the iodide green, the Hoffmann vio- 
 let, the blue, and the imperial violet, is obtained from aniline 
 red. ' At first they transform the red into a peculiar blue, by 
 the action of aldehyde. They take one part of aniline red, 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 489 
 
 dissolved in a mixture of two parts of sulphuric acid, and 
 two parts of water. This mass becomes warm. "When it has 
 cooled they add, little hy little, two parts of aldehyde, and 
 leave it in contact with the rest. They draw, from time to 
 time, small samples, which they dissolve in water; when they 
 obtain a solution of pure blue, they turn the whole into about 
 eighty-eight gallons of boiling water, which has in the solu- 
 tion two and one-fifth pounds of hyposulphite of soda. They 
 stir the whole, then they filter it ; the filtrated liquid con- 
 tains the green. They use this filtered solution for coloring, 
 or else they precipitate the coloring-matter in the form of 
 paste, either with tannin or by the acetate of soda." 
 
 It is in the form of a paste that this green dye is generally 
 sold. 
 
 COLORS DERIVED FROM COMPOUNDED ANI- 
 LINES. 
 
 Paris Violet. 
 
 "The Paris violet is ofiered, like the HofTmann violet, in the 
 form of a green mass, brilliant, soluble in warm water, and 
 even in cold water. They obtain with the Paris violet, as 
 well as the Hoflmann violet, various shades, from the very 
 reddest violet to the very bluest violet. 
 
 "They obtain the Paris violet by oxidizing a compounded 
 aniline, containing the radical of an alcohol, or the radicals 
 of different alcohols ; they use generally methylaniline or 
 dimethylaniline. The methylaniline easily becomes violet 
 color." Here is one process, which gives good results : 
 
 Into an enamelled cast-iron digester, of the capacity of 
 fifty-five gallons, placed in a wet bath, they put 
 
 50 kilogrammes of methylaniline=:110 lbs. av. 
 40 ♦♦ of chlorate of potash=88 lbs. av. 
 
 10 " of iodiue=:22 lbs. av. 
 
 62 
 
490 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Chlorate of potash and iodine are added by degrees, for 
 the space of some hours. 
 
 "When the first portion of iodine and chlorate has been put 
 in, the mixture is heated to between 80° and 100°, and this 
 tem})erature is kept up for four or five days, until they 
 obtain a hard mass of a fine bronzed green. They treat this 
 mass with a lye of soda ; the chlorate in excess dissolves and 
 the iodine combines with the soda. The violet, which is in 
 the form of a base, is precipitated in a deep brown mass ; they 
 treat this mass with boiling water to take away the traces of 
 iodide of sodium ; then they take it up again with a certain 
 amount of boiling water, which contains the necessary quan- 
 tity of muriatic acid for forming a neutral salt with the base; 
 they then have a bath strongly charged with violet ; they fil- 
 ter it ; the impurities remain upon the filter, and to the filtrated 
 liquor is added some marine salt (common salt). 
 
 "The coloring-matter is precipitated, by cooling, in the 
 form of a very brilliant, handsome green product. They pul- 
 verize and dry it, and it is sold in this condition." 
 
 DiPHEXYL AMINE BlUE.* 
 
 " This blue is obtained by causing sesquichloride of carbon 
 to re-act upon a mixture of diphenylamine. Thus, — 
 
 1 part of the alkaloids, 
 
 ^ to 1 part of the sesquichloride. 
 
 "They heat this mixture to between 160° and 180°; the 
 mass is transformed into a bronzed product, which is purified 
 by repeated Avashings in benzine and alcohol. This blue 
 presents no characteristic distinction from those of the blues 
 derived from rosaniline." 
 
 Aniline Black. 
 " Aniline black is produced upon tissues (cotton-yarn or 
 fabrics), either by printing or by dyeing, but contrary to the 
 
 • This is a pateut of Girard's aud De Laire's. — G. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 491 
 
 other aniline colors, it develops very well upon cotton, while 
 up to the present time there have l)ecn no good results ob- 
 tained by it upon wool or woolen fabrics." 
 
 "For obtaining the black in printing upon cotton, the 
 following is the recipe laid down by Charles Lauth, and is 
 generally practised to-day, that of Lightfoot having been 
 abandoned, because the materials which he employed attacked 
 the fibre and almost destroyed it. 
 
 10 litres farina starch, 
 350 grammes chocolatQ of potash, 
 300 " sulphuret of copper (in paste), 
 300 " sal-ammonia, 
 800 '* chlorhydrate of aniline. 
 
 Or thus : 
 
 2j2j gallons farina starch, 
 
 11^ ounces chlorate of potash, 
 
 10| '< sulphuret of copper (in paste), 
 
 10|- " sal-ammonia, 
 
 28|- " chlorhydrate of aniline. 
 
 "They print the yarn or fabric with this mixture, and carry 
 into a very airy room ; the black develops ; then the yarn or 
 cloth is washed either in pure or alkaline water. 
 
 " For coloring with the aniline black, the following is the 
 method adopted, which was patented by Charles Lauth in 
 1872. 
 
 "The cotton (either yarn or cloth) is first mordanted in a 
 concentrated solution of a salt of manganese ; it is then dried ; 
 then passed through an alkaline bath ; it is then exposed to 
 the action of the atmosphere ; then washed ; then passed 
 through the dye-bath which is made up as follows : 
 
 100 litres of water:=244 galls., nearly. 
 5 kilogrammes of anilinemll lbs., nearl3\ 
 10 *' of chlorhydric acid=22 lbs., nearly. 
 
492 THE AMEEICAIJf DYER. 
 
 Or,- 
 
 22 gallons of water, 
 11 lbs. of aniline. 
 22 ♦' of chlorhydric acid. 
 
 Note.- When this article is taken out of the dyeing-bath it has a deep green 
 color ; it is then washed in an alkaline bath, which changes it into a mag- 
 nificent black. After being wasbed, if the material is passed through a 
 solution of bichlorate of potash, the color will be more iuteuse. — G. 
 
 COLORS DERIVED FROM PHENIC ACID, NAPHTHA- 
 LINE, AND ANTHRACENE. 
 
 "In the pure state, picric acid is sold in the form of crys- 
 tals, in spangles of a clear yellow color ; it dissolves iu alco- 
 hol and in water. 
 
 " It is obtained by introducing, in small quantities at a time, 
 nitric acid into pheuic acid, or else into a mixture pre- 
 viously made with phenic and sulphuric acids. 
 
 "It is used in coloring yellows, and some particular shades 
 of green, by mixture with a blue.* Picric acid, treated with 
 the cyanide of potassium, is transformed into a peculiar acid 
 called isopurpuric acid, whose color is red. The aramoniacal 
 salt of this acid gives a coloring-matter analogous to murex- 
 ide. The isopurpurates, iu a dry state, detonate at the least 
 shock." 
 
 It has of late become usual to employ, instead of pure 
 picric acid, the soda-salt of this acid, under the name of ani- 
 line 3'ellow. This has given rise to very serious accidents, 
 owing to the highly explosive nature of this salt. 
 
 « 
 RosALic Acid — Coralline — Azuline. 
 
 "Rosalie acid is obtained by treating a mixture of — 
 
 * See recipes for green on felt cloth. 
 
THE AMEllICAN DYER. 493 
 
 One part oxalic acid. 
 
 One-half to one part plieuic acid. 
 
 Two parts sulphuric acid. 
 
 Rosolic acid gives an orange-yellow color. When this acid 
 is submitted to the action of ammonia, under pressure at a 
 temperature of 150°, this product is transformed into a red 
 coloring-material,* to which Guinon, Manias, and Bonnett 
 have given the name of coraline. These gentlemen obtained 
 the blue coloring-material, which they have called azuline, by 
 heating the red product (obtained with ammonia) with aniline." 
 
 Colors derived from Naphthaline. 
 
 " Many experiments have been made to obtain colors with 
 naphthaline; but the only colors which have been prepared 
 industrially, tip to the present time, are a 3^ellovv and a red. 
 The yellowf is obtained by the action of nitrate of soda upon 
 the chlorhydate of naphthylamine ; a liquor is obtained, which, 
 heated to ebullition with nitric acid, gives small yellow 
 needles, whiuli separate and which they collect at the sur- 
 face. 
 
 "The substance is analogous to. picric acid, only it gives 
 shades of a more golden yellow." 
 
 Naphthaline Scarlet. 
 
 "This substance was discovered by Schiendel, at Vienna (in 
 1867), and patented by Clavel of Basle. To obtain this 
 scarlet they employ two alkaloids, — the naphthylamine and 
 an oily product which is formed at the same time and which 
 distils at a higher temperature. This last product has nitrate 
 of protoxide of mercury added to it and is heated to a tem- 
 pei-ature not very high. 
 
 "There is formed a brown coloring-matter which they iso- 
 
 * This red will not resist the action of light.— g. 
 t By the Martius process, called Marti us yellow. — o. 
 
494 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 late from the mercur}' and from the tarry products that form 
 at the same time. This brown matter is mixed with a certain 
 amount of naphthylamine ; they heat the whole, and the red 
 forms ; they free it of impurities by the means employed for 
 the aniline colors. 
 
 "An analogous product is obtained after the method of 
 Mons. Ulrich,* by causing nitrate of lead to re-act lipon an 
 acetate of rosaniline, then causing an alcoholic iodine to re- 
 act upon the product thus obtained. 
 
 Artificial Alizarine. 
 
 "Graebe and Liebermann, to whom belong the honor of 
 the discovery of artificial alizarine by means of anthracene, 
 patented a process, which has since been perfected by Broen- 
 ner and Gutzkow. 
 
 "These chemists treat anthracene by an oxidizing agent, 
 such as the bichromate of potash, with sulphuric or some other 
 acid, and, by preference, they take, as an oxidizing agent, 
 nitric acid, twice the weight of the product. They obtain a 
 substance, which they purify by sublimation, or by crystalli- 
 zation. Then they dissolve it in sulphuric acid by aid of heat, 
 and then add a salt of mercury, a nitrate. The coloring-mat- 
 ter forms. They extract it by means of an alkaline bath, 
 which develops the color. They filter. They precipitate by 
 the addition of a small quantity of acid to the bath. Then 
 they purify this coloring material by crystallization, or by 
 sublimation. "With this product they obtain the same shades 
 as with the natural alizarine and purpurine, and the shades are 
 all permanent colors." 
 
 "Once entered on the path, organic chemistry will not stop 
 again, and we shall not dcs^pair of seeing indigo itself soon 
 share the fate of madder, and be prepared by analogous proc- 
 esses." 
 
 * Mons. Ulrich obtained a patent for tbis metbod of obtaining red from 
 uapbtbaline iu 1868. — G. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 495 
 
 NoTK. — The recent wonderful discovery of alizarine, or artificial madder, in 
 coal-tar, has led practical men to expect foo miich from science. We know that 
 the opinion is qnite prevalent among manufacturers, that artificial indif^otine 
 has already been obtained from the same source. There are also some manu- 
 facturers who are san>;uine that the dithculties of indijfo-dyeinjjj will thus be 
 resolved. We do not think it improbable, — f<n- what is impossible to modern 
 chemistry ? — that this result will yet be partially obtained. If tiie produc- 
 tion of artiticial indij^otine should be realized, the only benefit would be the 
 possible clu'apeninj^ of in«ligo. The ditliculties of the indigo-vat would still 
 remain ; for in the very difUculties of working an indigo-vat, or in the 
 insolubility of blue iudigotiue by ordinary agents, consist the excellence of 
 the dye. — G. 
 
 Of all the colors derived from tar, artificial alizarine will, 
 no doubt, be the most important, both because of the large 
 amount that will be consumed, but because of the revolution 
 it will bring about in the agriculture of certain countries (the 
 culture of madder). 
 
 Chemists sought for a long time to prepare it from naphtha- 
 line, because of the relations which exists in the composition 
 of the two substances (alizarine and naphthaline), but it was 
 Graebe and Liebermann, chemists of Berlin, who, applying to 
 alizarine the process of reduction indicat*ed by Mons. Berth-- 
 ellott, found that the hydro-carburet to which they went back, 
 was anthracene, and not naphthaline. After this discovery, all 
 that was wanting was to find a process by which they could 
 transform the anthracene into alizarine. The above-named 
 chemists were successful in finding a process of doing this ; 
 but later, Broenner and Gutzkow perfected the process of 
 Graebe and Liebermann. 
 
 The anthracene is extracted from the solid product of coal- 
 tar, by rectifying that product, but it is not yet known 
 whether this product will 1)e obtained in sufiicient quantities 
 to furnish the whole amount of alizarine which is given to-day 
 by the madder. 
 
 The artificial alizarine has all -the properties of the alizarine 
 of madder ; and over all the aniline colors, it has the advan- 
 tage of producing permanent shades, although it has not their 
 brilliancy. 
 
496 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 IMPROVEiMENTS AND DISCOVERIES MADE IN 
 COAL-TAR COLORS. 
 
 From the first discovery of aniline violet by Dr. W. H. 
 Perkins in 1856, to the present day, there is no art or science 
 that has made, in the same number of years, such progression, 
 and arrived at such a state of perfection, as that of producing 
 artificial dyes from coal and its products. 
 
 To Poirrier and his co-laborers, more than to any other 
 chemists, are dyers, and the world at large, mostly indebted 
 for improvements, inventions and discoveries, which have 
 been made towards the perfection of these colors. 
 
 The following compilation, as well as some of the pre- 
 ceding pages, are translated expressly for this work, from the 
 reports of the Universal Exposition of Vienna in 1873. 
 
 " The house was first established in 1830. A. Poirrier has 
 been at the head of the house since 1858, with Chappat, the 
 younger, as partner, until 18(58, since which time Porrier has 
 been the sole proprietor of the house, having connected with 
 .him as co-laborers, such eminent chemists as Messrs. Charles 
 Lauth, S. Morel, H. Baubigny, Luizet and others. 
 
 A. Poirrier has received the following medals and diplomas : 
 
 First, the medal of honor, London, 181)2. 
 
 Gold medal, Paris, 1867. 
 
 Diploma of honor, Lyons, 1872. 
 
 Grand diploma of honor, Vienna, 1873. 
 
 At the Vienna Universal Exposition, in 1873, Charles 
 Lauth received a diploma of honor ; Baubigny and Morel, 
 medals of co-operation. 
 
 Charles Lauth also received a medal of the first-class from 
 the Industrial Society of Mulhouse. 
 
 A platinum medal from the Society of Encouragement of 
 Paris (for aniline black). 
 
 A gold medal, Paris, 1867. 
 
 A. Poirrier's chemists are thus classed and employed : 
 
 Charles Lauth, in general researches. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 407 
 
 S. Morel, director of the factory for chemical products at 
 Pecy. 
 
 H. Baubigny ; researches, director of the manufacture of 
 methyl-aniline violet and gr^en. 
 
 T. Robatel ; researches, director of the manufacture of 
 rosaniline and its derivations. 
 
 Luizet, director of the manufacture of saflranine. 
 
 A. Poirrier is the sole proprietor of the patents for violet de 
 Pan's, and sole grantee of the right of working. He is also 
 the proprietor of the patents of the Fuchsiue Company of 
 France; viz., those of Messrs. llenard freres et Franc, for 
 red ; those of Messrs. Girard et De Laire, for blues ; those of 
 Mens. Hoffmann, for violet; those of Mr. E. C. Nicholson, 
 for blue. His principal works are at St. Denis (Seine). 
 There are employed in these works two hundred and fifty 
 workmen ; nine steam-motors, equal to seventy-five horse- 
 power ; eight generators, equal to three hundred and fifty 
 horse-power. The branch establishment is at Pecy (Seine 
 and Oise). These two, combined, are larger than any two 
 aniline manufactories either in Europe or America. 
 
 Ttie inventions and progress which A. Poirrier and his 
 chemists have obtained and giv.en to the public are, — 
 
 "First. The obtainment of violets from methylaniline, 
 and from dimethylaniline, without iodine. 
 
 "Second. The transformation of these violets into blue 
 violets, and very blue violets, replacing the iodides by a prod- 
 uct more economical. 
 
 "Third. The substitution of methylaniline violets for ros- 
 aniline, for the manufacture of blue violets and night-green. 
 
 " Fourth. The obtaining of green from methylaniline with- 
 out iodine, and application to industry of a product of the 
 laboratory, and of a very advantageous method. 
 
 "Fifth. Industrial manufacture of this product. 
 
 " Sixth. New process of dyeing wool in night-green." 
 
 The results of these inventions and discoveries are — 
 
 63 
 
498 THE AMERICAN DYEK. 
 
 " First. The entire suppression of the use of iodine in the 
 manufacture of coloring-materials from coal-tar. 
 
 "Second. The advantages from the sanitary point of view 
 of this suppression, and of the substitution of methylauiline 
 violets for rosaniline. 
 
 " Third. Economy in the net price of violets and of greens, 
 also improvement in the qualities." 
 
 INVENTIONS, PROGRESS. 
 I. — The Obtainment without Iodine of METHrLANiLiNE 
 
 Violets. 
 
 "It is known that the discovery of ethylic and methylic 
 derivatives of rosaniline, accomplished in a large part by the 
 eminent Prof. Hoffmann, speedily brought about the deprecia- 
 tion and almost disappearance of other aniline violets. 
 
 "The manufacture of these new derivatives led to the dis- 
 covery of night-green (called the iodine), which is formed at 
 the same time as the violet, by the re-action of the alcoholic 
 iodides of rosaniline, and whoee importance has been increas- 
 ing since then. 
 
 "The production of these beautiful coloring materials in- 
 volves the consumption of considerable quantities of iodine. 
 This substance, whose manufacture is very limited, was not 
 slow to increase in value in a proportion truly extraordinary ; 
 for we saw it mount from the price (already very high for a 
 raw material) of twenty francs to one hundred francs a kilo- 
 gramme ($3.72 to $16.60 per 2^ lbs. av.). 
 
 " The discovery of methylauiline violets constituted a great 
 advance in their industry, and the rewards which the jury of 
 1867, at Lyons, accorded to A. Poirrier, show the importance 
 which they attached to its discovery. But this was only a 
 first step made in that direction, for although he was enabled 
 to produce methylauiline without the use of iodine, he was 
 
THE a:mericak dyer. 499 
 
 obliged to employ this lust agent to transform the alkaloid 
 into coloring-material. One of the processes patented by him, 
 and which was still partially in operation at the factory at St. 
 Denis at the time of the jury of 18G7, depended upon the 
 use of iodine. 
 
 " Mr. Charles Lauth has since obtained for him a new proc- 
 ess, by which this use is wholly done away with, and which, 
 without lessening the beauty of the product, increases the 
 production of it. 
 
 "This process has been regularly in operation in their factory 
 for more than eight years, and has enabled them to produce 
 enormous quantities of the violet dye." 
 
 II. — Manutactuke avithout Iodine, of Blue Violets. 
 
 "The discovery already mentioned was followed by other 
 very important inventions. The consumption of violets is not 
 limited to the use of a single shade ; it requires a series of 
 products, varying from the tint of the very red violet to the 
 bluest violets. These blue-violets cannot be obtained directly 
 by the oxidation of methylaniline, nor even by the oxidation 
 of dimethylaniline. These blue shades can, to be sure, be 
 obtained by causing the iodides of ethyl and of methyl to re-act 
 upon the reddest vjolets ; but in doing this you fall back upon 
 the use of iodine, and thus lose a part of the advantage 
 gained. 
 
 "In this state of affairs, recourse must be had to the use of 
 chloride of benzyl, which has a remarkable action upon ros- 
 aniline, which Messrs. Lauth and Grimaux had previously 
 pointed out. But instead of obtaining, as with rosaniline, a 
 violet insoluble in water, they obtained, by the action of the 
 chloride of benzyl upon the methylaniline violets, the manu- 
 facture of blue violets, soluble in water, and possessed of a 
 brilliancy not attained by any of the products thus ftir known. 
 These violets constitute new chemical substances, whose shade 
 varies in accordance with the proportion of benzyl which they 
 contain, and which has the property (much appreciated by 
 
500 THE A:MERIC^iX DYER. 
 
 dyers) of 6xing themselves upon animal fibre, with the 
 presence of a certain amount of acid, and that without chang- 
 ing their brilliancy. 
 
 Note. — The addition of acid to the dye-bath gives to the wool a softer 
 feeliug, besides euabliug the coloring matter to lix itself iu a more even and 
 uniform manner. — G. 
 
 "The introduction of the chloride of benzyl into the in- 
 dustry of artiticial coloring-materials, obtains them at a 
 relative low price, a fact which easily explains the value of 
 this product, compared with that of the iodide of methyl 
 (this last substance is now worth $18.60 per 21- lbs. av.), 
 while the price of chloride of benzyl is about seventy-four 
 and a half cents for the same number of pounds. 
 
 "So by this invention they have solved for the manufiicture 
 of violets froni alcoholic radicals, this double problem of doing 
 away with iodine, thus diminishing their net cost, and of im- 
 proving their quality, by increasing their beauty and their 
 tinctorial advantages." 
 
 III. — Substitution of Methtlanilixe Violet for Ros- 
 
 AXILINE for the MANUFACTURE OF XiGHT-GrEEN. 
 
 " The doing away with iodine in the manufiicture of violets 
 ought naturally to lead to the same progress in the manufacture 
 of greens. "NVe might even sav that tJiere was a more im- 
 portaut point to attain, since the manufacture of greens con- 
 sumes so much more important quantities of iodine ; and this 
 element, making a constituent part of green (as Messrs. Hoff- 
 mann and Girard have demonstrated), is absolutely lost, and 
 goes out of circulation. 
 
 " The first advance realized in this line of ideas consisted in 
 manufacturing nigld-greeii by the action of the iodine of 
 methyl upon the methyl-aniline violets,* and no longer upon 
 rosauiliue. This last substance consumes more iodine, in 
 
 * Since the latter part of 1368, A. Poirrier has employed methylauiline 
 violet exclusively for the manufacture of greens. — G. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 501 
 
 Older to be transformed into green, than does raethylaniline 
 violet, since the hitter contains already a certain proportion 
 of alcholic radicals, which is introdnced in the case of the 
 rosaniline, by the action of the iodides." 
 
 IV. — Manufacture, without Iodine, of Nigiit-Gijekn. 
 
 " When Poirrier and his chemists introdnced into the manu- 
 factnre of violets the use of chloride of benzyl, they were 
 strnck with the analogy which existed between this agent and 
 the alcoholic iodides, and they made numerons efforts to sub- 
 stitnte it for them in the manufactnre of greens. 
 
 "The researches made in this direction, however, did not 
 resnlt in obtaining a green that was in any manner permanent, 
 the green thus obtained being in very small quantities, and 
 very insoluble. It therefore became necessary for them to 
 search for some other product from which they could obtain a 
 green dye. 
 
 Mons. Bauligny renewed the attempts which he had previ- 
 ously made, and had several times renewed before, and modi- 
 fying them, succeeded in replacing the iodide of methyl with 
 the nitrate of methyl, which, in the action exercised upon the 
 methylaniline violet, effects the formation of a large amount of 
 the green dye.* 
 
 " This process of manufacturing green has been carried on 
 in Poirrier's factory since the end of the year 1871. This 
 green appeared, in 1872, at the exposition of Lyons. 
 
 "No aniline manufacturer had, up to that time, offered 
 night-green in that state of purity in which Poirrier presented 
 it to the public. From that time the demand for consumption 
 for such articles fastened more and more upon this particular 
 shade of green, and the demand to-day is greater for this 
 green than for any other shade. 
 
 * Comparison of the not jn-iccs of iodine of methyl, $IS.60, and of nitrate 
 of methyl, seventy-four and one-half cents per two and one-fifth pounds 
 avoirdupois, shows the gl'cat advantage which results from the use of this 
 last substance. — G. 
 
502 THE AMERICAN DTEK. 
 
 Note. — The nitrate of methyl, by its action upon niethylaniline, gives 
 large quantities of green, but will give little or none in its re-action upon 
 rosauiline. — G. 
 
 V. — Manufacture of the Nitrate of Methtl. 
 
 "The introduction into industry of an agent reputed so 
 dangerous as the nitrate of methyl, was not made without 
 difficulty. From 1866 they had been wishing to take up the 
 manufacture of this article for the preparation of methyl- 
 aniline. Their factory had been stopped, after some weeks of 
 progress, by a series of accidents of every nature. 
 
 "The persevering efforts and skill of Mons. Morel triumphed 
 over the difficulties inherent in the manufocture of this sub- 
 stance, and he has produced, up to this date (1873), over 
 44,000 pounds of nitrate of methyl without an accident. This 
 is the same chemist who has had the direction of the manu- 
 facture of chloride of benzyl in Poirrier's works for the last 
 eight years." 
 
 VI. — New Process of Dyeing "Wool Night-Green. 
 
 "The cheap production of night-green caused these chem- 
 ists to search for the means of extending its applications. 
 
 " Although the silk and cotton dyers had succeeded with- 
 out difficulty in using the green, it had not been so with the 
 dyers of wool and woolen fabrics, on account of the woolen 
 fibre not having the same affinity for the green dye as it has 
 for the other aniline dyes or colors. Upon alkaline baths the 
 dyes, in making the Nicholson blues, would give medium 
 results only ; it was therefore necessary to find a new and 
 special process. 
 
 " Mons. Charles Lauth has accomplished this, by mordant- 
 ing (or preparing) the wool with hyposulphite of soda." 
 (The sulphur in the hyposulphite fixes itself within the fibre 
 of the wool, which qualifies it to attract the green dye.) 
 
 " Shades of an incomparable intensity and beauty are thus 
 obtained." 
 
 "Mons. Lauth made known, in 1869, a process of coloring 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 503 
 
 an aniline black on cotton by means of the peroxide of man- 
 ganese. This process is based upon a principle analogous to 
 that which has enabled the same chemist to render the dis- 
 covery of aniline black useful in calico-printing." (Sulphide 
 of copper.) 
 
 VII. — The Progress Effected in their Different Man- 
 ufactures. 
 
 "Rosaniline and its derivations, blues, saffranine. 
 
 "The improvements which they have made in the manu- 
 facture of rosaniline and its derivations, are less important 
 than those which they have just made known for obtaining 
 violets and greens, but they are not less real. 
 
 "By making variations in the proportion of the different 
 alkaloids which enter into its composition, the different sorts 
 of rosaniline are obtained which are intended for the dye 
 itself, or for this or that transformation. . 
 
 " According to the particular shade of blue they wish to 
 obtain, they cause the different and given alkaloids, in vary- 
 ing proportions, to re-act upon a determined variety of ros- 
 aniline. 
 
 "The blue, which is to be dissolved in alcohol, is not of 
 the same composition as that which is to be dissolved in sul- 
 phuric acid. 
 
 "Finally, this manufacture of blue conjoined with sulphur 
 is perfectly regulated, and there is obtained the first, the 
 second, or the third acid combination, according to the appli- 
 cations to which these products are destined. 
 
 "All arrangements necessary in the way of preparations, 
 instructions, and manipulations, are provided, in order to 
 avoid any accidents which might result from the manuftictur- 
 ing of rosaniline. 
 
 "The mauufiicturing of rosaniline and of the blues, is under 
 the direction of Mons. T. Robatel. The manufacturing of 
 saffranine, which is a delicate process, is perfectly regulated 
 under the directions of Mons. Luizet." 
 
504 THE AMERICAX DYER. 
 
 "In 1868 and 1869, the above-named chemists had pro- 
 duced, by original (with them) processes, a certain quantity 
 of green, derived from benzyl-aniline and from dibenzyl-ani- 
 line, but on account of the amount of alcohol it required to 
 dissolve this new colorinof-material, and the cost resulting 
 from the use of alcohol, and the inferiority in comparison 
 to the methylic green (which is solubie in water), the manu- 
 facturing of this green was entirely abandoned." 
 
 RESULTS OF IMPROVEMENTS AND DISCOVERIES 
 MADE BY POIRRIER AND HIS CHEMISTS. 
 
 I. — The Abandonment of Iodine in the Manufactur- 
 ing OF Coloring-Materials derived from Coal. 
 
 II. — The Advantages of this Abandonment from a 
 Sanitary Point of View, and of the Substitution of 
 Methylaniline Violets for that of Rosaniline. 
 
 "The production of iodine is one of the most limited. It 
 is made only in France, upon the shores of Brittany, in Scot- 
 land, and in Ireland. 
 
 "The quantities produced by France and by Great Britain 
 are very much of the same amount. This is one hundred alid 
 sixty-five thousand pounds for each country, making in all 
 three hundred and thirty thousand pounds ; but, in conse- 
 quence of bad times in the last few years, this production has 
 fallen to two hundred and twenty thousand pounds, for the 
 consumption of the whole world. 
 
 "The manufacturing of violets and greens from alcoholic 
 radicals made such a development, that the demand for iodine 
 for that purpose was increased to one hundred and ten thou- 
 sand pounds during the year 1871 ; and notwithstanding the 
 war (in France), this amount represented one-half the total 
 production. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 505 
 
 "Moreover, the consumption of iodine for medicinal uses 
 does not cease to incrense. 
 
 "Iodine, in 1802, wlien it was employed only in pharmacy, 
 was valued at $1.86 per pound, and reached, in 1872, the 
 enormous price of $8.30 per pound. 
 
 "Such prices were a l)ait for fraud, and the adulterators 
 applied themselves to giving to the bromide of potassium the 
 appearance of the iodide, in order that it might l)e delivered 
 to the trade as such. But, in consequence of the discoveries 
 made by Mons. Lauth, the use of iodine in the manufacture 
 of coloring-materials derived from coal is now entirely done 
 away with ; therefore iodine began to decline rapidly, and 
 from the price of one hundred francs, in 1872, at which it 
 was valued, it has declined to -iifty francs now (1876), and 
 there is no doubt but that it will have a further decline, and 
 the fraud spoken of a1)ove will cease, the difference between 
 the price of iodine and that of bromine being no longer great 
 enough to tempt fraud. 
 
 "These new processes spoken of have not only contributed 
 to exercise a happy influence, from a sanitary point of view, 
 in restoring to pharmacy fifty thousand kilogrammes of iodine, 
 but they contribute further to diminish, in a great proportion, 
 the use of arsenic acid, a not less important advantage for 
 health. 
 
 "In manufacturing by their processes the violets and the 
 greens, without passing to them by way of rosaniline, dimin- 
 ish the consumption of rosaniline, whith is always prepared 
 with arsenic acid on account of the economy of the net cost. 
 
 "Now, for all the care and precaution we may take, the 
 handling of large quantities of arsenic acid is very dangerous ; 
 therefore, the less use we make of it in making materials for 
 colors, the less danger there will be encountered. 
 
 "From this they believe that they have rendered a great 
 service to hygiene, as well as to the public health, by dimin- 
 ishing in a very great measure the use of rosaniline, in conse- 
 quence of the arsenic acid it contains." 
 
 64 
 
506 THE A3EERICAN DYER. 
 
 II. — Cheapness, Improvement of Qualities, ' and Ex- 
 tension GIVEN TO the French Industry of Colors 
 
 DERIVED FROM COAL. 
 
 "By these discoveries they have been able to reduce the 
 price of their violets and greens amazingly. Such grades of 
 methylamine violets as they sold in 1867 at from one hundred 
 and twenty to one hundred and forty francs per kilogramme 
 (21 lbs.), (while methylic, or ethylic violets, made from 
 rosaniline, were selling at two hundred francs for the same 
 number of pounds), are now sold by them for forty to fifty 
 francs per two and a half pounds (or one kilogramme), and 
 the quality is far superior. So they can say that, up to the 
 present date, by the quality of their violets and greens, by 
 their cheapness, and by their new processes of application, they 
 have rendered the dyeing of the entire world tributary to 
 France. 
 
 "The sum total of their sales has risen, by reason of the 
 diminution of their prices; when, in 1867, the lowest price 
 for violets was one hundred and twenty francs per kilogramme 
 (21 lbs.), the sales amounted to six hundred thousand francs ; 
 and in 1872 the sales reached the enormous amount of one 
 million eight hundred thousand francs, when the price had 
 fallen one-half (sixty francs). For their greens they have 
 likewise seen their sales triple ; from three hundred and fifty 
 thousand francs, the figure which it had reached in 1870, their 
 sales rose, in 1872, to nearly one million francs." 
 
 "The quality and cheapness of Poirrier's violets and greens 
 have established a monopoly much more real and lasting than 
 patents, which are so little respected and always so much 
 debated." 
 
NEW YORK 
 DYEWOOD EXTRACT & CHEMICAL CO, 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OF 
 
 EXTRACT LOGWOOD 
 
 AND ALL OTHER 
 
 Dyewood Extracts, Solid and Liquid. 
 
 IMPORTERS OF 
 
 DYESTUFFS, CHEMICALS, Etc. 
 
 WORKS AT BROOKLYN, L. I. 
 OFFICES : 
 
 161 FRONT ST., NEW YORK. 
 
 WILLIAM R. RENWICK, Pres. . JOS. C. BALDWIN, Treas. 
 
 WILLIAM T. ALLEN, Sec'y. 
 
44 
 
 SAVOGRAN." 
 
 A WOOL AND WOOLEN FABRIC 
 
 SCOURING COMPOUND. 
 
 Wool Tvasbiug and cleaning is a very important item in the mannfaetnre 
 of Woolen Goods, and any improvement, or suggestion, will claim the atten- 
 tion of all in the business. It is not only important that the Wool should 
 be clean, but that it should be left in as natural a state as possible. The 
 manner in which Wool is often delivered to the carder, although /;lean, is 
 harsh and brittle, thereby causing loss in waste by carding as well as in 
 weight in manufacturing, and preventing the colors from taking so clear or 
 bright as when the Wool is soft and white. 
 
 Soda Ash has invariably been found too harsh in its nature : and when, 
 as is often the case, the washer finds a stubborn Wool to clean, he uses an 
 excess of Ash, thereby destroying the elasticity of the fibre, and causing a 
 loss by electricity in spinning the yarn. 
 
 Among the many inquiries we have as to what we shall use in place of 
 Ash, we would say that many of the large Woolen Mills are using 
 
 Manufactured by Messrs. MASURY, YOUNG &. CO., of Boston, and, in 
 using it for the past three or four years, have found that it overcomes the 
 objection to Soda Ash. We call the attention of those interested to the ad- 
 vertisement on page opposite, in regard to its use, &c. 
 
W9m 
 
 
 , , J vV>' \y fr ) will /, .( 
 
 
 Scouring, Washing, Fulling and Bleaching Wool. 
 
 An Improvement on DETERGENT, and n substitute for Soda Asli. Is readily dissolved, 
 and IcuveB no refuse or sediment. Will cleiinse WOOL thoroualdy, makini; it SOFT and 
 WHiriJ, reducing ELECTRICITY in carding and spinning, thoreUy SAVING in WEIGHT 
 OF YARN; and in DYEING, the COLORS are much more EVEN and BRIGHT than if 
 scoured with Soda Ash. 
 
 For FULLING and WASHING, as well as for finishing YARNS, if it is used in about 
 equal quantities of SAVOGRAN and Soap, it is unrivalled. 
 (Put up in Barrels or Casks.) 
 
 MASUEY, YOUNe & CO., 28 India St., Boston, . . Maiiiifactiirers. 
 
 -mg-rA T^T.Tqxr-mT) iaB0. 
 
 SCOTCH WOOL OIL, 
 
 Manufactured expressly for use on Wool, to take the phice 
 of lard, and other fatty oils. It will produce belter results, 
 and at a much less cost to the consumer. 
 
 It will saponify as' well as the best Lard Oil, 
 wash out of the goods easier, stand a colder 
 temperature, keep the cards cleaner, go as far, 
 and do the work as well, as any other oil now in 
 use for this purpose. 
 
 Spontaneous Combustion cannot possibly occur 
 
 WllEKE THIS OIL IS USED. 
 
 MASURY, YOUNG k CO., . . Proprietors. 
 
 also, manufacturers of and dealers IN 
 
 Spinile, Lirlcatiug, MacMuery, Paraffliie, Wliale, Sperm, Lari aud 
 
 SAI'ONIFIED OILS, 
 
 No. 28 India Street, Boston. 
 
MOREY & CO., 
 
 197 State St., Boston, 
 
 Sole Agents for the United States 
 
 FOR 
 
 ARC-EN-CIEL 
 
 ANILINE COLORS. 
 
 These colors are manufactured expressly for us, and we guarantee them to 
 be strictly pure. 
 
 Price Lists and Samples furnished upon application. 
 
 Sole Agents for New England 
 
 FOR 
 
 NATRONA POROUS ALUM. 
 
 This Alum is now so widely known, and so generally used, that perhaps it is 
 hardly necessary to say that it is the cheapest Alum in the United States. 
 
 IMPORTERS AND DEALERS IN 
 And Manufacturers' Supplies generally. 
 
Part Fourth. 
 
 TABLE OF PRIME EQUIYALENTS OF CHEMICAL 
 SALTS AND DYESTUFFS; 
 
 GLOSSAKY OF TECHJN^ICAL TERMS ANT> 
 CHEMICAL :N^AMES; 
 
 COLORED SAMPLES, WITH RECIPES. 
 
THE AMEKICAX DYER. 
 
 TABLES. 
 
 A French Table of Prime Proportions between Bichromate of Potash 
 and the Different Dyewoods, icith the Colors produced. 
 
 [We insert this without comment, leaving it to the dyer to form his own conclusions 
 as to its correctness, &c.] 
 
 2i 
 
 30-40 
 
 _ 
 
 _ 
 
 Black. 
 
 If 
 
 18-22 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Slate. 
 
 \\ 
 
 12-15 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Lead. 
 
 i . 
 
 3-6 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Grav. 
 
 2i 
 
 26 
 
 4 
 
 - 
 
 Invisible-green, 
 
 H 
 
 24 
 
 12 
 
 - 
 
 Green. 
 
 -h. 
 
 18 
 
 38 
 
 - 
 
 Dragon-green, 
 
 H 
 
 15 
 
 25 
 
 - 
 
 Bottle-green. 
 
 2! 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 - 
 
 Swallow-green. 
 
 2^ 
 
 8 
 
 70 
 
 8 
 
 Myrtle-green. 
 
 n 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 Dark-olive. 
 
 Blchromato of Potash — time for boiling, one and a quarter hours. 
 Logwood, Fustic, and Hypernic, time for boiling, three-quarters of an 
 hour. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
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 C^ CO CM 1 CM 1 1 CO r-i ,-, 
 
 
 •sqi 'raniv 
 
 1 c-1 1 --I 1 lO 1-1 1 cc CO 
 
 
 •sqi 
 'lojjjiA enia 
 
 1 1 T-^ CJ CO 1 1 1 1 1 
 
 
 •sqi 'anioaiio 
 
 CMr-lCMCCCM leCCCrlTH 
 
THE AMEKICAIf DYER. 515 
 
 GLOSSAKY 
 
 OF 
 
 4 
 
 TECHNICAL TERMS AND CHEMICAL NAMES 
 
 f 
 
 USED IN THIS WORK. 
 
 Aqua fortis, nitric acid. 
 
 Alterant, a substance added to a color to give it brightness, 
 "raising." 
 
 Ai-gol, bitartrate of potash, formed by deposit in wine- 
 casks. 
 
 Aqua regia, a mixture of muriatic and nitric acids, two 
 parts of the former and one of the latter. 
 
 Alkalies {fixed), soda, pot, and pearlash. 
 " {volatile), ammonia. 
 " {compounds), urine and soap. 
 
 Ammonia, see article, ammonia. 
 
 Azote, nitrogen. 
 
 Aqueous tincture, watery solution of any substance. 
 
 Acidulous salts, all salts that contain an acid. 
 
 Alumina, a clay that will combine with acids, forming 
 salts, such as alum. 
 
 Acetate of cojiper, verdigris, a mixture of acetate of lead 
 and copper, or blue vitriol. 
 
 Acetic acid {vinegar), see article, acetic acid. 
 
 Acidulated, a solution containing acid. 
 
 Acid bath, a solution containing acid. 
 
 Acetate of iron, a solution of copperas and acetate of lead. 
 
 Acetate of lead, sugar of lead, a combination of lead and 
 acetic acid. 
 
516 THE a:merica^ dyer. 
 
 Acetate of chrome, a combination of chrome, oil of vitriol, and 
 sugar of lead. 
 
 Acetate of alumina, a combination of four parts sugar of 
 lead, five parts alum, and eleven parts water. 
 
 Aeriform, having the form or appearance of air. 
 
 Astringents, a general term for such dyestuffs as contain 
 the astringent principle, or are possessed of the property of 
 tannin, such as sumac, oak bark, cutch, &c. 
 
 Alkaline solutions, lime, or potash water. 
 
 Bisulphate of copper, blue vitriol, blue stone. 
 
 Bichromate of potash, red chromate of potassa, chrome. 
 
 Bois rouge, camwood. 
 
 Borate of soda, borax. 
 
 Bichloride of tin, double muriate of tin. 
 
 Barilla, the name of an impure soda imported from Spain 
 and the Levant. 
 
 Bisidphuret of iron, iron pyrites. 
 
 Binoxalate of potash, salt of sorrel, or oxalic acid. 
 
 Boracic acid, boron combined with oxygen. 
 
 Braziline, the solid extract of hj-pernic, peachwood, &c. 
 
 Bitartrate of potash, or potassa, cream of or refined tartar. 
 
 Bichloride of mercury , corrosive sublimate. 
 
 Bisulphate of soda, a combination of soda and oil of vit- 
 riol. 
 
 Bisulphate of potash, a combination of potash and oil of 
 vitriol. 
 
 Bromine, one of the elements. See Table of Elements. 
 
 Bisulphate of iron, a very poor kind of copperas. 
 
 Benzole, or benzine, a product derived from coal-tar. 
 
 Bottom, or bottoming, to put part of the color upon the 
 wool or cloth, by immersing it in the blue vat. 
 Calcium, lime. 
 
 Crystals of tin, salts of tin, or muriate of tin crystals. 
 Carbonate of soda, cr3'stallized soda. 
 Carbonate of lime, whiting. 
 Chlonde of calcium, lime and muriate of soda (salt). 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 517 
 
 Chloride of tiuy muriate of tin, inuriiitic acid, killed with 
 tin. 
 
 Oitric acid, lemon-juice. 
 
 Chemical salts, acids uniting to any of the earthy, alkaline, 
 or metallic bases. 
 
 Color, a term used s^^nonymously to express the coloring 
 liquor, the color on the fjibric, or the composition of the 
 color. 
 
 Carmine, coloring-matter of cochineal, extracted and dried. 
 
 Caustic hje, the clear liquor from a solution of soda-ash and 
 lime. 
 
 Citrate of lime, lime in combiaation with citric acid. 
 
 Ciipric sulphate, blue vitriol. 
 
 Chloride of potassium, combination of magnesia, muriatic 
 acid, and mineral salts. 
 
 Crystallized verdigris, acetate of copper. 
 
 Chloride of potash, the clear liquor of bleaching powder 
 and pearlash. 
 
 Caustic soda-hje, see caustic lye.' 
 
 Chloride of calcium, lime through which chlorine has passed. 
 
 Copperas, protosulphate of iron. 
 
 Chlorine, a gas obtained from oxygen and muriatic acid. 
 
 Chloride of copper, a combination of oxide of copper and 
 muriatic acid. 
 
 Chromate of potash, yellow chromate of potash combined 
 with caustic potash. 
 
 Chlorate of jyotash, chlorine gas combined with carbonate 
 of potash. 
 
 Cyanide of potassium, red prussiate of potash and carbon- 
 ate of potash coml)ined. 
 
 Chromate of lead, chrome and acetate of lead combined in 
 solution. 
 
 Chromic acid, a combination of chrome, chrome iron ore, 
 antl oil of vitriol — dark crimson color. 
 
 Caustic lime, slacked lime. 
 
 Chloride of sodium, common salt. 
 
518 THE AMERICAX DYER. 
 
 Chemic, sulphate of indigo (which see). 
 Carbonic acid, a combination of marble or chalk, with 
 diluted muriatic acid. 
 
 Calcareous zvater, water impregnated with lime or other 
 alkalies. 
 
 Couching, the curing or preparing of woad for the blue- 
 vat. 
 
 Caloric, the principle or matter of heat. 
 
 Calorific, producing heat. 
 
 CurcKmine, a plant named Curcuma langa; from the roots 
 we obtain turmeric. 
 
 Carbolic acid, an acid obtained from coal-oil. 
 
 Catalysic, an affinity or power ; a chemical change among 
 the particles of bodies, one body inducing a chemical change 
 in another. 
 
 Carbonate of ammonia, the products of distillation of bones, 
 or a mixture of chalk and sal-ammoniac sublimed. 
 
 Caseine, curd of milk. 
 
 Calcareous, having the properties of lime. 
 
 Doctored, to adulterate ; generally applied to such dyestuffs 
 as are not good. 
 
 Dip, generally applied to immersing wool or cloth in the 
 blue- vat or dye-tub. 
 
 Double muriate of tin, bichloride of tin (which see). 
 
 Dilute, or diluted, to weaken or reduce with water, as 
 diluted oil of vitriol. 
 
 Decoction, a watery solution of any coloring-matter or 
 material. 
 
 Extract of fustic, the solid coloring-matter of fustic. 
 
 Extract of logwood, the solid coloring-matter of logwood. 
 
 Extract of indigo, an erroneous term applied to sulphate of 
 indigo, or chemic. 
 
 Epsom salts, sulphate of magnesia. 
 
 Extractor, a machine for depriving the wool, cotton, or 
 cloth of its superfluous water or coloring solution. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 619 
 
 Essential salt of lemons, sec binoxalate of potash. 
 
 An extract, the solid coloriiig-inatter of the different dye- 
 woods, such as logwood, fustic, and quercitron. 
 
 Flurry, orfluery of a blue-vat ^ the froth of oxidized indigo 
 floating on the vat. 
 
 Feathering, to granulate a metal, to feather tin to kill the 
 difi*erent acids. 
 
 Fast color, a permanent color. 
 
 French tub, muriate of tin and logwood, called plumb-tub. 
 
 Formula, the manner or form in which the recipes are 
 written ; the recipe or its form. 
 
 Ferrocyanide of potassium, yellow prussiate of potash. 
 
 Ferricyanide of potassium, red prussiate of potash. 
 
 Glauber salts, sulphate of soda. 
 
 Green vitriol, copperas. 
 
 Grain tin, metallic tin. 
 
 Garancine, one of the coloring products of madder. 
 
 Gypsum, sulphate of lime. 
 
 Gallic acid, an acid obtained from nutgalls. 
 
 Glycerine, a sweetish oil obtained from fat. 
 
 Hematine, extract of logwood. 
 
 Hematoxylon campechicum, logwood. 
 
 Hydrochloric acid, muriatic acid. 
 
 Hartshorn, the volatile alkali, ammonia. 
 
 Hyponitric acid, peroxide of nitrogen. 
 
 Hydrochlorate of rosaniline, fuchsine or magenta. 
 
 Hydrate of lime, lime dry-slacked, termed ware in blue- 
 dyeing. 
 
 Hypochlorite of lime, bleaching powders. 
 
 Indigo paste, the soda sulphate of indigo. 
 
 Iodide of potassium, iodine and potash. 
 
 Isomeric, properties which give the same number and weight 
 of elements, signifying equal parts. 
 
 Iron liquor, nitric acid killed with iron. 
 
 Killing, dissolving tin or iron in muriatic or nitric acids. 
 
520 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Kilo, or Txihgramme , a French weight equal to 2 pouuds, 8 
 ounces, 1 drachm, and 14 grains. 
 
 Lactine, a curd of milk used for animalizing cotton, some- 
 times called ladarine. 
 
 Lye, solution of an alkali, as potash or soda. 
 
 Limestoney carbonate of lime. 
 
 Litharge, protoxide of lead. 
 
 Logwood liquor, a thick, syrupy solution of the coloring- 
 matter of logwood. 
 
 Lactic acid, an acid contained in milk. 
 
 Litharge, protoxide of lead. (See protoxide of lead.) 
 
 Litre, a French measure containing a fraction over a quart. 
 
 Mordant, any one, or a mixture, of several chemical salts 
 used in dyeing, is the mordant or base of the color, and can 
 be applied before, or at the same time, or after the coloring 
 matter has been boiled on ; in the latter case it is called sad- 
 dening. In cotton dyeing it is generally applied to the acetate 
 of alumina. 
 
 Mineral alkali, soda. 
 
 Muriatic acid, hydrochloric acid. 
 
 Marine acid, hydrochloric acid. 
 
 Muriates, chlorides. 
 
 Muriate of soda, common salt. 
 
 Muriate of sodium, common salt. 
 
 Muriate of tin, muriatic acid, killed with tin. 
 
 Murio-sulj^Jtate of tin, muriatic and sulphuric acids, killed 
 with tin. 
 
 Murio-nitrate of tin, a mixture of muriatic and nitric acids, 
 killed with tin, the muriatic acid being in excess ; the same 
 with the murio-sulphate. 
 
 Muriate of iron, muriatic acid, killed with iron. 
 
 Maclurine acid, an acid contained in fustic. 
 
 Muriate of ammonia, sal-ammoniac. 
 
 Morine, the pure coloring principle of fustic. 
 
 Morus tinctoria, fustic. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 521 
 
 2^itro-muriate of tin, nitric and muriatic acids, killed with 
 tin, the nitric being in excess. 
 
 Initiate of iron, nitric acid killed with iron, iron liijuor. 
 
 Nitrate of copper, copper, killed with nitric acid. 
 
 Nitrate of soda, nitric acid added to common soda. 
 
 Nitric acid, an acid obtained by distilling nitrate of potash 
 and oil of vitriol together. 
 
 Nitrate of potash, saltpetre. 
 
 Nitrate of lead, metallic lead, dissolved in nitric acid. 
 
 Nitro-muriatic acid, see aqua regia. 
 
 Nitrate of zinc, a solution of nitric acid and zinc. 
 
 Nitrate of alumina, a solution of alum, soda crystals and 
 nitrate of lead. 
 
 Oxymuriate of potash, see chlorate of potash. 
 
 Oxymuriatic acid, chlorine. 
 
 Oil of vitriol, sulphuric acid. 
 
 Oxymuriate of tin, perchlorido of tin, or tin dissolved in 
 nitric and muriatic acids, sometimes called permuriate of tin. 
 
 Oxalate of copper, oxide of copper digested in oxalic acid. 
 
 Oxalate of potash, crystallized carbonate of potash and 
 oxalic acid. 
 
 Oxalate of potassa, see oxalate of potash. 
 
 Orcine, or orceine, the pure coloring matter of archil. 
 
 Pearlash, carbonate of potash. 
 
 Permuriate of tin, see oxymuriate of tin. 
 
 Prussiate of potash, see ferrocyanide of potassa, or potash. 
 
 Potash sulphate of alumina, alum. 
 
 Protosidphate of iron, copperas. 
 
 Phenic acid (carbolic acid) , an acid found in coal-tar. 
 
 Persalt of mercury, red oxide of mercury, dissolved in oil 
 of vitriol. 
 
 Protoxide of tin, a precipitate formed from a solution of 
 crystals of tin by carbonate of soda. 
 
 Peroxide of tin, the ores of tin, tinstone. 
 
 Potash, a strong caustic alkali. 
 
 66 
 
522 THE AMEEIOAN DYER. 
 
 Pyrolignate of iron^ a brown liquid solution of iron in 
 pyrolignc'ous acid, improperly termed iron liquor. 
 
 Pyroligneous acid, an acid obtained from wood, by the 
 process of destructive distillation. 
 
 Protoxide of lead, lead and oxygen combined in equal parts. 
 
 Protochlonde of tin, see oxymuriate of tin. 
 
 Perchloride of tin, tin dissolved in nitric and muriatic 
 acids, generally called nitro-muriate of tin. 
 
 Pigment, a coloring substance, as paints. 
 
 Potassa, an alkaline salt obtained from different ashes, — 
 ashes from plants, &c. 
 
 Potassium, a white, soft metal with a lustre like silver. 
 
 Phenic acid, see carbolic acid. 
 
 Pyrogallic acid, an acid obtained by heating gallic acid to 
 420°. 
 
 Persidjphate of iron, a solution of copperas, and sulphuric 
 and nitric acids. 
 
 Precipitate, a substance in solution chemically separated 
 from its solvent and thrown to the bottom of the vessel. 
 
 Pyrites, a combination of sulphur with iron, copper, cobalt 
 or nickel. ' 
 
 ProtosaUs of iron, sulphate of iron. 
 
 Picric acid, an acid obtained from carbolic acid. 
 
 Red tartar, crude cream of tartar, argols. 
 
 Raising, see alterant. 
 
 Red liquor, acetate of alumina. 
 
 Rosalie acid, an acid from coal-tar. 
 
 Ruherythimic acid, an acid obtained from madder. 
 
 Re-agents, different substances acting upon other substances. 
 
 Radical salts, any element or compound that forms an acid 
 when combined with hydrogen, and a salt when united with a 
 metal. Sulphuric and nitric acids are radical salts. 
 
 Sulphate of iron, copperas. 
 
 8upertartrate of potash, cream of tartar. 
 
 Suljjhomuriate of tin, sulphuric and muriatic acids killed 
 with tin. (See solutions of tin.) 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 523 
 
 Sulphate of indigo, chemic, indigo paste, extract of indigo. 
 (See article, Sulphate of Indigo.) 
 
 jSulj)hu7'ic acid, oil of vitriol. 
 
 Soda-ashy a crude caustic alkali or carbonate of soda. 
 
 Santaline, the pure coloring-matter gf red sanders. 
 
 Sal-soda, crystallized carbonate of soda. 
 
 Soda cryslals, crystallized carbonate of soda. 
 
 Sadden or saddening, giving the mordant after the color- 
 ing-matter is boiled on the wool or goods ; making a color 
 darker by means of a chemical salt, such as copperas, blue 
 vitriol, alum, &c. 
 
 Sulphate of magnesia, epsora salts. 
 
 Sal-ammoniac, hydrochlorate of ammonia, crystallized am- 
 monia. 
 
 Sulphate of lime, a substance formed of carbonic acid and 
 lime, nearly insoluble. It is found in small quantities in 
 spring waters. 
 
 Sulp)hate of soda, glavfber salts. 
 
 Sidphate of copper, blue vitriol. 
 
 Spirits, the different solutions of tin. 
 
 Spirits of salt (erroneously called so), muriatic acid. 
 
 Sp. gr., specific gravity, or density. 
 
 Salinixon, see blsulphate of potash. 
 
 Sal-volatile, sesquicarbonate of ammonia. 
 
 Salts of lemon, citric'acid. 
 
 Saltpetre, nitrate of potash. 
 
 Salts of tin, crystallized protochloride of tin. 
 
 Slacked lime, hydrate of lime. 
 
 Spirits of wine, alcohol. 
 
 Sugar of lead, brown and white acetate of lead. 
 
 Substantive color, a color fixed in the fibre without base or 
 compound. 
 
 Salts of alumina, alum, acetate of alumina, &c. 
 
 Sul])hate of lime, gypsum. 
 
 Sodium, one of the elements. 
 
524 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Suhacetate of lead, a combimitioii of sugar of lead and 
 litharge. 
 
 Sesquioxide of iron, a conibiDation of carbonate of soda 
 and iron. 
 
 Salifiable bases, bases capable of becoming a salt. 
 
 Storax, a juice obtained from the bark of the fir-tree. 
 
 SulpJiuret of copper, a solution of blue vitriol, caustic soda, 
 and sulphur. 
 
 Sul])1iate of alumina, alum. 
 
 Salts, or chemical salts, acids united to any of the earthy, 
 alkaline, or metallic bases. 
 
 [The salts employed as mordants in dyeing are of two 
 kinds, — the simple and compound. The simple is some sub- 
 stance that assumes a crystalline as its common shape, such as 
 oxalic, tartaric, and citric acids. The compounds are com- 
 posed of two or more substances in chemical union, such as 
 sulphate of copper, alumina, and iron. The term salt, in the 
 strictest sense, seems to apply almost exclusively to the latter 
 class. In cotton-dyeing, mordant is only applied to acetate of 
 alumina..] 
 
 Tannin, the astringent principle contained in many sub- 
 stances used in dyeing, and other purposes. It is that prop- 
 erty contained in barks, &c., which converts raw hides into 
 leather, called tanning. It is the same principle, under 
 another name, as the astringent principle. 
 
 Tannic acid, obtained by digesting nutgalls in ether. 
 
 [When it is pure it is a solid, uncrystallizable, white or 
 slightly yellowish in color ; it is inodorous, very astringent to 
 the taste, but not bitter.] 
 
 Tincture of soap, soap dissolved in alcohol. 
 Vegetable alkali, potash. 
 Verdigris, acetate of copper. 
 
 Volatile alkali, ammonia. 
 
 White vitriol, sulphate of zinc. 
 
 White copperas, sulphate of zinc. 
 Ware, hydrate of lime, slacked lime. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 525 
 
 TABLE OF SYMBOLS AND FORMULAS. 
 
 Acids. 
 Acetic, 
 Arsenic, . 
 Arsenious, 
 Benzoic, . 
 Boraoic, . 
 Carbonic, 
 Carl)()lic, . 
 Carminie, 
 Catechutannic, 
 Chromic, . 
 Citric, 
 Cresylic, . 
 Gallic, . 
 H3ponitrics, 
 Lactic, 
 
 Morintaunic, . 
 JMuriatic, . 
 Nitric, anhydrous. 
 Nitric, 
 Nitrius, . 
 Nitro-rauriatic, 
 Oxalic, . • . 
 Phthalic, . 
 Pjrogalllc, 
 Rosolic, . 
 Riiberythic, 
 Sulphuric, 
 
 " Nordhausen, 
 Tannic (galls), 
 Tartaric, . 
 
 Chemical Compounds. 
 Aluminium, 
 
 " acetate of, . 
 " chloride of, 
 " nitrate of, . 
 " sulphate of. 
 
 Alum, ammonia, 
 " chrome, 
 " potash, . 
 
 Old Notation. 
 
 CJI.O, 
 
 AsOs 
 
 AsOg 
 
 BU3 
 CO2 
 
 CrUg 
 
 Ci2li80l4 
 
 Ci.HgO., 
 
 ^14^6010 
 NO4 
 
 CioH^jOij 
 
 ^26^10^12 
 
 HCl 
 
 N05 
 
 H0,N05 
 NO 3 
 NO., CI 2 
 C^HaOie 
 CieWgOg 
 
 Ci.2H,06 
 C'4ofIl6^4 
 
 HOSO3 
 
 HO,S03-|-S08 
 
 ^64^22^84 
 
 Al 
 
 AI2CI3 
 
 Al203;^N06 
 
 Al 203:3803 
 
 /'Al20j3SOgNH40S' 
 
 \ 03-[-24IIO 
 
 f CraOg^SOgKO, S 
 
 \ 03-fJ4HO 
 
 r Al.,03 8S08,KOS 
 
 \ O3+24IIO 
 
 New Notation. 
 
 C2H4O2 
 II3ASO4 
 
 HgAsOg 
 
 CrHo02 
 H3BO3 
 
 No change. 
 CsHeO 
 
 Cx6Hi406 
 
 No change. 
 CellsO, 
 CtHoO 
 C,H,0, 
 
 N2O, 
 
 CgHgOg 
 
 CisIlioOe 
 No change. 
 
 N2O5 
 
 HNO3 
 
 HNO2 
 
 2H20-fNOCl+CL 
 
 C2UeO, 
 
 CsIifiO, 
 
 CgHgOg 
 
 ^20'll6^2 
 
 *-20''22^^11 
 
 H2SO, 
 
 H2S2O, 
 ^27^22^17 
 
 No change. 
 
 AI2CI, 
 AlaNOg 
 Ala^SO. 
 
 Al2(NHj24SO,+24 
 U2O 
 
 KCr2SO^+12H20 
 Al2K24S0^4-24H20 
 
526 
 
 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Table of Symbols and Formulas — Con. 
 
 Old Notation. 
 
 AmmoK I gas, . 
 " aqua, 
 " carbonate of, . 
 " chloride or mu- 
 riate of, 
 " nitrate of, 
 " sulphide of, 
 " sulphate of. 
 Antimony, teroxide of, . 
 Borax, . . . . 
 Barium, . . 
 " acetate of, . 
 " chloride of, 
 " sulphate of. 
 Chromium, 
 
 " acetate of, 
 
 " chloride of, 
 
 " sesquioxide of, 
 
 " teroxide of, 
 
 Copper, .... 
 " chloride of, . 
 " nitrate of, . 
 " black oxide of, . 
 " red oxide of, 
 " oxalate of, , 
 " sulphide of, . 
 " sulphate of, . 
 Iron, bisulphide of, . 
 " ferrous oxide of, 
 " hydrated ferrous ox- 
 ide of, . 
 " ferric chloride of, 
 " oxalate of, 
 " sesquioxide of, 
 " sulphide of, 
 " sulphate of, 
 " persulphate of. 
 Lead, .... 
 " acetate of, 
 " basic acetate of, 
 " carbonate of, . 
 " chloride of, 
 " red chromate of, 
 " yellow chromate of, 
 " nitrate of, 
 " protoxide of, . 
 " sulphate of, 
 
 Nil 3 
 
 NH,0 
 
 NH.OCOa 
 
 NH4CI 
 NH,0,NOj 
 NH,S 
 NH.O.NOj 
 
 SbOg 
 
 NaO^BOj 
 
 Ba 
 
 C^HjBaO. 
 
 BaCl 
 
 BaOSO. 
 
 Cr ' 
 
 Cr,Cl3 
 
 Ci-O, 
 
 Cu ' 
 
 2CuCl 
 
 CuOXOg 
 
 CuO 
 
 CujO— 
 
 CuaC^Og 
 
 CuS 
 
 CuOS0.4-5HO 
 
 FeSa 
 
 FeO 
 
 FeO,HO 
 
 FcaCCg 
 
 Fe.Og 
 
 FeS 
 
 FeO,S03-h7HO 
 
 Fe„033SOa 
 
 Pb 
 
 PbO,C,H3-}-.3Ay 
 
 CJlgOgSPbO 
 
 PbO,C02 
 
 PbCl 
 
 2PbOCrO. 
 
 PbOCrOj 
 
 PbONOg 
 
 PbO 
 
 PbOSO, 
 
 New Notation. 
 
 No change. 
 
 NII^IIO 
 
 (NHJ^COg 
 
 No change. 
 
 NII^NOg 
 
 (NIIJ.S 
 
 NII^NUj 
 
 SbjOj 
 
 NajB^O, 
 
 Ba 
 
 CaNaOjBa 
 
 BaCl 2 
 
 BaSO^ 
 
 No change. 
 
 Cr22(C2U30,) 
 
 Cr^Cle 
 
 No change. 
 
 CuClj 
 
 Cu-iNOgeHgO 
 No change. 
 
 2C2CuiiO„H20 
 CuS 
 
 CuS044-.5H.,0 
 No chauo:e. 
 
 FeHjOa 
 FcaCle 
 
 No change. 
 
 FeS 
 
 FeSO,+7IIjO 
 
 FcaSSO^ 
 
 No change. 
 
 Pb2CJl302,3H20 
 
 2PbOPb2C2H30o 
 
 PbCOj ' 
 
 PbCla 
 
 PbjCi-Os 
 
 PbCrOg 
 
 Pb:.^N03 
 
 No change. 
 
 PbSO^ 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Table of Symbols and Formulas — Con. 
 
 527 
 
 
 Old Notation. 
 
 New Notation. 
 
 Lime (calcium), 
 
 Ca 
 
 No change. 
 
 " acetiite of, 
 
 CaO.CJI, 
 
 Ca(C^U,0^)^ 
 
 " chloride of, 
 
 CaCl 
 
 CaCl 2 
 
 " bleaching powders, 
 
 Ca(),C10-|-CaCl 
 
 CaCl2Ca2C10 
 
 " caustic, . 
 
 CaO 
 
 CaOa 
 
 " carbonate of, . 
 
 CaOCOj 
 
 CaCOg 
 
 " oxalate of. 
 
 CaO,C208 
 
 CaCoO. 
 
 " phosphate of, . 
 
 SCaOPbg 
 
 Cag2Pb, 
 
 " sulphate of, 
 
 CaOSOg 
 
 CaSO. 
 
 " slack. 
 
 CaOIIO 
 
 CaHoO 
 
 Mercury, .... 
 
 Ilg 
 
 Hg 
 
 " nitrate of, 
 
 ligONOs 
 
 HgN^Oe 
 
 " protoxide of, . 
 
 
 
 Magnesium, . 
 
 Mg 
 
 No change. 
 
 " sulphate of, . 
 
 MgOSO.+THO 
 
 MgSO.-f-ZIIjO 
 
 Potassium, 
 
 K 
 
 No change. 
 
 " anhydrous, . 
 
 KO 
 
 K2O 
 
 " bicarbonate of, . 
 
 KO2CO0 
 
 IIKCO3 
 
 " bichromate of, 
 
 KO.'CrOg 
 
 K./2CrOi 
 
 " binoxalate of. 
 
 K0:.^Cr03 
 
 - 
 
 " bisulphate of, 
 
 KO2SO3 
 
 HKSO. 
 
 " carbonate of, 
 
 KOCO2 
 
 K2CO3 
 
 " caustic of, . 
 
 KOIIO 
 
 KlIO 
 
 " chlorate of, . 
 
 KOCIO5 
 
 KClOg 
 
 " chloride of, . 
 
 KCl 
 
 No change. 
 
 " chromate of. 
 
 KOCrOg 
 
 K2Cr04 
 
 " cyanide of, . 
 
 KCy 
 
 KCy 
 
 " ferricyanide of, . 
 
 KgCyeFcj 
 
 KsF^Cye 
 
 " ferrocyanide of, . 
 
 K.^UygFe 
 
 K.FeCye 
 
 " iodide of, 
 
 Kl 
 
 KI 
 
 " oxalate of, . 
 
 KOCaOg 
 
 _ 
 
 " permanganate of, 
 
 KOMn^Oy 
 
 KMnO. 
 
 " suipliate of, . 
 
 KUSO3 
 
 K2SO, 
 
 " sulphide of,. 
 
 K8 
 
 KjS 
 
 " tartrate of, , 
 
 KOJIOCgll^Oio 
 
 HKCJI^Og 
 
 " tartar emetic of, . 
 
 KOSb^OgCglLOio 
 
 2(KSbOC4lI^06)Ay 
 
 Silver, . . . . 
 
 Ag 
 
 No change. 
 
 " nitrate of. 
 
 AgOXOg 
 
 AgNOg 
 
 Sodium, . . . . 
 
 Na 
 
 No change. 
 
 " acetate of, 
 
 NaOCJIgOg-f-eHO 
 
 C2n302Na 
 
 " bicarbonate of, 
 
 NaO^COj 
 
 HNaCOg 
 
 " bisulphate of, . 
 
 Na()-\SOg 
 
 HNaSO^ 
 
 " carbonate of, . 
 
 NaOCOj 
 
 NagCOg 
 
 " carbonate of (crys- 
 
 
 
 tallized). 
 
 NaOCOj-t-lOHO 
 
 Na2COg+10n2O 
 
 " caustic, . 
 
 IIONaO 
 
 IlJsaO 
 
 " chloride of, 
 
 NaCl 
 
 NaC 
 
528 
 
 THE A^IEEICAN DYER. 
 
 Table of Symbols and Formulas — Con. 
 
 
 Old Notation. 
 
 Xew dotation. 
 
 Sodium, 
 
 
 
 " glauber salts of. 
 
 NaOSOg-flOHO 
 
 NaoSO.lOHaO 
 
 " hydro-sulphite of, . 
 
 NaOSoOo 
 
 Na^soj 
 
 " nitrate of. 
 
 NaONOg 
 
 NajNOg 
 
 " phosphate of (biba- 
 
 
 
 sic), . 
 
 2NaOHOPOs 
 
 HNajPO^ 
 
 Tin, . 
 
 
 Sn 
 
 No change. 
 
 " bisulphide of. 
 
 
 SnSg 
 
 " 
 
 " crystals of. 
 
 
 SuCl+2H0 
 
 SnCL+2H.O 
 
 " murexide of. 
 
 
 SnO 
 
 SnO 
 
 " pink salts of. 
 
 
 SnCl2+2NH.Cl 
 
 SnCl,+2NH^Cl 
 
 " protochloride of 
 
 
 SnCl 
 
 No change. 
 
 " prussiate f)f. 
 
 
 8SnCy,Fe2Cy8 
 
 SugFe^Cyia 
 
 " fen-icyanide of. 
 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 " stannic acid of. 
 
 
 SnOa 
 
 No change. 
 
 Water, . 
 
 
 HO 
 
 H.^O 
 
 Zinc, 
 
 
 Zn 
 
 No change. 
 
 " acetate of. 
 
 
 C.HgZnO^ 
 
 Zn(C2H302)2 
 
 " carljonate of. 
 
 
 ZNOCOj 
 
 ZnCOg 
 
 " chloride of. 
 
 
 ZnCl 
 
 ZnCl 2 
 
 " nitrate of, 
 
 
 ZnONOg 
 
 ZnNOg 
 
 " sulphate of, 
 
 
 ZuOSOg 
 
 ZnSO^ 
 
 Organic Compounds. 
 
 
 
 Magdala red, . 
 
 - 
 
 ^30"21^3 
 
 Carthaniine, 
 
 — 
 
 C14H16O7- 
 
 Isopurpurate of potash, . 
 
 - 
 
 CgH.KXOs— 
 
 Alloxan, . . . . 
 
 _ 
 
 C4H4N2O5- 
 
 Benzole, . . . . 
 
 _ 
 
 CoIIe 
 
 Kitro-benzole, . 
 
 _ 
 
 CJIsCNOj) 
 
 Mauveine, 
 
 _ 
 
 C06H24N4 
 
 Phenyl, . . . . 
 
 _ 
 
 c;ii5 
 
 Oxide of jihenyl. 
 
 - 
 
 (<-'6H5)20 
 
 Iodine green crystals. 
 
 - 
 
 ^^2538 32 
 
 Hydrated carbolic acid, . 
 
 - 
 
 CeHeO+H20 
 
 Nai^hthaline, . 
 
 - 
 
 CioHg 
 
 Base of naphthaline red. 
 
 - 
 
 ^30'^21^ 8 
 
 Naphthaline yellow, 
 
 - 
 
 CloH6(^^^2)20 
 
 Nitro-naphthuline, . 
 
 - 
 
 c\,iA^o,^ 
 
 Bibromoanthrachinon, . 
 
 - 
 
 Ci,HeBr202 
 
 Methylaniline, . 
 
 - 
 
 CeHs(CIlg)N 
 
 Diphenylamine, 
 
 - 
 
 Ci2H,nN 
 
 Naphthylaruine, 
 
 -• 
 
 C10H9N 
 
 Triphenylic rosaniline, . 
 
 - 
 
 C2oHio(C'6H5)gNg 
 
 Indigotine, 
 Isatine, 
 Indican, . 
 White indigo, . 
 
 • 
 
 - 
 
 ^16^1l0^2^2 
 Cl6Hio^2^^4 
 ^■2 6 "83 ^^18 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Table of Symbols and Formulas — Con. 
 
 629 
 
 
 Old Notation. 
 
 New Notation. 
 
 Indiu:o frluoine, 
 
 _ 
 
 6CJIi,()« 
 
 Carmiiu' red, . 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 CmHi.O. 
 
 Curcumine, 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 ^lo^^lO^^S 
 
 Qucroitriiie, 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 C33"8oO,+01I, 
 
 Dextrose, 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 C6lli2^^6 
 
 Antlirapurpurine, 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 Si^!i4> 
 
 Purperine, 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 Cl4"805 
 
 Alizarine, 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 C.JIgO, 
 
 Anthracene, 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 C14H10 
 
 Alizarate of potash, 
 
 
 - 
 
 KaO^Ci^rig 
 
 Protocatechuic acid, 
 
 
 - 
 
 CvH,0, 
 
 Oreine, 
 
 
 - 
 
 C^HgOg 
 
 Morin, 
 
 
 - 
 
 CioHioOe 
 
 Braziline, 
 
 
 - 
 
 C32H18O7 
 
 Luteoline, 
 
 
 -' 
 
 ^2of^l4^8 
 
 Santaline, 
 
 
 - 
 
 CgNA 
 
 Ethyl alcohol, . 
 
 
 - 
 
 CoIIe-O 
 
 IMethyl alcohol, 
 
 
 - 
 
 CH4O 
 
 Ethyl, . 
 
 
 - 
 
 C..H5 
 
 Methyl, . 
 
 
 - 
 
 CH3 
 
 Iodide of ethyl, 
 
 
 - 
 
 C.,HJ 
 
 Anthraquinone, ' . 
 
 
 - 
 
 C14H8O2 
 
 Aniline, . 
 
 
 - 
 
 C0H5NH2 
 
 Aniline yellow (soluble ir 
 
 
 
 
 alcohol). 
 
 
 - 
 
 C2oHi9N20g 
 
 Rosaline white, 
 
 
 - 
 
 C20H19N3 
 
 Rosaniline red, 
 
 
 — 
 
 CgoHigNgOHg 
 
 SPECK DYES. 
 For Brown. 
 25 lbs. Extract Logwood, 
 30 lbs. Copperas, 
 30 lbs. Sumac. 
 Run three pieces at a time over the reel for twenty min- 
 utes, at a heat of 125° Fahr. 
 For the next three pieces, add 
 
 6 lbs. Sumac, 
 
 5 lbs. Extract Logwood, 
 
 7 lbs. Copperas, 
 
 and proceed as for first three pieces. 
 
 67 
 
530 THE A]MEKICAN DYER. 
 
 This last addition must be made for every three pieces. 
 ' The pieces are double-width beavers, weighiug sixt}' pounds 
 to the piece. 
 
 Boil out the sumac in a separate tub or barrel, and use the 
 clear liquor only. 
 
 "Wash oft* the pieces before you speck-dj'e them, also after 
 being speck-dyed. 
 
 For Black or Blue. 
 
 Take a barrel that will hold two hundred and twenty gal- 
 lons of water ; fill it half full of water. Add to it eighty 
 pounds soda-ash ; boil uutil it is dissolved. Then add eighty 
 pounds liquid extract of logwood (specific gravity, 51°) ; 
 boil twenty minutes. 
 
 Now dissolve twenty pounds blue vitriol in as little water 
 as possible ; then put a piece of iron pipe (the larger in diam- 
 eter the better) into the solution, and turn the blue-vitriol 
 solution down the pipe, a little at a time. By^ so doing you 
 will prevent its foaming, and will not cause so much sediment 
 to settle at the bottom. 
 
 After you get all the blue vitriol in, fill up the barrel with 
 water. 
 
 Use one pail of this to every piece weighing sixty pounds, 
 that you run at a time ; that is, after your speck-tub has been 
 set. 
 
 To Set the Speck-Dye. 
 
 To a tub that you intend to speck-dye in, that w'ill hold four 
 or five hundred gallons, add all of the above-described solu- 
 tion ; then fill up to the proper working height. Work the 
 speck-dye at 130° Fahr. 
 
 For Green Felts. 
 
 Take three pails of copperas, dissolve it in a barrel of 
 
 water. Into a tub of cold water put fifteen quarts of this 
 
 solution for the first seven pieces; give the cloth four ends; 
 
 take out and run into the prussiate-tub. For the next seven 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 531 
 
 pieces, give seven quarts of the copperas solution. For the 
 next seven pieces, give four quarts of the sohition. Give 
 four ends for each seven pieces. This last is the standard 
 solution. 
 
 Dissolve ten pounds red prussiate in one-half barrel of 
 water. Into a tub of cold water put iifteen quarts of the 
 sol ul ion, and one quart oil of vitriol ;* six ends for each seven 
 pieces. For the second seven pieces, give seven quarts of 
 prussiate solution ; give six ends. For the next seven pieces, 
 o-ive four quarts prussiate solution ; give six ends. This last 
 is the standard solution. 
 
 After coming out of the prussiate-tub, the pieces must be 
 
 washed off. 
 
 * One pint for every seven pieces, after the first seven pieces. 
 
THE AMERIOAJS" DYER. 
 
 533 
 
 CLOTH SAMPLES. 
 
 No. l.-r Blub- BLACK. 
 
 No. 2. — liitowN. 
 
 No. 3. — Blue. 
 
 No. 4. — Blue Melton. 
 
 No. 5. — Blue Melton. 
 
 No. (i. — Black. 
 
 i 
 
THE AMERICAN DYEK. 535 
 
 KEMARKS ON PIECE-DYEING (see p. 136). 
 In the first place the pieces should be thoroughly washed 
 after being fulled and scoured, as any grease or soap left in 
 the pieces acts as a deadly obstacle to the coloring of them ; 
 therefore, care should be taken to clear them well out, as 
 greasy or soapy pieces cause the dyer more trouble than all 
 the rest of the difficulties with which he has to contend. If 
 the pieces are greasy or soapy, in nine cases out of ten he will 
 have them full of light-colored places or clouds, and whenever 
 you have such places in the pieces, you may be doubly sure 
 that the grease or soap is not washed out of them, for it is 
 almost an impossibility in piece-dyeing to have light clouds 
 or places in them caused by either the manipulations or dye- 
 stuffs. Where pieces are clouded by the dyeing you will 
 alwai/s find them to be darker than the whole piece, not 
 lighter. 
 
 After they are washed off they should get all the gigging 
 intended to be given them, and if they can be cropped some 
 before dyeing, it would make a great improvement in the in- 
 tensity of the color ; and for these reasons : — if they have to be 
 gigged much after they are dyed, the friction of the gig makes 
 the color look gray ; and besides, if they are dyed without 
 cropping, the long nap on them acts as a filter to the color, 
 and prevents the coloring matter from penetrating into the 
 body of the cloth. Consequently, after they are dyed, and the 
 nap is sheared off, you will perceive that the color is much 
 lighter than 3'ou expected, for the reason that the best part of 
 the color has been sheared off. 
 
 Every dyer should insist upon having his pieces come to 
 him PERFECTLY CLEAN, for lie has enough to contend with in 
 piece-dyeing without having greasy or soapy cloth sent to him 
 from the fulling-roora, 
 
 The pieces should be prepared one day and finished the 
 next ; and after they are dyed, do not wash them off the same 
 day if it can be avoided, or at least do not allow them to go 
 
536 THE aiviericaj^ dyer. 
 
 directly to the wash-box, but give the color time to fix itself 
 fairly. Wash off all colors with cold water only, except in 
 some particular cases. If the cloth has to be speck-dyed, do 
 not do it until the day after they are colored. 
 
 The cloth samples are made from thirty-five per cent, wool 
 and sixty- five per cent, shoddy ; both in the warp and filling 
 the shoddy contains a large amount of cotton threads. 
 
 In speck-dyeing, the black and blues should be done on 
 rollers, two pieces at a time, and run them about twenty-five 
 minutes. 
 
 . The blues are specked in the same tub and the same dye as 
 the black. Be particular to observe the degrees of heat with 
 each recipe. 
 
 All these cloths are six-quarters wide. 
 
 Bail the dye-woods one and a half hours, unless otherwise 
 stated in the recipe. 
 
 In finishing the cloth, always cool down the dye before en- 
 tering the cloth. In the recipes you will find that tartarine 
 is used. (See article, Tartarine.) If you have not got it, 
 use one-third more of red tartar than is named of tartarine ; 
 that is, if the recipe calls for six pounds tartarine, use eight 
 pounds red tartar in its place. 
 
 If you are obliged to finish the cloth on the same day that 
 it is prepared, be sure and cool off the cloth from the prepa- 
 ration thoroughly. 
 
 RECIPES FOR CLOTH, WITH SAMPLES. 
 Blue-black Chinchillas. 
 No. 1. 1 piece, 45 yards, 100 Ib's. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 3 lbs. Chrome, 
 
 3 lbs. Blue Vitriol, 
 
 1|1I)S. Tartarine. 
 Boil cloth two hours. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 537 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 GO lbs. Chip Logwood, 
 2 lbs. Camwood. 
 Boil cloth two hours. Speck-dye at 130° (see recipe for 
 speck-dye) . 
 
 For a Jet Black on same Goods. 
 Six pieces, 480 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 12 lbs. Chrome, 
 6 lbs. Tartarine, 
 8 lbs Blue Vitriol. 
 Boil cloth two hours. 
 Finish with — 
 
 150 lbs. Chip Logwood, 
 20 lbs. Chip Fustic. 
 Boil cloth two hours. Speck-dye at 150°. 
 
 Brown. 
 No. 2. 6 pieces heavy Chinchilla, 520 ll)s. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 12 lbs. Chrome, 
 12 lbs. Tartarine, 
 2 lbs. Alum. 
 Boil cloth tw^o hours. 
 Finish with — 
 
 45 lbs. Extract Fustic, 
 45 lbs. Madder, 
 100 1I)S. Camwood, 
 20 lbs. Grouiul Logwood, 
 20 lbs. Sanders, 
 20 lbs. Barwood, 
 5 lbs. Extract Ilypernic. 
 Throw these into the kettle loose, and boil twenty minutes ; 
 then cool down and enter the cloth, and boil one and three- 
 
 68 
 
538 THE A]VrERICAX DYEK. 
 
 quarters hours. Take out and wash off. Extract the water 
 out of them, and speck-dye at 130° (see speck-dye for 
 brown). 
 
 The extract of fustic and hyperuic you must dissolve before 
 putting it into the tub. 
 
 Blue. 
 
 No. 3. 6 pieces Chinchilla, 452 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 15 lbs. Alum, 
 8 lbs. Oxalic Acid, 
 
 2^ lbs. Chrome. 
 Boil cloth one and three-fourths hours. 
 Finish with — 
 
 5 lbs. Ground Hypernic, 
 
 6 lbs. Cudbear, 
 100 lbs. Chip Logwood. 
 
 Boil one and a half hours ; then cool down and enter cloth, 
 and boil two hours ; speck-dye at 130°. 
 
 Blue. 
 No. 4. 8 pieces light-weight Meltons, 388 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 12 lbs. Alum, 
 
 7 lbs. Oxalic Acid, 
 1| lbs. Chrome, 
 
 I lb. Tin Crystals. 
 Boil cloth one and three-fourths hours. 
 Finish with — 
 
 110 lbs. Chip Logwood, 
 6 oz. Tin Crystals. 
 Cool down and enter cloth. Boil cloth one and three-fourths 
 hours ; speck-dye at 130°. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 539 
 
 Blue. 
 
 No. 5. 8 pieces heavy-weight Meltons, 490 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 1 lb. Chrome, 
 12 lbs. Alum, 
 8 lbs. Oxalic Acid, 
 1 lb. Tin Crystals. 
 Boil cloth one and three-fourths hours. 
 Finish with — 
 
 100 lbs. Chip Logwood. 
 Cool down ; enter cloth. Boil one and three-fourths hours : 
 speck-dye at 170°. 
 
 Black. 
 No. 6. On cotton warp, worsted filling, and cotton and 
 shoddy backing, forty per cent, cotton in the back filling. 
 Narrow-width cloth, fourteen ounces to the yard, thirty yards 
 in a piece. 
 
 First. Dissolve thirty pounds copperas, and ten pounds 
 white sugar of lead ; put it into a barrel, and fill it up with 
 water. 
 
 To prepare ten pieces, take one pailful of the copperas and 
 lead solution, add it to the tub you are to prepare in ; now add 
 five pounds blue vitriol to it, and the clear liquor from one 
 pail of sumac. Run the pieces one and a half hours at a boil. 
 Take out, air well, and leave until next day to finish. 
 
 This preparation can be kept until you run forty pieces ; 
 after that throw it away. 
 
 For each succeeding ten pieces use one pail of the copperas 
 and lead solution, five pounds blue vitriol, and the clear liquor 
 from one pail of sumac, as stated above. 
 Finishins: or roller-tub — 
 To set : 100 lbs. Extract of Logwood, 
 100 lbs. Soda-ash, 
 22 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 
540 TUE A3IERICAX DYER. 
 
 Take five pieces at a time, give them five ends, then take 
 them out and air them ; re-enter them and give them five more 
 ends ; take out and wash ofi" the next day. This tub is kept 
 on the boil all the time the pieces are in it. 
 For the next five pieces, add to the tub — 
 13 lbs. Extract of Logwood, 
 13 lbs. Soda-ash, 
 1| lbs. Blue Vitriol, 
 and proceed as for the first five pieces. 
 
 Should the pieces come out a little on the purple shade, 
 reduce the dyestufis to 
 
 10 lbs. Extract of Logwood, 
 
 10 lbs. Soda-ash, 
 If lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 
 To get a blue-black, use — 
 
 4 lbs. Extract of Hemlock, 
 8 lbs. Extract of Logwood, 
 
 11 lbs. Soda-ash, 
 21 lbs. Blue Vitriol, 
 
 for each five pieces'. 
 
 To set for a blue-black — 
 
 80 lbs. Extract of Logwood, 
 
 25 lbs. Extract of Hemlock, 
 
 90 lbs. Soda-ash, 
 
 25 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 This makes a splendid blue-black on these kinds of goods. 
 
 Prussian Blue. 
 Six pieces Cloth, 300 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 40 lbs. Red Prussiate of Potash, 
 8 oz. Nitric Acid, 
 6 oz. Sulphuric Acid. 
 Enter at 140°, and bring to a boil slowly, and boil half an 
 hour. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 541 
 
 Finish with two hundred pounds chip h)gwood, boil oiif 
 the logwood, cool down to 170°, then add — 
 4 lbs. Tin Crystals, 
 4 lbs. Oxalic Acid, 
 4 lbs. Tartar. 
 Rake up well. Enter cloth, and bring to a boil, and boil 
 one hour. 
 
 Rich Full Blue. 
 Six pieces heavy Beavers, 330 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 13 lbs. Alum, 
 4 lbs. Oxalic Acid, 
 1 quart Scarlet Spirits, 
 1 pint Ammt)nia, 
 60 lbs. Chip Logwood. 
 Boil out first; then cool down, and add the spirits, ammo- 
 nia, alum, and acid. Rake up and enter cloth. Boil for one 
 and a half hours ; take out and wash off. 
 
 To make the scarlet spirits : Take thirty-four pounds water, 
 add to it seventeen pounds nitric acid, and three pounds mu- 
 riatic acid ; add five pounds feathered tin. Gradually, when it 
 is all dissolved, add to it four and a half pounds oil of vitriol; 
 stir up well ; do not use it until it has been made twenty-four 
 hours. 
 
 Prussian Blue. 
 500 lbs. Worsted Serges. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 40 lbs. Red Prussiate of Potash, 
 4 lbs. Oil of Vitriol, 
 4 lbs. Nitric Acid. 
 Enter at 140°. Bring up to a boil graduall}', and boil one 
 hour. Take out and air well. * 
 
542 THE AJ^IEEICAN DYER. 
 
 Finish with — . 
 
 300 lbs. Chip Logwood. 
 Boil it out. Then cool clown, and add to it — 
 5 lbs. Tin Crystals, 
 
 5 lbs. Alum, 
 
 2 lbs. Oxalic Acid. 
 
 Enter, and bring to a boil, and boil one and one-fourth 
 hours. Take out, and wash off. 
 
 Light Blue. 
 4 pieces Worsted Warps, 210 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 1^ lbs. Chrome, 
 
 7 lbs. Alum, . 
 
 3 lbs. Oxalic Acid, 
 2 lbs. Tin Crystals. 
 
 Enter cloth, and boil one and one-half hours. 
 Finish with — 
 
 30 lbs. Chip Logwood. 
 Enter cloth at 180"^. Bring up to a boil, and boil one and 
 one-fourth hours. Speck-dye at 120° heat. 
 
 Black. 
 4 pieces, 15 ounces per yard, 150 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 16 lbs. Chip Fustic, 
 
 8 lbs. Chip Logwood. 
 
 Boil these one and one-half hours. Then add — 
 
 6 lbs. Copperas, 
 
 6 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 
 Rake up. Boil cloth one and three-fourths hours. 
 Finish with — 
 
 130 lbs. Chip Logwood, 
 
 7 lbs. Chip Fustic. 
 
 Boil cloth one and one-half hours. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 543 
 
 Prussian Blue (ludigo Shade). 
 100 lbs. Beaver Cloth. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 6 11)8. Red Prussiate of Potash, 
 1 quart Muriatic Acid, 
 
 1 quart Oil of Vitriol, 
 70 lbs. Chip Logwood. 
 
 Boil out the logwood. Then cool down to 140°, and add 
 the prussiate and the acids. Enter the cloth ; put on the 
 steam, and boil to a good green color. Then take it out, and 
 air well. 
 
 Add to the liquor — 
 
 2 lbs. Tin Crystals, 
 4 lbs. Alum, 
 
 1 lb. Oxalic Acid. 
 Rake up well. Enter the cloth, and boil for one hour, or 
 till the shade suits you. 
 
 . Blue Worsted Warp. 
 2 pieces, 50 yards, 104 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 I lb. Chrome, 
 
 3 lbs. Alum, 
 
 1^ lbs. Oxalic Acid, 
 lib. Tin Crystals. 
 Boil cloth one and one-half hours. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 20 lbs. Chip Logwood. 
 Enter cool, and boil one hour. Then speck-dye in cold 
 speck-dye. 
 
544 THE america:n' dyer. 
 
 Black. 
 
 4 pieces, 28 ounces per yard, 200 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 6 lbs. Chrome, 
 
 5 Ibs.-Blue Vitriol, 
 2 lbs. Tartarine. 
 
 Boil cloth one and three-fourths hours. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 130 lbs. Chip Logwood, 
 20 lbs. Chip Fustic. 
 Boil cloth one and one-half hours. 
 
 Olive. 
 6 pieces Beavers ; weight, 264 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 6 lbs. Chrome, 
 
 6 lbs. Tartarine. 
 Boil one and one-half hours. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 90 lbs. Chip Fustic, 
 
 12 lbs. Madder, 
 
 45 lbs. Chip Logwood. 
 Boil two hours. Air the cloth well, and wash off. 
 
 Green Olive. 
 *6 pieces Beavers, 246 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 6 lbs. Chrome, 
 
 6 lbs. Tartarine. 
 Boil cloth one aud one-half hours. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 5^5 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 65 11)3. Chip Fustic, 
 12 lbs. Madder, 
 15 lbs. Camwood, 
 33 lbs. Chip Logwood. 
 
 Boil cloth two hours. Wash off. 
 
 Brown Olive. 
 6 pieces Beavers, 240 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 6 lbs. Chrome, 
 
 6 lbs. Tartarine. 
 Boil cloth one and one-half hours. Air well. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 100 lbs. Chip Fustic, 
 
 18 lbs. Madder, 
 
 38 lbs. Chip Hypernic, 
 
 16 lbs. Logwood. 
 Boil cloth two hours. Air well, and wash oflf. 
 
 Broavn. 
 6 pieces Beavers, 260 lbs, 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 6 lbs. Chrome, 
 
 6 lbs. Tartarine. 
 Boil cloth one and one-half hours. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 75 lbs. Chip Fustic, 
 
 12 lbs. :Madder, 
 
 40 lbs. Camwood. 
 Boil cloth two hours. Then sadden with twelve lbs. cop- 
 peras, and boil a half hour longer. 
 
 69 
 
546 THE AMEKICAX DYEK. 
 
 Red Brown. 
 6 pieces Beavers, 260 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 6 lbs. Chrome, 
 2 lbs. Tartarine. 
 Boil the cloth one and one-half hours. 
 Finish with — 
 
 130 lbs. Chip Fustic, 
 
 18 lbs. Madder, 
 100 lbs. Chip Hypernic, 
 10 lbs. Chip Logwood. 
 Boil the cloth one and three-fourths hours. Then sadden 
 with- two lbs. blue vitriol, and boil one hour longer. 
 
 Eeddish Brown. 
 6 pieces Beavers. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 5^ lbs. Chrome, 
 4 lbs. Tartarine. 
 Boil the cloth one and three-fourths hours. Air well. Then 
 Finish with — 
 
 100 lbs. Chip Fustic, 
 13 lbs. Madder, 
 10 lbs. Chip Logwood, 
 100 lbs. Chip Hypernic. 
 Boil the cloth one and three-fourths hours. Then sadden 
 with three lbs. blue vitriol, and boil one hour lonjrer. 
 
 Dahlia. 
 6 pieces Chinchilla, 482 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 8 lbs. Chrome, 
 
 7\ lbs. Tartarine. 
 Boil the cloth one and three-quarters hours. 
 
THE A^IERICAX DYER. 547 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 48 lbs. Ground Hy pernio, 
 
 10 lbs. Cudbear, 
 
 10 lbs. Extract of Hypernic, 
 
 15 lbs. Ground Logwood. 
 Boil the cloth two hours. Next day, speck-dye at 120°, 
 and "rive four ends. Wash off. 
 
 Dahlia. 
 6 pieces Beavers, 252 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 G lbs. Chrome, 
 
 4 lbs. Blue Vitriol, 
 
 2 lbs. Oxalic Acid, 
 
 1 quart Oil of Vitriol. 
 Boil the cloth one and one-half hours. 
 Finish with — 
 
 90 lbs. Chip Hypernic, 
 
 6 lbs. Cudbear, 
 30 lbs. Camwood, 
 
 7 lbs. Chip Logwood. 
 
 Boil the cloth two hours. Wash off in fuller's earth. 
 
 Claret. 
 6 pieces Beavers, 252 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — ^ 
 
 61^ lbs. Chrome, 
 6| lbs. Tartarine. 
 Boil the cloth one and three-fourths hours. 
 Finish with — 
 
 180 lbs. Camwood, 
 15 lbs. Logwood, 
 15 lbs. Fustic. 
 
548 THE AKERICAX DYEK. 
 
 Boil the cloth two hours. Then sadden with 
 
 3^ lbs. Blue Vitriol, 
 
 6 lbs. Copperas. 
 Boil one half-hour. Wash off. 
 
 FELT GOODS. 
 
 Aniline Colors. — Blues. 
 Guernsey (reddish). 
 Eight pieces Felts, 160 lbs. 
 
 1 lb. 7 oz. single B Guernsey blue, 
 li lbs. Sal soda. 
 Enter the cloth at 190°, bring up to a boil, and boil one 
 hour. 
 
 It is immaterial whether you wash off from this or not. 
 Develop in a bath at 120°, to wh!ch add one gallon oil of vit- 
 riol ; run the cloth at this temperature for half au hour ; take 
 out and wash the cloth in cold water. 
 
 If you should wish for a very dark shade, top the above off 
 in a fresh bath at 200°, with seven ounces Hoffmann two B's 
 violet, which produces a very handsome shade. 
 
 China and Serge Blue. 
 
 Four pieces Felt, 80 lbs. 
 
 Dissolve ten ounces China blue crystals in two pails of 
 hot water, with one pound oil vitriol ; add this to the dye- 
 tub ; then dissolve ten ounces serge blue in the same amount 
 of water, but do not use any acid. Add this to the tub, rake 
 it up, then add one pound more of oil vitriol ; rake up, enter 
 cloth at 130°, run and boil for half an .hour. Take out and 
 wash off. 
 
 Nicholson Blue. 
 
 Ten pieces Felt, 200 lbs. 
 
 Dissolve two and three-quarters pounds refined borax ; add 
 it to the tub. Dissolve one pound six ounces Nicholson four 
 
THE A3IERICAN DYER. 549 
 
 B's fast blue ; add it to the tub. Enter tlie cloth at 130°, heat 
 up to 190°, run for half an hour, take out and air well. De- 
 velop in a fresh bath at 120°, to which add two quarts oil 
 vitriol ; run the cloth twenty minutes, take out and wash off. 
 
 China Blue (new). 
 
 Eight pieces Felt, 160 lbs. 
 
 Dissolve one pound China blue crystals with two pounds 
 diluted oil vitriol ; add it to the tub. Then dissolve fourteen 
 ounces more of the crystals in the same amount of acid ; add 
 this also to the tub. Then add twelve pounds oil vitriol ; 
 rake up the tub well. Enter the cloth at 130° ; run the cloth 
 at a boil for fifteen minutes; take out and wash off. 
 
 Nicholson Blue. 
 
 Eight pieces Felt, 112 lbs. 
 
 Dissolve two pounds borax ; add to the tub. Dissolve one 
 pound fourteen ounces Nicholson fast blue, three B's. Pro- 
 ceed as for the other Nicholson blue. Develop in fresh bath 
 at 130°, to which add three quarts oil vitriol; run cloth 
 twenty minutes ; take out and wash off. 
 
 For the next eight pieces, add to tirst tub twenty-five ounces 
 Nicholson three B's. To developing-tul) add three pints oil 
 vitriol ; and the same for every eight pieces thereafter. 
 
 Silver Drab. 
 
 Eight pieces Felt, 160 lbs. 
 
 Dissolve half a pound silver-drab crystals in half a pint of 
 acetic acid ; add it to the tub. Add also one quart oil vitriol ; 
 rake up the solution well. Enter the cloth at 120°, bring up 
 to a boil, and boil one hour; take out and wash off. 
 
 If you should want a bluer shade, use more oil vitriol. If 
 wanted more on the lavender shade, use no oil vitriol. 
 
 Another Shade of the Same Color. 
 Proceed as above, and when you reel ui) the cloth add to 
 the bath four pounds madder ; boil it for five minutes, then 
 
550 THE AMEEICAX DYEK. 
 
 add three ounces of copperas. Drop the cloth in a^ain, and 
 boil for half an hour; take out and wash off. 
 
 These drabs can be varied by adding more madder. An- 
 other very good shade is obtained by using nine pounds of 
 madder. 
 
 Violet. 
 
 Eight pieces Felt, IGO lbs. 
 
 Dissolve thirteen ounces Hoffmann two B's in hot water; 
 add to the bath ; rake up well. Enter the cloth at 110°, run 
 twenty minutes, bring up to 140°, take up the cloth on the 
 reel. Then add to the tub thirteen ounces more of the crys- 
 tals, dissolved as before ; run cloth ten minutes, then bring 
 up to 190° ; run for ten minutes more ; take out and wash off. 
 
 For other violets, if wanted bhier, use oil of vitriol with 
 the dye. The marks of violets are : the more B's, the bluer 
 the shade they give. 
 
 Scarlet. 
 100 lbs. Felt Cloth, 4 pieces. 
 
 10 lbs. Cochineal, 
 2t lbs. Tin Crystals, 
 2^ lbs. Oxalic Acid, 
 
 I lb. Flavine, 
 2i lbs. Tartar, 
 21 pints Muriate of Tin. 
 Boil these for tifteeu minutes ; then cool down tub ; enter 
 cloth ; put on steam and boil forty minutes ; take out and 
 wash off. This is a splendid shade. 
 
 Scarlet (more on the red shade than the above). 
 100 lbs. Felts, 4 pieces. 
 
 11 lbs. Cochineal, 
 
 41 lbs. Taitarine (see article Tartar), 
 4 ounces Flavine, 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 551 
 
 1 11). Oxalic Acid, 
 
 1 ounce Roseine, 
 
 2 quarts JNIuriate of Tin. 
 
 Proceed as above. Boil one hour and wash off. 
 
 Scarlet. 
 160 lbs. Felts, 8 pieces. 
 
 12 lbs. Cochineal, 
 
 1 lb. Flavine, 
 
 4 lbs. Refined Tartar, 
 
 2 lbs. Oxalic Acid, 
 
 6 quarts Scarlet Spirits. 
 Boil these for fifteen minutes. Cool down to 140°. Enter 
 cloth. Put on steam and boil three-fourths hour. Wash off. 
 
 Scarlet. 
 140 lbs. Felts, 6 pieces. 
 
 10 lbs. Cochineal, 
 4 lbs. Tartarine, 
 1| lbs. Oxalic Acid, 
 
 10 ounces Flavine, 
 6 quarts Muriate of Tin. 
 Proceed as above, and boil one hour. 
 
 Pearl-Drab. 
 104 lbs. Felts, 4 pieces. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 2^ lbs. Chrome, 
 
 2^ lbs. Alum, 
 
 2i lbs. Tartarine. 
 Boil cloth one and a half hours. 
 
552 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 7 ounces Nutgalls, 
 
 7 ounces Ground Logwood, 
 
 1^ ounces Cudbear, 
 
 11^ ounces Ground Fustic. 
 Boil these twenty minutes. Enter cloth and boil one hour. 
 
 Lead-Drab. 
 100 lbs. Felts, 4 pieces. 
 
 Prepare as for pearl-drab. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 2| lbs. Ground Logwood, 
 
 2\ lbs.. Nutgalls, 
 
 6 ounces Cudbfear. 
 Proceed in all respects as for pearl-drab. 
 
 Bright Blue. 
 100 lbs. Felts, 4 pieces. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 1 lb. Chrome, 
 
 2^ lbs. Alum, 
 
 1^ lbs. Oxalic Acid. 
 Boil cloth one and a half hours. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 16 lbs. Chip Logwood. 
 
 Boil for one and a half hours, then add three ounces Hoff- 
 mann's 2 B's violet. Enter cloth at 170° Fahr. Put on 
 steam and boil one and one-fourth hours. 
 
 Nicholson Blue (Cotton back). 
 4 pieces, 92 lbs. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 553 
 
 10 ounces Guernsey blue, A, 
 
 1 lb. Sodii-ash, 
 
 2 ounces Hoffmann's 2 B's, violet. 
 
 Enter cloth as 180°, put on steam, and boil three-fourths 
 of an hour. 
 
 Develop at 120° Fahr. with— 
 
 2 quarts Oil of Vitriol. 
 Run cloth three-fourths of an hour. Take out and wash off. 
 
 Olive. 
 
 175 lbs. Felts, 8 pieces. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 5 lbs. Chrome, 
 4 lbs. AJum. 
 
 Boil cloth one and three-fourths hours next day. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 56 lbs. Chip Fustic, 
 40 lbs. Madder, 
 
 6 lbs. Logwood. 
 
 Boil these one and a half hours. Cool down. Enter cloth 
 and boil one and a half hours. 
 
 A Rich Olive. 
 250 lbs. Felts, 10 pieces. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 7 lbs. Chrome, 
 
 7 lbs. Glauber Salts, 
 
 5 lbs. Oil of Vitriol. 
 
 Boil cloth one and a half hours. 
 70 
 
554 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 75 lbs. Chip Fustic, 
 70 lbs. Madder, 
 20 lbs. Chip Logwood, 
 60 lbs. Camwood. 
 Boil all these two hours, then cool down and add five lbs. 
 glauber salts. Enter cloth. Put on steam, and boil one and 
 three-fourths hours. 
 
 If the felts have many burrs or specks, you must speck- 
 dye them with sumac and copperas, cold — first, in a sumac- 
 bath, then in the copperas-bath. 
 
 Dark Green. 
 200 lbs. Felts, 8 pieces. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 3 lbs. Chrome, 
 10 lbs. Alum, 
 10 lbs. Glauber Salts, 
 5 lbs. Oxalic Acid, 
 5 lbs. Tin Crystals, 
 5 lbs. Oil of Vitriol. 
 Boil cloth one and a half hours, then take out and wash off. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 23 lbs. Chip Fustic, 
 20 lbs. Chip Logwood, 
 13 lbs. Extract of Indigo. 
 Boil the fustic and logwood one and a half hours ; then 
 add the indigo. Boil fifteen minutes. Cool down, enter 
 cloth, and boil two hours. 
 
 Green. 
 126 lbs. Felts, 7 pieces. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 555 
 
 15 lbs. Alum, 
 10 lbs. Extract of Indigo, 
 2 lbs. Picric Acid. 
 Boil these for twenty minutes ; then cool down ; enter the 
 cloth and boil one hour ; then speck-dye. 
 
 Speck-Dye for Green Felts. 
 
 Take 3 pails of copperas ; dissolve it in one barrel of water. 
 Into a tub of cold water put 15 quarts of this solution for the 
 first 7 pieces. Give them 4 ends. Take out and run into 
 the other tub. For the next 7 pieces add seven quarts of the 
 copperas solution, and procees as for the first 7 pieces. For 
 the next seven pieces use 4 quarts of the solution and proceed 
 as before. This last will be the standard. 
 
 Second tub, — 
 
 Dissolve 10 lbs. red prussiate potash in a half-barrel of 
 cold water. 
 
 Into the second tub (cold) put, for first 7 pieces, 15 quarts 
 of prussiate solution. Give 6 ends. For second 7 pieces, 
 7 quarts prussiate solution. Give 6 ends. For next 7 
 pieces, 4 quarts prussiate solution. Give 6 ends. 
 
 This last is the standard for the second tub. 
 
 Wash off the pieces after coming out of the prussiate-tub. 
 
THE AArERICAN DYER. 
 
 ooT 
 
 WOOL SAMPLES. 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 No. -J. 
 
 No. 3, 
 Sto.nk-Dkab. 
 
 No. 4. 
 Anilink Drab. 
 
 No. 5. 
 Ykllow-Oijaxgk 
 
 No. 6. 
 Full Ouanck 
 
 No. 7. 
 Lavkndkr. 
 
 No. 8. 
 Fast Nicholson 
 
 liLUK. 
 
 No. 9. 
 
 Fast Nkuoi.sox 
 
 I'lLUK, Dakk. 
 
558 
 
 THE AMERICA^s^ DYER. 
 
 WOOL SAMPLES 
 
 No. 10. 
 Seal Brown. 
 
 Xo. 11. 
 Browx. 
 
 No. 12. 
 Cixxamox-Bkowx. 
 
 
 No. 14. . 
 
 
 No. 13. 
 
 Light Cix'xamox- 
 
 No. 15. 
 
 Olive. 
 
 Browx. 
 
 Red-Browx 
 
 No. 16. 
 Olive-Brown^ 
 
 No. 17. 
 
 Dark Cardixal- 
 
 Red. 
 
 No. 18. 
 Blue-Violet. 
 
*t;i.*"^<': 
 
 
 
m 
 
 t 
 
THE AMERICAN DYET{. 
 
 559 
 
 WOOL SAMPLES. 
 
 No. 11). 
 Blue. 
 
 No. 20. 
 Plum. 
 
 No. 21. 
 Ghf.kn. 
 
 No. 22. 
 Smokk-Gukkx. 
 
 No. 2.3. 
 IJluk-Gkkex. 
 
 No. 24. 
 Fi'L^ Okkkn. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 561 
 
 REMARKS ON RECIPES FOR WOOL. 
 
 The number of pomuls for each recipe, is for wool in the 
 grease (that is, wool before it is scoured), unless otherwise 
 stated in the recipe. The wool in all cases should be well 
 poled before the steam is turned on, and during the time it is 
 boiling, it is a very good plan to shift the position of it in the 
 tub,*by using the pole once or twice during the ebullition. 
 
 We have given but few samples of colors, but there is 
 enough for a guide, as a dyer can vary the materials of the 
 diflferent recipes, according to his judgment, so as to obtain 
 the shade desired, by comparing his sample with sample in 
 the book, and making such variations as required, either in 
 the yellow, blue, or red coloring materials. 
 
 The dye-woods must be boiled one and a half hours before 
 entering the wool, and the same time for the wool, unless 
 otherwise stated in the recipe. All the ground woods should 
 be thrown into the tub loose, except camwood, sanders, and 
 barwood, if in large quantities, which must be sprinkled upon 
 the wool before it is thrown into the tub. 
 
 When coloring yellow and other light shades, be particular 
 to have the tub thoroughly cleaned, and everything connected 
 with the dyeing of them perfectly clean. After preparing the 
 wool, do not tinish until the next day, as the colors will be 
 more intense and brighter by so doing. 
 
 RECIPES FOR WOOL, WITH SAMPLES. 
 Granite-Drab. 
 No. 1. Fifth quality American, 350 lbs. 
 
 4 lbs. Ground Logwood, 
 ^Ib. Cudbear, 
 6 oz. Nutgalls, 
 71 
 
562 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 1 lb. Ground Fustic, 
 1 lb. Red Tartar. 
 After boiling these half an hour, enter the wool very quickly, 
 and pole up well. (The tartar should not be put in until the 
 other materials are boiled out for half an hour.) 
 
 After boiling the wool for one and a half hours, sadden 
 with — 
 
 1 lb. Blue Vitriol, 
 1 lb. Red Tartar, 
 3 oz. Copperas. 
 Boil half an hour ; then draw off and throw out. 
 
 Drab. 
 No. 2. Third Fleece, 300 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 7 lbs. Ground Logwood, 
 
 1 lb. Nutgalls, 
 
 2 lbs. Sumac, 
 
 3 lbs. Red Sanders, 
 41 lbs. Madder, 
 
 11 lbs. Ground Fustic. 
 Boil these twenty minutes ; enter wool, and boil one and a 
 half hours. Sadden with — 
 2^ lbs. Copperas, 
 I lb. Alum. 
 Boil half an hour, then draw off. 
 
 Stone-Drab . 
 No. 3. Fifth Fleece, 300 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 1| lbs. Nutgalls, 
 2 lbs. Ground Logwood, 
 1| lbs. Ground Fustic, 
 11^ lbs. Madder, 
 f lb. Sumac. 
 
THE AMEBIC AI^ DYER. 5G3 
 
 Boil and proceed as for No. 2 ; then sadden with — 
 
 1 lb. Alum, 
 
 1 lb. Red Tartar, 
 
 I lb. Copperas. 
 Boil half an hour, than draw off. 
 
 Aniline Drab. 
 No. 4. Third Fleece, 316 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 10 oz. Silver-Gray Crystals (Poirrier). 
 
 Dissolve it in half a pint acetic acid ; heat the tub to 150"^ 
 Fahr. ; add to it one quart of oil of vitriol ; stir it up ; then 
 add the dissolved crystals, and rake up well ; enter the wool, 
 turn on the steam, and pole until it comes to the boil, and boil 
 one and a half hours. This comes out a little uneven, but 
 does not show it after being carded. 
 
 Yellow-Orange, 
 No. 5. Third Fleece, 20 lbs. clean. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 7 oz. Flavine, 
 
 ^ oz. Purpurine. 
 Boil these for half an hour, then cool down, and add — 
 
 I lb. Tin Crystals, 
 
 I lb. Muriate of Tin, 
 
 \ lb. Oxalic Acid. 
 Rake up well ; enter the wool ; pole up well. Boil half an 
 hour ; take out and wash off. 
 
 Full Orange. 
 No. 6. Third Fleece clean Wool, 100 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 4 lbs. Flavine, 
 10 oz. Purpurine. 
 
564: THE AMEKICAX DYER. 
 
 Proceed' as with No. 5, then add — 
 3 lbs. Tiu Crystals, 
 2i lbs. Oxalic Acid. 
 Enter wool, turn on steam, and pole up until the wool be- 
 comes even. Boil half an hour. This color improves in 
 fulling and scouring, becoming brighter. It is a perfectly 
 fast color, as regards light and alkalies. 
 
 If the water which you have to use contains lime, less pur- 
 purine will produce the shade. 
 
 Lavender. 
 No. 7. Third Australian, clean Wool, 80 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 2 lbs. Alum, 
 
 3 lbs. Red Tartar, 
 
 1 lb'. Oil of Vitriol. 
 Boil wool one hour. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 1 lb. Hoffmann Violet, 3 B's, 
 
 ^ lb. Extract of Indigo (Chemic). 
 Boil wool half an hour. Leave it in the bath five hours. 
 If it should not come up red enough to suit you, sadden 
 with one pound alum. 
 
 Fast Nicholson Blue. 
 No. 8. Third American, clean fleece Wool, 25 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 2 lbs. Chrome, 
 1^ lb. Alum, 
 
 1 lb. Tin Crystals, 
 1 lb. Red Tartar. 
 Boil wool one hour. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 565 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 1^ oz. Hoflfmann Violet, 3 B's, 
 \l oz. Nicholson'sBlue, 4 B's. 
 Boil wool one hour. Take out and develop in fresh bath, 
 with one pint oil of vitriol. Heat 200° Fahr., pole up well, 
 and leave in for one hour. Wash off. 
 
 Fast Nicholson Blue (Dark). 
 No. 9. Third Fleece, cleau Wool, 20 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 4 oz. Fast Nicholson's Blue, 4 B's, 
 
 1 lb. Sal-soda. 
 Enter wool at 190 Fahr. Bring to a boil, and boil half an 
 hour. 
 
 Finish in fresh bath with — 
 
 If lbs. Oil of Vitriol, 
 1 oz. Hoffmann Violet, 2 B's. 
 Enter wool at 150° Fahr. Put on steam and boil half an 
 hour. Then sadden with quarter of a pound of copperas, 
 and boil half tin hour longer. Take out and wash off. 
 
 Seal Brown. 
 No. 10. 100 lbs. clean Wool, 4th Fleece. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 3 lbs. Chrome, 
 
 3 lbs. Tartarine,* 
 
 I lb. Oxalic Acid. 
 Boil wool one and a half hours. 
 
 * Tartarine is a substitute for tartar. If you do not have it, use five 
 pouuils of half-refined tartar in phice of tartarine. (See article, Tartar.) 
 
 Where tartarine is mentioned in the recipe, and you have not got it, use 
 half-refined tartar, one-third more than weight of tartarine. 
 
56G THE amekica:n^ dyee. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 66 lbs. Chip Fustic, 
 7 Jibs. Logwood, 
 22 lbs. Madder, 
 22 lbs. Camwood, 
 6 lbs. Red Sanders. 
 
 Boil these one and a half hours, and boil the wool two 
 hours. Then sadden with — 
 
 1 lb. Copperas, 
 
 f lb. Blue Vitriol, 
 
 2 lbs. Ground Logwood. 
 Boil wool half an hour longer. 
 
 Brown. 
 No. IL 496 lbs. 4th American Fleece. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 5^ lbs. Chrome, 
 5 lbs. Tartarine, 
 1 lb. Oxalic Acid. 
 Boil wool one and a half hours. • 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 130 lbs. Chip Fustic, 
 30 lbs. Madder, 
 20 lbs. Red Sanders, 
 55 lbs. Camwood, 
 5 lbs. Logwood. 
 
 Boil wool two hours ; then sadden with — 
 10 lbs. Copperas, 
 4 lbs. Ground Logwood. 
 Boil half an hour longer, and draw off. 
 
 Cinnamon-Brown. 
 No. 12. 400 lbs. Fall California (shrinkage, 64 percent.) 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 567 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 4 lbs. Chrome, 
 
 3^ lbs. Alum. 
 Boil one and a half hours ; next day 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 65 lbs. Camwood, 
 11 lbs. Madder, 
 50 lbs. Chip Fustic. 
 
 Boil wool two hours. Sadden with — 
 8 lbs.. Copperas, 
 3|^lbs. Ground Logwood. 
 
 Boil half an hour longer, and draw off. 
 
 Olive. 
 
 No. 13. 200 lbs. Clean Wool. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 G lbs. Chrome, 
 
 6 lbs. Tartarine. 
 Boil wool two hours. 
 
 Finish with — ♦ 
 
 80 lbs. Chip Fustic, 
 15 lbs. Madder, 
 
 8 lbs. Ground Logwood, 
 18 lbs. Camwood. 
 
 Boil wool two hours ; then sadden with— 
 
 3 lbs. Copperas, 
 
 2 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Boil half an hour longer. 
 
 Light Cinnamon-Brown. 
 No. 14. 330 lbs. 4th Fleece. 
 
568 THE AMERICAN DTEK. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 4 lbs. Chrome, 
 
 4 lbs. Tartar, 
 
 1 lb. Oxalic Acid. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 70 lbs. Chip Fustic, 
 16 ll)s. Madder, 
 20 lbs. Camwood, 
 6 lbs. Red Sanders. 
 
 Boil wool one and a half hours ; then sadden with — 
 1^ lbs. Blue Vitriol, 
 
 2 lbs. Copperas, 
 
 3 lbs. Ground Logwood. 
 
 Boil three-quarters of an hour, and draw off. 
 
 Red-Brown. 
 No. 15. 425 lbs. 4th Fleece. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 4^ lbs. Chrome, 
 4^ lbs. Tartarine. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 100 lbs. Chip Fustic, 
 30 lbs. Madder, 
 15 lbs. Red Sanders, 
 50 lbs. Camwood, 
 
 5 lbs. Chip Logwood. 
 
 Boil wool one and three-quarter hours ; then sadden with- 
 3 lbs. Blue Vitriol, 
 and boil half an hour longer. 
 
 Olive-Brown. 
 No. 16. 325 lbs. 5th Fleece. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 569 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 4 lbs. Chrome, 
 4 lbs. Tartariue. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 40 lbs. Chip Fustic, 
 
 4^ lbs. Chip Logwood, 
 
 4 lbs. Matlder, 
 22 lbs. Camwood. 
 
 Boil wool two hours ; then sadden with- 
 
 U lbs. Blue Vitriol, 
 
 1 lb. Copperas. 
 Boil half an hour. 
 
 Dark Cardinal-Red. 
 No. 17. 50 lbs. clean Pulled Wool. 
 
 Prepare with — •" 
 
 15 lbs. Alum, 
 
 8 lbs. Tartariue, 
 
 2 lbs. Sal-Aramoniac. 
 Boil wool two hours ; next day 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 14 lbs. Cochineal. 
 Boil wool two hours ; leave it in the dye six hours. 
 This is a perfectly fast color. 
 
 Another Cardinal-Red. 
 75 lbs. Clean Wool. 
 
 I lb. Flavine, 
 12 oz. Golden Roseine. 
 Enter cool ; bring to boil, and boil one hour. 
 This is better adapted for yarn than wool. 
 
 72 
 
570 THE AMERICAi^ DYER. 
 
 Blue-Yiolet. 
 
 No. 18. 80 lbs. Cleau Wool, 3d Fleece. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 3 lbs. Chrome, 
 3 lbs. Alum, 
 
 3 lbs. Tartarine. 
 
 Boil wool two hours ; next day 
 Finish with — 
 
 1^ lbs. Hoffmann's 4 B's Violet (Poirrier's). 
 Boil one hour, and leave it in the tub three or four hours. 
 This color resists alkalies and sunshine (light). 
 
 Blue. 
 
 No. 19. 500 lbs. 3d Fleece. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 1\ lbs. Chrome, 
 6 lbs. Alum, 
 
 4 lbs. Oxalic Acid, 
 
 2 lbs. Tartarine, 
 
 I lb. Tin Crystals. 
 Boil wool one and a half hours. 
 Finish with — 
 
 60 lbs. Chip Logwood, 
 
 3 oz. Hoffmann's 2 B's Violet (Poirrier's). 
 Boil one and three-quarters hours. 
 
 Plum. 
 
 No. 20. 481 lbs. 3d Fleece. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 A lbs. Tartarine, 
 
 4 lbs. Oxalic Acid, 
 1\ lbs. Alum. 
 
 Boil wool one and a half hours ; next day 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 571 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 75 lbs. Chip Logwood, 
 
 15 lbs. Hypernic, 
 
 3 lbs. Ciidbear. 
 
 Boil wool one and three-quarters hours ; draw off. 
 
 Green. 
 No. 21. 40 lbs. Clean Wool, 4th Fleece. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 2\ lbs. Alum, 
 
 4 oz. Chrome, 
 
 3. oz. Tin Crystals. 
 Boil wool one and three-quarters hours. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 2^ lbs. Ground Fustic, 
 7 lbs. Extract Indigo (Chemic) , 
 1 quart Bran, 
 1 quart Salt (Coarse). 
 Boil these three-quarters of an hour ; then cool down the 
 tub. Enter the wool ; pole up well, put on steam, and boil 
 one and three-quarters hours ; draw off. 
 
 Smoke-Green. 
 No. 22. 400 lbs. 3d Australian. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 6 lbs. Chrome, 
 
 1^ pints Oil of Vitriol, 
 
 5 lbs. Alum, 
 
 1 lb. Tin Crystals. 
 Boil wool two hours. , 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 6' lbs. Chip Fustic, 
 
 16 quarts Salt, 
 
572 THE A^IERICAN DYER. 
 
 58 lbs. Extract Indigo, 
 
 25 lbs. Bran, 
 
 10 lbs. Chip Logwood. 
 
 Boil out the fustic, bran aud logwood, before you add the 
 
 indigo aud salt ; then boil for twenty minutes longer. Cool 
 
 down the tub, then enter the wool ; pole up well, and boil 
 
 one and three-quarters hours ; after which you will sprinkle on 
 
 2 lbs. Ground Fustic, 
 
 8 lbs. Ground Logwood. 
 Boil one hour longer, then draw off, and throw out the 
 wool immediately. 
 
 Note. — The greeus must not be finished off until the dan «/'"' they are 
 prejmred. 
 
 Blue-Green. 
 No. 23. Clean, 3 lbs. ; Fleece, 120 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 6 lbs. Alum, 
 f lb. Chrome, 
 
 1 lb. Tin Crystals. 
 
 Boil wool one and three-fourths hours. 
 Finish with — 
 
 5 lbs. Ground Fustic, 
 
 3 quarts Bran, 
 
 20 lbs. Extract of Indigo, 
 3 quarts Salt. 
 Proceed as for No. 22. Boil wool one and one-fourth 
 hours, or to shade. 
 
 Full Green. 
 No. 24. Fall California (shrinks sixty-four per cent.), 
 400 lbs. 
 
 .Prepare with — 
 
 10 lbs. Alum, 
 
 2 lbs. Chrome, 
 
 2^ lbs. Tin Crystals. 
 Boil wool two hours. 
 
THE AMERICAIT DYER. 573 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 25 lbs. Chip Fustic, 
 8 lbs. Chip Logwood, 
 
 2 pails of Bran, 
 
 20 lbs. Extract of Indigo, 
 10 quarts salt. 
 Proceed as for No. 22, and boil wool one and one-half 
 hours. Draw off, and throw out the wool. 
 
 Golden-Brown. 
 Fleece, 250 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 3 lbs. Chrome, 
 
 4 lbs. Alum, 
 
 3 lbs. Tartar. 
 
 Boil* wool one and a half hours. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 56 lbs. Chip Fustic,* 
 
 12 lbs. Madder, 
 
 18 lbs. Camwood. 
 Boil drugs one and a half hours. Boil wool two hours. 
 
 A Dark Golden-Browt^. 
 Fleece, 433 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 6 lbs. Chrome, 
 
 4 lbs. Alum. 
 
 Boil wool one and three-fourths hours. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 130 lbs. Chip Fustic, 
 
 64 lbs. Camwood, 
 
 16 lbs. Logwood, 
 
 20 lbs. Madder. 
 Proceed as above. 
 
574 THE AlVIERICAN DYER. 
 
 Olive-Brown. 
 Australian Wool (shrinks sixty per cent.), 400 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 4^ lbs. Chrome, 
 3| lbs. Alum, 
 3f lbs. Tartar. 
 Boil one and a half hours. 
 Finish with — 
 
 60 lbs. Chip Fustic, 
 30 lbs. Camwood, 
 
 7 lbs. Madder, 
 
 6 lbs. Logwood. 
 Boil wool one and three-fourths hours. 
 Sadden with — 
 
 5 lbs. Copperas, 
 
 1 lb. Ground Logwood. * 
 Boil one hour longer. 
 
 Ked-Brown. 
 Third Australian, 450 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 6| lbs. Chrome, 
 6| lbs. Tartar, 
 
 2 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Boil wool one and a half hours. 
 Finish with — 
 
 130 lbs. Chip Fnstic, 
 10 lbs. Madder, 
 40 lbs. Camwood, 
 10 lbs. Red Sanders, 
 
 8 lbs. Chip Hypernic. 
 
 Boil drugs one and a half hours. Boil wool one and three- 
 fourths hours. 
 ' By saddening this with six lbs. copperas and one lb. ground 
 logwood, you will obtain a good olive-brown color. 
 
THE AMEltlCAN DYER. 575 
 
 Light Olive. 
 Second Fleece, 300 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 5 lbs. Chrome, 
 5 lbs. Red Tartar, 
 
 5 lbs. Alum. 
 Boil wool two hours. 
 Finish with — 
 
 80 lbs. Chip Fustic, 
 10 lbs. Chip Logwood, 
 
 7| lbs. Madder, 
 10 lbs. Camwood. 
 Boil wool two hours. 
 
 Geeen-Olive. 
 Third Fleece, 500 lbs. 
 
 « 
 Prepare with — 
 
 8 lbs. Chrome, 
 
 8 lbs. Red Tartar. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 110 lbs. Chip Fustic, 
 
 8 lbs. Camwood, 
 
 15 lbs. Madder, 
 
 20 lbs. Chip Logwood. 
 
 Proceed as for light olive. 
 
 Cinnamon Color. 
 Monteviedo Wool, 500 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 6 lbs. Chrome, 
 6 lbs. Alum, 
 
 4 lbs. Red Tartar. 
 
576 THE AMEKICAX DYER. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 120 lbs. Chip Fustic, 
 12 lbs. Madder, 
 
 24 lbs. Camwood, 
 
 25 lbs. Chip Hypernic. 
 Boil wool two hours. 
 
 Yellow-Bronz e. 
 Fribs, 500 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 7 lbs. Chrome, 
 
 6 lbs. Red Tartar, 
 
 6 lbs. Alum. • 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 120 lbs. Chip Fustic, 
 
 20 lbs. Madder, 
 
 10 lbs. Logwood. 
 Boil the wool two hours. Leave it in for a few hours. 
 
 Broxze, 
 Third Fleece, 600 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 7 lbs. Chrome, 
 6 lbs. Tartar, 
 6 lbs. Alum. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 80 lbs. Chip Fustic, 
 50 lbs. Camwood, 
 
 9 lbs. Chip Logwood, 
 10 lbs. Madder. 
 
 Boil wool two hours. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 577 
 
 Light Bronze. 
 
 Fribs, 500 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 7 lbs. Chrome, 
 4 lbs. Red Tartar. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 64 lbs. Chip Fustic, 
 10 lbs. Matkler, 
 
 1 lb. Ground Logwood. 
 Boil wool one and a half hours. 
 
 Light Stains or Shades — Yellow Stain. 
 450 lbs. Second Fleece. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 2 lbs. Chrome, 
 
 2 lbs. Red Tartar. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 4 lbs. Ground Fustic, 
 
 1^ lbs. Camwood, 
 
 1 lb. Madder. 
 Boil the wool in each bath one and a half hours. 
 
 Pink Stain. 
 60 lbs. Cape Wool, clean. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 3 oz. Ground Logwood, 
 3 oz. Ground Fustic, 
 
 ^ oz. Cudbear. 
 Boil the drugs fifteen minutes ; then cool down ; enter the 
 wool ; bring to a l)oil only ; shut off the steam and let it re- 
 main in the solution for one hour. 
 73 
 
578 THE A^klERICAN DYER. 
 
 Pearl Stain. 
 300 lbs. Second Fleece. 
 
 4 lbs Ground Logwood. 
 
 Boil it for fifteen minutes. Enter the wool ; pole up well; 
 boil one and a half hours ; sadden with one lb. copperas ; boil 
 one-half hour lonjjer. 
 
 These three are nice stains. 
 
 Drab Stain. 
 350 lbs. Fourth Cape Wool. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 2 lbs. Chrome, 
 1 lb. Tartar, 
 1 lb. Alum. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 26 oz. Ground Fustic, 
 
 1^ lbs. Nutgalls, 
 18 oz. Brazilwood, 
 14 oz. Ground Logwood. 
 Boil the wool one and a half hours ; then sadden with six 
 oz. copperas. Boil one-half hour. 
 
 Lavender. 
 225 lbs. American Fleece. 
 
 Color in the vat to one-third blue; wash off the wool, 
 and 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 4 oz. Cochineal, 
 
 5 oz. Madder, 
 8^ oz. Cudbear, 
 
THE AMEPJCAIT DYER. 579 
 
 10 oz. Ground Logwood, 
 
 1| oz. Nutgalls, 
 16 oz. Alum, 
 9 oz. White Tartar. 
 Boil the wool one and a half hours ; then sadden with four 
 and a half oz. copperas and boil one hour longer. 
 
 Lavender. 
 400 lbs. Second Fleece. 
 
 4 lbs. Ground Logwood, 
 1| lbs. Cudbear. 
 Boil these one-half hour ; then add one-half lb. cream of 
 tartar. Boil the wool one and a half hours. 
 
 Sadden with — 
 
 I oz. Copperas, 
 4 oz. Alum. 
 
 Boil one-half hour longer. 
 
 Dark Lavender. 
 200 lbs. American Fleece. 
 
 Color in the vat to one-third blue ; then wash off, and 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 11^ lbs. Ground Logwood, 
 1^ lbs. Nutgalls, 
 
 II lbs. Madder, 
 2|^ lbs. Barwood, 
 
 I lb. Camwood, 
 I lb. Cudbear, 
 3 lbs. Alum. 
 Boil the drugs one half hour. Boil the wool two hours. 
 If you should want this any darker, sadden with a little cop- 
 peras. 
 
580 THE AMEKICAX DYER. 
 
 Light and Bright Shades of Drabs — Hoffmann Drab. 
 500 lbs. Third Fleece. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 20 lbs. Alum, 
 
 3 lbs. Chrome, 
 
 4 lbs. Oil of Vitriol, 
 1^ lbs. Tin Crystals, 
 
 1 pail of Bran, 
 Boil the wool one hour. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 2^ lbs. Ground Logwood. 
 
 1 1 oz. Hoffmann's 3 B's Violet. 
 Boil the wool one and one-fourth hours. 
 
 Light Slate-Drab. 
 400 lbs. Second Fleece. 
 
 7 lbs. Ground Logwood, 
 
 3 lbs. Ground Fustic, 
 21 lbs. Cudbear. 
 
 Boil these for twenty minutes, then add — 
 
 4 lbs. Ked Tartar, 
 
 2 lbs. Alum, 
 
 1 lb. Copperas. 
 Rake up well ; cool down and enter the wool ; give it a 
 good poling, and boil one and one-fourth hours. 
 
 Silver Drab. 
 250 lbs. Third Fleece. 
 
 1 lb. Madder, 
 
 21 lbs. Ground Logwood, 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 581 
 
 ^ lb. Cudbear, 
 I lb. Nutgiills, 
 ^ lb. Ground Fustic. 
 
 Boil out for twenty minutes ; then add — 
 
 1^ lb. Red Tartar, 
 
 ^ lb. Copperas. 
 Proceed as for light slate-drab, and boil one hour. 
 
 Dove Drab. 
 200 lbs. Second Fleece. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 2 lbs. Alum, 
 
 1 lb. Chrome, 
 
 ^ lb. White Tartar. 
 Boil one hour. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 ^ lb. Ground Logwood, 
 11 ounces Brazil-wood. 
 Boil these one-half hour. Boil wool one-half hour. 
 
 Darker Dove-Drab. 
 263 lbs. Third Fleece. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 14 ounces Chrome, 
 
 14 ounces White Tartar, 
 
 2 lbs. Alum. 
 
 Boil wool one and a half hours. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 1^ lbs. Ground Logwood, 
 
 IV lbs. Brazil-wood, 
 
 1^ lb. Cudbear. 
 Boil these one-half hour. Boil wool one and one-quarter 
 hours. 
 
582 THE A3IERICAN DTEE. 
 
 Blue-Drab. 
 
 208 lbs. Third Fleece. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 13 ounces Chrome, 
 2 lbs. White Tartar, 
 3V lbs Alum. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 26 ounces Ground Logwood, 
 1 lb. Cudbear, - 
 8 ounces Brazil-wood. 
 Proceed as for the dark dove-drab. 
 
 Dove. 
 270 lbs. Second Fleece. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 18 ounces Chrome, 
 
 18 ounces Alum, 
 
 18 ounces Tartar. 
 Boil wool one hour. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 21 ounces Ground Logwood, 
 21 ounces Nutgalls, 
 13 ounces Camwood, 
 If lbs. Madder, 
 f lb. Ground Fustic. 
 Boil wool one and one-half hours. 
 
 Sadden with — 
 
 13 ounces Copperas. 
 Boil one-half hour. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 583 
 
 Stone-Drab. 
 450 lbs. Fourth Cape Wool. 
 
 3| lbs. Ground Logwood, 
 If Ibs.^ Nutgalls, 
 2 lbs. Madder, 
 2 lbs. Fustic, 
 ^ lb. Camwood. 
 Boil wool one and one-half hours. 
 
 Sadden with — 
 
 1^ lbs. Alura, 
 
 1| lbs. Tartar, 
 
 2 lbs. Copperas. 
 Boil one-half hour lonsfer. 
 
 Stone-Drab. 
 295 lbs. Second Fleece. 
 
 1| lbs. Nutgalls, 
 3| lbs. Ground Logwood, 
 4i lbs. Ground Fustic, 
 15 ounces Camwood. 
 Boil wool one and one-half hours. 
 
 Sadden with — 
 
 1| lbs. Copperas, 
 
 1 lb. Alum, 
 
 1 11). Tartar. 
 Boil one-half hour longer. 
 
584 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Stone-Drab. 
 250 lbs. Third American Fleece. 
 
 3 lbs. Ground Logwood, 
 
 If lbs. Nntgalls, 
 
 2 lbs. Madder, 
 
 2 lbs. Ground Fustic. 
 Boil wool one and one-half hours. 
 Sadden with — 
 
 1 lb. Alum, 
 lib. Tartar, 
 
 2 lbs. Copperas. 
 Boil one-half hour longer. 
 
 Note. — In all cases where all the materials are in a ground state, all the 
 boiling- that is required for them before entering the wool, is from twenty 
 to thirty minutes, esi^ecially for the light shades, unless otherwise stated in 
 the recipes. 
 
 Slate-Drab. 
 170 lbs. clean Cape Wool. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 2^ lbs. Chrome, 
 
 l"' lb. Tartar, 
 
 1 lb. Alum. 
 Finish with — 
 
 5 lbs. Logwood, 
 12 lbs. Madder, 
 
 1 lb. Cudbear, 
 
 1 lb. Camwood. 
 Sadden with — 
 
 1 lb. Copperas, 
 
 1 lb. Tartar. 
 Boil wool in the preparation, and finish in one and one-half 
 hours each ; after saddening, boil one-half hour. 
 
THE AMERICAl^ DYER. 585 
 
 Fawn-Drab. 
 
 300 lbs. Montevideo Wool. 
 
 2| lbs. Ground Logwood, 
 3 lbs. Camwood, 
 9 lbs. Madder. 
 
 Sadden with — 
 
 3 *lbs. Copperas, 
 11 lbs. Alum. 
 
 Boil wool one hour before saddening and one hour after 
 saddening. 
 
 Light-Slate Drab. 
 200 lbs. Clean Montevideo Wool (or 500 lbs. in the grease). 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 2 lbs. Chrome, 
 
 1 lb. Alum. 
 
 Boil wool one and one-half hours. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 4 lbs. Ground Longwood, 
 
 2 lbs. Camwood, 
 1 lb. Cudbear. 
 
 Boil one and three-quarters hours. 
 
 Claret. 
 Second Amerfoan Fleece, 500 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 5 lbs. Chrome, 
 
 5 lbs. Tartar. 
 
 Boil wool one and a half hours. 
 74 
 
586 THE AMERICAl^ DTEE. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 140 lbs. Camwood, 
 35 lbs. Hypernic, 
 12 lbs. Logwood, 
 20 lbs. Fustic. 
 Boil wool two hours. Then sadden with eight lbs. cop- 
 peras, aud boil half an hour longer. 
 
 Dark Claret. 
 
 * 
 Second Fleece, 450 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 6 lbs. Chrome, 
 
 7 lbs. Tartar. 
 
 Boil one and three-fourths hours. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 125 lbs. Camwood, 
 6 lbs. Logwood, 
 72 lbs. Hypernic. 
 Boil wool two hours. 
 
 Purple-Claret. 
 Third Fleece, 300 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 3 lbs. Chrome, 
 
 3 lbs. Alum, 
 
 2 lbs. Red Tartar. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 90 lbs. Camwood, 
 
 6 lbs. Logwood, * 
 
 20 lbs. Hypernic, 
 16 lbs. Cudbear. 
 Sadden with six lbs. copperas. 
 
 Boil one and a half hours in preparation, and two hours in 
 the finish, one hour after saddening. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 587 
 
 Blues — Indigo Shade (Fast). 
 Third Australian Wool, 300 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 12 lbs. Alum, 
 
 2 lbs. Tartarine, 
 
 2 lbs. Tin Crystals. 
 Boil the wool three-fourths of an hour. Then draw off. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 8 lbs. Chip Logwood. 
 
 Boil out the logwood. Then add to the liquor — 
 18 lbs. Extract of Indigo, 
 1^ lbs. Hoffmann's 3.B's Violet. 
 Boil these for fifteen minutes. Then cool down, and enter 
 the wool. Pole up well, and boil one hour. 
 
 Sadden with six lbs. copperas, and boil one hulf-hour 
 longer. 
 
 Note. — When the -wool is first entered in the dye, you will see that the log- 
 wood is precipitated ; but it will all come into solution again after boiling a 
 short time. The cause of its precipitating is the action of the sulphuric acid 
 contained in the chemic, or extract of indigo. 
 
 For other recipes for blue, see the recipes with samples. 
 
 FRENCH RECIPES. 
 Swallow Blue. 
 
 Cloth, 100 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 2 lbs. Chrome, 
 
 2 lbs. Oxalic Acid, 
 
 1 lb. Blue Vitriol, 
 
588 THE A^IERICAX DYER. 
 
 5 lbs. Alum, 
 U lbs. Oil of Vitriol. 
 Boil cloth two hours. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 14 lbs. Chip Logwood. 
 Boil cloth one hour. 
 
 Red-Blue . 
 Cloth, 50 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 1 lb. Chrome, 
 
 I lb. Oxalic Acid, 
 3 lbs. Alum, 
 
 II lbs. Tiu Crystals, 
 
 ^ lb. Cream of Tartar. 
 Boil cloth two hours. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 15 lbs. Logwood, 
 7^ lbs. Camwood, 
 2| lbs. Madder, 
 
 i lb. Tartar. 
 Boil cloth one and one-fourth hours. 
 
 Green-Brown. 
 Clean Wool, 90 lbs. 
 
 Give a light-blue bottom in the blue-vat. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 50 lbs. Fustic, 
 
 10 lbs. Alum, 
 1 lb. Tartar. 
 Boil one and one-half hours. Then 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 589 
 
 Sadden with six lbs. ground logwood, and boil one half- 
 hour. 
 
 N. B, — The wool should be washed after it comes out of 
 the blue- vat. 
 
 Yellow-Brown. 
 Clean Wool, 24 Iba. 
 
 4 lbs. Fustic, 
 
 2 lbs. Sanders, 
 
 1 lb. Sumac. 
 Boil one and three-fourths hours. Boil wool the same. 
 Then sadden with four ounces copperas, and boil one half- 
 hour longer. 
 
 Fast Beown. 
 Clean Wool, 24 lbs. 
 
 6 lbs. Sanders, 
 2| lbs. Sumac, 
 
 1 lb. Logwood, 
 
 2 lbs. Fustic. 
 
 Boil dyestuflfs and wool one and a half hours. Sadden 
 with — 
 
 1 lb. Copperas, 
 \ lb. Blue Vitriol. 
 Boil half an hour. 
 
 Gold-Brown. 
 Clean Wool, 24 lbs. 
 
 6 lbs. Fustic, 
 . 1 lb. Madder, 
 1 lb. Sanders, 
 1 lb. Sumac. 
 
590 THE AMERICATjT DYEK. 
 
 Boil one hour ; then add — 
 
 fib. Blue Vitriol, 
 
 ^ lb. Tartar. 
 Enter the wool, and boil one and a half hours. 
 
 Madder Brown. 
 
 Clean Wool, 24 lbs. 
 
 Color to a light blue in the blue-vat ; then prepare with — 
 2| lbs. Alum, 
 f lb. Red Tartar, 
 ^Ib. Blue Vitriol, 
 2 lbs. Fustic. 
 Boil wool one and a half hours ; then 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 8 lbs. Madder, 
 
 1^ lbs. Sumac. 
 Boil wool half an hour. 
 
 Chrome Brown. 
 Clean Wool, 24 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 I lb. Chrome, 
 1 lb. Blue Vitriol, 
 f lb. Mordant.* 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 5 lbs. Camwood, 
 1| lbs. Logwood, 
 1 lb. Fustic. 
 Boil wool in the preparation one and a half hours, and in 
 the finishing the same time. 
 
 * To make the mordant", mix one pound muriatic acid, one pound sul- 
 phuric acid, and one pound water. Dissolve in this, twelve pounds feather- 
 tiu. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 591 
 
 Catechu Brown. 
 Clean Wool, 24 lbs. 
 
 4 lbs. Catechu, 
 
 1 lb. Sal-ammoniac. 
 
 Boil wool one and a half hours ; then 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 ^ lb. Chrome. 
 Boil one hour. 
 
 Domingo Brown. 
 Clean Wool, 24 lbs. 
 
 1^ lbs. Logwood, 
 2 lbs. Sumac, 
 2 lbs. Sanders, 
 
 1 lb. Fustic. 
 
 Boil wool one and a half hours. Also boil the woods the 
 same time. Sadden with — 
 
 2 lbs. Copperas. 
 Boil half an hour. 
 
 Maroon. 
 Clean Wool, 24 lbs. 
 
 6' lbs. Camwood, 
 4 lbs. Urine (sig), 
 2^ lbs. Sumac, 
 
 2 lbs. Logwood. 
 Boil the wool two hours. 
 
 Sadden with — 
 
 2 lbs. Copperas. 
 Boil half an hour. 
 
592 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Bronze. 
 Cleau Wool, 24 lbs. 
 
 6 lbs. Fustic, 
 2^ lbs. Camwood, 
 2 lbs. Sumac. 
 Boil wool one and a half hours ; then 
 
 Sadden with — 
 
 I lb. Copperas, 
 
 ^ lb. Blue Vitriol. 
 Boil half an hour. 
 
 Drab. 
 Clean Wool, 100 lbs. 
 
 2| lbs. Sanders, 
 2f lbs. Madder, 
 
 ^ lb. Sumac, 
 
 fib. Fustic. 
 
 Boil these one and a half hours ; then add — 
 6 oz. Alum, 
 11 lbs. Tartar. 
 Enter the wool, and pole up well. Boil for one and three- 
 fourths hours. 
 
 Green. 
 Clean Wool, 100 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 9 lbs. Alum, 
 2^ Ills. Chrome, 
 21 lbs. Oil of Vitriol, 
 6 oz. Tin Crystals. 
 Boil wool one and a half hours. 
 
THE AMERICAIf DYER. 593 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 21 lbs. Extract of Indigo, 
 
 ^ lb. Extract of Fustic, 
 
 ^Ib. Salt. 
 Boil the wool two hours. 
 
 Gold-Olive. 
 Clean Wool, 100 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 3 lbs. Chrome, 
 1^ lbs. Blue Vitriol, 
 
 fib. Oil of Vitriol. 
 Boil wool one and three-fourths hours. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 5^ lbs. Extract of Fustic, 
 . 3 lbs. Camwood, 
 I lb. Extract of Logwood, 
 3 lbs. Madder. 
 Boil wool two hours ; then 
 
 Sadden with — 
 
 f lb. Copperas. 
 Boil half an hour. 
 
 Chrome Black. 
 Clean Wool, 100 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 8 lbs. Alum, 
 3 1I)S. Chrome, 
 1^ lbs. Blue Vitriol, 
 1^ lbs. Oil of Vitriol. 
 Boil wool one and a half hours. 
 
 75 
 
594 THE A3IERICAX DYER. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 8 lbs. Extract of Logwood, 
 I lb. Alum, 
 I lb. Blue Vitriol. 
 Boil two hours. 
 
 This black is more of a blue-black than black. We have 
 worked a greater part of these Freuch recipes, aud find them 
 very good indeed. 
 
 GERMAN RECIPES. 
 Black. 
 100 lbs. Clean Wool. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 3 lbs. Chrome, 
 
 3 lbs. Blue Vitriol, 
 1^ lbs. Oil of Vitriol. 
 
 Boil wool one aud a half hours.* Leave until next day 
 bef(H'e finishing. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 65 lbs. Chip Logwood. 
 
 Boil drugs one and a half hours ; boil wool the same ; then 
 sadden with — 
 
 4 lbs. Blue Vitriol, 
 and boil half an hour. 
 
 Fast Blue-Black. 
 25 lbs. Clean Wool. 
 
 Prepare with — • 
 
 ^ lb. Chrome, 
 
 ^ 11). Bisulphate Soda, 
 
 * The (lyestuffs (that is, the woods) in all cases to be boiled one and a half 
 hours; also the ■wool, unless otherwise specified. By the phrase, leave over 
 night, it is understood that you do not finish oS until the next day. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 595 
 
 4 oz. Blue Vitriol, 
 
 2 oz. Oil of Vitriol. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 1 lb. Ciitch, 
 
 5 lbs. Chip Logwood. 
 
 Castor Black. 
 12 lbs. Clean Wool. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 ^ lb. Blue Vitriol, 
 I lb. Tartar, 
 1^ lbs. Copperas, 
 fib. Fustic (Chips). 
 Boil out the fustic before adding the salts. Boil wool two 
 hours ; leave over night. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 2| lbs. Chip Logwood, 
 1 drachm Verdigris. 
 
 Zinc Black. 
 10 lbs. Clean Wool. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 I oz. Blue Vitriol, 
 I lb. Zinc Solution,* 
 \ lb. Chrome. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 2 lbs. Chip Logwood, 
 ^ lb. Turmeric. 
 
 » To make the zinc solution, kill one pound muriatic acid with three ounces 
 of ziuc, or iu that proportion. 
 
596 THE A3IERICAN DYER. 
 
 Coal Black. 
 100 lbs. Cloth. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 15 lbs. Logwood, 
 15 'lbs. Fustic. 
 
 Boil these for oue and a half hours ; then add 
 10 lbs. Copperas, 
 
 3 lbs. Blue Vitriol, 
 
 2 lbs. Tartar. , 
 
 Boil cloth two hours ; next day 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 50 lbs. Chip Logwood. 
 Boil wood one and a half hours ; cloth two hours. 
 This is the best black that can be made upon cloth, and the 
 most permanent, except indigo black. 
 
 Blue-Black. 
 100 lbs. Cloth. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 1| lbs. Copperas, 
 
 4 lbs. Blue Vitriol, 
 
 1 lb. Alum, 
 21 lbs. Tartar. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 40 lbs. Chip Logwood. 
 Proceed as for the coal black. 
 
 Blue-Black. 
 100 lbs. Clean Wool. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 3 lbs. Chrome, 
 
 2 lbs. Salt, 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 597 
 
 2 lbs. Tin Crystals, 
 
 1 lb. Alum, 
 
 1 lb. Oil of Vitriol. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 40 lbs. Chip Logwood, 
 1 lb. Chip Fustic. 
 Boil wool one hour. 
 
 Black. 
 40 lbs. Cloth. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 2 lbs. Sumac, 
 2 lbs. Fustic, 
 I lb. Madder. 
 
 Boil these half an hour ; then add 
 
 1 lb. Blue Vitriol, 
 
 1^ lbs. Copperas. 
 Boil the cloth two hours ; leave over night. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 14 lbs. Chip Logwood. 
 
 Boil cloth one hour. 
 
 Although this recipe originated in Germany, my father and 
 nearly all the dyers in Yorkshire used it thirty-five years ago, 
 and at that time there was no other black that brought so high 
 a price. 
 
 We have ourselves colored by this, and can recommend it 
 as producing a first-rate color. The German recipes produce 
 good clear, bright, and permanent colors ; but most of our 
 manufacturers object to them on account of the expense, 
 which is a very foolish objection, in our opinion. 
 
 Madder Red. 
 11 lbs. Cloth. 
 
598 THE A3IERICAN DYER. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 2 lbs. Alum, 
 1 lb. Tartar, 
 
 ^ oz. Tin Crystals. 
 Boil cloth two hours ; leave over night. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 1 lb. Garancine or Alizorine, 
 
 1 lb. Cream of Tartar. 
 Boil cloth one and a half hours. 
 
 Coffee Color. 
 100 lbs. Clean Wool. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 60 lbs. Red Sanders, 
 50 lbs. Fustic, 
 40 lbs. Logwood. 
 Boil these two hours ; boil the wool two hours ; then sad- 
 den with eleven lbs. copperas and boil one-half hour longer. 
 
 Red-Brown. 
 200 lbs. Clean Wool. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 25 lbs. Alum, 
 5 lbs. Tartar, 
 
 3 lbs. Chrome. 
 
 Boil wool one and a half hours. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 200 lbs Camwood, 
 50 lbs. Fustic, 
 8 lbs. Logwood. 
 Boil wool two hours ;.then sadden with six lbs. blue vitriol 
 and boil one-half hour longer. 
 
THE AMERICAN" DYER. 599 
 
 Catechu Brown. 
 100 Clean Wool. 
 
 20 lbs. Ciitch, 
 
 2 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Boil two hours. 
 
 Fiuish with — 
 
 4 lbs. Chrome. 
 Boil one hour. 
 
 Cherry- Brown. 
 200 lbs. Clean AVool. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 25 lbs. Alum, 
 
 3 lbs. Chrome, 
 6 lbs. Tartar. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 200 lbs. Camwood, 
 20 lbs. Fustic, ^ 
 
 6 lbs. Logwood. 
 Boil two hours ; then sadden with six lbs. blue vitriol and 
 boil one-half hour. 
 
 Brown. 
 200 lbs. Clean Wool. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 5 lbs. Chrome, 
 
 2^ lbs. Blue Vitriol, 
 
 4 lbs. Tartar. 
 Boil wool two hours. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 120 lbs. Fustic, 
 100 lbs. Camwood, 
 2 lbs. Logwood. 
 
600 THE AMERICAIf DYER. 
 
 Boil woods two hours ; l)()il wool two hours ; then sadden 
 with two and a half lbs. copperas ; boil oue-half hour and 
 leave it in the liquor for two or three hours. This is a good 
 heavy color and a splendid shade. 
 
 Brown. 
 200 lbs. Clean Wool. 
 
 150 lbs. Camwood, 
 
 4 lbs. Fustic, , 
 
 3 lbs. Tartar. 
 Boil out the woods for two hours, then add the tartar. 
 Boil the wool two hours ; then sadden with three lbs. cop- 
 peras and boil one-half hour longer. 
 
 Sanders Brown. 
 100 lbs. Clean Wool. 
 
 35 lbs. Red Sanders, 
 A lbs. Fustic. 
 Boil woods one hour ; boil wool the same ; then sadden 
 with one lb. blue vitriol and boil three-fourths of an hour. 
 
 Brown. 
 200 lbs. Clean Wool. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 5 lbs. Chrome, 
 
 2^ lbs. Oil of Vitriol. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 90 lbs. Fustic, 
 
 6 lbs. Turmeric, 
 100 lbs. Camwood, 
 
 2 lbs. Lojrwood. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. GOl 
 
 Boil wool two hours ; then sadden with two and a half lbs. 
 copperas and boil one-half hour longer. 
 
 Maroon. 
 100 lbs. Clean Wool. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 2 lbs. Chrome. 
 Boil wool two hours. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 10 lbs. Cudbear, 
 
 15 lbs. Hypernic-wood, 
 
 30 lbs. Camwood. 
 Boil one and three-fourths hours. 
 
 Maroon. 
 100 lbs. Clean Wool. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 15 lbs. Alum, 
 5 lbs. Sulphate of Soda (Glauber Salts). 
 Finish with — 
 
 10 lbs. Hypernic, 
 40 lbs. Bar wood, 
 4 lbs. Extract of Fustic. 
 Boil wool one and three-fourths hours. 
 
 Maroon. 
 100 lbs. Clean Wool. 
 
 2 lbs. Cudbear, 
 50 lbs. Camwood, 
 2 lbs. Logwood. 
 Boil wool two hours ; then sadden with two and a half lbs. 
 copperas ; boil one-half hour longer. 
 
 76 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 G():3 
 
 SAMPLKS OF COTTOX-YAR.V. 
 
 No. 1. — Cori'KHAS liitow.v. 
 
 No. -J. — VkLU)W-1!U:)VVX. 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 No. f).' — Ck.NTKXMAL I)I!.\1J. 
 
604 
 
 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 SAMPLES OF COTTON-YARN. 
 
 No. 7. — Silvkk-Drau. 
 
 No. 8. — Spirit Brown. 
 
 No. 
 
 'J. 
 
 — Dark 
 
 Salmon. 
 
 
 No. 10. — Nankeen. 
 
 ^^^^^SS 
 
 No. 11. — Turmeric Yellow. 
 
 No. 12. — Dark Saffranixe. 
 
0^. 
 
 
 -,.^*s 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 005 
 
 SAMPLES OF COTTOX-YARN. 
 
 No. 1;>. — F()I{(iET-ME-N()T Ol!.\N(iK. 
 
 No. 14. — MAta.XTA. 
 
 No. 15. — Spirit PuurLK. 
 
 No. IG. — IIOFFMAXX'S ViOLKT. 
 
 No. 18. — T.iciiT Mr/niYL Vioi.kt. 
 
(m 
 
 THE A3IEKICAJ\" DYEIl. 
 
 SAMPLKS OF COTTOX-YAKN. 
 
 No. 19. — Light Salmon. 
 
 X(». v-O. — Gold Color. 
 
 No. -Jl. — Ckxtknnial Salmon'. 
 
 A'o. i^'i. — Sai'i'I!AXI\e Pink. 
 
 No. -23. — Dark Tixk. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 GOT 
 
 SAMPLKS OF COTTOX-YAliN. 
 
 No. '25. — Dark Saok-Duah. 
 
 No. 2(1. — Dai!K Slatk. 
 
 No -n. — Piu'ssiAX \^\A^K 
 
 No. 'JH. — I.KiiiT I'lassiAN Hi. IK 
 
 No. :!0. — LioiiT Anii.in-k \\\.vv. 
 
008 
 
 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 SAMPLES OF COTTON-YARN. 
 
 No. 31. — Lavkndkr. 
 
 No. :M. — I.KIIIT P.ISMAUCK PiKOWX. 
 
 No. :?r). — Da UK IiRowx. 
 
 No. :W. — ])ai;k Pki'ssiatk, Ckkkn. 
 
.r'SK* 
 
THE AIMERICAN DYER. 
 
 GOO 
 
 SAMPLES OF COTTON-YARN. 
 
 No. :?7. — Pur.ssiAX GiticKX. 
 
 No. 38. — Anilixe Grekx. 
 
 No. 39. — LiiJiiT AxiLiXE Gkeex. 
 
 No. 40. — IJr.i>. 
 
610 
 
 THE AMEKICAX DYEtJ. 
 
 SAMPLES OF WOOLEX-YARN. 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 — Light Bi.uk Staix. 
 
 (P:i«ie 6-2i;.) 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 tV 
 
 No. 2.- 
 
 -D.\i;k Bue Staix. 
 
 (Pagr 
 
 (V27.) 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 MHI 
 
 ■MflP 
 
 
 ^^H 
 
 ■1 
 
 HBB^ 
 
 No. i? 
 
 — PIeavy Royal Bluk. 
 
 (Pago 0-27.) 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 SS8S9BSB9ESd! 
 
 
 
 No. 4. — Canary. (Page6'27.) 
 
 No. 5. 
 
 — Methyle Greex. 
 
 (Page 628.) 
 
 ^^^^^ ^^^^^^^P 
 
 ■M^^MM 
 
 ^^^B» 
 
 ■KBbri 
 
 ^ffgtt/tf 
 
 
 
 No. 6. — Cakdixal-Ked. (Page Gi'^.) 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 611 
 
 REMARKS IN REFERENCE TO THE RECIPES, 
 
 WITH SAMPLES, ON COTTON-YARN. (See pp. 
 
 38,. 149.) 
 
 These colors were produced from recipes of Mr. Joseph 
 Haywood, who is as proficient in cotton-yarn dyeing as any 
 dyer in the States. 
 
 All those colors that arc first sumacked und \hen spirited are 
 fast colors. 
 
 Those materials that cannot be entirely dissolved in water 
 must be boiled out tirst in a separate vessel and allowed to 
 settle, then take the clear solution and add it t-o the dye-tub. 
 The solutions should always be raked up or stirred up before 
 the yarn is entered. Be sure that the anilines and other crys- 
 talline materials are all thoroughly dissolved before adding 
 them to the dye-tub. 
 
 The anilines used on these yarns were from A. Poirrier of 
 Paris. 
 
 The yarn should be washed in cold water, unless otherwise 
 stated, and before it is colored it must be boiled out in soda- 
 ash for three or four hours, then taken and thoroughly washed 
 from the ash before it is colored. 
 
 Where the recipes sa^^ wring, they mean wring the yarn on a 
 pin, or to use the extractor will do as well. The yarn should 
 be boiled in clear water for a few hours before it is colored. 
 
 RECIPES FOR COLORS ON COTTON- YARN. 
 CorrERAS Brown. 
 No. 1. Yarn, 40 lbs. 
 
 3 lbs Cutch, 
 2 oz. Copperas. 
 Steep the yarn in this all night ; next morning wring it 
 out. This is a cold bath. 
 
G12 THE A3IERICAX DYER. 
 
 Second bath. Heat to be 110° Fahr. 
 1 lb. Chrome, 
 f lb. Blue Vitriol. 
 Enter the yarn and give seven turns, then take out and 
 ■wash it off. 
 
 Finish it in cold lime-water, giving it five turns. Soften 
 it in the oil-wash. (See Oil-wash, page 115.) 
 
 Yellow-Drab. 
 No. 2. Yarn, 33 lbs. 
 
 Heat, 100° Fahr. 
 
 4 lbs. Fustic, 
 1 lb. Sumac, 
 ^ lb. Logwood. 
 Give five turns in this, raise out the yarn, and add to the 
 tub one-half lb. copperas. Re-enter the yarn and give five 
 turns ; take out and wash off. 
 
 No. 3. Yarn, 33 lbs. 
 
 Heat, 110° Fahr. 
 
 4 lbs. Fustic, 
 4 lbs. Hyperuic, 
 1 lb. Logwood. 
 Give seven turns in this ; take out ; add to tub one-fourth 
 lb. copperas. Re-enter yarn ; give five turns ; take out and 
 wash off. 
 
 Tan. 
 No. 4. Yarn, 33 lbs. 
 
 Heat, 200° Fahr. 
 
 3 lbs. Cutch, 
 fi oz. Blue Vitriol. 
 Turn yarn for one-half hour ; take it out and wring. 
 Finish in a fresh bath at 200° Fahr., in which use three- 
 fourths lb. Chrome ; give five turns in this ; take out and 
 wash off. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. G]3 
 
 Centennial Drab, 
 
 No. 5. Yam, 33 lbs. 
 
 Heat, 110° Fahr. 
 
 10 oz. Fustic, 
 2 oz. Hypernic. 
 Give five turns ; take out and add to the tub one oz. of 
 copperas. Re-enter yarn ; give three turns ; take out and 
 wash off. 
 
 Sage-Drab. 
 No. 6. Yarn, 33 lbs. 
 
 Heat, 120° Fahr. 
 
 5 lbs. Fustic, 
 1 lb. Sumac. 
 Give four turns ; take out ; add to tub one-half lb. cop- 
 peras. Re-enter yarn and give four turns. Take out and 
 wash off. 
 
 Silter-Drab. 
 No. 7. Yarn, 33 lbs. 
 
 Cold bath. 
 
 5 oz. Logwood. 
 ■ Give yarn five turns ; take up ; add to tub two oz. cop- 
 peras ; re-enter yarn ; give three turns ; take out and wash 
 off. 
 
 Spirit-Brown. 
 
 No. 8. ■ Yarn, 33 lbs. 
 
 Heat, 200° Fahr. 
 
 5 lbs. Sumac. 
 Turn 3'arn in this for one-half hour ; take out and wring. 
 Second bath. Cold. 
 
 1 pint Nitro-Muriate of Tin. 
 Give seven turns ; take out and wash off, and wring out. 
 
61:1: THE A3IERICAN DYEK. 
 
 Third bath. Heat, 190° Fahr. 
 5 lbs. Cutch, 
 
 5 oz. Blue Vitriol. 
 Give seven turns ; take out. 
 Fourth bath. Heat, 190<=> Fahr. 
 
 H lbs. Chrome. 
 Give yarn five turns in this ; take out and wash off. 
 In order to get a darker shade, you can run it through the 
 second and third baths again. 
 
 Dark Salmon. 
 No. 9. Yarn, 33 lbs. 
 
 Heat, 200^ Fahr. 
 
 2 lbs. Annatto, 
 
 1 lb. Soda-ash. 
 Give yarn five turns ; take out. 
 Second bath. Cold. 
 
 1 gill Oil of Vitriol. 
 Give yarn- five turns in this ; take out and wash off well. 
 
 Nankeen. 
 No. 10. Yarn, 33 lbs. 
 
 4 lbs. Copperas. 
 
 Give yarn seven turns in this. Wring out the j^arn and 
 shake it well ; then give it seven turns in cold lime-water. 
 
 Soften in cold water to which has been added a few pounds 
 of sal-soda. All these are cold baths. 
 
 Turmeric Yellow. 
 No. 11. Yarn, 33 lbs. 
 
 Heat, 200° Fahr. 
 
 6 lbs. Turmeric. 
 
 Give yarn five turns. Take out. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. G15 
 
 Secoiul bath. Cold ; one-fourth gill oil of vitriol. Enter 
 in this, and give three turns. Take out, and wash oif icell. 
 
 Dakk Saffranine. 
 No. 12. Yarn, 33 lbs. 
 
 Cold. 
 
 5 lbs. Sumac. 
 Turn yarn in this for half an hour. Take out, and wring it. 
 Second bath. Cold. 
 
 1 pint Nitro-Muriate of Tin. 
 
 Give yarn five turns in this. Take out, wash off, and wring 
 the yarn. 
 
 Third bath. Heat, 140'^ Fahr. 
 
 2 oz. Golden Roseine, 
 4 oz. Saffranine. 
 
 Give the yarn five turns in this. Take out, and wash off. 
 
 Forget-Me-Not Orange. 
 No. 13. Yarn, 33 lbs. 
 
 8 lbs. Brown Sugar of Lead, 
 
 3 lbs. Litharge. 
 
 Boil these until dissolved. Let it settle. Then add it to a 
 tub of cold water (this is called the lead-tub). 
 Second tub. Cold, strong lime-water. 
 
 Now give seven turns in the lime-tub. Wring out. 
 '« " lead-tub. " 
 
 «* " lime-tub. " 
 
 •« ♦* lead-tub. " 
 
 Third tub. Cold. 
 
 2 lbs. Chrome. 
 Give yarn seven turns in the chrome-tub. Wring. 
 " " lead-bath. " 
 
 " *« chrome-tub. " 
 
616 THE AMERICA!^ DYER. 
 
 Fourth tub. Heat, 200° Fahr. 
 Strong, clear lime-liquor. 
 
 Give yarn three turns in this. Take out, and wash it off. 
 Soften the yarn in the oil-bath. (See Oil-wash, page 115.) 
 
 Strong lime liquor or water, is about one degree of strength. 
 
 The yarn must be wrung out after each immersion, and 
 well shaken out, before it goes from one tub to the other. 
 
 Magenta. 
 No. 14. Yarn, 33 lbs. 
 
 5 lbs. Sumac. 
 Turn this for half an hour. Wring out the yarn (cold 
 bath). 
 
 Second bath. Cold. 
 
 1^ lbs. Stannate of Soda, or 
 
 r lb. Oxy-Muriate of Antimony. 
 Give five turns in this. Wash off, and wring out. 
 Third bath. Heat, 120° Fahr. 
 
 4 oz. Golden Roseiue. 
 
 Give seven turns ; take out, and wash off quick. 
 
 Spirit Purple. 
 No. 15. Yarn, 33 lbs. 
 
 Give yarn seven turns in cold bath, with one pint of muriate 
 of tin. Wash off, and wring out. 
 Second bath. Heat, 120° Fahr. 
 
 12 lbs. Logwood. 
 Give seven turns. Take out. Add to the tub one lb. of 
 alum. Re-enter the yarn, and give five turns. Take out and 
 wash off. 
 
 Hoffmann's Violet. 
 
 No. 16. Yarn, 33'lbs. 
 
 5 lbs. Sumac. 
 
 Turn yarn for half an hour. Take out, and wring the 
 varn. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. , 617 
 
 Second bath — 
 
 3 quarts Red Spirits (see page 377). 
 Give seven turns in this. Take out, wash off, and wring. 
 The first and second baths are cold ones. 
 Third bath. Heat, 120° Fahr. 
 
 3| oz. of Hoffmann's 1 B Violet. 
 Give yarn seven turns in this. Take out, and wash off. 
 
 Blue-Violet. 
 No. 17. Yarn, 33 lbs. 
 
 Heat, 200° Fahr. 
 
 5 lbs. Sumac. 
 Turn yarn for half an hour. Take out, and wring. 
 Second bath. Cold. 
 
 1 pint Muriate of Tin. 
 Give the yarn seven turns. Take out, wash off,, and wring 
 the yarn. 
 
 Finishing bath. Heat, 120° Fahr. 
 
 3 oz. Methyle Violet Crystals. 
 Give the yarn four turns in this. Take out, and add to the 
 bath one gill of acetic acid. Re-enter the yarn, and give four 
 turns more. Take out, and wash it off. 
 
 Light Methyle Violet. 
 No. 18. Yarn, 33 lbs. ' 
 
 Heat, 130° Fahr. 
 
 If oz. Methyle Violet Crystals. 
 Give five turns. Take out, and wash off. 
 
 Light Salmon. 
 No. 19. Yarn, 33 lbs. 
 
 Heat, 200° Fahr. 
 
 1 lb. Annatto, 
 \ lb. Soda-ash. 
 
 78 
 
618 THE AMERICi\:N^ DYER. 
 
 Give five turns in this. Then take out, and raise the color 
 in a fresh bath of weak lime-water (cold), giving the yarn five 
 turns. Then take out, and wash otF. 
 
 N. B. — If you wish for a redder shade, heat up the lime- 
 bath a little. The hotter the lime-water is, the redder will be 
 
 the shade. 
 
 Gold Color. 
 No. 20. Yarn, 33 lbs. 
 
 Heat, 200° Fahr. 
 
 6 lbs. Sumac. 
 Turn yarn for half an hour. Take it out, and wring it. 
 Second bath. Cold. 
 
 1 pint Muriate of Tin. 
 
 Give seven turns in this. Take out, wash off, alid wring 
 out. 
 
 Third bath. Heat, 140° Fahr. 
 
 2 oz. Phosphine. 
 
 Give the yarn six turns. Take out, and wash off. 
 
 In finishing in the phosphine, you must enter the yarn in 
 douhle-quick time, and give it a turn as quick as possible, or 
 otherwise it will be uneven. 
 
 Centennial Salmon. 
 No. 21. Yarn, 33 lbs. 
 
 Heat, 200* Fahr. 
 
 3 lbs. Turmeric. 
 
 Give the yarn five turns. Take out. Then add half a gill 
 of oil of vitriol. Re-enter the yarn, and give five turns more. 
 Take out, and wash off well. 
 
 Second bath. Heat, 100° Fahr. 
 1 bottle of Safiiower. 
 
 Give five turns. Take out, and add one gill of oil of 
 vitriol to the bath. Re-enter the yarn, and give seven turns. 
 Take out, and wash off in two waters, and, to the last water, 
 add half a pound of cream of tartar. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. G19 
 
 Saffranine Pink. 
 No. 22. Yarn, 40 lbs. 
 
 Cold bath — 
 
 5 lbs. Sumac. 
 Turn yarn for half an hour. Take it out, and wring. • 
 Second bath. Cold. 
 
 1 pint Oxymuriate of Antimony. 
 Give seven turns. Take out, and wash of[ well, and wring. 
 Third bath. Heat, 110° Fahr. 
 
 4 oz. Saffranine. 
 Give five turns. Take out, and wash off. 
 
 Dark Pixk. 
 No. 23. Yarn, 33 lbs. 
 
 Heat,. 110° Fahr. 
 
 1 bottle of Safflower. 
 
 Give five turns. Take out, and add one gill of oil of vitriol. 
 
 Re-enter the yarn, and give seven turns. Wash offtvell, 
 and wring out. 
 
 Blue up the color in cold water, to which add one-quarter 
 lb. cream of tartar, by giving five turns in this bath. 
 
 Light Pink. * 
 
 No. 24. Yarn, 33 lbs. 
 
 Heat, 110° Fahr. 
 
 ^ bottle of Safflower. 
 Give the yarn five turns. Then take out, and add half a 
 gill of oil of vitriol. Re-enter the yarn, and give seven turns 
 more. Take out, wash off, and wring out. 
 ■ Blue up the color the same way as No. 23 is done. 
 
620 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Dark Sage-Drab. 
 No. 25. Yarn, 33 lbs. 
 
 Heat, 120° Fahr. 
 
 5 lbs. Fustic, 
 
 1 lb. Sumac. 
 
 Give yarn five turns. Take it out, and add to bath 
 4 ounces Copperas, 
 
 1 gill Nitrate of Iron. 
 
 Re-enter the yarn, and give seven turns more. Take out, 
 and wash off. 
 
 Dark Slate. 
 No. 26. 
 
 Heat, 100° Fahr. 
 
 4 lbs. Fustic, 
 4 lbs. Hypernic, 
 
 2 lbs. Logwood. 
 
 Give yarn five turns. Take out and add 
 ^ lb. Copperas, 
 
 1 gill Nitrate of Iron. 
 
 Re-enter the yarn, and give five turns more. Take out, 
 and wash off. 
 
 Prussian Blue. 
 No. 27. Yarn, 33 lbs. 
 
 First bath. Cold. 
 
 2 quarts Nitrate of Iron, 
 1 lb. Tin Crystals. 
 
 Give yarn five turns. Take out, and wring it out. 
 Second bath. Heat, 100° Fahr. 
 
 2 lbs. Yellow Prussiute of Potash. 
 
 Give yarn five turns. Take out, and add to the tub one 
 pint oil of vitriol. Re-enter, and give five turns. Wring out 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 621 
 
 now, and enter the yarn into first bath airain, and give five 
 turns. Wring it out, and enter into second bath, and give 
 five turns more. Wash oft* icell. 
 
 Third bath. Heat, 130° Fahr. 
 
 4 ounces 2 B's Violet Crystals. 
 
 Give yarn ten turns in this. Take out, and wash oft". 
 
 Light Prussian Blue. 
 
 No. 28. Yarn, 33 lbs. 
 
 Proceed in the same manner, and with the same materials 
 and amount as for No. 27, only do not use the third or 
 violet bath. 
 
 Dark Aniline Blue. 
 
 No. 29. Yarn, 33 lbs. 
 
 Heat, 140° Fahr. 
 
 4 ounces No. 3 Cotton, Blue Aniline (Poirrier's), 
 2\ lbs. Alum, 
 
 5 ounces Tartaric Acid. 
 
 Give the yarn seven turns. Take out, and wash oft*. 
 
 Light Aniline Blue. 
 No. 30. Yarn, 33 lbs. 
 
 Heat, 140° Fahr. 
 
 2 ounces No. 1 Single Cotton, Blue Aniline (Poir- 
 rier's), 
 
 5 ounces Tartaric Acid, 
 
 2 lbs. Alum. 
 Give the yarn seven turns in this. Take out, and wash oflf. 
 
 Lavender. 
 No. 31. Yarn, 33 lbs. 
 
 Heat, 1 10° Fahr. 
 
 4 ounces Methyle Yiolet Crj'stals. 
 Give varu five turns. Take out, and wash off. 
 
622 THE AMEKICAN DYER. 
 
 Dark Green-Olive. 
 
 No. 32. Yarn, 33 lbs. 
 
 Cold bath. 
 
 2 quarts Nitrate of Iron. 
 Give five turns. Take out, and wring. 
 
 Second bath. Cold. 
 
 2 lbs. Yellow Prussiate of Potash. 
 
 Give the yarn five turns. Take up the yarn, and add to 
 the bath one pint oil of vitriol. Re-enter the yarn, and give 
 three turns more. Take it out and wring it, and then pass it 
 through each bath again, without adding any more materials. 
 After passing the yarn through the baths the second time, 
 wash the yarn off, and wring it out for the third bath. 
 
 Third bath. Cold. 
 
 Take the clear liquor from fifteen pounds fustic, and put it 
 into a tub of cold water. Enter the yarn, and give seven 
 turns. Take it out, and add to the bath one pound blue 
 vitriol. Re-enter the yarn, and give five turns. Take out, 
 and wash off. 
 
 Dark Bismarck. 
 No. 33. Yarn, 33 lbs. 
 
 Heat, 190° Fahr. 
 
 6 lbs. Cutch. 
 Give seven turns. Take out. 
 
 Second bath. Heat. 190° Fahr. 
 
 1 lb. Chrome. 
 Give seven turns. Pass the yarn through each bath again, 
 as in No. 32. 
 
 Third bath. Heat, 120° Fahr. 
 
 3 ounces Bismarck-Brown Aniline. Give yarn five 
 turns. Take out, and wash off. 
 
THE AMERICAX DYER. 623 
 
 Light Bismarck-Brown. 
 No. 34. Yarn, 33 lbs. 
 
 Heat, 200° Fahr. 
 
 3 lbs. Turmeric. 
 Give five turns, and wring out yarn. 
 Second bath. Heat, 140° Fahr. 
 
 2 ounces Bismarck-Brown Aniline. 
 Give five turns in this. Take out, and wash off. 
 
 Dark Brown. 
 No. 35. Yarn, 33 lbs. 
 
 Heat, 190° Fahr. 
 
 7 lb. Cutch, 
 10 ounces Blue Vitriol. 
 Give yarn seven turns. Take out, and wring out. 
 Second bath. Heat, 180° Fahr. 
 
 1^ lbs. Chrome. 
 
 Give yarn seven turns. Take out and wring. Now repeat, 
 through each bath again, as for No. 33, and wash off yarn. 
 
 Dark Prussian Green. 
 No. 36. Yarn, 33 lbs. 
 
 Heat, 200° Fahr. 
 
 6 lbs. Sumac. 
 After giving seven turns, lay the yarn under the liquor for 
 a few hours, or over night. Take out, and wring the yarn. 
 Second bath. Cold. 
 
 1 quart Nitrate of Iron. 
 Give yarn five turns. Take out, and wring out. 
 Third bath. Cold. 
 
 1^ lbs. Yellow Prussiate Potash. 
 
624 THE A5IERICAX DYER. 
 
 Give yarn five turns. Take up, and add to the bath one 
 cill oil of vitriol. Re-enter the yarn, and give two turns more. 
 Take out, wash off, and wring out. 
 Third bath. Heat, 180° Fahr. 
 1 lb. Turmeric. 
 6 lbs. Fustic. 
 Give yarn seven turns. Take out, and wash off. 
 
 Prussian Green. 
 No. 37. Yarn, 33 lbs. 
 
 Proceed for the two first baths precisely as for No. 36. 
 
 Third bath. 
 
 3 lbs. Turmeric. 
 
 Give five turns. Take up th^ yarn, and add to the tub 
 oue-half gill oil of vitriol. Ke-enter yarn, and give five turns. 
 Take out, and wash off. (These are all to be cold baths.) 
 
 Aniline Green. 
 No. 38. Yarn, 33 lbs. 
 
 Heat, 200° Fahr. 
 
 5 lbs. Sumac. 
 Turn the yarn for one-half hour. Take out, and wring out. 
 Second bath. Cold. 
 
 1 pint Muriate of Tin. 
 Give seven turns, and wring out. 
 Third bath. Heat, 135° Fahr. 
 
 3 ounces Methyle-Green Aniline (marked JJ). 
 Give yarn seven turns. Take out, and wring out. 
 Fourth bath. Heat, 110° Fahr. 
 
 10 lbs. Fustic. 
 
 Give five turns. Take up, and then add one pound alum. 
 
 Re-enter, and give five turns more. Take out, and wash off. 
 
 If you prefer it, you can use the fustic in the same bath, 
 
 along with the methyle aniline ; but l)y so doing, the color is 
 
 not quite so clear. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 625 
 
 Light Aniline Green. 
 No. 39. 33 lbs. Yarn. 
 
 Heat, 200° Fahr. 
 
 4 lbs. Sumac. 
 Turn the yarn for half an hour; take out and wring. 
 
 Second bath. Cold. 
 
 1 pint Muriate of Tin. 
 
 Give seven turns ; take out, wash off, and wring out. 
 
 Third bath. Heat, 110° Fahr-. 
 
 2 oz. Methyle Green. 
 
 The same as used in No. 38. Give seven turns ; take out, 
 and wring out. 
 
 Fourth bath. Heat, 110° Fahr. 
 7 lbs. Fustic. 
 
 Give five turns ; take up, and add to the bath half a pound 
 of alum ; re-enter the yarn, and give three turns ; take out, 
 and wash off. 
 
 Red. 
 No. 40. 33 lbs Yarn. 
 
 Heat, 150° Fahr. 
 
 3 lbs. Sumac, 
 
 1 quart Muriate of Tin. 
 
 Use these together in same bath. Give yarn ten turns ; 
 take out, and wash off well. 
 
 Second bath. Heat, 150° Fahr. 
 10 lbs. Hypernic, 
 
 2 oz. Roseine, 
 2 lbs. Alum. 
 
 Give yarn seven turns ; take out, and wash off. 
 
 79 
 
626 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 REMARKS ON WOOLEN-YARN DYEING. 
 
 In the first place, be particular to have the yarn well 
 scoured, and thoroughly washed out. Next, after being washed 
 in cold water, wash it off again in a warm acidulated water, 
 which will kill any soap that may be left from the cold-water 
 washing. Scour the yarn with soap and sal-soda (no soda- 
 ash). 
 
 In entering the yarn into the different tubs do it exjjedi- 
 tioiisJij, so that it all may take the d3'e very nearly at one 
 time. Have everything clean about the tubs, and around 
 them, so that there will be no chance of spotting the yarn. 
 
 Before entering the yarn into the tubs^ rake or stir up the 
 dyeing solutions. 
 
 The extract of indigo used on these recipes was made by 
 using six pounds of oil of vitriol to one pound of ground 
 indigo. See article, Sulphate of Indigo, for the manner of 
 mixing them, &c. 
 
 In dyeing to a pattern, begin with little enough dye-stuff, 
 as, if it does not come full enough, you can add more ; but 
 if you give too much, you cannot remedy the bad result. 
 
 RECIPES FOR WOOLEN-YARN. 
 Light Blue Stain. 
 No. 1. Three-fold Yarn, 50 lbs. 
 
 1 oz. Nicholson 6 B's Fast Blue, 
 3 oz. Sal-soda. 
 Enter the yarn at 120°Fahr. ; give nine turns; take out, 
 and raise the heat to the boiling point. Re-enter the yarn, 
 and give nine turns more ; take out. 
 ♦Develop at 120° Fahr. heat. 
 
 1 quart Oil of Vitriol. 
 Give yarn five turns ; take out, and wash off. 
 
 * Develop in a tub of clean T\ater, and have the tub well cleaned from a 
 previous color. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 627 
 
 Dark Blue Stain. 
 No. 2. Three-fold Yiirn, 55 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 1| oz. Nicholson 6 B's Fust Blue, 
 
 3 oi. Sal-soda. 
 Proceed as for light blue stain. 
 Develop with — 
 
 3 pints Oil of Vitriol, at 120° Fahr. heat. 
 Give five turns ; take out, and wash off. 
 
 Heavy Shade of Royal Blue. 
 
 No. 3. Three-fold Yarn, 60 lbs. 
 
 20 lbs. Extract Indigo (thin), 
 
 4 oz. best Golden Roseine, 
 
 2 quarts Oil of Vitriol. 
 
 Enter cool ; give 3'arn nine turns ; take it out, and raise the 
 heat to 200° Fahr. Re-enter the yarn, and give nine turns 
 more. 
 
 Note. — The extract of indigo used for this cok)r was made with six pounds 
 of oil of vitriol to one pound of ground indigo. See article, Sulphate of In- 
 digo, for instructions how to mix it. 
 
 Canary Color. 
 No. 4. Six-Thread Woolen- Yarn, 5 lbs. 
 
 3 oz. Flavine, 
 
 3^ oz. White Tartar, 
 
 3 gills Muriate of Tin. 
 Cool down the bath ; enter the yarn and turn for one-half 
 hour; then take out the yarn and bring the heat up to the 
 boiling-point; add one more gill of muriate of tin; re-enter 
 the yarn and turn to shade ; then wash it off and dry. This 
 is a beautiful shade. 
 
G28 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Methyle Green. 
 No. 5. Three-fold Yarn (coarse), 60 lbs. 
 
 Dissolve seven ounces methyle-green crystals in a pail of 
 water ; pour one-third into a tub of water at 130° Fahr. ; rake 
 up well, enter yarn, and give seven turns; take it out and 
 heat up to 170° Fahr. ; put in one-third more of the dissolved 
 crystals, rake up, re-enter yarn again, give seven ends more, 
 take out the yarn again, and raise the heat to 200° Fahr. 
 Pour in the remainder of the methyle crystals, rake up, and 
 re-enter the ^arn ; give seven turns, take out and air. 
 
 Now in a tub of fresh cold water, put half a pound picric 
 acid and two quarts oil of vitriol (be sure that the picric acid 
 is all dissolved). Enter the yarn at a ^^ double quick," give it 
 a few lively turns, then turn for three-fourths of an hour ; 
 take out and wash off. 
 
 This is a very difBcult color to get even, so you must 
 handle it veiy quick at first, especially in the picric-acid bath. 
 
 Cardinal-Red. 
 No. 6. Three-fold Yarn (coarse), 60 lbs. 
 
 8 oz. Cardinal Aniline, 
 1 oz. Martins Yellow. 
 Enter yarn at 190° Fahr., give nine turns. Take out, raise 
 the heat to boiling-point, and add six ounces more of cardinal 
 aniline. Rake up well, re-enter yarn, and give nine turns; 
 take out and wash off. 
 
 For next sixty pounds, in same liquor, use one ounce Mar- 
 tins yellow, and twelve ounces cardinal aniline ; use the ani- 
 line twice, as for first lot, and proceed the same. 
 
 Medium Blue. 
 Three-fold Yarn, 100 lbs. 
 
 4 lbs. Nicholson's B Blue, 
 6 lbs. Sal-soda. 
 
THE AMERIOAIf DYER. 629 
 
 Give nine turns ; take up, and raise the heat to 200° Fahr. 
 Re-enter the yarn, and give five turns more ; take out, and 
 wash off. 
 
 In another tub of water, at 140° Fahr., put 
 2| lbs. Yellow Prussiate of Potash, 
 6 lbs. Oil of Vitriol. 
 
 Enter yarn and give five turns ; take out, raise the heat to 
 170° Fahr. Re-enter the yarn ; give five turns more ; take out, 
 raise to the boiling-point. Re-enter yarn ; give seven turns 
 more ; take out, and wash off. 
 
 For the next one hundred pounds of yarn, add to the first 
 tub— 
 
 1^ lbs. Nicholson B Blue, 
 3 lbs. Sal-soda. 
 Enter, and proceed as for the first one hundred pounds. 
 The second, or finishing tub, must always be a fresh one, 
 as the prussiate will be all taken up, and the result will not 
 be satisfactory, if you should try to use it again by adding 
 more prussiate. 
 
 Dark Nicholsox Blue. 
 Four-fold Yarn, 50 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 I lb. Nicholson 2 B's Blue, 
 1^ lbs. Borax. 
 Add the borax to the bath first, then the dye. Enter at 
 120° Fahr. Give nine turns ; take out the yarn, and raise the 
 heat to boiling-point. Re-enter the yarn, and give nine turns 
 more ; take out, and 
 Develop at 120° Fahr. 
 
 3 pints Oil of Vitriol. 
 Give the yarn five turns ; take out, and wash off. 
 
 Light Nicholson Blue. 
 Four-fold Yarn, 50 lbs. 
 
630 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 2 oz. Nicholson 2 B's Blue, 
 I 11). Borax. 
 
 Proceed as for dark Nicholson blue, aud develop the same 
 as for the dark color. 
 
 These five shades of aniline blue are all the style just now 
 (April, 1878). 
 
 Orange. 
 Two-fold Yarn, 50 lbs. 
 
 I lb. Cochineal, 
 15 oz. Flaviue, 
 ^ lb. Oxalic Acid, 
 i lb. White Tartar, 
 1 quart Muriate of Tin. 
 Enter yarn at 160° Fahr., give nine turns ; take it out ; raise 
 the heat to boiling-point. Re-enter yarn and give nine 
 turns more ; take out and wash off. 
 
 Light Orange. 
 Single-run Yarn, 40 lbs. Size six runs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 5 lbs. Alum, 
 
 3 lbs. Tartar, 
 
 6 oz. Flavine, 
 
 1 oz. Cochineal, 
 6 gills Scarlet Spirits, 
 6 gills Yellow Spirits. 
 Proceed as for the above orange. 
 
 Orange. 
 Single-run Worsted Yarn, 40 lbs. 
 
 1 lb. Flavine, 
 I lb. Cochineal, 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 631 
 
 2 lbs. Tartar, 
 8 gills Scarlet Spirits, 
 8 gills Yellow Spirits. 
 Enter yarn aud proceed as for the above oranges. 
 
 Salmon Color. 
 Two-fold Yarn, 35 lbs. 
 
 5 oz. Cochineal, 
 
 1 oz. Flavine (short-weight), 
 
 1 lb. Tartar, 
 
 1 quart Muriate of Tin. 
 Enter the yarn, cool, give seven" turns; take it out, raise 
 the heat to a boil. Re-enter yarn, give seven turns more, 
 take out and wash off. 
 
 Chrome Brown. 
 Two-fold Yarn, 50 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 1^ lbs. Chrome, 
 1 lb. Alum, 
 f lb. Tartar. 
 Enter yarn at 180° Fahr., give nine turns ; take it out, raise 
 .he heat to a boil. Re-enter the yarn aud turn for three- 
 fourths of an hour; take out. 
 Finish with — 
 
 5 lbs. Madder, 
 10 lbs. Camwood, 
 
 5| lbs. Ground Fustic, 
 
 6 oz. Brazil-wood, 
 5 oz. Logwood. 
 
 Boil these one hour. Enter as for the preparation, and pro- 
 ceed the same way. 
 
 Dark Brown. 
 Two-fold Yarn, 35 lbs. 
 
632 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 1^ lbs. Chrome, 
 I lb. Alum. 
 Finish with — 
 
 3 lbs. Madder, 
 
 3 lbs. Fustic, 
 
 31^ lbs.. Brazil-wood, 
 12 lbs. Camwood, 
 
 4 oz. Logwood. 
 
 Proceed in all respects as for chrome brown. 
 
 Light Cinnamox-Brown. 
 Two-fold Yarn, 35 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 1 lb. Chrome, 
 6 oz. Alum. 
 Finish with — 
 
 2| lbs. Fustic, 
 4| lbs. Brazil-wood, 
 6 lbs. Camwood, 
 
 5 lbs. Barwood, 
 3 oz. Logwood. 
 
 Proceed as for the dirome brown. 
 
 Purple. 
 Jacket Yarn, 50 lbs. 
 
 15 lbs. Cudbear, 
 
 ^ lb. Roseine, 
 
 ^ lb. Picric Acid, 
 
 9 lbs. Extract of Indigo. 
 Boil these for fifteen minutes ; then add — 
 
 3 quarts Oil of Vitriol, 
 15 lbs. Glauber Salts, 
 10 lbs. Alum. 
 
THE AI^IERICAN" DYER. 633 
 
 Cool down, and rake up well. Enter the yarn, give nine 
 turns ; take it out, and raise the heat to a boil. Re-enter the 
 yarn, and give nine turns, or turn until the shade suits you. 
 
 Light Slate. 
 Twofold Yarn, 35 lbs. 
 
 1| lbs. Ground Logwood, 
 1\ lbs. Ground Fustic, 
 10 oz. Sumac. 
 Boil these twenty minutes ; then add — 
 
 8 oz. Alum, 
 
 9 oz. Extract of Indigo. 
 
 Rake up well ; cool down. Enter yarn, and proceed as for 
 purple. 
 
 Silver-Drab. 
 
 Twofold Yarn, 50 lbs. 
 
 18 oz. Madder, 
 13 oz. Bar wood, 
 10 oz. Ground Logwood, 
 10 oz. Sumac, 
 5 oz. Nutgalls, 
 4 oz. Cudbear. 
 Boil these for twenty-five minutes. Cool down, and enter 
 yarn ; give seven turns ; take out, raise the heat to a boiling 
 point. Re-enter yarn, give seven turns ; take out yarn, and 
 add to the tub — 
 
 2 oz. Copperas. 
 
 Rake up and re-enter the yarn, and give five turns ; take 
 out and wash off. 
 
 Yellow-Drab. 
 Threefold Yarn, 35 lbs. 
 
 I lb. Chrome, 
 
 3 oz. Alum, 
 3 oz. Tartar. 
 
 80 
 
634 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Proceed as for the browns. 
 Finish with — 
 
 1^ ll)s. Camwood, 
 
 1 11). Madder, 
 
 13 oz. Ground Fustic. 
 Proceed as for brown. 
 
 Slate-Drab. 
 
 Threefold Yarn, 50 lbs. 
 
 4^ lbs. Ground Logwood, 
 
 2 lbs. Barwood, 
 If lbs. Madder, 
 
 7 oz. Ground Fustic, 
 12 oz. Sumac. 
 Boil these for twenty-five minutes, then cool down and add 
 five ounces alum. Enter the yarn, and give seven turns ; take 
 it up, and raise the heat to the boil ; add "six ounces more of 
 alum ; rake up, and enter the yarn ; give nine turns ; take it 
 out and wash off. 
 
 Blue-Violet. 
 Threefold Yarn, 40 lbs. 
 
 Dissolve two and a half ounces Hoffmann's 2 B's violet, and 
 half an ounce of golden roseine together, in some convenient 
 vessel. Pour one-half of this into a tub of clean vvater, 
 heated to 150° Fahr. Rake up well, enter the yarn, give 
 seven turns, take out the yarn, heat up the tub to 200° Fahr. 
 Add the rest of the dissolved anilines ; rake up, enter the 
 yarn ; give nine turns more, take out and wash off. 
 
 Light Red- Violet. 
 Threefold Yarn, 40 lbs. 
 
 1 oz. Hoffmann's 2 B's violet, 
 1^ oz. Roseine Crystals. 
 Proceed as for the blue-violet in all respects. 
 
THE AMERTCAX DYER. G35 
 
 Green. 
 Threefold Yarn, 25 lbs. 
 
 2| lbs. Extract of Indigo, good, 
 1 lb. Ahim. 
 Enter yarn at 170°Fahr. ; turn it until it becomes even ; then 
 take it out and add — 
 
 6|^ oz. Picric Acid, 
 \ pint Oil of Vitriol. 
 Rake up. well, re-enter the yarn, and give five turns more. 
 Take out quicldy, and wash off. After giving five turns, if 
 it is not as dark as you wish, give it a few turns more before 
 taking it out. 
 
 Another Cardinal. 
 Threefold Yarn, 50 lbs. 
 
 4 oz. Flavine, 
 8 oz. Roseine. 
 Enter yarn at 170° Fahr, give seven turns, raise out the 
 yarn, heat up to boiling-point. Re-enter yarn, give seven 
 turns more ; take out and wash oflf. 
 
 If the color should be too red when finished, add two or 
 three ounces more flavine, and put the yarn in again, and give 
 a few more turns. 
 
 A Light Blue-Green. 
 
 Single Yarn size, 8^^ runs, 40 lbs. 
 
 21 lbs. Indigo Paste, 
 
 1^ oz. Picric Acid, 
 
 12 lbs. Alum. 
 
 Enter cool, give seven turns, take up, raise the heat to 
 
 200° Fahr. Re-enter the yarn, and give seven turns more; 
 
 take out, and in a fresh bath at 120° Fahr., put one pint oil 
 
 of vitriol, enter yarn, give five turns; take out and wash off. 
 
636 THE AMEKICAX DYEK. 
 
 Green. 
 Twofokl Worsted Yarn, 10 lbs. 
 
 2 oz. Iodine Green Crystals. 
 
 Enter yarn cold. Proceed as for the threefold yarn greeu. 
 In the finishing bath use — 
 H oz. Picric Acid, 
 i gill Oil of Vitriol. 
 On this and the methyle green you naust he sure to follow 
 the way laid down in regard to the manupulati07is , or the 
 result will not be satisfactory. 
 
 These ^reens can be varied either to the blue or srreener 
 shade, by using more or less picric acid in the finishing bath. 
 
 Canary (a splendid shade). 
 Threefold Yarn (coarse), 5 lbs. 
 
 3 oz. Flavine, 
 
 3|^ oz. AVhite Tartar, 
 
 3 gills Muriate of Tin. 
 
 Enter cool. Turn yarn for half an hour ; take out, raise 
 the heat to boiling-point. Re-enter the yarn, and turn for 
 twenty minutes longer; take out, and wash off. 
 
 Light Bluish-Drab. 
 
 Single Yarn, 20 lbs. Size, 7 runs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 21 lbs. Alum, 
 
 4 lbs. Tartar, 
 
 4 oz. Extract Indigo, 
 
 2 oz. Ground Fustic, 
 
 11 lbs. Madder. 
 Enter yarn atl90^Fahr. Turn for ten minutes. Turn on 
 the steam, and turn until it comes to a boil ; then take out, 
 and wash off. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. G37 
 
 Light Reddish-Drab. 
 Single Yarn, 40 lbs. Size, 7 runs. 
 
 4 oz. Extract Indigo, 
 
 1 lb. Cochineal, 
 
 2 lbs. Gronnd Fustic, 
 2 lbs. Alum, 
 
 2 lbs. Tartar. 
 
 Proceed in all respects as for the light bluish-drab. 
 
 Scarlet. 
 Twofpld W.orsted Yarn, 40 lbs. 
 
 Dissolve nine and a half ounces of luteciene in boilingr 
 water, and one pound tartaric acid. Enter the yarn at 
 150° Fahr. (using one-third of the acid and lueticene) ; give 
 the yarn five turns ; take it out ; raise the heat to the boil, 
 put in the remainder of the acid and luteciene, rake up" well, 
 re-enter the yarn, and turn for twenty minutes longer; take 
 out, and wash off. 
 
 Scarlet. 
 Threefold Yarn, 100 lbs. 
 
 10 lbs. Lac Dye, 
 
 3 lbs. Cochineal, 
 2 lbs. Tartar, 
 
 1 lb. Oxalic Acid, 
 10 lbs. Scarlet Spirits. 
 Boil these for twenty minutes, then cool down. Enter the 
 yarn, and give seven turns ; take it out, raise the heat to boil, 
 re-enter the yarn, and give seven turns more; take out, and 
 wash off. 
 
038 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 REMARKS ON COTTON-WASTE DYEING. 
 
 Having colored with these recipes for some time, and given 
 the preference to them above all others, on account of their 
 certainty and effectiveness, they can be fully relied upon for 
 the accuracy of their results. You will find observations at- 
 tached to such of them as will require any deviation from the 
 usual way or mode of dyeing. 
 
 In making up the liquors according to the recipes, care 
 must at all times be taken to have all the solutions, when 
 ready for the cotton, free from all ground or chipped dye- 
 stufts and all undissolved coloring-matters. The liquors must 
 be clear, and all the solutions of the bath held in solution. 
 If you have to use sumac, or any ground dyestuffs, boil them 
 out in a barrel, or some convenient vessel, and add the clear 
 solutions to the dyeing-bath. But it is more convenient to 
 use the extracts, as they contain more tannin, or astringent 
 principle (than the rough dyestufis), which has a great alBSu- 
 ity for cotton. In using the extracts, you can keep the dye- 
 ing liquors at about the same strength, and for a long time, 
 by fishing out the cotton from the tub after each dip. 
 
 Black (at one operation). 
 No. 1. Raw Cotton, 100 lbs. 
 
 100 lbs. Chip Logwood, 
 12 lbs. Cutch, 
 
 25 lbs. Extract of Logwood. 
 Boil those one hour; then add to it one pint ammonia FFF. 
 Boil one-half hour longer ; take out the bags and add — 
 5 pints Ammonia, 
 5 pints Nitrate of Copper. 
 Rake up the tub ; enter cotton as expeditiously as possible ; 
 pole up for a few minutes ; then boil gently for two hours ; 
 leave the cotton in until next morning ; fish it out and cover 
 up with sheets until the next day ; then wash off.' 
 
THE AMERIOAI^^ DYER. 
 
 639 
 
 COTTON SAMPLE. 
 
 Ko. 1. — Black, at oxk oi'KitATiox. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 641 
 
 To renew for next 100 lbs. Cotton. 
 75 lbs. Chip Logwood, 
 10 lbs. Cutch, 
 22 lbs. Extract of Logwood. 
 
 1 pint Ammonia. 
 
 4 pints Ammonia, 
 
 4 pints of Nitrate of Copper. 
 Proceed as for first 100 lbs. in all respects. 
 For third or standard recipe. Cotton, 100 lbs. 
 
 25 lbs. Chip Logwood, 
 
 8 lbs. Cutch, 
 24 lbs. Extract of Logwood, 
 
 \- pint Ammonia. 
 
 4 pints Ammonia, 
 
 4 pints Nitrate of Copper. 
 Proceed as for first 100 lbs. cotton. 
 
 This black you will see is done at one dip and will resist 
 the fuliinff and scourino: as well as black wool. If a blue- 
 black is wanted use — 
 
 5 lbs. Extract of Hemlock, 
 5 lbs. Extract of Logwood. 
 
 Take out. 
 
 / 
 
 To MAKE THE NiTRATE OF CoPPER. 
 
 To every pound of nitric acid, 40° Fahr., use three ounces 
 copper-scraps or turnings ; add it to the acid very gradually. 
 Or thus — 
 
 12 lbs. Nitric Acid, at 40° Twaddle, 
 
 2^ lbs. Copper Scraps. 
 Kill as above. 
 The copper must be perfectly yVee from tin or solder. 
 
 81 
 
642 THE A^IERICAN DYEK. 
 
 When the cotton is taken out it will be brown-colored, but 
 will turn to black after being covered up a while. Should 
 the cotton, when dry, have a purple shade, it will do no harm 
 as it will full to a jet-black : but when this is the case reduce 
 the dyestuff a little for one or two lots, and especially the 
 ammonia. After coloring four or five lots, you can then color 
 one hundred and twenty five pounds of cotton at a time with 
 the same amount of dyestuffs. 
 
 RECIPES FOR COLORING COTTON OR COTTOX- 
 
 WASTE. 
 Blacks. 
 Blacks and browns are the most common colors put upon 
 cotton-waste. 
 
 Black. 
 
 Cotton, 200 lbs. 
 
 45 lbs. Catechu or Cutch, 
 25 lbs. Extract of Logwood, 
 10 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Boil these materials uutil dissolved. Shake up the cotton 
 and enter it at a boil and pole up well : let it boil gently for 
 one hour ; leave it in the tub all night ; in the morning fish 
 the cotton out. Then strengthen the liquor with — 
 50 lbs. Extract of Logwood, 
 7 lbs. Soda-ash, 
 3 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 "When these are dissolved and the foaming of the liquor has 
 ceased, enter the cotton again and boil for one-half hour, 
 leaving it in the solution all night. Li the morning, fish out 
 and wash off the cotton. 
 
 The above quantities of materials are for starting a new 
 dye, or for the first two hundred pounds of cotton. 
 
THE AMERICAIf DYER. 643 
 
 For the second two hundred pounds of cotton, add to the 
 above liquor — 
 
 15 lbs. Cutch, 
 7 lbs. Extract of Logwood, 
 
 3 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 
 Black. 
 
 Cotton, 300 lbs. 
 
 300 lbs. Chip Logwood, 
 30 lbs. Chip Fustic. 
 
 Boil these woods out. Take out the bags, and add to the 
 liquor fifteen lbs. blue vitriol, ten lbs. brown sugar of lead. 
 When they are dissolved, enter the cotton, and boil it two 
 hours. Fish out the cotton. Then add to the liquor, ten 
 lbs. blue vitriol, fifteen ll)s. soda ash. Enter the cotton at 
 150° Fahr. Pole up well, each time. Leave the cotton in 
 all night. By this method we can color three hundred lbs. per 
 day, by preparing (giving one dip in the forenoon) in the 
 forenoon, and finishing in the afternoon. The cotton, by col- 
 oring in this manner, comes out with a brownish shade ; but 
 when it is scoured it turns to a jet black. For the second 
 three hundred lbs., in the same liquor, add two hundred 
 and fifty lbs. chip logwood, and twenty-five lbs. chip fustic. 
 Boil out as for first time, and add ten lbs. blue vitriol, and 
 eight lbs. sugar of load. For the second dip for the second 
 three hundred lbs. cotton, add eight lbs. blue vitriol, and 
 twelve lbs. soda-ash. Proceed as above in all respects. The 
 longer this solution is used, the better is the color. It is the 
 best black produced by any similar method. 
 
 Proceed as before. Then add to the liquor — 
 25 lbs. Extract of Logwood, 
 
 4 lbs. Soda-ash, 
 
 2 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Re-enter the cotton as before. Let it stay in all night, and 
 proceed in after-dyeings with the same amount of cotton and 
 
644: THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 ingredients. The solution, in each instance, should be of a 
 bluish-red purple when the cotton is to be entered the second 
 time. The color of the cotton may not be as deep as desired 
 in the first tubful, but the liquor will improve by age, and 
 will give you colors that will be satisfactory after the second 
 two hundred pounds. Wash off the cotton always after being 
 finished, but give air and all the time you can spare before 
 washing off. 
 
 Black, 
 
 This is a good and cheap black for jeans. 
 
 Cotton, 125 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 3 lbs. Chrome, 
 3 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Enter cotton, and boil one hour. Draw off, and extract the 
 cotton. Then finish with — 
 
 50 lbs. Chip Logwood, 
 15 lbs. Extract of Logwood, 
 15 lbs. Chip Fustic, 
 2 lbs. Soda-ash, 
 2 lbs. Palm Oil. 
 Boil out the woods. Then add the oil and soda-ash. Then 
 enter the cotton, pole up well, and boil one hour. Leave it 
 in as long as possible. 
 
 Black. 
 Cotton, 225 lbs. 
 
 Tannin Process. 
 6 lbs. Extract of Fustic, 
 25 lbs. Cutch, 
 5 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Dissolve all together. Enter the cotton. Boil one hour. 
 Leave in all night. In the morning, take out, and drain or 
 extract the cotton thoroughly. Save this liquor for further use. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. (545 
 
 Mordant Process. 
 8 lbs. Chrome, 
 8 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Enter the cotton at a boiling heat. Let it remain in this 
 mordant two or three hours; do not boil in the mordant. 
 Extract the cotton, and shake it up well. 
 
 Dyeing Process. 
 30 lbs. Extract of Logwood, 
 
 2 lbs. Extract of Fustic, 
 
 3 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 
 Enter the cotton quickly ; pole up well ; boil half an hour, 
 and let it remain in the liquor as long as possible. 
 
 This is the softest and most permanent black on raw cotton 
 that can be dyed. 
 
 For the next two hundred and twenty-five lbs. of cotton, 
 add to the tannin liquor — 
 
 4 lbs. Extract of Fustic, 
 18 lbs. Cutch, 
 
 2\ lbs. Blue Vitriol, 
 and pit)ceed with the mordant and dyeing process as above. 
 
 Black. 
 Cotton, 300 lbs. 
 
 50 lbs. Extract of Logwood, 
 
 30 lbs. Cutch, 
 
 10 lbs. Brown Sugar of Lead, 
 
 10 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Enter the cotton at a boil, pole up well, and boil one and a 
 half hours ; leave it in over night. Next morning fish out ; 
 then add to the liquor — 
 
 15 lbs. Blue Vitriol, 
 
 15 lbs. Soda-ash. 
 
6iG THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Enter the cotton at a boil, pole up well, and let it remain 
 in as long as possible. 
 
 For the next three hundred pounds cotton, add to the tub — 
 40 lbs. Extract Logwood, 
 25 lbs. Culch, 
 
 8 lbs. Brown Sugar of Lead, 
 
 8 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 
 Proceed as above ; and for the second dip add — 
 12 lbs. Blue Vitriol, 
 12 lbs. Soda-ash. 
 And proceed in all respects as above.' 
 
 Shake up the cotton loosely between the two dips, as well 
 as before entering it into the tub for the first time. This is 
 the best black that can be dyed by the two-dips method. 
 
 Slates, or the Minor Shades of Black. 
 
 It is in these minor colors, more than any other, that expe- 
 rience and judgment in the dyer are absolutely indispensable. 
 The variety in tone of numerous fancy shades being so great, 
 no recipe can be given to color any particular pattern. The 
 numerous shades are principally due to the diminution of the 
 original color to which they belong. 
 
 Thus, all the slates point directlj'^ to the black, and the 
 drabs to the olive, and the fawns to the brown, as the source 
 from which they separately proceed. They represent three 
 separate scales of color, divided into as many parts as there 
 nre distinct varieties in their appearance, each variety repre- 
 senting one degree, or quantity of color, more or less, than 
 the one preceding or following it, in an apparently graduating 
 scale. We shall, therefore, only give recipes for such par- 
 ticular shades as we have colored, which range from the 
 darkest slate to lead. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 647 
 
 Dark Slate. 
 
 Cotton, 200 lbs. 
 
 3() lbs. Chip Logwood, 
 13 lbs. Sumac. 
 After boiling these one and Ji half hours, enter the cotton ; 
 pole up well ; boil one and a half hours. Let the cotton lie 
 in the liquor as long as you can before saddening ; then use 
 iu saddening, 
 
 4 11)8. Copperas. 
 Dissolve the copperas in some convenient vessel (half a 
 barrel) before throwing it upon the cotton; pole up well. 
 Do not boil after saddening it, but leave in the cotton as long 
 as possil)le. 
 
 Slate. 
 Cotton, 225 lbs. 
 
 12 lbs. Extract Logwood, 
 
 10 lbs. Sumac. 
 Proceed as with No. 22 ; then sadden with 
 
 6 lbs. Copperas. 
 Boil one-half hour. Leave in as long as possible. 
 
 Another Dark Slate. 
 Cotton, 200 lbs. 
 
 40 lbs. Cutch, 
 20 lbs. Chip Fustic, 
 8 lbs. Blue Vitriol, 
 40 lbs. Chip Logwood. 
 Boil one and a half hours ; then enter the cotton at a boil, 
 pole well, and boil one hour, and let it remain iu the liquor 
 two hours : fish out, and add to the liquor, 
 40 lbs. Chip Logwood, 
 4 lbs. Soda-ash. 
 
648 THE AMERICA]^^ DYER. 
 
 Boil these one and a half hours ; then add 
 
 4 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Ee-entei*the cotton as usual. Let it remain in all night. 
 
 Light Slate. 
 Cotton, 200 lbs. 
 
 20 lbs. Cutch, 
 
 20 lbs. Chip Fustic, 
 
 40 lbs. Chip Logwood. 
 
 Boil these materials one hour ; then add — 
 
 5 lbs. Soda-ash, 
 
 7 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Enter the cotton, boil one hour, and leave in all night. 
 
 Lead. 
 Cotton, 175 lbs. 
 
 7 lbs. Cutch, 
 1| lbs. Extract of Logwood. 
 
 After these are dissolved, add — 
 2 lbs. Blue Vitriol, 
 4 lbs. Copperas. 
 
 Eake up the tub, and enter the cotton ; pole up well, and 
 boil one hour ; leave the cotton in this all night. 
 
 Any variations from these shades can be obtained, by 
 different proportions and amount of the several materials- 
 mentioned in the recipes. 
 
 If these shades are required to incline more to the black, 
 use more logwood ; if more to the olive shade, use more 
 fustic; if more to the brown, use more of the cutch. But as 
 stated at the beginning of these recipes, the dyer will have to 
 depend upon his own skill and knowledge in these matters. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 649 
 
 Brown. 
 This color, when it is dyed by the best methods, will continu- 
 ally grow richer and deeper, the longer it is exposed to. the at- 
 mosphere, and the process of manufacturing produces beneficial 
 effects upon, and for these reasons it is one of the best colors 
 that can be made upon cotton to mix with wool. There are 
 a variety of shades of brown, consisting chiefly of three 
 separate or distinct peculiarities: the dark, brown, yellow 
 brown, and red brown. The other varieties are obtained by 
 a variation in the quantity of the material used to color brown. 
 
 Brown. 
 Cotton, 180 lbs. 
 
 100 lbs. Cutch, 
 65 lbs. Extract of Logwood, 
 10 lbs. Sumac, 
 6 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Enter the cotton at a boil, pole up well, boil one hour, and 
 leave it in the solution all night ; then fish it out, and save the 
 liquor for further use; extract the cotton, or drain it well. 
 In another tub of clear water, dissolve six pounds chrome ; 
 enter the cotton (after being well shook out) at a boiling heat ; 
 pole up well ; leave it in for two hours; draw off; air well. 
 Drain it, or what is better, extract it. 
 
 For the next two hundred pounds, use a quarter less mate- 
 rial in the first bath, but always have a fresh bath for the 
 second dip, using the same amount of chrome, and proceed 
 in all respects as for the first 180 lbs. cotton. 
 
 Broavn. 
 Cotton, 225 lbs. 
 
 75 lbs. Cutch, 
 20 lbs. Sumac, 
 5 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 
 82 
 
650 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Enter the cotton at a boil, and boil until the cotton is satu- 
 rated. Let it stay in the tub all night. Take it out in the 
 morning, and let it drain well or else extract it. Shake it up 
 well ; then dissolve in a fresh bath — 
 6 lbs. Chrome, 
 
 5 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 
 Enter the cotton at a boiling heat, boil half an hour ; leave 
 it in two or three hours ; air well before washing it off. 
 For the next 225 lbs. cotton, add to the first bath — 
 50 lbs. Cutch, 
 15 lbs. Sumac, 
 2 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Proceed as above. 
 
 Second Dip. 
 
 6 lbs. Chrome, 
 
 5 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 For every succeeding 225 lbs., use the same amount of dye- 
 stuffs. But the second dip or mordant bath must be drawn 
 off each time. 
 
 Another Brown. 
 A very good and cheap one. 
 Cotton, 150 lbs. 
 
 40 lbs. Cutch, 
 
 10 lbs. Extract of Logwood, 
 
 5 lbs. Extract of Fustic, 
 
 6 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 
 Enter the cotton, and boil one hour. Let it remain in the 
 tub all night. In the morning, fish it out, and let it drain 
 well. Add to the liquor — 
 30 lbs. Cutch, 
 
 7 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 
 Re-enter the cotton, boil gently half an hour, and let it re- 
 main as long as convenient : fish out and wash off the cotton. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 651 
 
 Second Dyeing in the same liquor. 
 Cotton, 150 11)8. 
 
 35 lbs. Cutch, 
 5 lbs. Extract of Logwood, 
 3 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Enter the cotton, and boil one hour. Let it remain in as 
 long as j)ossible (four or tive hours) ; tish out, and drain it as 
 long as time will allow. 
 
 Add to the same liquor — 
 25 lbs. Cutch, 
 8 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Re-enter the cotton; boil half an hour; let it stay in all 
 night. By this method we can color one hundred and fifty 
 pounds of cotton per day, in the same tub, by always enter- 
 ing for the second dip late in the afternoon, which will give 
 the cotton a chance to imbibe the color more fully by lying 
 in the solution all nisht. 
 
 Brown. 
 Tannin Process. 
 
 Cotton, 200 lbs. 
 
 50 lbs. Cutch, 
 8 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Enter cotton at a boiling heat ; pole up well ; let it steep over 
 night ; next morning fish it out; drain or extract it then in a 
 fresh bath. Dissolve as 
 
 Mordant. 
 
 Chrome, 6 lbs. — 
 
 Enter the cotton at a boil heat ; pole up well ; leave in two 
 or three hours ; draw of; take out the cotton and extract. In 
 a fresh bath, boil up for one and a half hours. 
 
652 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Dyeing. 
 30 lbs. Hypernic, 
 
 20 lbs. Chip Logwood ; then add — 
 10 lbs. Alum. 
 Enter the cotton, and boil one hour; draw off; then wash 
 the cotton. The first liquor can be saved, and for the next 
 two hundred pounds of cotton, add to it — 
 40 lbs. Cutch, 
 6 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 The second and third baths must be drawn off. 
 
 Another Brown, Lighter than the Last. 
 Cotton, 200 lbs. 
 
 The tannin and mordant baths are the same as for the last 
 brown. The dyeing-bath is made up with — 
 
 40 lbs. Chip Fustic, 
 
 40 lbs. Chip Hypernic, 
 
 10 lbs. Alum. ^ 
 
 Proceed in all respects as for the preceding brown. 
 
 Brown, Lighter than either of the Above. 
 Cotton, 125 lbs. 
 
 45 lbs. Cutch, 
 
 30 lbs. Camwood. 
 
 Boil the cutch and camwood two hours ; then enter the 
 
 cotton, and boil half an hour; then throw on six pounds of 
 
 blue vitriol ; pole up well, and boil half an hour longer ; draw 
 
 off the tub, take out the cotton and extract it. In a fresh 
 
 bath dissolve, 
 
 \ 
 
 7 lbs. Chrome, 
 5 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 
THE AMERICAN DTER. 653 
 
 Re-enter the cotton at a boiling heat ; pole up well ; leave it 
 in for one or two hours ; then draw off; wash off the cotton. 
 
 Nos. 13, 14, and 15 are perfectly fast colors, and will resist 
 all the fulling and scouring that any color will on wool. 
 
 Dark Brown. 
 200 lbs. Cotton. 
 
 First bath. 40 lbs. Cutch, 
 
 15 lbs Camwood, 
 3 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Boil the cutch and camwood one hour; then add the blue 
 vitriol ; enter the cotton and boil one hour ; let it remain in 
 the solution three or four hours ; then tish it out, and keep the 
 solution for further use. 
 
 Second bath. 12 lbs. Chrome. 
 
 Boil the cotton for twelve or fifteen minutes ; leave it in for 
 a few hours ; then draw off ; take out the cotton and rinse 
 it off. 
 
 For the second two hundred pounds of cotton, add to the 
 first bath, » 
 
 30 lbs. Cutch, / 
 10 lbs. Camwood^ and 
 2 lbs. Bhie Vitriol, 
 and proceed as for first two hundred pounds. The second, or 
 chrome bath, will be' the same as for the first. 
 
 Dark Brown (the darkest). 
 Cotton, 200 lbs. 
 
 50 lbs. Cutch, 
 
 25 lbs. Extract Logwood, 
 4 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Proceed as for the above. 
 Second bath. 12 lbs. Chrome. 
 Proceed as above, but extract the cotton from this bath. 
 
654: THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Third bath. 20 lbs. Chip Fustic, 
 
 25 lbs. Camwood. 
 Boil these for one and a half hours : enter cotton, and boil 
 one hour; draw off, and wash the cotton. 
 For the next two hundred pounds, add 
 40 lbs. Cutch, 
 
 20 lbs. Extract Logwood, and 
 3 lbs. Blue Vitriol, 
 and proceed as before. The other two baths will have to be 
 made fresh every time. These two are the darkest browns 
 that we ever colored. 
 
 ^lixoR Shades of Browns — Red-Fawn. 
 Cotton, 230 lbs. 
 
 10 lbs. Cutch, 
 
 10 lbs. Camwood. 
 Boil these drugs for one hour ; then- enter the cotton and 
 boil one hour longer ; then dissolve in a barrel of the dyeing 
 liquor — • 
 
 3 lbs. Blue Vitriol. | 
 
 Throw in this solution and pole the cotton well for twenty 
 minutes. Let it remain in the liquor all night, then draw otF. 
 
 Salmon-Fawn. 
 Cotton, 180 lbs. 
 
 25 lbs. Cutch, 
 5 lbs. Extract of Fustic, 
 
 5 lbs. Extract of Logwood, 
 
 4 lbs. Blue Vitriol.. 
 
 Proceed as for the last recipe, only let it slay in the liquor 
 all night before finishing it off; then 
 Finish in a fresh bath with — 
 
 6 lbs. Bichromate of Potash. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 655 
 
 Enter the cotton at a boiling heat; leave it in two or three 
 hours ; take out and wash it off. You can keep the first 
 liquor for further use by atkling two-thirds of each article for 
 every 180 lbs. of cotton, and finish ofi'as for the first 180 lbs. 
 
 * Another Fawn. 
 
 Cotton, 180 lbs. 
 
 25 lbs. Cutch, 
 5 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Enter the cotton and boil one hour ; let it stay in all night ; 
 in the morning take out and drain well ; then 
 Finish in a fresh bath with — 
 
 5 11)S. Chrome. 
 Enter at a boiling heat ; let it remain in two hours ; then 
 take out and wash the cotton, 
 
 Crab-Fawn. 
 Cotton, 200 lbs. 
 
 10 lbs. Sumac, 
 35 lbs. Extract of Logwood, 
 50 lbs. Cutch, 
 2 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Boil the cotton one hour; leave it in all night; next day 
 finish oif in a fi esh bath of — 
 4 lbs. Chrome, 
 4 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Boil the cotton fifteen minutes: draw oflTand wash the cot- 
 ton. Keep the first liquor, and for the next 200 lbs. of cotton 
 add to the first bath — 
 8 lbs. Sumac, 
 25 lbs. Extract of Logwood, 
 35 lbs. Cutch, 
 2 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Proceed as above, and in the finishing bath use the same 
 amount of chrome and blue vitriol. 
 
656 THE AMEKICAN^ DYER. 
 
 Sage Color. 
 Cotton, 175 lbs. 
 
 8 lbs. Chrome, 
 8 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Enter the »cotton and boil one hour ; let it remain in the 
 liquor overnight. Drain or extract the water out of the eon- 
 ton before entering it into the finishing solution. 
 Finish off with — 
 
 12 lbs. Extract of Logwood, 
 25 lbs. Extract of Fustic. 
 After these materials are dissolved, enter the cotton and 
 boil one hour ; leave it in as long as convenient. 
 
 Claret. 
 Cotton, 100 lbs. 
 
 40 lbs. Sumac. 
 
 Boil out the sumac ; then enter the cotton and boil long 
 enough to saturate the cotton, and let it remain in this solu- 
 tion all night ; draw off; drain or extract the cotton; then, 
 in a fresh bath of cold water, add enough muriate of tin to 
 make it indicate 2° by Twaddle's hydrometer; enter the 
 cotton, pole it up well, and let it remain in for two or three 
 hours ; take it out and wash it off well. 
 
 Then finish in a bath with fifty lbs. chip logwood. After 
 boiling the logwood one and a half hours, take out the bags 
 and add four lbs. ahim ; then enter the cotton and boil for 
 one hour ; leave it in an hour or two, then draw off. 
 
 Another Claret. 
 Cotton, 100 lbs. 
 
 Work the cotton as absv^ in — 
 25 lbs. Cutch. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 657 
 
 Then in the muriate of tin bath as above ; and 
 Finish off with — 
 
 75 lbs. Chip Logwood, 
 4 lbs. Alum. 
 Proceed in all respects as for the last recipe. These two 
 colors are 2)erf edit/ fast, and are very bright and clear. These 
 recipes were obtained from Richard Sager of Rochdale, Eng. 
 
 Olives. 
 In coloring the diflferent shades of olive we incline them 
 from the true olive towards the brown shade, by using more 
 cutch, and towards the green shade, by using more fustic or 
 sumac ; but we must bear in mind that the fustic will rise in 
 the after-working, giving out its yellow when fulled. The 
 olives rank next to blacks for depth and intensity of hue, and 
 requires a great amount of dyestuffs to color it upon cotton. 
 
 Green-Olive. 
 
 Cotton, 200 lbs. 
 
 50 lbs. Cutch, 
 
 60 lbs. Extract Fustic. 
 Leave the cotton in the tub all night ; next morning fish it 
 out and extract it, and then add to the liquor 
 
 20 lbs. Extract Logwood, 
 
 10 lbs. Blue Vitriol, 
 
 10 lbs. Soda-ash. 
 After the liquor has ceased foaming, enter the cotton (after 
 having it shook up well) quickly, and pole up well. Boil 
 half an hour, and let it remain in the liquor as long as 
 convenient. By commencing in the afternoon with the first 
 dip, we can color" t^vo hundred pounds per day. For the 
 next two hundred pounds of cotton, reduce the materials in 
 each dip one-fifth, and proceed as before. 
 
 83 
 
658 THE A]VIERICAN DYEE. 
 
 Yellow-Olive. 
 
 Cotton, 200 lbs. First dip. 
 
 25 lbs. Cutch, 
 10 lbs. Sumac, 
 
 4 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 
 Enter cotton at a boil, and pole up well. Boil one hour, 
 and leave in as long as possible (two or three hours at least) . 
 Extract the cotton. 
 
 Fresh bath, or second dip. 
 
 5 lbs. Chrome, 
 
 3 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Enter cotton at a boiling heat, and pole up well. Let it re- 
 main in this solution from one-half to one hour, and draw off. 
 Extract the cotton. 
 Third dip. 
 
 15 lbs. Extract Fustic, 
 3 lbs. Extract Logwood, 
 
 2 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 
 Enter the cotton, boil one hour, and leave it in as long as 
 convenient. Shake up the cotton before entering it from one 
 tub to the other. 
 
 For the next two hundred pounds of cotton add to the first 
 tub 
 
 20 lbs. Cutch, 
 8 lbs. Sumac, 
 
 3 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 
 Second dip or tub, proceed as above, as this solution will 
 always have to be thrown away. 
 
 Third dip. Add to the third tub or -finish liquor, 
 10 lbs. Extract Fustic, 
 2 lbs. Extract Logwood, 
 1 lb. Blue Vitriol. 
 Proceed in all these operations as for the first two hundred 
 pounds. 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 659 
 
 Olive. 
 Cotton, 250 lbs. 
 
 Tannin process, or first dip. 
 35 lbs. Cutch, 
 18 lbs. Sumac, 
 5 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Enter and boil one hour. Leave in all night. Heave out 
 and save the liquor for further use. 
 
 Mordant Process. 
 8 lbs. Chrome, 
 5 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Enter the cotton at a boiling heat, pole up well, and leave in 
 two or three hours. Draw otF, and extract the cotton. 
 
 Dyeing Process, 
 15 lbs. Extract Logwood, 
 30 lbs. Extract Fustic, 
 8 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Enter cotton at a boiling heat, pole up well,' and let the cot- 
 ton remain in this solution as long as possible. If a greener 
 shade is wanted, use more blue vitriol in the dyeing process. 
 The third tub, or the dyeing process liquor can be saved for a 
 second two hundred and fifty pounds of cotton, by adding to 
 it two-thirds of the materials; but for the second two hun- 
 dred and tifty pounds of cotton you must add to the first tub 
 or tannin process 
 
 25 lbs. Cutch, 
 12 lljs. Sumac, 
 3 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Proceed as for the first two himdred and fifty pounds. This 
 is the best, although the most laborious and expensive ; but 
 it can be relied upon at all times as being permanent. 
 
660 THE A3IEEICAN DYER. 
 
 Another. Olive. 
 Cotton, 225 lbs. 
 
 10 lbs. Sumac, 
 16 lbs. Extract Fustic, 
 8 lbs. Extract Logwood, 
 5 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Enter the cotton as before enjoined, and leave in all night. 
 Take out the cotton and air it well, then shake it up well. 
 Add to the liquor, 
 
 2 lbs. Extract Logwood, 
 
 4 lbs. Soda-ash, 
 
 5 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 
 Enter cotton, pole up well, and boil twenty minutes. Let 
 it remain in a few hours. 
 
 Second dyeing in same liquor. Same amount of cotton. 
 8 lbs. Sumac, 
 12 lbs. Extract Fustic, 
 
 6 lbs. Extract Logwood, 
 
 3 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Proceed as above, and then add 
 
 2 lbs. Extract Logwood, 
 
 2 lbs. Soda-ash, 
 
 3 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 
 Proceed in all respects as for the first tubful. 
 
 Drabs, or Minor Shades of Olives. — Stone Drab. 
 Cotton, 225 lbs. 
 
 25 lbs. Cutch, 
 
 4 lbs. Extract Logwood, 
 
 3 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 
 Boil the cotton one hour ; and then sadden with 
 
 4 lbs. Copperas. 
 
 Proceed the same as for Dark Slate. Let the cotton 
 remain in all nisrht. 
 
THE amerioa;n^ dyer. 661 
 
 Dark Drab. 
 Cotton, 210 lbs. 
 
 40 lbs. Cutch, 
 6 lbs. Extract Logwood, 
 
 4 lbs. Extract Fustic, 
 
 5 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 
 Proceed as for Dark Slate ; then sadden with 
 
 4 lbs. Copperas. 
 Leave in all night. 
 
 Red-Drab. 
 Cotton, 250 lbs. 
 
 35 lbs. Cutch, 
 18 lbs. Sumac, 
 
 5 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 
 Boil the cotton one hour ; leave in all night. Next morn- 
 ing fish out the cotton, and save the liquor for another two 
 hundred and fifty pounds of cotton, by adding two-thirds of 
 the above amount of materials. 
 
 In a fresh bath, dissolve 
 8 lbs. Chrome, 
 • 5 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Enter the cotton ; pole it up well ; do not boil it. Let the 
 cotton remain in this solution two or three hours ; draw oif, 
 take out the cotton, and wash it off. 
 
 Silver-Drab, 
 Cotton, 225 lbs. 
 
 10 lbs. Cutch, 
 1 lb. Extract Logwood. 
 
662 THE AMERICAN DTEK. 
 
 "When these are all dissolved, add 
 
 3 lbs. Copperas, 
 
 1 lb. Blue Vitriol. 
 
 After they are dissolved enter the cotton, and boil one hour. 
 Leave in all uis^ht. 
 
 Satin, or Pearl Drab. 
 
 Cotton, 200 lbs. 
 
 4 lbs. Chip Logwood, 
 
 5 lbs. Camwood. 
 
 Boil these drugs one hour ; then enter the cotton, and boil 
 it one hour. Let the cotton remain in two hours ; then draw 
 off, and till up the tub again with cold water, and let it remain 
 in this all night. 
 
 All these colors will rise by age, and in the fulliug and 
 scouring operation. 
 
 This will be of a very light-blue drab, after it is fulled 
 and scoured. 
 
 Another Red-Drab. 
 Cotton, 200 lbs. 
 
 35 lbs. Cutch, 
 
 6 lbs. Blue Vitriol, 
 
 2 lbs. Copperas. 
 
 After these are all dissolved, enter the cotton ; boil one 
 hour, and leave in all night. 
 
 Yellow. 
 This color is seldom called for, its principal use being for 
 mixtures, and that in very small quantities. The color being 
 dyed with fustic, is very cheap, and is sufficiently permanent 
 and bright for almost all purposes. It can be colored with 
 quercitron bark or with its extract, and with various other 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 663 
 
 yellow coloring suhstauces. It might be dyed by the chro- 
 mate of lead process ; but if produced by this process, it 
 Avould not resist the fulling and scouring. Fustic being the 
 cheapest dye, and sufficiently bright and durable to answer the 
 purpose of this branch of dyeing, it will probably be the only 
 article that will be generally employed for colcuing raw cot- 
 ton or cotton-waste. 
 
 Yellow. 
 Cotton, 210 lbs. 
 
 25 lbs. Extract Fustic, 
 10 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Enter the cotton, and boil one and a half hours; leave it 
 in all night. In the morning, fish out the cotton, and wash off 
 and dry. Save this liquor, as you can color in it for an indefi- 
 nite length of time. 
 
 For the second dyeing, same amount of cotton, add to the 
 above liquor, 
 
 18 lbs. Extract Fustic, 
 
 7 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 
 Proceed in every respect as for the first dyeing. 
 
 This color is perfectly fast. We can take another course 
 in dyeing by this process, by dividing it into two operations ; 
 thus, — 
 
 17 lbs. Extract of Fustic, 
 6 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 
 Enter the cotton and boil one and a half hours; let it re- 
 main in the solution another hour ; then fish out the cotton 
 and strengthen up the solution with the rest of the mate- 
 rials ; thus, — 
 
 8 lbs. Extract of Fustic, 
 4 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 
 Re-enter the cotton and boil one hour, and leave it iu the 
 solution overnight. 
 
664: THE AMEKICAX DYER. 
 
 This process occupies more time, and requires more labor, 
 than to color off at one dip ; yet it is the best method, as the 
 color is richer than when produced at one operation. 
 
 Yon can spring the fustic with about two pounds of soda as 
 with the fustic, being careful when you add the blue vitriol 
 afterwards. 
 
 Another Method. 
 Cotton, 200 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 5 lbs. Chrome, 
 5 lbs. Blue Vitriol, 
 8 lbs. Alum. 
 Enter the cotton at a boil ; pole up well and boil one and a 
 half hours ; leave it in the solution all night. In the morn- 
 ing take it out and extract it thoroughly ; shake it up well ; 
 then enter it into the finishing bath. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 120 lbs. Chip Fustic. 
 
 Bag the fustic and boil it one and three-fourths hours ; 
 take out the ba^s and add five lbs. blue vitriol. Enter the 
 cotton, pole up well, and boil one hour. Let it remain in the 
 solution all night. 
 
 Blue. 
 The deepest and most permanent shades of blue on cotton 
 are those that are produced by the tannin, mordanting, and 
 dyeing processes. They will resist the fulling and scouring 
 process remarkably well, and lose but a little of their bloom, 
 but the bloom can be kept up by using one-sixth of the amount 
 of logwood used in the dyeing process of hypernic-wood ; that 
 is, supposing we are using 120 lbs. of logwood to produce 
 the shade we want, instead of that we must use 100 lbs. of 
 logwood and 20 lbs. of hypernic-wood. The first recipe for 
 blue is the best and most permanent one given in this work, 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 66o 
 
 all the others being mere imitations, and in no case do they 
 equal, in richness or durability, the tannin, mordanting, and 
 dyeing process. 
 
 The other recipes answer very well for cheap goods. ' 
 
 Blue. 
 
 Cotton, 230 lbs. 
 
 20 lbs. Cutch, 
 2^ lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 Boil the cotton one hour ; let it remain in the solution six 
 hours, or overnight. In a fresh bath dissolve — 
 8 lbs. Chrome, 
 8 lbs. Blue Vitriol, 
 
 4 lbs. Alum. 
 
 Shake up the cotton, enter it and boil half an hour; let it 
 remain in the solution overnight; in the morning extract it 
 thoroughly. Then 
 Finish off with — 
 
 35 lbs. Extract of Logwood (or 185 lbs. Chip Log- 
 wood), 
 
 5 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 
 Shake up the cotton well and enter it rapidly ; pole up 
 well ; boil half an hour ; then let it remain in the solution 
 as long as it improves in color. 
 
 [We will here state that whenever the blue vitriol is to be 
 used in the dyeing process, it should not be added until after 
 the coloring-matters are boiled out.] 
 
 Blue (for jeans, a good one). 
 Cotton, 200 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 7 lbs. Chrome, 
 
 7 lbs. Blue Vitriol, 
 
 5 lbs. Alum. 
 
 84 
 
666 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 Boil the cotton in this for one and a half hours ; let it re- 
 main in the solution overnight ; take it out and extract it 
 well. Shake up the cotton, then finish off with — 
 100 lbs. Logwood (Chips), 
 10 lbs. Hypernic-wood, 
 2 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 
 After boiling the woods one and a half hours, take out the 
 bags, and dissolve the blue vitriol, and add it to the solution. 
 Rake up the tub, and enter the cotton smartl}^ and pole up 
 quickl}^ and boil for half an hour ; then leave it in as long as 
 the color improves. In coloring by this recipe, the cotton 
 must be handled quickly in getting it saturated with dyeing 
 matters, as it is very difficult to get the cotton evenly dyed. 
 
 A Lighter Blue. 
 Cotton, 200 lbs. 
 
 Prepare with — 
 
 6 lbs. Chrome, 
 6 lbs. Blue Vitriol, 
 
 4 lbs. Alum. 
 
 Finish with — 
 
 75 lbs. Logwood (Chips), 
 
 5 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 
 Proceed in every respect as for Blues on page 665. 
 
 Blue. 
 Cotton, 200 lbs. 
 
 15 lbs. Extract of Logwood, |^^ 
 
 8 lbs. Blue Vitriol. JBp 
 
 Enter the cotton, and boil one and a half hours ; pole it up 
 well. After remaining in as long as time will admit (two or 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 667 
 
 three hours), fish out the cotton, let it drain as long as con- 
 venient, then add to the sohition — 
 
 5 lbs. Extract of Logwood, 
 
 3 lbs. Extract of Hyperuic (or 15 lbs. Hypernic 
 Chips, 
 
 7 lbs. Soda-ash, 
 
 7 lbs. Blue Vitriol. 
 After the ash and blue vitriol are dissolved (which must be 
 done separately), and the liquor has ceased foaming, re-enter 
 the cotton aiid boil half an hour. Let the cotton remain in 
 the solution over night. Fish out the cotton, and save the 
 liquor for further use. In coloring a second or more tubfuls 
 (200 lbs.), proceed in every respect as above, only reduce 
 the materials one-fifth for each 200 lbs. of cotton. 
 
I ]^ D E X. 
 
 PART FIRST. 
 
 Page 
 
 Introduction to First Edition, 3 
 
 Preface to Second Edition, 5 
 
 Dyeing and Mordants, 10 
 
 The Nature of Colors, 25 
 
 The Pxoperties of Colors and their Relation to Dyeing, ... 28 
 
 Calico-printing, 46 
 
 Alumina, Acetate of, 58-66 
 
 Nitrate of, 65 
 
 Pyrol ignite of, 58 
 
 Precipitated, 60 
 
 Alizarine, Artificial, 129 
 
 Blacks, Eecipes for, 70-76 
 
 Iron Liquor for, 58 
 
 Oxidized Logwood Liquor for, 62 
 
 Blues, Eecipes for, . . 92-96 
 
 Indigo Precipitate for fast, 68 
 
 Tin Solution for fast, . . • 68 
 
 Buffs, Eecipes for, 104, 105 
 
 Cftseine, Solutions of, 87, 88 
 
 Catechu, Eecipes for, 106-111 
 
 Chocolates, Recipes for, 77-81 
 
 Blue, Standard for, 60 
 
 Cochineal, Ammoniacal Solution of, 62 
 
 Chrome, Acetate of, 125 
 
 Alum, 67 
 
 Sulphate of, . 61-66 
 
 Tungstate of, 75 
 
 Orange Pigment 64 
 
 Grays, Recipes for, 112-114 
 
 Iron Comi)osition for, 62 
 
 Standard for, 60 
 
 Greens, Recipes for, 96-100 
 
 Blue Preparation for, 62 
 
 Indigo Precipitate for, 68 
 
 Tin Solution for, 68 
 
670 THE A3IERICAN DYER. 
 
 J Page 
 
 Indigo, Acetate of, 61 
 
 Precipitated, 68 
 
 Suli.hate of, 65 
 
 Iron, Acetate of Protoxide of, 59-67 
 
 Standard for Modes, 65 
 
 Standard for Nankeens, 59 
 
 Standard for Purples, 59 
 
 Liquor for Blacks, 58, 59 
 
 Composition for Grays, ........ 62 
 
 Pyroliyuite of, 58 
 
 Muriate of, 62 
 
 Nitrate of, 64 
 
 Lead, Basic Acetate for Orange, 60 
 
 Orange Chroruate of, 64 
 
 Logwood Liquor, Oxidized for Black, 62 
 
 Oxidized for Gray, 60 
 
 Madder Extracts, 120-124 
 
 Modes, Recipes for, 115-117 
 
 Iron Standard for, 65 
 
 Mordants, 58-61 
 
 Nankeens, Straws and Buffe, Kecipes for, 104-106 
 
 Standard for, 59, 60 
 
 Olives, Kecipes for, 115 
 
 Oranges, Recipes for, 100-103 
 
 Lead Standard for, 60 
 
 Sapan Liquor for, 68 
 
 Tin Composition for, ......... 63 
 
 Pinks, Recipes for, 65-85 
 
 Pigment, Sapan, 61 
 
 Chrome Orange, 64 
 
 Potash, Chloride of, 69 
 
 Purples, Recipes for, 88-91 
 
 Iron Standard for, 59 
 
 Rose, Recipes for, ........... 85-88 
 
 Reds, Recipes for, 82-84 
 
 Reserves and Discharges, Recipes for, 117-120 
 
 Sapan, Pigment, 63 
 
 Liquor Oxidized, 68 
 
 Scarlet, Tin Composition for, 63 
 
 Soda, Chloride of, 65-69 
 
 Tin, Compositi<m for Scarlet, 63 
 
 Composition for Orange, 63 
 
 Composition for Fast Green, 68 
 
 Oxide of, 62 
 
 Priissiate of, 65 
 
 and Potash, Tartrate of^ 63 
 
THE AI^IERICAN DYEK. '671 
 
 Page 
 
 Thickenings, 69, 70 
 
 Tragiicautli, Mucilage of, 69, 70 
 
 Yellow, Recipes for, 103, 104 
 
 Zinc, Nitrate of, 65 
 
 Acids, Remarks ou, 189 
 
 Acid, Sulphuric, 196 
 
 Muriatic, 193 
 
 Nitric, 206 
 
 Nitro-Muriatic, 213 
 
 Oxalic, 213 
 
 Gallic, 217 
 
 Citric, . . • 219 
 
 Tartaric, . 223 
 
 Tanuic, 226 
 
 Acetic, 221 
 
 Acetic, of Commerce, 231 
 
 Pyroligneous, 233 
 
 Calico, Remarks ou Printing, 46 
 
 Recipes for Printing, 58 
 
 Cotton, Remarks on Dyeing Raw, 36 
 
 Remarks ou Yarn Dyeing, 38 
 
 Remarks on Thread Dyeing, 149 
 
 Recii)es for Thread Dyeing, 151 
 
 Dyestntis, Treatment of iu Dye-tubs, 143 
 
 Descriptive Account of, 240 
 
 Dye-house, Manual of Operation iu, 141 
 
 Dyeing, Difterent Processes of, 145 
 
 Remarks on Silk, 176 
 
 Scouring Cloth f<u' Piece, 136 
 
 Treatuu'ut of Pieces after, 138 
 
 "Wool, Scouring of, 133 
 
 Recipes for Scour Liquors for, 134 
 
 Water, 179 
 
 Nomenclatiire of Salts 191 
 
 Rules for Namiug Compounds, 192 
 
 PAKT SECOND. 
 
 Archil, 240 
 
 Annotto or Annatta, 245 
 
 Alizarine, 280 
 
 Ammonia, .... 378 
 
 Sulphate of, 368 
 
 Alum, 388 
 
 Potash 389 
 
 Auimouia, 389 
 
672 THE A]VIERICA^' DYER. 
 
 Page 
 
 Alum, Natrona Porous, 390 
 
 Chrome, 392 
 
 Alumiua, Sulphate of, 395 
 
 Acetate of, 376, 395 
 
 Neutral Acetate of, 376 
 
 Argols, 383 
 
 Aurautine, 342 
 
 Barwood, 252 
 
 Brazil-wood or Hypernic, 248 
 
 Blue-Vats, 344 
 
 Woad-vat, 349 
 
 Pastel-vat, ? . . . 357 
 
 Potash-vat, ". 360 
 
 Gerniau-vat, 364 
 
 Bran or Madder Vat, 365 
 
 Ferment for, 366 
 
 Sal-soda vat, 367 
 
 How to Work, 353 
 
 Bichromate of Potash, 411 
 
 Camwood, 255 
 
 Cutch or Catechu, 256 
 
 Cochineal, . 260 
 
 Carmine, 266 
 
 Colorine, 279 
 
 Copper, Sulphate of, ... 405 
 
 Acetate of, 376, 407 
 
 Nitrate of, 407 
 
 Chloride of, 407 
 
 Cotton, Mordants for, 375 
 
 Chlorides, Stannous, 370 
 
 Fustic, 267 
 
 Young, 269 
 
 Flavine, 270 
 
 Flowers of Madder, . 278 
 
 Fermentation of Woad, 325 
 
 Garancine, 277 
 
 ludigo, 298 
 
 Sulphate of, 396 
 
 Lead, Acetate of, or Sugar of, 376, 401 
 
 Protoxide of, or Litharge, 403 
 
 Litharge, 403 
 
 Lac-dye, 288 
 
 Logwood 283 
 
 Madder, 272 
 
 Flowers of, 278 
 
 Products of, 277 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 673 
 
 Pagk 
 
 Muiijeet, 307 
 
 Murexide, 310 
 
 Nitrate of Irou, 375 
 
 ^'"tgalls, 296 
 
 Potash, Yellow Prussiate of, 4O8 
 
 Red Prussiate of, 410 
 
 Purpurine, 281 
 
 Pastel. 
 
 317 
 
 Quercitron-bark, 287 
 
 Sanders, Red, 291 
 
 Sumac 293 
 
 Safflower, gU 
 
 Sal-ammoniac, 3g0 
 
 Sulphate of Iron (Copperas), 414 
 
 Spirits, Scarlet, 374 
 
 K«il, 377 
 
 Barwood, 377 
 
 Plumb, 373 
 
 For Aniline Colors on Cotton-yarn, 378 
 
 Soda, 419 
 
 ^^^' 421 
 
 Carbonate of, 423 
 
 Crystallized Carbonate of, 425 
 
 Caustic, 424 
 
 Sulphate of, 425 
 
 Staimate of, 428 
 
 Aluminate of, 392 
 
 '^^^> 368 
 
 Solutions of, 375 
 
 How to make Solutions of, 37O 
 
 Muriate of, 372 
 
 Murio-snlphate of, ' . . . 373 
 
 Murio-sulphate of, for Lac-dye 373 
 
 Nitro-muriate of, 374 
 
 Solutions of, for Purpurine, 283 
 
 Nitrate of, 375 
 
 Crystals of, 373 
 
 Tannin, 33^ 
 
 Tartarine, 3ug 
 
 Tartar, Cream of, 3^3 
 
 Turmeric, 271 
 
 Valonia or Valona Nuts, 214 
 
 Vegetable Substances used in Dyeing that contain Tannin, 340 
 
 Weld or Wold, ' 315 
 
 Woad ".'.'.'. 319- 
 
 Fermentation of, * 305 
 
 86 
 
674 THE AMERICAN DYER. 
 
 PART THIRD. 
 
 Fauk 
 
 Ali>liabetical Table of Elements and their Symbols, .... 4:i<5 
 
 Coal-tar Colors, 442 
 
 Aniline Red, 44G, 482 
 
 Violet, 448 
 
 Blue, 449 
 
 Green, 450 
 
 Yellow, 4.'J1 
 
 Black, 452 
 
 Bismarck Brown, . 453 
 
 Carbolic Acid Colors, 453 
 
 Picric Acid, 454 
 
 Phenyl Brown, 456 
 
 Grenat Brown, . 457 
 
 Coralline 457,492 
 
 Azuliue, . 458, 492 
 
 Naphthaline, 458 
 
 Naphthylamine, 459 
 
 Martins Yellow, 459 
 
 MagdalaRed, 460 
 
 Naphthaline Blue, ' . . . 461 
 
 Violet, 461 
 
 History of Aniline's and Aniline Colors, . . . . . . 463 
 
 Preparation of raw Materials derived from Coal-tar, .... 475 
 
 Benzine, . 475 
 
 Toluene, • . 475 
 
 Xylene, 475 
 
 Aniline, 477 
 
 Toluidine 477 
 
 Methylaniline, 479 
 
 Ethyl aniline, 479 
 
 Pbenic Acid, 480 
 
 Naphthaline, 480 
 
 Anthracene, 480 
 
 Preparation of Various Colors derived from Aniline, . . . 482 
 
 Aniline Red, 446, 483 
 
 Roseaniline, 483 
 
 Fuchsine, Roseiue, or Magenta, 483 
 
 Aniline Blue, 485 
 
 Imperial Violet, 485 
 
 Hoffmann's Violets, 487 
 
 Aldehyde Green, 488 
 
 Colors derived from Compounded Anilines, 489 
 
 Paris Violet, 489 
 
 Diph'euylamine Blue, 490 
 
THE AMERICAN DYER. 675 
 
 Page 
 Aniline Black, 452 41)0 
 
 Coloi-s derived from Pbouic Acid, 492 
 
 Derived from Naplitliiiline, 492 
 
 Derived from Anthracene, 492 
 
 Rosealic Acid, 492 
 
 Najdithaliue Scarlet, 49;^ 
 
 Artificial Alizarine, 494 
 
 Improvements and Discoveries in Coal-tjir Colors, .... 496 
 
 Inventions and Progresses, 49^ 
 
 Substitntion of Methlaniline Violet for Roseaniline, for the Mann- 
 
 factnre of Night-Green, 50q 
 
 Mannfactnre of Nitrate of Methyle, 5O2 
 
 New Process of Coloring Night-Green, 502 
 
 Maunfacture without Iodine, of Night-Green, 501 
 
 Results of Improvements made by Poirrier and his Cbemists, . . 504 
 
 Cheapness and Improvements in Quality of the Colors, . . . 506 
 
 PART FOURTH. 
 
 Glossary of Technical Terms and Chemical Names, .... 515 
 
 Remarks on Piece-Dyeing 13(3 535 
 
 on Wool Dyeing, 5(jl 
 
 on Cotton- Yarn Dyeing, gU 
 
 on Woolen- Yarn Dyeing, (526 
 
 on Cotton-Waste Dyeing, g3g 
 
 Recipes for Speck-Dyes, ' 529 
 
 for Piece-Dyeing, 53g 
 
 for Felt-Dyeing, 548 
 
 French, 537 
 
 German, 594 
 
 for Cotton-Yarn Dyeing, . . . . . . . . qh 
 
 for Woolen- Yarn Dyeing, 626 
 
 for Cotton- Waste Dyeing, 639 
 
 Samples of Cloth, 532 
 
 of Wool, 55(j ' 
 
 of Cotton-Yarn, (502 
 
 Tables of Prime Equivalents or proportions of Dyestuffs and Chemi- 
 cal Salts, to produce colors, 512-514 
 
 French, of, 512 
 
 Symbols of, 525 
 
 Index, 
 
 669 
 
ERRATA. 
 
 The recipe for rich, full blue, on page 541, should read, — 
 Prepare with — 
 
 13 lbs. Alum, 
 4 lbs. Oxalic Acid. 
 Boll cloth If hours ; next, dry finish with 60 pounds chip logwood. Boil 
 the logwood 1| hours ; take out the bags, and cool down ; then add 
 1 quart Scarlet Spirits, 
 1 pint Ammonia. 
 Rake up well; enter cloth, and boil 14^ hours ; take out, air well, wash off. 
 On page 641. " To every pound of nitric acid, 40= Fahr.," should read 
 " 40° Twaddle." 
 
R WOODMAN & CO., 
 
 SOLE AGENTS FOR THE 
 
 AMEKICAN DYEE. 
 
 ENLARGED AIS^D REVISED 
 
 BY 
 
 RICHARD II. GIBSON, 
 
 Practical ©get anti ffl^ijemtst. 
 
 DEALERS IN 
 
 INDIGO, COCHINEAL, 
 
 a ^ 
 
 DYEWOODS & DYESTUFFS, 
 
 44 KILBY STREET, 
 
 p. O. Box 3674. BOSTOiT, HVEJ^SS. 
 
JUV 
 
 
 •) 
 
 MANLTACTCRERR OF 
 
 DYEWOODS, DYEWOOD LIQUORS AND EXTRACTS, 
 
 IMPOUTERS AND DEALERS IN 
 
 iiifio,i;oiiAi*iiiiEfi,cncA 
 
 AND DYE STUFFS GENERALLY, 
 
 U 
 
 106 and 108 MILK, corner KILBY STREET, BOSTON. 
 
 SOLE AGENTS FOR NEW ENGLAND FOR 
 
 A. Poirrler's Aniline Dyes, Archil, Cudbear, (Stc. 
 
 AGENTS FOR 
 
 Shrewsbury Flavine, Bark Ext. and Liquor, 
 Wilkinson's Extract Indigo. 
 
 Works at Church, near Accrington, Lancashire, Eng. 
 
 EXTRACT LOGWOOD IN POUND, HALF-POUND, ASSORTED AND 
 QUARTER-POUND PACKAGES, ^OB DRUGGISTS' USE. 
 
 MANUFACTURERS of HEMATEIN, 
 
 More soluble than Logwood Liquor or Extract Logwood. Send for samples. 
 
 SAMPLES OF POIRRIER'S ANILINES FOR TESTING, WILL BE FORWARDED 
 WITHOUT CHARGE, WHEN ORDERED. 
 
Henry A. Could. 
 
 ESTABLISHED. 1861. 
 
 N0S.99&IOI Milk, COR. Pearl St. 
 BOSTON. 
 
 IMPORTER OF THE SPECIALTIES 
 
 INDIGaCUTCkiilERGOC^ 
 
 Sole U.S. Agent 
 "Berlin Pure Aniline Colors, Oils & Salts. 
 Archil &;DYEWoqp Extracts. 
 
 -•OUR AIM IS STANDARD GOODS AT CLOSE RATES. 
 
 SEND FOR PRICE LIST. 
 
 BRANCH AT NEW YORK. 
 
 F. H. HADDOCKS, 
 
 liip 
 
 r!l 
 
 GENERAL DYESTDFFS, 
 
 No. 14f Milk Street, Boston, Mass. 
 
 Thd attention of Mannfacturers iisinj^ tlic article is called to the fact that 
 nearly two-thirds of the entire shipment of Indigo to America finds its mar- 
 ket in this City ; and the advertiser respectfully submits that, with his con- 
 uecticms, he is able to send, on application, samples with prices, which can- 
 not be excelled, quality and price considered. 
 
ITil POKOUS M 
 
 FOR 
 
 PAPER MAKERS. 
 
 Fifty per ct. Stronger than Lump Alum, 
 
 AND TWO LBS. OF IT WILL DO THE W^ORK AS 
 WELL AS THREE LBS. OF LUMP. 
 
 // i/o^s not contain Stdphate of Potash or Ammonia, afid is free 
 from Iron and excess of Acid. 
 
 MANUFACTURED BY 
 
 111 flKISILfiim S41.f I'll 
 
 140 South Delaware Avenue, 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, PA. 
 
 MOEEY & CO., Agents, . . . Boston, Mass. 
 E. L. EMBREE, Agent, ... New York. 
 
POIRRIER'S ANILINE DYES. 
 
 ROLLINS, SHAW & CO., 
 
 -A. O E IT T S. 
 
 We are the only autliorizecl Agents west of Philadelphia. All Western 
 Mills can Imy these Anilines in Chicago at the same jjrices and terms as 
 Ea«t. 
 
 Office, 186 and 188 Fifth Avenue, 
 
 WHOLESALE DEALERS IN 
 
 WOOL, DYESTUFFS, 
 
 AND 
 
 dvlilij sxj:p:fxjIES. 
 
 AND MANUFACTURERS OF 
 
 SHODDIES OF ALL GRADES. 
 
 I^" Send for samples and prices. 
 
 mmmmEWTmm 
 COTTON^ MILLS CO., 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OF 
 
 SEAMLESS COTTON BAGS, 
 
 Jl'iUji _M.iM!jLii Lj'iijijy[«iijT^jj2^|j[yi 
 
 Warps, Twines, Batting and Wadding. 
 
 CANADA. 
 
 36 
 
E. K. STREET & CO., 
 
 DEALERS IN 
 
 ACIDS, CHEMICALS, OILS, 
 
 till Irps, hi Oiiiij, Miii 
 
 -AND- 
 
 WOOLEN MILL SOPPLIES OF EVERY DESCRIPTION. 
 
 A.GE1VTS FOR 
 
 GEORGE CROMPTOIV. Looms, Shuttles, &c. 
 
 Cr,EVEI>A]VI> MACmiVE WORKS. Cards, Jacks, Mules, Twisters, &c, 
 
 1>AVIS &, FURBER. Cards, Jacks, Twisters, Looms, &c. 
 
 PARKS <fe WOOIiSOIV MACHIIVE CO. Finishing Machinery. 
 
 RODNEY HUBTT MACHIIVE CO. Fulling Mills, Washers, Water Wheels. 
 
 R. S. ROTS. Patent Improved Traverse Grinders. 
 
 CHAPIIV MACtellVE CO. Wood and Hard End Pickers. 
 
 And other first-class Builders of Machinery. Send for Quotations. 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OF 
 
 Broad Reeds, Narrow Reeds, Lease Reeds, 
 
 SECTION REEDS, CARPET REEDS, &c. 
 
 196 and 198 MONROE ST., cor. FIFTH AVE., 
 
 CHICAGO, ILL. 
 
 Western Manufacturers and Dyers can obtjiin through us copies of the American Dyer.